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I 


. 


Ji_. 


CHAMBEKS'S 


INFORMATION    FOR   THE   PEOPLE. 


NE>\   AM)  IMrROVEO  EDITION. 


KDITLD  BY 


WILLIAM  AND  ROBERT  CHAMBERS, 


EDITORS  OF   tJlAMbER:>>   i.ilMJl  ROII  JOL'IOAL,  JiDUCATIO.NAL  COURSE,  6iC. 


VOLUME   L 


6 


P 


u 


EDINKURGII: 


PUBLISHED   DY   WILLIAM   AND   ROBERT  CHAMBERS. 


y 

»> 


1812. 


>^ 


^''  / 


'.'-.'  \  h  'c» 


•DIH  SEW  YORK 

PUBIK^  LIBEAftY 

3301 2 3B 

AOTttB.  LWOX  AND 

fILDEN  F01'NDAT1«I« 

1  1W6  fc 


KDl!«BrRGH  : 
W.  AMD  R.  CUAMBllBS. 


^^^^^^^^^^^^^^S  f> 

Ue  mfajtot*  m  oliUi  It  tt  tmiwtx.t  Uuit  thu 

" 

^^^^^^^^^^^^^Bti . . 

.■.-i 

^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^nr  I 

.11 

'1 

(i.  .1L,...-,.1..R.<-J.*.|.    U.    U7,l1lt.-^.llr,.u<,„«l 

^^^^^^^Kv' 

.','? 

^^^^^B|tp%  M  hi  lie  Btertr  u  UtUe  Skidr  ti>  i>nilil  fnon  the  iiom  linra  [iKul 
^^^^^■h*  y*t  l>«ra«t  Uie  al|>l<itet     All  ■!■>»>[>«*  of  ll>4*  Unil  t«  imi  <Iafra 
nQBnrWitr.  nnutnnm  or  Ium  Ul  Ihim  tbnv  onuw-naM  *Uiili  i,ai,ct 
iail.ini  n  tihiOl  TO  M  cod  iiQl  to  tbe  gR«td«frM  <f  w  age,  Um  irotoT*  oatiuioa 

i 


CONTENTS. 


ASTRONOMY,  -  -  -  .  .  - 

OEOLOGY,  OR  STRUCTITRE  OF  THE  KARTU. 

GEOGRAPHY — ^DESCRIPl'lVK  AND  POLITICAL 

PHYfilCAL  HISTORY  OF  MAN.  -  .  - 

ANCIENT  HISTORY — KOYFT — ARAHIA-IT.TR^A,      - 

HISTORY  OF  THE  JEWS — PALESTINK, 

HISTORY  OF  GREFXTE  AND  RO.MR,  -  - 

HISTORY  OF  THE  MIDDLE  AGES,  ... 

HISTORY  OF  GREAT  BRITAIN  AND  IRELAND, 

HISTORY  OF  GREAT  BRITAIN  AND  IRELAND— (c0AT/.VC£O), 

HISTORY  OF  GREAT  BRITAIN  AND  IRELAND — {cOSCLI'DKD), 

CONSTITUTION  AND  RESOURCES  OF  THE  ItKITISH  EMPIRE, 

DESCRIPTION  OF  ENGI^IND,  -  -  - 

DESCRIPTION  OP  LONDON,       -  -  .  - 

DESCRIPTION  OF  SCOTLAND,  -  -  -  . 

DESCRIPTION  OF  IRELAND,     "-  -  -  - 

EMIGRATION  TO  BRITISU  AM>:RICAN  PO>Si:iiMoNS, 

EMIGRATION  TO  THE  CNITI-U)  STATES, 

EMIGRATION  TO  AUSTRALIA,  .... 

EMIGRATION  TO  VAN  DIEMSN*M  LAND  AND  NEW  ZEALAND, 

DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES, 

DESCRIPTION  OF  SOUTH  A3IERICA, 

DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  WEST  INDIE8,  r 

DEjJCRIPTION  OF  THE  EAST  INDIES, 

CHINA  AND  THE  TEA  TBADF^  -  -  .  . 

OCEAN — MARITIME  DISCOVERY — NAVIGATION, 

THE  WHALE — WHALE  FIHHERIES,  -  -  . 

CONVEYANCE — ROADS— CANALS — RAI  l.WA  YS, 

ZOOLOilV — VEUTEBRATA,  .... 

VERTEBRATA — ((.O.V/'/ArK/i), 

VERTEBR.iTA — {coyrU'DKu), 

ARTICULATA,  ...  - 

ARTICULATA  (<0.vr/.Vfii7>) — MOLLUKCA, 

MOLLUSC  A  (rO.vr/.VfA/)) — RADIATA, 

ACCOUNT  OF  THi:  HUMAN  BODY,  -  .  - 

YEOETABU:  PHYSIOLOGY — BOTANY, 

NATURAL  THEOLOGY,         -  -  -  -  - 

inSTORY  OF  THE  BIBLE — CHRISTI.INITV, 

PRIVATE  DUTIES  OF  LI  PP., 

PUBLIC  AND  80CLIL  DUTIES  OF  LITE, 

UFE  XnD  maxims  OF  FRANKLIN. 

PRESERVATION  OF  HEALTH,  ... 

COMMERCE — MONEY — BANKt;;,         .  -  -  . 

HISTORY  AND  NATURE  OF  LAWS, 

POLITICAL  FX.'ONOMY,         ..... 

POPULATION — POOR-LAWS — LIFE-AKHURANCE, 

MAHOMETAN  AND  PAGAN  Ur.LICIONS,         ... 

SirPERSTlTIONS,  ..... 

DOMESTIC  ECONOMY— COO&ERY,  ... 

PROVERBS  AND  OLD  SAYINGS, 


No. 

Pao 

1 

1 

2 

•  •  •       k  i 

.3 

33 

4 

49 

«» 

a 

0."> 

6 

81 

97 

8 

113 

y 

129 

10 

14J 

11 

161 

12 

177 

13 

193 

14 

209 

15 

22.-) 

10 

241 

17 

..   257 

18 

..   273 

19 

289 

20 

305 

21 

..   321 

22 

ii>)i 

2n 

..   3.')3 

24 

3G9 

2.") 

385 

20 

401 

27 

417 

^8 

433 

29 

449 

.30 

405 

31 

..   4»1 

32 

..   497 

33 

51.3 

34 

529 

3.> 

.'i45 

36 

..   5CI 

37 

577 

38 

593 

39 

009 

40 

625 

41 

041 

42 

657 

43 

073 

44 

0^9 

4:> 

..   7t>5 

40 

..   721 

47 

.  ■) . 

48 

•  .        t  »itS 

49    ...   709 

SO 

7 1: 5 

CHAMBEKS'S 


INFORMATION    FOR   THE   PEOPLE. 


NEW  AM)  IMl'ROVED  EDITION. 


KDITLD  BY 

WILLIAM  AND  ROBERT  CHAMBERS, 

EBITUKS  OF   tJIA>!bEl<Jj>  LllMJlROIl  JOLKNAL,  liDUCATIO.NAL  CUURBE.  Ate 


VOLUME   L 


6  •- "" 


EI)IN15URr;]l: 
PUBLISHED   DV   WILLIAM   AND   ROBERT  CHAMBERS. 

y  1JM2. 


/^ 


:'i  /   /  /     .'   ♦    !^ 


( .1  -»--.-  •     \ 


.  H  :Jf< '. 


VII I 


INDEX. 


Tfttuuftit.  till' OM . 

Thames  Tunnel,  the, 

Thebes,  ruined  c-ity  uf .   . 

TheolOBY.  Naturml,    . 

'niB  PmrATS  iH'Tiits  o¥  Ltri:. 

ThB  OCBAN — MARITtJilB  DihCU- 
VBKY — NaVUIATION, 

Tub  Whalb  and  Wmale-Fi»h> 

BBIBB. 

TUnof  tlieoeoan,     . 

Time  I       .... 

TImo,  meommnent  uf. 

Tobufru,  accmint  (if. 

ToiiuiMft.  renialiM  of. 

Ttiumcfurt**  N>Btem  of  butany, 

Tower  of  Londun,  the, 

Tr.tnaitioa  atrata, 

TrAprock, 

Trinidad,  account  uf, 

Troeachs,  tho. 

Truth  and  falhehood, 

Twinr,  bousie  of. 

Turkey,  dnrrlptiun  of,    . 

Tnrka,  aettlenient  uf  in  Kun>p<>, 

Turk*,  thr. 

Tuwany,  deKriptktii  of. 

Typed  of  uien,  permanency  uf ,    . 

Tyre,  ruins  of, 

Ul»t«r.  province  uf ,      • . 
Tnlfin  of  Knarlaml  and  Scotland. 
Unitml  btatw,  urmy  Hnd  n.ivy  of. 


Pjro 

«13 

213 

74 

.     577 

fli«WK4 

401  41fi 

417-4.Ti 
4ul 
(511 
14 
'XV 
:») 
374 
:>li 
L»i 
3i 
:iv> 
2:28 
f;i3 
i:it 
41 
lii 
44 
40 
Qi 
94 

Wl 


United  Staten,  cnntni«pu«  i>f , 
Ifnitcd  HtateiK  descriptlun  of. 
United  StateM,  emijimtioo  to. 
Tnited  Htatea,  nuinnfacturv»  of, 
United  Blatoi,  ntlncnlii  of. 
United  States,  popubition  of. 
United  States,  prof»]iect«  of. 
United  States,  •oil  and  productions  of, 
Uninograpby, 
Uninus,  or  Ilentclid. 
Uruiruay,  province  of. 


Vun  DiiMiicn'n  IjiiuI, 

Van  Diinueii'it  l^ind,  acv«Hmt  of, 

YKOKr.%nLK  I'hvhiolouy  —  llo 

TAyv, 
Vf>Kvtabltw,  deeiKn  «!tu\\u  in 
Veftetablcs,  drmoinK  of. 
Vegetables,  structure  of. 
Vegetation,  economy  of, 
Venus, 

Vertobrated  aninuil!<. 
Vetita,  Ceres,  l^allss,  ami  Ji 
Virtoria,  reign  of  Queen, 
Vienna,  city  of,    . 
Volcanic  rocks. 
Volcanoes  of  America,    . 
Vulgate,  Tditin, 


:m>i 


no. 


WHgeh  of  Ubour, 

\Vah»b«r«, 

WalLici^.  bit  WUlioni, 


Pane 
.V4 
.-Ul 
273 

a»4 

:m 
.'{31 

336 

8 
i 

mi 
47 

3U5 


7H0 

.•»7« 

S/il 

I7IJ 

42 

(;iio 


711 


\\  Ar  with  France  of  I8UI.     . 
Watering-places  in  BnKbind, 
Way  ti»  wenlth,  Franklin's. 
Weight  and  vtatore  of  men, 
Wellington,  cainpaignt  of. 
Western  Auntralia,  account  of, 
Western  isles  of  ^4cotland, 
West  Indies,  description  *»(. 
West  Indies,  French, 
Wc^t  Indies,  Ihiniah, 
West  Indies,  Ihitch. 
West  Indies,  HwmI ish .      . 
West  IndhMi.  Sikinlnh, 
Westminster  Abbey, 
Whale  and  whale-flsUnff. 
Wilkes,  disturbances  of, 
Willhmi  the  (;<inqut>nir,  rsign  uf, 
William  the  hUm,  reign  of, 
William  Rufiu.,  rrign  of, 
William  III.,  reign  of,    . 
William  IV..  roixn  of. 
Will-making,  duty  of,     . 
Winds  and  tm(lo<\«  indA. 
Windsor,  castle  of. 
Witchcraft,    . 
Wolwy.  life  of     . 
Woolwich,  arsenal  of, 

York,  rite  of  tlie  huuw  uf, 

Zcalnnl,  isles  of  Now, 
Z<k1Lic,  »ign&  uf. 


413 


'■■  Tile  WvoJarv  pUnlM  ;.; 


CILVMBERS'S  DiyORMATIOS  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


mo*in|[n>aiidiMixuiD25iIkfa.  When nemd tlmtiK'i 
•  letwenpe,  the  mir&cu  appMn  imoDMlf  bright  uid 
InminouH,  in  if  Riving  nut  both  hot  >nd  light  to  the 
•DiTUuniliiiK  )ilati''tii.  Uul  on  ihis  »urfani  there  occo- 
■ionally  spptar  (l&rk  aputa,  geixrklly  nuToanded  vilh 
>  lurdcr  ot  Irs  dub  appvomice  ;  coma  of  which  spota 
have  iKrn  caLcubli'J  in  be  no  l«s  llian  45,000  milca 
io  brcxdih,  or  nnrly  Iwito  is  much  u  the  circum- 
ference of  the  eaiiJi.  The  renion  of  the  mn*!  body 
on  »liich  the  ii]>olii  appear,  in  cuiidnol  to  a  broit4  (pace 
mginllini;  his  ceiilre.  They  arc  hnmclimes  obserred 
to  ciiiiie  iiilu  hii;ht  at  liti  western  hmb,  tn  psMt  ncruM 


of  (1 


rtiya,  HI 


llien  diuppear.  Thry  an  lonietimea  ubKerred 
tnci  witli  gnat  npidity,  and  ciiuippcxr  IiLlo  Bomcthing 
meJied  and  abiU;rbcd  into  a  builiii^  lluid.  Upon  the 
bright  parts  of  tlic  buii's  body  there  are  also  lometimps 
ohserred  sirrakb  of  unusual  brightness,  as  if  produced 
bj  tfas  ridges  of  an  agitated  and  luminous  ttuid.    It 


baa  been  innniaed,  that  the  sun  is  a  dark  I 
valoped  Id  an  atmosphem  calculated  for  giving 
and  light,  and  tliat  the  spots  are  produced  I 
LrcaLa  or  openings  in  that  atnunpherc,  alioi 
dark  maai  witliin.  Though  so  mash  largrr  1 
earth,  the  matter  of  the  sun  Is  of  only  about  a 
llie  density  or  compwrlnes*  of  that  uf  our  pi 
little  more  than  the  dcniity  of  water. 
The  sun  is  surnHinded  to  a  i;Teat  distance  b 

like  a  lens  or  magnifyin^-glaaa,  the  body  of 
being  in  the  centre,  and  the  luminous  matter  e: 
in  the  plane  of  the  plani^tary  rcrolntiona,  till 
nstealn  ■  polnL  At  particular  seaaoDs,  and  in 
able  stales  of  the  atmosphere,  it  may  bs  o 
before  sunrin  or  after  suntct,  in  the  form  ol 
pointing  obliquely  aboio  tlic  place  where  th 
either  about  to  appear  or  which  he  haa  just  lei 
termed  the  Zodiaad  Light. 


Mmury,  the  nearest  planet  to  the  aun,  is  a  globe 
of  about  3MU  nijkii  in  dlamctrr,  rotating  on  its  axis  in 
S4  hourx  and  .^t  minute*, and  reTotvin;;  round  the  cen- 
tral luminary,at  adi>itanccoF37,OUO,DUi)  of  miles,  ■<'  BR 
dsyi.  yruni  tbe  rarlh  it  can  only  be  seen  occasionally 
in  the  nioniing  or  evening,  as  it  never  rises  before,  or 
Mta  after  the  t<un,  at  a  greater  dintanee  of  time  tlinn 
I  hour  and  SO  minuteiL  It  iiipeam  to  the  naked  eyo  as 
•  small  and  brilliant  star,  but  when  obirrved  through 
a  telescope,  is  hotncd  like  the  moon,  beeaiuc  we  only 
■ea  a  part  of  the  surface  which  the  aun  is  illuminating. 
Mountains  uf  preit  height  liavo  been  observed  on  the 
larlace  of  this  pbnet,  particulariy  in  its  lower  or 
■outhrm  hemisplu-rv.  i.>nv  hnx  been  calcutaled  at  10] 
nilei  in  height,  bring  about  elglit  tinicK  higlicT,  in  pro- 
poniun  to  the  bulk  nf  the  gilanet,  than  the  loliieKt 
nonntains  u]>on  earth.  The  matter  of  Mercury  is  of 
much  greater  deniity  than  that  of  the  earth,  eiiualling 
lead  in  weight',  »  Uiat  a  human  being  pUccd  u|iun  iu 
turiaee  wnuld  be  so  strongly  dnwn  tuwarda  the  ground 
■a  ■earcrly  to  b<^  able  to  crawL 

I'mu  is  a  globe  of  about  7300  miln  in  diameter,  or 

Dswly  tliE  liu  uf  the  ranh,  mlatinji  on  iu  alia  in  S3 

boBTBiSl  minutni,and  IU  seronda,  and  revolving  round 

the  sun,  at  Ihr  distance  of  bH,UIIO,W)a  of  mile*,  in  2-JS 

Uke  llrrcury,  it  is  visible  tu  an  obasrver  on  the 

• Jit/fin  Ibr  nuirning  mod  evening,  but  fur  a  greater 

•-^AmBMim-mn/ueanJofleriuaiiet.  Itappcan 
^WM /uiEf^t  aoJ  bMuiifaJ  of  all  tbe  plaaatM? 


and  alellar  bodies,  oecaaionallji  giving  bo  mnci 
to  produce  a  sensible  shadow.  Obierred  throu) 
•eupc,  it  appears  homed,  on  account  of  ooriei 
a  p.-irt  of  ita  luminous  surface.  The  illumin 
of  Venus  oecaaionally  presents  alight  spota.  It 
ascertained  that  ita  surface  is  very  unequal,  th) 
mountaioa  being  in  the  aoutliem  hemisphere, 
caHC  ot  both  Mercury  and  the  KxtA.  The  high 
tains  in  Venus  nui^o  between  IU  and  22  null 
lude.  The  planet  is  also  envelopcii  in  an  a(i 
like  that  by  which  animal  and  vegetable  lift 
ported  on  eartli;  and  it  has  eonsequenllj  a 
Venus  perform*  ita  revolution  round  the  mi 
days.  Mercury  and  Venus  have  been  tcrmet 
ferior  Planets,  as  being  placed  witliia  the  ort 

The  Earth,  Iho  third  planet  in  order,  and  oi 
smaller  size,  thuugh  not  the  smallest,  ia  imp- 
UB,  Ita  the  tlieatro  on  which  our  raM  have  bei 
to  "  live,  move,  and  have  their  being."  It  is  7! 
in  mean  diameter,  rotating  on  ita  axis  in  'H  bt 
mean  distance  of  95,000,000  of  miles  from 
round  which  it  revolvet  in  ZSi  days,  3  hour 
nutee,  and  57  aeeondo.  As  a  pUuet  viewed 
other  nf  the  planela,  auppuee  the  moeo,  **  it  wi 
sent  a  pretty,  rorlrgated,  and  sonietinHa  a 
appnarance.  The  dutinction  between  ita  seas 
euntioenla,  and  '*'*"''■.  would  be  clearly  mark 
would  apiitvt  UliA  b^jtaSm  ani^  AaAic  w^tM 


ASTRONOMY. 


£iM,  The  eontlnenU  would  tppcar  bright,  and  the 
OMU  of  B  dkrbtr  hoc,  becma»  water  kbsorbi  the 
RMUr  put  of  the  solar  light  that 
it"lpli 


ixis,  (ucceeaiTe  pDrtions  of  I 
valid  be  bronght  into  Ticir,  asd  preKDt  a  different 

Xfram  the  parta  which  preceded."  * 
{bm  at  the  earth,  and  probably  tiiat  of  eTcry 
otbn  planet,  u  not  ■tricttf  Bpherica],  but  spheroidal ; 
(bit  i^  fUtlened  n  little  at  the  polei,  or  eatremitioH 
or  Ibt  lux.  The  diameter  of  the  eaitli  at  the  axis  ii 
"^  miln  1f^  than  in  the  eroai  direction.  Thia  peenli- 
jtIIt  d  ihf  form  'a  a  conBcquence  of  the  rotatorj  mo- 
lim,  u  will  be  aftermirda  explained. 

Tilt  taith  ia  attended  hj  onii  ntellite,  the  Moon, 
■bich  in  a  globe  of  2160  miles  in  diameter,  and  conse- 
qotsilj  abgut  a  49th  port  of  the  bnlk  of  the  earth, 
nnilriDg  round  iU  primaiy  in  27  days,  7  hours,  43 
aiDDln,  and  U  aeconds,  at  the  diaUnee  of  240,000 
niin.  The  moon  is  400  limca  nearer  the  earth  than 
Ihe  nm  is  1  but,  itt  diameter  being  at  tlie  came  time 
4^0  limes  len  than  that  of  the  sun,  it  appears  to  ua  of 
iboui  <he  Mme  siie.  The  moon  rotatea  on  her  axis  in 
nunly  iha  same  time  a<i  alie  rcTolres  roond  the  earth. 
Ebt  tunseqnenlly  presents  at  all  times  the  nine  part  of 
IwHiriice  towards  the  earth.  Inspected  through  a 
tflftrnpf,  her  f  urf:ice  aiipears  of  unequal  brightncas, 
M  tmremely  rug^J.    Tlie  dark  parla,  however,  nro 


than  37  days,  preienta  erery  part  of  its  m&M  in  ra^ 
eeasion  to  the  sun  in  that  time,  ai  the  earth  does  in  2i 
honit.  The  day  of  the  moon  is  oonaequentlj  naariy  a 
fortni^t  long,  and  ila  nigitt  of  the  aame  duration.  Tbrn 
light  of  the  sun,  falling  upon  the  moon,  ia  partly  ab- 
sorbed into  its  body  ;  but  a  email  portion  is  reflected 
or  thrown  back,  and  beeomea  what  we  call  meanli^U. 
The  illuminated  part,  from  which  we  derive  moonlij^^ 
is  at  all  times  incroksing  or  dimioiahing  in  our  eyes,  aa 
the  moon  proeeeda  in  her  leTolntion  around  onr  globe:. 
When  the  sateUita  ia  at  ths  greatsit  distanse  Inm  th* 


Q 


Tt  ]L*wjp]c  appcunuKti  oJ  the  3[ 
net  tttr,  aa  has  been  lu^poicd,  but  more  like  the  beds 
<i  Kah  or  great  alluvial  plains.  No  appearance  of 
viler,  or  rl  rlouds,  or  of  an  atmosphere,  liaa  been  de- 
tKlrd.  Tiie  surface  preeenis  numerous  mountains, 
■Mnttf  them  about  a  mlleand  three  quarters  io  height, 
■■  hu  been  aaeertaised  by  measurement  of  cheahadnira 
*bieh  they  east  on  the  neighbouring  surface.  The 
li^ef  the  muuntainqorthemuonaregenciallyahaped 
lite  a  np  or  baun,  with  a  small  eminence  risinj;  from  the 
watte,  lite  many  volcanic  hills  en  ths  enrtli.  It  has 
knee  been  surmised  that  Iha  moon  is  in  a  valeania 
Aw,  M  the  earth  appean  to  iisve  been  for  many  ages 
Mne  ths  eration  of  man,  and  that  it  is  pcrhapa  un- 
Ivjoing  proecnea  calculated  to  make  it  a  fit  scene  for 
Mbal  and  legetable  life. 
Iks  nooo,  taming  on  ita  axia  once  in  i 

•  Dick^  Cidn1<Fil  Sccncrv,  US. 


snn,  we,  being  between  the  two,  kc  the  whole  of  tha 
illuminated  surface,  which  we  accordingly  term  /all 
moon.  As  the  moon  advances  In  her  course,  the  lumi- 
nons  side  is  gradually  averted  from  us,  and  the  moon 
is  raid  to  wane.  At  length,  when  tho  satellite  haa  got 
between  the  earth  and  the  sun,  the  luminous  nde  il 
entirely  lost  sight  of.  The  moon  is  then  said  to  eAon^, 
Proceeding  io  tier  revolution,  ahe  aoon  tuma  a  bright 
edge  towards  ua,  which  we  call  tho  nsu  tnoon.  This 
gradually  increases  in  breadth,  till  a  moiety  of  iheeirrie 
i;<  quite  hlled  up  ;  it  is  then  said  to  bo  half  moon.  His 
luniinar}',  when  on  the  increase  from  neie  tu  Ai//,  is 

nnd  this  word  Ims  been  applied  to  other  objects  of  the 
same  shape — for  instance,  to  a  curved  line  of  buildings. 

In  the  early  days  of  the  new  moon,  we  uaually  seo 
the  dark  part  of  the  hndy  faintly  illuminated,  an  ap- 
pr.imncc  termed  the  old  moon  in  llie  new  moon'i  armi. 
This  fniot  illumination  is  produced  by  the  reHection  of 
the  suu's  light  from  tho  earth,  or  what  the  inhabitanta 
of  tho  moon,  if  there  were  any,  might  bo  supposed  to 
consider  as  moonlight.  Tho  earth,  which  oeeupieg  one 
invariable  place  in  the  sky  of  the  moon,  with  a  surfaco 
thirteen  timealorger  than  the  apparent  siee  of  the  moon 
io  our  eyes,  iathen  at  Ihe/ull,  ahiningwith  great  lustre 
on  the  aunlna  aide  of  its  satellite,  and  receiving  bade 
a  amnll  portion  of  its  own  reflected  light.  The  light, 
then,  which  makes  the  dork  part  of  the  moon  viaibia 
to  ua,  may  be  said  to  perform  ihne  journeyi^  first 
from  the  sun  to  the  eartJi,  then  from  the  earth  to  the 
moon,  and  iioally  from  the  moon  back  to  the  earth, 
before  our  eyes  are  enabled  to  perceive  this  object. 

Mart,  (he  fourth  of  tho  primary  pianola,  ia  a  globv 
of -tUQ  milea  in  diameter,  or  little  more  than  a  halt  of 
that  of  the  earth  :  consequently,  the  bulk  of  this  ptanet 
ia  only  about  a  Slli  of  that  of  our  globe.  It  perfonna 
a  rotation  on  ita  aiia  in  24  hours,  39  minntes,  and  211 
aeconda,  and  revolves  round  tho  sun,  at  a  distance  ol 
142,000,000  of  miles,  in  686  days,  2-2  houn*,  and  IB  se- 
conds, iitais  appears  to  the  naked  eye  of  a  red  colour  ; 
from  which  circumslanco  it  was,  probably,  that  Ih* 
ancienla  bestowed  upon  it  the  name  of  tho  god  of  war. 
Inspected  through  a  telescope,  it  is  fonnd  to  be  ncca- 
sionally  marked  by  hu^  spots  and  dull  streaks,  of  vo- 
rtuus  forma,  and  by  an  unusual  brightness  nt  the  poles. 
As  the  bright  polar  ports  sometimes  project  from  the 
ilor  outline  of  the  planet,  it  has  been  conjectored 


<    that  tl 


»ofsr 


CHAMBERS'S  INFORMATION  FOR  TUE  PEOPLE. 


revolving  between  the  orbits  of  Mars  and  Jupiter,  in 
paths  near  and  crossing  each  other,  and  which  aro  not 
only  much  more  elliptical  than  the  paths  of  the  other 
planets,  but  also  rise  and  sink  much  further  from  the 
plane  of  the  general  planetary  revolutions. 

Veita  is  of  a  bulk  only  I -1 5,000th  part  of  the  bulk  of 
the  earth,  with  a  surface  not  exceeding  that  of  the  king- 
dom of  Spain.  It  revolves  round  the  sun  in  3  years,  6G 
days,  and  4  hours,  at  a  mean  distance  of  225,500,000 
miles.  Though  the  smallest  of  all  the  planets,  it  gives 
a  ver}'  brilliant  light,  insomuch  tliat  it  can  be  seen  by  the 
naked  eye. 

Juno  is  1 425  miles  in  diameter,  and  presents,  when 
inspected  through  the  telescope,  a  white  and  well-de- 
fined appearance.  Its  orbit  is  the  most  eccentric  of 
all  the  planetary  orbits,  being  253,000,000  of  miles  from 
the  sun  at  the  greatest,  and  only  126,000,000,  or  less 
than  one-half,  at  the  least  distance.  In  the  half  of  the 
coume  nearest  to  the  sun,  the  motion  of  the  planet  is, 
by  virtue  of  a  natural  law  afterwards  to  be  explained, 
more  than  twice  as  rapid  as  in  the  other  part. 

Ceres  has  been  variously  represented  as  of  1 624  and 
and  160  miles  in  diameter.  The  astronomer  who  cal- 
culated its  diameter  at  1624  miles,  at  the  same  time 
believed  himself  to  have  ascertained  tliat  it  has  a  dense 
atmosphere,  extendlbg  675  miles  from  its  surface.  It 
is  of  a  reddish  colour,  and  appears  about  the  size  of  a 
star  of  the  eighth  magnitude.  Ceres  revolves  round 
the  sun,  at  a  di^ttancc  of  260,000,000  of  miles,  in  4  years, 
7  months,  and  10  da^-s. 

J'ai/as  has  been  ii'presented  as  of  209.0  miles  in  dia- 
meter, with  an  atmosphere  extending  468  miles  above 
its  surface.  AnotJier  asti'onomer  has  allowed  it  a  dia- 
meter of  only  80  miles.  It  revolves  round  the  sun,  at 
a  mean  distance  of  266,000,000  of  miles,  in  4  years, 
7  months,  and  1 1  days.  However  unimportant  it  may 
appear  beside  the  larger  planets,  it  has  a  peculiar  inte- 
Tit«t  in  the  eyes  of  astronomers,  on  account  of  its  orbit 
having  a  gi*eater  inclination  to  the  plane  of  the  ecliptic 
than  those  of  all  the  larger  planets  put  together. 

These  four  planets,  which  are  sometimes  called  aste- 
routs,  have  only  recently  become  known  to  mankind. 
CfrL-s  was  discovered  at  Palermo  in  Sicily,  on  the  1st 
of  January  1801,  by  M.  Piazzi,  who  gave' it  this  name 
in  honour  of  the  tutelar}'  goddess  of  his  native  countr}-. 
Pallas  was  discovered  at  Bremen,  in  Lower  Saxon v, 
on  tlie  2{!ih  of  March  1802,  by  Dr  Olbers.  Juno  was 
discovered  by  Mr  Harding,  at  the  observatory  of  Lilien- 
thal,  near  Jircmen,  on  the  1st  of  September  1804.  Vesta 
was  discovered  on  the  2!^tli  of  March  1807,  by  the  same 
astronomer  who  had  discovered  Pallas. 

Jupiter  is  the  largest  of  all  the  planets.  Its  diameter 
is  nearly  eleven  times  that  of  the  earth,  or  89,170  miles, 
and  its  vulunie  or  mjiys  Ls  consequently  1281  times  that 
of  our  gli)be.   The  density  of  Jupiter  is  only  a  fourth  of 
that  of  the  earth,  or  about  the  lightness  of  water ;  and 
a  human  being,  if  transferred  to  it,  would  be  able  to 
leap  with  ease  over  a  pretty  large  house.     It  i>crfonns 
a  rotation  on  its  axis  in  i)  hours,  55  minutet*,  and  33 
seconds,  or  about  two-fifths  of  our  day.     It  revolves 
round  the  sun,  at  a  distance  of  490,000,000  of  miles,  in 
-1330  da\s,  14  hours,  and  ',VJ  minutes,  or  nearly  twelve 
of  our  years.    Viewed  through  a  telescope,  Jupiter  ap- 
pears surrounded  by  dark  lines,  or  belts,  which  occa- 
sionally hhift,  inelt  into  each  other,  or  separate,  but 
sometimes  are  observed  with  Little  variaticm  for  several 
months.     These  belts  are  generally  near  tin?  eijuator  ' 
of  tii(>  planet,  and  of  a  broad  and  stnii^ht  form ;  but  I 
they  have  been  observed  over  his  whole  surDice,  and 
of  a  lighter,  narrower,  ami  more  streaky  and  wavy  , 
appearance.     It  is  su]>p(«ed  that  the  dark  parts  are  > 
lines  of  the  hoxly  of  the  planet,  seen  tiu'ough  openings  I 
iu  a  bright  eloudy  atmosphi-re. 

Ju]iiter  is  attended  by  four  satellites,  which  revolve 
round  it,  in  the  sivnie  manner  an  the  moon  round  our 
globt",  keeping,  like  it,  one  face  invariably  presented  to 
their  primary.  They  are  of  about  the  same  size,  or  a 
little  larger  diameter  than  our  m(K)n  ;  the  first  having 
H,  diameter  of  2508,  the  second  of  2068,  the  third  of 

4 


3377,  and  the  fourth  of  281)0  miles.  The  first  revolves 
round  the  primary  planet  in  I  day,  1 8  hours,  28  minutes ; 
the  second  in  3  days,  13  hours,  14  minutes;  the  third 
in  7  days,  3  hours,  43  minutes ;  and  the  fourth  in  16 
days,  16  hours,  32  minutes.  These  satellites  frequently 
eclipse  the  sun  to  Jupiter ;  they  are  also  eclipsed  by  the 

Krimary  planet,  but  never  all  at  the  same  time,  so  that 
is  dark  side  is  never  altogether  without  moonlight. 

The  satellites  of  Jupiter  were  discovered  by  Galileo^ 
being  among  the  first  results  of  the  invention  of  the 
telescope.  They  have  been  of  great  use  in  several 
astronomical  calculations  of  importance,  particularly  in 
suggesting  the  theory  of  the  gradual  propagation  of 
lignL  It  having  been  observed  that  their  eclipses 
always  took  place  sooner  than  was  to  be  expected  when 
the  earth  was  near  Jupiter,  and  later  when  it  was  at 
the  greatest  distance,  an  astronomer  solved  the  difficulty 
by  supposing  that  light  required  some  time  to  travel — 
a  conjecture  which  was  afterwards  confirmed  by  other 
observations. 

Saturn,  seen  through  a  telescope,  is  the  most  remark- 
able of  all  the  pUnets,  being  surrounded  by  a  ring,  and 
attended  by  seven  satellites.  In  bulk  this  is  the  second 
of  the  pUuiets,  being  79,042  miles  in  diameter,  or  about 
995  times  the  volume  of  the  earth.  Its  surface  appears 
slightly  marked  by  belts  like  those  of  Jupiter.  It  per- 
forms a  rotation  on  its  axis  in  10  hours,  16  minutes, 
and  revolves  round  the  sun,  at  a  distance  of  900,000,000 
of  miles,  in  10,746  days,  19  hours,  16  minutes,  or  about 
294  of  our  years.  At  such  a  distance  from  the  sun,  that 
luminary  must  be  diminished  to  one-eightieth  of  tJie 
size  he  bears  in  our  eyes,  and  the  heat  and  light  in  the 
same  proportion.  The  matter  of  Saturn  is  one-eighth 
of  the  density  of  our  earth. 

The  ring  of  Saturn  surrounds  the  body  of  the  planet 
in  the  plane  of  its  equator.  It  is  thm,  like  tlio  rim  of 
a  spinning  wheel,  and  is  always  seen  with  its  edge  pre- 
sented more  or  less  directly  towards  us.  It  is  luminous 
with  the  sun's  light,  and  casts  a  sliadow  on  the  surface 
of  the  planet,  the  shadow  of  which  is  also  sometimes 
seen  falling  on  part  of  the  ring.  The  distance  of  the 
inner  edge  from  the  planet  is  calculated  at  about  1 .0,000 
miles ;  its  entire  breadth  fmm  the  inner  to  the  outer 
edge  is  28,538 ;  the  thickness  is  not  more  than  100. 
In  certain  positions  of  the  planet,  wo  can  see  its  sur- 
face at  a  conmderable  angle,  and  the  openings  or  loops 
which  it  forms  at  the  sides  of  the  planet.  At  otiier 
times  we  see  its  dark  side,  or  only  its  edge.  From 
obser\'ations  made  upon  it  in  favourable  circumstances, 
it  is  found  to  be  apparently  divided  near  the  outer  edge 
by  a  dark  line  of  nearly  1800  miles  in  breadth,  as  if  it 
were  divided  into  two  concentric  rings.  From  other 
appearances,  it  has  been  surmised  to  have  other  divi- 
sions, or  to  be  a  collection  of  several  concentric  rings. 
It  is  also  occasionally  marked  by  small  spots.  The 
ring  of  Saturn  rotates  on  its  own  plane  in  10  hours,  32 
minutes,  15  seconds,  and  a  part  of  a  second,  being  about 
the  same  time  with  the  rotation  of  the  planet. 

The  seven  satellites  of  Saturn  revolve  around  it,  on 
the  exterior  of  the  ring,  and  almost  all  of  tliem  in 
nearly  the  same  plane.  They  are  so  small  as  not  to  be 
visible  without  a  powerful  telescope.  The  two  inner 
ones  are  very  near  to  the  outer  edge  of  the  ring,  and 
can  only  be  discerned  when  that  object  is  presented  ho 
exactly  edgewa}'s  as  to  be  almost  invibible.  They  have 
then  been  seen  passing  like  two  small  bright  beads 
along  the  miimte  thread  of  light  formed  by  the  edge  of 
the  ring.  The  three  next  satellites  are  also  very  small ; 
the  sixth  is  larger,  and  placed  at  a  great  interval  from 
the  rt^st.  The  seventh  is  the  largest ;  it  is  about  the 
size  of  the  ])lanet  Mars,  and  is  situated  at  nearly 
thrice  the  distance  of  the  sixth,  or  about  2,300,000  miln 
from  the  body  of  Saturn.  The  revolutions  of  these 
satellites  range  from  1  to  79  days ;  and  it  has  been 
ascertained  of  some  of  them  that,  according  to  the 
usual  law  of  secondary  planets,  their  rotations  on  their 
axes  and  their  revolutions  round  tlieir  primary  ara 
performed  in  the  same  time,  so  tlmt,  like  our  moon, 
they  always  present  the  same  face  to  the  centre  of  their 


ASTRONOMY. 


iTitem.  The  (Arbit  of  the  serenth  satellite  is  much  in- 
eiined  to  the  phme  of  Saturn's  equator. 

VranuSf  or  Hersehel,  the  remotest  planet  known  in 
the  solar  system,  is  a  globe  of  35,1 12  nules  in  diameter, 
rotating  on  its  axis  in  7  hours,  and  performing  a  revo- 
lution round  the  sun,  at  the  distance  of  1800,000,000 
of  miles,  in  84  of  our  years.  It  was  discovered,  on  the 
13th  of  March  1781,  by  Sir  William  Hersehel,  at  Bath. 
The  sun  to  this  remote  planet  must  appear  only  a  400th 
part  of  the  size  which  he  bears  in  our  eyes.  Two  satel- 
lites are  known,  and  other  four  are  suspected,  to  at- 
tend upon  Uranus.  The  two  which  have  been  observed 
circulate  round  their  primary  in  orbits  almost  perpen- 
dicular to  the  ecliptic,  and  are  further  supposed  to  move 
in  a  direction  contrary  to  that  of  all  the  other  plane- 
tary motions— namely,  from  east  to  west. 

Some  idea  may  be  obtained  of  the  comparative  size 
of  the  principal  objects  of  tho  solar  system,  by  suppos- 
ing a  gK>be  of  two  feet  diameter,  placed  in  the  centre  of 
a  leveT  plain,  to  represent  the  sun ;  a  grain  of  mustard- 
seed,  placed  on  the  circumference  of  a  circle  164  feet 
in  diameter,  for  Mercury ;  a  pea,  on  a  circle  of  284  feet, 
for  Venns ;  another  pea,  on  a  circle  of  430  feet,  for  the 
Earth ;  a  large  pin*s  head,  on  a  circle  of  654  feet,  for 
^fars ;  four  minute  grains  of  sand,  in  circles  of  from 
1000  to  1200  feet,  for  Vesta,  Ceres,  PalUs,  and  Juno  ; 
a  moderate-sized  orange,  on  a  circle  of  nearly  half  a 
mile  in  diameter,  for  Jupiter ;  a  small  orange,  on  a 
circle  four-fifths  of  a  mile  in  diameter,  for  Saturn ;  and 
a  small  plum,  or  full-sized  cherry,  on  a  circle  of  a  mile 
and  a  half  in  diameter,  for  Uranus.  It  is  calculated 
that  the  united  mass  of  the  whole  of  the  planets  is  not 
above  a  600th  part  of  the  mass  of  the  sun.  The  sun 
and  planets  are  represented,  with  an  approximation 
to  correctness,  in  philosophical  toys  termed  orreries, 
d  which  the  appearance  is  conveyed  in  the  annexed 
engr&ving. 


Orrer}-. 


OOHETB. 


Comets  are  light  vapoury  bodies,  which  move  round 
the  sun  in  orbits  much  less  circular  than  those  of  the 
planets.  Their  orbits,  in  other  words,  are  very  long 
ellipses  or  ovals,  having  the  sun  near  one  of  the  ends. 
Comets  usually  have  two  parts,  a  body  or  nucleus,  and 
a  tail ;  but  some  have  a  Iwdy  only.  The  body  appears 
as  a  thin  vapoury  luminous  mass,  of  globular  form ;  it 
is  so  thin,  that,  in  some  cases,  the  stars  have  been  seen 
throng^  it.  The  tail  is  a  lighter  or  thinner  luminous 
T^Mrar,  surrounding  tho  body,  and  streaming  far  out 
from  it  in  one  direction.  A  vacant  space  has  been  ob- 
Krred  between  the  bodv  and  the  enveloping  matter  of 
Ae  tail ;  and  it  is  equally  remarkable  that  the  tail  has 
in  Mine  instances  speared  less  bright  along  the  middle, 
faiiaindfilrlj  bdiiiid  the  nucleus,  as  if  it  were  a  stream 
wAfeA  iStmX  noeleiis  had  in  some  measure  parted  into 


In  ignorant  agec^  the  sudden  appearance  of  a  comet 
in  the  sky  never  faUed  to  occasion  great  alarm,  both  on 
account  of  its  threatening  appearance,  and  because  it 
was  considered  as  a  sign  that  war,  pestilence,  or  fa- 
mine, was  about  to  afflict  mankind.  Knowledge  has 
dispelled  all  such  fancies ;  but  yet  we  are  not  well  ac- 
quainted with  the  nature  of  comets. 

Out  of  the  great  multitude — certainly  not  less  than 
1000 — ^which  are  supposed  to  exist,  about  150  have 
been  made  the  subject  of  scientific  observation.  In- 
stead of  revolving,  like  the  planets,  nearly  on  the  plane 
of  the  sun's  equator,  it  is  found  that  they  approach  his 
body  from  all  parts  of  surrounding  space.  At  ffrst, 
they  are  seen  slowly  advancing,  with  a  comparatively 
faint  appearance.  As  they  approach  the  sun,  tne  motion 
becomes  quicker,  and  at  length  they  pass  round  him 
with  very  great  rapidity,  and  at  a  comparatively  small 
distance  from  his  body.  The  comet  of  1680  approached 
within  one-sixth  of  his  diameter.  After  passing,  they 
are  seen  to  emerge  from  his  rays,  with  an  immense 
increase  to  their  former  brilliancy  and  to  the  length  of 
their  tails.  Their  motion  then  becomes  gradually  slower, 
and  their  brilliancy  diminishes,  and  at  length  they  are 
lost  in  distance.  It  has  been  ascertain^  that  {heir 
movement  round  the  sun  is  in  accordance  with  the 
same  law  which  regulates  tho  planetary  movements, 
being  always  the  quicker  the  nearer  to  his  body,  and 
the  slower  the  more  distant.  In  the  remote  parts  of 
space  their  motions  must  be  extremely  slow. 

Three  comets  have  been  observed  to  return,  and  their 
periods  of  revolution  have  been  calculated.  The  most 
remarkable  of  these  is  one  usually  denominated  Hal- 
ley's  Comet,  from  the  astronomer  who  first  calculated 
its  period.  It  revolves  round  the  sun  in  about  seventy- 
five  years,  its  last  appearance  being  at  the  close  of  1835. 
Another,  called  Enke's  Comet,  from  Professor  Enko 
of  Berlin,  has  been  found  to  revolve  once  in  1207  days, 
or  3i  years  j  but,  in  this  case,  tho  revolving  body  ia 
found,  at  each  successive  approach  to  the  sun,  to  be  a 
little  earlier  than  on  the  previous  occasion,  showing 
that  its  orbit  is  gradually  lessening,  so  that  it  may  be 
expected  ultimately  to  fall  into  the  sun.  This  fact  has 
suggested  that  some  port  of  that  space  tlirough  which 
the  comet  passes,  must  be  occupied  by  a  matter  pre- 
senting some  resistance  to  the  movement  of  any  denser 
body ;  and  it  is  supposed  that  this  matter  may  provo 
to  be  the  same  which  has  been  described  as  consti- 
tuting the  zodiacal  light.  It  is  called  a  resisting  me- 
dium;  and  future  observations  upon  it  are  expected  to 
be  attended  with  results  of  a  most  important  nature, 
seeing  that,  iLthere  be  such  a  matter  extending  beyond 
the  orbit  of  the  earth,  that  planet,  in  whose  welfare  we 
are  so  much  interested,  will  be  exposed  to  the  same 
ultimate  fate  with  Enke's  Comet. 

The  third,  named  Bella's  Comet,  from  M.  Bella  of 
Josephstadt,  revolves  round  thc^  sun  in  6}  years.  It 
is  very  small,  and  has  no  tail.  In  1832,  this  comet 
passed  through  the  earth's  path  about  a  mouth  before 
the  arrival  of  our  planet  at  the  same  point.  If  the 
earth  had  been  a  month  earlier  at  that  point,  or  the 
comet  a  month  later  in  crossing  it,  the  two  bodies  would 
have  been  brought  together,  and  the  earth,  in  all  pro- 
bability, would  have  instantly  become  unfit  for  the  ex- 
istence of  the  human  family.  Comets  are  often  affected 
in  their  motions  by  the  attmction  of  tlio  planets.  Ju- 
piter, in  particular,  has  been  described  by  an  astronomer 
as  a  perpetual  stumbling-block  in  their  way.  In  1770, 
a  comet  got  entangled  amidst  the  satellites  of  that 
planet,  and  was  thereby  thrown  out  of  its  usual  course, 
while  the  motions  of  the  satellites  were  not  in  the  least 
affected. 

Comets  often  pass  unobserved,  in  consequence  of  the 
part  of  the  heavens  in  which  they  move  being  then 
under  daylight.  During  a  total  eclipse  of  the  sun,  whidi 
happened  sixty  years  before  Christ,  a  large  comet,  not 
formerly  seen,  became  visible,  near  the  body  of  the  ob- 
scured luminary.  On  many  occasions,  their  smallness 
and  distance  render  them  visible  only  by  the  aid  of 
the  telescope.    On  other  occasions,  they  arc  of  vast 


CHAMBERS'S  INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLF^ 


Am.  The  eooMt  now  called  Hallcy's,  at  iti  appearance 
in  UA6,  covered  a  aixth  part  of  the  visible  extent  of  the 
beavena,  and  waa  likened  to  a  TarkifJi  scjinitar.  That 
of  1680,  whieh  was  obflerred  by  Sir  Imuic  Newton,  had 
a  Uil  calonUted  to  bo  1-J3«U0U,U00  of  miles  in  length,  a 
■pace  rreatcr  than  the  diHtanee  of  the  earth  from  the 
aun.  There  was  a  comet  in  1744,  which  had  six  tails, 
spread  out  like  a  fan  across  a  Uurgo  spaco  in  the  hea- 
vens. The  tails  of  comets  usually  stretch  in  tho  direc- 
tion opposite  to  the  sun,  both  in  advancing  and  retiring, 
and  with  a  slight  wave  at  the  outer  extremity^  as  if  tliat 
part  experienced  some  resistance. 

THE  tflABS. 

The  idea  at  which  astronomers  have  arrived  respect- 
ing the  stars,  is,  that  they  arc  all  of  them  suns,  resem- 
bling our  own,  but  diminished  to  tho  appearance  of 
mere  specks  of  light  by  the  great  distance  at  wliich  they 
are  placed.  As  a  necessary  conseijuence  to  this  sup- 
position, it  may  bo  presumed  tliat  they  are  centres  of 
light  and  heat  to  systems  of  revolving  planets,  each  of 
which  may  be  further  presumed  to  be  the  theatn^  of 
forms  of  being  bearing  some  analogy  to  those  wliich 
exist  upon  earth. 

The  stars  seen  by  the  nuked  eye  on  a  clear  night  arc 
not  above  a  thousand  in  nuinl>er.  This,  allowing  a  like 
number  for  tlie  half  of  the  sky  not  neon,  gives  ahnut 
two  thousand  in  all  (^f  visible  stars.  These  are  of  diflfe- 
rent  degrees  of  brilliancy,  probably  in  the  main  in  pro- 
portion to  their  respective  distances  from  our  system, 
but  also  perhaps  in  some  measure  in  proportion  to  their 
respective  actual  sizes.  Astronomers  cla^ts  tho  stars 
under  different  magnitudetj  not  with  regard  to  apparent 
size,  for  none  of  them  present  a  measurable  dihC,  but 
with  a  regard  to  the  various  quantities  of  light  flowing 
from  them  :  thus,  there  are  stars  of  the  first  mngnitude, 
the  second  magnitude,  and  so  on.  Only  six  or  Fcveii 
varieties  of  magnitude  are  within  our  natural  viitiun ; 
but  with  the  telescope  vast  numbers  of  more  distant 
stars  are  brought  into  view ;  and  the  magnitudes  are 
now  extended  by  astronomers  to  at  least  sixteen. 

The  stars  are  at  a  distance  from  our  s^-stem  so  verv 
great,  that  the  mind  can  form  no  idea  of  it.  The  bril- 
liant one  called  Sirius  or  the  Dog-star,  which  is  sup- 
posed to  \w  the  nearest,  but  merely  l>eeausi>  it  is  tho 
most  luminous,  has  betrn  reckoned  by  tolerably  elrar 
calcuLitiou  to  give  only  1 -'JO,U()0,O00th  part  of  the  li^ht 
of  tho  Huu :  hence,  supposing  it  to  be  of  the  SAino  size, 
and  every  other  way  alike,  it  shoiilil  be  distant  from  our 
earth  not  less  than  1 ,9GO,OO0,OOO,0OO,i)OO,OU0  miles.  An 
attempt  has  been  made  to  calculate  the  distance  of 
iSirius  by  a  trigonometrical  problem.  It  may  be  readilv 
Bupp^wi'd  that  the  position  of  a  spectator  upon  the  earth 
with  rt>»pect  to  celcittial  objects  must  vary  considerably 
at  tliflferent  parts  of  the  year:  for  instance,  on  the  *Jlst 
of  J  une,  he  must  be  in  exactly  the  opposito  part  of  the 
orbit  from  what  he  was  on  the  21st  of  December — in- 
deed, no  less  than  1  i)0,000,(»OU  of  miles  from  it,  or  twice 
the  distance  of  the  earth  from  tho  sun.  This  change  of 
position  with  rt'latioii  to  celestial  obji-ets  is  calliMl  paral- 
lar.  Now,  it  has  bei-n  found  that  Sirius  is  im  distant, 
that  an  angle  formed  kN>tween  it  and  the  two  extremities 
of  tho  earth's  orbit  is  too  small  to  be  ap])reciated. 
W'vrv  it  811  much  as  one  second,  or  the  3f!0Uth  p.irt  of  a 
degree,  it  couhi  lie  appreciated  by  the  nice  instruments 
we  now  p<iNM>ss ;  but  it  is  not  even  this.  It  is  hence 
cuncludcil  that  .^irius  must  bt*  at  least  10,000,000,000 
of  miles  diHtant,  however  much  more  I  Supposing  this 
to  be  its  di:<taiiei*,  its  lii»ht  Wfiuld  kike  thn-t*  years  tit  j 
reach  us,  though  travelling,  as  it  diH*s,  at  the  mte  of 
ii^'J.UOO  mik'S  in  a  second  of  time ! 

Jt  is  ascertained  lK>yond  doubt,  th.it  some  stars,  nt 

e  lime  vit^iUc,  and  rfgisti'reil  l»y  aneii'nt  astmnomers, 
are  not  now  to  bf.>  ntHm ;  while  many  instances  are  on 
•fmnttrd  ut  slars  which  have  coim*  into  sight  for  a  time, 

'  ihvti  f^ndualljr  vnuiubvA.     A  hrgc  star  suddeiilv 

»-»  riaiifM  Jl'.',j'VMn  ijeforc  ChrLi^t,  and  attracUnl 
9tioa  '*r  Wpparchntt,  who  was  Iheri'by  induced 
ap  a  catih^'uo  of  mtnrn,  tho  fTrct  ever  inndc. 


In  the  year  3Bf),  a  star  blazed  forth  in  the  eoi 
Aquilla',*  and,  after  remaining  for  three  wecki 
as  the  planet  Venus,  disappeared.  A  star  a] 
the  region  of  the  heavens  between  Opheus  i 
opcia,  in  the  vears  94.%  1*264,  and  1572,  and  i; 
to  be  one  which  comes  within  our  sight  ni 
three  hundred  and  nineteen  years,  or  thereb 
last  appearance,  it  was  very  att«'ntively  obser 
celebrated  Danish  astronttmer  Tycho  Hrahe, 
lished  a  volume  respecting  it.  Its  appearar 
sudden,  that,  in  returning  from  his  laborati 
dwelling-house,  he  found  a  group  of  count 
gnziiij^  at  it,  and  was  satisfied  it  had  not  hv 
quarter  of  the  sky  half  an  hour  before.  1 1 
as  bright  as  Sirius,  and  continued  till  it 
Jupiter  when  brightest,  and  was  visible  nt 
It  disappeared  entirely  about  eighteen  mo: 
being  first  observed.  Another  bright  star 
in  the  constellation  Serpen tarius,  in  ()eti>ber 
remained  for  a  year.  It  is  mentioned  byconi 
writers,  that,  at  the  birth  of  Charles  II.  in  I'm 
star,  never  before  observed,  appeared  in  the 
as  if  to  mark  something  extraordinary  in  tlu 
of  the  child  that  day  ushered  into  exiMtence. 
stances  have  been  noticed  in  still  more  n'O 
but,  U])on  the  whole,  this  is  a  point  in  whiel 
mical  observation  is  defective.  It  seems,  he 
be  clearly  ascertained  that  some,  if  not  all  of 
have  periodical  moti<ins  throughout  si>ace,  s 
rapid  than  others.  In  several  of  the  instan 
the  j>eriod  is  short,  there  is  no  want  of  \hw\\ 
h*dge.  It  has  l>een  ascertained,  for  instance 
stiir  Omicron,  in  Cetus,  has  a  periodical  inov 
cupying  .')34  days.  It  is  seen  as  bright  as  n  f 
second  magnitude  for  about  a  fortnight ;  then 
diminishes  for  three  months,  till  it  becftmoA 
in  whieh  btatc  it  remains  for  five  montlis,  ^ilu 
lieconies  viable,  and  graduiJly  inere.i'^es  till 
its  fonner  brightness,  more  or  less — for  it 
always  reach  the  same  degree  of  lii'itiv. 
Algol,  in  the  constellation  Persons,  eon t inn 
during  a  prriod  of  sixty-two  hours,  when  it 
loses  its  splendour,  and  fnmi  a  star  of  the  se< 
nitude,  is  reduced,  in  three  hours  anil  u  h.i 
fourth ;  after  wliich  it  begins  to  inen.':ist>,  an< 
hours  and  a  half  resumes  its  former  Hze.  ' 
eleven  other  btars  which  exhibit  analog^nis  J>1 
.•>onie  of  thi-in  at  intervals  of  five  hundriil 
which  wt>  niav  Imik  forward  without  anv  daiiL! 
take.  A.»>tronomers  havv  not  yet  made  butlic 
tt'ii>ive  obi!ii-r vat  ions  to  settle  wlictlier  our 
have  any  motion  through  space ;  but  that  it 
a  motion,  has  been  surmised  without  any  ap; 
ft-renee  to  this  branch  of  inquiry. 

Another  variety  in  the  nature  of  these  liin' 
their  being  in  some  instances,  not  xinplr  star 
ajqiear  to  tin*  iiaki^d  eye,  but  a  group  of  two 
evidently,  from  their  inotionM,  form  in;;  on 
The  star  Castor,  one  of  the  Twins,  isfomiil,  w 
ma:;nitii'(l,  to  consist  of  two  star"*,  of  li»-twi'»n 
and  fourth  m.icnitude,  \iithiu  fivt>  si-coiiiN  (a  i 
si^ici-)  <'f  each  othiT.  Sir  William  Hrr«ic 
obhirvations  upon  more  than  ,^00  stars  of 
where  the  distance  U  not  more  than  half  a  mi 
a  viry  small  space);  and  to  this  li'^t  a  fc^n* 
nomer  Ium  added  five  times  th.it  numbt-r.  M< 
ri-ason  to  suppose  th.it,  in  nfi  these  in^it.iiicrs, 
M.irs  is  at  a  great  disUnce  brtiind  the  other, 
they  are  only  brought  togethiT  by  tlie  aci-iib 
pu>)ition.     ^fany  of  the  double  btars  no  doubt 

*  It  m.iy  be  stated  licrr.  In  nntkiT>a1]i-n  nf  m«in*  jti 
plsnatiiinfl  to  K*  ciwn  iiftiTwanN,  tliut  tlic  stAtrv  hc^ 
nKtmiunncrs  mnpiHil  out  iiiti)  ii  MTifw  of  o  n«(i  ILiti  -ru 
btjKvv  (if  ntjiT^,  vikIx  of  will  I']  I  luMrii  the  n.oiic  i>f  •^■t 
otlitT  fbjoci,  :iiA*fHiia  tho  llu;lv,  I'l  tut  llio  Wh.dc, 
riMiiLT,  iH  In  Ji ■mi){t'«U  i^f  ttie  Urvi-k  iii\  itn'lr^v,  \c.  . 
cuUr  ¥\ax  \t\  a  Qun>\v\\avu4v,  \u  \\\e  vtvlcr  i<f  itsi  tk 


ASTRONOMY. 


.tally  Inonght  together ;  but  of  a  great  number 
Ken  fully  aseertained  that  they  are  each  a  eys- 
ith  a  reciprocal  relation  to  each  other.    They 
erefore  called  Binary  Start,    It  is  generally 
ed  that  they  move  roand  each  other  within 
in  time,  and  in  elliptical  orbits ;  the  revolution 
or,  for  instance,  is  supposed  to  be  accomplished 
years ;  of  {  of  Ursa  Major,  in  58}  years ;  of  70 
lei  in  78  years.    In  fact,  there  is  the  same  variety 
branch  of  the  starry  system  as  in  its  other  de- 
ints,  and  the  revolutions  of  the  few  binary  stars 
Eve  been  accurately  survmd  range  from  forty- 
o  twelve  hundred  years.    Several  of  these  dupU- 
ars  have  made  a  revolution  since  they  were  first 
ed,  and  are  now  advancing  in  their  second  period. 
[  Hercules,  was  seen  double,  in  1782,  by  Sir 
m  Herschel;  in  1795,  it  was  hardly  distinguish- 
0  be  double;  in  1802,  it  was  double  no  longer, 
M)  being  eclipsed  by  the  other,  though  a  small 
r  one  was  still  juttins  out  at  the  side  of  the  other ; 
omers  are  now  watching  to  observe  them  once 
Mcome  separate.    Wh^er  one  of  these  stars 
to  the  other  as  a  sun,  or  whether  both  are  suns, 
sther  the  oi^nised  life  with  which  they  are  pro- 
stored,  be  of  a  kind  which  can  endure  a  peipetual 
nd  beat  thrown  from  the  one  to  the  other — or  in 
other  manner  these  immense  worlds  are  put  to 
t  would  be  vain  to  inquire.    One  remarkable 
urity  in  them  is  the  variety  of  tints  apparent  in 
;ht  emitted  by  a  considerable  number  of  them ; 
» accurate  account  has  yet  been  given  of  the  rea- 
this  wonderful  difference  of  colour  in  the  stars, 
haps  the  most  magnifieent  of  all  the  starry  phe- 
la  IS  the  MUkff  Way,    This,  as  is  generally  kuown, 
x>ad  belt,  of  whitish  lustre,  which  stretches  round 
lole  sky,  being  parted  into  two  streaks  for  a  large 
>f  the  circuit.    The  ancients  formed  the  mean 
f  this  light,  that  it  was  the  milk  spilt  by  the  nurse 
reuoy,  one  of  the  deities ;  and  hence  its  name. 
,  examined  by  a  telescope,  it  is  found  to  consist 
ly  of  stard,  ^  scattered  by  millions,"  as  Sir  John 
bel  beautifully  describes  them,  ''like  glittering 
on  the  black  ground  of  the  general  heavens." 
▼eragc  magnitude  of  these  stars  is  about  the  tenth 
(eleventh,  and  hence  their  invisibility  to  the  naked 
It  is  a  vory  remarkable  circumstance,  that,  though 
ars  of  the  larger  magnitudes  arc  scattered  with 
lerablo  equality  over  the  whole  heavens,  there  is 
able  clustering  of  the  smaller  ones  towards  the 
of  this  ring.     Sir  William  Herschel,  by  gauging, 
vere,  the  depth  of  our  starry  system  in  this  and 
parts,  arrived  at  what  he  believed  to  be  an  ap- 
mation  to  the  figure  of  the  s^-stem  itself — namely, 
ungated  cake-shaped  mass,  parting  flat-wise  into 
t  one  particular  part  of  the  exterior  (where  the 
'  Way  is  double),  and  in  which  our  solar  system 
laced  somewhat  nearer  tlic  one  extremity  than 
thcr.     Where  the  distance  between  two  stars  is 
»t  as  we  have  seen,  and  we  can  suppose  the  dis- 
between  all  the  rest  to  be  no  less,  what  must  be 
Qtire  extent  of  this  star-system,  composed  as  it  is 
ilions  of  millions  of  distinct  bodies ! 

^EBUL£. 


ithin  tlie  bounds  of  what  has  here  been  called  the 
system,  great  numbers  of  bodies  have  been  dis- 
red,  which,  from  their  cloud-like  appearance,  are 
i  Xebtiltt.  There  is  one  of  magnificent  appearance 
i  girdle  of  the  constellation  Andromeda,and  another 
more  splendid  in  the  sword-hilt  of  Orion,  both  vi- 
to  the  naked  eye.  Some  of  these  objects  are  of 
irregular  form,  stretching  like  a  fragment  of  semi- 
>cid  membrane  over  the  sky,  with  patches  of  brighter 
er  scattered  irregularly  throughout  their  extent. 
thers,  the  bright  patches  are  of  greater  intensity, 
I  to  have  the  decided  appearance  of  gather inffs  of 
natter  towards  a  particular  point.  Others  there 
in  which  these  bright  parts  seem  nearly  disengaged 
i  the  surrounding  thin  matter,  or  only  bedded  on  a 

i 


slight  badkgrotind  eomposed  of  it.  tn  a  fourth  titM, 
we  see  detached  masses,  approaching  more  or  less  to  a 
spherical  form,  and  with  various  measures  of  compara- 
tive brightness  towards  the  centre,  until  they  resemble 
a  star  with  only  a  slight  5iir  around  it.  It  is  a  new 
and  startling  surmise  of  astronomers,  that  these  are 
examples  of  a  series  of  states  in  which  nebulous  matter 
exists,  during  a  process  forming  it  into  solar  qrstema 
more  or  less  analogous  to  our  own — ^belated  portioxiSy 
so  to  speak,of  the  same  soft  and  diffused  nuUerial,  which, 
countless  ages  ago,  was  condensed  into  the  defined  bodies 
forming  the  remainder  of  our  star-system  1 

There  is  much,  it  must  be  owned,  to  support  this 
hypothesis,  startling  as  it  is.  The  physical  laws  known 
to  operate  in  our  own  solar  system  are  in  jperfect  har- 
mony with  it  It  has  been  shown  that  such  matter,  in 
agglomerating,  would  necessarily  assume  a  spherical 
form,,  just  as  a  drop  of  dew  takes  that  shape  on  the 
point  of  a  thorn,  namely,  by  the  law  of  attraction.  Par- 
ticles of  any  fluid  matter,  flowing  towards  a  centre,  will, 
unless  in  the  extraordinary  circumstances  of  their 
meeting  in  a  direct  line  (circumstances  which  scarcely 
ever  occur),  form  a  whirl  or  vortex.  The  meeting  of 
two  currents  of  the  ocean  forming  a  whirlpool,  or  of 
two  currents  of  air  forming  a  whirlwind,  or  even  such  a 
trivial  and  familiar  phenomenon  as  the  sinking  of  water 
through  a  funnel,  are  examples  of  the  working  of  this 
Uw  of  DUitter.  Hence,  then,  a  rotatory  motion  would 
be  an  almost  unavoidable  result  of  Uie  agglomera- 
tion of  a  mass  of  nebulous  matter.  In  this  we  can,  of 
course,  see  the  origin  of  such  a  motion  as  that  which 
our  sun  is  known  to  have  upon  his  axis. 

And  not  only  are  the  formation  and  movements  of 
suns  to  be  thus  accounts  for,  but  it  has  been  shown 
that  the  same  laws  will  explain  how  a  whole  planetary 
system  may  have  been  made  up.    As  the  process  of 
condensation  in  a  nebular  mass  proceeds,  the  whirling 
motion  must  always  become  more  rapid,  just  as  a  sling, 
when  the  string  is  allowed  to  wind  up  round  our  finser, 
flies  always  the  faster  as  the  string  shortens.    While 
the  rotatory  motion  is  thus  increasing,  the  centrifugal 
force  may  become  too  great  to  permit  the  outer  and 
probably  softer  portion  to  adhere  to  the  mass ;  and  this 
outer  and  softer  portion  will  therefore  be  left  off  as  a 
ring  surrounding  the  principal  mass  at  a  little  distance. 
Other  portions  may  thus  be  successively  detached,  till 
a  considerable  nimiber  of  rings  will  bo  left  encircling 
the  central  mass.    Only  if  the  matter  of  these  rings  be 
of  an  uniform  character,  can  it  be  expected  that  they 
should  continue  as  rings.    Almost  necessarily,  there 
will  be  inequalities  in  their  composition,  causing  them 
to  break  up  into  pieces,  each  of  which,  by  virtue  of 
gravity,  will  then  collapse  into  a  sphere.     A  sphere, 
thus  formed,  must  needs  retain  the  same  revolutionary 
motion  as  the  ring  of  which  it  once  formed  a  part,  and 
at  the  same  time  it  must  acquire  a  rotatory  motion  in 
the  samo  direction.    Thus  we  have  a  set  of  primary 
planets,  the  bodies  of  which  have  only  to  undergo  the 
samo  processes  as  the  central  mass,  in  order  to  throw 
off  satellites.    The  two  rings  which  surround  Saturn 
appear  an  example  of  two  exterior  portions  of  that 
planet  as  yet  not  advanced  from  the  intermediate  state, 
but  which  may  in  time  become  additions  to  the  num- 
ber of  his  satellites.    The  zodiacal  light  may  also  be 
a  residue,  of  extreme  thinness,  of  the  matter  of  which 
our  system  was  formed. 

It  might  be  supposed  that  this  hypothesis,  uigenious 
as  it  is,  could  scarcely  be  stretched  to  account  for 
the  formation  of  solar  systems  in  which  there  are 
two  suns  revolvuig  round  each  other.  But  this  diffi- 
culty is  easily  overcome.  It  has  been  shown  that  the 
nebulous  matter,  in  certain  cases,  may  assume  that 
arrangement.  On  tbe  surface  of  a  flowing  stream,  in 
which  slight  repuWons  of  water  from  tiie  banks  pro- 
duce littlo  eddies,  how  common  is  it  to  see  two  of 
those  miniature  whirlpools  come  within  each  others 
influence,  and  then  go  on  wheeling  round  each  other  i 
precisely  in  that  manner  do  the  two  suns  of  a  binary 
Star  carry  on  their  revolutions,  and  from  circumstanoei 


CHAMBERS'S  INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


Our  own  Btar-Bystem,  mcnneeivmhly  »«8t  as  it  i 
but  an  item  of  the  heavenly  iuTcntary.    Par  beynuc 
boundi,  the  telescope  of  Hentchel  hai  descried  sini 
BystetDB  in  fcreat  uumben,  each  hanging  in  Bome  tc 
»bly  defined  shape  in  the  tobI  empjTcan,  and  e 
eapiblc  of  being  reaolved,  not  uitactl}'  into  stani,t]iough 
these  are  iu  sanie  instances  visible,  but  into  vhat  haF 
been  e^tpressively  called  liar-iliul,  a  collection  ot  amall 
brilliant  particles,  eac)i  of  wliich  would  probably  ap- 
pear a  distinct  BUn  under  a  stronger  power  ot  artificial 
vision.    Obaervationa  have  been  made  upon  these  sfar. 
■j-Btcms  chiefly  in  the  direction  o(  the  thinner  purts  of 
our  own  systeni,  wlicre  the  sky  ia  clearest  of  our  own 
■tars,  and  where  ot  coursu  tlioy  are  most  distinct  from 
other  and  nearer  olijccts.     But  even  in  these  limited 
fields  of  the  eky  ixry  i^at  numbcni  have  been  seen — 
between  lOUO  and  SnOO  in  tlic  Dorthem  licmispbere 
alone — a  number,  we  miut  recollect,  exceeding  tliat  of 
all  the  ordinarily  visible  stars  in  the  some  moiety  of  the 
heavens. 


can  be  made  productive  of  a  degree  of  dnnilnlitf ;  and 
perhaps  it  is  one  end  cf  this  wonderful  arolation  of 
tirmatnents  of  all  orders,  that  there  too  the  taw  of 
Tariety  may  prevail,  and  room  be  found  for  nnfolding 
the  whole  riches  of  the  Almighty."  * 
■•  The  vast  general  distance  of  these  elnaters,  thsir 
distinctness  from  our  own  system,  and  thsir  i«lalivs 
distances,  have  been  determined  by  the  comparative 
powers  of  the  telescopes  employed  in  observing  then. 
Some  of  (hem  are  distant  from  ns  many  thousands  tf 
times  the  distanco  of  Sirius,  tlie  nearest  of  our  own 
Etfrs.  The  astronomer  last  quoted  speaks  of  the  tel». 
scope  representing  us  as  in  the  centre  of  a  apbei^ 
whose  ciroumference  is  35,000  times  as  far  from  ua  n 


Under  this 


m(delini 


tion  of  4he  heavens)  ma;  be 


Ilemote  f^tar-Ex>teui 


jilany  appear  as  ephcrtcal   clusters, 
crowding  of  the  MarJust  towanls  the  centre : 
kind  there  is  a  brilliant  eKunipIc  in  the  con&telhition 
HercuUn.    It  has  been  remarked,  that  in  the  worlds 
about  tlie  centre  of  hucIi  clusters,  the  visible  heavens 
must  be  inconceivahly  brilliant,  though  they  will  I 
no  appearances  rcsunibliiig  our  milky  way.    Thcr 
another  npherical  clatf,  in  which  the  external  parts 
the  most  brilliant :  in  these  cases,  the  visible  heai 
t^  a  world  near  the  centre  will  probably  he  almost 
entirely  composed  of  milky  way.  I'roni  our  earth  tb 
annular  clustcn  ore  presented  in  various  points 
view,  Bume  so  nearly  edgewise,  tliat  we  can  barely  see 
the  long  line  of  (bin  matter  in  the  centre.  There  Li  oiii 
«f  most  peculiar  form,  namely  an  iivul,  with  a  recu- 
larly  formed  space  of  more  brilliant  matter  extending 
across  it  in  something  like  the  form  of  a  dumb-ljcll 
Surprising  (o  n'la(e,  there  ore  more  than  one  bearing 
a  Btrong  n.'Svmblancc  to  tho  form  wliicli  Ir    ' 
•umed  as  that  of  our  own  MaF-syntem,  nt 
tened  mosa,  with  a  brilliant  annular  exti^riur,  panitvg 
flatwise  into  two  at  one  part '.  In  ilie  Mai/etlniiw  cluiidi, 
a  Dthulous  ol'jecl  in  the  southern  hemiaphere,  (brre  is 
one  remote  slar^iystero  (-til  DoradiiB),  describi-d  by  i>ir 
John  llcrselitl  an  "consisting  of  a  number  of  loopo 
nnited  in  a  kind  uf  unclear  centre  or  kncil,  likf  a  hunch 
■/  HIMiu   tlUpmrd  iu  <r/ia(   it  tallrti  a  Irar  Im-n-; 
kuair'    "  We  are,"  saya  an  nslrunomer  who  jHissi'm-s 
eloiiuence  u-ortby  of  his  noble  aeicnco,  "  li<st  in  mute 
Mtonishnient  at  these  cndleui  divofritics  of  chancier 
and  form.   Hut  in  the  api>an-nt  aim  uf  thing*  near  and 
anuiud  ■m,  we  ntay  perhaiis  dinecm  some  purpose 
which  mcli  variety  will  also  sirve.  It  UK!m»  tlie  object 
or  remit  of  known  material  arroitftemcnti,  to  ovuke       .  ... 
rtay  variety  of  creature,  the  comlitimi  of  wIkkc  being  |  M,.I). 


comprehended  all  those  arrangements  which  have  beoa 

— J-  L . for  artificial  representatioD  of  the 

'oriung  of  the  many  mathematical 
problems  of  which  the  heavenly  bodies  are  the  aabjecL 
The  stars,  as  they  appear  in  their  places  on  the  ap- 
parent concave  Bphere  of  the  heavens,  are  rsprvsenled 
proper  armngemenl  on  the  celettial  globe,  whi^  a 
preasly  designed  as  a  miniature  of  that  sphere,  but 
aring  also  the  fanciful  figures  aaugned  to  the  constel- 
ions,  and  the  lines  necessary   for  tho  working  of 
various  problems.  It  is  required  that,  in  the  lirst  place, 

: —  .  brief  description  of  the  terrestrial  globe,  or 

niature  rcpresentJition  of  the  earth. 

,  for  Iho  convenience  of  their  aciene*. 
supposed  certain  lines  to  pasa  through  and  oi 


line  girding  the  globe  in  the  midiUe  is  styled 
the  equator ;  all  to  tho  north  and  south  of  which  are 
respectively  called  the  uorthem  and  southern  hemi- 
spht-res.  The  circuit  of  (he  earth,  both  in  its  girth 
iKtwcen  east  and  west,  and  between  north  and  ootith, 
is  divided  into  3'iO  parts,  called  degrees.  At  the  dis- 
tance of  (wenty-tliree  and  a  lialf  nearly  of  these  degrees 
from  the  ecjuator,  in  both  directions,  are  two  parallel 
lines  called  the  Iropiei,  and  at  the  same  distance  from 
each  pole  is  a  parallel  circle,  styled  in  the  one  ease  the 
arelic,  oud  in  the  otiier  the  dniaretic  circle.  The  space 
between  the  tropics  is  called  the  torrid  Mont,  becanse 
the  sun,  being  alnays  vertical  in  some  part  ot  that 
space,  produces  a  greater  depree  of  bent  than  what  is 
felt  ctscwherc.  Tlie  spaces  between  the  tropica  and 
the  arctic  and  antarctic  circles  are  called  the  Irmperale, 
and  the  spaces  nilhin  these  bitter  circles  the  jrig^ 
Lastly,  n  line  which  cuts  tho  equator  obliquely. 


/     r™p,>  ^■^     CntiDfT 

V 

x„„„    ?«i»*^ 

)■"" 

\,J*»te™i3  r,V^7r       / 

SouOtBile' 
toueliing  upon  opposite  pain(s  of  the  tropics,  b  called 
tho  (clifriii:  The  ecliptic  and  equator  are  called  greater 

rrTiKrcturr  nt  tLe  IlMirmt,  b.r  J.  p.  KkM, 


drdM,  bMMW  they  ent  the  earth  at  the  thickest  puis ; 
the  MMn  we  called  leaser  circles. 

A  aeriea  of  lines  drawn  from  pole  to  pole  over  the 
eaith'i  anrface  (iike  the  divuion  I'jeeof  a  peeled  orange), 
and  cutting  the  eqnator  at  rigLt  angles,  are  called  nu- 
ri^iafulfnunthe  Latin  word  mrriijict,  mid-day)  or  lines 
of  longitude.  Evet7  place  upon  the  earth  is  sapposed 
to  bare  one  of  these  paiaiog  tliroogh  it,  although  only 
2i  are  described  upon  the  terrestrial  globe.  When  any 
one  of  th«e  ii  opposite  the  sun,  it  ia  then  mid-day  or 
tvelve  o'elocic  with  all  the  places  situated  on  tbat  me- 
ridian,  and,  eonaeqaeutly,  midnight  with  those  on  the 
opposite  meridian  on  the  other  siae  of  the  earth.  TIfe 
exact  eitualion  of  a  place  upon  the  earth's  surface,  or 
its  latitude  and  longitude,  is  determined  by  raeans  of 
these  circles.  They  are  all  divided,  as  already  hinted, 
'  into  360  parts,  which  parts  are  called  degrm;  these 
degrees  again  into  60  equal  parts,  called  minutts  ;  the 
minute  into  GO  others,  called  j«;on(/j,  and  so  on.  They 
are  all  indicated  by  certain  signs  placed  behind  the 
figure,  and  near  the  top  of  it — thus,  B°  £'  7"  is  8  de- 
grees, S  minutes,  7  seconds.  A  degree  is  GO  geographical 
miles,  OF  about  G9  Engiidi  statute  miles ;  a  minute  is 
the  GOth  part  of  that ;  and  so  on.  The  latitude  of  a 
place  ia  its  distance  meaiured  in  that  manner  from  the 
equator.  If  it  lies  north  of  that  line,  it  is  in  north  lati- 
tude' ;  if  south  of  it,  in  south  latitude.  There  being  only 
360  degrecB  in  the  drcumfereuce  of  tbe  earth,  and  the 
distance  from  the  equator  to  either  of  the  poles  being 
only  afourthpartof  it,BpUcecanneverhaie  more  than 
90  degrees  of  north  or  sonth  latitude.  The  longitude 
of  a  pUce  is  the  dialance  of  its  meridian  from  another, 
which  is  called  the  first  meridian.  The  first  meridian 
is  quite  arbitnry,  and  it  is  a  matter  of  indiflerence 
through  what  pomt  we  dj«w  it,  provided  it  be  settled 
and  well  known  which  one  we  adopt,  bo  as  to  prevent 
mistakes.  Foreigners  fixed  upon  the  priocipal  obaer- 
vatories  of  their  respectiye  countries.  In  Germany, 
the  iiland  of  Ferm  u  generally  adopted ;  in  France, 
the  observatory  of  Piuis ;  and  in  England,  that  of  Green- 
wich. Longitude  ii  reckoned  either  eaat  or  west  of 
the  first  meridian;  and  100  is  therefore  the  utmost 
degree  of  longitude.  Some  geoeraphers,  howerer, 
reckon  longitude  all  the  way  round  the  globe.  From 
the  sliape  of  the  earth,  which  ia  flat  at  the  poles,  the 
degrees  of  longitude  decrease  as  we  approach  these 
in  either  direction.  In  order  to  measure  latitude,  each 
globe  is  fumislied  wiIliabnssmeridiancirc)e,onwhicii 
the  degrees  are  marked.  Longitude  is  measured  by  a 
umilariy  graduated  circle,  termed  the  artificial  horizon, 
in  which  Sie  globe  is  suspended. 

The  other  great  circle,  called  the  Ecliptic,  ia  divided 
into  twelve  parts,  culled  bieus,  which  bear  the  name 
of  the  conBtcIlations  through  which  this  circle  passes 
in  the  heavens,  as  shall  be  afterwards  explained-  There 
are  other  smaller  circles  which  run  round  the  earth 
(•rallel  to  llio  equator;  these  are  called  paralleb  a/ 
latitude,  because,  being  every  where  at  the  same  dis- 
tance from  the  equator,  tho  latitude  of  every  point  con- 
tained in  any  one  of  tfaem  ia  the  same. 

The  celestinl  globe,  representing  that  apparent  outer 
■phere,  the  ^y,  in  the  centre  of  winch  the  earth  seems 
•Di>pended,ia  marked  by  lines  aimilar  to  those  upon  the 
IfiTcelrial  globe,  each  line  upon  tbe  latter  being  sup- 
posed 10  have  a  corrcBponding  lino  opposite  to  it  in  the 
heavens.  Thns,  the  celestial  sphere  is  divided  into  the 
same  number  of  degrees  as  the  terrestrial.  Tiie  celes- 
tial poles  correspond  to  those  parts  of  the  heavens  to 
which  the  terrestrial  polos  always  point.  The  celestial 
equator  corresponds  also  to  the  terrestrial,  and  is,  like 
it,  every  where  !>U  dcBrera  distant  froni  the  poles.  The 
eqnator  of  the  earth  thus  lies  directly  under  that  of  the 
hravens ;  the  ecliptic  does  exactly  the  same,  and  cuts 
the  former  also  at  an  angle  of  2S  degrees  28  minutes. 

ITie  place  where  the  ecliptic  cuts  the  eouator  at  tbe 
vernal  equinox,  is  called  tbe  first  point  of  Aries ;  and 
txma  this  point  tite  diaUnce  of  all  celestial  bodies  eaB^ 
ward  and  westward  of  it  is  meaaured.  This  ia  called 
their  Tight  anrention,  and  eonesponds  tq  the  terrestrial 


longitude.  Th^  latitude  is  dotermlned  by  their  Ati- 
tance  from  the  eqnator,  and  is  called  their  dtcliaatimi. 
The  declination  of  the  sun  or  other  heavenly  body  ia 
therefore  called  north  or  south  declination,  accor^ng 
to  its  proximity  to  the  north  or  south  pole  of  the  hea- 
vens. Hence  it  follows,  that  when  the  sun's  declination 
ia  10  degrees  north,  he  is  vertical  at  a  place  whose  lati- 
tude ia  iO  degrees  north.  But  the  right  ascensions  do 
not  so  correspond  with  the  longitudes,  simply  because 
the  first  point  of  the  conslellstion  Aries  does  not  col- 
respond  to  the  first  meridian  (Greenwich) ;  and  because 
the  longitudes  are  not  measured  quite  round  as  the 
right  ascensions  are. 

The  sun,  which  is  always  in  the  ecliptic,  has  of  course 
no  latitude,  but  he  passes  through  all  the  degrees  of 
longitude  in  a  year.  When  any  other  celeatiiu  object 
has  tbe  same  longitude  as  the  sun,  it  ie  said  (o  he  in 
conjunction  with  hun ;  and  when  the  difference  of  lon^- 
tude  amounts  to  ISO  degrees,  half  the  circle  of  the  hai- 
vens,  it  ia  said  to  be  in  oppontion  to  him.  Both  these 
terms  are  comprehended  in  that  of  lyzygy,  which, 
when  applied  to  any  celesdal  object,  means  that  it  is 
either  iu  conjunction  or  opposition  to  him.  What  is 
called  an  equitioclial  coture,  is  a  great  c\ 


toUtitial 

■oture  is  a  similar  circle,  which  passes  through  the  sol- 
ititial  points  at  right  angles  to  it.     The  former  colure 
idary  to  t5e  ecliptic,  and  the  latter  a  secondary 


>  both  it 


ndlhef 


and  Libra,  wliere  the  ecliptio  cuts  the  equator. 
Tbe  solstitial  points  are  Cancer  and  Capricorn;  and 
when  the  sun  is  in  either  of  them,  he  is  at  his  Girtheet 
distance  above  or  below  the  equator. 

AllusioD  has  already  been  made  to  the  constelUtions, 
or  fanciful  figures,  marked  on  celestial  globes,  to  aid  in 
distinguishing  the  position  of  the  Btsrs.  The  earliest 
__. ._  , adopted  the  idea  of  thna 


groups  of  atara  to  familiar  terrestrial  objects.  Thus,  a 
group  in  the  northern  part  of  the  sky  beam  some  re- 
semblance to  an  ancient  wain,  or  lo  a  ploufih— as  also 
to  tbe  hinder  part  of  an  animal,  with  its  tail  extended. 
Hence,  it  has  teon  variously  called  the  Ph-gh,  Una 
Major,  or  the  Greater  Bear,  and  Ckarle^i  H'ain— the 
last  term  being  in  honourof  the  illustrious  French  king 
Charlemagne.     (In  ordinary  globes,  Ursa  Major  i* 


CDntli.4Ial!i)li  OrhiD. 


CIIAMBE£tS'S  INFORMATION  FOR  TUE  PEOPLE. 


alone  marked.^  Another  group,  in  the  BOiithGm  heavens, 
conveys  the  ioea  of  a  man^s  figure,  and  has  been  called 
Orion,  from  an  early  Greek  semi-divine  hero  of  that 
name.  Some  of  the  names  of  tlie  constellations  were 
conferred  by  Chaldean  observers  several  hundred  years 
before  our  i*ra :  others  have  been  given  within  tlie  last 
few  ages.  Particular  stars  of  largo  magnitude  also 
bear  )>articnlar  names,  gonerally  Arabic,  having  been 
affixed  by  Arabian  astrouomen,  as  Aldebaran,  Dubbc, 
Alioth,  &c.  Arcturus  and  tlie  group  of  small  ntnn 
called  the  Pleiades,  are  alluded  to  in  tlic  book  of  Job, 
which  is  well  known  to  be  ono  of  the  earlimt  of  the 
scriptural  c(tni]H)sitiou8,  and  probably  not  less  than 
aOUO  years  old. 

Twelve  of  tho  constellations  are  placed  in  that  part 
of  tho  heavens  which  is  opinmite  to  tho  ecliptic  in  the 
terrestrial  globe ;  tliat  in  to  say,  the  plane  of  the  plane- 
tarf  motions,  if  extended  to  the  stars,  would  strike  tlio 
part  occupied  by  these  constellations.  This  part  of  the 
celestial  globe  is  called  the  Zodiac^  and  these  arc  named 
the  Zodiacal  Constellations,  or  more  comnionlv,  the 
SignM  <{/'  the  Zodiae,  The  zodiac  is  a  zone  or  belt,  ex- 
tending eight  or  ten  degrees  on  each  side  of  the  ecliptic. 
It  is  divided  into  twelve  parts,  each  of  thirty  degrees, 
called  the  signs  of  the  zoaiao.  The  names  of  tlio  signs, 
and  the  days  in  which  the  sun  enters  them,  arc  as  fol- 
low:— Spring  tigru — Aries,  the  Run,  Slst  of  March; 
Taurus,  tho  Dull,  li^thof  April;  Gemini,  the  Twins, 
*JUth  of  May.  Summer  sign* — Cancer,  the  Crab,  2l8t 
of  June ;  Li-o,  the  Lion,  2'Jd  of  July ;  Virgo,  tho  Virgin, 
"*2d  of  August.  These  arc  called  northern  signs,  being 
north  of  tho  equator.  Autumnal  tigiu — Libra,  tho 
Balance,  23d  of  September ;  Scorpio,  the  Scorpion,  23d 
of  IK'tober ;  Sagittarius,  the  Archer,  2'2d  of  November. 
jy  inter  signs — Capricomus,  the  Goat,  21  st  of  December ; 
Aiiuarius,  tlie  \l'atcr-bearer,  2Uth  of  January ;  Pisces, 
the  l-'i»hfs,  IViii  of  February.  These  arc  called  south- 
em  signs.  Within  tlie  zodiac  arc  performed  the  revo- 
lutions of  all  the  principal  planets. 


suspended  from  the  point  of  a  thorn  or  blade  of  mm^ 
is  a  familiar  example  of  matter  thus  acting.  If  two 
such  drops  are  brought  close  togetlier,  Uie^  will  unite  s 
a  new  and  oommon  centre  will  be  instantly  estebUshsa 


^^^^^^%^>v»^s#»^%^> 


BIECIIAMCAL  ASTHONOMV. 

It  is  the  province  of  Mcchnnical  Astronomy  to  ex- 
plain the  phytifcal  laws  which  have  produced,  and  wliirh 
hustain,  the  armngcmeutH  of  tho  Ijodics  occu]>ying  space, 
UH  Will  as  nil  the  ^aridUM  results  of  tho  arrangement 
ami  rclationit  of  tlitiMo  IxMiiiH. 

It  may  in  tho  fii^t  place  be  proper  to  explain  what 
is  nit-ant  hy  a  fJifsficai  iatr.  In  the  operations  of  nature, 
certain  rcbult.s  arc*  invariably  observed  to  take  place 
u»  a  eunsifi}iien(*e  of  certain  circumstances.  This  has 
hugt;t>ti'U  tu  tlio  mind  of  man,  that  thero  is  an  order 
in  all  things,  by  virtue  of  which  thoy  are  regulated  to 
thi!  best  general  purp<  ^^eH,  the  authory-hip  of  the  order 
iH-ing  nil  doubt  the  same  as  tho  autlmrhhip  of  matter 
itM'll,  that  in  to  buy,  referable  tu  tho  iJivino  Deing. 
Any  particular  r<-{:ulatifn  wliich  wc  find  imiM>sed  upon 
matter,  we  term  a  Uw  of  matter,  or  a  phybical  law. 

ijiw<«  OP  ATnumoN  and  MuTio:f. 

Wfi  luive  first  to  conaiiler  tlie  laws  bv  virtne  of  which 
j>nrtiries  and  masses  ttf  muttt'r  attrai't  each  ofhtT,  as  far 
as  tlxiie  are  concerned  in  the  province  of  Mechanical 
Astrtintimy. 

I'articles  of  matter,  when  brought  elnso  together,  or 
t\ithin  iuMiifriblo  distanceis  have  a  tendency  to  cohere, 
rr  btick  t(<grt)ii.'r,  and  this  oiierates  in  all  casen,  unlesM 
then?  U*  vyynyitti*  intluenccH  of  BU[>erior  furce.  It  is 
tt-niied  the  attrurtmu  i>/*<*o/<4'»iti/i. 

rarticles  rf  matter  have  also  a  tendency  to  move  or 
be  draw  n  tow  anls  i.ach  other.  This  is  called  the  a/irae- 
tion  of  grtiritatiun,  because  it  is  what  the  weight  or 
gravity  of  an  oWy  et  Jf|)cn(ls  upon. 

Viitifr  ihv  jjjtiurnce  i<f  tlu;  attraction  of  cohesion, 

p.irttr/fm  of  iluid  mattrr,  whin  sujt/wnded  at  a  proper 

disunctf  fn.m  otht-r  o/j/VvM,  arrange  tiiemsoJves  round 

B  ctMtrr,  atid  taAv  a  globular  fvrm.     Ihe  dew-drop, 


for  bothy  and  they  will  resolve  themselves  into  a 
mass  equally  globular  as  before. 

Under  the  mfluence  of  tho  law  of  gravitation,  what 
any  two  masses  of  matter  are  brought  to  a  proper  dia* 
tanee  from  each  other,  they  will,  i?  there  be  no  aofi* 
dent  obstacle,  rush  together,  and  then  remain  in  nnioB. 
We  may  see  this  law  operating  if  we  take  two  limf* 
ments  of  cork,  no  matter  now  smiall,  and  set  them  afloal 
on  the  surface  of  a  cup  of  water.  If  kept  a  lymwittr- 
able  way  apart,  the  imifcdiments  to  their  mutual  attraO" 
tion  arc  too  strong,  and  they  therefore  do  not  raeali 
But,  if  brought  wiUiin  a  short  distance  of  each  othtri 
wc  shall  observe  them  begin  mutually  to  exercise  ■■ 
influence  over  each  other,  and  immediately  they  will 
rush  together,  and  so  remain. 

Material  laws  are  equally  ready  to  act  on  a  larga  ai 
a  small  scale,  and  on  a  small  as  upon  a  Urge  one.  TIm 
same  attraction  of  cohesion,  which  caiuea  the  t«i 
drawn  from  our  eye  by  sympathetic  feeUng  to  be  ronnd| 
produced  the  spherical  form  of  the  vast  orbs  whicb 
people  space.  These,  being  originally  fluid  man«^ 
gathered  themselves  round  a  centre,  by  the  irresistibli 
force  of  tho  law  of  tlie  attraction  of  cohesion.  So  alM 
are  the  pUncts  restrained  in  their  position  regardiM 
the  central  luminary,  by  the  forco  of  the  same  law  a] 
gravitation  which  causes  an  apple  dropping  from  atm 
to  fall  upon  the  ground,  or  two  tea-stalks  floating  ii 
our  evening  cup  to  go  together,  and  range  themsdVai 
as  closely  side  by  side  as  ixMuiblc. 

Wc  have  next  to  consider  tho  laws  which  regulali 
the  motion  of  masses  of  matter. 

A  mass  of  matter  set  in  motion  upon  the  surface  d 
the  eartli,  or  within  tho  compass  of  the  atmosphere,  i» 
variably  comes  sooner  or  later  to  a  stop.  If  we  n>U  i 
ball  along  the  surface,  it  goes  briskly  for  a  while,  tha 
slowly,  and  finally  it  stops  and  remains  at  rest.  Whal 
causes  it  to  stop  is  tlie  resistance  it  meets  with  from  tin 
roughness  of  the  ground,  and  the  opposing  fluid  (atmo< 
sphere^  in  which  it  movos.  It  is  pi-ecisoly  when  « 
much  force  has  acted  in  opposition  to  its  motion,  as  wai 
exerted  in  sc*tting  it  agoing,  that  it  conies  to  a  pauaa 
Were  it  not,  however,  for  this  opposing  force,  tlie  ball, 
once  set  in  motion,  would  travel  on  and  on  for  ever. 

Just  60  the  orbs  of  si^ace,  onco  set  in  motion,  go  oi 
and  on  i>erpetually,  there  being  nothing  wliatewr  ti 
oppose  their  ]>ro;;re»9.  This  applies  as  well  tu  thcii 
spinning  or  rotatory  motion  on  their  axes,  as  to  thei] 
pn^gress  along  their  orbits.  If  a  top  were  si>t  a-spia 
ning  on  a  smooth  marble  tablet,  underneath  tlie  ea 
hauHted  receiver  of  an  air-pump,  it  wuuld  be  found  U 
keep  iu  motion  for  a  far  longer  S|tace  of  time  than  iu  aaj 
ordinary  circumstances,  fur  then  there  would  lie  com 
jiarativcly  little  air  to  give  resistance  tu  itA  rutatimi 
and  the  chief  opposition  would  lie  in  its  friction  wg^'W 
the  tablet.  Could  the  air  be  entirely  drawn  away,  aoi 
the  top  be  made  to  spin  iu  a  state  of  suKpension,  i 
would  be  in  precisely  the  same  circumstances  as  an  ori 
revolving  on  its  axis  iu  si>aee,  and  in  that  case  it  wouk 
never  stop  as  long  as  all  the  circuiubtauce*  remainet 
unaltered. 

Itut  the  orbitual  rovolutions  of  planets  are  cirealai 
— why  should  they  be  Hut  liecauso  these  orbs  an 
under  tho  intluencu  of  both  the  law  of  attraction  aac 
the  laws  of  motion.  Assuming  the  nebular  h^-pothcn 
to  be  true,  the  impulse  which  they  originally  obtaiiiM 
tended  to  throw  them  off  iu  a  direct  hue  into  space,  ii 
the  plane  of  tlie  ecliptic.  But  the  law  uf  attractioi 
prevented  this  result,  and  caused  th«.»m  to  afHmt  I 
circular  course  round  the  parent  orb.  They  were  {vo 
|>clled  by  the  one  cause  (the  centrifugal  or  centre-^nil 
ting  force),  but  restrained  by  another  (the  ccntripalBl 
or  ccntro'seeking  force,  that  is  to  nay,  attraction )b  and 
tlicy  tliervfore  bcttled  into  |iaths  where  the  tau  ianm 
balanced  eacVi  ot\\et. 
i     To  ex\^\aui.    11  %«  Ii&l«  m\^  ca«Ki\ax\iQA::it«K|i 


ASTRONOMY. 


■• 


common  grinding-itonc,  and,  having  first  put  a  few 
pieces  of  ctay  upon  its  rim,  cause  it  to  reTolve  quickly 
m  a  horizontal  manner,  it  will  be  found  that  the  pieces 
of  claj,  one  after  another,  fly  off  in  straight  lines  from 
the  rim.  The  cause  of  this  is,  that  each  particular 
part  of  the  rim  of  the  grinding-stone,  at  every  instant 
of  its  revolution,  is  describing  a  straight-forward  move- 
ment, and  has  itself,  from  the  revolutionary  motion,  a 
tendency  to  go  straight  on,  and  is  only  kept  in  its  place 
by  being  fixed  to  the  rest  of  the  stone.  Every  bit  of 
clay  that  flies  off,  receives,  at  the  instant  of  its  parting, 
the  force  of  the  straight-forward  impulse  which  at  that 
moment  affected  the  part  of  the  rim  where  it  rested ; 
and  hence  its  going  off  in  a  straight  line.  It  is  to  be 
observed,  however,  that  the  earth  immediatelv  begins 
to  act  upon  the  flying  piece  of  cby,  and  draws  it  down- 
wards to  itself  in  a  bending  line,  its  last  movements 
being  in  fact  a  part  of  a  circle.  This  is  the  power  of 
attraction,  which,  in  this  case,  is  exercised  m  much 
greater  force  bv  the  earth  than  by  the  grinding-stone ; 
were  the  erindmg-stone  the  sole  mass  of  matter  near 
by,  and  the  opposing  force  of  the  atmosphere  with- 
diawDy  we  should  see  the  clay  begin  to  fly  round  the 
stone  in  a  circular  course. 

And  this  naturally  brings  us  to  consider  the  com- 
parative powers  of  attraction  exercised  by  different 
objects.    A  large  mass  has  a  much  greater  power  of 
atiraetion  than  a  small  one.    When  two  of'^  unequal 
balk  are  brought  near  each  other,  we  shall  only  be  sen- 
able,  perhaps,  of  the  large  one  dbrawing  the  small  one 
to  it,  and  see  no  attractive  power  in  the  small  one  what- 
ever.   In  reality,  each  mass,  however  snuill  in  com- 
parison, exercises  a  certain  degree  of  attractive  power; 
ind  this  power  will  depend  expressly  upon  its  relative 
lolk  and  density,  according  to  fixed  regulations  of  the 
luccstkind. 

One  great  and  important  law  presides  over  the  at- 
tnction  which  one  mass  exercises  over  another.  This 
Rlates  to  the  distance  between  the  two  masses.  We 
ihall  sappose  two  globes  of  unequal  size.  When  the 
snail  one  is  removed  to  as  great  a  distance  from  the 
Urge  one  as  there  is  space  between  the  surface  of  the 
lar{;e  one  and  its  centre  (that  is  to  say,  the  distance  of 
» pcmi-diametcr  of  the  large  one),  the  attractive  force 
ii  diminished  one-half.  When  it  is  removed  to  twice 
that  distance,  or  two  semi-diameters,  the  attraction  is 
diminished  to  a  fourth.  When  it  is  removed  to  the 
diiUince  of  three  scnii-diameters,  the  force  is  lessoned 
tu  a  ninth ;  to  four  semi-diameters,  a  sixteenth ;  to  five, 
I  twenty-fifth,  and  so  on ;  the  diminution  being  always 
as  the  fiquares  of  the  amount  of  semi-diameters  of  dis- 
tance, or  these  sums  multiplied  by  themselves.  The 
Qcon  is  distant  from  the  earth  sixty  of  tho  eartlfs 
Kmi-diameters ;  consequently,  the  attractive  power 
exercised  by  the  earth  over  tne  moon  is  only  a  3t>0Utli ' 
part  of  what  it  would  exercise  at  its  surface. 

In  the  n* volution,  then,  of  a  planet  round  the  sun  and 
of  a  Kitellite  rountl  a  planet,  thero  are  various  forces 
at  work,  all  of  them  in  tho  nicest  proportion  to  each 
other,  and  to  the  mass  of  each  body.  There  is  first 
the  amount  of  motion  resulting  from  the  original  im- 
pulse ;  then  the  amount  of  attraction  exercised  by  the 
central  and  larger  over  the  smaller  orb — the  one  pull- 
ing ontwanh  and  the  other  pulling  inwards,  but  both 
in  union  attended  with  the  result  of  a  circular  or  revo- 
hktionary  motion. 

Gravity  has  not  tho  same  force  at  all  parts  of  the 
earth's  surface.  At  tho  equator  tho  centrifugal  force 
prodaced  by  the  rotating  motion  is  greatest ;  it  de- 
clines in  both  directions  towards  the  poles.  In  pro- 
fportion  as  the  centrifugal  force  is  greater,  the  attrac- 
tive power  of  the  mass  of  the  earth  is  less,  for  the  first 
of  these  forces  is  directly  counteractive  of  tlie  other. 
There  is  of  course  least  attractive  power  at  the  equa- 
tor ;  and  bodies  are  there  drawn  with  less  force 
towards  the  centre  of  the  earth  than  would  be  found 
to  be  the  case  clsewliere.  Yet  this  diiTerence  is  not 
great,  for  even  at  the  equator  tho  attractive  force  is 
•88  times  that  of  the  ci  ntrifuzal.    Neither  does  the 


difference  tell  in  the  weighing  of  objects,  for  in  that 
ease  two  equivalents  are  used,  and  if  a  certain  object 
is  lighter,  so  also  is  the  weight  put  into  the  opposite 
scale.  The  difference  was  first  detected,  in  consequence 
of  pendulum  clocks  being  found  to  go  slower  as  they 
were  brought  towards  tropical  latitudes.  It  was  ascer- 
tained that  the  pendulum  of  a  clock  which  went  right 
at  London,  required  to  be  one-eighth  of  an  inch  shorter 
(by  which  means  its  motion  was  accelerated)  when  it 
was  placed  upon  the  equator.  This  effect,  however,  ia 
not  altogether  owing  to  the  increase  of  centrifugal  force, 
but  partly  also  to  &e  greater  distance  of  the  equator 
from  the  centre.  And  it  was  from  a  speculation  as  to 
the  slower  movements  of  pendulums  at  the  equator^ 
that  Sir  Isaac  Newton  first  conceived  the  idea  of  the 
spheroidal  form  of  the  earth,  which  ho  ascertained  to 
be  of  less  diameter  at  the  poles  than  at  the  equator,  aa 
229  is  to  230,  or  by  twent^'-six  miles. 

The  orbits  of  the  planets,  it  has  been  already  seen, 
are  not  strictly  circles,  but  rather  ellipses,  the  sun  be- 
ing in  each  case  placed  in  one  of  the  foci,  that  is,  the 
centre  of  one  end  of  the  ellipse.  How  should  this  cir- 
cumstance affect  the  revolutionary  motion !  It  might 
be  supposed  that,  when  the  planet  came  to  the  part  of 
its  coarse  where  it  is  nearest  to  the  sun,  the  attractive 
force  would  be  greater,  and  that  some  derangement 
might  take  place.  But  this  is  not  the  case.  At  that 
part  of  the  course  the  planet  moves  faster  than  else- 
where, and  thus  baflSes  the  greater  attractive  force. 
This  phenomenon  is  particuLurly  apparent  in  comets, 
which  have  so  eccentric  an  orbit.  These  bodies  move 
with  inconceivably  greater  speed  when  near  the  sun 
than  in  the  remote  parts  of  their  orbits. 

It  was  a  discovery  of  tho  Crerman  astronomer  Kepler, 
in  the  seventeenth  century,  that,  notwithstanding  the 
increased  speed,  a  revolving  orb  goes  over  exactly  tho 
same  amount  of  its  circuit  as  when  it  moves  more 
slowly.  Suppose  a  multitude  of  lines  radiating  from 
the  sun,  at  equal  distances  from  each  other,  the  orb 
would  bo  found  to  cross  from  one  to  another  of  these, 
in  exactlvthc  same  time,  when  it  vesis  farthest  from  the 
sun  as  wucn  it  was  ?icarcAt,  In  scientific  language,  it 
describes  equal  areas  in  equal  times. 

Another  discovery  of  Kepler  estiiblishcJ  that  thero 
is  a  relation  between  the  times  respectively  required 
by  tho  planets  for  their  revolutions,  and  their  various 
distances  from  the  sun.  At  a  first  glance,  we  arc  struck 
by  tho  fact  that  the  periods  of  revolution  increase  more 
than  iu  proportion  to  tho  distances.  For  example,  the 
period  of  Mercury  is  about  88  da^-s,  and  that  of  the 
Earth  365,  being  in  proportion  as  1  to  4.15  (or  about 
4  l-7th),  while  their  di^tancep,  respectively  37,000,000 
and  05,000,000  of  miles,  arc  in  the  less  proportion  of  1 
to  2.56  (or  a  little  more  than  2^) ;  and  a  bimilar  remark 
holds  good  in  every  instance.  If  we  take  the  squares 
of  the  distanced,  we  arrive  at  nothing  satisfactory,  for 
it  considerably  exceeds  tho  proportion  of  tho  periods. 
If,  however,  we  take  tho  squares  of  the  periods  of  two 
planets,  we  find  they  arc  in  exactly  tho  same  propor- 
tion to  each  other  as  the  rulics  of  the  mean  distances. 
Some  may  find  a  difficulty  in  understanding  the  nature 
of  this  calculation ;  but  its  ingenuity  and  its  results 
form  one  of  tho  highest  boasts  of  astronomical  science. 
•*  When  we  contemplate,"  says  Sir  John  Ilerschel, "  the 
constituents  of  tho  planetary  system  from  the  point  of 
view  which  this  relation  aflbrds  us,  it  is  no  longer  mere 
analogy  which  strikes.us — no  longer  a  general  resem- 
blance among  them,  as  individuals  independent  of  each 
other,  and  circulating  about  the  sun,  each  according  to 
its  own  peculiar  nature,  and  connected  with  it  by  its 
own  peculiar  tie.  The  resembhmce  is  now  perceived  to 
be  a  true  family  likeness ;  they  are  bound  up  in  one 
chain — intcnvuven  in  one  web  of  mutual  relation  and 
harmonious  agreement — subjected  to  one  pcn'odine  in- 
fluence, which  extends  from  the  centre  to  the  farthest 
limitsof  that  greatsystem,  of  which  all  of  them,  tlio  earth 

included,  must  henceforth  be  regarded  as  members."* 
♦  Treatise  on  Astro&-  n-y,  l>?a 


CHAMBERS'S  INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


The  Bolar  flystem,  though  composed  of  many  differ- 
ent masses  distant  from  each  other,  is  to  be  considered 
with  respect  to  other  masses  as  one'tnasg,  having  a 
centre  of  gravity,  by  which  its  position  with  respect  to 
other  masses  is  regulated.  The  nearest  stars  no  doubt 
exercise  the  force  of  gravitation  upon  it,  so  as  to  keep 
it  in  its  position  ;  and  it  also  acts  in  the  same  way  upon 
them.  It  is  therefore  not  strictly  correct  to  speak  of 
the  soUr  system  or  any  part  of  it  as  suspended  in  space, 
for  that  term  implies  a  hanging  from  a  fixed  point.  It 
is  in  reality  kept  at  its  place  oy  attractive  influences 
exerted  all  round  it  by  other  masses.  In  like  manner, 
we  are  to  suppose  our  star-cluster  as  poised  by  the  same 
forces  in  the  midst  of  other  clusters  ;  and  these  again 
poised  by  others — an  idea  which  leads  us  on  and  on 
through  the  fields  of  infinity,  till  the  mind  loses  itself 
in  an  effort  beyond  its  finite  powers,  and  pauses  con- 
tented to  wonder  and  adore ! 

DIURNAL  A>'D  ANNUAL  UOnON  OF  THE  EA&TH. 

The  earth  is  to  be  considered  as  a  globe  of  nearly 
8000  miles  in  diameter,  performing  a  rotatory  motion 
on  its  axis  once  every  twenty-four  hours.  This  motion 
is  at  the  rate  of  1042  miles  an  hour  to  places  at  the 
equator,  but  only  644  miles  at  London,  and  a  gradually 
diminishing  amount  in  places  nearer  to  the  poles. 

From  the  situation  of  the  earth  with  respect  to  the 
sun,  it  necessarily  follows  that  only  one-half  of  its  sur- 
face should  be  exposed  at  a  time  to  the  light  and  heat 
diffused  from  that  body.  This  is  the  case  with  all  the 
planets.  When  any  one  part  of  the  earth  is  presented 
to  the  sun,  it  is  day  at  that  part,  and  all  the  other 
heavenly  objects  arc  lost  in  the  blaze  of  the  great  lumi- 
nary. When,  on  the  contrary,  any  part  is  averted  from 
the  sun,  it  is  dark  at  tliat  part,  and  tne  light  of  the  stars 
is  allowed  to  tell  upon  our  organs.  Each  part  is  thus 
brought  once  every  twenty-four  hours  towards  the  sun  ; 
in  short,  this  is  the  cause  of  what  we  familiarly  know 
as  day  and  night. 

There  b  a  minute  difference  between  the  citfil  or  legal 
day  and  what  is  called  the  sidereal  day.  The  entire  orb 
of  the  earth  in  reality  revolves  in  23  hours,  56  minutes, 
4  seconds,  or  3  minutes,  56  seconds,  less  than  24  hours. 


This  is  called  a  sidereal  day,  because  the  earth  is  then 
in  the  same  relation  to  the  stars  as  it  was  the  day  before. 
The  fixed  stars  are  so  immensely  distant  from  our 
earth,  that  its  whole  orbit  is  in  respect  to  them  but  a 
point ;  so  that  no  sensible  difference  is  produced  by  its 
revolving  round  the  sun.     But  the  sun  being  much 
nearer  us,  any  movement  made  by  the  earth  can  be 
appreciated.    The  time  which  elapses  from  the  sun's 
being  on  the  meridian  of  any  place  to  its  returning  to 
the  same  spot  next  day,  is  exactly  24  hours,  and  is 
called  an  astronomical  day.    The  natural  day  would 
always  be  the  same  as  the  sidereal  day,  if  the  earth  had 
no  other  motion  than  that  upon  its  axis.  But  in  the  same  - 
time  that  it  has  performed  one  of  its  daily  revolutions, 
eastward,  it  has  also  advanced  about  a  degree  west-i- 
ward,  or  in  the  opposite  direction,  which  is  the  course 
it  takes  round  the  sun  ;  so  that,  before  the  sun  can 
shine  exaetly  upon  the  same  meridian,  the  earth  mus^ 
make  up  as  it  were  its  lee-way,  and  this  it  does  in  3 
minutes,  56  seconds,  the  difference  of  time  between  a 
natural  and  sidereal  day.    If  the  earth,  then,  had  no 
other  than  its  diurnal  motion,  we  should  have  366  days 
in  the  year. 

When  any  spot  on  earth  comes  directly  opposite  to 
the  sun,  it  is  noon  at  that  spot,  and  at  every  place  in 
the  same  longitude.  At  the  same  moment,  it  is  an 
hour  before  noon  at  the  meridian  of  longitude  fifteen 
degrees  to  the  west  of  the  same  spot,  and  an  hour  ear- 
lier for  every  fifteen  degrees  farther  to  the  west ;  be- 
cause, as  the  earth  moves  from  west  to  east,  it  requires 
so  much  time  to  bring  those  places  to  the  same  pHointy 
namely,  opposite  to  the  sun.  In  like  manner,  it  is  an 
hour  after  noon  for  every  fifteen  degrees  to  the  east- 
ward of  the  spot  where  it  is  noon,  because  at  those 
places  the  sun  has  already  been  for  so  many  hours 
past  meridian.  Thus  the  hour  of  the  day  varies  in 
every  part  of  the  globe  where  the  longitude  or  meridian 
line  IS  different  When  it  is  twelve  o'clock  noon  with 
us  in  any  particular  part  in  Britain,  it  will  be  twelve 
o'clock  at  midnight  in  a  corresponding  point  on  the 
opposite  side  of  the  globe,  near  New  South AVales  ;  and 
the  intermediate  hours,  sooner  or  Utcr,  will  all  lie  in 
the  countries  between  these  two  points,  exactly  accord- 
ing to  their  position  or  degrees  of  longitude. 


lUostratkm  of  tbc  Seasons. 


The  earth  is  at  a  mean  distance  of  95,000,000  of 
miles  firom  the  sun,  and  performs  its  revolution  round 
him  in  a  sidereal  year,  which  is  365  days,  6  hours,  9 
minutes,  1 1  seconds,  mean  solar  time.  The  earth  tra- 
vels at  the  rate  of  68,000  miles  per  hour.  Its  orbit  is, 
M  already  stated,  not  a  circle,  but  an  ellipse,  the  sun 
being  situated  in  one  of  the  foci,  that  is,  not  in  the  centre, 
hot  near  one  of  the  ends  of  the  oval-shaped  figure. 
Neither  does  the  earth  go  round  the  sun  in  an  upright 

««rpcodieaUr  position ;  its  axis  is  slanting  or  obliqae. 
degree  of  obliquity  is  23  degrees  28  minutes.    The 

12 


points  at  which  the  ecliptic  cuts  the  equator,  are  called 
nodes:  the  period  of  time  at  which  it  does  this,  the 
equinoxes  (a  Latin  term,  signifying  equal  nighti^  for 
the  days  and  nights  are  then  of  equal  length  all  over 
the  world).  In  consequence  of  this  obliquity,  during 
one  part  of  the  earth's  course  the  north  pole  is  turned 
towards  the  sun,  and  the  south  is  dark ;  and  during 
another  part  of  its  course,  the  south  pole  is  turned  to 
the  sun,  and  the  north  is  dark  ;  and  this  is  the  cause  of 
the  difference  of  seasons,  which  will  be  better  undeiw 
stood  by  referring  to  the  above  figure. 


ASTRONOMY. 


THB  SEASONS. 

Let  S  represent  the  sdii,  and  A  B  C  D  the  eaiih  at 
'Various  places  of  its  annual  circuit ;  when  the  earth  is 
^  "E  B  or  D,  these  are  the  periods  of  the  equinox,  when 
't  lie  line  of  the  equator  intersects  or  cuts  through  the 
1  i  ne  of  the  ecliptic.  At  this  period,  one-half  of  the  globe 
a  » illuminated  from  pole  to  pole,  or  there  is  over  aU  the 
«5arth  an  equal  day  and  night  of  twelve  hours.    But 
"^hen  the  earth  has  proceeded  to  A,  the  pole  or  axis 
^till  keeping  the  same  position,  or  pointing  to  one  par- 
tJcnlar  place  in  the  starry  heaTens,  it  wul  be  turned 
nore  directly  from   the  snn;  a  greater  proportion 
of  his  rays  will  shine  on  any  particular  spot  of  the 
sonthem  half  of  the  globe,  and  the  period  of  day,  or 
sunlight,  will  exceed  that  of  darkness  by  the  proportion 
of  the  light  and  shade  parted  in  the  circle  of  the  earth. 
It  will  Im  observed,  also,  that  within  the  circle  of  the 
Muth  pole,  the  sun  will  shine  continually  as  the  earth 
revolves  on  its  axis,  or,  in  short,  to  the  inhabitants  of 
that  Dart  of  the  globe  the  sun  will  never  set  for  several 
montW    When  the  earth  has  proceeded  on  to  D,  one- 
half  of  its  annual  course  is  finished,  or  this  is  the  spring 
equinox,  or  equal  day  and  night.    At  C,  again,  the 
earth  has  arrived  at  our  longest  day  in  summer,  when 
the  axis  is  turned  to  the  sun,  and  the  regions  around 
the  pole  are  in  the  light  for  a  greater  period,  while 
darimesB,  or  nisht,  prevails  for  a  less.    It  will  be  seen, 
too,  that  now  the  pole  and  circle  around  it  revolve  in 
perpetual  light ;  or  to  the  inhabitants  of  that  region, 
the  sun  never  sets  for  some  months,  but  they  have  one 
continued  and  uninterrupted  day.     At  the  other,  or 
fouth  pole,  the  same  changes  take  place,  only  matters 
art  re  versed — ^there  it  is  summer  while  we  have  winter, 
tnd  the  winter  of  the  north  pole  is  the  summer  of  the 
•oQth.    In  the  middle  regions  of  the  earth,  or  around 
the  equator,  the  sun's  place  does  not  suffer  a  very  great 
change ;  and,  accordingly,  there  the  heat  is  nearly  of 
the  same  intensity  all  the  year  through ;  and  the  leugth 
(if  their  days  and  nights  is  nearly  equal,  or  nearly  the 
Bunv  as  at  the  periods  of  the  equinoxes.   But  the  orbit 
in  which  the  earth  travels  round  the  sun  is  not  an 
exact  circle ;  it  i.<(,  as  wc  have  already  mentioned,  an 
ellipse,  and  the  sun  is  placed  near  one  end  of  it,  as  at 
the  nnall  circle  and  letter  S.     In  consequence  of  this 
circumstance,  the  sun  is  much  nearer  us  at  one  period 
of  the  year  tlian  another,  and  this  happens  in  our  win- 
ter ;  accordingly,  the  sun  appears  about  one-thirtieth 
part  Iarp;er  in  January  than  in  June.     But  in  propor- 
tion as  the  earth  approaches  in  her  orbit  to  the  sun,  her 
nr»:ion  is  quickened,  and  slie  passes  over  the  winter 
half  year  in  nearly  eight  days'  less  time  than  the  sum- 
mer,   it  is  principally  from  this  circumstance,  as  well 
as  the  shorter  period  of  the  day,  that  although  the  sun 
be  nearer  us  in  winter,  and  consequently  his  power  of 
imparting  heat  greater,  yet  the  actual  quantity  imparted 
I     ii^  on  the  whole,  much  less  in  the  one  season  than  the 
crtljcr.    We  liave  Kiid  that  the  north  pole  of  the  earth 
aUays  points  to  a  p:irticular  spot  in  the  heavens ;  this 
is  not,  strictly  speaking,  correct ;  the  pole  or  axis  makes 
a  circle  round  the  centre  of  the  axis  of  the  ecliptic  in  a 
JoD^  period  of  years,  and  it  is  this  motion  that  gives 
ri-^  to  the  precession  of  the  e<juinoxes,  which  will  be 
afterwards  described  under  that  title. 

AIIKUIIATION  OF  LIGHT. 

Although  the  most  convincing  proof  of  the  earth's 
orbitual  motion  is  not  to  be  found  in  any  circumstance 
of  which  the  seuKcs  can  take  immediate  cognisance,  but 
ia  atfarded  by  tiic  full  development  of  the  planetary 
■jstcm,  there  is,  however,  one  direct  proof  of  it  in  a 
fiieiiomenon  discovered  by  Bradley,  an  illustrious  astro- 
Bomer.  It  is  called  titc  aberration  of  light,  and  is 
manifested  by  a  small  difference  between  the  apparent 
and  true  places  of  a  star,  occasioned  by  the  motion  of 
light  combined  with  that  of  the  earth  in  its  orbit.  Vision, 
h  is  well  known,  arises  from  rays  of  light  proceeding 
from  any  object,  and  entering  the  eye ;  and  we  see  the 
object  in  the  direction  in  which  the  rays  have  come.  If  i 

13 


both  the  body  givmg  forth  light  and  that  one  which  re- 
ceives it  be  at  rest,  the  former  will  be  seen  in  its  true 
{ilaco,  at  least  in  so  far  as  aberration  is  concerned ;  but 
et  either  of  the  bodies  move,  and  this  will  not  be  the 
case.  In  order  to  render  this  plain,  suppose  a  shower 
of  hail  to  fall  perpendicularly  upon  a  number  of  tubes 
— say  the  pipes  of  an  organ ;  if  the  organ  remain  sta- 
tionary, the  hailstones  will  descend  sheer  from  the  top 
to  the  bottom,  without  any  deviation  right  or  left ;  but 
move  the  organ  in  any  direction,  and  they  will  strike 
the  side  opposite  to  the  direction  in  which  the  motion 
is  made.  Now,  it  is  just  in  this  way  that  the  eye  misses 
the  perpendicular  ray,  and,  meeting  an  oblique  one,  re- 
ceives an  impression  that  the  star  lies  in  that  direction. 
The  object  thus  appears  displaced,  and  the  amount  of 
displacement*  is  aberration.  The  earth  travels  at  the 
rate  of  about  nineteen  miles  per  second,  and  therefore 
is  every  instant  changing  its  direction.  Time  is  also 
occupied  by  light  in  traversing  space,  which  it  does  at 
the  amazing  rate  of  102,000  miles  per  second ;  so  that 
also  requires  to  be  calculated  for  by  astronomers.  The 
effect  of  aberration  is  to  make  a  star  apparently  de- 
scribe a  small  ellipse  in  the  heavens,  in  the  centre  of 
which  it  would  be  seen  if  tlie  earth  were  motionless. 
The  reader  must  carefully  distinguish  between  aberra- 
tion and  refraction ;  their  effects  are  the  same — namely, 
to  displace  the  ray-projecting  object — but  they  proceed 
from  very  different  causes.  Besides  these  corrections 
which  astronomers  have  to  make  in  their  calculations, 
there  is  another,  resulting  from  what  is  called  parallax, 
which  may  be  as  well  introduced  in  this  place. 

PARALLAX. 

The  word  parallax,  in  its  general  signification,  de- 
notes change  of  place ;  but  in  astronomical  books  it 
has  a  conventional  meaning,  and  implies  the  difference 
of  apparent  positions  of  any  heavenly  luminary  when 
viewed  from  the  surface  of  the  eartli  and  from  its 
centre.     The  centre  of  the  earth  is  the  general  station 
to  which  all  astronomical   observations  are  referred; 
the  situation  of  a  heavenly  body,  observed  from  the 
surface  of  the  earth,  is  called  the  apparent  place ;  and 
that  at  which  it  would  be  seen  from  tlie  imaginary  place 
of  observation  at  the  centre  of  the  earth,  the  true  or 
mean  place.     Hence  the  altitudes  of  the  heavenly  bodies 
are  depressed  by  parallax,  wliich  is  greatest  at   the 
horizon,  and  decreases  as  the  altitude  of  the  object  in- 
creases.    This  may  be  rendered  very  plain,  by  suppos- 
ing that  two  persons  placed  individually  at  the  end  of  a 
straight  line,  look  at  a  candle  removed  at,  say,  100 
yards'  distance  from  them.  It  is  evident  that  the  burn- 
ing body  will  appear  to  be  projected  upon  the  wall  of 
an  apartment,  or  any  other  background,  at  very  diffe- 
rent positions  to  each  of  the  spectators.     The  angle 
which  this  difference  of  position  makes  is  similar  to 
parallax.      The  farther  they  remove  from  the  light, 
allowing  them  still  to  remain  at  the  same  distance  from 
each  other,  the  more  obtuse  tlie  angle  would  become, 
and  the  less  the  parallax.     Thus,  the  fixed  stars,  being 
so  far  removed  from  us,  when  viewed  from  any  two 
positions  upon  the  carth*s  surface,  are  seen  at  the  same 
place  upon  the  celestial  sphere,  and  hence  have  no  jier- 
ceptible  parallax.     It  is  different,  however,  with  the 
luminaries  belonging  to  our  system ;  and  by  this  means 
astronomers  have  been  enabled  to  e.^tiniute  the  quantity 
of  space  which  separates  us  from  them.     Vov  a  com- 
plete account  of  tJie  means  by  which  this  is  accom- 
plished, wc  must  refer  the  reader  to  more  elaborate 
treatises  than   the  present.     A  general  and  correct 
enough  idea  of  it  may  be  formed  from  the  familiar  ex- 
ample we  have  given.     In  the  same  manner,  sup]»ose 
two  obsen'ers,  one  in  the  northern  the  other  in  the 
southern  hemisphere,  at  stations  on  the  same  meridian, 
observe  on  tlie  same  day  the  meridian  altitudes  of  the 
sun's  centre.     **  Having  thence  derived  the  apparent 
zenith  distances,"  says  Sir  J.  Herschel,  whose  lan- 
guage would  be  deprived  of  clearness  were  it  abridged, 
*'  and  cleared  them  of  the  effects  of  refraction,  if  the 
distance  of  the  sun  were  equal  to  that  of  ihe  fixed  stars. 


CHAMBERS'S  INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


the  ram  of  C.e  zenith  distAnees  tfan§  found  would  be 
preciMly  eqaal  to  the  sum  of  the  latitudes  nortii  and 
south  of  the  places  of  obter^'ation ;  for  the  sum  in 
question  would  then  be  e(}ual  to  the  meridional  distance 
of  the  stati'-ns  acrm^s  tho  equator.  But  the  effect  of  the 
parallax  bein;  in  UvAi  cases  to  increase  the  apparent 
zenith  distances,  their  observed  sum  will  be  gjeatcr 
than  the  sum  of  the  latitudes  by  the  whole  amount  of 
the  two  parallaxes.  Thi<i  ancle,  then,  is  obtained  by 
subduct  in;;  tho  «um  of  the  latitudes  from  tliat  of  the 
zenith  dt»i.ince ;  and  thi^  once  determined,  the  hori- 
z<mtal  parallax  is  easily  fnund,  bydiiiding  the  angle  so 
determined  by  the  sum  of  the  sifnis  of  the  two  lati- 
tudes.^ It  may  be  obscrred,  that  the  an(;les  are  deter- 
mined by  means  of  rery  nice  instruments.  The  paral- 
lax thu4  obtained  is  called  the  rfai/jr  or  geocentric,  in 
coDtradiMinction  to  tho  annual  or  heliocentric,  by 
which,  in  ceneral,  is  understixnl  the  difTerencc  of  place 
of  a  hearriilr  bi>«ly,  as  seen  from  the  eartli  and  from 
the  fun :  iu  particuhr,  howercr,  it  denotes  the  angle 
formed  by  tw.;  linos  frL>m  the  ends  of  the  diameter  of 
the  earth's  orl  it  to  a  Axed  »tar,  which,  as  we  hare 
alreailv  rib«ervcd,  from  tho  immense  distance  of  the 
Litter,  is  inappreciable.  S«.'nie  idea  of  the  importance 
of  parallax  may  be  Obtained  fmni  the  fact,  that  befwo 
the  »un*s  n'as  determined,  the  distance  of  that  luminary 
from  us  vi-as  not  estimated  at  within  13,000,000  of  miles 
r>f  its  true  amount.  Iia  pnrallax  l«,  of  course,  a  very 
minute  quantity,  cnly  8''  0. 


an  anomalistic  year,  it  mtist  describe  a  farth 
11 "  8  to  arrive  at  its  oripnaJ  position  in  perih< 
latter  having  moved  forward  to  that  amount 
doing  it  occupies  4'  39"  7,  which  must  be  add 
sidereal  period,  nudJng  the  anomalistic  year  3( 
hours,  13  minutes,  49  seconds,  3,  in  length, 
periixis  have  their  uses  in  astronomy ;  but  tl 
which  maniund  are  most  particularly  interest 
tropical  year,  or  that  on  which  the  seasons  dej 
which  is  a  compound  phenomenon,  dependin 
and  directly  on  the  annual  revolution  of  the  ear 
the  sun,  but  subordinatelv  also,  and  indirect] 
rotation  round  its  own  axis. 


MEASmOIDrT  OF  TIXE. 

Aliliough  the  sidereal  day,  from  its  uniformit 
adapted  for  astronomical  purposes,  yet  it  is 
sufficiently  marked  for  tho  ordinary  wants  of  ! 
person  but  an  astronomer  ever  attends  to  the 
tion  of  A  star ;  on  tliis  account,  ths  diurnal  r 
the  sun  to  the  same  meridian  has  been  un 
adopted  as  the  measure  of  time ;  and  this  is 
eivU  day.  Most  nations  reckon  tho  beginning 
day  from  midnight,  but  astronnmers  count  fn 
to  noon.    The  dav  thus  determined  is  called  t 

■ 

nomical  or  solar  day,  and,  being  regulated  by 
motion  of  the  sun,  the  time  which  is  measunv 
called  true  or  ap{iarent  time.  Two  causes  co: 
render  astmnomical  da^n  unequal ;  tirst,  the 
velocitv  of  the  sun  in  his  orbit,  and,  sec^md,  tlie> 
OF  STLiR,  SIPCI^1.^  AND  ANOMALisnc  TtAM.  ^f  ^^c  'ecliptic.    A  mean  a.trv>ui,mical  day,  «  h: 

Thc-n^  art-  three  dirfirent  pi*riods  at  which  the  sun  .  dependent  of  any  cau.*>os  of  inequality,  has  been 
may,  in  diiTt-rcnt  S4-nses  bt;  Mid  tu  n-:uni  to  the  same  '  by  astronomers  introducing  into  the  s\-8tcni  t 
pifriiiun — when  he  rt  turns  to  the  same  equinox  at  which  ;  ginary  suns.  These  two  tictitiuus  bmlies  are  i 
ite  was  b<f'>n*;  when  he  returns  to  the  fame  point  in  I  to  move  uniformly,  the  first  in  the  ecliptic,  tit 
his  rrlit.  or  the  ecliptic;  and  wheu,  bein:;  in  perigee  ■  in  the  equator;  and  as  tho  circltfs  are  both  ec 
(ira^t  dii^tance  from  the  earth),  or  apt''£;ee  (farthest  dis-  j  actual  motion  of  each  of  tlie  bodies  is  equal, 
tance  fn  i:i  the  earth),  he  comes  back  to  either  again ;  \  desirous  of  studying  this  part  of  the  subject,  v 
or,  tkhich  i«  theaame  thing,  when,  having  been  at  a  given  |  recommend  a  penual  of  the  article  Astronom 
distance  from  any  of  these  points,  he  returns  to  the  i  seventh  edition  of  the  Eneyelops^ia  Britanni 
sarii-  prijn:  with  rc<)pect  to  them.  Each  of  theM>  may  778,where  it  is  well  illustrated.  The  correction 
be  (aid  to  be  a  completion  of  tl.e  revulution  of  the  sun  tion,  by  which  apparent  time  is  rt'duced  i 
(»:ric:iy  tpeakiji:,  it  is  a  revolution  of  our  own  earth  .  time,  is  technically  called  the  eqiuUion  of  time. 
riiund  iiim).  and  a  revolution  thus  performed  is  called  ■  are  only  four  days  in  the  year  when  tlie  appa: 
a  year.  The  first  and  shortcut  is  the  equinoctial,  solar,  mean  time  arc  tho  same,  and  the  equator 
or  tn-'ifical  year ;  f^  r  his  time  of  returning  from  tropic  nothing.  In  the  interval  between  the  first  an^ 
1otr.-]|>ic,  ihVyUIng  situations  hulding  the  same  relation  of  thes^,  that  is,  December  '24th  and  April  \j 
to  the  i.-{uinii\  for  the  timebiing,  is  obvioubly  the  same  ■  again,  in  that  between  the  third  and  fourth, 
as  t):.ki  t'ri.ri  equinox  to  tquinox.  The  value  of  this  June  Kith  and  Soptrmber  1st,  the  apparent  i 
\'.xr  U  .'-'J  da\s.  ^^  huurs,  4 :«  minutes,  nearly.  Dot  later  than  the  mean  time,  or  the  cluck  is  before 
alth<  i:^!i  :!:c  c^rth  has  thus  returned  to  tho  same  eijui-  in  the  other  intervals  v»hich  ci<mplete  tlie  year 
UiA,  ::  :.aj  iio!  niai>.-  the  entiro  circuit  of  its  orbit,  but  .  verso  is  the  case,  and  the  clock  is  after  tho  su 
ii-.ii«t  :ra\i!  a  l;t:!o  farther  to  arrive  at  the  same  i^-^int  greatest  difference  between  M>iar  and  true  time  i 
it  w.k>  in  a  ^'-ar  Kforc.     Thi<»  arises  from  a  backward    to  In^tween  fifteen  and  sixteen  minutes.      T 

■ 

niiVvr.:or.:  tlth<-  e  ^uinoctial  pi'iiit.  (S«^  ^  ^recc^sionof    equ.ition  are  constructed  for  the  puqH>se  of  co 
thv  Yiquiri.'XLS.**!  Thesoe^md  is  the  »i-ii:real\  ear,  which  '  the  differences, 
c.  n-i»i«.  a> » e sa.  1  Itfore,  of  o"? 5 days, ^  hfurs,  ? minutes,  | 

i'  ** cLtii.  f ,  n-vkoni-d  in  meansi^iar  time,  cr  a  dau  morp,  :  ^'*^  MOON. 

nvk-Ti  i  in  riJvniai  timf.  Here,  then,  then?  is  a  re-  ]  Next  to  the  sun,  the  mnon  is  to  the  inhabi 
markalle  ilitytrnnco  l^twivn  s*>lar  aul  sidereal  time,  >  the  earth  the  nnv^t  remarkablo  and  imptrtaz 
tihicii  n.  juirtsexj  ianaii'U.  Ifthcn.»adi'r  will  recollect  the  heavenly  biHiit*s.  The  mean  horizontal  ] 
vl.a:  \*;i-  sail  »kiU  n^ard  to  a  solar  and  sidereal  rfj7, 
thv  il-criia!A'v  l.ttutin  the  timt-s  cf  the  vears  i»Lli 
bi-  ■  :.,■  ij  jan rit.  In  the  oi'UP?o  if  tvrvl\c  months,  all 
t!ji.  ..::'*  .i..:.\  ■:•  rioitiicii ■*,:».■*  it  «en'.amtiuiit  to  twentv- 

f  ..r  ;    -r-.  *»';.  fh  C':.»tiu;Us  ih-?  diSVn.uce  between  I  liitie  more  tlsaii  or.i'-f»«ur:li  if  the  sun's  dianuM 

!*  ■■:-*■.  \- aP^.  Till  ^.:u*s:lJ  janiii  ;.".%'i«;i  motion  aw  ore    the  glol-ie  of  that  niairnificent  luminary  wonlJ 

:}.•  -tar-  .- 1-  i:'.  mioi  c-Mrar*  to  l':.i-appari-nt  i/ifirnj/ 

r.:  :i  :•  •  f  1:  •   --:i  \v..\  n^r>  ;  liiuce  tI:1'^Ia^!«  piin  OTerv 

ila^  '.l-r^v  11  .:.i::.. H  l'.l:\-s:x  jKivni^in  the  sun,  «hicL 

m^li-'>  ■»;.•  r..  r  ~.  iL^t  i  ■  rtii.n  of  tlmn'  earlier  evrrv  dav. 

In  I'l.-.'  (•  up^-     f  a  yar,  the  i>un  wLil  fall  behind  the 

«iar^  a  «J*  .v  i*ircun-i"tn.i:tv  if  tlie  heaxms  or  one  rc- 

vc'Iuii.n,  ^:.:rh  d<-::ci(  i.cy  ho  muM  make  up  to  c\>mpli-tc 

t).e  nnmUr  «. f  da\ ^  in  a  }(ar.     1:  i»  e^ iJiut,  then,  that 

tAfAujj  Af/^Amiil\,  or  thi*  larth  ri-aliv,  turns  3(>b'  times 

roaa-J  uj-u  It."  axis; and  Ji^d  it  no  otbvr  motion,  there 

»i^/w/  /*  A*  /Bj/:^»  dMj»  in  A  vear.     After  the  earth  or 

raji  Aa,  ^^//y;-  r.  j j  ....^'.na/  ,itar,  before  it  can  finish 

U 


of  the  mrnm  i*  57'  43" :  and  her  mean  distance  i 
earth  C:U>.847  miles.  Like  the  sun,  the  mo\>n  a 
ill  I  lie  hravi-c?  in  a  m(<tion  contrary  to  that  of  tl 
Ml  :wiih!>tandini;  the  vast  liiht.ince  bhe  U  fr>  m  i 


.'ifiiY  include  the  wh«»le  orbit  of  the  moon! 
various  ti'.otinns :  as  a  secondary  planet,  it  i 
round  the  earth,  which  x«  it.^  primary-.  Along « 
latter,  it  rv^olves  rt-und  the  sun,  and  it  hait  a  i 
motion  upon  its  own  axis.  Owing  t>^  the  sun*sa] 
movement  in  the  heavens  l>eiug  in  the  same  d 
with  that  of  the  moon,  only  slower,  the  latter 
make  up  for  that  slowness  in  the  same  war  as  v 
mentioned  mith  regard  to  the  earth,  and  the 
takes  constitutes  the  difTermee  betwecu  the  sidei 
synodic  monih  ot  XniukdML  TVa  ^frVrml  boqi 
dayv,  7  how^  O  nsBoXes^  \\  HMOBAa^^Su^Va 


Tba  Mnb,  wn Ibtwm^  ii 

r«tit  r»»a  Uw  fan  bj  on*  nMUto.  Uw  a     .. 

TolOM  nand  I)u  ••  a  oulra.  6ldirily«}«kuie,1>nl^ 

II  llmiiil  ■  iiiWiliiiiii  •mtO^et  (iwltr  Idob  «Ui  " 
.   I,  On  npdHrlir  of  wliUi  1>  dMiubol  tif  il 
Mail  «UniMlQa^  m  thu  11  b  n-*-'-'-'  —  ■ — 
„    TIm  noabOT  ti  tmdn 

r,  Skian,  Hill  linuiiu,  m« bU  MMiubtd  Itf  HtelHiB*, 
'Wali>taMui;andI1ia7hinil,u  U  wtn,  each  at  tlia 
■Imaflc*  vltli  It*  attopdtpt  wnaM,  a  »grt  of  inl«mBw 
ilcDi,  octilxl;  linkUBT  la  the  Un  by  wlilidi  iW  uo 
•nntcd  la  Iba  great  lyitaiii  to  wbich  Uw;  all  bilaBfi 
bent  lira  aUD  may  ba  tanetd  tin  piimuy  iihnet,  bm 

'■ '  plaii«t»  tho  ■atsUiloa.    Their  orfciB  i 

lUpKa  of  mall  ooomttidty,  the  priman 


lo  primary  iiiaiutt  tho  ■atslUloa.  Their  orfcin  an 
'm  (W  elUpKa  of  mall  ooomlridty,  the  primai" 
dvIdB  mw  fociu.     Of  IheM  D^ilcmir,  tliat  irf  wVnc 


im•rofa•tranofa]^  FnmitTMslladaMiliiilan«f  tlia 
MlpniUMDorAalensiiQdatBndihanftBddbMTW]- 
rtte^onliaBelfi^  IlalM«tabUilMdooiimlM>l] 
MOiund(Hi»«t«n>,andQiiBllHMdUMbi9nafK*i4*r 


I 


:<i4m-. 

-  liU 


tfJnplMr  lavnlra  from  mil  to  oHt 
m  moon,  but  tbv;  ar«  mucb  Ina  iu  Mapariaan 
inrpriiaBTyllian  it,  whlUt  Utcirarbiu  btcuI  «nutkr 
imniUMii,  and  liwi  tacliDsd  ta  Iba  Bdipli«  iil  tbeir 
rimaiythan  llwl  oTanc  ■atdiit«,  Tha  Urgcnotthmt 
.  about  8377  mU*a,  and  tbe  Icwt  alxnit  'Ma  nailm  in 
bmatcT.  Tbe  (AtaUitn  of  Saturn  ban  been  mnoli  itm 
radiiHl,»fliIlMvafii*crpMolia[iticB.  ThutrnSVnou*, 
oirvrar,  m  iwnartatble,  liuonntdv  w  ftiiu!  utXioa  «» 
mfy  perpondienlar  la  "Ait  ec\k^c,  aA&  W^ma  <(eij«» 

I  frm  Mrt  to  wert,  ImImA  «l  twm  "ert !«.  ««»t,  W« 

i! 


CHAMBERS'S  INFORMATION  FOB  THE  PKOri.E. 


the  other  iilinelary  bodic*.  No  nlisfictary  nnne  far 
this  drparluFD  (if  it  be  one)  from  (he  gvarrH  rula  or 
bopvcn.  It  itliyaceunteobBcrvntioiinf  tlicntcllitM 
Huttltii-dviuilicaof  lhcpbnpt«,iir  Iheic  wvieht  w  pnK 
IKirtioncJ  ti>  llivir  bulks,  bavc  bivn  wwrrt-iineil ;  u 
alw,  by  vatehiiiE  their  rrei|uuut  nlipiiF*,  ilutt  tlie  Tela, 
city  with  nhicli  lislit  travel*  frrnii  the  hcsvcnly  bodies 
to  Iha  eirtb  liu  been  briiughl  within  uur  ealcuUtiuD. 


The  nimc  of  pe-rlurlMlioiu  hiu  been  ap|)tied  to  tl^ 
ine<|U3liti(.ii  iu  the  tiuutc  and  [lUautury  motions,  wt 
ariM  frtim  the  univcrBalitv  nf  altractiuii.    Thiu, 
only  JuvN  the  wui  iltnet  the  t-artli,  ami  the  earth  the 
moon,  but  (he  latter  attroetH  the  preeeiliiig,  aud  both 
aieaKAin  inlluenci'd  in  tlirir  movuiui'iils  by  the  great 
ceatri!  oT  tho  nystein  to  »liie]i  they  bvinn);.     Nut  only 
ii  this  tho  caac,  but  every  individual  iilanot  in  the 
•nleni   attrneU,  and   in  nllineteil   by,    all   the   rest, 

■Ithuugh  eiTtiiiiity  iu  a  very  trifliiift  dvKi-  -' 

|iaru(l  with  tint  txcruiiied  by  tlio 


Uut  ii 


tho» 


>r  the  whole  uf 


iHDon  and  earth,  Jupiter  and  hii  Mtelliten,  tec,  the 
pcrturbatioii-i  ihua  aTiHit);,  thoUi;h  iuaeiuible  in  iJion 
■Ulerrahi,  beeniue  apparent  (then  accumulated,  and 
derange  thu  elliptic  iiiotieni  and  n>latioiia.  The  calcu- 
lation of  the  t'fft'CtM  of  thnedioturbing  fi)rce<i  in  famouH 
in  the  hiHtury  of  aualyiiii,  under  the  name  of  I'Ae  I'm- 
Hem  oflhf  thrre  ilmlirt.  It  n  »  nonled,  berauw  tin- 
Suu,  M'liui,  and  Kartb,  and  tlie  Sun,  Jupiter,  and 
t«tum,  tiriu  each  wpamtely  a  kyHti-ni  little  inllueneed 
Ly  the  tnX.  Any  iliiu);  lilu'  an  atictnpt  to  exhiliit  the 
method  liy  wbirh  iliew  uire  RiWlaiuinit  nru  made,  in 
impoHiible  in  thi«  [dan- :  uf  its  diffleully.  Dome  idea  may 
bcfoniKiI,  wlien  wii  cuunidiT,  what  u  appareut  to  ev«ry 
one,  that  (he  biHlin  nudiT  iuvnitiptiua  an-  continually 
afaiflini:  their  n-btive  dislanceii  fnou  each  other,  and 
alterinit  the  InienMijr  uf  the  diiturlniiK  f^ree,  which 
VTidvntly  muil  materially  incrraiv  the  aliatnucnew  uf 
the  caleulatii>n.  Uiie  of  the  priueipal  vflccia  produced 
lui  uur  u'lobc  liy  tliu  play  of  gravitation  a  called 


Tho  Pi|uiii<icluU  puintH,  we  hare  already  explained, 
an-  Arii'K  and  Libra,  whi'tv  the  ecliptir  eutHlhe  eiitu- 
tur.  They  an-  alwi  li-riiu'd  noih'S  and  the  Ime  whidi 
joiiiii  tlw  two  it  called  llu-  line  of  the  nodes.  The  longi- 
tuden  of  th<-  nians  an  lian  iH-en  also  obxerved,  are  euuotvd 
on  the  I'ehptie  from  the  venial  otuinox  Arien.  Now, 
if  the  lini'  »r  the  lunlea  is  invariable,  the  lollRitndo  of 
the  oiam  will  of  Counu-  miiuiu  the  name  trmn  a^e  to 
ace.  Itut,  vii  iiiiuiurini:  the  actual  »tate  cf  the  hvavenH 
viith  the  n-e-irihiiubxcnatiun!!  of  ancii-nt  aatronomcrs, 
it  in  ■■rrei-iviil  that  the  loni'ituili's  of  the  t>tan  have 
coniiiJerably  increuii'il ;  m>  that,  to  caplaiu  thi-  cireulii- 
alaiiee,  w<-  iiiuM  cilhi-r  MipiHW  tliat  thi-  whole  tirma-. 
mrm  ha*  luuuil  in  the  onbT  of  the  atdiaral  iiiKnii,  nr 
I'Wihjl  the  ei|nini>rlial  piquts  have  gone  harkwardK,  or 
d-tniinwl'")  WMtwutd:  muci-  tlu-ac  |aiinla  ih-iwiul  en- 
tindyupiin  ihemotiiHtof  jhe  earth,  which  wa--  farmon- 
hkely  tobe  difturbrd  by  miiiic  cuum.'  it  uthi-r,tlian  that 
iIk'  ninntieiM  multitude  uf  iitani  hliouhl  luive  u  iiinliun 
n^atite  to  tli>-u'  |i»inli^  Aeciirdini;ly,  the  iilirnouieiioa 
In- been  oxiiluiiii^.  by  atlriliutm:{  to  thriu  a  n'tnimvde 
itMlioo  fr-iui  rait  tii  ir,-il,  in  roii>i->iUFUCP  of  whieli  the 

»au  an^tt «  at  them  wi r  than  if  they  had  remainol 

at  re-t.   Ib'Ui-'  Tin-  c<|uiiHi«eA,  ><|iniis  auil  aulunin.  aiul 

till-  Ktli-T  ■H':i«i(i>,  ha]i)ii;n  heAire  he  lias  compli-tiil  an 

I'litin-  rin-uit.      Thii  loolion,   liiiwi<vi-r.  i!i  I'litn-inely 

tt.wK.  aniMuiiiins  »nly  t»  a  dii[nv  in  abi<ut  M-veiily-Mx. 

yrar-i  Ht  tlut  tlu- e-iuiiHirlial  |ininlH  will  lake  m-arly 

Sii.iHMiyi-Brx  til  nuiki-an  entire  n-viHulioiiiirthe  hi'.iveii-^ 

Thi^  lUMion  ua->  kixiwn  in  very  anrient  timi-*,  and  its 

di-ciivtrv  ■■>  aHTibiil  to  lli|i)iareliu's  who  lived  about 

JM/  ftatH  bf/iiiv   thritt.     'J'b*-   ri>niei|Uenre  of  this 

f-irvtfrmik  umwau-nt  M,  ffiat  iJie  huti  s  place  ainoo^t 

/*.-  tvtUmcat  tiem,  at  any  Mia.vn  of  Iho  year,  in  ereatly 

'4A«W/lM»»A,/,>/„™,Wj.,™^     Thorernilciui- 


nox  now  happeni*  In  the  conslellalion  I'isci'! 
summer  onlhtico  in  (ieminl;  the  autumn  e'liiii 
Virgil ;  and  tlio  wintnr  aolnico  in  Saglttariuii. 
nonicrs,  however,  Ktill  count  tho  sigiin  from  tlie 
ec|ninax,  wbirh  always  correspniuls  to  tlw  inten 
of  the  ecliptic  with  tho  enuatnr  ;  aud  on  this  acc' 
is  necemiry  carefully  to  distinguish  briwecn  llie 
The  eauM  nf  prrcession  is  to  bo  fuuml  in  lb 
bincd  action  nf  the  sun  and  moon  u]»n  tlie  ]initu 
mana  of  matli'r  accumulated  at  the  earth's  oiual 
altraeliiin  of  the  planets  Is-ing  suarei-ly  svnsiblc. 
attracliiit;  foree  of  the  sun  and  iiiuon  ujsjn  this  i> 
matter,  is  of  a  twiifohl  character ;  one  is  [nnlkl 
c-(uator,  and  tlu<  other  iierpeiulicular  to  it.  Tb 
ili'iiey  of  the  latter  force  is  ti>  diuiioislt  the  atiLlle 
the  pl.inc  of  the  equator  makiii  with  the  eeliptit 
were  it  not  for  the  rotatory  moliun  of  tho  eairl 
]>lanca  would  soon  coincide;  but  by  this  niitii 
jilaues  remain  cuiiatant  to  each  ntber.  Thit  elliFi 
duced  by  the  actum  of  the  fores  in  iinestlon  is,  1m 
plane  nf  the  enoalor  it 


a  the  n 


we  ha 


Tlic  action  of  the  aun  and  moon  in  prodaein, 
ccfninn  is  various,  at  different  perioilii  of  tile  ye 
ronling  to  the  relative  distance  of  the  earth  frum 
Twice  n-j-i-ar,  the  ctl'ect  of  the  sun  iu  prnducioj 
nnthiii)(;  and  twiec  n-yenr,  namely,  at  the  iol 
it  is  at  niaiimum.  tin  nn  two  siivccsuve  dayi 
alike,  and,  cunsciiueutiy,  the  prccewdim  of  tb* 
iiDCtlal  {mints  must  be  une<|ual,  and  th«  obliqi 
the  ecliptic  snbj<-cl  to  a  half-ye*rly  variation ;  ti 
Mill's  force,  wliieli  changca  the  obliiguity,  ia  vai 
while  thu  rolatiiin  of  the  earth,  wliicli  iiiuutem 
is  eonstaut.  liy  this  meaus,  the  ]>laiie  of  the  n 
is  subj<-ct  tu  an  irrepilar  motion,  which  is  ti-chi 
called  the  tolar  mtlatioH,  Its  amount,  however, 
exceedingly  small,  aa  nut  to  bt-  appreciable  by 
vation.  Tluit  resulting  from  the  iiiooo's  action, 
ever,  is  Huifieii-iitly  so,  an  tu  have  bi-en  diseovi'i 
Uradli'y  liefori'  theory  li.id  indieateil  its  «xii4>-iiei: 
period  dijii'nds  ujion  the  tvvidutiiin  uf  IIh-  i 
linden,  which  is  iwifomied  in  ll!|  yearn,  and  in 
that  periisl  of  time  the  axis  of  the  worlrl  desrr 
small  eirck  in  tin-  hi-avens,  about  cightrrti  seen 
diameter,  contrary  to  the  radcr  uf  tbs  signs, 
apparent  viliratorT  inotioD  is  di-mnninalcd  the 
''      |if  theeartira  axis.     The  two  phenomi-na  o 

I'  plienonienoi 
.  uoliC(il  alnivr 
I'n-ct-Kdiun.  it  is  iniiswubic  here  t»  enter  more  mil 
iuto  the  snhji-el,  it  i-xnlain  it  mure  in  detail.  [' 
julmirable  account  of  it,  »c  refer  tho  n-a-ter  t<r 
H-liel'a  Treali-H-  on  Astninumy,  p.  .1X1,  Wo  bI<u 
dirert  llie  iinjuin'r  to  the  Kinie  aihnitabtn  wm 
fiirtber  inliimiation  u|ioii  the  KUbji-cl  of  larlurlc 
eumtirl-iiic  uU  thi'  euiiijilieateil  rarietii-s  »f  nuitioi 
general,  they  may  be  kaiil  to  arun.-  fnmi  the  i< 

■ ■— ■  -  ■  •  ■■  ■'■  -  '■  '     if  the  planets  an 

.      .  .     .1  tin- sun  with  < 

the  distanri-s  i<f  tile  bwlirs  fniiu  eath  other,  wliii 
ind  the  iiuuncs  of  matter,  an 
>hape  of  till-  liolii-H,  which  ari!  invamUe.  Ineoi 
iii^  this  |:irt  of  our  Mibjeri,  we  tnav  n-iiiark.  Itu 
liy  means  ol  the  ]<erturbali<iDs  of  i)i.im-  plaiii'ls  ' 
tellites,  that  uiiroDiHm'rs  have  arrive 


'f  j<iTlnrbatiiin  ii 
[lurtiimed  in  its  taam,  ; 
or  imrrhaif  wliieli  its 


:o  the  deffivi-  of  a 


...  UiM<&',  lolUL  Jlacktf, 


CHAMBERS'S 
NFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 

CONDUCTED  BY  WILLIAM  ft  HOBBBT  CHAMBERS,  EDITORS  OP  CHAMBERS'S 
EDINBURGH  JOURNAL. 


New  and  Impboted  Series. 


PnicE  ]jd. 


r  (dthu,  uid  oftcQ  with  tbe  appcuuice  of  baring  pene- 

tnted  tlirough  gapa  forcibly  made  in  other  roeki. 
I       Fiiul]y,  IhrouEUOut  the  three  fint  duMS  of  rocka, 
bat.puticukrly  the  two  firet,  there  are  thin  veini,  ut 
diverse  Bubatances,  inclndiog  minenila. 

Roclu  of  the  first  claas  are  denuminatcd  Plutonui 
(from  Plulo,  the  god  of  the  infernal  regions  aniongw 
the  aneientB),  as  suppoeed  to  have  been  formed  at  great 
deptlis  in  the  eartli,  the  matter  having  been  origmall}' 
in  a  hot  and  soft  state,  and  afterwards  cooled  and 
erystalliaed  ulowlj,  under  Buch  cnormouB  presaure  aa 
prevented  the  coutoined  gasee  from  expanding.  The 
term  uiutrali/ud  ia  also  applied  to  (hia  class  of  rocks. 

Rocks  of  (be  second  and  third  classes  nre  called 
AftDTOua,  as  composed  of  matter  dcpouited  by  water. 
Those  of  the  second  class  arc  more  specially  named 
Me^mor/iAoru  (from  the  Greek,  nclamorphoiii,  a  trona- 
formatioa),  as  supposed  to  have  undergone  a  remark- 
able chanee  in  the  course  of  their  formation.  It  ia 
supposed  Cb&t  the  matter  of  these  rocks,  derived  from 
rocks  of  the  granitic  kind,  and  suspended  in  vast  oceans, 
was,  when  deposited,  subjected  to  a  great  heat  from 


im  I.  EXPLANATIONS— ORDER  OF  ROCKS. 
LOGT  (from  the  Greek,  ft,'  the  eai-tli,  and  logw, 
jane)  may  be  defined  as  the  science  which  describi'S 
solid  materials  of  the  earth,  the  order  in  wliicli 
'  are  arranged,  the  causes  which  liave  effected  that 
ngemeut,  and  the  organic  remains  wbioli  are  found 
hem.  The  invesliciitious  of  the  science  are,  in 
ant  circumstances,  limited  to  the  external  crust  of 

he  solid  parts  of  this  cmst  consist  of  a  variety  of 
tancca,  to  which,  whether  they  be  hard  or  soft,  the 
1  rack  is  applied.  Rocks  are  distinguislied  both  by 
iliarities  in  their  constitution,  and  peculiarities  in 
r  form  and  arrangement. 

t  some  places  the  surface  of  the  earth  is  found  to 
■at  of  a  hard  rock,  of  cryalalhnc  or  glassy  tex- 
■^  nneraliy  called  granite,  though  subject  to  a  coo- 
rule  number  of  varii^ties.  Granite  is  never,  except 
eculiar  drcumstanoea,  found  in  the  form  of  a  layer, 
tfaer  thick  or  thin,  but  generally  in  targe  irregulur- 
■ed  manes,  and  no  other  kind  of  rock,  except  in 
dly  ran  and  peculiar  circumstances,  is  ever  found 
albit. 

t  other  places  the  earth's  immediate  sorfaco  is 
id  composed  of  some  one  of  certain  kinds  of  rock 
leas  bard  in  texture  than  granite,  aod  also  of  a 
italUne  consistence,  but  always  found  in  layers  or 
,  generally  of  great  thickness. 

t  other  places,  we  find,  near  the  surface  of  ^f 
h,  rocks  of  a  comparatively  soft,  aod  not  o' 
dalline  consistence,  forming  also  layers  or  beds, 
mler  or  less  tbiekneas. 

■  BOOie  places,  rock  of  a  very  hard  kind  is  foond, 
Mnellj  like  any  of  tbe  above,  deposited  in  irregular 

hard,  aail  tb*  •  u  la  acm. 

17 


below, 


t  had  ii 


that  crjstallina  textui 

Rocki  of  the  fourth  class  are  denominated  VoLCtXIC, 
as  being  eridently  composed  of  lavas,  or  mBSsea  of  firs- 
melted  rocky  matter,  which  have  been  sent  upwards 

Rocks  of  the  second  and  third  classes  are  likewise 
called  Stratified  Rocki,  as  being  invariably  found  in 
strata  or  layers.  Rocks  of  the  first  and  fourth  cUsses, 
as  wantiug  this  peculiarity,  are  distinguiahed  as  l/rutra- 
tified  Roeki. 

The  plutoaic,  and  some  of  the  lower  metkmorphorio 
rocks,  have  been  also  called /'rimary,  or  PrimitictJtockt, 
OS  either  the  firflt  formed  of  all,  or  formed  very  early. 
The  upper  metamorpboric  rocks  have  in  like  manner 
been  called  the  Traaalion  Serici,  as  forming  a  kind 
of  link  bctnecn  the  primary  and  those  which  follow, 
and  partaking,  of  the  diameters  of  both.  Of  tlie  re- 
mainder of  the  aqueous  rocks,  a  considerable  number, 
being  the  lower  portion,  are  sometimes  called  the 
Secondary  Rocki,  wliile  tlio  upper  ore  named  Tertiary, 
fffneoui  Rock  is  also  a  various  n 


When  rocks  of  various  classes  are  actn  at  or  near 
the  Bame  place,  it  ia  found  that  those  of  tbe  second 
(except  in  the  eitraordinary  circumstancas  alluded  to) 
lie  above  those  of  the  first ;  and  those  of  the  third  abovs 
Ihoee  of  the  second  and  first  classes.  Special  kinds  of 
aqueous  rock  are  also  found  in  a  certain  order  above 
one  another — much  in  the  same  way  as  if  we  were  to 
place  a  book  of  many  volumes  on  its  side,  having 
previously  arranged  ue  volumes  according  la  their 
numbers,  in  which  case  the  second  would  be  above  the. 
first,  the  third  above  the  second,  and  so  on.  Rocke  aro 
Uius  said  to  observe  on  order  nf  tuprapatilien — llie 
Tolcanie  kind  alone  obecrvij^g  no  ardor. 


CHAMBERS'S  INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


In  some  of  the  upper  metamorphoric  rocks,  and  in  all 
those  of  the  secondary  and  tertiary  series,  remains  of 
plants  and  animals  are  found,  showuig  that  when  these 
rocks  were  formed,  the  earth  had  become  a  scene  of 
vegetable  and  animal  life.  The  rocks  containing  these 
organio  remairu,  or  fossUsy  are  called  Fossilifebous  ; 
and  the  remaining  rocks,  from  their  containing  no  such 
reUcs,  are  called  Non-fossilifkbods. 

Above  the  harder  rocks,  there  are  generally  layers 
of  clayey  and  earthy  matter,  topped  by  what  is  called 
the  vegetable  soiL 

The  principal  rocks,  exclusive  of  the  volcanic,  are 
ranjged  in  the  fallowing  order,  descending  from  the 
highiett  to  the  lowest : — 

SUPERFICIAL. 

'  Vegetable  Soil. 
Peat. 

Gravel  Beds. 
Blue  Clay  Beds. 

TKRTIART. 

Marl  BedH. 

Shelly  Millstone. 

Gypsum. 

Coarse  Limestone. 

PUsticClay. 


Aqueous.     - 


ChA 


SECOIfDART. 

Chaik  Oroup.) 


Greensand. 
Weald  Clays. 

{Oolitie  Group.) 
Oolite. 
Sandstones. 
Lias. 

(iVno  Red  Sandstone  Oroup.) 
Variegated  Marls. 
Muschelkalk. 
Variegated  Sandstones. 
Zechstein. 
Red  Conglomerate. 
Rock  Salt. 

{Carboniferous  Group.) 
CoaL 

Sandstone. 
Shale. 

Mountain  Limestone. 
Old  Red  Sandstone. 

TRANSITION. 

{Grauwacke  Group.) 
Grau  wacko. 
Clayey  and  Sandy  Slates,  or 

Lowest  FossilUerous. 


I 

E 


^^ 


Plutonic. 


PRIMARY.- 

{Inferior  Strat\fUd  Series.) 
Clay  Slate. 
Mica  Slate. 
Primitive  Limestone. 
Protogine. 
Gneiss. 

(Graniteg.)  - 
Granite,  in  varieties. 


Whatever  rock,  then,  appears  on  or  near  the  surface, 

if  it  be  not  of  the  volcanic  kind,  we  may  form  from  it 

some  notion  of  what  rocks  are,  and  are  not,  below.    If, 

for  instance,  we  any  where  find  one  of  the  rocks  of  the 

tertiary  M.>ricfl,  we  may  deem  it  almost  certain  that 

rocks  of  the  M'condary,  transition,  and  primary  scries, 

would  be  found  in  mi'ecession  downwards,  if  we  could 

dig  to  the  propter  depth.     If  we  find  rocks  of  the 

secQBdary  scries,  it  it»  equally  likely  that  transition  and 

pflllBlHry  rocks  arc  below,  and  so  on.    The  same  con- 

dtttiom  may  be  formed  respecting  special  kinds  of  rock 

of  the  various  classes  :  if,  for  inntanee,  we  find  at  the 

■marfMcc  mpMrtteahw  member  of  the  secondary  scries,  we 

Au^  know  thst  certjun  othvn  of  the  same  Berics  are 

be/ow.     What  lUono  prereata  thia  rule  from  being  of 

^agtnat  mppUcatioa,  U  tb^  fMct,  tluit  in  no  place  dm 

16  ^ 


every  member  of  the  whole  series  of  known 
exist.    Every  where  some  aro  wanting  :  in  FraD« 
example,  transition  rocks  are  in  many  places  wa 
The  rule,  nevertheless,  is  certain  with  rc»pcct  t 
rocks  which  do  exist  at  any  place. 

The  order  of  supraposition  enables  us  to  coi 
with  greater  certainty  as  to  the  absence  of  all 
highor  in  the  list  than  that  which  we  find  at  tfa 
face.  If  we  find  secondary  rocks  at  the  Burfa< 
may  be  certain  that  none  of  the  tertiary  are  the 
transition,  none  of  the  secondary  or  tertiary  fif  pri 
none  of  the  transition,  secondary,  or  tertiary. 


mtimmm^mmm^mmmmmmmm 


SfecnoN  II.— CAUSES  OF  ARRANGEME! 

The  whole  science  of  geology  rests  on  certain  n 
laws,  which  are -supposed,  or  nave  been  attcertain 
be  in  constant  operation,  though  not  always,  pc 
with  equally  powerful  effects.  They  chiefly  r 
themselves  into  what  have  been  called  Degradkt 
ElewUing  Causes, 

Degrading  Causes. 

The  degrading  causes  are  those  which  i«fer 
dissolving  and  wearing  away  of  the  elevated  parts 
earth's  simacc,  and  the  carrying  of  these  narta  do« 
lower  levels.  The  dissolving  is  brought  a!bout  bv  c 
chemical  and  mechanical  bws,  and  the  oarrgin§ 
into  low  levels  is,  in  the  main,  a  jresult  of  the  1 
gravitation.  Considering  that  the  solid  parts  < 
earth  are  in  their  very  nature  liable  to  the  operai 
these  laws,  it  M>pears  quite  unavoidable  that  land  i 
be  degraded.  It  is  only,  however,  of  late  yean  th 
degradation  of  land  has  attracted  any  attentioo. 
immense  scale  on  which  it  is  constantly  takins 
was  first  explained  in  a  satisfactory  mannerl 
Charles  LyeU,  in  his  «  Principles  of  Gkoloffy/  put 
in  1880. 

The  causes  of  the  degradation  of  elevated  Un( 
be  considered  under  three  heads — meteoric,  or 
connected  with  the  atmosphere  ;  JtuviaiUey  or 
depending  on  rivers ;  and  oceanic,  or  those  in 
the  sea  is  the  immediate  agent 

The  operation  of  the  atmosphere  and  its  vi 
contents  upon  the  land  proceeds  in  two  ways,  ch( 
and  mechanical.  There  is  a  tendency  in  the  b 
rock  to  absorb  oxygen  and  carbonic  acid  froi 
atmosphere,  and  to  be  by  that  union  dissolved, 
this  is  an  union  which  is  alwa^n  taking  place,  tho 
some  places  with  more  conspicuous  efrecta  thai 
where.  If  the  soil  on  any  hill  of  volcanic  rock  b 
mined,  we  shall  first  find  a  fine  powdery  earth, 
mixture  of  earth  and  splinters  of  rock  ;  next  sp 
alone,  graduating  into  tlie  hard  rock  below :  sac 
be  considered  as  an  exhibition  of  tho  gradual  p 
by  which  a  hard  rock  is  dissolved  into  powder  or 
under  the  action  of  the  atmosphere.  In  Jamaie 
dissolution  of  volcanic  rock  has  taken  place  to  i 
depth.  In  granite,  which  is  considered  the  har* 
all  rocks,  one  of  the  component  substances  (felspi 
a  great  tendency  to  bo  decomposed,  and  hence  en 
rock  is  sometimes  found  to  have  been  reduced  to 
or  powder  to  a  considerable  depth.  A  hollon 
blasted  through  granite,  was  found  by  a  geologist  fc 
been  in  six  years  pulverised  to  the  depth  of  three  i 
These  are  solely  chemical  phenomena.  Again,  waU 
foratcs  into  nunute  fissures  in  rocks.  W  hen  a  fh 
rives,  the  water  swells,  and  dislodges  parts  of  the 
which  aro  precipitated  into  the  lower  levcL  Or  i 
meet  some  clayey  veins  or  strata,  hitherto  soffid 
keep  various  masses  together.  These  reins  or  i 
being  gradual)  v  softened  by  the  wa^,  lose  theb ; 
elementing  the  masses.  The  upper  then  tall  ai 
slide  into  a  lower  levcL  At/kb  of  rockfnHB  tho 
berg,  in  Switzerland,  in  1806,  filled  the  boitom  • 
vale  below,  destroying  many  villages,  and  cmmIi 
loss  of  800  lives.  'The  impulM  of  wind  and  nia  i 
BurfaeQ  ot  tocV  \a  i\io  ol  ^ksA  eAcaey  In  pahFi 
and  ^ir€aziI^||;  *\\  dorim)  libaiT^  ^M^\MiH|, 


GEOLOGY. 


soft  i>arU  hollowed.  lu  Sweden  there  are  some  large 
j^txMshed  masHes  of  granicc,  containing  perforations 
pfi>duc»d  by  this  oauae,  some  so  verv  h^ge  as  to  admit 
of  a  tiorse  and  cart  passing  through  them.  These  effects 
jDa^y  he  considered  as  chiefly  mechamcai.  As  surely, 
then*  M  anv  part  of  the  earth*s  crust  is  elevated  into 
tha  &tmosphere|  just  as  certainly  is  it  liable  to  be  worn 
do^'o  and  carried  into  a  lower  level. 

"When  water  collects  into  channeJs  and  follows  its 

well-known  tendency  to  find  the  lowest  level  to  which 

it  has  access,  it  becomes  a  mechanical  instrument  of 

still  greater  force  for  wearing  down  the  land.    In  its 

Koalltfst  rills,  as  it  descends  the  mountain  side,  it  cuts 

into  the  soil,  and  carries  off  whatever  particles  it  can 

disengage.     Wlien  gathered  into  brooks,  its  operations 

uo  still  more  powerfuL    When  one  of  these  is  placed 

unongst  mountains,  every  heavy  shower  swells  it  into 

in.  impetuous   river,   by  which   large  quantities   of 

detached  rock  and  soil  are  brought  down,  in  the  upper 

p&rti  of  tho  courses  of  almost  all  rivers,  the  greater 

speed  of  descent  makes  up  for  the  smaller  volume  of 

letter,  IS  far  as  the  power  of  bringing  down  stones  and 

Mi]  is  concerned.     Again,  in  tho  lower   part  of  tho 

eoone,  the  smaller  speed  is  sometimes  compensated  by 

tlte  anevenness  of  the  course ;  iu  which  case,  the  water 

is  inoeasantly  driven  from  one  projection  of  the  banks 

against  another,  and  by  that  means  wears  away  a 

psit  quantity  of   solid   matter.     Many  facts   have 

been  collected  to  prove  the  great  efficacy  of  rivers 

ia  »-caring  down  the  land.    The  Nerbuddah,  a  river 

(/  India,  has  scooped  out  a  channel  in  basaltic  rock, 

100  fSeet  deep.    The  river  Moselle  has  worn  a  channel 

in  solid  rock  to  tho  depth  of  (iOO  feet    Messrs  Sodg- 

vick  and  Murehison  give  an  account  of  gorges  scooped 

out  in  beds  of  the  rock  called  conglomerate,  in  the 

nUeys  of  the  Eastern  Alps,  GOO  or  700  feet  deep.     A 

rtitam  of  lava,  which  was  vomited  from  iEtna  in  lb*03, 

luppened  to  flow  acroiss  the  channel  of  the  river  Simeto. 

Suiee  that  time  tho  stream  has  cut  a  passage  through 

the  eompact  rock  to  the  depth  of  between  40  and  50 

fcet,  and  to  the  breadth  of  between  50  and  several  huu- 

<lKd  feet.    The  cataract  of  Niagara,  in  North  America, 

l>aa  receded  nearly  50  ^-ards  during  tlie  lost  forty  years. 

Below  the  Falls,  tho  river  flows  in  a  channel  upwards 

of  150  feet  deep,  and  160  yards  wide,  for  a  distance  of 

*^cn  miles;   and  this  chaimel  has  manifestly  been 

Pttdoeed  by  the  action  of  the  river. 

Sometimes,  duringfloods,  rivers  produce  great  changes 
^  Yeiy  short  pcriooiB.  A  flood  caused  by  the  bursting 
of  the  barrier  of  a  lako  in  the  valley  of  Bagnes^  Swit- 
zerland, moved  at  first  with  the  tremendous  velocity  of 
^3  feet  per  second.  From  the  barrier  burst  by  the 
^'^teiBto  Lake  Geneva,  there  is  a  fall  of  4187  Paris 
''^vt ;  the  distance  is  45  miles ;  and  the  water  flowetl 
^▼«r  all  this  space  in  five  hours  and  a  half.  It  carried 
^one  houses,  bridges,  and  trees ;  and  nuisscs  of  rock 
^^  in  size  to  houses,  were  transported  a  quarter  of 
^  mile  down  the  valley. 

Ibe  matter  carried  down  by  rivers  is  often  deposited 
'^  Iheir  sides,  when  it  constitutes  what  is  called  alluvial 
^^  Sometimes  it  is  deposited  at  the  bottom  of  lakes, 
^hen  it  forms  what  are  termed  lacustrine  depotiU.  In 
^'^^ynistances  it  has  been  dr'  .i^^iflarge  quantities 
^t  the  Dumths  of  rivers,  givl  %» i^hat  ore  denomi- 

nated deitmt.  Deltas  are  s<f  -M«.«d  on  accoimt  of  their 
'*sanbling  the  fourth  letter  of  tlic  Greek  alphabet. 
'^  trionguhur  form  of  a  delta  is  produced  by  the  river, 
*t  aoertain  point  inland,  dividing  itself  into  two  streams 
vlu'ch  gradually  diverge  till  they  reach  tho  ocean, 
^Mlosing  the  space  which  constitutes  the  delta.  As  an 
outtnce  of  the  great  amount  of  new  land  formed  at  tlio 
ponths  of  rivers,  tho  delta  of  tho  Ganges  is  2'JO  miles 
in  one  direction  by  200  in  another.  The  lower  part  of 
(til  delta,  a  wilderness  inhabited  by  titters  and  cro^D- 
^iles,  is  as  large  as  the  principality  of  Wales ! 

lbs  matter  carried  down  by  rivers,  and  thus  depo- 
wttdf  ia  nothing  in  amount  compared  to  that  trans- 
ported to  the  ocean.  The  quantity  of  sand  and  mud 
Inaght  down  by  tha  Ganges  to  tho  liny  of  Ben^l,  is 
Id  Um  flood  season  so  great,  that  tho  sou  is  di£Coroui*ed 

19 


with  it  60  miles  froiii  tlio  river's  moutli.  According 
to  Mr  LycU,  the  quantity  of  solid  matter  brought  down 
by  this  river  evexy  day,  is  equal  in  bulk  to  the  greatest 
of  tho  Egyptian  pyramids.  According  to  Captain  Sa- 
bine, tlie  muddy  waters  of  the  Amazon  river  may  be 
distinguished  300  miles  from  its  mouth. 

Tho  constant  action  of  the  sea  upon  the  land  is  strik- 
ingly apparent  to  tho  inhabitants  of  coasts.  Wholo 
islands  have  been  destroyed  by  the  action  of  tides  and 
oceanic  currents,  while  the  remains  of  others  rise  abovo 
the  Burfaco  of  the  water,  like  the  ruins  of  some  deso- 
lated city.  Many  instances  of  the  encroachment  of 
the  sea  upon  tho  land  have  been  recorded.  An  inn  on 
the  coast  of  Norfolk,  built  in  1805,  then  70  yards  from 
the  sea,  was,  in  1829,  separated  from  the  coast  by  onlv 
a  small  garden.  A  church  on  the  coast  of  Kent,  which 
in  the  reign  of  Henry  YIII.  was  a  milo  inland,  is  now 
only  about  60  yards  from  the  water's  edge.  The  island 
of  Nordstrand,  on  the  coast  of  Schlesvng,  was,  in  the 
tliirteenth  century,  50  miles  long  and  35  broad.  About 
tho  end  of  the  sixteenth  century',  it  was  reduced  to  an 
area  of  only  20  miles  in  circumference.  The  inhabi- 
tants erected  loAy  dykes  for  tho  purpose  of  saving  their 
territories ;  but  in  the  vear  1634  a  storm  devastated 
the  whole  island,  by  which  1340  human  beings  and 
50,000  head  of  cattle  perished.  Three  very  smaU  islets 
are  all  that  now  remain  to  point  out  the  place  where 
once  flourished  the  fertile  and  populous  island  of  Nord- 
strand. It  is  an  old  notion  that  Great  Britain  was  onco 
united  to  tho  continent  of  Europe ;  and  the  identity  in 
structure  of  the  opposite  coasts  of  the  strait  of  Dover 
seems  to  favour  the  supposition.  There  is  reason  to 
believo  that  the  Island  of  Ceylon  was  at  one  period 
united  to  Hindoston.  Humboldt  is  of  opinion  that  the 
West  India  islands  onco  constituted  a  circuit  of  land 
which  enclosed  the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 

It  thus  appears  that  tliero  ai'e  causes  in  continual 
operation,  fur  the  wearing  down  of  the  elevated  parts 
of  the  earth's  crust,  and  taking  the  component  particles 
into  lower  levels.  The  effects  of  these  causes  may  be 
easily  traced  in  the  i^queous  rocks,  many  of  which  are 
simply  deposits  of  sedhncut  carried  by  water  from  high 
into  low  places,  and  subsequently  hjirdencd,  probably 
by  heat  from  below  and  pressui*e  fi*om  superincunibeut 
materials.  Were  such  causes  not  iu  some  way  coun- 
teracted, dry  land  could  not  long  exist :  all  would  be 
taken  down  and  buried  in  the  sea.  Wc  find  the  coun- 
tei'oction  in  what  are  termed  tho  Ele Dating  Causes. 

Elevating  Causes, 

As  Degrading  Causes  are  chiefly  ovt'ing  to  water. 
Elevating  Causes  are  chiefly  owing  to  fire.  They  are 
therefore  sometimes  comprehended  under  the  term 
Igneous  Agency, 

The  manifestations  of  igneous  agency  at  present 
observable  may  be  considered  under  three  heads^ 
namely,  volcanoes^  earthquakes,  and  gradually  elevating 
forces,  Theso  ]>hcnomcnA  may  bo  viewed  as  tho  effects 
of  subterranean  Iirat,  opcratint;  under  different  cir- 
cumstances. A  volcano  may  be  described  as  an  opening 
in  tho  earth's  surface,  bearing  the  general  appearance 
of  a  vent  of  subterraneous  fire,  and  through  which 
smoke,  cinders,  and  ashes,  are  almost  coiitinually  issu- 
ing, but  which  sometimes  discharges  great  fragments 
of  rock,  and  vast  quantities  of  melted  rocky  matter.  The 
general  eflect  is  a  throwing  up  of  earthy  material  from 
a  low  to  a  high  level. 

Geographers  at  present  reckon  about  200  volcanic 
vents  in  activity  tlu-ougbout  the  earth.  Tho  greater 
number  of  the  whole  are  in  a  line  along  the  west  coast 
of  South  and  North  America.  There  are  many  in  the 
islands  of  the  Pacific  and  Indian  Oceans,  and  in  the 
centre  of  KAa,  In  Europe,  there  are  only  three  in 
great  activity — ^tna  in  Sicily,  Vesuvius  in  Italy,  and 
Ilechi  in  Iceland.  But  a  vast  number  of  hills  through- 
out France,  Britain,  and  other  countries,  bear  the 
appearance  of  having  once  been  active  volcanoes.  As 
volcanic  action  often  takes  place  in  tho  Fi>a,  and  as  there 
are  probably  many  on  land  nut  vrt  described  by  gco- 


CHAMBERS'S  INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. . 


graphers,  the  number  of  such  vents  throughout  the 
earth  must  be  considerably  more  than  200. 

Of  the  power  of  volcanoes  to  throw  up  large  quantities 
of  solid  matter,  we  have  many  examples.  During  an 
eruption  of  ^tna,  a  space  around  the  mountain^  150 
miles  in  circumference,  was  covered  with  a  layer  of 
sand  and  adies,  generally  about  twelve  feet  thick.  In 
the  first  century,  the  cities  of  Herculaneum  and  Pom- 
peii were  buried  beneath  such  a  layer  of  matter  by 
Vesuvius.  In  1660,  the  philosopher  Kircher,  after 
accurately  examining  ^tna,  and  me  ground  adjoining 
its  base,  oJculated  tm^t  the  whole  matter  thrown  out  by 
it  at  its  various  active  periods,  would  form  a  mass  twenty 
times  as  large  as  the  mountain  itself,  which  is  10,870 
feet  high,  and  SO  miles  in  diameter  at  the  base.  From 
this  mountain,  in  1775,  there  issued  a  stream  of  lava  a 
mile  and  a  half  in  breadth,  twelve  miles  long,  and  200 
feet  thick.  At  an  earlier  period,  there  was  a  stream 
which  covered  eighty-four  square  miles.  In  1538,  a 
larse  hill,  since  named  Monte  Nuovo,  was  thrown  up 
in  the  neighbourhood  of  Naples  in  one  night ;  and  in 
1759,  in  A  district  of  Mexico,  previously  covered  by 
smiling  plantations,  a  sudden  outburst  of  volcanic  action, 
which  lasted  several  months,  terminated  in  leaving  six 
hiUs,  varying  from  300  to  1600  feet  in  height  above  the 
old  plain. 

Of  the  effect  of  submarine  volcanoes,  some  interesting 
observations  have  been  made  in  recent  times.  In  June 
181 1,  an  island  was  thrown  up  by  volcanic  agency,  near 
St  Michael's,  in  the  Azores.  Columns  of  cinders  rose 
700  or  800  feet  above  the  surface  of  the  sea,  with  a 
noise  resembling  that  of  distant  artillery.  In  the  course 
of  a  few  days,  the  island  was  a  mile  in  circumference, 
and  about  300  feet  in  height,  having  a  crater  in  the 
centre,  full  of  hot  water.  Some  time  afterwards,  it 
disappeared.  In  July  1831,  a  similar  island  was  thrown 
up,  under  precisely  similar  circumstances,  in  latitude 
37**  IV  N.,  and  longitude  12**  44'  £.,  off  the  coast  of 
Sicily.  It  consisted  of  stones,  mud,  and  cinders,  and 
was  of  circular  form,  about  a  mile  and  a  half  in  circum- 
ference, with  a  crater  of  hot  water  in  the  centre,  400 
yards  in  diameter.  This  island,  named  Sciacca,  or 
Graham's  Island,  existed  so  long  above  the  sea  as  to 
allow  of  many  persons  landing  upon  it.  The  Bay  of 
Santorin,  in  we  Greek  archipelago,  which  is  about  six 
miles  long  and  four  broad,  coutamcd,  a  few  years  ago, 
three  volcanic  isles,  the  ^rst  of  which  rose  about  the 
year  200,  the  second  in  1650,  and  the  third  in  1709. 
In  a  part  of  the  bay,  where  the  water  is  generally 
several  hundred  feet  deep,  a  shoal  has  for  several  years 
been  gradually  rising:  about  1816,  there  were  fifteen 
fathoms  water  upon  it ;  in  1 830,  there  were  only  three 
or  four;  the  later  accoimts  reduced  it  to  two  and  a 
half,  lliis  rising  mass  was  ascertained  to  be  of  solid 
rock,  about  half  a  mile  in  length,  by  one-third  of  a  mile 
in  breadth ;  the  water  deepening  suddenly  all  round  it. 
In  1 825,  a  new  island  was  observed  to  rise  in  the  Pacific 
Ocean,  about  300  miles  north  of  Now  Zealand.  It 
consisted  of  solid  rock,  had  a  pool  in  the  middle,  and 
sent  forth  smoke  from  several  chinks. 

Many  islands  which  have  long  been  inhabited  by 
man,  bear  all  the  appearance  of  having  risen,  in  like 
manner,  from  the  bosom  of  the  deep.  The  uplands  of 
St  Helena  and  Ascension,  the  Azores,  the  West  India 
isUnds,  Iceland,  and  many  of  the  islands  in  the  Pacific, 
are  evidently  the  produce  of  volcanic  action.  "  Owhy- 
hee,-'  says  M.  dc  la  Beche,  *'  is  a  magnificent  example 
of  such  an  island :  the  whole  mass,  estinuited  as  expos- 
Lug  a  surface  of  4000  square  miles,  is  composed  of  lava, 
or  other  volcanic  matter,  which  rises  in  the  peaks  of 
Mouna  Roa  and  Mouna  Kaa,  to  the  height  of  between 
15,000  and  16,000  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea." 

The  causes  of  earthquake^  have  not  as  yet  been 
aatisfitctorilv  expUined,  but  thev  are  now  generally 
allowed  to  be  connected  with  volcanic  agency.  They 
occur  less  frequently,  and  generally  with  less  tremen- 
dous Meet,  in  Europe,  than  in  some  other  parts  of  the 
world,  those  parts  where  volcanic  agency  is  most  active, 
being  abo  the  parts  where  earthquakes  are  most  fre- 
quent and  moft  dreadful    Though  their  effect  is  some- 

20 


times  to  cause  a  sinking  of  ihe  ground,  they  may,  upc 
the  whole,  be  considered  as  among  elevating  cause 
It  is  conceived  that  they  are  produced  by  gases  confini 
in  the  molten  interior  of  the  earth,  similar  to  thot 
which  find  vent  by  volcanoes.  Such  gases,  prevent! 
by  local  circumstances  from  escaping,  may,  it  is  thougl 
thus  shake  the  solid  ground  over  a  large  tract,  and  ev( 
cause  it  to  rise  to  a  certain  extent  above  its  formt 
level.  The  most  striking  proof  which  has  been  adduo 
in  support  of  this  doctrine,  is  the  effect  of  the  earthqui^ 
which  took  phice  in  ChiU  in  1822.  This  is  part  of  th. 
continent  in  which  volcanoes  are  most  numerous  ai 
active.  On  the  occasion  referred  to,  a  shock  was  fc 
along  the  coast  for  more  than  1000  miles.  The  lai 
for  100  miles  along  the  coast,  and  backwards  to  the  lii 
of  the  Andes,  was  raised  above  its  former  level,  i 
the  shore,  and  for  some  distance  along  the  bottom 
the  sea,  the  rise  was  three  or  four  feet,  so  that  roc 
formerly  submerged,  and  covered  with  shell-fish,  we 
now  exposed  above  the  sea.  Old  beaches,  similar 
that  now  raised,  were  also  observed  in  parallel  lin 
along  the  land,  the  highest  being  about  fifty  feet  abo' 
the  ocean. 

It  has  since  been  observed  that  old  beaches,  simil 
to  those  in  Chili,  exist  in  the  neighbourhood  of  nuu 
seas.  Along  the  Firth  of  Forth,  in  Scotland,  there 
one  about  forty  feet  above  the  present  level  of  the  sc 
and  which  generally  appears  as  a  kind  of  bank  a  fc 
hundred  yards  back  from  the  present  shore.  In  i 
firths  of  Clyde  and  Cromarty,  similar  beaches  are  trace 
They  may  alwa}'s  be  detected  by  their  terrace-like  lev 
and  the  presence  of  sea-shells,  rounded  pebbles,  grav 
and  sand,  such  as  usually  compose  beaches  at  t! 
present  day.  In  some  places,  old  beaches  have  be 
conspicuous  enough  to  become  objects  of  popular  wondt 
In  the  vale  of  Glenroy,  in  Inverness-shire,  as  also 
some  neighbouring  vales  connected  with  Glenroy,  the 
are  three  terraces  along  the  sides'  of  the  hills,  at  vario 
heights,  which  the  ignorant  people  of  the  district  firm 
believe  to  have  been  roads  formed  by  the  hero  Fin^ 
for  hunting,  but  which  are  now  shown  pretty  clear 
to  have  been  the  shores  of  quiet  estuaries  or  arms 
the  sea,  similar  to  many  which  still  exist  in  the  Scotti 

Highlands ^three  successive  elevations,  probably  t 

effect  of  earthquakes,  having  elevated  the  land  abo 
the  water,  so  as  to  leave  as  many  terraces.  A  mo: 
the  Alps,  and  in  South  America,  there  are  vales  mark 
in  exactly  the  same  way  as  Glenroy. 

The  existence  of  a  force  which  praduaily  elevates  t 
land  in  many  places  out  of  the  water,  was  discover 
by  Mr  Lyell.  His  chief  observations  were  made  up 
the  shores  of  the  Gulf  of  Bothnia,  which  he  ascertain 
to  have  risen  several  feet  in  the  course  of  the  last  ci 
turv,  and  a  few  inches  even  since  1820. 

Besides  the  greater  elevating  causes  arising  fr« 
subterranean  fires,  there  are  some  lesser  ones  of  1* 
mysterious  origin.  The  sands  deposited  on  bead 
are  sometimes  blown  by  winds  in  upon  the  land,  cov< 
ing  the  vegetable  soil  throughout  a  large  space,  and 
some  instances  forming  hills  of  considerable  height  a 
magnitude.  Some  parts  of  the  coast  of  HolUnd  a 
thus  fenced  with  ranges  of  sand-hills,  the  whole  nu 
of  which  has  been  blown  back  from  the  sea.  On  sot 
parts  of  the  French  coast,  large  tracts,  once  smilii 
with  cultivation,  arc  thus  buried  under  a  sterile  lay 
of  sand,  which  is  continually  advancing,  notwithstandi 
every  effort  of  man.  On  the  coast  of  Moray,  in  t 
north  of  ScotUnd,  a  tract  once  forming  the  barony 
Culbleen,  has  been  transformed  into  a  sandy  tract  su 
the  fifteenth  century.  Such  sand-beds  readily  becoi 
converted  into  strata  of  sandstone,  if  saturated  wj 
water  containing  a  limy  infusion. 

In  various  parts  of  the  world,  land  is  raised  out  of  t 
se%  by  the  efforts  of  coral  insects.  The  works  of  the 
creatures  are  seen  upon  a  vast  scale  in  the  Pacil 
where  whole  ranges  of  islands  are  formed  by  the 
On  the  coast  of  New  Holland,  there  is  a  coral  reef  whi 
stretches  out  to  a  thousand  miles  in  length.  The  insei 
do  not  commence  their  laborious  operations  at  a'sm 
depth  below  water;  from  60  to  100  feet  ia  oonsiaex 


the  Dtmdst  ezlMt  Id  which  tha  iilaaidB  extond  4avii- 
vards.  Thar  u«  nDnsU)'  of  k  euenlar  or  oral  ihape ; 
■ud  Ur  Ljrell  is  of  o^nnion  tlut  corali  build  upon  th« 
liatM  and  in  tba  eimleis  of  mbnuuine  TaIauioe&  The 
cmler  nil  of  the  bnildiiig  euiarnBB  fitat  aboTe  tbe  mves, 
CDcloBiig  &  poo]  of  tnnquil  iraMr.  The  seeds  of  rage- 
tahlei  Kie  eillwr  brouiht  there  by  M«-birds,  or  wafted 
b}  the  Doon,  uid  the  nlanda  loon  become  clothed  with 
«  nuDtle  of  green.  The  ■abetance  of  whioh  these  islnndfl 
ud  reitb  are  eompoeed,  ia  lime,  which  the  insects  secrete 
from  the  Bc»-water,  and  cement  together  with  »  gln^- 
MHu  matter  contained  ia  their  bodies.  Mr  Ljell,  while 
urvejing  the  lethmns  of  Panama,  detached  a  qoantity 
of  iheee  animals,  and  placed  them  on  some  rocks  in  a 
■hallow  pool  of  water.  On  retnmiis  to  remove  them 
a  few  dajs  afterwarda,  he  fimnd  they  had  secreted 


stony  matter,  and  bad  firmly  glued  thenuelrea  to  the 
bottom. 

It  we  connder  the  operation  of  the  elevating  causes, 
we  can  be  at  no  loas  to  onderotand  how  we  should  now 
see,  aa  eompoBing  dry  land,  and  sometimes  in  very  lofly 
situations,  strata  which  were  once  at  tbe  bottoms  of 
seas ;  neither  will  it  be  surprising,  if  the  irregular  nature 
of  lolcanic  forces  is  oooaidered,  that  the  str»ta,  so  ele- 
vated, rarely  are  found  in  their  originally  level  position, 
bat  in  all  degrees  of  incUnstian,  sotoetimeB  quite  on 
edge;  and  even  in  certain  rare  instances  folded  back- 
wards, so  as  to  be  upside  down. 

Tbe  changes  produced  by  the  united  operations  of 
{ueoos  and  igneous  agenM  are  in  part  represented  in 


J"*»«CBS  afterwards  to  be  described 
■"  WHb,  therefore,  were  to  be  judged  of  from  the 
■•f  niKificial  crust  with  which  we  aro  acquainted, 
rnihinigfatappeBi' to  constitute  the  bulk  of  our  planet 
r* 'M  noeleus  on  which  all  the  stratified  rocks  rested. 
^^^  are  now  disposed,  under  a  sense  of  their 
™>t>d  knowledge,  to  speak  of  granite,  not  as  the  lowest 
*^  oUm  of  all  rock^  but  as  the  lowest  as  yet  disco- 
^^fi,  sod  as  one  which,  though  in  most  of  its  forms 

'"'<  in  bet,  often  appears  as  a  volcsnic  rock,  which 
^  b«eti  thrown  np  tn  a  state  of  fusion  through  super- 
"fixibent  strata  of  all  kinds,  penetrating  into  their 
'^'Oa,  and  spreading  over  them  on  the  surface.  Even 
**tiMy  rocks  are  found  permeated  and  covered  by  it 
~4  proof  that  it  has  been  formed  since  the  deposition 
f  those  rocks,  which  is  one  of  the  moat  recent  events 
■  fsotogieal  chronology.  These  are  the  peculiar  cir- 
I^Manee*  in  which  it  may  be  said  that  other  rocks 
MmelinMa  lis  btoeath  granite. 

flnnile,  then,  may  be  described  as  generally  forming 
■lirii  or  bed  for  all  the  other  rocks — as  rising  in  some 
■Imm  Aon  ill  nmncasoicd  depths  into  chains  of  loftv 
■Hi    andaainotherptoewpeiietratinginveins through 


superincumbent  rocks,  and  partially  covering  them  at 
the  top.  It  composes  some  part  of  the  mouiilain  ranges 
of  Cornwall,  Cumberland,  and  the  Scottish  HighUnds; 

many  other  parts  of  England  and  Scotland. 

Three  subetsnces  usually  enter  into  the  composition 
of  granite ;  namely,  ( 1 )  quarlt,  a  grey  glassy  substance, 
composed  of  the  oxygen  of  the  almoBphero  in  union 
with  one  of  the  nowly  discovered  metallic  bases  (siU- 
cium)  ;  (3)  feltpar,  also  a  crystalline  substance,  but 
usually  opaque  and  coloured  pink  or  yellow,  composed 


of  SI 


.  linull  n 


id  potash  ;  (3.)  mica,  asilveiy  glittering  subc 


ing  principally 
magnesia  and  oxide  of  Iran.  In  some  giauilcs,  instead 
of  mica,  wo  find  homtleiidt,  a  dark  crystalline  substance, 
composed  of  alumina,  silcx  or  flint,  and  magnesia,  with 
a  considerable  portion  of  the  bUck  oxido  of  iron.  Such 
granites  are  called  Syenite,  from  having  been  first  found 
m  the  island  of  Syene.  (Jther  varieties  arc — Serpentiaf, 
in  which  there  are  dork  qinta  like  (hose  on  tbe  skin  of 
the  snake  (hence  the  name),  and  PorjAgry,  of  which 
the  distinguishing  peculiarity  is  its  containing  little 
^  f  felspar  enclosed  in  the  mass. 

oiny,  granite  is  a  rock  of  great  impo^ 
mmon  hardness  makes  it  very  suitable 
of  buildings  where  great  duiabilily  is 
!,  the  docks  of  Liverpool,  Waterloo 
Ion,  and  many  other  buildings  of  a 
lilar  nature  in  EngUnd,  have  been  composed  of  it, 
(withstanding  that  it  had  to  be  brought  from  a  great 


Jigularpi 

for  the  er 
Bridge   i 


CHAMBERS'S  INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 

distance.    Nearly  the  wliole  city  of  A1)or(leon  is  built  rabstf^vicnt  to  the  developement  of  national  talents,  the 

of  the  granite  foand  in  the  neighbourhood ;  and  the  liighcat  that  have  ever  been  known  of  their  class,  for  it 

houses  have  consequently  a  glittering  appearance  when  is  the  marble  from  which  the  works  of  the  Greek  and 

the  sun  is  shining  upon  them.    This  stone  is  also  the  Italian  sculptors  have  been  formed.    In  the  geological 

component  matenal  of  Memnon's  head  and  Pompey'a  history  of  our  globe,  its  first  appearance  in  the  ascend- 

Pillar,  two  ancient  structures  in  Kg^^it  ing  series  of  rocks  is  an  event  of  no  small  consequence, 

,"■      .      o-      .-  .  o    •  ^^^  limestone  strata  form  a  large  proportion  of  tho 

Infenor  StraUficd  Series.  superior  formaUons,  and  the  manner  in  which  they 

Above  the  granite,  in  its  ordinary  position,  lies  the  have  been  formed  has  engaged  much  attention.  Dme- 
inferior  stratified  scries,  consisting  mainly  of  two  kinds  stone  is  the  carhonaU  qf  linuy  that  is,  a  combination  of 
of  rock,  gneiss  and  mica-slate,  with  alternating  strata  the  earth  lime  (itself  an  union  of  the  metal  calcium  and 
of  hornblende  rock,  quartz  rock,  eurite,  talcose  slates,  ox^'gen)  with  carbonic  acid  (this  bein?,  again,  an  union 
chlorite  slates,  and  argillaceous  slates ;  of  all  of  which  of  oxygen  with  the  elementary  substance  carbon), 
it  may  be  said  that  they  follow  no  determinate  order.  Oarbon  is  the  largest  element  in  the  composition  of 
These  rocks  are  of  the  same  materials  as  granite,  in  vegetable  and  animal  substancefl,  and  this  its  first  ap- 
a  very  slightly  modified  form,  and  they  are  nearly  as  pearancc  in  the  structure  of  roekis  is  of  course  a  point 
crj'stalliue  in  their  texture.  Geologists  also  find  in  of  much  intere^tt,  more  especially  as  it  is  generally  con- 
many  places  that  the  granite  passes  into  them — a  term  eluded  that  many  of  the  superior  limestone  strata  have 
expressing  a  blending  of  the  characters  of  rocks  at  been  entirely  formed  of  animal  remains.  We  are  thus 
the  line  of  their  juncture.  These  two  facts  have  led  to  tempted  to  surmise  that  the  formation  of  the  limestone 
tho  supposition^  that  the  inferior  stratified  rocks  were  beds  of  the  inferior  stratified  scries  marks  some  early 
formed  from  tlie  materials  of  the  granite,  disintegrated  and  obscuro  stage  of  organic  exiHtencc  on  the  surface 
by  mechanical  or  chemical  means,  and  washed  into  the  of  our  planet.  No  distinct  remains  of  plants  or  animals 
beds  of  vast  oceans,  where,  on  their  deposition,  they  have,  indeed,  been  found  in  this  series ;  and  it  is  cus- 
were  reached  by  the  high  temperature  of  the  interior,  tomary  to  point  to  the  next  upper  series,  in  which  both 
and  thereby  reconsolidatcd  in  a  cr^'stallino  form.  To  do  occur,  as  the  era  of  organic  life.  Yet  many  geolo- 
account  for  the  rocks  composed  exclusively  of  one  of  gists  arc  of  opinion  that  tho  inferior  stratifieil  rocks 
the  materials  of  tlie  granite,  wo  may  auppoao  a  chemical  might  have  contained  such  remains,  though  the  heat 
aemration  of  tliose  materials.  under  which  the  rocks  seem  to  have  been  formed  may 

The  most  prevalent  rock  of  the  series  is  pneiss,  a  have  obliterated  all  trace  of  such  substances, 
ecoapoand,  like  granite,  of  quartz,  felspar,  mica,  and 

hosnblende,  and  so  highly  cr^'stalline  as  to  be  some-  traxsition. 

timet  scarcely  distinsuisluible  from  granite.     A  great  Grawrackc  Group. 

portion  of  the  Ilighrands  of  Scothnd  is  composed  of       ^jj  ^,^^  ^^^  ,^j^,^^^^  described  arc  of  cn-stalline 

rtrata  of  gneias,  of  ^-ast  thickness.     It  is  remarkable  ^^  ^^^    apparently,  chemical  i.henomena  have 

for  Its  richness  m  veins  of  the  metals.    Mica-siafe,  or  ^^j^^j^j  ^j^eir  formation.     In  the  group  we  have  now 


«  Hiiuijr  t:««u5i>c-  vr«:w,  ui   umuuiij.     y^,^..^  ru.^,  preceding  occur  1 

which  we  may  suppose  to  have  been  formed  by  a  cho-  J^^,  j^^j^  ^1,^  ^j 

mical  separal'ion  of  that  comjwnent  of  granite,  is  also  ^^]^~*^f,^  former 

a  prevalent  rock.     Humboldt  takes  notice  of  a  mass  of  ^^.^^  transition  {< 

itm  South  America,  more  than  .0500  feet  in  thickness.  ^^^^  ^^^  ^^^^^  ^^  ^^j^^;  ^  ^^^nihor. 


n— '   parts 

cireumRtances  under  which  the  earlier 


inainingwdient,  and  AornWrmferocfr,  the  chief  Clemen  ^.        ^^^  and  other  slates,  rc^mbling   those    of 

Of  which  IS  Hignihed  by  Its  name,  may  also  be  accoiinte.!  ^i^^/j^f^.^i^^  'stratified  series,  with  beds  of  clavey  and 

for  by  a  cliemical  origin.  ^^^,,^.  ^^^      ^^  apparently  mechanical  orij^in;  and  in 

Clay-slate  i^  the  geological  term  for  the  well-known  ^.j^j^.^^  ^  ^^.^  fossils  are  found.    It  thus  appe.nrs  that  tho 

Btone  with  which  hoiifies  are  roofed.     It  is,  as  its  name  ^...^^j^^  ^f  ^hc  chemic.il  origin  of  rocks,  and  the  com- 


distmct  State  in  this  rock.     Miea-slate  and  day-slate  ^j^^.  production  and  maintenance  of  organic  things.    At 

are  Jisne  m  their  stnic  ure^that  is,  rapab  e  of  l>oing  ^,^^  J^^^  ^j^     ^,^^  alternation  of  the  7-<.ck«  teaches  lu 

split  into  yenr  thin  i.lates:  hence  the  iitinty  of  slate,  ^,^^  in^mctive  fact  that  the  change  wa^  not  direct  or 

as  a  material  for  covering  houses.   But  a  curious  d.ver-  „„if^^  1,^^  ^,,,t,  for  some  time,  the  two  condiuuna  of 

Wty  exists  m  this  respect  between  miea-Mate  and  r.)of-  ^,^^  ^^^^  superseded  each  otlien   This  is  conformable 

ing  Hlate.     In  the  former,  the  c/rara^r,  or  direction  m  ^..^j^  ^      ^^^^  obvn-ation,  which  lias  been  made  by 


"•"*  ,  **'",      ,  ^^  X    \    1  \r     1-      A-  mations  is  usually  seen  to  Have  mien  more  t»r  loss 

found,  as  often  hai^ns,  contorted  or  wavy,  the  direction  ^j^,    ,,,j^^  ^.^^  Yossils  found  in  this  part  of  the  seriea 

of  the  cleavage  is  in  one  straight  line  through  theni  all,  jj      ^^  ^^  ^  ascertained,  the  same  as  ihoao  of  the  next 

indicating  that  the  influence  which  prf»diiced  the  cleav-  j^-  jj^.j,  ^^\^^ 

age  in  that  nx-k  took  effisrt  after  the  whole  ha.l  bt'en  Laid       \^^^^^  ^^^  ^  ^^.^^  ^^  arenaceous  and  slatey  rocks,  ..f 

down,  and  after,  by  some  subs<H|u..iit  accident  of  pres-  ^^me„t,,.  ,noi.i,anieal  origin,  intermixed  «ith  biuall  Uds 

S*"^!!  J''"'' J?""**  u'"'^"  ^""^  •      i'  *■'  77  Z^*"^*-;'^"-  oflimestone,  in  which  that  jK»ciiliaritviK  less  diMiuct.iho 

Probably  this  phenomenon  is  ot  an  electric  nature  ^.,^^^j^  being  termed  moreVirlicuUrlv  the  ^rawirarit*: 
Chiy:^\axe^^rr{oum\m^  ^.|»,       ^,^,^^,   composition  of   tho  grauwacko 

aiiJ  in  the  Scottish  HighLands.     A  hue  kind  makes  the  f^^^.^^.^   .^  {;,^^,       been  fonned   of  a  fine  detritus 

nlates  used  at  school,  and  from  a  kind  st.ll  finer  arc  cut  .^^^^^  ^.^^,^^  ^^^^  ^^^^^^  ^j.^^^  ^,,,,  -^^  ,,^^.j      j,^^.^ 

the  pros  used  for  wnting  on  schooUlatL-*.  deposited  hIowIv  ;  but  it  sometimes  hah  fr.iijmeiits  of 

In  the  mfenor  stratified  sen.^,liere  occur  a  few  sm.ill  ^^    ^^^  ^„^^.^^^^  ^.^^  „„^j^j.  ^,,^^  ^^  ^  „,.^„,^  1^^^ 

bcdsofhmestone.sometini.^calleflNifr/iflnrM'Airnw/ori/-.  i„,,,^.,,,j,.,i  ^^^  ■,    ^„j  jj.  oocasionalW  fnissrs  into  conglo- 

fromita  resemblance  to  refiiHsl  Hiig.-ir,  and  som.tiin.s  „,..„,^,     The  limestones  mixed 'with  tlie  grauwacko 
J*rimtttre  Limestone,  from  the  period  f»f  its  oceurrems' 

ihe  ecrses.     In  f;r»»er**  mid  Itnlv  thi'*  rork  Jiris  h-'«'n  *'!.«?;  !irco!»p— ■'lannnlj-lll. 


■>•» 


GEOLOGY. 


**i»  are  larger  and  more  otmierotu  than  in  th^  pre- 
«<iiDg  group)  indieatinean  increase  of  the  oanses  wnich 
Todneed  carbonic  acidl  Fossils  are  also  more  nnme- 
ous  in  them  than  in  some  of  the  other  beds. 

The  nrauwacke  forms  the  immediate  surface  in  many 
arse  districts  in  Scotland,  England,  France,  Germany, 
jid  North  America,  showing  that,  at  the  time  of  its 
ormatton, "  some  general  causes  were  in  operation  orer 
i  lai^  portion  of  the  norUiem  hemisphere,  and  that 
he  result  was  the  production  of  a  thick  and  extensive 
lepoeit  enreloping  aniinals  of  similar  organic  structure 
tyer  a  eonsiderable  sur&ce."* 

Fossiit  qf  the  Gravwacke  Gamp* 

The  fossils  of  the  grauwacke  (a  few  of  which  extend 
o  the  clayey  and  sandy  slates  immediately  below)  are 
tf  iioth  plants  and  animals.  Amongst  the  plants  are 
JgK,  or  sea-weeds,  showing  that  seas  like  the  present 
low  existed.  Some  land  plants  are  also  found,  but  of 
he  simpler  structures;  ns/UiceSf  or  ferns ;  equisetacea, 
i  class  of  pbuits  of  the  character  of  the  mare's  tailf  of 
>ur  common  marshes ;  and  lyoopodiacea,  a  class  of  the 
Uiaraeter  of  our  club  mossesJt  All  of  these  land  plants 
ire  monocotyledons,  that  is,  produced  fh>m  seeds  of  a 
angle  lobe,  and  therefore  endogenous^  that  is,  growing 
Trom  within — timber  plants  beins,  on  the  contrary,  the 

Kroduco  of  tw<>-lobed  seeds,  and  growing  by  exterior 
iyers.  The  ^ora  of  this  era  thus  appears  of  a  rery 
■mple  kind,  indicating  the  existence  only  of  marshy 
and  damp  grounds. 

The  animals  are  also,  in  general,  of  a  humble  and 
simple  kind.    There  is  abundance  of  thoso  creatures 
(Po/ypi)  resembling  plants,  which  fix  themselves  on  the 
bottom  of  the  sea  by  stalks,  and  send  forth  branch-like 
anns  for  the  purpose  of  catching  prey,  which  they  convey 
into  an  intexiial  sac,  and  digest  .At  present  these  crea- 
toies  abound  in  the  bottoms  of  tropical  seas,  where  they 
Ure  by  devouring  minute  impurities  which  have  escaped 
ctiier  marine  tribes,  and  thus  perform  a  service  ana- 
logoQs  to  that  of  earth-worms  and  other  land  tribes,  the 
business  of  which  is  to  clear  off  all  decaying  animal 
|Ad  vegetable  matter.  But  the  class  of  creatures  found 
in  greatest  numbers  in  the  grauwacke  ^ries  of  rocks 
^ro  thell-ftshj  possibly  because  the  remains  of  theso 
^^tures  are  i>cculiarly  well  calculated  for  preserva- 
tion. All  over  the  earth,  wherever  grauwacke  rocks  are 
found,  shell-fish  arc  found  imbedded  in  vast  quantities, 
proving  that  shell-fish  were  universal  at  the  time  when 
^t  class  of  rocks  were  formed.     In  a  work  entitled 
"Keuiarks  on  the  Geology  and  Mineralogy  of  Nova 
Scotia,"  by  Abraham  Gcsner,!  it  is  stated  that  they 
Abound  to  a  surprising  degree  in  the  valuable  iron  ores 
^liich  in  that  province  accompany  or  form  part  of  the 
P*uwtcke  rocks.     In  reference  to  the  beds  at  Nictau, 
^  author  says,  **  The  impressions  made  by  marine 
P'S^c  remains  in  the  ore  and  slate  are  extremely 
**»«tiful  and  distinct.     Millions  of  shell-fish,  of  the 
'''^^uscous  and  crustaceous  tribes,  which  once  enjoyed 
''jp^eet  animal  existence,  have  been  swallowed  up  by 
"*•«  ore,  where  their  remains  and  perfect  likenesses  are 
y*^  ^be  seen  in  the  same  natural  and  symmetrical  beauty 
^yJ  possessed  when  alive.'^l     At  new  Canaan,  another 
01  the  pUees  where  these  rocks  are  dug,  the  /t/y  encri* 
^*^j  a  remarkable  example  of  the  radiated  tribes,  is 

^DelsBidie. 

^  Ths  man^^  tafl  Is  an  elegant  plant,  having  a  sneenlent  erect 
y^i»d  stem,  with  attenuated  foliage  growing  in  whorls  round 
>bt  joint*,  the  Utter  heing  proCeotad  by  a  distinct  striated  sheath ; 
^  psrta  of  fructification  ooaatituta  a  scaly  catkin  at  the  apex  of 

i  Berbaoeona  prostrate  plants  foond  tn  damp  woods  and  bogs, 
ksving  their  toavea  simile  and  imhrioat«d,  that  la,  lying  over 
mthaOsa. 

I  Balifkz,  Nova  Scotia.   Gossip  and  Ooada,  1830. 

I  ^  They  are  almost  aU  bivalves,"  he  ad«Is,  *«of  thf  genus 
eatmiat  although  some  were  obtained  resembling  the  nautilus 
0isHU  and  planorbis  tquaii*."  He  elsewhere  mentions  that  the 
SDoinite  and  trilobite,  whii^ln  Germany  are  said  not  to  have 
iftyondin  rodia  earlier  than  the  mountain  UmostODea  are 
i  la  Um  iron  ore  and  day-slate  of  Nova  Scotia. 

2;j 


found.  It  Is  80  called  from  its  resemblance  to  ft  lOy 
resting  on  its  stalk ;  <*  it  is  supposed,"  says  Mr  Gesner, 
<*  that  the  animal  resided  in  the  bottom  of  the  flower ; 
and  those  portions  of  it  which  were  moveable,  stood 
stretched  out  like  arms  to  seize  its  prey.  In  the  gran- 
wacke  at  New  Canaan,  this  animal  appears  like  the  Illy 
with  its  capsule  and  petals  closed.  It  is  often  of  large 
dimensions ;  some  were  procured  during  our  last  visit 
to  their  stony  graves,  as  large  as  water-melons,  although 
in  general  they  are  much  compressed,  and  have  been 
flattened  by  the  weight  of  the  rook  resting  above  them 
when  in  a  soft  state.  This  species  of  radiated  animals 
is  now  altogether  extinct,  and  many  aces  have  passed 
since  a  living  species  could  be  product  It  has  never 
been  discovered  in  any  of  the  strata  placed  above  the 
new  red  sandstone ;  and  as  it  does  not  appear  but  in  a 
few  of  the  older  strata,  the  whole  race  must  have  en- 
joyed but  a  short  existence." 

Among  the  shell-fish  of  the  early  seas,  a  few  of  the 
most  remarkable  kinds  are  deteribed  by  geologists  as 
ammonites  and  nauiilL  These  fishes  have  been  found 
in  great  varieties  of  size ;  but  one  peculiaritv  pervades 
them  all,  that  the  greater  part  of  the  shell  is  a  curve 
containing  air-cells,  while  the  animal  itself  resided  in 
the  outer  portion,  as  if  a  human  being  were  to  have  a 
house  conristing  of  a  long  row  of  chaml^rs,  and  live  only 
in  the  front  room.  The  ammonite  receives  its  name 
from  its  resemblance  to  the  curved  horn  on  the  head 
of  the  statue  of  Jupiter  Ammon.  It  has  been  an  animal 
of  wonderful  character  and  habits.  Some  of  them  have 
been  of  a  minuteness  scarcely  visible,  and  others  fopr 
feet  wide.  They  are  found  over  the  whole  surfkce  of 
the  earth.  The  economy  of  this  animal  destined  it  to 
live  in  general  at  the  bottoms  of  deep  seas,  but  to  be 
able  to  rise  occasionally  to  the  surface.  While  it  lived 
in  the  outer  part  of  its  wreathed  shell,  the  interior  curls 
were  hollow,  containing  air,  so  as  to  make  it  of  nearly 
the  same  weight  with  the  element  in  which  it  lived. 
As  the  pressure  of  the  water  at  the  bottom  of  a  deep 
sea  would  break  in  the  plates  of  any  ordinary  shell,  as  it 
does  a  bottle  when  one  is  lowered  to  a  considerable  deptliy 
the  shell  of  the  ammonite  has  been  strengthened  by  ft 
curious  kind  of  internal  arch-work,  so  as  to  be  able  to 
resist  the  weieht  of  the  incumbent  fluid.  This  arch- 
work  so  completely  meets  all  human  ideas  of  ingenious 
contrivance  for  the  purpose  which  it  was  destined  to 
servo,  as  to  form  one  of  tho  most  striking  examples  of 
that  adaptation  of  means  to  ends  which  is  universal  in 
tho  works  of  nature,  and  which  is  so  well  fitted  to 
impress  the  conviction  of  a  great  designing  First  Cause. 
The  weic;ht  of  tho  ammonite  was  so  nicely  adjusted  to 
an  equality  with  the  ^-ater,  that  its  filling  with  air  or 
water  a  small  central  pipe  which  runs  through  the 
whole  extent  of  the  curve,  was  sufficient  to  make  it  rise 
as  high  or  sink  as  low  as  might  suit  its  inclination. 

The  Trilobitcs  are  another  of  the  early  species  whidi 
deserve  particular  notice.  Their  remains,  like  thoso  of 
the  ammonites,  are  universal  over  the  earth.  It  is 
curious  that,  while  they  have  long  ceased  to  live,  other 
genera  or  kinds  of  the  same  class  of  creatures  {firus- 
tacca)  still  exist,  and  serve  to  afford  some  knowledge  of 
their  habits.  The  trilobite  had  a  head  and  eyes,  below 
which  there  was  a  body  of  no  great  length,  covered 
with  shelly  plates  in  tho  manner  of  a  lobster's  tail,  and 
terminating  in  a  narrow  rounded  point.  It  is  supposed 
that  it  had  soft  paddles  to  make  way  through  the  water, 
which  have  not  of  course  been  preserved.  But  the 
most  interesting  feature  in  the  trilobite  was  its  eyes,  of 
which  several  specimens  have  been  obtained  in  a  nearly 
entire  state.  The  eye  of  the  trilobite  has  been  formed 
with  400  spherical  lenses  in  separate  compartments  on 
the  surface  of  a  cornea  projecting  conical ly  upwards, 
so  that  the  animal,  in  its  usual  place  at  the  bottoms  of 
waters,  could  see  every  thing  around.  As  there  are 
two  eyes,  one  of  the  sides  of  each  would  have  been  use- 
less, as  it  could  only  look  across  to  meet  the  Tision  of 
the  other ;  but  on  the  inner  sides  there  arc  no  lenses, 
that  nothing  may,  in  accordance  with  a  principle  observ- 
able throughout  nature,  bo  thrown  away.  It  is  found 
that  in  the  scrolls,  a  Furviving  kin.'.r'*'!  g'^mip,  the  eyeg 


CHAMBERS'S  INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


arp  cnnstnict<x1  on  exactly  the  same  principle,  except    malated  in   certain  sitnationn,  and  afterwanla 
that  thry  are  not  «>  high/ which  sooniH  a  proper  difle-    covered  over  and  precuMMl  into  a  hard  consiftencc 
n*ncc,  as  thi>  back  of  tho  HcroltM  is  l<»wer,  and  prcRcnts    othor  Ktrata. 

letiM  obtitruotion  tn  tlu>  cr<'atiin^*a  viKJtm.  It  is  also  Two  Buppoflitions  have  been  formetl  reitpectin 
found  tliat  in  all  the  trilobitos  of  the  later  i-ockn,  tlie  circumstanceA  under  wliirh  coal  wa.s  formed.  Acci 
c}*es  are  the  »ame.  to  one,  the  vof^etable  matter  must  have  grown 

Thin  little  orj^n  of  a  trivial  little  animal  carricfl  to  dennc  forest  for  many  vearH  ;  thru  the  land  mu&t 
living  man  the  certain  knowknlge,  that,  millions  of  Runk,  and  become  the  basin  of  a  lake  or  estUA; 
voarM  iK'fore  liiH  race  existed,  the  air  h<>  hreatlu'H,  and  ;  which  situation  rivers  would  wa»h  into  it  miit 
the  light  by  which  he  »ocn,  were  the  same  as  at  thiM  j  sand,  which  would  cover  over  the  vegetable  nian^ 
liour,  anil  that  the  sea  must  have  lH>en  in  general  as  form  8Ui)erincumbent  bedrt  of  sluile  and  sane 
pure  as  it  in  now.  If  the  water  had  l>een  couHtantly  ■  respectively.  Then,  the  ground  would  be  once 
turbiil  or  chaotic,  a  creature  destined  to  live  at  thr  hot-  |  elev.ited,  or  sufhcitMitly  shoale<l  up,  to  become  a| 
torn  of  the  M'a  wuuld  have  hail  no  use  for  such  ildicate  scene  of  luxuriant  \'egetation.  \Vhon  the  vogi; 
visual  or;;an<i.  **  With  n>ganl  to  the  atmosphere,"  says  J  had  again  become  accumulated,  the  land  would  be 
T>r  Kucklaud,  "  we  infer  that,  had  it  ilitfere<l  materi-  '  sunk,  and  lHHN)me  onc(*  moti*  the  basin  of  a  la) 
ally  from  its  actual  condition,  it  might  have  so  far  ■  which  case  the  beds  of  nmd  and  Kan«I  might  ag: 
affected  the  rays  of  light,  that  a  corres]M>nding  difler-  formed  by  rivers.  And  this  alternating  proci'tts  it 
cncc  from  the  eyes  «)f  existing  crustaceans  would  have  '  |K>s<*d  to  have  taken  place  as  often  as  there  are  !> 
bi>en  found  in  tlie  orgsins  on  which  the  impressions  (»f  coal  to  bt>  accounted  for.  The  other  theory  is,  tbat 
such  rays  weit;  then  nnreiviMl.  Kegarding  JJght  itself, '  some  great  estuar}'  or  lake,  rivers  coming  from 
also,  \«e  learn,  fi-om  the  resemblance  of  tlu^se  most  rtmt  quarters  would  bring  tlie  rarious  matters  foi 
ancient  organisations  to  existing  eyes  that  the  nmtual  the  strata  of  the  carboniferous  group,  a  river  frui 
relations  of  Light  to  the  Kye,  and  of  the  Kye  to  Light,  direction  bringing  the  mud  which  would  form  i 
were  the  sjime  at  the  time  when  crustaceans  endowed  another  from  another  direction  the  vegetable  n 
with  the  faculty  of  virion  weiv  placed  at  the  buttom  of  which  wouhl  form  coal,  and  so  on,  each  deposit  pe 
the  primovul  seas,  as  at  the  present  moment.**  taking  place  through  the  efficacy  of  some  hnral  cii 

A  few  bones  of  fishes  luive  been  found  in  the  grau-    stances,  while  the  causes  for  the  other  de[iositM 
waeke  ;  but  stime  ol>scurity  rests  on  the  iN)int.    If  such    temporarily  suspended.     At  prt>sent  great  ditiic 
really  have  be(*n  t\io  cast.',  the  remains  of  this  era  may    beset  both  theories. 
biJ  said  to  include  hiM-cimens  of  all  the  four  divisions  I  r.       i      •  i     ^    i     -r  r, 

of  the  animal  kingd..ni_radiated,  jointed,  pulpv,  and  !  -^^'*'*  ^-^  ^'*^  Carbon i/crouf  Group. 

vertobraled  animals,  or  rudiata,  articulata,  niollusca,        ^»  <'»«  IP**>»>P  '^f  rocks,  about  3(M)  spt-eies  of  | 

luive  luH^n  discovered,  all  of  them  now  extinct.  J 
two-thirds  of  them  an>  ferns ;  the  others  cons 
large  conifrrn:  (allie<l  to  the  pine),  of  gigantic  fy 
diacciCf  of  species  allied  to  the  cactftB  and  euphorfrt 


and  vertebrata. 


Carbonifcrouit  Croup, 
This  is  a  very  compreliensive  group,  embracing  not    «"»!  "^  p.ilms.   Most  of  these  phints  probably  exist 
only  the  coal  strata,  and  the  beds  of  sandstone,  lime-  ,  <*«>al  he<ls,  forming  in  fact  their  s<ile  comi»osition 
utone,  and  others  alternating  with  thest»,  but  two  gnat    l*»^-  IK.'culiar  nature  <»f  this  mineral  n-nders  it  d' 
formations  on  which  the  pn>iK»r  coal  group  mav  be  said  j  *"  dvtt-vt  then»  by  examination.*     Thin  slici-s,  hn 


to  rest  (though  in  a  state  of  intimate  conni>ction),  named 
the  Mountain  Limestone,  and  the  (Hd  Red  Sandstone. 

The  OM  lO'd  StindsUme  is  a  ri)ck  composed  of  grains 
of  Kind,  cemented  by  the  oxide  of  iron  (the  t<km<>  Mib- 
stance  as  i^oninion  in^n  ru^t),  whieh  gives  it  its  red 
colour.  Its  strata  an'  MinietimeM  thin,  and  s«jnu>times 
of  the  thickness  «if  M.-vi'ral  thousand  fit-t. 

Afnufittiut  /.I r.;r->/f#i,r  is  nn  abundant  n>ek.  It  forms 
the  hurfai*e  of  a  vast  portion  of  the  central  counties  of  "i  hot  nioi>i  sitnatinns  ;  and  it  is  then-fon-  presL 


111 

fi 
have  l>een  examined  by  the  micn>sc(i{H*,  and  the 
table  St  met  ur<;  has  then  been  detected,  h  hen' no  ext 
trace  of  it  w:is  vi^iltle.  In  eannel  coal,  a  kind  |n*cii 
hanl,  the  ve-jetable  stnietore  is  obsi'rved  thniu: 
the  whole  mass,  while  the  tine  coal  n-tain!»  it  oi 
small  ]>atches,  which  ap|M'ar  as  it  wen*  meeh.\n 
eiitaiii^led.  Slate  and  eannel  eoal  often  Is-ar  ih- 
im[>n-Ksii)ns  oi'  ]i]ants.     The  plants  an*  such  an 


In'land.  (^lick-linie,  lor  tin*  impnivvnient  of  toil,  and 
the  preparation  of  the  mortar  UM.'d  in  building,  is  made 
from  mountain  limestone.  It  is  also  us<>d  in  manv 
countries  as  a  biiiMing  stone.  iJreat  caverns  often 
occur  in  this  rock,  being  probably  owing  to  some  che- 
mical pher.om«'noii  in  its  formation.  t»neof  these  at 
MitcheUton,  in  Ireland,  etmipn-liends  passages  iieveral 
miles  in  extent.  Mountain  limest«ine  is  fn'4uently  tra- 
versed by  beautiful  veins  of  calcareous  sjuir,  at  times 
appearing  to  1k»  principally  comitoMHi  of  organic  remains, 
while  at  others  not  a  trace  of  these  can  be  dit»*cted. 
This  rock  ImT  various  cohmrs,  but  mostly  gn*y.  varying 
in  intensity  <if  shade.  In  S4ime  situations  it  affords  good 
marble,  whieh  is  susc<*ptiblo  of  a  considerable degn'e of 
piili^h.  I'roin  its  durable  iiatun'.  it  is  likewise  used  in 
biiiiiling.  That  stupendous  work,  the  Dn'akwater  at 
l'l\ni(<uih,  is  riimpo;,d  of  it.  Many  valuable  veins  of 
bad  <»ri*  i-eenr  in  this  roek. 

Th«'  supi-rior  irroup  nion»  particularly  callinl  Car- 

f:uf,  mil...  ami  \;inoiis]y  termed  the  f'i#/i/  AffnMtrr^^  is 

ei>inpiis«  li  I  if  |,i.,U  ('r  that  mineral,  t>ften  very  nunieniiiM, 

••ilti-rnaiin::  with   l.r.U  ot   vindstone,  shale,  limestone, 

ifi'iistohi",  anil  '-•■nji'  otlh  i-  ^ubstances.      As  many  as 

forty  IriUi.f  |.|i;i|  ixi-t  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the 

town  of  N.  \».;r!:i .     M;,-  crp at  utility  of  this  mineral 

aa  a  doup-stu*  (n.  |.  nnd  in  the  arts,  gives  it  a  hii;h  im- 

'•/-/r*',  an.i  Ji;i;»;iy  is  iho  rountry  in  which  it  exists 

ntnyH*'t:t!''f  '{u.-iiitity.     In  a  nien'Iv  geoK»gical 

/"  •/"■«,  it  /,  *  f/n.'tJiv  imjfortaut.      This  rock  isi 

a  ///./     t.f  %*-„tt:ilth'  iii.iffLT,  Hhieh  lia»  nccu- 


that  a  climate  of  that  natun«  existed  at  an  early  p 
when*  coal  is  now  found,  even  in  MelviHf':*  h 
which  is  within  the  ]inlar  cii'ele.  I>r  Ilutton  th< 
that  the  vegetables  must  have  I>een  earlH•nis<^ 
charn'd)  by  heat ;  but  Dr  Macculloch  itintend 
g«K»d  groun'l-*,  that  the  change  has  bi»<"n  etlV^oteil  t 
by  v*ater  and  pn-ssure,  and  that  by  thcM.-  agents 
is  capable  of  being  converted  into  coal. 

Large  fragments  of  tn'es  are  often  found  in  the  i 
and  sandstone  be<ls  <if  the  carbonifenms  group,  ' 
fnHjuenily  in  the  former  than  in  the  latter.  As  i 
with  f«)>sil  substances,  they  are  ctmverteil  into 
material  in  whieh  they  are  iml>edded,  but  presen 
their  original  lineaments,  except  that  they  are  gene 
changed  fmni  their  tiriginal  n>und  to  a  flattened  I 
the  n-sult  of  the  pn-Ksun'  tlu-y  have  sustained. 
mi»st  instances,  the.se  fragments  of  tn>esa]>pear  to 
been  transported  from  a  distance,  and  laid  down  ! 
/,ont;illy  in  their  pn-sent  situation  ;  but  some  h.ivi? 
fouml  uith  their  risits  still  planted  in  their  nativi 
of  mud,  and  the  steiiin  sh(M>ting  upwards  through  m*i 
superior  Ih-iIs  of  various  substances.  Kven  io  i 
coal  IniIs,  then^  an*  found  Mems  of  tn-es  in  their  r 
nal  vei-tieal  position  ;  the  nnjts  being  imbedded  ioi 
beneath.  In  thev  instanc«'s,  wx*  must  suppose  the  f 
to  be  tm  the  spot  wlu'n-  the  living  tree  wan  pUi 
gKw,  and  died.  In  the  Hensham  ctial  seam,  in 
Jamiw  c<ial-tield,  a  few  years  ago,  iheiv  was  foan* 
iii^rii^ht  tree  i^f  \Ue  kind  called  lepidodendnu  ihir 


*pidodendra. 


GEOLOGY. 


airi  A  half  feet  wide  at  the  base,  and  thirty-nine  feet 
high,  the  bnmches  at  the  top  being  also  entire:  the 
lepidodendron,  a  common  plant  in  this  group,  is  so 
called  from  the  scalr  appearance  of  its  stem,  the  scales 
being  the  roots  of  the  loif  stalks.  Various  fossil  trees 
hare  been  discoTered  in  the  sandstone  beds  of  the 
carboniferona  group,  at  Crairieith  and  Granton,  in  the 
coonty  of  Edinburgh.  One  found  in  Craigleith  quarry 
was  twenty  feet  long,  three  feet  in  diameter,  with  scars 
where  the  branches  had  been  torn  off,  and  was  ascer- 
tained,  by  microscopic  inspection  of  slices  of  the  trunk, 
to  have  been  a  conifera  of  tne  genus  Arauearioy  of  which 
liring  species  exist  in  New  Holland. 

Ti&  animal  remains  of  the  carboniferous  group  are 
mnefa  ^  same  as  those  .of  the  grauwacke— zoophytes, 
moUnsea,  cmstacea,  and  a  few  fishes. 

New  Red  Sandstone  Group, 

This  group  of  strata,  lying  above  the  carboniferous 
group,  comprehends  rocks  called — 

The  Red  Chnffhmerate,  formed  of  pieces  of  earlier 
roeka,  aome  rough,  some  smoothed  by  rolling,  all  caked 
together; 

Jeehaiein,  a  kind  of  limestone,  abounding  in  Ger- 


Red  or  Varieffoied  Sandttonet^  a  group  of  many 
Tuieties  of  colour,  and  principally  of  arffiUaceous  and 
siliceous  consistence,  much  used  for  building  in  Eng- 
land and  other  countries ; 

Muse^lkalk,  a  limestone  varying  in  texture,  but 
most  frequently  grey  and  compact ;  not  found  in  Britain 
or  France,  but  occurring  in  Germany  and  Poland  ; 

rmrigpated  Marl* — ^b^  of  rock  of  different  colours, 
red,  blue,  and  grey,  composed  of  the  remains  of  shell- 
fidL 

To  this  gronpalso  belong  beds  of  rock  salt,  of  which 
many  exist  in  England,  particularly  in  the  county  of 
Chester.  Rock  salt  is  a  crystallme  mass,  forming 
uvular  strata,  sometimes  of  the  thickness  of  many  feet. 
The  sabetance  is  rarely  pure,  but  generally  contains 
nae  portion  of  oxide  of  iron,  which  gives  it  a  red 
eolonr.  It  is  dug  like  coal  and  other  minerals,  and 
when  melted  and  subjected  to  proper  purification,  is 
•old  for  domestic  purposes. 

Fossils  of  the  New  Red  Sandstone  Group. 

The  vegetable  remains  of  this  group  are  much  the 
nme  as  those  of  the  preceding ;  but  in  the  department  of 
animal  life,  when  we  arrive  at  the  Muschelkalk,  or  Shell 
Limestone,  we  find  a  great  difference,  leading  to  a 
supposition  that,  at  this  era  of  geological  chronology, 
■•eireumstances  had  arisen  changing  the  character  of 
Bduine  life  over  certain  portions  of  Europe ;  that  cer- 
tain animals  abounding  previously,  and  for  a  great  length 
of  time,  disappeared  never  to  reappear,  at  least  as  far  as 
we  can  judge  from  our  knowledge  of  organic  remains  ;^'  * 
and  that  certain  new  forms  of  a  very  remarkable  kind 
were  added. 

The  new  creatures  were  of  such  a  class  as  we  might 
expect  to  be  the  first  added  to  the  few  specimens  of  fish 
wUch  had  hitherto  existed :  they  were  of  the  class  of 
Reptika,  creatures  whose  orsanisation  places  them  next 
in  the  Kale  of  creation  to  fiui,  but  yet  below  the  higher 
elass  of  animahi  which  bring  forth  their  young  alive 
and  nourish  them  by  suck  (mammalia).  The  earth  was 
aa  yet  only  fit  to  be  a  partial  habitation  to  creatures 
breathing  its  atmosphere  and  livingupon  its  productions. 
It  is  supposed  to  have  been  under  so  high  a  temperature 
as  to  be  unsuitable  for  mammalia:  the  lands  which 
existed  were  probably  low  and  marshy,  with  a  hot,  moist 
atmosphere,  so  as  to  present  an  appropriate  field  of 
existence  only  for  lizai^  crocodiles,  and  creatures  of 
similar  diaracter.  It  is  also  to  be  supposed  that  the 
land  was  at  this  period  undergoing  frequent  changes 
aad  convulsions,  so  that  only  a  class  of  creatures  to 
vfaidi  submersiona  and  deluges  wero  matters  of  indif- 
incoee,  could  reside  upon  it  without  a  greater  waste  of 
He  than  was  part  of  the  Great  General  Design.  The 
lUpCileis  ^'hieo  first  begin  to  appear  in  the  Muschelkalk, 

•  De  U  Bechs'f  Manual,  AW, 
25 


continued  to  flourish  while  a  great  sneCession  of  6thet 
rocks  was  forming :  throughout  the  whole  of  the  Secon- 
dary Formation,  there  were  few  other  land  animals. 
In  maty  the  world  must  have  been  in  the  possession  of 
reptiles  for  a  many  thousand  times  longer  period  than 
it  appears  to  have  yet  been  in  the  possession  of  man. 
'*  When  we  see,"  says  Dr  Buckland,  *'  that  so  large  and 
important  a  range  has  been  assigned  to  reptiles  among 
the  former  population  of  our  planet,  we  cannot  but 
regard  with  feelings  of  new  and  unusual  interest,  the 
comparatively  diminutive  existine  orders  of  that  most 
ancient  family  of  quadrupeds,  with  the  very  name  of 
which  we  usually  associate  a  sentiment  of  disgust.  We 
shall  view  them  with  less  contempt,  when  we  learn, 
from  the  records  of  geological  history,  that  there  was 
a  time  when  reptiles  not  only  constituted  the  chief 
tenants  and  most  powerful  possessors  of  the  earth,  but 
extended  their  dominion  also  over  the  waters  of  the 
seas ;  and  that  the  annals  of  their  history  may  be  traced 
back  through  thousands  of  years  antecedent  to  that 
latest  point  m  the  progressive  stages  of  animal  creation, 
when  the  first  parents  of  the  human  race  were  called 
into  existence.''  * 

The  Reptiles  of  this  early  age  were  peculiar  both  in 
size  and  in  structure.  Some,  which  inhabited  the  seas, 
resembled  lizards,  but  were  of  gigantic  size;  others, 
designed  for  land  as  well  as  sea,  resembled  the  croco- 
diles which  still  exist  in  warm  climates. 

One  of  the  most  remarkable  kinds  (genera)  has  re- 
ceived the  name  of  Ichthyosaurus  (Fish  Lizard),  of 
which  seven  species  or  varieties  liave  been  discovered. 
The  head  is  like  that  of  the  crocodile,  composed  of  two 
long  slender  jaws,  provided  with  a  great  number  of 
teeth  (in  some  cases  180),  and  eyes  of  great  size  (in  ono 
instance,  the  cavity  for  the  eye  has  been  found  to  mea- 
sure fourteen  inches),  while  the  nostril,  instead  of  being 
near  the  snout,  as  in  the  crocodile,  was  near  the  ante- 
rior angle  of  the  eye.  The  body  was  fish-like,  arranged 
upon  a  long  spinal  column,  which  consisted  of  more 
than  a  hunorcd  joints,  and  to  which  a  series  of  slender 
ribs  was  attached,  and  terminating  in  a  long  and  broad 
tail,  which  must  have  possessed  great  strength.  The 
whole  length  of  some  specimens  of  the  Ichthyosaurus 
was  about  thirty  feet.  Instead  of  the  feet,  with  which 
the  lizard  and  crocodile  are  furnished,  the  Ichthyosaurus 
had  four  paddles  like  those  of  the  whale  tribes,  fitting 
it  to  move  through  the  waters  in  the  manner  of  those 
animals.  It  had  also  a  construction  of  the  sternum  or 
breast-arch,  and  of  the  fore  paddles,  similar  to  that 
found  in  the  Omithorynchus,  an  aquatic  quadruped 
of  New  Holland,  and  evidently  designed,  as  in  the  case 
of  that  animal,  to  enable  it  to  descend  to  the  bottoms  of 
waters  in  search  of  food.  While  the  Ichthyosaurus, 
then,  is  mainly  allied  to  the  lizard  tribes,  it  combined 
in  itself  the  additional  characters  of  the  fish,  the  whale, 
and  the  Omithorynchus.  **  As  the  form  of  the  ver- 
tebne  by  which  it  is  associated  with  tlie  class  of  fishes 
seems  to  have  been  introduced  for  the  purpose  of  giving 
rapid  motion  in  the  water  to  a  lizard  inhabiting  the 
element  of  fislies,  so  the  further  adoption  of  a  structure 
in  the  legs,  resembling  the  paddles  of  a  whale,  was 
superadded,  in  order  to  convert  these  extremities  into 
powerful  fins.  The  still  further  addition  of  a  furcula 
and  clavicles,  like  those  of  the  Omithorynchus,  offers 
a  third  and  not  less  striking  example  of  selection  of 
contrivances,  to  enable  animals  of  one  class  to  live  in 
the  element  of  another  class.'*t  Such  deviations  can- 
not bo  considered  as  monstrosities ;  they  are  perfect 
adaptations  of  a  creature  to  its  purposes  in  the  theatre 
of  being.  Only  the  spine  of  the  Ichthyosaurus  as  yet 
existed  in  other  animals.  Its  head,  its  paddles,  and  its 
breast-arch,  were  all  detached  parts  of  future  animals. 
How  strange  to  reflect,  that  some  of  these  contrivances 
were  allowed  to  become  extinct,  and,  as  it  were,  lost  to 
nature,  and  ultimately,  after  a  long  interval,  were  re- 
vived in  connection  with  new  creatures ! 

The  internal  structure  and  the  modes  of  living  of  the 

*  Bridgewater  Treatise,  i.  1^7. 
t  The  aamo,  i.  IRi^ 


CUAMBERS'S  INFORMATION  FOR  TIIE  PEOrLK. 


Ic)ithyosannifl,  hare  been  in  a  most  nnexpceted  manner 
made  clear  by  the  discovery  of  the  half-digested  remains 
of  animals  found  within  them  or  in  their  neighbour- 
hood. It  appears  that  the  creature  possessed  a  large 
stomach,  extending  throughout  nearly  its  whole  body, 
and  that  it  lived  upon  fish  and  other  reptiles,  including 
its  own  kind.  It  must  have  occasionally  devoured  crea- 
tures several  feet  in  length.  Masses  of  the  refuse  of 
tho  Ichthyosaurus,  petrified  as  hard  as  the  finest  marble, 
and  well  known  to  geologists  under  the  name  of  eopro' 
iUe$,  are  found  to  be  marked  spirally,  like  tho  refuse  of 
certain  Fpocics  of  sharks  and  dog-fish,  the  intestinal  gut 
of  which  winds  greatly,  in  order  that  it  may  take  up  tlio 
least  possible  room.  We  thus  obtain  a  distinct  idea  of 
tho  nature  of  a  very  important  part  of  the  bodily  eco- 
nomy of  this  long  extinct  race  of  animals.  The  stomach 
occupied  so  large  a  space  in  their  bodies,  for  the  recep- 
tion of  largo  quantities  of  food,  and  it  was  at  the  same 
time  so  necessary  that  the  speed  of  the  animal  in  pur- 
suit of  prey  should  not  be  clogged  by  a  very  large  or 
long  body,  that  the  smaller  intestines  had  been,  by  a 
wise  armngement  of  nature,  reduced  neariy  to  the  stato 
of  a  flattened  tube,  coiled  like  a  cork-screw  around 
itself ;  **  their  bulk  being  thus  diminished,"  says  Buck- 
land,  ^  while  tho  amount  of  absorbing  surface  remained 
nearly  tho  same  as  if  they  had  been  circular." 

The  name  Plesio$aurfu  is  applied  to  another  highly 
remarkable  reptile  of  gigantic  sixe,  which  inhabited  the 
world  before  the  days  of  mammalia.  A  particular 
species  has  been  described  as  having  a  body  and  paddles 
which  bore  some  resemblance  to  those  of  the  Ichthyo- 
saurus, the  former  being  more  bulky,  and  the  latter 
longer  and  more  powerful.  At  the  end  of  a  long  neck, 
like  tho  body  of  a  serpent,  was  a  head  resembling  that 
of  a  lizard,  but  also  partaldng  of  the  characters  of  the 
licad  of  the  crocodile  and  Ichthyosaurus.  The  tail  was 
short.  Tho  backbone  of  this  creature,  and  the  neck 
and  tail  continuing  it,  contained  in  all  about  ninety  ver- 
tebral pieces,  thirty-three  of  which  composed  the  neck ; 
and  the  vcrtehnn  aro  found  to  be  of  a  less  fish-like 
structure  than  thoso  of  the  Ichthyosaurus,  and  not 
nearly  so  well  calculated  fur  rapid  motion.  Tho  ribs 
descrJlie  a  largo  circle,  and,  being  formed  in  four  parts, 
seem  to  have  been  designed  to  contain  a  capacious  set  of 
lungs,  and  to  rise  and  fall  as  the  lungs  were  inflated  or 
emptied :  in  this  respect  thi^y  resemble  the  ribs  of  tho 
ehanielion,  whose  changes  ot  colour  aro  tiow  known  to 
be  occasioned  by  the  varied  depth  (»f  itn  inspirationfi.  It 
is thrrefure  surmised,  though  Avith  iittlo  confidence,  that 
tho  riesiosaurus  was  also  capable  of  clmnging  its  colour 
—A  power  which  must  have  beeu  highly  necessarv  to 
a  creature  of  its  unwieldy  character,  both  to  enable  it 
to  elude  tho  quicker  and  equally  voracious  Ichthyosauri, 
and  Uiat  it  might  more  ivadily  rnsnare  and  seize  the 
creatures  de«<ijfiu'd  to  be  its  pn-y.  The  IMesiosaurus  pro- 
bably lived  ehielly  on  or  nejir  the  surface  of  tho  water, 
breathing  the  air,  and  dabbling  for  pr<'y  like  a  duck  or 
■wan,  but  might  also  be  able  to  dof«cond  to  the  bottom, 
and  even  to  move,  though  awkwanlly,  u|>on  land.  Oiio 
part  of  its  organisation  is  peculiarly  striking,  an  foro- 
hliadowing  a  Mnieturo  of  a  more  im]M>rtant  kind.  The 
paddles,  which  may  he  considcrtHl  an  advance  or  im- 
provement U{K)n  tho  fins  of  fishes,  are  at  the  Name  tinio 
the  type  of  the  \v»n  of  quadrupeds  and  i>f  tlio  arms  and 
liinbri  of  man.  The  fore-paddlo  c«>ii>(ists  of  scapula 
(shoulder  blade),  humerus  (shonlder),  ulna  (iipfn'r 
bone),  and  radius  (lower  bone),  Bucceeded  by  the  lK»nes 
of  the  car|>us  and  meticar]>us,  and  the  pluilange?*,  equi- 
ralent  to  those  which  compose  the  palm  and  finffers  of 
a  human  bi>ing.  The  hind-paddlo  presents  femur,  tibia, 
and  fibula,  hucceeded  by  the  bones  of  tho  tarsus  and 
metatarsus,  and  five  toes.  Thus  **  even  our  own  bodies, 
and  some  of  their  most  important  organs,  are  brought 
into  dobe  and  direct  comparLoon  with  those  of  reptiles, 
whidi  at  first  sight  appear  the  most  monstrous  prcKluc- 
tions  of  creation;  and  in  tho  ver}*  hands  and  fingers 
with  which  we  write  their  hi^tury,  wo  recognise  the 
ty|>v  f>f  tho  p:iddk's  of  the  ]t•hlhyu^aurus  and  IMcsio- 


iuru^ 


•»• 


•  Itmldan.r-*  Trc:ili-o.  I.  HIX 


Of  the  Crocodile  familv  found  in  abundance  in  this 
class  of  rocks,  tlie  Jpuanodon,  of  which  remains  have 
been  found  in  the  fresh-water  formation  at  Wealden  in 
England,  may  be  cited  as  a  specimen.  It  was  a  huge 
animal,  resembling  tlie  present  Iguana  of  South  Ame- 
rica, which  chiefly  lives  upon  plants  and  seeds.  The 
smallest  part  of  the  thigh-bono  of  an  Ignanodon  was 
found  to  be  twentv-two  inches  in  circumference,  and 
much  lai^r  than  t'tiat  of  any  existing  elephant.  Species 
resembling  the  present  Gavial  of  the  Ganges  have- also 
been  found.  It  may  fairly  be  inferred  from  the  present 
habits  of  the  Gavial  and  other  kinds  of  Crocodiles,  that 
at  the  time  when  tho  extinct  species  flourished,  the 
world  must  have  contained  many  low  shores  and  sa- 
vannahs, fitted  for  tho  residence  of  sneh  creatureSi 
Some  pajrts  of  Eenland  are  thus  proved  to  have  had  at 
one  time  shores  of  lakes  and  estuaries  resembling  those 
of  the  Ganges,  the  Nile,  and  other  waters  in  hot  coun- 
tries, and  consequently  a  much  highertemperatnre  than 
at  present. 

But  perhaps  tho  greatest  wonder  of  tho  Reptile  Age, 
was  the  creature  called  the  Pterodaetyle.  Mainly  a 
reptile  of  the  lizard  kind,  its  body  possessed  some  of  tho 
characteristics  of  the  mammalia ;  it  had  the  wines  of  a 
bat,  the  neck  of  a  bird,  and  a  head  furnished  i»iui  long 
jaws  full  of  teeth,  so  that  in  this  last  part  of  its  organi- 
sation it  bore  some  resemblance  to  the  crocodile.  Eight 
species  of  the  Pterodactylo  which  have  been  found,  vary 
from  the  size  of  a  snipe  to  that  of  a  cormorant.  The 
eyes  were  of  enormous  size,  apparently  enabling  it  to 
flv  by  night.  From  the  wings  projected  fingers  ter- 
minated by  long  hooks,  like  the  curved  claw  on  the 
thumb  of  the  Imt.  These  must  have  formed  a  powerful 
paw,  wherewith  the  animal  was  enabled  to  creep  or 
climb,  or  suspend  itself  from  trees.  It  has  been  con- 
jectured that  the  Pterodactyl©  would  chiefly  live  on 
flying  insects,  of  which,  it  is  important  to  notice,  several 
varieties  existed  at  the  same  time,  their  remains  being 
found  in  the  same  rocks.  And  it  is  likely,  from  the  size 
of  the  eyes,  that  it  searched  for  prey  by  night  as  well  as 
by  day.  But  it  has  also  been  argued,  from  the  groat 
length  and  strength  of  tho  jaws,  and  the  length  of  the 
nock,  that  the  Pterodactyle  did  not  live  solely  upon 
flies,  but  likewise  sought  for  fish  in  the  manner  of  our 
own  j>refient  sea-birds. 

Tortoises  also  existed  during  this  age,  as  is  proved  by 
the  marks  of  their  feet  on  sheets  of  sjuulstone,  and  by 
their  remains.  But  ns  yet  no  animals  of  a  higher  claM 
had  appeared  upon  earth — for  tho  remains  uf  certain 
creatures  of  tho  Opossum  family,  found  in  the  oolite  at 
Stuucsfield,  near  i)xfor(I,  stand  its  Yi.*t  so  solitarily,  that 
we  cannot  cotiMdcr  them  as  proving  that  mammalia 
were  added  to  n»ptiles.  With,  then,  flocks  of  Ptero- 
dactyles  flying  in  the  air  in  pursuit  of  huge  dragon-flics ; 
gigantic  crocodiles  and  tortoises  crawling  amiibit  tho 
jungles  of  low,  moist,  and  warm  shores,  and  such  mon- 
Hiers  a>4  the  Ichthyosaurus  and  Plesiosaurus  swarmiug 
on  the  surface  of  the  sea,  while  its  depths  wore  peitplej 
by  infinite  varieties  of  fish,  shelled  and  vertebrated ;  we 
can  form  some  faint  idea  of  what  s<)rt  of  world  it  waa 
while  tho  strata  between  the  coal  and  tliocIuUk  were  in 
tlie  course  of  being  deposited. 

Oolitic  Group. 

Next  in  order  is  a  group  which  derives  its  name  from 
a  kind  of  limc>stonu  con.spieur>us  in  it,  railed  o<klitc* 
Oolite,  again,  is  named  fmiu  its  resiiublins  the  eggs  or 
roo  of  fish.  The  oolite  group  comprehends,  beMdea 
oolite  itself,  various  alternating  clays,  sandatoncs,  marls, 
and  limestones. 

Oolite  is  a  carbonate  of  lime,  intermixed  ^-ith  other 
ingredients.  The  nulites  found  at  Bath,  Portlaml,  and 
Purbeck,  arc  much  esteemed  in  building.  In  the  ooiitt 
which  occurs  over  a  considerablo  part  of  western 
Ennqie,  there  is  a  general  uuifonnity  of  structure.  In 
other  parts  of  the  world  it  dillers  verj-  CfMi^iderably, 
especially  in  its  mineralogical  chaRicter ;  and  when  tliit 
is  the  eas<\  in  order  to  determine  whether  eertaiu  rocka 
belong  til  the  group  or  not,  n ■course  has  been  ha«l  to 
UiK'.  '•i-^nnic  n.-niains  containetl  in  them.     In  home  i>.irtft 


GEOLOGY. 


ti  Enrope  these  are  rery  abundant,  and  in  othor  placeB 
the  reverse.  To  account  for  this  diJOference^  it  has  been 
Mppoaed  that  in  those  parts  of  western  Enrope  where 
tMj  are  abundant^  shaUow  seas  existed ;  while  in  those 
plassi^  aoch  as  Italy  and  Greeeey  where  few  remains 
ave  foond  in  the  formation,  the  waters  were  deep. 

With  reject  to  the  deposition  of  the  oolitic  group, 
MChiBg  Teiy  saliafiictory  ean  be  said.  Whence  came 
the  immeiiae  qnantiw  of  carbonate  of  lime,  is  a  question 
mat  aaaily  answerecU  To  aoeonnt  for  it  by  springs, 
■aaOar  in  aiM  and  saline  contents  to  those  we  now  see, 
appeals  to  be  unphilosophicak  Many  limestones  are 
Dcarij  altogether  eompoaed  of  organic  remains;  and 
this  DM  led  to  a  theory,  that  these  animals  extracted 
Vmm  from  the  water,  leaving  their  :Bhells,  produced 
tfarauh  millimis  of  generations,  to  be  gradually  con- 
voted  into  Umestone.  Notwithstanding  all  that  we 
eaa  sapiUMa  waa  deposited  from  springs  and  organic 
bodies^  **  theva  remams,"  says  de  la  Beehe,  "a  mass  of 
liaaHtQDS  to  bo  aoeounted  for,  distributed  generally 
over  a  vsy  laige  anrfiMe,  whieh  requires  a  Tory  gene- 
nl  praduetioii,  or  rather  deposit,  of  carbonate  of  lime 
eoBtimponuieoasly,  or  nearly  so,  over  a  great  area." 

la  the  oolitie  group  is  comprehended  by  some  geolo- 
^-^        important  snoordinate  group,  named  the  Has, 
ly  be  generally  deseribcS  as  an  argillaceous  and 
deposit,  sometimes  the  clayey  material  pre- 
dnafa^Hng,  aiid  sometimes  the  limey. 

Fdtsih  qfihe  OoHtio  Groftp. 

In  this  gronp  are  found,  as  in  some  of  the  preceding, 
tigm  (saa-weeds\  equuetacem  (marcs'  .tails),  JUiaes 
(fcma),  and  con^erm  (allied  to  the  pine).  The  animal 
leaania  are  nearly  the  same  as  in  tne  preceding  group, 
bat  «l  a  greater  variety  of  species. 

Crttaeemu  or  Chaik  Group, 
This  gronp,  the  uppermost  of  the  secoDdary  series  of 
'  is  so  named  from  the  beds  of  ohalk  of  which  it  is 
■ualy  formed.  Chalk  is  a  carbonate  of  lime.  It  is 
*vy  plentiful  in  England;  and  at  Dover  and  other 
fbeea,  it  ruia  along  the  coast  in  cliffii  and  mountains 
of  eooRderable  sixe.  Nodules  or  small  masses  of  flint, 
containing  remains  of  shells  and  animals, 
aboadant  in  chalk,  and  it  is  extremely  difficult  to 
for  their  presence  there.  In  the  lower  parts  of 
the  English  chalk. deposits,  the  flints  disappear,  becom- 
iig  giaidiially  more  rare  in  the  passage  downwards, 
fnm  thia  cirenmstance,  the  group  has  been  sometimes 
fifided  into  upper,  or  ehalk  with  JhnU,  and  l<neer,  or 
tkaA  wiiMatii  jbnit.  But  this  characteristio  does  not 
mivcrBaily  prevail.  Beneath  the  chalk  there  is  a  rock 
•Bed  frteruand,  which  in  Normandy  is  used  as  a  build- 
1%  Bloae.  An  argillaceous  deposit  called  pault  alno 
;  it  ie  of  a  bluish-grey  colour,  and  is  frequently 
of  olay  in  the  upper,  and  marls  in  the  lower 


dMabaenee 


gronp,  taken  as  a  moss,  may  in  Kng- 

over  a  considerable  portion  of  I'ranee  and 

',  be  considered  as  cretaceous  in  its  upper  part, 

J/  and  clayey  in  its  lower  part    The  group  in 

tvelT  distributed  over  Europe ;  and  Al.  do  la 

makes  the  following  observations  upon  its  mine- 

eharaeter  in  general : — **  Throughout  the 

ialandrt,  a  large  port  of  France,  many  parts  of 

,  in  Poland,  Sweden,  and  in  various  parts  of 

there  would  appear  to  have  been  certaiu  causes 

,  at  a  given  period,  which  produced  nearly, 

nearly,  the  same  effects.    The  variation  in  tho 

of  the  deposit  seems  merely  to  consist  in 

» or  presence  of  a  greater  or  less  abundance 

or  HUiaa,  anbetances  which  we  may  consider  as 

by  tiM  destmetion  of  previously  existing  land, 

deponted  from  waters  which  held  such  detritus 

' — ieal  Bospenaion.    The  unequal  deposit  of  the 

of  matter  in  .different  situations  would  be  in 

with  Boch  a  supposition,    lint  when  we  turn 

highor  part  of  the  group,  into  which  the  lower 

the  theory  of  mere  transport  appears 

to  the  phenomena  observed,  which  seem  rather 

prodneed  by  deposition,  from  a  chemical 


solution  of  carbonate  of  Itmo  and  silex,  covering  a  con- 
siderable area."  M.  de  la  Beehe  goes  on  to  state,  that 
no  springs,  or  set  of  springs,  could  Iiave  producer!  the 
great  deposits  of  chalk  which  cover  immense  suriaoes. 
**  But,"  says  he,  <<  although  springs,  in  our  acceptation 
of  the  term,  could  scarcely  have  caused  the  cffSseta 
required,  we  may  perhaps  look  to  a  greater  exertion 
of  the  power  which  now  produces  thermal  waters  for 
a  poHsible  exphination  of  the  observed  phenomena."  Mr 
Lyell  states,  that  chalk  must  have  originated  in  the  aea, 
in  the  form  of  sediment,  from  tranquil  water ;  and  that, 
before  the  existence  of  the  rocks  above,  it  must  have 
been  raised  in  large  portions  above  tho  water,  and 
exposed  to  the  destroying  power  of  the  elements. 

Fossils  qf  the  CretcLceous  Group, 
In  this  group,  conferva  and  ttaides  wore  added  to  tlic 
vegetables;   to  the  animal  remains  some  fishes   are 
added,  but  the  number  of  tho  saurian  reptiles  is  dimi- 
nished. 

A  species  of  rocks,  called  tho  Wealden  rocks,  occur 
beneath  the  lower  green  sand  of  tlie  Engliali  series, 
and  are  characterised  by  tlie  presence  of  terrestrial 
and  fresh-water  remains  in  abundance. 

TERTTART. 

The  cretaceous  group  was  at  one  time  thought  to  be 
the  uppermost;  but  it  was  in  time  discovered  that,  in 
several  places,  and  particularly  under  tho  sites  of  the 
cities  of  London  and  Paris,  there  existed  a  still  higher 
group  or  series,  to  which  the  name  supra-cretoccous 
was  therefore  at  first  given,  afterwards  changed  to  the 
Tertiary  Formation  or  Tertiary  Series. 

The  tertiary  rocks  appear  as  if  they  had  been  formed 
in  great  hollows  or  basins  in  tho  former  surface :  hence 
it  is  customary  to  speak  of  the  London  Hasina  the  Paris 
Basin,  &c.  The  Paris  Basin  has  been  well  explored, 
and  is  snpposed  to  present  a  good  example  of  the  Ter- 
tiary Formation.  It  consists  of  five  subordinate  groups 
or  series,  whereof  the  first,  third,  and  fifth,  appear,  from 
the  organic  remains  found  in  them,  to  have  been  formed 
in  fresh  water,  and  the  second  and  fourth  iu  sea  water. 
They  have  been  thug  arranged  in  an  ascending  order: — 

i  Plastic  clay. 
Lifmite. 
FirAt  sandittono. 
2.  Marine  formation,  ('alcaire  gmwJer. 

_  „         ,  M     .        i     #       ( Silicc<ms  litnc&tonc. 
a  Bocrmd  fr«di-water  for-  S  c.jTv.um,  m  ith  bones  of  animal-^ 

™*"'*°»  i  Fre^h-wntcr  marln. 

4.  .«?ocand  marine  forma-  J  ^^^'^  'V"^°*'  ""'^       ^  , 
^1  <  L]>])er  marme  vnndn  and  sandstone. 

'  (  Upper  ronrino  maiU  and  limestone. 

""'"°°'  (  Upper  fresh-water  marln. 

Plastic  Clay. — This  substance  has  bcou  so  namci.1 
from  its  easily  receiving  and  preserving  tho  forms  given 
to  it,  and,  from  possessing  tliis  property,  it  is  used  in 
the  potteries.  It  rests  np<m  a  surface  of  chalk,  which 
is  ver\'  irregular,  and  furrowed  out  so  as  to  present  an 
alternation  of  hills  and  valleys.  This  clay  is  of  various 
colours ;  and  above  it,  snd  separated  liv  a  layer  of  sand, 
there  frequently  occurs  another  bed'  of  clay,  whieh 
scarcely  can  be  called  plastic.  It  is  black,  siindy,  and 
sometimes  contains  organic  remain^.  In  this  deposit, 
considered  as  a  mass,  it  is  stated  that  or^iiiic  remains 
do  not  occur  in  the  lower  parts.  In  the  c^rntral  portion, 
fresh-water  animals  commonly  occur,  and  iu  the  upper 
part  there  is  a  mixture,  sometimes  an  alternation,  of 
marine  and  fresh-water  remains. 

Caleaire  Grossier^  as  its  name  implies,  is  composed  of 
a  coarse  limestone,  which  is  employed  for  architectural 
purposes.  It  is  frequently  separated  fh>m  the  plastic 
clay  beneath  by  a  l>eii  of  sand,  and  it  alternates  with 
argillaceous  or  clayey  beds.  The  animal  and  vegetable 
remains  enclosed  in  it  are  numerous,  and  generally  tho 
same  in  corresponding  beds,  presenting  considerable 
differences  when  the  beds  are  not  identical. 

Siliceofts  Limestone  is  sometimes  white  and  soft,  some- 
times grey  and  compact,  and  penetrated  by  silex.  It 
is  often  full  of  cells,  which  are  occasinnally  largf,  and 
•  communicate  with  each  otlior  In  f:l!  -liv  ■■■;■  ••u!. 


21 


CHAMBERS'S  INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


Gyptum  and  Marls. — Gprpmnn  is  a  eryrtalline  sab- 
stance  composed  of  lime,  in  union  with  sulphuric  acid 
and  watrr.  Its  colours  arc  fprcv,  white,  and  yellow ; 
but  different  varieties  of  it  have  different  hues.  It  was 
used  in  ancient  times  for  window  glass.  The  f^ypseous 
rocks  consist  of  an  alternation  of  g^Twum  and  limey  and 
clayey  marls ;  these  marls  are  also  found  in  thick  beds 
above  this  alternation.  These  beds  are  considered  as 
having  been  deposited  in  fresh  water,  and  above  them 
are  others,  which,  from  their  organic  remains,  are 
believed  to  havo  been  deposited  in  the  sea. 

Upper  Marine  Sands  and  Sandslothes. — These  consist 
ctf  irregular  beds  of  siliceous  sandstone  and  sand.  The 
animal  remains  in  the  lower  portion  of  these  beds  are 
broken  and  very  rare.  In  some  situations,  however, 
millions  of  small  bodies  have  been  fi>und.  These  beds 
are  occasionally  covered  with  a  species  of  rock  which  is 
filled  with  marine  shells. 

Upper  Fresh-  Water  Formation. — This  rock  sometimes 
consists  of  white  calcareous  marls,  at  others  of  different 
nliceous  compounds ;  from  one  of  these,  millstones  of  a 
celebrated  kmd  are  formed.  They  aro  sometimes 
charged  with  shells  and  petrified  wood. 

The  supracretacious  rocks  of  England  aro  commonly 
known  by  the  names  of  plastic  clay,  London  cUy,  Bag- 
shot  sands,  the  fresh-water  formations  of  the  Isle  of 
Wight,  and  the  crag  of  Norfolk. 

Plastic  Clatf. — This  deposit,  though  it  occasionally 
contains  an  abundance  of  cUy,  employed  for  various 
useful  purposes,  is  also  mixed  with  beds  of  pebble,  irre- 
ffulariy  alternating  with  sands  and  clay.  It  thus  differs 
m>m  that  of  Pxuris,  but  it  agrees  with  it  so  far  as  it 
reposes  upon  an  uneven  surface  of  duiik.  The  organic 
remains  are  principally  marine,  but  those  of  fresh- 
water and  terrestrial  animals  are  intermingled  witl! 
them. 

London  Clay. — The  great  argillaceous  deposit  which 
underlies  the  London  district,  has  obtained  this  name. 
It  is  of  a  bluish  or  blackish  colour,  and  contains  a  por- 
tion of  calcareous  matter ;  beds  of  sandstone  are  also 
■aid  to  bo  occasionallv  present  in  it.  This  clay  varies 
considerably  in  thicknem,  sometimes  from  sevcnty- 
■even  to  seven  hundred  feet.  Besides  the  remains  of  a 
great  variety  of  shell-fish,  those  of  a  crocodile  and 
turtle  have  been  found;  masses  of  wo<k1  have  also 
occurred  in  this  stratum. 

Bagshot  .^nds. — Th(>»>e  rest  upon  the  London  clay, 
and  consist  o(  layers  uf  various  kinds  of  sands  and  marls 
contninin;;  fossil  shells. 

I'lie  Isle  of  Wiirht  and  London  formations,  although 
differing  cou'^iderably  in  the  nature  of  their  de|K>sits 
from  those  of  l*aris,  present  such  an  analogy  in  the 
organic  remains  of  s«)me  parts  of  the  group,  that  we  are 
justified  in  referring  the  deposit  to  the  same  epoch,  local 
circumstances  and  accidents  having  detennined  their 
characters. 

It  may  be  ol>served,  that  volcanic  agency  has  been 
rer}' active  during  the  formation  of  this  group,  ^^tna, 
it  would  app<'ar,  has  for  a  long  series  of  ages  given  forth 
its  igneous  pnxlucts,  and  a  considerable  jiortion  of  these 
rest  upon  supracretac(K>ufl  rockn.  In  central  France, 
where  extinct  volcanoes  are  numerous,  this  is  still  more 
evident :  a  volcanic  nmss,  called  the  i*lomb  du  Cantal, 
appears  to  have  bunft  through  and  fractured  the  frenh- 
water  limestones  of  the  Cantal,  which,  according  to  Mr 
Lyell,  are  iM|uivalent  to  the  fresh-water  deposits  of 
Paris,  and  some  of  those  in  England. 

Fossils  o/i/te  Tertiarti  Scries. 

As  yet,  no  distinct  traces  t»f  the  higher  forms  of  or- 
ganisation have  appeared.     No  vestiges  of  the  mamnii- 
frroiis  or  sucking  animals,  either  tem>strial  or  a^iuatic, 
which  fonn  so  Iar*;e  a  portion  of  the  existing  animal 
kingdom — no  marks  of  the  bird  class,  now  so  extensive 
and  important — and  scarcely  any  token  of  such  marine 
-">'*  frexh-water  slielUand  other  productions  as  abound 
tnwM'nt  time — luive  been  discovered  either  in 
w  or  later  M-eundMry  strata  of  the  globe.    The 
J  inthtHl  MJmoHt   unique,   cases  of  supposed 
ttitluM  Mtatvuwnt^  have  all  iM»en  found  capable 


of  such  explanations  as  leave  the  general  tmt] 
shaken. 

In  the  Tertiary  Formation  we  find  a  striking 
wonderful  change  of  appearances.  These  strat 
rich  beyond  all  that  go  before  them  in  animal  m 
At  the  time  of  their  formation,  the  aptitude  o 
earth  for  the  maintenance  of  organic  life  had  ^ 
increased,  and  was  continually  increasing,  as  the  | 
approached  when  man  himself  and  the  higher  o 
of  being  were  to  become  its  inhabitants.  The  wa, 
paved,  it  will  be  seen,  for  this  consummation,  b 
same  regular  and  progreiMive  steps  which  characti 
the  organic  changes  of  the  geological  eras  alread 
scribed. 

From  their  relative  position,  and  from  the  or 
remaina  contained  in  them,  geologists  have  bee 
abled  to  distinguish,  in  the  tertiary  series  of  strata 
great  eras  of  formation.  One  of  the  most  strikin 
novel  features  of  these  formations  consists,  aa  al 
mentioned,  in  the  repeated  alternations  of  fresh- 
deposits  with  marine  ones ;  a  circunuitance  estabi 
beyond  question  by  the  character  of  the  foesil  i 
and  bones  found  respectively  in  tliese  depoaita 
the  oldest  of  the  tertiary  eras,  the  term  Eocene 
plied:  the  second  is  called  the  Miocene  period 
third,  the  Older  Pliocene ;  and  the  fourth  and  latei 
Newer  Pliocene;  names  founded  on  the  resp< 
proportions  which  their  fossil  shells  bear  to  she 
existing  species.  In  each  of  these  periods  is  inclu 
great  tresh-water,  as  well  as  a  marine,  formats 
deposit.  Of  the  living  beings  which  flourished  in 
of  these  periods,  we  shall  endeavour  to  give  soar 
count,  commencing  with  the  most  ancient,  the  £o 

After  the  chalky  formation,  a  period  of  considc 
repose  seems  to  nave  ensued,  during  which  a 
portion  of  the  existing  continents,  and  in  especia 
tioUows  and  basins  on  their  surface,  appear  to 
been  the  site  of  vast  lakes,  rivers,  and  estuaries.  '. 
theso  was  di^posited  the  first  great  fresh-water  fc 
tion  of  the  tAXM^no  period.  While  this  deposi' 
going  on,  the  globe,  no  longtT  an  entire  stagnant  n 
but  as  yet  incaiutble  of  affording  much  support  t 
rest  rial  animals,  was  tenanted  only  by  such  quadr 
as  live  beside  rivers  and  hikes.  Nearly  fifty  e: 
species  of  mammalia,  chiefly  of  this  clutracter, 
discovered  by  Cuvier  m  the  first  Eocene  fresh -watr 
mation.  The  most  of  these  belonged  to  the  class  I* 
dermata  (/AtrAr-jAti/inrr/ animals),  of  which  theele[ 
the  rhinoceroH,  the  hog,  the  tapir,  and  the  horM 
remarkable  existing  examples.  This  class  of  Pach 
matous  animals,  it  may  be  observed,  only  includes 
thick-skinned  creatures  as  have  no  more  prom 
mark  to  distinguish  them  than  their  skins.  Tht 
and  river-horse,  for  example,  are  thick-nkinned 
then  they  are  amphibious^  and  that  is  a  more  prono 
diHtinction.  The  extinct  animals  to  which  we  now 
resemble  the  tapir  more  than  any  of  the  other  P 
dermata.  Among  x\w^*q  extinct  creatures,  the 
worthy  of  notice  are  the  Paln^otherium,  the  AnopI 
rium,  the  Lophiodon,  Anthracotherium,(Therapoti 
and  one  or  two  other  families,  including,  some  of  i 
not  K'Ks  than  eleven  or  twelve  distinct  species.  ' 
manmiifer4>us  families  had  some  general  traits  of  n 
blance,  and  the  ilescription  of  the  great  PalaotK 
nuiy  afford  an  idea  of  the  nuiin  featun*s  of  all. 
animal  was  of  the  nize  of  the  hor&e,  or  about  fnu 
and  a  half  in  height  to  the  wither.  It  was  mure 
and  clumsy  in  its  ]tro)H)rtions  than  the  horse ;  the 
was  more  miUH<ivc,  and  the  extn*mities  thickn 
shorter.  On  each  foot  wor^'  three  large  tt.K.'s,  rou 
and  unprovided  with  clawH ;  the  u)>|)er  jaw  was  i 
longer  than  tht*  un<ler.  The  tapir,  and  partly,  alsi 
hog,  if  largt*  enough,  would  chtsely  resemble  the 
PaLi.'otherium.  "The  Pakeotheria  (sa^n  Buck 
probably  lived  and  died  upon  the  margins  of  the 
existing  lakes  and  rivers,  and  their  dead  carcases 
have  been  drifted  to  the  iNittom  in  seasons  of  fk 
The  other  nmmmiferuus  families  of  the  first  £i 
formation,  were  all,  like  tlie  PakeoCheria,  herbivo 
and  had,  \\  Vs  pTobaXAe,  mTi\\\ix  VtaXAxa, 


GEOLOGY. 


The  number  of  animals,  aquatic  and  terrestrial, 
vhoee  remains  are  found  in  the  other  deposits  of  the 
£ocene  period,  ub  immense.  In  some  gypsum  (sulphate 
of  lime)  quarries  of  that  era,  scarcely  a  block  can  be 
opened  which  does  not  disclose  some  fragment  of  a  fossil 
skeleton.  The  following  list  of  the  aninuUs  found  in  the 
gypsum  quarries  of  Paris,  will  show  sufficiently  how 
very  different  from  the  gieantic  reptiles  of  the  secondary 
eras  were  the  creatures  uat  tenanted,  and  found  fitting 
sust^iance  on,  the  earth,  during  the  Eocene  perio<L 
Besides  rarious  extinct  Pachydermatous  fiunilies,  there 
were  found  extinct  species  of  the  wolf  and  fox,  of  the 
racoon  and  genette,  among  the  Carnivorous  tribes ;  of 
the  opossum ;  of  the  dormouse  and  squirrel ;  nine  or 
ten  species  of  birds,  of  the  buzzard,  owl,  quail,  wood- 
cock, sea-lark,  curlew,  and  pelican  families ;  fresh-water 
tortoises,  crocodiles,  and  otner  creatures  of  the  Reptile 
class ;  and  sereral  species  of  Fishes : — all  of  these  ani- 
mals, be  it  remembered,  being  ejeiinci  species  of  existing 
families,  exclusive  of  the  Pa<mydermatous  animals,  and 
the  Fishes,  which  were  extinct  species  ot  extinct  families. 
The  occurrence  of  the  birds  mentioned  in  the  preceding 
list  of  the  Eocene  animals,  forms  (says  Dr  Buckland) 
**  a  remarkable  phenomenon  in  the  history  of  organic 
remains."  The  number  of  fossil  shells  found  in  the 
Eocene  formations  is  estimated  by  Mr  Lyell  at  1238. 
As  in  the  case  of  the  terrestrial  creatures,  few  of  these 
shell-fish  are  of  recent  or  existing  species,  not  more,  at 
the  utmost,  than  3^  in  every  hundred.  We  do  not, 
moreover,  recognise  in  the  strata  now  under  consider- 
ation, those  prodigious  accumulations  of  microscopic 
shells,  as  they  are  called  from  their  extreme  minute- 
ness, that  distinguish  the  fonnations  of  the  secondary 
or  preceding  ages.  One  small  piece  of  rock,  of  the  ages 
in  question,  has  been  found  to  contain  above  ten  thou- 
sand chambered  shells,  though  the  whole  weighed  only 
an  ounce  and  a  half.  In  £&ct,  great  beds  of  secondary 
limestone  seem  to  be  almost  wholly  composed  of  micro- 
scopic shells.  Such  phenomena  are  not  presented  in 
the  Eocene  or  subsequent  tertiary  formations.  The 
shells  of  these  periods,  as  has  been  already  observed, 
approximate  more  to  the  character  of  recent  or  exist- 
ing  species. 

In  the  Eocene  period,  then — ^the  earliest  of  the  Ter- 
tiary eras — we  perceive,  for  the  first  time,  the  existence 
in  the  animal  kmgdom  of  a  similar  order  to  that  which 
DOW  prevails,  indicating  that  the  earth  and  its  atmo- 
sphere were  in  a  certain  degree  assimilated  to  their 
present  condition.     It  seems  impossible,  however,  to 
agree  with  Mr  Lyell  in  the  subjoined  remark  on  the 
Eocene  era : — **  When  we  reflect  (says  that  writer)  on 
the  tranquil  state  of  the  earth,  imphed  by  some  of  the 
lake-formed  and  sea- formed  deposits  of  this  age,  and 
eonsider  the  fulness  of  all  the  different  classes  of  the 
animal  kingdom,  ak  deduced  from  the  study  of  the  fossil 
remains,  we  are  naturally  led  to  conclude  Uiat  the  earth 
was  at  that  period  in  a  perfectly  settled  state,  and 
already  fitted  for  the  habitation  of  man.'*      Several 
strong  argumentB  might  be  adduced  against  this  con- 
clusion, but  we  shall  only  refer  to  one  objection — the 
tempentnre.    From  the  frequency  of  the  remains  of 
croeodUes  and  other  tropical  reptiles  in  the  Eocene 
formations,  and  from  the  frequency  of  palm-leaves  and 
trunks,  as  well  as  from  other  evidences,  the  atmosphere 
may  be  rmrded  as  having  been  still  at  too  high  a  tem- 
perature for  human  comfort.    Volcanic  action,  more- 
over, appears  to  have  been  of  very  conunon  occurrence. 
The  second,  or  Miocene  period,  however,  of  the 
Tertiary  ages,  brings  us  a  step  nearer  to  the  existing 
condition  of  things.     A  strong  proof  of  this  is  derived 
from   the  shells  alone  of  the  strata  of  this  period. 
Whereas  only  three  in  the  hundred  Eocene  fossils  were 
of  recent  species,  of  the  Miocene  shells  we  find  eighteen 
in  the  hundred  to  have  existing  representatives.    Alone 
with  the  mammalia,  also,  of  the  Eocene  period,  we  find 
that  the  Miocene  deposits  present  us  with  the  earliest 
fonns  of  animals  existing  at  the  present  time.    In  Dr 
Bockland's  Bridnwater  Treatise,  a  table  is  given,  exhi- 
biting the  animals  foond  at  Darmstadt,  in  a  bed  of  sand 
z^licfable  to  the  MioodM  psriod.    In  this  lifll  «re  men* 

29 


tioned  two  skeletons  of  the  Dinotherium,  a  large  herbi- 
vorous animal,  called  by  Cuvier  the  Gigantic  Tapir; 
two  large  Tapirs ;  Caliootherium — ^two  larTO  Tapir-^e 
animals  of  this  name ;  two  Rhinoceroses ;  Hippotherium, 
an  animal  allied  to  the  horse ;  three  Hogs ;  four  lam 
Cats,  some  as  large  as  a  lion ;  the  creature  called  the 
Glutton ;  Agpotherium,  allied  to  the  dog ;  and  Machai- 
rodus,  an  animal  allied  to  the  bear.  From  tiiis  list  tho 
reader  will  perceive  the  gradual  approach  in  the  Mio- 
cene animals  to  existing  speSes.  The  laigest  of  the 
terrestrial  mammalia  yet  discovered  belongs  to  the 
period  now  under  notice;  it  ik  the  Dinotherium,  or 
Gigantic  Ti^ir,  already  mentioned.  No  complete  skele- 
ton has  yet  been  discovered ;  but  from  the  bones  found, 
Cuvier  and  others  imagine  the  animal  to  have  reached 
the  extraordinaiy  len^  of  eighteen  feet.  The  most 
remarkable  pecuuarities  of  its  structure  consist  in  two 
enormous  tusks  at  the  end  of  its  lower  jaw,  and  the 
shoulder-blade,  which  resembles  that  of  a  mole,  and  is 
calculated  to  have  given  the  power  of  digging,  or  other 
free  movement,  to  the  fore-foot.  It  seems  probable 
that  this  stupendous  creature  lived  in  fresh-water  lakes, 
and  had  the  half  terrestrial  half  aquatic  habits  of  the 
walrus  or  river-horse.  The  tusks  might  be  used  in 
digging  up  roots  and  plants,  and  also  in  sustaining  the 
head  on  banks  during  sleep,  or  in  pulling  the  body  out 
of  the  water,  as  the  walrus  uses  a  similar  pair  of  tusks. 
**  In  these  characters  (says  Buckland)  of  this  gigantic, 
herbivorous,  aquatic  quadruped,  we  recognise  adapta- 
tions to  the  lacustrine  Hake-covered)  condition  of  the 
earth,  during  that  portion  of  the  tertiary  periods,  to 
which  the  existence  of  these  seemingly  anomalous  crea- 
tures seems  to  have  been  limited." 

In  the  Miocene  period,  the  seas  became  the  habitation 
of  numbers  of  marine  mammalia,  consisting  of  Dolphins, 
Whales,  Seals,  Walrus,  and  the  Lunantin,  or  ManatL 
Few  of  these  animals  were  of  the  same  species  as  those 
which  exist  at  present,  but  the  differences  were  far  from 
being  great  or  remarkable.  This  circumstance,  as  well 
as  the  considerable  number  of  fossil  shells  identical  with 
existing  ones,  exhibits  an  approach  in  the  character 
and  tenantry  of  the  Miocene  seas  to  the  present  state 
of  things  in  Uiese  respects.  The  discovery,  also,  of  true 
terrestrial  mammalia,  as  the  Riiinoceros  and  Hog,  in 
the  Miocene  formations,  shows,  that  since  the  era  of 
the  gigantic  reptiles,  no  slight  portion  of  the  earth's  ' 
surface  had  assumed  the  condition  of  dry  land,  fit  for 
the  support  of  the  common  herbivorous  creatures.  At 
the  same  time,  the  occurrence  of  such  animals  as  the 
Dinotherium  in  the  Miocene  strata,  proves,  as  Dr 
Buckland  remarks,  that  many  regions  were  still  covered 
with  great  lakes  and  estuaries. 

It  now  remains  to  inquire  into  the  nature  and  pecu- 
liarities of  the  animals  characterising  the  Pliocene  age, 
which,  for  convenience,  has  been  arranged  into  two 
periods,  the  Older  and  Newer  Pliocene,  the  latter  of 
which  immediately  preceded  the  formation  of  the  Dilu- 
vial layer  constituting  the  present  superficial  matter  of 
the  globe. 

Proceeding  from  the  deepest  seated  portions  of  the 
terrestrial  crust  upwards,  we  find  a  progressive  ap- 
proach, as  has  already  been  stated,  in  the  character  of 
the  animal  remains  to  the  existing  varieties  of  animal 
life.  A  remarkable  proof  of  this  is  presented  by  the 
shells  of  the  Pliocene  periods.  Whereas  only  eighteen 
in  the  hundred  of  the  Miocene  shells  were  of  recent 
species,  in  the  Older  Pliocene  from  thirty-five  to  fifty, 
and  in  the  Newer  Pliocene  not  less  than  from  ninety 
to  ninety-five  in  the  hundred,  are  identical  with  shells 
of  existing  species.  This  great  change  is  accompanied 
by  the  disappearance  of  tne  Palaeotherian  family  and 
others,  which  formed  the  most  striking  animal  remains 
of  the  periods  immediately  preceding.  In  place  of  these 
extinct  ^>ecies  of  extinct  Pachydermatous  or  thick- 
skinned  families,  we  observe  in  the  strata  of  the  Pliocene 
periods  a  vast  number  of  remains  of  existing  Pachyder- 
matous families,  such  as  the  elephant,  the  rhinoceros, 
and  the  hippopotamus,  though  these  remains  belong  to 
varieties  that  are  now  extinct.  The  first  traces  also  now 
appear  of  Ruminant  animals — of  oxen,  deer,  camelsy 


ClIAMIiERSS  INi'OUMATIOX  FOR  TUE  VEOl'LE. 


and  otliLT  crcaluTL-fl  of  the  munc  claaa.  But  though  it 
U  oi  uii]i(frbiiicv  tw  Wilico  tlie  cxlsUsoco  of  tucb  rviiuuiM 
in  tliu  I'iioctfuu  a^cst,  iu  univr  to  exhibit  Uiv  progreshive 
iipprtitoch  to  tliv  |/rvh«ut  btAto  of  thiuKM  in  the  aniinal 
LiiigdiiUj,  it  ii«  ill  the  huj^c  and  oxtraordiuary  enmturw, 
now  no  luii^ar  to  bo  Meeu  ou  tho  faco  of  tlio  cartli|  that 
tho  uiUriftt  of  such  an  iuventigatiou  aH  the  preHcnt 
chifHly  hoa.  The  I'lioccue  agtm  are  not  less  rich  in 
tlioMs  woiidiTB  than  tlio  |>«riudi(i  already  deacribed,  and 
to  thia  portion  of  tlio  subject  we  ahall  now  turn  our 
Attention, 

The  ouormona  creature  called  t)io  (treat  Aftutodon, 
belong!  to  the  I'lioceue  era.  Of  all  the  fooail  aniniala 
whoae  akvlvtona  have  bcuii  found  complei§f  or  nearly 
Bo^  tho  Maittodun  is  the  lar^isst.  Much  confusion  haa 
eaiated  relative  to  tliis  aniiual*8  true  characteri  many 
oaturaliata  reganling  it  aa  an  extinct  species  of  the 
•lepliaut,  and  oiIuh-h  holding  that  it  apprcAched  nearer 
to  the  hip|N>|H)tunuiH.  Cuvier,  lioweveri  determined 
it  to  be  the  head  of  a  distinct  family,  comprehending 
■ereral  otliiT  spocicH.  It  ia  about  one  hundred  and 
twenty  yi^am  since  remains  of  tlia  Mastodon  were  first 
discovered  in  America,  and  vast  quantities  of  them  have 
been  since  fuuii«l  iu  the  same  region,  buried  chiefly  in 
marsiiy  gmunds.  One  skoleion  nearly  complete  was 
dug  u]i  on  the  bank^  cif  the  Hudson  in  lUOl,  and  it  is 
from  this  that  a  correct  knowledge  of  the  animal  haa 
been  princifiaUy  derived.  In  height,  the  Mastodon 
wf^ms  to  luive  been  about  twelve  feet,  a  stature  which 
the  Indian  elephant  occaMioiially  attains,  liut  the  body 
of  the  Mastodon  was  gn*at]y  elongated  in  comparison 
witli  tho  elepliant*is  and  its  limbs  were  thicker.  The 
whiilo  arrungenieut  of  the  bony  struoturc  resembled 
tliat  of  tho  elephant,  excepting  in  one  point,  which 
Cuvier  recarded  as  of  sufficient  consequence  to  consti- 
tute tho  Alastodon  a  ditren*nt  genus.  This  was  the 
cheek-teeth,  which  are  divided,  on  their  upper  surface, 
int4>  a  tmniU'r  of  roumled,  obtUHe  prominences,  arranged 
not  liki>  the  elepJLint*!*,  but  hke  tliose  of  the  wild  lAjar 
and  hipp(>iK>tamus ;  whence  it  is  ctmcludeil,  that,  like 
tho  latter  animals,  the  Ma.Htodun  must  have  lived  on 
tender  vegetables,  roots,  and  aquatic  phuits,  and  could 
nt»t  have  been  eaniivurous.  The  lower  jaw  of  tho 
skeletim  found  on  thti  iluiliton  ia  two  feet  ton  inches 
in  length,  and  wei;;hs  ^urtf^thres  poufuit.  Like  the  ele- 
phant, tho  MuhtfHlon  had  two  tusks,  curving  upward:*, 
and  formed  I'f  ivory,  imd,  in  the  dpiniun  of  Cuvier,  it 
had  ;i]mi  a  trunk  of  the  ssinio  kind  with  the  former 
aninmpN. 

Altogether,  making  nn  allowratu'o  for  several  addi- 
tional fe«'t  «>f  length,  the  lai^^er  sp(*cimens  of  the  elephant 
muMt  1k»  couMidiTed  as  varying  little  from  the  Great 
MastiNlon.  Though  not  an  aquatic  animal,  the  Masto- 
don, as  hsH  iH'rn  mentioned,  appears  to  have  lived,  like 
the  hippiipotamus,  on  aquatic  vegetables,  and  this  is 
ci>m>lHir»tiHi  by  the  marshy  situations  in  which  its 
reniainti  are  generally  found  in  the  greatest  profusion. 
The  Indians  i>f  Can.ida  had  observed  the.^  bi>ues,  and 
U'lieved  them  to  U'louf;  to  u  prculiaranim.il  which  they 
caile<l  tho  father  of  tkjtrn,  I'lit're  have  been  found  many 
lioneft,  iHrlontfin^;,  it  in  i*<)nci*ived  from  tho  teeth  and 
other  }H*ciiliiiriiiei«,  to  Kmallt-r  vnrietii*s  of  tho  Mastodon. 
No  ctnnplete  skeletitiiis  however,  h.iving  lM»en  yet  dug 
nn,  it  is  nnneivMtary  t4i  attem]it  any  detailed  doscription 
of  what  tlifM*  minor  MusIimIoiih  muNt  have  liron.  From 
theimitU'ii'to  numlK*r  of  Mairtodoii  lMim*s  which  luivobeon 
dug  up  ill  vuriouA  ]uirtA  of  the  earth,  and  particularly 
in  the  New  WorM,  we  must  coi:eluilothat  at  no  distant 
p«'riiMl  of  time  the  terrehtrial  Mirtaee  was  exteupively 
pevipliil  liy  tlirsf*  ennnnonN  er».':itiir«  s.  How  htrange 
wonM  tlii>  *>;<iHM:ielu  have  been,  couiil  a  human  iH'iug 
have  Ut  II  M  t  liowii  in  the  niid-vt  of  tho  great  marshes 
of  the  .iiiiMi*iit  W(>riii,  anil  ln*held  these  animals  browsing 
in  hundri'iK  ali  like  moving  mountain^  of  living  matter  I 
Another  er^'atun*,  lieion^ing  to  the  later  Pliocene 
age*,  if  not  indeed  to  the  era  of  the  Uiluvial  fonuation, 
AuM  htftt  di>eiiTen'il  in  Aniericiv,  l>oth  north  and  soatli. 
y'Ad»  im  tin*  J/rcHf/Arrimm,  an  aiiiniaJ  mora  widely  re- 
'ntn-w^i  iu  t*b.trnftrr  /'n*:ri  .irir  i-xi-fin:;  rreaturp,  than  , 
'iT  vi  t.to  ii/'iir  ;..-w;  n'ttmv.'.H  iJia:   hare   beon  vet' 


observed.  Tlio  Megatherium  was  discorerod  to 
the  end  of  the  last  century.  A  bkcleton,  almost  c 
was  found  nearly  at  one  hundred  feet  of  depth,  in 
vaiious  made  on  the  banks  of  the  river  Lnxao,  » 
leaffues  to  tlie  south-west  of  iSuenos  Ayres.  Th 
gatnerium  was  a  tardigrado  (slow-moving)  anima 
the  sloth,  and  was  at  least  the  size  of  a  commc 
Ita  limbs  were  terminated  by  Ave  thick  toes,  att 
to  a  scries  of  huge,  flat,  metatarsal  bones,  or  thoM 
with  which  the  toes  are  continuous,  as  in  the  b 
foot.  '^  Some  of  tlie  toes  (says  Buokhuid,  in  his 
of  this  creature)  ore  temmiated  by  large  and  poi 
daws  of  great  length ;  the  bones  supporting  these 
are  composed  partly  of  an  axis,  or  pointed  eore, 
filled  the  internal  cavity  of  the  horny  claw ;  and ; 
of  a  bony  sheath,  that  formed  a  strong  case  to  r 
and  support  its  base."  Tlicse  claws,  from  their  po 
vrere  admirably  calculated  for  the  purpose  of  di 
The  legs  of  this  erpature  were  of  enormous  thic 
its  thigh  bone  being  nearly  three  times  the  thickx 
the  same  bone  in  the  elepliant.  The  other  bones 
Megatherium  wera  almost  proportionably  heav; 
stiiTinore  remarkable  feature,  however,  in  tho  an 
structure,  was  the  coat  of  armour,  of  solid  bone,  ti 
from  three-fourths  of  an  inch  to  an  inch  and  a  fa 
thickness,  which  covered  its  hide,  in  the  same  m 
as  tho  armadillo's  is  encased  by  the  same  substat 

The  habits  and  peculiarities  of  this  stupendous 
for  so  the  Megatherium  may  bo  termed,  are  wi 
scribed  and  explainetl  in  Dr  Uuckland's  Bridge 
lYeatise.  Afterstating  that  with  the  head  and  shoi 
of  a  sloth,  it  combined,  in  its  legs  and  feet,  an  admi 
of  the  eharactors  of  the  ant-cater  and  the  arm 
and  resembled  them  still  more  in  being  cased  in  i 
of  armour,  he  continues,  <*  Its  haunches  wero  mon 
Ave  feet  wide,  and  its  body  twelve  feet  long  and 
feet  high ;  its  feet  were  a  jfard  in  kngth,  and  term! 
by  most  gigantic  cUws ;  its  tail  was  probably  e! 
armour,  and  much  larger  than  the  tail  of  any 
beast  among  living  or  extinct  terrestrial  mam* 
Thus  heavily  constructed,  and  ponderously  aceo' 
it  could  neither  run,  nor  leafi,  nor  climb,  nor  bi 
under  the  ground,  and  iu  all  its  movements  must 
been  necessarily  slow ;  but  what  need  of  rapid  lot 
tion  to  an  animal,  whose  occupation  of  digging  riM 
food  was  almost  stationary  I  and  wliat  need  of  spe 
flight  from  foes,  to  a  creature  whose  giant  carcac 
encased  in  an  impenetrable  cuirass,  and  who  by  a 
pat  of  his  ]>aw,  or  lash  of  his  tail,  could  in  an  ii 
have  demolished  the  cougar  or  tho  crocodile  I  IS 
within  the  panoply  of  his  bony  armour,  where  W] 
enemy  that  vrould  dare  encounter  this  behemoth 
Pampas  (the  South  American  region  where  it  exi 
or  iu  what  more  powerful  creature  can  we  fln 
cause  that  has  eflected  the  extirpation  of  his  raci* 

His  entire  frame  was  an  apparatus  of  er 
mechanisni,  adapted  exactly  to  tho  wurk  it  had  t 
strong  and  ponderous,  in  proportion  as  this  wor 
heavy,  and  calculated  to  be  the  vehicle  of  life  on 
jo^inent  to  a  gigantic  race  of  qtuidmpeds;  « 
though  they  Imve  ceased  to  be  counted  amonj 
living  inhabitants  of  our  planet,  have,  in  tlieir 
bonce,  left  behind  them  imperishuble  monumentu 
consummate  skill  with  which  they  were  constmci 
.Another extinct  tardigrade  creature,  prewnting 
of  the  characters  of  tho  Megatherium,  was  disco 
in  a  calcareous  cavern  in  Virgini:i,  and  n*ceived 
I'rt^ident  Jefferson,  who  fintt  described  siime 
boners  the  name  of  the  Megalcnyjt.  Jefferson  cone 
the  cLaw  to  be  tliat  of  an  extiiiet  feline  animal  ol 
size  (that  is  to  say,  an  animal  of  the  Nmu*  deser 
as  the  tiger,  lion,  cat,  and  lynx,  all  of  which  are  1 
of  prey )  ;  but  the  French  naturalist  declare* 
possosmv  of  the  claw  to  have  been  herbiroroi 
calcul.il«<]  to  livo  on  herbs ;  and  this  was  triompli 
proved  by  tlie  discovery  of  others  of  iu  bonas. 
Megalonyx  appears  (for  a  complet«  d[e]eton  ha 
yet  been  found)  to  have  been  a  littlt  aniAller  in 
than  the  Meitnerium,  liut  the  MegalonyK,  aeea 
to  CuvWt,  waa  \\ctb\vQirraa  «Sm  vqa  viannrr  o 


■kilh,  EiDCO  its  teeth  were  conformed  precisely  like 
thai  animal's.  From  the  munibliuics  of  their  feet, 
liMt,  he  coDclndas  that  their  gftit  was  nimiUr,  and  all 
their  nHtTemeatB  alike.  The  diffcreace  in  volnme  of 
hoij,  however,  muat  have  prsTeiited  Uie  habits  of 
ihaMeaalonyx  bom  bdng  prafeetly  analogoui  to  thom 
of  lb*  doth.  The  Wepdonjx  could  but  seldom  have 
cUmbMl  tip  treef,  becuue  it  must  isrelf  h*Te  found 
lajr  raffieientlr  Mrour  (o  anpport  its  weight.  But 
iti  haigbt  woidd  enable  it  to  bmwie,  like  the  alolb, 
UBoag  tfaa  Inna  of  trees,  without  its  being  under  the 
u— iilj  of  climbing  any  but  suoh  tall  and  strong  ones 
u  ecDld  bear  ila  weight.  It  is  bybd  poBsible  tlut  the 
WMcht  of  the  cnatora  may  hsTs  bean  sarrieeable  in 
iMnding  down,  and  periisps  in  breaking,  the  elevated 
InM^MS  whiiUi  eootained  its  food. 
Tha  nnct  fbanl  animal  to  which  we  shall  refer,  ia  that 
I  Jgag  called  the  Mammolh,  under  the  impreasion  that 
it  wa*  a  dntiDct  genus,  but  which  is  now  unlverssUy 


r  tiie  sake  of  distinction)  is 
TMliar  to  be  regarded  as  s  cieature  of  the  Diluvial  than 
(4  the  Pliooeae  period  (that  is  to  say,  bclongiDg  to  the 
spfWhcD,  hy  meani  of  Sooda,  the  preoant  be^  of  gravel 
and  hard  day  so  often  found  between  the  rociu  and 
vcgctebis  soil  were  laid  down  upon  tha  earth),  as  some 

^lens  have  been  diEcovereil  in  Siberia,  with  poi>- 

]f  tha  flesh  and  hair  actually  preserved  along  with 
iDOB  among  the  ice.  It  was  at  tint  thought,  when 
:■  of  Mammoth  bones  were  diseovered  in  Italy, 
and  other  son tljern  countries  of  Europe,  that  they  were 
tha  ramftina  of  elephacta  brought  by  the  Komans  and 
otbcn  &om  Asia  and  Africa ;  but  the  incalculable 
qsantitio  of  them  ultimately  delected  in  Russia  and 
ntber  distrieta,  where  elephants  were  never  brought  in 
tha  (Itape  of  oriental  tribute  a*  they  were  to  Kome, 
showed  that  their  presence  was  to  be  attributed  to 
natnntl  eauses,  and  not  to  the  oaaual  agency  of  man-  Tn 
tratb,  the  beds  of  the  Volga,  Don,  aud  olLer  northern 
nver*,  are  filled  vrith  them,  and  this  can  be  accounted 
for  only  on  the  hypotheuls,  either  of  an  alteration  in 
the  habits  of  the  elephant,  or  of  a  great  change  of  cli- 
mate in  these  parts,  or  of  some  immense  movmg  force 
on  the  face  of  ibeeuth,  which  has  carried  (hem  Either. 
The  instance  in  which  part  of  the  Seib  was  found  along 
with  th«  bones,  will  supply  ns  with  a  general  descrip- 
tion of  the  Mammoth.      When  the    animal,  on  this 

which  it  lay,  the  soft  parts  were  nearly  entire.  After 
the  nativen  had  fed  their  dogs  for  a  long  time  with  the 
moaatBinous  hulk  of  Hesh,  Mr  Adams  of  St  Peterabnrgh 
beard  of  it,  and  set  out  to  see  it.  When  be  reached  the 
spot,  the  skeleton  was  entire,  with  the  exception  of  a 
fore  leg.  The  spine  of  the  back,  a  shoulder-blade,  the 
pelvis,  and  the  rest  of  the  catrcmities,  were  still  united 
by  Ugainciits  and  a  portion  of  the  skin.  The  other 
AosBcr-bUde  was  found  at  some  distance.  The  head 
••■  M*«red  with  a  dry  Kkin.  Une  of  the  ears,  in  high 
praBarvatioD,  was  furnished  with  a  luftof  hair,and  the 
pn^  of  tbs  eye  was  still  diioemible.  The  brain  w 
foond  ta  the  skull,  hut  in  a  dry  state.     Tho  neck  n 


on  the  body,  some  ides  may  he  formed  from  tlie  fact 
that  thirty  poimds  of  them  were  gathered  from  the 
eronnd,  wti^  the  dogs,  in  eating  &e  flesh,  hod  dnipt 
diem.  The  tusks  were  more  tlian  nine  feet  long,  snd 
the  head,  without  the  tuski,  neighed  more  than  four 
hundred  pounds.  Altogi'tber,  thu  skeleton  of  this 
Mammoth  was  abont  llie  liize  of  a  large  elephant's. 

Skeletons  ainular  to  thid  have  been  found  in  abun- 
4uKa  in  the  slauds  of  the  Arctic  soa.  They  differ  m 
■ereral  minate  poiuts  of  etructure  from  the  common 
elephant,  and  on  this  circumstance  the  moat  rational 
explanation  of  their  lieing  found  in  such  cold  climates 
it  foiuided.  This  eiplaoatioa  is,  that  tho  Mammoth 
Ebfibant  was  of  a  species  fitted  to  be  a  native  of  cold 
Moattiaa  J  and  of  thw  reHoning,  the  different  itoiiettiie, 
■iX 


and thelongthiclt hur,areheldtobepwofii.  Whether 
this  may  be  the  ease  or  not,  it  semns  certain  that  the 
Mammoth's  eiiatence  must  have  been  very  recent,  and 
must  have  approached  olosaly  to,  if  n< ' 
the  eia  of  man. 


JDilurium,  Alluviam,  Ftat,  and  YegctabU  Soil. 

In  many  parts  of  the  earth's  surface,  a  thick  bed  of 
compact  day,  containing  stones  of  various  sizes,  and 
ai^netimes  of  a  red,  sometimes  of  a  blue  colour,  is  found 
above  the  hard  rocks:  it  is  caJled  Diluoium,  as  iDp- 
posed  to  have  been  depoaited  by  a  deluge  which  had 
swept  over  tha  CBTlh  after  the  moet  of  tha  prnent  rocka 
had  been  formed,  and  placed  in  their  present  arrange* 
ment.  Some  of  the  stones  contained  m  the  diluvium 
are  rounded  as  by  the  act  of  rolling ;  others  contain 
seams  or  grooves,  which  are  supposed  to  have  been 
occasioned  either  by  their  rubbing  on  some  hard  sub- 
stance in  passing,  or  having  been  rubbed  against  by 
smaller  stones  passing  them.  All  over  the  earth  large 
blocks  of  stone  are  found  oa  or  near  tha  surface,  whi^ 
it  is  certain  have  been  carried  from  great  distaocea,  aa 
rocks  of  the  sameliind  in  their  original  position  are  not 
to  be  found  near.  There  ore  blocks  of  this  kind  in 
Gnmberlond,  which  appear  to  have  originally  belonged 
to  hilts  in  the  sonth  M  Scotland  ;  and  some  have  been 
found  in  the  district  between  the  Trent  and  Tliames, 
which  geologista  suppose  to  have  been  brought  thither 
&om  Norway. 

The^Uucium  is  the  mattercorried  i^wn  by  rivers, 
and  deposited  in  largo  level  spaces  beside  their  banks, 
or  in  islands  at  their  mouths. 

Pial  is  an  accumtdation  of  decayed  vegetable  natter 
mixed  with  water.    It  is  well  known  for  its  propertie* 

The  Vegeiablt  Soil  is  gonerolly  composed  of  tho 
inferior  substances  in  a  polverised  state,  or  of  detritus 
carried  from  a  distance,  mingled  with  decayed  vegetable 
and  animal  mocteiv. 

Xemairu  in  the  Diluvium,  ^e. 
The  period  when  the  diluvium  was  deposited,  being 
that  immediately  preceding  the  ejcisting  onier  of  things 
on  the  eortli's  surface,  is  marked  by  the  remains  of  ani- 
mals, many  of  which  still  exist,  while  nthcrs  are  extinct. 
Tho  chief  eridence  on  this  point  ia  derived  from  bones, 
and  &agments  of  bones,  found  in  eaves  which  are 
supposed  to  have  served  about  the  time  of  the  diluvial 
action,  as  retreats  for  Uysnas  and  other  beasts  of  prey. 
That  of  Ktrkdale,  in  Yorkshire,  discovered  a  few  years 
ago,  was  found  to  contain  remains  of  twenty-three  spn- 
eiee ;  namely,  Hytena,  Tiger,  Bear,  Wolf,  Fox,  Weasel, 
Elephant,  Rhinoceros,  Hippopotamus,  Horse,  Ox,  three 
species  of  Deer,  Hare,  Rabbit,  Water-rat,  Mouse, 
Pigeon,  Raven,  Larii,  a  species  of  Duck  and  Partridge. 
The  boncfl,  in  all  these  cases,  were  broken  into  angular 
fragments  or  chips,  and  were  all  more  or  less  decayed, 
though  tho  gelatinous  matter  yet  remained  in  Borne  of 
them.  They  were  covered  by  a  layer  of  mod  about  a 
foot  deep,  uie  nature  of  wh^eh  led  t^  the  Hupposition 
tliat  it  must  have  been  deposited  during  the  action  of 
the  diluvium. 

Till  a  recent  period,  no  trace  of  any  nnimal  of  a 
'  higher  order  was  discovered  in  rocks.  Some  remains 
,  of  a  hutnan  skeleton  had  been  found  in  a  uve  in  GiiB' 
daloupc,  imbedded  in  stony  matter;  but  it  was  con- 
cluded, in  that  case,  that  the  Bndns'wg  matter  was  of 
recent  formation,  and  that  the  huniuu  being  whose 
relics  were  diseovered  in  it,  might  have  been  alive  at 
no  distant  era.  Latterly,  however,  fuesjl  loology  has 
made  one  step  in  advance.  In  1838,  a  fossil  jaw-bone 
of  one  of  the  qjuidrumana  (foutvhsnded  or  monkey 
tribes)  was  discovered  in  the  tertiary  formation  at  the 
northern  fool  of  the  Pyrenees,  in  Uie  department  of 
Gers,  in  France.  Two  deposits  there  are  very  rich  in 
fossils,  afTordini  remains  of  no  fewer  than  thirty  mam- 
miferous  animals,  tn  the  second  and  newer  of  these, 
which  is  JKustrine,  or  a  deposit  from  a  frcsh-v 
lake,  thejn-bone  of  the  monkey  woe  found,  contoi 
four  indsor  teeth,  two  amine,  lour  *  ' 


C1IAMBKRS*S  INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLK. 


bix  true  f;riiidi>»  in  a  contiiiucil  M>rion.  The  monkey  in 
hupptisvd  to  have  Ixrcn  about  three  fei-t  in  height.  The 
boue  occurred  iu  a  Htratuin  of  niurl,  covcrt^il  hy  com- 
jmct  liiuestouc.  Another  jaw-l>oiio  of  u  HHmkuy  was 
dUcoverod  with  other  renminn,  in  Au^UAt  lli'Mi,  in  a 
hrick-fii'Id  at  Kiiif;vton,  near  WoodbridK*',  in  the  county 
of  SufTulk :  the  jiarticular  U-d  in  which  it  wan  found 
has  not  been  Mated.  The  bone  indicates  a  8i>eciefl  of 
tlie  quadrumaua  not  now  rxisttng. 

TheHo  must  be  etiUMdered  as  very  interesting  dlsco- 
Vi'rieii.  The  earliest  animals  and  plantis  are  of  tlic 
MmpleHt  kind,  (inidually,  aa  we  advance  through  the 
higher  Ktrata,  or,  in  other  words,  tm  we  proceed  through 
tliiH  record  of  pixtgn-Hhive  creation,  we  find  animals  and 
plants  of  highor  and  higher  structure^,  till  at  last  we 
come  to  the  supi*rticial  strata,  where  there  are  remains 
of  kinds  approximating  to  the  highest  of  all  the  ani- 
mated trilHW,  namely,  man  hhnM*lf.  I)ut,  before  the 
above  discoveries,  thert;  riMiuiined  one  remarkable  gap 
in  the  series.  The  quadrumana,  or  monkeys,  who  form 
an  onler  alH)vc  common  mammalia,  but  Ik*1ow  the 
bimana,  or  human  triUfs,  were  wanting.  Now  this 
deiieieney  is  Kuppli(*<l ;  and  it  is  shown  that  every  one 
of  the  present  lonns  of  animated  existence,  exccj*ting 
the  human,  existed  at  the  time  when  the  suiK'rticiai 
strata  were  formed.  The  only  zoological  event  of  an 
important  naturt?  sultsequent  to  that  ]N'riod  is  the  crea- 
tion of  umn ;  for  we  may  consider  of  a  lesser  import- 
ance the  extinction  of  many  of  the  spi^citic  varieties 
which  flourished  in  the  geological  ages,  and  the  creation 
of  new.  • 

VOIXAMC. 

Ri>ck  of  this  kind  owes  its  origin  to  internal  fire, 
which  seems  to  have  strnt  it  up  in  a  state  of  fusion.  It 
is  s]>read  over  hirge  partH  of  i\w  surface  of  the  e.irth, 
particularly  in  Francts  where  there  are  many  extinet 
volcanoes.  The  ap<'rtures  through  which  it  lias  forced 
its  way  from  Im>Iow,  and  the  chinks  and  ri'nts  formed 
at  the  time  of  its  eruption  in  adjacent  rocks,  are  often 
found  tilled  with  it.  Largt;  mountains  are  also  com- 
posed of  volcanic  rock.  It  is  remarkable  for  the  line 
Moil  formed  out  of  it. 

The  chief  varieties  of  vokiinic  rock  are — 

Trapy  a  term  from  the  Swedish,  expn^ssive  of  the 
appearanc«>  of  stains  which  a  hill  of  thLsrtK'k  often  pre- 
t-eutt — a  Itaiv  preeipiiif  alternating  with  a  grassy  jdat- 
form  or  terrain-.  I  ii  trap  riieks,  no<lules  an*  often  found ; 
tliat  is,  little  isolated  masses  of  a  dttt'erent  consistence 
from  the  including  matter :  the  rock  is  then  said  to  be 
of  amy yiiahidal  structure  J  from  a  Greek  word  signifying 
raisins.  This  ptruliarity  is  owing  to  the  porousness 
of  the  original  matter:  it  containe<I  many  small  air- 
eelU,  whieli,  1j<Mng  afterwards  filled  up  with  silex,  ear- 
bonate  of  lime,  »>olite,  and  other  ingreiUents,  became 
nodules  (»f  thos«*  subptances.*  In  plutonic  n>cks,  no 
buch  iH>euliarity  Ls  ever  found. 

Iia*aity  a  dark  grey  roek,  of  erystalHseil  form,  mas^>es 
of  which  re>«emble  groups  of  pillan^,  the  various  pillars 
generally  having  regular  sides  and  an;;les,  an<I  the 
\iliole  joine<l  conipaetly  to;;i>th(>r.  The  <iiants*  Cause- 
way, in  Ireland,  and  tht>  Island  uf  Statt'a,  in  the  He- 
bridt%  an>  notable  examples  of  KikiU.  The  btrueture 
of  liasalt  is  found  to  have  originated  in  the  manner  in 
which  refrigeration,  orcooliii:;,  tiN>k  place  at  its  fonna- 
tu>n.  The  pn>ce<^  has  Inh-u  iniitateil  on  a  small  !<<*ale  bv 
tilt*  fusing  of  a  few  hunilretl-w rights  of  Imsalt,  and 
all'mihg  iLe  niasM  to  c«kj1  in  the  lurnaoe  :  as  the  ONiling 
gradually  jir-»ei  i-iIimI,  ^Inbiiles  ap[M'iired  ;  these  enlarged 
till  llii-y  pn-MM-il  lati-rally  (sidewa\>J  ai:ainst  e.ich  other, 
ami  iN'caine  eimverti-d  int.i  polvgonal  [many-eomered] 
pri^niM.  Thus  the  ruck  wa«»  n-plaerd  in  sijmething  like 
its  original  form,  in  a  enmnioii  furnace. 

iin'rimtuney  a  eoinpact,  lianl,  tenacious  rock,  of  dark 
grtyish  C4)lour,  slightly  tingeil  with  gre<Mi. 

Lava  (a  term  from  the  (lothic,  signifying /o  niM),  the 
9nH/uct  ttfmodvnt  rvltanic  nwunUk'im'      ^ 


SuTiox  IV.— MINERAL  VEINS. 

Tliroughout  the  jtrimary,  transition,  seci>n«ltiry,  aimI 
tertiary  rocks,  but  particularly  the  two  first  kindi^ 
tlieru  occur  wliat  are  called  tYiris,  containing  diTefva 
substances,  most  commonly  metals,  quartz,  and  calcft- 
reous  spar,  the  last  being  a  hard  andsliining  subatAoea 
deposite<l  from  lime.  The  form  and  direction  of  veiiii 
may  be  best  understood  from  tlio  wav  in  which  they 
mostly  seem  to  liave  originated,  namelv,  by  chinka  of 
cracks  formed  in  all  directions  Uirougliout  the  ruelui 
and  which  have  subsequently  been  filled  witli  Tuioui 
substances. 

Those  filled  with  metals  penetrate  downwards  so  far, 
that  their  lower  ends  arc  rarely  found,  and  miners  havi 
an  idea  that  they  reach  quite  through  the  earth.  Nen 
the  surface  of  the  earth,  they  are  generally  found  poomi 
in  the  metal  they  contain,  richer  at  a  certain  aistanei 
down,  and  then  i>oor  again.  They  also  often  changi 
their  metal  at  different  depths.  In  France  there  an 
veins  which  contain  iron  above,  then  silver,  and  nexl 
copper.  One  of  the  Cornwall  mines  has  zinc  abovt^ 
and  cop])er  in  great  quantity  below.  Tiiese  veina  ate 
change  their  width  at  different  depths :  thus,  the  Dal- 
coath  mine  in  Comwiill  varies  from  forty  feet  to  au 
inches  in  width.*  What  at  first  appears  extremeljf 
strange,  a  vein  will  sometimes  be  rich,  or  coniaii 
abundance  of  tho  metal,  at  the  pUice  where  it 
through  one  kind  of  rock,  and  ]M>or  where  it 
through  another.  Thus,  for  instanct*,  a  copper  n 
will  be  productive  as  long  as  it  is  dug  through 
and  become  poor  when  it  passes  into  granite.  Sadi  a 
vein,  it  nmy  also  be  remarked,  is  generally  found  ricbail 
in  the  slate  when  it  approaches  the  granite. 

Till  a  recent  time,  two  theories  as  to  the  formatioi 
of  metallic  veins  were  predtmiinant — one  reprcsentiBg 
them  as  the  result  of  a  forcing  of  fused  matter  iron 
below  into  the  chinks,  the  other  accounting  for  then 
by  su]>posing  an  infiltration  of  the  matter  in  water 
from  above.  These  theorii'S,  respectively  Ufrmed  Hot- 
tonian  and  Wt>merian,  are  now  given  up :  **  many  veiiii 
are  fissures  of  mc*chanical  origin,  into  which  metallifciwii 
matter  has  been  sublimi'il  from  the  tffTects  of  higli  tm- 
perature ;  but  others  have  resulted  from  an  electro- 
chemical '  seiiaration  or  segregation  of  certain  mini*nl 
and  metallic  ]t:irticles  from  the  mass  of  enveloping 
rock,  while  it  was  in  a  soft  or  fluid  state,  ami  their  deter 
mination  to  |>articnlar  centres.' "f  Within  the  lail 
few  vears,  much  light  has  been  thrown  on  the  subject 
by  electro-chemical  exjK'rinients,  when* by  the  w  orkingi 
of  nature,  in  this  de{>artnient  of  her  t.'conoinv,  wen 
imitated  on  a  small  scale.  IU*c<iuerell  and  Mitc^erlicK 
foreign  mineralogists,  have  succeeded  in  forming  rrystak 
by eU'ctricity.  ( )ur own countrjman, Mr .\ndrew CroiM 
of  .SomersetMhire,  has  in  like  manner  formed  calcarrooi 
8i»ar  out  of  water  which  had  |)ercolateil  through  a  liin» 
stone  rock,  and  which  wan  forming  cr}-stalH  natutal^ 
at  the  place  where  the  exp*Tinientali>t  obtained  iL  Tb 
same  gentleman  produced  quartz  crystals,  and  thai 
nuide  the  fonnation  of  what  are  calletl  precious  sloiM 
no  longtT  a  mystery.  The  eK>ctric  np|t.iratus  used  bj 
.Mr  C'n).'*Ne  wa^  of  small  power,  but  kept  lung  in  opcni' 
tion,  such  U'tng  the  way  iu  which  nature  works  thi 
same  ends. 

In  Mr  C'nwse's  e\|>orinient8,  the  same  solution  pro 
diieed  ditfer«'nt  substances  at  different  ends  uf  thi 
electric  i>ole.  I'tir  example,  a  l>attery  ofierating  forsb 
numthsou  tluat  of  silver,  piiNluced  at  the  negativo  poll 
six-sided  culx's  of  silver,  and  at  the  {NtMtive  crvhtau  a 
silica  and  clialeedony.  This  opt-iiN  up  a  most  internt 
ing  field  of  speculation.  The  difTerenc^^  of  substaneci 
found  in  certain  veins,  their  i'om{*arative  richncM  mm 
■  iK)orne*%>,  may  have  l»een  the  consi'quence  of  diflcreai 
electric  states  in  the  rocks  in  which  they  wercdcposiad 

*  C«muiti)ck*«  <>ooI<>fy,  New  Yiirk»  1 
t  Maatvir*  WinJvrc  ff  (ienltfy,  fOI. 


l*rinti<«l  snd  pubti<Jii-d  by  W.  and  Jl.  CHAMBBas.  19.  Wi 
I'law,  I-Ulinbtufh.     Hitlil  by  W.  M.  c>rr  sad  ComiMHVi 
Clonurr ,  Ijonden ;  AiAib  MscVcqA,  ^Amivqi^  ;  laA  bU 


Mpl 

ii-srlyrnund  giohe  or 
lf**(i  [kriiniu'^r  pbuirtD, 

'lv>  round  ilin  mm  an  * 

.  ajilmulld  luaibnr*  lh» 

p  «|  ll«IU  kul  liiat.     Till  mrUl  In  omi  J  tti* 


nlDVfiQtll  of  the  (lln- 

Iiknvliirf  ktbUiiu,  wid,  witli  nfe- 
ly  a  ))iMik  iu  thw  vut  axtvut  of 


.'^cuIUuinx  nr  MLromiaiwii,  Ihti 


^  ,        » In  dctiurarariin(.v.  llat  the  diuuatsr 
i^kyilirral  <hn  mUilla,  or  v^QlnoctUl  line, 

Mj4lraoiiun.    Tha  itMu  of  thti  bu 

I  Ainui^criiv,  but  ma;  lure  b*  briefly 

Tb*  tliarnni  mntinn  of  ills  okTth  on  i» 

B  icnuiar  whirl  U  tho 

ri<  nuM*,  uut  th«  mrth, 

ti  tlim  bnljiad  (lut  nil 

,  ng  In  liTHilj-aii.  iiiilm 

itsiaJa  UilskiiDB.ui'  ttiU  >>"-'□  Buiet  fnnD  Id*  aur- 

V  id  the  tsnti.     Tfana,  Uic  form  of  IJiD 


E«  purM,  oni 


winild  '^..  .liMr"-i'»o'l  ill  fraKminl".  or.  in  oUufr. 
wnrdi.  be  daMtovcd,  I'll*  wrtb,  w  far 
titlncd,  li »  milld  bndv.  wtiT  bainaced  in  i 
oooeiitg  of  two  kinJ*  ef  matturi  bind  ao'i  wau'i — um 
Und  being  compDwd  o(  rooks,  m»taIlio  ur"i.  w>i'»,  aoi 
k  vuisl]'  of  sthi-r  Bnbiituiou  (hhi  Ukuwiit)  ;  nbllc  tho 
w&tcr.  M  i>  well  bnnwii,  m  of  two  'lualitlco,  nmb  Ud 
ealt— Ihi-  forinnr  in  lakwi  Kiwi  rimrn,  «i>d  tb*  ]»«<»  b 
tlio  on  ur  r>iiHin.  Tb»  nwitlKr  part  of  tbc  xirlli  Mm- 
lists  of  Bolid  Jand  or  rocEv  mttltcr,  but  n  large  projior- 
tion  or  it  is  eovPPod  by  ttia  wb!01-s  of  tho  ooeaD;  and 
Ihcreforo,  to  iippmnmce,  the  not-*!!  forma  the  prineliiBl 
portion  of  tho  globe.  U  is  so,  howaver,  only  in  appEor- 
iineo,  nolwithaOindinB  it*  impaBint;  oxtent,  tbe  water 
bding  merely  a  supcmcial  oovuring  la  tlie  land. 

Tbe  manimr  in  whicli  the  laud  ia  mixed  with  this 
oecui  ia  quite  irre(^lar,  and  the  Ntatite  kitnatioo  and 
dimnurioiM  nf  mcb  oi-c  con«taD(ly  ahifting.  t'voni  vauMW 
whlEh  havD  hMui  oxplilned  b  ifie  article  UnoLniv,  tha 
■un  1*  daily  mabing  onomacbmrailn  on  tlio  Inml,  whilo 
iIjo  land  aX  other  julnccii  ta  la  ttvo  eonrmi  nt  V«L«i  \A\ 
^Iry  by  tlie  wta.  Tbw,  In  vn^«^  ^  ^»«^'  **  K^ieniA 
fcstutaa  of  tli«  ^oImww  ««  tfkuk^n^'i  wt^^  ^~ 


CHAMBERS'S  INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


be  safely  ftvcrrf  d,  tint  in  the  course  of  acci  there  has 
been  a  thorough  altcrati(»ii  ovi-r  the  whole  surface  of 
the  globe — that  not  f>iic  part  now  resembles  that  form 
which  it  originally  posscs-sed. 

In  order  to  faciliute  the  operations  of  the  navigator 
and  tvaveller,  and  with  the  view  to  mark  the  relative 
sitnation  of  every  spot  on  the  carth*s  surface,  the  globe 
has  been  subjected  to  divers  measurements,  by  means  of 
ideal  lines  drawn  from  north  to  south,  and  east  to  west, 
as  representiMl  in  the  figure  which  forms  the  frontis- 
piece. In  the  first  place,  the  whole  surface  is  repre- 
sented as  spread  <»ut  in  the  form  of  two  hcmi8phen»s — 
the  Eastern  Hemisphere  containing  the  continents  of 
Europe,  Asia,  and  Africa,  and  the  Western  Hemisphere 
North  and  iJouth  America.  The  line  which  appears  to 
cat  across  tlie  hemispheres  at  the  middle  in  the  equator 
or  equinoctial  line,  and  from  this  are  measurements  in 
degrees  of  latitude. 

The  earth's  surface  has  l>een  calculated  to  contain 
1 98,943,7 'lO  square  mi  It's,  of  which  scarcely  a  third  part 
is  dr}'  land  ;  the  renuiinins;  two-tliirds  are  water.  The 
land  iHCompost'^I  principally  of  two  large  maiutes  or  tracts, 
one  of  which  comprchemlH  the  contini.'ntH  of  Kuro)>e, 
Asia,  and  Africa  ;  the  other  comprehends  the  continent 
of  America.     Australia,  which  lies  in  the  ocean  in  a 


southerly  direction  from  .\sia,  is  so  extensive  as  to  be  I  animals.    The  dispersing  power  of  winds  and  cun 


iU  ocean,  ita  atmosphere,  its  riveni,  and  its  tat 
climates,  forms  an  appropriate  field  for  animal 
vegetable  existence.  The  manner  in  which  ant 
and  phinta  are  thus  distributed  in  situations  and 
cumstaneea  exactly  soited  to  their  ehancter,  is  A 
ter  of  deeply  interesting  observation.  Natura- 
which,  as  a  phrase  of  convenience,  we  denote  the  | 
Creating  ana  Disposing  Power — has  appointed  verj 
forms  of  animal  or  vegetable  life  to  be  localised  in 
portion  of  the  globe  approaching  to  its  entire  terrci 
surface.  Most  of  them  are  calculated  for  oertaii 
grees  of  heat  and  cold,  dr^-ness  and  moisture ;  and 
cordingly,  are  to  be  found  distributed  in  rings  or  i 
around  the  globe,  or  at  certain  elevations,  with  a  d 
reference,  in  all  cases,  to  the  temperature  and  c 
conditions  of  the  situation. 

It  appears,  from  the  researches  of  geologists, 
the  diittribution  of  animal  and  vegetable  forma  hi 
the  course  of  ages,  undergone  variations  conforn 
to  alterations  of  condition  in  soil,  climate,  and  i 
circumstances,  l^ct^  of  animals  have  thus  en! 
di**appeared  from  the  snrface  of  the  earth,  while  in 
tracts  of  land,  which  have  risen  from  the  bosom  o 
deep,  have  become  clothed  with  vegetation,  and  arc 
the  appropriate  theatre  of  existence  of  various  kin 


entitltni  to  the  name  and  cliaracter  of  a  fifth  division. 
All  the  detached  and  sninller  masses  of  land,  ealhtl 
ii^lnnd:>,  when  taken  together,  are  computed  to,  contain 
as  much  land  as  tlie  continent  of  Kur«>|ie.    In  refen>ncv 
to  mapn  of  the  earth,  Kur(»pe,  Ahia,  Africa,  and  Aus- 
tralia, with  their  iMands,  uro  distinguished  as  lying  in 
the  eastern  hemisphere  ;  while  America,  with  the  \Vi*st 
Indian  and  other  islands,  are  comprehended  in  the 
western  hemisphere.    The  seas  which  encomi^iw  thi'se 
extensive  tracts  of  land  ha%-e  locally  various  nanu^; 
but  the  two  principal  expanses  of  water  are  the  Atlan- 
tic and  I'aoific  Oceans — the  former  ae|tarating  KumfH*, 
Asia,  and  Africa,  from  America,  on  the  west,  and  the 
latter  l}ing  lM*twixt  the  western  shores  of  America  and 
th«*  eastern  shores  of  Asia.     The  extensive  oceans  sur- 
rounding the  north  and  sotfth  poles  are  called  the  Polar 
Seas,  which  have  not  bc<m  explored  sufliciently  for  us 
to  be  able  to  say  whether  any  large  tracts  of  laud  lie  in 
these  remote  quarters  of  the  globe.    <ire:it  diversity  of 
o|'inion  ]irevails  with  res}K'ct  to  the  deptli  of  thc(icean. 
Ity  nunievims  iiivistii;atii)ns,  it  diu-s  not  app«rar  that  the 
depth  is  any  where  much  more  than  two  or  thr(*e  miles, 
gf'nerslly  it  is  a  great  deal  le^H ;  and  it  might  b<;  argue<l, 
that  noiuitlistanding  the  large  surlact*  of  the  ocean,  the 
boiiy  of  it>  waters  can  only  be  ctiusidered  as  lying  like 
lakes  in  the  hollows  of  tlic  land;  fur  the  earth,  as  al- 
ready notict-ij,  is  eight  thousand  miles  in  diameter,  and 
to  that  hu;;e  mass  of  dense  matter  the  sea  bi«rs  no 
pr«i)Kirti<m  in  its  depth.    While  the  surface  of  the  land 


not  to  speak  of  the  active  interference  of  man,  is 
pose<l  to  be  capable  of  accounting  for  the  tlintribi 
of  many  plants ;  but  it  is  clear,  that  without  the  < 
vigihuit  su)>erintendence  of  an  all-wise  Providence 
earth,  taken  in  its  whole  extent,  could  not  exhibit  t 
remarkable  forms  of  animal  and  vegetable  life  n 
are  so  nicelv  suited  to  the  localities  in  which  the 
placed.  In  Europe,  and  nearly  all  other  temp) 
regions,  we  find  the  horse, 4ho  cow,  the  dog,  th< 
the  crow,  the  sparrow,  the  house-fly,  and  other  < 
tures  with  which  we  are  familiar,  because  the  ni 
of  these  animals  is  suited  to  climates  of  modi 
heat  and  cold.  In  the  warm  and  dry  regions  of 
and  Africa,  other  forms  of  animal  life  prevail — a 
lion,  tiger,  and  camel ;  the  latter  being  soited  tc 
verso  wide  sandy  deserts,  and  to  endure  privatioi 
drought  for  a  greater  length  of  time  tlian  other  b 
of  burden.  America  has  the  condor,  the  Washii 
eagle,  the  llama,  and  other  great  birds  and  Was 
prey  peculiar  to  itself.  A  n>markable  distinctic 
animai  forms  is  that  found  in  Auhtralia.  Ther 
will  be  afterwards  mentronr<l,  the  (juadruped  race 
fumishe<l  with  pouches  for  their  young,  and  movt 
^-ard  by  leaping,  peculiarities  conformable  to  the 
lity  in  which  they  hapi>cn  to  be  placed. 

El'ROPB. 

Kurope  is  the  smallest  of  the  great  divisions  oi 
globe,  but  distinguisheil  above  the  n^st  by  the  ehar 
of  its  population,  the  superior  cultivntiim  of  the 
and  the  liouriKhing  condition  of  arts,  sciencea,  indc 


exhibits  a  variety  of  mountain  ranges,  hills,  vales,  and 
[•lains,  S4>  also  is  the  bottom  «f  the  sea  varie«l  in  its 

conH;;iii-atiiin,  alN>undiug  in  lianilbanks,  hills,  rocks,  and  I  and  commerce,  the  multitude  of  large  and  weU^ 
r<efs  dangerous  to  the  manner;  ami  the  islands  which  |  cities,  and  its  power  and  influence  over  the  other 
rtar  their  ht-ail.s  alxjve  the  surface  are  only  the  tops  of   of  the  wurld. 

the  higheht  lulls  and  mountains  in  the  wa.'  It  is  washed  on  three  sides  by  the  sea,  which  is  i 

The  wateni  of  the  i»cean,  as  every  «»ne  knows,  are  salt  by  difl'erent  names,  and  belongs  either  to  the  Nop 
to  a  gnater  or  k-jM^er  digree — a  quality  Mliich  is  consi-  Arctic  or  the  Atlantic  Oci'an.  A  narrow  strait  «i 
dired  ne«-.-Ksary  to  pnserve  them  from  putridity.  How  Mediterranean  si'parates  it  from  Africa,  tin  thi 
they  shiiulj  pos^t'ssi  this  saline  proiK-rty,  no  one  has  yet  ahme  it  joins  the  mainland,  In-ing  then*  separated 
btt  II  able  to  IX plain  satisluctonly.  S.nie  have  iniairinctl  :  Asia  by  an  imaginary  line.  Knni|>o  is  situated  i 
tliat  the  Ktltncs>  is  cauM«l  by  roeks  of  salt  at  the  bottom  I  northern  fro/en  and  the  northern  U'ninerate  7 
of  the  Ha,  but  this  is  obvmusly  incorrect,  for  nK?ks  of  ^  between   1(1    and  Vt'A'  I'ast  longitude,  and  »«•  ani 

north  latitude.     Including  the  islands,  which  w 
about  .'U7,OOU  square  miles,  the  mhule  extent  of  Ei 


halt  -111  III  it  abound  to  such  an  extrnt  as  would  be  re- 

quir*>>lt<ir  )■•  rtuniting  thii  iiii|Mirtant  oflic<>.     Itisnmre    , , ^ „  ...^ .  ^. 

pr< 'liable  I  h;it  1 1. iK-tltness  is  an  inherent  property  in  the    ani(»unt9  to  about  3,'j:»U.00n  square  milea,  of 
water  if-M  II ;  th.  n-  is  at  any  rate  noiliing  more  strange    Kussia  ccmmrises  nLiLrlvoiie-lmlf.  Tho  irr.>mfMt 
in  th in  than  in  the  eireumstance  of  the  atmosphere  being 
ifi  t/jf  iiaiiiri'  f-fuipi'M-il  of  (li\ers  kinds  of  air  «)r  gases. 
•  an  exaniii.ation  of  thin  [Hiint,  however,  and  for  a 
iT  a4*cotiiit  of  the  ocean  and  its  tides,  we  refer  to 
icle  Thk  <H.i:an. 

^rding  to  the  beautiful  harmony  of  design  mani- 
iu  all  deiiartucuts  of  crtatiun,  the  earth,  with 

^4 


KuKhia  ccmiprises  Ui-arly  one-half.  Tlie  greatest  k 
from  (;a|»e  St  Vincent,  in  Portugal,  to  the  norther 
tremity  of  the  eahtern  boundary,  at  Waygatt's,  is  1 
.ViOU  miles.  The  greatest  breadth,  from  C«pc  Mm 
in  the  .Morea,  to  the  North  Cape  in  Norway,  is  1 
2M){)  miles. 

^  Kumpo  is  remarkably  well  watered^  aliboQg 
rivers  have  not  so  loug  a  cuurae  nor  sneh  krge 


GEOGRAPHY, 


raetfl  as  those  in  other  parts  of  the  glohe,  particularly 
in  America.  The  principal  rivers  are  the  Ebro,  the 
lUione,  and  the  Po,  running  into  the  Mediterranean  ; 
the  Daiiube,  the  Dnieper,  and  the  Dniester,  into  the 
Black  Sea ;  the  Don,  into  the  Sea  of  Azoph  ;  the  Wolga, 
into  the  CaApian ;  the  Dwina,  into  the  Arctic  Ocean ; 
another  Dwina  or  Dun2^  the  Vistula,  and  the  Oder, 
into  the  Baltic  ;  the  Elbe,  Weser,  and  Rhine,  into  the 
North  Sea ;  the  Seine  into  the  English  Channel ;  the 
Thjtmes  into  the  German  Ocean;  the  Loire  and 
Garonne,  the  Duoro  and  Tagus,  the  Gaudiani  and 
Gaudalquiver,  into  the  Atlantic.  The  Wolea  and 
Danube  are  the  longest.  By  the  Danube,  which  pene- 
trates the  continent  on  its  southern,  and  the  Rhine 
which  penetrates  it  on  its  north-western  side,  Europe 
is  almost  cut  in  two  by  water-courses,*  The  Rhine  is 
celebrated  for  the  romantic  beauty  of  its  banks,  on  the 
middle  and  higher  part  of  its  course.  At  the  distance 
of  200  miles  from  tne  sea,  it  is  as  broad  as  the  Thames 
at  Westminster,  and  suitable  for  narigation  with  steam- 
boats and  small  vessels. 

Europe  possesses  numerous  large  lakes,  but  none  so 
extensiTc  as  those  in  North  America.  The  largest  is 
Lake  Ladoga  in  Russia.  The  lakes  celebrated  for  their 
beauty  and  extent  are  Lake  Constance  and  Lake  Leman 
in  Switzerland,  or  on  the  borders  of  that  country. 

A  great  part  of  Europe  is  mountainous ;  the  southern 
more  so  than  the  northern.  The  most  elevated  region 
is  Switzerland,  from  which  there  is  a  descent,  which 
terminates,  on  the  side  of  the  North  Sea  and  the  Baltic, 
in  low  plains.  The  lowest  and  mo«t  level  parts  are 
Holland  and  Northern  Germany,  Denmark,  Russia, 
and  Prussia.  The  highest  mountains  are  the  Alps,  in 
Switzerland  and  Italy,  which  spread  from  those  coun- 
tries in  various  directions,  extend  westwardly  into 
France,  and  are  connected  by  the  Cevennes  with  the. 
Pyrenees,  which  separate  France  from  Spain.  One 
chain  of  the  Alps  stretches  south  towards  the  Medi- 
terranean ;  then,  taking  an  easterly  course,  runs 
through  *ltaly,  under  the  name  of  the  Appenines. 
Sevenl  branches  run  eastward  from  the  Alps,  through 
the  south  of  Grermany,  as  far  as  the  Turkish  provinces. 
Another  chain,  the  Jura,  runs  to  the  north,  and  sepa- 
rates Switzerland  from  France.  In  the  cast  of  Europe 
are  the  Carpathian  mountains,  which  on  one  side  meet 
the  Sudetic  range,  and  on  the  other  the  mountains  of 
Turkey  in  Europe.  The  highest  mountain  in  Europe 
b  Mont  Blanc,  in  Savoy,  one  of  the  Alps,  which  is  said 
to  be  15,766  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea. 

Several  of  the  Eairopean  mountains  are  volcanoes  ; 
as  Autmkf  Vesuvius,  and  Hecla.  It  is  a  fact  worthy  of 
notice,  that  none  of  the  volcanoes  of  Europe  are  to  be 
found  in  any  of  the  great  chains  of  mountains  which 
have  just  been  enumerated.  The  only  one  on  the  con- 
tinent is  Vesuvius,  and  this  is  too  much  detached  to  be 
considered  as  properly  forming  one  of  the  Appenines. 
^tna,  in  the  Island  of  Sicily,  rising  to  the  height  of  ten 
or  eleven  thousand  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  is 
the  largest  European  volcano.  The  Lipari  Islands, 
anciently  called  the  jEolian,  a  few  miles  to  tho  north 
of  Sicily,  bear  evident  marks  of  a  volcanic  origin  ; 
and  in  several  of  them,  subterranean  tires  are  still 
in  operation.  Iceland,  too,  presents  the  most  abun- 
dant tokens  of  the  presence  of  volcanic  fire,  and  has 
often  suffered  under  its  devastations ;  Mount  Hecla 
is  the  most  noted,  although  -not  the  only  source  of 
the  eruptions  on  this  island.  To  the  possession  of 
many  inland  seas,  and,  consequently,  of  a  line  of  coast 
rery  extensive  in  proportion  to  its  area,  Europe  is 
ereatly  indebted  for  the  great  advancement  of  its  in- 
habitants in  civilisation ;  these  circumstances  being 
favourable  to  that  intercourse  without  which  nations 
never  make  great  advances. 

The  chief  islands  belonging  to  Europe  are — Iceland, 
in  the  north  sea,  lying  in  the  65th  degree  of  north  iati- 
tode  ;  Great  Britain,  Ireland,  and  other  Britisli  islands, 
in  the  Atlantic  and  German  Oceans ;  Majorca,  Minorca, 
ficrdinia,  Sicily,  Corsica,  Elba,  tho  Ionian  Isles,  Malta, 
Qtfidiay  and  Cyprus,  in  the  Mediterranean  Sea.    The 

S5 


European  peninsulas  are  six  in  number :  Soandinarlay 
Jutland,  Crimea,  Italy,  Spain,  and  Greece.  The  soil  of 
Europe,  though  not  equal  in  luxuriance  to  that  of  ths 
tropics,  is  almost  throughout  fit  for  cultivation.  The 
tracts  in  the  northern  zone  are  almost  the  only  exception* 

With  respect  to  climate,  Europe  may  be  divided  into 
three  parts-— the  warm  region,  where  the  lemon-treM 
grow  wild,  as  far  as  48**  north  Ut.,  having  a  pleasant 
spring,  a  hot  summer,  and  short  winter  ;  the  tempe- 
rate, as  far  as  65"  N.,  in  which  erain  ripens ;  and  the 
cold  region,  to  the  extreme  north,  where  nothing  will 
grow  but  reindeer  moss,  and  no  domestic  animal  eao 
Uve  except  the  reindeer.  The  products  are  not  se 
various  as  in  other  parts  of  the  world,  and  many  of 
them  were  originally  brought  from  foreign  countries 
and  naturalised ;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  Europe  can 
boast  of  a  more  perfect  cultivation.  Among  the  ani- 
mals are  horses,  some  of  which  are  of  the  nobler  breeds ; 
homed  cattle ;  sheep  in  Spain,  Saxony,  and  England, 
of  the  finest  wool ;  asses,  goats,  swine,  dogs ;  reindeer ; 
wild  beasts  of  different  kinds,  valuable  for  their  flesh 
or  fur ;  whales,  sea-cows,  sea-dogs ;  abundance  of  wild 
and  tame  fowl ;  large  quantities  of  fish  in  the  seas,  lakes, 
and  rivers,  among  which  the  herring,  in  particular, 
affords  sustenance  to  many  of  the  inluibitants ;  useful 
insects,  such  as  bees,  silkworms,  kermes,  gall-flies,  and 
Spanish  flies.  Oysters  and  pearl  mussels  also  abound. 
It  produces  all  kinds  of  grain,  and  sufficient  for  its  con- 
sumption ;  beautiful  garden  plants ;  abundance  of  fruits, 
including  those  of  southern  climates,  such  as  figs, 
almonds,  chestnuts,  lemons,  oranges,  olives,  pom^ra- 
nates,  dates ;  also  flax,  hemp,  cotton,  madder,  tobacco ; 
the  best  kinds  of  wine ;  and  a  great  variety  of  wood  for 
fuel,  and  for  house  and  ship  building.  The  birch  and 
the  willow  best  endure  the  cold  of  the  northern  polar 
circle.  Europe  produces  all  the  varieties  of  metals  and 
minerab  in  great  excellence  and  abundance.  In  gold 
and  silver,  Hungary  and  Transylvania  are  the  richest ; 
in  iron,  the  norwem  countries,  Sweden,  Norway,  and 
Russia.  Salt  of  all  kinds,  rock,  sea,  and  spring  salt,  is 
also  abundant  in  Europe. 

The  inhabitants,  estimated  by  Malte-Brun  at  200 
millions  at  least,  are  unequally  distributed  ;  in  Russia 
and  Sweden  there  are  from  fifteen  to  eighteen  to  a 
square  mile ;  in  the  Netherlands,  where  the  population 
is  most  dense,  Italy,  France,  Great  Britain,  and  Grer- 
many, the  same  extent  supports  from  one  hundred  and 
fifty  to  two  hundred  and  fifty  persons.  The  inhabitants 
consist  of  several  different  races,  speaking  distinct 
languages.  The  stocks  to  which  the  principal  languages 
belong,  are — the  Teutonic,  which  is  the  mother  of  tiie 
German,  Dutch,  English,  Swedish,  and  Danish ;  the 
Latin,  or  Ronoan,  now  spoken  only  by  tlie  learned,  but 
the  mother  of  the  Italian,  French,  Spanish,  Portuguese, 
and  Wallachian ;  the  Sclavonic,  to  which  belong  the 
Russian,  Polish,  Bohemian,  Bulgarian,  Vandal,  and  the 
Servian,  or  lUyrian.  B^des  these,  there  are  the 
modem  Greek ;  the  Turco-Tartaric ;  the  Finnish  and 
Hungarian;  the  Celtic  in  Wales  and  the  north-west 
part  of  France  (Bretagne) ;  the  Highlands  of  SooUand 
and  Ireland ;  the  Basque,  among  the  Pyrenees.  The 
most  widely  spoken  is  the  German,  with  its  kindred 
languages,  formed  by  an  union  of  the  Roman  with  the 
Teutonic. 

The  prevailing  religion  is  the  Christian,  which  includes 
severau  churches,  viz.,  tho  Roman  Catholic,  which  is 
the  most  numerous ;  the  Protestant  ( Lutheran,  Calvi- 
nistic,  and  Anglican),  consisting  of  numerous  sects — 
Anabaptists,  Mennonites,  Quakers,  Unitarians,  Metho- 
dists, Moravians,  and  the  Greek  church.  A  part  of  the 
inhabitants  profess  the  Jewish,  a  part  the^ahommedan 
religion.  Among  the  Laplanders  and  Sunoeides,  there 
are  also  some  heathens,  but  their  number  is  small. 

Agriculture  has  made  great  advances  in  Europe, 
and  is  daily  improving.  In  this  respect,  those  coun- 
tries are  particularly  distinguished  where  the  Teuto- 
nic languages  are  spoken,  as  also  are  France  and  a 
part  of  Italy.  In  no  part  of  the  world  are  manufac- 
tures carried  to  such  perfection  as  in  several  of  tho 


CUAMBERS'S  INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


European  countries,  especially  in  Great  Britain,  France, 
the  Netherlands,  and  Germany.  The  inhabitants  work 
up  not  only  native  European,  but  also  foreign  products, 
and  supply  all  the  wants  and  luxuries  of  life.  Commerce 
is  not  less  active,  and  is  promoted  by  well-constmcted 
roads  and  canals,  by  well-organised  posts,  banks,  insur- 
ance companies,  commercial  companies,  and  fairs.  The 
commerce  of  Europe  extends  to  all  quarters  of  the 
world,  and  every  sea  is  filled  with  European  ships.  In 
this  respect.  Great  Britain  is  most  distinguished.  Europe 
is  the  seat  of  art  and  science ;  to  her  belongs  the  honour 
of  discovering  the  most  important  truths,  of  giving  birth 
to  the  most  useful  inventions  and  the  finest  productions 
of  genius,  and  the  improvement  of  all  the  sciences.  In 
intellectual  progress,  the  Teutonic  races,  and  thosfe  who 
speak  the  languages  derived  from  the  Latin,  have  sur- 
passed the  Slavonic  nations.  The  Turks  have  remained 
strangers,  in  many  respects,  to  the  literary  and  scientific 
improvement  which  has  marked  the  other  European 
nations.  Eighty-five  universities  provide  for  the  higher 
branches  of  education ;  numerous  gymnasia  and  acade- 
mies for  the  preparatory  studies,  and  a  great  number 
of  lower  schools,  particularly  in  Germany,  are  employed 
in  educating  the  common  people.  In  many  places  there 
are  academies  of  science,  and  societies  of  all  kinds,  for 
the  cultivation  of  the  arts  and  sciences. 

By  its  physical  situation,  Europe  is  divided  into  East 
and  West  Europe.  West  Europe  comprises  the  Pyre- 
ncan  peninsula  (Spain  and  Portugal),  the  country  west 
of  the  Alps  (France),  the  countries  north  of  the  Alps 
(Switzerland,  Germany,  and  the  Netherlands),  the 
country  south  of  the  Alps  (Italy),  the  islands  of  the 
North  Sea  (Great  Britain,  Ireland,  and  Iceland),  and 
the  countries  on  the  Baltic  (Denmark,  Norway,  Sweden, 
and  Prussia).  East  Europe  contains  the  countries  north 
of  the  Carpathian  mountains  (Russia  and  Gallicia),  and 
the  countries  south  of  the  Caxpathian  mountains  (Hun- 
gary, in  its  more  comprehensive  sense,  and  Turkey). 

The  following  are  the  political  states  of  Europe : — 
The  three  empires  of  Austria,  Russia,  and  Turkey; 
seventeen  kingdoms,  Wz.,  Portugal,  Spain,  France, 
Great  Britain,  Holbnd,  Belgium,  Denmark,  Sweden, 
(including  Norway),  Sardinia,  the  Two  Sicilies,  Greece, 
Prussia,  Bavaria,  Saxony,  Hanover,  and  Wiirtemberg ; 
one  ecclesiastical  state,  the  papal  dominions ;  eight  re- 
publics, namely,  Switzerland,  the  Ionian  Islands,  San 
Marino,  Hamburg,  Lubeck,  Bremen,  Cracow,  and 
Frankfort ;  one  electorate,  Ilesso ;  six  grand-duchies, 
Baden,  Henie- Darmstadt,  Saxe- Weimar,  Mecklenburg- 
Schwcrin,  Mecklcnburg-Strelitz,  and  Tuscany;  twelve 
duchies,  viz.,  <.)ldenburg,  Gotha,  Meiningen,  Altenburg, 
Brunswick,  Nassau,  Dessau,  Bernburg,  Cothen,  Mo- 
dena,  Parma,  and  Lucca ;  one  landgraviate,  viz.,  Hesse- 
iioniburg;  twelve  principalities,  viz.,  Hohcnzollem- 
Ilechingen,  Huhcnzollem-Sigmaringen,  Schwarzburg- 
Rudolstadt,  Schwarzbure-Sondersliausen,  Waldeck, 
Lippe-Detmold,  Scliaumourg  -  Lippc,  Lichtenstein, 
Reuss-(jreiz,  Rouss-Schleiz,  Reui^s-Lobenstein,  and 
Keuss-  Ebersdorf. 

Austria,  Prussia,  Bavaria,  Saxony,  Hanover,  Wiir- 
temberg, Hamburg,  Lubeck,  Bremen,  Frankfort,  Hesse, 
and  the  above  grand-duchies  and  duchies,  compose  the 
region  which  we  call  Germany,  but  the  proper  name  of 
which,  as  given  by  the  natives,  is  Deutschland — the  land 
of  the  Teutones,  an  ancient  people  of  central  Europe. 

TIIK  BRITISH  ISLANDS. 

These  iHlands,  the  most  important  belonging  to 
Europ<?,  lie  at  a  short  distance  from  the  north-west 
coast  of  France,  betwixt  the  Atlantic  Ocean  on  the 
west  and  the  (Jerman  Ocean  on  the  east.  From  their 
southernmost  bt»undary  upon  the  British  Channel  to 
tlie  most  northerly  <.f  the  Shetland  group,  is  a  distance 
of  very  nearly  eleven  degrei»8,  measuring  from  the  SOtli 
to  the  Cist  degrt»c  of  north  latitude.  The  main  island, 
which  since  the  Union  has  been  called  Great  Britain, 
it  composed  of  two  portions,  with  considerably  distinctive 
fcAtuies,  under  tlio  luimes  of  Englind  and  Scothwd. 
Engluid  forms  the  larger,  the  most  ouuthcrlv,  and 

'Mi 


much  the  finest  portion  of  the  island,  and  lies  betwixt 
the  50th  and  55tn  degree.  Scotland  lies  on  the  north 
of  this  division,  and  reaches  the  58th  degree.  IreUnd 
is  a  large  and  beautiful  ishwd  lying  to  the  west  of 
EngUnd,  from  which  it  is  separated  only  bv  a  channel 
half  a  day's  saU  in  breadth,  and  extends  in  length  from 
51"  10'  to  55''  20'  north  latitude.  Its  greatest  length, 
measuring  from '  N  E.  to  S  W.,  is  about  300  miles ; 
the  greatest  breadth  about  60  miles.  The  chief  of  the 
minor  glands  are  the  Isle  of  Man,  lying  in  the  Irish 
Channel ;  Anglesea,  on  the  coast  of  Wales ;  the 
Hebrides,  a  series  of  large  and  small  isles  on  the  west 
coast  of  Scotland ;  the  Orkney  Islands,  separated  from 
the  north  point  of  Scotland  by  the  Pentland  Firth; 
and  the  Shetland  Islands,  lying  considerably  north  of 
the  Orkneys.  Besides  these,  there  are  some  islands  in 
the  British  Channel,  near  the  coast  of  France,  called 
Guernsey,  Jersey,  Alderney,  &c.  Reckoning  Urge  and 
small,  the  British  ishwds  amount  to  some  hundi«ds  in 
number,  but  many  of  the  smallest  are  not  inhabited. 

In  1831,  the  population  of  England  and  Wales  was 
13,894,569,  of  Scotland  2,365,807,  and  of  IreUnd 
7,734,365 ;  adding  the  number  of  individuaU  in  the 
army  and  navy,  277,017,  the  total  popnUtion  amounted 
to  24,271,758.  Reckoning  the  inhabitants  of  foreign 
countries  subject  to  Great  Britain,  the  entire  popnU- 
tion of  the  British  empire  amounts  to  about  1 18,000,000. 

[It  is  considered  unnecessary  here  to  say  any  thing 
further  of  the  British  Islands,  as  they  form  the  subject 
of  various  other  articles,  entitled  History  op  Great 
Britain,  Description  of  England,  Description  of  Scot- 
land, Description  of  Ireland,  Constitution  and  Re- 
sources op  the  British  Empire,  not  to  speak  of  the 
accounts  of  Canada,  West  Indies,  East  Indies,  and  other 
foreign  possessions,  each  forming  distinct  numbers  of 
the  present  work.] 

PRANCE. 

After  Great  Britain,  France  is  usually  reckoned  the 
most  powerful  and  influential  country  in  Europe.  In 
point  of  territorial  extent  and  amount  of  popuUtion,  it 
stands  much  higher  than  Great  Britain,  which  is  but  f 
small  country,  and  it  likewise  possesses  a  finer  climate ; 
nevertheless,  such  have .  been  its  unfortunate  political 
and  religious  dissensions  and  misarrangements,  that  it 
has  permitted  itself  to  be  outstripped  in  the  race  of 
improvement  by  England.  Yet  under  all  its  backward- 
ness, in  many  points  France  forms  a  great  nation,  well 
deserving  of  the  sympathy  and  respect  of  its  neigh- 
bours ;  and  it  is  greatly  to  be  desired  that  in  future  a 
good  understanding  should  subsist  betwixt  it  and  Great 
Britain. 

France  is  situated  between  Utitude  42*  20'  and  51*5' 
N.,  and  longitude  3*  51'  E.  and  9^  27'  W.,  comprising 
an  extent  of  213,800  square  miles,  with  a  population 
according  to  official  returns,  in  1827,  of  31,851,545. 
It  is  bordered  on  the  north-east  by  the  Low  Countries, 
the  Prussian  province  of  the  Lower  Ilhine,  and 
Rhenish  Bavaria;  on  the  east,  it  is  separated  from 
Baden  by  the  Rhine,  and  touches  Switzerland  and 
Sardinia ;  on  the  south,  its  boundaries  are  the  Medi- 
terranean, the  Pyrenees,  and  the  Bidassoa ;  the  ocean 
bounds  the  rest.  The  isUnd  of  Corsica,  and  the 
Hicres,  in  the  Mediterranean,  and  the  Isles  of  Oleron, 
R^  Noirmoutier,  Belle-Isle,  Dieu,  and  Ushant  in  the 
Atlantic,  belong  to  France.  The  foreign  possessions  are 
of  little  value.  They  are,  iu  Asia,  Pondicherry  and 
Karical  on  the  Coromandel  coast,  Vanaon  in  the  North- 
ern Circars,  Clumdemagore  in  Bengal,  Mahe  on  the 
Malabar  coast,  a  factor^'  at  Surat,  and  some  factories 
in  Arabia,  containing  in  all  179,000  inhabitants;  in 
Africa,  Senegal,  Goree,  the  Isle  of  Bourbon,  and  some 
factories,  containing  99,000  inhabitants;  in  America, 
Martinique,  and  Gaudaloupo  with  its  dependencieSy 
GuUna,  and  the  small  isUnds  of  St  Pierre  and  Miquelon, 
near  Newfoundland,  containing  225,000  inhabitants. 
The  territory  u  divided  into  8()  departments,  which 
generally  derive  their  names  from  the  rivers.  They 
arc  subdivided  into  363  arrondissemcnts,  2844  cantons, 


GEOGRAPHY. 


and  S8,339  communes.  Each  department  is  eovemed 
hj  a  prefect,  and  each  arrondissement  by  a  subprefect. 
^nie  cantons  have  no  administrative  powers.  The  com- 
manes  are  under  a  mayor.  The  provincial  officers  gene- 
rally are  appointed  by  the  home  minister,  only  those  of 
towns  under  5000  inhabitants  being  appointed  by  the 
prefect. 

The  principal  mountains  of  France  are — 1.  The 
Yosgea  on  the  north-east.  They  are  of  a  rounded  out- 
line, with  gentle  slopes,  and  aifonl  much  open  pasturage. 
The  highest  summit  is  not  more  than  4500  feet  high. 
2.  The  Jura  mountains  lie  to  the  south  of  these,  and 
^ir  summits  rise  to  the  height  of  6000  feet.  3.  Many 
Alpine  branches  intersect  Dauphiny  and  Provence.  In 
the  centre  of  the  kingdom  are— 4.  The  mountains  of 
Auvergne,  of  volcanic  origin,  of  which  the  Puy  de 
Dome,  the  Monts  d'Or,  and  the  Cantal,  are  the  most 
conspicuous.  5.  The  Cevennes  lie  to  the  south-east  of 
the  range  last  mentioned.  Their  highest  summit  is 
Mont  Lozire  (about  6510  feet).  6.  The  Pyrenees  form 
the  principal  part  of  the  boundary  between  France  and 
Spam.  These  mountains  divide  the  country  into  four 
greet  basins,  the  form  and  exposure  of  which  neces- 
sarily have  a  great  influence  on  their  climate  and 
productions.  The  tiarrow  valley  of  the  Rhone  runs 
from  north  to  south,  while  the  open  basins  of  the  Seine, 
the  Loire,  and  the  Garonne,  stretch  in  a  north-western 
direction.  The  Adour  rises  in  the  Pyrenees,  and 
washes  the  walls  of  Bayonne.  The  other  rivers  are 
principally  tributaries.  The  Mame  and  the  Oise  fall 
mto  tne  Seine;  the  AUier,  the  Loire,  the  Sarthe, 
and  the  Mayenne,  into  the  Loire ;  the  Rhone  receives 
the  Sadne,  the  Is^re,  the  Durance,  the  Ain,  and  the 
Sorgue ;  the  Tarn  and  the  Dordogne  join  the  Garonne. 
The  numerous  branches  of  these  rivers  are  joined  by 
canals,  which  form  an  extensive  internal  water  com- 
munication. 

In  respect  to  soil,  the  richest  part  of  France  is  the 
DorUiem  division,  comprehending  the  provinces  of 
Flanders,  Artois,  Picardy,  Normandy,  and  the  Isle 
of  France,  where  there  is  a  deep  rich  loam;  about 
16,179,590  acres  in  extent.  The  valley  of  the  Garonne 
b  composed  of  a  friable  sandy  loam,  with  a  calcareous 
nixtnre,  and  moisture  sufficient  for  every  purpose. 
This  district  contains  7,654,561  acres.  The  great  val- 
ley of  Languedoc  is  extremely  prolific,  though  the  soil 
B  not  so  fine  as  that  of  the  preceding  districts.  The 
Limagne,  a  valley  of  Auvergne,  is  considered  to  have 
one  of  the  finest  soils  in  the  world.  It  consists  of  beds 
of  earth,  said  to  be  twenty  feet  deep,  formed  from  the 
decomposition  of  soft  basalt.  The  calcareous  and  chalk 
Ibnnations  are  extensive.  The  chalk  provinces  are 
uifraitful  in  grain,  but  the  genial  influence  of  the  sun 
allows  them  other  riches.  The  calcareous  loam  on 
the  borders  of  the  chalk  formation  is  more  productive. 
In  Bretagne,  Anjou,  and  Maine,  are  immense  heaths. 
Tht  landes  are  extensive  tracts  of  sandy  deserts,  pro- 
nothing  but  broom,  heath,  and  juniper.  The 
extensive  are  the  Undes  of  Bordeaux,  twenty 
in  length  by  twelve  in  breadth.  In  the  remain- 
iapfprovinoes,  gravel,  or  a  gravelly  sand,  is  the  predo- 
***rTnting  soiL  The  woods  and  forests  are  estimated  to 
cover  a  space  of  18,795,000  acres.  The  principal  are 
those  of  Ardennes,  Orleans,  and  Fontainebleau.  The 
Boithem  and  western  coasts  are  formed  in  a  great  pro- 
portion by  immense  downs  or  sandbanks ;  and  where 
tiM  shores  are  formed  by  cliflis,  they  are  seldom  bold 
CBongh  to  be  approached  with  safety.  The  harbours 
are  therefore  few.  On  the  Mediterranean,  the  coast  of 
Languedoc  is  very  dangerous,  but  Provence  abounds  in 
food  harbours.  The  culture,  throughout  the  northern 
half  of  the  kingdom,  consists  of  wheat,  barley,  oats, 
pslse,  and  of  Ute,  much  more  than  formerly,  of  potatoes ; 
a  the  southern  half,  corn  (particularly  maize),  vines, 
Botbcrries,  and  olives.  The  eastern  parts,  being  more 
citfated  than  the  western,  have  more  rigorous  wmters 
aad  mors  ardent  summers.  Coal  and  iron  are  found 
ii  abmdance.  The  most  common  fuel  is  wood. 
Tbs  taperficial  extent  of  France  has  been  recently 

37 


estimated  by  I^aron  Dnpin  at  53,533,426  hectares^ 
or  132,694,000  English  acres.  The  amount  of  ca- 
pital invested  in  agricultural  pursuits  is  estimated  at 
37,522,061,476  francs ;  the  gross  annual  produce  at 
4,678,708,885  francs ;  the  expenses  of  cultivation  at 
3,334,005,515 ;  leaving  a  profit  of  31  per  cent,  on  the 
capital.  The  produce  of  wheat  in  tiie  best  cultivated 
districts,  and  on  the  best  soil,  hardly  exceeds  eighteen 
bushels  per  acre :  an  English  farmer  expects  twenty- 
five  on  the  same  extent.  In  1812,  the  number  of 
horses  in  France  was  2,176,000  ;  but  in  1819,  the 
horses  and  mules  together  amounted  only  to  1,657,671 ; 
at  present  the  number  is  estimated  at  2,500,000.  The 
number  of  horned  cattle  is  6,973,000 ;  of  sheep,  about 
45,000,000.  The  total  number  of  all  kinds  of  poultry 
is  about  51,600,000.  The  French  are  the  best  wine- 
makers  in  the  world..  The  Champagne,  Burgundy, 
Claret,  Hermitage,  are  universally  celebrated.  For  a 
long  time,  the  choicest  growths  were  in  the  hands  of 
the  church ;  and  in  the  frequent  changes  of  property 
which  have  taken  place  since  the  revolution,  many  vine- 
yards have  deteriorated  in  consequence  of  bad  manage- 
ment. The  brandies  of  France  are  believed  to  be 
unrivalled.  The  value  of  the  whole  produce  of  wine 
and  brandy  is  about  800^000,000  francs.  The  culture 
of  the  vine  is  supposed  to  have  increased  nearly  one- 
fourth  since  the  revolution,  owing  principally  to  the 
small  proprietors,  each  of  whom  endeavours  to  supply 
his  own  consumption  by  a  little  patch  of  vineyard.  M, 
Dupin  says  that  many  hectares  of  French  territory  are 
yet  uncultivated,  merely  for  want  of  cattle  to  stock  and 
manure  them  ;  that  two- thirds  of  tlie  inhabitants  are 
without  animal  food ;  that  more  than  one-third  subsist 
entirely  on  oats,  buckwheat,  rye,  chestnuts,  or  potatoes, 
and  that  the  agricultural  population  is  too  great  for  the 
prosperity  of  France.  Two-thirds  of  the  population  is 
agricultural. 

France  possesses  a  soil  and  climate  capable  of  fur- 
nishing her  with  all  the  raw  materials  of  manufacture 
except  cotton.  The  manufacture  of  fine  woollen  cloths 
at  Sedan  was  introduced  under  the  auspices  of  Colbert. 
The  machinery  used  was  very  defective  until  M.  Chaptal 
engaged  an  English  machinist  to  instruct  the  French 
artisans.  Steam-engines  are  rare;  the  spinning-mills 
being  worked  chiefly  by  water  or  by  hoi'ses.  The 
quantity  of  native  wool  manufactured  in  1819  was 
38,000,000  kilogrammes  (of  about  2  J  lbs.  each),  and,  in 
1826,  42,000,000,  with  8,000,000  of  imported  wool ;  the 
value  of  the  manufactured  articles  was  265,000,000 
francs ;  of  the  raw  wool,  105,000,000 :  the  quantity 
exported  was  about  one-thirteenth  of  the  whole  quantity 
manufactured.  By  the  exertions  of  Henry  IV.,  the 
mulberry-tree  was  cultivated  in  all  the  southern  pro- 
vinces. At  Tours,  silk  stuff's  for  furniture  are  chiefly 
manufactured  ;  at  Ganges,  and  other  places  in  the 
Cevennes,  silk  stockings.  Lyons  is  the  principal  place 
for  silk  manufactures  of  all  kinds.  Paris  ranks  next 
after  Lyons.  In  1812,  the  value  of  the  raw  material 
amounted  to  45,560,000  francs,  of  which  22,000,000  were 
the  price  of  imported  silk.  The  value  of  manufactured 
gooos,  at  the  same  period,  was  107,560,000  francs,  of 
which  less  than  one-third  was  exported.  Forty  years 
ago,  the  spinning  of  cotton  by  machinery  was  hardly 
practised  in  France.  Cotton  mills  have  been  established 
within  that  period,  and  the  manufactures  of  Alsace  arc 
now  superior  to  those  of  England  in  the  brilliancy  of 
their  colours.  In  1812,  10,362,000  kilogrammes  of 
cotton  were  spun  by  machinery ;  and  in  1825, 28,000,000 
of  greater  fineness.  The  cambrics,  gauze,  and  lawn 
of  St  Quentin,  Valenciennes,  and  Cambray,  are  among 
the  most  valuable  products  of  French  industry.  Laco 
is  made  in  great  quantities. 

The  whole  produce  of  the  linen  and  hemp  manu- 
factures is  estimated  at  200,000,000  francs.  In  1814, 
100,000,000  kilogrammes  of  cast-iron  were  produced; 
in  1825,  160,000,000.  Gildmg  and  watch-making  are 
carried  on,  chiefly  in  Paris,  to  the  annual  value  of  about 
38,000,000  francs  each.  Printing  also  employs  a  great 
number  of  persons  at  Paris.    In  1814,  the  number  of 


CHAMBERS'S  INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


printed  sheets  wan  45,675,039;  in  1820,  80,9*21,302; 
and  in  18*26,  144^61,094.  Notwithstanding  the  low 
price  of  labour  in  France,  the  industry  of  that  country 
cannot  enter  into  competition  with  that  of  England. 
One  of  the  circumstances  which  depress  it  is  the  want 
of  internal  communication  by  roada  and  canals.  The 
practicable  roads  of  France  are  not  more  than  one-third 
of  the  extent  of  thoee  of  England.  The  cross-roads 
are  few,  and  the  great  roads  are  seldom  kept  in  good 
order.  The  length  of  the  canals  in  France  is  not  more 
than  one-eleventh  of  those  of  England.  Another  point 
in  which  France  is  inferior  is  in  the  use  of  steam-engines, 
attributable  in  part  to  the  deficiency  of  coal,  or  the 
difficulty  of  trannporting  it.  The  total  force  of  steam- 
engines  in  France  is  reckoned  to  be  equal  to  that  of 
500.000  men ;  that  of  England  is  equal  to  a  power  of 
8,000,000  men.  All  the  power  derived  from  machinery 
of  every  sort,  or  from  constructive  ingenuity,  and 
applied  to  purposes  of  industry  in  France,  is  only  one- 
fourth  of  the  similar  power  employed  in  England. 

The  commerce  of  France  has  been  very  much  dimi- 
nished bv  the  loss  of  her  colonies.  The  value  of  the 
colonial  imports,  in  1788,  was  227)000,000  francs;  in 
18*24,  it  was  onlv  50,000,000.  The  exports  for  1788 
amounted  to  119,000.000;  in  1824,  to  44,000,000.  The 
total  value  of  exports  from  France  in  1824  was 
440,542,000  francs;  of  which  163,056,000  were  pro- 
ductions of  the  country,  and  277)486,000  manufactured 
articles.  The  amount  exported  to  the  United  States 
was  55,000,000,  being  more  than  that  to  any  other 
country.  The  imports  for  the  same  year  were  of  the 
ralue  of  454,861,000  francs;  of  which  272,873,000 
francs  were  raw  materials  for  manufacture,  121,957,000 
natural  productions  for  consumption,  and  60^030,000 
manufactured  articles. 

The  French  are  descendants  of  the  Roman  provin- 
cials and  ancient  Gauls,  and  hence  their  language  is  a 
mixture  of  modified  Latin  and  the  tongue  of  the  original 
inhabitants,  but  much  altered  in  orthography  and  in 
tone  of  speech  in  modem  times.  The  kingdom  was  for 
many  centuries  governed  in  a  despotic  manner  by  a 
lino  of  sovereigns  of  different  dynasties,  from  Clovis  in 
the  year  481,  to  that  of  the  Bourbons  in  the  person 
of  Louis  XVI.,  1793.  One  of  these  monarchs,  Louis 
XIV.,  who  reigned  during  the  latter  half  of  the  seven- 
teentli  century,  exhausted  the  resources  of  the  nation 
in  foreign  wars  and  personal  extravagance,  and,  be- 
sides, greatly  corrupted  the  manners  of  the  people. 
This  laid  the  foundation  of  a  course  of  events  which 
terminated  in  the  national  ruin  and  fearful  outbreak 
of  the  revolution  in  1789.  This  revolution  deluged  the 
country  in  blood,  and  ended  with  the  establishment  of 
a  republic;  but  this  was  speedily  succeeded  by  the 
elevation  of  Napoleon  Bonai)arte,  first  as  consul,  and 
next  as  emperor.  The  career  of  Napoleon  closed  in 
1815,  with  the  battle  of  Waterloo,  and  the  Bourbons 
were  restored  by  the  arms  of  Britain  and  other  nations. 
The  Bourbons  were  exi)elled  in  1830,  since  which  period 
the  reigning  monarch  has  been  Louis  Philip,  a  descen- 
dant of  the  brother  of  Louis  XIV.,  and  in  whose  male 
descendants  the  monarchy  is  hereditar}*. 

On  the  establishment  of  the  present  limited  monarchy 
in  1 830,  the  national  constitution  was  reorganised  on  the 
fuUuwing  footing : — The  king  is  the  supreme  head  of 
the  statt' ;  he  commands  the  land  and  sea  forceK,  declares 
war,  niakoH  triMties  of  peace,  alliance,  and  commerce  ; 
appoints  to  all  nfliees  of  the  public  administration,  and 
makes  all  the  regulations  and  ordinances  necessary  for 
the  exieuiion  of  tlie  laws  under  the  responsible  advice  of 
hisniinisters.  Any  of  the  three  branches  of  the  legislature 
can  pn»iMiM?  laws;  the  ChamWr  of  Peers  may  sit  with- 
out that  of  the  Deputies  onlv  as  a  court  of  justice ;  peers 
may  hpeak  in  the  house  at  the  age  of  twenty-five  years ; 
princes  of  the  blood  may  sit  in  the  House  of  Peers  with- 
out a  special  summons  from  the  king ;  the  deliberations 
of  the  |)eer8  are  public ;  the  renewal  of  one-fifth  of  the 
deputies  ercry  year  is  abolished ;  persons  are  eligible 
M  deputies  at  the  age  of  twenty-five  years ;  the  deputies 
died  their  pn»ideut  without  the  concurrence  of  the 


king ;  and  the  electors  choose  the  officers  of  the  elee- 
toral  colleges  without  the  interference  of  the  king ; 
articles  46  and  47  of  the  old  charter,  respecting  amend- 
ments, and  the  adoption  of  the  tax  acts  by  the  deputiei^ 
previously  to  being  sent  to  the  peers,  are  repealed ;  as 
is  also  article  56,  exempting  the  ministers  from  impeaefa- 
ment,  except  for  treason  or  extortion  ;  the  prev6ud 
courts  are  abolished ;  the  king  takes  the  constitutional 
oath,  not  at  the  time  of  the  coronation,  but  on  his  acoet- 
sion,  as  in  England.  Besides  this,  provision  is  to  be 
made,  by  separate  laws,  for — 1.  The  trial  of  oflfences  of 
the  press  by  a  jury ;  2.  The  responsibility  of  ministers^ 
and  other  agents  of  power ;  3.  For  the  re-election  of 
deputies  promoted  to  offices  with  salaries  ;  4.  The  an- 
nual vote  of  supplies  for  the  army ;  5.  The  organisa- 
tion of  the  national  guard  ;  6.  The  settling  the  rank  of 
all  naval  and  military  officers ;  7.  Departmental  and 
municipal  governments  founded  on  the  elective  system ; 
8.  Public  instruction  provided  for ;  liberty  of  teaching 
allowed  to  all ;  9.  The  abolition  of  the  double  vote,  ana 
of  the  electond  candidates  and  their  eligibility.  The 
charter  is  intrusted  to  the  protection  of  the  national 
guard,  and  the  patriotism  of  the  nation.  The  chi^Her^ 
with  the  **  changes  and  modifications  expressed  in  the 
declaration  of  the  Chamber  of  Deputies,"  was  p-esentcd 
to  Louis  Philip,  who,  on  the  9th  of  August  1830,  took 
the  con^itutional  oath;  and  thus  toe  cmutiiuium 
octroytc  was  changed  into  a  real  contract  between  the 
ruler  and  the  people. 

By  the  letter  of  these  provisions,  Franee  poflsesset 
a  free  constitutional  government ;  but  such  is  the  infla- 
ence  of  the  executive,  that  practically  the  people  enioj 
much  less  liberty  than  the  British.  So  unsettled,  like- 
wise, is  tho  system  of  things,  that  a  large  standing  armj 
and  militia  force  (National  Guard)  lias  to  be  main- 
tained, at  a  heav}'  expense  and  inconvenience  to  the 
nation.  In  1837)  the  army  amounted  to  300,000  men. 
The  national  expenditure  in  1 838  was  about  £44,000,000, 
to  which  the  revenue  was  inadequate  :  the  national 
debt  at  the  same  time  amounted  to  254,566,496  francs. 
The  French  navy,  in  1836,  consisted  of  49  ships  of  the 
line,  ()2  frigates,  31  corvettes,  49  brigs,  and  with  other 
vessels  amounted  to  a  total  of  321. 

Previously  to  the  revolution  of  1789,  the  Roman 
Catholic  was  the  established  religion,  and  the  country 
contained  a  vast  number  of  monasteries  and  convents. 
Latterly,  since  1830,  there  has  been  no  established 
church,  but  the  Roman  Catholic  worship  predomi- 
nates, and  is  adhered  to  by  the  reigning  family.  In 
1836  there  were  14  archbishops,  66  bishops,  174  vicaxs- 
general,  660  canons,  3401  curtfs,  26,776  desservans, 
and  6184  vicaires — total  of  clergy,  37,275.  The  bishops 
have  each  about  .£600  a-year  of  salary,  and  the  working 
clergy  from  £20  to  £60  each.  There  are  about  1,000,000 
of  l^rotestants  in  France.  The  entire  cost  to  the  state 
of  religious  establishments,  R<iman  Catholic,  Protestant, 
and  Jewish,  amounted  in  1838  to  35,443,500  francs. 
With  respect  to  education,  France  at  present  possesses 
2(i  universities,  363  high-schools,  or  academies,  in  the 
large  towns  and  districts,  73  normal  schools  for  train- 
ing teachers,  873  boarding-schools,  36,000  elementary 
schools  for  boys,  and  11,000  elementary  schools  for 
girls.  The  whole  are  under  the  supreme  direction  of 
the  minister  of  public  instruction ;  and  the  total  cost,  in 
1838,  was  19,005,673  francs,  or  nearly  £800,000. 

France  possesses  a  considerable  number  of  towns, 
with  populations  of  from  five  to  thirty  thousand,  and 
more  particularly  about  twelve  thousand,  but  not  many 
of  any  consi^quence  with  a  larger  amount  of  inhabitants. 
Paris,  the  capital,  in  1 827,  had  a  population  of  890,531, 
which  is  about  half  the  amount  of  the  population  of 
London.  The  other  chief  towns  are  Lisle,  with  a  popu- 
lation of  fi9,860  ;  Rouen,  90,000  ;  Strasburg,  49,708  ; 
Nantes,  71,739;  Boulogne,  19,314;  Havre,  21,049; 
Rheims,  34,862  ;  Brest,  26,655  ;  Cambray,  17,081  ; 
Lyons,  with  suburbs,  170,H75  ;  Marseilles,  115,943; 
Toulon,  30,171;  Aix,  2.3,132;  ( J renoble,  22,149  ;  Cler- 
mont, 30,010  ;  Besancon,  28,795  ;  St  Etienne,  30,615  ; 
Dunkirk,  24,517 ;  Amiens,  4*2,032 ;  and  Orleans,  40^0. 


I  tlimml  >  EJwtli 

■'omIm  nMac  m 
[!>,  w>H"*l  from 


iu.-...(,].M,i,Kn'^.  T.,.  .iiJ    il-  !  ilui  il .,i,„..,   L.  «nU> 

aT  tvjl-    nnrl/  (•VKM  wnoiu  wbd  vera  n/  na  «M  in  igTiMi* 
h  Mid  la  ilti;    iun)  nr  Um  lamluniskl  ut^  uil  »ba  worn  uolv  atJn^ 


Latdy,  on  Ik«  dmltt  vf  hnliMM,  IIh  ndfnli^  mt. 

'i 


lunili,  (ha  focwa,  is  (k*  npial;  oT  trnik  a 


:h  «■■  ttiD  v\i  *iir|i  .. 


Mb  <M  u>ii  rid*  -r  ii»  r 
>  SfBia,tiPi>]Hr,  MrKrltlwlMiunilj 
■AlMrtnania,  uiic  «t  Hli)ch  liuUiUui 
I,  RMd  Ml*  Mlivr  ilikt  wl  Hw  niMl. 
imnniut  II  MotiMidiirilTuC 
•I  t7  Mlv  fl-  -  -       ■ 

ilniBdniiiB 


tnih*  (n  oiMai,  b  an  uuW  ontU  kinfilion,  bllmUciT 
mmhlbg  Sjnin  (n  klnia*  mty  {luilecliff,  uul  at  pnh 


ID  uknBi  anJ 


Ml.  iifiiii*, 
l&i  Oil 


^l4  laU  tiuu 

I  in  iDinl  of  dia 


nigar,  hcmu,  Qai. 

iw«n,M  Ap,imtiM,^aii]a;nuiatea,  Inunaii, 

(  tim  anniuJ  proiliubinia,  iha  liiirew  of  An- 

ilah  a  f«v«ina*  n>  tlia  M*<E4i<rnu>Mi>,  Qppaxitu 
UK.to^awuduo'mgtliufi "" 


MftL  U  Ifa  ranlni  nf  dm  t>&|t<l»m.     I'iT]nilatioii 


Tliv  Um  Itan  fedni.  tBtbarDrthaprMEUtt^UMiiMKru^ 
had  Uw  adilnwa  to  abnlitli  the  mooBMia  iiutilutiou«,  aild 
tu  nqiTMitrata  ih*  prapcnjr  lo  tlia  aiaW,  wlucb  waa  an 
imjporuni  nuMur*  a(  national  r(i^[«i<M*IiiiR. 

Vha  OMinutitiim  ef  HivaFai^ly  lij  Maria  led  to  b 
eJTil  «w  or  aouttat  bulwixt  lua  Iudms  anU  liioie  oT  Imv 
nimlo  Den  UigncI,  vblob  waa  ouhi  iuiarimis  to  tit* 
eouDtTjr.  Uieual  iraaulUiiuUely  liorealudaiKlaxprUad. 
I1i<f  unxit&Uoa  <a  rortagal  mu  nuwd  in  ISilB,  at 


Italy,  OHM  the  «nt  of  the  Roman  «aipi»,  Iiut 
whiob,  niiw  thu  ovorthrair  af  that  power,  haa  ncvof 
turUKil  ui  iniieiwn'luiit  whole,  it  a  nai 


callfd  the  Adriati's,  o 
Tilt  A()eemDeB,  riaiug  tut 
jiriucipal  chain  ot  nutucbiina,  *..  ... 
BouBlr/,  divi<liug  Lmnbbvd;  tvitn.  iXi*  tl«iwwe»  W«vw 


CHAMIiERSS  INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


Ujti*-*  unii  TutAUiyf  hnd  Tuncanv  ffiin  K/iiiu;^,  inter- 
iM^iifi^  ih<r  i»Ui<r»  f/f  ttt<;  ^^'hurcfi,  an<i  ninniDs;  through 
Um;  kin^'loin  of  Nfe;ii«t>  to  th*;  Stnit  of  hivuMUZ.  Upper 
luly  (J.oifi)jarJy)  U  r*:umrt'j».h\y  w<rll  wattered.  The 
i'o,  wliifrh  r«;<:<riv<:D  a  ;{ri;at  nuifiLf-'r  of  rivers  from  the 
Urn*:  ULt'H  at  th<:  f^/t  of  tUv  Alfw  (I^^^o  Maggiere,  <li 
IsU-^ikHhf  <ii  (.OHIO,  (i'Juf.'O,  lui'i  <li  <jania),  and  tlie  Adige, 
artr  ih<r  prifi<:ipal  riv<rr».  Tht^y  both  rute  in  the  Alpi*, 
and  How  iuVt  tli<;  Adriatic  S'a.  In  Middle  Italy  (Tus- 
rany  :iiid  th<r  htatcH  of  th<;  Church)  are  the  Aruo  and 
(hf  'ri(H:r,  which  riM:  in  the  Aixniniut!*},  and  flow  into 
(h<-  'i'uHean  S<*a.  in  l^ower  Italy  (NapleH)  there  are 
no  larj/T'-  riviTN,  on  aeciiUiit  <;f  the  bhortuesii  of  the 
rounu;  i,i  tiiff  hlr<*afittf  from  the  mountainii  to  the  sea : 
th>'  <4iin^Jtano  in  the  prineipal.  The  climate  'xa  warm, 
without  i!Xt;eN«iiv<t  h<:ut,  and  generally  HalubriouH.  Tlie 
winti'r,  t:\t't\  in  rp|Hir  Jtaly,  im  very  mild  :  in  NapleH  it 
hardly  ever  huowH.  The  abundance  and  excellence  of 
the  priHluKiouH  of  the  noil  correi.pond  with  the  beauty 
of  thtf  f'liiiiati-.  In  many  phie«!H  both  of  the  north  and 
hijiith  tli<-rc  are  twii,andev»n  thre^-,  crofw  a-year.  The 
voh'iiiiif*  (!hnracti-r  of  the  cojihIh  of  IjOWit  Italy  iH  parti- 
rul--ii'ly  ri'MiarUiibli*  in  a  ^'-olo^ical  |><>int  of  view,  vHpe- 
eiitlly  in  tlm  ri-^ion  of  l'u//.uoli  and  VL'MUviuH.  The 
iM'it(libourinf{  iHlnndHt^f  the  Mediterranean  are  diatin- 
KuihIkiI  by  the  huiw  eharactcr.  The  present  number 
of  inhubitantit  iit  much  infisrior  Ut  the  former  popula- 
tion of  ihiH  dcli^^htl'ul  country,  the  total  amount  being 
•JI,.W/iOO. 

Tint  national  charAct<>r  of  the  ItaliaiiH,  naturally 
ehfi?rful,  but  alwayn  marked  by  Htrong  paHsionH,  has 
IttH'ti  r<*ndi*red,  by  continu<*d  opprunHion,  dimembling 
and  Mdllitli.  Tho  Italian,  moreover,  poHHeMHw  a  certain 
ncutnnfNM  ami  verHatility,  aH  well  iih  a  love  of  money, 
which  Ntanip  him  fur  a  merehaut.  In  the  middle  agcH, 
ViMMct*,  (lenoa,  Klorence,  and  I'iMi,  wen;  the  chief  martH 
of  tlio  Kuro|H*an  connnerei*  with  the  I'last  Indien;  and 
ltalianii(then  called  I iombanlH,  without  diatinction,  in 
tiermany,  P'ruuce,  mid  Kn^laiuh  wert^  ncattered  all  over 
l'!uro|N<  for  the  purpoMeH  of  trade.  The  diHCovery  of  a 
IMutnii^o  by  MM  deorived  them  of  the  Indui  trade,  and 
thn  proh|M>riiy  of  tliohe  repulilicH  declined.  The  Italian, 
rentrieled  ulniost  hoiely  to  tmnic  in  the  productions  of 
hin  own  country,  Iiuh  nevertlielesH  alwayrt  remained  an 
able  iinil  itetive  niereliant.  Mclore  Unnio  had  ('JlOO 
Veart  upi)  iiliMorbed  all  tlie  vital  jiower  of  Italy,  tliiH 
country  wa^*  ihioLly  inliabited,  :lm«1  for  (he  mobt  part 
by  civiliheil  u.iiioiih.  lii  (lie  norlli  of  Italy  alone,  which 
tiifi'ri'il  tlio  loii^','"*t  ri'Mi^ttanei*  to  the  Konians,  dwelt  a 
burb.iroUN  ]»eii|i|i*,  tlii-  (iaiiU.  I'arlher  ^ioutli,  on  the 
Arno  and  tli«'  Ttber,  ii  ninuber  of  snuill  tribes,  such  lus 
till*  Ld'tiM'i,  till' SaiuiiiteN,  and  Latins,  mdeavuuivd  tu 
find  tuili'iv  by  ioriiiiiii?  coiiieilrriu'ir.H.  ]<e.s-i  closely 
uiiiled,  and  olteii  lio'itilr  to  each  other,  were  the  (ireek 
ooloiiiet  ot  l.ourr  ll:il\,  called  .Mai;na  (irecia.  The 
Ntor>  of  the  Mibji'ction  of  th rt*e  nations  to  the  Ivomaii 
ambition,  brloii:{4  to  the  histv^rv  of  Konie.  Italy,  in 
the  iiihldle  ai^t'H,  \\H<4  divided  iiittt  I'ppt'r,  Middle,  and 
Lower  ltal\.  The  lii-Nt  dix  ision  coiii)irehended  all  the 
htuteh  Minuted  ui  tilt'  Imrtiii  ol'  the  To;  the  MVond  ex- 
tended betwrrii  the  former  and  the  ki!ii;doin  of  Naples 
\iliieh  I'oriiied  the  tllil^l. 

i(.tl\  IS  III  modern  liinei  cut   up  ioto  a  nundier  ef 
ib-lou't  slates,  purlh  iudepriulnit  ^wtli  nati\e  prinees,  | 
)>.4ill\  miller  the  rule  ol'   Aiisu'ia,  and  a  portion   niider 
lilt'   eiiil    sHay    i>f  (lie    head   ot    the    Komish    ciiurv'h. 
Tiirou;lfiu(    the  ^nater   part  of  this  tine  couiilry  the 
.■»\siiiu  ol  p.ilu'i'  IS  iiretv'lu  d,an\l  iNd>lM'r\  is  e\eeo\lMi^lv 
I'tMiiiiiiMi  ;   \-.<iiioii'ri'>',  u:;ri^'UitUiV,  aMd   the  i;-ietiil  arts, 
i\V\  III  a  l>>\t  «->>iiiluii>u  ;  lii;;.>ti-\  piw.iiis, and  (lie  national 
ehiraelrr  is  ledneed  l%»  tlu-  bmest  moral  standard.  The  . 
nie*i  *'>\  i;i"n  I  aiitl  \ie-.t  .•.»»ivned  part  ot'  ltal\  is  Tu«.-  . 
can\,  w!.«\-  I  vl.iJ.'Vs  \i;\  maiei-ialU  tiviu  the  adia^viit 
bl.iU-s.     In  1. 1-  piv>.\i.i  »ii\,  li.u\  is  o;ii\  ^,vle^ral^^l  for 

*  *  •  • 

r.s  musie.  aoil  iis  c>>ll\-x'(ii>iis  ol  \\\>vk->  i\\  the  tino  artv 
Ihi'  IvMioMiii^  sketeli  ^i^e*  a  \u»  of  tlie  amount  of 
|H>puUiion  III  the  li\e  i;iv.a  vIims-..-::^  iii;.i  ««hK'h  ItaN 

(«  jLUrlUlotK-d 

The    |'t»pii  I  (ion    el    '»«•*   ^laU'-"    \'\'    ll;»'    I'hurch    i« 


about  2,000,000.  The  capital  is  Rome,  the  nat  cf 
empire  of  the  ancient  Romans,  bat  now  greadj  altered 
in  figure  and  appearance,  and  eompletelj  changed  in 
chax^cter ;  this  venerable  city  poracwrn  a  popoUtioo 
of  150,1/00.  The  other  chief  towns  are — Bdogoa, 
w  ith  a  population  of  Co,0u0 ;  Ancona,  30,000  ;  Perugia, 
30,000  ;  Ferrara,  24,000 ;  and  Ravenna,  24,000.  There 
are  other  eight  towns,  with  a  popuhition  of  from  7000 
to  I4,0<i0. 

The  duchy  of  Tuscany,  in  1826,  had  a  population 
of  l,-J7.i,0U0  inhabitanu.  The  capital  of  this  state  ii 
P'lorence,  the  population  of  which  amounts  to  80,000. 
The  other  chief  towns  are — Leghorn,  66,000  ;  Piaa, 
20,000  ;  Sienna,  18,000  ;  Prato,  10,000  ;  Pistira,  900U ; 
Avezzo,  7000  ;  and  CoBtona,  5000. 

Austrian  Italy,  or  the  Lombardo- Venetian  kingdom, 
which  consists  of  the  great  plain  of  the  Po,  is  sub- 
divided into  the  governments  of  Milan,  Venice,  Panna, 
and  Modena.     The  chief  towns  of  the  state  of  Milan 
an^—MiUn,  1.51,000 ;  Brescie, 31,000 ;  Cremona,26,000  ^ 
Mantua,2.5,00O ;  Pavia,21,000 ;  Lodi,18,000 ;  andComo, 
7600.  The  cliief  towns  in  the  state  of  Venice  are — Venice 
101,000;  Verona,  48,000;   Padua,  35,000;  Vicenxa- 
l.<),000 ;  Udina,  18,000 ;  Treviso,  15,000 ;  Belluuo,  90WP 
and  Rovigo,  7000.     The  state  of  Parma  has  the  tow  k 
of  Parma,  30,000  ;  Placentia,  28,000  ;  aud  Guastalla. 
5000.    The  state  of  Modena  possesses  tlie  town  o: 
Modena,   27,000 ;    Reggio,    18,000 ;   and   Mirandolaa 
6000. 

The  Sardinuin  States  are  composed  of  Piedmont, 
Genoa,  Savoy,  and  the  Island  of  Sardinia,  the  whole 
of  these  divisions  having  a  population  of  3,831,350. 
The  principal  town  and  sea-port  in  this  district  is 
Genoa,  which  possesses  a  population  of  80,000  inhabi- 
tants. 

The  fifth  division  of  Italy  is  composed  of  the  states 
now  included  in  the  kingdom  of  the  Two  Sicilies.  This 
forms  the  southern,  and  perhaps  the  finest  portion  of 
the  Italian  peninsula,  and  branches  out  into  the  two 
smaller  peninsulas  of  Otranto  and  CaUbria.  Naples 
is  the  chief  town,  with  a  population  of  354,000  inhabi- 
tants, being  thus  the  largest  city  in  Italy.  Naples  is 
famed  for  the  beauty  of  its  environs,  particularly  the 
bay  on  which  it  is  situated,  and  for  the  exceeding  fine- 
nesri  of  its  climate.  Sicily,  an  island  belonging  to  the 
kingdom  of  Naples,  measures  180  miles  long  by  150  in 
breadth,  and  is  one  of  the  most  beautiful  islauds  of 
Kuro])e.  It  is  chiefly  distinguished  for  its  celebrated 
volcano.  Mount  Etna.  Malta,  an  islet  in  the  Mediter- 
ranean, about  tifty-four  miles  to  the  soutli  of  Sicily,  now 
belongs  to  the  British  government. 

lasL'iiA. 

The  Russian  empire  stretclies  over  the  half  of 
Kuri>{H',  and  the  whole  of  Northern  Asia,  from  the 
Italtic  to  the  Pacific,  and  includes  vast  territories  on 
the  north-western  iiwist  of  North  America.  It  lies 
between  lat.  ;18''  and  7l»''  N.  It  is  bounded  on  the  north 
by  the  Northern  or  ley  Ocean, west  by  Norway,  Sweden, 
the  Baltic  Si>a,  Austria,  and  Pruitsia,  and  south  by 
Turkey,  the  Black  Sea,  IVrsia,  the  Caspian  Sext,  Inde- 
pendent Tartary,  and  China.  The  total  superficial 
aiva  Lii  estimated  at  it,()U(K()O0  m^uaro  miles,  of  which 
about  l,."«(»0,(»oo  uri*  Mtuatcd  in  Kurv^^e,  aud  5,t;oo,0t)0 
in  .Vsia.  The  Uus^^ian  dominions  coniiiose  about  one- 
Ni'\i'iiili  of  the  habitable  globe.  The  surface  of  Russia 
is  i;eiieraily  level,  aud  Mmie  tracts  of  laud  of  this  Hat 
naiurv',  I'lVi^uentiy  bleak  and  barren,  are  called  steppes. 
The  e  ';m:ry  ;ilMi  ]H^ssos!SCii  chains  vi  lofty  mountains 
in  ditferi'i)'.  quarters.  Russia  rais<>:»  vastt  v^uantities  of 
corn.  \«l>.ioh  \i  exports  ;  and  it  pitniuoes  fruits  and  wine 
i:i  .;l>uiidamv.  The  forest  als^o  \  ieids  ini^Hirtant  articles 
oi  e\)vrt.  Cattle  of  all  kinddk,  horsey  and  sheep,  ar« 
likcwiM'  bred  in  ininuiwe  nuniK^rs,  ehiefiy  for  the 
e\|Kirtation  of  tiioir  skius.  The  mines  of  the  country 
aiv  pr\Hluo::\o  of  platina,  zinc,  cvp^vr,  quiduilvery 
alum,  and  scilt,  all  which  are  continual  sources  of  re* 
%enuc.     Kustiui  ]«vWK'a»c»  various   riven  of  the  first 


GEOGRAPHY. 


magnitadey  and  canals  are  in  the  course  of  establishment 
on  a  considerable  scale. 

The  popuhition  of  Russia,  including  Poland  and  Fin- 
land, is  57,000,000,  of  nine  different  races  :— 1.  Scla- 
Tonians  44,000,000,  includine  the  Russians  (42,000,000, 
among  whom  are  the  Cossacks,  about  600,000  capable 
€d  bcwng  arms)  and  the  Poles ;  2.  Finns,  who  are 
Mattered  over  the  country,  from  Tomea  and  the  Nie- 
men  to  the  Obi  (3,000,000)  ;   3.    Tartars,  from  the 
Dniester  to  the  Caucasus  (2,000,000),  mostly  under 
their  own  government,   without  agriculture  or  fire- 
trms;   4.    Georgians  or  Circassians  (2,000,000)  ;   5. 
Ssmoiedes ;  6.  Mantchoos ;  7.  Mongols,  to  whom  belong 
the  Calmucks ;  8.  Eastern  tribes  (including  Tchutsches, 
Knriles,  and  Aleutians) ;  9.  Jews,  particularly  in  the 
Pdiah  provinces.      Besides  these    races,    there  are 
utivcs  of  almost  all  countries  of  Europe  and  Asia,  as 
Greeks,  Arabs,  Hindoos,  Gipsies,  French,  English,  and 
Banes.  There  are  among  these  Russian  subjects  eighty 
tribes,  differing  in  luiguage,  religion,  and  manners, 
from  the  rudest  state  of  barbarism  to  the  highest  de- 
pree  of  European  civ  ilisation.  The  population  is  divided 
uto  four  classes,  the  nobility,  clergy,  common  people  or 
freemen,  and  peasants  or  serfs.    In  1811,  the  number 
of  persons  subject  to  do  military  duty  was  as  follows : — 
643,135  persons  engaged  in  trade;  6,389,269  crown 
pcusnts ;  10,1 13,177  peasants  belonging  to  individuals ; 
1}077,636  appanage  peasants ;  1 12,453  freemen ;  in  all, 
1(U35,730  men.     Wo  find  manufactures  of  leather, 
tiUow,  candles,  soap,  felt,  coarse  linen,  mats  of  the  bark 
of  the  linden  tree,  hard-ware  and  the  art  of  dyeing, 
u&ODg  the  Russians  before  the  time  of  Peter  the  Great ; 
hot  nnee  his  reign  these  have  been  carried  to  much 
creater  perfection,  and  many  new  manufactures  have 
been  introduced.     In   1815,  Russia  contained  3253 
ainnftrturing  establishments ;  twenty-three  of  these 
deUver  to  the  government  annually  cloth  of  700,000 
ivables  in  value,  and  there  are,  besides,  one  hundred 
aad  eighty-one  pri\7itc  establishments.      Drugs  are 
prepared  in  forty-five  laboratories ;  and  there  are  dis- 
tilleries of  brandy,  of  which  120,000,000  gallons  are 
eoosimied  in  the  country.     Ship-building  is  carried  on 
in  the  large  villages  on  the  Wolga  and  in  the  sea-ports. 
The  government  is  an  unlimited  monarchy ;   the 
emperor  is  autocrat  of  all  the  Russias;  the  state  is 
indivisible ;  the  ruler  cannot  be,  at  the  same  time,  ruler 
of  any  other  country  (since  1815,  however,  he  has  been 
king  of  Poland),  and  must  be  of  the  Greek  religion.  In 
1797,  the  succession  was  settled  in  the  male  line,  by 
the  niles  of  primogeniture,  and,  in  failure  of  males,  in 
the  female  line.     AH  the  princes  of  the  blood  are  called 
grand-princes.     By  the  ukase  of  March  -20,  1820,  it 
«as  declared  that  only  the  childTeu  of  a  marriage  ac- 
knowledged by  the  emperor  are  capable  of  succeeding 
to  the  throne.  The  highest  councils  are,  1,  the  imperial 
eooncil,  under  the  presidency  of  the  emperor,  erected 
Jan.  1,  1810,  witli  four  depai-tments— tliat  of  legislation 
(the  supreme  tribunal  in  civil  and  ccclesiasticsd  suits), 
that  id  war,  that  of  civil  and  ecclesiastical  affairs,  and 
that  of  finance ;  2,  the  senate,  for  home  affairs  (a  deli- 
berative body,  consisting  of  eight  departments,  three  of 
which  have  Uieir  scat  in  Moscow) ;  3,  the  holy  synod ; 
4,  the  ministry  of  state.   The  ministers  have  a  seat  and 
voice  in  the  imperial  council  and  in  the  senate.      The 
Bianistry  is  divided  into  three  sections — that  of  foreign 
alEurs,  war,  the  marine,  the  home  department,  eccle- 
iiiitifal  affairs,  education,  and  finance;  that  of  the 
imperial  treasury;   and  that  of  the  public  accounts, 
roads  and   canals,  and  justice.    The   whole  state  is 
Ibided  into  fifty-one  governments  and  several  pro- 
vinees ;  of  these  forty  are  in  Europe,  exclusive  of  the 
^^Tiwii'kfi  of  the  Don,  the  Cossacks  of  the  Black  Sea,  and 
tite  kingdom  of  Poland.     The  military  force  of  Russia 
ii  exceedingly  great,  yet  notliing  to  excite  any  dread. 
Bj  some  accounts  it  is  stated  as  having  totally  amounted 
lo  870,000  men ;  but  a  vast  proportion  of  this  force  is 
~  of  irregular  militia,  or  armed  slaves.     It  is 
by  recent  writers  on  the  subject,  that  tho 
amount  of  regular  forqe  which  Russia  can  bring 

41 


into  the  field  is  150,000  men,  infrmtry,  cavalry,  and 
artillery.  It  is  indisputable  that  Russia  has  no  pecu- 
niary resources  to  support  a  large  armv  long  in  the 
field,  and  therefore  any  fear  expressed  by  European 
powers  on  this  score  is  ridiculous.  The  principal  de- 
pendence of  Russia  is  upon  England,  and  a  quarrel  with 
the  British  government  would  most  likely  lead  to  a 
serious  commotion  in  the  state.  The  prevailing  religion 
is  that  of  the  Greek  church,  with  a  full  toleration  of  all 
religions.  The  state  of  society  is  a  strange  mixture 
of  refinement  and  barbarism.  The  population  is  com- 
posed of  four  different  classes,  as  has  already  been 
mentioned.  The  boors  or  peasants  are  the  property 
of  the  crown  or  of  individiials ;  they  amount  to  about 
35,000,000,  and  are  in  a  state  of  great  poverty.  They 
are  sometimes  emancipated  by  their  owners,  and  are 
sometimes  permitted  to  purchase  their  freedom.  The 
noble  families  are  about  150,000,  comprising  750,000 
individuals,  and  enjoy  some  privileges  and  exemptions. 
The  freemen,  not  nobles  or  clergymen,  are  divided 
into  six  classes — the  inhabitants  of  cities,  the  three 
guilds  (capitalists,  according  to  their  income  tax),  the 
trades,  foreigners  or  strangers,  the  notable  citisiens 
{sttvanSf  artists,  bankers),  and  the  colonists.  In  regard 
to  rank,  these  classes  form  fourteen  gradations ;  and 
all  who  can  claim  eitlier  of  the  eight  highest  are  con- 
sidered as  noble.  Distinction  of  any  kind,  however, 
is  only  gained  by  the  possession  of  a  superior  military 
rank. 

Debased  as  Russia  is,  it  has  recently  made  great 
advances  in  civilised  usages:  Science,  literature,  and 
the  arts,  are  highly  cultivated,  and  liberally  endowed. 
The  Russians,  it  seems,  have  not  much  original  genius, 
but  they  are  the  best  imitators  in  the  world,  and 
quickly  adopt  foreign  manners,  language,  and  improve- 
ments. The  wretched  system  of  territorial  slavery  is 
gradually  disappearing,  and  the  peasants  are  now  moro 
protected  by  the  laws  than  formerly.  The  punishment 
of  criminals  is  also  becoming  more  lenient.  Russia 
possesses  a  number  of  towns  of  from  10,000  to  30,000 
inhabitants.  Petersburg,  the  capital,  has  a  population 
of  425,000,  and  Moscow  240,000.  Petersburg,  which 
is  built  upon  the  fiat  banks  of  the  Neva,  is  considered 
to  be  in  appearance  tlic  most  splendid  city  in  the  world. 

GERMANY. 

Germany  as  it  is  called  by  the  English,  PAllemagne 
by  the  French,  and  Deutschland  by  the  natives  them- 
selves, is  a  large  territory  extending  from  the  Baltic 
Sea  on  the  north  to  the  Gulf  of  Venice  on  the  south, 
having  Hungary  and  Russia  on  tho  east,  and  France 
and  the  Nemerlands  on  tho  west.  At  its  south-west 
comer  it  is  touched  by  Switzerland.  This  immensely 
large  territory  occupies  the  bulk  of  the  centre  of  Europe, 
and  consists  of  an  area  of  250,000  square  miles.  The 
most  remarkable  circumstance  about  German  v  is  its 
being  composed  of  a  considerable  number  of  states,  each 
less  or  more  independent  within  its  own  bounds,  but 
externally  dependent  on  the  other  states  of  the  confe- 
deration, as  is  mentioned  already  under  the  head  Con- 
stitutional Governments.  Altogether,  there  are  thirty- 
four  monarchical  states,  and  four  free  cities,  which  enter 
into  a  confederation  as  equal  sovereigns.  For  mutual 
safety  they  compose  a  diet  or  congress,  at  which  each 
state  has  a  certain  number  of  votes.  The  principal 
states  of  Germany  are  Prussia  and  Austi-ia;  Saxony, 
Bavaria,  and  Hanover,  are  of  lesser  dimensions  and 
importance.     Tho  others  do  not  require  any  notice. 

in  the  days  of  Roman  greatness,  Germany,  or  Ger- 
mania,  as  it  was  then  called,  was  iuhi4)itcd  by  a  bar- 
barous but  powerful  people,  reckless  of  control,  and 
ambitious  of  securing  the  spoils  of  richer  nations. 
They  broke  loose  at  different  periods,  overrunning 
Italy  and  other  fair  portions  of  Europe,  and,  under 
the  general  appelktion  of  Goths,  finally  prostrated  tlie 
empire  of  Rome.  The  term  Goth  is  now  used  in  a 
contemptuous  sense,  but  it  has  to  be  remarked  that 
modem  Europe  stands  indebted  for  its  liberties  to  the 
Goths.    The  free  institutions  of  Germany  were  carried 


ciiAMni:us*s  information  for  the  rEoru:. 


cirfrant  tntrn  in  Saxony  is  Dmdeo,  sitaateil  tif 
banks  of  the  Kibe. 

Germany  poeiieiwcs  four  frro  cities,  acting  a 
pendent  fctatcs  within  their  own  briunil9,and  indit 
entitled  to  vote  in  the  fiertnanie  diet  ;  namely 
burg,  Lubeck,  lircinen,  and  Frankfort-on-t1ie- 
The  independence  of  thcM*  towns  is  a  remna: 
confederacy  of  cities,  which  was  c«tabli*ihcd 
thirtei>nth  century,  under  the  name  of  the  Ha 
I.eaf:ue.  Ursidi's  thetH.*  four  free  cities  in  (jeniii 
Polish  city  of  Cracow  was  declared  a  free  city 
general  act  of  the  Congress  of  Vienna,  and  ia  un 
protection  of  Russia,  Austria,  and  rrussia.  Ha 
situated  uptm  the  K1U>,  which  flows  into  the  Noi 
in  one  of  the  cHief  commercial  and  maritime  < 
Eurofte.  It  poftsesses  a  |)opulatiun  within  its  t« 
of  150,000  inhabitants. 

JIlSTkU. 

Austria  is  a  monarchy  now  forming  one  of  th 
ing  powers  of  Kurope,  and  ia  usually  esteem 
principal  of  the  (ierman  states.  Only  a  portioi 
territor}*,  however,  U-longn  to  (lemiany.  As  a  j 
ment,  it  includes  a  number  of  ancient  states, 
have  l)een  ac<}uircd  and  added  in  the  course  of  i 
a  series  of  ambitious  sovereigns.  These  are  (in  i 
to  Au«itria  rnt|>er,  coniinised  of  rp|>er  and 
Austria),  Bohemia,  Moravia,  with  the  alpine  re| 
Styria,  L'arinthia,  and  the  Tyrol  ;  several  of  tbi 
provinces,  now  called  (tallicia ;  the  kingdom  c 
gary,  anil  the  Lonibardo-Venetian  kingdom  in 
Thib  great  country  is  governed  by  an  alwolute 
who  takiii  the  title  of  eni|»eror.  It  comprise 
than  -'ii!.:):'!'  stjuare  miles,  and  upwards  of  thi 
millions  of  inhal>itant».  Of  thL*sc  it  is  reckon 
there  are  twenty-twu  iiiillionsof  Koman  Catholic 
niilliims  of  the  iireek  church,  two  millions  of 
tants,  and  half  a  million  of  Jew:^.  The  militai 
of  the  monarchy  in  l!il:'  aniounti-d  to  'J7'i.<'*< 
are  altogether  uuM'ttled  in  belief,  although  ttateiisibly  independent  of  militia.  .Aii'>tria  numbers  77 1 
K'luiii;iii|r  to  s4unt'c«»ininunion  ;  fur  in  noci»untry  ill  the  . 'J'J'Jl  market  towns,  and  •  :',lo;)  viliu}^-!«.  Tli 
wiirld  i}>  there  »>uoli  latitude  in  thinking  upon  {•i>iiit>  of  ,  pupiilouj*  ciliis  are  Vicuna,  Milan,  Venice,  L< 
faith,  (terinany  ruiitaiiiM  'i4  uni\er>itit>s.  %il.ii'h  an*  and  I'ailu:!.  The  princ!)-a:  ^ea-porl^  are  Trieste, 
attended  |i\  ulmiit  l^o.ooi)  •.tudeut^-  a  elaN^  ol' uild  xoiiii;;  auii  I'lutiu-  :  i>llur  ]'iaet-»  i^f  trade  are  Vienna, 
men,  liaMiig  huliil>  iiihl  an  appeai-iiiu'r  m  ry  dirhri.iit  i'e>ili.  l.ciiil>irj,  l{r..-l\,  and  (.ir.it/. 
from  what  ii'>ii.illy  I'liaraeti-n-e  alti  uilaiilr^  at  ei>lii;;(.>  The  ea|liai  it'  Au>tr:a  i>  \  u-iiiin.  \iliich  i; 
in  (inMt  hrii.iiii.  The  puMi^hiii'^  aiul  n-ailin^  ol' lHK-k>  uf  i^nat  i-xtt  i.:.  Mtuatii  i>n  tlie  l>unuU',  and 
pn<\ail  ti>  a  L^n-.it  i-\ti  iii  in  (ii  rni»n\,  ^}iu*li  i'«  i»r:k-  iiiiprnMd  in  i:><-Jtrii  tii:ii  >.  I Jitti  riy,  much  h 
tial!\  liiei.ii-\  Ml  it-  la>l«  ■«.     Tlirre  an- piil'.u*  hlimrie.-    done  in  Ai^tria  to  i>:alli>!'.  -elu" '?«  and  educ 

■  •  s  ^ 

ill  l.'iO  |i|.(i-i -,  \iiili  :ilM>ut  >i\  iiuIImiis  (if  \iiui;ni -.     Tin  {t^'ple.  t\  wliu'ii  ti:>  \  ii.uy  u!:iniatt.iy  1  ••  pre|ij 

th«iii-aii>l  aiilliiir>  ]>i*iMlui'e  aniniaily  fruiii  al-i>iit  ^^'no  \,,  t;,^-  t-n,ii\iu(.iit  i>i   •  ••Iiiu'a4  Iritili-ni.      Meaiiwhii 

."ViMHt  n<-«%  I k;*.    llifM-ai'r  aluiiil  iMii  |...;it.i*.il  jmirral^,  iinpro\«.-iiu  nU'.  an-  '...khi.;  \-\jnrv  in  tlie  ci'iidilini] 

»U  iitlii-r  joiirual",  and  at  li  a>i  I  ''H  )H-niiduMi  puMioa-  nat:i<n  l'\  tin.  i\:ei.»:i-n  i !  trade  and  coniiuerce, 

tiniiN.     Mcsi  iif  the  lir-t  Kn^lixh  |<rfduotiiius  .in  ri.:u-  i;a^it:atu>ii.  ruad.",  iN-e. 
luii\  traii>lal<d  and  iiMiitt-d  ni  (Ieruia)i\.    It  is  eunl<u^ 
tliat,  Mitli  all  till-  ahiinilaiioei'f  literatun',  antl  tlie  pn-- 
valt  iii'e   iif  t  Inrali"!!,   v%i(h   al->i  fn't-ilniu   tf  rrii^;iU- 
opiiiiiiii,  lieriiiHiix  is  lar  fi*fiii  U-nig  a  fm-  eiuintr\.     It  | 
iji  di--l>«<tii'all\  I  nil  d   l'\  gieat   i-r  |H-lt\  Mi\eix  i*:n-,  ha? 

oiiU    lit  n-   aihi   tln-re    th«    niiiekri'v   nf  n-prt-M  nlatixe  .  i-t  la.-l  Oi-ntury  t  •  1 1-  i>:.«-  't   tht    pr.iiei|ial  ciiu 

gii\iTiinii  lit,  and  the  pr  plr  in  tin- ma—  an- di.>titute  i.atiin-.s.      11. v    iu^*n.i-i-    %\    its    mzi-    lr>*iii    it» 

tif  till  piiMi-r  ti>  betti  r  till  ir  oitiiiliiinn.    <irriiiain,  troiii  i:inuii>i«>iis.  a-  ti:i.-  uiit-h\  <  f  lirandii.l-urg.  ti*  t 
«hii*h  all  oor  lriiil«>iii  hpraii^,  i-  it>*<  If  rankid  anunji:  '  di'.i-  r.  «  t  a  i'.i>:  r.i'.t  kir.^  i  -in.  I'.as  bi-en  (.t!.ot«-d 

the  li-iisi  m-e  I'J  tin-  nalmiisu!  Christindoiii.  ir.tn  i-..i.!\  • :  \'-  j-i'  \\-  ai.  I  ;i"-  military  cluract 

Hiij.  uf  (hi>  clni-f  nf  the  Miiall  <itrnian  kin^-lniu-  im  *.'\i  n ..:;.-,  j  .»r::o;:.ar!y  tl  rn<iir:«-k  II.,  i«r  ihi 

Sa\i>ii\,  Ixiii^  in  tin-  eeiitn-  uf   Lurfpi.  and  o-nM-tsn^  rri;--..i.  a-n  •»  oi:i!«t.'.iiti  d.  .it  -  i;i  tl.i  iii-rihem 

priiieipal!'^  nf  tin-  |'laiii  nf  tin-  rni-r  llil'i .  .n  il>  "11''^  *'•  l"*"i  "«  ^••■-  '■•^'  l»altiL*>»a«  !i  tni- lu-rlh,  aiiii 

|iar1.  «iith  u  pf^.uLitii.ii  nf  1.7«'»'."""  ndialitaiil-.     I:  i-  i  :i  :':.<  i..-:.     I:  c  \.  j  r-.Ms  liu-  .i.^irio:>  t.r  pr»»v 

rieh  in  a.:i-it-tiltiiia!  |>r«>«laee,  aii^l  lei  d-  al'i»ul  a  nnl^ifU  1_»-:  a:   1  \^  t -t    Tri;— .;i,   1\  m  n.   Itiiuraiua,    H 

and  a  hall  id  -lii-ep,  tin-  w...>l  i-f  whifh   i-  nn.aikaMx  I  urj.  >.  i--.;»,  W,-:j;..».  a,  a:-.d  the  Khiiu-h  pn 

fine    and    \alnal>ii-.      >a\i'ii\    La*    Naimu-    tl.'iiii-l.ii-.c  ^hicli   ii.\.-..iis  i:.^-.i..ii    il.»-   y  rtu  n  '1    rniam. 

Manufoi'tun".  liiif  n  and  witillt  n  ^•••kIs  Ik  lilt;  the  ^;a]  li .  ^a.-  I..ki  n   l^    I'lu  — -a  at  lit-  )ar*.:t:iii  if  that 

-•carrM**  <'i>^  I'O^k  tiadfwilh  %arii'Usp.iri»  « I  tin-  tii!.att    kii:^  :.  i:-.      1  l:e  aji:n  cate  (.\teiit  uf  th< 

The  grand  eeMin-  nf  iis  eiuniiirivi-,  aiiil  in-hid  rit.-i.i-  .i:..   '.:.:-  t'   '.•'  .;  "J  ?>{iiare  i:iili-s,  wit 

Lieniiau},  ii»  at  I.i-ip-ic,  nin-  h!  tt}>ehiel  t«iHii-.  pu  at:>  ii   \'.    i  ••>  -  ■'. ',  tip^arus  of  eleven   liliJ 

0/  Air  ii  attnuMUy  ht  Jd,  »hu'li  i>  atteiidi  d  l>\  h li.t-h  an>  i  k  nu.»us.    rruT^^tA  is  coii»idervd  to  be 

frfiu  mJJ  jimrtM  t»'f  KuritiH*,  and  at  «hii-h,  in  i^eaktucA  as  a  \^>'«vr  l-\  its  large  scattetvd 

t/tc  .'J A*  vf  /i-'Ih  ia  wry  cn-al.  Ihv  luo»1  oCuriiWrv.    IW  V\u^u\^tta>^&x^.■c>i»kKSaU 
4J 


into  England  and  other  countries,  where  they  have 
■iDcc  cmwn  and  flour'shed ;  and  in  later  times  the 
vorld  has  received  various  useful  arts  from  the  same 
•ource,  in  particular  the  art  of  printing,  which  tran- 
■eenda  all  other  inventions.  In  the  eighth  century, 
Charlemagne  united  the  Roman  imperial  crown  (a  thing 
merely  so  in  name)  with  the  (Ierman  empire,  and  the 
gr«at  territor}'  we  are  hjieaking  of  was  thenceforward 
oalleil  the  Holy  Kouian  empire  of  Germany.  This 
empire  huted  till  its  dissolution  in  I  HU(t ;  but  long  be- 
fore that  era  Germany  liad  been  bn^ken  up  into  states, 
by  the  enter]>rifte  of  its  native  dukes  and  princes,  and 
the  name  empire  was  little  else  than  nominal.  In  I8l.*i, 
the  states  entered  into  the  confederation  which  now 
binds  them. 

This  large  confederated  country  is  watered  by  500 
rivers,  of  which  the  priiiciiml  an^  the  Rhine,  the  Danube, 
the  Weser,  the  Kibe,  and  the  ( Mer.  The  most  southern 
ehain  of  Gennan  mountains  is  formed  by  the  Tyrolese 
Alps,  the  Alps  of  Algau,  and  the  Cami'an  and  Julian 
Alps,  running  from  east  to  west.  To  the  south-east  are 
the  Caritathian  mountains,  to  the  north -nt'est  the  Rohe- 
mian  fort*st.  There  are  also  alpine  n*gions  on  the  Upper 
Rhine.  In  Northern  Germany  there  are  sandy  heaths 
and  moors,  and  many  districts  contain  fertile  strips  only 
along  the  large  rivers.  On  the  whole,  the  soil  is  fertile, 
and  the  climate  in  general  is  temperate  and  healthy.  The 
numlier  of  inhabitants  is  estimated  at  nearly  40,000,000, 
in  '2'SUi)  t4)wiw,  of  which  Itni  have  over  HOOO  inhabitants  ; 
^340  market  villages;  104,000  villages,  and  numerous 
small  settlements.  Of  the  inhabitants,  there  were  in 
IH'J.*),  (lennans,  'J'./OOfHjA  ;  |H?rsons  of  Slavonic  origin, 
,'>,:t'J.^.<MK) ;  Walloons  and  Fn'nch,  3ii1),000 ;  Jews, 
2f)*.V>(Ki:  Italians,  lKM,tM)0;  GipMes,  !KiO ;  and  Arme- 
nians and  (in-eks,  !KMi.  In  the  same  year,  the  number 
of  |H*rsons  f>f  difTen-iit  rtdiginus  persua^ions  was  as 
fiillowh:—  Uonum  Catholics,  llt,:{7(i,30O ;  Protestants, 
l.'i.l.Mi/iiM);  dew^,  'Jl'-'/itMi ;  Greeks  and  --Vnueniami, 
JMIO.  It  hhfiuld,  however,  he  stated,  that  in  this  enume- 
ration there  are  in  all  likeiihiMHi  many  reliciunists  who 


1  i»l  s-i  \i 


rn;-sia  i*  i  tu- 1  f  ti.e  i.  ...-t  reniarkahie  kingi 
r.un-pe.     1:  l.a.s  x;-i ::  fn  :u  ni  :!iiii,;  at  the  be 


GEOGRAPHY. 


towards  Ronia,  Anstm,  and  France ;  hence  its  nitaa- 
tioa  is  dependent  It  is  compelled  to  keep  up  a  large 
military  force,  oonsisttng  of  180,000  regular  troops, 
with  BO  large  an  addition  of  irregulars,  as  make  up  in 
all  nearly  Half  a  million  of  soldiers.  The  king  of  Prus- 
lia  is  an  absolute  monarch,  yet  he  is  surrouoded  by  a 
spirit  of  freedom  which  necessarily  influences  his  actions. 
One  of  the  most  striking  features  of  this  monarchy  is 
the  care  which  it  bestows  on  science  and  education. 
The  sciences  are  nowhere  fostered  with  more  care,  and 
there  are  few  countries  in  which  common  schools  are 
more  widely  diffused.  (See  our  article  Education.) 
Pniisia  carries  on  some  maritime  trade  by  means  of 
the  Baltic,  and  its  inland  trade  is  promoted  by  the 
riTcrs  Oder,  VistuU,  Elbe,  and  Saale,  the*Rhine,  Memel, 
Picgel,  Wiuia,  Netze,  Hanel,  Spree,  Weser,  Moselle, 
^c.,  which  either  flow  through  Prussia  or  belong  to  it. 
Nine  and  a  half  millions  of  uie  inhabitants  of  Prussia 
an  of  the  Reformed  Churchy  and  four  and  a  half 
milUuDS  are  Catholics. 

BW1TXERLA5D. 

SwitEerUnd  is  a  mountainous  territory,  occupying 
the  alpine  regions  betwixt  France  and  Germany,  and 
having  Italy  on  the  south.  This  beautiful  and  romantic 
eoanti7  has,  from  time  immemorial,  been  occupied  by 
a  hardy  and  independent  race  of  inhabitants,  mostly 
attached  to  republican  forms  of  government,  and  al  wa\'s 
xvady  to  defend  their  rights  and  their  country  from  the 
■mi linn  of  the  great  powers  in  the  neighbourhood. 
Switserland  measures  about  300  miles  in  length  by  140 
IB  hreftdth,  and  is  supposed  to  contain  19,000  square 
miles.  Politically,  the  country  is  divided  into  twenty- 
two  small  states  or  cantons,  generally  independent  of 
each  other,  but  confederated  for  purposes  of  mutual 
pixileetion.  Some  states  are  more  free  in  their  forms 
of  goTsmment  than  others.  The  total  population 
amounts  to  two  and  a  half  millions,  of  which  upwards 
of  one-half  are  Protestants,  and  the  remainder  chiefly 
Honan  Catholics  and  Jews.  The  German  language  is 
ased  in  most  cantons. 

Gcnevm  is  the  smallest  but  most  populous  state  in 
pioportion  to  ils  uze,  and  in  this  canton  is  situated  the 
town  of  Geneva,  upon  a  beautiful  lake  of  about  flfty 
miles  in  length  and  eight  or  ten  in  breadth.  The 
highest  mountsins  of  Switzerland  are  found  in  the  can- 
teas  of  Uri,  Berne,  Underwaldcn,  and  Grisons.  Of 
aboat  sixty  Swiss  mountains  which  have  been  measured, 
the  highest  is  Monte  Uosa,  15,535  feet  high  ;  the  lowest, 
CkalcC,  is  3000  feet  high.  Mont  Blanc,  within  the  limits 
sf  Savor,  is  the  highest  mountain  in  Europe,  being 
13,668  feet  high.  The  mountains  of  Switzerland  are 
pastoral  in  their  lower  parts,  and  in  many  instances 
eovered  at  top  with  perpetual  ice,  the  icy  coverings 
Wdig  here  characteristically  named  glacirrs.  The  con- 
tiaaal  alternation  of  hill  and  dale  aflVinls  the  most  strik- 
ing natural  scenes  in  every  part  of  Switzerland.  In 
•one  plaees,  within  a  short  distance,  one  may  see  at  the 
mmt  time  ail  the  seasons  of  the  year ;  and  it  is  often 
psssible  to  stand  betw^een  spring  and  summer,  so  as  to 
eoUect  snow  with  one  hand,  and  to  pluck  flowers  from 
Htm  soil  with  the  other.  Every  mountain  has  its  water- 
fUls :  and  as  their  sources  are  sometimes  lost  in  the 
doads,  the  cataracts  seem  to  descend  from  the  skies. 
Switzerland  abounds  in  lakes  and  rivers,  the  fisheries 
sf  which  are 'valuable,  and  which  serve  to  embellish 
tile  landscape;  but  none  of  the  rivers  are  navigable. 
Small  steam-vessels  now  ply  on  the  lakes  of  Geneva, 
Zariefa,  Constance,  and  Neufchatel,  and  are  a  great 
eonvenience  to  travellers.  The  chief  rivers  are  the 
BhiBe,  the  Renss,  the  Rhone,  and  the  Tessino.  The 
coltivmtion  of  the  vine  is  carried  on  to  a  considerable 
CKtcot  in  Switzerland ;  the  breeding  of  cattle  is,  how- 
%  the  chief  employment  of  the  inhabitants.  Swiss 
are  imported  in  great  numbers  into  Germany, 
and  Italy. 

of  silk,  cotton,  and  linen,  have  <rf  late 
jmgM  gntdJy  increased  in  Switzerland,  which  is  rivalliug 

43 


England  in  some  kinds  of  goods,  particularly  printed 
calicoes.  Recently  great  improvements  have  been  made 
upon  the  roads  through  this  attractive  territory,  and 
travellers  are  now  well  accommodated  on  all  the  main 
routes. 

The  people  of  Switzerland  form  one  of  the  best  edu- 
cated, most  industrious,  and  best  behaved  nations  in 
the  world ;  and  consetjuently  they  are  generally  happy 
and  in  good  circumstances.  Although  the  country  i£)e8 
not  any  where  touch  the  sea,  and  all  goods  have  to  be 
carried  many  miles  by  land  journey  through  other 
states,  the  Swiss  possess  a  thriving  system  of  trade  and 
commerce,  and  are  rapidly  advancing  in  a  career  of 
national  prosperity,  thus  proving  that  nothing  is  denied 
to  good  conduct  and  industry. 

^ORWAY,  bWEDLX,  AND  DENMARK. 

These,  with  the  province  of  Finland,  form  the  north- 
western frontier  of  Europe,  facing  the  North  Sea  or 
German  Ocean,  and  reaching  to  the  shore  of  the  Baltic 
on  the  south.  Norway  lies  on  the  shore  of  the  North 
Sea,  Sweden  is  behind  it  with  its  southern  extremity  to 
the  Baltic,  and  Denmark  is  formed  by  the  peninsula  of 
Jutland,  projected  northwards  from  the  Netherlands 
and  kingdom  of  Hanover  into  the  mouth  of  the  Baltic. 
Norway  and  Sweden  are  now  erected  into  a  kingdom, 
under  one  sovereign,  mudi  in  the  same  manner  as 
Engknd  and  Scotland  are  united.  Bernadotte,  one  of 
Bonaparte's  commanders,  has  for  a  number  of  years 
been  the  reigning  monarch.  The  united  kingdom 
measures  1550  mites  in  length  by  about  350  in  breadth. 
The  country  is  mostly  mountainous  and  pastoral,  and 
covered  with  dense  forests,  producing  the  flnest  timber 
in  the  world.  The  climate  is  dry  and  cold,  but  that  of 
Sweden  is  warmer  than  that  of  Norway.  The  mineral 
kingdom  is  rich,  particularly  in  iron,  copper,  and  silver. 
The  inhabitants  of  these  countries  are  of  the  ancient 
Scandinavian  races;  hardy,  honest,  industrious,  and 
kind-hearted.  In  the  sciences,  the  Swedes  have  shown 
a  sound  and  penetrating  mind.  The  two  kingdoms, 
Norway  and  Sweden,  had,  in  1825,  a  iM)pulatiou  of 
nearly  four  millions  of  inhabitants.  Stockholm,  tho 
capital,  had  a  population  of  nearly  80,000  ;  Gottenburg, 
the  princii)al  commercial  city,  had  '24,000 ;  Christiana, 
the  capital  of  tho  Norwegian  division,  had  20,(>00  ;  and 
Bergen,  the  chief  commercial  city  in  Norway,  20,800. 
Few  towns,  however,  number  more  than  4000  inhabi- 
tants, and  many  have  scarcely  500. 

The  Danish  monarchy  is  composed  of  the  peninsula 
already  mentioned,  with  some  islands  and  detached 
portions.  The  principal  of  the  attached  territories  are 
the  duchies  of  Holstein  and  Lauenburg ;  likewise  the 
Feroe  IsUnds,  in  the  North  Sea ;  Iceland ;  the  western 
coast  of  Greenland ;  some  places  in  Guinea ;  and  the 
city  and  territory  of  Tranquebar,  in  tho  East  Indies. 
The  exact  measurement  of  so  scattered  a  territory  is 
of  little  moment ;  and  it  is  sufficient  to  state,  that  Den- 
mark Proper  and  tiie  duchy  of  Sclcswick  contain  17,375 
square  miles.  Denmark  Proper  is  estimated  to  con- 
tain 1,230,000  inhabitants;  Holstein  and  Lauenburg, 
370,000  ;  and  the  total  population  under  the  monarchy 
amounts  to  something  under  two  millions.  The  people 
are  partly  Danes  and  partly  Germans.  Denmark  is  a 
level  country.  The  coasts  are  low,  and  protected  from 
the  sea  by  dykes.  The  soil  coni«u>ts  partly  of  marshes 
and  heaths,  and  is  on  the  whole  but  moderately  fruitful. 
By  the  improvident  extirp:ition  of  the  woods  which 
protected  the  north  and  north-western  coasts  of  Jutland 
against  the  sea,  vast  extents  of  fruitful  territory  have 
become  barren  and  sandy  deserts.  The  staple  produc- 
tions are  grain,  rai>eseed,  and  tobacco ;  and  the  breeding 
of  cattle  forms  a  principal  source  of  profit.  Denmark 
now  contains,  without  including  Iceland  and  tho  Feroe 
Islands,  100  cities,  73  boroughs,  2305  parishes,  and 
5500  villages.  The  government  is  an  absolute  monarchy. 
Copenhagen,  situated  on  the  east  coast  of  the  ishuid  of 
ZeaUnd,  is  the  capital,  and  contains  a  population  of 
105,000  inhabitants. 


CHAMBERS'S  INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


HOLLAND  AND  BELQItTX. 

These  countries,  under  the  general  appellation  of 
Netherlands,  occupy  a  large  flat  territory  stretching 
southward  from  the  confines  of  Denmark  on  the  north, 
to  France  on  the  south ;  having  Prussia  and  the  small 
kingdom  of  Hanover  on  the  east,  and  the  North  Sea  or 
German  Ocean  on  the  west.  They  therefore  form  that 
part  of  the  continent  of  Europe  which  lies  opposite  the 
east  coasts  of  Scotland  and  England.  The  entire  extent 
*of  the  Netherlands  amounts  to  24,870  square  miles. 
Tlirough  the  centre,  from  cast  to  west,  flows  the  Rhine, 
one  of  the  finest  rivers  in  Europe,  and  which  parts  into 
a  number  of  channels  before  pouring  its  waters  into 
the  ocean.  On  the  lower  part  of  one  of  these  channels 
stands  Rotterdam,  a  large  and  flourishing  commercial 
city.  The  surface  of  the  Netherlands  is  flat,  and  rich 
in  the  luxuriance  of  vegetation.  So  low  is  the  land  that 
it  has  to  be  protected  m>m  the  sea  by  dykes  or  embank- 
ments. The  country  is  every  where  intersected  with 
canals,  which  are  of  prodigious  use  for  commercial  and 
general  intercourse.  Locally,  the  Netherlands  are 
divided  into  a  number  of  districts,  among  which  the  old 
Flemish  or  Flanders  provinces  find  a  place.  The  whole 
territory  is  nearly  equally  divided  into  the  two  distinct 
states  of  Holland  and  Belgium. 

Holland  is  that  part  of  uie  Netherlands  which  lies  on 
the  north-east  side  of  the  Rhine,  while  Belgium  is  upon 
the  south-western  side,  or  nearer  to  France.  Holland 
is  composed  of  the  following  provinces :  North  Brabant, 
Guelderland,  North  Holland,  South  Holland,  Zealand, 
Utrecht,  Friesland,  Over}'ssel,  Groningen,and  Drenthe, 
being  ten  in  nnmber,  containing  in  1833  a  population 
of  2,444,550.  Of  these  there  are  1,54 1 ,748  Protestants, 
886,920  Roman  Catholics,  and  45,493  Jews,  besides  a 
few  thousands  of  other  sects.  The  country,  however, 
is  essentially  Protestant,  notwithstanding  that  all  sects 
are  freely  tolerated,  and  their  clergy  paid  on  a  nearly 
equal  principle  by  the  state.  The  established  church 
is  Presbyterian,  resembling  that  of  Scotland  both  in 
discipline  and  doctrine. 

Holland  has  been  for  ages  a  commercial  conntry,  its 
people  chiefly  subsisting  in  some  way  connected  with 
ships  and  maritime  trafiic.  It  is,  however,  not  at 
present  advancing  very  sensibly,  owing  to  the  people's 
want  of  enterprise,  and  their  hatred  of  modem  inven- 
tions and  improvemeutH.  Since  1 830,  when  the  kingdom 
of  the  Nctlierlands  was  divided  by  a  revolution  into 
Holland  and  Belgium,  the  country  has  been  governed 
separately  by  a  constitutional  monarchy.  The  Hague 
is  the  capital  of  Holland,  where  the  government  is 
conducted,  but  Amsterdam  is  the  chief  town,  both  for 
commerce  and  amount  of  population — its  population 
was  some  years  since  upwards  of  200,000.  The  language 
of  Holland  is  a  species  of  German)  spoken  nowhere  else 
in  Europe. 

The  districts  or  provinces  of  Luxembourg  and  Lim- 
burg  are  now  considered  to  belong  to  Holland.  Luxem- 
bourg lies  on  the  south  of  Belgium,  and  Limburg  in  the 
lower  valley  of  the  Meupe,  on  the  Belgian  side  of  the 
Rliine. 

Belgium,  the  count r}'  of  the  ancient  Belgte,  and  in 
later  times  the  country  of  the  Flemings,  now  consists 
of  the  provinces  of  Brabant,  Antwerp,  East  and  WcHt 
Fiiinders,  Hainault,  Namur,  and  Liege,  the  whole 
measuring  12,000  English  square  miles,  and  containing 
4,O0U,(M)U  of  inhabitants.  The  people  of  Belgium  are 
from  the  same  original  stock  as  the  Dutch,  but  circum- 
stances have  made  them  widely  difierent  in  mannerrt. 
Belgium  was  long  held  in  subjection  by  Spain  and 
Austria,  and  aften^'ards  was  attached  to  France,  and 
partly  from  this  cause  the  prevalent  religion  is  Roman 
Catholic,  and  the  language  chiefly  French.     These  two 

EMSuliarities  give  a  turn  to  the  national  feelings.  The 
elgians,  though  as  industrious  as  their  neighbours  the 
Dutch,  are  less  steady  in  purpose,  and  more  enterpris- 
ing. Nevertheless,  they  are  now  a  thriving  people 
under  a  constitutional  monarchy,  with  Ijeopold  as  tiieir 
Id      and  many  improvements  arc  at  present  in  opera- 

44 


tion  in  the  country.  BnuMlfl,  a  beautiful  large  town 
in  Brabant,  is  the  capital — population  about  80,000. 
The  manufactures,  internal  traffic,  and  commerce  of 
Belgium,  are  undergoing  a  rapid  extension.  The  towns 
next  to  Brussels  in  size  and  importance  are  Ajitwerp, 
a  sea-port  on  the  Scheldt,  Ghent,  Bruges,  Louvain,  and 
Liege.  The  two  main  rivers  are  &e  Meuae,  which 
falls  into  the  Rhine^  and  the  Scheldt. 

TURKEY. 

Turkey  is  a  territory  partly  in  Europe  and  partly  in 
Asia,  and  is  inhabited  by  an  Asiatic-Tartar  race  called 
Turks,  who  in  the  year  1453  conquered  that  portion 
lying  within  the  confines  of  Europe,  formerh*  the  metro- 
politan part  of  the  western  empire  of  the  Romans,  and 
nave  there  ever  since,  at  Constantinople,  held  a  bar^ 
barons  sway  of  this  beautiful  district  of  Europe.  Turkey 
in  Europe  is  separated  on  the  south-west  from  Asia 
only  by  a  long  range  of  straits  called  the  Dardanelles^ 
and  by  the  Black  Sea,  and  is  bounded  on  the  northern 
side  by  the  dominions  of  Austria  and  Russia.  On  the 
west  it  has  the  Adriatic  Sea,  which  in  part  separates  it 
from  Greece,  till  Utely  a  portion  of  itself.  The  Turkidi 
monarcliy  nominally  possesses  Egypt  and  some  other 
possessions  in  Africa ;  but,  not  computing  tlieso  distant 
territories,  it  may  be  estimated  that  Turkey  in  the  pre- 
sent day  measures  in  Europe  178,928  square  miles  fbot 
including  the  insecure  provmcesof  Moldavia,  Walhuuiia, 
and  Servia),  with  a  population  of  upwards  of  nine  mil- 
lions of  inhabitants ;  and  in  Asia  4*25,000  square  miles, 
with  a  population  of  above  ten  millions.  The  bulk  of 
the  population  in  both  regions  is  Mahommedan,  and 
uncivilised.  The  climate  of  Turkey  is  among  the  moat 
delicious  in  the  world ;  its  soil  is  generally  productive^ 
and  its  natural  appearance  is  beautiful. 

Constantinople,  the  capital  (called  Stamhoul  by  the 
Turks),  situated  on  the  Dardanelles,  a  strait  betwixt  the 
Mediterranean  and  Bhick  Sea,  is  a  large  and  populous^ 
though  crowded  and  inconvenient  city,  excellently  situ- 
ated for  trade,  communications  being  carried  on  with  it 
by  the  Mediterranean  on  the  west,  and  the  Black  Sea  on 
the  east.  Every  region  in  Turkey  yields  its  productions 
in  abundance.  The  staple  articles  of  export  are  wheat, 
rice,  cotton,  tobacco,  silk,  figs,  and  other  fruits  ;  liair, 
wool,  and  opium.  Mining  is  totally  neglected ;  and  there  is 
in  general  little  manufacturing  industry  in  the  country. 
The  inhabitants  arc  at  once  extremely  ignorant,  proud, 
and  slothful,  and  the  commerce  carried  on  is  chiefly  in 
the  hands  of  Jews  and  Christians.  The  spread  of  know- 
ledge has  been  sedulously  prevented  ;  printing,  till  lately, 
was  carried  on  only  by  Armenians,  Jews,  or  Greeks ;  and 
transcribing  books  with  the  pen  is  pursued  as  a  com- 
mon employment.  Painting  and  sculpture  are  neglected, 
because  the  Koran,  or  Bible  of  the  Mahomraedana^ 
forbids  the  imitation  of  the  human  form.  A  great 
effort  was  lately  made  by  the  sultan  Mahmoud  to  intro- 
duce some  civilised  usages,  and,  among  other  improve- 
ments, he  establitdied  a  newspaper  at  Constantinople,  in 
French  and  Turkish. 

The  sultan,  as  caliph,  or  successor  of  the  prophet 
Mahommed,  enjoys  the  character  of  Pope  to  the  Ma- 
honimediin  world,  and  unites  the  highest  spiritual 
dignity  with  the  supreme  secular  power,  lie  has 
unlimited  control  over  the  propeiiy  and  lives  of  hia 
subjects,  e8{)ecially  of  the  highest  officers  of  state, 
whom  he  can  remove  or  put  to  death  at  will.  The 
people  have  no  rights.  Merit,  or  favour,  or  intrigue, 
can  raise  the  lowest  to  the  highest  stations.  There  is 
no  hereditary  nubility.  The  buccession  to  the  throne 
it  hereditary  in  the  family  of  U^^nian ;  tho  will  of  the 
people  and  f>f  the  janizaries  has  often  decided  upon  th« 
individual.  Women  are  excluded  from  the  t^uccittsion. 
The  i>adisliuh  or  sultan  is  not  crowned ;  he  is  merely 
girded  with  the  sword  of  Usniun,  alter  he  lias  sworn  to 
uphold  the  religion  of  Mahonmied.  The  women  of  hia 
harem  are  for  the  most  part  Cire:issians  or  Georgians, 
who  have  been  purchascHl  iis  slaves.  On  account  of  thin 
plurality  of  wives,  and  the  nunibiT  of  male  descendanta^ 
there  is  generally  a  contest  for  tlic  throne  at  the  dccvaaa 


'"  htmmo  Ti",  rl  Mlit'B».  iual  uf 


..^llM,  and  bv 
.:  -r  liMul,  II  b 

II  hMvgo,  III*  pMn-    oiuk  Ku»f*  Uf  tbB  «wn  'i(  Uw  Wulo,  wlilcli  niM 
DMr  Oiv  ItittJo,  u<L  billxnlli  tlw  Dml  mM  tU  CmjiIm 

.1.1  i-.>.    z^.iKi,  I      n,.  :,r--  <(  Afiab  nbnot  MS,MSMW  ■^nvumilw. 

T.  '.Vto  lOD*  e.  InRBlUrfH,  *ad  rnun  9* 

I  I".     ItoSRMnI  tmaiUIi,  IJMD  dkIAId 

'.K-^and  nBn<ftl»tki^(lliabnu(^RL 

>  r^rr  t>iiB  EiviHfw.     It  I*  •tliilM  tnln 


k  ImoiUtv  tutu    1 1 


111  ik  IKIauMy  vuiWcI 

rHL    Tin  pirti  hIiicIi 


u  llitlD  dsB  tiiaa  ■  gratX  wiUmirHL 

ftTQ  importani,  eitliciT  fnnt  thi4r  liiMoriHl  iiivnuil,  iir 

ili.'ii-  pi-'o-riE  cnnilitioi],  BM  Ihn  Ittim  Ii'biw  ur  Uia— 

I  ii'^  iultiiiii  Hill  fr«u  ilw  contltuuit  un  Ibi 
ifiu  (iri'ir  an  Ut*  wnl,  eoiuiinhnuliiiic 
iitid  Pvnit :  Urn  HKroml,  or  inM  puL 


11  pwl.  Chilis 


t  irn« 


■  hr  war,  hiawbu  ^  opp^*''" 
d  gniditij;  tiiacmtlfa  by  llio  Mars 
~ '     From  thin  uid  otliitr  ciroum- 

\j  tinna  kCuin*il  thi>  Rnt  tank  as 


t  o(  Lipsntn.  Altugullinr,  tiindL-i 
_.  .•  kixiul  ton  mile*  iu  liagtii,  uul  littlo  mnrc 
]«•  la  sMionI  hnvllh.  (iivcn  it  a  nuninUdeoiu 
■■n"-""-  incUin,  aUh  •btbibI  bciutUU  rivtts,  Its 
■UBM  1*  lo  ■  vrwj  rudo  mndillnii,  but  it>  com- 
»  bfattauin;;:  and  tlui  Irnif  ciliiiiutod  nMion  in 
mOg  Mmminf  »  irttlnd  ^luwrrul  ahttncMr.  A 
■'^*— — '  — — «■-   — ■•  -—J-  hW^  niyNite4  itti 


i>  culilli-J  Afiil.L^iKlii,  i,rtbpH[i[j[>v,iiii.l  ilj iiiirthom 
pkrC  Anliiai  Pctma,  or  the  RmIqt.  AdJMCiit  M  thu 
aqrUicrn  dlvukm,  niid  ttroMliin;;  kloii;;  tlui  bordsr  of 
tlio  MvditMTiknraui  Sm,  in  gyrui  nr  Paliigtinv,  tlio 
nnsivut  ouuntl7  of  tlis  Jhw>,  but,  kloiig  witli  ilio  siir- 
roiinitin);  00U11U7,  now  held  iii  »ubi«Dii>iti  by  xiu'  Tui'kuJi 
fntmr,  >nd  lii  ft  nnU  of  hurlinrbini.  A  Ju>iM'ipIion  of 
ftl-iSTIiiB  la  elwwhcre  ^icn  In  tho  pmwut  murk. 

The  dtolrfot  of  eountr/ nnclonlly  tunuwl  rtnin  Miimr, 
liut  now  fonmng  pun  of  Turkfj  in  Abhi.  and  cftllmt 
Nitolia  or  Asalolin,  <b  b  t<<rriti>r;'  6^U  lulleii  long  uid 
l'»l  bt™d,  havm((  AmjEiiiu  mid  Sjri»  nu  ttu>  niutli. 
»D<1  tliH  Medllernui«an  en  ihe  wceC  It  b  ft  rniitful 
iinii  dclightrnl  [uirt  of  AiIb  :  its  prtaoipBl  tovu  ftiid 
H'a-iiort  B  SinjrDa,  with  which  a  oonaidctkblD  iraSo 
ia  cairried  on  with  western  Europe. 

I'Bnia  liea  on  the  eoMtrn  ahore  of  tha  Peminn  Rulf, 
bclvopn  the  Sdtli  uid  40U)  drgnw  of  nnrth  li 


>  t)i«  CuiHUi  Sui,  01 


.uth« 


.  .    ^  ibiftj)  Sm  on  tliu  Miui 

ab»ul  miitfitn  m\aaxv  luitw,  wU\\  ik  v»V>^^I<^Aua  >A  «ki«a\ 
6^)00,000.    Tha  tnopU  M«  1Aiih>nian«'lavv«,KA'\a«> 


CHAMBERS'S  INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOrLE. 


seml-harbarouB eoDdition,goTerDed  bya  aluJi  or  despotic 
■OTcreigiL  Ispahan  is  the  capital.  Witliin  a  portion 
of  country  anciently  called  Mesopotamia,  and  now  gone- 
xally  entitled  Turkey  in  Asia,  and  lying  at  the  h«ul  of 
tho  Persian  Gulf,  between  Persia  and  Arabia,  are  the 
riTers  Kuphrates  and  Ti^^ris,  also  the  towns  of  Bagdad 
and  Basftora.  It  was  by  thcM)  channels,  the  Persian 
Gulf,  the  Kuphrato^  and  alito  tho  Red  Sc2^  that  a  great 
trade  was  once  carried  on  betwixt  India  and  the  shores 
of  the  Mediterranean  Sea ;  now  this  traffic  is  at  an  end, 
in  consequence  of  tlio  barbarous  state  of  the  whole 
region  round  about,  and  tho  opening  of  a  communica- 
tion betwixt  India  and  England^  Of  India,  and  also 
CiiiXA,  no  account  need  here  be  given,  as  they  are  fully 
described  in  other  parts  of  tho  present  work. 

In  ail  parts  of  Ana,  excepting  the  mid  and  northern 
regions,  tne  climate  la  delightful,  and  Nature  has  spread 
bcr  most  bounteous  gifts.  **  *Tis  the  clime  of  the  East, 
the  land  of  the  sun,"  but  sunk  in  false  religion,  super- 
stition, and  in  a  state  of  moral  and  intellectual  torpor — 
^ail  but  the  spirit  of  man  is  divine*' — and  when  or  how 
U  is  to  be  rescued  from  such  a  condition,  no  one  can 
foretell.  In  the  soutliem  divisions  within  tlie  torrid 
■one,  whose  genial  warmth  converts  the  juices  of  plants 
to  spices,  balHams,  sugar,  and  coflfi^e,  with  which  Asia 
has  enriched  the  West  Indies,  the  palms  (sago,  cocoa, 
date,  and  umbrella-ftalnis)  reach  a  height  of  *200  feet, 
and  the  white  elephant  attains  a  size  surpassing  that 
of  all  other  quadrupedH.  From  lieuco  tho  silk-wonH 
Kk'as  brought  to  Europe.  This  region  conceals  in  its 
bosom  the  most  I>eautiful  diamonds,  the  finest  gold,  the 
best  tin,  Ace,  whiUt  the  waves  flow  over  the  purest 
pearls  and  corals.  The  teni{)erato  zone  has  given  to 
Europe  the  melon,  the  vine,  the  orange,  and  many  of 
its  most  agn.'oable  garden  fruits,  as  well  as  tho  most 
productive  farinaceous  grasses,  and  the  most  charming 
flowers ;  and  unites,  in  its  productions,  sjrmmetry  with 
richness,  particularly  in  the  western  rt^ons.  Here  the 
oldest  traditions  place  Paradise ;  here  lie  the  enchanting 
Cashnierv  and  the  Garden  of  Danuutcus ;  here  blossoms 
tho  rose  of  Jericho,  near  the  cedars  of  Lebanon.  The 
eastern  countries  in  the  saran  latitude  possess  tho 
tea-shrub  and  the  genuine  rhubarb.  The  camel,  the 
Angora  goat,  tho  TliilK*tan  sheep,  the  pheasant,  and 
the  horsis  are  nativen  of  this  zone.  In  tho  north 
bhtssoms  the  Alpine  ^ora  of  Dauria,  and  from  the  icy 
soil  grows  tho  dwarif-like  Siberian  cedar,  till,  at  70**, 
vegetation  mimtly  ceases.  Ilei'o  live  the  smallt>st  of 
quadruiM'dfi — the  shrew-inouw  of  tho  Ycnisey.  Sables, 
ermines,  foxes  otters,  &o.,  afford  the  finest  fur.  The 
mineral  kingdom  furnishes  rich  ores,  rare  precious 
Htoiios,  and  remarkable  fu)»sil  remains  of  the  mammoth, 
in  high  northern  latitudes. 

The  inhabitjmts  of  Asia  (amonnting  to  300,000,000  ; 
according  to  some,  to  580.O00,O(H))  are  dividtMi  into 
thn»e  great  branches  :  —  The  Tartar-Caucasian,  in 
Western  Asia,  exhibits  the  finest  features  of  our  race 
in  the  Circassian  form ;  the  Moncolian  race  is  spread 
throuf^h  Eastern  Asia ;  the  Malay  in  5%outhem  Asia 
and  the  inlands  The  north  is  iiihahiteti  by  the  Samo- 
iedes,  Tchooktches  and  others.  Twenty-four  tril)es, 
of  different  Ian;^uage  and  origin,  may  In*  dii*tinguislied, 
some  of  which  are  the  r^-lic;*  of  scattered  tribes  <»f 
Nomades :  KanitsichatUles,  Ostiacs,  Samoiedes,  Ko- 
riaok;!,  Kurilians,  .Meutians,  Cnrean%  Mon^^oli,  and 
Kalmucks,  Mantchoos  (Tungo<»H,  Daurians,  and  Slant- 
ehoon  l*r<»j.»er),  Finns,  Circassians,  Georgians,  Gn-eks, 
Syrians  and  Armenians,  Tartars  and  Turks,  IVrsians 
and  Afghun<«,  ThilietanH,  Hindoos,  Siamese,  Malays, 
Annamitos  (in  Ci>c}iin  Cliina  and  Ton4|uin),  Dunntse, 
Chinese  and  Japanese,  be^^ideH  the  indiL;enous  inhabi- 
tants of  the  Ea**!  In<lian  islan<ls,  Jews  ami  Europeans. 
The  {irineipal  Iani;iiai:«>s  an?  the  Arabian,  Persian, 
Armenian,  Turkish,  Tartar,  Hindoo,  Malayan,  Mongol, 
MantchtH),  Chinese,  and  Sanscrit.  The  principal  reli- 
gions which  pn'vail  are  Mahommedanism  in  the  western 
jmrtm,  the  wi>n\np  of  the  I.aroa  of  Thibet  in  the  central 
-r«9pw/j,  liudhiftn  in  the  llurmwe  territ<irv,  and  Hin- 
dooiem  or  nnhmininm  in  IndiB,     I'hoee  and  other 


religions  of  the  Aaiaties  are  dcflcribed  in  tha  ftHii 

IIUIOBY  OF  FaX4»  RiUUIOXL 

AFRICA. 

Africa  it  a  vast  penintula  of  a  triangular  form,  «i 
ita  narrowest  point  towards  the  south,  containi 
1*2,256,000  square  miles;  situated  between  18*  W.  a 
51"  E.  Ion.,  and  from  34"  S.  to  37*  30'  N.  lau  ;  booad 
on  the  north  by  the  Mediterranean,  on  the  caM 
Asia,  the  Red  Sea,  and  Indian  Ocean,  and  on  the  aoi 
and  west  by  the  Southern  and  Atlantic  Ooeana.  U  I 
a  great  breadth  from  east  to  west  The  nortben  p 
tiun  is  much  larger  than  the  southern ;  the  greaa 
breadth,  from  west  to  east,  from  Cape  Negro  to  Ci 
Guardafui,  is  69*.  Under  the  equator,  the  bnadtli 
45U0  geographical  miles.  The  internal  atmet 
Africa  is  marked  by  many  peeuliaritiea.  It  _ 
deserts  or  arid  sandy  tracts  of  immense  extent^ 
bitable  by  a  settled  popuUtion,  and  only  traversed 
troops  of  wild  Arabs,  and  cararana  or  eompaaisa 
travellers  on  the  backs  of  camels.  In  these  awful  si 
tudes,  lions,  tigers,  and  other  wild  animala,  hnat  fci 
prey,  and  dispute  possession  with  the  savafpes  «l 
intrude  upon  their  domain.  Africa  also  poBsessas  k 
mensely  long  chains  of  mountains  rising  to  an  enonaa 
height.  Such  are  the  Atl.is  mountains,  the  Mounlil 
of  the  Moon,  and  others.  The  highest  peak  of  the  Qai 
rones  is  13,000  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  AM 
has  few  rivers  suitable  for  navigation,  and  henet  I 
impenetrable  character.  The  principal  river  is  il 
Niger  or  Joliba,  which  flows  some  hundreds  of  ail 
from  the  interior,  to  the  Atlantic  on  the  west  eiii 
In  this  quarter  also  are  the  (iambia,  the  Congn^  ■ 
tho  Senegal.  The  Nile  has  been  the  longest  and  kl 
known  ;  it  flows  from  Abyssinia  through  Egypt  to  i 
Mediterranean. 

Excepting  in  some  small  spots  on  the  sea-coast  iah 
bitcd  by  European  colonists,  tho  whole  of  Africa  ii 
the  possession  of  races  of  men,  black  and  Hctai 
sa^Tige,  or  very  slightly  civilised,  and  of  a  copper  eai 
plexion.  Of  tho  latter  variety  are  the  Moors  of  ll 
extensive  region  of  Barbary  on  the  north,  and 
modem  inhabitants  of  Egypt.  Egypt,  which  is 
else  than  the  valley  of  tlieNile,  and  lying  adj 

Arabia  Petreea,  and  Syria,  in  Asia,  is  the  only 

of  Africa  in  which  we  can  find  any  interest  iron  U 
torical  recollections.  It  Is  descrihed  at  length  ia 
separate  number  of  the  present  work.  West  fti 
E^ypt  is  BarbarA',  a  country  in  part  nominally  sahji 
to  Tartar}',  and  containing 'the  districts  of  Tripoli  ai 
Tunis,  also  Algiers,  which  has  hktely  been  eonqosv 
and  appropriute<l  by  the  French.  The  empire 
Morocco  is  likewise  in  this  northern  division,  ia  i 
angle  of  territory  between  the  Mediterranean  ai 
Atlantic.  Central  Africa  comprises  a  number  of  mvi^ 
states,  among  the  rest  (juinea  on  the  Atlantic  eaa 
Along  this  coast  arc  certain  Uritisli,  French,  Porl 
guest',  and  Dutch  {Ktssessions.  Southern  .\frica  eoi 
prises  the  countries  inhabited  by  the  llottentota  m 
Caffres,  and  the  Ca)ie  of  Good  Hope,  which  is  ail! 
extreme  southern  promontory,  and  now  forms  a  floarii 
ing  hritish  colony. 

The  islands  cnnsiilercd  to  briong  to  Africa  are  t 
Madeiras,  the  Canaries,  Cape  Verd,  and  Axore  islaai 
also  St  Helena  and  Ascension,  all  in  the  Atlantic  ;  m 
the  larp*  isle  of  Madagascar,  with  a  few  (»f  amali 
si/e,  in  the  t^cean  to  the  east  of  the  continent. 

.Madeira  is  the  finest  and  most  accessible  of  t 
African  inlands.  It  extends  to  about  37  miles  in  leM 
by  1 1  in  brt>adth,  and  lii^s  at  the  distance  of  about  D 
hundrt*<l  miles  from  the  coast  of  Bar  liar}-,  in  the  roi 
of  vessels  i»nK)eeding  from  Eunipc  to  the  Cape  of  Go 
Hope  or  India.  Iai'^R  ^^  alsiut  the  31st  digrw 
north  latitude,  it  enjoxs  a  delightful  clinwte,  suiial 
for  the  tender  constitution  of  invalids.  Vegetataoa 
luxuriant,  and  the  grape  grows  to  great  perlcctioat  ■ 
^'ields  a  fine  wine,  usually  called  Madeira.  TIm  i  ' 
IS  in  possession  of  Portugal,  but  many  EaalUi  r 
upon  ll,  bolVv  foT  \Yv<i  «aV<^  ci(  commerce  andhealtlu 


GEOGRAPUy. 


The  African  nees  of  men  offer  many  points  of  inte- 
to  the  inquirer.  The  majority  oi  them  are  di»- 
tingniahed  from  the  rest  of  the  human  family,  not  only 
by  their  black  complexion  and  curly  hair,  but  also  by 
peealiaritiea  in  the  construction  of  the  bones  of  the 
bead  and  eren  of  the  nerves.  This  seems  to  imply  that 
tha  negro  is  orinnally  a  distinct  race.  It  is  thought 
tlMt  traces  of  this  primitive  race  may  still  be  detected 
hen  and  there ;  for  example,  of  the  original  Egyptians 
h  tbe  Copts,  and  of  the  Guanches  (the  original  inhabi- 
tuts  of  tfie  Osnaries)  in  the  natives  of  Barbary.  The 
Mpnlation  is  probably  between  a  hundred  and  a  hun- 
ocd  and  ten  milUoso.  The  interior  of  the  country 
■mat  be  very  populous,  since,  within  two  centuries  and 
i  hal^  it  has  contributed  forty  millions  of  vigorous  men 
to  the  slave-trade,  and,  notwithstanding,  is  any  thing 
tat  depopulated.  Even  the  countries  uong  the  coast 
wn  thickly  peopled.  Jackson  computed  the  population 
of  Morocco  alone  at  seventeen  millions,  and  the  Bar- 
bary states^  with  Egypt,  which  constitute  but  an  eighth 
pact  of  the  continent,  contain  twenty  millions.  The 
torrid  Guinea  has,  on  the  whole,  a  numerous  population ; 
and  larve  cities  are  situated  on  the  Joliba,  of  which  we 
hardly  know  the  names.  The  inhabitants  belong  to  two 
braaehes  of  the  human  family ;  to  the  black  or  Ethio- 
pian nee,  which  extends  from  the  Joliba  to  the  southern 
extremity,  comprising,  notwithstanding  their  tawny 
eomplcxions,  the  Hottentots ;  and  to  the  Caucasian  race, 
vhieh  includes  the  natives  of  Barbary,  Copts,  the  Arabs 
sr  Moors,  the  Agaziones  or  Ab^'ssinians,  and  the  nations 
of  Nnfain.  The  Arabs  are  not  to  be  regarded  as  abori- 
gines oi  Africa,  but  they  have  scattered  themselves, 
and  become  occupants  of  the  greater  part  of  the  north 
and  west. 

The  prevailinff  religions  are  Mahomedanism,  and  dif- 
ferent kinds  of  Paganism.    The  arts  are  exercised  only 
on  the  northern  coasts,  where  the  Moors  manufacture 
nwefa  silk,  cotton,  leather,  and  linen ;  an  active  com- 
frfu  is  carried  on  by  them  with  the  maritime  nations 
sf  Enrope,  and,  by  means  of  caravans,  a  traffic,  fully 
M  important,  with  the  interior,  to  which  thev  convey 
fteir  own  products  and  those  of  Europe.    The  wants 
sf  the  savage  races  are  exceodinely  simple,  and  every 
Is  naed  by  them  is  prepared  bv  themselves ;  the 
which  surrounds  their  loins,  the  hut  which  pro- 
tbem  from  the  weather,  the  bow  and  arrow  neccs- 
fbr  the  chase  and  self-defence,  as  well  as  all  their 
hsuehold  furniture,  are  manufactured  by  themselves ; 
lbs  cvM  which  they  collect  from  the  surface  of  the 
aart£  is  wrought  by  them  into  ornaments,  and  iron  into 
Commerce,  however,  with  Europeans  has  taught 
many  wants,  and  increased  their  list  of  ncces- 
I ;  among  which  may  now  be  reckoned  fire-arms, 
wvder,  brandy,  tobacco,  different  kinds  of  cloth,  glass 
■cads,  coral,  &c ;  for  which  they  barter  slaves,  ivory, 
|ddp  and  gums,  the  staples  of  Amca.  The  most  odious 
nndi  of  traffic  is  that  carried  on  in  the  sale  and  export 
tf  davfs  ;  although  in  some  respect  limited  in  recent 
tees^it  is  calculated  that  still  50,000  negroes  are  carried 
iff  aannaDy  for  the  South  American  market.  Of  all  the 
Ham  of  Africa,  Barbary  alone  uses  coin ;  in  the  rest 
sot  frei|nented  by  Europeans,  money  rarely  serves  as 
a  Bsdiom  of  excnanse ;  in  some,  on  the  western  coast, 
Mwries  (small  shellsl  are  mado  to  answer  the  purpose 
tf  coin ;  in  othersi,  pieces  of  salt. 

AUSTRALASIA, 

TThicfa  now  ranks  as  one  of  the  great  divisions  of  the 
fsrth,  consists  of  41  number  of  large  and  small  islands 
h  the  Indian  or  South  Pacific  Ocean,  between  the  10th 
md  45th  degrees  of  south  latitude,  in  a  south-easterly 
faeetion  from  China,  which  is  the  nearest  part  of  the 
continenL  These  islands  also  lie  in  a  south- 
direction  from  India,  or  Hindostan.  llie  chief 
m  the  group  is  Australia  or  New  Holland,  which 
m  2000  nules  from  east  to  west,  and  1700  in 

from  north  to  south.    The  phvsical  character 

tf  Anstmlin  is  very  peculiar.    With  the  exception  of 
—  ^  '-  ranges^  it  is  generally  flat,  and  m  many 

47 


places  the  inclination  is  inwardfi,  instead  of  outwards^ 
to  the  sea.  There  being  a  general  absence  of  hills,  clouds 
are  not  attracted  over  the  land,  and  hcnoe  there  is  a 
deficiency  of  rain  in  the  country ;  the  climate  is  never- 
theless one  of  the  finest  in  the  world,  and  no  country 
on  the  globe  seems  so  suitable  for  sheep  pasturing. 
The  only  native  quadrupeds  of  Australia  are  pouched 
animals,  such  as  kangaroos,  of  which  there  are  several 
varieties.  The  native  human  beings  are  of  the  Malay 
race,  and  in  a  low  state  of  barbarism. 

Australia  now  possesses  three  distinct  British  settle- 
ments—New South  Wales,  which  stretches  about  1500 
miles  along  its  eastern  coast,  and  some  hundreds  of 
miles  inland ;  South  Australia,  on  its  southern  shore, 
which  has  been  but  recently  opened  for  emigration; 
and  Western  Australia,  or  Swan  River  Settlement. 
Van  Diemen's  Land  is  another  British  settlement. 
New  South  Wales,  which  is  tlie  oldest  and  most  popu- 
lous of  the  Australian  colonies,  lies  at  the  distanoe 
of  16,000  miles  from  Great  Britain,  and  its  capital, 
Sydney,  to  which  most  vessels  proceed,  is  reached  in 
from  100  to  120  days'  sailing.  Lying  on  the  opposite 
side  from  us,  its  seasons  are  reversed  in  relation  to 
ours;  its  winter  is  in  May,  June,  and  July,  and  its 
summer  in  November,  December,  and  January.  Syd- 
ney, which  is  agreeably  situated  on  a  fine  bay  of  the 
sea,  called  by  its  discoverers  Botany  Bay,  now  possesses 
a  population  of  18,000  souls.  The  whole  population  of 
New  South  Wales,  free  and  convict,  is  understood  to 
be  about  80,000,  but  the  number  of  inhabitants  is  rapidly 
increasing. 

South  Australia,  to  which  no  convicts  are  allowed 
to  be  sent  from  England,  is  at  present  a  thriving 
colony ;  the  town  of  Adelaide  is  its  capital. 

Vail  Diemen^s  Land  is  an  island  of  about  the  size  of 
England,  lying  at  a  short  distance  south  from  Australia, 
and  possessing  many  excellent  harbours.  Van  Dicmen^s 
Land  is  more  hilly  and  better  watered  than  Australia, 
and  therefore  better  adapted  for  agriculture.  Its  capital 
is  Hobart  Town,  on  its  southern  side.  On  its  nortnem 
shore,  opposite  Australia,  is  Launceston,  the  second 
largest  town  in  the  island,  and  a  busy  seat  of  trade. 
The  population  of  the  island  was  lately  estimated  at 
25,000,  about  one-half  of  which  were  convicts. 

The  New  Zealand  islands,  which  belong  to  tho  Aus- 
tralasian group,  are  situated  at  a  greater  distanco  to  tho 
east  of  Australia. 

For  a  complete  description  of  the  whole  of  these  in- 
teresting territories,  we  refer  to  the  articles  on  tho 
subject  in  the  present  work. 

AMERICA. 

Tlie  continent  of  An^erica  lies  in  the  western  hemi- 
sphere, in  a  situation  altogether  aloof  from  tho  continents 
of  the  Old  World — as  Europe,  Asia,  and  Africa,  are 
termed.  America,  or  the  New  World,  was  first  disco- 
vered by  Columbus  in  tho  year  1492,  but  its  coasts  were 
not  fully  known  to  Europeans  for  nearly  a  century  after 
that  period.  It  was  long  a  matter  of  doubt  whether 
America  was  connected  at  its  northern  extremity  with 
>Asia,  and  many  expeditions  were  fitted  out  to  discover 
if  such  were  really  the  case :  it  is  now  ascertained  tliat 
it  is  not  connected  with  Asia,  but  is  a  detached  conti- 
nent. Although  Columbus  is  entitled  to  be  considered 
the  first  discoverer  of  America,  it  happened  that  he 
was  robbed  of  the  honour  of  giving  it  his  name  by 
tho  superior  address  of  Americus  Yespucius,  one  of 
his  adventurous  successors.  America  consists  of  two 
large  portions,  very  nearly  separated  by  the  intervening 
Gulf  of  Mexico,  and  only  connected  by  a  neck  of  land 
called  the  Isthmus  of  Darien.  The  northern  portion  is 
named  North  America,  that  in  the  soutli.  South  Ame- 
rica. From  its  northern  boundaries  to  'the  Gulf  of 
Mexico,  North  America  extends  about  4376  miles  in 
length,  and  SOOO  miles  wide  at  tlie  broadest  part  South 
America  commences  at  the  ninth  degree  of  north  lati- 
tude, reaching  to  the  56th  degree  south  latitude,  being 
a  length  of  4550  miles,  by  a  breadth  at  widest  of  nearly 
3000  miles.    On  this  vast  double  continent,  the  works  of 


CHAMBERS'S  INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 

nature  are  found  on  a  large  scale,  calculated  to  excite  islands  on  the  Atlantic  side,  in  the  seas  between  North 

our  wonder.    Mountain  ranees,  plains,  and  rivers,  are  and  South  America,  now  bearing  the  name  of  West 

all  larger  and  more  magnihcent  in  their  proportions  Indies.    Among  these  are  St  Domingo,  Jamaica,  and 

and  appearance  than  those  in  the  eastern  hemisphere,  other  islands  of  importance,  chiefly  devoted  to  the 

The  soil  is  also  very  generally  fertile,  and  covered  with  culture  of  the  sugar-cane,  coffee,  and  other  tropical 

the  most  lofty  timber  and  luxuriant  vegetation.  ^  productions. 

At  the  period  of  the  discovery  of  America,  it  was  North  America  abounds  in  fine  large  rivers,  suscep- 
found  to  be  thinly  inhabited  by  a  number  of  tribes  of  tible  of  navigation  for  several  hundreds,  and,  in  a  few 
aboriginal  people,  generally  of  a  copper  colour,  and  instances,  thousands  of  miles.  The  principal  river  in  the 
more  or  less  savage  in  character  and  nabits.  The  sub-  north  is  Uie  St  La^Tence,  which  issues  from  a  series  of 
sequent  settlement  of  colonists  from  Spain,  Portugal,  large  fresh-water  lakes,  the  most  extensive  on  the  globe ; 
Holland,  England,  France,  and  other  European  nations,  these  are  Lakes  Superior,  Huron,  Michigan,  Erie,  On- 
had  the  effect  of  either  extirpating  these  races,  or  of  tario,  and  others.  They  in  ecneral  diWde  Canada  from 
driving  them  westward  towards  the  shores  of  the  Pa-  the  United  States.  Next  m  size  to  the  St  Lawrence, 
ciflc  C^ean.  They  are  now  comparatively  few  in  num-  on  the  north-east  coast,  is  the  Hudson  river,  which  enters 
her.  While  they  have  decreased,  the  colonists  have  tlie  Atlantic  at  New  York.  The  other  chief  rivers  are 
vastly  increased  in  number  by  emigration,  and  the  the  Mississippi,  and  its  tributaries  the  Ohio  and  the 
natural  increase  of  population.  In  a  general  sense,  Missouri.  These  flow  through  the  central  parts  of  the 
North  America  has  fallen  to  the  share  of  British  colo-  country,  and  terminate  on  the  south  at  the  Gulf  of 
nists,  while  South  America  has  become  the  portion  of  Mexico.  The  valley  of  the  Mississippi  is  separated 
Uie  Spanish,  and  other  bieoted  and  bad-managing  Euro-  from  the  slopes  on  the  Atlantic,  by  the  Alleghany  range 
peans.  In  the  course  of  time,  the  colonists  in  nearly  of  mountains.  In  the  western  part  of  the  continent  is 
all  parts  have  emancipated  themselves  from  tlie  domi-  a  similar  range,  called  the  Rocky  Mountains,  which  are 
nion  of  the  mother  countries,  and  set  up  as  independent  the  boundary  adjacent  to  the  slopes  on  tne  Pacific, 
nations.  In  doing  so,  they  have  embraced  the  oppor-  By  means  of  these  and  other  water-courses,  personal 
tunity  of  trying  to  establish  democratio  institutions,  with  and  commercial  intercourse  can  be  carried  on  to  a 
an  absence  of  aristocratic  distinction.  The  greatest  of  boundless  extent,  and  with  the  inexhaustible  fertility 
the  republics  thus  established  is  that  of  the  United  of  the  soil,  will  in  time  render  North  America  the  most 
States  of  North  America.  A  third  race,  the  doscen-  populous  and  wealthy  region  in  the  earth.  Already, 
dants  of  negroes  impelled  as  slaves,  is  rising  into  within  the  period  of  two  hundred  years,  or  more  pro- 
a  large  amount  of  population  over  the  whole  continent,  pcrly  since  tlie  epoch  of  the  American  revolution  in 
partly  emancipated  and  still  partly  as  slaves ;  and  being  177Ci-80,  the  Anglo-Saxon  race,  originally  planted  as 
most' unfortunately  or  inhumanely  kept  as  a  despi^ied  settlers  by  Britain,  lias  spread  over  a  large  portion 
caste,  their  increasing  numbers  and  condition  are  at  of  the  country,  and  founded  an  immense  number  of 
present  exciting  the  attention  of  tlie  civilised  world,  towns  and  cities,  and  otherwise  effected  the  most  extra- 
It  has  been  computed  that  the  whites  and  their  dcscen-  ordinary  improvements  in  all  the  arts  of  civilised  life, 
dants  in  all  parts  of  America  amount  in  number  to  The  United  States  were  lately  twenty-eight  in  number, 
nearly  fourteen  millions;  the  Indians  to  eight  millions ;  as  follow: — Maine,  New  Hampshire,  Vermont,  Massa- 
the  negroes  to  about  seven  millions;  and  the  mixed  chusetts,  Rhode  Island,  Connecticut,  all  which  are 
races  to  at  least  six  millions — making  a  total  of  thirty-  known  as  the  New  England  states ;  New  York,  New 
five  millions :  but  there  is  yet  space  and  fertile  soil  for  Jersey,  Pennsylvania,  Delaware,  Columbia,  Maryland, 
more  than  five  hundred  millions.  Virginia,  North   Carolina,   South   Carolina,   Georgia, 

South  America  comprises  the  states  or  independent  Alabama,  Mississippi,  Florida,  Louisiana,  Tcnessee, 
republics  of  Columbix^  Guiana,  Brazil,  Peru,  Bolivia,  Kentucky,  Ohio,  Indiana,  Illinois,  Missouri,  Michigan, 
Chili,  Buenos  Ayres,  or  the  united  provinces  of  La  and  Arkansas.  The  number  is  constantly  increasing, 
Plata  and  Patagonia.  The  principal  range  of  nioun-  by  the  acquisition  of  new  territories.  The  principal 
tains  is  the  Andes,  and  betwixt  these  and  the  Atlantic  cities  are  Washington  the  capital,  New  York,  Phihuupl- 
are  many  great  flat  plains,  receiving  the  name  of  phia,  Boston,  Baltimore,  and  New  Orleans. 
Pampas.  The  rivers  in  South  America  are  among  the  The  principal  cities  or  towns  in  the  British  posses- 
largest  in  the  world ;  the  principal  are  the  Amazon,  sions  are  Toronto^  Montreal,  Quebec,  Halifax,  and  St 
La  Plata,  Orinoco,  I'anama,  Paraguay,  St  Francisco,  John's. 

and  Magdaleiia.     The  principal  islands  are  the  Falk-  For  a  complete  account  of  the  United  States,  Canada, 

land  IsUnds,  Terra  del  Fuego,  off  the  southernmost  and  Nova  Scotia,  we  refer  to  the  ai'iiarate  articles  on 

point  of  land,  Juan  Fernandez,  and  the  GalUpagos. —  these  subjects. 

For  a  complete  account  of  SoiTii  America,  we  refer  to  Polynesia. 

the  number  on  that  subject.  n  i                         i    •     -^      '  ^           •  i    *i     •    .i. 

Nnrth  AmPrJr*  ^-nmnrohprnl.  iho  fnllnu-in..  nnlitJ^.!  Pobnesia— a  WOrd  Signifying  *' many  Islcs"— IS  tho 


North  America  comprehends  the  following  political        *  "*^  "»-■».«;-«  « "  «  »•«»»>  "»k     «"«"/  «««  —«  .«« 

divisions  :-On  the  north,  the  country  of  the  Esciui-  name  r^w  given  to  the  numeixjus  grou^ 

maux,  who  form  independent  tribes;  also  Greenkind.  flattered  ovjt  the  Pacihc  Ocean,  but  principally  lying 

a  lar^  insuUr  or  i)eni!isular  tract,  sU^tching  toward^  J"  *"  ^'*?,VT*>'  and  iiorUi-o^sterly  direction  from  Aiw- 

the  north  pole;  next  these,  to  the  south,  Labrador,  ^^^^^  ""'^^WJl  ^^"^  ^^"^^^  ^^^f'^^^  «»  ^"^^»  ^'^f  ^f,'*?* 

a  country-   belonging  to  Great   Britain,  and  chiefly  equator      1  hey  are  perhaps  better  known  under  their 

appropriated  by  hunters  and  natives;  in  the  north-  J;{l^«,f,  ^}'%  ^"^wich,  inendly,  S>ciety,  and  Queen 

eLt  fJiast  the  isUuid  of  Newfoundland,  a  British  pos-  ^»»arlotte  s  Islands,  &c.     They  are  many  thousands  m 

session;  Upi>er  and  Lower  Canada,  aid  Nova  SiM,tia  '»™^"'  "^^  *^  inhabited  by  savage  races,  who  have 

and  New  Brinswick,  also  British  possessions;  thus  the  K«nerally  been  found  much  more  tnictable  than  the 

Urger  portion  of  territory  in  the  northern  pkrt  of  the  »>?rUarous  tribes  of  the  other  paite  of  the  world.     Most 

continent  belongs  to  Great  Britain.  Adjacent  to  Canada,  <>^  the  islands  are  fruitful  and  beautiful;  Homo  arc 

and  occupyin,;  the  whole  fronuge  to  the  Atlantic,  are  exceeding  v  high  and  romantic    and    heir  chmate  is 

the  Unitl^  States.     Behind  them,  on  tlie  west  coast,  r^'^^koned  the  most  delicious  on  the  g  obe.     Omhe.tc  is 

are  the  states  of  New  Mexico,  and  in  Uie  north-western  °»^*  ,f  ^»»«  principal  of  the  Society  J  slands.     Owhyhee, 

part  a  tenit<.rv  claimed  by  Russia.      The  extreme  ^"^  ,^*^™»  »*  ^»\^  '^/K^'^^  !f  '!»^  .Nuidwich    IsUmds, 

Southern  i»art  of  North  America,  occupying  a  divisiou  f»'^  'ncasures  e.glity-four  mi  esm  length  by  seventy  in 

of  the  istiimus  of  Panama,  is  the  state  of  Guatemala,  ^^^^^J^  »•     Here  Captain  Ojok,  in  1 , ,  i»,  fd  a  victim  to 

which  now  cUims  to  be  independent.  Except  m  Mexi«^  *  1«^^*^^"  resen  nient  of  the  natives,  with  whom  hit 

tho  Urger  nroportion  of  the  western  side  of  the  conti-  party  unfortunately  had  a  dii^puU-. 

nent  is  stifl  in  possession  of  native  Indian  tribes,  but       p^„^  ^^   ^^,^      ^y  ^^  „  CHAMn.ss.  19.  Wafrioo 

these  are  quickly  disappcanng  before  the  advances  of  pi.^,,  Kdinburgh.    Sold  bv  \v,  s.  Orr  and  Compwiy.  Amc« 

civilised  man.    To  this  continent  belongs  a  series  of  Comer,  London:  John  Macivoil,  GIomow  ;  and  all  bookieUai& 

48 


CHAMBERS'S 
INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 

CONDDCrKD  BT  WILLIAM  A  ROBERT  CHAMBERS,  EDITORS  OF  CHAllBEBS'S  . 
EDINBURGH  JOURNAL. 


^'CHBER  4. 


New  and  Improved  Series. 


ElH 


PHYSICAL  HISTORY  OF  MAN. 


rnm  PbynoU  Botarj  of  Hu  la  >  a^ence  «tucb  pn>- 
poMS  to  inTCBtigkla  iLe  duradars  of  the  diffarent  races 
of  tbe  hmaaa  ikimljr,  aa  thcj  exiat  in  different  ragioiu 
sf  the  earth.  The  great  diatinctiaiia  between  the  rari- 
Dos  raeea  muat  have  been  marked  with  wonder  at  an 
esTl7  petiod  ;  bnt  no  aeriona  effort  waa  made  to  aaeer- 
tain  the  natun  and  cauaea  o(  those  Tarieties  till  the 
uimnt  centurj,  when  the  aubject  has  beea  illiutrated 
by  the  researchee  of  CuTier,  Blomenbsch,  Prichard, 
and  aome  other  niters.  Aa  jet  the  acienee  ii  far  from 
bsTiDg  arriTed  at  diatinet  or  aatialaetorj  reaulti ;  bnt 
much  of  what  haa  been  aacertained  ii  nerertheleaa  of  a 
imoet  iotereating  natnie,  and  well  deeerring  of  general 
sUKition. 


Amidat  tha  almoat  infinite  varietiea  obeerrable  in  the 
natiom  of  the  earth,  naturaliata  haTs  anxionaly  aought 
tor  wcU-nurked  characteristics,  which  might  enable 
than  to  claaa  tbe  whole  upder  a  few  comprelieiiBiie 
afncUaliona.  They  have  arrived  at  yerj  different  re- 
nfta;  Malte-Bnin,(orexain|jle,deseribiiigBixl«Draeea 
which  he  consideni  as  broadly  diatinguiahed  from  each 
Mher,  while  otheni  reduce  these  to  five,  and  even  three. 
The  arrangement  now  most  generally  approTcd,  and 
the  one  which  we  design  to  follow,  is  that  of  Blumen- 
lach,  which  divides  mankind  into  five  leading  classes 
n  neea,  each  distiogiiished  by  such  peculiarities  in  the 
•kin,  hair,  eyes,  and  shape  of  the  head,  as  to  stand  con- 
•idcrablj  apart  from  the  rt«.  They  are  named  the 
C»c»;fsiAB,  SlosooLii.t,  Emcoric,  Americjiw,  and  Minv, 

1.  Tbe  CitCASiiN  race  is  one  widely  spread  on  the 
h«  of  the  globe,  and,  in  addition  to  physical  beauty  of 
the  highest  order,  is  distinguished  for  intellectual  emi- 
atata.  Theskin  of  thiaracemay  bcgener»lly  described 
■a  lair ;  bat  it  la  susceptible  of  every  tint,  and  in  some 
■atioiia  is  almoat  black.  The  hair  is  fine,  long,  curling, 
and  of  various  coloBrs.  Tbe  skull  ia  a  targe  rounded 
aval,  and  the  browfuU  and  elevated.  The  face  is  com- 
BantiTely  Bmall,  oval  in  form,  and  well  proportioned, 
nieiioae  is  arched,  the  chin  full,  and  the  teeth  vertical. 
Tbe  chief  tamiliea  of  the  Caucasian  variety  are  the  Caw 

Jmbian,  the  Libj/an,  the  Kilolic,  and  the  Ilindoilanir. 
Tbe  imce  of  Caucaiiam-projttr  are  traceable  to  the 
eraAnei  of  the  mountainous  range  of  Caucaaus,  bc- 
twam  the  Black  Sea  and.  the  Caspian— a  region  not  far 
diatant  from  the  apparent  birthplace  of  mankiod.  The 
f^iiaiisiiii  still  dwelling  there  form  at  this  hour  the 

fi■eal  type  of  this  great  variety  of  haman  beings. 
Circasaiana  and  Georgians  are  very  perfectly 
fanned,  approaching  closely  in  shape  and  features  to 
Iba  eonatc  race  of  I'elaagi  or  Greeks,  who,  emanating 
faoB  this  ngion,  spread  early  over  Greece  and  parts 
tt  Italy,  and  there  fonnded  Caiicaaian  naliona.  At  thia 
^agrcat  partof  the  fbrale  of  Pcnia,  and  especiall7 


the  npper  elasaea,  are  of  Caucaaian  descent,  tbe  re- 
minder being  Mongol  Tartars,  a  raee  easily  distin- 
goiahable  when  pure.  Tbe  Persian  men  and  women 
have,  generally  speaking,  fine  persons,  and  they  are, 
like  the  whole  of  the  pure  Caucaaian  variety,  bight/ 
imaginative,  and  fond  of  music  and  poetry.  The  tribea 
of  Affghanislan  and  Koordistan  belong  in  part  to  tha 
same  variety,  and  exhibit  its  wonted  physical  perfection. 


A  small  body  of  pure  Caucasians  fonnded  the  Roman 
nation.  ThepersonaldiCTerenceBbelHeen  them  and  the 
Gr«ekB,  arose,  doubtless,  from  the  extensive  admixture 
of  the  early  Romans  with  the  Sabines  and  other  sur- 
ronnding  tribes. 

The  Gervuinic  family,  a  great  branch  of  the  Canca- 
uan  variety,  formed  one  of  the  mighty  waves  of  popu- 
lation, which,  emanating  from  the  original  scats  of  the 
race,  passed  over  a  great  part  of  central  and  northern 
Europe,  filling  Germany  and  Scandinavia,  and  paztlf,- 
also,  Russia  and  Poland.  In  the  latter  regions,  how- 
ever, they  met  with  Tartars  from  Asiatic  Scytlila,  and  ? 
the  mixture  of  these  races  produced  the  Sclavonic  snh- 
variety,  and  originated  the  Sclavonic  tonguea.  Tba 
decline  of  the  Roman  power  broaght  out  the  Germanio 
tribes  from  their  nortbem  settlements,  and,  under  va- 
rious names,  they  formed  new  locations  in  the  south -weat 
of  Europe.  Among  others,  they  founded  the  languages 
of  England,  Holhind,  l}enmark,  and  Snedcti,  though  at 
different  periods.  Robust  forms,  light  hair,  blue  eyes, 
florid  complexions,  aud  targe,  broad-fronted  heads, 
constitute  the  chief  physical  characteristics  of  the  pure 
Germanic  family  ;  while,  morally  and  inlellectnally, 
they  stand  pre-eminent  above  all  the  other  tribes  of 
mankind.  They  ore  conspicuous,  in  particular,  for 
what  may  be  called  the  indialrial  virlaci,  exhibiting  a 
degree  of  indomitable  perseverance  in  all  improving 
pursuits,  which  has  rendered  them  the  great  inccnion 
of  the  human  race.  The  admixture  of  German  and 
Tartar  btood  in  the  north-eastern  nations  of  Enropt^ 
haa  given  to  these  darker  hair  and  complexions  than  tha 
pnoeding  tection,  and  haa  alao  lessened  their  pri^is*- 


CHAMBERS'S  INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


Bity  to  intellectual  cultivation.  The  effects  of  the  Tar- 
tar conquest  of  Russia  in  the  twelfth  century  by  Zenghis 
Khan,  whose  successors  held  the  country  for  '200  years, 
will  probably  be  observable  in  the  career  of  this  people 
for  ages  to  comoi  and,  indeed,  perhaps  as  long  as  the 
TSLce  exists. 

The  Celtic  branch  of  the  Caucasians  formed  exten- 
sive settlements,  at  a  very  early  period,  in  Western 
Europe.  The  whole,  it  may  be  said,  of  Italy,  Spain, 
France  (called  Gallia  Celtica),  and  Britain,  was  peopled 
by  them.  The  successive  commingling  of  races,  caused 
by  incursions  of  the  Greeks,  Romans,  and  Germans, 
did  much  to  obliterate  the  traces  of  this  variety  in  its 
pure  state  ;  yet  the  race,  language,  and  name,  still  re- 
main in  their  primitive  condition  on  tlie  outskirts  of  the 
original  Celtic  dominions.  We  allude  chiefly  to  parts  of 
ScotUnd  and  Irehiud :  in  Brittany,  Gascony,  and  Biscay, 
tlie  traces  of  the  people  are  also  distinctly  observable. 
These  pure  Celts  show  us  what  the  physical  characte- 
ristics uf  their  ancestors  were.  Their  frames  are 
athletic,  spare,  and  wiry  ;  their  foreheads  narrow,  and 
the  head  itself  elongated  ;  the  nose  and  mouth  large, 
and  the  cheek-bones  high  ;  in  all,  their  features  are 
rather  harsh.  In  character,  they  are  hot  and  fiery, 
but  generous  and  brave ;  and  they  are  remarkably 
patient  of  fatigue.  Intellectually  considered,  they  are 
acute  and  ingenious  in  the  highest  degree,  but  are  de- 
ficient in  that  breadth  and  solidity  of  understanding 
which  distinguishes  the  Germanic  family. 

The  present  population  of  France  partakes  largely 
of  the  Celtic  blood,  notwithstanding  various  invasions 
of  the  Germanic  tribes,  from  one  of  which,  the  Franks, 
oame  the  modern  name  of  the  country.  From  the 
Celts,  the  French  people  derive  their  proverbial  viva- 
city of  temper,  their  quickness  of  perception,  their 
dashing  bravery,  and,  most  probably,  their  undeniable 
inconstancy  and  flightiness  of  disponition.  Britain, 
again,  has  retained  comparatively  slight  traces  of  her 
early  Celtic  inhabitants.  A  branch  of  tlie  Germans 
had  visited  the  island  even  before  the  invasion  of  the 
Romans  ;  and  after  the  latter  came  Dane,  and  Saxon, 
and  Norman,  in  such  numbers,  that  the  pure  aborigi- 
nal stock  were  left  but  in  the  llighhuids  of  iScotland,  and 
partly  in  Wales.  The  Scottish  Lowlands  had  early  been 
colonised  by  the  Picts,  a  pe»)ple,  there  is  every  rt-ason  to 
think,  of  Germanic  origin  ;  and  Hubsoquent  intermix- 
tures with  the  soutluTU  inhabitants  of  the  island  Kpeedily 
gave  the  ]M>pulHtion  still  more  of  the  Germanic  cha- 
racter. In  this  manner  was  formed  the  root  of  the 
existing  British  nation,  one  of  the  most  remarkable  on 
the  face  of  the  earth.  Inferior  to  no  one  of  the  Cau- 
easuin  funiiHi.*s  in  intellectual  endowments, ami  iH>ssessod 
of  indomitable  courn;^e  and  unbounded  enti^rprise,  it 
has  scattered  its  colonies  over  a  large  portion  of  the 
globe,  giving  to  new  regions  its  language,  its  genius, 
and  its  arts.  Above  all,  it  has  given  origin  to  the  great 
Anglo-American  nation — a  nation,  if  inferior  at  all,  in- 
ferior only  to  the  pariMit  jjtock,  in  tllo^«e  attributes  that 
ennoble  the  race.  Much  of  the  excellence  that  belongs 
to  the  liritisli  character,  certainly  aro.^e  from  the  pre- 
ponderating infuy^iiin  of  Germanic  blood,  resulting  irom 
the  incursions  of  the  Norsemen  upon  the  aboriginal 
Celts.  Hut  the  sprinkling  left  of  Celtic  bhxxl  seems  to 
have  had  its  use  also,  in  giving  a  share  of  vivacity  to 
the  comparatively  heavy,  masHive  temperament  of  the 
pui*o  Germans.  Wo  may  judge  wi  from  looking  at  the 
eliHracter  of  the  unmixed  Germanic  families.  The 
i)utch,  for  t'xample,  would  evidently  have  been  an  im- 
pn)ved  race  had  their  specific  gravity  of  character  been 
lightened  by  a  little  infusion  of  Celtic  mercurialism. 
The  Hclgians  have  a  pretty  e(iual  share  of  Celtic  and 
Germanic  blo<Hl  in  their  veius ;  and  consequently,  while 
they  display  the  imlustrial  virtues  of  the  latter  race, 
they  also  show  no  blight  admixture  of  Celtic  tlightiness. 

There  nmy  appear  home  fancifulness  in  this  mode  of 
analysis,  but  we  believe  that  an  accurate  examination 
of  tlie  proiM)rtions  in  which  the  (.iermanic  and  Celtic 
blood  are  mingled  in  all  tlie  countries  (»f  Kurope,  would 
fully  bear  out  tlio  views  now  taken.    In  Italv,  Si>ain, 


and  Portugal,  infusions  of  Germanic  blood  took  dIm^ 
but  to  a  comparatively  slight  extent.  The  abonginil 
Celts  of  Spain  were  extensively  mingled  with  Rodsb 
immigrants  ;  and  it  may  be  said  that,  at  this  day,  Ro> 
manised  Celts,  with  a  sprinkling  of  Gothie  (Germanie) 
and  Saracenic  blood  in  their  veins,  form  the  existing 
population.  In  them,  the  faults  of  the  Roman  dia> 
racter,  as  well  as  its  haughty  virtues,  are  even  yet  dis- 
tinctly traceable.  Romanised  Celts  eonstitate  the  fauii 
also  of  the  Portuguese  and  Italian  nations,  and  the  pm- 
ceding  remark  applies  to  their  diaracter  as  muchu 
to  that  of  the  Spaniards.  The  languages  of  the  three 
countries  bear  out  these  observations. 

The  subject  of  the  Germanic  and  Celtic  branches  of 
the  Caucasian  variety  of  mankind,  as  well  as  of  the 
Caucasians-proper,  has  been  treated  of  at  some  length, 
because  these  tribes  have  been  the  great  civilisers  of  j 
the  world.  The  Egyptian  or  Nilotic  branch  formi 
almost  the  only  exception  to  this  statement.  Most  of 
the  existing  nations  of  Europe  can  distinctly  trace  thdr 
origin  to  these  Caucasian  tribes.  Dr  Prichard  tneee 
a  chain  of  connexion  between  the  roots  of  the  Sanscrit, 
Greek,  Latin,  and  German  languages,  which  leads  him 
to  imagine  them  to  have  all  sprung  from  a  commot 
original.  A  renuirkable  similarity  has  been  traced 
between  the  Celtic  and  Phoenician  languages.  These 
and  other  circumstances,  to  a  certain  extent,  point  to 
a  common  origin  and  place  of  origin ;  but  the  affilia- 
tion of  nations,  as  Humboldt  justly  observes,  cannot  be 
distinctly  made  out  in  this  way.  Conquests  and  eob- 
nisations  must  confuse  all  such  attempts. 

After  treating  of  the  three  great  influxes  of  popula- 
tion which  founded  the  past  and  existing  nations  of 
the  European   continent,  the    Arabian    and   Li^n 
branches  of  the  Caucasian  family  fall  to  be  noticed. 
Spare  but  active  persons,  skins  of  a  light  brown,  tal- 
lowed sometimes  by  unusual  exposure,  high  foreheai^^ 
large  dark  eyes,  oval  features,  with  aquilme  noses  and 
small  thin-lipped  mouths,  form  the  )>ersonal  character 
ristics  of  the  Arabs.     They  have  occupied  the  continei 
of  the  present  Arabia  from  time  immemorial,  and  their 
natural  habits  have  ever  been  pastoral  and  migratMy. 
The  Bedouin  Arabs  claim  descent  from  Ishiiiael,  and, 
however  this  may  be,  it  is  plain,  from  physical  charac- 
teristics alone,  that  tliey  are  a  cognate  race  with  the 
Jews.     The  latter  were  originally  derived  from  the 
Chaldeans,  an  elder  branch  of  the  Arab  race  settled  in 
Habvlonia,  and  tliey  were  a  pastoral  and  wandeziog 
peo]>le  like  their  congeners,  until  they  settled  in  the 
citiifs  of  Palestine.     A  body  of  Canaauite  Arabs,  ex- 
pelled by  the  Jews  under  Joshua,  are  understood  to 
have  settled  in  Africa,  and  become  the  nation  of  the 
Mauri  or  Moors.    Governed  by  Mahomet  and  his  suc- 
cessors, the  Arab  race  rose  to  high  consequence,  and, 
under  the  name  of  Saracens,  made  gre:it  conquests  of 
territory  in  Asia  Minor,  Africa,  and  in  Spain.     They 
were  afterwards  deprived  of  superiority  in   some  of 
these  countries,  but  left  extensive  tribes  in  the  African 
continent  and  Asia  Minor.     The  Berbers  (or  Libffan*) 
are  a  race  who  Hcem  of  Arab  descent,  but  who  probably 
settled  in  Africa  at  a  far  dLstiint  date.     They  n>semble 
the  Arabs  in  person,  but  are  more  darkened  in  com- 
plexion.    Under  the  name  of  Tuariks,  they  range  both 
to  the  north  and  south  of  Mount  Atlas.     They  are 
w  ilder  in  habits  than  the  Arabs,  but  may  be  sivoken  of 
as  the  same  mcv,  and  with  the  same  czipabilities.  They 
form  a  large  i)art  of  the  existing  population  of  the  north 
of  Africa,  occupying,  with  the  Arabs,  nearly  the  whole 
of  the  Mediterranean  hhortrs  of  the  continent,  from  the 
Straits  of  (Gibraltar  to  Kgy|)t ;  and,  either  under  the 
name   of  Mooi's,  of  Arabs,  of  Tuariks,  or  of  FeU- 
talis,  they  are   rapidly  insinuating  themselves  witiiin 
the  tropics,  obtaining  every  where  that  superiority 
over  the  Negro  race,  which  the  Caucasian  family  sel- 
dum  fail  to  acquire  wherever  they  plant  the  foot.     It 
MH,'ms  more  tlum  iirobablt?  that  the  Arab  race  will  ohi- 
mately  push  the  Negroes  from  Africa ;  and  indeed  may 
annihilate  thenif  as  the  European  whites  have  dune,  or 
ore  doing,  in  the  oasc  uf  the  Red  Indians  uf  Amcriea. 


fctM  woimiaBM  *IUi    nlmnp.  n  bul  tinwn  b*  U> 

>|  MMsT  P«CU|m,  ftt    ibllnn  ammiii:  Ibnii  kt  tliia  lunu.lbn  Mon^b  aaJnUm 


IB  iMt.  that,  lU  ■UUIUi'b  SHb 


■I  Wdiy  lutr  of  Uin    ' 
qr  Id  fatm  tba  liTpoiboii    i 


iTtMnttnd.     r> 
Im  inmit  ihtri' 
I,  un  ta  DO  r 
J  i»^  i.r  (lii^   ■ 


;  uOnuf  tllB 

i(i^  tlia  FinUnJ  and  L»p- 


«nrycoDGiderBlil«,  bal  Ihfl 
f»lli)Wiiic  genernJ  dc^ crip- 
lillU  Kill  bB  toDDd  tu  Kiipl; 

cixtuniiiiel]-.  Tliv  iklu  a 
iQuncolj  ot  *  lalloir  or 

nearly  yellow -,  tii« 
lt«ir  Ja  blMb,  long,  imd 


CHAMBERS'S  INFOTlilATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


ttm  brani  Dinull;  Hanty ;  the  iria  bluk ;  tha  no»  ii 
brini)  anil  iLort,  ■nd  the  chcck-bona  broad  and  Hal, 
wJLh  Kulicnt  xyfroiiialic  arcbn  ;  the  skull  in  oblop^,  but 
fUllviicd  It  Itiu  FiJn,  no  u  to  f-irc  an  appcarauM  of 
Xjiuuruiicsi ;  aticl  the  forehead  ia  lo*.  In  inli'lledual 
cluruelcr,  the  JIon([olian«  aro  by  no  mraiu  defcctiro, 
but  thi-y  arc  luure  diatinguiahcd  for  imilatiie  than  m- 
vcDtivc  p'niun.  TliU  ficully  at  the  ume  lime  renders 
thriu  biKhly  suaecptiUo  uf  culliTation.  In  nuuty  easM, 
however,  Iribn  i>f  this  rotiety  ha*o  anived  at  cuntidcr- 
kble  pR>Hcicn<7  in  litnature  auil  the  arto.  Their  moral 
charaeli'T  is  di-ciJpdly  low.  China,  Japan,  Tfaihct, 
Uaulan,  and  iDdo-Cbiaa,  iiiay  be  mentioard  an  lucatioDs 
■rhcTc  tlie  best-marked  uprciniena  of  the  Siloneolian 
variety  are  to  I>o  ubscrred.  The  Turkish  and  llongol 
Tartar  Iribeti  haTc  buen  Eirot  conquerora  in  {last  timcR, 
and  have  vttva  even  vani|uiHlied  tliu  L'uueaHiatia  ;  hut, 
in  oHMt  cawK,  tliey  iiave  aftcrHarda  been  repelled  from 
tbtir  Mqiiiailions  by  tlie  Caueaslana,  succumbing  to  the 
•ppucnt  law  of  nature  which  itivcs  these  the  ultimate 
•uperiurity  in  all  *tnit;f;tes  with  the  other  varieties  of 
men.  The  Kins  and  LapUndem  appear  lo  be  a  remnant 
of  some  )iriinilivu  Monpilian  |>«>|ili',  whom  the  Cauca- 
•iaua  uri;{inally  |iui>hedtcillioextn!nie  verge  of  the  Arctic 
■can,  and  were  content  lo  leave  then.  The  Esquimaux, 
aa  well  as  llie  people  of  Finland  and  Lapland,  have 
■omo  nliynural  {wculiaritics  diatinguialiing  them  from 
Other  Monjldiaiis,  but  tlwse  seem  to  be  the  cITect  chiefly 
«f  Incai  pwilion,  which  undoubtedly  exerciaea  a  drgrtc 

otiulluencc  on  f"—  ' ' 

3.  The  Km  mi 
racli'riw'd  by  i 
,.le»ion»ofj,.ltJ 
lilack    »oully   1 


did.  At  the  sama  time,  mMiy  of  the  Xegro  n 
nliown  no  mean  degree  of  talent,  and  aome 
havo  exhibited  audi  address  in  Ihe  arta  of  pel 
war,  aa  indicated  the  capability  of  attaining  t- 
state  of  intellcduBl  advancement,  bad  thnr  paw 
property  fuatcrcd  and  directed. 


IT  Bluk  variety  of  mankind  ai 


mlnen 


*A 


priiniincut,  Ihr  jaws 
prnjcctin,;,  and  ihc 
chin  Miiall  A  long 
protruded  beil  aim, 
and  a  llat  hhin-boiK, 
often  di%tiii.tuiiih  Ihu 


4.  Tho  Amkhicim  variety  of  tr 
defined  terrili.rial  limits.  They  n 
over  nearly  Ihe  whole  of  Ihe  Anicrieait,  stiul 
■iitielh  dpRTco  oF  north  latitude,  though  their 
are  now  tliinncd,  and  their  territorial  (xmmW 
tailed,  by  tho  colonial  incunious  of  the  Caucat 
reddish  bruwn  eompiexion,  long  black  lank  1 
ficicnt  beard,  eyes  black  and  deep  M't,  recrdi 
(sometimes  from  artificial  comprcwioii ),  higl 


ull  Bkull, 


apex  high  and  the  back  part  flat,  lai-ge  nK 
tumid  lips,  with  fine  aymnictricai  frames  ol 
height,  fiirm  the  chief  jllijsiriil  cliai 


"In  their   r 


t-llihittrur  llUhkllace 


p.«.of 

natiris  >.[  VuMralia,aiid  Konie  of  tho  islanden  ul  the 
Indian  .Xrehiiielagu  and  llie  I'acilic  Ocean.  Tliv  lands 
over  wliich  this  varielv  is  spread  (numbers  being  left 
..ut  ..(  the  qu..*ti.ni),  ar«  pii.|«.rtioiially  of  somewhat 
amalU-r  extent  than  tliotc  occupied  by  any  of  llie  otlii* 
variKirv  »f  iiiaiikiud,  with  the  exception  of  the  Malays. 
Tlio  Miinsidiaiiistubvmare  eanlint,  occupy  the  largest 
rhareiiftbe  globe;  the  Caueasiona  (their  vari.iux  colo- 
uial  Htlh^iii-nlH  Ivlng  inrludi-d)  aland  sccoml  in  this 
rt«|HTt ;  the  Ainerieuiu  occupy  ■  pnrlinn  slightly  Inw 
than  that  uf  the  i'ancaMBm ;  the  Kthia(He  variety 
Maudi  next  in  the  lial ;  anil  the  Malaya  are  IowcaI  of 
all  ill  the  hcale.  The  rulimving  figures  will  furtlu>r  fIiuw 
the  iiri'iHirtiiinii  uf  thcMi  leniltinal  holdings  in  a  ruu);b 
inaiinrr  : — Mimgiilianii,  4  :  Cawaaians  3  ;  the  Ampii- 
aav,  JJ  ;  the  Ktliiiii>ian«,  i  ;  and  the  Malaya,  11- 1  -'Jllili. 
Til'-  chief  l-waiions  of  the  KihiutHC  race  are — Africa 
h.uiii  iif  the  dTH'Tt  of  Kaliara ;  New  Ihillund ;  New 
<iuini'a;  New  Unirgia ;  and  a  few  other  I'nlynnHan 
iidaaiL'.  Mint  ii>htnd  Negnie*  am  I'f  a  ilin^-  brown 
imi:  In  'ii^inisi'uin,  thii  variety  of  mankind  are  luiy, 
iiididi'DT,  and  cliit-rrul ;  in  intelleci,  llie  raei'  variit 
iniwh,  thi.UKh  errtaiiiU  thi'  tnajnrity  of  ita  tribva  stand 
tiiw  in  ihit  n-npiTt.    This  may*-  ' -t-.i  .- 


_        e  been  thoroughly 

acquiring  knowledge ;  restlosa,  revengeful,  foui 
and  wholly  destitute  of  maritime  adventure."  1 
u  nt(  r  dividen  the  Americans  into  two  gri'atela 
of  which  (Toltecans)  embracen  certaiu  wmi 
nations,  as  the   Me%teani,  I'cruvian><,  and  I 

America,  tho  Uisxiliana,  the  I'atagfluianH.tliv  > 
inrl  otlitr  minor  trilvH,  nnnc  of  wlioin  have  < 
Ihc  name  ca)iacilie(i  for  cullivalion  aa  the  ti 
Honed  nations.  The  Amirieaiia  differ  mnch  i 
of  skin  and  Ktature.  Some  of  ihem  are  not  br 
of  a  jierfeet  copper  tint.  The  I'atagotiians  a 
most  gigantic  niiw,  wliiU-  tlie  l-'ui-giaii*  are  vi 
ill  Ktature.  Vi>l  there  are  characlcra  entnmi 
which  have  led  accnmie  iiujuircn  to  ret  ili< 
aa  being  throughout  one  and  the  same  prcipte 
languageii  havu  certain  peculiaritii^  fnund  t 
uuivvroal  oceurrcncc  amung  them,  fmm  Ca 
to  the  far  nurih.  I)y  tlnne  who,  like  Cuvier,  I 
viewKl  the  AniericanM  aa  un  indigenuna  raovt 
in  which  the  New  World  was  peul>h-d  liaa  b< 
oiuly  iiiquireil  iiitn,  and  it  baa  Vi'n  oinjeclu 
they  Mtlier  came  by  IMiring'a  rilisils  fr»fa 
that  nimo  small  |«rty,  in  age*  I'lig  paal,  wii 
accidentally  aerunf.  the  KCa^  lo  iIh-m;  va»t  idiiirc 
an  occurrence  as  the  huter  baa  been  |<ruv<^]  t 
imiawihle,  to  Hv  the  least  nf  it      "~ '  


in  fovour  iiT  tlir  opinion 


n  wliil.-aib>|<iins  thi> 


■yi-s  III  liie  fuel,  that  the 
own  no  inventive  cenius.  They  would 
'c  long  ago  nriginatrd  tho  arts  of  civiliai- 
H'ltei-,aa  other  i  arieties  of  men  certainly 


family,  Init  a  pvoplo  to  f^ir  ind>:;i  iioua, 
anit  |<riraitive,  aa  to  be  derivnl  Cnini  a  mnim 
endowed  with  cpeeiHc  and  uniigiiu  phyi-icat  ch 
Thi-  manner  in  which  they  «!■«■  planted  in  t 
■lined  home,  an<I  rceeived  these  peculiar  eh 
litiin;  them  fur  ita  inhabilation,  muFi  remain 
ing  to  tliia  view  of  thing*,  aiiion^  the  myaler* 
the  Creator  haa  acen  fit  tu  leave  m  darLnrsa. 
deniable,  it  may  be  obacncd  in  cundoaioa, 
American  race  n  tending  to  extineti^o. 


PHYSICAL  BISTORT  OF  MAN. 


5.  The  Halit  vmriety 

teraed  by  tawny  ar  dark 
brown  skioBfCiarK  black 
hair,  large  moalh,  ■hort 
broad  noses,  Keming  u 
if  broken  at  the  root, 
flat  expanded  facn,  with 
projecimg  upper  jaws, 
and  uUent  teeth.  The 
■kull  m^ianico  is  high, 
and  X)iiared  or  rounded, 
and  the  forehead  low  and 
broad.  The  moral  cha- 
racter of  the  MaUjB, 
generally    Epeaking,     ii  Malay  Race. 

of  an  iaferior  order-  They  are  a  race  difTering  much, 
in  some  mpects,  from  the  Negro  and  Red  IndiaUj 
being  of  peculiarly  active  temperamonta,  and  fond  of 
marilime  entetpriae.  They  exhibit  considerable  intel- 
lectual capacity,  and  are  an  ingenious  people.  Borneo, 
Jara,  Sumatra,  the  Pliillipiae  lelands,  New  Zealand, 
part  of  Madagascar,  and  rarious  Polynesian  islands,  are 
inhabited  by  this  variety  of  men.  It  is  extremely  pro- 
bable, from  the  fact  of  their  being  found  in  islands  sur- 
rounded by  others  in  the  hands  of  the  Ethiopic  race, 
that  the  Klalays  have  pushed  out  the  leM  active  variety 
from  these  isles,  Bnd,in  short, anailiilated  them.  It  ii 
bnC  too  likely,  moreover,  that  the  Halaya  will  in  turo 
■ufTer  eilioctioD  at  the  hands  of  a  superior  variety,  or 
»  variety  rendered  saperior  by  civiliaation,  if  not  natn. 
rally  so.  Safely,. indeed,  may  one  prophesy  that,  in 
New  Zealand,  ere  many  years  pass  awsy,  the  natives 
will  have  disappeared  before  the  European  colonists. 
Not  many  inonlhs  ago,  the  last  native  thus  disappeared 
fron  Van  Diemen's  Land.  So  will  it  be  ere  long  with 
New  Holland,  large  as  that  continent  is.  Amalgama- 
tion of  races  ii  in  then  cases  next  to  impossibie,  and 
no  other  preventin,  u  already  staled,  could  be  found. 


etnmlnr  htd  been  more  faTourable  to  the  pun  Cancft* 
man  whileB  than  it  is,  they  would  assuredly  have  taken 
~  larger  share  in  the  occupation  of  it  than  tliey  bars 

ilands,  their  aggresaiona  have  been 

I  speak  of  their  coast  stations,  they 
:ty  of  Africa,  and 


done.    As  the 

considerable.  Not 
have  colonised  th 
the  Caffres  and  Hottentots 


iceding  to  the  ic 


or,  to  b 


aally  crushed  be- 


This  point,  really  one  of  the  most  curious  and  im- 
portant connected  with  man's  physical  history,  may  be 
lilostnted  by  further  references  to  the  changes  in  geo- 
graphical portion,  undergone  by  the  live  great  varieties 
of  mankind  now  described,  from  the  earliest  periods. 
Very  few  portions  of  the  earth  have  retained  the  inha- 
bitants by  whom  they  are  iinown  to  have  been  lirst 
|>eopled.  Willi  respect  to  Europe,  it  seems  extremely 
ivoballc,  as  Dr  Prichard  and  others  admit,  tliat  the 
Celtic  and  Germanic  races  were  not  the  earliest  settlera 
upon  its  territor}'.  They  pushed  out,  from  some  parts 
at  Icaiit,  a  p  rev  iu  us  race,  of  which  the  Fins  and  Lap- 
landers may  perhaps  be  held  to  give  nssome  idea.  The 
Celtic  population  of  the  south  of  Europe  were  in  a  great 
measure  overwhehned  by  the  Germanic  tide  from  the 
north,  and,  though  centuries  of  confusion  followed  the 
collision,  the  good  ultimately  elfecled  by  the  intermix- 
ture was  LtnmenM.  It  appeared,  indeed,  as  if  a  ssvage 
people  there  crushed  a  civilised  one,  but  the  result,  m 
reality,  consisted  in  the  infusion  of  healthy  hlood  into 
a  vitiated  frame.  At  this  day  there  is  bnt  one  impor- 
tant part  of  Europe  in  the  hands  of  the  pure  Mongolian 
race,  namely  Turkey,  llut  can  we  doubt  that  at  this 
very  boor  the  once  formidable  power  of  the  Otlo- 
in!    Tt 


events  them  from 
at  this  moment  annihilating  the  petty  remnant  ot  the 
Mongols  left  in  Europe.  The  power  of  the  empire  is 
not  only  going  to  decay,  but,  as  M.  Lamartine  has  Utely 
■howD,  tlie  Turks  are  in  reality  becoming  extinct  ss  a 
ftople.  They  are  sinking  beneath  the  preasura  of  the 
■operior  or  superiorly  cultivated  nations  around  them. 
In  Africa,  as  lias  been  said,  the  Kegroea  have  al- 
ready been  stripped  uf  one-half  ot  their  continent  by 
the  Caucasian  Arabs,  and  are  likely  to  be  nttimatelj 
extinguished  by  them.  If  the  dimate  of  the  nnn  gre«t 
G3 


of  the  same  grand  movement.     Altogether, 

the  Arabs  and  the  whiles  of  Europe,  Africa  may  be 

expected,  ere  many  ages  pass,  to  be  in  the  hands  of  the 

Caucasians. 

In  Asia,  the  conquering  Mongols  long  held  extenuve 
rule,  but  the  semi-Caucasian  power  of  Russia  in  th« 
north,  and  the  British  in  the  south,  havo  torn  from 
them  immense  territories,  and  eve 
additional  losses  on  their  part.  _. 
the  great  Mongol  power  of  China,  w 
cautions  to  an  extraordinary  degree,  maintained  for 
ages  its  independence,  has  forgot  itself  so  far  as  to  pro- 
voke a  struggle  not  likely  to  terminate  until  China  be- 
comes little  else  than  a  Caucasian  colony.  The  Aus- 
tralian coQtineut,  and  the  Polynesian  islands,  are  also 
on  the  direct  way  to  the  same  consummation. 

The  truth  of  the  viewnow  taken  is  more  remarkably 
borne  out  by  the  history  of  the  Transatlantic  Contineut, 
than  by  that  of  any  other  coimtry.  Rapidly,  indeed, 
have  the  red  men  of  North  America  fallen  before  th* 
march  of  Caacauan  eolonisatioa.  The  numerous  island* 
of  the  Mexican  Gulf  have  been  so  completely  dearad 
of  all  traces  of  native  population,  that  it  has  become  a, 
matter  of  doubt  whether,  on  several  of  these  islands, 
any  nativs  population  ever  existed.  South  America 
has  been  lai^ly  subjected  to  the  same  inHuences,  and 
would  have  suffered  more  from  them,  had  the  Cauca- 
siaas  who  went  thither  been  a  branoh  specially  adapted 
for  the  business  of  colonists,  and  had  not  a  considerable 
admixture  of  races  peculiarised  tliat  coloitiBStion.  As 
it  is.  the  natives  have  been  thinned,  though  the  amal- 
alluded  to,  arising  from  the  cornparaliee  simi- 

ity  betweeu  the  races,  rendera  the  truth  ditticult  of 
discovery.  In  short,  if  we  look  at  the  whole  course  of 
the  past  history  of  mankind,  wc  shall  find  the  l^uca- 
sian  race  every  where  gaining  the  ascendancy,  and 
slowly  but  surely  renovating   the   population   uf  the 

In  those  instances  where  an  amalgamation  of  varie- 
ties of  men  has  taken  place  to  a  considerable  extent 
{and  there  are  a  few  prominent  cases  of  the  kind  to  be 
observed  at  present  on  the  face  of  the  gluhe),  a  popu- 
lation of  a  most  extraordinary  and  heterogeneous  kind 
has  been  the  result.  In  parts  of  South  America  and 
Mexico,  not  only  Europeans  and  native  Americans,  but 
also  Nwroes  and  Malays,  transported  thither  chiefly  as 
,  slaves,  have  contribnlcd  to  form  tlie  existing  popula- 
I  tion.  Europeans  and  Negroes  produce  a  race  called 
i  Mulattoea;  the  children  of  Europeans  and  native  lu- 
'  dians  are  termed  Mestizoes  ;  and  those  of  Negroes  and 
Indians  are  styled  Zahiboes.  Of  course,  the  suh- 
'  varieties  are  numerous — indeed,  almost  numberless. 
I  The  European  and  the  Mulatto  produce  Tercerous; 
'  the  children  of  the  Tercerun  and  the  European  are 
'  called  Q,tiartereas  or  Quadroons )  and  those  of  IJua- 
'  droons  and  Europeans  are  (juinlerons.  In  the  Ctua- 
droon,  little  or  no  vestige  of  dark  blood  is  visible ;  but 
in  moat  countries  where  these  admixtures  take  place, 
the  rights  of  puro  white  blood  are  only  assigned  to  the 
Qninteron.  Mexico,  and  the  greater  part  of  tho  state* 
of  the  South  American  continent,  including  I'eru,  Chili, 
and  Brazil,  with  the  coloniea  and  islands  uf  tho  West 
Indies,  are  the  chief  scenes  of  these  amalgamations  of 
blood.  Undoubtedly  their  immediate  conte'iuenci^s  are 
pernicious.  Tho  white  blood  is  every  where  haughtily 
diapoaed  towards  ths  dark,  and  all  the  jeatousicd  and 
j  opprcsiions  of  eini«  are  accordingly  dinplaj-ed  to  a  dread- 


CHAMBERS'S  INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


ful  extent.  Wliether,  ont  of  tho  nniiMToiifl  varicticR 
and  iiub-Mirictics  of  epectvfl  thoro  at  present  to  be  be- 
held, one  perfect  and  homogeneous  race  nliall  ever  be 
formed,  is  rendered  doubtful  bv  the  undiminiRlied,  if 
not  incretfted,  eARomi'M  with  which  the  purity  of  the 
white  blood  eontinuefi  to  bo  maintAined.  If  we  could 
•uppoBO  that  the  amalgamations  of  different  varieties  of 
mankind  were  nerer  to  produce  happier  conse^uenceH 
than  in  thette  instance*,  we  might  question  whether  such 
admixtures  be  desirable.  The  experiments  of  amal^^a- 
mation  and  non-amalgnmation  may  bo  said  to  liave 
been  tried,  on  great  scales,  in  the  two  American  conti- 
nents,  and  it  is  of  importance  to  notice  the  ij«sue  in  tlie 
respective  cantos.  In  North  America,  wo  must  ert> 
long  find  the  aborigines  extinct ;  and  in  the  place  of 
hordes  of  savages,  stationarily  pursuing  the  wild  and 
warring  life  led  by  their  fat  iters  from  time  immemorial, 
will  be  found  a  great  and  improving  race,  cultivating 
tho  arts  of  peact*,  carrying  human  civilisation  to  tlu> 
highcbt  pitch,  and  extracting  from  their  vast  continent 
all  the  blessings  with  which  the  Creator  has  so  liberally 
endowed  it,  and  which  he  certainly  meant  not  to  lie 
unused. 

The  general  characters  of  the  great  varieties  or 
families  of  men,  the  mode  of  their  distribution  over  the 
earth,  and  the  causes  which  have  aflected,  and  are 
likely  hereafter  to  affect,  their  future  fate,  have  now 
occupied  our  attention  ;  and  our  next  duty  is  to  advert 
to  the  most  remarkable  features  of  difVerence  in  the 
various  branches  of  the  human  family. 

VARItnriBI  OP  SKI?(  IN  UANKIN'P. 

It  has  been  already  seen,  that  the  Caucasians  are 
■enerally  distinguiKhed  by  a  white  or  fair  skin,  while 
tlie  Mongolians  are  yellow,  tlio  Kthiopians  black,  and 
tlie  Americans  red  or  copper-coloured. 

In  ftirnu-r  times,  when  only  two  varieties,  tho  white 
and  black,  were  recognised  f>r  thought  of,  it  was  fU{>- 
pohcd  that  complexion  was  simply  a  result  of  the  ac- 
tion of  the  huu's  rays.  This  idea  would  naturally  arise 
from  its  U-ing  observed  that  exposure  to  the  sun  dark- 
cnrd  a  wliitv  |K.-rson,  \%hile  seclusion  tendt-d  to  bleach 
or  Hhitrn  him  ;  and  that  the  black  uatiiins  wen*  tlmse 
which  chii-tly  neoupit'd  tropical  count rie!«,  tthilu  the 
whites  mere  placid  in  the  tempt  r.itc  /nno.  The  ( J  recks, 
who  nrvrr  duuhtfd  that  th«'y  wrn*  tin*  j»orfi-otion  ami 
stjind.ird  of  huntan  nature,  and  \\h«>  tntiriaint-d  I'xai^- 
gcrutrd  until  ins  of  the  h«*:it  tif  the  African  iiun,  urn; 
Mtroii^l}  nnprcssi'd  with  the  idi'u  that  tho  Nrgr.>nati«>ns 
haii  lu-t-n  iin;;iiially  white,  and  hail  briMi  ehan<;i;d  intu 
black  i)uri'l\  hv  the  aclinii  of  the  bolar  ra%!«.  This 
lKiti>>n  vMiiitinuiii  to  \w  M't  forward  uniifiul.iini^Iy  by 
natiiralioti*  dnwit  to  the  time  of  Hutfon,  and  it  is  Mtiil 
thi-  liilu  f  I't  the  i;{niirant  in  mo^t  CiUintrii's. 

Tlio  vicwi.  iif  naturalists  <in  thisBuhjtet  have  recently 
bt'i-ii  Cfiisidi'ralily  all'eetrd  by  the  invf>ti;;atii>iis  of  M. 
l-'iiiiiit-ns  eiinei.-i-iiing  the  actual  Ktrnotnre  of  thi*  eo- 
luun-d  Kkin.*  The  white,  us  is  well  known,  has  a  skin 
c«'iii)M>iMd  I  if  threi*  intrguint'iits.  I-'irst,  is  tin.*  outer  or 
ji-i/r/-»Ai/i,  a  iliin  tran>}>urent  {H>lliel«>,  sivniiii;;ly  se- 
cn-tt-il  I'V  thf  parts  Ih'Iow,  and  <U>voiil  nf  neni^niN'ililf 
V(.>M  U  «ir  n«-rvi'i4.  Next  1k-1uw,  is  the  rrte  nmctt^fiiu,  a 
intfl,  pnlpy  nit-Mork.  Next,  or  unde^no^t,  is  the  r»i/».» 
or  tiue  ^kin,  a  string  laver,  al'nn<Untly  vascular,  ami 
very  s«'n!>iMe.  It  ^as  inrinerly  suppo'M'il  that  the 
ciili'uruig  matter  i>f  the  ilark  ntcts  \:\\  in  the  rr!t'  inu- 
ou>um^  uiid  that  the  on!v  diifen-nce  iH-tueen  tip*  two 
raciMiN  tliat  I't  >.|H«:t  lay  in  th«'  mie  having  a  iiiiieeus 
iliti  ^'iiiiiMit  ehar>;ed  ^illi  gl'ibnle.-*  nt  eiilxurini;  inaltir, 
and  the  (•thi-r  a  inuciiU'<  int*  i^nineiit  in  uIih-Ii  tli«re 
«erv  iii>  hueh  u'lehiiUs.  If  the  inv«>»ti^atiiiiis  *>f  I'lnu- 
*"•'■*  \iv  riTnei,  tin*  dilleri-nci"  is  ennfuleraMy  greater. 
''tati'ti  tiiat,  in  a  Mitlicient  variety  of  e\]>i-riinMitn 
he  skinx  t'i  Ne^r(H>-i  ami  rni  Anurieans,  he  ha** 
bvUeutli  till'  rwtr  miir>tsum^  two  ui»lir:rl  addi- 
^yvm,  cujiabio  uf  Ytvni^  detached,  ami  the  (>uter 

Ae  \mturnJ  tti»tory  nf  Mtm.    Uy  M.  Kluun  nt    l'*dln- 
V  i'fiH'tm,j,f,u.,lJ,tum*i.  July  Jicet 


nf  which  is  the  tnie  seat  of  the  colour  of  those  1 
M.  l-'lourcns  considers  this  as  a  diHerenco  much 
important  than  any  dei)ending  (m  fonn.  lleing  a  i 
tural  difTcrence,  he  thinks  it  should  bo  held  as  < 
the  first  class,  while  ditferenct^s  of  shape  ought  o: 
he  considerod  as  secondary'.  Without  following  h 
these  si>eculations,  wc  may  readily  allow  the  in 
anee  of  a  peculiarity  which  consists  in  a  distinc 
additional  part,  M.  Flourens,  it  may  bo  remi 
has  found  the  two  layers  also  in  Mulattoes.  H 
not  had  an  opportunity  of  experimenting  upon .M 
lians  or  Malayans;  but  he  infers, from  the  otiier 
that  in  them  also  tho  extra  integuments  wou 
found. 

M.  riourens  adds,  that,  in  tho  case  of  Kur« 
tin;;eil  by  ex{H>sure  to  i\w  sun*s  rays,  the  mncuu 
is  what  is  all'ected,  becoming,  as  it  were,  slightly 
N»  deRTco  of  exposure  can,  ho  thinks,  cfiiite 
colouring  layers  of  tho  Ner;ro  and  other  dark 
He  remarks,  that  the  African  Moors,  who  have 
be^ide  the  Negroes  for  centuries,  have  never  ac< 
the  colouring  apjijiratus  of  that  race ;  and  it  hai 
observed  by  tnivellers  (Captain  Lyon  anionjc  o 
that  the  TuarikK,  a  i*ace  of  African  Caucasian} 
dark-brown  complexion,  are  nearly  as  white  on 
parts  of  their  botiies  covered  ui)  from  the  sun,  ai 
Kumpeans.  It  is  also  well  known  that  tho  jintg 
an  Kuropean,  however  much  he  may  have  been 
by  the  sun,  is  invariably  as  white  as  he  himbelf 
first. 

The  black  races  are  local is«><l  in  tho  warmest  r 

of  the  globe,  and  their  skin  and  general  ci)n>t 

seem  to  be  fittini  for  their  allotment.  A  Mack  m: 

lie  naked,  exjiost^d  to  the  hottest  sun,  without  i 

while  the  skin  of  the  white  man,  if  ex|>OHed  ti>  f 

heat,  breaks  out  in  bli<iters.     The  black  man  can 

under  a  burning  sun  with  impunity  ;  but  the  whit 

sinks  under  exei*tion  made  in  siieli  eircuinstanei 

this  is  well  known  to  be  the  cause  why  slaves  w 

tiiiiluced  fmm   Africa  into  the  settlements  «if 

'  pcans  in  tropical  America.     .Sir  livemrd  Mom 

,  made  Fume  lalHirioiis  iiivt  ^ti^a'IiMis  into  thin  i- 

j  was  pii/./led  by  the  ohviniis  phvMcal  faet  that  tin 

■  skin  inu>t  ul'Mirh  mure  heal  than  the  \%hit«*.  Itu 
I  ^int•e  been  sui;'est»-ii  bv  I)r  John  l)avv  that  tlu 
j  per.-piri'h  mo-«t  readily.   ••  In  the  Ne;;rn,"  he  s.i\f 

■  iilond  Hows  more  remlily  thren^h  the  ve-.-t  !•*,  s 
.  proniiite  ]ier>piratiiin,  and  by  that  means  cinitn 

to  the  eoolim;  of  the  suriaee,  it  eontrihut«-4  ni^aiii 
it  tiituH  lia«>k  to  the  heart,  tit  tlii>  e<>i>lin:;  id'  the  ii 
parts.'*    Alter  i|notiii^  this  ri-mark,  l)r  (ili-ver  ti 
;  caMle  say-* — "  SWre  the  iiihahiiant  of  the  troj 
I  jio-M"isid  of  tliis  organisation,  his  s%>»teni  ei»nld 
spiind  to  tht>  stimulus  of  heat,  by  a  di  temiin.-i 
tlii:d  to  the  surface  of  the  bmiv  ;  aud  the  l.t-at  al 
by  tlie  skin  beiii;;  preventiii  fivm  enterin:*  tlie 
by  ti;e  j)rr*|»iraliiry  pnn'ess,  ih-.'  ^rrati.'r  rti-iuttin^ 
«<t  a  d.irk  skin  niurt  bi*  beiielU'ial  in  eoolm;:. 
:  the  dark  si. in  plan-*  thf  Ne^rn  in  tiie  ctinditH-n^ 
i  climate,  by  eaii-im!  hsm  i<>  radiate  heat  at  ni:: 
bi  emne  at  th.it  tniie  curler  than  a  white  under  tb 
I  cirenmsiaiu'is.*'      Uonee  the  hive  oi  tho  Negn 
ni;:lit  danoinL;  and  ('xereiM'. 

M.  rionren-4  <leoms  tlie  dinerenee  of  strueti 

tween    the  white  and  eolnnri  d   r.u'ts  a^  sntlici 

prove  that  till  V  are  nt  ilitl'erent  stuck*,  and  he  t 

iiiLrly  s|  e.ik-*  i-i  them  as  *'  eweiilially  distinct 

I  Hot  there  are  sume  CltIl^ideratl■■ns  whieh  gn^at 

fiiiiud  all  Mii.'h   e(.iiirlii!<iiins  ss  drawn  trion  ditb 

I  I'l  e  liiiir  aldiie.     t'i»Kiiii*s,  it  is  tu  he  nbM.Tvid,  ', 

inxariahli'  characteriMios  of  particular    racis. 

('ar.i*a»ians  it  is  true,  an>  uliile  ;  but  then  th< 

a!-' I  h'aek  Caucasians.     The    liintliiim  an*   uih! 

■  ('ani'a-'.aiis,  hi-ii  -^  pruxcd  tn  l-e  sn  by  many  cha 

'  lit  li<ria.     ^  ( r  the  Ih-ni:ali  ^e  and  Malaltars,  t: 

of  the  |[ind«>os,  an*  often  lis  black  as  the  gener 

Ne;;n>es.     Caucasians   of  similar   colour   are 

thniu^^^  \\T*"\a  awiNW-svcTiv  Asia^into  Northern 

\t  \v.\h  '\w\oei\  \3eeu  «a\iX  \\ya\.  \\\«  WvaAt^VrtSAh 


PHYSICAL  HISTORY  OF  MAN. 


CaucitiAiis  alone  inelodes  every  variety  of  colour^  from 
the  deepest  black  to  something  very  nearlv  white. 
There  are  simiUtr  variations  in  at  least  one  of  the  other 
four  races.  **  Although  the  Americans,"  says  Dr  Morton, 
'^  possess  a  pervading  and  characteristic  complexion 
[which  he  describes  as  more  brown  or  cinnamon- 
coloured  than  red],  there  are  occasional  and  very  re- 
markable deviations,  including  all  the  tints  from  a 
decided  white  to  an  unequivocaUy  block  skin.**  The 
white  tribes  have  been  found  chiefly  in  the  high  regions 
in  the  northern  part  of  South  America.  With  such 
facts  before  us,  we  cannot  admit  that  the  colouring  ap- 
paratus of  M.  Flourens  decides  that  the  races  are  dis- 
tinct. 

DIFFERENCXS  IN  HAIB  AND  ETES. 

Dr  Prichard  has  endeavoured  to  class  mankind, 
with  a  regard  to  the  colour  of  their  hair,  into  three 
varieties,  the  Melanie,  the  Xanthout,  and  the  Albino, 
The  Melanic,  or  black  class,  comprises  all  individuals 
or  races  who  have  black  hair ;  the  Xanthous  includes 
all  who  have  brown,  auburn,  or  red  hair;  and  the 
Albino  all  who  are  distinguished  by  white  hair  and 
red  eyes.  With  all  due  deference  for  the  able  writer 
who  proposed  this  arrangement,  it  seems  one  from 
which  no  distinct  or  useful  conclusions  are  deducible. 
The  hair,  however,  is  certainly  a  strong  individual 
cliaracteristio  in  man.  Its  colouring  principle  is  evi- 
dently the  same,  speaking  comprehensively,  with  that 
of  the  skin.  The  hairs  issue  from  bulbs  or  roots  be- 
neath the  true  skin,  where  vessels  supply  them  with 
nourishment.  An  external  horny  covcrine,  and  an 
internal  pith,  constitute  the  body  of  each  hair,  and  the 
pith  is  to  some  extent  vascular,  because  liable  to  dis- 
ease. It  is,  doubtless,  in  this  vascular  pith  that  the 
colouring;  principle  lies.  The  fact  of  the  pith  being 
supplied  both  with  vessels  and  nerves,  is  further  proved 
by  the  effect  which  great  grief  can  produce  upon  the 
colour  of  the  hair.  Dr  Prichard  had  personally  ob- 
served one  case  in  which  the  liair  grew  white  in  a  single 
night  through  grief,  and  many  similar  cases  are  on 
record.  One  distinguished  French  anatomist  went  so 
far  as  to  assert,  that  in  the  bulbs  of  the  hair  lay  the 
whole  colouring  matter  of  the  skin ;  but,  admitting  that 
minute  hairs  exist  on  tho  general  frame,  we  could  not 
thus  explain  tho  black  hue  of  the  inside  of  the  Negro's 
lip,  which  is  quite  free  from  hair.  However,  when  we 
c«>nsider  that  the  woolly  hair  seems  to  be  inseparable 
from  the  jetty  skin  of  the  Negro,  and  the  lank  straight 
hair  from  the  red  skin  of  the  Indian,  we  must  believe 
in  the  existence  of  some  strong  bond  between  these 
physical  characteristics. 

In  like  manner  do  we  trace  a  general  correspondence 
between  the  colour  of  the  eye  and  tho  skin  and  hair. 
The  hue  of  the  eye  depends  on  a  pigment  or  dye,  hnlng 
the  choroid  coat  or  membrane.  According  to  the  tint 
of  this  pigment,  is  the  eye  blue,  grey,  brown,  hazel,  or 
black.  Generally  speaking,  light-coloured  eyes  are 
conjoined  with  fair  complexion  and  light  hair,  and  the 
converse  holds  as  commonly  good.  To  this  rule,  it  is 
well  known,  there  are  exceptions ;  yet  Mongols^  Ethio- 
pians, Malays,  and  Americans,  in  ninety-nine  cases  in 
the  hundred,  show  the  extent  of  its  applicability.  The 
Caucasians  display,  in  this  respect,  greater  variations. 

The  Albinoes  are  scarcely  to  bo  called  a  variety  of 
mankind,  being  a  race  whose  peculiarities  depend  on 
defects.  Red  eyes  and  white  hair  are  their  chief  fea- 
tures, though  these  features  vary  a  little  according  to 
the  race  to  which  the  individual  belongs  ;  and  there 
are  Albinoes  to  be  found  in  almost  all  countries.  The 
redness  of  the  eye  depends  on  tho  absence  of  pigment 
on  the  choroid  coat,  permitting  the  red  blood-vessels 
to  be  seen.  From  a  deficiency  in  the  power  of  absorb- 
ing the  rays  of  light,  which  purpose  is  served  by  tho 
pigment,  the  eyes  of  Albinoes  are  weak.  The  Albinoes 
of  the  black  race  are  called  white  Negroes,  from  tho 
colour  of  tht^ir  skin,  and  they  have  white  woolly  hair. 
Among  the  copper-coloured  natives  of  the  Darien  isth- 
Diifl,  A  Ibinoes  are  common.  Their  bodies  are  of  a  milk- 
ed 


white  tint,  covered  with  a  short  down ;  and  they  havo 
white  hair,  with  red  eyes.  They  love  such  light  as  tha 
moon  gives,  and  by  night  are  all  life  and  activity, 
while  by  day  they  are  miserable,  the  rays  of  the  sun 
making  their  weak  eyes  stream  with  water.  It  is  need- 
less to  dwell  on  this  subject,  however,  as  the  Albino 
peculiarities  are,  in  the  main,  much  the  same  every 
where.  Europeans  of  this  description  are  sometimes 
exhibited  in  public  The  connexion  between  skin,  hair, 
and  eyes,  and  the  unity  of  the  source  of  colour  for  all 
these  parts,  is  very  strikingly  exemplified  by  the  peen- 
liarities  of  the  Albino  race. 

SKULLS  OF  MANKIND. 

Amongst  the  external  distinctions  of  races,  the  form 
of  the  skull  calls  for  particular  attention.  In  deserib- 
ing  these  varieties,  the  shape  of  the  skull  of  eaoh 
was  noticed  in  a  general  manner,  and  it  would  be  ob- 
served that  great  differences  existed  with  respect  to 
this  feature.  From  observation  of  an  immense  num- 
ber of  heads,  Blumenbach  arranged  the  skulls  of  men 
into  three  great  divisions,  the  Caucasian,  Mongolian, 
and  Ethiopio,  holding  these  to  stand  at  extremes  from 
one  another.  The  skulls  of  the  American  and  Malay 
seemed  to  him  to  stand  intermediately  between  these. 
As,  beyond  all  doubt  (without  carrying  our  belief  to 
extremes,  as  some  have  perhaps  done),  we  ought  to 
consider  the  form  of  the  skull  as  indicative  c/L  the 
intellectual  powers,  the  distinctions  in  this  organ  ne« 
cessarily  become  of  great  importance.  The  most  per- 
fect type  of  tho  Caucasian  skull  is  found,  as  might  be 
anticipated,  in  the  modem  Caucasians-proper,  such  aa 
the  Georgians.  *'The  head  [of  a  female  Georgian,  de- 
scribed by  Blumenbach]  is  of  the  most  symmetrical 
shape,  almost  round ;  the  forehead  of  moderate  extent ; 
the  cheek-bones  rather  narrow,  without  any  projection, 
but  having  a  direction  downwards,  from  the  maUur  pro- 
cess of  the  frontal  bone ;  the  alveolar  edge  well  rotmded ; 
the  front  teeth  of  each  jaw  placed  perpendicularly." 

The  head  of  the  perfect  Mongolian  type  is,  says  Blu- 
menbach, ^  almost  square ;  the  cheek-bones  projecting 
outwards ;  the  nose  flat ;  the  nasal  bones,  and  the  space 
between  the  eyebrows,  nearly  on  the  same  horizontal 
plane  with  the  cheek-bones ;  the  superciliary  arches 
scarcely  to  be  perceived;  the  noqtrils  narrow;  the 
maxillary  pit  slightly  marked;  the  alveolar  edge  in 
some  degree  rounded  forwards;  tho  chin  slightly  pro- 
minent.'' 

In  the  Ethiopio  variety  of  men,  *^  the  head  is  narrow, 
and  compressed  at  the  sides ;  the  forehead  very  convex, 
vaulted;  the  cheek-bones  projecting  forwards;  the 
nostrils  wide;  the  maxilUry  pits  deeply  marked  at 
points ;  the  jaws  lengthened ;  the  alveolar  edge  narrow, 
long,  and  elliptical ;  the  front  teeth  of  the  upper  jaw 
turned  obliquely  forwards ;  the  lower  jaw  strong  and 
Urge." 

In  the  American  sknll  there  is  an  approach  m  shape 
to  that  of  the  Mongol,  with  this  difference,  that  the  top 
is  more  rounded,  and  the  sides  less  angular.  The  sum- 
mit of  the  Malay  head  is  narrowed,  the  forehead  a  little 
arched,  and  the  upper  jaw  pushed  somewhat  forward. 
It  would  be  Bupeiiluons  to  enumerate  here  the  particu- 
lar tribes  marked  by  these  varieties  of  skulls,  as  thia 
has  been  done  with  sufficient  distinctness  in  the  general 
classification  of  the  races.  Of  course,  among  Cauca- 
sians, Mongols,  and  Negroes,  there  are  considerable 
individual  differences  in  the  form  of  the  head,  but  the 
preceding  descriptions  give  tho  type  of  each  division. 

No  mode  of  examination  exhibits  so  strikingly  the 
differences  in  shape  between  tho  skulls  of  different  races, 
as  that  called  by  Blumenbach  the  vertical  method,  in 
which  the  various  skulls  are  placed  in  a  row,  resting 
upon  the  lower  jaws,  and  are  then  viewed  from  above 
and  behind.  Examined  from  above,  the  facial  bones  of 
the  Caucasian  skull  are  scarcely  visible,  both  from  their 
comparative  smallness  of  size,  and  because  they  are 
hidden  by  the  rounded  and  well-developed  forehead.  A 
perpendicular  line,  falling  from  the  middle  of  the  br*— , 
would  barely  touch  the  front  of  the  upper  jaw,    ' 


CHAMBERS'S  INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


Negro  head,  in  the  same  position,  presents  a  strong 
contrast  to  the  preceding  one.  The  narrow  slanting 
forehead  here  permits  the  xtholeface  to  come  into  view, 
the  cheeks  and  jaws  being  somewliat  compressed  U- 
terallv,  and  greatly  elongated  in  front.  In  the  case  of 
the  Mongol,  again,  we  find  a  contrast  not  less  remark- 
able. The  bones  of  the  nose,  cheeks,  and  jaws,  are 
almost  equally  visible  as  in  the  Negro,  but  arc  expanded 
on  each  side,  not  pushed  angularly  forward.  The  square- 
ness of  the  Mongol  head  arises  m  a  great  degree  from 
this  lateral  expansion  of  the  facial  bones.  Dr  Prichard 
gives  to  these  varieties  of  the  skull  the  respective  names 
of  mesobreffmate,  atenolregmatc,  and  platybregmate — 
words  expressive  of  the  characters  which  have  here 
been  assigned  to  them. 

This  remarkable  contrast  in  the  prominency  of  the 
facial  bones,  conjoined,  as  it  commonly  is,  with  an 
equally  striking  difference  in  the  anterior  development 
of  the  skull,  has  been  deemed  by  some  physiologists  a 
feature  of  the  highest  importance.  Camper  founded  on 
these  ph}'sical  characters  a  scheme  for  estimating  the 
degrees  of  intellect  and  sagacity  bestowed  by  nature  on 
the  whole  members  of  the  animal  kingdom  possessing 
a  skull  and  brain.  The  facial  anylc^  as  he  termed  the 
degree  of  prominency  in  the  facial  bones,  was  measured 
by  him  in  the  following;  way.  One  straight  line  was 
drawn  from  the  car  to  the  base  of  the  nose,  and  another 
from  the  prominent  centre  of  the  forehead  to  tho  most 
advancing  part  of  tlie  upper  jaw-bone,  the  head  being 
riewed  in  profile.  <*  In  the  angle  produced  by  these 
two  lines,"  says  the  phj-siologist,  *^  may  bo  said  to  con- 
aist,  not  only  the  distinction  between  the  skulls  of  tho 
several  species  of  animals,  but  also  those  which  are 
found  to  exist  between  different  nations  ;  and  it  might 
be  concluded  that  nature  has  availed  herself,  at  the 
same  time,  of  this  angle,  to  mark  out  tho  diversities  of 
the  animal  kingdom,  and  to  establish  a  sort  of  scale 
from  the  inferior  tribes  up  to  the  most  beautiful  forms 
which  are  found  in  the  Imman  species.  Thus  it  will 
be  found  that  the  heads  of  birds  display  the  smallest 
angle,  and  that  it  always  becomes  of  greater  extent  in 
proportion  as  tho  animal  approaches  most  nearly  to  the 
human  figure.  Thus  there  is  one  species  of  the  ape 
tribe,  in  which  the  head  has  a  facial  angle  of  forty-two 
degrees ;  in  another  animal  of  the  same  family,  which 
is  one  of  those  iimia  a])proaching  most  closely  to  the 
human  figure,  the  facial  angle  contains  exactly  fifty 
degrees.  Next  to  this  is  tlie  head  of  the  African  Negro, 
which,  as  well  as  that  of  the  Kulmuc,  forms  an  angle 
of  seventy  degret^s,  while  the  angle  discovered  in  the 
heads  of  Europeans  contains  eighty  degrees.  On  this 
difference  of  ten  degrees  in  the  facial  angle  the  superior 
beauty  of  the  European  dept*nd<4 ;  while  that  high  cha- 
racter of  sublime  beauty,  which  is  po  btriking  in  some 
works  of  ancient  statuary,  as  in  the  head  of  the  Apollo, 
and  in  the  Medusa  of  Tisocles,  is  given  by  an  angle 
which  amounts  to  one  hundred  degrees." 

Dr  Prichard,  in  quoting  this  passage,  remarks,  that 
"the  faculties  of  each  race  of  animals  seem  to  bo  per- 
fect in  relation  to  the  sphere  of  existence  for  which 
they  are  destined  ;*'  and  hence,  in  as  far  as  the  mea- 
surement of  the  facial  angle  is  a)>plied  to  the  detenni- 
nation  of  the  comparative  intellectual  characters  of  dif- 
ferent tribes  of  the  lower  animals,  he  holds  Camper*s 
scheme  to  be  imperfect  an«l  inefiective.  As  a  method 
of  diHtinguibhing  varietien  in  the  shape  of  the  actual 
cerebral  case,  moreover,  the  measurement  of  the  facial 
angle  is  not  always  a  safe  guide.  **  I  have  now  before 
me,"  savB  Hluminhach,  "the  skulls  of  a  Lithuanian 
Pole  and  a  Nopro,  in  which  the  facial  angles  are  nearly 
equal,  but  tlu'  difference  between  the  shape  of  the  two 
crania  is  otherwi^Je  prodigious."  Nevertheless,  as  a 
genenil  test  of  the  mental  capacity  of  individuab<,  **  I 
think,''  hays  Prichard,  **  we  must  allow  that  experience 
is  in  favour  of  the  position  assumed  by  Camper.  It  is 
certain  that  every  man  is  struck  with  the  cxpretudon  of 
dignity  or  elevation  of  mind  and  character  in  the  an- 
cient busts,  which  have  a  great  facial  angle,  and  that 
•  tbia  cxprc^^ion  would  Ic  lost  if  the  facial  angle  were 

or, 


contracted.  The  fact  seems,  indeed,  to  be  a  gsnenl 
one,  that  men  of  great  intellect  have  ftiUjr  defreloped 
brains,  as  indicated  by  elevated  and  capaaons  fore- 
heads.*' Since  the  time  of  Camper,  it  is  scarcelj  ne- 
cessary to  tell  the  reader,  the  subject  of  eraniology  has 
been  amply  investigated  by  Dr  Gall  and  his  followers^ 
who  have  founded  upon  their  inquiries  a  system  of 
mental  philosophy  in  a  great  measure  new  to  the 
world,  and  of  which  the  fundamental  principle  is,  that 
the  size  and  form  of  the  skull,  as  depending  on  the  size 
and  form  of  the  brain  within,  denote  the  intellectual 
and  moral  character.  ^^ 

Whatever  may  be  thought  of  the  phrenological  doc- 
trine in  its  details,  it  is  at  least  scarcely  possible  to  dis- 
sent from  the  moderate  conclusion  of  Dr  Prichard, 
that  **  fully  developed  brains  indicate  great  intellect" 
Hence,  leaving  out  of  the  question  the  connexion  of 
the  development  of  the  skull  with  that  of  the  facial 
bones,  the  simple  capacity  of  the  cerebral  case  becomes 
in  itself  a  matter  of  tho  highest  consequence.  We 
happily  have  it  in  our  power,  from  the  eaperiments  of  a 
most  accurate  inquirer,  Professor  Morton,  to  determine 
the  comparative  capacity  of  the  skulls  of  all  the  varie- 
ties of  mankind.  The  following  are  Professor  Morton's 
conclusions : — 

Having  obtained  a  considerable  number  of  the  skulls 
of  the  various  races  of  men,  Dr  Morton  measured  their 
internal  capacity  by  means  of  white  pepper  seed,  and 
found  the  following  results : — 


Mean 

internal 

Racks. 

No.  of 

capacity 

Lurgeetin 

Smalteat  in 

akulls. 

in  cubic 
inche*. 

thoaeriea 

the  aeries. 

1.  Caucasian, 

62 

87 

109 

75 

2.  Mongolian, 

10 

83 

93 

69 

3.  Malay, 

18 

81 

89 

64 

4.  Aboriginal 

American, 

147 

80 

100 

60 

5.  Ethiopian, 

2i) 

78 

94 

65 

It  thus  appears  that  the  aboriginal  Americans  rank 
fourth  with  respect  to  the  size  of  their  brains,  the 
Ethiopians  being  lowest  and  the  Caucasians  highest. 

This  result  is  certainly  the  precise  one  to  be  expected, 
considering  the  capacity  of  the  cranium  as  an  index  of 
intellectual  power.  The  Caucasian  race,  which  stands 
highest  in  the  scale,  is  that  which  has  produced  the 
inost  civilised  nations  ;  while  the  Mongolian,  the  next 
in  order  of  capacity  of  cranium,  has  produced  a  num- 
ber of  nations  which  remain  at  a  fixed  point  in  semi- 
civilisation.  The  Malay  is  a  degree  more  barbarous,  and 
the  American  and  Ethiopian  the  most  barbarous  of  alL 

Though  thus  compelled,  both  according  to  the  views 
of  Camj>er  and  those  of  other  physiologists,  to  admit 
an  inferiority  of  organisation,  accompanied  by  inferio- 
rity of  faculties,  in  certain  races  as  tliey  at  present  exist, 
there  is  yet  an  encouraging  prospect  to  cheer  us.  Rea- 
sons exist  for  tho  belief,  that  cultivation,  in  the  case  of 
both  races  and  individuals,  is  capable  of  modifying  even 
the  shape  of  the  skull ;  and  hence,  whatever  be  the  pecu- 
liarities attending  this  physical  characteristic  in  any 
existing  race,  we  are  not  left,  in  this  view  of  things,  to 
despair  of  the  i>ossibility  of  improvement.  Without 
some  such  com|>ensating  prospect,  it  would  bo  painful 
to  admit  that  the  protruded  bones  of  tho  face,  the  pro- 
portionably  small  cerebrum,  and  the  almost  simious 
lowness  of  forehead  in  the  Negn>,  indicated  a  natural 
inferiority  in  the  race.  Many  writers  will  not,  indeed, 
countenance  this  conclusion.  **  1  luve  not  met  with  an 
individual,  out  of  a  great  number  of  intelligent  West 
Indian  planters  and  medical  practitioners,"  says  Dr 
Prichard,  *♦  who  has  not  piven  a  most  iKJsitivo  testi- 
mony as  to  the  natural  equality  of  tho  African  Negro 
and  tho  Euronean."  The  same  writer  also  points  to 
instances  in  which  Negroes  became  excellent  scholars, 
and  i^Tote  elegant  Latin  verses.  But,  on  the  other 
hand,  Mr  Lawrence,  with  many  able  physiologists, 


PHYSICAL  BISTORV  OF  MAN. 

giTCt  oomitenance  to  the  supposition  of  %  decided  infe-  greatly  changed  by  a  pressure  which  has  been  annlied 

rionty  of  cerebral  organisation  in  the  Negro,  attended  both  before  and  behind,  as  to  resemble  half-moons     It 

with  a  correspondine  inferiority  of  faculties.  It  is  cer-  is  not  necessarily  to  be  inferred  that  injury  results 

tainly  one  remarkable  circumstance,  that,  in  the  majo-  either  to  the  mental  constitution,  or  the  general  health 

rity,  at  least,  of  those  cases  in  which  Negroes  exhibit  of  those  who  submit  to  this  process.    Supposine  the 

striking  talent,  their  heads  are  found  to  approach  the  pressure  to  be  slow  and  gentle,  the  ductile  organs  will 

Caucasian   formation  in   respect  of  shape.     PhiUis  easily  accommodate  themselves  to  it,  and  it  is  probable 

Wheatley,  for  example,  a  coloured  girl  who  wrote  that  the  brain,  as  far  as  its  size  or  volume  is  concerned 

very  pretty  verses  at  an  early  age,  is  represented,  in  will  remain  unaffected.    A  skull  in  Dr  Leach's  posses^ 

the  pUte  attached  to  her  Uttle  book,  as  having  not  only  sion,  bearing  the  marks  of  extraordinary  compression 

a  Caucasian  brow  and  head,  but  these  of  the  finest  bknown  to  have  been  that  of  a  Caribb  chief  distinguished 

order.  for  intelligence  and  prudence. 

The  physical  eharactenstic  now  under  consideration 
varies  considerably  among  the  white  nations  or  Euro-  teeth  of  mankind. 

peans.    The  Turks,  who,  though  originally  a  Mongol 

race,  have  had  their  primitive  physiod  attributes  mo-        ^^^  general  differences  of  features,  accompanying 

dified  by  continual  intermixtures  with  Greeks,  Geor-  ^^  variations  in  the  shape  of  the  skull,  were  pointed 

^ns,  and  Circassians,  present  a  form  of  skull  combin-  out  in  going  over  the  great  divisions  of  the  human  race, 

ing,  apparently,  the  mingled  churacters  of  the  two  '^he  teeth  of  mankind  differ  very  little  in  shape  or  posi- 

varieties.  The  square  Mongolian  head  has  been  rounded  **o°'    "  The  oblique  position,"  says  Mr  Lawrence,  "  of 

off  in  their  case,  and  we  find  it  to  be  now  almost  a  per-  *^®  anterior  incisors  in  the  Negroes,  and  some  other 

feet  globe.  The  Greek  head  approaches  the  same  shape,  ^hes  who  have  prominent  jaws,  is  the  only  national 

It  was  long  asserted  that  the  globularity  of  the  Turkish  difference  I  know  of  in  teeth.  Their  size  and  form  exhi- 

head  resulted  from  artificial  compression  in  infancy,  ^**  merely  individual  differences."    One  of  the  most 

but  modem  physiologists  discredit  this  notion.    **  A  remarkable  individual  varieties  in  the  teeth,  it  may  be 


face,  in  all  the  details  of  each,  demonstrate  most  une-  ordinary  beauty.  In  case  of  a  colonial  settlement  being 

Suivocally  that  it  is  a  natural  formation,  and  a  very  founded  by  such  an  individual,  and  the  dental  duplicity 

ne  work  of  nature,  too."     The  writer  now  quoted  ^'oing  perpetuated  in  numerous  descendants,  would  we 

proceeds  also  to  remark, that,  although  no  sufficiently    ""*  *"**  ""*  "'*'*•"'•  •  «— •^••— :*- *—'-- —  ^ x-_..._ 

extensive  examinations  have  yet  been  made,  the  pro- 
bability is,  that  between  the  European  nations,  such  as 
the  Germans,  Swiss,  Swedes,  French,  and  others,  dis- 
tinct differences  in  the  shape  of  the  skull  would  cer-  figure— proportions — weight  and  strength. 
tainly  bo  found  to  exist  on  inquiry.  Mr  George  Lewis  wu^  jt-te  x.-  i.  -  i.  .» 
observed  in  traveUmg  on  the  contment,  that  the  French  , .  ^®  differences  which  exist  among  the  races  of  man- 
have  the  lower  and  anterior  parts  of  the  cranium  Urge,  f°^'  ^*^  "^P^^.*  to  Figure,  Proportions,  and  Strength, 
while  the  upper  and  anterior  region  is  more  prominent  f'^™,*  ^"^^'^  J^  *^?  present  subject  not  less  interest- 
in  the  GerZuB,  The  Italian  Head,  though  compara-  l^'^.l^'^.  ^"^  J^*  noticed  It  has  long  been  attempted, 
tively  small  for  the  most  part,  is  m^ked  by  great  ele-  *"  ^^^  T  ^^  ""^T  °^  t*'''  T*"^'  ^"i-  ^«^!^^'"  ^^^ 
ganci.  The  Jews  have  l^g  been  noted  for  the  fine  ^^/  ^^f^l^  ""^  physical  perfection  for  the  human 
Caucasian  shape  of  their  heiSis.  ^f^}  *°f  *^«^^  certomly  does  seem  to  be  a  model, 
It  is  worthy  of  remark,  that,  though  the  globularity  !j,^,^  ^  M  ^PP''^'^^^^^^^^**^^  combmes  the  quahty  of 
of  the  TurkUh  skuU  is  not  to  be  deemed  the  result  of  ?^^"^S  the  eye  with  the  posse^on  of  the  greatest 

art,  there  are  certainly  races  of  people  who  modify  the  ^^^il  ?i^??"fi  ^''''^f  i^'^  **^*^'7-     ^^'^^  ^l*^** 

shTpe  of  the  head  b/compression  in  childhood ;  and  "«"?^  looked  to  the  model-figures  of  the  Caucasians 

the  Views  of  Camper,  as  well  as  of  the  phrenologists,  ""[  Gree^^,  or,  m  other  words,  to  their  ancient  statues, 

must  be  appUed  with  some  reservation  to  the  sLus  J!,^o«"?P^^'"'^t!  f  ♦?"?  T^i*"^^  proportions  of  the 

of  one  great  variety  of  mankmd.     Many,  very  many,  ^TufJiT^'-fi  ^'J^  ^*'^^^^  "f  "f  'T^?  ?  ""'''^^'' 

of  the  tribes  of  North  and  South  America  are  w  a°d  habit  modifies  to  such  an  extent  his  ph 

partial  to  low  and  retreatmg  foreheads,  that  they  have  !M^Ll^f^  v  ^l           1^  ^"""l-*^  ^  "t^c'*  ^/  T"r 

long  been  in  the  habit  of  isisting  miture  in  produc  ^  "C^^^n    i^  ♦•''T  ^°^/'^5«P,^<;^  .  ?f  J"?ff«<i  «^ 

ing  that  form  of  head.    The  comparative  softness  of  ^J^he  common  artistical  ston^^^^ 

Oil  osseous  texture  at  birth,  and  Uie  partially  mobile  ^'^  "^^*  ^^°1?"  ^^"^^  ^  «t'  "^"T  ^  ''"^  °^P?' 

Mate  of  the  cranial  sutures,  enable  them  to  effect  this  Pfi^'^?!^"^,  {^\,^%r'1f!.  ^^/f '*^  ^^T  °^^^® 

object.    "  The  Caribbs,"  sTys  Labat,  in  his  account  of  ^t!li^f  L^!?,!-  Jf  Hottentot  and  the  American 

•  voyage  to  the  isles  of  the  Caribbean  Sea,  "are  aU  ?,!!f  .J^^^i^^J^^^'i^ V°'™* ''  fr^^""^  ^^'^  *^1 

weu'n^de  and  proportioned;  their  feati^  are  suffi-  hfi^^ l-n tf n^. ^^i,  4^  l™"^^  Hmdoo,"  as  we  call 

eientlv  ain-eeable  excentinir  the  forehead  which  anneam  "™» ^^^  ^^P  "P  ^*^**  ^^^  ^^^^  ^^^  ^Y^  *  ^^^  the  South 

depreaeed.    These  people  !re  not  born  so,  but  they  Z"t^^  ™.l        "'^J'^^-     Y«"  ».''«»«  ^^"^  depm 

fora  the  head  to  ai.mSe  that  form,  by  placing  on  thi  Tm!  {{.ot^lf?  T^  ("""  the  Grecmn  model.    Such 

forehead  of  the  newly  bom  chUd  a  sniu  plat?,  which  ^^fj"^  u  /'T'^u  ^r"'  •  *  "  Tt  °?'  f ""fl!? 

they  tie  firmly  behind.    Thi«  remains  untU  the  bones  JP^th  T      u  .Yf*5?  •^"?"'"  "^'m"'^'  »''"*^' 

Uve  acquired  Uieir  consistence  ;  so  that  the  forehead  l^^T^^'ir^*^  *'•'"'  ""»"",<?"»'»»<>  •P°°'<>'«1  y*"""  ««"- 

i.  flattened  to  that  degree,  that  they  can  see  almost  l^Z^tJ^  tT  '"T''>"^  «"*^  *1"^  '™«"°S, 

perpendicularly  above    them   without   elevating    the  those  otherwise  fashioned, 

nead."     The  consequence  is,  that  the  heads  of  these  statirf 
people,  naturally  somewhat  depressed  in  front,  become 

nideously  so ;  and  unnatural  bulges  behind  show  that  Different  races  of  men  exhibit  considerable  diversi- 

the  cerebral  matter  has  been  forced  into  new  posi-  ties  of  stature,  though  there  are  no  varieties  of  stature 

tions.     The   possibility  of  changing  the  form  of  the  in  different  nations  so  remarkable  as  those  whioh  fre- 

ikull,  has  been  doubted  by  some  physiologists,   but  quently  occur  in  the  same  family.    The  tallest  race  of 

the  circumstance  is  authenticated  beyond  all  question,  men,  authentically  known  to  exist,  are  the  Patagonians, 

In  Morton's  Crania  Americana  are  delineated  many  a  tribe  occupying  the  coast  of  South  America,  between 

specimens  of  skulls  thus  altered  in  from,  some  so  the  Rio  de  la  Plata  and  the  Straits  of  MagelUuu    The 

57 


CHAMBERS'S  INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


territory  occupied  by  them  is  of  immense  extent,  and 
they  are  probably  migratory  in  habits ;  hence  a  consi- 
derable degree  of  discrepancy  in  the  accounts  given  of 
them  by  dLffercnt  writers.  Magelhin's  companions  de- 
clared the  Patagonians  to  be  commonly  about  seven 
feet  four  inches  in  height,  English  measure.  Commo- 
dore Byron  saw  and  conversed  wiUi  many  companies 
of  them,  and  states  that  few  were  under  seven  feet,  wliile 
others  were  considerably  above  it.  Nearly  six  feet  high 
himself,  he  could  barely  touch  the  top  of  a  chief's  head, 
though  standing  on  tip-toe.  Captain  Wallis,  again, 
having  probably  examined  a  different  tribe,  says  that 
the  majority  of  the  Patagonians  seen  by  him  averaged 
from  five  feet  ton  to  six  feet,  and  that  he  only  saw  one 
man  so  tall  as  six  feet  seven.  By  later  and  accurate 
measurements,  made  by  the  Spaniards,  wo  learn  posi- 
tively, that  tliere  are  at  least  Patagonian  tribes,  reach- 
ing the  average  height  of  from  six  and  a  half  to  seven 
feet.  Were  they  even  somewhat  leas,  they  would  be 
decidedly  the  tallest  race  of  men  existing  on  the  face  of 
tiio  earth.  All  voyagers  admit  them  to  be  large  and 
muscular  in  proportion  to  their  height. 

A  people  situated  in  the  polar  circles  of  the  north, 
stand  nearly  at  the  other  extreme  of  the  scale  as  re- 
spects stature.  The  Esquimaux,  or  at  least  some  tribes 
of  them,  are  for  the  most  part  between  four  and  live 
feet  in  height,  and  their  congeners  the  Laps  are  also  a 
dwartiHh  race.  They  are  of  the  Mongolian  variety  of 
mankind.  The  Ethiopio  variety  also  numbers  some 
very  small  tribes,  and  in  particuUr  the  Bosjesmen,  a 
r^ce  said  to  be  also  very  commonly  deformed.  Among 
the  American  nations,  there  are  also  dwarfish  tribes, 
and  in  particular  the  natives  of  Terra  del  Fuego,  near 
neighbours  of  the  Patagonians. 

These  nations  only  present  us  with  the  extremes  of 
the  human  race,  as  respects  stature.  The  subject 
is  worthy  of  much  more  minute  investigation.  It  would 
be  highly  interesting,  and  indeed  instructive,  to  know 
the  comparative  average  stature  of  each  of  the  ordinary 
varieties  and  sub-varieties  of  mankind.  Unfortunately, 
the  observations  of  naturalists  respecting  stature  have 
not  been  carried  far.  Quetclct  and  others  have  atten- 
tively examined  the  relative  heights  of  individuals  of 
sinffte  nations,  at  different  ages,  with  a  view  to  determine 
the  genera]  phenomena  of  man's  growth ;  but  few  obser- 
vations have  been  made  ujwn  the  respective  heights  of 
different  races  or  nations.  The  stature  of  the  Cauca- 
sian has  not  been  fully  compared  with  that  of  tho  Mon- 
gol, or  the  Negro,  or  the  Red  Indian  ;  nor  have  single 
nati(»ua,  belonging  to  any  of  these  great  varieties,  been 
satisfactorily  contrasted  with  one  another,  as  respects 
height.  No  accurate  comparis<m8,  for  example,  have 
yet  been  made  of  German  with  Spaniard,  of  Briton  with 
Frenchman,  or,  in  fact,  of  any  one  European  nation 
with  another.  The  following  table,  exhibiting  the  com- 
parative heights  of  a  small  number  of  Englishmen  and 
Negnies,  is  given  in  the  work  of  Mr  Lawrence  upon  the 
Natural  History  of  Man.  Tho  Negroes  were  from  va- 
rious regions. 


Stature.    | 

Stiture. 

Vi-eL 

In. 

Fivt    In. 

An  En£;lishman,      G 

44 

A  Negro, 

:>    i»i 

Ditto,    -      -     U 

1 

Ditto,     - 

-      0           li\ 

Ditto,        -        6 

0 

Ditto, 

5        8 

Ditto,    -     -    a 

H 

Ditto,     - 

-    5        0 

Ditto,       -       rt 

i 

Ditto, 

A        74 

Ditto,    -      -    5 

^\ 

Ditto,        -        5 

0 

The  C^iucasian  here  has  considerably  the  advantage 
of  the  NVgro,  tlu*  averaijo  height  of  the  former  clana 
being  nearly  5  feet  i)  inches,  while  tho  black  averages 
little  above  5  f»-et  6  inches ;  and  the  advantage  would 
still  be  on  the  same  side,  were  we  to  leave  the  first 
Englishman,  certainly  a  man  of  uncommon  height, 
entirely  out  of  the  nckoning.  But  it  must  be  admitted, 
that  from  such  an  insignificant  amount  of  examples,  no 
ntiafactory  conclusions  can  be  drawn.  The  aceouiita 
of  recent  travellers  in  Africa  wyuld  lead  one  to  imogiue 

•  _  ■ 


that  the  majority  of  the  Negro  natioiu,  ezeepUog  in  the 
case  of  a  few  particubir  tribes,  such  as  the  Bosieemuii, 
are  not  below  the  Europeans  in  average  height.  The 
Caucasians  have  indeed  the  advantage  in  one  reapect ; 
no  tribe  or  section  of  them  sinks  so  low  in  the  scale  of 
altitude  as  some  of  the  other  races  do. 

The  stature  of  the  Chinese,  who  must  be  regmrded  as 
amongst  the  purest  specimens  of  the  Mongol  variety, 
was  accurately  and  extensively  measured  by  Mr  RoUin, 
the  surgeon  who  accompanied  La  Perouae.  He  found 
the  ordmary  height  of  the  natives  of  the  great  Isle  of 
Tchoka,  on  the  east  coast  of  China,  to  be  Jive  French 
feet*  The  natives  of  tho  mainland,  near  the  same  re- 
gion, measured  4  feet  10  inches  (French).  This  exami- 
nation places  the  pure  Chinese  bielow  the  average  height 
ef  Europeans,  and,  we  believe,  correctly.  Other  Mon- 
gol races  have  not  been  accurately  examined,  with  a 
view  to  the  point  under  consideration.  In  tliat  variety 
of  numkind,  however,  as  in  the  Ethiopio  division,  there 
are  individual  races  which  stand  much  lower  in  the 
scale  of  height  than  any  Caucasian  tribe.  The  Esqui- 
maux and  Fins  prove  this  assertion. 

The  Americans  also  present  great  differences  in 
height ;  so  much  so,  that  it  would  be  vain  to  attempt  to 
disTOver  or  strike  an  average  for  the  whole  variety — a 
variety  which  comprises  the  giant  Patagonians  and  the 
dwarfs  of  Terra  del  Fuego.  For  determining  the  heights 
of  individual  tribes  of  Americans,  we  Iiave  at  present 
no  better  authority  than  the  loose  reports  of  travellers. 
The  same  may  be  said  of  the  Malays ;  and,  such  being 
the  ease,  it  would  be  a  waste  of  time  to  attempt  any 
comparative  estimate,  having  reference  to  these  races. 
One  conclusion  may  be  drawn  from  the  little  which  we 
do  know,  and  that  is,  that  civilisation  equalises  the 
stature  of  mankind,  and  keeps  it  near  a  steady  mean. 
All  tho  less  cultivated  races  present  extremes  not  to 
be  observed  among  the  Caucasians. 

Professor  Forbes  of  Edinburgh  (the  able  successor 
of  Leslie  in  the  chair  of  Natural  Philosophy)  lias  re- 
cently made  a  series  of  exi)eriments  u]>on  the  ph^-sical 
differences  between  English,  Scotch,  Irish,  and  Bel- 
gians, the  results  of  which  constitute  the  most  interest- 
ing information  we  aro  able  to  lay  before  the  reader, 
with  respect  to  the  comparative  heights  of  sub-varieties 
of  the  Caucasians.  The  following  is  a  table  drawn  up 
by  I'rofessor  Forbes,  to  exhibit  the  relative  heights,  at 
diflerent  ages,  of  the  students  attending  his  class,  during 
a  series  of  years,  and  belonging  respectively  to  England, 
Scotland,  and  Ireland.  Tho  Belgian  measurements 
were  probably  derived  from  other  sources.  The  num- 
ber of  individuals  subjected  to  examination  was  very 
considerable,  so  many  as  eighty  Scotch  and  thirty 
English  being  occasionally  measured  at  once. 

Heiffhti — Full  dimensions  tcith  shocs.f 


Agi'. 


15 

If) 

17 

18 

1,0 

20 

21 
oo 

23 
21 
2.5 


Knglish. 


Int'b**. 
()4-4 
()b*-5 

C81 
G8-5 
G8-7 
C8'» 

iilVi) 

t)8\0 


Scotcli. 


Inchon. 
84-7 
66-8 
67-9 
68-5 
(HV9 
GU-l 
iiO-2 
G9-2 

8,0-3 
(;'»-3 


Irish. 

Belgians. 

IncIiuA. 

Inches. 

•  ■  • 

81-8 

■  •  • 

84-2 

•  •  • 

88-1 

G8-7 

67-2 

81)4 

87-7 

8l)-8 

67-9 

700 

880 

70-1 

881 

70-J 

88-2 

70-2 

88-2 

70-2 

88-3 

This  table  phices  the  Irishman  uppermost  in  tho 
scale  of  stature,  the  Scotsman  second,  the  Englishman 
next,  and  the  Belgian  lowest.  The  comparison  seems 
to  be  fair  as  regards  the  jxirties  taken,  ftir,  if  there 
were  any  peculiarity  in  their  condition  as  students,  it 

♦  TlicFrrnch  foot  slluhtly  excoinli  that  of  F.n(tlsnd.  thepro* 
portiirti*  of  the  fonncr  to  the  latti-r  1>»?uij  a**  ItOJ  to  Hi««». 
t  Half  an  inch  may  be  reckoned  us  i-^iuivulcnt  to  the  ehoe. 


•  >■ 


PHYSICAL  EttSTORY  OF  MAN. 


ninit  ha*«  Ijmii  eommDn  to  all.  As  a  eompiriaon  of 
naliomtt  hrights,  tharefors,  tbe  table  perlupa  eihibita 
conelDsioas  prettj  gniei^;  applicable,  and  we  shall 
find  it  borne  ont  b;  umilar  oompariBans  oF  weiffht  and 
ilrtnglh,  Prore»or  Forbetfa  obwrrationB  are  con- 
firmM,  in  One  point  at  leut,  by  th«  following  paflflan  in 
Qastalet's  work  upon  Man :—''  When  in  England,  we 
choM  the  term*  of  compariaoQ  from  nthor  higher 
rItiMfi  of  eodety  [he  hu  been  Bpaaking  of  Engliah  ^- 
tOTj  ehildrtni  ;  we  find  the  itature  of  man  rather  AipArr 
than  in  Franca  or  the  Low  Countries,  at  leaat  tor  yonog 
persons  between  eighteaQ  and  twenty-three  years  of 
age."  Qaetalet  then  alludes  to  eighty  different  me  ~  ~ 
ments  of  Cambridga  students,  taken  in  groups 


Profevor  Forbea'i 


grbea's  aTerave ;  but,  as  the  English  uu 
only  attendeaby  the  arietocraey,  who  w 


undeniably  a  eection  of  the  people  abore  thi 
national  statort^  It  is  probable  that,  as  a  national  omn- 
parieoa,  Pnrfeiaor  Forbe^a  table  approaches  nearest  to 
the  truth. 

Ths  tsble  alludedtoindieateathe  cessation  of  growth 
to  take  place  at  twenty-two,  the  ease  of  the  Belgian* 
being  the  only  exception.  This  exception  maj  be  ao- 
ddental,  but  it  is  remarkable  that  Qnetelet,  a  Belgian 
writer,  and  whose  obeer<rations  were  chiefly  drawn  from 
Brussels  and  Brabant,  laye  down  Che  following  as  one 
of  his  eonelusiotts: — "ItdoesnotappMrthatthBgrotith 
of  man  is  entirely  completed  at  twenty.fi  *e  years  of  age." 
One  can  scarcely  doubt  the  accuracy  of  this  conclusion, 
which  was  founded  on  an  examination  of  900  individuals 
at  the  ages  of  nineteen,  twenly-iiTe,  and  thirty.  It  is 
perfectly  possible,  howo*er,  that  cliioale  and  other  cir- 
cumstances may  cause  a  difference  in  this  respect  be- 
tween the  Belgians  and  British.  We  learn  from  another 
of  the  valuable  inferences  made  by  Quctelet  from  hia 
invest  i^l  ions,  that  the  stature  is  materially  influenced 
by  residence  in  town  or  country.  "  The  stature  of  the 
inhabitants  of  towns,  at  the  ago  of  nineteen,  is  greater 
than  that  of  the  country  resident  by  2  or  3  centimetres." 
An  cxamtnatioa,  accompanied  viih  vast  labour,  nf  nut 
less  than  3500  individuals  Uving  in  towns,  and  6000  re- 
sidmg  in  the  country,  brought  Quotelct  to  this  concln- 
sion,  which  is  tlierefore  in  all  probability  correct,  and 
will  be  found  to  hold  gooA  in  all  situations.  It  was 
only  at  the  age  of  nineteen,  however,  that  the  stature 
of  the  townsman  was  found  by  Quetelct  to  exceed  that 
of  the  rustic ;  and  he  eonceires  it  possible,  though  it 
was  not  in  his  power  to  obtain  full  proof  on  theenbject, 
that  "  the  inhabitant  of  the  country  may  attain  to  a 
greater  height  than  the  inhabitant  of  the  town,  before 
the  completion  of  the  full  growth."  The  trnlli  is,  that 
circnmitances  greatly  modify  the  rato  at  which  the 
growth  is  developed.  The  lawdf  nature  on  the  subject 
IS  thus  staled  by  Quetelet :— «  The  growth  of  the  human 
being,  from  several  months  before  birth  uii  till  the 
period  of  complete  development,  follows  such  a  law  of 
canlinnity,  that  the  accessions  of  growth  diminish  regu- 
larly in  amount,  in  proportion  to  the  age.''  Here,  of 
coarse,  each  successive  addition  of  growth  is  considered 
relatively  to  the  growth  previously  acquired.  "  We  shall 
find,"  he  says,  "  that  the  child  increosea  in  size  2-5Ihs 
&om  birth  to  the  end  of  the  first  year;  t-7t}i  during  the 
second  year;  1-lIthduringthe  third  year;  l-141hdnr- 
in;  the  fourth  year;  l-15th  during  thefiflh  year;  l-ISth 
during  the  sixth  year,  and  so  on  ;  the  relative  growth 
always  decreasing  from  the  time  of  birth."  Tliia  simple 
law  of  nature,  however,  is  liable  to  be  greatly  affected  in 
its  operation  by  circum-atanees.  "DrVillerme  remarks," 
■ays  Quetclet,  "that  the  height  of  man  becomes  greater, 
and  the  growth  takes  place  more  rapidly,  other  circum- 
stances being  equal,  in  proportion  as  the  country  in- 
habited is  riclier,  the  comfort  more  general,  honsee, 
clothes,  and  nourishment  belter,  and  labour,  fatigoe, 
and  privations  less  during  infancy  and  youth ;  or,  in 
Other  words,  the  circunulances  accompanying  misery 

Eoff  the  period  of  the  complete  develop *    '  "■- 
V,  and  Etint  hamnn  stature."     There 
83 


donbt  of  the  acenraoy  of  these  remarlu.  Ths  tSmpU 
exposure  to  the  action  of  sold,  not  to  speak  of  toil,  ma- 
terially inflnences  the  growth  of  man  ;  and  we  see  thia 
proved,  conversely  as  well  as  otherwise,  in  all  ths  ex- 
treme chmatas  of  the  world.  The  warmth  and  Inxnry 
of  citiee  develop  rapidly  the  growth  of  all  bnt  the  lowest 
classes.  Our  British  gentry  bear  oat  fully  the  eonola- 
sifln  of  Quetelet,  that  "  individuals  who  enjoy  afflueno* 
generally  exceed  the  mean  height ;  hard  labour  appeart 
to  be  an  obstacle  to  pvwth." 

Two  otlier  conclusions,  of  those  which  Qnelelet  give* 
as  the  result  of  his  patient  and  cautious  investigations, 
are  as  follow ;— »  The  limits  of  grovrth  in  the  tern  are 
unequal ;  flrst,  because  woman  ia  bom  smaller  than 
man ;  secondly,  because  ahe  sooner  reaches  her  com- 
plete development;  thirdly,  because  the  annual  in- 
crease of  hulk  which  her  frame  receives  is  smaller  than 
that  of  man."  The  seventh  and  last  deduction  is,  that, 
"  from  the  fiftieth  year,  the  human  body  undergoes  a 
diminution  of  stature,  which  becomes  mora  and  more 
marked  towards  the  oloee  of  life."  The  writer  does  not 
asaert  that  the  declension  is  more  than  in  appearance, 
and  it  probably  is  nothing  more,  though  not  less  pal- 
pabta  to  measui«ment  Uian  if  real.  On  the  other 
paints  it  is  nnncoessair  to  make  any  remark.  The 
present  treatise  cannot  be  carried  beyond  generalities, 
and  we  must  be  content,  in  many  particulars,  to  regard 
ths  sexes  only  under  the  common  title  of  mankind. 


Thestatare,  weight,  and  strength  of  the  human  bodA 
fbrm  but  parts  of  one  and  the  aame  subject.  Each  of 
those  properties  or  chaBxclerislics,  if  not  dependent  on, 
is  at  least  closely  related  to,  both  the  othera.  Aa  the 
object  here  is  to  make  the  view  of  the  species  compre- 
hensive lather  thnn  minute,  it  were  to  be  wished  that 
the  aeiffhl  of  the  Iwdy,  among  the  varic 
had  been  Inquired  into  with  some  ati 
ralists.  Dot,  aa  in  the  case  of  the  stat 
been  done  only  to  a  very  imperfect  e: 
has  fully  examined  the  compaiative  w 
man  body  at  different  ages,  and  of  differently  placed 
individuals  in  a  singta  nation;  but  no  attempts  have 
been  made  to  determine  the  comparative  weights  of 
Mongol  and  Caucasian,  or  American  and  Negro.  The 
endeavour  to  do  so  would  be  attended  undeniably  with 
vast  tirouble,  and  some  may  think  the  matter  not  worthy 
of  it.  This,  however,  is  not  a  correct  view  of  thinga. 
In  all  undertakings  that  require  the  exertion  of  physi- 
cal energy,  and  more  particularly  in  war,  bodily  weight, 
it  haa  now  been  clearly  shown,  is  a  most  important 
element ;  and,  wherever  the  superiority  in  this  respect 
lies,  thither  will  -auccesa,  other  circumstances  being 
equal,  almost  infallibly  tend.  An  observation  of  ths 
various  collisions  of  troops  on  the  field  of  Waterloo, 
whether  of  horse  or  foot,  tans  been  found  t«  substantiate 
this  proposition. 

Professor  Forbes  extended  his  inquiries  among  hii 
■tudenta,  English,  Scotch,  and  Irish,  to  bodily  weight, 
adding  eiamiiutions  of  similar,  and  also  of  mixed  otaasea 
of  Bdgians.     The  results  were  aa  follow  :— 

Weigh!  In  Pounds,  including  Clothes. 


ition  by  natu- 
e,  this  has  yet 
mt.     Q,uelelet 


CHAMBERS'S  INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


Here,  again,  the  superiority  lies  with  the  Irish,  the 
others  holding  the  same  relative  positions  as  in  the 
case  of  stature.  The  mixed  classes  of  Belgians,  in 
whose  case  the  weight  of  clothes  was  deducted,  ranked 
exceedingly  low — 1 34  lbs.  being  about  the  averaffe.  We 
have  it  in  our  power,  fortunately,  to  compare  Uie  con- 
elusions  of  Professor  Forbes  with  those  of  other  in- 
quirers, in  as  far  as  the  English  and  Bel|^ians  are  con- 
cerned. The  eighty  students  of  Cambridge,  weighed 
(with  the  clothes)  in  groups  of  ten,  gave  an  average, 
as  we  are  informed  by  Quetelet,  of  151  lbs. — ^the  pre- 
cise mean,  it  will  be  observed,  of  the  Englishmen  of 
twenty-five  years  of  age  weighed  by  Professor  Forbes. 
The  Cambridge  students,  however,  were  between  eigh- 
teen and  twenty-threo  years  old,  and  therefore  the 
Cambridge  estimate  is  a  little  higher  than  that  of  Pro- 
fessor Forbes,  as  it  also  was  in  the  case  of  stature. 
With  respect  to  the  weight  of  the  Belgians,  as  examined 
by  Quetelet,  he  states  that  the  mean  weight  of  the 
Cambridge  students  of  eighteen  and  twenty-three  much 
exceeds  that  of  Belgians  of  the  same  age,  being  nearly 
the  same  as  that  of  men  of  thirty  in  Brabant  and  the 
other  departments  of  Flanders. 

The  superiority  of  the  Irish  in  point  of  stature  and 
weight  is  remarkable.  We  shall  find  it  borne  out  by 
a  corresponding  superiority  in  physical  power,  as  shown 
in  the  table  of  Professor  Forbes  having  reference  to 
that  characteristic. 

Quetelet's  conclusions  respecting  the  weight  of  the 
human  being  at  various  ages,  and  the  general  laws 
regulating  his  growth  in  this  particular,  are  nearly  as 
follows : — The  mean  weight  of  male  children  at  birth 
is  3*20  kilogrammes.*  The  weight  of  female  infants  is 
less,  being  2*91  k.  A  child  loses  weight  for  the  first 
three  da^'s  after  birth,  and  does  not  make  anpr  decided 
increase  until  about  the  seventh  day.  Ages  being  equal, 
man  generally  weighs  more  than  woman ;  but  at  the 
age  of  twelve  this  is  not  the  case.  The  sexes  are  then 
nearly  equal  in  this  respect.  The  period  of  complete 
development  in  man,  as  respects  weight,  is  the  age  of 
forty ;  woman,  again,  does  not  attain  her  maximum  till 
the  age  of  fifty.  According  to  observations  made  on 
the  most  extensive  scale  in  Belgium,  the  mean  weight 
of  man  at  twenty-five  is  62*93  k. ;  at  the  age  of  forty 
(the  maximum  period),  it  is  G3-7  k.  The  mean  weight 
of  woman  at  twenty-five  is  532  k. ;  at  fifty  (the  maxi- 
mum period),  it  is  56* !«  k.f  The  maximum  weight  of 
the  human  being  is  nearly  twenty  times  the  sum  of 
his  weight  at  birth.  The  mean  weight  of  the  human 
being,  neither  sex  nor  age  being  taken  into  account,  is 
45*7  k.  From  the  ages  of  forty  and  fifty,  men  and 
women  begin  respectively  to  sustain  a  decrease  of 
weight,  from  six  to  seven  kilogrammes  being  the  usual 
loss  before  the  close  of  life. 

STRENGTH  OF  UXS. 

The  strength  of  the  human  frame  is  a  subject  which 
has  received  much  more  attention  than  has  been  paid 
either  to  its  weight  or  proportions.  It  is  obviously, 
indeed,  a  subject  of  the  utmost  moment,  whether  we 
view  it  with  reference  to  the  comparative  physical 
powers  of  different  races,  or  simply  as  a  question  inte- 
resting to  civilised  man  from  its  bearing  on  practical 
mechanics.  Various  methods  liave  been  proposed  for 
determining  accurately  the  strength  resident  in  the 
loins  and  arms  of  the  human  frame  ;  and  the  instrument 
called  the  difnamomcter,  invented  by  Regnicr,  is  that 
most  gcnerallv  approved  of  and  employed  for  the  pur- 
pose. The  Jvnaniometcr,  however,  though  used  by 
Quetelet,  Professor  Forbes,  and  others,  in  their  experi- 
ments, is  allowed  to  be  far  from  perfect,  and  it  is  only 
by  uncommon  care  and  caution,  that  results  can  bo 
obtained  from  it  worthy  of  being  depended  on.  It  is 
an  instrument  which  cannot  well  be  described  in  mere 
words,  and  all  that  may  be  said  of  it  hero  is,  tliat  it  is 

*  A  kik^gniiruno  !■  a*  nearly  as  ponhible  2  l-5th  lbs.  EnglLdi. 

t  Th©  mwin  weight,  thervfore,  of  nuin  in  Ilclgium,  at  the 
maximnin  ptTwd,  In  Uttle  more  than  140  lbs.  Kogli^h.  ThU  is 
much  below  the  avenge  of  man  in  Dritatn. 


so  contrived  as  to  indicate  to  the  experimenter^  on  ft 
dial-plate,  the  physical  power  resident  in  the  loins  and 
arms  of  the  parties  subjected  to  trial. 

Observing  the  extraordinary  displays  of  physieal 
power  and  energy  frequently  made  by  savages,  scientific 
men  were  long  of  opinion  that  civilisation  diminished 
the  strength  of  the  human  frame.  Other  circumstances 
tended  to  foster  this  belief.  The  Negro  is  possessed  of 
longer  arms,  or  at  least  forearms,  than  the  Caucasian, 
holding  in  this  respect,  it  is  worthy  of  remark,  a  middle 
place  between  the  white  and  the  ape,  which  latter  crea- 
ture has  arms  of  great  length.  *^  I  measured,"  says  Mr 
White,  **  the  arms  of  about  fifty  Negroes,  men,  women, 
and  children,  bom  in  very  different  dimes,  and  found 
the  lower  arm  longer  than  in  Europeans,  in  proportbn 
to  the  upper  arm  and  height  of  the  body."  The  same 
writer  says  that  whites  of  6  feet  4  inches,  whom  he 
measured,  had  shorter  arms  than  Negroes  of  middle 
size.  Similar  sources  of  physical  superiority  appeared 
to  voyagers  to  be  possessed  by  the  Facific  Islanders, 
the  Malays,  and  many  other  uncultivated  races.  But 
more  attentive  observation  has  disproved  the  supposi- 
tion. The  voyager  Peron,  took  with  him  to  the  south- 
ern hemisphere  a  dynamometer,  with  which  he  experi- 
mented on  the  following  number  of  individuals :  twelve 
natives  of  Van  Diemen  s  Land,  seventeen  of  New  Hol- 
land, fifty-six  of  the  island  of  Timor  (a  fine  race  of  men), 
seventeen  Frenchmen,  and  fourteen  Englishmen.  The 
following  numbers  express  the  mean  result  in  each 
case,  the  strength  of  the  arms  and  loins  being  respec- 
tively put  to  the  test.  It  is  by  lifting  a  weight  thai  the 
strength  of  the  loins  is  tested  with  the  dynamometer. 

Mean  strength. 

Arms.  Loins. 
Kflogrammea  Myriogrammes. 

1.  Van  Diemen  natives,    -      50*6 

2.  New  Hollanders,        -     -   50-8  10-2  . 

3.  Timorians,  -        -       587  11-6  ' 

4.  Frenchmen,      -        -       -   69-2  15*2 

5.  Englishmen,         -        -        71*4  16-3* 

The  highest  power  of  arm  shown  by  any  of  the  Van 
Diemen  natives,  was  60 ;  by  the  New  Hollanders,  62  ; 
while  the  lowest  in  the  English  trials  was  63,  and  the 
highest  83.  In  lumbar  power,  or  that  of  the  loins,  the 
highest  point  reached  by  a  New  Hollander  was  13 ;  the 
lowest  of  the  English  was  12.7,  and  the  highest  21.3. 

"  These  results,"  says  Mr  Lawrence,  "  offer  the  best 
answer  to  the  declamations  on  the  degeneracy  of  man. 
The  attribute  of  superior  strength,  so  boldly  assumed 
by  the  eulogists  of  the  savage  state,  has  never  been 
questioned  or  doubted.  Although  we  have  been  con- 
soled for  this  inferiority  by  an  enumeration  of  the 
many  precious  benefits  derived  from  civilisation,  it  has 
always  been  felt  as  a  somewhat  degrading  disadvantage. 
Bodily  strength  is  a  concomitant  of  good  health,  which 
is  produced  and  supported  by  a  regular  supply  of  whole- 
some and  nutritious  food,  and  by  active  occupation. 
The  industrious  and  well-fed  midalc  classes  of  a  civi- 
lised community,  may  be  reasonably  expected  to  sur- 
pass, in  this  endo\%'ment,  the  miserable  savages,  who 
are  never  well-fed,  and  too  frequently  depressed  by 
absolute  want  and  all  other  privations.''  Such  is  tho 
case,  as  Peren's  experiments  show.  But  indeed  tho 
same  thing  is  shown  by  a  hundred  historical  facts.  The 
Spaniards,  on  their  first  visits  to  the  New  World,  found 
tho  natives  much  weaker  than  themselves,  and  this  was 
proved  not  only  by  hand  to  hand  struggles,  but  by  the 
labour  of  the  mines,  in  which  the  Indians  were  far  de- 
ficient. The  backwoodsmen  of  the  States  have  always 
shown  themselves  stronger,  in  single  combats,  than  the 
Indians.  The  Russians  of  Europe,  also,  are  said  by 
Pallas  to  excel  the  Mongol  tribes  of  the  empire,  to  a 
remarkable  extent,  in  physical  power. 

I'roper  and  extended  comparisons  are  yet  to  be  made 
of  the  relative  physical  power  of  the  various  Caucasian 
nations.     The  following  table  of  Professor  Forbes  gives 

•  PeitnH-Coirectod Kdition  of  hb  Vo>'age8.  (The  myriogzaouns 
In  nearly  23  lbs.  Enfjish.) 


PHYSICAL  HISTORY  OF  MAN. 


ns  at  least  a  glimpse  at  the  eomparatire  strpngths  of 
t'ngliih,  Sootchy  Iiiah,  aod  Belguuos : — 


Lumbar 

strength 

in 

pounds. 

AS^ 

Engltth. 

Scotdi. 

1 
1 

Irish. 

Belgians. 

15 

•  •  • 

280 

•  •  • 

204 

1<> 

336 

314 

1 

1 

•  •  • 

236 

17 

352 

340 

1 

3G9 

260 

18 

364 

360 

' 

389 

280 

19 

378 

878 

404 

296 

20    : 

385 

> 

3^2 

■ 

416 

310 

21 

392 

402 

423 

322 

oo 

397 

1 

410 

1 

427 

330 

23 

401 

\ 

417 

1 

430 

335 

24 

403 

1 

421 

1 
1 

431 

337 

25 

403 

1 

423 

1 

I 

432 

339 

The  same  rdations  are  here  preserved  as  in  the  pre- 
vious tables,  and  as,  with  respect  to  weight  and  height  j 
at  least,  there  could  be  no  mistake,  the  probability  that ; 
the  last  table  is  correct  is  much  strengthened  bj  the  '* 
conformitj  in  question.    The  difference  between  the  , 
Irish  and  Belgians  is  immense,  the  former  exceeding  ; 
the  latter  in  strength  by  nearly  one-fourth ;  while  be-  I 
tween  the  English  and  Belgians  there  is  also  a  great 
difference,  amounting  to  62  pounds.    The  EngUu,  in 
Peron's  table,  showed  a  lumbar  strength  equal  to  about 
376  lbs.,  a  point  considerably  below  that  of  the  English 
in  Professor  Forbes*s  table.    But  we  might  expect 
such  a  difference  between  students  and  sailors,  or  stout 
colonists,  which  latter  classes  were  those  examined  by 
Peron.    Between  the  Scotch  and  Irish  the  difference  is 
small  comparatively.     It  is  much  to  be  wished  that  the 
example  of  the  Edinburgh  professor  were  extensively 
followed,  both  abroad  and  at  home,  so  as  to  give  us 
satisfactory  views  of  the  relative  ph%-sical  powers  of 
the  different  European  nations.     Such  questions,  as 
already  hinted,  will  be  found  to  bear  more  directly  on 
the  prosperity  of  nations  than  has  hitherto  been  com- 
monly imagined.* 

R^rnicr,  the  inventor  of  the  common  d^-namometer, 
was  led  to  the  conclusion,  after  many  experiments,  that, 
between  the  ages  of  twenty-five  and  thirty,  man  is  at 
the  maximum  of  his  strength,  and  that  he  is  then  able, 
by  pressing  strongly  with  both  hands,  to  make  an  effort 
equal  to  oO  kilogrammes,  and  to  raise  a  weight  of  13 
myriogrammes.  Man  preserves  (sa}*s  the  same  ob- 
server) much  of  his  physical  power  nearly  till  the  age  of 
fifty,  when  it  diminishes  progressively.  The  experi- 
ments of  another  Frenchman,  Si.  Ransonnet,  made  upon 
345  of  his  countr}-men,  sailors  of  the  port  of  Havre, 
give  results  somewhat  different  from  those  of  Kegnier. 
Ranf^onnet  found  the  mean  manual  power  of  these  men  to 
equal  46*3  kilogrammes  ;  and  the  lumbar  power,  or  that 
of  the  loins,  to  amount  to  14*2  myriogrammes.  There 
is  every  reason  to  believe,  however,  that  the  particular 
mode  of  using  the  instrument,  employed  by  each  expe- 
rimenter, is  the  cause  of  such  differences  in  its  results. 
Quetelet*s  observations  led  to  the  following  conclu- 
sions:— 


Ape. 

h\ 
20, 
25, 
3ft, 
50, 


Lumbar  Power  of  Men  and  Women. 

Men.  W(unen. 

MyriogTaiiuae&    MjuJog^inmines. 


40 

3-0 

8-8 

5.3 

13-8 

6.8 

15-5 

it 

15-4 

•  •  • 

10*1 

5-9 

The  highest  point  which  the  dynamometer  here  gave, 
r  the  power  of  the  loins  in  Belgian  men,  was  15*5, 


for 


*  We  hare  been  informed  that  the  mere  phyvkil  power  of  the 
different  companies  of  men  to  whom  the  Duke  of  Wdlingtoo  was 
oppoetd  in  his  campaigns,  was  always  with  him  an  fAijOBi  id  aeri- 
OQS  ccnttidcratkm. 

61 


twenty-five  being  the  age  when  the  power  reached  thb 
maximum  point.  The  conclusion  agrees  very  closely 
with  those  made  by  Peron  on  the  French  sailors  of  his 
party,  who  exhibited  a  lumbar  power  equivalent  to  15*2 
myriogranmies,  falling  below  that  of  the  English,  which 
was  16*3.  Other  observations,  however,  would  lead  as 
to  suppose  that  the  difference  is  more  in  favour  of  tha 
British,  when  compared  with  the  Belgians,  than  this 
calculation  would  mdicate;  and  this  would  probably 
have  appeared,  had  Britons  been  tested  imder  Quete- 
let^s  own  eye,  and  by  his  directions. 

The  difference  in  lumbar  strength  between  men  and 
women  is  remarkable,  as  shown  in  Quetelet^s  table.  At 
the  age  of  twenty-five,  when  both  attain  the  m^Timnin 
of  lumbar  strength,  the  woman  is  deficient  by  more  than 
one-half.  "  The  difference,''  says  Quetelet,  *^  is  com- 
monly less  in  early  youth  than  at  the  period  of  complete 
development,  the  ratio  being  at  first  as  3  to  2,  and  becom- 
ing afterwards  as  9  to  5.  The  power  of  the  right  hand, 
when  tried  separately  from  that  of  the  left,  exceeds 
that  of  the  latter  by  nearly  a  sixth.  If  the  results  which 
I  have  attained  be  compared  with  those  of  MM.  Reg- 
nier  and  Ransonnet,  differences  of  a  remarkable  kind 
will  be  observed,  which  I  ascribe  to  the  manner  in 
which  the  hands  were  laid  upon  the  instrument,  and  to 
the  distance  left  between  them.  According  to  the  re- 
searches, however,  of  the  gentlemen  mentioned,  the 
mean  strength  of  man  is  estimated  at  about  46*3  and 
50  kilogrammes,  a  weight  not  equalling  that  of  man 
himself.  Uence  a  man  should  not  be  capable  of  sup- 
porting himself  with  his  hands.  Now,  experience  tells 
us  the  very  opposite  of  this.  Among  the  sailors  ex- 
amined by  Ransonnet,  there  would  not  probably  have 
been  found  a  single  man  who  could  not  sustain  him- 
self for  some  instants  at  the  end  of  a  rope.  Peron, 
who  estimates  the  manual  force  at  69*2  kilogrammes, 
approaches  nearer  to  the  truth,  but  ray  own  experi- 
ments carry  the  estimate  considerably  higher.'* 

These  conflicting  results  cannot  but  lead  us  to  look 
with  suspicion  on  the  dynamometer,  when  in  the  hands 
of  different  experimenters.  But  the  conclusions  of 
single  experimenters,  who  have  compared  a  variety  of 
individuals,  are  still  to  be  held  of  value,  since  they 
would  cause  the  different  subjects  of  experiment  to 
operate  on  the  instrument  in  the  same  ^itiv.  The 
conclusions  of  Peron  respecting  civilised  and  uncivi- 
lised men,  as  well  as  Englishmen  and  Frenchmen, 
are  by  no  means  to  be  deemed  unworthy  of  credit, 
because  Quetelet  arrived  at  different  general  conclu- 
sions; and  the  same  may  be  said  of  the  observa- 
tions of  Quetelet  upon  the  comj^arative  strength  of 
man  and  woman  at  different  ages.  To  the  observations 
of  Professor  Forbes  the  same  remark  applies,  and  we 
believe,  with  reference  to  them,  that  the  conclusions 
which  they  indicate  will  hold  extensively  good.  The 
Belgians  partake  largely  of  the  Celtic  bloml,  and  the 
Celtic  race  will  probably  be  found  inferior  to  the  Ger- 
manic, in  almost  all  cases,  in  height,  weight,  and  strength 
of  frame.  The  superiority*  of  the  lri<h,  it  ma}*  be  thought, 
does  not  countenance  this  view  of  things,  as  they  are  in 
the  main  a  Celtic  people.  But  it  is  the  English  portion 
of  the  Irish  population,  chiefly,  who  arc  in  circumstances 
to  quit  their  country  in  quest  of  academical  education, 
and  such  vms,  in  all  likelihood,  the  character  of  the 
majority  of  those  who  became  the  subjects  of  experi- 
ment to  Professor  Forbes.  The  peasantry,  in  some  of 
the  moi*e  retired  districts  of  Ireland,  present  characters 
verj*  different  from  those  of  the  parties  settled  withyi 
wliat  was  called  the  English  <'  pale."  They  are  pure 
Celts,  unquestionably,  with  short,  spare,  wiry  frames, 
and  features  strikingly  Celtic.  Not  to  these,  but  to  the 
English  portion  of  the  nation,  must  the  conclusions 
of  Professor  Forbes  be  held  chiefly  to  apply ;  and  the 
people  of  the  Scottish  Lowlands,  who  encircle  and  attend 
the  Edinburgh  University,  are,  in  like  manner,  a  Ger- 
manised race.  It  is  iu  this  light  that  Enslish,  Scotch, 
and  Irish,  are  to  be  ranked  together,  and  collectively 
contrasted,  as  being  all  of  them  branches  of  a  German- 
ised popolatioDy  wSh  the  continental  Celts.    In  height, 


CHAMBERS'S  INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


iv«ifcht,  And  fiUitiire,  the  Huperiority,  we  repeat,  Memn 
to  li«  with  the  funner,  and  tiioir  national  career  may 
have  been  more  af reeled  by  the  circuniktance  than  hau 
hitherto  been  dreamed  of.  Puture  iiKiiiiriea  are  likely 
Co  give  to  such  phvbical  characterittioH  a  degree  of 
weight  not  aHcribed  to  them  in  times  past. 

Leaving  the  question  of  comparative  degrees  of 
strength,  whether  in  varieties  or  sub-varicties  of  man- 
kind, a  word  may  be  said  n^Kpecting  the  extraordinary 
physical  powers  which  indiridual  men,  of  various  na- 
tionn,  have  occasionally  evinced.  Wo  Icam  from  his- 
tory, that  Milo,  a  Greek,  could  fell  an  ox  with  his  list, 
and  afterwards  carry  it  home  on  his  shoulders.  Firmus, 
a  man  who  lived  in  later  times,  being  l)om  in  Seleucia 
about  the  ri'ign  of  the  Em]K'ror  Aurelian,  could  sutTer 
iron  to  bo  forged  on  an  unvil  place<l  on  his  breast,  his 
body  being  then  in  the  position  of  an  arch,  with  only 
the  two  extremities  n>sting  on  supports.  He  exhibited 
other  feats  of  muscular  strength,  nearly  all  of  which 
were  succi'iwfully  imitated,  during  tho  pant  centur}*,  by 
a  German  nnnicil  Van  Hckeburg.  This  man  sat  down 
on  an  inclined  iKtavd,  with  his  feet  strftchetl  out  against 
a  fixi'd  «upj>ort,  and  two  strong  horst»a  wun»  unable  to 
move  him  from  liti  jHtKition.  In  iniitatiim  of  PimiUHf 
he  lay  down,  with  his  body  in  the  furni  of  an  arch,  and 
allowed  a  stono,  one  foot  and  a  half  long  and  one  foot 
broad,  to  be  broken  on  his  abdomt^u  with  a  sledge 
hammer.  He  uUo  stood  on  an  elevated  platform,  and 
by  means  of  a  rope  round  his  waist,  sustAiniMl  the 
weii^ht  of  a  large  cannon,  a  burden  for  soverul  httrses. 
A  ilat  piece  of  iron  i^aa  likewi^o  twisted  by  him  into 
the  f<irni  of  a  screw. 

Dr  l)es;ij;ulien»,  a  scientific  gentleman  who  witnes^K^d 
theiiernian*sfeatM,  hlu)wiMl,  however,  that  skill  was  niort) 
concerned  in  the  matter  than  mere  strengtlu  With  the 
aid  of  some  friends,  tlie  doctor  actiuiUy  performed  many 
of  the  same  feat.x,  on  the  very  night  on  which  he  wit- 
nessed them.  The  simple  sustaining  of  the  stone,  it 
BceniH,  was  the  chief  ditticultv  in  the  most  Mr  iking  of 
the  experiments,  as  the  breaking  of  itcaus<'d  little  addi- 
tional annoyance  ;and,  in  place  of  increafiing,  the  arched 
{M>nitifin  of  the  body  greatly  dim  in  ishrd  tliosiiock  of  the 
ilows.  In  the  eahc  of  many  of  tho  other  feats,  in  like 
manner, a  skilful  api»lieation  of  onlinary  )ihysical  powers 
was  ftiund  coniprient  to  their  aeeoinpli?<hnien!.  There 
appeared,  neverthelesH,  about  the  ^;ll^o  time  with  the 
German,  an  I'.ni;lishman,  naim^l  Tophani,  wln>  i>or- 
formeil  ei|Vi.illy  wonderful  fe:its  hy  sluor  sln-iii^th,  un- 
aided by  hkiil.  He  out-pulli'd  a  strong  horso  hy  main 
force,  tii<iiii:h  in  atti-iiiptiiii?  t»i  pull  a;;ainst  two,  he  nlti- 
m.itely  ;;ot  him^lt  hurt,  biiii;;  tutally  iL;n(irant  of  tho 
conlnvaners  whicii  hi?*  German  pri''leee's>or  u^-i  d  in 
aiilanee  of  his  luvi^eular  powers.  Tojiham  nilled  up 
pewit-r  ]ilat>s  with  case,  and  unrolled  thi  ni ;  he  struck 
an  iron  poker,  thn'e  inches  in  eireumferenoe  and  three 
ftM't  Inn  J,  against  his  |)are  riuht  arm,  till  he  bent  it  to  a 
ri:;ht  an^le  ;  he  placed  a  fiiuilar  poker  again»tthe  hack 
of  his  noek,  ami,  with  a  hand  <>n  eatrh  end,  twisted  it 
round,  till  the  points  mot  in  t'r«>nt ;  .itter  which  he  pulled 
it  nearly  strai.:ht  aL'Hin«  his  am  1:4  acting  in  a  mo^t  nu- 
favuurabi'.'  coniiiiii'ii  w  hile  ht>  did  so ;  and,  finally,  anioin; 
otiier  feats,  he  hllfil  with  his  teeth,  an<l  ht M  out  for  a 
time,  a  stpiiii;  taMe  ^i\  l<-et  l<>n:;,  with  half  a  hundn^>(i- 
wei::ijt  h.in;;in;;  at  the  farther  extremity. 

Wi'  have  ace-iunlH  of  up-n  j'erfoniiin:;  m:tre  wonder- 
ful fi-atii  than  thi-«e  of  Ti'pham,  hut  tlu-y  aiv  either  ill 
aiitheiilicaT'd,  or  seem  to  have  xv>nlteil  as  inueli  Irwni 
skill  a.i  ^Tn•;l:;lll,  as  in  the  ca-H.*  of  the  lirrnian.  T«i|»- 
hani  appiar--,  on  the  wlmle,  t')  have  been  ^iltnl  with 
phv>»ic.kl  p'.wrr-t  a«  rnnaiKahlo  as  any  that  we  can 
bilii-\e  ;i:iv  hnnian  h-in;:  f\«r  to  have  natiiniliv  pos- 
Hei>s<  d,  Jii>l;;ini;  frnni  tin:  d'tails  on  buch  matters  given 
in  men-Iy  ^-n'uiai-  hi-tnry. 

MI'NUI.  rilAKliTI.il. 

Jt  }m  onW  A  reea}iitnlat|i<n  of  inueh  which  has  been 

''.*»/  j/i  thf  fuHtrr  bvvth'ii"  of  Oii'*  treatise,  that  great  ^ 

t'n*S't  t-f  im-ntnl  rhamcU-r  arv  exliibited  by  the 

•««  yvrt-t>   of  twinLiihl.      The  black   intertropical 


nations  generally,  arc  di^:idedly  the  lowest  in  t' 
lectual  scale.  They  are  generally  characttTiwd 
indolence,  as  well  as  by  gross  barbarism  an< 
stition.  The  idea  of  a  social  community  luis  n 
a  small  advance  amongHt  them,  though  mon;  . 
some  tribes  than  others.  The  lowest  of  the  cla; 
bo  found  in  Australia  and  some  of  tin?  island 
Pacific.  Yet  there  is  scarcely  any  tribe  (»f  b 
mean,  but  they  posm>HS  certain  traits  of  mimi  ca 
to  produce  respect,  b<*ing  in  some  instances  sur; 
ingenious  in  fabricating  )>articular  articles,  or  it: 
nagement  of  canoi^s  and  tho  use  of  warlike  imp 

The  red  races  of  North  America  are  a  con>^ 
superior  race  to  tho  Negroes.  Their  associa 
war  and  other  pur|K>sefl  are  upon  a  more  c<in 
scalo  ;  they  show  nmny  remarkable  traits  of  in 
and  in  numy  tribes  wo  rnnl  kindness  and  coui 
proaching  to  our  ideas  of  the  chivalric  charaet> 

Tho  Mongolians,  and  the  Indian  branch  of  t 
casians,  must  be  considered  next  in  the  scab 
have  forme<l  great  states,  and  ma<le  advances  in 
and  in  science ;  but  a  stationary  character  ap)H' 
impressed  on  them  all,  and  agi's  ynhn  witho 
manifesting  the  slightest  moral  or  jKiIiticai  i 
ment.  Tho  Malayan  variety  exhibits  a  somew 
rior  character  to  the  Mongolians,  but  not  so 
as  to  call  for  special  notice. 

The  Caucasian  variety,  as  a  \ihole,  stand** 
abovo  all  the  rest.  It  is  chanicteriM'd  by 
sagacity  and  sentiment,  and,  alNtvuall,  by  a  [mi 
character  whicli  other  raee:4  have  only  shown  i 
limited  degree.  The  Micial  arrangements  foi 
scmie  branches  of  tliiss  race,  are  the  most  culci 
ensure  the  pMieral  ha}>piness  which  have  r\ 
known.  Their  industry  and  perseverance,  aide 
liijhts  which  they  liave  deduced  fn)m  seieiiei', 
to  the  pniductioii  of  an  amount  of  wealth  bej 
dreams  of  Orientals.  Their  iK'ni^voh-nce  has  1 
not  only  to  found  institutions  calculated  to  sue 
pfMir  and  alllicte<l  in  their  own  country,  hut 
themselves  for  the  benetii  of  other  nations  i 
region  !)f  the  ylobe.  Wherever  thi.i  r.ici'  si  is 
it  makes  itself  master — arcsnlt  iliivotly  thiwing 
sujH-rior  iMiergy,  skill,  and  pei'M.- vera  net.-.  Anio 
branches  of  the  (  aueavian  varitty,  Cwnsi-li  r.il 
rences  piwail.  Tiie  Inilian  branch  ap|<roaoli- 
.Moni;ohan  variety,  and  it  is  in  llu;  IVia^^ian  I 
ancient,  and  the  Teuiitnic  or  (ierman  in  ni<>di-i 
that  we  tind  the  utnio.^t  development  of  the  line 
ties  of  the  sjiecies. 

ri.:;M\M:.NCY  or  Tvr:*. 

This  subject  lixs  been  already  touehe.l  upf-ii 
calls  for  Htnie  special  con.sidi -ration.  We  lii 
interesting  lii^ht  tiirown  njtun  it  in  a  wiirk 
"The  ^il^^iol«»^ieal  Character-*  of  ihi-  Ka**t  ^  < 
kind  coiihiilered  in  their  Kelations  ti)  ilirtturv,' 
W.  1'.  KdwarJs. 

Tliin  writer  eites  the  .lews  as  an  eNampIo  i' 
wh«»,  l«»r  nearly  two  thousind  vear*,  l.ave  l-t'i-n 
tlkrtiUi^hiutt  a  variiiv  of  eliint»,  v»t  li.ivr  v\kT 
^irt'si-rved  their  oriijinal  leatiii'i-*.  In  L'i»ii; 
Vinct*s  ]iietiire  of  the  Last  Suppi-r,  painteil  t!ii 
dri-d  vi-arM  a:r«s  the  lii^nre-*  an-  n-j  ri-.-eiiT-il  wji 
tenanci-s  exaetly  n.'henil»lin:;  thi'«-i-  if  ^l:--  *]ry\ 
prrMMit  tl.iy.  'I  hat  the  j»ri  •'•  iit  wi  !l-!.i'.'>s\n  tvp' 
priijil..'  Uii^  iindi'rj;-»ne  no  ehan^i-  at  anv  Sou-',  i- 
liy  till*  p.iintinL^s  lnund  by  lUi/mti  in  lite  t<>ni 
10<:\]ttian  kinLT,  pruiMbly  nut  ]i>4  tl.an  thiiv  tl 
Vial's  oil  I.  'lh"-«-f  paint  in  iTS  rrjm -^eiit  l-iir  1 
raee«i  in  pnjee.-sion — I.  Thi-  nativrs,  i.j  a  ,l.irl 
tint  ;  "J.  Neijroes,  witli  hlaek  >Lins,  thick  lips  an- 
hair;  :t.  ^er^ians ;  4.  Urailites,  distin::i:i-htd  1 
ciiinplexion  aiiil  physiotrnimiy.  The  paint  ni;: 
exhihiteil  in  London,  where  Pr  IMwar'N  part 
examined  them:  lit*  says,  ^  I  ha«l  siH^n.  on  the  j 
day,  Jews  in  the  streets  of  JAUidon  ;  I  though 
now  aaw  i\^e\r  \v\^T\Ta,\ts." 

i)r  EOLwaTA*  bVio^a  \Vux\.  vVi-e-ni  \am>x<:\L  «t« 


■HKk  (tw  Innib 


ll«!T  ■•''fl'll  TVliiP.  D  li  luii 


aypudfif  tbe  i>u>mlt  II 


tliB  ollia'  luuid.  Owrr  m*  praob  if  anu'iSaiaUd 


:   ifaBsbooipalntMlx  l<d 

■1.,.  .^•.-  r>,r.»l  ,i!«,n.  T£.Cr«..l»rin,,-sl.,r-il..r  -ilr...  .-.ui!  «• 
t>i  tOB  □iaiNM)DUi|bwnin-D(«i|Cti)t<">il>>>"<^*UFr*>*"l'B*J<ilMV^)wik* 
:.  uiaj  RilD  be  am-  t^aflUk.  It  lua  toMi  rrmw^Mil  «r  tk*  djwnilMiN  at 
'  I  r  4  tlir  Omiudm,  I  Af^aa  Is  Uio  IIeAIrI  i^Ula,  1M.  afiet  tbna  of  (uur 


intiihlnl. 

-r I  *"«  tl"i 

Mnilv  Elf  An«lrh  A>r  WTCnl 

I'Wrlbr  iMMatlua*.  Mr  " 
dtnUlka-TiaitaMnM. 
I  Kteot-bq;  wbo 


;btlr  fmum  !«>  onit!i  • 
:.  ami  •spMUiaaiM  U  itm" 

',  tl<c  luiM  hiehiir  to  i'< 

i.ii'ij  lini:*!  aad  biH  rri'i  . 

f-.-HTT  BuiuiaK  i'f<rviMnpb),lli*  ■'"ilij  Mlir"]>,  IjinMgki 
bill  •  trnpiml  lilmair,  lutn  lb  Amoc,  koO  reuiim  imljt 
■  tyn  DiiU  of  ttalr.  i'ba  ba«»  at  Oob*,  all  ■(  ahMi  »• 
dMowjiIinl  rrom  an  Eiit«|icui  itock,  an*  iwica  a«  latga 
a»  0iiMl<Tr»  EoiaiwkD  hogi.  Tba  honaa  wfainh  nm 
vlU  III  Paragna;,  (Jinneh  aJl  UnttrsiHrA  trma  vKHa^rJ 
Eiunyfeiui  nuaa,  an  luiw  nf  una  {leevllar  coleur,  whirAi 
waoBUUitdbulit  iiULarn*etu(aam«  pcealtar  biral  eir- 

Dr  Pridiani  (aya — " 


aiij  (rf  li:^  tlitiaaiUimem."  U  <iud>V*^)wmM, 
>  It  nutf  Im  lielil  m  •  <ta«tniuiu»  Uf  uwnOn^  ^o  ^ 
j-tpfmUiaa  thot  lU  t^  Yacf*  yea  WftuMtTn*  '»* 


Clli 


'S  INFORMATION  FOR  TUE  PEOPLE. 


M  altogether  produced  by  local  cireimistaDecs  opemt- 
ing  during  &  long  courm  of  time. 

It  is  certain  that  the  Negro  8kiTi,and,  indeed,  the  whole 
Negro  coiuititution,  arc  butter  lulapted  for  a  tropical 
climate  Uian  those  of  the  white  man.  It  is  also  true 
that  intertropical  countries  all  round  the  globe  are  in- 
habited by  black  races,  oxcejiting  only  those  in  tn>pical 
America  which  are  so  much  elevated  as  to  enjoy  a 
temperate  climate.  We  hero  see  much  reason  for 
believing  that  the  Negro  is  a  being  adapted,  in  a  npecial 
manner,  to  live  in  a  high  temperature ;  and  this  Heenw 
the  more  likely,  when  wc  consider  that  blacks,  on  settl- 
ing in  northern  latitudes,  txHrome  the  victims  of  Hcveral 
Kvcre  ailments,  which  seem  to  forbid  that  they  should 
ever  multiply  in  Kuch  countries.  BlackR,  indeed,  and 
whites,  appear  to  be  respectively  adapted  to  tropical  and 
to  temperate  latitudes;  and  their  attempts  tu  intcrchangi; 
their  proper  situations  an>  not  in  general  attended  with 
good  effects,  although,  an  we  have  seen,  there  is  reason 
to  believe  that  nature  makes  an  effort,  to  a  certain  ex- 
tent, to  accommodate  them  to  the  clianged  circum- 
stances. 

CONCLl'SION. 

From  all  that  has  been  written  or  learned  on  the 
subject  of  man^s  physical  and  social  history,  it  ai)]>cars 
evident  that  the  cnuhtitutional  character  of  the  human 
being  admits  of  a  very  high  degree  of  culture  and  im- 
provement. Nature  Uhhers  him  into  existence  more 
weak  and  hclpleAs  than  any  of  the  lower  animals,  and, 
left  uncultivated,  he  gn>W^p  an  ignorant  savage.  In 
the  moMt  debased  condition,  however,  in  which  he  can 
be  found,  he  possesses  the  rude  elements  of  intelligence, 
and  aspin'H  to  a  deKtiny  altogether  beyond  the  reach  of 
the  creatures  over  which  he  has  acquired  dominion. 
His  pre-eminence  in  the  scale  of  IxMUg  may  be  proxi- 
mately traced  to  the  structure  of  his  brain,  or  organ 
of  thiiught,  which  greatly  exceeds  in  relative  magnitude 
that  of  any  of  the  lower  animals  ;  likewise  to  the  capa- 
city for  »())eech  ;  and  to  his  upright  posture.  Mis  su- 
perior mental  development,  when  operated  upon  by  a 
cunibin.itiDn  of  happy  circumstances,  usually  classed 
under  the  name  of  education,  enables  him  to  trace  effects 

to  causey  to  convey  an  account  of 
his  exjNTieiice  to  hi»  fellows,  and, 
above  all,  to  put  not  only  tliis  ex- 
perience  but    liirf    numerous    and 
varied  thoughts  on  record  for  tlie 
Ifcnefit  <'f  future  generations.     In 
this  manui-r,    the  Kavag<%    which 
man  originally  is,  is  gradually  im- 
jirovcd.     Kach  new  «;i  iienition  en- 
j<tyH  the  benefit  of  an  accumulated 
experience  ;  and  at  lust,  as  cuiti-  i 
vat  ion  advances,  man  is  fonnd  to  be 
^.    a  highly  intellectual  bring,  with  a  ! 
"  frame  more  eU  };ant  an<l  powerful 
titan  he  |H>ssessi-<l  \ihen  his  nice  was 
in  a  iitate  of  heathen  darkness, 
riub  r  an  all-wi-c  I'rovijience,  man   has  assuredly 
}»oeii  j.laciMl  on  this  earthly  scrnc  to  pcrfonn  a  part  im- 
iniM'-urahly  m*>re  dif^nitieil  than  that  a£'f*ii;ned  to  the 
i«i«i  r  nnlers  <if  animal^  each  of  \iliosc  grneratiun.H  in 
in  iKi  ref-[iect  a<lvanceil,  and  cannot  ponsihly  advanci\ 
licvond  the  precisi'  and  hutnbh>  station  which  uas  first 
orcupie'l  by  its  race.     **  In  this  point  of  view/'  to  use 
t!:'"»  hinijua:;*'  of  Lawrenci',  '*  man  stands  alone  :  his  fa- 
rull:*-f4.  ami  what  he  has  effected  by  them,  place  him  at 
a  u,.ii-  iiiti  r\al  from  all  otlier  animals— at  an  interval 
uliii'  I  U'l  animal  hith<  rto  known  to  us  can  fill  u]).    The  | 
io<in-lik«-  miiiik«-\«  the  ainio.st  re.XMinahle  elephant,  the  • 
d'K'iif  duu,  ih«'  ha;;.ieiiiiiH  heaver,  the  industrious  bee,  , 
cannot  he  e->n>]>an->l  tti  him.    In  none  of  these  inHt.imreH  I 
is  ther<' any  pri';:p'vs  lither  in  the  individuals  or  the 
spi'cii-s.'' 

K>*'vated,  howi-vi-r,  .m  is  the  meanest  .nmong  human 
iM-ingH  above  the  hijjher  of  the  animal  tril>es,  it  is  evi- 
dent that  for  the  pru{N'r  performance  of  his  part  he 
jniut  emplov  means  for  advancenMlIt,  else  lie  rests  in  a 

04 


condition  of  ignorance  and  barbarism  most  depIoniU 
to  contemplate.  Placed  in  a  large  and  beantifial  wacU^ 
abounding  with  animal  and  vegetable  existeDCea  at  Hi 
command,  and  accountable  for  his  conduct,  it  behoTM 
him  to  pursue  such  a  course  of  activity  as  will  enabia 
him  to  enjoy  the  full  benefits  of  his  situation.  By  pur* 
suing  that  line  of  pulicy  which  loads  to  social  melion- 
tion,  he  rises  step  by  step  to  a  high  degree  of  civiJiaa- 
tioiL,  and  be(|ueaths  to  posterity  almost  imperishahto 
monuments  of  his  greatness.  Attaining  .this  envii 
height,  should  he  pursue  or  be  the  victim  of  a  ooni 
line  of  policy,  he  sinks  in  the  same  ratio,  and  perhami 
witli  greater  speed,  down  to  the  original  and  liiimlw 
level  from  which  he  had  formerly  arisen. 

To  be  assured  that  these  are  not  merely  conjeetanl 
speculations,  we  have  only  to  direct  our  attention  li 
history,  wherein  examples  arc  offered  of  the  gradut 
rise,  the  eminence,  the  decline,  and  the  ultimate  < 
tion,  of  civilisation.  Again,  like  the  growth  of 
order  of  plants  on  the  soil  of  an  exterminated  forei^ 
wo  find  on  the  spot  once  consecrated  by  deeds  of  In^ 
man  greatness,  a  different  branch  of  the  family  of  man* 
kind,  ]iursuing  by  toilsome  steps  a  similar  rise  from 
barbarism,  and  asserting,  in  their  turn,  the  exalted 
capacity  for  improvement  common  to  all  varietiat  of 
our  race. 

Although  it  is  establislied  both  by  scriptural  reeori 
and  geological  discoveries,  that  nuin  was  placed  on 
last  in  the  series  of  animal  existences,  his  race 
a  sufficient  antiquity  to  embrace  various  iustaneea  of 
the  rise  and  decay  of  nations  at  a  ]>eriod  so  remote  m 
to  be  beyond  the  reach  of  ordinary  record,  and  m^ 
known  by  the  wrecks  of  man's  inventive  genina.  ThoiL 
in  the  east,  are  found  remains  of  architecture  aai 
sculpture,  of  the  origin  or  meaning  of  which  the  oldoal 
known  nations  were  altogether  ignorant,  and  whiflk 
are  a  puzzle  to  modern  archoHjIogists.*  Thus, 
thn)Ughout  North  and  CVntral  America,  there 
found  vast  monuments  of  antiquity  and  objects  of  ar^ 
of  a  date  long  anterior  to  that  of  the  earliest  rccordM 
nations,  and  which  these  natif>ns  looked  upon  with  awa 
and  wonder.  The  valley  uf  the  Mississippi,  in  parti* 
cular,  alxiunds  in  an  immense  (quantity  of  artificial 
mounds  of  various  sliapes  and  sizes,  and  forts  of  differ 
rent  kinds,  the  origin  of  which  is  altogether  nnknowot 
but  which  are  doubtless  the  remains  of  an  extinct 
civilised  race.  This  country,  as  is  well  known,  wai 
found,  in  the  earlier  periods  of  American  discoviry,  in 
the  ]H*8scssion  of  thos4>  red  races  usually  callinl  Indiam^ 
who  are  now  retiring  before  the  advance  of  the  whil 
These  red  races  manifest  no  symptom  of  posaeMumg,  < 
of  ever  having  ]>ottsrro4ed,  either  tlie  power  or  the  inc 
nation  to  erect  such  works:  they  disclaim 
en>cte<l  them,  and  in  their  tra<litions  speak  of 
the  profluctions  of  a  people  who  wen*  their 
Bors  in  the  country,  an<l  have  long  been  eatiiMft. 

To  ch)Stt  this  iint>erlect  akcteh  of 
manV  physical  liisitoiy, 
only  to  add,  that  from  all  the  ei 
in^  remains  of  antiquity,  both  m 
the  eastern  and  western  hemispheric 
and  fn>m  all  written  history,  it  ooa- 
ehisively  appears  tlut  mankind 
taken  in  the  mass,  have  in  no  r^ 
sj)ect  ilegrneratiNl  in  physical  atroc^ 
tare,  but  that  indiritluallv  tb«v  art 
as  tall,  bulky,  and  iH>werful,as  they 
were  in  the  earliest  periods  of  their 
progretis,  while,  as  respecta  mental 
'qualtfication<!,  they  now,  in  all  en> 
li^hti'nitl  societies,  occupv  a  statkB 
in  the  scale  of  bi'ing  which  it  ia  mi> 
sonable  to  conclude  waa  never  bi^ 
fore  enjoy e«L 


Fnlhlitoncl 
r.iuli-Iiinaii- 


*  .SvartUIo.  Akahia  Picra.CA. 


PrintM  and  publUhcd  l^  W.  nn<l  It.  1'iia«obss,  19. 
riitoc.  IMinlmn^h.    Md  alND  Vy  W.  b.  Orr  and  C^. 


J 


CHAMBERS'S 

i:nformation  for  the  people. 

CONDUCTED  BY  WILLIAM  &  ROBERT  CHAMBERS,  EDITORS  OF  CHAMBERS'S 
EDINBURGH  JOURNAL. 

'f  uMBta  5.  New  and  IjiPRovm)  SBitiiis.  Pbick  ]^ 


ANCIENT  HISTORY— EGYPT. 


vetrra  to  a  limited  cluster  of  countrioB,  on  or  near 
tlie  Bborea  of  tbe  Meditermnean.  By  a  glance  at  the 
accompanj-iiig  niap,  it  will  be  perceived  that  li^pt,  also 
the  ooDnlrvortheCiirthageDiaiis,ia  Africa;  Sjria  and 
PaleKline  (including  tlie  country  of  the  Phosniciani), 
Arabia,  tlie  euUDtr)'  of  the  Chaldeani,  BabylODians, 
Medes,  Persians,  and  AssiTlans,  in  Asia  ;  anil  Greece, 
Italy,  Bud  other  countries  of  the  Gentiles,  in  Europe- 
all  tie  upon,  or  at  no  great  distance  from,  tho  Alcditer- 
mnean.  To  the  countries,  therefore,  adjacent  to  this 
inland  branch  of  the  Atlantic  Ocenn,  the  knowledge  of 
the  ancients  was  chiefly  cDDlined,  or  at  the  utmost  did 

or  the  country  of  the  Moguls.  In  cgnsequence  of  this 
limited  knowledge  of  geography,  as  well  as  the  natural 
but  very  erroneous  notion  that  (ho  world  was  only  a 
great  ktretched-oat  plain,  the  MediterraneanBca  received 
(he  namo  it  now  bears,  whicli  signihes  tho  mb  in  lAe 
middUnfthe  earth — the  central  ocean  round  whicli  tho 
human  race  bad  been  planted. 

Tho  world  as  thus  known  to  the  ancienti,  may  be 
coai  usoally  commences  with  an  account  described,  in  general  terms,  aa  a  region  extending  from 
of  the  creation  of  the  world  a»  tuirrated  hyMosea — (he  the  lOih  lo  the  50th  degree  of  north  latitude,  and  from 
HJbKqnept  dispersal  of  mankind  over  the  earth— (he  the  Isl  degree  west  to  tlie  701h  degree  of  east  longitude, 
flood  of  Noali—aud  (he  resettling  of  the  human  race  and  comprehending  only  limited  diatriola  of  Africa, 
n  Asia,  Africa,  and  Europe,  after  llut  disastrous  event.  Asia,  siid  Europe — ^the  whole  composing  a  most  iusig- 
Bot  to  the  annals  of  these  early  timea  it  is  unnecesaary  nificaat  portion  of  the  globe.  As  far,  bowever,  as  n 
lere  to  advert.  We  take  up  tlie  histurj  of  antiquity  at  learned  from  the  records  of  sacred  and  profane  bistorj-, 
i^pariod  less  remote,  or  lirom  3000  to  lUOO  years  before  it  was  in  some  spot  within  this  anciently  settled  terri- 
Tbritt,  when  Egypt  and  the  adjacent  territories  were  tory  that  science,  learning,  and  the  nrti>,  arii^inated,  and 
Uumined  with  the  light  otscnence  and  the  arts.  spread  over  the  eartk  ;  and  aa  thus  forming  the  cradle 

It  ia  iiDportant,  at  the  oulaet  of  our  sketch,  to  caJl    of  modem  civilisation,  the  region  is  invested  with  on 
ittuilMMi  to  the  fact  th«t  Ibe  whole  of  andeol  history    interest  due  to  its  folMer  greatness.      Yet  the  political 
(iS 


f  IIAMBEllSS  IXFOHMATION  KOll  THE  I'KUi'Li;. 


hiMOfy  uf  the  etnpimi  and  kinRiIiim*  vliivh  RDcioiitly 

flouriJii  ■  '     ■' ■  ■■  ■  -    -i  ■--   —  -■ 


n  vairiii);  aguiin 


lortliy  of  l>'ni;ilii'ii< 
wu  away  iii  tlic  vain  cii 
vague  anil  vlMinivii  diiiails  ol' 
IdBgdimi,  tribe  a):Bii»it  tribe,  ai 
iDganiluvcrtmwvrint;  its  iimru  fii'Llu  iit'iuhlioitr.  'I'liua. 
tbe  Cluldram  in  tUe  ia>itli-v>iit  of  Armbia  wcru  nvcr- 
powereil  by  tlirir  n<-i|;lib<iun  tlic  l)uliytonianH,ilic  Il:i1jy. 
iQiiiana  liy  (ho  A»>rtani>,  llw  AteyriiuiH  aud  Kgyiiliaiih 
by  tliu  IVniiaiH,  (liu  I'viviaiK  l-y  lliu  <in.vk>s  aiiJ  lltu 
Creek*  by  tlie  nnmauii,  ohile  (lieM)  latter,  nlio  liai 
RWnllTiAi.ll  up  llio  wliole  of' llieir  gireilrecKMin',  were  li 
thi'ir  turn  uvrri>uwi'riil  by  Inrbarie  liurJeti  ftvni  tli 
iMirtli  uf  Eiiroi'L',  or  hy  iKOrly  eijtully  Mtrasu  tribe, 
ihnii  lliu  eaHt.  In  (lib  uianncr  tlw  bulk  vf  ancient 
biatiiiy  iH  little  elm  tlian  a  reeurd  uf  oppreNUom,  eim. 
qoesta,  ami  crime*,  anil  in  Ihu  main  exhibiting  few 
IbCW  wliirh  MT  of  Talus  eithi'r  fiir  amUMinieiit  oe 
iDMrnetiun.  Ancient  liiMnryia  inilred  only  ' 
where  it  llinivM  light  tl|iuu  thv  ari|pn  ami  |  ^ 
vur  tvliftiuB,  in-  ii|kiu  thu  {irimcml  htata  td  tmrninR. 
pfaihiciujiliy,  and  thu  Brta ;  an  a  ehniuiek'  of  nicro 
•ml  ciiiH]ut.i4is  it  U  utterly  vului'W». 

Wlutever  nuy  liave  lieen  tliu  eitcol  of  hnnoludjp! 
in  letters,  miiihv,  or  (he  poliic  artn,  gained  by  tli 
ancient  Clialdeano,  ItiiliykiniaiiH,  or  othur  Anutids  it  I 
generally  uiHlerhtixiil  tliat  it  fill  hlir>n  of  wliat  eiialc 
abouttlicuine|H'ni>d(.;30DlulUlH)}.'anib<-fiireClinM) 
anuing  the  iiiliabilantii  of  Ej;y|il,  fruni  which  «'r'~'~ 
hiuda  of  li'nmiii);  Kjii'iad  tu  Urccce,  fnnn  Grew 
lUnic,  and  tn.iii  Ituiiii'  hvut  western  Euni|ic,  including 
the  llrili»h  ikIiuiiIii,  and  all  otlier  iniidern  eunnti ' 
By  a  clear  liiie  of  dciirent,  therefore,  we  truce 
rudiinriilH  uf  nwdeni  ciTilintiaa  to  Knypl,  a  laud  wl 
ia  dcherviiiji  uf  unr  iu>Iiee,  IK>t  only  on  tlii*  account, 
on  that  uf  it«  magnificent  n-niainH  i-f  ancient  net,  wl 
till  the  pnnient  &y  aMoniidi  tho  miud  uf  the  tratell 

Ai  thu*  iuten.->tin|[rniinlh>4recninectien  with  m<>.l 
civiUialuin,  iir  with  onr  religjun,  we  ulfer  Fketelies  of 
the  hintury  uf  Kgy|<t,  I'aleiitine,  Urecoe,  anil  K 
with  Mime  acconiit  of  these  cimntrien,  cuuliiiiug 
■elTM  in  the  ^Tvijcnt  iuitanee  tu  i^pt. 


advaiiLi^cH.*  li  li>.i  in  tli<'  nurtli-eaol  corner  I'f  Aliiu 
In  a  lahiliriiiua  |-urt  i-f  ilinl  vakt  vinilineiit,  |>reikiiiiL„ 
itanortliernbaM-tnilwMiibtvrruneanSt.n.andlHiundiHl 
on  the  east  by  the  Kid  Sea,  which  iHi>antui  it  fnnn 
Axia.  tlinm;;)!  lln>  whule  land  frum  north  In  «>ulli,  a 
length  of  iiiHi  niilex,  fluwii  the  Nile,  a  Kw  lar;^  itreani 
ntiiig  in  (he  iiilaii.l  kiiiRiliiui  uf  Ahyii^iiia,  uud,  fruin 
crnaiii  periiidic  tlwHla,  uf  (f^eat  umi  in  irrizuting  ami 
feniliHiiig  the  cuuiiirv.     A  bruu  |ii>rtiun  (if  rl|^|>t  c-ii' 

gruundi,  fiiniudl>y  the de|H»it^ftf  the  riter,  and  bounded 
by  Riiiijeii  uf  niiiuiitaiiK  nil  eillier  kide.  The  greateiit 
breadth  »[  ll:i-  IhihI  ii  I JU  talk's,  but  generally  it  in 
uuch  le>>A>.  tile  niiiuiitain  raii|^ii  un  eitlwr  ndu  ofii>n 
being  lii>t  niiiiv  than  live  t»  ten  miles  frum  the  river. 
AneienllvthiK  lerrilnry  ouhdividediiila  tlirii- priuciinl 
}iait>^Lp|HT  ^)t:v|•t,  ur  Thebnia  (from  Thebi'a,  it» 
Mpilal  citi),  wliii'Ii  waH  in  the  mncr  (>r  houIIhtd  iiiii-t ; 
Unldh-  Kuvpi :  unl  Uwer  Kiivi>t.  wliieh  iuelud>-d »li>t 
waa  called  tin-  Delta. a  liiwdi>trieti>f  Uinlnn  the khi.na 
of  tbe  Meditrrranvaii,  fvrmcil  l»r  the  nwuthi  uf  the 


rried  hy  their  annnli"! 


,  ■i.fthe 

Tile  bi-tory  •■!  tile  J— ^il 
thia  reniarkalili-  couiitrv  i 
tw  the  lery  eurli-t  as.-*:  i 

I  worl'l.  Wln-a  divctiiruf  Gilde,  it  appean  (bat 
^ptiat)  niMiiarehy  wv*  ei>uld»licd  by  Meuen,  or 
«uu,  in  tlK>  yi-nr  I'f  the  world  IBIK,  and  that  it 
1  till  the  },ar  UITit,  .|,„n  it  w»i  de.troyed  by 
Tu  Miaraitn  tucoveded  a 
irb/tlicitalli.i. 


line  of  ituvcrc^s  of  great  poHer  and  fame, 
eveiy  nnu  of  wlioni  aeeini  lo  have  delighted  in 
edifiei-H  uf  extraordinary  niaj-iiilude  bikI  hp 
Lxti-iiMivc  and  lieauiiful  cilieii,  iibrliklH,  pi  mm 
temple^  wet*  erected  Hithoul  regard  tu  iho 
rceoiirceii  of  the  i>iiiplc;  and  as  llieir  n-iiiain-i 
this  day  extaiii,  and  liavu  been  dneribed  by  In 
we  am  iinprchhcd  with  the  munt  Mgnilicaiit  lukei 
liu>tuandkn>>wkdgeoftlieanci>'nti:gyptlani<.  A 
each  uf  thtt  Kg}')iiiBn  uiuniirelui  wa*  du4ingui 


:u\nt 


l'ber>-ii,  ('hi'i>|iH,  Urn. — thime  who  rrigned  fur 
derablo  ncrind,  in  Lnwi>r  Kgrpt  eapeeially,  wet 
nated  rhnraiili,  a  title  ciitiiiuiinly  UM'd  in  hcrit 
exprew  the  Kgy]itianrulor*at  (lie  time.  Tin- 1 
whu  wnn  iioli'd  liir  liiH  uppreiuiiin  of  tlie  Israeli 
wholli>urii.hnllA77yi-ar>.U-fur«llie(1mKtian 

frn[>orIy  called  UainvM-a  Mianiuni,  wliili-  hi>  : 
tiumoli  under  wliuhe  rvign  the  Children  ul 
d(']>art<-d  uut  of  K^'|>t,  anil  who  was  driiuiKi 
lied  Sea,  was  eiitilkd  Aiuonuphia. 

llio  Guiiutry  thua  guverned,  by  a  eonrw  nt 
■taiicca  unknown  to  tlu>|>rcfKntage,and  which  > 
likely  ever  remain  hid  froio  our  uudemtaudi 
among  the  lirr>t  on  the  face  of  thu  earth  which  e: 
nny  dcniiiiiHlTationa  of  refinement  in  lahte. 
kingdom  (saya  Itollin}be*tnwed  ita  noUeal  labu 
tiucat  arta  un  the  improving  nf  mankind ;  and 
M'tuiiblo  of  thw,  that  ila  niuBt  illuftriuu! 


r,  I'ytbaciinui,  I'lato,  even  ila  great  leg 
„  a  Biid  Sulun,  with  many  more— travel 
^BfPt  tn  cvmplute  ibeir  atudieii,  and  draw  fr 
fountain  whatever  wan  mcmt  rare  ami  valuable 
kind  of  k«niiiig.  Gud  liiniFelf  lion  given  tliiH  I 
a  gluriuoB  tiMimony,  whi-n,  ]iraiiJng  Mumii,  Iii 
him,  lliat  ■  lie  won  leanml  in  alt  the  wiMlum  of  ll: 
liam.'"  SiKh  WUH  the  denin  fur  eiieiniraging  IIh. 
of  adi-ntillc  purwiil*,  tluit  dliVDvererii  i>f  any 
invention  rMssiviTl  rewanU  Miitable  t«  thi'ir  ► 
labour.  Tliey  Mudled  natuml  hislury,  getinu-t 
nhtrononiy,  and,  nliat  in  wurtliy  of  reinark,  th 
■ll  far  iiiiiolcm  id'  the  latter  Kcieiice  aa  to  bi-  a 
tbe  |ieri<id  rei|ninil  Gir  ih"  earth'*  annnal  rcvi 
anil  liKi-d  Uie  year  at  nn.1  ihiyofi  Imuni-A  ivrio 
renmined  nniilii'nil  till  llie'vi-rj-  rii-cDt  eliane> 
^tvle.  Thev  likewise  otndliil  and  iinpruv.il  ihe 
uf  pliy-ic.  in  wbii-li  lliey  aiiaiuiil  a  evrtiiin  t.r.if 
The  |icri«vrriiig  ini^enuilj  and  liiduHi^M  tin 
tiniii  are  atlc>t<!d  liy  the  remaina  id'  their  grea 
uf  art,  which  onulil  nut  well  he  nir[ia>Mil  in 
liiue-i;  and allliMigh  llieir working  eltuBieii wn« 
111  eiigagu  in  the  uccupationn  iif  their  fhthera, 
uthcn,  a.-  El  Mill  the  eustum  in  India,  aneiet; 
ihervl^  ba  lumjiercd,  hnl  thu  practice  uf  ban 
would  be  cvrtanily  iinprovi'il.  Tho  Kgyptiai 
among  the  Hn-t  people  wliu  wen-  aotuaiat 


epn, 


a  uf  enmmunicnling  iiifuri 


Iv,  Ihe  fint  oho  funm'd  U-ika  and  e 
....  'rliuM  repOBitnnm  id  h'amiiig  the;  I 
ilh  aerupuluna  cure,  and  the  titk'H  they  bore  m 
ini>|dreil  a  dewre  ti>  enter  iheiii.  They  were  cm 
"  t>ffico  for  tho  Uiseanea  of  the  Suul,"  and  lb 
jiinllv,  bi!eaUH-  the  wul  waa  there  cured  of  ign 
ohii^,  it  will  he  allowed,  in  the  nourec  nf  n 


i-iital  faci 


L'  uiily  known  fnun  the  tvc 
« uf  their  Hagra  and  pmt^ 
it  iH  hy  link  elw  tluii  the  i 
1  amidht  the  ruini 


fUt,  that  * 


iiplny. 


e  uf  111 


i  Uttig  vf  I'lr^u. 


heir  writing.     The 
mem  wero  excinliiigly  euriuua,  coiiMfling  cli 

winch  uliiud  for  Hinw  particnlar  idea.  'The 
iilileiiialie  tiguna  aeema  to  hav*  bc*n,  aa  it 
inimuii  among  uncultivated  racea  of  men,  ba 
nl  avpruavh  V>«wda  liWraturc ;  but  (h«  um 


ANCIENT  HISTORY— EGYPT. 


•Iphabet,  by  which  words  are  formed  by  combinationfl 
of  dillereDt  characters,  mtms  in  early  times  coiifiiied 
entirely  to  the  Egyptians,  from  whom  tlic  invention 
was  communicated  across  the  Mediterranean  to  Greece, 
by  a  person  of  celebrity   called   Cadmus,  and  from 
thrnes  spread  into  other  European  nations.     It  is  also 
understood  tluit   the   Israelites,  and   other  Asiatics, 
received  their  knowledge  of  letters  from  the  learned 
infaabitAnts  of  Egypt.     The  use  of  rude  emblematic 
6gnres  was  not  abaisdoned  by  the  Egyptians  as  letters 
became  known,  but  continued  chiefly  to  denote  matters 
of  a  m}>teriou8  or  religious  tendency.     These  figures 
have  received  the  name  of  hierogiyphics,  and  are  of 
various  kinds,  more  or  less  signihcant  of  the  thing  or 
idea  intended  to  be  expressed.    For  thousands  of  years 
the  world  remained  in  total  ignorance  of  the  manner 
oC  deciphering  these  hieroglj'phics,  for  the  Eg^'ptians 
left  no  eiue  whereby  to  make  the  discovery;  and  it 
was  only  in  1 8 1 4  that,  bv  the  researches  of  some  French- 
men, a  key  to  certain  kinds  was  made  known.     It  was 
fbttBid  that,  although  tlie  figures  often  signify  the  tiling 
which  they  represent— for  instance,  the  figure  of  a  lion 
£X£:ntf\  ing  that  animal-~yet  that  in  many  instances  it 
doies  uo  »uch  thing,  but  stands  simply  for  the  letter  L, 
ivhicfa  is  the  initial  letter  in  the  word  lion.    The  dis- 
covery of  this  mode  of  deciphering  the  Eg^'ptian  hiero- 
givphics,  by  reckoning  only  the  initial  letters  in  the 
pABiea  of  the  things  represented,  lays  open  a  wide  field 
for  the  iavestigatiun  of  learned  and  inquisitive  travellers 
in  the  ancient  territory  of  the  Pharaohs. 

Tfa«  *«ginparative  uitelligence  of  the  Eg^'ptians  did 
net  riMiie  toem  from  the  most  debasing  superstitions 
in  their  religioas  faith.    They  had  a  great  number  of 
ideal  gods;  among  others,  Osiris  and  I  sis,  which  are 
thought  to  have  been  the  sun  and  the  moon.    They 
ako  wonhipped  a  number  of  beasts,  as  tho  ox  or  bull 
(under  the  name  of  Apis),  the  dog,  tho  wolf,  tho  hawk, 
the  crocodile,  the  ibis  or  stork,  the  cat,  &c. ;  and  such 
was  the  reverence  which  they  paid  to  these  animals, 
that,  in  extreme  famine,  they  chose  to  cat  one  another 
father  than  feed  on  their  imagined  deities.   The  Egyp- 
tian had  a  belief,  inculcated  by  their  priests,  that  tlie 
soak  of  men,  after  death,  passed  into  the  bodies  of 
ckan  or  unclean  animals,  according  to  the  deeds  done 
B  the  body,  and  that  at  a  distant  period  of  time  they 
rwsfned  to  the  body  to  which  they  originally  belonged. 
A  doctrine  so  extravagant  led  their  kings  to  build 
esonnous  architectural  edifices  for  the  reception  of 
timr  bodies^  in  order  that  they  might,  as  they  thought, 
moss  in  safety  till  they  were  sgain  to  be  endowed  witli 
ahriBC  soal.  In  this  fantastic  notion  we  find  a  satisfac- 
tflffj  SMiition  of  the  mysterious  practice  of  inhuming 
■smmies  in  those  huge  pyramids,  now  reckoned  among 
ftt  grmtest  wonders  in  the  world. 

In  the  days  of  Eg^-pt's  ancient  glory,  it  was  di<;nificd 
ifiik  two  greater  and  many  lesser  cities.  The  two 
iriaopal  were  Thebes,  the  capital  of  Upper  Egypt, 
od  a  citj  of  extraordinary  extent  and  splendour ;  and 
McMphis^  the  espital  of  the  middle  district  of  the  coun- 
tiy.  Memphis  was  built  on  the  west  side  of  the  Nile, 
aad  has  been  succeeded  by  the  comparatively  modern 
dry  of  Cairo^  on  the  east  bank  of  the  river.  On  the 
■le  of  Thebes  and  Memphis,  and  in  their  neighbour- 
hoed,  are  now  found  the  greatest  quantity  of  the  ruins 
of  ancient  temples  and  other  magnificent  erections. 
Is  the  present  day  Thebes  receives  the  name  of  Said. 
Like  all  other  distinguished  nations  of  anti(|uity, 
^gypt,  afker  a  lengthened  period  of  extenuve  civil 
power,  military  glory,  and  dignified  learning,  suffered 
a  avics  of  reverses  of  fortune,  and  finally  siuik  into  a 
itote  of  utter  poverty  and  barbaric  ignorance.  The 
fmimale  causes  of  this  disastrous  event  were  the 
foUtkal  distnetions  of  the  country,  and  the  rise  of  a 
Bsatcr  power  in  the  vicinity — that  of  >!ebuchadnczzar. 
Big  of  Babylon.  But  in  this,  as  in  every  other  instance 
rf  antioflal  ruin  in  ancient  times,  the  principal  causes 
if  ths  disaster  were  the  Ul-balanced  condition  of  society, 
•ad  Ihs  general  ignorance  of  the  people ;  tho  nation  did 
ButposMsa  the  elements  of  stability,  and  became  an 


k 


•i? 


easy  prey  to  a  more  powerful  and  savage  neighbour. 
The  country  was  overrun  by  Nebuchadn<!Z2iar  and  his 
hosts,  BG9  years  before  Christ,  when  an  innnense  quan- 
tity of  its  moveable  wealth  was  carried  off.  About 
forty-four  y*?ars  after>*aril.s,  K-iyjit  was  again  intruded 
upon  by  force  of  arms,  and  fell  a  |>rey  to  the  conquering 
hordes  of  Persia  under  Cyrus,  when  many  of  itp  edifiees 
were  destroyed.  It  now  became  a  distant  c()lony  of 
Persia,  which  maintained  an  authority  over  it  for  uioru 
than  200  years,  at  the  end  of  whieii  it  was  seized  by 
Alexander  the  Great,  a  monarch  of  Greece,  who  shortly 
afterwards  conquered  the  whole  of  Persia.  Besides 
settling  the  government  of  the  country,  Alexander  im- 
proved it  in  various  ways — among  the  rest  of  hisenter- 
prineSf  building  the  city  of  Alexamlria,  which  he  called 
after  his  own  name ;  and  as  it  was  placed  on  tho  sea- 
coast,  at  one  of  the  mouths  of  the  Nile,  it  speedily  rose 
to  be  one  of  the  largest  and  most  opulent  sea-port  towns 
in  the  world.  Upon  the  division  of  the  Persian  empire 
some  time  later,  Kgypt  fell  to  i'toleniy  La^us,  one  of 
Alexander's  generals,  who  was  succc^eded  by  a  race  of 
princes  distinguished  by  the  name  of  IHolemy,  in  addi- 
tion to  their  other  appellations  ;  and  hence  the  Ptolemies 
of  Egypt  who  are  spoken  of  in  ancient  history.  The 
last  royal  descendant  of  this  noble  Grecian  line  was 
Cleopatra,  a  princess  of  great  beauty  an<i  accomplish- 
ments ;  and  at  her  decease,  which  she  accomplished  by 
suicide,  the  land  of  Egypt  became  a  province  of  Kome, 
some  of  whose  emperors  endeavoured  to  revive  in  it  a 
love  of  letters,  and  enriched  It  by  various  improvements. 
Subsequently,  Egypt  fell  into  a  state  of  ruinous  distrac- 
tion, consequent  on  the  troubles  and  decline  of  the 
Roman  government,  and  was  at  last  completely  subdued 
by  the  ISaracens,  who  intixiduced  the  ix^igion  of  Maho- 
med, destroyed  the  libraries,  and,  as  far  as  possible,  tho 
splendid  works  of  art  ;  so  that,  under  their  sway,  every 
si)ecie8  of  barbaric  rudeness  w:is  made  to  supersede  tho 
ancient  refined  habits  of  the  people.  Since  that  dismal 
epoch,  Egypt  has,  century  after  century,  sunk  deei>er 
and  deei)er  into  a  state  of  perfect  neglect  and  ruin.  In 
recent  times  it  has  been  under  tho  immediate  rule  of 
Mehemet  Ali,  nominally  a  pacha  of  the  ."Sultan  of  Con- 
stantinople, and  by  whom,  with  considerable  suffering 
to  the  ]>oor  inhabitants,  certain  improvements  have  been 
effected. 

DESCllllTION  OK  THE  COUNTRY. 

As  already  mentioned,  Egypt  consists  of  tho  long  flat 
valley  of  the  Nile,  from  Abyssinia  on  the  south,  to  the 
shore  of  the  Mediterranean  Sea,  and  nominally  consists 
of  three  divisions,  the  Delta  or  lower  region,  Middle, 
and  Upper  Egypt.  It  is  said  to  contain  'J00,000  square 
miles,  but  onlv  about  1G,OOU  of  thche  are  susceptible  of 
cultivation,  in  ancient  times,  the  country  w<is  moi*u 
generally  fertile  than  in  the  present  day,  owing  to  tho 
encroachment  of  the  stands  of  the  adjacent  deserts,  and 
tho  long  period  of  desolation  and  inisnianagenient  in 
which  it  lias  existed.  Still,  owing  to  the  inundati(»ns, 
the  lauds  are  more  than  n^ua]ly  productive,  and  yield 
crops  of  whcAt,  barley,  rice,  millet,  maize,  flax,  beans, 
cotton,  tobacco,  the  sugiir-canc,  and  other  Useful  vege- 
tables. Of  fruits,  the  citron,  lemon,  ]>oinegranato,  apri- 
cot, banana  or  plantain,  and  the  ]ialiu-date,  flourish 
luxuriantly.  The  palm  is  cultivated  to  a  large  cxteuc 
in  the  inundated  and  irrigated  lands,  and  groves  of  it, 
yielding  a  delightful  shade,  are  to  be  seen,  consisting  of 
several  thousand  trees.  Another  celebrated  produc- 
tion of  Egjpt  is  tho  lotus,  a  species  of  water-lily,  of 
great  beauty,  exhibiting  broad  round  leaves,  amid  which 
the  flowei-s,  in  tho  form  of  cups,  of  bright  white  and 
azure,  expand  on  the  surface  of  the  waters.  The  roots 
of  vegetables  were  used  as  foo<l  by  tho  ancitmt  Egyptiaiis. 
There  is  also  the  papyrus,  not  less  celebrated  tnan  tho 
lotus,  and  which  furnished  a  materi;il  used  as  paper, 
before  tho  invention  of  that  article ;  it  is,  like  the  lotu^ 
an  aquatic  plant,  growing  to  the  height  of  eight  or  ten 
feet  amid  the  swamps  of  the  Nile.  The  tilaments  of 
the  plant  being  sepaiTited  and  cemented  together  in 
pieces,  formed  sheets  whereon  writing  was  executed. 
(See  article  Pai'i:u-Maki.mj.) 


CilAMBKKS'S  INFOUMATION  FOR  THK  PKOPLE. 

varioutt  cauHc?,  their  connect iuu  uith  the  ocean, 
TiiL  Mi.i:.  |j.^,j  ^^^   iiit«rrupto(l,  was  ngain   ivsuni<>J,  m 

The  mobt  ronmrkuhlo  natural  ohjcct  iu  K;:v]it  is  \\ir  c\hau8te<l  ba^^inH  rculoniHliod  with  water.  1 
Nik^,  which  {tcriodically  overih>W8  it8  low  banlc*,  ami  ancient  K<;yiitian  niythulogy,  the  Nile  waii  n-vc 
inundatcB  the  greater  part  of  the  country.  The  Nile  '  the  tutelary  deity  of  the  country.  IliH  attrihul 
is  formed  by  the  union  of  two  streams  in  the  upper  |  the  crocodile,  the  Hphinx,  the  hipiM>{iotamu»,  a 
country*,   the    l)al:r-el-Abiad  (\thite   river),   and   the    dol]ihin. 

l)ahr-el-Azrek  (blue  river),  in  lat.  15*  10'  n!»rth.  The  ,  U  nii;;lit  be  supjMwtl  that  in  consequence 
former,  riainj;  in  Abyttsinia,  to  the  t<outh-Wi>8t  of  lake  annual  iimniiatinns,  K;;ypt  nonid  be  a  wet  or 
Denibea,  comen  from  the  south-eaht,  and  was  considered  country  ;  but  the  very  revorbc  is  the  caMC.  The 
by  Bruce  aa  the  Nile.  The  latter,  however,  which  :  aiv  siH-edily  dried  up  and  carrieil  i ill' as  va|H)ur> 
comes  frum  the  t>outh-weBt,  and  is  suppused  to  risi'  in  I  \vin>N,  leaviu);  the  elinuite  bO  n^narkably  dry  tlia 
the  Mountains  of  the  Moon,  in  the  centre  of  Africa,  j  in  the  (ipi>n  air  will  not  putrify,  but  Inr  dried  or  ^hI 
bringH  down  the  gT^>atebt  niasb  of  water,  and  is  cohhi-  '  up.  Kain,  snow,  thundt-r,  or  any  of  the  eonum  i 
dcrcd  as  the  true  Nile.  In  hit.  17'  10'  it  receives  the  |  spheric  phenomena,  are  M'ldoin  or  never  secu  or 
Tacazzc  from  the  ea»t ;  enters  K;;ypt  in  *J4%  followin«;  la  cona^iiuence  of  the  dry  arid  heat  during  nic 
nearly  a  northern  cour»c>;  and  below  Cairo  (30*  1.5' 
north^  divides  into  the  two  main  armi»,  as  we  have 
already  mentioned.  There  were  anciently  riK^konod 
■even  principal  mouths,  by  which  it4)  waters  were  iM)ured 

into  the  Mediterranean;  only  those  of  Damietta  and  over  tlio  country  arc  from  the  north,  and  are  o 
Rosetta  are  at  present  navij^ble;  the  others  have  been  \  Ubo  in  temi)crin;;  the  atmospheiv  and  uaftiug 
choked  UP.  The  dintauce  fi-om  the  continence  (»f  its  j  up  the  Nile  a^aiuht  the  current, 
two  head  branches  to  the  Hoa,  is  about  1500  miles;  fL*om  |  To  the  above  account  of  tho  Nile,  we  add  the 
its  highest  sources  proliably  not  far  from  *2500  miles,  j  inr*  pleasing  sketch  by  Mr  Bowrin;;,  as  given 
At  certain  points  in  its  course,  the  Nile  falls  over  a  Fierics  !  iiitcreHting  small  work  for  youth,  entitled  ' 
of  cataracts,  or,  properly  s{>eakin;;,  di'scends  a  series  of  i  Morals:" — "  Anion;;  the  ly^ypiiauH,  the  attachi 
tunmltuous  rapids,  for  the  fall  is  nowhere  above  two  lc>s  to  the  soil  than  to  the  rivtrr — tin;  river  Nile 
feet  of  sheer  descent.  The  cataracts  arc  not  aU(»gether  is  in  their  eyes,  .is  it  ^aa  in  the  oye?»  of  their  fore 
a  bar  to  navigation,  as  vessels  which  sail  up  the  river  !  u  sort  of  divinity.     They  h|>eak  of  their  Nile  \ 

may  be  drawn  up  by  an  extraordinary  force.     '*'' '  "  '  "        •       i     «•  -^^  -      ^^  ;    .i.  •_  .i_:i 

are  parties  of  Ai'abs  who  make 
boats  up  the  cataracts.  The  ] 
islands  in  its  course.  !  clothin:; — for  it  produces  the  vfi;i'taliles  and  t 

The  gmnd  phenomenon  connected  with  the  Nile,  is    they  eat ;  it  gives  the  water  with  which  thev 
its  annual  overtlow  of  the  banks  which  border  it — an    their  thii'st  and  cook  tiieir  victuals;  it  causes  th> 
event  looked  for  with  as  much  certainty  as  the  daily    uvo  to  grow  <if  which  they  make  their  garm* 
rising  of  the  sun.     These  inundations  of  the  Nile  are  '  supplies  their  tloeks  and  herds.    Then;  i:i  not  a 
owing  to  the  periodical  rains  vihich  fall  between  the     on  its  banks  who,  from  the  time  at  vihich  she  if^fi 


of  the  year,  hot  wiiuls  fi*om  the  sandy  deserts,  i 
mode  of  li\ing  of  the  people,  ophthalmia,  or  di» 
the  eyes,  is  connnon,  and  many  of  the  inhabitai 
blind  of  one  or  both  eyes.   The  prineiital  ^^inds  I 


wnicn  soil  up  me  river  ,  u  sort  ot  Uivuniy.  iney  h{>eaK  oi  ineir  .miv  v 
^ordinary  force.  There  j  intensity  of  {K'l-sonal  atl'ection — it  is  their  dail, 
Q  a  business  of  hauling  !  factor ;  to  it  they  owe  their  wealth  givat  or  smi 
Nile  has  also  nunici-uus  !  verdure  of  their  Aelds,  their  food,  their  driiii 


tocan*ya  pitclu-r  on  her  head  or  bear  one  in  In 
does  not  daily  ri'iileni'>h  it  in  the  hacred  anil  ve 
stream.    Its  praise  pa^ioa  into  pii>verhs,  intothi 


tropics.  They  be^in  in  March,  but  have  no  effect  upon 
the  river  until  thive  months  later.  Towai'ds  the  end 
uf  June  it  begins  to  rise,  and  continues  rising  at  the 

rate  of  about  lour  inches  a-day,  until  the  entl  of  Sep-  ;  talk.    I  n'nieniher  travelling  to  the  Ualir  cl  Vei 

tembcr,  when  it  falls  for  about  the  same  |K*rioil  o(  ui\w.  .  and  havin;;  alighted,  1  gave  my  liorse  to  a  poor 

Hero<lotus  the  (ireeian  historian,  inl'onns  us,  that  in  |  woman;  wlien,onremoiiniing,  I  put  asmalleoin 

his  time  a  ri-^e  of  sixteen  cubits  was  sufiicieiit  to  water  ■  hand,  bhesjii>l,  *  May  Allah  bii'ss  thee  as  hi'  blet 

the  country.     At   piv.-^ent,  twenty-two  cubits  ht' eon-  eourse  of  the  Nile  I'    A  hundred  times  I  had  beei 

hitiered  a  giii^d  ri:-e.     The  towns  are  generally  l»ui!t  in  Jv^vpt,  *  You  a\  ill  return  hillu-r.    No  one  ever  ilr 

such  a  situation  and  manner  a:*  not  i«>  he  ovei'tl4)\ved  by  ^\aler^  of  the  Nil-.*  without  bei:ig  irresistibly  imj 

the  inundation,  and  in  some  jtarts  of  the  country  there  drluU  them  agiiiu.*    .\n<l  the\Natcr,  tliom^h  U'l  i 

are  long  raiseil  causeways  U]K>n  wliieh  the  )K.'iiple  uuiv  i  <lelieioasand  heaithfiil.    The  lv.;ypti;ui  Levantiii 

travel  during  the  lloud>«.    It  is  only  iu  eases  of  an  extra-  '  n  sayini;,  that  *  What  ehantpagne  i>  to  other  w  inc 

onlinary  ri>e  that  any  villages  are   destruyed.     Tiie  Nih^  to  uther  waters  ;*  anil   there  is  ulao  an  .' 

inundation?,  instead  of  being  viewed  a^  a  ealami:y,  are  pi-overb— -'  Had  Mahomet  drunk  the  waters  of  1 1 

considered  a  blessing,  for  they  are  the  cause  of  inex-  he  \>ould  have  staid  on  earth,  and  not  have 

haustible  fertilitv.    After  the  v^aters  have  sub>ided,tiie  hini>i-tt  ti>  be  e-mveyed  to  I'aradi.M*.*     •     ♦     * 

earth  is  found  covered  with  mud,  which  has  been  left  an^betuvui  .^ooo  an<l  (iooo  Ixi.its  eonstantly  h 

thi-rebythe  river.     Thi.snmd,  whieh  is  princi{ialiy  com-  mcnt  on  the  tuo  branehes  of  the  Nile,  tho  Ko?< 

jioscdof  argil  laeeous  earth  and  car  1x1  nate  of  lime,  M  i\eH  Dami^-tta  branches;  and  from  the  poiiit  of  tliei 

to  fertilise  the  o\erMo\\ed  land,  anil  is  uM'd  forn):inure  up  to  Ar-'^Kuan.     There  is  the   tir^t  catanu*:, 

for  such  places  ns  aiv  not  sulliciently  siiturated  \>\  ih>>  ealied — hut  it  is  not  a  cataract  ;  it  is  men-ly  i 

rixer;  it  i.s  also  formed  into  bricks,  and  various  \c.  .sels  when'  the  waters  ne^ii   thn^ugh  the  grai.ite  i 

for  domestic  u*e.     The  whole  valley  of  the  Nile  may  1  e  ha\i;;i;,  hi.weM-r.  ehaniK-!7>  m)  lar^e.  tluit  during 

c*onsidered  ai  an  alhmal  plain  formed  of  the  waslied-  m<  niii:.  of  the  yav  th*  lH)ats  cm  be  Iiauleil  tl 

down  mild  and  numI  <if  central  Africa,  anil  it  is  their-  and  ]iriiee  d  to  \N'a«li  Haifa,  the  i^'cond  eatarac 

foi*e  to  theh<-  inuii'latiuns  that  K;;\pt  owes  its  e\i.->tenee.  It.■.l•>^  ai'e  of  ail  si/   •,  irom  the  .•^snaUcbt  fi't  li  t  • 

The  aeeinnulatii>n  of  wiil  has  been  estimaled  ai  about  wliieii  will  e<'n>e\  JOO  tins  »  f  vj.md-^.     Ti.*  van- 

f*r:y  fetl  within  the  la-t  four  thousand  years,  nio.-t  part  uf  euarM*  emiMrueii'vn,  e.irryi:!^-  i:.  •: 

In   rpper  anil   .Middle    Kgypt,  there  are  iinr.n  ijm'  lar^e  triangular  ."^il-,  ami  are  fre>iuenti\  o'.eriu 

numbers   uf   canals    on    the    leii    bank    of   tlie    ri\er.  tin- sudiKa  gusts  on  the  ri\er." 
Meheniet  Ali,  the  pre.-vent  [laeha,  ha.**  opened  many  of         Th"  ihstriei  uf  ciiunlry  w■e^l   fiHun  i\,k-  banl.- 

thcold  canaU,  whii-Ii  had  bei.'ii  closed  fi-r  cent iiri<.>,  and  river  i>  iirdinarilv  eail«.«l  the  Lihvan  il-.-.Nei*  i  r  tl 

dug  new  ones  ;  among  the  latter,  the  canal  ot  Mahnioinl,  and  that  on  tho  i  a^t  the  Arabian, 
eonr.eetiu'^  the  harbitur  of  Alexandria  with  the  Nile, 

near  ^ouah:fort^-.■;:;ht  mil.  ,  Ion,-,  nin.  ty  bro.ol,  and  .  mmmi.-mti  lui.  ni.-p.uu 

eightien  deep,  i.t  a  n^agnitiet  nl  work.     The  llelta  is         In  D^'vpt,  the  harvcf.t>  follow  each  other.it 

bordered  by  n  number  of  niarilimc  lakes  or  lagoons,  tance  of  about   six  or  eight  weeks,  according 

which  at  ihifcrcnt  {M^riod-  have  underg«)uc  coiiiiiderable  different  kinds  of  grain,  having  time  in  mu<t  c 

changeb;  s'>me  f>f  theui  liatl  b.en  dried  up,  when,  fitim  a  :  ucce.ioi'jn  of  cn>|>s  w'hcrv\cr  thciv  L?  a  full  Ciwi 


■tv—ty,\vi 


I 


tJEUwInnl.     A«  bniig  <laO|crBOjt 
iil-iuiaril  to  till  inlnrfciMiim  of 


Dii.  Ill  Iiuoi;!:  tuil J  i-oiiiuui}  in  yirii'^lill,  Uiuu)(ti  u<i[  •U'Uiipwa 
•hip  of  M  tomfort,  tli»y  an  nu  to  evwj  thing  like  iiaatj. 
uiiiUry.  t1i«fr  &od  to  vor;  jilnin,  and  iinui  but  Hk  hlgfafr 
tv  iicen.  oril'i*^  DF  thorn  otiimalutv  livm,  war  la<>ts  Rinr.  Tliu 
'■•I  the  Amb^  c«n']>  vn  tha  nnnmou  ttailM  uf  oiviliamj  li%  bal 
."  t  UiF'  I  ill  a  vKiy  utskilfiil  uiil  iia{ieFf«et  iiiMtiinr.  SVa  ihaU 
i.i'hlji.  I  hn\o  jieoMun  »lli;r«»irTl«  to  tprak  of  iho  gcaeTBl  »Utk 

Uwy  I  of  tn4o  uid  muiuDiatun!*  in  Egypt. 

Ml'.- th.  '      The  Arab*  hsvcwldom  mon'  ihui  livo  ti^vm;  [it 

nrral  only  ana    Tho  Homeii  for  llio  tnort  pnn  cnn 

i'i:i?r  reatl  nor  write;  but  ih«  brUvr  sorts  arc  tMigbt 

I'iri'idiry  !Iih1  umainvntal  ncwdleworb,  lu  which  tnc^ 

'  '  1 1 J  pata '  ih«ir  time,    'I'hu  fiMlnrvii  of  the  AtbIj- 

yhut  women  aro  by  ua  moona  KgnUr.    Ttuy  urn 

1-  in  scnirAl  tli^n  our  Enropnan  womwi.    tlivir 

<ir   in  tMfk  anil  Inan,  iliair  skin  «f  a  dbiagT*i«bIn 

■  i:iaiio  wluar,  aoi  tlioy  Hiaiu  rariolu  papla  of  Iholr 

.      -h  ivltli  anlnnriug  matter.    The  Iwtid  Arab*  Ktill 

,,    L..^iNtalnillaIrani!ii!ntdi«iiu!tJffltfBrvadia>h.-i]i>nil«iie<s 

1  tiiich    hlm!  in  msnni'nanil  custonm  ors  tna  niiio  paiiilo they 

m,itrF    nvi'r  snno  yiiarwiij^). 

Tffrr- 1      An*t  eiiitninstin^  ttiK  niriiiiis  orlivtnl  tde^  who 


J 


CHAMBERS'S  INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


inlmbit  Egj-pt,  it  noc»l  hnnllv  be  mentioned  that 
Miihommi-d'anism  is  the  prevailint;  religion.  Generally 
pjteakiiijs:,  thoM  who  profetw  Chribtianity  know  nothing 
of  its  (l(»ctrinefl  or  moral  precept ««,  tlic  practice  of  their 
faith  Itcing  confined  to  a  few  unmeaning  ceremonies, 
And  the  n*  petit  ion  of  a  few  established  phraRCR.  The 
whole  people,  high  and  low,  are  in  a  state  of  intellectual 
darkneMi ;  in  the  town  a  there  exists,  among  Jews, 
Franks,  and  Turks,  a  degree  of  comfort  and  some 
wealth,  but  in  the  country  parts  many  of  the  inhabi- 
tants nri'  in  a  state  of  deplorable  wretchedness ;  and  in 
Konie  pl;teeM  they  are  se<rn  almost  entirely  naki*d,  having 
neither  regular  fiHul  nor  clotliing,  and  no  lodging  except 
in  hole:*  or  nind-built  hovels.  When  they  have  any 
thing  tu  take,  they  are  ground  to  the  earth  by  taxation, 
and  both  IhmIv  and  goods  are  at  the  mercy  of  their 
desiK>tio  ruler  and  his  inferior  functionaries. 

ALKXANDRIA. 

On  reaching  the  shores  of  Egypt  from  the  sea, 
the  tirxt  place-  usually  ti>uched  at  by  the  ti*aveller  is 
Alexandria,  the  capital  of  Lower  Egypt,  or  the  Delta. 
It  in  situated  on  a  low  tlat  i>art  of  tlie  coast,  at  some 
distance  west  from  one  of  the  main  branches  of  the 
Nile.  The  two  main  branches  of  the  river  are  to  the 
east  of  Alexandria — the  lirtt  in  thi<t  direction  being 
that  on  which  is  placi'd  Kosetta  or  El  l^aschid,  and 
that  Mill  faiiher  caHt  being  that  on  which  Damietta  is 
aituated.  Ik>tween  Alexandria  and  Kosetta  is  Altoukir 
Bay. 

The  Alexandria  (or  Tsknndria)  of  the  present  day, 
is  very  different  from  its  pretlccessor,  founded  by 
Alexander  the  Great,  and  destined  by  him  to  bo  the 
centre  of  his  empire,  and  the  commerce  of  the  world. 
According  to  Pliny,  it  was  fifteen  nnlos  in  circuit,  and 
contained  a  population  of  300,(M)0  individualtj.  It  shone 
in  all  the  pomp  of  aixrlii  tectum  I  magnificence,  and  con- 
tained streets  of  immense  brea<lth,  which  interM*cted  it 
from  entl  to  end.  Its  public  edifices  wore  of  the  most 
splendid  di-sci'iption,  and  its  library  coutjiiui^d  400,000 
volumes,  including  all  the  Cir<>ek  and  Latin  litera- 
tun*,  of  which  wo  now  «»nly  ponsess  fragments.  This 
trensurt'  h;iH  bi'i-n  invjiarahly  lost  to  the  world.  An 
onier  of  Thi'|»d•«^iu'4  the  (irvat,  thnt  all  the  he.ithen 
temples  thniii;:lMiiit  the  H<Mii:tn  ••nipii'e  sh<»uld  be  over- 
thrown, \v;m  iln-  iviu-i'  ot"  it.  A  orowd  of  fniiMtiral 
Chn'«tiaii^  Morniiil  juid  d»'«-tro}id  thr  tj-nipl*^  of  ,hipit«'r 
Ser.ipi;*,  win  ri*  tli''  liliriiw  \\;i«»,  and  tho  vuliiuii"*  ^^^  n? 
citiit-r  ImriH  d  or  d.-p»  r>«<l,  :ind.  Iii.»*  the  lo«,t  trilM'.i  ni  j 
thn.I«.-w-,  lln'V  liav»"  ni'Vi-r  l-ri-ii  found.  W'hm  AN-x- 
andi-i.i  Miccunil"  d  to  tli"  fMli{>h  ( Miiar,  it  containod 
40f)0  p;i];n'i«.,  4001.1  liatli«».  40"  tlnatn-*  or  public  nlitii-is, 
anii  rj.iKiii  '•lit>p'«.  and  a  {ir'pulati'Mi  wliii*li  may  )>e 
i^tiniatiMl  \i\  h^  ineludini:  fo.iHiii  ,|»-\*4.  Its  iippeantncp 
n<iw  ii  niii*-t  niijanchiily  and  urt'tclM-d,  rofnihlini;.  at 
a  di'«tani*o,  ai-i-ii'-lini;  l  »  *>uf  travflN-r,  with  it«*  ruins 
tlV*-}\  and  tl.i:  r.M.ii  ■!  Iinu-*-^,  a  t-'\ui  n<'«ly  laiil  •li'<«ilat»' 
bv  an  rniinv,  'riu*  ■•in  •  f^  are  narrow,  dirtv,  and 
irri'cular,  anil  n-iv^Iy  <'■*••%« d*'d  with  *•  li;of-li  ■!,  hall- 
clad"  hninjn  I  •  lU;^'-.  Thi-  eliniati'  of  tin-  jdai^c  i»«  ai-o  [ 
material^  ;il:i  r<  d.  rroni  having;  iM-cn  otn'c  vilnbn'ius  ' 
it  i"»  n<iv\  \irv  i:t:l:«  altliy.  *•  Mill  Ah'xandna,"  ^^^s• 
Sir  ll'ilii-rt  \N  I'-i'ii,  **  inn-^f  b**  pr«innnn*"td  tlh*  koy  mI' 
Eg^pt,  a!thon:j;li  in^-nl.itid  liv  «a«iT  ati  I  desert  from 
tli»-  "iirri'Unilin::  I'niirilrv,  sirifi*  in  its  harl>our  ali»n<* 
i^'iMintv  t'asi  I'l-  1-mi  1  1.  r  -liii  fii"'  of  anv  bnr<lon 
tlii"U:;'i'.Mr  tb**  \t:u-."  '\'hr  iiii<d>  ]-ri  liiwn  d'X's  not 
ocriipv  r  !■  -iti-  I  I  l!;»'  oil  oji'",  wiiicli  li«  s  to  tl'.f  •-'•Uth, 
an  i  |it-.  I,'.,  an  iiiinnr.-r  liilii  of  r-'iifn^si-d  iviiii«».  MM-r 
a  *'j>:n'-'  I  1  IriiTii  «.  \  t'  '■i  v«  n  iniii-«  in  t'ircmt,  is  j.pivad 
an  ;!•-♦  miI.i;.:;i'  i  1  I  ii  I.i  n  roltncn**,  olnl"'«ks,  and  »»hap"'- 
h-"*  nia-"^  <*  *>\'  all-;.:!*  (  rjrr,  wliudi  an*  inl«  rspi'r^ni 
%*i'ii  "  lilt-  nil  xv  ni-  !  in  I.M'iilini;<,  f-ucli  »**  i*ljnri'h«v, 
iii>i»>(iM -,  and  nii'ijaxt*  I'll  ^.  Ann!  this  pcimh' if  \\i<li- 
spi'i-:id  tl>'\.i**l.ii  ••11,  a  ft -^«  <-ii>ct'>  ri-''  i'(in^pii*n<'n-,  tin* 
h;!!-.?  p  Oiii  k:|i-l*'  of  uliii'li  IS  ■•  l'i'nijH'\'s  IMIar  ;"  it 
W  ti^.tiit  tinn  ^\  f»<t  I.  _-'i.  \\\\'\  i'iin>-i^I<.  of  a  p«i|i'»'t:il, 
iv-Ai  ///;,  -A,,/?.  .•,/,/.-,  ('  tn.*i::iit  iMf'j!^!.  r.ii'ii  I  1  111.: 
.>/"'-■  7  "/  *./,'    t  /..■;/.    ;.. ;  -i...,,|;..      \  ,  l^;,!-  l^.-i,.  I 

7'f 


ascribes  the  erection  of  this  pillar  to  C«e«ar, 
memoration  of  his  triumph  orer  Ponipoy, 
is  now  generally  considered  as  erroneous.  1 
plausible  conjecture  ia,  that  it  waa  reared  by  a  1 
of  Egypt,  named  Pompey,  in  honour  of  the  J 
Diock^ian.  The  next  remarkable  objects  an 
obelisks  vulgar! v  called  Cleopatra's  Needles,  01 
ing  erect,  and  tfie  other  laid  prostrate.  They  ) 
pitsed  each  of  a  single  block  of  granite,  neai 
feet  high,  and  entirely  covered  with  hicro; 
This  circamstance  indicates  an  Egyptian  origi 
is  conjectured  that  they  were  conveyed  thith 
Memphis.  The  ancient  canal  between  Cairo  ai 
andriii  has  lately  been  restored  by  Mehemet 
the  commerce  of  the  place  by  this  means  gre 
proved. 

In  other  respects,  Alexandria  is  beginning  ti 
some  marks  of  renovation.  Mr  Stephinis,  1 
traveller,*  observes — **  I  contemplated  the  i 
ments :  a  whole  street  of  shops,  kept  by  Eu 
and  filletl  with  European  goods,  ranges  of  fine  L 
fine  country-houses,  and  gardens  growing  npo 
sands,  showe<i  that  strangers  front  a  once  bi 
land  were  repaying  the  debt  which  the  world 
the  mother  of  arts,  and  raising  her  from  the  : 
which  she  had  been  plunge<l  by  years  of  mis 
anarchy.'*  The  pacha  hxs  hero  his  arsen 
barracks  for  his  army,  also  his  flt*et  when  nut 
employment ;  and  he  has  etuieavoun'd  to  cer 
a  commerce  that  was  formerlv  divided  bet  wet*; 
places.  Alexandria  is  further  likely  to  be  i 
from  l>eing  an  intermediate  station  fur  the  ne 
intercourse  betwixt  England  and  India  by  wi 
isthmus  of  Suer.  and  the  Red  S«'a,  from  wb 
about  eighty  miles  distant.  The  Nile,  a  shitrt  w 
Rosi'tta,  when  reached  from  Alexandria,  is  ^ 
by  Mr  Stephens  as  biMUg  worthy  of  its  histoi 
**  I  found  it  (s.iys  he)  more  than  a  mile  m 
current  at  that  seasi»n  (I>ecember)  full  ami 
the  lianks  f>n  each  side  clothed  with  a  beautiful 
and  proves  of  palm-trees — the  most  strikinc 
in  African  f-ccnery  —  and  the  village  of  Ff» 
stop])ing-])lare  for  bo:its  coming  up  from  Ro» 
Ilami«>tta.  with  it*<  mo«i|Ui*s,  and  minarets, and  ' 
doini's,  and  irrovrs  of  palnn,  farming  a  pie 
olijrft  in  tin*  %  it'w.'* 

i;orrr  of  inr  mi.i: — i  \m«». 

I'-yp't  »«  ha><  bi'en  said,  must  l»e  viewed  sin 
straili  or  ^ul^-y  of  a  fi-w  miles  in  width,  with  1 
Nilo  t1o\%in!;  throui;h  it  ;  it  is  at  least  iMily  on  t 
of  the  ri\(.-r  that  tin.-  wonili>rful  oliji-cis  of  an 
are  hwu^  \Nliirh  excite  the  adniir.ition  of  tr 
Tursuing  the  cnur-H.'  of  tin-  rixi-r  aliovf  the  po 
s<'parati<tn  into  two  main  I  •ranches,  tlu-so  rema 
first  into  view  on  a]»pri'a«"lung  Cairo,  at  th*»  'Mh 
of  north  latitude.  Mfre  tin-  river  con-ists  of  on 
fu!  liniad  stream,  on  the  east  or  rii;htbaiikof  whn 
Cairo  ;  .in<l  al-i>  on  a  very  iiarn^w  bi*anidi,  nn 
or  iofc  bank,  the  famed  I*^ nnnids of  <fi/.ih  an* 
The  sit«"  of  tlieH*  structur«'s  is  ci-in'rally  t  Ie\at» 
the  ]i*vel  of  the  plain,  and  stretehi-<  iisa  n»ek\ 
lor  aUiut  fifty  rniU's  panillel  \iith  tl;e  river.  « 
Kahini,  is  not  (■l«»'e  iipi>n  the  .Nile,  but  Man^ 
•  li-taiioe  of  aUiut  a  mile  fp>m  it,  at  the  l>a-) 
rtu'ky  lii'i'^hts  nf  .M«kattam,  and  thi'  lar::e  ^ 
Itoulai*,  oil  the  ri\er,  is  w*  harli«-nr  i^r  {'orl  ;  In 
ui-e,  aiv  ^aI-il>llH  niaiinlaetnrini;  and  otluT  e 
iiii-nt'-,  including;  a  ]irintin:;-ofru*e  under  the  an 
the  paeha.  As  in  the  ea-*-  nt  Ah>\an<!ria,  the 
t.airi>  is  vi«r\  ditli-ient  from  the  ai:eient  citv 
name,  <  neti  d  by  the  caliphh  in  the  niid«ile  .ige 
a  valjetl  town,  l>ii!lt  in  a  pietiires.jUe  east*-rn  >i 
is  the  SI  at  of  the  court  of  Melo-niet  All,  \«ln*s« 
are  ^ery  exten-ive.  The  populatiiui  of  Cairo  ; 
to  abiait  'J40.nnu.  but  v^ith  that  of  the  environs  it . 
to  half  a  million. 

*  Im  I  !-nS  .»f  Tr;»vil  in  Tcyp?.  AriMA  Prtnra.  and 
l.:*n«\  — "  IV  v'v  3  \.Vv.V.<u  ,■'  VV.  Atta  K.  I'li.iinU-nk 


^^K: 

^^IH 

^^^^1^'' 

.  -It*. 

-•nv. 

j^  > 

..eity. 

r  -Ml)...  ■                                                            U  )•■     ■ 

tarv  iM  '                                                      .  irld<    M 

^^^^^^^^■fe  >*  *  •• 

^^^^^^^^^^■b  ■»»■ 

•««.»«vi...                                                  '...Kin    ■ 

^^^^^^H^'^ 

llieraU.:;.  1                                                            ;  no, 
*rr.rr-a.'r                                                                   '.(una 

^b"" 

1, 1.  „                                                                      „^u, 

iH  Ike 

^^^^K,; 

,S 

lli>'r>.ili-'                                                                        "-.Oo 

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I.Mfnin'..                                                                    .(...r 

^^^^^^^^■R  wtib 

MWi  In  1...    :                                                                            '    ■•   M> 

lh>lrMl<>                                                             :«>*Ui) 

:-'  ^  .m^  '«rAVjUioi^^H'.'iX!'«M 

^^^^^^^^^m£ 

1    ..ui*  In  lur  Ik«>  ■!•>•  «•>  <U»aI  W  M^ 

WffKSr': 

t' 

■  -i«-i.  ti|lii  and 

IM  [-1-      . 

"  "1  trim 

».>  w*>  • 

Lxtll  »   1 

'ibo  n.^ 

:mi,^  I 

J  ionic 

'..  i'.idL* 

.'..iiienn 

I.'m.1.I,-.-<I'.     lll.l.M.-l    (,.jr.:>M'i-. 

[M-    II,..  ■,:                                                                                'i>.  ^U> 

»h(^  .4«rt  filial  Will.  .JIif-« 

<rf    1|»."<_'H..,                                                                                            :,..T.O  -f 

rtliy -lal  «™  «JW  oakoc*.  tut 

juw™.'    U  .                                                          .1  .■JlC?8 

rt- 1.—  •■'  -.."-  ft  bkn-lj 

foeldi'Op  iL,._„..  _ ,  -    -    ,     -„  ■-'  »iiiil*h 

.1    D»r«n» 

niiW  I»  luokcu  oil  >  wWI,  wmd  \iv  a  baHUo." 

Hi,,                                         1   prtllo«« 

m                         .  1  i^imi  i>v 

niuwiM  or  UKBU. 

M.,,,...,  Ji, ,  ..,,...,.., «.ilM(»h'ii 

"  AlmiMl  fnnn  tliPipiiourUJroIiwiUluaf*  tManntn-)      _ 

tUHmfafiim  ■  h^l,  mt^.lUO^.^  »!  plafU*-.  >"'i>> 

•  I._d>,*.<f 

•ova  |>u>i<at  /uu  luiLiuf,  nJuk  L* 

tl.B  rwrj,  «>  r»l«  w«iuM»  \\«i>i.    K'ev<B«te.wfc,'0<*  1 

CIIAMBKRSS  INFORMATION  FOU  THE  PEOPl.R 


t'.ri«  gr<*at  r\TAmitli  and  oiip  small  one  are  in  view, 
V  ■«  I  ri::;;  hi^'nor  and  luplior  above  the  plain.  I  thought 
1  iras  just  upi-n  thom,  and  that  1  rouid  almost  touch 
them  ;  \it  I  was  niori'  than  a  mile  di^^tant.  The  ne:ircr 
I  approached,  the  in«)xv  their  gigantic  dimensionii  fsjcw 
u{H>u  me,  iniiil,  Mhi.'n  I  actually  reached  them,  rode 
up  to  the  first  layer  of  atones,  and  miw  how  very  nniall 
I  wai^  auil  liv^kttl  up  their  Klopini;  hides  to  the  lofty 
f:unimit«,  thf  y  secmcil  to  have  grown  to  tho  hize  of  moun- 
tains. Thi'  I -a -I'  of  lhi»  gn-at  pyramid  of  Che»»ps  ia  about 
IJOO  feet  >:ijH:4ris  efvering  a  surface  of  alniut  eleven 
acres,  acctmiini;  t"»  thtfln'st  measurement,  and  -IGl  feet 
high  [l.cing  1 17  f«'<'t  higher  than  Sc  I'aurn  at  Lon«liiii]. 
Kven  as  I  walLed  around  it,  and  Inokeil  up  at  it  from 
the  baM>.  I  did  nut  fi-el  its  innneiisity  until  I  commenced 
ascending  ;  then,  having  climl)e<l  pnnic  distance  up, 
when  I  ^to]1lH.•■l  to  breathe  ancl  look  down  u]xin  my 
friend  below,  who  was  dwindled  into  inspect  t-ize,  and 
up  at  the  great  di^?tanee  lietween  me  and  the  summit, 
then  I  realised  in  all  their  force  the  Iiuge  dimensions 
of  this  giant  work.  It  toi-k  me  twenty  minutes  to  mount 
to  the  fiummit ;  about  tin*  same  time  that  it  had  n  iiuired 
to  mount  the  cones  of  vKtna  and  Vesuvine.  The  ascent 
is  not  particularlv  diflicult.  at  least  with  the  assistance 
of  the  Arab^.  Ihere  arc  -U<)  tiers  of  stone,  from  one 
to  four  feet  in  height,  each  two  or  thn>e  ft>et  smaller 
than  the  ono  below,  making  what  arc  called  the  Ptcps. 
Very  often  the  steps  were  so  high  tliat  I  could  not  reach 
them  with  niv  feet.  Indeed,  ift>r  the  most  part,  I  was 
obliged  to  climb  with  my  kuces,  tb'riving  gr«\'tt  assv«t- 
ance  from  the  step  which  ono  Arab  made  for  me  with 
bis  knee,  and  the  nelping  hand  of  another  above. 

It  is  not  what  it  once  w.is  to  go  to  the  pyramids. 
They  Itavc  become  regular  lions  for  the  multt'tudeM  of 
travellers ;  but  Htill,  common  as  the  journey  has  become, 
no  man  can  Mand  on  the  top  of  the  great  pyramid  of 
Chcopn,  and  look  out  upon  tlio  dark  mountains  of 
Mokattam  bordering  the  Arabian  desert  ;  upon  the 
ancient  city  of  the  Pharaohs  it"  domes,  its  mosques 
and  minan^s.  glittering  in  the  light  of  a  vertical  sun  ; 
upon  the  rich  valloy  of  the  Nile,  and  tlie  *  river  of 
Egypt*  rolling  at  his  ft-et ;  the  grand  ran^e  of  pynmii'ls 
and  tondis  extending  along  the  edi^e  of  the  di'Si'rt  to 
the  ruined  city  of  Mempliis.  and  the  boundless  a!id 
eternal  wanils  of  Africa,  wiihuut  ci  usidi-rin::  ll:at  mo- 
ment  an  epoch  not  ti>  Ik-  forirntten.  Th<»u.-an<N  of  y«ars 
roll  through  his  mind,  and  thuu'^ht  recalls  the  nu-u  whi> 
built  them,  their  my-.ieriuus  u^^'s,  the  p<»et»»,  hi«.t<irians 
philosoplu-rs,  and  warriors,  wIki  havo  gazed  upon  them 
with  wonder  liki*  his  own." 

On  the  summit  is  an  area,  al»"Ul  thirty  feet  sijuarf. 

ctin>isiing  of  six  sifiiarr  hloi'Ls  ni'^tone  irit'irularly  il.-;- 

)iosi-d.     :>ix  miii;i»ns  i-f  tons  i  i'  ».i.<ni'S  aiv  •^iipjn •.-•.•.'.  :■> 

lia\»'  ]n'vn  i-nipIo\rd  in  th«"  eun^iruetinnot'  ilir  pM';i:ni  1. 

and  loo.JMUl  mm  lor  twenty  \i'ars  art?  sriid  to  ha\e  lui  ii 

fiigai^i'il  in  tl>e  i-rrctiuii  uf  till-  th«Mnost  stuirendousn-us^ 

of  masiinry  in  ti:o  w«.rl.l.     Ti;e  f«.ur  angN  s  of  tin*  jiyra- 

mid  eorr«  sp»»nd  witli  the  fmir  puints  uf  thf  e.impnss. 

'i'he  ma'-s  of  tin?  i>\ran)i  I  !».  U'  I  aliogi  llu-r  K)Ild.     An 

♦'ntninci'hasbren  i  iiuili-.  I.y  w  jiioli  a  •>«-riis  of  ]ali\  rintliine 

I  a^sairis  an«l  chanihi'i-s  haxe  lii-ii  ili«*ivivj  ivd.     "  Tiie 

I  iitranci*  (s:i\«.  .^tipi.ens)  is  (.n   th"   lu-riii  s'uU\     'J  In* 

saiMU  oi"  thf  ih  '•lit  Ilim'  I  Hi.'n  aelii  d  u\.t.}\  it,  and,  %\ith 

thr  f.iIN-n  stoms  a!:l  riililii«.Ii,  havr  bi:i'ii'il  it   in  the 

••iMei-nth  step.     (Imihini;  <;\»-r  tiiis   rMl'l'i-»lj,  tlu*  rn- 

tninct'  ih  naehed,  a  narrow  i-a-^^ag*-  tliri-i*  an^l  a  half 

f»M-i  *!<joar.',  lined  with  hnail  Mii-k-.  nf  jmli-hn'.  L'raui'.e. 

iii>«o.  iiii-i,^  ill  till*  i:,;   v'u>r  at  an  an^lc  of  twi  ntx-M-M-n 

dt'^rei's  lur  ahrail   n:nt  t_\  ;\\.t   fi-rt  ;   thm  t!i»'  pa'-sa-r 

funis  til  ihf  riuht,  aiil  wm  l>  n;. wards  t<t  a  sii  .  j'aM*tiii 

«.f  « I'^lit  ttv  iwur  IVi  I.  anil  i!.«u  l.tils  im.j  tj;,.  natural 

pa--ai!.-,  whi.'li  i.:;\i-  t<v-t  higli  ;:n'I  one  hiiiidnd  li.t 

i  iiiU',  l"iniing  a  Oi-nTinuid  aM-i:it  to  a  -oil  uf  iandlii;;. 

piaei- ;  m  a  Miiall  rti'i>.»  «  f  thii  is  tin*  onfiee  or  shati 

call'd  th<'  Wi  .1.     .\!o\iii^'  onuavil  ihrun^'h  a  h'Ug  pa— 

•xpl^rer  t**nw.^  to  what  is  calLd  tin-  (^m-fn's 

Hoventii  n    f.  ri    lip:;,   fourttiii   widr,   an<l 

/  ffjU-n-}  .1  }n']v  t>iH-iuj}-^  friiiii  this  er\pt, 

>//  //#i  /'  tfif/*.  nnd  Arm«.  imim--  !■■  a  l.':-"i*r 
-  # 


!  o{icning,  not  a  regular  chamber,  and  now  enmbmd 

!  with  fallen  stones.     Immediate! v  above  thin,  aaeendiiif 

.  by  an  inclined  plane  lined  with  iiighly  polished  grmnili^ 

.  and  al)out  120  feet  in  length,  and  mounting  a  ihort 

space  by  means  of  holes  cut  in  the  sides,  I  entered  tlM 

King*s  Chaml)er,  about  thirty-seven  feet  long,  seTentem 

:  feet  wide,  and  twenty  feet  high.     The  walls  of  tho 

chamber  are  of  red  granite,  highly  poIi»hed,  each  sUmm 

:  r<*aeliing  from  the  Hoor  to  the  ceiling ;  and  the  oeUiM| 

is  formed  of  nine  large  shibM  of  polished  granite,  extenf 

ing  from  wall  to  wall.     It  is  not  the  least  interesting 

part  of  a  visit  to  the  interior  of  the  pyramids,  oa  yo« 

are  groping  your  way  after  your  Arab  guide,  to  isel 

I  your  hand  running  along  the  sides  of  an  enormooa 

I  sliaft,  smooth  and  (>olihhed  as  the  finest  marble,  and  to 

sec  by  the  light  of  the  flaring  torch  chambers  of  rod 

,  granite  from  the  Cataracts  of  the  Nile,  the  imreeiMo 

blocks  standing  aiinmd  and  above  you,  smooth  and 

beautifully  ])olished  in  places,  where,  if  our  notiom  of 

the  p^-ramida  be  true,  they  were  intended  but  for  few 

mortal  t*yes.     At  one  end  of  the  chamber  stooda  a 

sarcophagus,  also  of  red  granite;  its  length  is  i 

feet  six  inches,  depth  three  and  u  half,  breadth  thi 

fiM^t  three  inches.     Here  is  .supposed  to  have  slept  c 

of  the  great  rulers  of  the  earth,  the  king  of  the  tboi 

greatest  kingdom  of  the  world,  the  proud  mortal  for 

whom  this  mighty  structure  was  raised.     Where  ia  bo 

now !    Even  his  dry  b(.»iies  an>  gone,  torn  away  by  mdo 

hands,  and  scattered  by  the  winds  of  heaven.    Tbo 

interior  of  the  pyramid  is  excessively  hot,  partieularijT 

when  surroundeil  by  a  number  of  Arabs  and  flaring 

torches."    To  this  account  it  may  be  added,  that  thero 

is  a  well  in  tin*  pyramid  which  is  referred  to  by  tbo 

Konian  historian  I'liny,  as  being  eighty ^six  cubits  in 

di'ptli.     It  has  biHMi  descended  by  a  few  enterprittag 

tnivellers. 

In  one  of  the  chambers  of  the  great  pyramid  tho 
annexed  figure  with  hieroglyphics  has  be<«n  diseorered ; 
the  hieroglyphics  signify  tlio  word  **  Seamphiii,**  tho 
name  of  the  builder,  as  it  is  Indieved,  who  lived  aboat 
'2\'20  years  before  C}:l•i^t. 


To  t!ii»  ei'Klir.iti-.l  l*vl:'<»ni  we  ar»'  iii'UbtoJ  for  a 
kn<.\\UMl:;i'  of  thr  i;,ii  iior  of  tln'  pyiuniid  t;f  IVphrenes, 
hri'tlior  and  ^ucees^or  of  Cheops,  but  any  detail  of  hU 
labiiurs  wi>u]d  earrv  u>«  far  bevond  our  limits.  Suffice 
it  to  s:iy,  that  tht'v  w«-n' dineted  with  rcmark.ible skill, 
and  a  perse \ era nei»  which  no  obstruetii>n  could  an^*st. 
It  standn  u{H)n  a  rather  hii;hi  r  eI«-\ation  than  tliat  uf 
Chi  ■  po.  ami  is  built  ot  the  same  spi<eies  of  liniestunr, 
ami  joimd  with  thi>  same  kind  of  cement.  Its  base  i^ 
'iJM  li'ft,  anil  its  lii-i:,'ht  -l-V;.  Tho  stops  are  much  splin- 
tcn-il  a>ul  broki'n,  but  it  can  be  a^'ei-ndi-d  to  a  certaio 
r\t(  nt  on  tho  hwutli«-rn  siiK>  without  ^re.it  di0icull\. 
Tho  opi  nini;  t-f  this  p\ramitl  j-n-iiits  t'»  us  a  strikin:* 
insiaiu'L'  of  discrimination  aiid  taei.  lIerv>dotus  lud 
iKi'lared  tliat  it  e-mtaiiii-d  no  chambers,  and  modem 
travi'IU-r-.  ha*l  taken  liiis  n-port  for  urantiHl.  The  prae- 
ti"!*!  i'\«'  of  lif]/«ini,  howvver,  ilfiivird  certain  indica- 
.  tioiis  of  an  i-ntrunc^',  and,  atii-r  many  d.i\M  tif  lalnrtir 
npiin  the  hard  stono,  Ik'  ioiind  him>ielf  at  last  in  a 
ehamh<  r  hown  out  of  the  soliil  rock,  fmm  the  floor  t^ 
tlio  roof,  whieh  last  is  of  the  sanu*  st<«ne  as  the  pyramid 
itM-W.  In  the  Kiraiphagus  wt-re  th«*  bones  of  an  aninialt 
>ery  gi  nvrally  sup|K>si>d  to  be  tlioi$e  (tf  a  sacred  bull, 
an  oiijfct  of  veneration  among  the  ancient  Eg\'pliaiss. 
« Ml  th*«  w  aU  ut  t\\e  ^t>sl  end  of  the  pIiamlK^rnke  |*r- 


/  - 


ANCIENT  IlISIOitY— KCJYPT, 


nirrd  an  Aiabic  iiiscription,  frnm  wliicli  it  han  been 
iniennl  th&t  the  two  L-iTRer  |))Taniida  hadbeen  explored, 
■I  the  diiUnee  of  mtnf  yean,  by  sonic  of  the  ralipliit. 
The  [bird  Ui^  pymiuid  is  that  of  Myceriinus ;  but  it 
ti  mucli  lem,  ■nil  not  bo  importuit  an  object  an  thu 
otben.  Tlierfl  ia  also  a  fourth  large  pynuniil,  olthouj^h 
tiavellen  are  in  the  habit  uf  Epeakinj;  of  the  pyi-amids 
of  Giieh  as  only  tlireo  in  number.  ThoMi  of  Suklutra 
appear  to  be  a  continunliou  of  tlio  great  eemvtcry  to 
>luch  those  of  (iizeh  belong.  Two  of  them  only  arc 
leiy  large,  and  they  aro  all  mora  dilapidated  (linn 
ilinsc  vo  Iiavc  describpj ;  hence,  a  higher  antiquity 
luu  brcD  aacribed  (o  (hein.  With  regard  to  tlie  utiier 
K|:ypiiBniivniiiida,  ih  cyan.-,  in  their  leading  characterH, 
nearly  siiaUar  to  thotu?  dcHcriLed,  aad  liie  end  for  whioli 
tlry  irere  constructed  ve  iufer  was  tlie  same— that  uf 
recrpiaclrs  for  the  diad,  and  chielly  for  the  bodies  of 
kings  aod  other  royal  pcrsonagcii.  Some  maintain  that 
-^ ..._., -■'--rslliattlieyworc 


u^d  for  ai 

Uogliiiloj 


aluD>  the  lelt 
raiS.    The  St 


mical  obser 


iufon 


uinL'd  cdiRi 

about  among  the  pvraroids,  and  extend  north  nadaoutli 

aluDj  the  lelt  bank  of  tlie  Nile  as  far  aa  the  eye  can 

led  to  be  mnuaoleunu, 

■lightly  inclined  from  the  perpendicular  inuordB,  the 
pecnlbr  characteristio  of  ancient  Eg3'pt]An  archittc- 
ttire ;  ftat-roofed,  willi  a  sort  of  parapet  round  the  oiit- 
side,  formed  of  atones ;  rounded  at  tlie  top,  and  riling 
about  a  foot  above  Iho  level  of  Iho  terr-jce.  Tho  walls 
are  rouatrueted  nf  largo  mwuea  of  stonu,  of  irregular 
rhape.  The  varinUB  chambers  of  tbcee  edifices  vire 
found  to  be  profusely  embetlishcd  with  scu![>ture8  and 
baa-relief  paintiiign,  many  of  which  nero  epirited  nnd 
beautiful.  In  ono  uf  ttiem  were  found  the  remains  of 
aeveiml  munimiea,  nnil  in  another  tho  fragnieiita  of  a 
Sguro  as  large  as  life.  An  importanC  circumstance 
remains  to  be  noticed.  In  each  of  these  edifices  there 
«ai  discovered  a  well,  from  the  bottom  of  which  a 
fanage  led  to  a  subterranean  cluimber.  Caviglia 
c'vared  out  one  of  thtne  sliaftti,  which  was  sixty  feet 
Afp ;  and  in  the  cliamber  lie  found  a  plain  but  higlilv 
fini-hcd  sarcopliague,  nearly  of  similar  dimensions  a  itli 
that  in  the  pyramid  of  Clieop!=.  This  supplies  a  slraiig 
ar^ment  in  favour  of  Iho  liypothesis  that  the  pyrn- 

By  f:ir  the  most  brilliant  of  Mr  Cavi^lia's  discoveries, 
aif  tliise  to  which  he  was  led  in  the  laliorious  task  uf 
UDOiering  the  great  sphinx  in  front  of  tlic  pyramid  uf 
teplircne*.  On  the  atone  phitfonn  on  tlie  iorcgrouud, 
i»l  CFiitrallr  between  tho  outstretched  paws  of  the 
^inx,  was  discovered  a  laree  bloch  of  granite,  which 
mintnl  the  east,  aud  was  highly  embellislied  with  eeulp- 
tore  in  bas-relief.  Two  other  lahU'ls  uf  calcareous 
iliine,  umilarly  ornamented,  were  sup|>used,  with  that 
of  granite,  to  have  constituted  part  uf  n  teinplci  by 
king  placed  one  on  each  side  of  tEiu  latter,  and  at  right 
kIm  to  it.  One  of  Ihcin  in  fact  was  still  rciiuuning 
a  OS  place.  Uf  tbc  other,  whieli  was  thrown  d'lwn  and 
Imlen,  the  fragments  are  now  in  the  Uritit.li  Mu»cum. 
A  until  lion  CDUcliant,  in  front  uf  this  edifice,  liad  its 
rttt  directed  towards  the  spliinx.  Thcro  were,  besides, 
•ncial  fragmenU  of  other  liuni,  rudely  carved,  and  the 
'' ix,of  tolerable  workmanship.  Infrunt 


its  support.    Tlie  head-dress  has  the  appearance 
n  old-fashioned  wic,  pmjceting  out  about  the  ean 
the  iiair  of  the  Berberi  .*rabs;  the  ears  projeet 
lidei-abiy ;  the  nose  is  broken  ;  the  whole  face  has 
I  pninled  red,  which  is  the  colour  assigned  to  the  ' 
ont  inhabitants  of  Kgypt,  and  to  all  the  deities  of 
the  county  except  Osirie.    The  features  are  Nubian, 
hat  from  ancient  representation  may  be  called 
ancient  Kgyptinu,  which  is  quilo  difforfiit  from  the 
negro  feature.     The  expression  is  particularly  phicid 
and  benign,  so  much  so  tluit  the  worshipper  of  the 
-  "  JC  might  hold  up  his  god  as  superior  (o  all  tlie 
gods  of  wood  and  stone  which  the  blinded  nation* 
worshipjied."     As  bi  the  dimviininna  of  the  sphinx,  the 
stretch  of  the  buck  is  about  120  feet,  and  from  the  lop 
of  the  head  to  tho  b.ise  of  the  reclining  figure  about  40 
feet.     Such  has  been  the  drifting  of  the  Panda,  that  the 
wholo  flgui-o  Is  now  covered, except  the  head  anda  por- 
tion of  the  dilapidated  neck,  as  seen  in  the  annexed 
cut.    The  French  unociveii'd  a  part  of  tho  figure,  but 
the  sands  liavc  again  drilled  it  up. 


Kicrmi  iraj;iiieLii: 

fiitepartornHphi 
nf  Ibe  temple 


e  altar,  with  one  uf  the  fou 
aiiiiiiK  its  place  at  tho  angle.  I'runi 
the  effects  uf  Hrc  evident  on  tho  slonc,  this  altar,  it 
would  seem,  had  bren  ured  for  Immt-oirerings.  In- 
iCTiplians  were  fuiind  upon  the  di^-itM  uT  the  panra,  but 

Like  every  thing  cli^o  in  KgypI,  this  singekr  monu- 
mcDt  has  ]ieea  the  subject  of  vci-y  opposite  reprexenta- 
tion.  The  general  aeeuraey  of  Ur  lliehard«on  indnci-a 
Si  to  lay  bis  aecount  of  it  before  the  reader.  "  The 
breast,  ■houlden,  and  neck,  which  are  those  of  a  hu- 
man being,  remain  uncovered ;  as  also  the  back,  which 
is  that  of  a  lion.    Tho  neck  ia  very  much  eroded, 


tii  a  perran  near  tho  head,  sc 


IS  if  it  wi 


e  too  heav; 


above  the  pyramids  of  Rizi-h  once  stood 
Menifliis,  a  city  as  larg>:  and  lluurisbiiig  a.s  Alexandria, 
but  now  ultorly  destroyed,  and  the  very  ruina  hardly 
distingnishnlilc. 

ling  the  courtic  of  tho  Nile  upwards,  and  passing 
villages  and  ruined  structurei,  the  first  place  of 
neo  which  occurs  is  Beni  .'touulT,  situated  ou  the 
h)ftbank  in  one  of  the  ri'-lu.'St  and  moat  extensive  tracts 
of  com  land  in  Egypt,  at  the  distance  of  UJ  miles  above 
Cairo.  I'enctraling  a  pasa  of  the  sylvan  chain  nf  moun- 
*-inB,ataboutlirteeu  miles  west-south-west  uf  this  tuwu, 
!  enter  tho  district  of  l-'ayouin.  )lediuet-el-Favoum, 
the  capital,  is  Bitualnl  in  lat.  20'  W  north,  long.  31'  1' 
3U"eaHt,  built  from  the  materials  and  partly  on  the  site, 
of  the  ancient  Cnicodilopnlis,  the  name  of  which  was 
changed  to  .4  rsiniie,  by  I'lolemy  I'hiladelijhus,  in  honour 
of  hissisler.  IlGMilnins,ibuutS(HII)inhabitants,chii-fIy 
Moslems,  with  the  usiinl  proportion  of  muAqnes  and 
batbs.  A  ennol  fi-om  the  llaln-  Yeusuf  divides  it  into 
two  parts,  whicb  are  ennneeteil  by  five  bridgi*  Tlie 
principal  remains  of  the  ancient  city  lie  to  llic  north  uf 
the  present  t.iwn,  occupying  nn  area  nearly  two  miles 
and  a  half  fruui  norlli  lu  souih,  and  two  niilea  from 
east  to  west.  Amongst  the  ruins  are  numerous  trag- 
ments  of  i^latues,  obeliKks,  ite.     1'hc  tunii  of   ' 


11  cultivated.  This  eekholJd  lal:e  n 
fnrmatiou  in  aiiciiiit  times  <uid  extotideil  tn  several 
hundreds  of  miles  in  ciTeuinfercnce,  It  was  connected 
bv  canals  vrllb  tlie  Nile.  Continuing  the  ruuto  up  tho 
Nile,  at  tlie  di^tanee  of  about  seventy  miles  we  nrrive 
on  tlio  nunc  or  wcstcrii  bank,  at  a  considei'nbk'  village 
called  AI  Rairamonn,  where  All  Paehn  has  estalltsbed 
a  suRnr  manufactory  anil  a  distillery.     In  tlic  onviruna 


CHAMBERS'S  INFORMATION  FOR  TIIE  PEOPLK. 


arc  cxtcDBive  suj^ar  plantations,  nnd  thore  is  a  mltpotre 
manufactory  in  the  neigiibourliuod.  About  six  milefl  to 
the  south-west  of  this  pLice  an.*  tlic  remains  of  Hermo- 
polis,  an  ancient  town,  whose  re))rc8entativc  in  a  large 
village  called  Oshmunein.  About  a  league  tn  the  south 
of  it  is  the  large  and  well-built  town  of  Mcllane ;  and 
ten  leagues  farther  on,  and  near  the  western  shore,  that 
of  Manfaloot,  anciently  a  place  of  great  trade.  It  is  a 
sort  of  capital,  and  the  see  of  a  Coptic  bishop.  The 
adjacent  country  is  very  fertile,  ]iarticular]y  in  fruits. 
About  two  leagues  farther  up,  on  the  eastern  side  of 
the  river,  aru  several  pits,  in  which  are  deposited  the 
mummies  of  crocodiles.  But  wo  have  now  entered  the 
Said,  or  Upper  Egypt,  which  properly  begins  with 
Manfaloot,  which  is  a  sort  of  frontier  town  on  the  left 
bank.  The  valley  of  the  Nile  is  in  this  part  about  eight 
miles  from  niouutain  to  mountain,  and,  above  Manfaloot, 
a  cultivated  place,  commences  on  the  eastern  side  of  the 
river.  For  many  miles  the  left  bank  of  the  river  is 
perforated  with  excavations,  which,  liowever,  have  not 
been  ex])lured. 

PKNDERA. 

Proceeding  upwards  beyond  Manfaloot,  we  pass  in 
the  distance  of  eighty  or  ninety  miles  various  towns  of 
less  or  more  importance;  among  others,  Siout  and 
Girzah  on  the  left,  and  the  ruins  of  Ekhim  on  the  right 
bank.  On  the  face  of  a  range  of  mountains  near  Siout, 
is  a  long  range  of  tonilm,  the  burial-place  of  ancient 
Egyptians,  excavated  as  chambi'rs  in  tlic  solid  n>ck. 
and  still  ornamented  in  their  ceilings  with  coloun-d 
paintings  of  old  date,  and  which,  like  other  remains  of 
art,  have  been  preserved  by  the  extrtMno  dryness  of  the 
climate.  Thesi*,  and  all  other  objects,  however,  are  of 
inferior  interest  to  those  which  bi*gin  to  be  disclosed  on 
approaching  a  bend  of  the  river  near  the  2()th  degree 
of  north  latitude.  Here  the  view  opens  of  the  magni- 
ficent ruins  of  the  temple  of  Dendera,  and  some  miles 
farther  on  those  of  Thebes. 

The  ruins  of  Dendera  arc  more  than  a  mile  in  leni^th, 
and  half  a  mile  in  breadth.  The  gniii<i  ol*jirt  of  tiitf- 
rest  is  the  tempi**,  a  very  crlfbi-ated  ruin,  which,  if 
cleared  from  riilihi^li,  woiiM  presc-iit  a  from  of  I  Go  fi-vt, 
with  a  hi'iglit  tif  (iO  feet.  Tlie  principal  prop\lon-— f»r, 
as  we  migiit  call  it,  the  gat«'way  of  the  a)>pro:tch — is 
a  truly  niagniticent  object,  fi>rinin;;  a  tall  blDck  of 
columnar  architecture,  covered  with  the  most  <*X(|uisitc 
sculpture  an<l  hi«'n»';lN)>hics.  The  scnlptun-d  fi;;urfS 
on  the  dilapidatrd  walls  of  tin'  temple  bendin;;s  are 
equally  beautiful.  S>ine  idea  of  the  grandeur  of  these 
ruins  may  be  gathen-il  fniin  tin*  eircuinstaiiee  r<*cnrdeii 
of  the  French  army  durin:;  its  campaiuri  in  F.Lrypt. 
When  the  soMitrs  tin^t  bchelcl  the  ruins,  they  Mi-m 
so  overpowered  with  their  gigantic  size  and  extra- 
ordinary beauty,  that  they  cxriainied.  as  with  the 
heart  nnd  voic4'  of  one  man,  such  a  Ki;;ht  more  than 
re|>aid  them  for  all  the  sufferings  and  daiii^i-rs  of  th<> 
war.  It  is  supposed  to  have  bf«»n  CMnseorated  to  the 
worship  of  Isis,  who  was  the  princiiial  deity  in  the 
Jilgyptian  Pantheon.  The  temple  itself  stiil  ivtains  nil 
its  original  magnitioence.  Time  li.is  only  rendered  it 
more  venei'able  and  imposing  in  nppear:tnce. 

Tnrnrs. 

Thehe**,  once  the  capital  of  I'pper  Eiryjjt,  nnd  the 
most  splendid  city  in  tile  wiirM,  no  longer  exists  ;  its 
site  can  now  only  l»e  traced  in  fipur  petty  villages, 
Luxor,  Karnac,  .Mcdinet  Almu,  anil  (itjrnoo,  on  both 
banks  of  the  river — distance  from  the  wa  JI.'jO  miles. 
Thebes  is  famous  as  **  the  city  <if  a  huiidnil  gates,*' 
the  theme  and  admiration  of  ancient  poets  and  histo- 
rians, the  wondi-r  of  travellei-s — "  that  vener.thle  city," 
as  Poc(»ck  eliifjnentiy  remark'j,  "the  date  of  whose 
destruction  is  mder  than  the  f.nin«lati<»n  of  other  eitie»«, 
and  the  extent  «.f  who-c  ruin-,  aii>l  the  ininiensity  of 
whose  colo-^al  fragments,  still  nthr  so  many  astunish- 
ing  ohjeets,  that  one  is  rixeited  to  the  spot,  uiiahle  to 
decide  whither  to  din*et  the  vtip  nf  tix  the  arteniitm.*' 
Thewj  ruins  extcr.d  ahwiil  ei;;l.i  miK..-*  ali-ni;  tin.;  Niie, 

"1 


from  each  bank  to  the  sides  of  the  endoting  mountain, 
and  flescribe  a  circuit  of  twenty-seven  miles.  The  moat 
remarkable  objects  on  the  eastern  side  are  the  templet 
of  Kaniac  and  Luxor ;  and  on  the  western  are  the 
Memnonium,  or  palace  of  Memnon,  two  colossal  statues, 
the  sepulchres  of  the  kings,  and  the  temple  of  Medinet 
Abou.  Almost  the  whole  extent  of  eight  miles  along 
the  river  is  covered  with  magnificent  portals,  obelisks 
decorated  with  the  most  beautiful  sculpture,  forests  of 
columns,  and  long  avenues  of  colossal  statues.  The 
largest  of  these  temples,  and  of  any  in  £g>'pt,  is  that  at 
Karnac,  on  the  site  of  tlie  ancient  Diospolis. 

With  respect  to  the  magnificence  and  beauty  of  its 
several  parts,  this  temple  has  been  pronounced  as 
having  no  parallel  in  the  whole  world.  It  has  twelve 
principal  entrances,  each  of  wliich  is  composed  of 
several  propyla  and  colossal  gateway's,  besides  other 
buildings  attached  to  them,  in  themselves  larger  than 
most  other  temples.  The  sides  of  some  of  these  are 
equal  to  the  bases  of  the  greater  number  of  the  pyra- 
mids in  Middle  Egypt.  One  of  the  propyla  b  entirely 
of  gninite,  adorned  with  the  most  finished  hieroglyphics, 
and  many  of  them  have  been  fumislied  with  colossal 
statues.  The  avenues  of  sphinxes  that  lead  in  several 
directions  to  the  propyla,  one  of  which  was  continued 
the  whole  way  across  the  plain  to  the  temple  at  Luxor, 
nearly  two  niiltMi  distant,  corresjiond  to  the  magnificence 
of  the  principal  structure;  and  the  body  of  the  temple, 
which  is  preceded  by  a  large  court,  consists  of  a  pro- 
digious hall  or  portico,  the  roof  of  which  is  supported 
by  1:^4  columns,  some  2(i,  others  34  feet  in  circum- 
ference ;  four  bt>autiful  ol>elisks  mark  the  entrance  to 
the  shrine,  which  consists  of  three  a]uirtmcnts,  built 
entirely  of  granite.  The  dimensions  of  this  great 
edifice  arc  about  1*200  feet  in  length,  and  420  in  width. 
But  the  principal  fane,  gnind  and  impoaing  as  it  is, 
sinks  into  nothing  when  compared  with  the  extent  and 
number  of  the  buildings  which  surround  it ;  the  pro- 
di^^ions  gateways  of  polislu'd  granite,  covered  with 
sculpture,  and  adorned  with  colossal  statues;  the  sub- 
ordinate temples  which  any  where  else  would  be 
esteemed  magnificent  ])il«'s ;  and  the  avenues,  which 
approitch  it  from  almost  every  point  of  the  compass, 
miles  ill  length,  an«l  guarded  by  rows  of  sphinxes  of 
vast  size,  eut  out  of  single  blocks  of  syi.'iiite.  The  field 
of  ruins  ut  Karnac  is  about  a  mile  in  diameter.  Pro- 
liably  the  whole  of  the  spare  was  onei>,  in  the  prouder 
days  of  Thebes,  coiiM-erated  entirely  to  the  use  of  the 
temple. 

AlM>ut  n  mile  and  a  (juarter  above  Karnac,  are  tho 
villa:;c  and  temple  of  Luxor.  This  temple,  though  not 
of  such  \ast  dimen«>i<ins  as  that  of  Kaniac,  is  in  a 
superior  style  of  airhili-eture,  and  in  more  complete 
pri*servatitin.  Theentninee  is  thought  to  sur|tass  every 
thing  else  that  Egypt  present**,  and  the  two  olM'lisksaro 
eoiiMilcred  the  tinest  in  the  world.  iJut  the  object* 
which  most  attract  attention  nre  the  seulpturt's  which 
ctiver  the  east  wing  of  the  northern  front.  They  con- 
tain, on  a  gri-at  scale,  a  representation  of  a  victory 
gaine<l  by  one  of  the  ancient  kings  of  Egypt  over  their 
Asiatic  eneniit's.  The  number  of  humun  figures  in- 
trndiired  nmounts  to  l.'MM) — 5oO  on  foot,  and  1000  in 
chariots. 

The  iii<;po-iiti«>n  of  the  fiiruren,  and  the  execution  of 
the  whole  picture,  are  efpially  remarkable,  and  far 
surpass  all  precon<Mi\  i-<I  idea**  of  the  state  iif  art  at  the 
renmte  era  to  which  wc  must  attribute  them.  Aflter 
pa^-'-ini;  se\eral  gatew.iys,  w**  enter  what  is  conjectured 
to  be  the  palace  of  the  great  (>s\manduis.  These  ruins 
of  Lnx<»r  and  Karnac  rt  pi-esent  only  one-half  of  ancient 
Thebes.  The  temples  of  Mediiiei  .\1kmi  aiv  also  splendid, 
and  upon  a  grjiid  scale.  It  ^\-as  so  p]aoe<l  as  t(»  be 
exactly  opposite  to  that  of  Luxor,  on  the  other  t«ido  of 
the  ^Nile,  \Miili>  the  mai;niticent  structure  at  Karnac  was 
fi'onte<l  \i\  the  Meniiioniiim  or  temjile  of  Dair  ;  and 
henc<>  all  these  ^rainl  obji-cts  furnied  so  many  stages 
or  prominent  points  in  the  relii^ious  pmceshiuns  of  the 
pri'-iN.  Tiiiiii;:li  the  talM-rnade  4>f  Jupiter  dwelt  at 
K:ti-..ac,  the  proper  Diu<]M>lis,  yet  it  was  carried  over 


ASCIEXT  HISTORY— EfiYPT. 


Ibaiirtf  cvinytuvandNiMinednfeivdavi  in  Libya;  | 
ud  m  find,  mnu  ft  gcneiml  HiimAtc,  lha.t  then  wu  ■ 
^wa  of  b«f —n  niDS  and  ten  miJct  over  wliich  Ihpy  I 
Bijht  exlubil  Uw  ponip  Mid  pusds  of  their  Bupenti- 
lioo,  bMh  goiiix  uid  nturning.  Almost  every  part  oj 
ifaanmi  tliroBgli  thi>  immenBO  tlwatre  was  lined  witl- 
^tJBiiB,  rt»ta«W|  iirop7l>>  aod  other  objects  culrulaled 
b  nllBB*  tbe  Mdour  of  devotion. 

Tba  MemDooium  deserros  particular  nolioa.  Tiiii 
nlcbi>t«diclk:of  u]tiqiiitj,lhe)<alBceof  kinj;  Mcmnon, 
■Tsf  tiM  Pfcanabs,  facn  tlie  ewt,  and  is  fronted  witii 
i  MBpc«dMU  propylmi,  of  whicli  234  feet  of  its  lengtii 


E*M7  itooa  io  the  propylon  afipeare  to  hare  been 
(hahcn  and  iooaened,  aa  if  from  the  cnnruHsion  of  an 
(Utliqiiake.  The  puugeH  vhich  conduct  Io  tbe 
rhambera  are  aa  broken  and  filled  u]i,  ai  hardly  to 
admit  of  exsntinatioii.  The  walla  nro  in  varioiis  tarta 
uiiiiiiait«l  with  ■culplurca,  and  other  pictorial  dcTicea. 
One  of  (he  moat  atriking  is  a  battli^  eceiic  The  various 
Moaticiiu  of  victors  and  vanqoisbed  arc  reprtiiented  in 
a  Tciy  lively  manner,  and  the  whole  aculplure,  tliouRh 
kunnglilj  executed,  is  full  of  fire.  In  the  Memnonium 
tbcn  is  aull  to  bo  seen  the  Btntue  of  OHymundyns,  or 
Seaattia,  whieh  ia  allowed  to  be  ihe  line#t  Tclic  of  art 
■Ueh  tbe  place  contains, althou|;l>  shattered  mid  broken. 
]i  is  about  twenty-six  feci  broad  betu-een  Ihe  »linulJeni, 
SAy-four  feet  round  tlie  chest,  and  thirteen  feet  froui 
the  ahouldcr  to  the  elbow.  Tliero  are  on  ibo  Inch 
hiemf^yphieal  tahlebi,  extremely  well  executed,  whicli 
identify  thia  enormous  elalue  with  Iho  hero  whose 
aehievemenla  were  sculptured  on  the  walls  of  the 
temple. 

Tbe  above  figure  has  sometinics  been  confonndeii 
with  that  of  Mcmnon,  so  long  celebrated  for  its  vocal 
T^litiTT.  The  latter,  huwerer,  is  one  of  the  two  statues 


ifful!v  called  Shamy  and  Oamy, 

Hnle  distaneo  from  Medinet  Aboii,  in  ibe  diree 

tbe  Nile.     Theae,  n-e  ore  tnid,  are  ubont  iifty-tv 

in  height.  They  rest  on  Ihroni^s,  which  uro  rcspecliTeljr 

thiny  feet  lone,  eighteen  broad,  and  bctwpen  eeven  aui' 

eight  high.     Thev  are  placed  ubnut  forty  feet  asnnder 

^A  :^  -  i: —  ..,::i. 1.  .,1 —   -..J  1,juJ;  towards  till 

of  Luxor.    Th. 

_.       ^_  0  lie  of  Olio  entire  BtoHC.     Thi 

fa«-,  nTTnis  and 'front  of  the  boily,  havo  eutfi-red  bo 
much,  that  not  a  feature  of  the  cmintenalKe  reiuains. 
The  head-dress  is  beautifully  wronf,')it,  as  also  the 
ahonlders,  which,  with  the  back,  are  iniinjuTcd.  The 
ma^nv  hair  projects  from  bi.-biiid  the  cars  like  that  of 
the  i.i>hinx.  The  sidcpt  .>f  the  throne  are  highly  orn.n- 
nented  with  elegant  devices.  The  colossus  is  in  o 
silting  [lOslDre,  with  the  hands  resting  upon  tiie  knees. 
Tbe  gi^ntlc  statoe  which  is  placed  on  the  north  siile, 
would  appear,  from  various  circumstances,  to  bo  that 
•f  Ihe  vocal  Memnon,  who  was  said  to  play  a  lively 
Ktrun  when  Ihe  sun  roae,  and  n  mclaneholy  one  when 
lie  Id.  It  presents  the  same  attitude  ns  its  eompaninii. 
ThcM  alalucs  am  phtccd  on  eilhir  .-idu  of  an  atenuu 


^fr   Stephens)   v 
''        klaces  of  thi 

spirit  of  religion  that  possessed  the  Egyptians, 
,  seem  to  have  paid  bat  htlle  regard  to  their 
cartlily  habitaliona ;  tlieir  tcmplsa  and  tbcir  totnbs 
were  the  principal  objects  that  engroseed  the  Ihou|;Iita 
of  this  extraordinary  people.  It  has  been  well  said 
lit  them  that  they  regarded  the  liabitatioua  of  the 
ving  merely  as  temporary  resling-places,  whtio  Ihe 
Dmlis  were  regarded  as  permanent  and  eternal  man- 
ions ;  and  whila  not  a  vestige  of  a  habitaUon  is  to  b« 
een,  the  tombs  remain  monuments  of  splendour  and 
nagnilieenn',  perhaps  oven  mora  wonderful  than  the 
ruins  of  (lieir  temples.  The  whole  niountaia-side  on  the 
western  bank  of  the  river  is  one  vast  necropolis.  The 
a|>en  doors  of  lonibs  are  seen  in  long  ranges,  and  at 
dilTorcnt  elevatious,  and  on  the  plain  lar^e  pits  have 
been  opened,  in  which  have  been  found  1000  niummica 
at  a  time.  For  many  years,  and  unlil  a  late  order  of 
the  pacha  prevenlitig  it,  the  Ambs  liave  been  in  tha 
liahit  of  rifling  the  tomba  to  sell  the  munimiea  to  travel- 
lers. Thousands  huvc  been  torn  from  the  places  wlierc 
piiiuB  hands  had  Uid  them, and  the  bones  ineel  Ihe  tra- 
veller at  everv  etep.  The  Amis  use  the  toumniy-cnsea 
furtirewnod,  the  bituminous  matters  usud  in  the  em- 
balmment being  well  adapted  to  ignition ;  and  the  epicu- 
rean traveller  may  cook  Ins  breakfast  with  the  coflin  of 
a  king.  NotwithsCaiidiiig  the  deuredutinna  that  liave 
been  cnmniiticd,  the  mummies  ttial  have  been  taken 
away  and  scallered  all  over  the  world,  those  tlmt  have 
been  burnt,  and  others  that  now  remain  in  fragments 
around  the  tonibs,  the  nuiiibere  yet  undisturbed  are  no 
doubt  intinitely  greater  {  fur  llie  practice  of  embalming 
a  known  to  have  cxiNlrd  from  the  earliest  periods  re- 
corded in  the  history  of  E^ypt ;  and  by  a  rough  com- 
pulation, founded  upon  the  ago,  Ihe  p<tfiulatioii  of  the 
cilv,  and  lliu  avera;;!-  duration  i>r  human  life,  it  is  sop- 
posed  that  iIhtc  ore  from  e,'Min,OUU  to  )0,IIUQ,UUO  uf 
muromietl  bodies  in  tlto  vaiit  neem|uilis  of  ThetM. 

Amid  Ihe  wivcks  of  former  gri'Htiiess  which  lower 
above  iho  ]>laiii  of  Thebes,  the  intiabitanls  who  now 
liover  around  tlie  site  of  Ihe  ancient  city  ore  perhaps 
Iho  most  miserable  in  Egypt.  On  one  Bidu  of  the  t^ver 
Ihey  build  tlieir  mud  huts  anmnd  tliu  ruins  nf  tlia 
linnples  and  un  the  other  their  best  habitations  are  in 
Ihe  lombi ;  wherever  a  small  sjiace  lius  been  cleared 
out.  the  inhahil.iiKs  cniw]  in,  with  their  dogs,  goate, 
sheep,  women,  und  children  ;  and  the  Arab  is  pruning 
rich  who  lias  fur  bis  sleeping  place  Iho  sarcophagui  of 
an  ancient  Kjyptian." 

Mr  Stephens,  in  the  above  quotation,  inquires, 
"  Whore  are  (he  ronidenees  of  the  king's  princes,  ond 
people  of  ancient  KgyptI"  Those  are  entirely  gone. 
They  were  built  of  brick,  and  have  long  since  been 
utterly  destroyed,  or  buried  in  fragments  beneath  the 
drifting  sands  of  the  dewrt,  or  the  nccumulailuns  from 
the  Nile      The   temples  and  pyramids  having   been 

have  fiurviveil,  while  all  the  urdiiuiry  babilaiiuna  of  thu 
people  Iiave  disappeared. 

EDFOf,  ri.ErillNTINA,    PiniJ>L. 

The  mnj^iricent  ruins  of  Thebes  are  not  by  .iny 
means  the  last  object  of  interest  in  ascending  (he  river. 
I'asMng  Esneh,  n  town  on  iho  left  bank,  and  an  emjio- 
rium  of  the  trade  with  .\bVHi.inia,  wereach  ouUiesame 
side  of  (lie  river,  at  about  tlic  distance  of  Gfly  miles  from 
Tlicbes,  Iho  town  of  Edfou,  composed  aa  usual  of  a  parcel 


CHAMUKUSS  INFOltMATKtX  FOR  TIIK  PKOPLH 


lirr.iilili,  it  lisco  on  onch  nidf  the  gato  in  tlic  form  nf  a 
truiiiatKl  jiyramid,  tn  the  lieiglit  of  lUO  f«-l,  eradnally 
narroH-in^.  till  at  the  top  it  incusuivii  75  fcrt  in  Icnglh 
aiiil  111  iii'limJth.  Juclgp,  Ihcn,  what  was  iho  t".'!!!)'!!' 
lu  wliitli  this  fanned  ni<-r.Iv  Ilic  cntniurr  ;  und  ttiix 
WM  f:ir  from  bt-ing  one  of  llic  brge  ivmplea  of  £^']'t. 


il  P«ul'«  Cliu«hvard.     Ili 

ill  corronponi),  and  ciicliisiiig  it  i*  a  hii;h 
state  of  pcrfccl  prt^crration.  1  wall;ud 
111;  wall  crectcil  in 
ilniiiger,  I  luukea 
of  tiie  temple.  Built  bv  the 
Egylitioiiii  for  the  higlic»t  tise*  to  wliicU  ft  liuildio); 
coiild  be  dedicated,  fur  the  wurehip  of  thnr  pHls,  it  U 
nnw  iiKiii  hv  the  loeha  on  ft  Braiialy  aliil  stoiiOmiwe." 

Fiftv  oiiIm  faither  iip  wc  rvarh  tli«  boiindarr  of 
K'typl  snrl  Nulia,  nl  the  town  of  AkMnuin  or  Svlw. 
ll  Ih  ■itiinli'd  in  lat.  31-  5'  iS''  imrth,  li'ii:;,  ;"."  "i4'  ill" 
i-aiit.  iLinslural  poNtion.  ru  wtll  aiLipt<'<l  l»rB  rrontiif 
town,  linn  reiidored  it  slal1tiiiii'>a  pinn-of  JniiKirtHiice. 
It  wvH  fonuiTly  a  liiiiJioprir,  but  ixi  (']iri>liaiis  nre  uow 
finmd  lii'n<.  Kuiiici)  rhurchiti  niol  mtiviiilH  Kli'ike  the 
vye'of  tti<-  traveller,  but  thi>  <  'lirb>tian  fsidi  i^  unki 


wall,  still  in 

round  it  ti       . 

eiuludi-  the  uiilialluwnl  f. 


!-p.lI 


Silt  only  U 

an  the  vernacular  i>'iif!U<>.   lU-rv  i-ccnm  ili< 
tian  cntjrart  in  <h>:'eendin);  the  Nile. 

Tlw  pn-i^rnt  town  of  Asuiuan  has  lipi'n  liiiilt  ii  little 
to  tlie  iiortJi  nf  n  fiirmer  ton  n  uf  Saniii-nie  iirijii 
nilM  of  which  an-  seen  alH>Vi>  il,  aiul  wliich  wnn  itself 
buitl  upiin  therniiisofa  Ui'niaii  eily.  TIh.- whole  town 
It  i-m-iiniiiawiFil  with  vpstijfrii  of  liiiiiiliiij,'- 
iottTfliii::  ari-  abinil  llii>  i.l.l  town,  wliicli 


thirda  cut  out  of  the  rock.  There  arc  a  number  iif 
architeetuni  Temains,  aculptureii,  and  liicmf>lvphiea] 
tableli.  TliiB  beautiful  inland  14  inhabited  by  Nubianis 
who  arc  perTi-ctly  black,  n-ilhant  haTing  aity  reaem- 
blauee  in  liivir  fvalnrcx  to  the  iie;n^. 

Abovo  the  entaraelK,  at  the  distance  of  about  ^x 
miles  south  from  Atsouan,  ia  the  far  more  interestin- 
though  BinaltcT  iKbtnd  of  PhiliSe,  or  lljeziret-el-birba, 
mcaiiin;;  the  Tcmplo  ialand.  "This  ialund  il  entirety 
covered  niili  temples  in  large  groupii,  and  in  a  high 
atate  of  prcten-ation  ;  and  from  a  rocky  eminence  at  in 
soullirm  I'Xtremity  the  whole  of  tbe  ruins  may  be  aecn 
at  once.  On  the  Booth  west  side  are  ttvolarcc  temple*, 
adorned  and  connected  by  long  colonnades,  but  mani- 
r<»tly  of  diirervnl  ages;  oil  the  right  il  (he  Biiull  Templr 
of  Isia,  with  an  iHolaled  unlinished  building,  having  no 
renuuna  ufihe  eella,  nor  any  appeamnee  ofiin  interior 
comieo  ;  and  on  IIik  left  ore  an  obclink,  and  long  pop' 
ttcoeii  leading  to  a  large  temple  of  Isiii,  near  a  smaller 
one  drdintted  to  llalbud  or  the  Kgiptian  Venus,  whirii 
Chauipolion  ban  pronounced  the  imt  In  tjia  bUnd. 
The  gn-at  Tein{>le  of  lau,  which  is  the  sonthemnoM 
of  all.  liai  two  colossal  pyramidal  propyla.  fi'one  of  the 
existing  monuments  ot  Kgypt  ia  better  ealculateil  In 
cnnvcy  an  adequate  iilca  of  the  mngniUccncc  by  wliich 
ih^  are  cliaRWteriMd,  than  the  port[e<>  of  this 'temple, 
which  eimsistii  of  twelve  columns,  four  in  front  and 
three  deep.  The  capitals,  wliich  are  in  pure  Egyptian 
loite,  represent  varied  forms  and  compoailions  of  the 
palm  branch,  the  domm  leaf,  and  the  lotus.  Tlic«e,  aa 
well  OS  the  sculptures  on  the  columns,  the  ceiling,  and 
the  walK  have  been  painted  in  the  miKt  vivid  roiouni 
which  Mill  retain  much  of  thnr  original  briglitneM. 
At  the  nurlhern  exlretnity  of  the  iaiauil  there  are  the 
rcmalnn  of  a  triumphal  arch,  and  other  works  of  Homaa 
ureliiiectare ;  and  oa  tlw  norih-eant  side  an  unliniihed 
temjiie,  exhiliiling  many  jiveuliaritics  of  slmcture,  and 
showing  that  tlie  arts  witc  mit  always  ataliunary  ia 
Egypt,  In  a  wurd,  within  the  compass  of  this  little 
iKlund,  Nubian  rahiini,  Anih  huts,  L'hrislian  chaprlik 
Komanfiirtitlratiiiiiis  anil  I'^gyiitian  temples,  are  crowded 
to;>;eiliix  in^uch  h  luunnvr  aii  loproduec  a  painful  neniw 
uf  the  lapse  of  ageii.  the  tniiiMlury  natun-  of  emjiires, 
and  tbeili-strnrtitii  lity  of  human  works.  liiiKrvereolosiial 


lUlll'  ' 


iapart 
.  hielilii 
A  to  the  paehn  of 
He  Etliio|iia,  fruiii 


ilnnitin;;,  but 


mall 


tire.   ThivarcHiinkedwilhi 

llbiiyuftV-wolI-'Kfthehi'i 

Ibey  uri>  all  luintufed.     Knitii  the  inlcrinr  of  ma' 

them,  la-KieeH  lead  down  to  the  rhaiulien  of  hi 

Il  liiii):.iiK  to  the  aiieient  ritv,  which  are  now  n 

IITtiuiiil:  iif  the  u!d  town  a  U'w  iu>i-;iiilieant  ruin. 

lk-l»w  tlie  rataract't  al  ihin  plac  oeoui-^  the  . 
Ulaiidiif  Kli'plinntiti.1,  or.  u»  ii  is  eall.'.l  l.v  ihe  A 
)lji-/in'l-zi-].)!:it.ir,  lliellooerv  i'hiiid;  il  is  aliuut '.'mill 
flit  ill  It'iii^lli.  and  null  f.i't  iii  I.r.M.hli.  'I'Jie  norllu'ni 
•  ml  is  I..W  aiidalhiiliil.  wit  riillirafil.  and  >l:a<U-<l  with 
I'oliii-trt-i'^.  Hen-  are  the  minHcf  Ihimaii  f -rt  iliratixnii, 
Ll^'-ilf  hi  which,  nil  the  en<4ern  bank  nf  the  Nile,  are 
lx>nuiiDai>f  AraliianwiiTii.  There  is  an  aiicii>iit  ijoarry, 
fnmi  whieb  larg<-  culunnit  liave  lieen  eunvaic-I;  the 
uarliB  (i{  the  wurlunan's  chi<H  und  wedge  are  as  fn-sb 

Tthey  wen-  of  yeilerday.    Some  are  Iving  Mneki-i 
imI  (-irlly  nm>ii'.;l»,  aula  largir>vareo|>luigii>'i«tirii- 


Kew  Imvi'lliTii  pniceed  farther  up  the  Nile  thaa 
riiiliie,  an  lli'-  jourwy  throuiih  Nubia  is  ti-ss  i«fe  or 
agreeable  than  Ihat  witliin  the  Egyptian  (erriloiy. 
Yt'l  without  a  vihii  to  the  Nubian  valk-y  of  llie  Nile, 
u  hidi  extends  to  ni'ar  ihe  head  branclu-s  of  tbr  ri 

I  in  Abyshiuia,  niurhof  the  niiHent  graudenr  of  t1  ~ 
nf  the  world  will  remain  iinex[doTed.    Nnbta,  v 

I  nt  prcei-nt  ti  Turkisli  protiiicc  subject  to 
(^^iil.  M  fre<jiii>ntlv  called  by  the  name  I 
the  black  ciniipU'xion  of  wliote  inhabitants  the  term 
Elliuipinii  e;inie  in  i>arly  time*  to  signify  ouc  who  ia 
black,  or  a  iii-f,-r».  This  country  nf  Nubia,  or  Ellikipia, 
is  niidiTstiKnl  by  vqiie  hislorians  to  Inve  enjoyed  a 
(Ipgri-e  of  civilisaliiin  and  rcKni-nieal  in  art,  at  a  date 
even  earlii-r  tlian  )la}'i>t:  und  till  llio  present  <lay  il 
jiiwiii.'Mi-s  pyminidn  hiuI  clher  moiiumcnis  •■(  arrbilec* 
tiir.il  nkiil,  B«  wi'iiih'rfiil,  in  tlu'  cvi'ii  of  the  tnvellvr, 
as  ihiw  in  llu'  L'WfT  dii  i-Liiis  of  tfi.'  Nile. 

Due  uf  the  bttvi  truvelliTs  who  pi'netraii-d  to  ihi* 
inner  Ml)ii<iiiian  region,  wua  .Mr  Ii.  A.  Ilimkini,  wbu  in 
I ;:::  *>  publi-ln  it  a  iiir!;e  volume  ilcrerijitive  of  liis  juu>^ 
>v\.  At  aUiiit  the  irihdi'gni-  v(  iiurlli  l.itiiude,  he 
n  aelLHl  iUrn;  an  inland  roniH'd  bv  the  forking  .>[  two 
i.)>;^'r  braiieh. '  <■(  the  Nile.  Tlii'->  ii'taiKl  is  Utwera 
ihn'^'  und  f-iiir  liuiuln'il  mill's  lon^.  and  coutailM  several 
ibstiiicl:;r.'U|<u>r|iy»liiuIiilsiruclun.'snfextraonlin»}' 
ma^iillei'iir'-.  but  gnatly  ilanuu^ed  by  tlui  hand  of  bnr- 
liariiiiK :  al-m  miiiiv  traces  nf  the  riTiiailis  nf  tbe  city  (if 
Men"',  iiuee  the  capital  of  EtIiiujiLi.  **  Nevrr  (Mtn 
Mr  llorkins)  wen-  my  fi-elings  more  ardently  eicili-d 
tlian  in  apjiroaching.  after  m>  tiilieni  a  journey,  lu  this 
■  I'nrirliii'iF.iij  l^i1tsn«ira,  arifcli'  Kfyrl. 


ANCIENT  HISTORY— 1X;VPT. 


r.ia^ificeiit  iiccropoHs.  Tlio  appearance  uf  the  ]>>'»- 
mids,  in  the  distance,  annuunccd  tlieir  importance ;  but 
I  vmi  gratified  bevond  my  most  sanguine  ex)K.>ct!it:onb 
vfaen  I  found  mvwlf  in  the  midst  of  them,  i'liu  pvra- 
mids  of  Gixeh  are  maguiticeiit,  wonderful  fnun  their 
Mapcndoos  magnitude ;  but  fur  picturesque  cHect  and 
degance  of  architectural  de&ign,  I  iutiiiitely  prefer 
thooc  of  Meroe.  I  expected  to  find  few  bueh  remains 
here,  and  certainly  nothing  so  imposing,  so  intei*esting, 
as  thtrae  sepulchres,  doubtless  of  the  kings  and  queens 
of  Etliiopia.  I  stood  fur  bunic  time  lust  in  admiration. 
From  every  point  of  viuw  I  saw  magnificent  gii^ups, 
pynunid  rising  behind  pyramid,  while  the  dilapidated 
>ta:c  of  many  did  not  render  them  less  intercbting, 
though  less  beautiful  as  works  of  ai*t.  I  easily  rc&tui'ed 
them  in  my  imagination ;  and  these  effects  of  the  nivages 
of  time  carried  back  my  thouglits  to  more  distant  ages. 
The  porticoes  on  the  east  side  of  each  pyramid  boon 
attnicted  my  attention,  and  I  pasaed  eagerly  from  one 
to  the  other,  delighted  to  find  in  sevei'al  of  tliem  monu- 
neots  of  sculpture  and  hieroglyphics,  which,  few  as 
they  are,  have,  I  trust,  given  us  the  assurance  of  the 
lucaiitVy  and  will,  I  hope,  throw  some  light  upon  the 
mythology  and  arts  of  the  Ethiopians.  There  are  the 
mnains  and  traces  of  eighty  of  these  pymmids  ;  they 
eunsisC  chiefly  of  three  groups.  The  prineipal  and 
moFt  imposing,  at  which  I  arrived  first,  is  eituated  on 
a  hilly  two  miles  and  a  half  frum  the  river,  eonnnanding 
an  extensive  view  of  the  plain.  There  are  thirty-une 
pyramids  in  this  group,  of  which  the  plans  (>f  t\%eiity- 
threc  may  be  traced ;  while  to  the  south-c:uit  is  another 
group  of  thirteen,  in  some  4pgreo  of  preservation. 
There  are  three  other  groups,  two  consisting  of  two 
p%Tamids  each,  and  the  other  of  six ;  and  at  5G00  feet 
to  the  we&t  of  the  chief  group,  may  be  ti*aced  the  remains 
of  twenty-five  pyramids,  but  almost  buried.*' 

After  nM^ntiouing  tliu  apiH'arance  and  minor  details 

of  these  remarkable  structures,  this  author  euntiimes — 

*"  I  have  carefully  deseribid  this  interesting  and  mug- 

Bificcnt  cemetery* ;  but  liow  shall  I  attempt  to  express 

the  feelings  of  the  traveller  on  ti*eaduig  such  hallowed 

gmond?     One  who,  in  passionate  adniii*ation  fi»r  the 

arts,  had  visited  the  chief  Kalleries  of  Kuropi.',  ga7.'.>d 

nfon  the  breathing  unagc  of  divinity  in  the  Apollo  of 

the  Vatican,  or  the  deep  expi*ession  of  the  nuvt  poetieal 

f4  atatui^s,  the  DWng  Gladiator  of  the  Capitol ;  who  had 

Mivld  and  felt  tho  pictorial  creations  of  a  Kaphael  and 

aCorreggio,  and,  with  delij^ht,  contemplated  (jreeinn, 

Rcoian.  and  modem  sculpture,  could  nut  be  unmoved 

at  finding  himself  on  the  site  of  the  very  metropolis 

where  those  arts  liad  their  origin.     The  traveller  who 

ha*  seen  the  architeetunil  antiquities  of  Home,  and  has 

cdmired  tho  uuignificent  use  that  nation  has  made  of 

ifae  arch,  making  it  the  chief  ornament  of  their  baths, 

palaceti,  and  temples,  would  be  further  deeply  interested 

It  finding  here  the  origin  of  that  discovery.     These 

emotions  would  be  felt  with  peculiar  force   by  one 

vii",  like  mj'self,  had  been  fortunate  enou;;li  to  truce 

ait  through  her  earliest  creations — from  the  splen<lid 

(r..\hie  edifices  of  the  norih  to  the  ruins  of  the  eternal 

my — from  Itomu  to  Magna  (imeia — from  the  ma;;ni- 

£o(.nt  te:iiplo  of  Neptune  at  rwstnm,  to  the  still  ]iui*er 

anzi«|uitios  of  Sicily,  i>aiiieularly  at  (lirgenti,  where 

Batare  and  art  seem  to  have  vied  with  each  other — 

fz^ai  thai  interesting  island  to  the  Morea  and  the  city 

tff  Minor\a,  where  the  knowle<lg<>  of  the  arts,  sown  in 

tbt  mo^t  genial  soil,  produeed  the  perfection  of  elegance, 

elia4teoe«i«,  and  magnificence.     But  the  seetLs  of  the 

k&r>wledge  of  the  Greeks  were  derived  fn»m  K^ypt ; 

and  the  Kg\'ptians  recei\cd  their  ci\'ili^tion  from  the 

Eihiopian«,  and  from  Meroe,  where  I  now  am  writing. 

The  Iveautiful  sepulchres  of  that  city  afford  Kitisfaetory 

evidence  of  the  com.'Ctness  of  the  historical  reeoi-Uv. 

Where  a  taste  for  the  arts  had  reached  t(»  stich  i>erl'ee- 

ti'ju,  «c  may  rest  assuivd  tliat  other  ii'.t<-lli.  etual  pur- 

nita  were  not  neglected,  nor  the   scie::ees  eiitirely 

BaksowD.     NoWy  however,  her  schools  aiv  closed  for 

pvf-r,  without  a  vestigo  of  theiu  n.>maijiing.     Oi*  th^ 

K'U-ed  Iff  her  philosophcrn,  nut  a  Ltonc  iv«t:i  up  m 

77 


another ;  and  whore  civilisation  and  learning  once 
reigned,  ignorance  and  barbarism  have  rcas^uuied  the 
swav. 

These  pyi*amids  are  of  s;indstone,  the  quarries  of 
which  ai*c  in  the  range  of  hills  to  the  east.  Tho  stone 
is  rather  softer  than  the  Egyptian,  which,  added  to  tho 
great  antiquity,  may  account  for  the  very  dilapidated 
state  of  ninnt  of  these  ruins,  and  also  for  the  sculpture 
and  hiei*ogly phics  being  so  defaced.  Time,  and  the  burn- 
ing r.iys  of  a  tropical  sun,  have  given  them  a  brownish 
ivd  tint,  in  some  parts  nearly  black.  As  the  operation 
of  many  ages  is  required  to  make  this  change  on  a  light- 
coloured  Kindstone,  a  further  proof  is  afforded  of  the 
great  antiquity  of  the  monuments.  The  stones  being 
small,  and  easily  removed,  it  is  fortunate  that  the  chief 
group  of  pyramids  is  so  far  distant  fi*om  the  Nile  ; 
otherwi;»e,  like  thosti  on  the  plain,  near  the  river,  a 
great  proi)ortion  of  them  might  have  been  carrieil  away 
as  materials  for  the  erection  of  more  modern  eilifices. 

Thi.s,  then,  is  the  necropolis,  or  city  of  the  dead. 
But  where  was  Men>e,  its  temples  and  palaces  f  A 
large  space,  about  'JOOO  feet  in  length,  and  the  same 
distance  fi'om  the  river,  strewed  with  burnt  brick  and 
with  some  fragments  of  walls,  and  stones  similar  to 
those  used  in  the  erection  of  tho  pyramids,  formed, 
doubtlesH,  part  of  that  celebrated  f^ite.  The  idea  that 
this  is  the  exact  situation  of  the  city,  is  strengthened 
by  the  remark  of  Sti*abo,  that  the  walls  of  the  habita- 
tions were  built  of  bricks.  These  indicate,  without 
doubt,  the  site  of  that  cradle  of  the  aiis  which  distin- 
guish a  civilised  from  a  barbarous  society.  Of  tlio 
birthplace  of  the  arts  and  sciences,  the  wild  natives  of 
the  adjacent  villages  have  made  a  miserable  burying 
place:  of  the  city  of  the  learned  —  *  its  cloud-eapt 
towers,'  its  '  goi*geous  palaces,'  its  *  solenm  temples,' 
there  is  *  left  not  a  rack  behind.'  'Hie  sepulchres 
alone  of  her  depai*ted  kings  Imve  fuliViled  their  de.>ti- 
miiion  of  surviving  the  habitations  which  their  philo- 
sophy taught  thejii  to  consider  but  as  inns,  and  aix* 
now  fast  mouldering  into  du.rt.  As  at  Memphis,  scarcely 
a  trace  of  a  jialace  or  a  temple  is  to  be  seen.  In  this 
once  populous  plain,  I  fe;iw  the  timid  gazelles  fearlcs->ly 
pasturing;.  The  hyienas  and  wolves  abound  in  tho- 
n«'ighbourini7  hills.  This  morning  Signor  B.  met  a  man 
with  the  head  of  one  which  he  was  carrying  in  triumph 
to  his  village:  he  said  that  he  had  b^'en  a!;aeked  at 
onee  bv  three  small  ones  when  alone,  and  with  no 
weapon  but  his  lance.  The  small  villages  of  B.igi-oineli, 
south  of  the  ruins,  consist  of  circular  cottages  with 
thatched  conical  roofs.  The  |>easants  have  numerous 
Hocks,  which  they  send  to  pasture  on  the  ])hun.  On 
the  hanks  of  the  river  I  observed  cotton,  dourah,  and 
l»arlev.  i^ueli  is  the  present  state  of  Merw.  It  is  an 
ample  requital  for  my  toilsome  journey,  to  have  been 
the  iii'st  to  brinf;  to  KM;ri.uui  aeeunite  architectural 
drawiiiiXi^,  ^:e.,  of  all  t!ie  remains  of  the  ancient  capital 
of  Mihiopia,  that  city  which  will  ever  li\e  in  the  gi*aleful 
reei»llectioti  of  thote  who  love  the  arts.**'  ■ 

Keturning  to  Eg}  pt,  the  description  «»f  the  ( ountry 
mav  be  concluded  bv  a  notice  of  those  fertile  «ii'«iricts 
in  the  desert  at  a  distance  from  the  Nile,  an  1  termed 
Oases. 

Tni:  oAMLs. 

Oa-i-.  is  a  Coptic  word  >:;^nifyiiig  an  iiiliahitcd  placo, 
and  : »  n>iual!y  applied  to  a  IVrtile  ty><t  or  inland  in  l!;e 
mi'l-t  (.f  a  siindy  <lesert.  Th**  <  Uses  of  Iv^vpt  are  fuund 
at  internals  in  the  middle  of  that  va«-t  plain  of  arid 
siuil  called  the  Libyan  Desert.  TIm  re  are  w.-veral  of 
them,  whieh  arc  named,  according  to  tlu  ir  si.:c  or  situa- 
tion, the  Great,  Little,  ^\^■sterl^  Northern,  ^c. 

7%'  \orfhrrn,  or  Oftf>i)i  of  Si f rah. — This  place,  whieh 
is  .\bout  uOO  miles  dii^tant  from  Cairo,  and  about  100 
from  the  Nile,  is  jKcnliarly  inten\stuig,  from  its  being 
eiij  pMsed  to  enclose  the  far-famed  temple  of  Jupiter 
Aniinon.  The  Oasi.-i  is  about  six  miles  long,  and  from 
four  to  five  broad.     It  is  pretty  fertile,  at:.!  C'litaiiis 

*  TiavcU  in  Kt.iiujiia,  by  U.  A.  lIu.<Uin-.  i:  •!•  >  vvl.  liu.    I.-.m- 
<Ioii,  l.iiiik^m.in  Ac  (.'un);)auy,  hi  it. 


CHAMBERS'S  INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


about  8000  inhabitants.  Tlio  capital  is  called  Siwah. 
Besides  tlie  splendid  remains  of  the  temple,  bupposed 
to  be  that  of  Jupiter  Ammon,  are  the  ruins  of  other 
sacred  places,  and  a  number  of  sepulchral  excavations. 
Great  Oasis. — This  Oasb  is  formed  of  a  number  of 
fertile  isolated  spots,  which  lie  in  a  line  parallel  to  the 
course  of  the  Nile,  and  to  the  mountains  which  bound 
the  valley  of  Egypt  on  the  west.  It  is  about  two  days' 
journey  from  the  nearest  part  of  the  valley  of  the  Nile. 
The  patches  of  firm  land  are  separated  from  ono  another 
by  deserts  of  twelve  or  fourteen  hours*  walk — so  that 
the  whole  extent  of  this  Oasis  is  nearly  100  miles,  the 
greater  proportion  consisting  of  a  desert.  It  contains 
many  gardens  watered  with  rivulets,  and  its  palm  groves 
exhibit  a  perpetual  verdure.  According  to  a  more 
recent  account,  it  contains  Egyptian  ruins  covei*cd  witli 
hieroglyphic  inscriptions.  The  priuclpal  town  is  called 
£1-Kargeh.  Here  are  the  remains  of  a  temple  bi'auti- 
fully  situated  in  the  midst  of  a  rich  grove  of  palm  trees. 
Near  El-Kargeh,  there  is  also  a  regular  necropolis  or 
cemetery,  containing  200  or  300  buildings  of  unbumcd 
brick,  chiefly  of  a  square  sliapc,  and  each  surmounted 
by  a  dome  simihir  to  the  small  mosques  erected  over 
the  graves  of  sheiks.  At  distances  of  a  few  miles,  some 
other  remains  of  ancient  temples  are  found.  This  whole 
oasis  has  always  been  and  still  is  dependent  on  Egypt. 
None  of  the  other  oases  of  the  desert  present  us  with  any 
object  worthy  of  being  dwelt  upon. 

▲NQEXr  EOYITIAN  SOCIETY  AND  ART. 

The  discoveries  which  have  been  made  in  modern 
times  by  travellers  (chiefly  French,  Italian,  and  Eng- 
lish) in  Egypt,  although  disclosing  tliu  remarkable 
remains  of  jtyramids,  temples,  and  tombs,  which  have 
been  above  adverted  to,  do  not  give  any  just  idea  of 
the  grandeur  and  opulence  of  the  ancient  Egyptian 
dynasties.  We  learn  from  Josephus,  Diodoms,  Hero- 
dotus,  and  other  historian!*,  that  at  ono  time  E^'pt 
and  the  adjoining  provinces  under  its  sway  coutamcd 
20,000  (some  say  30,000)  populous  cities,  and  as  many 
as  7,000,000  of  inliabitants.  At  that  early  period 
(2300  to  1000  years  before  Christ)  the  country  was  also 
more  fertile,  and  much  l<\ss  oncroaehod  U|M)n  by  sandy 
deserts  than  it  now  in,  Besideb  deponding  tm  its  internal 
resources,  it  drew  great  wealth  from  the  torritorios 
which  it  laid  under  contribution  ;  but  its  chief  Ronrcc 
of  revenue  was  in  manufacturing  industry  and  com- 
merce. Its  artisans  excelled  in  all  manner  of  handi- 
craft cmpIo\Tiu'nts,  and  its  nierehants  conducted  an 
export  and  import  traflic  on  a  most  extensive  Fcale  ; 
in  short,  Egypt  was  long  the  Great  Britain  of  its  day — 
the  most  industrious  and  wealthy  natitm  in  the  world. 

It  is  interesting  to  know  what  was  the  ctwibtitution  of 
Kgyptian  society  in  these  days  of  ancient  glory.  It  was 
that  of  castes  similar  to  what  still  exibts  in  India. 
According  to  the  best  authorities,  the  Hrst  or  chief  caste 
was  that  i>f  the  prit^ts,  to  whom  the  kin;^  neceiw;irily 
belonged,  as  a  species  of  pope  or  teniiMtral  head ;  the 
second  was  composed  of  the  tiddlers  and  agricultu- 
rists; the  third  of  the  artificers,  tnidc^men,  merchants, 
builders,  and  profesiiional  men  ;  and  the  fonrili  ci in- 
sisted of  shepherds,  t)^h(■rmen,  si>rvants,  and  all  other 
orders  of  connnon  pei>ple.  All  the  learning  of  a  refineil 
or  metaphysical  kind  was  confined  to  the  order  of 
priests,  who  were  of  various  classes,  each  following  its 
appointed  duty  ;  for  example,  each  deity  had  its  own 
order  of  priests,  the  jiitlges  and  magistrates  were  also 
priests,  as  likewise  were  the  sacred  scribes,  theofHcei's 
who  examined  and  set  their  hmI  on  the  SJicrifices,  the 
attirers  of  the  statues  of  the  gods,  the  keeiH'i*s  of  the 
Nicred  1-oIh's,  the  doctors,  the  carriers  of  the  sacred 
emblems  in  the  processions,  the  bearers  of  the  small 
aUitue?*,  the  prcbcrvers  of  the  sacred  animals,  the 
^prinklers  of  water  in  the  temples,  the  emlalmers  of 
bodiei*,  the  drivers  away  of  flies  from  the  countenances 
of  the  gods,  and  various  other  functiouaries.  Thus,  the 
Kgyptian  priesthood,  with  the  king  at  their  head  as  a 
•ort  of  deity,  were  a  fonnidable  IxhIv  among  the  people, 

■   from  the  jh>wit  with  which  they  were  invested 

•.11 


and  their  number ;  and  it  need  bardly  be  mentioned 
that  they  appropriated  to  themselves  by  far  the  largest 
share  of  adl  the  good  tilings  with  which  the  land 
abounded,  or  which  the  industry  of  the  nation  intro- 
duced from  foreign  countries.  The  enormous  sums 
which  nmst  have  been  lavished  by  them  in  the  erection 
of  temples  and  palaces  are  beyond  all  calculation  ;  and 
when  we  consider  that  this  vast  expenditure  went 
towards  the  adoration  of  crocodiles,  bulls,  dogs,  storks, 
snakes,  and  other  animals,  or  at  least  of  a  tribe  of  gods 
whom  these  creatures  were  imagined  to  represent,  we 
are  overwhelmed  with  the  magnitude  of  the  superstition, 
and  look  upon  the  ancient  Eg}-ptians,  with  all  their 
learning,  as  little  advanced  on  the  right  road  to  ciTili- 
tation. 

A  nation,  however,  as  has  been  a  thousand  times 
proved,  may  have  attained  considerable  proficiency 
in  learning  and  the  arts,  and  yet  be  affected  by  the 
most  ridiculous  superstitions.  The  Egyptians,  as 
appears  from  hieroglyphics,  paintings,  and  records  of 
various  kinds,  were  ade]>ts  at  mechanical  expedienta, 
and  possessed  almost  all  the  elegances  of  refined 
living  which  are  now  common  in  an  improved  form 
in  Europe.  In  the  construction  of  their  pyramids 
and  other  large  buildings,  no  degree  of  labour  for  any 
length  of  time  seems  to  have  intimidated  them.  The 
huge  blocks  of  stone,  sometimes  weighing  1000  tons 
each,  were  dragged  for  hundreds  of  miles  on  sledges, 
and  their  tnmsport,  perhaps,  did  not  occupy  K^ss  time 
than  a  year ;  in  one  case  which  is  known,  *2000  men 
were  employed  three  years  in  bringing  a  single  stone 
from  a  quarry  to  the  building  in  which  it  was  to  be 
placed.  Usually,  the  sledges  were  drawn  hymen  yoked 
in  rows  to  separate  ropes,  all  pulling  at  a  ring  fixed  to 
the  block.  Where  it  was  possible,  the  blocks  were 
brought  from  the  quarries  on  fhit-bottomed  boats  on  the 
Nile.  But  the  transport  of  these  large  masses  was 
much  more  easily  accomplished  than  the  placing  of  them 
in  elevated  situations  in  the  buildings.  They  were 
raised  by  the  power  of  levers  and  inclined  planes  at 
innnense  trouble  and  cost.  One  of  the  largest  is  the 
lintel  over  the  doorway  leading  into  the  gnind  hall  at 
Kamac;  it  measures  40  feet  10  inches  long,  and  five 
feet  h(|uai*e.  It  is  undeiftood  that  slaves  or  captives 
furnished  a  large  share  of  the  moving  force  in  the.«4 
undertakings  ;  but  besides  these  there  were  a  varietv  of 
classes  of  workers,  each  carefully  trained  in  the  perfor- 
mance of  his  own  jiarticular  duty ;  lor  instance,  in 
dragging  the  blocks,  there  were  employed  slaves  to  pull, 
guards  to  watch,  task-ma>ters  to  regulate  the  oiieration.*-, 
men  with  jai-s  to  tiirow  water  on  tht^  ground  before  the 
sled<;esy  and,  lastly,  a  juTson  whose  duty  consiste«i  in 
marking  the  time  to  the  cadiuce  of  a  song  to  ensure  a 
simultaneous  draught.  This  practice  of  shouting  or 
singing  to  mark  time  during  work,  as  still  customary 
among  sailors,  is  of  extremely  ancient  dat*-,  being  alluded 
to  in  the  book  of  Jeremiah,  xxv.  30  : — "  lie  shall  give 
a  shout  as  they  that  tread  out  the  grapes." 

The  most  extniorilinary  of  the  customs  of  this 
remarkable  peoj)le  was  that  of  emhalming  their  deatl 
bodies  with  a  view  to  perpetual  preservation  in  the  tomb. 
The  business  of  embalming  was  very  dignifi(.tl,  and  was 
aided  by  a  host  of  inferi<»r  functiunaries  who  made  and 
painted  coflins  and  other  articles  which  were  required. 
The  bodies  of  the  poorer  cLiiM's  were  merely  dried  with 
salt  or  natmn,  and  wrapt  up  in  coar.-e  cloths,  ami 
dep<»Mtod  in  the  catacombs.  The  bodies  of  the  rich  and 
givat  underwent  the  m(i>t  coin]dicated  operations, 
wrapp<d  in  bandages  dippi'd  in  balsiim,  and  laboriouslv 
adorned  with  all  kinds  of  ornaments.  Thua  pre|ian.tl, 
they  were  placed  in  highly-decorated  easoj*  or  coffins, 
and  then  eonsii;ne<l  to  sarcophagi  in  the  catacomb**, 
or  ])yramids.  Bodies  so  j»reserved  have  Ihmmi  ealhil 
nunnmies,  from  the  Arabian  word  momia,  or  the  Coptie 
mum,  signifying  bitumen  or  wax.  The  quantity  of  nunn- 
mies rarrie<l  off  in  mi»dern  times  to  Kngianil,  Franc*', 
and  indreil  I'Very  Kuiiipean  country,  has  been  very  ciui- 
sideralil'.'.  The  collection  of  them,  and  other  Egyptian 
auti<[niti('s,  ill  th.e  I'riti^h  .Mn«onm,  Jjj  very  extensive. 


ANCIENT  HISTORY— EGYPT. 


XEB£S1£T  AU. — MODERN  EGYPT. 

Mclieroet  or  Mahomet  Ali,  the  modem  reformer  and 
pacfaa  of  £g}'pt,  was  born  at  Cavallo,  in  Kuuniclia,  a 
{•rl  of  European  Turkey.     His  parents,  who  were  of 
aliamble  condition  of  life,  had  a  family  of  sixteen  chil- 
divn,  of  whom  he  was  the  youngest ;  and  being  a  greater 
CiTourito  than  hia  brothers  and  sisters,  he  in  early  life 
bfcame  aceuatomed  to  indulgences,  and  to  be  impatient 
of  the  control  of  superiors.     His  youth,  it  has  been  re- 
lated, wma  partly  spent  in  the  service  of  a  tobacconist ; 
bot  lesTing  thia  employment,  which  was  unsuitable  to 
his  genius,  be  entered  Uie  Turkish  army  as  a  common 
soldier,  at  a  time  when  troops  were  raising  in  his  native 
dj»trict.     Thia  was  the  sphere  of  life  in  which  he  was 
ealeuliited  to  shine.   Distinguishing  himself  as  a  soldier 
by  hia  bold  and  skilful  conduct,  he  soon  attracted  the 
sitention  of  beys,  {lachas,  and  the  sultan  hiniKelf ;  and 
having  attained  a  prominent  position  in  the  bloody  wars 
that  diatraeted  Kgypt  under  the  Mamelukes,  he  rose 
to  be  Pacha,  or  Viceroy,  of  Egypt,  one  of  the  highest 
pofta  of  honour  in  the  whole  Turkish  empire.      On 
geCtiDg  the  command  of  that   province,  bo  speedily 
Uwwcd  that  he  was  no  ordinary  man.     He  established 
a  retinlaHy  paid,  disciplined,  and  armed  military  force, 
oo  una  European  plan,  instead  of  the  irregular  bands 
of  Ben  serving  aa  soldiers  in  Egypt.     The  remnant  of 
the  Mamelukes,  that  remarkable  body  of  men,  which 
since    the  days  of  Saladin  had  practically   governed 
Egypt  by  overawing  the  viceregal  authority,  he  anni- 
hilated, and  thus  became  the  uncontrolled  lord  of  the 
land  of  the  Pharaohs,  Ptolemies,  Cu,*sant,  and  Caliphs. 
By  the  atrictnesa  of  his  government,  he  rendered  Kgypt 
aa  safe  to  travellers  aa  any  ordinary  civilised  country. 
Agncnltnre,  commerce,  manufactures,  all  engaged  his 
atiention ;  and  though  his  reforms  were  acctmtplishcd 
with  a  despotic  hand,  perhaps  with  no  small  degree  of 
CTvelCy,  hia  conduct  deserves  our  approbation.    He  may 
be  rr^T,  cmel,  and  treacherous,  still  he  has  pi-odigi- 
euly  a<fvanced  the  cause  of  civilisation  and  improve- 
ment in  Egypt,  and  opened  the  way  for  further  and 
more  important  reforms. 

Mchemet  Ali  has  a  family  of  several  sons,  the  eldest 

of  whom,  Ibrahim  Pacha,  acts  as  commander-in-chief 

fif  fail  troops,  and  is  understood  to  be  of  a  less  liagaeious 

mind  than  hia  father.     It  is  incontentible  that  Meheniet 

Ah  has  done  much  to  further  the  advancement  of  eivi- 

hiation  in  modem  Egypt,  but  the  whole  of  his  efl'orts 

have  at  the  same  time  tended  to  pergonal  aggrandise- 

Bient,  and  to  the  complete  subjection  of  the  i>eople  to 

hm  vilL     In  order  to  maintain  his  authority,  he  raises 

troopa  firom  amongst  the  male  population  by  the  most 

tynuinicni  means;  and  so  much  is  this  forced  military 

service  detested,  that  great   n umbel's  of  young  men 

mtslate  themselves,  by  destroying  an  eye  or  cutting 

«ff  one  or  more  fingers,  in  order  to  escape  the  coni?crip- 

Qon.     Having  been  lately  driven  from  Syria,  with  a 

Bmspect  of  being  ]>ermaneiitly  confined  to  Egypt,  it  is 

ftkelv  that  the  pacha  will  relax  the  excessive  military 

borjraa  of  the  people.     In  the  meanwhile,  his  lust  of 

eaoqacat  baa  led  to  the  exaction  of  taxes  to  a  degree 

aiaogether  unheard  of  in  any  country  laying  claim  to 

cmuaAtion.    "  Hia  revenue,"  (fays  Mr  Lane,*  "  is  genc- 

ibUj   aaid   to  amount   to  about  £3,00O,0U0   sterling. 

Htmrhr  half  arisea  from  the  direct  taxes  on  land,  and 

frvB  mdirect  exactions  from  the  fellaheen  (fellahs  or 

agncnitnriais),  the  remainder  principally  from  the  cus- 

um-taxea,  the  tax  on  palm-trees,  a  kind  of  income  tax, 

and  the  aale  of  various  productions  of  the  laud  [no  one 

beinc  oemitted  to  export  corn  or  cotton  but  himself]  ; 

hf  wbidb  aale,  the  government,  in  most  instances,  ob- 

taioa  a  profit  of  more  than  fifty  per  cent.    The  present 

fflcbm  baa  tncTeaaed  hia  revenue  to  this  amount  by  the 

most  oppmaiire  meaaurea.      He  has  dispossessed  of 

tbcir  luda  all  the  private  proprietors  throughout  his 

dLuiniona,  allotting  to  each,  as  a  partial  compensa- 


1 


Aeocmt  of  the  3ranoeR»  ond  Cu> tents  i>f  :'■ 

7» 


3Il  «ltTll    l't!}l>- 


tion,  a  pension  for  hfe  proportioned  to  tho  extent  and 
quality  of  the  land  which  belonged  to  him.  The  far- 
mer has,  therefore,  nothing  to  leave  to  his  children  but 
his  hut,  and  perhaps  a  few  cattlo  and  some  small 
savings. 

The  direct  taxes  on  land  are  proportioned  to  the 
natural  advantages  of  tho  soil.     Their  average  amount 
is  about  8s.  per  feddan,  which  is  nearly  equal  to  an 
Engli.^h  acre.     But  the  cultivator  can  never  calculate 
exactly  the  full  amount  of  what  tho  government  will 
require  of  him :  he  sutlers  from  indirect  exactions  of 
quantities  (diH'ering  in  difierent  yeaiv,  but  always  levied 
per  feddan)  of  butter,  honey,  wax,  wool,  baskets  of 
palm-leaves,  ropes  of  the  fibres  of  the  palm-tree,  and 
other  commodities ;  he  is  also  obliged  to  pay  the  hire 
of  the  camels  which  convey  his  grain  to  the  govern- 
ment shooneh  (or  granary),  and  to  defray  various  other 
expenses.  A  portion  of  the  produce  of  his  land  is  taken 
by  the  govenmient,  and  sometimes  the  whole  produce, 
at  a  fixed  and  fair  price,  which,  however,  in  many  parts 
of  Egypt,  is  retained  to  make  up  for  the  debts  of  the 
insolvent  peasants.     The   fellah,  to   supply  the   bare 
necessaries  of  life,  is  often  obliged  to  steal,  and  convey 
secretly  to  his  hut,  as  much  as  he  can  of  the  produce 
of  his  land.     He  may  either  himself  supply  the  seed 
for  his  land,  or  obtain  it  as  a  loan  from  the  govern- 
ment ;  but  in  the  latter  case  he  seldom  obtains  a  suffi- 
cient quantity  ;  a  considerable  portion  being  generally 
stolen  by  the  persons  through  whose  hands  it  passes 
before  he  receives  it.     It  would  be  scarcely  possible 
for  them  to  sufl'er  more,  and  live.     It  may  bo  hardly 
necessary,  therefore,  to  add,  that  few  of*  the  fellahs 
engage  with  assiduity  in  the  labours  of  agriculture, 
unless  compelled  to  do  so  by  their  superiors.     Tho 
pacha  has  not  only  taken   possession  of  tho  lands  of 
the  private  proprietors,  but  ho  has  also  thrown  into 
his  treasury  a  considerable  proportion  of  the  incomes 
of  religious  and  charitable  institutions,  deeming  their 
accumulated  wealth  superfluous.     He  first  im]>oHed  a 
tax  (of  nearly  half  the  amount  of  the  regular  land-tax) 
upon  all  land  which  had  become  a  truck/  (or  legacy 
unalienable  by  law)  to  any  n)08qnc,  fountain,  public 
Hchool,  &LC. ;  and  aftt^rwards  took  absolute  po^i^efrsion  of 
such  lands,  granting  certain  annuities  in  lieu  of  them, 
for  keeping  in  repair  the  respective  buildings,  and  for 
the  maintenance  of  tho!>e  pfr!>onH  attached  to  them,  aa 
nazirs  (or  wardens),  religious  ministers,  inferior  ser- 
vants, students,  and  other  pensioners."     Mr  Lane  sub- 
sequently  mentions,   that   sometimes    the    poverty  of 
parents  causes  them  to  sell  their  children  to  any  one 
who  will  purchase  them,  which   presents  a  shocking 
idea  of  the  degraded  condition  of  the  humble  order  of 
modern  Egyptians. 

In  pursuing  his  ^chemes  of  improvement  and  family 
aggrandisement,  Meheniet  Ali  acts  as  a  despotic  mono- 
polist in  all  niattei*s  relating  to  both  agriculture  and 
commerce.  He  not  only  dictates  what  artielc  of  pro- 
duce shall  be  cultivated,  but  the  price  at  which  it  shall 
be  sold.  According  to  Dr  Bowring,  it  appears  that  in 
1034,  the  country  produced  about  5O0.M(M»  (]uarters  of 
wheat,  4.)0,000  quarters  of  dourah,  40(».0<)0  of  beans, 
2JJ0,0()0  of  barley,  and  80,000  of  maize.  ( »f  wheat,  how- 
ever, the  produce  sometimes  rifles  to  1 ,000,000  of  quar- 
ters. Dourah  or  Indian  millet  {sorghum  rulgarA  is  used 
for  bread  by  the  fellahs  or  labourers.  It  is  tlie  same 
plant  which  is  raised  in  the  West  Indies  for  f(K>d  to  tho 
negroes,  under  the  name  of  Guinea  corn.  Its  price  is 
30  or  40  per  cent,  below  that  of  wheat.  The  helbch  is 
a  coarser  seed,  sometimes  mixed  with  it.  The  average 
price  of  wheat  is  from  20s.  to  'J7s.  per  quarter  at  Cairo, 
but  in  years  of  scarcity  it  ris*»s  to  bOs.  Egypt  is  gene- 
rally an  exporting  country,  but  in  1U37  it  was  forced 
to  draw  supplies  from  abroad.  The  cultivation  of  cot- 
ton was  introduced  by  the  pacha  very  recentlv,  aud 
succeeds  w«'ll,  the  exports  of  this  article  in  1  )I34  Iiaving 
bwn  'JoOjOOO  cwtF. ;  but  as  the  governnieni  is  the  exclu- 
sive purchaser,  and  only  gives  what  pri(?c  it  pleases,  the 
fellahs  would  not  raise  it  unless  ci^mpelled  by  the  des* 
i  potiu  mandates  of  tho  pacha.     He  has  endeavoured  to 


CIIAMKKKSS  INIOU.MATION  VO\{  TllK  I'EorLE. 


rxtczid  ihccu!ii'.Mii'iii  rt  £<u;;.ir.  lia>  intn  •lud  d  ii'.i|>r'jVLd 
5'j;;ar-i»iil!s  a»'i  bnmi;!:!  j'»TM.ris  fruiiitliL'  Itrltl-ii  ci'i<i- 
nii's  tii  distil  mm.  iliha-^  ai^i  iiniu-d  Ariiu  iii..::-^  irmii 
>niyma  rmd  the  Last  lii'lics,  Ui  i«ncli  Ins  jmi  plr  i:'»\v  tu 
cultivate  r'{>iuiu  and  iiiili;;(i,  And  ]<n'|>arc  tlu-in  U>v  l\.v 
inavuc!.  '1  lu  re  an*  about  two  niuii<'iiH  of  datt*  tn-c^  in 
K;»vj.t,  caili  <»f  whiidi  viild>  l.y  iis  fruit  fi«  ni  JJs.  l«i  l:i.-. 
I  or  annum.  A  fi'w  att(.'ini>ts  lia\e  1h.'(':i  madi>  tu  intro- 
(iucL*  tlic  vM'.c  ( Miiiin  are  htill  pr<'ducedand  conKuincd 
in  i>ri'dii;iou»  <|uan'.i:ii->,  as  in  th'-  da}.->  uf  Ilcrodntus. 
'ihe  paeini  ha*(  ('•>tabli>In'I  Tiiodcl  tanns,  ^%itli  iniprrivt-d 
lduu;:Iis,  i^(*.,  but  (-v(M)  \'i-  dr'-i'ntihni  cnnndt  induct*  the 
|it'0|ilo  t«)  abandon  tlieir  ancirnt  ruile  pi'tictsacs  and  iin- 
{•Icnivnts. 

The  paclia  i<  a  ^rrat  nia!::ir.iotui'c-r.  lie  hiiA  built 
largo  ni:iN,  and  (irpcnrLAl  ^l.ii^.'d  worMinn-n  at  a  i^n-ai 
r\|K'nse  fri»ni  Franer,  Italy,  'Imnany,  Lieli;iuni,  aipi 
iiritain,  t-i  cuntluct  thcin.  Ho  has  nianufae(<'riis  nf  eoL- 
fnn  jarn  isnd  cotion  cloth,  wnollen-,  rarpels,  irnnwai'i*. 
inui>ket«,  cannon,  baytinets,  ;;uni-u\\der,  «vc.  All  llu-^c 
estnblishnicntH  are  hilieved  t«i  be  attrp.drd  with  lot-:-  \n 
his  hislnu><,  and  in  M>nie  ea-i-s  the  In.-^s  is  Ip.avy.  M  s 
h]dnnii.;^-nnlI.H  for  C'tt  -n  ar;-  the  ni(>7*t  exteuMxe  <>f  Lis 
nianufaetorie**.  Tin  re  ar<-  iwiMitv-two  of  ilu'>e.  whirh. 
acciii'ilin^  to  I)i*  IJowrln;;.  }>ri>i^u*i-  about  'Jlo,00U  rutt<>u 
(>f  }arn  inonth'y.  ol  viuloii-  ijualiiiv^i,  from  c,  ar.><e  to 
**  very  iine."  Thi-  (\iiri»  r-  tri.ii  is,  wo  biiieve,  ju.-t  cijual 
to  the  Ih'iti-^ii  ]>iiunil,  while  the  Ah  xanilruiu  ratht-r 
cxe.  fd.^  two  j:.und.-«.  Ti'*  fi.n.H-r,  we  .-i:|»|»<)c-e,  is  the 
\ici^ht  alluiltd  to  in  this  iii>tunee  ;  but  a't  liie  ce>?t  of  this 
yarn  to  tip*  paeha  is  s-aiil  to  be  n\i]\  L..VJ7('.  we  husj>ivt 
iheiv  irt  some  niiMul.e  i:i  r'ri'  stati-nient.  Ti:e  men  aie 
]»aid  fixid  w;i^es.  ^i-aei'ally  al.-out  twopence  per  day. 
and  they  arc  punisl.i.l  mIiIi  the  lanh  for  bad  work  or 
niisri-i'iduer.  The  pa^-ha  i:as  three  manufactories  ot 
anuK-,  which  turn  tiut  l^-tm  nnisketd  and  bayonets  ]ur 
month.  T:ii-  lar,;*  st  one  i:«  niana;;ed  by  an  Kn^^lishniaii, 
who  has  flvu  other  Kii.:*ii.  Imun  anil  a  liUntb.-rol'  Ari.b^ 
uud;r  liim. 

All  ii-..\e!ii  rs  rt-piist  nt  MdK-met  Ali  ;.:i  a  ]-  r  -n  oi 
I  lain  and  at<':<.b!i' rainier-  ui  ;>i'ivale  ):.'•',  and  fi<n«i  i.Mii;^ 
lannly.  l)r  I-  -"Arin^  »pei»Kji  of  1; i ni  as  tul !•-«}>:—*•  Mrlie- 
uui  All  wa-  f  •ilv-:  i\  \ear»  »  11  liiUnr  I:e  had  karned 
either  to  iia  I  or  t--  wrii.'.  Tl.ii  !••'  i<'l>i  jiiC  him-  *]f.  I 
ha\i'hcaiil  ti.al  he  w;..-  tiin;:hl  I  y  hi^iiivniiite  wile.  Ihit 
he  i:.  f  :«  I  ot  ii  .riii.^  i.nv,  ;  ;,-.ii  -  ij-  il.iy.  wh.  ri  I  i  :i!er«  d 

I  I'i  iliv.in   I  n..iii.>'U.  V  ■  >!.  1  ftM.d  !  i:ii  iii-.i!-  ;■.]t.\^^ ,  wiili 
lii';  .'-I  •  e!.ifli  -  I  11,  ii;   \'.:^  .:  'in:....  ..  \i  Idn-i'.   wliicli   l.i 

w:i<  I'liii'i.  I  ii>i\  ii.'.-,  N\l:i!-.-  :•.  ei-ii^.'li  iahli*  i  iie  i  i  bi  (<L^ 
wiTf  by  l...^i!v.  '  It  i- a  j!i  .L>;ini  I  iil,' l.r  ^:  iil,*lri  n: 
public  I  ;:.  I!  ■  :  1  '.\..>  i^.niii  l;  "I'ln.-  ai:ni.-inu'  TurLi*ii 
fctiirii'-i' ([iril-i.i  Iv  I...;  A1.1I11..11  Nij^iii.-):  ':iii«l  n.iw  k: 

II  <<  1. 1  Ik  -  \^\<iii  'ii.'>i'  \<u  t<>ti.!i  n^i- .'  iiKii  i-«  a  ;'ri..; 
deal  III  yii-.:  .•  .'\  in  Me!ii.-i;il  Aii'a  convcr-ation.  pari.- 
iriiiai'iY  -.•mn  !.<  !%n■•^v^>  i-rdi  ooV4i>.  .'is  he  u-iiall\  lio*  -x. 
the  Mitt  iT  i:::i<rii:a!'.>'n  wiiieh  hi.i  vj-ii.-r  i>«  mi>r-t  al  !e  !•• 
};i\i.  Ill-  di.-i'i>ui-M->  wi.i^  iivini  -  r-^  :.!•  u:  ineeliai.ieal 
iiiipi-i  \\\\\'  nr  -with  i'!.:iMr\  nun  •  n  the  art  i-f  war — 
V  ill:  >ra-<irie<  i>>  1  ii  ^I'lp-l-nildini;  ai.  I  i^ava!  i..".r-iuvi'<  :• 
—  witii  ir.iVi  \\  ■t>  I  :i  ti  <•  innnlin  ■<  ihey  h.\.\  •  \.>iU'u — 
Wiiii  |.'!  '.leiaii.i  i-li  |  :  liiii*a:iaii'-.  llevrry  wi!lii;;;.y  talki 
of  fi'ii  ■.'  1  I''  li'iti'i  -,  and  ]  I'iiiei's  :ii,il  .  ;ali  >in>  n,  a::i 
i-<  !ii  :).-  i-.il  it  I  :  iii-:-L'<!'i.r  m  tl.r  e-  km  :.-.::ii<n  aii  .  '!(■> 
«f  :»•!•  1-.'.  '■  -  .il  "111  bin:  .  :.,  Mid  i"  v  1  m  i;:i  e.-ni;-  i  :>  d 
w.iii  hi-  hi  *-  r\.  II;.'  ]  hi.  -  -  ale  ol:.  ti  i  ■■!  He:-.!,  aiil. 
li.--  iiu-l  « >i  I'  ii'.ir-.  ].^•  fn  'ji:-  •it!\  it  iri-'lnei!-  prnvi'i):- 
ai:  L  it.i;i:;<  r^ .  I  I  ■  .ird  him  i  i.e  ■  »..v.  pi.iiwd.;  i-l  :!:> 
a.- 1 .1'l.'in-   •  1  1.  :*  i>r.  *  \\  i  •  n  I  ejun    i»  i!.-  c-<ii:i.r\.  I 

I  ii.\  -I'l  i;'I.  l  j:  with  :i  I'll!  :  I  la\e  I'ow  su^-oj  til- ■!  :u 
Cii.li\:i:.::  :  \'.  »'i:li  a  i.  ■  ;  but  -oiiM  1  wi.l  iia\i-  :;  |'!iej-:i 
ji:,-.i  ^  •■*•  I-    " 


''.'■  wii-..;-'  iiii.-l.' 

'..  '  ■  .rie.i'.  J  i.I  ■  is  Ibrahim  I'.nha  ;  a  v'.f- 

(>  I  ■  '1  '  I*  ai   :   i"  a.  ■s:i\     .  *.  Kbirei  I  1^   iiiiii':i::  •!!  ami-i.'* 

M  i;--i:.i:  :  ..   ..id   lii.ii.iiii  I'arh.i'-  i  ..i«  •  r  li::- bi ''ii  i  lit- 

of    b).i.:.i>.'    :..  ..'..iiv    *'iieei -><».      Ki*^    f.ilh*  r    1      :>iiiil   of 

11.^'     :  h:     I  .    :-bi.i'ii  "H  aiiil  nit"  ii'leii    i.Lei.-n  r.  '  I 

- .'  .'..'f'H  Jii//:,'  J."  f-.-i.  i ;  *  I  bad  i;ot  an  unbuundeU 

'jst"  /"  I  nil  *  rti  .tu:,  imttiv  mai    ;  i  •-.  rot  till  l..r 

-J«i.   ..•'!,,-    t  a-  1  /..;.».  fi:y  f  ■.»ii,;if.  i  ..km  eij.iitj;ii!;; 

'.ri 


its  c<ib»i:i-,'  ;.ti>l  the  i«^ii-!i.l  i  >  nic ;  *  but  mm-  I 
th.>:'i>n\:iiiy  ::'<.-'  him.*  c-i  th--  part  of  Ibrahim  1 
tiiere  is  a....:xs  tlie  utmi .-.  «'.  .-.  rvnce  to  Mt  heou-i 
w-;il.  *  1  ha\e  In ,'ii  very  happy  in  my  chiMr.  n,' 
In  iiiet  .\ii  h;.iil  to  me  e:i-'  il:.y :  *  (here  is  2;.it  u 
them  wlio  diiis  not  tnat  me  villi  ti.e  utmo'^t  dcfo 
and  re.sj»ecl.'  "' 

Notwitli-'.indin!;  the  impi-<*vi  ni  nr.s  ia  educ 
c;'.rrie«i  iisM  <  Ihet  bv  Mehenut  .Mi,  tl.e  more  K^\^ 
eia.'se-t  Ml  mi-ih'in  r.jvi-tare  e\ci.i  nii.'iv  i::iio:'.int. 
t"arn  li.'in  .Mr  Lane  that '^ina.iv  i-i  i.:e  tr.ide.  1:: 
t'aim  can  neitln  r  read  v.  \v  -a  :i:i-,  i.r  c.tii  i«idv  n  ai' 
.■•.r«'  <ib::jed  to  l.uvf  n-coiii'^o  to  a  l"ienil  t-i  writo 
accou I  :*.::.  hller-'.  iVc. ;  but  ihi-se  pfrnn:.-  ;:•  ne;-;'.ll; 
acciiUiitsand  inai.eiiitrica:ee.iieulu!ions  ni'  {;:aiiv 
:<ui-pii.>ni;^  rapidity  and  Oiirr«?ctne-.i."'  '■•■ii'ial  i 
inp;  is  eoiiiinrd  witiiin  vcrv  narrow-  lii.ij.  •.  Vi  r 
persuiiji  "  study  mt-dieinc,  eii'-miitry,  mailieiiia!i< 
a>ti-».ii.iiiiy.  The  Kpypiian  nn  dical  and  hur^'itvl 
titioneivi  are  mo>ilv  b.irbers,  ml.-^erutIv  i;:nor.i:i'.  1 
.•-eiences  which  they  pr<ite«*<i.  and  iiit:=kili'ul  in  their 
titv,  partly  in  eoa-ii  «iiM'nce  i-f  th(  ir  ln-Injj  prijl: 
by  their  religion  fr«<m  avuitin<;  thcniM-iveii  <  f  the  a 
tap'  of  dih^ectinu  human  b>>dii>>.  lint  a  mitiib 
voiiiii;  men,  iiativrs  of  Kp\pt,  ai*-'  nov  reci  \\i\\z 
ptan  in- 1 ruction  in  medicine,  ;iuatii!ii\,  snr;;ery 
iiil:er  sciences,  for  the  urvicc  otihe  i»oi  iTntv. ••!::. 
(•f  the  li>];yptiar<«,  in  illnesr^,  n:  .;1e^*t  m-  dii-iil  aid,  pi 
their  w  hole  ri'liiince  on  I'rovidence  or  e'.ariiif.  Ale 
i.s  more  htudicd  in  this  country  than  pure  rhcni! 
and  u.-troloiry  mort;  than  astronomy.  T<i  suiy  th: 
i'arth  revulves  roim<I  the  sun,  thev  consider  a!-- 
herci«y.  of  jjooijn-.phy,  the  ]i;rypiians  ni  ;;  .*;■.! a! 
with  ^ery  b-w  exci-ptioii-,  tin;  best  in^iruct  -iI  a 
(iieiii,  ba\c  scarcely  any  knowi'.'d;;!' ;  havini;  no 
map*',  they  are  almost  v. i. oily  i;j[nur..nt  of  i.ie  pp 
iitnaii  •■.i.-  oi'iiie  :>e>eral  :.re.iteiiiiitri'  -of  Kuroj«». 
b.w  I'f  the  leariifii  veniure  Id  a-J-ert  that  the  eai 
a  ^lidi.',  but  lb- y  are  oj.;i  .1  by  a  j^reat  ii;ajor 
tile  nulania.  The  c\inunon  ujiLnli  n  of  a!]  ckv.H 
.M«'.Nli-ms  is,  thai  tin;  earth  L?  :.n  almost  ]  innc  exj! 
MiiU'unili'd  by  tin;  ocean,  wiileh,  tiny  -ay,  i«i  eii 
pa-'i».  1  by  II  ehain  of  mountains  ealb  d  t  ktij." 
\'s.i\\':i,  the  ei'iiditiuii  of  ^-lu  ral  I.r. -vv led  1:0  umof'.. 
lii'iiiern  ii:iypUans,  it  does  nut  n.:,  i'i-vu<  to  b-rTi 
l!i' V  l..iM>ur  until  r  llie  m  ■*-t  ri  .  -.i  n.s  sn-ti  i.' 
ao'l  bt  iii\i- ill  sliL- p''\'-.  r«i  !■;  !  j>'.  Mr  Laiif  r 
?•!■  t!:-  J  ■■■;■'.■,  ;.:;;■!■.•,,•'.»!;  1  1  i  iivcil  I  ,r  :  onie 
;."•  I'.  :.':  <  ■ .  iTi  ai  i:J::  :  ai.l  <'■  e  i^iiil  •!.■ : '.--iTion 
.  e^o-.;.:"  .  inr  th^-e  ai.'i  o'i  ;■  \iei'*  bv  ti;.'  maiin< 
\»..«li  iii"y  are  ;:i'oniiil  ni.ivr  :?  iMj'iic.  n.s  a:e|  t; 
I  .c.;i  ^;.  t.  :.i  of  £r«ivi>rnm( :.'.  I A  a  •in-^uiar  Cf>ntr 
ti'Mi  i:i  eh;;racl-r,  **  li  ■.  ;:.  ■  .-.  ..'.ai,.  horiCJit  il 
piiMi.'iit  of  ikbl.-'.  'Ineir  pi.jiiel  a  -■.■•.■•.1,  that 
n)::i;M-.i(. Ill  Would  Di.t  ainni- i  v  w  il<  1 :  n:i  I'-oha 
l\\v  uf  litem  e\ir  a.-.'ej  t  i::t^i  ■  i.-r  .1  I>  .m  1  f  n;, 
a.-  i*.  i«»  strietiv  for  hi  !..■  n  1  •.  ;li'.  ir  !.tw.*' 

npj.i-« :  >i-.l  J,-,  i;:'  it  III  L;j:\pt  i-,  it  i<  ^:,;.v:ui: 
I'etb  e*  th^t  it  is  in.j  xii\ ii;.;  1.1  \:  .i><n-i  i<  ■•  t-  i 
C'MiditiiiU.  Ihi'  p:i«.i  :.  ha  >  )nlr<  die.i  d  a  iiiiiij'l-.'r  (< 
t>  ll):;<  nl  liurniians  into  !:s  niiiiiarx  and  ei\  :i  bt-r^ 
rrinini:;  v-  ■.;-'.  »  \' eiiled  ;;l  li  n-ai*.  Mar  I'.iip- 
prL.  »  l:.i\i:  :  ii...  r.  j  n  d.ieid  I  V''  \\-.  -i  :i  lii::;drt- 
trri  i!t  bi.i  . ,;  -  ill  the  .V.abic  la.im... .  .  !■  i*  i';if  11  ■■•  . 
iiiiiitM'X,  I  .;\;i  .  and  eivil  :i  l^a'i>  ■■;  Ii.-.  .;t.\iiiii 
A  n- w>|  api  r  :'.:1  ;.:i  aniui  il  ;.'i  .'.li.ii'  .ire  ;.".~.j  j 
iarl_\  pr.nt..  I  u\  iinn";.-.*.  A  e. .i:-i.l.  ;v.i!  •  Nt-tijt 
ini]<iirt  tr.iiie  i-^  n<.w  laiiii.d  1  :■.  \'v  ■  «\  pr  .huv  e 
e'inii;ry  l<ein:j  <  \ei;;i-  :■  li  i-r  : :.«  ;  ...  •".■.  .'inri.il  w  ji 
ei'*liiii.  Mil*,  a:.d  "'ih-  ;■  ;  i-^  ■  1  i  :  j  •.  'liit*rr.u 
i:.ili<  1  :.l  1*  .•  :  •-..-.:{. Ill  I  .  i,.ii:;  /  .i-ii..i.<'i  J  \,\-  tlie  I 
l..r  .ijri'ial  •  :  s:iani-\i-;  ■  i  ...  .*il.  vandi  i.i  Irtjm  M 
i-.-tiL,.i.iu'  i.t  -.-^  ■  r  l.nri'i  ■ .;:.  travel!- rit  n: id  p>  rkf:ns 
d's.^-i  I'  aei.iii;;  India  \t\  :.  i<<iirr.>y  from  L'iiii-<i  to; 
and  li.  I.e  '  i.\  -i.a:  .-h.i.ir-  «Uiwu  ihe  Ilcil  ^ea  lo  I 

.    ..."i:  I  .e.i'l  )-abl:»ii    1  ' .  W.  miil  K.  (  'H'-bls.-*,  1 ',  W  j 


CHAMBERS'S 

>RMATION  FOR   THE  PEOPLE. 

J  ar  WIU.IAM  A.  HODCRT  CIlAMDEitS  EDITOHS  OP  CHAMJIEnS-S 
tDIHIUman  JOITIHAL. 


iMrh  vi  povcr,  and  ouno  tn  W  tiwU^M  pabUc  aiBiia. 
lliD  ^^rptlMi  nilen  cnjninorf  thiiii  to  cot  cui«li  in 

-  «lth  the  Nllt.  (o  build  •rkU*  wid  raiiiivTtii 

.  D  mi^u  bnoki.  «nd  ui  [wrfonii  iitliur  Ixlio- 
liBw.  "  And  four  hundml  jebn  did  iLc/  ipcnd 
und*r  tlicse  ufllirtiomi  tor  thty  ■(rot»  ons  uunat  tbo 
ollicr  wblcli  Bhould  gat  tint  ntaxten',  llio  £^)>tijui* 
dwlritig  to  ilratroy  tile  Itinwlilo*  by  uIicm  W  —  -  ' 
tbn  Im'iclites  de«iiing  to  iiold  ant  te  the  (  _„ 
thimi."  rrom  the  descriftioii  of  tboir  ritnaUon  whloh  L 
given  in  Genesis,  nud  th»  nffi^pl.iiig  ulluiiotil  to  it  after* 
wurtla  iu  diOvrent  puesagot  iit  tiin  I^tnu,  it  ■ppcan 
Uieir  t^nuininJ  Biuilcn  viewed  Hum  witb  tbo 
— ijUBtiflnblo  luuvd,  CDClcnipt,  tiiil  ten*.    Tbiii 


( 


"itK^ 


CHAMBERS'S  INF()R5IATI0N  FOR  THi:  PEOPLE. 


Iraliied  l>y  Icrr 
lildcJ  by  Moscii,  fled 


rf  tLc  enrnitry  trete  iit  imt  ee 
tvUitw  tliL-ir  iiijurvil  iHinclmnon. 
Tlic  (iitiivWIy  t.r  li>mr:ii(-!: 
fnuii  LVjlt  ill  till.'  JKir  14:'"  ti 
nlii'U  Tlicbiw,  3l(-iii]i1iii,  awl  tliu  oilier  mnenifieciil 
ciliiit  lit  tlul  eiiDiiliT,  were  Li  nil  their  gfary.  l'r<>cc«l< 
iu;(  in  u  iuirtti-ciu>(in'lv  ilinHUiiiu  from  lUuicscn  (ncM 
tlu  Him  i>f  iniiiiiTu  Luim),  llioy  went  tliruugh  die  tint 
regyai  iif  llif  hud  >il  U'vlicQ  (iiuw  a  Lam-ii  eaiidj  (iliuu) 

to  til'-  in*diil  tlio  (lulf  of  Suez,  the       ' '■    ' 

Ibc  llnl  S'a.    lIi'iH*  thi-y  cru>«vd   _._ 

niaiiiiir  to  tint  n|<iH».tti!  flioiv,  tu a  s|«>t  iiuir  called  Ilia 
Wt'lN  iif  .Miwvii,  wiioi'O,  luxafdiag  tu  tlio  SrriiituTV  nai^ 
rativc,  they  nuz  llitir  rtmg  of  tliaiika;;>vii]g  for  thei' 
delivi'ranni.  iTio  cunntTy  in.irliiul]  tbov  Iiad  iii» 
ariivrd  wuh  r  iiurtiini  n[  Arabia  I'clrw.i,  caiuontuig  of : 
di«inal  biirnsi  wildi'mivH,  iiuw  callvil  llm  doH/rt  of 
yiusi,  fruiii  ilu>  |>riiiciial  tiKiuiitain  wliich  rises  witliin 
it.  ('Vein  tile  pnliit  ut  wliieli  ihc  Umcliiua  lind  crosiicd 
the  IW  Sra.  fn>ni  E:p7>t|  tliuy  vcre  wnductetl  by  n 
id  tt-diuuH  niuto  towards  t  lie  Framised 
oiieu  the  rcflidi-iico  ut  llicir  fiUlien. 
lu^xvd  iiuiji}  lay  nluitg  Ihc  casturo 


si  ein-DiliniAandi 
Land  at  Ciinani 


K  H  -,  ..■7:;r 


hnrdiT  of  the  fiiilf  of  Sue*  In  a  r-.a!:  I'lrmid  Mnuiit 
SiiKii :  iTicii,  iiirnii!^.  ilu.y  iir-wk-.l  u.-nriwanl  ns  far 
11-  lv3.1'*1i  lljrni;a:  In.ni  thai  tli>-vtiini(il  nmiaHiiitli- 
w»r.|  to  martliu  Wad  of  liii- tiulf  nf  Akalui  j  nqaiii. 
tli.-y  Ix'iit  llir.il-  wtiv  iiiirriiH:inl  iIiiiiukIi  tlio  vildrmou 
of /ill  fi  JlMint  I[..r,«!iviv  Aar..iiirari  Imri.-il.  llcin;; 
at  ilii-  |irniit  nliiod  a  ]<ii"4i|,v  ltiniu[;li  iliv  ii.unl 
till-  MuinrMtii  oi-  r:>l'iiiiii,'.,  iliiy  n'ln'at/>d  fthii; 

Eith  tijwiiieh  iLi-vlwl  cnti-n^  tin- d<-HTC  M,le; 
-fly  i!-niMl  11] []iL-  ]i;.iliih  iii'nr  llir:  ( UCt  of  Al 

nti.!  <wTi>i-a-:Miii~  nil  tliu  ^r>ulll  tin-  ;!in'l  r.f  JIl■ilI^  urriicili 
at  <;i;:!:il  in  lhi<  iT.uni.fl-.l  I.aii.1.*  TliiH  i.:iinriil  and 
•-- ' '   ■■-  -i..d..fti«tvy.i,rs 


«I1T>J.J 


ahI  till  nlliliv  lli'lin-wa  itlui  .. 

irui,viiiliiiillL<',vli.'ft  IlieljinliuK'.- 

'  '     '      i)lia<lUki1,snrlaiic»'Ki' 

iiide.uiliiU-nivin 


aiidJi 


Aliii.iiiy  liu>t  ^ucovilcd  tljiiu.  li 
x-"  •iiT:;-;\>  nliicli  ilk'y  w.™  Inl,  lliiii-  muUiluiUN  a? 
wii  h'iirn  ti  >in .Si-riiitunsciiuld  iiritbiT liavc  truciK] ihiir 
way  IMF  f:i''<i-iin'il  i-tib-.i-i.-nrt-,  witlient  ■  eiuitiiiucil  mi- 
rarl".  1  li>-  haii.l  if  find  l>niii;,']it  E>r  tbiii  btrvanis  uf 
watiT  nut  I't  till-  lliuiy  riH-k  j  niinnl  manna  ur  bread 
fr-iii  Iicav,  II ;  ;.t>.|  ^,vt.  a  j.iUar  „f  cloud  ti,  Uireet  llieii- 

>nnlkd,  In  ^voi  In  tin-  i.iitcr  fcin  ..r  iii,'  jm^nt  'Juvi. 


iveml  tbc  tnblM  uf  a  moral  law,  eouipreh' 
the  ten  cuuinianiliiienlti,  1i>  Mimes  their  liailei 
(Pivc  out  B  Ki-t  uf  ivgulaliiins  fur  the  cen-mm 
wnivliiii,  lh<  eHtablidiniont  of  a  iwpaiDlo  ncdcr  d 
to  rt'tii^on  and  hnmiiiip,  and  for  thcisTil  |;o*vmD 
tlie  uaiiim.  Thuy  had  uiu>  a  rveular  pvlity  and  i 
Intra,  Kbeii  nuiM  otlior  natiuiin  kutw  uuly  tha  luw 
ETTord,  ur  uf  faiiise  animal  >u|ii'norIly. 

Tlic  pouiilry  I'li  the  eliore  of  Ihu  Klediten 
wbicli  wan  ulluitt'd  aa  a  Hetlli-mnit  tu  ihiit  i>i,i'i>l 
at  that  time  oecuiucd  by  many  wnrlike  iriiiti 
had  grown  tirunij  in  its  fertile  iilaiiiK  and  vallevi 
Iho  gi^iuratiuo  uf  tlio  Ilehniw^  who  weru  uun. 
into  it  neni  compelled  tu  light  tor  iu  iWH-i;ii:-iuii. 
Ktrugglo  ituH  not  of  long  continuance.  The  ai-t 
llio  Aniinouitca  nud  Cnuaaiiitcs  wore  defoHted  ou< 
another  in  rapid  Bucccstnun ;  and  the  alarm  wlii. 
di?(i:rrcd  tlieir  fathers frutn  nuikingtho  attack,  n 
Iransfemid  In  their  enemies,  wlio  fi-ared  it.  '1' 
Urai'liliM  liad  Hiid  iu  the  di'H'rt,  "  We  ui-e  in  oi 
sialic  aa  grasahopiicm  licfuru  ihi.'so  luiiu  of  Anok 
the  Lord  hn>u;-lit  us  out  uf  tlic  hmd  uf  Ii^ypt  to 
the  Bword  of  this  pcoplcl"  But  the  nuw  gciK 
hadalimer  conlideiieeiu  the  help  nhiiji  was  |^n 


ripirit  in  ilidu  any  mure,  because  of  the  child 
lEi-ucl."  Tlw  hiud  wa«  coiKiuvred  in  the  yeai 
bcforo  Llirint. 

According  to  tlio  account  civcn  In  the  -'ilh  c 
of  thu  book  uf  NauibciB,  the  llcbrew  nation  ihus  h 
uul  of  ttiD  land  otKgypt  Olid  sett  led  in  Cajuiati,iiin> 
to  r<0\,73l)  Euuls,  unto  wliom  the  land  won  divi.l 
an  inheritance,  aceurilin;  Iu  the  u  umber  of  iiidivid 
the  rcs|icctivo  tiibcs.  'Jlio  tribes,  and  their  ti 
■nun  abiiVL-  twenty  yenm  nl  age,  were  r«ckuurd 
low :— Tribe  ef  lli'Ulicii  (the  eldest  aonnf  Jacob)  t 
Siim-oD  S-2,iKI0;  GadJIi^U;  Judah  jajiMi  i^t 
m^O;  /i-lnilun  liiipVill;  ilanasseli  .V.',;iiU;  Ki 
SifiV"  (the  liiliLW  iir  Alanahnh  and  Kpliraiqi  wei 
fruin  JoKcpli);  Iti'iijanlin  45,11(10;  Ilan  K4,4IHI ; 
.'illi-lliO ;  and  KapliiJuUl  4.V''l>-  Amnug  thcie 
triluM  file  lanil  wm  ilivided.  The  trilia  nt  L 
nhleh  bilonged  Mm-es,  Aorun,  and  Kli-uier  Ih 
priLsl),  amuuiiling  t<i  :!:;,uiiO  inahia  from  a  mwi 
and  upwanU,  nxiivt.'d  mi  sliare  of  thi-  hml :  b*i 
apart  for  tlw  [•rivsthuiHl,  the  liiith  ur  tillie  uf  ilie  g 
jiroducc  was  aNd^ovd  ttwm  as  their  pcrpelnal  i 
taiieu.  Ity  milking  a.  cpeeial  af^-enumt  with  llie 
tribes  ihni  they  Kliould  awiht  them  agaiiiht  the  en 
i-iicniy,  thu  too  trilK'Si'f  Uad.-indltcubun.aiidll 
tribe  iif  llanaucli,  uero  [H<nnitted  tn  uipiMprkI 
fur  their  liilierilaiin!  in  Giluid  and  Uasliali^  < 
Ambian  Hide  iif  tlw  Jordan. 

I'revious  to  the  betlbiui^nt  uF  the  tribes  b  G 
llicy  were  eallw]  Iu^iit  Iiy  Jloti-s  Iu  mvirehif 
in;;  nil.lri'i'is  f'^r  it  was  unhkiiied  tliat  Iw  shuuld  nul 
the  land  iil<in<r  with  tlieiii,  Thu  account  i>f  thn  T 
rulli-  atwmlilaso  i-  giri-n  in  llie  first  elia[iUr  of  I 
ruti.iiiiy.  Jlavtii"  lir»l  narratud  the  history  of 
t.  diiiu«  ji.ui'ucy  iu  the  wildemi-iM,  niH]  its  iibjvvts, 
pnicuKlt-d  tu  iirimiulgntL-  nud  I'xiilain  to  theni,  aa 
LiwgiuT,  llie  i-*alul>7i  uiirl  ctmiinaiidmcnbi  for 
■dK'jii-ni'i',  and  thu  f.irtii  nf  (."•n-rnincDt,  tccula 
spiritual, which tlievFlinuldi<.l.>|>t.  Amonimtlirat 

Iu-  nrrdiin Ii-<1  ihu  ■.ncli'in  tJI  a  capital  city, 

Ibu  pi-at  t.4,i[.|.'  i.ii..iil.l  L.-,  mid  tu  whiuh  tlw 
jiiiipii!  shinild  I'-.'pair  t iiTue  tiimn  u-ii-ar,  fi>r  the  pi 
of  .i.ii-rius  tliBiiks  III  (Jul  t.ir  his  lomii-r  beni4iii 
eninating  him  fur  those  they  hltould  lefjuirc  livcc 
ali^i  with  the  view  of  maintaining  a  triuudly  com 
d.Tici>  Biiiiitis  the  rarii'Us  tribe*  and  orders  of  b 
111  ohedience  to  diU  mul  nubscqwut  injiinctiun 
Innii  hii's  bnitt  Ji-ritsalcm,  ami  tMtablnbcd  tlw  t 
■m  JlniiiK  ZK.u  wilhin  its  walls.  Mu>«i^  in  coud 
liH  l>ii::tliened  nddn»*  l<>  the  iieoplu  ot  ItnuA,  t 
Ming  nt  praibe  to  God,  breathing  a  spiiit  of  ihe 
uxallcl  pii;ly  (Dent,  uxii.],  and  biddinf;  the  soir 


THE  JKVv" 


)wf> 


tD']4>  &ilio:i.  prococdcd  alono  to  ror.ic  Eocludcd  spot 
f  IftDd  of  Mcuib,  wlicru  ho  died. 
«s  w:i.s  fc^ucot'eded  by  J<isliii:i  as  a  loader,  niid  by 
he  Israelites  were  cuiuluctcd  acrorFi  the  Ji)rd:'.ii. 
H>Iiiical  ;;ovornnicnt  cf  the  various  tribes,  after 
cnu(|nest  and  settlement  of  Canaau,  appears  to 
ttrvii  n'publican,  with  military  leaders  cai!«>il 
s  ;  l^ut  thi'se  acted  by  tho  dirt-ction  id'  the  jirieht- 

wlio  weru  immediately  couuselled  by  the  Deity 
I  the  sanctuary ;  tho  (jovt-mment  of  tliu  Jews 
bus  been  called  a  ihcocrari/,  or  j;ovornmoiit  by 

Their  position,  in  tho  midst  of  ho'^tilo  nation^:, 
rej  constant  vij»iUvnce.  In  the  liook  of  Jiid;;os, 
Qtl  tlitrm  at  ^lr^t  under  the  comm:ind  (»f  Judah, 
TCfa**.yr  of  Joshua,  and  afterwards  of  Gideon,  and 
leauvrs.  Tho  instances  of  ^enerou:;!  patriotism, 
ii  ery,  and  of  dcvoui:  confidence  in  the  God  of  their 
rs,  which  &rv.  shown  in  the  acts  of  hevcral  of  tiio 
*,  rvnder  the  record  of  their  hi.itoryone  of  tiio 
intorcratin^  and  romantic  in  tho  rartli.  Yet  titov 
often  reduced  to  the  prt-atest  distivs?.  *•  ilecause 
:  Midiaiiitos,"  it  is  Siiii],  **  the  chil«li*cn  of  Israel 
them  dens  in  tho  mouutaiiL^  caves,  and  str(»n<;- 
. ;  and  wlicn  Israel  had  sown,  the  ]ico[i1o  of  the 
atne  np  n;^iiifit  th^m,  and  di.-stroy<Ml  tho  inerease 
e  earth,  till  ihcy  k'fc  no  su^tenanc')  for  Israel, 
»-r  sheep,  nor  «>x,  nor  ass — for  they  eamo  np  as 
rra>*»hnpjH'i's  f»ir  multirudc ;  and  tiie  children  of 
1  crJed  l'»  the  Lt)rd."  Fnmi  these  calamitios  tlu'y 
al  tines  deli vii-ed  by  the  devotion  <»f  some  pas- 
Sf'»ldier  araonc;  their  tribes.  Their  foui:^  of  i-e- 
.g  on  such  occasions  still  more  p.it helically  teil 
ixsturK-d  atate  of  tho  country,  and  pi-eseut  the 
ilc«  t-f  its  inlmbitants  for  three  hundred  yeai-s 
rw^  Christ  1427  to  11 1*2),  while  they  lornioil  a  n.- 
c  untier their  jndc^'s.  It  Hiysmuoli  for  this  people, 
in  the  midht  "f  such  a  scene  of  uiire-r,  iliey  con- 
d  still  III  cultivate  letters.  The  beauUiul  Mnipli- 
•f  the  narratives  jriven  concerninsj  tlu;  heroes  <il 
conntrj',  is  not  to  be  eijuallt-d  in  any  oiiier  i-emains 
liquity. 

le  epricii  of  kinps  puccecded  that  of  judijos.  The 
I  ef  Saul,  their  first  monarch,  thoii;rh  the  people 
6trf>n2t'rbv  beinir  unitH,  was  i:lo<.imv:indtr<»ub!ril. 
J,  whu  succei'detl,  was  a  soUher  and  a  o^innuoror. 
«:dor».-d  the  Hebrews  formidable  to  the  whole  of 
'eneniji-s,  and  ^avo  them  a  rejjular  and  defensible 
{•m,  expcllin;;  their  old  antagDiiists  from  every  ]>:irt 
♦rcr-untry.  He  left  an  empire  peaet-lul,  i*«  -perteil, 
ttr^n*;  a:i«l,  what  was  of  as  much  impi»ri.i!ii't'',  he 
ted  from  amoni;  his  sons  a  su<'ee*i*.«ir  who  wji^ 
to  improTu  all  these  advantaj:os,  ami  to  add  to  tin 
pwj*  vhich  his  c^mntr^^nen  h;sd  ali'cadv  maih^  in 
Jifrity.  I'nder  ^^<^lomlln,  the  nam*'  of  tiie  Jiel.iv-v 
TinK'nt  beiui;  :rb!i.'  lo  protect  its  anhjeets  in  ntJier 
a-ifcs,  thij  p*!ople  and  tlieir  kini;  beirau  to  em p ley 
«M»lv€?!i  in  conmv.'rce.  Their  tnul;;  was  at  Jir-D 
ifie*!  on  that  «if  Tyro,  a  people  sp':'akin!»  a  similar 
Aj^j  with  thenijielves,  and  like  them,  too  (trHiUL,'h 
inly  in  a  «!niailer  de;;ree),  acquainted  with  tin;  art 
■itirsflj.  We  only  fun  I  in  Scripture  an  account  of  tho 
of  eoTunierci*  in  Sulomon's  time;  but  there  i.5  nc» 
n  t:i  jsHpp«^i*e  that  afn.T  his  <l;»y  it  was  disconiinue<l. 
ij*,  pvrhaps,  no  lonj;er  a  marrer  of  :  i;it"  ;  but  iho 
h  of  lip;  counti'j-,  whieh  e'.p«<-0!i  ii  to  etiutltiM'-d 
:e,  iind  the  number  ''t'  ]ir">}««'rini.s  ll«'liiv\v>»  ulio 
found  in  all  jiarts  of  the  eaiili  (it  wuinl  be  iilji'  lo 
atthe?-e  wereall  hroui;ht  :i\\;iy  as  cnplivi  •«).  J'«.  n  Nr 
babie  that,  from  the  splendid  reipi  of  this  moii:.reli, 
iJi^av>«  a»ntitm'>d  to  be  addietcl  Xn  oommevee.  It 
iee<l  likely  that  they  had  be^-n  .-o  before  h'-*  I'olrrn, 
bat  Salomon  merriy  took  connuerei'  umbr  tli**  ]'i'»- 
■a  r.f  the  *-tate;  fcir  there  U  no  iri-tauce  o:i  r»  eurd 
y  Tconarch  all  at  once,  and  r=uec'.^^.riully,  c:\Miiiij; 
lonal  trade.  However  this  may  be,  a  ;::'<,'aier  ecn- 
caiaot  be  iina;;iDod  than  let ■.■,.■■  n  the  trouble-*  of 
ime  uf  the  judges  (only  one  hiindri**!  y«»ai"s  helor«), 
the  peJMe,  security,  and  cnjoynient  of  ihis  reii;n. 
d  the  kiu^  made  Eiiver  to  be  in  J  ere  "-.K  m  :-.s  stni  ;■    j 


and  cedars  nuulo  ho  to  bo  n«»  syeamoro  trrna  that  are 
in  the  vale  for  abumlanee;  and  Judah  and  Israel  were 
manv;  as  tlie  i^aiid  whieh  is  bv  tiie  »sea-:diore  for  nmlti- 
tmle,  catin;^,  anil  driidiin^,  and  makin*;  merry."  Tho 
rielie.-i  lavit-lied  upon  the  temple,  whieh  was  eifcted  in 
bis  time,  arc  si  ill  the  wonder  of  tho  caj^t  and  west ;  and 
thou;:!i  the  building  itself  may  now  be  rivalled  in  extent 
by  many  of  our  parish  churches,  yet  tho  p)ld,  ivory, 
and  other  pn^ciniis  materials  empb^yed  in  its  docora- 
titm,  imlieaTo  a  wealth  whieli  must,  at  that  time,  have 
Ikm.mi  vriihouc  a  parallel,  l^otli  Solomon,  and  David 
his  fiithor,  were  m^n  accomplished  in  learnin<;,  ius  well 
as  in  the  :iris  «tf  povtnnnent ;  and  the  writin|^s  wliich 
tbev  have  left,  if  thov  sliow  their  owu  abilities,  indicate 
not  lo'-s  a  j^reat  attention  to  the  cultivation  of  knowledge 
anion^  ti.e  rest  of  the  1  lebrews. 

After  the  death  of  Solomcm,  tho  country  fell  into  tho 
sanie  divisions  wliich  had  weakened  it  in  the  time  of 
the  ju«l;;es.  Kaeli  of  tho  districts  of  North  and  .South 
Israel  was  un<ler  a  sej^arate  khij;,  and  the  i)eoplc  were 
expi^<Ml  both  to  tho  attacks  of  their  enemies  and  to 
quarrels  witii  each  other.  Their  history  is  a  succiission  of 
ai^itatint;  conflicts  for  independence,  and  of  unexjiectcd 
and  renuirkablo  deliverances,  of  a  similar  nature  to 
those  of  tho  earlier  period,  and  they  continued  for  about 
the  same  length  irf  time  (:»80  years) ;  but  they  aro 
marked  by  fewer  of  those  traits  of  heroic  devotion  which 
distint;uished  tlio  <*p»)ch  of  the  judpjes.  The  backslid- 
ini;?>,  errors,  and  mis;;overninenr.  of  their  kinsjs,  is  the 
chief  and  painful  subject  which  is  i>rescntod  to  us  ;  and 
thou.;ii  these  aro  relieved  at  times  by  tho  appeariinco 
rif  .-uch  monarelis  a-i  Josiah,  Jehoshaphat,  and  Ileze- 
kiah,  yet  the  wholo  history  of  this  period  is  overcast 
with  tho  gloominess  of  pro;;ressivo  ducline.  Ijv  far  the 
mo:-t  di'ii^^htfnl  parts  of  it  are  tlwrso  which  relate  to  tho 
live-c  of  the  prophets,  who  were  raised  n[i  at  intervals 
to  warn  the  nation  and  its  rulers  of  the  fate  wliich  they 
incurred  by  forsiiking  the  I'eligion  of  their  fathei'8. 
These  inspired  men  Himetimas  Fpranpf  up  fi*om  among 
the  humblest  classes  of  the  conimunity ;  onii  from  "the 
herdsmen  of  Tekoa,"  another  fn.mi  "ploiii;hing  with 
twelvo  yoke  of  oxen;'*  several  were  of  tho  priestly 
<iL-«l<r,  ::rd  one  (Isaiah)  is  Paid  to  havo  Injen  of  royal 
li:!e::;e  ;  but  the  works  of  all  are  ujarked  with  the  samo 
«aiMediie«s,  loree,  and autbririty.  'J'hoy  reprehend  their 
count vMi ion.  in  the  most  eloi[uent  t^tmins,  at  one  time 
f'.r  their  idijlatry,  and  at  another  for  their  hy[iiierisy; 
:iimI  thrir  ii!<iii;iiation  is  expressed  with  the  sjime  fn'c- 
rlom  and  dii^uiiy  against  t!ie  vices  of  the  highest  and 
the  i(»W'-  t.  It  has  In.  come  fashionable  to  trace  the  free 
si'ivit  i<r  ii^ir  national  tone  of  thin!;ini;  to  the  hi>torian8 
:i::d  I'mtoi-s  of  Oreciitr  and  Uonu;,  wliich  are  tannin  in 
onr  seliooM ;  but  anyone  wh(»  lonks  into  the  writinpi^s  of 
the  Hebrew  ]!ro]>bets  and  sees  tho  boldness  and  energy 
with  which  tiie  liinoli!e»:t  of  them  threatens  the  nr.blcB 
and  ]>rinci  s  of  lii'^  couutn*,  or  cliastisos  tlie  vices  ol"  tho 
t-aiiou  around  him,  will  remark  the  pedantry  of  seekhipj 
in  M)lunie.-;  known  only  to  the  learnetl,  b>r  :':i  I'Hect 
V.  .:ieh  may  be  ti':iced  to  bo(tks  whose  stron-;  and  pathetic 
el.. queue','  has  long  swayed  the  afl*ociiiin-«  uf  every  ]»ea- 
^■ant  of  tiie  coimM'v.  Tlu-ro  is  no  subtleiv  of  rt  asi'iiiu!;, 
no  sjMiriing  wiln  ambiguities  in  these  writin'^'->;  every 
thing  is  bold,  deei<led,  ami  powerful,  apjiealing  t«»  great 
prim* lilies,  and  market!  with  liigh  and  energeiiv:  fielmipi. 
Wliat  a  film  of  iancy-wi>rk  are  the  mctapiiy^ical  in;;e- 
nuiii'S  of  riato,  compared  with  the  firm,  broad,  and 
uiici«i;iproioising  muraiity,  the  mild  «lotii'.-.-{ic  eiuirities, 
taii/hf  in  the  bo-^ks  of  i*»<jlujN  ar.d  l'riiv<:rli.::,  or  tho 
p:i  hello  Pud  indiijiiant  remon*>trai:0'.'s  of  tht'  prophets 
;:;':. ;i!f-.  ;IiO  b;.ei.  .iidin';.s  «>f  ti:o  "daughter  of  their 
p. 'iiiii«: : 

A:  t!i '  f.id  of  tljc  opi^eli  of  the  kings  (about  TOO 

_\e;ns  Imkhh- (  hri^-l),  the  laud  of  Israid  was  .swept  by 

h'/veivil  ]iii\vcvful  invadiirs,  who  carried  oif  manv  thou- 

.i:ir.<i-.  rii   i!,e  people  into  enptivity.     Litile  ir*  ki'nwn  of 

;he  liiio  r-f  iiio^  <»f  tho  niuihern  district,  who  arc  by 

]    i.t;.:"  ..u;.q"ised  to  kive  been  carried  to  Inlia,  byoiiier?« 

j  I.)  T.*j'tary;  but  there  are  m^ny  intere-i-ni:  notiees  of 

■  \'r..'  »■.. ;••  =  ■.■  .;  of  Jii'i;-.h.    The-.'  w«'re  e:.iii'!d  to  L::!.\lou, 


CHAMBERS^S  LNFOIIMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


a  flat  country  intersected  by  rivers,  to  the  eastward  of 
their  own.  Hero  they  seem  to  have  been  treated  with 
kindnosft,  and  many  of  thcni  even  arrived  at  wealth  and 
dLstinctioa.  Nothinj^,  however,  could  overcome  their 
regret  at  bein;;  torn  from  the  country  of  tlieir  ancestors 
— a  feeling  which  is  expressed  with  unri^-alled  beauty 
in  the  1.37th  Psalm,  where  the  Hebrew  captive  looks 
buck  mourrt^illy  to  the  mountains  and  brooks  of  Judah, 
as  lie  hangs  his  harp  on  tho  willows  by  the  sluggish 
Euphrates,  and  refuses,  with  sorrow  and  scorn,  to 
gratify  his  conciuerors  by  singing  the  celebrated  songs 
(if  his  country  in  a  sti'angc  land.  It  is  a  further  proof 
of  what  we  havu  said  of  the  general  intelligence  and 
education  of  tho  Jews,  that  all  the  conquerors  who 
carried  them  off  granted  them  high  privileges  in  their 
new  countries.  Alexander,  it  is  said,  made  them  equal 
with  Iiis  ovm  Macedonians  in  the  city  whicli  he  founded ; 
Ptolemy  conferred  on  them  similar  privileges.  We 
find  one  celebrated  man  of  their  nation  (Daniel)  chief 
minister  of  two  successive  monarchies. 

After  seventy  years  (during  which  there  is  little 
reeurded  of  the  peuplc  wlio  were  left  in  the  country), 
permission  was  given  to  some  of  the  chief  Hcbreik's  of 
tho  captivity  to  return  with  their  people  to  Judea,  and 
to  establish  there  a  government,  conducted  by  their 
own  country-men,  under  the  prrjti>ction  of  the  Persians. 
They  were  also  allowed  to  rebuild  tho  temple.  Many 
families  returned  accordingly ;  and  tiie  1  lebrews  from 
this  period  enjoyed,  as  tributaries  of  this  {lowerful 
monarchy,  a  peac(>  of  about  2*20  years,  dnruig  which 
their  country-  seems  to  have  be(>n  quiet  and  pro- 
sperous. About  l!l7  yi."ars  Ix^fore  Christ,  in  conse- 
quence of  their  becoming  involved  in  the  quarrels  of 
neighbouring  |K)wcts,  they  were  obliged  to  maintain  a 
series  of  struggles  in  behalf  both  of  their  religious  and 
national  independence,  more  fierce  and  prolonged  than 
we  read  of  in  almost  any  other  nation.  We  are  accus- 
tomed to  admire  the  gallantry  and  perseverance  of 
Wallace  and  of  WillLim  Tell  in  behalf  of  their  country  ; 
but  tludas  Maccabeus  suri)us.Ned  both,  .ind  with  more 
brill  Lint  succi^^s.  The  actions  of  one  family  of  Jewish 
prieMs,  b«'longing  to  a  town  (Modin)  of  which  the  very 
site  is  unknown,  might  <lignit'y  the  scutcheons  of  a 
whole  aribtiKrracy.  Under  them  the  llebi*ews  were 
again,  for  three  rtrigns,  an  independent  and  even  a 
powerful  people. 

The  empii-e  of  the  Roman««  was  now  extending  itself 
to  the  <'nNt;  and  that  |H)wer,  being  called  in  to  aid  the 
iiebre\^H  on  one  occiusion  (about  w^venty  yi'ars  lK*forc 
ChriKi),  seized  the  opiiortunity  to  establish  its  inHuenee 
among  them  permanently.  Their  kings,  the  thrw; 
Hen  ids,  and  their  other  rulers,  \vei*e  now  dependants  of 
the  emperor,  and  their  country  tlw  tril)Ut:iry  of  Uome. 
On  obtaining  lull  possession  of  the  country,  the 
Romans  divided  I'alestine  (the  regi«m  between  the 
Mediterranean  and  the  .Jordan)  into  three  tctrarchies 
or  pnninees — Judea,  .Samaria,  an<i  (lalilre.  It  is  cre- 
ditable to  the  Romans,  however,  that  while  tiius  tak- 
ing complete  jKilitical  possession  of  the  ancient  land  of 
IsKiel,  thfv  hi  no  n*j*pect  iiiterfeiv«l  wiih  the  n'ligi(»n  or 
tither  usages  vi  the  jK-ople,  which  they  left  uiulrr  the  di- 
rection of  the  sinlx'drim  and  elders  as  of  old.  Jhit  n<it- 
withstanding  this  favourable  arrangement,  the  Jewish 
naiinn  was  ixstle!*s  and  unhappy  ;  it  w.xs  broken  up  into 
parties  and  sects,  and  some  oi  these  continually  plotted 
schemes  li»r  a  restorati<m  of  independence.     The  eoun- 


all  tho  inhabitants  who  escaped  death.  Aboat  IK 
Jews  perished  during  the  siege  and  at  the  destnn 
of  Jerusalem. 

Reckoning  from  the  settlement  of  Canaan  b} 
Israelites  till  this  last  dire  calamity,  the  Jewish  n: 
existed  in  a  regular  form,  though  under  various  n 
fications,  for  15(>0  years.  Since  they  were  first  scatt 
over  the  face  of  the  eartli,  in  which  condition  they 
exist,  1770  years  have  elapsed  (reckoning  till  184C 
that  they  have  already  been  longer  a  scattereil 
they  were  a  united  people.  By  a  kite  calculation, 
ascertained  that  tlie  Jews  now  existing  in  ditfi 
parts  of  Europe  amount  to  l,918,0o:) ;  in  Asia  73R, 
in  Africa  504,000 ;  in  America  5700  ;  and  in  Nexv 
land  50— grand  total  3,218,000.  Other  estini.ites  c 
the  number  to  5,000,000  or  even  G,00O,00O.  In 
countries  they  are  still  treated  as  strangei'js  and  (k 
the  rights  of  citizenship,  though  in  manners,  Lingi 
and  general  conduct,  they  do  not  diifer  from  the  i 
mon  inhabitants.  Tho  government  of  the  United  S 
of  Nortli  America  was  the  first  which  ]>laced  then 
the  same  political  level  with  other  citizens.  } 
recently,  the  laws  excluding  them  from  civil  privil 
have  been  one  after  another  abolished  in  the  kinp; 
of  the  Netherlands,  until  they  are  now  in  all  ixs] 
on  an  equality  with  the  other  people  of  that  coui 
There  Ls,  wo  Ix'licve,  evidence  of  the  nn»st  incontre 
tible  nature,  namely,  statistical  evidence,  to  show 
crime  has  dimhiished  among  the  Hebrews,  as  iuviij 
distinctions  have  been  thus  done  away  witii. 

For  a  perio<l  of  upwards  of  200  years  after  the 

dispersion  of  the  nation,  Palestine  continued  in  a 

serable  condition.     On  the  conversion  of  the  Hou 

to  Christianity,  it  became  an  object  of  religiims  v 

ration,  as  the  scene  of  the  ministnitions  of  Christ 

his  apostles.     The  Empress  Helena  repaired  in  pi! 

mage  to  the  *'  Holy  Land,"  viewe<l  all  the  spots  rend« 

remarkable  by  events  in  the  gospel  histor}',  and  i 

splendid  temples,  or  other  religious  structures,  on  t 

biles.  The  Holy  Land  was  now  enriched  by  the  crow 

pilgrims  who  came  from  ail  parts  of  the  (.'hristian  wi 

The   destinies  of  Judea,   however,  wcrt*  changed 

the   inv:ision  of  the  fanatical  followers  of   Mahoi 

in  the  sixth  eenturv,  and  .^^oon  fell  under  their  s> 

Tile  eali]>hs,  or  Arabian  monarchs,  indee<I,  still  vie 

I  her  holy  places  with,  reverence,  and  were  inducec 

encourage  pilgrimage,  from  the  gain  which  it  afitir 

iiut  when  the  Turks,  an  ignorant  and  barl)arous  r 

puurtMl  ill  from  the  north,  the  same  courtesy  wa:* 

longer  obM-rved.     Tlu-y  i>n»faneJ  tho  holy  places, 

committed  outi*agis  of  every  kind  ujK)n  the  visitant 

the  Holy  Lanil.     The  pil:;rims  on  their  return  relr 

the  dangers  they  had  encountered.     These  reprcsei 

tions  kindled  the  religious  zeal  of  tlie  Christians 

Kurope  into  a  tlame,  and  a,  general  ardour  was  a 

keiied  to  *'  free  the  holy  sepulchre  from  thrall."     > 

ensued  a  series  of  warlike  exiHMlitions,  termed  cmsa 

for  the  rt*covery  f)f  Palestine  fix)m  the  Mahommed 

After  various  successes  and  disasters,  the  crusades 

minated  in  the  middle  of  the  thiriiH^nth  century,  Ivay 

the  Holy  l.aiid  still  in  the  possession  of  a  barltai 

MahomuK-dan  peiiple.      (See  article  HisTonv   or 

Miitrtij-;  Afii>.)     In  the  year  1517,  Palestine  was 

n(.-xe<l  to  the  Turkish  enipii'e,  and  still  remains  a  ] 

tion  of  Turkey  in   Asia.     As  such,  it  belongs  to 

paehaiik  of  Damascus,  and  is  (or  was  lately)  under 


try  \\as  in  this  humbU^l  and  distracted  condition  when    juns<liction  of  Mehemet  Ali,  the  pacha  of  Egypt, 


**J(r*^us  was  honi  in  Itcthlehcm  of  Judea,  in  the  da\s 
of  Herod,  the  king.''  ThU  most  important  < if  all  events, 
\*hich  ocriirnd  in  the  reign  of  the  EnijK'ror  TilxM'ius, 
and  marks  the  conimtMiceincnt  of  our  era,  made  no 
ditferenee  p«»lnically  in  the  condition  M"  the  Jewish 
|ieople.  During  the  continuance  of  Christ  on  earth,  we 
do  not  n«ad  «il  any  civil  war  in  Palestine;  but  betwt»en 
thin  V  and  fortv  \  cars  after  ward.-*,  serious  insurrt»cti»jn8 


\\hose  firm  though  precarious  government  it  has  b 
renilered  much  more  yafe  to  the  visits  of  travel] 
'  than  it  was  in  pa.st  times.  Its  population  now  coiu 
of  a  mixture  of  Turks  .ind  Arabs,  chiefly  the  lat 
with  a  small  number  of  Jews  and  Christians. 


Palestine,  or 


I'\I.11SMM1 

Land  of  Canaan,  in  which 


TEE  HOLY.  LAND. 

a  Sm,  betman  tba  Slit  uid  34th  degi«i!«  of  noHh  latitude.     Willi  tl 

■oibnl  aa  >  frooUcr  bcrder  to  thkt  extensive  pietonl  region.    Lj-iii„  _, 

'ml)  Sea  on  the  mat,  it  has  Aii&  Minor  (includmg  I'hrfgia,  Pampliylio,  and  Phccuicia)  on  tlie  iiortli, 
>  OB  tta*  (Mt  and  eonth-eBat,  and  Idumta  or  Arabia  Petnea  an  the  wiulli.  The  part  a(  Arabia 
Dearot  (o  It  on  the  cut  eompriees  the  dietricte  uieientlji  called  Meaopotamiit  and  Babj'loiiia,  beyimd 
n  ewterlj  direotion,  ia  Penia.     The  coantry  hna  beni  called  FalcstiDS,  as  ia  supposed,  froni  the 

but 


PhilLit 


L  (he  Scriptur 


it  has  received  the  appel- 
lation* of  the  "  Promised 
Land,"  « the  Land  of 
Canaan,"  and  "  the  Land 
of  Judes."  In  modem 
timea,  from  its  conuee- 

which  occurred  *ithia  it 
upon  the  promulgation 
of  Chriilianitjr,  it  ia  more 
BGncrally  called  "  (he 
Holy  Land." 

Palestine  extends  from 
north  to  Booth  a  lenj^h 
of  three  hundred  mites, 
and  about  50  b  breadth, 
and  is,  therefore,  in  point 
of  size,  of  nearly  the 
same  extent  na  Scotland. 
The  general  character 
of  tlie  country  is  that  of 
a  Iiilly  region,  inler- 
■peised  with  modcralcly 
fertile  Tales ;  and  beiug 
thus  IrFegular  in  surface, 
it  possesses  a  number  of 
bnwks  or  Bireams,  wliicli , 
for  tlio  moat  part,  a~ 
■wollen        !•  —  • 


at  dry  in  the  h< 

IS  of  the  year.     The 


.  I  from  north 
>soulli,andintliiBllawB 
le  river  Jordan,  which 
the  chief  of  the  Judean 

leouIxLirtsofthemuun- 
dm  ot  Lebanon  or  Li- 
inus  on  the  north,  tluus 
itothehJieofTiboi 
r  Eca  of  Galilee, 


Ihenc 


2 

tlie  Dead  Sea, 
from  whicli  there  is  no 
pcrceptihte  outlet,  the 
water  probably  waning 
by  means  of  evaporation. 
The  present  condiiion  of 
Pahwtino  scarcely  corre- 
Bponda  with  its  ancient 
ftrtitity.  This  is  chiefly 
adributablo  to  the  devaa- 
tatinf  elfects  of  p.Tpc- 

lual     wars,     and    some 

iHlefaan:^  haveahio  contributed  to  the  destmotion  of  agricultural  industry.  Yet,  .-ittcr  all,  so  exeel- 
vonld  the  soU  appear  to  be,  and  so  ample  its  natural  resourccH,  that  Canaan  may  Klill  bi-  cliameter- 
m  a  Und  flowing  with  mdlt  and  honey.  Its  pastures  are  extensive,  and  of  the  richest  quality ;  and  the  rocky 
Hrj  ■■  eoiervd  whh  aromatic  plantx,  yielding  to  tlio  wild  bees  who  live  in  Iho  hollow  of  the  ^^cka  aui-h  an 
B^nec  of  honey,  that  the  poorer  einsaen  uso  it  as  a  common  articlo  of  food.  Dates,  wliicb  are  found  apring- 
u  in  the  midit  ot  the  most  arid  diHlrictH,  are  alsn  unuther  imjxirtant  article  of  consumption.  It'  lo  thciie 
■id  oliie  oil,  an  article  ao  essential  to  an  orieulal,  the  ancient  fertility  of  even  tho  most  barren  part  of 
ea  euily  accoanted  for.  Delicious  wine  Ik  still  proiluccd  m  aomc  districts,  and  the  valleys 
1  eropa  ot  tobacco,  wheat,  barley,  and  millet.  Among  other  indigenous  productions  may  be 
edar  and  other  varieties  of  tho  pine,  tile  cypreas,  llie  oak,  sycamore,  mulborry-trce,  fig-tree, 
I,  aipm,  arbutus,  myrtle,  tamarisb,  oleander,  o&liar,  doom,  the  turpentine,  almond,  peach. 
It  Ireca ;  the  mustard  phinl,  aloe,  citron,  apple,  pomegranate,  and  many  flowering  shrubs.    Other 


CHAMBERS'S  INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


indigenoufl  productions  have  either  disappeared,  or  arc 
coufiued  to  circumscribed  districts.  Iron  is  fouud  in 
the  mouDtain-range  of  Libanus,aiid  silk  is  produced  i]i 
abundance  in  the  plains  of  Samaria. 

Generally  speaking,  the  climate  is  mild  and  sahi- 
brious.  Trom  May  to  August  the  sky  is  clear  and 
cloudless,  but  during  the  night  there  fulls  a  copious 
dew,  which  moistens  the  soil.  Intensely  cold  nights, 
however,  frequently  succeed  to  very  sultry  days — :i 
▼icissitudo  more  than  once  referred  to  in  iScripture. 
Rain  fulls  in  sufficiency  during  the  rest  of  the  year, 
to  which,  in  the  absence  of  t*prings,  the  fertility  of 
Palestine  is  mainly  attributable.  As  the  streams  poux' 
in  impetuous  torrents  through  the  vales  after  licuvy 
rainSy  it  is  unsafe  to  erect  habitations  on  the  plaius,  an 'I 
such  most  ])robably  is  the  reason  why  the  towns  and 
villages  of  Palestine  are  almost  uniformly  built  nptm 
elevated  grounds. 

Of  the  animals  which  prevail,  or  formerly  prevailed, 
in  Palestine,  it  is  unnecessary  to  say  nmch.  The  wild 
animals  referred  to  in  iScripture,  such  as  the  lion^ 
wolf,  leopai*d,  &c.,  ]iavc  aluiost  totally  disappeared. 
The  fox  is  still  connnon.  The  liorse  dues  not  appi-ar 
to  have  been  adopted  till  after  the  Ribylunihh  capti- 
vity, the  wild  ass  being  deemed  worthy  of  st-rving  ev«;n 
royalty.  The  breeds  of  cattle  reared  in  Bashau  and 
Gileau  were  remarkable  for  tlieir  size,  strength,  and 
fatness ;  but  this  is  far  from  being  the  ease  now.  The 
vulture,  falcon,  jackdaw,  nightingale,  field-lark,  gold- 
finch, partridge,  quail,  and  the  quiiil  o^the  Israelites, 
the  turtle  and  ringdove,  are  found,  and  various  kinds 
of  land  and  water  game  are  abundant.  The  Holy  Lund 
is  infested  with  a  fright hil  numbi'r  of  lizunls,  ditl'i*- 
rent  kinds  of  serpents,  vipers,  tfCoi*]>ions,  and  various  in- 
sects. Flies  of  every  species  are  also  extremely  annoy- 
ing. Ants  are  very  numerous  in  some  parts:  one 
traveller  describes  the  road  from  i-^l  Ariseli  to  .Infl'iu 
as,  for  three  days*  journey,  one  eontinued  ant-liill.  Hut 
these  creatures,  numerous  um  tlii-y  an>,  urt*  Ijm-ioIi-- 
in  comparison  to  lht»  locu'^ts  which  ovi-rsjir«'ad  ihc  t'oini- 
trv.  ThrjJi.'  inseets  sijmetinu'S  etnn*.-  in  lii:;ht-.  Avliidi,  mi 
alizhtini:,  cover  the  land,  Jin»l  dostmv  cvi-rylilaik-  *>[  J:"r- 
huge  in  til  fir  w:«y.  To  op  post?  tlieir  doM  riicti  vr  r.iv;i'ji'>-\ 
the  inhabitants  attack  tlu'ni  with  lire  and  Iiimi>cIu's  v\ 
trees  and  cndi-avour.  bv  rvtrv  otln  r  nii  .in*,  rii'icr  in 
kill  tluin  in  Tna^^«  s  nr  t!»  c;iii!-o  ilu-m  t"*  i::!;l'  to  Jii.jhi. 
It  is  not  nin.'«jnnn'>n  for  :in  army  «if  sciliiii.-r-.  tn  ha  b'.nl 
out  to  assi.-t  iu  .- laughter  ing  kh'  txi'tllijii;  tin  ni  fri.;-.i  i!:;- 
land. 

Tr:ivc'llfr3  usually  rt-ach  PaNstiin-  (i*om  "nur<'!"' l,y 
sea,  ft* w  during  t<f  rneountiT  tliu  danL"*r  j-f  ili-'  r.nti- 
frt)ni  Kgypr,  iliviiu-^h  tlu*  lanil  «»f  IM'^in.     V*   si  Is  l/nin 


wortls  "  St  Jean,"  in  consequence  of  the  place  h, 
been  given  by  Richard  of  EngUind  to  the  Knigl 
St  John  of  Jerusalem ;  at  one  time  it  receiver 
name  of  Ptolemais.  This  ]>1acc  was  visited  b; 
apostles,  and  particularly  by  St  Paul.  It  has  bee 
scene  of  a  variety  of  bloody  contests,  especially  d 
the  period  of  the  Crusades,  and  was  the  last  place 
which  the  Christians  were  driven.  The  Turks  ult in- 
laid hold  of  it  with  a  numerous  army,  ufter  a  fu 
6i«*ge,  when  terrible  outrages  were  conmiitted. 
were  in  possession  of  it  from  12J)l,till  compell 
surrender  it  to  Mehemct  AH.  who  in  his  turn  has 
obliged  to  give  it  up  to  the  Turks,  by  the  warliki: 
rations  of  the  European  powers  iu  IfilO.  As  A< 
xvckoned  the  key  of  Syria,  and  lias  the  host  pt»r 
French  nuder  lionaparte  made  violent  efforts  to  j 
it ;  they  wvrc,  howevf  r,  as  is  well  known,  sueeei?: 
n*pt;lled.  Acre  is  very  stn^ngly  fortifiod,  being  i 
enclosed  with  high  walls,  and  is  considered  the  .-tro 
place  in  Syria.  The  houses  are  of  stone,  with 
like  teiTaees,  the  entrances  to  which  are  narr»>w 
many  appear  to  communicato  with  %ach  other, 
ttrfcts  are  dirty,  and  so  contracted,  that  there  i 
more  than  nH>m  for  a  loaded  eiunel  to  pass  a! 
hence  the  air  is  very  impure.  The  bazaai*s  are  r 
and  the  inhabitants  miserable.  The  populati* 
reckoned  to  be  aliout  10,000. 

Mount  Carmel  fi)rmsa  promontory,  or  majestic  1 
land,  on  the  .McditrTranean.  It  runs  from  east  to 
:;nil  rises  about  -OiMj  feet  from  the  level  of  the  m 
which  its  bui^e  is  washed.  Near  it  runs  Ki^<lion,  o 
tin:  rivers  which  are  particul.irly  alluded  to  in  the  s* 
writing.-.  Ciirmel  is  the  mor^t  bi-autiful  mountui 
Palc-tiue  ;  is  of  great  length,  and  in  m:.ny  jiarts  eo> 
with  trees;  and  a  j-art  <if  its  sunnnit  is  pointed  o 
the  place  where  Klijuh  j>rayed  for  rain,  and  su^ 
hnniitl  e'l-ud  ri>e  out  of  the  sea.  On  the  "Joth  of  . 
tile  (.'hri-^Tians  ]troeiM'<l  to  pu-rforni  aei»*  tif  devntii 
nienmry  of  the  proph-.-t.  There  was  lurnurly  a  uv 
ii'i'v  h'Te.  but  it  i-.  xutw  abandoned. 

Uitwei  II  tills  point  mil  Jatlii  we  nie(-t  with  tiir  • 
I  r  t,i.'ve:v.l  ;:neie!it  AJllaiii..-.  and  rnwr,';,  aninrirsi  wh; 
(\'«i:jr«.i.  "■  I'l'rliaps  thi-re  has  n«'t  Iieeu,''  sav: 
t'i:i»Ki'.  "ill  t'li  M-iorv'i  I  the  world, ;in  example ol 
c  .ly  I  ha?  i:i  .  o  ;-!nirt  a  .•=p;'ee  of  irnie  mse  to  sue 
e\irai.rJm;:ry  ii<'i:;lit  of.-p.linilunras  iliJ  this  of  Ce* 
or  lliat  e\  hi  hits  ;»  Oinro  awful  eontrast  to  its  fo] 
r.i:v:ii'ticeiM'«-,  i-.y  lii-.-  pre-eiii  tiesolate  appearance* 
riiiii>.."*  I  :i  i-.n'X,  111  If  a  >'»iiiary  inliabrtant  n.>mains  \\ 
ein-i'  s'.Lii'il  fill'  prr.iul  ci'.y  «il  llero.l.  Jm  thiaii*i 
j-..lai'e*.,  :;\vl  ti-niph-s,  tcnii  a  mnrhle  desi»rt. 


A  hj :■.:■■  ]  -n  fi  ilii  i'..:\v  desulaie  territory — th; 
Malta  or  Ah\.i:iilria  j-egiiLirly  j-rncte'l  t  i  Aer:-.  iiml  ii'<Hii  <  arii'il  t  >  ♦l.-nf!.  :;!i  interval  i.!*  ah-^ut  sixtv  i 
from  thai  ]'ort  the  tniveller  jiiurinystM  .lirn  .I'l-ni  ar^il  — i-  th.  j  l.in  i.f  .•■■^.!--..;i.  e.-ii-hraii  il  in  Sonpture  U 
other  parts  ei  i!ir  e  .;inir}'.  The  jmosi  i:itin->uii:r  v>r.U'  heauiitJii  ll.iuf  rs  arnl  ftrtility,  ]»ar:ienlarly  its  '*ri 
seems  til  I.I',  in  the  i:r?t  plo-r,  jnuuliv  .  i  1-.  aluni:  th-.  ifwhicliili-  iiii'l  iiiviitinn  is  mad*-.  In  the  present 
coiist  to  .lalla,  Aali'!'»d,  A~k;i!ii;i,  (J  !/.i,  .s  ■'..  :ii;  I  ;!!•  n  tli.)ii';!i  !:;  a  v  ii.j  i-eviliti-.n,  it  ^:i11  y"i'lK  poniegrait 
strikini:  inlatid  t^j  .Irrn-;ih-i.\.  Itrtlil-.  ht  iii.;i'.'i  I'l.-  Mr.-a  <.r;;:i_'  -,  {!:,'-,  :  v.-i  o;l|.-r  ra'-ti  y:\  li"iii-. 
•Sea;  pr'H'c^di:;::  alt<rwa"«l-  in  ::  H'I'lIi.  i  _\  «:..•■  ■•:'••''.  i.,  I  .1.  i.-i.  u:.itM  iMiear  tlii- .-."luihi  fn«.  v:r«  raityot  tln-j 
Tiber:a««,  Na/arelh.a'.id  L«i'iO'iM;ia-/I\.!.'ii';  ■  Iimm:,; 
S\ria,  niakin  '  a  junrnev  to  the  rniii-  -i  e:;v  i  :  ]■  1 1  !,  ,-. 
and  to  l>.i:.i:v-L'ii'-.     In  vi.-:;iiig  i'i«  >■  ..i.l  iili.  .'  p  :i-.  - 


meM'i"iK'l  iii  >er'ptiiii-,  llu-  iravi-il- r  i-. 
nnieli  .Khi-CKe-l  ^it';  liie  eh;  ;'l"«  ^  pi-'.iine- 
and  I'.ealiiif.-,  hy  ;!;  ■  liaiul  •■:  \\:.r..i  -  !: 
that  <if  i'\  r-j  i"'is  riiri-iiiaiw.  lly  I'.i  i  ■  .. 
anl  iil'ii  I'  ji.  i'l  i  i  in!",  e<n\«  :i;-,  *.'!.  i 
hivi-  1-.  .M  I  r.  (•'.  -I  I  \  I  r  ::hi;  >.  i  ■.■■;_•  -  > 
sierei  I  y  li";  nutii-;':iti«in-  «■!  "in  l-i.-i. 
ori;;iii:;1  -i.  n  ii-;  v  ^A  il.i  piit.i'i,.i!  j.'..  ■■ 
the  N\v,  Ti  -:,i:ot  I'.t  i-  ini";-  li;*  v  d-.-lj-  > 


t! 


•V 


»   1 
■  1. 


■'.'I 
1 


I  :i 


•. ::!■■. 


■  .1  -i 


.  —  ;  I  ■ 


.\ere  ;«..:» ■■'-.  e'..-      in  I'ii-  :.   :.. 

tending  ni  tiie  f-rr.i  ■  i  .i  !  » ■ ,  . 

niile^  to  th<>  iiurth  i>t   .''!>  'mt  i 

the  s-a-ihun-.      It    ua- •'ri;iiii..!"y  i';,il' li    .\i-,-li.i,  ai:d  i-.  .       Ai    .'■■ 

^ludeil  til  i:i  "-.lei-i'il  v.  r  :  ;  ul  liji-  ikiUh   Aeri-  i-  i  \ii|  -iiT'h      f  ■■:  >.t:I.  ! 


t1  •   I  i.-l  <  1 
.  ■  i;-.....''i 


:   t'.:i^'' 


\:A\  :..  ;»!■■]  i  1  the  .jiij.j.a  <■}  SviiMriir-.-,  i-.  situate 

III  .::i>r  in-i  r'l.iii  jii:;  iiu   '•■;■  illii  rraiiean.    <] 

!;•  '•  ;«ni'ii  -i;  .-.    ->  iiri«»  iii   iht-  w  irl-.i, 

!■{    \ I  .. )''..',.■■  ■   :r.:;!"u*  it   i-   ii  »iv  nv 

'"ihihi'    -  ".  i;- h  II  hii'.ir.     Itwa^tu 

•   n  i.:-.i-  -I   I  I'l'.'  ]!ial«  ri.ils  uf  his  Ut 

I  v  ■     •."  l'\     1  :  li-  '  I  I.' '-I •;!■;: :  1'..  :c  tliO  \v\t\ 

■|   .        ....  ,  .  .       '      ' 

^  ■.<■     !■':■:.     .i-  I  :  ;i:»ii   in  r',  iii  uj>ij:*' 

■    '■       •  V.       I. -I  l:-.-ii?h..  I.J  'i."  .     Tiu*  ti.V 

..'.'<  :":'.].  a!i<l   tlie  i!:li.ili'vii,r.»  j^uiinint  In 

I   '    .:•  ..;:■!   i.        i!;'.::.-.i:il.  ^\^.i  aii-   innf^liy  Ti 

■  j-Iy  ir  }-.  ■  1    I'u  ::n:ii'y  iujiirctl  bj 

■  V  .  I  .I:,,''-i  ;  -n!  f  ;i  An-ch.  the  exir 
H-'ly  j.i!il  'v  ''lir;  •!'.":  .''i'.-i.  Ii«'  var 
'■  -.1  JM  ;;:!■  >orip-:iral  i-.cerd.     Th<»>o  ; 


■1., 


ri 


'.  :  I'""*.,  i  Ail?,  .'.-::j.i.i.;.,  /np  «..\.t\. 
•\    h'i.iL-"-     i.-krrij-.  V  .'..>uth   Iri.fii   .?::fl" 


S'jirnip:   -i.     I'- 


i>.i 


111 


l! 


■■■•y  p-^- 


I     IV 


'  .  ■  -i-'ji:  .*.■ 
y  l,;:i,  1  iii  ..' 


'■- ^iii.  .-:-.iiitin«;  on  the  sum 
.  i,i  .1 .'.  ■■'■.■.«.  i  K-   :  lll:.in. 


•.;** 


M^ 


THE  HOLY  LAND. 


mined  Tillage  of  Tookrair,  aiiuated  also  on  the  top  of  a 
kill,  oceapiefl  the  site  of  Ekron,  vhicli  does  not  possess 
the  mudlest  vosti)^  of  its  former  grandeur.  Gath,  a 
slace  of  strength  in  tlic  time  of  the  propliets  Amon  and 
Micah,  is  now  al«o  eitlicr  entirely  gone  or  degenerated  to 
a  few  ruins  and  a  hamlet.  A&kelon,  farther  on  to  the 
south,  and  likewise  situated  on  the  summit  of  a  hill  nt 
the  rli^tance  of  three  miles  from  the  sea,  still,  to  e.\- 
lemal  appearance,  maintains  something  of  its  uneient 
diameter.  Its  position  is  strong,  and  its  walls,  whieli 
art*  of  great  thickness,  and  considerablo  height,  a.YC 
luilt  en  the  top  of  a  ridge  of  rock,  winding  round  the 
town  in  a  semicircular  direction,  and  terminating  at 
each  end  in  tho  sea.  But,  alas !  they  encloso  nut  a 
living  being.  1  low  truly  has  hecn  fnlfdlcd  the  prophecy 
cf  Zachariah,  '^  The  king  shall  perish  from  Gazn,  and 
Af>ktl(>u  f>hall  not  Ije  inhabited."  Gaza  is  truly  without 
a  kinir.  It  is  now  iiniy  a  large  village,  ijituate<l  a  few 
mlK*^  south  from  Askclon,  with  a  number  of  i>oor  narrow 
etre^rts.  There  \h  seme  trade,  however,  carried  on  in 
Gaza,  particularly  in  cotton,  and  the  inhabitants  exceed 
?X*0.  This  place  was  formerly  of  great  magnifieeneo 
and  strength  ;  for  two  months  it  batHed  all  the  ellorts 
of  Alfjiander  to  take  it. 

Such  are  the  chief  places  along  tho  coast  from  Jaffa 
(n  the  southern  boundary  of  Palestine.  Wo  now  take 
the  rouie  inland  from  Jaffa  to  Jerusalem. 

JAf'KA  TO  JF.RI*SIA1.KM. 

About  n:no  miles  from  Jaffa  stands  Hanila,  or  Knmeli, 

tlie  ancient  Kama  of  Lpliraim,  and  very  probably  the 

Axiniathea  uf  the  New  Testament.     It  is  situated  in  a 

nch  plain,  and  contains  about  20no  funiilies.     Here 

tiirrc  are  several  convents  and  mosquos  ;  and  on  a  hill 

In  the  west  of  tho  town  stands  a  venerable  ruin,  called 

the  Tower  of  the  Mart^TS,  a  name  j>i-obably  derived 

{fbm  the  martyrs*  of  l^ebaMia,  in  Armenia,  whose  bodies 

kare  been  hei*e  depfjsited.     About  a  len^ue  from  this  is 

LTdd.1,  still  called  I.oudd,  where  St  IVter  cured  J-JieaH 

cf  ;he  p:il>y.    This  place  is  now  a  poor  villa;;*',  willi  frw 

iahabitant.-^.    The  country  whieli  surnanuU  ir,  liowc-ver, 

iiof  a  rich  ?Tid  fruitful  ^oil.     F;ir:lur  on  i>  tl<*  Arab 

villajjo  of  IJethofir,  Ruppo'ij'd  %\ilh  nuicli  iir<»b:ibility  by 

l)r  tlarko  to  be  the  Bitliomn  of  S-rijilure.     W'v  mUv 

BOW  into  the  country  of  Judra.   It  is  very  mountainous ; 

•and  its  scenery,"  says   l>r  Uieh.irdMm,    "br«'n'^lit 

cr''ri;!v  to  my  reoolleelion  tlic  ride  t'n»m  Sanqniiar  U) 

Leadliiils,  in 'Scotland;  an^l  to  tli<»si',"  ho  coiitinui's, 

"»ho  have  visited  tliis  interesting  jiart  of  njy  n.uive 

f^THntrj-,   I  can  assure  tlieTii  the  compnrion  ^'ivrs  a 

fcvoixraitle  rrpr«'H.'ntatioii  <if  tho  hills  of  Juiba."     lU* 

CD  to  say,  that  the  great  difTerenco  lies  in  tlii'e<  •>- 

which  the  ei>untries  present  in  tlio  clianMMi  v  t-f 

To&da  and  inhabitant>,  iIiomj  of  l*aK>lin<:  being  of 

the  Tcry  worst  description.     Among  tho  jJaeis  of  note 

vhicb  1:^  in  the  route  to  Jernsaiem,  is  Mi 'din,  well 

kS'^nn  a?  the  site  of  tlie  city  and  tombs*  of  tli*-  illustvious 

usd  parrictic  Maccalices.    It  is  still  a  ]ilace  of  t>tren;;tli, 

MwtA  goes  by  tho  pamo  nann*.     As  the  road  a]>i>roaelu's 

Jera*a]fm,  th»j  vep'etation  becomes  exceedinLjly  scanty, 

aad  the  country*  h;is  a  bare,  rocky,  and  ruj.'jjod  ajipear- 


i 


j:.:iiVAiJ.v. 

JcTU'-alcm ^thncityof  Zion — tho  ancient  capital  of 

Jndea.  L«  situated  on  the  Mestern  slope  of  a  rocky  hill, 
■:  the  distance  of  al>oiit  foity-iive  mili.s  etutwaifl  from 
ifcc  ftr-re  *tf  tho  Mediterr:in«an.  In  tlic  present  <lay,it 
jot  be  said  to  possess  any  refiomblanco  lo  its  eondi- 
in  tho  period  <if  its  ancient  glory,  t.-r  the  repcatetl 
Ainzs  by  3ViM."in«,  Romans,  Sr-raeens,  and  other 
warlike  intruders,  alno  tli*»  chanp's  it  umKT^ent  ?it  thr 
wenA  rf  tho  crusades,  have  obliterated  all  its  original 
ttracturcs  ;  and  it  now  exhibits  the  external  aspect  of 
•  Turkish  city,  with  round  tojiped  edifices  and  niosrpuvs, 
ud  environe'd  wiiJi  a  wall  for  its  diOnee.  It  is  now 
fnirbiftwcen  two  and  three  mih^  in  einnit,  and  can  be 
wiUKd  round  in  forty-five  miimtci*.  The  town  is  built 
kfiflDiarly,  somewluit  in  tl.o  f  jriii  cf  a  hquare,  h.-  - 


pretty  high  walls,  and  six  g^itcs,  which  still  l>ear  Hebrew 
names.  The  hout^es  aro  of  sandstone,  three  stories 
high,  and  without  windows  in  the  lower  story.  This 
lifeless  uniformity  is  only  diversified  hen;  and  there  by 
tho  s])iros  of  the  moffques,  the  towers  of  the  churehes, 
and  a  few  c\-]»resses.  Tho  jiopulation  has  been  vari- 
ously estimated  at  from  2(l,un0  to  2'),000.  «lt  can 
hardiv,"  savs  Mr  Came,  hi  his  letters  from  the  Kist, 
"exceed  'JOjOOO  ;  1(),000  of  the^c  are  Jews,  :)(100  Chris- 
tians, and  the  same  number  Turks.  The  lower  divi- 
sion of  the  city,"  lie  continues,  "  towanls  the  east,  is 
chiefly  occupied  by  tho  Jews ;  it  is  the  dirtie.'-t  and  most 
offensive  of  all.  Several  oi'  this  people,  however,  aro 
rather  affluent,  and  live  ui  a  verj-  eonif  orlable  htyle ;  both 
men  and  women  are  more  attmetivc  in  thrir  ]iersfinfl 
than  thoseof  their  nation  who  rosiile  in  Kuro]-e,and  their 
features  are  not  so  strongly  marked  with  tiie  indelible 
Hebrew  characters,  but  much  moi*c  mild  and  interest- 
ing. Ihit  few  passengers  in  general  aro  met  with  in  tho 
streets,  which  have  tho  aspect,  where  the  convents  are 
situated,  rif  fortresses,  fixun  the  height  and  strength  of 
the  walls  tho  monks  havo  thought  ncces>'nry  for  their 
defenc«'.  Handsomely  dressed  persons  are  seldom  seen, 
as  the  Jews  and  Christians  rather  study  to  ]>reservo  an 
appearance  of  jxiverty,  that  they  may  not  escito  tho 
jealousy  of  the  Turks.  The  women,  in  their  close  veils 
and  white  dressi^s,  look  like  ^\alking  corpses.  The 
stn.M?tH  ai*o  unpaved,  and  filled  <'iiher  with  heaps  of 
dust  or  with  mire.  Nothini^  is  to  be  seen  but  veiled 
figures  in  white,  insolent  Turks,  and  stupid  or  nieian- 
eiioly  Christians."  Weavers  and  slipper-niaki-rs  aro 
\ho  only  artisiins.  A  muhitude  of  relies,  which  aro 
probably  not  all  manufactured  in  the  eity,  but  are  si-nt 
in  also  from  the  neighbourhood,  are  soM  to  the  credu- 
lous pilgrims.  Nevertheless,  this  city  forms  a  central 
point  of  trade  to  the  Arabians  in  SyrI:),  Arnbia,  and 
Kpypt.  The  pe(»plo  export  oil,  at:d  iiiij.'irt  rice  by  tho 
way  <»f  Acre.  The  neci-.-savifs  of  life  an'  in  ]U'n fusion, 
and  quite  chea]>,  the  g;inn'  ex<'ellent,  and  tin;  wiue  very 
good.  Tho  i«il;;rinis  are  always  a  chief  Miureo  of  sup- 
])Oi-t  to  the  inh.'ibitants;  at  Ka'-tcr  ihty  o:ti  u  amount 
to  /joiui.  liut  f«'w  of  iheni  ar«*  Jjn'Mp<  ;i!-. .  .Icni-'ali-iTi 
has  a  j;ovenH»r,  a  e:M!i  or  snprrun*  ju. !:,'••,  a  C'  ::.iMaiiib'r 
of  tin?  eitadi-I,  ami  a  niufii,  to  preyi<li.- o*. <  r  ri'ii;;i,)iitj 
niattf'rs.  Tho  eit:i(l<>l,  which  is  prctfinli-l  to  I::.\i-  In  en 
the  eastli*  of  I  >aviil,  is  a  <  o.thi*'  buildiiii:  ihrnii^lK'Ut.  It 
isealled  the  Pisan  Tower,  probably  In  cau-«-  it  vi;is  built 
by  the  IMsans  durinq;  the  erusa'!*-^.  All  tl'.e  j  ili^rimsgo 
to  the  Franciscan  monastery  of  the  Holy  S.i\ioijr,  whei"o 
thcv  are  maintaiTwd  a  month  ;:ratuitoii.-Iv.  liesides 
this,  tlHTc  ni'e  sixtv-one  Oiri-^tian  convc  nis  in  Jirus.i- 
loTij,  <»f  which  the  Armenian  is  the  l.ir^i'r-t.  Tlu-y  aro 
supported  by  benevolent  contributi«»us,  princip-Hy  from 
Europe,  and  foi^m  the  only  place  of  rrr-i<li'iice  for  tra- 
vellers. 

Jfru>aleni  is  (^t((■nHMl  bv  ^Mahi  :ii5n«-'!:ri...  a^  a  hnlv 
citv,  t!)ouL;li  not  to  the  extiiit  it  i-.  bv  Chrl>iiaii>  ;  thev 
have  Ihti.'  a  tem}»le  <ir  moMHie,  culled  ih:'  31'  .-imo  of 
Omar,  which  is  on  a  sc:ile«»f  extrjiordinary  ]:i.>:'!iH":l'«  ni*e, 
and  contains  a  stiitie  suj^pi-S'il  tol-eof  niiiMi'-.il-i'!-.,  i.;  iiiin. 
Jerusalem,  however,  is  c!ii«fly  of  ii:;p«'i'.j:.c''>  tn  tl:ii 
Turks,  fViim  tin'  r- v«Miue  wMcIi  is  il-iivt  1  Iri-r:*.  liio 
ChriNtiau  pil«:rin;  .  Tln^  sj.ot  to  «l;::-I'  ;.".  C.si-itiai.s 
first  direct  tlieir  attr'ntion,  is  that  on  uli.li  l  .•■\  p':!co 
tho  crucifixion  ami  burial  of  our  LorJ,  m.w  i.Kirl;i.d  \)y 

Tlio  (  '.lurt  h  r.f  tlio  II. !y  H^  ;".:1  }.t.-. 
Mount  Calvnvy,  i'm-  -;:■»*.  f.n  v.  iii-ii  \  <•  f"-:iv..\-.-o  of 
Chri-t  took  iilaci-*  V.:;-- i.i'iu'isi-ll^  n  ri-:t:  r ::!'  .•-l  wiTlnmt 
the  \\:ill«,  but  v,:t^  nlu  ru;ir'h  «  i"-!-  i  d  uii!  i.i  f  r  riry, 
alltrcd  t  i;iir»-ly  in  in;  ontlim-.  riml  niailt?  f.--  -!:••  .-I  a, 
elnin'!i  fi.i:i.<l''l  by  tin*  Kmi-ri  >«^  l!i'''-nn.  'li.!--  l"i;iii'iii 
(iflhi'  Ib'ly  ."'■«l'"!«'hvi',::'^it  i*4e;ilii'(l,  i-:'l.'.nt<  1-  ir:ii'.r'  l 
pac'-s  in  li-iJi;tli,  an^l  .-i\fy  in  v.  jilrli.  \i  js  in  •]:■•  f.-rni  of 
a  eit'cli",  bavin;;  a  hiavy  (h  ini*  or  rn|'i.I;i,  t'-i;  fivii  ;«•  of 
wliich  is  nial'  of  iho  eeilar-^  i-f  l.'-liir.riii,  ainj  r-.-. .  :•■  .1 
witii  a  kiiidof  stucert.  It  h:i.-  a  j-rr:«'i"i'-.  ut.  :  iii.iLri.i}'«-i  nt 
:ipp«'aranee,  thi*  ^'orinthinn  evciir  ot"  .nTi'l:"'-  I'Min-  pn*- 
v;.;.ii;g.     The  J^re.* em  buiiiiiii'-  i-.  i:«'t  ;u[i'.:  .'ih'-r  oM.     A 


Oi 


CHAMBERS'S  INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


fire  ^'hicli  occurred  in  180n,  destroyed  a  considerable 
])ortion  of  the  edifice,  and  the  present  structure  has  been 
completed  in  the  original  stylo  chiefly  at  the  expense  of 
the  Greek  religionists,  who  lience  possess  the  best  part 
of  the  edifice  for  their  religious  services,  greatly  to  the 
distress  of  the  Romish  clerg\'.  None  of  the  Protestant 
churches  takes  any  charge  of  the  place.  Carne  gives 
us  the  following  account  of  liis  visit  to  the  church : — 

**  There  was  a  guard  of  Turks  in  a  recess  iust  within 
the  duor,  to  whom  every  pilgrim  is  obliged  to  pay  a 
certain  suui  fur  adniLssiun;  but  we  were  exempted 
from  this  tax.  In  the  middle  of  the  first  apartment  is 
a  large  marble  slab,  raided  above  the  floor,  over  which 
Uunps  are  suspended :  this  is  said  to  be  the  space  where 
the  body  of  tho  Redeemer  was  anointed  and  prepared 
for  the  sepulchre.  Yuu  then  turn  to  the  left,  and  enter 
the  large  rotunda,  which  terminates  in  a  dome  at  the 
top.  In  the  centre  of  the  floor  stands  the  holy  sepulchre : 
it  IS  of  an  oblong  form,  and  composed  of  a  very  fine 
reddish  stone  brought  from  the  Red  Sea,  that  has  quite 
the  appearance  of  marble.  Ascending  two  or  three  low 
steps,  and  taking  otf  your  shoes,  you  enter  the  first 
snuill  apartment,  which  is  floored  with  marble,  and  the 
walls  lined  with  tlie  same.  In  the  centre  is  a  low  shaft 
of  white  marble,  being  the  spot  to  which  the  angel  rolled 
the  stone  from  the  tomb,  and  sat  on  it.  You  now  stoop 
low  to  enter  the  narrow  door  that  conducts  you  to  tho 
side  of  the  sepulchre.  Tho  tomb  is  of  a  light  brown 
and  white  marble,  about  six  feet  long  and  three  feet 
high,  and  the  same  number  in  bivadth,  buing  joined  to 
the  wall.  Between  the  sepulchre  and  the  opposite  wall 
the  space  is  very  confined,  and  not  more  than  four  or 
five  persous  can  remain  in  it  at  a  time.  The  floor  aud 
the  walls  arc  of  a  beautiful  nuirble ;  the  apartment  is  a 
s(|uare  of  about  seven  feet,  and  a  snuiU  dome  rises  over 
it,  from  which  are  suspended  twenty-seven  large  silver 
lam  (IS,  richly  chased  and  of  elegant  workmansliiii — pre- 
seuts  from  Rome,  of  tlie  courts  and  religious  orders  of 
Europe :  thtrM?  arc  kcjtt  always  buruiiig,  and  cast  a  flood 
of  light  oti  till'  sacred  tomb,  aud  the  paintiiig»hung  over 
it,  one  Romish  aud  the  otlu-r  Ciiijek,  representing  our 
Lord*s  aacenhion,  and  his  ap[N*ai'ance  to  Mary  in  the 
garden.  A  Greek  or  Romitih  priest  always btand» here 
with  the  silver  vaM.'  of  holv  inceuse  in  his  hand,  which 
he  sprinkles  over  tiie  pi]<;rinis. 

Wishing  to  isei?  the  bcliaviour  of  these  people,  who 
come  from  all  parts  of  the  world,  anil  undrrgo  the 
severoMt  dillicultit's  to  arrive  at  this  holy  spot,  we  re- 
mained for  &>onu'  time  within  it ;  and  the  scene  was  very 
interestinij.  They  entered:  Armenians,  (ireeks,  and 
Catht^lies,  of  both  Kexes,  with  tht?  deepest  awe  and  vene- 
ration, and  instantly  fell  itn  thi-ir  knei's;  bonie,  lifting 
their  eyoh  to  the  paintings,  burst  into  u  IUkhI  of  tears ; 
others  pressed  their  heads  with  fervuur  on  tlio  tomb, 
and  hoiij^ht  to  embrace  it ;  while  the  sacred  ineentie  fell 
in  Hliowei*s,  and  was  r(H.'eived  with  deliv:Iit. 

In  an  apartment  a  little  on  the  left  of  the  rotunda, 
and  paved  with  marble,  is  shown  the  HiH>t  wheiv  ('hri>t 
a]ipeared  to  Mary  in  the  garden.  Near  this  begins 
the  ascent  to  Calvary,  which  consists  of  ciglit»ren  very 
hjfiy  steps  ;  you  tli'.Mi  find  yourbelf  on  a  floor  of  beauti- 
fully variegated  marble,  in  the  midst  of  which  are  three 
or  four  slender  white  pillars  of  the  same  material  which 
support  the  roof,  and  iwparate  the  (ireeU  division  of  the 
S])ot  from  that  appifipriated  to  tiie  CatlKjlics;  these 
]>dhirs  are  partly  shrouded  by  rich  silk  han^ini;s.  At 
the  eiiil  stand  two  small  and  <>le;;ant  altai*s  ;  over  that 
of  the  Caiholies  is  a  {taintini;  of  the  crucilixion,  and 
ovrr  the  (ireek  i>  one  of  tiie  takini*  down  the  bodv 
from  ihi*  ern-.s.  A  number  «)f  silver  lamps  are  ron- 
stantly  hnriiin::,  anil  throw  a  rich  and  softened  light 
over  th«»  \\li«»le  «if  this  striking  scene. 

The  btrt-et  leading  to  (.'alvar\'  h:is  a  long  and  gradual 
afu^eiil ;  the  elevation  of  the  stone  steps  is  above  twenty 
feet ;  and  if  it  is  considered  that  tht:  summit  has  been 
removed  to  make  nnim  f'lr  the  sacred  church,  the  ancient 
hill,  though  low,  \«as  Kuliieiently  conspicuous.  The  very 
bjK)t  where  the  cn)hs  was  fixed  is  shown  ;  it  is  a  holu  in 

'*  e  rock,  surrounded  by  a  silver  ritn,  and  each  pilgrim 

'•'I 


prostrates  himself,  and  kisses  it  with  the  greatest  demo- 
tion. Its  identity  is  probably  as  strong  as  that  of  tha 
cross  and  ci*own  of  thorns  found  a  few  feet  below  tha 
surface ;  but  where  is  the  scene  around  or  within  the 
city  tluit  is  not  defaced  by  the  sad  inventions  of  the 
fathers?" 

The  priests  connected  with  these  sacred  places  keep 
up  a  system  of  religious  ceremonies,  in  some  of  which  it 
would  bo  impossible  to  say  whether  solemnity,  fcmiur, 
superstition,  ignorance,  or  slieer  madness,  most  predo- 
minates. The  ceremonies  which  take  place  during  the 
season  of  Easter  are  ridiculous  and  absuH  in  the  extreme. 
Upon  (jood  Friday  uif;ht  the  monks  enact  a  sort  (»f  drama 
of  the  death  of  our  Lord,  in  which  they  severally  per- 
form the  various  characters,  such  as  Joseph  of  Ariniathea 
and  Nicodemus.  They  have  a  figure  of  Christ  as  large 
as  life  nailed  to  a  cross,  which  tliey  carry  before  them 
in  solemn  procession.  No  circumstance  in  the  awful 
tragedy  is  omitted,  from  the  singing  of  the  hymn  to  the 
anointing  of  the  body  for  burial,  and  its  deposition  in 
the  sepulchre.  The  transactions  of  Easter  day  partake 
more  of  comedy  than  tragedy.  It  is  a  scene  of  suixiT- 
stitious  riot  and  pitiful  absurdity,  which  we  think  it 
unnecessary  to  describe.  The  reader  may  liave  some 
idea  of  it  by  imagining  to  himself  what  would  be  the 
consequences  if  bedlam  were  let  loose  upon  tlie  hc4y 
sepulchre.  It  is  only  doing  justice,  however,  to  those 
who  liave  the  keeping  of  the  ^  place  where  our  Lord 
lay,"  to  observe,  that  some  of  the  ceremonies  arc  both 
solemn  and  huprcssive,  without  much  admixture  of 
absurdity.  It  is  impossible,  however,  to  read  the  exlii- 
bitions  of  faster  day  and  eve,  without  a  painful  mitfir« 
ing  as  to  every  thing  connected  with  the  holy  city.  ^ 

^lounts  Zion  imd  3[oriah. 

On  crossing  the  small  ravine  which  divides  the  mo- 
dern city  from  I^Iount  Zion,  the  attention  is  attracted 
to  three  ancient  ruins,  covered  with  buildings  compum- 
tively  modern — said  to  be,  rospectivelv.  the  house  of 
Caiajthas,  the  place  where  Christ  held  his  last  supper, 
and  the  tunib  or  palace  of  David.  The  first  of  these 
is  now  a  church,  the  services  of  which  are  i>i>rfMniied 
by  the  Arukenians :  the  second  presents  a  mosque  and 
a  Turkish  huspital ;  while  the  third,  a  snuU  vaulted 
apartment,  coniaiiis  only  three  sepulchres,  formed  of 
dark-coloured  stone.  This  holy  liill  is  equally  cele- 
brated in  the  Old  Testament  and  in  the  New.  llvrc  the 
successor  of  Saul  built  a  city  and  a  royal  dwelling ;  here 
he  kept  f-r  tliiX'O  nidntlistheark  of  the  covenant;  here 
tho  Redeemer  instituted  the  saerament,  which  comme- 
morates his  death  ;  hertt  he  npi>eai*cd  to  his  disciples  on 
the  day  of  \\\^  ve.>>urrection.  The  place  hallowed  by  the 
last  supper,  if  we  may  believe  the  early  fathcm,  wae 
transformed  into  the  iii*st  Christian  temple  the  worid 
ever  saw,  \\h(;re  St  James  the  Less  was  consecrated 
the  fii'>t  bishop  of  .Jerusalem,  and  whore  he  presided  in 
the  first  council  of  the  church.  Tinally,  it  was  from  this 
spot  that  the  apoMles,  in  eomjttiance  with  the  injunc- 
tion given  them,  went  forth  to  teach  all  nations. 

A  shallow  vale,  called  the  valley  of  Millo,  scparatei 
M(>unt  /ion  frum  Mount  Moriaii,  on  which  the  temple 
stdod ;  this  was  originally  an  im*gular  hill,  se]»arated 
from  Mount  Zion  an<l  Acra,  as  well  as  from  Hcretha. 
Fur  till*  piirpo'-o  <»f  extending  th**  ap|HMuhiges  of  the 
ten:] do  over  an  ctpial  surface,  and  to  increa>»c  the  area 
of  the  sununit,  it  became  neees.-ary  to  sup|>ort  the  sidety 
whi<:h  f'.irined  a  sfpiare,  by  imnieuso  works.  In  order 
to  connect  it  w  itli  Mount  Ziim,  it  was  ni^*essary  to  throw 
a  l)rid;;e  acivss  the  valley  of  Jehoslia])hat.  .According 
ti>  Josfphus,  the  e\eci*able  but  luaguiHcent  monarch 
HeriKl  ix'huilt  the  second  temple ;  hut  there  is  reason 
to  sup])0->e  that  he  only  addiMlcon.siiU'rahly  to  its  extent. 
Its  fate  is  well  known:  the  prediction  of  our  .Savinur, 
that  one  stone  shoultl  not  l>e  left  upon  another,  was  liter- 
ally fulfilled.  After  the  (.'alinli  Omar  took  Jerusalum, 
buildings  were  erected  on  the  spot  where  Solomon's 
temple  stood,  the  rock  was  encli>sed  with  walls,  and,  by 
subHetjuenl  additiuusand  embelhsliments,  it  btvaniv  the 
splendid  mofHjue  which  m'c  lave  already  describetl. 


THE  HOLY  LAND. 


Learing  the  dty  at  the  gate  of  St  Stej^hen,  the  pil-  is  also  shown  tlie  spot  where  Isaiah  is  said  to  have  heen 

^rim  is  eooducted  to  the  not  nearly  contiguous  where  sawn  asunder.    A  little  farther  from  the  scene  of  the 

II  is  soppoaed  he  suffered  martyrdom.    He  is  then  martyrdom,  and  on  the  same  side  of  the  valley,  is  the 

ikown  the  church  of  the  sepulchre  of  the  Virgin  Mary,  pool  of  Siloam,  so  particularly  alluded  to  in  Scripture, the 

litvated  in  the  Tallcy  between  the  Mount  of  Olives  and  water  of  which  is  of  a  brackifdi  disagreeable  taste,  and 

JemsaleiD,  founded  by  St  Helena.    This  is  a  small  flows  several  miles  distant  under  tlie  city  of  Jerusalem, 

■loara  building,  flat  on  the  roof,  witli  a  door  on  the  and  is  emptied  here  into  a  sort  of  basin  enclosed  by  a 

*KMith  aide,  by  which  there  is  a  descent  into  the  interior  wall.     At  a  short  distance  from,  and  over  against  the 

by  aiepa,  having  on  the  right  hand  a  small  diapel,  with  pool,  is  the  **  Mountain  of  Offence,"  as  it  is  termed, 

tie  tomb  of  St  Ann,  the  mother  of  Mary.    On  the  left  where  Solomon  committed  acts  of  idolatry,  by  offering 

it  another  siniilar  to  the  former,  where  Joseph,  the  sacrifices  to  the  gods  of  the  Moabites  and  other  nations. 

fausfauid  of  the  Utter,  is  said  to  liave  been  interred.  Near  the  foot  of  it,  the  Field  of  Blood  is  shown,  where 

Althoagfa  the  authenticity  of  sneh  asaertions  depends  Judas  hanged  himself;  and  beyond  it  two  massy  pieces 

on  the  probabilities  of  tradition,  yet  the  solemn  stillness  of  antiquity,  one  of  which  is  named  the  Tomb  of  Zech- 

of  the  plaee^  the  sepulchral  gloom,  and,  above  all,  the  ariah,  and  the  other  tluit  of  Absalom,  formed  in  an 

which  are  calcnUted  to  affect  the  mind  on  extraordinary  manner  out  of  the  natural  rock,  about 

J  object  about  this  city,  combine  to  render  a  eighteen  feet  in  height,  and  ornamented  with  some 

to  tliisconsecrated  spot  so  deeply  interesting,  that  columns  of  architecture,  after  the  Ionic  order,  hewn  in 

a  tzaveUcr  of  the  least  sensibility  never  can  forget  it.  the  same  entire  stone,  supporting  a  cornice  over  which 

rises  a  pyramidal  roof.     The  latter,  since  Absalom  was 

Mount  of  01iYc&  jj^j  supposed  to  be  buried  in  the  valley,  is  conjectured  to 

PaMing  along  a  small  bridge  thrown  over  the  Ked-  have  been  formed  during  tlie  life  of  that  prince.    Sudi 

roa,  the  Mount  of  Olives  next  presents  itself.    About  is  the  antipaUiy  of  the  Jews  to  this  monument,  that  it  is 

half  way  towards  the  summit,  there  are  several  grottoes  their  practice  in  paHsing  to  throw  stones  against  it,  as  a 

excavated  labjrrinthically  in  the  rock.    Higher  up  is  mark  of  tlieir  reprobation  of  the  unnatural  rebellion  of 

aaochcr  cavern,  or  subterraneous  dmrch,  as  it  is  now  Absalom  against  his  father.     Near  it  is  the  sepulchre 

fanned,  consisting  of  several  arched  vaults,  where  the  of  Jehoshaphat,  which  gives  the  name  of  the  valley.  It 

aaoscks  eomposcd  tho  creed  bearing  their  name ;  but  is  a  cavera  whidi  is  more  commonly  called  tlie  Grotto 

this  is  almost  filled  with  rubbish.    About  fifty  ^lurds  of  the  Disciples,  from  an  idea  that  they  went  frequently 

fiuther.  the  spot  is  pointed  out  where  Christ  looked  thither  to  be  taueht  by  their  divine  M'aster.   The  fronc 


down  apoa  Jerusalem  in  grief,  and  pronounced  that 
Cfcr  memond»Ie  prophecy  which  has  been  so  awfully 
and  strikingly  fulfilled.  On  the  top  of  tlio  Mount  are 
the  remains  of  a'  small  church  or  chapel,  in  the  octagon 
fiinn,  with  a  cupola,  denominated  the  Ascension.  Tnis 
«M  fanUt  by  Helena.  Here  there  is  shown  the  impres- 
■sn  of  the  left  foot  or  sandal  of  a  man,  which  is  ten 
in  length  uid  four  in  breadth,  made  on  a  rock 


id  by  the  guides  to  be  that  of  Christ,  when    joining  hills. 


of  this  excavation  has  two  Doric  ]>illar8  of  small  size, 
but  of  just  proportions!  In  the  interior  are  three 
cliambers,  all  of  them  rude  and  irregular  in  their  form ; 
in  one  of  which  were  several  gravestones,  removed,  wo 
may  suppose,  from  tho  open  ground  for  greater  security. 
Like  all  the  rest,  they  were  fiat  slabs  of  a  long  shape, 
from  tliree  to  six  inches  in  thickness,  and  evidently  a 
portion  of  the  limestone  rock  which  composes  the  ad- 


Uiibot  laat  toudied  the  earth,  thoush  of  course  this  is 
mm  cf  those  modem  inventions  whidi  prevail  through- 
«t  the  comitiy. 

Garden  of  Gcthacmane. 

like  carden  of  Gethscmane,  of  all  gardens  in  tlie 
Krid  the  most  hallowed  and  interesting,  is  situated  at 
Af  foot  of  the  Mount,  and  near  the  brook  Kedron.  It 
■  a  piece  of  ground,  about  the  third  part  of  an  acre 
h  extent,  surrounded  by  a  coarse  loose  wall  of  a  few 
ivt  in  height.  There  are  seven  olive  trees  of  enor- 
■ooi  magnitude  remaining,  and  separate  from  each 
gfto*,  ttS  to  have  been  in  existence  since  the  time  of 
HT  Lord  ;  they  are  highly  venerated  by  the  Christians, 
vbo  coosider  any  attempt  to  cut  or  injure  them  as 
^mmting  to  an  act  of  profanation.  Should  a  Catholic 
If  ksown  to  pluck  any  of  the  leaves,  it  subiects  hiinrto 
of  excommunication  from  church  privileges. 


Chateaubriand  is  of  opinion,  that,  except  the  pool  of 
Bctliesda  at  Jerusalem,  we  have  no  remains  of  the 
primitive  architecture  of  its  inhabitants.  The  tombs 
in  tlie  valley  of  Jehoshaphat  display  an  alliance  uf  Egyp- 
tian and  Grecian  taste,  mixed  with  the  jieeuliar  »tylo 
of  the  llebre\^'s.  In  the  valley  of  Jehoshaphat  the  Jews 
have  a  place  of  sepulture,  which  contains  a  number  of 
gravestones,  and  to  which  those  who  reside  in  JeruHalem 
are  in  the  liabit  of  going  in  procession  at  certain  seasons, 
for  the  purpose  of  obscr\'ing  a  religious  festival  in  me- 
mory of  the  dead.  There  still  exists  a  sti'uiig  desire  in 
this  people  to  mingle  their  dust  with  the  ashes  of  their 
fathers,  and  many  of  them,  as  well  as  Christiaiip,  enter- 
tain the  fantastical  belief  that  the  valley  of  JehoiJiaphat 
is  to  be  the  scene  of  tho  final  resurrection.  With  rettpect 
to  its  present  aspect,  Chateaubrbnd  beautifully  ob- 
serves, *'  What  with  the  sadness  of  Jerusalem,  from 
-  -.        which  there  ascends  no  smoke  nor  issues  any  sound — 

made  of  the  stone  of  the  olive,  and  a  stnng    ^^^  golitude  of  the  mountains,  in  whidi  we  perceive  no 


It 


\  the  most  sacred  object  than  can  possibly  be 
to  a  traveller. 

to  this  garden  that  Clirist  liad  occasion  to 
with  his  diMipIes,  to  engage  in  devotional  medi- 

immediately  before  his  death,  and  a  view  of  it 

it  ^calated  to  impress  the  Christian  mind  with  the 
fccpiiT  religious  awe.  At  tho  u})per  end  is  the  place 
vfaeie  the  apostles,  Peter,  James,  and  John,  fell  asleep 
the  passion  of  theii*  divine  Master,  and,  in  the 
of  the  garden,  the  pUce  where  Judas  betrayed 
Many  other  interesting  places  and  grottoes  ai'e 
pointed  out,  and  amouc  them  is  one  which  is 


living  being — and  the  confusion  of  the  tombs,  all  broken, 
shattered,  and  half  open — one  could  almost  believe  that 
tho  trump  of  doom  had  already  sounded,  and  that  the 
dead  had  begun  to  rise  in  the  valley  of  Jehoshaphat." 

Besides  the  places  already  described  in  and  about 
the  city  which  tradition  Iiuk  hallowed, are  the  following: 
— Beneath  the  gate  of  Bethlehem  is  the  spot  where 
Bathsheba  was  bathing  when  David  beheld  her  from 
the  roof  of  his  palace,  and  the  present  tower  of  the  king 
is  built  upon  the  site  of  tho  ancient  palace.  A  Hiuall 
distance  within  tho  gate  of  St  lSt<.'phen  i.s  the  pool  of 
,  ^  1   I      1 1      1      Bethesda.     It  is  one  hundred  and  tilty  feet  lon^',  and 

to  be  tho  scene  of  the  agony  and  the  bloody    ^^^^  ^yxi^^^.     The  sides  are  walled  with  large  stones 

joined  together  by  iron  cramps,  and  covered  m  ith  Hints 
Valley  of  Jchotihaphat.  embedded  in  a  substance  resembling  plaster.   Here  the 


CHAMBERS'S  INFOIOIATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


B  Spacious  Aud  rather  ruinons  building  of  Roman  arcbi- 
tectuiv.  It  contains  some  good  ajiartments,  the  windows 
of  T^Iiich  command  an  excellent  view  of  the  Mosque  of 
Omar  and  its  large  area.  In  this  palace  the  monks 
point  out  tlic  room  where  Christ  was  confined  before 
nis  trial ;  and  at  a  short  distance  in  a  dark  aud  ruinous 
luill,  shown  as  the  judgment-hull  of  Pilate.  You  then 
procccKi  along  the  street  wlicre  Christ  bore  his  ci*oss, 
in  wliieh,  and  in  the  streets  leading  up  to  Calvary,  are 
the  three  places,  where,  staggering  under  the  weight, 
he  fell.  These  are  marked  by  three  email  pillars  laid 
flat  on  the  ground.  The  very  house  of  the  rich  man 
alifo  is  here,  and  the  spot  where  Lazarus  sat  at  his  gate. 
A  pilgrim  who  comes  to  the  city  must  set  no  bounds  to 
liis  faith,  as  he  is  shown  the  place  where  the  head  of 
Adam  was  found,  the  rock  on  which  the  martyr  Stephen 
was  stoned,  and  the  place  of  the  withei-ed  fig-tree,  with 
the  milk  of  the  Virgin  Mary,  and  some  of  the  tcnrs  that 
St  Peter  we})t  on  Iiis  bitter  repentance. 

In  tlie  neiglibuurhood  of  Jerusalem,  the  two  chief 
places  of  interest  are  Bethany,  lying  in  a  northerly, 
and  Betlilehem  in  a  southerly,  direction  from  the  city. 

BETHANY. 

After  leaving  Jerusalem  by  tho  g:ito  of  St  Stephen, 
crossing  the  valley  (if  Jehoshnphat,  and  passing  the  gar- 
den of  Gethyemane  and  the  Mount  of  Olives,  the  pilgrim 
nn'ivesat  the  vilUige  of  Bethany,  situated  about  two  miles 
from  tlie  citj',  wIk-i-c  Jesus  onco  resided,  and  where  he 
appeared  to  his  disciples  after  hiRi*esurrection.  On  the 
road,  we  meet  witli  the  villago  of  Bethi^.tge,  now  a  heap 
of  ruins.  Bethany  is  both  small  and  poor:  it  is,  how- 
ever,  beautifully  situated,  and  the  view  just  above  it  is 
very  magnificent.  The  culti\'ation  of  tlie  surrounding 
M)il  is  much  noglectrd.  The  object  which  first  strikt-H 
the  traveller,  is  a  ruinous  castellated  pile,  which  it  is 
said  J^azaruH  occupied.  This,  however,  is  only  one  of 
those  oral  legends,  which,  being  nuinifestly  of  such  a 
nature  tliac  the  iillei|je<l  fact  couM  never  have  been 
apei.'vtaimd,  only  alleet  the  tnivellfv  with  a  painful 
seu.-se  iif  dis»trn»it,  ns  h<»  passes  lhroui;h  this  <)therwl-i> 
int».'restin:»  country.  Not  far  distant  are  tlie  ruins  cf 
a  buildiiii^,  i>aiil  t«i  liave  been  the  hmise  of  iSt  Marl;. 
A  litt!«?  ti)  the  lii^iit  are  the  vesti;.":c'>;  of  the  habitation 
of  Mary  Maijdaleni'.  Hut  by  far  the  most  inten'srini; 
objetT  is  (lie  tomli  of  Lazarus.  The  tiiivflli-r  tirfi 
descL-U'lf*  to  a  e::vi',  iirohablv  frMin  tif^v  lu  hixtv  iW-t 
wniU-r  jLTound,  and  l-imls  on  a  small  «nia'iran;;ul;ir  spaec, 
wlnT'^  thei-o  jippi-ars  to  have  been  a  cdniniunication 
wiih  a  ehureli  u'iji lining,  wliirh  in  luiw  built  up  and  con- 
verted iino  a  mosijue.  In  tlie  \vnll  of  this  apartment 
there  in  an  aperture  of  al)')Ut  tliree  fe<^t  in  brearlth, 
formed  by  the  raisin;;  of  a  largi^j  stone,  as  if  by  some 
c'onvuUiim  of  na5ure,and  which  eoiiiluets  intoan  areht d 
vault,  Mi-l  to  Ik?  the  spot  whri*e  the  body  was  hiitl.  Tho 
vault  niejisun-H  alxint  fourteen  feet  in"  lengrh,  ten  in 
Im-ailth,  and  eii^ht  in  heiiiht.  With  respect  to  the  iden- 
tity of  the  intnb,  Mr  Cartu-  observ*  s,  **  its  identity  cannot 
be  douhii-rl — tin*  position  of  Jicthany  eeuld  never  Iiave 
Iwen  l«»rgotteu — and  this  is  the  only  sepitlchre  in  ilio 
wh«ile  nriijlibourliood;" — reawMiing  which  appears  )iv 
no  means  couchi-'ive. 

r.T.ijii,f".i?r:v, 

liijhli.'heiii,  as  li(  int;  tlii?  lirtliplaei?  of  Clirlsf,  U  uuv 
t»f  the  most  iiitiTe>tin^  jilae.  s  in  ii:tr  Holy  Lan<l.  Tlie 
road  leadini;  to  it  is  ixtremrly  r'-i'ky  anti  barren,  t.nly 
(iivrr-ii:«'il  by  sr.ijie  euliivafetl  patcln-s  bearing  a  MMuiy 
eriip  of  ;;rain,  j.nd  a  prnfusii^n  of  wilil  ll-iwrr-.  Hm  tli'i* 
w;iv  !if  till'  riiine  I  'i'owir  of  Simeon,  who.  oikiu  behul'.:- 
ini:   till-   jril.i.it    Mi<-i:ih,  cxia-i  r- d   1j:s  \villiii:;ni'ss   to 


distinguished  by  the  addition  of  Ephrata,  or  by  a  rei 
ence  to  tho  dii$trict  in  wiiich  it  is  situated.  It  is  a  1 
village,  situated  upon  a  mountain,  and  surrounded  ti 
gardens  of  fig-ti*ees  and  olives.  The  bouses  arc  v 
humble,  and  fiat  on  the  roof,  with  stairs  on  the  outii 
The  principal  buildings  in  Bethlehem  are  tiie  conv 
and  chui*ch  of  the  Franciscans,  which  cover  the  suppo 
spot  of  the  nativity.  From  tiie  alteration  of  the  surf 
caused  by  tho  building,  this  celebnited  cpot  is  nov 
a  species  of  vault  or  subterraneous  chajiel,  called 
Chapel  of  the  Nativity.  Before  the  altir  in  thb  unc 
ground  chapel,  there  aro  peveral  massy  silver  lar 
kept  constantly  burning ;  and  the  S])ot  where  it  was  c 
Christ  was  bom,  is  marked  with  a  star,  formed  of  wl 
marble,  inlaid  with  jasper,  and  surrounded  with  a  n 
ancc  or  glory.  On  this  there  is  encircled  the  follow 
inscription : — 

II  ic  (Ic  Vinrino  Jcens  Chri^tus  nattu  est. 

[Ilorc  JoMu  Cbrbit  was  bom  of  tho  Virgin  Mary.] 

To  the  right  of  this  is  shown  the  place  where  stood  * 
manger  in  which  he  was  laid.  It  appears  to  be  cut 
of  the  natural  ixK'k,  and  lined  with  marble.  Lamp* 
silver  are  always  kept  burning  before  it.  A  nan 
passage  leads  from  this  chapel  iuto  that  of  the  irmocr 
who  were  Flain  by  the  command  of  Herod,  where  i 
cell,  in  which,  say  the  monks,  St  Jerome  made  a  tra 
lation  of  the  Bible.  A  short  distance  from  the  conv 
is  a  grotto,  whore,  according  to  tradition,  the  raoti 
of  dobus  conctak'dhei'solf  and  child,  whilst  Jobt-ph  y 
making  arrangements  for  their  flight ! 

Four  miles  to  the  south  of  Bethlehem,  in  a  ir 
secluded  situation  in  the  middle  of  mountains,  are  si 
ated  tho  celebratcjd  pools  or  fountains  of  Snlora 
These  ai-e  three  in  number,  of  a  quadrangular  foi 
cut  out  of  tile  living  rock,  .\bout  half  a  inile  bel 
there  is  a  deep  v:ilii-y,  cinl.iosomed  in  high  hills,  wh 
it  is  said  tho  gardens  of  S(»lom(»n  were  laid  out. 

From  tiie  ii>p  of  the  ehureh  at  Hethlehem  there  i 
fine  prospi  et  of  the  stn'rinimling  country,  extendinj: 
Ti'koa  on  the  hnutli,  and  I!n-:;inli  on  the  east.  In 
latter  pi."e«;  is  trie  ^'rotto  or  cavi-  of  Adulum.  wh. 
J);ivi.l  cut  off  t)it'  .vLIrt  <ii  Saul's  jrarnienl.  Bctw^ 
tii:s  pi^inr  and  Jern<aleiri  ai"e  i-evcral  small  detacl 
towrrs-.  I'f  a  Fqnaro  fVirin,  built  in  the  niidsit  of  vi 
land.^.  'i  lii'<i;  an-  f<'r  lh«*  aeeonnnodation  of  watchn 
i.ppointed  t-)  •;tiard  the  proiluei--  fr-'in  thieves  and  \i 
buasts,  as  alhulcd  to  by  tin-  evangel i««t  St  Mark. 

Al>out  twiMily  ii:il»-s  <.oiilIi  from  Bethlehem  is  Mni 
IIebn>n,  with  the  town  of  that  name,  one  of  the  ohl 
cities  of  (.'anaan,  bur.  now  conraininL^  only  7UU  or  i 
Arab  families.  The  ]>rebenl  inhabitants  are  the  wiMi 
moot  lawle.«.«*,  and  ilesprrate  petipN:  of  the  Holy  l-ii 
Tiiu  })nnoii>al  inos']ut>  is  haid  to  ermtain  the  tomI« 
Abmh.im,  Isaa<s  and  Jacob;  being  in  the  possession 
bigoted  Mussulmans,  no  eNaminaiioii  can  be  made 
these  ftuppused  objects  vf  aniii[r.ity. 

c.'.s  i:  or  J!  iir.MiMt. 

Tin.'  eitilj.il  ili strict  of  J'alostine,  ii.>rtliward  fri 
Jenisah-m,  I'lintains  a  f«w  ol-jijuts  ot'  intt.'re>t  Vt  trav* 
lor-.  Tin:  lir-.t  whioli  attracts  their  attention  is  t 
cavi.'  of  tJi-riioi.ih.  sliuatcil  at  a  nhort  distance  from  1 
gate  4if  ilji"  l|..!y  City.  'J'hr  beiluf  llio  piMphet  i.s  hhof 
ill  ;h«'  ti.-rMj  of  a  ri.c'nv  slh  If,  ab«iut  i-i^'lit  feet  from  I 
groand  ;  ;  i.d  tin-  sjoi  i-,  i:!;i-wi-i-  pointed  out  i»n  whi 
he  is  uiiili  rrfnini  :••  have  ui;!tiii  lii«i  ln-i»k  »if  lament 
tions  At  a  little  di'-rane.-  Iri-ni  tin-  ei?y  M:ind  t 
ti  ]>ulclirc>  I  i  I  lie  kin:;-;,  4-ii!ini-4"i  il  m  i;ii  wlin-h  there  6i 
pri'xailsf  liie  r-li-curjiv.  IU\{  uIjuvit  xvas  bnrie«l  lioj 
liic  jilaoe  ilireiivi  r>  .'^i*  ;:ri  at  an  e\|:rn-.e.  biitli  cf  KiI.ki 


driidi.andiif  whii-Ii  hi?  ni'-'.iv  mi  n,  at  tin*  iiMniinti-i  risii  .  hrw-i  i.t-.t  •  I  li.i-  ::\ii.;j  ryei.,  ami  havini:  an  aivhitra 
of  their  lives,  proenred  a  supply,  'i'.i  tii-,tinMr„i-,h  t'li-.  rniuiinL,'  ..l.  isi;  ii-i  Iri-iit  ail-'Hn  il  wi:!i  sculptun>.  int! 
town  from  another  of  the  khh-*  name  i.f  tor  trll.e  t.r  interior  ti^re  are  .six  t-r  sevinn  rooms  iti  vbicli  ':to: 
VScbuhi:!,  t\:v  V,.  tl.I.-li.-ni  u-   no.v  :  pMMae'i   ii  u-u.illv  |  cotf.!!:,  ;■)■■■  'aI;;:  :•-  >',, 


THE  HOLY  LAND. 


LKBONAU,  AND  TUC  SIOUNT  OF  CUUZIM. 

The  next  object  of  importanco  which  wo  meet  with 
is  a  Tiliage  supiKMed  to  be  tho  Mickinash  alluded  to  in 
Scripture.     It  is  at  present  distinguished  by  the  namo 
of  lieer,  sicnifying  a  well,  and  adopted,  most  likely, 
from  a  delicious  B]>ring  of  water  llowtng  throu{;h  it ; 
near  to  which  arc  the  ruins  of  a  church,  built  in  eoni- 
meni  oration  of  the  miwing  of  J  ems  by  hin  ii:ii'cnt>t,  on 
iht  ir  way  homo  from  Jerusalem,  when  it  was  discovered 
tluit  he  had  nmaiued  in  the  ti:n)])le  with  tho  expoundei-s 
of  the  law.     It  was  to  this  place,  also,  that  Jothain  liud 
Rcvurso  in  order  to  escape  the  fury  of  his  brother. 
B<-yoiid  this  hamlet,  at  the  distauce  of  alx)ut  four  hours* 
walk,  is  Leban,  called  Lcbonah  in  the  Dible,  a  villu^^o 
stniate«l  on  tlie  eastern  side  of  a  delicious  viile.    The 
z\>ad  between  these  two  places  is  carried  thi'uugh  a  wild 
and  very  hiily  country,  destitute  of  trees  or  other  marks 
of  cultivation,  and  rendered  almost  totally  unproductive 
by  t).e  li:irbaris>u  of  the  gftx'emment.    In  a  narrow  dell, 
formed  by  two  lofty  precipicr«<,  are  tho  ruins  of  a  nio- 
ludtonr,  bein^  in  tlie  neighbi>urliood  of  that  myi<tic 
Bethel  where  Jacob  enjoyed  his  celestial  vision.     We 
sell  arxivu  at  the  well  of  that  patriai*cli,  tho  MM^no  of 
the  ei'nfercnee  between  our  Saviour  and  tho  woman  of 
.Samaria.     Over  this  fountain  Helena  erected  a  large 
vdihee,  of  which,  however,  almost  nothing  now  i*emains. 
Near  this  is  the  narrow  vallev  of  Shccheni,  the  i?ychar 
of  Scripture,  overhung  on  citlier  side  by  the  two  nionn- 
uiiisfjvrizimand  Ebal,  menionibic  as  bt-in;^  the  theatre 
on  uhich  was  pronounced  the  Ninetiou  of  tlieMivine 
hw.    Tlie  iNiuiaritans  havi;,  ah  is  well  kuown,  a  plaeo  of 
venhip  on  Mount  Gerizini,  where  at  certain  seiisons 
ifaey  {lerfonu  the  rites  of  their  reIi;;ion.     According  to 
tbetr  Tersion  uf  tho  Pentateuch,  it  was  htn!  that  the 
Almighty  comitiandod  the  childivn  of  Israel  to  fd^t  up 
peat  Ftones  covered  with  piaster,  on  which  to  inscribe 
the  body  of  their  law  ;  to  crc^ct  an  altar  to  otli-r  poace- 
c&rings:  and  to  njoice  before  the  Lord  their  God. 
In  the  Hebrew  e«Iition,  Alonnt  Kbal  is  taid  to  have 
Wen  the  scene  of  these  pious  serviccf? — ^a  variaii<»n 


A  few  miles  l)Ovond  Nribloup,  and  about  fortv  from 
Jerusiilem,  is  situated  the  tow!i  of  Samaria.  'Jhe  tiitua- 
tion  is  cxironiely  beautil'ul,  and  naturally  strong,  occu- 
pying the  bunimit  of  a  hill,  eneompai>Red  nil  around  by 
ad«:ii>  valli'v.  Ihit  the  ciiv  which  Ilen.d  adormd  with 
jirinrely  buildin:;s  is  now  a  mi-iv  \'illa.i;e,  small  and  poor, 
exhiliiiiiMjj  only  th<»  nn'sorable  wn-ek  of  firmer  gnat- 
ncss.  IltTO  John  the  Ii:ipti»-t  was  <Ieeaj»iiatfd,  and  tho 
Empress  llclrua  t-recterla  church  ovt-r  tin?  jilace  where 
ho  pined  and  sutlVnil  ;  but  it  has  shared  the  fate  of  tho 
rcht  of  the  city,  iK-iiii;  nnw  a  luero  ruin.  Tho  prison 
where  tho  h(»ly  bloo<l  nf  tin*  drscrt-bn-*!  wa**  spilled,  is, 
however,  jioiuted  out  by  the  Turks,  who  h  )Id  it  in  high 
veueration. 

nil-:  1)1. A u  si:.\. 

Tin's  extcnMvr  nheet  of  water  lies  in  an  easterly  dlivc- 
tion  frnui  Jei*usilem,  and  also  from  liethleheni.  In 
])roeeL'dinj^  towards  it  lr«»ni  tho  latter  place  thu  tra- 
veller ';:oe.s  ihronuh  a  vale  where  it  is  wild  Abraham 
was  wont  to  fec<l  liis  ih»cUr-..  This  ]*astoraI  plain  is 
succeerled  by  a  range  of  mountainous  and  bsirren 
ground.  Descending  from  tlii--,  two  lofty  towel's  riso 
from  a  deep  valley,  marking  the  bite  of  the  Convent  of 
Santa  Saba,  a  very  ancient  church.  Its  situation  is 
dreary,  being  built  aniid>t  preei]iiees  on  the  brink  of  a 
deep  and  glootny  deti,  where  the  brook  Kedrun  fiows. 

In  advancing,  the  country  ^t ill  jiresents  a  disolatc 
aspect.  The  road  at  lei«::th  seeks  a  lower  level,  and 
a]>]>roac1u's  tho  rocky  b"»rd«'r  \\l!ich  boiind?>  the  valley 
of  the  Jordan  ;  when,  :\hrv  a  tcilsonie  joiiniey  oi'  ten 
or  twelve  honrs,  the  trav«!U:r  at  last  belu'lds  the  Dead 
Sea,  and  the  linetif  the  river;  tlie  lanilMrape,  however, 
is  by  no  means  gran<l  t»r  prepo.•,>.e.^^i^lX.  T^\o  hm:' 
chains  of  mountains  run  in  a  jKimliel  direction  from 
north  to  south,  without  breaks  aniUnihniit  uiiilulations. 
Tho  e:istern  or  Arabian  chain  i-t  the  hi^'lie>t  ;  and  when 
hoen  nt  the  »i:sta!u*e  of  el^jiit  «»r  ten  leagues,  it  resembles 
a  prodigious  perpeuilieular  wall.  IS'wt  o!.e  i^uniniit,  nut 
tho  smallest  j>e:ik,  is  di^tiIl;;uishslllle  ;  iiiily  ."-light  inflec- 
tions are  Iiere  ami  there  ohserveil,  as  it  liii-  hand  uf  the 


*hieh  the  Samaritans  ascribe  to  the  malice  of  the  dews,  painter  who  ilrewiiii-,  hori/.oiiL-il  IImi*  alun-^  the  sky  luid 
In  the  vicinity  of  lh«»  town  is  a  small  ino.-i«[ue,  which  is  trembleil  in  some  plaei"!.  'i'he  inmsiitain-^  ».i"  .JioUalerm 
told  lo  over  the  H«'pulchn^  of  Joseph,  and  to  be  situated    the  range  on  wli-eh  tin*  oh-i-rxi  ;•  '^r:iiii!s  i\i  \j-  looks 


tb^vlii  Kiught  by  Jacob  from  llamor,  ihe  father 
•f  Sfaecheni,  as  w  related  in  the  book  of  «;enesis. 

^^^IlLOl'S  on  siiivCiirM,  am>  s'.m.\:*.ia. 

Penetrating  farther  northwards,  wo  arrive  in  a  rich 
■ad fertile  du^trict,  in  which  is  tituated  Nablous,thc  an- 
dfot  Shech 
log  townft 


down  on  till.'  kike  .\-'iih:tl:i{e-« ;  it  i-i  h  <s  lolly  ami  nmrtt 
uiie.jual  loan  tlie  t  iistcrn  eliain,  :".A  wImd  ditl'ers  I'roni  it 
in  Its  nature;  exhibiniig  h'>:i{is  oi  eliaii;  and  >and,  which 
ai^-ume  variwUM  bi/.arre  lorni<.  '1 1.<-  Arabian  Mde,  on 
the  contrary,  jivi.v.nts  nothiii;^  l-iii  bleak  precipitous 
reeks,  which  throw  tlii-ir  iomx  J»H''i  ;.ioj.ioy  Miadowa  over 


liein,and  at  present  one  of  the  most  flourisli-    the  water  of  the  Diad  Se:i.     Nnt  a  .'in^le  blade  of  gi-a.«H 
in  the  Holv  Land.     It  has  a  very  imposing  1  i**  to  be  foii^id  aTnoi:.;  tin,,*  crag:, ;  eviry  thing  aniKiunoes 

_^^ c  when  viewed  fnmi  the  surrounding  heights,  I  1 1. e  coanii>  i.f  .i   r.-pmbate  j-.-ohk-,  aii<l  wdl  litted  to 

Mdiooka  as  if  it  were  embosrmud  in  a  delleiuiLs  para-  j  p«-rpetiia:e  liie  •' n  j-roniionci  d  <.:i  Anunonaud  Moab. 

dae.     The  pfjpulation,  who  are  i>rincipaiUy  Mahommo-    The  valley  emho.-onud  in  iIkm'  two  din  ins  of  mountains 

^n«^  have  been  estimated    at    lO,iji)0,  but  this   Mr    di.-plays  a  soil  s-imilar  t«»  the  b.^i.im  ol'u  .-  a  which  has 

Backin^ham  thinks  .in  exaggeration.  long  retireiUmm  iis  bed_:i  l.^adi  coviivd  with  Kilr, 

The  5iinarilans  do  not  exceed  forty  in  numlK-r.   They    dry  mud,  .^uid  nu»ving  ^an.I^^,  iun-owrd  ar^  it  \»  ere  by  t  i:.r 

a  8\-na!rogue,  where  divine  service  is  perf«)rnied    wavt.-;.     Vegetatiunis  Ikii;  in  a  d-oa.rablesiaio  :  tlu  re 

r  Saturday.     Four  times  a-ycar  they  go  in  solemn    aiv  u  few  <lreary  ^hrub'•,  wish  le.iv»s  eo\en<l  with  salt, 

_«*,^^ion  to  the  old  templu  on   Mount  (jcrizhu,  ou    and  a  bark  which  has  a  .-nK.ivv  smell  and  taMe.    Instead 

vineh  occasitin  they  assemble  before  hunrise,  and  rt\id  |  of  \illages,  you  i.erc<ivi'  the  ruins  of  a  lew  towi-rs.    In 

tfav  law  till  noon.    They  have  but  one  school  in  Nablous    the  n;iiliile  of  iliis  valKy  li-.ws  a    diseeiojirerl  river, 

vLere  tbeir  langu;igc  is  taught,  though  thoy  take  much    which  reine:;irMly  tIip-ws  ir...  if  imo  the  pi -srilenriiil  hike 

vide  in  preserving  ancient  manuscripts  of  their  Pen-    by  which  it  i-  •■iiguUt-.I.     !?.-.  eour-e  aiiii<l  the  sand  cm 

ttlearh  in  tbe  original  character.     Mr  Connor  saw  a    be  distinguished  onlv  l.y  tin-  \\III«"a-  :!id  the  re«  ilsthat 

cop*  which  is  reported  t-i  be  .TiDO  years  old,  but  he    border  it;  aimini;  \>i.i'i   \)i:   Ar.ih   li.  s  in  rimbii.-h  to 

VMXKTtHDoilcd  to  examine  uwr  evi-u'to  touch  it.     The    ait.iek  liie  trav.-ll.-r,  ai.ii  to  ivor  1  r  tiie  ]  ilyrinu 

c««Btii  tniriiactcd  in  tho  Held  of  Shechem  render  the 

loealltiefl  contiguous  to  this  city  peculiarly  intere.'^iing. 

Here  «ands  the  well  of  Jacob,  and  hen*  the  snos  of  the 

fatriarch  •*  difove  their  flocks  a -held,"  and  l»ere  they 

told  to  the  b^mukclites  their  brother  Joseph,  tho  future 

ill  luLjiuliillifflif  the  greatest  kinirdom  then  upon  the 

bee  of  the  earth.    Hen*,  as  of  old,  t  lie  ^he]>herds  gnize 


m  .Scnp- 


Wi-  nov.-  e..me  in  iln-  I;  I..-  i"  >  I;,  e:i!.i  d 
ti;ro  ili«"  P'.ud  ^i  n  ;  aiip  !u  t->''  <'V«.»i.s  and  Kon^an^-, 
A>phalti:e-  ;  ami  amiiiu'  i';m  At;'s  Uahr  J.oui,  or  thi' 
iSea  <if  hf  t.  Consiiierabie  diver.sjiy  of  opinion  has 
prev.'»ileil,  bill  It  ioiioml:  the  aiirli  nls  auil  mo'ii-rns.  re- 
gaV'iim;  ti;i»  e\:M'!  'limi-n-'eti-  »,t  li.i-^  lakr.  wbirh  a**  y.  * 
are   iii'iibalilv  ii'i:    :.e«'iir;.''   v  a.-e*  rianuil.     Mr  C'nrJ!' 

f  •  ■ 


Ocir  flocka 
■Miites  come 
ndmyrrb' 
•I  the  ea-:. 


iS  upon  tho  hills  of  Samaria,  and  the  Ish- 1  k:iv<,  'i-  \-y.y,h  in.-y  probably  b-  ahmi  -^iNty  miles,  ;mi'1 
ome  fi«m  (;ilead,  **  bearing  spices,  andkilm.  ■  it^  av.  ra;.'.'  breadih  eigljt.  .Mr  l'.:i!'l.-,  however,  v^m 
[i»»__BOenduringai'C  the  customs  and  manm.rs  i  took  ob^irv:i tion**  fnim  s"ver;ii  r.-.:-M  oiirini:  hu'/l;--:. 


t:iy-t-"ii 


CHAMBERS'S  INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


on  the  cast  by  lufty  hills,  exhibiting  rui^sed  and  frightful 

Sreeipices ;  on  tlie  north  it  is  bounded  by  the  phiin  of 
erictio,  through  which  it  receives  the  river  Jordan. 
Other  streanw  arc  dircharged  into  it ;  and  there  being 
no  Yiaible  outlet,  while  the  banks  are  not  overflowed, 
some  have  tliituglit  there  is  a  Rubtemmeous  eliannel 
cominunieating  with  the  Mediterranean ;  others  readilv 
account  for  the  phenomenon,  in  tlie  eva|K>ration  which 
neeewarilj  takn  place  in  a  hot  climate.  Tills  lake  is 
clear  and  limpid,  resembling  the  colour  of  the  sea.  Its 
waters  are  in  gemnral  fatal  to  animal  life,  nor  do  vege- 
tables Uourisih  in  their  imnurdiate  vicinity.  The  fishes 
carried  hither  by  the  river  Jordan,  according  to  the 
concurring  testimony  of  travellers,  si>eodily  iwriMli ;  but 
the  latest  obsi*rvers  aftimi  that  there  are  some  small 
ones  in  the  lake  peculiar  to  itself,  as  also  that  a  few 
inferior  vegetabk-s  may  be  seen  in  it. 

Travel!ei*s  on  bathing  in  the  lake  find  their  faces 
covered  with  a  thin  crust  of  salt,  and  the  stones  which 
the  water  occaMiunally  covers,  are  encrusted  witli  the 
same  substance.  From  whatever  cause,  the  water  is 
different  fnim  that  of  other  lakes  or  seas.  On  being 
aiulysed,  it  is  found  to  liave  a  greater  specific  gravity, 
or  iH>wer  of  buoying  up  bodies,  than  any  other  water. 
It  hohis  in  solution  niuriat4>  of  lime,  muriate  of  mag- 
nesia, muriate  of  Boda,  and  sulphate  of  lime ;  of  all  these 
there  an.*  24  grains  iu  1 00  grains  of  water. 

(Jrcat  quantities  of  asphxiltum,  or  mineral  pitch,  are 
alwa^-s  seen  floating  on  the  surface  of  the  Dead  Sea, 
and  it  is  driven  by  the  winds  to  the  bunks  on  the  east 
and  Wi>st ;  but  the  statement  that  a  pestilential  effluvium 
hovers  over  it  is  doubtful.  Mr  Came  informs  us  that 
tlivre  is  noiliing  of  the  kind.  The  neighbourhood  of 
the  lake  abounds  witli  volcanic  products  ;  and  although 
eruptions  have  ce.ised  for  many  centuries,  earthquakes 
are  still  common  in  Syria  and  Palestine. 

The  Dead  Sva  is  asnoeiated  with  that  dreadful 
catastrophe  recorded  in  Scripture,  the  destruction  of 
Sodom  and  (loniorrah.  With  reApect  t<}  the  agents 
employed  for  exeeiitin;;  the  puriM>si!  of  divine  vl-u- 
geancf,  various  eonjccturos  have  been  h:iy::irdi'd — M»nie 
euppox.'  that  the  gnat  cities  wt-n*  wwallowod  up  l-y  a 
volcano.  The  (•{•iuiuii  «>t'  ('h.iti-aubriaiul,  \%1)(>  luui 
cart-full v  cxamiiK  d  si'w-ral  voU-aniH-s,  is  ilt'oiilrtllv 
oppi>!^<  il  to  thi.H  tlirury.  Thi'  1  earned  rroncliiiiaii  in- 
eliin-s  to  thf  (ipininn  of  Miclini-iis  and  Ihisichiii;;,  tliat 
Sudoiii  and  tioiniirnih  wrrv  liuiU  ii]»on  a  l)itumiih*iis 
mini",  that  ii:;litiiiiii;  kiii>l!i>l  tiiis  i*<iinlMi>t;hlt'  nia^^^ ; 
and  that  the  citicb  ux-re  t-n^iilfi'ii  in  tiiis  sulitcrnniiMU.^ 
eoiitla>:ratii>ii.  .Maltr  Ih'iiii  in^iiiioUhly  sn]>posi's  that 
thi' Mnitf!!i  iif  \\]iii*li  liic  (iiuiis  theniM-lvrs  wi  re  huilt 
nii;;ht  Im.*  liituinini'U.x,  and  thus  liavi-  bem  kiiidiid  li\ 
X\iv  iirv  I  it"  lira  V  I'M.  TIii-m.*  vii-\v«,  aj-pear  very  plau^iM^^ 
wlu-ii  taki-ii  ill  ronnretioii  witli  th**  Moy>aio  account  ol 
thi*  plaoi',  liiat  tilt'  \a!i-  ••!'  Sulilini.  \\1ik'Ii  i*t  lutw  oeeu- 
piud  liy  thr  Di-ad  >x  ;i,  was  lull  »il'  "viiim-  jiit«.,"'  or  pit^ 
of  bitunitMi.  Th'-ri*  eaii  \>*'  no  doiHit,  hi>\M-\i-r,  that 
eiinihu}«tililr  niatti  r  di-Mi -mlfii  fr<iiii  hravni  iipun  the  ' 
ih'\utod  oilii-M»f  till"  plain,  ti»r  tin*  lanL;u;»;:«'of  tin*  Scrip- 
tural ac'cinint  i»i  j.ri»-is«'  ami  rxplicii :  "  Tlit  l.onl  raim  d  ' 
n)Hiii  Sidoni  Hii'l  <  lonxirnili  hriinstoni*  and  lire  rr>>:ii  | 
lii-awn."  Aretirilini;  ti»  .^tral'i*,  tli- i«-  wm'  tliirtu  n 
t4i\\n<i  >\%allim<'d  np  in  tin*  lake  .\splialtitt>  ;  SlfpliiM  iit' 
l)\i:aMttiiui  i-i-okiin'iiMi;ht  ;  tin*  l>ouk  iit' <  Inii  ■>!>•,  altli<«n'}i 
it  naint'x  ixw  as  sjtuaiiil  in  tlu-  ^ali'  i<t  >:-l'iini,  n  lati-.-^ 
till-  ili-ti-urtixn  ot'  two  onlv  :  fuur  an-  iiitntnint  •!  m 
]>•  iit«Tiini*ii:\.  ;»iid  ti\i*  an*  n-iiii'id  l'\  ili.'  author  i-i  i 
r.ivlt -ia>t!*Mi-..  A  enn-uli-niMi'  ditlrriiir"  i»l  opLni->n 
«'\i»t-«  n-^jH-i'iin:;  tin*  priil>alil('  onilit  of  ilir  wat^Ts  of, 
till"  Ji<rd.in,  j-n  \  .nu'*  t«i  th--  tMta«<trophr  hIih-Ii  d»  ^irnu-.I 
Soiloni  and  <iiini<<rrali.  aii>l  rriatt-d  tht;  Di-ad  St-a  en 
thrir  Mti'.  iJun-klianlt  and  otli<  m  aHi-i;i',  that  th'.- 
Jordan  niu^*!  ha\i-  i>r>K:<idiil  ali>n.;  thf  piaiii  of  .<otloin, 
and  pur^uril  a  coui-'t*  tliron;;li  tlu*  witdt  rn«.-ss  t')  tiii* 
"'ulf  of  Akuba,  or  ta-tern  hinbof  tin-  Urd  S«i ;  indcvil 
thvr  ]>rwbablc  oulit't  oouhl  bv  a>«'>ignt>i].    nthi.-r  tra-  ; 


Tellers  who  liave  scmpuloualy  exunined  the  di« 
and  taken  its  levels  mathematically,  declare  thai 
surface  of  the  Red  Sea  is  sercral  hundred  feet  I 
the  level  of  the  (Julf  of  Akaba,  and  much  more  I 
that  of  the  Mediterranean.  If  this  be  the  case 
land  on  which  the  Dead  Sea  rests,  and  also  tlie  pr 
termination  of  the  Jordan,  must  have  been  sunk  at 
1000  feet  on  the  occasion  of  the  awful  catastro|»he  « 
laid  the  **  cities  of  the  pUin"  in  ruins,  and  covered 
with  a  waste  of  bittc-r  waters. 

Tll£  RIVER  JORDAN*. 

Tlie  river  Jordan,  which  flows  into  the  Dead  S 
its  northern  extremity,  rises  at  the  foot  of  the  n 
tains  of  Lebanon,  and  has  altogether  a  course*  ol 
miles.  For  the  last  two  or  three  miles,  it  runs  bet 
per|)endicular  Imnks  of  Fand,  from  fivn  to  ten  feet 
and  here  the  river  is  about  thirty  paces  broad.  J 
mill's  fn>ni  its  mouth,  on  the  riglit  .side,  and  at  a 
distance  from  tin;  stream,  is  the  site  of  the  rb 
Jericho,  now  consisting  only  of  a  fi'w  miserable 
and  a  watch-towor.  At  this  point  of  the  river  is  a 
where  the  Israelites  cnissed  from  the  Arabian  sid' 
Palestine,  under  the  command  of  Joslma.  Passir 
the  vale  of  the  Jordan,  for  a  distance  of  ninetv  o 
hundred  mill's,  with  the  land  of  (jiload,  as  it  is  c 
on  the  right,  the  traveller  arrives  at  the  Lake  of  C 
sareth,  near  which  are  a  number  of  places  ment 
in  the  narrative  of  Clirist*s  ministrations. 

LAKE  OF  (;F..Nt»AIliniI. 

• 

This  sheet  of  water,  which  is  an  expansion  o 
Jordan,  jiashes  under  various  names  from  the  ag 
writers,  such  as  the  Si*a  of  Galilee,  Lake  of  Tibi 
and  Lake  of  Geneser  or  (ienesareth.  The 
Jordan  enters  at  the  northern  and  flows  out  a 
southern  extremity,  and  its  counw?  is  visible  all  th« 
through.  The  range  of  mountains  forming  its  ea 
nhore,  is  vcrj'  lofty,  and  their  stcrp  and  rocky  side 
barren  ;  the  wi>stem  shore,  where  the  towu  sLin 
lowi>r  ;  the  Iiills  are  mon>  ]>icturesque,  and  divid* 
KWi'ot  vall»n-H  clothed  with  vertlure,  but  deslicu 
trees.  With  it'^jHrt  to  the  size  iif  the  lake,  we 
chfKKsi!  a^in  ainuni^^t  conflieting  statements.  ]t  g 
to  be  about  fifteen  miles  in  hni^tli  niid  tivt*  in  hpe 
The  waters  are  perlectly  swn-t  an«l  clear,  and  th 
are  said  to  be  ol"  a  delioimis  flavour. 

It  is  almost  unneee<s:iry  to  remind  the  readei 
this  lake  anil  iiei^lilxjnrhooil  were  the  K't'ne  of  ] 
in)]t()rtant  events  i-i-ooriled  in  the  Ni-w  Testani'-nl.  1 
it  will  111*  renK-niliereil,  ('llri^t  eniharkeil  in  a  shi 
;:••  ti»  ditfen-nt  places  ah'iut  its  Imrders,  in  tht*  y 
ention  of  Ium  i-rraii>Is  of  nn  rev,  and  from  which  I 
^tructed  the  niiiltituile  who  hail  asM-inbled  un  th*.'  » 

Capornanni  Vu-a  at  the  np|.i'r  en-i  of  the  lake,  a 
now  ralh'd  Tallu-wni,  wr  Til  IIim.ui.   It  is  noiliing 
than  a  station  rif  Ilcilonins,  but  th«  re  are  trace*.  < 
t'onner  iniportaiiee.     The  fnUMiLttions  of  a  niaguil 
hnt  ni»w  mweh  dilapidated  cdilieL-  can  still  Ik?  trac 

Tiberias,  whielj  makes  a  eon-pieuons  fii^ure  i 
Je\%i>.}]  annaU,  is  situated  on  the  wistern  sidi',  a 
the  c»nlv  plai'e  on  the  ^i-a  of  ^lalilei-  n  lainin'j  anv  r 
of  its  ancient  iinpnrtanee.  It  is  un>irrstiHNl  to  < 
till?  ^mun-l  fiirnierly  oeoiipii-il  by  a  town  of  a  i 
rtiniiti  r  ai^e.  aiiil  ol  wliieh  some  trae-  •«  e.m  <ii\  t< 
tin:;ui.slui|.  Taharia,  as  it  in  now  ilt-niiininatiil.  hj 
fonn  «if  an  irn  ijular  ere-eiiit,  anl  i-  enet.ioi  d  tu* 
tin-  lanil  liv  a  wall,  llanki  •!  wiili  eireiil.ir  towt.r*'-.  1 
nearly  n -rili  ai.l  -•nth,  aiunL:  the  eil:;i'  of  the  lake 
has  ii-.  ia'«tein  fn-n!  ^■^  e|M-i-  i.j  the  \\;iter,  <>n  tin-  ' 
of  which  it  stanil>,  t'nat  ^-onie  ut  the  Ik>u>«.-s  an*  wj 
by  tli«*  M*a.  The  whulf  doe?*  n.»t  ap|»  .ir  more  tl 
mile  in  eireuit.  an^I  cannot,  fri>in  the  inaniu-r  in  x 
tl-i-y  are  plaei  d,  contain  aho\f  jnO  se{iarate  dwe! 
Mere  there  aiv  a  nio.-ijUe  and  two  Jewi*.h  MiLii^ti 
aUo  u  i'hristi.in  place  of  wui-ship,  called  tJie  Hi>L 
iVter,  which  is  thmi^ht  by  sunie  to  be  the  uMest  I 
in^  UM-d  l(»r  that  purpitse  in  any  p.irt  ui  Palestine. 
structure  in  of  very  ordinary  de-criptltin ;  bu:  it  de 


THE  HOLY  LAND. 


BB  small  interest  from  tlio  popular  belief  that  it  is  the 
ten- house  which  Peter  inhabited  at  the  time  of  his  being 
oiled  from  hia  boat  to  follow  tho  ^Icssias.  The  popu- 
Atioa  of  the  town  does  not  now  exceed  2000.  Of  these, 
ibout  ODe-lialf  are  Jem ;  tlic  rest  are  Mahommedans, 
wiih  the  exception  of  a  few  of  the  Christian  creed.  The 
•ann  baths,  which  havo  given  celebrity  to  that  ncigh- 
kwrfaood,  are  still  foond  at  the  distance  of  between  two 
and  three  miles  southward  from  tho  town. 

MOr.VT  TADOn. 

An  almost  uninterrupted  ascent,  in  a  south-westerly 
dircctton,  conducts  from  Tiberias  to  Nazareth.  On  this 
xxMitc,  we  have  ou  our  left  Mount  Tor,  or  Tabor.    This 
mount,  which  is  classed  in  Scripture  with  Hermon, 
and  ia  of  a  sugar-loaf  slmpe,  stands  apart  from  the 
neifihbourLng  mountains,  is  at  one  end  of  tlie  great  plain 
of  £fMlxae]on.   It  may  be  ascended  on  all  ]K>iuts,  except- 
ing towards  the  north,  where  it  is  rugged.    There  is 
Bftt,  perhaps,  to  be  found,  in  the  whole  compass  of  the 
giulie,  one  spot,  from  which  a  believer  in  the  gospel  can 
possibly  enjoy  a  more  sublime  or  glorious  prospect,  than 
uom  toe  Buumit  of  Mount  Tabor.     In  the  first  place, 
there  is  presented  to  view  an  extensive  plain,  on  one 
ade  of  whieh,  on  the  left  hand,  aVG  the  mountains  of 
Samaria,  towards  Jerusalem ;  on  the  other,  to  the 
n;;ht,  those  about  Nazaretli,  especiidly  the  memorable 
bill  from  which  the  Jews  attcmptvd  to  precipitate  Christ 
At  the  opposite  extremity  of  this  plain,  Is  the  top  of 
M'iunt  Carmi'1,  washed  by  the  ocean.   In  another  direc- 
tion, we  sec  Hermon  in  its  lofty  dimity ;  Kndor,  and 
Nain,  »-ith  the  mountauis  of  Gilboa ;  the  valley  of  Jor- 
dui ;  the  spacious  plains  of  Galilee,  with  its  sea  of  Gene- 
■areth,  and  its  enclosui-e  of  mountains ;  Dothan,  where 
4Qteph  was  sold,  witli  its  rivers,  valleys,  and  little  hill ; 
and  the  village  of  Saphct,  anciently  called  Bethulia,  on 
IB  eminence,  and  presumed  to  have  been  the  point  of 
ckvalion  alluded  to  by  Christ  in  his  sermon  on  the 
aoont,  from  whidi  it  is  also  remarkably  conspicuous, 
•ad  not  at  a  great  distance.   Again,  the  sublime  height 
m  whieh  he  delivered  this  memorable  oration  ;  the 
nvte  to  Damascus ;  lastly.  Mount  Lebanon,  towering 
vith  prodigious  alpine  dignity  in  the  bxickground. 

Diffexent  opinions  have  been  entertained  by  writers 
vixh  regard  to  the  extent  of  cround  on  the  summit  of 
lUbor,  and  the  cultivation  of  it.  Taking  the  whole  into 
okulation,  it  may  be  nearly  two  miles  in  diameter.  To 
ibe  west,  tiiere  arc  masses  of  scattered  ruins.  At  one 
period,  a  governor  of  Galilee  surrounded  the  top  of  it 
■  Jh  walls,  which  is  confirmed  by  the  scattered  fragments 
ttbl  to  be  seen.  St  Helena,  also,  in  prosecution  of  her 
nal  in  the  cause  of  Christianity,  founded  two  nionas- 
ff  kries,  one  to  tho  memory  of  Moses,  and  the  other  of 
« I  Ebsa.  Various  historical  incidents  are  connected  with 
.1  lUt  mountain.  Here  it  was  that  Barak,  descending 
■/  «iih  his  ten  thousand  men  from  Tabor,  discomfited 
I  SiMfa  and  all  bi^  chariots.  In  tho  same  neighbourhood, 
I  Jonah  king  of  Judali  fought  in  disguise  against  Necho 
kiif  of  Egypt*  and  fell  by  tho  arrows  of  his  antagonist, 
^kply  lamented.  Vespasian  reviewed  his  anuy  in  tho 
■ae  great  plain.  It  has  been  a  chosen  place  for  en- 
CBoqunents  in  every  contest  carried  on  in  the  country, 
{rum  the  days  of  Nebuchadnezzar  king  of  the  Ass^tIsiis, 
4iwn  to  the  disastrous  invasion  of  Napoleon  Bonaparte. 

XAZARfTII. 

A  short  way  to  the  north-west  of  Mount  Tabor  is 

lituated  the  village  of  Nazareth,  on  tbe  western  blopo 

i^a  deiishtful  valley,  and  encompassed  by  rocky  mouii- 

tuufl  ;  tue  distance  from  Jerufialem  is  about  one  Imn- 

ind  miles.     The  place  is  properly  named  Nazareth  of 

Zebulun.     Hie  innmtes  of  a  convent  at  the  easU>rn 

otremity  of  the  village,  conduct  travellers  to  a  number 

rf^fotain  the  neighbourhood  of  scriptural  interest,  but 

peaiiv  changed  in  their  appearance  in  modern  times. 

Tbe  first  thnig  to  which  attention  is  directed  is  the 

cknreh  belonging  tu  the  convent,  which  is  rather  elegant, 

lai  is  eieetcd  over  the  grotto  or  cave  where  Mary  took 

ID  her  abode.    It  has  no  other  roof  than  that  which 

93 


is  formed  of  the  natural  rock,  and  is  in  the  shape  of  a 
cross. 

Among  many  pictures  which  adorn  this  church,  thero 
is  a  pretendcil  likeness  of  Christ. 

Tho  second  object  shown  is  tho  shop  where  Joseph 
worked ;  it  is  now  used  as  a  place  of  worship.  Over 
the  altjir,  he  is  represented  with  the  implements  of  his 
tnido,  holding  our  Lord  by  the  hand,  as  if  in  the  act  of 
impaiting  the  knowledge  of  his  vocation. 

Thirdly,  a  chapel,  in  the  centre  of  which  is  an  enor- 
mous stone,  about  nine  feet  in  length,  and  six  in  breadth, 
on  whieh  it  is  aftirmed  that  Christ  sat  and  ato  with  his 
chosen  few. 

Fourthly,  the  sjTiagogue  where  Christ,  agreeably  to 
his  practice,  road  to  the  Jews,  fi*om  the  sacred  volumes, 
on  the  Sabbath. 

Fifthly,  near  the  town  is  pointed  out  a  hill,  from 
which,  disregarding  the  sanctity  of  that  day,  they 
threatened  to  throw  him,  in  consequence  of  the  dissatis- 
faction whieh  his  addresses  had  given. 

And,  lastly,  a  well  of  the  Virgin,  which  supplies  the 
inhabitants  of  Nazareth  with  water.  Mr  Came  sa^'Sy 
tho  population  may  amount  to  about  1200,  and  are 
mostly  Cliristians. 

After  crossing  the  plain  of  £s<1raclon,  wo  come  to 
Mount  Hermon,  the  dew  of  which  is  to  1>eautifully 
alluded  to  by  the  I^salniist.  Near  this  place  stjinds 
Nain,  which  is  so  called  from  its  iileasaut  nituation, 
where  the  widow's  son  was  restored  to  life.  About  two 
miles  from  Nain,  is  seen  Endor,  where  the  sorceress 
resided  who  was  consulted  by  SjiuI,  and  in  the  vicinity 
are  tho  mountains  of  Gilboa,  where  the  forces  of  Israel 
were  collected. 

A  few  niiles  northward  from  Nazareth,  is 

CAN  A  OF  GALILEt:. 

This  village,  which  was  the  scene  of  the  earliest  mi- 
racle perfonned  by  our  Lord  (the  conversion  of  the  water 
into  wine  at  the  marriage  feast),  is  pleasantly  situated 
on  a  small  eminence  in  a  valley,  and  contains  *J00  or  .'100 
inhabitants.  Many  pots,  answering  to  tho  descrijition 
given  by  the  KvangelLst,  are  found  lying  about  amongst 
the  ruins ;  from  which  it  would  a]>pear  evident,  that 
the  practice  of  keeping  water  in  large  stone  pots,  each 
holding  from  eighteen  to  twenty-seven  gallons,  was  once 
common  in  the  country.  Near  the  bott<»m  (»f  a  field, 
which  is  said  to  be  that  in  which  Christ  plucked  the 
ears  of  corn  upon  the  ISiibbath,  stands  the  Iloly  Mount, 
which  has  been  so  eminently  distinguished  as  the  spot 
from  whence  the  nmltitudes  were  addressed.  It  has  an 
elevation  of  from  200  to  .300  feet. 

The  landscape,  whieh  stretches  from  tlie  lake  of 
Tiberias  to  the  sources  of  the  Jordan,  is  in  many  parts 
uncommonly  fine,  presenting  luxuriant  crops,  tfiriving 
villages,  and  other  tokens  of  security  and  comfort.  Tho 
mountains  that  tcnninate  the  prosi>oct  are  magnificent, 
some  of  them  being  covered  with  perpetual  snow. 

SAPiinr,  sEnioiiRi,  and  zebi'lin. 

The  only  town  of  consetjuencc  bitween  the  ruins  of 
Capernaum  and  the  al])ine  i-iinge  of  Hermon  and  Djiblxd 
el  Sheik,  is  Saphet  or  Zatlad,  being  one  of  the  four  cities 
consecrated  by  the  religious  veneration  of  the  Hebrews. 
According  to  Durckhardt,  it  stands  npon  s<>veral  low 
hills  that  divide  it  into  quarters,  the  largest  of  which 
is  occupied  by  Jews.  The  whole  may  citntani  <>nO  houses, 
of  which  I.>0  belong  to  the  people  just  named,  and  nearly 
as  many  to  the  Christians.  The  sunnnitof  the  principal 
eminence  in  crowned  with  an  ancient  castle,  part  <»f 
which  is  regai*ded  by  the  descendants  of  Israel  as  being 
contemporary  with  their  ancient  kings.  The  Jews  have 
here  seven  synagogues,  an<l  a  sort  of  university  fi>r  tho 
education  of  their  rabbis.  Their  attachment  to  this 
place  aris*^  especially  from  the  traditionary  belief,  that 
the  Messiiis  is  here  to  reign  forty  years  before  he  as- 
sumes the  government  at  Jerusalem.  From  Nazai'eth 
to  Acre  we  pi*oceed  over  a  barren  rocky  tract  of  cimntry ; 
on  tho  way  we  meet  with  Sepluiuri  or  Sepphoris,  tho 
Zippor  of  the  Hebrews,  and  the  Dioccsarea  of  tho  Ro- 


niAruI.KRSS  INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 

mail-,  once  iliochiti  town. lud  bulwark  of  Galileo.   The  archways,  as  at  Jeruwiiom:  tim  iuluiTjiiant^ 

iL>iiiuiii»  of  lis  foniticatioiis  (>x)iibU  one  nf  the  works  of  niatutl  at  about  700U,  of  whom  2000  are  Chri'^ 

livrorl,  who,  afuT  its  di'Miiii'tinii  by  Varus,  uot  ouly  Iiave  places  <»f  worship;  tho  Jews,  also,  wli 

robuilc  and  furtiricd  it,  but  iiuido  it  t lie  principal  city  of  calculated  at  '200,  have  a  Hynago;;ue.     Coii^ 

hid  UiRirchy.  siuall  extent,  the  trade  of  this  place  id  coi 

Its  chief  ct'lcbrlty  U  coniiocfod  with  t)ic  tradition  that  particularly  in  pilk. 

it  was  the  rctiidi-ncc  of  Joachim  and  Anna,  the  parents  The  next  object  of  impoi't^uico  in  a  n«r'lv 

of  the  Virgin  Mary.    Constantino  built  a  majraiticcnt  tion  is 

chur(di  over  the  b|>ot  wheiH)  the  devout  couple  lived.  mount  ijjsanon. 

The  valo  of  Zibnlun  divides  tlie  above  village  fmm  ••\\iinM>lieailin wlntorrui.Uurt.Avcr:, 

the  ridj»c  <»f  hills  which  look  down  on  Acre  and  llio  AMiitcnLNi  vith i'tcm:il  hkvt : 

bhorcs  of  the  ^reat  tfea.   Tiiis  plain  every  whore  pre-  While  sunimcr  in  u  valo  of  tUnvon, 

Bents  the  jnost  beautiful  scenery.    On  the  road,  vnrious  Is  fJvcpin;;  rohy  at  liu  XclU" 


for  in  vaui  among  Arab  huis  and  heaps  ol  rubbish.    Wo  i„,„j^^  j,„d  U'autiVul  nicfiphors  to  the  sacrt 

shall  now  proceed  m  a  westerly  duxHition  to  the  coatt  j^,,  ^^^^„^  „j,„j^.j  ^^^  j^  g,,^;,.,,^  pn)phocv,  1 

of  the  Med.terrauean,  to  dex^enbe  lho^o  points  of  nite-  ^^^  ,,^^.„  celebrated  as  fine  obj.-cls.    Jt  nuiv 

rcfit  lym-  to  tlie  nor:a  of  Acr.\  3,1^,^,^  ^1,.^^^  uniting 80  many  Mualiiios f.-r  bui'l. 

miE.  of  thew?  trees  w-ere  sent  by  King  Uiram  to  ti*. 

Tvro  (now  called  IV.  .nr),  wJiioli  is  situated  on  the  the  erection  of  his  temple', 

cwisit  about  tw,Titvmile.s  north  fmm  Aere,and  anciently  1'^»<?  highest  elevation  of  Lebanon  is  f)i;cM)  i 

bel..ngedto  th-.-  lii.xnicians,i3ren..wned  in  Seripturc  as  «"l»*s  are  rtdl  shaded  with  ci-dai-s,  and  beuu 

a  mi^^hty  mereaiitile  stnmghold,  eneoniimssed  with  walls  thfuwands  of  r;iro  plantfj. 

and  towi'rs.    Perhaps,  of  iill  other  maritime  cities  in  the  Tin:  iiltU3F5  and  maiiomtj.*;. 

globe,  this  was  the  nw^t  lii-hly  ixmmnod  for  riches  ainl  The  mountains  of  Lebr.nus  an.l  M-i-hbou 

commerce,  wiico  its  very  inerehants  w.rj.-  declared  to l«.  iulu,i,ited  bv  two  races,  diilering  iii  r.  liyion 

asprmees,  and  "  every  deck  a  throne.'     A  most  mte-  i,„^  ^r^^^jj^j.  j^    j,,^.^,  j.^^.^.  ^jj  i„,i.-.,.„. 

restin-  desenpiion  ol  the  trades  earru  d  on  withm  its  Maroniles  an<l  the  Druses.     The  country  of  t 

walls  has  been  tcansinilted  to  us  in  the  iMh  chapter  of  -^^  ,..,„^,,  Kvsraoun,  the  Cantravan  of  th'e  hi. 

l-.zel;ieL     It  was  not,  liowevrr,  n-.-r.-.v  in  a  cr.nnnereial  ^,,^.  crusades.     It  reaches  fn.m  the  rivt-r  Kr 


pun.le  tint,  whrch  pnt^s  have  e.-l.-brated  as  a  chief  in-     .^  ^...^j.^,.  i,,^.^.,^  ^.j,|^.i^  -^  ^^j,l  ^^,  ,,.^,.^.  f„r„i^h«l 


l.;eov.T,  ::m.1   i;K;mt:on   ::   cnitMererjil    char;ie:.-r.       1;  .-y,,  ^,^„^,.^^  ,,.^^  ,^„  ,„^-,  .,,  ,„j,.,i...,.^  j;,,.  ^, 

..ft.i-war.N;.,lt:.i::.-.i,  l.i-r.  to  th-  Ib.niai.,  on-t  :.:t.i..  ^.,.,.  ,.  :m.,,,.„;.,,,     'llu-ir  r-onu-v  I...  s.-x.r.. 

wan  s  t.,  lii..  M:.h..!Mi:.f.;.m  y..;..,  innl..,.  tlu-  pnvs.  r  ot  ^  i....,,...,,.-!.;,,.  |Vom  ..n.-aMoiiK-r  iiiili-lr  M.il  a: 

^vhl.•ll   II   n....-   r-in::,,,..      1:   ua.  Kur.:.r,\  ^Mtn    ^^:uK  .;.._       ,j  j^  l.y  ivli.;,.  iM  |H-ouli:.nii.-.  that   l 


.      .     ^  .  ..«  ,  tliry  vii;ara  tin  ni  ::.l  witn  e<|oal  inow-iviiee, 

ll^i  Ijailiiiur,  ^  j],^.  (i.^-i^iijijis  I,:4M..  fiii-iilrn-il  Irnin  »^  vUXk 

•'■'''  ■'■•  I  i.i.irlii  il  et'iit«m|it  lor  ilu-  .M:ihMioiiu>tlan  ii*lu 

Si-l-.!:,  f  V  ZidiMi.  v::\\'l  l.y  tl:--  Aim  In  ■i-.ii.I.i,  i-:  -"i-i-  !  et-nt  iravt-i.tiN  have  di-enlnMl  lii.' Mann  i  !•.•->  a 

:iti'il  ti:i  il.  ■  «;iia-tala:"'  i*.  t\V.>.!iy nnirl.wj.'-i  l:i.:ii     a^  an  ini.Jienf-ivf  jiriiuitiM-  pii|ii.-. 

Tvr.'.      li  Mw«s  its  Tiaii."  l-i  t)  "   i  I'ii  ■:    •  1"  ili"  suns  i  .'  •       1»  a  ii'-rlln  rly  iliivi'licii   I'n  :o  SM-ni,  ther.i 
Canaan,  ami  was  e«.ii  :'ii-i:i  :mIi- 1  i.ii.lr  tiie  'M--:,'*  or  '  any  e  i:i'i-.;n»-m-o  on  tli'.-  .Mc-d.i.-rr.i!:- aii  l*  V.v\ 
\.i,«V'.^\tni^.  forinallv  :.  ■iL'!:'"d  to  ihi-trilnMit  Avli'-r.     I:  . 
appears  to  rave  b«'»'n  hi^lur  in  yy.wi  •  J  j.ii:i<imiy  t:i:Mi  [ 

Tyiv,  ahhou;:h  both  have  l.--.-iirl:.-..l  mi  thrVliaVaei.-r  :  Mav:!;::  r.  .ie];«il  .Mi.unt  ijlamisi.  ;;t  the 
j.r  -i-trpj,  amimr.  r."^t  I.ui!\,  iv-i.t  P'  '.V  c  vt-iruiiy.  ■  "  ^'i' 'ii''y  ' '■  l'.«lv.-iin'.',  ira\f  !:.  r-*  e..,MT;,:;y-j 
aii'l  j-nli!o-iv  e  rt.i.:.-i-d  :.  .  :.  "i:r.  .-i  lnvj.-  .-n:- nt  .ri-i  .  •'■^}-  in  i '.i^.i.l;  a  i.i.:-ii.y  t-i  Un;!.- .•  :.i:.l  1 
ini;.is-:ane.']  ^iIw•.' It  i:;.^  I  ■•  .i:  :'•:  ..i.  i.  .li:i  >i  ■  ij-UiP-  "■■*'«  Ivi".:  I..y..ii.i  I  :•■  i:..i:!i.r  d"  tin-  Ib-ly  J 
bv'il.i-  Ti!'e  n:  ••/lil.ri  T' ■■  •  .i ■ ..'.'  i  ...•  i..\ (  ;.. .■  "i  <:  ■  •!  •■»  :::'•  :it  iii-t-rlr..;  luttri-:.  I'm  1  •  c,  li 
th.^  ..I;  I..I.- ♦.  anl  :ii-.:i.  II- ..••.  I..  .:•:••.  .::..-.  :.i,  i  •  ii.l  i- li"i'"H^  M:i  '-h-.-  il.  .'ii  _-i::  n- •!  J-.j-  it^ 
i;i  K-..^\i.-^  .  '1.1  !-.-.ilj 'lii--.  \..\-  \  ■  .  .•  . MM. li;  :  :.  Ian  ''r..-..n  am!  li.»i...,ii  :i:vli;:- i-.uj.-,  is  :.\v  c 
i.'irivali' <i -N'M- Tilv  in  i '-^i  ii..'  •  .  \.-  ■  l  v.  !il  }•;■■, il  <:  r- n  .i  ".Ui:.  ..  J  jm  -i  ,  :iii\ii'\' ",  ar*.' <■:  ti;;  iii'"t  lu 
t'i.- .-!il.:i:  .1  ii'.i.i'in  t's'-  ].,:■•  <•:"  ii--''ii-v  T'l  !:.(  I.di  :  »  .i:'I.;i.!'N'i':.-.-;  i-i  ili  la.-iinii'.iiuniii-,  t;.i  .idi  S" 
iiiri'l<l  liini".  I  Is'- e.-ii::!'  iv::il  j- :■  nil- i.i  ;!;.  -  p--:!  !i'  .iH'I  i'".!!' •"■  .  ;;iii5  l-''\'.i. '"'l  iii>'i*'\t  ilii;,;;.ijii^.* 
W!  n*  a'    •  ::s  ^n^•.'.ti^^'  ::-.  l;.'  .  '..■  i"  ■  M-  ii^ivi-;  :  i.  I  it     »'  »"**'  i!:iiii..al':;« -i,  i-\i-t  j-t  by  uajfirrioi;  Ar 

v.is  lil.i-vii- 1.  irn:-  1  1  •;•  if-  i.-.v  ■'.'•]  •  inhijul-' .         ',  »ii:i-.«'i.-.,  mH  ai«  d  in  ar  the  e..;illui-iice  uf  lln- riv 

.Si-i'.n  isi'i.-v  n    -.i.iiA  :.:'am,  r.-  i  :  i.i-;..liiai;y  ii«  ni  t]."  '.  i'»'''   riiarphar  «  t"  N-rij-tun    (si-o  iii.ip),  i^  .r 
Fea-shon^vi  ry  ji.«  .isausly  -  tn.;.  .!..ii.  :  .-MTi'or.Ii-l  wr.h  \  I  '^wi  in  .\vria,  buili  in  :!■■•  «a«.ti  rn  M.\ie,  and 
-Hch  gardens.      'Ihe   eh:;!:".-   is  j.  .•.•i=;::-!y   inil'l:    t.'ie  '      •  I'.-r.-.iiii.f- nr'.  fTli.- ruins  nfniUns'.  sfuL-iniarili 
eta  are  cxc<t;.*ivi-ly  ran ^■••>\-  i>i   tlM-ni  iii!«i»r  '  in  t>ii- 1..-.  t.  i-    >■  i:  ^  r.-.-nii",  r-i-tji-n. 


AUAULV  PKTR^A. 


^ou&dlag  couiitiy,  is  sguin  iii  Cn}  iios:.'<cssloii  of  tho 
an. 

■amascus  id  enlivened  1>y  ilic  buRtlo  of  connncrcc, 
the  iiaflFa;;o  of  thu  Ciauvnn.<i  to  j!^1ccc-i.  Thtj  great 
tt  which  crostH-'a  it  present.)  two  rows  of  shops,  in 
.h  thu  riches  of  India  glitter  along  with  thobu  of 
of-o.  Damascus  is  Fevcn  miles  iu  circumfereiico, 
a:  |>resi,-iit  tlio  popuUitiun  may  amount  Ut  100,0U0. 

private  housed  iu  Damascu:?,  biniplu  in  external 
uiTince,  exhibit  in  tho  Ulterior  all  the  liplendour 
K-]'  :::ince  of  a  retuicd  luxury ;  gif :at  magniticencc 
.•M>  t!i<.'<iaye«I  iu  tho  mosfjuet:,  the  churches,  aud  the 
L--h"U.'»es.  Tlic  lar{*e  mosr^ue  id  a  iluc  anil  t^jiaciou.s 
air.::,  but  no  traveller  is  piTniitced  to  enter.  Tho 
n  Vcrly,  or  Coffec-Houbo  of  Koses,  in  considered 
lie  of  thu  curitftiitics  of  thu  Levant.  Various  places 
ciaied  with  events  nientionerl  in  Scripture,  are 
ited  out  in  tho  city  and  nei};hI>(»nrhood.  Tiie  btixx't, 
csiUod  St  might,  is  that  wlieru  St  i'aul  is,  witii  reason, 

so  ha^e  lived.  It  is  as  titrai;;ht  afl  an  arrow,  a 
>  in  length,  broad,  and  well  i>avud.  A  lofty  window, 
4ie  of  tJic  towers  to  the  east,  is  shown  as  tho  place 
.re  il:e  a^tostlo  was  let  down  in  a  liasket ;  and  in  the 
r  to  Jerusalem  is  tho  sp<jt  where  his  cour^  was 
ested  by  the  li^^lit  from  heaven. 


m00^0mm0m 


ARABIA  ri:TR.^A. 

kral.Ia  P«tni*a,  or  Arahia  the  Rocky,  is  t'no  most 
m*  r]y  part  of  the  peninsula  of  Arabia,  and  includes 
torriViry  Kin;;  between  the  M«"diterraiM*an  and  the 
upper  ext'n.'niities  of  the  Red  Sea.  TIh-m;  exirj*- 
IM  furm  two  Kulf.=? — tho  Gulf  of  Suez,  whieli  is  tl 


le 


»i.st,  and  the  (Jnlf  of  Akaba.  The  (Julf  i»f  Su*'z  is 
kx-nl  to  E^'pt,  and  botwixt  it  and  that  of  Ak:iba 
rv  ia  an  angular  tract  olVonntry.in  wliifli  is>;i!i]:ited 

vildemcbs  of  Sinai.  The  wliolo  of  this  trvritory, 
n  the  borders  r»f  K^ypt  to  iic:ir  the  i)f;nl  Sea  in 
lei::inr,  and  from  the  k*'d  Sea  t«i  tho  .M  edit  errant -an, 
iti]e  else  than  an  uisiver-'al  d"-ort  of  iiji-ky  moun- 
ii  and  fiandy  jklain.s  almr»*;t  distituto  of  .".ny  s(>ttled 
nan  Labit;it'»on'*,  and  inhabited  only  by  mvini;  ban'U 
.\rab*i  or  iJoilonina  (chiMren  ol"  the  i]es«.-rt),  wh'f-^c 
id  is  a^insi  every  man,  an<i  evory  ni:in*s  ImojI 
in-t  thein.  Anciently,  the  couiitry,  which  w;is  c;ill<»tl 

its  more  northerly  part,  the  land  of  IMom  or 
mea,  was  mostly  fertili*  an. I  productive,  but  by  the 
roach monts  of  the  sands  of  the  deserts  and  the  dr -jo- 
in which  hjis  otherwise  spread  over  it,  tiie  hi  ml  is 
erallv  barren,  and  innstly  in  the  eondition  of  a  wil- 
Df#.'  Till  this  hour,  tho  eiir-«  of  tioc},  us  ennnei- 
I  by  thcpri>phet  Isaiah,  n-ls  n|>f>;i  it — '•Fmni  •^i-wf- 
on 'to  generation  it  sli.iil  lie  wjisif  ;  none*  shall  p;»»»:< 
MX'h  it  i«"'r  cvor."  Wirli  tho  r\ct-]Mi<'n  of  a  few 
nch  and   lin;;lish  tniv«.'llers  v.ho  have  wiihin  tho 

twenty  years  passed  thnmi^h  Idnnn-a,  from  Akaba 
rcru^alcrin,  the  pr<»phcoy  has  Ix^'n  fulliUi'd. 
kec«jr"l:uj?  to  the  accounts  of  n»eent  traviili-r-j,  no- 
ig  can  exc'.vd  in  niLriT'tl  ;rr.iiideur  the  d«.->ol;ito 
>»n  ff  Sinai  and  Mount  Ilon-b.  i locks  piled  on 
ks  to  an  immense  beiijht,  j-recipitons  riin-,  nnd 
e  d"!i<»!a;  .*  valleys,  till  up  tiie  nu'Ltneiioiy  >c'-ni*.  iU\ 
Lee  ol  Sin; it.  a  fiatitifii  mona-t«Ty  is  j  l.io-^  1,  V-v  t;ie 
wiino-iai:*- 1.  «..f  Chri»»!i.'in  piiiri-ims  :i:!d  t ravel ier.-i. 
5  vceni  «■■*"  ih'-  mnUJitain  cuniinercL-s  :ilinvi'  iiie  mo- 
MTv,  ar.d  in  tliis  diri-ction  it  w:i-*  c'.irnhcd  by  Mr 
plien*,  w ho  na<'hod  liie  top  wi;]i  mijum «;lf]icu!ty,  and 
f  aroanl  h'.-n  a  terrific  sitliir.de,  a  p'Tli'ct  >«:k  of 
DiAtir>n.  "  N"t  a  tvre,  or  >l:n»b,  or  b!;i<!ii  of  ;;i";i->, 
i>  be  s»:eii  npi-n  tiio  b;ire  and  ruj;-M'd  sidi-s  of  innn- 
imblc  m««unraiiH,  henviii'^  iheir  nak«'d  winnnit^  to 
>iki<!^«.  The  levL'l  surface  of  the  vi'ry  top  or  ]>innacl«', 
ibout  fixty  fcrt  squai-c.  At  one  rn«l  is  a  sin'^l-.-  rock 
an  iwf-nty  ffct  hi:;h,  on  v^hii'h,  :i  =  ;-Mid  iho  nvuiU  [my 
idnetor]  the  spirit  of  tjod  ile-jcen.ieil,  whih-,  in  the* 
ivin  benefit  h,  his  favoured  servant  [.Mos<'sJ  re''"ive<l 
itobfes  of  the  law.  The  ruins  of  a  church  ami  con- 
M«  fltiU  to  l>e  seen  upr^n  th<.'  mountain,  to  which, 
btt  the  c'invcnt  lKlo\v^\\a<i  1  i:ilr,  monk i  and  hermit.^ 


used  to  retire,  and,  j-jvlnded  fr.-in  tho  world,  &ini(  the 
praises  of  God  upon  his  chosen  hill.  Near  tiiis,  also  in 
ruins,  stands  a  Mahommedan  mo>«que — for  on  this  wicred 
spot  the  followers  of  Christ  and  Ahihommed  havo  united 
iu  woi-shipping  the  true  and  livinj;  (lod." 

Tho  route  from  Sinai  towards  the  laud  of  KJnm  is  by 
way  of  Akaba,  a  small  fort  iii cd  town  at  the  head  of  tho 
<  Jnlf  of  Akaha,  or  Lhniiiio  branch  of  tho  Red  Sea.  Tho 
journey  is  through  a  rocky  desert,  "  with  hei*o  and 
tliei*o  (says  >lr  Stephens)  a  fertile  spot,  near  sonio 
fountain  or  deposit  of  water,  known  only  to  the  Arabs, 
capable  of  pi*odncing  a  scanty  crop  of  grass  to  pasture 
a  few  camels  and  a  small  iloc'k  of  sheep  or  goats.  There 
the  bedouin  pitches  his  tent,  and  remains  till  the  scanty 
pi-oduct  is  consumed  ;  and  then  packs  np  his  household 
goods,  and  seeks  another  pasturt^-gmu  nd.  The  l*(Mlcjnin3 
are  essenti;illy  a  pastonil  pi-oide ;  their  only  riches  aro 
their  flocks  and  licr^ls,  their  homo  is  in  the  wide  desert, 
and  they  havo  no  local  attachments  ;  to-<hiy  they  pitch 
their  tent  among  the  mountains,  to-murrow  ui  the  plain ; 
and  wherever  they  jdant  themselves  f«)r  tho  time,  all 
that  tln:y  baf  o  on  earth,  wife,  children,  and  friends, 
aro  immediately  around  them.  In  fact,  tho  life  of  tho 
Ijcdouin,  his  appearance  and  Iiabits,  are  precisely  tho 
same  as  those  of  tht!  ))atriarchs  of  old.  Abi-ahani 'him- 
self, tho  first  of  the  j>atriarchs,  was  a  Bedouin,  and 
4n00  years  hare  not  made  the  slightest  alteration  in  tho 
character  aud  habits  of  this  cxtr:u>rdinary  people,  licad 
of  the  patriarchs  iu  tho  llible,  and  it  is  the  best  descrip- 
tion you  can  havo  of  pastoral  lifo  in  tlio  East  at  the 
prrseut  day. 

Akaba  (continues  this  writer)  is  situated  at  the  foot 
of  the  paudston*?  mountains,  near  the  shore,  and  almost 

hurled  iu  a  grove  <if  ))alni-ti s,  the  only  living  things 

in  that  region  of  barnn  s:»n«l-i.  It  is  the  la>t  >topping 
place  of  the  c:jravan  of  pilgrims  on  its  way  tu  Mecca, 
being  yet  thirty  days'  junrney  from  the  t«»inh  <if  iJio 
Pri>phet,  and,  of  cuur.-e,  the  first  at  whitrh  liicy  touch 
on  their  return,  l-^xci'pt  at  tho  lime  of  tho.ac  two  visits, 
the  place  is  desolati*  from  tlie  l»ei;innin!;  of  tho  year  to 
its  close  ;  tho  arrival  of  a  travi'lN-r  is  of  pxccediiii^ly 
111  re  oecnm.-ne'',  and  n-ldom  d<ie.i  even  tho  wandt-riii" 
liedouin  stop  wiihiii  its  walls  ;  no  ship  rides  in  its  har- 
bonr,  and  n^Jt  tvi-ii  a  ««olitarv  ti.ihin£:-boat  lireahs  the 
stillness  of  the  water  at  its  fei-t.  Hut  ii  wa«^  n"it  always 
so  de.-olntf,  for  this  was  the  Kzionv'^'iier  oi  tho  llible, 
w  I  If  re,  .'iunij  year^  aL'o,  Kir.;;  Si-loiuDn  made  a  navy  of 
ship-j,  which  bronchi  from  Ophir  gold  aud  piircious 
stones  for  the  great  temple  at  fJerus:iIein  ;  and  ag:iin, 
at  a  l:i;':»'  i;ay,  :i;;ri  at  city  existoil  here,  through  wliiuh, 
at  this  disiaiit  ]i'>int  of  tho  wild'-rner-'^,  the  wealth  of 
India  w;ls  eoiivcvi-d  to  in)perial  Jlomc.  jiut  all  these 
art!  gone,  and  there  are  no  relies  or  n-onvuinMits  to  tell 
of  former  gn-atness;  like  tho  ships  wiiich  once  !5oate<l 
in  the  harbour,  ail  havi-  passed  away.  Still,  ruined  and 
dcKdate  ns  it  is,  to  llio  rye  of  fecliii''  the  little  fortres^s 
is  not  without  its  iiitere.-.t ;  for,  as  thu  governor  told  me, 
it  was  built  bv  tiie  heroic  .Niladin. 

Standing  near  the  shore  of  this  northern  cxtreiniry 
of  tho  Hi^i  S4'a,  1  saw  before  mo  an  inniun<es.anily  val- 
li y,  wliieh,  without  tho  aid  of  geoioijical  scienc<',  to  tiiu 
ovi;  of  common  ohs*"rvatif>n  and  reason  had  once  bfi-ii 
the  bot;«)Mi  of  a  sea  or  the  hrd  «d'a  rivi-r.  Thi.- «li'i'arv 
vjLilev,  extendi:!.:  Jar  bcvund  the  rcacii  <  f  th'.-  •■ve,  li:ul 
I'-.en  partly  explnreil  ly  IturcKhaiii: ;  sull'i-i- .jtly  to 
a~eeri.ain  and  nieiiiion  ir  in  the  laie>t  i:eoc:v::Ti!;v  ot'  tho 
cituniry  as  tiuj  gri-at  vjilN-y  m  111  llhnr,  exi'-j.iling  f:'i:.i 
t!'eKiU'i'i-s  of  the  Kl.milie  <iuii'  to  tl:e  t-'iuihmi  exirenii'.y 
of  the  Lake  Asphaililes  «ir  tlie  iK-.id  Se;i  ;  ar.il  it  wa  i 
jiianifest,  by  Jandiiiarks  tif  Nature's  own  providing,  tha; 
<iver  that  sandy  plain  those  si'as  had  once  mingled  thi;ir 
watr'rs;,orponiaj>s,  more  probably,  that  h(:1  ore  the  cities 
of  the  plain  had  be'Mi  consuined  by  britnstone  and  lire, 
and  .S'idoiii  anil  tioniorrali  covi.-reil  by  a  p^^'stileiilial 
lal;e,  tho  Jonian  had  here  rolled  its  wutn-s.  The  valley 
varie^l  from  f-tur  to  ei;;ht  miles  in  breadth,  ami  on  each 
side  were  bii^li,  ilari;,  and  barren  mountains  bounding 
it  like  a  wall.  i)n  the  left  were  the  mi »nn tains  of  Judea, 
and  on  tlie  ri-rht  iho:ic  of  S<>ir,  tho  j-oriion  given  to  Esau 


CHAMBERS'S  INFORMATION  FOk  THE  PEOPLE. 


M  an  inheritance ;  and  among  them,  buried  from  the 
eyes  of  strangon,  tlie  approach  to  it  known  only  to  tho 
wandering;  lk*<Iouints  wait  the  ancient  capital  of  Iuk  kin;;- 
doni,  tho  excAvate<l  city  of  Petra,  tin?  cun>od  and  blighti'd 
Kdom  of  thi'  Kdomitvs.  The  land  of  Iduinea  lay  before 
mis  in  barrcnncsH  and  drsolation ;  no  trees  fprew  in  the 
valley,  and  no  Vfniiin*  on  the  mountain  tops.  All  wan 
bare,  dreary,  and  desolate." 

I'uniuin^;  a  route  through  this  dreary  tract  of  wilder- 
nei«H,  and  un  approaching  M(»uiit  Hor,  on  the  Runiniit 
of  which  iH  a  BUiall  ftepulchral  edificr,  Kaid  to  be  erected 
over  the  tomb  of  Aaron,  the  traveller  turna  ohidu  to 
the  right,  and,  in  the  lN>Moni  of  the  mountains,  reaches 
the  ancient  city  of  Petra,  the  Kdom  of  the  Kdomiti'H, 
now  entirely  deserted  by  human  b4.-ing9,  but  htill  pre- 
fienting  to  the  eyo  a  nioHt  wondei'ful  si>ectac]e.    It  ia 
A  city  whi«e  houses  and  temples  are  cut  out  of  the  face 
of  tlie  Holid  ruckM.     Petra  waH  the  ca]>ital  of  the  IMom- 
ites,  and  the  centering  point  of  commerce  betwixt  tho 
Red  Sea  and  the  higher  part  of  Syria.     Ultimately,  it 
fell  under  the  away  of  the  Romans,  by  whoae  architec- 
tural geniuH  it  was  greatly  enriched ;  its  Hnal  destruction 
was  only  a  part  of  tho  universal  ruin  which  overtook 
the  Syrian  eiiit^s  by  the  intruHion  of  barltarian  hordes. 
Of  its  present  aspect,  **  c<ineeive  (says  Mr  iloberts,  a 
late  traveller)  a  town  with  tho  most  noble  mansiiimi 
excavated  in  the  faco  of  peqK'ndicular  rocks,  varying 
from  five  hundred  to  a  thouf^nd  fei*t  in  height,  and 
that  to  an  extent  of  six  or  eight  miles  in  all  diivctions ; 
the  valleys  or  narrow  ravines  forming  Uio  streets,  with 
lanes  winding  over  from  ono  to  the  other  to  the  height 
I  mention.  Tlie  centre  of  the  main  valley  had  originally 
been  occupie<I  by  houses  built  in  the  usual  way,  but 
repeated  larthquaki^  levelled  all  in  one  conunon  mass 
of  ruin.  There  is  now  a  city  fortified  by  natun^  such  as 
never  city  was  lH*fon!  or  since, surrounded  by  mountains, 
tho  only  passage  of  entrance  through  which  is  by  a 
ravine  so  narrow  that  two  camels  can  scarcely  enter 
abreast.   While  the  city  was  inhabited  in  ancient  times, 
the  hills  around  were  cultivated  to  the  very  summit ; 
there  was  a  stream  of  delicious  water  flowing  through 
it,  and  the  population  must  have  been  immense.*'    One 
of  the  mfist  beautiful  and  jH'rfect  of  tho  excavated  edi- 
fices is  that  ealli*d  the  Khajtne  Faraoun^  or  Treasuiy  of 
IMiaranh  ;  an  idea  of  its  ajtiM-iirancf*,  rut  out  in  the  face 
of  :i  n'oky  pit'oijMce,  may  be  obtaim'd  fn»ni  the  cut 
intn^iluei'd  at  the  c«»n»niencenient  of  the  present  sheet. 
The  s«'oIudetl  valley  of  Ptitra  is  nt>w  called  bv  tho 
Arabs  Wady  Moiis<a,  or  Vall»*y  of  Moses,  and,  witli  its 
ruined  eity,  iunns  «»ne  i»f  the  greatest  womlers  of  the 
known  world.     On  all  siilos  an?  mmmi  traces  «»f  a  former 
p«  rind  ol'  I'pulenoe,  relinenient,  ami  dense  |KipuIation. 
In  a   Mnitiiern  direetinn   frum    Wndv   Mou'>sa,  is  the 
\alliy  i^f  Sal'ra,  which  is  a  smaller  l*etra.    M.  Lalnirde, 
a  late  Kn-neli  traveller,  thus  s]M>aks  of  it : — *'  We  had 
M'an*ely  jirneeedetl  an  hour's  distance  down  the  rapid 


we  saw  some  specimens,  account  for  the  on 
grapes  which  tho  spies  sent  out  by  Moses  broag 
from  the  places  they  had  vihited."  As  the  ti 
approached  the  town  of  Ameimif,  about  liolf  way  I 
Petra  and  Akaba,  he  fell  in  with  another  object 
**  We  olwenrfd  with  astonishment,  as  we  purw 
way  down  the  mountain,  the  ancient  aqueduc 
conveyed  the  water  from  the  wtdla  of  (iana  ami 
to  the  town  of  Anieime,  which  woh  built  in  the  | 
the  roa<I  from  Petra  to  Aila.  This  aiiueiluct,  i 
ing  b<>yond  three  leagues  [nine  miles],  follows  tl 
of  the  surface  of  the  countr}',  above  which  i 
rises.  It  could  only  have  been  by  attending  mo 
fully  to  the  undulations  of  the  soil,  and  by  a  rem, 
protieieney  in  the  scientiHc  operations  for  taking 
that  the  projectors  were  enabled  to  succeed  in  pre 
a  regular  descent  for  tho  waters  over  so  gn'at 
tance. 

The  greater  part  of  the  remarkable  olijects  of 
tecture  se<m  at  Petra  and  in  this  quarter,  are  ob 
of  an  origin  no  earlier  than  the  |>criod  of  the 
sway  ov<»r  the  country,  which  was  at  the  com 
ment  of  the  Christian  era.  These,  therefore,  i 
in  the  main,  the  chief  curiosities  of  the  district 
most  surprising  objects  are  those  remains  of  ari 
may  have  Ikm^u  produce<l  S4'verai  tllou^anda  o: 
before  Christ,  when  the  adjacent  land  of  K;!\pt 
ono  side,  and  Babylonia  on  the  other,  were  m  a 
glory.  These  remains  are  excavatioiui  in  the  n 
a  style  murh  more  rude  than  the  sculpturing^ 
Roman  and  (jreek  artists,  some  UMii  for  dwellin 
others  simply  inscriptions.  One  of  the  vules  pi 
ing  towards  JVtra,  m  a  direction  from  the  lied 
called  Wa«ly  Mokatteb,  or  Valley  of  the  WritUm 
tains,  being  inscribed  with  writing  in  au  ul 
tongue,  in  the  furm  of  carving,  on  the  face  of  tin 
pitous  rocks.  An  account  ol  this  n^niarkablc  ct 
of  art  and  antiquity,  in  given  by  a  Fraiiciscar 
who  visit«Hl  the  spot  in  the  courst*  of  a  journey  tl 
the  land  in  1 7J2.  **  These  mountiiins,"  he  say?* 
called  (iebel  <1  Mokatteb,  that  is  to  say,  the'V 
Mountains ;  for  as  soon  as  we  qnitte<l  the  moi 
of  Faran,  we  passed  along  others,  during  a  who] 
[a  length  pwbably  of  tlinv  miles  J,  which  wervc 
with  inscriptions  in  an  unknown  ehai'acter,aDd  ca: 
these  hard  rocks  of  marble,  to  a  height  which,  ii 
places,  was  fnnn  ton  to  tweiv*-  fe«>t  ulMue  the  i 
of  tin?  ground;  and  althoui^h  we  hud  nmon^^st  i 
who  un(lerst<HKl  tho  Arabian,  (In-ek,  Hebrew, 
Coptic,  Unin,  Arnii-nian,  Turkish,  Kn^iish,  II 
(rerman,  and  Itolieniian  lanmiam-s,  ilieiv  w;is  i 
of  us  who  had  llu*  hli;;lite«.t  knowli  di^e  «if  theohai 
eiigraveii  in  these  liunl  nteks  witii  great  laUm 
ctmniry  wIhtc  there  is  nothing  to  1h'  h.id  eitln't 
or  drink.  Hence,  it  i^  jtrohahle  that  these  chai 
contain  some  proton  ml  heereis,  wliieh,  long  WU 


dielivitv  of  Wady  Sabra,  leading  our  dromeii.iries  after  !  birth  of  CJirist,  were  siMilptured  in  the*^^  iiiok^ 


Chaldeans  or  some  other  per»^»ns.'*  The  pul  liea 
this  account,  upw.irds  <»f  a  century  ac'»,  eveite^l 
derable  interest  in  Knrope ;  hikI  Poeoeke  and  \^ 
Montague  went  to  Ambia  for  the  )>urpoM>  of  bi 
honn*  eopies  of  the  inM*riptions,  and  this  tliev  j 
pli.-heii  to  a  certain  extent.  In  17<>-,  tin*  king  o 
niark  employed  .Niebiibr  to  explon*  Ar.-ihia,  l»ui 
ciallv  ti»   ooiiv   the  iiiscri  lit  ions  on   Wailv   Mul 


US  when  the  snpi>orting  walls,  ruined  buddings,  and 
wi-ll-pre-.er*ed  [ston<*]  lN-iiehes  of  a  the.itre,  attracted 
our  attention.  The  ruins  of  Wady  S;»bra,  as  wi-Il  as 
tho««i'  of  Wady  PalMinehabe,  inilicat«-  thes*'  places  io  have 
served  ns  hnburl»M  to  tlic  capital — the  young  swanns 
sent  forth  front  the  |tan-nt  hive.  Hail  wo  been  enabled 
to  explore  the  whole  of  the  valjcys  in  tho  n<'i'.;lilN)urhooil 
of  Waily  .Mi>n«.«*;i.  wo  shotiM,  donbile^s,  have  fouinl  on 

all  f-iiles  ••iniilar  establisbnii'nts,  wlneh  the  «>nornions    Mib.M-ijnently  tit  her  tnivellei's  bnnight  copies  ti»  K. 
|M)putation   of   Petra  sustained. '*     The   propheeii-H   n*-  i  and   Mime  were  pnbl:f«lied  in  the  Trun.sactions 
►peetini:  the  cities  of  Mount  .Sir  (K/.eUioI,  xxxv.  <>),  arc  '  Hoyal  SK'iety  in  London  ;  but  till  this  iU\  the  ii 
heri-  amply  fulrilled.    .M.  I-ilH)rde,  in  his  journi*y  along  |  tioiis  have  iKilHed  eviry  attempt  t«»  deoipher  them 
a  roeky  nilye  towanls  the  I{ed  .S-a,  <»cc:ii*itinally  nn-t  j  fiKures  cmn posing  the  inscriptions  are  )»artly  hie 
with  cultivated  inputs  in  this  lone  wildenioss.  "  The  won-    phie,or  reprt^sentationsof  men  and  .inimals  with  1 
iliTtul  !•  nihty ,"  he  ubstTves,  "(if  these  rarepatchis  of    or  what  apjM^ar  to  bi;  woi>d«i  jnters)H'rsed.     Thei 
earth,  m  the  midst  of  a  >»ti'ril<>  country,  six>nied  intended    be  little  doubt  that  they  an*  the  oldest  writing 
ninim!  ns  ih.it  one  <iay  that  region  luid  been  happy,    witrld:  their  antii|nity  and  significatiiin  must  I 
^re  a  }M)uer(ul  hand  bad  weighed  soht^vily  uiM>n  it.  .  entiivly  to  the  imagination  of  the  reader, 
re  14  to  bi'  fonnd  at  Karek  a  sfK-cies  of  U-arded  '  — — — — ^-^— _^^^_^_^_____^^^_^_ 
at,  that  justifipn  tho  text  of  the  liible  against  the       PrintMui.!  imWiHhcdl.y  W.md  R.  OiammMp  l«  W 
es  ol  exaggi-ratif  in  of  which  it  has  been  tlie  object ;    piacv.  Kdlnbiimh.    Sold  by  W.  s.  orr  and  CooimiiT. 
vines  also  of  this  countrv,  of  the  fruit  of  which    Conwr,  London. 


CHAMBERS'S 

INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 

CONDUCTED  BY  WILLIAM  ft  ROBERT  CHAMBERS,  EDITORS  OF  CHAMBERS'S 
EDINBURGH  JOURNAL. 


New  akd  Iufroved  SERim. 


Price  J^d. 


ANCIENT  HISTOEY  OF  GHEECE  AND  HOME. 


HISTORY   OF  GREECE. 

ritnated  on  the  northern  abore 
of  the  MtditaiTaneui,  between  the  lonuta  mad  JEgeui 
MU.  ItbkbeaatiruleoDnli7ofhL]liiuii]nl1cn,like 
Walet  at  theHiefaUadiof  SeotUnd.  Someof  tlie  hilla 
high  as  to  be  constantly  covered  with  aoow.  The 
>r  low  districts  enjoy  a  mild  climalp,  uiil  ara  of 
Bticma  fertility.  Some  at  them,  as  Tempc  and  Anai- 
^  are  ipokcn  of  with  rapture  by  the  poets  of  aueieat 

A»  the  conatry  ts  much  dirided  bj'liills  and  indcn- 
tltiwef  theaea,  it  was  parted,  from  su  early  period, 
■tfa  meial  Katea,  which  were  under  BeporaCe  j;arcrn' 
■ola,  and  often  nude  war  upon  each  other.  The 
■■Ifceni  part  of  the  peninsula,  anciently  at  vied  tlio  Pelo- 
jMMari,  and  nowlhe  Morea,  was  divided  into  Lscoiiia 
[■tuning  the  celebrated  city  of  Sparta),  Argoliti, 
Idaia,  Arcadia,  Elis,  and  Mcssenii,  each  of^wliich  wu 
«lj  about  (he  size  of  a  tnodcntc  English  county.  Middle 
brcce  (now  Levadia),  to  the  north  of  tho  Pvloponni'sus, 
■d  cooaccted  will]  it  by  the  isthmus  of  Curinlli,  on 
•Ud)  lay  th*  dty  of  that  name,  contained  Allies  (in 
thieh  *aa  the  city  of  Alliens],  Mcgarit,  liccotia  (in 
■Uefa  waa  the  dty  of  Thebes],  rhocis,  Locrig,  Darts, 
JEloCa,  and   Aamania.     Kortbcm  IJrccco  coiitiuncd 

JTtniily  (now  the  dialrict  of  Jannina),  EpJruB  (now 
Uania).  and  Macedonia  (nan-  FilibaViUjeti),  the  last 
d  which  did  not,  however,  belong  to  Gncce  till  a.  com- 
IBiatirely  lata  period. 

To  the  eut  of  Greece  Troper  lay  the  numerous 
i^ab  of  the  ^leean  Sea,  otlieroisc  dennmmaled  the 
Indiipelago ;  with  which  may  be  included  certain  islands 
bkf  in  the  MeditnTaneau  tiea  in  the  some  direction, 
k  principal  of  which  was  Rliodes,  Cyprun,  nnd  the 
btbdea.  To  Ihs  south  by  Cythera  (now  Ceri|;u)  and 
(taf  (now  Candia).  To  tlie  west,  in  the  Ionian  Sea, 
^Cir^yTa  (now  Corfu),  Ceplialonu,  Ithaca,  and  olheiB, 
wm  eMMtitDling  the  distinct  confederacy  of  tho  Ionian 
Iteia,  under  protection  of  Great  Britain. 

B»d«»  having  possession  of  these  various  dislncta  on 
At  aunlandand  islands  on  both  sidCHof  tlie  peninsula, 
fti  Gfeelci,  in  tba  course  of  time,  oequirei!  colonics  on 
fti  eoMt  of  Asia  Minor,  adjacent  to  the  islands  in  the 
SfmaSt^  TfaeprincipaloftliewiroreignposBessions, 
■thaj  may  be  called,  was  lonis,  a  beautiful  and  fertile 
■Htiy,  the  chief  dty  uf  which  was  Ephcsus. 

1b  etMueqnenco  of  Greece  having  been  divided  into  n 
^■bcr  of  pctly  slates,  i-ocli  of  which  maintained  its 
•■■  pDlitieal  independence,  the  history  of  the  eountiy 
Mnuanly  aasamn  the  character  of  a  number  of 
—      -  -tt*.  TheGrci'k8,inlhBdiffen!0tsUt», 


The  history  of  the  Grecian  stales  commences  above 
IGOO  jrears  before  Christ,  when  the  Egyptians  on  the 
opposite  side  of  Iho  Mcdilermnean  were  in  a  high  state 
at  civilisation ;  but  the  portion  of  history  which  pre- 
cedes S84  B.  c  is  undentDod  to  bo  fabulous,  and  entitled 
to  little  credit.  From  Atix  situation  in  a  region  whose 
bays,  headlands,  and  islands,  present  a  great  extent 
uf  sea-coast,  habiu  of  adventure  and  mutual  inter- 
course  were  produced  among  the  Greeks  in  the  earliest 
limes;  these  bad  Rrest  influence  in  cherishing  a  na- 
liunai  activity  of  eharncte 


-ivol  tlie 


'  of  the 


The 


nsidcr 


single 


ifti^ 


,ple,  although  llicy  were  in  »omi 
bj  aimilartty  of  origin,  dialect,  rclieion,  and 
It  was  not,  indeed,  Ull  a  comparatively  late 
they  had  any  name  for  the  entire  country ; 
»n  aaamned  via  Hdlas.    Tiie  term  Grccia 


people  were  early  accuAlomed  to  moke  voyages,  some- 
times for  traffic,  sometimes  for  war,  betwixt  the  oppo- 
site coast  of  tlieir  gulfs,  guiding  themselves  by  the  stars 
from  island  to  istimd  ;  and  a  curious  proof  both  of  their 
advenluruui  spirit,  and  of  the  difliculties  they  encoun- 
tered in  tlicir  attempts  at  navigation,  is  afforded  hy  Ilio 

one  of  tliese  isles,  called  Delos,  a  huge  pile  of  limestone 
rock,  which  was  frequently  used  ns  a  i«a-mark  in  the 
.^gean  :  this  island  is  said  onee  to  have  floated  about  on 
aveSjind  only  to  have  been  fixed  in  its  place  at 
lost  by  Jupiter  driving  a  slake  through  its  centre.  In 
the  pniaent  age,  we  can  uuifcratand  by  this  poetical 
flight  tlmt  the  Greek  canoe-men  nometimes  lost  their 
reckoning,  and  fell  in  with  the  island  where  they  did 

e  accounts  given  by  tho  poets  of  this  early  period  of 

ian  history,  abound  in  trie  most  ridiculous  legends, 
and  these,  notwithstanding  their  absurdity,  formed  the 
basis  of  llio  mythology  or  religiousbclief  of  tho  people.  A 
set  of  imaginary  beings,  or,  perhsps,  in  some  insUnces, 
individuolu  rciiuirkable  for  warlike  genius,  or  skill  in 
arts,  whoso  names  were  handed  down  by  Iradilion,  wero 
exalted  lolhccharacterofgods,  and,  iliroughtiie  medium 
of  beautifully  sculptured  figures  in  marble  and  ivory ,  were 


(sovereignly  of 
id  earth.  Ho 
represented  us 


97 


with  thunderbolts  in  his 
right  hand,  nnd  au  eagle 
by  liii  wde.  The  wife  of 
Jupiter  was  Juno,  who  is 
deacribcd  as  a  beautiful 
goddess,  and  is  usually 
depicted  OS  seated  in  a 
chariot  drawn  by  two 
peacock*. 


CHAHBERffS  INFOBHATIOH  FOB  THE  PEOPLE. 

,     I  Jopiter  mu  Ncptnnt 
■1  pAioicil  u  a  balf'Mked 


hia  Imd,  vxi  *  Oident, 
id.  A  tliinl  principal 
deil/waaPlnto^  Ibagod 


AiOM,  with  Ua 

ffifa  Praaarpine  bjbia 
M^  and  iba  iarc«- 
headad  dog  CartMras 
bafina  hfan.  AimHo 
tbagadaf  anri^ 
■  paiBtlBg; 

i  |£b  god 

„*3j«! 

'pltart  Md  Iha  p>d 
of  imnhanMia  and 
ig;  Cimid  &•  gad  of  lo*«;  l(iiMFfatbagoddi« 
Si  wnMDi  DiaoalM  ndd«M«clraKtfae;  Cita^  fba 
gtUtm  of  aaimtor  of  agiliialMia;  Hab%  the  nd- 
aa»nf  yoaJ;  Tahan,  ttaMiilwlBf  rfJWitartltnM- 
^_i_,. .  j._  .--^—4  ^  T«nfc  tl*  goddeaa  of 


TarTor,ai>d  Hadocai ;  alio  threa  female*  of  < 
nkt«lil  flcuie.  temnd  tha  Giaeea,  and  whom 
weraAgbia,  Thalia,  and  Eaphrosfne.  Tha  ntno  Muaea, 
or  patroonaaa  of  tbo  ftna  aita,  wera  Thalia,  Melpo- 
meaa,  Calliope,  Clio,  Eialo,  Kuteipe,  Paljhv 
Torpdehore,  and  Vimah.  Tbey  ««Te  nippawKf  i 
...    « ._      ._* .  ■  1  in  Oio  dirtiict  of 


gfoenl  taken  ItJ  tho  miaat 
tar  qnoatioa  Ml  1*  tM  IP'... 
ln%a«tkal,lha*^ 


iis 


duke, 
Greekl<rers 
thia  pretemlod  ^ 

acuta  of  DalpU  beouna  ao  ml  t] 
H&9  undemkoB  in  tiBj  part  ef  Gnaoa  wiwea 
luttatkin  of  ifae  PrtboDaa^ 
•  Tt»n  H  piat-MrMM  *adaw  «(  te>th  fa  « 
(he  alleged  eranta  of  onrir  GradaD  llWotj.     T 
who  liTcd  in  tho  tfaittMoUi  oaotatj  baAna  CU 
said  to  lure  lud  the  foimdatimi  of  tba  trHhiii| 
xutu  of  AttiDB,  by  anitiu  ih 
tb«m  aeorattMieaMtttBtfM. 
tbraledjii 


of iSainlHrn^reriMii'hXiVo  C'^'"^  ^  """^ a*  the  «x] 
bewaanpMMUedb*    Ooiclib,aplaeaondM«M( 
the  QndN  M  aaatoi    Sea,  prober  «ilh  lb*  A 


Abonthiatii 
rTb^l7,inni 


MI^TI 


Sea,  probjJJr  with  lb*  lilidga  «f  oMdIshf  p 
iilvor,  fur  wlm^  that  wwntty  waa  t  WMrtabli 
hia  flimpimJoDa  waa  a  duaf  namod  Htreala^  n 
of  nii«nnin>A  •tTensib,  and  'rtw  aftamria  « 
daMed  by  ijw  Gimfca.  Tbo  poala  Hf  (bat  9 
•Bd  II-?lle,  tha  BOB  and  daiqliter  of  Alhaiml^ 
niabM,  King  eompelM  to  ^  tbiir  Batir*  ••■ 
•void  ilie  rrael^  M  thuF  atepmotbtr,  laownW 
buk  of  :i  V  inged  nm  ¥rilh  a  flnoo  M  |old,  ar 


Colobie,  v.  Iiora  as  qdcIo  of  theba,  namad  JBti 
kinc.  Uufcrtmiatel;,  a*  thoy  «<«•  paMJiw  a* 
or  caUad  the  l^idanrita,  wIbA  a»i 


Hdle  b 


becanw  siddjr,  aad,  &Uinr  into 
ed.    From  bar,  Mjt4ho&d^  ti 


d-Dfmpha;  Sa^r^  ornual  deitiea;  and 


ride  upon  Pamaama,  a  loftj  m 

"'-  't     Tbalia  pmided  o»e 
i^^y ;  Ento  over  anut 

rrical  poeti; ;  Cailime  ot^  fa'eroic  or  epio  poetiy 

oqMooc ;  U>o  OT«r  hbtoiy  ;  Euterpe  orer  miuic ; 

tr  dancJBc;  and  Uiania  orer  the  (tody 

01  aainiiDoiy.    Hfaidea  Wl  Ihcae  imaginary  bainga,  ' 

njrthdogr  ooopnbendcd  a  da«  M  dcmi-godi, 

lSS?i_    .      .,..-. 

The  god*  «!•  lappaieClo 
•nd  to  nreal  tlia  aacnla  of  futarily  by  means  of  onwlea^ 
aeraral  of  uliiob  niMed  in  i-arioiu  parts  of  Greece. 
Tlw  nual  eeiebiated  of  the  Grcclui  oracles  ma  that  of 
Apollo  at  Delphi,  a  city  built  dd  the  ilope  of  Monnt 

" -      At  arerj  wmole  period  it  had  been  di»- 

- '  *-     0  a  derp  ovem  in  tba  side  of  that 

Kicating  Tspour  iHoed,  the  effect  of 

which  «Ba  ao  powerful  aa  to  throw  into  eooTulsioi 
both  men  and  cattle  who  inhaled  it.  Of  this  natur.. 
wonder,  the  pneathood  readily  availwl  tbenuelint. 
A  temple  waa  reared  orer  the  spot,  and  a  prteatos, 
Bamad  the  Pj-thoneas,  was  appoi--""   -"^ ~- 


pointed,  whoaa  ofiee  it 
Tall,  Ibe  holy  vaponr. 
■  -■--    -bo  PythoBM 


c.; 


Flttyxna  HclTCd  hi  OrieUi,  be  Mtttead  fab 

nm  to  Ju^lw,  b  BABOwledgmnrt  <<  dhrha  fn 

and  dcpoutcd  ila  ioUeB  fleaea  is  the  aame  dd^t 

II'  (     ':  I. :^Lrrie<r  tbo  daughter  of  flaa,  bat  wB 

lered  by  that  king,  who  widted  t* 

f  the  gddon  fleeee.     To  Mtngt  Pb 

.  .  I,  who  waa  hia  relation,  undertook  th 

_/....  t.  '..  -cbis,  where,  after  performing  aereti 

vclloiii  L'xploitB,  he  not  only  obtained  the  golden 

hot  persuaded  Hedea,  another  daughter  ^  kiw 

to  become  hia  wife,  and  to  accompany'  him  I 

SeirntY  yeara  after  the  A»oDantia  cxp 
namely,  .-.heut  the  year  119*  beforo  Chriit,  U 
brated  Ir-jan  war  waa  commenced.  We  lei 
erent?  Frimeeted  with. this  *rar  only  through  I 
9  of  the  Iliad  and  Ody»ey,  which  a 
e  be»n  composed  aboat  the  year  90( 
omer,  a  blind  man  who  wandered  »b 
inf;  hia  poems  for  a  livelihood.  Th 
is  .hi:'  I .  ;  follows: — Tyndanis,  a  king  of  Laeai 
had  Li  .  :tcr  Helen,  of  great  beauty,  whom  1 
kin^  <  '  \  !ns,  attempted,  hut  withoulnoeeaa, 
froiiH.'i  :..'lier.  The  iiiliiltigcoceof  thiaercnt  n 
Ili-liii'!  <»,  andmany  of  theprinceiof  Grece 
hiT  j'l  :  TioKe.  Tyadanis,  howerer,  alio* 
daii/li  '  I  '  nuke  choice  of  a  hoaband,  and  abo 
up'<'i  'I'  ' :  lus ;  the  anecessfol  iidtor,  on  tba  ^ 
TvTi.l..'  ,  >^M  raised  to  the  Spartan  tbrooa. 
afiT  r  ;,.  :,:  MrentJy  happ^mion,  Paiii, a  aoB of 
kiiiL,-!.!  I' r  1 1  ^ ,  a  small  itaia  in  Asia  Minor,  cam*  b 
atthr  r.-.\^r'.  ]f  Meuelaus, and  there  porfldioaatyl 
llcl.niLO  -jiewithhim.  Wroth  a(  thia  baasnaa^ 
Ivif  siun]ni<Ded  varions  foives  toblaaid,  asd 
on  B  H^irljl..- ezpedhiou  to  Troy.  Ortbadnaft 
bin!  [Ill  ihii  oecaaion,  tbe  moat  eelebntad  ww> 
memnon,  king  of  Myecwa;  HeodanL  king  of  J 
Ulyasee,  king  of  Ithaea ;  Nestor,  king  of  FVm  t  A 
*oa  of  the  king  of  TbeMdy;  AJbl  e(  Batob 
^l«dv^  of  .GtoUa;  and  laomMML  af  CMt 
eonKned  fotot^  on  laadlnf  in  Aa  Tiiijii  !■ 


ANCIENT  HISTORY  OF  GREECE. 


eonnnefieed  a  reg;nlar  siege  of  the  city  of  Troy.  Many 
ftkirmnbcs  took  place,  and  there  was  great  slaughter 
on  both  rides ;  the  Trojans  wero  led  generally  in  then: 
attaeks  by  the  valiant  Hector,  eldest  son  of  Priam.  At 
length,  aher  a  siege  of  ten  years,  Troy  was  taken,  its 
inhabitants  slanghtered,  and  its  edifices  burnt  to  the 
ground.  The  Greek  princes,  however,  paid  dearly  for 
tiieir  trimnph  by  subsequent  sufferings,  and  the  cUsor- 
ganiaation  of  their  kingdoms  at  home.  Ul^-sses,  if  wo 
BUT  believe  Homer,  spent  ten  years  in  wandering  over 
teas  and  lands  before  arriving  in  his  island  of  Ithaca ; 
and  others  of  the  leaders  died,  or  were  shipwrecked,  on 
their  vay  home. 

In  the  coarse  of  the  eleventh  century  before  Christ, 

Ihe  Greeks  began  to  pbint  colonies  in  neighbouring 

eoontries.    The  first  colonists,  as  usually  happens  in 

tiw  present  day,  were  dissatisfied  citizens,  who  thought 

Act  oonld  form  happier  oonununities  elsewhere.    Tho 

j*^"»—  founded  twelve  cities  in  Asia  Minor,  the  chief 

U  which  was  Smyrna.    The  Dorians  sent  off  colonies 

ts  Ita^  and  Sicily,  foundings  in  the  former,  Tarentum 

nd  Loeri,  and  in  the  latter  Agrigentum  and  Syracuse. 

1b  the  new  settlements  the  political  system  was  emi- 

lentlj  democratic ;  and  for  a  long  time  they  enjoyed 

great  prosperity.    This  prosperity  being  ascribed  at 

Ekim  |0  their  popnlar  institutions,  had  afterwards  the 

iflM  of  inciting  many  of  the  parent  states  to  change 

thrir  mooarehical  for  a  democratic  form  of  govern- 


gBCOeCD  OR  AXJTBESmC  PERIOD  OF  mSTORT. 

The  aecond  and  authentic  period  of  Greek  history 
eonnnenees  in  the  year  884  b.  c.,  at  the  institution  of 
lbs  Oljjmpie  festtval,  when  the  people  had  begun  to 
■align  Cram  their  primitive  barbariBm.  The  Olympic 
fadval  was  instituted  Indirection  of  the  Delphic  oracle, 
Vj  Iphitttfl,  prince  of  Eleia  or  Elis,  for  the  patriotic 
' —  of  assembling  together,  in  a  peaceAil  manner, 
from  all  parts  of  Greece.  Tho  festival  was 
to  take  place  once  every  four  years,  in  the 
rresponding  to  our  July,  and  to  last  five  days, 
ining  whieh  there  was  to  be  complete  truce,  or  ccssa- 
lioa  from  war,  throughout  the  Grecian  states.  Agr^- 
ahly  to  the  ancient  practice  at  public  solemnities,  tho 
faciwal  was  eelebrated  by  games  and  various  feats  of 
paiOBal  skill,  and  the  whole  order  of  procedure  was 
ngnlated  with  extraordinary  care.  All  freemen  of 
Gndaa  extraction  were  invited  to  contend,  provided 
Ihcj  h^  been  bom  in  lawful  wedlock,  and  had  lived 
maiated  by  any  infamous  moral  stain.  No  women 
(the  priesteaaes  of  Ceres  excepted^  were  permitted  to 
be  pfcaent.  Females  who  violated  this  law  were  thrown 
bom  a  rodL  The  competitors  prepared  themselves 
dnq;  ten  months  previous  at  the  gymnasium  at  Elis. 
]>BriBC  the  last  thirty  days,  the  exercises  wero  per- 
Incd  with  as  much  regularity  as  at  the  games  them- 
■trei.  The  festival  began  in  die  evening  with  solemn 
9fllii|ees»  and  the  games  were  commenced  the  next 
i^  aft  daybreak.  These  consisted  in  races  on  horse- 
kck  and  on  foot,  in  leaping,  throwing  the  discus  or 
fMil^  wrestlinff,  and  boxing ;  musical  and  poetical  con- 
9tm  eoncIodcS  the  whole.  The  honour  of  having 
■HMd  a  vMory  in  the  Olympic  games  was  very  great ; 
Btxtcnded  from  the  victor  to  his  country,  which  yras 
of  owning  him.  However  rude  and  boisterous 
nme  of  the  sports  of  the  Olympic  festival,  it  is 
riedged  by  the  best  authorities  thai  they  wero 
d  with  manifold  advantages  to  society.  It  is 
it  barely  to  mention  the  suspension  of  hostilities, 
took  plaee  not  only  during  the  festival,  but  a 

iecable  time  both  before  and  after  it.    Considered 

li  a  kind  at  religious  ceremony,  at  which  the  whole 
Gtacian  r«^«*«»*  were  invited,  and  even  enjoined,  to 
it  waa  well  adapted  to  facilitate  intercourse,  to 
knowledge,  to  soften  prejudice,  and  to  hasten 
of  civilisation  and  humanity.  The  date  of 
of  the  Olympic  games  (884  b.  c.)  was 

ad  by  the  Greeks  as  the  epoch  from 

I  ttey  Eoekfload  the  progress  of  time,  the  four  years 

99 


intervening  between  each  recurrence  of  tlie  fcstiv»il 
being  styled  an  Olympiad. 

At  the  first  institution  of  the  Olympic  festival,  and 
for  one  or  two  centuries  afterwards,  tho  condition  of 
Grecian  society  was  primitive  and  almost  patriarchal, 
but  marked  by  strong  features  of  heroic  dignity,  and  a 
certain  depth  and  rctinement  of  thought.    The  attire  of 
the  men  was  very  simple,  consisting  only  of  a  sliirt  or 
close  jacket  to  the  body,  with  a  loose  robe  hanging  down 
over  the  naked  limbs,  while  performers  in  tho  public 
games  wore  almost  naked.    The  arts,  including  agri- 
culture, wero  also  little  advanced ;  few  persons  seemed 
to  have  thought  of  toiling  toaccumulate  wealth ;  and  each 
community  presented,  in  time  of  peace,  the  picture  of  a 
large  family.     That  portion  of  the  people  constituting 
the  freemen  lived  much  in  public,  or  in  the  society  of 
their  equals,  enjoyed  common  pleasures  and  amuse- 
ments, and  had  daily  opportunities  of  displaying  their 
useful  talents  in  the  sight  of  their  fellow-citizens.     The 
frequent  disputes  between  individuals  occasioned  liti- 
gations and  trials,  which  furnished  employment  for  the 
eloquence  and  ability  of  men,  in  the  necessary  defence 
of  their  friends.     The  numerous  games  and  public 
solemnities  opened  a  continual  source  of  entertainment, 
and  habituated  every  man  to  active  physical  exercise 
and  the  performance  of  his  duties  as  a  soldier.    These 
were  agreeable  features  in  the  condition  of  Grecian 
society ;  but  there  were  also  some  of  a  contrary  kind. 
The  people  were  of  an  unsettled  deposition,   never 
satisfied  long  with  any  kind  of  government  which  existed 
amongst  them,  and  very  much  disposed  to  war  against 
neighbouring  states  on  the  most  trifling  pretences. 

The  population  of  tho  various  states  was  divided  into 
three  classes,  namely,  tho  citizens,  the  enfranchised 
populace,  and  the  slaves.  All  political  power,  even  in  the 
most  democrntical  of  the  Grecian  communities,  was  pos- 
sessed by  the  first  of  these  classes,  while  in  the  oligarchi- 
cal states  only  that  small  portion  of  the  citizens  which 
constituted  tho  nobility  or  aristocracy,  possessed  any  in- 
fluence in  the  management  of  public  affairs.  The  mecha- 
nical and  agricultural  labours  necessary  for  the  su|>port 
and  comfort  of  the  whole,  were  chiefly  performed  by  the 
inferior  class  of  free  inhabitants,  who  did  not  enjoy  the 
privilege  of  citizenship,  and  by  tho  slaves,  who  lonned 
a  considerable  portion  of  tho  population  of  every  state. 
These  slaves  were  sprung  from  tho  same  general  or 
parent  stock,  spoke  the  same  language,  and  professed  the 
same  religion,  as  their  masters.  They  were,  in  most, 
cases,  the  descendants  of  persons  who  had  been  conj 
quered  in  war,  but  were  in  some  instances  acquired  I 
purchase.  Society  being  thus  based  on  vicious  pri£^. 
ciples,  it  is  not  wonderful  that  the  Grecian  states  wr' 
tlio  scene  of  constant  civil  broils. 

Sparta— Lycurgufc 
At  the  beginning  of  this  period  of  Grecian  history,  our 
attention  is  powerfully  attracted  by  a  very  reninakablo 
scries  of  proceedings  which  took  place  in  Lact'dfunion, 
or  Laconia,  a  country  of  Southern  Greece,  of  wKich  the 
chief  city  was  Sparta.  This  city  being  in  a  8tat<vof  intes- 
tine disorder,  it  n-as  agreed  by  many  of  the  ii/nabitants 
to  invite  Lycurgus,  the  son  of  one  of  their  late  kings,  to 
undertake  the  important  task  of  preparing  a  new  consti- 
tution for  his  country.  Fortified  with  the  ««inotion  of 
the  Delphic  oracle,  he  commenced  this  difficult  duty,  not 
only  settling  the  form  of  government  but  reforming  the 
social  institutionsandmanncrsof  the  people.  The  govern- 
ment he  established  consisted  of  two  joint  kings,  with  a 
limited  prerogative,  and  who  acted  as  presidents  of  a 
senate  of  twenty-eight  aged  men.  Tho  functions  of  tho 
senate  were  deliberative  as  well  as  executive,  but  no 
law  copM  be  passed  without  receiving  the  consent  of 
the  assembled  citizens.  The  most  remarkable  of  the 
arrangements  of  Lycurgus,  was  his  attempt  to  abolish 
difference  of  rank,  and  even  difference  of  circumstances, 
among  the  people.  He  resolved  on  the  bold  measure 
of  an  equal  division  of  lands,  and  actually  parcelled  out 
the  Laconian  territory  into  thirty-nine  thousand  lots, 
one  of  which  was  given  to  each  citizen  of  Sparta,  or  free 


'?'7rn  •>'?!? 


CHAMBKBOT  DfTORMATION  FOR  THE  FEOHA. 


inlikbautolLMwob.    EMfaoflhMlo 

%aaitM  bantr  ■oBMd  to 

fcmilf ,  (or  I^omgoB  wis 

ibonld  be  pboid  innoh  cfavinnMaDOM  M  voDld  pnmil 

gflBinrioo*  living.   . 

Ljaugui—rriaJiataaffeeta  number  of  oUwrTJwaii- 
M^profMttt  bsaboliAeddMiiniifnDaffr,  wUitha 

?!Rf-?l!^ 

■  foing  mlinad,  IB  cn^ar 
<4)>  of  ■■■iiim  Mooag  tlw  pw^i*  i         ..._.. 
RMW  wilkoot  diMiMtiim  <f  lank  or  an,  iboold  aat  dail; 
il  wht 


■  .  . —  .  -10  waraborii,»iidnamadllkd;tobartroiif, 
dMmId  bvnaradbjr  pablioniirM^Diidaraiigidi7i>«ii 
d  privation  and  panMil  Mlivity,  wliils  tiN  ««id(  inlutB 
(Aaald  be  throwBoatlollioftalda  to  pariah.  TliaaitinBa, 
Trhaa  thnr  hil  attainnillhttaftirf—-  "'"■J.  — — "-f-f^ 
in  nartial  aiaiBiaiai  all  laMur  baiu  Ml  to  the  mtm, 
«r  AaMi^  a*  tbagr  vera  tenMd  i  andflo  ibeM,  the  «4iob 
iwlian  waa  hat  a  camp  of  aoUian^  and  war  waa  reck 
^ttt  tbe  Mitf  liptimata  profcirion.  Tbaaa  lawa  were 
teaoBM  maMUiu  mited  to  Oa  rada  oooditnii  «f  the 
8par(aB%  bat,  aa  baiag  oppoaed  to  aotM  of  iba  beat 
and  atrooBMt  pcindplaa  in  boniaB  natora,  diav  ooald 
not  poariily  eudan,  and  then  ia  riaaiin  to  Mleva 
.,._. ..,..__  _..  .._...,     .     jj  j. 


•Mm  *ilb  a  oeitain  degTM  of  adi^iBtioa  of  IM  qoalitr, 
iMt  the  SMHtaoa  bad  In  imU^  m  rmmI  dignlt?,  aai^ 
tainly  bo  binarelaae^  in  tbar  rirtne,  althv  sobUo  dt 
print*.  nMr««e«ainalleonfeden^d«dl-tnuned 
Mldin^and,  namlv  «•  Mdi,  d*«Brr«  no  mack  of  ttnr  re- 
ipeBt  ig  Mtaam.  Aa  namw  in  whicb  Iba;  naed  tbair 
halola waaatenee barlMMMaud eraeL  Tbamniderofa 
ierflif  af(e««illaen  »»a  wot  pwiiahable  by  law ;  nay,  i 
»aa  even  allowablo  for  tbe —^  ^— ——*-'-'- —" 
aaakiDdofi 


af  the  wlaari  —  in  Owai^  to  norii 
their  peKtieal  eoDMhottan.   8aleaiibn>e«lk«t«M 

—" -"-ited  tbe  gufeaiuKBt  on  k  bmd  iMii 

^ eHD^iif  MU^  to^l k  Mhtt« 
f  andwBMt&aAm* 

<.  .„  . -ridaaWatHirftillii,. 
bw  a  Mnaonbip  orot  pabEa  mmdt,  lai  «H 
owared  to  pnnMilairfaity,  praJljaqr,  »aJwiaw  Ifli 
^  tbia  eoort  evefy  MbMi  waa  boand  to  make  aa  « 


derived.  TlMeanrtwML)n|re>aiM«UlT«iri 
raneel,  and  tbe  ri^waa  aeeardad  ta  k  ef  aat  «H 
viiuig  the  lenleiwe*  fconooneed  by  the  othv  arit 
Iribnuli,  but  even  of  anaJltngtao  tadidal  dean 
the  general  ammibly  of  Hw  pe^lfc  Thengnkda 
Solon  wen  not  maintaiaad  fcr  aiy  great  length  of 
•Itbongli  the  repnbliean  io>B  M  giimiiiiiipt,  ta 


■iinnad  aa  Im  M  the  MM<n  ■ 
lained  ha  independence.  CTiiBbini^  the  Vifir 
parly,  enlaimd  tbe  demoantio  prinopk  !■  the  ■ 
he  introdneed  the  pmstiaa  of  Mlmebw,  by  vMd 
peiaon  might  be  buiabad  tar  ten  yeanwilhoMl 
accuaed  M  any  crime,  if  tbe  Atheniana  apiaahi 
tliat  lie  bad  acquired  too  nntdi  inlhieoe^  or  ba^ 
deaigna  agaiut  the  pnbUe  liborty.  TUi  aaDtaaa 
«b1Im  oatneiBni,  bocaoaa  die  dtiwie,  Sm  vm&w  ( 
........      .__  .    ^pag^  of  Iba  obMudoaa  Uir 


portano*  to  rriato  ip  A  .  ,. 

gradnally  ealarged,  the  tMlo  fcr  raSsMMBt  tain 
andvanooa  men  of  aagaoionaondaalaadii^  MM 
pbikai^ibaiB,  begaa  to  devote  llieiiiaaliaa  to  lay 
Into  the  nature*^  thehnmaa  n^Bdaadlba  ata 
of  the  Drihr.  The  priodaal  Grariaa  phBaaaaha 
-—'-H.d  in  Ihit  em  (&H  a.  <L) -aa  P^hM»« 
and  exalted  idaai,  and  as  aUa  iiijiMt 


illewablafortbeyeiuikSpBriaiietolieinwail,  ( 

sf  nor^lloranyMMid>kMUngormaay4ooUiW  ' 

riave,  nod  atab  ))im  to  tbalwari  on  tbe  highway.    Itfi  ( 

ji"*»fa*^  that  at  one  tim^  when  the  halffta  had  atood  tov  wimrinw  <■  mim. 
IbairtnarienlngoodBleadintattb.theywendeeired,  _  ,_ 

liyw»ofn«a({todKio*«oDt2000oribeirbertmeii,  tam>  toiod  of  Hiteonr. 

that  they  might  raooive  their  frvedom,  and  be  enrolled  Poihn  InmioD. 

aa  Spartans,  and  that  tbeae  2000  men  wen  aU  ailenlly        "be  year  490  B.  c  cloaca  the  gimdnally  impn 

murdered  aooo  after.    At  another  time,  when  danger  period  in  Grecian  biatory— or  eecond  parioi^  aa  H 

was  apprehended  from  the  growing  niimben  tad  peUy  Ixwn  termed — and  now  eommenoed  an  eta  warha 
wealth  of  tbe  boc«s,  the  maaUt  BOMled  the  farce  of '  the  important  event  of  an  inyuuoD  from  a  pM 

\dedariQg  war  agnioit  them,  and  coolly  murdered  many  Asiatic    eovcreigD.      Duiiu,  liiog  of  Petaia,  hi 

thonundu,  in  order  to  thin  their  numben  and  break  imagined  the  poMibility  of  oanquoriog  Gnaoe,  aa 

dieir  spirit.     Had  there  been  any  redeeming  tisit  in  immenae  army  agaiou  it  in  the  year  jual  UMaA 

tke  Spartan  chara^^  to  compenule  for  »uoh  barbarity.  Ortatly  alarmed  at  the  approach  of  suoh  an  msag 

Clip  would  have  wondend  leas  at  the  re^wct  which  u  Athenians  applied   to  the  Spartans  for  aid,  bat 

■onetimes  paid  them  ;   but  their  military  fame  oalv  people  had  a  euparstitioD  which  prohibited  thrir  ■ 

add«  anatber  instance  to  the  many  already  on  record,  the  field  before  the  moon  was  at  iha  fall  i  and  ■ 

that  tbe  moetigtionnt  and  ■angetrihee  make  the  moat  ""o  time  of  ihe  application,  it  still  waslad  Bve  di 

J J  aoldicia.  .  that  period,  they  therefore  delayed  tbe  manh  «( 

tnxraa.     Being  thai  refnied  all  asasMuwe  Ina 
neigbbonrs,  the  Alheniani  were  Ml  to  iapsaj  wt 

'  ,uuall  slate  eodeaioanagleoppas 

ID  of  an  overgrown  power,  haa  M 

vnc  or  modem  times ;  boMaesa 

raining    of    (he   AUteaiaB   papri 

present  a  bold,  and  by  aa  aisaai 

to  the  invader.     War  had  b«Mi 

(he  goddcaa  Minerva,  who  was  called     principal  cmploj-ment,  and  in  tlie  Bold  tbcy  dini 

alao  Atbeoa  by  tlie  Greeks,  and  to  whom  an  elrgant    their  noblest  qualities.     Iliey  wen  ananoaiiMM 

temple  bad  been  erected  in  the  city.     The   old  cily    those  highly  disciplined  erolatioBa  whieh  giTa  tan 

J  r        .u.  .».!._    .  ,!_  _-j.  oumeroua  bodiea  of  men ;  nat  wtal 


We  now  tarn  to  Athens,  the  capital  of  Altica,  and 

long  the  principal  seat  of  Grecian  lemming  and  reflae-  aoie  insianc 

meet.   ^theoB  IS  said  to  have  been  founded  by  Cecrope,  wiclicd  aggi 

lUO  B.  c,  and  in  the  most  ancient  limes  was  called  Ce-  occurred  in 

eropia,  which  name,  in  after  limes,  waa  retained  merely  exercises   n 

in  the  Acmfiolis,  a  citadel  situated  on  a  rocky  mount  enabled  the 

OTcriianguiE  the  town.     It  probably  received  the  name  tcmplihli',  fi 


e  mount  of  the  Acropolia  over  a  wide    ■ 


of  Athcn 


In  the  course  of  time,  field  in  a  deep  phalanx,  msbed  iaii 
Athena  became  papulous  and  surpaMiogly  elegant  in  ila  attack,  and  bravely  cloeed  with  their 
architeetnn,  while  itaeilizens  contrived  lo  take  a  lend    warrior  waa  firmly  oppoeed  to  bia 

Intlieaflhiraottbe  oommonitiesai       '      "* <--'--'•  ■■  -     ■ 

wave  ^vamed  by  kings,  bnt,aaint 

tan  dtisane,  they  beeama  disaatiaSed  with    .    _  _ 

iay  conalitBtian,  and  about  the  year  600  n.  c.  invited  i  by  tbe 


At  first  they  I  polled  by  necesaity  to  tbe  ■maeMrtaaaeivalw 
of  tbe  Spai^  if  tbe  fiMune  of  the  i^  had  iIi|imIi<  m  hta  ■ 
their  aiiat- 1  aim.   Theprindpal-weuoowMaifM^wWi^Ai 


ANCIEHT  HISTORY  OF  GREECE. 


faan^  <Aai  pMMtnttd  tlu  flrnMit  ihialdi  mnd  bDcklms. 
WhM  Ikn  DUMBd  th«r  aim,  sr  whcD  the  stroke  proved 
iaaflMtaBl  ihnnifb  want  of  force,  tbe*  drew  their 
■BOfda,  and  mnnuoiivthttr  utmoM  molation,  darted 


if^TiPilyoatbe 
tkanUmud 


and  dutif  mlMtded  for  tbe  prmetin  of  diitant  hostility 
._..!.._  .1...  .         .  u  oo  tho  ip««r  »nd  iwoM. 

BUtad  of  a  bright  helmet, 
id  eoTcriug  the  heed,  a  strong 


I  IbL  aad  opuHad  it 
l«Hll.     With  meo 


<Mrirt  Mtadiog  tbe  bnoil,  gresTM  of  braa  deecend  i  ng 

A*  Ih  to  the  feet,  ud  ui  nmplo  ahield,  loose);  attached 

k  A*Ml  tAaaUer  and  arm,  which  tarned  in  nil  dircc- 

finn  reaialBfice  to  every  hogCile 

ihtis  organiaed  and  accoutred, 

many  daela,  and  the  combatants 

ifbl  wilk  >U  the  keenueH  of  personal  rescnlmeut ; 

tilwahlBr  to  wnh  engagements  waa  eorregpondingiy 

mt,  Aa  igbt  aeldom  tcnninatiog  till  one  party  waa 

at  least  greatl  J  reduced  in  nnmbenu 

D  animated  and  prepared  that  the 

about  to  eneounter.    Compelled  to 

oaHiated,  the  Athenians  were  able 

bowneb  hi  anny  of  only  9000  men,  eieluaive  of  about 

■  ^y  ligbt«rmed  slaves,  into  the  field.  With  tlil- 
Miln  ■■  Ibar  leader  and  commaader-in-cliier,  they  mot 
*■  r»i<iM  in  battle  on  the  plain  of  Marathon,  thirty 
■■■fraa  Albcsusand  b7gi«at  akill  andcouraite,  and 
AttoasaC  their  doae  phalanx  of  spearmen,  completely 
■■MC^  Ibein.    Upwards  of  GOOD  Pcntiana  wen  flaiu 

■  ttaflatd,  while  tbs  number  killed  of  the  Athenians 
MB  k«^92.     This  is  reckoned  by  historians  one  of  the 

Mutant  Tictoriea  in  ancient  timce,  for  it  saved 
laadeaee  of  the  whole  of  Greece.     To  the  dis- 

Cm  «f  tka  fickle  Athenians,  they  afterwards  showed 
paitoat  ingTatilude  to  Miltiadcs,  and  pot  him  in 
labHiaa  a  charge  of  favouring  the  Persians.    He  died 
hM^  tta*  yaar  after  his  great  victory.     Soon  after, 
'--  -■" — iB  of  Athens,  on  a  plea  equally  unfounded, 
Asirtidai,  aa  ablo  leader  of  the  aristocmtie 
''        '  '  *  irho,  from  his  strict  integrity 

Uy  entitled  "Aristides  the  Just." 
this  eminent  individual,  Themis- 
■rii^  n  peraoB  wtM  was  mora  democratic  in  his  sen- 
feHM^  baCnow  tha  leader  of  the  councils  of  the 
Att^nna.  Msaawhile,  the  Grecian  liberties  were 
^0t  ■MisniiTij-'--  "ri-'n--  Xerxes,  son  of  Dsrlus, 
^■iba4  an  anny  aeron  the  Hellespont  by  a  bridge  of 
hm  baa  tlw  Asialie  shore,  and  led  it  towards  th( 

■rf(d«nlad  Gnek*  eonld  oppose  to  the  countless  hosi 

1^  did  not  exceed  60,000  men.     Of  these,  i 

~  iring  6000  soldiers,  under  Leo 

.     .ted  at  the  pass  of  Thermopyln; 

y,  and  herethrydiscomtitcd  ever^ 

in  of  tha  Peraians  as   it  entered  thi 

ily,  tolTseeing  certain  destruction,  Leo 

■      ^^■^■BBis^Ml  all  to  retire  but  three  hundred,  witt 

^1  iha  k*  aaapoatd  to  pva  tha  Persians  some  idea  of 

«l  ifeaAa  Otaaki  toald  sntoiit  to  for  tlie  sake  of  ihei 

^m  MHfeiv    Ba  aod  hk  thm  hnndred  were  cut  olT  to 

I  101 


man.  Xerua  took  posse«aion  of  Attica  and  Athens, 
but  m  the  naval  battle  with  the  Athenian  fleet  at  Salamia 
which  occurred  soon  after  (October  20,  480  B.  c),  his 
army  was  utterly  routed,  and  its  scattered  remains 

By  this  Kplcndid  victory,  the  naval  power  of  Persia 
was  almost  annihilated,  and  the  spirit  of  its  monarch  so 
completely  humbled,  that  he  dunt  no  longer  undertake 
offensive  operalious  against  Greece.  Here,  fhcrefure, 
the  war  ooght  to  have  terminated  ;  but  so  great  and  va- 
luable had  been  the  spoils  obtained  by  the  confederates, 
that  they  were  unwilling  to  relinquish  the  profitable 
contest.  The  war,  therefore,  was  continued  for  tvrenty 
years  longer,  less,  apparently,  for  the  chastisement  of 
than  for  the  plander  of  her  conquered  provii 


Kat  Q 


t  all  <I 


grow  weaiy  of  the  cc 
tanee  their  annual  cc 
allied  fleet.      It  was 


yof  tl 


le  oppressive 


>uIation  was  Manty,  began  to 
it,  and  to  furnish  with  relae- 
igent  of  men  to  relDforce  the 
consequence,  arranged  that 
nu  were  unwilling  to  perform 
personal  service,  should  send  merely  their  proportion 
of  vessels,  and  pay  into  the  common  treasury  an  annual 
sabsidy,  for  the  mainteunee  of  the  sailors  with  whom 
the  Atneiiiaus  undertook  to  man  the  fleet.  Tho  unfore- 
seen but  natural  consequence  of  tills  was  the  establish- 
ment of  the  complete  supremacy  of  Athens.  The 
annual  subsidies  gradually  assumed  the  character  of  a 
regular  tribute,  and  were  compulsorily  levied  as  such  j 
while  the  recusant  communities,  deprived  of  their  fleets, 
which  had  been  given  up  to  ttie  Allir.'nian*,  were  unable 
to  olTer  eRectual  resii 

of  the  dominant  slate.    The  Athenii  

to  an  unprecedouted  pitch  of  power  and  opulence,  and 
enabled  to  adorn  their  city,  to  live  in  diKnified  idleness, 
and  to  enjoy  a  constant  succession  of  tho  most  costly 
public  amusements,  at  the  expense  of  the  vanquished 
d  of  the  scarcely  more  leniently  treaMd 
of  the  dependent  confederacy. 

We  have  arrived  at  the  moat  flourishing  period  of 
Athenian  hislor}',  during  which  Pericles  rose  to  dis- 
tinction, and  greatly  contributed  to  the  beautifying  of 
the  cajiital.  The  talenlB  of  Pericli'S  weru  of  the  very 
flrsC  order,  and  they  had  Ixvu  carefully  cultivated  by  the 
ablest  tutorage  which  Greece  cuuldaflbrd.  After  serving 
for  seveml  yeam  in  the  Athenian  army,  he  ventured 
to  take  a  part  iu  the  business  of  thu  popular  assembly, 
and  his  powerful  eloquence  soon  gained  him  an  ascen- 
dancy in  tho  national  councils ;  and  his  pouer,  in  fact, 
became  as  great  as  that  of  sn  absolute  monarch,  (nb 
B.  c)  Some  of  the  most  iiiteresliuK  events  of  Grecian 
iiistory  now  occurred.  After  a  number  of  years  of 
general  peace,  a  dispute  between  the  state  of  Corinth 
and  its  dependency  tlie  isbiid  of  Oircyra  (now  Cwfu), 
gave  rise  to  a  war  which  again  disturbed  [he  repose 
of  all  tho  Grecian  slates,     t'orcyra  was  a  colony  of 

prise,  rsiscd  itself  to  a  higher  pilch  of  opulence  than 
Its  parent  city,  it  not  only  refused  to  acknowledge  Co- 
rinthian supremacy,  but  went  to  war  with  that  state 
I  a  question  respecting  the  government  of  Epidamnus, 


s  had  I 


■daid 

from  several  of  tho  Pcloponncfian  slatce  to  reduce  tlie 
Corcjneans  to  subjection ;  while  Cori'vra,  on  the  other 
hand,  concluded  a  (lefenBiTeallbnco  wiih  Alliens,  whieli 
sent  a  fleet  to  assist  the  island  in  vindicating  its  iudc- 
pendoice.  i!y  way  of  puuiehing  the  Athenisna  fur 
intermeddling  in  the  quarrel,  the  Corintliions  stirred 
up  a  revolt  in  t'otido/a,  a  town  of  Chalcidice,  itcor  the 
conRncs  of  Macedonia,  which  had  origiually  been  a 
colony  of  Torinth.  but  was  at  thb  time  a  tributary  iif 
Athens.  The  Athenians  immediately  dispatched  u  fleit 
and  army  for  tho  reduction  of  PotidiEa,  and  the  Pelo- 
!re  equally  prompt  in  sending  si 


engaged  in 


The  Corinthiai 


vely 


>t  yet  taken  a  decided  pail  in  tlio 


CHAMBERS S  INFOEBIATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


to  WNliplilB  of  tiM  coodnet  of  tiM  Athenianty 


wlMh  tlMj  fliiw itiariwMl  m  m  ruM^doa  of  aa  unfiiror- 
mlSif  foengnliiil  hw  of  Chroeiui  poUejr,  that  no  0lato 
•hoold  interfere  between  another  and  its  dependenoiet. 
The  ofTorta  of  Uio  Oorinthiaiia  Wore  aoeeeMfb^and  afanoat 
ftll  the  PolopoBBfleian  atetoi,  beaded  hjr  Sparta,  together 
with  nao J  of  tiioae  beyond  the  i8thma%  fermed  them* 
lalvoo  iate  a  oonfedmejr  for  tho  poriioso  of  going  to 
war  with  Athena.  Argoo  and  Aehaia  at  fint  remained 
MBtor.  CottfttL,  Anawumia,  iomoof  theoitieaof  Thea- 
ialr,  aad'thooe  of  PhUna  and  Nanjpaetas,  were  all  that 
looK  pari  with  the  Athiraiana. 

POrioiea  bdidd  without  dismay  tiio  gathering  of  the 
•lontti  but  bis  ooontrymen  were  not  equally  nndannted. 
Tbey  perceiTed  that  tliey  were  about  to  be  called  npon 
to  mnange  the  idle  and  Inxnrioas  life  they  were  at 
ms^t  iMding  for  one  of  hardriiip  and  danger,  and 
ttMy  began  to  mnrmur  against  their  politieal  leader  for 
iatolTing  them  in  so  ahi&ing  a  raffreL  They  had  not 
f^tet  tne  ooqnge  to  impttoh  rerieles  hlinsel^  hot 
irwrtbd  their  displeasare  a^^unst  bik  friends  and  foTon- 
sHaiu  Pludias,  a  Tery  eminent  sctilptor,  whom  tho 
great  statesman  had  appointed  soperiiktendant  of  pnbtio 
Mldinn^  was  oondeinned  to  imprisonment  on  a  triro- 
loos  emtfge;  and  tho  philoaoplier  Anaxagoras.  the 
prseeptor  and  friend  of  Perielesy  was  diarged  with  dis- 
■endnatinff  opinions  snbrersire  of  tiie  national  rel^giony 
and  banisEed  from  Athens.  Rsspeoting  another  eele- 
brated  individaal  who  at  thb  timo  foil  under  persecta- 
tiott,  H  beeomes  neoessaiy  to  say  a  fow  words.  Aqpasia 
of  Miletus  was  a  woman  of  remariotble  beauty  and 
Mllbnt  talents,  bvt  she  wanted  tiiat  chastitT  which 
is  the  matest  of  fominine  graoM,  and  by  her  dis- 
■oloto'nfe  was  rendered  a  repiroach,  as  she  would 
otherwise  hsTs  been  an  ornament,  to  her  sex.  This 
remMable  woman,  haring  eome  to  reside  in  Athena, 
attracted  the  notioe  of  PerEnesL  who  waa  so  much  fasei- 
nsicd  by  her  beauty,  wit,  and  eloquence,  that,  after 
separating  from  his  wife,  withwhom  ho  had  lived  un- 
fcappilr,  he  married  Aspasia.  It  was  genemlly  beUeved, 
that,  for  the  gratifteation  of  a  primte  grudge,  she  had 
Insti^ted  Peridee  to  quarrel  with  the  Peloponnesfam 
states,  and  her  unpopularity  on  tliis  score  was  the  true 
cause  of  her  being  now  aecoaed,  before  the  assembly  of 
the  people,  of  impiety  and  groeely  immoral  practices. 
Pericles  conducted  her  defence  in  person,  and  pled  for 
her  with  so  much  eamcstncfls  that  he  was  mored  CTcn 
to  tears.  The  people,  either  finding  the  aecuiations  to 
be  really  unfounded,  or  unable  to  resist  the  eloquence 
of  Peridee,  acquitted  Aspasia.  His  enemies  next 
directed  their  attack  against  himself.  Tbey  accused 
him  of  embezzling  the  public  money ;  but  he  completely 
rebutted  the  cluurge,  and  proved  that  he  had  drawn  his 
income  from  no  other  source  than  his  prirate  estate. 
Hb  frugal  and  unostentatious  style  of  living  must  have, 
of  itself,  gone  far  to  convince  tlie  Athenians  of  the 
Imnesty  with  which  he  had  administered  the  public 
aflhirs ;  for  while  he  was  filling  the  city  with  temples, 
porticoes,  and  other  magnificent  works  of  art,  and  pro- 
Tiding  many  costly  entertainments  for  the  people,  his 
own  domestic  establishment  was  regulated  with  such 
atrict  attention  to  economy,  that  the  members  of  his 
funily  compUined  of  a  parsimony  which  formed  a 
marked  contrast  to  the  splendour  in  which  many  of 
the  wealthy  Athenians  then  lived. 

Conftrmed  in  his  autliority  by  this  triumphant  refu« 
tattoo  of  the  slanders  of  his  enemies,  Pericles  adopted 
the  wisest  measures  for  the  public  defence  against  the 
invasiou  which  was  threatened  by  the  Peloponnesians. 
Unwilling  to  rink  a  battle  with  the  Spartans,  who  were 
esteemed  not  Iohs  invincible  by  land  than  the  Athenians 
were  by  sea,  he  caused  the  inhabitants  of  Atiica  to 
transport  their  cattle  to  Euboca  and  the  neighbouring 
lalands,  and  to  retire,  with  as  much  of  their  other  pro- 
perty as  they  could  take  with  them,  within  the  walls  of 
\tHens.    By  his  provident  care  the  city  was  stored 
I  provisions  sufficient  for  the  support  of  the  multi- 
m  which  now  crowded  it ;  but  greater  difficulty  was 

am 


nOMQ  hi  XwRUHUBg  prOpSP  aOOOnflMMMllOB  WBttM 

a  popuhUkML     Mmt  foond  loM^ii  li  Iha  ti 
and  othor  pnblie  odiaosB^  or  intfislnMliOB  H 
waUs,  and  great  numbsro^m  ob^god  to 
thsnauTss  temponry  abodsa  in  ilia  tmm 
tiie  long  waUs  extsnmng  batwsia  Iha  «lQr 
of  Pinras* 

Tha  nemoiablo  coiitstt  of  twtB^y-oowB  yMttiT 
tkm,  oallad  ^the  Pdopomiasisn  war,"*  mam 
f481  &  a)  Tho  Spartan  king,  Areliids 
Attiea  at  tne  head  o(P  a  kifo  army  of  tho 
and,  moethig  with  no  oppesitioo,  ptuusodsd  ak 
eastern  coast,  burning  tho  towns  sod  laying  waa 
country  in  hia  eourse.  When  tho  Athoniana  ai 
enemy  ravaging  tho  couulsy  almost  up  to  thdr 
it  required  all  tho  authoriftfof  Perieiea  to  kosf 
within  their  foitlfieatloBa.  While  tho  oonfedeiata 
wasting  Attica  with  fira  and  aword,  the  Athoi^ 
Coreynsan  fleets  won^  by  tho  direction  of  Pi 
avenging  the  injury,  by  ratagingtho ahnoot dofai 
coasu  of  the  Peloponnsoas,  This,  togethor  s 
scarcity  of  provisioii%  soon  induced  ArehidamQsl 
his  army  homewarda.  Ho  retired  by  the  wast  en 
of  Attica,  oontinnfa^g  the  work  of  dovastatkni  as  h 
along. 

Eurly  in  the  summer  of  tho  foUowfa^  yiar,  tb 
federates  returned  to  Attica,  which  they  wars 
permitted  to  ravage  at  their  pleasure,  as  Poridi 
adhered  to  hia  cautioaspoUeyof  eooflninghkioli 
the  defence  of  the  capitaL  Bat  an  oosaiy  for 
terrible  than  the  PeU>ponnedana  attadnd  tto  m 
nato  Athenhms.  A  peotilenoo,  sappoood  to  haws 
natsd  in  Ethiopia,  and  which  had  gradnaUy  aproa 
Egypt  and  the  wastsia  parts  of  Aria,  brobamrt 
town  of  PiiSBUs,  the  inbab&tanta  of  wliidl  M  Itn 
poasd  thehr  wells  to  have  boon  poisoned,  no  d 
rapidly  advanced  Into  Athena,  where  it  oaniad 
mat  number  of  pofsons.  It  is  dooei^Md  as  i 
Men  a  spoeisa  of  infhotkyaa  fever,  annnia|iaiio) 
many  painful  symptoouu  and  foUowod,  in  tbooowh 
▼ived  the  fonst  stages  of  the  diseass,  byolosnlli 
the  bowds  and  limba.  Historians  mortioo,  as  • 
of  the  singular  virulence  of  this  pestflcoes^  thi 
birds  of  pr^  refused  to  touch  the  unburied  bodiai 
victims,  and  that  all  the  dogs  which  fed  upon  thap 
ous  relics  perished.  The  mortality  was  dieadfd 
was,  of  course,  greatly  incressed  by  the  ovoren 
state  of  the  city.  The  prayers  of  the  devout^  ai 
skill  of  the  physicians,  were  found  equally  nnai 
to  stop  the  progress  of  the  disease,  and  the  misi 
Athenians,  reduced  to  despair,  believed  themosl^ 
be  foigotteu  or  hated  by  their  gods.  Tlie  siek  w 
many  cases  left  unattended,  and  the  bodies  of  tlM 
allowed  to  lie  unburied,  while  thoee  whom  tho  i 
had  not  yet  reached,  openly  set  at  deffauieo  all 
himian  and  divine,  and  rushed  into  every  oxo 
criminal  indnlgence. 

Pericles  was  in  tho  moan  time  engaged,  with  i 
of  150  ships,  in  wasting  with  fire  and  sword  the  i 
of  the  Peloponnesus.  At  his  return  to  Athena,  fl 
that  the  enemy  had  hastily  retired  from  Attica,  th: 
fear  of  the  contagion  of  the  plague,  he  «<»f^ffH>vi 
fleet  to  the  coast  of  Chalddice,  to  assist  the  Atl 
Und  forces  who  were  still  engaged  in  the  sie|o  c 
tidxca — an  unfortonate  measure^  productivo  m  no 
result  than  the  communicatioo  of  the  pestileaea  t 
besieging  army,  by  which  the  majority  of  the  i 
were  speedily  swept  away.  Maddened  by  their  ■ 
ings,  the  Athenians  now  became  loud  in  their  ami 
against  Pericles,  whom  they  accused  of  having  br 
ui>on  them  at  least  a  portion  of  their  calamities  1 
volving  them  in  the  Peloponnesian  war.  An  aasan 
the  people  wnM  held,  in  which  Pericles  entered  a 
justification  of  his  conduct,  and  exhorted  tlien  toco 
and  peneverance  in  defence  of  thdr  independooesi 
hardships  to  which  they  had  be«i  oxpoaod  Imt  tbi 
were,  he  observed,  only  Math,  as  ho  aad  in  wanm 
dresses  prepared  them  to  exfoet ;  and  as  for  tho 
lence,  it  was  a  calamity  whL^ao  hmnao 


ANCIENT  HISTORY  OF  GREECE. 


ciihcT  brnve  forewen  or  aTerted.  He  remindod  them 
tiaU  tfarjr  still  DOHeaeed  a  fleet  which  that  of  no  potentate 
on  cartn  eould  equal  or  cope  with^  and  that,  alter  the 
licaent  evil  shonid  haTe  passed  awav,  their  navy  might 
jct  enable  them  to  acquire  universal  empire.  ^  What 
«c  nffff  from  the  gods,"  continued  he,  **  wc  should 
Iwar  with  patience;  what  from  our  enemies,  with  manly 
finnncfla ;  and  aneh  were  the  maxims  of  our  forefathers. 
Fnm  inwhakcn  fortitude  in  misfortune  has  arisen  the 
pwieut  power  of  this  commonwealth,  together  with 
ikiS  gloty,  which,  if  our  empire,  according  to  the  lot 
rf  au  euthlj  thmgi,  decay,  shall  still  survive  to  all 


The  eloquent  harangue  of  Pericles  diminished,  hut 
fid  not  remove,  the  amrm  and  irritation  of  the  Athe- 
■ani^  and  they  not  only  dismissed  him  from  all  bis 
iftee^  bat  imposed  npon  him  a  heavy  fine.  Mean- 
vhOe,  domestic  afflictions  were  combining  with  political 
iisietaes  and  mortifications  to  oppress  the  mind  of  this 
winent  man,  for  the  members  of  his  family  were  one  by 
■e  penshing  Inr  the  plague.  Still,  however,  ho  bore  him- 
Mlf  up,  with  a  fortitude  which  was  witnessed  ^ith  admi- 
Btion  by  all  around  him ;  but  at  the  funeral  of  the  last 
if  his  duldren,  bis  firmness  at  length  gave  way ;  and 
while  he  was,  according  to  the  custom  of  the  country', 
ihrinig  a  garland  of  flowers  on  the  head  of  the  corpse, 
M  homt  into  loud  lamentations,  and  shed  a  torrent  of 
It  was  not  long  till  his  mutable  countr^Tnen 
of  their  harshness  towards  him,  and  reinvested 
'rth  his  civil  and  military  authority.  He  soon 
iftv  £iUowrad  his  children  to  the  grave,  falling,  like 
tbiOk  ^  Tietim  to  the  prevailing  pestilence  (42!>  b.  c.) 
Ik  eaneurrent  testimony  of  the  ancient  writers  assigns 
li  Pcrides  the  first  place  among  Grecian  statesmen  for 
and  eloquence.  Though  ambitious  of  power, 
At  «■■  temperate  in  its  exercise ;  and  it  is  creditable 
',  that,  in  an  age  and  country  so  little 
in  the  shedding  of  blood,  his  long  admini- 
merciful  and  mild  as  it  was  vigorous 
ifibctive.  When  constrained  to  malce  war,  the  con- 
tHadj  of  this  eminent  statesman  was  how  to  over- 
lus  enemies  with  the  least  possible  destruction  of 
H^  SB  well  on  their  side  as  on  his  own.  It  is  related, 
rhen  he  was  lying  at  the  point  of  death,  and  while 
who  surruunded  him  were  recounting  his  great 
ho  suddenly  interrupted  them  by  expressing  his 
that  they  should  bestow  so  much  praise  on 
in  which  he  had  been  rivalled  by  many 
wbilt  they  omitte4  to  mention  wlmt  was  his 
apd  peculiar  honour,  namely,  that  no  act  qf  hit 
r  gewimrf  any  Athenian  to  put  on  mourning. 
the  death  of  Pericles,  the  war  was  continued 
intermption  for  seven  years  longer,  but  with 
very  decisive  advantage  to  either  side.  During  this 
Hd  the  Athenian  councils  were  chiefly  directed  by 
tMHBo-nunded  and  unprincipled  demagogue,  named 
dsan,  who  was  at  last  killed  in  battle  under  the  walls 
rf  AsiphipoliBy  a  Macedonian  city,  of  wliich  the  posses- 
am  wsedisputed  by  the  Athenians  and  Lacediemoniaiis. 
Qmm  WM  saeoeeded  in  the  direction  of  public  affairs 
Wlffiriwt  the  leader  of  the  aristocratical  party,  a  man 
■  virtnono  bat  unenterprisinK  character,  and  a  military 
Aer  of  moderate  abilities.  Under  his  auspices  a  peace 
fcr  filly  yeans  commonly  known  by  the  name  of  the 
*fmce  of  Kicias,"  was  concluded  in  the  tenth  year  of 
fc  war  (421  a.  c.)  It  was  not  long,  however,  till  the 
MlBSt  was  resumed.  Offended  that  its  allies  had  given 
■4  contest  undertaken  fur  the  assertion  of  its  alleged 
~^ '  Corinth  refused  to  be  a  party  to  the  treaty  of 
ftnd  entered  into  a  new  quadi-uple  alliance  with 
£lia,  and  Mantinsea,  a  city  of  Arcadia;  the 
object  of  which  confederation  was  the  defence 
tf  Ihs  Peloponnesian  states  against  the  aggressions  of 
and  Sparta.  This  end  seemed  not  difficult  of 
as  fresh  distrusts  had  arisen  between  the  two 
republics,  on  account  of  the  reluctance 
Ut  sad  manifiested  by  both  to  give  up  certain  places 
they  had  bound  themselves  by  treaty  mutually 
The  jealousies  thuis  excited^  were  fanned 
103 


into  a  violent  flame  by  the  artful  measures  of  Alcibiades, 
a  young  Athenian,  who  now  began  to  riso  into  political 
power,  and  whose  genius  and  character  subsequently 
exercised  a  strong  influence  upou  the  affairs  of  Athens. 

Alcibiades. 

Alcibiatdes  was  the  son  of  Clinias,  an  Athenian  of 
high  rank.  Endowed  with  uncommon  beauty  of  person, 
and  talents  of  the  very  highest  order,  ho  was,  unfortu- 
nately, deficient  in  that  unbending  integrity,  which  is 
an  cssentixd  element  of  every  character  truly  great,  and 
his  violent  passions  sometimes  impelled  him  to  act  in  a 
manner  which  has  brought  disgrace  on  his  memor}'. 
While  still  very  young,  Alcibiades  served  in  the  Athe- 
nian army,  and  became  the  companion  and  pupil  of 
Socrates,  one  of  the  wisest  and  most  virtuous  of  the 
Grecian  sages.  Having  rendered  some  6er\'ice  to  his 
countr}'  in  a  protracted  and  useless  war  with  Lace- 
daemon,  and  being  possessed  of  a  talent  for  addressing 
the  passions  of  the  multitude,  Alcibiades,  as  others  had 
done  before  him,  became  the  undisputed  head  of  public 
affairs  in  Athens.  But  this  pre-eminence  was  not  of 
long  continuance.  An  opinion  arose  among  the  people 
that  he  designed  to  subvert  the  constitution,  and  his 
fall  was  OS  quick  as  his  promotion.  Many  of  his  friends 
were  put  to  death,  and  he,  while  absent  on  an  expedi- 
tion, deprived  of  his  authority.  Being  thus  left  without 
a  public  director  of  affairs,  Athens,  as  usual,  was  torn 
by  internal  discords ;  tho  aristocratic  faction  succeeded 
in  overthrowing  the  democratical  government  (411b.  c), 
and  establishing  a  council  of  400  individuals  to  admini- 
ster the  affairs  of  the  state,  with  the  power  of  convoking 
an  assembly  of  5000  of  the  principal  citizens  for  advice 
and  assistance  in  any  emergency.  These  400  t^Tants, 
as  they  were  popularly  called,  were  no  sooner  invested 
with  authority,  than  they  annihilated  every  remaining 
portion  of  the  free  institutions  of  Athens.  Tiiey  behaved 
with  the  greatest  insolence  and  severity  towards  the 
people,  and  endeavoured  to  confirm  and  perpetuate 
their  usurped  power,  by  raising  a  body  of  mercenary 
troops  in  the  islands  of  the  iEgoan,  for  the  purpose  of 
overawing  and  enslaving  their  fellow-citizens,  Tho 
Athenian  army  was  at  this  period  in  the  island  of  Samos, 
whither  it  had  retired  after  an  ex])('ditiun  against  the 
revolted  cities  of  Asia  Minor.  AVhen  intelligence  ar- 
rived of  the  revolution  in  Athens,  and  the  t^Taunical 
proceedings  of  the  oligarchical  faction,  the  soldiers 
indignantly  refused  to  obey  the  new  government,  and 
sent  an  invitation  to  Alcibiades  to  return  among  them, 
and  assist  in  re-establisliing  the  deniocnitical  constitu- 
tion. He  obeyed  the  call ;  and  as  soon  as  he  arrived 
in  Samos,  the  troops  elected  him  their  general.  Ho 
then  sent  a  message  to  Athens,  commanding  the  400 
t>Tants  to  divest  themselves  immediately  of  their  un- 
constitutional authority,  if  they  wished  to  avoid  deposi- 
tion and  death  at  his  hands. 

This  message  reached  Athens  at  a  time  of  the  greatest 
confusion  and  alarm.  The  400  t^-rants  had  quarrelled 
among  themselves,  and  were  about  to  appeal  to  the 
sword ;  the  island  of  Euba>a,  from  which  Athens  had 
for  some  time  been  princi(>ally  supplied  with  provisions, 
had  revolted,  and  the  ||eet  which  had  been  sent  to  re- 
duce it  had  been  destroyed  by  the  Laceda:nioniuns,  so 
that  the  coasts  of  Attica,  and  the  port  of  Athens  itself, 
wero  now  without  defence.  In  these  distressing  cir- 
cumstances, the  people,  roused  to  desperation,  rose 
upon  their  oppressors,  overturned  the  government  of 
the  400,  after  an  existence  of  tmly  a  few  months,  and 
re-established  their  ancient  institutions.  Alcibiades 
was  now  recalled  ;  but  before  revisiting  Athene,  he 
was  desirous  of  performing  some  brilliant  military  ex- 
ploit, which  might  obliterate  the  recollection  of  his  late 
connection  with  tho  Spartans,  and  give  his  return  an 
air  of  triumph.  He  accordingly  joined  the  Athenian 
fleet,  then  stationed  at  the  entrance  of  the  HeIle<ipoiit, 
and  soon  obtained  several  imi>ortant  victories  over  the 
Laccdiemonians,  both  by  sea  and  land.  He  then  re- 
turned to  Athens,  where  he  was  received  with  trans- 
ports of  joy.    Chuplets  of  flowers  were  bhowcrcd  upoa 


CHAMBERS'S  INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


& 


Ilia  head,  and  oniiditUie  moctentlianuticKccluiuttioTifi 
he  procMded  to  the  place  of  &Bsembly,  where  he  id- 
diHMd  the  people  in  a  apeeeb  of  such  eloquence  U><1 
power,  that,at  iUconcliibiun,  a  crown  of  cold  wa>  p1aet:<i 
upon  hi*  bmwB,  aod  he  was  inreated  with  the  Buprcum 
canuDiinil  of  the  Alhcuian  forces,  both  naval  and  mili- 
Ury.  Hi»  forfeited  properly  woa  restored,  and  tho 
— '"'■  were  directed  to  revoke  the  curaee  which  haJ 
'rlj  been  pronounced  upon  him. 

luia  popularily  of  Alcibiadee  was  not  of  long  conli- 
Duanec.  Man}'  of  the  dependencire  of  Athens  b«iag  in 
n  Mate  of  inBurreclioo,  he  assumed  the  command  of  aii 
armament  inleuded  for  their  reduction.  But  oircutn. 
atances  arose  which  obliged  him  to  leave  the  Beet  !t,r 
a  ithort  timo  in  charge  of  one  of  his  officer*,  oami.'I 
Aiitiochuii,  who,  in  despite  of  express  orders  to  the  co;i . 
trary,  gave  battle  to  the  Laeedtemoniaos  during  il^u 
absence  of  the  commander-in-chief,  and  was  defeati.il. 
When  intelligence  of  this  action  reached  Athens,  u 
violent  clamour  was  raised  against  Alcibiades;  ho  w:ia 
accused  of  having  neglected  lus  duty,  and  received  a 
second  dismissal  froin  all  bis  offices.  On  hearing  of 
this,  he  quilted  the  fleet,  and,  retiring  to  a  fortress  Jii' 
had  built  in  the  Cbersunesua  of  Tbnce,  ho  collected 
around  him  a  band  of  military  adventurers,  with  whor-i^ 
aMIStance  he  carried  on  a  predatory  warfare  again^it 
the  neighbouring  Thracian  tribes. 

Alcibiades  did  not  long  survive  bis  second  disnvci: 
with  his  countrj-men.  Finding  his  Thracian  reeidenci. 
insecure,  on  account  of  the  increasing  power  of  Iih 
Lacedinmoman  enemies,  be  croased  the  Hellespont  ami 
•etUed  in  Bithynia,  a  country  on  the  Asiatic  side  of  tlir. 
Proponlii.  Being  there  attacked  and  plundered  by  tliL- 
Tbraeians,  he  proceeded  into  Phrygia,  and  placed  liitii- 
■elf  under  the  protection  of  Fhamabaaus,  the  I'ersL.ii 
satrap  of  that  province.  But  even  thither  the  unfoz-. 
tunate  chief  was  followed  by  the  unrelenting  hatred  nf 

valely  and  foully  assassinated.  Thus  peiished,  aboiii 
the  fortieth  year  of  bis  age  (403  B.  c),  oneof  the  abk -t 
men  that  Greece  ever  produced.     Diatiuguished  alik^^ 

nature  noble  and  generous,  Alcibiadee  would  havebcvii 
truly  worthy  of  our  admiration  if  ho  had  possessed 
probity;  but  hia  want  of  priucipk',  and  liia  unrul) 
passions,  led  him  to  conniilt  niauy  f^evous  crruri, 
which  contributed  nut  a  little  to  produce  or  aggravati; 
those  calamities  which  latterly  overtook  him. 


With  Alcibiades  perished  the  Ian!  of  the  great  men 
who  possessed  the  power  to  sway  the  wild  demoeniiy, 
or,  properly  spealting,  the  mnb  of  Athens,  rromll'it 
period  of  bis  death  till  the  subjugation  of  the  counlrv, 
the  Albeiiiin  people  were  at  the  mercy  of  conleiidiilH 
factions,  and  without  a  single  settled  principle  of 
fiovemment.  During  this  brief  period  of  their  history, 
in  which  a  kind  of  popular  democracy  had  attained  til 
command  of  affairs,  happened  ttie  trial  and  condcniDi 
tionof  Socrates,  an  eminent  teacher  of  moralB,  and 
man  guiltless  of  every  oifcnce  but  that  of  diBgracinf 
by  his  illuBlrious  merit,  the  vices  and  follie*  of  hin  coii 
temporaries.  On  the  false  ehfcge  of  corrupting  tli_ 
morals  of  the  pupils  who  listened  to  bis  admirable  expo- 
sitions, and  of  denying  the  religion  of  his  country,  he. 
was,  to  the  eternal  disgrace  of  the  Athenians,  compelled 
tfl  die  by  drinking  poison,  a  fate  which  he  submitted 
with  a  magnanimity  which  has  renrtere<l  bis  name  I 
ever  celebrated.    This  odious  Irausaction  occurred 


the  y< 


rJOOiL 


rcBect  on  il 

any  settled  form  of  g. 
aecomplisbed  by  tbi 


ith  ottbii  greti  man,  the  political  indc- 
licnii  lire*  lo  i(a  termination — a  cireuiii- 
mnut  c.ieitu  the  least  surprine,  when  "c 
nrbulenemifiiB  citiiens,  their  perseco- 
ud  talent,  and  their  unhappy  distrust  of 

'"' mment.    Their  ruin  wasfinally 

uncontrollable  thirst  for  wii', 
Dtions  of  pity  or  regret  in  liie 


reader  of  their  distracted  history.  The  Lacedmaot 
under  the  command  of  an  able  officer  named  Lyaa 
attaoked  aud  totally  destroyed  the  Athenian  fleet. 
this  means  having  obtained  the  undisputed  conn 
of  the  sea,  Lysonder  easily  reduced  these  citii 
the  coasts  of  Thrace  and  Asia  Minor,  aud  those  is 
of  the  jGgean,  which  still  acknowledged  tbe  s 
macy  of  Athens.  Having  thui  stripped  that 
lordly  state  of  all  its  dependencnes,  he  proceed' 
blockade  the  city  of  Athena  itaelf.  The  Athe 
niado  a  heroic  defence ;  but  after  a  lengthened 
during  wbtcb  they  suffered  nil  the  horrors  of  fa 
they  were  obliged  to  surrender  on  such  conditio 
their  enemies  thought  fit  to  impoea  (404  D.  C) 
Spartans  demanded  that  the  fortifiotions  of  Pi 
and  the  long  walla  which  cottnected  it  with  the 
should  be  demolished ;  that  the  Athenians  shoul 
linquish  all  pretcnsionB  to  authority  over  their  fo 
tributaries,  recall  the  exiled  partisans  of  the  400  ty; 
acknowledge  the  supremacy  of  Sparta,  and  folic 
commanders  in  time  of  war;  and,  finally,  that 
should  adopt  such  a  political  constitution  as  should 
the  approbation  of  the  Lacedemonians.  Thus  sat 
power  of  Atliens,  which  had  so  long  been  the  te 
sUtc  of  Greece,  and  thus  terminated  the  PeloponE 
war,  in  which  the  Grecian  communities  had  be 
long  engaged,  to  tittle  other  purpose  than  lo  wast 
strength  and  exhaust  the  resources  of  their  cod 
country. 

During  the  nge  preceding  its  fall,  Athens,  M  al 
mentioned,  had  been  greatly  beautified  and  enlarg 
Pericles.  At  the  same  time,  the  comparative  ai 
city  of  manners  which  formerly  prevailed,  wiu 
changed  fur  luxurious  habits.  Tbia  alteraiioi 
been  described  by  an  able  historian.*  "  In  the  c 
of  a  few  yean,  the  success  of  Aristides,  CimiHi 
Pericles,  bad  tripled  the  revenues,  and  inrrminnil 
far  gn^ater  proportion  the  dominions  of  the  rep 
The  Alhcniau  galleys  eommauded  the  eoBtcm  coa 
the  Mediterranean  ;  llieir  merchantmen  bad  engr 
the  tratlic  of  the  adjacent  countries  ;  the  magazii 
Alliens  abounded  with  wood,  metal,  ebony,  ivor}' 
ail  Ibu  materials  of  the  useful  as  well  as  of  tlw  ■ 
able  arts;  they  imported  the  luxuries  of  Italy,  ^ 
Cyprus,  Lydui,  Pontus,  and  I'eloponncsus  ;  exper 
luid  iuiproved  their  skill  uf  working  the  silver  mil 
mount  Laurium  ;  tbry  had  lately  opened  tlie  val 
marble  veinsiii  mount  Pcnl^cus;  the  honey  of  H; 
tun  became  important  in  domestic  use  and  foreign  tr 
the  culture  of  their  olives  (oil  being  long  their  f 
commodity,  and  the  only  production  of  Attica  < 
Siilon  nllowed  them  to  export)  must  liavc  impi 
with  tbe  general  impriivcmcnt  of  the  coualiy  ii 
nnd  agriculture,  expecially  under  the  active  admin 
tion  of  Pericles,  wlio  liberally  let  loose  the  public 
sure  to  encourapi  every  species  of  industry. 

But  if  that  minisU'r  promoted  the  love  of  actio: 
found  it  necessary  al  least  to  comply  with,  if  not  t 
ci It',  (lie  extreme  passion  fur  pleasure,  which  then  I 
tu  distinguish  his  countrymeu.  The  people  of  At 
successful  in  every  enterprise  against  their  forei| 
well  as  domestic  enemies,  seemed  entitled  to  m 
fruits  of  their  dangers  and  victories.  For  the  spj 
at  least  twelve  years  preci'ding  tbe  war  of  Peloponn 
tbeir  city  afforded  a  perpetual  scene  of  triumph 
festivity.  Dramatic  entertainments,  to  which  they 
passionately  addicted,  were  no  longer  performed  ini 
unadumcd  edifices,  but  in  stono  or  marble  ths 


great  o 


1  cmlwllished   with 


precious  produetiona  of  nature  and  of  art. 
treasury  was  opened,  not  only  lo  supply  the  decoi« 
of  this  favourite  amusement,  but  lo  enable  the  pc 
citizens  lo  enjoy  it,  without  incurring  any  privab 
pcnse  ;  and  thus,  at  llie  cost  c.t  the  slate,  or  rath 
its  tributary  allies  and  colonies,  to  feast  and  de 
their  cars  and  fancy  with  the  combined  charms  of  a 
•  lllMDryorAndrnlGneos.bf  J.GIUIn. 


ANCIENT  HISTORY  OF  GREECE. 


pottiy.  Tbe  ylwwure  of  the  eje  was  peealiArl j 
ciwaliiHl  and  gratified  in  the  architectore  of  tlieatree 
wad  elhcr  omaiiieiital  buUdion ;  for  as  Themistocles 

Perielea  adorned,  his  native  city; 
the  eoneorriiig  teBtimony  of  antiquity  was 
in  the  Parthenon,  or  Temple  of  Minerva, 
easting  remains  worthy  to  be  immortal,  it 
wvHid  be  diffienh  to  believe  that  in  the  space  of  a  few 
j«Bi«  thtrs  eoaid  haTs  been  created  tlioee  numerous 
yaft  iocatimablv  wonders  of  art,  those  temples,  theatres, 
ttrtaes^  altan^  bath%  pgmmasia,  and  porticoes,  which, 
ii  the  fauguage  of  ancient  panegyric,  rendered  Athens 
the  •!•  and  li^t  of  Greece. 

Pcrielcs  was  blamed  for  thus  decking  one  favourite 
ttljy  like  ft  vain  voluptuous  harlot,  at  the  expense  of 
■hadefed  provinces ;  bat  it  would  have  been  fortunate 
■r  the  Athenians  if  their  extorted  wealth  had  not  been 
in  more  perishing,  as  well  as  more  criminal, 
The  pomp  of  religious  solemnities,  which  were 
■s  muneroiis  and  costly  in  Athens  as  in  any  other 
ay  of  Gieeee ;  the  extravagance  of  entertainments  and 
which  on  such  occasions  always  followed  the 
;  the  increase  of  private  luxury,  which  natu- 
ipenied  this  public  profusion— exhausted  the 
J  without  augmenting  tbe  glory,  of  the  republic. 
oif  the  bread,  herbs,  and  simple  faro  recom- 
Ij  the  laws  of  Solon,  the  Athenians,  soon  after 
c^tieth  Olympiad,  availed  themselves  of  Uieir 
commerce  to  import  the  delicacies  of  distant 
J  which  were  prepared  with  all  the  refinements 
•f  cookery.  The  wines  of  Cyprus  were  cooled  with 
Mw  m  summer ;  in  winter,  the  most  delightful  flowers 
tianmi  the  tables  and  persons  of  the  wealthy  Athenians. 
Bar  wae  H  anfficient  to  be  crowned  with  roses,  unless 


VhhAi 


likewise  anointed  with  the  most  precious 
Paxmsites,  dancers,  and  buffoons,  were  a 
of  every  entertainment.  Amon?  the 
the  passion  for  delicate  birds,  distinguished 
Toiee  or  plumage,  was  carried  to  such  excess 
~  the  name  of  madness.  The  bodies  of  such 
Mha  ae  wcie  not  peculiariy  addicted  to  hunting  and 
■■■^  vhidi  began  to  be  a  prevailing  taste,  were  cor- 
Mtad  bj  a  lewd  style  of  living ;  while  their  minds  were 
M  Bore  ponoted  by  the  licentious  philosophy  of  the 
__  It  is  unnecessary  to  crowd  the  picture,  since 
he  ofaeerved,  in  one  word,  that  the  vices  and 
\  which  are  supposed  to  characterise  the 
_  I  of  Greece  and  Home,  took  root  in  Athens 
idminlstration  of  Pericles,  the  most  splendid 
proqwroos  in  tlfc  Grecian  annals.** 
thia  period  flourished  iEschylus  and  Sopho- 
and  Aristophanes,  dramatists ;  Pindar, 
a^ljihal  poet ;  Herodotus  and  Thucydidcs,  historians ; 
■ei^  Heraelitus.  Empedocles,  Anaxagoras,  and 
philoeophers  (reasoners  upon  the  nature  of 

m  mfaid,  and  upon  man's  immortal  destinv). 

blUi  pcciody  also,  under  the  administration  of  Pericles 
"       458  to  429  B.  c),  sculpture  and  architecture  at- 

'  >n.  It  was  then  that  Phidias  executed 

worksy  statues  of  the  gods  and  goddesses, 

the  admixmtion  of  the  world,  and  which 

artistB  have  in  Tain  endeavoux«d  to  rival. 

„  had  extended  its  power  over  a  great  part 

of  the  JEgean  Sea,  and  increased  its  trade 

by  every  available  means,  it  had  also 

a  eitj  of  paUces  and  temples,  whose  ruins  con- 

I  he  the  admiration  of  ages  for  their  grandeur 

It  is  understood  that  the  Greeks  had 

their  knowledge  of  architecture   from  the 

but  they  greatly  excelled  them  in  the  elc- 

ef  their  designs,  and  are  in  a  great  measure 

to  the  ehar^^ter  of  inventors  in  the  art.   The 

dF  the  Corinthian  pilUr,  for  example,  has  never 

either  in  ancient  or  modem  timed.    [See 

tbe  amrrender  of  Athens  to  the  Spartans  (404 

Lt^lbe  deiocistical  constitution  was  abolished,  and 

was  entrusted  to  thirty  persons,  whose 

B,  Mid  bloody  administration,  ere 

la's 


long  procured  them  the  title  of  the  Thirty  Tyrants. 
The  ascendancy  of  these  intruders  vnm  not,  however, 
of  long  duration.  Conon,  assisted  privately  by  the  Per* 
sians,  who  were  desirous  of  humiliating  the  Spartans, 
expelled  the  enemy,  and  re-establish^  the  indepen- 
dence of  his  country.  Seventy  years  later,  a  new  source 
of  agitation  throughout  Greece  was  caused  by  the  war- 
like projects  of  Alexander,  king  of  Macedon,  usually 
styled 

Alexander  the  Great. 

This  intrepid  and  ambitious  soldier  was  the  son  of 
Philip,  king  of  Macedon,  a  small  territory  adjacent  to 
the  Grecian  states,  from  which  it  had  originally  received 
a  knowledge  of  arts  and  learning.  Alexander  was  bom 
in  the  year  356  b.  c,  and  by  his  father  was  committed 
to  the  charge  of  the  philosopher  Aristotle  to  be  edu- 
cated, a  duty  which  was  faithfully  fulfilled.     By  the 
assassination  of  Philip,  Alexander  ^ns  called  to  the 
throne  of  Macedon  while  yet  only  twenty  vears  of  age, 
and  immediately  had  an  opportunity  of  displaying  his 
great  warlike  abilities  in  conducting  an  expedition  into 
Greece,  wliich  was  attended  with  signal  success,  and 
procured  for  him  the  honour  of  succeeding  his  father 
as  commander-in-chief  of  the  Grecian  states.     He  now 
carried  out  a  design  which  had  been  formed  by  Philip, 
to  subdue  Persia  and  other  countries  in  Asia.     In  the 
spring  of  334  d.  c,  he  crossed  over  to  the  Asiatic  coast, 
with  an  army  of  30,000  foot  and  5000  horse,  thus  com- 
mencing the  most  important  military  enterprise  which 
is  narrated  in  tlie  pages  of  ancient  history.    Alexander 
marched  through  Asia  Minor,  and  in  successive  en- 
counters completely  conquered  the  armies  of  Persia  ; 
but  the  whole  history  of  his  progress  is  but  an  ac- 
count of  splendid  victories.    During  a  space  of  about 
seven  or  eight  years,  he  conquered  Persia,  Assyria, 
Esypt,  Babylonia,  and,  in  fact,  became  master  of  nearly 
all  the  half  civilised  countries  in  Asia  and  Africa.     It 
does  not  appear  that  Alexander  had  any  motive  for 
this  wide-spread  overthrow  of  ancient  and  remote 
sovereignties,  excepting  that  of  simple  ambition,  or 
desire  of  conquest,  with,  perhaps,  the  indefinite  idea  of 
improving  the  social  condition  of  the  countries  whidi 
he  overran.  From  various  circumstances  in  his  career, 
it  is  apparent  that  he  never  contemplated  the  acquisi- 
tion of  wealth  or  of  praise,  except  such  as  could  be 
shared  with  his  soldiers,  for  whom  he  displayed  a  most 
paternal  affection.  His  character  in  this  respect  shines 
forth  in  a  remarkable  speech  which  he  delivered  to  his 
army  after  these  great  conquests,  and  when  some 
mutinous  murmurs  had   broken  forth  in  his  camp. 
Mounting  the  tribunal,  he  spoke  as  follows: — ^'Mt  is 
not  my  wish,  Macedonians,  to  change  your  resolution. 
Return  home,  without  hindrance  from  me.  But,  before 
leaving  the  camp,  first  learn  to  know  your  king  and 
yourselves.     My  father  Philip  (for  with 'him  it  is  ever 
fit  to  begin)  found  you,  at  his  arrival  in   Macedon, 
miserable  and  hopeless  fugitives;  covered  with  skins 
of  sheep  ;  feeding  among  the  mountains  some  wretched 
herds  which  you  had  neither  strength  nor  courage  to 
defend  against  the  Thracians,  Illyrians,  and  Triballi. 
Having  repelled  the  ravagers  of  your  country,  he 
brought  you  from  the  mountains  to  the  plain,  and 
taught  you  to  confide,  not  in  your  fastnesses,  but  in  your 
valour.     By  his  wisdom  and  discipline,  he  trained  you 
to  arts  and  civility,  enriched  you  with  mines  of  gold, 
instructed  you  in  navigation  and  commerce,  and  ren- 
dered you  a  terror  to  those  nations  at  whose  names 
you  used  to  tremble.     Need  I  mention  his  conquests 
in  Upper  Thrace,  or  those,  still  more  valuable,  in  the 
maritime  provinces  of  tliat  country  {    Having  opened 
the  gates  of  Greece,  he  chastiscnl  the  Phocians,  reduced 
the  Thessalians,  and,  while  I  shared  the  command,  de- 
feated and  humbled  the  Athenians  and  Thebans,  eternal 
foes  to  Macedon,  to  whom  you  had  been  successively 
tributaries,  subjects,  and  slaves.     But  my  father  ren- 
dered you  their  masters  ;  and  having  entered  the 
Peloponnesus,  and  regulated  at  discretion  the  affairs  of 
that  peninsula,  he  was  appointed,  by  r.nivci>;il  consent. 


CnMIBERS'S  INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


Ceral  of  combined  Greece ;  an  appointment  not  more 
lourable  to  himself  tlian  glorious  for  liis  countr}'. 
At  my  accession  to  the  throne,  I  found  a  debt  of  five 
hundred  talents,  and  scarcely  sixty  in  the  treasury.  I 
contracted  a  fresh  debt  of  eight  hundred ;  and  con- 
ducting you  from  Macedon,  whose  boundaries  seemed 
unwoithy  to  confine  you,  safely  crossed  the  Hellespont, 
though  the  Persians  then  commanded  the  sea.  By  one 
victory,  we  gained  Ionia,  ^olia,  both  Phr}'gia8,  and 
Lydio.  By  our  courage  and  activity,  the  provinces  of 
Cilicia  and  Syria,  the  strength  of  Palestine,  the  anti- 
quity of  Egypt,  and  the  renown  of  Persia,  were  added 
to  your  empire.  Yours,  now,  arc  Bactria  and  Aria,  tho 
productions  of  India,  the  fertility  of  Assyria,  the  wealth 
of  Susa,  and  the  wonders  of  Babylon.  You  are  gene- 
rals, princes,  satraps.  What  have  I  reserved  for  m^-self 
but  this  purple  and  diadem,  which  mark  my  pre- 
eminence in  toil  and  danger  1  Where  are  my  private 
treasures  i  Or  why  should  I  collect  them  t  Are  my 
pleasures  expensive  I  You  know  that  I  faro  worse  than 
any  of  yourselves;  and  have  in  nothing  spared  my 
person.  Let  him,  who  dares,  compare  with  me.  Let 
him  bare  his  breast,  and  I  will  bare  mine.  My  body, 
the  fore  part  of  my  body,  is  covered  with  honourable 
wounds  from  every  sort  of  weapon.  I  often  watch, 
that  you  may  repose  safely ;  and  to  testify  my  unremit- 
ting attention  to  your  happiness,  liad  determined  to 
send  liome  the  aged  and  infirm  among  you,  loaded  with 
wealth  and  honour.  But  since  you  arc  all  desirous  to 
leave  me,  go !  Report  to  your  countr}'men,  that,  un- 
mindful of  the  signal  bounty  of  your  king,  you  entrusted 
him  to  the  vanquished  barbarians.  The  report,  doubt- 
less, will  bespeak  your  gratitude  and  piety." 

This  impassioned  and  touching  oration  deeply  affected 
the  discontented  soldiers,  and  all  gladly  i*eturned  to 
their  allegiance.  Shortly  after  this,  the  extraordinary 
career  of  Alexander  was  suddenly  cut  short  by  death. 
At  Babylon,  while  engaged  in  extensive  plans  for  tho 
future,  he  became  sick,  and  died  in  a  few  days,  3*23  B.C. 
Such  was  the  end  of  this  conqueror,  iu  his  thirty-second 
vear,  after  a  reign  of  twelve  years  and  eight  months. 
\ie  left  behind  him  an  immense  empire,  which,  possess- 
ing no  consolidated  ]>ower,  and  only  loosely  united  by 
conquest,  became  the  scene  of  continual  wars.  Tho 
generals  of  the  Macedonian  army  rcspeetively  seized 
upon  different  portions  uf  the  empire,  each  trusting  iu 
his  sword  for  an  independent  establishment.  The  greedy 
struggle  for  power  finally  terminated  in  cuntinning 
Ptolemy  iu  the  possession  uf  Eg}'l>t ;  Scleucus  in  Upper 
Asia ;  Cassander  in  Macedon  and  Greece ;  while  seve- 
ral of  the  provinces  in  Lower  Asia  fell  to  the  share  of 
Lysimachus. 

CONCLUDING  PERIOD  OF  GEEEK  IIISTORV. 

At  the  death  of  Alexander,  tlie  Athenians  considered 
it  a  fit  opportunity  to  emancipate  themselves  from  tho 
ascendancy  of  Maccdun,  but  without  success.  Demos- 
thenes, one  of  tlie  most  eminent  i>atriuts  and  orators 
of  Athens,  on  tlus  occasion,  to  avoid  being  assassinated 
by  order  of  Antipater,  the  Macedonian  viceroy,  killed 
himself  by  swallowing  poison  ;  and  his  compatriot  Pho- 
cioii  was  shortly  afterwoi'ds  put  to  death  by  his  own 
eountr^'meii,  the  Athenians,  in  a  mad  outbreak  of  po- 
I>ular  fury.  Greece  cannot  be  said  to  have  produced 
one  great  man  after  Phocion ;  and  this  deficiency  of 
wise  and  able  leaders  was  doubtless  one  chief  cause  of 
the  insignificance  into  which  the  various  states,  great 
und  bmuli,  sank  after  this  epoch. 

The  ancient  history  of  Greece,  as  an  independent 
country,  now  draws  to  a  close.  Achaia,  hitherto  a 
bniall  unimportant  state,  having  begun  to  make  some 
pi'eten>ious  to  political  cjusequence,  excited  the  enmity 
v(  Sparta,  and  was  conqKrlled  to  seek  the  protection  of 
I'hilip,  the  ruling  prince  of  MuomIou.  Philip  took  the 
field  against  the  >partaiiM,  and  their  allies  the  ^Ktolians, 
and  was  in  a  fair  way  of  suhjecting  all  Greece  by  arms 
and  intluence,  wh^n  he  ventured  on  tho  fatal  step  of 
C'lmmencini;  hohtililios  aj^aiust  the  Honians.  This 
xueasuro  coiuuuiiuateJ  tin-  ruin  of  Greeco,  as  well  as 

lut; 


that  of  Macedon.  The  Romans  warred  with 
till  tho  end  of  his  life  (175  D.C.),  and  continu 
contest  with  his  son  Perseus,  whom  tliey  uttc 
feated,  and  witli  whom  ended  the  lino  of  the  k 
Macedon.  In  a  few  years,  the  once  illustrious  a 
republics  of  Greece  were  converted  into  a  Rom 
▼ince  under  the  name  of  Achaia  fUG  b.  c.) 

Thus  terminates  the  fourth  and  last  penod  of 
history,  during  which  there  flourished  several  c 
writers  and  philosophers,  among  whom  may  b 
bered  Theocritus,  a  pastoral  poet ;  Xenophon,  Pi 
Diodorus  Siculus,  Dionysius  Halicarnassus,  PI 
and  Herodian,  historians ;  Demosthenes,  an  • 
and  Plato,  Aristotle,  Zeno,  and  Epicurus,  pliilos< 
also  Zcuxis,  Timanthes,  Pamphilus,  Nicias,  j 
and  Eupompus,  painters ;  and  Praxiteles,  Pol; 
Camachus,  Naucides,  and  Lysippus,  sculptors. 

In  the  condition  of  a  humble  dependency  of 
and  therefore  following  the  fate  of  that  empire, 
remained  for  upwards  of  four  succeeding  cec 
but  although  of  little  political  importance,  it  i 
tained  its  pre-eminence  in  learning.  Enslaved 
land  was,  it  continued  to  be  the  great  school  of  tl 
As  Greece  had  formerly  sent  its  knowledge  a 
over  the  cast  by  the  arms  of  one  of  her  own  kir 
now  difi'used  them  over  the  western  world  un> 
protection  of  Home.  Athens,  which  was  the  em 
of  Grecuin  learning  and  elegance,  became  the  r 
all  who  were  ambitious  of  excelling  either  in  ku« 
or  the  arts  ;  statesmen  went  thither  to  iinprov< 
selves  in  eloquence  ;  philosophers  to  learn  the 
of  the  sages  of  Greece  ;  and  artists  to  study  m< 
excellence  in  building,  statuary,  or  painting  ;  n^ 
Greece  were  also  found  in  all  parts  of  the  worh 
ing  an  honourable  subsistence  by  the  sui>erio] 
ledge  of  their  countr}'.  That  country,  in  the  me 
was  Icsi  disturbed  by  intestine  feuds  than  forme 
was  not  exempt  from  the  usual  fate  of  conquest 
subject  to  the  continual  extortions  of  govemi 
lieutenants,  who  made  the  conquered  provim 
means  of  repairing  fortunes  whicli  had  been  bn 
flattering  the  caprices  of  the  i>opulace  at  home. 

The  period  of  tho  independence  of  Greece, 
which  all  those  great  deeds  were  perfoimed  whi* 
attracted  the  attention  of  the  w  orld,  may  be  n 
from  the  era  of  the  first  Perbian  war  to  the  c< 
of  Macedon,  the  last  independent  Cireok  state, 
Romans.  This  period,  as  we  have  seen,  enibrao 
more  than  three  hundivd  years.  It  is  not,  th> 
from  tho  duration  of  the  independent  politica 
of  the  Grecian  states  that  their  celebrity  arises, 
the  patriotism  of  their  soldiers,  and  the  devoted  1 
of  Thennopyhe  and  Manithon,  have  been  ei 
elsewhere,  without  attracting  much  regard ; 
must  therefore  conclude  that  it  n«  chiefly  from  tl 
riority  of  its  poeLs,  philosophers,  historians,  and 
that  the  importance  of  the  country,  in  the  eyes  of : 
men,  arises.  The  political  squabbles  of  Uie  At 
are  forgotten ;  but  the  moral  and  intellectual  re» 
of  their  philosophers,  aud  tlie  elegant  remains  i 
artists,  possess  an  undying  fame. 

We  now  turn  to  the  history  of  the  Romans,  b; 
the  Grecian  states  were  finally  overpowered. 


0^0*m0>0>0im0i^^m^ir>^im 


HISTORY  OF  ROME. 

iioNARciiY  A.M)  ni:rLi;uc. 

Awjrr  the  time  when  Lycurgus  was  settling 
stitutions  of  Sparta,  Italy  was  possessed  by  a 
tribes,  some  of  which,  from  the  traces  of  their  la 
and  arts  which  have  been  preserved,  ap{>ear  1 
been  of  east«'m  origin,  being  pnihahly  colonic 
Greece  and  Asia  Minor.  The  Ktruriauj*,  who  u 
modern  Tuscany,  wen^  the  most  refined  of  thcs* 
In  tho  country  of  the  L.itins,  more  to  the  south 
niidilie  of  the  eighth  century  before  Chriht,  j 
M'tllenient  was  fonncd  on  a  hill  near  the  Tiber, 
I  the  conduct,  ii  in  buid,  of  a  youthful  leader  iiau' 


ANCIENT  HISTORY  OF  UOME. 


A  Udb  diawn  bj  die  ploogh,  lAar  the  bshkiti 
<  EtmriuM^  btocM  Ihe  boundary  of  tbe  town, 
■t  Knt  ma  eonipaaed  of  odIv  a  feir  bata,  occd- 
1  >hl  [dwil  ill,  fracbootera,  and  othor  mde  people. 
Ho^idD^  tin  naoie  of  Roma  was  eonfemd  on 
«  ei».  H*  bMame  tbe  king  of  the  tittle  aute, 
I  mA  wtiHiahirl  ceitain  lavi  and  regulation! 
I  piH*«l  adrmatige.  Tbe  lauda,  wbich  extended 
I  i»ih«  araand  tba  d^,  wcm  divided  into  threo 
i^  OQB  for  tbs  nppoTt  «f  goTarninent,  another 
-  — ' a  of  iriigioD,  and  a  third  for  the 


fJaiilwialnl  on  by  the  plebM,  or  bulk  of  the  people, 
tmm^  the  medium  of  repremitativei,  as  in  modem 
,  Wt  br  s  general  aiBemblj  held  in  the  open  air. 
^■aincTeaie  tbe  nnmben  of  the  people,  all  kindii 
lAetoiv,  who  eonld  get  no  settled  footing  else- 
\  woe  inTiled  to  the  new  city :  it  vu  then  found 
M  Male  aex  frepondcrated,  and  the  deRciene/ 
qflM  by  a  itratagem,  of  a  nature  vhich  mnrka 
J  nde  BUte  of  aociety.  The  Sabines,  a  neigh- 
f  people,  vara  ioTited  to  vilnns  the  games  at 

;  and  whOe  these  irere  proceeding,  the  joong 
idhaiida  each  on  one  of  the  young  Sabine  women, 

A«  carried  off,  and  compelled  to  become  their 
ue  Sabinea  were  enraged  at  this  act ;  but  the 
1  llmiiailii  1.  w-ben  teconciled  to  their  new  ulua- 
BtarpoHed  to  prevent  hloodahed,  and  ultimately 
iiMailiiiii  had  tbe  effect  of  uniting  tbe  Sabines 
he  Romaju,  and  thua  inereaaing  the  ponen  of 
bat  ^ate.  Saeh  is  the  history  uiually  given  of 
^  of  Rome.  A  late  German  writer  baa  shown 
1  tar  t«(aniing  it  oi  in  a  great  measure  fnbuluus. 
■■idoa  Romulaa  as  a  being  little  better  than 
MIT,  and  die  laws  and  regulations  beafing  his 


■•TUig  Bpning  np 


in  the  course  of  ti 


rlani  after  tba  period  when  Itomulos  is  repre- 
I  aa  faaTiDg  Uved. 

I  Rntiran  people,  from  the  earliest  period  of  their 
J,  boiw  ■  marked  resemblance  in  religion,  man- 
nd  general  pursuits,  to  the  Greeks,  fiotn  whom 
hriosa  that  tbey  drew  their  origin.  They  believed 
t  mtam  imaginary  deities,  such  as  Jupiter,  Nep- 
nam,  Man,  Venus,  Sec,  beudes  a  great  number 
V  io  tba  eourae  of  time,  tbey  added  to  thia  mon- 
a  at  mythology.  Like  the  Greeks,  also, 
they  drened  themselves  in  a 
■impla  manner,  with  a  loose 
mantle,  or  toga,  over  a  kind  of 
kilt,  which  left  the  legs  exposed. 
At  tbe  outset,  their  dependence 
was  almost  entirely  on  apicul- 
ture; but  for  the  cutiivaiion  of 
^the  peaceful  arte  generslly,  Ihoy 


War  and  plund 
fcvonritc  pursuits,  in  which  ll; 
fsr  exceeded  Iho  Greeks,  a 
almost  all  othernationa  of  ancii 


nes  known  as  the  Latin,  a  term 
trived  from  Latium,  the  early 

'«f  Ae  eonntry  in  wliich  Kome  V 

■taf  tha  early  period  of  its  hial 


_',  the  Hon 

:hLcal,but  rostricicdbyasen 

mbly,  and  therefore  favourable  to  loi 


■^BBil.  From  Romulus  is  reckoned 
iV^  tba  ableet  of  whom,  Serviua  TuUius,  placed 
a  at  Iba  btad  of  the  small  stales  forming  what  has 
.  «IM  the  Latin  eonlederacy,  and  conaiderabty 
■Md  tW  Bmmdpal  inititntioDB  of  the  kingdom. 
htf  i<  tlw  aarcnldng*  of  Rome  was  Tarqumius, 
■■itha  mod.  Hi*  aon  Sestus  baviug  conuuitted 
107 


an  atroeunu  act  of  violence  on  Lncretia,  the  wife  of 
Collatinns,  ^e,  uuatile  to  survive  the  diahimour,  killed 
herself.  By  thia  tranaaetion,  the  disgust  of  the  peoplo 
with  their  royal  family,  and  with  monarchy  in  general, 
was  brought  to  a  hukd  ;  and  under  a  noble  Uoman 
named  Brutus,  they  rose  and  expelled  Tarquinius,  with 
all  his  family.  Thus  ended  the  regal  power  in  Romo, 
in  tlie  year  before  Christ  S09. 


The  monarchy  was  succeeded  by  a  rapnblie,  in  which 
the  chief  legislative  authority  rested  with  the  senate^ 
and  tbe  liberties  of  the  people  were  very  little  unproved. 
The  executive  was  committed  to  two  magistrates  of 
e^uai  anihority,  named  eoiuuli,  who  were  chosen  an- 
naally.  Brutus,  who  had  diHlinguished  himself  in 
e:<peUing  the  rtyai  family,  was  chosen  one  of  the  two 
first  consuls.  During  the  time  be  held  office,  hia  two 
sons  joined  in  a  conspiracy  to  restore  Turtjuin,  and 
Bnitus,  with  a  disregard  ti  his  own  affections,  which 
was  considered  a  great  virtue  in  Greece  and  Rome 
when  the  public  inlBresC  n-as  coDcemed,  condemned 
them  both  to  be  beheaded  in  his  presence. 

The  early  years  of  the  republic  were  marked  by 
great  stru^es  between  the  patrician,  or  noble  order, 
and  the  common  people.  The  vigour  and  perseverance 
with  which  the  Utter  sought  to  emancipau  themselves 
from  the  authority  of  the  former,  compose  a  striking 
picture  in  ancient  history,  and  convey  the  impression 
that  there  were  here  elements  of  character  superior  to 
what  existed  at  the  time  in  any  olher  nation  besides 
the  Greeks.  It  would  be  wearisome,  however,  to  detail 
the  various  contentions.  From  the  beginning,  the  ple- 
beians showed  a  tendency  to  acrjuira  the  mastery.  By 
**the  Valerian  law,"  they  acquired  the  right  of  giving  a 
final  judgment  on  any  person  condemned  by  a  magis- 
trate. Their  importance  in  composing  armies  also 
bellied  to  give  them  influence.  By  seizing  an  oppor- 
tunity when  the  patricians  were  in  difficulties  from 
foreign  aggression  (492  b-c).  they  obtained  the  ri(ht  of 
appointing  tribunet  (at  flrst  five  in  number,  afterwards 
ten],  who  had  the  power  of  suspending  the  decrees  of 
tho  senate  and  the  sentences  of  the  consul,  and  had  a 
general  charge  over  tho  interests  of  ilio  common  people. 
The  power  enjoyed  by  the  plebeians  nt  this  time  is 
marked  by  their  causing  the  celebrated  CorioUnus  to 

bemg  insufficient  to  atone  for  his  openly  espousing  the 
eaaaeof  thepalrieians,  and  expressing  contempt  for  the 
people.  By  the  "  law  of  Volero,"  which  gave  the  people 
the  right  of  assembling  in  comilia,  and  there  discuHsing 


□ivalcn 


imbling  without  tl 


it — the  government  of  Romi 
tialTy  democratic.  (471  n.c} 

As  yet  the  Komana  bad  had  no  written  law.  The 
kings,  and  after  them  the  consuls,  had  administered 
Justice  each  according  to  bis  own  sense.  In  tlie  year 
4ol  B.C.,  at  the  suggealion  of  a  tribuno  nnmod  Tcnul- 
lian,  ten  men  {decrmviri)  were  ii;ipointed  to  fr.ime  and 
digest  a  code  of  laws  for  the  explanation  and  securiiy 
of  the  rights  of  all  orders  of  the  st.Me.  The  result  una 
theformationofwhatharcbeen  called  the  7'in-/c«7'ui/<i 
qf  the  Roman  late,  to  learn  which  by  heart  was  a  port 
of  liberal  education  in  ancient  Rome, 

On  the  appointment  of  the  decemviri,  the  consuta 
were  diKonlinued.  Each  of  llie  ten  men  acted  aa 
supreme  magistrate  for  a  day,  (lie  nine  others  official- 
ing  0*  judges.  They  did  not,  however,  remain  long  in 
authority.  One  of  the  number,  named  Appius  Clau£uB, 
having  formed  a  base  design  against  a  moidan  named 
Virginia,  daughter  of  Vii^mius,  a  centurion,  and  affi- 
anced to  Iciliua,  caused  her  to  be  claimed  as  hia  slave, 
and,  aa  decemvir,  gave  judgment  iu  hia  own  favour. 
Wlien  Virginina  saw  his  dauihler  about  to  be  sacri- 
ficed to  a  profligate  monster,  he  seized  a  knife  from  a 
butcher's  stall  in  the  Forum,  ond  slabbed  her  to  Che 
heart.  Tho  people  rose  in  fury  agsiinst  Appius,  who 
escaped  fur  the  time,  but  at  length  ouly  aruided  punish- 


CHAMBEBS'S  INFORMATION^  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


ment  bj  eommittiiig  smcide.  Thii  erent  ciu»d  the 
abolicioa  of  the  deeemvirkte,  kftcr  it  bad  [uled  oaly  three 
yean.    The  conauls  and  tribunes  weie  then  reetored. 

The  violent  etruKglca  af  the  patricians  and  plclieiana 
did  not  prevent  Itanie  frain  gradually'  acquiriug  an 
aacendimej'  among  the  Italian  ataten.  The  armiea  of 
Rome,  unlike  all  ottlera  in  Uloae  early  timca,  were 
atoadiag  anniea:  the  coldian  had  regular  pay,  and 
nude  arms  a  profeeaioiL  Tbeir  compact  and  welt- 
oisaoised  force,  meeting  in  geuoral  auly  ijl-disciplined 
mUilia,  curied  every  thine  before  it.*  Veii,  a  atate 
which  had  ions  defled  and  rivalled  them,  fell  before 
tbeir  general  Ounilloa  (396  b.c.)  In  385  b.  c,  they 
finallv  reduced  the  Gauli,  a  poncrful  brtuieb  of  the  Cellic 
race  inhabiting  the  uonh  of  Italv.  Tliey  then  fought 
and  aubdued  the  Samnitea.  Uther  atntea  fell  beneath 
their  powerful  omia,  and  in  the  year  274  a.  C,  they  had 
acquired  the  complete  nuatery  of  all  Italy. 
yfm  with  CaRhmge. 
A  splendid  Tictory  which  they  had  gained  near  the 
close  of  tho  Italian  wars  OTer  Fyrrbua,  king  of  Epirus, 
who  had  come  to  aiit  the  Samnites,  led  the  Romans  to 
believe  that  they  might  extead  their  conquests  to  coun- 
tries beyond  Italy.  Sicily,  originally  a  (ireek  colony, 
woe  at  this  time  important  for  the  great  quantities  of 
grain  produced  in  it.  The  Carlbaginians,  an  enter- 
prising commercial  people,  occupying  a  tract  of  country 
in  the  north  of  Africa,  wen  anxious  to  obtain  posses- 
sion of  this  isbnd ;  but  the  Romans  wer«  inclined  to 
dispute  tlie  prixc.  They  fitted  out  a  fleet,  the  first  they 
ever  had,  and  sent  a  large  force  to  aid  the  Sicilians,  i 
who  were  friendly  to  theif,  in  expelling  the  Cartbagi- 
nians.  Agrigentum,  a  great  city  iu  Sicily,  Has  taken, 
after  a  long  siege,  by  the  joint  forces  of  Rome  audSyra- 
cnse;  and  tho  Roman  fiect  gained  a  complete  viclury 
over  that  of  Carthage  (260  B.  c.)  These  succcssee 
were  fulloned  by  the  reduction  of  Conica  and  Sardinia. 
The  Roman  fleet  then  uiled  agairnt  Carthage  itself: 
the  Carlhnginians  were  at  first  about  to  submit,  but, 
inspirited  by  a  timely  aid  from  Greece,  they  made  a 
strong  elTort  to  repel  the  Ronun  army,  in  which  they 
wero  snccessful,  at  the  same  time  taking  Rejjulus,  tlie 
Roman  commander,  a  prisoner.  Sonm  time  allKru-ardu, 
W'ben  repeated  defeats  in  Sicily  made  them  desirous  of 
peace,  they  allowed  Reguius  to  go  to  Rome  to  lulp  in 
negotiating  it,  under  a  liolcmii  promise  to  rotum  if  the 
treaty  itliauld  fail.  It  was  rejecti'd,  at  the  urgent  deairc 
of  Kegulus  himseir,  as  discreditable  to  Rome,  and  lie 
then  iti'libentely  returned  Iu  surrender  his  life  to  tlie 
cnrugcd  Carthaginians.  After  some  further  Buece»ies 
on  the  part  of  the  Romans,  IhuCartliaglniunii  submitted 
to  a  humiliating  peace  ('J4I  u.r.),  surrendering  Sicily, 
and  agreeing  tr>  pay  u  large  KUin  uf  money,  tiicity,  tx- 
crpiing  tile  kingdom  of  Syracuse,  now  bvcaiue  a  pro- 
*  A  Kwnaa  rnnnj,  ia  its  pnf ect  itste,  Indudsd  lafmilrr  and 
mnlr;.     Tlw  bnny-anunl  inriuilry.  which  wni  it.  prlncliBt 

"  "  iJelilj-.    Th< 


Twenty-tlircc  years  of  peace  re 
Cortbage,  and  enabled  her  to  n  ._      .  ._    . 

Rome.  Under  the  celebrated  Hannibal,  a  larga  an 
proceeded  through  Spain  and  Gaul,  cro«ed  ths  Al 
and  descended  on  the  plaios  of  Italy.  The  Romantt 
four  battles  io  succesaiou,  tlie  last  being  that  of  Can 
in  which  40,000  of  their  soldiers,  and  nearly  tlis  wb 
of  their  kmgbls(or  soldiers  of  the  patrician  ordar),  I 
said  to  hare  fallen.  If  Hannibal  liad  instantly  maNh 
to  Rome,  it  is  believed  that  he  would  have  gaintd  p 
session  of  it,  and  probably  given  a  itew  turn  M  I 
world's  bistory,  lie  deliberated,  and  the  Ramana  k 
time  to  concentrate  all  their  remaining  strength  api 
him.  Under  their  general,  Fabius,  they  panoal 
policy  wliioli  has  since  become  proverbial,  avoidi 
battle,  and  exhausting  the  enemy's  strength  by  M 
The  war  ended  ['>U'i  n.  c.)  by  their  gaining  SyrM* 
reducing  Spain,  nnd  taking  from  (.'arthage  berpriaOM 
her  fleet,  and  a  vast  sum  oF  money. 

A  third  war  with  (irthsge,  springing  expraslyh 
tho  ambition  of  the  Roman  people,  began  in  the  ja 
149  B.C.,  and  ended,  three  years  after,  iu  the  eompll 
destroction  of  that  city  and  people.  Carthage  wW 
tiioroughly  destroyed,  that  ita  very  site  is  now  mill 
of  uncertainty.  In  consequence  of  this  sneceas,  ahf 
part  of  northern  Africa  became  tributary  to  Ranic, 

Some  years  before,  [ho  Romans  had  carried  IIm 
arms  into  Greece  and  Asia  Minor.  Macedonia,  whi 
kings  had  not  long  before  conquered  Persia,  India,  ■ 
Egypt,  became  tributary  to  itome,  and  Lesser  ill 
became  one  of  her  provinces.  The  same  year  in  <M 
the  Romans  destroyed  Carthage,  saw  Greece  sufajsol 
to  them.  Thu!i,  iu  leas  than  a  centnry,  thev  had  M 
q  uered  the  greater  number  of  the  conn  tries  lying  SMB 
their  own  comiiaratively  small  state. 

luBDmctkoa  of  the  GnnhL 
Tliesc  Iriumplii  nerc  not  an  unmixed  good.  1 
people  wore  intoxicated  with  sueces.<.  Vase  wcm! 
arising  fn mi  sjioil,  but  uccumulaledehiufiyin  tbeb^ 
of  the  nubility,  led  to  great  lu.\ury,  and  fumisbsd 
means  of  corrupting  the  peoplo.  TIh<  overgrown  est* 
and  power  of  the  Renalora  prodaevd  great  discorti 
at  the  same  lime  that  it  made  tho  ciliicna  VBoaL 
this  time  (130  ILC.)  arose  Tiberius  and  Cains  Gnc^ 
two  noble  yrjuths,  whose  ical  to  reform  the  grow 
corroplionsof  the  state  precijiitatcd  litem  al  lengtb  I 
mcasiiresdeBtriii'tivocifallgovonimentandwicislord 
1'iberius,  the  eldfr  brother,  urgt'd  the  ivujile  to  asas 
by  force,  iho  revival  of  an  ancient  law,  limilinf  W 
pertjr  in  taml,  and  thus  abridging  the  estates  of  I 
palncians.  A  tumult  was  the  cunKe4{uence,  in  wli 
Tiberius  and  300  uF  bis  friends  wero  billed  in  ft 
t'omni.  Caiu^  Gracdiua  then  look  up  the  cause  qf  (1 
people,  and,  notwithstanding  every  op|>i»itioa,  ^ 
enabled  Io  abridge  tlie  iH>»or  uf  the  senate',  to  fTSM 
the  jwuplo  from  monopoliMs  in  com,  and  extead  ■ 
righls  of  Roman  citizenship.  Empluyios,  till*  M 
brother,  the  daiij^mus  engine  of  tmiiultuary  fonl^l 
iiui  ujjund  ■bewlKili'hiil.Ti'f  tlH.'kvii.n  I  fella  victim  la  it  himself,  with  31X10  of  liiii  juil'aW 
L  Th^runn.wiwunifunn.anlMlinlnblf  '  who  went  iJBUghten.'d  in  llie  streets  of  Rome.  Hi 
i><4iluliKrFl»:iinii|>mlH'lni.4,  liilia'  (umultHotlimdinc  tile  sedition  of  thu  Gracchi  wgnM 
I  prelude  to  those  civil  disorders  wliieh  now  foltowilll 
;  quick  Mucci-ssion  to  the  end  of  the  commonwi-allh.  - 
be  rcmarki-d,  lliat  Romau  hbetlj,  i 


;et<vl'inarrto1dl<'rpiBp(dinbl(  Mflithiuidafinnhkiblcjavs^ 
n,  iililr.1i  be  iliivw  u[  Iil*  lo>  at  iliedbmuv  nf  im  or  twelve 
KA.  AiHMi  as  il  »a>  dsilBl.  iwOrewhhKiiiml.siulruibrd 
irouil.  Inrliwoilhthe  tai-mj.    tilt  nionlwiii.  a  bhurtn-ell- 


whieb  wu  hear  so  much,  raihiT  refet^  to 

whieh  was  ulfcred  to  inonarvhical  and  arislocratie  nl 
in  the  eariy  days  of  Rome,  than  to  the  actual  condilta 
of  the  {leuple  as  imlividualH  at  any  pi'riod.  With  Bad 
liberty  as  to  public  .;ind  iiatiriiial  matters,  lliei«  wM 

taken  in  battle,  orlhe  dcKcendants  uf  such,  furmedM 
luilf  of  the  population  uf  Rome.    This  portion  of  A 

inbabilanlsfui^ ,:.,_,_._,.._._.  .r"  ..    .     5 

rights  were  ao 

no  legitimate  marriage,  wi 

denee  in  law,  and  could  ni 


ANCIENT  HISTORY  OF  ROME. 


lit  be  flogged,  and  even  pnt  to  death,  at  the 
of  their  nusten.  It  was  not  mere  labourers 
e  in  this  condition,  hot  clerks,  overseers,  and 
boqnainted  with  literature.  Even  among  those 
y  Ixee,  and  who  had  the  right  of  citizenship, 
rerenot  themselves  rich  were  obliged  to  attach 
■ca  to  some  nobleman,  or  jMi/rtcian,  as  their 
r,  and  were  called  hit  clienU.  Without  the 
.  inflaeDce  of  such  a  person  to  enforce  his 
t  Bmnan  citizen  would  have  been  excommuni- 
d  dofenceless.  The  tie  between  a  patron  and 
te  in  Rome  was  as  dose,  and  as  little  flattering 
iferior  party,  as  that  between  a  chieftain  and 
Often  in  more  recent  times.  The  rich  men  kept 
cr  eitiaena  in  pay,  and  almost  in  subsistence, 
•ake  of  their  votes  in  the  public  assemblies ; 
ia  rlarm  lost  their  habits  of  industry,  and,  being 
to  live  in  miserable  dependence  on  the  largesses 
rcalthy  and  ambitious,  became  idle  and  dissi- 
OH  resectable  even  than  the  slaves.  There 
general  caressing  of  the  populace  by  all  who 
1  to  be  candidates ;  shows,  entertainments,  dis- 
■s  of  com,  wore  continually  proposed  or  offered 
IT  other,  to  keep  them  in  good  humour ;  and  a 
ar  aystem  of  bribery  was  practised  when  the 
1  came  to  be  decided.  Hence  Cicero  calls  the 
jMt  urbofko)  **the  scum  and  dirt  of  the  town," 
Madoned  mol^"  **  lean  miserable  leeches ;"  and 
araae  from  a  humble  and  inconsiderable  class 
fe  having  votes  to  sell,  which  it  became  the  inte- 
dM  rich  to  buy.  Tho  slaves,  and  freed  men,  who 
.by  &r  the  most  numerous  part  of  the  working 
,bad  of  course  no  votes ;  and  being  maintained 
erithed  only  in  proportion  to  their  industry  and 
^  were  many  of  tnem  a  confidential  and  esteemed 
noog  wealthy  people  in  Home ;  while  the  citizens 
ad  hereditary  political  rights  were  fed  and  de- 

■ 

SjrlU— Pompey— Ca?sar. 
ike  proportion  in  which  Rome  became  a  military 
Hi  commanders  acquired  a  dangerous  influence 
aftirs.  Sylla  and  Marius,  two  of  theso  corn- 
s' were  rivals  in  the  desire  of  power.  The 
ffWlulc  commanding  in  a  war  against  Mithridates, 
tf  Peatiu,  was  superseded  and  recalled  from  Asia, 
ribid  to  obey  the  mandate,  and,  finding  his  army 
■1  to  support  him,  he  led  it  to  llome,  expelled 

■  lad  all  his  partisans,  and  for  a  time  reigned 
finl  The  desolate  condition  of  the  exiled 
u,  BtthiE  amongst  the  ruins  of  Carthage,  is  often 
ri  to.  After  Sylla  had  returned  to  pursue  the 
ridi  Mithridates,  his  rival,  recovering  strength, 
■ore  acquired  an  ascendancy  in  Home,  but  was 
■If  cot  off  in  a  fit  of  debauch.     Sylla,  now  victo- 

■  Ana,  returned  to  Italy,  and,  being  joined  by 
%  Ceth^rns,  and  the  young  Poinpey,  gave  battle 
ftttyof  nls  enemies,  and  entirely  defeated  them. 
Hiy  into  Rome  was  signalised  by  a  dreadful 
Of^  and  a  proscription,  which  had  fur  its  object 
Brnnination  of  every  enemy  whom  he  had  in 

Elected  dictator^  with  the  unlimited  authority 
■I  to  that  oflBce  (one  of  occasional  creation),  lie 
vftfa  a  degree  oi  conscicntiousnesH  that  could 
^bave  been  expected  from  one  who  had  shed 
et  blood.  He  restored  the  senate  to  its  judicial 
B^,  regulated  the  election  to  all  the  important 
«f  the  state,  and  enacted  many  excellent  laws 
I  uipnuaion  and  the  abuse  of  power.  He  then 
iriiy  rensned  his  dictatorship,  and,  retiring  to 
■fi&on  ox  a  private  citizen,  ofTercd  publicly  to 
I  aeeoont  of  ms  conduct.  Not  long  after,  he  died 
effects  of  debauchery.  Sylla  may  be  reckoned 
■kable  example  of  that  union  of  great  vices  with 
pobta  of  character,  which  marks  a  time  of  semi- 
iia.  Before  the  close  of  Sylla's  career,  Julius 
!•  JMmg  man  of  high  birth  and  great  talents,  was 
hto  notice.  The  chief  power  in  the  state  was 
Ibftveen  Poinpey  and  Crassus ;  when  Ceesar,  by 
»4tnike  of  policy,  caused  himself  to  be  associated 

109 


with  them  in  what  was  called  a  Triumvirate,  or  govern- 
ment of  three  persons.  He  now  subdued  Transalpine 
Gaul  (including  the  present  Belgium  and  France),  and, 
passing  over  to  Britain  (54  B.c.),al80  reduced  the  people 
of  that  country,  which  the  Romans  considered  as  one 
of  the  remotest  comers  of  the  earth.  By  the  death  of 
Crassus,  Cffisar  and  Pompey  were  left  sole  rivals  for 
power.  The  high  military  reputation  of  Caesar  gave 
him  great  popukur  influence,  but  Pompey  was  befriended 
by  the  consuls  and  a  majority  of  the  senate.  A  decree 
was  passed,  forbidding  Coesar  to  pass,  with  his  army, 
the  brook  Rubicon,  which  divided  Gaul  from  Italy :  he 
nevertheless  did  cross  the  stream  and  advance  to  Rome, 
of  which  he  immediately  gained  the  noastery,  Pompey 
retiring  into  Greece.  Ca»ar,  marching  into  Spain, 
overthrew  Pompey's  lieutenants  there,  and  at  his  return 
found  he  had  been  declared  dictator.  Then,  learning 
that  Pompey  had  raised  a  large  army  in  Illyria,  he 
marched  thitlier,  and,  at  the  decisive  battle  of  Phar- 
salia,  extinguished  the  hopes  of  his  rival  (49  n.  c.) 
Pomney,  who  had  divided  the  empire  of  the  civilised 
world,  fled  as  a  dispirited  and  powerless  fugitive  to  seek 
the  assistance  and  hospitxdity  of  Ptolemy  and  Cleopatra, 
in  Egypt,  but  was  barbarously  murdered  the  instant 
he  stepped  on  shore.  From  the  death  of  Pompey  is 
to  be  dated  the  total  overthrow  of  the  Roman  republic. 
The  corruptions  of  the  state  had  become  too  great  to 
admit  of  any  other  cure  than  that  of  an  absolute  govern- 
ment. From  this  period,  therefore,  the  senate  and 
democratic  bodies  were  dispossessed  of  all  power,  and 
Rome  was  never  without  a  master. 

THE  EMPIRE. 
Condition  of  tho  nation. 

At  the  period  when  the  commonwealth  passed  into 
the  hands  of  an  absolute  monarch,  the  Romans  had 
attained  the  height  of  their  power.  Directing  their 
main  energies  to  military  conquest,  they  had  enjoyed 
some  centuries  of  glory,  with  every  kind  of  plunder 
which  the  conquered  countries  could  produce.  Every 
district  in  Europe,  Asia,  and  Africa,  lying  within 
reach  of  the  Roman  legions,  bad  become  tributary 
to  Rome.  At  this  period,  the  nation  reckoned  about 
7,000,000  of  citizens,  with  twice  as  many  provincials, 
besides  as  many  slaves.  From  being  an  obscure 
town,  Rome  had  become  a  wide-spread  city,  and  was 
adorned  with  majestic  temples,  public  edifices  and  pa- 
laces. Other  towns  in  Italy  also  rose  into  importance, 
and  became  the  residence  of  distinguished  Roman 
citizens.  The  public  monuments  of  this  remarkable 
people  w^cre  placed,  not  only  in  the  capital,  but  all 
over  the  provinces;  and  some  of  them  are  till  this 
day  reckoned  among  the  greatest  wonders  of  art.  But 
the  stupendous  character  of  their  undertakings  was 
chiefly  seen  in  their  roads.  All  the  cities  of  the  empire 
were  connected  with  each  other,  and  with  the  capital, 
by  public  highways,  which,  issuing  in  various  directions 
from  the  Forum— or  great  central  place  of  public  as- 
sembly— of  Rome,  traversed  Italy,  pervaded  the  pro- 
vinces, and  were  terminated  only  by  the  frontiers  of 
the  empire.  On  the  north-west,  the  boundary  of  this 
extcnsif  e  empire  was  the  wall  of  Antoninus,  built  be- 
twixt the  Firths  of  Clyde  and  Forth,  in  Scotland,  and 
on  the  south-cast  it  was  the  ancient  city  of  Jerusalem. 
If  the  distance  between  these  two  points  be  carefully 
traced,  it  will  be  found  that  the  great  chain  of  commu- 
nication was  drawn  out  to  the  length  of  4080  Roman 
miles,  or  3740  English  measi£re.  '*  The  public  ro&da 
(says  Gibbon)  were  accurately  divided  by  mile-stones, 
and  ran  in  a  direct  line  from  one  city  to  another,  with 
very  little  respect  for  the  obstxicles  either  of  nature  or 
private  property.  Mountains  were  perforated,  and 
bold  arches  thrown  over  the  broadest  and  most  rapid 
streams.  Tho  middle  part  of  the  road  was  raised  into 
a  terrace,  which  commanded  the  adjacent  country,  con- 
sisted of  several  strata  of  sand,  gravel,  and  cement,  and 
was  paved  with  large  stones,  or,  in  some  places  near  the 
capital,  with  granite.  Such  was  the  solid  construction 
of  the  Roman  Iiigh ways,  whose  firmness  has  not  entirely 


Cn.VMBERS'S  INFOMIATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


yielded  to  the  cflfort  of  fifteen  eentnries.  They  united 
the  subjects  of  the  most  distant  provinces  by  an  etay 
and  familiar  intercourse ;  but  tlieir  primary  object  had 
been  to  facilitate  the  mardies  of  the  legions :  nor  was 
any  country  considered  as  completely  subdued,  till  it 
had  been  rendered,  in  all  its  parts,  pervious  to  the  arms 
of  the  conqueror.  The  advantage  of  receiving  the  ear- 
liest intelligence,  and  of  conveying  their  orders  with 
celerity,  induced  the  emperors  to  establish,  throughout 
their  extensive  dominions,  the  regular  institution  of 
posts.  Houses  were  every  where  erected  at  the  dis- 
tance of  only  five  or  six  miles ;  each  of  them  was  con- 
stantly provided  with  forty  horses,  and,  by  the  help  of 
these  relay's,  it  was  easy  to  travel  100  miles  in  a  day 
along  the  Roman  roads."  By  tliese  means  tho  Romans 
maintained*  their  ascendancy  in  every  country,  and  dif- 
fused through  the  whole  empire  the  improvements  of 
social  life.  There  was  thus  a  nobleness  and  grandeur 
in  various  circumstances  connected  with  the  Roman 
sway,  which  by  a  moderate,  firm,  and  enlightened 
system  of  government,  might  have  ultimately  proved 
of  the  greatest  importance  in  the  social  advancement 
of  mankind.  It  was  most  unfortunate,  however,  both 
for  this  sacred  cause  and  for  the  welfare  of  the  Roman 
people  themselves,  that  the  plan  of  enriching  the  com- 
monwealth at  the  seat  of  power,  consisted  almost  ex- 
clusively in  robbing  foreign  territories — a  plan  which 
it  is  impossible  ever  can  permanently  exist  in  any 
country,  whatever  be  its  power.  Besides,  with  all  the 
encouragement  given  to  the  fine  arts,  such  as  architee- 
ture,  sculpture,  and  the  production  of  luxuries,  there 
was  no  substantial  industry  or  commerce,  and  no  means 
were  taken  to  enlighten  and  refine  the  community,  by 
science,  literature,  or  morals.  The  whole  fabric  of 
Roman  greatness,  in  fact,  rested  on  no  sure  foundation, 
and  its  gradual  decline  and  fall,  from  the  extinction  of 
the  republic,  cannot  excite  the  smallest  degree  of  sur- 
prise. 

The  Twdro  Cvmts. 

The  successes  of  Cfesar  placed  him  at  the  head  of  the 
Roman  world.  His  only  remaining  opponent  was  Cato, 
who  has  been  described  as  ono  of  the  most  faultless 
characters  in  Roman  history.  This  eminent  patriot 
was,  however,  unable,  by  force  of  arms,  to  restore  the 
liberties  of  the  people,  or  to  arrest  Crcsar  in  his  victo- 
rious and  ambitious  career.  lieing  at  Lost  deserted  by 
his  friends,  and  dreading  to  fall  into  the  hands  of  his 
enemy,  after  pondering  a  while  on  tho  nature  of  the 
immoVt.ality  of  the  soul,  ho  stabbed  liimself  with  his 
own  sword — an  act  which  Roman  morality  held  as 
perfectly  justifiable,  and  which  was  committed  by 
many  of  the  first  cliaractera  of  tho  state,  when  they 
happened  to  bo  deserted  by  fortune.  After  the  death 
of  Cato,  Ctcsar  was  witlmut  a  rival.  Returning  to 
Rome  in  triumph,  he  established  his  power  as  dictator, 
and  shortly  afterwards  received  tho  title  of  imperaior^ 
or  empei*or,  with  full  iK)wers  of  sovereignty.  The 
assumption  of  these  dignities,  as  may  be  supposed, 
served  to  unite  the  friends  of  the  republican  form  of 
government,  or  at  least  all  who  had  thriven  on  the 
diseases  of  the  state,  with  the  view  of  making  away  with 
the  usurper.  A  deep-laid  conspiracy  was  accordingly 
formed  against  Cu'sar,  comi)osed  of  sixty  senators,  at 
the  head  of  whom  was  Decimus  Brutus,  whose  life 
Oesar  had  spared  after  the  battle  of  Pliarsalia,  and 
Casbius,  who  was  pardoned  R<x)n  after.  Cwsar  was 
privately  made  acquainted  with  the  existence  of  plots 
against  his  life;  but,  being  of  a  fearless  disposition,  he 
proceeded,  on  the  day  intended  for  the  fatal  blow,  to 
the  senate-houso.  Here,  by  a  preconcerte*!  sign.il,  he 
m-as  stabl»ed  behind  in  the  shoulder  by  Casca.  Ail  tho 
conj«pirators  now  rushed  forward,  and  he  received  a 
second  stab  in  the  breast,  while  Caasius  wounded  him 
in  the  face.  In  this  emcrgenc}',  he  defended  himself 
with  great  vigour,  rushing  among  them,  and  throwing 
down  such  as  opposed  him,  till  he  saw  Brutus  among 
the  conspirators,  who,  coming  up,  struck  his  dagger 
into  his  thigh.  From  that  moment,  Ccesar  thought  no 
more  of  defending  himself,  but,  looking  upon  the  un- 

110 


grateful  issaihuit,  cried  ont,  **  And  yon  too,  I 
Then,  covering  his  head,  and  spreading  his  rob 
him,  in  order  to  fall  «*ith  a  greater  decency, 
down  at  the  base  of  Pompey's  statue,  after  r 
twenty-three  wounds  from  hands  which  he  %'ai: 
posed  he  had  disarmed  by  his  benefits.  Thus  d 
remarkable  man,  the  best  who  ever  aspired  i 
reignty  in  Rome,  the  victor  in  five  hundred 
and  the  conqueror  of  a  thousand  cities,  in  tl 
sixth  year  of  his  age  (44  B.C.) 

Upon  the  death  of  Ceesar,  the  conspirator 
unable  to  form  a  government,  or  to  inspire  co; 
in  their  designs ;  and  in  tlie  distractions  which 
Mark  Antony,  an  ambitious  man  and  former); 
tenant  of  Csesar,  endeavoured  to  raise  himsel 
supreme  command.  In  this  effort  he  was  not 
ful.  Octavius,  grand-nephew  and  adopted  son  o: 
also  came  forward  as  a  candidate  for  power ; 
likewise  did  a  third  personage,  named  Lepidus, 
one  of  these  ambitious  men  possessed  sufficic 
to  attain  supreme  command,  they  entered  into 
tion,  forming  a  tripartite  power,  termed  a  triu: 
Being  opposed  by  Brutus,  a  dreadful  civil  war 
the  atrocities  of  which  are  scarcely  paralleled  in 
Brutus  was  ultimately  killed,  iJter  which  ei 
triumvirate  quarrelled  among  themselves,  and  C 
by  force  of  arms,  becoming  conqueror,  attai 
dignity  of  emperor  of  Rome. 

JoUos  Cmrii  iiiccesKirs. 

On  arriving  at  this  proud  eminence,  Octavi 
called  Augustus  Ciesar,*  relinquished  the  ai 
designs  of  his  predecessors;  he  endeavoured 
soli&te  the  empire,  instead  of  extending  it  ti 
bounds,  and  introduced  a  spirit  of  moderai 
the  public  councils  hitherto  unknown.  Knov 
taste  of  the  Romans,  he  indulged  them  in  tl 
of  seeing  the  appearance  of  a  republic,  while  1 
them  really  happy  in  the  effects  of  a  most  absol 
narchy,  guided  by  the  most  consummate  pi 
Historians  delight  in  recounting  the  number 
deeds  of  Augustus,  and  the  glories  of  his  tir 
from  him  the  phrase  of  **  the  Augustan  age," 
by  %\Titer8  to  periods  in  the  histi)ry  of  natitms  ; 
able  for  tlie  prosperity  and  refinement  whieh  pi 
has  been  derived.  It  was  in  the  twenty-fifth 
the  reign  of  this  magnanimous  prince  that  Jesu 
was  born,  in  tho  Roman  province  of  Judea.  In  t 
14  of  our  era,  Augustus  was  succeeded  by  1 
a  person  of  an  entirely  different  character,  an 
whom  the  corruptions  of  the  state  became  verj*  g 
the  nineteenth  year  of  his  cruel  reign,  Christ  ^ 
cified,  under  Pontius  Pilate,  the  Roman  govc 
Jerusalem.  In  the  year  .^^7,  Tiberius  was  put  t 
by  smothering  him  with  pillows,  or,  as  some  hi 
allege,  by  poison ;  and  he  was  succeeded  by  Ca! 
person  of  vicious  habits  and  still  more  cruel  ch 
This  emperor  was  prodigal  and  extravagant  to  a 
almost  inconceivable.  The  luxuries  of  former  ei 
were  simplicity  itself  when  compared  to  those  ^ 
practised.  He  contrived  new  ways  of  bathing 
the  richest  oils  and  most  precious  perfumes  we 
with  tho  utmost  profusion.  Ho  found  out  d 
immenso  value,  and  had  even  jewels,  we  a: 
dissolved  among  his  sauces.  He  sometimes  Y, 
vices  of  pure  gold  presented  before  his  guests 
of  meat.  But  his  prodigality  was  the  most  i 
able  in  regard  to  his  horse.  Ho  built  for  it  a  i 
marble,  and  a  manger  of  ivory.  Whenever  t 
mal,  wliich  he  called  Incitatus,  was  to  run,  h( 
sentinels  near  its  stable  the  night  preceding, 
vent  its  slumbers  from  being  broken.  He  af 
it  a  house,  furniture,  and  a  kitchen,  in  order 
all  its  visitors  with  pix>pcr  respect.      Ho  soi 

*  A  number  of  the  imperial  succemora  of  Julius  Ccmi 
the  title  of  CVrMr,  in  mldition  to  their  otlicr  daignation 
6.ime  manner  as  wc  find  the  appellations  of  Pliaiaoh  sad 
wcro  amtuncd  by  msny  of  the  EfQ-ptian  ■overeifnik  Thi 
Canar  hos  been  curiously  enough  pmenred  untfl  modem 
the  title  of  Crar,  which  ii  given  by  the  Ruadaat  to  theirs 


ANCIENT  HISTORY  OF  ROME. 


it  to  hiA  own  table,  and  presented  it  with  gilt 
td  wine  in  a  golden  cUp.  He  often  swore  by 
(Cj  of  Lis  horse ;  and  historians  mention,  that 
4  hare  appointed  it  to  a  consulship,  had  not 
h.  prerented.  Caligula  perished  by  aasassina- 
fcflir  a  rdga  of  less  than  four  years ;  of  him 
sen  aaid,  that  nature  seemed  to  have  brought 
th,  to  ahow  what  was  possible  to  be  produced 
m  neatest  vice  supported  by  the  greatest 
7.  He  was  suceeeded  by  Claudius,  who  was  a 
kiid  eontempiible  emperor^  and  who  was  finally 
bj  poison.  Nero,  tne  next  emperor,  was  at 
ted  tor  his  cruelty,  his  vanity,  and  his  debased 
k  The  atrocities  he  committed  go  beyond  the 
f  langnage  to  describe,  and  are  such  as  perhaps 
ntered  into  the  mind  of  any  other  human  being. 
liimey  having  been  raised  against  him,  and  being 
h  hunted  by  assassins,  he  fell  by  a  stroke  of  his 
ggcr.  Of  the  succeeding  emperors,  we  need  not 
nmr  into  a  detaiL  Under  Vespasian,  the  tenth, 
■■^  the  eleventh  emperor,  the  state  rallied  a  little, 
and  an  appearance  of  decency  were  once 


idgn  of  Trajan,  the  fourteenth  emperor,  almost 
li  the  glories  of  Augustus  (a.i>.  107.)  He  ad- 
I  the  empire  to  a  greater  degree  of  splendour  than 
hitherto  attained.  He  pursued  his  military  con- 
iato  new  regions,  even  to  Hindostan,  and  added 
f  to  the  extent  of  the  Roman  territories ;  although 
IS  not  ultimately  attended  with  any  good  effect. 
I  is  distinguished  as  the  greatest  and  the  best 
sr  of  Rome.  Having  given  peace  and  prospe- 
>  the  empire,  he  continued  his  reign,  loved,  ho- 
d^  and  almost  adored,  by  his  subjects.  A  pillar 
MMnting  his  great  actions,  erected  in  Rome,  is 

■  siistmce.  His  successor,  Adrian,  was  also  a 
Mffftign,  and  was  distinguished  for  his  abilities 
ittiry  acquirements.  After  this  period,  the  em- 
MS  never  again  under  the  authority  of  any  ruler 
idible  for  his  ma^animity.  The  greater  part 
taeeessors  of  Adrian  were  dissolute  and  vicious 
lar  habits,  and  under  them  the  empire  waned  to 

The  only  one  deserving  to  be  noticed  was 
the  forty-first  emperor  (a.d.  311.) 

liatroductlon  of  Christianity. 

t  As  death  of  Constantius,  the  fortieth  emperor, 
^scathed  the  sovereignty  to  his  son  Constantino, 
■f  prince  of  promising  abilities.  In  the  attempt, 
iwr,  to  take  possession  of  his  inheritance,  he  was 
■d  W  three  contending  rivals — Maxentius,  who 
Hd  m  Rome,  a  person  of  cruel  disposition,  and  a 
brt  sm>porter  of  paganism ;  Liciniu;*,  who  com- 
Isd  in  the  east ;  and  Slaximin,  who  also  governed 
sf  the  eastern  provinces.  The  first  step  taken 
NMiiiliiiii  was  an  expedition  with  an  army  to 
%  to  expel  Maxentius.  One  evening,  while  the 
;  eas  on  its  march,  Constantine,  who  was  of  a 
Mte  disposition,  sat  in  his  camp  reflecting  upon 
*yr*^'i  late  of  sublunary  things,  and  the  <&ngers 
iMterpnse  in  which  he  was  engaged.  It  was  then, 
ilmg  to  a  fabulous  legend  of  the  Christian  church, 

■  ue  son  was  declining,  there  suddenly  appeared 

■  sf  light  in  the  heavens,  in  the  form  of  a  cross, 
Ihs  inscription  in  the  Greek  language,  *^  In  this 
MM !"  So  extraordinary  an  appearance  did  not 
kssato  astonishment  and  religious  awe  in  the  mind 
Htetincs,  and  he  resolved  forthwith  to  adopt  the 
jpi^  pecanasion  of  the  hitherto  persecuted  Chris- 
.,  On  the  day  following,  he  caused  a  royal  standard 
■nde  like  that  which  he  had  seen  in  the  heavens, 
MBBHided  it  to  be  carried  before  him  in  his  wars, 
Lsai^  of  victory  and  celestial  protection.  After 
hi  fmTi\*fi\  with  several  of  the  principal  teachers 
tm/Smitjt  and  made  a  public  avowal  of  that  sacred 
■rise.  Constantine  having  thus  attached  his  sol- 
lli  Ua  interest,  who  were  mostly  of  the  Christian 
bjM  no  time  in  entering  Italy  with  90,000  foot. 

With  this  lanre  force,  he  fought  with 
111 


and  overcame  Maxentius,  and  entered  Rome  in  triumph. 
One  of  his  first  acto  was  to  ordain  that  no  criminal 
should  for  the  future  suffer  death  by  crucifixion,  which 
had  formerly  been  the  most  usual  way  of  punmhing 
slaves  convicted  of  capital  offences.  Edicts  were  soon 
after  issued,  declarin|^  that  the  Christians  should  be 
eased  from  adl  their  grievances,  and  received  into  places 
of  trust  and  authority.  Thus,  the  new  religion  was  seen 
at  once  to  prevail  over  the  Roman  empire,  and,  being 
associated  with  the  state,  the  bishops  and  other  clergy 
were  endowed  with  an  authority  which  had  formerly 
been  wielded  by  the  priests  of  the  ancient  paganism. 

Shortly  after  the  establishment  of  Christianity  (a.  d. 
321),  Constantine  executed  a  resolution  of  transferring 
the  seat  of  government  from  Rome  to  Byzantium,  or 
Constantinople,  as  it  was  afterwards  called  in  honour  of 
his  name.  As  Greece  and  various  provinces  in  Asia  now 
formed  a  part  of  the  Roman  empire,  it  was  believed  that 
Constantinople  would  form  a  more  central  situation  for 
the  capital.  Whatever  truth  there  might  be  in  this, 
the  transfer,  instead  of  proving  in  any  respect  advan- 
tageous, weakened  the  fabric  of  the  state,  and  exposed 
it  to  a  more  speedy  dissolution.  Constantine  died  when 
above  sixty  years  old,  leaving  a  mixed  character  **  of 
piety  and  credulity,  of  courage  and  cruelty,  of  justice 
and  ambition,"  and  was  succeeded  by  his  three  sons, 
Constantine,  Constantius,  and  Constans.  These  divided 
the  empire  among  them,  but  it  was  subsequently  united 
by  Constantius,  after  a  war  of  twelve  years'  duration. 
This  union  was  of  no  long  continuance.  Theodosius, 
in  the  year  395,  permanently  divided  the  empire  into 
the  Eastern  and  Western  Roman  Empires,  the  capital 
of  the  former  being  Constantinople,  and  of  the  latter 
Rome.  The  history  of  these  two  divisions  of  the  Roman 
territory  now  also  separates ;  and  following  the  usual 
practice  of  historians,  we  leave  the  Eastern  or  Byzan- 
tine empire  to  form  the  subject  of  a  separate  narrative, 
while  we  conclude  with  a  few  words  upon  the  latter 
days  of  the  old  Roman  or  Western  empire. 

Destruction  of  tho  Homan  empire. 

For  a  considerable  period,  the  Roman  dominions 
were  pressed  upon  on  nearly  all  sides  by  ferocious 
tribes  of  barbarians.  These  were  at  first  unknown  to 
the  Romans;  but  about  the  era  of  Constantine  they 
had  become  formidable,  and  arose  in  such  numbers, 
that  the  earth  seemed  to  pi'oduce  a  new  race  of  man- 
kind, to  complete  tlie  empire's  destruction.  Against 
such  an  enemy  no  courage  could  avail,  nor  abilities  bo 
successful ;  a  victory  only  cut  off  numbers  without  a 
habitation  and  a  name,  soon  to  bo  succeeded  by  others 
equally  desperate  and  obsclire.  The  emperors  who 
had  to  contend  with  this  people,  were  most  of  them 
furnished  neither  with  courage  nor  conduct.  Con- 
stAntiuJi,  Julian,  Jovian,  and  Valentinian,  successively 
endex^oured  to  arrest  the  tide  of  barbarism  which  set 
in ;  but  they  wanted  both  the  personal  energy  and  the 
stern  soldiery  of  the  early  commonwealth  to  accom- 
plish this  desirable  object  In  the  vain  attempt  to  stop 
an  immense  inundation  of  Huns,  Allanes,  and  Goths, 
from  the  extensive  deserts  of  Tartary  and  Russia,  the 
Roman  armies  were  greatly  weakened ;  so  that  the 
emperors,  finding  it  difficult  at  last  to  raise  levies  in  the 
provinces,  were  obliged  to  hire  one  body  of  barbarians 
to  oppose  another.  This  expedient  had  its  use  in  cir- 
cumstances of  immediate  danger  ;  but  when  that  was 
over,  the  Romans  found  it  was  as  difficult  to  rid  them- 
selves of  their  new  allies  as  of  their  former  enemies. 
Thus,  the  empire  was  not  ruined  by  any  particular 
invasion,  but  sank  gradually  under  the  weight  of  several 
attacks  made  upon  it  on  every  side.  When  the  barba- 
rians had  wasted  one  province,  those  who  succeeded  the 
first  spoilers  proceeded  on  to  another.  Their  devas- 
tations were  at  first  limited  to  Thrace,  Mysia,  and 
Pannonia ;  but  when  these  countries  were  ruined,  they 
destroyed  Macedonia,  Thessaly,  and  Greece,  and  tlience 
they  proceeded  to  Noricum.  The  empire  was  in  this 
manner  continually  shrinking,  and  Italy  at  last  became 
'  the  frontier  of  its  own  dominion. 


CHAMBERS'S  INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


The  ralour  and  conduct  of  Theodosius  in  some  meor 
sare  retarded  the  progress  of  destruction ;  but,  upon 
his  death,  the  enemy  became  irresistible.  A  larj^  body 
of  Goths  had  been  called  in  to  assist  the  regular  forces, 
under  Alaric,  their  king ;  but  what  was  brought  in  to 
stop  the  universal  decline,  proved  the  last  mortal  stab 
to  the  empire.  This  Gothic  prince,  from  an  ally  became 
a  dangerous  foe ;  and  finally  nmrching  to  Rome,  made 
himself  master  of  the  city,  which  he  abandoned  to  be 
pilli^ed  by  his  soldiers  (a.d.  410.) 

After  this  disastrous  event,  Rome  was  plundered  seve- 
ral times,  and  Italy  was  overrun  by  barbarous  invaders, 
under  various  denominations,  from  the  remotest  skirts 
of  Europe.  The  inhabitants  of  Rome,  who  had  sunk 
into  the  grossest  vices  by  the  overpowering  influence  of 
wealth  and  prosperitv,  were  quite  unable  to  make  any 
defence.  So  dehaised  mtd  they  become,  or  so  ill  regulated 
was  the  balance  of  wealth,  that  for  many  vears  the 
whole  of  the  lower  classes  had  been  fed  daily  by  the 
emperors  from  the  public  granaries.  T})e  power  df  the 
state  was  now  entirely  broken  ;  the  provinces  were 
voluntarily  abandoned,  or  they  rebelled,  or  were  seized 
by  the  nearest  barbarous  powers.  At  length  the  title  of 
emperor  of  tho  we^t,  which,  on  one  occasion,  was  put 
up  to  public  auction  by  the  licentious  soldiery,  expired ; 
and,  to  finish  the  melancholy  account,  one  of  the  princes 
of  the  barbarians  assumed  the  title  of  king  qfall  Italy, 
"Such"  (to  quoto  the  words  of  Goldsmith)  ^  was  the 
end  of  this  great  empire,  that  had  conquered  mankind 
with  its  arms,  and  instructed  the  world  with  its  wisdom ; 
that  had  risen  by  temperance,  and  that  fell  by  luxury  ; 
that  had  been  established  by  a  spirit  of  patriotism,  and 
tiiat  sank  into  ruin  when  the  empire  was  become  so 
extensive,  that  a  Roman  citizen  was  but  an  empty 
name."  Its  final  dissolution  took  place  in  the  480th  year 
of  the  Christian  era,  or  1232  years  from  the  date  of  the 
foundation  of  Rome. 

ItOltAN  LITERATURE. 

Literature  could  scarcely  be  said  to  exist  among  the 
Romans  till  their  conquests  in  Greece  made  them  ac- 
quaiuted  with  the  admirable  productions  of  that  country, 
aud  the  custom  arose  of  sending  youths  to  be  educated 
in  Athens.  In  the  Focond  centui*y  before  the  Christian 
era,  comic  dramatic  writin}j[  was  cultivated  by  Ennius 
and  Plautusy  and  after  them  by  Terentimy  a  slave, 
whose  first  comedy,  the  Andria,  was  acted  in  the  year 
165  i».c.  Of  Roman  tragic  writing,  no  remains  have 
come  down  to  our  times.  The  elder  i^ato,  who  flourished 
in  tho  same  century,  is  praised  as  a  writer  by  those  who 
came  after  him  ;  hut  we  have  scarcely  any  remains  of 
his  compobitions.  Philosophical  writing  may  be  said 
to  have  arisen  and  at  once  reached  its  acme  in  Cicero, 
the  celebrated  orator  (bom  lOH,  died  40  b.  c),  beyond 
all  question  tho  greatest  man  in  the  department  of 
letters  to  whom  the  Roman  state  gave  birth.  Resides 
mauy  strictly  philosophical  treatises,  he  has  left  several 
works  on  rhetoric,  and  many  orations  and  epistles. 

A  philosophical  manner  of  relating  events  took  its 
riso  with  LSaihutiiis  (born  (t8  b.  c),  wliose  histories  of 
the  Jugurtlmn  war  and  of  the  con«!piracy  of  futiline, 
though  perhaps  not  free  from  pn'ju<lice,  are  considoi-ed 
as  models  of  composition.  Tht;  Commentaries  <tf  C:esar, 
in  which,  with  noble  simplicity,  he  relates  the  historj-  of 
his  own  campaigns,  pbcc  him  amongst  tlie  first  Roman 
writers.  lAciuSy  who  lived  in  the  reiijn  of  Augustus, 
stands  unrivalled  amongst  the  Roman  historical  writers, 
being  distinguished  by  consummate  judgment  in  the 
selection  of  facts,  perspicuity  of  arrangement,  sagacious 
reflection,  sound  views  of  policy,  and  the  most  copious, 
pure,  and  eloquent  expression.  Of  his  history  of  Rome, 
written  in  14'2  books,  only  :<.5  have  iH»ached  us.  Next 
to  him,  in  the  same  department,  is  Tacitus  (bom  a.  d.  S.S), 
wln»M' Anna  U  of  Rome,  ex  tending  throughout  the  greater 
part  of  the  tir*t  century,  and  his  life  of  Agricola,  the 
con<iueror  of  Hritain,  are  renuirkablc  for  acuteness 
of  thou^rht  and  concise  style. 

LncrrHuSf  a  dramatic,  and  CatuUiu,  a  lyric  poet, 
were  the  principal  A^riter^  o(  tlutt  kind  who  rote  before 

112 


the  reign  of  Augustus.  This  reign  was  not  onl; 
by  Livius,  but  by  a  cluster  of  poets,  of  unnia 
cellence.  VirgUiuSy  a  native  of  Mantua,  wrote 
or  pastoral  dialogues,  Georgics,  or  poetical  tr 
agricultural  subjects,  and  the  iEneid,  a  hero 
poom.  His  style  is  remarkable  for  Bmoothn< 
fine  strain  of  feeling.  HorathUy  his  contempt 
friend,  composed  odes,  satires,  and  epistles 
never  been  excelled  in  felicity  of  phrase  and 
matic  i>oint ;  the  general  strain  of  his  writin 
and  familiar.  Oviditu  was  a  most  elegant,  tho 
tious  poet  TibuUiUy  Properthu,  and  Martialf 
the  list  of  the  principal  Roman  poetical  writ 
caniu,  Staliut,  and  SiHut  ItaiicuMy  flouriahed 
time,  when  luxuriance  of  ornament  and  a  te 
conceit  showed  that  the  best  days  of  the  nati< 
lect  were  past. 

Piinius  (bom  a.d.  23)  was  almost  the  on! 
writer  who  treated  of  nature  or  science ;  he  wi 
ciate  of  Tacitus,  and  has  left  behind  him  worl 
celebrated.  He  was  a  diligent  student  of  the  c 
of  nature,  both  animate  and  inanimate,  and  h 
voted  every  spare  moment  to  the  noting  dow 
and  observations,  he  finally  produced  a  volumii 
on  Natural  Histor}',  in  thirty-seven  books, 
reckoned  the  more  valuable  for  its  containing; 
from  many  lost  works.  Pliny  was  unfortunai 
in  the  year  70,  by  an  eruption  from  Vesuvi 
destroyed  the  city  of  Herculaneum^  where  1 
tlie  time  residing. 

The  Romans  distinguished  themselves  in  p 
only  by  spreading  the  doctrines,  of  the  Gred 
phers  in  a  language  more  cxtehaivelj  undenti 
principal  wTiter  on  morals  was  Seneea,  bom  u 

Jrear  of  the  Christian  era.  Gifted  by  nature  w 
cut  talents,  he  devoted  himself  to  the  eultivat 
Stoic  philosophy,  and  his  various  learning  and 
wisdom  procured  him  the  office  of  tutor  to  N 
afterwards  incurred  the  enmity  of  that  m 
crueltv,  and  was  condemned  by  him  to  death, 
with  tne  calmness  of  a  virtuous  mind  (a.  d.  6 
It  is  perhaps  unnecessary  to  mention,  tlu 
the  works  of  the  writers  whose  names  have  bee 
nor  of  others  of  less  importance,  were  circnU 
rally  among  the  Roman  people.  Being  writte 
of  parchment  or  papyrus,  copies  wore  multi] 
by  grt^at  labour  and  expense,  and  sold  or 
exclusively  to  persons  of  taste  and  opulenci 
the  great  mass  of  Roman  citizens  and  p; 
were  left  in  entire  ignorance  of  books,  or  of 
jects  of  which  they  treated.  In  the  Roma 
Pompeii,  lately  uncovered  from  the  effects  of  i 
eruption  of  Vesuvius,  many  interesting  renuk 
have  been  discovered,  but  no  traces  of  literat 
soever.  Being  excluded  from  the  pleasures  ai 
tages  of  mental  culture  through  the  agency 
the  only  recreations  of  the  people  consisted  in  1 
games,  witnessing  fights  of  gladiators  or  8> 
with  each  other,  or  with  wild  beasts^  or  attent 
tacles  probably  less  barbarous,  but  not  more  < 
to  cultivate  the  national  intellect,  or  produce 
finement.  In  these  facts,  we  find  the  true  cai 
decline  of  both  Gn^ek  and  Roman  civilisation 
a  civilisati<m  only  of  castes  and  classes.  T 
nothing  expansive  or  vivifying  in  it.  Suddenly 
up  in  th(}  Grecian  republics,  and  was  transj 
liome ;  but  there,  after  a  short  struggle,  it  « 
out  and  destroyed.  The  modern  civilisation  t 
out  of  the  chaos  that  followed  the  demise  of  tfc 
power,  is  an  entirely  different  thing,  because 
more  pervades  all  classes  of  society,  and  by 
the  expansive  principle  of  education,  aided  b 
of  printing,  promises  to  extend  and  increase 
throughout  every  succeeding  generation,  til 
mately  fulfil  tho  highest  conditions  of  impro^ 
which  the  human  race  is  susceptible. 

Printed  snd  published  by  W.  and  R.  Chamsrrm,  1!! 
Place,  Edinburgh.    Afaio  by  W.  6.  Orr  &  Co.,  London 


CHAMBERS'S  i 

FORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 

lONDUCTED  BY  WiCLlAM  &  ROBERT  CHAMBERS,  EDITORS  Of  CHAMBERS'S 
EDINBURGH  JOURNAl. 

b8.  KE'iv  and  Improyed  Series.  Price  Ijd. 

HISTORY  OF  THE  MIDDLE  AGES. 


ADnituUiauuE,  both  of  wliom  boro  in  aiUition  the  Bur- 
name  of  Cteur,  Btill  popular  among  »  people  who 
wialicd  iheiDselTea  (o  be  coDsidered  Roman. 

ConBtanline  11.  eaon  fell  a  sacrijice  lo  Ihe  cmslt; 
and  unbition  of  his  brother  Conatans,  kIio,  in  his  turn, 
loft  his  life  in  atlempting  to  quell  n  revolt  among  his 
aubjeels  i  and  ConBtaJitiuH,  tlie  youngpst  of  the  bOiu, 
having  found  meuiiB  to  deetroy  the  two  Co;sari>,  and  hvs 
other  cousios,  and  two  uiiclea,  found  himself,  ^t  an 
early  period  of  life,  tlio  undisputed  master  of  Ihs  em- 
pire. He  reigned  twenty-four  years,  but  left  no  monu- 
luonta  of  goodoesg  or  of  greatiieas,  hating  wnBled  hU 
time  in  the  practice  of  vice,  or  in  the  equally  unprofit- 
able, if  more  innocent,  eniploymeut  of  disputing  with 
bishops  on  the  abstruaesl  poinla  of  doctrinal  theology, 
while  a  host  of  enemies,  apparently  from  every  side  of 
his  dominions,  were  engnged  in  undermining  and  lay- 

r  the  title  of  the  Dork  or  Middle  attacks  were  first  made,  though,  perhaps,  it  waa  in  the 
at  period  which  immediately  succeeded  the  east  that  they  were  fiercest.  Numberlesa  and  powerful 
ion  of  the  Roman  western  empire,  and  ex-  barbarians  now  began  to  pour  unceasingly  upon  Gaul, 
B  tlw  end  of  Ihe  fifteenth  or  tlie  commence-  Spain,  and  latterly  upon  Italy  itself,  from  the  forests 
tba  liiteenth  century.  Though  named  dark,  of  the  north,  and  in  particular  from  those  of  Germany 
ps  comprise  k  lung  and  very  remarkable  — a  country  whoee  inhabitants  have  been  remarkable 
I  tlw  history  of  the  liuman  race,  and  exhibit  in  the  history  of  tho  world,  both  a9  having  originated 
loderfal  phenomena  of  human  nature.  It  nas  many  of  the  greatest  movements  in  eaciety,Bnd  aahav- 
ka  period  that  all  the  great  foundaticins  on  ing  laid  open  more  of  the  sources  of  human  thought 
lodeni  weiety  still  rests  were  first  laid,  and  than  any  other  people  that  could  be  named.  Ths 
at  thoughts,  discoveries,  and  inventions,  took  Franks,  Saxons,  Goths,  and  Alemanni,  devaittated  tho 
m,  which  have  ehieHy  distinguished  modern  fine  countries  watered  by  the  Rhine,  and  so  elfcctually 
sMttiine*.  parted  Iheni  from  the  empire,  that  from  this  period 
their  history  becomes  wholly  separate.  At  the  Bame 
■mu  TO  THE  ctn  or  THE  ELEvENrn  ce\ti-rv.  ,[„|j.  ,j,g  Sarmntians,  Persians,  Scythians,  and  others, 
kber  sheet  (Ancian  HisToav  oh  Greece  xxu  made  dreadful  incuraions  on  the  east  All  that  Con- 
Iba  decline  of  the  Roman  empire  has  been  stantius  did  to  stem  this  powerful  tide,  waa  to  raise  his 
n  Ibe  period  (321)  when  Constantine  trans-  kinsman  Julian,  whom  he  surnamed  Cn>sar,  to  com- 
ae impRial  abode  to  Byzantium  (a  city  situ-  maud  in  the  army. 

Um  vert  shore  of  Ihe  Black  Sea,  and  after-        Julian  had  been  early  instructed  in  the  Christian 

died  Conatsntioople,  iu  honour  of  its  second  religion,  but  he  is  not  known  to  liave  ever  given  it  any 

i    la  bis  cndesvonra  to  make  this  city  the  credit,  although  he  has  been  often  called  apustale.    He 

he  only  partially  succeeded ;  for  it  lutd  imbibed  the  philosophy  of  I'lalo  in  tho  schools  of 

^tter  Ilia  day  that  thero  was  one  Athens ;  and  with  this  fearning,  with  the  elements  of  x 

and  another  in  the  west,  and  not  great  character  iu  his  mind,  and  with  the  modils  of 

Mlj  two  or  three  dilfereat  individuals  iu  the  C'n^sar,  of  Trajan,  and  of  Marcus  Antoninus  in  his  eye, 

t,  at  the  head  of  considerable  military  forcex,  he  formed  Ihe  design,  and  seemed  In  have  the  ability, 

partial  and  even  universal  empire.    Rome  tn  raise  up  and  consolidate  the  glories  of  the  falling 

1  iha  conntriea  of  wcBlem  Kurupe  were  soon  empire.     Ilia  Ticlories  over  tho  Alemanni  in  Gaul,  al- 

idualily  of  empire;  though  they  preserved  the  empire,  excited  only  the 

iimneo  lor  a  thousand  years  tho  envy  of  ihc  emperor,  and  C'onslantius  was  about  to  de- 

1  still  the  name  of  emperors,  and  pose  him  from  his  command,  when  his  own  death  saved 

the  descendanls  of  the  Cujsirs,  him  from  the  ignominy  to  which  Ihe  soldiery  would 

eeascd  to  wield  any  thing  hut  certainly  have  subjected  him  for  anyattempl  to  degrade 

lonatontine  waa  himself  instru-  their  favourite  commander.     Julian  was  himself  de- 

,  his  empire,  having  before  his  dared  emperor  by  Ihe  army,  and  the  people  had  lost 

no  fewer  than  five  individuals,  both  the  power  and  the  will  to  resist.     Unfortunoleiy 

._■,  Constantine,   CoDStana,  and  for  his  fame,  Julian  perished  in  battle  with  the  Fer- 

nepbewi  named  DalmntiDs  uid  siana,  only  three  yean  Rfler  his  » 

113 


CHAMBERS'S  INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


It  by  eoquDitting  niieide.    This  erent  caused  the 
^^V^..U.a  of  the  deccniTinte,  after  it  had  lasted  only  three 
c^r^     The  consiiU  and  tribanea  were  then  rentored. 

The  Tiolent  struycgles  of  the  iMttricians  and  plebeians 

'^not  prevent  Rome  from  gradually  acquiring  an 

among  the  Italian  stateti.    The  armies  of 

%  unlike  all  others  in  those  early  times,  wero 

armies:  the  soldiers  liad  regular  pay,  and 

arms  a  profession.    Their  compact  and  well- 

ued  force,  meeting  in  general  only  illHliBci]>lincd 

ilitia,  carried  erery  thing  before  it.*    Veii,  a  state 

•w-liich  had  long  defied  and  riTalled  them,  fell  before 

%.U^vr  general  Camillas  (396  b.c.)     In  385  ikC,  they 

finally  reduced  the  Gauls,  a  powerful  branch  of  the  Celtic 

rseo  inlMbiting  the  north  of  Italy.    They  then  fought 

»nd  subdued  the  Samniten.     Other  states  fell  beneath 

their  powerful  arms,  and  in  the  year  274  b.  c,  they  had 

acquired  the  complete  mastery  of  all  Italy. 

VTan  with  CarthaRe. 
A  splendid  Tictory  whit'h  they  had  gained  near  the 
close  of  the  Italian  wars  over  Pyrrlius,  king  of  Epirus, 
who  had  come  to  aid  the  Samnitos,  led  the  Romans  to 
believu  that  they  might  extend  their  comjucsts  to  coun- 
tries beyond  Italy.  Sicily,  originally  a  Greek  colony, 
was  at  this  time  important  for  the  great  quantities  of 
grain  produced  in  it.  The  Cartlmginians,  an  enter- 
prising commercial  people,  occupying  a  tract  of  country 
in  the  north  of  Africa,  were  anxious  to  obtain  posses- 
sion of  this  island ;  but  the  Romans  were  inclined  to 
dispute  the  prize.  Thev  fitted  out  a  fleet,  the  first  they 
ever  had,  and  R«nt  a  large  force  to  aid  the  SicilianH, 
who  were  friendly  to  thei^,  in  expelling  the  Carthagi- 
nians. Agrigvntum,  a  great  city  in  Sicily,  was  taken, 
after  a  long  »ivg(*,  by  the  joint  forces  of  Rome  and  S}  ra- 
cuse ;  and  the  Roman  fleet  gained  a  ct»mplete  victory 
over  that  of  Carthage  (2G0  n.  r.)  These  succotuti^ii 
were  fullowed  by  the  reduction  of  Corsica  and  Sardinia. 
The  Roman  fleet  then  sailed  against  Carthage  itself: 
the  Carthaginians  were  at  firvt  about  to  submit,  but, 
inspirited  by  a  timely  aid  from  Greece,  they  made  a 
strong  effort  to  repel  the  Roman  anny,  in  which  they 
wore  successful,  at  the  same  time  taking  Rej^ulus,  the 
Runian  commander,  a  prinoner.  Sonic  time  uticrwardH, 
when  reiM-ated  UefeatM  in  Sicily  made  them  desirous  of 
p<'ace,  they  allowed  Uoguliis  to  p>  to  Uouie  to  help  in 
negotiating  it,  under  a  M>lenin  promise  to  n'tiirn  if  the 
treaty  hhould  fail.  It  was  rejecti-d,  at  the  urgent  «lesiiv  ' 
of  HeguluH  himself,  an  discreilitable  to  Home,  and  he  i 
then  ilililn-rately  returned  to  surrender  his  lite  to  the 
enrajjed  i'arthaginiaiiH.  AfiiT  some  further  suoee»»ses  I 
on  tlie  part  of  the  Itonians  tho  Carthaginians  submitted 
to  u  hiimiliiitin;;  peace  (*J41  luc),  Kurru'ntlering  Sicily,  \ 


and  agrceiii*;  tii  (taya  large  Mim  of  money.    Sicily,  ex- 
cepting the  kiiijfdom  of  Syracubi',  now  Itecanic  a  pro- 

*  A  Roman  ftimy.  in  Itt  porfci't  htatr.  Includod  infuntry  and 

cutulry.     The  )ufi«y-iinii«^l  iiifantrv,  wiiirli  w,\-%  it-  iirinciivd 

Miviiictb.  uka-  (li^iUitl  into  t^-n  iiiliortx  ami  iift>-ti\i'  i*«ni))i.uiiL'^. 

iiriilt-r  the  nnlen  of  n  onTeH^Miitilm.;  nuiitU  r  «■(  tribunt'-  iuul  i-«ti> 

tuii'iiii.     The  tin»t  (.vhurt,  \^liich  ulwu\ii  cl.iiiiusl  tin*  it<t»t  itf 

honour  .iml  the  lUitiKly  tif  the  rnKK>,  hu^  furiiiL\l  nf  lla'>  hi]  lur., 

the  iiKxtt  itpprovi-il  fur  vah^ur  an«l  fiilrht\.     T)u'  r  in.iiiank;  Tiini* 

ixiiiorlH  i-viiuUlM  4*:iih  *>f  >W>;  i\:ul  t!if  h)i-.>1«'  N><I\  i>f  ihc  hyi'  ii 

niiiitiiitt«*«I  t<> 'iU^Miii'ii.    Tiit'ir  aniioMrrx*  ii!u;>ir.ii,  :iiiil.i-hii:r.il>i\ 

lul.iptiil  til  tlio  n.itiirt*  i>f  iii«ir  M.T\i(v:  mi  ii|it.-ii  hi-lit;it.  uiili  .i 

liifty  cn^t :  a  brtM>tt  plate,  i^r  (.t>.it  t>f  tutu  I ;  t:n'  ivi  «  <  ii  t!.i  ir  )iv"> ; 

anil  an  MiiipU*  l>u<  UUt on  thi-ir  Kft  ami.     ll*-^.  !«-<.  ;i  li.::iti<r  hj^ .ir, 

the  If^ifitiAry  «iMi<  r  p-.iiiHtl  in  Inn  rii;ht  Ii.inil  -^  f->nn>  l.ihh- j.i\i>- 

lin.  ikhiih  hi*  tl  ri-»  .it  hi""  f\"'  at  thi' ilio'itiuv  if  tim  ir  twv)\o 

l«cf«i.     A«MHMi  .-V*  It  \\a«i  iliirtC'l.  he  drew  lii<«  -w..ril.  uni|  ru«>h<-<l 

fiTWiii.t*  to  i-|iiM*  with  the  cni'iiiy.     Hi*  *>wi<r>l  wri-  a  ^h••^t  ««■!)• 

fi'ippcrr*!  bliMk'.  th:it  r.irrio*!  a  iliktilih'  <ii^'.  anil  wa-^  .iliki'  Miiti^l 

to  tlie  |iiLr|MMr  uf  htrikin;;  i»r  |«ii«k|iinK.    It  nat  by  thi.o  lihiirt  nwnnt, 

«hieli  «aa  little  tniirv  than  ilviihle  the  lenrth  uf  our  nn'tleni  t.ibU^ 

*t  t>M  Hmiians  con<iucnxl  the  wnrhi.    The  Kicimi  was 

up  rijiht  deep,  and  tlK*  reicul.u-  diotanre  uf  thnv 

lAwven  tb«  lUra,  na  >»vU  an  nuiki«.    The  hic>>'iia 

•rlvea  In  a  uuiip  In  rvfuUr  funn  erery  ni|{ht 

,0  MoJ  UmmnmiMU  i*l  thrms  aqtukr^*  earthen  nun- 

,,jrrMUe  In  UHtuin,  aadoMJ^t  uthercimntrlmthey 


Tince  of  Rome,  beuig  the  first  ont  of  Its 
acquired. 

Twenty-three  years  of  peace  recruitad 
Cartilage,  and  enabled  her  to  renew  ho 
Rome.  Under  the  celebrated  Hannibal, 
proceeded  through  Spain  and  Gaul,  crosi 
and  descended  on  the  plains  of  Italy.  The 
four  battlcA  in  succession,  the  last  being  th 
in  w  hich  40,000  of  their  soldiers,  and  neai 
of  their  knights  (or  soldiers  of  tlie  patricia 
said  to  have  fallen.  If  Hannibal  had  iiwtai 
to  liome,  it  is  believed  that  he  would  havi 
session  of  it,  and  probably  given  a  new 
:  world's  history.  lie  «lelilM*rat(Hl,  and  the 
time  to  concentrate  all  their  remaining  stn 
him.  l-nder  their  general,  Fabius,  the; 
policy  which  has  since  become  ]iroverb 
battle,  and  exhausting  the  eneniy*s  stren; 
Tho  war  ended  {'20'2  b.  c.)  by  their  gaini 
reducing  Spain,  and  taking  frtnii  ( 'arthago  h 
her  fleet,  and  a  vast  sum  of  money. 

A  third  war  with  Carthage,  springini;  e% 
the  ambition  of  the  Roman  (>oople,  began 
149  luc,  and  ended,  thn.'e  years  after,  in 
destruction  of  that  city  and  people.  Carl 
thoroughly  destroyed,  that  its  very  site  is 
of  uncertainty.  In  c<>nse<(uence  of  this  sue 
part  of  northern  Africa  became  tributary 

Some  years  before,  the  Romans  had  < 
amis  into  Greoci*  and  Asia  .Minor.  Maee< 
kings  had  not  long  before  conquered  Persi: 
Eg}'pt,  became  tributary  to  Rome,  and 
b<»came  one  of  her  province?*.  The  name  y 
the  Romans  destroyed  Carthage,  naw  (irei* 
to  them.  Thus,  in  less  than  a  century,  tl 
ijuered  the  greater  number  of  the  countries 
their  own  comjaratively  small  state. 

Insurrection  of  the  CracchL 

These  triumphs  wort*  not  an  unmixed 
people  were  intoxie:itt-«l  with  success.  ) 
arising  from  fijM)!!,  but  accumulatiMl  ehirfly 
of  the  nobility,  led  to  ;;nat  luxury,  aiitl  fi 
means  of  c<»rrupting  tlie  petipli-.  Tli«'  c»vi  r::: 
and  power  ot*  tlic  seiKitor'.  ]-r<>iliici-«l  i^n  at 
at  the  same  time  that  it  m;id»'  the  o  ti^.-ii' 
this  time  (130  n.r.)  ari.M*  Tiberiii-  an.lCaii 
two  iiohle  _\<.iitl>«5,  \\|ji»«M»  zeal  l-)  i\l''»rm  ' 
o.irriiplions<jf  the  st:it«- precipitated  tlii-m  a' 
measures  di'stnictive  »'f  all  ^tvi-rnuunt  an«l 
Tilu-rius  the  el«l«r  lir«ither,  i:r:;iil  th-.-  pon]! 
by  force,  the  re\iv:il  of  au  atioicnt  law,  I 
|HTty  in  laiiil,  and  thu-^  a1  r:iU'ii!^  the  t - 
patricians.  .V  tumult  wa?»  ilit-  C"ijvi-ijueiM 
TilM'riuH  and  3no  uf  lij^  frii-ri-N  wen*  k 
Forum.  Caius  tJracchus  tlnii  tool:  np  the 
people,  aijil,  notwiiliNtan  !i:i4  exrry  oj  p» 
t  uahled  to  abridge  the  pow.  r  of  the  m  nati 
thi*  prople  from  monop. >ii>!s  in  corn,  anil 
riijhtH  of  Uiiman  cilizeiihliip.  Kmployii, 
Itrolher,  the  dangerous  eii;^iue  of  tuinultua 
fill  a  \ictim  to  it  him»i-!f,  witli  ,^l<H)  ^.f  h\ 
who  Wire  ^lau;;!lt^•^i•>l  in  the  struts  i-f  1 
luiMuiN  atteriiliii^'  tlu'  s«-iiitii)n  of  the  (ira.  ■■ 
j>n  lu.lf  ti»  llioNi'  ei\ii  liiMtrdei^  ^hich  ni»w- 
«[i::clk  .-uciTv^inri  to  the  %  \u\  of  tin*  cominnii 

It  max   h- If  lie  remark*  d,  that  H>man 
whli'li  wi-  Iji.-ir  ••o  I'MU'h.  r.iiher  refers  to  th 
whii'h  wa-^  otli  nd  to  iiioiiarcliical  and  ari-*!- 
ill  the  i-arl\  «Ia\^  of  Kerne,  than  to  the  actu. 
of  the  prople  a.s  iuiliviiluaU  at  any  period. 
Iihert\  a<«  to  public  aiul  nntioiial  matters,  t 
^ri-.it  thai  of  d;ime>tic  restraint.     Slaves,  th 
taken  ill  battle,  or  the  deM*enilant4  of  such, 
half  of  the  population  of  Rome.     This  )ku 
iiihabitaiitK  had  no)H>litical  rightHithateTer 
ri:;hti(  were  so  much  curtailed,  tlmt  they  coi 
no  legitituate  marriage,  were  not  admitted 
dence  m  \aw,  atvA  couVVtvoX  be^vieath  theii 


HISTORY  OF  THE  MIDDLE  AGES. 


t  of  officen,  and  even  the  succession  to  tlie 
vhere  it  was  not  seized  by  some  successful 
vas  in  the  hands  of  the  women  and  eunuchs 
ace.  The  cities  and  provinces  generally  ac- 
as  to  the  choice  of  an  emperor,  in  the  decision 
pital  or  army ;  this  circumstance  shows  that 
irere  attend«Kl  to,  and  that  there  was  a  regular 

goTcmment,  which  was  not  much  disturbed 
rsonal  character  of  the  reigning  prince.    The 

of  Greece,  however,  which  had  formerly  been 
»f  knowledge  and  the  arts,  were  now  sunk  in 
5 ;  and  the  little  learning  that  was  cultivated 
I  was  only  scholastic  divinity,  or  the  pedantry 
id  grammar.  There  is  no  scholar  or  philo- 
:  the  empire  of  Constantinople  who  is  generally 
I  posterity. 

It  change  took  place  in  tlie  relations  of  the 
tuT  the  eleventh  century.  It  was  still  pressed 
irks  on  the  east,  who  now  occupied  Asia  Minor, 
d  only  separated  from  Constantinople  by  the 
nt ;  while,  in  Europe,  its  territories  were  dis- 
f  the  incursions  of  certain  Norman  adventurers 

settled  in  Sicily.  Against  these  enemies  the 
r  Claudius  Comnenus,  an  active  prince,  and 
isources,  made  all  the  resistance  which  his  di> 
1  revenues  allowed.  He  applied  to  the  Chris- 
ereigns  of  Europe  to  aid  him  in  expelling  the 
•tans  from  the  territories  of  the  empire,  but, 
I,  to  drive  out  the  Turks  from  tlic  land  of  Judea, 
hey  occupied  and  profaned,  and  where  they 
I  the  Chribttan  pilgrims  who  desired  to  visit  the 
f  Scripture  history.  His  api>eal  was  received 
pe  at  a  time  when  many  concurring  causes  had 
the  mass  of  the  people  to  a  state  of  uneasiness 
:  once  foreboded  and  rendered  necessary  some 
e  change  in  their  condition.  Countr}inen  of 
n,  pilgrims  from  the  shrine  of  the  tomb  of 
lad  returned  and  filled  them  with  horror  by  a 
f  indignities  which  Turkish  infidels  were  cast- 
lOM  scenes  and  subjects  with  which  their  own 
sred  feelings  were  associated ;  and  the  result 
i  eatraordiiuiry  outpouring  of  the  inhabitants 
w  u|ton  Asia,  which  has  been  termed  the  Cru- 
id  to  which  we  shall  afterwards  advert. 

nk» HAnOXRT. — EMPIRE  OP  THE  SARACENS. 

I  not  before  the  sixth  century  that  Arabia  bc- 
euliarly  remarkable  in  the  history  of  the  world. 
1  .\nb«,  as  they  have  been  f;eiierally  called,  had 
lignaltsed  themselves  by  incursions  on  the  em- 
leeast,  when  Mahomet  was  bom,  in  the  year50'0 
y,  571 )  of  the  Christian  era,  at  Mecca,  the  prin- 
f  of  their  conntry.  1  lo  is  t>aid  to  Iiavc  been  de- 
lirDm  some  great  families ;  but  it  is  certain  that 
ediate  pnjgenitors  were  poor,  and  he  had  little 
n  bat  what  his  own  means  and  his  owu  mind 
re  bini.  Yet  this  man  became  the  founder  of 
empire,  and  the  fabricator  of  a  religion  which 
inued  to  our  own  day  to  affect  greater  numbers 
md  than  Christianity  itself.  At  an  early  period 
••  arc  told,  *'  he  retired  to  the  desert,  and  pre- 
o  hold  conferences  with  the  Angel  Gabriel,  who 
d  to  him,  fn)m  time  to  time,  portions  of  a  sacred 
Koran,  containing  revelations  of  the  will  of  the 
e  Being,  and  of  tlie  doctrines  which  he  required 
rhet  (ilut  is,  Mah^imet  himself)  to  communicate 
■orid.*'  The  Mahometan  religion,  as  the  so- 
eveUtioDS  of  this  great  impostor  have  since  been 
ted,  was  a  strange  mixture  of  the  superHtitioiLS  of 
tht  morality  of  Christ,  and  the  rites  of  Judaism. 
to  this  happy  mixture  of  tenets,  usages,  and  tra- 
ilready  existing  among  his  countrymen,  and  to 
4icability  of  the  precepts  of  the  Koran  to  aU 
uuetions  and  all  the  business  of  life,  that  Ma- 
to  have  owed  his  extraordinar)*  success, 
have  attributed  this  to  certain  indul- 
■Bowed  in  the  Koran ;  but  in  reality  these  in- 
■i  cxnCed  before,  and  the  book  breathes  upon 
lie  an  austere  spirit.    This  extraordinary  work 

115 


inculcated  elevated  notions  of  tho  divine  nature  and  of 
moral  duties ;  it  taught  that  God*s  will  and  power  were 
constantly  exerted  towards  the  happiness  of  his  crea- 
tures, and  that  the  duty  of  man  was  to  love  his  neigh- 
bours, assist  the  poor,  protect  the  injured,  to  bo  humane 
to  inferior  animals,  and  to  pray  seven  times  a>day.    it 
taught  that,  to  revive  the  impression  of  those  laws  which 
God  had  engraven  originally  in  the  hearts  of  men,  Ho 
had  sent  his  prophets  upon  earth — Abraliam,  Moses, 
Jesus  Christ,  and  Mahomet — the  last,  the  greatest,  to 
whom  all  the  wof  Id  should  owe  its  conversion  to  the  true 
religion.    By  producing  the  Koran  in  detached  ])arcels, 
^lahomet  had  it  in  his  power  to  solve  all  objections  by 
ne^  revelations.  It  was  only  after  he  was  well  advanced 
in  years  that  his  doctrines  began  to  be  received.     At 
first,  indeed,  they  were  so  violently  opposed  by  his  fel- 
low-citizens  of  Mecca,  tliat  the  prophet  was  obliged  to 
fly  from  the  city  to  save  his  life.    This  event  is  called 
by  his  followers  Ilegyra,  or  the  Flight :  it  occurred  in 
the  G2*2d  year  of  ihe  Christian  era ;  and  they  reckon 
dates  from  it  as  we  do  from  the  birth  of  Christ.    Ma- 
homet took  refuge  in  the  city  of  Medina,  and  by  the  aid 
of  his  disciples  there,  he  was  soon  enabled  to  return  to 
Mecca  at  the  head  of  an  armed  force.     This  enabled 
him  to  subdue  those  who  would  not  be  convinced,  and 
henceforward  he  proceeded  to  make  proselytes  and  sub- 
jects together,  till  at  length,  being  master  of  all  Arabia 
and  of  ^yrin,  his  numerous  followers  saluted  him  km^. 
(6*27.)     This  extraordinary  man  died  suddenly  and  in 
the  midst  of  successes,  at  tlie  age  of  sixty-one  ((>32). 
Abubeker,  his  father-in-law  and  successor,  united  and 
publi±ihed  the  books  of  the  Koran,  and  continued  and 
extended  the  empire,  spiritual  and  temporal,  which 
Mahomet  had  left  him. 

A  more  powerful  caliph  (such  was  the  title  given  to 
this  series  of  monarchs)  was  Omar,  the  {successor  of 
Abubeker  (G35).  Barbarity,  ferocity,  and  superstition 
seem  to  have  been  mingled  and  to  have  ivaclied  their 
height  in  the  person  of  Umar.  It  was  by  his  order  that 
the  most  magnificent  library  of  antiquity,  that  of  Alex- 
andria, consisting  of  700,000  volumes,  was  burned  to 
ashes.  The  reason  which  he  gave  for  this  act  is  worth 
preserving:  "  If  these  writings,**  he  said,  "a^ree  with 
the  Koran,  they  are  useless,  and  need  not  be  jneserved ; 
if  they  disagree,  they  are  pernicious,  and  ou^^i.t  to  bo 
destroyed.**  By  himself  and  his  generals,  tliis  leroeious 
conqueror  added  Syria,  I'hcenicia,  Mesopotamia,  Chal- 
dea,  Egypt,  Lybia,'and  Numidia,  to  his  einj»ire.  Next 
eamc  6tman,'and  then  Ali,  the  son-in-law  (»f  Mahomet 
himself.  The  name  of  Ali  is  still  revered  by  Mussul- 
mans. His  reign  was  short  l^ut  glorious.  "  Altrr  some 
internal  troubles,  the  Saracens  won  their  way  along  the 
coast  of  Africa,  as  far  as  the  pillars  of  Hercules,  and  a 
third  province  was  irretrievably  torn  from  the  Greek 
empire.  These  western  conquests  introduced  them  to 
fresh  enemies,  and  ushered  in  more  splendid  succesFcs. 
Encouraged  by  the  disunion  of  the  Visigoths  fin  Spain], 
and  invited  by  treachery,  Muza,  the  peniTal  u(  a  master 
who  sat  beyond  the  opposite  extremity  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean Sea,  passed  over  into  Spain,  and  within  about 
two  years  the  name  of  Mahomet  was  invoked  under  tho 
Pvrt'neaiis.**— (/Ai//<7m.     710.) 

Nineteen  caliphs  of  the  race  of  Omar  succeeded  Ah, 
and  after  these  came  the  dynasty  of  the  Abassydtc, 
descended  by  the  male  line  from  Mahomet.  The  second 
caKph  of  this  race,  named  Almanz(«r,  removed  the  scat 
of  empire  to  Bagdat  (7G2),  and  introduced  learning 
and  the  culture  of  the  sciences,  ^\hich  his  successors 
continued  to  promote  with  zeal  and  liberality.  This 
was  some  recompense  for  those  indignities  which  had 
been  cast  upon  literature  by  the  brutal  Omar.  Perhaps 
the  obligations  of  modern  Europe  to  Arabia  at  this  time 
have  been  overstated ;  but  it  is  not  to  bo  denied  that 
learning,  almost  totally  excluded  and  extinct  in  Europe 
during  tlie  eighth  and  ninth  centuries,  found  an  asylum 
here.  It  has  been  matter  of  dispute  how  the  tastes  of 
these  fierce  Arabians  became  thus  first  directed.  They 
probably  owed  it  to  the  Greeks ;  but  it  is  certain  that 
what  they  got  they  returned  with  interest.     We  are 


CHAMBERS'S  INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


Yielded  to  tlio  eflort  of  fift«en  eentnries.  Thej  united 
tiio  subjects  of  tlie  most  distant  provinces  by  an  euty 
and  familiar  intercourse ;  but  their  primary  object  had 
been  to  facilitate  the  marches  of  tlie  le|;ions  :  nor  was 
any  country  considered  a«i  completely  subdued,  till  it 
had  been  rendered,  in  all  its  parts,  pervious  to  tlie  arms 
of  the  conqueror.  The  advantage  of  receiving  the  ear- 
liest intelli^nce,  and  of  conveying  their  orders  with 
celerity,  imluced  the  emperors  to  fc^tabli»h,  throughout 
their  extensive  dominions,  the  regular  institution  of 
posts.  Houses  were  every  where  erected  at  the  dis- 
tance of  only  five  or  six  miles ;  each  of  them  was  con- 
stantly provided  with  forty  horses,  and,  by  the  help  of 
these  relays,  it  was  easy  to  travel  100  miles  in  a  day 
along  tlie  Roman  roads."  By  these  means  the  Romans 
maintained  tlieir  ascendancy  in  every  country,  and  dif- 
fused throogh  the  whole  empire  the  improvements  of 
social  life.  There  was  thus  a  nobleness  and  grandeur 
in  various  eircumstances  connected  with  the  Roman 
•way,  which  by  a  moderate,  firm,  and  enlightened 
system  of  government,  might  have  ultimately  proved 
of  the  greatest  importance  in  the  social  advancement 
of  mankind.  It  was  most  unfortunate,  however,  both 
for  this  sacred  cause  and  for  the  welfare  of  the  Roman 
people  themselves,  that  the  plan  of  enriching  the  com- 
monwealth at  the  seat  of  power,  consisted  almost  ex- 
clusively in  robbing  foreign  territories — a  plan  which 
it  is  impossible  ever  can  permanently  exist  iii  any 
country,  whatever  be  its  power.  Bceidea,  with  all  tlie 
encouragement  given  to  the  fine  arts,  such  as  architec- 
ture, sculpture,  and  the  production  of  luxuries,  there 
was  no  substantial  industry  or  commerce,  and  no  means 
were  taken  to  enlighten  and  refine  the  community,  by 
science,  literature,  or  morals.  The  whole  fabric  of 
Roman  greatness,  in  fact,  rested  on  no  sure  foundation, 
and  its  gradual  decline  and  fail,  from  the  extinction  of 
the  republic,  cannot  excite  the  smallest  degree  of  sur* 
prise. 

The  Twdro  Cvmts. 

The  successes  of  Oesar  placed  him  at  the  head  of  tlie 
Roman  world.  His  only  remaining  opponent  was  Cato, 
who  has  been  described  as  ono  of  the  most  faultless 
eharacters  in  Roman  history.  This  eminent  patriot 
was,  however,  unablf,  by  force  of  arms,  to  restore  the 
liberties  of  the  people,  or  to  arrest  Ctrtuir  in  his  victo- 
rious and  anibitiouH  ran-cr.  Heing  at  Ixst  deMTtcl  by 
his  friends,  and  dro.viin;;  to  fall  into  tlio  hands  uf  liis 
enemy,  afirr  p«md«'riii'^  a  while  on  the  nuturo  <if  tin* 
inmiortalitv  of  the  soul,  ho  stabbed  himself  with  his 
own  (iw(»rd — an  art  which  Konian  morality  held  an 
perfectly  justitiaMo,  and  which  waH  coniniittcd  by 
many  of  tho  first  char.icters  of  tho  stato,  wln-n  they 
hap|M'no<l  to  Im  dosrrtcd  by  fortune.  Aft«*r  tin*  d<'atli 
of  Cato,  Ciesar  was  wjilumt  a  rival.  K«'turnin:j  t<» 
Rome  in  triumph,  he  establihhfd  his  power  an  dictator, 
and  shortly  afterwards  received  tho  title  of  impcrotnr^ 
or  emp«M*or,  \\\\\\  full  powcm  <«f  sovereignty.  The 
anMiinptic'n  of  tht-se  di;;nitie4,  as  may  bu  8uppoM-d, 
served  to  unite  tho  friends  of  tlic  republican  funn  (»f 
government,  or  at  lea.«*t  all  who  had  thriven  on  the 
diseaw«  of  tho  rt«ite,  witli  the  view  of  making  away  with 
the  UMirj»er.  A  dts'p-laid  conspiracy  was  accnrdin;;ly 
formed  against  Cu«ir,  comp<»s««il  «if  sixty  senators,  at 
the  hea<l  i-f  whom  w.i.s  l)ecinm<i  Hrutus  whose  life 
Cie!»ar  had  spared  aftrr  tlie  battle  ol  riiar^iilia,  and 
Cas>iu«,  who  was  pardoned  s<K>n  after.  C'a-sar  was 
privatrlv  ina<lo  acquainted  with  the  existence  of  plots 
against  his  life;  but,  being  of  a  fearless  disposition,  he 
pniceedtfl,  <in  the  day  iutende<l  fi«r  tlie  fatal  blow,  to 
the  s«-nate-hinis<».  Here,  by  a  prec«>nci'rte<l  signal,  he 
was  Ptalibf'l  behind  in  the  sh«>uliler  bv  C^.isca.  Ad  the 
ei»n«pinitiirs  nnw  ruslied  forwar«l,  ami  he  receiviil  a 
second  stab  in  the  breast,  while  CaMius  wountied  him 
in  the  face.  In  this  emergency,  he  defende<l  himself 
with  gr«'at  vij^our,  rushing  amoni;  them,  and  throwing; 
■-^nn  Hueh  as  opposetl  him,  till  he  saw  Hrutns  among 
eoni*pirztoT^,  who,  coming  up,  struck  his  dagger 
bh  thiph.  Frtitn  that  moment,  Ca*sar  thought  no 
of  rfrfrad/n/f  himnflf,  but,  Jookins:  upon  the  un- 

110 


grateful  assailant,  cried  ont,  '^  And  yon 
Then,  covering  his  head,  and  spreading  I: 
him,  in  order  to  fall  with  a  greater  dec 
down  at  tlic  base  of  Pompey's  statue,  a 
twenty>three  wounds  from  hands  which 
posed  he  had  disarmed  by  his  benefits.  ' 
remarkable  man,  the  bcnnt  who  ever  as 
reignty  in  Rome,  tho  victor  in  five  hu 
and  the  conqueror  of  a  thousand  citiet 
sixth  year  of  his  age  (44  Kc.) 

Upon  the  death  of  Conar,  the  cf*n* 
unable  to  form  a  government,  or  to  insp 
in  their  designs ;  and  in  the  distractions 
Mark  Antony,  an  ambitious  man  and  fc 
tenant  of  Ciesar,  endeavoured  to  raise  1 
supreme  command.  In  this  eflort  he  w: 
ful.  Octavius,  grand-nephew  and  adopteil 
also  came  forward  as  a  candidate  ftir  ] 
likewise  did  a  third  personage,  named  1/ 
one  of  these  ambitious  men  possessed  i 
to  attain  supreme  command,  they  enten 
tion,  forming  a  tripartite  power,  termed 
Doing  opposed  by  Brutus,  a  dreadful  ci^ 
the  atrocities  of  which  are  scarcely  parall 
Hrutus  was  ultimately  killed,  after  wY 
triumvirate  quarrelled  among  themselves 
by  force  of  arms,  becoming  conqueror 
dignity  of  empen>r  of  Rome. 

Juliui  CnBr*!  niocewnrs. 

On  arriving  at  this  prrmd  eminence, 
called  Augustus  Cicsar,*  relinquished 
designs  of  his  predecefwors ;  ho  endeav 
solioate  the  empire,  instead  of  extendi: 
bounds,  and  introduced  a  spirit  of  m 
the  public  councils  hitherto  unknown, 
tasto  of  tho  Romans,  ho  indulged  then 
of  seeing  the  appearance  of  a  republic, 
them  really  happy  in  the  effects  of  a  mo« 
narchy,  guided  by  the  most  eonsumm 
Historians  delight  in  recounting  tho  m 
deeds  of  Augustus,  and  tho  glories  of 
from  him  the  phrase  of  '*  the  Augustan 
by  writers  to  periods  in  tho  history  of  n; 
able  for  the  pn>sperity  and  retineruent  w 
has  been  derived,      ll  was  in  the  twrnt 
the  rei;;n  of  this  ma;;naiiiini.U'<  priniM-  th: 
w:is  l>oni,  in  the  K<iinan  provinee  *>(  .ludi- 
11   of  our  era,  Au-^u^lus  was  sueeeedei 
a  person  of  an  eniin-Iy  different  charael 
whom  the  corruptions  of  the  sl.iti'  became 
the  nineteenth  }ear  of  his  t-ruel  reiijn,  ( 
clfied,  under   ritnlius   Pilate,  tho  Ui'tna 
Jerusilrm.     In  the  vear  .'17,  TilM'riu>*wn 
by  Knn»therini;  him  with  pill«iws,  or,  as  -. 
allege,  by  poi«>on  ;  an^i  he  was  sneci-<«IiMl 
pei*son  of  >ieious  habits  and  still  i]i(»re  ci 
This  emperor  was  ]in)di;:al  and  extnivai;; 
almost  inconceivabh*.    Tin*  luxuries  i>f  foi 
wen*  simplicity  il*«elf  wln-n  compariMl  Ut 
]>racti«ied.     lie  eontrivid  new  ways  of  1 
the  richest  oils  and  nn'^^t  ]»recious  |HTf!r 
with   tho  ntnn>!>t  profu'^ixn.     lie  louinl 
inunens««   vahn*,    an*!   hail   even    j«'»el«», 
dis-olvrd  ainon;;  his  kiucos.     M.-  sonn-t 
vices  of  jiuro  p)ld  presented  In-fon.'  Ins 
of  meat.     Hut  his  prodi;;ality  war»  tin* 
aide  in  rcjjaril  to  his  horse.     He  built  fo 
marble,  and  a  manner  "f  ivory.     When 
mal,  wliieh  he  called  Incitatus,  was  to  ; 
sentinels  near  its  stable  tho  nii»!it  pn*c 
vent  its  slunilx'rs  from  being  bn»ken. 
it  a  hou«e,  furnitun*,  and  a  kitchen,  in 
ail  its  vi.'^itoi-s  with  pro|>or  respect. 

*  A  ntiinlicr  of  tho  irniMTu!  i^ucreiiMMrH  of  Julii 
the  title  of  drAir,  in  luliliti'in  to  their  otlicr  ile« 
fame  nmnncr  as  wo  finil  the  .ippcUutUm*  of  Thai 
were  aitf«iuiic«l  by  iniuiy  of  the  Egyptian  Bowreif 
(*x«ar  hu  Itcen  euriously  enoiiKli  pravrred  iintU 
the  Ul\e  ol  Czar ,  y(\\VcYi  \.«  %\x«u\)'y  IUq  R  umIjuii  I 


mSTORY  OF  THE  MIDDLK  AGES. 


3  in  tune  into  utter  insignificance,  while  the 
wer  was  wielded  by  an  important  officer,  called 
-oar  of  the  PaUce.  Among  the  most  remarkable 
waa  Pepin  Heristal,  Duke  of  Austrasia,  who 
ranee  for  thirty  years  with  great  wisdom  and 
liey.  Hu  son,  Charles  Martel,  who  succeeded 
mwer,  distinguished  himself  by  that  great  vic> 
er  the  Saracens  (73*2),  which  checked  their 
n  Europe. 

ipeal  by  Pepin  le  Bref,  the  son  of  Charles  Martel, 
*ope  of  Rome,  whose  authority  had  by  this  time 
great,  ruled  that  he  who  had  the  power  should 
re  the  title  of  king,  and  this  put  an  end  to  the 
f  the  descendants  of  Clovis  (752).  Pepin  remu- 
,  the  pope  for  tliis  service  by  turning  his  arms 
the  Lombards  in  Italy,  some  of  whose  dominions 
erred  npon  the  Holy  See ;  and  these,  it  is  said, 
e  first  of  the  temporal  possessions  of  the  church. 
died  (768),  leaving  two  sons,  Carloman  and 
I,  who  succeeded  him  in  the  empire.  Carloman 
an  early  period  of  life,  but  Charles  survived  to 
i  for  himself  a  fame  greater  than  that  of  any 
individual  during  the  middle  ages,  with,  per- 
ht  single  exception  of  Mahomet.  We  shall 
1  to  speak  of  him  and  of  his  times,  after  making 
two  observations  on  some  other  European  coun- 


n  was  among  the  earliest  countries  lost  to  the 
1  empire.  From  about  the  year  40b*,  this  country, 
le  or  in  part,  had  been  successively  invaded  and 
d  by  Suevi,  Akuns,  Vandals,  and  Visigoths. 
it-named  people  were  in  possession  of  the  greater 

the  country  before  the  year  585,  and  erected  a 
:hy  which  existed  till  712,  when  they  were  sub- 
j  the  Saracens  or  Moors.  The  Saracens  made 
Leseent  on  Spain  from  Africa,  where  Muzn,  a 
r  of  the  Caliph  of  Bagdat,  had  already  made  ex- 
■  conquests.  They  easily  overran  Spain  and  van- 
iDon  Rodrigo,  or  Roderic,  the  last  of  the  Gothic 

Abdallab,  son  of  Muza,  married  the  widow  of 
e,  and  the  two  nations  entered  into  union.  Be- 
» conclusion  of  the  eighth  century,  Abdalrahman, 
the  Moorish  generals,  had  laid  aside  all  temporal 
ion  to  the  Caliph  of  Bagdat,  and  formed  Spain 
I  independent  kingdom.  His  residence  was  at 
"a,  and  this  city  became  renowned  as  one  of  the 
alightened  in  Europe,  under  several  succeeding 
Those  parts  of  Spain  which  were  under  the 
ih  kings  embraced  also  their  religion.   The  uorth 


■rds  the  conclusion  of  the  sixth  century,  Italy 
the  possession  of  the  Longobeards,  or  Lombards, 
tttinned  masters  of  the  greater  ])art  of  it  for  two 
lea.  Of  their  rule,  history  has  recorded  little 
i  murders  and  confusion. 

M  daring  this  period  tliat  the  Saxon  Heptarchy 
rmed  in  Britain. 

aUSLEllJLG?IE — THE  NEW  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 

■r  the  greatest  character  who  appeared  in  Europe 
I  period  was  Charles,  the  son  of  Pepin  lo  Bref, 
Mwn  in  history  by  the  name  of  Charlemagne,  or 
■  the  Great.  **  In  the  course  of  a  reign  of  forty- 
an^  Charlemagne  extended  the  limits  of  his  eni- 
if  und  the  Danube,  subdued  Dacia,  Dulmatia,  and 
conquered  and  subjected  all  the  barbarous 
to  the  banks  of  the  Viutula,  made  himself  master 
eat  portion  of  Italy,  and  successfully  encountered 
■a  of  the  Saracens,  the  Huns,  the  Bulgarians, 
he  Saxons.  His  war  with  the  Saxons  was  of 
jian'  duration  ;  and  their  iinal  conquest  was  not 
'•d  without  an  inhuman  waste  of  blood.  At  the 
It  «f  the  pope,  and  to  discharge  the  obligations 
I  ftther  i'epin  to  the  holy  see,  Charlemagne, 
h  allied  by  marriage  to  Desiderius,  King  of  the 
■ds,  disponessed  tliat  prince  of  all  his  dominions, 
M  a  final  period  to  the  Lombard  dominion  in 

(n4>"— (ry/fer.) 

M  (^rianaffiie  made  hi^  first  entry  into  Rome, 

117 


he  was  crowned  King  of  France  and  of  the  Lombards 
by  Pope  Adrian  I. ;  and  afterwards,  on  a  second  visit, 
he  was  consecrated  Emperor  of  the  West  by  the  hands 
of  Pope  Leo  III.  (800).  He  probably  attached  some 
importance  to  these  rites ;  but  it  is  to  be  remarked 
that,  as  yet,  the  pontiff  was  not  in  enjoyment  of  that 
high  influence  by  which  he  afterwards  could  confer  or 
withdraw  sovereignty  at  his  pleasure. 

*«  It  is  probable,"  says  Mr  Tytler,  « that,  had  Charle- 
magne chosen  Rome  for  his  residence  and  seat  of  go- 
vernment, and  at  his  death  transmitted  to  his  successor 
an  undivided  dominion,  that  great  but  fallen  empire 
might  have  once  more  been  restored  to  lustre  and  re- 
spect ;  but  Charlemagne  had  no  fixed  capital,  and  he 
divided  even  in  his  lifetime  his  dominions  among  his 
children*'  (806).  Charlemagne  died  in  the  year  814, 
aged  72.  His  last  days  were  employed  in  consolidating, 
mther  than  extending,  his  empire,  by  the  making  of 
laws  which  have  rendered  his  name  famous,  and  his 
memory  even  blessed.  *'  Though  engaged  in  so  many 
wars,"  says  Dr  Russell,  "  Charlemagne  was  far  from 
neglecting  the  arts  of  peace,  the  happiness  of  his  sub- 
jects, or  the  cultivation  of  his  own  mind.  Government, 
manners,  religion,  and  letters,  were  his  constant  pur- 
suits. He  frequently  convened  the  national  assemblies, 
for  regulating  the  atl'airs  both  of  church  and  state.  In 
these  assemblies  he  proposed  such  laws  as  he  considered 
to  be  of  public  benefit,  and  allowed  the  same  liberty  to 
others ;  but  of  this  liberty,  indeed,  it  would  have  been 
diflicult  to  deprive  the  French  nobles,  who  had  been 
accustomed,  from  the  foundation  of  the  monarchy,  to 
share  the  legislation  with  their  sovereign.  His  atten- 
tion extended  even  to  the  most  distant  corners  of  his 
empire,  and  to  all  ranks  of  men.  He  manifested  a  par- 
ticular regard  for  the  commou  people,  and  studied  their 
ease  and  advantage.  The  same  love  of  mankind  led 
him  to  repair  and  form  public  roads ;  to  build  bridges, 
where  necessary ;  to  make  rivers  navigable  for  the  pur- 
poses of  commerce ;  and  to  project  that  gi*and  canal 
which  would  have  openpd  a  communication  between 
the  German  Ocean  nnd  the  Black  Sea,  by  uniting  the 
Danube  and  the  Rhine."  Amidst  all  his  greatness, 
his  personal  habits  were  simple ;  his  dress  was  of  the 
plainest  sort,  and  such  even  as  lo  shame  his  own  cour- 
tiers ;  his  houi*s  of  study  were  set  apart,  and  seldom 
omitted  even  in  the  busiest  times  of  his  life  ;  his  daugh- 
ters were  taught  spinning  and  huusewiterv',  and  his 
sons  trained  by  himself  in  all  the  accomplisliments  of 
the  age.  Charlemagne  was  fond  of  the  company  of 
learned  men,  and  greatly  encouraged  their  residence 
in  his  dominions.  In  this  respect  he  resembled  his 
contemporary  Harounal  Raschici,  so  famous  in  Arabian 
history,  and  Alfred  the  Great,  who  ap]>eared  in  England 
shortly  after  this  period.     Superior  to  all  national  pre- 

i'udice,  he  elevated  an  Englibhnian  named  Alcuin  to  tho 
tead  of  his  royal  academy.  He  was  zealous  fur  the 
extension  of  Christianity ;  and  one  of  the  few  blots  upon 
his  name  arises  from  his  having,  in  the  spirit  of  his  age, 
caused  4000  Saxon  prisonei's  to  be  beheaded  in  one 
day,  because  they  would  not  submit  to  be  baptised. 
Charlemagne  established  schools  in  the  cathedrals  and 
principal  abbeys,  for  teaching  writing,  arithmetic, 
grammar,  and  music. 

Of  the  sons  of  Charlemagno,  Louis,  the  youngest, 
surnamed  the  Dchonnalre,  or  gentle,  was  the  only  one 
who  survived.  He  succeeded  to  all  his  father's  domi- 
nions, except  Italy,  which  fell  into  the  hands  of  Ber- 
nard, a  grandson  of  Charleniaj^ne.  Louis,  deticieut  in 
vigour  of  character,  was  not  able  to  hold  together  tho 
great  empire  left  to  him  by  his  father.  Having,  among 
the  first  acts  of  his  reign,  given  large  portions  of  it  to 
his  cliildren,  the  remainder  of  his  life  was  spent  in  dis- 
graceful quarrels  with  them  ;  and,  after  his  death  (840), 
tho  empire  was  formally  divided — Lothaire,  his  eldest 
son,  obtaining  Lorraine  and  Provence ;  while  Charles 
the  Bald,  a  younger  son,  continued  sovereign  of  the 
western  parts  of  France ;  and  Louis  became  King  of 
Germany.  Thus  abruptly  ends  the  history  of  the  second 
western  empire. 


CIIA^^IBERS'S  IXFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


FRANCE  FROM  TIIF.  TIME  OF  CITARLES  TUT.  B.VLD  TO  THE 
1:LEA'£NTII  CKNTUKV. 

During  tho  reign  of  Charles  the  Bald,  France  first 
■uifered  from  the  attacks  of  tho  Normans,  a  race  of 
bold  and  needy  adventurers  from  the  north  of  £uroi>e. 
Their  plundering  invasions  were  continued  for  upwards 
of  seventy  years;  till  at  length  (912)  the  French  king 
was  compelled  to  purchase  their  amity,  by  yielding  to 
Hollo,  their  leader,  the  country  afterwards  from  them 
called  Normandy,  of  which  Rouen  was  the  capital.  The 
first  successor  of  Charles  the  Bald,  with  whose  name 
history  has  as^sociated  any  thing  worth  remembering, 
was  Charles,  surnamed  the  Fat  (805).  He  was  the  son 
of  that  Louis  to  whom  Germany  had  been  before  as- 
signed, and  was  thus  enabled  to  briirg  that  country  and 
France  for  a  short  time  once  more  under  a  single  ruler. 
In  the  tuL'uuIence  of  the  times,  Charles  was  soon  de- 
posedf  and  during  the  century  which  followed,  France, 
BO  lately  the  centre  of  an  empire  little  less  than  that  of 
Rome  in  the  days  of  ifs  Cicsui*s,  was  split  up  into  a  mul- 
titude of  independencies,  by  nobles  who  would  own  only 
a  very  nlender  subjection  to  the  kinp^s.  Out  of  these 
nohk-H  at  Inst  sprang  Hugh  Capet  (l)U7)i  who  was  en- 
abled, on  the  death  of  Louis  V.,  to  place  himself  on  the 
thmnc.  He  was  already  possessed  of  great  pro|ierty, 
and  pi\»vcd  himself  to  be  also  a  prince  of  much  ability 
and  penetration.  He  established  the  royal  residence  at 
Partf»,  which  his  predecessors  had  deserted,  and  became 
the  founder  of  a  family  which  still,  in  one  of  its  branches, 
occupies  the  throne  of  France.  He  deserves  to  be  men- 
tioned with  honour,as  being  among  the  first  of  European 
kin<;H  who  trusted  to  prudence,  counsel,  and  moderation, 
rather  than  force  of  ai'ms,  in  effecting  his  puriKises.  His 
BuceehH  was  great,  as  it  deserved  to  be.  On  his  death 
(9i'()),  in  the  fifty-seventh  year  of  his  ago  and  tho  tenth 
of  his  rci(ro,  he  was  succeeded  by  his  sou  llobert,  who 
had  all  his  father's  e(iuitable  disposition  without  his 
vigour  of  character.  He  was  suhjccted  to  a  dei^ree  of 
tv runny,  on  the  part  of  the  church,  of  whirli  perhaps 
the  historv  of  the  world  dues  not  afford  such  another 
exuni[ile.  llohcrt  had  been  guilty  of  marrying  a  cousin 
in  the  tourtli  degree,  without  a  dit'pensalion  from  the 
holy  f^oe,  that  is,  without  paying  a  fine  for  what  was 
only  an  imaginarj'  oftbnce.  Gregory  V.,  whr>  then  f)C- 
cu})ied  tiio  poutifienl  chair,  threatened  to  excommuni- 
cate Kobert  if  he  should  not  dismiss  his  wife,  and, 
on  Il>il>i'rt*s  refusal,  actually  did  so,  and  laid  all  his 
domiiiifiis  under  an  int(>niict.  This  punishment  proved 
trenuMiil'ius  in  its  efl'eets ;  for,  though  the  king  him- 
self shiiwid  sense  and  courage  enough  to  despise  tho 
wnith  of  tiie  pontitf,  yet  his  subjects  deserted  him  in 
terror.  Tho  priebts,  in  consequence  of  tho  interdict, 
refu«.cl  ^nerauient  to  the  frick  all  over  the  country, and 
the  tlead  witi;  evi^ry  where  left  im buried,  whou  mass  was 
no  Ioniser  Kiid.  In  these  circumstances,  the  unfortu- 
nate king  hubmitted.  A  pecond  marriage,  contracted 
with  the  consent  of  the  church,  proved  very  unhappy. 
The  new  queen,  Constantiu,  or  Constance,  made  many 
efforts  to  end. roil  her  hubband  and  his  family,  and  in 
the  nii'I>t  of  these  Robert  died  (lOlil).  His  son  Henry 
succec<K-<I,  and  it  was  diu'ing  his  rei^n  that  those  pii- 
•jrini;i;;«-i  to  the  Hi-ly  Lantl,  which  uire  so  soon  to  end 
in  the  Crusades,  took  their  rise.  Of  these  wo  shall 
spi'.'iU  liv  thenipelves.  In  the  mean  time  we  take  leave 
••f  r ranee  by  mentioning  that  Henry's  successor  was 
rhilip  (]nr;n).  wlm.^e  rcipi  is  reniarkablo  as  having 
witni'->4>i|  the  bei^inninguf  those  contents  with  En<;Iand 
wliicii  coitinued  at  interv:ils  till  the  early  part  of  the 
ninetei  jiih  ct-ntury. 

At  ihi-^  I'trit'rl  (lOfifi),  tho  Normans  conquered  Enjf- 
land,  where  their  leader,  William  Duke  of  Nonuiindy, 
became  tho  founder  of  an  important  dynasty. 

Tim  f;i:p.M.i.N  uirinp.  till  ihi:  ia.KVi:.vrii  cuntcrt. 

Germany  had  no  political  existence  till  the  time  of 
C1i.trlenin:;nc,  when  it  was  formed  by  him  into  a  part 
of  i];e  western  empire.  Ti»wardH  the  oonclusion  of  the 
ninth  ceulurv,  ii  bt-canie  an  enmiro  of  itself,     lu  the 

i:u 


year  8R7,  Arnold,  a  natural  son  of  Carbma; 
phew  of  Charles  the  Fat,  was  declared  emp< 
assembly  of  bishops  and  nobles.  These  ass 
Germany  always  retained  a  voice  in  the  < 
their  emperors;  and  though  they  often  n 
choice  from  the  line  of  succession,  they  neve 
ledged  any  hereditary  rights  whatever.  Aftei 
of  Arnold's  son,  called  Louis  IIL,  their  choic 
Conrad,  Duke  of  Frauconia  (912).  Conrad's 
was  Henry  I.,  surnamed  the  FowUr.  He  was  i 
great  abilities,  and  introduced  order  and  go< 
mcnt  into  the  empire.  *^  He  united  tlie  gra 
curbed  their  usur]>ation8 ;  built,  embellished, 
fied  cities ;  and  enforced,  with  great  rigour, 
tion  of  the  laws  in  the  repression  of  all  enorn 
had  been  consecrated  by  his  own  bishops,  and  x 
no  correspondence  with  the  see  of  Rome. 
Otho  the  Great,  who  succeeded  him  (938),  ui 
to  the  empire,  and  kept  the  popedom  in  con 
jection.  He  made  Denmark  tributary  to  th 
crown,  annexed  the  crown  of  Bohemia  to  h 
minions,  and  seemed  to  aim  at  a  paramount 
over  all  the  sovereigns  of  Europe." 

In  these  times  tlie  papacy  was  much  d 
**  FomiosuR,  twice  excommunicated  by  Poi>e  Ji 
had  himself  arrived  at  the  triple  crown.  On 
his  rival.  Pope  Stephen  VI L,  caused  his  boih 
out  of  the  grave,  and  after  trial  for  hi«>  cr: 
demncd  it  to  be  flung  into  the  Tiber.  The 
Fonnosus  fished  up  the  corpse,  and  had  inter 
cure  the  disposition  of  Stephen,  who  was  sti 
prison.  A  succeeding  pope,  Sergius  1 1 1 .,  aga 
the  ill-fated  carcass,  and  once  more  threw  i 
river.  Two  infamous  women,  Marosia  and 
managed  the  popedom  for  many  years,  and 
chair  of  St  Peter  with  their  own  gaUant« 
adulterous  offspring." — (  Tyiler).  It  was  amids 
fusion  and  these  disturbances  timt  Otho  was  i 
turn  his  arms  on  Italy.  He  shortly  made  hum 
of  it  all,  and  had  himself  declared  emperor  b 
see,  with  all  the  pcnnp  that  had  attended 
ceremony  to  Charlemagne  hiniKelf  {i.Hi'2),  I 
XII.,  whom  Otho  himself  had  been  the  meai 
ing  t«)  the  pcmtitical  chair,  rebelled  soon  aft 
rciurneii  to  lionio  in  fury,  had  Jnhn  defKise 
one-half  of  tlie  senate  before  he  lefi  the  city,  & 
a  solemn  acknowledgment  from  an  ussenibl} 
tant  bishops,  tliat  tho  emperor  had  a  right  l 
nominate  to  vacant  bishopries,  but  also  to 
pope  himself.  CKlio  died  (f>7-),  and  was  fv 
succession  by  Otho  1 1.,  Otho  1 1 1.,  St  Henry,  C 
and  Henry  111.,  the  history  of  whose  rJign 
nothhig  instructive,  or  upon  which  the  miu( 
^ith  pleasure.  Henry  JV.  (lO.VJ)  in  rema 
having  been  one  of  the  greatest  victims  of  pap 
that  history  luis  made  us  acquainted  with, 
brated  Hildebntnde,  known  as  (jregory  VI 
tl»is  age  the  nxrans  of  raising  the  jmwer  of  tl 
to  a  height  which  it  had  never  reached  before 
Heury'.s  enntCbt  with  this  darini;  and  anibiti«» 
he  made  him  twice  his  ]>ris<>iier,  and  twic 
thunders  of  the  Vatican  excommunicate  and  d 
in  Consequence.  As  a  specimen  of  tho  p 
insolence  of  this  pope,  we  may  mention  thj 
disjiirited  by  tho  effect  which  his  cxcoinmunic 
upon  his  fii«-nds  and  foilowirs,  having  resol 
tl)  Uome  and  ask  absolution  fi-om  (Jregory  i 
did  so ;  and,  ]>resenting  himself  as  an  hun'ibl 
at  the  palace  of  St  Peter,  was  there  stripped  of 
and  obliged  to  remain  in  that  condition,  in 
court,  in  the  montli  of  January  (lt»77),  b 
among  mow,  and  fasting,  for  three  succest 
l>efore  he  was  allowed  to  implore  furgivene 
oflences!  On  the  fnurtii  day  lie  was  periuiti 
tho  too  of  his  holiness,  and  then  received  al 
ileury  died  in  the  year  liUG. 

ITALY  I  i:{)M  inn  .MMH  to  in2  ELEVE.\TiI  ct 

The  fctato  of  ha!y  uuriii^  this  period  has  bci 


HISTORY  OF  THE  MIDDLE  AGES. 


'  noiieed  la  the  preeedlng  section.  From  the 
LoduuTii,  to  whom  it  was  nominally  assigned  as 
tm  kingdom  (843),  to  that  of  Otho  the  Great, 
le  eountry  was  ravaged  by  contending  tyrants. 
I  the  invasions  of  the  Nurmans  and  tne  claims 
lerman  emperors,  it  became  much  distracted, 
I  ultimately  split  np  into  several  independent 
Some  of  these,  particularly  Venice,  Genoa, 
d  Florence,  became  afterwards  independent  and 
1  republics.  It  was  during  the  present  period 
foundation  of  the  temponu  power  of  the  popes 

'JK  FB0X  THE  TIME  OF  IBDAL&Ainf  AN  TILL  THE 
ELEVENTH  CEMTVRT. 

ig  the  period  of  which  we  have  been  treating, 
leemed  leas  a  part  of  Europe  than  any  other 

in  it.  The  greater  part  of  it  still  continued 
be  dominion  of  the  Moors,  and  apparently  with 
ige.  **  This  period,**  says  Mr  T^'tlcr,  **  from  the 
of  the  eighth  to  the  miadle  of  the  tenth  century, 
It  brilliant  era  of  Arabian  magnificence.  Whilst 
lal  Raschidmade  Bagdat  illustrious  by  the  spleu- 
f  the  arts  and  sciences,  the  Moors  of  Cordova 
th  their  brethren  of  Asia  in  the  same  honourable 
1,  and  were  undoubtedly  at  this  period  the  most 
esed  of  the  states  in  Europe.  Under  a  series  of 
isees,  they  gained  the  highest  reputation,  both 
and  arms,  of  all  the  nations  of  the  west.'*  And 
m  eastern  conquerors  seem  to  have  had  their 
a  IB  well  as  others.  A  race  of  powerful  nobles 
them,  as  in  the  other  countries  of  Europe,  dis- 

tbt  country  and  made  efiective  government 
ibie.  The  Christian  part  of  the  population,  still 
cd  of  several  province  in  the  north,  might  havo 
dvantage  of  such  a  state  of  things  for  repossess- 
Dselves  of  their  lost  country.  But  civil  dissen- 
s  still  greater  among  themselves,  and  Christian 
readily  formed  alliances  with  the  Moors,  if  they 
vospect  of  weakening  an  immediate  enemy  by 
eans,  foigetting  that  the  common  foe  still  rc- 
to  harass  them.  But  the  detail  of  these  nume- 
d  petty  contentions  need  not  detain  us  longer ; 
•  the  history  of  Spain  assume  any  importance 
ids  the  conclusion  of  the  fifteenth  century,  when 
cd  arms  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella  expelled  the 
or  ever  from  the  country. 

AL  SUTE  OF  EL'BOPE  IN  THE  ELEVENTH  CENTURY. 

s  the  end  of  the  tenth  century,  Europe  had 
a  point  of  darkness  and  degradation,  beyond 
;  seemed  impossible  to  go.  Though  long  nomi- 
averted  to  the  Christian  religion,  the  nations 
ipe  may  be  said  to  have  scarcely  exhibited,  up 
period,  a  single  distinctive  mark  of  what  men 
lod  by  Christian  civilibation.  **  The  barbarous 
"  sa^'S  Dr  Robertson,  **  when  converted  to 
nity,  changed  the  object  not  the  spirit  of  tlieir 
I  worship.  They  endeavoured  to  conciliate  tlie 
il  the  true  God,  by  means  not  unlike  to  those 
iicy  had  employed  in  order  to  appease  their 
ities.  Instead  of  aspiring  to  sanctity  and  vir- 
ich  alone  can  render  men  acceptable  to  the 
ithor  of  order  and  of  excellence,  they  imagined 
y  satisfied  every  obligation  of  duty  by  a  scru- 
bbservance  of  external  ceremonies.  Religion, 
kg  to  their  conception  of  it,  comprehended  no- 
l«;  and  the  rites  by  which  they  persuaded 
res  tliat  they  should  gain  the  favour  of  ilcaven, 
such  a  nature  as  might  have  been  expected 
I  mde  ideas  of  the  ages  which  devised  and  in- 
I  them.  They  were  citlier  so  unmeaning  as  to 
ether  nnwoiiny  of  the  Being  to  whose  honour 
re  consecrated,  or  so  absurd  as  to  bo  a  disgrace 
a  and  humanity.  Charlemagne  in*  France,  and 
(be  Great  in  England,  endeavoured  to  dispel 
knsss,  and  gave  their  subjects  a  short  glimpse 
ani  knowledge.  But  the  Ignorance  of  the  age 
ponnxfol  for  their  efforts  and  institutions.  The 

lid 


darkness  returned,  and  settled  over  Europe,  more  thick 
and  heavy  than  before.'*  The  clergy  were  the  only 
body  of  men  among  whom  any  knowledge  or  learning 
now  remained ;  and  this  superiority  they  employed  to 
continue,  if  not  to  dec[>en,  the  degradation  into  which 
society  had  fallen.  The  superstitious  belief  that  moral 
crimes  could  be  expiated  by  presents  to  the  Deity,  if 
not  originated  by  them,  at  least  found  them  its  stre- 
nuous defenders,  for  the  reason  that  a  gift  to  God 
meant,  in  plainer  language,  a  toiatinm  to  the  church. 
The  priests  would  have  mado  men  believe  that  avarice 
was  the  first  attribute  of  the  Deity,  and  that  the  saints 
made  a  traffic  of  their  influence  with  Heaven.  Hence 
Clovis  is  said  to  have  jocularly  remarked,  that,  **  thoueh 
St  Martin  served  his  friends  very  well,  he  sdso  made 
them  pay  well  for  his  trouble." 

Persons  in  the  highest  ranks  and  most  exalted  sta- 
tions, could  neither  read  nor  write.  Of  the  clergy 
themselves,  many  of  them  did  not  understand  the  Bre- 
viary which  it  was  tlieir  duty  to  recite ;  and  some  of 
them,  it  is  said,  could  scarcely  read  it.  Those  among 
tlie  laity  who  had  to  express  their  assent  in  writing, 
did  so  by  a  sign  of  the  cross  attached  to  the  document 
(sometimes  also  by  a  seal) ;  and  to  this  day,  in  conse- 
quence, we  speak  of  tigning  a  document,  when  we  sub- 
scribe our  names. 

The  evils  of  the  feudal  s^'stem,  too,  had  by  this  time 
become  excessive  and  insupportable.  Every  petty  chief 
was  a  king  in  his  own  dominions,  and  their  vassals 
were  their  subjects,  if,  indeed,  they  should  not  be  called 
slaves.  These  barons  made  laws  of  their  own,  held 
courts  of  their  own,  coined  money  in  their  own  names, 
and  levied  war  at  their  own  pleasure  against  their  ene- 
mies ;  and  these  enemies  were  not  unfrequcntly  tlieir 
kings.  Indeed,  the  kings  of  these  times  can  be  looked 
upon  in  no  other  liglit  than  as  superior  lords,  receiving 
a  nominal  and  empty  homage  for  lands,  which,  in  the 
fictitious  language  of  feudal  law,  were  said  to  be  held 
of  the  crown.  In  these  circumstances,  what  might  we 
expect  to  be  the  condition  of  the  great  body  of  the 
people)  They  were  either  actual  slaves,  or  exposed 
to  so  many  miseries,  arising  from  pillago  and  oppres- 
sion, that  many  of  them  made  a  voluntary  surrender  of 
their  liberty  in  exchange  for  bi*ead  and  protection  from 
the  feudal  lords.  There  teas  no  people,  as  that  term  is 
now  understood.  ^  There  was  nothing  morally  in  com- 
mon,*' says  Guizot,  ^  between  the  lord  and  tlie  serfs ; 
they  formed  part  of  his  domains,  and  were  his  pro- 
perty ;  under  which  designation  were  comprised  all 
the  rights  that  wo  at  present  call  rights  of  public 
sovereignty,  as  well  as  the  privileges  of  private  pro- 
perty, he  having  the  right  of  giving  laws,  of  imposing 
tuxes,  and  of  inflicting  punisliineut,  as  well  as  that  of 
disposing  and  selling.  In  fact,  as  between  tho  lord 
and  tho  labourers  on  his  domain,  there  were  no  recog- 
nised laws,  no  guarantees,  no  society,  at  least  so  far 
as  may  be  predicated  of  any  state  in  which  men  are 
brought  into  contact."  In  what  way  society  rose  above 
so  many  accumulated  evils,  and  light  sprang  from  so 
much  darkness,  we  shall  now  endeavour  to  show.  The 
most  remarkable  and  the  most  lasting  influence,  beyond 
all  question,  was  that  exerted  by 

TUB  CRUSADES. 

"  It  is  natural  to  the  human  mind,"  says  Dr  Robert- 
son,''to  view  those  places  which  have  been  distinguished 
by  being  the  residence  of  any  celebrated  personage, 
or  the  scene  of  any  great  transaction,  with  some  degree 
of  delight  and  veneration.  To  this  principle  must  be 
ascribed  tho  superstitious  devotion  with  which  Chris- 
tians, from  the  earliest  ages  of  the  church,  were  accus- 
tomed to  visit  that  country  which  the  Almighty  had 
selected  as  the  inlieritance  of  his  favourite  people,  and 
in  which  the  Son  of  God  had  accomplished  the  redemp- 
tion of  mankind.  As  this  distant  pilgrinoage  could  not 
bo  performed  without  considerable  expense,  fatigue, 
and  danger,  it  appeared  the  more  meritorious,  and  came 
to  be  considered  as  an  expiation  for  almost  every  crime. 
An  opinion,  which  si)read  with  rapidity  over  Europo 


CHAMBERS'S  INFORMATION  FOR  TIIE  PEOPLE. 


about  the  close  of  the  tenth  and  bcginnmg  of  the  eleventh 
centur}',  and  which  gained  universal  credit,  wonderfully 
augmented  the  number  of  credulous  pilgrims,  and  in- 
creased the  ardour  with  which  they  undertook  this 
useless  voyage.  The  thousand  years  mentioned  by  St 
John  [Rev.  xx.  2,  3,  4]  were  supposed  to  be  accom- 
plished, and  the  end  of  the  world  to  be  at  hand.  A 
general  consternation  seized  mankind ;  many  relin- 
quished their  possessions,  and,  abandoning  their  friends 
and  families,  Imrried  with  precipitation  to  the  Holy 
Land,  wheru  they  imagined  that  Christ  would  quickly 
appear  to  judge  the  world.* 

While  Palestine  continue<I  subject  to  the  caliphs, 
they  had  encouraged  the  resort  of  pilgrims  to  Jeru- 
salem, and  considered  this  as  a  beneficial  species  of 
comniei*ce,  which  brought  into  their  dominions  gold  and 
silver,  and  carried  nothing  out  of  them  but  relics  and 
consecrated  trinkets.  But,  the  Turks  having  conquered 
Syria  about  the  middle  of  the  eleventh  century,  ])ilgrim8 
were  exposed  to  outrages  of  every  kind  from  these 
fierce  barbarians.  This  change  happening  precisely 
at  the  juncture  when  the  panic  terror  which  I  have 
mentioned  rendered  pilgrimages  most  frequent,  filled 
Europe  with  alarm  and  indignation.  Kvery  person 
who  returned  from  Palestine  related  the  dangers  which 
he  liad  encountered,  in  visiting  tlie  holy  city,  and  de- 
scribed with  exaggeration  the  cruelty  and  vexations  of 
the  Turks." 

Among  the  most  notorious  of  those  who  had  returned 
with  thejic  accounts,  was  a  monk  known  by  tlie  immo  of 
Peter  the  Hermit.  By  all  accounts  this  individual 
seems  to  liave  been  a  weak-minded  and  contemptible 
being.  He  is  represented  as  running  from  city  to 
city,  and  from  kingdom  to  kingdom,  bare-headed,  with 
naked  arms  and  legs,  and  bearing  aloft  a  ponderous 
crucifix  in  his  hand,  imploring  and  preaching  with  an 
enthuHiastic  madnc»«  on  the  necessity  of  wresting  the 
Holy  Land  from  the  hands  of  the  iniidels.  In  a  more 
enlightened  age,  Peter  the  Hermit  would  probably  have 
been  confined  us  a  troublesome  luuutic  ;  in  this,  however, 
he  was  not  only  allowed  to  go  on,  but  encouraged  and 
abetted  in  his  career.  The  ambitious  Hildebrunile  hud 
expressed  a  strong  desire  to  send  armed  forces  from 
Europe  toextemiiiuitethe  Mahometans  from  Palestine, 
in  order  that  another  country  might  be  brou^lit  under 
his  spiritual  subjection  ;  and  L'rbun  11.,  who  at  this  time 
occupied  the  chair  of  St  Peter,  warnjly  secondiMl  the 
efforts  of  the  enthusiastic  monk.  Nor  was  Peter's  suc- 
cess small,  \iiy-t  nmltitudes  proclaimed  themselves 
ready  to  engage  in  the  undertakinj:;.  Two  great  coun- 
cils of  the  church,  one  of  them  held  at  Plucentiuund  the 
otlier  at  Clermont,  in  Auver^ne,  attended  by  prelates, 
princes,  and  immense  multitudes  of  the  common  people, 
declared  entliusiastieally  for  the  war  (lOi»."j).  The  pope 
himself  attended  at  the  last,  and  Pet«>r  and  he  having 
both  addressed  the  multitude,  they  all  exeluimed,  as  if 
impelled  by  an  immediate  inspiration,  '*  It  is  the  will  of 
God  !  it  is  the  will  of  (Jod  I"  Tlu-ve  words  were  thought 
so  remarkable,  that  they  were  afterwards  employed  as 
the  motto  on  the  sacred  standard,  and  came  to  be  l«K)ked 
upon  as  the  signal  of  battle  and  of  rendezvous  in  all  the 
future  exploits  of  the  champions  of  tiic  cross.  Per>ons 
of  all  ranks  now  flew  to  arms  with  the  utnn»st  ardour. 
The  remission  of  penance,  the  dispen^utitin  from  those 
practices  which  hup<-rstition  impoM'd  or  su-^peniltMi  at 
pleasunr,  the  jibsolution  (»f  all  sins,  and  the  :i>hU ranee  of 
eternal  lelicitv,  wore  the  rewards  held  out  bv  the  church 
to  all  who  joined  the  ent(>rprise ;  and  *^  to  the  more 
vulgar  clasH,''  says  Mr  llallam,  "  wrre  held  out  induce- 
ments wliieh,  tiioULrh  absorbed  in  the  ovi-rruling  iana- 
ticism  of  the  lii^t  Crusade,  might  be  excee<lini;ly 
eftieucious  when  it  bi-gan  to  flag.  l)uring  the  time  tiiat 
a  crusatU-r  h-uv  the  cro^^s,  he  was  free  fri'm  suitbfor  his 

*  Mr  HaU.iiii  inciiti>in<.  ::•»  i.»rriibi!-.iti\o  u{  thN  froncral  K'Hof, 
th.1t  chartiTn  iit  tin-,  ivrind  u-u.illy  lomiiii'iici-J  with  thcx;  wonls : 
••  A-i  the  w<»rM  if  tu^w  «h.nvin.;  t;i  it-i  ili'-i':"  itii-l  that  an  anny. 
inarehin<^  uiulcr  th"  IhniK  lur  otlm  I..  \\.i-»  .-*»  tiTrilUtl  by  an 
ei;lii>-e  uf  the  Min,  whUh  it  iMtu-rivt i|  tn  utoiuuncc  thU  euiistun- 
iiuiioii,  ..A  tu  iIHiersv  bii&tily  on  all  si<K  i. 


debts,  and  the  interest  of  them  was  entirely  abolished ; 
he  was  exempted,  in  some  instances  at  least,  from  taxet| 
and  placed  uuder  the  protection  of  the  church,  so  thst 
he  could  not  be  impleaded  in  any  civil  court,  except  in 
criminal  charges  or  questions  relating  to  land.'*  It 
was  in  the  spring  of  the  year  10.06,  that  Peter  tbs 
Hermit  set  out  for  Judea,  at  the  head  of  a  promiscuous 
assemblage  of  80,000  men,  with  sandals  on  his  feet,  a 
rope  about  his  waist,  and  every  other  mark  of  raonkish 
austerity.  Soon  after,  a  more  numerous  and  better 
disciplined  force  of  200,000  followed,  including  boom 
ablo  and  exi)crienced  leaders.  Godfrey  of  Bouillon, 
Robert,  Duke  of  Normandy  (son  of  William  the  Gm* 
querorof  £ngland),the  Counts  of  VermendoLs,  Toulouse, 
and  lilois,  are  a  few  of  the  more  illustrious.  The  pro- 
gress of  this  immense  mass  of  human  beings  on  their 
journey  was  marked  by  misery  and  famine.  They  liad 
vainly  trusted  to  Heaven  for  a  supernatural  supply  of 
their  wants,  and  in  their  di8ap])ointment,  they  plundered 
all  that  came  in  their  way.  *'  So  many  crimes  and  so 
mucli  miser)',"  says  Mr  HalUim,  "  have  seldom  been 
accumulated  in  so  short  a  space,  as  in  the  three  yean 
of  the  first  expedition  ;"  and  another  historian  says,  that 
a  *'  fresh  supply  of  German  and  Italian  vagabonds," 
received  on  the  way,  were  even  guilty  of  pillaging  the 
churches.  It  is  certain  that  before  the  hermit  reached 
Constantinople,  the  number  of  his  forces  had  dwindled 
down  to  20,000.  Alexis  Comnenus,  then  Emperor  of 
Constantiuople,  who  had  applied  to  thestatesof  Europe 
for  assistance,  without  much  hope  of  obtaining  it,  in 
order  that  he  might  be  enabled  to  resist  a  threatened 
attack  by  the  Turks  upon  himself,  was  surprised  and 
terrified  at  the  motley  group  of  adventurers  who  had 
now  reached  the  shore  of  his  dominions.  He  readUj 
afforded  them  the  means  of  ti'ansporting  themselves 
across  the  Bosphorus,  and  performed  the  same  friendly 
office  to  the  larger  force  which  followed  under  Godfrey 
and  others;  glad,  appiirently,  to  have  the  barl»arians oif 
the  north,  as  his  subjects  called  them,  out  of  his  domi- 
nions. The  Sultan  Solyman  met  the  army  of  the  her- 
mit, if  anny  it  could  be  called,  and  cut  the  greater  part 
('f  it  to  pieces  on  the  jilains  of  Nict-a.  The  second  host 
proved  uiove  successful.  In  spite  of  their  want  of  disci- 
pline, their  i;j:noraiice  of  the  country,  the  scarcity  of 
provi'sions,  and  the  excess  of  fatigue,  their  zeal,  their 
bravery,  and  tlioir  irresistible  fi'ree,  enabled  them  twice 
to  overthrow  old  Sjlynian,  to  tuK»'  liisea}»ital,  Nice,  ahd, 
after  an  obstinate  resistance,  the  city  of  Antioch  also. 
( I  OUli).  At  leu!;th  ( 1  UlU')  they  ivaeht-.i  Jerusalem,  nmch 
diminished  in  numbers  and  broken  in  spirit;  but,  with 
persevering  as>iduity,  thry  j)roeoeded  to  lay  siege  to  the 
city,  and  in  six  A>eeks  they  hceanie  its  mantel's.  Their 
eruel  conduct  to  the  inhabitants  attt  ^ts  the  b.irbarous 
feelings  of  their  hearts.  *•  Neither  arms  defendtnl  the 
valiant,  nor  subntis&ion  the  timorous;  no  age  nor  HfX 
was  spared ;  infants  on  the  breast  m  rre  pierced  by  the 
same  blow  with  their  mothers,  who  implored  for  niercv  ; 
even  a  nmltitude  <>f  ten  thousand  persons,  who  had 
hurrendi-n-il  themsvlvt-s  prihoners  and  were  promised 
quarter,  wi-re  hntelirred  in  eonl  l»l(Mid  by  these  ferocious 
conquen>rs,  Tlie  streets  «ti"  Jerusalem  were  covered 
with  dead  bodies.  The  triunipjjant  warriors, ;ifter  every 
(.•nrniy  was  subdued  and  slau|:litcri-d,  turnecl  themselves, 
with  the  .^-entiuK'nts  of  humiiiatiou  and  contrition,  to- 
wards the  holy  sepulchre.  They  threw  aside  their  arms, 
still  streaming  with  blood  ;  thfv  advanced  with  reclined 
bodies  and  naked  ffit  and  heatU,  to  that  sacred  monu- 
ment ;  they  sun:;  anthems  to  him  who  had  purchased 
their  salvatinn  by  hi-,  death  and  a;;ony  ;  an-.l  tUeir  devo- 
tion, enlivened  by  the  i)res*.'nco  of  tiie  plaee  where  he 
had  sutiered.  mi  <jvereame  their  furv,  that  thev  dissolved 
ni  tears,  and  bore  the  ajipearanee  ol  i  very  soft  aud 
tender  sentiment.  .So  inconsistent  is  human  nature 
with  il.svlf,  and  SI)  easily  does  the  most  etFenuiuile  >up4»r- 
stitionaiiy,  b.ah  with  the  most  heivic  courage  and  with 
the  ti»-rce.st  barbarity  !" 

With  a  becoming  foresight,  the  Crnsaiiers  Cbt.iblished 
a  Christian  kingdom  in  tiie  heart  of  i'alestiue;  and  at 
the  head  of  it,  by  univen>al  couscut^  was  placed  God- 


HISTORY  OF  THE  MIDDLE  AGES. 


fkBC  near 
IVtte  Su] 


goodneti and  justice  had  signalised  him,  and 
him  Tcspeety  in  the  midst  of  the  general  wick(^d- 
Tbe  pope,  however,  was  too  eager  to  enjoy  the 
iph  to  which  he  had  looked  forward,  and  sending 
ignoimnt  and  ohtruding  ecclesiastic  to  assume  this 
id,  Godfrey  retired ;  and  thus  was  lost,  undoubt  - 
[•fly,  the  best  chance  that  Europeans  ever  had  of  really 
pHMseiag  the  Holy  Land.  The  Turks  had  now  time 
tiTCeoTer  their  strength  and  renew  their  attacks :  they 
M  so:  many  of  the  Crusaders  had  in  the  mean  time 
~  home,  and  those  of  them  wlio  remained,  sur- 
and  menaced  by  such  foes,  at  last  implored 
from  Christendom.  There  the  spirit  which  had 
raised  by  Peter  the  Hermit  was  far  from  being 
and  another,  more  elo<]uent  and  moru 
tlian  Peter,  namely  St  DernarU,  had  arisen  to 
llMp  alive  the  flame  of  devotion.  Roused  by  his  preach- 
—  Europe  sent  forth  a  second  Crusade  (1U7).  It 
rtcd  of  200,000  French,  Germans,  and  English,  in 
jlitdiTiHions,  the  first  led  on  by  Conrad  III.  of  Germany, 
\mA  the  eeeond  by  Louis  VII.  of  France.  Strangely 
both  these  leaders  permitted  themselves  to  be 
into  a  snare  by  false  guides,  furnished  by  the 
Emperor ;  and  both  armies,  one  after  another, 
rithdrawn  amidst  the  rocks  of  Laodicea,  and,  after 
rly  starved  by  famine,  they  were  cut  to  pieces 
Sultan  of  Iconium.  This  Crusade  jiroved  the 
diaaatrons  of  them  all.  **  Thousands  of  ruined  fami- 
jhtf**  fltya  Ruseell,  ^  exclaimed  against  St  Bernard  for 
IAIb  deioding  prophecies :  ho  excused  himself  by  the  ex- 
■pie€»f  Moses,  who,  like  him,  he  said,  had  promised  to 
lodiict  tlie  Israelites  into  a  happy  country,  and  yet 
(w  the  first  generation  perish  in  tlic  desert." 
It  was  shortly  after  this  period  that  the  illustrious 
iSiladin  appeared  (1180).  Bum  among  an  obscure 
Tsriish  tribe,  this  individual  fixed  himself  by  his 
fciatery  and  conduct  on  the  throne  of  Egypt,  and  began 
iB  extend  his  conquests  in  the  east.  The  still  existing, 
ADOgfa  wretchedly  supported  kingdom  of  the  Christians 
m  I^lestine,  proving  an  obstacle  to  tho  progress  of  his 
ajKS,  Saladin  directed  his  ]iower  against  it,  and,  assisted 
bv  the  treachery  of  the  Count  of  Tripoli,  he  completely 
•vcreamc  the  Christians  in  battle  (1107).  Tho  holy 
cdy  itself  fell  into  his  hands,  after  a  feeble  resistance  ; 
aad,  except  some  cities  on  the  coast,  nothing  i*eniained 
te  the  Christians  of  all  that,  a  century  belure,  it  hud 
east  Europe  so  much  to  acquire.  Tho  followers  of 
lbs  croai»  however,  were  nut  yet  wholly  disheartened ; 
lad  a  third  great  Crusade  was  entered  into  before  the 
tad  of  the  twelfth  century.  The  three  greatest  suve- 
mgns  of  Europe,  Frederick  Barbarossii  uf  Germany, 
nUip  Aogostus  of  France,  and  llicliurd  Cwur  de 
UoD  of  England,  all  took  part.  The  furees  uf  Fre- 
^lirik  were  earliest  in  the  field.  He  had  passed 
ikioBgh  the  unfriendly  territories  of  the  Greek  empire, 
cnsBcd  the  Hellespont,  and  defeated  the  infidels  in 
lerersl  battles,  before  Richard  or  Philip  had  stirred 
hen  home.  The  Christians  of  the  East  were  beginning 
lokiok  with  hope  and  pride  on  so  great  assistance ;  but 
tibey  teemed  fated  to  be  unfortunate.  Frederick  died 
(1290),  from  having  thrown  his  body,  Iieated  by  exer- 
tm,  into  the  eold  river  of  Cydnus ;  and  his  army,  like  the 
«b«n  that  had  gone  before  it,  dwindled  into  nothing. 
Tht  anited  armies  of  Richard  and  Philip  followed.  In 
Aeir  progress,  the  feelings  of  envy  and  national  hatred 
Use  above  the  object  which  had  brought  them  toge- 
ther. Philip  returned,  disgusted  or  dismayed,  shortly 
ifter  they  reached  their  destination  ;  and  Richard  was 
iai  left  alone  to  uphold  the  glory  of  I'^uropean  arms, 
fie  did  it  nobly.  With  a  mixed  army  uf  French,  Gcr- 
Sia,  and  English  soldiers,  amounting  in  all  to  1^0,000, 
kichard  performed  feats  of  valour  which  have  not  been 
■rpasficd  in  the  history  of  any  time  or  nation.  On  tho 
phifis  of  Asealon,  a  tremendous  battle  was  fought  with 
jahdio,  and  that  brave  and  great  man  was  defeated, 
asd  40,000  of  his  soldiers  are  said  to  have  been  left 
4md  upon  the  field  of  battle.  But  this  conquest  was 
^Tsil^,  and  the  followers  of  Ricliard  began  to  fear 

ttite  there  would  be  no  end  to  their  struggles.     The 
121 


zeal  which  had  brought  so  many  of  them  from  their 
homes,  and  sustained  them  so  long  in  absence,  at  last 
abated.  Saladin  readily  concluded  a  treaty  by  which 
Christians  might  still  be  permitted  to  visit  the  tomb  of 
Christ  unmolested,  and  Richard  left  the  Holy  Land  for 
ever.  It  is  due  to  the  memory  of  Saladin  (who  did  not 
long  survive  this  period)  to  state,  that,  after  ho  made 
himself  master  of  Jerusalem,  he  never  molested  tho 
Christians  in  their  devotions — a  circumstance  which,  by 
contrast,  reflects  infinite  disgrace  on  the  cruel  barba- 
rities of  tho  first  Crusaders.  1  n  his  last  will,  he  ordered 
alms  to  be  distributed  among  the  poor,  without  distinc- 
tion of  Jew,  Christian,  or  Mahometan ;  intending  by 
this  bequest  to  intimate,  that  all  men  are  brethren,  and 
that  when  we  would  assist  them,  we  ought  nut  to  in- 
quire what  they  believe,  but  what  they  feel — an  admir- 
able lesson  to  Christians,  though  from  a  Mahometan. 
But  tho  advantages  in  science,  in  moderation,  and 
humanity,  seem  at  this  period  to  have  been  all  on  the 
side  of  the  Saracens. 

There  were  no  more  great  Crusades.  Considerable 
bands  of  private  adventurers  still  continued  to  movo 
eastward ;  but  disaster  and  disgrace  attended  every 
effort,  and  Europe  at  last  became  disheartened,  when 
the  bones  of  two  millions  of  her  sons  lay  whitened  on 
the  plains  of  Asia,  and  so  little  had  been  aecomplitdied. 
Nevertheless,  in  the  year  1202,  Baldwin,  Count  of 
Flanders,  was  able  to  raise  another  considerable  army 
for  the  rescue  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre  ;  but  having 
reached   Constantin()])lo  at  a  time  when  there  was  a 

'<  dispute  in  the  succession  to  the  throne,  he  readily  laid 

'  aside  the  project  of  the  Crusade,  took  part  in  the  quar- 
rel, and  in  the  course  of  five  months  he  was  himself  the 
emperor.  The  citiz«Mis  of  Venice,  in  Italy,  who  had  lent 
their  vessels  for  this  enterprise,  shared  in  the  triumphs 
of  the  piratical  Crusaders ;  they  obtained  the  Isle  of 
Candia,  or  Crete.  Baldwin,  however,  was  soon  driven 
from  the  throne  and  murdered,  though  the  Latins,  as 
his  successors  from  the  west  were  called,  kept  posses- 
sion of  Constantinople  for  fifty-seven  years. 

At  this  period  (1227)  a  great  revolution  took  place  in 
Asia.  Gcngin  Khan,  at  the  head  of  a  body  of  Tartars, 
broke  down  from  the  north  upon  Persia  and  Syria,  and 
massacred  indiseriminately  Turks,  Jews,  and  Clirihtians, 
who  opposed  them.  The  Kuropean  settlements  in  Pales- 
tine must  soon  have  yielded  to  these  invaders,  had  not 
their  fate  been  for  a  while  retarded  by  the  last  attempt 

I  at  a  Crusade  under  Louis  IX.  of  France.  This  prince, 
summoned  as  he  believed  by  Heaven,  after  four  yean** 
preparation,  sut  out  for  the  Holy  Land,  with  his  (pieen, 
his  three  brothers,  and  all  the  knights  of  France  (124 R). 
His  army  began  their  enterprise,  and  we  may  say  ended 
it  also,  by  an  unsuccessful  attack  on  Egypt.  The  king 
went  home,  and  reigned  proHperoui:ly  and  wisely  for 
thirteen  years ;  but  the  same  frenzy  again  taking  pos- 
session of  him,  he  embarked  on  a  Crusade  against  the 

i  Moors  in  Africa,  where  his  anny  was  destroyed  by  a 
pestilence,  and  he  himself  became  its  victim  (1270). 

Before  the  end  of  the  thirteenth  eentury  (12i»l)  the 
Christians  were  driven  out  of  all  their  Ahiatie  pohscn- 
sions.  *'  The  only  common  enterprise,'*  says  llobert- 
son,  "  in  which  the  Kuropean  nations  were  engaged, 
and  which  they  all  undertook  with  e([ual  arduur,  re- 
mains a  singular  monument  of  human  folly/' 

INSTITUTION  OF  ClIIVALKV. — STATi:  OF  KlROl'i:  DURING 
AND  AFTi:il  THi:  CUUSADFIS. 

Among  the  most  lv^]arkal>I(^  institutions  of  the 
middle  ages,  was  that  of  Chivalry.  The  institution  was 
certainly  not  the  result  of  caprice,  nor  a  source  of  un- 
mixed extravagance,  as  it  has  been  represented,  but  an 
effort  of  human  nature  to  express  its  feelings  of  love, 
honour,  and  benevolence,  at  a  time  when  the  spirit  of 
liberty  was  extinguiHlied,  and  religion  had  become  de- 
based. Tho  feudal  state  was  a  state  of  perpetual  war, 
rapine,  and  anarchy,  during  which  the  weak  and  un- 
armed were  often  exposed  to  injuries.  Public  protec- 
tive law  scarcely  had  an  existence  ;  and  in  these  cir- 
cumstances asflistaucc  came  oftcnest  and  most  cifeo- 


cnAMBERS'S  INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


tually  from  the  arms  of  private  friends.  It  was  the 
same  feeling  of  oourage,  united  to  a  strong  sense  of 
duty,  which  hoth  gave  rise  to  chivalry,  and  led  such 
multitudes  to  join  the  Crusades.  Chivalry  existed  be- 
fore tliem,  and  it  survived  them.  Those  who  devoted 
themselves  to  a  life  of  chivalry  were  called  knights,  and 
sometimes  knight-errants,  in  allusion  to  their  habits  of 
wandering  from  one  country  to  another  in  search  of 
lielpless  objects,  which  their  generosity  might  find  a 
pleasure  in  relieving  and  defending.  Admission  to 
the  order  of  knighthood  was  long  reddened  an  honour 
of  the  highest  sort ;  and  to  fuliil  the  vows  which  en- 
trants took  upon  them,  might  well  be  considered  so. 
Tiicy  were  bound,  <*by  God,  by  St  Michael,  and  St 
George,"  to  be  loyal,  brave,  and  hardy ;  to  protect 
the  innocent,  to  r^ress  tlie  injuries  of  the  wronged; 
and,  above  all,  to  uphold  and  defend  the  characters  of 
women.  The  institution  of  chivalry  is  sometimes 
thought  to  have  thrown  an  air  of  ridiculousness  upon 
every  thing  connected  with  the  softer  sex,  and  some  of 
the  vagaries  of  knight  errantry  give  sufl&cient  counte- 
nance to  such  a  supposition ;  but  on  the  whole  we  are 
bound  to  rate  its  beneficial  influences  in  elevating  the 
female  character  high  indeed,  when  we  contrast  the 
gross  and  grovelling  situation  held  by  the  sex  in  former 
times  with  the  high  and  virtuous  emotions  that  we  have 
learned  to  associate  in  modem  times  with  the  name  of 
woman.  If  the  whole  of  this  effect  is  not  to  bo  ascribed 
to  chivalry,  not  a  little  of  it  must  certainly  be  so ;  nor 
do  its  beneficial  effects  end  here.  The  feelings  of  honour, 
courtesy,  and  humanity,  which  distinguished  it,  spread 
themselves  into  other  parts  of  conduct.  War,  in  par- 
ticular, was  conducted  with  less  ferocity,  and  humanity 
eame  to  be  deemed  as  necessary  to  an  accomplished 
soldier  as  courage.  The  idea  of  a  gentleman  is  wholly 
the  production  of  chivalry ;  and  during  the  twelfth, 
thirteenth,  fourteenth,  and  fifteenth  centuries,  a  sense 
of  honour  and  a  refinement  of  manners  towards  ene- 
mies sprung  up,  which  have  extended  to  modem  times, 
and  form  a  distinguishing  feature  of  tliem. 

The  history  of  the  Crusades  has  carried  us  over 
nearly  two  centuries  of  the  history  of  Europe.  But 
Kuro}>e  might  be  said,  almost  without  exaggeration,  to 
have  been  then  in  Asia.  It  was  certainly  not  the  scene 
of  any  transaction  of  importance  during  all  that  period. 
The  numerous  quarrels,  both  public  and  private,  which 
had  before  agitated  the  several  countries,  and  had  con- 
stituted all  ttieir  history,  gave  way,  by  mutual  consent, 
as  well  as  by  the  orders  of  the  church,  to  the  one  idea 
which  then  reigned  supreme  among  them.  Society  was 
thus  unconsciously  tlie  means  of  permitting  some  of 
those  powerful  and  pacific  principles  to  come  into  play, 
which  were  soon  to  give  it  a  new  destiny.  The  absence 
of  81)  many  great  burons,  during  the  time  of  the  Cru- 
sades, was  a  means  of  enabling  the  common  people,  who 
had  hitherto  lived  as  their  slaves,  to  raise  themselves 
in  public  standing  and  estimation ;  while  tlie  posscssioim 
of  many  of  these  barons,  by  sale  or  the  death  of  their 
owners  without  heirs,  reverted  to  tlie  sovereigns.  In 
tliis  way  the  power  of  the  ]M*oplo  and  of  royalty  ad- 
vanced together,  and  both  at  the  expense  of  the  class  of 
nubility.  The  people  were  not  unwilling  to  exchange  the 
mastery  of  inferiors  for  that  of  a  superior ;  and  the  kings 
on  their  part  looked  on  this  rising  power  of  the  i>oople 
with  pleasure,  as  it  offered  a  shield  to  protect  them  from 
the  ius<ilence  of  the  nobles.  In  these  circumstances 
borou^^hs  began  to  flourish.  This  w:is  a  new  clement  in 
the  progress  of  civilisation.  Men  who  had  hitherto 
fckuiki-d  in  castles,  and  had  sacrificed  their  liberties  and 
their  lives  for  bread  and  protection  fr<ini  isolated  chiefs, 
now  found  that,  by  a  union  among  themselves,  they 
might  secure  breatl  by  industry,  and  protection  and 
liberty  hy  mutual  aid.  Multitudes,  therefore,  forsook 
their  feudal  subbervience  to  enjoy  independent  citizen- 
8lii|).  Villeins,  or  labourers,  joyfully  escn|»ed  to  taki; 
their  place  on  a  footin;^  (»f  ciiualiiy  with  freemen;  and 
Sovereigns  found  means  to  y-Ai^  a  law  th.it,  if  a  slave 
filiould  take  ix-fu^e  in  any  of  the  new  citii^s,  and  be 
aliovied  to  remain  there  unelaimed  for  a  twelvcmontli, 


he  had  thereby  become  firee,  and  wii  bened 
member  of  the  community.  Another  impro^ 
which  kings  were  able  to  introduce  about  this  tl 
the  gradual  abolition  of  minor  courts  of  justice, 
barons  had  previously  held  in  their  several  dc 
and  their  getting  public  and  universal  law  admin 
by  judges  of  their  own  appointment.  Even  singl 
bat,  the  practice  most  inveterately  adliered  to 
among  tiie  ancient  nobles,  became  less  fre<|ue 
less  honourable.  The  more  revolting  and  absu 
tures  of  it  were  wholly  abolished,  though  the  gr 
surdity,  and  indeed  the  great  crime  itself,  car 
said  to  have  become  totally  extinct,  sven  up  to  o 
day,  when  we  recollect  that  the  barbarous  pnu 
duelling  is  still  permitted  to  exist. 

The  effect,  however,  produced  by  the  Crusades 
proved  greatest  in  its  consequences,  though  per 
was  the  most  unlooked  for  at  the  time,  was  the 
commerce.  The  first  of  these  expeditions  had  jou 
to  Constantinople  by  land ;  but  the  sufferings  i 
great,  that  all  tlie  rest  were  induced  to  go  by  sea 
Italian  cities  of  Venice,  Genoa,  and  Pisa,  fumisl 
vessels  which  conveyed  them ;  and  the  sums  of 
obtained  for  the  freight  of  so  many  and  so  great 
were  immense.  This,  however,  was  but  a  sma 
of  what  tlie  Italian  citizens  gained  by  the  expe 
to  the  Holy  Land.  The  Crusaders  contracte 
them  for  military  stores  and  provisions ;  and  any 
Asiatic  possessions  of  value,  which  came  temp 
into  the  hands  of  the  Cliristians,  became  em(H>ri 
commerce  for  them.  The  sweet  reward  of  labo 
tlius  first  felt  for  ages  in  Europe.  New  art 
brought  from  the  east,  and  many  of  those  natur 
ductions  of  the  warmer  climates  were  first  intr 
into  the  west,  which  have  since  afforded  the  m: 
of  a  lucrative  and  extended  commerce.  We  will 
in  a  separate  section  to  tlie  brilliant  career  of  i 
of  the  Italian  Ucpublics. 

In  these  views  we  represent  the  fairest  side 
picture.     There  were  yet  many  obstacles  in  tlie 
a  complete  and  harmonious  evolution  of  the  pri 
of  civilisation.     But  the  elements  all  seemed 
have  acquired  existence,  and  time  only  was  re 
to  consolidate  and  strengthen  them. 

OONTTMTATION     OP      THE     HISTORY     OF     ErROPB     T 

MIDDLE  OF    THE    PIFTEHMII    CF-NTl'RV. UlSE    O 

NEW    POWERS. 

The  most  remarkable  general  feature  of  Ku 
society  about  the  time  of  the  Crusades  was  the 
influence.     Between  the  pontiffs  and  the  Genii; 
perors  there  ^'as  kept  up  a  perpetual  struggle  for 
but  for  a  long  time  the  advantage  was  almost 
with  the  popes.      The   treatment  which  Rome 
emperors  received  from   thorn  was  extremely 
liating.    Frederick  BarlKirosMi  was  coni|H'lled 
the  feet  of  his  holiness,  Alexander  II  I.,  and  to  a 
him  by  a  large  cession  of  territory,  after  havin^^ 
nantly  denied  his  Mipreinaey,  and  refuheil  the  cusl 
homage.    Henry  VI.,  while  doing  homage  on  his 
had  his  ini]>erial  crown  kicked  off  by  I'ope  Cek 
who,  however,  made  some  aniendri  for  this  iiitlig; 
the  gift  of  Naples  and  Sicily.     Henry  had  expel 
Normans  from  these  territories,  whieh   n(»w  I 
appcniLiges  of  the  Grmian  einjiire  (1  ll'i).     In  I 
ginning  of  the  thirteenth  century,  Pope  Innoce' 
was   imagined    to    have    permanently  eMablisln 
powers  of  the  holy  see,  and  its  ri^ht  to  confer  ti 
perial  crown  ;  but  this  pn»vL-d  far  from  being  th 
In  the  time  of  Frederick  II.,  who  succeeded  <H 
(121*2),  the  old  contentions  rose  to  more  than  tlu 
height,  and  two  factions  sprung  up  in  Italy,  km 
the   names   of   Guelphs   and    Cihibellines,  the  I 
maint;iinin<;  the  suproinaey  of  tlie  popes,  and  the 
that  of  the  eiii|Kn*ors.     Fn-deriek  maintained  th 
test  which  now  arose  between  hini£>vlf  an^l  the 
With    much    spirit;   but,   on    his    drath    (ri)(i 
Bpieuduur  uf  thd  euipilu  vtUA  lur  a  cuUBidei-abi< 


HISTORY  OF  THE  MffiDLE  AGES. 


At  lengthy  Hodolph  of  Ilapsbonrff,  a  Swiss 
,  w.»  cleetad  emperor  (1274).  Rodolpa  became 
modcT  of  the  house  of  Austria,  and  ruled  with 
rigour  and  moderation.  His  son,  Albert  I ^  was  the 
t  of  eanaing  the  inhabitants  of  Switxerland  to  as- 
Ad  obtain  uieir  liberty,  by  his  attempting  to  bind 

in  Bobjection  to  one  of  his  children,  and  then 

force  to  compel  them.  In  the  pass  of  Morgarten, 
Ul  army  of  four  or  five  hundi«d  of  these  brave 
itaineers  defeated  an  immense  host  of  Austrians 
\y  Sixty  pitched  battles,  it  is  said,  were  foufrht 
•en  the  contending  parties ;  but  the  spirit  of  Wil- 
Tell,  who  appear^  at  this  time,  and  of  his  patriot 
firymen,  rose  above  all  attempts  to  enslave  them ; 
the  Swiss  cantons  secured  a  freedom  which  tlieir 
ndants  enjoy  to  this  day.  The  further  history  of 
BUT,  for  nearly  a  century,  is  not  politically  impor- 
.    Disputes  between  the  emperors  and  the  papacy 

CDotinued,  thoueh  the  balance  of  advantage  was 
'  oftener  against  the  church.  About  the  beginning 
ht  fifteenth  century  the  great  papal  schism,  as  it 
iCiDed,  took  pbce.  It  arose  from  there  being  no 
cr  tkan  three  diflerent  claimants  for  the  chair  of 
Pcto^Gregory  XII.,  who  was  owned  Pope  by  the 
lisa states ;  Benedict  XIII.,  by  France ;  and  Alexan- 
'  v.,  s  Dative  of  Candia,  by  a  number  of  the  cardinals. 
BKhism  proved  very  hurtful  to  the  authority  of  tlie 
mh,  thongh  in  that  respect  it  benefited  the  interests 
Hcictj,  and  contributed  to  open  men's  eyes.  The 
«snnee  of  John  Hues  at  this  time  aided  in  producing 
t  effect.  Hubs  proclaimed  the  same  opinions  as  tlie 
It  English  reformer  Wickliife.  Ho  was  branded,  of 
B^  by  the  clergy  as  a  heretic  and  propagator  of 
lioa.  The  general  council  of  the  Church,  held  at 
Msnce  (1514),  concocted  no  fewer  than  thirt}'-nine 
iles  in  which  IIuss  is  said  to  have  erred.  Some  of 
points  be  denied  having  professed,  and  others  he 
«d  to  support  by  argument;  but  his  voico  was 
med  by  the  clamours  of  bigotry.  His  hair  was 
a  the  form  of  a  cross ;  upon  his  head  was  put  a 
9  mitre,  painted  with  the  representation  of  three 
If ;  and  he  was  delivered  over  to  tlie  secular  judge, 
condemned  both  him  and  his  writings  to  tlie  ilameB. 
nilar  fate  shortly  after  befell  his  disciple,  Jerome 
ragu«*,  who  is  said  to  have  exhibited  tlie  eloquence 
1  apostle  and  the  constancy  of  a  martyr  at  the 
^  ( U  Pi ).     In  revenge  for  thcMe  cruelties,  the  Hus- 

cf  H<»hemia  kept  up  a  war  with  tlie  empire  for 
ty  years ;  and  it  was  only  after  having  their  right 
Kprevs  their  opinions  acknowledged  tliat  they  de- 
d.  The  great  schism  lasted  for  many  years.  A 
lolitan  archbishop,  named  Hari,  was  elected  and 
icd  by  the  resident  cardinals  at  llonie  within  a 
Bioaths.  Boniface  IX.  and  Innocent  VI.  were  each 
Mirarily  his  successors.  The  result  of  the  lengthened 
itc  may  be  stated  to  be,  that  papal  authority  was 
ily  weakened ;  the  government  of  the  church  was 
ight  down  among  a  class  of  ecclesiastics  that  had 
T  before  tasted  the  sweets  of  power,  and  future 
9  were  obliged  to  resort  to  such  questionable  prlc- 
<  lor  the  maintenance  of  their  dignity,  that  men  in 
sal  began  to  kise  respect  lor  tlieir  sanctity,  and  a 
dation  was  laid  for  changes  which  it  fell  to  the  lot 
other  and  others  to  effect. 

le  period  which  witnessed  these  transactions  was 
irkable  fur  the  continued  ^'ars  between  France  and 
isnd.  In  the  beginning  of  the  twelfth  century,  the 
los  dispute  for  supremacy  arose  between  Thomas- 
cktrt.  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  and  Henry  II., 
fa  enidcd  in  the  death  of  the  preUte(  1 171),  but  in  the 
Bph  of  his  principles.  The  beginning  of  the  tliir- 
:fa  century  is  memorable  in  English  history,  as 
Bff  witnessed  the  granting  of  the  Magna  Charta  by 
^ohn ;  and  towutis  the  conclusion  of  it  appeared 
ird  I.,  whose  name  is  associated  with  the  first 
t  attempts  to  subdue  the  Scots  on  tlie  part  of  £ng- 
,  The  bravery  of  Wallacu  und  of  others  averted 
calamity  for  ever.  Waies  was  not  so  fortunate ; 
[tvland  bad  ainsady  beeoiue  a  con«iuurcd  province. 

12;i 


The  grandson  of  Edward  I.,  named  Edward  III.,  proved 
himself  as  ambitious  and  as  sagacious  as  his  predeces- 
sor. His  attention,  however,  was  greatly  diverted  from 
the  kingdom  of  Scotland  to  that  of  France,  with  which 
country  be  commenced  a  war  that  proved  greater  in 
duration  and  extent  than  any  tliat  had  occurred  in 
Europe  since  the  fall  of  the  Roman  empire.  The  pro- 
posal of  subduing  so  great  a  country  as  France,  and 
seating  himself  upon  the  throne  of  it,  seemed  at  first  to 
be  the  proposal  of  a  madman ;  but  in  less  than  twentv 
years  Edward  had  so  effectually  dismembered  the  dif- 
ferent provinces,  alienating  some  of  the  nobility  and 
overawing  others,  that  his  attaining  the  object  of  his 
desires  seemed  by  that  time  no  improbable  nor  distant 
reality.  His  son,  known  in  history  as  Edward  the 
Black  Prince,  named  so  from  the  colour  of  his  armour,  - 
contributed  much,  by  his  presence  and  his  valour,  to  the 
success  of  the  English  arms.  In  the  battle  of  Crcssy, 
fought  in  134G,  witli  numbers  greatly  on  the  side  of 
France,  and  in  that  of  Poictiers,  fought  ten  years  later, 
under  similar  circumstances,  the  English  were  com- 
pletely victorious.  John,  King  of  France,  was  taken 
prisoner,  and  the  conduct  of  youns  Edward  to  his  fallen 
enemy  was  generous  and  delicate  m  the  highest  degree, 
so  that  the  French  prisoners  are  said  to  have  been 
overcome  by  the  disphiy  of  such  an  elevation  of  mind 
on  the  part  of  their  conqueror,  and  to  have  burst  into 
tears.  This  refinement  was  the  result  of  chivalry, 
which  both  the  Edwards  attached  themselves  to,  and 
rendered  respectable  by  their  virtues. 

France  was  at  this  time  in  a  deplorable  state.  A 
foreip:n  enemy  in  the  heart  of  the  kingdom,  the  king 
a  prisoner,  the  capital  in  sedition,  and  civil  war  rag- 
ing over  and  above  all — these  were  some  of  her  ac- 
cumulated misfortunes;  and  as  if  naturo  meant  to 
conspire  with  man  for  her  destruction,  a  plngue  broke 
out  at  this  time  among  the  people,  and  consummated 
the  work  of  famine  and  the  sword.  This  plague,  how- 
ever, was  not  confined  to  France,  though,  from  the 
dilapidated  state  of  that  country,  it  proved  perhaps 
in  it  most  disastrous.  It  invaded  every  kingdom  of 
£ui*ope,  and  the  English  historian,  Iluiue,  computes 
that  it  swept  away  about  one-third  of  the  inliabi- 
tauts  of  every  country  that  it  attacked.  The  origin 
of  the  disease  is  not  well  known ;  but  there  can  be  no 
doubt  that  it  could  only  have  made  the  ravages  which 
it  did  among  nations  uncivilised  and  ignorant,  heedless 
of  all  the  cleanliness  and  comforts  which  we  know,  in 
modem  times,  to  be  necessary  to  the  preservation  of 
health.  According  to  the  ordinary  account,  this  i>esti- 
lence  took  its  rise  in  the  Levant  about  the  year  1 346, 
from  whence  Italian  traders  brought  it  to  Sicily,  Pisa, 
and  Genoa.  In  KUH,  it  passed  the  Alps,  and  spread 
over  France  siid  iSpain.  In  the  next  year  it  reached 
Britain,  where,  in  London  alone,  50,000  ]>ersons  are 
said  to  have  become  its  victims ;  and  in  1350,  it  laid 
waste  Gennany  and  other  northern  states,  lasting  gene- 
rally in  each  country  about  five  months.  At  Florence 
more  than  three  out  of  every  five  of  the  inhabitants 
were  swept  away.  It  is  well  known  to  those  acquainted 
with  Italian  literature,  that  the  time  of  Boccaccio's 
Decamercm  is  laid  during  this  pestilence. 

While  the  plague  lasted,  a  temporary  truce  had  been 
agreed  upon  between  the  French  und  English.  At  tliat 
time  the  balance  of  advantage  was  greatly  in  favour  of 
the  English.  Not  to  mention  less  important  gains,  all 
Guienne,  Guscony,  Poitou,  Saintonge,  tlic  Limousin,  and 
the  Angouniois,  as  well  as  Calais,  and  the  county  of 
Pointhieu,  were  ceded  in  full  sovereignty  to  Edward, 
and  the  empty  title  of  King  of  France  was  all  that  he 
became  bound  to  give  up  (13G0).  But  it  was  found 
impossible  to  retain  possessions  in  the  heart  of  a  foreign 
country,  though  won  by  consummate  bravery  and  ruled 
with  no  imprudence.  In  less  than  ten  years  (13(>8), 
the  war  was  recommenced,  and  the  English  l>egau  to 
lose  many  of  the  provinces  which  they  had  previously 
ac(|uired.  Clinrles  V.,  who  had  acted  as  regent  in  France 
during  the  captivity  of  his  father  John,  and  was  now 
his  successor  ou  the  tlirone,  contributed  greatly  by  liia 


CHAMBERS'S  INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


x^'isdom  to  tliis  result ;  and  his  general,  Du  GuescHn, 
contributed  not  less  to  it  by  his  vulour.     England  had 
lost  both  itfl  Edwards,  and  llichard  II.  proved  destitute 
of  abilities  for  leading  on  the  enthusiasm  of  liis  country- 
men  to  any  thing  great.     Charles  died  prematurely, 
liowever,  a  circumstance  which  proved  unfortunate  for 
France,  as  his  son,  the  sixth  of  the  same  name,  was  a 
very  unwj^rthy  successor.   For  forty  years,  Charles  VI. 
may  be  said  to  have  borne  the  name  of  king,  rather 
than  to  have  reigned  in  France.     The  wealth  accumu- 
lated by  Charles  the  Wise,  was,  in  the  first  place,  stolen 
by  the  Duke  of  Anjou,  and  afterwards,  by  reason  of 
want  of  funds,  and  misapplication  of  what  they  had, 
Charles  V I .  and  his  ministers  were  fully  more  engaged  in 
quarrels  with  the  citizens  of  Paris  and  other  subjects, 
than  in  any  becoming  efforts  to  expel  the  English.  His- 
tory records,  however,  that  the  king  became  totally  im- 
becile in  mind  (1393),  so  that  he  was,  by  universal  con- 
sent, excluded  from  ail  share  in  the  government,  and  the 
houses  of  Burgundy  and  Orleans  long  struggled  for  the 
regency.  At  this  period,  Henry  V.  of  England  put  in  a 
claim  for  the  government  of  the  kingdom,  on  the  strength 
of  a  distant  relationship  to  the  reigningfamily ;  and,  after 
having  gained  the  memorable  battle  of  Aginc«>urt  (1415), 
lie  was  actually  promised  the  throne  on  the  death  of 
Charles,  though  his  own  death  prevented  this  from  ever 
taking  place.  It  maybe  worth  remarking,  that  ran/^  were 
invented  in  this  age.   The  desire  to  amuse  the  silly  king 
of  France  was  the  cause.  In  the  year  1 42*2,  Charles  VII ., 
sumamed  the  Victorious,  was  crowned  King  of  France 
at  Poictiers,  while  the  crown  was  claimed  on  the  part  of 
Henry  VI.  of  England,  yet  an  infant.  The  war  continued, 
and  the  English  were  like  to  have  proved  victorious,  when 
a  simple  maiden,  named  Joan  of  Are,  made  her  appear- 
ance at  the  head  of  the  armies  of  France,  and  turned 
the  tide  of  fortune  in  favour  of  her  country.  Apparently 
mistaking  the  impulses  of  superstition  for  divine  ins])i- 
ration,  slie  gave  out  that  she  had  been  commissioned  by 
Heaven  to  s:ivo  her  country;  and  having  succeeded  in 
inspiring  the  French  soldiery  with  that  belief,  she  led 
them  on  to  battle,  and  they  proved  victorious.   It  must 
be  recordeil,  to  the  disgrace  of  our  countrymen,  that 
Joan,  heini;  shortly  after  taken  ])risoner,  was  condemned 
to  be  burnt  as  a  sorceress.  The  French,  however,  were 
but  the  more  exaspenited  at  this ;  and  their  victory  of 
ForniiLrny,  and  the  death  of  Talbot,  ]>erhaps  the  greatest 
English  warrior  of  the  ago,  now  left  them  in  ]>osseH- 
Fi»)n  of  all  their  country,  with  the  exception  of  Calais 
and  (ireignes  (ll.)()). 

Of  all  that  was  done  hy  l^n;:lanil  to  obtiiin  a  footinir 
in  France,  :i  larrt 


rious  at  this  period,  but  proyed  too  unimportant 
their  results  to  admit  of  being  even  outlined  here. 

TnE  ITALIAN  REPUULICS. — COMMEBCC  IN  GENERAL. 

Among  the  Italian  cities,  Venice,  at  the  extremity 
the  Adriatic,  Ravenna,  at  tlie  south  of  the  mouth  of  t 
Po,  Genoa,  at  the  foot  of  the  Ligurian  mountains.  Pit 
towards  the  mouths  of  the  Arno,  Rome,  Gacta,  Napli 
Amalphi,  and  Rari,  were  either  never  conquered  ' 
the  Lombards,  or  were  in  subjection  too  short  a  tit 
to  have  lost  many  of  their  ancient  habits  and  custcn 
In  this  way,  these  cities  naturally  became  the  refa 
of  Roman  civilisation,  at  a  time  when  other  parts 
Europe  were  wading  througli  barbarian  darkness.  TI 
feudal  system  never  pi*evailed  among  them  with  ai 
force ;  and  several  of  these  and  other  cities  had  impo 
tant  privileges  conferred  upon  them  by  the  Genn 
emperors  at  a  very  early  period.  Sismondi,  the  hisi 
rian  of  Italy,  asserts  that  Otho  I.  (936)  erected  soil 
of  them  into  municipal  communities,  and  permitli 
tiiem  the  election  of  their  own  magistrates.  It  is  ee 
tain  that,  in  95)1,  the  citizens  of  Milan  rose  in  tumuj 
expelled  an  ai*chbishnp  from  their  city,  and  were  ah 
to  establish  a  qualified  right  to  interfere  in  future  ela 
tions.  The  after  history  of  Milan  is  eventful  and  tr; 
gical ;  but  we  can  only  give  a  short  account  of  ii  her 
In  the  middle  of  the  twelfth  century,  Frederic  Uarbi 
rossa  became  engaged  with  the  cities  of  Lomhardy,  an 
particularly  with  it,  in  extensive  and  destructive  wan 
In  the  year  1 1  (>2,  Milan  was  finally  overcome ;  the  wsUi 
and  houses  were  razed  from  their  foundation,  and  thi 
suffering  inhabitants  dispersed  over  other  cities,  ek> 
taining  sympathy  in  their  distress,  and  communieit* 
ing  their  enthusiastic  love  of  freedom  in  return.  Hi 
republican  form  of  government  was  adopted  in  ercn 
considerable  town ;  and  before  the  end  of  the  thirtecntl 
century,  there  was  a  power  and  knowledge  among  tbcH 
apparently  insignificant  republics  that  all  Europe  ooaU 
not  match. 

The  beneficial  though  unlooked-f<»r  effect  of  the  Cni» 
sades  upon  commerce  has  already  been  mentioned. 
During  the  twtrllih  and  thirteenth  centuries,  the  con* 
meree  of  Europe  was  almost  entirely  in  the  hands  of  thi 
Italians,  uutre  eoninionly  known  in  those  ages  by  thfl 
name  of  Lombards.  'J'he  rvpublic  of  Pisa  was  ooo 
of  the  iir.tt  to  make  known  to  the  world  the  riches  and 
])ower  which  a  small  stale  mii^ht  acquire  by  the  aid  d 
coniinerce  and  liheriv.  Tisa  had  a>tonished  the  bhora 
of  the  Mediterranean  by  the  iiiiinher  of  vessels  sod 
galh'vs  that  s:»iled  under  her  flair,  bv  the  succour  shi 

rad 
and 


arron  title  to  our  sovereigns  alone  is  I  had  given  the  Crusadeiv,  by  the  fear  she  had  iuspi 
all  that  was  jireserved  till  a  recent  period.  The  at  C«>nstantin(»ple,  and  by  the  ciniquest  of  Sardinia  i 
jiower  and  spirit  of  the  French  nr.tioii  ro»*e  above  all  i  the  Halearic  Isles.  Imniediately  preceding  this  jteriod, 
calamities,  and  in  less  than  half  a  century,  having  those  great  structures  which  still  delight  the  eye  of  th« 
freetl  herself  of  every  enemy  at  luMue,  her  arms  were  i  traveller — the  dome,  the  bai>tistry,  the  leaning  tower, 
ill  a  condition  to  be  ilirected  I'xternally  with  eift'ct.  :  and  the  (^ampo  Santo  of  Pisa,  had  all  been  raised;  sod 
The  invasion  of  Naples  by  Charles  V 1 1 1,  was  the  event  •  the  great  architects  that  s])rea(l  over  Eur»q»e  in  the  thir 
that  firj«t  engage<l  the  j:rin(?ipal  states  of  ICurope  in  .  teenth  century,  had  ^no^tly  their  education  here.  Bat 
relations  (if  alliance  or  ln>^tility,  which  may  bt;  deduced  unf(»rtnnately,  the  ruin  of  this  glorious  little  republic 
to  the  present  day,  and  is  the  point  wl'.ich  most  appro-  ■  was  soon  to  be  accomplished.  A  growing  envy  lu< 
priately  terminates  the  hi'^tory  of  the  middle  age«.  '  Nub>i»ted   between  it  and  Genoa  durini;  the  last  twc 

During  this  period,  sovenil  <»f  those  countries  in  the  '  centuries;  and  a  new  war  broke  out  in  1282.  It  il 
north  of  Europe,  which  have  madi- a  eoii'^iderahle  tii^nre  difficult  to  comprehenil  ln)w  X\so  piniph*  cities  could 
in  modern  hist«)ry,  for  the  first  time  attract«<l  attention,  put  to  hea  such  prodigious  fleets  as  tlio>e  of  I'isa  and 
The  greatest  of  these  was  Russia.  In  the  mi'Mle  of  the  <.Ienoa.  l-'leets  fif  thirty,  sixty-four,  twenty-four,  and 
thirteenth  cenlnrv,  the  tribes  (jf  Tartrirv  made  a  com-  one  huiidn-il  and  three  jralle^s,  were  successiveiv  not 
plete  conquest  of  this  country,  and  for  almut  a  hundred  ■  t-)  si-a  by  I'i-a,  und'-r  the  command  of  able  :^enei-ali; 
years  they  maintained  their  siijiremacv.  At  len.jth  but  on  every  oi'ea->ion  the  <i<noeM;  were  able  to  opfwrt 
Ivan  a^'e..•Ild^■d  the  throne  of  Mo>cow  (14«;2),  and  n\er-  ■  thim  witii  vupi-rior  lleets.  On  the  O'.h  ui'  Auijust  1284, 
coming  the  Tartars,  establislii-d  a  kingdom  of  h.is  own,  tlie  Ti-ans  were  liefeatetl  in  a  naval  en;;age!uent  betore 
and  was  able  to  furni  an  alliance  with  the  Emperor  the  l>ie  <if  Mi-l^ria  :  thirr\-li\e  of  their  xesse'.s  were  lost, 
Maximilian  of  (lermany,  who  di«l  not  hesitate  to  htyle  five  thon-::;ml  per-<»ns  perished  in  ba:t!e,  and  eleven 
him  bn»ther.  This  was  the  first  entrance  of  Russia  into  thou«an<l  ln-cam*'  prisoners  of  the  (Jenoese.  After  ii 
Enrcqiean  politics.  few  further  inefiectunl  struir^les,  I'i.-a  lost  its  standing. 

Ijefon.' the  end  <if  the  fourt«'enth  century,  tin*  (.'hris-  The  greatest  commercial,  and  allo::ether  tiie  mirti 
tlan  religion  hail  p«neirat»d  into  D«'nmark,  Swe«len,  remarkahli*  city  «»f  the  Italian  nqiublics,  was  Venice 
iVussia,  and  Foland ;  but  it  failed  in  producing  any  S'.-eludeil  from  the  W(»rld,  on  a  cluster  fif  islands  in  the 
immediate  beneficial  effect.  The  ]ioiiiieal  events  which  Adriatic,  the  inhabitants  of  this  city  had  tiken  up  tbeii 
took  place  in  these  ceuntriis,  however,  were  very  va-    abode  in  the  cour^:c  of  the  fifth  ciuturv,  and  they  boastci 

121 


HISTORY  OF  THE  MIDDLE  AGES. 


to  hare  been  independent  of  nil  the  revo- 
wbich  Europe  had  been  undergoing  Bince  the 
of  th#  Roman  empire.     This  migiit  be  true  to  a 
extent,  though  for  long  it  was  certainly  more  the 
of  their  nbMurity  than  their  power.     By  the 
century,  however,  the  descendants  of  those  tisher- 
tbat  had  firnt  taken  refuge  here,  wero  able  to  send 
abroad  which  could  encounter  and  overawe  both 
ivm  and  Normans.    The  Venetians  had  all  along 
Bp  a  correspondence  with  Constantinople  during 
laHcat  periods  of  the  middle  ages.  This  was  greatly 
and  extended  about  the  time  of  the  Crusades. 
Conatantinople  was  taken  by  tho  Latins  (1*204), 
[Aft  Venetians,  under  their  doge,  or  chief  magistrate, 
Dandalo,  became  possessed  of  three-eighths  of 
great  city  and  of  tho  provinces,  and  Dandalo  as- 
the  singuUurly  accurate  title  of  Duke  of  three- 
of  the  Roman  Empire.     The  Venetians  greatly 
their  share  of  the  spoil  by  making  advanta- 
I  purchases  from  the  more  needy  of  the  Crusaders. 
the  most  important  of  these  was  the  Isle  of  Can- 
il^ebieh  they  retained  till  the  middle  of  the  sevcn- 
ifeMlh  emtury.   The  idea  of  a  bank  took  its  rise  in  this 
:%,  a&d  an  establishment  of  that  nature,  simply  fur 
ill  Rccipt  of  deposits,  is  said  to  h.ive  existed  in  it 
p  KMtt  as  the  year  1157.     But  it  was  not  till  about  a 
toy  later  that  banking,  as  the  term  is  now  undcr- 
id,  began  at  all  to  be  practised.     The  mercliants  uf 
I  Inbardy  and  of  the  south  of  France,  began  at  that 
to  remit  money  by  bills  of  exchange,  and  to  make 
[iNit  npon  loans.     The  Italian  clergy  who  had  bcnc- 
iKi  beyond  the  Alps,  found  the  new  method  of  trans- 
money  exceedingly  convenient,  and  the  system 
tf  exacting  usury  or  interest,  after  experiencing  every 
ifertneUon  from  ignorance  and  bigotry,  became  a  legal 
|Bt  of  commerce.     In  tho  thirteenth  century  the  go- 
tBBBwnt  of  Venice  was  entirely  republican  ;  but  con- 
tined  wars  with  Genoa  reduced  both  cities.  These  wars 
SCR  all  conducted  on  the  seas,  and  the  display  of  naval 
■CBgth  on  both  sides  seems  prodigious  when  we  reflect 
Mtbe  poor  condition  of  Italy  at  the  ]>re8ent  day.     Be- 
■Aa  these  wars  for  objects  of  ambition,  thei*c  were 
■Kmaal  jealousies  which  rose  above  enlightened  views 
rfirif-interest,  and  led  to  the  most  disgract*ful  broils. 
lithe  middle  of  the  fourteenth  century,  a  battle  tcwk 
fbec  between  the  rival  citizens,  in  whicli  the  Geno<.>se 
SIR  defeated.     Their  loss  was  immense,  and  in  dis- 
taaaad  in  revenge  they  gave  themselvrs  up  to  John 
^■DMti,  Lord  uf  Milan,  then  the  riehest  and  among  the 
■mi  ambitious  of  the  petty  tyrants  of  Italy,  hoping 
Ay  be  would  give  them  the  means  to  re-establish  tlii'ir 
fctt  and  continue  the  war  with  the   Venetians.     He 
id  H,  and  in  another  naval  engagement,  fought  in 
U54,  in  the  Gulf  of  Supienza,  the  Venetians  wero  en- 
My  defeated.     But  tlie  Genoese  had  sacriiiced  their 
ibcrty  in  their  thirst  for  revenge.     Vit^conti  became 
Aar  master,  instead  of  friend.  Venice  was  able  to  riy^c 
ikdTt  its  temporary  discomfiture,  and  during  the  fif- 
iMnth  century  its  fame  and  power  became  greater  than 
Aiyhad  ever  been  before.     In  the  beginning  of  the 
ffteeoth  ccntur)*  the  Venetians  captured  the  town  of 
hdua,  and  gradually  lost  their  empire  of  the  sea,  while 
Acy  acquired  possessions  on  the  continent. 

Among  the  most  famous  of  the  Italuin  states  at  this 
period  was  Florence;  and  its  fame  was  founded,  not 
M  anns  bat  on  literature.  Like  the  other  Italian  cities, 
however,  it  owed  its  first  elevation  to  the  connnereial 
bdustrv  of  its  inhabitants.  Thei*e  was  a  curious  divi- 
wm  of  the  Florentine  citizens,  subsisting  about  the  be- 
gitinmg  of  the  thirteenth  century,  into  companies  or 
mrt§.  These  were  at  first  twelve,  seven  called  the 
gnater  arts,  and  five  the  lesser ;  but  the  latter  were 
padually  increased  to  fourteen.  The  seven  greater 
arts  were  those  of  lawyers  and  notaries,  of  dealers  in 
fiwrign  cloth,  called  sometimes  caHmaia,  of  bankers  or 
■OBcy'^hancers,  of  woollen-drapers,  of  physicians  and 
dlniggials,  of  dealers  in  silk,  and  of  furriers.  The  in- 
ferior arts  were  those  of  retailers  of  cloth,  butchers, 
■nithiL  ihocmaksn*  and  builders.    It  was  in  the  thir- 

12* 


teenth  century  that  Florence  became  a  republic,  and 
it  maintained  its  independence  for  two  hundred  years. 
In  the  beginning  of  the  fifteenth  century,  it  became 
peculiarly  distinguished  by  the  revival  of  Grecian  lite- 
rature and  the  cultivation  of  the  fine  arts.  Coi^mo  de 
Medici,  who  lived  a  citizen  of  Florence  At  this  time, 
and  was  known  by  the  name  of  the  Grand  Duke  of 
Tuscany,  descended  from  a  long  lino  of  ancestors 
whose  wealth  had  been  honounibly  acquired  in  tho 
prosecution  of  the  greater  arls^  had  more  riches  than 
any  king  in  Europe,  and  laid  out  more  money  on 
works  of  learning,  taste,  and  charity,  than  all  tho 
princes  of  his  age  put  together.  The  same  liberality  and 
munificence  distinguished  his  funiily  for  several  gene- 
rations. 

Tho  commercial  success  of  the  states  of  Italy  induced 
the  inhabitants  of  northern  Europe  to  attempt  similar 
enterprises.  In  tho  thirteenth  century  the  si^a-ports  on 
tho  Baltic  were  trading  with  Franco  and  Britain,  and 
with  the  Mediterranean.  The  commercial  laws  of  Ole- 
ron  and  Wisbuy  (on  the  Baltic)  regulated  for  many  ages 
the  trade  of  Eunipe.  To  i)rotect  their  trside  from  piracy, 
Lubec,  Hamburgh,  and  most  of  the  northern  sea-ports, 
joined  in  a  confederacy,  under  eertain  general  regu- 
lationn,  terme<l  the  Leapue  of  the  llan»e  Toicns;  a  union 
so  beneficial  in  its  nature,  and  so  formidable  in  point 
of  strength,  as  to  have  its  alliance  courted  by  the  pro- 
dominant  powers  of  Europe.  **  For  the  trade  of  the 
Hanse  towns  with  the  southern  kingiloms,  Bruges  on 
the  coast  of  Flamlers  was  found  a  convenient  cntre{>6t, 
and  thither  the  Mediterranean  merchants  brought  tho 
commoflities  of  India  and  the  Levant,  to  exchange  for 
tho  produce  and  manufactures  of  the  north.  The  Flem- 
ings now  began  to  encourage  trade  and  manufactures, 
which  thence  spread  to  the  Brabanters ;  but  their  growth 
being  checked  by  the  impolitic  sovereigns  of  those  pro- 
vinces, they  found  a  more  favourable  field  in  England, 
which  was  destiued  thence  to  derive  the  great  source  of 
its  national  opulence." — (Tt^tier.) 

THK  TURKS. — FALL  OF  CONSTANTINOPLL. 

We  have  already  seen  the  weakness  of  the  empire  of 
Constantinople  at  the  time  of  the  Crusades ;  Ave  have 
seen  the  city  sacked  and  the  government  seized  by  tho 
cham])ions  of  the  cross.  The  (i reeks  n*gained  their 
empire  in  the  year  I'Jfil,  but  in  a  mangled  and  impo- 
verished condition.  For  nearly  two  centurii's  it  con- 
tinued in  a  similar  state.  Andronieu<«,  son  of  Michael 
l*aUi*ologus,  who  had  restored  the  Greek  empire,  allowed 
hiniMelf  to  be  persuaded  that,  as  (lod  was  his  protector, 
all  military  force  was  unnecessary ;  and  the  supersti- 
tious Greeks,  regardless  of  danger,  empl<»ye<l  themselves 
in  disputing  about  the  transfiguration  of  Jesus  Christ, 
when  their  unfortunate  situation  made  it  necessary  that 
they  should  have  been  studying  the  art  of  war,  and 
training  tliems<'lves  to  military  discipline. 

In  the  mean  time,  the  Turks  had  become  a  powerful 
peopK.  They  had  embraced  the  Mahometan  religion 
long  before  the  time  of  the  Crusades,  and  proved  i)o\ver- 
ful  ob^tacle.s  to  the  success  of  those  expeditiouH.  About 
the  beginning  of  the  fourteenth  century,  they  established 
an  empire  of  their  own  in  Af«ia  Miiitu*,  under  Othnian 
or  Ottoman,  and  to  this  day  the  Ottoman  Empire  is  a 
name  given  to  the  dominions  of  their  descendants.  By 
degrees  they  encroached  on  the  borders  of  the  empire 

i  of  Constantinople,  and  they  wore  only  jirevented  from 
subverting  it  at  a  much  earlier  ]>eriod  than  they  did, 
by  being  called  upon  to  deft-nd  themselves  fn)m  the 
arms  of  an  ea.stern  con<|ueror  who  arose  at  this  time. 
Tamerlane,  otherwise  called  Timerbek,  was  a  prince  of 

i  the  I'sbek  Tartars,  and  a  descendant  from  Gengis  Khan. 
After  having  overrun  Tersia,  and  a  great  part  of  India 
and  Syria,  this  great  coiujueror  was  invited  by  some  of 
the  minor  prineen  <»f  Asia,  who  were  suffering  under 
the  Ottoman  tyranny,  to  c<mie  and  protect  them.  Ta- 
merlane was  fiattered  by  tho  request,  and  having 
brought  a  great  army  into  Phrygia,  he  was  there  met 
by  Bajazet,  tho  Ottoman  emperor,  who  readily  gave 
battle,  and  was  defeated  and  made  prisoner  ( 140*2). 


CHAMBERS'S  INFORMATION  FOR  TUE  PEOPLE. 


ftbout  the  close  of  the  tenth  and  beginning;  of  tlic  eleventh 
centor)',  and  which  gained  univiTxal  credit,  wonderfully 
au;^ented  the  nunilnT  of  credulous  pilj;riin»(,  and  in- 
crvaved  the  ardimr  with  which  tiioy  undertook  thiH 
useless  Toj-age.  The  thoujsaiid  \varn  mentioned  by  St 
John  [Itev.  XX.  2,  3,  4]  wore  supposed  to  be  aecom- 
plished,  and  the  end  of  the  world  to  be  at  hand.  A 
general  consternation  seized  mankind ;  many  relin-  I 
quished  their  potwefusiono,  and,  abandoning  their  friends 
and  families  hurried  with  precipitation  to  the  Holy 
Land,  where  they  imaginiHl  that  Christ  would  quickly 
api>ear  to  judge  the  world.* 

while  i'ale^tine  continued  subject  to  the  caliphn, 
they  had  encouraged  thv  resort  of  pilgrims  to  Jeru- 
salem, and  considered  this  as  a  beueticial  s]>eeies  of 
commerce,  which  brought  into  their  dominions  gr>ld  and 
silver,  and  carried  nothing  out  of  them  but  relies  and  . 
eoDsccrated  trinketn.  Dut,  the  Turks  having  conquered 
Syria  about  the  middle  of  the  eleventh  century,  i>ilgrims 
were  exi>0fied  to  outrages  of  cvei*y  kind  from  thcHc 
fierce  barbarLins.  Thih  change  hapiK'ning  precisely 
at  the  juncture  when  the  pauic  terror  which  I  have 
mentioned  rendered  pilgrimages  most  frequent,  filled 
Europe  with  alarm  and  indignation.  Kvery  ])ers<m 
who  returned  from  Palestine  related  the  dangers  which 
he  had  encountered,  in  visiting  the  holy  city,  and  de- 
scribed with  exaggei'atiun  the  cruelty  and  vexations  of 
tlie  Turks." 

Among  the  most  notorious  of  those  who  had  returned 
with  these  accounts,  was  a  monk  known  by  the  name  of  j 
Peter  the   Hermit.     By  all  accounts  this  individual 
seems  to  have  l>een  a  weak-minded  and  contemptible 
being.     lie  is  represented  as   running   from   city  to 
city,  and  from  kingilom  to  kingd<mi,  bare-headed,  with  ' 
naked  arms  and  legs,  and  bearing  aloft  a  ponderous  i 
crucifix  in  his  hand,  imploring  and  preaching  with  an  i 
enthusiastic  madness  on  the  necessity  of  wresting  the 
Holy  Land  from  the  hands  of  the  infidels.     In  a  more  j 
enlightened  age,  Peter  the  Hermit  would  probably  have  i 
been  confined  as  a  troublesome  lunatic ;  in  this,  however,  | 
he  was  not  only  allowed  to  go  on,  but  encouraged  and  i 
abetted  in  his  career.    The  ambitious  Ilildebrande  had  , 
expressetl  a  stnmg  desire  to  i^eiid  armed  forces  from 
Kuro)>e  toexteriuiiiato  the  Mahometans  from  Palestine, 
in  order  that  another  c«)untry  niii^iit  be  brouu'lit  under 
his  spiritual  subjection  ;  and  i.'rl>an  11.,  ulioai  ihi?»tiine  > 
occupied  the  ehair  of  St   Pi-ler,  warujly  h.'eini<h-(i  tiie 
clVorts  of  the  entliu>*i.istie  nmnk.      Nur  \va»  IN  terV  suc- 
cess  small.     Va^t    niullitndes   proclaiimd    tiieiiisflvts 
ready  to  enija^e  iti  the  iin<ier;aUin<;.     Two  great  e.»nn- 
cils  of  tlieehureli,i»iie  ut  tliein  held  at  Placenliaaiid  the 
other  ut  CieriiK'Ut,  in  Auver;,'ne,  atteiuled  by  pri-lates, 
priiRV's,  and  inniien-ie  multituksof  tl»e  eoinm<in  ptM»pIe,  : 
ileolariMl  enllju«»iastu'al!y  for  the  war  (loi»;i).    The  pnpe  ; 
himself  atteiidi-il  at  tiie  Ia»:,  and  Peter  and  he  haviii!:;  ' 
both  addi*es«-ed  the  multitude,  they  all  exclaimed,  as  if  . 
impelled  by  an  iinini-iliatt:  in->pira;ion,  **  It  is  tliev%illof 
Ciod  I  it  is  the  will  of  liudl'*   The-j*  woni-^  were  lho;i<^ht 
so  remarkable,  tiiat  thev  wen*  al:«'r\\ards  i  nii»ioved  as 
the  motto  on  the  sacred  »tanilartl.  and  eaine  t^i  be  iooui.'d 
nj^oii  us  the  si:;nal  of  bat:!i'aiid  of  rfnilrzvt>us  in  all  llie 
future  exploits  t>f  the  elianipiv>ns  nf  tli»«  eri"«-5.      Piivons 
<if  all  ranks  ikiw  tiew  to  arni«  \vi;li  the  r.tniost   ard>>nr. 
Th«*  r»'mi-»»ion  of  prnancf,  li;i'  di>l■^'ll^af  i.n  tr.in  tht  -<■ 
practice-^  wliiclj  >n|M  i>ijiiini  ini;'o>rd  or  su-jien'1-ii  at 
plea<ur«'.  tlie  abM-hitiiin  «»f  aiisin*.,  and  the  a.^-^uiMnceof  . 
eternal  felicity,  \Mr«  the  r«-waiiN  l'i<!d  jmH  l.v  tl:«*  eiiurcli  , 
to  all    wiio  jnjne<l    tiie   eii'i- rpr.-e  ;  and  "to  tiii'  iicre  ' 
vulirar  cla*"»,''  '■u\"»  Mr  tiaiiani,  **  wt-rr  IhI-i  ont  induce-  , 
ini-nt-*  uiiieli,  tii><:!:!i  at)7>orli.  d  in  tih>  o\<  rr:i.::iL;   i.nia-  i 
tiiM-m    of   t'le    l:r-t    ('ri'.sail--,     ini^ht    be    (ACi't-liisL^'y 
acious  will  n  it  !■:  .:an  to  tla:;.    I'urinj:  the  linn-  lliut 
ler  bi'i'i"  till'  cr-'-s,  ho  wa-*  free  fri  m  suit*^  for  his 

«im  in-  iili-.i!..  ;.«.  !■■  rr.-!i  r.iti-. .■  .-f  thl-^  .  -in  r.il  l-.lii  f, 
lat  till-}-  li  i-l  1  -inll  ■  I  ■■lint.-  II  ■■  li  «  I'.li  ti.r-  ■  \\'i;-,!h  ; 
rW  i*  h  iv,  i|i.:Miiu' t  •  i'<«  I.  -I- ."  jii.  1  li:  I*.  a:i  anuv. 
ilcr  ///'•  L'i/i/-f i.T  t'thf  }.,   11  1-.  N.I  t«  rniii'il  !■>  aa  ■ 


debts,  ami  the  interest  of  tliem  was  entirely  abolUbed  ; 
he  was  exempted,  in  some  instances  at  least,  from  laxei^ 
and  placed  under  the  protection  of  the  church,  so  that 
he  Could  not  be  impleade<l  in  any  civil  court,  except  m 
criminal  charges  or  questions  relating  to  land."  It 
was  in  the  spring  of  the  year  IOJh:,  that  Peter  lbs 
Hermit  ^et  out  for  Judea,  at  the  head  of  a  promise uo«t 
assemblage  of  ijU,0(IO  men,  with  sandals  on  his  feet,  A 
roi>e  about  his  waist,  and  every  other  mark  of  monkah 
austerity.  S(H)n  after,  a  more  numerous  and  bettar 
disciplined  force  of  'JOU,O0U  followed,  including  aoOM 
able  and  experienced  leaders.  Ciodfrey  of  liouiUo^ 
ICobert,  Duke  of  Normandy  (sim  of  William  the  Cob- 
querorof  England),  the  Counts  of  Vermendois,  TouloiiH^ 
and  Ulois,  are  a  few  of  the  m(»rc  illustrious.  The  ino* 
gress  of  this  immense  mass  of  human  beings  on  their 
journey  was  markf^l  by  mis(*ry  and  famine.  Thoyhal 
vainly  trusted  to  Heaven  for  a  supernatural  supply  ti 
their  wants,  and  in  their  disappointment,  they  plundeiW 
all  that  came  in  their  way.  **  So  many  crimes  and 
much  miser\',"  says  Mr  Hallani,  **  have  seldom 
accumulated  in  so  short  a  8|>ace,  as  in  the  three 
of  the  first  expedition  ;"  and  another  historian  says,  that 
a  ^^  fresh  supply  of  German  and  Italian  vagabondis* 
re<,*eived  on  the  way,  were  even  guilty  of  pillaging  tb» 
churches.  It  is  certain  that  before  the  hermit  reached 
Constantinople,  the  number  of  his  ft>rces  had  dwindled 
down  to  'J0,0()0.  Alexis  C\)mnenus,  then  >lmperor  of 
Constantinople,  who  had  applied  tothestatcsof  EaroM 
for  absihtance,  without  much  hope  of  obtaining  it,  m 
order  tluit  he  might  be  enabled  to  resist  a  threatened 
attack  by  the  Turks  up<m  himself,  was  surprised  aad 
terrified  at  the  motley  group  of  adventurers  who  had 
now  i*eachcd  the  shore  of  his  d<miinions.  He  readil/ 
afforded  them  the  means  of  ti*ans]H>rting  theniselvei 
across  the  liosphorus,  and  )>erfonned  the  same  friendlj 
office  to  the  larger  force  which  followed  under  Godfrsy 
and  others ;  glad,  api»arently,  to  have  the  barbarians  cl 
the  north,  as  his  subjects  called  them,  out  of  his  domi* 
nions.  The  .Sultan  Solyman  met  the  army  of  the  hcr> 
mit,  if  anny  it  could  be  calleil,  and  cut  the  greater  part 
oi'  it  to  pieces  on  the  plains  of  Nicen.  The  second  hcMt 
proved  more  succes.«ful.  I  n  snite  of  their  want  of  di^i- 
pliiie,  their  i^nomnce  of  tli<>  country,  the  scarcity  of 
]»rovi.-.lMns,  ami  tin?  excess  of  fatii^ue,  tlu  ir  /.eal,  their 
Uravery,  and  tln-ir  irre>i>tilili'  f.in^  ,  enabled  them  twice 
to  overthrow  (.11  >  .lyir.an,  to  taUe  I. i-»  capital.  Nice,  ahd, 
after  uii  ohstinale  re«»isiance,  tiie  city  of  Antioch  uIm). 
(lOMJ).  At  len-^iii  ( |n:»:»)  t!iey  reach.'«i  .Jerus.il«'m,  much 
diminished  in  nnniher.>«  ami  hroUeii  in  spirit;  but,  with 
jiersex  ermi;  a«i.>iiluity,  tiny  |'roeieile«i  t«»  lay  siege  to  the 
city,  and  in  six  >\eok>  ilu-y  bceanie  its  nia>ters.  Their 
cruel  Conduct  tt)  the  inhabitants  att«  »ts  the  barltamoa 
feelings  of  tlieir  hi-arts.  **  Neiiher  jirins  lietended  the 
valiant,  mtr  ^ubnli^•^ion  the  tini'>ron.-> :  no  a:;e  nor  b«x 
was  spared;  infants  on  tli-.'  brea««t  uore  i»ierced  bv  the 
same  blow  with  their  mothers,  who  iinplortd  for  inercv  ; 
t.-ven  a  multitude  of  ten  thviu*<and  perixni.-o,  who  liad 
surreiidt'i'iil  t-ieniselvis  ]»ris«'ners  and  were  promi«ed 
quarter,  \\t  re  bntelund  in  coi<l  blood  by  tlie^e  ferocious 
Conqueror-.  '1  In?  streets  ci  .Jrru>alem  wen*  oovcned 
with  tlra-i  lni(li(-.  The  trninuiiant  warriors,  after  every 
I  neniy  was  siibilni'iland  ^laiiL'literetl,  tnrneil  them«elve», 
w;th  tiie  >•  ntiiin  ^.:>^  (if  hnnniiatiou  and  cuntritiou,  to- 
ward-* the  holy  .sepiilcliri'.  Th»'y  threw  .isi.ie  their  arni% 
still  streaiiiJii;  with  Mi  id  ;  thi  y  ad\anced  with  n-cliued 
i'.)iiies  and  naki  d  l«-i  t  and  h<  uiN,  to  that  Kicred  nionu- 
inent  ;  they  snii.;  antlienix  to  him  who  had  purcha>vd 
tlirir  saUalii'U  by  \\\^  lirath  anil  a;,'ony  ;  aul  lUeir  demo- 
tion, e:iii\in..l  i.y  t!ii*  jtresence  ot  tiie  I'L.ce  where  he 
had  Miiiii't-d.  >.»o\irc.ime  liieir  fury,  that  they  dis-oDlvtrd 
in  ti  ar>,  U!.<1  h  iiv  the  appearai.ce  of  «  very  suit  aud 
t<  ndi-r  si-nitni'.'nt.  >o  incunsi»tent  is  human  nature 
w  itii  itst  it.  anil  ?% »  easily  dm-s  the  m<ist  etfemiiL'ite  super* 
s:itio;iuil\,  bish  witii  t-ie  mo»t  hei'oio  courage  andwuh 
the  l!erce.'»t  barbarity  !' 

With  a  bi'Cuniing  foresight,  the  C'rnsiiiers  cfct.iblislied 
a  C\ I visi.au  kiw^dom  in  tlie  heart  of  i'alesiine ;  and  at 
llic  heuA  o{  U,  \>\  M\\\Ncna\  covkaftuX.,  x«a  v^iueed  G^mI- 


HISTORY  OF  THE  MffiDLE  AGES. 


or  at  least  the  eleTation,  of  the  University  of 

Oalord.  The  ftnt  efforts,  however,  at  literary  improve- 

■at,  were  marred  by  the  subtleties  of  scholastic  divi- 

ikr.  Perhaps  the  greatest  and  wisest  literary  character 

ff  the  middle  ages  was  an  English  friar,  named  Roger 

Bhoo.    This  extraordinary  individual  was  not  only 

lamcdf  bat,  what  was  more  uncommon  in  those  times, 

hi  was  fldeDtifie.  Hallam  asserts  that  he  was  acquainted 

wUb  the  nature  of  gunpowder,  though  he  deemed  it  pru- 

fat  to  eoneeal  his  knowledge.  He  saw  the  insufficiency 

rfidMol  philosophy,  and  was  the  ftrst  to  insist  on  ex^ 

ifaMBt  and  the  observation  of  nature  as  the  fittest  m- 

itovmenti  by  which  to  acquire  knowledge.  He  reformed 

ftsealeodar,  and  made  discoveries  in  astronomy,  optics, 

AmiBtzy,  medicine,  and  mechanics. 

It  ii  to  Italy,  however,  that  we  owe  the  first  and 
pstcst  exertiona  in  the  revival  of  letters.    The  spirit 
rf  Bbcrtj  which  had  arisen  among  its  republics  was 
fcroarable  to  the  cultivation  of  literature ;  and  ac- 
•HSngly  we  And  that  not  only  did  they  produce  many 
WHooala  who  were  most  active  and  successful   in 
hriagins  to  light  the  relics  of  classical  lore,  but  that 
ftse  UM  aroae  among  them  men  possessed  of  the 
H|htat  order  of  oriniud  eenius.    Florence  produced 
Oanto  00  early  as  1265.    Dante  was  associated  with 
tta  Mgiatiacy  of  his  native  city  in  his  earlier  years, 
b^  liATiiig  civen  dissatisfaction  in  that  capacity,  he 
^u  boiualied,  and  in  his  exile  produced  his  great 
fmax  cBtitled  the  Divine  Comedy.    It  is  a  representa- 
liia  oC  the  three  supposed  kingdoms  of  futuritv — Hell, 
fofilUfrjt  and  Paimdise— divided  into  one  hundred 
■BtoOi  and  eontaining  about  14,000  lines.    The  poem 
ksa  been  snneb  praised.    Petrarch,  bom  in  the  year 
1W4,  wee  likewise  a  Florentine  by  birth.    The  misfor- 
tnco  of  hla  fisther  had  impoverished  the  family,  and 
yWUaieh  was  too  proud  to  take  the  usual  method  of 
letrieving  bia  affairs.    His  genius,  however,  earned  for 
him  the  friendship  of  many  Italian  princes,  and  even 
tf  tooie  popes  than  one,  although  he  had  exerted  his 
tdenta  to  expose  the  vices  of  their  courts.    Petrarch's 
yT*i*i^!  ehvacter  seems  to  have  exhibited  some  un- 
aniable  traits  ;  but  he  has  sung  of  love,  friendship, 
ibry,  petriotisni,  and  religion,  in  language  of  such 
■sii'tniaii  and  power  as  to  have  made  him  the  admira- 
tion of  every  succeeding  age.    Boccaccio,  like  the  two 
gifat  poets  named,  was  also  a  Florentine.    He  was 
BBm  in  1313,  and  his  name  has  descended  to  posterity 
has  ■senristril  with  his  poetry  than  the  light,  elegant, 
ad  easy  prose  of  his  novels.    Tliese  were  the  pruduc- 
fcn  of  his  idle  hours ;  and  his  Latin  works,  on  which 
Is  snppoead  bia  fiune  to  rest,  have  long  since  been  for- 


Ilr  diseoofry  of  Juttinian^a  LawSy  as  detailed  in  the 
hndccta  (see  Histort  of  Laws),  was  another  event 
iMdi  powerfully  tended  to  modify  the  barbarism  that 
fRvailed  during  the  middle  ages  in  Europe. 

TV  httenOon  of  the  Mariner^a  Compass  must  be 
wtksned  of  still  greater  importance,  and  yet  it  is  abso- 
h*ely  unknown  to  whom  we  owe  it.  That  honour  has 
kasolten  bestowed  on  Gioia,  a  citizen  of  Amalphi,  who 
ind  abont  the  commencement  of  the  fourteenth  ecu- 
toy.  Bnt  the  polarity  of  the  magnet  at  least  was  known 
•i  the  Snracens  two  hundred  years  before  that  time; 
Asogfa  even  after  the  time  of  Gioia,  it  was  long  before 
thi  magnet  was  made  use  of  as  a  guide  in  navigation.  '*  1 1 
b a  angular  circumstance,"  says  Mr  Ilallara,  ^  and  only 
Is  be  explained  by  the  obstinacy  with  which  men  are 
ipt  to  reject  improvement,  that  the  magnetic  needle 
was  not  generally  adopted  in  navi^tion  till  very  long 
lAer  the  discovery  of  its  properties,  and  even  after 
thar  pcenliar  importance  had  been  perceived.  The 
•rilen  of  the  thirteenth  century,  who  mention  the 
fskiltjf  of  the  needle,  mention  also  its  use  in  navigation ; 
jil  G^ttnny  hnfe  found  no  distinct  proof  of  its  employ- 
■Mnt  till  1403,  and  does  not  believe  that  it  was  he- 
fenitly  on  board  Mediterranean  ships  at  the  latter  part 
ti  the  prseeding  age."  The  Genoe:»e,  however,  are 
kaovn  m  the  foerteenth  eentury  to  have  come  out  of 
Ihat  tahnd  isi^  ttid  ateered  for  Fhinden  and  England. 

127 


But  by  far  the  greatest  sailors  of  the  age  were  the 
Spaniards  and  Portuguese.  This  latter  nation  had  little 
or  no  existence  during  the  greater  part  of  the  middle 
ages,  but  in  the  twelfth,  tliirteenth,  and  fourteenth  cen- 
turies, they  were  able  to  expel  the  Moors  from  a  great 
part  of  their  country ;  and  m  the  beginning  of  the  fif- 
teenth, John,  Bumamed  the  Bastard,  who  was  then 
their  king,  was  the  first  European  prince  who  exhibited 
a  respectable  navy.  It  was  m  the  year  14RG  that  this 
adventurous  people  first  doubled  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope. 

The  discovery  of  America  (1493)  may  be  mentioned 
supplementarily  to  the  invention  of  the  mariner's  com- 
pass, as  an  event  which,  without  it,  could  never  have 
taken  place.  The  immortal  honour  of  that  discovery 
rests  with  Christopher  Columbus,  a  sailor  of  Genoa. 
After  unsuccessful  applications  at  almost  every  court 
in  Europe,  and  braving  obloquy  and  contempt,  Columbus 
at  last  obtained  a  miserable  force  from  Ferdinand  and 
Isabella  of  Spain,  and  with  no  landmark  but  the  heavens, 
nor  any  guide  but  his  compass,  he  launched  boldly  into 
the  sea,  and  at  last  conducted  Europeans  to  the  great 
western  hemisphere.  The  importance  of  that  discovery, 
and  its  effect  on  the  destinies  of  mankind,  are  subjects 
on  which  it  is  not  our  present  purpose  to  dilate. 

In  the  course  of  tho  fourteenth  and  beginning  of  the 
fifteenth  centuries,  various  discoveries  in  the  arts  were 
made,  which  powerfully  tended  to  the  advancement  of 
society  ;  among  these  the  more  important  were  the  in- 
vention of  gunpowder  and  fire-arms,  clocks  and  watches, 
paper-makmg,  and  printing.  This  last,  the  greatest  of 
all,  prepared  the  way  for  the  Reformation  in  religion, 
in  the  sixteenth  century,  by  which  religious  was  added 
to  civil  freedom,  and  a  great  spur  given  to  individual 
activity. 

Important  as  these  events  were  in  their  ultimate 
tendencies,  it  is  to  bo  remembered  that  they  did  not 
immediately  make  any  distinct  change  in  the  comforts 
of  the  people.  In  the  latter  centuries  of  the  middle 
ages,  tiie  amusements  of  the  common  people  were 
metrical  and  prose  romances,  unintelligible  prophe- 
cies, and  fables  of  giants  and  enchanters.  The  state 
of  England  and  of  France,  at'this  period,  shows  the 
small  advance  which  had  been  made  towards  those 
comforts  and  improvements  which  now  exist.  Even 
in  the  large  cities,  the  houses  were  roofed  with  thatch, 
and  had  no  chimneys,  **  The  two  most  essential  im- 
provements in  architecture  during  thi»  period,*'  sa^'s  Mr 
Hallam,  ''one  of  which  had  been  missed  by  the  saga- 
city of  Greece  and  Rome,  were  chimneys  and  glass 
windows.  Nothing  apparently  can  be  more  simple  than 
the  former ;  yet  the  wisdom  of  ancient  times  had  been 
content  to  let  the  smoke  escape  by  an  aperture  in  the 
centre  of  the  roof;  and  a  discoverv,  of  which  Vitruvius 
had  not  a  glimpse,  was  made,  perhaps  in  this  country 
[England],  by  some  forgotten  semi-barbarian.  About 
the  middle  of  the  fourteenth  century,  the  use  of  chimneys 
is  distinctly  mentioned  in  England  and  in  Italy  ;  but  they 
are  found  in  several  of  our  castles  which  bear  a  much 
older  date.  This  country  seems  to  have  lost  very  early 
the  art  of  making  glass,  which  was  presen-cd  in  I'rance, 
whence  artificers  were  brought  into  England  to  furnish 
tho  windows  of  some  new  churches,  in  the  seventh  cen- 
tury. It  is  said  that,  in  the  reign  of  Henry  III.,  few 
ecclesiastical  buildings  had  glazed  windows.  Suger, 
however,  a  century  before,  had  adorned  his  great  work, 
the  abbey  of  St  Denis,  with  windows  not  only  glazed  but 
painted  ;  and  I  presume  that  other  churches  of  the  same 
class,  both  in  France  and  England,  were  generally  deco- 
rated in  a  similar  manner.  Yet  gloss  is  .said  not  to  have 
been  employed  in  the  domestic  architecture  of  France 
before  the  fourteenth  century,  and  its  introduction  into 
England  was  probably  by  no  means  earlier.  Nor,  in- 
deed, did  it  come  into  general  use  during  the  period  of 
the  middle  ages.  Glazed  windows  were  considered  as 
moveable  furniture,  and  probably  bore  a  high  price. 
When  the  Earls  of  Northumberland,  as  late  as  the  reign 
of  Elizabeth,  left  Alnwick  Castle,  the  windows  were 
taken  out  of  their  frames  and  carefully  laid  by." 

By  far  the  finest  specimens  of  architecture  which 


CHAMBERS'S  INFORMATION  FOll  THE  PEOPLE. 


the  middle  ages  produced,  were  the  religious  edifices 
built  in  thetwolfth  and  three  following  centuries.  The 
superstition  of  the  times  w.is  favourable  to  the  produc- 
tion of  works  of  that  sort.  To  leave  one*s  means  for 
such  a  purpose  was  deemed  t-o  meritorious  as  to  entitle 
the  donor  to  oternal  ha{)piriess  in  the  next  scene  of  ex- 
istence ;  and  men  in  this  world  thought  it  a  duty  to 
render  stAicturcs  designed  for  purposes  so  sacred  as 
beautiful  and  becoming  as  they  could.  It  was  about 
the  middle  of  the  twelfth  century  that  wliat  has  been 
called  the  Gothic  style  of  architecture  took  its  rise,  of 
which  the  peculiar  feature  is  thought  to  Ite  the  pointed 
nrch,  formed  by  the  segment  of  two  intersecting  semi- 
circles, struck  from  points  equidistant  from  the  centre 
of  a  common  diameter.  This  style  of  architecture  has 
been  said  by  diflferent  individuals  to  have  originated  in 
France,  in  Germany,  in  Italy,  and  in  England.  The 
truth  is,  we  neither  know  where  it  originated  nor  from 
what  source  it  was  derived.  It  has  atibrded  anti(jua- 
rics  a  curious  subject  of  speculation  how  so  pci-fect  a 
s}'stem,  as  this  has  been  thought,  should  not  only  have 
origiiiated  but  reached  perfection  in  times  so  dark. 
Any  effectual  explanation  is  probably  now  impossible  ; 
the  knowledge  of  the  art  was  never  permitted  to  go 
beyond  a  fri^emity  of  freemasons,  and  it  is  not  to  he 
supposed  that  the  early  archives  of  that  mysterious  as- 
sociation have  8ur>'ived  so  many  revolutions. 

The  living  even  of  the  Iiighest  nobility  under  the 
Edwards  was  such  as  would  not  prove  very  palatable 
to  their  luxurious  descendants.  They  drank  little  wine, 
had  no  f<»reign  luxuries,  rarely  kept  male  servants  ex- 
cept for  husbandry,  and  still  more  rarely  travelled  be- 
yond their  native  country.  An  income  of  £\0  or  £'20 
was  reckoned  a  competent  estate  for  a  gentleman — at 
least  the  lord  of  a  single  manor  would  seldom  have 
enjoyed  more.  A  knight  who  ])(>ssesMed  £1.')0  a-year 
passed  for  extremely  rich.  Sir  John  Fortcscuc  speaks 
of  five  pounds  a-year  as  "a  fair  living  for  a  yeoman  ;" 
and  we  read  that  the  same  simi  (£5)  ser\*cd  as  the 
annu.il  expense  of  a  scholar  attending  the  university. 
Modem  lawyers  nmst  l>c  surprised  at  the  following, 
which  Mr  liallum  extr.icts  from  the  churchwarden's 
accounts  of  St  Margaret,  Wi'stminster,  for  147<J  : — 
"  Also  paid  to  Roger  Tyipott,  learned  in  the  law,  for  his 
counsel  giving  .'Js.  IM.,  trilh  fnnrprnce  for  his  ditmrr.^* 

It  has  been  remarked,  that  the  wages  of  day-labour- 
ers, particularly  tlioM»  enj;ai;ed  in  a;j:rieultiin',  were 
better  in  the  times  of  Kdwani  J II.  and  Henry  VI.  than 
they  have  ever  been  at  any  other  period  of  Knclish 
history  ;  nor  can  it  be  denied  that  this,  upon  tho  whole, 
is  true.  In  the  fourteenth  century,  a  harvest  man  had 
fourptrnce  a-day,  which  enabled  him  in  a  week  to  buy 
a  comb  of  wheat ;  but,  says  Sir  Jnhn  Cullum,  in  his 
Historv  of  llawsted,  to  buv  a  comb  of  wheat,  a  man  must 
now  (17o4)  work  ten  or  twelve  days.  "  So,  says  Mr 
Hallam,  *•  under  Henry  VI.,  if  nu-at  was  at  a  farthing 
and  a  half  the  pound,  which,  I  suppose,  was  about  the 
mark,  a  labourer  earning  threepenec  a-day,  or  ei;;htcen- 
penoe  in  the  week,  eould  buy  a  bu^^hel  of  wheat,  at  six 
hhilliui^s  the  quarter,  an<l  twenty-f»jur  poun<ls  of  meat, 
for  his  family.  A  labourer  at  present  earning  twelve 
Fhillings  a-week.  can  only  buy  a  buslwl  of  wheat  at 
ei;;hly  shillings  the  quarter,  and  twtflve  pounds  of  nw  at 
at  sovenpenee."  It  is  thus  undeniable  that  the  day- 
labonn-rs'  w.i:;fR  couM  purchase  gr«-nter  quantities  of 
C'  r:ain  kinds  of  food  than  the  wages  given  to  the  same 
class  of  persons  couhl  do  in  the  })resent  day,  but  tl;ry 
wanteil  a  thoii»^ind  comlorts  which  the  meanest  of  our 
wdrkmen  now  enjoy:  and  few  surely  would  be  willinij 
to  e\ehani;«'  all  ihct^v  bles*<ings  for  the  wai*s  and  miseries 
which  r.'lward  eauseil,  even  alth<»uj:h  they  wrre  en- 
sure<l,  alonu  with  them,  of  daily  supplirs  of  beef  and 
ale,  ii{  whicii  tin*  ancient  yi*omen  boasted. 

Tin*  inirrnai  aeeommodation  of  houses  was  even 
less  than  their  outwanl  sj)lendour.  A  gentleman's 
hou^e  c<intaining  thrco  or  four  beils  was  thou:;;lit  to 
l)e  extraordinarily  \m-1I  provided  ;  few  [irobahly  liad 
more  than  two.  The  walls  were  commonly  bare,  with- 
out wainscot  or  evi-a  plaster,  except  that  some  great 


houses  were  furnished  with  hangings,  and  t 
haps,  liardly  so  soon  as  the  reign  of  Edv 
Neither  books  nor  pictures  could  find  a  plac 
dwellings  as  these.  Some  inventories  of  1 
bearing  dates  in  the  fourteenth  century,  have  I 
served  to  our  own  day,  and  they  are  curious  a 
ing.  In  Sir  F.  Eden's  work  on  the  State  of  1 
a  car|>enter*s  stock  is  said  to  have  been  value 
year  l."iOl,  at  a  shilling !  In  an  inventory  of  i 
of  "  John  Port,  late  the  king's  servant,"  who  d 
1524,  we  find  that  this  gentleman's  house  had 
of  a  hall,  i^arlour,  butter)',  and  kitchen,  with 
steads,  two  chambers,'  three  garrets,  and  soi 
accommodations.  From  this -it  maybe  infei 
Mr  Poi*t  was  a  rather  important  man  in  his 
very  few  individuals  at  that  time  could  boast 
accommodation.  His  plate  was  valued  at  '. 
jewels  at  L.23 ;  and  his  funeral  expenses  am< 
L.73,  Gs.  8d. 

Of  all  the  arts  necessar}'  to  existence,  per 
of  agriculture  was  in  the  most  miserable  condi 
ing  the  middle  ages.  On  a  thousand  spots  of  b 
we  now  behold  subjected  to  a  fruitfnl  cultivati 
was  nothing  to  be  seen  at  that  time  but  "  tract* 
ground,  stagnating  with  bog  or  darkened  by  nati 
where  the  wild-ox,  the  roe,  the  stag,  and  the 
scarcely  learned  the  supremacy  of  man."  \Vi 
first  efforts  at  improvement  in  agriculture 
greater  part  of  Euroi)e  to  the  monks.  They  < 
the  sake  of  retirement,  secluded  regions,  wl 
cultivated  with  the  labour  of  their  hands. 
Anglo-Saxon  husbandry  we  may  remark," 
Turner,  *•  that  Doom's-day  Survey  gives  us  » 
cation  that  the  cultivatiim  of  the  church  L 
much  sujKirior  to  that  of  any  other.  They  1 
less  wood  u|>on  tliem,  and  their  meadow  \ 
abundant  and  in  more  numerous  distribution 
culture  of  arable  land  in  general  was  very  ii 
according  to  Sir  John  Cullum,  a  full  areragi 
an  acre  sown  with  wheat  amounted  only  to  al 
or  ten  bushels — a  circumstance,  the  knowled^t 
may  save  ns  any  surprise  at  a  calculation  b} 
appears  that,  in  the  thirteenth  century,  th* 
annual  rent  of  an  acre  (»f  arable  land  was  I 
pence  to  a  shilling.  In  the  time  of  Edward  ] 
dinary  pric*^  of  a  quarter  of  wheat  appears  to  1 
about  four  .*>hillinf:s.  A  bheep  was  sold  high  : 
ling,  and  an  ox  mit;ht  be  reek<»ned  at  ten  o 
In  considering  thf<e  statements,  however,  o 
money  values,  it  must  be  recollected  by  perso 
day,  that  the  precious  metals  were  deprt*ciatec 
ivcly  in  their  value  by  every  sovereign  in  Km 


SI 


enabled  themselves  in  this  way  to  pay  didits  i 
anre,  while  in  reality  they  were  cheating  their  ci 
that  extent ;  and  sums  of  small  name  in  those  < 
everv  way  equal  in  value  to  greater  sums  in  < 
At  this'  time  wine  was  sold  only  in  the  hhr 
English  apothecaries.  Yet  the  progress  of  1 
it  was  calleil,  had  already  begun  to  excite  scrio 
The  Parliament  of  Kdward  111.  passed  an  act 
ing  tlu'  use  of  gold  and  silver  in  apparel  t 
had  not  a  hundn-d  pounds  a-year ;  an«i  Char 
Francj'  ord:iine<l  that  none  should  pn*sume  to 
their  i;»*?sts  with  more  than  two  dishesandamc! 
It  is  almost  unnecessary  to  add,  that  laws  of 
were  passed  only  with  a  view  t«>  persons  in  tl 
ranks  ;  for  »>thers  they  were  not  neeiled.  Cont« 
hist«»ry  has  recorded  nothing  of  the  ]»oorer  cl 
their  s!aui;hter  in  war;  but  we  ai-e  at  little  lo 
ceivo,  that  domestic  comforts  must  have  beer 
slei  <:i'r  among  them,  when  we  know  that  neill 
nor  lookin^j-plasses  could  be  found  in  the  bednji 
imbility.  Ai;es  over  which  this  sketch  does  m 
were  required  befoi-e  the  great  mass  of  hum 
shouM  become  possessed  of  personal  corafo 
]>oiitieal  ri;;hts. 


TrintM  and  ptiMi.-lKil  hy  W.  and  R.  riiAMBsa*.  l! 
PUicc,  KdltibuiTjli.    Sold  aK«  by  W.  8.  Orr  and  Co.,  L 


-■riV  (ir  TOE  MIUDLU  A<i]3- 


^'niis, iwd  tn ll«t  lit  l'«kUMM,IVuj|ki lui  srnn  latMt 

■     ■  ■  ■    e^Uli  ■ 


iBda  Miliar  « 


pt¥liil;r  lieWriira*.  Juh«,  Kla|  aT  Fimh,  «m  UkM 
pttnOKf,  uad  Uic  mm4bc*  uT  jvuQf  Cil«Md  lo  hit  bllw 
(nmy  irM|vDimiukiiiI>lBUtU»in  tiwUjIiandMn^ 
■I  tl»l  tb*  pR**h  priunsn  w*  «il-i  In  hate  ibm 
tnwianw  hf  iIm  daiilii)>  •>(  xiidi  aa  Blumlon  ul  pttud 


-"T, 


n  mwipi  fur 

•  l«|«  up  •  W%T  vUli  Uw  ■iHfutvtur 

-'  ••  —IS  imIt  aAcT  haTtug  tluur  rtglil 


■lull'  aaal  oUim  10  tflifcl. 

IffanMd  al-Mh  viUwHer]  IfaiM  tmnaMtion*  vu 
BtaWtfAMrtluKantlDmdwan  bBtWMD  fnuuBand 
(■^  Ib  llie  litginnilil  of  lb*  twelfth  eeatury,  the 
■■dhpnlB  tot  tit|awna>]r  ornaa  buiwoen  'I'liumiu- 
■Ma  AnMaahnp  »I  CnnlErlnir!',  aud   llMiry  II., 

hiBi^-"- •^- -'-'"-"'■''- r'''"""'''M  ■■•■'•-"•" 

"t  irf  bla  [innarli        ""'      '  -'  -  -'  '- 


Dru'.  waa  Dot  atatnik  U  Fnuiee,  llmugit,  Itcaa  tLa 
diiknidaiBd  Uatii  at  Ihat  fnuolfT,   It  prr'nj    parluM 

[■.._...    __  1  .1  .    1. ..  .1 . 1.  I  ,  .  ...  ..    jiiiioH^  Miiniiulaw 

:  .1.    'I'liu  uriicln 


laid  iluriuB  tlii*  p>»eiUiiuii. 
While  tho  niAgw  lojiaa.  a  tainpiirary  tnuH  had  bwa 
bet«ei!U  t)ic  French  awl  kiiiglisli.  AttluU 
JB  waa  Rwalljr  iu  fairour  uf 
iliB  EagUah.  Not  to  rooutiiHi  leaa  in>vurlaiii  g»ii»,  iS 
OaiaonOfCaaeoiiy,  F«itou,  Saiiilaog#,UieLliiiwDiiii),ai)d 
Hie  AiiKeuiauuh  w  whU  *a  Calaii)  and  Iha  eeiiniy  af 
I'atiilhiftii,  Iran  awled  ill  tail  ti>*n^gaty  Ui  Edtt«i^ 
And  tlie  •mpt*  iiU*  at  Klnjt  of  Fcaoos  wm  kil  that  ha 
tntsiuiw  tiuuud  to  giro  up  (I1U>U).  Dut  it  waa  fimnd 
iiD|>i>iiiiil;la  ID  rvtaln  pMKHiaoi  in  tho  heart  ct  a  furvijil 
wiuii'117,  Uinugh  nan  by  eomiuiiujuUc  hnvtrj'  utd  nilvd 
liiiprudcuce.    In  lew  Ihan  t«n  yur«(ISGN), 


ngrccil  npan  bet«ei!U  tine 
time  tiie  baUiuw  of  ad*a 


viiir*t»»  reaaaiaaxeti,  and  the  Eiifii 
'  ninaf  i>(  tlw  pToriiicca  wlilah  thry  li;ii 


ly  <u  nw  11 


CHAMBERS'S  rSTORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


Denmark.  TIic  remedy  waa  found  hardly  any  better 
than  the  disease.  Having  once  acquired  a  footing  in 
tlie  island,  these  liardy  strangers  proceeded  to  make  it 
a  subject  of  conqucflt,  as  the  Koraans  had  done  before, 
with  this  material  difference,  that  they  drove  the  Bri- 
tbh  to  the  western  parts  of  the  island,  particularly  into 
Wales,  and  settled,  with  new  hordes  of  their  country- 
men, over  the  better  part  of  the  land.  So  completely 
was  the  population  cnanged,  that,  excepting  in  the 
names  of  some  of  the  hild  and  rivers,  the  British  lan- 
guage was  extinguished,  and  even  the  name  of  the  coun- 
try itself  was  changed  from  what  it  originally  was,  to 
Angle-land,  or  England,  a  term  taken  from  the  Angles. 
The  conquest  required  about  a  hundred  and  Hfty  years 
to  be  effected,  and,  like  that  of  the  Romans,  it  extended 
no  farther  north  than  the  Firths  of  Forth  and  Clyde. 
Before  the  Britoiui  wore  finally  cooped  up  in  Wales, 
many  battles  were  fought ;  but  few  of  these  are  accu- 
rately recorded.  The  most  distinguished  of  the  British 
generals  were  the  Princes  Vortimer  and  Aurelius  Am- 
rosius:  it  is  probably  on  the  achievements  of  the 
latter  that  the  well-knoH-n  fables  of  Arthur  and  his 
knights  are  founded. 

England,  cxclusivo  of  the  western  regions,  was  now 
divide  into  seven  kingdoms,  called  Kent,  Northumber- 
land, East  Anglia,  Mercia,  Essex,  Sussex,  and  Wessex, 
each  of  which  was  governed  by  a  race  descended  from 
the  leader  who  had  first  subdued  it;  and  the  whole 
have  since  been  called  by  historians  the  Saxon  Hep' 
toTehjfy  the  latter  word  being  composed  of  two  Greek 
words,  signifying  seven  kingdoms.  To  the  north  of  the 
Forth  dwelt  a  nation  called  the  Pietn,  who  also  had  a 
king,  and  were,  in  all  probability,  the  i)eopIe  with  whom 
Agricola  had  fought  under  the  name  of  Caledonians. 
In  the  Western  Ilighlands  there  i»-a8  another  nation, 
known  by  the  name  of  the  Scots,  or  Dalriads,  who  had 
gradually  migrated  thither  from  Ireland,  between  the 
middle  of  the  third  centurv  and  the  year  .503,  when 
they  establislied,  under  a  chief  named  Fergus,  a  mo- 
narchy destined  in  time  to  absorb  all  the  rest.  About 
the  year  700,  there  were  no  fewer  than  fifteen  kings, 
or  chiefs,  within  the  island,  while  Ireland  was  nearly 
in  the  same  situation,  hi  Britain,  at  the  Kimc  time, 
five  languages  were  in  use,  the  Latin,  Saxon,  Welsh, 
(or  British),  the  Pictish,  and  the  Irish.  The  general 
power  of  the  country  hsis  been  found  to  im-reus*?  as 
these  nations  and  principalities  were  gradually  amassed 
together. 

Although  three  of  the  Savon  kingdoin««,  Wessex, 
Mercia,  and  Northumberland,  l>ccaine  predominant, 
the  Heptarchy  prevailed  from  about  the  year  oi).>  to 
800,  when  EglK»rt,  King  of  Wessex,  acquii'ed  a  para- 
mount inHiiencc  over  all  the  other  states,  though  their 
kings  still  continued  to  reign.  Alfred,  so  celebrated  for 
his  virtues,  was  the  grandson  of  Egbert,  and  began  to 
reign  in  the  ye.-tr  871.  At  this  time,  the  Danes,  who 
are  now  a  quiet,  inotfensive  people,  were  a  nation  of 
pirates,  and  at  the  same  time  heathens.  They  used  to 
come  in  large  fleets,  and  C(»mniit  dreadful  ravages  on 
the  shores  of  Britain.  For  some  time,  they  completely 
overturned  the  sovereignty  of  Alfred,  and  compelled 
him  to  live  in  oltscurity  in  the  centre  of  a  marsh.  But 
he  at  length  fell  upon  them,  when  they  thought  them- 
selves in  no  danger,  and  rt^gained  the  greater  i»art  of 
his  kingdom.  .Vlfn'd  spent  the  rest  «»f  his  life  in  lite- 
rary study,  of  which  he  was  very  fond,  and  in  forming 
laws  and  regulations  for  the  good  of  his  people.  Ho 
was  perhaps  the  most  able,  most  virtuons,  and  most 
popular  prince  that  ever  reigned  in  Britain ;  and  all 
this  is  t\\ii  more  surprising,  wlien  we  find  that  his  pre- 
d«'co««ors  and  suec«-K»iors,  for  many  ages,  were  ex- 
tremely cruel  ami  iirnonint.  lie  died  in  the  year  1*01, 
in  the  tiftv-thir*!  vear  of  his  aije. 

(•uNt^TT.^T  l:Y  Till:  NOR«\N>. 

The  Saxon  line  of  ]irineos  e*uitinued*to  reign,  with 
the  exception  of  three  D.mi^h  ivigiis,  till  the  year  10G6, 
nhen  the  crown  w«i4  in  the  po^sesHi<m  of  a  usurper 
mmed    Harold.     The   country  was   then   invaded  by 


William,  Duke  of  Normandy,  a  man  of  ille 
birch,  attended  by  a  large  and  powerful  army, 
opposed  him  at  Hastings  (October  14),  and, 
well-contested  battle,  his  army  was  defeated,  a 
self  slain.  William  then  cauiied  himself  to  be 
king  at  Westminster ;  and  in  the  course  of  a  U 
ho  succeeded,  by  means  of  his  warlike  Non 
lowers,  in  completely  subduing  the  Saxons.  H 
were  settled  upon  tlie  Unds  of  those  who  oppo; 
and  became  tiio  ancestors  of  the  present  nc 
England. 

Previously  to  this  period,  the  church  of  Rom 
waa  the  only  surviving  part  of  the  power  of  t 
pire,  had  established  its  supremacy  over  Engia 
land  wns  also  subjected  to  what  is  called  thi 
system,  by  which  all  proprietors  of  land  were  s 
to  hold  it  from  the  king  for  military  service,  wh 
tenants  were  understood  to  owe  them  military 
in  turn,  for  their  use  of  the  land.  All  orders 
were  thus  kept  in  a  chain  of  servile  obedienc 
some  of  the  lower  orders  were  actually  slaves 
superiors. 

In  the  year  053,  Kenneth,  King  of  the  Sc< 
added  the  Pictish  kingdom  to  his  own,  and 
scendant  Malcolm  II.,  in  1020,  extended  his  do 
over  not  only  the  south  of  Scotland,  but  a  par 
north  of  England.  Thus,  putting  aside  Walcf 
continued  to  be  an  independent  country,  under 
princes,  the  island  was  divided  at  the  time  of  t! 
man  Conquest,  into  two  considerable  kingdom 
land  and  Scotland,  as  they  were  for  some  o 
afterwards.  Ireland,  which  had  also  been  invi 
hordes  from  the  north  of  Europe,  was  dindec 
number  of  small  kingdoms^like  England  under  tl 
tarchy. 

RARLT  NORMA?!  KIXGfl. 

William,  sumamed  The  Conqueror^  reignie 
lO'tt)  to  1007,  being  chiefly  engaged  sill  that 
completing  the  subjugation  of  the  Saxons.  He  is 
to  have  been  a  man  of  much  sagacity,  and  a  firr 
but  his  temper  was  violent,  and  his  dispositioni 
At  the  time  of  his  death,  which  took  place  in  Noi 
his  eldest  son  Robert  happening  to  be  at  a  gros 
tance  fr«)ni  I<r>Mdou  than  William,  who  was  the 
son,  the  latter  individual  seized  ui>on  the  cr 
which  he  could  not  afterwards  be  dispossessed 
was  shot  accidentally  by  an  arrow  in  the  New 
iu  the  year  1 100.  Towards  the  close  of  this 
reign,  the  whole  of  Christian  Europe  was  agit 
the  first  crusade — an  expedition  for  the  nwover 
Holy  Land  fi*om  the  S;iracens.  Robert  of  No 
had  a  high  command  in  this  enterprise,  and 
much  fame  as  a  warrior ;  but  while  ho  was  h 
on  his  return,  his  youngest  bntther  Henry  usur 
throne  left  vacant  by  William,  so  that  he  «-a 

disappointed  of  his  birthright.     Hf.xut  I sn 

lirauclerky  from  his  being  a  fine  scholar — 'was  a 
of  some  ability ;  but  he  disgraced  himself  by 
out  the  eyes  of  his  eldest  brother,  and  keepi 
nearly  thirty  years  in  ctmfinement.  Such  baj 
conduct  shows  that,  in  this  age,  might  was  tl 
ri^ht,  and  that  men  hesitate<l  at  no  actions 
might  pi-oniise  to  advance  their  own  interests. 

Contemporary  with  William  the  Conqueror  i 
land,  was  MaU'olm  III.  in  Scotland,  surname 
mnrfiy  from  his  having  a  large  head.  This 
after  overthrowing  the  celebrated  usurper  M 
married  Margaret,  a  fugitive  S;ixon  princ4.*sA,  l, 
whom  his  posterity  beciune  the  heirs  of  that  ] 
Knijlish  .sovereigns.  He  was  a  g»KMl  prince,  a 
settling  Saxon  refugetrs  np'Hi  his  lowland  torrito 
much  to  improve  the  character  of  the  Scottish 
who  are  <lescribcHl  as  having  been,  lH*fore  this  1 
nation  in  which  there  was  no  admixture  of  civili 
At  Malcolnrs  death,  in  I0f)3,  the  crown  was  coi 
for  a  w  bile  by  an  usurper  called  Donald  Bane,  a 
elder  sons  of  the  Ute  monarch,  but  finally  fell 
peaceable  possession  of  his  youngest  son  David 


fflSTORY  OF  GREAT  BRITAIN  AND  IRELAND. 


jixmee  of  mu€h  snperior  character,  apparently, 
Nonnmn  aoTweigiu  who  lived  in  the  same  age. 
hnrefa  of  Rome  haTing  now  gained  an  ascendancy 
iClandy  David  founded  a  considerable  number  of 
ilerias  and  churches  for  the  reception  of  the 
en  of  that  reh'gion.  All  the  most  celebrated 
iei  in  Scotland  took  their  rise  in  his  time. 
nry  Bcauelex^  of  Eneland,  in  order  to  strengthen 
aim  bj  a  Saxon  aUiance,  married  Maud,  the 
tcr  of  Malqolm  Canmore  and  of  the  Princess 
iret  By  her  he  had  an  only  daughter  of  tlie 
name.  Whom  he  married  first  to  the  Emperor  of 
iny,  and  then  to  Geoffrey  Plantagenet,  eldest  son 
I  Eurl  of  Anjou,  in  France.  This  lady,  and  her 
en  by  Plantagenet,  were  properly  the  heirs  of  the 
li crown;  but  on  the  death  of  Henry,  in  1135, 
by  an  usurper  named  Stepuen,  a  distant 
of  the  Conqueror's  family,  who  reigned  for 
years,  during  which  the  country  was  rendered 
;  desolate  by  dvil  wars,  in  which  David  of  Scot- 
ccaaionaUy  joined. 

the  death  of  Stephen,  in  llo4,  the  crown  fell 
bl^  to  Henry  II.,  who  was  the  eldest  son  of 


f  ■■>!■  the  first  of  the  Plantagenet  race  of  sove- 
•-  Henry  was  an  acute  and  politic  prince,  though 
any  respect  more  amiable  than  his  predecessors. 
i^gB  was  principally  marked  by  a  series  of  mca^ 
far  redneine  the  power  of  the  Romish  clergy,  in 
arse  of  which,  some  of  his  courtiers,  in  1171, 
kt  they  could  not  do  him  a  better  service  than  to 
r  Thomas-^Becket,  Archbishop  of  Canterbury, 
ad  been  the  chief  obstacle  to  his  views,  and  was 
the  ablest  and  most  ambitious  men  ever  produced 
{hud.  For  his  concern  in  this  foul  transaction, 
rhad  to  perform  a  humiliating  penance,  receiving 
laahes  on  his  bare  back  from  the  monks  of  Can- 
7.  We  are  the  less  inclined  to  wonder  at  this 
Htaneey  when  we  consider,  that,  about  this  time, 
ipe  had  power  to  cause  two  kings  to  perform  the 
I  serriee  of  leading  his  horse. 
nrf  was  the  most  powerful  king  that  had  yet 
4  in  Britain.  Besides  the  great  hereditary  do- 
whidi  he  possened  in  France,  and  for  which  he 
nage  to  tne  king  of  that  country,  he  exacted  a 
tary  homage  from  William  of  Scotland,  the  grand- 
'  David,  a  monarch  of  groat  valour,  who  took  the 
mm  of  the  Lion,  and  who  reigned  from  IIGG  to 
Henry  also  added  Ireland  to  his  dominions. 
riaad  bad  previously  been  divided  into  five  king- 
^Ifanater,  Leinster,  Meath,  Ulster,  and  Con- 
tm  The  people,  being  quite  uncivilised,  were  per- 
By  qoarreUinff  among  themselves ;  and  this,  with 
Wathm  religion,  funushed  a  flimsy  pretext  for 
be  them  from  England.  Dcrmot  ^Iacmorrough, 
•fLetnster,  having  been  dethroned  by  his  subjects, 
beed  an  English  warrior,  Richard  Earl  of  Strigul, 
ally  called  Slrongbow,  for  the  purpose  of  regaining 
'ons.  A  body  composed  of  fifty  knights, 
and  four  hundred  and  sixty  archers, 
hundred  men,  was  enabled  by  its  superior 
iBiie  to  overthrow  the  whole  warlike  force  that 
ibo  brought  asainst  them ;  and  the  conquest  was 
r  completed  by  Henry  in  person,  who  went  thither 
.72.  xhe  military  leaders  were  left  to  rule  over 
— iiy,  and  ^ey  managed  their  trust  so  ill,  that 
ridi  never  became  peaceable  subjects  of  the  Nor- 
kingf  as  the  English  had  gradually  done. 

mnt^mn  oOEUa  DB  UGH^ — JOILN. — MAGNA  CHARTA. 

nj  II.  was  much  troubled  in  his  latter  years  by 
■obedicnee  of  his  children.  At  his  death,  in  1 1 89, 
■  mceeeded  by  his  son  Richard,  styled  Cceur  de 
mrlUm  Lion-hear tedf  from  his  headstrong  courage, 
rbo  vas  much  liked  by  his  subjects  on  that  ac- 
f  Aoogh  it  does  not  appear  that  he  possessed  anv 
apod  qualities.  At  the  coronation  of  Richard, 
mU  were  pennitted  to  massacre  many  thousands 
iladiBg  Jews  throu^ont  the  kingdom.  Almost 
-     -      ^  oeasion,  be  joined  the  King  of 

131 


France  in  a  second  crusade ;  landed  in  Palestine  (1191), 
and  fought  with  prodigious  valour,  but  with  no  good 
result.  On  one  occasion,  being  oifcndod  at  a  broach 
of  truce  by  Iiia  opponent  Saladin,  he  beheaded  5000 
prisoners;  whose  deaths  were  immediately  revenged 
by  a  similar  massacre  of  Christian  prisoners.  In  1 1 92, 
he  returned  with  a  small  remnant  of  his  gallant  army, 
and,  being  shipwrecked  at  Aquileia,  wandered  in  dis- 
guise into  the  dominions  of  his  mortal  enemy  the  Duke 
of  Austria,  who,  with  tlie  Emperor  of  Germany,  detained 
him  till  ho  was  redeemed  by  a  ransom,  which  impove- 
rished nearly  the  whole  of  his  subjects.  This  prince 
spent  the  rest  of  his  life  in  unavailing  wars  witli  Philip 
of  France,  and  vma  killed  at  the  siege  of  a  castle  in 
Limousin,  in  1199,  after  a  reign  often  years,  of  which 
he  had  spent  only  about  threo  months  in  England. 

John,  the  younger  brother  of  Richard,  succeeded, 
although  Arthur,  l)uke  of  Bretagne,  the  son  of  an  in- 
termediate brother,  was  the  proper  heir.  John,  who 
was  at  once  vain,  cruel,  and  weak,  alienated  the  affec- 
tions of  his  subiects  almost  at  the  very  first  by  the 
assassination  of  his  nephew,  which  he  is  said  to  have 
performed  with  his  own  hands.  The  weakness  of  kings 
is  often  the  means  of  giving  increased  liberties  and 
privileges  to  the  people.  The  paltry  tyranny  and 
wickedness  of  John  caused  his  barons  to  rise  against 
him,  and  the  result  was,  that,  on  the  19th  June  121 5, 
ho  ^-as  compelled  by  them  to  sign  what  is  called  the 
Magna  ChartOy  or  Great  Charter,  granting  them  many 
privileges  and  exemptions,  and  generally  securing  the 
personal  liberty  of  his  subjects.  The  principal  point  con- 
cerning the  nation  at  large,  was  that  no  tax  or  supply 
should  be  levied  from  them  without  their  own  consent 
in  a  Great  Council — the  first  idea  of  a  Parliament.  Some 
excellent  provisions  were  also  mado  regarding  courts 
of  law  and  justice,  so  as  to  secure  all  but  the  guilty. 

The  Pope,  it  appears,  regarded  the  Magna  Cliarta  as 
a  shameful  violation  of  tlie  royal  prerogative,  and  ex- 
communicated its  authors,  as  being  worse,  he  said,  than 
infidels.  The  opinion  of  a  modern  historian  is  very 
different.  He  says,  "^  To.  have  produced  the  Great 
Charter,  to  have  preserved  it,  to  have  matured  it,  con- 
stitute the  immortal  claim  of  England  on  the  esteem  of 
mankind." 

HENRY  III. — ORIGIN  OF  PARLIAMENT. 

John,  at  his  death  in  I21G,  was  succeeded  by  his  son, 
Henuy  I II., a  weak  and  worthless  prince,  who  ascended 
the  throne  in  his  boyhood,  and  reigned  fifty-six  years, 
without  having  performed  one  worthy  act  of  sufficient 
consequence  to  be  detailed.  In  his  reign  was  held  the 
first  assemblage  approaching  to  the  character  of  a  Par- 
liament. It  was  flrst  called  in  1225,  in  order  to  give 
supplies  for  carrying  on  a  war  against  Franco.  The 
money  was  only  granted  on  condition  that  the  Great 
Charter  should  be  confirmed ;  and  thus  the  example 
was  set  at  the  very  first,  for  rendering  supplies  a  check 
upon  the  pren>gativc  of  the  king,  and  gradually  reduc- 
ing that  power  to  its  present  comparatively  moderate 
level.  Under  the  earlier  Norman  kings,  and  even,  it 
is  believed,  under  the  Saxons,  an  assembly  called  the 
Great  Council  had  shared  with  the  sovercipfn  the  power 
of  framing  laws ;  but  it  was  only  now  that  the  body  liad 
any  power  to  balance  that  of  the  king,  and  it  was  not 
till  1265  that  representatives  from  the  iphabitants  of 
towns  were  introduced. 

EDWARD  I.  AND  11. — ATTEMPTED  CON«lUEST  OP  SCOTLAND. 

Henry  III.,  at  his  death  in  1272,  was  succeeded  by 
his  son  Kdward  I.,  a  prince  as  warlike  and  sagacious 
as  his  father  was  the  reverse.  He  distinguished  himself 
by  his  attempts  to  add  Wales  to  his  kingdom,  an  object 
which  ho  accomplished  in  1282,  by  the  overthrow  and 
murder  of  Llewellen,  the  last  princo  of  that  country. 
In  the  mean  time,  from  the  death  of  William  the  Lion 
in  1214,  Scotland  had  been  ruled  by  two  princes,  Alex- 
ander II.  and  III.,  under  whom  it  advanced  consider- 
ably in  wealth,  civilisation,  and  comfort.  On  thu  death 
of  Alexander  III.,  in  1285,  the  crown  fell  to  his  grand- 


CHAMBERS'S  INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


daughter  Margarkt,  a  young  girl,  whose  father  was 
Erie,  King  of  Norway,  Edward  formed  a  treaty  with 
the  Jhlstates  of  Scotland  for  a  marriage  between  this 
princess  and  his  son,  whom  he  styled  Prince  of  Wales. 
Unfortunately,  the  young  lady  died  on  her  voyage  to 
Scotland ;  and  the  crown  was  left  to  be  disputed  by  a 
multitude  of  distant  relations,  of  whom  John  Baliol 
and  Robert  liRucc  seemed  to  have  the  best  right.  Ed- 
ward, being  resolved  to  make  i^cotland  his  own  at  all 
hazards,  interfered  in  this  dispute,  and  being  appointed 
arbitrator  among  the  competitors,  persuaded  them  to 
own,  in  the  tirst  place,  an  iil-deHned  claim  put  forward 
by  himself  of  the  right  of  paramountcy  or  superior 
sovereignty  over  Scotland.  When  this  was  done,  he 
appointed  Daliol  to  be  his  vasMil  king,  an  honour  which 
the  unfortunate  man  was  not  long  permitted  to  enjoy. 
Having  driven  Baliol  to  resistance,  ho  invaded  the 
country,  overthrew  his  army,  and,  stripping  him  of  his 
sovereignty,  at^umed  to  himself  the  dominion  of  Scot- 
land, as  a  right  forfeited  to  him  by  tiio  rebellion  of  his 
vassal.  After  he  had  retired,  a  bi*ave  Scottish  gentle- 
man, named  William  Wallace,  raised  an  insun*ection 
against  his  officers,  and,  defeating  his  army  at  Stirling 
in  1*298,  cleared  the  whole  country  of  its  southern  in- 
vaders. But  in  the  succeeding  year,  this  noble  patriot 
was  defeated  by  Edward  in  person  at  Falkirk,  and  the 
English  yoke  was  again  imposed.  It  is  to  be  remarked, 
that  this  could  have  hardly  taki-n  place  if  the  common 
people,  who  rose  with  Wallace,  and  who  were  wholly 
of  Celtic  and  Saxon  race,  had  been  led  and  encouraged 
by  the  nobility.  The  grandees  <>f  Scotland,  and  even 
the  competitors  for  the  crown,  being  recent  Norman 
settlers,  were  disposed  to  pay  obedience  to  the  English 
sovereign. 

Some  time  after  the  death  of  Wallace,  while  Edward 
was  engrossed  with  his  French  wars,  Uorert  Bruce, 
Earl  of  Carrick,  grandson  of  him  who  had  competed 
with  Baliol,  conceived  the  idea  of  i>utting  himself  at  the 
head  of  the  Scots,  and  endeavouring,  by  their  means, 
at  once  to  gain  the  crown,  and  to  recover  the  indepen- 
dence of  the  kingdom.  After  a  series  of  adventures, 
among  which  was  the  unpremeditated  nmrd(>r  of  a  rival 
named  Coniyn,  Bruce  caused  himself,  in  l.iOG,  to  be 
crowned  at  Scone.  For  some  time  after  he  had  to  skulk 
as  a  fugitive,  being  unable  to  maintain  his  ground 
against  the  K^gli^h  oilici'rs ;  but  at  Jen^th  he  beeanu' 
bo  fonniduhle,  that  rid\«ar<l  found  it  necessjiry  (l.'U>7) 
to  lead  a  lar^e  army  ai^ainst  him.  Tlie  Kuglisli  nio 
narch,  worn  out  with  fatit^ue  an<l  nge,  died  on  the  e<»ast 
of  the  .Solway  Firth,  when  just  within  sight  of  Scotland, 
leaving  his  sceptre  to  his  son  i^nwAun  II.  That  weak 
and  fooli>h  prince  ininie<liately  returned  to  LonUon, 
leavini;  Bruce  to  contest  with  his  inferior  oflicer.s. 

Alter  several  years  of  constant  skirmi^hin;;,  duriuj^ 
which  the  Scottish  king  was  able  to  maintain  his  grou::<i. 
Edward  resolved  to  make  one  decisive  eftbrt  to  re-.iiice 
Scotland  to  hubj«*ction.  In  the  summer  l.'iU,  he  in- 
vaded it  with  an  army  of  lUO,Uoo  men.  Bruce  drew 
up  his  troops,  which  were  only  :}n,U(Ml  in  i)unih-.>r,  at 
Bann(H?kburn,  ne:ir  Stirling.  Tartly  by  ^leady  v:;iuur, 
and  partly  by  the  use  of  strataijenij:,  the  .Scots  w«  re 
victorious,  and  Kdward  Hed  ii^noniiniously  from  the 
field.  The  Scottish  king  gaineil  an  inin'.(-ii»e  liouty,  1m>- 
sides  securing  his  crown  and  the  independence  oi  hi^ 
country.  He  soon  after  sent  hi.-,  hruther  Edwanl,  wiiij 
a  body  (»f  tro4>p«<,  to  Ireland,  to  assist  the  native  eiiitls 
in  resistin;;  the  Kn^lith.  This  bold  yonn^  Uiii^iit  ..;is 
crowned  Kim;  it'  Ireland,  and  for  some  tunc  held  his 
ground  :i.:;;tiiiji  ti)e  I'.n;;li&h,  but  ^^.■l^  at  len^ili  ilt-.ealeii 
and  slain. 

The  weakne.>s  oi'  Kdward  II.  was  chieHv  shown  in 
a  fondnos  for  favourites,  into  who.-<e  han<l:^  he  com- 
mitted the  whi>le  inlerehts  of  his  pe<iplc.  The  first  was 
a  low  Freneliuian,  n.tuied  Piers  (iave>ton,  who  soon  fell 
a  victim  to  the  indignation  of  the  barons.  The  seciiud, 
Hugh  Spencer,  miAgo\erned  the  country  for  several 
years,  till  at  length  the  (^ueen  and  Prince  vf  Wales 
raii>cd  an  insurrection  against  the  King,  and  cauAcd  him 
Vt  be  deposed,  as  (juite  unfit  to  reign.     The  Prince  was 

i::2 


then  crowned  as  Edward  III.  (1327),beiDgai 
about  fourteen  years  of  age ;  and,  in  the  eouriK 
months  the  degraded  monarch  was  cruelly  n 
in  Berkeley  Castle. 

During  the  minority  of  the  young  king,  the 
government  were  held  by  his  mother  and  th 
March.  Under  their  administration,  a  peace 
eluded  with  King  Robert  of  Scotland,  of  whic 
the  conditions  was  a  full  acknowledgment  of  t 
pendence  of  the  Scottish  monarchy,  which  hi 
matter  of  dispute  for  some  ages. 

EDWARD  III. — RICHARD  II. 

Edward  III.,  who  soon  after  assumed  full  po 
destined  to  make  good  the  remark  prevalen 
time,  that  the  kings  of  England  were  altenia 
and  imbecile.  He  was  a  warlike  and  sagacious  i 
and  inspired  by  all  his  grandfather's  desire  of  < 
In  1329,  Robert  Bruce  died,  and  was  succeeds 
infant  son  David  11.,  to  whom  a  young  sistc 
English  king  was  married,  in  terms  of  the  lai 
Notwithstanding  this  connexion,  Edward  aided 
John  Baliol  in  an  attempt  to  gain  the  Scott  is! 
Edward  lialiol  overthrew  the  Regent  of  Sc( 
Duplin,  September  I«i32,  and  for  two  months 
as  King  of  Scots,  while  David  and  his  wife  to<: 
in  France.  Though  now  expelled,  Baliol  afi 
returned  to  renew  liis  claims,  and  for  many  3 
country  was  liarassed  by  unceasing  wars,  in  m 
English  took  a  leading  part. 

But  for  his  attention  being  diverted  to  Fra 
wanl  III.  would  have  made  a  more  formidal 
to  subdue  Scotland,  and  might  have  succeed 
was  led  into  a  long  course  of  warfare  with  Fi 
conse<|uence  of  an  absurd  pretension  which  he 
its  crown.  In  the  victories  which  he  gained  a 
(.\ugust  2G,  1346)  and  Poitiers  (September  1 
the  national  valour,  his  own,  and  tliat  of  his  cc 
son,  the  Black  Prince,  were  shown  conspicuou 
this  lavish  ex]>enditure  of  the  resources  of  his  i 
in  which  he  was  su]tp(»rted  by  his  parliament 
no  permanent  benefit,  even  to  himself,  for  wlui 
it  was  made.  In  those  davs,  almost  all  mei 
well,  but  very  few  had  the  art  to  improve  tl 
tories.  John,  King  of  France,  who  had  hec 
captive  at  Poitiers,  and  David,  King  of  Scotia 
had  been  taken  in  KU(>,  wlule  conducting  an  in^ 
Kn<;iund,  were  at  one  time  jirisoners  in  Enght 
no  permanent  advantage  was  ever  gained  over  • 
the  states  thus  deprived  of  their  sovereigns, 
after  alsiut  twenty  years  »>f  active  fighting,  the 
king  left  Fnmce  with  little  more  territory  tliar 
pi"eviously  enjoyed.  Fdward  had  invaded  ." 
with  a  powerful  army  in  l3o>i,  but  without  lual 
impression.  The  Scots,  under  I)avid*s  nephew, 
Stewart,  effectually  protected  themselves,  not  01 
his  arms,  but  from  a  proposal  which  David 
l)a>ely  undcrtixik  to  make,  that  Lionel,  the  thir 
the  Kn;;ii'<h  kin<;,  should  he  acknowledged  as 
cess«»r.  lidward  died  in  1377,  a  year  after  the 
of  his  son  the  }>laek  Prince :  and  notwithstai 
their  hrilltani  exploits,  tiie  F.n^lish  territories  in 
were  less  than  at  the  beginning  of  the  reign. 

Ihigland  wan  at  this  time  affected  more  thai 
other  by  the  fashions  of  chivalry.  This  was  a 
enthusiasm,  which  for  some  cj-nturies  p^Tvi 
("hri>lian  Kurope.  It  pi'ompted,  as  one  of 
principles,  a  he«  illess  bravery  in  encountering  t 
iii  ilanger.  Its  v«itaries  were  ex]>ected  to  bt*  j.»art 
bold  in  bihalt  of  the  fair  sex,  ms(»much  th.it  1 
knight  wi>uld  sometimes  ehalleu;;e  to  mortal 
any  one  who  denied  his  mistn  .v»  to  be  the  luv 
the  world.  Tournaments  were  he!il,  at  which 
clad  in  complete  armour  would  ride  against  eac 
at  full  .>«peed  with  levelled  lances,  merely  to  tr, 
had  the  greatest  strength  and  skill ;  and  mat 
killed  on  these  iK'casions.  It  was  a  system  full 
travagance,  and  tending  to  bloodshed  ;  but,  ne 
less,  it  mamtaincd  a  courtesy  towards  femaloa 


HISTORY  OF  GREAT  BRITAIN  AND  IRELAND. 


c  prindplA  of  honour,  which  we  may  be  glad  to 

eonaidMiiig  how  rude  was  almost  every  other 
of  the  age. 

tfd  II  I.  was  succeeded  by  his  grandson,  Richard 
a  a  boy  of  eleven  years  of  age,  and  who  proved 
ptreoD  of  weak  and  profligate  character.  The 
ns  took  advantage  of  the  irregularity  of  his  go- 
at to  strengthen  tlicir  privileges,  which  they 
b  diffieeltT  sustained  during  the  more  powerful 
his  predecessor.  Karly  in  this  reign  they 
d  the  right,  not  only  of  taxing  the  country,  but 
ig  how  the  money  was  spent.  Indignant  at  the 
f  of  a  tax  imposed  upon  all  grown-up  persons, 
matry  of  the  eastern  parts  of  England  rose,  in 
inder  a  person  of  their  own  order,  named  Wat 
lad  advanced,  to  the  number  of  G0,000,  to  Lon- 
lerc  they  put  to  death  the  chancclkir  and  prinutte, 
eoonseUors  of  their  sovereign.  They  demanded 
eUtion  of  bondage,  tlie  liberty  of   buying  and 

in  lairs  and  markets,  a  general  |>a»iun,  and 
dnetion  of  the  rent  of  land  to  an  equal  r.Hte. 
iag  came  to  confer  with  them  at  Smithiield, 
,  en  tome  slicht  pretence,  Walworth,  mayor  of 
■i  itabbed  W  at  Tyler  with  a  dagger — a  weapon 

has  since  figured  in  the  armorial  bearings  of 
CtaepoUs.  The  pcanants  wei*c  dismayed,  and 
ntd,  and  no  fewer  than  liftecn  hundred  of  them 
baged.  Wat  Tyler*s  insurrection  certainly  pro- 
i  ipon  a  glimmering  sense  of  those  equal  rights 
akind  which  have  since  been  generally  acknow- 
i;  and  it  is  remarkable,  that  at  the  same  time  the 
an  of  the  reformer  WicklifTe  were  first  heard  of. 
leaned  eoelesiastio  wrote  against  the  power  of  the 
,  ttd  some  of  the  most  important  points  of  the 
irii^th,  and  also  executed  a  translation  of  the 

iato  English.  His  writings  are  acknowledged  to 
Waa  of  material,  though  not  immediate  effect,  in 
jog  about  the  reformation  of  religion. 
t  coantxy  was  misgoverned  by  Richard  II.  till 
iVhcnhe  waa  deposed  by  his  subjects  under  the 
f  of  his  cousin,  Henry  Duke  of  I^ncoster.  This 
Bftfaoogh  some  nearer  the  throne  were  alive,  was 
■dmHENRT  IV.,  and  his  predecessor,  Richard, 
•nailer  murdi*rcd.  In  the  mean  time,  David  of 
lad  died  in  1371,  and  was  succeeded  by  Robert 
lit,  wbo  was  the  first  monarch  of  tliat  family. 
Undying  in  1 389,  wan  succeeded  by  his  son  Robert 
io  waa  a  good  and  gentle  prince.  He  had  two  son.% 
1  and  Jamt>s :  the  former  was  starved  to  death  by 
ide,  the  Duke  of  Albany;  and  the  second,  when 
I  say  to  France  for  his  education,  was  seized  by 
f  Iv.  of  England,  and  kept  captive  in  that  country 
Itliteen  years.  R(»bert  II.  then  died  of  a  broken 
(UM),  and  the  kingdom  fell  into  the  hands  of 
aks  of  Albany,  at  whose  death,  in  141!),  it  was 
Md  by  his  son  Duke  Murdoch,  a  very  imbecile 


HOrSE  OF  LANCASTER. 

ny  IV.  proved  a  prudent  prince,  and  compara- 
a  good  ruler.  The  settlement  of  the  crown  upon 
r  pariiament  was  a  good  precedent,  though,  por- 
nuy  dictated  under  the  inHuence  of  his  successful 

He  was  much  troubled  by  insurrections,  parti- 
's fonnidable  one  by  Percy,  l-^rl  of  Northum- 
1— and  one  still  more  difficult  to  put  down,  in 

where  Owen  Glendower,  a  de^cendant  of  the 

princes,  kept  his  ground  for  several  years. 

M  death  of  Henry  IV.  in  1413,  he  was  succeeded 

•on,  who  was  proclaimed  under  tlie  title  of 

V.    The  young  king  attained  high  popularity, 

Hint  of  hU  impartial  administration  of  justice, 

t  aeal  to  protect  the  poor  from  the  opi>ressions 

soperiors.    His  reign  is  Unfis  ngreeably  marked 

pcneeotions  of  the  Lollards,  a  b«)dy  of  religious 

a,  many  of  whom  were  condemned  to  the 

Being  determined  to  use  every  endeavour  to 
I  croem  of  France,  which  he  considered  his  by 
bntb,  be  binded  in  Normandy  with  30,000  men 


(August  1415),  and  gave  battle  to  a  much  superior 
force  of  the  French  at  Agincourt.  He  gained  a  com- 
plete victory,  which  was  sullied  by  his  uiterwards  or- 
dering a  massacre  of  his  prisoners,  under  the  appre- 
hension that  an  attempt  was  to  he  made  to  ivscue  them. 
The  war  was  carried  on  for  some  years  longer,  and 
Henry  would  have  probably  succeeded  in  making  good 
his  claim  to  the  French  crown,  if  he  had  not  die<l 
prematurely  of  a  dysentery  (August  31,  14'2'2),  in  the 
thirty-fourtli  year  of  his  age,  leaving  the  throne  to  an 
infant  nine  months  old,  who  was  proclaimed  as  Hknry 
VI.,  King  of  France  and  England. 

Under  Henry  Vi.,  whose  power  was  for  some  time 
in  the  hands  of  his  undo  the  Duke  of  Redfoi*d,  the 
English  nutintained  their  footing  in  Franco  for  several 
years,  and  at  the  battle  of  Verueuil,  in  14*24,  rivalled 
the  glor}'  of  Cressy  and  Poitiers.  At  that  conflict,  a 
body  of  Scotch,  70U0  strong,  who  had  proved  of  mate- 
rial service  to  the  French,  were  nearly  cut  off*.  In 
1428,  when  France  seemed  completely  sunk  beneath 
the  English  rule,  the  interehts  of  tlie  native  prince  were 
suddenly  revived  by  a  simple  maiden,  named  Joan  of 
Arc,  who  pretended  to  have  been  commissioned  by 
Heaven  to  save  her  country,  and,  entering  into  the 
French  army,  was  the  cause  of  scvenil  signal  reverses 
to  the  English.  By  her  enthusiastic  exertions,  and  tliu 
trust  every  where  reposed  in  her  supernatural  charac- 
ter, Charles  VII.  was  crowned  at  Rheinis,  in  1430. 
Being  soon  after  taken  prisoner,  the  lien>ic  maiden  was, 
by  the  English,  condemned  for  witchcraft,  and  burnt. 
Nevertheless,  about  the  year  1453,  the  Fi'ench  monarch 
had  retrieved  the  whole  of  his  dominions  from  the 
English,  except  Calais. 

Henry  VI.  was  remarkable  for  the  extreme  weakness 
of  his  character.  His  cousin,  Richard,  Duke  of  York, 
descended  from  an  elder  son  of  Edward  ill.,  and  there- 
fore possessed  of  a  superior  title  to  the  throne,  con- 
ceived that  Henry's  imliecility  afl'orded  a  good  oppor- 
tunity for  asserting  what  he  thought  his  birthright. 
Thus  commenced  the  famous  Wars  of  the  Itosei,  as  tliey 
were  called,  from  the  badges  of  the  funiilies  of  York 
and  Lancaster,  the  former  of  which  was  a  red,  while 
the  latter  was  a  white  rose.  In  14.')4,  th'j  duke  gained 
a  decisive  victory  over  the  forces  of  Henry,  wliich  were 
led  by  his  spirited  consort,  Margaret  of  Anjou.  In 
some  succeeding  engn<;enients,tiic  friends  of  Henry  were 
victorious;  and  at  length,  in  the  battle  of  Wakefield 
(December  24,  14Go),  the  forces  of  the  Duke  of  York 
were  signally  defcatiAl,  and  hhnsclf,  wiili  one  of  his  sons, 
taken  and  put  to  death.  His  pretensions  were  then 
taken  up  by  his  eldest  son  Edward,  who,  with  the  as- 
sistance of  the  Karl  of  Warwick,  gained  such  advantages 
next  vear,  that  he  assumed  the  crown.  Before  this  was 
accomplished,  many  thousands  had  fallen  on  both  sides. 
Henry,  who  cared  littl'*  for  the  ])onip  of  sovereignty, 
was  confined  in  the  Tower. 

ScotlAnd,  in  the  mean  time  (1424),  had  redeemed  her 
king  from  his  captivity  in  England ;  and  that  prince, 
styled  Jamils  I.,  had  proved  a  great  legislator  and  re- 
foiTuer,  not  to  speak  of  hi:^  per^joual  aco<»nijili.-hments 
in  music  and  literature,  which  t-urpasstMl  th«me  of  every 
contemporary  monarch,  dames  did  nnicli  to  reduc«t 
the  Highlands  to  an  ohedienee  niuli«r  the  Scottish  go- 
vernment, and  altso  to  hn'ak  up  tlw.  enormous  power 
of  the  nobles.  By  these  procci'dinirs,  however,  he  ex- 
cited a  dee])  hatred  in  tl'e  hosunis  of  K>me  of  his  sub- 
jects; and,  in  I4.'i7,  Iw  f«Il  a  victim  to  asN'^ii!  si  nation  at 
Terth.  He  was  sueeeiMud  by  his  infant  son  Jami-»  11., 
the  greati-r  part  of  whose  reign  wa.-*  spent  in  a  harass- 
ing contention  with  tht>  poweriul  house  of  Douglas,  and 
who  was  finally  killed  in  the  llowvr  »if  his  age,  by  tl.o 
bui*sting  of  11  cannon  lM'f»»r<*  Roxburgh  Castle.  His 
successor,  dumes  ill.,  was  also  a  minor,  and,  on  reach- 
ing man's  estate,  proved  to  be  a  weak  though  not  ill- 
meaning  prince.  He  fell  a  victim,  in  1488,  to  a  con- 
spimcy  formed  by  his  subjects,  and  which  was  led  by 
his  eldest  son.  The  morality  of  priitces  in  this  age 
seems  to  have  been  much  upon  a  par  with  that  ascribe*l 
to  the  Turkish  sovereigns  of  a  hit«'r  pcritid.  They  n»;ver 


CHAMBERS'S  INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLfc 


■erupled  to  destroy  life,  either  within  the  circle  of  their 
own  ikmUy,  or  out  of  it,  when  it  suited  their  interests 
to  do  80. 

nOrSF.  OP  YORK. 

Edward,  of  the  House  of  York,  styled  Edward  IV., 
who  commenced  his  reign  in  the  nineteenth  year  of  his 
Age,  reigned  ten  years,  perpetually  disturbed  by  renewed 
attempts  of  the  Lancastrian  party,  of  which  he  merci- 
lessly sacrificed  many  thousands  who  fell  into  his  hands. 
At  length,  having  offended  tlie  Earl  of  Warwick,  who 
had  been  chiefly  mstrumcntal  in  placing  him  upon  the 
throne,  that  powerful  nobleman  raised  an  insurrection 
Against  him,  and  in  eleven  da}'8  was  master  of  the  king- 
dom, while  Edward  had  to  take  refuge  on  the  Con- 
tinent. Henry  VI.  was  then  restored,  and  Warwick 
acquired  the  title  of  King-maker.  Nine  months  after 
(1471),  Edward  landed  with  a  small  body  of  followers, 
and,  having  called  his  partisans  around  him,  overthrew 
and  killed  Warwick  at  St  Alban's.  Mar^ret  of  Anjou, 
who  had  fought  battles  for  her  husband  m  almost  every 
province  of  England,  gathered  a  new  army,  and  opposed 
Edward  at  Tewkesbury  Park,  where  she  was  completely 
defeated.  Her  son  an<l  husband,  being  taken,  were 
murdered  in  cold  blood,  and  nhe  herself  spent  the  re- 
mainder of  her  singular  life  in  France.  Edward  reigned, 
a  profligate  and  a  tyrant,  till  1483,  when  he  died  in  the 
forty-second  year  of  his  age.  He  had  previously  caused 
his  brother,  the  equally  pi*ofligate  Duke  of  Clarence, 
to  be  drowned  in  a  butt  of  malmsey  wine. 

During  the  reign  of  Edward  IV.,  the  plague  fre- 
quently broke  out  in  England,  and  carried  off  immense 
numbers  of  the  people.  It  was  particularly  fatal  in 
London,  and  in  all  other  places  where  many  houses 
were  huddled  closely  together,  witli  imperfect  means  of 
cleaning  and  ventilation.  It  was  calculated  that  the 
disease,  on  one  occasion  in  this  reign,  destroyed  as 
many  lives  as  the  fifteen  years'  wur.  Tlie  plague  did 
not  cease  to  occur  in  England,  or  in  any  other  Euro- 
pean country,  until  considerable  impi-ovemonts  had 
token  place  in  the  habits  of  the  peopio,  ebpccially  in 
point  of  cleanliness. 

Edward  V.,  the  cMe'^t  son  df  Edwanl  IV,,  was  a  b«">y 
of  eleven  vears  \vlu*n  he  siiecceded  to  the  crown.  His 
uncle,  Uicharil,  Duke  of  Gloucostpr,  a  wicked  and  de- 
formed wretch,  somi  after  c(»ntriveil  to  ohtuhi  the  chief 
power,  and  also  to  cause  the  munlor  of  the  youni;  kini; 
and  his  still  ytitini^er  brother  in  the  Tower,  lie  then 
mounted  the  thr«>iio  umler  the  title  of  Uichard  III. 
For  lw(»  years,  thi-i  di»';;raee  to  humanity  continued  to 
rcii;n,  though  universally  abhorred  by  his  people.  At 
length,  in  14M*>,  Henry  Tu<loi'.  Earl  of  Richmond,  a 
conni-xiou  rather  than  a  dt^seendant  of  the  Lancaster 
family,  i*e<«o]voil  to  make  an  atti'inpt  upon  the  En<;lish 
crown.  Ilaxin;;  lanih'il  with  about  2UU(»  foUowew  at 
Alilford  Haven,  he  advanced  into  the  country,  and 
speedily  gained  such  accessions  of  force  as  enabled 
him  to  meet  and  overthnnv  Richard  at  Rosworth 
Field,  where  the  tyr.'iiit  was  slain,  and  the  victorious 
Kichmond  was  immediately  pn>claimed  kin^,  under  the 
title  of  1Ii:miv  VII.  The  new  iui»nareh  soon  after 
B0u;;ht  to  stivnirtlien  his  title  hv  marrvinu  Elizabeth, 
the  dan;;liter  and  heir  i»f  Kdwani  IV.,  hy  which  it  wa-^ 
said  the  families  of  York  and  Lancaster  were  unite<L 

nursr.  or  tiikju. — hk.nky  vii. 

Vnder  Henry  VII.  tin*  countrv  revive<l  from  the 
evils  of  a  loo;:  civil  war,  in  tin*  course  of  which  the 
chirf  m.hility  had  been  hroken  down,  and  the  industry  ■ 
jind  comiiHTi'i-  i»f  the  I.tiid  interrupted.  It\**as  renjark- 
able,  nevfrih'-Ie— .,  that,  during  the  past  peritnl,  En::- 
luntl  was  up- 111  th,«  \vl!..!e  an  inijirovinji;  country.     The 
evi!?»  of  Will*  had  falUn  chii'tly  on  thoM*  who  made  it; 
the  govtriiioriit,  hi-wevi-r  fli-turhe<l  by  various  claim-  ; 
ants  of  thf  iiu-.tii",  was  mlM  and  eijuitahh* — at  lea.st  as 
Com|iared  wlili  that  of  i.ijii-r  countrii's  ;  and  the  ))eopIe 
throve  und'-r  a  sy-teni  in  wliieh  their  own  consent,  hy  i 
th«'  voice  «d  the  II<ti-ie  i.t  C.Minivii«<,  was  necessary  to  I 
the   ni:ilin'  ei"  tv^'vv  new  l.iw,  util   the  lavin;?  ou  of 

every  tax.  i 

i:Ji 


The  reign  of  Henry  VII.  was  much 
insurrections,  in  consequence  of  his  imperfect  t 
baker's  boy,  named  Lambert  Symnel,  and  a  Jo' 
named  Perkin  Warbeck,  were  Bucceaaively  set 
the  York  party,  the  one  aa  a  son  of  the  lAta  J 
Chirence^  and  the  other  ab  the  younger  bro 
Edward  V.,  but  were  both  defeated.  Warbe 
hAnged  at  Tyburn  in  1499,  and  nearly  About  tl 
time,  Henry  procured,  by  forms  of  Lsw,  the  d 
tlie  Earl  of  Warwick,  the  real  son  of  the  Ute  1 
Chirence,  a  poor  idiot  boy,  whom  he  had  kept 
vears  in  confinement,  and  whose  title  to  the 
being  superior  to  his  own,  rendered  him  uneas; 

Henr}',  though  a  cruel  prince,  ab  were  mo6t 
sovereigns  of  his  age,  was  a  aagacious  and  [ 
ruler.  He  paid  great  attention  to  all  his  afiai 
in  some  of  his  acts,  looked  far  bevond  the  preaei 
For  example,  by  marrying  his  daughter  Marg 
James  IV.  of  Scothind,  he  provided  for  the  pa 
of  the  future  union  of  the  two  crowns.  By  a  \mm 
ing  men  of  property  to  break  entails,  he  ensu] 
reduction  of  the  great  lords,  and  the  increase 
number  of  small  proprietors.  His  constant  pol 
to  depress  tlie  diicf  nobles,  and  to  elevate  the 
lawyers,  and  men  of  new  families,  as  most  like! 
dependent  on  him.  The  greatest  fault  of  his  ch 
was  his  excessive  love  of  money,  of  which  he  a 
an  immense  sum.  During  his  reign,  Ireland  wa 
more  dependent  on  the  English  crown  by  a 
prohibiting  any  parliament  from  being  held  in 
the  king  should  give  bis  consent. 

HK.NRT  VIII. 

Ilenrv  VII.  died  in  April  1509,  in  the  fift 
year  of  his  age.  His  eldest  sun'iving  son  and  sue 
Ili-LXRY  VIII.,  was  now  in  his  eighteenth  year, 
handsome,  and  supposed  to  be  amiable,  he  enjc 
first  a  high  degree  of  popularity.  Some  years 
he  had  been  affianced  to  Catherine,  a  Spani.sh  pi 
who  had  previously  been  the  wife  of  his  d« 
brother  Arthur :  he  w.is  now  married  to  this  la 
Pope  having  previously  granted  a  dispensation  f 
purpfiso.  Por  many  years  the  reign  of  Henry  • 
marked  bv  any  unusual  incidents.  The  chief  a 
stration  of  affairs  was  conimitteil  to  a  low-b(» 
proud  churchman,  the  celchrate<l  Cardinal  \ 
The  king  became  much  eni^aged  in  continental  p 
and  during  a  war  which  he  carried  on  against  1 
his  hrother-in-law  James  IV.,  who  sided  with  tha 
made  an  unfortunate  irruption  into  the  north  o 
land,  and  was  overthrown  and  slain,  with  the  i 
part  of  his  nobility  (SeptenilK'r  U,  1513),  at  Floo 

About  this  time  son]e  changes  of  great  imjK 
to  European  society  t<M»k  pLace.  xVlmost  ever  sii 
destruction  of  the  Roman  empire,  the  nations 
arose  out  of  it  had  remained  in  subjection  to  the 
see,  which  might  Ik*  said  to  have  inherited  the  nil 
sway  of  that  government,  but  altered  from  an  aui 
over  the  IxKlics  of  men  to  an  empire  over  their  ' 
In  the  opinion  of  many,  this  authority  of  the  1 
Catholic  religii>n  had,  m  the  course  of  time,  I 
much  abusi^l,  while  the  relii;ii)n  itself  was  corrup 
many  superstitions  ohsi^rvances.  S(»  long  as  ro< 
continued  to  be  the  thou<;htIcss  warriors  and  unl< 
peasants  which  they  had  been  in  the  middle  age 
not  probable  that  they  would  ever  have  called  in 
tion  either  the  authority  f>f  the  pojie  or  the  pu 
tliu  Catholic  faith.  Rut,  with  knowledge,  and  tli 
of  a  connnercial  and  manufacturini;  ehiss,  came 
position  to  impiirc  into  the  authority  of  this  grea 
gious  empin-.  The  art  of  printini;.  dise\)veretl 
the  midille  <»f  the  precedinij  century,  and  whic 
n»iw  reinlering  literature  accessible  to  most  clui 
the  community,  tended  greatly  to  bring  about  tl: 
Volution  in  Eun>pean  intellect.  The  minds  of 
imlenl,  seem  at  this  time  as  if  awaking  from  i 
sleep  ;  and  it  might  well  have  beiMi  a  question 
persitns  who  had  reHecti(>n,but  no  experieuce,  wl 
the  ciiair^e  w:'^  to  turn  to  o\il  or  to  good. 


flISTORY  OF  GREAT  BRITAIN  AND  IRELAND. 


Imb  ncnli  minds  are  in  a  state  of  preparation  for 
nat  change,  a  Tezy  nnall  matter  ia  required  to 
bcm  in  notien.  At  Wirtemberg,  in  (jermanyy 
was  an  Angnatine  monk,  named  Martin  Luther, 
became  incensed  at  the  Roman  see,  in  consequence 
■s  injury  which  he  conceived  to  have  been  done 
I  order,  by  the  Pope  having  granted  the  privilege 
Bag  indolienoss  to  the  Dominican  order  of  friars. 
t  B  man  of  a  bold  and  inquiring  mind,  he  did  not 
stisfied  till  he  had  convinced  himself,  and  many 
I  around  him,  that  the  indulgences  were  sinful, 
bat  the  Pope  had  no  right  to  grant  them.  This 
Btd  abont  the  year  1517.  Controversy  and  per- 
fltt  gradually  extended  the  views  of  Luther,  till 
length  openly  disavowed  the  authority  of  the 
and  condemned  some  of  the  most  important  pe- 
^~~  of  the  Catholic  system  of  worship.  In  these 
Luther  was  countenanced  by  some  of  the 
Germany,  and  his  doctrines  were  speedily 
■bed  in  the  northern  countries  of  Europe. 

THE  BFFasauTioy. 

aj  VIII.,  as  the  second  son  of  his  father,  had 
ongprnally  educated  for  the  church,  and  still  re- 
a  taste  for  theological  learning.  He  now  distin- 
d  kimaelf  by  writing  a  book  against  the  Lutheran 
an ;  and  the  Pope  was  so  much  pleased  with  it  as 
It  Um  the  title  of  Defender  of  the  Faith.  Henry 
)C  destined,  however,  to  continue  long  an  adherent 

Roman  pontiff.  In  the  ycai'  1527,  ho  became 
fired  of  a  youns  gentlewoman  named  Anne  Bo- 
vho  was  one  of  his  wife's  attendants.  He  imme- 
'  conceived  the  design  of  annulling  his  marriage 
atherine,  and  marr)ing  this  younger  and  more 
Ikle  person.  Finding  a  pretext  for  such  an  act 
previooa  marriage  of  Catherine  to  his  brother, 
snpted  to  obtain  from  the  Pope  a  decree,  declar* 
own  marriage  unlawful,  and  that  the  dispenuation 
rhieh  it  had  proceeded  was  beyond  the  powers 
lonner  Pope  to  grant.  The  Pontiff  (Clement 
was  much  perplexed  by  this  request  of  King 
,  becanae  he  could  not  accede  to  it  without  ofl'end- 
arles  V^  Emperor  of  Germany,  one  of  his  best 
and  the  brother  of  Queen  Catherine,  and 
le  time  humbling  the  professed  powers  of  the 
fg  which  were  now  trembling  under  the  attacks 
ber. 

nr  deaired  to  employ  the  influence  of  his  minister, 
al  Wolaey,  who  had  now  reached  a  degree  of 
ee  and  pride  never  before  attained  by  a  subject 
land,  iut  Wolsey,  with  all  his  greatness,  could 
rtore  to  urge  a  matter  disagreeable  to  the  Pope, 
ts  more  his  master  than  King  Henr}*.  The  pro- 
nt  on  for  several  years,  and  still  his  passion  for 
Boleyn  continued  unabated.  Wolsey  at  length 
ter  tiie  king's  displeasure  for  refusing  to  serve  | 

this  object,  was  stripped  of  all  his  places  of 
md  wealth,  and,  in  November  1530,  expired  at 
er  Abbey,  declaring  that,  if  he  had  served  his 
diligently  as  his  kine,  he  would  not  thus  have 
rsn  over  in  his  grey  hairs.  The  uncontrollable 
if  the  king  to  possess  Anne  Doleyn,  was  destined 

m  immediate  cause  of  one  of  the  most  important  I  was  one  of  the  most  accomplished  knights  of  the  age, 

and  the  first  j)oet  who  i»Tote  the  English  language  with 

Esrfect  taste — all  suflferod  the  sunie  fate  with  Anne 
oleyn  and  Catherine  Howard. 
When  James   IV.  died  at  Flodden,  in  1513,   the 
Scottish  crown  fell  to  his  infant  son  Jamus  V.,  who 


within  a  month  from  the  time  when  she  had  been  an 
honoured  queen,  she  was  beheaded  (May  19)  in  the 
Tower.  On  the  very  next  day  he  married  Jane  Sey- 
mour, who  soon  after  died  in  giving  birth  to  a  aon 
(afterwards  Edward  VI.)  His  daugiiters,  Mary  and 
Elizabeth,  were  deckred  illegitimate  by  act  of  Parlia- 
ment, and  therefore  excluded  from  the  succession. 

Hitherto,  though  professing  independence  of  Rome, 
Henry  still  maintained,  and  even  enforced,  by  severe 
and  bloody  laws,  the  most  of  its  doctrines.    He  now 
took  measures  for  altering  this  system  of  worship  to 
something  nearer  the  Lutheran  model,  and  also  for 
suppressing  the  numerous  monasteries  throughout  the 
country.    Being  possessed  of  more  despotic  power,  and, 
what  is  stranger  still,  of  more  popularity,  than  any 
former  sovereign  of  England,  he  was  able  to  encounter 
the  dreadful  liSk  of  ofi^nding,  by  these  means,  a  vastly 
powerful  corporation,  which  seems,  moreover,  to  liave 
been  regarded  with  much  sincere  affection  and  respect 
in  many  parts  of  England.     No  fewer  than  645  monas- 
teries, 2374  chanteries  and  chapels,  90  colleges,  and 
110  hospitals,  enjoying  altogether  a  revenue  of  jCI 6 1 ,000, 
were  broken  up  by  this  powerful  and  unacru]iulouH 
monarch.    He  partly  seized  the  revenues  for  his  o\^'n 
use,  and  partly  |;ave  them  away  to  the  persons  who 
most  activelv  assisted  him,  and  who  seemed  most  able 
to  protect  his  government  from  the  effects  of  such  a 
sweeping  reform.    By  this  act,  which  took  place  in 
1537,  the  Reformation  was  completed  in  England.    Yet 
for  many  years  Henry  vacillated  so  much  in  his  opi- 
nions, and  enforced  these  with  such  severe  enactments, 
that  many  persons  of  both  religions  were  burnt  as 
heretics.    It  was  in  the  southern  and  eastern  parts  of 
England,  where  the  commercial  classes  at  this  tune 
chiefly  resided,  that  the  doctrines  of  tlie  Reformation 
were  most  prevalent.    In  the  western  and  northern 
parts  of  the  country,  Catholicism  continued  to  flourish  ; 
and  in  Irehtnd,  which  was  remotest  of  all  from  the  Conti- 
nent, the  Protestant  faith  made  little  or  no  impression. 
After  the  death  of  Jane  Seymour,  Henry  married 
Anne  of  Cleves,  a  German  princess,  with  whose  person, 
however,  he  was  not  pleased ;  and  he  therefore  divorced 
her  by  an  act  of  Parliament.    He  next  married  Cathe- 
rine Howard,  niece  to  tho  Duke  of  Norfolk ;  but  had 
not  been  long  united  to  her  when  he  discovered  that  she 
had  committed  a  serious  indiscretion  before  marriage. 
This  was  considered  a  sufiicient  reason  for  beheading 
the  unfortunate  queen,  and  attainting  all  her  relations. 
Though  Henry  had  thus  murdered  two  wives,  and  di- 
vorced other  two,  and  become,  moreover,  a  monster  in 
form  as  well  as  in  his  passions  and  mind,  he  succeeded 
in  obtaining  for  his  sixth  wife  (1543)  Catherine  Parr, 
widow  of  Lord  Latimer,  who,  it  is  certain,  only  con- 
trived to  escape  destruction  by  her  extraordinary  pru- 
dence.   Almost  all  who  ever  served  Henry  VJ IL  as 
ministers,  either  to  his  authority  or  to  his  pleasures, 
were  destroyed  by  him.     Wolsey  was  either  driven  to 
suicide,  or  died  of  a  broken  heart ;  Thomas  Cromwell, 
who  succeeded  that  minister,  and  chiefly  aided  the  king 
in  bringing  about  tho  Reformation — Sir  Thomas  Mort>, 
lord  chancellor,  the  most  virtuous,  most  able,  and  most 
consistent  man  of  his  time — the  Karl  of  Surrey,  who 


i  that  ever  took  place  in  England — no  less  than 
reformation  of  the  national  religion.  In  order 
il  his  marriage  with  Catherine,  and  enable  him 
T  Anne  Boleyn,  he  found  it  necessair  to  shake 
authority  of  the  Pope,  and  procure  himself  to 
Kywledged  in  Parliament  as  the  supreme  head 
Sngliah  church.  His  marriage  with  Anne  took 
1533,  and  in  the  same  year  was  bom  his  cele- 
iaugfater  Elizabeth. 

&36,  Henry  became  as  anxious  to  put  away 
Anne  as  he  had  ever  been  to  rid  himself  of 
Catherine.  He  had  contracted  a  passion  for 
jmonr,  a  young  lady  then  of  the  queen's  bed- 
r,  aa  Anne  nerself  had  been  in  that  of  Catherine, 
r  to  gratify  this  new  passion,  he  accused  Anne 
to  have  been  an  imaginary  frailty,  aud  i 
135 


struggled  through  a  turbulent  minority,  and  was  now  a 
gay,  and,  upon  the  wliolc,  an  amiable  ])rince.  His  uncle, 
Henry  VIII.,  endeavoured  to  bring  him  into  his  views 
respecting  religion  ;  but  James,  who  was  much  in  the 
power  of  the  C^thulic  clergy,  appears  to  have  wished  to 
become  the  head  of  the  Popisli  party  in  EngUuid,  in  the 
hope  of  succeeding,  by  their  means,  to  the  throne  of 
that  country.  A  war  latterly  broke  out  between  the 
two  monarchs,  and  the  Scottish  army  having  refused 
to  flght,  from  a  dislike  to  the  expedition,  James  died 
(December  154'2)  of  a  broken  heart,  leaving  an  only 


CHAMBERS'S  INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


child,  BliEY,  who  was  not  above  a  week  old.  Henry 
immediately  conceived  the  idea  of  marrying  his  son 
Edward  to  this  infant  queen,  by  which  he  calculated 
that  two  hostile  nations  should  be  united  under  one 
sovereignty,  and  the  Protestant  Church  in  England  be 
supported  by  a  similar  establishment  in  Scotland.  This 
project,  however,  was  resisted  by  the  Scots,  of  whom 
very  few  as  yet  were  uidined  to  the  Protestant  doctrines. 
Henry,  cnr.iged  at  their  hesitation,  sent  a  Heet  and 
army,  in  1544,  to  inflict  vengeance  upon  them.  The 
Scots  endured  with  great  patience  the  burning  of  their 
capital  city,  and  many  other  devastations,  but  still  re- 
fused the  match.  Tiie  government  of  Scotland  was  now 
chiefly  in  the  hands  of  Cardinal  Beaton,  a  man  of  bold 
and  decisive  intellect,  who  zealously  applied  himself  to 
suppress  the  refomiing  preachers,  and  regarded  the 
English  match  as  likely  to  bring'  about  the  destruction 
of  bis  religion. 

EDWARD  VI. — QUEEN  MARY. 

Henry  died,  January  28,  1547,  leaving  the  throne  to 
his  only  son,  a  boy  of  ten  years  of  age,  who  was  imme- 
diately  proclaimed  king  under  the  title  of  Edward  VI. 
The  Duke  of  Somerset,  maternal  uncle  to  the  young 
king,  became  supremo  ruler  under  the  title  of  Protec- 
tor, and  continued  tu  maintain  the  Protestant  doctrines. 
Under  this  reign,  the  church  of  England  assumed  its 
present  form,  and  the  Book  of  Conmion  Pi*ayer  was 
composed  nearly  as  it  now  exists.  Somerset  being  re- 
solved to  effect,  if  possible,  the  match  between  Edward 
YI.  and  Mnry  of  Scotland,  invaded  that  counti'y  in 
autumn  1547,  and  was  met  at  Musselburgh  by  a  large 
army  under  the  governor,  the  Earl  of  Arran.  Though 
the  Scotch  were  animated  by  bitter  animusity  against 
the  English,  against  their  religion,  and  against  the  ob- 
ject of  their  expcditirm,  they  did  not  flght  with  their 
usual  resolution,  but  were  defeated,  and  pursued  with 
great  slaughter.  Finding  them  still  obstinate  in  refus- 
ing to  give  up  their  queen,  Somerset  laid  waste  a  great 
part  of  the  country,  and  then  retired,  l-'rcvious  to  tl;is 
{leriod.  Cardinal  Beaton  had  been  assassinated  by  pri- 
vate enemies ;  but  tlse  Scotch  were  encouraijod  to  pcr- 
Rivere  by  the  court  (»f  France,  to  which  they  now  sent 
the  young  queen  for  protection. 

In  the  reign  of  Edward  VI.  the  gov«*rnment  was 
conducted  mildly,  until  the  Protector  ^y>nlcrs«^t  was 
degraded  from  his  autliority  by  the  ri^<ing  influence  of 
Dudley,  Duke  of  Northumberland,  who  caused  him  soon 
after  to  be  tried  and  executed.  Northumberland,  who 
was  secretly  a  Roni.in  Catliolic,  was  not  so  mild  or 
popular  a  ruler.  Vi.'t,  throughout  the  whole  reign  of 
Edward  VI.,  which  was  termiuatcl  hy  liis  death  on  the 
(>th  of  July  \oo'^f  ut  the  early  a^e  of  sixteen,  no  i*i>li- 
giouH  party  was  pi'rsccuted,  except  t]io«»c  who  denied 
the  fundamental  doctrines  of  the  Christian  religion.  It 
would  have  been  well  for  the  honour  of  a  oliureh  whiuli 
has  produced  many  great  men,  and  to  which  the  modern 
world  is  indebted  for  the  verv  existence  of  Christianitv, 
if  it  had  not  been  tem]>ted  alter  this  perioil  to  com- 
mence a  verv  different  course  of  action.  The  crown 
now  belonged  by  birtliri,;ht  to  Mary,  tiie  eMest  daught«r 
of  Henrv  Vlll.,  who  was  a  z«.'nlou>  Catholic.  North- 
umberlaud,  however,  assuming  the  iiieiiitiniaey  of  that 
princess  and  her  sister  Elizabeth,  si^t  up  as  <iuv>en  the 
Lady  Jane  Grey,  who  was  deseenti»-<l  from  u  younger 
sister  of  King  Henry,  and  who  had  been  married  to  a 
son  of  the  Duke  of  Northumberland.  Lady  Jane  was 
the  most  beautiful,  most  intelligent,  an<I  ni(M  .imiabie 
of  all  the  females  who  a])pear  in  the  history  of  r.:i;;land. 
'I  hnu^h  oiilv  seventeen,  she  was  deeply  iearm'il,  and  yet 
pn*^»'rvr«I  hII  the  unatfected  graces  of  chiiracler  proper 
to  her  intere>ain!i  a^je.  Unfortunatelv,  ln-r  fiither-in- 
law  Nori'iiiiiiherl  .nd  was  so  much  disliked,  that  the 
Catholics  were  enabU-a  t(>  displace  her  from  th*-  throne 
in  eigiit  d.l^s,  and  to  set  up  in  her  btead  the  Princes'* 
Marv.  Nurthunibcrland,  Lailv.Tane,  and  her  husband, 
(juiidford  Lord  Dudley,  were  all  beheaded  by  tiiat  ba- 
vage  princ<  s«,  who  8<M>n  afier  took  steps  f«ir  re«storing 
the  Ca*-li<'iiC  r/ligion,  uiid  man*,  d  I'hiiip  II.,  King  of 


Spain,  in  order  to  strengthen  herself  agminst  the  ] 
testant  interest.  Mary  experienced  some  reeirti 
from  her  Protestant  subjects,  and  being  under  g 
suspicion  of  her  sister  Elizabeth,  who  professed  the 
formed  faith,  but  took  no  part  against  her,  was  ah 
on  the  point  of  ordering  her  to  execution  also.  As  i 
as  she  had  replaced  the  Catholic  s^-stem,  and  found 
self  in  possession  of  sufiicient  power,  she  began 
career  of  persecution  which  has  rendered  her  nam 
uifamous.  Five  out  of  fourteen  Protestant  bishopi 
eluding  the  revered  names  of  Cranmer,  Latimer, 
Ridley,  were  committed  to  the  tUimes  as  heretics ; 
during  the  ensuing  part  of  her  reign,  which  was  cl 
by  her  death,  November  17,  1558,  nearly  three  1 
di*ed  persons  suflered  in  the  same  manner.  These  le 
did  not  take  place  without  exciting  horror  in  the  m 
of  Englishmen  in  general,  including  even  many  €■ 
lies ;  but  the  royal  authority  was  at  all  times  too  g; 
under  this  line  of  princes  to  allow  of  eflcctual  resiata 
Such  a  persecution,  however,  naturally  fixed  in 
miuds  of  the  British  Protestants  a  hcL*editary  ho 
for  the  name  of  Catholic,  which  has  in  its  turn  1 
productive  of  many  retaliatory  persecutions  all 
equally  to  be  lamented.  In  the  latter  part  of  hern 
she  was  drawn  by  her  husband  into  a  war  with  Fn 
of  which  the  only  effect  was  the  loss  of  Calais,  tha 
of  the  French  possessions  of  the  sovereigns  of  Engl 
The  natural  soui*ness  of  Mary's  temper  was  incre 
by  this  disgraceful  event,  as  well  as  by  her  w&i 
children,  and  she  died  in  a  state  of  great  unhappija 

IlLIZADETII. — MARY,  QUEE.S  OF  SOOTS. — REF0HUATI4 

IN  StXJTLAND. 

A  more  auspicious  scene  opened  for  Elngland  i] 
accession  of  Euzaheth,  a  princess  of  great  native  vi 
of  mind,  and  who  had  been  much  improved  by  a< 
sity,  having  been  kept  in  prison  during  the  whole  i 
of  her  sister.  From  the  peculiar  circumstances  of  J: 
beth's  birth,  her  right  of  succession  was  denied  I 
the  Catliolies  at  home  and  abroad.     This  jarty 
sidered  Mary,  (iueen  of  Seot.s,  who  was  di-scendeti 
the  elili.st  nibUv  of  Henry  Vlll.,  and  h,id  been  brc 
up  in  the  Cathoiiu  iaith  at  the  court  of  Fi'ance, as 
legitimate  sovereign.     Elizabetli  had  no  6vip{H)rt  ir 
quarter,  except  anion;;  her  Pi*otestant  subjects. 
Pope  issued  a  bull,  >\liieh,  directly  or  indirectly, 
nounced  her  an  usurper,  and  gave  ]>crmis-si>>u  ti 
subjects  to  remove  her  from  the  throne.     The  cou 
France  profis.-.ed  to  eonsi«ler  tlie  (Jucen  of  .Scotf, 
had   recently  bi-eu  married  to  the   Dauphin,  as 
(^ueen  of  England,      l.'nder  these  circumstances,  £ 
beth  found  no  chance  of  siifety  except  in  rc«>toring 
maintaining  the  Protestant  religion  in  her  own  couD 
and  in  bfn;king  to  su])port  it   in  all  othei*s  w];ere 
people  wen:  favourable  to  it.    The  Scottish  nation  b* 
now  engage<l  in  a  sirui,'g!e  with  their  regent,  Mar^ 
Guise,  in  behalf  of  Protestantism,  Elizabeth  gladljr 
ceded  to  a  i)roposal  ma<ii.'  hy  the  nobles  of  tlut  coua 
and  sent  a  party  of  troops,  hy  whose  assistance  the 
farmed  religion  ^^as  e^t^.bli^hed  (15(10).     In  bring 
ahiiut  tl.i-*  chan;:e,  theeijief  native  leaders  were  Jat 
>:e\vart,  a  natural  son  of  Kini;  Jamc.s  V.,  and  J* 
l\Mi»x,  who  ha<l  onco  heen  a  friar,  bu:  \\:i^  now  a  F 
te>t::iit  preacher.     As  a  natural  consequi  nee  of  the 
ligation  which  tiie  English  ipieen  had  conferred  U] 
t)ie  Se•il:i^h  relonners,  s!ie  uctjuired  r.n  iiiiluence  o 
thi"  count ry  which  uas  never  altogether  lost. 

A') -ut  the  time  when  the  >eot:i^ii  Parliament ' 
est;i'»i.>'.ii.ij;  till'  relonu' d  rihjjitMi,  Mary  of  Gj 
biL:..li((i  iier  last,  leavin:;  tlie  cviuntry  to  be  nuina 
by  the  reforming  nobic^.  Iter  uau^liter,  the  Queei 
Seot<,  now  ei;;liieen  \ears  "f  a;:e,  and  the  most  bea 
tul  Woman  of  iier  time,  had  in  KVMl  become  the  qut 
consurt  {)i  France  ;  but,  in  e  ■U'-etjuence  of  tlie  deatl 
her  hushand,  she  w:ls  next  year  left  without  any  { 
tieal  interest  in  tliat  country,  ^he  accordingly', 
.\ugu.-t  150' I,  returned  to  Scotland,  and  assumed 
sikven-i.cniy  cu"  a  c«)untry  which  was  chielly  under 
rn'e  t'f  tierce  noble,,  and  wh>.  re  the  people,  fi*oni 


HISTORY  OF  GREAT  BRITAIN  AND  IRELAND. 


ce  of  tlMir  nligioiit  faith,  m  well  as  their  native 
■D,  were  little  fitted  to  yield  her  the  obedience 
.nbjeeta^ 


mEFOBMATION  IV  SCOTLAND. 

cfaaam  of  religion  in  Scotland  was  of  a  more 
e  bad  than  it  Imd  been  in  England.  The  Eiig- 
Amiation  had  been  effected  hy  sovereigns,  who, 
they  wished  to  throw  off  the  supremacy  of  the 
■■d  some  of  the  Catholic  rites,  desired  to  give 
e  way  as  ponible  to  populai  principles.  They 
Be  not  only  seized  the  supremacy  of  the  church 
■sdlTes,  but,  by  bishops  and  other  dignitaries, 
it  SB  efficient  instrument  for  supporting  monarchi- 
raniment.  In  Scotland,  where  tlie  Reformation 
beted  by  the  nobles  and  the  people,  at  a  time 
rtiD  bolder  principles  had  sprung  up,  none  of  this 
■vy  of  power  was  retained;  the  clergy  were 
loo  a  footing  of  perfect  equality;  they  were  all 
ncogaged  in  parochial  duties,  and  only  a  small 
I  the  ancient  ecclesiastical  revenues  was  allowed 
!&  In  imitation  of  the  system  established  at 
n,  their  general  affairs,  instead  of  being  intrusted 
i  kinds  of  bishops,  were  confided  to  courts  formed 
■nelves.  These  courts,  being  partly  formed  by 
te,  kept  up  a  symi>athy  and  attachment  among 
■Bomty,  which  has  never  existed  in  so  great  a 
I  m  the  English  church.  What  was  of  perhaps 
ptUcr  importance,  while  a  largo  part  of  the  au- 
itvcoaes  waa  absorbed  by  the  nobles,  a  very  con- 
lUe  portion  was  devoted  to  the  maintenance  of 
hidiods,  under  the  express  control  of  the  clergy, 
c  It  once  formed  regular  nurseries  of  Protestant 
rtim,  and  disseminated  the  elements  of  learning 
ttsteuively  over  this  small  and  remote  country 
itbd  ever  been  over  any  other  part  of  tiie  world. 

MARY,  QUEEN  OF  SCOTS. 

■■I  Huy,  having  littlo  power  in  her  own  country, 
(ttpdtu  govern  by  means  of  her  natural  brother, 
vStrwirt,  whom  she  created  Earl  of  Moray,  and 
•«■  the  leader  of  the  Protestant  interest  in  Scot- 
L  Penoaally,  however,  she  was  intimately  connected 
lAegrcat  Catholic  |>owersof  the  Continent, •and  be- 
■•jsrty,  in  1564,  to  a  coalition  formorl  by  them  for 
■ffn«ion  of  Protestantism  all  over  Europe.  She 
■WW  yet  resigned  her  pretensions  to  the  English 
■^kt  lived  in  the  hope,  that,  when  the  Catholics 
■•Win every  where  subduing  the  Protestants,  she 
"ttuisthat  object.  Elizabeth,  who  had  only  the 
fvtof  tite  Protestant  part  of  her  own  Rubjccts,  with 
■dtyferiing  among  the  Scotch  and  other  unimpor- 
i^vtettnt  nation!},  had  great  reason  to  dread  the 
"■ney  formed  against  her.  She  nevertheless 
■inn  upon  the  Protestant  faith,  and  the  principles 
"■puatively  liberal  and  popular  government,  as 
■fy  Hfe  position. 

^M  of  unfortunate  events  threw  Mary  into  the 
orfQixibeth.  The  former  queen,  in  1 565,  married 
■^  Lord  Damley,  and  by  that  means  alienated 
■Mtioni  of  her  brother  and  chief  minister,  the 
tf  llony,  as  well  as  of  other  Protestant  lords,  who 
'irebeiiion  against  her,  and  were  obliged  to  fly 
Es^iiid.  Soon  after,  the  jealousy  of  Darnley, 
B&OfC  an  Italian  musician  named  Rizzio,  who 
■■  French  secretary  to  the  queen,  united  him  in 
fincy  with  the  banished  Protestant  noblemen 
t  mnrder  of  that  humble  foreigner,  which  was 
1  aader  very  barbairous  circumstances,  March 
'.  Mary,  who  was  delivered  in  the  succeeding 
f  her  son  James,  withdrew  her  affections  entirely 
ir  husband,  and  began  to  confide  chiefly  in  the 
Bochwell,  who  some  months  afterwards  caused 
f  to  be  blown  up  by  gunpowder,  while  he  lay  in 
of  aiekness ;  in  which  transaction  it  has  always 
■peeted,  bnt  never  proved,  that  the  queen  had 
cnUe  share.  Bothwell  84K>n  after  forced  her, 
>,  into  a  marriage,  which  excited  so  much 
niiMMig  her  subjects,  tluit  the  same  Protcs- 
1:17 


tant  lords  who  had  effected  the  Reformation,  and  were 
the  friends  of  Elizabeth,  easily  obtained  the  possession 
of  her  person,  and,  having  deposed  her,  crowned  her 
infant  son  as  king,  under  the  title  of  James  VI.,  while 
the  regency  was  vested  in  the  Earl  of  Moray.  In  May 
1568,  Mary  escaped  from  her  prison  in  Lochleven,  and 
put  herself  at  the  head  of  a  body  of  her  partisans,  but 
was  defeated  by  the  regent  at  the  battle  of  Langside, 
and  was  then  compelled  to  seek  refuge  in  England. 
By  placing  her  rival  under  strict  confinement,  and  ex- 
tending an  effectual  protection  to  the  regents  Moray, 
Lennox,  Mar,  and  Morton,  who  successively  governed 
Scotland,  Elizabeth  fortified  herself  in  a  great  degree 
against  tlie  Catholic  confederacy. 

GOVEILMIENT  OF  ELIZABETH. 

It  has  already  been  seen  that  the  liberties  of  the 
people  were  much  favoured  by  the  frequent  interrup- 
tions in  the  succession  to  the  crown.     Whenever  one 
branch  of  the  Plantagenet  family  displaced  another, 
the  new  king,  feeling  himself  weak,  endeavoured  to 
strengthen  his  title  by  procuring  a  parliamentary  en- 
actment in  support  of  it.     It  thus  became  established 
as  a  regular  principle  in  the  English  government,  that 
the  people  who  were  represented  in  Parliament  had 
something  to  say  in  the  appointment  of  their  king.     A 
considerable  change,  however,  had  taken  place  since 
the  accession  of  Henry  VII.     The  great  power  ac- 
quired by  that  king,  through  his  worldly  wisdom  and 
the  destruction  of  the  nobility  during  the  civil  waiT, 
had  been  handed  down  through  four  successive  princes, 
who  inherited  the  crown  by  birthright,  and  did  not 
require  to  cringo  to  the  people  for  a  confirmation  of 
their  title.    The  Parliaments,  therefore,  were  now  a 
great  deal  more  under  the  conti'ol  of  the  sovereign  than 
they  had  formerly  been.     From  an  early  period  of  his 
reign,  Henry  VIII.  never  pci*mitted  his  Parliament  to 
oppose  bin  will  in  the  least.    To  the  various  changes  of 
religion  under  successive  sovereigns,  the  Parliaments 
presented  no  obstacle.     An  idea  was  now  beginning  to 
arise,  ver^'  much  through  the  supremacy  which  the 
sovereigns  had  acquired  over  the  church,  that  the  right 
of  the  crown  was  one  derived  from  God,  and  that  the 
people  had  nothing  to  do  with  it,  except  to  obey  what  it 
dictated  to  them.     Of  tliis  notion,  no  one  took  so  much 
advantage,  or  was  at  so  much  pains  to  impress  it,  as 
Elizabeth.     No  doubt,  her  arbitrary  measures  were 
generally  of  a  popular  nature,  yet  this  does  not  excuse 
them  in  principle ;  and  their  ultiniate  mischief  is  seen 
in  the  attempts  of  future  sovereigns  to  pursue  worse 
ends  upon  the  same  means.     Elizabeth's  government 
consisted  entirely  of  herself  and  her  ministers,  who 
were,  from  the  beginning  to  the  end  of  her  reign,  the 
very  choice  of  the  enlightened  men  of  England.     Her 
prime  minister  was  the  celebrated  Lord  Burleigh,  by 
far  the  most  sagacious  man  who  ever  acted  as  a  mini- 
ster in  Britain  ;  and  all  her  emissaries  to  foreign  courts 
were  of  one  complexion — circumspect  and  penetrating 
men,  devoted  to  their  country,  their  mistress,  and  to 
the  Protestant  religion. 

On  the  accession  of  Elizabeth,  the  two  celebrated 
acts  of  supremacy  and  conformity  were  passed,  for  the 
'  purpose  of  crushing  the  political  influence  of  tlie  Popish 
religion ;  an  end  which  they  sufliciently  accomplished. 
By  the  act  of  supremacy,  all  beneficed  clergymen,  and 
all  holding  oflices  under  the  crown,  were  compelled  to 
take  an  oath  abjuring  the  temporal  and  spii'itual  juris- 
diction of  any  foreign  prince  or  prelate,  on  pain  of  for- 
feiting their  oflices,  while  any  one  maintaining  such 
supremacy  was  liable  to  heavy  penalties.  The  other 
statute  prohibit(^d  any  one  from  following  any  clergy- 
man who  was  not  of  the  established  religion,  under  pain 
of  forfeiting  his  goods  and  chattels  for  the  first  offence, 
of  a  year's  imprisonment  for  the  second,  and  of  im- 
prisonnient  during  life  for  the  third ;  while  it  imposed 
a  fine  of  a  shilling  on  any  one  absenting  himself  from 
the  established  church  on  Sundays  and  holidavs.  By 
means  of  a  court  of  ecclesiastical  commission,  which  the 
queen  erected,  these  laws,  and  others  of  a  mora  trifiing 


CHAMBERS'S  INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


and  vexAtioQfl  nature,  were  enforced  with  great  severity. 
It  may  afford  some  idea  of  the  barbarity  of  the  age,  and 
of  the  terror  in  which  the  Church  of  Rome  was  now 
held,  that,  during  the  reign  of  Elizabeth,  one  hundred 
and  eighty  persons  suffered  death  by  the  btws  affecting 
CathoUc  pnests  and  converts. 

WJLB  IN  THE  ZfETHEBLANDS. 

For  more  than  a  century  after  the  Reformation, 
religion  was  the  real  or  apparent  motive  of  the  most 
remarkable  transactions  in  European  history.  It  is 
scarcely  necessary  to  point  out  that  this  sentiment, 
though  in  general  the  purest  by  which  human  beings 
can  be  actuated,  is,  like  all  the  other  higher  sentiments 
of  our  nature,  when  offended  or  shocked,  capable  of 
rousing  the  inferior  sentiments  into  great  activity. 
In  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth  centuries,  European 
society  was  comparatively  unenlightened  and  barba- 
rous ;  we  therefore  find  that  variances  of  opinion  re- 
specting  religion  were  then  productive  of  far  fiercer 
feelings  than  they  are  in  our  own  more  humane  age. 
The  Protestant  heresy,  as  it  was  termed  by  the  Catho- 
lics, was  also  a  novelty,  the  remote  effects  of  which  no 
roan  could  foretell ;  it  was  mingled  vrith  political  ques- 
tions, and  by  some  princes  was  supposed  to  forebode  a 
general  revolt  against  monarchical  authority.  We  are 
not  therefore  to  wonder  that  p«at  cruelties  were  com- 
mitted, either  by  the  Catholics  in  seeking  to  support 
the  Church  of  Rome,  or  by  the  Protestants  in  endea- 
vburing  to  ensure  themselves  against  a  renewal  of  se- 
verities inflicted  by  the  opposite  party.  Nor  is  it  nece»- 
sary,  in  the  present  age,  that  the  adherents  of  either 
faith  should  retain  any  feeling  of  displeasure  against 
the  other,  on  account  of  barUurities  which  took  their 
rise  in  the  ignorance  and  rudeness  of  a  former  period, 
and  of  which  the  enlightened  of  both  parties  have  long 
since  disapproved. 

In  the  Netherlands,  which  formed  part  of  the  domi- 
nions of  Pliilip  II.  of  Spain,  the  reformed  faith  had 
made  considerable  advances.  Pliilip,  like  other  Citho- 
lic  princes,  entertained  the  idea  that  this  new  creed, 
bekided  bcin<;  cundemnnblc  as  a  heresy  and  an  offence 
ni^aiust  the  l)i'ity,  tended  to  make  men  independent  of 
their  rulers.  Finding  the  people  obattnate  in  their  pro- 
fessions, he  commenced  a  war  with  the  Nctherlunders, 
for  the  purpose  of  enforcing  hi»  authority  over  th«?ir 
consciences.  Tliid  war  lasted  about  twenty  years ;  for 
the  Nelherlanders,  thoui;h  a  natiun  of  no  great  strength, 
fought  like  desperate  men,  and  endured  the  most  dread- 
ful hardships  I'ather  than  submit.  The  chief  leader  in 
this  war  of  liberty  was  William,  Prince  of  Orange,  one 
of  the  purest  and  most  courageous  patriots  that  ever 
breathed.  Elizabeth  could  nut  help  wishing  well  to  the 
Netherlanders,  though  for  a  long  time  her  dread  of 
Spain,  then  one  of  the  gn'atest  powers  in  Europe,  pre- 
vented her  from  openly  assisting  them.  .-Vt  tiie  same 
time,  about  two  millions  of  the  people  of  Prance  were 
Protestants,  or,  as  they  were  then  called.  Huguenots, 
Avho  acted  also  f«»r  the  general  Protestant  cause  with 
as  much  ener;^y  as  the  great  strength  of  the  French 
government  would  permit.  Kli/abetli  at  length,  in  K^TH, 
extended  an  open  protection  to  the  Netherlanders,  ex- 
cusing herself  to  Philip  by  stating  her  fear  that  they 
would  otherwise  tiin»w  themselves  into  the  arms  of 
1 'ranee.  The  northern  proviiuvs  were  thus  enabled  to 
asbcrt  their  independence,  and  to  form  tlio  couutry 
which  has  since  been  called  Holland. 

nilvTlI  OF  M-\UY,  qVl.VW  OF  .S(X)TS. 

The  Catlu»lin  powers  of  the  c«)ntinent  formed  many 
schemes  fur  anin.xiii^  or  dethroiiini;  lOlizabeth ;  and 
the  iinpris-meil  Scott i-h  Queen,  or  her  adherents,  were 
generally  conc<'nHMl  in  tlicin.  The  King  of  Spain,  de- 
ttnnine<l  at  l»Mii;ih  to  uiakf  a  decisive  etl'ort,  coniinfnce»l 
the  prt'paratii.M  *>{  a  va.-%t  Hi-et,  which  he  trnned  tiio 
Invineilile  Aruiad.t.  and  witli  wliirh  lie  desi:^ned  to  in- 
vadf  ilif  KiJiili'^ii  r-li'-r-'^.  lii;/.ali<'th,  IhT  niiisisters,  and 
people,  heiielil  iIh'  |  rep.ki':(l!"n-^  with  iinich  eoact  rn,  antl 
Uivu*  l'eai*s  were   iiicix'u-i«l   l>y  the  plots  which  were 

lob 


incessantly  forming  amongst  her  Catholie  mbjeete 
behalf  of  the  Queen  of  Scots.  An  act  was  passsd  4 
claring  that  any  person,  by  or  for  whom  any  plot  ih»c 
be  made  against  the  Queen  of  England,  should  be  goiJ 
of  treason.  When,  soon  after,  a  gentleman  mm 
Babington  formed  a  conspiracy  for  asaaasinating  Bid 
beth  and  pUcing  Mary  on  the  throne,  the  latter  q»fl 
became  or  course  liable  to  the  punishment  for  trav* 
although  herself  innocent  She  was  subjected  to  a  ffS 
mal  trial  in  her  prison  of  Fotheringay  Castle,  and  fioa 
guilty.  Elizabeth  hesitated  for  some  time  to  atrika 
unoffending  and  imfortunate  person,  related  to  hoe 
blood,  and  ner  equal  in  rank.  But  at  length  fears 
herself  got  the  better  of  her  aenae  of  juatiee,  anfl 
may  be  added,  of  her  good  sense,  and  she  gave  ] 
sanction  to  an  act  which  leaves  an  ineffaoesKle  ift 
upon  her  memory.  On  the  7th  of  Febmary  15 
Mary,  Queen  of  Scots,  was  beheaded  in  the  haU 
the  castle,  after  a  confinement  of  more  than  eighK< 
years. 

James  VI.  was  now,  after  a  turbulent  minority, 
possession  of  the  reins  of  government  in  Scotland^  1 
with  little  real  power,  being  a  dependant  and  penaMM 
of  Elizabeth,  and  at  the  same  time  much  controlled  1 
the  clergy,  who  asserted  a  total  independence  of  1 
temporal  authority,  and  considered  themaelvea  aa  II 
subjects  alone  of  the  divine  foimder  of  the  Gbriilii 
faith.  James  made  many  attempts  to  assert  a  eoibl 
over  the  church  like  that  enjoyed  by  the  English  Wi 
narch,  and  also  to  introduce  an  Episcopal  hieianh 
but  never  could  attain  more  than  a  mere  shadow  of  ■ 
object.  The  chief  influence  he  possessed  arose  ftm 
his  being  regarded  as  heir-presumptive  to  tho  Eafii 
crown. 

SPANISH  ARMADA. — RRBKT.T.10W8  IV  IRELAHD. 

In  15B8,  the  Spanish  Armada,  consisting  of  a  htmdn 
and  thirty  great  vessels,  with  twenty  thousand  hi 
forces  on  board,  set  sail  against  England,  while  tbirt 
four  thousand  more  land  forces  prepared  to  join  ti9 
the  Netherlands.  Amidst  the  consternation  which  pt 
vailed  in  England,  active  measures  were  taken  to  d 
fend  the  country ;  thirty  vessels  prepared  to  meet  tl 
Annada,  and  another  fleet  endeavoured  to  block  up  tl 
Netherlands  forces  in  port.  The  commaud  was  taki 
by  Lord  Howard  of  EtKngham.  Troops  were  al 
mustered  on  land  to  repel  the  invaders.  The  EngUi 
fleet  attacked  the  Armada  in  the  Channel,and  was  (mo 
to  have  a  considerable  advantage  in  the  lightneia  m 
inanageableness  of  the  vessels.  As  the  Armada  laiti 
along,  it  was  infested  by  the  English  in  the  rear,  ai 
by  a  series  of  destultory  attacks,  so  damaged  as  to  1 
obliged  to  take  refur;o  on  the  coast  of  Zealand.  Tl 
Duko  of  Parma  now  declined  to  embark  the  Netherlaa 
forces,  and  it  was  resolved  by  the  admiral,  that  tb 
should  return  to  Spain  by  sriiling  round  the  Orkneys^ 
the  winds  were  contrary  to  their  passage  directly  baa 
Accordingly,  they  proceeded  north waH,  and  were  fl 
lowed  by  tho  Eni;lish  fleet  as  far  as  Flamborough-h^ 
where  they  were  terribly  shattered  by  a  storm.  Sev  • 
teen  of  the  ships,  having  5U(J0  men  on  board,  weree 
away  on  the  Western  Isles  and  the  coast  of  Ireland. 
the  whole  Armada,  fifty-three  ships  only  retu 
Spain,  and  these  in  a  wretched  condition.  The 
men,  as  well  as  the  soldiers  who  remained, 
overcome  with  hardships  and  fatii^ue,  and  so  dispi 
hy  their  discomHture^  that  they  filled  all  Sp.iin  witla 
counts  of  the  desperate  valour  of  the  Engltf>h,  anc3 
the  tempestuous  violence  of  that  occau  by  which  tJ 
were  surrounded. 

Thou^'h  the  i*n)te5«tant  church  had  meanwhile  \9» 
estahlihiud  in  Ireland,  the  great  bulk  of  the  peopled 
tinued  tt)  he  lionian  Catholics.  The  native  rudencff* 
tin?  i)oo|ili«  and thfir chiefs, and  thcdiseontentoccasii>i 
by  what  was  coiisidereil  an  a  forrign  church  estabia! 
nirnt,  rt'iidered  the  country  Turbulent  and  diflicnlK 
govern.  Sir  .lohn  IVrrot,  the  deputy,  pro]KMed  to  i 
pniM'  the  country  hy  public  works  and  English  l»* 
but  it  was  thought  injurious  to  England  to  improve  ^ 


BISTORV  of  great  BRITAIN  AND  IRELAND. 


cf  Inland.  A  Mries  of  rebellioos  under  chiefs 
NciUwutlie  oomequenee,  and  the  English 
ok  waa  maintained  with  great  difficulty,  and 
■ODsexpeoae.  The  rebellion  of  Hugh  O'Neill, 
tnoobf  waa  particuhurly  formidable.  The 
iffleai  were  at  first  nnsuccessfol,  and  met 
1 86110118  defeats.  In  1599,  Tyrone  gained  so 
ittorWf  that  the  whole  province  of  Munster 
br  him.  He  then  invited  the  Spaniards  to 
cneat  on  Ireland,  and  join  him.  The  queen 
ker  fiivoorite,  the  Earl  of  Essex,  with  20,000 
t  Jie  did  not  proceed  with  vigour,  and  soon 
id  it  noeeasaKy  to  return  to  England  to  justify 
Next  year  Tyrone  broke  the  truce  he  had 
Ui  Essex,  overran  the  whole  country,  and 
overeign  of  Ireland.  If  Spain  had  at  this  time 
,the  support  he  asked,  Irehind  might  have 
tffed  from  the  English  crown, 
th  now  selected,  as  her  deputy  for  Irehmd, 
tnd  Mountjoy,  who  was  in  every  respect 
id  than  Essex  to  conduct  such  a  warfare.  As 
taiy  step,  this  sagacioua  officer  introduced 
nd  disunion  among  the  Irish  chiefs.  The 
ity  of  his  movements  tended  to  dispirit  the 
.  In  160 1,  six  thousand  Spaniards  lauded 
harbour,  for  the  purpose  of  supporting  the 
)nntjoy  immediately  invested  the  place,  and 
them  fixun  acting.  Tyrone  marched  from 
if  Ireland  to  theur  relief,  and  was  met  and 
a  by  a  much  inferior  English  force,  after 
Mle  was  surrendered.  About  the  time  when 
lied  (1603),  Tyrone  submitted,  and  Ireland 
sore  reduced  nndertlie  authority  of  the  Eng- 


SCLCSION  OF  TOE  REIGN  OP  ELIZABETH. 

Doarkable,  that  while  Elizabeth  increased  in 
resources,  she  became  more  noted  for  femi- 
DCflMS.  In  her  early  years  she  had  shown  a 
ind  snperiority  to  natural  affections,  not 
served  in  women.  But  in  her  old  age,  she 
ith  volatile  and  susceptible  to  an  cxtraordi- 
ea ;  so  that  the  hand  which  she  had  withheld, 
Dger  days,  from  the  noblest  princes  of  Europe, 
mj  to  be  bestowed,  in  her  old  age,  upon  some 
rt  minion.  Her  fiftvourite  in  middle  life  was 
!ari  of  Leicester,  a  profligate  and  a  triflcr.  In 
r  days  she  listened  to  the  addresses  of  the 
Essex,  a  young  man  of  greater  courage  and 
adple,  but  also  headstrong  and  weak.  Essex, 
aeqaiRd  popularity  bv  several  brilliant  mili- 
rpnses,  bqgan  at  length  to  assume  an  insolent 
ty  CfTtr  the  queen,  who  was,  on  one  occasion, 
pnvoked  by  his  rudeness  as  to  give  him  a 
K  on  the  ear.  Notwithstanding  all  his  caprices 
IMl  the  queen  still  doatingly  forgave  him,  until 
gth  attempted  to  raise  an  insurrection  against 
la  streets  of  London,  when  he  was  seized,  con- 
ndafker  much  hesitation,  executed  (Februarv 

V 

mA,  id  at  last  ordering  the  execution  of  Essex, 
d^pon  her  nsnal  principle  of  sacrificing  her 
to  what  was  necessary  for  the  public  cause ;  but 
fat,  made  in  the  sixty-eighth  year  of  her  age, 
■waleaUted  the  real  strength  of  her  nature. 
HMD  from  that  time  to  decline  gradually  in 
■dqiirita. 

^theekise  of  1601,  she  fell  into  a  deep  hypo- 
kflrmelancholy.  She  could  scarcely  be  induced 
knelf  dressed,  and  at  length  became  so  much 
Ibjber  sorrow  as  to  refuse  sustenance,  and 
loiaad  nights  on  the  fluor,  supported  by  a  few 
I  kought  to  her  by  her  attendants.  On  the 
Ifanh  1603,  she  expired,  after  a  reign  of  nearly 
•  Jim^  during  which  England  advanced  from 
Bbn  of  a  second-rate  to  that  of  a  first-rate 
■dths  Protestant  religion  was  established  on 
it  cooid  never  afterwards  be 

139 


The  reign  of  Elizabeth  saw  the  commencement  of 
the  naval  glory  of  England.  Down  to  the  reign  of 
Henry  VII.,  there  was  no  such  thing  as  a  navy  belong- 
ing to  the  public,  and  the  military  genius  of  the  people 
was  devoted  exclusively  to  enterprises  by  land.  The 
rise,  however,  of  a  commercial  spirit  in  Europe,  which 
in  1492  had  caused  the  discovery  of  America,  and  was 
again  acted  upon  by  the  scope  for  adventure  wliich  that 
discovery  opened  up,  lud  latterly  caused  great  attention 
to  be  paid  to  nautical  affairs  in  England.  Englishmen 
of  all  ranks  supported  and  entered  into  enterprises  for 
discovering  unknown  territories;  and  under  Drake, 
Cavendish,  Raleigh,  and  Frobisher,  various  expeditions 
of  less  or  more  magnitude  were  sent  out.  The  colonies 
of  North  America  were  now  commenced.  Amongst 
the  exertions  of  private  merchants,  our  attention  is 
chiefly  attracted  by  the  commencement  of  the  northern 
whale-fishery,  the  cod-fishery  of  Newfoundland,  and  the 
less  laudable  shive-trade  in  Africa.  When  hostilities 
with  Spain  became  more  open,  tho  English  commanders 
made  many  successful  attacks  upon  her  colonies  in  the 
West  Indies,  and  also  upon  the  fleets  of  merchant  ves- 
sels which  were  employed  to  carry  home  the  gold,  and 
otlier  almost  equally  valuable  products  of  the  New 
World,  to  the  Spanish  harbours.  These  attacks  were 
now  made  in  a  more  systematic  manner,  and  with  more 
effect,  as  a  revenge  for  the  affair  of  the  Armada.  It 
may  almost  be  said  that  the  dominion  of  Britain  over 
the  seas  was  perfected  in  one  reign ;  a  power  which  has 
been  of  such  advantage  to  the  country,  both  in  protect- 
ing its  commerce  and  keeping  it  secure  from  foreign 
invasion,  that  its  origin  would  nave  conferred  everlast- 
ing lustre  on  this  period  of  our  history,  even  although 
it  had  not  been  characterised  by  any  otlier  glorious 
event. 

The  chief  articles  exported  from  England  to  the  Con- 
tinent were  wool,  cloth,  lead,  and  tin :  formerly  these 
had  been  sent  in  vessels  belonging  to  the  Ilanso  Towns 
—certain  ports  of  the  north  of  Europe,  possessing  great 
privileges — but  now  English  vessels  were  substituted 
for  this  trade.  Birmingham  and  Sheffield  were  already 
thriving  scats  of  the  hardware  manufacture,  and  Man- 
chester was  becoming  distinguished  for  making  cottons, 
rugs,  and  friezes.  Stocking- weaving  and  the  making 
of  sailcloth,  serge,  and  baize,  took  their  rise  in  this 
reign.  The  progress  of  other  arts  was  much  favoured  by 
the  bloody  persecutions  in  the  Netherlands,  which  drove 
into  England  great  numbers  of  weavers,  dyers,  cloth- 
dressers,  and  silk-thi'owers.  Amongst  the  wealthier 
classes,  the  wearing  of  handsome  apparel  and  of  gold 
ornaments  and  jewellery,  inadea  great  advance.  Coaches 
were  introduced,  but  fur  a  time  thought  only  fit  for  the 
use  of  ladies.  Great  improvements  were  made  in  the 
building  of  houses.  Thchtrical  amusements  were  begun, 
and  attained  great  vogue,  though  only  in  London.  The 
smoking  of  tobacco  was  introduced  by  Sir  Walter  Ra- 
leigh, who  became  acquainted  with  the  plant  in  Vir- 
finia.  At  the  end  of  Elizabeth's  reign,  the  population  of 
lOndon  was  about  160,000,  or  a  tenth  of  what  it  now 
is ;  and  the  whole  kingdom  probably  contained  about 
5,000,000  of  inhabitants. 

THE  STUAKTS. — JAMES  I. 

The  successor  of  Elizabeth,  by  birthright,  was  James 
VI.  OP  Scotland  (styled  Jamks  I.  of  England),  who  was 
now  arrived  at  the  prime  of  life,  and  had  been  married 
for  somo  years  to  the  Princess  Anne  of  Denmark,  by 
whom  he  had  two  sons,  Henry  and  Charles,  and  one 
daughter  named  Eliziibetli.  James  immediately  re- 
moved to  London,  and  assumed  tho  government  of 
England,  while  his  native  kingdom,  though  thus  united 
under  the  same  sovereignty,  still  retained  its  own  pecu- 
liar institutions.  At  the  suggestion  of  the  king,  who 
wished  to  obliterate  the  distinction  of  the  two  countries, 
tho  common  name  of  Great  Britain  was  now  conferred 
upon  them.  King  James  was  an  oddity  in  human  cha- 
racter. His  person  was  naturally  feeble,  particularly 
in  the  limbs,  which  were  scarcely  sufficient  to  support 
his  weight.    He  had  great  capacity  for  learning,  some 


'# 


■ad  A  aonildwhto  dim  of  wil;  but 
Mdiirttey'vfti^aiidvMk.  H«  l»elie?ed  Idogs  to  be  the 
MNitini  of  Qoiiy  uid  aeooiiBl»lilo  to  Qod  akme  for  thoir 
.  Ho  WM  oqiuafy  dimoMd  vith  filiiabeCh  to 
dtipo>ifliHy»  or  Mooraiiig  to  his  own  will ;  but 
vOBitad  ^vigoor  and  tho  tarn  fbr  popnUurity  whidi 
ooibltd  bii  pffvdiMMor  to  boQomo  to  mvefa  the  mktreM 

of  tut}  tubjoofai- 

NotwJthahmiHng  the  — eigy  of  Ettjabeth,  thepopo- 
liff  ifiril  Ind  gndwdly  boon  Mqairiuff  Ibree  in  her 
ntea.    ItwMdddlyootainthoMCaoftbePiiritanaya 


■ovom 


i«lif{iora  wortjy  who  wiihed  to  nako  mat  refonna  in 
tha  alnraiy  bodi  in  ttagoranmiOBt  and  ita  wonhip,  and 
wiio^  from  the  farvoor  of  their  davotSona  and  the  striet- 
BMvaf  their  maanen^  night  be  likened  to  the  Preabj- 
twlaaa  of  Seotlaad.  Kfaw  Jamea  foond  eooeideTable 
dUUealty  at  the  tmey  flrat  Sb  eontroUing  thia  party  and 
arading  tiieir  demanda.  He  waa  no  Ian  tronblea,  on 
tha  other  handy  bj  the  Ckthotiei,  who,  reooUeedng  hie 
mottar  Maiy,  eoneeHed  that  he  wonld  be  inelined  to 
wdsa  Mittera  nera  eaay  to  tiiem  in  Engknd.  Upon 
the  whola,  there  were  mh  difBonltiee  in  the  way,  aa, 
to  hava  Bteerad  etearly  throndh  theni,  wonld  have  re- 
qtdrad  a  wiier  inateadof  a  wednr  rnler  than  Eliiabeth. 

OmVO'WniR  VLQQC. 

Tha  dinnpolntoient  of  the  Catholieay  on  finding  that 
the  ae?ara  lawa  apihiat  them  were  not  to  be  reuxed, 
lad  to  a  aoMnyiHiay  <Ni  ^i^  pw^  ^  *  £bv  gentlemen  of 
thatpam^kNiyOf  whom  the  ehief  waa  WilBam  Oiteaby, 
a  panon  of  diaaolata  hablta.  It  waa  arranged  that,  on 
tha  dmr  of  tha  meeting  of  Pariiament,  Norember  5, 
180&tlie  Hoaaa  of  Lorda  thoald  be  blown  np  by  gon- 
BOMMT,  aft  the  moment  whea  the  King^  Lorda,  and 
Oonnaoaa,  ware  all  ■membleil  in  it,  thua  deatroying,  as 
thmr  thoa^^  aH  their  diiaf  enemiea  at  one  blow,  and 
aaJong  way  §ar  a  aew  gofarument  whieh  ahoold  be 
movawvoarahle  to  them.  Aeoordingly,  thirty-four 
barrela  of  powder  were  depoaited  in  the  cellara  beneath 
the  home^  and  a  person  named  Ooy  Fawkee  was  pre- 
pared to  kindle  It  at  the  proper  time.  The  plot  waa 
dieeorered,  in  eonaeqaenoe  of  the  receipt  of  a  letter  by 
Lord  MoDteagle,  warning  him  not  to  attend  the  meeting 
of  Parliament.  An  investigation  took  place  during  the 
night  between  the  4th  and  5th  of  November,  when  the 
gunpowder  was  diseovered,  and  Fawkee  taken  into 
euatody.  He  confessed  his  intentions ;  and  the  rest  of 
the  conspirators  fled  to  the  apnntry,  where  most  of 
them  were  cot  to  pieces  in  endeavouring  to  defend 
themselves.  Notwithstanding  the  atrocious  character 
of  this  plot,  the  king  could  never  be  induced  to  take 
advantage  of  it,  as  moat  of  his  subjects  desired,  for  the 
purpoee  of  increasing  the  persecution  of  the  Catholic 
party:  he  probably  feared  that  new  severities  might 
only  give  rise  to  other  attempts  against  his  life. 

PULKTASIOXS  IN  ULELAND. 

The  state  in  which  the  king  found  Ireland  ^t  his 
aeaesaon,  afforded  an  opportunity  for  commencing  a 
more  generoua  policy  in  reference  to  that  country,  and 
introducing  regulations  favourable  to  internal  improve- 
menL  Previoasly  to  this  reign,  the  legislative  authority 
of  the  English  goviemment  was  eonfined  to  the  small 
district  cijled  the  *  Pale,"  while  the  rest  was  governed 
hy  native  aoveretgna  or  ehielB,  whose  connexion  with 
the  King  of  England  waa  merely  that  of  feudal  homage, 
which  did  not  prevent  then!  from  making  wars  or 
alliances  with  each  other.  Subject  to  depredations  from 
these  powerful  barons,  the  native  Irish,  from  a  very 
early  period,  petitioned  for  the  benefit  of  the  English 
laws ;  but  the  Irish  Parliament,  which  was  composed 
of  the  English  barons,  was  never  at  a  loss  for  the  means 
of  preventing  this  desirable  measure  from  being  effected. 
Jamee  was,  m  rvmlity,  the  first  king  who  extended  the 
Enrlish  law  over  the  whole  of  IreUmd,  by  making  judi- 
eial  appointments  suited  to  the  extent  of  the  country. 
This  he  waa  enabled  to  do,  by  the  recent  ware  having 
put  tha  eoontry  more  completely  in  his  power  than  it 
Bad  been  in  that  of  any  former  monarcL    He  beaan 

140 


QBMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


1^  aztanding  fiivoar  to  tha  Irish  ahiaA^  aol  m 
Tyroae.  He  paasad  an  aet  of  oblivioa  and  im 
by  whieh  all  persona  who  had  eemmittad  olfiaM 
ing  to  the  jodgea  of  assute  within  a  aartaia  da^ 
ehiim  a  fiill  pardon.  At  tha  aama  time^  tolars 
virtnally  reraaed  to  the  Gathdie  parwiaaion,  ai 
diaeonitent  therefore  atill  aziatad.  Some  of  tl 
taiB%  having  eonapirsd  againat  tha  erowa, ' 
tainted,  and  their  landa  ware  gtvan  to  EnsUsh 
with  a  view  to  improving  the  population  of  tha 
by  an  infusion  of  civiliM  persona.  But  thia 
ment,  though  well-meant,  waa  managed  in  a 
spirit^  and  gave  riae  to  maeh  injnatioe.  In  1 
first  Irish  Parliament  waa  held  in  which  the 
aay  representativea  of  plaoea  b^ond  the  Pale. 

THE  KHra^S  GHILD]iail^-;-^XH£  SPAlfllH  MAIC 

In  1612,  the  king  had  the  miafortnne  to  loae  1 
aon,  Henrv,  a  yo^  of  nineteen,  who  waa'eo 
aa  one  of  the  most  promising  and  aeeomplishec 
the  age.  The  aecond  aon,  Charlea,  then  bee 
heir-aimarent,  and  Jamea  was  busied  for  aevei 
in  seekmg  him  ont  a  suitable  oonaort  Tha  '. 
Mary  of  Sftan  was  seleeted,  amatdi  which  eon 
popular,  oonaidering  that  the  yonog  lady  waa  a  < 
and  of  a  fismily  who  had  long  been  the  enemiei 
land.  The  prinee^  attended  by  the  Duke  of  1 
ham,  made  a  romantic  jonmey  in  disguise  to 
to  push  the  match ;  but  a  quanel  between  the 
ana  Spanish  ministers  led  to  ita  being  broken 
to  a  bloody  war  between  the  two  nationa. 

Eliiabeth,  the  only  remaining  child  of  tha  ki 
married,  in  1618,  to  Frederick,  Prince  Palatin 
Rhine,  who  waa  afterwards  so  unfortunate  aa 
hia  dominiona,  in  conaeqnenee  of  hia  pladng  hi 
the  head  of  the  Bohem&ms,  in  what  waa  oonaii 
a  rebellion  asainst  hia  auperior,  the  Emperor 
many.  Thia  discrowned  pair,  by  their  youngest  d 
Sophia,  who  married  the  Duke  of  Brunswick,  i 
ancestors  of  the  family  which  now  reigns  in  Bi 

FEiLTURES  OF  JAUES  I.'s  QOVERNMRNT. 

The  reign  of  James  I.  was  not  marked  by  i 
called  great  events.  This  was  greatly  owina 
timid  character,  which  induced  him  to  "»aintai 
at  whatever  sacrifice,  throughout  the  greater  pa 
reign.  The  prime  leaders  of  his  govemmei 
youthful  fiftvourites,  who  possessed  no  merit  1 
soual  elegance.  Experienced  statesmen,  brave  i 
and  learned  divines,  had  to  bow  to  these  dissolute 
if  they  wished  to  remain,  and  still  more  if  the 
to  advance,  in  the  royal  favour.  Even  Bac 
nobleet  intellect  of  the  age,  and  who,  by  the  i 
his  studies,  has  done  more  than  almost  ^y  otl 
to  promote  the  progrees  of  knowledge,  is  found 
attached  himself  to  the  minion  Duke  of  Buck 
for  the  purpose  of  improving  his  interest  at  cot 

In  despotic  countries,  the  vices  of  the  cou 
corrupt  all  cUsses ;  but  it  was  otherwise  at  tha) 
in  Britain.  The  country  gentlemen,  and  the  me 
in  the  incorporated  towns,  had  privileges  wh 
court  dared  not  too  often  violate,  and  a  feeling  < 
tude  and  independence 'was  encouraged  amon 
classes,  which  the  statesmen  of  the  age  too  mnc 
looked.  The  House  of  Commons  gave  frequeni 
ance  to  the  court,  and  often  compelled  James  t 
at  the  ver}'  moment  when  he  was  preaching  I 
trines  of  divine  right.  In  his  first  Parliament,  tl 
into  consideration  several  grievances,  such  as  j 
ance,  a  supposed  right  in  the  ofKcers  of  the  < 
seize  what  provisions  they  pleased,  at  any  prie 
no  price ;  another  was  the  right  of  granting  mon 
which  had  become  a  source  of  revenue  to  the  c 
cheating  the  country,  certain  persons  having  the 
poly  of  certain  manufiictures  and  articles  of  d 
consumption,  which  they  were  allowed  to  fur 
their  own  prices.  The  Commons  likewise  remoD 
against  pluralitiea  in  the  ehurch,  and  against  a  : 
of  oanfinn  which  the  king  and  the  churcn  tried  t 


HISTORY  OF  GREAT  BRITAIN  AND  IRELAND. 


without  their  consent.  In  1614,  they 
■•d  to  postpone  any  supply  till  their  grievances 
(drassea.  The  king,  in  his  turn,  threatened  to 
i  them  if  they  did  not  immediately  grant  a  sup- 
id  they  allowed  him  to  take  his  course,  which 
fill  his  eoffen.  These,  and  many  other  instauces 
reaiataBce^  should  have  given  warning  to  the 
They  were  the  shadows  of  coming  events,  and 
n  to  them  might  have  saved  the  bloodshed  and 
Ml  of  the  next  reign. 

ish  literature,  which  first  made  a  decisive  ad- 
a  the  reign  of  Elizabeth,  continued  to  be  culti- 
ith  great  success  in  the  reign  of  King  James. 
oeUenoe  of  the  language  at  this  time  as  a  medium 
ramre,  is  strikingly  shown  in  the  translation  of 
lie  now  executed.  It  is  also  shown  in  the  ad- 
^  dramatic  writings  of  Shakspeare,  and  in  the 
e  philosophic  works  of  Bacon.  The  inductive 
phy,  made  known  by  the  last  writer — ^namely, 
ide  of  reasoning  which  consists  in  first  ascertain- 
m,  and  then  imerring  conclusions  from  them — 
peeoliar  lustre  on  this  period  of  our  history. 
reat  praise  is  also  due  to  Napier  of  Merchiston, 
laody  for  the  invention  of  logariihmSf  a  mode  of 
CiDK  great  numbers,  essential  to  the  progress  of 
^      *  science. 


I. — HIS  OONTEXnONS   WITH    TUE   HOUSE  OP 
COMMONS. 


died  in  March  1(>25,  in  the  fifty-ninth 
his  age,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Charles, 
enty^five  years  of  age.  One  of  the  first  acts  of 
mg  king  was  to  marry  the  Princess  Henrietta 
daoghtinr  of  Henry  IV.  of  France,  and  a  Catholic, 
la  an  unfortunate  step  for  the  house  of  Stuart, 
two  eldest  sons  of  the  king  and  queen,  though 
sd  as  Protestants,  were  influenced  in  some  mea- 
r  the  religions  creed  of  their  mother,  so  that  they 
»lj  became  Catholics ;  and  this,  in  the  case  of 
mid  son,  James  II.,  led  to  the  fuQily  being  ex- 
from  the  throne. 

r  breaking  off  the  proposed  match  with  the  Prin- 
ary  of  Spain,  Britain  eagerly  threw  itself  into  a 
ith  that  country,  which  was  still  continued.  To 
the  expenses  of  that  contest,  and  of  a  still  more 
saary  one  into  which  he  was  driven  with  France, 
ig  applied  to  Parliament,  but  was  met  ther^  with 
ly  complaints  as  to  his  government,  and  such  a 
pint  of  popular  liberty,  that  he  deemed  it  neces- 
I  revive  a  practice  followed  by  other  sovereigns, 
oticularly  Elizabeth,  of  compelling  his  subjects 
It  him  gifts,  or,  as  they  were  called,  benevolences, 
■0  to  fumlah  ships  at  their  own  charge,  for  car- 
sn  the  wp*.  Such  expedients,  barely  tolerated 
the  happy  reign  of  Elizabeth,  could  not  be  en- 
in  this  age,  when  the  people  and  the  Parliament 

0  much  more  alive  to  their  rights.  A  general 
BsBt  spread  over  the  nation.  The  Commons,  see- 
tl  if  the  king  could  support  the  state  by  self-raised 
he  would  soon  become  independent  of  ail  control 
OB  Parliaments,  resolved  to  take  every  measure 
ir  power  to  check  liis  proceedings.  They  also 
d  him  respecting  a  right  which  ho  assumed  to 
on  his  subjects  upon  his  own  warrant,  and  to 
them  as  long  as  he  pleased.  Having  made  an 
J  into  the  ancient  powers  of  the  crown,  before 
Miwen  had  been  vitiated  by  the  tyrannical  Tudors, 
nbodicd  the  result  in  what  was  called  a  PifnTio.N 
OTTy  which  they  presented  to  him  as  an  ordinary 
'  nuher  as  a  second  Magna  Charta,  for  replacing 
ivilegea  of  the  people,  and  particuhirly  their  ex- 
n  from  arbitrary  taxes  and  imprisonment,  upon 

1  basis.  With  great  difficulty  Charles  was  pre- 
npon  to  give  his  sanction  to  this  bill  (16*28) ;  but 
potea  wiu  Parliament  soon  after  ran  to  such  a 
I  that  he  dissolved  it  in  a  fit  of  indignation,  re- 
l  Barer  more  to  call  it  together.   About  the  same 

'>  minister,  the  Duke  of  Buckingham, 
at  Portamoath,  and  Charles  resolved 
141 


thenceforward  to  be  in  a  great  measure  his  own  mini- 
ster, and  to  trust  chiefly  for  the  support  of  his  govern- 
ment to  the  English  hierarchy,  to  whose  faith  he  was 
a  devoted  adherent,  and  who  were,  in  turn,  the  most 
loyal  of  his  subjects.  His  chief  counsellor  was  I^aud, 
Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  a  man  of  narrow  and  bi- 
goted spirit,  and  who  made  it  his  duty  rather  to  in- 
crease than  to  diminish  the  ceremonies  of  the  English 
church,  although  the  tendency  of  the  age  was  decidedly 
favourable  to  their  diminution.  For  some  years  Charles 
governed  the  country  entirely  as  an  irresponsible  despot, 
levying  taxes  by  his  own  orders,  and  imprisoning  such 
persons  as  were  obnoxious  to  him,  in  utter  defiance  of 
the  Petition  of  Right.  The  Puritans,  or  church  re- 
formers, suffered  most  severely  under  this  system  of 
things.  They  were  dragged  in  great  nombcn  before 
an  arbitrary  court  called  tlie  Star-Cliamber,  which  pro- 
fessed to  take  cognisance  of  ofiences  against  the  king's 
prerogative,  and  against  religion ;  and  sometimes  men 
venerable  for  piety,  learning,  and  worth,  were  scourged 
through  the  sti*eets  of  London,  and  had  their  ears  cut 
off,  and  their  noses  slit,  for  merely  differing  in  opinion, 
on  the  most  speculative  of  all  subjects,  with  the  king 
and  his  clergy.  The  great  body  of  the  people  beheld 
these  proceedings  with  horror,  and  only  some  opportu- 
nity was  wanted  for  giving  expression  to  the  pubUc 
feeling. 

It  is  to  be  observed,  that  none  of  the  taxes  imposed  by 
Charles  were  ii.  themselves  burdensome ;  the  country 
was  then  in  a  most  prosperous  condition,  and  the  taxes 
far  less  in  proportion  to  every  man's  means  than  they 
have  ever  since  been.  It  was  only  to  the  nrinciple  oif 
their  being  raised  without  Parliamentaxy  sanction, 
which  had  formerly  been  so  necessary  a  control  on  the 
royal  power,  that  the  people  were  disposed  to  resist 
them.  It  may  easily  be  supposed,  that,  though  there 
might  be  a  general  disposition  to  resistance,  the  most 
of  individuals  would  not  like  to  be  the  first  to  come  for- 
ward for  that  purpose,  as,  in  such  an  event,  they  would 
have  been  sure  to  experience  the  severest  persecution 
from  the  court  At  length,  John  Hampden,  a  gentle- 
man of  Buckinghamshire,  resolved  to  undergo  any  per- 
sonal inconvenience  rather  than  pay  his  twenty  shillings 
of  ship-money.  The  case  was  tried  in  the  Exchequer 
(1637);  and  as  the  judges  were  then  dismissible  at 
the  royal  pleasure,  and  of  course  the  humble  servants 
of  the  king  in  every  thing,  Hampden  lost  his  cause.  He 
roused,  however,  more  •ffectually  than  ever,  the  atten- 
tion of  the  people  to  this  question,  and  means  were  not 
long  wanting  to  check  the  king  in  his  unfortunate  career. 

TROUIILES  IN  SCOTLAND — TUE  .NATIONAL  COVENANT. 

An  attempt  had  been  made  by  King  James  to  intro- 
duce the  Episcopal  Church  into  ScotUnd,  because  it 
was  thought  dangerous  to  the  English  church  that  a 
form  of  worship,  resembling  that  of  the  Puritans, 
should  be  permitted  to  exist  in  any  part  of  the  king's 
dominions.  The  same  object  was  prosecuted  with 
greater  zeal  by  King  Charles;  and  although  the  people 
were  generally  adverse  to  it,  he  had  succeeded,  after 
a  visit  which  he  paid  to  the  country  in  1633,  in  settling 
thirteen  bishops  over  the  church,  by  whom  he  hoped 
to  govern  the  clergy  as  he  did  those  of  England.  But 
when  he  attempted,  in  1637,  to  introduce  a  new  Book 
of  Common  Prayer  into  the  Scotch  churches,  the  spirit 
of  the  people  could  no  longer  be  kept  within  bounds. 
On  the  Liturgy  being  opened  in  the  principal  church 
at  Edinburgh,  the  congregation  rose  in  a  violent  tu- 
mult, and  threw  their  clasped  Bibles,  and  the  very 
stools  they  sat  on,  at  the  minister's  head ;  and  it  was 
not  till  the  wiiole  were  expelled  by  force,  that  the  wor- 
ship was  permitted  to  proceed.  It  was  found  necessary, 
by  the  Scottish  state-officers,  to  withdraw  the  obnoxious 
Liturgy,  till  they  should  consult  the  king,  who,  not 
dreading  any  mischief,  gave  orders  that  it  should  be 
used  as  he  had  formerly  directed,  and  that  the  civil 
force  should  be  employed  in  protecting  the  clergymen. 
It  was  found  quite  impossible  to  obey  biich  an  order  in 
the  face  of  an  united  people,  who,  by  committees  as- 


INFOBMATION  fOR  THE  VEOOM. 


dbfldy  Misr,  wko  mM  aol  abow  a  wade  old.    Hmbj 

Bdwafd  to  tint  infiuit  queen,  hf  wtiuh  am  eelenlstod 
tinl  two  hftttilir  T*^t^<«"f  elioiiM  be  united  uder  one 
•OTOtdgnty,  and  the  Proteetant  Chnzeh  in  Kngiand  be 

Moooited  bva  ■m"«i^»'  ettaWiahnittnt  in  Seotland.  Thia 
projeely  bowerer,  was  naiited  bj  the  Seota^  of  whom 
TO^  few  aa  yet  were  ineUnad  to  the  Prataatant  doetrinea. 
Hraiy,  enraged  at  their  heiitatien,  aent  a  fleet  and. 
araqr,  in  15^  to  inflict  Tengeanoe  upon  theok  The 
Soota  endorod  with  great  patmDoe  the  burning  of  tbeir 
capital  oitgr,  and  many  otMr  doTaatatiooa,  bat  atill  re- 
mad  the  BMteh.  The  goTemment  of  SooUand  was  now 
diiafly  in  the  handa  of  Cardinal  Beaton,  a  man  of  bold 
and  deeiaiTe  intoUeot,  who  tfiakwitly  applied  himaelf  to. 
aappreai  the  reforming  preaahers,  ajid  recarded  the 
Sanah  matdi  aa  likely  to  brin^  abont  the  deatmetion 
of  ma  ral^gioii.  O 

IDWABD  yii—^sataaa  mabt. 


Henry  died,  January  28, 1547,  leaTing  the  throne  to 
hia  only  aoo,  a  bor  of  ten  yeara  of  ^ge,  who  waa  inmie- 
diately  nroaaimea  king  under  the  title  of  Eowabd  YI. 
The  Duke  of  Someraet,  maternal  unele  to  the  youQg 
king^  beoame  aqpreme  ruler  under  the  title  of  Pioteo- 
tor,  and  eontinned  to  maintain  the  Proteatant  doetrinea. 
Under  thia  reign,  the  ehureh  of  Kngiand  aaannied  ita 
preaent  form,  and  the  Book  of  Common  Prayer  waa 
eompoaed  nearly  aa  it  now  exiata.  Somerael  being  re- 
aolTod  to  cfbet,  if  pomible,  the  matdi  between  Edward 
VL  and  Mary  of  Seotland,  invaded  that  country  in 
antamn  1547,  and  waa  met  at  Muaeelbui]^  by  a  large 
amiy  wnder  thegoTemor,the  Eaiiof  Arran.  Though 
the  oeotdi  were  animated  \in  bitter  animoaity  againat 
the  Bngflah,  againat  their  rranon,  and  aaainat  the  oh* 
Jeet  of  their  expedition,  thinr  did  not  ftpt  with  their 
tMual  rtaolution,  but  were  defeated,  ana  puraned  with 
wtmk  tibai^biiiet,  Findmg  them  atill  ohalinato  in  relua- 
u^  to  tjtw  up  their  queen,  Someraet  laid  waato  a  great 
part  oftheoountry,  and  then  retired.  Prenoaatot^ 
period,  Curdinal  Beaton  had  been  muMinitnd  by  pri- 
Tato  enemiee ;  but  the  Scotch  were  encouraged  to  per- 
BOTere  by  the  court  of  France,  to  which  they  now  aent 
the  young  queen  for  protection. 

In  the  reiffn  of  Edward  VI.  the  government  was 
conducted  mildly,  uutil  tho  Protector  Somerset  was 
degraded  from  his  authority  by  the  rising  influence  of 
Dudley,  Duke  of  Northumberland,  who  caused  him  soon 
after  to  be  tried  and  executed.  Northumberland,  who 
was  secretly  a  Roman  Catholic,  was  not  so  mild  or 
popular  a  ruler.  Yet,  throughout  the  whole  reign  of 
Edwwrd  VI.,  which  was  terminated  by  his  death  on  the 
6th  of  July  1553,  at  the  early  age  of  sixteen,  no  reli- 
^ous  party  was  persecuted,  except  those  who  denied 
the  fundamental  doctrines  of  the  Christian  religion.  It 
would  have  been  well  for  the  honour  of  a  church  which 
has  produced  man  v  great  men,  and  to  which  the  modem 
world  is  indebted  for  the  very  existence  of  Christianity, 
if  it  had  not  been  tempted  after  this  period  to  com- 
mence a  very  different  course  of  action.  The  crown 
now  belonged  by  birthright  to  Mary,  the  eldest  daughter 
of  Henry  vIII.,  who  was  a  zealous  Catholic.  North- 
umberland, however,  anumtng  the  illegitimacy  of  that 
princeas  and  her  sister  Elizabeth,  set  up  as  queen  the 
Lady  Jane  Grey,  who  was  descended  from  a  younger 
sister  of  King  Henry,  and  who  had  been  married  to  a 
son  of  the  Duke  of  Northumberland.  Lady  Jane  was 
the  moot  beautiful,  most  intelligent,  and  mont  amiable 
of  all  the  females  who  appear  in  the  history  of  England. 
Though  only  seventeen,  8he  was  deeply  learned,  aud  yet 
preserved  ail  the  unaffected  graces  of  character  proper 
to  her  interesting  ase.  Unfortunatoly,  her  futher-in- 
law  Northumberl  *na  was  so  much  uisliked,  that  the 
Catholics  were  enabled  to  displace  her  from  the  throne 
in  eight  days,  and  to  sot  up  in  her  stead  the  Princeas 
Hwy.  Northumberland,  Lady  Jane,  and  her  husband, 
GuUdfbrd  Lord  Dudley,  were  all  beheaded  by  that  sa- 
m  priaeeas,  who  aoon  after  took  steps,  for  restoring 
GathoiJe  religion,  and  manned  PluUp  11^  King  m 

136 


Spain»  hi  ogdar  to  aiiamlbw  1 
taataat  interaat    Maiy  aa]       oaaA 
froaa  her  Protaatanf  wMtOm^  -ad  baiqf 
aoapiflionofharaiatMrEhaah       who  pioHwifl 
formed  fiOth,  but  took  ao  pi        {aiaat  bar,  apt 
oo  the  point  of  ordprlog  htt  w  wJEoaatioii  aki 
aa  ahe  had  rephMod  the  OatboHo  qpataoy  and  i 
aaif  ha  poaaesston  of  auAeieiit  power,  aha  t 
oarear  of  peraeeutkm  whieh  haa  randarad  bar 
infamooa.  Five  out  of  fonrtaan  Proteatart 
eluding  the  revared  namea  of  Ckaiiiiiar« 
Ridley,  ware  eomoiitted  to  the  flamaa  aa  1 
during  the  enaning  pari  of  her  raiga»  whiah  ww 
by  her  death,  Noranber  17,  155^  BMi^rtfnm 
drad  paraona  aolfored  in  the  aaoM  maoBMr*  Tbaaa  ai 
did  not  take  plaaa  without  azaiting honor  in  thai 
of  Eiwliihmeii  ib  general,  inelnding  avani  ma^yC 
lica;  but  the  loyal  authority  waa  at  all  tbaaa  tea  I 
under  this  line  of  prinoea  to  allow  of  afhetoal  nriai 
Sueh  a  paraeeution,  howerar,  natoial^ftsad  fm.\ 
mmdaofthe  Britiah  Proteetanto  •  hatadilafy  ~ 
for  the  naaM  of  Catholie,  whiah  baa  iai  ito 
produetiro  of  many  retaUatorr  psn 
equally  to  bo  lamented.  In  the  niter  pari 
she  waa  drawn  by  her  hnaband  into  a 
of  whieh  tiio  only  eflbot  waa  the  kaa  of 
of  the  Frendi  poaaessiona  of  the  aoverrigBa 
The  Bataiml  aoumeaa  of  Ifafy^  temper  wi 
by  thia  disgraeoAil  event,  aa  wall  aa  bj  bar 
abildren,  and  ahe  died  m  a  atato  Of  giaal 

EUZABSni^— MART,  QUIBf  OP 

nf  aooiLAinx 

A  more  anapieioua  aoenaopenadfor  BogiBadlBl 
aocaasion  of  KijmBnrB,a  prinesai  of  great  natita^ ' 
of  mind,  and  who  had  been  mudi  improvad  hf  i 
si^,  baring  bean  kept  in  priaon  during  tltowbola] 
ofheraiBter.  Fkomtnepeenliar  eirenmatanaaaafl 
beth'a  birth,  her  right  of  aneeeasioa  waa  dsBJailyj 
the  Catholiea  at  home  and  abroad.  Thia 
aidered  Hary,  Queen  of  Scots,  who  waa  deao 
the  eldest  sister  of  Henry  VIII.,  and  had  been 
up  in  the  Catholie  faith  at  the  court  of  Fraaee^aai 
legitimato  sovereign.  Elizabeth  had  no  support  ia  \ 
quarter,  except  among  her  Protestant  subjeeta.  Tli 
Pope  issued  a  bull,  which,  directly  or  indirectly,  M 
nounced  her  an  usurper,  and  gave  permission  to  M 
subjects  to  remove  her  from  the  throne.  The  eomi  i 
France  professed  to  consider  the  Queen  of  SeoCa,  lA 
had  recently  been  married  to  the  Dauphin,  aa  th 
Queen  of  EngUnd.  Under  these  eircumstanees^  EHh 
beth  found  no  cliance  of  safety  except  in  restoriag  atti 
maintaining  the  Protestant  religion  in  her  owa  iiiiiiaiii 
aud  in  seeking  to  support  it  in  all  others  whara  wk 
people  were  favourable  to  it.  The  Scottish  natios  baim 
now  engaged  in  a  struggle  with  their  regent,  Maatj  i 
Guise,  in  behalf  of  Protestantism,  ElizaMth  ^ail^  m 
ceded  to  a  proposal  made  by  the  nobles  of  thai  aomlq 
and  sent  a  party  of  troops,  by  whoee  assiatanfa  the  n 
formed  religion  was  estabiisJied  (1560).  In  brlaginj 
about  this  change,  the  chief  native  leaders  were  Jaaa 
Stewart,  a  natural  son  of  King  James  V.,  and  Jali 
Knox,  who  had  once  been  a  friar,  but  was  now  a  Plea 
testaiit  preacher.  Ana  natural  consequence  of  the  al 
li^iation  which  the  English  queen  had  conferred  upai 
the  Scottish  reformers,  slie  acquired  an  iuflueooe  ota 
the  country  which  was  never  altogether  lost. 

About  the  time  when  tlie  Scotti«h  Parliament  wa 
ostabli»liiug  tho  refonued  religion,  Maiy  of 
brvaihed  her  last,  leaving  the  country  to  be 
by  tlie  reforming  nobles.  Her  daughter,  the 
Scots,  now  eighteen  years  of  age,  and  the  mo 
ful  woman  of  her  time,  had  in  1559  become  the  qi 
consort  of  France ;  but,  in  consequence  of  the  dea 
her  husband,  she  was  next  year  left  without  aay  pal 
tical  interest  in  that  oountry.  She  aaeordiaglyy  li 
August  1561,  returned  to  Scotland,  and  aaavMd  III 
sovereignty  of  a  oountry  which  waa  diisflj  ttidar  Ih 
rule  of  fierce  nobles,  and  where  the  pcofH  ^^^^  4 


HISTORY  OF  GREAT  BRITAIN  AND  IRELAND. 


,  and  did  aome  injury  to  the  king*s  cause  in 
itriea.  After  spending  alniut  three  months  in 
;h,  QuurieB  was  suddenly  called  away  in  con- 
of  intelligeiice  whieh  reached  him  from  Ire- 

vd  policy  already  mentioned,  by  which  large 
of  Ireland  were  depopulated,  and  then  planted 
oies  of  English  and  Scotch  settlers,  had  been 
i  daring  the  reign  of  Charles.  In  addition  to 
other  local  causes  of  complaint,  the  state  of 
ris  one  which  pervaded  nearly  the  whole  coun- 
was  alwa}-s  becoming  more  and  more  impor- 
bough  the  reformed  uith  had  been  established 
7  a  century,  it  had  made  little  progress  except 
be  English  settlers.  The  greater  part  of  the 
and  also  of  the  lower  oiSers,  were  still  at- 
» the  ancient  creed ;  and  a  Catholic  hierarchy, 
I  by  tlie  Pope,  and  supported  by  the  people, 
as  much  respect  and  obedience  as  when  that 
was  countenanced  by  the  state.  The  refusal 
ixholics  to  take  the  oath  of  supremacy,  which 
•ted  the  king  to  possess  a  right  which  their 
1^  them  to  belong  to  the  Pope,  necessarily 
,  tiMEm  from  all  branches  of  the  public  service. 
tvt  also  penal  laws  against  the  profession  of 
iBy  and  a  severe  court  of  Star>Chamber  to 
EM  into  execution.  Thus  situated,  the  Irish 
I  kad  two  strong  motives  to  mutiny — a  confi- 
thcir  numbers,  and  a  constant  sense  of  suffer- 
r  the  government. 

13,  the  Earl  of  Strafford  was  appointed  viceroy 
id.  His  sovemment  was  vigorous,  and  those 
■»  whieh  he  thought  proper  to  patronise,  flou- 
mder  it;  but  his  great  aim  was  to  make  tho 
obita,  and  he  rather  subdued  than  conciliated 
ditf  mint.  When  simimoncd  in  1640  to  attend 
I  in  England,  he  left  the  Irish  government  in 
bcff  Sir  William  Parsons  and  Sir  John  Borlase, 
jnstices.  Inunediately  after  his  departure, 
it  which  he  thought  he  had  quelled  began  to 
ir,  being  encouraged  both  by  his  absence,  and 
neeesB  which  the  Scottish  Covenanters  had 
seed  in  a  war  against  religious  restraint.  A 
acy,  involving  most  of  the  country  without  the 
idmdoding  many  persons  within  it,  v^ns  formed 
mder  the  direction  of  a  gentleman  named 
Moore,  who  possessed  many  qualities  calculated 

■  him  to  the  people.  Some  circumstances  ex- 
he  nspicion  of  the  Protestants;  and,  among 
die  return  of  several  officers  who  had  been  iu 
Ties  of  the  King  of  Spain,  under  pretence  of 
iif  for  the  Spanish  army.  But  the  apparent 
Bbnr  of  the  country  battled  all  scrutiny. 
23d  of  October  1641,  being  a  market  day,  was 
a  far  the  capture  of  Dublin  Castle.    During  the 

■  day,  nothing  had  occurred  to  alarm  the  autho- 
In  the  evening  of  the  2'2d,  the  conspiracy  was 

idhr  diseoveredy  and  measures  were  taken  to 
NihliB ;  bnt  a  civil  war  raged  next  morning  in 
lad  needily  spread  over  the  country.  The  de- 
St  Phelim  O'Neill,  and  the  other  leaders  of  the 
tSoOj  ma  simply  pohtical.  They  conceived  the 
food  one  for  striking  a  blow  against  the  govem- 

■  the  Scots  had  done ;  and  their  conduct  was  in 
iHl  characterised  by  lenity.  They  could  not, 
ff  allay  the  hatred  with  which  the  Catholics 
■poB  their  adversaries ;  and  a  spirit  of  revenge 
It  among  their  followers,  which  was  aggravated 
t  ootrue,  when  they  hesird  that  the  conspiracy 
Vfcred  in  Dnblin.    The  spirit  of  retaliation  was 

political  wrongs,  unfeelingly  inflicted,  were, 
the  case,  ferociously  avengf  d.  The  massacre 
MBse  number  of  I*rotestants  held  forth  an 
■MB  of  the  effects  which  oppressive  laws  pro- 
1  tilt  human  passions.  The  government  rather 
Aid  than  alleviated  the  evil,  by  offering  the 
rf  afl  in  rebellion  to  those  who  should  aid  in 
g  thoB  to  obedtenoe.  This  drove  the  insurgents 
and  postponed  the  complete  extinction 
143 


of  the  ^-ar  for  several  years.  It  is  to  be  remarked, 
that,  though  the  Iritih  were  struggling  for  both  national 
and  religious  freedom,  they  gained  no  s^-mpathy  from 
the  patriots  of  Britain,  who,  on  the  contrary,  urged  the 
king  to  suppress  the  rebellion,  being  afraid  that  a  reli- 
gious toleration  in  Ireland  would  l^  inconsistent  with 
the  same  privilege  in  their  own  country.  The  Scottish 
Covenanters,  themselves  so  recently  emancipated  from 
a  restraint  ui>on  their  consciences,  contributed  ten 
thousand  troops  to  assist  in  restoring  that  restraint  upon 
the  Irish. 

THE  CIVIL  WARi 

It  was  generally  allowed  by  moderate  people,  that  in 
the  autumn  of  1641,  at  which  time  the  Ubours  of  tho 
Parliament  had  continued  one  year,  the  king  had 
granted  redress  of  all  the  abuses  for  which  the  earlier 
part  of  his  reign,  and  the  British  constitution  in  general, 
were  blameable.  Unfortunately,  the  character  of  the 
king  for  fidelity  to  his  engagements  was  not  sufficiently 
h?gn  to  induce  the  leaders  of  the  House  of  Commons  to 
depend  upon  him :  they  feared  that,  if  they  once  permitted 
him  to  resume  his  autliority,  there  would  be  no  longer 
any  safety  for  them ;  and  they  deemed  it  necessary 
that  things  should  be  prevented  from  falling  into  their 
usual  current.  They  Uierefore  prepared  a  paper  called 
The  Remmutranee^  containing  an  elaborate  view  of  all 
the  gricA-anccs  that  had  ever  existed,  or  could  now  be 
supposed  to  exist ;  and  this  thev  not  only  presented  to 
the  king,  but  disseminated  widely  among  the  people, 
with  whom  it  served  to  increase  the  prevailing  disaf- 
fection. 

From  this  time  it  was  seen  that  the  sword  could 
alone  decide  the  quarrel  between  tho  king  and  the 
Parliament  Charles  made  an  unsuccessful  attempt 
(January  4,  1 64*2)  to  seize  six  of  the  most  refractory 
members,  for  the  purpose  of  striking  terror  into  the 
rest.  This  served  to  widen  the  breach.  In  the  early 
part  of  1 642,  the  two  parties  severally  employed  them- 
selves in  preparing  for  war.  Yet,  even  now,  the  king 
granted  some  additional  concessions  to  his  opponents, 
it  was  at  last,  upon  a  demand  of  the  Parliament  fur 
tho  command  of  the  army — a  privilege  always  before 
and  since  resting  with  the  croi^-n — that  he  finally  broke 
off  all  amicable  intercourse.  He  retired  with  his  family 
to  York. 

The  Parliament  found  its  chief  support  in  the  mer- 
cantile classes  of  London  and  of  the  eastern  coast  of 
England,  which  was  then  more  devoted  to  trade  than 
the  west,  and  in  the  Puritan  party  generally,  who  were 
allied  intimately  ^nth  the  Presbyterians  of  Scotland,  if 
not  rapidly  becoming  assimilated  with  them.  Charles, 
on  the  other  hand,  looked  for  aid  to  the  nobility  and 
gentry,  who  were  able  to  bring  a  considerable  number 
of  dependants  into  the  field.  The  Parliamentary  party 
was  by  tho  other  styled  Roundheadsy  in  consequence  of 
their  wearing  short  hair;  while  the  friends  of  the 
Parliament  bestowed  upon  their  opponents  the  epithet 
of  Malignants,  The  Royalists  were  also,  in  the  field, 
termed  Cavaliers,  from  so  many  of  them  being  horse- 


men. 


On  the  25th  of  August  the  king  erected  his  standard 
at  Nottingham,  and  soon  found  himself  at  the  head  of 
an  army  of  ten  thousand  men.  Tho  Parliament  had 
superior  forces,  and  a  better  supply  of  arms ;  but  both 
parties  were  very  ignorant  of  the  art  of  war.  The  king 
commanded  his  own  army  in  person,  and  the  Parliamen- 
tary forces  were  put  under  the  charge  of  the  Earl  of 
Essex. 

The  first  battle  took  place,  October  23,  at  Edgehill, 
in  Warwickshire,  where  the  king  had  rather  the  ad- 
vantage, though  at  tho  expense  of  a  great  number  of 
men.  Ho  gained  some  further  triumphs  before  the 
end  of  the  campaign,  but  still  could  not  mnster  so  large 
an  army  as  the  Parliament.  During  the  winter,  the 
parties  opened  a  negotiation  at  Oxford;  but  the  de- 
mands of  the  Parliament  being  still  deemed  too  great 
by  the  king,  it  came  to  no  socMssful  issue. 

Early  in  the  ensuing  season,  the  king  gained  some 


CI1AMB£RS*S  INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


and  TexAtioQs  nature,  were  enforced  with  great  severity. 
It  may  afford  some  idea  of  the  barbarity  of  the  age,  and 
of  the  terror  in  which  the  Church  of  Rome  was  now 
held,  that,  during  the  reign  of  Elizabeth,  one  hundred 
and  eighty  persona  suffered  death  by  the  btwa  affecting 
CathoUe  pnests  and  converts. 

WAR  i:f  THE  IIETHEBLAIVDS. 

For  more  tlian  a  century  after  the  Reformation, 
religion  was  the  real  or  apparent  motive  of  the  most 
remarkable  transactions  in  European  history.  It  is 
scarcely  necessary  to  point  out  that  this  sentiment, 
though  in  general  the  purest  by  which  human  beings 
can  be  actuated,  is,  like  all  the  other  higher  sentiments 
of  our  nature,  when  offended  or  shocked,  capable  of 
rousing  the  inferior  sentiments  into  great  activity. 
In  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth  centuries,  European 
society  was  comparatively  unenlightened  and  barba- 
rous ;  we  therefore  find  that  variances  of  opinion  re- 
specting religion  were  then  productive  of  far  fiercer 
feelings  than  they  are  in  our  own  more  humane  age. 
The  Protestant  hereby,  as  it  was  termed  by  the  Catho- 
lics, was  also  a  novelty,  the  remote  effects  of  which  no 
roan  could  foretell ;  it  was  mingled  vrith  political  ques- 
tions, and  by  some  princes  was  supposed  to  forebode  a 
general  revolt  against  monarchical  authority.  We  are 
not  therefore  to  wonder  that  great  cruelties  were  com- 
mitted, either  by  the  Catholics  in  seeking  to  support 
the  Church  of  Rome,  or  by  the  Protestants  in  endoa- 
vburing  to  ensure  themselves  against  a  renewal  of  se- 
verities inflicted  by  the  opposite  party.  Nor  is  it  necea- 
sary,  in  the  present  age,  that  the  adherents  of  either 
faith  should  retain  any  feeling  of  displeasure  against 
the  otlier,  on  account  of  barbarities  which  took  their 
rise  in  the  ignorance  and  rudeness  of  a  former  period, 
and  of  which  tlie  enlightened  of  both  parties  have  long 
since  disapproved. 

In  the  Netherlands,  which  formed  part  of  the  domi- 
nions of  Philip  II.  of  Spain,  the  reformed  faith  had 
made  considerable  advances.  Philip,  like  other  Catho- 
lic princes,  entertained  the  idea  that  this  new  creed, 
bokides  being  cundfinnnble  an  a  heresy  and  an  offence 
n«;aiui»t  the  Di-ity,  tended  to  make  men  independent  of 
their  rulei*s.  Fimlin;?  the  people  obhtinate  in  their  pn)- 
fensiouH,  he  comnnMU'i-d  :i  war  with  the  Netherlanders, 
for  the  purpose  of  eiiforcinp  liis  authority  over  their 
conseiences.  This  war  lasted  about  twenty  years ;  for 
the  Netherlaiiders,  th«>u<^ii  a  nation  of  no  ^reat  strength, 
fouj^ht  like  desperate  men,  and  endunMl  the  most  dreud- 
lul  hardbhi])s  rather  than  submit.  The  chief  leader  in 
this  war  of  liberiy  was  William,  Prince  of  Orange,  one 
of  the  purest  and  most  courap^eous  patriots  that  ever 
breathed.  Klizah««th  could  not  help  wish  in;;  well  to  the 
Netherlanders,  thwiitjh  for  a  Un\ii  time  \wr  dread  of 
Spain,  then  one  of  tiie  j;reatest  powers  in  Eumpe,  pr«»- 
ventcd  her  fri»m  opi-nly  a!i**istin};  them.  At  the  same 
time,  about  two  miiiionii  of  the  ptMiple  of  France  were 
Protestants  or,  as  thi-y  were  then  calkvl,  HuguenotM, 
\tho  acted  uImj  fur  tin*  p'ueral  Protestant  eau«*e  with 
hs  much  enerj;y  as  the  ^reat  streui^th  of  the  French 
},;overnment  would  {lermit.  Fli^^abeth  at  length,  in  1.*>7M, 
extended  an  open  prwt«'efioii  t'l  the  Netherland»Ts,  ex- 
eu!»ing  herf>vlf  to  Phiiip  by  statin.;  her  fear  that  they 
would  otherwise  throw  themselves  into  the  arms  of 
I'rance.  The  uorthem  proviiio«'s  were  thus  enabled  to 
a-vscrt  their  indi-pt-ndcnce,  and  to  form  the  country 
which  has  since  been  called  Holland. 

i>i:.\rii  OF  MAUY,  «iri.K\  or  .vots. 

The  C?alh<ilii'  pdwrrs  t)f  tli<*  ontinent  f<»nncd  many 
lichemes  lor  ann'iviiii;  i»r  dttlirnuin-^  Kii.'.aheth ;  ami 
the  inipriHiiued  Soi'tli>-h  l^iieeu,  or  her  adii«*rents,  were 
generally  eonci-ni-<l  ni  tlu-m.  The  Kin;;  of  Spain,  de- 
termined at  h-i!^ih  iMipakea  (hcisive  etrtn-t,ooinini'nee«l 
the  pn-p:irati  Ml  <'f  a  \asl  tln-t,  which  he  tenned  the 
Invineihl'-  Aruia<l.i,  and  with  uhii-h  he  de^i'^ned  to  in- 
vaiie  the  l'.!ij'i»-li  ^li'-r'--.  10i:/.ab-'rh,  |ii-r  ministers,  jind 
Dcople,  In'iii-ld  th<-  i-r'-i'.krit-.iifi-.  With  mneh  cmn  rn,  and 
mr  fears   Hvrv  i;i<.'j'e;i.-ed   by  the  plots  which  were 


incessantly  forming  amongst  her  Catbolie  mbjcett 
behalf  of  the  Queen  of  Scots.  An  act  was  passed 
daring  that  any  person,  by  or  for  whom  any  plot  alio 
be  made  against  the  Queen  of  England,  should  ba  gni 
of  treason.  When,  soon  after,  a  gentleman  nan 
Babington  formed  a  conspiracy  for  assaasinatang  Eli 
beth  and  pUciug  Mary  on  the  throne,  the  latter  qa 
became  of  course  liable  to  the  punishment  for  txvM 
although  herself  innocent  She  was  subjected  to  •  i 
mal  trial  in  her  prison  of  Fotheringay  Casttey  and  foi 
guilty.  Elizabeth  hesitated  for  some  time  to  atriko 
unoffendinff  and  unfortunate  person,  related  to  ba 
blood,  and  ber  equal  in  rank.  But  at  length  tears 
herself  got  the  better  of  her  sense  of  justioey  and 
may  be  added,  of  her  good  sense,  and  ahe  nvo  1 
sanction  to  an  act  which  leaves  an  ineffaoesLlo  at 
upon  her  memory.  On  the  7th  of  February  15 
5lary,  Queen  of  Scots,  was  beheaded  in  the  hall 
the  eaatle,  after  a  confinement  of  more  than  eighn 
yean. 

Jainea  VI.  was  now,  after  a  turbulent  mtoority, 
possession  of  tlie  reins  of  government  in  Seotland,  1 
with  little  real  power,  being  a  dependant  and  peoaia 
of  Elizabeth,  and  at  the  same  time  much  controlled 
the  clergy,  who  asserted  a  total  independence  of 
teraporaiauthority,  and  considered  themselves  as  i 
subjects  alone  of  the  divine  founder  of  the  Chriit 
faith.  James  made  many  attempts  to  assert  a  omM 
over  the  church  like  that  enjoyed  by  the  Kngliah  i 
narch,  and  also  to  introduce  an  Episcopal  hierare 
but  never  could  attain  more  than  a  mere  ahadow  of 
object.  The  chief  influence  he  possessed  arose  fk 
his  being  regarded  as  heir-presumptive  to  tho  Engl 
crown. 

SPA.NISII  ARMAnA. — ^BEBELUO^S  IN  IRELAXD. 

In  1588,  the  Spanish  Armada,  consisting  of  a  hundi 
and  thirty  great  vessels,  with  twenty  thousand  li 
forces  on  board,  set  sail  against  £lnglaiid,  while  thii 
four  thousand  more  Und  forces  prei>ared  to  join  tr 
the  Netherlands.  Amidst  tlie  consternation  which  p 
vailed  in  England,  active  measures  were  taken  to 
fend  the  country ;  thirty  vessels  prepared  to  meet  I 
Annada,  and  another  fleet  endeavoured  to  block  up  i 
Netherlands  forces  in  port.  The  command  was  tali 
by  Lord  Howard  of  Efhn<;ham.  Troopn  were  a 
mustered  ou  land  to  repel  the  invaders.  The  Engl 
fleet  attacked  the  Armada  in  the  Channel,nnd  was  foil 
to  have  a  considerable  advantage  in  the  lightness  i 
luanageableness  of  the  vessels.  As  the  Armada  iai 
alouj:,  it  was  infested  by  the  English  in  the  rear,  a 
by  a  series  of  desultory  attacks,  so  damaged  as  to 
obliged  to  take  refu<;e  tm  the  ctiast  of  Zi^nland.  1 
Duke  of  I'arma  now  declined  to  embark  the  Nctherlai 
forces,  and  it  was  resolved  by  the  admiral,  that  tl 
Bhouhl  return  to  Spain  by  s:(iiiii:;  round  tho  Orkneys, 
the  winds  were  contrary  to  their  passage  directly  b* 
Accordingly,  they  pr«>ceedetl  north wanl,  and  uere  i 
lowed  by  the  Km^lish  fltet  as  far  as  I'lambomugh'he 
where  tln'y  were  terribly  shattered  by  a  storm.  Sev< 
teen  of  the  ships,  having  ouoo  men  on  board,  werec 
away  on  the  Western  Isles  und  the  coat>t  of  Ireland. 
the  wlnjje  Armada,  tifty-thn-e  phips  only  returned 
Spain,  and  these  in  a  wnrtched  condition.  The  a 
men,  as  well  as  the  woldiers  who  reinainetl,  were 
overcome  with  haniships  and  fatigue,  nn<i  m>  diKpinI 
by  their  di>«comtiture,  that  they  tilled  all  Spain  wilhj 
counts  of  the  de>pi'r:ite  valour  of  the  Kngli^^h,  and 
the  tempestuous  violence  of  that  ocean  by  which  til 
were  surrounded. 

Though  the  rr<»te«;tant  church  had  meanwhile  be 
<Mtabli*.lied  in  Ireland,  the  great  bulk  of  the  {leople  cc 
tiiiued  to  U'  Roman  Catholii*^.  The  native  nidoncsa 
the  people  amlthi  ir  eh)efH,and  the  dis^'cuitentoccaitinn 
by  what  was  ci>nsiileretl  as  n  fon'ign  church  e^tablii 
II II  lit,  rendereil  the  country  turbulent  and  difticull 
govern.  Sir  John  iVrnn,  the  dt>puty,  pro|Hi»ed  to  ii 
|<rii\e  tlin  ci>untry  by  public  workd  and  EngliiUi  law 
but  it  was  thought  iujunoua  to  England  to  improve  t 


uodciha  tmihuity  af  Uin  Ebg. 


■  ■'hiia  KlltihMH  faicinunl  in 
.  I«UM  noM  ddIkI  liir  fnmi. 
r  rally  jDui  ib*  liarl  ilinwn  4 
/   (n  uinnl  kff^cUDiu,   out 


BBES'.'rii:,:, 


sr 

MM  MM)  licr  n< 


1  iluUB jlr  lof^n  him.  imtil 

nU«  an  inninwitinn  KgkiiiKt 

of  lAfiifua,  ■liim  h*  tnt  omiKl,  cvn- 


1M mD  ftvia  llui  iin>"  I"  ■Iri'liiiu  ^-n^luully  In 

A«>d  apiritu 

iMHiuiti'wi  '-t  l(i)l),  •l»f»l1  inU'ft  dMD  by[Ki- 

-'      ■  ■  ■  ■  ' --."'h  beeinm  no  inuitli 


i<uu  »cl«l  u;oo  by  lb*  i< 

~    ~  opaHila}bl«illati<:TJv7*u>>i  {I 

■-    '  nOkln  w  luaUU. 

aid  •Ntendluta  intwiiriHa  Imt 
lerrftwiai  and  nnibr  Onbi, 
QifioidLA.  fUW«»,  w4  nvUdwr,  nriuiu  u^Umm 
ur  liH  uFiaim  oagB«»de*««  wntoal.  'Hi*  oiliHiav 
uT  Nurtli  Aoanck  inrB  m*  1— iimind.  AnrapM 
tbe  uxaniuits  ot  pnnte  istnianl^  ew  Mlcniiiia  i* 

^llicHr»UlMilJl^ail)PMUIMnWBW«Hil«BMfUlW» 

■■  nil<»MiarT,  tbn  M^-ldioT  of  Jfeafnncnlluid,  and  Ua 

'  huidaU*  abta-lnds  in  A/ha.    WIm  ki-aiUa 

'  1 1  Spain  hfima  nnra  opon.  Uw  Bo^tkh  iimiiihiiiIhh 

i  I'  nmrj  wien— Inl  atlaab  npui  liar  oubnaia*  la  Uia 

>>'-(.  IbA*,  anil  aJat  vpon  Ik*  Am**  of  niutllbMit  y^ 


WurK  !■■ 

i^Hct,  OB  a  NTMif*  br  1^  aAtt  *t  Uw  Amnda. 
mayaloiMl  btaaU  ikuilia  AiMialoaiif  DriUaoaw 

Uiw  — f  »M  frflKfJ  iBOiSMlaajapliWWI'wbivIl  bM 

biM  ■ir«ucbadnattc>l'i>>Mo'nnib7,  Indi  in|it«iwt 
la(  n*  MiJiiiuiiu  and  botplac  ll  toaantttna  tonifti 
LoviMlm,  ttwl  lla  miffai  wwU  bav*  in*(nvd  irWaTlNU 
!□>  halK  on  lUaporiiid  tt  oorbblajr,  cvm  alUiaBili 
Itluul  Dot  hno  ebanoiariKd  bji  any  olbM  gtoriow 
avoiit 


,  -J,>.i>.  laid,  a. 


—rJTtllinpi.ni.in 
jiiiviJ>-^r-i^ — hut  ri' 

,-i>..nhof' 

'■:'""'"'''."'".^';:i:S 

::,^ 

:.    Ih» 

, .  .1  Iv 

■■    !rfiva 
liliiW 

.  ..'.-Id 

"■■  ■■ 

/""■" 

^.ii.!    AMI,,'  .   ■ 

ill  »nil  llir  '■(>'. 
ft,nnt.,o-.n«ri.il.,ii. 

■  IT-  (.Wi  111  Vip- 
ilxjiopuUtiaeDf 

'imf  ■wli.litnoar 
■  v  couUiBBd  about 

Tli<>  •■urnmnr  lit  Klixklwlb,  hy  lurthrlglit,  «M  Juoi 
Vl.  ■:ir  ti«/ri.*sn(iiljU-il  Jihe).  1.  o»  EfniLAwn),  whoww 
now  amtm]  at  ihu  nrim*  uf  lifd,  and  had  bwu  roairUd 
f'tr  Boma  rum  lo  Uid  IMne«u  Amu  uf  Ocmnarll,  by 
wUom  bo  bad  tvi'  Mu,  Henry  uid  Chailbi.  and  on* 
dauglilnr  numcd  Elizabeth.  JaiDca  Immedkulf  r*- 
moved  In  Iiflndiin,  and  Dunmed  thn  jiDTtnmmsnl  Of 
l^Rbuid,  while  bii  nntEve  kinp;iliiin,  Ibonrh  thim  unlhid 
nndiir  Ihe  wnic  oovcn-ientji,  tiill  rrlaimd  iiaown  p»cn- 
initiWlioM.    At  tliB  diiggi-Mion  of  thn  llnjt,  who 

llll-rilT-.  ill.-  .iMllri.U..I)  „f  tho  tlK,  j,.uiilriBik 


CHAMBERS'S  INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


pose  of  putting  down  the  Indopcndcnt  party,  now  pre- 
dominant in  the  Kng;lish  Parliament.  With  some 
difliculty  (he  Duke  of  llamihon  and  others,  who  con- 
ducteti  this  nt'i^ftti:ition,  succeeded,  by  a  vot*?  of  tlie 
Se<ittish  I'Arliament,  in  raiding  au  army  of  1 '2,000  men, 
with  which  they  invaded  Kngland  in  the  summer  of 
lb'43.  Tlie  mure  zealtiuH  of  the  cleriiy  and  people  of 
Scotland  protected  against  au  enterprise,  which,  from 
ita  co-o])eratini;  with  UtiyaHstis  and  Episcopalians,  and 
not  perfectly  ensuring  tlie  ascendancy  of  the  Prei«by- 
teriaii  Church,  appeared  to  them  as  neither  deserving 
of  success  nor  likely  to  command  it.  As  the  3coJttish 
army  penetnited  the  western  counties,  parties  of  Pres- 
byterians and  Royalists  rose  in  diflerent  parts  of  Eng- 
land, and  for  some  timo  tlie  ascendancy  of  tiic  Inde- 
pendents seemud  to  be  in  considerable  peril.  But 
before  tlie  forces  of  the  enemy  could  be  bruught  toge- 
ther, Cromwell,  with  8U0U  veteran  troops,  attacked  and 
overthrew  Hamilton  at  Prestun,  while  Fairfax  put 
down  the  insurgents  in  Kent  and  Essex.  Hamilton 
was  himself  taken  ^irisoner,  and  very  few  of  his  troops 
ever  returned  to  their  own  countrv. 

While  Cromwell  was  em|il<»yed  in  suppressing  this 
insurrection,  and  in  restoring  a  friendly  guvernment  in 
Scotland,  the  Presbyterians  of  the  House  of  Commons, 
relieved  from  military  intimidation,  entered  upon  a 
new  negotiation  with  Cliarlcs,  which  was  drawing  to- 
wards M  hat  appeared  a  successful  conclusion — ^though 
tlie  king  secretly  designe«i  to  deceive  them, and  to  pur- 
sue other  means  for  an  effectual  restoration — when  the 
army  returned  to  I^ondou,  breathing  vengeance  against 
him  for  this  List  war,  of  which  they  considered  him  as 
the  author.  Finding  the  Parliament  in  the  act  of  vot- 
ing his  concessions  to  be  Mitisfactory,  Cromwell  sent 
two  rt*giments,  under  Colonel  Pride,  who  forcibly  ex- 
cluded from  it  about  two  hunilred  members  of  the 
Presb^'terLin  party  ;  a  transaction  remeuibered  by  the 
epithet  of  Pride's  Purgr,  The  remainder,  being  chiefly 
Indciiendents,  were  ready  t«)  givo  a  colour  of  law  to 

whatever  further  measun*  nii^^iit  he  dietateil   by  the  i  ami  a  few  other  of  his  cliief  adherents,  were  cxecutcd- 
military  li':i«ii'i*s.     Convincnl  <'f  the  utter  faithlevsiiess         During  the  pro^re^s  of  the  civil  war,  In'land  had 


therefore  no  enemy  could  depend  upon  him  in  ne;*oti^ 
tion.  In  pri\'ate  life  he  was  a  virtuous  man,  and  he  ii 
entitled  to  much  credit  for  the  taste  which  he  di^played 
in  the  encouragement  of  the  fine  arts.  Ho  left  three 
sons — Cliarles,  Prince  of  Wales ;  Jamev,  Duke  of  York^ 
afterwards  James  1 1. ;  and  Henry,  Duke  of  Gloucester, 
who  died  in  early  life.  Ho  also  left  several  daughtcx^ 
one  of  whom,  named  Elizabeth,  was  treated  with  much 
harshness  by  the  new  government,  and  died  not  loii{ 
after  him  in  prison. 

In  the  reign  of  Cliarles  I.,  the  cliief  literary  men 
were  Ben  Jonson  and  Philip  Maasinger,  dramatists,  and 
Samuel  Daniel,  Michael  Drayton,  and  William  Dmn^ 
mond,  poets.  The  most  eminent  philosophical  character 
was  Dr  William  Harvey,  who  discovered  the  circulation 
of  the  blood.  Elegant  architecture  was  now  for  tb^ 
iirst  time  introduced  into  private  buildingn.  The  kioc 
patronised  the  Dutch  artists,  Rubens  and  Vandyke,  anl 
collected  many  tine  pictures,  which  were  afterwards  sold 
by  his  enemies.  The  excise  and  the  tax  upon  landed 
property  were  introduced  by  the  Parliament,  in  order 
to  support  the  war  against  the  king.  When  the  Par- 
liamentary party  became  triumphant,  it  suppressed  the 
theatre,  which  was  not  again  set  up  till  the  restoratioa 
of  monarch  V. 

w 

THE  C0MM0yW£.\LTH. — SL'BJrOATIO.H  OF  IREL\XD  A.HD 

SCOTLAND. 

Though  the  execution  of  the  king  produced  a  con- 
siderable reaction  in  favour  of  royalty,  the  small  re* 
maining  part  of  the  House  of  Commons,  which  got  the 
ridiculous  nickname  of  the  Jiump,  now  established  % 
republic,  under  the  title  of  the  Commonwealth,  the 
executive  being  trusted,  under  great  limitations,  to  a 
council  of  forty-one  members^,  while  in  reality  Cromwril 
possessed  the  chief  intt nonce.  The  House  of  Peen 
was  voted  a  grievance,  and  abolished,  and  the  people 
were  declared  to  be  the  legitimate  source  of  all  iH)ver. 
Soon  after  the  king^s  death,  the  Duke  of  Hamilton, 


of  the  king,  ntid  tliat,  if  he  o.^ntiiiucd  to  live,  he  wuuld 
take  th';  i':irlie>t  npjuTtiiiiity  «'f  reveii;;iii;;  himsi-lf  for 


been  the  scene  of  alniust  ee;i5ielesrt  eontmtion  among  tha 
various  parties  of  the  Kliii;,  the  KiiLjlish  House  of  Com- 


what  hail  aln-ady  heen  d>»Me,  Croniwr!!  and  his  assii-  nitjiis,  and  the  Catliolies  none  of  which  could otfectuallj 
ciates  nsiilved  to  put  him  to  drath.  A  High  ('ourt  of  !  sujtpi'fss  the  r<'^t.  Tin*  must  remarkable  event  was  a 
Ju^>tio»',  a^.  it  uas  »r;iiled,  was  appulnteil  by  «'riliuanee,  I  secret  agreenn-nt  whieh  Charles  made,  in  l<i-l»i,  with 
cunsi-iini;of  a  liijuln  d  aiiil  thirty-thi'L'eprri'ons,  iKiUKil  i  the  Ilarl  of  (.i]anu»rgan,  to  ^■stabli^h  the  Catholic  reli- 
inditri'i'i'iitiy  fiMtii  thi'  Parlianirntf  the  army,  and  sueh  ,  gion  in  Ireland,  on  conditicu  that  its  partisans  should 


of  the  eitl/.eijs  as  wrrc  I.iidwii  t"  be  well  arlV-etiMl  ti»  the 
lnd('Hfn<l''iii  party.  Tins  ImhIv  N;\t  down  in  Wi-htniin- 
st» T  ll:ill  (.J.iiiiMry  *JH,  l*.'4.'»),  under  the  presidency  of 
a  b.'irrl--:i'r  ii:iiii'ii  HnuNliaw,  while  aiU'lijcr  iianifd 
C'lki-  neti'l  I-  "•nli«-iiiir  f<ir  tlio  p'rupli'  t.f  Eiiglaml. 
*'harli-»j,  m!:'i  li.id  l.si  ii  reip-iM-d  tn  St  Jaiiu":>'>  I'alaec, 
was  hr(>ii:;:.t  luf -P'  tliiscourr,  anil  aeeu>«'il  i»f  having 
wagi-'l  ;inil  reni-vv<il  ^\ar  upon  hiJi  pt-upli,  and  of  having 
atteuipN.'ii  t'»  <'-::il<li^h  twMnny  in  pLice  of  the  liinilrd 
regal  iiowt-r  witJi  whicti  he  li.ul  bi-eii  intru>ted.  He 
denie«l  the  aiithi-riry  «.if  Tli"i»ntiri.:iiiJ  proti>r>ii-d  a:;aiiist 
tlie  ^^h<l]•■  ol    till-    jTiiiTi  i!iiiL'"«.  lui   was    nevertheless 


fiiiind  guii:y  aiul  enu-l^'iuMiil  tn  dit*.     On  tht*  .'{Dili  <<f 

.lannarv,  hi-  u:is  aoennlini^iy  buhiaded  in  fn.nt  (»f  his  j  without  any  great  <lit!ieulty  in  as: 

p;tl:n*e  'f    Whiti-hall.      Tht*    pi-i»p|i«    wi-iv    in    g«-n<*ral     ('onimonwealtii.  One  (>f  his  nvtst 

hi.vrnj'.vtj'iu.U   at  this  ♦•vent;  but   ihev  i>ere  tm*  eU'rc- 

t'.:;iiiv  i,'  ;it  in  elieek  bv  the  arinv  to  have  anv  intlnenee 

in  prt-xriitiii'^  ir. 


assist  him  in  ])utting  «lowii  his  enoniies  in  Kn;;tand  and 
.'*^ci>tlaiid ;  a  tmnsaetion  which  ultimately  injured  his 
rt'puLition,  \\itliout  leadin:;  !•>  :inyM)lid advantage.  At 
tho  time  of  his  «'\ocnti<in,  the  Unyalists  weiv  in  c>>nsi- 
dfralihi  stri-nijth  under  tho  Duke  o\  i>rmond,  while 
Hugh  0'N«'ill  was  at  the  lu.-ad  of  a  large  party  of  Catho- 
lics, who  were  not  in<li.sposed  to  j«»iji  tlie  ttther  party, 
provided  tlu'y  ci>ulil  be  a<ssur('d  i»I  the  establishiuent  uf 
their  religion.  While  the  two  parties  in  union  could 
havf  ea^ily  rescued  the  country  fit.»m  the  English  con- 
nexion, Cn "in well  landed  (Auijust  1(;4!*)  with  1*2,000 
hor>e  an>l  f'«et,  and,  in  a  series  of  viot.iries  over  the 
scattered   forces  of  his  various  opp<nients,  succeeded 

asserting  the  .^wayof  tbs 

important  actions  wsi 

the  e;ii»tnre  of   l)i*oi;h«»da,  where  he  put  the  garriftoa 

and  a  mini  her  of  Catholic  priests  to  the  sword,  in  (trder 

to  strike  terror  into  tho  nation. 


rh.ii'lr-.  1.  wa«a  man  of  wjcuiitr  |„.i-<,,i,,  ,,f  til,,  iiii^jillj. 
f'\7A\  ai'.l  ft"  a  ;;r:ive  and  >nni(w|iai  invianeh-'ly  east  uf 
<-«iunti  :.-.ii.'i:,  lli'  had  ni»t  a  :;raei«»us  maniur,  but  jhih. 
M'-^iij  fciuliTalil'"  i!:j;iiity.  Ih- was  sineen-iy  attaeJH'd 
^^'  t"i«-  <ii;i:«'!i  ci  Kni^lattil,  t"i»r  whii'h  In*  jiu:;hr  be  enn- 
-'  Iii'-l  .1-  a  M'ariyr.  :, n.l  he  w.is  ablr  t<»  ri-asun  \ery 
acuti  iyin  t.iv<>iir«>t  tin;  ilivjih' ore^in  of  l!j»i-ei'paey.  The 
;:»:i«'r.ii  i  ji;;if>n  nt  iti<-l<rn  tiiih »  revpei*tin;r  hi>«  ]itilitieal 
eonduel  i.-  nii!;i\i-urali|f' ;  th<  ij:;h  tew  lifiiy  that  his  death 
was  a  Tn>i>-t  di>^'rtei  tnl  a*«  well  as  im]iruilcnt  act, on  the 
piit  i-f  th-ise  xvlhi  l.i'i'ii^iM  i:  abi-ut.  Tin- wi.irst  point  of 
•■•"  "hiiraeter  v;'»i  hi--  ii>ineerity  ;  In*  wa^prtine  to  u^iiig 


The  ]»i«iij'|.'  (if  Se»t]and,  who  had  h:u\  scarcely  any 
othor  nhjcor  in  the  civil  w.ir  than  the  estabii!«hnient  of 
thfir  favuuriteftirni  of  wnr^hip,  and  wore  sincere  friends 
t'j  a  limited  iiionarehy,  hnanl  of  the  •leat'j  uf  the  king 
with  the  greate>t  iiidi:;nation,  anil  ininii  diateiy  pri»- 
clainied  his  eldest  sun  Cliarles.  Karly  in  I  t'.'iO,  the  vimng 
niiiiiarch,  who  had  takfii  rt-fugi>  in  Holland,  M-nt  .NIoo- 
troso  with  a  small  force  tn  attnnpt  a  Cavalier  iii»inrroc- 
tion  in  Scotlantl;  but  this  noblnnan  bt-nig  taken  and 
)>iit  to  death,  Charles  found  it  necessary  to  accdie  to 


the  vie»s  of  the  Scots  respecting  the  Prcbbyteriaii  reli. 

gion,  and  he  was  accordingly  )>rought  over  and  put  at 

»c.t;ion*.  wi:li  .« \  j.  n  t.i  t]  n  i\i' his  npiHinents.  nnd  j  rhi*  head  «'f  a  considerable  annv,  thoui;h  under  great 


mSTORY  OF  GREAT  BRITAIN  AND  IRELAND. 


Mtrktioiii.  Cromwell,  who  had  now  nearly  completed 
ibt  eonqoest  of  Ireland,  lost  no  time  in  returning  to 
Liiadoo,  and  organising  an  army  for  the  supprcssiou  of 
ikii  new  attempt  against  the  G)mmnnwealth. 
Od  the  19th  of  July  he  crossed  tlie  Tweed,  and  ad- 
ueid  through  a  deserted  country  to  Edinburgh,  where 
(he  Seottiah  army  lay  in  a  fortified  camp.  Sickness  in 
^banny,  and  the  want  of  provisions,  soon  after  com- 
[friltd  him  to  retreat ;  and  the  Scottish  army,  following 
Wfaa  his  rear,  brought  him  into  a  straitened  position 
Dunbar,  where  he  would  soon  have  been  under 
ceeaaity  of  tarrendering.  In  the  midst  of  his  per- 
■Irffifira  (September  3),  he  beheld  the  Scots  advancing 
mm  tlie  neighbouring  heights  to  give  him  battle,  and, 
ii  a  tsanaport  of  joy,  exclaimed,  **  The  Lord  luith  deli- 
fwed  them  into  our  hands !"  The  movement  was  solely 
Iks  resnlt  of  interference  on  the  part  of  the  clergy  who 
Uovcd  the  Scottish  camp :  the  better  sense  of  General 
LhUs  woald  haTe  waited  for  the  voluntary  surrender 
if  his  enemy.  In  the  fight  which  ensued,  the  veteran 
toaops  of  Cromwell  soon  proved  victorious.  The  Scots 
flsd  in  a  panic,  and  were  cut  down  in  thousands  by 

rarsners.    This  gained  for  Cromwell  the  poeses- 
the  capital  and  of  all  the  soutli-east  provinces ; 
bat  the  Covenanters  still  nuule  a  strong  appearance  at 
fibriing. 
Cromwell  spent  a  whole  year  in  the  countr}',  vainly 
Lvonring  to  bring  on  another  action.    During  tlio 
'  (January  1,  Itiol ),  the  Scots  crowned  the  young 
aft  Scone,  part  of  the  ceremony  consisting  in  his 
of  the  Solemn  League  and  Covenant.     In 
J  summer,  Cromwell  at  length  contrived  to 
the  position  of  the  Scottish  army ;  but  the  re- 
that  Charles  led  his  troops  into  England  with- 
rapoaition,  and  made  a  very  threatening  advance 
a  the  capitaL    Ere  the  Royalists  had  time  to  rally 
him,  Cromwell  overtfx>k  the  king  at  Worcester, 
after  a  stoutly  contested  fight  (September  3, 
IttI),  be  proved  completely  victorious.    Charles,  with 
pwi  difBcolty,  escaped  abroad,  and  Scotland,  no  longer 
fmmmtd  of  a  military  force  to  defend  itself,  submitted 
Hike  conqueror.  All  the  courts  of  the  Scottish  cliurch 
SB*  suppressed,  and  the  ministers  were  left  no  privi- 
ly bat  that  of  preaching  to  their  flocks.  The  country 
Viicpt  in  check  by  a  sniall  army  under  General  Monk, 
■i  in  a  short  time  was  declared  by  proclamation  to 
b  initcd  with  England.    Thus  was  the  Independent 
|Uty,  or  rather  Cromwell,  left  without  a  single  anned 
tt^y.     iVll  the  efforts  of  the  people  during  twelve 
Mn  to  obtain  limitations  upon  the  monarchy,  had  ended 
a  a  militaiy  despotism. 

THE  PROTECTORATE. 

After  the  country  and  its  dependencies  had  been 
fciUii|^Tiljf  settled  under  the  new  government,  the  re- 
B  leaders  resolved  upon  commencing  hostilities 
Holland,  which,  during  the  civil  war,  hud  mani- 
decided  leaning  towards  the  king,  and  had  re- 
reated  the  triumphant  party  with  marked  dis- 
In  the  summer  of  1G52,  the  Dutch  fleet,  under 
commanders.  Van  Tromp,  De  Ruyter,  and 
Jki  Wittt  had  several  encounters  with  the  English  shipH, 
'  Admirals  BUike  and  Ayscuc,  without  any  decided 
oo  either  side.  But,  in  the  ensuing  spring,  an 
fought  between  Blake  and  Van  Tromp,  in 
skieh  the  Utter  lost  eleven  ships.  The  Dutch  then 
SMd  for  peace,  which  the  Rump  Parliament,  for  various 
^  were  little  inclined  to  grant.  Their  principal 
far  prosecuting  the  war,  was  a  conviction  that 
ed  to  restrict  the  power  of  Cromwell,  to  whom 
ihij  BOW  paid  by  no  means  a  willing  obedience.  Crom- 
wilf  pereeiTing  their  design,  proceeded  with  300  soldiers 
lidis  bousa  (April  1653),  and  entering  with  marks  of 

^^ *  Tiolent  indignation,  loaded  the  members  with 

es  for  their  robbery  and  oppression  of  the 

lie  ;  thsDy  stamping  with  his  foot,  he  gave  signal  fur 

soldiers  to  enter,  and,  addressing  himself  to  the 

absHb  *  For  shame  I"  said  he ;  <*  get  you  gone !  give 

to  hoMSter  men !    I  tell  }'ou  you  are  no  longer 

147 


a  Parliament ;  the  Lord  has  done  with  you  1"  He  then 
commanded  "  that  bauble,*'  meaning  the  mace,  to  be 
taken  away,  turned  out  the  niembcrH,  and,  locking  the 
door,  returned  to  Wliitehali  with  the  key  in  his  pocket. 

Being  still  willing  to  keep  up  the  appearance  of  a 
representative  government,  Cromwell  summoned  one 
hundred  and  forty-four  persons  in  England,  Ireland, 
and  Scotland,  to  assemble  as  a  parliament.  These  in- 
dividuals, cliiefly  remarkable  for  fanaticism  and  igno- 
rance, were  denominated  the  Darclfoncs  Pariiamenl, 
from  the  name  of  one  of  the  members,  a  leather-seller, 
whose  assumed  name,  by  a  ridiculous  usage  of  the  age, 
was  Praise-God  Barebones.  As  the  assembly  obtained 
no  public  respect,  Cromwell  took  an  early  opportunity 
of  dismissing  it.  His  ofhcers  tlien  constituted  him 
Protector  of  the  Commonwealth  of  Great  Britain  and 
Ireland,  with  most  of  the  prerogatives  of  the  late  king. 

The  war  against  Holland  was  still  carried  on  wiUi 
l^at  spirit.  In  the  summer  of  I  ()o3,  two  naval  actions, 
m  which  both  parties  fought  with  tlio  utmost  bravery, 
terminated  in  tlie  triumph  of  the  English,  and  the  com- 
plete humiliation  of  the  Dutch,  who  obtained  peace  on 
the  condition  of  l>aying  homage  to  the  English  Hag,  ex- 
pelling the  young  king  from  their  dominions,  and  pay- 
ing a  compensation  for  certain  losses  to  the  East  India 
Company.  In  a  war  which  he  subsequently  made 
against  Spain,  the  fleets  of  the  protector  performed 
some  exploits  of  not  less  import:ince.  The  respect 
which  ho  tlius  gained  for  the  Englit^h  name  throughout 
Europe,  is  one  of  the  brightest  points  in  his  singular 
history.  But  while  generally  successful  abroad,  he  ex- 
perienced unceasing  difticulties  in  the  management  of 
affair^  at  home.'  Of  the  various  parliaments  which  he 
summoned,  no  one  was  found  so  carefully  Cf>mpo8ed  of 
his  own  creatures  as  to  yield  readily  to  his  will :  he  was 
obliged  to  dissolve  them  all  in  succcK<(ion,  after  a  hhort 
trial.  He  also  experienced  grc.it  ditHciilty  in  raising 
money,  and  sometimes  applied  for  loans  in  the  city  with- 
out success.  His  own  otiicers  could  scarcely  be  kept 
in  subordination,  but  wei'e  constantly  pl(*tting  a  reduc- 
tion of  his  authority.  The  Koya limits,  on  tht;  other  hand, 
never  ceased  to  conspire  for  his  destruction  :  owe,  named 
Colonel  Titus,  went  so  far  as  to  recunnnend  hi.s  assassi- 
nation in  a  pamphlet  entitled  *^  Killing  no  Murder,** 
after  reading  which  he  was  never  seen  again  to  smile. 

The  la.st  Parliament  called  by  Cromwell,  was  in  Jan- 
uary 1G5() ;  when,  besides  the  coninions,  he  summoned 
the  few  remaining  peers,  and  endeavoured,  by  ennobling 
some  of  hisotticei*s,  to  make  up  a  kind  of  Upper  House. 
This  assembly  proved  as  intnictable  as  its  predecessors, 
and  he  contracted  such  a  disgust  at  the  very  nature  of 
a  repi'esentatiw  legislatun?,  us  to  resolve,  like  Charles 
I.,  never  to  call  another.  His  health  finally  sjiiik  under 
the  effects  of  his  ill-gotten  power,  and  he  died  on  the 
3d  September  l(i.Jil,  a  day  which  was  thought  to  be  pro- 
pitious to  Inm,  as  it  was  the  anniversjiry  of  several  of 
his  victories.  His  eldest  son  Richard,  a  weak  young 
man,  succeeded  him  as  protector,  and  was  at  first  treated 
with  all  imaginable  respect ;  but  he  could  not  long  main- 
tain a  rule  which  even  his  father  had  ultimatelv  failed 
in  asserting.  He  quietly  slunk  out  of  public  view,  leav- 
ing the  supreme  authority  in  the  liaiuls  of  the  Uump, 
which  had  taken  the  opportunity  to  rc-asseuible. 

THE  RESTOR.VTI0.V. — DnCII  W.Mt. 

This  remnant  of  an  old  Parliament  continued  in  power 
till  the  autumn  of  l(i.*)M,  when  it  gave  way  to  a  council 
of  the  oflicers  who  had  been  in  comiuand  under  Crom- 
well. The  latter  governnient,  in  ils  turn,  yieldeil  to  the 
Rump,  which  sat  down  once  more  in  December.  Tli« 
people,  finding  themselves  made  the  sport  of  a  few 
ambitious  adventurers,  boi;an  to  long  for  some  more 
fixed  and  respectable  kind  of  government.  At  this 
crisi;?,  General  Monk,  commander  of  the  forces  in  Scot- 
land, conceived  the  design  of  settling  the  nation.  He 
left  Scotland  (January  2,  1G60),  with  a  considerable 
army ;  and  though  he  kept  his  thoughts  scrupulously 
to  himself,  all  men  bent  their  eyes  U(>on  him,  as  a  i)er- 
son  destined  to  realise  their  hopes.     He  reached  Lon- 


CUAMBEKS'S  INFOUMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


dou  (Februai7  3),  and  was  received  with  feigned  respect 
by  the  Rump.  Suiue  resistance  was  attempted  by  Lam- 
bert, one  of  CromwcH's  oiKcviv,  but  in  vain.  Kro  long, 
Monk  was  able  to  procure  the  restoration  of  the  mem- 
bers who  had  been  excluded  from  Parliament  by  Crom- 
well ;  who,  being  a  majority,  gave  an  immediate  ascen- 
dancy to  anti-republican  views.  As  soon  as  this  w:is 
effected,  an  act  w:i.s  parsed  for  calling  a  new  and  freely 
elected  Parliament ;  after  which,  the  existing  a&scmbly 
immediately  dissolved  itself. 

The  now  Parliament  proved  to  be  chiefly  composed 
of  Cavaliers  and  Presbyterian*!,  men  agreeing  in  their 
attachment  to  monarchy,  though  diflering  in  many  other 
views.  After  some  cautious  procedure,  in  which  the 
fears  inspired  by  the  late  military  tyi-anny  were  con- 
t^picQous,  they  agreed  to  invite  the  king  from  his  retire- 
ment in  Holland,  and  to  rcst(>i*e  him  to  the  throne  lost 
by  his  father.  They  were  so  glad  to  escape  from  the 
existing  disorders,  ihut  they  never  thought  of  making 
any  preliminary  arrangement  with  the  king  as  to  the 
extent  of  his  prerogative,  (hi  the  '29th  of  May,  being 
his  thirtieth  birth-da v,  Charles  II.  entered  London 
amidst  such  frantic  denionsti'ations  of  joy,  that  he  could 
not  help  thinking  it  his  own  fault,  as  he  said,  that  he 
had  been  ^o  long  separated  from  his  people. 

One  of  the  tiinit  measures  ot'  the  new  monarch  was 
tlie  ]iassing  of  a  bill  of  iudenmity,  by  which  all  per- 
sons concerned  in  the  late  popular  movements  were 
pardoned,  excepting  a  few  who  had  been  prominently 
concerned  in  bringing  the  khig  to  the  bh)ck.  ii.-lrri^ion, 
Scropc,  and  a  few  other  regicides,  were  tried  and  exe- 
cuted; and  the  bodies  of  Cromwell,  li^eton,  and  Brad- 
shaw,  were  raibcd  from  the  grave  and  exhibited  upon 
gibbets.  In  Scotland  only  three  i>ersons  sutiered — the 
Marquis  of  Argyle,  Johnston  of  Warriston,  and  j\lr 
(jiuthry,  a  clergyman :  it  wiis  considered  remarkable, 
that  the  marquis  had  placed  the  crown  upon  the  king's 
head  at  Scoue  in  the  year  lO'ol.  Exceptuig  in  these 
acts,  the  king  showed  no  desire  of  revenging  the  tUiiith 
of  his  father,  or  his  own  exclusion  from  the  throne. 
The  Parliament  which  called  hinihoniu  was  constituted 
a  Icj^al  one  bv  his  own  ratification  of  an  act  for  that 
purpose.  In  the  stttlenient  of  other  matters,  it  seemed 
the  prevailing  wish  that  all  the  institutions  of  the 
country  bliould  be  made  as  nearly  what  they  were  be- 
fore the  civil  war  as  ]>o!*sil)le.  Thus  the  Episcopal 
(Miurch  \\ii»  ehtjiblished  both  in  England  and  Nv/iland, 
though  nnt  withoJit  cau^itii;  alumt  a  third  of  the  eleri;y 
in  btitli  countrie:*  to  n>ij;n  their  eharges.  Tiie  stern 
and  enthusiastic  piety  wiiieii  prevailed  durini;  tlit;  ei\il 
^^ar,  \^as  now  treated  with  ridicuh',  and  the  most  of  tiie 
people  \ied  with  each  other  in  that  licentious  riot  and 
drunkennes-^  which  is  eonikiiin<-d  hy  all  systems  of 
faith.  Tlie  natiiin,  in  I'aet,  seemed  intoxicatrd  with  tlie 
safety  which  they  supposed  themselves  Iw  have  at 
length  gained,  in  a  r«-stui*ation  to  the  imperfect  Ireedom 
they  i*n  joyed  before  I  he  ci\il  war. 

Inland,  which,  during  the  I'rotectv.-rate,  h:ni  been 
managed  by  Ht-nry,  a  vnuu'^fr  sun  of  t'roniwelj,  ac- 
ceded to  the  Restora*"'!!  with  as  much  readino.s  as 
:iny  other  part  of  the  jiriti:>h  <io:nini<>ns.  An  act  was 
]>asb(  il  for  setlling  proju-rty,  by  whi«:ii  the  Catliolics 
tihtiuned  .some  slight  beuetit^,  i)nt  which,  in  iis  mum 
«  tfi-cts,  confirmed  the  rijhts  of  the  bettU-i'M  introduced 
by  Cn»mwell. 

Though  ('h:,rles  had  ln-en  rest(»red  with  tin-  apj«n»- 
bation  of  a  very  large  puriitin  i»f  his  suhji-ct.-,  iii«.  most 
/vulous  frieuiK  were  the  Ktiyahsts  anil  iCpi-cojuili.ins ; 
Iii-nce  he   almost  iinniediati.lv  snb-iidi'"l  inlw  tin*   clia- 

m 

lactvr  id  a  party  ruler,  it  w.is  deemed  neers«.ary  that 
he  should  maintain  an  arnu'd  fnrce  for  the  pri>i«'Ctii>n 
iif  hi!>  persnn,  and  tii  ki>ep  dnwn  popuUir  diKturbanees. 
lie  tht.'reft»re  eau-^ed  ^e\^ral  horse  ri'ijiments  tn  be 
embodi«  d  iiiid<r  tin-  name  of  LifeCiuards,  being  ehi«-tly 
e<»m|Misi-d  of  K<ivaii-.t  ::i  ntlfincn  upon  whom  a  pi-rlect 
deprndenee  cwnld  be  piai-i'ii ;  and  he  afterwuiiln  addeii 
twu  or  three  hMit  rf-;;uiii'nt^,  thi*  whole  uniounting  to 
alicut  Hve  tliiiU  and  inrii.  The  kin^  paid  these  troops 
chieflv  out  of  the  moii«.-v  allowed  fur  his  own  support, 

11> 


for  Parliament  did  not  sanction  his  keeping  u 
force,  and  the  nation  generally  beheld  it  with  s' 
This  was  the  commencement  of  a  statiding 
England. 

Personally  indolent,  dissolute,  and  deficient 
scientiousnciis,  and  suri*ounded  almost  exdua 
the  ministers  of  the  basest  pleasures,  Charles 
qualified  to  retain  the  sincei'e  respect  of  a  pcop 
habitual  character  is  grave  and  virtuous,  li 
vagant  expenditure  soon  cooled  the  aflectioi 
Parliament,  and  he  began  to  find  considcra 
eulties  in  obtaining  money.  To  iviieve  him» 
this  embarrassment,  he  accepted  i.'40,uOO  f 
French  king  for  Dunkirk,  a  French  port  wl 
been  ac(}uirt^d  by  Cromwell.  For  tlie  same  pui 
married  a  iV)rtuguese  princess  of  the  Catholic 
who  possessed  a  dowry  of  half  a  million.  He  u 
menced  (ltiO'4)  a  war  against  Holland,  for  ap 
no  better  reason  than  that,  in  applying  the 
mentary  subsidies  necessary  for  keeping  up  he 
he  might  have  an  opportunity  of  converting  pa 
money  to  his  own  personal  use. 

This  Dutch  war  was  chiefly  conducted  by  i 
the  3d  of  June  1G().),  an  Knglisli  fleet  of  ll4  sa 
Dutch  one  which  numbered  just  one  ship  le 
Lowest ofle,  and  after  an  obstinate  light  gainet 
plete  victory,  depriving  the  enemy  of  eighte<*u 
anil  compelling  the  rest  to  take  refuge  on  tl: 
coast.  The  commander  on  this  occasiiui  was  t 
(»f  York,  the  king's  younger  brother ;  a  man  ol 
application  and  more  steady  principles,  but  n 
after  became  unpopular,  in  consequence  of  his 
himself  a  Catholic. 

Some  other  well-contested  actions  took  plac 
and  tiie  J-Inglish,  \\\w\\  tho  whole,  confirmed  tht 
supremacy.  Owing,  however,  to  a  l'ailui*e  of  l 
plies,  the  king  was  ob]ir;ed  to  lay  up  his  beut  v 
ordinary,  and  to  send  only  an  inferior  force  to  i 
Dutch  took  advantag<>of  this  oecurrence  to  son 
up  the  Thamcni  (June  lU,  1«>«J7),  which,  meet! 
Ill*  adequate  ri'sislance,  threatened  to  lay  the  c 
ruins  and  destroy  its  shipping.  I'nrlunately,  th 
admiral  did  liot  think  it  expedient  to  make  t'lis 
but  retired  with  the  i*hh  of  the  lifle,  after  havi 
and  burnt  nearly  twenty  \es^•.'l>,  and  done  mu> 
damage.  Thi>  kin:;,  finding  himself  rather  iinpo 
than  enriched  hy  the  war,  s<ion  aiier  concluded 

l'I.\«irK  AM)  riKK  i»I-   LONlM)\. rh.L-^iXt  lIoN  I.N  S 

In  the  mean  time,  two  extraordinarv  calami 
befallen  the  metnipulis.  In  the  snnnner  lif  IGi 
den  was  visited  by  a  plague,  which  swept  o 
1U1),0(MP  ])eo[>le,  an«l  did  imt  experienc  •  any  ah 
till  the  ni)proach  of  cold  weather.  (Mi  liiis  i 
th<*  ci!y  presented  a  widt?  and  heart-rending  i 
ini-erv  and  ilesolation.  Kowh  of  hi»n.-es  slond  tei 
and  <t|>en  t>)  tiie  winds  ;  ihe  chief  ilioriiughfai 
o\eri;r(iwn  wiiii  !;r;.s*^.  The  feu  individuals  m 
tured  abri:ad,  wali^ed  in  ti.e  inithlle  of  tiie  stre- 
when  they  met,  declined  on  opposite  sides,  to  a 
cot^Mct  <»f  i-acli  other.  At  one  moment  wtTe  h< 
raxin;^  of  th'liriuin,  (u*  the  wail  of  s<»rri»w,  fi 
infected  tlweiling ;  at  another,  the  merry  song 
less  laugh  from  the  tavern,  wheiv  men  wi-re  so 
drown  in  tleh.iucherv  all  ^el:  <>  of  their  awful  t 
Sinei"  1(mI"»,  the  j>lague  has  n"t  a;;ain  wecurrecl 
ddii,  nv  in  any  other  j-art  of  the  kin-^dom. 

Tin*  second  calamity  wa>  a  eonfia:,'r:iti<in,  whi 
ineiieed  on  the  iiiuht  of  Sunday  tiie  iM  of  S.*] 
1<)*>«;,  in  the  ea**tern  and  more  crowded  pan  ••! 
The  direction  an*!  vi(»lence  of  fh*-  wind, the  com 
natiin* «  f  tiie  ii<:ii«e'*,  ami  the  def«-cliv^  arran; 
of  that  a'.:e  for  e\tin:;nisliin:;  tires,  c<Miihiiied  l« 
the  pr«»:ire.s   of  tin*   flame-;,   whicii   rau'i'd   ilui 
whole  of  the  week,  and  burnt  all  that  part  of 
which  lies  between  the  T«»wer  anil  the  Temple, 
calamity,  l.';,'J(M)  houses  and  o!'  ehurciics,  cuv< 
all  A'M)  acres  of  ground,  were  destroyed.     The  ' 
uue  tiiiic  i'jrmed  a  cuiumn  a  mile  in  diamct 


i->r  n^r-iT  n?tT.\"-  vvn  Tr.n.\Trri 


i1>in|p  ibpoU  U  Br*vnd«l  fma  (UUn(  loin  thnr 

Tt.iy  IJiwwfoni  iJOTwmJ  ■]•>■>  ekllni 

nw,  iBCUiBinj;  wi  nUsnlii  rimr  at  eU 

>  ihit  lud  (tw  Mittoil,  nr  bmU  nnw  b 

>  -r  I  Mid  UiU  Uimnnl  nly  i>ttMBi>a  tn 
:  it.iMi»>ii4led  iriJit/  aiRnDc  til*  i>a*fJ>i 

-rrt*  U  ineteu*  Um  tniii£linK  'IM- 


■  Ui«n  to 
'i  ncnt  morning  in 

i>(lu!rIauR«  of  til'' 
>  |'i>l>tir^L  Tlin'MnieciTad  >]]« 
I .  Llag  a  How  agamit  tlia  gotfrn- 
I  jLioa;  uid  tlirir  TODiinilt  *ru ill 
'  I  b^  IcnitT.  Thajr  niuld  ni-l, 
,:iei  witli  wliisll  Uia  Ciitliolin 
Tviriai ;  uid  a  ipirit  of  r«<reiig* 
t.'llmrvra,  wliiiih  mw  aKKiavntpd 
'  'fin  liwd  thiii  tli*  CdiMpInu^ 
I'lii.  I'liK (iiirii "f nialikllaa WW 
a,  wri>ns*,  iiiifrirllujtlylnlliCMd,  Were, 

iiibvr  lit  I'riilaiaDU  lisld  ftittil  ui 
iinr  <lw  (ITiicI*  wlili:ii  (ipproNin  U*i  pFO- 
■  hanma  luMloni.    Tliejoranun-aitnir   - 

I  than  ullevkwd  lliij  ctiI,  liy  nflBrina 

£«la]|  to  nlwlUuo  to  tlioH  nhu  aliouM  ui 
ThiMdrorr'' 


at  iMallsnaaU.     Tho  lla)slii|]i  verc  alio,  In  the  Md, 
tnrmeil  Cav&litn,  from  so  tnuif  bf  tlioiu  being  bone- 

On  die  SStli  of  Aagnittlu  kins  onoted  hb  ituidard 
at  Nottingluiiv,  aud  Mon  fonod  Uni«i>lf  at  tli*  hwuJ  of 
on  army  <d  l«u  thouaind  tnco.  Tliu  Piirliani*ni  had 
rapnior  toroM^  and  a  battar  anpjil;  of  armi ;  hot  tntb 
parCiM  wire  terj  ipinnuil  nf  tho  art  at  war.  The  king 
ouDinianded  hfa  owii  arm*  in  peraon,  and  tho  Parliamcn- 
tary  totvtt  wer«  put  ondar  the  eliirgo  of  the  Earl  nt 

T1<n  nnri  bMtl»  took  plaiw,  Oetobn-  33,  at  Etteeltiil. 
tn  VVarwickeblra.  whore  tlie  king  bod  nthiir  thfl  ad- 
TUitngp.  though  Ht  tbt>  mpviuir  of  a  Etwal  numbpr  nf 
iDpn.  He  gMncd  tums  furtbor  trimuph*  baforu  thn 
end  of  IlitcnminSEn,  hot  ttUlMDld  not  Didiitar  to  Ur|t« 
an  ■mi]'  lU  tliH  PirUamfDf.  DarinE  the  •rnltr,  tlia 
purtica  >i|irii>Nl  a  nEflebation  at  OxtoTi;  but  Ilia  do- 
■tiimiU  iif  Ui><  I'BTtluncnl  bring  ililJ  deemcl  tan  {jwiA 

)>/  die  king.  It  cam*  to  ivo  mMiwhA  Wm. 


J 


CHAMBERS'S  INFORMATION  FOR  TUE  PEOPLE. 


dou  (February  3),  and  was  i*eceived  with  feigned  respect 
by  the  Rump.  Some  resistance  was  attempted  by  litm- 
bert,  one  of  Cromwell's  officera,  but  in  vain.  Ere  long, 
Monk  was  able  to  procure  the  restoration  of  the  mem- 
bers who  had  been  excluded  from  Parliament  by  Crom- 
well ;  who,  being  a  majority,  gave  an  immediate  ascen- 
dancy to  anti-republican  views.  As  soon  as  this  was 
effected,  an  act  was  passed  for  calling  a  new  and  freely 
elected  Parliament ;  after  which,  the  existing  assembly 
immediately  dissolved  itself. 

The  new  Parliament  proved  to  be  chiefly  composed 
of  Cavaliers  and  Presbytcriaiif*,  men  agreeing  in  their 
attachment  to  monarchy,  though  differing  in  many  other 
views.  After  some  cautious  procedure,  in  which  the 
fears  inspired  by  the  late  military  tyranny  were  con- 
spicuous, they  agreed  to  invite  the  king  from  his  retire- 
ment in  Holland,  and  to  restore  him  to  the  throne  lost 
by  his  father.  They  were  so  glad  to  escape  from  the 
existing  disorders,  that  they  never  thought  of  nuikiug 
any  preliminary  arrangement  with  the  king  as  to  the 
extent  of  his  prerogative.  On  the  29th  of  May,  being 
his  thirtieth  birtli-day,  Charles  II.  entered  London 
amidst  such  frantic  demonstrations  of  joy,  that  he  could 
not  help  thinking  it  his  own  fault,  as  ho  said,  that  he 
had  been  so  long  separated  from  his  people. 

One  of  the  first  measures  of  the  new  monarch  was 
tlie  passing  of  a  bill  of  indemnity,  by  which  all  per- 
sons concerned  in  tlie  late  popular  movements  were 
pardoned,  excepting  a  few  who  had  been  prominently 
concerned  in  bringing  the  king  to  the  block.  Harnsou, 
Scrope,  and  a  few  other  regicides,  were  tried  and  exe- 
cuted; and  the  bodies  of  Cromwell,  Ii;eton,  and  Brad- 
shaw,  were  raised  from  the  grave  and  exhibited  upon 
gibbets.  In  Scotland  only  three  persons  suffered — the 
Sfai'quis  of  Argyle,  Johnston  of  Warriston,  and  Mr 
Guthry,  a  clergyman :  it  was  considered  remarkable, 
that  the  marquis  had  placed  the  crown  upon  the  king's 
head  at  Scone  in  the  year  1651.  Exceptuig  in  these 
acts,  the  king  sliowed  no  desire  of  revenging  the  death 
of  his  father,  or  liis  own  exclusion  fnim  the  throne. 
The  Parliament  which  called  him  home  was  constituted 
a  legal  one  by  his  own  ratification  of  an  act  for  that 
purpose.  In  the  settlement  of  other  matters,  it  seemed 
the  prevailing  wish  that  all  the  institutions  of  the 
country  should  be  made  as  nearly  what  they  were  be- 
fore the  civil  war  as  ])0S8ible.  Thus  the  Kpiscopal 
Church  was  estalilished  both  in  Euglaud  and  .Sootland, 
though  not  without  calling  about  a  ihinl  of  the  cler;,'y 
in  both  countries  to  ri-si;rn  their  chai'gey.  Tlie  stern 
and  enthusiastic  piety  which  prevailed  during  tlie  civil 
war,  was  now  treated  with  ridicule,  and  the  most  of  the 
])eople  vied  with  each  other  in  that  licentious  riot  and 
druukenne>s  which  is  condi-mned  by  all  systems  of 
faith.  The  nation,  in  fact,  seemed  intoxicated  \%ith  the 
safety  which  they  supposed  themselves  to  have  at 
length  gained,  in  a  restorati«m  to  the  imperfect  lree<iom 
they  enjoyed  before  the  civil  war. 

Ireland,  which,  during  the  Protectorate,  had  been 
managed  by  Henry,  a  ynuuijer  son  of  Cromwell,  ac- 
ceded to  the  Restoration  with  as  much  readiness  as 
any  other  part  of  the  JJritish  dominions.  An  act  was 
passed  for  settling  pn.)perty,  hy  which  the  Catholics 
obtained  some  slight  benefits,  hut  which,  in  iis  main 
effects,  confirmed  the  rights  of  the  settlers  introduced 
by  Cromwell. 

Though  Charles  had  been  restored  with  the  apj»ro- 
bation  of  a  very  large  }>ortioii  of  his  subjects,  hi.s  most 
zealous  friends  were  the  Koyalists  and  Kpisco))alians ; 
hence  he  almost  imnK-diately  subsided  into  the  cha- 
racter of  a  party  ruler.  It  was  deemed  necessary  that 
he  sh«)uld  maintain  an  armed  force  for  the  protection 
of  his  person,  and  to  kci'p  d(»wn  popular  disturbances. 
Jle  therefore  oau^ed  several  horse  regiments  to  be 
einbodi«'d  niMli-rtlu*  name  of  Life  Guards,  being  ehieliy 
comi>os<'d  of  Koyuii>>t  Lrenilemen  upon  whom  a  ]>erfecl 
dependence  could  be  placed  ;  and  he  afterwards  added 
two  or  three  foot  ri'giments,  the  whole  amounting  to 
abi>ut  five  thou  and  men.  The  king  paid  these  troops 
chiefly  out  of  the  money  allowed  for  his  own  BU]>port, 

lis 


for  Parliament  did  not  sanction  his  ki^epmg  u] 
force,  and  the  nation  generally  beheld  it  with  si 
This  was  the  conunencement  of  a  standing 
England. 

Personally  indolent,  dissolute,  and  deficient 
scientiousness,  and  surrounded  almost  exclus 
the  mmisters  of  the  basest  pleasures,  Charles 
qualified  to  retain  the  sincere  respect  of  a  peop 
habitual  character  is  grave  and  virtuous,  lli 
vagant  expenditure  soon  cooled  the  affectioD 
Parliament,  and  he  began  to  find  coiisideral 
culties  in  obtaining  money.  To  relieve  hims* 
this  embarrassment,  he  accepted  £40,000  f] 
French  king  for  Dunkirk,  a  French  port  wl 
been  acquired  by  Cromwell.  For  the  same  pur 
married  a  I'ortuguese  princess  of  the  Catholic 
who  possessed  a  dowry  of  half  a  million.  He  a 
menced  (16b'4)  a  war  against  Holland,  for  ap 
no  better  reason  than  tlutt,  in  applying  tlie 
mentary  subsidies  necessary  for  keeping  up  he 
he  might  have  an  opportunity  of  converting  paj 
money  to  his  own  personal  use. 

This  Dutch  war  was  chiefly  conducted  by  e 
the  3d  of  June  1 665,  an  English  fleet  of  1 1 4  sa 
Dutch  one  which  numbered  just  one  ship  le 
Lowestoffe,  and  after  an  obstinate  fight  sainet 
plote  victory,  depriving  the  enemy  of  eighteen 
and  coni]>elling  tlio  rest  to  take  refuge  on  th 
coast.  The  commander  on  this  occasion  was  tl 
of  York,  the  king's  younger  brother ;  a  man  of 
application  and  more  steady  principles,  but  w 
after  became  unpopular,  in  consequence  of  his 
himself  a  Catholic. 

Some  other  well-contested  actions  took  plac 
and  the  English,  upon  the  whole,  confirmed  the 
supremacy.  Owing,  however,  to  a  failure  of  1 
plies,  the  king  was  obliged  to  lay  up  his  best  v 
ordinary,  and  to  send  only  an  inferior  force  to  t 
Dutch  took  advantage  of  this  occurrence  to  sen 
up  the  Thames  (June  10,  1667),  which,  meeti 
no  adequate  resistance,  threatened  to  lay  the  c, 
ruins  and  destroy  its  shipping.  l't)rtunately,  th 
admiral  did  not  think  it  expedient  to  make  this  ; 
but  retired  with  the  ebb  of  the  tide,  after  havi 
and  burnt  nearly  twentv  vess'.»ls,  and  done  mm 
damage.  Tlni  king,  finding  himself  rather  impo' 
than  enriched  by  the  war,  soon  alter  concluded 

FLAGIK  AND  FIRK  OF  L()MK)N. FKRSIXITIO.V  IN  » 

In  the  mean  time,  two  extraordinary  calami 
befallen  the  metnipolis.  In  the  bumuicr  of  1G( 
don  was  visited  by  a  plague,  which  swept  o; 
100,001)  people,  and  did  not  experienc'  uiiy  ah 
till  the  approach  of  cold  weather.  Chi  this  < 
the  city  presented  a  wi<le  and  heart-rending  i 
misery  and  desolation.  Kows  of  houNes  stood  tei 
and  opirn  to  tlie  winds  ;  the  chief  tiioroughfai 
over;;ro\\n  witli  'jnis-^.  The  few  individuals  ia 
tureil  abroad,  walked  in  llie  middle  of  the  stret 
when  they  met,  declined  ou  opposite  sides,  to  a 
cop.tact  of  each  other.  At  one  moment  were  h« 
ravings  of  delirium,  or  the  wail  of  sorrow,  fi 
infected  (Iwelling ;  at  anoth<'r,  the  merry  song 
less  laugh  from  the  tavern,  wheiv  men  were  se 
drown  in  dehaucherv  all  sen^^e  of  their  awful  si 
Since  16<i5,  the  ])lague  has  not  agaiu  occurred 
don,  or  in  any  other  j»art  of  the  kinjjdom. 

The  s«.'c<)nd  calamity  was  a  coniia;;ration,  whi 

•  0  7 

iiK'need  on  the  iii;;ht  of  Sunday  the  2d  <»f  Se| 
1()66,  in  the  eastern  and  more  crowded  part  of 
The  direction  and  violence  of  the  wind,  the  com 
nature  of  the  houses,  and  tin*  deft-ctivc  arranj 
of  that  aj;o  for  extin'^nishiiig  fires,  ctMiibined  tt 
the  pn»nro-s   of  the   flanici,  wliieh  ra^ed    dur 
whole  of  the  week,  and  burnt  all  that  part  of 
which  lies  between  the  Tower  and  the  Temple, 
calamity,  1I},J00  houses  and  W\\  churches,  eo%'« 
all  4.*J0  acres  of  ground,  were  destroyed.     The  i 
one  time  funned  a  column  a  mile  in  diamct' 


CHAMBERS'S 
IMATION   FOR  THE  PEOPLE 


Nnff  *im  I.nptuirBit  ttrnm. 


m 

PLErl 

- 

Prior  J41I. 


mtrOHY  01>  GBSAT  BttlTAXS  AND  IRELAND. 

nKMTmTiuwnwm.i.  nm  muck  or  i» 


::rjs 


:r£; 


r  liiwt 


•  ■It  dblif^  ta  jinid  Mi  a  biKavIiieh  it  twd 
rrwikdnir.  From  ihat  tinio  tnUItu;  vbi- 
'  il  an  alinnBt  nmutDtrotlRrl  tnutery  oiR 


ariif  ilu>  1'rKi.hvtii' 


Tim  Jmlent  ut  Ibo  Mrmf,  liniiK  imxiitiia  hi  bru^ 
Uimuiilvci  b;  aII  jwMltili:  idmi»  B|>iiliiiit  tlu'  Prwbjto- 
riuin,  opifllinl  a  negotUlicui  wlUi  (Iia  kinr,  wtuna  inllii. 
.._,  ..  Diuw,  nioh  u  il  now  vTM.  Ibcj  propmud  U)  pur^tuc, 

J  fur  dRndiUig  ihUr  (^ud  by  ailnwutt;  Ejiueapaoj  to  tie  tlu  «Mto  rfJIchm,  uid 
Id  iiAYt  axurieU  lu  th«w  vjewi.  loaving  liim  in  nuTtinninil  of  tin  taOilia.  CIkSu^  how- 
.1  pui  of   o'lT,  witli  chwwKgruiiio  iniHii»rilf,  ourlcd  ai     '   ' 


'  •troiiK    to  bnal;  otFali  term*  hIiJi  him.  '  Iloijsr'drwl  of  tli^ 
if  wiir-    rnKDUnt'Di,  he  miuio  liii  aacapa  buai  Baia\tuia  Coon 

li  feno    (Novpmbor  II,  I81T).  and,  alt«r  ui  ud»i- '■  -' 

o  leavK  tiut  liiDgdom,  «»  obliEvd  U 


I  vary  piilul  wliicti  Uioj  CDiui- 

-.  *- 

«b>tiCliarto>  Ant  ilin 
the  lJif{!tKh  I'nrluini 
JetDDDila  f'lr  ili< 


dlMgrrcd  null    uod^rtha  tihsno  af  til*  EavvraoF  of  (^isbroolu  Qutl^ 

liiv  )»Ia  III  Wivht.    H«n  ha  antmvd  u^on  »  naw^ 

tioii  Willi  lAO  H9UM  Iff  CanimoD*,  uiiAonlliA 


;  dl  ot  vrhioh  w 
ci  mill)'  wliioli  hn  at  tlio  mme  liuia  wnud 
D  niodiinM  party  of  Iht  Stollbh  Pmitytr- 


CHAMBERS'S  INFORMATION  FOR  TUE  PEOPLE. 


(Ion  (ITebruary  3),  and  was  received  with  feigned  respect 
by  tue  Rump.  Some  resiAtanco  was  attempted  by  Lam- 
bert, one  of  Cromwell's  officei*8,  but  in  vain.  Ere  long, 
Monk  was  able  to  procure  the  restoration  of  the  mem- 
bers who  had  been  excluded  from  Parliament  by  Crom- 
well ;  who,  being  a  majority,  gave  an  immediate  ascen- 
dancy to  anti-repubUcan  views.  As  soon  as  this  was 
effected,  an  act  was  passed  for  calling  a  new  and  freely 
elected  Parliament ;  after  which,  the  existing  assembly 
immediately  dissolved  itself. 

The  now  Parliament  proved  to  bo  chiefly  composed 
of  Cavaliers  and  PresbyteriaiiH,  men  agreeing  in  their 
attachment  to  monarchy,  though  differing  in  many  other 
views.  After  some  cautious  procedure,  in  which  the 
fears  inspired  by  the  late  military  tyranny  were  con- 
spicuous, they  agreed  to  invite  the  king  from  his  retire- 
ment in  Holland,  and  to  restore  him  to  the  tiirone  lost 
by  his  father.  They  were  so  glad  to  esca[)e  from  the 
existing  disorders,  that  they  never  thought  of  making 
any  preliminary  arrangement  with  the  king  as  to  the 
extent  of  his  prerogative.  On  the  '29th  of  May,  being 
his  thirtieth  birth-day,  Charles  II.  entered  Loudon 
amidst  such  frantic  demonstrations  of  joy,  that  he  could 
not  help  thinking  it  his  own  fault,  as  he  said,  that  ho 
had  been  so  long  separated  from  his  people. 

One  of  the  first  measures  of  the  new  monarch  was 
the  passing  of  a  bill  of  indemnity,  by  which  all  per- 
sons concerned  in  the  late  {>opular  movements  were 
pardoned,  excepting  a  few  who  had  been  prominently 
concerned  in  bringing  the  king  to  the  block.  Harrison, 
Scrope,  and  a  few  other  regicides,  were  tried  and  exe- 
cuted ;  and  the  bodies  of  Cromwell,  Ii;eton,  and  Brad- 
shaw,  were  raised  from  the  grave  and  exhibited  upon 
gibbets.  In  Scotland  only  three  persons  suffered — the 
Alarquis  of  Argyle,  Johnston  of  Warriston,  and  Mr 
Guthry,  a  clergyman :  it  was  considered  remarkable, 
that  the  marquis  had  placed  the  crown  upon  the  king's 
head  at  2Scone  in  the  year  1651.  Excepting  in  these 
acts,  the  king  showed  no  desire  of  revenging  the  death 
of  his  father,  or  his  own  exclusion  frum  the  throne. 
The  Parliament  which  called  him  home  wascouHtituted 
a  legal  one  by  his  own  ratification  of  an  act  for  that 
purpose.  In  the  settlement  of  other  matters,  it  «c*emed 
the  ])rcvailing  wish  that  all  the  institutions  of  the 
country  should  be  made  as  nearly  what  they  were  be- 
fore the  civil  war  as  i)ossible.  Thus  the  Episcopal 
Church  was  established  both  in  England  and  .Scotland, 
though  not  without  cau-ing  about  a  third  of  the  cler<;y 
in  both  countries  to  ^t•^i«;n  their  charges.  The  stern 
and  enthusiahtic  piety  wliieh  j)revailed  during  the  civil 
war,  was  now  treated  with  ridicule,  and  the  most  of  the 
people  vied  with  each  other  in  that  licentious  riot  and 
drunkenne^s  which  is  eondirmued  by  all  systems  of 
faith.  The  nation,  in  fact,  seemed  intoxicated  with  the 
saf(^ty  which  they  supposed  themselves  to  have  at 
length  gained,  in  a  restoration  to  the  imperfect  Ireeiiom 
they  enjoyed  bt?fore  the  civil  war. 

Ire-land,  which,  during  the  Protectorate,  hatl  been 
managed  by  Henry,  a  youn:;er  son  of  Cromwell,  ac- 
ceded to  the  Kestorati(jn  with  as  miieh  readincfis  as 
any  other  part  of  the  i'»riti^h  <loiniiiions.  An  act  was 
])asbed  for  settling  pmpiTty,  by  which  the  Catholics 
obtained  some  slight  benefits,  liut  which,  in  its  main 
frtects,  confirmed  the  rights  of  the  settlers  introduced 
by  Cromwell. 

Though  Churk^  had  been  restored  with  the  aj>j>ro- 
bation  of  a  very  large  portion  of  his  subject.*-,  hi*>  most 
zealous  friends  were  the  Royalists  and  Epi'-copalians ; 
luMiee  he  ahn<ist  iinmcdiatdv  subsided  into  tin*  cha- 
racter  of  a  party  ruler.  It  was  deemed  necessary  that 
he  should  maintain  an  armrd  force  for  the  protection 
of  his  person,  and  to  kcrp  down  popular  disturbances. 
He  therefore  caused  seviral  horse  regiments  to  be 
embodied  under  tin-  name  of  Life  Guards,  being  chiefly 
com|K)Sfd  of  Kt)yaiiMi  gentlemen  upon  whom  a  j>ertect 
depi'udencc  could  be  plaee<l ;  and  he  afterwards  added 
tHo  or  three  foot  re^j^iiuents,  the  whole  amounting  to 
ab«)Ut  five  thou -and  men.  The  kin:;  paid  these  troops 
chiefly  out  of  the  money  allowed  for  his  own  support, 

11^ 


for  Parliament  did  not  sanction  his  keepmg  u] 
force,  and  the  nation  generally  beheld  it  with  s\ 
This  was  the  commencement  of  a  standing 
England. 

Personally  indolent,  dissolute,  and  deficient 
scientiousness,  and  surrounded  almost  exclus 
the  ministers  of  the  basest  pleasures,  Charles 
qualified  to  retain  the  sincere  i-espect  of  a  peop 
habitual  character  is  grave  and  virtuous.  Hi 
vagant  expenditure  soon  cooled  the  affection 
Parliament,  and  he  began  to  find  consideral 
culties  in  obtaining  money.  To  relieve  himm 
this  embarrassment,  he  accepted  £40,000  fi 
French  king  for  Dunkirk,  a  French  port  wl 
been  acquired  by  Cromwell.  For  the  same  pur 
married  a  Poi*tuguese  princess  of  the  Catholic 
who  possessed  a  dowry  of  lialf  a  million.  He  a 
menced  (1(J0'4)  a  war  against  Holland,  for  ap 
no  better  reason  than  that,  in  applying  tlie 
mentary  subsidies  necessary  for  keeping  up  ho 
he  might  have  an  opportunity  of  converting  pai 
money  to  his  own  personal  use. 

This  Dutch  war  was  chiefly  conducted  by  8 
the  3d  of  June  I()G5,  an  English  fleet  of  114  sa 
Dutch  one  which  numbered  just  one  ship  le 
Lowestoffe,  and  after  an  obstinate  fight  nuDci 
plete  victory,  depriving  the  enemy  of  eighteen 
an<l  compelling  tlie  rest  to  take  refuge  on  th 
coast.  The  commander  on  this  occasion  was  tl 
of  York,  the  king's  younger  brother ;  a  man  of 
application  and  more  steady  principles,  but  w 
after  became  unpopular,  in  consequence  of  his 
himself  a  C-atholic. 

Some  other  well-contested  actions  took  plac 
and  the  PInglish,  upon  tlie  whole,  confirmed  the 
supremacy.  Owing,  however,  to  a  failure  of  t 
plies,  the  king  was  obliged  to  lay  up  his  best  v 
ordinary,  and  to  send  only  an  inferior  force  to  £ 
Dutch  took  advantag*^  of  this  occurrence  to  sen 
up  the  Thames  (June  10,  lllf)?),  which,  meeti 
no  adequate  resistance,  thrratenud  to  lay  the  c 
ruins  and  destroy  its  shipping.  Fortunately,  th 
admiral  did  not  think  it  expedient  to  make  this  ; 
but  retired  with  the  ebb  (»f  the  tide,  after  havi 
and  burnt  nearly  iwcntv  vestels,  and  done  mui 
damage.  The  kinj;,  finding  himself  rather  impo' 
than  enriched  by  the  war,  soon  aiier  concluded 

I'L.VGIK  AM)  niiE  or  LO.MK).\. rKltSIlClTION  IX  S< 

In  tiic  mean  time,  two  extraordinary  calami 
befallen  the  metropolis.  In  the  summer  of  1G( 
don  was  visited  by  a  plaijue,  which  swept  ol 
lOOjOOn  people,  and  did  not  expene:ie<.*  any  ab. 
till  the  aj)proach  of  cold  weather.  On  this  » 
the  city  presented  a  wide  and  heart-rending  i 
mi.-ery  and  desolation.  Hows  of  houses  stood  tei 
and  <ipen  (•>  the  winds  ;  tin;  chief  ti)or(»ughfai 
overi^rown  witii  ;;r;»ss.  The  few  individuals  w 
tured  abroad,  walked  in  the  middle  of  the  strei 
when  they  met,  declined  on  opposite  sides,  to  a 
contact  of  each  other.  At  one  moment  were  hi 
ravings  of  delirium,  or  the  wail  of  sorrow,  fi 
infected  dwelling  ;  at  another,  the  merry  song 
less  laugh  from  the  tavern,  wheit;  men  were  sc' 
drown  in  debauchery  all  sense  of  their  awful  si 
Since  1()(I5,  the  plague  has  not  agaiu  occurred 
don,  or  in  any  other  ]>art  of  the  kingdom. 

The  second  calamity  was  a  oontlagratit)n,  whi 
menced  on  the  night  of  iSunday  the  *Jd  of  Jjej 
1  (»(»<»,  in  the  eastern  and  more  erowde<l  ]»art  of 
The  direction  and  violence  of  tiu;  wind,  the  com 
nature  cf  the  hiinses,  and  the  defective  arran^ 
of  that  ajje  for  e.vtiii'^ni.shing  tires,  combined  Ic 
the  j)ro;;r<'^s  of  the  flames,  which  raged   dur 
whole  of  the  week,  and  burnt  all  tliat  part  of 
which  lies  betwt^en  the  Tower  and  the  Temple, 
calamity,  1 3,'JOO  houses  and  WJ  churches,  covt 
all  430  acres  of  ground,  were  destroj'ed.     The  1 
one  time  farmed  a  column  a  mile  in  diamcti 


Lit 


.'  iiuiitiiijfarTNnolu 

viu    Tbior  prioolpil 
.<•  a  couvliTtKiti  Ibal 

.(  (.'i«ni»oU,  w  •hom 

L'l  i.-i  iii-iui  A  nillinu;  utmlipnM.  Cr>»n- 
ItlBC  (Iwir  d*upb  prrbneolifd  iriih  SOU  unUmrr 
N  (Aprd  ItUs),  «nil  >jiliiriug  nth  ourka  <if 
4mI  liiiUBSatum,  tiut><il  til*  nnnibtn  wUU 
(br  ibnr  rvliliw7  infl  (>jnir<»«li>u  of  lh» 
■  •     ■    •  •  -  jjiv*  ■IfiuJ  (ur 

eMfougoa*!gir« 


TttitmuiuintafMii'tdPu'lliimtnti 
till  iha  autumu  of  lUfiD.  when  It  guv 
ct  llw  tilKccn  w1k>  hail  biieii  in  (Tomi 
wrlL    Tim  Ititor  gavFrnmrni,  in  its  i 
Ramp,  whioh  »t  ilu«n  uonit  murr  in  EWiinklinr.    Thi 
poopjV,  finding  lliVDUvlvm  uwdo  l)ia  apart  wf 
unbiiinM  adv«ntur«ns  bF|{iia  lo  lunjif  fur  aiiBu) 
tiKMl  saj  rwipvclabja  klud  o(  gnTaruniciil.    A 
crinix,  OvaenI  Monk,  eraDmandor  of  tb*  r<>rcna  ii 
IsikI,  conceived  tka  douffn  of  Hitlliiif  the  nation 

ft  S«olUnd  (Januurj'  S,  WO),  with  n 


few 


CHAMBERS'S  INFORMATION  FOR  TUE  PEOPLE. 


lion  (Obruary  3),  and  was  i*eceived  with  feigned  respect 
by  the  Rump.  Some  resistance  was  attempted  by  Lam- 
bert, one  of  Cromwell's  otficers,  but  in  vain.  Ere  long, 
Monk  was  able  to  procure  the  restoration  of  t)ie  mem- 
bers who  had  been  excluded  from  I*arliament  by  Crom- 
well ;  who,  being  a  majority,  gave  an  immediate  ascen- 
dancy to  anti-republican  views.  As  soon  as  this  w:us 
effected,  an  act  was  passed  for  calling  a  new  and  fi'cely 
elected  Parliament ;  after  which,  the  existing  assembly 
immediately  dissolved  itself. 

The  new  Parliament  proved  to  bo  chiefly  composed 
of  Cavaliers  and  Presbyterians,  men  agreeing  in  their 
attachment  to  monarchy,  though  ditVering  in  many  other 
views.  After  some  cautious  procedure,  in  which  the 
fears  inspired  by  the  late  military  tyranny  were  con- 
spicuous, they  agreed  to  invito  the  king  from  his  retire- 
ment in  Holland,  and  to  restore  him  to  the  throne  lost 
by  his  father.  They  were  so  glad  to  escape  fi*om  the 
existing  disorders,  that  they  never  thought  of  making 
any  preliminary  arrangement  with  the  king  as  to  the 
extent  of  his  prerogative.  On  the  29th  of  May,  being 
his  thirtieth  birth-day,  Charles  II.  entei*cd  London 
amidst  such  frantic  demonstrations  of  joy,  that  he  could 
not  help  thuiking  it  his  own  fault,  as  he  said,  that  he 
had  been  su  long  separated  from  his  i>eople. 

One  of  the  first  measures  of  the  new  monarch  was 
the  passing  of  a  bill  of  indemnity,  by  which  all  per- 
sons concerned  in  the  late  popular  movements  were 
pardoned,  excepting  a  few  who  had  been  prominently 
concerned  in  bringing  the  king  to  the  block.  Harrison, 
Scrope,  and  a  few  other  regicidf s,  were  tried  and  exe- 
cuted ;  and  the  bodies  of  Cromwell,  l];eton,  and  Brad- 
shaw,  were  raised  from  the  grave  and  exhibited  ujwn 
gibbets.  In  Scotland  only  three  jwrsons  suffered — the 
Marquis  of  Argyle,  Johnston  of  Warriston,  and  Mr 
Gutliry,  a  clergyman  :  it  was  considered  remarkable, 
that  the  marquis  had  placed  the  crown  u(H)n  the  king's 
head  at  Scone  in  the  year  Itijl.  Excepting  in  these 
acts,  the  king  showed  no  desire  of  revenging  the  death 
of  his  father,  or  his  own  exclusion  from  the  throne. 
The  Parliament  which  called  him  honie  was  constituted 
a  legal  one  by  his  own  ratitication  of  ;in  act  for  that 
purpose.  In  the  sittlement  of  other  matters,  it  seemed 
the  prevailing  wiidi  that  all  the  institutions  of  the 
country  should  be  made  as  n(?arlv  what  thev  wi-rc  be- 
fore  the  civil  war  as  J)ll^siblt^  Thus  the  Kpiscopal 
Churcii  w:ls  estahlisht'ii  both  in  England  and  .scutlaud, 
though  n<»t  with«»ul  eaii<ing  abnut  a  ihini  of  tin*  elcrjry 
in  both  countries  to  roi-jii  tiu-ir  oliargcs.  The  btern 
and  enthusiastic  piety  wiiicu  iiruvaik-d  during  tlur  ci\il 
war,  was  now  treated  witli  riilicule,  and  tlie  most  of  the 
))eo]iie  vied  with  each  other  in  that  licentious  rint  and 
(Irunkenner--*  which  is  exntii-innod  by  all  systi-nis  of 
faith.  The  nation,  in  fact,  .^cenied  intoxicated  with  the 
safety  which  they  suj)jio8cd  themselves  to  have  at 
length  gained,  in  a  xt^t^tration  to  the  imperfect  ireeiiom 
they  fojoyeu  beloiv  llu*  civil  war. 

Irtland,  which,  during  the  Pn)tectoratc,  h:;d  been 
managed  by  Henry,  a  y..iuiiL;er  son  of  Cromwell,  ac- 
ceded to  the  Ui-»l"rat'(-;i  witii  as  nmcli  readiness  as 
any  other  ]>art  ol  the  ilriti.-h  d<»Miinii»ns.  An  act  was 
pasM:d  for  beltling  pn)]«eny,  by  wliich  tiie  Catholics 
obtained  M>me  slight  benetits,  but  Mhieh,  in  iis  main 
elltrcts,  c«mfirmed  the  rights  of  the  settlers  introduv-ed 
by  Cromwell. 

'  Thon^h  Charles  had  been  restored  wit ii  the  ap;>ro- 
bation  of  a  very  large  pcu'iioii  of  his  subject^,  bif  most 
/.►*alous  frirn«is  were  tlie  Kovalist.s  and  Kpi<c<.»}ialians ; 
hi'iice  he  almost  ininitdiat'.'lv  Mib.-^ideil  into  tin*  eiu- 
raett-r  ol  a  party  ruler.  It  was  d(.>emed  neces^ary  ihat 
he  should  maintain  an  armed  force  for  the  protection 
of  his  {KTsiin,  and  to  keep  down  popular  disturbances. 
lie  therefore  caused  .^eviral  horse  reiiinients  to  bo 
embodied  under  the  name  of  Lifcfiuards,  being  cbiefly 
composed  of  KoNaii-ot  l'»  ntlemen  upon  wliom  a  jn-rfeet 
dependence  coiild  be  ])j:ieed  ;  autl  be  afterwanls  added 
iHo  or  tbree  i«Kit  re^imentK,  the  whole  amounting  to 
abiiiit  five  tTi*<a  and  men.  T bo  kin:;  paid  these  troo[>s 
chicriv  out  of  tile  uioiiv-v  allowed  fur  his  own  buniK>rt, 

'     11-. 


for  Parliament  did  not  sanction  his  keeping  U] 
force,  and  the  nation  generally  beheld  it  with  si 
This  was  the  commencement  of  a  standing 
England. 

Personally  indolent,  dissolute,  and  deficient 
Bcientiousness,  and  surrounded  almost  exclus 
the  ministei*s  of  the  basest  pleasures,  Charles 
qualified  to  retain  the  sincere  res{>eet  of  a  peop 
habitual  character  is  grave  and  virtuous.  Hi 
vagant  expenditure  soon  cooleil  the  affection 
Parliament,  and  he  began  to  find  consideral 
eulties  in  obtaining  money.  To  relieve  hims< 
this  embarrassment,  he  accepted  i^40,UOO  fi 
French  king  for  Dunkirk,  a  French  port  wl 
been  acquired  by  Cromwell.  For  the  same  pur 
married  a  Portuguese  princess  of  the  Catholic 
who  po.sse.s.He<l  a  dowry  of  half  a  million.  He  a 
menced  (lGfJ4)  a  war  against  Holland,  for  ap 
no  better  reason  than  that,  in  applying  the 
mentary  subsidies  necessary  for  keeping  up  he 
he  might  have  an  opportunity  of  converting  pai 
money  to  his  own  personal  use. 

This  Dutcli  war  was  chiefly  conducted  by  e 
the  3d  of  June  ItibT),  an  English  fleet  of  114  sa 
Dutch  one  which  numbered  just  one  ship  le 
Lowestofte,  and  after  an  obstinate  tight  gainer 
plete  victory,  depriving  the  enemy  of  eigliteen 
and  compelling  the  rest  to  take  refuge  on  tli 
coast.  The  commander  on  this  occasion  w:is  tl 
of  York,  the  king's  younger  brother ;  a  man  oi 
application  and  mure  steady  principles,  but  w 
after  became  unpopular,  in  consequence  of  his 
himself  a  Catholic. 

Some  other  well-contested  actions  took  plac 
and  the  English,  upon  the  whole,  conflrmini  the 
supremacy.  (.)wing,  however,  to  a  failui*e  of  I 
plies,  the  king  was  ohligeHl  to  lay  up  his  best  v 
ordinary,  and  to  send  only  an  inferior  force  to  > 
Dutch  took  advantage  of  this  occurrence  to  sen 
up  the  Thames  (June  lU,  1G<>7),  which,  meeti 
no  adequate  resistance,  threatened  to  lay  the  c. 
ruins  and  de^^trov  its  shipping.  F(»rtunately,  ch 
admiral  did  not  think  it  exj)edient  to  make  this  . 
but  retired  with  the  ebb  t»t  the  ii<le,  after  havi 
and  burnt  nearly  twenty  veK-"N,  and  done  nm« 
damacje.  The  kin-;, linding  himself  rather  unpo' 
than  enriched  by  the  war,  .soon  aiier  concluded 

I'l.vGi  K  AM)  riiti:  or  l«>mm).v. — tk-imci  tk»n  in  s 

In  the  mean  time,  two  txtraordinary  calami 
befallen  the  metropolis.  In  the  sumn;er  uf  Itit 
dt?n  was  visited  by  a  plague,  which  swept  o; 
10U,OUO  people,  and  did  not  experi»';ic  r  any  ah 
till  tin;  approach  of  cold  weather.  (.>n  this  i 
th»'  city  ])resented  a  wide  and  heart-rending  j 
misery  an«l  desolation.  Rows  of  hou>es  stood  tei 
and  open  to  tlx*  winds  ;  tbe  chief  liioriiughfai 
overgrown  witli  jn"***-^.  The  few  individuals  w 
tured  abrc:ad,  walkeil  in  ti:e  middle  of  the  stre^ 
when  they  met,  declinetl  on  opposite  side»,  to  a 
coi;;.ict  of  eacii  other.  .\t  one  moment  weiv  hi 
ravings  of  delirium,  or  the  wail  tif  s»»rn»w,  fi 
infected  dw»*lling ;  at  another,  the  merry  song 
less  laui;h  from  the  tavern,  wheit*  men  were  he 
drown  in  debauchery  all  sen^o  of  their  awful  bi 
Since  IG*!'.*),  the  plague  ha^  n«it  a:;.iin  occurred 
don,  or  in  any  other  part  of  tbe  kiiii;dom. 

Thi'  second  calamity  was  a  contlagration,  whi 
menceil  im  tl>e  night  of  .*^und:iy  the  lid  of  Soj 
lt)'i;«;.  in  the  eastern  and  more  crowded  part  of 
The  direct i'lU  ami  violence  of  tb.e  \»  Ind,  the  com 
nature  t;!"  tbe  h.iuses  ami  the  deft-ctiv.'  arnmi 
of  tiJat  air«.'  for  eMin'jniMliiiig  lire-,,  ci»mb:ned  t«. 
the  pri>.;res   <if  tim   flame<.  whicb   ra;;ed   dur 
whoio  (>f  the  Week,  and  burnt  all  that  part  of 
which  lies  between  the  Tower  and  the  Temple. 
calamity,  l.'i,'-'**^  houses  and  r.:»  churches,  ei»v« 
all  4. JO  acres  of  ground,  were  destro\-cd.     The  1 
one  time  funned  a  ouiunm  a  mile  in  diAmct 


II  till-  uulialu  of  ifatlr 
to  ratulvt  binwir, 

cation  at  a  larp-  bti 


Par  a  coatuty  [vuit,  ano  of  thu  groiu]  moving^ipniijtp 

□r  llio  putille  ooDilucl  hnd  bnn  n  utodc;  dncntation  will 

.    (Irtad  d(  tlio  adhcRnls  i:if  tli«  rtomisli  aliaiob.    '~ 

It  did  not  ariwi  from  ■ii)'  fuw  uf  Ui«  numbin  or 
twlrtiaal  Btnogth  al  tlia  CAthnliL-*,  fur  titry  w<n«  V*  ~ 
uDoll  minarity  of  th«  iixlii>[i,  but  tfira  it  b«li#f,  | 

<    ToXty  •mtrrtuned,  t^^^^  llie  Cxilialick  wrupiad  M. 

r '  iidtnjr  or  cnwlty  wlucli  mijfhl  •com  ftToonbla  tu 
'■■■■■  rvMuUbMimuiit  nf  Iheir  ivliglon.  Th*  papubti- 
■tionih  imwU  inlUiiiat  by  Iho  atawod  Catlii " 
III  Dukaot  V<'rk,hDlr-DrvioinptiTBloth«sl  ,_  . 
1,1  llio  tutv  iiitri|pm  of  the  king  vllb  Ftadsb,  vrro  on- 
'  '  ' '  'tapom  tvntxietiuna 
oxcludu  llii^  dnlM 
In  Jli7S,*n  accaUDt  of  k  jilot, 
ipponed  lo  liftTO  been  (nrmed   by  tha  Papula,  for 


:::.•. }-r2Z?j5'i  ryj-jS-MATT'/v  ?•■•?.  rsz  people. 

«r---n^  «iit  mj;  i;m  mu  T^^ta^^ot.z  7^i'.\^,un.  -ru  ?:r-  'ar?ai  'Jie  rvsHuucna  if  :ae  p«<7pie  to  aJhere  to 

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iispmil  hj  an  Mdont  d 


11..  Ai. 


iultn,  vbieit  ihvj  iloeUnd  to 
>  wilhiigi  kDj  muc|iMa  u(  it^j 

iVIug  partj  itlU  e^lvil,  llii>u|h 

iKT  wsra  »ii>powHl  lo  liBvo  cfiiuiil*nt>)a  lo- 

Tii.-    l>«ip  of  Miiamonlh  tod  ih.    Ewl  or 

Arip'lw  (Ula  UtUr  irf  whom  liad  b«Dn  oindtniocJ  tu 

dokUi  In  SoDtUnd,  fir  itddiog  ■  qua]ifl«tiaa  (o  Iba 

U«l«atli,  bul  lud  aaoiptd)  met  b  liolUnJ.  nnil  pro- 

('  ecbKl  two  m^uato  invsoiDiUi  lor  U>*  purfinn  ot  ncpvU 
in|c  Kilui  Jiunnit-     Tti*  funun-  tcoii  Allrr  Uadpd  in  lb* 


hiiiwclf  at  Ui*bM4<>r£0n0  p«r*Du>,  tJi»u)Cli  imcularl; 
aroisd.  At  mv«t«1  pbuuii  ha  <uiii«»d  lilmMli  u>  tw 
of  Port*'  pmclainKid  luag,  vhi^  oITiaideJ  many  of  hb  jiriueipal 
DnolHw  >dh«rMiUi,  M  Hmiiuiislaol  mth  hi*  preilani  uip^*- 
luuDla.  l)po»  tlia  wtuila,  hUMnduct  vu  ncil>ni»rg«(ia 
«ui)U|tb  for  tll<^  DunagcmFiii  of  (uch  nn  cDtaa-priim. 
RuiuK  UUckcd  by  the  king's  Croopi  acnr  Driilirnwatcr. 
hi*  Inhnlry  fooglit  wilb  •oni«  xpuril,  bat.  bclox  SwHirud 
by  tba  otmlry,  and  b/  the  duln  lunuiei^  n-cr*  bblifDi 
III  f[iTB  my.  Uanmouth  ww  Ukcn  And  «ucDtfiL 
.Maiij  n{  hib  ft 


CHAMBERS'S  INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


butchery  of  several  hundred  men  of  low  condition,  who 
were  unable  of  themselves  to  do  any  harm  to  the  go- 
vernment, was  looked  upon  as  a  most  unjustifiablo  piece 
of  cruelty,  even  if  it  had  been  legally  done ;  and  the 
principal  blame  was  popularly  ascribed  to  the  king. 

The  Eurl  of  Argyle  sailed  in  May  with  a  correspond- 
ing oxpt^dition,  and  landed  in  that  part  of  the  West 
Ilighhiuds  which  owned  his  authority.  Unfortunately 
for  him.  the  government  had  received  warning,  and 
set3:ed  all  the  gentlemen  of  his  clun,  upon  whom  he  had 
chiefly  de|>cnded.  He  nevertheless  raised  between  two 
and  three  thousand  men,  and  made  a  timid  advance  to 
Glasgow,  in  the  expectation  of  being  joined  by  the  ])er- 
secuted  I'resbyteriauH  of  that  part  of  the  country.  Be- 
ing surrounded  on  the  march  by  various  parties  of 
troops,  he  dispersed  his  army,  and  sought  to  escape  in 
disguise,  but  was  taken,  brought  to  Edinburgh,  and 
executed.  Thus  terminated  the  last  elTort  made  by  the 
Whi;{  party  to  ameliorate  the  despotic  sway  of  the 
Stuarts. 

A&UITOAUY  MEASUR£S  OF  TIIL  KING. 

Encouraged  by  his  successes,  James  conceived  that 
ho  might  safely  begin  the  process  of  changing  the  esta- 
blished religion  of  the  country.  On  the  plea  (»f  his 
supremacy  over  the  church,  he  took  the  liberty  of  dis- 
])ensing  with  the  test-oath  in  favour  of  some  Catholic 
officers,  and  thus  broke  an  act  whicli  was  looked  upon, 
uufl(>r  existing  circumstances,  as  the  chief  safeguard  of 
the  Protestant  faith.  His  Parliament,  servile  as  it  was 
in  temporal  matters,  took  the  alarm  at  this  spiritual 
danger,  and  gave  the  king  so  effectual  a  resistance  tliat 
he  resorted  to  a  dissolution.  Transactions  exactly 
similar  took  place  in  Scotland. 

HeedleKs  of  these  s^Tnptoms,  he  proclaimed  an  uni- 
versal toleration,  for  the  purpose  of  relieving  the  Ca- 
tholics, and  thus  assumed  the  unconstitutional  right  of 
dis])en&ing  with  acts  of  Parliament.  The  nation  was 
thrown  by  this  measure,  and  by  the  numerous  promo- 
tions of  Roman  Catholics,  iti:o  a  state  (»f  great  alarm ; 
even  the  clergy,  who  had  hi  i'li  so  eager  to  pi*eaoh  an 
implicit  obedionec  to  the  royal  will,  began  to  soo  that 
it  might  bo  iiroductive  of  much  danger.  When  Janu>9 
commanded  that  his  proclamation  iit'  toleration  hliduld 
be  ri'a<l  in  every  i)ul]>it  in  the  country,  »)nly  twa  hun- 
drrd  of  the  clergy  obeyed.  Six  of  the  l)isluii»s  j'»ineii  in 
a  respvctful  petition  ui^ain&t  the  order ;  but  th>^  king 
di^clared  that  document  to  hv.  :i  M-ditious  libel,  an<l 
threw  the  petitioners  int«)  the  Tuwer.  In  June  HiMH, 
they  were  tried  in  Wc>:tniin.ster  Hull,  and,  to  the  inli- 
nite  jt)y  of  the  natinn,  aojnitted. 

Blinded  by  religitnis  zeal,  the  king  proeeeded  on  hi^ 
fatal  et>urse.  In  delianee  of  the  law,  ii»>  held  open  in- 
tercourse with  the  lV)p«',  f«>r  tlio  restoration  <tf  Britnin 
to  the  btisom  of  the  Knniir^h  chureh.  He  calle.l  Ca- 
tholic  h»nls  to  the  privy  c(»uncil,  and  even  j>Iae(Ml  s.  i.ie 
in  the  c^ibinet.  th:i]M'ls,  by  hi :  iu-tii;anM:i,  wvrr  rvrry 
vhere  built,  an«l  ijniuks  und  pr..  -it^  \.i"ut  M|u-jiiy  :il:i);i 
hi«i  ]ialace.  A  eourt  <if  hi',ii  e  i:i;:iii*;'inii — a  crui'l  in- 
strument of  piiwi-r  under  Ciiarlf'.  I was  t'n-eted.  anil 

before  this  every  elorical  j)erson  vii«i  gave  any  ot^'eneo 
%•*  the  kiui;  was  suninmned.  He  i\\-i  e\eite«l  grtaf  in- 
•liiinalion,  by  violentiy  tiirnsting  a  <'atIi.)lio  upon  Mag- 
il.i-  n  ('(»llei;»»,  at  t^xtnrd,  as  its  lii-ail.  au'I  f'\])»-llin:;  ;;m* 
Tnernhers  for  their  resistance  to  his  will.  Tuliiiir  i".  tl- 
ini:  ^a»  wnnnd  to  tie"  hi;;liest  plfeli  di  f\cli.  j:.i  .i  hv 
:l:i'  i|u«'pn  being  (h'Iiv«.-nd  (June  \'K  l*;!;;!)  dl"  a  sun, 
will*  niisjht  he  e\]r»et''d  tn  pi-rpetnali-  ih'  (^itJiolic  re- 
i".'4i<»ii  In  tlie  enuntrv,  and  whom  nianv  su-o'-e:-'-!  t'»  \k: 
:■  -u])|H"*iiiiii)us  ehild,  bnur^hl  fnru  ird  Si.iiily  ior  that 
jiwr|i-i  r. 

1 1."-  tlisatlretiKii  ]^ru!u'*(  d  by  thi'-"  I'in'uui'^tance..  er:- 
t'Mi'letl  I't  I'viTy  ola»:s  (■!'  thi'  king's  Huhji-ets,  exe«'pt  the 
>^mall  l»"ly  ct  U<»Tnan  Catholies,  many  of  wh'ini  conM 
n.it  h>l»»  i-e'^arding  t!ie  rojal  measures  as  ini]>ru(lent. 
'I'hi-  'luri-'s  were  i-nnrred  at  the  ruin  tlin-.-.tened  to  tl:e 
(''iure-i  I't  lOnijiand,  wliirh  they  regarilod  as  the  gi*nn«i 
:-npji(»rl  of  cnn'iervalive  ]>rinoiples  in  the  empire.  The 
Will'.'  .  who  hail  alre.-'.lv  made  maTiv  sfriMvimuK  efr»rts 

I  ;.-2 


to  exclude  or  expel  the  king,  were  now  more  in 
against  him  tlian  ever.  The  clergy,  a  popuUr  a 
fluential  body,  were  indignant  at  the  injuries  ii 
upon  their  church ;  and  even  the  dissenters,  i 
comprehended  in  the  general  toleration,  saw  too  > 
through  its  motive,  and  were  too  well  convineed 
illegality  of  its  manner,  and  of  the  danger  of  its 
as  affecting  the  Protestant  faith,  to  be  exemptet 
the  general  sentiment.  But  for  the  birth  of  the 
of  Wales,  the  people  at  large  might  have  been  coi 
to  wait  lor  the  relief  which  was  to  be  expectec 
the  death  of  the  king,  from  the  succession  of  tlie  P 
of  Orange,  who  was  a  Protestant,  and  united 
chief  military  defender  of  that  interest  in  Eurof 
this  hope  was  now  shut  out,  and  it  was  necus 
resolve  upon  some  decisive  measures  for  the  si 
the  national  religion. 

THE  REV0LL"n0.N. 

In  this  crisis,  some  of  the  principal  nobility  and 
with  a  few  clergymen,  united  in  a  secret  addresi 
Prince  of  Orange,  calling  upon  him  to  come  ov 
an  armed  force,  and  aid  them  in  protecting  the 
and  liberties.  This  prince,  who  feared  that  I 
would  soon  be  joined  to  France  agriinst  the  few  i 
ing  I*rotc8tant  powers,  and  also  that  his  profs] 
the  succes.aion  in  that  country,  as  nepliew  and 
law  of  the  king,*  were  endangered,  listened  re 
this  call,  and  inmiediately  collected  a  large  ll* 
army,  comprising  many  individuals,  nativcf«  • 
Scotland  and  England,  who  had  fled  from  the 
government  of  the  Stuart  princes.  The  prep: 
for  the  expedition  were  conducted  with  great  i 
and  James  was  ])artly  blinded  to  them,  by  a 
that  tlieir  only  object  was  to  frighten  him  into  ; 
connexion  with  I'rancc,  in  order  to  make  him 
to  his  hubjccts.  When  lie  was  at  length  aR«nrc< 
minister  in  Holland  that  he  migiit  immediately 
a  formidable  invasion,  he  gnsw  pale,  and  drop 
letter  from  his  hands.  He  immediately  »»rderft 
and  lari^ir  army  t<i  1-  •  eo]le«'tod,  and,  tliat  he  m 
gain  tl'.o  a(recti«.ns  <  j"  his  sul-ject-,  he--  called  a 
mfT\t,  and  undid  inanv  of  his  late  measures.  Tilt 
ju»*t!y  su-pected  his  eeine«ssiuMS  to  be  insiiicc 
were  eonlirmed  in  tin  ir  l.i'di'-f,  wlu  ii,  on  a  rui 
the  J'riniM'  ol"  Orango  heinij  ]'»'t  h;.ek  by  a  str 
recalh'd  the  writs  for  as.vmhli:i'::  I'.iiliaTP.i'nt. 

On  tile   li^th  of  Oetobi-r,  the  J'nr.ce  id"  Ura 

sail  with  Mi  ships  of  war,  -o  fr:L:ate-^,  'J'*  iirc-sh 

.5ni)  transports,  contaiiiin;;  I.VOIM)  land-troop"*.  . 

oeeasione  I  s<nne  danu.:  •  and  delay;  but  he  si 

1')  s-ea  a^'.iin,  and  jiroi-v-iid  wiih  a  fair  winii  al 

j  British  Ciiannel,  exhi'nitin.;  from  his  own  vessc 

on  wliieli  were  ini-er;li'd  iiie  words,  **  Tin:  pRf 

I  iv:::.n;in.\  am>  'iiii-  I.i!ii:Kin-..>  or   Kn(;i,\m>,"  v 

!  appfisite   motto  of  h:s   lai.iily,  "  Jc  Mnintienii 

'  will  maintain.  Ashe  pa-.-»ed  between  Dover  and 

Iiin  nrmament  was  visible  to  erowds  of  sp»'c!a 

■  ii.)th  sliores,  whose  ftjidini^s  were  nmch  t'xeited 
by  its  appearane<»  and  its  well-known  purpos 
l.Jii^lish  lleet  beins;  detained  at  Harv.ieli  by  t! 
winil  whieh  wa^  .s'>  favourable  to  the  prinei*.  h< 
(N'iveml>,'r  '>)  witlmut  (ipj)<i.,itioii  at  Turbriy.  aM> 
diately  proceedi-d  t*)  cirenlat*-  a  manile.-t.i.  d»ci.i 
f;ri«*va!i«'i-i  of  tli«-  kin;^'dnm,  an<l  ])roini  in.',  v 
•uppiir!  <i:  t!.-  jM  (iplc,  to  rrdriss  them. 

At  the  lii'^r,  th-  re  *•■■«  liii  d  > mie  reason  to  i' 
the  jirine*  wo.  il  i  ml  nii  ef.  with  adr..;Mate  sup{. 
his  inaivii  to  iv\i>t:'r,  and  f  )r  ei'jriit  da\s  after  j 

■  tlii're,  he  wa-*  not  joined  iiv  ;!iiy  person  of  const 
Tin-  nati(;n,  however,  soon  Ix-eanii'  alive  to  th 
*-ity  <.i'  i^ivini;  iijm  eneoniM.:emiiit.  The  ijentry  «» 
ai'.d  Somersi'tshires  tormed  an  assoeiati«»n  in  hi* 
Til''  Karlsof  Bt-dford  anel  Ahingdtin,  wiTn  othiT 
e!"  distinction,  rej)aire4l  to  his  t|uartersat  ICxete 

*  Tlii'  mutlii.Tiif  tin*  jirinM'  w.i-  >litry  Stu;trt.  flihs.1 
.  f>r  Cliriilr-.  I.,  ami  bi-ttT'-f  Jjiiix-.  II.    Fajlins  the  iiif.ii 
I  of  W.ili'.,  I:ii  own  wjfo.aml  tlie  IVintTss  Anne,  tlie  two  i 
i  I'f  ft  I' '.  inc,  h"  W; «:  till'  hiir  of  t'li-  |:riti«i|)  »r.iivii. 


:3 
.2; 


■,    Wiuiua  ■D'l 

willtn^Mi  tn  ratify  tliit 

kiiu  util  i)un»n  Juiuly^ 

\  WUIiMq  i  kn'i  the  ir.d- 

. «]  Mil  a  Tuliiitiwiii. 


UpuiM  Ottbuiioa  bal  b««n  mupundad  bf  tlie  ivpil 
airtiii'irily,  ^  [laUid  uOlew  nwr*  filtvd  by  tlimi,  Ull, 
tba'tgh  th»  d-liiMiiilio.l  din-ia'  *"t"  mil  dsprived  aiiimtr 
bvnHKMx,  vrj  liltln  IIIlio  wfta  paid  In  Unnii.  The  tieo- 
ro|{ftJ  ottiui  wu  lulil  1}  tliR  Euk  nf  Tyro<iitn<d,  >  vjoteut 
ijiij  imiljirloTii  juiji.,7  mull,  dupOMul  In  aniintl  tlim  king 
'  ■  ■I'  :jiirci^  uid  nmi>l»flO,  in  tli* 
'  '  iJirow  tlin  enuutry  inl>i  Ihi 
'irpoojiltollirsr.  ImliiB  ehlofly 
.,<».tltA«.T,^ ^^ 


CUAMBERS'S  INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLL. 


Early  in  the  spring  of  1689,  Jamea  proceeded  from 
France  to  Ireland,  where  he  was  soon  at  the  head  of  a 
laree  though  ill-disciplined  army.  He  immediately  rati- 
fied an  act  of  the  Irish  Parliament  for  annulling  that 
settlement  of  the  Protestants  upon  the  lands  of  Catho- 
lics, which  had  taken  place  in  the  time  of  Cromwell, 
and  another  for  attaintin;;  two  thousand  persons  of  the 
Protestant  faith.  The  Protestants,  finding  themselves 
thus  dispossessed  of  what  they  considered  their  pro- 
perty, and  expensed  to  the  vengeance  of  a  majority  over 
whom  they  had  long  ruled,  fled  to  Londonderry,  Innls- 
killen,  and  other  fortified  towns,  wliere  they  made  a 
desperate  resistanco,  in  tlie  hope  of  being  speedily  suc- 
coui*ed  by  King  William.  That  sovereign  now  led  over 
alarge  army  to  Ireland,  and  (July  1 )  attacked  the  native 
forces  under  his  father-in-law  at  th«  fords  of  the  Boyne, 
near  the  village  of  Dunorc,  where  he  gained  a  complete 
victory. 

James  was  needlessly  dispirited  by  this  disaster,  and 
lost  no  time  in  sailing  again  to  France.  In  reality,  the 
Irish  made  a  better  appearance,  and  fought  more  vigor- 
ously, after  the  battle  of  the  Boyne,  than  before  it.  The 
Duke  of  Berwick,  a  natural  son  of  James,  and  the  Earl 
of  Tyi'connol,  still  kept  the  field  with  a  large  body  of 
cavalry,  and  the  infantry  were  in  the  mean  time  etfcc- 
tually  protected  iu  the  town  of  Limerick.  William  in- 
vested this  town,  and,  iu  one  assault  upon  it,  lost  two 
thousand  men,  which  so  disheartened  him,  that  he  went 
back  to  England,  leaving  Iiis  officers  to  prosecute  the 
war.  The  1  rish  army  afterward^  fought  a  regular  battle 
at  Aghriin,  when,  partly  owing  to  the  loss  of  their  brave 
leader,  St  Huth,  they  were  totally  routed.  The  remains 
of  the  Catholic  furer>s  t<Xjk  refuge  in  Limerick,  where 
they  finally  wuhmitti'il  in  terms «»!  a  treaty  which  seemed 
to  secure  the  Catholic  population  in  all  desirable  rights 
and  privileges.  It  was  agreed  that  they  should  receive 
a  general  pardon ;  that  their  estates  should  be  restored, 
their  attainders  annulled,  and  their  outlawries  reversed ; 
that  Roman  Catholics  should  enjoy  the  same  toleration 
as  in  the  days  of  Charles  II.,  and  not  be  disturlieil  in 
the  exorcise  of  tlieir  n-lii^ion;  that  they  tliouM  be 
restond  to  all  the  jirivilfj^es  of  suliji-cts,  on  simply 
swearin;;  allegiance  to  the  kinij  ami  (pietn  ;  anrl  tliai  j 
such  as  cliose  to  follow  the  tortunes  of  James  (of  whom 
there  was  a  vast  numlM*r),  should  be  conveyed  to  the 
Continent  at  the  cxpen-^e  of  government. 

King  William,  \vlio<e  4lisj'i">.i!ion  was  tolerant,  ]iro- 
mised  to  procure  a  ratification  of  this  treaty  by  I'ar- 
liament,  Init  he  wan  thwarterl  in  hih  desii;n.  An  act 
wiiK  passed  in  Kn:;!an<l,  nukin;;  it  necessary  for  all 
members  uf  the  Irihh  Parliament,  and  all  ]>ersons  fill- 
ing civil,  military,  and  «-eeie>iastieal  (ifUct-'s  in  Ireland, 
to  take  an  «>ath  ahjnrin;;  the  most  iinjiorlant  doctrines 
of  the  Catholic  laiih.  After  this  had  taken  etlVot,  in 
the  filling  (-f  the  Irish  Pariiamcnt  with  Protestants,  au 
act  was  jassed  by  that  aMSt-mhly,  profes>ing  V)  be  a 
Confirmati<»n  of  the  treaty  of  Limeriek,  but  in  reality 
putting  the  Catholics  into  a  ^^or.-re  condition  than  before. 

iii;niN  or  wii.i.ivM  iir. 

Though  all  military  <ij>position  was  thns  t)vercon'>e, 
William  soon  found  difliculties  of  another  kind  iu  th.e 
management  of  the  Ktate.  The  Tories,  th«Mii»h  glad  to 
save  the  estahlihhed  church  by  calling  in  his  interlVr- 
enc'.',  had  submitted  with  no  good  grace  to  the  necessity 
of  inakin*^  him  king;  and  no  souik  r  was  the  dangtr 
past,  than  their  usual  principles  of  hereditary  ri;:ht 
were  in  a  great  mea.-iure  revived.  I'rom  the  n.ime  t»f 
the  exili  d  monarch,  thev  now  be£ran  to  be  known  bv 
tin?  a]<{>ell.iti:in  of  Jncohiti's.  Jame>*s  hoj)es  of  a  resto- 
ration weri'  thuH  lor  a  l«»ng  time  kejt  alive,  and  the 
peace  ('t  Wilh.tm's  mind  was  so  much  enihittered,  us 
t-»  maK<."  bin  •.nvtri'i::nty  ap]>enr  a  dear  purchase.  Per- 
haps tbi'  oiil\  ein-niii-fjinee  wliii'h  reconciled  the  kin:; 
to  Wx-i  sitn.it ion,  was  th«'  gre:it  additional  force  he  could  , 
n<fw  l.-iing  a^am-f.  t!ii'  ainl^iiintus  di  •'i:;ns  of  Louis  \IV.  ' 
Al!:\i»it  tiiMM  I'i-  a-'f'— i'-n  he  iiittTui  hearti"y  into  the  | 
Conilii;Mt:t>ii  of  l^ni'i)}<e:in  p  iwi  r-,  Itii'ch'Tliiisi;  this  war- 
like  jinnee,  and  con'.iuctid  inilK.iry  o^icration^  a^ain^t  ' 

101 


him  every  summer  in  person.  The  neceasi 
supplies  for  that  purpose  rendered  him  u 
he  had  been  willing,  to  resist  any  liberal  mi 
posed  to  him  in  Parliament,  and  hence  hi 
the  famous  Triennial  Act  in  1G94,  by  whic 
pointed  that  a  new  Parliament  should  be  • 
third  year.  In  this  year  died  Queen  Ma 
offspring;  after  which  Willia'hi  reigned  x 
narch. 

While  William  was  treated  in  Englan 
than  justice,  he  lost  all  his  popularity  in 
consequence  of  two  separiitc  acts,  chara 
great  cruelty  and  injustice.  An  order  had 
commanding  all  the  Highland  chiefs,  under 
and  sword,  to  give  in  their  Bubmission  bef* 
day  of  the  year  l^iOl.  One  individual — M 
Glencoe — was  prevented  by  accident  fnm 
the  day,  and  letters  of  fire  and  sword,  si- 
king,  wero  accordingly  issued  agaiust  him. 
tary  party  intrusted  with  this  duty,  instea 
advancing  to  the  t;isk,  came  among  the  clai 
partook  of  their  hospitality  and  amusement: 
mdicated  their  intentions  till  the  morning 
of  February  (1002),  when  they  attacked  tlu 
ing  people  in  their  be<ls,  and  mercilessly  j 
came  in  their  way.  Thirty-eight  persons,  ji 
chief  and  his  wife,  were  slaughtered,  and  i 
died  in  the  snow,  as  they  vainly  tried  to 
more  atrocious  action  diK.*s  not  stain  mod 
though  the  barbarous  circumstances  of  th 
were  more  owing  to  feelings  of  private  rev 
part  of  some  of  the  officials  of  government 
than  to  the  intentions  of  William. 

Two  or  three  years  after,  the  Scottish  p 
to  turn  their  attention  to  commerce,  by  whi 
great  advant.iges  gained  by  neighbouring 
thoy  planiK^d  a  colony  on  the  Isthmus  of  \h 
they  thought  might  become  an  emporium  fo 
and  Indian  produce.  They  sub>cribed  ar 
selves,  for  this  ]inrpo.se,  no  le.-s  thaii  .C  1I'0,«M 
wa^  added  more  tii:in  a<  much  ai:ain  bv  n 
L<»ndon  and  Holland.  The  jealou-y  of  ot 
companies  and  thennionitrance>of  the  Sp; 
aj»prehendiil  home  int«rJert  nc  \Nith  their  < 
diieed  the  kinu  to  wiihilraw  hi-;  conntcnan 
sehenn-,  aft<'r  heliad  ^anctionell  it  hvaetof  1 
hut,  nevertlu'less  (I 'if:!),  u  gallant  expediti 
orit  by  the  Sci«ls,  who  f-nniled  a  town  called 
bnr^li,  about  midway  between  Portohello  i 
^'i-na,  and  under  the  ninth  degree  of  hititiu" 
the  winter  months,  every  thing  seenuMi  like 
the  expectation**  of  the  colonists  ;  but  snmr 
di-^ease,  and,  on  their  j»rovi>ions  running  low, 
to  their  infinite  consternation,  that  they  Ci 
supplied,  the  Spanish  and  British  c<>loni>ts  i 
I'ourin;!  countries  bein;;  forbidden  to  tleal 
In  May  and  Sejiteinhor  ir.99,  ere  intelligeu 
circumstances  could  n-ach  home,  two  other 
had  s;nled,  c«intainin;^  loiiD  men,  who  were 
thi'ir  arrival  in  the  ^anie  dis;ihfA'rs.  .Vfter 
swept  ol!"  many  hundreds,  the  remaindi  r  wt 
by  the  Sj'anianN,  who  j'nteniled  a  ri^'hi  to  t 
aiid  t<»  these  haUL'hty  enemies,  who  wen*  Co 
in  their  procfetlin^'s  by  tin-  British  soverci 
fortunate  coh-iiv  was  id)ii}:t>)l  to  burreniler. 
ovi-r  rei^ainei  their  natne  country,  and  the 
V(-te<l  in  thir  \Midort:'.-aii«r  were  irrecov* 
The  nsi'-sacre  ef  ( ileneoc,  and  tlu*  Harieii 
excited  tile  m'«st  biiii'r  le»'liuL,'s  ai,Minst  the 
bna.sts  of  the  .Scottish  nation,  am«ing  who: 
bile  parly  iju-ncelorw.ird  Im;j.ui  ti»  a*<s:uuie  a 
a]ipearance. 

The  peace  of  Kyswiok,  concluded  in  1»^1'? 
tin?  Frencli  jiower  w.im  conlinni  tv>  due  hmil.- 
^\'il.ianl  to  sp<-n«l  the  conciudiiii;  years  of  1 
p<.-ace.  In  I7''i',  in  c<ni^idi-ration  tliathean* 
in-law  Anne  l.ad  no  cliiMren.  the  famous  / 
Cession  w.i«i  p.is-^-d,  by  whieh  tin*  cr»)WH,  f 
two  iitdi\idua>>,  was  bellied  up-'U  the  next 


iiial  tolilus,  *apa  <il>t*n/  Iff 


(»    MlifitW*   >^IItIi«iMtB   fcH'i  l««i   hid  it  J 


ftjing  amv,  it-j;!  Ii.r  die  mrn' 
■Jildit.  llii^o  jiil)n);iinl>(ii  j 
M  (if  Ttfatur  IwnLi  (>>r  ilh   .'<- 

nriwakinK.uCH-MnH-i     i 
-Mil,  DP  Uimi^ti  Urn  II. 

p4  iiKTiltw  lii»t     hi  li'" 


•liDuU  Ik  a  tft 
•aitrim,  aaHlm 
i|  frani  Engihli 


tf  Xtm  WiQkiu  niiufUb«<I  Sir  Wniiun 
It  fi£6aJ  kiul  tvhilisopluinl  wrtlr, 
~  ~    '~M(1  the  hDnoaroT  fint  ouin- 


of  t!w  ogo  "»•  Jtiliii 
of  aa  htaj  on  llm  irniniD  Urid4mtaa>1- 
Tolonilica,  »i>J  <ptb«r  imrlai.  llirtiop 
hif%  i>  ■  uril>r  iif  atiKftiil  winiiiiiu. 
!»■  ro  fotitii  UinslBni  !■  Ibat  of  JdLd 
.  1  for  hb  riii-rnllBHrlanf  pwurv. 
H  ^r  Vlrjii  Biul  JnrouL 


I'.-! 


tat'  tiy  i> 

KuoJux 


rlianieiii,  at 


lliainsdra  ao  (fl^ituaiJf  In  I  Im  ^ 

Id  ubtiin  m  aou  wublitig  tho  qi 

miufonvri  fin  Ihe  amsgnnnil  uf  an  uokm.    Tlia  aiMi 

■fpinnltO,  tiiirt}'  oo  msL  tidr,  wirv,  with  liardly  an 

■nm'iiti'iii,  tli«  fri«DJ*  of  tbv  Court  atici  uf  tti*  Kirvghi- 

cion  Si-tllpmiint ;  luul  ch"  tn-My  arci>rdiii)t]y  WM  (racs^d 

wiUxiUt  liiOinull^. 

lti<lcI.iUr  I7«JIS,  Ihlt  ducninwilwiMiratnallUdNitha 
AniiiU^d  I'uluuiiuii,  kD4  WW  fonnd  lo  DDototii  iha  feW 
luwiiii  |>rinclj>*l  paint*  1 — that  tba  (wa  nadona  wuw  to 
In  Jndiui<)iiblv  uniwd  undo-  una  gonrtmiuit  aod  lr|tia- 

nilonl  law  ;  tlir  emva  to  b«  iu  tb*  Uotne  of  Kanuvec ; 
ihn  Soul*!)  E'Twbytvriaa  ebnrch  to  ba  Diurantntd; 
fun;  dvn  iiiiiiiitMn  to  b«  Mot  br  the  Scott^  Riiintic* 
BDil  bui^glii  to  tlia  liouM  at  Caaxatnn;  u^  uxunv 
el.!r6ve  poita  to  to  wnt  lo  flm  \lv\»i'T  Wu'iieVi  'Cu* 

ii"Wmj  lhatUBtubct<iil*\'i»t4.W'..''.v '-' — '"-•— 

of  tileDlcmioQut  VtiQ  SojtdlViivv^^''  ^ 


CHAMBERS'S  INFORMATION  FOR  THK  PEOPLE. 


Tiigli^li  (fur  tiic  la t tor  people  already  owe<l  sixteen 
intiliDiiH),  an  t'lpiivaUiit  viaji  to  lie  given  to  Scotland, 
amounting  to  m-urty  funr  iiundrvd  thouMand  pounds, 
which  waM  to  aid  in  renewing  tlu'  coin,  and  dthvr  ob- 
jects. The^e  tcmia  were  regarded  in  Scotlantl  i\s  niise- 
mUy  inadequate ;  and  the  very  idea  of  the  loss  of  an 
independent  legiMlature  and  a  place  anion;;  ^nvern- 
mentA,  raised  their  utmost  indignation.  Nevertheless^ 
hy  dint  of  bribery,  the  union  was  carried  through  Tar- 
hament ;  uiid,  from  the  1st  of  May  17()7,  tiie  tx\o  c>iun- 
trien  fonno<l  «)ne  state,  under  the  title  of  the  Kin;;dum 
of  (jircat  iiritain. 

nu:ii  cm  lu'ii  kntiilsiasm. 

Since  the  Ucvolution,  the  W'hii;*;  might  be  considered 
ns  the  predominant  |Uirty  in  Kii;;land.  They  almost 
exchi»ively  constituted  the  ministrp's,  and  a  hin;o  ma- 
jority in  the  rurliaments,  of  Kin^'  William.  The  sen- 
timents f>f  the  fjueen  were  of  a  ditl'erent  cast  from 
tlieirs.  .She  disresjwetod  the  1  devolution  Settlement, 
by  which  she  reigned  ;  and  was  mon.>  zt>aiously  attached 
than  thi>y  to  the  (huroliof  Kngland,  in  all  its  doctrinea, 
praetieeH.  and  privileges.  As  liio  remembrance  «»f  the 
erron  of  King  Jui;\fH  faded  Inim  the  public  rec<>IIccti<in, 
or  w<'re  put  out  of  view  by  iii»>re  iveent  grievances,  the 
people  began  to  part:ike  more  geni-raliy  of  the  i\^T\ 
spirit.  The  Tariiament  which  they  returned  at  the 
beginning  of  the  new  reiijn,  ccuitained  a  much  hirger 
admixtui'e  of  that  |Kirty  than  the  former  one.  The 
Tory  feeling  of  b«ith  people  and  I'arlianient  chiefly  took 
the  direction  of  a  strong  attaclnnent  to  the  C'liuirh  of 
I-jUgland,  whieh  they  wished  to  maintain  in  uncompro- 
nii-'inf;  supremacy,  and  in  all  itn  privileges;  while  the 
Whig  party,  in  general,  were  favourable  t»)  the  toleration 
callMJ  for  by  tlnr  dissenters.  The  distinction  of  High 
Church  and  I.«iw  Chiireh  now  became  conspicuous,  the 
one  phrase  implying  the  eccle*«iaslical  views  of  tiie 
Tories,  while  the  other  referred  to  those  of  the  Whi^«i. 
In  this  J'arliament,  the  House  of  Commons  pas'ed  a 
bill  against  tM'rusiona/  cnrijhnnitt/,  by  whieh  ]ienaltii>s 
were  inipo«<ed  on  all  persons  in  ottice  w  ho  RhouM  attend 
dissent in;r  places  of  wnrship  ;  but  it  was  thniwn  out  by 
the  rpjMT  llt>u<(s  in  whieh  Xlw  bislmps  cifatMl  by 
\\'iiiiiim  v(it»d  ;Ji;:ii:>t  it. 

An  JMipv:;-!' nt  act  of  the  mini -ilry  raised  the  lli_di 
(.'liureh  eiif  ■.«i-ia*'iii  t»)  an  e\tr:ii'r(liji  irv  hei/lit.  A 
divine  of  \vA»  rir.r  i  .  ti-,  n;uns-.l  H«-nrv  S.elh'vt  n-.J.  ii:»ii 
pn-jiehed  a  ^ii>l«"n:  m  riri«-u,  in  whi'-h  he  -e<M:iiii  to  r  :M 
np'iii  ihi-  p'.-iijilf  t.)  taK'"  up  arm-  in  •!  lene-*  «-f  tln-.r 
en<1.4nL'eriil  <'lnireli.  Tlh'  niinisTiT.-  wi-v'  "^o  wi;.\  ;m 
I'l  i;ivt'  ti.i-  man  a  .-oli'inn  trial,  durini;  wliieh  the  j»«Mi|iif 
v«'!-e  s  •  tuniul'":  mi-Iv  in  his  favfur,  that,  ll'Mn:,'li  dr- 
e'ared  i:nilty.  ii  w.is  luund  iIllpos^il'le  ti»  iuMiet  njM'ii 
hiui  ir.f.yv  th::ii  ;<  nominal  piinishment.  After  the  trial, 
he  ri  I'l-ii*  d  m..r«*  ii:urks  nf  pnhlie  rev»reno«'  and  lutnuur 
ilianwcre  <-ver  hevt.iwi-il  nn  tli<*  r^reatest  nati'>nal  beni-- 
tai'tiir.  In  pn»|M.rtiiin  ti>  tin*  pi>j  ularify  ef  Hr  Saelie- 
\'-ri'll,  was  the  li'»«*>  iif  piiblii.*  i.iVdiir  e\jMTii'nLvd  by  tl'j- 
^^'ili:;  party.  Almiit  ih"  *-ame  time,  tliri  ni,'h  !->!!ir  e<iirt 
iii!ri:;ne-,  they  lurfi  i:«'il  all  remainin:;  lavi-nr  witl:  Th«ir 
i"Val  mi'-trex".     Mi*s  Ma-hain.  a  ladv  lA'  the  e-'urt,  ;ind 

m  m 

!.i\i)i;rit4-  «if  the  ijiutM,  h;"l  cniifriw  il  to  intnulnei'  int) 
Til--  e;tliini'i  two  Turv  s;.i:'-::ieN,  Mr  llnlMrt  llarii-v, 
:i  ■••■rwanU  i!:irl  nl  < 'vt.-r-l,  anil  Mr  ll«'i:i-v  >:  .Inlm, 
.itterw.ir'U  L'»ril  f»iiiini:hr.:ke.  Ti;»se  C'lntii'n'en  hav. 
Ill','  attiiiipli'd  to  vt  nji  a  party  I'-r  thiMMseU  cs  tl"- ir 
•  "peri.ir.  I.i>r<l  *  J<"ltijlnn,  di.-ini  s«'l  ilii'iu,  ti>  tii  •  i;ii"ir 
iii'l'Uii'-iiri"  t'f  f^'iien  Ann",  will)  r.iu  r«-^"!Ni  I  t)  ':i't 
f[ui;  i-\  till'  Wlii:  1  arty  at  tin*  lii'-t  I'lp'Ttunity.  In 
An.:"- !  17i",  H.iii.  y  and  >1  .Inim  eanie  inf  »  pnwcr,  at 
t:.'-  i.i  id  i.t  ;i  i\  r:  '.i-ii'v  Tni'v  niini'>tr\,  whieh,  llinn.-'i 
«t  Iri'-i  'ini.:!!-'!!.  wa-^  <!:'-*ini -J  t"  n>:iK<-  an  in)pi>rta:'.t 
I'.Miri-  in  till-  natii-nal  l:i-:-  ry.  The  ipi'"n  af  tile  ai.  • 
t-nic  e.'li-  •!  .1  in  V.  I'.iilianHjt,  uhiidi  pr-'Vj'l  t-*  be  a!:iJi'>t 
\.li<ili\  L-iiMjpii'i  1  if  tin-  Ti'iy  ]>art\. 

ri.i<  I.  oi   1  ii;i.i  ni.— in.\rii  ol-  yi  i:i:.v  .inm'> 

The  :o<  :iil..'r:ol  llie  new  eabinet  inmirdiately  applied 
r/i-.  ;i.-.    /'-.y/i'li    -.iri-  seeretlv.   tn  tlie    bn>-ines4  nf 


bringing  abont  a  peace.  When  their  plans  w* 
tun'tl,  the  consent  of  the  House  of  Commons  wx 
gained  ;  but  the  Lords  having  shown  home  reli 
it  was  found  necessary  to  create  twelve  new  p 
order  to  overi>ower  tlie  Fenst?  of  that  part  of  tl 
Inture.  After  a  tedious  course  of  negntiation, 
and  Holland  concluded  a  pe.iceat  Ttrecht  (1711 
ing  the  Empemr  of  Germany  still  at  war. 
arrang.mient,  Philip  V.  was  permitted  to  retai 
and  the  Indies,  but  no  other  }iart  of  thedominioi 
his  ambitious  gnindfather  had  endeavoured  ti 
for  him  ;  and  it  was  pntvideil  that  Uv  and  his  ( 
ants  should  never  inherit  the  kingd«>m  «>r  Frii 
anv  future  Kin;;  of  France  accede  to  the  crown  o 
Itritain  obtaint  d  nothing  t:ingibl'>  by  all  her  ex 
except  the  ]i«)Ssess!on  of  (iibralt.ir  and  Minoi 
the  privilei^e  of  being  exclusively  employcil  t 
slaves  to  the  .Spanish  American  colonies.  It  Iia 
be<'n  considen'd  a  stain  uptm  the  nation,  that  ii 
have  concludeil  a  separate  peace  tinder  such  clai 
circumstances,  as  the  interests  of  the  other  bel 
l»artie8  were  thenrby  greatly  injured.  For  th 
ileation  of  their  High  diurch  supporters,  the  n 
tditained  an  act  fur  pn^venting  dissenters  from 
K(*hoo!s,  and  another  for  establishing  churtdi  pa 
in  .Scotland,  the  farmer  fif  which  was  n-pealc< 
folhtwing  rei;;n. 

It  is  believ(>d  that  Queen  Anne  .inil  her  Tor 
ters  were  in  n»cret  williiii;  ti»  jUMinot*'  the  rrs' 
of  the  main  line  of  the  Stuart  family,  and  Hal 
St  John  are  now  known  u*  have  intriE;ned  for  tl 
I>ose.  Hut  before  any  plan  couM  be  iurmiMl,  th 
to(»k  suddenly  ill  ami  fiieil  (August  1,  171  1).  ik1 
ministers  had  uu  alternative'  but  t«)  proceed  ar 
to  the  Act  of  Settlenn'Ut.  The  Klectress  S«»ph; 
recently  ile;id.  her  son,  the  elector,  wa*  pro 
under  the  tiih'  of  <ii:oKi.r.  1. 

The  reign  of  Queen  .\nne  is  i»»it  more  distin 
by  the  w«mderful  series  of  victdries  g:iined  bi 
borough,  than  by  the  brilliant  li*-t  of  literarj'  ir 
now  flourished,  and  who  have  caused  this  to  b* 
tin'  .\njrustan  age  «if  Ilin;lir»h  literature,  as  rvm 
that,  of  the  ]^•man  Kmju'ri'r  Aui;u^tM«i.  Ale\and< 
s'mds  unrivalled  in  ]>.'lish.-,l  vii-ecn  uikRiI  s 
•It'iiathan  S\NJlf  j-,  a  nn-et-UanenUs  wrl'-.M*  i-f  f 
vii:(inr  au'i  :iii  e\trai'i'«linarv  kind  of  hnin'.-jr. 
Adjli-'fH  wTi'teon  f.tiniiiar  lifr  a'rl  i-n  m.ir.u  a 
ti<'al  'Uhi'-cfs  w  itii  a  ■li-jn-i*  ot  rU  L;ane»*  bi-i-re  uii 
>'!'  IJIiIiar-1  Sie.  !r  ua''  a  IImmv  writer  or  iui««t*t.'l 
e<-,-\-;.  Til'.  la-»t  aut!:  i",  w  irii  as>«ista:te"  fi  ■■l;l  .■ 
a;.d  titl'.iTs,  "-it  o'l  |.>i)t  tl'.e  I'.itlrr,  Stn  ctat 
<i>:arilian,  the  earii  -r  «  \aiiip!- •<  ot'  sn-ill  pr 
paj  j's  in  MiiL'iand.  and  V.  l.:<-!i  eoiii'i-in-  ti  tli:^ 
l>e  re. 'aid- (i  a-  -.t.iri'lnr'l  w.rk-.  t  di' er,  ('i 
\  .ST.I'Ui'Lrh.  ;  !.  i  I  .'i-'i'i'  ..I".  \M  !■•'  <ii'^tin^i::'.::ed 
•  •f  I'.j'K  ly  ;  an  1  Trinr,  I'liikj--,  anil  K(»we,  \%frt»  j 
p'n-;«j.  |:i  „Mavi'r  lil'.  ra: iir-',  tiiis  a::i.'  is  not  le« 
in'iit.  l»r  I';  rl.  i"  V  ^.|  >n  ■;  a-  a  rm'tai'hv-icia: 
SIi'.tIoi'K.  A:'-  ^;  :;iA.:;-:  1 1  iaiu  a'>di\ii'.e  -  ;  and  1 
a-  a  eniii"  ol  tla.-  K-iii-au  elasii's. 

M".-H'\i»i    jiii    r.i.    ■   «■■    i   \Nii\i... —  :;i  r:  i  II 

I  - 1  - 

i  i".'  1.  -w  ';..\r;-  i-:i  ■  ■-'  ji.i  t:;n«'  in  i*  «in:..^  « 
r.ritain.  and  ti\;ti::  liii.--'  1  m  'ha:  h-'ritni:- w  h 
i.i'Mi  y  lias  \  \  tr  ^iiie-'  ji  '  ■  .i  ;  d.  j  |o  ^\as  *'\\\  -hii 
'  t  a.'«',  I'l  .*:  L'"  'd  tlnn/!t  n,  ;  briiltai;:  ui:*-  rvi, 
ar«l  Ni-ry  tii-in  in  hi.-  ;  '■;j|.-:'i"  c.  l\n..v. n;.,'  w-  Jl  t 
\\  ]\  :.  ,  \\,-r,-  lii^  «>!  !y  trn  Iri^isiis,  lie  at  i-'U'e 
i'i"i:i  ini"  the  a'lininiMrati'K!.  It  wa-*  the  I'u- 
t';:t  I  :  it  M.  r  evi-ry  j.arty,  i-ri  i,'».tt!nii  inT->  p> 
tiy  !ii  :::it;  hila'."  tlji-i:-  Mj.|ionfnts.  N<it  on_>  w« 
"■  .:•'!•     Toiv  pariv  iii-.i:!io  1  bv  the  kin^.  I-n;  a  ci«i: 

■  Aft  «  ^ 

'■;'  i;:i'  llnu-i-  ol  i'onnnon**  was  app>Mnti>l  l>>  j 
ariiele- ot  imp:  aehnu  nt  aga!n>t  t.Kt'onl,  H.dir- 
tlie  Iuikt»  of  Ormoiid.  and  the  Marl  of  Sli 
I'olMijbri'ke,  jicrceiviiig  his  life  to  be  in  dantser, 
tile  (  i-Mi-n^nt ;  anil  hi<  attainder  was  in  i^ns<^< 
m«i\i  ■!  aii'i  earri-'d  by  his  ri*al  Wnlj'ol".     t»imo 


i 


.    il  .111  u-  11,.-  ),riLut.  ijLjim-.ir'i'  lUn  put- 

iiilii(iit  lli«  nil][D  of  llaaTln  L  llw  i:*- 
...liuIbJ  tiiltUj-Uine  uliltnu*,  ani,  nw'cnit 

Lini..'  L.I  lilt:  Liii^i'i  ileaih.  ThsiuiDtial  cxpfodiiur*  iiT 
tliv  i-lotc  nw  about  tavcD  tnUliomt,  DC  KBTMly  ■  Hv*nlh 
i-iCt  of  wlul  it  now  JL  Tlie  Cdnnniirac  anii  tiiiutilbo- 
lurfu  of  Eiifluid  annluiiiwl  to  lulvknw  ■leniUlj'  ilutbic 
ikiitrMgii;  but  5MtJuul  mil  IrnLuiil  reuiwiitd  in  an 
tmimpivved  «tm(b  RoadH  w»r«  now  for  Ui*  Urn  iliua 
mikde  in  ili«  lliglilamh.  Th*  ahiti  Utmry  own  wan 
lli«  uiiua  aa  iIiom  who  had  oumo  iiihi  rD|iule  in  the 
litiw  uf  tlOHHU  Ann*:  in  addition  tu  thuiii.  John  Gay 
is  to  1m  MutaiiDvil  Amungut  ths  poeAa,  luiil  Wnicrlaud 
aiid  Larilaiir  aiaon^  Ui*  dliincx.  Tlii*  «■*  hIhd  moi'o 
|i»rtiEUlBrty  tbs  ago  or  Dauiol  Da(oo,  >  iji»ti-r«ua 
wHMr  of  iiaiii|ihl«t>  no  tha  ooiicoafonuirt  udv,  Eiat  fitr 
iiiiiiw  aal*d  lu  IMdt  time*  nn  amuiuit  or  liia  wlmiimtila 
l:Ui'  nl  KoblnBOD  Cmaiw. 

i.^l.^HIiE  II. — WAB  wmi  SI-UN   AM>  riUNT-t- 

;wiro'>  l>,»t  Liidulii  Ul  17'J7,wwallOGce<l«d  b;  hi* 
.ilDiiuiK  il.,a  princo (if  inodosU  «bUiil«,baiM>u- 
iiUiiiu,  uid  tri»  tltm  all  ^ctihib  Ebulla.  In  Ilia  ewly 
<  (if  bu  ruitpi,  WiUpiilc  effceud  *aaui  atptal  iiiea- 
-->,  luuJ  upon  tba  wbola  waa  a  Tigaroui  and  en* 
uipcd  aiiiQiniBtmae  ot  iiolilia  nfnitn,  tliiiu^h  ueilunK 


CHAMBERS'S  INFOR^klATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


alone  he  pretended  to  mana;^  the  House  of  Commons. 
After  a  peace  of  extraordinary  duration,  he  was  urged, 
much  against  his  will,  into  a  contest  with  Spain,  on  ac- 
count of  some  efforts  mado  by  that  country  to  check  an 
illicit  trade  carried  on  by  iiritish  merchants  in  its 
American  colonies.  In  searching  ves»cls  fur  the  pre- 
vention of  this  traffic,  the  Spaniards  had  made  some 
trifling  aggressions ;  and  Britisli  spirit  took  lire  at  the 
indignity  of  being  liable  to  a  search  by  any  neigh- 
bouring state,  even  for  the  prevention  of  a  notorious 
breach  of  treaty.  The  community  therefore  demanded 
a  war,  and  the  minister,  with  great  reluctance,  was 
obliged  to  comply.  One  fleet,  under  Admiral  Haddock, 
was  sent  to  cruise  off  tlie  coast  of  Sitain,  and  another, 
under  Admiral  Vernon,  was  sent  agamst  the  American 
colonies.  The  latter  gained  lustre  by  taking  the  impor- 
tant town  of  Portobeilo.  Another  and  larger  expedi- 
tion, witli  10,000  soldiers,  was  then  sent  to  reinforce 
Vernon  ;  but,  owing  to  disputes  between  him  and  the 
commander  of  the  troops,  no  further  triumphs  were 
gained.  A  timid,  ill-concerted,  and  ill-conducted  attack 
upon  the  fortifications  of  Carthagcna,  lost  Britain  about 
2U,00U  men.  Meantime,  a  third  fleet,  under  Anson, 
sailed  to  tlie  eastern  coast  of  Spanish  America,  in  order 
to  co-operate  with  Vernon ;  but  only  one  of  the  vessels 
reached  its  destination.  Anson,  thus  reduced  in  naval 
force,  took  several  prizes  off  Chili,  and  plundered  the 
town  of  Paita,  but  could  venture  upuunomore  liazardous 
enterprise,  lie  cruised  across  tlie  Pacific,  in  the  hope 
of  meeting  one  of  the  Spanish  galleons,  which  usually 
contained  great  quantities  of  bullion ;  but  did  not  suc- 
ceed, till,  on  his  return  from  refitting  at  Canton,  he 
took  the  Manilla  trans]K)rt,  with  treasure  to  the  amount 
of  three  hundred  tliousand  pounds.  Though  he  had 
failed  in  all  the  proper  objects  of  his  expedition,  the 
money  he  brought  to  the  public  treasury  caused  him  to 
be  very  well  received  by  the  people ;  while  the  flagrant 
mismanagement  at  Carthageua  was  the  subject  of  gene- 
ral cx(>cration. 

The  Spanibli  ^\*ar  ii«)w  languished  for  sometime,  while 
the  attention  of  Britain  was  attracted  to  the  pn)ccodiii;;s 
of  France.  After  tlio  death  df  tlie  Emjicror  Charles  VI. 
of  Germany,  his  diniiinioiis  fell  bv  iuhcritanco  to  hh 
dau^^hter,  the  ccKbrated  Maria  Theresa,  Quern  of 
Hungary.  She  was  <;|»pused  In  tlii.s  ^ucel•^sil)^  by  the 
sovereign'*  of  1-' ranee,  Saxoiiy,  and  liavuria,  all  of  whom 
pi*etcuded  to  have  sonio  ohiiiua  on  her  doinininns.  A 
war  was  conmienced  ai;aiii.st  her  ;  the  Klectfirof  Havnria 
was  crowned  enijjeror,  under  the  title  of  Charles  VII. ; 
and  such  w.xs  the  Hucci'sis  of  the  French  anv.s,  that  slie 
was  soon  reduced  t»>  tlie  greatt?st  disti-ess.  With  this 
ijuarrel  Britain  ha<l  little  reason  for  interfering ;  but 
the  klni;  thought  his  (loniinioiisiu  Germany  endangere<l,  I 
and  tiiu  people  were  animated  by  their  usual  hostility  j 
to  the  French.  W.ilpdie,  being  conscientiously  opposed 
to  the  war,  allowed  hinisell  to  be  driven  from  ofHce 
(February  174J),  though  he  still  continued  to  enjoy 
the  respect  of  tlie  king. 

The  ministry  was  recruited  by  the  most  popular  men 
of  the  late  minority,  aniopg  whom  the  in^st  conspicuous 
were  Lord  Carteret  ami  the  Rirl  of  IJath.  To  the  sur- 
prise of  the  nation,  this  set  of  statesmen  (apposed,  now 
they  were  in  iKJwer,  all  the  inijn'itvenionts  they  had 
latily  prjfesseii  to  clamour  for,  and  seemed  even  more 
willing  than  their  predocesscii's  to  carry  out  the  j'oiiey 
wliieh  was  suggested  by  the  kini::*s  anxiety  on  aecount 
of  his  f<>rei;;n  il-miinicns.  Abmit  the  time  when  Great 
liritairi  entered  into  this  Ktrug-^le,  tliu  aifairs  of  the 
Hinii:ariaM  ijueen  to«ik  a  snrpri>iijg  turn,  and  her  aniiii-?,,  _ 
un«h  r  h«  r  lins]):niil  the  Grand  Hukeof  Tuscany,  Prince 
Cliarli's  <it'  I.nrraine,  and  other  eminent  connnanders, 
be;;aM  to  «lriv»-  iiiT  •MM-inie-,  from  her  dominions.  I'ranee,  j 
liavio;;  h'-^t  l(li«,o(iO  nwn  in  the  contest,  sued  f»^r  peace;  ! 
but  tJiis  lh«'  «iuefii  hau;;ljtily  ri'fnsed,  in  the  Imjio  of 
gaining  stiil  i;reater  triumphs  by  means  of  Hntain. 
The  aid  of  that  (Miwur,  ns  it  turned  out,  was  of  little 
bervice  t(}  the  queen.  The  I-Iarl  of  Stair  had  permitted 
his  army  to  get  into  a  iMisiiion  of  great  difficulty  at 
Atcliaffenburg,  on  the  Lppar  Maine,  and,   but  for  a 

166 


blunder  of  the  French,  it  would  probably  hi 
starved  into  a  surrender,  along  with  the  king  a 
minister  (Cirteret),  both  of  whom  had  recent 
it.  The  blunder  consisted  in  an  attack  mad 
Duke  of  Grammont,  with  30,000  troops,  upon 
tish  and  Hanoverian  infantr}*,  upon  a  plain 
village  of  Dettingen  (Juno  16,  1743).  The 
cheered  by  the  presence  of  the  king,  who  rode 
the  lines  with  his  sword  drawn,  received  the  • 
the  French  cavalry  with  great  firmness,  and  c 
them  to  retreat— a  movement  which  commui 
panic  to  the  whole  French  army,  and  might  h 
attended  with  the  most  disastrous  consequence 
British  monarch  would  have  permitted  his  a 
to  be  followed  up.  This  was  the  last  occasion 
of  Great  Britain  appearing  on  the  field  of  batt 

The  death  of  the  Emperor  Charles  VII.,  f 
this  great  European  contest  appeared  to  have 
rise,  might  liave  now  given  an  opiK)rtunity  foi 
Ration  of  hostilities ;  but  the  French  tliought 
still  necessary,  in  order  to  prevent  the  husband 
Theresa  from  being  elected  emperor,  and  tht 
were  still  animated  by  their  usual  antipath 
French.  A  cami)aign  was  therefore  opened  in  ] 
the  troops  of  the  French  nation  being  comm; 
Count  Saxe,  distinguished  for  military  geniui 
periencc  ;  wlille  the  British  and  Hanoverian  a 
under  the  charge  of  the  young  Duke  of  Cun 
second  son  to  the  kmg.  To  animate  the  Frenc 
theur  sovereign  (Louis  XV.)  and  the  dauphin 
the  camp.  The  French  having  invested  To' 
was  resolved  by  the  EnglLsli  to  liazard  a  battle, 
to  save  that  strong  city. 

The  rencounter  took  place  piay  1745)  at  f 
near  the  bridge  of  Colonne.  The  British  iof; 
vanced  under  Cumberland,  and,  notwithsti 
tremendous  fire,  which  swept  them  off  in  who 
attacked  the  centre  of  the  position  of  the  Fren 
which  they  beat  back  in  so  furious  a  style,  t 
advised  the  king  to  retire  for  the  Kifely  of  hi 
Louis  bravely  refused  to  stir,  being  appreheu 
a  i*etrograde  motion  on  his  part  would  decidi 
against  his  army.  Ashamed  to  desert  their  8i 
the  French  returned  to  the  charge ;  the  cavalry 
their  efforts  ;  and  other  cireuinstances  eonspire 
a  turn  to  the  battle.  The  Briiiah  cavalry  were  p 
by  a  mistake  from  giving  their  support  to  the  i 
and  the  Dutch  and  Austrian  part  (if  the  anny  v 
totally  inetfective.  Assiiled  on  all  sides,  fatig 
their  great  exertions,  and  galleil  by  tiie  French  I 
the  infantry  \^as  obliged  to  retire,  with  a  lufis 
men,  after  having  beaten  every  regiment  in  th< 
army.  The  Duke  of  Cuniberiand,  though  abh 
draw  in  good  order,  did  not  venture  after  this 
to  face  tlie  enemy  during  the  whole  campaign. 
thelesfl,  the  Queen  of  Hungary  at  this  time  g: 
summit  of  her  wishes,  by  tiie  election  of  her 
to  the  imperial  thr«>ne. 

iir.nEi.i.TON  OF  1715. 

The  Pretomler  had  married,  in  1710,  the 
Clementina  Sohie^ki  of  Fdlainl,  and  was  nriw  tl 
of  two  sons  in  the  Mnom  of  vouth,  the  elder  « 
has  been  distingui><liod  in  hixturv  bv  the  title  ( 
Charles  Stuart.  The  misl<irtunes  of  the  liril 
on  the  Ci«ntinent,  and  the  dissensions  whieh  { 
ai:\(>ng  the  pi-uple  and  the  I'arliament,  enmun 
princi?  to  nj;ik<»  an  attempt  to  r«'Ci»ver  the  ihnu 
aii'.'e^tvrs.  In  17-1-1,  he  Iiad  bei-n  furnished  b' 
with  a  large  th-rt  and  ample  st(»res  to  invade  th 
dominions  bnt  had  bcf>ii  driven  back  bv  a  stu 
j>rt.'v«nti'il  fn»m  ai^ain  setting  !*;iil  by  a  fu|>ci 
under  Sir  .lolin  Ni-rri-..  The  object  of  Fi-anc 
enterprise  was  to  pnnluoe  a  diversion  in  favou 
own  army  in  the  Netherlands.  At  present,  i 
quence  of  the  vict(U'y  of  Fontenoy,  6uch  an  ei 
was  no  huiger  necensary ;  but  though  the  Frc 
narch  would  not  grant  him  anv  further  supply, 
resolved  to  make  the  pro]H>scd  attempt,  trustii 


1:.^  tn  HMallt 

— Illkl  WW  ii  tl>  UlN 
it  IHUtll  will  (^  Ulll 


i!i.'--  ArltUh 


I'iiT  t>ra  np  Urn*  fnko  the  Uritkh  ip>wininiont  mi^ 
fsred  iboia  MggTaaieaa,  aud  ovbh  ImuIui  nf  a  oioro  d» 
elided  nnturc,  to  pua  uumoDlcd  ■  but  at  Uiijtth  El  wim 
ilKlemiiiipd,  in  UftH.to  proeluni  war.  A  Cftinpalfn  nf 
A  Dorcl  BDil  difflcult  ohnnuitcr  mu  opened  tu  Rortli 
AniMivft,  for  the  purpoM  dF  driirbg  ih*  Ptviiith  from 
tliKir  t'irtK  Tha  flnt  movtimenU  wcra  attendnl  wilh 
Mm  Mid  iliiMMor.  Thv  French  bud  fpunvd  Iha  «*• 
diui[*a  kShsticici  of  lli»  nniiva  tndianii,  whu  prn**d  ■ 
di>nil>mui>  uid  li*rl»riiu*  Biiuiny  to  th*  UHtiih.  S*votiU 
uf  Uie  lurta  woiv  Miuelitd,  hut  williout  (ucmih;  in  tlH 
uuult  Dpon  Tieoiidenti^  'JUOO  mvn  wsra  killed.  At 
length,  ua  tho  ooemiDn  ot  Mr  Waiiiun  Fitt  (■ft«r> 
wiirda  Enrl  ot  CliUhun)  to  the  olllcn  of  SecMtiu?  of 
Sialo,  •  noTD  niupitiooi  en  oontmeaocd,  Tho  Britbh 
iTBoptaai  pronaoinli  bvcuae  mors npnitncad i 
natuini  of  tho  mrTica,   One  after  uiotfaor,  U 

fori*  foil  into  thoirhuid*]  lad  ■  dironAna  ■       

bj  MD  Mlaok  upon  CtntAm,  la  Sopttmhitr  17A9,  G011*-. 
ml  Wnlf"  r»iJu(*d  thotomi  and  fori  nf  UuoIiihi,  UiflUBtl 
ivt  tlin  f  Kprnwi  ef  tiio  own  lifo  j  juid  th»  wli'iU  oulouy 
•imn  »fl»r  (uhnitltiHl  to  ttao  BritUl  nmi*.    Momwhile, 


i 


""•ye^' 


CHAMBERS'S  IXi'ORMATION  FOR  THE  rEOPLK. 


liidi«'s.  lie  had  dffttnjyj'tl  the  Krench  settlement  at 
Poiiilicherry,  thereby  securing  to  his  country  tiie  whole 
coast  of  Coroniandel;  and  bv  his  fauious  victory  at 
I'lasscy  (Junft  2(i',  I /of)))  over  a  combination  of  French 
and  native  forces,  he  laid  tlu'!  foundation  of  the  great 
territorial  power  which  the  British  have  since  gained 
in  Hindostan.  TbuH  the  French,  instead  of  gaining  the 
colonics  of  other  nations,  ended  by  losing  some  of  their 
own. 

While  Rritaui  wn<i  thus  successful  in  two  remote 
quarters  of  the  world,  she  experienced  a  ditferent  for- 
tune in  Europe.  Austria,  Rn^fsia,  and  Poland,  had 
combined  with  France  u;;ainst  the  new  and  rising  power 
of  rrnj?sia,  which  was  at  ])reKent  dirocicd  by  Frederick 
1 1.,  comnionlv  called  Frederick  the  (ircat.  liritain  on 
this  iiccasion  became  tlie  ally  of  the  Prus^iiau  monarch, 
not  from  any  reganf  to  her  own  interests,  but  in  order 
that  the  king  might  lie  able  to  pmtcct  his  Hanoverian 
dominions.  Immense  sums  of  mom>y  were  i-aised  for 
the  purpose  of  paying  tho  troops  of  those  countries 
which  the  king  was  anxious  to  defend ;  and  the  Dnke 
of  Cumberland  was  apjKiinted  th«Mr  connnander.  This 
prince  was  so  unfortunate  (September  17>>7)  as  to  bring 
an  army  of  -10,000  men  into  an  angular  piece  of  coun- 
try, from  which  tiicre  was  no  escjtping,  so  that  the 
v.- hole  wero  obliged  to  hiy  down  their  arms  to  the 
French,  who  then  became  masters  of  Hanover.  Not- 
Vi'ithstanding  this  failure  on  the  ])art  of  liis  ally,  Fivde- 
rick  was  able,  by  his  extnuirdinary  military  genius^ 
and  bv  British  subsidies,  to  defend  his  dominions  for 
several  ye:irs  against  all  tiie  forces  that  Austria,  France, 
and  Russia,  could  brii:;;  against  him.  In  the  midst  of 
this  war  ((.October  "i^i,  17«»0),  'ieorge  U.  died  suddenly, 
in  the  seventy-seventh  year  of  liis  age,  and  was  suc- 
ceeded by  his  grandson  GKOK'iE  III.,  then  only  in  his 
twenty-third  year. 

3dliH:KI.LA.MUJLS  CIUCUM-TANCTS  rONM'.'TLU  W  ITll  Tlir. 

i:i:r(iN  oi'  (iKoicct:  ii.  i 

Th(f  el'.ief  f1ijme>tie  rviMjt  of  the  reign  of  (I'oor;;^  1 1.  . 
was  tiie  risi:  of  iJie  ri-!ii,'iims  h<  <•!  eail-  d  Mcthodi.-t.-.  '['\\r 
church  had  fi;r  a  eon-^iJerahle  tiuK*  l-ct-n  in  a  1ai!!::iid  ' 
M.it"*,  aniongfjl  thcM-.-nimunity  there  was  littl'- i\*lii;ious  ■ 
u«'iin^  of  a  ler\i  1  eiiaracti.r ;  ami  at  no  |'r.'>li>i:s  tiim-  j 
\v«T<?   tht'i'i-  so  many  eiin.'-;:i«*uous  wri:'r>*  ai^aiiist  the  ; 
iii.iin  (lt,tMi'lr.e«<  ol  t  Jn-i.-ii.niifN.    .I<ihn  \\\'*-li-v.  a  clcruv- 
man  oi  li.e  e^lal'l-iu-  1  ri  '.MMrl:,  and  M.'vcrul  oliuT  indi- 
viduaU  of  an  i'iiliis;>-ia-.i:.;  nirn  of  miiid,  w^n-  proni]»tiMi 
bv  thi:  V   rireuui.':anci-i   to   :.ttfiiij)i    to   ri»ii'-e  .i  nioic 
/ralous  piity  anioiii;-v  tiie  p-ople  ;  :;nd  in  this  ohjc-et 
they  wrv.   siii-;iri'*iM;;ly  succi.si-.fu!.    Another  L-l«.r;,'yniaii 
ijiinifd  Wiiiu-rK'i.i,  ;:ilu-il  wiili  orali.-rii*;.!  powi'i-s  whirli 
>Mvi'  iiiin  ::ri;it  ci'inniaud  o\fr  the  h«\in'.'s  ol  an  auii- 
cm'.',  jifiiM- 1  of  iiiiifii  J"  rv.ee  as  an^  itinerant  pr«';vel;». r 
ill  wiijkin:^  IIks  n  furmMi  mi.    Tiie  eiiiisrijuence  of  tii«-  <■ 

•  ^-'rliiMis  vas  tin;  or;ja!ilf-a  i'li  of  a  ihmv  i'<l;i;i«i".is  ho'iy, 
g.-iii-rally  eallnl  Mv'.-hoih'oi'.eiMMprrlifiniini:  a  vast  nnni- 
ber  oi  eonL;;n';;atioi;N  in  all  par:.-. «  i  tin-  kingdom,  a.-*  weil 
i\n  in  tiie  Ain«;rif;;n  e.'.nni-.  -. 

IVewr^jiaptT-i  lii''[  r-.i-'inir.il  politica!  iv,i]-ortanei*  in 
ihih  ri'i:::i.  'J'h''v  iiriL:ii';:'.L'd  i:i  t!:*  tinir  *•(  iii"  roio- 
nioiiwfaitii,  but  IK  i:i.  of  a  regular  penoiiii-al  ii:;'u;-< 
aj'peared  I'll  all*  r  f.ie  HeM«>ralion,  >\ij'ii  a  Imsy  writt-r 
o.ui;«-d  K'»-.'r  L"i;-iraiJ::<*  i -Jablisli  -i  in  London  a 
vi'iIJv  <  111-  e.i,.i.d  T/i  •  /utiii';h  f'lt  r.  Till  ihe  Kc- 
viiluti.'M.  :neh  hu.;;!i  and  uninip'»rl;;.i;  i..  A^papcrs  as 
<  M-I'd,  u- n*  tr.inuni'lM  d  hva  iin  ii-..  '  |i.i\s<r  and  ei-n- 
.■•i-lii|'.  N'.  n<-n  ;ii«-'.'  /« .-ti  iciifJi'' v\.  !•■  n  :  n/vi  <1,  niw>- 
p.i|  •  I*.  in<Ti  a"*  d  Ml  :iiii..''<  r,  tnl,  m  !<•»;',  tliey  wen. 
..Mill  ri'-'iriettil  l-y  ::.i-  n.ij '"Tiinn  ni  :i  p.  nny  stamp, 
ill  ti.  -»  <i.i'  iiiV  ■)•.:,  •  i  »  \»iii'  eiiittlv  c.iniUiOti  •!  bv  a 
:-  T  I  1  11..;. II  ;ii,.j  i.u.ir  \\  rii-  r-H,  to  w  iioni  th'.'  li  I'lu  **  *  !i  ii.» 
>Ti<  ft  ;.i;lli'i-N  wa<  ;^«  n- raliy  .''.pplitil,  iimo  l.lan^  oi 
till  111  iiviii.;  ,:j  i.  ;i-  \»  .•:■•!.•. -i  p:irt  nf  i.cHil.iii.  i  ho 
jiiriiiti-.tv    \M  ii'ii   ii-  .\ -p:ip(  r  .   \\ri\'   raliMi'..:i-il   ti«   lia\e 

•  ivi  r  tMi' ]»mIi'ih.  :ii.:ni.  a.i:-  lir.-i  re.'ii^niM.'ii  i»y  ."^ir  i!'>inTl 
\\  a.p'i'  .  ^^ii-  .  ^'"  .'  hv  I.- ■■.•  r  rlioii;;'..!  t.f  j^in.m.;  tiii;  li'ast 
I  iir.'i.;'..  :i  .:;•  i-l  5"  l.i' ratuii- on  it.ioivn  aeeoimt,  lib'- 
i\iiiy  pLUbiuii^d  v..ii  u.s  ( ilitors  ivlio  oupp'-rlcd  hi?  go- 


vernment.  About  the  beginning  of  this  reign, 
were,  in  London,  one  daily  paper,  fifteen  three  tin- 
week,  ami  one  twice  a-week,  besides  a  few  e.! 
papers.  A  monthly  ]>amphlet,  begun  in  1731  by  VA 
Cave,  a  London  bookseller,  under  the  name  of  tlie 
ilcman's  j\!a(jazine,  was  coraposcl  of  tlie  l»es;  ar 
from  the  newsp.apcrs ;  and  thus  originated  tho  pci 
cal  works  termed  magazines,  which  arenowciin»<pu 
as  vehicles  of  light  liteniturc  and  politic^il  di^cusni 
The  j>oculiar  literary  genius  of  the  age  was  >i] 
in  the  tictitioiis  prose  writings  of  Fielding.  ."imoUi  u 
Sterne,  and  in  tho  pictures  of  Hogarth,  all  of  v 
represi'ut  the  national  character  in  its  greatest  ore 
The  novels  of  Richardsim  are  equally  accurate  a 
scriptions  of  manners,  but  contain  no  trac*  of  th^'  i 
humour.  Next  in  distinction  to  these  writinv;s 
be  placed  tlie  essays  of  John  Hawkcsworth  and  >.". 
Jolmsou,  the  latter  of  whom  di«l  a  great  service  tn 
raturc  in  compiling  a  dictionary  of  tlie  English  Ian:; 
James  Thomson,  William  Collins,  and  Thomas  < 
rank  high  as  poets.  Carte  and  £i;hard  were  re-p<*e 
historical  writei*s;  and  ])hilnsophy  was  cuiti%:i!r 
Francis  Hutchcson  and  David  llartlev.  I>rs  Cor 
Middleton,  Joseph  Butler,  and  Isaac  \Vatt>,  wen 
princi]>al  writers  on  religious  subjects. 

rii:oiu;K  in. — nuri-:  admimstratio.n. — itacc  or  17 

Soon  after  his  accession,  (leorgc  III.  e^poiuec 
Princess  Charlotte  of  MecKIenburg-Sti-elitz,  by  » 
he  had  a  large  family.  One  of  liis  earliest  pol 
measures  was  to  confer  one  of  the  nuite-socrciarv 
upon  the  Earl  of  Bute,  a  Scottish  ncddeman  of  Ta 
Jacobite  predilections,  who  had  been  his  preceptor 
possessed  a  greiit  intluence  over  his  mind.  This, 
other  alteration^,  infused  a  peaeeful  dis|)osition  ini 
majesty's  counsels,  which  was  n(*t  much  relished  b 
l*ii:.  That  minister,  having  secretly  discovered 
S])ain  w.is  al>ont  to  join  Fnnice  against  Brit;iin, 
being  thwarte<l  in  the  line  of  ijiolicy  which  lie  e 
tpiently  thoii-'ht  it  ii'-ei^ssary  to  assjime,  r.nireJ  « 
ptMisiiiii,  and  a  ]>f'er.ige  to  his  wiir;  luu-v  wliicl 
ministry  w:is  reniicred  .'<lill  hss  c^f  a  warlike  tof 
.V  negoiialion  f.ir  peace  was  cni'-rod  inti>  witii  Fr 
wliieli  oUrrnl,  for  that  ond,  t(»  ijivv  np  almost  :;I 
eiili  iiiai  po:-s»  --•nil'*.  I'll  '  (h*man<K  i.t  the  Britir-li 
lur.Mjvir,  ratlur  nioriM  xovb':t.:nt  ilian  France  t- a  |h 
aii'l  not  only  was  ilu?  trraty  bpilim  (.li",  but  Spain 
in-.necd  lliose  hostilili^'s  wliieh  'dr  I'itt  had  f'»r 
Nv'Vi  rrin.-i-rr.--,  Britain  eontiniircl  that  splendid  can 
(•oii<[ii . -t,  \\iii<'h,  t'\''«'pt  at  till*  bi'^inning,  had  bee 
iortii!'.!-  dnring  thf  wlmle  o:  tluM  war.  fn  a  vcr 
nil  iitli^,  Spain  lo.-^t  ll:iv.-;)inah,  .Manilla,  and  ni 
I'liiliT.piMc  1  -!»  s.  'J'l-.<*  Sp:.iii-h  forces  wore  also  #1 
<iut  of  r<irtn'';il,  v.hlcli  till  V  iiad  nniustiv  iiivuilcd 
M-a  lii-  Briti^li  ll"«-ts  ri"li:n<  d  oM-ry  wlK;n»  triinn] 
and  at  lio  foniirr  prrioii  ^^;|^  th«-  country  in  ^^>  pr 
siiuatlnn.  'I'hi'  miiii'-'r\,  howovrr,  wt-re  senj^ibit 
war,  ••\«-n  with  all  ti.i  •  ;:i'od  l«ivtinji\  was  a  lo>iiig  jj 
aiid  ilii-y  tlHiTion-,  nuieh  :.;;ai>ist  tlir\%ill  of  ilii>  n 
eoiii'iij''.  '1  a  iH'jice  in  i\i»ni:ir\   17''->. 

i'»y  \\\\-,  ireaty,  *ip«l  I»ri?a!:i  gave  up  a  ecrlan 
;ion  ot  lii'r  eon>|ii<-M.v,  in  rxolrin^i' inr  Mihirswiiic 
li  1:1  wi'istttl   tii'Tii  li»T ;  !;ui  j..,f  w.'i-i   neverthi- 
i;a!:i  r  to  an  iinniiiisi' aiiU'iiir..     ^ii-'  ae.jUired  Ire 
rn-mli,  t'anail;-,  that  p.s.f  I't  LfiUM.iiia  la.-l  ♦•{*  iJi> 
si  .>ipj»i,  (ape  llroton.  .^^.-lu  ril.  ti.i.'  i  i.iud?i  of  (ir 
I>oiii.itica,  M  \  iiu'i  lit".',  :ind  T-iba,;'",  v. iTn  all  liic 
sitimis  wiiii'.i   il:e   I'nneii   li;i<l   n  ..«1^'   upon    ihe 
n:aii«li  1   emist    in    the    I'.asi-   l.nlu.-  since    174!'. 
.si»Kiii  ^lil•  ac'pim -1   Minorca,  L.ist.  ancl  \Vi«-:   I" 
with  certain  privi:<';je«^  ol  vai.n".   Tho  eon:.ii' ntal 
in   a;liaiic«.' witn  <ii\at    Britain  wori    ai:-)    ii-li  * 
ii:"l    !■«  in.      i'hi.'M'    ailvania;;'"'   on    the   pait   ivf 
llijtiii:!  Iial  III  on  pnri'iias<  •!  at  tlu*  ••xp*  n  •*'  \  1  a: 
ti'Mi  iif  >i\iy  miiiii'is  tu  tli    ill:!   iial  oi-bl.  u!:ic 
aniounud  in  all  lo  ;.  lii;!.!i.'i  -.-7('. 


I'linTi.!  mil  |'iiMi~»i:  I  :•>  W  .  :n.l  it.  c'-i  \-".:}v\  -.  I  ',  V 
r.i<  I',  LiiiiiJiii.,,!.    .\i   I ". ..  ^^^  s.  »»!i  ,.  '    .  I.  .1 !  ... 


CHAMBEfiS'S 
FORMATION  FOR  THE   PEOPLE. 


t>v  wit.Li.4tr  AKP  doDRicr  riiiMt«m<:.  vnirwts  or  aunnKHr^ 

CntMiniOD  JtiDHJIAL,   E(H'i:ATIi>,ViL  i-uritfU.    »ii- 


Vew  vm  iMfKoriui  Ssiui^'t- 


BISTOBY   OF  OR  BAT   BltlTAlM  ANO   IHELANP. 

tWCtU  tut!  I'VUi;  OF  lira  TtU  TTtE  TKlll  iMii 


i^Uuim/iM  u 


viA,  ltB)MIvi  iMll  lurii 


.  I  favaimtc,  bdiI  n 


.1  ■     ,i..l  pub- 

.    .luUiii;-     Hi[l.i;»,iiuJu,ijjjri;Jii:iiikil  liiiii.     Afin-  Iimhj;  injuiiimrt 

I  11  (if  tliv    bcFuro  tfat  HerctMlM  n(  tUlc,  tiB  Kui  ofiiimiiniid  tatliv 

'..i»i'd  tbu    Tovrcr.  nud  hia  jiipcra  were  iwi/cd*n4  uMlcd  mi.    A 

i.ijit  king-    f«iv-ij»)'«  unpf,  bu  «M  brougW  toWeKmiiiiler  ilall  by 

'I'lQ  pf  B   Anfrfiu  nirpM,anil  rclnurd  by  CliiBfiliuitiee  Pratt,  in 

'  1 1  ians  of    RCnHHlrnlion  of  llh  Iiniijc  ■  moinliinr  of  Vu'Iinincnli. 

'-.•tia*  hj    lliu    Pu-liwnenl   Ardvnd  ttm    uKrlilii^n*   plipcr   to  l« 

: !  I  y  faitli-    liumt  bv  ibe  liuid*  nf  the  couimon  husmui— ui  («*• 

<i  iilk'cf  wu   ration  tu«t  prodnet^B  riot,  not  in  Ila^lf  dftiiganiu*,  but 

.<   [i>nn>.'i'  •vtioni  re-    wrvine  to  'litcoTfr  tlis  ansry  nniril  of  t^e  niipaiu*, 

".M  with  till)  EngliBli    Mr  Wilka*  iniii  tuiin  »fter  HXiielIrd  (hnn  the  HnuM  of 

nith  unabated  vin-    Coniiii'iiui,  ftod  tuuiill  it  coDvcnlent  la  rcHre  to  the 

I  [.,wil)wiut  [iniduc*    R>iiiiii(iA,    One  result  o(  his  «ue  wu  favonnUa  to 

u.l,  niUigugh  u  one    lUe  popoliu'  cbiu«:  ■  proirDiitioii  whiaii  h*  iantitntid 

I  luuondMicy  In  the  '  ngiunirt  tlw  inrn^ry  u(  itai*,  un  iliv  p)e*  tbat  hia 

-'  -iiTK  wiia  iJIntia],  teriftinBloi]  lii  a  vrrdicl  uf  lUntgm,       ' 
«  deeUnitliiu  b;  Chlef-Justieo  Pnti,  ih*i  a ' 


,„..^-.^!,  Umily  In 
■  .JijciBii  by 
,:  jiortiUn 


lef-JuBtieo  Pnti,  ih*i  gfa^nl 
iBt  with  ibe  ]>»>  of  Enjiuid. 

I  of  Mr  Cimvilla  i*  iRKmorftlfla 
41  t»x  the  Ainarioin  cnlouim.    An 


CHAMB£RS*S  INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


podng  stftDipa  on  those  ooimtriMy  appeared  to  tbe 
edrara  as  a  step  extremely  dangerous  to  tiieir  fflber- 
ties^  ooDsidering  that  they  had  no  share  in  the  repre- 
sentation. The  J  therefore  eombined  almost  mdrenallT 
to  resist  tbs  introdnetkm  of  the  stunped  paper  by  whieh 
the  tax  wi  to  b^raised.  Resointions  were  passed  in 
the  Tarkras  assemblies  of  the  states,  protesting  against 
the  assumed  ri^of  the  British  legisUtnre  to  tax  them. 
Partly  by  i^opiuar  Wolenoey  and  partly  by  the  dsohm^ 
tions  issued  by  the  loeal  legistotiTO  assembliesi  the  ob- 
ject of  tibe  aet  wm  completely  defeated. 

The  home  government  were  then  indnoed  to  agree 
to  tfte  repeal  of  the  aet,  but  with  the  leeei'tation  of 
a  right  to  hnpose  taxes  on  the  colonies.  Between  the 
StMup  Act  and  its  repeal,  a  change  had  taken  pbue 
in  tbe  admhustration*:  the  latter  measure  was  the  act 
of  a  Whig  ministxy  under  the  liarquis  of  Roeking- 
]uu%  wUdi.  howerer,  did  not  long  continue  in  power, 
being  siinmanted  by  one  in  wmeh  Bir  Fitly  now 
ersaled  Earl  of  Chatham,  held  a  eon^enous  place. 
The  seeond  Pitt  administration  was  less  popular  than 
the  first:  tbe  Earl  of  Chesterfield,  refiectmg  on  the 
titie  given  to  the  minister,  at  the  same  time  that  he 
tonkin  general  esteem.  caUed  his  rise  a  /off  tm  steirt. 
AU  the  minirtriea  of  this  period  laboured  tmwr  a  po- 
pnkr  suq»idon,  mobaUy  not  well  founded,  -that  they 
only  obeyed  the  wul  of  thekin^  while  the  Eari  of  ButiL 
M  a  secret  adviser  behind  the  throne,  was  the  real 
tiioogfa  iirespoiMdble  minister* 

At  the  snggestkm  of  Mr  Qiaries  Townsend,  a  member 
of  the  Ssri  of  Chatfaam'k  cabinet^  it  was  resolved,  In 
1797»  to  impoae  taxes  on  the  Ameneans  in  a  newsliapei, 
ttaasdy,  upon  British  goods  imported  into  the  colonies, 
Ibr  wfateh  there  was  some  show  of  precedent.  A*n  act 
for  imporfng  duties  on  tea,  glassy  and  colours,  was  ao- 
cotdin^  psssnd  iHth  little  opposition.  Soon  after  thlL 
Mr  Townsend  died,  and  the  £ari  of  Chatiiam,  who  had 
been  prevented  hw  illness  fkvm  taking  any  share  in  the 
business,  resigned.  The  Americans  met  the  new  bur- 
dens witii  the  same  yiolent  opposition  as  formerly. 

TRB  WTLKEB  TUMULTS. 

Early  in  1768,  a  new  administration  was  formed 
under  the  Duke  of  Grafton,  a  pupil  of  Chatham,  and 
soon  after  a  new  Parliament  was  called.  At  the  gene- 
ral election,  Mr  Wilkes  re-appeared  in  England,  though 
a  sentence  of  outlawry  still  stood  against  him.  He  even 
Tcntured  to  become  candidate  for  the  county  of  Middle- 
sex, where  he  waa  returned  by  a  large  majority.  Hav- 
ing previously  surrendered  to  the  jurisdiction  of  the 
Kmg's  Bench,  his  outlawry  was  reversed ;  but  by  vir- 
tue of  tbe  verdicts  which  two  courts  had  given  against 
him,  he  was  subiectcd  to  a  fine  and  two  years'  impri- 
sonment. On  his  arrest,  Mr  Wilkes  quietly  committed 
himself  to  the  oflScers  of  justice,  but  waa  forcibly  rescued 
1^  the  populace ;  and  in  a  riot  subsequent  to  this  vio- 
lence, a  }'Ounff  man,  who  had  no  participation  in  the 
tumult,  was  killed.  During  his  imprisonment,  Mr 
Wilkes  was  formally  expelled  the  House,  on  the  pre- 
text that,  by  the  vote  of  censure  passed  by  the  preced- 
ing Parliament,  he  was  for  ever  disqualified  from  being 
a  representative  of  the  people.  This  decision  incensed 
a  great  portion  of  the  community,  and  the  case  became 
identified  in  their  estimation  witii  the  liberties  of  the 
nation  itself.  Four  times  did  the  county  of  Middlesex 
return  Mr  Wilkes;  but  the  rival  candidate,  Colonel 
Luttrell,  with  only  a  fourth  of  the  votes,  was  accepted 
by  the  House. 

These  proceedings  occasioned  many  keen  debates  in 
the  House  of  Commons,  where  an  opposition  of  much 
talent  and  ardour  of  purpose  now  took  up  every  popular 
question.  Tumults  of  a  dangerous  character  were  con- 
stantiy  talcing  place ;  the  cry  of  "  Wilkes  and  Liberty** 
IMOonded  every  where,  excepting  only  in  Scotland,  his 
■enrrility  against  the  Scotch  having  rendered  him 
generally  detCHted  in  that  country.  Even  the  munici- 
pal bodies  and  corporations,  though  usually  not  easily 
moved  by  popular  objects,  beosme  sealoua  partisans  of 
Mr  Wilkes,  and  thought  it  their  duty  to  remonstrate 

162 


with  the  king  on  the  hifjtL  band  with  which  his 
ment  was  conducted.  At  this  sgitated  time  (1 
unknown  writer,  styling  himself  Junius,  comn 
series  of  letters  in  a  newroaper,  animadvertiii 
most  Timlsnt  maonsr  on  both  the  men  and  n 
of  Am  govsmment  These  ctmpositiotts  were  i 
remarkable,  as,  firom'the  force  and  elegance 
style,  they 'were  evidentiy  the  production  of  so 
son,  not  only  hr  above  the  nsoal  duracter  i 
paper  writen,  but  fitted  to  rank  with  the  first  i 
of  bis  dMT.  The  publisher  of  the  newspaper  ^ 
secnted  tor  publishing  them ;  but  the  author  r 
eoneealed,  and  htoname,  thongh  still  an  object  < 
sity,  has  never  been  disoovcrra. 

MINISTRT  OF  LOSO  NORm — THX  CITT  OF  LOXI 
&E]fO!ISTBlIfCX. 

Ai  tho  opening  of  Parliament  in  January 
was  ^cpaeted  that  the  con^icnous  topic  in  tl 
spissli  would  be  the  Middlesex  election.    The 
was  general  when  it  was  found  that  the  long 
make  the  least  reference  to  the  troubles  respec 
Wilkes.    The  opposition  were  enraged  at  th 
sight,  and  movec^  as  an  amendment  to  the 
tluit  an  inquiry  ought  to  be  made  into  the  cans* 
mvailing  discontents ;  on  which  occasimi, 
James  I^x^  afterwards  so  celebrated  as  a 
leadsi%  made  bis  first  neech  in  Parliamen 
amendment  was  psgatived  by  254  agahiat  181 
showed  that  tbe  king  was  qtute  secure  of  the 
of  the  House  of  Commons. 

At  this  time,  the  Duke  of  Grafton  retired  f 
cabinet,  and  hb  place  was  supplied  by  Lord  N( 
of  the  Earl  of  Guilford.    The  new  ministry 
tenth  which  had  existed  during  as  many  years, 
first  in  which  the  king  might  be  consiciered 
pletely  firee  of  the  grnt  Whig  fiunilies^  who, 
Psrliamentaiy  influence,  had  possessed  the  chit 
since  the  Revolution.  This  was  the  beginning  of 
of  Tory  administrations,  which,  with  few  and  i 
tervals,  conducted  the  afTairs  of  the  nation  dow 
close  of  the  reign  of  George  IV. 

The  supposed  injur}*  which  the  cause  of  free 
had  sustained  from  the  decision  of  the  House  ' 
mens,  still  for  a  time  agitated  the  public  mind, 
eight  peers,  including  all  the  great  Whig  chiefs 
shire,  Rockingham,Grosvenory  Fitzwilliam,  Tan 
King,  &e.),  besides  the  Earl  of  Giatfaam,  made 
declaration  that  they  should  not  cease  their  ef 
they  had  obtained  full  justice  to  the  electors  of 
The  city  of  London,  and  some  other  corpora 
note,  presented  remonstrances  to  the  king  on  t 
subject  The  policy  of  the  king  and  cabinet 
wear  out  the  public  fervour  bv  dignified  silcn 
notice  was  therefore  taken  of  these  remons 
Under  the  policy  of  the  king,  the  Wilkes  agita 
time  subsided. 

THE  AXEBICAN  WAX  OF  INDEPRXOSNCI. 

Rfean while,  the  remonstrances  of  the  Americ 
nists  had  induced  the  ministry  to  give  up  all 
taxes,  excepting  only  that  on  tea,  which  it  wa 
mined  to  keep  up,  as  an  assertion  of  the  right 
liament  to  tax  the  colonies.  In  America,  i 
remaining  tax  continued  to  excite  as  much  dii 
as  the  whole  had  formerly  done,  for  it  was  the  f 
of  a  right  to  impose  taxes  which  they  found  fai 
and  not  the  amount  of  tlie  tax  itself.  Their  dii 
with  the  mother  country  was  found  to  affect  tn 
siderably,  and  the  British  merchants  were  an: 
bring  the  dispute  to  a  close.  The  government  t 
induced  to  grant  such  a  drawback  from  the  Brit 
on  tea,  as  enabled  the  East  India  Company  to  c 
article  in  America  at  a  lower  rate  than  form 
that  the  American  dutv,  whieh  was  only  thr 
a-pound,  did  not  affect  the  price.  It  was  never  • 
that  this  expedient  would  aatisfv  the  colonists,  ai 
shipments  of  tea  were  acoordingl  v  sent  out  ft 
British  ports.  But  the  prineiple  of  the  right  to 


HISTORY  OF  GREAT  BRITAIN  AND  IRELAND. 


lurked  ander  tbe  eonceflBion,  and  the  result  only  showed 
bow  little  the  ■entimenta  of  the  Americans  were  undor- 
•lood. 

The  approach  of  the  tea  cargoes  excited  them  in  a 
BMHMT  totally  unlooked  for  in  Uritain.    At  New  York 
and  Pkiladelphia,  the  eazvoea  were  forbidden  to  land. 
In  Chariestown,  where  they  were  permitted  to  land, 
they  were  pnt  into  stores,  and  prohibited  from  being 
sold.    At  Boston,  a  ship-load,  which  had  been  intro- 
dnecd  failo  the  harbour,  was  seized  by  a  lawless  mob, 
and  towed  into  the  aea.    This  last  act  of  violence  was 
resented  by  the  passing  of  a  bill  in  Parliament  for  in- 
terdicting all  commercial  intercourse  with  the  port  of 
Boston,  and  another  for  taldng  away  the  legiHlative 
uecrabiy  of  the  state  of  Massachusetts.    The  former 
measore  was  easily  obviated  by  local  arrangements ; 
and  in  reference  to  the  latter,  a  congress  of  reprosen- 
tatives  from  the  various  states  met  at  Philadelphia,  in 
September  1774,  when  it  was  asserUd  that  the  exclu- 
sive power  of  legislation,  in  all  cases  of  taxation  and 
intenMd  policy,  resided  in  the  provincial  legislntures. 
The  same  assembly  denounced  other  grievances,  which 
bave  not  here  been  particularly  adverted  to,  cR|ieci.i1Iy 
nicC  of  the  British  legislature  for  trying  Americans, 
!    far  treasonable  practices,  in  England.    The  congress 
■Isa  framed  a  covenant  of  non-intercourse,  by  which 
Ike  whole  utility  of  the  colonics  to  the  mother  country, 
li  ebjeets  of  trading  speculation,  was  at  once  laid  pro- 
itnie.   The  colonists  still  avowed  a  desire  to  be  recon- 
ciled, on  the  condition  of  a  repeal  of  the  obnoxious 
iCatntea.     But  the  government  had  now  resolved  to 
attempt  the  reduction  of  the  colonists  by  force  of  amis. 
Hcoeeforth,  every  proposal  from  America  was  treated 
with  a  prond  silence  on  the  part  of  the  British  monarch 
and  his  advisers. 

The  war  opened  in  summer  1775,  by  skirmishes 
list  ween  the  British  troops  and  armed  provincials,  for 
the  posBcasioD  of  certain  magazines.  At  the  beginning 
there  aeemed  no  hope  of  the  contest  being  protracted 
beyond  one  eamJMiign.  The  population  of  the  colonies 
at  this  time  under  three  millions,  and  they  were 
it]y  inferior  in  discipline  and  appointments  to  the 
troops.  They  possessed,  however,  an  indomi- 
table ical  in  the  cause  they  had  agreed  to  defend,  and 
fr«ght  with  the  advantage  of  being  in  the  country  of 
<hctf  friendfu  At  Bunkers  Hill,  near  Boston  (June  1 7, 
1775),  they  had  the  superiority  in  a  well-contested  figlit 
with  the  British  troops,  of  whom  between  two  and  three 
bvndred  were  killed.  At  the  end  of  one  year,  the  Bri- 
tUi  gofemraent  was  surprised  to  find  that  no  progress 
Ind  been  made  towards  a  reduction  of  the  Americans, 
nd  sent  oot  an  offer  of  pardon  to  the  colonists,  on  con- 
fitioa  tliat  they  would  lay  down  their  arms.  The  pro- 
ponl  only  net  with  ridicule. 

On  the  4th  of  July  1776,  the  American  congress  took 
the  decisive  step  of  a  declaration  of  their  independence, 
embodying  their  sentiment  in  a  document  remarkable 
fir  its  pathos  and  solemnity.  During  the  next  two 
eunpa^s,  the  slender  forces  of  the  new  republic  were 
hirtfiyable  any  where  to  face  the  large  and  well-ap- 
pobted  armies  of  Great  Britain.  Much  misery  was 
Bidmed  by  this  hardy  people  in  resisting  the  l)riti«*li 
ntoK  Notwithstanding  every  disadvantage  and  many 
IrfMits,  America  remained  unsubdued. 

The  first  serious  alarm  for  the  success  of  the  contest 
a  America,  was  eommunicated  in  December  1777,  by 
iateOigenee  of  the  surrender  of  an  army  under  General 
Borgoyne  at  Saratoga.  In  the  House  of  Commons,  the 
■faiisters  acknowledged  this  defeat  with  marks  of  deep 
Ae}*ction,  but  still  professed  to  entertain  sanguine  hopes, 
fnm  the  vigour  with  which  the  large  towns  throughout 
BMtain  were  now  raising  men  at  their  oik-n  expense  for 
fit  icrviee  of  the  government  Mr  Fox,  the  leader  of 
tk  oppontiony  made  a  motion  for  the  discontinuance 
rftke  war,  whidi  was  lost  by  165  to  259,  a  much  nar- 

■ majority  than  any  which  the  ministry  had  before 

^  in  the  Lower  House. 


-^1 


Ii  pwHWithm  to  the  dejection  of  the  government, 
*ii  the  cntaon  of  the  American  congress.  Little  more 


163 


than  two  years  before,  the  British  sovereign  and  mini* 
stera  had  treated  the  petitions  of  the  colonists  with 
silent  contempt;  but  such  had  been  the  current  of 
events,  that,  in  1778,  they  found  it  necessary,  in  order 
to  appease  the  popular  discontent,  to  send  out  comniia- 
sioners,  almost  for  the  purpose  of  begging  a  peace.  As 
if  to  avenge  themselves  for  the  indignities  of  1775,  the 
Americans  received  these  commissioners  with  tlie  like 
haughtiness ;  and,  being  convinced  that  they  could  se- 
cure their  independence,  would  listen  to  no  proposala 
in  which  the  acknowledgment  of  that  independence, 
and  the  withdrawal  of  the  Dritish  troops,  did  not  occupy 
the  first  place.  The  ministers,  unwilling  to  submit  to 
such  terms,  resolved  to  prosecute  the  war,  holding  fi)rth 
to  the  public,  as  the  best  defence  of  their  conduct,  the 
necessity  of  curbing  the  spirit  of  insubordination,  both 
in  America  and  at  home,  which  they  described  as 
threatening  the  overturn  of  the  most  sacred  of  the  na- 
tional institutions. 

The  rise  of  Great  Britain  during  the  seventeenth 
and  eighteenth  centuries,  in  wealth  and  militai-y  and 
naval  power,  had  been  observed  by  many  of  the  sur- 
rounding states  with  no  small  degree  of  jealousy. 
France,  in  particular,  had  not  yet  forgiven  the  trium- 
phant peace  which  Britain  had  dictated  in  1763.  The 
Americans,  therefore,  by  their  emissary,  the  celebrated 
Benjamin  Franklin,  found  no  great  difficulty  in  forming 
an  alliance  with  France,  in  which  the  latter  power 
acknowledged  the  independence  of  the  colonists,  and 
promised  to  send  them  large  auxiliary  forces.  Viewing 
the  distressed  state  to  which  Britain  was  reduced  by 
the  contest,  and  concluding  that  the  time  had  arrived 
to  strike  a  decisive  blow  for  her  humiliation,  Spain  soon 
after  declared  war  against  her;  and  iu  17!'»0,  Holland 
was  added  to  the  number  of  her  enemies.  Kusdia  tlien 
put  herself  at  the  head  of  what  was  called  an  AiTucd 
Neutrality,  embracing  Sweden  and  Denmark,  the  object 
of  which  was  indirectly  hostile  to  Britain.  So  tremen- 
dous was  the  force  reared  against  Britain  in  1770,  even 
before  all  tliese  powers  had  entered  into  hostilities,  that 
it  required  about  three  hundred  thouwnid  armed  men, 
three  hundred  armed  vessels,  and  twenty  millions  of 
money  annually,  merely  to  protect  herself  from  her 
enemies.  Even  her  wonted  superiority  at  sea  seemed 
to  have  deserted  her;  and  for  some  time  tlio  ]icopIo 
beheld  the  unwonted  spectacle  of  a  hostile  fleet  riding 
in  the  Channel,  which  there  was  no  adequate  means  of 
opj»osing. 

It  was  now  obvious  to  the  wliole  nation,  that  this 
contest,  upon  whatever  grounds  it  commenced,  was  a 
great  national  misfortune  ;  and  the  Opposition  in  Par- 
liament began  to  gain  con&ideniMy  in  strength.  After 
some  votes,  in  which  the  ministerial  majorities  appeared 
to  be  gradually  lessening,  Mr  Dunning,  on  the  (Hh  of 
April  1 7oO,  carried,  by  a  majority  of  eighteen,  a  motion, 
"  that  the  influence  of  the  crown  had  increased,  was 
increasing,  and  ought  to  be  diminished."  This  was 
locked  upon  as  a  severe  ceiLsure  of  the  government, 
considering  that  the  House  of  Commons  was  not  alto- 
gether a  popular  body,  but  included  many  who  had 
seats  there  only  tlirough  the  influi-nec  of  the  crown,  or 
by  the  favour  of  the  nobility  and  gentry. 

In  the  year  177H,  an  act  had  bi-en  passed,  relieving 
the  Iloman  Catholics  in  England  frrmi  some  <if  the  sever© 
penal  statutes  formerly  enacted  against  them.  The 
apj)rehension  of  a  similar  act  for  Scotland  caused  the 
people  of  that  country  to  form  an  immense  number  of 
associations,  with  a  view  to  oj>jM)sing  it ;  and,  in  the 
early  part  of  1 770,  the  jiopular  spirit  broke  out  at  Edin- 
burgh and  Glasgow  in  several  alarming  riots,  during 
which  one  or  two  Catholic  chapels,  and  some  houses 
belonging  to  Catholics,  were  pillaged  and  burnt.  An 
extensive  Protestant  Association  was  also  formed  in 
England,  to  endeavour  to  procure  the  repeal  of  the 
English  act.  This  body  was  chiefly  led  by  L(»rd  George 
Gordon,  a  son  of  the  late  Duke  of  Gordon,  and  memlx-r 
of  the  House  of  Commons.  In  Juno  17U0,  an  immense 
mob'assembled  in  London  to  accompany  Lord  Gcorgo 
to  the  House  of  Commons,  where  he  was  to  present  a 


CHAMBERS'S  INFORMATION  FOR  THE  FEOPLE. 


petHbn  agaSiist  the  aet,  mgned  by  120,000  penona.  His 
notion  for  Uie  repeal  of  the  aet  being  rdeeted  by  a  vast 
majority,  be  oame  out  to  the  lobby  and  haran^ed  the 
orowd  in  Tiolent  terms,  tngeesting  to  them  aimihtf  aets 
to  thoae  wbidi  had  taken  pMse  in  Scotland.  The  mob 
aoeordingly  proeeaded  to  demolish  the  ehapeU  o(  the 
fof^gn  ambaasadon.  Meeting  with  no  effeetoal  reaist- 
anoe,  tethe  magistrates  of  the  city  were  afraid  to  take 
decisiTe  measores  against  them,  they  attacked  New- 

Ste,  released  the  prisoners,  and  set  the  prison  on  fire, 
le  new  prison^  at  C3ericenweU,  the  King^s  Bench  and 
Fleet  Prisons^  and  the  New  Bridewell,  were  treated  in 
like  manner.  At  one  time,  thirty-six  fires  were  seen 
throoghoiit  the  city.  The  mob  had  uncontrolled  pos- 
session of  the  streets  for  five  days,  pilb|ping,  burning, 
and  demolishing;  until  the  king  in  council  determined 
to  authorise  the  military  to  put  them  down  by  force  of 
arms.  Tranquillity  was  then  restored,  but  not  before 
upwsjrds  of  400  persons  were  killed  and  woundecL 
Many  of  tiie  ringleaders  were  conyicted  and  executed. 
Lot:a  George  Gordon  was  tried  for  high  treason,  but 
acquitted  on  a  plea  of  insanity,  which  nia  subsequent 
lile  showed  to'be  well  founded.  Similar  outrages  were 
attempted  in  other  cities,  but  preyented  by  the  yigour 
of  the  magistrates.  The  chm  suflerers  from  uese 
riots  were  the  party  who  aimed  at  political  reforma. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  king  obtained  mereased  respect, 
in  consequence  of  the  firmness  he  had  ahown  in  taxing 
measures  for  the  suppression  of  the  riots. 

The  states  of  Nora  and  South  Carolina,  which  con- 
tained a  larger  proportion  of  persons  friendly  to  the 
British  crown  than  any  of  the  northern  states,  had 
submitted,  in  1780,  to  a  British  army  under  General 
Clinton.  Next  year,  the  greater  part  of  the  troops 
whidi  had  been  left  in  tlMse  states  were  conducted 
northward  by  Lord  Comwallis,  in  the  hope  of  making 
further  conquests ;  but  the  consequence  was  that  Gene- 
ral Grreene,  after  a  series  of  confiicts  in  which  he  greatly 
distressed  yarious  parties  of  the  British  troops,  regained 
both  Carolinas,  while  Lord  Comwallis  took  up  a  position 
at  Yorktown  in  Virginia.  At  this  time,  General  Wash- 
ington,  the  American  commander-in-chief,  to  whose  ex- 
traordinary sagacity  and  purity  of  motiyes  the  colonists 
chiefly  owed  their  independence,  was  threatening  Gene- 
ral Clinton's  army  at  New  York.  Clinton  tamely  saw 
him  retire  to  the  southward,  believing  that  he  only 
meant  to  make  a  feint,  in  order  to  draw  away  the  Bri- 
tish from  New  York,  when  he  in  reality  meant  to  attack 
Comwallis.  On  the  29th  of  September  (1 78 1 ),  Yorktown 
was  inyested  by  this  and  other  corps  of  Americans  and 
French ;  and  in  three  weeks  more,  the  British  batteries 
being  completely  silenced,  Lord  Comwallis  surrendered, 
with  his  whole  army.  With  this  event,  though  some 
posts  were  still  kept  up  by  British  troops,  hostilities 
might  be  said  to  have  been  concluded. 

At  the  next  opening  of  Parliament,  many  of  those 
who  had  formerly  supported  the  war,  began  to  adopt 
opposite  views ;  and,  early  in  1782,  a  motion,  made  by 
General  Conway,  for  the  conclusion  of  the  war,  was 
carried  by  a  majority  of  nineteen.  The  necessary  con- 
sequence was,  that,  on  the  20th  of  March,  Lord  North 
and  his  colleagues  resigned  office,  after  twelve  years  of 
continued  misfortune,  during  which  the  prosperity  of 
the  country  had  been  retarded,  a  hundred  millions  added 
to  the  national  debt,  and  three  millions  of  people  sepa- 
rated from  the  parent  state. 

As  usual  in  such  cases,  a  new  administration  was 
formed  out  of  the  Opposition.  The  Marquis  of  Rock- 
ingham was  made  prime  minister,  and  Mr  Fox  one  of 
the  secretaries  of  state.  The  new  ministers  lost  no  time 
in  taking  measures  for  the  restoration  of  peace.  Unfor- 
tunately for  their  credit  with  the  nation.  Sir  George 
Rodney  gained  an  important  victory  over  the  French 
fleet  off  the  isUnd  of  Dominica,  AprU  12,  1782,  after 
the  miniBters  had  dispatched  another  officer  to  super- 
sede him  in  the  command.  On  this  occasion,  thirty- 
seven  British  vessels  encountered  Uiirty-four  F^rcnch, 
and,  chiefly  b^  the  dexterous  manoeuvre  of  a  breach  of 
the  enemy^  hue,  gained  one  ci  the  most  oomplete  yie- 
ld 


tories  reeorded  in  modem  wCm.  Itelrin 
eminently  nwrim— ly,"  to  raeofer  ia  mmm  meai 
national  honour,  and  enable  the  mhiinlwi  to  < 
the  war  upon  toleraUe  tefnub  la  VfHwmmbm 
sional  artideafor  a  peaee  wiA  On  Unlled  SlMsa 
riea,  dbw  acknowledged  m  an  faidapendntpov 
signed. at  Parisy  and  the  trcntywaa  eooelud< 
ensuing  Febnnuy.  When  the  AsMrieaa  «b] 
was  afterwards,  for  the  first  tin%  iatrodaee 
British  levee^  the  kii^;  reesived  him  kindly,  i 
with  a  manly  franknesa^  that  thoimh  he  had  1 
last  man  in  nia  dominions  to  denra  that  the  : 
denee  of  America  ahonld  beadoMiwUtody  heah 
be  the  Ust  to  wiah  that  that  a^nosMcmeat  a 
withdrawn.  War  was  soon  after  oonelnSsd  with 
Spain,  and  HoUand,  but  not  withoiift  aoine  eon 
eoneessions  of  ooloiiial  tenitoiyoB  tlie parti 
Britain. 

The  condnsbn  of  this  war  ia  meniorabie  aa 
of  great  sufiering^  axiafair  firam  the  eyhtnaHn 
nanonal  reaourees,  the  depraeiion  of  oomaa 
the  aeeident  of  a«bad  harveat  The  piiueialsi 
sperity  were  after  all  found  to  be  ao  finnqr  i 
the  country,  that,  immediately  after  the  first  d 
had  passed  away,  every  dmiartment  of  the  elate 
ita  wonted  vigour;  and,  during  the  enaning  ti 
of  peace,  a  great  advance  waa  mhde  in  aatMoa 

On  the  unexpected  death  of  the  liar^nlB  of  ] 
ham,  in  July  1782,  the  king  dioae  aa  ha  anoei 
Earl  of  Shelbnme,  who^  though  nominally  a  W 
not  sufficiently  inclined  to  the  general  meaami 
party  to  be  agreeable  to  BIr  Fox  and  o^ir 
members  of  the  cabinet  On  their  eonaeuust 
tion,  the  vaeaneies  were  filled  np  hy  the  fnmdi 
bume,  among  whom  was  Mr  Willaun  Pttty  a 
son  of  the  Earl  of  Chatham.  TMb  jooag  ah 
to  whom  waa  asngned  the  office  of  ehamwih) 
exchequer,  had  a&eady  distingniahed  himasH 
part  he  took  in  the  popular  proceedinga  Ibr  i 
of  the  House  of  Commons— an  objeet  which  tl 
sition  and  their  supporters  had  for  some  yea 
cated  with  great  zeal,  but  which  soon  after  1 
great  measure  out  of  public  notice. 

COALITION  MINISTRT. 

The  present  ministry  was  opposed  by  two  p 
very  different  principles,  namely,  the  adherent 
North  administration,  and  the  friends  of  thee 
who  had  lately  retired  from  the  cabinet.  Tl 
parties,  notwithstanding  that  they  had  -been  op 
each  other  throughout  all  the  late  war,  coaJe 
factious  or  ambitious  purposes ;  and,  being  trii 
over  the  ministry,  forced  themselves  upon  tl 
counsels.  Then  was  formed  (April  2,  1783)  « 
called  the  Coalition  Ministry,  m  which  Lord  N< 
Mr  Fox  acted  together  as  secretaries  of  state, 
two  years  had  hardly  elapsed  since  the  let 
breathed  the  most  violent  threats  in  Parliament 
his  present  associate.  A  coalition,  in  whidi 
principle  was  supposed  to  be  abandoned  for  tlu 
office,  could  not  be  agreeable  to  the  nation,  whi 
evidently  embarrassing  to  the  sovereign.  Mr 
prepared  and  carried  through  the  Lower  H< 
famous  bill  for  the  regulation  of  the  East  Ind 
pany,  by  which  all  authority  was  to  devolve  o 
directors  chosen  by  the  House  of  Conunons ; 
words,  by  which  the  immense  patronage  of  this 
of  the  empire  was  to  fall  into  the  hands  of  the  s 
The  India  bill,  as  it  was  called,  was  generally  s 
to  aim  at  fixing  the  ministry  in  power  beyond  1 
trol  of  both  king  and  people,  and  it  acconlingli 
much  indignation.  His  majesty,  therefore,  ful 
dent  of  support  from  the  people,  used  his  pen 
fluence,  in  no  covert  way,  to  induce  the  House  c 
to  reject  the  bill,  and  (December  18)  sent  a  um 
to  denumd  the  seals  of  office  from  his  over4U! 
ministers,  appointing  Mr  Pitt  to  be  the  prime  i 
and  chancellor  of  the  excbeouer  of  a  new  eabii 
sisting  chiefly  of  his  majestj^s  friends. 


HISTORY  OF  GREAT  BRITAIN  AND  IRELAND. 


•  Turioni  departments  of  the  state  were  now  thrown 
i  rehUiTe  poeitkmi  which  had  never  heen  known 
e,  and  baa  neyer  recurred.  The  king  and  his  mi- 
n,  baeked  by  a  decided  majority  of  the  public, 
oppoaed  by  two  powerful  aristocratic  factions  in 
louse  of  Ctommons,  who  defeated  every  measure 
vas  introduced,  refused  the  usual  supplies,  and 
again  and  again  resolutions  against  the  coutinu- 
of  the  present  men  in  office,  which  they  denounced 
eonstitntional.  But  in  the  course  of  a  few  weeks, 
sflnenoe  of  the  opposition  was  sensibly  reduced ; 
oblie  aenUment  and  the  power  of  the  court  began 
ce  effect  even  on  this  intractable  body ;  and  when 
igth  their  majority  had  been  worn  down  to  one, 
1  happened  on  a  motion  by  Mr  Fox,  the  king  dis- 
d  the  Parliament— a  measure  which,  whatever  it 
t  promise  to  him,  he  did  not  previously  think 
iable.  So  fur  were  the  votes  of  the  coalition  from 
;  based  on  popular  support,  that  in  the  new  clec- 
Bo  fewer  uian  one  hundred  and  sixty  members 
their  seats.  The  new  House  of  Commons  was  so 
irable  towards  the  king  and  ministry,  as  to  enable 
nblie  service  to  go  on  without  further  iutcrrup- 


LBQISLATIVE  MEASURES  IN  IRELAND. 

em  the  end  of  the  reign  of  George  I.,  a  patriotic 
rin  Ireland,  composed  of  a  mixture  of  Catholics  and 
■tanta,  had  been  exerting  itself  to  reduce  the  in- 
ee  of  the  English  ministry  in  their  country.  The 
tance  of  tlie  American  colonists  gave  a  powerful 
doa  to  this  body  ;  and,  on  some  alarm  of  an  inva- 
of  the  French,  they  found  a  pretext  for  taking  up 
if  apparently  for  the  protection  of  the  country,  but 
aUty  to  render  themselves  formidable  to  England. 
Ninged  by  Parliament,  and  headed  by  the  princi- 
sen  in  the  country,  the  Volunteer  Corps,  as  they 
ealled,  held  meetings  and  passed  resolutions,  in 
h  they  openly  avow^  their  determination,  at  the 
rd  of  life  and  fortune,  to  achieve  the  indepen- 
e  of  the  native  legislature,  and  a  complete  parti- 
don  in  the  commercial  rights  of  tlie  Britiuh.  The 
mment,  being  then  too  feeble  to  resist,  bowed  to 
r  demands.  Poyning's  law,  and  otliers  which  had 
B  the  English  Parliament  a  right  to  interfere  with 
ind,  were  repealed ;  and  acts  were  passed  for  the 
k  of  habeat  corpus  and  the  independence  of  the 
ea>  In  November  17B3,  the  volunteers  held  a 
id  convention  in  Dublin,  and  proposed  to  urge  the 
ilioa  of  Pafliamentary  reform ;  but  the  government 
began  to  regain  strength,  and  in  a  short  time,  by 
■1  measuresy  it  prevailed  upon  the  corps  to  dissolve. 


nRT  OF  MB  PITF — FROM  1784  TO  THE  COMMENCEMENT 
OF  TOE  FRENCH  RETOLITION. 

hough  the  favourite  minister  of  a  sovereign  decidedly 
*  to  all  popular  innovations,  Mr  Pitt  continued 
his  former  zeal  for  a  reform  in  the  House  of 
I ;  but,  as  might  be  expected,  was  unable  to 
i|  the  power  of  the  government  to  bear  upon  the 
JNt  In  April  1785,  he  asked  leave  of  the  House 
ling  in  a  bill  for  this  object ;  but  it  was  refused  by 
Iff  majority.  The  desire  of  Parliamentary  reform 
ettbdeaa  continued  to  animate  a  large  portion  of 
community.  In  1784,  a  regular  society  had  been 
ituled  in  Scotland,  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining  such 
aarare ;  and  in  the  succeeding  year,  forty-nine  out 
ha  sixty-six  boroughs  had  declared  in  favour  of  it. 
n  w^re  also  numerous  associations  of  a  similar 
lader  in  England. 

a  1786,  Mr  Pitt  established  his  celebrated  but  fol- 
OM  scheme  for  redeeming  the  national  debt,  by 
It  was  ealled  a  Sinking  Fund.  The  revenue  was  at 
I  tine  above  fifteen  mUlions,  being  about  one  million 
It  than  was  required  for  the  public  service.  This 
wm  be  proposed  to  lav  aside  annually,  to  lie  at  com- 
■i  iaterest ;  by  which  means  he  calculated  that  each 
i&M  would  be  quadrupled  at  the  end  of  twenty-eight 
itL  and  thus  go  a  great  way  towards  the  object  he 

165 


had  in  view.  To  this  scheme  Mr  Fox  added  the  infi- 
nitely more  absurd  amendment,  that,  when  tlie  govern- 
ment required  to  borrow  more  money,  one  million  of 
every  six  so  obtained  should  be  laid  aside  for  the  same 
purpose.  The  scheme  was  so  well  received  as  to  in- 
crea^  the  popularity  of  the  minister,  and  it  was  not 
till  1813  that  its  fallacy  was  proved. 

In  the  same  year  commenced  the  Parliamentary  pro- 
ceedings against  Mr  Warren  Hastings,  for  alleged 
cruelty  and  robbery  exercised  upon  the  natives  of  India 
during  his  governorship  of  that  dependency  of  Great 
Britain.  These  proceedings  were  urged  by  Mr  Burke 
and  other  members  of  the  Whig  party,  and  excited  so 
much  public  indignation  against  Mr  Hastings,  that  the 
ministry  was  obliged,  though  unwillingly,  to  lend  their 
countenance  to  his  trial,  which  took  place  before  Par- 
liament in  the  most  solemn  manner,  and  occupied  one 
hundred  and  foi'ty-nine  days,  extending  over  a  space 
of  several  yean.  The  result  was  the  acquittal  of  Mr 
Hastings. 

The  king  and  queen  had,  in  the  mean  time,  become 
tlie  parents  of  a  numerous  family  of  sons  and  daughters. 
The  eldest  son,  George,  Prince  of  Wales,  had  now  for 
several  years  been  of  age,  and  exempted  from  the  con- 
trol of  his  father.  He  had  no  sooner  been  set  up  in  an 
establishment  of  his  own,  than  he  plunged  into  a  career 
of  prodigality,  forming  the  most  striking  contrast  with 
the  chastened  simplicity  and  decorum  of  the  paternal 
abode.  He  also  attached  himself  to  the  party  of  the 
Opposition,  though  rather  apparently  from  a  principle 
of  contradiction  to  his  father,  than  a  sincere  approba- 
tion of  their  political  objects.  The  result  was  the 
complete  alienation  of  the  Prince  of  Wales  from  the 
afiections  of  the  king. 

In  November  1788,  an  aberration  of  intellect,  result- 
ing from  an  illness  of  some  duration,  was  obsei'ved  in 
the  king,  and  it  became  necessary  to  provide  some 
species  of  substitute  for  the  exercise  of  the  royal  func- 
tions. To  have  invested  the  I^rince  of  Wales  with  the 
regency,  appeared  the  most  obvious  course ;  but  this 
would  have  thrown  out  the  mniLstry,  as  it  was  to  bo 
supposed  that  his  royal  highness  would  call  the  chiefs 
of  his  own  party  to  his  councils.  Mr  Fox  contended 
that  the  hereditary  nature  of  the  monarchy  pointed  out 
an  unconditional  right  in  the  prince  to  assume  the  su- 
preme power  under  such  circumstances ;  but  Mr  Pitt 
asserted  the  right  of  Parliament  to  give  or  withhold 
such  an  ofhce,  and  proposed  to  assign  certain  limits  to 
the  authority  of  the  intended  regent,  which  would  have 
placed  the  existing  ministry  beyond  his  reach.  The 
Irish  Parliament  voted  the  unconditional  regency  to 
.the  prince;  but  that  of  Great  Britain  was  about  to 
adopt  the  modified  plan  proposed  by  Mr  Pitt,  when, 
March  1 780,  tlie  king  suddenly  recovered,  and  put  an 
end  to  the  difficulty.  The  debates  on  the  regency 
question  show  in  a  very  strong  light  how  statesmen 
will  sometimes  abandon  their  most  favourite  and 
strongest  principles  on  the  call  of  their  own  immediate 
interests. 

MISCELLANEOUS  CIRCUMSTANCES  FROM  17G0  TO  1700. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  reign  of  George  III.,  both 
the  commerce  and  the  manufactures  of  the  country 
might  be  considered  as  in  a  highly  flourishing  condi- 
tion. Scotland  was  not  now,  as  formerly,  exempt  from 
the  general  prosperity.  In  tiiat  country,  since  the  year 
174G,  great  improvements  of  various  kinds  had  taken 
place  :  the  linen  manufacture  had  been  much  advanced; 
a  trade  with  the  colonies  had  sprung  up ;  agi'iculture 
was  undergoing  great  changes  for  the  better  ;  the 
Highlands  were  now  peaceful,  and  throughout  the  whole 
country  were  seen  conspicuous  symptoms  of  increasing 
wealth,  and  its  natural  consequence,  refinement  of  man- 
ners. 

During  the  first  ten  years  of  the  reign  of  George 
III.,  some  discoveries  and  inventions  were  made,  by 
which  the  prosperity  of  the  whole  empire  received  a 
new  impulse.  By  the  improvements  effected  in  the 
steam-engine  by  Mr  James  Watt,  a  superior  mechanic 


CHAMBERffS  INFOtlMATION  FOR  THE  FSOPIJS; 


power  WM  eViiiiifl  te  ih%  dririDf  of  maehimry  and 
otfwr  ponoaet.  Bir  James  Hargrearea  of  Blaekbom 
inranted  the  spkudnff-Jetmpf  a  eontriTaiiee  for  abrid([p- 
ing  the  use  of  faaad-laboiir  in  the  ootton  manufaetore. 
Upon  this  an  improTement  was  aflerwardi  made  br  Mr 
Riehard  Arkurifffaty  who  inrented  what  was  eallea  the 
ttjinninff-Jramef  bj  which  a  Tast  nomber  of  threads  of 
toe  utmost  fineness  were  span  with  Terj  little  aid  finom 
hand-laboor.  A  third  inVention,  called  the  muk'Jtnnff 
hj  Mr  Cromnton  of  Bolton,  came  into  use  some  Tears 
later;  and,  finally^  the  pow€r4oom  was  invented,  for 
snpeneding  hand-Ubonr  in  weaTing.  By  these  means, 
the  ootton  manufacture  was  brought  to  a  pitch  of  pro- 
speri^  in  Britain,  such  as  no  particular  branch  of 
manufacture  had  erer  expenenoea  before  in  any  coun- 
try. The  jmrnenwe  wealth  produced  bpr  it  is  allowed  to 
hare  been  what  chiefly  enabled  the  nation  to  sustain  the 
neat  contest  in  which  it  was  afterwards  inToWed  with 
France.  Considering  these  results,  the  original  condi- 
tion <^  the  principal  persons  concerned  in  improving 
the  manufacture  is  remarkable.  Mr  Watt,  who  gave 
it  a  mechanic  force  in  the  steam-engine,  was  an  artisan 
In  his  early  days;  Mr  Hargreaves  was  a  carpenter;  and 
Mr  Arkwright  a  dresser  of  hair.  The  hwt,  who  was 
kuighted  by  George  III.,  left,  at  his  death,  nearly  a 
million  stentng,  realised  by  the  profits  of  his  invention. 
Tlie  early  part  of  the  reign  of  George  III.  was  dis- 
tinguished by  the  discoveries  of  Oaptatn  CSook  in  the 
Pacific  Ocean,  by  the  formation  of  many  canals  for  in- 
ternal navigation,  and  by  the  foundation  of  the  Royal 
Academy  for  the  Promotion  of  the  Fine  Arts.  This 
period  derives  lustre  from  the  admirable  paintings  of 
Barry,  Blake,  Hoppner,  and  Reynolds.  Astronomy 
was  cultivated  by  Br  William  Herschd,  who  in  1781 
discovered  the  planet  Uranus.  Chemistry  was  improved 
bv  Dr  Joseph  Black  and  Mr  Cavendish.  The  science 
of  medicine  was  advanced  by  Dr  Cullen  of  Edinburgh ; 
and  natural  history  by  Sir  Joseph  Banks.  In  literature, 
the  chief  place  is  due  to  Br  Samuel  Johnson,  who  had 
flourished  also  in  the  preceding  reign.  Oliver  Gold- 
smith, Mark  Akenside,  and  William  Cowper,  were  the 
meet  eminent  poets.  History  was  written  in  a  masterly 
manner  by  William  Ilobertson  and  David  Hume ; 
Henry  Home,  David  Hume,  and  Adam  Smith,  figure 
as  philosophical  writers ;  Sir  William  BlacksUme  wrote 
on  English  law ;  and  amongst  divines,  the  most  eminent 
were  Bishoi>s  Warburton,  Jortin,  and  Hurd. 

FRENCH  RBVOLUnON,  AND  OOXSEQUENT  WAR  Wmi  FRANCE. 

The  country  had  for  several  years  experienced  the 
utmost  prosperity  and  peace,  when  it  was  roused  by  a 
aeries  of  events  whieh  took  place  in  Frsnee.  The  pro- 
ceedings of  the  French  nation  for  redressing  the  political 
grievances  under  which  they  had  long  laboured,  com- 
menced in  1789,  and  were  at  first  very  generally  ap- 
pUuded  in  Britain,  as  likely  to  raise  that  nation  to  a 
rational  degree  of  freedom.  Ere  long,  the  violence 
shown  at  the  destruction  of  the  Bastille,  the  abolition 
of  hereditary  privileges,  the  open  disrespect  for  religion, 
and  other  symptoms  of  an  extravagant  spirit,  manifested 
by  the  French,  produced  a  considerable  change  in  the 
sentiments  of  the  British  people.  The  proceedings  of 
the  French  were  still  justified  by  the  principal  leaders 
of  Opposition  in  Parliament,  and  by  a  large  class  of  the 
community ;  but  they  inspired  the  government,  and  the 
propertied  and  ]>riviJeged  classes  generally,  with  great 
alarm  and  distrust. 

When  at  length  the  coalition  of  Austria  and  Prussia 
with  the  fugitive  noblesse  had  excited  the  spirit  of  the 
French  people  to  a  species  of  frenzy,  and  led  to  the  esta- 
blishment of  a  republic  and  the  death  of  the  king,  the 
British  government  and  its  supporters  were  efiectoally 
roused  to  a  sense  of  the  danger  which  hung  over  all 
ancient  institutions,  and  a  pretext  was  found  (January 
1 793^  for  dcchiring  war  against  France.  A  com {w rati vely 
small  body  of  the  people  were  0]>po8ed  to  this  step, 
which  waa  also  loudly  deprecated  in  Parliament  by 
■srs  Foa  and  Sheridan ;  but  all  these  remonstrances 
drowned  in  the  general  voice  of  the  nation.    At 


•Qchneristt,  to' spsak  of  politioal  fsteoMiaC 
seemed  the  heif^t  of  ittpcadsBCS^  m  leadiBg  te 
rage  the  French.  All,  therefore^  who  nontlB 
make  open  demaustratioiis  for  that  eanas^  we 
branded  as  enmniss  to  veiigkm  and  eiril  ccdi 
Scotknd,  Mr  Thoma8lfnhr,abarrist6r,aiidMr  I 
an  Unituian  clergyman,  wan  tried  for  saditic 
sentenced  to  variona  tsnns  of  hanishmant.  ( 
named  Sldrving,  Gerald,  and  Margaret,  wera 
in  like  manner  by  the  Scottah  criminal  Jiids 
offences  whieh  could  only  be  said  to  derive  tl 
meter  ascribed  to  them  from  tha  temporary  ai 
dental  circumstancea  of  the  nation.  An  atte; 
inflict  similar  punishments  upon  the  English  ref< 
was  defeated  by  the  acquittal  of  a  ahoemakar 
Hardy ;  but  the  party  waa  nevartbelsss  anbieetc 
tha  apparent  coneurrnica  of  a  large  and  inflnenl 
tioD  of  the  people^  to  many  minor  aavaritisa. 

After  alliances  had  been  formed  with  the  other 
hostile  to  France,  the  BritUi  miiiiitsrs  dispatc 
army  to  the  Netherianda,  nndor  the  command 
kin^  second  son,  the  Duke  of  York,  to  oo-i^ 
reducing  the  fortresssa  in  ponesaion  of  the  I 
while  the  town  of  Toulon,  oeing  inclined  to 
under  the  authority  of  the  royal  fomily,  put  ita 
the  hands  of  a  British  naval  commander.  At  fi: 
French  seemed  to  fofl  somewhat  in  their  defonai 
on  a  more  ardently  republlnn  party  acceding  tc 
under  the  direction  of  the  fomooa  BobeapMr 
national  energiea  were  much  incicaaed,  and  tb 
of  Brunswick  experienced  a  seriea  of  di^giaa 
verses.  The  Prussian  government^  having  adopt 
viewa  of  the  condition  of  France,  now  began  t 
draw  ita  troops,  on  the  pretext  of  being  nnabla 
them ;  and  though  Britain  gavo  nearly  a  miUkn 
quarter  sterling  to  indnoa  this  power  to  rsnai 
months  longer  upon  the  field,  its  co-operation 
no  forther  service,  and  waa  aoon  altogether  Vh 
the  1st  of  June  1794,  the  French  Brest  fleet  sa 
a  severe  defeat  from  Lord  Howe,  with  the  leas 
ships ;  but  the  republican  troops  not  only  dro 
combined  armies  out  of  the  Netherlands,  but, 
advantage  of  an  unusually  hard  frost,  invaded  h 
by  the  ice  which  covered  the  Rhine,  and  reduo 
country*  to  a  republic  under  their  own  control 
successes  of  the  British  were  limited  to  the  abov4 
victor}',  the  temporary  possession  of  Corsica  and  'J 
the  capture  of  sevenl  of  the  French  coloniea 
West  Indies,  and  the  spoliation  of  a  great  quai 
the  commercial  shipping  of  France  ;*against 
were  to  be  reckoned  the  expulsion  of  an  army  ir 
Netherlands,  the  loss  of  10,000  men  and  60^000 
of  arms  in  an  unsuccessful  descent  upon  the  wes 
of  France,  some  considerable  losses  of  shipping, 
increase  of  annual  expenditure  from  about  foun 
nearly  forty  millions. 

In  the  course  of  tlie  ydbr  1795,  the  lower  p< 
of  the  community  began  to  api>ear  violently  diseoii 
with  the  progress  of  the  war,  and  to  renew  th 
mands  for  reform  in  the  state.  As  the  king  waa  | 
(October  29)  to  open  the  session  of  Parliament,  i 
waa  thrown  into  his  coach,  and  the  interference 
horse  guards  was  required  to  protect  his  persoi 
an  infuriated  mob.  The  ministers  consequent 
tained  acts  for  more  efiectually  repressing  seditie 
for  the  disi>ersion  of  political  meetings.  They  a 
the  same  time  compelled  to  make  a  imow  of  yiek 
the  popular  clamours  for  peace  ;  and  comnienoec 
gotiation  with  the  French  Directory,  which  was  1 
off  by  the  refusal  of  France  to  restore  Belgii 
Austria.  In  the  ensuing  year,  so  far  from  anyac 
being  made  towards  the  subjugation  of  (Vane 
northern  states  of  Italy  were  overrun  by  its  a 
and  formed  into  x%hat  was  called  the  Cisalpine  Rei 
The  celebrated  Napoleon  Bonaparte  made  his  fin 
spicuous  appearance  as  the  leader  of  tliis  expe 
which  terminated  in  Austria  submitting  to  a  hni 
ing  peace.  At  the  close  of  1796,  a  French  fleet 
for  Ireland,  with  the  design  of  revolutionisin| 


HISTORY  OF  GREAT  BRITAIN  AND  IRELAND. 


ff  and  dfltefliiiBg  it  firam  Britain ;  bnt  ita  object 
~  bjatnaa  w  waathar.  At  tlua  criaisy  a  new 
made  lo  negotiata  with  the  Frmch  Re- 
i;  batt  aa  tha  avanta  of  the  year  had  been  de- 
SMIt  iammalila  to  Franoa,  a  renewed  demand  of  the 
hatiiB  §ar  tha  aanander  of  Belgium  waa  looked  upon 
la  pmf  thai  thty  ware  not  aineere  in  their  propoaala, 
ii  thair  acant  waa  insnltinglT  ordered  to  leave  the 
tamh  territory.  To  add  to  the  distressea  of  Britain, 
Ua  Avatria  waa  withdrawn  from  the  number  of  her 
Bh^  SpaiBy  hf  m  dMaration  of  war  in  1 797,  increased 
I  Bo  fnaoiiaidarahla  degree  tha  inmienae  force  with 
Mdi  iba  had  to  eontancL 

zuuuxBXED  ciTAaiozi^— aunsEQusrvT  events. 


of  Britain  had  been 
;  and,  Mend  as  the  land  had 

firom  the  touch  of  a  foreign  enemv, 

of  tha  repablieans  had  hitherto  so  greatly 

all  nranoua  ealenlation,  that  the  execution  of 

daigii  oid  not  appear  improbable.    Just  as  the 

'  ranee  of  tha  neighbouring  powers  had,  in  1792, 

tha  energies  of  the  French,  so  did  this  proposed 

atinwilfitT  the  spirit  of  the  British  people.   The 

h  of  reformers,  and  of  thoea  who  were  friendly  to 

now  lost  in  an  almost  universal  zeal  for  the 

of  the  eoontry ;  and  not  only  were  volunteer 

whefe  formed,  but  the  desire  of  proeecut- 

becama  nearly  the  ruling  sentiment  of  the 

The  ministars,  perceiving  the  advantage  which 

■  to  be  derived  from  the  tendency  of  the  national 
ri^  afipeared  aeriously  to  dread  an  invasion,  and 

■  prodnead  an  unexpected  and  very  distressing  re- 
k  Hie  csedit  of  the  Bank  of  England  was  ahaken ; 
«M  waa  made  npon  it  for  gold  in  exchanee  for  its 
IM,  whieh  it  could  not  meet  On  the  2.5th  of  Feb- 
mrj  1797,  therefore,  the  bank  was  obliged,  with  the 
KtiBB  €i  the  privy-council,  to  suspend  cash  pay- 
M^  that  im,  to  refuse  giving  coin  on  demand  for  the 
per  money  vpfaich  had  been  issued.    This  step  led  to 

Lt  depreeiation  in  tha  value  of  Bank  of  England 
and  a  very  serious  derangement  of  the  currency 
for  a  number  of  years. 
In  April,  a  new  alarm-  arose  from  the  proceedings 
'  Ae  aeamen  on  board  the  Channel  fleet,  who  mutinied 
r  an  advance  of  pay,  and  the  redress  of  some  alleged 
eiavaneea.  A  convention  of  delegates  from  the  various 
■pa  met  in  Lord  Howe's  cabin,  and  drew  up  petitions 
I  the  Hoaae  of  Commons  and  the  Board  of  Adiuii*alty. 
Fpon  these  being  yielded  to,  order  was  restored ;  but 
ht  ssamen  on  board  the  fleet  at  the  Nore  soon  after 
Hike  ont  in  a  much  more  alarming  revolt ;  aod,  on 
ha  refoaal  of  their  demands,  moored  their  vessels 
aroH  the  Thames,  threatening  to  cut  oif  all  communi- 
■Ikm  between  London  and  the  open  sea.  The  reduc- 
fan  of  this  mutiny  appeared  at  one  time  as  if  it  could 
■ly  be  effected  by  much  bloodshed ;  bnt  by  the  firm- 
Mi  of  the  government,  and  some  skilful  dealings  with 
ftt  acnmen,  a  loyal  party  was  formed,  by  whom  the  ■ 
Mrs  tnrbolent  men  were  secured,  and  the  vessels  re-  i 
to  their  officers.  The  ringleaders,  the  chief  of 
waa  a  Jtranr  man  named  Richard  Parker,  were  ! 
and  executecL 
The  same  year  was  remarkable  for  several  victories 
pkatd  by  the  British  fleets.  A  Spanish  fleet  of  twenty- 
mm  shipa  waa  attacked  by  fifteen  vessels  under  Ad- 
ahal  Jcrvis  (February  14),  off  Cape  St  Vincent,  and 
Mpleiely  beaten,  with  the  loss  of  four  large  vessels. 
A  «ct  under  Admiral  Harvey,  with  a  military  force 
^ier  Sir  Ralph  Abercromby,  captured  the  island  of 
TMaidad,  a  Spanish  colony.  In  October,  a  Dutch  fleet, 
leder  Admiral  De  Winter,  was  attacked  off  the  village 
tf  Gunperdown,  upon  their  own  coast,  by  Admiral 
IWeui,  who,  after  a  desperate  battle,  captured  nine  of 
He  caemy'a  vessels.  These  naval  successes  couipcn- 
■lid  in  some  measure  for  the  many  land  victories  of 
lb  Frsachy  and  served  to  sustain  tlie  spirit  of  the  Bri- 
U  aation  under  this  unfortunate  contest. 
hi  irsiL  the  Fiench  overran  and  added  to  tlicir 

W 


dominiona  the  ancient  republic  of  Switzerhmd,  which 
gave  them  a  frontier  contiguous  to  Austria,  and  en- 
abled them  eventually  to  act  with  increased  readinesa 
and  force  upon  that  country.  In  this  year,  the  direc- 
tors of  the  French  republic,  beginning  to  be  afraid  of 
the  ambition  of  their  general,  Bonaparte,  sent  him  at 
the  head  of  an  expedition  to  reduce  and  colonise  Egypt, 
intending  from  that  country  to  act  against  the  British 
empire  in  the  East  Indies.  The  expedition  was  auccesa- 
ful  in  its  first  object ;  but  the  fleet  which  had  conveyed 
it  was  attacked  in  Aboukir  Bay,  by  Admiral  Nelson 
(August  1),  and  almost  totally  destroyed  or  captured. 
WhUe  so  much  of  the  strength  of  the  French  army  waa 
thus  secluded  in  a  distant  country,  the  eastern  powers 
of  Europe  thought  they  might  safely  recommence  war 
with  the  republic.  Austria,  Naples,  and  Russia,  formed 
a  confederacy  for  this  purpose ;  and  Britain,  to  supply 
the  necessary  funds,  submitted  to  the  grievance  of  an 
income  tax,  amounting  in  general  to  ten  per  cent.,  in 
addition  to  all  hvr  previous  burdens. 

The  new  confederacy  was  so  successful  in  1799,  aa 
to  redeem  the  greater  part  of  Italy.  A  Russian  army, 
under  the  famous  Suwaroff,  acted  a  prominent  part  m 
the  campaign,  but,  in  the  end,  attempting  to  expel  the 
French  from  Switzerland,  this  largo  force  ^-as  nearly 
cut  to  pieces  in  one  of  the  defiles  of  that  mountainoua 
country.  In  August  of  the  same  year.  Great  Britain 
made  a  corresponding  attempt  to  expel  the  French 
from  Holland.  Thirty-five  thousand  men,  under  the 
Duke  of  York,  formed  the  military  part  of  the  expedi- 
tion.  The  fleet  was  successful  at  the  first  in  taking  the 
Dutdi  ships ;  but  the  army,  having  landed  under  stress 
of  weather  at  an  unfavourable  place  for  their  operations, 
was  obliged,  after  an  abortive  series  of  skirmishes,  to 
make  an  agreement  with  the  French,  purchasing  per- 
mission to  go  back  to  their  country  by  the  surrender  of 
8000  prisoners  from  England. 

The  reverses  which  France  experienced  in  1799, 
were  genei'ally  attributed  to  the  weakness  of  tho  Direc- 
t<Mry — a  council  of  five,  to  which  the  executive  had  been 
intrusted.  Bonajtarte  suddenly  returned  from  his  army 
in  Egypt,  and,  by  a  Ekilful  management  of  his  popula- 
rity, overturned  the  Directory,  and  caused  himself  to 
be  appointed  the  sole  deposit'iry  of  the  executive  power 
of  the  state,  under  the  denomination  of  Fii*st  Consul. 
He  immediately  wrote  a  letter  to  King  GtM)rge,  making 
overtures  of  peace,  but  was  answered,  by  tlic  British 
secretary',  that  no  dependence  could  be  placed  by  Great 
Britain  on  any  treaty  with  Fnmco,  unlt*ss  her  govern- 
ment were  again  consolidated  under  the  Bourbons. 
Bonaparte,  having  much  reason  to  wish  for  peace,  made 
a  reply  to  this  note,  vindicating  France  from  the  charge 
brought  against  her,  of  having  commenced  a  system  of 
aggression  inconsistent  with  the  interests  of  other  states, 
and  asserting  her  right  to  choose  her  own  government 
— a  point,  he  said,  that  could  not  decently  be  contested 
by  the  minister  of  a  crown  which  was  held  by  no  other 
tenure.  But  the  British  government  was  at  this  time 
too  much  elated  by  the  expulsion  of  the  French  army 
from  Italy,  and  the  late  changes  in  the  executive,  which, 
in  their  estimatii)n,  betokened  weakness,  to  be  imme- 
diately anxious  for  peace. 

Tlie  events  of  1800  were  of  a  very  difftTont  nature 
from  what  had  been  calculated  upon  in  Kni;Iaiid.  Sir 
Sidney  Smith,  who  commanded  the  British  lorccs  in 
Syria,  had  made  a  treaty  with  the  Frencli  army  after 
it  had  been  left  by  Bona[^arte,  whereby  it  avhs  aj^rciid 
that  the  French  should  abandon  Fgypt,  anil  itrtii-e 
unmolested  to  their  own  country.  The  Bntl^h  govern- 
ment, in  its  ]>resent  temper,  refused  to  ratify  this  ar- 
rangement ;  and  the  consequence  was  a  continuance  of 
hositilities.  The  French  overthrow  a  large  'i'urkish 
army  at  Grand  CaiiH>,  and  made  themselves  in<ire  eflVe- 
tually  than  ever  the  masters  of  tlie  country,  so  that 
Britain  was  obliged  to  send  an  army  next  yeai,  undiT 
Sir  Ralph  Abercromby,  to  accomplish,  at  an  immense 
expense  and  a  great  waste  of  human  life,  >%hat  the 
French  had  formerly  agreed  to  do.  In  Europe  tlio 
presence  of  Bonaparte  pi-oduroil  eiinally  rii-as-tri;!:'.  le* 


CHAMBERS'S  INFORliATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


suite.  By  one  of  hit  most  dexterou  monemeiite,  1m 
•hid«d  toe  Anilrianti  led  an  anny  oTer  the  Alpe  by 
the  QrmX  Si  Bernard  into  the  Milaneeey  and,  haTing 
gained  a  deeinve  Tietory  at  Marengo  (June  14),  at  onee 
reitored  the  greater  part  of  Italy  to  French  donmia> 
tion.  CkmteniporaneoQsly  with  Napoleon's  moTemente, 
Horean  led  another  army  directly  into  Germany,  over- 
threw  the  Anitrians  in  eeveral  battleiy  and  adranoed 
to  within  ierenteen  leegnes  of  Vienna.  These  rererses 
obliged  Austria  next  year  to  make  a  peace,  by  which 
France  became  mistress  of  all  Europe  west  of  the 
Rhine  and  south  of  the  Adige. 

KBBBLUON  Iff  nULULIfD — UNION  WRH  GREAT  BRITAIN. 

Although  the  goTcmment  had  been  able,  in  178S;  to 
procure  a  dissolution  of  the  volunteer  corps,  the  bulk 
olthe  Irish  people  continued  to  express  the  most  anxious 
desire  for  such  a  reform  in  their  parliament  as  mi^ht 
vender  it  a  more  just  representation  of  the  popiuar 
Toiee.  Unable  to  yield  to  them  on  this  point,  Mr  Pitt 
endeavoured  to  appease  them  bv  extending  their  com- 
mercial privile^;  but  his  wishes  were  frustrated, 
ahiefly  by  the  jealousy  of  the  British  merchants.  A 
strong  feeling  of  discontent,  not  only  with  the  govern- 
ment^  but  with  the  British  connexion,  was  thus  engen* 
derea  in  Ireland. 

The  commencement  of  the  revolutionary  prooeedings 
in  France  excited  the  wildest  hopes  of  thie  Irish.  To- 
wards the  close  of  the  year  1791,  th^v  formed  an  asso- 
dation,  under  the  title  of  the  United  Irishmen,  oompre- 
hMiding  persons  of  all  religions,  and  designed  to  obtain 
^  a  complete  refdrm  of  the  legislature,  founded  on  the 
principles  of  civil,  political,  and  religious  liberty."  The 
government  from  tne  first  suspected  this  association  of 
meditating  an  overturn  of  the  state,  and  took  strone 
measures  for  keeping  it  in  check.  Acta  were  passed 
for  fmtting  down  its  meetings,  and  the  secretary,  Bir 
HamUton  Kowan,  was  tried,  and  sentenced  to  a  fine  and 
two  years'  imprisonment  for  what  was  termed  a  seditious 
libel.  At  the  same  time,  some  concessions  to  the  po- 
pular spirit  were  deemed  indispensable,  and  the  Irish 
parliament  accordingly  passed  acts  enabling  Catholics 
to  intermarry  with  rrotestants,  to  practise  at  the  bar, 
and  to  educate  their  own  children. 

On  discovering  that  a  treasonable  correspondence 
had  been  carried  on  with  France  by  some  leading  per- 
sons in  the  society  of  United  Irishmen,  the  government 
was  so  much  alarmed  as  to  send  (171)4)  a  Whig  lonl- 
lieutenant  (Earl  Fitzwilliam)  to  grant  further  conces- 
sions ;  but,  ere  any  thing  hod  been  done,  the  ministers 
were  persuaded  by  the  Protestant  party  to  i*eturn  to 
their  former  policy.  The  patriotic  party  now  despaired 
of  effecting  any  improvement  by  peaceable  means,  and 
an  extensive  conspiracy  was  entez^^  into  for  delivering 
up  Ireland  to  the  French  republic.  The  bclieme  was 
managed  by  a  directory  of  live  persons,  and  though 
half  a  million  of  men  were  concerned  in  it,  the  most 
strict  secrecy  was  preserved.  In  December  179<),  a 
portion  of  tlie  fieet  which  had  been  fitted  out  by  the 
French  to  co-operate  with  the  Irish  patriots,  landed  at 
Bantry  Bay  ;  but  measures  fur  a  rising  of  the  people  not 
being  yet  ripe,  it  was  obliged  to  return.  Next  year,  the 
losses  at  Camperdown  crippled  the  naval  resources  of 
France,  and  prevented  a  renewal  of  the  exju'dition. 
Losing  all  hope  of  French  assibtance,  the  conspirators 
resolved  to  act  without  it ;  but  their  designs  were  be- 
trayed by  one  Ileynoldn  ;  and  three  other  members  of 
the  director)',  Emmet,  Macnevin,an(l  Bond,  were  scu/ed. 
Notwithstanding  the  precautionary  nieasuros  which  the 
government  was  thus  enabled  to  take,  the  Union  per- 
sisted in  the  design  of  rising  on  a  fixed  day.  Lord 
Edward  Fitzgerald^  another  of  its  leaden*,  was  then 
arrestee  and,  being  wounded  in  a  scuffle  with  his  cap- 
H>on  after  died  in  prison.  On  the  21st  of  May 
rd  Costlereagh,  secretary  to  the  lord-lieutenant, 
he  whole  pUu  of  insurrection,  which  had  been 
jmmence  on  the  23d. 

hus  thwarted  in  their  designs,  and  deprived 
r/  leaden,  the  conspirators  appeared  in  arms 


invarioua]  •   mtajr.  FtftlitattMl 

and  Ourlow,  wiu  wvro  nimawfthloH.  Ahai 
under  a  priest  named  vphjr,  mpearsd  hi  th 
of  Wexmrd,  and  toA-  Im  ei!^  it  that  nama 
insnrreetions  about  same  time  broke  ou 
northern  eountiesof  Antrim  and  Down,  but  wc 
suppressed.  In  Wexford  akme  did  the  insari 
pear  in  formidable  strength.  Undsr  a  priea 
Koehe,  a  Isrge  party  of  than  met  and  defeated  i 
of  the  government  troops ;  but,  on  a  second  < 
though  they  fought  with  resolution  for  four  hoi 
were  compelled  to  retreat  Another  deleat 
Ross  exasperated  them  greatly,  and  some  m 
cruelties  were  oonsequently  practised  upon  tl 
soners.  On  the  20th  of  June,  their  whole  f 
collected  upon  Vinegar  Hill,  near  Enniseorth, 
an  army  of  1 3,000  men,  with  a  proportionate 
artillery,  was  brought  against  them  by  Gemrr 
They  were  completdy  overthrown  and  dispsrse 
this  time  the  rebellion  languished,  and  in  Jd 
so  £ar  ceased  to  be  formidable,  that  An  act  of 
was  passed  in  favour  of  all  who  had  been  en 
it,  exeept  the  leaders. 

On  the  32ld  of  Ausust,  when  the  rebelUoo  h 
completely  extinguished,  900  French,  nnder 
Humbert,  were  hmded  at  KilhUa,  in  the  opm 
tremity  of  the  country  from  that  in  whieh  the  n 
had  shown  the  greatest  streogth.  Though  to 
be  of  any  decisive  effect,  they  gave  some  troob 
government.  A  mueh  larger  body  of  Britisl 
under  General  Lake,  met  them  at  Csstlebar, 
treated  in  a  panic.  They  then  advanced  to  tl 
of  the  country,  while  the  lord-lieutenant  eonfi 
formidable  reputation  which  their  countrymeu 
quired,  by  concentrating  an  immensely  disproi 
foroe  against  them.  On  the  8th  of  SM>temB 
were  met  at  Carrick-on-Shannon  by  this  lar| 
to  which  they  yielded  themselves  prisoners  of ' 

During  the  ensuing  two  years,  the  British  i 
exerted  themselves  to  bring  about  an  inoor 
union  of  Ireland  with  Great  Britain ;  a  measure 
the  Irish  were  almost  universally  opposed,  bu 
by  the  use  of  bribes  and  government  patroni 
rally  employed  amongst  the  members  of  the  Iri 
lature,  was  at  length  effected.  From  the  Ist  of « 
1801,  the  kingdom  of  Ireland  formed  an  essen 
of  the  empire,  on  which  was  now  conferred  tl 
of  the  United  Kingdom  of  Great  Britain  and 
The  act  of  union  secured  to  the  Irish  most  of  t 
niercial  privileges  which  they  had  so  long  sough 
a  comparison  of  the  aggregate  exports  and  iui 
the  t\>o  countries,  Ireland  was  to  raise  two 
revenue  for  every  fifteen  raised  by  Great  Britaic 
the  first  twenty  years  of  the  union,  after  wh 
regulations  were  to  be  made  by  Parliameni 
hundred  commonera  were  to  be  sent  by  Irelan 
British  (now  called  the  Imperial)  Parliament, 
two  for  each  county,  two  fur  each  of  the  cities 
lin  and  Cork,  one  for  the  university,  and  one  I 
of  the  thirty-one  most  considerable  towns.  Fo 
spiritual,  by  rotati«m  of  sessions,  and  twenty-ei§ 
temporal,  elected  for  life  by  the  Peers  of  Irelat 
to  sit  in  the  House  of  Lords. 

The  Union,  though  upon  the  whole  effected  in 
of  fairness  towards  Ireland,  increased  the  disco 
the  people,  which  broke  out  in  18U3  in  a  new  ii 
tion.  Under  Robert  Kmmett  and  Thomas  Ri 
conspiracy  was  formed  for  seizing  the  scat  of  t 
government,  and  for  this  pur]>ose  a  great  mult 
piasantry  from  the  county  of  Kildare  assemble 
23)  in  Dublin.  Disappointed  in  their  attempt  n 
cabtle,  they  could  onlv  raise  a  tumult  in  the  stc 
the  course  of  which  Lord  KUwarden,  a  judge, 
nephew,  Mr  Wolfe,  were  dragged  from  a  carri 
killed.  The  mob  viWi  dispersed  by  soldiery,  a 
mett  and  Russell,  being  seized,  were  tried  and  es 

CiUNUE  OF  MLMSTRY,  AXD  PBACB  OF  AMIBXl,  W 

At  the  commencement  of  1801 ,  Britain  had  i 


HISTORY  OF  GREAT  BRITAIN  AND  IRELAND. 


this  mwxpeeted  torn  of  fortune,  but  to  reckon 
r  enemies  the  whnle  of  the  northern  states  of 
vhich  had  found  it  necessary  to  place  them- 
I  friendly  footing  with  Bonaparte,  and,  though 
lol  declare  war  against  Britain,  yet  acted  in 
anner  as  to  render  hostilities  unavoidable. 
iled  in  March,  with  a  large  fleet  for  Copen- 
id  proved  so  successful  against  the  Danish 

>  reduce  that  country  to  a  state  of  neutrality. 
I  of  the  Russian  Emperor  Paul,  which  took 
le  same  time,  and  the  accession  of  Alexander, 
Driendly  to  Britain,  completely  broke  up  the 
ecHifederaey.  Yet  the  great  achievements  of 
I  the  continent,  joined  to  the  distresses  of  a 
bich  at  this  time  bore  hard  on  the  British 
rodneed  a  desire  for  that  peace  which,  a  year 
light  have  been  gained  upon  better  terms, 
ew,  apparently,  to  save  the  honour  of  Mr  Pitt 
riends,  a  new  ministry  was  appointed  under 
igton,  by  whom  a  peace  was  at  length,  in  the 
B  year  (1801),  concluded  with  France,  which 
1  the  state  of  aggrandisement  which  has  just 
*ribed. 

r  of  the  French  Revolution  pkced  Great  Bri< 
•session  of  a  considerable  number  of  islands 
ics  in  the  East  and  West  Indies  and  elsewhere ; 
i  only  two  war  ships  had  been  lost  on  her 
had  taken  or  destroyed  80  sail  of  the  line,  181 
did  224  smaller  ships  belonging  to  the  enemy, 
rith  743  privateers,  15  Dutch,  and  76  Spanish 
he  triumphs  of  the  British  fleets  were  indeed 

>  and  splendid,  and  had  the  effiect  of  keeping 
al  commerce  almost  inviolate  during  the  whole 
r,  while  that  of  France  was  nearly  destroyed. 
By  however,  hardly  the  most  trifling  instance 
I  by  land;  and  the  expenses  of  the  contest 

enormous.  Previously  to  1793,  the  sup- 
ply voted  by  the  House  of  Commons  were 
00;  but  those  for  1801  were  £42,197,000, 
ble  the  amount  of  the  whole  land-rent  of  the 


WED  WITH  PRANCE,  1803. — SUBSEQUENT  EVENTS. 

only  one  of  the  results  of  the  war  against 
dependence,  that  France  was  led  by  the  course 
to  place  herself  under  the  control  of  her  chief 
enius.  Napoleon  Bonaparte ;  a  man  singularly 
or  concentrating  and  directing  the  energies 
try  in  the  existing  condition  of  France,  but 
more  by  personal  ambition  than  by  any  cx- 
^ws  of  the  good  of  his  species.  It  was  soon 
hat  Bonaparte  did  not  relish  peace.  By  taking 
antage  of  several  points  left  loose  in  the  treaty, 
;ed  Great  Britain  to  retaliate  by  retaining 
of  Malta ;  and  the  war  was  accordingly  re- 
•d  in  May  1803.  Britain  immediately  eni- 
r  superior  naval  force  to  seize  the  French 
a  colonies ;  while  France  took  possession  of 
and  excluded  British  commerce  from  Ham- 
Bonaparte  collected  an  immense  flotilla  at 
for  the  avowed  purpose  of  invading  England ; 
^rous  were  the  preparations  made  by  the 
lish  population,  and  so  formidable  the  fleet 
tl  Nelson,  that  he  never  found  it  possible  to 
sign  in  execution.  In  the  year  1804,  he  was 
>  the  dignity  of  Emperor  of  the  French  ;  and 
ee  more  exhibited  the  formalities  of  a  court, 
t  of  the  kind  which  the  European  sovereigns 
see  established.     In  April  of  the  same  year, 

f>n  administration  was  exchanged  for  one 
by  &Ir  Pitt,  and  of  which  he  formed  the 

t  under  the  fostering  influence  of  Great  Bri- 
r  coalition  of  European  powers,  consisting  of 
veden,  Austria,  and  Naples,  was  formed 
ipoleon.  He,  on  the  other  hand,  had  drawn 
s  his  side,  and  was  making  great  exertions 
ang  with  Britain  the  empire  of  the  sea.  A 
lirtjr-three  sail,  partly  French  and  partly 
1G9 


Spanish,  met  a  British  fleet  of  twenty-seven,  under 
Nelson,  oflf  Cape  Trafalgar,  October  25, 1805,  and  was 
completely  beaten,  though  at  the  expense  of  the  life  of 
the  British  commander.  Britain  thus  flxed  perma- 
nently her  dominion  over  the  seas  and  coasts  of  the 
civilised  world.  At  this  time,  however.  Napoleon  was 
asserting  with  equal  success  his  supremacy  over  con- 
tinental Europe.  By  a  sudden,  rapid,  and  unexpected 
movement,  he  conducted  an  army  into  Germany,  where 
the  Austrians  were  already  making  aggressions  upon 
neutral  territory.  On  the  I7th  October,  he  took  the 
fortress  of  Ulm,  with  its  artillery,  magazines,  and  gar- 
rison of  30,000  men ;  a  month  after,  he  entered  Vienna 
without  resistance.  He  then  pursued  the  royal  family, 
and  the  allied  armies  of  Russia  and  Austria,  into  Mo- 
ravia ;  and,  on  the  2d  of  December,  he  gained  the  de- 
cisive victory  of  Austerlitz,  which  put  an  end  to  the 
coalition,  and  rendered  him  the  dictator  of  the  conti- 
nent. 

This  series  of  events  caused  much  gloom  in  the  Bri- 
tish councils,  and  with  several  other  painful  circum- 
stances, among  which  was  the  impeachment  of  his  col- 
league Lord  Melville,  for  malpractices  in  the  Admiralty, 
proved  a  deatli-blow  to  Mr  Pitt,  who  expired  on  the 
23d  of  January  1806,  completely  worn  out  with  state 
business,  at  the  early  age  of  forty-seven,  half  of  which 
time  he  had  spent  in  the  public  service.  Mr  Pitt  is 
universally  allowed  the  praise  of  high  talent  and  pa- 
triotism. But  his  policy  has  been  a  subject  of  dispute 
between  the  two  great  parties  into  which  British  so- 
ciety is  divided.  By  the  Tories  it  is  flmily  believed, 
that  his  entering  into  the  war  against  the  French  re- 
public was  the  means  of  saving  the  country  from  anarchy 
and  ruin ;  by  the  Whigs,  that  this  step  only  tended  to 
postpone  the  settlement  of  the  affairs  of  France,  and 
loaded  Britain  with  an  enormous  debt.  Of  the  absence 
of  all  selfish  views  in  Mr  Pitt,  there  can  be  no  doubt ; 
for,  so  far  from  accumulatine  a  fortune  out  of  the  public 
funds,  he  left  some  debts,  which  Parliament  gratefully 
paid. 

Mr  Pitt's  ministry  was  succeeded  by  one  composed 
of  Lord  Grenville,  Mr  Fox,  and  their  friends  ;  it  was 
comprehensively  called  Whig,  although  Lord  Grenville 
was  in  every  respect  a  Tory,  except  in  his  advocacy  of 
the  claims  of  the  Catholics  for  emancipation.  In  the 
course  of  1806,  the  new  cabinet  made  an  attempt  to 
obtain  a  peace  from  France,  which  now  threatened  to 
bring  the  whole  world  to  its  feet.  But  the  Grenville 
administration  encountered  serious  ditiiculties  from  the 
king,  who  never  could  be  induced  to  look  with  the  least 
favour  on  the  Catholic  claims,  or  those  who  advocated 
them.  Exhausted  by  his  useless  labours,  Mr  Fox  died, 
September  13,  1806.  Few  names  are  more  endeared 
to  the  British  people  than  his,  for,  though  the  leader  of 
the  Whigs,  he  never  excited  any  rancour  in  his  oppo- 
nents. He  was  remarkable  for  his  frankness  and  sim- 
plicity. His  abilities  as  a  pai'liamentary  orator  and 
statesman  were  of  the  flrst  order,  and  he  was  invari- 
ably the  consistent  and  sincere  friend  of  popular  rights. 

A  new  coalition,  excluding  Austria,  but  involving 
Prussia,  had  been  subsidised  by  Britain,  and  was  now 
preparing  to  act.  With  his  usual  decision,  Napoleon 
led  what  he  called  his  "  Grand  Army"  by  forced  marches 
into  Prussia ;  gained,  on  the  14  th  of  October,  the  battles 
of  Jena  and  Averstadt,  which  at  once  deprived  that 
country  of  her  army,  her  capital,  and  her  fortresses ; 
and  then  proclaimed  the  famous  "  Berlin  Decrees,"  by 
which  lie  declared  Great  Britain  in  a  state  of  blockade, 
and  shut  the  ports  of  Europe  against  her  merchandise. 
The  King  of  Prussia,  Frederick  William  III.,  took  re- 
fuge with  his  court  in  Russia,  which  now  was  the  only 
continental  power  of  any  important^  that  remained  un- 
subdued by  France. 

Towards  that  country  Napoleon  soon  bent  his  steps, 
taking,  as  he  went,  assistance  from  Poland,  which  he 
promised  to  restore  to  independence.  After  a  series  of 
skirmislics  and  battles  of  lesser  importance,  he  met  the 
Russian  army  in  great  strength  (June  14,  1807),  at 
FricdUuid,  and  gave  it  a  total  overthrow.    He  might 


CBAMB£RS*S  INFORMATION  FOR  THE  IBOHA 


ii6irbavtM4/ctdiioid  tiM  wkolt ooaatrj,  Mli*]Mid 
doM  AMtete  Mid  Pwii;  bat  1m  contentad  himMlf 
mOk  IbanDiiig  » tnaij  (mUod  tlit  treat/  of  Hiifty  from 
the  pbeo  whm  it  wu  entered  into)»  bj  whieh  Roaiia 
•creed  to  beeome  an  all/  of  Frenee^  and  enteced  into 
Ilk  newa  for  the  embarraament  of  Britain  b/  the  es- 
dnnoB  of  her  eommeroe  from  the  eontinentel  peita. 
Franee  had  thoi^  in  the  eowee  of  a  few  Tearsy  disarmed 
the  whole  of  Enrope^ezeeptinff  Great  Bntain,  an  anuNmt 
of  military  trionmh  tar  whicn  there  was  no  pteoedent 
in  ancient  or  modem  haetor/. 

Tikb  GrenrOle  adminietratioo  was  dif^hMMd  in  epring- 
1807y  in  eopeequenee  of  the  dififeranoe  between  iti  mem- 
bere  and  the  Unff  on  the  snbjeet  of  the  Ckth<^  elaimi^ 
whieh  had  long  been  urged  b j  the  Whig  party,  with 
little  rapport  from  the  DMple.  The  neat  miniirtnr  was 
beaded!^  the  Dnke  of  Portiaiid»  and  indaded  Lorda 
Hawkeabonrand  OMtlereash  (afterwards  Earl  of  Lhrer- 
podl  and  Marqaia  of  Londonderry),  and  Bir  Canning, 
aa  aeeretariea ;  Mr  Speneer  Peroeral  being  ehanoellor 
of  the  exoheqner.  After  being  aeeoatomed  to  the  ser- 
Tieea  of  soeh  men  aa  Pitt  and  Fox,  the  people  i^igarded 
titis  eabinet  as  one  p  nssissing  eomparatiTely  little  ability. 
One  of  its  first  aets  waa  the  dinateh  of  a  naval  arma- 
ment to  Copenhagen,  to  aeiieattd  bring  away  the  Danish 
aliippinf  ,  whieh  was  azpeeted  to  be  immediately  em- 
ployed m  sabeerrieney  to  the  desiflis  of  Franee,  and 
for  the  injury  of  Britain.  The  end  of  the  eapedition 
waa  easily  ff^hied ;  bat  it  waa  the  meaaa  of  lowering  the 
honour  of  Britain  in  the  eysa  of  foreign  states. 

FIBSX  nSOMSaUM  CAMPiftflf..    aUBMIQUBITJi^TWTa. 

The  retaliation  of  Franee^  for  the  interfsreneea  of 
other  powers  with  its  lerolation,  eren  snpposing  soeh 
ivtaliation  justifiable)  was  now  more  than  completed. 
P^irther  measures  eould  only  Wpotr  aa  dictated  by  a 
derire  of  aggrandisement.  But  Jmnee  was  now  given 
«p  to  the  mreetion  of  a  military  genios,  who  had  other 
ends  to  serre  than  the  defence  St  the  country  against 
foreign  agmssion  or  interference.  The  amazing  sne- 
eeesee  of  Napoleon  had  inspired  him  witii  the  idea  of 
universal  empire ;  and  so  great  was  the  influence  he  had 
acquired  over  the  French,  and  so  high  their  military 
spirit,  that  the  attainment  of  his  object  seemed  by  no 
means  impossible.  There  was  a  diflference,  however, 
between  the  opposition  which  he  met  with  before  this 
period,  and  tliat  which  he  subsequently  encountered. 
In  the  earlier  periods  of  the  war,  the  military  opera- 
ttons  of  the  European  powers  were  chiefly  dictated  by 
Tiews  concerning  the  interests  of  governments,  and  in 
which  the  people  at  large  felt  little  sympathy.  Hence- 
forth a  more  patriotic  spirit  rose  every  where  against 
Napoleon :  he  was  looked  upon  in  Ei^^land  and  else- 
where as  the  common  enemy  of  humjhnty  and  of  f^ree- 
dom ;  and  every  exertion  made  for  the  humiUalion  of 
F^rance  was  animated  by  a  sentiment  of  desperation,  in 
which  the  governors  and  governed  alike  participated. 

The  Spanish  peninsula  was  the  first  part  of  the  pros- 
trated continent  where  the  people  could  be  said  to  liave 
taken  a  decidedly  hostile  part  a^iust  Napoleon.  He 
had  there  gone  so  far  as  to  dethrone  the  reigning^ 
fiumily,  and  give  the  crown  to  his  elder  brother  Joseph. 
A  sense  of  wrong  and  insult,  min<i^lcd  with  religious 
fanaticism,  raised  the  Spanish  people  in  revolt  against 
the  French  troops ;  and  though  their  conduct  was 
every  where  barbarous  in  the  extreme,  it  was  hailed 
in  Britain  as  capable  of  being  turned  to  account.  In 
terms  of  a  treaty  entered  into  with  a  provisional  go- 
vernment in  Spain,  a  small  army  was  landed,  August  8, 
1808,  in  Portugal,  which  had  been  recently  taken  pos- 
senion  of  by  the  French.  Sir  Arthur  Wellesley,  who 
afterwards  became  #o  famous  as  Duke  of  Wellington, 
was  the  leader  of  this  force.  In  an  engagement  at 
Vimeira,on  the  21  st,  he  repulsed  the  French,  under 
Juuot,  who  soon  after  agreed,  by  what  was  called  the 
Convention  of  Cintra,  to  evacuate  the  country.  Sir 
Arthur  being  recalled,  the  British  army  was  led  into 
Spain  under  the  command  of  Sir  John  Moore ;  bat 
this  officer  found  the  reinforeemcnts  poured  in  by 

170 


Napolssn  tod  mnfttob*  witihrtaodyMril 
hi  the  and  ol  Dss—ibarj  h»  snmmsanad 
thott^  well-eondnstod  jstrsat  towaids  tiMjsc 
Gonmna,  whither  bs  waa  okarily  pntsuad  1^  Hi 
Sontt.  Tim  BritiBk  anqr  ■oMsdy  OK  this  001 
the  aavecest  hardshipa  and  knssi,  bat  did  not 
riaoAa  a  eheek  in  battUu  or  loaa  a  singls  stawlwt 
a  battle  whieh  took  piaea  «l  CSomttna,  Jannai 
1809,  for  the  purpose  of  proteotiiMP  the  embaikal 
tho  troops.  Sir  John  Ifoors  imm  luled. 

Mndi  of  the  pnblie  attention  was  abont  thii 
engrossed  by  cirenmatanosa  in  the  private  lile  • 
eltotsonof  theking.  The  Prinea  of  Walea  hai 
tsmpted,  in  1796,  by  the  prospael  of  having  his 
debts  mud  by  the  nation,  to  many  the  PriMsss 
line  01  BmniBwiek,  for  whom  ha  antertaiaed  no 
tkm.  Almost  stvar  sumo  the  marrhige,  ho  bad 
the  moat  marked  disrespaot  for  his  oonaort,  wbt 
seqoently,  lived  ssparato  firom  him,  and  waa  1 
considered  by  many  aa  dafteiant  in  ber  coDdm 
matron. 

In  1809,  Austria  waa  induced  onaa  Bsors  U 
mence  war  with  France.  Upwards  of  half  a  mil 
men  were  bronght  into  the  field,  nnder  the  oomn 
the  Ardidttke  Charlea.  Bonaparte,  leaving  Spaii 
paititively  open  to  attack,  moved  raaidly  fiorwai 
uermany,  and,  by  the  Tietory  of  KAmnhl,  opsi 
the  way  to  Vienna,  whidi  anrrandered  to  bim. 
gainmg  a  slight  advantage  at  Wsslfnfctha  am 
came  toa  aeoood  deefaive  eneonnter  at  vlTagrBm, 
the  strength  of  Austria  waa  completely  broi 
pieoss.  inie  peace  whieh  sneoeeded  waa  ssaM 
marriage  of  Napoleon  to  Maria  Louisa,  danchtet 
finperor  of  Austria,  for  whieh  porpoae  he  di 
hia  former  wife  Josephine. 

In  the  autumn  of  1809,  the  BiMdi  govenmM 
patched  an  armament  of  100,000  men,  for  the  p 
of  aecnriBg  a  station  wbidi  ohonld  oommand  tm 
gatSon  of  the  Sehehlt.  The  expedition  waa  plaeed 
the  comnund  of  the  Earl  of  Chatham,  cdder  bro 
Mr  Pitt,  a  nobleman  totally  unacquainted  ^nth  n 
affairs  on  such  a  scale.  The  army,  having  disem 
on  the  insalubrious  island  of  Walchereo,  was  sv 
in  thousands  by  disease.  The  survivors  retui 
December  without  having  done  any  thing  towa' 
object  for  which  they  set  out.  This  tragical  affiur  I 
the  subject  of  inquiry  in  the  House  of  Commons, 
by  a  maiority  of  272  against  232,  vindicated  the  i 
in  which  the  expedition  had  been  managed. 

SUCCi:SSEdS  OP  WELUNGTO.N  JX  SPAl.V. 

A  new  expedition  in  Spain  was  attended  witl 
success.  Taking  advantage  of  the  absence  of  N] 
in  Austria,  a  considerable  army  was  landed,  A 
1809,  under  tho  command  of  Sir  Arthur  W< 
who  immediately  drove  Soult  out  of  Portugal,  ai 
made  a  rapid  move  upon  Madrid.  King  Joec 
vaneed  with  a  considerable  force  under  the  coi 
of  Marshal  Victor;  and,  on  the  28th  of  July,  a 
the  British  and  Spanish  troops  in  a  strong  pes 
Talavera.  The  contest  was  obstinate  and  sanrt 
and  though  the  French  did  not  retreat,  the  ad^ 
lav  with  the  British.  As  this  was  almost  the  fi 
cess  which  Britain  experienced  by  land  in  the 
of  the  war,  Sir  Arthur  Wellesley  became  the  tl 
universal  praise,  and  ho  was  elevated  to  a  i 
under  tlie  title  of  Vu»count  Wellington  of  Ti 
He  was  obh'god  inimetliately  to  fall  back  upon  Pi 
where  he  occupied  a  strong  position  near  Santa 

Early  in   1810,  Napoleon  reinforced  the  a 
Spain,  and  pivc  orders  to  Massena  to  ^  drive  t 
tish  out  of  the  peninsula."  \N'eIlington  posted  hii 
on  the  heights  of  Busaco — eighty  thousand  in  r 
including  Portuguese — and  there,  on  the  27th 
tember,  was  attacked  by  an  e<[ual  number  of  J 
Both  British  and  Portuguese  behaved  well :  the 
were  repulsed  with  great  loss,  and,  for  the  first 
the  war,  conceived  a  respectful  notion  of  the 
troops.    Wellington  now  retved  to  the  lines  of 


.ITALV  AA'O  iUSuA^^D- 

Uwurh  liibiaii*^  to  Ik  nlattaiair,  ooj*  ianwMd  Qit 

lotnaeB,  il  tlu  Dnilt-d  ittjitw— >i; 
yoods  111  Ihaa  IKUQi,  •lili^  Ih~.' 
jwd  |M  a  dnlf  to  Britkia.    T'' 
MOmd  ban  tfe«  ibtnm^tfi 


LA  l^UUjt-AiI  LllJ-iqi:.  ill  £lT.ID[  ilJ  (III 

'iou  iiUeh,  traur  jmn  Mbr^  hua 
Willi  nils.  TiM  moluan  of  Uri<i*k 
mm  *hkU  ba  li»l  <ti*HM4  te  nMMnMil 
^pddM  g»gliil-^Mw>j  tfaa  aHm*  of  fn^  iImtom, 
mi  1 11  Mill  II.  ^  liwibhip  ifcmughcRi  ilia  aniinmit, 
aid  «M  enaiijr  iMKnniiiNittI  Ik  MciliaK  A  ajilrll  III  bw- 
UHljr  antiiut  hm,  Tha  f«*7  cinttniKftnn  vl  ■  fWtecn 
f»iWT*«ilin  wlaii  iiTt:r  tbtjr  naltn  iirmco,  nUmfs 
Mbf  In  txmr  at  Unm  |»n—y,  wklidi,  bMa 
UtMlAnI  wild  (lia  onat  of  Miinaaal  lOitniniliMn,  aoM 
*•  a  txry  pnntlU  whnnhni.  On  tii*  stboF  kud,  a 
BUM  of  iW  snufiua  wiliiUon  oT  Niyukw— W  Ml 
laMOlQ'  «u  nkI  &m(£«i— vr  lib  amMmipBlMiiHmn  b 
iialig  ««ar  tlia  ttts  at  h 


liio  of  troopi,  an' 


allliMpkM.  Thao^orilaa 
br  *'"■  l^'nowh  U«*|>  ia  Snlamhu,  waa  iIm^tdJ  by 
iMMMKatiOh  ao  thai  iw  abulcar  fwniMnad  liir  dm  dor. 
lDt*a  n^U%  viutar.  N]1|hiIc»i.  ma  lUiK^  M  hn 
tHtt;  bdl,  wrartalNn  h;  il<«  ilrmt  iiicl— n  nt  tkt 
BtMOn,  hia  nwn  piHiiicd  b;  U 


inawraplBcilwUMVStaranalDaCln  Ituai*.  i 

Btrifia  mS,  liB  upanad  a  mtDnainn  iu  iiiirtJi4 
OvKBui;,  '<^''[r.^  tl>r>  rTiii..j«ir  vt  lima,  n<iw  julaf 
fcy  Uie  K  r-    '  "    -  -  '  ---.ri,,!!,  niinur  |w>tn,  a 

pgasw)  1.1  .'.-1  lilu.    AIIw^mIm 

0ia  Ul  <  I  >  xaa  •S>'^  piaaa  fl 

wnfiljoii    <  'lit  jjBrl  of  Ilia  dmnniii"' 

whiph  he  hnd  Di-uju^vr'!  iiiim  Uli'A.  iniyitad  *Hb 
3v«rw<iFiiinfi  inuUulvnaa  in  ba  Tcaonrcca  ajid  nnlib 
IWiiiKS '>*™>i**^iliaeUriiii^aiidltMtnll.  la  Aii|;i 
■tJtuiL  Iha  ajmiatioa  waa  nt  an  reA,  liiafaUicr-lD-lao, 
Eni|K!nirof  Auinria,  joiiiBd  thcaJiiea.i'boivfi 

nonbarad  400,000  m>ii.  whiU  u  «nii7  of  SUi 

Ula  Urnal  wbieH  Nuwiiran  ouiild  at  preawnl  bring  in 
Uie  Aeii.    llHiiecr»rth  li«  nii^lit  ba  cuiuiilvTcd  u  dvc 
powori^  bj  numlxm.      lljr  nwady  ihnii|{li    oaulia 
mDTciuoiitB,  tin  atlin  ailTaoecJ  to  fntnea,  dritiojt  lti._ 
rolnotanll^  bvfore  ibom,  asd  lacToaaliift  Uiulr  nmi  rorM 
""  "'""  -*---'  ipaud  bythsirpi^ 


Am*  alianm  liad  in  tin  iiia&.n  tlma  tiilii>ii  pliM  ia 
he  Britixli  Ba>iiiiii.trWic.ii.  On  iba  1  Itli  nf  May  IBIS, 
Aa  rnMulur,  Mr  l'iirci>ral,  wMihel  in  Uiv  IiiMiynT  lita 
JnuioQf  Commim«,bya  man  Qamcul  UuUiiiBlijiui,  »biin& 
losurprivala  JoattM  had  iradoKd  liuaiw.  Curda  Up^v 
'"--'-     [T| llitn linn [i mil rl Inlit  liillaiuli* 


CHAMBERS'S  INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


in  the  two  Houses  of  Parliament,  but  were  quickly  voted 
down  by  a  majority  of  four,  upon  a  motion  made  by  Mr 
Stuart  Wortley,  afterwards  Lord  WhamcHffe.  The 
ministry  was  finally  rendered  satisfactory  to  Parliament 
by  the  admission  of  Earl  llarrowby  as  president  of  the 
council,  Mr  Vansittart  as  chancellor  of  the  exehetjuer, 
and  Lord  Sidmouth  (formerly  premier  while  Mr  Ad- 
dington)  as  secretary  for  the  home  department ;  Lord 
Liverpool  continuing  as  premier,  and  Lord  Castlercagh 
as  foreign  and  war  secretary'. 

Notwithstanding  the  successes  which  were  at  this 
period  brightening  the  prospects  of  Britain,  the  regent 
and  his  ministers  did  not  enjoy  much  popularity.  The 
regent  himself  did  not  possess  those  domestic  virtues 
which  are  esteemed  by  the  British  people,  and  he  had 
excited  nmch  disapprobation  by  the  steps  which  he 
took  for  fixing  a  criminal  charge  upon  his  consort.  The 
general  discontents  were  increased  by  the  effects  of 
the  orders  in  council,  for  prohibiting  the  commerce  of 
neutral  states.  Vast  multitudes  of  working  people  were 
thrown  idle  by  the  stagnation  of  manufactures,  and 
manifested  their  feelings  in  commotion  and  riot.  The 
middle  classes  expressed  their  dissatisfaction  by  cla- 
mours for  Parliamentary  reform. 

At  this  unhappy  crisis,  provoked  by  the  orders  in 
council,  as  well  as  by  a  right  assumed  by  British  war- 
vessels  to  search  for  and  impress  English  sailors  on 
boafd  the  commercial  shipping  of  the  United  States, 
that  country  (June  181*2)  declared  war  against  Britain. 
Before  the  news  had  reached  London,  the  orders  had 
been  revoked  by  the  influence  of  Lord  Liverpool ;  but 
the  Americans,  nevertheless,  were  too  much  incensed 
to  retrace  their  steps.  During  the  summer  and  autumn, 
several  encounters  took  place  between  single  American 
and  British  ships,  in  which  the  former  were  successful. 
It  was  not  till  June  1,  1813,  when  the  Shannon  and 
Chesapeake  met  on  equal  terms,  that  the  British  ex- 
perienced any  naval  triumph  in  this  war  with  a  kindred 
people.  On  land,  the  Americans  endeavoured  to  an- 
noy the  British  by  assaults  upon  Canada,  but  met  with 
no  decisive  success.  Tlie  British  landed  several  expe-  j 
ditions  on  thu  coast  of  the  States  ;  and  were  successful  . 
at  Washington,  at  Alexandria,  and  at  one  or  two  other 
points,  but  cxj>erienccd  a  bloody  and  disastrous  repulse 
at  New  C>rlean8.  The  war  ended,  December  1814,  with- 
out settling  any  of  the  principles  for  which  the  Ameri-  j 
cans  bad  taken  u|»  arms.  But,  while  thus  fciniply  use-  " 
less  to  Anieriea,  it  was  seriously  calamitous  to  Britain. 
The  ominerce  with  the  Slates,  which  amounted  in 
18U7  to  twflve  millions,  was  interrupted  and  nearly 
ruined  by  the  orders  in  council,  and  the  hostilities 
which  they  occasioned:  henceforth  America  endea- 
voured to  render  herself  connnercially  indepemlent  of 
Britain,  by  the  encouragement  of  native  manufactures 
— a  policy  not  immediately  advantageous,  j»erhaps,  to 
herself,  but  decidedly  injnrious  to  (Jreat  Britain.  Tb.e 
fatal  effects  of  the  Berlin  and  Milan  decrees  to  Napo- 
leon, and  of  the  orders  in  eonneil  to  the  interests  of 
Britain,  show  how  extrenieiy  dangerous  it  is  for  any 
government  to  interfere  violently  with  the  large  com- 
mercial svsteniR  upon  which  the  immediate  interests  of 
their  subjects  depend. 

pF.ACi:  or  1014.— M  !i-i.-^i  k.nt  i  m  ms. 

At  the  close  of  1}I1.3,  it  was  evident  that  Bonaparte 
Could  hardly  defend  himself  against  the  vast  armaments 
Collected  on  all  hands  aguiust  him.      F.iirly  in   1814, 
having  imi»ressed  almost  every  yt)ulh  ca[>:ible  of  bear- 
ing arms,  he  opp«»sed  the  allies  on  the  frontiers  with  a  j 
ffirce  nmch  le^s  niunerons  and  wors**  disciplined.  Kven  I 
now  he  was  offered  peace,  on  condition  that  he  should  ' 
only  rrtain  I'rance  as  it  <-xisted  before  the  Revolution.  . 
Bui  this  propoj-iiion  was  too  humiliating  to  his  spirit  to  ! 
be  accepteil ;    and  he  entertained  a  hope  that,  at  the  I 
worst,  his  father-in-law,  the  tmperor  of  Austria,  would  I 
not  fK»rmit  him  to  be  dethroiird.     Two  months  were  i 
spent  in  almost  incessant  contliet  with  the  advancing 
allies,  who,  <»n  the  .'lOth  u(  March,  entered   Paris  in 
tiiuniph  ;  and,  in  the  cour«>e  of  a  few  dsys,  ratified  a  ; 

17i 


treaty  with  Napojeon,  by  which  he  agreed  to  resi 
government  of  France,  and  live  for  the  future  i 
sovereign  of  Elba,  a  small  island  in  tlie  Mediterr 

In  the  measures  for  settling  France,  Great  1 
concurred  by  her  representative  Lord  Castlereag 
attended  the  allies  during  the  campaign  of  1814 
peace  was  proclaimed  in  London  on  the  20th  of 
France  was  deprived  of  all  the  acquisitions  gaine 
under  the  republic  and  the  empire,  and  restored 
rule  of  the  ancient  royal  family  in  the  person  of 
XVIII.  The  Emperor  of  Russia  and  the  K 
Prussia  visited  England  iu  June,  and  were  re 
with  all  the  honours  due  to  men  who  were  cons 
as  the  liberators  of  Europe.  Wellington,  now  c 
a  duke,  received  a  grant  of  L.400,000  from  the 
of  Commons,  in  addition  to  one  of  L.l 00,000 
ously  voted ;  and  had  tlie  honour  to  receive  i 
son  |he  thanks  of  the  house  for  his  services.  1 
sentatives  from  the  European  powers  concerned 
war  met  at  Vienna,  October  2,  in  order  to  seti 
disturbed  limits  of  the  various  countries,  and  p 
against  tho  renewal  of  a  period  of  war  so  disa 
Throughout  tho  whole  arrangements.  Great  1 
acted  with  a  disinterested  magnanimity,  which 
her  great  sufferings  and  expenses,  could  liardl 
been  looked  for,  but  was  highly  worthy  of  the  ei 
name  which  she  bore  amitUt  European  nations. 

In  March  181.5,  the  proceedings  of  the  eo 
wore  iuterrupted  by  intelligence  that  Napoleo 
landed  in  France,  and  was  advancing  in  triumph 
capital.  He  had  been  encouraged  by  various  faro 
cii*cumstances  to  attemnt  the  recovery  of  his  tl 
and  so  unpopular  had  tlie  new  government  alret 
come,  that,  though  he  landed  with  only  a  few  n 
was  every  where  received  with  affection,  and  ' 
20th  of  March,  was  reinstated  in  his  capital,  whi 
that  morning  been  left  by  Louis  XVI II.  The 
sovereign  had  granted  a  charter  to  his  people,  h) 
he  and  nis  successors  were  bound  to  rule  under  > 
restrictions,  and  with  a  legislature  computMHi 
chambers,  somewhat  resembling  the  British  Ho 
Parliament.  Bonaparte  now  came  under  simi 
gagements,  and  even  submitted  to  take  the  votes 
nation  for  his  restoration,  on  which  occasion  he 
million  and  a  half  of  affirmative,  against  less  tli; 
a  million  of  negative  voices,  the  \oting  being  per 
by  ballot.  His  exertions  to  reorganise  an  arm 
successful  to  a  degree  which  showed  his  extraox 
iniluence  over  the  French  nation.  On  the  1st  o 
he  had  o5.0,o()()  efl'ective  men  under  arms,  of 
'J17,«M)()  were  readv  to  take  the  field. 

A  Prussian  army  of  more  than  lnO,Ouo  men, 
Blucher,  and  one  of  about  80,000  British,  Ge 
and  Belgians,  under  Wellington,  were  quickly  r 
voused  in  the  Netherlands,  while  still  larger  an 
.-Vustrians  and  Kiissians,  making  the  x\holc  force 
a  million,  were  rapidly  approaching.  These  pr 
to  make  war.  not  on  Fi*ance,  but  against  Bon 
alone,  whom  they  denounced  as  having,  by  his 
of  the  treaty,  *'  placed  himself  out  of  the  pale  c 
and  social  relations,  and  incurred  the  penalty  o 
mary  execution."  Napoleon,  knowing  that  his  e 
would  accumulate  faster  in  })roporti(m  than  h 
troojK,  crossed  the  f"r<»ntier  on  the  14lh  of  Jun< 
rJO,000  men,  resolved  t«)  fight  Blucher  and  Wdl 
.s«'parately,  if  pobsible.  The  raj>idity  of  his  movt 
prevented  that  concert  between  the  Trussian  an> 
iish  j:enerals  which  it -was  their  inteix'st  ti>  esl 
On  the  Kith,  he  beat  Blucher  at  Lii;ny,  and  con 
him  to  retire.  He  had,  at  the  same  time,  iatru 
Mar.shal  Nev  the  dutv  of  cuttin;:  otf  all  connex: 
tween  the  two  hoJ^lile  armies.  His  policy,  thouj 
fully  acted  up  to  by  his  marshals,  w.as  so  far  succ 
that  lilucher  retired  upon  a  point  nearly  a  day's 
from  Wrllington. 

After  some  further  fighting  next  day,  Na 
brou;;ht  his  whole  forces  to  bear,  on  the  18th,  c 
Wellington  alone,  who  had  drawn  up  his  troops 
the  road  to  Brusselr^,  near  a  place  called  Waterlof 


>-H"mV  iT  (.i'J 


.,,,)..., 


•  Albnlir,  vlicrr.  hr   d\i  .1  lu 

IT  tvMiinil,  *nil  tin  nraazr.-  \ 

1  <mn>  >«n|>Ulail.  TIib 
kl  dnrinipUiik  iMt  yma  of  hi^>-  i 
.  nUliHiwt4M)lhiiwilt>nal<tfht, 
■  L.SMV)W>,ao(l,  now  »uui>uu«l  . 


.  rniuliiuiB,  t*caa  to  Uke  tli*f 
■  :  -jt,  n»A  {iTHUivd  inimliiuu-jr 

.1  nppnr 

I.:;    I>IK 


I  [•nupeni;  dccuitmI  In  niil, 
!  \ij  twinned  dbtra*.    lo  ilia    | 

<'T  V  u[  iba  tturkii 


i''X^^    ' 


'  'i..ii<t,  mUo  upprmi-il 


LodjlMf  qwraUtwUBUnllnlMMuichislnr,  iotiKinm 
•pbcn  lit  erouBil  aUnA  f>y  PoUcV  I'k.-iJ,  fiir  k  ■ifuttHT 
purpow,  tliDUj^  pmfewHlIy  la  [-cUtlau  lor  i«i1iiiiiuid- 
twjr  Tclorm.  All  the;  GBma  in  rrguliic  amy,  bctu-iug 
bkanea  vltb  bueilptunu,  ili«  tn«gi>trata  frohtmA  lo 
eaiuid«r  the  lawtidg  aa  lUngiroui  tu  tU*  nublie  pinee, 
anil  aceurditiKlf,  orotliapn'vm'liiipiM'vtv  lar  adiuuwil. 


ig  officer  will)  bad  guncd  hor  »ll«c- 
I  tlia  aJlivd  sovcrngua  B,t  Ibe  Btilisli 
T  18)7,  lo  tb«  icfiipratubla  grief 
VHlioii,  tha  Jrouiift  priiisua  diad,  immeili- 
lUrin*  EivQ  bMJl  10  a  dvad  aon. 
n'Aitfpi**  IRitl,  a  tlrttioh  ammniirnt  unilnr  LnrH 
■■Kifa  Iwiiiliacili'd  Altlan,  and  riiduead  iliat  pinti- 
■tato  to  errUin  ilmtrable  tnnditlgiiK  tmpCDlinf  Ul« 
<siaat  ut  CtrUiiiui  prUanuni. 
^  wr  miK,  and  the  four  folluwiag  7*atii,  will 
IM  M  wHDBniblo  ai  an  vpo^li  at  oMnordbiarji  din* 
lb  aCbateg  ainait  vteij  claw  of  tha  cniumiiiiily. 
illtwallunrf  Pinnpratirrnnmrrneattlie  wldof  Ihe 
^  pi  ad  in— '  ."•.in,...,,.n.i„  .limimtinnof  that  Iraric 
A  Ku.-I.  "iioywl,  Ihruugli  liin- 

Inltf  )  ■  V.  itiiB  aU  puUiobur- 

kanrl-' '  '  i"ii'ual  aniiiuul,  lliv 

Wjil»»-7..  ■'-      .  :   1  .-.  ."■-  ,  andatW>qrtft*rf 


poi'ukc  rIgU  of  DicetiuE;  for  mlrnw  of  gricvaoMi^ 
pruiIuQcd  itraa  mula  oTpubliu  riMrntment ;  bat  lliD 
nutKi*trali«  who  condunUd  tl>o  attaak  rccrarsd  Iha 
iiiiuKHlialu  and  ooidial  thaiik*  i>f  itia  uuvfrniiiMiL 

Wli-ni  ParliaiDKiit  iwuawiublod  in  I<!nviiiiib«r,  <btr« 
naa  an  evident  iiuirvaH  ot  anachinnil  to  ihoiniiiiatryj 
and,  lu  addition  lo  iho  alrung  maaufM  alnnidy  lakan 
for  BUpproaiiing  popular  dieoantvnt,  acta  wen  paaxed  ID 
BUppran  uusUnipcd  political  publlcallona,  to  pcenni 
■oerci  training  to  aniu,iud  toraaUiettfaovigiilof  call- 
iiig  a  public  mcoting  to  magiimtca. 

I'ha  yru!  lUlU  wu  rvniarkablp,  among  ntlwr  tbinn, 
for  tiie  provbiiDa  miidir,  Uy  act  of  Parliailiiitil,  far  Iha 
rmuoiplion  of  nab  pajimeulM  al  tha  bank. 

On  tbe  'JOth  of  January  IR'20,  Uu!>rge  III.  died  at 
Windsor,  in  faia  eiality-MHWnd  year,  witbvut  having 
expcrieneed  any  locid  inltr«al  alnce  ISIO.  Tbo  Prlnoa 
Kcgent  waa  immediately  proelalmtd  M  (jeomui  IV.; 
but  thfio  niunootlier  oliBngBtoinaxk  Ibv 


CHAMBER8*S  INFORMATION  ?0B  THE  PEOPLE. 


fhfti of  FnuM0wi86miiMUNiiiTe]7 mined.  Thiseirmim- 
■liiim,  oomlNiied  with  toe  renmrinble  eflfeets  of  niMlil- 
nflsy  in  Tirious  maaufaeiiu'ee,  and  the  great  fanprovo- 
meoti  edteetedln  aijrienJtiire,  mamtainedthe  ynieperitj 
of  the  oonntry  dmnng  a  eouteet  whidi  otbei'wiee  iniift 
havo  wank  hit  as  low  as  it  did  Aoslria  and  Praasia. 
The  Tahie  of  the  exports,  which  had  been  fifteen  mii- 
lions  in  1760^  and  had  only  advanoed  to  twenty  in  1790^ 
waa,  in  IW2,  fltrif-^iM  mUNong, 

TUm  period  is  abore  all  things  memorable  for  the 
introdnetion  of  the  use  of  steam  in  naViffatkni.  A 
model  Tassel,  with  a  small  steam-engine  on  boardi  was 
tried  in  1788  by  Mr  Patriek  Miller  of  Dalswfaiton  hi 
DomlHesshire.  Soon  after,  a  Tessd  on  a  laxger  seale 
was  oxhibited  in  perfect  action  on  the  Fdrih  and  Clyde 
CknaL  The  idea  Ml  asleep  fior  a  few  years,  bnt  was 
rerfred  by  Mr  Folton,  an  American,  who,  in  1807,  set 
Moing  a  steam-vessel  on  the  Hudson  Rirer,  the  first  in 
m  world  whidi  was  rmdariy  emploved  in  conTeyinc 
paaseogtrs.  In  1813,  Mr  I{enry  BeU  of  Helensburgh 
{umohed  a  sindlar  Teasel  on  the  Clyde,  being  the  flnt 
seen  in  Europe;  and  from  that  period  steam-Tesscls 
quiddy  became  numerous.  Their  superiority,  in  pro- 
pelliqg  Tefleds  without  rmrd  to  wind  or  tide,  waa  in 
time  unlTersally  acknowMdged;  and  ultimately  they 
bava  boMi  used  in  Toyages  across  large  oceans. 

In  this  period,  considerable  efforts  were  made  for 
thejnore  general  education  of  the  people.  Sunday 
adioola,  first  sunested  by  Mr  Raikes  of  Gloucester, 
ovar^read  the  whole  country,  and  prored  the  means 
of  instructing  many  children  who  otherwise  would  hare 
remained  altoffether  ignorant.  A  plan  of  teaching  |;reat 
mmbers  of  children,  by  emplo^g  the  best  pupils  as 
IDonitors  or  assistante,  was  originiSed  by  Dr  Bell  and 
Mr  Joseph  Lanctster,  and  wMely  introduced.  Two 
great  sooeties  were  formed  for  the  purpoee  of  setting 
up  and  supportinff  schools  in  the  d&tnets  where  they 
were  most  needeo.  This  period  also  beheld  the  rise  of 
various  societies,  whose  object  it  waa  to  seud  mission- 
aries  to  convert  the  heathen  in  distant  lands,  and  to 
disseminate  Bibles  both  at  homo  and  abroad.  Great 
efforts  were  at  the  same  time  made  in  Britain  to  pnt 
an  end  to  slavery  in  the  West  India  colonies. 

The  latter  part  of  the  reign  of  George  III.  was  also 
di^ingniahed  by  great  improvements  in  the  dress  and 
social  condition  of  the  people.  Old  fashions  gradually 
disappeared,  and  the  more  simple  and  agreeable  cos- 
tume of  the  present  day  came  into  use.  In  the  year 
1 750,  cocked  hats,  wigs,  swords,  and  buckles,  were  gene- 
rally worn,  and  all  gentlemen  used  hair  powder.  From 
the  yei^r  1790  to  about  1800,  thefie  and  many  other 
oddities  completely  disappeared.  Speedy  travelling  by 
stage-coaches,  and  the  rapid  transmission  of  letters  bv 
mailTcarriages,  became  at  the  'same  time  general  in  all 
parts  of  the  United  Kingdom. 

At  no  period  did  a  more  brilliant  class  of  literary 
men  exist.  Poetry  assumed  new  and  attractive  forms  in 
the  works  of  Campbell,  Moore,  Southey,  Wordsworth, 
Byron,  and  Scott.  Tho  novel  or  fictitious  talc  was  ad- 
vanced to  a  dignity  it  had  never  known  before,  in  con- 
sequence of  the  production,  by  Sir  Walter  Scott,  of  a 
series  of  such  compositions,  in  the  highest  degree  dra- 
matic and  entertaining.  In  the  Edinburgh  and  Quar- 
terly Reviews,  periodical  criticism  acquired  an  import- 
ance it  never  before  possessed.  At  the  same  time,  the 
more  grave  walks  of  divinity,  history,  and  travels,  were 
filled  by  a  respectable  body  of  writers.  The  name  of 
Sir  Humphry  Davy  stands  pre-eminent  in  science,  which 
was  also  cultivated  with  distinguished  success  by  Wol- 
laston,  Leslie,  Playfair,  and  Robison.  In  philosophical 
literature,  the  names  of  Dugald  Stewart  and  Thomas 
Brown  ask  for  peculiar  respect. 

REION  OF  GEOBOB  TV. 

At  the  time  when  George  IV.  commenced  his  reign, 
the  Manchester  affair  and  the  recent  proceedings  of 
the  ministry,  had  inspired  a  small  band  of  desperate 
men  with  the  deaign  of  assassinating  the  ministers  at  a 

binet  dinner,  and  thereafter  attempting  to  set  them- 

174 


I 

i 


isMSiu  fgiffwnnmHm    m  id 

WW    B  lapri— d  bj the  p 

i^aftera  ~ 


I 


tried  i» 

>,  and  ex* m.    ...^  about  tiba 

impt  waa  made  by  the  worimieB  in  the 
1  to  bring  about  aoaia  altsfalta  in  the  ate 
»wu  men  were  exeeoted* 

te  the  aeeenlon  of  the  Ubh^  hie  eoBMr^  H 
beoa  omitted  ftom  the  litnmr.  tVk  and  eihc 
nit  68  indaeed  her  to  retarnsram  a  ^mitty 
y,  June  1820|  to  the  Njfaat  smbarniimiii 
1  ^  and  his  ndnialefa.  Her  najeal^y  who  fa 
U>«n  befriended  by  theOppoaltloay  was  leeeirei 
people  with  the  wannest  eapreasleni  ef  aji 
\lliatoverhad  beenUameable.m  lier  eondnetw 
kwked  on  aeoount  of  the  greater  Ueanttoones 
ascribed  to  her  huibaad^  and  the  peiasentien 
ahe  had  suffered  fin*  twen^-four  vean.  The  ki 
had  eatabUshed  a  system  of  obaervatSoii  roo 
majesty  during  herabeenee  flram  tlM  eoaatryi 
a  mil  oif  pains  andpenaltlea  against  her  to  be ' 
(July  8)  into  the  House  of  hSeda,  which  tinai 
a  court  fior  her  trial.  Messrs  Brougham  end  I 
who  afterwards  attuned  Ugh  judiciu-etatioB%  i 
counsel  for  her  majesty,  and  displayed  great  d 
and  eloquenee  in  tier  defence.  The  examini 
witaesses  occupied  sev^teal  weeks;  and  noMag 
undone  which  mk^t  promise  to  oonflrm  her  ■ 

Sdlt.  But  no  eridenoe  of  eriminaiity  eouM  so 
di^natkm  with  which  afanoot  all  elassee  of  ti 
munity  regarded  thu  prosecution*  numgii 
was  rnd  a  second  time  by  a  majority  of  88  in 
of  218,  and  a  thh^d  thne  by  108  aaaiut  88,  the- 
ment  considered  it  expedient  to  abandon  i^  lav 
queen  and  her  partisans  trinmphaat. 

In  July  1821,  the  coronation  of  Geoige  IT.  ta 
under  circumstances  of  great  splendour.  On  tb 
sion,  the  queen  made  an  attempt  to  enter  West 
Abbey,  for  the  purpose  of  witnessing  the  cereuH 
was  repelled  by  the  military  officers  who  gnai 
door ;  an  insult  which  gave  such  a  shock  to  her 
as  to  cause  her  death  in  a  few  da}'S.  Dnrinr  tin 
of  Auguflt,  the  king  paid  a  visit  to  Ireland,  w' 
was  received  with  much  cordiality  by  all  clssset 
excitable  people,  notwithstanding  his  known  1 
to  the  Catholic  claims.  In  September,  he  pai< 
to  the  kingdom  of  Hanover.  In  August  of  tne 
year,  he  completed  this  series  of  visits  by  a  vt 
Scotland,  where,  owing  to  the  novelty  of  the  o 
and  the  historical  associations  which  it  was  thi 
of  awakening,  he  was  also  received  with  extren 
ness.  During  his  absence  in  Scotland,  his  leadii 
ster,  the  Marquis  of  Londonderry  (formerl; 
Castlereagh)  put  an  end  to  his  own  life,  in  consi 
of  a  morbid  sense  of  the  difficulty  of  his  positio 
gard  to  continental  affairs.  The  successor  of  tJ 
quis  of  Londonderry  in  the  direction  of  foretgi 
was  Mr  George  Canning,  who  had  quitted  the 
two  years  before  on  account  of  the  proeecutioi 
queen,  and  was  at  this  time  preparing  to  leave  tl 
try  as  governor-general  of  India.  Mr  Gumln] 
statesman  of  enlightened  and  humane  spirit,  and 
other  popular  qualities,  possessed  a  nch  and  < 
stylo  of  parliamentary  eloquence. 

JOtlfT-SIOCK  >lAKIA...OOMME]iaAL  KMIUIUIASBM 

The  two  ensuing  years  were  characterised  h} 
traordinary  activity  in  almost  all  departmenta  < 
and  commerce.  Mr  Huskisson,  an  able  com 
minister  introduced  by  Mr  Canning,  originated 
measures  highly  important ;  especially  the  repet 
duties  on  goods  passing  between  Great  Bnti 
Ireland — an  alteration  m  the  duties  affectina  * 
manufacture — the  repeal  of  the  combination  la' 
of  the  law  against  the  emigration  of  artiaana  j  w 
executive  formed  commereial  treaties  en  tM  i 
city  system,  with  various  countries  of  Bnroi 


'OKy  01*  GiiEAT  nraTMN  ,u«d  ioelakp- 


!  mn-TiOirlitrr  Tit       Tit*  *: 


foald  h>-l  **«>M  kii  «m»  lur  Hi*  toaaif  at  cit%  un 
fiimiiiiiiH  p«MMfal  af  Ui*  InajC  «f  tnaK    " 


friisd  to  anamipttin,  and  (oa^Md  ami  Irfoinuia 
in  UiB  aaiBtf  t  M  Wvu  iimm  mBbwuTan  aati' 
CkIUU*  wlMlnWfUlgii.  Aa  n  mp^dhoi  brannimea 

Itin  mui' -t7T,  (■.►<--! J»i|i(A»«r1it«JO,«Bl«Jllh»tiiJ 


M  (>i>Aalu  lit 

■•  fl<^  MMDimtiuula 

rfnnjj  by  mil  iliaw  In 

^.lUiliM  of  OulioUeis ■n)  imttlfig down  tin 


ruTifwrUMixif  IheaUeranilnnraT^tddwaal  IWIn, 


:;.:si 


.■-  in  !  r 

i,(-   !l*  m 

i9linB«( 

r"!1h^DtOrh^ 

"fcUlh 

*  jfivm  tt»  we  lUiii  iihpif  IpinI 

»« >»  tlw 
^  ..I- 

;s^' 

Mt  qiunlliy  01  apl- 

""'■r  ,"1";''"^ 

r  MVflla- 

.^m,gb. 

.,  ..fUl6 

Z"mUM^i^I' 


1  Uio 


mppormv  aa 
'd  titimi  In  CUT]'  tho  nieu>un>  ihroiigh  ttia  UnlM 
Ol  ijimninnn  witti  l»go  iDBJorilkc ;  but  i[  encannterri 
gnrut  atfleaMen  In  (bo  llouw  of  Lordi,  srid  it  vh  luit 
III!  utter  ft  tenipoBiry  Kdmntinn  at  (lie  mininttr,  and 
wmic  utronj  exprrnoiu  or  popular  uixivty  ra*)"^)'''! 
rprnrm,  tliai  tlie  billi  won  aumrpd  tti  bvEnmo  Uv. 

Dirring  Uip  te*  yura  whiah  fiillownl  tba  pudliB  of 
Ml  i~  Rcrurm  Bills,  the  *il«nlioii  nf  IhirlltRitnt  *aa  tM«ny 
:"'<'ii|iird  bv  ■  iwriM  of  itiftimirM  uhleh  ■  larna  portion 
.  '  rh«  pubfio  clMm*d  nreraory  tor  IrofiroTlnxtb*  tuitl- 
' :  1 1  loni  uf  tliN  Miuntrf ,  and  tot  ollxcr  btmAdaTiiut^oMM. 
<Vi»  mini  imiiortaiit  of  then.  In  a  moral  poiiii  otTlev, 
'  -.:<•  the  alxiirilai)  at  ilaTety  In  the  colaide*,  tha  lum  of 
' '  iitj  mill  iciQi  twine  pM  to  the  ovum  of  ihe  nrgnxa, 
"I  Ek  eoniMnutioo  K»  ralgiins  a  Tl^ht  of  frufmn 
.1  ijieb  W  lonibnnadttgniwto  hnmaniiT.  Br  lliq 
-i>-i,  rijcbt  bmrarad  thontud  ilavu  iten  ^'vn^^^ 


CHAMBERS'S  INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


1834)  plaeed  in  tho  eoxtcUtion  of  fnaamf  Imi  sabjeet 
to  an  Apprentierahip  to  their  maiten  for  a  hiw  yooim. 

In  toe  Mune  jmiT,  an  aet  was  paned  for  amendmg 
tho  laws  for  the  supj^rt  of  the  poor  in  Engiand,  whien 
had  long  been  a  ■obyeet  of  general  eomphunt.  One  of 
the  ehiM  proTisions  of  the  new  enactment  eetabliehed 
a  goremment  eommieaien  for  the  superintendenee  of 
the  loaX  boards  of  management,  which  had  latterly 
been  iU  eondueted,  and  were  now  proposed  to  be  re- 
formed. The  able-bodied  poor  were  also  deprived  of 
the  right  which  had  been  conferred  upon  them  at  the 
end  ol  the  eighteenth  century,  to  compel  parishes  to 
support  them,  either  by  employment  at  a  certain  rste, 
or  peeuntary  aid  to  the  same  amount:  they  were  now 
left  no  resource,  failing  employment,  but  that  of  enter- 
ing poor-houses,  where  they  were  separated  from  their 
families.  The  contemplated  results  of  this  measure,  were 
a  reduction  of  the  enormous  burden  of  the  poor-rates, 
which  had  Utteriy  exceeded  seTcn  millions  annually, 
and  a  dieck  to  the  degradation  which  indiscriminate 
■Bpport  was  found  to  produce  in  the  character  of  the 
labouring  daases. 

On  the  renewal  of  the  charter  of  the  East  India 
Company  in  1834,  the  goTcmment  depriyed  it  of  its 
meroanttle  privileges,  and  extended  the  right  of  trading 
with  China  to  the  eommunity  at  large.  The  ancient 
poUey  of  not  allowing  Europeans  to  settle  in  Hindostan 
was  also  departed  from,  under  some  restrictions  of  in- 
ferior importance.  Some  reforms,  equally  adTantageons 
to  the  public,  were  eifected  in  the  administration  of  the 
law,  and  in  the  priTileges  held  bpr  the  Bank  of  England. 

In  1833,  a  reform  took  place  m  the  mode  of  electing 
the  councils  and  magistracies  of  the  Scottish  boroughs. 
Instead  of  regulations  which  took  their  rise  in  an  eariy 
age,  and  had  been  found  productiTe  of  mismanagement, 
we  parliamentary  constituencies  were  empowered,  in 
all  exoept  a  few  cases,  to  choose  the  requisite  number 
of  councillors,  to  whom  then  belonged  the  duty  of  ap- 
pointing the  requisite  number  out  of  their  own  body 
to  act  as  magistrates.  In  1835,  the  English  municipal 
corporations  were  reformed,  upon  a  principle  similar  to 
that  applied  to  Scotland,  except  that  the  rate-payers 
and  freemen  were  designed  to  form  the  electoral  bodies, 
and  that  the  councils  in  most  cases  were  to  consist  of 
a  greater  number  of  members.  A  modified  reform  of 
the  same  kind  took  place  in  Ireland,  by  virtue  of  an  act 
passed  in  1R40. 

During  the  summer  of  1834,  tho  ministry  endea- 
voured to  carry  through  Pariianiunt  a  bill  to  enable 
them  to  take  unusual  measures  for  restraining  turbu- 
lence in  Ireland.  In  consequence  of  a  difficulty  ex- 
perienced in  passing  tho  measure.  Lord  Althorp  and 
Earl  Grey  rcsigued  their  situations.  The  earl,  who 
had  now  passed  his  seventieth  year,  was  anxious  for 
other  reasons  to  retire  from  more  active  life,  in  order 
to  spend  the  remainder  of  his  days  in  the  bosom  of  his 
family.  He  withdrew  with  the  admiration  of  all  parties, 
his  whole  career  having  been  marked  by  consistency 
and  sincerity.  His  place  was  supplied  by  Viscount 
Melbourne,  and  Lord  Althorp  was  induced  to  resume 
office.  The  Iriith  Coercion  Bill,  with  certain  altera- 
tions, was  then  passed.  On  th»  1 0th  of  October  in  this 
year,  the  two  Houses  of  Parliament  were  burnt  by  ac- 
cident. 

In  November,  the  death  of  t^rl  Spencer  caused  the 
advancement  of  his  son  Lord  Althorp  to  the  House  of 
Peers,  and  the  ministry  was  then  left  without  a  leader 
in  the  House  of  Commons.  Tho  king,  who  had  for 
some  time  inclined  to  the  Conservative  party,  took  ad- 
vantage of  this  circumstance  to  dissolve  the  cabinet 
The  Duke  of  Wellington  was  again  called  into  office, 
and  a  messenger  was  dispatched  to  Italy  to  bring  Sir 
Robert  Peel  homo  from  that  country,  in  order  to  accept 
the  premiership.  Sir  liobert  hastened  to  London,  and 
on  the  10th  of  December,  the  new  ministry  was  con- 
•ftraflfed,  chiefly  of  tho  individuals  who  lost  office  in 
Kir  Rofa«rt,  though  sensible  of  the  difficulty  of 
public  ailairs  at  such  a  time,  resolved  to  do 
to  eoDciliate  popular  favour,  by  entering 


upon  reforming  vammum.  In  a  naw  Haota  & 
mons,  his  party  was  strsBctlMiMd  by  iMari^  a  bi 
new  votes;  bat  he  was  still  in  a  minority.  Allai 
mg  forward  a  variety  of  msMnfM  of  a  ffAvnii 
racter,  brim;  defeated  on  the  qosstiott  of  damtia 
part  of  the  Irish  ehnreh  revenues  to  edoeatioB, 
compelied  to  resign  (April  8, 1835),  and  aUwU 
bourne  ministry  to  be  replaaed. 

In  the  session  of  1836,  the  ministfy  w«ra  defiM 
majorities  in  the  House  of  Lords,  hi  attenpta  U 
several  important  measiures  of  refbmiy  bat  mm 
in  passing  an  aet  for  oommnting  tithes  in  Eafk 
a  eom  rent-charge  payable  in  money;  also  in 

■  ildtOM 


for  enabling  dissenters  in  KngUuid 
wise  than  by  the  established  clergy;  and  aaoChs 
general  registry  of  births,  deaths,  and  marriagea 
ukewise  reduced  the  stamp-duty  on  nawssapers 
P^nny,  by  which  the  eireiilatkm  of  that  dass  ol 
eations  was  very  hurgel^  incrwessd  From  thii 
there  was  a  marked  mminntion  in  the  seal  whi 
for  some  years  been  manifested  for  efaaages  in  t 
tk>nal  institutions.  Eariy  in  1837,  the  niiustrj 
faitrodooed  into  the  House  of  Commons  a  InU  i 
tUngjthe  Irish  tithe  question;  hot  beCioca  this  < 
other  measure  of  importance  had  been  oarriad,  ti 
died  of  ossification  <tf  the  vital  orsaas  (Jana  20) 
seventy-third  year  of  his  age,  and  sevoith  of  hn 
boms  sucoeeded  by  his  nieee,  the  Prinesw  T 
who  had  just  completed  her  eighteenth  year.  1 
ceased  monarch  is  allowed  to  havabean  a  eooMft 
and  amiable  man,  not  remarkable  Ibr  ability^ 
the  same  time  free  from  all  gross  fisaltiu 

ooxMENCBsiErr  or  thb  bhon  ov  qnoBf  ncm 

The  oommeneement  of  the  reign  of  Qnata  1 
has  been  marked  by  no  signal  events^  aod  najr 
[Febmarv  1841]  be  rather  oonsidersd  an  a  pi 
promise  than  of  performance.  Mean  wbUs^  bar  i 
appears  to  have  given  unmixed  satisfafftioa 
people  by  her  marriage  to  Prinea  Albari  of 
Cobourg,  and  the  birth  of  a  prinoess-royal. 


MISCELLANEOUS  aRCUMSTA^CES  FBOX  1820  10  1* 

This  period  is  remarkable  for  the  great  efforti 
were  made  to  diffuse  knowledge  more  generallva 
the  people.  Mechanic^  Institution*  were  ion 
most  considerable  towns,  for  the  purpose  of  insi 
that  class  of  the  community  in  meclianical  and  i 
science.  Various  periodical  works  were  also  set  s 
for  the  purpose  of  communicating  science  anc 
branches  of  instruction,  in  such  forms  as  to  be 
gible  to  the  less  educated  classes.  At  the  san 
considerable  efforts  were  made  to  still  farther 
education  by  means  of  ordinary  schools.  Amon 
individuals  who  sought  to  promote  these  obJM 
most  conspicuous  was  Lord  Brougham,  who  fit 
office  of  Lord  Chancellor  in  the  Grey  administn 

In  this  period,  the  national  energies  were 
turned  towards  the  arts  of  peace,  and  accordin 
prosperity  of  the  country  made,  upon  the  whoh 
advances.  Though  agricultural  produce  had 
to  bring  the  high  prices  it  realised  during  the  « 
farmers  paid  vents  nearly  equally  high ;  and  tk 
were  enabled  to  do  in  conse<iuence  of  the  soil 
been  so  much  improved  as  to  produce  much 
crops.  During  this  period  steam  navigation  « 
mensel y  increased ;  ordinary  roads  were  nes 
proved  by  tlie  mode  of  paving  invented  by  MrMai 
and  railways  began  to  overspread  all  parts  of  tb 
try,  for  the  conveyance  of  goods  and  psmsm 
means  of  steam  locomotive  carriages,  the  comnoi 
of  which  is  about  thirty  miles  an  hour.  These  i 
stances  form  the  fair  side  of  the  picture:  on  tin 
we  behold  discontents  pervading  large  ssetiom 
working  population,  on  account  of  the  low  wi 
kbour,  and  other  real  o^  imaginary  gxie^ 


Printed  und  pubUabed  by  W.  and  B. 
Place,  Edinburgh.    Bold  also  by  W. 


Onanaaas.  n,  1 
■.Oir«BtOo.»UBi 


CHAMBERS'S 
[FORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE 

pvroVOnn  <*T   Wll.tUU  »MI  BOBJWT  caUIBKn«.  ■niTOM  or  nfAMOBUn 

Kiiiifnintiia  tontrAU  tsnccATiDWAi.  oairB9i<,  k^ 


New  adp  iMi'ttorui  Sj'Jiit 


bliffriTDTION  AM)  niSOCHCGB  OV  TUE  UaiTlfiU  EMPULE. 


1 
) 


-<<u>H  f 

i>c)Ulr   ] 


jlij»tMl  uuws  In  importiuiM  ■•  nn- 

"■•  ili'-li-ni'iii  ■■  iiiviiu!.-ini  which  limn 


I,  triwiuniin  lli»  [tro- 
ll largD  |»]>ulation. 


nlJ>  i|>nlii><.il  Ui  linmiiM  (lie  Mat  of  n 
dtnral,  niiiii»[arliiHii|>,  uid  coiDOiFrewt  na- 
M  almji,  fri'Tii  ItiE  tntuM  dT  lliingi,  IiBfc 
-  kl  I'tisrif'tur.     Morkl  CkUmtt.  it  ia 
ru  iiiiUvounUr.    llad  a  bntnah 
!  Muiifi'lian  rmen  poMininil  c)in 

HDd.    Uul  tliH  ifoik  lit  tti*  briUih  popub- 

to  Un  ipning  Inini  tli*  Teuloiuo  bAaeli 

ttitm  •uihIj,  a  men  »tin  havi  In  muiy 

I  pr<itt4  tk*  ■npn^.Til)'  i-f  (lialr  iptcUeclukt 

■ -■   -'  -      'rli"  lilMur  trial  by  I(ii7,>nd 

\in  hy  %  tvprtMntfttToc  bodj-. 

M  kO  •vl'r  (iri-;^  \,y  tliii  roM,  nllOW  ihnt  II 

«  witn»!  i|iulnili;  fi^r  rurnungimfirovn]  poli- 

[ic-in  ill  llia  jnMI  initxirUnt 

iu  iiij;-niiity  In  Uia  *Iii.     ll« 

in'runntilir  intrsiiulUy 


"'"«•»  »■ 

wliii-li  [iiiimlwi  '!>  >"■  "wfiil.  Ii  1,1  ii.  ihMir  iiimoivriNIt 
■Diluitr]',  mto'ciMHl  by  f«vour  of  n  nuny  lutunl  dr-- 
caiaiitaiieini,  wiii  c(in»t»iitfy  prul««lTiI  by  fn«  ioaltla- 
ISuRii,  tbHl  wn  nn  nalaly  uid  moit  imniciEataly  l«  bnik 
for  ttiH  «ourM  or  ihc  gtmlucw  ol  tho  BrUiili  wnpbvk 
TdXM  or  tat  tuiiriHi  navraWMUT. 
Tim  RnTnumanl  of  tlia  ('nitoil  Kiiio>bn«  i»  miB|[> 
tmlaiinl,  nr  iiounaca  i>  rrptltr  fiirni,  In  oblch  tlin  olril 
rlehl*  of  nli  clkMci  tre  ncknooUiliii^  and  itnanuiUmL 
TSe  toiuiitulinn  ii  ■  nrnniu'eby,  in  whid)  t)u  HTindtii 
■«<!»pti  of  hm  ilignity  nmlrr  nn  cxjinai  •gTsUuciil  tn 
*biil«  Vy  wuin  t>riwrribi>il  fnmitof  govemiDentoaciUil- 
ini>  lo  llii>  InWH  i>t  Ibo  faliiii  aiirl  tn  tnuinikin  InoiiiUii 
the  HrotCBtmit  rtlijtinii,  wiili  «]|  the  rxghi*  wid  ptivi- 
lugM  ot  tlio  churcli.  Th*  nortrtipi '»  Uia  Iieail  or  di- 
m-UiiK  power  In  iho  cxocutlTo  uf  |o»«miniint,  ths  (wiiv- 
lam  of  all  lionouii,  uid  the  w&tEhfiil  aiwrdiaii  of  th* 
inlprciiB  (if  the  state  i  he  ia  held  to  Iw  iimpoblt  lA 
doing  wrong :  and  if  mn  unUirAil  act  I*  dano,  the  ml-, 
nister  tnntrunifnttil  in  that  act  1«  alano  obnoximw  tv 


Lords  and  tbaHansa  of  Commc-nii,  botii  at  whinli  acin- 
eial  of  individuala  belongina  to  the  Luilad  KingddD) 
only,  iho  cnloBial  dqieiidrncies  of  the  empire  having  no 
■hare  in  the  general  niaD*gcincnt. 

Home  of  JCnrdi-^-The  perMiu  who  aompou  the 
Uoiue  of  Lords  form  a  tepante  cUm  or  rank,  wlileb  la 
Cklled  eollcotively  Uie  Prerage,  and  whnu  mniiheiani' 
iuy  certain  exeliwiTe  priiilefua  and  Iionnun,  wtiieh  will 
lieeiplaincdafterwanlt.  Ttlcniciubeniuf  the  HouMuf 
I^rd>  are  either  lord*  opiritiul  or  toaijWTal.  The  epi- 
riiuiJ  lordaare  araliljahopa  nnd  bishopa,  and  held  tlieir 
•rjiti  ill  virtue  «f  their  ofBcc  ;  Ihclemiwril  lord*  enjoy 
Uielr  aeats  frem  Iier«dit«ry  right,  or  in  Tlrtoe  of  beioc 
Ficvnted  to  the  pccraat'.  In  1837,  a(  the  iDtetkgtif 
til*  lint  Parliament  of  Qa^Mi  ViMori«tthe  tutnVR  rf 


CHAMBERS'S  INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


members  of  the  Honse  of  Lords  was  G41 ;  namely,  3 
priuces  of  tho  blood  royal,  2  English  archbishops,  21 
dukes,  1 9  marquises,  1 1*2  carls,  19  viscounts,  24  English 
I.iishops,  G  Irish  prelates,  193  baruns,  Hi  representative 
jiecrs  of  Scotland,  and  28  representative  peers  of  Ire- 
land. The  House  of  Lords  is  liable  at  all  times  to  an 
increase  of  number  by  the  elevation  of  commoners  to 
the  peerage ;  but  tliis  prerogative  of  the  crown  is  spar- 
ingly UBCtl. 

The  House  of  Commons, — Thia  body  consists  ^f  658 
members ;  of  whom  253  are  chosen  by  counties,  6  by 
universities,  and  399  by  cities,  boroughs,  and  towns. 
England  returns  471,  Wales  29,  Ireland  105,  and  Scot- 
land 53.  The  number  of  persons  entitled  to  vote  in  the 
election  of  these  members  is  probably  about  a  million ; 
of  whom  about  000,000  vote  for  county  members,  5000 
for  representatives  of  universities,  and  400,000  for 
members  for  cities,  boroughs,  and  towns.  The  great 
bulk  of  the  voters,  as  settled  by  the  Reform  Acts  of 
1 832,  is  composed  of  the  agriculttlral  tenantry  and  the 
occupants  of  houses  of  L.IO  of  yearly  rent;  in  other 
words,  the  middle  classes.  The  operative  classes,  from 
their  not  in  general  inhabiting  houses  of  such  value, 
possess  little  direct  influence  in  the  elecUon  of  mem- 
bers of  the  House  of  Commons.  A  House  of  Com- 
mons cannot  legally  exist  for  more  than  seven  years ; 
but,  in  reality,  it  rarely  exists  so  long,  the  death  of 
the  sovereign,  change  of  ministry,  and  other  circum- 
stances, causing  a  renewal  on  an  average  every  three 
or  four  years.  Reckoning  from  1802  till  November 
15,  1837,  there  were  thirteen  Houses  of  Commons;  as 
tlie  thirteenth  still  exists  (January  1841),  we  have  an 
mverage  of  three  years  for  each :  those  of  longest  dura- 
tion were  the  fourtli,  from  1807  to  1812,  and  the  fiftli, 
from  1812  to  1818. 

The  Houses  of  Lords  and  Commons  compose  the 
Parliameni,  The  Parliaments  of  England  and  Scot- 
land were  united  in  1707,  and  then  called  the  British 
ParlLiment.  In  IROO,  the  Irish  Parliament  merged 
in  the  British  Parliament.  The  three  kingdoms  were 
first  represented  in  one  Parliament  in  1801.  Sinceth.it 
period  it  has  been  Killed  the  Imperial  Parliament^  and 
is  always  convened  at  Wostniin-tcr. 

The  two  houses,  with  the  sovereign,  compose  the 
three  estates  of  the  realm,  or  l»^gislativo  body.  The 
sovcreiijn  tak<'s  no  personal  concern  in  tho  proceedings 
of  Tarliann  nt,  further  than  ojiening  or  prorogiiini;  tho 
sessinns ;  but  the  i^t^.•re^ts  of  the  crown  in  Parliament 
are  intrnstrd  to  mcmhors  of  tho  cahinet  coiincil  or  mi- 
nistiy,  and  by  iliem  are  defended  and  rxplained.  The 
tw»i  houses,  with  the  Hovorei;;n,  have  the  power  to  pass 
law**,  impose  taxes*,  borrow  money,  make  inquiries  into 
the  manai^pment  of  the  puhlie  revenues,  or  tho  trans- 
aetioii.s  <»f  tho  v^vMAi  ollieers  of  government,  and  even 
to  hrinpj  the  latter  to  trial,  if  neeessary.  >Iembers  of 
either  house  inquire  into  thu  manner  in  which  all 
gnrat  puhlic  institiitions  or  boards  of  management  are 
conduett'd,  sueh  as  th  »so  for  education,  for  purposes 
of  charity,  for  the  ereetion  of  lif^hthousea  on  tho  coast, 
for  tho  ctmstnietion  of  harhf»ursand  genersiUy,  indceil, 
into  nil  tlie  business  wljicli  is  intrusted  to  the  executive 
]»art  t;f  the  government ;  they  cannot  direet  what  is  to 
be  (lone,  btit  may  always  make  scrutiny  into  it  after- 
\>artls,  if  any  error  or  niismanai;«Mnent  has  taken  place. 
The  discussions  on  these  Mihjt.-ois  are  often  very  warm 
and  eager,  and  bring  to  light  facts  of  great  pubHc  im- 
portance. No  act  of  the  twt)  deliberative  bodies  becomes 
valid  as  a  law,  without  the  assent  of  the  sovereign ;  and 
all  propoiitioua  relating  to  money  to  bo  raised  jfor  the 
public  serviee,  wwx^l  originate  with  the  House  of  Com- 
mon-?, th«'  L'TiU  m»'r»"ly  jjiving  their  assent  as  a  matter 
of  foim,  \\it!i«.ui  b'ini;  allowed  to  alttT  anything.  This 
ciruMiti-^t.iMi'i-  L'ivcj  a  mueli  larger  share  of  influence  to 
l!ie  CuiiMii'Ms  iha:»  is  po-isessed  by  the  Lords;  the  for- 
m«'r  haviiiL;  it  in  tln-ir  power,  whenever  they  are  dis- 
f  It i  til  .1  with  the  m»'asnri's  of  government,  to  stop  the 
f«'jl';ili«*s  of  money,  and  bring  the  whole  machinery  to  a 

J!'»'-Ii  of  tl:;i  tw.->  l;..::si's  has  one  prosidinc:  member, 


whose  duty  it  is  to  presenre  order  and  see  i 
gulations  of  the  assembly  are  attended  to  b; 
bers ;  he  is  also  the  person  through  whom  an; 
cation  passes  between  the  house  and  the  que* 
having  the  privilege  of  addressing  her  maje 
of  the  house.  Henoe^  in  the  House  of  Coi 
officer  is  called  the  Spedker;^  fn  the  House  < 
is  commonly  known  as  the  Lord  Chanc 
another  office  which  he  holds ;  but  the  d 
latter  are  quite  the  same  as  those  of  the  Spc 
Commons.  There  are  numerous  forms  esti 
the  regularity  of  business  in  Parliament,  t 
there  are  only  a  few  which  need  be  ment: 
Any  proposal  which  is  laid  before  either  of 
in  order  to  pass  into  a  law,  must  be  made 
promoter  in  the  form  of  an  act  of  Parlian 
only  known  by  the  name  of  a  bill  while  un 
sion :  permission  must  first  be  obtained  t 
the  bill,  and  it  must  then  be  read  and  co 
the  house  three  several  times,  besides  being 
tinised  more  closely  bv  a  committee  or  sele 
of  the  members,  and,  if  a  public  bill,  by  the  t 
sitting  as  a  conmiittee,  when  each  member  i 
to  speak  as  frequently  as  he  sees  occasion, 
the  regular  sittings  of  the  house  no  one  is 
speak  more  than  once,  except  to  explain  wh< 
statements  have  been  misunderstood.  If  it 
jected  in  any  of  these  three  readings,  or  g 
the  committee,  the  bill  is  said  to  have  passe 
then  go  through  the  same  procen  in  the  ol 
where  it  is  sometimes  adopted,  sometimes  re 
if  any  alterations  are  made  on  it  here,  th 
reported  to  the  honse  where  it  first  originat 
two  cannot  agree  on  the  changes  proposed,  1 
to  the  ground ;  but  some  modification  is  gei 
trived  which  satisfies  both  parties.  It  still 
obtain  the  sanction  of  the  sovereign,  whicl 
ever  refused,  when  the  bill  becomes  an  act 
ment  or  law. 

The  members  of  both  houses  have  certa 
privileges,  which  are  deemed  necessary  fo 
them  properly  to  attend  to  their  public  • 
Parliament,  they  enjoy  absolute  freedom 
and  cannot  bo  questioned  out  of  the  hou 
thing  n'AuX  in  the  debates ;  they  and  their  8< 
exempted  from  arrest  (except  in  crimiiLil  ca 
their  attendance  in  Parliament, 

The  Executive^  as  already  stated,  is  repc 
hands  of  a  sovereign.  The  dignity  of  the  s 
hereditary  in  tho  family  of  Brunswick,  r 
throne,  and  in  the  person  of  either  a  male 
A  queen  reigning,  therefore,  enjoys  the  r 
leges  as  a  king.  Besides  enforcing  tho  h 
realm,  through  the  medium  of  courts  of  j 
a  variety  of  functionaries,  the  sovereign 
with  the  office  of  levying  taxes  granted  for 
service,  and  of  defending  the  empire  at 
abroad  against  foreign  enemies,  lie,  or 
reference  to  our  present  sovereign),  also  c< 
intercourse  with  tho  rulers  of  other  natiou 
treaties  and  alliances,  declaring  war  or 
peace.  She  has  the  duty  of  protecting  the  p 
trade  of  British  subjects  in  foreign  countries 
purpose,  she  has  the  solo  appointment  of  t 
who  perform  these  duties;  of  judgt^s  in  t 
courts  of  law;  of  officers  in  the  army  anc 
public  .imbassadors,  and  of  consuls  at  forcig 
the  safety  of  trade ;  and  of  the  officers  wr 
taxes.  She  has  also  large  forces,  both  nava 
tary,  at  h(^r  disposal,  which  are  stationed  I 
parts  of  the  empire  where  she  or  her  advisers 
they  are  wanted  for  the  time.  The  task  of  in 
these  extensive  concerns,  which  would  fall 
tion  in  the  bands  of  one  person,  is  deputed  b} 
to  a  number  of  persons,  who  are  denominat< 
nuitcrSf  and  sometimes  the  Cabinet.  These 
nally  selected  and  appointed  by  the  qoeen  hi 
as  her  choice  would  l>e  in  vain  if  it  were  to  f 
who  were  disagreeable  to  Parliament  (whic 


"   "■".It*. 


In  Ms  I  lit-]  net,  itti'-:  .  iiifxury 

'     la^  Uw^.  |... ,..  - ^ .i«T  tba 

mv  IK  •  grau  voeiint.    Tlia  fiA(n>ii*B  uUh  wit) 

tlia  liitU  •i|i(nilUUTi>  fur  indi  iit  <li<-  jtiKi»  tfwiin^ 


Vm-.      IMvIttiTcm. 

t*t<ieiiaiinM. 

17M     U;/>74^1 

W^ia^Jl 

IJS^-JU^UB 

lliul          •Xfiii^iat 

.V1^,i4B 

i;Mii.onii 

)i»A      3iMdi.i3a 

(U,lt72,7<3 

iRWI'^M 

IDM         U/MgOi 

!U,nAn,fl73 

ICOAQ^H 

iflio       (a,t(St^4» 

w,riiMw 

.s^ 

wit      TVMiais 

«!^^« 

laid       T(,ui,iu 

H,4rM« 

m^HifiU 

TbMi  ntinii -^  n 

■^ni<>u*,u.dra«t 

Ki»»th.i>.r.. 

.»«,<IK«W» 

r«:.::s-r;;.- 

>Jir  tbuluiBIMM 

>J<litl<»<*l  m^s-.r.., 

Tb>ah4*  Min 

-hlidiwaiiuiwiJfUu. 

J.(l*.3^l,UttlU 

III  ITM  niakuH  of  uuuwli  dv- 

liar-n  nni »  br  I«js«d  >ll  utiUioo  dMl««i.  IfaU  *• 

..„.fc.»  .„.!..  ■^..l.l, 

•.it'.i«o.    AQ 

Bvlil^r' 


Whan  '■! 


.   [  incmurd  frum  L.S.SOO, 

:  i^t  timt,  ^'dia  tlia  vArioni 
'.[17  w&*  iinf;ne<T>I,  lbs  inim«dukts 
ii'r-.tt  <i[  pntilic  ucn*,  it  hu  «ODti- 
U  niilVin  tlji'-i  lait  ten  or  twel*n 
III  I7R3,  oliirfi  mu)  tliu  prriod  of 
it  feu-  frijni  tun  miilium  to  tnrivii 
;il-t... >.l...l,f,.IU.™."ll{)ll79S, 


■1  iwM  funs  UM  ravenno  *m 


Diitpau  of  pay  ^  Iha  inWivit  of  tbe  i{«bt,  anil  mnitu«t- 
IDJE  ttia  btuinnui  of  the  coontry.  U  derivtd  from  UkK>> 
tlm  upnn  a  great  vartelj  of  ulffprsni  utldM,  whioh 
iM  all,  bowcTcr,  ra4uc«il  to  the  foUowioj  bcoik  >— 

1.  Jilt  Ciulomr. — Theeo  ani  taxw  liiviwi  njuii  tb« 
fnntgn  commcna  of  the  conntrj-,  biting  tlin  doliM  jnld 
opOQ  Hticln  luiparbni  froni  a1jTmi1|  aucb  M  In,  *^tll*t ' 
cuffM,  rpirits,  wuhw,  lobaccn,  An.  Tboy  ineluib  alaa 
a  f«w  on  tome  Eood*  eiperlwl,  KUflb  a*  (^(fbIi,  wduI,  and 
akina.  Their  whole  KDiouiit,  ia  ihe  jtar  ending  Oelobac 
10,  ]Mn.waaL.20.1fi3,7M. 

3.  The  Erate Ths  nH-ciro  Uuu*  Kta  tliiiiin  nhtch  aM 

levied  on  goads  af  BrttCih  mmahciiu'c.  mcli  aa  ([kam 
innit,  paper,  Jkc.  Tba  Unly  ia  paid  btclt  unin  t«  the 
nuk«r,  if  the  curomodlty  ia  to  be  exporlrJ  to  bttign 
of  tax«a  vielded,  in  the  allot* 
L.11,SB5,4(;7. 

Hi«M  conaitl  oTDl*  firioe*  affixed 
pBpera,  itpan  wlileh  tlia  law  tnukiM  it  impe* 
iteten'dociiiuvDt  for  Ilia  t 


ClUMBEllS'S  INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


and  the  prices  affixed  to  the  stamps,  which  are  often 
high,  bring  a  large  revenue.  Under  the  liead  of  stamps, 
are  also  included  newspaper  stamps,  indentures,  dice, 
duties  on  plate,  and  other  anomalous  items.  The  whole 
amounted  in  the  above  year  to  L.(j,7'26,317. 

4.  Direct  Tares. — These  are  duties  levied  on  land, 
on  windows  (eight  or  upwards),  male  servants,  riding 
horses,  dogs,  use  of  armorial  bearings,  hair  powder,  &c. 
This  class  of  taxes,  which  are  levied  by  surveyors  and 
collectors,  amounted  in  the  above  year  to  L.3,744,37*2. 
The  principal  items  are  the  land  and  window  taxes, 
each  of  which  was  above  a  million. 

5.  Post-Office. — In  the  year  ending  October  1839,  the 
revenue  derived  from  the  tax  on  letters  passing  through 
the  post-office  was  L.2,390,764.  But,  by  the  reduction 
of  postage  to  one  penny  per  letter  (if  under  half  an 
ounce)  at  the  beginning  of  1840,  the  amount  of  revenue 
derived  from  this  source  in  the  year  ending  January 
1840,  was  only  L.441,000.  The  great  advantage  derived 
by  the  country  from  cheap  postage  more  than  compen- 
sates the  deficiency. 

6.  The  income  derived  from  rentalaof  crorrn  property , 
and  the  sale  of  timber,  bark,  &.C.,  from  the  crown  lands 
(with  other  incidents),  yielded  a  revenue,  in  the  year 
ending  October  1840,  of  L.  167,500. 

7.  Miscellaneotu. — These  include  duties  on  hackney- 
coaches,  hawkers*  licenses,  offices,  pensions,  &c. ;  and 
amounted  to  L.84,479. 

8.  Some  incidental  revenues  are  derived  fi*om  matters 
connected  with  the  regular  taxes ;  such  as  duties  col- 
lected at  the  Isle  of  AJan,  fines,  and  goods  seized  for 
taxes ;  these,  with  a  number  of  other  casual  receipts, 
amounted,  in  the  above  year,  to  L.454,784.  Besides  this, 
there  was  a  sum  entitled  Repayments  of  Advances, 
amounting  to  L.Go6,140. 

The  total  annual  income  for  the  year  ending  October 
1840,  was  L.44,665,798 ;  and  it  will  be  observed  tliat 
of  that  sum  fully  thirty-two  millions  were  raised  from 
customs  and  excise,  or  duties  on  foreign  and  British 
manufactures,  and  nearly  seven  millions  on  stamps. 
Thus,  the  groat  bulk  of  taxation  is  indirect,  and  the 
really  direct  taxes  are  a  mere  trifle  in  comparison. 
The  chief  burden  of  the  tuxes  cviilentlv  falls  on  the 
consumers  of  tea,  coffee,  sugar,  tohacco,  soap,  spirits, 
and  wines,  and  these  consumers  are  the  great  body 
of  the  people.  As  the  land-tax  amounts  to  no  more 
than  L.  1,300,000  annually,  proprittors  of  lands  con- 
tribute but  a  small  direct  aid  to  the  public  income. 
The  customs  duties  are  levied  on  nearly  1700  articles 
imported  into  the  country,  hut  a  lew  leadinj;  articles 
raise  nineteen-twentieths  of  the  entire  amount,  and  the 
insignificant  sum  i*aised  from  the  remainder  acts  m«*rely 
as  a  prohibition  on  foreign  commerce.  The  following 
were  the  duties  levied  on  ten  articles  in  the  year  end- 
ing January  o,  1 840  : — 

1 .  Sugars  and  molasses,       -         -         -     L.4,8'J(),.017 

2.  Tea, 3,(>5«,7()3 

3.  Spirits, LV>1'^.-*13 

4.  Wine, 1,840,308 

5.  Tobaccs 3,49:>,(>«'J 

(I.  Coffee  and  cocoa,         -         .         -         .        7n4,{U8 

7.  Fruits  of  all  kinds,         -         -         -  40*2,(i(>'J 

8.  Timber  and  dye-woods,       -         -         ^     l,')()8,58t 

9.  Corn,  grain,  meal,  and  rice,     -         -  1,131,U7"> 
10.  Provisions  (including  bacon,  hams,  but- 
ter, e^ikjs,  &c.),     -         -         -         -  3<i8,5G0 

Total  amount,       -       L/JO  J;71,120" 

On  the  following  six  articles,  tlie  duties  levied  in  the 
year  ending  January  5,  1840,  were  a.s  follows : -- 

1,  S.M'ds  of  all  kinds,      -         -         -  •      L.l4.*>,7r2 

•J.  Oils  of  all  Kinds,  ....        GJ',.%-1 

3.  Spices  of  all  kinds,     ....  OH,-JOl 

4.  Hides  and  skins,  ....        m^iml 

;i.  Tallow, lj;l,J>JKO 

f'.  Wool  (cotton  and  sheep's),    ...     5.*)0',*J-5 


Brought  for¥rard,        -        -        L.1,14 
Which  added  to  the  duties  levied  on  the  ten 
articles  in  the  preceding  list,  namely,         20,87 

Gives  a  grand  total  on  sixteen  unmanufac- 
tured articles  of       -        -        -         -      L.*22,0I 
Balance  received  on  1 136  minor  articles,         94 


L. 


Total  net  revenue,  -  -  .  -  L.2-J,9G 
Therefore  the  duty  levied  on  all  tlie  remaiuin} 
articles,  including  all  raw  materials  and  manuCac 
goods,  is  L.n5,<>74  less  than  one  million.  The  re^ 
levied  on  manufactured  articles  was  as  follows  :— 

Duty. 
Brass  manufactures,    -        -        30  per  cent. 
Boxes  of  all  kinds,  -        -     20 

Bugles,        -         -         -        -         Is,  per  lb. 
Earthenware,  china,  &c.,     15  to  20  per  cent. 
Clocks  and  watches,  -        25 

Copper,  manufactures  of  -     30 

Cotton,  manufactures  of 

10,  and  made  up  20 
Embroidery  and  needlework,  30 
Flowei*s,  artificial  (not  of  silk),  25 
Glass  bottles,  and  all  other  sorts 

of  glass,  -        -         30  to  120 

Hair  and    goat*8  wool,    manu- 

factiH'cs  of  -         -         -       30 

Hats  of  chip  and  straw,     -      20s.  per  dozen 
Leather  gloves,     -        -      20  to  40  per  cent. 
Manufactures  of  leather,  includ- 
ing shoes  and  boots,  -         30 
Paper  and  paper-hangings,  3d. 
{)er  lb.,  and  Is.  per  square 
yard,  and  hangings,           -         -         .        . 
Plaiting  of  chip  and  straw,  17s.  to  20s.  the  lb. 
Silk  manufactures,  various  du- 
ties,       -        -        -        20  to  40  per  cent. 

Toys, 20 

Cologne  water,  Is.  per  flask,  or  30h.  the  gallon. 

Woollen  manufactures,  15  per  cent,  and  made 

up  -0  per  cent.  .         .         -         -         . 


1 


1 


24 


.T 


Carry  forward. 


IRO 


].. 1,117,148  I 


Total  duty  levied,  -         -  L.40 

On  manufactures,  except  so  much  as  is  in- 
cluded in  the  L.80,7b"0  received  from  the 
remaining  enumerated  tarifled  and  non-enu- 
merated articles;  siiy  one-half  on  manu- 
facture.-*,  ......         4 

Total  on  manufactures,      -         -       L.44 
Duty  levied  on   raw   materials,  exclusive   of 
cotton   and   wool,    dye-woods,    oils,    tallow, 
seeds,  hides,  and  skins,         ...  ;,0 

Total  duties  levied  on  m.inufacturoa 
and  minor  raw  materials,       -        L.94 

Tile  whole  (question  of  import  duties,  with  refe 
to  an  improvement  in  the  mode  of  levyin;;  them 
lately  been  considered  by  a  committee  of  the  Hoi 
Commons  :  and  it  is  likely  that  a  very  great  allei 
will  speedily  U'  adopted,  ft>r  it  appears  that  the  j 
bitive  dati«"s  act  injuriously  on  Hriiish  nianufact 
and  induce  forei;»nei-s,  by  way  of  retaliation,  to  ex 
our  ;;<;;•  Js  from  their  markets, 

J'ljtt'iifiitiire. — The  total  annual  revenue,  as  1 
mentioned,  is  at  pre^ifiit  between  forty-four  and  1 
five  millions,  and  we  have  now  to  see  how  this 
Pi:m  i^  spent.  The  first  great  item  in  the  exi>end 
is  in  the  form  of  interest  on  the  national  debt :  ii 
account  rendered  »  f  the  expenditure  during  the 
endin;,'  ( »otoher  UUO,  the  followiuiXJ'tatementsaren 
— Amount  applied  to  constdidated  fund,  L. 31,836 
am  »unt  apjdied  as  advances,  and  to  pay  oil*  excht 
bills  issued  as  advances,  L.o.'i0,."i92  ;  amount  (a 
jKirt  of  ways  and  means  of  year,  L.12,270,118. 
difficult  to  obtain  an  exact  idea  of  this  compli 
statement ;  but  we  may  be  certain  of  the  general 
that  about  L.3 1,000,000  arc  i>aid  annually  as  mter 


niuou, KU 

'oittiin*  DtpumanA,  liielndinc 

Cnutfiiurdt II^AO 

:seiH  0r|urtiiuint,      •    .    •    •  ^2 

'»t-Oir>», I,J74 

lint  Offiiw,  .......  SO 

I.  u;.>.  LI'  I  [.  i!,:'il)«wtniinit-,  lao 

■  !.  :.    ■■■,...    ...    -  41 

...-■.   -  •  -  II 

Mt«T«.01'. 

.,.1  ;■■■■..    ■■>.  i).TUino^  -  ■  m 

■(Ali.IjLtTJ  "1Bl>', « 

JbDatiiiD  OfBwi f 

AtlVjr  UIBm, -  ~ 

nwnto  >D  bcationd,    -    -    -    .  29C 

3il«fSacntaT;'>0fB<w,  -  -  .  M 
Mel  £MNtu-v'«  OtTice  in  Lon- 

dou 8 

'ri»j-.C«>i«Hl  OiBor,  -  -  -  -  7 
I'icc-Ti'HuiTtcV  Offia*,  Utn  Iridi 

Treunty,  As., IB 

.■*11«>T»*  Oifio",  EnoltHiuer,   ■    .  fl 

•rivv.SB»l  UR1g», 'Z 

men  nf  I'uUid  WitrLi,  .  -  -  I U 
Micnnfl.Eeutiiiant-Ucnoi^Com' 

luftriiiioB,     ..---.-  ij 

Irniy  Modioli  OfGeu,      ■    -    -  .1 

iuwu*mMtor'GoiKr»l'ii  OHtm,  0 
JcpUljrJildesA  ilvoMt  vCi  eiianU'i 

0»w, 1 

''rov<i»tM>tfi>1>>l-''"nDral*«0ffloc,  1 

^djului^Ucncrol'*  OffUM,    -    •  It 

rumtniaauiAt  DcnitiDtQt,     -    -  13 

lojifti  Ilo*iiii«l,  Kilmait^unt    -  St 

JMunl  of  Cliuitabla  Vmauim*,  1 
ioiird  of  EAuentioa,      ...  -        3S 


CHAMBERS'S  INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


The  mLpensM  inaured  for  the  colonies  were  lately 
Ii.S^606,4SS  per  annimi,  but  this  indaded  the  ootUjr  in 
tiM  mUitarj  and  naval  departments ;  and  the  annual 
expenses  for  ambassadors  and  consuls  in  forngn  eoun- 
tnss  was  L.264,616,  and  for  eourts  of  justice  nearly 
UNO/)00.  Altogether,  the  civil  roanag;ement  of  the 
United  Kingdom  costs  about  L.4,000,000,or  but  a  tenth 
of  the  entire  expenditure. 

THE  AXMT  AXD  NATT. 

7%f  Army. — According  to  the  terms  of  the  constitu- 
tion, a  permanent  or  standing  army  is  not  held  to 
be  l^gaL  It  is  understood  that  tlie  dvil  power,  as 
exerted  by  magistrates,  constables,  and  police,  is  com- 
petent to  preserve  order,  and  that  the  creation  of  a 
Biffiltary  force  is  only  a  matter  of  temporary  necessity. 
An  army,  howcTer,  being  constantly  required  both  to 
Msist  the  civil  auUiority,  and  to  protect  the  foreign 
ponessions  of  the  empire,  an  act  cl  parliament,  called 
the  Mutiny  Act,  is  passed  annually,  to  maintain  a  large 
body  of  troops  in  regular  service.  Whether  from  this 
provision  in  the  constitution  or  otherwise,  it  happens 
that  education  in  military  tactics  is  conducted  on  a 
^rery  limited  scale :  the  privates  in  the  army  are  en- 
listed by  small  bounties  from  the  lowest  classes  of  the 
community, and  very  rardy, if  ever^are  promoted  to 
the  rank  of  commissioned  officers.  The  commissioned 
ofllcers,  in  seneral,  belong  to  the  aristocracy  or  landed 
gentry,  and  in  most  instances  purchase  their  commis- 
sion according  to  a  scale  of  prices.  Although  both 
vrivates  and  officers  are  alike  ill-prepared,  by  previous 
instruction,  for  performing  the  duties  of  their  profes- 
sion, such  are  the  effects  of  discipline,  the  ex^Uence 
of  equipment,  and  other  advantages,  but,  above  all,  a 
high  tone  of  honour  and  spirit  of  valour,  that  the 
British  army  is  found  able  to  compete  with  forces  re- 
emited  under  lar  more  favourable  circumstances. 

The  army  at  present  (184n  consists  of  the  following 
nnmbers  and  descriptions  of  force  ^— 


Officers  and 

KxpcnM>— 

Iloreca. 

Men. 

non-commie- 

pay,  doth- 

Cavahy. 

fiiuncd  ofticcra. 

iuff.dzc. 

Ouartb*.  3  mftH. 

«L>--> 

i.avi 

?.'>8 

L.87.U»3 

Line.  £{  ix^ts. 

7,'J:*> 

8,57« 

1,."'?^ 

4«),372 

Infimtri/. 

Giianlx,  n  if^ts. 

•  ■ 

4.040 

fil3 

lf>-2,(trO 

Line,  iW  xxgls. 

!?«''> 

U1.4«r7 

HSIMU 

2,7»1,3G5 

• 

».7ia 

y:>,»N« 

13,:r»7 

L.3,:)-1),f»18 

To  the  account  of  expense  mentioned  above,  there  is 
to  bo  added  L.4GG,'J;i7  f<)r  recruiting,  for  depots  of 
regiments  at  Chatham,  Maidstone,  &c.,  and  for  other 
charges.  There  i«  alho  what  is  called  the  civil  depart- 
ment of  the  army,  or  the  army  management,  consisting 
of  the  salary  of  the  secretary-at-war  and  his  office,  the 
commander-in-chief  and  his  oll'ico,  the  medical  depart- 
ments, Alc.  By  an  act  pa&«<rd  in  the  reign  of  George 
IV.,  a  sum  (»f  L.GOjOuo  is  paid  into  the  exchequer  by 
the  Hist  India  Company,  on  account  of  the  charge  for 
retiring  i)ay  and  pensi<Mis,  and  other  expenses  of  that 
nature,  arising  in  n'spect  of  the  forci-y  serving  in  India. 
This  sum  is  applied  towards  tlie  generiil  expenses  of 
the  state.     The  pay  of  a  jn'ivate  in  the  liorse  guards 

varies  h\n\\  Is.  .*'|J-  ^"  '-^'  ^4'^-  V^^  ^-O' » *"  ^^^  cavalry 
of  the  line,  Is.  4<i.  ;  in  tin?  luot  guards,  Is.  »•!. ;  and  in 
the  infantrv  of  ilie  lino  Is.  Id.  When  at  home  and  in 
barracks,  t»d.  a-day  i^  deducted  fn»m  this,  for  whicli  tho 
soldier  receives  tiin-e  «m:»riers  «»f  a  pound  of  meat  and 
one  pound  of  brea<l.  The  jirincipal  part  <*f  liis  clothes 
and  aceoutrrinents  is  fiirni.shed  at  the  public  expense; 
his  pay,  however,  i-*  sul»j«'et  to  a  dtMluction  of  2s.  74d. 
a-week,  in  tho  case  of  privates  M?rving  in  the  cavalry  ; 
It.  1<1.  a-week  fnmi  |»rivates  in  the  loot  guards,  and 
Is.  <)d.  from  all  other  privates,  on  account  of  these 
articles. 

UcttideH  the  cavalry  and  foot  regiments,  there   is 

another  description  of  force  called  tho  onlnanee,  which 

'■•"Judea  artillery,  engineers,  miners,  ^c.     They  have 

OiMua^eme^t  vf  ftrtificativus,   with    their    cuns. 


stores^  frc,  the  inaking  of  vodiC%  wad  dMn 
of  shot  for  great  gnna.  Tbers  avi  897  O0i 
gentlemen  cadets  onployed  in  tUs  mwIiml  9 
men.  These,  with  eydmnaati^  oosl  abqal  L.] 
annually. 

Of  the  British  army.  89^1  art  mgkjwd 
and  in  the  oobniee,  aiM  80^87  in  tlia  &MI  U 

The  statements  whidi  w  ImTe  nada  when 
entirely  to  the  eflbetiva  Ibraa  of  tlia  anBgr* 
either  on  aetiva  duty  or  reaAr  to  ba  so  a 
But,  as  we  have  already  remariiad  undsr  tlia 
Expenditure,  there  are  a  neal  nnmbor  of  pti 
tached  to  the  Army  who  &  no  duty,  tiioii|li  1 

Cy  like  others.  Some  of  theaa  avi  panwoai 
ve  either  been  long  in  aenrios^  or  ntvo  sal 
wounds,  &C. 

Ths  Navy^-^Gnwi  Britain  has  long  boea  n 
as  a  first-rate  naval  power :  by  oommaad  of 
vessels  it  protects  its  commerce,  and  ozarta  il 
rity  in  the  most  remote  quarters  of  tho  gk>b 
usual  to  say  that  Britain  posseoMS  the  *  don 
the  seas  f  but  this  is  only  a  fignra  of  spaec 
nation  possesses  no  acquired  or  vested  sovoreig 
the  ocean,  acknowled|^  by  other  powen^  alS 
times  it  may  forcibly  compel  submisaion.  Thi 
royal  navy  is  recruited  in  mudi  tho  aamo  nt 
the  army ;  but  the  constitution,  by  a  f*"g"W  1 
sanctions  the  forcible  abduction  of  men  fto 
private  homes  to  serve  on  board  of  war  vosad 
species  of  impressment,  however,  is  only  rm 
in  esses  of  urgent  necesrity,  aa  for  instance^  da 
heat  of  war.  The  sailors  who  enlist  ava  | 
yoimg  men  who  have  served  an  appnmtieasliip  < 
merchant  vessels ;  and  with  thiaprepacatioB,  tl 
seamen  of  the  hichest  qualificationa ;  their 
integrity,  and  kina-heartednessy  are  a  laating  i 
national  gratubition.  The  following  ■*ri**TiiB 
an  idea  of  the  present  extent  ot,  and  esqMsdita 
the  royal  navy : — 

Wn|{C9  of  34,405  saflon  and  marines,  -  -   I 

Victuals  for  da,  .... 

Dockyanis  for  building  and  repairing  bbjps,  itw^^iny 

na\'al  stem,  ..... 

Wages  to  artiticcrs  in  tho  cstabUslimcnta  at  home  and 

abroad,  ..... 

BtrtablishmcntM  at  h<imc  and  abroad. 
Miscellaneous,      ..... 
Admiralty  onice,         ..... 

I 

Besides  the  above,  there  is  another  expense 
in  the  navy  accounts,  such  as  the  conveyance  o 
half-pay  to  officers,  pensions,  &C.,  and  which  < 
to  L.1,488,221. 

Tho  average  pay  of  a  sailor  is  L.2,  7s.  per 
with  victuals,  which  are  estimated  at  about 
additional.  >Iuch  complaint  is  made  of  the  hi 
ries  paid  to  people  about  the  dock}*ards ;  the 
workmen  receivint;  L.250  per  annum,  and  the  1 
from  5s.  to  12s.  (Id.  per  day.  During  the  ^ 
France,  Great  Britain  had  upwards  of  lOO 
manned  by  184,000  seamen. 

In  1 835  there  were  in  commission  1  first-rate 
decker),  a  ship  whose  war  complement  exoei 
men  ;  3  second-rate,  war  complement  above 
third-rate,  war  complement  above  UOO ;  8  foul 
war  complement  above  400 ;  6  fifth-rate,  war 
mcnt  above  250  ;  13  sixth-rate,  complement  bel 
and  13()  smaller  vessels.  In  ordinary,  14  fi] 
16  sccond-i-ate ;  50  third-rate;  14  fourth-rate; 
rate;  13  sixth-rato;  and  89  small  vessels ;  in 
vessels.  This  does  not  include  smalleV  vessds, 
}-achts,  cutters,  transports,  A:c.,  which  amonn 
tween  200  and  300  more.  We  give  the  list  of 
prt^fercnce  to  that  for  1840,  as  the  aavy  in  th 
year  was  much  greater  than  it  ia  wobaole  it  1 
tinue  at.  At  present  there  are  vi4  of  all  I 
vessels  in  commtraion,  and  43,000  lailon 
employed  in  the  naval  service. 


hivr  itmiihj  anil 
M  tBJaj  MTanl ' 

Uli.winr  taUB,  e>U*GM  (rvi  »  pul( 
knn  At  niiiBbrr  iif  bmnlini  or  K*>li|[% 


I  Out  *R|t>*E*l«  '■ 
ellmM  to  be  klioot 
ora  tliOM  nf  Ilia  A  r' 

'>lRii1inflR(< 

tliHia  ww«  rmin  kbnut  L.lMu  in  Uuii 
ut  of  tl>M«  rvvvDun  »r*  derived  from  luub,  iit 
■r  KTooiidi  Itt  on  Icuaa,  and  tat  which  fliuM  arn  _ 
t  CDI17.  Tho  ohRptcn  of  oklhedtBl*,  Mmiiouil  e(| 
mMl,  canon*,  uiit  prutalida,  {msKaa  aba  liu^  tvt^'X 
Dct,  lb*  dcsm  of  Darliitin,  for  InvUiiMt  ImTiuf  L.tSOf  J 
■j'car,  uid  otbei  mombcrs  of  the  eluptvr,  L.S3,lB0tfl 
D  1031,  Ihfl  grou  irrcDDM  nr  tlio  dmtn  Kiid  uhatiUM-S 
iiouuWd  ta  opnuriU  of  L.53S/)0(I.  TKb  rrTrnne*  of  f 
iq  inftirior  or  puroohul  alrr^y'  arv  ilKriii-d  fmm  lUhaa 
immutod  into  momiy  psjmiiiiu,  Riiit  hIhi  fecf  >t  colb 
ntfug  nnUTiagaa,  bai'linnii,  tnd  taoania.  With  r«- 
Hwl  to  Ih*  piuwihUI  bnnch  of  church  nnolimmili^ 

•  aitnwt  tha  foIUiwtag  from  Mr  M'CaUoob'n  St»> 
utictt  AMOunl,  18.17:— "It  &p]<«ar>  thftt  of  ItV^TS 
MofleM^  ^01  which  rcUmM  tuiTe  bsm  rnuJrRil,  397 
n  nnikr  L.fiO  a-;c&rt  IC23  u«  betwion  LJO  ftitd 
.inOa.j'xu;  ud  lf03wab«twB(in  I-lOOkiidl-liOi 

•  tli*t  ihuv  uro  I1I-2G  bcDdfleca  nnJor  L.tOt  ti-yair.  nnd 
S2S,  or  mora  Uuo  a  third  of  ^  the  bcneOnu  in  Uiv 
■UDinr, under  L.1  SO •■yur.  Ounanr of  tlin»  Ian*- 
M*  tucra  are  no  globe  homo,  nor  dn  tin;'  yinmM 
ic  ni«iu»  of  arceifnf  kd^.  Wern  tho  (;'idi>ul  dulieB 
■  the  poonat  of  tlioo  hvings  iwt  ]Hi-locuw.-d  by  th« 


I 


CHAMB£R8*S  INFORMATION  FOR  THE  FBOHiS. 


elergymen  of  tho  ntLsfaboiiriiig  puiabM,  it  is  dilBcolt 
to  Me  how  tbey  ooald  be  performed  at  alL"  Curatee 
•M  paid  by  the  reetore  or  Ticuray  whose  aemmts  thejr 
•m:  by  kw  their  aakry  eennot  be  nnder  L.80 — the 
aTflani^  is  L^l. 

The  total  rereniies  of  the  ehnreh  may  be  stated  in 
general  terms  as  follow : — 
Arehbiahope  and  biahopsy       -  L.160,000 

Cathedral  and  collegiate  ehnrehef,  250,000 

Deans  and  other  fanetionaries,  '60,000 

10,540  parochial  benefieee,  -        -    8,100,000 

Cnrateo  of  resident  clergy,  87,000 

Cnratee  of  non-resident  dergpr,    -  387/)00 

IJ{^84,000 
A  proposal  to  introduce  a  greater  equality  into  eede- 
liasfinil  tnter^  has  for  some  time  engaged  the  Consi- 
deration of  ecdedastieal  commiMioners ;  and  lately  an 
aei  of  Parliament  was  PfUKed  appropriating  revenues 
limn  certain  sinecure  offices  in  cathedrals,  as  they  be- 
come vacant,  to  increase  the  incomes  of  the  poorer  dass 
of  parochial  incumbents. 

The  appointment  of  the  clergy  to  benefices  is  as  fol- 
low:— Presented  by  the  crown,  952;  by  archbishops 
and  bishops,  1248 ;  by  deans,  chapters,  and  eodesias- 
tieal  corporations,  2688 ;  by  universities,  colleges,  and 
hoqiitals,  721 ;  by  private  individuals,  5096 ;  and  hj 
municipal  corporations,  53.  This,  savs  M'Culloch,  is 
not  exactly  correct,  there  being  upwards  of  200  omitted 
in  the  returns. 

In  1831 « the  total  number  of  congregations  belonging 
to  the  established  church  was  11,825.  At  the  same 
tfane  thoe  were  the  foUowing  number  of  congregations 
of  dissenters: — Roman  Catholiciu  416 ;  Presbyterians, 
197:  Independento,  1840;  Baptttts,  1201,  Calvinistic 
Methodists,  427;  Wesleyan  Methodistiu  2818;  other 
Methodists,  666 ;  Quakers,  896 ;  Home  Blissionary  con- 
gregations, 458  ;  total  of  dissenting  congregations  (ex> 
elusive  of  Jews),  8414.  It  is  considerea  probable  that 
ibis  number  includes  as  many  actual  worshippers  as 
the  11^25  congregations  of  the  establishment,  or  about 
4,000,000.  Thus,  reckoning  disMntcrs  and  members  of 
the  established  church  at  8,000,000,  about  6,000,000 
reniAiii  who  cannot  be  said  distinctly  to  attend  any  place 
of  public  worship,  though  in  mo^t  instances  nuuiinally 
belongiuf;  to  the  t>Ktabli»hod  church. 

Church  of  Ireland. — In  Ireland,  the  CHtablished  reli- 
gion is  the  Protestant  Episcopacy,  of  which  another 
branch  is  established  in  England.  Thus  the  same  doc- 
trines, ritual,  and  forms  of  ecclesiastical  government, 
exist  in  these  two  countries,  the  hierarchies  only  being 
different  with  rc>spcct  to  their  political  status.  At 
present,  considerable  alterations  are  in  the  course  of 
being  carried  into  eflfect  with  regard  to  the  higher  orders 
of  the  Irish  clergy  and  their  dioceses.  Hitherto  thei*e 
have  been  four  archbihhoprics — Aiinagh,  Dublin,  Cashel, 
and  Tuain,  with  thirty-two  dioceses  consolidated  under 
eighteen  bishops.  When  the  new  arrangement  is  carried 
fully  into  effect,  by  the  demise  of  certain  functionaries, 
there  will  be  only  two  archbi>thops,  those  of  Armagh 
and  Dublin,  and  ten  bishops*.  The  Archbishop  of 
Armagh  is  styled  "  rriniato  and  Metroi>olitan  of  all 
IreUnd  ;"  and  tho  Archbishop  of  Dublin  is  styled 
"  Primate  and  Metroi>olitan  of  Ireland."  There  have 
hitherto  been  S3  deans  and  30  chapters  of  cathedrals. 
The  number  of  parishes,  including  peri)etual  curacies, 
is  (or  was  lately)  2405,  but  many  have  no  church,  and 
the  number  of  incumbents  for  the  whole  is  1385.  Ac- 
cording to  the  proposed  arrangements,  the  money  saved 
by  the  extinction  of  higher  offices  is  to  be  appropriated 
tf»  sustain  churches  and  glebe-houses  in  parishes,  and 
to  execute  other  necessary  purposes. 

The  revenues  of  tho  archbishops  and  bishops,  in 
1831,  amounted  to  L.151,128  annually;  and  the  total 
income  of  the  church,  including  value  of  glebe-lands 
ud  tithes,  was  L.865,535.  {Parliamentary paper.)  The 
tithos  of  most  parishes  have  since  been  compounded 
M*Culloch  estinuttes  the  amount  of  comt>osi- 
.U  the  pariiihrs  at  L.704,813, 15s. 

1U4 


The  Roman  CkthoUo 


four  arohbishoprieB  mod  IwcBijf-thiiM  hUhoMC 
parochial  divi^otts  and  a  bodhr  of  fllsfl|f  iUb 


phm  of  the  establishment ;  toltalsoftsiWMtas 
aUc  number  of  monasteries  After  tiM 
body,  the  diief  disMnting  eommnnioB  is  tfai 
PrMbyterians,  in  the  northmi  parti  of  Hbm 
The  foUowmg  table,  drawn  up  tj  pgopsrjy  n| 
commissioners,  shows  the  state  oinXipOHm  pi 
IreUnd  in  1884  }- 


raoviircsa 


AnBSgh, 
DabllB,  • 

TOSDI, 


Total, 


Msmbcts 

Bslabb 

Chureh. 

fjnff^f^ 

S3£ 

Oihsr 

W7,7M 
177,«W 
111,813 

ujam 

84».M0 

6aM9> 
MI7 

m 

808 

ujm 
Km 

t3M 

•B8,0M 

6*tf7,71t 

648,8B8 

njm 

According  to  Uw,  two  days  throngfaool  the  y 
elusive  ofSundai^  are  set  anaci  as  holidays  o 
from  hOwur,  m  EngUnd  and  Irebad,  aaaiely 
mas  and  Good  Friday. 

Outrpk  ^f  iSkwifaiMt— Protestant  Prssl^ 
according  to  a  polity  introduced  firam  GeileTa  1 
was  established  in  ScotUnd,  by  act  of  Fariia] 
1560,  a  few  years  alter  the  previous  Ronaii 
church  had  been  completdy  dismsmbsrad  i 
pressed.  The  history  of  the  eoontky  dssa 
struggles  of  this  form  of  ehnreh  govenuMnt  w 
copacy  during  the  greater  part  of  the  sev 
century.  Shortly  after  the  revolution,  an  act  o 
ment  of  WilUam  and  Sary,  in  1690,  re-e«l 
Presbytery  on  the  model  of  a  statnta  of  161 
cording  to  the  plan  thus  established^  aod  asv 
wards  maternally  altered,  the  deny  of  the  C 
Scotknd  are  all  equal  in  rank,  andare  cllleia 
sters  of  parishes.  To  the  ehnreh  bdonga  a 
Uy  functionaries  called  elders,  eadi  cluif«l 
several,  who  assist  the  clergyman  at  the  eon 
visit  the  sick,  and  generally  act  as  a  vigilant  € 
tical  police.  This  incorporation  of  laity  with  th 
has  given  it  a  remarkably  secure  footing  in  t 
tions  of  the  people.  The  ecclesiastical  comn 
governed  by  a  series  of  courts — ^the  lowest  b 
kirk-session  in  every  parish,  composed  of  tho 
and  elders ;  the  next  is  a  court  composed  of  tl 
of  a  division,  called  a  presbytery,  and  an  cK 
each  parish ;  tho  next  is  a  synodal  court,  com 
functionaries  from  an  aggregation  of  presbyter 
tho  highest  is  the  General  Assembly,  composed 
gates  from  the  presbyteries,  and  which  meets ; 
at  Edinburgh.  Constant  residence  in  their  ps 
obligatory  on  the  clerg)'. 

A  few  years  ago,  before  recent  alterations  of 
legality,  there  were  in  Scotland  80  presbyteri 
parislies,  and  1050  ministers,  some  churches 
two  clergymen.  The  church  has  lately  inehid 
stcrs  of  chapels  of  ease  in  its  judicatories ;  and  i 
ultimately  sanctioned  as  lawful,  the  above  nu 
clergymen  will  be  considerably  increased.  N« 
entire  body  of  clorg}'  (ministers  of  chapels  of 
quoad  sacra  parishes,  not  included)  are  appo 
lay  patrons,  or  by  tlie  crown,  in  virtue  of  a 
Parliament  in  1711-1*2,  reviving  ancient  righ 
fieneral  Assembly,  in  1834,  passed  an  act, 
called  the  Veto  Act,  giving  male  communicants, 
families,  the  right  ot  objecting  to  the  appointi 
patrons ;  but  this  has  been  declared  illegal  by 
courts,  as  interfering  with  the  private  pro 
patrons  (the  advowsons  being  saleable),  and  t 
tion  remains  in  a  doubtful  and  precarions  state  ( 
1841). 

Tho  parochial  clergy  are  supported  by  money 
levied  from  the  heritors  or  landownersi  on  the  | 
of  commuted  tithes  or  teinds.    The  amonnt  of  i 
yearly,  depends  on  the  average  mailMi  vmlaa 
the  averages  being  ealled/ors,  which  avsstnMk  i 


ot  ruE  Duni.^u  uMriiii., 


I 


1I.J..-J  t-i  lia  - 


fau  Mmitinr<tif,  niidiu 


[-laUmiliDurUi-'  j  II 


Ju^i  I 


i  Iiul  »h*  liu  lui  Dllicmsi 
di  nxl*tla  Proula,  Ilol- 
e  cmuuhov  PeniBalai7  Iniimelkio  ia 
"'     II  af  Ihe  poonr  eUwii  lijr  BOrtnirul  | 

I,  mti  the  cliildtTn  of  hid  niddlo 
t  Mhoola  of  nrWato 
in  Knstaad  iUl  ra- 

.-,1    ..■|lL..,|.:,    Bl,.l    AIM 
■--.  .MlU  Of 


I      RluDHlluBoi    T 

.11.1  l>  TrIlUt;  CuDcBe '<>  tlDirin;  kiul  Uttttrl*  a 

'*  «  fi<rwjiifurriDi[tl>fiiIi[lnrrt'(»non(« 


ntalllilllinl  )',t 

cdaimtipn.llK 


1    U.1..V  M  I.-.  R....Kt.       Oftbo 

in  liiJi),  wiUiDUt  a  »61™cil. 

■hioMit  of  inCuil  and  crdinitrf  'Iny 
k  dw  bol-inanllunvU  <f<i»T,  tlie  itatemsut 


h»  bnn  nvi<^*<l  V  variou*  parUv^  bttli  >i 
aui  in  Briuiii.    ^i*  natiiiiuil  kiHtrd  cnnaMl*  n>  nmn 
TOiniRiMiniiiiii  e1iMi*n  froiu  boih  Iha  linnikn  Ckilintio 
and  l>roiMULnt  bodi*»— Iba  Houiui  {^Ihulta  and  Pio- 


c\i>i>nd  annunll)',  thn  mui  of  L.M.OOO :  their  nitimto 
rar  th«  jaa  cndiiis  Usroh  31,  lUt),  wm  Ut(l,SK7, 
nliiih  tlii'v  pvop»M  to  la;  ont  a«  r«Uuw«: — CPii  Uaifl- 
iag  of  ttnchrrs,  L.3S20 ',  iniid*!  iwlraiit*,  L.Md ',  pantf 

uUrixK  ■<»)  cralnilim  lo  teocbtra,  L.23,I}U0  |  btWlt 
•olitir'lK,  L.'J'Jii ;  afrieultoral  k1ii»U,  L.laU ;  lnapMtl«n, 
L.4!t7.;;  bnulHotid«ebaolrtqDl(itM,L.43&0i  DndfM*- 
til  aaficndllijn,  L,31a3.  Tito  fee  paid  by  OMh  acuoUr 
ii  Id. porawik.  InManh  18!)B,tlianamt«riiriULtloiMl 
Mhoeli  «u  1304,  aic«id«d  bj  IBSfiH  ohitdren  j  bat  18  J 
new  Hhoala  wnr  lociii  te  bo  ttftnai,  and  it  wu  gx» 
pieivd  ihal  ihajr  would  ba  aiUndvd  by  <0,106  pupils 
makiiif  *  IvUl  ot  3(II),CA4.  IlMkoninc,  b'lwavar,  iha 
■whiiula  Hid  to  ba  In  aemal  oponliun  lU  tianh  fUR^ 
M>OTwwaniiapwrt>tf^to^wtHMld»wiiw«ihn 


CHAMB£RS*S  INFORMATION  FOR  TH£  WSOMA. 


a  regular  elemeiitary  edueatloiiy  it  aa  umaal  cost  to 
the  state  of  L^,000. 

Boaides  this  great  nataonal  sjatem  of  elementary 
ibatroetioiiy  the  country  poeaeecee  aereral  reUgiona  or 
diarltable  aeeociationa  for  promoting  education  among 
the  poorer  elaeeet :  of  tlieae  the  principal  are  the  Kil- 
dare  Place  Society^  wbich  latdy  snpported  1 097  adiools, 
attended  by  81,178  aebolanyand  tne  Ghnreh  Education 
Sodeiy.  The  Roman  Catholic  body  also  aupporta  a 
conaiteable  number  of  achoola 

So9iland  pooeeoMa  five  colleges  or  uniTersities  for  the 
higher  branches  of  instroctiony  being  those  of  Glaaffow, 
St  Andrewsy  Kinifs  College  and  Mareschal  CoUeee 
Aberdeen,  and  Edinburgh.  Education  at  these  insti- 
tutions Bi  generally  conferred  on  a  more  liberal  and 
less  expensive  scale  than  at  the  unirersities  of  EngUnd. 
Scotland  has  been  long  distinguished  for  its  parochial 
i«rtittttions  for  elementary  instruction,  and  also  for 
its  grammar-schools  or  andemies  in  the  chief  towns^ 
which  serre  as  preparatory  gymnasia  for  the  unirersi- 
tiea.  Each  pariah  (some  parishes  in  towns  ezcei^) 
is  proTided  with  a  achool  at  the  expense  of  certahi 
Undowners  or  heritors,  in  virtue  of  an  act  of  Parlia- 
ment passed  in  1698,  re-establishing  statutea  formeriy 
in  existence.  Another  act  was  passed  (48  Geo.  III.  c 
54)  in  1808,  amending  existing  provisions  on  the  sub- 
ject^ and  ordaining  **  uiat  the  salary  of  each  parochial 
■choolmaster  shall  not  be  under  L.  1 6, 1 3s.  4d.,  nor  above 
I«.23, 48.  fi^d.,"  except  in  particular  cases  mentioned ; 
and  provision  is  further  made  for  augmenting  this 
minimum  and  maximum  at  the  end  of  every  twenty-five 
years.  An  increase  accordingly  took  place  fai  1828^ 
.  niring  the  minimum  to  L.25, 18s.  8|d.,  and  the  maxi- 
mum to  L.84, 48.  4}d.  These  payments  are  made  ao- 
eording  to  the  libex^ity  of  the  neritors ;  and  they  be- 
ildss  must  provide  a  small  house  for  the  schoolmaster, 
with  a  garden,  aa  well  aa  school-house.  The  teacher 
Is  entitMd  to  take  small  fees  in  addition;  the  more 
common  fee  is  2b.  or  2s.  8d.  per  quarter  for  instruction 
hi  reading,  with  6d.  for  writing.  Altogether,  this  class 
of  men  are  slenderly  remunerated  for  their  extremely 
valuable  services.  Within  the  last  thirty  years,  the 
parish  schools  have  been  almost  superseded  in  some 
quarters  by  the  establishment  of  voluntarily  supported 
iostitutionSy  better  suited  to  the  wants  of  the  age. 

In  a  report  to  Parliament  in  1834,  the  number  of 
schools  in  Scotland  was  8tated  as  follows  : — Parochial 
schools,  1047  ;  pupils  attending  them,  G8.203  ;  total 
emoluments  of  teachers,   L.55,339.     Voluntarily  bup- 

?ort«d  schools,  3995  ;  pupils  attending  thorn,  154.1  GO. 
t  appears  from  this  that  there  were  *2*2'2,453  children 
receiving  instruction  (not  including  the  attendance  at 
Sunday  school),  and  that  of  these  only  68,293,  or  little 
more  than  one-fourth,  were  educated  at  the  parochial 
Fchools.  There  were  504*2  schools,  and  of  these  only 
1047,  or  about  one-fifth,  wei-e  parochial  establishments. 
The  publication  of  this  report  caused  considerable  sur- 
prise, for  it  was  generally  believed  that  the  great  bulk 
of  the  juvenile  population  were  instructed  in  the  parish 
schools.  The  total  emoluments  of  the  parish  teachers 
arc  stated  at  L.53,339,  or  on  un  avcnige,  L.45,  lis.  9Jd. 
each  ;  but  of  this  sum  only  L.-9,(!4*2  is  stated  as  Kxlary, 
there  being  collcct«Ml  in  sclu»<»l  fet?>,  L.*20,717,  and  from 
other  sources,  L.4975.  The  average  annual  expen.-e 
of  educating  each  child  at  thf  parochial  scIkmiIs,  on  the 
above  data,  appearN  to  be  15s.  7|d.  A  groat  ditlorence 
was  found  between  the  attendance  of  males  and  females. 
Taking  the  entire  attendance  on  schools,  there  were 
132,489  males,  and  89,9G4  females.  The  result  of  the 
inquiry  seems  to  be,  that  about  1  in  9  of  the  population 
in  Scotland  attends  school. 

The  generally  imperfect  instruction  among  the 
humbler  orders  of  tociety  in  all  parts  of  the  United 
Kingdom  is  strikingly  manifested  in  tho  returns  of  cri- 
miiud  commitments.  On  tliis  interesting  topic  we  cx- 
^— '•f  ilie  fo]}uw'mg  results  of  an  inouiry  instituted  with 
*o  cdueation  Mad  erimef  and  lately  embodied  in 


--  liij,  Tim  iiiilj  It  fn  m  II  f  111  I  ni  Mill  iii 


eommitted  for  trial  hi  E    fnA  aod 
read  and  write  well,  and  of  theaa  oofy  4  Ib 
received  such  aa  amoont  ef  fantmethm  m 
titled  to  th6  name  of  edoeatloii;  aod  thit  IIm 
portions  are  greatlv  below  tha  avaafi 
umtmetion  among  the  general  popnkHoo. 

2d,  That  these  pn^wrtioaa  avi 
hi  Scotland,  and  lower  In  Ireh^ ;  mad  IIm  if 
appears  to  establish  that  the  degree  of  favlnMll 
sessed  by  criminal  offenderaii  an  faidfaatfaa  of  tf 
aeased  by  the  general  popnlathMi  hi  the  mebm  A 

Sd,  That  about  one-third  of  the  adolt  OMk  ] 
tion  of  Ei^Und  cannot  sign  thsir  own  irnnwii  a 
firom  one-fifth  to  one-foorth  eaa  nehhor  ra 
write. 

4th,  That  these  proportSoos  are  moflii  aon  1 
able  than  in  France  or  Belgium^  wheve  onehal 
yontha  at  the  age  of  eighteen  eoold  natfhr  rt 
write.  The  proportion  of  whoDv  ignofaal  aU 
those  coimtnes  u  eorreapondingly  grealv  tins  i 
land. 

5th,  That  in  Engjhmd,  histmetion  la  twiea  m 
lent  among  male  aa  among  lismale  erlininal^  ai 
half  more  prevalent  among  malea  In  the  pneia 
lation  than  among  femalsa.  That  hi  Seote 
Irehmd  it  is  three  times  aa  prevalent  amoof  tl 
criminals. 

6th,  That  this  unfavourable  eonditioa  of  fin 
these  two  countries  is  further  eooftmied  bj  tt 
that  the  proportion  of  female  to  male  ami 
greater  than  in  England ;  and  it  may  be  tiaead 
circumstance  of  the  number  of  girla  at  aehool  h 
two  countries  being  very  small  in  comparieoa  w 
number  at  school  in  EngUnd.  In  oonmarinf  th 
coimtries,  the  nimnber  of  female  crinlnab  »  A 
be  exactly  in  the  inverse  ratio  to  the  pgmftKi 
females  at  schooL 

7th,  That  education  has  a  greater  iailaeilea 
females  than  among  males  in  restnUning  thsm  fr 
commission  of  crime. 

8th,  That  instruction  prevails,  upon  an  avera| 
greater  extent  among  the  agricultural  than  aoK 
manufacturing  counties  of  Knglalid ;  but  that  th 
cultural  counties  in  the  ea>>t,  east-midland,  and 
east,  are  greatly  below  the  average." 

DISPENSATIOM  OF  LAWS. 

Justice,  civil  and  criminal,  is  administered  ii 
land  and  Ireland  according  to  laws  and  furma 
took  their  rise  in  the  former  country,  and  were  i 
extended  to  the  hitter.  The  English  law,  aa  it  i 
pn^hensively  termed,  is  of  two  kinds^written  or  i 
law,  consisting  of  the  laws  established  by  acta  o 
liament,  and  consuetudinary  law,  consisting  of  O 
which  have  existed  from  time  immemorial,  am 
received  the  s^mction  of  the  judges.  Comnietu 
law  is  again  divided  into  common  law  mud  equit, 
fonner  is  administered  In'  courts  which  profess 
here  strictly  to  the  old  laws  of  Enghuid,  exoep 
fur  as  they  niv  altered  by  statute ;  the  latter  was  n 
upon  the  principle  that  the  king,  in  cases  of  hai 
was  entithrd  to  give  relief  from  the  strictneas 
common  law.  K^uity,  though  thus  originated,  hi 
become  aUo  a  fixed  kind  of  Uw,  and  is  administi 
courts  which  docido  according  to  established  ml 

The  principal  court  for  civil  suits  is  the  Co 
Common  Pleas.  Tho  Court  of  King's  (or  Qv 
Iteneh,  which  was  at  (irst  only  a  criminal  tribuni 
the  Court  of  Exchequer,  which  was  designed  < 
decide  in  cases  concerning  the  revenue^  have  b 
ciril  courts  by  means  of  fictions  in  their  >ei| 
mo<les  of  pi'ocedure.  The  Court  of  Chancery,  pr 
over  by  the  Lord  Chancellor,  administers  the 
eiiuity.  Courts  tmder  these  designstions  ait  b 
Westminister  and  in  Dublin :  there  are  also  oo« 
assize,  which,  in  England,  perform  six  pronaei 


•^  read  in-fore  Oie  Statistical  Society  of  l^n-\cuitfs\ivs^>mQ\tinaxvmQ\]km^aBdtnotheniwieai 
wsoa  W.  lUwMOD,  Esq.  I  ^Unox 


caaeS)  cxvuunai  aa  ^«\i  satwt^  vb%  ^|ii1^ 


-  OF  THE  OaiTlSn  EMPniE- 


b  pHUIokltj  buluiiii  M  til*   inlarRM  or  < 


-.1^  iUtniim,  mni  in  ibe  AiUniln  thm 


",  .."r..i.-M,"*l!j3; 
■  u,paliy. 


u  mult  of  tbc  ccilii- 
tiuhtduid  pritUcgM 
iiiijceu.  Ubdm,  till 
I  ii<'iliDi)nipira.wlitit- 

■    ^r.MDilil^.-dhjlli» 

■■     ■■.llnliijMli. 

iinl  ,.f  life 


'■■n.ga. 


CiviruiniTUt,  ll  liviuji  a  prlndjilH  iu  tlM  punitit 
tliut  lli»ii>  call  he  no  uiuLtiau  wUhQitt  twrwiUiUtlnn ; 
but  tiuy  UK  iuIiJmIik]  to  variiiut  «uiituinhnuM>  dutlM 
uiJ  Ti»irtctliiiu>,  tlist  grenU^'jIliiiU  their  copod^  tat 
irBfamctoeBU  All  tlic  »w  ptvdaco  thi^  out  nqmrl, 
iticli  u  luj^r,  ooObo.  timber,  fte„  it  ptrniittad  to  niUr 
Dritiali  forta  M  ft  duty  muoli  lower  llian  ilia  wtiia  ktod 
of  prwluiw  frum  fumipi  twiniirioa.  Thi*  prcfciwnea  in 
in  nns  tMpiHil  tulvuitufiHOUi ;  bowersr,  tlutjr  Ktc  U  tllB 
(ollci*  t!uiB  i«MrlDtcd  m  the  puroliua  of  vnriiMK  »i» 
ti«la>,  «KCe]il  fiMtu  BHtaia  Mid  Iim  [■uuunifaa.  Tlioir 
ora  lUui  |ir«n.iit«K]  rrutn  maQuriwIurlng  coTUktn  klnoi 
(>f  I'nxliiLvi ',  f'lT  Muuplo,  Iho  inhabituila  of  Juukft 
>;iiir<<  I  K.nni'  tliuLr  (iwn  ■uxnr,  but  are  oocipiilltd  to 
.1  .]  !\.,s  ..I'licts  to  Kngluid  U>  L*  refined,  ud  tbes 
i.':j' iL  l'11-l,  injnin.  Cy  thnia  nmngainent*,  til* eolo* 
r...  '-,  rr-'iiTsUy  ■pt«kjni!>  ^  A  iit*to  of  tutila^uid 
i-.>iir,[.[,  w.iii(intaT«r]'n«teta£Baii]  their olbin.itul 
frir"nril  Ui  n  cuuno  of  pnwpeiii)' ;  wliila'rpiit  hnmi, 
\,y  hdng  egmpnllci)  Ic  ptjr  for  tliur  tiTiil«ct'AU,  wtAmi 
liiiy  liirir  tugb-pniMd  ^rodiiMt  neeBvuB  t*  »6b- — *- 
bwi^Gl  troni  iliult  ^->iw*»i«u.    Tftw  .aanMiiiM      . 


CHAMBERS'S  INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


an  ontiM  for  Britkh  inamifiMtiint,  and  to  employ 
■hipping  in  tbe  tmnsporC  of  goods.  It  it,  however, 
•straiely  doobtftil  whether  the  expense  inearred  in 
■opportinff  them  is  not  moeh  greater  than  a(I  the  pro- 
fll  dMived  from  oommereial  interooune.  In  a  retom 
to' Parliament  lately  published^  the  following  sUtement 
of  the  expenditure  of  the  United  Kincdom  on  the  eolo- 
niesy  was  given  for  the  year  ending  Mardi  1, 1896  :— 


Mllitaiy  dwifM,  B«e, 
drU  ohHiM.  imC, 
Nsvsl  «Kp«idltii]«,    - 
Bt  Bstona  (not  daaUM), 


LJ,Q90»<W 
486,1M 

90,833 


L.8,640,410 
I>9diict  repAyments  oat  of  colonial  raveniiM,  &&,  90.998 

1^,01)6,489 

TboeipendiCarB  for  «sdi  colooy.  negiocttog  fractknMl  purto  of 
a  pomd,  !■  M  fbllowt  :— 

MILtTARY  AMD  MAaiTIMB  tTATIOSTS. 

Total  Expenditure  In- 
curred by  Great  Britain. 

Gltoaltar, L.M9,830 

Halta, '•       •     110,818 

CkpoofCkwdllope, 919,907 

MaoriUua, 78.981 

Bemrada, 91,448 

Fernando  IV>, •!« 

Aseenaion, ^.907 

nd^a^id, M16 

IbalBB'Ialanda, 118,988 

BiBalena. 87,888 

rLANTATiona  Airo  aaTTLaiiBirTa. 

Jamaica,  Bahamaa,  Ilondana,  •  832,428 

Bartiadoei.  Qranada.  84  Vincent,  TMmcd,  An- 

Ugoa,  Montaerrat,  Bt  Chriatopher'a,  Neria, 

Angvdiln,  Vtanfrin  lalanda,  Doininioa,  8t  Lneia, 

TMnldad,  Britlah  Guiana,  ^  373.212 

Loww  Canada,  Upper  Omada,  ...  991,441 
Kofa  gcotia.  New  Brunawick,  Prince  Edward 

Uand,  Newfnundlawl.     ....         161,9M 

mami  Leone,  Gambia. 38,M7 

telen, 133,8(0 

Weatem  AnetraliA, »,745 


rSMAl.  aSTTLBMBlfTa. 

New  South  Waloa,  Van  Dlemen**  Land, 
General  clinrgve. 


833,^1 
S3.449 


L^.006,483 


The  total  value  of  exporta  to  the  above  dependencies 
in  1 838  (sec  atatement  of  exporta  in  another  page),  was 
about  ten  millions,  the  profit  on  which  would  be  10  per 
cent. ;  but  the  above  sum  incurred  fur  protection  is 
equal  to  25  per  cent,  on  the  ten  millions,  and  therefore 
there  is  a  clear  loss  of  15  per  cent,  on  colonial  com- 
merce. We  have  not  seen  anv  statement  of  what  ben(tfit 
is  derived  by  British  shijppmg  from  the  colonial  con- 
nexion ;  but  whatever  it  is,  there  can  be  no  doubt  that 
the  same  number  of  ships  would  be  employed  in  the 
export  and  im{>ort  trade,  if  the  colonial  connexion  was 
dissevered.  It  appears  to  us,  that  the  only  real  advan- 
tage derived  bv  Britain  from  her  colonics,  is  the  ready 
means  afforded  for  sending  large  masses  of  her  popu- 
lation as  emigrants  to  these  vaKt  and  fertile  territories, 
where  their  settlements  become  the  nurseries  of  future 
independent  and  civilised  nations.  In  this  respoct,  the 
colonial  system  of  Britain  is  of  immenfio  inii>ortance  to 
the  cause  of  Christianity  and  civilisation ;  and  it  is 
onlv  matter  of  deep  regret  that,  by  projier  management 
and  the  abolition  of  all  restrictions,  tlie  colonies  are 
not  rendered  more  valuable  and  less  oxpeuKive  to  the 
mother  country.  Reckoning  tho  expcnso  (>f  military, 
naval,  and  civil  protection,  along  with  the  heavy  loss 
incurred  by  our  obligation  to  buy  their  dmr  jiroducc, 
it  is*  calculated  that  in  ordinary  times  tlu*  p^H^ple  of 
Great  Britain  lose  between  five  and  six  millions  an- 
nually by  the  colonies. 

Jndia  is  not,  strictly  f.|>eaking,  a  colony  or  possession 

of  Britain.     Politically  it  belongs  to  the  Honourable 

1^-**t  India  Company,  an  association  of  British  mer- 

.  by  whose  servants  it  haa  been  conquered,  and 

locally  governed,  under  the  control  and  a()- 

lowever,  of  the  crown,  and  a  charter  mnted 

ilature.     In  virtue  of  aa  act  of  Parlia- 


meat  paaed  in  188S,  tha  Eiai  ladkOaMfH^ 
rantaed  the  goreinineiit  of  the  BrilUl  l8nte 
India  until  April  1854  ;  the  aonpttqr  ii  Ml  te 
on  any  trade ;  eommeree  to  be  opea  to  BkilU 
ehanta ;  natural-born  rabjeela  of  Yx^wk  wm^  ■ 
to,  aettis,  and  bay  bndi  in  India ;  aad  Balivioaol 
of  whaterer  cokmr  or  religioo,  are  to  be  eKgiUa  ti 
India  afforda  no  direct  rerwiae  or  tribvto  fti 
land,  as  conquered  eonntriea  are  in  feneial  m 
to  do.  The  onlv  adTantagee  wbieh  we  darive  fri 
occupation  of  these  immenee  eonntriea^  are  the 
puted  pooeeeeion  of  their  trade^  and  the  fortoaea 
timca  very  large)  saTod  out  of  their  aafaoiea  by  \ 
subjects  who  are  appointed,  to  diediarge  thedi 
government.  It  is  to  the  trade  of  the  eottati;| 
ever,  that  we  must  look  for  any  eonatdeimble  ai 
.manent  advantage ;  and  aa  this  can  only  be  n 
increase  by  the  cultivation  7>f  peace  and  otder  tl 
the  country,  the  interest  of  Britain  bseomee  i 
involved  in  maintaining  henceforth  the  peaee  of 
The  improvement  which  a  few  yeara  of  peaee  efl 
these  fertile  countriee,  isaatoniahiag:  tnepopali 
a  certain  portion  is  supposed  to  have  asarly  don 
the  period  of  comparative  peaee  from  1811  tc 
being  in  the  former  year  only  finrty-ftve^  and 
latter  almost  ninety,  millions.  Till  she  eame 
British  rule,  India  never  enjoyed  twenty  y<satmo 
and  orderly  government  in  all  her  focmer  I 
Many  faults  and  oppressions  are  laid  to  the 
of  the  English  in  India,  from  which  it  ia  imf 
to  defend  them..  The  taxea  (whieh  ikU  die^ 
the  lomd  and  the  poor  peasantry)  are  veij  oppi 
and  are  rendered  more  so  by  the  unprineiplea  e 
of  the  natives  who  are  employed  to  eoUeet  them, 
tice  also  is  administered  in  a  foreign  kngnaca  (I 
and  the  courts  are  so  few,  that  distrieto  lAich  an 
than  Scotland  have  hardly  one  to  eadi.  NolwitI 
ing  all  this,  the  preeervation  of  pnUie  order  . 
peace  has  conferred  advantages  on  Ihe  oooatry 
moat  inestimable  kii^d.  Lattmy,  oonaiderabla  la 
ments  have  been  effected  by  the  establishment  of  s 
and  by  Christian  missionaries  of  various  persoai 
The  territorial  extent  of  the  British  posseesi 
India  is  514,190  square  miles;  the  population, 
as  it  lias  been  ascertained,  89,577,206 ;  to  whit 
be  added  eleven  millions  more  for  districts  not  in 
in  the  census.  There  are  several  states  whi< 
iindor  British  protection,  though  not  directly  go 
by  our  eotn]>lishments  ;  the^  havean  area  ot  fi 
square  miles,  and  a  )>opulation  estimated  at  for 
lions.  The  goods  exported  from  Britain  in  1 
the  K:Lst  lndie«(,  including  Ceylon,  were  vali 
L.3,87G,19().  As  India,  by  the  taxes  which  it  | 
the  Company,  clears  the  cost  of  its  own  protectio 
all  its  other  public  ex|)enKos,  it  may  be  conaide 
the  only  foreign  possession  of  Britain  whooe 
affords  an  unburdened  profit  to  the  home  ec 
The  forces  employed  by  the  Company,  partly  eoa 
of  British  regular  troops,  and  partly  of  native 
amounted  in  1830  to  2*24.444  men.  In  1835 
annual  revenue  was  L.13,()00,l(>5,  an  enormous  i 
be  rai^'cd  in  a  semi -barbarous  country,  yet  no 
than  sufficient  to  discharge  the  annual  expenses. 
Company  at  that  time  was  in  debt  to  the  arao 
L.35,403,483.     (See  article  East  Indies.) 

MAMTA(TlRINO  AND  COMMEBnAL  INDCSntT. 

Mamifticturcs. — The  manufactures  of  Great  I 
surpass  in  extent  and  variety  those  of  any  other 
try  ;  and  from  the  superior  character  of  its  maci 
the  economiHing  of  time,  and  the  refined  skill 
workmen,  the  manufactures  are  eenerally  proda 
a  lower  rate,  and  of  better  quahty,  than  in  eo« 
more  favourably  situated  with  respect  to  the  pi 
tion  of  raw  materials. 

The  ( "otton  Mant^atture  u  the  most  extensive 
whole,  both  with  respect  to  the  capital  whidi  it  iai 
and  the  number  o^  people  to  whom  it  givea  eosploy 
it  is  supposed  to  form  one-fonrtb  pact  of  the  to 


CHAMBERS'S  IKFORMATION  FOa  THE  PEOPLE. 


Otbvutldn, 


W,«aB 

w.rttju 


of  n^tn4  fiM^  )iflnnttB«  (a 


nt  Df  Shipping  tDiplnrsl  In  t)i*  Pm^cn  Bnl  OcilmMI 
b*  tlnlud  KlBplotii  In  Uw  Yw  oidol  JU111M7  •, 


^  IiivmHA- C3^vi44 


Bfilcml  Imvarta.  CI— fil' 


Br<tM  niMBfaM— But  India  CmiWBT^  tarltflrlck  ^7 
lMI,LJ.n«,lHl  Brttlili  Wort  India,  LJja3,*<1i  Bil!  -i< 
ris,  L.I,!Rf,UTi  AiutnllB.  t-lJX.mt;  Olbrator,  L^i 
Cips  of  OODd  Hope,  L«S3.S3:  Mimitlua,  L.«t;a1:  I' 
IiluMt  nd  Mm,  LJU,IM;  WstCnwt  of  Afiio^  T,4 
Malls,  I.^M.'W;  81l1c]«u.  kc.  L.II.liO;  totil,  L-IS-.'-Jt 


Fninn,  L.t.3i4,ltli  I-uriapil,  L,l,irj,:»ii  Aixitm,  1,^BI,.i 
3l»il*lni,  LMOrii  Spuln,  I^iMS.IDU;  Cuiar1«,  I_<7.fiil;  II 
an.!  iMItan  ULmU,  LJ1.II7K,S3] :  lontrn  ULirwIn.  UB.I'";  T 
kcynnd  Omt«,  L.l.TW.Wi  Bytti,L.lM,44n[  KnT'.  I..*i^J 
Ilnrbary,  L.;4,li1Ji  F-ul  CcaM  of  Afrlto,  L-in.T&li  Ciiiw  V 


Ginp]io«l  In  tntvnvnmslv- 


,m,(w 


:    tlay 


r  l\irc(gn  V 


a 


l,l,IW,:m;  Untied illal» 
lumbla,  h.n*.Xtt;  llmiO,  UI,n«,l>4;  BlalM  nl  U  1 
LA>l4t5;  Chill,  l_4l3,M!i  l>l!ni.  Mll.lIU  ;  tulal.  T,..1M; 
tn  all,  LJ»/niJ>7Ui  of  *hkh  Knnifie.  L.:i.l7l,a>l ;  A 
L.1.M7,7S);  Atla.  LJI,m).IUI;  Aiutnluii.  I,.l.:n7,;:.;;  ; 
AmcTln.  L.!i,SX!i7i  »'»[  indln.  L.l,?(i,:>7l :  il.-iic-: 
RiHitb  America,  L.t,7ie^«U. 

It  will  bo  observed  from  lliwo  slilcmoiil'",  Ibnl 
be«l  euBlonier  of  Great  Ilritam  11  iho  I'nitrd  STai 
Nnrtli  America,  tlic  Indo  with  wbjcli  lins  protli;;! 
incrcaied  sinnj  llie  colonial  conncxioD  waa  diwtc 
Tha  ripnrta  to  Brazil  nn  likewise  coniiidcnblc, 
■t  prmwnt  about  L.4,nno,0<iO.  Tlicn  is  n!u« 
ever,  to  ftar  that  bolh  tlifi*  counlrioB  cnnlpmp 
pxclu»nn  uf  llritiah  goxd*,  in  coiiHniucnca  of  v 
pri'liibitory  dutin  on  Iheir  pnnluce.  For  a 
nutica  o(  llrili.li  mnnufaclurcs  and  commprci', 
for  10  the  Brticla  CoMnEHri!,  and  alw  to  (he  arl 
the  yariuua  linnrhm  of  luanufnclur™. 


Tha  fnllnn-inf;  MntemmtB  nnbraca  a  vkw  i>f  tli 
number  of  t>hip!i  belaDjtinjt  to  and  engaged  ia  the  coin 
mrrce  of  ttw  Brill*h  eni|iire  1 — 


!■  brioDctnatotttl 


Total,  m  turn 

This  ia  T(r7  nearly  dniibio  inncs  11)39.  Now  OMt]  ■ 
list  tniiht  bo  Taatlj  increaasd  bj  the  addilioa  «(■ 
Atlantis  Rtumen,  and  othen  of  great  pov«r,  ^ 

Noue  ol  Ihe  above  acciiuiita  incJuda  (be  pMt  ■)■ 
bar  of  canal  or  fishing-boati  wilh  vbich  map;  |Bfllj 

ORIU,  rX^IXlA,   UILBOjlII*,  DOCK^  ItB, 

nufacIuruK,  an  tlia  gT«al*Otl 


tf  th 


any  otiiara,  the  actiTity,  poicer.  and 
country.  It  ta  to  thaheilily  of  lnt< 
lioa  afforded  by  Ihete  vorlw,  that  Iha  haaneM  (mA 
Ihoueh  manDfaeiared  in  tha  intarior  of  tha  eooab] 
can  be  carried  td  mn-porta  for  eiiKiTtatvm,  ■Itlwi 
any  burdaiuoaiD  addition  to  (heir  fnce;  and  matwU 
for  their  dift^rrnt  manafnctnm  ran  ba  earriad  to  k 
land  towna  from  M«-port«,  liy  canala  or  rajlr— ^  'bB 
the  umn  adiranlaEO. 

Tlie  Irngth  of  tha  TunfUt  ftaait  itt  I  KM)  (iIm  ttM 
aothmlio  accounl),  whfi  24^^41  tni'o:  anawl  istiM 
L,l,2H,7leid-bt,  [...V-llO.OIH)-  Tii.ine«iW,rf««W« 
wa*  from  tulla,  Md  was  intcii Jrd  tor  tvpalHlif  tha  1*4 
and  payine  the  lijlamd  uf  the  (aonc;  torronraJ  fcr  M 
aintcting  thant.    Ha  total  Iragthof  UMaoal^laA 


'1  1,>1  i^yU^u'UC*  '>!  ll^jwu  UU  ]U[lUl|.4  ilia  cxat  I^ 

TliR  <tk|>lui  uTWT^liJ  ■mm  Qipji)  luk*  tflm  bim,  m>4 

•h.  tldll -Itli  ■<)<h'lL  '.".'.'   r.l  tlKiu,  .urli  H  Hie  BolU 
•iKiol  far 


JutnWit;  ill 


•plillvj  111  jiui'^iiad  {Jiula  U] 


,:.■  oeiamlmrltA  lot 

" "  11."  in,  molit  Wy       n 


, ^    -^.leJll 


!iiuu1bJ 

1    .ii^DptllO 

M  ;u^(,    L'uiui'uuiiu    Liuiilod   nitb 

>  Uuiebnter  %ad  Xaeda  Kaito"]', 

t  populinn  tuviu.     In  SoiiIUdiIi  iIiw 

^■iPIBd  Qlugi'*  ttailwii]'.  mkI  liw  0U>^<*  and 

IAM«MF>  ■'^  *l'"  TTinc<<[Al  Ibiiw.    Tliu  nuiat  vr»- 

;■«■«#  dl  ibu  litx*  (t  ihnluf  LiiB  L«U(Iuii  lUifl  UIt. 

'     Hnhl;  mvtniDH  lit  wliieb  i*  npwnrd*  of 

iiv«ttv  T*rnai»  id  tlin  Qruid  Juuotion, 

Mm  u,  1 1-J'j"".' 

»,  /■kMi,  ovf  LifiAfAsuiii.— Dnclu  OTA  utiScinl 

faopt «(  ■!»•£  tiT  tb«  nccptlnn  of  tbifm  i  they 

•  Uadi^  wet  and  ib;-    A  (b:;  doi^k  u  a  rri*r|i- 

di  arn  built  or  rr]""^''  •  kfl*r  »lii<h 

Mil  bi  flrml^j^ln,  ruid  Ihtj^uw  Sontnl 

t  iliirX>  on  r<m«ini«l«il  fur  Ui«  dm  nf 

linicanil  nii)on>liiii;,  il  luring  foiinil  UmI 

-  '  i»  triilr  ilnwQ  iinaEiUally  na  llm 

ud  Imrlinnni,  tiialr  UllliKra  kra 

nlily  ilniiislvd  |  In  Uia 


h^TM''rf'liYKj[.   "tIi'.'  I  Tiiiilad 

liy  Uv  M  lUpiiml  fn  wii: '  .  1 1:.<  jnw 

vidiin*  uf  III  net  lit  lilt:  I  i;t;  b 

IR.td,  Ilia  iiiiinvy  uiiEiidi'it  iJii  ;iut^]i>  ri  i:i  i.itLiUiiil  wu 
1..4, 1 1)0,9(17,  IwInK  anl;  kUiui  inru-Uiiiik  vi  nliat  liAil, 
diiriii);  Kiina  jcar^  been  cx(Hiidcd  undtrn  •■uncwlutt 
dill'-::rviit  i^ttPin,  and  a  !«■  careM  idnihiUtntlijn  of 
fundi,  lu  Ire]«iid,ii  limilar  poor-kw  liu  Utvl;;  b«n 
iiitrodaMd,  anil  U  likirl/  to  proro  d(  OFeat  Mrric*  W 
tbat  part  of  ttaa  mnirvi  In  SeoUajid,  none  Iiul  lim 
impateat  ot  my  is*d  piior  can  Ivffitll?  claim  roiitd  frotu 
Ibw  parial)  ftrndai  Uiow  am  Trrv  inadmtuaWl;  oupflUd. 
Th«  UumMiT  daiuM  atn  aRRUnlinvly,  lu  nuulj  ploM*^ 
in  a  Tvrj  miMraliJn  condition.  Tbe  cotire  outlay  far 
tiiD  ittMNdiial  t>oar  in  Swlland  waa  lately  ng  mgr*  than 

L.un,ooo. 

Tlia  pitianit  condition  of  aooicty  Ittrnaglunit  tha 
United  Kingdntn  DiiliililtB  Iha  ipcclanle  at  gtwM  aoil 
valuablo  ellbrta  at  imtrnnrammt  among  tha  mDM  m- 
liahCfflmd  claaHi.  Witliin  tha  Inu  («d  ]r«an,  tha  ntUiljr 

nl  iha  praHhaaVima  imintn-'-  '"- '  __ »  -    .  . 

utinntruatiiinaiiJwnlvrtaiuim 


CUAMBERS'S  INFORMATION  FOR  THE  I'EOPLE. 


departments  of  sooiely  where  formerly  nothing  of  the 
kind  wu  heard  of.  Tbe  estublinliRient  of  mechinies' 
institutions,  lyceoms,  exbitnliDUS  of  works  ot  art,  read- 
ing Bocieties,  and  other  meani  uf  intelleelunl  improne- 
meut,  Tomu  another  dlstlngnUhing  Tealure  of  modem 
BDciety.  At  tfas  suno  tim^,  groat  iiirsks  of  (he  people, 
for  lack  of  education,  and  from  oilier  imtortmial 
cumatances,  are  evidently  gravitating  into  a  lowei 
dilioa.  I'rom  tbeie  retksoua,  and  others  conuecled  with 
the  dovelopmeat  of  our  manufHCtiiring  and  eon 

"n  liavo  been  lallerJy 


mng. 


n  1337,  I 


»17,i 


crime  in  England.  The  hite  eslabliahmenl  of  an  in 
proved  priBODajntein  in  SeotUnd,  independently  of  olhi 
adTuilBgeouacircninaInn«it,i>  expected  togreatiylesaen 
the  number  of  oflVniderB  in  tiint  part  uf  tho  empire. 

England  is  now  provided  with  a  law  for  enforcing  tin 
regialralion  of  bii'tha,  marriages,  and  deaths ;  but  ii 
olEer  porta  of  tha  empire,  Scotland  iu  partieiUar,  thi 
kcnuigeineats  for  thaso  uaeful  objocla  are  very  imper- 
fect. During  the  year  ending  June  :10,  1039,  tlte  num- 
ber of  birtha^  mairiagev,  and  dealhe,  iu  Sngli  '  ---  * 
Wales  was  aa  follows  i—tiirllw,  430,^40;  - 
121,083;  deaths,  331,0VT.  Thim  enameratioi 
with  the  previous  year,  ahowa,  for  birlhi, 
of  BD,8'2R  ;  for  deaths,  a  decrease  of  4919 ;  and  for  mar- 
riages, an  increase  of  9lilK.  At  the  oolebralion  of  mar- 
riage, porliea  are  required  to  sign  their  names ;  sad  it 
appear*  that,  on  on  averag«j93  Iu  the  100  of  males,  and 
19  in  the  100  of  females,  aign  with  a  mark,  being  u 
able  to  write.  The  average  age  of  men  in  England 
marrjagti  ia  about  27  yean,  and  of  women,  25  yeorsand 
a  f«w  mouths. 

An  account  of  tlie  papubtion  of  the  empire  has  b^'si 
taken  at  iulenols  of  ten  years  froni  ISOl ;  and  the  ful 
lowing  tablo  will  show  the  gradual  increase  which  hai 
occurred  during  Ihase  intervals: — 


ra,7M  « 


The  increaac  of  population  has  been  greatest  ir 
mannfocluiing  diatricls,  where,  in  some  iDslaDC 
has  been  double  of  Ibose  which  are  merely  agricultural ; 
u,  ^or  eiample,  the  increase  in  the  manufacturing 
counties  of  England,  from  1S31  to  1>I3I,  was  'i'2  per 
cent.,  while  iu  the  agricultural  counties  it  was  only  10}. 


tbe  classes  beh 


belonging  to 

to  4000  lam 


ed,  that,  in  leSl,  there  wei 
to  the  ariMocraey  in  Great  Britain, 
milies ;  of  squires  and  gentlemen, 
who  are  Und-prnprielor*,  slockhalders,  moncy-lsndcra, 
Jtc,  from  50,000  to  BO.OOO  families  i  of  learned  profes- 
Mons — 3e,000  clergy  of  all  denominatioiia,  about  30,000 
lawyem,  and  £0,000  physicianti,  surgeoiu,  apothrcories 
—making  116,000  fBmilies,  with  half  as  many  more  de- 
{■endanls ;  of  farmiag  tenants,  about  S.'iO.DDO  families, 

shopkeepers,  and  genenl  traders,  W0,000  families ;  of 
■Ttiaana,  200,000  families  ;ofmaaufaciutersJD  all  lines, 
500,000  famJlieH;  of  labourers,  porters,  and  acrvanla, 
fiOO.OOO  families ;  and  ot  deatilutc  paupers,  saldtera,  &c., 
800,000  familla. 

The  etntement  of  the  aggregate  population  of  the 
British  ishindi,  alTards  no  idea  uf  ilie  force  which  is 
nclually  employed  in  agriculture  and  nmuufactures. 
Theeffeeti'e  labourers  (m»n)  are  estimated  to  amount 
Iu  no  more  thou  7,000,000,  whereas,  reckoning  the 
pavers  oiened  iu  productive  industry  by  animnls, 
mills.  stsain-ongiDes,  and  mechanism  of  various  kitid^ 
the  force  li  equal  to  the  strength  of  more  than  liMJr 
mUUani  of  working  men.  ^ 

An  Dstimale  was  formed  a  few  yea™  ago  of  the  total 
annual  ineome  of  all  cjnicea  uf  people  in  the  United 
Kingdooi,  with  the  a^grvgale  value  of  tbe  ortioles  of 
uas  and  Inanry  whiuh  each  produces,  and  from  this  wc 
mak*  tha  folloKnng  oatract : — 
IW 


VitueofagTioulUiidsaild^qrprDdBDe,  ■  L^U 
Minn  anil  mliiorali.  .  -  -  n> 
Inliuid  sod  ffUvlMU  Irvktc.  Ki 

Tolalof  piwlucean*  nroiieriTiinDuailJl  J.itnj 

An  estimate  voa  nlso  formed  cf  tbe  valne 
whole  property,  public  and  private,  which  la 
created  and  accumulated  by  tl]e  people  of  this  a 
and  which  Ibey  now  aetu^ly  possess.  This  valui 
the  sum  is  eapresaed  by  figures,  is  so  immcote, 

Valne  oT  pmluctivo  primle  ponptrty,       -        LSXif 

...     public  piupaly  or  all  klndi.      •  UJM 

TuUl  public  BDd  prlkate  propvtv,  -        -        L.3JSJtJ 

Tho  wealth  of  the  empire  it  diatiibuted  in  ' 

lowing  proporliona  between  the  three  coBntrisa: 

PnduoUni  prinls   T'npit-durtiT* 


.    .      .         pdnUe  prvporl;. 


t^ 


Tlie  proportion  which  these  valuae  bear  lo  ihi 


d  nnprw 


but  iu  England  (taking  produeU 

pi-Operty  together)  tho  r»^o  is  L.1U6   .      ^ 

in  Scotland,  L.IGO  ;  and  in  Iralaud,  LM. 

Tiis  following  is  the  Utest  sUlemeu  of  the 
and  popnbUon  of  the  empire  ; — 

PupuloUai.  H< 

BrlUnh  latandii.  -  M,t;i.;Ml 

Drittih  djfftndauicm  fn  Kuxvpc.      -        ttS.'JIU' 


XaM  IndJsB  Empire, 


This  table  •(hows  tliat  Urit 


British  islouda. 


Tbe  question  is  often  sated.  Will  this  ainguUr 
way*  remain  oa  prosperous,  and  as  much  sopa 
the  other  nations  of  tbe  world,  as  they  now  arc  I 
lOt  their  fikT-oxleuded  empire,  made  up  of  so 
lilfereut  elements,  one  day  crumble  in  pieces  I 
lot  their  unrivaled  maimfacluring  skill  be  tn 
lurpawed,  and  driven  from  the  market ! — thnr} 
UD  which  their  grandeur  is  founded,  be  given  10  a 
'  their  immense  national  wealth  disiifaMd  I 
lip  with  more  skilful  eompetilon  I  W«  n 
his  question  by  simply  asking  aiiiilTiw  Oi 
does  the  superiority  of  Britain  rest  I  It  U  DOl  < 
large  nmues  or  her  powerful  fleela.  Thesc^  ttt 
hey  arc,  are  supported  and  crealod  by  hia  iwa 
>nd  do  by  no  nwaiu  give  birth  Iu  Iben.  It  la  b 
mirable  form  of  government,  the  stability  Cif  IM 
utious  and  usages,  which  admit  of  nfiwn  w 
iproar  or  revolution,  the  equality  of  her  lawis*! 
antages  of  her  insular  Bitualian,  and.  abova  a) 
Rental  energy,  desire  for  rational  coniforta,  atM 
duetry,  and  perseverance  of  h«r  people,  •rbiah 
~"  ■""  "er  pruHfQl  superiority.  Whalevern 
otlempla  lo  thwart  her  advonee,  or  t 
mpravemeuls  wliieh  are  required  ia  i 
eat  departments  of  bar  aOWin,  it  is  our  behef  tb 
BHiiah  empire  will  overcome  all  impedimeoU  i 


■:i:c 


whieh  has  alrMd} 


IV  CHAMBERS'S 

ORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


New  Ann  Tupiiiivbd  Skkiiw. 


DEaCRlPTION   OF   ENGLAND. 


L 


!"#Sr 


;,  llu>i,  oi-i  UliOul,  TMt  J 


uiulictura  I  Lando 


iliT  rMiDi  m~:  nI  3  i-liiia  iif  iiD)>Ta«MlRiib(l  ■■■Itb  apil  I 

tiiv  Mntint 

flnicliin'l  i*  sitiintcrl  tiet.WFm  '>li'  £i,J  :s*  JS'  ii< 


IV  Din  n,'ill>  .&. 


ID  tS  EugUod,  Invlurive  of  WDlfs, 

"■■     "■  f  fifio^pal  divniOD  of  ihe 

d  pQUtiEoQj'  the  chief  diMi- 

ftociallVi 
'Iwjf  Ii»»"  ""fiT  ilone 
'— Minn  which  hM 
.  w  countn'  whal 
Till  Ubuid  wTwhleh 
^  ,  uu,  bvrolMtiid  from 
\ij  I  iL>B  of  iDiaaieiit  brradih 
iruil;  imn-rtain  in  iManxiition. 
faiiDfvrktiln  difficotl):  iu  tlia  mij  of  ui 
PImwI  in  A  mndiutn  UtitDda,  il  i*  fur- 
b)  till!  ■niruwndinjt  unui  frmri  Ibim  tx- 
if  knt,  Dild,  and  ■ridlt)',  to  which  sonlinantij 
kAiw  Ml  h"lh  \iigtirr  uid  lowpr  i>h>JI«I«  m«  uftcn 
HmL  WbllA  Ihar*  kit  wnui  diatrieu,  ehiefl]'  In  llin 
liawl  owlk,  Is  «hieh  kn  unnrsn  imrfoea  nnnJla. 

Erfliiillrj  maj  bo  scotiAlly  iaetUmi  w  irf  a  level 
-^ll,m^  iJn^PI^..  AbDUl  IITII7  vhtTB,  the  tye 
i^OMH  lfc>  niiWnMi  nf  n  loag-HMOling  eulblMion, 
Bi^  Mm-Mdi  ir^  n1'n'l[.1.^,  >urmiii<li<>l  hj  w*lt- 


■  ■!  tiling". 


|gp 


trokohire  |4  the  dait '  I  ' 
Imu  bstn  varioudj^  m(  I T 1 1 
lailm ;  it  has  kbu  bfn  ■  ■'■ 
wIiichiinljAboulk  limitli  |.»i 

Knghnd  ii  diviilnl  uitu  Ij 

■■'-'-  *  -     EujtlKHl  P««fir 
iwji  lufty  ha  tlioi 

.1  an*.  1 

AV>rfAmi  fVwifv'.— Hiiili.iiil.liirr.  Li^.i:.-.U:«liln%  SUf. 
forilKhlK^  fjoUinjthiumhiM,  and  Dtrhfabii*.  £Uitont 
nniiiM(4— Ewax,  SuKiUe,  narfulk,  utd  LinaolnahlMu 
flmiliirit  tonfariHir  on  tFiilr*— MflRuiDutb,  Itsrcford- 
ibin,  Siiropalilrc,  and  ChoihLn.  Nerlhsm  Ommllet— 
Lni)eaHbli»,  W«nint«c1and,  Cuinbarlaui),  York,  Dur- 
hkm,  Kai  NurthamberUiid.  VOuMiti  ta  .VMifA  tfotn — 
GUmorganahire,  Brc«kQD«luhiiv,  Cacrnuutiiciuhln, 
I'smhrokmhini,  CardiguiihirF^  and  lUdMinihiM,  Cbw»> 
lie*  in  Netth  Wales — Montgomeryidiicet  HeriwtMb- 
ahlre,  Fltniehire,  Denbi^uhire,  Ca(>niarTani^ir(>,  %ni 
Anglesca.  The  capiUl  dly  is  LuNiKiN,  whioh  is  alao 
lh«  metrcpolis  of  the  United  Kiagdma.  Tlie  WUII- 
lies  arc  cobdivided  inlo  hnadmle,  wapcntkltvn,  ISfb* 
inft*,  &e^  Ihe  wbols  coiitiining  3£  dtlea  (Inolualve  of 
London),  and  172  boToaeh*.  Foi'  ecolnioaticul  pur- 
ptjMa,  the  counb7  U  divided  into  11,077  parUiae;  A« 
[argoit  DUDib«r  in  any  eDUoty  being  47S,  in  Sunwntt- 
■h  irr,  and  thu  uniilliisl  33,  in  thn  oatmtj  of  WoaUuDTih 

Owinsc  to  tha  llinitml  axtent  and  iniulu  pouiioa  of 
Kngluin,  il  eoDtaina  uo  riven  oomparablr  in  ma^ni- 
'    liiuM  of  vuioiu  ai>Htinanl»l  eouatriM.    Tliisni 


CHAHBERffB  INFORUATION  FOR  THE  FBOFIX. 


TfattOM,  Had«»,  Hnmbcor,  and  Tjne,  on  t 
af  tba  Uuid,  and  the  Hene;  uid  SoT^rii 
Ode.  Th«  Trent,  Ome,  Tcm,  Wo»r,  t-oe, 
DirwMil,  u«  minor,  hat  not  mconwdsi^ibli 
ddM  whinh  tbsra  an  nuuj  of  infet^or  importanee. 
Engluid  ooiAiM  BO  kot*  l*lu>j  bnt  those  o[  Coio- 
N^'""*,  Wcabnonhnd,  ud  liiaeMlltrc,  Uioagh  of 
null  liie,  an  celebrated  for  tin  pktireEque  scener)- 
b;  whioh  thej  are  ■nrroiindad. 

Wain  and  tfas  mrt  aids  of  Kaf^nd  geaerallj 
aoDDtainona.  TlieehiefransMirfBW"'-'"'''"''''- 
I  III  lliiiiiliiiiiniilaMiiil  iindiii  Tliiiinliia 
I^ngt,  itnteliing  from  SonMnstdun 


AfOD,  and 


lato  CoiBVall,  and  U 


icnstdun  through  Devon, 
dng  whbwt  promontorjr  of 


t^  Land's  End;  the  Ceaibritm  Rang*,  uxloDiiing  from 
tha  Bristol  Chaonel  thm^h  Walea;  ahd  the  Norihent 
or  Ominan  Rang*,  atratehing  fromDerbjBhire,  tliiough 
Comberlaiid,  and  paaing  into  Sootlaad.  None  of  iha 
ladMdnal  hilk  exceed  3000  feet  in  bughi,  except  >  few 
m  Wiles ;  the  highaat  being  Snowdon  in  Ckero&rvon- 
shlre  (3i71  feet).  i   i:::  j'  >'i  1  (astern  [iirts  of 

En^and  (soath  of  \  ,  : . -u^i^  ,,  uir  rt- Li's  a  few  ill-ite- 

nadtlMalUtadsuf  IUUUR'<^U     Bt^sMca  SaMcdon,  tbo 


rt  pdnti  in  tht  DL'vriaii^mnGi 
1000  to  tSOO  fbet  in  bdfht. 


Tha  aniAoa  of  Englaad  infl1"^*s  ai^Hdi'ieoi 
lAola  oztsnt  of  tike  aariea  of  n>      ,  (r 
«U<A  aM  iMud  En  tlM  nu        •-  nu  —• 

vast,  to  tlM  lowMt  «[  (hft  .M         ....     .  . 

M*wal  dirtriels  in  tha  aooth-a  -taiv_ 

to  tbMM  diriuont  being  &nnd  L.  _ek~.u..^  in  prov— ^ 

isK  from  the  irast  and  noith  tovarda  the  eait  audeouth. 

In  Cornwall  and  Devonfhire,  emineDGi^s  of  jcanite, 
•arpentine,  and  felspar  poiphjry,  occur,  wbilo  lltu 
alopee  resting  on  them  are  composed  of  diScrcat  kinds 
ofalflte.  Thegraniteof  Ihigdistricl  iseilonaivelyiaed 
tor  paving  in  London,  thoagh  considered  less  hard  and 
durable  than  that  brought  from  ScotlaniL  The  Welsh 
mountains  are  composed  chiefly  of  TaHelies  of  slate, 
with  some  intermixture  of  volFsnic  rocks,  aa  basalt  and 
trap;  while  arich  coal-field,  one  hundred:  mile*  in  length 
and  from  five  to  tea  in  breadth,  rests  upon  their  southern 
Torge,  extending  from  Glamorgan  into  I 'embrokeshire, 
being  the  Urgest  coal-lield  in  Great  llnUtin.  The 
northern  range  of  mountains  is  also  cbic  )ly  composed  ot 
■lata  rocks,  Uiere  being  oaty  oue  monntaiu  of  gniiite 
near  Shap  in  Westmoreland. 

Between  these  ranges  ot  moonbuns  and  a  line  drawn 
bom  Eimoath  through  Bath,  Glouoeslcr,  Leicester, 
Nottingham,  and  Tadoaster,  to  Stockton-upoa-Teeo,  the 
Burfaoe  is  oompoaed  of  the  lower  eecomliu-y  islrata,  in- 
chiding  rich  beds  of  coal,  the  existence  i  >f  >rliicli  in  thin 
ritualion  is  mainly  what  has  enabled  J^iiglsiid  to  btt- 
come  Uw  first  mauafaeluring  country  m  tiiu  world. 
The  eaatem  parts  of  the  counties  of  Durham  and  Nor- 
thumberland, from  the  Tees  northward  to  Uerwick, 
form  a  pecnUarly  l^lnable  coal-field,  of  numerou*  lH.-ds, 
from  which  tbaKetropolia  and  other  dliiH  in  the  east 
of  England  and  elsewhere  are  luppliad  with  this  im- 
portant mineral.  Another  coal-fldd  ot  great  valoe, 
and  tliat  upon  whieh  the  manufactures  of  Manebester 
depend,  extends  northwards  from  HacdeiAeld  to  Old- 
bam,  and  dience  westwards  to  PresCOt  near  LiTCrpool. 
A  coal-fletd  near  Wolfe rbampton,  In  Staffordshire,  is 
the  most  valuable  in  the  centre  of  England:  upon  it 
■        ta  of  Bir- 


limestone,  green  sand  i  ilay,  and  finally  «M 

Connected  with  the  red  great  strata  of  kcIm 

are  foOtid ';  these  are  t.  'ely  dug  in  Cheahiro  3 

Worcestershire '"r  domh».u     <e.     Lias,  whieh  eatn 

m  Lvme  in        -wl^bire  »  Wliiiby  in  ¥ni^Aii%j 

hie  I  I  r*r       ■   rbieh  it  prastota  (f  ■ 

■aorian  nptilea.    Bed*  of  Mlits  limealM^^ 

•-> !  'rom  tbc  smnll  egg-like  globules  cootaiiwd  in  I 

cover  ho  southern  pnrt  of  GloDCesteishirc.and  a  I 
part  o.  Oxfordshire,  Northamptonihire,  Ruthuidi 
and  the  eaatem  ^do  of  Lincolnsliire.  The  I'oif 
Btotie,  so  extensively  used  for  building,  and  wlw 
quarried  in  the  Isle  of  Portland,  belongs  to  this  i 
of  rocks.  The  chalk  exists  every  where  l»  the  K 
east  ot  a  line  eotomencing  ni       '.      -     - 


folk. 


coast,  and  posaiog  tbriiugh  Wills,  Barks, 
and  Eu  on  to  Flamborongb  Head--«>xceiili» 
and  Kent,  where  it  lias  been  carried  off 


pcnd  the  eatensive  metallis 


To  the  east  of  the  line  drawn  from  Exmouth  to  Bath, 
and  tbeoce  by  Gloucester,  Leioesler,  anil  Tadcasler,  to 
StaoktOD-apan-Teea,  we  find  the  oppar  rocks  of  the 
asoondarj  fonnation,  presenting  a  snccceuon  red 
MiidsUna  and  red  marl,  liaa  UnMstone  aiid  day,  ootilie 
191 


denudation,  exposing  a  peculiar  fornutii 

tBialdtn,  and  in  the  bed  of  the  Thames  near 

and  one  or  two  other  places,  where  (srtiaiy  bed! 

±.1  >re,  containing  about  three  parts  metal  a 
foor.  I  found  iu  thick  veins  or  vertical  beds  in  ' 
g  of  Cornwall,  where  it  lias  been  wrought  ri 

b^../.><  (he  conquest  of  the  country  by  thi 
Copper-ore  ia  also  found  extensively  In  th 
generally  in  continuation  of  veins,  which.  In  the  iq; 
ports,  have  been  composed  ot  tin-ore  ;  aftd  in  iMl 
ot  the  same  veiiu,  tea^  line,  and  sniimooy  are  fiin 
A  mountain  of  copper-ore,  named  Pary*  Moud 
has  long  been  wrought  in  the  Isle  of  AngliMs 
is  I        supposed  to   be   nearly  exhauslrd.     Neal 

mce  to  coal,  as  a  mineral  product,  is  iron,  ■! 
-.»:nsive)y  diffuiied  throughout  En^uid,  th« 

wrought  iu  the  neighbuurbood  of  coal, on. 
Cw,«.k«  of  that  fuel  being  required  for  ameltios  it- 
18S9,  (bis  valoable  metal  waa  produced  in  Sona  4 
to  the  amount  of  SaO.QOD  tons.  The  chief  oth* 
tricts  where  it  is  wrought  are  Slanbrdshire,  Wore* 
eiiire,  and  Yorkibire  ;  the  entire  produce  in  that  )l 
being  a  miUitrn  of  tons.     In  an  account  of  the  mini 

firodnetions  of  England,  it  would  bo  improper  to  on 
ook  its  day,  so  extensively  used  in  the  nunufaetnn 
pottery  (chiefly  in  SlaS'ardsbire),aDd  in  making  iMi 
and  tiles  for  building. 

The  great  south-east  division  of  Kngland,  ii 
comparatively  level  nurface  prevails,  exhibi 
wliich  is  cither  chiefly  chalky,  or  chiefly  clayBf, 
cording  to  the  character  of  the  sobatiatuin.  lil 
spersed  are  a  few  sandy  tracts,  of  wliich  llagsbot  T 
may  he  cited  aa  ao  example.  In  Uis  mouDtainoa 
tricts,  the  usual  light  soil  reHulling  from  tbo  eariy  a 
prevails,  excepting  where,  in  the  north,  then  ha*] 
a  peaty  admixture.  Upon  the  whole,  Engla'id  Hf 
said  to  posnetis  a  large  proportion  of  gooJaud  pni 

tivB  soiL    Probably  not  above  one-ninth  of  " 

surface  (Wales  being  included)  is  nnsai 
tillage. 

Tiie  olimslfl  of  England  is,  as  almdy 
rcmnrknblo  for  its  exemption  trom  cxUn 
aod  oold.  It  displays  an  uncommon  smoui 
tion  within  a  narrow  raoge.  Tlio  average  t 
in  winter  is  about  42°  of  rahrenheit  ;  iu  si 
daytempcratureiagenerallyabuutlj^*.  llisonlji 
occasions  that  tbo  thenHOcler  rcaclua  00*, . 
belowSO' ■-■■---.      .... 


ftlitnattt  nf  ftighMiii  Is  iiMira  hnmjil  than  is 
tisental  connttis*  of  wniUr  laiitudo.    Be 
to  cold  and  damp,  it  is  mora  favourable  to 
than  to  the  ripening  of  vegelalilo  prodoei 
certainly  not  untavoumble  to  eilber  the 
moral  condition  of  llie  people.    Perhaps  evim  il 
certainty  has  been  the  subjwtt  of  too  much  gi 
Un  this  point  we  may  adduce  the  aliesrfol  u 
Chartee  II.,  as  recorded  by  Sir  William  TtBipl«.4 
most  needs,"  says  Sir  Willi     ,  ■■  add  one  lUa    ~ 
in  faToni  irf  oar  climate,  i     ji  1  hsaid  Iha  k 


1^ 


-o  utt  Miuurtaihlo  far 
n,  nM  iriAl  atroijllh. 

,  ii*o  improved  \/y  the 

A  tl  AiBfett  aod  EturbBTf-  Thnro  ore  axecl- 
laaf  bMbtbtopuiil  nuU-uiltbs  m;  in  »1m 

I  in  |MniB  nniilaiiiii,  &nd  eiletuui'dy  iwiuwl. 

■-if  Iba  ■■  III  III  wild  uumaU,  u  i)i«  wair,  boar, 
~    ~     ~  latiair  cxtiiict;  anil  nt)»n,  M  ih*  r*' ~ 
rs  *«n  nr*.     Tt>*  h&m,  |>*rlriilE«, 
Itei  "Ri''  ipnn  KBltniUii,  gniuN  Inlng 
L  udA  (hut  ia  natU  ainouiit,  lu  loma  ml  ti>e 
"     I    0(   till 

■  Eojitanil.  Ttw  DlgbUugtln  «  Mid  Is  b*  nvt 
""  *  uM^i  Uuo  Yorkikiri.-.  T}i*  riTvm  pM- 
,  ,wndi,  Alt.  will  lbs  kdjuMM  «a«  atieaad 
L  iMeL«vJ,  pjJf,  piTclnrd,  koil  ottm  adlbia 


CHABlBERfirS  INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PBOFI£. 


MB«iltk»^  to  SM  the  spkndtd  Mfl  of  England  tunrnd  to 
ntftdlaoooont.  * 

# 

THB  rmoriii    tttitti  cbabactbb. 

The  oonititnent  elenmite  of  the  English  popuUtion 
are  to  be  traeed  in  the  histoiy  of  the  conntiy.  The 
Unt  inhabitants  weie  BtiUmM,  probably  a  mixed  Celtic 
xaee^  and  who,  dniing  the  time  of  the  possession  of  the 
eonntrj  bjr  Uie  Ronmns,  must  hare  beoome  sli^itlj 
diaiwed  bjr  the  admiztore  of  that  nee.  Upon  a  seat- 
traed  popiuation  of  Romanised  Britons  came  the  great 
wave  of  the  Saxon  invasion,  in  the  fifth  and  sixth  een- 
tnzks.  The  Britons  are  nsoallj  said  to  have  been 
driven  to  the  west;  hot  probablv  this  was  not  so  mneh 
the  case  as  has  beoDi  generally  tiionghty  for  it  is  rarely 
that  any  invasion  expels  the  mass  <s  a  peo^  from  tiie 
noond  they  have  loqg  ocenmed.  After  this,  however^ 
tile  predominant  element  ot  English  society  was  nn- 
dMibtedly  Saxon,  the  Norman  oonqnest  only  adding  to 
It  a  FreiMh  aristom^,  which  littto  affected  the  g^wt 
bulk  of  the  popolation.  The  Rnglirii,  therefbrcL  exda- 
she  of  the  Welsh,  who  are  Britons  almost  vnebaaged, 
may  be  regarded  as  in  the  main  a  Tentonie  peof^  an 
admixture  of  British  or  Celtic  entering  into  the  com- 
position  always  in  less  and  less  measure  as  we  advance 
from  Wales  towards  the  eastern  coasts,  where  the 
people  are  nearly  pure  Saxon. 

Accordinff  to  an  acute  writer,  ^jthe  Saxon  English- 
man is  distmguished  from  4>ther  races  b  v  a  stature 
rather  low,  owing  chiefly  to  the  neck  and  limbs  beinc 
short,  hj  the  tnuk  and  vital  svstem  beinff  lam,  and 
the  cooqplexion,iride8,*  and  hair  light ;  and  by  the  fkce 
being  broad,  the  forehead  large,  and  the  upper  and 
back  part  of  the  head  round,  aim  rather  smatf.  In  his 
walk,  the  Englishman  [understanding  by  this  name  the 
Saxon  Englishman]  rolls^  as  it  were,  on  his  centre. 
This  is  caused  by  the  breadth  of  the  trunk,  and  the 
comparative  weakness  of  the  limbs.  The  broader 
muscles,  therefore,  of  the  former,  aid  progpression  by  a 
sort  of  rolling  motion,  throwing  forward  nrst  one  side 
and  then  another.  «  •  *  The  mental  facalties  of 
the  Englishman  are  not  at»8olutely  of  the  highest  order ; 
hut  the  absence  of  passion  gives  them  relatively  a  great 
increase,  and  leaves  a  mental  character  equally  re- 
markable for  its  simplicity  and  its  practical  worth.  The 
most  striking  of  those  points  in  English  character, 
which  may  l^  called  fundamental,  are  cool  observaiion, 
unparalleled  tingle-mindedness,  and  paHerU  pertever- 
ance.    This  character  is  remarkably  homogeneous. 

The  cool  obeervation  of  the  Englishman  is  the  foun- 
dation of  some  other  subordinate,  but  yet  important 
points  in  his  character.  One  of  the  most  remarkable 
of  these,  is  that  real  curiosity,  but  absence  of  wonder, 
which  makes  the  nil  admirari  a  maxim  of  English  so- 
ciety. It  is  greatly  associated,  also,  with  that  reserve 
for  which  the  English  are  not  less  remarkable. 

The  single-mindedness  of  the  Englishman  is  the 
foundation  of  that  sincerity  and  bluntness,  which  are 
perhaps  his  chief  characteristics ;  which  fit  him  so  well 
for  the  business  of  life,  and  on  which  his  commercial 
character  depends  ;  which  make  him  hate  (if  he  can 
hate  any  thing)  all  crookedness  of  procedure,  and 
which  alann  him  even  at  the  insincerities  and  com- 
pliances of  politeness. 

The  perseverance  of  the  Englishman  is  the  founda- 
tion of  that  habitude  which  guides  so  many  of  his  own 
actions,  and  that  custom  in  which  he  participates  with 
all  his  neighbours.  It  is  this  which  makes  universal 
cant,  as  itnas  been  profanely  termcd,+  not  reasoning, 
the  basis  of  his  monris  ;  and  precedent,  not  justice,  the 
basis  of  his  jurisprudence.  But  it  is  tliis  also  which, 
when  his  rights  are  outraged,  produces  that  grumbling 
which,  when  distinctly  heard,  eflTectually  protects  them ; 
and  it  is  this  which  creates  that  public  spirit,  to  which, 

*  JPlunl  of  irk,  the  coloured  part  of  the  eye,  funoanding  the 
pupO. 

f  Tbu  w<nd  must  not  here  be  underttood  as  Impb'ing  bypo- 
criqr,  of  which  the  Saxon  tcmperanusit  is  very  innoceat. 

196 


lie  flasawMi  al  M 
conntiTmen,  and  kdi  ha  pcnhla  wrtfl  te 

•stonisn  even  the  <  ndfatei 

Now,  a  littie  r«  -  show,  tiirt  «r  «h»  tti 

fundamental  qn  ^        m  mentio— d^  the  If 

seemiitt  may  eiM^.  ^ >  amSaUe  tfna  llie  4i 

result  dudl  be  uMAd.  Te  a  itnamn  of-  dUhNHi 
constmcted  mind,  tlie  cold  obem  f  aUuB,  — d,  fai  ^pA 
cnhuf,  the  slowness  and  I'seuf  I  uwhJBh  must 
it,  may  seem  unsociabte;  YnoX  tiiey  ave 
from  Budi  a  constmetMNi  of  mindy  aad  tiisgr 
not  pride,  but  thai  reject  fn  his  Ibslfaws  which 
possssBor  thinks  them  entitled  to^  aad  wiSdi  lie 
not  vidale  in  others.  The  dignlliy,  tbcnfors^ 
this  case  the  Englishman  ibslk  Is  not  kmOmt, 
is  as  rarelty  insolent  to  tfaoae  vno  are  bsiow,  as'i 
those  who  are  above  him. 

In  regard  to  the  abeenee  of  passion  fiwm  the 
mind,  it  is  this  which  frriiMs  one  to  be 
with  music,  to  laugh  aft  comedy,  to  cry  aft 
show  any  qrmptom  of  Joy  or  aontiiw  i^  the 
real  life ;  whicfa  has  no  acJBurato  ootioii  of 
wretchedness,  and  cannot  attach  aiqr  aort  of 
to  the  word  eostacy ;  andwhidi,te  allllMae 
has  a  perfect  peroration  of  whatever  is 
Hence  it  is,  that  m  his  domaotie,  Ui 
public  relations^  it  is  periuqpa  ~ 
that  guides  the  conduct  of  an  ~ 


i^mLu 


<me  question  the  moral  mndett  wlikb  this 
ma^  attain,  let  bun  caU  to  Btind  tiw 
which,  just  before  the  victoiy  of  Tnilidsar» 
bv  Nelson  in  the  shnple  and  anblima 
his  fleet— ^  England  expeels  eveij  nan  to  do  Mb  I 
Whidi  is  the  histance  thai  eqnak  tUs 
fotged  records  of  Boman  flkiryt 
excsasof  haired  is  as  little  aaowa  to 
as  eassss  of  love ;  and  revenue  Is  abhoiiwH 
ture.    Even  in  the  pngilistie  eonbai  lie 
with  his  antagonist  before  he  begins;  he 
strike  him  when  he  is  down ;  and,  whether 
or  victor,  he  leaves  his  antagonist  neither 
nor  triumphant. 

The  extraordinary  value  of  such  a  cfaaiaetsr  ii  ^ 
vious  enough.    British  liberty  and  British 
are  its  results:  neither  the  Scottish  nor  Irish 
would  have  attained  them."* 

In  this  sketch,  though  clever  and  forcible, 
spicuous  features  of  the  social  character  of  the 
are  overlooked.    The  domesticity  of  the 
mode  of  life  is  ver^  remarkable,  when  taken 
trast  with  tho  loungmg,  open-air  existence  cf  < 
tal  nations.  The  Englishman  delights  in  his 
spends  much  of  his  time  in  it-— a  result  to 
nature  of  the  climate  undoubtedly  oonftribntsa*. 
appreciates  his  home  very  highly,  ealla  his  bcaa 
castle,  and  prides  himself  on  its  being  inviolabla 
by  the  emissaries  of  the  law.    The 
family,  his  wife,  his  sons  and  daughters^ 
along  by  him  in  most  of  his  recreations  aiMl 
The  conjugal  tie  is  deemed  peculiarly  saersd,! 
that  the  cSightest  dishonour  offisred  to  it  is 
resented.    It  cannot  be  said,  however,  thai  the 
tions  of  kindred  are  much  recognised  in  Eii|^hHit| 
yond  the  nearest  class  of  relations. 

The  strong  sense  of  rectitude  whidi 
Englishman  is  conspicuous  in  his  love  of  wfaai 
fair  plaiff  which  he  carries  even  into  these 
amusements,  boxing,  cock-fiehting,  dog-figfatinC| 
love  of  which  (now  fiut  declming)  forms  oneefll 
amiable  traits  of  the  national  character.    His ' 
lence  shines  in  the  libendity  of  the  legal 
the  poor,  and  in  the  numberless  charitable 
of  aU  kinds  which  are  supported  in  the  cmuitiy, 
as  in  the  readiness  which  the  nation  haa 
pUyed  to  hold  out  a  hand  of  snoconr  to  < 
quarters  of  the  worid.  Cleanliness  of  pstaoft; 
hold,  snd  a  love  of  comfort  both  to  Imaaihi^ 


e  BtaidEwoodIi 


memben  Ms 


.  il  WTH  airffrUl^f.!  (*iil   t 


i 


II  IhB  r<il<>  III  ntadalii; 


m  MniiiUraiilii  iiml  VMtMinn* 


draLli*  nui  -/ 
111  rsnU  iliu'. 


<.UJi...^.O. 

■     .LU^..    tlV.I.tf   tl.. 

"       1     Lai' 

-      ii^,j!Ta 

-      i3.m.Mo 

TUtr  ill  nluch  tlila 

.T«    Dili     lo.    Il>» 

t.-.La,.,  11^, 

''KiiDcmif  our  po- 
kIh.i.  wu  Duiiaider 

"I*™.  "  - 

ueiuU  »  llioowoil 

Uit  tiiD  fuin,  I'Tiiiiinliiin  liu 

T  nijrjjfil  liii-  liiri J- 1  •■»!■.  •  high 

1  fbt  It  i*  quKv  InnapiioMibla  tli«t, 

— MB,  m  amnj  nsw  moBllM  euuld 

I  llinv  lucl  bwD,  wbat  earUlnly 

tar^  and  gincml  delerianlioii 

It  u  111  bo  nmarliH,  lioimrcr, 

■0  ■  piol  (Nttmit  Trnin  Ircluiil  li«) 

'-lU  iwaut]'  yon,  atul  that  enm- 

I  oootlnue  in  KiiEtjuiil  to  li*r  iii 

111  thai  sUeh  Utuj  Miowcd  in 

flr  tnkeu  [iWa  iu 
!UouUl»il  hj  Mr 


tHliM  ton  ■>!- 
•UllnUlvhMlis 


>,  wu  En  lAiuluQ 


1  LmiIi  79i  iuv)  ^  Urarfaol 


Mil)  d«Bt]u  In  t(l.>  -iiiiriti,-.,  „(■  ll.w.r.I    r>#mn, 

wi'l  Wilr.i,  Buiio  W»lt-,  )-     .  ...  .  ii.l--i-cmt. 

vn&ri  but  Id  Lsediasi  <  irim-- 

IngHlBtritMafSt&flhnl-lKi  •  >ti  tV 

(iHiliy  tnwioiili  cif  Lilii'<ii:.  '     'i.miiui^ 

ilmiBllini,  llm  nuinlwr  wm  .,•!,  ni-m^:  lonn,  i»  a  jcmll 
IholI  iii«T»piUr]'  in  lliu  Muiiiiiiv  >:uuJ'Uiii  iil  t}u  l{^ii){- 
!l«li  iiiiiiulatlnn,  \tUiT  (ladirEliiiit  tlic  diunuc*  of  In- 
fuisy,  ttia  tiiiwl  TaIaI  ninlailivf.  tu  England  arc  Miuump- 

liudia,  nlbjnn  %a  ihs  (JioT«  de<3aotJOO,  ue  ucribird  U 
ibe  tlnrt  Dt  diHM  dianwu. 


Tlrii  nftlural  wemny  of  Etigland  ■■  ganarally  of  & 
plmtKliiji  rathrr  tlian  a  grsuil  or  [iiatunwiua  ohsnotar ; 
•ffl  tbrrf  ani  anma  pvrtiiiwi  of  tho  cuuirtry  wlijtli  an 
mataUeml  atttaMivH  ou  acDuUnt  ol  lliair  irHaAnlio 
beauty.    Wo  aball  uatlce  tlm  ohiaf  ut  thaaa. 

Tht  CurailtlanJ  Lakf  Sitntrf — Tho  aoulb-woat  |«rt 
of  Uie  eonnir  of  Cutnbuland  and  tho  oxvlIt-wMt  p«rt 
o/  Wmlmarcland,  eomprohmd  a  nnge  of  latly  fiMini- 
MinB— Skiiliiaw,  SaaJlvbaok,  Ilvlrollfu,  and  aoma 
etilitra  ef  imrnvl.T  Ima  nnU^ — aniidal  which  He  tha 
lakBH  fur  itlinli  lhi>  Owuici  of  KiiKland  haa  long  b«eii 
ealbbnlwil.  Tha  ItrgaM  of  theaa  arv  UlUwator,  Thirl- 
muro,  DDrirenlwaWr,  and  BaattcnUiwaile  ;  but  aome  of 
Icnaixe,  ma  OatUrmcro,  CmDunotkirtter,  Lw^diwateT, 
Enncrdale,  Wasiwilcr,  »od  Deroclt-lakK,  ara  Kareolj 
Job  adnind.  Tho  vales  or  iiuH*  aniiiripl  Uie  hilla 
iikvniM  ODDtiun  much  brautiful  Mntnurji  (if  a  wild  eho- 
notrr,  alUiDugh  prrbtps  Unlj^  travtimxl  b;  a  brawling 

TliB  oumlilnaUnn  of  alpine  vildnooi  and  ffrandanr, 
with  Ilia  Bult  ■ataur}'  which  iDpoaca  In  elothiMl  slopo 
anJ  lniiTr>T-hkn  lukn  at  the  boUnfna  of  tho  hillt,  la 
wlibl  giTia  iho  CmnberUoil  aocnni?  Iu  prineiiwl 
flluunu.    VUawatBti  wkkh  uMtbia  iala  Waatnantlao^ 


cHAXBEBn  mroKtsA'noas  rott  vat  reonX 

«  a»  «•  iB  I  «fe«M  »  MA  inOi  to  «M  •iwi  VUlltf -' 

. r  iMfc^  tn  «MM  plM«  MtwEvttM  »  Mi 

.  iittMiaf  ftHMU«Me^d»TWtw«MHiigri 
noogh  Mow  dM  dmabf  1Mb  hi*  ■■  op 
i>Mialn(a.3Mlabma^  wiUlta  ft 
HwfndMraztnmHTtftHiMddMMMn^fl 
vUdi  flow*  ^iH«  Ob  boHon  ftfMi  kidr  M 
aillad«llMSMo^Watw,": "^    "    ' 


pMMgM  And  mnuMfaoi  n 

Ijl  t>m1i1ii  at  tba  iHilinwi  v  >«■«  lam  ma 

nurath  ot  tbe  ono,  tta  ^Mtn  MmBvMfi 
Hiagnlar  impradon  c]f  nordtv  v>d  ddi^  aw 
I  i)f  tgtin  tbe  MiCMt  «f  the  di^U^  vorid. 


„, ,  "TSb 

ttfMMgtaDOih  mpwdliif  within  mn  uavliithMtra 
of  ■iiWIiililiw,  ndn;  bdt  ant  yat,  bnAw  loto  vaaj 
lH*Htie«hum;  na  pMdpioM  wMsB  «v«riMi«  tbe 
wAtatf  hrt  •(•  n>«id  at  MOM  dWaiiM ;  ud  dM  (£in«i 
■wdliafcwnilj  wrfmiMW,  orrink  IntopMB  pMtoral 
■MgilH  AabeMBof  AehkalBipaltadbrMTaml 
anu'Wi'wtltwMdad  iiiMidi.' 

-  ipMWMl  Ifci  fMMi,  that  c]f  Bomwdala  U  tba  tnoat 
i«*Hkab»Y  ft  b  a  sanow  duMB  opening  from  Ibe 
«Mta«ar  A*  HiplillhMtMwldditraminatM  Uwei- 
|MM  Ol  Pweul»atai,ana  tiwwaed  b;  thaTdhemanl 

tta  pM«  kadttaebea  nemii^  called  Outh-aac 
wM  aMaeeMTUbfaModnKatttafcot;  anl  ^po- 
rita  fat  Ckatle-Cng  ia  Uw  Bsw^tMi^  a  hniB  imm  oT 
n^  wbldi  haa  apparmtly  fiUIen  flrom  tlw  nrfghbonr- 
i»|>  eliflit,  and  roond  whnaa  bus  the  road  is  nude  tc 
wind.  It  U  eorapnted  that  this  enDrmoua  boulder  u 
not  Ism  than  IflOO  tons  in  weight. 

The  lake  ecener;  nf  Cumberland  lias  by  its  beaut) 
attracted  ■  great  numbtr  n(  permanent  reaidcntii,*ho« 
tHIm  pnler  pleaeirBlj  into  ita  landBcnpes,  and  amongal 
whom  the  preeent  age  haa  »e«n  several  eminmt  lilerarj 
RtaD— Soalbey,  Wordaworlh,  &c.  It  alio  attracta  an  , 
fannence  number  of  tuuriits  from  all  parta  of  the  Ung- 

The  district  UHually  called  Ihe  Lakei  ToVf  bo  said  aisc 
to  comprehend  a  amall  norlbem  and  nearly  detached 
pnrtion  of  Lancaahire,  where  Windermere  and  Coniston 
Water  are  aheele  rifalling  in  extent  and  bcanty  thoar 
of  Cnmberiand. 

The  DerbyAirt  Ptah  Setnery.—Thr,  terminalion  oF 
the  great  northern  range  in  the  north  of  Derbyshire. 
pretenti,  in  that  diatrict,  ■  colleetion  of  nigged  hil^ 
and  narrow  vallej-a,  amidat  which  some  of  tho  moai: 
roonuilic  scenery  in  England  is  to  be  found.  A  parti- 
cular portion  of  it,  near  the  villa^  of  Caatlctnn,  ih 
teimed  tho  Peak  Scenery,  from  a  particular  cmincncr 
or  peak  which  attract*  more  than  usual  attention. 

Tbe  Feah  is  approached  through  a  rude  and  savaj^ 
paa«,  named  Winyati  {q.  H.  gates  of  the  winds),  flanked 
with  precipices  IdO"  feet  high.  It  is  a  limestone  moun- 
tain, and  perforated,  as  mountains  of  that  kind  of  rock 
often  are,  with  an  immense  cave.  On  the  top  are 
perched  the  remains  of  a  castle,  once  tho  reeidenco  of 
>  fomily  deaci'nded  from  William  Vereril,  a  natural 
son  of  the  Oinigueror.  In  the  precipice  below,  abovi.- 
600  feet  from  the  top,  is  the  cntnncc  of  the  care,  I. 
flaltish  Qothic  arch,  ISO  feet  wide  and  46  in  height 
WilbiD  this  arch  the-  eavrm  recedes  about  90  feet 


iHZHiiua  am  mDEa  ewavTMev.     \maiia  wi 

(ibjeela  h  SUtn'i  ItUti  a  panndlaikr  Ami 
■AldiKMae  haa  bean  awTpeototliawliM  tit 
irllbontflndi^  tho  bottom.  AaMJAVfai 
markable  for  its  magniflcent  ilalaetltaa.  A  ra 

lieauliful  Talleys,  situated  amidst  ruggedWOOirt 
<o  tbe  romantic  one  of  Mai/aek,  whira  tte  ba 
Derwenl  are  bordered  by  extensiTe  woodi,  ml 
ith  tbe  boldest  and  most  varied  forms  of  to 


^.'ilder  cl 
River  Dove  I 


iathe 


aled 


.f  the  IE 


mlBta 


itriking  character.  The  aid** 
re  chiefly  composed  of  rocka  of  grej 
I'hich,  in  their  abrujit  and  towvring  aaeas 
innumerable  fantastic  forms— ipira,  pjiam 
:ind  arc  clothed  with  jcw-trees,  tbe  mrnntaii 
iiumerouB  mosses  and  lichens. 

Tlu  Isle  of  IFif  ht.— This  island,  sitnalad  of 
.if  Hampshire,  and  measuring  twentj-tbtw 
.ibout  thirteen,  ia  celebrated  both  for  ita  w] 
iind  its  beautiful  scenery.  From  the  bi^  o] 
I'ormcd  bv  a  range  of  chalk  tulla  in  ila  enitra 
lightful  views,  nungling  the  bold  objeets  of 
line  with  the  sail-studded  English  Channel,  an 
rho  south  shore  is  the  moat  noted  for  ita  rci 
jects,  the  most  remarluble  of  which  it  at  I 
Here  a  great  chalk  ells'  haa  at  ono  tine  been 
la  the  sea  ;  but,  afterwards  undermined  bf  ' 
■it  (he  waves,  a  Urge  portion  of  it  haa  UImI 
vut  fragments,  leaving  a  new  cliff  at  the  dikaai 
half  a  mile  from  the  shor*.  In  the  inlam 
the  beach  and  the  cliff,  tbe  fragmmta  ara  M 
confusion,  many  of  them  forming  emincneaa  a 
picture3i[ue  forms,  while  the  intermedial*  ip 
room  for  cotlagca  and  villa^  and  even  at  am 
%  imBll  nsing  town,  nestling  amidit  the  UMsl 
ihrubbcry,  natural  and  artifieial.  TUt  diat 
viewed  from  Ihe  sea,  appeaia  a  anfaa  «f  gigi 
rising  from  the  beach  lowarda  >  gt««t  p«] 
■'all.  ThecliffinarretBlpIaMBOptMiBMi 
'  locaUy  termed  Mnn,  whiA  an  iimllj  dad 
'  pictiare>a>ut««Aaltina,aB&4>av 
■  ■  are  t,\iw»  ol  S     " "         "  ~    " 


cHAiOEm  moftiuTKnr  Toi 

bwT,  UuMM<  nd  SJutarjr,  h^^  »•  h**"'  » 
pw^Mkri*  aantf  ipwkMM  it  *•  OmU>  i^  hi 
wbtab  an  wdaiMltaBl  MtmIbm  «*■  tiua  bniH. 


«iM«f  Ihamiddla  ^ai:  Iboie  of  Tlntarn,  luar 
nwolli,  OlMtonboiT,  KMiWetli,  Md  Bmrgt  Edm 
uworbBMdbm^.   AUmlNdttaMt/uMaM 


h  *S1  rf  aid  —m 111!  wM*  IMIW  Hi 

pMBlMrl»B«ud,MdM»MMl|v«ladBUk  S| 
Ma-teanBTMuMMfrMONriatir^ — ■ — '- 
■Vb*  ■■ppowd  to  ten  bMB  tb*  ft 


Bathn4  i«  •■  — iwUj  hndMow  ifMh 
(dm,  adfaMi^  Into  ji Iiiair  tnw  aVk  m 


■kpU  frHMwnk  or  Umbv,  Ai  mImIm  rf  «i| 

bWtMMMlMdBBintod.  Awimrof aMted 
(MlkM  faMk  lb>  iW^tb*  imL  nl|lf«  MMlJr 
MMh  Mr*«d  «Md-woih.  !■  dw  hMriiv  flMP 
•Imja  k  nodlf  tan  of  01^  witk  »  «Ml  iMih  ftM 
tot  of  ntkm  teUM,  Mid  b  M«ilf  ttaMhMt.  <i, 
Nidi  Im* paUUad » bM«tiMim^art^te||g 
•nd  dMaratioNi  ^  the  bs«  m^^Ii  rf"  B 


(If  lliB  hue"  nuitln*  boill  bylli 
liy  Iho  anTPn'iitiiii  durinK  lliii  fiTBt  fsir  cpnturiean 
tliB  Mnqoml,  riuinr  RpKJmcnH  nlill  cxiit,  but  Tpw  wI 
uvnM  in  ruin*.  Tlir  Tnwer  of  Lnnilon,  built  by  thi'  ( 


L'lmtlw,  wbioli,  *!lh  Mvpnl  ollirn,  wen  Taiwd  lo 
nWD  tllv  tlicn  InrlriwiKlvnl  )irinri|wlity  of  Wiito,  i 
■ilm  nobln  ■|iiv[niunL  Others  may  bo  found  in  i 
iiiirtb,  M>  ljiiiiN»lrr.  Carliilp,  McocMtlr,  and  Riii; 
Tlii-y  uiiwlly  niii*i*l  of  ■  (treat  iiiuaro  tower,  * 
nninw  of  Ii-wfr  lomn,  and  ttie  whiils  ■urroumlril 
ihiek  anJ  liifty  wallii.  Iivnpalli  wliich  Ihere  wru  ^i 
rnljya  innat  or  wvl  dilrh.  Ihiver  ranltp,  )>laenl  "u  i 
l>i)i  of  «  lofty  clilf  oicrluvkiDjc  lh«  Knilish  (.liantiel.  » 
■lilt  L<<|>t  III  khikI  urdvr,  i>  •  ixTuliarTy  iiitcreatiBg  n] 
clnipo  ut  tlir  N'urniui  furtrean. 


KnRliml  alHiuiLU  in  inanHiunK 
■Mia  of  hiT  iwbilily  and  jivnlry. 
ahiith  drgivp  "f  •liU>iid"ur,  b.i|] 
uitarul  funiinliiiii;,  tint  ti>  i>|>rik  of  tha  dtUUiI  *\!- 
Ttui  doBuini  by  »hic)i  llii'v  are  Kenarally  iMbdndrit 

A  mtain  cUh  uf  Knulii-li  manninna  may  be  dwcri  b<- 1 
■■  mfimfUil  ul<vn  thr  fiirtmav*  of  tha  middla  an,  nr 
upna  Ih*  (iriiiTiH  and  abbvya  diluted  at  tbe  Rrforma- 
tliiB.  Waivirk  faiU,,  the  Mat  of  the  Earl  of  Warwiek, 
rtr  f«»l  abo-ra  the  River  Avon, 


sot  the 


the  Grecian  style,  i  ... 

duclioD*  of  Ur  Adam  preaent  beantilUai  ,  _  _ 
inoUnee,  KeddUilmt  Hmae,  the  maidMoa  tt  La 
Scandate,  near  Derby,  the  front  of  which  b  a  Bmi 
3liO  feet,  comprehending  a  centtsi  and  twa  IUm 
maaae*  counected  b^  low  corridon,  asd  iiiiiiaiMl 
admired  for  its  claisic  purity  and  naca.  OMmami 
the  neat  of  the  Duke  of  Devonahus,  nau-  Datt^ 
'    another  magnificent  manuon  of  this  '' — i 

Within  the  last  lifty  years,  houaei  hare  baan  MHi 
varioua  itylea,  imilalivo  of  moda  lonf  ago  baUaaiN 
Tlie  caateilated,  the  Elizabethan,  and  lhaOi«eb^fe« 
.  all  bad  their  admirers.     It  is  also  oommon  naw*4i| 

'  those  (jothic  priories  and  abbeys  which  weraori|^Bd 

I  designed  for  purposes  so  different. 

.  I      Eaton  Ilall,  the  seat  of  the  Marqalt  of  Waataa* 

I  j  situated  near  Chester,  may  be  considered  ■■  a  fabi 

'  I  example  of  the  modem  Qothie.    It  rfnnpi  baa,  hMM 

'  other  apartments,  an  entrance-hall,  paiad  «bh  *wl 

galtd  marbles,  a  music-gallery,  adenied  with  tWB  fl 

I    pictures  by  West,  a  saloon,  deooratad  with  aoot  htm 

tiful  specimens  of  stained  glaM,  and  a  libaBiy.     Tb 

magnifleeni  mansioD  la  moch  Tiaited  by  stndHBB  a 

account  of  ita  architectural  beauty,  it*  ajilaiidld  Ibn 

lure,  and  ibe  vast  Duuber  of  iotcreating  ottfaali  aaaa 


cmn.  Town,  Ac 

It  has  already  been  aecn  that  a  hrp  put  «f  d 

ipVlatioD  of  England  is  eoUaetad  m  aitm  ud  !•« 

□I  oooaidsrable  siie.     Soma  of  tbeaa  naj  ba  Aav 

under  the  separate  headi  of  BkannCMtacwg  aad  aai 

,_L_,., "  ■     •"—  araaitb»— hwri^l— 


BBiiec  uie  separate  nvaoa  or 
I  ^aiebl  towns,  while  otben  alaatt 
I  mini  aUtiooa,  oatbednd  law«^  «r  towaa  hr  h^h 

reereatioD  or  tbe  rwdiaei  af  paiwM  )■  Imimmtm 
'.twimMtaMaa.    Tha  aitba  aad  taflM  «r  ^Mli 


,  im  aUa  cantnl  on  U>  B  Ur|[« 
■  town.   llinaj'heBiLiiut.liiat  lit*  nuklnK 


kMj: 


nmj  la  (Mmiiliiny]  u  an  outline  uf  Uub 
'  ~" — *"  '  urine  Uiil  W"i"iiu''«i»l  inJuKlrjr. 

tuitiiij  nt  nmtaat  And  liiuiuui 

detail  tlio  vut  mcrtanlUe  Uniu- 

doKunbe  iUnooiirtnu 

I  kind*,  wuukl  rv- 

«nnl«  vnluBW.    lu  llin  wgy  al  doMil*.  wii 

■  »hir4  raoa  fiir  a  dmBripiiun  of  tm  or  itimc 

,  MWliUaliiiiiuita,  ■likli  MC  nuJ  lu  A  nml  lacgJ 

■W^  cnUduil  tt/4JHi;^'4ir  lu  if  U  ,- — 
'  ilinj  ul  1^»  i»ill«  an  inmiFHw  buildings,  nkod  to 
iMglUuf  <■••;  KX1I.  uid  vig;)il  (U-rvy,  vrvFlatI  >t 
«p«air  •/  luitii;  lliutWMuU  of  ^)utiilii.  Wiil  RIM 
k  oachlciir}  cunliut  u>  iD&uy  luun.  Tbo  eopilal 
li  Id  a  Ujifiit  mvU  uUl  ininetiiaiM  Iw  £M,Otil),Uid 

IKOUj   llWDAUcilWllilDaiOUU.     SOIDB  of  tlie  Bulll 

■Oia  dibHj' •U""  hikiidt;  A  tiiil  lo  ooeaf  Lbabtrgnt 
k,lf  MU  iifi  -Iiir-.iiin  ran  li"  [rivwciPBrl,  itagratiMDv- 

U.    V-  ^ ■■'■-;■'  -M  ■tir'iliriWpiTftBUllUiof 

■m1ei>  IT'  iLiid  t«|[uljtrll)f  fft- 

L     t.' -  >'  1  bv  ruls,  (Ad  llic 

lAflii'  ,  ''  i[i  iLi!  moat  minuta 

of  raxioua  •ona,  { 


liraCrts.  Il  in  convi'  1  I. 
illiiwil«i;  iiud  wlimi  JbIu.t.'J  -xI  lln'  wcnlv-  .jf  Ihii  IiUB- 
citiuuir,  in  u«ii;l>vd,  uMiirUil,  mkXed,aDdapruil,WUhk 
vu'u  to  .iliinin  »ioiUll;  In  Ibc  Uaplc.  IL  i>  tlmn  tkbim 
la  the  willuwiiiK-umcbiiie  to  b«  opMol  iui>l'  raubrrod 
iluul:  lluaitv  it  ia   iTan»f«Tc>l  tn  111*  lilnwia^^ 


rrmliar;.    AHni' 
ruua,  iy  whiOli 


t  rnim  du«t  mid  n 


lakmi  up 

upon  B  lullcr.la  urdrr  tbil  It  mif  b> 

convenlenliy  cani^  to  lli«  pai^no-cDgUr,  Ihon  to  b* 

ina.di>  into  >  flsco*  of  iho  moit  gqusblo  ivxtum  poiaili)*  i 

tbnoii  It  LK  banded  !<•  lli*  dnwinjf  rrnnn,  whnrn  it  w 

idt^il  witl>  diH  iiruJaii^tidU  »f  &U  til*  cardiiij[-Hiutin*it 


boLoD^  Itianoit  pui><.il  ; i'  'i 

afl«rw»rd»ilii'DttgliiJi'.' J"  '     ' 
tlmoffh  the  thrwllr  or  • ; 
ia  itMdii  inUi  yam  ur  tn  '  I 
i(  iatnldcd  fuc  mrji,  la  Im-"  ,' .[.  <;  ,  <  .'i"  >'  n 
but  it  inlendfJ  for  wrfu  to  iliv  re.'li'i- ;  iifi™ 
which  ia  wauod  la  dvlivoml  to  t1i<r  w»qnr, 
ii  (nlodi  tfl  lbs  )Hii-wiiidsr.    1" 
mWa  upim  it,  {>)"■"!<■  '^  lliruuuU 
tapv,  •H  cuuaijtna  it  t<i  tlic  taiifl 

taliricikad  Intuafen  it  lu  Ifaa  tiuiteroali  who  wnib  it  # 
to  ih«  UMehor.  When  liliuvficd,  it  ui  hamled  to  the  ' 
icnkpel',  wbDW  biuiuMW  it  in  ki  taka  Mil  tb«  creuHM, 
anil  uiMu  Uia  Upa,  b;  mniiin|[  It  uudwr  4iid  ovar  irui- 
iicrapeni.  Thia  having  Ixen  dnnii.  tlia  plana  ii  put 
ttiruu||h  liie  caDdiuliir,  when  it  ii  jirvaard  brtwtri)  DOt 
bnwia  kud  rcodervd  amoolh  lud  ^Uwa-).  V^  '<•  "  ~' 
Mkeii  Id  llw  Ww^l  4nv*Wn»'Wi  ™\«aB  '*  w 


•lohiA 
I,  rata  t^  uw 


CHAMBERS'S  INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


forms  the  pieces  into  parcels,  containing  the  required 
qumotity,  and  places  them  in  a  powerful  press  to  make 
tnem  compact.  lie  next  papers  them,  and  sends  them 
to  the  warehoasc  for  sale. 

Some  idea  of  the  extent  to  which  this  manufacture 
is  carried  on  in  Manchester,  may  be  formed  from  the 
fact,  tliat,  at  tho  works  of  Messrs  Wood  and  West- 
heads,  upwards  of  1,240,000  yards  of  goods,  not  ex- 
ceeding three  inches  in  width,  and  composed  partly  or 
entirely  of  cotton,  linen,  silk,  or  worsted,  are  woven  in 
Wke  tecchy  or  upwards  of  35,2*27  mites  in  one  year. 

One  of  the  principal  eHtablisliincnts  in  tlio  depart- 
ment of  steam-engine  making  and  engineering,  is  that 
belonging  to  William  Fairbairn,  Esq.,  situate  in  Canal 
Stre<>t,  Groat  Ancoata  Sti*eet.  To  persons  unacquainted 
with  the  nature  of  working  in  iron,  an  admission  into 
these  works  atTordn  perliaps  the  most  gratifying  spec- 
tacle which  tho  town  can  present  of  its  manufactures 
in  this  metal.  ConHequcntly,  almost  every  pei'son  of 
distinction  visiting  tlie  town  contrives  to  procure  an 
introduction  to  the  proprietor  before  leaving  it.  In 
this  cstabliMhment  tho  heaviest  description  uf  machinery 
is  manufactured,  including  steam-ongines,  water-wheels, 
locomotive-enginctt,  and  mill-gearing.  There  arc  from 
550  to  tiOU  hands  employed  in  the  various  departments ; 
and  a  walk  through  tho  extennive  preniiseH,  in  which 
this  great  nunilier  of  men  are  busily  at  work,  affords  a 
specimen  of  industry,  and  an  exampio  of  practical 
science,  which  can  scarcely  bo  surpassed.  In  every 
direction  of  the  works  the  utmost  system  prevails,  and 
each  mechanic  appears  to  have  his  peculiar  debcription 
of  work  assigned,  with  tlic  utmost  economical  subdivi- 
aion  of  lalmur.  All  is  activity,  yet  without  confusion. 
SmitliK,  strikers,  moulders,  millwrights,  meclianics, 
boiler-makrn),  pattern-makers,  appear  to  attend  to 
their  respective  employments  with  as  nmch  regularity 
as  tho  working  of  the  machinery  they  assist  to  construct. 

In  one  department  mechanics  are  employed  in  build- 
ing those  mighty  machines  which  have  augmented  so 
immensely  the  manufacturing  interests  of  Great  lU'itain. 
namely,  Kteam-engines.  All  sizes  and  dimensions  nr<- 
frequently  under  hand,  from  the  diniinutivo  size  ol  H 
horM'H*  power,  to  xhv.  enornious  inngnitudc  of  4n( 
horw's'  j)owrr.  One  of  tln>>  Litter  sizo  eoiitaiim  the  vast 
amount  of  2ho  tons  or  ii[tuar«U  of  nii-tai,  and  is  wurll., 
in  roiiiul  iunnln'r>«,  from  .iJ."><'ii()  tf>  .^(^"iki. 

'liw  jiri>c'«s-^  of  euhtiii;;  im  tal  is  rMinliwtnl  li«ri'  on  a 
vcrv  lar::*'  mmh-.  l'a^tiii;;s  iif  IJ  t*'!!**  wi-i'ht  ar<'  I'V  ud 
mrauH  iMK'dininnii :  the  lii-aiii  uf  a  .'lU*)  huivo*  |Mi\\ir 
Pt<'an»-«  iiL'iii*'  wiIl'Ii'^  lliat  aininiiit.  J"Iv-\\1h  i-Is  f'-r 
«'nnim>;,  and  wati-r  \\1h'i  U,  thouu'l^  n">t  ca-^t  tiuin',  an* 
inini»'n*-i'  .vju'eiini-ns  of  in-avy  easiini^s.  A  Hy-wli<rl,  Inr 
an  fnvrmo  «'f  Imi  liorM-j-'  juiwi-r,  nuasnrf!-  in  iliaiin-t»r 
-VI  In  t,  and  AV'i„'li-»  aliiMit  .''■')  t■•n^'.  In  tlii»<  ot.iMi"!!- 
nn-nt  Mtinc  ot  lln:  lai'i^i-^t  uad  r-"li«'«  U  <vir  manutac- 
tnrrd,  and  tlir  lira\i«-ot  niiil-'^'-ai  in:;,  l.avi*  l»«'«n  nwi- 
strneti  d  ;  omi*  \\atir-\v|j(  i|,  l<.r  iii«-tan<v,  nirasurini: 'IJ 
fret  in  ili.inict*  r.  'I  lii-  aMia;:i  ui  •  kly  e(in.-.nni]>ti«»n  (-f 
metal  in  tlji--*  wi.rlx^.  in  tin*  j-imv  ->  of  inanufaotnrinu', 
o«^  ini!  to  til'"  <|nai:iilv  «'f  \MiMii,-lit-iriin  n^-cd,  and  tin' 
iinnh.-ns*'  Inill;  of  iIm- ea««lin;:-,  ii  <iW  tons  t»r  upwards,  or 
3rJ<i  u^\\y,  anniiail\. 

"I  iii-i  <  \:i  n'«i\r  r  111  rn  fMr\\;ii^K  its  nianiifactnri'S  to 
ail  |«;iits<'.f  liK*  'A-  I  !d.  J  lu'  -M-iin:^'  r  is  told,  oniminiry, 
that  .'^iM  artii'l*- is  I  i- < '.lUMiMa. /'/'i.' fur  tin  Wr^^t  Imllf-.; 
tlii-i  f.-r  Sf  r.  i<  r-1  iiru'ii.  tiiat  f-T  N- w  S'uitli  \\'alt's  : 
and  iluTi-  ai"'',  l"--:d'*-,  mi  n  l.-iiiji/Mi:;  t-i  it  i\irii.'t-<t  in 
variou-  j  ari-  i-l  linn-jx-.  nvIi.i  .in-  »-iii}'l.-\id,  nndi  r  llif 
direction  *i  Mr  r;iiiliaiiii,  in  m:;-  r:iit«  rr  lir.i;  llii-  «  rco- 
tion  of  \s.-rk  inai'.i.I.tr'un  d  tn  ilsi  <••  jM-fini-^i-s,** 

/-#vi/«.  till-  r  icl  t.iun  t  -r  tl.r  n!ai:iif.n''Mre  <>f  el.-'lis. 
!•*  hitnati-d  in  U\''  \\"«  -t  liidiii^  id  ^  I'rlif-liiri',  on  a  sloj.i- 
gently  ri*«inL;  Irom  uv  lCi\«r  Aii'  ,  ;•.;  a  ni~tanr<'  of  l.'iV 
miU"i  fr>iu  I,'  nd'-r.  It  i'i»n1aln-  a  t<  w  sln<lM  of  liainl- 
•ome  liou-"!  ^,  Im:   ns  u:  !n.in\  otiii-r  I'-n-'lisli  niannfae- 

'Ug  towns,  ntility  a|i|H>ars  to  ]•*•  mori'  in  oontnnjda- 

•han  «)rnanM'nt  "r  i'ii*;:aiie<-.     Tlip  pojuilation  in 

ras  rJ.'^.^il'.J.   Theiv  an'  sonu*  ;:oo<liy]iub]ic  strue- 

l#4  cuurt-huuir,  rorn nicrcial  buiMii:^s,  tluatre. 


&e.,  and  the  town  enjoys  the  benefit!  of  a  Uta 
philosophical  society,  an  institution  for  tlie  pr 
of  tho  nne  arts,  and  sereral  publie  libraiiesL 

Leeds  is  the  centre  of  a  burgs  distriet  derotc 
making  of  mixed  and  white  cloths.  Cloths 
fabric,  and  blankets  and  carpets,  are  also  made 
considerable  quantity ;  but  the  mixed  and  whi^ 
form  the  staple  of  the  business  of  the  dislrii 
mode  in  which  these  are  sold  in  Leeds,  gires 
for  the  existence  of  two  publie  buildings  of 
peculiar  nature.  They  are  called  respectively  th 
Cloth  Hall  and  tho  White  Cloth  Hall.  A  dei 
of  the  former,  from  a  popular  work,  will  couTe^ 
of  both.  «  The  Mixed  Cloth  Hall  was  erected 
at  the  general  expense  of  the  merchants.  It  is 
rangular  edifice,  surrounding  a  large  o|ien  arc 
which  it  receives  the  light  abundantly,  byagn 
her  of  lofcy  windows;  it  is  128  yards  in  lengtl 
in  breadth,  divided  in  the  interior  into  six  depa: 
or  covered  streets,  each  including  two  rows  of 
amounting  in  number  to  IHOO,  held  as  freeh* 
pcrtv  by  various  manufacturers,  every  stan 
marked  with  tlie  name  of  the  proprietor.  Thi 
exclusively  appropriated  to  the  use  of  persons  w 
served  regular  apprenticeship  to  the  trade  or 
of  making  coloured  cloths.  The  markets  are 
Tuesdays  and  Saturdays,  and  only  for  an  hou 
half  each  day,  at  wliieh  ])(^riod  alone  salcsa  c 
place.  The  market-bell  rings  at  six  o*clock 
morning  in  summer,  and  at  seven  in  winter,  w 
markets  are  speedily  filled,  the  benches  covei 
cloth,  and  the  pn>prietors  respectively  take  their 
the  bell  cexsing,  the  buyers  enter,  and  proe< 
secrecy,  hilonce,  and  expedition,  to  bargain  for  t 
they  may  rei{uire,  and  business  is  thus  summaril 
acted,  often  involving  an  exchange  of  property  i 
amount.  When  the  time  for  selling  is  termini 
bell  ag;iin  rin;;;M,  and  any  merchant  staying  in  i 
after  it  has  ceasrd,  becomes  liable  to  a  peualt 
hall  is  under  the  management  of  fifteen  trusU 
hold  their  meetings  in  an  octagonal  building, 
near  the  entrance  to  this  hall." 

I/tohirr.yju-M,  Wakt'Jh'l'!,  Saddlrtrorth^  Ihilij 
///v.-r/r.iri/,  all  in  yori.^llir^•,  and  IxocKilalem  Lan 
aro  oilwr  towns  notfl  f»r  tlnir  Concern  in  ll 
niaintfac'aii't .  l>i:t  of  inirrior  pipulation,  and  no 
j;ni  lif  d  l.y  anv  n  njarkal-Ii-  fratun-s.  Armittft 
ili'rniin>ftr,  J. </./■",  and  U"i'.''»j,  an-  the  eliii-f 
till' (MVpit  iMauitai'tun-.  Ilmiforiiy  in  Wilt.'»hin 
tin;:ni.-.|i(  d  fur  nip<  rllne  elod;-. 

JiirnihiijJi'tu:^  tl;i'  oliiif  town  in  tin*  kin^ilom  < 
in  nnfiiKii-  ni.iiMrf:ii"t!:r«'>i,  i«;  siti'.atcd  in  Warwi. 
at  the  dis-.inre  of  lu.'j  mii-'s  from  Lond'^n.  TJi 
j»art  of  til-  town  ei'iisi-t-  chitflv  of  old  build 
er«A\d<il  witli  v.oiK.  l!op>;  ai.d  warrliousi-s,  and 
I'lli'd  j-rincrpaily  \i\  i:iain:!a(.'!ur<  r>  ;  Int  the  upf 
lia-^  a  snj'crior  appi-arantv,  eon^^i'^tiui;  of  n«'W  an 
lar  j^trcrt'-,  and  i'.'iitainin;j  a  nnnibrr  tif  clogan' 
in;;*?.  Ainon^-t  tin-  I'ubiic  l>uiliiinj<,  the  town-h 
fi>r  partiiMilar  i.o»io<»,  In  inij  a  mau'iiitleriit  Mruc 
tl:i'  (^lri^t!•i.^n  ordi  r,  in  tin-  ]»ri.portions  of  lh«» 
(.f.Inpitir  Staler  a:  Konic.  Th*- |  "pulation  of  1* 
!iani  in  iJ^.'-l  av:i,  11'',!'::':.  IhIiil;  ail,  except  a  ^m> 
li"n,  I  nu'a:;'  1  in  irri'ii*  and  inannfaetures. 

Ain<'n;;'-r  tin-  prirsi-ipal  Mninif.irture'i  are  but 
iinnu-n-o  \arit  :y.  l-m-iNM**,  clcaU-pin-*,  and  snuff 
:o\  --jrinki  t»i,;iiid  ji-v\i'Il«Ty  ;  ]'ii!i«ilu  d  >i».td  watch' 
eorKMTiw«.  »\o. ;  pLititl  i;..nd-i  li»r  the  dining;  a 
taltii',  now  111  till-  way  <f  Ixini^  sujierseile-l  bv 
•^(•1  d.-^oi  )i.:\.- 1  nii'tal :  ja]ianni-dand  eiiamelletia 
l>ra.vs  >\ork  ot  i  vrry  di>eriptit>n  ;  swords  and  firt 
medals  and  coins  of  various  kinds;  copving  nv 
and  j»neui:iatie  apparatus;  grates,  lire-inMis,  p 
burners,  nails,  an<l  steel-jH'ns.  liosides  aUuobI 
metallic  nrticle  \^liich  can  l>e  considered  oa  c 
useful,  or  (>rnainental,  cut  crystal  is  produced  to 
exl«  nt,  wlnli'  certain  branches  of  the  cotton  trs* 
ui-cti-il  with  hariiwaro,  as  the  making  of  tho  cii 
umluli.i><,  brace.-,  girtiis,  AlC,  have  also  fixed 


ftnl  «f  f^  '°  ™iUb)D  or  rl,  u  klu  of  ou- 
■tf  IM^piuiinfljl**,  liniicliiUi,  aaiiinuij  nthn- 
Ml  b  iMTit^  t«  U  an  faimniiB  •xtmL  Tlia 
HbbDM  •<  SbiUBiliI  IwTn  tlia  pMiullaritj  ><r  lKiin|[ 

abl  tim  lundi  <i(  men  nf  innricMlD  aplUI  and 
Tmiliirn.  thdneh  thnni  &        ■  •       > 


IK  ubintla  ftf  etuioiilf 
'tImMwianiKwen. 

Miiu,  ot  (bn  bat 

nlly  tn  WiirvlclisUn,  91  oKlai 

-  «(  tlia  iuiuiLdi«nir*  of 

Some  oUlcr  mftnufiifr- 

:i'Qt  in  lltf  UM  omibitT', 

«,  huTv  lieeliiicJi  Iwi- 


.i  in  iliM  iTii.i.l  rpf  7.  Ml>^-^li^lrllT^  tha 

u  tuual  built  uf  brick.    Wilhiu  Uimh  lira 

Dorby  haa  odir*  jirniniiianil]'  hito  ii»(ic«  bjr  bafng 

I  lliio  "f  llut  unund-''  — '—    ' 

Llurluun  and  Yorhahlre  v 

liurc  la  of  roasiilSeafit  pravarikaa :  the  dUtJuue  firoia 
London,  12K  milea,  ia  pertormpd  by  nul<ny  in  aboat 
KTiBi  houn.  in  IHJU,  thp  ^nrn  n<«iviij  [runi  Kk 
Jueppti  StruKthnn>nnifiMn(Rin'>fii  (il«<>ur»-|pauiiit 
•■[•nvn  aM^ia  mtwt,  bikI  calli^r!  by  bbit  the  Arbo- 
raluin.  It  i»  mpUnMuHl  with  iralka,  Mala,  and  vtay 
•my  fltteil  op  tax  pnmicnailliDg  and  tMrcAtinil  |  it  \» 
dayi  of  the  woek  to  all  fJuia*,  and 
""   "  "ayiuent  uf  «.      _1 


opcced  freely  li 


Th»  {Knulatioa  of  Derby  bl  . 

CartUt,  whidi  in  Miriy  tinxa  iraa  uiiiiuipiuiiMii  a* 
a  bulwark  ■i.-siiiat  th«  tonudooi  of  tlia  ikutlkli  luiuiwi, 
tai  I*  a  cathEdnd  Atj,  lea*  lattasly  aoqulred  laine  vain 
aa  a  aaat  ef  RwoatMtimM^iMniniaMy  la  Ibo  •bgiart- 
Riuct  of  eoltou^lnnlnD,  oJuM^tllitlnit,  and  tbc  wear- 
ing of  KliigJiBJTU,  ttc.  Xbe  cOiJiludunaut  uf  a  railway 
oauununlwtian  iritli  Nf  weaotla  baa  wtChin  ib-i  but  l«w 
I  uldKi  to  lia  moreau^lB  proapiriry.  bf  milaring 
QotnpAtfor  pndDoe  taBva^^'^niU     "    " 


i 


CHAMBERS'S  INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


I 


At  tlie  het,A  of  Ihia  clum  atanda  lAwTpoBl,  aeit  U 
Loadon  (lie  greateit  port  in  the  empire.  -  ll  is  eituatcc 
in  Lnnciubire,  on  llie  east  bank  of  the  eslu&r;  ol 
the  MerBE-^,  at  tlie  diatanee  of  Sli  miles  from  Man- 
.  elieWer,  and  304  from  Lomiiin.  The  town  i-xlendt 
for  abaiit  three  miles  alone  the  Mersey,  and  rathel 
more  tlun  una  mile  iolani^  the  wtuatiuii  enjoying  t 
■light  slope  towards  tho  river,  Oa  the  wde  Dext  thf 
eounlr)',  the  town  exieiicLa  into  nnmerous  suburban 
dlslricM,  comprehending  man;  villua,  the  rraiidenc 
tiie  more  wealtb^  ciliwus.  Livflrpool,  ia  1031, 
tained  lBS,l7fi  uibabitantj ;  but,  inoluaive  of  th< 
meiliate  environi,  and  tho  persona  engaged  in  navigK- 
lion,  the  whole  number  in  1H35  wu  belicied  to  be  not 
leu  tban  23(1,001).  Its  t-iie  has  been  sarprisingly  rapid. 
Id  the  reign  Bf  Elixabelh,  it  vraa  onir  a  Email  village 
in  1700,  there  were  about  3000  inhabilaDls;  m  IZu'O 
au.OOO;  and,  in  IBOl,  77,(ii3. 

Lirerpool  is  the  grand  medium  through  which  the 
trade  of  England  with  Ireland  and  witli  America  in 
earri«l  nn ;  and  a  vast  quantity  of  bnaineaH  is  trans- 
acted by  its  nicrchaute  with  tbe  ports  uf  Die  Mediier- 
ranean,  E^ast  Indies,  and  olbor  parts  uf  the  world.  The 
leading  article  of  impoj;}  is  the  cotton  so  exlvn»vcly 
UB«1  in  the  manufaclurss  of  Lancashire,  of  which,  m 
1830,  out  uf  Tn3,G9S  bales  imported  into  England, 
70a,900  wfre  brought  into  Liverpuol.     The 

the  imiMirt  iiei 

aboat  frmr  and  a  half  millions  sterling.     The  dutift 

rid  at  tlie  eustomhouK  of  Liverpool,  in  1B37,  were 
i^h\  ,4!H;,  being  about  a  fifth  of  those  paid  Ibrougli- 
ODt  the  whole  liiugdum.  In  tlic  lanie  year,  the  vesaels  eii- 
tertd  inwards,  eaclusire  of  those  coneenu'd  in  tlie  Hsh- 
•riei  and  eoaaling  trade,  were — British,  1 685;  foreign, 
BHS;  in  all,  2670.  Thom  entered  outwards  wero-Bri- 
tl«h,173£!  foreign,  t012;  in  nil,  2747.  But  when  the 
ttkheriiM  and  coasllog  trade  ore  included,  ilie  number 
of  British  veswiii  entering  Livergiiiul  that  year  reaches 
the  amnziug  number  of  10,281,  each  being  upon  an  ave- 
rage of  200  tons.  Liverpool  ia  the  great  outlet  for  tlte 
goods  manufltetureil  in  Lancashire  and  Yorbshiro  for 
■ale  in  America.  Itisetatcdthatotieinereimtile house 
in  llie  American  trade,  has  in  one  year  shipped  and  re- 
eeived  goods  to  the  amount  of  a  Diiiiiou.  In  oonnee- 
lioD  with  tlie  cammerce  carried  on  with  the  United 
States,  there  t«  a  large  transit  of  passengers.  This  was 
formerly  carried  on  by  means  uf  a  periodical  series  of 
well -appointed  and  (luick-saiting  vessels,  usually  termed 
linrrs ;  but,  for  three  years  past,  it  has  been  condueted 
by  means  of  sbcaui-vnaels.  There  are  also  steam-fos- 
■els  conveying  passengers,  daily,  to  and  from  Dublin, 
Glasgow,  and  several  Welsh  porta,  and  only  a  little  less 
freoneotlj  to  other  Irish  harbours,  aud  to  aereral  porta 
in  the  aoulh-west  division  of  Engbuid. 

The  town,  ihussuexteuaively  eoneerned  inthatcoro- 
meree  frnm  which  Eogland  derives  its  chief  glory,  pre- 
sents many  exlema!  uwtures  not  unworthy  of  its  mer- 
cantile charaeler.  Of  tliete  tile  chief  is  the  Docka,  a 
magnificent  aeries  of  deep-water  harbours,  extending 
along  Ihp  whole  front  of  the  town.  They  aM  eleven  in 
number,  with  anoggrcgateHUpcrfieiesof  111  acres,  and 
eight  miles  of  quays '.  In  the  year  ending  June  'H,  1 840, 
the  dues  paid  by  vessels  snieriug  and  leaving  them  was 
L.1S>7,477.  18s.  ed.     The  sight  of  these  dacha,  bristling 

from  loading  and  antosidiug,  RILs  a  stranger  with  asto- 

The  town  contains  several  handsome  atreets,  the 
chief  being  Cosilg  Street  and  Dale  Street.  The  Town- 
Hall  and  Exchange  BaUding*  form  an  clegonl  and 
impreasive  aaaemblage  of  objects,  having  a  brume 
ETOnp  in  tho  intermediate  court,  commemorative  of 
the  d^'ftlb  of  Lord  Nelson.  Tbe  Customhouse  ia,  as 
might  bee(pwl«d,  n  cinapicumis  edifice,  but  in  n  hi'aiy 


style  of  amhitecture.  The  other  pnUie  I 
ihe  Com- Exchange,  Lyoenm,  AlhenKiuD,  '' 
Rooms,  Infirmary,  &<!.,  are  goodly  alnictaraa. 
upwards  of  twenty  churchM  helongiiig  to  (hi 
moot,  many  of  them  of  much  srcbiteotural 
greater  nnmber  of  chapel*  botongiug  to  rai 
minationa  of  dissenters;  with  four  Rumai 
chapels,  a  mevtiog-house  for  QualEere,  a 
The  charitable 


annually  into  the  Inlinuary.  The  Blue-Cos 
maiuUins  and  educates  about  300  boys  and  | 
school  for  the  blind  is  on  a  most  extensive 
handsome  and  spacious  theatre,  «ad  a  circoa 
during  great  part  of  llie  year.  At  the  Itoyal 
Institution,  public  lectures  are  given ;  and  i 
it  is  a  philosophical  apparatus  and  a  muse 
tural  curiosities.  A  botanic  garden  was  cati 
IBOl,  at  an  expense  of  about  L.10,aOO.     Th' 

having  been  erected  at  an  expense  uf  L.I  1,01 
eludes  schools  for  the  young,  as  well  as  fur  i 
cent;  and  in  the  amount  of  its  funds,  and  vai 
branches  of  knowledge  (aught,  the  estshlinh 
be  described  as  a  kind  of  university.  Cur  the  i 
working  cl.isses  of  Liverpool.  Amongst  thi 
able  objecta  connected  with  the  town,  the  ti 
Cemetery  of  St  James's,  formed  out  of  an 
quarry,  is  worthy  of  particular  notice.  It 
statue  of  Jlr  IIuskisBon,  who  was  interred  u 
Mancbesler  and  Liretrpoul  liailway  ianutieed 
Briilat,  a  large  sea.  port  town,  is  situated  p( 
county  of  Somerset  and  partly  in  that  of  Gb 
the  junction  of  the  Rivers  Avon  and  Frame, 
(en  miles  from  the  junction  of  the  former 
navigable)  witli  the  Briatol Channel  ll  is  oi 
Englivh  towns  which  poaMsithoduhiouilyact 
privilege  of  being  eoiutin  in  themselves,  an 
the  cathedral  rity  for.  the  diucess  of  Briolol 
ii  an  andent  town,  and  has  long  enjoyed  dial 
a  eeo-port.  Previous  to  the  rise  of  Liverpool 
it  ia  now  ^>reatty  inferior,  it  woa  tbe  chief  p 
west  of  England.  It  still  posseSMS  eonsiden 
and  has  furlliur  of  late  years  become  the  an 
active  and  thriving  nuumfactorcs.  In  1837, 
of  7G,957  tons  burden,  entered  tho  harbour  fct 
ports,  besides  632  from  Irdand;  and  iu  the  a 
the  cuatoniB  duties enllected  were  L.I,1&3,I0! 
rum,  and  lea,  are  the  chief  foreign  imports, 
chief  exports  are  tbe  native  maunfoclurea,  a. 
'DoUeo,  and  linen  goods,  Tlie  chief  iialive 
ires  are  soap,  glass  bottles,  various  mela) 
drup,  dycfi,  and  soda.  It  is  honourable  to  Bi 
in  its  ancient  days  of  aupereniineney  as 
Dt  out  the  first  English  vessel  acnxa  thi 
ia(  of  Cabot,  which  discovered  North  Aroa 
these  daj'H,  it  was  the  first  lu  establish  a  I 
lion  by  aleam  with  the  same  eonlioenl. 
done  in  1S3S,  when  (be  Great  Wertem  parfi 
first  voyage.  The  population  of  Bristol,  in  1 
'17,0IG. 
Bristol  is  a  well-built  town,  eonlalnuig  maaj 
.reels  and  squares,  and  extending  into  sen 
Cul  suburban  villages,  as  Clifton,  Kiog«d' 
[  Klichoel's,  where  the  resideuees  iif  (lie  i 
(Lcena  are  placed.  Tbe  dly  contouis  mai 
structures  of  an  intereeting  character.  The 
is  a  fine  old  Rpecimen  of  the  Gothie  arehioo) 
the  Church  of  St  tlary  Redcliffe  ia  conaida> 
themustbeautiful  in  England.  The"  floating  1 
formed  out  of  the  ancient  beds  of  the  two  ri' 
lurrounded  by  an  immense  extent  of  quay,  1 
impreuive  object :  Ihe  cost  uf  its  cunslrueJoi 
much  Ims  than  L.TOO.OOO.  Tbe  GuUdhaU,  Ji 
mercial  Rooms,  and  Institution  (wbieh  eunl 
brary,  hall  for  lectorea,  &c.),  are  stber  poUla 


ell-kno 


I  elegant  appearance.     Clifton, 


well,   B 


•s^ 


DESCRIPTION  OF  ENGLAND. 


[»rfnw>  lyix^-Thit  uicient 
eoDUBcroa  oMDpica  ft  Mmeithftt  iDeominadioiu 
D  on  th«  letl  or  aoilh  buik  of  the  Tjme,  at  Ihe 
■  <i(«bant  (en  miles  from  Ihe  se*.     It  ii  locally 
wmit]'  of  Northumberluid,  Mid  by  lueaDB  o' 
■OOM  the  Tyne  u  cnonecled  with  the  popal< 
k  of  Gfttcaheftd,  in  the  coonty  of  Darham. 


WjirlMtlnio-Tplft 

•  origin  of.ils  name  t«  Robert,  the  eldnt  son  of 
1  Ibe  Conooeror,  who  erected  a  rorlrese  on  the 
iff  which  here  overhangs  the  river,  and  g^ve  it 
W  of  Neweistte.  For  ages  the  town  was  Eur- 
1  fay  itroDg  walla,  u  a  protection  against  invad- 
llidi  aniiiiia ;  thaae,  however,  have  disappeikred, 
Bodern  lima*  the  town  baa  apread  over  the 
•raediritie*  and  upland  which  border  the  river. 
I  bit  or  eutle  still  exiits,  also  (he  ancient  Gothic 
I  of  St  Ifieholas,  whoae  elegant  turret  is  conspi- 
i  B  eoiwdenble  diitance.  The  main  cause  of 
naainK  importajica  of  Newcastle  is  i(s  fortunate 

■  ia  Ihe  midat  of  the  great  cool-lield  of  North 
■nd  and  Durham,  the  produce  of  which  finds 
ntkt  by  the  Tyne.  The  pleDt^ulnesa  of  eoi.. 
Id  theeatabliihmeni  of  nnmeroaB  manafacturea, 
riiieh  are  numbered  cast  and  wrought  iron, 

ar,  lead,  glaaa,  chemical  produetiona,  poltcrv, 
Bd  line.  The  number  of  vessels,  British  ani^ 
^  whicfa  entered  the  port  in  1636,  was  1035,  wit] 
ka  irf  242,004  tons.  The  grtisa  recei|its  at  thi 
kaoie  for  the  aune  year  were  L.379,3G0.  Thi 
■iti  of  the  town  near  the  river  exhibit  a  busy 
.  jwded  together  ship  aniT 
s,  wharfs  for  vessels,  iron  fouudriei 
adiaa  omn^etories,  and  all  the  usual  worki 
Mwak  •  gnat  sea-port.  The  strecla  in  lhi( 
«  IH  dlr^  ftnd  smoliy,  but  other  parts  of  the 
■««r  great  eksance.  Since  1834,  by  the  ex. 
hif  SDcr^  and  taste  of  Mr  Richard  Urainger. 
■htiin  Bruited,  a  large  portion  of  tho  town 
HtaksD  down  and  rebuilt  with  handsome  stone 
Laaidst  which  are   varioua   public   buildings, 

iMoHle  moat  be  considered  the  metropolis  of 
I  Md  nopulons  district,  including  Tj-nemoutli, 
iMdSoDth  Shields  (all  at  the  mouth  of  the  Tyne), 
Aid,  Dnriiain,  and  Gateshead ;  and  witli  these 
MfaaUty  connected  by  means  of  the  river,  rail- 

■  rtmwise.  At  Shietds  and  Sunderland  are  the 
^ktof  shipping  in  the  coal  and  other  trades, 
■■iwnartahle  manutttcturing  and  commercial 

fished  for  its  phi 


is  diatinguisi; 


ihilosophi 


riNewew 

mt  m  many  inhabitants  of  cultivated  taste.  In 
Milting  the  population  of  Gateshead,  which  was 
,  Nevnatle  and  its  soburba  had  a  population  of 
l<  tot  at  present  it  is  estimated  at  100,000. 
t^npetiy  Kingrton-npon-Hull)  is  situated  at  the 
Mi  of  Ihe  River  Hull  with  (he  estuary  of  the 
^li  the  Eaat  Biding  of  Yorkshire,  of  which 
I  ilil  die  principal  town.  It  commands  an  ex- 
Ihct  tWHMUit  of  inland  navigation,  not  only  by 
•fas  ftMIt,  0dm,  Derwen t,  and  o(her  bnnches 
MHto*,  ImU  by  means  of  eaiiala  connecting  with 
talH^  and  penetralina  to  the  very  heart  of 
A  ItiillMpwdFalouUetfortliemanufitcturea 


of  York  and  Lancashire  towards  the  continent  of 
Europe,  the  chief  seat  of  the  northern  whale  fishery, 

gation  in  the  island,  havitag  packets  of  that  kind  voyag- 
ing not  only  to  London,  Newcastle,  Leith,  and  Aberdeen, 
bcaidea  many  inland  places  in  its  own  district,  but  (a 
Rotterdam,  rlnmhurgh,  and  occasionally  to  some  of  the 
ports  in  what  is  more  particularly  called  the  noiih  of 
Europe.  Hull  was  a  noted  port  so  early  as  the  reign 
of  Edward  J. ;  and  in  the  aeventeenth  century  it  was 
a  great  state  depot  for  arms,   on  which   account  the 


1  object  of  much   i 


n  the  time  of  the  c 


gove 


3  Qurles  I.,  i 


r.  Sir  Jolio  Ilotha 


The   refusal 


,  to  give 


It  that  ti 


,  .  ithin  the 
eatea,  is  a  conspicuous  incident  in  English  history. 
For  some  years,  owing  to  various  circumstances,  soma 
branehee  of  the  commerce  of  the  port  have  expe- 
rienced a  decline  rather  than  an  advance ;  but  it  is 
still  a  town  of  large  trade.  In  1629,  579  vessels,  of 
72,246  aggregate  tonnage,  belonged  to  Hull.  For  the 
accommodation  of  the  shipping  there  is  a  splendid 
range  of  docks,  presenting  an  amount  of  quayage  said 
to  measure  60,000  square  yarde,  and  with  all  the  suit- 
able accommodations  for  storing  a  vast  quantity  ofmer- 
chandiac.    The  population  of  the  town  is  about  50,000. 

Cheiler  is  one  of  the  less  important  and  less  populous 
of  tlie  commerciat  towns  of  Enehuid.  Such  importance, 
however,  as  it  possesses  as  aTmmmercial  town,  is  oo- 
lianced  by  its  being  a  county  town  and  cathedral  city, 
and  the  residence  of  a  considerable  number  of  persons 
in  independent  circumslAuces.  It  ie  also  remarkable 
fur  its  antiquity  and  its  historical  associations,  aa  well 
as  tor  some  local  features  of  an  unusual  kind. 

It  is  situated  within  a  bend  of  the  Doe,  a  few  miles 
from  the  point  where  that  river  joins  an  estuary  branch- 
ing from  the  Irish  Channel.  The  two  principal  streets 
cross  each  other  at  right  niiglcs,  and  the  town  is  atill 
surrounded  by  the  massive  walls  which  were  originally 
designed  to  protect  it  from  warlike  aggression,  but  are 
now  only  useful  as  an  agreeable  promenade,  from  which 

be  obtained.  The  streets  are  fnriiied  in  hollows  dug 
out  of  rock,  so  that  the  lowest  floor  of  each  house  is 
the  level  of  the  ground  behind,  though  looking 
ion  the  carriage-way  in  front.  Tlie  paths  for  pas- 
sengers are  not  here,  aa  is  usually  the  case,  formed  in 
latetal  liues  along  the  streets,  hut  in  a  piazza  running 
along  the  front  of  what  in  England  is  called  the  Jiril, 
and  in  Scotland  more  correctly  the  $fcond  floor,  of  tlie 
piazzas,  called  in  Chester  Ihe  JtoiPi 


saibie  froi 


itdis- 


sliops  entered  from 
and  thej'  in  some  places  atill  retam  the  massive  wooden 
balustrades  with  whicii  all  were  originally  furnished, 
btit  fur  which,  in  other  places,  light  iron  railings  liava 
been  substituted.     Where  the  houses  and  balustrades 
old,  the  effect  is  very  curious  and  striking,  and  apt 
waken  ideas  of  ancient  usages  and  habits  long  passed 
ly.    The  Cathedrsl  of  Chester  contains  some  eurious 
ient  architecture.     The  Castle  is  a  splendid  modern 
buildinc,  on  Ihe  site  of  the  powerful  fortress  which  was 
once  of  such  importance  as  a  check  upon  the  Welsh  : 
t  contains  tlie  county  court-house,  jail,  Ate.    The  prin- 
cipal other  buildings  aro  the  Halls  liuilt  by  Ihe  mer- 
rliants  to  serve  as  marts,  of  which  there  are  three,  be- 
idea  the  Exchange.     The  bridge  across  the  Dee  is  ft 
emorkable  object,  being  of  one  arch,  with  a  span  of 
100  feet :  it  cost  £40,000. 

Chester  waa  an  important  station  of  the  Romans, 
rem  whom  it  derived  Ihe  erosa  form  of  its  two  prin- 
ipal  streets,  and  of  whom  many  relics  have  from  time 
0  time  been  dug  up.  It  retained  its  importance  dur- 
ng  Saxon  and  Norman  times,  and  in  the  thirteenth  and 
ourteenth  centuries  waa  a  flouriahing  city,  with  a  large 
uritime  trade.  It  then  declined,  in  eon»ei)uence  of 
natural  obatmetioni  to  the  nftvigation  of  the  river. 
From  the  year  I33B  downwftrda,  it  was  remarkable  for 
'       '        inee  uf  a  peenliar  class  of  theatrical 


CHAUBERS«  INFOBIUTIOK  POft  THI  FBOraS. 


nprttm  1 1  ■!  lun^  rimflp  to  thaw  pcribruad  «t  Ccr enti  y, 
ftad  tanaad  llTitariM.  TenudnntaaittlMM  would 
■MnflMnwitpeMbariMqQaef  Mcrad  aBbjeola ;  but 
wMliTliiMdw«i«tlwdatg]relthoMdq«ofth»ir  edi- 
Mdg  qHlUk^  aMkOmMnd  dm  otpudeafkom  the 


far  1^  lAlafc  fWt  teiiL  Port^  a» 
■Niv  and  A*  Bdtt^  li  clikAr  «oidit«d  to  IreUntl, 
■hwiiu  wi  Inwww  ywitte  of  mw,  henift  fc^Bking, 
■nd  mwMai^  la  inpotoi  Tba  «iponi  of  Chester 
•M  Aaw  (tfc*  iti^  pHkhMtlon  of  Iha  maatr),  lead, 
aoal,  inlwnliw,  MopMLpUtai,  and  eut-IrHB.  Ship- 
k^MiBg  b  «undM  M  to  •  «wiii1flil*  aEtaat,  ud 

n*  pni^daa  ot  ChMtai  IB  1  BSl  «M  31,S«S. 

Alia— ^IHw  b  an  aiidwrt  Iiiit  eauUeMtilj  modem- 
iMd  townjtbacivitalarHaBvthlnuud,  iiHct  to  Poru- 
tBovIk  and  Ftr'°o*>l'^  ™V  I**  **■»■■■'*'■*  ('^^  ^ii^ 
pacttntba  Math  tOML  It  enJajaaittnatlaDit  once 
bImmdI  and  Mnrt^ai^  to  a  Tab  kdJoUoc  to  the 
bay  bwiing  tto  own  naiBa,  In  nodnn  mora,  tlie 
•      '■■-  -'    ■         '      •■  iljytlio 


and  liiwmly  popnli 

t  tha  ttahlibuui'hoin 
a  Now  Foni^  vUeh  atnwrt  addiis  tl 
aaA  fa^"^^£  a  pbannt  Itaflitng  y^" 
nr  iiadd*  iowna  ara  num  uId'h^ 
ua&> 

ita.    ^So^WMtantlUlw^wluebteTiii 
r  tha  Aon  of  the  b^,  haa  gnatly  adTaco  1 

if  thstow^  bj making  it  a  dcpAt  of  "..l" 
in  ooDiMxiaii  with  tha  metropoliii ;  and  there  ar-  rn' 
ooDitnictiDg,  at  B  graat  eotl,  luge  wet-docks  and  i  >  1 1 1  [ 
for  ahipping.  A  conuderable  trade  ig  already  c  1 1 1 1<. 
en  with  foreif^  countriei,  and  the  port  is  a  main  y-Zn 
of  comiDuniulion  between  England  and  Gneni-.!-, 
Jeraey,  and  Harre,  in  which,  and  Bome  other  r»i"'i.'i 
it  ia  a  Hiiag  riral  or  the  neighbonrinf;  town  of  V^m: 
mouth.     The  popalatioD  in  IS31  was  19,324. 

DDlrtnKj  Citfc* 
Oaford,  the  chief  of  this  limited  daia  of  citio'^. 
the  principal  town  in  Oxfordahire,  and  is  aituatcil  m 
ralki' at  the  eonAuence  of  the  lua  and  Cherwri',  : 
Uie  distance  of  £6  miln  from  Loodon.    Besid      ' 
iog  the  seat  of  the  celebrated  univeraity  named  ' :    i 
it,  it  ■■  the  aeat  of  an  episcapal  see.     Containing  t . 
oollegsa  and  file   "  halU,"  a  cathedral,  and  th    i< 
elegant  parish  churches,  besides  the  Radcliffe  Lil  i  i : 
tha  Univerut;  Theatre,  and  several  other  eleganr  i  . 
lis  buildings,  all  condensed  into  a  email  apace,  in: 
■tieets,  tome  of  which  are  straight  and  elegant, 
none  except  a  few  of  an  obscure  character  are  : '  i 
Oxford    appean   (o    a  slranger   aa    beautiful    <  '     j 
Dally  as  ita   historie  character  rendecB   it  vene' 
The  High  Street,  in  which  several  colleges  are  siti 
ia  geoerally  acknowledged   to   be   one   of   the    :  .. 
attveta  in  the  world.    The  origia  of  the  univer-  i.i 
(laually  attributed,  bat  upon  no  certain  authoriiy.  > 


dMbnmabTaeiiM  ' 

OmSZtUOm  tonaJKOBtaMpit 

h  ritMtod  OQ  t_  CL-,  -  AadWMW  «r  M  ■! 
LMdoa.  IHaahownhprtdiytftiiAlw 
OxSoti.  nw  udTnlqr  faM  bo  cariab  di* 
1229  :  it  comprebeodi)  seTenleca  cullcgcs,  • 
most  reapeota  are  similar  ta  those  of  Ouord. 
CoUege  Chapel,  built  in  the  reign  of  lUnryTt. 
ail)  tred  the  moat  bcautifol  stncture  in  dtber  ol 


NBTulBIMtoaa 
PBrtimoulh,  the  pnocipal  rcndccroos  of  thi 
nDTV,  is  utunted  on  the  west  aide  of  the  Lda  of 
in  HuDpabixD.  To  Uio  west  of  the  Island  ia 
callod  ForlBmouth  Harbour,  exceljiug  e'erj  ( 
the  coast  of  En^and  for  ita  spacioiunnB,  dc 
security.  The  obvious  utitil;  of  tliis  harbour 
a  Bitualion,  caused  it  to  be  used  at  an  oarly  pet 
at  toiifcrriitaitobudlMMBtharfwirte 

. -u-_i'...J^ ^^  J,  ,^1^  U  j, 

■      -•    .hD* 

bofi 
„  vandawUtoodnALftHMttaoaMn* 
■(  dof  S^dM^iAUili  oipAto  ofoart 
ib-oMBd  aiil  at  uAor  ill  Aa  CMBtart  wautt 
toMatl  or  old  town  tf  foiBiMBlfc,  MRaa 
■ndnt  walk ;  Iba  noten  Hbotaa  towM  tf 
'  SodOm*,  raa^eatlvalr  ritai    ' 


Booth  of  Uwoi^^ta 

the  oi^oiila  (Ida  c(  Uw  UM  to  tha  bufeon,  H 
aaid  to  bm  aaa  dtatog  at  gpiMw,  fobib 
.  bering'ncitlaMtbaaTO^.  TbtbaMkoppoaih 
;»eab5ntw«U  adapted  fbraea  ■bathing,  bM  Ban 
,  snbnib  or  Tfflage  to  bmome  a  wataA^flaea  i 

The  docks,  aiaenal,  bnildin^yards,  and  all  Iba 
other  establishments  concern^  in  thefittiDg  and 
'  keeping  of  the  naUonal  ahipping,  render  Portia 
.  object  of  wonder  to  all  who  see  it  for  the  flu 
The  Dockyu^  includes  the  great  area  of  IM 
The  Smithery  ia  a  vast  boilding,  where  andi 
wrought,  weighing  from  70  to  90  hundredwdgl 
On  (be  Anchor- Wharf  hundreds  of  these  narfn 
ments  are  piled  np,  ready  forimroediate  serriei 
Ropery,  where  the  cordage  for  the  Tcasela  ia  pi 
is  three  storeys  high,  54  feet  broad,  and  H 
long.  The  Gun- Wharf  is  ' 


college  and  hall  has  its  own  students  and  teacher*,  r< '. 
nnet  and  regulations ;  yet  they  are  all  united  i:r'<: 
the  government  of  one  universily.      The  office;- 
whom  the  university  is  immediately  governed,  aj  i    r 
cbaooel  lor,  hi^h  steward,  vice-chanceUor,  and  two  ':  < 
tor*.     In  addition  to  the  private  officers  in  each  o    . 
and  ball,  who  see  that  due  order  and  discipline  an 
■sdrrtd,  and  all  iho  liberal  aaieneea  taught,  thef 
tw«Dl]hthree  pnUio  profbaaors  of  the  aerenl  art 
Boinwea.    In  183S,  there  ware  5009  membera  aj 
books,  one-third  of  whom,  in  their  eapaoitiea  as  fei  I 'I' 


,  Armoaryis  capable  of  containing  !5,IKH)  at 
There  is  a  naval  college,  where  a  bondred  acb 
.  ,  time  of  war,  and  seventy  in  time  of  peace,  ara 
thirty,  who  are  the  children  of  officers,  betnj 
tained  and  educated  at  the  public  eipenaa. 
war,  the  number  of  persona  employed  in  tba 
establishments  connected  with  the  publle  aei 
'  Portsmouth,  has  amounted  to  5000.  The  p 
:  buildings  connected  with  the  arsenal  and  dockya 
Lhe  commissioner's  house,  the  govern  ' ''  ~ 
victualling  office,  the  port-admiral's 
uval  and  military  tjarracks.  The  p 
the  fortilieatioua  forms  one  of  the  mnrt  agrwa 
'  lures  of  the  town.  Amongst  objecta  of  eniter 
'  may  specify  the  Victory,  Nelson's  fiag-ahJD  at  Tn 
'  lhe  Seoupore  Telegraph;  and  the  house  (Kail' 
Street)  in  which  the  Duke  of  Buckingham  waa 
''arily  residing,  when,  in  front  of  it,  ha  waa  ato 
!  teath  by  Lieutenant  FeltoD,  in  1638.  The  cbi 
I  Portsmouth  is  a  ipacioua  Gothic  stmotar*, 
,  mmparatively  modem  tower,  Bsefnl  aa  a  laadl 
leamen.  There  are  varioaa  duuitabla,  Etmm 
tcientilis  institntiona  oonneotad  with  dia  to«& 
Plrmamh  ia  aiwrtbar  important  nafil  atolfcw, 
Ming  a  tbriring  Mmmotdal  town.  It  li  rite 
I  the  head  of  the  eapaolona  baTan  of  Pljiwlh 


f Ufd  ^  tfae  JUiw  jivM.    Tboufk  irf  gnal  tnlliiktiv, 
SMDMnliralx  csi<t?fTi  limr.',  it  j.nQ"-|"mrr  d(  po*. 


Tlif 


ikWiUei 


■ida.  Mtpliai 
acid,  Bad  cmIhhuI*  of  liuur,  wh>  > 
•ilin  and  aMde  ^  ttim.  It  U  Hie 
fvUo^  and  U  aid  la  In  iu<M  on 
fttb^,  (heamatiiH,  fnM.  kuU  ewtaoiMai  JImmi*  U«n 
Iba  Biiniw  Ih9>  Mu  tW]pmi  fnmp-ruaws  ud  lalta. 


a  puruiiD  iiT 
f  SB  II*  ]«»■ 

.  U«n 

late. 


it  admurd  at  £1,171, IOl>. 
ligbthaoM  ia  an  iix|wr<uit  app^ndago 
r,  Iha  mtnDiw  ii(  whieh  would,  irilbout 

iMliWnn  •>(  Vlymaiah  *rr,  !]>■ 

tdl>nn,tliaAtI»'ri'r<cii>.iharukli(>Lilir»TT, 

tha  CUidaiS  Bill!  M  ial.uiu>kl>uil  Sehwil,  Ihs 

ite.    Of  ilio  tKo  jinrlUi  charsbca, 


J  m  BiTih-AX  of  Uoih.    Tlia  atavaHim  ia  aeatd- 

:;  IrUfhlfsl,  beioB  rcmarLa).!))  irFJI  ■lulteml  \ij  tha 

'  ( I  ..i.ionlrl  II lilt  lui  tfcc  nnnb-fB«l,  and  likniMK 

.1  iIm  Minili  awl  wnl  i  It  M  nil  diia  »•• 

'-  i»  all  BtlMT  l«n>*«i  bwUml  by  Mt^ 

. .  itKl  aOwr  M  AnwMB.  ItaUto  bte 

:^  Iha  BBhlirtly  Mid  atUdiww  of  lu  dT 

ili.nt,  Shu  lUil'.  i>,wM'».'<  inii..'i-i,I  afHttfla 

r"ti.n^.i  .)t  vilua  Atr  iTr.'      '  ■  ■        |  ■.r.ioi- 

iarlj  for  inralliia  with  i\-<  ■•  ■->*. 

nl  apni^Si  Mnno  of  *)ii'  i  I'loc 

Kiiii,...!  i.lj,.Jnut,fcu«  *.r_i  .  .  -,"Hh 

'   tiiut  lawn  or  B  wmall  •!»  la  Hniland. 

<<>'  cxpeuMi  of  lliLOK  to  Tn7  cmU-    Tlia 

'<    ilm   paci^ib  Id   1631  wu  ^'2,^13,  alidiil 

I'll,  -.'^.i  ^.  -ii.jm  baloiigvil  lo  the  town. 

Ur-ghivn,  on  ii»>  a«ti  □(  ooMin,  luM  riann  inla  1cb< 

'ichin  tha  hut  M>tv  jvani  partly  la  goiuB* 

■inaurn  m  «  hiia«ti  ntniarfcaliljr  wail  adamail  far  ma- 

biihli>|b  Biul  yarUy  Qwia  lla  attmttbiK  iW  r«tpinl  iif 

iimrgy  t'rlncs  ol  Wala*,  wlm  FvanNl  a  uuuIdd  )ib1buii 

h^Ev.  in  a  (3)1ik*b  itjrla.    The  )ii>pu]atlon  >u  IKXl  waa 

WjiSi.    SrishlaD  ia  as  alegaiil  Nid  airr  tu«D,  with 

much  to  itoidrr  il  Bfr»ab)9  u  a  pU«w  of  rrudum  for 

prrMinn  in  Mfflural  turauniBtatiMB.    Thp  Sli-<riia,  a  ipa- 

.nin  and  Insntiful  Ibwd,  natrlj*  ■nrrountitJ  b;  baiwn^ 

.'  MariuH  Puada,  and  awrirraJ  tarnimi  uvnriMikiaa 

.    ««,  funiiiJi  ddiKhUD]  mtlk* ;  whila  tke  Balb^ 

..;>irc,  AaHiiihl^-l^iiiKi&c,  fcinn  adiUllonal  bMmo- 

iiirin.     'rbcn  t*  a  rental  inlercoiirm  with  Oiapp^by 

be  Clialn*rier  is  a  renuu-fcublt  a^rst : 

envied  la  1 833  at  an  npciue  of  £30,(^0,  a<nl  ia 

AmnncBt  otiipr  lowiu  n(  tliLi  oIom,  we  oaa  mly 
nntim  Iltra*  Ray,  MargaUr,  aiid  AonKfile,  titnaled  «n 
tha  enaxi  of  Kitiit,  and  which  may  bo  e(>Ti*idfi*d  ba  tha 
chief  |ilium  of  ■uinnwr  rtDTcaliaii  for  lh«  inlnUiitant*  of 
LaDdaa,la  and  (roni  which  Mcamcn  plj' daily.    I1n^« 


Dhj  ii  ■  place  of  rcoenl  dalr,  rtauu  int 
-       '    -      nlvamit  open  bewh,  wfih  ■_ 

MarjiMv  Et  a  town  of  >  imndt  earliei 


ling  a 
ivimdJDi:. 
iimUid  ill  an  ufWn  part  d(  &MUl\lM«t  <iBea 

t  k  eoMUHd  tliMftm  nl  ttnt^  wSux  1 
line*  of  bonding  ot  »  mm  ^v)  OawA'^'^iA  te  4 


CHAMBERS^  INFOBHATION  FOB  1 

lmplM«tlh4o|i,buui%|te«b       "w 
toftgft»b>atogM— on;  itjqMi^  ~         > 


)PLE. 


th*ti 


imsS> 


>  tta»  b  a  v«>7  ■grcMbls  m 


VMM*  of  Mn  and  nftMliBwt*  imat       — v 
■All  jifaffrity  gwmal  wtrihntiiwi.  &•....• 

(«twoaloiiga««aHltau»thvpnnBwrm«a«>lkd 
~  '         id  bm«d  it,  at  n  «nad  dbtanoi,  li 

n ahdO: eUniienk  ^ieh  •»  bold aBl 


Of  (hk  abM  of  towM,  boidM  thoM  aUaii  havo  bMB 
■ImdjnatiMd  sndn  otbar  bMd«,«a  euihem  only 
adifit  ta  Aim  «f  man  thuk  tndal  ImpoitaBae. 

a»<»rti»K,  tha  «a^tal  ef  Smtt,  li  a  stt;  rf  gnat 
anfinttr,  ba*fw  bcnad  Oa  Mat  cC  Mt  -— *— ^-^'-tiI 
^lammMil  to  St  AagmOa*,  tlia  mmU  d  CfaiktU 
w^  to  Britain  In  tfaa^tb  •mtwT'.'^  tha  tanth  Mid 
alaraiili  wotnria^  tba  town  dai*«d  (nat  fanpoftaBoa 
from  Dm  aradion  or  artwioa  «f  »  aadiadial,  on  a 
moat  aitBDnve  aeala,  and  Bf  tbo  pnveat  OotUa  anU- 
taatnm.  In  1163,  tbaaiddapjaoepalnawaabotowad 
onth*  fiunou  Bcokat  vho  raiaMd  ft  tIAt  wn^  Ui 
tbo  pwiod  «f  hia  mnrdar  in  11711,  whan  Uaduinab^ 
•ama  an  obJOTt  of  ntnardinarr  larennea,  and  bnoght 
pilnxma  intbotuaoda  fEOtn  all  parta  of  Iha  kiudc*" 
T&  oatfaodnl,  wb^  tboa.  bwama  oaldnto^  ■ 


<-    nnudenble  emuMD< 
J       ■euined  fur  BereiaT  ( 

. .,      cf   iifcpisiiy  &nd  la 

.1  ia antwad ^fev pfai^  ^B « tei 

biidgM,  a  aatbatal,  IbmiIj  llim  ifeank^ 
plaoaaof  wotJupftewaloaadl— IfaabaJw 
Ul,  oomitT-faall,  and  otbw  poblia  httdl^  f 
— Mtkable  o^M«  b7  iMny  dipaaa  kAa»l 


oskli^  iaa  ali^tlj  ahand  and  hnpnrad 
ten  <•  tbat  of  a  croi%  with  a  aantlal  taaia  «•  imn- 
vaUad  woAmaatUp,  nadiing  to  ahidrtt  at  SSBfoaC 
na  aiM  of  tba  bnflding  it  inmenaa !  tha  lawft  inil^ 
fan  aaat  to  wMt,  baiag  GU  tel ;  b^^  of  tha  vanHad 
foof,80tMt;bnadtfa  of  Uia  uaTo  and  rida  aUaa,  71 
feet ;  and  breadth  of  the  eroaa  aialaa,  from  nortb  to 
■ootb,  124  feel  .Tha  inlerior  exbibita  a  nnmber  of 
I   of  di 


wdi.itiaanianifli 
:  in,MfcatlniH»mitwand«fcatln|Mfa>l 
:  Ditar  ha%  vitfain  tha  iHt  fbnr  yaai^  tafia 
■■•atdi'  froan  fit*.  Ua  dawaaa  Bowad  «■ 
oasariMjMMlr,  tho  dittMAH^AawMi 

tTWahtookplaaa— ftaimi*iiniliiL« 
Atrfrftha5iiiteaaHfo<lhati>rt>aM 
illar  towan  and  thaioaf  of  AawnttoM 


oormplioD  of 

imca  occupied  tht  ipot, : 

~  ,  of  Uie  fi.  ■  ■  ■    ■ 


Allogether,  the  cathedral  it  a  work  of  eioeeding  gnn- 
daur,  and,  with  exquiaite  beauty  of  form,  PoaMaee  a 
profauod  hiatorical  interest.  The  toim  of  CaDlerbury 
u  old,  and,  like  moat  cathedral  Iowdb,  in  a  duU  and  foi^ 
nial  place  of  midenca,  with  a  proportion  of  genteel  in- 
habitants. It  in,  however,  neat  and  clean,  and  u  snr- 
roanded  by  a  fertile  and  pleasant  tract  of  coontry. 
It  baa  a  number  of  large  holele  and  poMing-houses,  to 
aecommodate  the  numaroui  trxTellen  paumg  betireen 
the  metropolis  nnd  Dover,  the  chief  ont-port  for  France. 
The  distance  from  London  is  5G  miles,  and  from  Dover 
16.  A  raitway  which  is  now  preparing  between  London 
and  Dover,  and  which  does  not  touch  Canterbury,  will, 
in  all  likelihood,  completely  ruin  it  as  a  posting-station. 
The  only  object  of  attraction  in  the  town,  hesidea  the 
cathedral,  ia  a  pleasure-KTOund  called  the  Danejahn,  a 
'  donjoQ,  such  a  building  having 

in  conneicion  with  the  city  walla. 

laid  out  with  an  avenue  of  trees, 
principally  otherwise  a  grassy  esplanade,  open 
freely  to  all  the  inhabitants,  fn  U90,  the  field  was 
presented  by  Mr  Alderman  James  Simmonds  for  tlie 
Dse  and  recreation  of  the  inhabitanU  in  all  time  coming, 
an  act  of  Eeneroaity  deserving  the  highest  cnnunen- 
dation.  The  population  of  Canterbury  in  IBSl  was 
14,463. 

yorlr. — This  ancient  city,  considered  as  the  aecond 
in  the  kingdum  m  dignity — the  chief  town  of  the  county, 
and  the  cathedral- city  of  the  archiepiscopal  dioeeae 
bearing  ita  name — is  situated  at  the  conAueace  of  the 
Riven  Foaa  and  Ouae,  in  one  of  the  richest  and  most 
axlenaire  plains  in  England.  Its  population  in  1831 
waa  35,3p9.  York,  whatever  ita  first  riae  might  be, 
waa  a  city  of  the  Romans,  and  occupied  by  Koman 
citiiana  aa  a  CDJeiilt  It  waa  aucoeHivety  the  seat  of 
Adrian,  Sevaroa,  and  other  euperon :  Sarema  diad 
208 


/oA  na  at  tea  ttaa  a 


_. etNtdMOMt  ta^ 

OMa,  wUib  ia  aarkpiUa  fbr ' 

II  atiU  111 a  Swan 

WbtAtiter,  a 


TMMhaTUIlM 


tbaltchm,  i 
Southampton.  There  was  a  town  bara  brfbra  II 
tian  era,  and  it  afterwards  became  tha  priasipi 
the  Danish,  Saxon,  aod  Momun  dynaatiaa.  II 
scene  of  Alfred  and  Canute's  glnriaa ;  and  t* 
innumerable  princes,  bisbopa,  and  abbot^  Ihi 
terrcd.  Till  the  rerolntion,  it  cuntinoed  a  eh 
of  residence  of  the  royal  family ;  a  pa  Una  bd 
Stnarta  is  now  used  aa  a  bartaek  for  aoldHiB. 
reign  of  Edward  III.  (1366),  Wincbeatar  bat 
episcopal  see  of  the  celebnled  William  ot  V 
who  greatly  inproved  the  tiathadral,  and  ■■■ 
college  for  the  education  of  jinilh.  The  eatht 
uad^^ne  various  mntationa ;  but  haing  lataljr 
and  otcaued,  ia  now  one  of  the  finaat  atTMlati 
kind  in  Britain.  Tha  ^lendid  manacjaoa  tl 
otWykebam,  in  one  of  iUaiska,  Uano^art 
interest.  At,B  short  diataace  fnoi  tba  «allH 
placed  the  veneraUe  bnildinga  ta 
of  Wjkebam,  at  whichanumtarof 
educated  and  prepared  foe  tl 
highly  iotereeliDg  object  of  antiquity  la  &m 
of  St  Cross,  aituated  about  a  mile  down  Ik 
Founded  by  Henry  de  Blois,  Bishop  of  WiMba 
broUier  of  King  Stephui,  in  1136,  St  Croaa  b 


residenoe  and  means  of  subaiitcnoe  to  iliiiISM 
old  men.  Winchealei  ii  eompoaed  of  a  varial 
streets,  and  seems  ^""Pg  the  least  impavvad 
England.  I^terly  it  haa  been  Uupirad  wUh 
animation,  by  becflmiog  a  itatioD  on  Iha  lis 
London  and  Southampton  Railway.  Papal 
1631,9312. 


Plsce, KdlolHiTth.    Siildalaik<rW 


V.aMIB.Oi 


ult     While  dtrrlvirf;  ihiiiu'I.w  o-U:>nU->:-'.  W'..,<  U.,n 
tnaniJting  priiii'tpl?,  l/iatlon  lim  liimi  inioaJly,  it  DM 
IT  mori.- iu-lRbuid  to  iu>>-xi»ilIvTi{  MiDstiuu  r^u  ilio  buiha 
fa  grrrit  na-iipiU"  rivur,  and  In  a  Kiit  p»"  "f  ''"' 
imnlTy.      As  ftlreoily  ineiiiiunnl,  Londiin  lUDUW.  UT  _ 
bo  gniaMT  pan  of  Uw  Morn,  uluiil*  on  liw  lolt  ItMiklrf 
lio  Thuuc*,  on  gFuund  rtnint;  wry  gtntl;  towH4   "^-^ 
'OTib ;  uid  la  (vtti  anrl  r*guUr  tii  mitUac^  that  ai 
hn  Mrerta,  ivilli  (uw  uxonptloni,  Uio  gntiiuil  In  al 
^i.    Oil  lh«  luuUi  buik  of  llio  rimr,  tlia  groui 
uiH  ItTcl,  niUwr  too  much  «n ;  mhI  on  »ll  Mf  lli«L 
ouuUykppnn  vtrj  liltlo  d<<anlQ«il  vilh  hill*,  or  Dny'.l 
blnff  to  inMTpipt  Uie  cxWaMon  uf  tha  buiMiop.    tM  I 
'lumM,  tli»l  poM  lauroa  of  wwklh  («  llw  nctmi  I 
«1l)L  ii>  ka  oGicet  whtah  gennrMlly  axoiliM  m  1>*clf  ^ 
-    It   i*  ft  vbutil  iiMjoatlaJ 


1  ftimnft   t 
■nam,  ruinf;  iir  ■ 


II  at  thccDuntTf  at  th"  iIIk 


anon  it  1311  mtiMahoTC  London,  and  mMoriuf  U» 
.  abuul  »*»  mil™  tpelu"  it.    I'  « 


it  fea  aurt  coiut  abuul  idtly  milra  b«lu* 


CHAMBERS'S  INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


out  of  a  richly  ormimcnted  country  on  the  west,  and 
arriving  at  the  outmost  houses  of  the  metropolis,  a 
short  way  above  Westminster  Abbey,  it  pursues  a 
winding  course  between  banks  thickly  clad  with  dwell- 
ing-houses,  warehouses,  manufactories,  and  wlmrfs, 
for  a  space  of  eight  or  nine  miles,  its  breadth  being 
hero  from  a  third  to  a  quarter  of  a  mile.  The  tides 
affect  it  for  fifteen  or  sixteen  miles  above  the  city ; 
but  the  salt  water  comes  no  farther  than  Gravesend, 
or  thirty  miles  below  it.  However,  such  is  the  volume 
and  depth  of  water,  that  vessels  of  seven  or  eight 
hundred  tons  reach  the  city  on  its  eastern  quarter  at 
Wappmg.  Most  unfortunately,  the  beauty  of  this  noble 
sti*eam  is  much  hid  from  the  spectator,  there  being  no 
quays  or  promenades  along  its  banks.  With  the  ex- 
ception of  tho  sunmiit  of  St  Paul's,  the  only  good  points 
for  viewing  the  river  are  the  bridges,  which  cross  it  at 
convenient  distances,  and  by  their  length  convey  an 
accurate  idea  of  the  breadth  of  the  channel.  During 
fine  weather,  the  river  is  covered  with  numerous 
barges  or  boats  of  fanciful  and  light  fabric,  suitable  for 
quick  rowing ;  and  by  means  of  these  pleasant  convey- 
ances, as  well  as  small  steam-boats,  the  Thames  forms 
one  of  the  chief  thoroughfares.  f^ 

London  is  fortunate  in  a  partidrorly  salubrious 
situation,  whether  as  respects  its  relation  to  the  river 
or  its  subsoil.  A  large  portion  of  the  entire  city  is 
built  on  gravel,  or  on  a  species  of  clay  resting  on  sand ; 
and  by  means  of  capacious  underground  sewers  in 
all  directions,  emptying  themselves  into  the  Thames, 
the  whole  town  f  with  some  discreditable  exceptions  in 
tho  humbler  ana  more  remote  class  of  streets)  is  well 
drained  and  cleared  from  superficial  impurities.  On 
account  of  the  want  of  stone  here,  as  in  many  other 
places  in  England,  brick  is  the  only  material  employed 
in  building.  London  is  therefore  a  brick-huilt  town. 
To  a  stranger,  it  appears  to  consist  of  an  interminable 
series  of  streets  of  moderate  width,  composed  of  dingy 
red  brick  houses,  which  are  commonly  four  storeys  in 
lieiijht,  and  scldum  less  than  three.  The  greater  pro- 
j»orti<»n  of  the  dwellings  are  small.  Thoy  are  mere  slips 
^^i  l)uil«liii;j;s,  contaiiiin2[,  in  most  instaiuvs,  only  two 
siii.ill  rooiiiH  on  tli«.'  fimir,  one  behind  tiu^  oilier,  often 
with  a  \\i<le  door  of  comniunieation  ht'twi.-cii,  and  a 
wooden  btair,  witii  balustrades,  from  bottom  to  top  of 
the  lioujfe.  It  i's  «)nlv  in  tin?  more  f'asliionablo  districts 
of  tlie  town  that  tho  houses  have  sunk  areas  with  rail- 
ings; in  all  tho  business  parts,  tiiey  stand  close  upon 
the  J  lavements,  so  that  trade  may  hv  conducted  with 
the  utmost  facility  and  convenience.  Kvcry  street  pos- 
i!.e-,scs  a  smooth  llaggo<l  pavemerit  at  the  sides  for  foot 
l»a-^seiigers ;  whlKr  the  ei»ntral  j)arts  of  tho  thorough- 
fares are  causewayed  with  s'luare  har<l  stones,  or  paved 
in  some  other  w.iy  e4ually  suited  to  endure  tho  prodi- 
;;ioU8  tear  and  wear  created  })y  the  horses  and  vehicles 
parsing  along  tlieni. 

In  the  central  and  many  other  prineipal  streets  of 
Lonilon,  tho  gromid  storeys  of  the  Ikiuscs  are  gene- 
rally used  a.s  shops  or  warehouses.  When  the  object  is 
retail  traffic,  tho  whole  range  of  front  is  usually  funned 
into  door  ami  window,  •.<»  as  to  show  goods  to  the  best 
ailvantage  tu  the  passenL'*"rs.     'I'he  exhibition  of  goods 
in  the   i.ondon  shop   windnsvs  is  on«  of  the  greatest 
woiii.hr=»  «'f  the  ]>laco.    Kvery  thing  which  the  appetite 
can  desire,  or  tlio  fancy  imagine,  would  appear  there 
to  be  congregated.     In  every  other  city  then*  is  an 
i'vident  meagrencss  in  tho  quantity  and  assortments  ;  \ 
but  here  there  is  the  most  ri'markable  abundance,  and  l 
that  not  in  isolated  Fpots,  but  along  the  sides  of  tho-  | 
ronghfares  milci  in  h.-ngth.     In  whatovt-r  way  the  eye  | 
i-i   turned,   thi-4   extraordinary  amount  of  mercantile  ! 
wealth  is  strikingly  observable ;  even  in  what  appear  >' 
(ibscuri;  alleys  or  courts,  the  abundance  of  goods  is 
found  to  be  on  a  gn.*ater  hcale  than  in  any  provincial 
town. 

'J'he  flowing  of  the  Thames  from  west  to  east  through 
the  metropolis,  baM  given  a  general  direction  to  the 
lines  of  strti'ts ;  the  principal  thoroughfares  are  in  some 
inea*>uix*  parallel  to  the  riv«  r,  with  the  inferior,  or  at  i 

:'lo 


least  shorter,  streets  branching  from  them.   I 

ing  the  town  lengthwise,  or  from  east  to  west, 

great  leading  thoroughfares  at  a  short  distai 

each  other,  but  gradually  diverging  at  their 

extremity.    One  of  these  routes  begins  in  th< 

environs,  near  Blackwall,  proceeds  aTons  Whil 

Leadenhall  Street,  Comhill,  Cheapside,  Newgat 

Skinner  Street,  Holbom,  and  Oxford  Street.  T 

may  be  considered  as  starting  at  London  Bri 

passing  up  King  William  Street  into  Cheapsid 

end  of  which  it  makes  a  bend  round  St  Paul's 

yard,  thence  proceeds  down  Ludgato  Hill,  alo] 

Street  and  the  Strand  to  Charing  Cross,  where 

a  branch  off  to  the  left  to  Whitehall,  and  ao 

the  right,  called  Cockspur  Street,  which  leads 

into  Pall-Mall,  and  sends  a  shoot  up  Reger 

into  Piccadilly,  which  proceeds  westward  to  H3 

Comer.    These  are  the  main  lines  in  the  mc 

and  are  among  the  first  traversed  by  strangen 

bo  observed  that  the  main  channels  unite  in  CI 

which  therefore  becomes  an  excessively  crow 

roughfarc,  particularlv  in  the  early  put  of 

The  main  cross  branches  in  the  metropolis  ai 

ringdon  Street,  leading  from  the  opening  t( 

friars  Bridge,  at  the  foot  of  Lu<^te  Hill,  to  I 

the  Ilaymarket,  leading  from  Cockspur  Str 

Regent  Street,  already  mentioned.    There  an 

largo  streets  leading  northwards  from  the  Holl 

Oxford  Street  line.    The  principal  one,  in  th 

St  Martin  le  Grand  and  Aldersgate  Street,  wh 

municates  with  the  great  north  road.  It  is  a  x 

general  complaint,  that  there  are  so  few  ereat  > 

of  communication  through  London  both  length 

crosswise ;  for  the  inferior  streets,  indepenc 

their  complex  bearings,  are  much  too  narrow  f 

hir  traffic.    According  to  the  accounts  last  ts 

entire  metropolis  contained  13,93G   separate 

squares,  courts,  alleys,  &c.,  each  with  a  distin* 

Oxford  Street,  the  longest  in  London,  is  2304 

length,  and  numbers  *2r25  houses  on  each  side. 

Without  particular  reference  to  municipal 

tions,  London  may  be  divided  into  four  princi 

tious — the  city,  which  is  the  centiv,  and  wl 

greatest  j»art  of  the  business  is  «;unducted; 

eml,  in  which  is  the  port  for  shipping  ;  the  w 

or  Westminster,  in  which  are  the  palaces  of  th 

and   royal  family,  the   houses  of   Parliament 

minster  Abbey,  and  tho  residences  of  the  nobi 

gentry ;  tho  Surrey  division,  lying  on  the  soi 

uf  the  Thames,  and  containing  many  manuf: 

(■stablishments  and  dwellings  of  private  famiJii 

sides  these,  the  northern  suburbs,  which  incl 

once  detached  villages  of  Stoke  Newington,  It 

Iloxton,  St  Pancras,  Pentonville,  S<mier*8  To 

Paddington,  and  consist  chiefly  of  private  dwell 

the  moreantilo  and  higher  classes,  may  be  coi 

a  ])eculiar  and  distinct  division.     It  is,  howe^ 

where  possible  to  say  exactly  where  any  one 

begins  or  ends.     Thnmghout  the  vast  com  pas 

city  and  suburbs,  there  is  a  blending  of  one 

with  those   contiguous  to  it.      In  tho  busines 

there  are  lines  or  clusters  of  neat  dwellings, 

the  j>arts  devoted  to  retirement  there  are  seen 

tions  of  business.    The  outskirts  on  all  sides  e 

long  rows  or  groups  of  detached  villas,  witi 

mental  tlower-]ilots ;  and  houses  of  this  attract! 

])roceed  in  some  directions  so  far  out  of  to« 

tlnTo  seems  no  getting  beyond  them  into  the  < 

Prom  tho  Surrey  division  there  extend  soulhwi 

westwards  a  great   number  of  these  streets 

private  hour's,  as,  for  instance,  towards   Wi 

Jveimington,  Clapham,  Brixton,  &c. ;  and  in  tha 

tions  lie  some  of  the  most  pleasant  spots  in  the  c 

of  the  metr<»poIis.     The  suburban   streets  a 

macu<lamised,  and  possess  gravel  side  paths. 

I'LACKS  O.N  THE  TIlAMHS,  BELOW  LONDON. 

The  places  on  the  Thames,  below  London,  wl 
most  worthy  of  the  visits  of  strangers,  are  Di 


«  WMf«Ml 


r'Si 


nuaUtMou  a  poUiMie*  si.  . 
tt  tlu  miJUafiin  or  ihax-n 
/<ir  eUuhllinitUiaiilOkruv  j  i 

1i  -iiMd  af  lilt  Bhudrnn  o(  obuiicd:  kcA  qw 
'  iiilr-nrt  lij'iWiaabiailaat]* tnuBlnTTDiui 

T)>i>   rUtf  Ant  or  tba  niU>1iitim'-i1  <•  Wr. 


^^■':: 


B  BUisbMb,  ■lUll^a  hIioh  time  lorlrnii 

ma  ban  hcHu  mado,  but  ehioll; 

D  Biu)  Mnry,  wbii,  in  tha  jtar 

■«  MtehtUie'l  on  liHtiltal  (nr  iD>n)id  Mwoen, 

k  pnrpiiM!  t)i«  buildlngi  u«  atill  i>x<liuiv*l;  ite- 

Jtjf  Ube  lint  aMoimii>  ii  cnntaim  37 1 0  pnuiinnvn. 

r^a.BLili  a  v.iri.iv  ..f  r.f!lr-p|Tif<,riliBg»>¥tirniii«ni 

■^".(ino  out-paiMii'ii- 

'  '^"m^ '''^' 


tbn  •Tti«t  cnnlJ  ni»v*r  aXi''  'lie 

■niutl(-r  BpiirtRiVDt  urn  pbn.'  ■  lupii 

(if  wttT,  julniicahl;  ■xwiitxil  <i>  ,  i-i>  I'y 

NulMQ  tX  the  bMUa  oT  th->  Nili' ;  uil  (ii<:  iflrMalw  of 
Sir  Fruicih  Drahv,  a  enriouii  brua  Instrammt  of  ui- 
tIqtiorAii)iliin,i]M[ir<rrDa,nLi«»IobHrviLtlan.  Itliubeen 
computed  thai  Dthrly  flftj  lliouund  pononi  annually 
viilt  thia  nunlfiociiit  suite  of  tparcmunU^  in  »buih  Ilia 
oxcellimt  tan«  and  judgnciit  of  tha  duiiinxDiigtiml  ar- 
cliit«e.  Sir  Chrulopher  Wrtn,  am  divpUf  v<l  nut  mly 
bjri)iiiii  juM  proportion  aad  tnibnllithmoa^  but  In  tlitf 
HtuiliuuH  r«(^rd  tu  pioluraaaua  form  Mid  outlliu  wblch 
he  liM  liiwtuvrfj  111  >1\  hill  deiii|[nii. 

Thu  park  axtmding  hehhij  tho  bMptlal— vror  npag 
to  the  pubtio — comprehend!  a  eoiuidBrabla  qiao*  of 
KTouiid,  of  groat  natural  ud  arlifiaiftt  bcaat;.  A  path- 
way amidtt  liiua  of  tall  Irwi  Inula  tu  a  Dic«e  of  riiiuK 
i;niuiiil  or  nioDnt — quilu  a  hUl  ta  a  LaQOannr^-wlilvti, 
1)11  hoUda/i,  scDcratly  uhibiCa  a  toirtbful  acano,  taila 
and  luuaof  iha  humblvr  elaiBea  oooudiiriDg  ii  aaa 
fuat  to  ma  down  the  alopo  vi^out  fklllag  nr  iniiUnd  ■ 
nop.  On  thaaummitwlho  RofalObfmiriaur\,[<ii'Mv|^i 
by  GBOTga  111.  lor  Iho  5ti)nw\««4  lA  wtViwvrnnnA 


CUAM]IE11S"S  IXI'URMATION  FOll  THE  PEOPLE. 


l>cim«c,  nnd  the  swnc  of  tlic  laboun  i>f  eoiiio  men  ij( 
dUtiiit^lBhcd  abiliiy.  An  aBti'onamcr-royul,  supported 
by  the  bounty  uflliocrcvD,  cmislaiilly  rotiilcamid  pur- 
nun  inresligations  ill  the  Obsprviitnry.  It  is  Bcnrccly 
'mind  the  rcuder  (hai,  friiin  tim  k\'0\, 
Britibh  uccigraiiliei-B  mciiBurc  tlic  lungiludc  In  tlir' 
«  nuJ  chi    ' 


DrpifonI  ndjuitis  Grccnwicli  on  tlic  west,  benii;  nnly 
•rparated  ^iii  it  by  a  muddy  river  called    llavcnE- 
bwitie,  the  moutli  uf  which  forma  on  estuary  kuenn 
thin  pUci>  is  celo- 
_.,   .      ......  ,  .'uced  nUo  in  the 

reifcii  of  Henry  VIII.  Tlic  dackyonl,  with  the  vic- 
luallidf;  d<!|<artiii<!nt  and  oIHcch,  cuvcrs  abnic  thirty 
acres.  Wliitu  ^^'oulH^icll  is  uow  duvirtod  to  Ihc  )irepa- 
ntion  nnd  cuttwly  nf  naval  nnd  militair  alore*,  Prpt- 
fbrd  is  cliietly  uscl  for  tliu  huildiig;  <a  sliips ;  oiid  it 
poBwawB  n-et  and  di?  dni-lui,  niut  liaiiser,  iniiths'  iihojiF, 
with  aliont  Iniiity  furgi'H  fin-  inukliig  anrliiin>.  Fri<ni 
imiO  tfl  \'>»l! men  aiv iisuiKy  rnipliiypd  h<  re.  The  prin- 
cipal di-|i»t,  limicvcr,  liir  l.trq'.'w-'M-tsiirwrrlaidiip  in 
onliiurv.  ia.-it  Sli.'criiesH,  iimr  ll.r  inoulh  nf  tlie  Thaini')!. 
I'eliT  the  liri'ttt  of  ltu-:,ii,  in  W.\\\,  htinti-it  Hi.-  nrt  of 
iitii|i-biiildi:i-;  nt  Deptfnr'I.  In  lliu  Thaiiu-ii, nuir  llrpt- 
fori),  limy  I.l-  fiiii  nmurtd  the  hull  c.f  a  ninuty-ei;;hC 

fuu  »hili,  Cllliil  the  Dr.  a.!i'.iiiizht,»lii('1i  Kn-xlcdii-iite.1 
y  Clcr^'...  J 1 1.  u..  n  :<::.:\\m>\  ho(.j>itnl,  and,  as  is  indi- 

rec^ptlnn  if  !■"<■"!»■  d'-;!i!k-'i''B"iiH-n  o"  X"imii..n'! 
TliL.  ngble  eli.irily  is  ^.i;.i...rnd  by  voluntary  cuutribu- 

and  objects  and  ptnivi  nf  ,'ittriir:i'  :i  in  aiid  ulnxii  l.nn- 
dull,  bt'cinniu;;  wlili  imi-  i'.jit  :iiiJ  i>lai'.s  of  iiiJiiui'taii'.'i.- 
Ml  tllO  Mi<MI(.'M.-X  Mr  nf  the  I'ivL'l'. 


n.-  /'ur/.— That  ran  of  the  rinr  bi-l».H'n  l.niidon 
llriil»u  mid  Itlaeknull.  :i:.  ii<K-rv»l  ..f  (-"vi-ral  n>;ii»',  ' 
bul  tiiurc  iiLTlirulariv  ih<-  |iiiri  juim  diatity  ln-l<>w  t)|<: 
hriil^,  ci<nnli:ut<'ii  tfie  I'orl.  and  hiii-  ur>'  ciuiiitiii;lly 
bccu  lyinc  at  anclior  great  nimiUrs  i.r  vissoltt  Am  a 
ndicf  111  the  riv-r,  and  fur  olliir  r<':i-»iii,  llure  aiv 
sfV;ral  very  lBri,'i:ibicki ;  the  loner,  and  moH  imiiurlant, 
k'hijtthe  lift  India  Il.ickH.Hhiclii-.iii-Itt  of  tmi  nia- 
eicniH  luihin^  I'lie  next  arv  tlio  Wi--t  l:idK  l)<.''L-<,  the 
enlranceH  l.inliicli  are  a:  lllni-knall :  in  ihiK'hkrKe  rlv- 
(h'iLi  of  ■■hii'pin;:  e-iuni  I'tiil  n-ilh  the  Wtvt  India  tnile 
may  at  all  times  In-  -evil  Moue  hundridri  ol  vi-inels, 
luadiiii><ir  uulnailin!;  in  r>inni'\h:n  whli  I!. '  warelnniM.ii 
aniuiid.  The  lar-.{''-t  of  iIu'm-  iliick.,  eiinUiinn  tliirly 
aer.1  of  naur,  and  i<  ttvvnly-i.ur  fevi  di.'|>.  I'ar- 
tlKT  up  the  river,  and  mar  tlu-  'I'owi-r,  in  the  di-tiier 
nihil  Uapi-ini;.  ur.-  the  l..mi]..n  ]>.,<'L»  and  St  Kailia- 
lini-'H  lliiek-.     Tlu'  l.„iid.<n  Ihuk-.  (-iniii.l  .d  ..n<-  !'i-4ml 

ineiiisun'  i..  ll stent  .■i  tw.iiSv  Mn-^,  iiml  an..lli.-r  "f 

hiiialltrdimeii-iony.  TLL«e  an'  t.urroiiii'iid  bv  wan.- 
huuKH  fur  the  rcccjitiuii  of  bonded  esn-i*,  au<i  Iienialb  ; 
the  HdTChoU'.i'--  arc  i-iuhn  fur  ln>uiii.d  li>i>i  >r  .     Ttle  i 


pviudpal  vurehouM),  entirely  devoted  Id  the  1i 
tobacco  in  band,  till  it  !■  purchased  and  the  < 
paid,  is  situated  close  beside  a  dock  of  aboT< 
in  extent,  called  the  Tobacco  Dock.  TbeTobac 
house  is  tlie  brgest  covered  building  in  the 
occujiies  no  less  iban  five  aeres  of  ground,  ai 
commodatien  for  'iJ.UOO  hogalieaiU  of  tubal 
eight  of  this  extraordinary  trarchouEC,  an 
wme  vaults,  is  calculuted  to  convey  the  nioal 
cent  conceptions  of  Britiih  eominerce.  The  ' 
arched  with  Iriuk,  .ind  extend  in  one  direr 
cuntinuous  line  aboat  ■  mile  in  length,  with 
Udcs  also  of  grcst  length,  the  whole  being 
Streets  of  a  lonii  under  ground.  Along  the 
raiigvd  nipes  of  wine  to  sn  amount  apjuirenil 
limit,  'l^cre  is  acconmiodatiun  for  G3,tl(l'P  pii> 
ecllnm  being  dark,  nil  who  enter  and  go  tlii-u 
carry  lights.  Admission  may  bo  had  by  proi 
order  from  a  wino-mcrcliaut  to  taste  and  cxa 
pipes  be  may  have  in  bond :  a  cooper  aecomi 
visiter  to  pierce  the  casks.  BcHidea  thU  lai 
which  principally  contains  port,  there  are  oil 
for  Fi-eueh  wine^,  &ie.  The  various  docks  sr 
pcrty  of  joint-sttek  companies,  who  receive 
dues  of  various  kiuds  fur  (hur  use.  At  the  t 
river  adjacent  to  St  Katliarinc's  Uiieks,  lie  hii 
vessels,  wliich  sail  to  and  from  Kdlnburgh  : 
distant  port".  I'nssing  the  Tower,  there  isa  « 
series  of  wharfs  for  shipping  nnd  stcaiii-vi 
about  a  mito  to  London  Bridge,  the  tniHic  of 
being  here  most  denw,  and  the  river  at  i 
being  called  Ihc  Tuol.  In  lbi»  chosen  Ecal 
meree,  and  nt  a  aliort  distance  from  (he  bri 
ujion  the  river,  is  situated  tlie  Cuilomh'iutf. 
an  imuieiiEcty  iurgc  i>tone  building,  which  wa 
lUI-l,  on  the  spul  occupied  by  a  former  cna 
debtroyed  by  fire.  The  north  front,  in  whi 
entrance,  is  towards  a  narrow  and  dirty  al 
I.<>w(T  Tlinincs  Street.  Tliere  is  nothing  «ui 
nient's  noticu  in  or  about  the  buildinir,  cxce 
liniR  rwim,  in  nliieh  Ihc  chief  iH.rt  of  the  b 
tiantaeled  ;  it  miatinrfH  IDl)  feel  li>n;^  liii  I 
and  :'i.>  fnrt  liij,H].  The  iiumher  of  clerks,  si-un 
otbiT  uftlwri;  of  llie  cstablinlnnent,  t*  alum! 
saii'L  AC  Hhiirfs  between  the  Cnstuinhoub' 
briilgo,  he  tlioi-.-  nuineniuii  i-tv.ini-vcv^els  whi 
(imvesend,  Margate,  and  oilier  ]>iaeeii  of  ret 
the  I'lianies,  abu  ^tcumvis  fur  continental  pii' 
don,  as  lion  bein  oh!U'rve<li  piiK-riiMii  im  lincuf 
the  rivi-r.  The  tradi-  with  the  hhijia  is  carr 
wliarf«  jutting  uj<un  the  waliT.  The  lliaiucs 
under  siriul  pnhee  regulations  nilh  rvsi<eel 
eertnin  iilaeei>  are  aM>.i|;ned  to  diRerenl  ebw 
selx,  inehiilin,i{  ihiise  which  arrive  from  Newc 
e.ial,  and  all  ei'aiilers.    The  numlwr  of  »lii 

H  Itui'di-nuf  l.<hil,!i'j;i  tons  land  the  number  ul 
tncluilins  Irirh  ve>'M'li<i  nliicli  arrived  the  si 
'  »!.*  -I.K-'l',  Bitb  a  bui-deu  of  •-V>H,7Wi  V 
euKlr>ni-  ihity  cnllifted  at  llie  roi 


I  If  the 


im|<<<rtH  by  eaiiJs,  raiiwayi.,aud  roa'lH,  thi  i 

The  Irailr  e.innictc.l  with  the  I'oM  Ia  can 
thi'  i'1'i->'1yc.<:iFtructed  |iait  of  (he  towiiailjae 
Thanii'-,  fii'l  baekwiinli  ti>  the  cenin-  of  llu'  i 
niO't  theuholeorthisdixtrietconaiMsiifnarni 
■  iiviniiii''l  hy  narehniises  and  olliciii,  nuking 
iLal  ibi'W,  but  iti  nbich  an  iiiealculahlu  aniuuii 
i.i  K>iin:;  on.  The  i.flietii  utmany  liaukerh,  >>hi| 
In-nn.i.i-e  r>nn[anies,  arv  hilnattd  hercabunt 
file  iht-i  muirter,  mi  the  .Suriiiy  tiile  of  (lie 
ninally  Avvur  inarM~i,  an'  iiuioerun*  i-bippiii 
wari'hiiU-iK,  juirtei'  brenerii-s,  ami  manufaeto 

The  /..■(■. r.— The  Tuwerof  l.nnduo,  uhicb 
■i|>iil  bights  of  the  inetnijiulis,  i 


>,  nnd  prison-like  ediAcet,  silu 
ind  olncuro  locality,  on  the  north  ban 
ii>,  aud  Be|iarate<l   fruiu  Ike   cnnldeil 


DlCSeiUt'TION  or  I.O?iDO^. 


<l  4llar  itw  uinr 
^ofatt  IIUU,  to. 
r"  fiU'iMl  *laii|t 
.    i-^ru.ne  till 


I 


■ill  toko  tli«  iitlivT. 
MaM,  llv  idumI  i«  optfu  tn  iMUn,  wlio  <!•- 
kbj»  •rp''*'  ■>■■''  «"  ll"  Rothvriiitli'i  snip. 
m  BiovMad,  H  »1U  Iw  ouuweit  tijr  an  ImUned  rMd 

■   A/anvaniJ. — TliU    i*  a  ■Umn  colunui  Mintttd 
■U  •fODE  >^f  (riiufi'l  ulJdiDlnii  the  wnillwTn 
^M  tiitkg  WilUaiu  StTHt.  an  ibi>  ilcMwr'  ' 
"jUmI.     1i«u  UMtpd(16r7)ili 
iba  gnat  Bn  nf  LodJod,  wiiieh  t 
if  W>!  fm  Boctnanl  from  Ui*  ■polj'  in 
n  UiU  ■ceauul  burn  nuul* 

. _._  Suwil  foTumn,  ilvuiened  hy 

Wfon,  widi  A  i^lt  ipivuUr  t«U  on  thf 
~  an  Bill — •  -      --■'--  ■  ■-  ■ 


;  un  Uiiii 


t  tLe  r 


u  eld-Auhionvl  Klcuclure.  with  a  eon^ 
duiklilo  Ef«c  Tmid  botii  ttDil*:  il  wiu  Houhnl  in  ITM ; 
Hieodi  o  IcoeUi  of  I-J33  fed  i  U  44  r«l  wklo ;  bdJ  hjw 
tliirlvm  largf  noil  two  umiLtlir uobmi  nC  iLuMuslalr- 
giLkr  Ceun-i  -indtli  of  n^ddln  nnJi,  Tli  Icct.  Al  tha 
■iilu  of  ibr  t'&tiiways,  ud  riiiiue  abiiva  ihc  jJcn,  Uiuv 
■TF  rxRiWHVi,  twuitu  uf  wblcb  kiv  lunlaU;  covcivil  alUi 
cujMilui,  Atiil  tbcmi  pruiniiivul  ubjwts  g<Ta  tbe  brMg»  « 
pcuiiliaf  aiiiwiiraiivp. 

Vauthali  DHdgt  i*  the  nuwt  wntcrW  in  tlw  Miisa, 
util  arfiMMa  Uic  river  from  a  ugiiit  alcii-a  UitlbBok 
la  llie  iharougbfiire  udjoiaiiig  V  aiiiliAtI  tiardmu  wid 
KcnnlngbiD.  It  coiuuBla  of  uiiiu  «aal4rni  uniliiw  n*i- 
in^  OQ  alijnc  pinn.  St»niliiit{  vwf  lituib  Aliittf  (rum 
the  liiiwiof  Kciinra1iiiWreniirM,tii<rbiriD|[th8  t«i>pcH;> 
of  a  ctini|>iiiij  who  WXMI  k  Mil  truin  puMiigvn,  U  U 
ri>ii>|nir»iivrl}r  liIll*,iMMl.  Ill  miUicqUHUW  M  «  MUH- 
drrnliU  b(^iiliiij{  in  tho  HiMnBi,  VanKliAUi 
mill  <:>lli('i-  i>iMMt  !n  lti*tniil|citbavtl\u<il,« 


CUAHSERETS  INFOKHATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


polk,  by 

IbM  al  aitbar  tha  bridgM  of  WMtmiMtw  or  TuuImU. 

ri>— rtiiM  wilh  oar  daaoriptka  ef  poblia  boOdiafi 

•ndplMoosf  m^oiteiMia  tMcitfitteltErt  w* 

to  !■  aofoK  wHtwaid,  k  lb* 

Jh£^AM^Thi*i«*buKobaiUmc«i  ' 
rid*«fI.MdMb>U8tioM,aNatodinirBS,aii< 

Iibnf7  mi' 

if  miriad^ 

nl  ^nr^ooMi,  irtueb  u> 

nhhinnfli  mill  III     Th*  uraMBB  of  Oa  Ia&  HooM 
!■  OMB  MI7  on  8i 
aUttojMrnaaM 
On   -    ■ 


fM^  nfia  ^le  tibnfj  *"^   iiibwiiiii,  bMh  ofiataUos 
7  aUMta  of  mino^  ftMi  dM  BmL    The  frinaC 


M-Hoow,  t*  dw  Cotn-ExduMg^ahigaplMB  bi 
uh  in  1AM1  the  gnatcv  put  of  tba  mim  of  1 
taEaphaa.    Hoodky  i*  tba  nulat^j, on  wbiA 
gTMMt  boalle  pranila. 
AfoJ  Jjntiiiyf — TUi  boOdiw,  eMelad  in  lUe, 

*  lilMlii  on  (be  ncntb  Mda  of  ConbiO,  «m  bant  down 
*  **~  j'-ir*  'r;,  bH  "r™*  '"t  r**  *  "-~  Hrrhmyr  fa  In 

£amk  ^  AufaMd^-SUndinf  in  acna  nMUW 
hindlbadM  of  tba  Bojnl  ExduuH^  boing  Tb^  _ 
naaau  Btnat,  uw  oewi  the  orteuiVo  aeriaa  of  alona 
buiMiiwi  oaiainhig  Iba  Bank  of  bglaad.  Hw  pria- 
eipal  Bran^  aaan  frwn  tba  owner  of  Conbill,  conaiiti 
o(  ft  lMi|  lina  flf  inll,oniuianlad  wiib  faandaono  flnlad 
paitneMfniBa^andolber  Jaricaa;  tbawiodowabaing 
lihib.  thii  aniiiiil  ia  ilcail  and  not  In  anj  maana  plaM- 
Inf.    In  tba  oentK  fa  tbo  prindpd  aotnnoat  wbUi 


bidbllBKin«biefafatbatdHnff<Aee.iii«ad»od.  Ilini 
br  tbe  booM  is  freely  open  to  vinilen.  The  whole 
buildings  and  courts  include  an  area  of  about  eight 
Bcrefl,  and  were  completed  in  ITSR.  Tbo  telling-roain 
hIiows  ■  scene  of  mttaordinary  acltrity — clerks  eount- 
iug  and  weighing  ^uld  cuius,  porters  going  to  and  fro, 
and  crovds  of  tradeBmcn  and  others  negoiialing  busi- 
aeaa  at  tbe  countrrB.  The  atlier  and  more  |>rivate 
)>art8  of  tbo  Bauk  can  be  seen  only  by  an  order  from  a 
director.  Tlio  most  inlereating  departmenta  are  the 
bullion  office,  in  a  vaulted  ciiuubcr  beneath,  entering 
from  a  back  cuurt,  the  Irroaury,  and  the  apartiuenla 
ill  wliicb  (be  notes  of  the  bank  oro  printed.  In  this 
luttor  department  tliere  is  a  lar^  steam-engine,  which 
iiiuvcs  two  printing  machines,  twelve  plate  presses,  and 
(illier  mechanism — Itic  whoio  being  in  the  most  beau- 
tiful order,  and  forming  a  most  interesting  sight.  In 
lUS'J,  theru  wens  employed  in  the  Bank,  8'>U  clerks  and 
porters,  and  3S  printers  and  enpavers  ;  there  were 
besides  193  peuMoners.  The  salaries  and  pensions 
amuimted  to  ilSlR.UOS,  the  hnuse  expenses  to  £39,]  BT, 
aiid  tbe  allowance  to  direclom  ^ROUO.  Id  a  sjiacious 
circular  chamber,  colled  the  Ilolunda,  whicli  is  near 
the  telling-oflicc,  a  considerable  burliness  in  the  sale  of 
tfuvemiuvnt  block  is  negotiated.  The  three  per  cent. 
consols  office,  and  dividend  office,  aro  tine  large  apart- 
ineutaadjoinin);.  The  hours  at  which  tlio  llank  iaopeii 
are  from  nine  in  the  moruiog  till  live  in  iho  aftemoon, 
holidays  cxcc]iteJ. 

The  most  striking  view  in  the  interior  of  the  cily  is 
at  the  open  central  space  whi'uro  Threadneeille  Street, 
fomhill,  King  William  Strtel,  and  Oicapside,  radiate 
iu  difTerent  directions.  While  the  comer  of  tbe  lUnk 
of  Kngland  bounds  this  spaco  on  Iho  north,  it  is  cn- 
viri>nrd  on  the  south  hy  the 

Ataiuion-IImur. — This  is  a  tall  square  mass  of  dark 

stone  bnildiiif;,  with  a  portico  of  six  Corinthian  colnnins 

■11  front,  resting  uu  a  low  rustic  basement — the  dengn 

bring hmTy and ine^rpint.     Thisediflco.  which  projects 

a  cuuaiderablv  leaglti  Ix-himl,  is  the  ofBcial  rcsidcucc 

Lit 


an»  (o  tha  lord^nqor^  ^SOMLaMU 
Hooaa  b*  baa  (ba  oM  o(  ft  anpaA  aM 
lift  k  libnwfaa  nllowad  Iha  M*  af  ft  iMa  ( 

a»wmUt,  TMijwaaMfciHw 
•hMrirlbideitli  £mU  dnym 
Mw,  M  ono  e<  dM^M  and  Mat 
of  (ba  «itf.     On  aaoh  rida  mm 

lato  tba  dMaa  mMa  bahkd InaanaMi 

Sbait,  Kilk  StNst,  and  Waad  Slfaal  m  ttM 
•        -  "-      -   BmlMttM 


...    ■.**. 

try  shnnkeeptn  for  wppliet. 
Uig       -set  stands 
Cv.    io/^  or  the  towuhall  d 

I  of  the  livery  to  eleet  ta^ab 

ror,  sberiJb,  and  others  and 

«.  recJTsd  a  aow  GolUo  bani  In  t7L .  _ 
of  the  naad  haU  k  IM  fcatlo^Mft 
6Jt  feet  higb  i  It  k  OM  cd  tba  larnal  noi 
and  cao  aiwMtmodata  aboot  MM  MaMNI  d 
Two  Dlum^  Sgoraa  eaUsd  Gof  sad  M^af^  m 

to  vulgar  oariaBitT,  araplaoad  at  thaw 

ball.    Tha  apnitm    "     '      "     -• -" 
rinl  pietOMa  and 
oBoea  for  d^  Muna. 

Sam  OtMrA,  or,  more 
Han-la-Bow,  ooeopiea  a  1 
Boutb  aids  of  Clbaafaid^  a 
ol«gane(^  dealgnad  h;  tba 
to|iher   Wren.    Tbe  clock  projaett 
from  the  lower  part  of  tbo  tower,     ihbiiiuh 
cciiirt-  oflhecilv,  those  who  are  bom  witlunla 
of  H-i  bdls  are  jocutarlv  called  (\Khteyi, 
val,T,i  1..  "cnnin"  i-itiJpii?.     Th"  ft.nircl 
bishops  of  London  takes  pUce  in  Bow  Cbnidu 

At  the  western  eitremily  of  Cheapaide  is  a  imt 

nmp  of  building,  in  which  is  I'atemostet  Row}* 
the  right  or  nortli  is  St  Martin  le  Grand,  a  m«k 
which  is  the  Foat-Ofhce ;  and  on  tbo  left  ia  S*  ttt* 
Churchyard. 

7>oil-Q^(V.— This  is  the  graodeat  of  aU  tba  fMl 
baildings  of  London,  not  reckoning  those  of  an  Mdlj 
icsJ  order.  In  comparison  with  ita  tcAj  "^^ 
portico,  all  other  columnar  stmcturea  in  tho  nitnf* 
seem  insignilieant  The  whole  edifice  fa  </  staaat  ■■ 
meaaores  389  feet  in  length;  and  tba  thiaapiai— 
with  which  it  is  adorned  are  of  tbe  loniewMr.  9*- 
neath  tho  central  portico  is  the  entrance  (o  a  tfarf* 
hsll  (HO  feet  long,  60  feet  wide,  and  M  feal  t^),tW- 
ing  also  an  entrance  at  tho  oppoHta extmnity i  ui" 
both  sides  are  the  vorioue  windows  or  wiekela  lir  ■** 

iviog  letters  designed  for  the  foreign,  inland^  arW* 
post,  Alc.  Tho  upper  storeys  in  tbe  building  «^* 
sleeping  apartments  for  numerous  olerba  bdaaf^** 
theforoigupoet-office,BndserTanls.  Tbe baUdiBgi*^ 
closed  by  a  railing,  and  at  tbe  north  end  a  a  auai<f*f 
n  which  in*il^;oaches  range  np  and  depart  wiAB* 
uari  of  bags  every  evening  at  eight  o'clock.  Fwp* 
0  seven  o'clock  in  tlie  evening  a  pro^gkM  tM" 
prevails  iu  putting  letlera  into  tba  Poat-OBta;  a*" 
iaiurday  evening,  when  tho  Sundaj  na»i|a|Mli  jH 
posted,  it  exceeds  all  descrii       i.  nianaaMakMlK*" 

e  is  one  of  thorns.     ■«tinciWM*II«f 

lediately  behind  tba.  *<Mb*rtwlrt£ 
smiths' Hall,  a  new  and  V  •*  ntbnBdkKafQW** 
architecture,  and  of  laig.  iim,  brtlMtta*' 

this  unhappily  eonHnsd  at.  ^ 

St  rauTi—Si  Hani's  C        ,  tba  wM  |M*^ 


DESCRIPTION  OF  LONDON. 


London,  tnd  wfaoie  lofty  dome  towers  in  ma- 
rthemeui  rowi  of  brick  houBes  which  environ 

in  the  eentre  of  an  enclosed  churchyard  of 
ODMBilons^  at  the  head  of  Ludgate  Hill  Street. 
I WM  pianiked  here  four  hundrod  years  before 
nan  Gmqnest,  and,  under  Tarions  shapes  and 
■,  it  xvmabed  till  destroyed  by  the  great  fire 
n,  in  1666.  An  entirely  new  edifice  was  then 
I  ita  stead,  the  important  work  being  committed 
xktopher  Wren.  It  is  built  in  the  form  of  a 
OBs,  and  measures  514  feet  in  length,  286  in 
and  370  in  height,  to  the  topmost  pinnacle, 
ly,  the  walls,  which  hare  a  dark  sooty  appear- 
sept  where  bleached  with  the  rains,  exhibit  a 
tnge  of  windows.  There  are  three  porticoes  at 
entrances,  on  the  north,  west,  and  south.  That 
Mft  is  the  principal,  with  twelve  lofty  Corinthian 
.'low,  and  the  angles  above  crowned  with  hand- 
i  towers,  the  size  of  ordinary  church  towers  or 

But  this  entrance,  which  fronts  the  street 
ndgate  Hill,  is  apparently  disused,  and  the 
entrance  is  bv  the  north  portico  and  flight  of 
hi  entering,  the  impression  produced  by  the 
of  the  internal  space  is  very  great,  although 
entirely  want  those  decorations  which  give  St 
nd  many  less  remarkable  continental  churches 

beauty  and  interest  The  only  objects  de- 
» please  in  detail  are  the  statues  and  sepulchral 
Dts  ranged  along  the  sides  of  the  aisles.  The 
I  of  St  Paul's  are  considerable,  and  support 
irebendaries  and  other  functionaries,  the  insti- 
ring  a  f*ollegiate  church.  Prayers  are  read 
toming  and  afternoon.  Through  some  fine 
eenwoirk,  a  view  is  obtained  of  the  place  where 
I  services  are  performed,  and  which  is  highly 
i  with  dark  oaken  carved  work.  If  the  stranger 
le  may  mount  by  means  of  stairs  and  ladders 
9p  of  the  cupola  ;  and  though  he  bo  taxed 
tall  sum  at  the  different  stages,  he  will  be 
paid  by  the  extensive  view  from  the  balcony 
7,  which  comprehends  the  whole  of  London, 
country  beyond  its  outskirts,  and  the  Thames 
lacidly  in  its  winding  course  through  the  dense 
louses.  Altogether,  St  Paul's  is  a  magnificent 
) ;  and  thaugh  it  cost  a  million  and  a  half  of 
1  the  erection— >and  that  was  a  great  sum  in 
iteenth  osituiy — the  price  was  well  spent  bv 
in  on  so  worthy  an  object.  The  clock-work 
t  bell  of  St  Paul's  always  attract  the  notice  of 

The  pendulum  measures  fourteen  feet  in 
rhile  the  mass  at  its  extremity  is  one  hundred- 
rhe  great  bell,  which  is  only  rung  when  a  mem- 
te  royal  family  dies,  is  placed  in  tlie  southern 
wre  the  western  portico,  and  weighs  four  and 
M,  and  is  ten  feet  in  diameter.  The  fine  deep 
tUs  mighty  bell,  on  which  the  hours  are  struck, 
lemnly  in  a  quiet  evening  across  the  metro- 
l  are  heurd  distinctly  by  families  at  their  firo- 
vral  miles  distant  In  the  immediate  vicinity  of 
I,  the  town  has  a  retired  cloistered  appearance, 
m  of  the  very  streets  and  lanes  giving  token  of 
mer  connexion  with  the  religious  structure 
erieal  attendants.  The  enclosed  churchyard  is 
led  by  a  street,  not  of  the  broadest  dimensions, 
nnmed  in  with  houses,  now  chiefly  dedicated 
the  lower  storeys  being,  as  usual,  shops.  An 
bed  passage  on  the  south  sideaof  the  church- 
Is  to  tktctors'  Commons,  or  the  offices  connected 
eeelesiastical  courts.  St  Paul's  is  open  each 
r  from  9  to  11,  and  from  3  to  4  ;  and  on  Sun- 
i  10  to  12,  and  from  3  to  5.  An  authorised 
fees  is  exhibited  at  the  door. 
Mitffr  Bow  is  a  continuation  of  Cheapside,  but  is 
m  a  thoron^iiare,  though  it  communicates  by 
M  alleys  or  courts  with  the  Churchyard,  and, 
■tern  extremity,  by  means  of  another  cross 
led  Are-Maria  Lane,  leads  into  Ludgate  Hill. 
iter  Row,  or  **  the  Row,"  as  it  is  familiarly 
is  a  dnlJ  etrect,  hanlly  wide  enough  to  pcruiit 
215 


two  carriages  to  pass  each  other,  with  a  narrow  pave- 
ment for  a  single  rank  and  file  on  each  side,  and  a 
cutter  in  the  middle.  The  houses  are  tall  and  sombre 
m  their  aspect,  and  the  shops  below  have  a  dead  look, 
in  comparison  with  those  in  the  mprc  animated  streets. 
From  a  very  remote  period,  this  alley  has  been  the 
seat  of  booksellers  and  publishers,  who,  till  the  present 
day,  conthiue  in  such  numbers  as  to  leave  little  room 
for  other  tradesmen.  At  the  western  extremity  of 
Paternoster  Row,  a  passage  leads  from  Amen  Comer 
to  Stationers'  Court,  in  which  is  situated  Stationers' 
Hall,  and  also  several  publishing  houses. 

Christ  Church  Hotpital,  or  the  Blue  Coat  School,  as 
it  is  commonly  called  from  the  colour  of  tlie  boys'  dress, 
is  situated  within  an  enclosure  on  the  north  side  of 
Ncwnte  Street,  and  is  one  of  the  most  splendid  among 
the  charitable  foundations  of  London.  The  buildings 
stand  on  the  site  of  a  monastery  of  Greyfriors,  which 
was  granted  by  Henry  YIII.  to  the  city  for  the  use  of 
the  poor ;  and  his  son  and  successor  Edward  VI.  greatly 
extended  the  value  of  the  gift,  by  signing  a  charter  for 
its  foundation  as  a  charity  school,  and  at  the  same  time 
endowing  it  with  sundry  benefactions.  The  hospital 
was  opened  for  the  reception  and  education  of  boys  in 
1552.  Charles  II.  added  an  endowment  for  a  mathe- 
matical class,  and  with  various  augmentations  of  en- 
dowment, the  annual  revenue  is,  we  believe,  about 
£40,000.  This  income  supports  and  educates  nearly 
1200  children,  500  of  whom,  including  females,  are 
boarded  at  the  town  of  Hertford  for  the  sake  of  coun- 
try air.  The  numagcment  of  the  institution  is  vested 
in  a  body  of  governors,  composed  of  the  lord-mayor  and 
aldermen,  twelve  common-councilmen  chosen  by  lot, 
and  all  benefactors  to  the  amount  of  £400  and  upwards. 
The  children  are  admitted  without  reference  to  the  city 
privileges  of  parents  ;  about  one  hundred  and  fifty  are 
entered  annually.  After  instruction  in  the  elementary 
branches  of  education,  the  greater  number  leave  the 
seminary  at  the  ago  of  fifteen,  those  only  remaining 
longer  who  intend  to  proceed  to  the  university,  or  to 
go  to  sea  after  completing  a  course  of  mathematics. 
There  are  seven  prcfleutations  at  Cambridge,  and  one 
at  Oxford,  open  to  the  scholars.  The  buildings  of  the 
institution  embrace  several  structures  of  large  dimen- 
sions, chiefly  ranged  round  opeu  courts,  with  cloisters 
beneath,  and  a  church,  which  also  serves  as  a  parochial 
place  of  worship.  The  only  part  of  tho  establishment 
worth  examining  for  its  architecture  or  size  is  the 
great  hall,  occupying  tho  first  floor  of  a  building  of 
modem  date,  and  in  the  Gothic  style.  It  mcasurcH 
187  feet  long,  51  feet  broad,  and  47  feet  high,  and  pos- 
sesses a  small  gallery  at  each  end.  In  this  magni- 
ficent apartment,  tho  boys  breakfast,  dine,  and  sup, 
under  the  direction  of  Kmale  (/ouvemantet.  Before 
meals,  one  of  the  elder  inmates,  from  a  pulpit,  says  a 
long  grace  or  prayer,  at  the  commencement  of  which 
tho  wliole  of  the  boys,  in  lines  at  their  respective  tables, ' 
fall  on  their  knees,  and  present  a  striking  spectacle. 
£xu:h  boy  is  dressed  in  the  pauper  costume  of  Ed- 
ward Vl.'s  reign  ;  the  garment  consisting  of  a  long 
dark-blue  coat,  breeches,  and  yellow  worsted  stockingd. 
They  are  also  provided  ^ith  woollen  caps,  but  these  are 
so  small  and  flat  as  to  be  rather  for  show  than  use. 

Newgate, —  At  tho  western  extremity  of  Newgate 
Street,  and  fronting  the  Old  Bailey,  a  street  which 
crosses  to  Ludgate  Hill,  stands  Newgate,  the  general 
criminal  prison  for  the  city  and  county.  The  exterior 
presents  high  dark  stone  walls,  without  windows,  and 
with  entrances  from  the  side  next  the  Old  Bailey,  at 
one  of  which  public  executions  take  place.  The  earliest 
prison  here  was  in  the  portal  of  the  new  gate  of  the 
city,  OS  early  as  the  thirteentli  century,  and  hence  tlie 
name.  The  present  modem  edifice  was  in  course  of 
erection  in  1780,  when  it  was  partially  destroyed  by  the 
riots  of  that  year ;  and  it  has  since  been  greatly  ex- 
tended, one  of  its  improvements  being  the  exclusion  of 
debtors,  who  are  now  confined  in  a  jail  in  WhitecrosH 
Street,  and  a  still  greater  improvement  bcin;:  the  clus- 
i>ification  of  prisoners  in  wards.    The  e»tublibhmcut  ia 


CIIAMRERSS  INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


a  olainest  poBsibte  eandUioii,  anil  is  other- 
nausged  with  gruat  ck.iv  and  huiuuiily.  Tho  eeile 
for  oniidcnmed  primncra  arc  at  tUo  iioMh-entt  aomor, 
aexi  to  fiewRfttc  Street.  Strangers  are  admitted  to 
inapect  th?  priBOli  bj^n  ordrr  rroin  one  of  the  iheriCni 
or  other  compeleot  city  aatborities.  In  buildings  ad- 
joiiiing  tliB  priton  are  lield  Itie  Central  and  otbcr  ori- 
inioal  courts.  At  tlia  liead  of  Snow  Hill,  and  nearly 
oppD«td  Newgate,  stands  St  Sepulcbrc'a  Chureb,  the 
lounding  af  whose  bell  has  admonished  many 
happy  wreLah  of  the  appi-uaching  hour  of  execui 
Templt-Ilar,  &c. — The  boundary  el  the  city, 
western  termiitation  of  Fleet  Street,  is  marked  by 
Temple-Bar,  eonetating  of  a  wide  eentml  archi 
a  amallor  archway  at  <m*h  side  for  fool  pif 
Thers  are  doors  in  the  main  nana^  whicli  ran  be  shut 
at  pleaaare,  but  practically  they  are  never  closed  ex- 
repl  on  the  occasion  bfaome  state  eereniaiiial,whea  the 
lord-mayor  aHects  an  act  of  graco  in  opening  them  t 
royalty.  The  structure,  which  was  designed  by  Si 
CbrialopherWren,  and  erected  in  11172,  must  now  be 
wiiuiid<Ted  a*  a  serious  obBtnction  to  t)ie  living  itret 
pi>«iing below.  The  neighbourhood  of  Temple- Bar, ... 
ib"  city  side.  Is  nmch  occupied  by  offices,  hatls,  and 
renUlenCKS  of  lawyers  and  Inw-stadents.  In  or  Dear 
Chancery  Lane,  norlhwardi  from  Fleet  Street,  are 
■ttuatcd  Sencant's  Ian,  Lincoln'u  Inn,  ClitTord's  Inn, 
&C.,  while  Gray's  Inn  and  Furuival's  Inn  are  situated 
on  the  iiortli  side  of  Kolbom.  These  and  other  /iiiu 
Hf  Gmrl,  aa  tliey  aro  termed,  are  large  oslabliahments, 
with  niartmoDtB  for  tlie  residenee  of  law-aladCDta, '  ' 
howeAr,  do  not  attend  classes,  but  only  rent  rooma 
pay  for  their  dinners.  After  rending  and  payinj;  a 
ordinary  for  a  certain  length  of  time  in  tluee  pli 
young  men  are  cnusidered  qunliRed  to  be  called  to  the 
bar.  At  the  foot  of  a  lane  near  TBinple-Bar,  ou  the 
south  side  of  Fleet  Street,  U  a  moat  extensive  series  ol 
btliidings,  composing  aeverol  squares  and  rows,  called 
tha  Temple,  and  being  the  plam  of  residence  of  the 
members  of  two  BoeieUes,  the  Inner  and  Middle  Temple, 
oooaisting  of  benchei's,  barristci^  and  sladonts.  The 
establish mpQiB  pusses  a  neatly  Irininicd  garden,  ad- 
joining the  rivtr.  lu  the  cluster  of  buildings  lying 
~  rl  from  the  Temple,  once  existed  the  aauctaary  of 
netinies  called. 


Whilefnars,  or  Ahalia,  as  ■ 
'     hich  is  give 


'    The  St 


r  still  n 


0  «  Fo: 


tl  appearance  of  Alsatians 


of  an  inferior  order,  but 
and  their  pranlu  is  gone. 

£;rarid.— The  Strand  is  the  long  bnt  somewhat  ir- 
regularly built  street  in  continuation  wealward  from 
Templo-Bar,  the  thoroughfare  bring  gr«tly  iueom- 
moded  by  two  chnrchej,  which,  nt  a  diKlaaeo  frtim  each 
oUier,  stand  in  the  very  middle  of  the  way.  In  the 
BDVonteentli  century,  the  Strand  was  a  species  of  coun- 
try mad,  connecting  the  city  with  Weatniinstcr,  and  on 
its  southern  side  stood  a  number  of  noblemen's  resi- 
dences, with  gardens  towards  the  river.  The  grandest 
ot  these  Diansinnawas  a  |HUoce,wliiehhad  been  erected 
in  1849  by  the  Dnte  of  .S..niers«t,  Protector  during  a 
part  of  the  minority  of  Kdaard  VI. ;  on  whos/atlaiiiacr 
it  became  crown  properly  and  a  royal  residence.  The 
ediHcewat  entirely  removed  in  tha  reign  of  George  HI., 
and  on  the  spot  waa  erected,  from  designs  of  Sir  Wil- 
liam Chambers,  about  the  year  ITOO,  that  magniflGeat 
qnadrangulnr  stmcture  called  SoniSTtet  Haua,  which 
H  devoted  to  the  accommodation  of  various  govern- 
HMdoSleee.  This  noble  stone  building  has  its  main 
froW  towards  (he  strand,  while  on  the  rear  it  present* 
an  almost  equally  elegant  facade  lo  tha  Thames,  which 
H  clusely  overhangs.  In  the  middle  of  the  Strand 
mMtodi  ii  the  principal  entrance,  consisting  of  three  open 
■nhwaya,  leading  into  a  spaeioos  qnadnngulir  conrt 
fi  the  centre.  Tbe  lines  of  buildings  around,  sa  may 
be  observed  from  inacriptions  over  the  doorways,  con- 
tain the  Nary  rav-Offloe,  Stanip-OBIee,  fte. ;  and  in  a 
hriek  building  behind,  at  tlie  narth-westem  ang^ 
the  oflUw  of  tha  Puor-Law  Commiatien.  ■-  -■  - 
iiart  of  tlie  norili  line  of  building,  near 
,  218 


JP 


euitoofapartments  devoted  to  Valium  m 
with  the  royal  navy,  and  including  a  mnseiima 
uf  ships,  &e.  Adjoining  Somerset  Honse  on  I 
and  entering  by  a  passage  from  the  Strand,  is 
of  rather  ptun  but  massive  brick  buildii>gB,la(el; 
for  the  accommodation  of  King'!  Colitot.  Th 
contains  no  other  public  strueture  of  raiparia 
has  some  elegant  stuccoed  buildings  at  th*  *t« 
tremity,  on  the  nortliem  ride )  opposite,  and  c 
ing  Charing  Croas,  is  the  targe  maniian  of  the 
Northumberland,  distinguished  by  the  figure  o 
the  family  crest,  on  the  summit. 

Charing  Oou.— The  open  space  Called  Chari 
is  marked  by  a  flgure  on  hor*eb«iok  of  Charlr 
the,  name  of  the  locality  is  derived  from  the 
vilisgo  of  Charing,  which  once  stood  upon  llie  < 
the  nortli  side  is  an  open  quadraiisuhir  ajiace, 
by  the  clearing  away  of  bnildinga,  now  called  I 
Square,  and  in  the  centre  of  which,  ti,^\\xx  is 
in  commemoration  of  Lord  Nelson.  At  the  nc 
angle  stands  SI  Mariin's  C/iunh,  whose  poi 
Sir  Christopher  Wrcu,  ia  reckooinl  the  iiuMt 
of  its  kind  in  the  metropolis,  or  perhue  in  Ih 
Adjacent,  closing  tlio  northern  side  of  the  aqu 
bean  lately  erected,  at  an  eipenae  of  £92,W 
by  rarliamont,  a  building  containing  the  A'alia 
leiy  of  Pictures.  Mr  Wilkins  was  the  archi 
is  in  tlie  Grecian  style,  but  so  long  and  so  drfi 
height  or  grandeur,  as  lo  be  contemptible  aa  a 
art.  The  National  GJlery,  which  is  freely  op- 
public,  eonsiiita  chiefly  of  a  oollectioa  of  pietui 
chased  for  ££0,000  from  the  heirs  of  tbe  late 
gcrstein.  The  Royal  Academy  has  apartment 
eastern  division  of  tlie  building,  for  its  etJiih 
pictuTcA.  The  National  tiaUery  is  open  on  I 
Tuesday,  Wednesday,  and  Thursday,  and  llie 
Easter  and  Whitsun  weeks  except  Saturday,  I 
till  five  1  but  is  doled  for  six  weeks  from  the  en 
second  week  in  September. 

n^iJeAoU.— Wlutehall  Street,  which  rnns  in 
cm  direction  from  Charing  Crosa,  is  a  long  i 
cioua  thoroughbre  leading  to  Parliaiuent  Slr« 
terniinalea  in  Palace  Yard,  where  tbe  Houses 
liament  are  situnted.  On  the  western  side  of 
hall  Street,  and  nearly  tliroughout  its  length, 
seriee  of  luge  buildings,  in  various  styles  of  i 
tnro,  and  used  as  government  office*.  '  The  tr, 
series,  on  our  right  going  southwards,  ia  tbe  Ad 
which  may  be  known  by  tbe  telegraph  on  its  re 
is  the  Horse  Guards,  where  tho  businesa  uf  t 
is  transacted,  and  which  is  outwardly  distjogu 
two  mounted  euards  at  the  gateway,  and  an  • 
leading  to  St  James's  Paric  beliind ;  next  I*  tl 
Bury  I  and,  lastly,  the  Board  uf  Trade,  and  oSi 
Privy-Council.  A  short  street  or  place,  leadl 
tlie  comer  of  the  building,  and  called  Dvwain| 
coutains  the  oflidal  residence  of  Uie  first  Ion 
Ircawry,  tbo  chancellor  of  tho  cxcbcquer,  Ih 
of  the  foreign  and  colonial  sccrtilariea  of  U 
On  the  eaatem  side  of  WhitehaU  Street,  and 
the  tlorse  Guards,  stands  a  tall  square  maaain 
of  liandiome  orcbilecture,  designed  by  Inigo  Ja 
built,  at  the  order  of  James  I.,  to  serve  a>  a  ban 
hODse  lo  bis  adjoining  palace  of  Whitcball.  IIm 
which  reached  to  tho  nver,  waa  aeeideulally  bm 
in  IGOo,  whon  St  James's  Palace,  In  SI  Jama 
was  erected,  lasving  the  Banqueting- llotise  to 
aa  an  odiRce  for  auv  pnblio  purpose.  Tha  gi 
is  now  used  aa  a  chapel;  its  niof  is  onunu 
a  painting  by  Rubens,  representing  the  ap 
of  James  1.  The  Banqueting. House  derivea  i 
clioly  interest,  from  having  been  llie  ncuue  al 
culionvf  Charles  I.,  who,  on  tbeSUth  of  January 
paused  from  an  open  window  to  a  MalTuld  in  fnin 
lie  was  beheaded  in  tbe  prosenco  of  an  iinniat 
course  of  epectatoni. 

Wt,l>tiH4trr  IIM—Ilou^  qf  l'orUtmnH~ 
Konili  M^  of  l>nUoe  Yard,  aUMidi  a  amrewl 
luii'd  diiitvr  <>f  building"  of  ascitMl  and  mode 


DESCRIPTION  OF  LONDOK. 


ig  k  centnl  and  beantirul  old  Gothic  fabric, 
Mtminster  Hall,  Mme  pusaitlc  edifices  de- 
rfSow  for  oovrts  of  law,  aod  other  HructureB, 
ra-edifled  wicclu  of  Ihehousa  of  Farlisment, 
TD  a  f««  Tcan  ago.  Weslmiiutar  Hall,  wliich 
d  expcaed  to  Palu^  Yard,  was  built  by  Wil- 
a>  ID  tin  jrcara  1097-8,  and  may  be  said  to 
Um  body  of  a  church ;  the  interior  is  of  ei- 
rj  dimenmcQi,  being  270  feet  Inng,  74  broad, 
igh ;  aad  the  roof,  cooBisliog  of  ancieiit  mlf- 
I  an  air  of  aolemn  grandeur.  The  floor  is 
the  free  walking  to  and  fro  of  lawyers,  mem- 
m  Honae  of  Commons,  and  olhere.  The  pre- 
le  of  Commons  and  House  of  Lords  are  neat 
□odious;  but  being  only  for  tcMporaiy  use, 
ndid  ediflee  is  erected  for  their  accommodB' 
er  to  the  riTer,  Dothing  farther  need  be  said 

Hilrr  Atbry. — Nearly  opposite  the  houses  of 
at  alands  Westminster  Abbey,  open  to  inspec- 
le  north  and  east,  but  much  crowded  upon  by 
elling-boDses  an  the  west.  In  vcrj' early  tiniee, 
>f  ground  was  a  small  insular  tract,  surrounded 
lers  of  the  Thamee,  sad  called  Thorney  Island, 
looastic  instilutioD  was  founded  on  the  intro- 
f  Christianity  into  Britain.  Under  Edward 
•sor,  an  abbey  was  raised  upon  the  siUi  of  tlie 
oiiBiitie  building.  The  ground  |)lan,  OS  usual, 
arm  of  the  cross ;  rights  and  endowments  were 
aod  the  edifice  assumed  a  great  decree  of 
ir>l  grandeur.  It  had  become  the  place  for 
ontioD  of  the  English  monarchs,  and  William 
leror  was  crowned  here  with  great  pomp  and 
,in  l<Ki<3.  Henry  III.  enlarged  the  abbey,  and 
JDg  coBlinued  in  the  stale  in  whicb  he  li?ft  it 
ry  V 1  [.added  achapel,  built  in  the  floridUotliic 


WcstuilnUer  Abtw]'. 
rhicb  the  greatest  skill  of  the  architect  and  the 
■as  displayed;  exhibitiag  the  most  splendid 
of  the  age,  and  so  highly  esteemed,  that  it  was 
:hat  the  remains  of  royaJty  alone  should  be  in- 
hinitswallH.  During  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII. 
was  considerably  defaced, but  on  the  surrender 
nnes,  Henry  raised  Wpslminsler  to  the  di;;nity 
and  its  abbey  was  coostilulcd  a  cathedral.  It 
iTcr,  afterwards  reunited  to  I.ondtin  in  1550. 
iter  Abbey,  duriii|^  the  reign  of  WillLim  and 
i  thoroughly  repaired,  and  the  lowers  added 
*eni  entrance,  under  the  direction  of  the  cele- 
7  Christopher  Wren,  to  whom  London  owes  so 
ta  archilectunil  grandeur. 

Sh  of  the  nbbey  is  ^IG  feet;  breadth  at  tlie 
3  feet;  nave,  102  feet;  height  of  the  west 
tS  foet  The  eiterior  measurement,  including 
I.'b  aiapel,  is  530  feet. 

oing  at  the  great  western  door  between  the 
«  ma^ificence  of  the  abbey  at  once  strikes 
dvwilh  reTcrential  owe:  nearly  the  whole 
toriar  aiiptM*  in  grand  masses  of  towering 
•217 


Gothic  columns  of  grey  marble,  connecting  the  pave- 
ment with  the  roof,  and  separating  the  nave  from  the 
side  aisles.  A  screen  divides  Ihe  nave  from  the  choir, 
which  b  aunuonn  ted  by  a  noble  organ,  while  beyond,  the 
eye  soars  amid  graceful  culumns,  tracery,  and  decorated 
windows,  to  the  aummit  of  the  eaalem  arcb  that  over- 
looks the  adjacent  chapels.  The  walls  on  either  side  dis- 
play a  great  profusion  of  sepulchral  monuments,  among 
wliich  are  many  finely  executed  pieces  of  scutplurc,  and 
touching  memorials  of  those  whose  exploits  or 
deserved  the  notice  of  posterity. 

Above  the  line  of  tombs  then 
galleries,  once  occupied  by  nuns, 
dreary  iu  their  antiquity,  though  relieved  by  the  sun- 
beam  glancing  across  Ihe  misty  height  of  the  nave. 
The  norlhem  window  is  richly  ornamented  with  stained 
glass,  represon^ng  tlio  Holy  ticriplures  surraunded  by 
a  band  of  cherubim,  in  the  centre ;  on  the  sides,  the 
Saviour,  the  Evangelists,  and  Apostles,  appear  in  re- 
cumbent altitudes.  From  this  window  proceeds  a 
calm  ray  of  light,  very  advantageous  to  Ihe  display  of 
the  beautiful  sculpture  on  which  it  falls.  There  are 
numeroua  tombs  and  monuments  of  noble  persons,  ex- 
quisitely imagined  and  executed,  in  emblematical  groups 
or  in  faithful  portraiture,  presenting  to  tlie  spectator 
subject  for  deep  reflection. 

The  Chapel  of  Kdward  the  Confessor  is  at  tho  eastern 
end  of  llie  choir,  andconlainsthc  shrine  of  St  Edward; 
that  it  was  an  exquisite  piece  of  workmauahip  is  evident 
even  in  its  decay.  Here  also  is  the  coronal  ion -chair, 
under  which  is  placed  the  celebrated  stono  brought 
from  Scone  in  Scotland  by  Edward  I.,  in  1297.  The 
Chapel  of  Henry  Vil.  is  also  at  the  eastern  end  of 
WcBbninslcr  Abbey ;  and  among  the  aahea  of  many 
whose  brows  were  decorated  witli  diadems,  ore  those  of 
Mary  and  Elizabeth.  The  ascent  to  this  splendid  piece 
of  Gothic  art,  which  lias  been  extolled  aa  the  wonder 
of  the  world.  Is  by  slcpa  of  black  marble  beneath  a 
stately  portico.  The  entrance  gates  display  workman- 
ship of  extraordinary  richness  in  brass.  The  eflect 
produced  on  entering  this  chapel-  is  aoleniu  and  ele- 
vating: the  lofty  ceiling  is  wrought  in  alone  into  an 
sslonisliing  variety  of  ligurCB  and  devices;  the  bIaIIs 
ai'c  of  oak,  having  the  deep  tone  of  age,  with  Gothic 
canopies,  all  elaborately  carved.  Here  are  installed 
the  knighta  of  Ihe  most  honDurable  the  Urder  of  the 
Batli.  In  their  stalls  arc  pbced  brass  plates  of  their 
arms,  and  above  are  suspended  their  banners,  swords, 
and  helmets;  beneath  the  stalls  are  seats  for  the 
esqniree.  The  pavement  is  composed  of  black  *nd 
white  marble,  beneatli  which  is  the  royal  vault.  The 
magnificent  tomb  of  Hon ry  VII,  and  Ellzabelh  his 
queen,  atauds  in  the  body  of  this  chapel,  in  a  curious 
chantry  of  cast  brass,  must  admirably  executed,  and 
interspersed  nith  effigies,  armorial  bearings,  and  de- 
vices, alluding  to  the  union  of  tlie  red  and  white  roaes. 

Westminster  Abbey  is  a  collegiate  church,  with  a 
dean  and  chapter,  who  possess  a  considerable  antho- 


deredu 


mbdivided  ir 


%  is  performed  only  in  a  space 


building.  It  takes  place  daily  at  ten  in  tho  morning 
and  three  in  tho  afternoon,  though  sniiiuliines  none  are 
present  but  the  oflicials.  The  public  worship  of  the 
parish  is  conducted  iu  the  adjacent  church  of  St  Mar- 
garet. 

The  abbey  is  usually  entered  by  a  side  door  at  Poet's 
comer,  which  is  nearly  opposite  tho  IloUAC  of  Lords. 
Hero  BtnngErs  will  find  admittance  daily,  and  be  con- 
ducted through  the  building  on  payment  of  certain  fees. 

PenilfiiIiarj/.~Dc\oad  Wcatmmstcr  Abbey  iu  a 
southerly  direction,  there  is  no  public  building  o     ' 


formation  of  oficnders  of  secondary  turpitude,  occupiea 
a  very  low  situation  near  the  Thames,  and  the  external 
wall  includes 'eighteen  acres  of  ground.    The  plan  ot 


CHAMBERS'S  INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


the  Luilding,  or  buildings,  is  that  of  «  hexigon,  with 
six  interior  courts,  and  a  building  in  the  centre.  The 
cost  of  building  it  was  between  £400,000  and  £500,000, 
and  it  is  calcuUted  to  accommodate  400  male  and  400 
female  convicts.  Latterly,  the  silent  and  separate  sys- 
tems have  been  adopted  in  the  prison,  under  particular 
regulations. 

TUB  PAOKS,  ROYAL  PALACES,  &C. 

The  ParlcR,  which  form  ono  of  the  most  beautiful 
features  of  the  luetropolis,  are  situated  chiefly  in  a 
series  from  the  back  of  Whitehall  Street,  in  a  westerly 
and  northerly  direction,  and  are  thus  blended  with 
the  fashionable  end  of  tlie  town.  The  most  ancient  of 
these  open  grounds  is 

Si  Jame^a  Park,  so  called  from  St  Jameses  Palace, 
which  partly  bounds  it  on  the  north.    Originally  these 
grounds  were  a  marshy  waste,  which  was  drained  and 
otherwise  improved  by  Henry  YI 1 1.,  who  also  took  down 
an  ancient  huBpital  dedicated  to  St  James,  and  built  on 
its  site  the  pahico  now  called  St  James's.     Charles  II. 
improved  the  grounds  by  planting  the  avenues  of  lime- 
trees  on  the  north  and  south    sides    of   the    park, 
and  forming  the  Mall,  which  was  a  hollowed,  smooth, 
gravelled  space,  half  a  mile  long,  skirted  with  a  wooden 
border,  for  playing  at  balls.    The  southern  avenue  was 
appropriated  to  aviaries :  hence  it  derived  the  appella- 
tion Birdcage  Walk.    The  centre  of  the  park  was  occu- 
pied by  canals  and  ]>onds  for  aquatic  birds.  William  III. 
threw  the  park  open  to  the  ])ublic  fur  their  recreation. 
It  is  nearly  a  mile  and  a  half  in  circumference,  and  tlie 
avenues  form  delightful  shady  promenades.     In  the 
centre  iH  a  fine  piece  of  water,  interspersed  with  islands, 
and  covered  with  swans  and  various  water-fowl.     On 
each  side  are  spacious  la^^ns,  dotted  with  lofty  trees  and 
flowering  slirubs.     The  lawns  are  separated  from  the 
avenues  by  iron  railings,  and  at  eacli   entrance  is  a 
keeper*s  lodge.     There  ai-o  seven  or  eight  entrances  to 
tlie  park,  the  king's  guard  doin^  duty  at  each,  day  and 
night.     At  the  east  side  of  St  Jnmes*s  Park  is  a  large 
gravelled  space  called  the   Parade,  on  which,  about 
ten  n'cloek  every  morning,  the  body-guurJs  required 
for  th«.'  duy  are  niustercd — about  seven  or  eight  hun- 
dred  men  ;  and  here  tlie  regimental    bands   perform 
tverv  morning   hftween   ten   and  eleven    o'clock.     At 
the  ninth  side  of  the  jiai'ade  is  placed  a  huge  mortar, 
)»riinglit  fnmi  Sj»ain  ;  and  at  the  north  en<l  is  a  ]»ieee 
of  Turkish   ordnamv,  of  great  length,  brought  ln>m 
Alexandria,  in  I^gypt.     A  little  farther  n<»rth  from  the 
]>:irade,  is  a  broad  ilight  of  steps,  giving  entrance  to 
till}  j)ark  from  Waterloo  Place,  constructed  by  t)rder 
of  Willianj  IV. ;  these  steps  arc  surmounted  by  a  lofty 
eolninn,  commemorative  of  th«?    late    Duke   of    \'ork, 
which   occuj'ies  the  sjK>t   where  lately  stuwd    Carlton 
I'alace,  the  favourite  residence  of  Geurgo    IV.  \vhil<' 
i'rince  Kegent.     The  buildings  near  this,  which  over- 
look the  jjark,  are  lofty  and  elegant.     Farther  along  the 
*Mall,  or  a>eiuie,  is  St  James's  I'alace,  an    inelegant 
brick   structure,   having  its  front  towards  I'all-Mall. 
'J'he    interior  consists  nf  socnil  spacicuis  leve'e   and 
«lrawing    room>,    besides    other    btate    and    domestic 
apartments.     This  palace  is  only  used  occasionally  by 
tile  «jne(  n,  tlur  principal  royal  resi<lence  being  now 

lititkiuijhttm  J\i/(i('f. — This  edifice  stands  at  the  we^t 
tiid  of  the  Mali  in  St  James*:>  Park,  in  a  situation  much 
too  liiw  in  reference  to  the  adjacent  grounds  tin  the 
north.  The  »iie  was  chosen  by  fleorge  IV.,  and  the 
fctrueture  r«)»ie  undir  tlie  can*  »»f  Mr  >;Lsh,  architect  ; 
vlit-n  «-iinipli-led,  afier  various  capricious  alterations, 
about  lit:. I  J,  it  is  said  to  have  cost  abcut  i7('(>,on(j. 
The  eilitici;  is  of  stone,  with  a  grand  centre,  and  a  wing 
iif  similar  arehiirciiire  projj-cling  on  each  side,  fonning 
an  open  court  in  front  ;  on  the  extremities  are  colon- 
nades, givio::  a  tiul-le  expanse  to  the  building.  The 
ba'-eint'oi  is  uf  th*.'  I>oric,  and  the  superior  ]»art  of  (he 
bnildinj  ol'  the  Corinthian  «.<r<ler  ;  the  suiimiits  are 
aooiiied  with  statues.  The  interior  contains  many 
btaittiliil  and  i.i;ii:intlcei.t  apart nien'..-<,  both  for  state 
aLd  Ut.imeaiit.-  pui^    :v& ;  but  bo  ill  ha*}  the  plan  been 


conceived,  that  in  a  number  of  the  ptMUH 
quire  to  be  kept  lighted  during  the  qmj.    In 
of  the  palace  is  the  Waterloo  trimnphal  ar 
forms  an  entry  to  the  palace. 

Tht  Cfreen  Park  rises  with  a  gentle  slop 
north  of  Buckingham  Palsee,  and  is  boona 
east  side  by  many  fine  mamuons  of  the  nob 
a  north-westerly  direction  from  the  palace  i 
road  called  Constitution  Hill,  connecting  Si 
Park  with  Hyde  Park  Comer.  On  the  noi 
line  of  terrace-like  street,  forming  the  wo 
trcmity  of  Piccadilly.  The  whole  of  the  Gp 
is  surronnded  by  iron  railings,  and  la  interes 
its  unequal  grassy  sarfSaoe,  which  rises  consid 
the  north  side.  From  the  highest  ground  i 
pleasing  prospect  of  Buckingham  Palace,  a 
James's  Park  with  its  ornamental  grounds  am 
of  tall  trees,  over  which  Westminster  Abbej 
cally  rises,  accompanied  by  the  (Sothio  turreti 
buildings.  At  the  north-west  angle  of  the  f 
head  of  Constitution  Hill,  where  Piccadilly  te, 
there  is  a  triumphal  arch  of  the  reign  of  Ge> 
eUborately  decorated,  but  possessing  little 
eflect.  Across  the  way  is  the  handsome  em 
Hyde  Park ;  and  here,  in  the  after  part  of  tl 
fine  weather,  may  be  seen  an  extraordinary  c 
of  foot  passengers,  vehicles,  and  gentlemen  c 
back,  going  to  and  returning  from  Hyde  Pj 
the  general  traflic  between  Piccadilly  and  Ke 
Brompton,  and  other  places  in  a  westerly*  dire 

Hi/de  Park  is  part  of  the  ancient  manor 
which  belonged  to  the  monastery  of  St  Peter, 
minster,  till  Henry  VIII.  appropriated  it  dl 
Its  extent  is  about  400  acres,  part  of  whidi  is  i 
ably  elevated.     The  whole  is  intersected  wi 
roads,  lawns  with  luxuriant  trees,  planted  sin 
groui>s,  presenting  beautiful  examples  of  di 
prospects.    At  the  south-east  corner,  the  entra 
Piccadilly,  on  an  elevated  pedestal,  stands  a 
and  dark  statue  of  Achilles,  cast  from  the  cann 
at  the  battles  of  Salamanca  and   Waterloo, 
Uiirty  tons,  and  "  erected  to  the  Duke  of  W 
and  his  companions  in  arms,  by  their  country 

The  long  sheet  of  water  called  the  Scrpentii 
enriches  the  scenerv  of  Hvtlo  Park.     At  its 

»  • 

extremity  is  a  stone  bridge  of  five  large  and  tw< 
arches,  erected  in  182(),  giving  acces.s  to  the 
of  Kensington  Palace.  Un  the  level  E}>ace 
Park,  troops  of  the  line  are  occasionally  r 
The  great  road  through  the  Park  to  Ivent>ingt 
uomiuateil  Uutten  Row,  and  is  a  fiishionable  r 
e4uestrian.s  wherein  to  show  ofl'  their  high-bre« 
Other  nuids  display  countless  elegant  equipag 
nobility,  gentry,  and  others ;  while  the  footpatl 
are  railed  ofl'  from  the  roads,  aiH)  crowded 
well-dressed  inhabitants  of  London,  enjoying  ' 
brity  oH  the  air  and  the  gaiety  of  the  scene,  ni 
ticularlv  between  two  and  five  on  a  Sundav  af 
There  are  five  entrances  oj)en  fn^m  early  inor 
nine  at  night.  No  stas:o  or  hackney  coaches 
mitted  within  the  gates  of  Hyde  Park. 

Kt-fLsi/wtun  O'urdcns, — At  the  western  cxtr 
Hyde  Park  lio  Kensington  Gardens,  a  Lirge 
ground  laid  out  in  the  ornamental  {>ark  htyl 
hpersed  with  walks,  and  ornamenteil  with  i** 
clumps  of  tall  trees.  Besides  auentruncti  fro 
Park,  there  is  an  entrance  fn»m  the  Knigh 
road,  or  continuation  of  Piccadilly.  The  gnu 
open  daily  to  all  respectably  dresst^d  p<Tson« 
the  west  end  of  the  grounds  stands  Kensington 
a  larg«*  red  brick  building,  and  which  terpen  a 
dl  nee  fur  members  of  the  royal  family.  It  y 
chased  from  Lord  Chancellor  I'inch,  and  grt 
proved,  by  William  HI.,  ninoc  wh«we  time  the 
adjiMuing  liav«?  been  consiilerably  extended, 
they  now  measure  about  two  and  a  half  mile 
cumfer«  nee.  These  gnnmds  form  a  nii^t  d 
public  lounge  during  tine  we.ather. 

Jirf/ciit\-  J\irk-  is  Biiualed  considerably  a^^ 


DESCRIPTION  OF  LONDON. 


dw  oUitt  fvlui  in  a  northerly  direction  from  the  pre- 
ctdipf  gromdsy  and  oonsists  of  a  circular  enclosure  of 
ikool  450  aere9y  which  art  laid  out  on  the  most  ap- 
HOTtd  principles  of  what  is  called  landscape  garden- 
^i;  itt  esntre  ii  enriched  with  lakes,  plantations, 
iMbbaic%  and  eight  beautiful  villas.  The  park  is 
mxoonded  by  eat^siYe  ranges  of  buildings,  forming 
llhadid  tenacesy  Tsriously  designated,  and  all  deco- 
■lid  with  wnlpiore  in  agreement  with  their  rcspec- 
tift  ndtrs  of  architecture ;  producing  an  effect  of 
Inotj  and  grandeur  rarely  witnessed.  At  the  south 
■d  CI  the  Paris,  the  Colaueum  stands  conspicuous,  with 
Done  portico  and  circular  roof,  rising  from 


A  fo^raon  of  sixteen  faces,  occupying  an  area  of  400 

§hL    The  main  design  of  Uiis  largo  structure  is  to  ex- 

Uhit  a  kind  of  panoramic  view  of  London,  and  this  is 

aMBpiished  with  surprising  fidelity  and  effect.    The 

WfWMBtMion  is  exhibited  as  seen  from  the  top  of  St 

teTs,  and  to  nin  this  ima^nary  height,  the  visiter 

bnbCs  a  central  tower.    Besides  this  view  of  London, 

ftm  are  seTeral  conservatories  and  other  sights  con- 

Mted  with  the  Colosseum,  all  which  are  exceedingly 

•■thy  of  being  visited.    On  the  border  of  the  Park  is 

Ai  eelebrat^  exhibition  called  the  IHorama,  which 

MBBts  of  painted   representations  of  landscapes  or 

Udinn ;  on  particular  parts  of  the  scene  illumina- 

tJOMOt  different  hues  are  so  judiciously  cast,  as  to 

induce  a  perfect  resemblance  to  nature. 

Zttlogieal  Garden*. — ^At  the  northern  extremity  of 
Ihi  Brent's  Park  are  the  Zoological  Gardens,  the 
mcftyof  the  Zoological  Society,  and  established  in 
1136.  These  gardens  are  very  extensive,  and  beinf; 
anovad  from  the  dingy  atmosphere,  noise,  and  bustle 
if  London,  they  present  an  agreeable  and  truly  country- 
fte  aspect.  The  grounds  have  been  disposed  in  the 
%le  of  landscape-gardening — here  a  clump  of  shrubby 
tnss  and  border  of  flowers,  indigenous  and  exotic ; 
then  a  pretty  miniature  lake ;  and  at  proper  intervals 
k  seen  a  neat  rustic  cot,  with  its  straw-tnatchcd  roof 
ttd  boneyauckled  porch.  Much  of  the  ground,  also, 
ii  eeeupted  as  green  meadows,  either  subdivided  into 
parks  for  deer  and  otlier  quadrupeds,  or  dotted 
moveable  trellis  houses,  the  abodes  of  different 
of  birds  which  require  the  refreshing  excrciRe  of 
on  the  green  turf.  Throughout  the  whole, 
gravel  walks  wind  their  serpentine  course,  and 
•BBdnet  the  visiter  to  the  bear-pit,  monkey-house, 
iviviesy  and  other  departments  of  the  establishment. 
TW  gaidens  are  open  every  week-day  for  the  admisHion 
if  finten,  who  must  previously  ])rocure  an  order  from 
I  Bcmber  of  the  society,  and  likewise  pay  a  sliiiling 
iMh  a  the  gate. 

Tkg  West  End, — Retumuig  up  Whitehall  Street 
ti  Charing  Cross,  the  stranger  may  pursue  his  tour 
Ansgh  Cockspur  Street  to  PallrMal),  and  thence  pro- 
md  op  Regent  Street.  As  he  enters  this  new  line  of 
inie,M  will  perceive  that  the  buildings  assume  an  ex- 
Medingly  imposing  aspect.  They  are  for  the  most  part 
witted  with  a  composition  to  resemble  stone,  and  being 
hiome  instances  painted,  they  have  a  light  and  cheer- 
U appearance.  At  the  foot  of  Regent  Street  is  the  short 
knad  thorooghfare  of  Waterloo  Place,  lined  with  noble 
■auioBS,  ana  leading  southwards  to  St  James's  Park. 
Hers  stands  the  elegant  column  dedicated  to  the 
bla  Duke  of  York.  From  this  point,  for  about  a  mile 
■  a  northerly  direction,  is  the  line  of  Waterloo  Place 
>ad  Regent  Street,  forming  the  handsomest  street  in 
London.  At  a  point  a  short  way  up,  wo  cross  Picca- 
tily,  and  enter  a  curve  in  the  thoroughfare,  called  the 
iiaadrant:  the  fronts  of  the  houses  here  are  lined  with 
arcades  and  pillars,  so  as  to  form  a  covered  path  on 
each  aide  of  the  way.  At  the  comers  of  the  Quadrant, 
aad  also  in  Upper  Regent  Street,  there  are  now  some 
cf  the  most  splendid  shops  in  London,  several  being 
dteonted  in  a  stvle  of  extraordinary  magnificence. 
RHMBt  Street,  dnnnc  the  busy  season  in  May  and  June, 
and  daring  the  daylrom  onc!4ill  four  o'clock,  exhibits 
aa  cxtraoidinarj  coneouise  of  fashionable  vehicles, 
fcaitfaBMi  €n  honebadc,  and  foot  passengers:  while 

21{> 


groups  of  carriages  are  drawn  up  at  the  doors  of  the 
more  elegant  aliops.  Towards  its  upper  extremity, 
Regent  Street  crosses  Oxford  Street ;  and  the  mass  of 
streets  west  from  it,  throughout  its  entire  length,  may 
be  said  to  include  the  residences  of  the  greater  part 
of  the  nobility  and  other  high  classes  of  London.  In 
this  quarter  are  Old  and  New  Bond  Streets,  Hanover, 
Berkeley,  Grosvcnor,  Cavendish,  and  Portman  Squares 
(the  two  latter  north  of  Oxford  Street) ;  and  in  con- 
nexion witli  these  squares  there  are  long  quiet  streets, 
lined  with  houses  suited  for  an  affluent  oidcr  of  inha- 
bitants. In  and  north  from  Oxford  Street,  and  in  its 
eastern  continuation,  Ilolbom,  there  are  few  public 
buildings  deserving  particular  attention :  the  only  insti- 
tution of  general  importance  north  from  Holborn  is  the 

British  Museum. — This  is  a  great  national  establish- 
ment (the  property  of  the  public),  containing  a  vast 
collection  of  books,  prints,  antiquities,  and  natural  cu- 
riosities. It  occupies  a  most  extensive  suite  of  build- 
ings in  Great  Russcl  Street,  Bloomsbury.  Since  its 
commencement  in  1755,  the  collection  has  been  prodi- 
giously increased  by  gifts,  bequests,  and  purcnascs, 
and  now  it  is  perhaps  the  largest  of  the  kmd  in  tlie 
world.  The  library  is  open  only  to  persons  who  pro- 
ceed thither  for  study  or  for  consulting  authorities, 
no  general  inspection  by  strangers  being  allowed. 
The  portions  open  to  ordinary  visiters  consist  of  an 
extensive  series  of  large  aiuirtments  on  the  ground 
and  upper  floors,  each  devoted  to  the  cxliibition  of  a 
distinct  class  of  objects.  Among  others  arc  the  fol- 
lowing:— lU>om  1,  Terracottas  ;  2,  3,  4,  and  G,  Greek 
and  Roman  sculptures ;  5,  Roman  sepulcliral  anti- 
quities, and  Sir  T.  Lawrence's  collection  of  casts ;  7, 
British  antiquities ;  0,  Egyptian  antiquities ;  9,  Port- 
land Vase;  and  several  saloons  containing  the  Elgin 
Marbles,  and  massive  Egyptian  antiquities.  The  rooms 
containing  objects  in  natural  history  and  artificial 
curiosities,  are  handsomely  fitted  up  with  glass-cases 
on  the  walls  and  counters.  The  most  deeply  interest- 
ing collection  in  the  whole  establishment  is  that  of 
Egyptian  antiquities — consisting  of  smaller  objects, 
including  mummies  in  cases,  on  the  upper  floor,  and 
huge  remains  in  stone  in  the  saloons  below.  Davs  may 
be  spent  in  examining  this  vast  assemblage  of  objcctH ; 
and  to  assist  in  the  inspection,  catalogues  for  the  entiru 
museum  may  bo  purchased  at  the  door. 

The  British  Museum  is  open  from  October  to  April 
on  Mondays,  Wednesdays,  and  Fridays,  and  the  whole 
of  Easter  and  Whitsun  weeks,  except  Saturday,  from 
10  till  4 ;  from  May  to  September,  10  till  7.  It  is  closed 
on  the  first  week  in  January,  May,  and  September,  and 
on  Christmas-day,  Good  Friday,  and  Ash  Wednesday 
No  fee  whatever  is  payable. 

PLAria  OF  INTERtlST  MIVR  LONDON. 

The  chief  places  of  an  interesting  kind  near  London 
are,  Woolwich,  Greenwicli,  and  Deptford,  alreadv  men- 
tioned, on  the  cast ;  Dulwieli  on  the  south  ;  and  Cuclsca, 
Richmond,  Hampton  Court,  and  Windsor,  on  the  soutli- 
west. 

Dulwich  is  a  pretty  village,  lying  within  the  extended 
suburbs  of  the  metropolis,  in  Surrey,  in  a  southerly 
direction  from  London  Brid«^e.  Here  Edward  Aileyn, 
or  Allen,  a  distinguished  actor  in  the  reign  of  James  I., 
founded  and  endowed  an  hoi^pital  or  college,  for  the 
residence  and  Kiijiport  of  poor  persons,  under  certain 
limitations.  The  founder  befjueathed  some  pictures  to 
the  institution,  and  the  collection  was  viustly  increased 
by  the  addition  of  a  large  immber  bequeathed  in  1810, 
by  Sir  Francis  Bourgcoin.  A  splendid  new  gallery  was 
opened  in  HU7;  and  this  now  forms  a  most  attractive 
sight  to  all  who  delight  in  the  iluo  arts.  The  gallery 
is  open  every  forenoon,  except  on  Fridays  and  Sun- 
days. Tickets  to  view  it  may  be  had  i/raiis  from  Col- 
naghi.  Pall  Mall,  and  other  printsellcrs. 

Chelsea. — Clielsca  is  a  vilUgc  on  the  west  of  the 
metropolis.  It  is  only  eminent  for  its  hospital  for  re- 
tired invalid  soldiers,  an  institution  similar  in  all  re- 
spects to  the  asylum  for  decayed  gailors  at  Cireenwiclu 


CHAHKIUrS  nfFORHATION  FOKTl 


nw  faM^  tal,  wUcb  b  ri  toatad  an  k  flit  Mretek  of  noimd 
b«tw»gp  tba  Tillags  mad  iha  Ttmam,  iMd  mm  tdannad 
by  Sir  Chiikoolwr  Wren,  eoniiiti  iUaflj  of  ooa  lup 
•raioa  of  rod  Wick,  M*«nl  •toraj*  In  hilgh^  finming 
•  eentn  ■al  tivo  wing*,  or  Ihna  adta  of  m  ipiMXn, 
with  tha  opoi  nds  tomrda  tha  bank  of  tba  Thanaa. 
On  tba  norlh,  bi  wbidi  ii  tba  main  enlmaMi  dia  at]4« 
af  at^iUaatara  ta  BBpla,  baing  OTsanuatad  wtth  onljp  k. 
^ia  portiao,  na  iniMr  fnt  of  lb*  wnto*  bidldfaig  ii 
mora  daeoTBtad,  t)»«ra  bring  bars  a  plans  of  good  pn>- 
pcotioni,  forming  »  dialterM  walk  for  Iha  Tatann  fai- 
matoa.  InlhaenitraofthaapanaqnaraintMnl  rtaada 
a  atatiw  of  Cbarlca  II.,  in  wboaa  liiM  Iha  ho^Hal  took 
itaiiae.  Tba  on|;  pacta  of  ttwbooaeeoiMideradwoatbj 
toba  ibown  to  Musen  are  the  riiucluddd  dining- 


lall,bolkiBlb«« 


kl  building. 


tbaebual  ia 
of  ben^MB  Ii 


ItanMhod  with  pnjo-booka  and  hamofka,  and  Um 
floor  baing  paved  with  marUs  in  ahonato  blaok  and 
wUlo  aqtMwaa.  Abova  tba  eommnnioa-tabte  Onto  U  a 
paivtiiia  of  tha  AaoanHoe,  eontaining  aomo  good  fignrea. 
Xbe  dtnlng-bal]  it  eqnallj  apaeion^  Imt  b  now  dianaod 
aa  a  refeotorj,  though  tha  UUaa  atand  raadjp  oorerad 
tar  me. 

Tho  naml  nnmbcr  of  In-penaionen  ia  about  476,  and 
of  ant-penaioDara  not  fewgr  than  80/100,  who  loiide  in 
all  parta  of  tho  United  Kingdom.  Tbafonnor  •rBpro- 
TidodwitballneoeaaarieaiaodllieUttarfaaToeaefa  pan- 
■iona  TBijing  from  £7, 12a,  to  £S4, 15a.  vaarij'.  Tha 
Inrnatu  wear  an  antique  garti  of  red  dodi,  In  which  tbay 
m  loitering  about  the  Tillage^ 

a  Square,  Chelsea,  i*  aitnated  a  lane 
ng  Uw  Aqnf  Mmimrf  Anlam,  tat  t£o 


buildiu  forming 

-      "    -    -■■ '.SOOpoorehik 

■dofheraand, 
the  ainqr.     Eadi  raiment  eoutributee  annuallj  ma 
day'a  pay,  to  ud  in  aupporiiug  the  inititntion. 

JUttaMi^-RichuMad  la  a  viUago  altoatod  tm  (he 
•oath  hank  of  the  Thaioaa,  at  aboot  nine  mHea  l»  laad 
iraa  HTdaPark  Comer,  aJidJglaenmilea  by  toUowing 
Ibe  wiudfaiga  of  the  riier.  The  meet  pleaaant  mode  itf 
eonveyinee  to  it  is  by  one  of  the  ranall  iteam-boata  from 
lIungMrford  Stun,  for  then  an  opportunity  ia  BfTorded 
iifKccinij-  numeroua  bcauliful  and  intereetmg  spoU  on 
birtii  tanks  of  llic  river.     In  piusing  upwards,  nu  have 


-     .    -  r ,     -    .■>  .  ir»w>ily  (he  a 

m         Tbamei,  waa  origiiully  bailt  by  Coniai 

••»J,  awl  a  portioa  of  the  ptmHure  «hiik  berMiw 

aatUlexlamintlieiiorlhtniqoiulnuiitk.    Ilerawaaih 

aoaaarfthe  liciiniliuiion  nod  fnrteiluK  of  thai  faTonrlt 

Hear*  V 

idnuteil  .       

a  bom :  lierc  were  held  the  nuinii^  i 
en(i  or  rliUlp  and  Ksn,  mm 
ma;  licrc  jAmCH  I.  Iield  Lii  court  and  MHI^H 
rnaam^  «  cuutravprMAlials ;  h*rp  Charlaa  I.  waa  i^^i 
muredaaa  .taU  prisoner.an'lluok  iMveofUaahUlu^H 

harawaa      il Ill iiiiiiinifr miniilaniiiiliM 

and  Lord.  aWnbcrg;  here  CI»H<-(  II.  baJ  mmaw 
ally  hiaimptiiv  residence;  ben  lived  William  aBd  Hm^ 

aftorthomviiluiiooof  li>ii»t  and  biir«,itl)  itente_^ 
GeOTgo  Ilq  fi^nl  ei.ui'ta  were  annietimaa  held.,^H 
'  ippearanee,  ba  lofty  and  WMAH 
fil  Lriek,  oraaioeotod  with  (ate  B^ka 
edging  to  the  door*  tUil  wtM^tH^ 
N.:-  c.tmLHtM  of  Ihrct  •TmOmafi^ 
Enlttingt^'h  '  '         ''"O^^^^ 

thraagbani       .    '  '''nI^^^^B 

mauold-ti  .<ih^^^ 

The  gnard-room,  which  it  flrat  In  order,  motata^  ^H 
aideaaaeriea  of  En^iab  admiiala  by  Entile  MiO 
aTariatyafaooiant  warlike  Ina'  •    ^  .  . 

apartment  at*  a««n  poMnita  o< 
eoort  of  EaglaDd,pdM*d  bj  K 
pleted  aartral  loi«r  ooantaaai 


mtatnielnre 


r  righ.,  Choi 


;  Fullisi 


lu  left,  Itatlenva,  Pulney,  Morclake, 
the  n>yal  residsiico  uf  Kcw.tnd  its  gardons,  next  whidi 
■HHiehinond.  Tlic  village  uT  liichmonaiiUndgun  lelope 
uvvrliangiiig  the  river,  and  [loaeeaiiea  no  point  of  altmc- 
lion.     Opposite  tho  villBj[u  i^  a  atone  bridge  crosain); 

further  limn  thin  sleam-vetaclsifo  not  go.  Richmond  is 
only  interesting  froinita  exceedingly  heautiful  environa. 
South  from  the  village,  a  pretty  nteep  bank  aacenda  (o 
the  );reen  &nd  buidiy  uiniDcnee  colled  Ilicliniond  Hill, 
and  from  tliu  walks  on  lis  pmniincnt  front,  a  view  is 
uUtaini-d  of  the  bcnulifully  wooded  country  on  the  oppo- 
site side  of  the  river.  Aniuiig  nuineroDs  villoa,  orna- 
mental gniunda,  and  other  attrnclivc  objects,  may  l>e 
sri-n  Twiekenham,  iJtuated  in  the  immediate  vicinity, 
on  till!  wo^l  bank  of  the  Thnmui.  In  the  house  fur 
wliicli  tho  prestnt  Kaa  creeled  as  n  substilutc,  lived 
Pojie,  Ihc  poet,  and  Ilia  body  is  entunilH-d  in  the  vtiurch. 
CluM  l>y  Twickenhan)  is  Strawberry  Hill,  unce  the 
scat  of  Horace  Walpote,  and  now  bclongiii-  to  Lord 
Waldi-Rrave.  Moviii);  onwnnbi  along  tlie  braw  of  the 
ciuineniT,  and  p»*ing  the  wtli-known  lioti'l  eiilled  the 
Star  and  (barter,  «e  enter  the  famous  Itichniond  Park, 
vlilcli  it  eight  inilt-s  in  circumference,  and  umamentod 
Willi  many  uiagxiiticcnl  laree  trcea.  Tlicsc  extciwive 
idawctval  one  lime  ennnecteJ  with  a  royal  paUee, 
here  it  now  no  aueh  edifice — one  or  two  hunting 
<Keeplcd,  and  thncarenotuaed  by  royally  1  but 
n,  and  freely  open 


E!u"tl 


.  ^iurnL— Jianifiliiti  is  about  Ibirlecn  miln 


preciationofthatgreattnaater^adininUea^yli^  1 

la  alao  an  cxeclleot  painting  of  Bandioelli  in  his  stw^^— 
by  Corrcgio.  The  third  room,  or  audicuec-dianbar,  —^ 
alao  some  gnoil  picture* ;  among  others,  a  paintiag^ 
llic  fnniilj  i>f  Louis  Coroaro,  a  person  crlebtated 
his  extraordinary  temperance.  The  picture,  wbie^Ka 
from  an  original,  by  Titian,  shows  Coniaro  and  tl*  ^ 
gtfiicraliona  of  dcscendanta,  who  appear  in  the  ae-^t. 
adoration  at  a  iliriuc.  There  are  fikewiac  poiUait^v ' 
Tiiiau  and  bin  uncle,  done  by  Titian  himself,  hit^^ 
s[)iriled  battle  piece  by  Julio  Itoinsno. 

The  fourth  .ipanmenl,  or  queen'«  drawin(;-roon>»  ' 
cariclied  with  an  exceedingly  line  painting  of  fliiiliaa  1' 
a  whole  length,  by  Vandyke,  cotei'med  the  beat  H^^ 
nma  wc  have  <if  that  monareb.  There  ia  a  well  kai>'^ 
and  most  beautiful  print  from  it  by  Sir  Itobert  Straiw^P 
tho  prince  of  Knglish  lino  engravers.  In  the  mi^^ 
room,  or  aUle  bedchamber,  the  viftiUr  will  see  a  bt^"* 
liful  portrait  of  Anne  Hyde,  daughter  of  Hyde,  Ear*  • 
I'larendon,  and  mother  of  the  ancceaaive  quecM,  H^^. 
and  Anne.  TEic  queen's  dressing-room  and  wiitiB>8 
closet,  and  (juccu  .Mar}>  stale  bed-chamber,  whS^ 
f.iliuw,  contain  many  lincpiclurcA,b^  Holbein,  Sir  !>««' 
I.t'ly,  Sebaslian  del  I'iunibo,  Lotus  da  Vinci,  Alh^* 
Lluiir,  and  others.  After  having  traversed  tiitm*U»^- 
and  silent  hsIlH,  the  viniter  is  led  out  through  a  lo«iJ 
dreary,  ill-li);liled  a|iur1nii'ul,  the  walls  of  whi^  M*" 
ornamented  willi  what  at  first  sight  he  may  aapf^>^ 
vcrj'  wrrlched  daubs,  but  which  prove  to  be  aoma  ' 
the  famous  cartoons  of  Raphael— produetioBa  wb^* 
pi'niaes  Iiave  resounded  over  tbo  whole  ririliani  •ur'*" 

Un  the  oppoHitc  aide  of  the  public  mad  thMB  t^'^ 
palace  ;>anlens,  iu  liuthji  Park,  a  n>yal  domain,  enbi^ ' 
lislied  with  an  avenue  of  splendid  bOH»  chaatut  U«** 
and  open  to  Ibe  inspection  of  the  pubHe. 

ll'ifufMr  ia  situated  in  the  conpty  of  BarliSL  al  I'i' 
distance  of  22  milca  west  from  LoadoD  bj  tba  it^* 
through  Brentford,  but  may  now  be  iiaiind  tn  l^' 
tluu  an  hiMir  by  the  Cirtt  Wm(wb  IUil>v  ■•■^ 


JIUM,  Covrrwr  a  C 
a  Kut  IndM  ^ip 
rum  UiawklMr  >tUL_ 

B  ['AtarntttUr  How,  in  tliu  rciuit  eliiefly  kT  liM 
nil  cltrloul  ((i:ull«nini,  unit  in  a  |iUd*  of  umw  m 
'mI'i  Coffov-buiiw,  ill  Mcgt  tStrual,  i*  o*rubr»l«iI 
'Mptna  fitoi  e(  iit»ii)i«pcii^  which  may  bv  cunMlIt 
at  thu  M«oioiiiDdatiuii,  m  rciipcGtii  Loniloii  pipv 
mj  aliu  be  liul  Kt  tho  L'ImpUir.  A  undl  Tec  i* 
J  tliu  mulnr  bv  aximiaitig  ilExt  nt  llici>'  liuiiti 

Thn  iirxl  oIm*  uI  liuuaw  of  'lii 
i|liii)^1iau>c*,Luliili>nduin);tl''  '  - 
pconeil  tu  unlj'  bj  eaotlciDin — 
>  PfttcmiMlcr  Uawf  ilr  Jc\iii'. 
't  («  fow  door*  from  Parriii"  i 
<t;  nlMO  tliP  Mitiwt  in  PJ»t  $Ii-:<:t.    I.»li<'rl 
n  vjiniii);  up  M  vsrjt  Qiiiacraua  elaH  of  eiffre-liix 
A  inucli  uiuru  Iiumbl*  dioush  pcitinp*  mnra  umM 
which  eu{w  tif  rTiiily.m«ffe  e^flVc  mwl  i-t,  *M 


CHAMBERS'S  INFORMATION  FOR  TUE  PEOPLE. 


priccfl.  In  most  of  these  establishments  the  charge  is 
(or  wafl  lately)  three  halfpence  for  half  a  pint  of  coffee ; 
lialf  a  pint  of  tea,  twopence ;  two  slices  of  bread  buttered, 
twopence ;  eggs  and  meat  proportionably  cheap.  While 
these  establishments  are  chiefly  resorted  to  for  breakfast 
or  for  refreshment  in  the  evening,  there  is  a  far  more 
numerous  class  of  eating-houses,  resorted  to  for  dinners 
by  the  shopkeeping  and  working  classes.  We  have 
only  room  to  mention  a  few  great  houses — Morton's 
Excise  Dining-rooms,  in  Bishopsgate  Street,  where 
.ibout  nine  hundred  dine  daily ;  the  famous  Boiled-Beef 
House,  Old  Bailey  (near  Ludgate  Hill) ;  the  Chancery 
Dining-rooms,  in  Chancery  Lane;  and  Hancock's 
Dining-rooms,  in  Ilupert  Street  (a  short  distance  from 
the  head  of  Haymarket).*  An  excellent  dinner  may  be 
had  at  any  of  these  houses  for  about  Is.  3d.,  or  even  less. 
Throughout  the  town  there  are  now  many  splendid 
flram-shops  called  gin-palaces ;  but  of  these  haunts  of 
intemperance  nothing  need  be  said. 

rUBTJC  RRCRKATION  AND  AMUSEMENT. 

The  chief  places  of  resort  during  the  day,  for  the  re- 
creation and  amusement  of  strangers,  may  bo  summed 
up  as  follows : — The  Parks ;  the  Zoological  Gardens  in 
the  Regent's  Park ;  another  2k)ological  Garden  in 
Surrey;  the  British  Museum;  the  National  Gallery; 
the  Exhibitions  of  the  Royal  Academy,  of  the  Society  of 
British  Artists,  and  of  the  Society  of  Painters  in  Water 
(\)Iours;  the  I)iorama  and  the  Colosseum,  Regent's 
Park ;  Sir  Jolm  Soane's  Museum  in  Lincoln's  Inn 
FieHs,  open  Thursday  and  Friday  during  April,  Mav, 
nnd  June,  from  10  till  4  (tickets  must  be  previously 
applied  for) ;  the  exhibition  of  interesting  objects  of 
wienco  and  art**,  Adelaide  Gallery,  Lowther  Arcade, 
Strand ;  a  similar  exhibition  at  the  Pol^iechnic  Insti- 
tution, Regent  Street.  Several  noblemen  permit  in- 
spection of  their  picture-galleries :  it  is  admitted  that 
tho  moHk  extensive  and  valuable  is  that  of  the  Duke  of 
Sutherland,  Cleveland  House,  St  James's  Place.  Besides 
the  regular  plaees  df  r^'crcation,  there  are  always  tem- 
porary exhibitions  of  tliiiii"*  interest  in;*  tostran<;crs,  at 
tho  Kjjyi'tian  Hall,  IMocadilly,  plaeos  in  the  Strand,  \.c. 
PuMie  meltings  frt.'<inently  occur  at  Kxctur  Hall, 
Strand. 

The  places  of  evrninjj  entertainment  are  various ;  and 
fn*st  may  he  niuntioned  tlie  thoatres,  of  which  there  are 
upwards  of  twenty  iu  the  nietroj)olis.  The  princij)al 
an*  thr  Queen's  Tlit-atre,  or  Italian  Opora  House,  foot  of 
Haymarket ;  lU'ury  Lano  and  Covent  (iarden  Theatres, 
being  the  two  licensed  for  the  li-gitimate  drama,  and 
open  in  the  winter  sea«<on  ;  tlie  Haymarket  Theatre,  for 
le;ntimate  drama  al>o,  but  only  open  in  summer ;  tlie 
Ailelphi,  in  the  Strand;  the  Surrey  Theatre,  lilack- 
friars  Road;  ami  Astley's  Royal  Amphitheatre,  West- 
minster lirl'lp'.  Latterly,  J>rury  Lane  Theatre  has 
abandoneil  theatricals,  :«nd  is  now  openi'd  ft»r  cheap 
ev<«nin:;  concerts.  Vauxljall  Gardens,  long  a  pl.ice  of 
evenini;  resort,  have  been  finally  closid,  having  latterly 
proved  ruinous  to  its  lessees.  N«  arly  all  tlie  theatres 
are  in  a  lam^nisliini;  condition,  an<l  a  lar;;e  and  respoct- 
ftble  i»art  of  the  community  now  prefer  atten<ling  Ly- 
ceums and  Litomry  Institutions,  which  combine  occa- 
sional li'«:tur«'S,  a  reafling-room,  and  library.  Ouf  of 
these  establi'-lini'-nts  is  in  Aldersi^ate  Stre»'t,  in  tlie  | 
city,  and  an<«tli'  r  is  in  Leicester  Square,  for  the  wei.tern  I 
part  of  the  town.  >trani;erH  are  introduce<l  by  niem-  ! 
iiers.  I 

nvTC  novruNMrNT,  poi.irr,  «^c.  I 

With  rrt.prct  to  eivie  jurisdi<Mion,  the  city  of  London 
JM  jrovi'pn-d  in  .%  peculiur  manner.    In  \irtue  of  ancient 
eharters  anil  ]iri>  ileiji**.,  tlie  eity  is  a  species  of  indepen-  : 
«b  nt  community,  goviTued  by  its  own  laws  and  function-  ' 
ari*"^.   While  all  other  borou^jlis  have  been  reformed  in  , 
their  constitution,  Lon<lon  has  been  sutfere*!  to  remain, 
as  yet,  in  the  enjoymi-nt  of  all  its  oh\  usages.     The  citv 
is  civilly  liividi  d  into  twmty-tlve  ward**,  each  of  whicli 
*«  an  aldennan  who  is  eho«M»n  for  life,  and  acts  as 
ifistrato  within  his  division.     Tlio  freemen  of  the  i 


.  .;.! 


various  wards  elect  represcntatiTes  annually  to  tht 
common-council,  to  the  number  of  236  memben.    Tii« 
lord-mayor,  aldermen,  and  comnum-couneil,  compuw 
the  legislative  body  for  the  city.    The  lord-mayor  ii 
chosen  by  a  numerous  and  respectable  body  of  men, 
called  the  livery,  or  liver^'men ;  these  are  certain  qoili- 
tied  members  of  trading  eorporationSy  who,  except  u 
appointing  the  lord-mayor,  sherifb,  memben  of  partu- 
mcnt,  &c.,  do  not  actively  interfere  in  city  mana^ 
mcnt.    The  revenue  of  the  city  corporation,  which  ii 
derived  from  sundry  dues,  rents,  interest  of  bequest^ 
fines  for  leases,  &c.,  amounted  in  1832  to  £186,9'29, 
10s.  lOd.,  and  the  expenditure  was  nearly  the  same, 
The  magistracy,  police,  and  prisonsy  coat  about  forty 
thousand  pounds  annually,  but  this  is  exclusive  of  large 
sums  disbursed  by  the  court  of  aldermen.   The  trading 
companies  at  present  existing  are  eighty-nine  in  num- 
ber, eight  which  formerly  existed  being  now  extinct 

The  lord-mayor  is  elected  annually,  on  (he  29th  tf 
September,  from  among  the  body  of  aldermen.  The 
livery  send  a  list  of  two  candidates  to  the  court  eC 
aldermen,  and  one  of  these,  generally  the  senior  msn- 
ber,  is  chosen  by  them.  He  enters  office,  with  mneh 
pomp,  on  tho  9th  of  November,  which  is  hence  called 
Lord  Mayor's  Day.  The  advocate  and  legal  adriser  of 
the  corporation  is  an  official  with  the  title  of  recorder. 
The  lora-mayor  and  corporation  exercise  a  iurisdictioa 
over  Southwark  and  other  precincts.  Westminster, 
which  is  not  connected  in  civic  matters  with  London 
proper,  is  under  the  jurisdiction  of  a  high-bailiff.  The 
county  of  Middlesex  is  represented  in  parliament  bj 
two  members,  chosen  by  tho  freeholders ;  the  city  of 
London  by  four,  chosen  by  the  liveiymen ;  Westmia- 
ster,  two,  chosen  by  the  rate-paying  householden ; 
Marylebone,  two ;  Tower  Hamlets  feastem  prcciaetsV 
two ;  Finsbury  (northern  precincts),  two ;  Southward 
two ;  and  Lambeth,  two.  Thus  the  metropolis^  with  ita 
immediate  neighbourhood,  including  about  two  millions 
<jf  souls,  returns  eighteen  members  to  the  House  nf 
Conmntus,  without  reckoning  those  who  .ire  sent  by 
the  county  of  Surrey. 

7V/,r.— In  \\V1^^  the  old  mode  of  wateliing  was  al»o- 
lished,  in  all  parts  of  the  metropolis  exe<"pt  the  city, 
and  a  new  p(»lice  ftirce  established  by  act  of  Parlia- 
ment. This  has  been  a  hiijhlv  successful  and  beneficial 
inipi*ovem(nit.  The  new  police  is  under  the  manag**- 
nient  of  two  commissioners,  who  are  in  direct  com- 
munication with  the  secretarv  of  state  for  the  home 
department;  under  the  commissioners  are  17  super- 
intendants,  70  inspectors,  .^1*2  sergeants,  and  29*)8  con- 
stables. The  di'^trict  und<*r  their  care  includes  the 
whole  metropolis  and  environs,  with  the  exception  of 
the  city.  The  constables  wi«ar  a  blue  uniform,  and  may 
be  seen  on  the  street  on  dntv  at  all  times  of  the  dav  and 
night.  The  expt-nse  of  thih  most  »'f!icient  jKilice  force 
in  1  Jin;  was  .CJ0:),7:,.t,  l  Ih.  l  id.  Three-fourths  of  tlie 
expenses  arc  jjaid  out  of  the  parish  rates,  but  limited 
to  an  assessment  of  Hd.  per  pound  on  the  rental ;  the 
remainder  is  contributed  from  tho  public  purpc.  Lat- 
ttrlv,  th»'  lord-inavor  and  aldermen  have  established  a 
jiolice  f(trco  for  the  city  on  the  model  of  that  above 
mentioned.  It  con^i^-ts  of  1  su])erintendant,  12  in^jiec- 
tors,  .50  sergeants,  and  ^38  constables.  In  addition  to 
these  two  jtoliee  bodies,  there  are  nine  police  offices,  in 
IJow  Street,  Queen  Sijuaro,  Ilatton  Clarden,  &c.,  each 
with  a  small  body  of  active  <ifl'ieers;  and  there  is  lik^ 
wise  a  river  ])oHce,  consisting  of  22  sur*-eyorH  anii  70 
con^^tables.  In  \WM\  a  hor^e  patnd  was  addt'd  to  the 
How  Street  establi-hinent,  consisting  of  4  inspoctnrs 
and  0<I  patrols,  wh(»se  s].]iere  of  action  is  the  lev  fre- 
quented roatls  around  the  metniiv^lis.  With  all  these 
means  of  preserving  the  peace  and  preventing  crime, 
the  m<>ti*opulis  is  now  one  (»f  the  most  orderly  towns  in 
the  world;  and  provided  stranpers  do  not  seek  the 
haunts  <»f  vice,  but  pursue  their  way  steadily,  they 
nin  no  risk  of  molestation. 

Fires. — In  1033,  by  an  arrangement  among  the  firs 
assurance  (iflie<'s,  there  was  established  a  regular  lire* 
suppression  police,  consisting  of  a  superintendant,  5 


•l>  tMWaiHl  tlliU*'>  I,    il  iW 

■I  Hi  ifiM  ■mwn.     1  bubi 

IBWIWt;  fO  llid  D^:  '    I.--  tll>l 

n  ft  clMikll  of  Inifn    '  I  < ,  laiR 

•llttiM  Sli'i  ifHsn  «  :  -tti  anil 

l>>  itw  pirith  eJiii. .  ..'  '.I  imf 

3]«wIti>  n>rf,  nil..  .1  .    «»l|« 

idMiBMi  (if  mefflbern  li>  •vtt>-  m  )'-.rliKUi<'Tit  fi-r 
dir  uT  WMtndiM)*  ii  lldJ  in  (hint  .^  UiiU  tliutvh  ) 

Tba  MVlh  i'hU  U  BaoBpli<d  bf  a  niw  ul  Imuk 


lino.    WiUiia  tlila  ■tmn>,  ^ii  uul  legMsUi 
b*M  qsalilf  u«  etpiB(4  fur  tale.    A  Iftr^  panu 
•i  ranvBidiof  (he  inl<rliirii|Buv,  icwi-iipcd  ^ 


■I  nnnfawv  lit  tiiu  i^iLTtlsa  gi<naid*  vultirxnnl  la 
If  w  Lmdon  owluila  wtib  f  trdi  and  rt^nUa, 

■"  KnmliT  [Pin  iiF  tilt.   fnrTi  «•■■■[   r^i-  lirrTuI  anil 

'■■■ra.  <J 


d  thai  the  m&li  uHi)  Id  bmrlng 
to  A,614^«0  biuhch;  ami  lt*l 
BwartMntmlof  Moeli  frir  cotimnnptfmi  l;37(kait 
ID*  of  faraJBn  oprnt*,  A,SA4;)88  nllniu  ef  BnAh 
U,  3,SX6^  lt».  «r  tdlnncn,  aDiT  1,1Hl,T3a  IIm-uT 


T,  Tlw  WBlor  ii  natnrally  cood  and  >oft  but  I»r 
.  jnin>,  ootwithrMandiiig  Uik  nlUslbii  to  ohioh  II  ia 
hguhI.  Til*  «poM  ni  wliirli  it  it  nisnl  Erom  tli* 
noH,  ani  within  Ibn  Iiaiinilt  nf  ilio  inetropulia,  at 
roit  dlitanca  ttmn  llw  mnath*  of  auniman  ■ewin  i 
fanua  ana  of  a  cumber  of  evil*  to  whioit  the  hi- 
Lit  vilh  B  TonarkaUa  doma  of  iiiiiifl'd- 
itnr  (opptiiHt  b/  the  K«w  K(T*r  Coiupany 
hul  ii  shargvd  at  a  bigh  rMo.    Bisbt 


ClIAMHEUS'S  INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


Tho  TiiGtrop(»lis  U  supplied  with  coal  principally  from 
theTiei;;Iiljourh<>0[1()f  Newcastle,  and  partly  from  Wales, 
and  certAin  inland  counties  ;  the  import  from  the  latter 
beinfi^  by  canals.  Newcastle  coal  is  preferred.  It  ar- 
rives in  vchscls  devoted  excIuHivcIy  to  the  trade,  and 
thouf^h  the  charge  for  frei;;ht  is  Muall,  so  many  and  so 
exce»^^ive  arc  the  duties  ami  pn^fits  affecting  the  article,  | 
tliat  a  ton  of  coal,  which  can  be  purchased  at  Newcastle  I 
for  about  oh.,  costs,  to  a  cousuniiT  in  London,  upwards 
of  SOh.  Tho  quantity  of  coal  im|iurted  in  H\'di\  was 
'J,:f'H,Of]:>  ti)ns. 

ft  has  been  calouhited  tltat  the  money  spent  an- 
nually in  London,  «iii  articles  of  ctmHumption  and 
luxury,  amounts  to  L'7ii,(H)(),()0(^  ;  licing  more  than  a 
third  of  what  is  spent  for  such  i>urpoaos  in  tlie  whole 
united  kingdom. 


M 1  .>=CI:LL A  N 1  :< > rS  I  N Fi>R.M.VTmN. 


HM 


riic  mf'lropolis  contains  oOi)  places  of  jmblic  worship, 
al^l  attached  to  thcM*  tluTo  art*  not  fi-.vcr  than  6*00  ; 
clerpymm.     F.xohisive  of  the  places  of  worship  of  the  , 
Jcwd  and  vari'»iis  small  si'cts,  the  numbor  of  dissenting 
chapels  in  LomiIdu  w;»s  lately 'JuO,  as  folhiws: — Chapels  j 
of  Ind<.'p(Mnh'iits,  (H>;  Wi:sh*yan  Metho<listJ»,  3<3;  Haptists, 
.'i'J;  C^alvii little  Metlnxlists,  30;  PreabytfrLins,  10*;  Ro- 
man OitholJcK,  1 1  ;  Qu:ikeni,  (>;  total,  *JO0.    The  cliapels 
of  dissiMiters  an?  principally  in  tho  eaj^trrn  suburbs  of 
1«f>iidon.     The  iar^(.'st  of  the  Roman  Catholic  chapels  is 
in  this  quarter,  near  FiuHbury  S'piai'c.     Tho  original  ' 
TalH'rnacli*,  orrcted  by  Whittiifld,  is  in  Tottenham  Court 
l{4>ad.    ThechuiH.'!  of  tho  late  Jlov.  Rowland  Hill,  which  j 
can  contain  .5o<M)  ]>t.*rson<«,  ia  in  Ulaclcfriars  Road.    Each  ' 
of  the  ci^tabliahed  churches  in  surrcunilcd  with  a  small 
burying-ground,  and  many  churches  have  vaults  be-  , 
ncath  for  strpultun*.     The  odioU!<  practice  of  burying  ! 
in  these  confined  situations  is  now  gradually  going  out 
of  use ;  and  many  intermcntb  take  place  in  new  ceme-  I 
1  cries  in  the  cnviroas.     Tlicftc  cemeteries,  which  are  : 
rfs|A:ctive1y  tho  piiiperty  of  joint-htock  companies,  are 
laid  out  in  a  neat  manner,  and  are  well  worthy  of  a 
\i-^it  from  ntrangers.     The  oldest  e.-itablishod  is  that  at 
K'-ii«al  (Jn'on,  in  the  n'n-th-\vi;st»^rn  environs,  on  the 
Vi  :ii|  ti»  IlariMW.     OiluTS  arc  :>♦.  Norw<)f»d  in  tlie  south, 
lli.:h«:ati'  in  tin*  nurth,  and  St«tUe   Ncwin^tmi  in  the 
lioi-ih-«  r'^ti-rn  environs,  and  ^'■vl'r;ll  arr  in  cnrsi*  of 
i-'.ali'i-iiTn'  lit.    'i'lir  annual  nui:ib;.-i' (■fd'.-.ith.-^  in  London 
in  abou'  .'iO,(Min. 

I.onilon  :  bouiiils  in  charit.iM<'  institutions  of  various 
l».nds.  "J  n-  i'h.irillf>  oitnii'--ctr<l  with  the  oorporafion 
oi  Lm:ji1..h  -iv  ('liri<t*s  llit^-pital,  for  honrdin:^  and  idn- 
(Mlini;  \i-nlii,  alrt-aily  nu  iiiiinnd  ;  ilcthlidii'ni  Hosj>ital, 
ior  iii>  -.lie  pMlitMits ;  St  llioniasV  Hospital,  Sotithuarh, 
for  poor  j';»;ii  nfsiil-*.  i  I'd  :Kid  imrt  ;  and  Hartlio'i.inii>\v\«, 
llo'piial,  Wot  Snjithli'.-.d,  f.-r  lii"  -rune  purpose.     Tlir 

trad«>'  onni'anirM  lii.i'.\i oj.ort  ;:  r-nidnT  of  beuiti- 

ri;iry  in  tiMition--.  'Iln-  loiiowniLr  Iio-pitaU  have  luen 
I  >iii;  !■  •'.  a  I  d  aiv  snj»i'i'rt<Ml  by  pj'iv;ii«»  bcncvoleiiee:— 
( iu\*>  il  .>]<lt.il.  > mtliwar!. ;  Loinlou  Htispital,  While- 
f-b;i|wd  Iii»:id  :  Wi-Imi  ii-.ti  r  llo-pital  ;  St  <  f(or'^»''.s  II  -s- 
pital,  llvilt-  Park  (orjKr;  Miildiix.-x  Hospital,  ( "iKn-N-- 
Sin<t.  n\|iirii  >ir:  "t :  ti;.*  riiivcr.-i:y  Colles^e  H(».-|tital  ; 
M  I.uk.':  lio-,'-.Ml,  Ciiy  K  a  I ;  S::jall-l'o\  llo.i.:;.i', 
Mil  Lo  .don  l\\«-i'  il  •  ,  i;.i!,  St  I^\n(.':'a^^ :  and  Lock 
lio,|iiial,  rii.iil  ••'.  L-id  -.  tin  V.',  tlu'ii- arr  four  l\  inf- 
ill lio  pii.il.-^ ;  a  il  ■ritii);^  hoxpiiai  ;  varioii ,  (){i)itliainui- 
lii>-<ptt.ils,  and  nn'.iirrou->  (ii-ip'-U'.irii'S  and  intin.i::r,.  s 
t'-r  parti(Mr..r  di-i  »-i  .  lii-itituti'Mis  lor  n'li«f  oi  iiiiji- 
•_:  '■■  p  i.-i'M  ,  dt'ai  an<l  dumb  ;«>ylnni-,  blind  a^vbiin--. 
.ii!  1  oiji'ian  .i-\Iu;;:',  an?  lar  too  numerous  lo  ]>'.'  .>{'■  c:- 
fr  !. 

liid-r  ii'     I'l'dt  rf^  oi"  till-   Toor- Law  roinnu."«>ion«rs,  I 
the  ini  :.o]>  •!■  1  i<«  «ti\  idi  d   ii.to  'J  •   di.'trict"  or   uniiMw, 

1xbi<di,  ill  \''-\  >,  :ib>orbcd  .lU  cx)  i  ndil'.in-  '-n  th*'  | rot 

i.  4  ol.f '*•'.'.     Ity  tin-  nrti\i.'  iiiaiia.;<  imnt  of  tUi'  iTuardians,  I 
tin-  aiuin.d  i-\p«-nililun*  i*«  i.iufli  b"*^  than  it  ^vas  und(.-r  ' 
till'  o|.|  A  i>.t«-l'jl   paroidiial  .-Hy-^ttMn.  \\jjilL'  tho  p-ir  an*  ' 
aliov»i-d  (o  br  ii'iw  h  tii'r  rMiploy<  d  and  nior<*  I'onifori- 
a*-'"       !•    '^'.D^  i-folb  M-d  as  a  pn'f"'--."n  in  th-  nutro- 
iu/i/  iJiiiv  .irv  iw.i/jv ;»crM;iJb  y^hij  ;>ub::ihl  by  ti'ick<i  ' 


of  imposture ;  nevertheless,  although,  M  ha 
leged,  there  are  1  o,000  regular  beggara  of  var 
it  is  certain  that  fewer  signs  of  absolute  n 
and  misery  meet  the  eye  in  London  than  in  < 
towns.  As  an  instance  of  the  growth  of 
habits  in  the  humbler  orders,  it  has  been  sla 
18S7,  about  5)7,000  persons  resident  in  the 
had  accounts  at  the  diH'erent  Savings*  Ikink? 
the  sum  ^standing  at  tho  credit  of  their  ac 
about  .t'2,450,00a. 

The  principal  educ.it ional  establishments 
tropolis  are  the  University  College  (northern 
King's  College,  Strand ;  and  Cniversity  i» 
Somcffcet  IIiHwe.  Then*  arc  al^o  some 
schools,  one  of  which  is  that  of  Westmiu'^tt.'i 
are  more  intorcKting  from  their  antiquity  thai 
fulness.  The  National  Society  for  the  Kdui>a 
Poor,  and  the  British  anil  Fon'ign  Schuid  So 
each  large  model  schocds  in  thi?  ni"ti*opoIis 
the  RritiHh  and  Foreign,  lioi-ough  Road,  is 
inspection  for  its  great  extent  and  iLi  wi 
routine  of  (dement-iry  instruction.  The  metro 
the  M-at  of  from  forty  to  fifty  sucietiim  c-»nn 
science,  literature,  and  the  arts,  which  may 
of  national  inipurtaiice.  Among  these  are 
Society,  Society  of  .Antiquari-ii,  Linnu'nii  Sm 
logic.ll  Society,  Socii-ty  ft»r  Hillusitiu  of  l'>  ■ 
ledge,  Horticultural  Society,  Royal  Cieogr.i 
ciety,  Sion  ('(dlege,  &c.  For  a  notice  of  t 
meetings  of  these  societird,  we  refer  to  the  A 
a  literary  periodical. 

Lately  there  wrrc  eleven  m.'wspapers  publi 
in  London — six.  iti  tho  morning  anil  fffa  in  tli 
Thero  were  aWn  Uvenly-fuur  weekly  newrtp: 
thirty-eight  which  appeareil  at  other  inter va 
were  besides  about  tifty  .small  literary  publi 
sued  weekly,  the  greater  i>art  of  which  are 
proving  tendency.  Of  largt.'r  periudicals  be 
the  mctropcdis,  there  are  aiiogt;ther  about  on 
and  twenty,  whieli  are  issued  at  «juarterly  o 
inttrvals,  but  chit.  11  v  monthlv.  It  lias  been 
that  the  numbi-r  <>l"  :-neh  worK.-<  .sold  on  tin*  i 
ev<-rv  month  (Ioim-Iv  ti-nn*-d  ni.-iijazine  dav^  i 
amounts  to  half  :i  inilliini  of  (•opn*';,  occasion 
lM'nflifnr«>  to  tb  •  iiui'lic  <d"  t'-'";,"''". 

In  r«  <"■  !it  ti:iv  N,  \frv:\*  i:i;j>i oM'in-.'!;l>  ]i:v\ i*  ■ 
in  tb.'  M-liii-iiiiir  r -riN  .^y.ir.c  .  oM'.-.*  unli''»|'' 
i;i'i.:!:ijonrli""  I.  l»y  tin-  trairi^^  *<['  i\\c  Lotid" 
inin';'.::t!ii  1!  :-I'.:iv,  t-r--:;  .  i-  at  llii.-toii  Nji.;i 
SMnt:.-\\'«-t.  Til  Il.i'iv..!\'.  T'l'innii:'^  at  Mnv  Jli 
ball  ;  <d"  tb-.-  <'ro*.don  l;:ii:\vav.  t'rMiiiiu«i  sji 
(I'rt'i  iiwich  I:  :iI'A..\.  :«T  L  i  : -n  Urid.;  ■ ;  «if  ll 
('■lUiiM"^  Kai'.v..  \,  rcrtnni.t-  ;l:  >.;  ii-ditrJi  ;  ; 
(•riMt  W'c.Ktc  r:i  K.iilu  ..\ .  ti  riMiiiU'- ;;t  i'adiiin^ 
I  lit  <.f  to\M!  1  .\  r..c.v  b-  Ml  ri.,riii'  I.  in  il.il'-i 
tion.'<,ina\'  v):'.-  it    ;•  ;i-.   •itiii'.'.-.n:!  lal  Uci.ia 


i^-, 


lS*1  ■ 


^it.,  :^^^t./;m^^ 


\\  itbiii  ihr  1.1  \i..y  .ll',  l:.-n«'„ni\v  ci-.udii-:..  eal 
I'.ih-,  an<l  oni:;:bii«.f-,  arc  cx.'i  •  liii^iy  pl-iit 
l.iiv  fbjir.r' d  Ii^r  bacKntv  eoai'lu?.  1-  Is.  prr 
for  rab.-.  i'ld.  p-r  iiu'.v.  i'\w  lari*  by  onmiim 
•  ill.  for  ti.f  rido,  wiirtlu  r  ^b-Tt  or  Ion,'.  Tho  » 
of  wiiiiMi  ibt'ri'  an-  now  about  7""  in  eoii^t.iiil 
rnn  froiii  all  parts  ot  the  t-nviroi^s  to  the  ce 
of  Loiidon.  and  also  crosswi-^i*  in  ditfcrvnt  t 
and  as  tinir  drivi-rs  are  mii'*t  active  in  takii 
Hi'ttim;  dov\n  i)iu».s<Miir(-r^,  t>ii'V  mav  1k>  kiUI  t> 
^rrat'.-"*!  of  mixlfrn  improMMiicnts  in  the  met 

I  I    I-    l  .i'l  I  iMilili-Jiiil  by  W.  ill)  I  II.  rii.\iiiiMi-«.  I 
I'Li'.i.  I.  Linbui  .ll.     <A<\  :i!      ^    W.  .-.  m.^  .iq,)  i.  .  .  | 


■  Urhnvy. 


my. 

•cGlcHiMticnl  pitTpMca,  Ibn  raaiitry  u  dlTtdcil 
I  puliiht*  (wliioli  ua  k1*o  eml  dmuonii),  prnib]'- 
«■,  and  •ynnJfc  (Sec  Cw»Ti'rimo!i  mtt  ilmouiit- 
nin  ButiMi  EunuL') 

lia  princirml  rivim  an  Tweeil,  Aniuui,  N  >di,  {)m 
rkondtvight},  Ayr,  V\y4e,  Bniify,  N«wi,  fiaiilbniii, 
jylWrrnntVliian,  linn,  I>«(i<Ab*rrfraiiHbint,f^7, 
ibiOnToii,  Laitl-.nii'l  Tjnif.  Th«  Tny  i«lU*  niuK 
iiSu*.  mill  till-  i^\ty  tliu  nioit  ratiid.  SuriNlv  uif  uf 
«  rivKT*  nr*  i»vi|[atila  M  4  eoutiidwaUr  akMocu 

mialM  et  SooUud.  aM  gwuntlt !»  0"^  1 


CHAMBERS'S  INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


great  cluster  of  hills ;  but  those  bordering  on  the  Low- 
lands, aud  extending  between  Stirlingaliire  and  Aber- 
deenshii'e,  are  more  particalarly  distinguished  as  the 
Grampian  Afountains.  The  other  principal  ranges  are 
the  Sidlaies  in  Forfarshire ;  tlie  Catnpsie  Hills  in  Stir- 
lingshire ;  the  Penilands  in  Edinburghshire ;  the  Lam- 
mermoorsy  extending  between  Berwick  and  Hadding- 
toushires;  the  C7teviot  Hills  on  the  Border;  and  a 
great  range,  of  no  general  name,  extending  throughout 
the  counties  of  Selkirk,  Peebles,  Dumfries,  Lanark, 
Ayr,  aud  Kirkcudbridit.  The  most  noted  of  the  High- 
land mountains  are  Ben  Nevis  (4370  feet,  being  the 
highest  in  the  United  Kingdom),  Ben  MacDhui  (4327), 
Cairngorm  (4U95),  Ben  More  (3870),  Ben  Wyvis 
(3720),  aud  Ben  Lomond  (32C2V  The  highest  of  the 
Pentland  range  is  Caruethy  (18R0).  Amongst  the 
Boutheru  hills,  few  exceed  2500  feet. 

OEOLOG ICAL  STRUCTURE. — SOI L. — CLI >LiTE. 

In  the  Highlands,  the  rocks  are  generally  of  the 
primary  kind — grauite,  gneiss,  mica-slate,  &c. ;  the 
granite  generally  rising  into  lofty  peaks,  on  which,  in 
many  instances,  gneiss  and  other  non-fossiliferous  rocks 
abut  or  rest.  In  the  Lowlands,  the  rocks  are  generally 
of  the  transition  kind  (gi*awacke,  &c.),  covered  in  many 
parts  with  ct>al-measui*es,  trap,  and  red  sandstone. 
Kucks  superior  to  the  red  sandstone  occur  only  in  a 
few  detached  places,  and  in  very  small  quant  it  v. 

The  cual- field  of  Scotland  extends,  with  slight  inter- 
ruptions, across  the  central  part  of  Scotland,  from 
the  eastern  extremity  of  Fife  to  Gir\-an  in  Ayrshire  ; 
the  principal  beds  being  near  Dysart  and  Alloa,  in  the 
vale  of  the  Ksik  near  Edinburgh,  near  the  line  of  the 
Forth  and  Clyde  Caual,  at  Taisle^'  in  Renfrewshire, 
and  at  Dairy,  Kilmarnock,  and  Girvan,  in  Ayrshire. 
The  Scottish  cual  is  chirKy  of  a  hard  and  lumpy  kind, 
calculated  to  burn  briskly,  and  therefore  well  adapted 
for  manufueturing  as  well  as  for  domestic  i>urposes. 

CJranite  is  diii;  in  ih'*  m-iLrliliourhiMiJ  of  Aberdeen, 
ami  at  Kirkeutlbri::lii,  fur  buililiii<;  purptL-es.  The  city 
t'f  Aberdeen  itself  i-^  eiii-  Hv  e»nislnu't(d  o(  it ;  and  irreat 
quaiitilirs  «'l'  it  are  tninsj-iU'tfil  to  LmhiIoh,  Liverpool, 
uiid  t>tlu T  I'lacf-,  to  be  eiiii>loved  in  buiiiliiig  briiiires, 
dock*?,  and  other  striietures  in  >Aliioh  unii'^iial  diirahi- 
lity  is  ii.-(|ulrfd.  J^hites  c»f  exet'llciit  quality  lor  ronf- 
iu^  are  <niarrii'(l  at  Lasdale  and  lJaiialiuli>li  in  AivvU- 
bliire,  and  in  otle?r  plaoe«.  S'liid^tone  slabs  fur  pa\int; 
arc  qiiarrird  in  Caithiiesrs,  and  at  Arbroath  iti  i'lirlar- 
hhire.  A  line  kind  i-i'  sand-^tone  is  dug  in  many  plaeos, 
ami  i-t  tiie  primary  eau.-e  of  tlio  architectural  elei^aiic** 
(if  many  <.>!'  thi-  public  and  private  buildings  in  the 
principal  town-*.  Ow  in;;  to  the  abundance  <»f  both  sand- 
htoiM-  an<l  trap,  botli  m"  wliich  are  excellently  adapted 
ivv  buiiilin::,  litti*'  brieli  i>  u-^rd  in  S(^*otland. 

The  ehiif  inetal>  u<<rk<d  in  .Scotland  are  lead  and 
iron,  l.'.ad  is  extiii  >iv».ly  \\niu;;ht  in  the  hills  near 
the  junction  •  1  I/mark  and  l)uni}r;«-s  shires^  ud  silver 
was  i'lirmerly  obtained  in  coiiv.i<l(rablo  quailtitietin  the 
eanio  di-trict.  \vvn  lla.•^  iatti-rly  li-tn  worked  on  apvat 
5ca!e  in  the  i:orth».rn  di>tricl  ot"  Lanarkshire, anil  in  the 
counties  of  K'-ntrt'w  antl  Avr.  Abates.  tiipa7.(*s,  ci>rne- 
liaus,  and  si'in*-  *-thor  jm  clous  }jt«>m*s,  are  found  in  the 
liiijhlands  of  AIm  rd«''  ii-hire.  Mineral  wa;ers,  usi-lul 
lor  >arlous  maluilii..-.,  rxist  at  iJun-^e,  M"llat.  Iniur- 
leirh«n.  Airlhn\ .  LlridiTC  i>i  Darn,  l\'t-rhea<l,and  Strath- 
petl'  r. 

Tin'  Soil  of  •^c.'ti.vnl  ir^  of  an  t\M>'m»  ly  divn^itbd 
cbiir.i":-  r.  <'u  the  c>inij»arativ«  !y  !■  \(  1  trai'N.  niui-ii  i^ 
e  'Uij  I  -■ '{  oi"  loam  r.  .-;ir;;;  on  tb"  ltv'  at  clay  bnl,  or  di- 
luvium. I  r  »■!  alluvial  c'.iv  wa-^brd  ib-wn  I'r.  m  tin'  liilis. 
Much  1-  V.-;  a-  'Ai-ii  a».  liiiiv  ;:roun  I  i^  al-^o  cii\tri'd  bv 
]  t.ixi  b.^:j,  thf  il.-'^<'l\iil  b-ii— 1?»  oi"  ancii.iit  tinns.  (Jn  thr 
tr.ipbil!"*,  a  I./ht  find  um  ful  siiil,i'<'mp.'>td  ot'thc  material 
I.'.!"",  i-  u."  nir.iiiy  li-und.  A  con««i'b.'rabb»  i|uantity  of 
tlio  ar.ibb'  s«t:l  thr'»u;;lit>ut,  bcin^  C"mp«»;'»'d  ot  reclaimed 
\n.i)Z.  C"ntain>  a  i'»  atv  matt  riai.  <  »ut  of  the  thirty  thou- 
Eiind  square  miles  coiiqirchi'iidrd  in  Scotlan«l,  about 
thirtti'ii  thon«i:ind  are  totally  incapable  of  imj»rnvc'iiu*nt, 
r.ine  thyu&.iud  are  wu-Ics  b'lieved  lo  be  capable  of  iin- 


provement,  and  the  remainder  are  pretty  equal 
between  arable  and  pasture  land. 

The  climate,  as  compared  with  that  of  £i 
cold,  cloudy,  and  wet ;  yet  the  temperature  is 
to  such  great  extremes  as  that  of  either  £i 
France,  seldom  falling  below  25"  Fahrenheit, 
above  G5%  the  annuqf  average  being  from  4 
The  summer  is  uncertain,  and  often  comprehe 
consecutive  weeks  of  ungenial  weather;  bu 
other  hand,  the  winters  are  rarely  severe,  i 
include  many  agreeable  da}'s  aud  even  wee 
backwardness  of  spring  is  perhaps  the  worst  J 
the  meteorological  character  of  the  country. 

ANIMAL  AND  TEOEIABLE  FBODCCTIONS. — XGVLIO 

The  countr}*,  as  already  mentioned,  was  > 
covered  in  great  part  by  wood ;  aud  this  feat 
lievcd  to  have  been  expressed  in  its  ancient  na 
donia  (choille  dun,  Gaelic,  a  wooded  hilly  cuun 
natural  wood  has  been  allowed  in  the  course 
go  into  decay,  in  all  except  a  few  remote  di: 
which  we  may  particularise  the  high  comit 
junction  of  Aberdeen,  Banff,  Moray,  and  J 
sliires.  In  the  last  ccntuxy,  Scotland  had  bccoi 
bare  of  wood,  the  only  patches  being  around  ge 
seats.  Within  the  last  fifty  yeant,  this  state 
has  been  greatly  changed.  Extensive  plantat 
been  formed  iu  most  districts,  as  a  protecti 
cultivated  lands.  Those  of  the  Duke  of  Athole 
sliire  are  remarkable,  above  all,  for  the  vast 
which  they  occupy.  Scottish  plantations  cons! 
of  larch  and  fii* ;  but  the  country  also  prod 
ash,  and  elm,  in  great  abundance.  It  is  caleu 
about  a  million  of  acres  in  Scotland  are  m 
wood. 

Scotland  formerly  abounded  in  wild  anlma 
cularly  the  wild-boar,  the  wild-ox,  and  the  w 
wild-bo.ir  has  been  for  many  ages  extinct; 
wolf  has  been  so  since  the  latter  part  of  the  se^ 
century.  Of  the  primitive  white  wild  cattle  of 
try.  tlu-rc  is  now  only  a  fci[iecimen  licrd,  preset 
curiosity  in  the  ]>arks  near  Hamilton  I'ulace. 
prey,  tho  cattle,  falc(»n,  and  owl,  are  still  four 
Highlands  and  \^'e^tern  Islands,  where  alst> 
^ame  birds  are  abundant.  Aquatic  birda  \ 
more  precipitous  .shores  in  vast  luiinl-ers.  I 
rabbits  tfvery  where  abound,  and  foxi-s  are  j\> 
The  rivtrs  of  Scotland  jiroduce  salmon  and  ti 
lK-rrin^<,  hatldocks,  coti,  and  tiounder?,  exi&t 
abundance  in  the  neighbouring  seas. 

iluribauilrv  was  in  a  verv  back\\aril  state  in 
till  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century.  T 
lau'ls  i>roduced  herds  of  the  native  small  bl.u 
in  the  low  countries,  the  higher  gri-nnds  wi-re 
.IS  now,  by  Hocks  of  sheep  ;  but  there  was  li:: 
land,  a!id  that  little  w.is  ill  cultivati  d  and  Cimq 
unproductive.  Since  then,  umier  the  c.ire  o 
patriotic  and  enlii;lilened  individuals,  Scutiaiu 
saiil  to  have  been  «ine  grtat  experiinenlal  far; 
advaiipoment  of  luisbandrv  in  all  its  fi>rnis.  ' 
ing  of  turniii->  for  the  winter  support  of  cattle 
iu  iiM.'lf  a  most  remarkable  iniprovenient.  . 
notation  of  crops  has  bet-ii  studied,  and  lia^i 
tondod  ^^ith  the  best  etlVcts.  Old,  cumbrous 
pfn>ive  mmles  of  tillage  have  been  banished, 
lijlit  ])lough  and  cart  substitute*!  in  their  plac* 
in:;  has  impnned  not  only  t'ne  M?il  but  iht 
l.inu-,  and  lattorly  biuie  manure,  have  bi  en  e» 
introduce«l.  Tin*  product ivent-ss  of  the  sod  li 
(pontic  increased  in  an  immense  ra:ii>.  Oat* 
j'lant,  calculated  for  most  soils  ar.d  climates,  i 
chief  grain  rai»ed  in  Scotland,  and  its  meal  i 
jrincipal  l<>od  (.f  the  peasantry,  of  working 
g<  noral,  and  of  the  chiblrvn  of  all  clas<*es  of 
munity  :  it  is  paid  to  cover  1,-60,U00  acres,  oi 
of  the  wlutle  in  cultivation.  Itarley,  ikhicll 
conspicuous  article  in  the  fotnl  of  the  conimc 
and  is  also  used  in  distillation,  occupies  280/ 
Wheat  is  believed  to  occupy  ouljr  about  140/1 


:OTLAMD. 


'  wJitab  nv  ><■  Bwnl  tn  die  |d«lanM  at  Ottir 
iir*n)MliIhMi(lUiorhaMiuaBrlM«eTCI.  Hurra 
oMldimUii  iKoAnaj  la  Uia  SoiUidi  lutrilwt  hi 
jonUlii*  MKinla^  *iii  UiU  rf>u<n  itMiIf  iu  ili* 
«  b>  lU^  ■hnnlMB  M  unit  u  Id  lUlr  fbiiairfiA. 

lOicilcpn  io  SMitliui't  u  ia  EcgUnilt  bol  itta 
In  e!«ww  is  Nurtfa  Ilrtliia  nnt  nal  dimI*  m  m-  1 
lUs  lur  douJiium  *■  tin  Imxc  CntGidi,  ua  Uw* 
nu(ha«d  «f  III*  jtKi«  fnim  IW  loiWiulic  uw  « 
t  (((nw  TbB  nml  bUiarinc  cImhc  mn  t*- 
..  ,  ..  ,_  ..  ''-■--■— ,|,Q^,ot»tqwiaoi>t( 
_  iliu  iii«»t  urdm  In 
h  BnmJ  d(4irri»ralirin  ha*  liikun 
Fur  »Mtariw>  Qto  ■indurv^  ilatpoiiitvti  of  lb* 


;  Mnoni  rttr;  7**r  ■•am  iWir  usiiiv  oHaiUj  Ut 

iGmi  (ortOM  in  lb*  bmlar  Eneli^  el<iw.  (a  puLfio 

■jmnit  lin  lalb,  b  llM*«liiiii«s  >ir  is  ntlmr  parta 

•otU.    Tbu<i  BMMiu  h«Ta  (MkMsll;  a  ulvkUti 

tVn  to  pnf^Mliin  Ia  tk*ir  rank  ftiiJ  ntatficvU ; 

-T-i-  fiiiicJ  t..L>j.:v.iii  i.(  dtt-aiilufM,  Uiiily,  aiid 

.'i-FiiinUlalr  ^leu^ 

'   adruiba  *rllUh 

'  lA^iiD  af  4n  iial> 

:■■  ,>..irurti«i.  Tlita, 

iJuti  iiwuJi  e'ni^}  |>;i>ua  ic&ml  io  SoiUand  U 
Utuiiil  •oinB  tladurn  of  lilpmim» 


_  ttni  Uio  wRilih  (if  Scotlaod  tiu  iii«reiuvd  man 
iliaa  tlial  iiT  ciiJwr  of  th«H  two  cuuDCritt.  Ilu* 
lie  reaiill,"  oar  aulluir  lulit*,  "  weanit  to  )ibvi>  tn 


J. 

■aiiicipally  to  tl 
<  Inir  eaitatry,  the  inuodiuitnia  of  tliH-p-tarmbig 
.liB  lil^lwtih.  Mid  iliii  iAMmIm  tmpotHt,  Igr  tJi« 
r  Scalluu)  w  to  Ibiom  and  tii*  aporatimi  i^  tli« 
AWi,  Bgaiiut  thv  tiiMiviaion  oT  Unil  «i4  tlia 
iigof  lUcvi'lluuuicnlUgMi.  Tlt*M  cireuR»uiiiiM, 
ined  wiiu  th«  nionl  «nd  TtHgloui  tiablM  itt  tlw 
(,  anil  tliit  wnit'itl  diffwiwi  of  sducMlen.  lutrn 

tnatriuw  M  tM*tttll  M  k  tU*r  p«rivd  tluul  fal 

etUi*  tiiBiiirit,  Mid  bkt«»]«o  led  la  a  «w<t 

'       -      '       — , '(Mt 


M^d^lli*«n>| 


CHAMB£RS*S  INFORItATIQN  FOB  TSD^  PEOPLE. 


Sootdi  haye  adTUieed  more  rapidly  tban  the  Engluh 
or  Iriih  in  wealth,  and  in  the  command  of  the  neoes- 
earies  and  oonTenienciee  of  life.  Their  progress  in  this 
respeet  has,  indeed,  been  quite  astonishmg.  The  habits*, 
diet,  dresSy  and  other  accommodations  m  the  peo^ei, 
have  been  signally  improTed."* 

It  has  been  shown,  on  the  other  hand,  that  the  com- 
forts of  the  people  hare  dot  erery  where  inu^ored  in 
the  ratio  of  Uie  general  advance  of  wealth.  That  ope- 
ration of  the  limited  poor-laws  of  Scotland  which  Mr 
M^Culloch  enlogises,  haa  been  shown  by  Professor 
Alison  of  Edinburgh  to  send  annually  great  nambers 
of  superannuated  hkbourers  and  others  into  the  hrfge 
towns,  where  they  form  a  dense  population,  living  m 
semi-destitution,  and  in  other  circumstances  un&Tour- 
able  to  health,  and  are  thus  exposed  to  fevers  and  other 
eontagious  maladies,Nrhich  periodically  sweep  them  off 
in  large  numbers.  It  is  contended  by  the  same  writer, 
that  UMB  low  condition  in  which  the  scanty  provision 
for  pauperism  compels  many  to  live,  gives  them  reck- 
less hamts,  and  tends  materially  to  increase  a  mean, 
squalid,  and  danfferous  population.  There  is  certainly 
much  truth  in  these  views.  The  sanitory  condition  of 
Glasgow  forms  a  startling  illustration  of  tnem.  Durins 
five  years,  firom  1855  to  1839  inclusive,  the  number  m 
fever  cases  treated  at  the  public  expense  in  that  city 
was  55,949,  or  about  11,000  per  annum,  and  the  deaths 
in  the  same  period  were  4788.  The  population  of 
GUsgow  has  risen  firom  151,540  in  1822,  to  272,000  in 
1840,  and  in  that  period  the  rate  of  mortality  has  been 
rapidly  advancing.  In  1822^  the  mortalitv  was  8408, 
or  one  in  about  44^  of  the  population ;  in  1825,  it  was 
4571,  or  as  one  in  about  36}.  In  1828,  the  mortality 
incrrased  to  5534,  which,  at  the  then  amount  of  the 
population,  was  one  in  33— a  proportion  alarmingly 
high.  Since  then,  however,  the  inhabitants  of  this 
great  dtv  have  suffered  still  more  severely.  In  the 
year  of  the  Asiatic  cholera,  1832,  when  the  population 
was  209|230,  the  mortality  reached  the  enormous  amount 
of  9654,  or  one  in  about  21  (  ;  and  again,  in  a  year  of 
severe  fever  (I837)i  when  the  population  was  estimated 
at  253,000,  it  reached  10,270,  or  one  in  about  244.  It 
would  appear  as  if,  after  such  disastrous  periods,  the 
mortality  becomes  for  some  time  lessened.  After  1832, 
it  rebounded  to  one  in  36,  and  after  1837  to  one  in  37, 
or  thereabouts.  Probably  this  is  in  some  measure 
owing  to  the  effect  of  severe  epidemics  in  carrying  off 
so  many  of  the  least  healthy  of  the  people.  It  is  to  be 
remarked,  that  in  these  results  no  account  is  taken  of 
still-bom  children,  who,  in  the  eighteen  years  before 
1 840,  amounted  to  8763.  The  proportion  of  the  still- 
born is  startlingly  high,  being,  in  1830,  471  out  of  6868, 
or  about  a  fourteenth.  In  this  fact  alone,  wo  cannot 
help  thinking  wo  behold  a  strong  proof  of  the  amount 
of  misery  and  unfavourable  modes  of  livi^g'^pevailiog 
in  Glasgow. 

The  average  annual  mortality  in  G 
the  period  between  1822  and  1830,  botb^ 
in  38^;  for  the  period  between  1831  an< 
both  uiclusive,  one  in  nearly  32.  At  the  latter  date,  if 
it  were  habitual,  Glasgow  would  stand  forth  as  one  of 
the  cities  most  fatal  to  human  life  in  Europe.  Another 
fact  is  most  remarkable,  that,  of  the  deaths  during  these 
eighteen  years,  43  per  cent.,  or  not  much  short  of  the 
one-half  y  are  of  children  under  Jirc  years  of  age,  and  18 
per  cent,  under  one  year  cf  age,  it  further  appears, 
from  minute  evidence,  that  in  the  years  of  unusually 
great  mortality,  there  is  a  larger  proportion  of  deaths 
amongst  the  adult  population,  showing  how  fatal  the 
epidemics  are  to  heads  of  families.  From  one-fourth 
to  one-fifth  of  the  funerals  in  Glasgow  are  at  the  public 
expense — an  impressive  fact,  seeing  how  it  connects 
jtoverty  leilh  mortality. 

IIEMARKABI.E  NATURAL  SCENERY. — NATURAL  CURIOSmES. 

The  comparatively  irregular  surface  of  Scotland,  or, 
as  a  geologist  would  remark,  its  being  more  generally 

*  8tati0tic:a  Account  of  the  Britbh  Empire 


Conned  of  th«  primitiTtt  aad  «M^niA%l 
exitftenee  of  mneli  jAeiJurmqpm  u4  warn 
the  attraetkms  of  wli  hav»  bteh  ftiMJUy  hi 
of  lateyearsb}  -  lof  tiieaalhrepdetetii 
ists, particnlari, .  .^srSoott  nMl^gpOii 

be  said  to  1 ^.^  \ — t  tneft  of  mmIi  uetmmj, 

some  parts  sire  eooBidflnibly  moce  beMitilU  wu 
Fine soenery  in Seothuid mniBnXljVtm mkmg  i 
of  lakes  or  th«  valM  of  nnn,  Tha  flhief  te 
the  following: —  • 


l%t  TVoioeht  and  Loch  Kmirine^-^Tbam  it  a  I 
disirict,  situated  at  the  -dirtanee  of  littb  mo 
twenty-five  miles  from  StixUng,  and  xemaxkaM 
seenexy  of  Seott^  Zatf|r  ^A§  Lake.  It  may  V 
oommenoe  at  the  large  Lowiand  viOago  of  Q 
which  18  only  sixteen  mike  fSram  ^^^'ffgt  1U 
lies  in  the  bosom  of  the  vaUsj  cf  tiio  MH^  w 
hflls  on  all  sides  exeepi  tho  oast^  and  wpgtixmA 
pying  the  last  patdi  of  level  ground  befimifaet 
enters  the  Highlands.  Tho  snmonding  sosdsx; 
thy  of  beiog  explored ;  two  plaessj,  in  pavtiealsi 
bevisited.  The  first  is  |bo  All  </ BtadMn, 
smoqg  the  hills^  aft  tho  dtstanoe  of  a  mile  aai 
in  a  north-essteriy  direetkm  from  tho  villi 
eonaist  of  a  series  of  ossesdss  fonned  bj  tho 
ous  rushing  of  a  mountain  stream,  termed  Um 
down  a  rugged  rooky  ravineu  Eaeh  Basesds 
eight  to  ten  feet  in  denth,  and  altogetlMr,  t 
may  measure  upwards  of  a  hundred  wei^  bsft 
finally  settle  in  a  profound  reeoptacle  at  tlis 
Above  the  chasm  ttiere  is  thrown  a  nistie  fcol 
from  which  the  view  of  the  frlls^  idwn  tibo  watsor 
is  partieularlv  g^d.  This  ^ot  is  worthvc 
visited  by  geologists^  on  aooount  of  the  su^iusc 
of  rifted  roek  over  and  among  which  tiio  wals 
tuously  dashes. 

The  other  place  to  which  we  would  draw  atti 
the  Past  of  Lehy,  This  is  a  narrow  opening 
mile  to  the  north-west  of  the  village,  which  m 
cess,  as  its  name  imports,  from  the  low  country 
wild  recesses  of  the  HighUmds.  While  the  val 
Teith  continues  towards  the  west,  the  road  to  i 
of  Leny  strikes  off  in  a  north-westerly  direction, 
with  waving  woods  and  bound  in  by  lofty  moi 
this  is  a  scene  of  great  sublimitv.  A  rapid  rivei 
issues  from  the  mountain  lake  denominated  Lo< 
naig,  hurries  through  the  narrow  vale  over  a  i 
little  cascades,  yielding  a  music  harsh  and  wild,! 
keeping  with  the  ruggedness  of  the  scene.  Tl 
leads  along  the  brink  of  Loch  Lubnaig,  to  th 
parish  village  of  Balquidder,  where,  in  £e  chur 
the  grave  of  the  celebrated  freebooter  Rob  Boj 
pointed  out. 

The  road  towards  the  Trosachs  pursues  a  t 
line  along  the  base  of  a  mountain  range^  skirt 
north  side  of  tho  valley.  In  the  bottom  of  the ' 
in  succession  two  long  stripes  of  water,  or  laksi 
Loch  Vennachar  and  Loch  Achray.  Immediai 
fore  approaching  the  eastern  extremity  of  tbs 
these  Ijikes,  which  is  bv  much  the  smallest,  a  roi 
off  to  the  right,  into  the  vale  of  Glenfmlmt  s 
ten  miles  in  extent,  formerly  a  royal  hunftti^ 
destitute  of  the  smallest  symptom  of  "habitatioi 
cultivation^  and  which  anv  one  who  wishes  lo 
complete  idea  of  an  Ossianic  desert,  in  all  its  SM 
lonely  wildness,  may  be  reconmiended  to  traven 
bridge  crossing  the  stream  which  descends  fri 
vale,  is  called  the  Bridge  of  Turk,  on  aceonnl  o 
boar,  which  had  done  much  mischief  in  the  ns$| 
hood,  having  been  slain  at  the  place  in  times  k 
gone. 


On  coming  to  the  head  of  Loch  Aduray,  yona| 

e  Trosachs.    At  this  point  is  situated  an  imL 

a  strange  Gaelic  name,  soundid^  inmilhiiy  \i 


kencrockran.    This  is  the  last 

route,  and  here  travellers  osoallv^nil    .      ,. 

order  to  walk  the  remainder  of  tM  diiluMa;  tf 


^ 


DESCRIPTION  OF  SCOTLAND. 


y  win  aeeommodate  a  chaise  to  the  verge  of 
itrine.  The  TroeachB  is  simply  a  concluding 
if  the  TslCy  abont  a  mile  in  extent,  and  adjoin- 
e  bottom  of  Loch  Katrine.  From  the  tumul- 
ofusion  of  little  rocky  eminences,  of  all  the 
itastie  and  extraordmary  forms,  which  lie 
mt  the  bottom  of  the  vale,  and  are  every 
iiagged  with  trees  and  shrubs,  nature  here 
I  aspect  of  roughness  and  wildness,  of  tanoled 
itricable  boekiness,  totally  unexampled.  The 
ing  contracted,  hills,  moreover,  rise  on  each 
great  height,  which,  being  entirely  covered  by 
hazels,  oaiks,  hawthorns,  and  mountain  ashes, 
te  neatly  to  the  general  effect.  The  meaning 
ord  Trasachs  in  some  measure  describes  the 
.  rough  or  bristled  piece  of  territory.  The 
f  the  Ladjf  qf  (he  Lake  has  described  it  as  *'  a 
\  scene  of  mountains,  rocks,  and  woods,  thrown 
in  disorderly  groups." 

I  termination  of  the  Trosachs,  Loch  Katrine 
ses :  it  measures  about  ten  miles  in  length,  and 
reckoned  one  of  the  most  beautiful  in  Scot- 
ts  principal  charm  consists  in  the  singular 
rildness  of  its  mountainous  sides,  and  its  pretty 
eta,  rising  to  a  considerable  height  out  of  the 
id  tufted  over  with  trees  and  shrubs.  Near 
mi  extremity  of  the  lake,  there  is  precisely 
island  as  that  which  is  described  in  the  poem 
adence  of  the  outlawed  Douglas  and  his  family. 
the  wishes  of  the  imagination — if  such  a  phrase 
used — Lady  Willoughby  D'Eresby,  tho  pro- 
of the  ground,  has  erected  upon  Uie  island  a 
ower  or  cottage,  such  as  that  which  the  said 
icnpied ;  and  he  must  be  a  traveller  of  more 
inary  churlishness  who  could  refrain  from  in- 
n  the  plesMing  deception  thus  created, 
ew  of  the  lake,  on  approaching  it  on  the  east, 
*  confined,  but  from  the  top  of  the  rocky  and 
oimt  above,  the  prospect  is  more  extensive, 
lat  singular  beauty  which  the  author  of  the 
Ike  Lake  has  described  in  the  following  pas- 


**  Gleaming  with  tho  8i*tting  sun. 


yt  bunii»h'd  sheet  of  living  gold, 
cb  Katrine  laj  beneath  him  roll'd, 
an  her  length  far-winding  lay, 
ich  promontory,  creek,  and  bay, 
■d  Uanda  that,  empurpled  bright, 
oated  amid  the  livelier  light, 
Ml  nKMintains  that  like  giants  stand, 
I  fentimd  enchanted  land. 
^  on  the  wath,  huge  Ben-vcnuc 
m  on  tho  lake  its  masses  threw— 
■gs,  knolls,  and  mounds,  oonfosoiUy  hiu-lM, 
Mr  fraDrmentd  of  an  earlier  world ; 
wOdering  forest  feather'd  o'er, 
•  niln'd  sides  and  summit  hoar ; 
hile  on  the  n<»lh,  through  middle  air, 
heaved  high  his  forehead  bare." 


-The  beautiful  scenery  connected  with 
nay  be  said  to  commence  at  Comrie,  a  village 
otj  miles  to  the  west  of  Perth,  and  remark- 
e  place  of  all  others  in  the  United  Kingdom 
rtoqiiakes  take  place  most  frequently.  The 
A  Earn  is  here,  and  even  lower  down,  full  of 
id  aicqiured  beauty.  Passing  upwards  towards 
the  scenery  becomes  more  interesting  at  every 
^bat  part  of  the  vale  which  adjoins  to  the 
the  lake,  its  character  is  similar  to  that  of 
eh%  at  the  corresponding  extremity  of  Loch 
iiOQgfa  leas  minutely  rugged  and  picturesque. 
uongh  the  extensive  grove  at  the  bottom  of 
',  DOW  within  sight  and  hearing  of  the  ever- 
lad  ever-murmuring  Earn,  and  then  beyond 
Ihe  road  approaches  and  recedes  from  the 
i^  the  traveller  gets  frequent  broken  glimpses 
■d  and  wihUy  serrated  tops  of  the  neighbour- 
fiinf  whoae  sides  present  a  strange  piebald 
W  ao  means  dtficient  in  effect,  of  alternate 
229 


bare  crag  and  incumbent  verdure — a  beautiful  confu- 
sion, indeed,  of  grey  and  green — relieved  occasionally 
by  the  darker  branches  of  the  birch  and  weeping-ash. 

Loch  Earn  extends  nine  miles  in  length,  and  gene- 
rally about  one  mile  in  breadth.     It  is  thus  described 
by  Dr  M*Culloch : — **  Limited  as  are  the  dimensions  of 
Loch  Earn,  it  is  exceeded  in  beauty  by  few  of  our  lakes, 
as  far  as  it  is  possible  for  many  beauties  to  exist  in  so 
small  a  space.     I  will  not  say  that  it  presents  a  great 
number  of  distinct  landscapes  adapted  for  the  pencil ; 
but  such  as  it  does  possess,  are  remarkable  for  their 
confiistency  of  character,  and  for  a  combination   of 
sweetness  and  simplicity,  with  a  grandeur  of  manner, 
scarcely  to  be  expected  within  such  narrow  bounds. 
Its  style  is  that  of  a  lake  of  far  greater  dimensions ;  the 
hills  which  bound  it  being  lofty,  and  bold,  and  rugged, 
with  a  variety  of  character  not  found  in  many  of  even 
far  greater  magnitude  and  extent.     It  is  a  miniature 
and  model  of  scenery  that  might  well  occupy  ten  times 
the  space.     Yet  the  eye  does  not  feel  this.     There  is 
nothing  trifling  or  small  in  the  details ;  nothing  to  di- 
minish its  grandeur  of  style,  and  tell  us  we  are  contem- 
plating a  reduced  copy.     On  the  contrary,  there  is  a 
perpetual  contest  between  our  impressions  and  our 
reasonings :  we  know  that  a  few  short  miles  compre- 
hend the  whole,  and  yet  we  feel  as  if  it  were  a  landscape 
of  many  miles — a  lake  to  be  ranked  among  those  of  iii-st 
order  and  dimensions.     While  its  mountains  thus  rise 
in  majestic  simplicity  to  the  sky,  terminating  in  bold, 
and  various,  and  rocky  outlines,  the  surfaces  of  the  de- 
clivities are  equally  bold  and  various ;  enriched  with 
Erecipices  and  masses  of  protruding  rock,  with  deep 
oUows  and  ravines,  and  with  the  course»  of  innumer- 
able torrents  which  pour  from  above,  and,  as  they  de- 
scend, become  skirted  with  trees  till  they  lose  them- 
selves in  the  waters  of  the  lake.      Wild  woods  also 
ascend  along  their  surface,  in  all  that  irregularity  of 
distribution  so  peculiar  to  these  rocky  mountains ;  less 
solid  and  continuous  than  at  Loch  Lomond ;  less  scat- 
tered aud  romantic  than  at  Loch  Katrine,  but,  from 
these  very  causes,  aiding  to  confer  upon  Loch  Earn  a 
cliaracter  entirely  its  own."     In  passing  along  Loch 
Earn,  it  is  recommended  to  go  by  the  road  on  the  south 
side.   The  house  of  Ardvoirdlich  (Stewart,  Esq.),  occurs 
about  mid- way  ;  its  name  recals  the  memorv*  of  Stewart 
of  Ardvoirdlich,  a  partisan  of  Montrose,  who  killed  his 
friend  Lord  Kilpont  in  the  royalist  camp  at  Col  lace, 
September  5, 1 G44 — the  incident  on  which  Scott  founded 
his  Legend  of  Afontrose.  The  woody  promontories  which 
here  project  into  the  lake  are  remarkably  beautiful. 
About  a  mile  and  a  half  from  tho  west  end  of  the  lake, 
occur  the  castle  and  falls  of  Edinample,  a  scene  of  dis- 
tinguished loveliness,  such  as  people,  in  the  spirit  of 
compliment,  say,  might  give  occasion  to  a  volume,  and 
which,  rather,  strange  to  tell,  has  actually  done  so. 

The  uppsif igiUreniity  of  this  beautiful  lake,  where  the 
general  meiMltf  the  scenery  may  be  said  in  some  mea- 
sure to  be  akd^ther  condensed  and  combined,  is  enliv- 
ened by  the  little  village  and  inn  of  Loch  Earn  Head. 

Middle  Perthshire. 

Dunkeld, — This  small  town,  so  celebrated  for  the 
fine  scenery  in  its  neighbourhood,  is  situated  on  the 
north  bank  of  the  Tay,  at  the  distance  of  fifteen  miles 
from  Perth  and  twenty-four  from  Kcnmorc.  Nestling 
beneath  steep  aud  woody  mountains,  with  a  noble  river 
running  in  front,  across  which  there  is  an  elegant 
bridge,  the  first  view  of  Dunkeld,  in  approaching  it 
from  the  south,  is  very  striking.  The  village  consists 
of  two  small  streets,  in  which  are  two  excellent  inns, 
affordinc  extensive  accommodation  for  the  tourists  who 
Hock  hither  in  summer.  At  Dunkeld,  attention  is  called 
to  the  venerable  remains  of  a  cathedral,  and  the  Duke 
of  Atholc^s  mansion,  styled  Dunkeld  House ;  but  our  pre- 
sent business  is  with  the  natural  scener}\  Most  of  this 
is  in  the  pleasure-grounds  connected  with  the  mansion. 

Craig-y-Bams^  a  lofty  hill,  wooded  to  the  top,  which 
rises  behind  the  house,  is  a  resort  of  tourists  for  the 
sake  of  the  magnificent  view  which  it  commands.   They 


•    fc  '  ■  '^  ^^F  ^  ^  *■  ■" ' 


CHAMBERS*S  DTPORltATIOK  FOR  TEdS  PEOPLE. 


iM  ako  eoadneted  by  guides  to  the  aoenery  of  the 
Bnm,  wUeh  joini  the  Tay  on  its  opposite  bsnk  nesr  the 
Tillsge  of  IiiTer— the  birthplace  and  usual  residence, 
it  msj  be  mentioned^  of  the  late  Neil  Gow,  so  fiunous 
wherever  Scottish  mosio  Is  known,  at  once  for  hisjper- 
Ibnnance  on  the  Tiolin  and  his  exoellent  compositions. 
Kear  this  phMO  the  tourist  is  oondncted  into  a  tasteftd 
hermitsge  or  snmmer-house,  nsmed  Ossian*s  Hall, 
where  he  sees  before  him  a  picture  representing  the 
aged  Ossian  siniging  to  some  females  the  tales  **m  the 
days  that  are  past,^  while  his  do^  his  hnnting«pear, 
and  bow  and  arrows^  lie  at  his  side.     On  a  sudden, 
this  picture  slips  sside,  and  discloses  to  the  view  of  the 
BUTj^ised  stranger  a  nplendid  cataract,  which  dashes 
down  the  rocks  iouneaiately  opposite  to  the  buildings 
and  the  waters  of  whieh  are  reflected  from  a  range  of 
nirron  di^rased  around  the  halL    To  use  the  words 
of  Dr  Glarfce^  **  The  whole  eatarsetfbamsat  once  before 
fon,  roaring  with  the  noise  of  thunder.    It  is  hardly 
possible  to  oonoeiTe  a  qpectade  more  striking.    If  it  be 
ofajeoted  that  machinery  contriTance  of  this  sort  wears 
too  mpeh  the  appearance  of  scenic  representation,  I 
should  rephr^  that  as  scenic  representation  I  admire  it, 
and  as  the  finest  spedmen  of  that  q>ecies  of  exhibition ; 
which,  doubtless,  without,  the  aid  of  audi  a  deception, 
would  have  been  destitute  of  half  the  eflSwt  it  is  now 
calculated  to  produce.    A  little  below  this  edifice^  a 
simple  but  pleasing  arch  is  thrown  across  the  narrow 
chasm  of  the  rocks,  throng  which  the  riTer  flows  with 
vast  rapidity.    About  a  mile  higher  up  the  Brsn,  is  the 
Rwmbib^  Brid0§f  thrown  across  a  chasm  of  granite, 
about  fifteen  feet  wide.  ThebedoftheriTer,  forsererai 
hundred  fMBt  above  the  arch,  is  oopiomly  chazged  with 
msssive  Irssments  of  rock,  ever  wnich  the  river  foams 
and  rosrs  like  the  waters  at  Ivy  Bridge  in  Devonshire. 
Approschii^  the  bridge,  it  prectpttates  itself  with  great 
fury  throuffh  the  chani,  csating  a  thick  cloud  of  spray 
or  vapour  high  above  the  bridge,  and  antating  by  its 
fury  even  the  prodigious  masses  which  form  uie  sur- 
rounding rocks.    Few  objects  will  more  amply  repay 
the  traveller  for  his  trouble  of  visitioff  them,  than  the 
woody  precipices,  the  long,  winding,  snady  groves,  the 
ruins,  and  cataracts  of  Dunkeld." 

In  the  angle  formed  by  the  junction  of  the  Bran  and 
Tay  rises  Craiff  Vinearif  a  broad  shadowy  mass  of  firs, 
reared  against  the  sky.  A  neighbouring  eminence 
obtains  the  name  of  the  Kin^t  Seat,  in  consequence  of 
King  William  the  Lion  having  been  in  the  habit  of 
stationing  himself  upon  it,  in  order  to  shoot  at  the 
droves  of  deer  whicn  his  attendants  caused  to  pass 
through  the  adjacent  hollows.  It  b  related  that  Queen 
Mary  also  practised  the  same  sport  at  this  place,  and 
on  one  occasion  narrowly  escaped  destruction  from  an 
infuriated  stag. 

Aberfeldyy  Kenmortf  and  irt//t».—Touriiit  frequently 
proceed  from  Dunkeld  along  the  bank^ef  the  Tay,  in 
order  to  comprehend  the  tract  of  seeqipy  here  indi- 
cated. Aberfeldif,  a  village  not  in  itself  rvmarkable,  is 
celebrated  fur  the  fine  cataract,  formed  by  a  small  tri- 
butary of  the  Tay,  in  its  neighbourhood,  and  near  the 
house  of  Moness.  The  tourist  is  conducted  by  a  guide 
along  the  thickly  wooded  banks  of  this  rivulet,  till,  about 
a  mile  from  the  village,  he  reaches  the  first  of  the  cele- 
brated waterfalls  of  Kloness.  A  little  sub-tributary  rill 
here  pours,  in  a  series  of  cascades,  down  the  side  of  tlio 
glen,  amidst  a  natural  scene  of  the  greatest  beauty.  A 
little  farther  up  the  main  dell,  the  rivulet  pours  along 
a  steep  natural  staircase,  of  a  hundred  feet  in  perpen- 
dicular descent,  the  sides  of  which  rise  abruptly  and 
>^gg^ly»  cloth^  with  the  most  beautiful  natural  plants. 
This  scene  is  described  by  Bums  in  one  of  his  songs  : — 

••  The  brae*  ascend  like  lofty  wa's, 
The  foaming  stream  deep  mariner  fa^, 
O'crhiing  wi*  fragrant  spreading  shawR, 

The  birlw  of  Abcrfeldy. 
The  hoary  diflfs  are  crowm'd  wi*  flowers ; 
White  o'er  the  linn  the  biimic  pours. 
And,  rising,  weets  wi'  mfatty  showers, 
The  blrks  of  AberfWdj/' 
230 


Atai     ] 


on  tiMoOier  dds  al 
b«  admired  is  As  « 


Uie 


A  rideof  six  ndlflii 
to  Kmmore^  a  viUsM  of  ftmsd  bsMfy,  sita 
east  end  of  Lodi  Tky,  tt  As  plaaa  when 
issoes from  that  iheet  Mvaftee.  lliiiiseaac 
stsgeiL  or  jpoint$i  inth«  tour  of  Fertlisliirs 
provided,  aooormngly,  with  a  oood  inn.  . 
ascend  on  eadi  side  ;  on  ODS  haiia  there  Is  A I 


on  the  other,  towards  AbsrfUdT,  strstsh  th 
grounds  arouid  TaymouCh  Ouue^  the  s|iAel 
qnis  of  Breadalhane.  lUs  msgnfflwmfc  ho 
worthy  of  the  great  chief  and  hiw-proprktoi 
it— is  aboiil  a  mUe  to  the  esst  of  Kemnors^  tl 

Ciray  of  the  psrk  openiqg  firam  liio  street 
it  is  a  ttrfc  grsy  wsfeHsteHI  ^Mm^  \ 
aspect,  situated  in  tM  low  gnmnd  beside  ths : 
a  beantlfbl  baokuu;  of  wooo^UDsrisfaig  beUi 
prince^ pkoe  ana  its a^onetSBide a  deep! 
on  the  nund  of  Borna^  who  ThRtid  it  In  1787 
desertbed  it:^- 

ttielii 


«<  The  oalsti«(oiili«  take. 
The  «grs  with  wondtf  and 
The  TSy,  meaadflclnc  swMl,  tak 
The  patoee  iMuf  ^  hit  vKdttt 
The  lawns,  wood-fHnfBi,  ~ 
The  hillocks  drapp'a  la 
The  aniMi  slrlUiif  oTcr 
The 


Pridis 


A  gnide  is  required  to  introdnes  a  stnnier 
beauties  of  the  Tsymonth  Pwk^  among  wfalei 
remarkable  is  the  Brnvtau  WM^  a  gnukl  i 
four  hundred  and  fifl^  yards  fat  kngth,  whlel 
one  of  some  lofty  eathednU,  *  nsetTiis  a  iSm 
light." 

Loch  Tay  is  a  fine  sheet  of  water,  fifteen 
length,  lying  between  two  ranges  of  hills.  In  1 
of  the  north-west  side  rises  Den  Lowers,  to  t 
of  4015  feet  An  isUnd  near  Kenmore  fom 
tained  a  priory  of  Augustines,  founded  by  Ale 
in  the  year  11 22.  Here  his  queen,  Sybilla,  di 
Henry  I .  of  England,  was  buried.  Loch  Tay  i 
able,  like  some  other  Scottish  lakes,  for  hav 
on  several  occasions,  greatly  agitated  at  the  n 
the  occurrence  of  earthquakes  in  distant  pa 
world.  It  is  from  fifteen  to  a  hundred  fatlu 
There  is  a  road  on  each  side  to  Killin,  the 
being  sixteen  miles.  Both  abound  alike  in  fin 
though,  by  pursuing  that  along  Xhe  sonth  sii 
will  be  obtained  of  the  lofty  Sen  Lawerk  i 
scarcely  bo  seen  in  such  uerfeotion  on  Um 
side.  The  mixture  of  wood,  rock,  and  enlttvi 
which  the  traveller  finds  skirting  Loch  Tsy, 
prise  him  with  its  happy  effect.  The  okl  f 
minute  farms  prevails  here  in  all  its  pristii 
and  a  prodigious  number  of  rude  and  pictun 
tagcs  necessarily  enter  into  the  compositio 
landscape. 

KUiirij  a  straggling  little  village,  situated  fa 
vale  at  the  head  of  the  loch,  is  celebrated  for  t 
beautv  of  its  scenery.    Here  two  rivers,  the 
and  the  Lochy,  come  down  out  of  different  g; 
join  their  waters  with  each  other  and  with 
The  vale  of  the  latter  is  peculiarly  beautiful ; 
of  the  Dochart,  extending  up  to  Tyndram, 
great  west  road,  is  only  stem  and  wild.    Chi 
at  the  town,  tlie  Dochart  breaks  over  a  straqgi 
of  table  rock  in  a  thousand  little  cascades,  m 
traveller,  who  crosses  a  bridge  just  atToe 
bewildered,  as  he  looks  arounu,  with  the  flad 
sparkling  water  which  every  where  meets  hk 

«  Killin/'  says  Dr  M'Cufioeh,  "is  the  most 
dinary  collection  of  extraordinary  sesneiy  fai  1 
unlike  every  thing  else  in  the  ecMmilcy.  aai 
on  earth,  aud  a  perfect  pictVMdlsij  m  ttl 
you  cannot  move  three  yards  vBhottt  i      '' 


DESCRIPTION  OF  SCOTLAND. 


e.  A  hosf  artist  might  here  draw  a  month,  and 
nat  it  It  is  indeed  scarcely  possible  to  conceive 
'  diatiiict  and  marked  objects  collected  within 
.  a  spaesy  and  all  so  adapted  to  each  other  as 
to  preserre  one  cliaracter,  and,  at  the  same 

pivdnoe  so  endless  a  number  of  distinct  and 
LJandaeapes.  To  find,  however,  all  that  Killin 
[▼e  of  thw  natnre,  it  is  necessary  to  pry  about 
lers,  like  a  cat ;  as  the  separate  scenes  are  pro- 
f  yerj  alight  changes  of  position,  and  are  often 

Texy  mnezpected  places.  Fir-trees,  rocks,  tor- 
illsy  bridses,  booses — these  produce  the  great 
the  midue  landscape,  under  endless  combina- 
rl)il«  the  distances  more  constantly  are  found 
nxTonnding  bills,  in  the  Tsried  woods,  in  the 
xpanse  of  the  lake,  and  the  minute  ornaments 
iatant  ralley,  in  the  rocky  and  bold  summit  of 
liiicach,  and  in  the  lofty  vision  of  Ben  Lawcrs, 
iwen  like  a  huge  giant  to  the  clouds,  the  mo- 
r  the  scene." 

le  north-west  shore  of  Loch  Tay,  near  Killin, 
be  mouldering  ruin  of  Finlarig  Castle,  built  by 
in  Campbell  of  Glenurchy  between  1513  and 
nd  the  seat  of  the  lamily  before  their  removal 
eh  or  Taymonth.  ^  We  observe  also,"  says  a 
r,  mriting  in  1802,  "  situated  on  a  plain  at  the 
1  of  the  lake,  a  neat  but  small  mansion  (Kinnel), 
ig  to  Mr  M'Nab,  the  chieftain  of  that  name, 
uly  burial-ground,  Inish-AIhui^  close  by  the 
I  pointed  out  to  the  stranger  as  a  place  of  singu- 
ity.  It  undoubtedly  is  such,  and  is  highly  cal- 
to  raise  ideas  of  tenderness  and  sorrow ;  as  an 
d  grove  of  tall  pines,  whose  solemn  aspect  and 
ence  are  in  fine  harmony  with  the  waters  around 
ilae  expanse  of  the  lake  calm  and  unruiHed,  and 
lime  height  of  the  mountains  that  rise  from  its 
,  are  objects  well  suited  to  correspond  with  the 
lat  Fingal  sleeps  here  in  the  dust." 

DunbartoDshircw 

act  of  beautiful  scenery  extends  through  this 
,  from  the  banks  of  the  Clyde  along  those  of  the 
and  including  the  magnificent  Loch  Lomond, 
HaX  and  probably  most  beautiful  of  our  British 

le  starting  point,  in  an  angle  formed  by  the  con- 
of  the  Leven  and  Clyde,  is  a  basaltic  mass  shoot- 
to  the  height  of  560  feet  above  an  alluvial  plain. 
hidi  a  site  for  the  celebrated  Dunbarton  Castie, 
iBtie  fortress,  noted  in  Scottish  history,  and  one 
r  kept  in  repair  in  terms  of  the  Act  of  Union. 

Ltfae  town  of  Dunbarton,  the  tourist  proceeds 
along  the  vale  of  the  Leven,  a  scene  of  singu- 
nty,  filled  with  thriving  villages  and  elegant 
Mb  The  road,  at  the  distance  of  two  miles  from 
n,  pairs  the  old  mansion-house  of  Dalquharn, 
ch,  in  the  year  1721,  the  author  of  Roderick 

■  first  saw  the  light.  Archibald  Smollett,  the 
of  the  novelist,  was  the  fourth  son  of  Sir  James 
It  of  Bonhill,  and,  having  married  against  his 
I  will,  was  residing  here,  in  possession  of  one  of 
ns  of  the  family  property,  at  the  time  of  the 
f  lua  illaBtrioua  child.  In  a  field  on  the  opposito 
I  aide  of  the  road,  there  is  an  obelisk  to  the  mc- 
f  (he  novelist,  erected  and  inscribed  by  his  cou- 
nan,  James  Smollett  of  Bonhill.  Immediately 
,  the  road  passes  through  the  populous  modern 
of  Renton,  occupied  by  persons  engaged  in  the 
mtmg  bleachfields,  and  taking  its  name  from 
a  la^  manied  into  the  Smollett  family.  This, 
Btbcr  ffi*"'*^"  village  named  Alexandria,  a  little 

en,  together  wiui  the  appearance  of  various 
«i  a  large  scale  scattered  over  the  landscape, 
Ikat  indnatiy  of  a  different  kind  from  that  which 

■  "  embvomied  with  toil,"  has  taken  possession 
iMijpad  waters  of  the  Leven,  to  which,  therefore, 
■Inl  ode  of  Smollett  is  no  longer  strictly  appli- 
^>— fcflij  Hm  ancient  seat  of  the  novelist's  family, 
ril*  to  Akxaiidria.    Several  other  mansions  of 

231 


handsome  appearance  enliven  the  road  before  it  arrives 
at  Bailoch  (town  at  the  foot  of  the  lake),  a  small  village 
and  inn  at  the  southern  extremity  of  Loch  Lomond, 
four  and  a  quarter  miles  from  Dunbarton.     From  this 
place  a  steamer,  on  earth  at  least  *'  yclept  Euphrosyne," 
starts  every  morning  to  conduct  tourists  along  the  lake. 
l^och  Lomond  measures  twenty-three  miles  in  length 
from  north  to  south ;  its  breadth,  where  greatest,  at 
the  southern  extremity,  is  five  miles,  from  which  it 
gradually  crows  narrower  between  the  enclosing  hills, 
till  it  terminates  in  a  mountain  streamlet.     The  whole 
aqueous  surface  is  calculated  at  3  H  square  miles,  or 
20,000  Fnglish  acres,  and  it  is  studded  by  above  thirty 
isles,  mostly  at  the  southern  extremity.    These  islands, 
together  with  the  shores  of  the  lake,  are  in  general 
clothed  with  dark  wood,  which  gave  occasion  to  a  dis- 
tinction very  judiciously  drawn  a  few  years  ago  by  a 
Swiss  tourist  between  Lausanne  and  Loch  Lomond : 
"  Our  lake*'  he  said,  "  is  the  fair  beauty — yours  the 
black."    The  first  isle  that  occurs  is  a  long  narrow  one 
named  fnch  Murrin,  at  the  southern  extremity  of  which 
there  is  an  old  ruined  fortalice,  called  Lennox  Castle, 
said  to  have  formerly  been  a  residence  of  the  Earls  of 
Lennox.    This  isle  is  now  the  property  of  the  Duke  of 
Montrose,  who  employ's  it  for  the  keeping  of  deer.     In 
succession  from  Inch  Murrin,  towards  the  north-east, 
occur  Inch  Cro  (the  isle  of  cattle),  Torr  Inch  (the  wood 
isle),  and  Inch  CaiUach  (the  island  of  women,  having 
been  the  site  of  a  nunnery).    On  the  south  side  of  Inch 
Caillach,  is  Clar  Inch  (flat  island),  a  very  little  member 
of  the  archipelago ;  at  the  north  end  the  ruins  of  a  castle 
are  to  be  seen  under  water,  testifying  that  the  surface 
of  the  lake  must  have  risen  in  the  course  of  ages.    Inch 
Caillach,  which  formerly  gave  name  to  the  parish  of 
Buchanan,  and  was  the  burial-place  of  the  Macgregors, 
has  on  its  north  side  Inch  Fadd  (long  island),  which 
bears  grain  and  pasture,  and  near  wliicii  is  Kllendar' 
roch  (the  small  rugged  island).     Another  grou]>,  to  tho 
northward,  stretch  between  the  peninsula  of  liossdoe, 
on  the  west  side  of  the  lake,  and  Strath cashel  Point,  on 
the  east.     Inch  Tavanagh,  the  first  in  this  group,  and 
which  derives  its  name  from  having  once  been  the  re- 
sidence of  a  monk,  contains  150  acres,  partly  covered 
with  wood;   it  is  the  highest  island  in  the  lake.     At 
a  little  distance  to  the  south,  tho  ruins  of  Galbraitli 
Castle,  once  the  residence  of  a  family  of  that  name,  start 
up  from  the  water.     To  the  east  of  Inch  Tavanagh  are 
Inch  Conagan^  covered  with  oak  and  fir,  and  Inch  Moan, 
a  low  isle  correctly  described  by  its  name,  which  signi- 
fies the  island  of  moss.   Still  farther  to  the  east  are  Inch 
Cmin,  on  which  is  an  asylum  for  insane  persons,  and 
liuc-inch  (goat-island).      North  from  these  lies  Inch 
Lonaigj  loU  acres  in  extent,  and  bearing  many  old  yews, 
formerly  of  great  use  in  furnishing  the  materials  of 
bows  and  arrows.     Of  the  whole  thirty  islands,  the  re- 
mainder are  unimportant.     South  of  Luss,  the  depth 
of  the  lake  is  rarely  more  than  20  fathoms :  in  the  nor- 
thern and  narrower  part  it  ranges  from  GO  to  1 OU  fa- 
thoms ;  and  in  the  places  where  deepest  never  freezes. 
In  ancient  times.  Loch  Lomond  was  famed  for  threo 
wonders — *^  waves  without  winds,  fish  without  fins,  and 
a  floating  island.''     The  first  phenomenon  is  attributed 
to  a  peculiar  atmospheric  efl'ect,  not  easily  dehcribed, 
but  which  has  also  been  observed  on  the  Cumberland 
lakes ;  vipers  swimming  from  island  to  island  account 
for  the  second ;  the  floating  island  is  supposed  to  havo 
been  a  detached  fragment  of  moss,  or  a  matted  mass 
of  aquatic  plants,  which  ultimately  fixed  itself  near  the 
west  side  of  Inch  Conagan.     Tho  lake  abounds  in  deli- 
cious fish. 

Loch  Lomond  is  skirted  on  tlie  west  side  by  the  road 
from  Dunbarton  to  Invcrary.  Less  than  a  mile  from 
the  lower  end  of  the  lake,  this  road  passes  Cameron 
House,  long  the  seat  of  the  Smolletts  of  Bonhill,  and  de- 
scribed as  such  in  the  novel  of  Humphry  Ci inker,  where 
we  have  many  panegyrics  upon  its  scenery.  A  little 
farther  on,  the  fine  modem  mansion  of  Belretiro  over- 
hangs the  road  upon  tlie  left.  Here,  through  a  fine 
vista,  appears  the  polbhed  expanse  of  Loch  Lomond, 


CHAMBERS'S  INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


its  laree  inlands,  and  the  soft  hills  in  the  dlstanee^a 
view  that  neyer  fails  to  arrest  the  attention  of  the  tra- 
veller. The  objects  that  crowd  into  tliis  scene  are  so 
finely  dlTersified  in  form,  in  situation,  and  in  colour,  as 
to  compose  a  picture  at  once  beautiful  and  impressive. 
At  the  seventn  mile-stone,  upon  the  left,  is  Arden,  the 
property  of  H.  Buchanan,  Esq.,  environed  with  woo^ 
and  placed  at  the  bottom  of  a  lofty  hill,  called  Dunjion, 
or  the  hill  of  Fingal,  tradition  reporting  it  to  have  been 
one  of  the  hunting  seats  of  that  hero.  Somewhat  farther 
on,  and  passing  Aether  Ross  upon  the  left,  the  traveller 
crosses  a  small  river  called  the  Water  of  Fruin,  which 
falls  into  the  lake.  It  rises  in  Oienfruin,  or  Vale  of 
Lamentation,  so  called,  it  is  said,  from  a  dreadful 
sUughtcr  of  the  Colquhouns  by  the  Macgregors,  in 
1602,  and  on  account  of  which  the  Macgregors  were, 
for  nearly  two  centuries,  unceasingly  persecuted  by 
government.  The  pnmiontory  of  liox^^JoCf  which  forms 
a  beautiful  situation  for  the  mansion  of  the  same  name 
(Colqulioun  of  Luss,  Bart.),  is  then  passed ;  after  which 
a  ficcne  of  uninterrupted  beauty  continues  all  the  way 
to  Luss,  twelve  miles  from  Dunbarton. 

Lustf  a  delightful  little  village,  on  a  promontory  which 
juts  into  the  lake,  is  much  resorted  to  in  summer,  on 
account  of  its  being  a  convenient  station  for  tourists  in 
search  of  the  picturesque.  One  of  the  finest  points  for 
enjoying  the  scenery  of  Loch  Lomond  and  tlie  environs 
of  Luss,  is  StronehUl,  to  the  nortli  of  tho  village.  At 
thb  point,  about  one-third  of  the  way  up  a  lofty  lull, 
the  whole  breadth  of  the  lake  is  spanned  by  tho  eye, 
including 

— — •*  all  the  fairy  crowd* 
Of  ihlanda  which  together  lie, 
As  quietly  oh  hpotv  of  sky 
Among  the  evening  cloudB.** 

From  this  point,  the  isles  appear  distinctly  separated 
from  each  other,  but  not  so  much  so  as  to  give  the  idea 
of  a  map  or  bird-eye  view,  which  a  higher  {)oint  of  view 
would  undoubtedly  present.  The  prospect  is  bounded 
on  the  south  by  the  distant  hills  which  intervene  between 
Loch  Lomond  and  the  Clyde,  and  which  here  appear, 
in  comparison  with  the  mountains  around,  to  be  only 
gentle  swells ;  the  Leven,  its  vale,  the  rock  of  Dunbar- 
ton, and  evtn  the  surface  (>(  tlio  ClyJo,  arc  in  tlie  same 
direction  conspicuous.  Towards  llie  t-ast,  tlio  vale  of 
the  Kn<lrick,  its  principal  scats,  tlu-  <ibclirk  erected  tv) 
the  memory  of  Buchanan  at  Kill«-arn,  and  thu  Lennox 
hills,  are  also  distinctly  visible.  Turnini.:  to  the  north, 
the  lake  is  M--en  to  wind  far  away  anion;;  ti.e  mountains. 
At  InveruylnSy  three  and  a  half  nuh-s  ltt\..n<l  Lu>s, 
tht'n*  is  a  ferry  to  Kowardennan  Inn,  the  u-ual  start- 
in^-puint  for  th<se  who  desire  ti>  a^ct-nd  to  tin*  top  of 
Bi'n  Lomou'I.  This  mountain,  situated  iu  the  eunnty 
of  Stirling,  is  3'Jl()  feet  above  the  level  of  the  laK", 
which  is  \1'2  above  the  levrl  of  the  sea.  At  Rowardfu- 
nuii,  whni  looking  northward,  it  almost  conii>letcly  tiiU 
up  the  view.  It  consi>ts  in  three  i;rcat  staj^es,  each  ris- 
ing above  the  other  ;  these  a;;ain  are  divided  into  a 
number  of  lesser  Hwilling  knolU,  some  of  which  arc 
Ct)Vired  with  heath  ami  craj^s,  while  other.-i  arc  verdant 
and  smooth.  The  (iistancc  from  tiic  inn  to  the  t<'p  of 
the  mountain  is  six  inik's  of  a  eontinnrd  ascent,  which, 
in  ;;«iKral,  refjuires  about  tlirec  hours.  I'rnni  tlic 
Fuminit,  a  varied  and  most  e\tin>ive  j  ro>iM d  o)p.ns 
upon  the  eye  in  every  tlirection.  The  lake,  lately 
c<»ntemplati>d  witli  ^■l  inucl)  j)lcasure,  now  apjM-ars 
a  small  pr)ol,  and  its  rich  :.nd  div(>rsiti.  d  islands  as  so 
many  specks  upini  it*,  surface.  Meyond  it,  ami  to  the 
h'ft,  ajipear  the  valiM.f  the  l^ndrick,  the  'li-tant  county  of 
Lainu'k,  its  towns,  ami  the  mountain  of  Tinto  ;  direc:ly 
south,  the  outlet  of  the  lal.i-,  the  Kiver  I,(  ven,  its  wind- 
ing and  rich  banks,  the  Castle  of  Dunbarton,  and  the 
c<mnties  of  Kcnfrew  and  Ayr;  nearly  in  the  same 
direction,  the  I'irth  i.f  i  lyd'e,  the  rock  of  Ailsii,  the 
islandi^of  Arrun  and  Hute,  with  the  more  <listant  Atlan- 
tic. The  etia-sts  of  Ireland  and  the  Isle  of  .Man  are, 
when  the  atmo-iphere  is  clear,  within  the  boundary  of 
tAe  I'Jcw.     To  the  e:n,t  are  ►♦  eu  the  counties  of  Stirlin.; 


and  the  Lothians,  with  the  windings  of  the  FArt> 
the  Castles  of  Stirling  and  Edinbugli.  The  up 
to  tho  north  is  markei  by  grnndear  Atone.  Imi 
mountains,  piled  as  it  were  above  each  other,  ai 
tending  from  the  borders  of  Stirlingshire  to  the  wi 
ocean,  with  tho  indentations  of  the  eoMt  on  on 
and  the  lakes  of  Pcrthwhiro  on  the  other,  form 
gether  a  scene  which  may  be  conceived,  but  earn 
properly  describi'd. 

Ben  Lomond  has  this  remarkable  advantage  as 
that  it  is  not  overcrowned  or  crowded  up  with  surr 
ing  hills.  It  seems  to  be  sole  monarch  of  a  vast  i 
puted  territory.  Nowhere,  therefore,  is  there  a  ' 
idea  to  be  obtained  of  the  Highland  country  itian 
summit.  The  mountain  itself,  besides,  affords  a 
variety  of  scener}'.  To  the  south  it  stretches  on 
a  slope  of  a  very  gentle  declivity.  The  north  i 
awfully  abrupt,  and  presents  a  concave  prccip 
many  hundred  yards  in  depth.  He  must  poniwi 
nerve-)  who  can  approach  the  brink  and  look  do« 
moved.  The  rock  is  said  to  bo  'JUUO  feet  in  shvi 
scent. 

About  four  and  a  half  miles  to  the  north  of  In 
glas,  the  Dunbarton  and  Inverary  road  reachc 
lonttly  but  comfortable  inn  of  Tarbert,  where  th 
also  a  ferry  by  which.Ben  Lomond  may  be  approi 
At  this  inn  tho  road  leaves  the  shoro  of  the  lake 
proceeds  to  the  westward  by  the  head  of  Loch  '. 
and  so  into  Argyllshire.  At  Inversnaid  Mill,  tki 
a  little  cataract,  the  scene  alluded  to  by  Wordawoi 
his  address  to  a  Highland  girl — 

**  Sweet  Highland  girl !  a  very  bliower 
Of  beauty  is  tliy  earthly  duw«r.** 

On  the  heights  above,  beside  the  way  to  Loch  Kai 
are  tlie  remains  of  Inversnaid  Fort,  erected  by  it 
vermnent  in  1713  to  check  the  turhulenco  of  the 
gregors :  near  it  is  a  little  burial-ground,  in  whie 
garrison  had  interred  their  dead,  and  containin] 
or  two  monuments,  which  have  long  forgot  to  te. 
familiar  tale  confided  to  them.  The  foii  was  taki 
Kob  Uoy  in  1710",  but  afterwards  re^'ainoti  and  re 
biished.  It  is  said  that  the  amiable  (Jeiieral  Wb 
one  time  resided  in  it.* 

Tilth  of  Cls-h'.— Aii;\U3liirc. 

Tiiis  is  a  tract  of  scenery  much  admired  and  vi 
on  account  of  its  j)re>entii'::  a  fine  combination  < 
land  seas  with  islaniis  of  varied  surface  and  cha 
ruj;;;ed  mountains. 

The  Clvde  exi)an<l3  into  an  estuarv  a  little  wav  ! 
Dunbarton.  'i'iur<',  while  the  comparative! v  low 
of  Uenfrew>hire,  with  the  thriving  t<iw-n>  of  Vuri- 
P«iw  and  (ireenock,  are  sej-n  on  the  left,  attenti 
called  on  the  rij^ht  to  the  towering  alps  iif  .\riryU 
soMietinies  iroincally  called  tiie  Duke  of  .Vrg^H**  I 
in;;-<Ireen.  The  Ar^'ylKhire  slntres  are  lu-re  deci* 
with  a  l(fH;;  succession  of  viilas,  the  favourite  sui 
residences  of  the  more  atHuent  citi/ens  of  GU 
This  inount.'.inous  n-^^itui  is  penetrated  by  several 
of  lIu^  sea,  one  vi  which,  named  Loch  Lonj;,  is  tw 

*  ••  (»n  tlie  ea>t  •«in»re  i>f  I.'tli  I.onionil.  an<l  thr  west  i 
lU'ii  I.ciii.'nd,  (-r  wh.it  is  e.ille.l  (■rin'<;ri'..'.rj,  u  nam-w  alpit 
conduct".  tliPMnjlj  K-ciury  of  K'niMtio  f».-;«turi"*.  IKiv  irji 
iiuint*  I'.ii,*  ml  by  l».irlK>iir.  Ii;ts  .'*»i.,:ii'.l  (••  U.-IhtI  Itriuv  ; 
in  wliii  li  hi-  »<-ij'iiirnc\l  n,  iiii;ht  wlu-n  p:a».^inij  from  Sir.itl 
after  tl.i-  ill. '.I In  t.if.il  o-iiib.il  wit!i  M.icttiiitKitl  of  l.^.ni. 
ti>  I.  a  >tu  i>  shclvini;  nnk  in  iKinti«l  nut  an  \*liat  is  cuitu 
Hi'i/i  Pi'i*  M.'uhiTe  tliat  llik'hl.uiti  lainl  isroj>nr:«.il  ;olm\r' 
sii(  li  <.f  hi- \;'.--.iN  as  In- li  ul  ..■Ijui'iri'*!  !■«  iluniniv.  ttei* 
tenant-  1:.:<i  ii<>t  |>ai<l  In-UMit  when  it  )>ee:iine  c1ik>.  Knb.  ^u 
iiikTliini  in:iro]M-  by  the  Hh<>nI<i«Tt.  k-thimJitwn  into  the  fa 
IlaNinir  ilr.ivMi  hiin  np  nt  tbi'  end  of  twenty-four  Li-nrv.  I 
him  tb;.f .  if  ]u-  f.olitl  to  pay  l«y  a  jurticuliir  tiim*,  he  hh-iiili 
hiin  ii|>  by  tlie  ntvk.  North  of  ( '^ai):^\.»^taIl  uwhat  ioviidl 
beeu  ntetl  by  )uin  a*  \\i*  e.-i\o.  It  h  a  rude  subtoiTuiM\m» 
furnied  ]iy  a  bu.;e  uNtilanehe  ef  tlie  luountJkin.  Ileitf,  .irr 
to    tr.kilition.   li«-   n-nitiTMiUxiil  with  bin   followcr-o  ' — S( 

t'-ht-i-   ■   I   '    \:tl.!  'It'.'    *^'tiii  'i|t/(i    f". 


I    f 


COTLAXD 

^•d.  LoulMi. 

„-:  .rjunr  doo  b-uu^  and  >pia 

1..    Il.-..iiI„r..ir.(fnM,l..     T*BhiUl 

>  bav* 


III'*  uiilj  [viuiukal;!*  lur  the 
CKpurii.'d  from  h.  Oppa<it« 
DQti  Cnnxi,  a  nVMiULn, 


IB  pnrth  of  Locda  O'cnin  i«  Aird«.  llm  iiat  nf  Str 
n  Cunplipll.  Next  a  tlia  ritin  oT  Coittli;  Sullmr,  ui 
mt  ti'tianve  building.  Apinn  Htiuar,  tliM  ntnit  at 
Damie  of  Apjiin,  iMit  owiin  j  ami  of |j>r  ilint,  M  tlw 
.thoT  LmU  I.tvan,  Ardaliiil  (E^wurt,  Ka'i.)  I'niui 
jLliallub  I'trry  <>■>  Loch  Leron,  untvd  for  lu  gmu 
n;  ot  idAte,  the  mM  Illthl4o<l  rwul  pratttuui  tba 

^  Tftle  or  GlaDCoe. 

u  liltlif  to  thp  nordi  of  b  Hilltuy  inn 


<  npniu  ft  iLlt 


n>iKl'«i(rt«-]y  ilireetiun  li>  BiUaliululi.  It  may 
i««ciili*il  ut  ft  iwrtow  »lrip  nf  roijginl  twrritory, 
e  wlUch  ImirU*  the  wiU  xfrvwu  nf  l;<lTu^  onlMlmixil 
JwIhi,  wba  tt  uld  [a  have  lieon  bora  on  Ita  baabu^ 
neh  «dde  df  tiw  imtrow  Innlu  of  tlili  rivvr,  a  tania 
.tupmdaoa  hllb  iIiooIe  porpondlailwlv  a]i  to  tba 
'htnfitVeMt  20aOfciit,«wiua2ahorriilglinHnavar 
«»]«,  And  imprmaiDg  thv  loncTf  invvllur  wllh  hul- 

of  awB  will  woniiiT.  The  (iii!it»ry  pgad  awmm 
g  tha  right  uidw  of  thi>  elsn.  From  die  siilw  nf  tliu 
.  an  iniQuntw  aumbcroiMrrcnM  dmccnd.  ■oinrtimf 
iping  over  and  upolllnff  Illc  iwid.  whioh  ia  alw«f  a, 
'^oi'c,  in  B  vsrj  prcoulaai  iUId.  fram  tiw  oiui 
of  tile  ml*  to  iba  olli«r,  only  ana  hatmm  liabita* 
ii  to  ba  tern ;  mnU  xs  it  in  nut  s  rtnd  ol  niuoh  vir- 
ly,  lh»  Iravfllor  cnaj'  {UM  thniuih  it  withiml  imwt- 
a  tiKf  1*  biinwD  baiog.  Tho  eoaMvemnbliiiganiiins 
rnc^i,  Mill  th«  vUd  uglo  havarini  about  th*  lap* 
i«  walt-Ukn  hill*,  ar«  nuuUjrtha  nnly  living  abjocia 
Jd  n^l ;  and,  as  may  bo  roacdTcd.  llicsc  rattiw 
naM)  Hum  diminuh  the  mildiicaa  and  dnoltlian  of 
Beano.    The  place  wbenr  tho  famous  asutufmjt' 


CHAMBER9S  INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLS. 


lanpuwi  riifrfc— The  dot  Glan* 

Beiwaen  Lodi  Linnhe  on  the  west  ooast  md.  a  point 
on  the  Moray  Firth  near  InvemeM,  there  is  a  reinaTk- 
aUe  natural  phenomenony  in  the  form  of  a  glen  or  hol- 
low, pasnng  m  a  perfectly  straight  line  for  sixtr  miles 
through  a  moontaLEioos  region,  ud  the  hottom  of  which 
is  nowhere  more  than  ninety  feet  eleyated  ahoTo  the 
level  of  the  wetL  It  is  called  hy  the  Highlanders  (?Zm- 
flMrw-fiofi-^/Mit  (tiie  Great  Glen  of  Scotland).  A  chain 
of  hkm  extebdfaig  aloi^  this  extraordinary  hollow  sog- 
gested  the  formauon  of  a  canal  which  should  admit  of 
BaTintion  between  the  seas  on  the  two  sides  of  the 
iriandy  and  saTo  the  dangerous  passage  round  by  the 
Pentland  firth ;  and  this^  under  the  name  of  the  Cale- 
donian CanaL  was  formed  between  1803  and  1822,  under 
the  care  of  Mr  Telford,  at  an  expense  of  £800,000. 
This  line  of  communication  has  not  prored  so  usefbl 
■s  was  contemplated ;  but,  by  admitting  of  a  line  of 
steamers  between  InTcmess  and  Glasgow,  it  has  been 
the  means  of  allowing  a  Tast  number  of  persons  to  en- 
j^  the  magnificent  scenery  through  which  if 


The  canal  commences  at  CUehnaharrr,  in  the  out- 
skirts of  the  town  of  luTemess,  and,  aner  six  mUes, 
enters  the  first  of  the  chain  of  lakes^  Loeh  Netty  a 
gnmd  piece  of  water,  twenty-three  miles  loEUD^  sitmUed 
amidst  stupendous  and  sterile  mountains.  Ke  waters 
of  Loeh  Ness  ncTer  freeze,  but  they  are  often  agitated 
•unnltaneously  with  the  occurrence  of  earthquuros  in 
distant  parts  of  the  worid.  On  an  derated  rock  pro- 
jected mto  the  north-east  margin  of  Loch  Ness,  are 
situated  the  remaina  of  Urquhart  CSastle,  consistine  of  a 
great  square  keep  and  sereral  exterior  walls  of  ddence. 
It  was  besieged  in  1808  by  the  officers  of  Edward  I., 
and  with  great  difficulty  taken ;  it  afterwards  was  a 
rqjal  fortress ;  and,  finally,  in  1509,  it  became  the  pro- 
perty of  Grant  of  GranL  ancestor  of  the  Earl  <^  Sea- 
fiel^  to  whom  it  now  beloiMn.  Glen  Urquhart,  which 
recedes  behind  Urquhart  Gastle.  is  a  beautifhl  High- 
land vale,  sometimes  likened  to  Tempe,  and  containing 
many  gentlemen's  seats  and  a  good  inn.  The  conspi- 
cuous tnountain,  Mealfoitrvonie  (hill  of  the  cold  moor), 
upwards  of  3000  feet  in  height,  here  begins  to  raise  its 
huge  bulk  above  the  banks  of  the  loch.  About  50Q  feet 
from  the  summit,  there  is  a  lake  about  a  mile  long, 
which  cannot  be  much  less  than  3000  feet  above  tlio 
level  of  Loch  Ness.  On  the  top  of  the  hill  tliero  is  a 
cairn,  the  accumulation  of  which  must  havo  been  a 
work  of  great  labour.  Mealfourvonio  stands  so  promi- 
nently above  the  neighbouring  herd  of  hills,  that  it  is 
not  only  singled  out  by  the  eye  at  Inverness,  but  is  the 
first  landmark  seen  on  entering  the  Moray  Firth,  at 
the  du*tance  of  a  hundred  miles. 

The  road  along  the  south  side  of  Loch  Ness,  though 
it  presents  numberless  fine  views,  is  enlivened  by  few 
traces  of  man's  presence.  The  paucity  of  houses  gives 
a  sort  of  distinction  to  the  inn  named  General^s  Hut, 
nearly  eighteen  miles  from  Inverness,  originally  the 
residence  of  General  Wade,  while  superintending  the 
formation  of  his  roads.  Little  more  than  a  mile  farther 
on,  a  recess  or  chasm  in  the  hill  by  the  side  of  the  lake 
contains  the  celebrated  Fa/l  of  Fyers,  At  tho  bottom 
of  the  recess  there  is  a  smooth  little  plain,  descending 
upon  the  lake,  ornamented  by  the  house  and  shrub- 
beries of  Fyers,  and  where  tho  steamers  usually  dis- 
embark such  passengers  as  may  desiro  to  behold  the 
waterfall.  A  path  accessible  to  carriages,  winds  back- 
wards and  forwards,  up  the  face  of  the  hill,  till  the 
height  of  the  public  road  is  reached ;  and  then  there 
is  a  pathway  loading  down  the  face  of  tho  crags, 
towards  a  projecting  rock,  on  which  visiters  usually 
stand  to  see  the  fall.  The  Fyers  is  not  a  very  copious 
stream,  except  in  rainy  weather ;  consequently  there 
are  ^reat  variations  in  the  aspect  of  the  cascade.  In  its 
medmm  fullness,  it  pours  through  a  narrow  gullet  in  the 
rockf  in  a  round  unbroken  stream,  which  gradually 
.  whitens,  as  it  descends,  till  it  falls  into  a  half-seen  pro- 
found, usually  described  as  two  hundred  and  forty  feet 
below  the  point  of  descent,  though  this  is  supposed  to 


be  an  exaggeratioo.  A  dsoM  nfal  is 
rising  firom  the  broken  wataor,  13gs  flw  hsaf<i«j 
pira&ns  of  an  afflicted  and  tortiirsd  apifik  Tl 
IS  usually  very  lodB.  About  a  quarCar  «f  a  adie 
up  the  ravine,  there  is  aaother  caseads^  iHoal^ 
the  Upper  Fall— a  fiBaxIbl  goU;  down  whU  th 
descends  by  three  lsiHP%  *^  ^''^^  "MA  a  hA 
been  thrown,  by  way  m  statfam  ibr  a  ri^  of  tl 
ract.    All  this  stupendous  ravine  is  eorered  by  1 


itupnidi 
lesf  apt 


on  whose  erexy  leaf  a  pearl  of  vipomy  daw  is  081 
hanging. 

A  few  miles  farther  on,  (3UmMorriso»  opes 
the  north-west  bank  of  Loch  Ness.  It  is  a  ra] 
of  romantic  soenen^  and  bdUMigs  to  a  bnuieii 
fiuttily  of  Grant  while  the  steam-bome  trave 
cessarily  pursues  th^  route  by  the  lak^  the  t 
bT  the  south  road,  alter  passing  lysn^  leaTsa  tl 
of  that  piece  of  water,  and  adfaiieee  into  Shwl 
a  louff  Talley  bdiind  the  line  of  hilla  wliidi  • 
Loch  Ness.  A  seduded  valley,  ealled  KiUean^  < 
noon  this  part  of  the  road  near  WhiteMdge^  ■ 
of  as  a  singularly  sednded  and  romaatM  pieeeuf  i 
At  the  distuwe  of  thirty-two  mSsa  from  Inven 
road  deoeends  upon  Fort  Angnstai  and  the  litdi 
of  Kiniimmmfaifc  so  called  as  the  boiyiiig-plaei 
O     mings,  loru  of  Badenodi. 

A  wf.iti^iiffliM^sitoatedinaDletMiitopsiifaif  I 
the  uills,  at  the  termJnatkwi  of  Loeh  Nesi^  wm 
in  1780,  as  an  addition  to  the  means  utwvioiisKTi 
fbr  the  oontnd  of  the  turbnlent  ehfldran  of  the 
tains.  Its  purposes  being  long  rinoe  aMonpC 
has  for  many  yeMs  been  only  oooDfied  by  two  c 
artillerymen.  Firom  Fort  A^giiBtQa,tiM^eiil  oft! 
isresumed,  and  sereral  lodw  are  ascended;  av 
nules  brinn  it  to  Look  OM,  the  snatisrt  of  lb 
of  lakes.  The  scenery  is  hare  finer  than  nt  an 
part  of  the  Great  Glen.  OnthenatA-wvlhMl 
loch  hi  Invewarry,  till  a  reeent  period  thoiorii 
the  chief  of  Qlengany,  a  handsnmo  inudsKn  \ 
in  the  immediate  neighbourhood  of  an  older  ■ 
which  has  been  in  rums  since  burnt  down  by  tb 
troops  in  174G,  in  consequence  of  the  part  lakM 
chief  in  the  rebellion. 

The  next  and  last  loch  is  Loeh  Lo(^p,  tho  h 
vironing  which  are  the  most  hopelessly  wild  a 
pendous  of  all  in  the  glen.  The  summit  lerol 
canal  is  between  Loch  Oich  and  Loch  Loein 
ninety  feet  above  the  ordinary  high-water  mark 
William,  and  ninety-four  above  that  at  Invon 
difference  to  be  accounted  for  by  the  pujusmi 
Atlantic  on  tho  west  shores  of  Scotland.  TIm 
little  inn  of  Letter  Findlay  is  the  only  house 
seen  on  Loch  Lochv ;  but  when  the  wort  end  ii 
reached,  the  traveller  discovers,  in  a  recess 
right  side,  the  house  of  Auchnaearrie,  which  t 
residence  of  the  gallant  and  unfortunate  LocheO. 
he  entered  upon  the  fatal  campaign  of  1745.  TIm 
after  leaving  this  loch,  descends  in  a  precipitooi 
of  locks,  called  Neptun^s  Stmrease,  into  Lodi 
isontinuation  of  Locti  Linnhe,  the  arm  of  the  s 
merly  mentioned. 

At  this  point  the  glen  is  more  spacious  thi 
where  else.  It  is,  however,  the  spaciousness  of  I 
The  River  Lochy,  which  issues  from  the  lake 
same  name,  pours  its  voluminous  and  impetuon 
towards  Loch  Eil  on  the  left ;  and  beyond  it  Bea 
is  seen  to  rear  his  enormous  head,  with  the  i 
Glen  Nevis  withdrawing  from  his  mighty  side  h 
solitudes  of  Lochaber.  At  the  distance  of  littb 
than  a  mile  is  the  town  of  Fort  William,  so  calls 
a  fortress  of  the  same  name  built  for  the  repres 
Highland  turbulence,  and  now  nearly  disused. 

A  cluster  of  glens  to  the  south  of  the  Great  G 
remarkable  fbr  a  natural  phenomenon,  usually 
tho  Parallel -Roads  of  Glenrojf,  such  being  the  at 
the  vale  in  which  the  wonder  is  most  coMfio 
marked.  }t,  consists  of  a  set  of  teiraoe^  hi  Bioit 
three  inr^aqober,  extending  aloqg  hott  Mm  ol 
valoaitMliogr.  miles,  the  uppermost  82  UnI  aba 


.f 


DESCRIPTION  OP  SCOTLAND. 


MfTWil.  wliieli,  apin,  u  SIS  feet  aboTe  the  first.  The 
■■■nn  peopla  rcprcacnt  thew  terrscea  m  roads  fonned 
itlb*e0l»m*iidof  Fiuipil,  Ml  «rly  hero,  for  his  con- 
iiiil  III  II  hi  hsntiiig;  but  thej  nre  in  rnJily  ancient 
ImcIiM  of  inland  seu,  niied  into  their  present  posi- 
tkn  ij  MWCMMve  npheavftla  of  ths  Uad — phenomena 


The  Wnlcm  Iilandi  are  generally  bleak  and  ragged 

L  h  nrfan;,  and  oeeopied  bj  a  very  ponr  etass  or  ten- 

-ftry.    In  some  of  them,  particnlBTly  Skyc  and  Eigg, 

m  tHBery  attaina  to  a  savage  graodBur.     It  is  not 

"lis  here  to  present  a  particular  dcsoriplion  of  any 

■  the  Islo  of  Slaffk,  so  reiOArkable  fur  its  basaHie 

a  mile  and  a  half  in  cirenm- 

hamaii  habitation,  its  only  nse- 
U  herd  of  bUck  cattle.  At  the 
biafmKiNt  elevation,  lowarda  the  aouth-west,  this 
■(  hnU  Ibrt  high.  On  tbe  oorth-eaat  it  presents 
•  of  MBiewhat  less  height,  composed  of  bnialtic 
— ,  and  penetrated  by  several  caveB  of  various 
»  vhieh  tbo  sea  oceuionally  breaki  with  the 
'er.  This  face,  according  to  Dr  Mm- 
id  of  three  distinct  bcits  of  rock,  of  un- 
m,  inclinad  towards  the  east  in  an  ansle 
:  the  lowest  U  a  rude  trap  tiOa, ; 
hone  iadlTtded  into  eolumns  placed  vprtieally 
la  pIsDca  of  ths  low«M  bed-,  and  the  uppcmioat  is 

' lixtnra  of  vnall  columns  and  tlia)>eles8 

I*  bnpg  partially  covered  by  n  line  ver- 
Tha  eaatnl  ooliiiiuiar  part  having  in  some 

• i_.i_  Toojion  of  the 

■a  perfomted. 


F(ni>l1  Oire,  l.le  nf  SlatTi. 

Hi  tbe  nortb-easl  point  of  the  island,  the  iHfping  of 

hrsdu  U  w  low  as  tn  aHbrd  a.  safe  liin<^liif>-p1n 

ytinie  of  the  tide.     Proceeding  thence,  the  lifil 

ImM  along  tbe  nonh^aat  face,  and  is  introduced 

kt  Oam-ilitU  (Scallop)  Cot*,  where  a  curious  con- 

■1  in  tbe  eolumoar  structure  is  observable.    The 

.  jm  on  one  aide  are  bent,  so  an  to  form  a  series  ot 

taml  unlike  the  inside  view  of  the  timbers  of  a  Rhip; 

*~i  the  opponle  wall  is  formed  by  the  ends  of 

—^m, Imnng  anneral  resemblsnee  to  the  surface 

'■boD«eonib.     ^ia  cave  is  31)  feet  in  IiFi^^ht,  and 

H  w  IB  ui  breadth  at  the  entrance ;  its  li^ngth  being 

1l  fact,  and  the  breadth  contracting  to  ih^  lerminn- 

Next  occun   the  noted  rock,  liuaihaille   (ilit 

--■DBii],  a  conoidal  pile  of  columns,  abuut  30  feet 

I  ll|h,  |jiD|  on  a  bed  of  curved  horizonlal  one*,  visible 

F  «^  at  lcn>  water.   There  is  here  an  cxtenaivc  suHaee, 

f   MiiililTiil  that  of  the  Giaat'i  Causeoay,  and  com- 

I    |Nad  ef  ue  broken  ends  of  pillars  once  continuous  Ic 

■  lop  of  the  diff.    The  eolonoade  is  now  for  some 

rtMCB  npricbt  at^TciT  grand,  till  the  visiter  reaehee 

mUl^^Am  (UmkalCave),  usually  called  fTn- 

A  0m4  bj  fcr  the  most  iminvsaivo  and  interest. 

gitjert  ii  tbe  Uand.    It  opens  from  tlie  sea  with  a 


breadlh  nf  J3  feet,  a  height  of  GG  feet  above  the  water 
!an  tide,  the  pillar  on  one  side  being  36  feet  high, 
hat  on  the  other  16.  The  depth  of  the  receis  is 
227  feet,  and  the  breadth  at  the  inner  termination  22. 
The  sides  within  are  oolumnar  throughout ;  the  columns 
being  broken  and  grouped  in  many  different  ways,  so 
-  -  to  catch  a  variety  of  direct  and  roBecled  tints,  mixed 
jlh  secondary  shadows  and  deep  inviaible  rrcesBCS. 
As  the  sea  never  ebbs  entirely  out,  the  only  floor  of 
this  beautiful  cave  is  the  flne  green  water,  reflccling 
from  its  while  bottom  tints  which  vary  and  bamioniBO 
the  darker  tones  of  the  rock,  and  often  throwing  on  the 
columns  flickering  lights,  which  its  uoduUtiona  catch 
from  the  rays  of  the  sun  without. 
Aioiqcnira. 
There  are  in  Scotland,  and  particubrly  in  the  dis- 
rict  between  the  firth  of  Tay  and  Moray  Firth,  nume- 
oua  mounds,  upright  slab  stones,  and  carved  stones, 
'hich  are  sappoeed  to  bave  been  raised  as  monuments 
ver  alain  warriors,  by  the  early  inhahitants  of  the 
ountry,  or  by  the  Danes  or  other  northern  nations  wlio 
ccaaionally  invaded  it  in  remote  times.  The  most  re. 
niarkable  examples  of  mounds  are  two  at  Dunnipace, 
on  the  Carron,  in  Stirlingshire,  and  oue  at  Fettcrcaim 
Kincardineshire. 

A  distinct  class  of  mounds,  called  mool  or  noal  hil/i, 

'e  common  in  the  south-western  and  several  other 

districts.    They  arc  generally  of  a  squsro  form,  with  a 

flst  top.     It  is  believed  that  Ihey  served  as  places  for 

the  adminlEtration  of  Justico  in  rude  ages. 

Of  the  carved  stones,  a  remarkable  example  exists  at 
Forres.  It  contains  flgures  of  men  and  animals,  in 
various  compartments.  There  is  another  very  entire 
and  curious  specimen  at  Abcrlemno  in  Forfarshire.  A 
third  at  Meigle  is  remarkable  as  contnining  a  represen- 
tation of  one  of  tbe  war-cbariots  used  by  the  original 
inhabitants  of  the  country. 

In  the  north  of  Scotland,  and  in  Orkney,  there  are 
some  surviving  examples  of  a  very  rematkahio  class  of 
early  buildings,  to  whicli  the  common  people  now  give 
(he  name  of  Picis'  Ifoaiei,  as  supposing  them  to  Csvo 
heenbuiltby  thePicts.  They  aro  gene raliy  round  build- 
ings, ot  no  great  height,  with  round  raulted  tops,  alto- 
^iher  built  of  courses  of  dresied  stone  without  murtar, 
and  containing  for  the  most  part  one  central  chamber, 
and  several  Jong  narrow  recesses  iu  the  thicknees  of  thu 
wall. 

Circular  mounds,  the  remains  of  British  and  Danisli 
camps,  are  common  on  tlio  tops  of  the  Scottish  bills, 
having  probably  been  the  places  to  which  the  early  )>eople 
rctir^  with  their  flocks  in  times  of  danger.  On  several 
hills,  particularly  iti  rerlhshire  and  Invemesa-shire, 
(hero  are  remains  of  walls,  presenting  appearances  as 
if  tbe  stony  materials  tiad  been  artifleially  vitrified. 
It  is  not  yet  clearly  aseerlaincd  whether  these  vilrijied 
foTis,  as  Ihey  aro  called,  were  works  of  our  Caledonian 
ancestors,  or  tho  effect  of  accident,  though  the  former 
is  certainly  tho  mora  likely  eupposiliou. 

The  weapons  used  by  the  aboriginal  people  are  often 
found,  ciHii-iiiling  of  stone  axes,  arrow-heads  of  flint, 
&c.  Neeklaees,  bracelets,  and  other  ornaments  used 
by  them,  barbarous  in  style,  but  generally  of  gold,  aro 
also  often  found.  In  various  diatricta,  Druidical  circles 
stilt  exiet  in  a  tolerably  entire  stato;  but  none  on  so 
large  or  regular  a.  scale  as  thoso  of  :^tuiiebenge  and 
Abury. 

There  are  remains  of  roads  and  camps  formed  by  the 
Romans  in  tlieir  hesitalins  and  imperfect  attempts  tu 
subdue  North  brilain;  and  of  (he  wall  built  under  the 
Lmpcror  Antoninus,  between  tho  Finhs  of  Forth  and 
Clyde,  with  forts  at  regular  intervals,  it  ia  still  possible 
to  discern  a  few  traces. 

The  next  class  of  antique  objects  are  the  retnains  of 
the  Gothic  fanes,  reared  on  account  of  religion  during 
the  period  when  tho  Komish  church  was  triumphant. 
These  arc  every  where  very  numerous,  but  in  few  eases 
tolerably  entire.  Exceuting  two  cathedrals,  those  of 
Glasgow  and  Kirkwall  (in  Orkney),  all  of  that  class  of 


CHAMBERS'S  IXFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOHA 

Mareinniiiu.  The  mbbeji,  priMies,  and  other   ni«n«iniM  bi^  in  Seothri  kB*B  BHlihHl'tf  ^M 

eoDTMinul  and  ooll^iate  astabluhnanta,  ms  in  emr  diui|n  of  taita  pnMlaK  thn<i^  HriMiL_AHtfl 
instuwa  gona  to  dooiT.  Habnu  Abbn,  the  Ckthodiml  hnT7  faunok-lik*  ttnttam  J  Hr  Ma  TMMI 
crElain,u)dliie  Couegiits  Church  of  Roolin,  ua  the  to  tiie  li^t and  olepat  flaaaiHnt  Um,^ 
nartMHitifal  irflheee ralnoni bnildingi.  ba*a  now  ehateau'  ■»  l^»  «■  A*  «!!■•■ 

(0«rdm  OuflfcBawvnK  aaiCUMWfa.' 
Gradui  Aootnni  b;  A&n  (gwfc«  X 
lithgowdiiTe) ;  maanooi  In  A*  Dtria  nd  m 

Qra«ian  atfle  rioe*  Inlwdnwd  (gwriHiii  A ,  _ 

perb«uinple);M)^4MT)atalj,nlnr^MtaHBta 
priorjr  and  Ehmbewan  rt;^ai. 

fUniAiff^  lh«  eapita:,  li  ritnatad  in  A*  oou^  tf 

ime  and  a  half  and  thMa  mlln  from  the  Pirtfa  ef  Ai 
Hie  aij  ii  oompoMd  of  two  pmwipal  pait^  Ik 
uidNewToinii,tbelbniierMD(iHuUonalaa(M 

emimnoe (MiUj rking  towaidalt '  — "  --  ■ 

minitM  hi  a  lanjandatoiipt  r~~'~ 

is  ntuatod,  while  the  latter  o< 

wudetbeiuitfa,   Tbetontbi , 

la,  which  rataioi  iu  original  eolow  in  Aa  ■■■ 
the  town  and  in  the  b«at  pnblie  hi  — 

UB  of  them    '  '  -  -    - 


KanMrooa  tjhtf'T"'™'  of  the  towen  and  eaitlea  oeou- 
■lad  bj  men  of  note  in  the  middle  agee,  etill  exiat, 
Ihongh  moatl;  in  a  dBe»ed  atate.  Thoae  which  indi- 
Mte  tfao  grotest  ettength  and  eooMqnenee  are— £o(A- 
wat^aOurb,  tbereddenoeoTthe  Brnoae,  Lodiof  An- 


nandale;  HermUage  (Roxbnrghahire),  wfaioh  belonged 
to  a  powerfnl  noble  named  Lord  Sonlii ;  Deuglat,  the 
Maidanoa  of  the  Earla  of  DonglBa;  fWrnAcny  (Ajrr- 


d  Lord  Sonlii ;  Deuglat,  the 

'  DonglBB;  ntmAcny  (Ayr- 

aUn),  the  tMidaooa  of  the  Earla  of  Carriek ;  Btlhattt, 
aBoUmatrongholdof  tbe'Donglaaei;  DmtaUnt  (Kad- 
,.    .     _i-_.i    ..I »■'— !erf  the  Earleof  Aogua, - 


(Perthihire),  tlie  stronghold  of  Robert  Earl  of  Fife, 
brother  of  Robert  III.,  and  govomor  of  Scotland.  Four 
places  of  attenfith,  Edinburgh,  Slirling,  Dunbarlon,  and 
Blacknta  C'ojWej,  are  Bllll  kept  in  repair  at  the  public 
expense,  and  »crre  as  barracka  fur  Tout  soldieie. 


The  mansions  of  tho  nobility  and  gentry  of  Scotland 
da  not  difter  in  an;  iiiipurtant  resect  from  similar 
classes  of  struclurei  in  England.  Tlie  "  hall "  is,  how- 
orer,  corapletcl.v  wanting  in  Scotland,  and  there  are 
ooinparalively  few  specimena  of  the  Elizabethan  style. 
Turbulent  times  being  more  recent  in  Scottish  than  in 
English  biatory,  tho  chief  mansions  of  an  unfortified 
chuacter  in  tlie  northern  kingdom  are  not  of  earlier 
date  than  tho  reign  of  Clinrles  11.,  and  most  of  them 
are  much  later.  In  many  instances,  the  whole  or  part 
of  the  original  castellated  buildings  which  stood  on  the 


ijd'un  tlio  reign  of  James  111.  (MG0-U8S),  th< 
seems  to  have  been  no  mansion  besides  lbs 
lower,  with  its  surrounding  inferior  buildings, 
ternal  wall  or  barmkyne.     In  that,  and  one  o 


ri" 


in  elegant  front 

B,  the  ouWidcot  tlie  building  wa.i  still  a  plain 

and  almost  dead  wall,  calculated  fur  defend'.  Crich- 
tm  Coi>//<(Edinburghshire)andZi'i/i/Aff(nr  yn/o«,aro 
examples.  In  tho  reign  of  James  VI.,  the  favourite 
stylo  was  the  tail  square  tower ;  but  this  was  now  ren- 
dered somewhat  more  ornamental  by  means  of  sundry 
flirarishes,  such  as  minor  towers  projecting  like  pepper- 
boxes froni  the  eomera.  (.Vommii  Ciiitle  ^Forfarshire) 
is  a  superb  specimen  of  this  class  of  mitnsuns. 

In  the  reign  of  Charles  II.,  mansions  were  for  the 
firat  lime  built  in  any  thina  lilio  pure  Grecian  taste. 
Tliii  was  introduced  by  Sir  William  Uruce  of  Kinross, 
Bart,  an  architect  of  considerable  skill,  and  of  whose 
wnriu  the  modem  Holfrood  Palacv,  and  his  own  house 
RMS,  arc  ['^camples.  During  the  last  century,  the 


The  New  Town  is  laid  out  on  a  re^Ur  plan  of  red* 
gnlar  streets  and  squares,  exhibiting  in  general  ■» 
architectural  elegance.  Between  the  Old  and  Nl 
Towns,  and  between  various  aeetions  of  the  New  Tm 
itself,  as  well  as  in  the  centres  of  the  principal  aqnafl 
there  are  gardens  laid  out  in  the  modem  li  iiiliM) 
style,  forming  delightful  places  of  recreation.  It 
chiefly  owing  to  the  unequal  gronnd  on  which  M 
burgh  is  situated,  the  massive  el^anee  and  legdail 
of  its  buildings,  the  intermixture  of  ornamental^ 
suro-ground,  and  the  picturesque  hills  ii  "'  " 
adjacent,  whenee  distant  and  extcn  ' 
commanded,  that  this  city  mokes  so  great  an  ioipn 
sioD  on  most  strangers. 

Formerly  the  seat  of  the  government  of  tbs  eaoatl 
Edinburgh  is  still  that  of  the  supreme  law-conrta  a 
of  a  flourishing  university.  It  is  also  to  a  great  este 
a  cily  of  residence,  not  only  for  aHluent  peiaoiM  m 
nected  with  the  country,  but  for  strangers  deeiiODi 
enjoving  a  society  of  moderate  habits,  and  the  bead 
of  education  for  their  children.  Its  leading  elaaSMi 
thus  composed  of  legal  practitioners,  learned  penoi 
and  families  in  independent  circumstances.  It  is  ei 
in  a  small  degree  a  manufacturing  town,  tho  prineii 
trades  being  the  brewing  of  ale  (for  which  the  toir« 
celebrated),  coachmaking,  the  weaving  of  shawb^a 
the  printing  and  issuing  of  literary  production*.  1 
leading  periodical  publications  aro  the  weU-kno 
Edinburgh  Review,  illackwood's  and  Tail's  Magasin 
and  a  I'hilosopliical  and  Medical  Journal,  besidf*  whi 
there  are  a  number  of  smaller  size.  The  town  it  i 
tingoished  for  its  numerous  banking  inMitnlion^  wM 
enert  an  influence  on  the  general  trade  of  the  eatBil 
Within  a  few  milee  of  the  city,  on  the  Elk  RhV.  tb 
are  varioue  paper-mills,  at  which  T 


il  bmtorinit,  k  mgor-nltuliig  h 
il  ttunuEulorIc*  of  m»p,  (nuicli«,  roi^n,  &ml  gltMi 
tw  CuaWnihauw,  an  «|pgiuil  mudnrii  LiiiMbe,  ie  il 
iM  ut  111*  Uotti  of  CnsioiiH  f"r  S".tliui<!.    In  IH; 
ID poMilatlaii of  L«itli wu  31^1-  Thoiuwii.fu 
jth  N«ivl»Tiin,  Portoballui  ud  Miuvlhurgh,  i: 
iDMDbcr  to  ParliuDviit. 
6'twc0K>,  tfaa  mual  iwpiilOM  tit;  In  gcntUcd,  nr 
htJtlJy  kdviuiLieoiHU  (ulDiOaiui  bn  vl^c  tiania 
tyiia.  in  Lunrkidiirt^  a  tew  mile*  fnini  liio  )iljim 
■•  riviv  unpsiiib  Into  au  ntuar^,  «2  mlln  from 
iirtib,  nU7  fram  Lnntlon.  uid  196  from  [>uliliii. 
(.toma!  appcarniiM  ot  Oiia  gnat  ciiy  m  *.l>ipuit  a 

SroHive.  Tlifl  urEft*  an>  rveular  in  nrrau|[*iiu>iti 
Hubatanliall)'  luilt  of  aiiiuoUi  ■(nii*.  TiM  i<ubllq 
iiildlngs  ar«  in  e*nat«l  handMuig,  ouil,  iu  inott  ir- 
■aa™«,  i]i— ~— '  —  — — I"  -  ."•"n..-  n.  .«  »>..  »i,»i  t 
IvaiiUge 
iftdg  tlu  Hue  of  the  High  Stnol,  botaecQ  U 

ml  aiid  IhorlToFi  Ihu  miiro  — " ' '    ' 

:rolehe>  tanarda  the  norlh-w 


»  Gbugow  which  Suutliwark  bean  M  LoudoB 
t'ratward  from  the  liiwi-tt  uttlti;  bridgea,  botb  m-'-' " 
IB  rirer  are  forraad  iutu  ijiu^a,  wlilch,  o*  ' 
paratiouR  far  di'^jwiiIiiM    die   ohaQDdi  : 

'    i  by  vfsBCls  diawing  about  fuurtara  or  flAi 
WE  wBier.    The  quay  aa  ibo  rielit  ur  tiinih  huik 
enomiiuited  Uie  0r«<nnl(/air ;  it  baw  mwntly  ban  M 
■M  3X4U  feet  in  length,  wliile  thai  od  lh«  •    ' 
»  1360  fact. 

lank  ita  tUr  aa  a  dopnidoiiey  of  the  cii 
D  buhiip*  tlttlttrly  anhbialK^)  of  ■■- 

Barini  Ita  Damo.     It  wh>  nut,  buwevvr,  "II  lu 
10  Hefarroatlon,  that  it  bMam*  a  arat  uf  i;« 
opDiatJon.     About  Uie  middle  of  tli»  tigliti 

iry,  il  liadactnuvodaconfcviBnWadiitv 


CHAMBERS'S  INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLF. 


colonial  trade,  wliich  it  still  retains ;  but,  during  tho 
last  seTcnty  yoara,  it  has  chiefly  been  distinguished  as 
a  seat  of  manufactures.  The  weaving  of  lawns,  cam- 
brics, and  similar  articles,  commeuced  in  Glasgow  in 
17'25.  The  advantages  enjoyed  by  the  city  fur  the  im- 
portation of  cotton,  in  time  gave  a  great  impulse  to 
that  ppecies  of  manufacture.  In  l}{3i,  out  of  134  cot- 
ton-factories existing  in  Scotland,  100  belonged  to 
Glasgow,  and  the  importation  of  cotton  into  tliat  port 
amounted  to  9.^703  bales.  In  the  weaving  of  this 
material,  upwards  of  lo,000  power-looniH,  and  3-,000 
liand-loom  weavers,  were  at  the  same  time  employed 
by  the  manufacturers  of  Glasgow.  Of  calico-printing 
establishments  there  are  upwards  of  forty.  It  would 
bo  vain  to  attempt  an  exact  enumeration  of  the  less 
prominent  features  of  the  business  carried  on  in  Glas- 
gow. The  chief  articles  of  importation,  besides  cotton, 
are  sugar,  rum,  tea,  tobacco,  and  timber.  The  chief 
articles  manufactured  or  prepared,  besides  cotton  goods, 
arc  sugar,  soap,  glass,  iron,  ropes,  leather,  chemical 
stuffs,  and  machinery.  There  were  recently  seven  na- 
tive banks,  and  several  branches  (»f  other  banks.  Dur- 
ing a  year  extending  from  a  certain  period  in  1839,  to 
a  certain  period  in  1«10,  5484  vessels,  of  29G,302  ton- 
nage, arrived  at  the  Glasgow  harbour ;  the  customh(>ut<e 
revenue  of  U{3i)  was  i;4<)H,975,  and  the  harbour  dues 
of  the  twelvemonth  ending  August  31  of  that  year  were 
£4r).8"2C.  It  Is  worthy  of  remark,  that  the  Clvde  was 
the  first  river  in  the  eider  hemisphere  on  which  steam 
navigation  was  exemplitied.  A  steam-vessel  of  three 
horse  power  was  set  afloat  on  the  river  in  January  1812, 
by  Mr  Henry  13ell  of  Helensburgh ;  and  there  w»?re 
twenty  such  vessels  on  tlie  Clyde  before  one  had  dis- 
turbed tho  waters  of  the  Thames.  In  1835  there  were 
sixty-seven  steam- vessels,  of  6(191  aggregate  tonnage, 
connected  with  Glasgow,  cight<!cn  of  which  plit*d  to 
Liverpo<il,  Belfast,  Dublin,  and  Londonderry.  Within 
the  last  few  years,  tho  city  has  become  a  great  centre 
of  the  iron  trade,  this  met;il  being  produced  in  the 
neighbourhood  to  an  annual  amount  of  not  less  than 
200,000  tons.  As  a  necessarv  consequence  of  the  com- 
merce and  manufactures  which  fl«)urish  in  Glasgow, 
the  city  has  a  vast  retail  trzide  in  all  the  articU's  of 
luxury  and  nucessitv  which  are  u<od  hv  human  bL-iiiijs. 
]hil  no  cireiiii»«>tanco  coiuieotiMl  witli  (Jias^ow  euuM 
j^ivr  «i>  inipri'S-ivi'  an  iili.':i  of  tln'  lii"i:;ht  to  wliioli  hu>'i- 
ni's-*  h:{^  h'Tii  c.irrifil  \n  it,  ar^  tin-  iMjii  1  aJvaiicr  and 
pr«-s<nr  ^'n-at  amount  «•!  il.->  p"]»ulati-n.  iJy  tl.*.-  i'<'!i«'ii'i 
of  17.''],  i1k'  inhal'irant-.  wm-  '«';,*)7;! ;  an-l  hy  tlio  lir'-t 
p»»vt,'iiinKnt  c<.-nsu«<  in  1!I'>1,  th<-y  wm.-  77..1'i.").  Hut 
tin**"**  iii.iMiht  r>  havi!  bot'M  inrnaM-d  in  l.'Ul.  l.'JJl,  anil 
li;:'.l,  roiMCtivi'ly  to  ll(».7i:',  ll7,<»i;;,  and  -J't-jJ-Jt:. 
As  tliv  incri'a*-*'  i-<  ali»ut  7"<">  p'l'  annnni,  tli-.-  j-n-.-nt 
amotint  (11511)  is  ^uppuM-d  tt)  In-  fully  "j; '..">,( mm i — ji  nuiss 
of  p'ljmlation  wliioh,  at  tin*  tini*-  <'l'  tlu'  I'ninn,  t'i»!ilil  iidt 
liavi*  hvi-n  ilixanit  vi  a>  liKily  vwv  to  exi-^t  in  any  Sir  it- 
t'-.h  city. 

Til'- Vathetlral.  or  lli::h  Clniroh,  i<  s-Ituati-d  in  tlu- 
roril-.crn  niit>kirls  oi  tin.  i-itN.  n«ar  ihe  n)'j"i"  <'\tr<'inity 
«if  tin-  lli^h  >:ri-ot.  Tln'  ImlL  *>\'  lli  '  rMstini;  hnililin:: 
was  eon-tiMK'tfd  at  tlif  olo-**'  "f  tlio  twtlttli  t'liitnry,  iti 
place  «'f  an.  tln-r  wliirh  lui-i  1»<  'ii  e.'n-<i'rat«'l  in  1  l.l'-, 
I'nt  \v.-.-  (I'-tri'vnl  l'\  t!iv.  It  r-'ii--;-;'-  <>l"  a  K-n^  iMve 
ainl  i-li.'i:*,  a  I'lia^ilrr-li-iu^r  pri'j'ciMiL,'  fr-iin  t!i<'  n":-!h- 
(■;  •  t  J  ii.:-',  a  t'<\\  '-r  an-l  spiri-  in  tin-  n  pM--.  an-l  a  i-rv  jt 
r\''ti  li-,:;  I- n' a!  l;  tl:i-  cln  i:*  «ir  r.i",:!  rn  ]'..i:i.  nol  tli-- 
l.'M  I'i.M^'.  In  th-  na^f,  ttrni'd  ili-r  Out-  r  lli^'i'.  \\.v\^. 
\\i^  |j.  M  t".-'  I'fielir.it' •■!  <i'-iiiral  A--ii\l'jy  oi  jIm 
C'l.n:-..-;-.  N-\-nil-«r  l'"--"^,  ly  v.hix-li  I':  i-i-iji.icy  wa-^ 
;il-"l.^h.  I  ai.  1  i-ni-f  rr<->l'\t.ry  r- j  lai'i -1  -  tli-  llr.-t 
;^'r.  :it  in  .\i  in-  nt  in  tl;-    Civi!  uai'. 

The  r."\  :.ti  >i  ::« ■in:;<l.  near  tli'*  ••a'-t  rnd  of  the  ("atl:-  - 
dral,  hi^  III  I  n  1>>iim<>]  inti*  an  <)n,.tnii-iital  ]'!aei-  «■( 
HMtnltnrt  ,  n:.'l<  r  tin-  ajp'l.ati'-n  ot  tli-;  Nrer«'p<'li>. 
Sine«.-  l"il,  tin-  >i.eit  ty  ni  .%!•  loiiant-;.  it>-  projirM-toi>, 
li;i\c  I  .\])»  nd' d  the  hwni  i-f  i,';(ii'«t  in  l.tMiej  (>iit  ahmit 
tweiity-fiiur  aert-  ».f  gnmnd  in  walks  and  .sliruMn  rie-*, 
AJ}d  ill  e"nin<*tinLj  ill*'  »*]>ot  with  the  ^ijijui-ite  sli«j>0  hy 
juaujs  of  a   bri'h**  .'irii'ss   tiic   interim  diate  rivulet. 


'2.V'\ 


The  taste  manifested  in  the  whole  scheme  a 
execution,  is  extremely  creditable  to  the  ci 
walks,  several  miles  in  extent,  command  an  ( 
view  of  the  neighbouring  country.  They  ar 
by  numberless  sepulchral  plots  and  excavatioi 
already  affection  has  been  busy  in  erecting  i 
memorials,"  all  of  which,  it  nmy  bo  men  tin 
fashioned  according  to  certain  regulations,  wi 
to  general  keeping  and  effect. 

The  College  buildings  are  situated  on  the 
of  the  High  Street,  about  half-way  between  tl 
dral  and  the  Trongatc.  They  c«>n<fist  in  i 
double  court ;  the  front  which  adjoins  ti>  t 
being  330  feet  in  length,  and  three  storeys  i 
The  whole  edifice  hits  a  dignifiiMl  and  \eniM 

f)earance.  A  large  piece  of  ground  behind 
ege  is  formed  into  a  park  or  green,  interspe; 
trees  and  hedges,  and  always  kept  in  gruKM,  t^ 
by  the  students  as  a  place  of  exercise  or  am 
In  the  College  there  are  appointed  prufi 
teachers  of  about  thirty  bRinehes  of  scien 
logy,  and  polite  literature.  At  the  back  of 
rior  court  stands  the  modem  Grecian  buildi 
coutains  the  Ilunterian  Mu>>c>um.  Tliis  is  a  I 
lection  of  singular  natural  object**,  c^Hn**,  iiiei 
manuscripts,  (taint ings  and  relies  of  anti<iui 
nally  formed  by  Dr  William  Hunter,  tlie  c< 
anatomist,  and  be({ueathed  by  him  to  this  ui 
at  which  he  received  his  education.  While  th 
confers  professional  education,  popuLir  instrue' 
tainable,  under  uimsually  advantageous  circui 
through  the  medium  of  the  Andersunian  In 
an  extensive  school  of  science  founded  at  tlu> 
the  last  century,  and  connected  with  which  t 
general  museum,  containing  many  curious  obj 
constJintly  ojieii  to  the  public. 

The  most  attractive  modern  building  in  G 
the  Koyal  Kxclumge  in  Queen  Street,  a  mo^ 
structure,  erectt^l  in  182!',  as  a  ]>oint  of  asscm 
the  merchants  in  the  western  part  of  the  ci 
principal  room  is  a  large  liall,  supported  by 
row  of  columns,  and  \\r^  as  a  reading-roe 
front  of  the  Exchango  con"ii>>ts  (if  a  nuignific 
tiei>,  !?unn(>uiit(Ml  hy  a  cupola  ;  and,  as  the 
is  initiated,  the  utlnr  ^iih  s  aii-  aU)  cjf  deCi»rati 
teetiil'e.  Alti-.:i'lh'r,  tlii-^  liui'-liii^.  suppcrlid 
lit  \i'rv  eif 'anr  d-im-  -tii*  -:rn',':in^  *^  i>:  -i!ni.:\rl 
jtriij-  -niDn-.  ini]  r*  --.•-.  \.\v  inin-l  nl  a  stran^iT 
tlii:;  '  ^i-ji:allv  w-fiTJiv  ui  a  i^rt  i*  ei:\. 

>inee  the  K-l  iiin  Act  <  1    !;..!_',  (iia-j.>\%  l.A- 
vil-  '.'t-  (.f  iv-f.iri.in^'  \\\^^  i--,-  n\!  \  r-^  t«-  I'ar'i.iiui- 
|'!av<  *>  of  \\"i"-l'i|i.    eli.iM'.i;  !••    in-titn'i.-ii-,   a 
e"i.it:-'n>  of  v.;iii>n><  kinU  t'-r  pnlla*  <  ii- et", 
nnMicT'iii-.     A   land  illi    /■  .il  1- r  the  inipnA 
rlui'.;i!'-n  inail-.^  tin  •.•ir\  ;  and  a  i.-  nnai  j'clu'^il 
narv  li-r  tl.i-  n-ariii-' ut  t- .it-l.i  r-^ — tln-t'.r.-t  iril' 
—  lia>n  l'e<  n  em-ri- I  ii'.:  i-.r  tl:--  an-^-pie-'S    it    a 
•>iiei''t  V. 

'I'in-   i.n;.:i-    if   (•■.Tiriinnii'ati-tn    in    0"iiiu"X 
<iI;.^j<\N,  ar.'  sv.it.iJM-   t<i  tli-- ei!.HMi":'r  til   tl-. 
y'.W'  <  f  till*  L'V'  at-  *-t  f-np  -ri.i  i»:  e-nmwrft'  ar.  I  ; 
tui'i-  in   tli'.'  vM'i  i'l.      i'>i -:.l  ^  a  viv.  i\  i  avi^-.iM 
.-•.■!>  lirawir.^  ii:ir«n  I.--;  i-I   w.i*-  r.  an-i  wliioii 
in- an*'  if   a    ri  a'l\    ei;n:  ■.'.iniea: .   n    with    ti'.e 
-hi'i'-.-  I  I    I'lfi;.!':!.  \\\\\\  li'-iai.-l.  ;ir]  u:lh  Am- 
I'l'i'lh  ;ir'i   ( ',\  :■    I  anal,  i-t   >\:!i.*;i  a   irai.i'i. 
I'lirt- 1  ).i...l:i-.  ':i   til'    i:'r:hrr!i   .-rJ -nrl -,  ^■r^^ 
\i-\  -J,  -i-  an!    I  ..--■.  nj-i""*  t-i  tlie  lasjeiti  Av^x 
i-l.ii.ts,  ui  :!e  e.ii..i!^  il   i>>-  iidte  enniK-eT  tii\- 
i'a!^l»\  ai.i  .I'-liii-T'in''^  in  oni-  dirertii-:!.  ;i;»d 
jr-  .it  i-.'.i".-  ::i  ■  !<  i{'  Mi'-.k;ai;d  i:.  th*-  "ther.    fti. 
.!  r.ii  "^aN.  \vl.;'.-ii  t:M>ir-e«i  li.i'  f-aMr-  i;:'iat  \ 
i'\  <i.iihi,ir:v  ai.d  Wi-hau,  aii'l  e'n>iv-.  i*.i>'^ 
vi  II  a-  e  a!  and  i:  m-U.     An<vliier  r.iiiW.iy.  c- 
llif  eiry  \\\\\\  Kiiinarijuek,  A\r,  and  the  ji.rt  i-l 
sail,  was  opi-ni<l  in  j.'JJo.    Dnriiii;  the  y»Mr  in  « 
sin  el  inaki-s   its  appearaiu'e,  a  third  railvtny 
hy  Taikirk  and  l/iniithgow  to  Ldinburgh,  wtll  U 
LUliers  are  pngi-cted.   The  steam  commuQici 


irtTt-AKi*. 


airs- 


It,  IB  IM),  1iy4IM  Mib<wit': 

■Uil   bulldiac,  in  lliv  <:linn'" 

i«h  txiX  A7M0,  aiKl  <  -.1-.  .-* 

jnUj  luoaw.  »  i>  >-*»i:>n 

nustmiMtir*  1 -.  .  ■•:»Bnil 

laatm  Wstt,  Ihn  Inivn'-i-t  .1  t)ti-  •inu^-?(i|['.mi,  •mu 
n  ID  GtwoiMk  In  1  (.111 ;  uid  mi  iiMtJiutliia  Dk  tUw 
•J  aod  MuiiiUIlD  puniiMia.  •li^nHl  Co  ti-ni  b4  a 

jTiir-r.)  ti>  lii--.,  ktJ  LTniM  11.0  W«H  lMit«tlM9, 
.    1 , ,  .   .......     ..  J      Tfi,  altiuiilao  ut  lIlQ 

'  irjilifalt*  md  Duik- 


31, Um  alitafBiktiiritl luod  la  anulrtiMlaB  tUtwlilH' 
Tvjr  puiitt  CiMiul  bcrn  la  fle^  ■Iiiii><LaMh     HcW 


iii'licMhia  111  uHC"   ihf^  I'xitjii  mui  nalurw  of  ll.. 
rloultnt^  u)d  nnunrfurtorinn  prmhiuU  iiT  1b»  Sit- 
ct,  tlio  fulliinlng  llcinR: — Ftaix  fuauuTutuna,  MJitt 
nrcl  bulk ;  CAttcD  isaiTnbeliir«a,  I  I^H  iln. ;  wooUi  ~ 
Liia<i«tiiru,3U,043do.,*  (iaUtCt>,£)tl^u«rttra;  n« 
.«7A  boUi ;  ihecii  ud  lamba,  1 107 :  ptji,  3034 1  bt 
r,  0W1  «wt>.t  we*,  B130  burrvi  buQi:  pork,  .BW 
t»;«^oi),776ruo.ISTuiit()irt<mn,17BfiWiili.  .I1_ 
;rr  itti,».rl-.  arc,  rr,jt,  '"-f  -vLirit  ilirr"  "a«  nnTuded, 
■    .     .:.il"n,ftix. 
I  iirr.anit 


Aln-v-dfcii  1.  -:'iil.;rL-,l  I.-„t..  ilu-  h"«iL  l.v  Union  StrMt, 
elngut  douUa  lliw  of  building*,  ft  inil>>  In  trnvtii  ud 
ranty  fset  »idD,  Id  the  Denlra  af  whidi  a  rurSim  pwrr 
ded  by  a  hvnlel  la  eroMcd  by  a  tuiblo  ar«11  ''  ■—•' 


CHAMBERS'S  INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


eokoial  tndfl^  wlddi  U  stfll  r«laiiift ;  but.  during  the 
ImI  wKfmAj  jttn^  It  bM  cSiidfy  been  Aieai^niilied  «■ 
a 'sMft of BBaimlbotariik  The weftTiscof Uwiu^ cwm- 
briM^  Mid  WDBflMT  ivdEdee.  ewnmmiftfl  in  Gkmiv  in 
1735.  The  adTuifaifee  enjoyed  by  the  dty  for  the  im- 
pOTtMio&  of  ootton,  in  time  gave  a  greet  impuke  to 
ttuil  qpeeiee  of  manufacture.  In  18S4»  out  of  184  ooi- 
ton^lMtoriea  eaiitaig  in  Sootland^  100  belonged'  to 
^aegowy  and  the  importation  of  cotton  into  that  port 
'Amounted  to  95,708  oalea.    In  the  weaving  of  this 

''malerialy  upwards  of  15,000  power-looms^  and  82,000 
has^loom  weaven^  were  at  the  same  time  em^lo;|red 
1^  the  mannfaeturera  of  Glasgow.    Of  oaUoo-printinff 

-  fUMlihmonts  there  axe  upwards  of  forty.  It  would 
be  vain  to  attempt  an  ezaot  enumeration  of  the  leas 

^-'^rominent  features  of  the  business  earned  on  in  Glas- 
gow. The  diief  artioles  of  importa^m,  besides  cotton, 
are  mgur,  mm,  tea,  tobacco,  and  timber.  The  chief 
actieleB  manu&otured  or  pr^ared,  besides  cotton  good^ 
an  sugar,  8o«x  ^IuBi  iron,  ropes,  leather,  chemical 
■tidft^  and  machinery.  There  were  recently  seven  na- 
tive  banhi^  and  several  branches  of  other  banks.  Dur- 
big  a  year  extending  from  a  certain  period  in  1889,  to 
a  certain  poriod  in  1840,  6484  vessds,  of  296,802  ton- 
Bsge,  arrived  at  the  Glaegowharbonr ;  the  customhouse 
revenue  of  1889  was  £468,975,  and  the  harbour  dues 
of  the  twdvemonth  en^ug  August  81  of  that  year  were 
£45,826.  It  is  worthy  ofremark,  that  the  CIvde  was 
the  first  river  in  the  Ader  hemisphere  on  whiea  steam 
navigation  was  exemplified.  A  steam-veesel  of  three 
Iwffse  power  was  set  sfloat  on  the  river  in  January  1812, 
by  Hr  Henry  Bell  of  Hdeosburgh ;  and  there  were 
twenty  such  vsssals  on  the  Qyde  b«f ore  one  had  dis- 
taxbed  the  waters  of  the  Thames.  In  1885  there  were 
iisly<«even  steam-vesseli^  of  6691  anrcgate  tonnage, 
eoaneeied  with  Glasgow,  eighteen  oT  whidi  plied  to 
Liverpool,  Bdl&st»  BnUin,  and  Londondeny.  Within 
Ae  last  iiilw  ysars^  the  dty  has  beeome  a  great  centre 
of  the  iron  trade,  this  metal  being  produoed  in  the 
neighbourhood  to  an  annual  amount  of  not  less  than 
200,000  tons.  As  a  neceasarv  consequence  of  the  com- 
merce and  manufactures  which  flourish  in  Glasgow, 
the  city  has  a  vast  retail  trade  in  all  the  articles  of 
luxury  and  necessity  which  are  used  by  human  beings. 
But  no  circumstance  connected  with  Glasgow  could 
give  so  impressive  an  idea  of  the  height  to  which  busi- 
ness has  been  carriMl  in  it,  as  the  rapid  advance  and 
present  great  amount  of  its  population.  By  the  census 
of  1791,  the  inhabitants  were  66,578 ;  and  by  the  first 
government  census  in  1801,  they  were  77,385.  But 
these  numbers  have  been  increased  in  1811,  1821,  and 
1831,  respectively  to  110,749,  147,043,  and  202,426. 
As  the  increase  is  about  7000  per  annum,  the  present 
amount  (1841)  is  supposed  to  be  fully  285,000 — a  mass 
of  population  which,  at  the  time  of  the  Union,  could  not 
have  been  dreamt  of  as  likely  ever  to  exist  in  any  Scot- 
tish city. 

The  Cathedral,  or  High  Church,  is  situated  in  the 
northern  outskirts  of  the  city,  near  the  upper  extremity 
of  the  High  Street.  The  bulk  of  the  existing  building 
was  constructed  at  the  close  of  the  twelfth  century,  in 
pUce  of  another  which  had  been  consecrated  in  1136, 
but  was  destroyed  by  fire.  It  consists  of  a  long  nave 
and  choir,  a  chapter-house  projecting  from  the  north- 
east angle,  a  tower  and  spire  in  the  centre,  and  a  crypt 
extending  beneath  the  clioir  or  eastern  portion  of  the 
building.  In  the  nave,  termed  the  Outer  High  Kirk, 
was  held  the  celebrated  General  Assembly  of  the 
Church,  November  1638,  by  which  Episcopacy  was 
abolished  and  pure  Presbytery  replaced — the  first 
great  movement  in  the  civil  war. 

The  elevated  ground,  near  the  east  end  of  the  Cathe- 
dral, has  been  formed  into  an  ornamental  place  of 
sepulture,  under  the  appellation  of  the  Necropolis. 
Since  1831,  the  Society  of  Merchants,  its  proprietors, 
have  expended  the  sum  of  £6000  in  laying  out  about 
twenty-four  acres  of  ground  in  walks  and  snrubberies, 
and  in  connecting  the  spot  with  the  opposite  slope  by 
means  of  a  bridge  across  the  intermediate  rivulet  | 

238 


IIb  tha  iM«  Mhm  M 
^  endiUkjkb  ti»,ili 

v«,^  wf  V  iU)  hi  I  eottufty.  niy^'an 
bv  numbwMWs  »».  plotaaad  eaMwaHaa 

alreadty  affection  <  »  u  htmj  m  iiisiIim  II 
memorials^''  all  o.  ..iki«j.  It  maj  be.^MlSiM 
fiwhioned  aceogiing  to  emaiDi  wgplatina^  wfti 
to  general  keeping  and  efibeft. 

The  College  buldingB  iure.tflaaied  on  flM< 
of  the  High  Street,  alioat  bOfi-waji  betiieen  A 
dral  and  the  Trmigate.  They  consist  in  a 
double  court;  the  firani  whieh  a4i<mis  to  tk 
being  880  feet  in  lengtfi,  and  three  atorsya  is 
The  whole  edifice  has  a  oujnified  and  venen 
peannee.  A  large  pieoe  of  gvonnd  behind  \ 
lege  Is  fbrmed  into  a  park  or  fepm,  iuterspeii 
trees  and  hedges,  and  always  Sspl  m  gnai^  la 
by  the  students  as  a  place  of  eaereiaa  or  ami 
In  the  CoUefle  there  are  apnointed  prelSa 
teachers  of  Moot  thirty  bsamslMa  of  acasns 
logy,  and  polite  literature.  Ak  the  baek  of  i 
rior  court  stands  the  modem  Gtedan  1ni3£b 
oonfains  the  Hunterian  Museom.  This  ia  a  Is 
lection  of  smgular  natural  objeeti^  eoins^  med 
manuscripts,  naJntinpi.  and  relies  of  antiqufc 
nal^  formed  by  Br  Wifliam  Hunter,  the  ee 
anatomist  and  beqneathed  by  him  to  this  nn 
atwhiditereeeivedhiaednoatioa.  WhUeth^ 
confers  profeanonal  edneationf  popnlarhiatraeti 
faSfif^y^li^  under  unnaually  "aiflvaiiitiitgTnnBi  ^pwibi 
through  the  medium  cifbB  Anderaonian  Im 
an  extensive  sdliool  of  ecienee  founded  ai  the 
the  last  century,  and  connected  with  wUeh  tt 
genmal  museum,  containing  many  cnriona  oh|< 
constantly  open  to  the  paiSo, 

The  moet  attraetlve  modem  bnildipg  in  (B 
the  Royal  Kinhanye  in  Queen  JStoset^  a  a|Ml 
stnictnr%  erected  m  1829,aa  a  point  eif  amMal 
the  msrchants  in  the  western  pari  of  the  oil 
principal  room  is  a  large  hall,  supported  by  i 
row  of  columns,  and  i^ed  as  a  reading-root 
front  of  the  Exchange  consists  of  a  m^gpifii* 
tico,  surmounted  by  a  cupoU ;  and,  as  the 
is  isolated,  the  other  sides  are  also  of  deooratii 
tecture.  Altogether,  this  building,  supported 
of  very  elegant  domestic  structures  of  similarly 
proportions,  impresses  the  mind  of  a  stranger  \ 
thing  signally  worthy  of  a  great  city. 

Since  the  Reform  Act  of  1832,  Glasgow  has 
vilege  of  returning  two  members  to  Parliamsi 
places  of  worship,  charitable  institutions,  ai 
ciations  of  various  kinds  for  public  objects,  a 
numerous.  A  laudable  zeal  for  the  improve 
education  marks  the  city ;  and  a  normal  scaool, 
nary  for  the  rearing  of  teachers— the  first  in  tbi 
— has  been  erected  under  the  auspices  of  a 
society. 

The  means  of  conununication  in  oonnexii 
Glasgow,  are  suitable  to  the  character  of  the 
one  of  the  greatest  emporia  of  commerce  and  u 
ture  in  the  world.  Besides  a  river,  navigsUs 
sels  drawing  fifteen  feet  of  water,  and  which  g 
means  of  a  ready  communication  with  the 
shores  of  Britain,  with  Ireland,  and  with'Anw) 
Forth  and  Clyde  Canal,  of  which  a  branch  e 
Port-Dundas,  in  the  northern  suburbs,  eervei 
vey  goods  and  passengers  to  the  eastern  sbon 
island,  while  canals  of  less  note  connect  the  c 
Paisley  and  Johnstone  in  one  direction,  and  i 
great  coal-fields  of  Monkland  in  the  other.  Thei 
a  railway,  which  traverses  the  same  great  o 
by  Gamkirk  and  Wishaw,  and  conveys  passsi 
well  as  coal  and  goods.  Another  railway,  eci 
the  city  with  Kilmarnock,  Ayr,  and  the  port  of 
san,  was  opened  in  1 840.  During  the  year  ia  wl 
sheet  makes  its  appearance^  a  third  natrnvr^ 
by  Falkirk  and  l4iniithgc*-  to  Edinboq^ willbe 
Others  are  projected.  !  le 


DESCRIPTION  OF  SCOTLAND. 


KSgowand  liverpool,  Dublin,  and  other  Irish 

eoodncted  on  a  scale  which  may  bo  called 

The  vessels  are  superb  in  magnitude,  decora- 

|>ower ;  and  they  sail  frequently  and  rapidly. 

m  iDteroonrse  between  Glasgow  and  various 

Scotland,  both  for  passengers  and  objects  of 
,  also  conducted  on  a  great  scale :  among  the 
tuched  at  in  tlie  Clyde  and  to  the  south  arc 
c,  Dunbarton,  Dunoon,  Rothesay,  Arran,  Gou- 
vm,  and  Ayr.  Among  the  places  to  tlic  north 
vessels  sail  regularly,  are  Inverary,  Campbel- 
n,  StafTa  and  lona,  Mull,  Ariaaig,  Skye,  Stor- 
and  Inverness.  In  opening  up  markets  for 
ighland  produce,  and  introducing  luxuries  in 
hese  vessels  have  also  been  of  marked  seryice, 
li  that  the  value  of  property  in  those  hitherto 

districts  has  experienced  a  considerable  rise, 
onntry  around  Glasgow,  particularly  towards 
h,  abounds  in  busy  towns  and  vilUges,  of  the 
f  which  the  most  remarkable  is  Paislet/,  situated 
vwshire,  on  the  banks  of  the  small  river  Cart, 
lea  from  the  city  above  described.  The  external 
ice  of  this  town  is  pleasing,  and  the  streets  are 
al  composed  of  substantial  buildings.     It  origi- 
om  an  abbey  founded  in  11  GO  by  Walter,  the 
he  Stewarts,  and  of  which  considerable  remains 
i.    Paisley  is  a  noted  seat  of  the  manufacture 
K,  and  also  of  cotton  thread,  gauzes,  and  velvets. 
own  and  Abbey  parish,  exclusive  of  the  large 
af  Johnstone,  there  were  lately  three  cotton 
f-milis,  and  seven  or  eight  thread-mills;  two 
Kim  factories ;  ux  flour-mills ;  a  calico-printing 
nany  bleacliing  works  and  dye-houses;  three 
es  and  two  distilleries ;  several  timber  yards ; 
era!  iron  and  brass  foundries;  an  alum  and 
work,  a  soap  work,  and  a  tan-yard.     An  idea 
>rescnt  extent  of  manufactures,  in  comparison 
iat  it  was  in  the  last  age,  may  be  obtained  from 
,  that,  while  the  whole  of  the  manufactures  in 
lonnted  to  £15,000,  the  annual  computed  value 
;ooda  made  in  and  around  the  town  a  few  years 
B  a  million  and  a  half  sterling. 
ej  has  been  changed  by  tho  Reform  Acts  from 
1  of  barony  into  a  parliamentary  burgh  of  the 
as,  returning  one  member,  divided  into  wards 
ncijpal  purposes,  and  managed  by  sixteen  coun- 
oeluding  a  provost,  four  bailies,  and  a  treasurer. 
though  not  the  county  town,  tho  seat  of  the 
sourt,  it  is  adorned  by  a  large  modern  castellated 
^  containing  a  jail,  bridewell,  and  series  of  court- 

A  largo  and  elegant  structure,  containing  a 
•room,  assembly-rooms,  and  other  apartments 
service  of  the  public,  is  in  progress.  Devoted 
ahabitants  of  Paisley  are  to  the  pursuits  of  busi- 
ley  have  long  been  honourably  remarkable  for 
of  inquiry  and  a  desire  for  intellectual  improve- 
Tho  population  of  Paisley,  like  that  of  Glasgow, 
erienced  a  very  rapid  advance :  the  inhabitants 
»vii  and  surrounding  parochial  district,  in  18*21, 
rd  to  47,003 ;  in  1831,  to  57,40G. 
ifhstanding  the  inland  situation  of  Paisley,  its 
tf  eommunication  are  unusually  facile  and  ample. 
hite  Cart,  navigable  from  its  ciilux  into  the 
>  the  Sneddon  in  the  outskirts  of  I\iisley,  pre- 
I  the  advantages  of  a  canal.  A  canal  leaves  the 
a  auburbs  of  Glasgow,  and,  passing  Paisley,  ter- 
at  Johnstone.  Paisley  is  also  benefited  by  the 
r  and  Ayr  Railway,  which  passes  it. 
;enfrew8hire,  also,  is  situated   Greenock^  the 

sem-port  of  the  kingdom  as  far  as  customhouse 

form  a  criterion,  these  having  been,  in  1  u.'>4, 
•8  in  gross  amount.  This  town  occupies  a  strip 
tg  ground  facing  towards  the  Firth  of  Clyde,  ut 
Miee  of  twenty-four  miles  from  Glasgow.  In 
BBtemth  eentury  it  was  a  mere  hamlet ;  now 
handsorae  town  of  about  30,000  inliabitants, 
■g  harlMMirB  and  quays  of  2200  feet  in  extent, 
k  bdovged,  in  1828,  219  vessels  of  31,929 
!•  tonnage,  and  employing  2210  men.    It  is 

239 


now,  moreover,  by  virtue  of  tho  recent  Reform  Actfl, 
a  parliamentary  burgh  of  the  first  class,  returning  one 
member  of  Parliament.  The  principal  branches  of  com- 
merce conducted  in  Greenock  have  reference  to  the 
East  and  West  ludies,  the  United  States,  and  British 
America,  to  which  last  it  yearly  sends  out  great  numbers 
of  emigrants.  Sugar-baking  and  ship-building  are  other 
branclies  of  industry  carried  on  here  to  a  great  extent. 
The  Customhouse,  fronting  to  the  Firtli  of  Clyde,  is  a 
beautiful  Grecian  building,  erected  in  1818,  at  an  ex- 
pense of  £30,000.  The  Tontine  Hotel,  situated  in  one 
of  the  principal  streets,  and  containing  a  large  public 
room,  twelve  sitting-rooms,  and  thirty  bed-rooms,  was 
built,  in  1801,  by  400  subscribers  of  L.25  each;  the 
whole  expense  being  thus  £10,000.  There  is  also  an 
elegant  building,  in  the  character  of  an  exchange, 
which  cost  £7000,  and  contains,  besides  two  spacious 
assembly  rooms,  a  reading-room,  to  which  strangers 
are  admitted  gratuitously  for  six  weeks.  In  Greenock 
there  are  two  native  banks,  besides  branches  of  several 
others. 

James  Watt,  the  improver  of  the  steam-engine,  was 
bom  in  Greenock  in  173G  ;  and  an  institution  for  lite- 
rary and  scientific  purposes,  designed  to  serve  as  a 
monument  to  him,  and  termed  tho  Watt  Institution, 
has  been  recently  completed.  The  situation  of  the 
town,  on  the  shore  of  a  land-locked  basin  of  the  Firtli 
of  Clyde,  with  tho  mountains  of  Argyllshire  and  Dun- 
bartonshire rising  on  the  opposite  side,  is  very  fine. 

Amongst  Scottish  towns,  Aberdeen  ranks  next  to 
Edinburgh  and  Glasgow.  It  is  situated  in  tho  county 
named  from  it,  on  a  level  piece  of  ground  between  tho 
cfHuxes  of  the  rivers  Dee  and  Don,  110  miles  from 
Edinburgh.  Its  external  appearance  produces  a  favour- 
able impression ;  the  principal  streets  are  straight  and 
regular,  and  the  buildings  at  once  substantial  and  ele- 
gant, the  chief  material  used  in  constructing  them  being 
a  grey  granite  found  here  in  great  abundance.  New 
A)>crdeen,  or  what  is  now  generally  called  Aberdeen, 
is  close  to  the  cfHux  of  the  Dec,  the  mouth  of  which 
forms  its  harbour ;  and  Old  Aberdeen,  where  the  an- 
cient Cathctlral  and  King's  College  are  situated,  is  a 
comparatively  small  town,  abuut  a  mile  distant,  on  the 
bank  of  tho  Don.  The  entire  population  is  abuut  G0,000. 
Aberdeen  is  a  city  of  great  antiquity.  It  became  tho 
seat  of  an  university  by  the  erection  of  King's  College 
in  Old  Aberdeen,  in  1495  ;  Maresehal  College,  in  New 
Al>erdeen,  was  added  in  lo93.  By  the  recent  reform 
act«,  it  is  a  royal  burgh  of  the  first  class,  divided  into 
districts  for  municipal  purposes,  and  returning  one 
member  to  Parliament.  Aberdeen  is  at  once  a  seat 
of  manufactures  and  a  sea-port.  There  are  four  great 
houses  engaged  in  the  cott<m  manufacture,  two  in  tho 
woollen  trade,  and  three  in  flax-spinning  and  the  weav^ 
ing of  linen.  Ship-building,  iron-founding,  comb-making, 
rope-making,  and  i)aper-making,  are  also  carried  on  to 
a  great  extent.  The  fisheries  of  the  River  Dee,  and 
the  export  of  granite,  are  sources  of  considerable  in- 
come. Of  the  exports  for  the  year  1 83G,  we  may  notice, 
as  indicating  at  once  the  extent  and  nature  of  the 
agricultural  and  manufacturing  products  of  the  dis- 
trict, the  following  iten\s : — Flax  manufactures,  30,482 
barrel  bulk;  cotton  manufactures,  1G,33G  do.;  woollen 
manufactures,  20,043  do. ;  oats,  (>"9,23I)  quarters ;  me.al, 
13,37o  bolls;  sheep  and  lambs,  1407  ;  pigs,  3034  ;  but- 
ter, 92G1  cwts. ;  egi;s,  8120  barrel  bulk;  pork,  GOOG 
ewts. ;  salmon,  7757  do. ;  granite  stones,  1738  tons.  Tho 
chief  imports  are,  coal,  of  which  there  was  unloaded, 
during  tho  same  year,  371,914  bolls;  lime,  cotton,  flax, 
wool,  wood,  wheat,  flour,  salt,  iron,  whale-blubber,  and 
miscellaneous  goods,  consisting  of  groceries,  &.c.  There 
were,  in  183G,  belon;;ing  to  the  port  of  Aberdeen,  3G0 
vessels,  tonnage  42,080,  employing  3110  men. 

Aberdeen  is  entered  from  the  south  by  Union  Street, 
an  elegant  double  line  of  buildings,  a  mile  in  length  and 
seventy  feet  wide,  in  the  centre  of  which  a  ravine  per- 
vaded by  a  rivulet  is  crossed  by  a  noble  arch  of  one 
hundred  and  thirty-two  feet  in  span,  upon  a  rise  of 
twenty-two.  King  Street,  which  opens  up  the  city  from 


CHAMSEB8V  IBF0B3UTI0H  FOR  THE  FBOFLE. 


''^'^ 


b  hi  MMiw  IbMnrii  loB^ai,  IhweoonuMi,  lOiS  Out 

eaBHtiM7badniMdibat«Mt«aBB0tBaMftiijfBaidd,- 

MltelBDyMtdtheaMDiMwan  kaptmlo"    

iMt  Imal  bj  tin  nmiMTMi  Ml>w«n  w«^ 
btaRi^ttMlvaMnM..  Tbfraafaaltc  / 

bMhinVkMrMKlHtuMtartlmtMoaofib...      it, — 
M  IhcM  (Aon  mantiaMd.    It  U  nourinbl^  .m^  not- 


■  |0  bcalth.    Thii  U  mltnbuutie  to  the  lugn 
poctka  of  IuiiId  ttwnr  eontkio,  wbkb  MMMMM 

WM  Jlffpttui  BUUDrnj*     It 

injh  oTonbuMd  wuh  watar  doriw 

knaln  thiongEtha  obatnation  «4iii]£ 


■oMMUdpartanrdi,  and,  n 

jMT  t^UwhMi  £«Bog  tt  OuB,  in  the  ooutitr  p[ 
WaafaSMth,  aoddBilT  faonl  Into  Iha  nlkj  of  LliB  Ittver 
BroMu,  and  lolallT  aoiliujud  nMny  fauund  oum  of 


lufOMl 

Antrim. 


.. , jdoountrji  uot 

««I]r  tj  bM  mtIj  naliTO  wiiUnh  bat  bj  all  tliuee  Ea^- 
lUi  antbon  lAo  httT*^Tai  anr  MWant  of  ilie  couq- 
tiTi  &«n  tha  dun  of  dtnUoa  Cambtanali,  about  a.  o. 
ifU.  Monim  (15M)  and  Da*k  (IMS^  mention 
dka  ftMMa  in  wUdi  Hw  poor  Iridi  to^  nfnge ;  ^  all 
the  aoMMtT  «f  SpMBo'a  ^airv  Qmm  ia  drawo  (nxo 
tha  Binr  Bandog  whioh  ha  oalabntaa  a*  0-*  "  ple»- 
aaat  Bandoiy  wood  j^«ittwnad,'  aa  it  ia  to  this  di;. 
Btata,  in  bb  Nktanl  Biatonr,  ntantiena  tha  great  ex- 
taal  of  wopd  than  rta^dtiv  i  bat  not  lou  did  i  1  IS  stand, 
te  lAwawr  Crouwdl'a  aimr  eaoN^  ua  bresta  wom 
lUlt^  and  Iba  ae«Bti7  laid  bare.  Ia  moat  cavaa,  tba 
b«ga  1^  an^  taatinonj  to  Ika  tntb  of  tbete  alate- 
BiMti,  aonw  inppljrliv  Urge  qnantitlea  of  Hi;  which 
bumaoilh  ■  ^lauant  aromatio  imell,  and  i.  Il:knie  ao 
Irilliajit  tlutt  It  is  often  a»ed  in  place  uf  cui>;l>^s.  In 
otiier  bog*,  only  osk  is  du;;  up,  and  sometiui  t  r^llow, 
and  yuw  of  a  great  size,  uhich  lakis  s  fiae  i  li.^li  aiid 
ii  lined  fur  cabinet-wurk.  Ttiere  sre  still,  in  a  few 
lavourtid  spolB,  »onie  remainn  of  tlio  Kndent  u^ik  and 
ash  wuodH,  u  at  KillurDej-,  at  GlenjariSe  neiit-  llsntry, 
in  Coniictiian,  io  Bonie  tpota  of  tha  county  nl  Wiek- 
luw,  add  iu  Donegal,  near  tlm  beautiful  but  liiil^'  Luugh 
Van,  wliore  a  few  rtj  doer  are  still  tci  be  nei  !i.  Near 
themouUiof  (he  Suir,  at  the  funt  of  the  Knurl,  it]  clcdau 
AlouiiImuH,  ia  a  wood  of  llie  ^ine  spccieti,  iK'Tiinionty 
called  Sci>ii:]i  lir,  of  such  6ize  and  hardaesi,  that  Mr 
Is'immo  tlie  Fn;<iiicer  pruuounced  it  to  be  equal  to  tbe 
beitt  Meuiel  liiulxT,  and  used  it  in  constractin^  tlie  pier 
at  Duuniurc.  Many  noblemen  and  ccDtleinen  have 
planted  largely  and  with  great  luccees,  Uieir  Hmurighing 
jilButBlious  giving  promise  that  the  country'  in  a  tew 
jeam  will  aguiu  be  fumislicd  willi  trees. 

Irebnd  iKiitsesses  many  lurge  and  remaTl.nMy  line 
rivrrs,  nevtrul  of  Mliich  form  lakes  al  certain  poinls  in 
Ir  course,  anil  fall  into  (be  sea  at  tlio  hen  i  of  epa- 
....  .       .  J 


way  suitable   for   n 


,anrl  II 


Miuc),  which  empty  tliemsclves  into  the'lrJali  Lliui 
nel ;  tlie  Bamnii  and  tile  jVore,  uliich,  fallini;  inio 
■'^Hir,  pilUr  their  uuiled  streams  into  the  Day  uf  Wai 
ford;  tlio  0/<ifihm<crand  the  jtrr,  which  run  Siiniliw] 
their  cmbouehures  being  al  Youghal  and  t'luk  ; 
ji'Aannan,  thn  Gtritbarra,  Iho  Kritc,  llie  A/oy,  llie  .1/. 
and  llie  Liiui,e,  which  How  into  Ihu  Atlantic  Ain< 
inland  Uki-s  or  loughs,  the  Urgesl  is  iMugh  Xr'ngl 
UlsIiU',  Vfliicb  excevJs  iu  size  any  hike  in  tin'  L'ni 
Kuigdoiu,  iu  length  being  twcntjmiles  by  a  l.i  cailth  of 
from  tea  to  twelve :  it*  uraiara  aM  diacliar],'iii  by  (be 


in  dM  ndthboBrinanoiMtala^  lAaM*  A^ 
diieoiljrioAtfM.  TbaflatoNieribaWtato^ 
Uod  hat  been  tbe  vobaSIa  oaaaa  <f  A«a  fMl« 


leaat  MMiallj  rnkMna^  &«■  addki  fcratil  1> 
dnlUftM  on  tbe  8Bi&e«.  na  OTi|i>  «(  *>  bmKS 
of  bog  tbond  BO  ganenJlr  b  tbe  fla  aoaa&Kla^ 
attribaled  lo  tbe  mUr  pMit  up,  aaMamaa**. 
i^  aboTo  Iba  1ml  of  tbe  dfveauibf,  by^MaU 
whidb  fata  a  eontuniDdB  nigt,  thoa^  ■Mi'j 
heUiLrowidlbead|aoflbclKig.  IWaiAridi 
o( Udaad ooataiaa npwarda «r Me  mSBtmtttm 
bog,  comprdMnded  Uwew  WUib>  1IM«  Ml  < 
wajn  Honth  Head  and  Sligo.  •-'A' 


brofceo  line  from  the  north  of  Cork  to  tba  MM 
Peraniiagh,  with  an  intomixtnte  towwda  Iba  <aa 
coast  of  clayslate,  grswacke,  and  ij.nii'ai  Irii  Jatn. ' 
veins  of  eranite  interspersed,  aa  is  the  case  In  thee 
ties  of  Duwn,  Amiagh,  anrl  Wicklow.  Tbe  eaMi 
coast  is  compuecd  of  linieiiti>na  and  old  uuinkwa 
with  red,  purple,  and  grey  cUyslate,  which  naj  be 
tinctly  seen  along  tlie  sliores  of  Cork  and  WaM 
In  tbe  coutli-weatcm  coasts  are  htrge  tineta  J 
fucmation ;  wlille  the  western  are  formed  of  gn 
carbonifeTOUB  limestone,  including  the  lomr  IbiM 


if  mire  Jaff^  fl 


Galway,  Mayo,  and  Sligo,  ti 
rock,  yellow  sandstone,  and  cc  „ 
em  diviuon,  consisting  of  the  countiee  of  DoBV*' 
Derry,  is  chiefly  niiea-state,  with  an  iBtemfadHi 
the  iiiirihem  part  of  Done)^  of  gnuiita,  qiACta  i 
and  primary  limestone ;  uh  lie  the  county  M  Anlii 
composed  of  tabular  trap.  The  eoDDtin  in  wUA 
it  worked  are  Carlow,  Kilkenny,  Donegal,  jUh« 
T^ne,  aod  part  of  Tipperar7.  Inland  b  lit 
minerals,  and  cuulains  golti,  ailTer,  tbongh  net  In  1 
teins,  as  well  as  copper,  lead,  coal,  and  eolpber. 
quarries  also  prodacs  a  variety  of  beantiral  tnaiHi 
the  black  marble  of  Kilkenny,  the  SMM^of  tU 
and  the  majiy-coloured  of  Fen 
of  Killaloo  and  of  Valeotia,  ii 
afford  large-aized  excellent  alatce,  n 


yelyic 


Nor  si 


Tord,  be  left  i  ic 
tlie  ('articular  vein  which  «  w 
of  liullock,  has  been  taimd  to ' 

sea  better  than  any  other  Ion ,.-^ 

uvely  tewmed  for  the  buildiag  «t  Iba  bww MM 
thoesligblhou '•■-'■ —  ^^ — " — ■-»— -i-- 


snny,  the  n««a  m  Gu 

Fermanagh,    Tbe  qaai 

ia,  in  ibe  eonaty  of  K> 

ce,  na«  eamiai  A 

0  InwrbanrtiUa  la 

1  wUcb  Ik  Ufa  ■ 
ioned.   OttUiam 

sdallbaaeaiM 
iMtaiBdlbaMMlfi 
itmamtfimthm 


CHAMBERS'S 

NFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 

CONDUCTED  BY  WILLIAU  AND  ROBERT  cnAMBBBS,  EDITORS  OF  OIAlIDEIta'S 
EDINBDROH  JOURXAL,  EDUCATIONAL  CODRSE,  Ac. 


New  and  Iufroted  Series. 


Price  1  jd. 


DESCRIPTION    OF   IRELAND. 


at  diflerent  pi 

*•  Irak  Sm.  and  Konk  ChBniiel,  thu  Atlanlic 
Af  dM  bomuhTy  on  the  othec  laden.  Or  a  tiiure 
|Ml  fbriB  than  Graat  Briuin,  it  is  ncvcrtlii'ltiis 
■itad  bj  k  conndenble  number  oT  defp  bnjn  and 
^m,  wlueb  giTB  it  an  outline  upon  the  whulc  irrc- 
K  Bawdca  cnjojiog  lliia  advuitnge  for  iulenial 
ptfao,  it  majr  be  eonaidcred  as  more  favoumbl]' 
mi  ftr  fonign  commerce  than  eiOier  Knglaiid  or 
hori.  It  UrabetwecD  5\-  iff  and  sy  2.1'  nurth 
^  ud  S'  19'  and  10*  2S'  of  »«it  longiLude  rrom 
■«U  ;  bQt  the  greatMt  IcDRth,  from  Draw  llud 
•  Hmiilj  ef  Cork,  to  Kiir  Head  in  Che  county  uf 
ta,  ia  SH  miles,  and  the  longe&t  trnisvcrso  line, 
■^  RmilKr  poinla  in  the  eountirs  of  Klayo  and 
i^  ]83  miles.  The  entire  anat  appearf,  from  the 
I  aad  beat  neiMimnent,  to  include  SI,)!?-!  miu.iiv 
I,  V  20,379,608  sens. 

riM4  m  divided  into  four  provincca,  namirly,  Lei;(- 
,  •■  tb«  «Mti  Hintam,  on  the  aoutli;  Ulster, 
MMVth;  aad  ComuLMRT,  on  the  west:  theee  art' 
Mii4  Bto  S3  eoUDties,  352  baroni^  and  234f) 
km,   Flor  ap  aeaoont  of  the  ecclwUelical  divitiona 

ArB  falf^i  *a  nftr  to  the  Constitction  u<d  i 

»l 


.  In  Buperftelal  character,  Ireland  may  be  nlled  a 
billy  or  mounlainouB  conatry,  aince  there  are  fewapola 
where  the  view  is  not  terminated  by  lofty  hilla  or  moun- 
tain scenery.  Genemlly  spcaliing,  the  tnountaina  stand 
in  groups,  and  are  more  or  leaa  detached  from  eaeb 
other ;  hut  in  some  dialricte  tlicy  form  ridges  o[  ffteat 
extent.  The  Afourne  range,  in  the  county  uf  Uuwii, 
lien  weet  and  eaat,  ending  witli  SlUi-e  Ilonard,  whicli 
rises  Sfl09  feet  above  tiie  level  of  the  cea,  and  ia 
the  higheet  of  the  northern  tnountaina.  Tile  Slierc 
llhom  mounlain*,  placed  in  nearly  the  centre  of  tho 
ialnnd,  run  north  and  south,  intcracctinf;  the  King  and 
Queen's  Counties:  in  ibis  range,  sometimes  callol  the 
Atd na  Erin,iir  Heights  of  Irelaiid,  tlio  rivers  Norc, 
Barrovr,  and  Suir,  commonly  railed  by  the  country 
people  the  Three  Sisters, take  (heir  rise.  InConnaught 
there  is  a  liue  rniige,  of  which  the  Twclce  Pins  form  a 
part ;  and  in  KluiwteT,  a  ridge  of  varied  height  I'Xtenda 
from  Dun^rvon,  in  the  county  of  WalcrfoTiI.  aerosa  die 

ohMerved,  that  wherever  the  Irish  Icnnj'vre  ia  applied 
to  a  mountain,  it  cxpreasea  that  that  mountain  forms 
part  of  a  rangp.  Tim  higheat  mountain  in  Ireland  ia 
Varran  THal,aX  Killamey,  being  3410  feet  almve  the 
level  of  the  sea.  AlaaHl  Nejihin  and  Croagh  I'alritk, 
two  conspicuous  mounlaina  in  Mayo,  are  rcapeclivcly 
2<>31>  and  2499  feet  high.  Some,  however,  of  the 
counties,  though  poaaemiog  a  very  varied  surface,  can 
only  boa!<C  uf  hills,  as  Armagh,  tlonaglion,  Cnvnn,  uiid 
Louth,  while  olhcra  are  in  general  very  level :  Mealh, 
Kildarc,  Lonjtford,  and  (ialKay,  arc  of  the  latter  cha- 
— "■ —  •  ■'■■itinguiKhiiig  peculiarity  of  tlie  country, 
hilly  or  more  ' — '  -■-■'—-■    -- 


whether  ii: 


e  level  d 


rally  green  ap|warance,  a  circunuttajiec  arising  from 


rtile 


^   ..  .  appellatiiina  uf  the 
'  Emerald  lale"  and  **  Green  Ule  of  the  Ocean" — 
lomea  suiir  by  ila  jHicta,  and  i-epenled  with  alTectiun 
>y  its  nntivi-H  in  all  i|uarlers  uf  the  world. 
In  the  lower  andlera  reclaimed  iHirliona  of  the  eoun- 


whieb  diffignre  Ihebeaui 
servicable  in  wipplying 
tetilfl.   The  chief  of  these 


f  of  ihe 
fuel  1 


JOgB     0 


the 


iiihabi- 


of  KilOare, 


the  I).>g' of  Allen, 
which  sirctclK'H  in  a  vaat  plain,  * 

of  the  island,  or  over  a  Uirge  jHii'ti 
low,  and  the  King  and  Ijueeu's 
Log,  the  beautiful  Itiver  Uoyne  Ukes  its  rise,  flowing 
thence  norlh-eaatward  to  the  wa  at  Droglieda,  on  the 
borders  of  the  county  of  Loutli :  much  of  this  bog 
baa  been  drained  and  brouglit  into  tillage,  and  there  is 
good  rratoii  to  tliink  that  in  time  Ihe  whole  of  ii  will 
be  reclaimed.  Along  the  banks  of  the  Hiv.T  Inny, 
which,  rising  in  Lough  Iron,  in  the  county  of  West- 
meath,  croaaea  Longford  and  fulls  ititu  the  Shannon, 
are  large  tracts  of  deep  wet  bog,  only  exceeded  in 
dreariness  by  that  which  for  mites  skirts  the  Shannon, 


CILUIDEKS'S  INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


in  its  courao  tlirou;;h  Longfonl,  Roscommon,  and  the 
King's  Ciiuiity.  All  tJiCbe In)^ mi^lit be  vusUy  reclaimed, 
could  tlity  hi:  drninrd  ;  but  that  cannot  Lo  accomplished, 
iiH  the  Inny  and  the  Shannon  are  kept  up  to  their  pre- 
Kont  level  ]»y  the  numerous  cel-wcira  which  at  present 
interrupt  their  courbc.  There  are  also  many  tracts  of 
bo*;  in  the  western  counties,  and  many  det<iched  bogs 
botii  in  Ulster  and  Muusster ;  but  none  of  »uch  great  size 
us  tliose  n1)ovc  mentiuni-d.  It  is  remarkable,  that  not- 
withstanding the  quantity  of  water  contained  in  these 
extensive  bogs,  there  arisi^s  from  them  no  iniasma  in- 
jurious to  health.  This  is  attributable  to  the  large 
pitrtion  of  tannin  they  contain,  which  )M>ssesses  so  strong 
an  antiseptic  quality,  that  bodii^  plunged  into  a  deep 
bog  remain  uudecayed,  the  Hvah  becoming  like  that  of 
an  I^gyptian  mummy.  It  sometimes  happens  that  a 
bojr,  uvrrcharged  with  water  during  a  i*ainy  seiison, 
bn^aks  through  the  obstruction  which  the  drained  and 
more  solid  ]>art  affords,  and,  rusliing  forward,  overflows 
large  p<iitionH  of  good  land.  This  occurred  in  the 
year  lu'21,  when  the  Bog  of  Clara,  in  the  county  of 
WfMtnieath,  suddenly  burst  into  the  valley  of  the  River 
Ilrusna,  and  totally  destroyed  many  hundred  aci'es  of 
excellent  land :  a  similar  occurrence  took  place,  to  a 
large  extent,  a  very  few  years  since,  in  the  county  of 
Antrim. 

li*eland  is  described  as  a  thickly  wooded  country,  not 
«>uly  by  her  early  native  WTiters,  but  by  all  those  Eng- 
lish authors  who  liave  given  any  account  of  the  coun- 
try, from  the  da^-a  of  Giraldus  Cambrensis,  about  a.  d. 
llito.  Morrisiin  (150())  and  Davis  (10U5),  mention 
the  forests  in  which  the  poor  Irish  took  refuge ;  and  all 
the  hceniTy  of  S])enser's  Fairy  Queen  is  dniwn  from 
the  River  liandon,  which  he  celebrates  as  tlie  '^  plua- 
s'tnt  Bandon,  wood  y-crowned,"  as  it  is  to  this  day. 
Roate,  in  his  Natural  History,  mentions  the  gi'eat  ex- 
tent of  wood  then  standing  ;  but  not  lung  did  it  so  stand, 
for  wherever  Cn^niweirs  anny  came,  the  forestb  were 
felled,  and  the  country  laid  bare.  In  most  cabc.s,  the 
iKign  give  aniple  testimony  to  the  truth  of  the^e  stat<*- 
nKnt>,  M»ine  suj>plying  lar-^e  <in:ii.iitic!3  of  fir,  \Niiich 
linn. s  with  a  plea«<int  aromatic  suk-II,  niul  a  iiauio  so 
bni.iant  tli^t  it  is  vUi.'U  u.-vd  in  i»kuv  uf  I'anJIes.  In 
«.l:i»  T  Im';:-:,  iinly  oak  is  d\\<^  U]>,  :.iiJ  huuirtinKs  t-uKow, 
M.tl  ^«  ^\  ot'  a  i:rt'ai  i-\/x\  which  lalujs  a  line  juili^nh  and 
is  i;>-«il  liir  cabiiu't-wurl;.  Tluiv  are  hlill,  in  a  li-w 
iiivi,i;ri.il  .«.j.uT«»,  b«inii.'  r«!n:i::is  lit"  tht'  ancient  oak  and 
a-li  w»H.il»j,  li^  at  Kil!arnc-_v,  at  (11«  n^jarifie  near  Hantry, 
in  L'fiini.iuara,  ui  hoi;u'  ^j-nts  ot  tl:i'  n>unty  of  Wick- 
l'»w,  ai.il  in  lKinf:;al,  mar  ilu-  lic-autlful  hut  iitlli-  I.ou;;li 
\  an,  wlii'iv  a  i>v>  v\  -i  ih  <  r  an'  ^tili  tn  bo  mi  m.  Noar 
iIm  iii'iiiiii  111  tin;  >.iiir,  at  iln*  t'not  oi"  the  Knocknii'Icdan 
-^l"l.Ilt.tlI;^•,  i>;  a  w<<nl  tf  ii.o  pinf  nn'cii's,  ooininonlv 
i-ali'ii  .-^f'. •.!.■! I  i'.i-,  ol  s-nrh  .vi/.f  and  hardni'S>,  that  Mr 
NiiiniiM  i\.f  1  ii::.:ii  I  r  ]'rnin>uiK'i  d  it  to  be  i  qual  to  the 
!■•  -nI  ,Mi  li.i  .  I.;  ..  I-,  an-i  n><i  d  it  in  eon^trneting  tiie  jiier 
..t  ]  )i.i.ii.(i;*i-.  .\i..:!y  i:<>|i!i  men  and  j;«ntlenn'n  have 
pi..!.:*  i  lar;;i  lya.i'i  with  L:ri  at  ^U(•^ess, their  tlourisiiing 
j  laiitatii.ns  ^i\iii:i  pi'onii'-i'  that  the  country  in  a  few 
\i    1  ■-  Will  a;:.iin  l-r  tiirni-l:« d  wiih  irei  ^. 

l;<  i.ii.d  I  (I— (■  MS  nianv  iar:;e  and  ronjarkaMv  line 

r! .  1  i>,  .-I  vi  rai  i-l  which  1-  nn  lake-*  at  certain  pi'int>  in 

:'  I  ii  I'l'iii  >!■,  ani  la.l  inl<»  the  sea  at   the  head   «il   spa- 

e  ■■  ;-  i.i\s    iviiv  wav  si'.italh"    U^v   iia\  i-'ation.     The 

I  :  ..■    I  .i!  ii\i  I  -  .ii»'  til"'  i'n'iic  .nnl  lli«'  /I'turi,  which  lh»w 

I    :.•!.■■  N'liii.riii  i  k-ian;  ihi'  /.''<//.■<*',  t  hi*  l.tJf'ty^uvA  tli«.« 

■  /.   '.,  V  hii'h   I  nipty  ihein*'ih«>  into  the   Irish  Chan- 

■  .  :  V'U.'  /.''.' //fc  .Li.it  tin-  A'"/f',  which,  I'.illinij  into  the 

"  ■    .  I  ■  i.r  ii-<ir  nnititl  stn 'inis  inl<»  the  \\,\\  of  W'ati-r- 

'••■  :  ;  t!..'  /i'.'./iiiivi.'rraiid  tin;  A#f'.  which  run  sunt  li  ward, 

1-      :■  ■  li.li-ui'l.iiii  H  h«  ii;:^  at    ^  i'ii::hal  aihl  Cork:    tlie 

>  ■■  '.'     i,the^i'ff ,  ■'  ly.'t,  till,  y  ;/i-,  liie-l/tiv,  the  Miihi^ 

"•  ■    ■■     /■/.'.  w  ;,ie!i  :.■^'  ;iil!»  tii«'  Atlantn;.      Anu-n"? 

I  ■     ■i  "I'''  ■  'X    !-ii_'l,;i,  till-  i.,ri;t  .-'t  !•«  /.'iiir't  A''i;/.7i  in 

i   .  :•  J-.  ^■■  (i.rli   I '.111  I-,  m  M  "■  any  laki-  in   the   I'jiited 

•\.    .,■.-.  I.I.  ii-.  !  I  ^  !(  Ii  iii^  »i\i  hly  niijjs  by  a  brrailth  of 

.  I  'i  n   I'l  t«<..\f  :  its  waliTrt  are  discharged  by  the 


GKOIXXilCAL  STRUCTLIIE* — MINERALOGY. 

Ireland  stretches  westward  into  the  Atlai 
is  indented,  as  has  been  stated,  by  deep  b; 
tected  by  jutting  promontories,  which  have 
withstood  tho  force  of  the  boiaterons  ocean 
they  are  exposed.  The  rook  which  forma 
or  bottom  of  these  bays,  is  generally  compost 
secondary  or  carboniferous  limestone,  while 
jectiug  promontories  to  the  north  and  soutl 
are  comi)osed,  for  tho  most  part,  of  priiuary 
sition  rocks,  and  particularly  of  granite,  lu 
quartz  rock,  grawacke,  and  old  red  sandst 
glomerate.  In  Ireland,  the  coast  is  mostly  a 
ous,  and  the  interior  fhit.  Thus,  wo  find  the  n 
of  Antrim  on  the  east ;  of  Derry  and  Donegi 
north-west  coasts ;  those  of  Sligo  and  Kerry 
south-west.  The  slate  districts  of  Cork  and  V 
form  the  south  and  soutli-east,  while  the  mou 
Wicklow,  and  those  still  higher  ones  of  L 
Down,  are  situated  on  tho  eastern  coast.  Thi 
of  the  island  is,  generally  speaking,  compost 
or  gently  swelling  grounds,  covered  with  rich  i 
ful  soil.  This  peculiar  conformation  of  th( 
has  been  the  origin  of  the  great  number  of  ri 
which  the  Irisli  coast  abounds.  They  have  thei 
in  the  neii^hbouring  mountains,  whence  t 
directly  to  the  sea.  The  flatness  of  the  iuterii 
land  has  ber'n  the  probable  cause  of  tlioso  v 
nmlations  of  alluvial  matter  called  escars.  ' 
sibiy  originated  at  a  period  when  the  counti 
least  partially  submerged,  from  eddies  forme 
dulations  on  the  surface.  The  origin  of  the  gr 
of  bog  found  so  generally  in  tho  flat  countr 
attributed  to  tho  water  pent  up,  as  we  even 
it,  above  the  level  of  the  dry  country,  by  gra 
which  form  a  continuous  ridge,  though  nut 
height,  round  the  edge  of  the  bog.  The  centn 
of  Ireland  contains  upwards  of  one  million  oi 
bog,  comprehended  between  Wicklow  Head 
way,  llouth  Head  and  Sligo. 

A  va^t  tract  of  limestone  extends  in  an  a1 

broken  line  from  the  north   of  Cork  tu  tlie 

Ferniana;;h,  with  nn  intern kixtu in:  towards  th 

ci»a>l  o(  clayslate,  grawacke,  and  grawacke-s 

veins  i>f'  granite  interspei*s<>d,  as  is  the  ea&>e  in 

ties  of  Duwii,  Arniatjh,  and  Wicklow.     The 

coast  is  composed  of  limestone  and  old  cong 

with  red,  purple,  and  givy  clayslate,  which  m; 

tinctlv  seen  aion^  the  fchoivs  of  fork  and  N\ 

In  the  soutli-western  ci»asls  are  larjrc  tract 

fonnation  ;  while  the  western  are  fornnid  ol 

carboniferous  liniest<»ne,  including  the  lu>*er  1 

calp  or  black  thale  series,  and  the  npi)er  1 

w  ith  a  ti*act  of  the  coal  formation.     There  a 

(.ialway,  Mayo,  and  Sligo,  tracts  of  mica-slat 

roek,  vi'llow  .sandstone,  and  conglumex-ate.     T 

eni  di\i>i(Ui,  con«'isting  of  the  oountiL's  of  Doi 

I)«rry,  is  ehielly  mica-slate,  with  an  intenni 

the  northern  part  of  I)one;nd»  of  granite,  qui 

an«l  primary  limestom' ;  while  the  county  of  . 

■  coniposeil  of  tabular  trap.     The  counties  in  « 

x-i  worked  are  Carlow,  Kilkenny,    I>i»negul, 

Tyrone,   and   part  iif  Tipper:»ry.     Ireland  i 

niinemls,  and  contains  g(^ld,  silver,  though  no 

veins  as  wt.-ll  as  C(»pper,  lead,  eo:i],  and  sulpli 

ijuarries  also  produce  a  variety  of  lieautiful  m 

'  the  black  marble  of  Kilkenny,  the  green  o) 

I  and  the  many-coloured  of  Fermanagh.     Tbi 

!  of  Killaloe  and  «if  Valentia,  in  the  county  < 

I  alford  large-sized  excellent  slates,  now  oomii 

j  siveiy  into  use.     Nor  shtmld  the  hiexhaUhtib 

:  of  extrenuly  tine  building-stone  which  the  h 

'.  of  Dublin  aMord,  be  left  nnmenlioned.    t»f  llii 

tin*  ] •articular  vein  which  is  worked  at  the  CuJ 

i  oi  1  in  Hock,  has  been  found  to  withstand  the  w, 

sxa  better  than  any  (ither  kind  of  stuue,  and 

sively  reserved  for  the  building  of  the  lover 

those  lighthouses  w hicli  are  cx|>oaed  to  viulcni 


bil,T  Ihuv  wcETo  tonr  Urgn^sttil  wlndoant  is 

]pr  iinmrdjaMy  btlow  tita  roof,  which  it  hl|ti  d 

Due-«lupnd,  Tb»r«  MO,  howBTi'v,  *  ' 

:i  wliirii  it  iIOM  not  aiijiwir  t1iu> 

liniliiwa  round  lh«  Mii.    IT  'i 

iMOtU'y,  ft  prooC  wu  jtlvnii   > 

^iwiir  (j  Malion,  which,  in  «i)iu 


JOBjii  plac«J  DMT  cborehiB.    1'hi>y  rtrs  '" 
niu  33  U>  120  (get ;  tha  iuionial  diuiixt-r  frum 'l 
3  li!  fbet,  snd  the  outer  elreitmrvrnnvii  tiviu  *<i  in 
kL     Their  t»p«TiD|[  tkhfr-  Ibruui  uuii  i<r  Uwlr  u 
owkid  ehnToeieriiitieJi. 

_  Auoiimt  vMipoiii  ind  saldon  oruvnaita  ««  ft 
iniotu  tinui  duK  iiii  in  kU  p*'*'  "'  IrrluiH,  m  brani 
woriih  oxaelly  iikn  Okih  iliiMiovvrwl  ni  Ctrtlmgoiuidai 
huABuletMuvUiiin.  MuUiludm,ti1iHi,nl'Hpiuivh«itili»r 
Jl  aiMis  mwla  nf  iho  mido  luixcJ  lutUI,  aiid  duHdmI 
hkf  *tl  DrooiM  lingR,  hnve  ftviu  tlni«  M  Uiu*  boMi  i^ 
DTored,  tlia  iug  uI  which  had  Ifiig  been  a  dnldoil 
um  hi  Mitiqiurla,  whui  ■  ncrat  crmii  unvupnfliei" 
liN*  light  upon  Lhe  oubjoit,  und  conlinnpd  tils  r 
FOture  vt  Sit  WilliMn  tt«lluiin  an  lu  thoir  hiiriii)|  Ix 
nrraiil  uiom)]'.  A  '«u'i»I j  uF  unldeo  uiielw  Iui?«  bi 
imnvavil  [n  inui*  nula  of  tn*  eountrj',  muih  M  w 
«di^  thin  \>hi£inutjian  ip 
■,  or  lujjo  Iwlaled  cqUub  t'ov  tha  fii<eh  ;  anuhd 
■M,  ilnBi,  iilfcca  a(  sold,  bcll-iihi{ivd,  bin  •■ ' 
iid  (MMicd  tt^t^lbcr,  tbs  DM  of  which  hna  D>ii  h 
■m-ic  mit ;  mid  amTtP  Hnc*  Crf  Ibr  intiie  i^apo  M 


CHAMBERS'S  INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


the  middle  cluacii,bpJDg  of  Saxon  dceecat,»rc  notmudi 
dlffeieut  trom  tUe  «iuiie  clouea  in  (iKal  DrilniD  ;  bat, 
in  M  tar  ks  any  dllf^reuca  eKiaU,  it  may  be  »id  to  eon- 
aUt  in  ■  tiniHurc  of  tlie  Celtic,  or  genuine  Irisb  clmneter, 
■B  jait  deaoribed.  Thia  ailiniKtuiv  in  perhnpa  that  wliirh 
givee  the  edae&led  Iriili  so  mncli  artistic  tiJciit,  whether 
lo  be  exltibited  in  literature  or  the  ar1«,  *thil«  tame  of 
the.  more  pecuEiarljr  English  aharaotenotica  are  lew 
eoDBpicdous. 

Limiting  the  conwdention  u(  the  wirial  state  oF  Irs' 
land  lo  wliat  is  peculuir  to  it,  we  may  first  ailrert  to  a 
onDspienouH  practiL-e  of  the  landowuprfr'-dAse/tfe^ijnn. 
Hy  abseoteeB  are  nut  meant  thuw  noblemen,  who,  being 
Br^glishmen,  lian  aUri  larH  ppnEmsiouii  lu  Ihia  couii- 
iry,  and  whuae  entatoii  (irltn  some  glaring  exceptions) 
■re  usually  well  anil  jutti;  lUuiagEd :  but  thoae  sons 
of  Erin  who  prefer  li»ing  in  any  other  country  lo  re- 
maining in  their  own,  alitiough  it  is  at  homo  only  that 
a  man  receives  hts  ju»t  need  of  respect  This  nyatem 
of  ahwuteeiun  haa  led  to  that  of  middlemm,  who  hold 
iMge  tracts  of  land  from  the  hod  landlord,  and  rvlet 
thia  land  kt  a  mnuh  increased  rent  to  lanueni ;  these, 
^^in,  wl  lo  a  third  set  of  ander-tuoaala  at  rwtli-reDtii ; 

farm*  among  their  sons,  thus  oroaling  a  race  of  farm- 
lug  (Mor,  who  are  unable  lo  till  tlicir  holdings  properly, 
aiid  miwrably  incrcaaing  a  population  raised  bat  a  srep 
above  the  pauper.    There  u  perlisps  no  more  thriting 

SorwD  than  tlie/artsinp-JonilAD/ifer,  who,  eoalented  with 
is  ODudition,  risM  with  his  labourers,  holds  his  own 
Eloueh,  and  lupennteads  the  management  of  Ilia  furm ; 
ut  ihe  state  of  the  tottitr  a  ofl^  far  from  being  a 
happy  one.  The  ilisemofbrl  of  this  elasa  may  b«  aid 
to  ar>«e  chieHy  from  three  causes — low  wBge<i,  high 
■\  of  all,  from  Ibe  want  of  steady  etupli 


The 


)   gTBll 


Bnbdivi 


of  land 


will   t 


aliom,  in  treating  of  the  conditiou  of  the  pessaulry 

iIm  pMiincM,  ia  another  canae  of  the  gennsl  poverty 

and  want  of  Domfbn  of  the  rotlier.    Under  the  exciie- 

mont  of  war  prices  and  the  free  trade  in  corn  with 
Great  Britain,  agrienllure  ailvaneed  rapidly,  and,  cou- 
eequently,  so  did  the  demand  for  labour ;  tnud  rose  in 
value,  le««ees  were  tempted  lo  mlise  profit-rents  by 
subletting  their  lamiB ;  and  tlius  a  class  of  middlemon 
was  created,  by  whom  the  land  was  let  in  still  amaUor 
diviaione,  and  at  extreme  rents.  This  system  was  an 
abaolute  bar  to  the  enconragemeLit  which  might  have 
been  given  to  the  Knantry  by  the  proprietors  of  estates. 
Theoocupying  landlord  pays  a  higher  rent  lo  the  middle- 
".n  than  does  llie  middleman  to  the  proprietar,  bo- 


niddlen 


B  he 


n  of  the 
It  feelings — he  looks 
ntonary  interest  which 


williout  any  refc 

tenant :  but  the  landlord  has  < 

furward,  and  considers  the  r 

be  liiw  III  keeping  hb  tenant  in  prosperity,  and  his  land 

in  a  alat*  lo  yield  a  remunerating  profit. 

The  habila  of  luting  crudit  frequently  at  an  advaues 
of  SO  per  cent.,  of  resorting  to  pawnbroken,  and  of 
forming  early  marriagei,  contribute  to  the  imnoverish- 
mont  of  thelabonring  classes  in  Iri^Iand.  The  poorer 
the  individualn  are,  the  more  eager  are  tliey  for  wed- 
lock ;  even  the  very  beggars  intermarry.  II  must, 
hooeter,  be  admitted  as  some  eicu^o,  lliat  early  mn:^ 
rbf-e  is  much  encouraged  by  the  It^mish  pricathood; 
and  in  lairueas  it  must  be  added,  that  this  practice 
contributea  exueedingty  to  the  moralily  »f  the  tower 
dasses.  The  Bupeiatilioos  renrd  lu  teakti  and  funo- 
rals,  Hhich  has  been  liandod  down  from  ancient  limes, 
ia  ohcn  a  deplorable  drain  on  the  slender  rewmreCB  of 
the  peaaant. 

tn  oonaidering  the  character  uf  the  lri>h  jivaiuuilry 
in  gsnenJ,  it  is  nf  reablng  to  see  aome  noble  Inlla  stand- 
infoutlntullreliefagainatthedarkershadcs.  The  Irish 
|M^  are  of  aekiuwledged  bravery,  proverbial  hospi- 
tality, affeetiouatv  to  their  paiTnli  and  aged  relative*, 
diaritabla  to  ilic  mcndioanc,  and  rvineing  in  many  pUcea, 
oven  under  extmne  diiltw,  a  deooney  of  feeling,  which 
raider*  Uiem  avnae  to  soUcltiDg  olaemocynary  aasial- 


Thc  « 


2U 


irreproachable  in  their  eondtiet ;  Hrt  It  1 
added,  thai,  notwithstanding  the  crima»n4« 
ncss  which  oppress  the  eouutry,  tlw  poor  IrM 
from  some  species  of  vice  which  arc  but  Im  ' 
In  other  countries.  Daring  the  hay  and  earn 
of  Knglnnd  and  Scotland,  the  nrtiecs  of  it* 
bourers  are  very  important.  They  are  genolal 
well-eooducted,  and  inoffensive;  labnaring  b 
living  hard,  tliat  they  may  bring  their  camia 
to  pay  the  rent  of  their  littis  fKtm  or  dadl 
apatptta,  or  harvest-man,  earrie*  hone  ben 
eigbl  or  ten  pouuds-,  lo  do  which,  lie  is  conloit 
away,  almost  to  starve  himself.  There  u  nan 
fore,  to  hope,  that  under  a  better  state  of  th 
national  chancier  would  rise  to  a  standard  mm 
than  it  haa  yet  attained ;  and  improvement  ma 
ably  be  expected  from  Ihe  hap^  change  wrung 
years  by  Ihe  temperance  eoctetiei,  and  ecps 
the  Roman  Catliolie  clergyman,  the  Rev.  T. 
of  which  Bvidence  was  given  in  the  Ballinasld 
1810,  where,  instead  of  twelve  honheads,  ths 
usually  dispoeed  of,  it  is  believed  mat  there  % 
eight  gallons  of  whisky  consumed. 

The  last,  but  by  no  means  most  miaeraU 
Irehmd,  is  that  of  the  coiumon  vagrant.  • 
some  are  beggars  by  profession ;  tome  ore  ohU 
loss  of  employment,  to  became  what  an-  called 
and  olhvn  are  mendicaDta  for  a  time  only, 
their  hasbands  are  reaping  the  harteeti  in 
at  whioh  lime  it  is  customary  to  loek  up  the  h 
the  wife  and  ohildren  ttelk  At  teorid  nnlil  tt 
ler  returns  with  his  little  hoard  of  hard-eams 
It  may  be  asserted,  thai  in  every  district  o( 
excepting  some  peculiarly  eircumslaitced  pa 
Ulster,  there  isa  feeling  of  respMt  towards  nm 
which  tenils  to  support  and  pApetnate  it. 
tenants  of  the  cabins  receive  the  wandereia, 
■ingle  or  in  gmupa;  and  carrying,  M  Ihrte 
bedding  along  with  them,  a  warm  earner  i> 
thoin,  even  in  the  only  room  po»ies»ed.  " 
humblest  sort,"  say  they,  "  tliat  are  rxiatly  got 
The  vagrants  that  frequent  fain,  market*, 
holy  wells,  and  other  places  of  religious  or  pi" 
resort,  are  better  off  than  Ui«  other  poor.  A 
able  evidence  declared  to  the  eommiseioDoi 
I'uor-Law  Inquiry  in  the  county  of  Mealh, 
beggars  at  fairs  were  "  as  jolly  a  set  as  ever  I 
bislife ;"  and  in  uiore  places  than  one,  it  was 
the  oommissiouers  tliat  the  beggars  were  bettc 
the  tradesmen  or  labourers. 

Hitherto,  the  usual  methods  of  supporting  tl 
poor  have  been  congregational  collection^ 
tions,  very  extensive  private  charity,  and  of  I 
the  application  of  the  resonrcra  of  the  Hen£i 
ciatiou ;  bat  the  ineflicieney  of  these  mmna  1 
mately  led  la  the  establleluneot  of  a  /'««r-Z«i 
neral  object  of  which  is  to  relieve  the  dcslitMJ 
countr)-.  L'nder  this  system,  Bseistance  ia  ye 
be  afforded  to  persons  only  in  the  workboinB 

throughout  Ireland.  II  ia  calculated  that  • 
workliouses,  pUccd  in  the  centre  of  so  toKB 
and  capable  o(  containing  each  from  foot  to  e 
dred  personfl,  will  be  nilficient  to  aeetmunodat 
arc  likely  to  apply  for  admiision.  For  th«  I 
gulalion  of  the  lystem,  it  waa  enacted,  Ihnla 
guardians  should  be  aunoally  elected  in  wib 
number  according  as  the  cummisaianara  aba 
(he  same  guarilians  being  eligible  for  tb*  •> 
year.  1 1  api)eani  Ihat,  so  far  as  tho  poor-taw 
as  ytl  brought  into  operation,  it  Is  ImperCMt 
not  relieved  the  distnclB  in  whicli  it  Ina  baa 
into  effect  from  the  annoyance  of  nModldty,  I 
as  iliere  is  no  Fompul»ory  law  for  rotainlns 
in  the  poorhonses  ;  they  tlierefora  Itava  thM 

the  streets.  Until  such  enaetmeU  be  |  IWI  It, 
it  wolUd  seem,  will  bv  subject  lo  •  aani*  ta 
■npport  of  the  pour-law  ayauit,  whlb  attt^  ■ 


CHAMBERS'S  INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


JCcchVKtalical  Ant\qnitiat Under  this  head   rank 

tlioHO  builtltng:^  wliich  may  be  considered  as  the  most 
iuicient,  after  tlic  Pa^n  remains,  and  which  bear  a 
peo'.iiiar  character,  dirterin^  from  that  of  any  extant 
elsewhere.  Of  these  but  few  are  n(»w  in  exibtencc.  The 
Ht()ne-nM)fed  church  of  St  Duulnijiri*,  near  DubUn,  be- 
\\m'*^  to  the  earliest  date ;  its  plan  and  style  arc  equally 
nneoininon.  The  latter  seems  to  have  been  a  rude  ap- 
proach to  the  oldest  Norman ;  it  is  low,  and  of  great 
strvni^tli;  the  cliurch,  divi<I('d  by  a  low-browed  arch, 
!-«>t'm.s  t(t  have  had  a  small  clioir  and  a  somewhat  larger 
nuvi».  Thi*ro  arc  also,  strangely  disposed,  at  various 
li(>ii;ht<,  small  chambers,  apparently  for  the  residence 
of  tho  clergy.  A  part  of  the  building  is  used  as  tlie 
parish  church  ;  and  the  old  tower  has  borne  the  addi- 
tion of  a  belfrv,  so  excellent  was  the  mason  work.  The 
beautiful  and  curinus  ruin  at  Cashel,  called  Cormack  » 
Chapel,  is  Norman  in  character,  and  was  probably  the 
cntlu-dral  of  that  diocese  })revious  to  the  English  inva- 
sion. It  Is  considrn.d  to  have  been  built  in  the  tenth 
orntiiry  by  Corniac,  who  was  both  king  and  archbishop. 
Ili^  died  about  a. i>.  fT'O.  Jtisto  be  observed,  that  both 
h»*ro  and  at  St  l)oulai»h's,  are  crypts  placed  over  the 
<'liiirche<; — a  iwculiarity  known  in  Ireland  only;  the 
erypts  in  all  other  countries  beuig  underneath.  In 
this  verv  marked  Irish-Xorman  style,  thentexibt  a  few 
ri'inaiiis  at  .\<;h:idoe  near  Killarney,  at  Clouathen  in 
th'.*  county  of  Wexford,  and  near  Itannow  in  the  same 
c.jiniiy,  in  an  aneii'Ut  town,  which  having  betin,  time 
out  of  mind,  ovcrwhelineil  by  the  blowing  sand  from 
tl»»  co:tst,  has  onlv  within  a  few  vearsbeen  disirovered, 
but,  proU.H.*ted  !»y  the  ^and,  is  in  a  high  state  of  pre- 
servation. Th<!  ]>ecnHar  character  which  marks  thest? 
buildings,  prfivcs  them  to  be  examples  of  the  Irish  style 
subset  I  uent  to  the  age  of  the  towers,  and  previous  to 
that  broutrlit  in  bv  the  Hritish  invaders.  Ireland  can- 
Hut  boast  of  any  ecclesiastic;il  buildings  of  great  rich- 
nes"  «>r  beauty ;  but  there  are  some  of  respectalile  ap- 
pi'MiMuci*.  The  two  eatlH'drals  of  the  capital,  St  l*a- 
rrivL's  nij-l  ('liri-t-ehurfh,  ar-'  at  U-a^X.  eli'ijant  in  tln» 
iiiti-ri.-r.  Th-*  lar:,''*  «vitli''di';il  of  ilalway,  and  that 
!■:"  lJii!iri''lv.  ar«'  b-.th  haii-iviuie  biiililiiig><,  as  is  tli<.' 
i':.t','  ii'.il  il  Kill.cniiy.  riu--«'  ar«.'  all  in  ;jit<id  crili-r, 
a:i  I  III  k\:\\\\  ii--.  Till  r«-  art;  iiiinilK'rl«'HH  ruins  «•!  mo- 
M.i-v"  r!--j,  .ilibi  \  .  LijiLrJit-''  pn  ••••|itori«'s,  and  fhun'lics 
i.r  •.\i!ii':'  till-  rliii-iMri  —  A'i't'n'mt  i  J /.'■<■'/.  in  tlje  cnuntv 

« 

or  <J.i1m.i\  ;  f'-.y,-(ini.t.,',  in  (.l.irf,  tin.'  linr^tt  rnin  in 
l:i!.i!ii:  //■■'//  ^  ■/-.»»♦,  in  ri|»|i<i-ary  ;  lin-  ffl.l  Cifhtiini/^ 
i;;  i';<-  Ilii-Jx  III  (■;i-lr«l;  I  }uii'.ri>!ii  and  linfrrn  A/'bri/s, 
I,.  \\  -  \!<.'-l  :  ./>  /.-.'f.'.  in  lvii\«-nn_v  ;  and  A'/.^A,  in  th'* 
•' liiti';  "t  hiilu::!.  Ki.i''inn"i  and  Lu-^k  arr  rcniarUaMi.' 
1  r  ni  [  ■  li.ii-vi  in  vii-  in  srnni',  winrh  bi'.ir  a  «li'i;ree  of 
r  ■  :i:i'..nii-!*  !■•  tin*  lOijvpiian  lii<  iti^lvi'Iiie>'.  Many  ol 
il"--  -■.ill  rif.'i'n  JiML^nnMit-  nf  iln-ir  lurnirr  ornanienl-) 
n:  i:.'::fl  -.T-.in'  wi  v'n — Hi>Iy  rrM«.s  in  particular. 

.!/■  '  ..'.//  .\'itii;ni'ir^. —  TliL-  iravriirr  in  Iri'land  mn>t 
!■•  -tiiii.Vv  witli  ii:i'\a-l  niinilii  rs  of  small  east U-s,  wiiii'h 
■  .-i-l  t!;i-  will.!'-  r  :'inM'v.  "1  li-v  rlii«  liy  ln-ar  <latt^  about 
tic*  i"t:L:ri  i-t  V.W.'  il'i.'ili.  Iiv  u  lii'-i'  -irdii  >  ilii-v  xvi-n*  raist  d, 
;i..  •-tr-'iu'IifiiiU  ti  i'X«ra\\v  tIii-  wii  1  Iri-li.  'Jln'v  arc 
r.  i.iily  I;  ;;li  aiil  '^-jnai'i-,  \\\'.\\  t<'XM.l's  at  »  aell  •■urniT. 
r.  ■■;•  -  fii.>r  I'.riaiii*'--,  i1mi«'  ar--  rnjn--  \A  vrry  lar;;i' 
«■..  •!  •  .  ■»■•  e'l-tiiniarilv  a'triliMl<  .1  ii  KIcl;  dohi>,  a;  t.) 
•  I.  •  .  ij.at  : !i'  V  W'  !■•■  \'\\'.\l  \\\  till'  •  ariy  tii:ii.->i.  < »!'  ili-  >»<.• 
ll,  '  i\:.  ii~i\  I'  Villi  at  Tri;ii,  in  iln- f-iMi'v  <.l  .Miafli, 
;■;!    i-l-  a  I.iiJ'  'xai:!]'''',   a-  1"  in;;  <in<*  <>t  iln-  lar^i-t,  and 

I.  ■•  .  '.i! r!\  till-  !■■  ■^i  !■  rn"* ill  till'  ^  ii'»'rt>y  m*  I'iiirt  i;.ivr- 

»!  ;■.  I '  '!l.:.r.i-  n'.- 
Inil.'-  -I  r"..-!-.  .-.i  I 
a:  .-,  :■:  ■•  -':■  ■.  1., 
■    I.,    i.- 


ti 
M 

!■■  ■ 
«    1- 

K    ., 
I ,  'i 


.  ■  I  :  _v 

.  ■     •      .  ■ 


■  ,  -J : 

;  ll 

'"  : 


I  ■••  '• 
//.   '■■'■ 

■  I :  ;     V ' 

:.  \  /-.I 
I 


i<  li<  I  1  \\  )t1i:.ii  it>  \\aw-.  an<l  iiiiin>  v 

it    Mitu  <'iri-5...tricin.      A  {i-u  <'l   trii- 

^i:;;^'   til   i!ir  ■  .■!  li'-l'ili^v,  ^: i  1  cim- 

i.   .1*    .U. '■.■■'.-/.,    L.Td'Tall.-.T'.-,  .!r 

,.  ill-    i;  III  !•:  I  l.iwfli'-i,  !■  .rli  in  tlii- 

;  ■,  •■  '  ..->''■.   lli«'  li'-i  iriii'"  d"  r.arl 

*  f".  •  '.  ti  ■■  '^iiami>-ii.  tiiat  i-f  |.«n'il 

.  .■,     ;  ^  ■/:'■/.  tai-  -latuf  tin*  Mar- 


I-'  r 


■  r"  !r.\i:i!.  ;ii.d  Contain: 
■/■.''.■,  /•  .'  ...   M  u'A."'  ■ 


Wexford,  Carlote,  Kilkenny,  KUdare,  QvimU 
Kinff^i  Countyy  Wcstmeath,  and  Longford^  tl 
forming  a  large  tract  of  country  on  the  eut  m 
island,  and  having  Dublin  at  a  central  poin 
coast.  The  scenery  of  Leinster  is  much  van 
county  most  remarkable  for  picturesque  beaai 
of  Wicklow,  a  short  way  south  of  Dublin ;  the  hi 
and  valleys  are  here  rich  in  natural  wood,  and, 
by  an  extensive  prospect  of  the  ocean,  can  1 
exceeded  in  beauty.  The  principal  points  of  i 
for  timrists  are  Lough  Dray,  a  woody  ravine  < 
Dargle,  and  tlio  Vale  of  Avoca,  wliich  is  one 
ous  piece  of  sylvan  pleasure-ground.  Wexl 
farther  south,  may  also,  to  a  considerable  e 
described  as  a  picturesque  and  fertile  couv 
though  the  county  of  Meath  is  for  the  most 
and  tame,  except  along  the  banks  of  the  U 
Blackwater,  it  can  boast  there  of  some  apt 
deeming  beauty,  as  an  example  of  which.  Hi 
the  beautiful  demesne  of  (tustavus  Lamlx 
may  well  be  mentioned ;  and  in  a  large  porti 
county  the  quantity  of  wood  and  the  rich  L 
give  an  almost  English  character  to  the  L 
Westmeath  is  remarkable  for  expansive  lake; 
the  dry  gravelly  hills  which  give  variety  t«i  it 
The  Queen*s  County,  though  a  good  deal  disf 
bog,  >et  boasts,  at  Abbeleix  and  Dunmore,  i 
stretch  of  magnificent  natural  oak  wood.  Th 
ing  ])art  of  Leinster  cannot  be  considered  ii 
or  peculiar  in  its  general  features.  The  King 
contains  the  greatest  portion  (»f  the  iLit  fi>i 
the  eastern  side  of  the  Shannon ;  tttwards 
where  the  .Slicvo  Bloom  Mountains  temunatc 
Mime  fine  scenery,  esi>ccially  about  the  anci 
of  Lf^ap. 

Leinster  may  be  considered  as  much  super 
other  provinces  with  rt^spcct  to  agriculturv ; 
parts  of  Carlow,  Kildare,  and  Wexford,  are  < 
in  a  manner  ap])roaching  in  skill  to  that  of  th> 
tural    fli^'trietvS  of    l''.n;;land   and    Scotlan«l. 
iinpjcni'ni>.,  rotation  of  eroj^s,  aii'l  thr  inJu 
\\liieli  niainin' is  eolh'cti'd  and  eon;>"-ts  mauL 
tluT**  is  a  great  and  iru'ri-asin;;  iinprovfu^i-nt. 
■^ociftii'S,  plou'^jhing  matches,  an«l  prftniuTUs  fni 
iKrttor  brci'ils  of  eattU*,  havo  i»n-aily  tr-ndcd  t 
enrasiu;^  prosp«'rity  ;  and  lln-y  only  \\lio  1ti\i.-  ' 
what  tlu'.sf  uisitriets  wrre  provioim  to  tli!*  L" 
.ijipneiato  tin;  .iinciioration  wliirh  has  siia'i;  tal 

111  Kilkeiinv  and  its  vicinitv,  tlio  blankt-t  t 
earrit  ll  on  to  some  extrut,  but  I.ittiTly  it  has 
vj'i'v  dceiinim:  state.  Near  l)ubtin  are  ---nii*  > 
]»apt'r  manulaetorics,  anil  in  the  (.•■lunty  of  > 
larije  lla\-mill.  <ienerally  speakini:,  li'»w<'\er, 
lint  fi-w  mauul'aeture.s  in  L«rin'^t<T.  Ti:i  r*  is 
eiiief  towns  a  considerable  e\pi)rt  «)f  airrieuli; 

■llICi*. 

The  counties  of  Wicklow  anil   Wexford  C- 
iiiiluitrion.s  ariil  thrivini;  population  ;  an  I  be 
diisfrioiis,  the  people  are  abl'*  to  pay,  ff.ini 
siipcri-r  ti>  tlio-e  of  diIht  distrlets,  rent:^  \\\\\ 
In:  intolerable  in  otiuT  parts  iif  Ireland.     The 
pea^anrry  are  reekonrd  ihe  1in«-st  in  the  wiir!»; 
prov.-rbi.il  fir  their  hainlsiiine  fi-atnres  a:id  fin 
protil*  s,  and  still  nn.re  so  as  bein;;  a  ri-pi-otf 
aini   well-eondneti'd    ]»eojile.      TIm-  eoiinty  of 
r«-niarkali!y  fertile  ;  but  iM-in-jj  hss  >uliilividel, 
lore  !♦  -"S  ]  opnl'-us  than  any  oiht-r  part  of  In-i, 
>»i'l«  rin^  th''  I'iehin-s  o:"  irs  .-"il.     I'^i-  sar.i"  y 
as  liiat  in  Wiekhnv  and  NN'exl'or-l,  tlnuii^h  j^r 
*-ii:a!Nr  di-ri*'  «■,  pp'xaiis  in   Kiltlare,  l'arl«>»»\ 
<^ii'  i.n"''  (.'■  nnty.     niu>  i.f  tlie  ei  ii  f  can-e«i  of 
-jH-riry  i.«».  that  a  lar:;''  portion  .f  the  populatro 
nioniv  paMirnt-  I'lr  iIm  ir  daiiv  lah.'Ur,  aihl 
that   till-  iii'.'if  r  and  tun  or  C'trn  acrr  svsUuis 
li".s  r». siirf<-l  to.     The  wa;;»'s  nf  l<<.'in!iter  ar«» 
'^Inlliu^  a-day  m  suiiHii<<r,  and   in  m inter  fro 
pi  net'    to   ten]M  nee,   \\ithoiit   diet.       The  avet 
t-r  ai'ah'i'  laiil  i-.  Jr-'iii  -,1  to  til,  1  <>■«..  nml  fi»r 
land  ti-ni  .',J  t  •  .■.::  ['  r  ;-..-re.      Thf  general  d 


nuii>ur  i*  ipl  lo  MHv.  la  the  IIihiiik  M  uutUijIm  anul 

■U-fHUWHiavi'ii,  nalltiPB  ataro  Ihu  whal  ha  sxpiBI 

Hiul  In. nil  lug*  akU*^     llemnn  nUinrini  liintnTHivl 

At,  b^iica  the  liuurinD*  clu*  wl)n  iu.-fiii<ii  t)^"  I^HMt'l 

Oil  of  Tnliielot,  and  ihs  Imtv  w»ll.iIrr»>Kl  irliiwil  wh^^ 

OTB  along  tho  foot-wayK,  tlirrr  is  a  KTrnt  iHiillilufa'fl 

'  meau  and   mitmlirani    H^irn,  aurli   an  am   °^>1tI 

IlK  himil  in  ■  aaiiill  iirnpnrtutii  in  idliar  cltiw.    TtitiV 

Ui*  ntrji  lint  jwnuliar  Mluiv  wlilvti  lltg  ■ti'ali||aB.V 

ilHta  in  Dublin,  anil  It  b  an  aiiforluiuitB  [>iic.    Ii  it-| 

Llilainml  wluin  »*  Icam,  that,  of  lliP  Ursf  uupulatla 

■  IiL.lil.li— iiiifiiio^i-il  In  Bp])(vaDli  lliiwu  himortd  li    " 

"irtlia  lUT  IwBnUll  wlml  J*  T 

"."  ni<<Mb  ruik.    T[™.  iho 

ii   Pulilio,  anil  t)«  r>'<<l  «■' 

r    in  tlia^i,  ntw  iaolMiul  ti 


CHAMBERS'S  INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


tiunelef  of  Uie  city.  In  niling  up  the  river,  th«  eye 
is  finl  fttlmclFd  bj  the  Cuatombonw,  ft  large  And 
Bjilundid  edili<'e  in  the  well-kDoitu  tute  of  the  Aduns, 
■urinuuntetl  bjr  s  dome,  aiid  verj'  happily  Bitunled  upon 
tliD  north  ijiiaj.  The  Puet-OITiee,  in  Sackvillo  Street, 
u  in  that  gnver  form  of  ihe  Greeiao  Blj-le  which  his 
more  reoeullj'  come  into  favour,  eilendiag  abuvo  twc 
Imndred  feet  in  Trout,  with  a  noble  portico  aurmounted 
bj  a  pedimtDt.  The  simultaiieuua  starting  nf  the  mail- 
eoaeliw  at  A  certaiu  hour  every  evening  frnni  ihe  cauM 
of  lliii  building,  ia  one  of  the  lizhte  of  Uublin.  Uppusilr 
to  it  in  a  pilUr  in  hoDoor  of  Nolaon,  aurmounted  by  o 
figure  of  thai  hero.  At  the  up))er  eKtrumit^  of  Sackville 
Street  is  the  Lying-in  Hospital,  a  beautiful  building, 
with  which  is  closely  conneeled  tlio  more  celebrated 
Ratunda,  tngBther  with  an  extensi  , 
ground.  Tlie  Kotir  Courla — also  b  most  superb  strue- 
ture-~avarlaokB  the  river  at  a  poiol  cunBiderably  re- 
moTed  In  Ihe  west,  aod  eoinplelea  Ihe  list  of  rema  '  ' ' 
buildinn  ill  the  northeru  ilivisiun  of  Ihe  city.  ' 
•oulh  of  the  river,  the  ohjeeta  worthy  of  especial 
are  lunre  nurneroua.  Tlic  buildings  of  the  Uni« 
(fuamUd  by  (tuceii  Elisabeth  in  I  .VJi)  occupy  : 
•picuou*  rutuation  on  the  gteal  Iransverao  lioe  of 
itmetii  which  haa  atready  been  mentioned.    Doaeath 


i<  eijaarM,  ohiefly  voin|Hiseil  of  brioh  domnlia  build- 
ings,  and  oontsining  a  theatre  for  OKaminntions,  ■ 
niUMDm.  a  otiapel,  a  refectory,  a  library,  and  other 
a|iartiiiffnte  nncussary  for  tlie  bueinesa  of  the  institu- 
liiiu.  la  the  mascuni  la  preserved  an  ancient  harp, 
Itenvnlly  repreeenled  aa  that  of  Urian  Boroimhe,  a 
lauiiiu*  Iriiih  kiug  of  the  lentil  century.  Tliere  are 
UHlially  abuul  two  thousand  studenta  in  atlendaiico  at 
Ihe  I'nivemity,  Divided  from  tliis  buildingonly  by  the 
bniadlh  of  a  alreel,  is  the  Bank  uf  Ireland — formerly 
the  plaoe  of  aasembly  of  the  triahilouaBsof  Parliameat, 
The  de«p  eolcnnaded  front  of  tfaia  building  bona  of  the 
most  beatitiful  pieeea  of  architecture,  not  only  in  the 
British  dotiiiniona,  but  in  the  world  :  it  carrioa  a  eliami 
like  a  floe  picture.  The  hnll  where  once  the  Coinrnona 
of  Ireland  assembled — ^where  the  eloquence  of  a  (iraltan, 
■  Curran,  and  a  Flood,  was  onee  heard— is  now  altered 
to  suit  this  purpoaes  of  a  telling-room ;  but  tho  Houso 
ot  Paenretnaiiueiuetlyas  it  was  left  by  that  assembly, 
bdng  only  occasionally  used  fur  meetings  of  the  Bonk 
dtceetorale.  The  latter  is  a  amall  but  nandsorae  hotl, 
adorned  with  tapeatry  representing  [ranaactioua  in  tho 
subjujsstion  of  Irelsnd  by  King  William — the  battle  of 
the  Boyne,  the  breaking  of  tho  boom,  and  so  forth,  aa 
also  a  few  appropriate  inecriptions. 

In  Kildore  Street,  at  no  great  diiUnce  from  the 
College  and  Bank,  the  halls  of  the  Itoyal  Society  of 
Dublin  present  a  powerful  claim  to  the  attention  of 
Btrangen,  in  the  great  variety  of  euriositioa,  pictures, 
and  models,  with  which  they  are  filled.  In  a  pcram- 
bulolionof  the  city,  the  Castle  is  the  next  object  worthy 
of  notiee.  This  ancient  teat  of  the  vioeregat  govern- 
ment, to  which  ruiuouri  of  plots  and  insurrecliops 
have  been  aa  often  brought  by  terror-struck  apiee  er 
remorsefal  nartieinaton,  is  plaoed  on  slightly  elevated 
groond,  in  Uie  roidsl  of  the  old  or  ■outhcm  division  of 
Ule  city.     It  consists  of  two  conrts,  containing  certain 

Kblie  olBceB,  and  the  apartmenia  of  state  usol  by  the 
rd-Lietttenant.  In  the  lower  court  is  Ihe  Castle 
Chapel,  a  beautifully  conatrucleit  and  beautifully  fur- 
nitbed  modern  Gothic  place  0/  worship,  tho  whole 
materials  of  which  are  of  Irish  production,  and  which 
4l),0nD.     Tho   service    performed    here 


,  while  a  rich  "  reli 
gions  light"  streama  through  stained  windows,  and  ii 
nrtleolaJ  from  Ihe  gnrgeoua  stalls  of  civil  and  cccle- 
•■■•lieal  difnilariea,  is  one  of  the  most  attraolive  thinp 
in  Dublin.  The  state-apartments  of  IIid  Viceroy  are  in 
llin  laate  uf  the  middle  of  the  last  century,  and  are  ele- 
gant, but  not  remarkable  for  grandeur.  In  one  is 
■  bust  of  l^hoaterflsld,  whn  w«*   Lord' 


1715.     The  most  remarkable  p 

denominated  St  Patrice's  Ilall,  n^iioll  ii  ^ 
lofty,  and  among  other  attradioiu  b 
meuted  with  piciures,  representitig  (1 
hialory  of  Ireland. 

In  Ireland,  old  eceleuistieal  atnielDnaam 
more  coriouB  for  their  antiquity  than  their 
Accordingly,  the  exterior  of  St  Patriok's  and 
church,  the  lw<i  calliedrals  of  Dublin,  b  apt  U 
ungainly  to  an  eyu  freeh  from  WartnuaMar  or  1 
In  tlie  former  boildiug,  ueverlheleu,  the  iiil 
the  choir,  in  which  service  is  usually  perfon 
impress  every  mind  by  ila  lofly  propmiioni,  : 
]Kius  monuments,  and  the  dork  atolla  and  niel 
mounted  with  the  lielmola  aod  banners  of  tlu 
of  Ihe  order  of  St  Patrick-  tn  riaiting  this 
churoh,  the  predominant  thought  Li — Swin. 
for  his  dwelling  as  we  approach,  and  for  hi<  im 
wo  enter — Each  is  the  power  which  genius  lins 
tlie  feelings  of  men  for  all  lime  upon  every 
thing  connected  with  il>  The  deanery  xiU  1 
St  Kuvin  Street,  containing  the  portrait  of  S< 
which  oil  tha  engnved  likenesses  Have  been 
The  streets  immediately  surrounding  St  Pair 
thedral  arc  the  meaneHt  and  vilest  in  Ihe  di 
houses  have  a  ruinous  and  forlorn  look,  and  t 
menta  aro  crowded  with  a  populatiou  of  I 
vm-tched  order.  These  streets  are  filled  vil 
but  the  trades  to  which  they  are  devoted  tar 
tu  hetray  the  misery  than  to  manifest  Ihe  ea 
the  people.  Dealers  in  old  elothes,  pawnbroker 
dealers,  and  peiGons  trading  in  oRals,  ahnoct 
kinds  ot  animal  food  indulged  in  by  the  lowe; 
of  the  people,  abound. 

At  the  western  extremity  of  Dahlia,  on  tl 
side  of  the  river,  w  the  eelebntted  public  tin 
denominated  the  Phuciiix.  Pork,  aaid  10  cooaul 
a  thousand  acres.  Not  only  doe*  this  park  gn 
oeed  those  of  London  in  extent,  hot  it  ia  qoa 
if  even  the  Regent's  Pork,  after  all  tho  exp 
curred  in  omnmcnliiig  il,  will  ever  match  this 
in  beauty.  The  ground  is  uf  ail  undulating  eh 
and  it  covered  wiili  groups  of  fine  <>ld  litn 
shrubbery,  amidst  which  are  Ihe  dumealie  re 
of  Ihe  Lord- Lieu  tenant  and  his  principal  olBean 
some  other  public  buildings,  and  a  tall  obeha 
nour  of  the  Duke  of  Wetlmglon's  victoriee. 
gicul  garden  has  lately  hcen  added  lo  the  olhti 
ot  the  Park. 

ililio  was  formerly  a  busy  lilcnry  mart,  i 
EC  of  tho  state  of  the  copyright  law,  irhidi 
of  cheap  reprints  of  Uritiah  books  being  ben 
After  a  long  inlenol,  tho  activity  of  its  publisl 
lately  revived,  and  there  are  now  several  hooai 

ig  others,  those  of  Mr  Tims  and  Mr  Mil 
Grafton  Street,  and  that  of  Mnwn  W.  Curry,  J 
"  .,  in  Sackville  Street.  The  Utter  has  hod  tl 
for  the  lirat  time  establishing  a  rrspetlsble 
cal  work  in  Ireland,  the  Dublin  fnirwrnly  Mi 
whicli  lua  been  carried  on  with  increasing  tm 

Dublin  posiic«esanumbeTofbenenoiaT7iB>C 
onduoted  on  a  scale  of  great  liberality ;  also 
iligioua  iind  educational  soeietiaa,  whoa*  op 
re  eileuded  oter  the  whole  kingdom.  The  Ui 
ied  on  ill  llie  (own  refers  chiefly  In  iKnna  a 
ion  ;  and,  excepluig  Ubinets  or  poplina,  il  h 
inguished  as  tho  seatuf  any  mannfaetuiv,  ' 
very  little  foreign  export  from  Dublin.  !■  p 
-"iports  are — timber,  fmm  the  Ilallie;  loJIo* 

id  tor,  from  Russia ;  nine  and  fruilo,  frun 
Spain,  and  Portugal ;  lobaeco,  lurk,  and  «imc« 
Holland  ;  and  sngar,  from  the  Weal  India  iolai 

carried  on  witli  England,  chieSy  In  eoanaai 
Liverpool,  to  whn«e  market  there  ara  now  It 
Hirts  of  native  produce.  Though  ttie  UVkfta 
larbour  of  the  purl,  vmsete  of  Iwga  bu^Mi,  •« 


itnhar,  dl  'iinrjrij!  >.i;t 
rnui>dlJi)t 
•ciibwl  w  gDnarnllj' 

luith  Lanp,  (It  the  l.fi»Tr  L)il;».  Iiy  Tir  t'l.-  lurgl 
IT  iiwii,  hmkirlBil  iin  "'I'  — '■  >-ii-  i  --t  -mil 
Itlvai*^  ntunli'j -1X-1  .:  ^illajgiBf 

lUanayi  Dnlkit  ui1i<  I  'l\imbm 

mnilKBtb   Indlbli.l  M  nmnUil 

xoittOJMot  vitieU   .■■     ■  ;   -in  ithbt;, 

d  HiMlin'  th*  FeDiniiu  III  on  uni'H'iu  l-uuiii'.     On  loa 
'U  of  MhbIi- 


)ric  Loko,  Ima  Uin  uunn  iit  Iliv  inuuntain  at  wlioui 
St  it  repoM.  t^ntr  uid  kbnto  thu  mUii'Io  wlriolt  ituil 
e  inrfaw,  die  bcuity  of  tiiun  twii  nlimta  iit  wnb-r  may 
Hilt  lo  oorwitt  In  ibo  Imgalai-  pr<uii<mli>Ha>  anil 
swiBenernlljiwoMJcd.byirlucliilioyaniiinmiDoiLpil, 
id  atov*  whieb  tha  mountaiiu  laww  In  tlcrila  sratf 
>ur.    In  nan; mmka of  iha  acviurr]',  clegaui nianabiu* 

a  MM)  Mumndinc  in  glittiiring  coaoarlnii,  1^«  Umnk 
ike,  thalblnl  nf  ttioM'riaa,  ii  Ihiva  miliM  aiMtt  Wa 
Btniddle  DiHi,aiiiablgtMiTlettl,a(ul  loullr  nmbnimnod 
alilit  tii«  hilli.  A  atran)  dcMwnitliig  h^ini  ili»  iracWi 
e  dAibt  e»o  i»  paiaod  in  a  bsol :  uiil,  at  u'  |iunifliilar 
Ma  on  tbo  puuso,  it  ii  eommon  for  tuui-lata  tn  liavn, 
bu^n  dUthI,  ill  urder  to  mjov  ihu  ijfl-rinwiuing 
boM  wticll  il  awakw  in  Ui»  nriglibaurinii  bllla.     Tin 

,  um  aidr,  tlu  round-binulail  PuriiT*  Maimukiw  uo  Ilia 
|>ftiaj,  U  tha  hucil,  tbo  bull  man^-Poliiuml  riitj^ 
■HHradJ}'*  Itrt'l»,  wWi  Vi»;  'I'.ii^wu  \ii\iii3tM« 


CEAUBEKS^  iXTOK/tilii^ibR  TEE  PEOPLE. 


—  ^ vBv.tlwlMi^ 

•ribB!BliAMOT,kitM«nI^mMaiidT«i^«li  Ibe 
BIrar  Im^  Utaw  CM,  aad  O*  fln*  ntaJhM' 

UlriM»tenidMHliaraH<«nitewUehaTCMnw 
•MDW  of  naaniMB  RHKbor. 

ThsMll  In  tt*  IpovthMH  fHte  af  Unaridk  lad  T^ 
pmi7  U  peibaa  not  iafaiior  In  brtilitj  to  WIT  portiiiB 
of'Enna.  1£b  CoAaa  bnda  nl  th*  ioniNr,  ud  tb* 
fioUM  Valo  «r  tha  hUrnt,  ai*  Bolibwtrt  for  tbdr 
wteaBritnMT  ri Anwi.  ThaMdfaBMaaNddd^as. 

wati  rf  «B  OTwatMi  pwwhtia^  faMMrir  pOB^ad 
tkm^Mt  t^  lAola  wtAnn  t  ud  it  k  >  dwlOHkk 
fa^  that  m  laip  parfion  of  Oat  papdaika  Wva  ao 
olhw  foad  daAf  tba  BNlar  part  el  tba  vaan  Ika 
"  •  ■        -  ■    a  IM  to  ■" 


taarnlna    tttkp 
MBMU«d,Bad  ai 


ralapraat;  tha  advaataca  of  «Uih  1l  that  a 

"  ■    ■      NlrbaltaraUdriheMBaalMidiW. 

—B  onlj  Ii  ohnnM^  aqd  that  arcn 

!«■  of  thna  dauT-fcima  an  U^lj 

_t^nt  bnksQ  ttp  Ibr  tiUaa^  an^ 

g  taWliI  Am dabqr  hitaaaa  £ltta  tJte 

__  ..iaii(A«rIalIienu!k.    Sotoe  erf  thaaa  rmb 

landa  hsTa  not  b«eo  plougbsd  Tor  a  hondred  uid  fiflf 

Dsilj  labaorera  an  unuJIypaiil  fram  ed.  to  lOd.per 
day ;  or,  if  engaged  by  tlie  jesr,  from  Gd.  to  Sd.  In 
the  iMMr  cue,  it  u  nippoacd  tliat  the  Ubouter  baa  a 
houae,  and  ^nm  for  a  euw,  al  what  ia  called  a  moderate 
tcDf.audwbichimtbentiinBtionofthelabourariUequi- 
valcDl  to  additional  wage*.  Tbe  food  of  a  great  part  of 
the  MuDitar  peauntrj  conaista  of  potatoee ;  to  thia  a 
umally  addrd  milk,  and,  if  they  li*a  near  tbe  aea,  haak  or 
heninga.  Jn  Cork,  but  f«w  of  the  labouring  poor  have 
Oowe,  liecaiue  loilk  can  be  had  in  abundance  at  a  mode- 
rate priee  at  the  dairies.  Itia,  ho««Ter,Terycu»Wnuu7 
to  have  ewes,  which  not  only  Bupply  a  tolrnbl*  quitn- 
tily  of  milk,  but  fumub  clothing,  the  women  apin  and 
dye  the  fleecM,  and  have  them  woven  into  thick  frieze, 
sod  fulled  at  the  village  fulling-mill :  from  thia  practice, 
the  southern  Munster  men  are  remarkably  well  clothed. 
Tha  cottages,  or  rather  cabins,  are,  generally  speaking, 
wretched ;  but  it  may  be  staled,  tiiat  in  the  dwellings 
and  furniture  of  the  people  tlicre  ia  a  growing  improve- 
nent.  The  character  of  the  Munater  peasanti?  may 
be  considered  as  of  mixed  good  and  eril — the  evil  aris- 
ing from  a  total  want  uf  r«>lraint  in  early  childhood, 
bad  education,  or,  a*  frequently  happen*,  none  at  alL 
Female  education  is  peculiarly  negleeted  ;  and  it  is 
deplorable  to  see  marriages  contracted  wlien  the  wife 
has  few  capahiliLiee  fur  managing  a  family,  and  ren- 
dering her  huibaud  eomfortaUe,  or  his  house  a  happy 

Ijenerally  epeaking,  the  trade  of  Mnnster  eousiala  in 
the  eiport  of  provlaion*  and  agrieullural  produce,  as 
wheal,  oats,  and  poIMoes,  to  a  large  amounL 

There  ia  nn  the  Shannon  an  active  tiaheiy  for  tront, 
lierrings,  Jic,  and  abundance  of  eicclleni  iUh  aia  sent 
into  LioiDriek,  Eunia,  Kilniah,  and  to  tha  county  of 
Kerry.  Along  the  coast  of  Cork  then  is  a  fishery  far 
pilchards,  herrings,  and  other  kind*  of  fish,  which  ara 
caught  in  gnat  quaulitie*,  so  that  Inquently  the  far- 
man  masnro  the  field*  with  apntta. 


cf  Tmnia. 
tta  laading  f"        it  Munntar  at«  Ciri,  U 
and  Watnfnnl. '  '  Cork  is  derived  (rustl 

woid  Ckrea/i,  hIhei.  hee  a  matiab.  Tbb  eii; 
ntofca  aa  flie  second  in  Ireland  with  rcspea  o 
latiMi  and  eoiainercuil  importance,  stands  on  tb 
Lat^  whidb.  through  several  channels,  pours  <U 
tato  tba  Wboar,  from  whence  tbe  tide  llowt  i 
aljovD  thu  town.  Tbe  strecta  are  bui 
abannels,  which,  being  all  quayed,  j 
~'    "     '      "     ""'an  charftctcr:  of  lal 


What  of  ■ 


Aa  E^oopal  eaoMaatlaUhtdlfiMa  e(  Cb^i 

-^ 'MTaapariab  AnrdiBi,  tbaCUbatel  a<Sli:^ 

UM  Chpdaf  Paaa  aadnaa  Omk  « 

■   -      — ■    ~Mi^afatV 

iMta  I 


_._  ^^ ,  _._fiwlhe  PrinAivaW^ 

for  AnahavtitfL  two  Idc  FnahftariuM,  tat; 
aoalaty  of  FMnd^  and  two  ftv  Mq  alhar  bhU 
ofdfaMnlan.  A  saw  SaotA  abnnfa  fa  !■  J 
Tbawto^piMfaWMI^aaraL  Iha  Baarf 
lAtA  Mate  OB  k  bd^  oncMibw  tha  tam 
Wl,  a  fink  to  Iba  mat  itf  Iba  caM  J  Aa  CMq 
laaga  and  handaemo  .taviMK  na  0»f  IBm 
Baa£B«Jtoaai^  tba  kdHMifa^  dw  CiMBhw 
aace^  Aa  8laa)»Aakat  Oflas  and  awaO-b 
ifaaliwi  BBMt  booa^  hafliM !■  Irwta  patti 

'^-Tito  fiaap  rf    '  -  '  • •*- 


!■  pngnM  a  aaw  aavinc^  bank,  Ba.asMaalTa  aa 
wiitJtmlMliiy,  but  not  mora  than  bdf  araah 
w  banking-house  of  cat  alone  for  a  brana 
eland  ;  a  new  and  shavry  com-tnarket  boa 
Ltansive  workhouK  for  the  Poor-Law  Unk) 
threeMjoarter*  of  a  mile  fmm  the  city. 

Cork  boasts  of  many  schooU— the  Blue-Coat  E 
for  twenty-two  sons  of  reduced  Proteatanta ;  tb* 
Coat  IIoHpital,  for  twenty  children  of  each  aai 
rht  np  ProtesUnIa ;  the  Cove  Street  Infant 
.  Lancaatrinn,  and  Female  Orphan  Schook; 
ceaao  achoola  for  the  united  diocese  of  Cork  as 
and  a  free  school  founded  by  Archdeacon  Pona 
'-nong  the  charitable  initilutiona  iu  this  dl 
-idge's  Charily,  where  are  maintained  a* 
^ei4nt  soldiers  ;  Skiddy'*  Almahousa,  when 
aged  women  receive  £29  yearly ;  Deane's  School 
forty  poor  children  are  clothed  and  taught  gntk 
is,  besides,  a  masooic  female  orphan  asylom,  ai 
ral  almshouses.  Indeed,  in  proportion  to  ila  i 
wealth,  the  cily.  of  Cork  bears  a  pecnliarly  hi 
racter  for  benevolence. 

ere  are  five  societiea  here,  whose  objeeti 
enlirely  scientifie-the  Rojal  Cork  loa 
tbe  Cuvierian,  the  Scientific  and  Literaiy  Soeie 
Mechanics'  Inititute,  and  thu  School  and  Lil 
Cook  Street;  on*  public  eubseriplioD,  and  aan 
cu)aling  libraries;  eighteen  Protestant  aoekt 
voted  lo  religious  purposes;  four  booendaot  • 
for  the  relief  of  the  dintressed  ;  Ave  phiUntbr 

ig  the  deaf  and  dumb  poor  in  George's  Stnat, 
The  chief  exports  of  Cork  are  grain,  butter 
and  provisions ;  its  chief  imports,  sane,  tea,  bii| 
coals.  From  the  jariiameotary  rclums,  it  . 
during  Hie  live  yean  ending  1634,  tha  . 
il  number  of  vessels  entering  the  port  t 
-British,  135,  tonnsga  2li^3a;  and  forai 
ige  i3M.  Steam -vcosel*  oooimiuiicaU  1 
Cork  and  Dublin,  Bristol  and  Liverpool;  and 
boala  also  ply  daily  between  Cork  aad  Cove.  '. 
pnlaUon  of  Corit,  according  to  tha  aaaaoa  ot  18 


DESCRIPTION  OF  IRELAND. 


the  diief  city  of  the  west  of  Ireland,  is 

the  Shaimoiiy  near  the  place  where  that 

expands  into  an  estuary.   It  consists  of  the 

w  Town,  respectiTely  situated  on  the  north 

des  of  the  nrer,  and  connected  by  an  ele- 

I  bridge.  The  new  city  contains  many  good 

d  with  handsome  shops ;  but  the  old  town 

dirty,  decayed,  and  inhabited  by  a  very 

>pnlation.    Limerick  contains  a  handsome 

some  antiquity,  situated  in  the  old  part  of 

Episcopal  churches  and  a  chapel  of  ease, 

ses  belonging  to  the  Presbyterians,  Inde- 

id  the  Society  of  Friends,  with  five  Roman 

EilSy  three  friaries,  and  one  nunnery.  The 
lie  buildings  are  the  Exchange,  the  City 
,  the  City  and  County  Jail,  the  Folice  Bar- 
istomhonse,  the  Commercial  Buildings,  the 
the  Market,  and  two  banks.  Though  Lime- 
particularly  literary  city,  it  has  an  cxcel- 
ind  some  very  good  booksellers'  shops.  The 
lool  at  Limerick  is  the  Diocesan,  but  there 
ivate  day  and  boarding  schools.  There  are 
able  institutions,  as  uie  County  Hospital ; 
r  Industry  for  the  aged  and  infirm,  widows, 
one  females,  and  deserted  children  ;  the 
.Aomshouse ;  Dr  Hall's  and  Mrs  Villiers's 
k 

ird  to  the  trade  of  Limerick,  it  has  been 
at  though  it  has  increased  with  the  exten- 
dty,  it  has  done  so  by  no  means  in  an  ade- 
»rtion,  when  its  peculiar  advantages  arc 
the  Shannon,  which  connects  it  with  Clare, 
prford.  and  l^pperary,  affording  it  innume- 
Tcial  facilities.  The  quays  of  Limerick  are 
,  a  scene  of  considerable  bustle,  though 
entcd  by  vessels  for  the  export  of  the  native 
tovisioDs  to  the  amount  of  75,000  tons  are 
I  annually.  The  population  of  Limerick  in 
imated  to  be  66,555. 

!^  the  chief  town  of  the  county  bearing  its 
i  large  sea-port,  is  situated  on  the  Suir,  a 
>m  its  junction  with  the  sea.  Native  pro- 
value  of  £2,000,000,  is  annually  exported 
y ;  but  the  imports  are  comparatively  un- 
There  is  here  a  fine  cathedral,  founded 
en,  and  endowed  with  lands  by  King  John, 
churches,  meeting-houses  for  the  Presby- 
the  Society  of  Friends,  a  French  church 
^enots,  and  several  abbeys  and  friaries, 
d  buildings  are  the  Bishop*s  Palace,  the 
nd  the  City  Jail.  Amongst  its  schools  arc 
ee-school,  and  the  Blue  Boys*  Free-school, 
enty-five  are  instructed  and  partly  clothed 
e  bovs  apprenticed  to  different  trades.  The 
I  1831  was  28,820. 

ULSTRR. 

northerly  of  the  provinces  is  Ulster,  con- 
mnties  of  Anirim,  Armagh,  Cavan,  Doiiega/, 
magh,  Derry,  Monagkan,  and  Tyrone,  The 
Ulbter  is  hilly.  The  scenery  is  in  general 
especially  in  the  vicinity  of  its  chief  towns, 
st,  and  Armagh.  In  the  county  of  Antrim, 
from  Glenarm  to  Bengore  Head  presents 
of  striking  and  romantic  views.  The  most 
*eature  of  this  scenery  is  the  peculiar  con- 
the  basaltic  columns  with  which  it  abounds, 
.  the  arrangement  is  strikingly  displayed  in 
md  the  GianCa  Causeway,  Bengore,  one 
mtories  of  the  causeway,  lies  about  seven 
if  the  little  town  of  Ballycastic:  though 
icribed  as  a  single  headland,  it  is  composed 
dl  capes  and  bays,  each  bearing  its  own 
»,  and  of  these  capes  the  most  perfect  is 
lie  summit  of  Pleaskin  is  covered  with  a 
od,  which  lies  upon  the  rock,  the  surface 
racked  and  shivered.  About  ten  or  twelve 
( top,  the  rock  begins  to  assume  a  columnar 
id  standing  perpendicularly  to  the  horizuii, 
231 


presents  the  appearance  of  a  magnificent  colonnade, 
supported  on  a  foundation  of  rock  nearly  sixty  feet  in 
height.  About  eight  miles  from  Pleaskin  is  Fair  IJead^ 
the  easternmost  head  of  the  causeway,  which  presents 
a  huge  mass  of  columnar  stones,  of  coarse  texture,  but 
many  of  them  more  than  two  hundred  feet  in  height. 
Some  of  these  gigantic  stones  seem  to  have  fallen  from 
the  top,  and  now  present  to  the  eye  of  the  spectator  the 
appearance  of  groups  of  artificial  ruins.  The  part  which 
may  more  properly  be  called  the  GiarU^s  Causeway  is  a 
kind  of  quay,  projecting  from  the'base  of  a  steep  pro- 
montoxT  some  hundred  feet  into  the  sea :  it  is  composed 
of  the  heads  of  pillars  of  basalt,  which  are  placed  in 
close  contact  with  each  other,  forming  a  sort  of  polygo- 
nal pavement,  somewhat  like  the  appearance  of  a  solid 
honeycomb.  The  pillars  are  jointed,  and  their  articu- 
lation curiously  exact,  the  convex  termination  of  one 
joint  always  fitting  with  precision  into  a  conc!ive  socket 
in  the  next.  Within  about  two  miles  of  tlie  Giant's 
Causeway  stands  Dunlucc  Castle,  situated  on  the  sum- 
mit of  a  rock  whose  base  is  washed  by  the  ocean,  by 
the  ravages  of  which  great  part  of  the  building  was 
suddenly  swept  from  its  foundation.  The  mansion  and 
offices  stand  upon  the  mainland,  divided  from  the  for- 
tress by  a  deep  cut  which  separates  the  rock  on  which 
the  castle  is  placed.  Over  tliis  chasm  lies  the  only  ap- 
proach to  the  building,  along  what  was  one  of  the  walls 
of  the  drawbridge :  should  the  passenger  miss  his  foot- 
ing on  this  narrow  path,  there  is  not  the  slightest  pro- 
tection on  cither  side  to  save  him  from  the  abyss  be- 
neath. 

The  soil  of  Ulster  varies  much.  In  the  counties  of 
Armagh,  Down,  Antrim,  Derry,  and  Monaghan,  it 
passes  from  a  deep  rich  fertile  clay  to  a  dry  sandy  or 
gravelly  loam ;  while  in  Donegal,  Tyrone,  Fennanagh, 
and  Cavan,  a  great  proportion  of  it  is  cold,  wet,  and 
spongy.  Tillage  is,  in  general,  in  an  improved  Htiite 
throughout  this  province ;  and,  though  the  old  Irish 
plough  and  the  slide  car  are  still  occasionally  used  in 
the  remoter  parts,  many  of  the  modem  implements  of 
husbandry  have  been  introduced,  especially  in  Down 
and  Londonderr}'.  The  English  spade  has  nearly  dis- 
placed the  long  or  one-sided  spade ;  the  angular  har- 
row and  the  threshing-machine  are  much  in  use,  and 
the  Scotch  plough  luis  almost  superseded  the  heavy 
Irish  one.  The  corn  crops  most  general  are  oats»  hei-e, 
barley,  and  a  small  proportion  of  wheat.  Barley  is  in 
Derry  said  to  pay  the  summer's  rent,  and  flax  the  win- 
ter's. Potatoes  are  largely  planted  by  rich  and  j)oor, 
and  gentlemen-farmers  cultivate  turnips  and  mangel- 
wurzel.  Lime  and  peat  are  the  most  usual  ingredients  of 
tho  manure  employed  in  the  inland  districts ;  while  in 
the  maritime  counties,  sea-sand,  8o:i-weed  of  different 
sorts,  and  various  kinds  of  sliells  pulverised,  are  usf.-d 
in  addition.  From  the  wetness  of  the  soil,  in  some  of 
the  northern  parts  of  Monaghan,  the  manure  is  usuniiy 
carried  to  the  fields  in  baskets,  called  iardocksy  which 
are  slung  over  asses'  backs  or  the  shoulders  of  the  j)oor 
women,  A  small  but  hardy  race  of  horses  is  reared  in 
the  isljind  of  Rathlin,  or  llaghery  ;  and  the  old  Irish 
sheep  still  prevails  in  and  near  Carey,  in  the  county  of 
Antrim.  Pigs,  goats,  and  donkeys,  are  numerous,  the 
latter  being  much  used  in  the  counties  of  Cavan  and 
Monaghan.  A  good  deal  of  butter  is  sent  to  the  markets 
of  Belfast,  Antrim,  and  Derry,  from  the  various  dairies 
scattered  through  Ulster. 

Whatever  were  the  manufactures  of  Ireland  bo- 
fore  the  time  of  James  I.,  they  were  swept  away  in 
the  long  series  of  wars  between  government  and  the 
local  chieftains  in  the  days  of  the  Tudors;  and  tho 
Scottish  settlers  in  the  north  of  Ireland,  and  those 
English  whom  Boyle,  Earl  of  Cork,  brought  into  Mun- 
ster,  may  bo  considered  tho  introducers  of  nearly  all 
the  manufactures  that  now  exist  in  Ireland.  During 
the  reigns  of  Charles  I.  and  II.  much  attention  was 
paid  to  them ;  and  the  exertions  of  Lord  Straiford, 
Sir  William  Temple,  and  tho  Duke  of  Ormond,  caused 
the  establishment  of  tho  linen  trade  to  be  attributed 
sjucccijsively  to  each.     Tlie  Dulv'j  K)'i  Oi-mond  not  only 


CHAMBERS'S  INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. " 


cured  » 


conngri 


nt,  but  t 


'Iknilers  lo  be  inBtructcd  in  the  dotails  of 
ttie  flux  nisnufiic(ui«  ;  aad  sUo  CHtitbliihed  a.  linen  Tbc- 
(urjr  bulh  XI  Clikpiilziod,  near  Dublidj  >nd  nt  Carrick-un- 
Suii-.  In  the  reign  of  William  111.,  Ibe  linea  busiueu 
TOM  to  Mill  grtkter  iDiportuioo,  frani  Ibe  compact  be- 
tween Ihe  Kngliah  >iid  Irith  merchanta  to  diaccurage 
Uie  wtwllen  »iid  promote  the  lineu  tnde;  for  wliicli 
purpoH  thejr  procomd  a  atotute  to  be  passed,  levying 
udilitiooal  duty  on  Iriah  wooUen  ^ouds,  from  a  jentous 
fpar  tijat  die  pnwperitj'  of  the  Irisb  woollen  trade  Has 
itirinuiiBtent  with  Ihx  welfare  of  tliat  uf  England.  An- 
Kllmr  iiupclua  was  giviii  l<i  llie  linen  trade  by  tlie  enii- 
(liitlon  uc  the  Preueti  iiianufaeturera,  after  the  ediot  of 
Nantea,ar  elloro  a  large  niunlMr  took  refngein  Ireland  ; 
and  Mr  Loula  Cromclln,  a  Icadiua  maoubetbrer,  ob- 
tained a  patent  fur  improving  nniT  carrying  it  on,  and 
bia  effOrta  wcr«  crowned  wlIli  euusiderahle  succeea.  In 
tlw  9lh  year  of  Queen  Anne,  n  board  of  linen  and  heropeu 
tnanufaelures  wbh  established,  and  linen  allowed  to  be 
exporii'd,  duly  free.  In  the  8lh  of  George  I.,  a  grant 
van  given  tu  build  a  linen-ball,  aud  another  to  cneourage 
thci  gruwili  of  Su  and  hemp.  PreTioiu  to  17TS,  bleached 
liuvn  waa  mild  in  the  faini,  the  numnfacturer  being  tlie 
lilaaoher  j  but  Vfhen  the  ntauufacture  Bileoded,  bleadi- 
ing  Iwcaine  a  aepaiale  buiinetiB.  Conaiderable  sums 
had  been  tram  time  tu  time  val«d  bj  PiirliiLnient  for  its 
■lippon  1  and  daring  the  eighteenth  Miilur]'  the  trade 
continued  toadtance,  antil  theelleck  it  received  dunng 
the  AmaicBn  war.  On  the  re-ailabliihment  of  peace 
it  revived,  and  mia  at  it*  grealeat  height  from  I79'2  (o 
ITSfi.  9ia«*  this  period  it  bae  considerably  inoienaed, 
and,  though  deprived  uf  all  artificial  propa,  in  the  form 
of  biiunliea,  ie  now  aflonriahing  dfpnrtmenl  of  iiitlueli7. 
Belfaal  la  the  grrat  centre  to  wbicb  the  linens,  not  only 
of  Ulalcr  but  alao  of  the  weaving  diatriela  in  the  wmt 
of  Ireland,  ara  aant  for  aali ;  and  from  hence  large 
qnanlille*  ara  exported  lo  fbrelgn  coDntriea.  The  linen 
trade  pros[>on  at  Caetlewellan,  Balbfrilnnd,  and  Ban- 
bridge,  in  the  eouuly  of  IJuimi,  and  a]?ia  at  Liirgan  in 
tlie  county  of  Armajih,  <vh<:re  the  weavcrH  are  ut  onre 
weavei'i  and  manutnftumii.  AC  Dungannon,  in  Ihe 
*oUBtj  of  Tyrone,  it  has  greatly  declined,  and  is  in 
Donegal  cbidly  confined  lu  those  who  work  for  farmers 
or  market  aale. 

The  provuice  of  Ulster  was  also  the  scat  of  the  flnt 
nottoD  iiianiifactory  introduced  inio  Ireland.  In  1777 
tlio  manulactarea  were  in  the  lowest  alate  of  deprcsuon. 
To  givetlicmaomestimulUB,  Mr  Joy  conceived  the  |ilan 
n[  intioduoiug  eotton  machinery  from  ScolUnd  ;  and  a 
Srm  for  tliii  eliarilable  purpose  was  formed,  of  Joy, 
H'Cabe,  aod  Mt'rakcn  ;  and  a  mill  for  Bpinning  twiat 
by  water  waa  erected  by  them  at  Belfturt  in  178*,  at 
lAleh  time  the  manojaetare  may  be  said  lo  have  l«en 
catablialltd  ;  and  bo  rapidly  did  it  spread,  that,  in  ISOO, 
in  a  oirouil  of  ten  milea,  comprehending  Belfast  and 
Liaburn,  it  gave  employment  lo  27,I>0U  individuals. 
But,  tram  waiii  of  uawiance  at  home  to  protect  it,  and 
tht  ciaharRn  Uid  on  American  goods,  which  inundated 
Ireland  wiili  Kng!i»h  nunufaetum,  the  irads  haa  de- 
clined, anil  the  eulton  maiiuraeture  is  Dour  almost  alto- 
getlitr  c.infined  to  Ihe  county  of  Antrim.  Throurh  the 
•arly  part  uf  the  present  ct'nliuy,  it  was  earripd  on  to 
a  coimidrrable  oitent  io  UruEheita,  CoUon,  Slmlford, 
Moaiiioietlick,  Limerick,  and  Bandon.  Belfast  Mas, 
howsTnr,  Ihe  place  where  moat  skill  and  capital  were 
cK|>eilded  ;  aa  the  trade  mcreawd  there,  it  declined  in 
other  pnrlB  of  the  kiiwdom  ;  and,  though  largo  nunu- 
bt^rire  hate  fnnnerly  been  eatablished  at  <^'lonmel, 
I'utliand,  and  Linieriof,  it  may  for  all  practical  pur- 
pnaaa  be  miwidereil  aa  extinct  in  the  other  porta  of 

Jia  returaa  have  Iwen  j-iven  sineo  the  year  I  CI'J.5, 
when  Ihe  intal  uninber  of  poondB  uf  cotton  «ool  iiu- 
|>arled  into  Irebuid  waa  i,OffSJ>iO;  and  of  cotton  jarn 
imparted  thither  from  Ureal  IlritaiD  in  the  same  year, 
4l^A3.IA't. 

WhiTi  ver  the  linm  trad*  ia  in  operation,  the  people 
hsM  eonatanl  irnipliiymetil,  in  coiuequencc  of  being 


able  to  fall  bark  upon  their  looms  when  tp 
work  is  not  in  demiuid.  Tbey  may  be  Bid,  in 
years,  to  enjoy  a  competency  ;  that  is,  a  luS 
food,  raiment,  and  fuel.  But  in  the  waaten 
Ubilor,  aa,  fur  example,  Ihe  mountainodt  di 
Tyrone,  Donegal,  and  Uerry,  whi^e  the  lim 

elassca  are  not  much  better  off  than  In  the  th 
pruvineei.  However,  speaking  of  Ulster  pa 
may  be  sud  the  lower  classes  have  more  sel 
more  indoslrj',  more  doaire  for  advancement  ii 
iu  other  |)arts  uf  Irekuid.  In  fact,  they  an 
educated,  aud  therefore  a  more  impiuvlng  f* 
ma;  be  oApected,  their  taste  for  cumtorl  o] 
the  economy  of  their  Iioueea  aod  farms ;  u 
in  the  mouutainous  districla  above  alludrd 
old  babiis  still  maintain  their  ground,  the  t 
eantry  may  be  considered  as  a  respectable  el 
ciety.  The  average  rent  of  arable  land  i«  fron 
per  acre,  usually  rising  in  the  immediate  nelgl 
of  towns  to  £.5  or  £G.  The  wage*  in  Ulster 
6d.  to  9d.  a-day  in  winter,  and  in  summer 
to  U.  a-day,  without  diet.  The  food  of  the 
is  chiefly  potatoes,  oatmeal  porridge,  oaten  b: 
and  Bsh,  which  those  who  live  near  the  lea 
tliat  Bpecics  of  sea-weed  called  the  edible  a/g 
The  salt-wBtcr  tialieries  of  IreUnd  cannot 
have  ever  thriven.  L'nder  tlie  former  syst 
Irish  rarlianieiit,  of  giving  bounties,  large 
at  different  times  vot^  fi.r  their  encourage 
by  this  there  vrta  no  real  itronElh  given,  i 
withdraoal  of  these  bounties,  things  fell  i 
natnral  level,  and  the  aia-tisherira  became 
inefficient  for  any  purpose  bnt  Ibal  of  sop 
localities  surrounding  the  flelierman's  dwel 
fishery  laws  are  now  enforced  with  n^rd  I 
sea  and  river  fishing,  and  therefore  tliat*  ii 
belieie  that  this  branefa  of  industry  Is  en  lb 
and,  if  properly  nianoged,  will  beciime  one  ( 
meann  of  bcncjilm^  the  isUnd.  'I'liu  nvci 
though  lean  proiluclii-e  ihnn  under  better  m 
they  might  have  been,  yet  form  in  several  pwi 
a  lucrative  source  of  properly.  The  laka 
abound  with  trout,  pike,  perch,  eels,  and  A 
the  Bann,  the  Foyle,  and  ihe  Ballysliannen  i 
are  ealablished  very  succesBful  salmon-flshn 
mcrly,  whales  were  not  nnfrequenlly,  and 
thougli  but  seldom,  taken  at  the  coast  fishe 
province.  The  salmon -fisheriea  of  tlie  Foj 
Banu  were  early  celebrated.  In  Phillips's 
ars  slated  lo  have  been  let  from  ieu9  I' 
£6G6,  13».  4d.  a-year,  for  three  ye*ra  at 
eleven  years  at  £10i))),  and  for  twelve  ynn 
I'Juter  1g3!>,  at  £300.  1'he  right  of  fisbtne 
Foyle,  so  far  a»  LilTord,  is  vested  in  the  In 
by  the  charier  of  Londonderry,  granled  by  J 
1613.  The  Increase  of  the  quantity  otfisli  I 
the  introduction  of  slake-nelB  is  very  e» 
The  salmon  for  eaporlation  lo  London  ud  to 
are  fnuked  with  ice  in  boxes,  l.i  salmon, «» 
theraboutSUlbi.,  being  put  iulo  each  CMC  1 
made  to  Sir  William  Petty  about  1689,  It  ii 
the  lishing  for  salmon  in  the  Bann  ItJvUl 
"  Ihe  snhnon  HhUeHes,  begins  with  the  I«t  t 


ndsoi 


>e  last  of  July.    Uut  by  the  p 
'.e  1st  of  February  ai 


'  1st  of  September,  seven  months  bring  o^ 
close.  Tbe  Haiin  fishery  h>«  nt  lata  yaan  ' 
neglected ;  hul,undi'r  ilie  spirited  and  judleii* 
menl  of  Charles  Alkiiiaon,  Esq.,  it  baa  bees 
proved  during  Ihe  hut  yeM. 

Tho  chief  towns  in  Ulster  ata  Beffail,  ai 
in  the  county  of  Antrim ;  Londmderrf  ur  . 
(U^rniiv,  in  Ihe  county  of  Londonderry  ;  i 
the  county  uf  the  same  name  ;  Smhmt,  in 
of  Tyrouo ;  ArvHtgh,  In  the  conuty  of  An 
.  NettTf  and  LUkurn,  lu  Ih*  evunlf  of  Dmri. 


■'''fi*. 


-oirtl 


.:::(: 


w*U  Iwlutt^J  (cct  high  uiU  «'ui  ibiakncw -^  lutd, 
I »  tupn'  nf  amrn  tlUM  tira  vvntnriiiB,  th«w  fcirUfloa- 
•  rnlaiii  their  gKJ^iuU  fom  kud  diimulai.  lliii 
A-wot  inutlnD  ma  demaliKfacd  io  llfj'l,  Id  auVa 
11  for  •  markil ;  and  in  1 SSU  Ui«  oeaukl  wMiern 
^n  wu  n]nilili«dn>r^*T«Mptiuli  nf  WiklkaKaTiM- 
iiniil ;  liuL  tbv  riim  uMd  durinit  tli*  eulcbm*d  ai*!* 
0<it  |iniioncd  In  ihclr  erlffliuJ  plucoi.  Th*  tnul 
iboc  nf  wnnoD  Mmabung  la  iha  eily  uid  ■nbui'bn 
linat  flRj :  uid  in  the  nouit-binue  yari  «tudl 
rjnp  Mfs%  HI  call'^  fTcim  tJi«  loudncw  i»  h«r  nport 
liij;  Ula  Wfpi,  This  oaiiiinn  t*  1  Tuvt  n  ladiea  ruwid 
lia  ihteLwl  [lut,  and  11  (mI  Ions,  uid  !■  tfaiu  Id- 
bcd— ■*  l''iwi>toi«imiu,  hmuan,  IVii," 
'h«  diisf  o(  the  Mclmiaatio*!  huildiugH  ia  tbe  CMlio- 
Fur  Dwrl;  tmnt]'  jMn  afiHr  it*  uUoUitioii, 
T?  WM  niduuit  >  )>rup«r  )iliu:a  of  wtinhip,  jutrl  of 
rulmd  Ehureh  of  Saint  Angiutino  li«lng  unplojcd 
that  pnrpiwa.  At  li-n^  a  tnjal  oomnuMian  of 
jury  wu  KppuJntvd,  wUicb,  m  IM8,  miwrtcd  that 
oorporalioD  ill  Ijondoa  had  begnn  tu  build  a  fiUr 
ruh  in  I>*rry,  and  In  U3i  Ua  «r*:(ion  «>•  «nm- 
■d.  This  event  ia  ivcunled  ia  *  tablet,  which  *u 
uially  plawd  omr  the  door  of  the  poreti  ef  tba  old 
indral,  but  la  niiw  ever  lliat  u(  th«  biMry,  bwiug 


follawiiiK  cim)iUl: — 


lli  viiarvk  nd  dlf  fhan  Ui 


CILVMBERS'S  INFOBAUTION  FOR  THE  FEOPLE. 


^^sthor  principal  place*  of  wnnhip  »!«'—>  cliapvl  of 
elW,  B  [roe  eliurcti,  two  Freslijleriui  mwliiic-lioiuwa, 
K  Wenlefan  cliaptl,  a  Pninilivu  Wesleyan  MelhoiUst 
aliKpel,  mlso  RKrurmed  I'mbyleriaii,  SeccdiD^,  and  In- 
drpendent  chsiiuls,  uid  a  Itoiosa  Cotliuhc  chapel, 
'■• •..-n:iiui ntu : '     1 


lia  Library  aaJ  Kews-roam,  the  LimAtio  Aijlum,  (lie 
Jail,  and  ihe  Corporation  Hull.  Of  iu  various  mauu- 
UetaritM.  Ibo  cllirf  uv  two  great  dislUleriu,  and  two 
oom-iaiUi,  oiM  worked  bjr  a  iteam-enginB  of  eigbiccn 
th«  othw  by  ono  of  twifBty  horse-power.  Tlie  jiublic 
•oboolB  ia  Dorry  are,  iJie  Ilinresau,  the  Pamcliiat,  tba 
I'rwbytnrian,  the  AlesUiig-bODwr,  Si  Coluiiili'a,  the 
Barraoks,  the  lafant  Scliuol  ;  aiid  bwidw  tht^sa  aro 
ifUui)'  nllioTB,  pnblia  and  privaw.  Tbcro  is  bor«  a 
branidi  of  tint  Loodan  DiblQ  Society,  tlw  Iiondauderry 
IficiMary  Sanely,  and  one  for  promotlii};  religioui, 
manJ,  and  hUlorteal  knowtedgo.  Tlicre  are  alio  the 
Ixindondctry  Farmera'  Society  and  the  Jleehoniea' 
Inalilulioiu  Tb*  port  carri«t  on  a  cnnudmblu  iniffia, 
botli  with  respect  10  iin|»rts  of  for^a  and  Btitibh 
pmduer.  aad  exports.  The  vatimatod  valne  of  Ihe  ex- 
pOMi  of  Irish  produce  is  abova  a  million  Blerting  per 
anouTO.     Tkie  population  of  Londonderry  in  1831  was 

io^a». 

TIm  dtjrof  Jrvut^iiilnaled  in  aa  inland  port  of  the 
aninti]',  u  of  conudemble  local  iiuportanG«.  It  is 
placed  In  the  niidM  of  a  ridi  and  beautiful  dialrict, 
the  faeo  of  which  is  Angularly  varied  by  deiuheil  hills, 
■Diuo  of  wlu«b  aru  Euon  than  a  thousand  feet  in  hcigbu 
Tbi*  oharaolar  of  oouotry  sLrctchcB  from  Luui;)i  Neugh 
in  tba  nurtb  lu  llie  nnitli-watem  part  of  the  rouuiy 
vT  Maalh  in  thu  wuth,  and  is  well  watered  bj  lakes 
and  elniBnui,  aiul,  gunofaliy  apcaking,  riuhly  fumifilied 
with  wiud.  The  city  itaoda  on  a  hiu,  which  U  crowned 
by  (bs  old  cslhcdral,  aroond  which  tko  tuwa  ba» 
mdoaUy  ariHn.  Witliin  ihc»e  few  yean,  savonj 
■MtlBOliie  buildinja  bars  been  ercoWd,  witji  cut  ' 
ttoula— Iha  Court-hoose,  tha  Jail,  the  Fvtthi ' 
amreh.  i'rimale  Stewart's  Fi 
lih«ra]ly  ui.dowed  by  biin,  and  well  carried  on  ;  Ihe 
NatiuualSi;huol,aiid  theSavings'Itanlt.  TheCalhedral 
baa  been  re-edified  wiihiu  ilusu  five  years,  at  an  ex- 
Moao  exeevdiog  £30,000,  in  liie  pointed  Gothic  at^le, 
tat  the  moit  part  in  very  good  lule ;  the  organ  u  a 
remarktbty  fine  one,  and  the  chulr  excelleul.  The 
ruadiVi  in  all  directiona,  are  admirable ;  and  in  the  laying 
nut  uf  tliB  new  ont^  they  are  carried  ruund  instead  of 
iiver  the  hill*.  Tliei«  is  ualur-earriage  from  both 
Belbat  and  Newrv  by  late  and  canal,  to  witliin  four 
milea  of  the  dty ;  tile  streets  bare  Hugged  (ootwtye,  and 
are  well  Ujthled  wiib  gas.  About  forty  yeuiHuos,  tlie 
nifiulalic  "   '     '  " 


'lb*  ArtlibiAop  of  Armagh.  Primate  of  all  Ireland, 
IwudM  How Ju  tlio  town,  as  do  also  a  large  number  of 
ol*r)cym«n  oluehwl  lii  tlie  Calhedml,  as  well  as  many 
IsapsMabla  gentry.  Near  Armagh  itaDds  the  Obrnr- 
Talory,  biiiti  and  endowed  by  Primate  ItobiDma,  whose 
miuiiBoene*  gra»tly  cootriluiad  to  the  advance  of 
soiencv  sod  imptovMnant  of  the  whole  dioccae.  Tliis 
noble  inalitutinn  kit  pmonl  ouuducted  by  the  Rev. 
Pr  Itobinsoo,  Frufessor  of  Astronomy. 

CoKKidiUT,  tlie  nnalleat  of  the  four  pravinCH,  eon- 
faina  but  five  coDnliee,  those  of  Lfilrim,  AoKOmmon, 
AJapo^  SUffCy  and  CHaUtay.  There  are  in  this  province 
lariie  tracia  of  monatainooa  and  sterile  huid,  eepecially 
in  thn  wtsm  jmna  at  the  eouotiee  of  Ualway  and 
ktayo.  The  pennunla  formed  by  the  wasLem  port  of 
the  Dm  of  thme  BOtmlies  is  named  £)mTkemoni,  and  is 
bmed  br  its  siMiiery,  wliiofa  sumewbat  ranmbliB  that 
of  ArgylUuro.  ll  may  be  deaeribffd  as  a  last  tract 
nf  mingled  buf,  lake,  ruck]'  UMorland,  and  nuantain, 
boniuled  and  partially  praairaled  by  deep  Inlsta  of  the 
-  -    niblinij^  the  Itorda  of  Norway.     The  |iilnei|iHl 

rodiydMBrt, 


hearing  no  email  rcsembbuieo  to  those  tf  M 
twecn  this  lake  and  the  weMern  exltenilrgr 
mora,  there  is  a  range  of  tall  swelling  grtoi  bib 
the  Twelve  Fins  of  BullaboU^  and  to  thennthi 
is  an  eatnnry  famed  fur  its  wild  tmuaj,  dm 
KlUery,  many  milea  in  length,  and  coDnscteti 
Athuilic  by  a  panuige  only  tkiirly  feet  vid«.  Qi 
cootslnij  a  sniallj  scattered,  and  primibrepof 
aiiusually  full  of  superstittuua  and  old  fiauU 


Deaides  Clifdeu,  a  modern  fishiDg-villon  ud  ' 
ooasl,  there  ia  scarcely  any  such  seat  of  popil 
the  district.     There  are,  howerei,  a  few  bun 


for  the  acoommodation  of  the  a 
flock  thither  in  aommer. 

From  the  high  grounda  near  WostporU  l><il 
view  of  Clew  Bay,  a  magDilicent  sheet  of  olnKisI 
water,  full  of  islaads,  and  bounded  by  lofty  n 
amon^  which  the  most  conspicuous  an 
Patrick  and  Kephin.  The  isUnds  of  Clar«  m 
bound  the  scene  towards  the  wost.  In  aotns 
the  irealhcr,  and  parlieularly  when  a  aainnM 
calmly  descending  ou  Ciare,  the  view  of  Oi 
one  of  exlraordiuaiy  beauty.     The  islanda  ai 

a  year,  but  in  reality  are  only  about  a  honilrtd 
Patrick  is  regarded  with  supeMJIious  fMiO) 
peosanti^r,  as  the  spot  where  their  tuUlatf  i 
accustomed  to  preach. 
Amidst  the  great  Iracta  of  wild  ground  in  Ot 


hicb  the  Shannon  llows, 
oku  tliat  near  liuyle,  at  tb 
At  Lough  Gill,  n 


extmtnely  prri 
toot  uf  the  Curl* 
r  Sligo,  a  Uka  b 


httle  bay  of  ArdnaglaM,  into  whlcb 
cataract  of  BallyBedorc^  ore  scenes  of  peenllK 
Much  of  ihe  aurfaco  of  Galw«y  is  fUt,  ahoi 
twenty  milae  together,  a  suoceiaioa  »f  uamwl 
rucks,  like  parapet  walls  of  threu  feet  hi^  ; 
liaiallels  lu  each  olhor.  at  distances  of  IroiB 
tfan  feet:  llie  inletmediate  spaces,  though  s| 
but  a  waste  of  ruck  and  sloue,  supply  Ihe  fin 
pasture  in  (he  kingiJoDi. 

Tkfe  great  ceatnl  limestone  district  of  In 
cupiea  Iha  sonthera  portion  of  this  provioca,  * 
the  eye,  forms  on  exception  to  the  general  c 
of  limestone  countries,  appearing  so  eteuuda 
reu,  llial,  in  passing  over  tracts  of  OaJway  ■■ 
the  traveller  almost  doubta  whelhiK  be  ia  Dot 
ing  over  a  great  cemetery  coeetwl  with  100 
miher  than  over  plaou  where  the  sheep  m 

Cssiure  or  the  peasant  plant  polataaa.  Th 
owever,  some  exceptians  to  this  pnmuiiBg 
for  nowhere  are  finer  sheep-walks  found  than 
parts  even  of  the  southern  counties  of  Cv 
The  tillage  of  this  pravinee  ia  principally  on 
oats  and  potatoes,  as  beet  suited  to  Ihe  shalloi 
tain  bog^oii,  which  so  largely  prevails  is  (faa 
baronies.  The  extreme  moisturv  of  the  oUb 
inimical  to  the  growth  of  wheat,  that,  eao^ 
pans  of  Galway,  Connaught  cannot  be  nid  W 
own  bread  com.  There  is  a  great  cxpuMOf 
Dotaloes  from  the  ports  of  Oalway,  WeMpc^ii 
with  regard  to  husbandry,  though  It  dsHHl 
proving,  it  is  yet  much  inferior  to  that  of  iba  at 
vincfa.  The  landhoUlera  fride  thnm»Jt»  «■  t 
of  loog-wDoled  sbaep,  their  greM  soureadC  w 
tbe  c^ebrmleil  Fair  of  BalUnasloas  whan  Um 
to  10U,a00are  usually  aald,  year  afUryMfNd 
improvement  in  this  btsnch  of  rural  auapuiqy. 
callie,  and  horses,  especially  huQbsnv  ale  ■ 
extensively  in  Galway.  What  has  boea  mU 
sler  applies  in  a  still  mon  aggravated  diy 
naught.  The  property  ct  on  absnntae  landlM  ■ 
divided  into  portions  ruinously  tiuidl ;  and  if 
prietors  do  not  quickly  interfM^  rtsfhwM 
(jnenees  niuM  mult  from  the  aobdlnAi — —^ 
grariug  farms  sre  let  In  large  poKMM 


°JS 


Itm  qiumliij  or  vsIuh  iifeooil*  ur  (muliicv  rwiwi'i!^    I 
UD  ur  •uai  l<>  1  roluvl.    tWl  lliin  tnUlD  biui  trunUw   i 
ttimtti  Id  all  lU  bmiidits  Ihara  ciui  Wno^uU;  und    \ 
la  iiienuw  nuy  putly  bn  attributed  In  ctm  ahidiilaii 
UiB  rcMrlctloiu  t]i&t  Muiltd  up  to  Ur2.^,  b«X  pmlnlitjr 


IwMn  Inlftud  mi   '  "'<';  uut 

liu  of  MrioHlMnl  f  ilijt  ur 

nlram  mianj  ill  ii-i  ■■  ■■■■ 'IuhWiiI 

lilt  il  llpp*"^"  lll«t  ll"'  ^iilJil.il  ill II':  .jI  Jdu  iroiln  •, 

aut  four  niilliuoji  nnd  a  half  ■WrlioK,  vlilcb  wm 
Ml  (lutnuuli:  upoCtirtiirlei  llutcouul  uol  bnVRluva 
prottiitlilv  brmghi  lo  £iiftlaiid  Ly  uy  jiraTlnuil/    , 
Ming  tnndDof  acai  vcysnsih—aiialt  m  Htv-oxUIh,  Iiium. 
^vp,  and  pig*  ;  tlia  Talu«  iit  which  unoiuilnl  tn  1 KAL 


CHAMBERSS  INFOftMATION  FOR  TEE  PEOPLE. 


to  £l,7Ga,000,  and  in  IBSS  to  £1,430,000.  Dariag  tbe 
Bune  two  ;atn  the  value  of  Itiah  Bgricultur&l  prodi  ' ' 
bltiilght  to  the  port  uf  Bristol  nTerngcd  About  ons  n 
Udu  alvi'ling.  Tbe  >rhole  uambar  of  cattle,  banes, 
■bv^rUi  »iiJ  p*Sh  Milt  from  Ireluid  to  the  vanoufl  porta 
of  ^igUni)  aod  Soottiuid,  in  different  ycus  from  Itm 
to  18-J.1,  wu  u  follows:— 


IMI. 

laoL 

im 

iBia 

1817- 

.K.1. 

im 

•F 

31, MS 

alast 

3.6^1 

MS 

w.j»  Iea.»i9 

The  uutubera  sviit  U>  Liverpool  imd  Brutol  alone,  in 

1831  flDd  1832,  were— 

Li^VoU. 

Bri.loL 

imi. 

MU^, 

IIHl.    1     ISU. 

^" 

.H^. 

,.«i.wi 

luW 

8,078 

St.  107 

*.4« 

[|>  the 


;  but! 


wonld  appear  that  this  bnmch  of  trade  h&a  auioe  gone 
Oa  incTcaniig  in  a  most  Hatraardiniuy  degree,  as  will 
Im  Mm  truDi  the  foUuiring  aeouiuil  of  the  nnmber  and 
*  mill*  uT  livs  BnJmala  bronght  from  Ireluid  to  LirarpDol 
IntbojMT  1N:i7:— 

M,TIO  BIhOi  C^UK,  at  lul.  <acb.    -  fl.MJJI 


Ml*  Hgnv,  n IH.») 

autMuta,  w.  --      -      -  a.estt 

Toim  *»io.,      -     ■  £3jai3n 

The  arontg*  value  here  awigned  to  the  aeTersl  Idode 

ol  aniniula,  ii  giyea  on  the  authority  oS  an  intelligent 

gentleniaD  residrni  al  Liverpool,  uid  wlio  is  pnicli^l)' 

^laiutcd  with  the  tnde. 
he  value  in  money,  of  one  MetiUDjI;  unimportant 
article,  fsx>,  lakeji  iu  (he  eunrac  uf  tlia  year  t«  tlie  above 
two  porlH  froni  Ireland,  aniounta  to  at  least  £100,000. 
Hi*  prosniH  of  this  trade  alTordfl  a  curioua  illDetrstloa 
of  the  aavBDtage  of  commercuil  facillliea  iu  stimulating 
praduolion  Bud  equalising  prices.  Before  iheeitabliah- 
ment  of  stoam-vcnel*,  tl>e  iriarket  at  Cork  was  most 
!m-gularly  supplied  wilh  egga  fruoi  the  surrounding 
■lialrieli  at  corlain  seaaoBs  they  were  exceedingly 
abuntlaiit  and  cheap,  but  thetn  aeaaons  WCT«  sore  tn  \m 
follovred  by  poriads  of  scarcity  and  higb  priews 
tiiuas  il  M  said  to  have  been  diffieult  lo  purcluu 
al  any  price  in  the  market.  At  the  )ir«l  opening 
iiopmvod  flhvmel  for  conveyance  to  Kngland,  Ih 
dents  at  Cork  had  In  complain  of  the  constant  nign 
price  of  this  and  other  articles  of  fann-produee ;  but 


;;fG 


snlly  or 

to  them,  the  ttraien  gave  their  ittenlmn  lo  the  rearing 
and  keeping  of  poultry,  and,  at  the  present  time,  e]»s 
»t«  procutvblu  al  all  seasons  in  the  market  at  Onk, 
not,  it  is  true,  at  the  axtrviaely  low  nle  at  which  tliev 
could  formerly  be  pometimes  bought,  but  still  at  mueh 
Ins  lliau  the  areragi'  price  of  the  year:  a  like  result 
ha*  fulhiwed  the  lutroduntloa  nf  this  great  impruvemenl 
tn  regard  to  the  supply  and  cost  of  i  prions  oilier  arti- 
cles ot  produce.  In  the  apparently  unimportant  arllelo 
feathers,  it  may  be  staled,  ou  the  resprclable  autho- 
rity sboro  ijuoled,  tliat  the  yvarly  inijioftaliiin  into 
England  tmiu  Ireland  reaches  the  aniouut  of  £iOQfi(i<>. 
whrti,  sunie  years  tpi.  it  was  delrrniinrd  lo  Ciausa 
fceeping  any  ofBcial  recurj  of  the  eammervial  Inter- 
•oiuse  brCwnen  Grral  Britain  and  Ireland,  an  ex- 
<ntion  was  made  as  regards  grain  and  (loiir,  Ihal  trade 
being  of  great  perKinal  inlemt  Iu  our  Ingislaluni.  The 
ttillowini  Bialnnent  uhibiu  die  quaoiities  of  those 
kinds  of  produM  sent  to  Elriuln  from  Ireland  in  meh 
ycartrvm  I8IJ1  to  lliiW:— 


M.7W 


IJDOJM 


In  tbe  abeenee  of  all  farther  cuitoinhnua*  ti 
nllowiiig  table  uf  the  number  and  tonusf*  uf 
D  which  the  tradiiij;  intercourse  with  Irvlai 
carried  on  duriug  esdi  year  of  the  prssca 
will  afford  a  pretty  uorreel  view  of  Im  M 
'togreu.  If  we  compare  Uie  totuiaee  vat 
HI  )801  with  that  of  1636,  we  shall  Knd  that  tbej 
the  proportion  of  Qo7  to  100,  shomue  an  lucre 
157  per  cent.  Il  will  farther  be  stcn  Jul  this  in 
has  been  much  more  rapid  during  tlie  laM  tea  pi 
whicli  stcam-veasels  have  been  so  much  broUgkl: 
use,  than  it  was  in  the  preceding  yeata  of  lbs  ■ 
Up  to  1926,  Ibo  increase  from  1801  wM  w  idom 
S3  per  oenl.,  ebowing  a  mean  aunual  taetvaas  nt  11 
ireas,  in  the  ten  years  fallowing  ISM,  a 
been  J'j  per  cent.,  or  f  J  per  cent.      — 


:s 


I.W.M  ' 


•A  snd  pnhltdmt  1^  v/.ti^u.  Ciuanu, 


iES-S 


BpHE  PEOPLE. 

moMAb  OODBU.  *e. 


•W    TO 


lUin'.iHMiui'inicii  {•*  limclrait  tullw kaek  Inintite 
>l  M  (h*  AlliMitic,  hM  Iwrtt  oMlli"!  fcr  iHcpUrf 


EIriUih  luuiwMUiii*  uid  the  United  Sulci,  u  mlJiiir 
lUvcr  Si  Lawivuon  tod  Uie  Inku  {mm  hIi£bcb  it 
KndB,  m  an  Heal  and  |>iinl]'  etintaUM]  boundwf. 
n4«  U  baiuideii  on  tlio  coit  by  Uia  Culf  af  St  Law*. 
3D  uid  Labndat i on  Uta  oorui  bvths  torril«ri«  of 
bon't  Bay ;  on  Uia  wrat  by  tlia  trifle  Oomo  j  m 
umLli  bv  loiiuui  eauulrira,  mrtii  of  lh«  Ut^tad 
i^aoilivirgr  Grnimwiek.  CanaUabdivniDd  iMo  nra 
linEM,  ihe  U|Tpir  aud  Luwpr,  vmIi  cf  wlildt  t«t 


iw  nf  wiw.iil.ly,  t 

HouwM  of  Penwiiiiif '  I  ■                       ■  ;'i'T  (wira- 

aild  whoM)  niw*"r  a  of  I^d 

Bninr,  fm  lliK  aotn  1 1 1  i  rriiuiro 

.  of  the  uncral^.   '  '' 


uiauBretiil-jooll" 


ely  la  a  oolonkl  luinnii-r.  laii  flnnllj  in  ibc  Britith 

■latuic.  In  Lo««rCi4udB,  or  that  portion  Of  Mtlra 

"  "'lOKiwitarparlDftliepopDUrionuiofFrimoh 


^iaganKraUynpotwD.  UpperCanad»,ia-morepr»- 
y  Iniur  Quiada,  U™  to  the  vnml  and  Miutb-wat  ot 
lower  profine*.  IIb  iiilisliiluiw  art  nf  UritinhdtT 
It,  and  a  very  grmt  nnmWr  nf  tlicm  are  from  Scot- 
I,  botb  Lowlanda  ud  lliahlandii.    Thi  Eosluh  fnw 

aliureli  ara  ben  («tabl»Md  -,  hut  thcro  u  tun  inuHt 
i(«t  lQi«ny  of  contioIeiiM,  and  a*  griit  ■  scauritr 
ifa  and  prupnly  aa  oim  In  KcoIlaoJ  or  ICDKlaiui. 
Mr  CanailB  i>  divided  bte  diatrletg,  counUna,  ridinCN 
nnlriiH),  •peclal  Iracli,  and  lUlDtiurals,  tugvihvr  wltli 
ka  nf  land  rcvrvcd  for  the  elijTgjt  and  tbp  «ra*n, 

Iniid*  a)ipr^rialed  (a  ilio  Ituliadia.  A  dUtriat  eaa- 
a  two  ur  Ilircp  «ouiitini,  onit  me)!  conniy  nnntaln* 
n  foor  to  thirty  towmdiip*.  Tiinv  an  13  diiititeU. 
BoUDllca,  and  li  riiliufia,  iHiinpriM'iiK  tii|r*"*"*'  3*'' 
mhina.  The  lino  of  diiiMOn  b*twixt  U^\kv  and. 
'w  Vaia&a  i»  m  him  ^W,  li«  Owkb*  «i  Qit»i*- 


CHAMBERS'S  IMFOaMATION  FOR  THE 


tion,  HUeli  M  1iU!b  uid  ri>cr> ;  Mill  lliU  peotilUrity  is 
common  t^^r  iJif  vliulu  uf  Nnrlli  Amerie*.  Tllo  ate- 
ngn  icrritor;  uf  eadi  lowiuhip  nuy  be  «linmU.-il  at 
<i  1  ,S00  ■cm.iiu'l'iug  •!>  kgravKBte  quuitil;  nf  1 6,81  G^UU 
Mm,  Aliniit  T.UUU^UU  nf  acrei  b>ve  been  i;niil«l  M 
dificrenlcUneaarulllonSt^Oa^OOacreaarecewrved 
for  Uiiii  GTitvn  Aud  clcr^  ({urt  of  which  hhs  already 
hwii  icraiilfd  by  the  ctuwii  to  the  Canada  Compiuiy]; 
aiiJ  £.1111,40(1  acre*  rtniniu  to  be  granwd  wilbLii  the 
(oHoahipa.    Xbis  loci  oT  souatry,  eliictly  bonleiiog 


the  north 


Erie  up  tu  LakeStCUir.undafllieH 
twepu  it  uiU  Ijtka  llui'ou,  a  dutanoc  liu)*  alio 
huudrcil  iiud  mvoily  mllci,  aiul  atmohinK  »i 
from  the  water  to  a  du[iill  varyiiijE  trom  nhf  1 
milea,  ia  cunnioasd  uf  a  eoil,  wiiioh,  for  prwJool 
ucDB,  vari«ly,  and  apjilWtiillly  to  th*  li>)[Wt 
of  agriculture,  may  challenito  oomiwmioB  ' 
oliaraHt  traeta  of  land  Id  tba  N«w  WorkL 

Upper  Canada  U  chieay  a  Hat  muiitry,  ai 
tbs  (p^Mter  pari  severed  with  timber,  but  pa 
Dumber  af  cluina  or  ridge*  uf  higli  laada,  ni 
diiVcreDt  dirEClioiia,  and  aepgLraiiii);  the  aoui 
chaDDels  of  LmumBrablerivenand  brouka.  TI 
and  level  diiUnolB  ore  called  I'able  Land*.  TI 
fixture  of  the  country  La  ita  water-coune*.  B; 
at  the  map,  it  will  be  pareuire 
large  lakiHi,  oonimuuicotiiig  wi 
an*:]ualled  by  any  inland  tdieel*  of  wUcr  la  (I 
and  are  uitilled  lo  the  appellatiun  uf  fc«sli>«i 
fur  tttcy  an  not  only  of  great  exlODt,  bul  M* 
be  a&ecUHl  by  Btorma  like  the  oeean  ilsclf.  Hi 
called  Lake  Superiur,  i>  SHI  mil«  toag, 

long,  and  fma  A 

broad ;  Eric,  S'31  milea  lone,  and  about  TO  ia 
Cintaho,  1(1  loiles  in  length,  and  SU  in  bnad 
waters  of  Lake  Erie,  on  unuiiiR  fro~ 
mlty,  form  a  riTur  uf  nearly  half  a 


Late  El 

.;l«l  by 
with  tJra  Ha 
ri»f  of  tha 
SMIa,»hidi  I 
IfitDlhii  AUaal 
Ota*a,(vOn 


n  ibe  bwd  td  Iba  Hay  et  VuiiiU  WMtv 
I  lino  brMw«u  Toronto  kbo  TnfuJgM.  AJUiouih 
9  inpulonn  liuut  Uu  tnct  of  Muoiry  ootnpaMi^  i£» 
il  jiBrt  uf  ^d  (iiviuiHi  oliiob  wo  Inro  aiLipiiiil,  tliJ» 
Ttiuu  iif  ill*  priitioM  dutu  nutyifU  U>  it  in  irruiUij, 
i  In  equnUv  itM  waWrwl  by  nuin*rt>uit  Uhu^  linwd 
]  twBitUfiiT  nv*!;^  kml  ioiiuiiuu^blv  ultcuiu  «ul 
Kdu.  The  rivun  iu  ^aurnl  kbniuul  witb  vxedlimi 
i<aiulc*pMilikIly  ituiiueii.ltraBdiiuuiUliuHtwluoliftn 
joalljrflpeiiml  u>  Uw  Kivor  Credit  (or  (li*  Wii^f  uf 
'  irHUni  vmaicrj.  la  (rant  «f  NtiHewUu  ■iuimt.'fli 
iburdaraof  Liiiu>  Oatwrlui  liio  swlBUiuii*!  of  a  h«b 
«k  HUlli  1  bui  in  tlia  tliirtrivt  at  llDin*.  i ' 
'  Uku  trv  or  lUi  luhriiir  >(ualilj'.  Thai  UnJit  upvni 
UK*  IjOmI  [rvauit  uv  friniaaiiU)'  unUud  ilmM*  la 

I  fixviniiUiUitj'  laltiie,  tut  Ml  duollulo  ol 

ldii>i;  ulilJ  i.ihtT  ]iurp«ua),  u  id  creulcj 

i>.  A  B»rulyji[iun,atwiiDa  vxttflit, 
:i"tlli  lit  DduHo,  lonvrla  tlioa 
.  .111(1  proWbly  one  or  i*«  niu 

.'r :i>-Aiit  •uKiptiniHi  tliu  iM>l  at  tl . 

.,„:  >,ii-i'iiiHly  larUlv,  wull  ■•la^tnJ  tat 


C  HAMBERS'S  INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


maize  or  Indian  com,  peas,  barley,  oats,  buckwheat, 
&c.  The  fronts  of  all  the  townships  from  Kingston  to 
Toronto  are,  with  few  exceptions,  well  settled ;  roads 
lead  through  them,  from  which,  in  many  places,  others 
branch  off  to  the  interior.  At  intervals,  rather  distant 
indeed  from  each  other,  there  are  a  few  smuU  villages. 
On  the  lands  tliat  are  occupied,  great  progress  has  been 
made  in  agriculture :  the  horses,  generally  s|>eaking, 
ure  strong  and  well  built ;  and  the  inhabitants  appear 
to  be  possessed  of  all  the  necessaries,  as  well  as  most 
of  the  comforts,  that  a  life  of  industry  usually  bestows." 
In  this  division  is  the  town  of  Toronto.  Our  authority 
next  proceeds  to  notice 

The  Western  Sectiotif  which  includes  Gore,  Niagara, 
London,  and  Western  districts.  ^  With  the  aid  of  a 
little  fancy,'*  says  l^uchctte,  ^  tins  tract  of  country 
may  be  shaped  into  a  vast  equilateral  triangular  pen- 
insula, whose  base,  extending  from  Fort  Erie  to  Cape 
Ilurd  on  Lake  Huron,  measures  216  miles,  and  whose 
perpoadicular,  striking  the  Detroit  River  at  Amherst- 
burgA,  is  about  li).>  miles.  It  is  bounded  to  the 
norui  and  west  by  Lake  Huron,  River  and  Lake  St 
CUir,  and  Detroit  River ;  south  by  Lake  Erie ;  and 
east  by  Niagara  River,  Lake  Ontario,  and  the  wes- 
tern limits  of  the  district  of  Home.  The  surface  it 
exhibits  is  uniformly  level,  or  slightly  undulating,  if 
we  except  a  very  few  solitary  eminences,  and  those 
parts  of  the  districts  of  Gore  and  Niagara  traversed  by 
the  ridge  of  elevated  land.  The  variety  of  soils,  and 
the  diversity  of  their  combinations,  observable  in  these 
four  districts,  are  by  no  means  so  great  as  might  be 
expected  in  so  extended  a  region.  The  whole  tract  is 
alluvial  in  its  fonnation,  and  chiefly  consists  of  a  stratum 
of  black,  and  sometimes  yellow  loam,  above  which  is 
deposited,  when  in  a  state  of  nature,  a  rich  and  deep 
vegetable  mould,  the  substratum  beneath  the  bed  of 
lojim  being  generally  a  tenacious  grey  or  blue  clay, 
which  in  8(»n)e  parts  ap)>earH  at  the  surface,  and,  inter- 
nii\i'<l  witii  sand,  c»>nstiiutt*s  ilu»  suju-r-j^oil.  There  are 
num'ToUH  and  extensive  ipiarries  ot*  limestone  ti>  he 
found  in  these  diMrict><,  that  supply  the  farmers  >>ith 
excellent  materials  tor  bnilUin;;.  Freestnne  is  also 
ff>unil,  hut  in  small  (quantities,  ami  geneiMliy  alon;;  the 
sht>ns  of  the  lakes.  'J'he  Tiianies  Kiver,  in  this  section, 
rises  far  in  the  interior,  and,  after  ]»ur'>uin;5  a  si-rprnlini' 
coui-m;  oi  about  <ine  hnndreii  and  hftv  miles,  in  a  diree- 
tion  n»"arly  s<iulh-v\est,  disehari;*'?^  itself  into  Lake  St 
Clair."  This  jiurlion  <•!"  the  pntvnice  seems  to  us  to  be 
that  nicfst  wurthv  oi  tlie  attt-ntion  of  the  eniiirrant  ;  the 
climate  is  pleasant,  the  land  exeelli  nt,  the  ri\ers  nunie- 
riius  and  useful  ;  roads  are  openini:  nj>  in  all  directions 
fur  ill*-  brnetit  of  the  inhahitants ;  and  alth«>ni;h  at  a 
^reat  distance  ini.md.tln*  cnmniunieation  >vith  the  ocean 
is  conveniently  Kept  up  hy  means  of  tiie  lakes  ai:d 
canals.  Were  we  ahont  to  ennj^rate,  we  would  have 
little  lie->itation  in  ilinetini;  our  stfps  towards  this  por- 
tion of  I'pptT  Canada,  so  t»'n»ptinu[  from  the  prodiijious 
vastne-s  of  its  \\at«T>..  the  exuh«rant  fertility  of  its 
t'\ren>ive  plains,  i!>  luxuriant  orehar  Is,  and  its  busy 
H''ne>  ot  rural  nidustrv. 

Nearly  etjnal  to  this  tract,  and  superior  as  regards 
exemption  iV<»ni  aijue,  is  the  Sinieoe  district,  lyii;:^ 
In-iuixt  the  lake  of  that  name  and  the  ea>«tern  part  of 
LaU«-  Huron.  This  land  is  ahoui  I'oo  fret  above  tli»' 
levil  oi  nntariij,  and  of  the  rich* -t  «juaiily.  A  steam- 
boat on  Lake  .Simc«»e  conveys  the  j.ntdjice  to  Ilojland- 
i.tiidin.:  at  tin*  Miuth  end  of  the  laivc,  anil  a  railroad  has 
I'tiii  j  r«'j«-cted  from  theneeto  Ti>ronto.  A  ijrrat  part  of 
thi-  tract  li'ini;  scttli-d  hv  naval  and  irulitarv  ha!f-pav 
ctli'-i  r^,  wiio  draw  their  pay  'luarttriy.  tiu-n"  will,  c<in- 
^'- iiientlv,  hr  more  readv  mi-neN  circulatini;  hrre,  and 
ni'ip*  emplMMuent  fi»r  all  kind>  of  tradi'Mut-n,  tl;an  in 
n. -t  otlirr  placi-'.  The  l:uid  lur--  i.*»  ri-^ini;  rapi'ily  in 
\.i!no.  \\  r  n»ay  sta:<'  that  all  kin<li  of  tr;i.h*-n»en  will 
tiii'l  ahundane«*  of  cnipliiymrnt  at  ror<int<) ;  hut,  in  con- 
si->{Ui'nce  of  it>luu  situatii>n  i>ii  Lake  Ontario,  it  i>  liahle 
to  ajrne-,  an<l  v*ill  b«'  aviti«led  hy  thiise  who  are  subject 
to  ^Mi'ii  .lib  eti'-ns. 

|f  n.av  I.I  re  b«-  roiiiarketl,  that  llie  i;'n«.ral  valubrity 


of  the  climate  improves  aa  you  recede  from  tli 
of  the  Ukes  and  great  rivers,  although  these 
as  a  counterpoise,  a  greater  iSacility  of  diaposini 
plus  produce. 

The  prevailing  maladies  on  the  shores  of  tl 
and  large  rivers  are  fevers  and  the  ague,  wl 
though  a  most  annoying  complaint,  is  very 
fatal.  Hy  great  care  being  given  to  regularil 
bowels,  moderate  use  of  spiiituous  liquors,  kee 
feet  dry,  and  avoiding  unneeessary  exposure 
air,  it  may  generally  be  averted.  We  cannot  sni 
impress  on  the  minds  of  emigrants  the  uecesi 
will  be  under  of  adhering  to  temperate  liab 
the  Canadas,  whisky  is  much  cheaper  than  in 
hence  this  advice  becomes  of  double  importaiic 

Mr  Fergusson,  in  his  "  Practical  Notes,"  mj 
ing  a  tour  in  Canada  in  1831,  furnishes  hijt 
with  a  number  of  valuable  illustrations  of  the  i 
appearance  of  the  Upper  Province  along  the  r 
pursued :  indeed,  all  intending  emigrants  whucs 
it  should  purchase  his  very  instructive  volume.  S 
of  that  part  of  the  territory  adjacent  to  Lower 
he  says — "  Returning  to  the  St  Lawrence,  we  e 
Upper  l^roviuce,  the  Ottawa  here  forming  the  b 
line.  As  we  ascend  the  river,  we  find  numerous 
and  thousands  of  acres  well  adapted  for  the 
One  of  the  firbt  settlements  we  meet  with  is  t! 
garry  district,  an  extensive  tract  of  good  laud, 
the  advantages  of  water  carriage.  The  language 
toms,  and  the  native  courage  of  their  Celtic  si 
distinguish  the  clan,  though  at  the  same  time 
afraid,  accompanied  by  some  of  those  less  p 
traits  which  stamp  the  Highlander  as  more  at 
wielding  the  claymore,  or  extracting  mount 
than  in  guiding  the  ploughshare  to  slow  but 
results.  The  farms  arc  but  indifferently  in 
considering  the  advantages  they  have  enjo\ 
much  valuable  time  is  expended  in  the  depll 
forest,  in  a  demi-savai^e  life,  cuttins:  and  p 
timber  f«»r  the  lumber  merchant,  which,  if 
devoted  to  the  cultivation  of  the  land,  wuuid  < 
he  attended  with  intinitely  ;;ivaler  beneHt,  L 
phvsical  and  moral  point  of  >  lew. 

To  iiii  minutely  into  llie  stati*»tic!*  of  even  tl 
of  tin.'  rivi-r,  would  far  e\cce«l  the  limits  to  w  hie 
ni'cessarilv  restrict  niv^eif.  SutHce  it  to  <-av,  th; 

•  •  • 

•itant  >nccession  «»f  elii^ibli*  situatioiis  present  tin 
for  estates  and  farms.  1  w.is  nnich  ph"a*^'d  • 
Matilda  district,  and  consii.U-r  it  capable  »»f  j; 
pr«)veinenl.  The  soil  is  a  line  mellow  Kind\  litai 
timo>,  perhaps  rather  li>:ht,  but  admii-ably  a<b 
turnip  husbandry  and  line-wooled  sheep,  witii  n 
hoautiful  situations  fi»r  residences,  the  noble 
rence  ever  formini;  a  pronnnent  feature — its 
varieil  bv  li>vi'lv  wooded  islands,  similar  to  tho 
justly  admire  on  many  <if  our  Hriti^h  lakes.  ina| 
m\X  Kiii.j-«ton,  or  the  east  enil  of  Lake  (hitari.',  li 
( iuanano;;ue  falls  into  the  ."^t  Lawrence,  and  at  it 
i«*  the  establi>'hin<Mit  of  Messrs  .M'Donell,  two  1 
who  came  ah  »ut  eij^lit  years  aijo  to  the  culf 
who,  by  .-tiady  enter[»rise,  with*  ut  ori::ii:al  cipii 
roalisoil  consitierable  wealth,  while,  ai'»n:;  with 
have  bi'curetl  the  respect  and  est«'ein  ol  uli  «l 
them.  Thty  have  InTc  what  is  caliiil  in  .\fi 
vahiahle  water  pri\ile^e,  or  fall,  and  have  civcl 
and  saw  mills  to  a  l:ir:;«'  extent. 

ILiN  in::  recci\<'d  very  <'nc«)ur.'i'.:in-::  accounts  . 
ston,  of  tlie  conntrv  alou:;  the  Hav  of  Uuinlc, 
inlet  of  Lake  Hntario,  formed  by  a  peninsul 
I'riiicc  Iviward'h  Island,  1  maile  an  t  xcurs;'«u  i 
<h*'triet.  Thi'  scMi'-ry  was  plra-inij,  in  ni.tn; 
very  tine  ;  ami  sctth-nuMit'^  are  l..rnon".;  on  cve: 
The  soil  iv.  partly  clay,  partly  loam  and  nvi 
ciently  rich  to  yielil  liirii-n  cro;  s  nf  px^d  whe.it, 
puiiity,  in  a  period  of  t  w«.  nty  yeai*9.  Granite,  iii 
and  sehistU!^,  or  clay --kite,  are  suci-essivply  n 
Wheifver  a  stream  or  creek  of  any  imp^irtaueel 
the  lake,  tlicrc  wc  find  a  mill-seat  and  a  village 
up.  the  embryo,  in  many  cascx;,  of  cunsiderabic 


fan  AUEiucA. 


vnlenooi  of  ttm  tnnnicni  u  ■  K>t  lo  ihn  nuini  Mold 
faahirinmyi  miu  nf  (JuclmB  adA  tlnotraiil, 
ri(*vlling  arer  (rnum  riven  or  lukf  it  not  unM- 
kd  with  diDgor,  for  it  Mimiimu  happcnk  tliM  tha 
li,  it*  horw*,  Mil)  ntuMnffm,  >r*  ■ni'Mlfftd  uid 
«d  fannwrth  t)i«  io*.  Vcttutifttfiy,  iIih  lliht  nr  mnk 
I  u[  ili«  ie«  *r«  in  gniwral  «f  tin  piuii  cxtavit,  inil 
iiwl  injtiiwie**  lti>  ||Wiwii):i:r>  «ra  abli  U  Iraji  TrMn 
vahieh  to  it  pkit  nrfHoicntty  firm  tu  bcur  tliBtit. 
Ciuuulluu  bav*  >  oiaimii  eun(rtvuiiB>  Fur  M'Ing 
3onc  nu  llicM  occulvruu  A  roue,  *ltb  a  runiilKy 
e  round  ibpneek  oflbe  uiinmJ.biDiwt  uf  ltivfti»> 
IV  ef  Ffcry  cutIdId,  Ai  mon  u  lie  unhi  in  Um 
Ihu  driinr  polU  tliia  ntpo  till  lie  (tniagjH  him,  sp 
lul  (0  for  dapriiva  Itnn  <if  ■nMBlitm  tint  ha  mi  n>> 
nr  atcugg;!*.  Tbv  poor  htiim  n  thius  by  a  *r<n« 
«iai,  prtrvntMl  (nna  itaag  llial  whiuli  wuuld  Knuk 
d>ioi>ur  iiitliiiIiniktiiilo«>,uid,wIi«D  tho  [iMwn)[*i« 
ufv,  tin  111  [iuJIihI  uiuin  thu  (Inn  <c«,  ttiw  nip*  i> 
tned,  lEHpiraUoii  ra-cnniinrncii»,  >nd  guavrall}',  lu 
ir  mlnuto,  bo  ■■  earrioling  away  tLipln,  ■■  wirll  a* 
Till*  onfiulaF  and  almont  liicrvdlbla  i>pii»ljun 
been  knonn  to  bo  pcrfonucd  lii><i  nr  ihnift  tlmaa 
y  on  the  tame  hone  ■  and  tii*  Aiumeiina  »j'  tlial, 
Iriihrnrn,  the  aaiinali  ara  u  uaed  In  belnj;  hangnl, 
tliffj'  think  nothing  about  it. 
lis  other  British  poBSMninnit  in  North  AiturriiM  am 
a  SeoLin,  New  Bruiiawiok,  PrinM  Kdwsnl  lnlaiiH, 
9  Bmtuit,  and  Neof.HiiidUild  ;  the  Iml,  hxwavar,  k 
Aland  in  the  Oult  (if  St  LAwranoe,  and  uii*iiilnla 
ihe  HrtllemeDt  of  oinijtnutla.  The  whiilH  ll*  oltbln 
Hat  and  &liit  degrwi  of  uorth  hiliiuda,  and.  from 
It  tha  54ih  to  the  dUib  degree  of  wul  lonqLtodc 
m  eoDntrie*  an  not  so  warm  or  Bealal  aa  upp«r 
ada ;  tlief  are  ohat  Sootland  is  tu  Bngland^mara 
^  and  mountainou*,  and  mora  anprominins  in  thwr 
use ;  but  they  are  nul  l*u  healthy  and  jdMHUtv 
they  poniem  the  aJvvntadH  at  be>na;  Lb*  nvuiwt 
nial^oaiieBuoos  oFCnHl  Britain,  witli'lhv liMitiiMd 
^nuuning  luug«t  nniliir  Ita  jialnrDa]  guriniinwAt. 


CHAMBERS'S  INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLK. 


handled  miles  in  length,  bnt  is  of  unequal  l>rea<lth ; 
altogether,  it  contuiiia  l'>,ril7  wpiare  nniep,  or  n«\'irly 
ten  inilliniiR  of  acreH.  One-third  of  tluH  Mipertii'ieA  im 
occu|>it-d  by  laki.-!*  <»f  various  shaptM  aiui  h'v/.vh,  f>{iri*a<l 
in  all  dirt'CtioiiM  on  tiie  face  of  (ho  ]K'iiinsnla.  There 
is  no  )>art  of  ihe  land  thirty  niilcN  diMant  from  navi- 
gable water,  and  in  a'l  |»artH  thcru  are  tine  Htreains 
and  rivers  The  southern  inaririn  of  Nova  Scotia  ii* 
bmkeii  and  ni{;^ed,  with  VL-ry  |troniinent  features,  d^ep 
indent!*,  ami  cra^;;y  isIan<lH.  The  features  of  the  north- 
ern anuH  arc  soft, end  free  from  roeks.  It  is  Imunded 
on  the  niuth  by  part  <d  the  ijuU  of  St  Lawrenee,  which 
Bi'p:trat«'s  it  fnnii  rrine«>  Kdward  Island;  on  the  imrth- 


of  America ;  it  in  an  hii^hly  valued  M  that  frsm 
castle  in  I-^ni^land,  and  uill  bring  an  good  a  price 
market.  In  tlic  <li>'trict  of  Pietou,  enal  i«  ditec 
in  many  piares.  There  can  be  no  doubt,  tbiM 
that  the  ])o<sseHt<ion  of  thitt  mineral  will  conftticut 
of  the  chir'f  advanra^rcfi  of  thcKc  provincea  orer 
other.  Linieht«»ne,  li*ee8tone,  and  idate,  abound, 
be^t  (pialitieH,  and  there  is  plenty  of  line  clay  for  i 
I  nut  ore  has  also  been  disc<ivered  in  Several  ] 
The  provim'e  has  no  animals  of  a  troublemiine  r 
There  are  foxet*,  miee,  squirreK  And  nit«.  Anio 
featheii'd  trilic  there  are  a  number  of  birds  of  ihi 
kind  as  in  Britain,  including  tho*<e  called  game  i 


east  by  (he  <iut  of  Canso,  which  he|)anites  it  from  the  {  country,  all  of  which  may  l>c  nhot  and  Um.hI  a 


i^land  of  Cape  Kretitn ;  on  (lie  west  by  tin*  Hay  of 
Fuiidy,  which  separates  it  from  New  llrnnsuick;  and 
on  (lie  sfiiitii  and  H»uth-east  by  tiie  Atlantic  Ocean. 
Nova  Scut  la  was  Hrst  settled  by  the  French  in  \iiU'.i^ 
and  tiU  171-  it  was  alternately  pnssesseil  by  the  Fn'uch 
and  KiiKiinh,  when  the  latter  became  its  permanent  pos- 
Bes»h»i'». 

The  soil  of  aeountrv  of  such  extent  and  such  varied 
fettiires  as  Nova  Scotia,  nmst  necessarily  lie  various. 
1'  an  uiiitKinary  line  be  drawn,  dividing  the  province  in 
the  exjict  ci'iHii',  irom  east  to  west,  the  niirth-Wfstern 
halt  will  In*  toiind  to  contain  by  far  the  greatest  ]H>rtioii 
of  got  111  land.  On  the  sale  towards  the  liay  of  Fundy, 
the  M)il  i**  very  rich  and  fret*  from  stones,  and  contains 
nianv  tlmusand  acres  of  dvked   iiiarhh   land.     This  ity 

m  m 

alhi\ial  land,  and  is  made  by  the  deposit  of  the  tides,  a 
Bednnent  composed  of  the  finer  particles  of  mjiI,  bruuuht 
awav  bv  the  rivers  and  torrents  in  their  coui'so  to  (he 
Bay  of  Fundy,  of  putrescent  matter,  salt,  /IlC.  This 
land,   called  marsh,   alter  it   has   attained    a  suitable 


without  anv  restriction.  The  onlv  trou)dctM»me  i 
art>  the  miisipiitfK's  ami  black  Hies,  which  are  th 
nient  of  America  ;  but  they  diMip{K'ar  in  a  greal 
sure  as  thi>  land  becomes  oleanrd  and  draine<d.  1 
be  added,  that  the  rivers  abtmnd  with  the  tine 
among  wliich  ar<^  salmon  and  tnuit :  and  tlip 
yielil  lar^e  supplies  of  white  and  shell  tinh  of  dL 
kmds. 

It  has  l>cen  the  peculiar  misfortune  of  thin  p 
of  the  North  American  continent  to  be  rcpreii«rn 
almo*>t  every  writer  as  a  gitsmiy,  sterile  rvinuD 
stantly  enveloped  in  fi>gs  which  oliscure  the  su 
ini)>ede  vegetation  ;  whereas  iii>thing  can  Is?  mo 
tant  from  the  truth.  This  stnuiue  i-epresentali« 
only  be  accounted  for,  hy  hUp|Mising  that  the  tn' 
who  have  visitt>d  it  did  not  extend  their  investis 
farther  than  the  Vicinity  ut  Halifax,  where  the  lai 
a  bleak  and  by  no  means  agix-eabU*  aspi-ct ;  but 
t>nly  a  l<ical  characterif«tie,  and  tho  interior  «] 
nmch  tine  land,  with  a  pleasant  climate.  The  | 
is  generally  ci>vered  wiih  sn«*w  fnnn  the  2'*l\l  < 


height,  IS  dyked,  and  the  waters  of  the  rivers  oxcludeii. 

Nothing  can  exo-ed  its  fertility.     In  many  plae(>s,  par-  '  ctniilH-r  till  the.")!!!  of  March,  in  which  rcsiH^ct  it 

ticularly  about  Windsor  and  Truro,  it  yields  three  tons     resembles    L'pp*>r    Canaila;    and    during    this 


the  farmers  draw  upon  sled^Ms  their  wikmI  and 
Iriim  the  fi»i*est,  anil  carry   iheir  pnHliiee  t«>  n 


loll.iL''".        1  ll<-    Mll:;i.ii  r    !:".•!    l»    n-.'Mi«  r.iTf    alri     r' 


.iMil    I   \    ?■«■   1.!'  A'.:- 
;i   ■•\  <  i-i,   I  '    \  '  !\    ■. 
i;i|i_\    ■;■  :  .■'-■  ;i:i 
■  :.i_v  1-  -i',.! :  1  r  '. . 
■.■\  .1   t;i.t  .  '•  ■  ;■!•.  < 
v'll-  ■  I. I.  !■<  -  .    !■■ 
- 1 .  t ;  I  •  ■ ; ;  I  ■  ■ '  -  I : '  ■  t  . 


I  I",   '.i-.ii 


■l:  i<i 


..111      M 

!■  ■    t-  ::i: 

1 1.. I'     !• 


.1-: ..-.  :i« 
t    <■ 
I:  . 


.-,  /: 


of  hay  |M*r  acre,  and  has  continued   to  do  so  without 
ninnuiv  for  fifty  years  |tjiHt.     There  is  a  ditlerence  in 

itr)  ({iiality.     \\  here  the  water  which  overflows  it  is  not  I  It  is  ditlieult  to  say  wIhmi  spring  commences,  i 
much  eiiricheil  by  a  loni;  cour*«e  tlinnich  the  country,  ■  rather   laU'  and   in'rijular   in    its  appr<>aehi>. 
it  i«»  thill,  uii'l   of  an  inlfii'ir  ijiialir>.       Tin-  >|ii:intit\  ni      \<\:«t;iti.iM  (l«i»s  I"  u'lii.  |f  i-  mtv  i.ipi'l,  iUnl  twu  a) 
laiiil   inelnsi'd    in    this    ukiiiim  r   is   vrry   gri  al.      At  iIh-     'hix^  iii:»U'-  :i  pi  rn  |  r  iilt-  i"!:;.i  ji    i:i  In*  .i!ii>>uiit 
lu-ail  <tl  lln'  li.MV  (il   liiii'U.  tlii-re  ai'e  }-e\«iitv  Thi>ii>-:iiiii 
iiei"'"-    i!i    I'lii'  »'"iiii«'et«'l    l'"<|\.       I  iii-i"i'  :•*  ui.i-  inai-li  in 
(  iiciii'-i  l.tiHi  ('-•iit.tiMiii;/  III  :ir.\  as   I'.uiiMi    I.uk!   :i'<    I\-  Mi- 
1U'\    M:ir-ii    III  K-  i;f,   ;iii'i   <•!   a   iiinlii\    v;»-t.\  -  ii<  i\uv. 
1  /UT*-  !>«  ~i'inijhi:i:;  jii»*M;i:jr!\  ai^it-i  .ili!<-  t.i  iMr*:-    in  ri,i- 
j;r.«-«<  ^i'kvv  11.^  n|i'  u  iht  -i-  ni.ir-'in'-.  \\  Iih'Ii  ha-^  a  \\  ■•nirr- 
tui    ?i  hiii-iii-v    t->    t.it'fii    thfiii.       Tnis    iaiiil    :-    ti-un  i    in 
jji-rat  i|i:an:i';i  •«    iti  (  unjh>l  laml.    .Ma«'.ili,    ^^.ipai:,    l.-'i- 

il'iii'lt  I  r\ ,     1  riin>,    Oh-Ikw,   MinlnnaiM<[n',    .\i  ■    ,    \\<  'i-     nn'i  nii::.-  !■■  :i;_'.   1h-ai\i! 
n-tciii.iv.  N«\\  ("ii;,  \\  iiiil'-i'i",  1  .ii'ii"ii' h.    11-  rti.,.,  Ciin-     ;|ji- r,ii-..i'<  «-t  .\'\:    "«.•.  r 
wai.i-.  '  ir,tii\  lil'",  Aiiii.ijx':!-.  t\c.     J  in-  i;<\i  i  -  -:  <ji;..  it  \ 
ol  i.iii-i  :>'  (Miir.l  li\  a    iifin  I'l'ntj.ir  tn  Anniik-a,    ''.-.'•.- 
va'r.   .lU  a!iij\i.»i  •»"  :  iiia<!)    !■%   i:i-'  •'>•  ;f'.ii\\iri^   i  t     .-.i-jf 
In  •>1j-u.»|i  T  hn'iil»>>  ai.d  i  iv-r-  in  tin'  ~j'tii;j  an  !  .iiitni-..!. 
Till'  'jn.iiiiM\  oi   nri-rvaii'   i->   i»i''.i'i'n..ii'l' .      li    i.-  Im  i  i; 
ni«t  \\i\'i    III    >'\fi\    I'.irt   t>t    ti.i-   jiiovnn*''.   anil    i-^    li-- 
.|i|i"nt  \   :-''.!nl  i'..\«itil  wiu;  a  i":!^  naiiir...  jia^-,   «-<A(  - 
la.  t<i-;   III     iMi''li.  ai.'l  l-  .-■  in-  f  ••.:.•  ■•  imi  ••■i  .v  ;.i  iiii  al  ■«  , 
TiK-  ■!  la  .'\    \  .11  H'*  aiM'ni  .;ni_'  tw  1 1,--  >...'i    <  ■!  I  .•■  ii  ..■'•.  ■  -.• 
rix'  I   i-v   ^vnu'li  it  I-  niii'l'-,  i-i.r  .n  -j-  i.«'ia"  :t  i-   \';\  ti  i 
ti  f  an-i  i.i'h         I  :i«-  n['-.i  I  I  \  ai  i>-    mi   iin.i  li.    t :  at    \'    i  ^ 
Jl.l'i'ii  ;  t«>  j:\f  a  :j'ii«  i.t.  ilf^rr.j  ;.<:i  •>'.  i".  i  ■.:  i-:;.   ij  .»•! 
d«"-«  r»i-.-  i.i.i;»'i>.   iinv.i    ii'  •  \!»  !■■  a  ".    .'.;.i.  :_\. 
ni«  niM  •,  a:  <.i|'i     I  J.i>iii;il-.i;    :n    t '"i;.\\  a..-,   .i:.-! 
««nf  ii'tit:i.ii-  1.,  n  ;.'•■   ■  !    i.  jli  ;ai.-!    I    :■    n,  '.v.iii 


:I    I.  1'    -li] 
t'|>ii|i-ni:i  .. 


■ri"!"  ;    I     r   .i 
,1,^1.1  ;■  I  -.   \\ 

.-..1.    A  -i 
•  ■mil,   ' :  <  \  a !  •■    n- -t  -i i  i. 

a  I     ••      ^v  '  I.TiTn    t't     !■•.-'     I 
llUMMM    il!   - 


Ji-  'pa  i,'._\  aJ" 


I;.  ■  ■:.-.  ■'  t 


T.      1  !.«■  a'l'  :i;;ii.->  .ut 

,     J  I'M!'!'  I'i  '  I  I-  in:  i  J.-- 

\     _•!;-■    .'I    r>:  ."ain,    li.-  .i 

1      \    ■:  1 1  ,  ^^  I  .ii-  :  ^:\  •  '^  . 

I  n  •»   w-  I'.l':  r   0-! 

1  ii'i'iiii!  •  r.  i  K-  t  \  I  \..  ■ 
:\  !ii : .1  <"■  .1'  r.  A.J  j 
..  .'  .  J-  •••',  ..-  •■!..♦  '■■:  >■■ 
■    1  ■■••■■.■   M._\    1. 1    tii'-t 

■'l      \\  I.   i-li     iti'i-r    *'    ■iliM  I 

..•i:^ii  ;!,•■  »\  -.nn  1  s  ai  •■  ;:  ! 
.  ji    ■  .il>  ■•  a»  :i.>    r.i«  " 
I.;.:  r* ,   n  ■:"   i.i  a  r.y    ^i   : 
-    rt  .  ;  ■<  \M-r\  .:  ;:-.r. 


h   r.  I-.- 
-  <•!    ■■•!• 


1 1 1 ; : 

I 

1 1  ■ 
.\    ■ 

<    . 

*  !   I 
I   \ 

I... 


r  ■  il   t'.'-  \  <  .ir.  ■  ■  ■■%   :.:i  V I 


,1 


I  ■ 
I'  I    .1 

II 


■,i.  .r" 


I  '1 


;.■  '!  .1  !■  Mil'  ■  ;  I  ■  .'.  i.v  i  ;  .« 
!.  ..I  I  ■■  ■'<>•!;  }'•'■■*.'  ii:  1  1 
1,  i:.'  Ill  ■■■  \'\  .1  \---  .:  ''■■■■'  .1 
;    i!i'-  ..■  ■.-.  .:i  *■   :»   ■.::•■  .i:  ■•    i  ■ 


"  .\ 


.!  -  i.t  t!i.-  ^ 


.  I-.     I  . 


('• 


Ini':  III  il    111  .1  -    in    :li'    ■'  i 
li-  Pi  f  hi  ir  ;i.  V  \  t  n    in:."  ■• 


.1    I>  .'    •. . 


I 


Str-  I.::  -<ii  ,   a*    i,  -v  .'n 
leiil    'I'Liliiv     I    I .  n  jii" 


\..::-  ■ 
;:i  !  ii  .■  .  I!.  ;  II  i  ■  ■  •  ;■  \  I  I  ' 
<  \. !:■.::.•  I  a  ri  "  ■  ■*  i-  - 
•  •  :.••■■_'  \\  i.'-.i»  :i'  I  II .'.  r 
gi.iin'-  i!i  aii:i!-l.iiii'- .  !:■'■  n.'-  i  ,ir.->  ti.<-  i.r-l  .«  ''■'•y 
stolid  .ami  I  •  ■I'M I  -  _".■•  a;  a'-  nr  ■  ;■  :  <■  i'  r.tw  i  -.  i  r  i._  : 
ifjt'.  .1  !if  -'.it-    i-.i   i'l.  '  i\  .i'-.  :.. 

'jr.-    I!',  ;••  r.-!    j  n.-.m-?-    i."    »i. 
r«/';,iJ..'-  ;   1  '  t  n  -ii'-  i"-  ^  •  ii.iii": 

*  ffit-itt  *  \t'  lit,  i'li'i  <'t  /»e(r*'i' ijii,,:,ty  than  iu  any  \»iiVi  \  >ov»\va. 


ii  :^' 

I  '        I 


1.. 
I' 


■    J-  .!'f    •■!"    \i..i  y.r-.y  ail 
.» i-i :  hv  i-t  e  ■:  -•,    ■  .'.,■; 
\ ,    i'l  t'aj'i'  rurt'ii,  V' 


, I ■!  i«' 


111-  e- 


a::l   .::;:•  i;'.;.MLri-   !•  a  i 

]     r^a":       ^    <  !    l'    ■;:■   ::■ 

.i  =  .::\    !■   i-i.ri  ■',  tl;--    ] . 

■;*i:  I  \     <  t     >f'i  t-.'-.      1 : 

,   a;  ■    .1    :"i--    "...:^-.t   •■!    i-;  a*-  i  ^  !■■ 

'  J    .•;'.iiM!-.:   a    ;■■  ■  ">  ;at«-    :..■  a    -  i 

.r «  n  !  l.nii-  III  i  m.><.j  ai*. 

■..■    .    wi-'i'a    s  i«»i;  .1    !■«■    li-i.iCiii 
!•:     :"i"    ]  aii-rii^i.    aeii--.       1  .,t-«i"    I"., 
: !!  ;i'i;..  4.  iii'i    1.:  -I'lntiii-ii*  h  j'.a 
!'.'    till"    iMIl^r    <■!    tii>'  li.ii'ku.ini   r 

-  \\  -|.i  t".^  it*.  i«  rriT.)n.i;  i:iipri'\i moi 


I  i\\  ^a;';^  lit  t'li   uoil'l  are  ^>l>  MtU  watered  j> 
Vuv  v'xNvxs,  \»tvY«.\Us^  eprmcs,  fud  slrv; 


Ulp-linmmcr  <t 

n-oilll,  aiiil  tint  ■  ' 
at  ibeMi,  ha  (biin ' '  < 
srted  tot  the  iluLtii. 

I  flcWC  of  oilidl  OK  II 

■  aud  tliM  all  prravliia*  wliu  <Mnin 

,ui...«.«ru.  f-  '■-  --' 

.  ■    I'I'uib]r(*rilU) 
r,  *IinuJi)  ench,  he  miIiI,  gi 

M^  UI<1  bltTu  ilia  DM  of  t 
.inTietlMi  la  him.  lie  Ilicn  jIio 
one  piMO  ft  hviX]-. 

rtinn  eorn,  ilial  gro*  on  b  upol  (MurrKlv  an  i 
ilch  he  pflfritMl  oui  to  am.    I'lil*  niaii  euoIiI  do 
irc  Ihan  trwd  and  wriiv-  H  oi  nwiiiKn  wwra  i|ulle  oo-, 
lw}i«d,  but  not  riid* ;  J't  hu  liart  «ondrrhil        "     ~ 

■ildrni,  and,  h  far  tu>  rvUtvd  In  lili  uvm 
iek  iiiiwi>r«  III  inmiciou  *]id  nppllcalloa.     Il 
•gti  (mp*,  Kiuiiad  111*  own  cuni,  nwniifaotiirvd 
X  llO  ouUiTalad  and  Ihe  wool  of  hi*  tbavjf  iotu 
iilia ;  aulil  tlie  proiujona  wlilob  but  lariB  pni 
■]  rum  ftnd  UritUh  giwd*,  to  tbo  lunbatn;  k«p| « 
rem ;  empluycd  ImuhvTiini  Sn  Ibt  inioilii,  aud  i^ 
ivcd  bJhI  itititwT  in  lAjrDHinl  (or  wlmtavvr  (in  aoUt 
1  moila  lb(  MM  uid  oOiv  l<iul*  miuind  I17  thk 
»ifamn  u  hi*  furjjEii  i  ho  uto,  piml>li"t,  aud  aaaudund' 
\h  hia  own  bbnurfn,  and  HUh  tlia  lumbonn,  and 

otfaen,  *ha  nrnda  lua  \iuaM  i.Unfkul'nk'i'^V*''^ 


turvd  tM 


apptavod,  Waever,  V 


(     AMHERSrS  INFORMATION  FOR  THE  ] 


■qs  «bo  had  b  vliw  Ml  objtfrt  of  gun  in  e?erj  thing  he 
Mf^^in.  He  telkMl  ipraoli  hi  ptmiae  of  the  rich  in- 
ferior eoiuitiyy  and  bow  moidl  J  it  woold  he  Mttled  and 
enltivBtedy  if  poanmd  hgr  die  AmerioaiM.'* 


Thie  rieh  and  prodnotiye  idand  is  aitnaied  in  the 
Ovif  of  St  Lawfonee^  betwixt  Gape  Breton  on  the  east 
and  New  Branswidc  on  the  weal^and  is  aeparated  from 
Nova  Seotia  on  the  aonth,  bj  a  strait  of  about  nine  miles 
inbfoadth.  It  measures  140  milee  in  length,  and  is  84 
at  its  greatest  brsadlh.  The  general  mearanee  of  this 
island  from  the  seaie  lereL button  landini^  the  seenerr 
is  Tsried  with  genUe  nndnlations.  It  aboanda  with 
streams  and  fadcei^  and  in  manj  |daeea  it  is  indented 
with  bsj^  no  part  bdbig  more  than  eifl^t  miles  from  the 
■sa.  tiie-ssil  is  in  goMml  fertile,  jmding  good  erope 
of  wheat  and  other  grains ;  and  parsnips,  turnips,  ear- 
vote^  potatoes,  and  almost  all  the  eommon  eulinaiy 
TSfetaois^sueoeed  weD.  This  island  haa  been  reoom- 
Mendeddo  soeh  emignuits  as  possess  a  knowledge  of 
Mriedftnre  with  that  of  the  ennng  of  fish.  The  elimate 
erPrinee  Edward  Island  is  in  some  respeets  similar  to 
tiial  of  the  neighbouring  eonntries.  The  winter  is  said 
to  be  shorter  than  in  Lower  Canada,  and  the  atmo- 
sphereb  noted  for  being  free  of  logs.  Agrioultoral  ope- 
rations eommmioe  about  the  beginning  S  May,  and  the 
barreet  is  generallj  over  bj  the  end  oi  Oetober.  The 
ehief  dindTantsge  this  eolon J  laboure  under,  and  which 
k  eqnaUhr  applicable  to  Uut  others  near  it,  is  the  great 
length  of  m  winter,  whieh  obUgea  the  fiumer  to  laj  up 
a  Ymj  huge  stoek  of  haj  for  supporting  his  liTe-stoek. 
The  sodden  manner,  ateo^  in  whidi  miof  oomes 
€o»  ibridges  the  period  for  sowinf^  and  pfanting,  thus 
Isaving  tM  sgrienltnrist  eomparatiTolj  idle  at  one  eea- 
Bon,  and  obliging  him  to  work  aererdirat  another.  The 
hdiabitaiitB  are  ehieflr  from  Great  JBritain  and  Ire- 
land, with  a  few  Dutch  and  (Sermans.  Mr  Macgregor 
ehaneterieee  them  as  hospitable,  kind,  obliging,  and 
as,  generally  speaking,  a  moral  people.  The  island  is 
goTemed  by  a  lieutenant-governor,  council,  and  house 
of  assembly  consisting  of  eighteen  members,  who  are 
elected  by  the  people.  Cliarlotte  Town,  the  capital,  is 
situated  on  the  north  bank  of  the  River  Hillsborough, 
on  the  east  side  of  the  island.  The  totiii  stands  on 
ground  which  rises  in  gentle  heights  from  the  banks  of 
the  river,  and  its  harbour  is  considered  one  of  the  best 
in  the  Gulf  of  St  Lawrence.  A  small  group  of  islands 
called  the  Magdalens,  have  been  recently  annexed  to 
Prince  Edward  Island,  chiefly  as  fishing  establishments. 

PERSONS  WHO  OUGHT  TO  EMIGRATE. 

^  The  persons  who  may  be  inclined  to  emigrate  to 
Upper  Canada,'*  says  Howison,  "  are  of  three  different 
descriptions,  namely,  the  poor  peasant  or  day-labourer ; 
the  man  of  small  income  and  increasing  family  ;  the 
man  possessing  some  capital,  and  wishing  to  employ  it 
to  advantage.  Persons  of  the  first  class  never  would 
repent  if  Uiey  emigrated  to  Upper  Canada,  fur  they 
could  hardly  fail  to  improve  their  circumstances  and 
condition.  The  poorest  individual,  if  he  acts  prudently 
and  is  industrious,  and  has  a  common  share  of  good 
fortune,  will  be  able  to  acquire  an  independence  in  the 
■pace  of  four  or  five  years.  He  will  tlien  have  plenty 
to  eat  and  drink,  a  warm  house  to  reside  in,  and  no 
taxes  to  pay ;  and  tliis  state  of  things  surely  forms  a 
delightful  contrast  with  those  hardships  and  privations 
which  are  at  present  the  lot  of  the  labouring  population 
of  Great  Britain. 

It  is  evident  that  some  descriptions  of  emigrants  will 
succeed  better  in  Upper  Canada  than  others.  Those 
who  have  been  accustomed  to  a  eountrv  life  and  to 
country  labour,  are  of  course  more  fitted  to  cultivate 
land,  and  endure  the  hardships  at  first  attendant  upon 
a  residence  in  the  woods,  than  artisans  or  manufac- 
turers, whose  constitutions  and  habits  of  life  are  some- 
what unfavourable  to  the  successful  pursuit  of  arricul- 
ture.  Hut  every  individual,  who  to  youth  and  health 
joins  perseverance  andinduftry,  will  eventually  prosper. 

264 


Mediaiiiea  eaanot  fidi  to  do  wan  fa  Hi 
when  not  emplojed  in  dsacl  ghad^thsf^ 
essy  to  gam  a  little  vaamw  ty  woriUag  aft  M 
sions;  and  thej  likewiss  Iwfa  A* adnBMi|i 
able  to  improTo  their  dwdHnfohoaaoi 
farming  utensils,  at  no  eiqpenaa.    W« 
rant  of  eountry  affurs,  and  i 
ertkm,  make  but  indiflbrsnt  setHen  aft  ial| 
trade  ie  of  no  use  to  them  whalenrar  fa  the  < 
ried  persons  are  alwaja  more  eomfortahli^  tmi\ 
sooner,  in  Panada,  than  single  nsa ;  for  a  wtti 
mily,  80  for  from  being  a  bnrdsii  tbsn^  alwui  | 
sourcee  of  wealth.    The  wifoof  asMwasttlsrMSi 
domeetie  duties  to  perform ;  and  diildffSBy  if  at  aD  I 
up,  are  useful  in  Tarioua  wajfa.** 

JSrery  eandid  traToller  in  CSanada  ooBeua  ia 
Tiews  ;  and  it  may  be  dbeenred,  tfaat  thav  are 
applioable  to  the  other  diskrkta  notieed  £i  this 
«<  Of  this,  I  think,"  says  Ftognsson,*  them  can 
doubt,  that  either  the  moderate  eapttalisl^  or  tlM 
gid,  sober,  and  industrious  labourer  or 
foil  of  sueeess.    Forhtnes  wiO  not  be  rspidW  or  i 
readily  aoquired;  but  it  must  be  the  sstflei^  il 
foult  Ur  he  does  not  enjoy,  in  large  abondanoe^  mjl 


solid  oomfort  and  enj^yinent  of  Iwb^  and 

his  taUe  even  a/brvfl  of  * olire  plants/  witiioietl 

anxioua  thought  regarding  their  nitnre  i 

proTision." 


There  are  two  waya  of  proeeediof  to  flantdi  1 
the  St  Lawrenee,  Quebec^  uid  Montreal ;  and '  " 
York  and  the  Erie  Ganal.  The  paasaga  by 
Lawrenee  is  tedious  and  tronblesome^  and  we 
mend  all  who  ean  oonTenientlj  do  eo^  to  take 
direct  to  New  York ;  from  that  eity  thqr  vOl  aft' 
go  on  by  a  steam-boat  on  the  Hodaon  BIrer  to  iJfai 
and  from  Albany  be  eouTeyed  in  a  traid[-boat  en  1 
Erie  Canal  to  Lake  Erie,  where  they  will  find  atei 
boats  ready  to  convey  them  in  all  directions.  1 
those  who  prefer  the  passage  by  Quebec,  the  foUow 
information  is  given  by  an  official  pamphlet : — "  F 
sages  to  Quebec  may  either  be  engaged  indosive 
provisions,  or  exclusive  of  provisious,  in  wliich  a 
the  shipowner  finds  nothing  but  water,  fuel,  and  b 
places,  without  bedding.  Children  under  fourteen  ya 
of  age  are  charged  one-half,  and  under  seven  ya 
of  age  one-third,  of  the  full  price  ;  and  for  diild) 
under  twelve  months  old  no  charge  is  made.  Ul 
these  conditions  the  price  of  passage  from  LondoOL 
from  places  on  the  east  coast  of  Great  Britain,) 
generally  been  L.(),  with  provisions,  or  L.3  witbl 
From  Liverpool,  (Jreenock,  and  the  principal  ports 
Ireland,  as  the  ciinnces  of  delay  are  fewer,  theefasi 
is  somewhat  lower  [we  would  here  strongly  advi 
emigrants  to  sail,  if  possible,  from  a  port  on  the  «i 
coast,  as  being  a  great  saving  of  time,  trouble^  m 
expense]  ;  this  year  the  charge  will  probably  be  fin 
L.2  to  L.2,  1  Os.  without  provisions,  or  from  L.4  to  I 
including  provisions.  [Emigrants  intending  to  sell 
in  New  Brunswick,  Cape  Breton,  or  Pnnce  Ed«a 
Island,  will  generally  obtain  a  passage  in  the  vew 
bound  for  Canada ;  and  ships  for  Halifax  or  Pietoa 
Nova  Scotia  are  constantly  sailing  from  the  Brid 
ports.]  In  ships  sailing  from  Scothtnd  or  Ireland, 
has  inustl^'  been  the  custom  for  passengers  to  find  tbi 
own  provisions ;  but  this  practice  has  not  been  so  | 
neral  in  London,  and  some  shipowners,  sensible  of  t 
dangerous  mistakes  which  may  be  made  in  this  melt 
through  ignorance,  are  very  averse  to  reoetve  p 
seiigcrs  who  will  not  agree  to  be  victualled  by  I 
ship.  Those  who  do  resolve  to  supply  their  own  pi 
visions,  should  at  least  be  careful  not  to  lay  in  an ' 
ficient  stock ;  fifty  days  Lh  the  shortest  period  for 
it  is  safe  to  provide,  and,  from  London,  the  pan 
sometimes  prolonged  to  seventy-five  daya.**  Hati 
wound  up  his  affairs  in  this  country,  endiithii  aissi 
pared  himself  and  foniily  for  proceeding  to  the  kiS 
their  adoption,  it  b  recommended  thai  tiie 


'ISIl  AMEatt'A. 


xrA  tlM 


I'llif.  AIuU'  liuliuf  kLrsut  Juc  llircp  or  luuc  imcki' 
'Ja  AUuiUc.  UiD  leuel  VM  dri*rii  t^rouo;^  tbe  Irliti 
inoel.  Mid  Iwd  to  put  Iniu  Itw  Cot*  ul  Cork  la 
lergurrimTK.    'I'li"  iin>,»"i);"riinr'i'-  "Mia'.i)  1o  irutic 

itre  ll"'  '  ■  i;"-,  H- 

wlian.r/  ■  ......    T» 

liKcD  I>t  ill.'  i-i,ii>jii,ii_v  I'i'll  ntnilii  iW  i>  iiisiirMl.uJl- 

.|  AH);  n^rwmcnt  vltb  tlin  e&puln,  in  lis  i>ar> 


HrcvimiR  lu  itiMwbkrkalicin,  iirnuiK>  yaut  \Mtiav 
\nnM  comiiuM,  the  fuitcr  lucksgn  tliu  b«tl.-i',  but 
re  Ihoin  well  secured — old  dlr^  elolhlnK.  Im^  biixvi, 
1  otltor  u«cl«M  uudM,  *re  not  wartli  tlw  urri 
fua  hkT?  anf  proTlsioBi  Irft,  ancli  u  ocUnul,  t 
a,  &(-.,  you  can  hU  thna  ut  Qiirbei^  d  ■  proflc, 
rid  tlw  exHuu*  of  (niupDrt,  and  you  mui  juiroh 
-  -'  brwia,  lint'  -  •  '    ■' 


:im'  brmd,  lintt«i\  tea,  imgu,  utd  nlli*. 
ru  united  fnr  yiior  jmimi-y.  All  imrt*  tjf  jiitiTinJin 
y  tut  Wughl  cl>(«)>Mr,  and  gniianilly  uf  n  lurtMT  ulU 
>,  In  MiiiitTHKl  uid  l')ipor  CiuuuU,  ihiui  at  QubIh 
VIS  yoiRwIt  in  Itaht  clean  clalhlDg,  FemalM  fv»> 
inntly  bring  on  licknou  by  brine  too  vartnly  nlatheiL 
E  your  hair  abort,  and  waah  lUily  and  iIiomhi^I)'. 


lory  fuod.  Amid  oiKlit  detra.  By  attandluK  lo  tlia 
raadliig  dircclioiiii,  alckn^  will  be  prvionliid,  wlib 
Mr  aarioiM  tnonnvenluma.  Whan  ajitrf  tliitig  tt 
idy  tiir  dlMnibnrkatlan,  and  If  llie  sblp  w  '/''ft  "' 
i^bot  in  Ilic  rlT«r.  lakt  luv  la  pauing  tttaa  uo  fM|i 
Iha  boat :  at»ld  all  baatw,  and  wc  that  yuor  bi^gafpi 
iD  tha  tame  eosTitfaiiM  with  younelfi  ov  laft  uoilwr 
>  abugv  of  Mmio  frivod,  with  yonx  namn  on  it.  if 
r^dslwUa  to  Ihv  wharf  tii  diwintiark,  i]i>  tisl  WJ 


t^' 


CHAlfBERSrS  INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLfi. 


riilpP*  d0dc  win  1m  on  a  Kne  with  the  quay  or  whut, 
Pawwngwrii  are  entitled  bj  kw  to  the  priTUege  of  re- 
mahring  oo  board  ahip  faiij^^fht  hours  after  arriTal ; 
and  h  u  nnlairftil  for  the  e^rtaia  to  depriTehie  paaaen- 
gers  of  anr  of  their  nsoal  aooommodations  for  cooking 
or  othenme;  jon  maj  therefore  avoid  the  expenee  <» 
lodging*,  and  flBake  all  jrenr  arrangements  for  proeeeat- 
lag  your  ioomey.  I(  prenons  to  disembarkation,  sick- 
ness dMnld  overtake  joayproeeed  immediately,  or  be  re- 
mored,  to  the  Emignnt  Hospital,  in  St  John's  Suburbs, 
where  yon  will  m  t^cen  care  of,  and  provided  with 
erery  thing  needftd  JifM  restored  to  health.  Medicine 
and  medteel  advice  can  also  be  had  at  the  Dispensary 
attMhed  to  the  Qnebee  Charitable  Emigrant  Society. 
lUi  soetoty  will  grant  relief  to  all  destitnte  emigrsnts. 
In  Montreal  there  is  a  similar  institutk>n  for  the  relief 
of  em^rsnfeb  It  h  partienlarlv  reeommended  to  emi- 
mnts  not  to  loiter  their  valuable  time  at  the  port  of 
Eio^ig^  but  to  proeeed  to  obtain  settlement  or  em- 
pkrfmeat.  Many  emigrants  will  ftnd  employment  in 
the  eil7  of  Qnebee  and lla  vidinit^,  asalso  m  and  about 
MonlreaL  Single  men,  in  partimilar,  are  advised  to 
enkrsee  dfors  of  this  kind ;  but  emigrsnts  with  large 
Ijudlies  hod  better  proceed  without  delay  to  Upper 
Cbmidayas  hereafter  directed,  or  to  situations  in  Lower 
Ghnada,  particularly  the  eastern  townships ;  and  if  they 
have  eons  and  deleters  ^wn  up,  they  will  fln4  a 
sure  demand  for  thmr  services.  Artificers  and  meeha- 
niea  of  all  denominations^  and  forming  labourers,  if 
sober  and  industrious  may  be  sure  of  doing  wdL 
BbdcsmithiS  partleahtfiy  tlKwe  acquainted  with  steam- 
engbie  wori[,  also  good  millwrights  and  sawyers  by 
waejhineiy^  are  nraeh  wanted  in  the  Csnadas.  The 
euxMt  rate  of  wagee  htdv  paid  to  caxpenters^  masons, 
and  other  artificers,  waa  nom  So.  6d.  to  <te.  or  7s.  per 
da7|  aeeordfaig  to  circumstances ;  fozmrlabonrers  were 
peid  at  a  lower  rate.  There  is  no  demand  for  persons 
skilled  in  any  of  the  ornamental  professions,  or  for  the 
preparation  of  articles  such  as  are  usually  imported 
from  England.  A  great  number  of  labourers  are  usually 
employed  on  board  Bhip«,  and  about  timber-yards,  at 
Quebec  and  Montreal,  who  get  from  3s.  to  4s.  Gd.  a-day, 
and  board  generally  found.  The  extravagant  habits 
engendered  in  such  occupations  render  it  decidedly  pre- 
ferable for  the  labouring  emigrant  to  procei'd  imme- 
diately to  the  country.  Emigrants  with  families,  and 
who  are  possessed  of  from  L.2U  to  L.i\'>,  are  advised  to 
push  immediately  into  the  woods,  in  the  vicinity  of  old 
settlements,  where  they  can  obtain  provisions  for  their 
spare  labour.  The  most  vexing  circumstance  con- 
nected with  money  matters,  is  that  the  currency  of  the 
whole  of  British  America  is  different  from  that  which 

f>revail8in  the  United  Kingdom ;  in  other  words,  a  shil- 
ing  in  England  is  different  from  a  shilling  in  Canada. 
The  money  of  Canada  is  locally  of  higher  nomi- 
nal value  than  what  we  understand  by  the  term 
Mterlinpf  and  is  called  Halifax  currency.  The  diffe- 
rence  varies ;  but  it  may  be  stated  in  general  terms, 
that  an  English  sovereign  is  reckoned  to  be  worth  '24s. 
or  *24s.  6d.  currency ;  or  an  English  shilling  is  equal  to 
about  Is.  24d.  or  Is.  3d.  currency.  Jf  you  take  Eng- 
lish money  to  Canada,  you  will  receive  these  high 
prices  for  it ;  but  if  you  wish  to  turn  currency  into 
sterling,  for  the  purpose  of  sending  it  home,  you  will 
incur  a  corresponding  loss.  All  wages  are,  of  course, 
reckoned  in  currency ;  therefore,  when  it  is  said  vou 
will  receive  4!<.  a-day  of  wages,  the  acttial  value  of  this 
4h,  is  only  3s.  sterling.  This  distinction  between  cur- 
rency and  sterling  will  soon  be  learned,  and  is  on  the 
whole  of  less  eoiihequence  than  the  practice  of  paying 
wages  in  goods.  \Vc  have  heard  very  serious  com- 
plamts  on  this  Mibjiict.  From  all  we  can  learn,  it  is 
not  uncommon  for  an  employer  to  pay  his  workmen  by 
an  order  for  g(M»ds  on  a  store,  corres|H)ndiiig  to  the 
amount  bargained  for ;  and  such  is  the  high  price  at 
which  artichrs  arc  sold,  that  sometimes  a  workman,  in- 
stead of  getting  4a.  a-day,  does  not  in  reality  get  nuire 
goods  than  he  could  buy  for  1«.  6d.  in  England.  'J'hus 
an  apparently  high  wage  dwindles  down  to  a  trifle. 


Perhaps  such  p  e  ml  remtad  to  1^1 

able  employers,  va  only  prevail  fa|  fiiS||i 

eountry  where  a  ciru        ig  medtam.  Ja  amifif!^ 
have  considered  it  piww«  to  meatiQaiha  drdn 
in  order  to  put  en  „      Ja  on  tbev  gwdl 
ascertain  whether  you  are  to  be  paid  In  om 
goods,  and  act  acccodingly, 

Havmg  arranged  all  ycur  bnshnsai  at  Qiasi 
will  proceed  without  loss  of  time  to  Monti 
steam-boat,  on  your  route  to  Upper  Oumdi 
steam-boats  ply  (or  lately  {died)  to  MimtrBal,  II 
up  the  St  Lawrence,  which  ia  perfomed  in  nroi 
SO  hoitrs.  Take  care  not  to  engage  a  psssagi 
vessel  from  which  you  and  your  fomi^  will  be 
occasionally  to  come  out  and  walk ;  we  have  1 
disgraceful  instances  of  this  kbd  of  emdty.  Tl 
on  board  the  steam-boata  were  lately  as  HdUow 
may  now  be  a  little  altered)  ^^Deekpaaieaifen, 
7s»  6d«  each ;  children  under  twelve  yean  of  a^ 
price ;  and  under  seven,  one-third.  *  The  roe 
fiuraa  to  the  principal  phMca  were  latel|y  aa  folk 

Quebce  to  MOBtnsIt  kyslasBi-boslit  *  9li 

MoBtTMl  to  Praseot,  I17  Darimi  boals,  *    fli 

Prawot  to  Kinsston,  liar  slaam,       •       -       -is 
J>itto  to  Oobongfa,  or  Port  Hope*  -       -       •      fr 
Presoot  to  TOrooto,  oi^iital  of  Cpper  fliiMi«!a, 
BamiltaQ,  and  Ntaia>at      *      -       -       -   IBS 

From  Niagara  you  proceed  hj  the  WtUaal 
to  Fort  Erie,  oppoaite  Buffido  on  Lake  Eri^ 
steam-boats,  or  sailing  aehooner%  iHIl  eoave 
destined  to  Port  Talbot,  or  other  jparts  of  thi^ 
dwtrict,  or  vicinity  of  Lake  St  Clair.  PerwHH( 
settle  on  the  lands  of  the  Canada  Company  win 
to  York  or  Burlington  Bay,  head  of  Lake  Onta 

At  most  of  the  preceding  towns  and  landiai 
you  will  find  government  agents.  If  yon  an  b 
Perth,  or  New  Lanark,  or  the  vidnity,  dieenl 
Prescot ;  or  yon  may  go  by  Bytown  on  Uie  Otta 

If  for  the  thriving  settlements  in  the  Nfewcai 
trict,  disembark  at  Coburgh  or  Port  Hope,  o 
Ontario.  Those  going  to  the  townships  of  Seymo 
proceed  from  Kingston,  by  the  beautiful  Bay  of  * 
to  the  mouth  of  the  Trent  River,  from  whence 
distance  IB  miles,  brings  you  to  Seymour.  If  p 
ing  to  the  Home  or  Western  districts,  diseml 
Toronto,  the  capital  of  Upper  Canada.  Kroigrsnl 
any  where  beyond  Toronto,  will  in  general  find 
interest  to  make  this  their  route.  If  for  the  ] 
district,  proceed  by  the  Niagara  frontier  to  Lsl 
and  the  Talbot  Settlement.  If  for  Bvtowu,  Gr 
Hull,  Horton,  or  other  situations  on  the  Ottawa 
proceed  from  Montreal  and  Lachine  by  the  uso 
veyances.  Such  are  the  directions  that  were  ; 
time  sinco  suitable ;  but  as  there  are  continual  d 
emigrants  may  liud  it  necessary,  on  their  arr 
act  more  by  local  information  than  any  tiling 
say  on  the  subject. 

We  think  it  im|)ortant  to  mention,  for  the  bei 
the  poorer  class  of  emigrants,  that  there  has  • 
for  some  years  in  Montreal  a  benevolent  society  0 
local  importance,  called  the  Canada  I'lmigratioii 
elation.  This  body  of  individuals,  actuated  by  b 
motives,  and  desirous  of  forwarding  labourers  to 
where  their  services  arc  required,  afiords  ready 
ance  to  poor  emigrants  on  their  arrival  at  Me 
It  appears  that,  from  the  11th  of  June  1840 
close  of  the  navigation  by  frost  a  few  months  lal 
society  relieved  .T2J  natives  of  England,  877B  1 
of  Ireland,  .*}I'7  natives  of  Scotland,  and  10  firOB 
many ;  total,  .<»o07.  '  >f  this  number,  'JOl  were 
sixty  years  of  age,  and  .')H7  were  infanta.  The 
consisted  in  furnishing  provisions  and  a  humble  i 
lodging  in  sheds,  also  medical  attendance,  and  pi 
of  passage  of  individuals  and  faiuiiies  to  places 
interior.  The  emigrants  were  greatly  benefited  b, 
sent  ofi'  without  lo^s  of  time,  as  they  were  there 
only  saved  from  the  danger  to  their  health  and 
which  would  have  been  incurred  by  remainh 
length  of  time  idle  in  a  large  cityi  bpt  their  lia 


■ISO  AUCIirCA. 


r-  Mia*. 

<i  ihrir 


gJMrS-lj\l:         ■      L     ...  ■'-■!!    Ill   tllft 

ivai-alAtixi  "Ijfci,  mill  li>v  >iiii[ihiui!  mi-ur  "     '"*  ~ 


.lion,  •utlnUuitl  uid  olhorwlM,  wlU  M  tirand  of  gn«t 
■  ID  kufb  tu  krv  beycuid  Uio.nceonitjr  of  rwKrlof ' 
r  aihor  kind  of  mbubuds  i  iriiile,  in  InwQirg  ^Mg 
« iliall  bo  dUpciwil  U>  aoccpl  cf  thnr  laud,  Ibiigi  wul' 
■crulUr  nToId  tlia  evil  Wfcrv  mnnthinMil,  ij  tandUf  I 
ini  wbav  Iticy  *ill  b*  iiwlatvd  aiiit  wiliar;,  Iiu(  imd^ 
ill  an  krrotigcintnt  w  will  oouira  ti>  cnelk  Ih*  earn- 
ta  of  Moioty  whil'i  hn  in  «ii|tigtiid  tn  tlui  lint,  ftjod  la 
(su«*  Iho  mmi  ilinrauniciiiii  tuk  tia  bk*  M  dkimma 
— NuMuinj!  iliB  (iirml.'" 

Wir  uiaylisru  IViim  Ukm  extncta  tbil  Ow  Chii»> 
ju  arv  tiiivf  fully  *U>ii  lo  the  Decumity  of  praoiuAii 
Uadji  (uf.|>h'  nt  UbnuTEn  w  well  w  Mitlan  U  dcu 
!  itniuiiil*,  ity  wlilrJi  slonp  the  oount^r  out  b«  esi 
3tij  tn  develop  ila  gnat  ratnuror*. 


•  '■*.>"?', 


'^M*' 


CHAMBERS'S  INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


Tht  mode  of  aelliiig  erown  lands  in  the  Brituii  North 
Amorkui  powMrions  k  fiff  from  tmtiAotory,  the  prin- 
eiple  etUl  puxmied  being  to  ha?e  periodical  anetions  of 
land  at  upset  prieee,  by  whidi  the  emigrant  has  in  the 
fliat  |4aee  to  wait  for  the  oeeorrenee  of  the  sal^  and 
after  aU,  when  it  takes  nlaee^  he  perhaps  finds  hUnself 
ontbidden  in  priee.  This  is  a  most  serious  eril,  which 
goremment  appears  to  be  in  no  haste  to  remedy.  On 
applying  for  information  on  the  subject  at  the  Colonial 
CMHee  (December  184P)»  the  following  has  been  handed 
to  Q%  and  it  may  therefore  be  eonsidered  authorita- 
tive:— 

''The  TCgulatioos  for  the  sale  of  erown  lands  in 
Cinada,  Nova  Sootia^  Ae,,  are  as  follows : — In  Lower 
Gknada  the  nublie  lands  are  henceforward  to  bo  sold 
at  a  fixed  price.  In  the  eountrv  of  Ottawa,  and  in  the 
floontry  on  the  south  bank  of  the  St  Lawrence  as  hx 
as  the  &emaba  road^  the  priee  is  for  the  present  fixed 
ml  rix  shillincs  per  aere^  and  for  the  remainder  of  the 
pgovipee  at  four  shillings.  In  Upper  Oanada,  htnds 
Mtttinne  to  be  sold  by  public  anction«  at  an  upset  price 
to  be  fixed  from  time  to  time  by  the  lieutenant-goTcr- 
nor  in  council.  This  price  Taries  according  to  the  loca- 
lity;  but  the  arerage  price  of  hmd  in  1836,  1837,  and 
1138,  was  eiffht  shillmgs  |^  acre.  In  Nova  So^a, 
lands  are  sold  the  same  as  m  Upper  Qmada,  the  pnoe 
being  at  the  discretion  of  the  lieutenant-goremor  in 
eouMil ;  but  by  a  local  acL  it  is  in  no  ease  to  be  less  than 
ooe  shilling  per  acre.  In  New  Brunswick  the  upset 
priee  is  fixed  at  two  shillings  and  sixpence  per  acre.*' 

Sndi  being  the  very  unsatisfiMtory  manner  in  which 
evown  Unds  are  diqxised  of  in  Canada  and  other  parts 
of  British  America,  we  stronsly  recommend  emigrants 
with  only  a  small  capital,  eil&er  to  employ  thenttelTcb 
as  serrants  till  a  sale  occun^  or  till  the^  can  hear  of  a 
cheap  and  commodious  lot  At  all  times  there  are 
small  farms,  partially  cleared,  for  sale,  and  in  many  in- 
stances these  are  preferable  to  crown  uncleared  lands. 
In  making  a  selection  and  purchase,  keep  in  mind  the 
following  points : — See  that  there  is  a  tolerable  road  to 
the  property ;  that  it  is  not  too  far  distant  from  a  town  ; 
that  it  is  not  environed  with  clergy-reserve  lands, 
which,  being  uncleared  and  without  roads,  except  you 
assist  to  make  them,  are  a  nuisance ;  that  you  will  have 
decent  neighbours  (  English  or  Scotch,  if  possible) ;  and 
that  the  district  possesses  a  place  of  public  worship, 
and  school,  or  will  shortly  have  them.  Supposing  you 
discover  a  place  possessing  a  fair  share  of  tnese  recom- 
mendations, we  advise  you,  above  all  things,  not  to  buy 
it  partly  on  credit,  from  a  land-dealer  or  general  pos- 
sessor of  property.  Either  d(>  not  purchase  it  at  all, 
or  pay  for  it  at  once,  and  get  a  good  title  to  the  pro- 
perty. If  you  allow  a  part  of  the  price  to  remain  un- 
paid, with  the  hope  of  liquidating  your  debt  in  the 
space  of  a  year  or  two,  you  may  almost  surely  rely  on 
being  turned  out  when  the  instalments  come  due,  thus 
losing  all  you  have  paid-,  and  all  the  labour  you  have 
ex|>ended.  There  are  many  landowners  in  Canada 
who  make  a  regular  trade  of  getting  emigrants  into 
their  power  in  this  manner,  and  turning  tiiem  adrift 
after  completely  ruining  them.  Our  next  advice  is  one 
equally  important — never,  on  any  account  whatever, 
talce  credit  at  a  store.  To  do  so,  is  the  almost  cer- 
tain commencement  of  ruin.  The  store-keepers  gene- 
rally are  glad  to  give  credit  to  poor  landowners ;  for, 
by  a  peculiar  law  of  the  country,  they  can  attach  the 
land  for  the  amount  of  their  claim,  no  matter  how 
email  it  be ;  and  as  caah  mav  not  at  a  moment's  notice 
be  easily  obtained,  the  settler  may  be  speedily  and  in 
form  of  law  stripped  of  all  he  possesses,  and  the  store- 
keeper become  the  owner  of  his  little  hard-won  terri- 
tory. So  dreadful  is  the  eflfect  of  getting  into  debt  in 
Canada,  that  wo  have  heard  of  cases  in  which  the 
families  of  poor  but  shrewd  settlers  have  lived  during 
winter  on  little  more  than  a  few  |K>tatoc8  per  day, 
rather  than  incur  a  debt  of  a  few  bhilliiigs  to  the  next 
store-kee|»«r. 

2(k> 


The  difllenlties  at  first  in  fixing  naHHteifi 
hxm  are Tcry great    mnch  groatertfaui  cwtbtit! 
say  idea  of;  but  l^  prudent  and  dll%int 
no  one  need  despair,  and  hi  the  end  n  sli 
will  unquestionably  be  sttainsd     Hnving 
property,  the  first  thing  yon  ham  to  do  is  lb 
a  faTourable  spot  for  your  log-hooao^  wUsh 
near  a  spring  of  water  or  ninning 


Koeilar  io  keep  ywarfOJaJon  in  wimi§y  nan  is  Ay 
the  houee.  uumully  dear  the  timber  and  hridb 
distance  from  your  dwellins  and  ottfe*biiil&ig^  or.^ 
the  event  of  fire  in  the  woooi^  great  risk  Is  inevnil 
their  being  destroyed.  If  you  proeesd  to  bnild ' 
and  clear  lands  on  a  large  scale  on  first  nirivnL  it  i 
succeeds  so  well ;  for  the  pries  of  laboor  issoi 
the  difficulty  of  getting  persons  to  wori[»  addsd  to 
great  expense  of  proTidiqg  food  for  inerensed 
unUl  prMuced  from  your  own  land,  ought  in  svsijj 
stance  to  induce  6aution  in  layipg  oat  money;  m 
crop  of  potatoes  and  fodder  for  a  tam  is  tiia  flnt 
jecty  and  this  may  be  aecompUshed  the  first  JM 
you  arriye  early.  The  second  yon  will  be  enaMsnj 
supply  your  fomily  with  the  neeesssries  of  '  '  ' 
your  own  grounds;  and  the  third  yenr  yon  magri 
yourself  possssssd  of  a  yoke  fd  oxen»  a  now  or 
and  a  year-old  calf,  a  conple  of  ^n^  jponltn; 
abundanoe  of  provisions  for  your  nmuirt  awl 
der  for  your  csitle.  The  Irish  and  Seotdi  ymm 
know  well  how  to  value  the  eoonamj  of  » 
every  new  settler  ought  to  strive  to  ob^n  one ani 
aa  poanble,  taking  care  to  provide  a  ■nflMsncry  of  r 
for  the  long  winter.  Cattle  require  a  little  Mk : 
Canadas.  it  ia  not  oonaidered  neeemnry  to  go 
into  the  details  of  the  first  settlement,  as  on  nB 
points  you  will  be  guided  by  your  own  filsmtfulto 
the  spot,  and  the  advice  you  will  get  Uram  ihm 
agents  and  snperintendants. 

Accor.vrs  given  of  these  ooumtribb  bt  SRnjaa. 

We  quote  the  following  letter  from  Upper  Canada 
from  the  United  Service  Journal : — 

"  Dear ,  You  wish  me  to  give  you  some  aeeouiri 

of  Canada,  and  I  will  endeavour  to  do  so ;  and  if  thi 
little  that  I  have  to  say  on  the  subject  does  not  teri 
to  instruct,  it  will,  I  hope,  serve  to  amuse  you,  ui 
enable  you  to  form  correct  ideas  of  this  remote  bit 
interesting  corner  of  the  world.  I  may  not 
extensive  information  upon  every  subject  coi 
with  Canadian  affairs,  nor  do  I  wish  to  tire  you 
lengthened  or  studied  details.  Having  resided 
years  in  Upper  Canada,  and  circumstances  ha* 
obliged  me  to  consider  it  my  adopted  country 
home,  I  have  grown  imperceptibly  attached  to  tto 
rough  life  of  a  woodsman ;  but  I  will  endeavour  It 
divest  myself  of  prejudice,  and  hope  to  be  able  to  pit* 
sent  you  with  a  plain  unembellished  account. 

Kniigrants  coming  to  Canada  generally  entertsii 
very  erroneous  opinions;  their  information  hanif 
been  collected  from  the  writings  of  people  who  have 
little  knowledge  of  the  country,  or  are  governed  If 
interested  motives :  they  come  full  of  romantic  wMsK 
sical  notions,  but  perfectly  ignorant  of  the  country  thuf 
are  about  to  inhabit,  and  of  the  trials  tliat  ai^'ait  tbenu 
On  their  arrival,  they  ought  to  abstain  from  eatisg 
new  potatoes,  green  peas,  unripe  fruit,  &c.,  or  WS 
them  in  moderation ;  for  many,  on  their  first  arrivsl^ 
are  afflicted  with  Qysentery,  which,  I  am  confident,  i 
occasioned  by  the  greediness  with  which  they  devetf 
vegetables  of  every  kind,  after  being  confined  for  a 
few  weeks  to  the  use  of  salt  provisions.  Fever  aai 
ague  arc  common  complaints  all  over  America,  bol 
seldom  prove  fatal.  They  generally  make  their  ap* 
pearance  in  new  settlements,  in  four  or  five  years  aftsr 
we  have  commenced  clearing  land,  rage  for  one  or  tee 
years,  and  then  almost  wholly  disappear.  They  are 
probably  to  be  attributed  to  the  foul  vapours  arisli| 
from  the  decayed  stumps  and  roote  of  tree»and  odM 
vegetable  sulwtances.  .Intermittont  and  other 
are  common  in  the  neighbourhood  oi  large 


EMIGRATION  TO  BRITISH  AMERICA. 


[Bant  ponds.    Emigrants  ought  to  avoid  such 

sixteen  years  ago,  a  number  of  families  came 
isgow  and  its  neighbourhood.  They  were  as- 
r  gorernment,  and  settled  in  the  district  of 
u  They  were  moral  and  industrious,  and  an 
dn  to  the  country  ;  but  such  was  the  bad 
!>f  the  land  selected  for  them,  that  many  of 
»r  struggling  for  years,  abandoned  their  farms, 
ored  to  other  places.  Clearing  land  is  labo- 
rk.  The  first  thing  we  do  is  to  underbrush  it ; 
cut  the  young  trees  and  bushes  close  to  the 
and  put  them  together  in  large  heaps.  The 
I  for  underbrushing  is  when  the  leaves  are  on, 
i  the  snow  falls  ;  for  when  the  snow  is  on  the 
we  cannot  couvenientlv  cut  the  bushes  low ; 
cut  tlio  trees  down ;  the  small  branches  are 
ipon  the  brush  heaps,  and  the  trunks  are  cut 
of  about  twelve  feet  each  ;  good  straight  logs 
sh,  cedar,  and  some  other  kinds,  are  reserved 
iverted  into  rails.  The  cutting  of  the  timber 
chopping,  and  is  mostly  performed  in  the 
A  we  have  then  most  leisure :  when  the  brush 
■e  sufficiently  dry,  they  are  set  on  fire.  Log- 
t  commences. 

«  are  numerous,  and  are  very  destructive  to 
d  occasionally  to  young  cattle.  I  have  heard 
attacking  travellers  ;  but  upon  inquiring  into 
>brt8,  have  always  found  them  mere  fabrica- 
>uzh  I  know  two  instances  when  travellers  on 
:k  have  seen  wolves  in  the  middle  of  the  road, 
r  trying  in  vain  to  frighten  them  away,  or  uree 
rses  forward,  hate  been  obliged  to  turn  back, 
net  them  when  travelling  alone  and  unarmed 
the  woods,  but  never  was  even  menaced  by 
a  winter,  when  oppremed  with  hunger,  they  are 
igerous.  The  wild-cat,  or  cat-a-mount,  in  figure 
itrong  resemblance  to  the  domestic  cat,  except 
1,  which  is  not  above  two  inches  in  length,  and 
rith  black,  as  are  also  the  ears ;  it  is  of  the 
lour  as  the  wolf,  and  appears  to  be  quite  as 
,d  powerful,  though  shorter  in  the  legs :  they 
the  tops  of  the  tallest  trees  with  facility,  and 
to  be  very  fierce ;  they  destroy  sheep  and  other 
(  animals.  Bears  are  also  numerous  :  they 
»rincipally  on  nuts  and  roots,  and  occasionally 
great  depredation  in  the  fields  of  Indian  corn  ; 
>  walk  off  with  pigs,  f^heep,  and  calves,  when 
t  a  chance.  We  have  also  beavers,  racoons, 
,  and  many  other  animals.  Our  woods  abound 
T,  hares,  partridges,  pigeons,  and  many  other 
game.  There  are  a  great  variety  of  ducks  in 
rs  and  marshes ;  and  here,  in  the  western  dis- 
I  liave  wild  turkeys  and  quails ;  our  rivers  and 
e  equally  well  supplied  with  fish.'' 
etter  goes  on  to  describe  a  number  of  snakes 
re  found  in  Canada,  such  as  the  water-snakes, 
ome  supftose  to  be  venomous ;  two  kinds  of 
ikes,  which  are  both  very  dangerous  ;  there 
garter  snakes,  copper-head  snakes,  and  blow- 
^r8.  These  reptiles  are  only  to  be  found  in  par- 
districts,  and  with  common  precautions  little 
may  be  expected  from  them, 
following  letters  are  from  a  gentleman  who 
lear  the  township  of  Yorra,  about  a  hundred 
est  from  Toronto.  He  says — "  I  am  installed 
;  800  acres  of  clergy  reservesand  Canada  Com- 
ands  contiguous,  and  am*  in  treaty  for  800  more 
tvate  individuals,  which,  one  with  another,  will 
e  in  fifteen  shillings  currency  per  acre.  The 
sides  being  bounded  by  the  llivcr  Thames,  is 
at  every  half  mile  by  streams  running  into  it, 
nn  giving  the  purest  water  ;  the  land  slopes 
the  south,  and  altogether  is  calculated  to  create 
Jon.  I  have  set  people  to  work,  to  chop,  clear, 
id  fit  the  land  in  every  respect  for  sowing,  fcir 
loUan  an  acre,  at  L.2,  15s.  The  fencinir  will 
at  the  outside  two  dollars  more  per  acre,  and 
MM  dollar  and  a  baU^  making  in  aU  L.3, 12s.  6d. 

■2C9 


My  log-house,  34  by  22,  and  two  storeys,  will  give  me 
six  good  rooms  at  least  for  roughing  in,  and  will  cost 
me  at  the  outside,  to  make  it  comfortable,  not  more  than 
L.50.  In  this  my  friend  and  I  will  live  during  the 
winter,  and  until  I  get  things  prepared  for  building. 
We  have  every  thing  as  comfortable  and  good  to  eat 
as  the  most  reasonable  man  could  wish  ;  and  barring 
pewter  spoons  for  silver,  horn-handled  knives  for  ivory, 
our  table  would  not  blush  to  stand  alongside  one  at 
home.  I  have  made  three  trips  to  Toronto  since  our  loca- 
tion, and  bought  a  load  of  things  each  time.  I  must 
make  three  trips  more,  most  likely,  before  winter,  to 
complete  stores,  pick  up  labourers,  and  arrange  for 
land.  Well,  with  tlie  whole  of  this  hard  work,  much 
hard  dealing,  thought,  and  calculation,  I  grow  more  and 
more  enthusiastic  in  favour  of  the  country.  Our  climate 
is  delightful,  and  our  neighbourhood  excellent  and  ob- 
liging. /  would  not  for  twenty  thousand  pounds  return 
to  Scotland,  I  want  not  money,  but  to  lead  a  useful 
life.  Now,  Alexander,  if  you  want  to  buy  land  for  yf)ur 
boys,  do  it  immediately."  Here  the  writer  enters  into 
private  details,  so  we  pass  on  to  his  next  letter.  After 
giving  some  further  account  of  his  operations,  he  thus 
proceeds  to  speak  of  his  toils : — "  Riding  fourteen  miles 
to  get  lumber  or  sawn  timber  drawn,  to  ride  to  measure 
every  cart-load  myself,  and  to  do  at  least  one-half  of 
what  one  at  home  would  find  people  trustworthy  enough 
to  do  for  him,  you  will  not  wonder  that  the  toils  of  a 
beginning  arc  as  numerous  as  they  are  weighty.  How- 
ever, I  like  the  life  amazingly.  I  find  at  all  events 
some  scope  for  my  mind  ;  and  if  there  be  difficulties  to 
surmount,  there  is  no  little  pleasure  in  overcoming 
them,  and  still  greater  in  feeling  one's  self  equal  to  it. 
I  have  just  been  buying  a  hundred  bushels  of  oats  at 
I  lj[d.  a-bushel,  so  you  know  what  oats  may  be  had  for ; 
excellent  apples,  i^d,  \)cr  bushel ;  wheat  is  high  this 
year — that  is,  a  dollar  a  bushel ;  and  butcher  meat  for 
24d.  and  3d.  per  lb.  ;  potatoes  tlie  same  price  as  oats." 

In  another  letter  ho  says— .*'  Since  my  last,  I  have 
removed  to  my  new  residence ;  and  although,  as  I  said 
before,  I  have  to  break  my  neck  to  get  a  view  of  the 
heavens  overhead,  get  the  cramp  in  my  fingers  from 
milking  the  cow  in  these  cold  mornings,  follow  the  trail 
of  my  oxen  when  they  stray,  and  be  alternately  plas- 
terer, glazier,  slater,  delver,  and  chopper,  so  that  my 
hands  have  become  as  hard  as  elm,  and  their  shape 
like  bullock's  lights,  with  Bologna  sausages  for  fingers 
— I  am,  for  all  this,  as  pleased  as  Punch,  and  even  get 
fat  on  it.  Indeed,  I  must  say,  1  have  been  indefatigable 
since  my  adoption  of  my  new  calling ;  so  that,  if  I  don't 
succeed  in  establishing  some  degree  of  order,  and 
management,  and  evidence  of  prosperity,  'twill  neither 
be  for  want  of  activity,  decision,  good  humour,  or 
system."  It  is  cleai*  that  this  is  the  sort  of  person  for 
a  Canadian  life.  Again,  in  January  1834,  he  says — "  I 
rise  every  morning  at  five  o'clock,  and  awake  the  house- 
hold ;  and  while  the  servants  are  managing  the  break- 
fast, so  as  to  get  all  comfortably  over  by  daylight,  I  light 
the  lire  in  our  room,  for  I  exact  no  service  not  abso- 
lutely necessary.  I  don't  mean  what  you  call  necessary 
at  home,  but  things  of  far  lower  estimate.  My  shoes, 
for  instance,  which  are  somewhat  of  the  thickest,  are 
well-greased  twice  a-week,  instead  of  being  blackened, 
which  is  very  well  for  walking  the  streets,  but  of  won- 
drous little  use  here.  I  have  cut  down  twenty  acres 
since  my  last,  and  am  continuing  the  good  work.  We 
muster  in  all  seven  axes,  and  get  through  about  an 
acre  a-day ;  but  as  other  matters  interfere  to  take  oflf 
my  hands,  I  find  I  cannot  average  more  than  about 
twelve  acres  a-inonth.     I  see  by  my  account  with  the 

bank  that  thev  have  credited  me  with ;  and  as 

money  currency  goes  as  far  here  as  money  sterling  does 
in  England,  I  calculate  I  am  a  gainer  of  rather  more 
than  a  fifth  by  the  transfer :  that,  with  the  high  rate  of 
interest,  the  cheapness  of  living,  and  exemption  from 
taxes,  makes  me  at  least  three  times  as  rich  a  man  as  I 
was  at  home." 

By  the  next  letter,  we  find  the  writer  equally  pleased 
I  with  the  country,  both  as  to  soil  and  cliii)ate,  and  aluo 


CBMXSEasea  infobi£&tk>n  for  the  people. 

He  bad  DW  •  go«d  (tal  okMod, 


..-ift  fiwijiMi)!  fee  *  third  of  Iha  yop,  and 

ntli  tS  tlu  ■ttribntM  of  nml  nklth 
—  .  ^    ^^  bta  Imah  aiid  that  natlcmun  aboald 

M.  to  fi»ni-1i  thit  it  is  m  ooonti/  oulj  for 
,r.spbilMrttliiiiaMkqiiiMUUsioiu.  Tba 
k— «u  H  btu  OMO  d  niHijr  luuKlnds  of  genUomen  vIh^ 
dnlw  aU  tWr  Utm  Mbn,  had  imTer  loUed  tiuar 
flwn  with  kbnv ;  Wd  nt  *r«  oM  whtt  ta  the  I'MulL 
WafBtfan  to  Mf  Ort  lb  R.  !■  u  aotiTB,  and  pnti  hi* 
handi  to  •■  antdi  dn^  and  hard  vork,  aa  wonla  ba  the 
•Mawith  apnaonhnd  to  rough  eountr;  labour;  while 
Mi  ailiimlim  ami  iatiiHiHiaiii  lead  *■■■"  into  the  moat 
■d*aol^aaua  aooiM  cf  t^WBllaa*. 

Tbota  who  euaot  rowaitlatelr  pmbaaa  Und  ia 
'>l*r**.  ——"-'—  p"*  *■>  gnin  along  with  that  of  any 

■rfifchiiuiiw  fa >"il  iiinr' 

>nfa  Wk  tha  aaaa  with  m 

aTkUlwihladJi 

yn^  ^  two  Balda  w 

an  Iha  vorit  «Mnt  baU  the  harrea^,  affinda  half  the 

iM^  and  nta  half  the  amp;  auotlur  of  paa^of  which 

lia  deaa  ali  tha  walk,  aBBrii  all  the  icad,  anil  geti  two- 

Obdarftheer^"     , 

'*"•  qnoto  tba  IbUowins  Iram  a  letter  written  by  a 
vntha  townilup  of  Nifthol,  Upper" — '~    — 
~     i,  and  whioh  appeared  in  I 


loot  mjaalf  andlHeDdiLlgiTe 
'"   maUer,  wheiili»to 

_^  __  ^ ...     ,  ngat  ua,  bawMS  of  «t- 

to^tiag  todwr  mora  than  jouhave  arationalpro- 
ayaatefflniahing  in  lima  far  the  aeaaoa  of  aowing  or 
Two  avia  well  elMiad  are  woith  fivo  aezea 
'y  iniahrlr  and  if  jou  obd  aM  about  it  hj 


nearijreadyi 

of  dullan,  it  u 


liluf  U 


,iriu^  is  Ba  backward 
Be«a  it,  you  would  be  tuu  lulu  fur  crujipiag  ibem.  Ni>»*, 
if  yuu  can  get  two  or  two  aiid  a  tialf  avrw  sown  with 
tall  wheat  Ue  fint  autumn  }'uu  are  iu  tiie  wuojg,  uid 
get  half  an  acre  cleared  fur  potatoes  hy  the  l^tli  or  20ili 
of  May,  wliicli  may  be  quite  praclicuble,  and  p-rlukpn 
another  half  acre  cleared  fur  tunii|>a  bj  tlio  'JQlh  of 
June,  I  niaialuin  there  is  a  ralioiial  |iru»pect  of  your 
IB  prottuce  or  your  ownfumi  duriuj;  theaecund 


>riug  yif 


liudfthut  during  iht 
year  you  must  buy  in  your  iirovininua  or  nork  fur  thorn. 
Go  on  nlearing  for  fall  wheat  during  tlie  nuninier,  and 
porfaapa  you  tnay  get  fuur  or  bvo  acres  ready  by  the 
•econd  autumn  ;  uud  if  you  con  get  the  titubblo  burned 
olT,  wheo  your  tint  cii>p  uf  fall  wlicut  grow*,  by  tbe 
SUth  or  Sjtii  of  ilay.  next  year  you  nuy  get  iu  a  crup 
of  barley  wiliiuut  pkiughlog,  and  tiniotliy-jttaiia  «eed 
(Enirn  bIudk  with  it,  tu  give  you  a  cmp  uf  hay  tlurmg 
the  tbinl  year.  If  yuu  con  t;et  aiiullier  acre  or  kv 
cleared  for  potatoen,  yuu  will  have  auiue  of  Ilium  to  dio- 
poee  uf  after  supplying  y^mnelf;  and  whei-o  lurnipH 
and  pulatues  Rrew  the  previoua  year,  you  uiuy  gut 
spring  wheat  or  onla  buwu  the  iient.  Ttuii  may  be  a 
rational  pmrpect  uf  tbe  fruila  uf  your  judustry  at  the 
end  of  yuur  third  autumn  or  hccouJ  iinrvftii,  aud  time 
you  nuy  brKin  to  feel  yournclf  in  ■  itirivjiig  way.  Thin, 
however,  brings  me  tu  epeak  upon  tbo  iwxt  lualter  for 
the  emigratit'e  conaidcration — live-stocli.  If  he  can 
poieibly  aflurd  it,  he  tnut  endeavour  to  procure  a  cow 
to  begin  the  world  wiili.  During  the  Bumnier  inouihe, 
a  oow  get*  her  meat  in  llio  fureet  without  coaling  the 
owner  a  hnhing  fur  keep ;  and  fur  the  other  tin 
moDtiu  atraw  and  turnips  will  be  advantageoua,  but 
topa  of  trees,  felled  dawn  for  the  purpose,  seeia  to  be 
the  food  they  are  inetioctively  inclined  lu  prefer.  The 
hwl*  of  wane,  OSM  llie  liuraei  Uio  Uuubk  of  cbuppinis 


tiiem  down,  hot  ns  he  tnay  ba  engaged  dniglal 
purpoae  of  eleariJig,  be  tiiuii  <  killa  tw<>  dngt  n 
bone.'  dealing  cau  scarcely  be  oarrisd  on  i 
tba  aasiartaooe  of  a  yoke  of  oxen ;  but  unW.  tl 
grant  can  buy  taoi  J  :l  oi,  1  would  not  rwu 
him  to  ponhaao  i  tiag  the  tina  autun 

rathe^luie  a  nun  . ,'Dke  to  auiM  hiui  wh 

where  neassaaiy  ;  uid  be  may  Uavp  %wat  man 
ngoment  tobMs  yul^u  ducini;  thvrulli.»;uj{  ja 
the  progpeot  <a  l,.,i  ■.,;  ..-,i...    f.,.. )  ^t-  ,  v  ,-,;  f.,| 

You  will  underal  "  < '  i     ' '        '  '       .■  ti 

Inuh  fuTming,  ai  I  ,       _       :..i  j 

that  1  am  addreasing  an  intssding  onignnt  whi 
aeaed of BniadBrata supply efmooey.  Inftc^ 
log  he  had  a  oonaidemUa  amount  with  hhn,  atil 

down.    Were  it  |N>BBUe  to  get  a  m 
npon,  it  weald  ^iMlmii 

th  my  lottn  bj  givfag  my  oplnloa 
Bubjact  aa  a  wbola.  If  a  man  haa  ton^l■^  f 
and  fartilude,  Bombinad  with  pmBaieiBnaa  ai 
danoa,  be  will  in  the  sonna  s<  a  law  jaaia  ba  qd 
forteUe — I  might  aay  indepeadenl—  ~ 


set  himaalf  down  in  the  baihataec 
front  nnghbourii  but  if  heeould  |M(ba  okn 
farm  with  four  or  five  acMB  elewnd  ^ea  i^  I 
raoommend  bim  to  fix  Br~     "'  " *~      " 


oomplalely  wild,  imlam  ha  ia  lai  iiliaa  tt  what 
neigbbonrs  he  may  be  liMj  to  barn  about  bia 


Another  letter,  dated  iMu  Fort  Eii^  Si  , 
ia  selling  here^for  £b.  par  bushel;  oats,'  Is.  ; 
hoabel; butter,  Gd-perlb.;  oggs, 6d. per  ^leei 
91d.toSd.urlb.  SerTanta'waga%LitoL.2,: 
moalh,  with  board.  Tea,Skperlb.;gi«eQ  tea, 
Fotatosa  areaalling  at  la.  parbBAel;  3M  ba 
•D  avenge  crop  per  aere. 

A  btner  ean  settle  hem  in  style  with  LJOO^  ai 
aa  good  a  table  aa  any  of  our  Uirda ;  bat  of  eoua 
attend  to  his  buainEes  and  keep  at  home,  as  • 

Scotland.     I  have  seen  n  few  persous  iu  the  agi 

tliey  seem  lu  think  little  abiint  it ;  those  on  Lai 

Ate  more  liable  lo  it  tlian  Ihouo  u>i  the  luwrr  lal 

Extract  from  a  letter  dated  Sundwich,  Westt 

Upper  Canada,  which  appeared  iu  tbe  la' 

,  after  mature  conuJeration, 


Cuurici 


by  its  numerous  proprietary,  it  lus  all  Ute  « 
advanlagesoftlie  mother  country,  with  infinitely 
oapabiliiies  uf  supplying  the  raw  materiali.  T 
tilily  of  our  soil  is  eveu  here  pruverbinl,  and  a> 
duee  superior  inqualily;  so  mucli  no,  that  oni 
is  uniformly  a  shilling  aliead  of  any  other.  Ali 
eidee  of  thu  iKtIitiiUH  on  which  nc  are  planted  (f 
the  Lake  St  Chur  on  tbe  one  hand,  and  Erie 
other,  it  almust  ia  buc1i)i  there  is  ready  and  ehe 
Tuyaiicu  by  steam ;  while  the  Thaincs,  a  nul 
nmieatic  Ktrciim  lliat  intersects  the  interior,  oi 
the  inlund  purts.  Kol  even  a  tree  u  felled  m 
mulvHt  nans  of  the  country,  but  may  bo  conn 
iiiarLet.     Tliat  uf  Dclmii,  on  the  An 


id,  Htid  the  iiualily  uf  tlie  Brticles  piwln 
among  the  bt'M  in  tbe  ciiuutry.  TliL-re  ia  abiuti 
H'ondL-ui'ks,  snipes,  oinl  di-er  iu  ihe  district. 

Itut  wli;it  chielly  tixed  my  cleteniiinatiun  * 
mliibriiy  of  tlic  cliniiitL>,  whielt,  cuiii|iared  with 
Lower  Oiiiiidii,  and  aunt  jutrta  of  Upper,  i«  imi 

We  have  abunduucs  of  room  far  settlon.  Wi 
to  tail  down  tlie  Thames,  fur  instance,  and  i 
cuuiiiry  ulaiig  its  banks  itudded  with  eultiTatad 
and  closely  sliaUoil  behind  with  the '  tall  tr 


"•=1 


jk  t)i,<l>i  per  j«>.  ■  'I  )ueIi 

.     Tliiri;  >U[liuiE*  <  '  '   -X  x>d 

itinjt  It  dvnm  MMti  ftix  kniLinv-.  mr  ituii.  iii|t  n  {iiitr 
HiiMn.  titiuui  iiiiicli  oliiiui  din  wiua  ^rtiM  ua  in 
Aiiil,  liut  iiiit  m  jcinil." 

itnui  uf  *  letuv  tTHiu  n  Tannir,  kIiii  Ivll  iIin  inri*h 
:  Fiuyu  >l>  Hi.  tuumiT  of  IBM.  And  vntlul  in 
aHuiail|i  ol  WI>i(L;,  UtiwT  Cuuda:— »  With  tint 

n>  (it  Mr  D and   Mr  tj        ,  I  buu|[}rt  mf 

3ut  tuia,  nliidi  I  aliKll  Daw  kIvc  yuu  «u|iiit  bo- 
t  of.  I  liava  ninolj  aiTU  ef  jjtxKl  uiitl,  wveitty 
rliicb  Arc  eleatti  i  uiil  on  t!ilr1;  unu  uf  tliU 

I  DFTOF  VM  UIT  CrOp,  U]<1  bul  fcW  VlUIUlIt  tu  DltaT 

pwrliB[«  uot  aliave  Uiirt;  on  vmIi  bitii.  Aboat 
ty  auTM  >ra  ^Vi^ther  rruo  af  llmii,  mid  T  thialc 
I  invB  tb*  wbnta  iilniiw]  thii  ariuon.     I  liHtii  • 

itroltBTiIi  cnDUiuing  a}juiil  1 40  trwta,  inwlulf  nl 
)>  kra  in  full  baaHiiK,  and  lUv  otiivr  liklf  pbmtod 
fa»r,  Ttin  bsni  iw  icOmI,  IiuI  Uih  dwalliiifWiM 
>r  iuiliflwiinL  TtwTo  uv  diiw  Idjc-hunwa  no.  ttM 
1^  two  at  iilirali  Isl  Ht  L.G  Moh  ptt  Biinnnl.  I  hat* 
lit  a  fur  at  uxt-n,  wbidi  coil  in*  10  (IoUmi;  anil 
myn,  one  of  nhich  uMt  L.S,  iUi.,  uu)  ihii  nibcr 
lOi-ciuTeiicr.  Tbo  EBiti*  hero  orv  w;  |nnd :  1 
r  BXfttOtd.  that  I  liiould  kb  unib  lii  Atnnrtea. 

luniia  uv  (U(«ellMik  u>(l  mllhongb  of  tha  lilnnd 
,  can  vadure  a  great  Ami  of  fiilignc.  1  lind  almnt 
iKen  111  l«U  yua  ilie  priM  of  my  {irm.  It  nnt  uiB 
4  itKrtin^  Vou  nrnj  iMiik  iliia  a  vrry  hi{h  priw^ 
run  muiiHit  get  woodiaiul  )itin>  under  8  dwiia  an 
,  aiui  it  cotlit  13  ddllant  to  atistr  ■U'l  frDCn  it.    U  *, 


CHAMBERS'S  INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


be  in  iDUcb  b«Ekr,  ir  tie  liu  the  money,  lliui  tn  go  inlii 
Um  wood*.  I  liikvc  tcii  acrei  ot  siunincr  fallow  r«u)y 
Id  sow  iavia  aith  wbm;  four  acres  of  potato  had; 
toax  nova  where  tli^ro  wu  Indian  com,  Whicli  1  [hink 
I  iliftll  hays  ready  to  sow  down  Id  (lie  course  of  lan 
d*]!!.  1  ■rill'kDw  lkaT«[  wilL  spring  orop.  My  oats  aiid 
eeaa.  1  feftr  nmliing  iu  tbii  conmry  wve  Ine  liiial  in 
■uinmvr ;  bat  I  liave  been  told,  if  t  i,l»ud  oxt  Ili«  Bum- 
mer, I  nped  not  be  afraid,  ae  the  oldest  mania  the  place 

-kkf*  (wu  kIiouIh  wilhiu  tvra  bund  red  yardi  of  ihgdour. 

bbokmnith  aud  wrlglil,  a  aaw-nilll  and  brielt-work, 

about  the  aamt  diitaiice.  A  pi-noo  hero  can  have 

tery  Ibiug  u  In  Ilic  old  oountry.  If  '     ' 

*■        "  '  '"'■-■       not  bMng 

i.er>- 


•non.  The  crop  ot  It  was  excsllc 
alio  the  Indian  com.  If  ui;  of  tny  old  uciglitHiun 
tbiok  of  coming  here,  tlmy  need  not  fear  of  getting 
a  hmi,  »»  there  are  always  plenty  to  soil." 

£ltmet  of  a  letter  fhini  a  millwright  who  left  Torrilf 
ill  the  spring  of  1934,  to  a  gentleman  there:— "The 
»l*«ni-buat  fare  from  Quebec  to  Montreal  was  6».  cur- 
nney.  I  nilBd  from  tbiinuc  to  Bjriown  in  a  barge — 
btx  Til.  fid.  rurreDDj  ;  and  3s.  eorreticy  for  eauli  cHt. 
ut  luggHtfv.  Fnim  liytovm  1  went  by  a  eteamer  lo  Klng- 
nnn,  ohicb  eo*t  me  je.,  and  fur  each  cm.  of  luggage 
Sd. ;  from  Kin^on  to  Toronto,  by  ■  ■nnilu'  couiey- 
anec.  Tt.  Sd.,  without  any  ■ddilional  aharge  for  Inggage ; 
and  then  from  Toronto  lo  Hetuilloii,  which  com  Ss. 
mon.  I  found  cmpluyment  at  none  of  tliew  placas ; 
but  did  •»  at  the  tuwn  of  Oakrille,  where  a  eteun-baat 

Vams,  37s- Gd.  per  week,  for  nine  weeki. 

>g""i»l         ■    '"     . 

ontfi. 


BMrdEng  during  thia  period,  lOs.  per  week.  1 


a.  perdiixcii  iif  srllclca  uf  apparel,  supposing  they ' 
all  h*ndkercliii..fs.  licotiniuu  are  lieie  more  reepected 
and  feared  than  emigniuls  from  other  counlriea.  W)icn 
I  eommojieed  Bnl,  I  had  only  one  eovereign ;  but  I 
have  now  L.lli,  and  hate  besidce  bought  ■  good  nuny 
look.  I  do  not  repent  of  ooming  here;  but  1  should 
like  lo  KC  my  iisIitv  place  ai^iu,  although  1  never 
would  Blop  ill  ii  altogether.  I  would  not  »dvise  any 
one  to  eoino  lo  Uiis  e.iuiilry  who  is  not  possessed  of 


Very  litlle  remains  now  to  bo  said  regarding  ti 
cotouiec  In  our  opinion,  the  iiue&tion  of  emigrstir: 
imeof  B  very  simple  tuiture,  sad  may  easily  be  solved  by 
•very  thinkiog  jiereon-  We  have  proved  beyond  the 
possibility  of  dimbt,  that  Drilish  America  is  a  connlry 
pUccd  in  inliuitely  bettor  circumstances  at  the  present 
nomcnl,  than  any  part  of  r.reat  Britain  and  Ireland. 
We  have  shown  that,  in  niont  plaeen,  the  cliroal«  is 
delightful,  and  the  lands  fvrtilc.  It  k  nut  denied  that 
in  many  porliona  of  the  colonies  agues  and  olher  local 
diaenses  prevail ;  hut  it  admits  of  demonstration,  that 
on  the  whole,  they  are  as  healthy  as  llicH  islandn.  If 
the  iuhabilanis  of  the  low  uncleared  lauds  in  North 
America  be  liable  to  agues  aud  fevers,  Ihoite  of  this 
MOntry  are,  on  the  other  hand,  continually  liable  to 
eolds  and  connutnptiuns  to  >  degree  fully  as  dangerous,' 
indeed,  the  c«l'h  ;t  tlje  island  of  Great  Britain  *eem  to 
ruik  as  the  njosl  destructive  of  the  diseases  which  alTect 
mankind.  Besides,  every  year,  the  continent  of  Ame- 
rica, as  il  becomes  cleared,  is  beomiing  more  aalubrioos, 
and  it  certainly  possesses  extensive  tracts  of  land  already 
fnJly  as  healthy  and  pleasant  as  any  |ian  of  England. 
If  it  be  established  that  Urilinh  Ameriea  is  that  lurtile 
-Mid  promiuDK  territory  which  it  b  represented  lo  be, 
the  whole  of  the  qoeatloD  of  emigration  reeulves  ileolf 
ikilo  tJih:  Mre  mem  wha  are  in  diAoultiea  in  this  cotm- 
frj-  fiUing  lo  imJergo  Iba  trouble  of  removiug  thither, 
ST2 


and  of  exerting  themselves  for  ■  few  jreftrs  •> 
BTl'ite!  Asfor  the mition  which  oblainaw  tat 
of  parting  with  early  friends,  and  the  plane  of  M 
that  we  take  lo  be  entirely  falhunioDS.  It  la  ll 
of  every  man  to  go  where  tain  msntaJ  and  pbyil 
pertiee  can  be  most  advaatageoualy  enerAfl. 
fundstnontnl  law  of  human  nature,  liiai  mankii 
disperse  tlivniBelvce  over  Ihe  whole  earth,  to  » 
the  beat  means  of  subsistence  and  the  tniwt  tf 
spot  for  their  residence.  Had  intending  rmigi 
proceed  to  a  land  of  bsTbarlans,  where  neither 
nor  divine  laws  were  nuderstuod  or  acted  upi 
where  they  bad  to  settle  on  sterile  deserts  or  1 
wildernesses,  we  might  exouse  their  hesitation  U 
from  their  native  country  ;  but  Ihe  case  ia  quil 
real.  To  emigrate  to  Canada,  or  any  other 
colony,  is  simply  lo  remove,  as  il  wore,  lo  auolk 
of  Great  Britain.  Distauce  is  nothing:  tor 
moval  of  a  family  from  the  north  of  Gotland 
Boulh  of  England  would  bo  attended  with  um 
same  trouble  and  eipense  ;  and,  in  each  case,  IIm 
would  find  iteelf  surrounded  with  neiahboun 
strange.  But  to  emignia  lo  Upper  Cauda  ■ 
means  of  purchasing  a  tract  of  land,  holds  out : 
better  prospect  than  to  remove  from  one  part  4 
Brilniu  to  another.  In  this  country,  it  now^ 
a  very  great  muuuJ  and  physical  ehun  lu  d 
comfortable  subsistence.  Nearly  the  wbuleoflt 
and  man ufael urea  in  the  United  Kingdom  or* 
into  the  hands  of  capitalists.  The  ricb  are  bl 
very  rich,  and  the  poor  are  sinking  deeper  and 
iuio  poverty  and  wrolchedneas.  Thesniallbun 
tradesmen  of  England,  Scotland,  and  Irelaitd,  I 
placed  iu  that  peculiar  condition,  when  emign 
■  country  lose  occupied  aud  ovcrdufui  than  t)M 
is  almost  imperative  ;  for,  looking  aroiud  on  a] 

or  of  rearing  their  tamiliea  in  tliat  comfiifHl 
reputable  nianner  which  their  feelin|[*  dicfli 
such,  therefore,  British  Ameiiea  olTera  a  fUrl 
removal  and  settlement.  In  these  oi>UiilrlM,ll 
be  had  in  full  pioKssion,  at  an  expense  of  b«H 
to  twenty  times  lees  tlian  what  is  paid  bepelg' 
annual  rent ;  and  it  is  seen  that  in  a  space  of  ftv 


It  of  tl 


in  these  eoloniea,  n 
sastlhey 


'  cultivated  ha 
ihey  are  not  worthy  of  being  classed  ac  laxea. 
arc  also  no  poor-rates,  and  no  tithes,  both  at  vl 
[■osts  are  severely  felt  iu  England.  Tbs  soiiR 
likewise  have  iiulhing  to  •  ■     ■ 

for  in  Canada  he  contini 
can  claim  all  the  prerogatives  of  such  a  dl 

In  short,  it  upijeora  to  us  that.  exeoptiBft  lb 
backs  attending  thojinl  iIiffietiUin,thtrea  BOt 
lial  obalacle  to  a  very  considerable  impiora 
clrcumstnnees.  But  we  entreat  aU  who  ha*«  I 
Rdence  in  our  advice,  not  lo  imagine  that  ibaaa 
ties  will  be  trilling.  They  will  be,  on  Um  eonln 
very  serious  nature.  Lei  all  remember,  Ihal  t 
see  a  eounlry  cunsisting  of  extensive  dreary  bf 
lerspersed  witli  selilemenls  on  the  raden  aca 
the  roads  are  genertkliy  ia  a  very  bad  ocodiliii 
the  cold  of  winter  far  exceeds  what  ia  geaeial 
rieuced  in  Britain ;  that  many  of  the  eonvani 
civilised  life  can  with  great  difficulty  bi 


ifficulty  be  obtaini 


llanHa.  We  tell  all,  most  distinctly,  that  tbw 
will  be  seen  and  experienced:  and  t)ia(  a  gp 
will  iu  all  likelihood  be  kulfered  for  annie  ycM* 
ing,  however,  by  patience  and  entarpriaa,  gal  i 
early  diHiculties,  the  settler  will  imquestioublr 
a  cumpetence,  along  with  the  bteeung  of  meal 
quiUity,  and  be  relieved  ot  all  fears  respcetincll 
ing  of  bin  family  iu  a  state  of  decent  indqiAM 

Priiiied  und  pulillabed  b;  W.  ua  IL  Ousaaas.  ^ 


S'S 

THE  PEOPLE. 


[TED  SLMtES. 


poiUfln*.  Ui»  up)wr  Hill  1"*«r  '"I'lT.  ^ 
t^  ["urtiouIiJ'  fwitiirr*,  wiJ  tr|uiral«a  h 


|i«uMi))|ii-titnpu  Ulim  tt«  rin-  in  Oilnr  l<*k<^ 
rUi  4vgrD»  at  Dorlli  lutihulo,     i'rum  thi*  lu  Uta 

St  Anibony,  ■  disUuiov  uf  Oto  liaiidred  niilva, 
u  kd»Ttsiiimui»«i&ni(B>ath-uiU,  UiB&Kulh- 
d.  n^tUj,  nratfa-nut  »i?>in ;  vhicli  U*tl(<aiD- 
rllhaut  mitdi  ilaviBtiun,  UtI  It  naehta  ilia  Ml» 
e  wAtcn  ef  wliieb  itvikii  11  nt  TJ|^  aoglo,  and 
ie  eiuToit  (iT  ihe  MiMiwJppI  oniiivl]'  upatt  th* 

■idr.  Tha  pnmlnRnt  unndi  af  iha  Upimr 
p|ii  IB  tha  $1  IVter*!!,  nliloh  riwa  in  ^a  gnui 
m  tlia  ntirtb-welil,  and  onten  th«  naratit  Ktrmili 
Mlim  Ilia  Palla  df  St  Aotboiijr.  Th«  Kukuba 
III  il,  afUr  ■  DoaTM  eflHO  miltw.  In  ibc  Sflili 
■riKiTtb  IftUWdt^  tli«  Oltiu  ({e>TOi 
the  Alki^mi^  ud  Mniioiiiptlial 

ndcr  punuiog  a  ■uuna  Of  Vbu  luim,  um 
t  nboul  Un0,l>no  iKjura  niilM  u(  oouiiu]'.  A 
'law  tiie  Utli  daifraa,  the  White  RIvtr  untm, 
MUTM  of  imirw  nwu  lUDU  mllw.  Thii^  nil** 
lat,  th»  ArkMUM,  brlueluc  in  ita  triliula  rnm 
AniH  uf  Muxlcn,  poura  m  Its  wBlani,  !(•  lut 
ihutMry  la  Rod  RiTcr.  «  ■trsBin  Uliini;  ita  tub 
laxicHii  ilauiiiiiona,  and  flowing  »  cuiina  of  mora 
DO  Miiln. 

•tto  the  wattra  in  Ilia  widi'  Mgimm  o(  ibo  wot 
on  congrce»tiug  lo  one  iMjiiit.    Ilia  MUsalp^ 

vpwitTdi  of  a   mil"   in  width,   and   wiienl 

iteap.  During  iU  annual  Aooda,  It  ovarflowt 
ki  bplow  thu  uuiulh  »(  tha  Ohio,  and  aoiM' 
'Xtfuds  thirtv  and  tony  miln  inio  Iha  iota- 
j'inft  III*!  pnuHmi,  batloma,  swainp,  and  nthn- 
nDita,  miliar  w»l«f  far  a  asaaun.  Afwr  iwealii- 
1  Rivrr,  thla  largn  atrrani  ia  unahlu  lu  niinlinua 
ehanntl;  it  pMla  into  a«panw  aiiutMa^  and 
■  Bay  to  tiic  oaean  or  Ilia  Gulf  of  Mdxico,  at  dll- 
jid  diiiant  point*  bvlnw  Naur  Oflaana. 
»p>bilitiu  uf  the  Miaaiaaippl  fur  parponoi  «f 


CHAMBERS'S  INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


$an  wlio  l«U  hi  rieo  an  olijeel  iif  gaiu  in  everj  lliliig  ho 
cngiged  in.  He  MJked  moch  in  pniae  of  the  rich  in- 
terior eoQDlrf,  and  how  rapidly  it  would  be  setUed  and 
cultivnted,  if  pusttesmd  by  the  Aiaericaim." 

This  rich  and  productive  island  in  allualcd  in  the 
(iairuf  St  Uwreace,  betwixt  Cape  Ilralnn  ou  the  cu>t 
and  N«w  Brunswick  on  the  weet,and  fa  upanitei)  Imnx 
Nova  Scotia  on  tlie  aouth,  l>y  a  strait  at  about  nine  milca 
in  brcadtli.  It  meuum  UO  miln  in  leaglh,  nnd  ia  S4 
at  lt«  graaUal  breadth.  The  ^aei*l  appeuance  of  thia 
iahuid  rram  the  tea  i>  level,  but,  ou  laodiag,  the  tctocry 
U  varied  with  gentio  unduUtioiu.  It  aboanilii  with 
ttreama  and  laliea,Biul  in  many  plaeea  it  i«  indented 
wllb  bayi,  no  part  binng  more  tlinu  eight  imlee  from  llie 
Ma.  The  ■«[!■  in  general  rertils,  yielding  good  eropa 
of  wheat  nnd  oilier  grains  ;  aud  parsnipa,  turoips,  cur- 
rota,  pnlatuei),  and  aioiust  all  the  common  culinary 
regi?taUea,aueceed  well.  Thi«  island  has  been  ivoiui- 
iDeiid(d.la  such  emigrants  as  posanaa  a  kuawludge  uf 
eaUore  willi  that  of  the  curing  o(  Huh.  The  rUmale 
e  Edward  Island  is  in  some  raapecta  aiiiiiUr  In 
thai  or  the  neighbouriascDunlnei.  Tlio  wlntor  i*  aaid 
to  be  tUorler  Ihan  in  Lowpr  Canada,  and  llie  alnio- 
■phere  ia  noted  for  being  free  of  fogs.  AgrionlluoJ  ope- 
ntions  commence  about  the  beginning  of  May,  and  the 
harvest  ia  generally  over  by  tbu  end  of  Uetolcr.  The 
chief  disadvantage  ihia  eotony  laboim  under,  and  whicli 
is  equally  applicable  to  the  others  near  it,  is  the  great 
length  of  the  winter,  which  obligee  the  larmerto  lay  op 
a  very  large  stock  of  hay  for  aupporting  liti  live-stock. 
The  sudden  manner,  also,   in   which  tpiing  cornea 


XS 


n,  and  oUiging  liim  to  work  severely  al  another.  The 
inhabilantn  are  chiefly  from  Grenl  Britain  and  Ire- 
land, with  a  few  Dulefi  and  tiermaiia.  Mr  Maegregor 
oharaeleriau  them  aa  hospitable,  kind,  obliging,  and 
aa,  generally  apeaking,  a  moral  people.  The  island  ia 
governed  by  a  lieDIe^an^'govenlor,  eooneil,  and  boose 
of  asaembly  oonaiating  of  eighteen  memberg,  who  are 
eteeled  by  the  people,  (.'harlulta  Town,  the  capital,  ia 
sitnjilcd  on  the  nortli  bank  ot  ibe  River  llitUiborough, 
on  l)ie  cast  side  of  Uie  ieland.  The  lann  stands  on 
ground  which  riaes  in  gentle  heights  from  ihc  banks  of 
the  river,  and  its  harbour  is  considered  one  of  the  best 
n  the  Gulf  of  St  Lawrence.     A  small  group  of  islands 


called 
Prince  E 


ently  ai 
^  lalanii,  chiefly  as  fishing  establishmen 


"  The  persons  who  may  bo  indined  to  emiemlo  to 
Vppt-r  Cajiada,"  says  Ilowison,  "  are  of  three  different 
descriptions,  namely,  the  poor  peasant  or  day-labourer ; 
thi!  man  of  small  income  and  increasing  family  ;  the 
man  )iouesaing  aome  capital,  and  wishing  to  employ  it 
to  advanlane.  Persons  of  the  firHt  class  never  would 
repent  if  ihey  emigrated  to  Upper  Canada,  for  Ihoy 
could  hardly  fail  1«  improve  their  circumstancea  and 
condition.  The  poorest  individual,  if  ho  acts  prudently 
and  is  indnstriotu,  and  baa  a  common  sham  of  good 
fortune,  will  be  able  to  acquire  an  independcnco  in  the 
Bjiaco  of  four  or  Ave  years.  He  will  then  have  plenty 
to  eat  and  drink,  a  warm  house  to  reside  in,  and  no 
laxei  to  pay ;  and  tills  state  of  Ihiugs  surely  forms  a 
delightful  contrast  with  those  hardships  and  privations 
Mhich  are  at  present  the  lot  of  the  labouring  population 
of  Ijreat  Ilrilain. 

Ii  i*  evident  tliat  some dracripliona  of  omigmnts  will 

succeed  better  iu  Upper  Canada  tlian  others.    Tliusa 

who  have   been  aocuslomed  to  a  country  lifu  and  to 

country  labour,  are  of  course  more  filled  to  cultivate 

Udd.  and  endure  the  hardshipa  at  first  attendant  upon 

a  residence  in  the  wouda,  than  artisans  or  manulaO' 

turen,  trAaae  enntlitutiont  and  babits  of  life  are  tome- 

what  unfmTounble  to  iAb  «u»esaful  ptiNuU  of  ogricul- 

m.     Hal  erety  iadiriilusJ,  who  to  youth  and  healUl 

Ba/'c/N(.i-(./3j)cp«nrf;nWM»rv,w(llevfnlii»llyproaper. 


Mechanics  cannot  fail  to  do  well  in  Upper  Ctttads;  I 
when  not  employed  in  clearing  lands,  they  will  bl 
easy  to  gain  a  little  money  by  working  al  tlteir  Wvi* 
ainna ;  and  they  likewisa  haw  the  advaolaip  it  i^M 
able  to  improva  their  dwolling-houaea,  and  repair  M 
farming  uieoaib^  at  no  cxpeniiD.  Wcavei*,  Mu  \f^ 
rant  oteoun  try  affairs,  and  anaccuitomed  to  badil;H 
oriion.  msko  hut  indiffereul  eoitlera  at  fltrt,  «  '  ■* 
trade  ia  of  no  use  to  them  whatever  in  the  woodi 
vied  prrsons  an  always  more  tomiortable,  and  i 
nnoner,  in  Csnodn,  than  single  nii-n  ;  for  a  y'lf*  nik 
mlly,  eo  for  from  being  ■  burden  lliere,  alwiya  ] 
sources  of  wealth.  Tlic  wife  of  a  new  settler  has : 
domestic  duties  to  perform ;  and  children,  if  at  all  | 
up,  are  useful  in  various  ways." 

livery  eandid  travullcr  in  Cauada  ounctin  ia 
views  ;  and  it  may  be  obiiervei),  thai  they  an  *q 
applicable  to  the  other  ilistricta  noticed  in  tliis  I  . 
"  Of  this,  I  think,"  uys  Fergusaon,  "  lliore  can  la  ^ 
doubt,  that  either  the  modernlc  capitoUal,  or  liir  b» 
gal,  sober,  and  industrious  labourer  or  ortirOui,  — * 
fail  of  succesB.    Fortmat  will  not  be  rapidly  o 


he  doea  n 


ifort  and  enjoyment  of  lifv,  and  rear  ai 
bin  table  even  a  farrrt  of  '  olive  plants,'  i  '"'     " 
Anxious  thought  regarding  their  future  d 
provision." 


There  are  two  vraya  of  proceeding  to 
tlie  St  Lawroiiee.  Qaebec,  and  Monlrwlj 
York  and  the  Erie  Canal.    The  pa«uig*  hf  ^ 
Lawrence  is  tedious  and  truubleaame,  and  Ok  ■( 
mend  all  who  can  conveniently  du  an,  to  lain  d'„ 
direct  to  New  York ;  from  tlut  city  they  oOl  al  it 
go  ou  by  a  steam-boat  on  the  Hudson  River  to  jUtal 
and  from  Albany  be  cpnveycd  in  a  tmdl-bcM  «d  d 
Erie  Canal  to  Lake  Erie,  where 
boats  ready  to  convey  them  in 
those  who  prefer  the  passago  by  Qusbee,  d 
information  is  given  hy  an  official  pampbleli- 
sages  to  Q,uebei;  may  i^illier  be  engaged  inetwiv*  A 


a   of. 


isions,  11 


places,  without  bedding.  Cliililrvn  under  fourtvcu  yian 
of  age  are  charged  one-half,  aud  under  seven  yean 
of  age  oiie-lhird,  of  the  full  price  ;  and  for  ehildia 
under  twelve  months  old  no  cluu-go  ia  made^  Up* 
Ibcae  conditions  the  price  of  passage  from  Louiloa,  ft 
from  places  on  the  east  coast  of  Great  Britain,  iM 
generally  been  L.i;,  with  provisions,  or  LJ  sriAwi 
From  Liverpool,  (ireenock,  and  tlia  prineiptd  pcata  rf 
Ireland,  as  the  chances  of  delay  are  fewer,  th*  (ten 
is  somewhat  lower  [we  would  here  strongly  kjvM 
emigrants  to  sail,  if  possible,  from  a  port  on  tb«  witf 
coast,  OS  being  a  great  saving  ot  time,  trouble,  oad 
oxpensej  ;  this  year  Iha  cliarge  will  probably  be  iron 
L.I  to  L.2,  Ida.  without  provisions,  or  from  L.4  la  ImS 
including  provisions.  [KmigranU  iulcndiog  to  acNla 
in  New  Brunswick,  Car«  Breton,  or  Prince  Ed«H4 
Island,  will  grnDrally  obuiii  a  pannage  iu  the  vcsads 
hound  for  Canada  ;  and  ships  fur  Halifax  or  PieMO  m 
Nova  Scotia  are  constantly  sailing  from  the   BriHik 

torts.]  In  chips  sailing  from  Scotland  or  Ireland,  ll 
as  mostly  been  the  cufatom  for  passengers  to  fiikd  lUr 
own  provisions ;  hut  this  praelioe  has  not  been  ao  n 
neral  iu  London,  and  some  shipowners,  sensible  of  uw 
dangerous  mistakes  which  may  he  made  in  thw  nuHat 
llirough  ignorance,  are  very  averse  to  reesira  po^ 
aengera  wbo  will  not  agree  lo  be  victualird  by  ^ 
ship.  Those  who  do  resolve  to  supply  their  own  pro- 
visions, should  al  least  bo  careful  not  to  lav  in  oa  ItMot 
ticieni  Mock  ;  fifty  days  is  the  shortest  period  lor  wUc^ 
it  is  safe  lo  provide,  and,  from  London,  1'it  js^gsli 
sometimes  prolonged  to  sevenly-five  day**  tU*i^ 
wound  Up  \»i  aSotn  \ti  i.\ua  cuikntt j,  and  uthvrwiM  pi» 
pared  btaueU  aoA  tamW^  tot  v™«Ad>il  ^  ^  ^>A4 


ISfl  AUBtUCA. 

til  aod  iliuWrk  ^ln ;  tl  IW.  itl  m 


M  mh 


,:;a 


■ihjp,     AfWTbmUTi/ 

.bi>  AUiintin.  Uia  ■< 

niiai,  anil  liail  ■<>   [ 

Uvga  Topaitv.   Tltr  [.I 

»al«b«>  kl  IliopUDiTii.  kii>l  MiKt-iUHcnr  cipcsdedj 

i^iTD  Ibe  VMul  mil/  ptoMttded  on  her  voj^^m  ^ 

M  havioR  U  puretuHP  a  Dtw  atmifc  of  jiraritiiin^  IVi 

ill  b  ilmiiar  duiuicr,  we  wnulil  wlviw  thi*  littniiUqK ! 

igrant  to  inqiiirs  rntoUt*  chuHCMr  of  th"  nawri  al- 

offlpi*  of  tht> oampan)' with  wlnunahit  !■  iii>iir«t,iuid 
imkiiif  Mny  a^MinMil  with  ilia  atpuiti,  t»  Iw  t***^ 
lUr  in  having  il  iii  wciliiig.    H*  iri>')u)<l  ailliuhito  IM- 

lua  ol  ail  eoiivHiiietieM  In  Ihc  ahip  ;  uiil  kIwi  dK  M  . 
obliged  lo  land  fur  U  kaat  twaUj-tvar  liuuni  aftrr 
ting  into  [xin. 


'»«tou«  lo  diumbarUlioo,  immgo  jdot  timgj;i|{w 
t  vnutll  eomjiua,  tl>*  bwirr  paskaicM  uia  iMtw,  but 
■■Ihviii  vroU  Mturwl-^ild  ilirtj  olivLMng,  lup>  biHMii, 
1  othw  gwEan  Wticl**,  ■»  wit  worth  thii  Mfriafk 
rau  liAvii  an/  pmvialoas  left,  aaab  aa  natnual,  piiM- 
>,  Ae.,  ;au  cau  hU  thran  at  QucIim  at  a  pivlli,  and 
lid  lt>»  oaMina  at  Inunporl,  and  von  ean  porcbaw 
m'  bnad,  batter.  Ue,  nigir,  anil  i ''  -        '  - 


a,  nigu',  anil  mher 
v  luiud  (oT  your  joumey.    All  aorta  of  pmvi 
y  bo  tionght  cbeaptfr,  aiiil  cvamlJ/  at  a  boltar  iiiia- 
'-  MoiitmJ  uid  tJpp«r  CaniuU,  tiian  at  (|uidii' 

■■■■■■     ^         '.ithini     "      ■     ■ 

jour  hair  abort,  atiil  waah  cbll;  aiul  tborcoghl^ 


',  ID  Uoiitteal  uid  Upp«r  CaniuiB,  Ulan  at  Uuniiib. 
ra*  jrourwdf  in  lichi  (ijean  oliiihing.  (VinalM  b*- 
HiUy  brioK  on  u«kii*m  by  buine  EmwaruiljelothnL 
t  your  hair  abort,  atnl  waah  cbll;  aiul  tborcoghl^ 
old  drbldng  ardtmi  apSrita  of  any  kind,  aod,  vliM 
itcd,  do  not  drink  onld  waMt.  Eat  modtraMl]'  of 
tu;  Cuod.  Arold  nljbt  dawa.  Bj-  atinnding  to  tlio 
loedlng  dimtlDiia.  usLn^  will  b<>  pnntnt'-d,  wiilt 
■r  afTious  iDoonveiiicnara.  Wlioo  nary  tbiug  to 
dy  fur  diwisbarliaUou,  luid  if  tlia  ahip  ia  If  ^  *^ 
iliur  ill  tliM  rivwr,  uko  cam  In  puiaaf  (^'"in  Uio  Itllp 
tiM  boat ;  atind  all  haata,  and  »m  ilia)  Jiiur  banac^ 
a  the  tau■lQllnnf•|aIMA■lAl^\)«i^n•«\1,uc  "Vih  wo&a 
Wjmw  UvrcA,  tAv\i  -jiflM  laviom  omW, 
,  to  the  *^rt  Wi  Jti»«tB\B«'t»  4»  ** 


CHAMBERS'S  INFORMATION  FOR  THE  TEOPLE. 


Rhip'«  dock  will  ho  on  a  line  with  tlio  quay  or  wharf. 
Paw^MiporH  are  cutitiiMl  by  law  to  llio  jtrivilofjc  of  rc- 
xnaiiiiiiK  on  Inward  ship  forty-oij»ht  hours  after  arrival  ; 
and  it  is  unlawful  fur  the  captain  to  deprive  his  passcn- 
frers  of  any  of  their  uAual  aoconimodatinns  lur  I'lMikinii^ 
«»r  otherwise ;  you  may  tlierefore  av<)i<l  the  expense  of 
lorlirinj^s,  and  make  all  your  arrand^emonts  for  prosecut- 
ing your  journey.  If,  previ<»u«»  to  disembarkation,  sick- 
nos«  sliould  overtake  you,  proceed  immediately,  or  be  re- 
moved, to  the  Emigrant  Hospital,  in  St  John's  Suburbs, 
where  you  will  bo  tii4en  care  of,  and  provided  with 
everything  nejMlful  until  restored  to  jiealth.  Meiiieine 
and  me<lical  advien  can  also  be  hail  at  the  Dispensary 
attached  to  the  Queliec  Cliaritablo  Kmi^nnt  Society. 
This  society  will  grant  relief  to  all  destitute  emi«;r;ints. 
In  Montreal  tiiero  is  a  similar  institution  for  the  relif>f 
of  emipranta.  It  is  particularly  recommended  to  emi- 
grants not  to  loiter  their  valuable  time  at  the  |)ort  of 
landing,  but  to  proceed  to  obtain  settlement  or  em- 
ployment. Many  emigrants  will  find  employnuMit  in 
the  city  of  Quebec  an<l  itH  vicinity,  as  also  m  and  about 
Montreal.  Single  men,  in  particular,  are  advis<'d  to 
embrace  offers  of  this  kind ;  but  emigrants  with  large 
families  had  better  j>roct»ed  without  delay  to  Upper 
C'.inada,  as  hereafter  directed,  or  to  situations  in  Lower 
Canada,  particularly  the  eastern  townships  ;  and  if  th(>y 
Lave  sons  and  daughters  grown  up,  they  will  find  a 
i4ure  demand  for  their  services.  Artificers  and  mt'clia- 
ni(*s  of  all  denominations,  and  iarming  lalnmrei's,  if 
Rcber  and  industrious,  may  be  sure  (»f  doing  well. 
Mlucksmiths,  particularly  those  acquainted  with  steam- 
engine  work,  also  good  millwrights  and  sawyers  by 
machinery,  are  much  wanted  in  the  Canadas.  Tlu; 
current  rate  of  wages  lately  ]>aid  to  earjwnters,  masons, 
and  other  artificei*s,  was  fn»ni  .'Is.  lul.  to  (is.  or  7s.  per 
day,  acctirding  to  circumstances;  farni-labour«'rs  were 
I';iid  at  a  h>wer  rate.  'J'here  is  no  demnnd  f<U'  p«"rs«»ns 
hLilled  in  any  of  the  ornamental  i>rofessioiis,  (»r  for  the 
preparation  of  articles  such  na  are  usually  im]iorted 
fn>m  Kngland.  A  great  number  of  labourers  are  UMially 
eniplnyiMl  on  lioard  sliip>«,  and  about  timlutr-yartN,  at 
<^Ui«  lire  and  Moutnal,  who  L'<'t  frniu  .'U.tM  4*;.  «"1.  a-il.iy,  ] 
rniil  b)ianl  grofiiillv  lnund,  'I'lir  l^^Tl^^^■:lL^Mlt  h:iliit  ,  I 
ii!/«-ii4ii'i"<'»l  m  -ih-Ii  »'ecii|j.iti.i!m  i-i  mi-r  \\  d-  fi  ■  •!!%  i.i-.-- 
fi  r.il-'i'  tnr  the  ;;»!  -Hii-j  -j  «  niiL'iMiit  :>»  i-im-.-i  i  i:  i-  ic- 
•  ii.ifi  !y  ti»  t';-.'  i''urii"\.  |-.!ii::'r.mt«»  \\:';\  1  sii..  i- *»,  .-iiiii 
\v!:o;iri  ]«»'■->-•-■.<.  <•  iri-in  l.."."t  i<i  i ..'."',  :iJ<- ;n.\ '•-• ':  !• 
]'n-.'M  KiiiiH'-i  ni'ly  iii'i'  tic  wimh;;,  in  i-i--  \;.-:ii!"\  (-r  «•'■! 
n-t  ilcmtiit-,  wl'.-  ;■•'  t.M-y  i-.m  nl-Jiiin  |-r«i\  i-«iinis  |.ir  x'  ■  ir 
t-I'M't'  I;i'-iir.  ]  .'•  iiM'^i  \r\cr^  i'ir»'mii-t;iiu'f  e  '<- 
1  I  I-'.  ■!  witir  inoiH'v  ii.:»M<  P",  i.-*  iliiii  ti-i-  furrtinv  i.?  !■'.■■ 
wli-I'-ot  r.nii'-M  Aiii- )■  iM  i*i  tliii"  ifiii  iri-m  ti  :.;  \%liii-.'i 
]i  'x  ..:!-^  in  t!i-.-  rri:t<il  !\ii:_"1<-mi  ;  iti  • ':;!»■  r  xNcr-*-.  ;r  ■■'m;- 
l-n;:  n  1vi;l'!-.ii''.  i-'  liitl-r-ii'L  h'n'ii  a  »'ti:..iii:j  in  (  .lii.i:'..:. 
'J  ii.'  iii'Hifv  «>t  (':in.nii  i->  l<fally  nf  iiicli'T  iinini-  I 
i.::i  valuf  tliau  vliar  >v«'  uiplci-trin-l  l'\  t-.'  ti  rtii 
.^'i  r'irir;,  au'l  !•-  rali'«l  ll:i!i'i\  r'lri' i  i-v.  'I'  ililii-- 
r<  iii-'^  \arii-:  hnt  it  inav  In-  statiil  in  jin«i.i"  !i  nn<. 
t ■..■!'  .-Ill  lloL'li^!--  ^"XtTiijii  i-  n  <']\iiiii«l  ti>  ill-  w.'iili  "Jl^. 
<  V  "  \r-.  •"■1.  <'irr<-iicv  ;  or  ;in  1  ,i'.:.i-ii  ^iicm^  i-  >  ,'ial  t'» 
:  iii.it  N.  ".''.i!.  Ill'  N.   "I'i.  (Mirr»i.<'y.      ii    \i'ii   i-.       I.ii:- 

!     i>    liiiH;«-v    til    < '.i;i.i-.:  I.     \'iit     \s  \  ,     r«-Cti\i-    t'-     ■      !i.:i 

I  i-  •i->  U'V  i*  :  Iiu:  :f  ;.'i'.i  v.-'-'i  \->  tiii'ii  i-:irri  ..>v  ii.;n 
^  ;■  I  .::i_',  Inr  t  li  j  .;i  |'-  -•■  "1  ii:  iii:"  i'  li'il.i--.  _\  -.■  »• .  • 
i.  fiir  ;i  «'ii:-(  ■■-1  ■  m  ::!i^  .■  ■-.      A:;  «.:::•  ■^  :ir»-,  i-     r-  ,;;  ■    . 

I I  cKiiiii  "I  Hi  e  .:ii  im".  ;  '  i.i  v»I-  ii--,  v.  iw  ;  i  i;  i-  -,t:  i  _\  n-i 
\s   .1  1 1  »"i  i \  I     '■  - .  .i  (.:i  V  1  1   w  ;i  •'  -.  t  iii'  .'.r"  .■..  I  \  ,i.u-'  •  t   i ;  "  . 


1  ■    ;'  N    ;  ■.  1 


'•■  V.i.  LT- 


111.-    ili-t '.iii-',-.i:  '     :-\.  ■■'.:    I'ri  - 
'!    :,    I..-   |i  .il  ::i'!,  .■   .  !    i  -  <  I!    i  .)■■ 
«■      .     •     lil     [>     ~    .'..         ■]    .i  !l''i-    '     Ml    !.   •■    ]V.  i-l.»-i-   -I     ]    ■}■■     • 

\    ■_;■-■    111    L"        -.       ^"c    Im\''    i'.ir!    \ii\    •■    i:-ii-    litiii- 
j  .  .i.  ■■   i.;i     i    •  ;  .i"'.      I  r-ii     .i  :  \'.  ••   i"  in    1-  am,  it    i- 

I  .-  •  :.!.(•   Ill)  .■■  ■  :    r  .  ■!  ■  :  ;i!«  m  r  to  i-..\  In-  wiiil.ii.i  II  I  \ 

I  •  •        •  ■ 

ai-   I  r>I' r  *    r   ..■       .     •  :■   ,j    ■  ■•m-- ,   .-.ii.    ;■     i!.    j    .n   '\\ 
.'i-Kii'it    li.ii.:i..i    '.    I'-r;  a-ii  .   n-'i    i-   \  >•    i    .;■     i-i  .i-i-  ;i; 

W  I.    Ill    .,  "M  'I-   .    -    ;.l    ■      1.   ■;.    •  ....t    -   .!..■  •    !■   (   ■,   ,1     V,  .    I  \'l.;''',    I!   - 

S'.  .I-I  I  1    ;'i  r*  I  _'    !   .  a  ■:  ,\ ,  .]   .  -    ;!■  t  m  r-  .:  M  \   .;:  t  i;:-  r  ■ 

/.''■■'■/-  cK.iii  I.'    1-   '.  ■/  /'/M   ;■>.'    J-.  '■  !.  in  1,-  ..     -,••.  'I  i;'*.  . 

;ijj  .ij'j  li'tiit.s    ii:^h    u.ii.'c    •/*;  JU'in  »»   li'iwn    t.i   a  Ui'.v.  . 

■/■■, 


Perhaps  such  practices  are  not  rcRorte*!  to  by  W*ip*et- 
ablo  eni]iloyers,  or  may  only  prevail  in  parts  of  the 
country  where  a  circulating  medium  is  nearce ;  but  wi 
have  considered  it  proper  to  mention  the  circuiuManre^ 
in  order  to  ])ut  emigrants  oti  their  guard.  Alwa^i 
asc<rrtain  whether  you  are  to  be  paid  in  cash  or  \l 
goods,  and  act  accordingly. 

Having  arranged  all  your  business  at  Quober,  Von 
will  proceed    without   loss   of   time  to    Muntreal,   b| 
steam- boat,  on   your  route  to   Upper  Canada.     Two 
steam-boats  ply  (or  lately  ]di(>d)  to  Montn^al,  lUO  milei 
up  the  St  J^awreuce,  which  is  p«'rformeil  in  inuu  24  to 
.'{()  hours.     Take  care  not  to  engago  a  paMiage  in  any 
vessel  from  which  you  and  your  family  will  bic*  obligrd 
occasionally  to  come  out  and  walk  ;  wc  have  heard  of 
disgraceful  instances  of  this  kind  of  cruelty.    The  farct 
on  board  the  steam-boatH  were  lati'ly  as  follow  (but  all 
may  now  be  a  little  altered) : — Deck  |iaH««engers,  adulu^ 
7s.  (>d.  each  ;  chiMren  umit-r  twelve  years  of  age,  liaiA 
price ;  and  unrlvr  seven,  one-third.     The  rout«M  and 
fares  to  the  principal  places  were  laudy  aa  folluw  u- 

Oiiol»cc  to  Montre:il,  hvjstoam-lKMitfl,  -  -  T^'M- 
^IiintriMl  to  I'rtx-iit,  by  Ihuiiaiii  Uuitl.  •  tigt,Jii. 
Tn'^citt  ti>  KinKsiiiii,  hy  htiniin,  •  -  •  A^  ikL 
J)itiii  to  (.'Dhiiii^li,  iir  I'ort  llii|K',  -  -  -  "f^*"!* 
I'rt'-^'tit  ti»  Tomiito.  ciipitnl  ni  IpjuT  r;in:ii!:«, 

li.iniiltMii,  niul  NiaKiini,       ....     lf%.Od. 

From  Niagara  you  jiroceed  by  the  Welland  Cuil 
to  Tort  Krie,  op]Hi3iite  JUitl'alo  on  Lake  Khc,  when 
steam-boats,  or  Kiihng  schtHinerv,  will  convey  thoa 
destined  to  Port  'I'albnt,  or  other  {uirts  of  the  Loodoi 
district,  or  vicinity  of  Lake  St  (lair.  PeriHUis  going  ti 
settle  on  the  land^  of  the  Canada  Comjmny  will  pnieetd 
to  York  or  Burlington  Bay,  iiead  of  Lake  Ontario. 

At  most  ot  the  prece<ling  towns  and  landing-plUM 
yon  will  find  government  agents.  It  you  are  buundtt 
I'erth,  or  New  Lanark,  or  the  vicinity,  disembiurk  tl 
Prescot ;  or  V(Ui  njav  gt)  bv  Jtvtowu  on  the  Ottawa. 

If  for  the  thriving  settlements  in  the  Newcastle  dii- 
triet,  disembark  at  Cobnrgh  or  Port  11o|h>,  on  Lftkc 
Ontario.  'I'iios'.'  "oiu'' to  tlh:  tnwnsiiips  ot  Si-vmour  iiav 
])riie«  <'(i  friMii  Kin.'^i  -n,  I>\  tl.c  l»Miiiiinl  I(.i\  <•!' (^uiiitr, 
to  till-  iiKUith  «it  trie  Tim"  Kivcf,  trnin  \\  ni-iioc  a  ria>i, 
i!;^:;incc  1 !!  jni.t .-,  l^i  i!  .'^  \  ;n  t'»  ^I'Mninr.  It  pr-ewd- 
in-,'  t"  tin-  ll'-nc  Ii-.'  '\  i  ti  :ii  •.;.-'.rii*t-.  ■li><«Mnii:irk  it 
I'l-U'ri*  I,  t  I'.f  I'ai'i':  ■  I't'  I  ■  i'if  ( ':::i  pia.  l.niijraKt- p'in^ 
an;,  v  ::i  iv  li  \iiii-l  l>'ri:."  >,  w;..  :m  j-  in-rai  liini  it  llifir 
in-<r<'!  til  i.:;,;xi-  '  i-.^  iliii  li-ni--.  ll  t"  r  t)ii>  ].<iii-l<>ii 
.ii-'vi-r,  ].r:.i-i.,  .1  i\  »!  .•  \::':;.:i-.i  irni.iii-r  t'>  Lak'-  Kr.'" 
atiil  t  :ii- 'I'i'.li.if  >.  !  Ii  n.f-iit.  It  i' -r  I'iX  i.tw  ,.,  <  .n-ij\i  ■. 
i  h;il.  111  !•!.■:!.  of  lit-  I  V  ■■■i;nai:"n-  ■  :i  ii-v-  «  ^taua  Ki\tT, 
ji.ii-iii]  ii-i'in  .'-u  (iti  .-a!  .;i.i'  [.;  I'iiiin'  l'_\  tin-  ii~uali''n- 
vr\aiii'^.  >!:»-li  ;ii!i:c  ii  ri  i-t-iiii-^  ti.aiut'ii  :i  >!iiit 
in  I..'  r:nr-  >-n:;..i  •  ;  ii-.M  a->  t!'.«  r.  ■  ar^-  ri'i.:;mia;  cli.iiO'S 
t  i.iijraiit".  ij.a\  t  n.  !•  iiii-»-*  ^ar_\,  <ii  ii:v  .r  arriv.i'.  1-' 
;;i*t  '.H-rr  l-v  I'H'ai  ii  ;■  n.i  ii  dm  liiaii  an\  tnii;;;  \ic  o.tri 
.•-av  <  !'  1  !m'  .-nil'  ('. . 

A  «•  i'm'mK  It  ;iiij,.rtaii^  to  iiirnti'Ui,  fi»r  the  U-iittTt  f-f 
\\w  ji-iiri  r  o:a- ■   .  i    cin'/iaiit*',  tiiat    tin  r<'   li;is  t\i-trJ 
I'T  >.  .;iii-  \  'ai>  Ml  ."\;.:;;fi  ai  a  I"  lU'Mi  i-rit  '^I'ci'tv  i-t  .;pjl 
■■<•..    inij  ■  rran. ■.,<■■..■  ll  t!ic    » 'ana-la    linijiaitni  A-"" 
V  .iii'n.       li  .■  l.i -iv  i-;  •.r.-Ii\  iiina;-,  ai'tiMti  ■!  \\  !.i:'i.;-'"-^ 
i.-.:i!'\i-,  .'!ii-l  il    -.a..  :-  11  1    rwal'!  i:;:  :al-')iu'i-r^  ti-  ]'l..-''* 
^*    I  !•■•  f  .air -<  r\  I  •■  -  :.i'-    i  ti|Mii"«  li.  atl'iiril-.  rraii\  :i*?.*J* 
Mi'---  lil   j  ■'.  r  Mi.iL'i'.  \  '-  I  -i   il.'M*  air:\.ii   at    M.-i.tpa'-. 
,'    .iiM  ••;.:  -  ;li.i',   .i-iii   il.i'    ii:'i    iii  .!•::. r    ii'lt"  tit'*' 
< ':    ■■    'It'  ■•  ;    I-.'  .:'■    -i  I  \    !:'<-:  a  1i«   liifiiths  l.irrr, '!i'' 
'■'•  1   i\    J-  ..'  '  i    !    .-  '  ■    na"  .\«  ^  I't    laij!  .1    1,   i-77'I  «i.»!i^*" 
■  t  !•'  ■    I  .',  ;     ]■  :   .    vi  -  «  '   >i'';l:ii  il,  ai  ■!  lo  tri-m  <>■'• 
n  .I'.v  ;   ■■•  ai,  :■.' 'T.      ' ':    l'"-   i.ninlMr,  "J''!    WfiH'  ."ili  ^i 
-;\.\    \«ar-   it   .   .    .  ;.i    i    '  ;7   ^m  I'l'   iiitaM^.       l  lii-    ni-'! 
(■■■I  '-.-till  in  ;  .1 :..  •     :i_'  ji  i-\  i-iiin-  aii'l  a  liunibli-  kinJ  '■' 
inii.iiij  in  sh-   i-,  a.-o  in   "iu-ai  alti  :iilaiioe.  aiiil  p.i\nitTt 
<  I  j'.i--a'jT  I  t    I'  ■.:  I  .■.■;...■^  .ii.ii  tain  I :  us  to  piaci*a  in  lla' 
i':!'i!   r.    \'x  c  ;,.^!.i:.  -  \\(  :.■  ;:n  atiy  l»rniri:»d  by  U-mi 
.-1  nt  I  ;:  \\i:'i..uf  l-  —  rt   t:n.i-.  a*'  tlii'V  \\«Tt' tlu-n  I'V  U''l 
I  n  \  -.iX'i!  iri>!M  tj.i   i:at'.:i  r  t<>  tlnsr  health  and  nnTiil* 
v.ii.«'!!    \\.  ii.l   lia\f  l.-.-'i    iiu'uritd  bv   rfUiaiiiiik::  anv 
\'.\.j\\\  vA  \\\uv  vxi  ••  in  a  iart'c  city,  but  their  time  wai 


■(  '  rjifor- 

n  moh  M  UK  bry <■'  ■■  i  m viny 

ithw  fcind  nf  •mI>'1-':<  >:  iliuw 

lb»IHw  (li»|Wll*ll  III  ::!■■  ,    III, ij    will 

ulh' Bvoid  Ihn  ovll  l.iiri.iv  iiitiiili.iKil.  nf  mnidlfif 
wfiwvlliay  wtllbR  lH>UledaiidMiliUl7,tntluiA(f 
aa  airaiig*iu»ul  u  «1U  coMira  l«  «iab  tliA  cwto- 
or*Mi*ty  whllii  h«  Ii  eagtgf!^  in  lb*  flnt,  tnd  In 
M»  the  uinat  dlictniniipiig  Uiik  be  liu  to  cnewn* 
mbdntng  the  roTMit."* 
»  tnaj'  Icora  (rem  time  txlraela  ttiit  iIib  (kntr 


le  funiitT  re»{w  2^00 


]i'. 


«^  frn, 


BMC*  luiiU  already  tit 

iiir!iii    I  ■'  ■  iiT  111  prodnoe  whmt  enoujth  fur 

11m.  wtiiili' "I  il"-  >  < I  !^ui<w.     I'ntiritm  ut  liandndi 

(J  lliipiiwiiiJt  "f  aiTi'i  ul  t!r»l-ratr  i>lin»t  l»nds — roTfred 
with  ema,  and  i*rfwll)r  fn»  from  iliruba  jind  biuhm 
—^ariie  rJiP phagh  ;  inj  if  thccountrj  wfrecultivatod 
Iff  m  ptvprr  txtral,  it  Blight  baaonia  the  aaaMTf  M  th* 


CUABlBERffS  BTOUMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 
iiMlWGaliMtBa*7**«»Ri*«r.    S>h  b  aln  |  ■vcU."    Tb*  rlioulc  ol  lUa  H 


AflkfMK  wna  of  tb«  _ 

dOM  M(  oiAr  *n7  nalsvikl^  ham  thu  (4  th«  oUwr 

^■TM  In  111 Utlto'ltt;  ftwD  luloinr  itaation  it 

h|iiilM|Mi lljmlU  r    In  ih*  Hntbrn  HTt«  lh« 

Wb»\*  h  wtillnnn  T-r--1  -'i  — ■-■■--  ■<■-——■■ 
an  f*y^  ■<■>>>>  1<  !■  ■amdiiiM*  yny  Hnrvr*,  bol  nM 
^  hm^  dantinn.  SeltUn  on  tlicir  Ant  nmnl  sra  >|H 
to  bt  iiltarrkc^  t^  bilioni  fncr,  but  with  prnpcr  <du«  w 
to  aliilkinf  uitl  din  thi>  mail  bv  avoiiM.  A  dinaK 
miltA  itia  hI/Jt  nehi«  fn(|iin<t|v  alUelia  tha  coin  in 
'ifela  taaatrj,  and  tua  cmi  pnn*d  fatal  to  luan,  Anim 
dltnklng  tba  miJk  of  th>  diwMod  iuiliii4la.  ll  ii  np- 
f«M4  va  b«  antvil  br  tlw  mm  raUiif^  tiia  Irarn  nt  ■ 
fofaDados  pnpe,  whld)  rai|[ht  b*  rtM\y  prcroitad  b; 
l«Mint;  ool  Ihf  plnil  from  opaiind  ■  farm. 

Mr  Shtmir  •palu  toj  bighlr  of  tfai*  moBlrj  ■«  ■ 
Md  fnr  MniRTa4iDn  ;  bdng  dT  vpltum  thM  them  i*  no 
•ownln  in  lJi»  world  wh«o  ■  hniirF  ovi  ooinnniM 
•faiMkRM  with  aa  unall  ut  uulUy  nT  nuHW*,  knd  ao 
toon  oblain  K  (eturn.  Thia  »ria«  fr"m  th*  ebeapnea* 
U  Udd,  uid  thp  fadilit}  with  which  it  maf  ba  cwltlvMad, 
tlwN  Ining  littln  or  nn  Knwt  land  tn  etnr.  Hr  Shii^ 
nir  malm  ■  MatMnanl  of  tha  aip«wa  ef  pnrahaain^ 
300  acTM  i>f  lanil,  fi-neiog  fortr  airca,  plougliio^  and 
•awinf  "igbly,  harrfatlnR.  building  hoiuia,  and  main- 
toioint  famllj',  which  lie  fttnoBM*  at  leiMdatlarB,«^nal 
to  VJM,  I7i.  With  thin  «xp«nditar«  i*  nbtainwl  lbs 
Aln  prodar*  of  h^r  ivwa,  iha  inipm**>n*nt  oT  olghl 
calile  main)'  nn  lh«  prairia,  and  SSltO  buahria  of  I  ndtan 
com,  bntdM  ra^MahlMi,  Mid  th*  In  pnivumeDt  of  pigi 
■nd  ponlirj'.  N>it  yrax,  iIm  Hiilimnieht  pknigl)  nehtj 
acn«  mnr* ;  iikI  In  eiihCrcn  mioitEB  alter  aettlin^, 
waaM  liar*  npcDilcd  L«)U,  t:,  and  reaped  H4(iu 
iMaheta  iif  Indian  com.  and  18UU  biuhrla  of  whwil, 
baiHdM  abondaniw  of  tcffBlableiv  dsrjt  p^c>dual^  hwf, 
pork,  and  poullrjr.  Id  thin  Klatnomt,  Mr  Sliirralt  ha* 
atatad  llie  prDituM>  at  314  buahi-la  p«r  «-i«,  whioh  i* 
lo«*r  than  what  ba  waa  told  Land  in  lllitioia  pnrmMjr 
•jUiOt.  He  nrppnaaa.  alao,  ttiat  tha  Etrfnar  «nd  family 
Vtiy  atland  to  lb*  ottilg;  tin  ptnuglilog,  ««.,  being 
NrA)Tn>rd  bv  cnnltaet.  I  d  tha  caao  where  ihe  farmer 
bnwlf  wurk*.  bo  <-atimal«  the  purclia-in^.  fencing, 
plouitliinit,  mining,  fte^  of  eiphly  ncres  nt  609  dolli 
er  l.-ISnutarlliig;  and  furlhisib' 
bwhel*  of  Indiui  com,  t!73  bnali 
oclrn  the  dairy  produru  of  ima  cow,  pig*,  and  poultry, 
bfidtlea  BbuDdanm  iif  Tf^elables. 

OraiinR  in  eiunuivety  carried  on  in  the  pniiricB  of 
Illini>iai  the  niltl*  being  nent  tn  N«w  Orleans  in  great 
nHmbeni.  "  Wilb  an  nnllmiled  nnge  of  ^naturaKe  for 
tit*  tearing  of  cattle,"  aaya  Mr  Shimff,  "  and  Indian 
-•mil  M  I  b  eenU,  or  74d.  per  baahrl,  the  farmer  mijcht 
Kimrartably  lira  by  Wxs'n  witliuuC  caltiratiog  any  por- 
tion of  land." 

The  capital  of  Tllinoio  ia  Tandalia,  which  ia  aituated 
Ml  ■  high  iMnk  of  the  riier  Katiixokia,  in  the  ciidat  of 
M  tieh  and  thriving  ninntry.  There  are  alio  »Tenl 
Mfaer  towin  ni^d&  riiing  Inin  imporlanee,  nich  as 
Sdwardrilla)  CarliMo,  Kaskanliia,  fto.  Tha  slate  of 
llMIiaoa  raaamblM  lllinoia,  hut  conlalni  it  gmtlcr  poi^ 
tian  nf  waala  land.  The  land  U  moail^  all  tirairie,  and 
Iha  eoDiiiry  i*  well  watered  by  nnrofrou*  rivers. 

Afuiauri — The  itate  of  Mitwinri  is  arparaled  from 
IDinobi  by  Ihe  riier  MioiMippi,  which  flowa  atong  it* 
Mat  and  north^eaal  wd'-a.  It  ontilaina  eoimderable 
divrr-iiy  of  Kvhil.  ln-iii;  in  one  |fflrt  hilly,  nnd  in  oUier* 
is  good  pi   ■  '    " 


eiEtrmiely  warm. 


hMdlh.  The  «  . 
and  Indian  eom,  with  tlia  a 
trka.  Cotton  ia  iiultiTsUil 
aloDg  wiiii  ubueo  [  and  bamp  aad  «M  ■»! 
important  artidaa  of  ptvAoea.  TUa  MM*  J 
lone  eelehiatcd  for  111*  tmrniBW  dafMiM  if 
foondanMo^tliahilla.  Huiw  la  OM  AXtM 
ing  over  nearlr  one  htudnd  mS*^  wtnah  b 
tarly  di>«ingnialiwt  taw  it*  laaJ  mJlMi  n*«< 
imlMublnl  in  inawea,  and  vpftai*  tmimtif  to 
[KHiit.  Coal  in  alau  fouDd  ta  acmal  pwM  rf  1 
■a  iil~i  inrn  on,  manftUKae,  liaa,  te.  Tks  d 
in  MiMMui  la  til  LaniB,  plaaaatiy  alUiatoil  m 
vatlnn  eloiw  to  the  Hiawippi.  ll  ia*  ihiM 
rapidly  riainj;  la  importajw*^  Mnf  Umi  fiM< 
all  tcwla  BiriT*  from  New  OrlMM^  Aa  a 
The  Cotiiit  Marboia  thi|a  apaaka  id  Iha  Ml 
valley  of  the  Miaaiwrpi  :—'•  At  tha  Jnnwla 
Hianaappi  and  Miwun,  the  kada  lyfa«  U« 
Donb-wrat  an  of  adininbla  (ertilily  ;  and  4 
tricta,  thnajh  tenini*  from  Ihe  aaa,  will  aokj 
d>4»*ly  populatnl  aa  any  portHb  of  th>  •«! 
Miaai«Hp|ii,  Ih*  Mianuri,  the  Arkaiuk^  Ow  IN 
and  Ihail-  tribWarloi,  waUr  'JUO.OVO  a 
wtihln  the  a;  * 


bjfM , 

wind  and  tjile  with  gnM  a|>ead.  WoeA  aaAj 
difpenwMa  agenla  in  Ibta  invigaAiaii,  ataM 
ahoFM  nf  the  rtran,  aopplytng  alinm  ahrtpai 
meana  af  tnt*minK  thU  majtnlltetnl  al  i  aaiii  ^ 

llteae  Klal«a,  frnm  the  facjkiy  of  i  iiiil >ImII 

ha  naehed  from  any  of  the  grcal  pan*  of  lb 
Tha  route  by  New  Orleani  ia  reeommeoM 
ehfapeat,  flrom  the  Dnmbcr  of  ■teain-«h^  ^ 
conalanily  piybfE  betwren  that  pott  and  Si  i 
the  Minoari.  The  nbin  poaaage  frofa  lirc 
New  Orleani  i<  LiS,  and  ihn  paMge  froal 
,  indtid,™ 


>  New 


leans  to  St  Lou 

.tcera;;^  Y 
and  L.1,  1- 

Alichigan. —  ine  ivaaer  HUJ  auerre  on  m 
tonene  of  land,  siluated  between  the  two  hfcMj 
and  Michigan  1  tbb  tract,  wiih  another  wliiol 
the  we!it,  between  Lake  Michigan  aniTlba  Uk 
haa  been  lately  begun  lo  be  acitled  by  cminw 
Ihe  old  Maica  of  America.  The  two  VOg&Om 
great  recommt-ndatioiia  to  aj^cnltiitttl  anlfnl 
capital  ia  Ueltoil,  a  town  aiiualed  on  tita  ri*t 
connect*  Lake  Huron  with  Lake  Eria,  Mid  <» 
25UU  iuhnbilanta.  Thcae  lakn,  with  iheir  rfr 
canals,  give  llie  diMrict  acei<w  to  the  iimltti 
York,  New  Orieaiui,  and  Mnntpeal. 

The  climato  ia  temperate  and  bealthyi  iria 
in  generally  about  the  middli-  of  Norembarv  I 
tinu.^  till  about  Ihe  middle  of  March.  Al  Dl 
ISl  H,  the  mean  heat  of  January  waa  3t* ;  and  i 
the  mean  h.-at  of  J  i.ly  waa  (,S\  of  Dee«nb(r  » 
country  ia  Bitoatcd  upon  limeatone  root,  nA 
and  po?seqwfl  wliat  the  Americans  call  good  a< 
vileeea — that  in,  numeroiui  hlli  of  WKler  lor  ■ 
It  ia  belter  watered  Uun  any  other  in  Iha 
Stales,  being  finely  diTersfled  with  lakea  N«i 
rilling  in  mont  pai'ta  Itoat  eoplon*  nringn. 

'J'he  Mil  is  in  genem!  ■  good  fertUo  leant,  ^ 
Hone:  in  lome  placea  a  CBlcaxeoD*  rarib  k  W 
mixed  with  the  eniumoD  axil ;  in  othan^  (li»i 
mixed  with  a  little  Mud  ;  both  are  ^xlrVMHl 
live.  The  country  u.  In  eonie  dii>triet%  oadit 
timber,  and  in  olhera  an  ap<  n  prairie,  wbexAi 
has  natliing  to  do  but  atari  hia  plough,  ttv 
hen  imra  L.I8  to  L.33,  10a.;  oten  ttva  L.W 
tk-pot.    'nw  ^imdua*  of  Ut«  land  ruaa  tcaaA 


EMIGRATION  TO  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


ing  with  what  we  had  previously  heard 
t  fertility  and  growing  importance  of  the 

X  of  emigrants  into  Ohio,  and  the  neigh- 
ses,  has  continued  for  these  twenty  years  in 
and  without  intermission.  They  can  now 
inal  and  by  railroad ;  but  in  the  abseuce  of 
Mwrest  emigrants  still  urge  forward,  over 
ilty, to  the  western  land  of  promise.  ''It 
(resting,"  savs  Mr  Flint,  "  to  see  people  of 
untries,  and  of  different  dresses,  coming 
the  mail-coach,  on-  horseback,  and  on  foot. 
Vy  this  great  migration  leads  to  the  conclu- 
ppression,  and  uie  fear  of  want,  are  in  ox- 
ration  somewhere  to  the  eastward."  **  On 
11,"  he  says  in  another  phice,  '*  we  came  up 
ular  party  of  emigrants — a  man,  with  his 
I  children.  They  were  removing  from  New 
ittsburg,  a  land  journey  of  340  miles.  The 
•  progeny  had  the  youngest  tied  on  his  back, 
ler  pushed  before  him  a  wheelbarrow,  con- 
moveables  of  the  family.  Abrupt  edges  of 
r  than  the  wheel,  occasionally  interrupt  the 
leir  humble  carriage  must  be  lifted  over 
ittle  farther  onward,  wo  passed  a  young 
ying  a  sucking  child  in  her  arms,  and  lead- 
ittle  one  by  the  hand.  We  could  scarcely 
or  behind  without  seeing  some  emigrants 
No  pilgrims  were  ever  so  diversified  or  in- 
these.'* 

seems  to  have  been  surprised  at  the  num- 
he  AW  on  the  roads,  all  moving  in  one 
Ilia  dascription  reminds  one  of  the  multi- 
streflning  on  in  pilgrimage  towards  the 
pie  of  Juggernaut ;  but  the  pilgrims  of  the 
are  generally  going  to  seek  a  relief  from 

Y  in  superstitions  or  death  ;  here  they  ap- 
e  been  led  on  by  much  more  comfortable 
By  at  least  if  the  next  extract    may  be 

ived  at  a  tavern.  The  bread  was  not  pre- 
tfae  people  were  obliging,  and  made  it  ready 
ihort  time.  The  landlord  was  a  farmer.  He 
Indian  com  sells  here  at  IS^d.  per  bushel, 
could  procure  20,000  bushels  of  it  within 
of  his  own  house.     Wheat  sells  at  Ss.  44d. 

eipal  districts  in  the  western  country  are 
ina,  and  Illinois.  There  are  considerable 
n1  in  each  of  these,  the  most  advantageous 
those  likely  to  become  important  in  the 
of  the  country,  having  been  immediately 
n  for  that  purpose.  Some  of  these  have 
I  longer  in  existence  than  fifteen  years ;  few 
cept  those  on  the  river  Ohio,  longer  than 
,  from  the  influx  of  new  settlers,  and  the 
e  jBnd  in  maintaining  themselves  and  their 
th  pUces  are  aJready  populous  and  thriving. 
f  is  generally  flat,  so  tliat  the  towns  do  not, 
of  the  western  states,  owe  their  origin  to 
situations  for  water-power.  Manufactures, 
&c.,  if  ever  established  here,  must  derive 
r  from  steam ;  for  which,  indeed,  the  abun- 
oftl  offers  great  facilities,  while  the  smooth 
he  numerous  rivers  makes  the  mines  avail - 
he  whole  district 

ti,  a  town  situated  on  the  Ohio,  on  the  con- 
two  states,  Indiana  and  Ohio,  i»  a  place  of 
f.  In  1800,  it  contained  only  750  people, 
15  only  960 ;  it  was  then  surrounded  by  a 
ry,  occupied  by  the  Indians.  The  country 
now  cultivated,  and  the  number  of  iuhabi- 
»  town  is  about  35,000,  composed  of  people 
irts  of  Europe  and  the  United  States,  who 
attneted  by  the  advantages  of  the  place. 
KMite  aide  of  the  Ohio,  in  the  state  of  Ken- 
!« ia  another  town,  which  is  divided  mto  two 

V  L^i""g ;  these  two  parts  are  laid  out  on 
igolar  plan  aa  Cincinnati,  so  that  the  whole 

277 


appears  one  city.  There  are  many  great  manufactur- 
ing works  here — steam-mills,  glass  and  iron  works,  &c., 
and  the  bustle  of  the  place  gives  the  farmers  an  excel- 
lent market  for  their  produce.  This  advantage  is 
further  increased  by  the  trade  of  the  numerous  large 
steam-boats  which  here  take  in  cargoes  of  beef,  pone, 
flour,  &c.,  for  their  voyage  down  the  Ohio  and  Missis- 
sippi to  New  Orleans.  Formerly,  they  could  not  easily 
ascend  the  river,  on  account  of  rapids  which  occur 
farther  down  at  LouiKville ;  but  these  have  been  now 
overcome  by  a  canal  two  miles  in  length,  cut  through 
the  rock  at  that  place.  Louisville  itself  is  situ;ited  in 
Kentucky,  and  is  a  place  uf  considerable  trade. 

Other  large  towns  in  this  tract  of  country  are  Pitts- 
burg, Wheeling,  Steubeuville,  Marietta,  and  Chilicothe. 
They  afford  a  considerable  market  for  agricultural 
produce ;  and  the  free  navigation  to  New  Orleans,  as 
well  as  the  facilities  now  afforded  by  a  canal  cut  to  in- 
tersect the  country  from  the  Ohio,  at  Portsmouth  to 
Cleveland,  on  Lake  Ei'ie,  secure  a  constant  and  steady 
(femand  for  grain,  salted  beef,  pork  at  the  mall,  &c. 
The  Americans  look  forward  to  this  district,  and  the 
vast  countries  surrounding  it,  as  the  future  pivot  of 
their  national  grandeur. 

The  countries  in  the  valley  of  the  Mississippi  include 
Illinois,  Indiana,  and  Missouri,  to  which  we  shall  now 
advert 

Jiiinois  and  Indiana. — The  tide  of  emigration  has  for 
some  time  back  been  setting  towards  the  west  countries, 
and  amongst  these  Illinois  is  conspicuous  for  its  great 
extent,  and  the  general  fertility  of  its  soil.  This  state  is 
382  miles  long  and  154  broad,  with  an  area  of  58,900 
square  miles.  It  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  Wis- 
consin or  north-west  territory,  on  the  east  by  Lake 
Michigan  and  Indiana,  on  the  soutli  by  the  Ohio,  and 
on  the  west  by  the  Mississippi.  The  whole  country  is 
described  as  a  very  gently  inclined  plain,  ver}'  level — 
no  height  reaching  above  600  feet.  It  is  nearly  all 
prairie,  witli  a  few  groves  of  timber  widely  separated 
from  each  other,  and  deeply  indented  with  ravines 
whose  sides  slope  into  low  round  hills.  Illinois  is 
favourably  situated  with  regard  to  water  connnunica- 
tion.  On  one  side  it  \\i\»  the  Mississippi  as  its  boundary, 
on  another  side  the  Ohio  and  Wabash ;  to  the  north 
it  is  washed  by  Lake  Michigan.  The  Illinois,  from 
which  the  state  receives  its  name,  connects  Lake  Mi- 
chigan with  the  Mississippi ;  Rock  and  Kiiskaskia  are 
also  navigable  rivers  ;  and  besides  these  there  are  nu- 
merous boatable  streams. 

The  soil  of  this  state  resembles  that  of  Ohio,  but  with 
less  irreclaimable  land.  On  this  subject  Mr  Shirreff 
says — *^  The  soil  of  Illinois  is  variable,  and  the  different 
habitations  of  the  varieties  of  the  sun-flower,  and  other 
tall-growing  plants,  often  distinctly  marked  changes  of 
soil  on  the  prairie.  The  prevailing  soil  between  Chi- 
cago and  Springfield  was  black  sandy  loam,  and  occa- 
sionally considerable  tracts  of  clay  or  heavy  loam  inter- 
vened. In  this  distance  of  nearly  200  miles,  I  did  not 
pass  over  in  all  ten  miles  of  bad  soil,  which  was  ligh^ 
coloured  sand.  The  surface,  which  is  forest,  oak  open- 
ings, or  pi*airie,  has  no  relation  to  quality  of  soil,  all  of 
which  abound  with  soils  of  every  description.'*  These 
prairies  are  covered  with  grass  three  or  four  feet  high, 
which  is  burned  annually,  either  being  set  on  fire  wil- 
fully or  igniting  from  natural  causes.  No  danger  is 
apprehended  from  this  burning,  the  ploughing  of  tho 
ground  around  a  dwelling  being  sufhcient  to  prevent  the 
tire  fi*om  spreading  so  far,  and  the  grass,  being  peren- 
nial, comes  up  again  in  spring. 

The  productions  of  Illinois  arc  Indian  corn,  wheat, 
potatoes,  cotton,  hemp,  flax,  &c.  Fruits,  such  as  the 
grape,  apples,  peaches,  gooseberries,  &c.,  arrive  at  great 
perfection,  and  the  silk-wonn  has  been  found  to  suc- 
ceed well.  In  the  wooded  parts,  the  trees  exhibit  a 
luxuriant  growth,  and  are  often  seen  of  an  enormous 
size.  The  mineral  productions  are  of  great  value,  con- 
sisting of  lead,  coal,  copper,  and  lime,  and  good  build- 
ing stone.  The  lead-mines,  which  were  opened  in  1821, 
are  situated  in  the  north-west  comer  of  the  t*tate,  at  a 


I    euglit  la  kvoii]  a*  a  set  or  IkcIich.  Americsns  nuy  deal 
I    Ib  llioH  msllvra,  and  mny  jirrliup*  praRt  bylhi 
Knlgomts  tiKver  can  du  nay  thing  but  involvi 
•elves  in  difiiuulltea  by  such  HcbemeB.     Li 
to  MTlainlitf  4xcluaBfl!! ;  the  quality  at  the  land,  ih 
hnUthineH  of  the  Bite,  tlie  neighbnurhood  of  a  marlu 
■IreiHiy  established — iheae  are  Ibe  only  eoiuldirotioiu 
that  should  weigh  witli  them,  aud  no  other.     In  ihort, 
to  thoM  Hbo   liaTO  capital,  we   wauU  aay,  without 
hmiiatioa,  choose  yoar  abode  near  aaiiii'  of  the  prinoi- 
pal  tovns ;  it  'u  almost  indltferent  whiFli.    The  toil  of 
the  western  couiitriea  an  tlio  Uhio  is  tlip  richer,  and 
produce  mora  varied  and  luxtiriiint,  but  thi>  prions  of 
•griwiltural  producu  ^re  lower  thnti  in  the  old  slates, 
and  labour  dearer.    This  is  the  sole  and  esaential  diffe- 
recee,  except,  iodeed,  I^i  tliiwe  who  wish  lu  specalate 
in  buying  land,  by  adding  to  Its  improvement*,  and 
•      teen  sellingit  at  a  higher  rate,  when  ieir  own  labour, 
C    ktid   the  iucrCBSiog   Hcnnily    oC  the   bu^y   pupulation 
I   Bround  them,  ahall  have  added  to  itsTfllue.  To  persoi 
f   ttho  wish  to  make  money  iu  lbt«  way,  the  vicinity  i 
>      Ibe  rising  towns  in  the  western  stales  ia  eertainl^ 
laid  of  high  proniisv,  and  many  Imve  Already  realised 
Inrgo  aum*  there  by  proper  mnnagement  in  that  man- 

.  MtAaniiu,  Fann-Settianii,  and  Lahoanrt. — Meclia- 
niea  and  Isbourers,  in  lookiDg  Tar  a  situation  where 
tbey  may  settle,  will  bo  goided  by  very  different  views 
from  those  of  persons  poiwessed  of  oapitHl.  The  Ullcr, 
if  they  wish  to  buy  land,  will  prefui-  to  have  it  in  a 

C;  where  Ubonr  ia  cheap,  and  farm  produce  lelhi 
.  The  man  who  lives  by  his  wages,  on  the  other 
liand,  would  have  labour  high,  and  all  manner  of  pro- 
itnons  cheap.  We  have  ndtuicd  those  posKssed  of  eapi- 
(al  to  took  for  cetllvmcnts  as  near  the  large  towns  ai 
larkeU  and  labour  are  most  easily  pra- 
forseltlini! 


CHAMBERS'S  INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE.  ^^ 

nicB  average  4s.  6d,to  Pa.  nirJay.ourrier^  9^ 
journeyman's  wages.  Tailors  gtft  Wa.  for  ■ 
coat.    Hall>'ra  do  well.* 

On  the  aubjeel  of  wages  Mr  Shirroff  «y»— 
duslrious  and  saber  man  mutl  laptiUy  M) 
wealth  by  working  for  hire,  and  many  perliat 
purchasing  land  instead  of  eontinuing  to  w«t 
tile  dirwtion  of  others.  On  l«ivinj[  N«ir 
gardener,  who  was  working  at  ltuldii^;IiiB  at 
SeolUnd,  gave  me  t«n  pounda  stvrling^  wbM 
saved  since  Lis  arrival  in  Anieriea,  to  enabla 
and  family  to  reach  him.  A  young  man  wba 
often  employed  at  spado  work  at  is.  Gd.  a-day,  > 
ing  by  sawing  stonxB  at  Cincinuati  44.  3d.  »« 
board." 

Let  it  be  recollected,  ttial,  with  tbea*  >mg« 
at  !l>.peT  lia  lb*.;  mutton  at  3d.  per  lb.;  mil 
Ad.  per  lb. ;  eoals  5d.  per  buahid. 

It  nuy  now  ho  asked,  what  additional  «Kp 
be  required  to  take  a  meohanic  to  Ctuciatiali, 
lias  reached  New  York  or  Pbiladebfaia )  I^ 
find  it  answered,  that  the  juumey  fnnn  Nav 
WheeUng  (a  town  on  the  Uhio)  coats  "ii  da 
L,5,  l^i.  Gd. ;  and  from  WheeliUK  to  Cilmn 
steam-boat  on  the  Uhio,  the  far*  ia  10  da' 
\..'i,  5s.  The  whole  expensi^,  tlierafuro,  bt 
Vork  to  Cincinnati,  ore  LJ,  17s.  Gd.  The  JmH 
now  be  made,  by  the  canals  and  itoam-boala,  le 
on  I.ake  Erie;' thence  to  Cleveland;  and  tt 
place,  by  tlie  canal,  to  ancinoat).  Thb  vM 
the  expense  somewhat.  The  same  latter  tra 
wo  have  quoted  above,  mentions,  that  a  UM 
speelable  persons  had  arrived  at  Cinaiiuiali  fti 
liuid,  and  that  the  whale  expense  of  th«r  joani 
"iWH  lbs.  luggage)  was  L.7S.  But  Iher*  is  na 
For  f/Aog  uvnn  so  far  as  Cincinnati — Wheriiof . 
i'illHbun;.  which,  though  still  on  the  OlliOi 
nearer  New  York,  prosenl  quite  tliu  aam*  iada 
to  mechanics  of  all  descriptions. 

Labour  ia  in  the  greatest  demand  svery  sAa 
people  are  not  able  to  avail  themMlvtM  of  ttw  I 
the  oonnlry  which  they  inhabit  witboat  \rtli0tt 
Flint,  who  travelled  on  foot,  was  stopped  by  ihl 
asking  him  anxiously  if  he  "knew  itfaaf  trwBI 
irould  ml  himifff,  andthraihforafaedaf^ 
Slunrt  of  Dunenrn,  niler  telling  one  of  tile  Ohic 
the  ivurk  usually  done  by  farm-servant*  in  ?, 
wna  charged,  on  depurting,  nut  to  neglect  wndi 
of  them  to  America,  if  posaiblo. 

It  ia  not  in  one  or  two  diBtriets  of  the  Uni 

J'he   towns   immediately  on    the  mast  are  g 

better  supplied  with  tradesmen,  labourers,  & 
those  inland,  because  emigrants  first  Und  tbi 
oflen  apply  fur  emplnyment  as  soon  as  they  gooi 
but  in  all  that  we  hare  beard  on  the  aubject, 

who  did  not  lind  employment. 

Fermnt  aho  vith  lo  buy  imall  loti  efUmdj— 
emignuils  posaesaed  uf  guoil  oapllalit,  theio  ». 
men  who  are  acquainteil  with  farming  bosini 
with  llisl  only,  but  who  have  not  money  to  boy  it 
land,  and  who  wish,  therefore,  to  deueod  on  th 
indnstry  for  clearing  ground  for  ihemaaltea. 
Bucli  men,  after  penwvering  for  years,  with  the 


L-Mmd.     Inregard  to  theplacesi 
■  'tfj  Tneehanics,   farm- labourers,  aud   oth 
I  Ji)r  work,  wo  believe,  that  to  those  who 
F  fnSleieat  to  carry  them  forward  to  tli 
I  Jsland  slates,  there  can  be  no  doubt  but  these  alTotil 
'^ Iha  pivferable  field  for  them,  both  in  respect  to 
Hd  cbeapnetH  of  living.    The  towns  on  the  Oh 
•U  gaining  rapidly  in  population  and  imporUuice, 
Ifaa  richness  of  the  countrv  with  which  thny  an 
rounded ;  and  many  cunsiJeratious  make  it  probable, 
that  if  manufactures  be  ever  largely  establislied  any 
where  in  America,  it  will  be  here.     The  cnrriage  ol 
foreign  manufactured  goods  is   very  expen.sirc   to   a 
BDunlry  so  remotely  inland,  and  lo  which  lliey  have  to 
lie  carried  through    so  miiny  canals,   rivers,  or  rail- 
roads;  aud   the   district    itself  produces   cation,   silk 
(it  cultivated),  iron,  lead,  coals,  &G. ;  ho  that  there  ia 
beie  a  Ixmiu  fur  maimfactnring  on  the  spot  which 
bardly  any  other  country  possesseB.    The  oonseqaenco 
begins  lo  be  already  felt :  manufiictnring  esCabUslimrnts 
ore  begun,  wsgea  are  high,  and  the  price  of  living  is 

therefore,  who  have  money  to  defray  the  eajiensea  of 
tba  journey,  wu  cannot  but  say  that  the  western  slates 
pl^eseal  by  far  the  most  favourable  opportunities.  The 
following  extract  of  a  letter  is  from  Cincinnati,  on  tlie 
Ohio  :— 

"The  improvements  in  Ciuciunali  are  rapidly  in- 
creasing: the  communications  opened  by  means  of  the 
canal  and  tlie  new  roads  give  an  impetus  lo  trade. 
Whatever  number  of  nrtiaans,  mechanic.',  and  labourers 
come  out,  thev  will  find  abundant  occupation.  The  soil 
ia  excellent.  Engineers  ore  in  great  demand.  Engravers, 
particuhirly  Ihqae  whn  will  work  in  general  work,  as 
maps,  names,  Ac  ;  card->nsoubcturera ;  tinmen  and 
braziers  ;  bell-hangern,  with  a  knowledge  of  easting  or 
directing   in  that  department ;    baking,  brewing,  and 

tirst-rate  plane- umkers. turners  in  atoel,  iron,  brass,  and 
wood,  are  much  wauled.  Carpenters,  joiners,  builders, 
ploalerersibricktayora,  t.tune-ma*oDS,  plumbers,  all  who 
tngoodrnt  tlieir  batiaam,  and  labourers,  can  gwl  plenty 
ffirniimt  Jm,  or  4».  per  day.    aardeosnand  mMho- 


We  could  quote  nuraeroua  m 


iwing 


■  froi 


r  Flin 


publication : — "  J.  M.,  a  man  from  the  ooanty  i 
burgh,  arrived  hero  (near  I'iltsburg),  aud  hac 
witli  his  family,  seven  sons,  two  daughton,  aa 
in-kw,  about  teu  month*  before  I  mot  him. 
pnrdiased  401)  acros  of  land  ;  built  two  log-ba* 
a  anisll  slable  ;  cleared  and  enclosed  aboot  tw« 
acn-B,  which  are  nearly  all  under  crop  ;  ileada 
timber  of  about  eighty  acros  mum  i  and  ph 
orchard.  In  addition  to  llicse  impruvenwuls,  . 
kavB  wrought  lur  a  itaighbaiv  to  Um  UMWltVI 


EMIGRATION  TO  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


heat,  after  one  buBhel  of  seed.  The  cotton 
ape  yin€,  t^  sweet  potato  of  Carolina,  the 
egg-pbuit,  have  all  been  Buccessfally  cul- 
"ei^bazley,  oata,  peas,  beans,  and  potatoes, 
I  kinds  of  reg^Ues  nsnally  ealtivated  in 
titude,  produce  here  in  great  abundance. 
pears  hare  been  tried,  and  both  produce 
H:  neartowns,  pears  sellat  from  28.  to  4s. 
apples  vary  from  6d.  to  2s.  per  bushel; 
sckberries,  raspberries,  and  strawberries, 
dinglv.  Indian  com  is  less  luxuriant  than 
'  of  the  Ohio,  the  climate  being  somewhat 
is  eonntry,  on  the  whole,  seems  more  con- 
iropean  constitutions  and  habits  than  the 
n  settlements. 

il  and  perhaps  most  beautiful  part  of  the 

generally  thought  to  be  that  adjacent  to 

>h's  River,  on  which  twelve  new  counties 

The  soil  is  excellent,  and  there  are  nume- 

water,  for  mills,  See. 

r  the  government  land-offices  (which  are 
wherever  there  is  land  to  sell,  in  all  the 
ttler  nuy  provide  himself  with  a  farm,  at 
te  of  58.  T^d.  per  acre.  No  quantity  smaller 
«  IB  sold  by  government.  Should  lie  chance 
in  some  favoured  spot  (most  of  which  arc 
red  along  the  great  public  road  for  300 
;h  the  country),  he  will  have  little  difficulty 
it  for  128.  or  15s.  an  acre.  An  extensive 
ntry  upon  the  river  and  bay  of  Laganaw 
side  of  Lake  Huron)  is  spoken  of  in  terms 
liration  for  the  richness  of  the  soil  and 
e  natural  scenery,  and  also  as  presenting 
ndoceraents  to  enterprising  and  industrious 
mechanics,  from  its  central  and  advanta- 
n  for  business.  The  river  Laganaw  is  navi- 
Us,  twenty  miles  from  the  hekd  of  the  bay, 
s  made  to  Detroit.  Fox  River,  on  the  west 
Michigan,  is  also  specially  noticed  as  highly 
settlers,  in  regard  to  quality  of  soil,  beauty, 
vantages :  a  canal  is  projected  to  connect 
id  the  lake  with  the  Mississippi. 
Bson,  to  whom  we  are  indebted  for  the  above 
gives  an  estinuite,  from  the  experience  of 
lainted  with  the  district,  of  a  purchase  in 
id  of  its  returns : — 

acres,  at  1}  dollars  per  acre,  L.45     0  0 
',  and  rail-fence,  at  6  dollars, 

50  acres,            -        -        -  202  10  0 

aC  2  dollars,           -        -  67  10  0 

use,  sUbles,  &c.,        -        -  180     0  0 

Returns,  L.495     0     0 

150  acres,  at  20  bushels  per 
dollar  per  bushel,     -        -         675    0    0 

Profit,  L.180    0    0 

.nee  is  here  made  for  maintenance ;  but  it 
iollected,  that  the  wheat  crop  may  be  re- 
hree  or  four  years  without  manure,  and  in 
ing  years  the  charge  for  purchase  disap- 
it  the  advantages  of  the  latter  are  obvious, 
roperly  appreciated  by  tho  Americans,  the 
emigrants  Hocking  to  Michigan  being  im- 
population  in  lft31  was  estimated  at  32/)00. 
le  capital  of  Michigan,  is  the  embr^'o  Con- 
)f  the  inland  seas  of  North  America.  It  is 
i  narrow  channel,  which  connects  tho  two 
Ontario  and  Erie,  with  the  three  upper, 
ligaHyand  Superior.  Having  access  in  every 
countries  of  more  fertile  soil  than  those  of 
■ia,  and  possessed  of  an  equally  favourable 
tcgins  its  career  with  political  institutions 
•topitioiis  to  human  welfare  than  were  pos- 
•  eelefamted  citv  we  have  mentioned ;  and 
one  day  to  be  the  abode  of  a  more  nume- 
M  happier  population. 

2;u 


Other  Districts.^^Thc  three  districts  we  have  men- 
tioned are  those  in  which  the  greatest  quantities  of 
land  aro  yet  unoccupied,  and  where  it  is  to  be  liad 
cheapest ;  but  there  are  others  in  which  settlers  may 
locate  themselves  with  advantage.  Among  these  is  the 
district  of  Genessce,  in  New  York  state;  and,  indeed, 
the  whole  valley  of  the  River  Hudson  presents,  at  in- 
ter\'als,  spots  on  which  good  land  may  be  purchased, 
especially  by  those  who  would  rather  sit  down  on  a 
place  partially  cultivated,  and  near  markets,  than  in 
the  heart  of  the  forest. 

DIFFERENT  CLASSES  OF  EMIGRANTS. 

Men  with  Capital, — There  are  three  difTcrent  classes 
of  emigrants,  each  of  whom  will  be  guided  by  different 
motives  in  their  choice  of  a  situ.ition.  The  first  is  com- 
posed of  persons  who  are  possessed  of  capital  to  some 
amount,  and  who  have  been  accustomed  to  move  among 
the  wealthier  classes  of  society  in  this  country.  If  these 
individuals  intend  to  devote  themselves  to  agriculture 
in  the  country  to  which  they  are  bound,  every  circum- 
stance leads  us  to  believe,  that  unless  they  are  prepared 
to  submit  to  very  great  sacrifices  of  personal  comfort, 
and  that  for  no  inconsiderable  time,  they  ought  to  pur- 
chase land  partly  improved,  and  as  near  some  of  tho 
towns  as  they  can  find  it.  The  hardships  of  a  new 
settlement  to  persons  who  have  not  been  accustomed 
to  labour,  are  hardly  such  as  can  be  anticipated  by  de- 
scription ;  while  the  total  change  of  habitK — labouring 
in  the  woods,  living  in  log-huts,  nnd  the  want  of  regu- 
lar food— often  induces  disease,  of  which  such  persons 
may  feel  the  effects  during  the  whole  of  their  after 
lives.  Abundance  of  half-improved  proper! ina  may  be 
found  (as  we  have  mentioned  under  the  title  Purchas- 
ing of  Land),  upon  which  moderate  labour,  aii<l  tho 
exertion  of  some  skill  and  attention,  will  secure  excel- 
lent returns.  These  may  bo  heard  of  at  any  of  the 
large  towns,  but  chiefly  at  New  York,  or  at  Albany, 
Gencssee,  Ilochester,  Geneva,  &c.,  in  that  state.  In 
Philadelphia,  also,  in  the  state  of  Pennsylvania,  most 
eligible  purchases  of  this  kind  may  be  made;  and 
at  Pittsburg,  a  very  busy  manufacturing  town  in  the 
same  state,  on.  the  river  Ohio,  there  are  many  pro- 
perties on  sale  which  must  rise  in  value  every  day  with 
the  increasing  commercial  importance  of  the  place. 
There  are  immense  beds  of  coal,  iron  ore,  and  lime- 
stone, in  the  vicinity  of  the  town,  and  the  navigatiim 
of  the  Ohio  is  uninterrupted  (though  there  are  some 
inconsiderable  rapids)  the  whole  way  to  its  junction 
with  the  Mississippi.  Communications  by  caiial  and 
railroad  are  also  now  completed,  to  connect  the  Ohio 
at  this  place  with  Br.ltimore  and  Philcidelphia,  so  that 
the  town  of  Pittsburg  13  already  of  great  wealth,  and 
promises  rapidly  to  increase.  The  land  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood is  of  uncommon  fertility,  and  may  be  obtained 
now  at  prices  lower  than  can  be  expected  in  a  few 
years,  when  a  greater  number  of  settlers  shall  have 
arrived  to  occupy  it.  Properties  within  twenty  miles 
of  the  town  already  sell  very  high — say  fifty  dciliars  or 
more.  Almost  the  same  observations  may  bo  made 
with  regard  to  Louisville,  Cincinnati,  and  Jefferson- 
ville,  which  are  situated  in  the  states  of  Ohio,  Kentucky, 
and  Indiana;  these  places  already  possess  great  trade, 
and  from  the  abundance  of  minerals,  coal,  lime,  iron, 
salt,  and  lead,  which  are  found  in  tho  neighbourhood, 
they  must  continue  to  increase.  Farms,  therefore, 
purchased  in  their  vicinity,  are  certain  to  rise  in  value, 
and,  with  attentive  cultivation,  will,  in  the  mean  time, 
pay  the  cultivator  abundantly  for  his  labour  and  eapital. 
Cincinnati  particularly  is  a  place  of  great  activity,  and 
persons  who  settle  in  its  neighbourhood  wiU  easily  find 
society  to  their  liking ;  it  presents,  indeed,  though  so 
remote  from  European  cities,  no'  difference  nor  any 
inferiority  in  this  respect.  It  is  right  to  mention,  how- 
ever, that  the  whole  of  tho  western  country,  and,  in- 
deed, of  all  the  countries  which  are  in  progress  of 
settlement,  are  overrun  with  a  swarm  of  speculators 
in  land,  and  in  projected  establishments,  new  cities, 
manufactories,  &c.,  all  of  wliom  the  monied  emigrant 


CHAMBERS'S  INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


Duglit  td  nvoiJ  lu  a  set  of  iKchen.  AineriaiTU  may  Jenl 
in  those  matters,  and  tnny  perhaps  profit  ty  them ;  but 
eiDigrants  never  can  d<i  any  thtug  but  involve  ihem- 
eclve*  in  difficulties  by  such  sobemea.  Lot  them  loob 
to  atrlaiiUia  excltuivtijf ;  (he  oaaliiy  of  llio  Unci,  the 
h«»llhiiie*B  of  the  »!«,  tlia  neigh bourliood  of  a  luarkel 
already  csUiblisbed — ibess  are  tlie  only  eoiuidentiona 
that  ahouid  weigh  with  tliem,  and  iin  otliur.  In  short, 
to  tbtua  wbo  bavo  capital,  we  would  say,  withoa" 
heaiution,  choose  your  abode  near  aonie  of  the  princi 
pal  towns;  it  is  alraoat  indifferent  which.  Tbe  soil  nf 
the  western  countrica  on  tlic  Uliio  is  the  richer,  ai 
produce  more  varied  and  luxuriant,  but  tbe  pri( 
agricultunl  produce  are  lower  llian  in  tbe  old  states, 
and  labour  dearer.  Thii  ii  the  sale  and  ceaential  difTe- 
rence,  eiceut,  indeed,  to  those  who  wish  to  speculate 
in  buying  Land,  by  adding  lo  its  improvcmenta,  and 
tbcn  selling  it  at  a  liigher  nU;  wben  their  own  labour, 
and  the  iucreasinc  dcmtity  of  the  bu<y  pupulation 
an)nnd  tbein,  slialllutve  added  to  its  value.  To  persons 
who  wiah  to  maluf  money  in  this  way,  the  vicinity  of 
tlie  rising  towns  in  tbe  weetem  slates  is  certainly  a 
field  of  high  promise,  and  many  have  already  roalincd 
large  sums  (hem  by  propter  management  in  that  ~  ~ 


a,  Farm-Sercaiili,  aitd  LaliO'treri, — Moclia- 


tbey  may  aellle,  will  be  guided  by  very  diflbr«nt  views 
froni  those  of  penuns  pomeMed  nf  eapitsl.  The  latter, 
if  they  wujb  to  buy  laud,  will  prefer  to  have  it  in  a 
place  where  labour  is  cheap,  and  farm  produce  sells 
dear.  The  man  wbo  lives  bv  bis  wages,  on  the  other 
hand,  would  have  labour  high,  and  all  manlier  of  pni- 
Tiaiooa  eheu.  We  have  advised  tboee  poeiicuieJ  of  capi- 
tal to  look  for  seltlcmenla  aa  near  the  large  towns  as 
pgMible.wheremarlieta  and  labour  ore  most  easily  pro- 
cured- In  regard  to  the  phMua  to  be  ohoten  for  tetiling 
bj  meehuuoa,  farm-labourers,  and  olhen  who  look 
for  work,  we  believe,  that  lo  those  who  possrsg  funds 
sufficient  to  Garry  them  furwal-d  lo  the  wcBti'm  or 
inland  ttalcs,  there  can  bo  no  doubt  but  these  nITord 
the  preferable  field  fur  tbem,  both  in  respijet  to  wages 
and  obeapoew  of  living.  The  towns  on  the  Oliiii  ore 
all  pining  rapidlv  in  population  and  importance,  from 
the  richness  of  the  country  with  which  they  are  sur- 
rounded; aad  many  cunaideralious  make  it  probable, 
that  if  manufaeturea  be  ever  largely  establisbcil  any 
when  in  America,  it  will  be  her*.  The  carriage  of 
foreign  manufactured  goods  is  very  expenuve  to  > 
oouBtry  to  ivmotely  inland,  and  to  which  they  have  to 
bv  carried  through  su  many  eatutis,  rivers,  or  rail- 
roads; and  tbe  district  itself  produces  cotton,  utk 
(if  cultivated),  iron,  lead,  coals,  &e. ;  so  tliat  there  is 
her«  a  limvt  for  manufaaluring  on  the  spot  which 
hard);  any  other  country  iwseessea.  The  consequence 
begina  lo  be  already  felt :  manufacturing  catablishmeat« 
are  begun,  wag«  arc  high,  and  the  price  of  living  is 
withal  exceeding  low.  To  mechanics  and  labuurfrs, 
therefore,  who  have  money  to  defiay  the  expenses  of 
the  journey,  we  cannot  but  ssy  that  the  wcslcrn  slates 
p*«seiil  by  far  the  mo4l  favourable  opportunitie*.  The 
following  extract  of  a  letter  is  from  Cincimiati,  on  tlie 
Ohio;— 

"The  improvementa  in  Cmcimiali  are  rapidly  in- 
ereuing ;  the  (wmmunicatioos  opened  by  means  uf  the 
canal  and  tbe  new  roads  give  an  impetus  to  trade. 
Whalevernumbvrof  artiaan*,mechanicfl,and  btbonrers 
eome  out,  they  will  find  abundant  oceupalion.  The  soil 
is  excellent.  Engineers  are  in  great  demand.  Engravers, 
particularly  thue  who  will  work  in  general  work,  as 
DUp^  names,  Ac. ;  card-manufaelurers ;  tinmen  and 
hraiien  ;  boli'hangcrf ,  with  a  knowledge  of  costing  or 
directing  in  that  department ;  baking,  brewing,  and 
malting  ;  are  good  tnidcs.  Glovers,  stockinv- weavers, 
firn*rate  plano.makcrs.iurners  in  sleel,  ironntrass,  and 
wood,  are  ranch  wanted.  Carpenters,  jnincrs,  builders, 
plail*rerB,brictiUyon,Hl<iiie-miiMias, plumbers, all  who 
are  good  at  their  boahMas,  and  bbonren,  can  get  plenty 
of  workj  at  3a.  or  4i.  per  ilaj.    Oarduwn  and  nteidia- 


nics  average  Is.  Si.  tO  Si,  per  day,  oncrien.  9«.  f 
journeyman's  wagos.  .Tailors  get  -9b.  tut  m* 
eoBl.     ilitters  do  well.* 

On  the  subject  of  wages  Sfr  Shirreff  says-^ 
dustriouB  and  sober  man  must  lapidly  aew 
wealth  by  working  for  hire,  and  many  pcdiafi 
porchsaing  land  instead  of  continuing  to  »m 
tbe  direction  of  others.  On  leaving  New  Y 
gardener,  who  was  working  at  Haddington  who 
Scotland,  gave  me  ten  pounds  steriing,  whidi 
saved  nince  his  arrival  in  America,  to  eu^le  I 
and  bmilj  lo  reach  him.  A  young  man  whan 
often  empiayod  at  spade  work  at  Is.  (id.  a-day,  n 
ing  by  sawing  stones  at  Cindnuati  4s.  3d.  a-ili 

Let  it  bo  recollected,  that,  with  these  wages, 
at  9a.  per  113  Iba. ;  mutton  at  2d.  per  lb. ;  sop 
&d.  per  )b. ;  coals  £d.  per  bushel. 

It  may  now  he  sfiked,  what  additiotial  txfo 
he  rci|uire<t  lo  take  a  mechanic  to  CineiDnati,  i 


Wheeling  (a  town  on  (he  Ohio)  costs  "U  laU 
L.S,  l'2s.  Gd.;  and  from  Wheolmg  lo  CiaaiM 
sleam-boat  on  tbe  Ohio,  the  fare  is  10  Ul 
L.'2.  6s.  The  whole  expenses,  lhorafof»i  ta 
York  lo  Cincinnati,  nreL.7,  17s.  Cd.  The  jonn 
now  be  made,  by  the  canals  and  aleam-boal*,  10  ! 
on  Lake  Erie ;  thence  to  Clevebind ;  and  In 
place,  by  the  canal,  lo  CincinnatL  This  will 
the  expense  wmewhoL  Tbe  same  letter  bwi 
we  have  quoted  above,  mentions,  that  a  faudl; 
Hpectable  persons  had  arrived  at  Cincinnati  fni 
land,  and  that  the  whole  expense  of  their  joum 
2501)  lbs.  luggage)  was  L.75.  But  there  is  not 
for  going  even  sofkr  as  Gnciunati — WhecJingi 
Piitsbnrg,  which,  (hough  Mill  on  the  Otuo,  J 
nearer  New  York,  present  quite  tlie  suae  Jn^ 
lo  niechanicn  of  all  descriptions. 

Labour  U  in  the  greatest  demand  evoi^  whof 
people  are  not  able  In  avail  themselves  ot  tlic  r 
the  country  which  tlirv  inhabit  without  awilui- 


■imtelf,  and  Anuhfiyr  a  ftw  daytf 
Stuirt  of  Dnnearo,  after  telling  one  of  the  Ohio 
(he  work  usually  done  by  farm-servants  in  S 
was  cliarged,  on  deparling,  not  to  aegleel  eenJb 
of  llieiu  to  America,  if  poaiible. 

It  is  not  in  one  or  two  districts  of  the  Uoi 
this  demand  for  work-people  exists,  but  overj 
The  towns  immediately  on  the  coast  are  g< 
better  supplied  with  tradesmen,  labourers,  Ai 
those  inland,  because  emigranta  first  land  the 
often  apply  fur  employment  as  soon  as  they  i^oi 
but  in  all  that  we  have  heard  on  tbe  anbjwl, 
no  instance  of  a  person  wbo  was  willing  to  wo 
who  did  not  lind  employmenL 

Perioni  who  vith  lo  buy  Btnail  iolt  of  iand.'— 
emigranta  povecsBed  nf  good  capitals,  there  oi 
men  who  are  acquainted  wiili  fanning  biuini 
w i til  tlul  only,  but  wbohavonotmoncy  Uibuy  in 
land,  and  who  wish,  therefore,  to  dppesd  on  tb 
iudiistry  for  clearing  ground  for  IbouMNM. 
such  men,  afler  peraevering  for  years,  with  the 


hfor 


uurequit 
ca,  and  b< 


IS.     We 


could  quo 
followiug  is  from  .Mr  Flint's  isM 
ublicaUon :— ••  J.  M.,  a  man  from  the  eounly  e 
urgh,  arrived  beie  (near  I'ittsburg),  and  had 
'ith  hit  family,  seven  sous,  two  dai^hters,  ani 
i-Uw,  about  ten  roonths  before  1  met  him. 
purchased  431)  acres  of  land  ;  built  two  log-hoa 
a  small  stablu  ;  cleared  and  enclosed  about  lire 
acres,  which  are  nearly  all  under  crop  ;  daad«i 
timber  of  about  eighty  seres  more;  and  plw 
iccliard.  In  addition  to  thtte  improteiiieiiU,  I 
lare  wrought  for  a  Ddihtaaar  U>  the  unooni  el 


EMGRATION  TO  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


nk.  He  has  a  hone,  a  cow,  a  few  hogs, 
itry.  I  inquired  if  he  felt  himself  happy 
land.  He  replied,  that  he  would  not  re- 
ind,  though  the  property  of  which  he  for- 
a  part  were  given  him  for  nothing." 
Dce— and  hundreds  of  others  might  he 
show  that  people  from  this  country,  with 
m  L.50  to  L.100,  may  establish  themselves 
ica.  Smaller  sums  than  these  will  hardly 
I  withy  if  the  settler  intends  to  buy  land 

because  eighty  acres  of  land  (which  is  tlie 
^  sold  by  government)  costs  L.22,  lOs. ; 
omething  were  done  to  raise  a*  crop  the 
tlie  other  expenses  of  a  log- house,  &c., 
»  every  thing.  The  price  of  government 
red  to  be  paid  immediately, 
ng  quotation  affords  a  graphic  description 
)n  and  life  of  cultivators  in  the  woods : — 
I  in  the  woods  appear  to  be  the  most  con- 
dependent  people,  in  their  way,  I  ever  met 
a  with  only  a  log-house^  unplastered,  con- 
9oms,  one  above  and  one  below,  sometimes 
w,  with  a  large  open  fire-place,  and  a  log- 
nney  back  and  hearth  built  of  stone,  picked 
farm ;  a  boarded  floor  unplaned,  perhaps 
if  too  far  from  a  saw-mill;  one  or  two 
sh  windows,  and  sometimes  at  first  none ; 
,es  with  wooden  hooks  and  hinges.  A  few 
amon  household  use ;  two  spinning-wheels, 
nd  one  for  wool,  with  reaves  of  spun-yam 
Ihe  inside  of  the  house  on  wooden  pegs, 
le  logs ;  an  upright  chum  ;  a  rifle-gun ;  a 
in  oven  out  of  doors,  at  a  little  distance 
use,  built  sometimes  of  clay,  sometimes 
ones,  often  placed  on  the  stump  of  a  tree 
le,  and  with  a  shed  covered  with  tree  bark 
' ;  a  yoke  of  oxen,  some  young  steers,  two 
I,  eight  or  ten  sheep ;  perhaps  a  horse,  or 
I ;  a  sleigh  waggon,  a  plough  and  harrow, 
tps  with  wooden  teeth ;  these  form  all  their 

their  land,  and  on  this  they  often  raise 
or  two  hundred  bushels  of  wheat,  eighty 
■ed  of  Indian  com,  some  oats,  peas,  and 
(wheat  and  a  patch  of  flax;  and  fatten 

hogs  and  a  cow,  or  a  yoke  of  oxen  in  a 
»  seven  or  eight  more  store  pigs,  and  a 

Those  who  brought  a  little  money  with 
9  fortunate  in  having  a  family  of  indus- 
et  perhaps  a  good  frame  house,  or,  at  all 
i  frame  bam,  eighty  or  ono  hundred  acres 
"ed ;  grow  four  hundred  or  six  hundred 
heat;  other  things  in  proportion;  with 
yoke  of  oxen,  twelve  to  thirty  fat  hogs, 
^rses,  &c.,  half  of  them  or  more  brood 

ing  is  a  ruder  picture  of  industry  : — '*  In 
unty  (Illinois)  one  of  our  frontier  mbn 
If  on  government  land  three  or  four  years 
aur  or  five  sows  for  breeders,  worth  as 
In  1829,  ho  drove  forty-two  fat  hogs  to 
h  he  sold  for  135  dollars  (£30,  Ts.  6d.) 
)f  com  given  to  the  whole  before  he  drove 
;  exceed  one  bushel.  They  lived  on  the 
■ew  fat  on  mast,  that  is,  beech-nuts,  wal- 
&c. ;  had  they  been  fed  on  com  they 
[>ld  higher.  Of  the  proceeds,  100  dollars 
ere  applied  to  pay  for  eighty  acres  of  land 
bad  settled  ;  the  remainder  served  to  pay 
lebts,  and  to  purchase  his  salt,  iron,  and 
the  year.  This  is  not  an  extraordinary 
tut  one  common  in  that  country.*' 

PURCHASING  LANDS. 

il  recently,  the  practice  of  the  American 

0  sell  the  public  lands  on  credit,  receiving 
instalments;  but  this  plan  was  found  so 
Jiai  it  Has  beoi  abandoned,  and  the  pub- 
Bow  sold  for  cash  only.    While  the  credit 

1  opssstioDy  many  people  were  induced  to 

281 


become  proprietors  of  large  tracts  of  land  which  they 
had  not  the  means  of  cultivating,  and  in  the  course  of 
a  few  years  the  land  again  fell  into  the  hands  of  govern- 
ment. The  farmer  was  thus  left  in  a  worse  state  than 
when  he  first  settled  in  the  country  ;  his  capital  was 
expended  without  having  yielded  him  any  suitable  re- 
turn. Most  travellers  concur  in  representing  the  cash 
system  as  much  superior  to  the  former  practice  of  giv- 
ing credit,  for  by  it,  although  any  person  should  bo 
foolish  enough  to  purchase  land  without  having  the 
means  of  cultivating  it,  his  capital  is  not  lost,  as  he  may 
always  get  the  price  he  paid  for  it  again.  In  the  United 
States  there  are  public  land-oflices  in  the  chief  towns, 
at  which  maps  of  the  sold  and  unsold  lands  are  kept 
for  inspection.  Lands  are  first  offered  for  sale  by  pub- 
lic auction,  and  are  put  up  at  from  a  dollar  and  a  quar- 
ter to  two  dollars  per  acre.  If  no  one  offers  these 
prices,  they  are  exhibited  on  the  land-ofiioe  map,  and 
may  be  obtained  at  any  subsequent  period.  On  the 
maps,  sections  of  a  square  mUe,  and  quarter  sections 
of  160  acres,  are  laid  down  ;  six  miles  square  consti- 
tute a  township.  The  sixteenth  section  of  each  town- 
ship is  reserved  for  the  support  of  a  school.  The  deed 
which  confers  the  right  of  property  in  the  States  is 
very  simple.  It  is  printed  on  a  piece  of  parchment  of 
the  quarto  size  ;  the  date,  the  locality  of  theT purchase, 
and  the  purchaser's  name,  being  inserted  in  writing, 
and  the  instrument  subscribed  by  the  President  of  the 
United  States,  and  the  agent  of  the  general  land-office. 
It  is  delivered  to  the  buyer  free  of  all  expense,  and 
may  be  transferred  by  him  to  another  person  without 
the  intervention  of  stamped  paper,  law  practitioners, 
or  those  absurd  feudal  usages  which  continue  to  dis- 
grace the  transfer  of  landed  property  in  Great  Britain. 
Emigrants  in  going  into  the  woods  to  make  a  selection 
of  lauds,  will  do  well  to  take  with  them  an  extract  from 
the  land-office  map  applying  to  the  part  of  the  country 
they  intend  to  visit,  and  by  this  they  will  discover  en- 
tered from  unentered  lands. 

The  public  land  is,  of  course,  totally  uncleared,  and 
untouched  by  the  plough  ;  some  of  it  is  more  h^vily 
timbered  than  other  portions,  and  it  is  of  very  various 
quality,  that  on  the  banks  of  rivers  and  alluvial  grounds 
being  exceedingly  fertile,  and  other  parts  being  cither 
rocky  or  marshy,  so  as  to  be  either  too  unhealthy  or 
too  unprofitable  to  be  cultivated.  The  settler,  however, 
has  his  choice,  and,  by  going  out  into  the  woods,  he 
may  fix  upon  a  lot  to  his  own  mind.  An  enterprising 
cultivator,  particularly  if  he  be  a  stout  man,  with  a 
family  of  sons,  may  do  very  well  upon  such  lands,  be- 
cause the  original  price  is  small ;  and  after  clearing 
them  to  some  extent,  and  erecting  one  or  two  log-houses 
and  barns,  he  can  either  extend  his  cultivation  (which 
is  easy  after  crops  are  got  for  the  first  three  seasons), 
or  he  may  sell  at  a  considerable  advance  as  population 
begins  to  inci*ease  around  him,  and  as  settlers  arrive, 
who  are  not  inclined  to  make  first  beginnings  in  the 
woods  for  themselves. 

When  lots  are  advertised  for  sale,  there  are  persons 
who  make  it  their  business  to  go  out  to  survey  the  whole 
tract  before  any  one  else  has  examined  it  ;  and  by  re- 
maining in  the  woods  for  months,  sleeping  often  in  the 
open  fields,  and  undergoing  great  hardships,  they  get 
acquainted  with  all  the  natural  advantages  of  the  land, 
the  spots  where  there  are  water-power,  minerals  (such 
as  salt  springs,  &c.),  healthy,  open,  or  fertile  grounds, 
and  select  such  of  these  as  they  choose,  in  order  to  sell 
them  again  at  a  profit.  This  practice  raises  the  price 
of  the  best  lands,  and  it  is  ono  which  can  only  be  fol- 
lowed by  natives  well  acquainted  with  the  face  of  the 
country  ;  but  it  cannot  be  said  to  have  much  effect  in 
retarding  settlements,  as  the  persons  who  follow  it  sel- 
dom have  very  large  capitals,  and  are  soon  willing  to 
dispose  of  their  purchase  at  a  reasonable  advance  to 
those  who  intend  really  to  avail  themselves  of  the  na- 
tural advantages  which  the  former  have  been  at  the 
trouble  to  search  out. 

In.  1838,  12,251,966  acres  of  land  were  offered  for 
sale,  of  which  quantity  1,388,733  aeres  were  sold ;  the 


c:iIAMBERS*S  INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


prico  paid  being  1,749,401  dollara,  or  about  IJ  dollar, 
(.5s.  T^d.)  per  acre.  At  the  commeiiceinent  of  1032, 
the  quantity  of  land  unsold,  and  to  wliich  the  Indian 
title  had  l>een  extinguished,  in  the  states  of  Oiiio,  Indi- 
ana, Illinois,  Missouri,  Mi.ssissippi,  Alabama,  Louisiana, 
and  Michigan,  and  in  the  territories  of  Arkansas  and 
Florida,  was  estimoted  at  227,293,884  acres.  The 
quantity  in  the  same  states  and  territories  held  at  that 
period  by  the  Indians  was  estimated  at  113,577)8(>9 
acres.  The  quantity  beyond  tlicso  states  and  tcrrito- 
rit»s  was  estimated  at  7»"»0,000,00()  acres;  making  the 
wholo  of  the  puhlic  lauds  at  the  conimenccmeut  of  1832, 
1,000,871,750  acres. 

These  are  the  public  lands,  but  there  are  v.ast  quan- 
tities of  ground  in  the  hands  of  individuals  which  have 
not  vet  b<'pn  cleared,  or  only  partially  so ;  and  the  prices 
at  wliich  this  is  to  be  had  vary  according  to  the  quality 
of  the  land,  its  situation  witli  regard  to  roads  and  mar- 
kets, or  the  w(irk  which  has  been  already  d<me  upon  iL 
L.irge  quantities  of  this  description  of  lands  are  to  be 
had  in  the  north-western  districts  of  Pennsylvania,  at 
from  two  to  lour  dollars  per  acre ;  many  portions  of  it 
arc  fertile,  situated  on  healthy  mountain  sides,  and  in 
a  climate  more  nearly  resembling  that  of  Britain  than 
is  to  be  ex]>i*cted  in  the  low  though  rich  valleys  of  the 
wcHtem  states,  where  the  public  lands  are  chiefly 
situateil.  In  the  other  old-sett]e<l  states  there  is  not  so 
much  of  this  kind  of  unoccupied  land ;  though,  certainly, 
when  it  comes  to  be  in  America  as  it  is liere,  where 
every  inch  of  ground  is  wanted  for  raising  food,  an  im- 
mense quantity  of  what  is  now  despised,  will,  by  the 
op«'rations  of  draining,  tn^nchiiig,  and  reclaiming,  be 
liruuuht  into  productive  cultivation.  In  these  states, 
particularly  New  York,  there  is,  however,  always  abun- 
dance of  properties  in  the  market,  parts  of  which  have 
been  long  farmed,  and  which  have  houses  and  offices 
erected  on  tliem,  for  extending  the  cultivation  of  their 
remaining  acres.  These  are  offered  at  various  prices, 
according  to  their  advantages ;  and  to  gentlemen  who 
h;ive  skill  and  enterprise  to  introduce  better  and  more 
o:ir»-fMl  in(»(l<"<  <i'  I'annijiLS  tliey  oMer  a<linir:iblo  eapa- 
hilili"'."*.  Til"  ]in»tit  \%hioii  lias  Ihhti  hitherto  realised 
i'l  Anii'rii'.i,  has  h"eii  hy  merely  hreakini;  up  the  woods 
:  :-:l  prairie-,  ir.io  eurii  iaiiil  in  the  r«»ui:he»t  and  must 
iMi.-kiltiil  inaniier;  l»iit  a  new  fu-id  of  enterprise  and 
wialtli  remains  to  tlio^e  who  shall  intrudnee  in  the 
!;'-t*i»-il  s:.itv  s  In-tltT  lir<'<'(ls  of  cattle  and  more  seic-ii- 
lifie  im-mIi's  ol  a'jrieultnre.  In  ^••nenil,  the  Anierieun 
iifinirs  entir«-iv  iii'l'-' et  the  ii'^e  of  manures;  tliev 
\.  rv  i!"ri-n  slinvtl  tli-'  re!u-.f  <>{  their  staMi'-vanl  into 

•  ...       * 

liii'  n'-ar'-l  riv«-r;  ami  on«'  larnur  is  inrnli<'ne<l,  >\lio, 
ralli'  r  ilia!!  n  in<ive  :i  ilnnu'ijiil  wliirli  ha<l  f^atheri'l  in 
i:i'.  e<'!:rT,  eli.iM*  tu  hnil-l  a  ii"w  Mt  of  barns.'  The 
i.:.riii:ial  linhi:*'  l«  ad  tlieni  continnallv  t«)  think  ol  hreak- 
i:-'  nT»  ]><  \yr  larid,  and  thev  al\\a\s  elioo^e  tu  do  this 
la'l  <  r  t't:ri  mantm'  tlie  oM.  'i'lp-y  pivtV-r,  in  bhurl, 
I  il.ii:^'  i!.«ir  (•!■'•])  '-11'  a  lar:;e  field  earelrs.sly  and  unex- 
:  .i-.-ni'Iy  <"iltivat<  d,  t-i  L'^'ttinj  the  san'.e  r«'turnf»  from 
:  rir.a!l<r  j.li  «•.«  of  «:n>Mn'i  s^ijMiHy  jtfepan  «1.  This  i- 
i  i\i'."i^iv  .''.  want  of  ihritt  a-;  wi-Il  a-^  of  h-eienee.  and  it 
i  f'-r  t'li-  rea-'-n  that  we  s  ly  that  g«">d  f.irmers,  \\iih 
■  •  ;«'  e.ij-'tai,  ini.;!;t  tai.i'  :ii\:ii.ta::!' <ii  th«*  half-ini}irt)V»-i| 
!  i::-  V.  hieli  are  o'l  -ale  in  ih"  s<'l«!ed  states,+  an^l  hy  j 
liii\::'-  thi-ni  :;t  tin' n<  rv  nM'Ieraii'  i»rie<s  at  \\h!i;h  th«  v 
;.!•..  I. Ij.-i-i  (1  ri.ricli  l.ctii  iliiMiiM  lve>  an«l  tin' ei.nntrv,  hv 
:i.'-  i:i'n"ihi«"i'n  of  nii.n'  hiisini'-^s-lil;!;  mo.l.-s  i<\  l.irni- 
i  I':.  An  atti'iitii.n  to  dairy  pn-dniM-,  ;in  iniprovnnent 
•  I  tI-  It-  I  -is  i»f  c.ittli',  ami  tim  inti'odnetion  of  Kinds 
V  !.i.!i  u.  :iitl  |r..<ii!ei'  fat  <'f  l>rit«r  <piality,  and  w  ith  h-<* 
«  \|  •■«;».♦•  i.r  tr.ii!  .1'  ti.an  tli«'  kind-.  }.->\v  known,  \\(»uld 
i,.-  I  t  I-  I  n'i.il  In  III  :''. 
'i  I  ■•  J  :'.e->  at   \vi..i-i!   ei.tlvated  aid  h.ilf-recluimod 


]  . 


f. 


•I   \  •■  ■  :  !    I. 

■■.■-■'>;:(■:•■    V.  w'.iW^  T<  IV.r.::  on  I.-in.r 

■■    ••  ..     -'!    .'.   ■    ■  :  I'.i- r- :::  i:I..     Hi- n:-.!i' i.f  i-iiltiv:i;- 

.  ;.•    -I-  .  i.  .■  r  .'  ;  '.  ■  •./.  1.::t:i;-.  I'V.  '.  >'*'., k  r  v,in-n  •i^-jc;  Ills 

. ;■  I     ':     ;■  f  ;■■  I..  :!..■•• ;  Kii -).t Iri-rirur t-f  )kiiiitry 

^  :■••,<■;'   ■    '••  •■  ..  .in  I !  ..:■  \  r:it  t.irly  in  the  b|-uii^': 

I  ?...■• \.  vi.  ti  >!■  li  ii-.'..  ■li»il  In  Aiii'.'rie:i. 


lands  are  offered  In  the  district  of  Genenee  (a 
fertile  one),  are  from  twenty  to  forty  dollars  pei 
Mr  Fergusson  mentions  several  farms  which  he  i 
sale :  one  near  Geneva  was  of  250  acres,  ^  eonsisi 
good  loam,  and  some  indifferent  clay,  well  watcam 
without  any  mill  power.  The  wheat  and  Indiai 
were  excellent ;  the  hedges  thrivin|;  and  in  good 
with  a  double  x^ail  fence ;  the  mansion-house  and 
were  very  respectable.  The  price  asked  was  25  < 
per  acre,  or  L.1406,  5s.  for  the  whole  farm." 

Mr  Fergusson  mentions  the  prices  at  which 
other  farms  were  offered ;  we  subjoin  an  abstract 
notices.*— 

**  1.  Captain  Davenport's  farm,  on  the  oast  h 
the  Hudson.  It  contains  350  acres,  100  of  whi 
in  wood :  the  soil  is  partly  clay,  partly  sandy  loai 
a  large  portion  is  a  rich  holm  on  the  river  side, 
finest  quality.  The  price  demanded  is  L.7,  10 
acre,  and  it  was  sold  at  somewhat  more  than  tlu 
soon  after.  The  return  might  reasonably  bo  ex 
to  reach  L.l  12, 10s.  clear  qf  expenses,  from  the  ila 
and  L.70  from  the  profit  on  a  slieep  stock  on  the 
portion  of  the  farm;  in  wliolo  L.182,  10s.  The 
given  was  L.2000,  and  L.l 000  more  was  rcquii 
building,  fences,  and  drains — in  all,  L.3000 ;  for 
there  is  a  return  of  L.l  80.  An  industrious  Scots  £ 
in  Mr  Fergusson*s  opinion,  would  not  fail  to  ] 
L.200,  clear  of  all  the  expenses  of  subsistence,  A 

2.  Next  to  this  farm  was  tliat  of  Mr  Knickerl 
containing  275  acres.  There  is  a  fine  holm  « 
farm,  and  the  uphind  seemed  fully  better  than 
It  was  let  in  shares  last  year,  and  the  owner  re 
L.G3.  The  price  asked  was  L.4  per  acre,  'or  L 
and  L.200  more  would  be  requisite  for  houses,  J 
&.C.  There  was  no  more  timber  than  seemed  re« 
for  the  use  of  the  estate. 

3.  Mr  Cherney's  farm,  106  acres,  with  wood  sul 
for  the  use  of  the  property — about  40  acres  oi 
fine  holm,  ca}>able  of  yielding,  I  was  assured,  fo 
fifty  bushels  of  oats,  or  other  grain  in  proportion 
farm  conld  he  had  for  L.AiJU,  and  would  certain 
turn  \jA'*  or  L.^n  clear. 

4.  Mr  Vely's  farm,  lUl  acros;  4^  acres  of 
superior  holm  ;  the  upkuul  gotwl ;  with  a  strt'nn 
ning  tliroui;h  it.  The  houses  appean-d  to  he  new. 
farm  oonlil  he  had  for  L.  KMj,  anil  the  return  Ci*u 
bo  less  than  from  L..'i">  to  L.40,  clear  o\  all  ehar-; 

5.  A  farm  of  .'>"<»  ncn's,  oeeupietl  hy  C'-'loin'l  ( 
at  a  rent  of  .'in'i  vlolIar>  (L.(>7,  lOs.)  The  soil  i 
loam  ;  nine  parts  of  it  are  clay:  a  ik-w  dweiiiuLj- 
and  g(iO(l  barn,  with  a  valuable  woo«l  lot.  It  mi 
honu'lit  li>r  L.l.'iOi). 

The  wiiolf  of  thesi*  jiroporties  were  rvidentlvs 
tible  of  great  ini]irov*'nient,  thons:[li  in  f«>ul  and  ha 
ditmn.  'J'he  local  situativni  is  g«MMi,  the  Champl.iiti 
j-a'-sing  within  half  a  mile,  thou;:h  h«j)arultd  I 
rivtr.     The  i*oads  arc  tolerable." 

The  aeo<»nnt  ^iven  of  these  properties  by  .in  i 
gent  observer  and  agrieultnri>t,  will  ser>e  to  c 
an  i'h  a  of  thi'  prices  of  hmd,  and  the  n'turiis 
ca]>ital  and  imhu-try  rmployeti  in  Ainerieaii  ai:nci 
In  all  cases  we  h''Ii«?ve  it  t«)  have  been  weil  }> 
that  no  j»er.-'>n  sliDnl'l  buy  inwre  kind,  liDwever  ci 
(■tiered,  than  he  e.m  iinnu  <liatrly  enltivate  with  :i 
tai^e.  Tilt"  iMpital  e\j>endtd  in  buyinij  super 
grouiiil  i-t  eonipl»'t«ly  Idcki  d  up  from  usi»  ;  anil  th 
ennistanee,  in  a  et-tnitry  where  evrry  dispO'>ah!<' 
can  be  enij  !<'V«  1  witheirtain  priitit,  is  a  downri;^ 
]>iriabb'  Ic.---.  'I  !i'  re  are  .s(«ine  p-r^xin-^,  indeed,  w 
has  b«  i  n  alifady  iiientictned.  sj-tenlale  in  land,  1 
laru''^  ijuantirics  in  (.nbr  to  sell  it  ai:aai,  as  it  he 
more  valuable  by  tin*  inv'ii.i^e  of  p'>piiUti<iu  ;  bu 
advtnturer.i  r  |wire  to  have  well  stuilieil  the  n 
advantai^t-H  of  the  district,  and  it  is  not  a  spccu 
fnr  eniii^ran:-. 

To  C'lnelu'l:',  tin  n,  on  this  «;nhject :  Land  in  T\r 
trl«*t«»,  euii-tlv  Ml  till'  wi-ti  in  ht.ite«»,  ma\  b»»  had 

•  ■ 

d'illar  and  a  ijuarter  per  aei-f  ;  in  p.ae«'>.  partially  ^ 
unrechiiiiu-d  land  fctehes  fr  .'Ui  two  to  f>.>ur  dJUa 


EMIGRATION  TO  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


fubaUj  opmdf 
mmma&tofmem 


pticm,  aeoordingt 
1^  firam  mr  dolkxB  to  forty. 


salitUemore.  Ground 

trees,  is  offered  at  all 

be  labour  bestowed  on 


BBinifO  LAND. 

There  is  little  of  what  is  called  renting  land  in  any 
pnt  of  the  States ;  but  where  there  in,  tlie  produce  is 
geneTBlly  dirided  into  certain  proportions  between  the 
•wner  and  tenant.    Sometimes  each  receiyes  an  equal 
ikare ;  sometimes  the  owner  sets  a  third,  according  to 
the  improvements  on  the  lana,  and  its  quality  ;  some- 
times tenants  take  land  *'  on  shares,**  with  the  landlord, 
OB  eondition  that  he  furnishes  them  with  seed-corn  and 
fre-wood ;  and  then  he  receives  one-half  of  the  crop. 
In  the  western  country  of  Illinois,  &c^  it  is  not  un- 
eommon  for  the  owner  to  give  a  man  **  team,  tools,  and 
^loard,  besides  one-third  of  the  crop,"  for  labouring  a 
'iffm.     Mr  Pickering  mentions  that,  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  Baltimore,  he  was  asked  a  rent  of  IBs.  per  acre 
Imp  a  lot  of  fifty  acres,  only  half  cleared ;  for  another  lot 
if  very  rich  land,  the  rent  asked  was  twelve  dollars,  or 
L2, 14s.  per  acre.* 

These  lands  had  the  recommendation  of  being  Bitu- 
•fted  near  the  markets  of  Baltimore ;  and  it  must  be 
iwolleeted  also,  in  explanation  of  the  high  sums  de- 
■aaded,  that  the  rent  of  land  in  America  by  no  mcaiiR 
ksn  the  same  proportion  to  its  price  as  it  does  in 
EngUnd.  With  us,  it  brings  twciity-iivo  years'  pur- 
dMe  of  the  rent.  In  America,  it  Ls  freely  sold  at  six- 
iMn  and  seventeen  years'  purchase.  This  must  be 
•wing  to  .the  many  profitable  ways  in  which  ready 
can  be  employed  in  that  country. 


CHOICE  OP  UIND  FOB  SETTLINO,  WITH  RIvSPECT  TO  HEALTH 

AND  MEIGHISOUKHOOD. 

It  is  of  the  greatest  consequence  that  the  land  which 
ii  selected  be  in  a  healthy  situation,  in  whatever  dis- 
triet  it  be  chosen ;  and  for  ascertaining  this,  the  emi- 
grant must  examine  the  spot  himself.  Let  him  trust 
the  report  of  no  other  person ;  land  dealers  and  others 
naturally  commend  tracts  of  ground  which  they  have 
an  interest  to  sell.  The  people  of  the  neigh l)ourhood 
■re  also  to  be  distrusted,  because  they  are  all  anxious 
to  have  settlers  near  them,  from  the  additional  value 
aa  increasing  population  gives  to  their  property.  There 
cui,  however,  be  little  ditliculty  in  making  the  clioico. 
In  the  first  place,  the  neighbourhood  of  all  marshes  is 
to  be  avoided,  as  well  as  of  rivers,  which,  from  their 
sh^^gish  course  and  low  banks,  appear  to  overflow  and 
stagnate  in  time  of  floods.  Such  situations  are  almost 
always  liable  to  agues  and  fevers.  The  same  may  be 
Mid  of  low  moist  prairies  (meadows),  whose  ^at  fer- 
tility should  never  tempt  any  settler  from  this  country 
to  establish  himself  in  them.  An  elevated  spot,  where 
the  air  circulates  freely  from  all  points  of  the  conip.iss, 
is  mosrt  desirable.  If  circumstances  should  induce  the 
Mttler  to  fix  himself  near  any  of  the  great  rivers,  it  is 
Meerted  that  a  residence  chosen  as  near  as  convenient 
to  the  margin  of  the  stream  will  bo  more  healthy  than 
those  situated  a  few  hundred  ^iirds'  distance,  in  what  is 
called  the  "  interior  of  the  bottom."  Along  the  Missis- 
■ppi  and  Missouri,  the  banks  are  generally  higher  than 
the  ground  a  little  distance  inward ;  and  from  the 
pefTouff  nature  of  the  soil,  this  interior  land  absorbs 
moisture  from  the  river,  and  remains  alwa^'s  damp.  So 
innch  is  this  the  case  with  regard  to  the  Alispouri,  that 
all  the  waters  which  it  receives  from  its  tributaries  do 
Dot  incmse  the  stream,  which  is,  therefore,  as  large 
1000  miles  from  its  mouth  as  it  is  where  it  falls  into  the 
Misiasippi,  after  having  received  more  than  a  hundred 

•  Tbe  rents  atksd  in  America  are  certainly  higbcr  than  xni(;ht 
to  eapscted  from  atir  Urns  of  the  relative  proportions  of  the  price 
sf  *"**  ^bd  its  isnts  la  this  country.  Bat  as  Mi  Pickering,  on 
whoOT  authority  we  state  the  above  facts,  did  not  really  take  the 
iHid,  aai  eoly  Inquired  coaceming  it  to  gratify  his  curindity,  wo 
•rs  diaposed  to  think  a  reslMddcr  might  have  hoard  a  lower  price 
In  anotber  flses,  Mr  Pkdcering  nys  he  was  asked  throe  guineas 

qolfte  IrcTcdiblG  tn  hr  jvit.i 

2^3 


rivers  in  its  course.  This  circumstance  is  attributed 
chiefly  to  the  water  being  absorbed  by  the  porous  soil, 
whence  it  is  partially  evaporated  in  the  surrounding 
air.  This  peculiarity  renders  the  immediato  vicinity  of 
the  rivers  (except  where  they  have  a  rocky  channel) 
unfavourable  to  the  health  of  persons  lately  arrived  in 
the  country,  and  whose  constitutions  have  not  been  yet 
accustomed  to  the  climate  and  atmosphere. 

To  emigrants  fntm  Britain,  wo  would  say,  that  the 
country  of  Michigan  and  the  Highlands  of  Pennsyl- 
vania are  likely  to  be  least  injurious  to  their  consti- 
tutions, and  that  more  caution  is  required  in  selecting 

a  situation  in  Ohio,  hidiana,  and  Illinois the  whole 

western  country  indeed — than  in  the  former  places. 
That  country,  from  the  number  of  years  it  has  now 
been  settled,  however,  has  boen  thoroughly  explored, 
and  all  its  healthy  and  unhealthy  situations  ascertained ; 
so  that  a  settler  will  seldom  be  at  a  loss,  in  the  neigh- 
bouring towns,  to  Hud  some  clue  by  wliicli  to  guide  him- 
self. 

In  whatever  place  a  settlement  bo  chosen,  it  is  of  tho 
utmost  conscqiienco  that  the  house  be  on  a  dry  and  airy 
spot,  and  that  it  have  a  spring,  or  cle.ir  running  stream' 
of  good  water,  close  by,  for  household  purposes :  some, 
to  secure  this  obj«'Ct,  pitch  on  the  banks  of  a  pool  or 
small  lake  as  an  eligible  situation,  which  is  the  worst 
place  possible,  both  beciuse  the  water  is  often  stagnant 
and  unwholesome,  from  the  dead  leaves  and  vegetables 
lying  in  it,  and  because  the  effluvia  from  such  water  is 
apt  to  generate  disease  in  those  who  are  constantly  near 
it.  The  floor  of  the  house  should,  if  possible,  be  laid 
with  some  hard  diy  substance;  and  a  little  Are  should 
be  kept  in  the  evening**,  even  when  the  weather  hardly 
seems  to  require  it,  because  this  serves  to  maintain  a 
wholesome  circulation  of  air,  and  to  dry  more  quickly 
the  green  logs  of  which  settlers*  houses  are  first  con- 
structed. With  regard  to  clothin;j,  it  is  of  consequence 
that  those  who  enter  upon  this  now  life  should  make 
themselves  somewhat  eonifortahlc  in  this  respect ;  and 
though  they  must  for  a  time  submit  to  hardships,  by  no 
means  to  imitate  the  savnp*  affectation  of  many  of  their 
neighbours,  who  think  that,  as  they  are  in  the  woods, 
tliey  ought  to  take  a  pride  in  living  like  Indians.  Theso 
pe()j)le  often  neglect  all  cleanliness  and  comfoi't,  both  in 
their  persons  an<i  dwellin;:s,  and  are  vain  of  telling  how 
much  they  expose  themselvi^  to  the  weather,  both  in 
sun  and  dew,  and  how  well  they  have  stood  it  for  years. 
Let  none  of  these  vain-glorious  boastings  have  any  in- 
fluence with  the  new  settltrr:  he  oii:;ht,  in  every  point, 
to  maintain  habits  as  little  removed  from  his  former 
way  of  life  as  is  consistent  with  his  situation ;  keep  his 
clothes  and  house  as  snug  and  comfortable  as  he  finds 
it  possible  at  the  present  time  to  make  them  ;  and  ex- 
pose himself  neither  to  the  weather  nor  fatijjue,  except 
where  there  is  some  useful  purpose  to  be  gained  by  it; 
never  at  least  to  do  so  for  the  mere  s:ikeof  brai^docio, 
or  to  imitate  tho  ostentatious  hardiness  of  some  of  his 
neighboui's.  He  will  find  tho  Scots  ])roverb,  "  hooly 
and  fairly  gangs  far,"  as  true  in  the  backwoods  of 
America  as  at  home.  Steaily  and  cautiftus  p<T»everanco 
in  clearing  his  lau'ls  and  sr-euring  his  har\'ests,  with 
patience  and  good  humour  under  such  privations  as  arc 
unavoidable,  are  chiefly  essential  to  the  success  of  tho 
emifjrant. 

As  a  farther  advice  to  settlers  entering  into  tho 
woods  or  new  lands,  we  would  say,  that  if  two  or 
three  can  go  together,  it  assists  them  materially:  a 
family  with  seversil  stout  sons  has  a  very  great  advan- 
tage in  this  respect.  A  few  acquaintances  joining  to- 
gether, and  taking  a  piece  of  land  to  divide  among 
them,  can  assist  one  another  in  clearing  it,  or  in  get- 
ting in  their  harvest ;  and  if  any  accident  happens  in 
one  of  their  families,  the  good  oifices  of  the  rest  servo 
greatly  to  relieve  its  inconveniences.  It  may  happen, 
for  instance,  that  some  of  them  gets  a  hurt,  or  is  Uid 
by  for  a  week  with  sickness ;  and  if  this  were  to  occur 
during  harvest,  or  in  seedtime,  every  thing  would  be 
lost,  without  the  assistance  of  the  rest  of  the  company. 
If  such  partnerships  cannot  be  formed  before  K\i\  iui; 


CHAMBERS'S  INFORMATION  FOR  THE  I'EOPLK 


Stetes  ml»  hkWB  not  tedbM  to  Bome  itreini  in  thdr 

naigfaboorliood  for  fishings  if  they  are  fond  of  that  pnr- 

n&L  ottber  for  arnnsementy  or  as  a  meant  of  proYiding 

food  for  iimr  fiunilies.    Every  one  has  the  pnvilese  to 

avail  IdnndUF  of  all  the  treasures  of  the  wate: 

let  or  hindiMos;  and  they  are  worth  taking 

ot  Tho  alipi;i^  the  salmon,  of  excellent  kinds,  abdttad 

fak  Ae  riten'of  the  eaMem  states,  and  beautifnl  tront 

are  takmi  in  those  of  the  north.  Among  the  fish  of  the 

western  waters  are  noticed  Ihi  P®i^  on^  ^  vluch,  the 

bnflkb-perdiy  is  a  fin^Afi  tit  too  table,  weighing  firom 

ten  to  tnirty  poondft    The  pike^  the  perch,  and  other 

of  the  Illiiiois,and  the  rivers  eonneeted  with  it^  are 

«iNresented  as  excellent :  ajbie  called  a  trot-line,  drawn 

■sross  the  mouth  of  the  lAois,  with  hooks  at  regular 

ilfirlir***',  took  five  Imndred  pounds  in  one  ni^t.    The 

whole  of  the  fish  of  the  Hinissippi  are  not,  nowever, 

ei  maiaal  analitv  for  eating ;  the  kinds  which  are  chiefly 

the  trout,  tne  small  yellow  cat-fish,  the 

1.  and  Uie  perch. 

VB  g        privileges  of  the  fiurmer,  it  would 

■r  wv  ^iwM  over  the  gam^  which  is  abundant 

-      rican  woods,  and  which  may  sometimes 

w^menty  sometimes  an  agreeable  variety  of 

M    '      ( mallard,  or  conunon  wild-duck,  is  found  in 

■^        aHvater  Uke  and  river  of  the  United  States. 

_  f  ass-back  duck  is  an  American  spedes,  alto- 

mknown  in  Europe;  they  are  found  in  the  riven 

>  and  Delaware,  but  principally  frequent  the 

i        Chesapeake,  where  they  feed  on  the  roots 

-like  plant  abundant  in  these  streams : 


«wj«t  in  shoals,  but  are  exceedingl  v  shy,  and 
M>  be  shot  The  delicacy  of  their  flesh,  and  the 
:-*  they  bring  in  towns^  render  them  an  pbject 
»  porsnit  to  numbers.  In  general,  however, 
•d  to  game  of  all  kinds,  though  plentiful  and 
..,  it  is  tto  object  with  the  colonist,  who  does 
to  waste  his  time  in  following  it.  Mr  Fer- 
n>n  of  WoodhiU  met  in  Canada  with  a  young  Scots- 
<i  who  had  been  a  poacher  in  Scotland,  but  Was  now 
settled  and  thriving  well  on  a  f:inu  of  one  hundred  acres 
in  his  new  country.  Mr  Fergusson  said  to  him,  **  You 
will  need  neither  certificate  nor  qualification  here : 
wliat  do  you  principally  shoot!*'  *^  Indeed,  sir,"  said 
ho,  ^  if  you'll  believe  me,  1  scarce  ever  think  about  it, 
for  there's  naebody  here  seeks  to  hinder  us."  A  herd 
of  deer  only  two  days  before  had  wandered  past  hira 
while  at  the  plouivh,  yet  Walter  felt  no  inclination  to 
run  for  his  ritle,  though  it  stood  loadbd  ui  the  house. 

WAGES  OP  L.VUOUR,  AND  COST  09  LIVING. 

The  price  of  articles  varies  in  differem  places,  so  that 
not  general  average  can  be  stated  either  of  wages  or  of 
the  cost  of  living :  both  are  ditl'erent  in  different  cir- 
cumstances, liut  we  have  selected,  from  tlie  best  au- 
thorities, such  lists,  for  several  of  the  chief  towns  and 
districts,  as  will  enable  the  reader  to  judge  for  himself. 

Albany. — For  Albany,  on  the  river  Hudson,  we  have, 
from  g(K>d  authority,  the  following  statement  ^— t 

Wages.  —  Men  for  general  farm  work  —  Summer, 
L.2,  5h.  per  month  ;  winter,  L.l,  7s.  per  month.  Har- 
vest work,  cradling  wheat,  4s.  Gd.  per  day.  A  cradle 
scythe  is  said  to  cut  four  acres  a-d<iy,  and  requires  one 
man  to  bind  to  each  cmdlur.  Hay  cutting,  *Js.  7d.  {>er 
day.  iii>ard  found  besides  to  all  these.  A  steady  active 
farm  overseer  or  bailiff  has  about  L.45  money  wages, 
a  capital  house,  a  cow,  and  s<jme  other  advantages.  A 
man  gets  8  guineas  (or  21  dollars)  fur  three  weeks' 
work  drying  hops.  Good  cooks,  18s.  to  27s.  per  month ; 
chambermaids,  13.hi.  Gd.  to  18s.  per  mouth;  washer- 
women, 4s.  per  day;  servant  girls,  18s.  to  24s.  per 
month. 

ProvisimiM. — Wheat,  6s.  Od.  jier  bushel ;  beef,  per 
quarter,  Ium.  to  23s.;  per  lb.,  2d.  to  4d.;  mutton,  l^d. 
to  2d. ;  veal,  the  same ;  pork,  22s.  to  27s.  per  cwt. ; 
butter,  5d.  per  lb. ;  cheese,  2d.  to  4d.  per  lb. ;  eggs,  4d. 
to  5d.  per  dozen.  Brandy  (French),  4s.  Gd.  per  ^llon; 
gin,  3s.  per  ditto;  whisky,  Is.  to  Is.  Id.  per  ditto;  ex- 
cellent table  beer,  4ft.  6d.  per  barrel  of  33  gallons,  Fir«- 

2N0' 


wood,  18s.  6d.,  couBlnr priee;  82s. to Sfa^tti 
per  cord  of  128  adne  foot,  deuversd  four  Mil 
cost  2s.  per  cord  to  cut  to  longtfas  rs^oirsd  ta 

*  The  American  foment  sayi  Mr  JVirgiwi 
comfortably,  and  at  a  vofy  modeimte  eipsnwu 
and  soap  are  generally  mano&etored  Dram  kit 
fuse.  A  good  housewife  ijaiii  nd  me  that  tho 
meat  for  her  family,  fifteen  in  nnmbei^  did  IMM 
in  whole,  Is.  per  diy  (three  mea]8%  exeept  « 
allowed  them  turkeys  and  other  jponltij,  w 
reckoned  the  expense  at  2s.  6d.  'm  How  • 
did  not  exceed  4s.  6d.  per  week.  ISmj  hvn  Se 
fresh  and  preserved,  in  the  ntmoil  prolnsiQa  ; 
cider  barrel  is  always  rea^y  broadwd.  ▲  In 
articles  of  clothing  are  spun  and  woven  a^Eoi 
the  geese  are  subjected  to  periodical  ooatribni 
wards  the  beddinjg  of  ih»  hooschold,  or  tiie  foal 
sold  at  a  good  pnce.** 

BaUimore^-^/lT  Pickerings  who  went  to  tiUi 
look  for  a  situation  as  overseer  of  a  form,  msoi 
following  prices  as  current  there  ^^ 

His  own  lodgings  and  board,  at  a  remeefca' 
earpenter^s  (ii^uding  washing  and  mmwiingju 
per  week.*  In  the  markets,  Dee(  Sd.  to  8|d 
the  best  cuts,  41d.;  pork  from  2d.  to  Sid*  ner 
sometimes  lower ;  veal  and  muttooy  tj  tas 
Is.  2d.  to  2s.  3d.;  good  hmib,  4d.  par  lb.  ! 
ls.2d.to2s.8d.each;fowls,64d.to9d.eadi.  ( 
(drumheads),  Id.  to  2d.  each ;  potatoes  and 
lOd.  to  14d.  per  busheL  Wild-dtidaL  SJd.  to  A 
the  canvass-back  duck,  a  large  bird,  and  sal 
great  deUeacy,  13d.  to  18d.  eaeh ;  partridge%  4 
each ;  quails,  Id.  to  24d.  eadi ;  hares  sod 
(small),  from  6d.  to  Is.  esch ;  shad  hk  fias  fti 
herring,  but  ten  times  the  weight),  Isd.  to  18d 
Apples,  verv  fine,  18d.  to  2s.  So.  per  bodisl 
pess^  Is.  to  Is.  8d.  a-peek. 

Ship-carpenters^  wages  from  7s.  to  9a.  perdv 
was  hieher  than  the  usual  rate^  on  acconnt  or 
demand  for  hands  at  the  time.  A  young  max 
apprentice  to  a  shipwright,  had  13s.  6d.  per  wee! 
for  first  year,  and  22s.  6d.  per  week  second 
board  himself. 

Philadelphia. — In  the  "  Price  Current**  of  I 
phia  we  find  the  following  rates  given  on  w 
articles: — Mess  beef,  per  barrel  (^196  Iba., 
47s.  2d. ;  butter,  per  lb.,  44d.  to  5d.  (best  qoalit 
cuit,  best,  per  lb.,  2d. ;  mould  candles,  per  It 
dipped  candles,  44d. ;  cheese,  in  casks,  3d.  to4d. 
54d.  Brown  shirting,  3d.  to  44d.  per  yard. 
superfine,  per  barrel  of  196  lbs.,  208.  Id.;  Indl 
meal,  per  196  lbs.,  15s.  Id. ;  hams,  5d.  to  54d. 
honey,  j)er  gallon,  2s.  Id. ;  loaf  sugar,  per  lb., 
8d. ;  brown  sugar,  S^d.  per  lb. ;  brandy,  per 
7s.  2d.;  Virginia  tobacco,  14d.  per  lb. ;  CulMi' 
5^d.  per  lb. ;  wine,  Madeira,  per  gallon,  58. 2d.  to] 
Port  wine,  per  gallon,  4s.  6d.  to  5s.  9d. 

These  are  tho  wholesale  prices ;  articles  of  pi 
are  furnished  in  the  markets  as  follows : — ^The  t 
from  H^d.  to  6  jd.  per  lb.,  according  to  what  pai 
animal  is  selected  ;  fat  mutton,  of  excellent  quali 
cliickens  about  2s.  Id.  a-pair ;  turkeys  from  9i 
7s.  a-pair.  Butter  varies,  according  to  the  tim 
year,  from  O^d.  to  18jd.  per  lb.,  averaging  aboi 
Supertine  wheat-flour,  19s.  8d.  per  barrel  of  1 
kidney  beans.  Is.  l^d.  per  peck  ;  cherries  (goot 
per  lb. ;  good  rye  whisky,  Is.  to  1ms.  2d.  per  gallo 
ditto,  less. 

As  to  tho  prices  of  Ubour  in  Philadelphia, 
surrounding  country,  we  find  it  stated,  that  a  la 
man  gets  from  3s.  2d.  to  48.  6d.  per  diay,  in  thi 
and  at  farm-work,  in  tho  country,  he  reosivi 
L.l,  16s.  to  L.2,  l4s.  per  month,  besides  boi 
lodging.     An  attentive  handy  servant  girl  Is 

*  The  living  «-&»— a  ruant  turkey  ooos  or  twice 
becfkteakii,  ham,  bauaacui,  i^  a  kind  of  r—'*^'h| 
fiah.  &0.  A  variety  uf  the  above  was  pteQSA  SB  (fts 
meal,  and  genemlly  three  kinds  ol 
at  brcak^t  and  buppcr. 


l|i 


■    (■■   '■  1     :■  'infuWy 


tliiro  difl'cn  fpna  Uiou  ul  X,uiiduii,  ur  (ba*  t4  Ite 
»  ut  tilt  toulh  of  KiigluDd  frotu  tbn  huh  claw 
*  onrth  of  SintUnil.    TIiom  Auura  uv  t4  raij 

trnportuice  to  tho  eomfurt  it  a  atmigiar  poiaK 
ids  uDoiig  them ;  biit  it  in  of  wnii'  cimnHiiMuni 
im  to  know  if  tho  n«w  poniils  witli  i>l>iiu)  Im  ia 

to  ptm  iu*  lif«  Rm  kind  mid  hu>piU>hli>  tu  tiliiiia 
nau'  Mnong  itmcn,  iit  if  ihsy  ate  J.uluui>  and  tn- 
M  n>  iMt  iiinnnvW,  bq(1  dlipdtcd  lo  ti^gI  thi  »d- 
■t  ot  ttrnttga*.   TbeiD  uo  inim7  aoch  jimplo  biok 

nnw  MiBcn  u  ktruden,  ^iuiWm  fitrj  i&uiia 
Jm  tJies)  bwl  Qui  111'  OHiDlry  tiic<f  iaytimm  to 
n  to  otiinr*.  Ih  tliii  tha  coiu  widi  rwearJ  l« 
1«b1  ina]'  Iw  nnlarally  wlied  by  raiii^uiU  irfao 

tfTptuoniding  lliitlur.  Ou  ilila  fubJi-Ptoa  inltfht 
.1  to  tiu  man/Uniauou  whkh  ue  diAy  elrciLUti<if 
w  AmwIeUB  BOd.lheii  tiinulik  akllin]{  i>u  oil  Kk> 

Mtltuio  al  nioloynisat  knd  lubidiii  **-  - 


.    %M.4U»1 


(  IIAMBKUS'S  INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PKOPLE. 


I'Xiracta  from  tlio  journal  (»f  Mr  Ferpusson  may  show 
Ihiw  our  wealthy  yravelU'i*:}  are  rfCi'ivcMl  there;  and  we 
hhall  then  subjoin  a  bimilar  Hitceinien  of  wliat  the  poor 
are  to  expect. 

•*  I  couhl  May  much,"  kivs  Mr  Fergu>son,  "  were  it 
pi*o|>er,  of  xho  hospitality  oi  New  York,  and  of  the  unos- 
tciitatiouti  kindue>s  with  whieli  my  letters  of  intri>duetlun 
wire  i*eoeived.  Tlie  htyle  of  li\injj  is  elephant  andcuni- 
ftirtablo,  and  the  donicstie  circles  which  I  had  the  plea- 
Mire  <»f  joining  seenitd  truly  unaffected  and  happy.  Tin* 
ipiiet,  modest,  and  amiable  tone  of  female  Koeiety  par- 
ticularly jdejiscd  me.'' 

We  i;ivo  a  second  extnict  from  the  ftame  traveller. 
<■  1  learned  also,  from  a  Scotsman  in  .Mr  'Huprbnrn's 
emiilovmont,  whose  familv  had  huilrn-d  hcavilv  from 
MckuL-hd  \iv»t  winter,  that  flowers  ami  ]>artie3  by  no 
ineami  enii^ross  the  bo\i'.  attention  of  tlu-  ladies  of  New 
York.  He  assured  me,  that,  within  hi?  own  observation, 
it  was  quite  wonderful  what  they  continued  to  do,  in 
vibiriiif;,  clothin*;,  and  attending  to  the  poor.  This  man 
lefttilasi^ow  in  ;^*at  destitution  about  a  year  ago.  He 
is  now  in  cimiforlahle  circumstances,  and  Iiis  family 
provided  for ;  hut  the  hr^t  fortnight  wliich  honest 
Saunders  Leo  spent  in  New  York,  a  total  stran;ior, 
without  money  or  en;;a;;enient,  he  described  with  a 
bh udder,  as  *  jtcrfrctly  airj'u/.*  *' 

The  followim;  extnict  is  from  tlie  letter  of  a  female 
omii^rant,  l^ll<>^e  husband lia'l  fallen Mck on liisarriv:il : — 
**  \Vu  hired  a  room,  and  my  huthand  iKJUj^ht  a  saw, 
and  went  Kiwing  wood,  and  doin;;  any  thinp;;  and  we 
tliou^iit  we  should  n^et  tlirou«;li  the  winter  pretty  well ; 
but  alter  alniut  three  weeks,  he  was  takt^n  ill,  and  it 
^«i\»ved  to  be  a  typhus  fever.  N\'e  had  no  parish  to 
apply  to  for  relief;  but  you  would  he  a^tomshed  at  the 
friendH  wc  have  found;  for  people  that  vtere  quite 
stranfcera  have  called  to  know  if  the  .niVAt  Knylishman  \ 
/iced  here;  one  kind  gentleman  sent  for  a  doctor,  and 
another  good  old  Methodist  gave  mc  leave  to  go  to  the 
grocers  fi»r  any  thing  in  his  name ;  and  others  were 
equally  kind.  I  never  tlioii^^lit  I  should  nioet  ^^  ith  such 
Irii  ihU  iiniou:;  .strani^i-r.'.  r.-i:.n-l  is  now  mentiin^ 
t:i>t." 

Mr    rii:ii   sav*:   -■* 'ro-'l.tv  :i    \«-  il   iVi'in    l>unifriv?» 

■  • 

arri'-eil  :  :ii'>i  a  i«-\s  miiiin  -  .'iI:-  r  i*  «;o«  r.ii'«>rcd,  o.'ii- 
(■t  tilt*  hri'ti.i  rs  M<  >~r-  K-ii..'  I-kii  umr  :iliii:ti-il,  making' 
iii<{airi'-»:it[  rthe  \  u-w- ai.«!'Mi'.nM-!.ine.  -nt  the  pmavr 
ehi*«"<'-  ot  •'iji';:r:ii:'.**.  Il--  'ii  j-i'-y  I  'M*'  i-!  tii-  iii,  ]ioint( -d 
on:  winTi-  -«'W'i'ai  o'li.  i-  «.r..  I  tiiil  ^^••rk.  ;ni«i  i,Mvr 
:«d\i«'i'  t"  tiie  r»'-t.      1  hi     i-  !.■■:  :■  ;.■  w  «.r  rai'f  iii-^taucr 

ot    hi  ..<  M  :.iu n    !!■•'   ]  ..li    »'i'   lr,ii'    u'i  iitli  inm." — 

'•  I.\!  r\  ■;  tv  niiiiil  ■  ;  ^^  i-l  l.-ii-if  an  «  ni''j».int-  are  to  in- 
-■■il  •:!  ill'.'  ^r^^^:v  |i»l  Plii'-.i'l- Iilii.t  |  :  1  JiaM-  ih-vir 
h>  .iiii  it  i.Miifhi  r  !ii  'mil;  I'.-n"  .' 1  wi.-lu"  \*>  li«  m.'' 

It  is  lit  iiii  iiil\  iiiinti>:i  •!,  lii.it  liitl'i  r>  nei-  •■!  r.iiik 
I  r  1  t  ^^l'alIll  i"*  n"t  "  •  miielj  t!:<u::ii'  i>f  ni  Aiiniii*:;  a»* 
•  o  ;iii»  e  •liiiti-v.  :.ii>l  tlia:  tl>-  imhi-ti  i«'ii  i  lal'i-ui  :nj  >ii'>ii 
.-Uii:N  liKiic  iniiily  fu  ji)  ■-•jii.ility  v.itli  lii.-«  •  luplovi  r 
It. .Ill  With  U'.  'ill"  I'll-. W.I. 4  i\:r.;''ts  r»  latr  t-i  tin*' 
-ul'nef. 

l;\.i...-:   'f  ;i   !■'■   '.'  r.      i   :i    :.tl'"=ir'V : — *'   V   p<r'-i'M 

I  .  :   :■  :   tlm.!.   <  :   I'-ii.      :   i    !•••  \M:ii"i:t  «<'rkii,Lr,  and 

II  ■  V  •]   -]■:-■■  linii.ii.i;  !-  :   I  i:*    il  a  j«i".ii  !.■  •p;?  »tra'l\, 
..     i      ii-j",-'"   i    :     ii'li    !::    :       :'.i:i     ii    Lii::!aiid  ;    iii-   i»» 

al;iii::-  d  a;  :    i  "•    ^'  n.:  «"■    "  is  :->-i-." 

I  '  ■■  :  ..,■  A.i._  .  s'l  .<•:  :  J.  i.-^'iM'i  •'  i.i"  \nirriean 
»  ...i.'.-  r-  il  ^.l:■l■  •  i-  -:  •  '•  It  i-'  tr-  'a  Mr  >;ii;»ri  :  - 
*•  \\  III  11  '."■•  !:.■■•  •>  >•  I  .  '.  :.  I  :■  y.  «,utl:ir  ae- 
i|  ,•'.'.;•  i  ■■■  ,11-  1-  ]  •!".  hi  ii.'ii'"\.-'  p  il;i  il"  vi  r.ii'li  <«, 
I  -.:  \  .■.;■.■■  1  !.  a  i.'i"  \^ifJi  tlirm.  a.ii  s\\'.\ 
\  .  .  .  \        ,ii  V  '■  I      •  ■  •  ■  \.  il   n  w<-  «1<  eii!!'   J'»  a\ail 

p  ,:  ■  I  ■•  i •:•:■■  .r  :,.:-.<.  !■  .. -ir  kin  ::»:!■»!.'■•.  ai'-l  t-  Il  :■:•  M 
■.*.-  I-!  I  r  •■■  \\  I  k.  I  !  ■  •  ■  ..:■■  Ji  u  n.'i-'  »«'rikin:4  p'  itM  . 
■  ;       .     ;■■.!■•.         •■■•     I  '!  !:.■     •■    '■'  M\  .il.'l   I'ril.tMl,    lIl.'iM  ill 

:"i  .  v\  ili.   I'll  tl  I    I'll!  lii? 

I  If.  t'.i  •  ■  li-    ■■  I  n  \^.^i'•v- 

j  ■  .1.:  '.i'      .  I.     ■:   i.l-i,  j-i-i'M-  ;1  •■  *.i-\  eir- 

■  •   t  •■    i.!.i--  ■  :   :!.■■  ]      j  ;■  .  ;i-  w'.i  a-*  th«' 

f  1*1  MM 


■,'.;.    ..t    j..  ...i 


pay  for  a  conveyMice  and  spend  lees  time,  than 

and  spend  more." — "  We  have  not  hitlierto," 

in  another  place,  *'8cen  any  thing  like  a  poo 

house,  or  a  beggar,  or  any  one  whu  did  not  m 

cl«)thed  and  well  fed." 

^^uch  are  some  of  the  traits  of  character  of  tl 

hitants  of  North  America,  who,  although  8[>ea] 

Knglish  language,  and  living  under  institutions 

lOnglish  in  their  character,  difler,  as  may  be  m 

in  several  respects  in  their  manners  from  the  p 

this  country.  They  do  not  lay  claim  to  thai  at: 

and  polish  which  distingui^hes  what  is  calh'^ 

societv'*  in  (ireat   liritain ;  thcv  are  nioi*e  do 

and  frank  in  their  behaviour,  less  cereinopious. 

in  every  wayamore  indci>cn>ient  people  in  their  l 

and  actions  than  the  genenility  of  Knglibh  and 

From  all  that  we  can  underst;iud  of  their  ch 

they  seem  to  possess  less  of  the  quality  which  p 

*'  cringing*'  than  any  people  on  the  surface  uf  tli 

It  may  be  conceived,  from  the  cxtraurdinary  i 

of  classes  of  persons  from  most  Kuropcan  co 

aAid  the  wide  field  offered  for  adventure  and  ent 

that  the  Americans  have  little  of  that  staidnesd 

position  and  subdued  tone  of  mind  which  are 

tcristic  of  the  Rritish  nation.    Society,  in  the  f 

settled  districts,  is  therefore  still  in  a  loose  coi 

and  emigrants  will  require  t<i  be  umre  alert  in 

to  their  interests,  and  nmch  more  on  their  guard 

deception,  than  in  this  fdd-establialied  euuutry 

deeply  to  he  regretted,  that,  fur  a  number  o 

there  has  been  a  chiss  uf  writers  in  Urrat 

and  a  few  travtdiers,  ii^hoso  deeply-rooted  obje< 

been  to  vilify  the  .Vmerican  nation  in  the  gnm 

hold  up  not  only  their  iuiititutions  and  uitagL-4, 

that  belongs  to  the  country,  whetlier  in  natun: 

as  fit  subjects  of  ridicule  and  contempt.  The  ui 

calumnies  which  have  bi*en  induntriously  eircul 

these  splenetic  writers,  need  not  in  the  aunalJesl 

produce  hesitation  among  emigranta  in  refer 

settling  in  the  I'nited  States*.  The  citi/.eiis  cf  tli 

Anii'iican  I'liion  are  e-'-mtialiv  Mnti'^h  in  tiiei 

and  character.  Their  other  prculiaritir.<^  ha^eu 

ari.oi'ii  ft'oiu  Oie  fttrtunate  eirci<.m»iaMe>  *«  undi- 

tli<  V  are  placed;  and  in  \«hich  [>ceui.aiii.<">  w 

I '|ually  ]-ar'ak--.  had  ue  tewer  puMie  burdtU: 

<"iu.-i  .■<  t'»  i  ••  «ari'Wiirii,  a.-<  \a-ll  as  a  i;real».r  m 

tlie  pri'titalili'  i\i  rfi-i-  of  our  indu-try.      lu  e-'i 

raJiaiia    \Nitli    the    >latt?,    ivi-ry    iiitrilii:enl    t 

alli'V. -,    that   tin-    ei?i/i'ii>»    nf   tin-    I'liiuii    aie    il 

iiiiii'e  acii\i>  tl'.tu  thr  .^iil  i-M-i-,  ot  ilrrat  Hritaiu. 

tli>-  c-inMiial  tfi  rit'irii  •,  at!   |  ulilie  u<<iks,  and 

till-  .''!  itlrnu  nl"*.  i-nM-iiii  -l.uvN,   tli<    s>.'«tem  t 

t'l   lit-  ratio  r  i:i«rt  ;   \.lii!.-  "ii   tl.i-  >r.it' -'   r*id« 

l>>>ui)i|.iry,   e\<ry   ;jiii'iti  ii    wi-rU    pr<»Mril«i   v 

11. 1  -t    a*li'iii-iui:;   l.ipini^v — »*ai.:.li   In  ii:^  Cii;.  i 

t   niM  •!,    :iiiil   tiivMis   liii.l:,    ill   im    ilK^■ncl'i^..^ 

■  :':o'«'  ••ttiiiH'.     Ah  I  I'jii.r  ('anad:i  has  ni.ir!_\  ti 

iialwi.il  aii\aiita::i-H  a- till- ^tatr^,  atid  a^  ihi   ]•* 

may  I  e  j  ri-siiiiM-il,  an-  a**  wi  11  ediivMtt  d  uii>i  ; 

):>..y  .iit«-iu'i  lit.  It  wuull  Mt-mihat   tiu-  trur  k 

&.•   d.lli  !■  :!<■•■  \\i-  ..>pi'cit\  i>  in  the  ni"d«'  ol   o.-i. 

piililic  a:l  .ir-,      I;  may  |p.   c-.nci.le-l.  tl.at  tlif  p] 

arr  .'i"*  ^^ I  I    r;.ii.'ij   'i  a-  li;*  v  cmild  pi'--iln\  he 

nin>-'  .'lU  •  ]>•   a. !<!.-.>  1,  tiiat   it   i:>  U' I   in  the   i.. 

flii'i,'-^    tii.it    a    i''ii:.'!r\,    WilJi    In    '-■a!    «'t    •* '\* 

ii:ii  r  lii'-iisiM'!  Ml     -.  i.i'.taiit.  can  l.i-  >o  .i>I\.iitT. 

c-n  ji;.  i«  1  ;i»«  ^  i   !    ■  r  ci.iniJry,  uI  i.  *.     de    ,i.ii 

i'  i  ■  •  •  ;.  %  ■  n  lii-    -i  -t.  Iiat  C'iii-i-:«-  •  ;  iii>- 1<  i-:  ! 

■    *  * 

.-.  .\ .  -.    I:  1'  11-  :.  ili     ■  N I  T,  iiir  •■!  1'  e:  i.t  :•.    in  d 

(•■■I:-)' iri>ii:i  I    .<,i\;   .■, ••]■.■. it: -a".   I'i'iflii  >-u  t>f  i 

ni<     iiil  >\i:'  li>;liiiaN'    t:'<  r  iii-li-Uuntet,  a 

j   .-'..;.-,   til-.-.-   i-ajialir'i"'.t  "»   winch   CaU  weld   Ci'l 

-•■mIi  r-.      Ili<    |j..in-!,  ii.i"  indu^tnoUh,  and  tli* 

]'ri~iiu'.  ^^  i-i     1  •  ^^1  il  iii  <  iilnr,  riUil  wili  coiun 

>i"cl   and    ;■■  i*i  ii'iiiin-v    uji.  ii  ver  th«'V  niuv   h 

p  ;n*'    I  t   SI  I'Jini.  Mf. 


\.  ■■  -l- 


l-i\  •■ 


I" 


1 


■  Il 


.1      •■  1  .•:l..rd  t 


■■!-.:i.' 


•-'  1  :     .  \\ .  .ii'il  It.  (  n  %M-  •  I  >    I  ■, 
a:    ■  liy  \V  S.  iMr\.«  ••.  L  .t»  -n 


nbi,  vilbeat  B  bl«<]s  tt  gnm  bufrnm  tbcm.  Oibtn, 
in,  nra  (wntmi  with  polj'jjanuni,  ■  ^Itntiay  aai  laf- 

bnmW*  i  and  in  hfcw  intiU  (mhIii^  a(  itnHinil  mw 
9AV«r(il,  which  appai^  tu  tw  iiiulkt,  ami  In  wliivh  ilia 
iMirtnnia  U  klmniuiot.  Sueh  patcheii  iwiluitiljr  funu 
slmnd*  m  \br  niny  ffsuui,  'I'hoii.-  luria  nf  ihn 
m  which  (criD  toIavH  th«  bntKiil  in^irtuw  *nniti:i( 
3-tnm  soil  vraruMMk  Laryo  lrv.-Ui  of  ofiunlry  nra 
Iirw4  will)  »h>-U»  mnd  Iha  eUwn  of  I'li)  Gih  j  luJ  iliiii 
,  4lth(iiigb  ua  nUuvlal  ilqiult,  k  (UMt-OoitJly  wuid]. 
!y  bcu  thg  appwrnnca  nol  anlr  ot  liobv  trrammilji 
ndatfld,  bul  iilao  of  tba  floaila  havinf;  tnuddM  inna 
ID.  On  Uinir  tiirikg*  m  awunHilatiori  of  nbbbfa  ii 
arvad,  wi  m  te  iticliaUe  a  nudi  uf  wabtni  tu  aujr  nna 
nt ;  but  auiavraui  ntlnor  ohiAiiah  are  Inuwil,  which 
lenlly  dktntuta  tho  flood*  eyualty  anil  BBiieraUf 
t  vm7  part  of  tht  ana  which  ia  lubjtvt  id  (huni. 
Hjr  unprvNJon,'  •ajriCaptaio  Sturt,'whiiDtr«>«lliii; 

montry  toiho  wnt  ana  ourtfa-wiat  of  Ika  tnarAo 
Jio  Maaquarri*,  wa^  tliat  I  wu  traTxraioB  a  cgontiy 
Miupumijvdj  ncvnt  fnimadDD.  Tlia  awdy  nUnre 
lb*  aeil,  th*  grsat  waul  of  vcgeUbfe  dvatj,  Uia  «•!• 
lOKiui  diantcifr  of  the  plant*,  tho  appurann  afUa 
Btcd  hiUa  and  Boedt-d  tnein,  and  lU  InflinK  (luraliun 
*»  Ihataf^aaTantlycuulrilmlnl  k>  iiCrEiinibui  (luno 

rha  GonjTClurc  of  Ok|ita]ii  StiiK,  tbat  Ai»tn^  i»  of 
luTB  rBoent  fonoa^  Uiau  tb«  rwt  of  Uii>  flntio,  ia 
no  niuuii  ungQloTi  but  how  fat  it  1*  ottrtna  ll  ia 
■  iiiinin— arj U>  inquiniL  tt  li  al lead mnaik^da, 
t  natur*  Baa,liiMTaral  butanoM,  pot  on  tdj  £dk' 
t  furai*  in  AuamUa  ttam  what  aw  ouaUmaix  «W 
im,    AnoD^  iim  anlnnd  iribw,  tha  ahlaf  aM  if  Ika 

^^^^^  •  rami  Cxiki^iAW 


CHAMBERS'S  INFOBMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


poodMid  kind,  and  mum  fiirwud  b^  nriiifiii|^.^  The 
hagMroo  ii  the  prinwpd  inimal  of  thM  imbtnplmni  ubA 
then  «i«  diffnmii  kmds  of  H ;  ■ome  «i«  firom  tan  to 
flv•fc•tinhds^^whendttillgonUMffllilldkg■.  They 
iriUp  in  •OBW  mum,  leap  iwentj  feet  at  a  oini^  bound, 


ai«  no«r  addom  MOO  in  the  Mttlod  parte  of  tin  ooontiy. 
OpoMnnaamnnHMfWM.-  Thov«  is  dn  aaimrilMlf-Wtd 
lialf-biaK,  or  puwiwiiij  the  biU  andlwlof  adflffl^  and 
Him  body  of  a  nMile  or  ral  (omithorhynoiia  paradoxns). 
Wild  MTage  animala  aro  unknown,  the  natire  dog 


qnartmra.  Of  biida  there  are  aome  lingaiar  Tariettoi^ 
ieflhu^'ikimalL  There  are,  in  piMioakr>  great 
vari^y  «  parroted  parroqoete^  and  ooekatoo%  all  with 
aineomnriy heaotilnl  plumage  giewii,  red,  pornle^ and 
while.  JKe  doveeare  equally  Mpwpdid  in  their  laatharj 
There  are  eevecal  kinde  of  nathr^i*  beeak 


*  whidi  «n  without  eting^  and  prodi 

QfaDa 


hon^."— (Jforfia.)  Of  anakeB  there  are 


flrinaiiftiea^  epoHieif  theni  poiKMMNttb  .Mnaanitaaapaa* 
the  aafllMrad4iBtneti^  aa tii^ dohi all wamn 


tham :  bnl  we  do  net  aaa  U  aw  wliere 
tbay  farm  that  honrid  nniMUMO  lAkh  thqr 
are  in  almoat  eveiy  {vt  of  Narth  lAwarfaiai  In  anne 
nlaaiata  flfMa  ace  deaeiihed  aa  franiagaeaviona  nniaaneak 
nemarn  abound  w^  fiah,  anne  with  eod  ef  a  lane 
flMes  andof  aquatiebiiiathenaaalkindaaraaeett,ui> 
ainmngawaaaofadarkaolonr.  Shrimpy  Muaeala,  and 
<iyaiei%  araplantifalfitheovataribthanghaaMiUyareof 
a  rmf  anpaner  quali^,  and  aboond  en  anne  paita  ef 
Urn  aaaat  to  an  entent  quite  nnpreaedanted  Inaiy  othar 
annNtor  of  the  globa.  The  eeal  and  ednda  fiaMy  en 
tka  aeaaia  ef  Anatralia  oilNr  hoandhaa  aean a  lav  paait 
able  advantnre  te  thaw  anqnainted  with  thin  hmnih  of 
fadnatry,  and  wha  hava  eapital  to  ipak. 

The  mineral  riehea  of  Anatralia  are  ahn  of  great 
amount.  ^  Coal  aad  iron,  the  most  valueble  of  minerals, 
are  met  with  in  inexhaustible  abundance,  the  Utter 
being  not  ipfrequeutly  found  in  the  state  of  native  iron 
in  large  detached  maseee  on  the  suHaoe  of  the  ground. 
Limestone  is  still  more  abundant,  and  in  some  parte  of 
the  territory,  as  in  Argyle  county,  New  South  Wales, 
it  paasoH  into  marble,  of  which  beautiful  specimens  have 
already  been  cut  and  polished  by  a  skilful  artisan  from 
London,  now  esUblisbed  in  Sydney.*'—- (Lan^.)  The 
colony  also  possesses  clay  fit  for  pottery.  A  manufac- 
tory of  brown  and  glazed  earthenware,  of  the  best  qua- 
lity, has  lately  been  eomroeneed  on  a  large  scale  at  Irra- 
wang,  near  the  confluence  of  the  Rivers  William  and 
Hunter,  by  that  enterprising  and  scientifio  settler  Mr 
King,  the  well-known  discoverer  of  the  superior  quality 
of  Sydney  sand  for  the  manufacture  dT  gUas. 

Vast  as  are  the  latent  resources  of  Australia  with 
respect  to  ite  fruitege,  mining,  and  fisheries,  it  is  not  to 
theee  departmente  of  industry  that  the  country  at  ]»«• 
sent  looks  for  ite  advancement.  Ite  grand  reaooroe  con- 
siste  in  an  **  illimiteble  extent  of  pasture-land,  which  it 
presente  to  the  sheep-fiurmer  or  the  proprietor  of  cattle 
in  every  direction."— (Lan^.)  No  country  on  the  faee 
of  the  earth  seems  to  be  so  admirably  adapted  for  the 
feeding  of  sheep  and  produce  of  fine  wooL  America, 
as  is  well  known,  is  not  a  sheep-feeding  or  wool-growing 
country.  In  Canada  and  other  northern  parts,  aheep 
require  to  be  housed  and  fed  bv  artificial  means  for 
several  long  winter  months ;  while  on  the  fine  prairies 
of  the  Stetes,  the  sheep  which  are  left  at  large  throughout 
the  year  do  not  yield  wool  of  a  valuable  quality.  Aus- 
tralia, on  the  other  hand,  resembles  Spain  in  ite  qualities 
for  pasturage  m  all  seasons ;  and  ite  eiimate  produces 
equally  fine,  if  not  superior  wooL  At  the  present  mo- 
ment, Australian  wool  enjojrs  the  highest  reputation  in 
Enghmd  and  America— it  takes  the  lead  in  the  market 
— «nd  so  readily  and  so  profitebly  is  it  disposed  of,  that 
the  cost  of  transport  of  sixteen  thousand  miles  goes 
almost  for  nothing  in  the  grower's  calcuUtion  of  profits. 


Moat  of  thoaa  baantiftd  and  aoft 
ga  ter  the  naaaaa  of  IndiaaM^ 
aia  in- ao  great  zaqueat  bj  late^ 
haberdaaherB^^yra  cU      '  n 
Australian  wool:  ^-''      la 
tMtaaa4d« — ■  — 

aaitadldan»-y        i—    , 
tha  production  and  aala  of  thii -, 
(eomne  one  of  tha  fint.liBad^ 


a 

faithaahq 


Tha  aharigNNVW  aaibaa  af  Naw 
now  Tory  ineouidatahia  in 
n«ttl  wandenng  life  of  w 
"InlcfifrHr  anittll 


uia4rtar8  a  reyeefiTa  tannoiy*  ,  ^ 

<  apfoxkm,  and  hi  ganaral  talla»dtkbfaif 
I  a»  with  hurga  haadi^  hutga  Um,  and  iriia 
b^i  an  altoge&ar  tha  iwmaa  af  baaaitiML  a 

NvhaTu  bai 


to  anr  idaaa  af  that  qnaUtgr.    Thaj 
dated,  althaogb  <ha  opbian  la  nai 
onl  bgBjazparienae,  aa  amoogit  Iba  laiwaal  af  a 
aavagea  in  tha  aoala  of  tnteUaaii     ThaM  la 


vanaaa  to  hnpcwra  fkm-^Mmlim 
aralo  be  fanid  ainngattfca  aaiti 
tarofthagtoba.    Thairanltsr 
lathar  poiHtad  pok^  whiahf ' 
i  Jbcaa  anapva 


on  thair  bodiai* 

indnaa  them  to 

hithflf to  haan  nearly  ipcdlbitnal  i 

tian  of  Brtamhk  tha  aiigblinrhiiiil  oC  Qpinqi^i 

oihar  af  tha  aolanfad  aoania^-iff 

huaoaia  dagraa^  Inroad  Inlaa 

thqr  atill  wandnp  fai  xoafag  trihaa 

lioBW  PMBilbar 

thawhita  aattlafa  ava 

miaeraUa beings;  indeed,  il 

oommand  their  good  will  by  thealighteal* 

ness  and  conciliation. 

The  climate  of  Australia,  oonfininf^ 
to  the  settled  portion  of  the  ooontrr,  althonih 
considerably  in  different  distrieta.  Is  iltngatni 
agreeable  and  salubrious.  Aoeoxtling  to  Mr  i 
ham,  who  was  a  surgeon  in  the  oolMy  af  N< 
Wales,  exposure  produces  no  bad  eSaot,  firani 
ness  of  the  atmosphere ;  and  it  has  been  laeoi 
to  eonsumptive  patients.  The  summer  aoa^ 
I>eoember  and  extends  to  Febmanr,  duria 
period  the  heat  is  considerable.  Dr  i^ng  al 
the  thermometer  seldom  rises  abova  75*  in  Bf 
cept  when  the  hot  winds  blow  from  the  weot. 
writer  mentions  having  walked  two  milea  li 
with  the  thermometer  at  146**  in  the  ann  and  S 
shade,  yet  felt  no  inconvenience,  the  air  beia| 
pure.  In  the  lower  distriete  the  air  la  teopi 
cool  and  delightful  sea-breeie,  whidi  blowaalB 
regularly  throughoot  the  day,  and  ia  suBeeadai 
by  an  equally  steady  and  grateftil  breeaa  fron 
The  average  temperature  at  Sydney  dnriag  * 
55*,  and  there  is  only  one  instance  on  reaatd 
having  fallen  in  the  town,  which  was  on  Iha  1' 
1836.  In  the  higher  districts,  of  eonraa^  th 
pester ;  the  thermometer  at  Paramatte  aoaaaH 
mg  so  low  as  27%  and  in  the  district  of  Bathn 
lies  for  a  short  time  in  winter. 

A  peculiarity  in  the  climate  of  Anatralia  la 
valence  of  hot  winds  during  the  summer.  Tl 
from  the  north-west,  and  resemble  a  strong  o 
air  from  a  heated  furnace,  raising  tibe  thanna 
100*  in  the  shade  and  125*  when  azpoaid  la 
floence.  They  seldom  occur  mora  than  tarn 
times  eVery  summer,  and  last  only  a  taw  d 
has  been  supposed  that  these  winda  dariwa  1 
treme  heat  from  pasdng  over  a  gnat  axlanlaf 
heated  eountry,  which  deprivaa  tham  af  al  I 
Breton,  in  his  Tour  hi  New  Sonth  Wali^  a 


Htl  SMnxtii:   ThaMlunjri^nrttmklkialT.ittnMI 
I  tha  tnUatriiif  wMnA«  t^Kjr.  At^jIis  lUtliunt,   | 


'.'£l3i  I 


itwI,-Hi>ltMv>ll>il,tlUl  fa>,pu«MK<)  bin 
jtioBml  a|ipMuuac^  hi  l»r  ••  It  lint  Wi 


Ua  ;  lh»»  are  to  bs  foanri  In  (ha  nrngfaboarhuuil  nT 
•  IlDoter  uiil  P&ttcTHon  Hrtn,  an  lln>  M'utli  :  ' 
itb-M«t  ■)()*  r>I  tb«  oiiinlf ,  u  laid  iliiwii  in  Ihv  in: ,  . 
«  fartllK  KailofK  anil  Mifl  grriru  iiululallu)!  hilli  nf 
■  part  of  tlia  tnunlry,  ara  ipiiktin  of  raptucmialy  ty 
iiSio  hWB  unn  them  -,  they  ore,  howcTBr,  irf  «nune^ 
■Iftkdjr  ImsUh),  and  col  an  aere  worth  u1iln|;  am 
r«  b«  bad,  cscD|it  by  purehoM  from  ihii  iiiwnit  |i~ 
alotK  In  iba  duiriA  it«iini«<lili>txrif<andi»i 
hKmu  liu^nr  of  Port  Stnhirn,  aud  Di*  umuUip  df 
■itland,  dia  nnltal  of  tha  dSatricc  Uuiluid  ta  ttm 
Un  moM  oHnHiilKrablo  town*  in  Ihs  coIud;,  and  Iub 
■r  daily  MMmeQaimaDlcatlanKiibSj'diK'y.  TlWnot 
trial,  purMiing  Iha  Hue  at  htmi,  u 
ff#rtbiMitrlmiit—ty\iiB  hptviifun  Pnrt  Ituntrr  and 
«kua  lbiy,adIU>nacu(Bbiiullifiy-Hri>nii}>*,ui4«i- 
tdtuglaUud  about  •igbtymtiM.  TKiaorpunly  |hmhi 
>  oaual  propartiuiw  at  (ntiiiji  laud,  aud  barran 
air  InoU.  Thv  iHWt  Uiida,  thuu^li  IIirto  ara  nuwr 
m  baaiiUful  and  dnalrable  lucalilin,  ar«  to  hn  laavA 
lliH  iHUftlibMirboiMl  uf  Pallenoo  River,  vhirtli  iliridM 
Tram  tha  eauDty  df  Durham.  Wilkin  thit  mnnty  ia 
tutedtfao  lonrfi  of  N*w<«att«,  w  aUl*d  from  tbnabiin^ 


CHAHBEBS'8  INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOFUB. 


bif  eoBOtrj,  na  well  m  >  line  of  cmut  exlemliiig  from 
uxly  to  SEvrnt}'  miles  m  eitiier  «ide  of  It,  pmcntiug 
ETidenee  of  iu  ibanndiug  with  that  laliuble  mineral. 
Tb«  aai  ia  or  ft  vety  good  quality,  though  tather  fiiiialJ, 
uid  luoJua  A  briik  fire.  The  Aoslraliaa  AgriFulturol 
Company  la»e  m  le*ae  of  Uib  mines  from  goTcmment, 
■ad  ibpy  ■uppi)'  iml  U  tbepit  for  Ha.  a-toa  (o  ibe  tteklen, 
who  supply  Sydney  Mill  DUiEr|ilncc9  at  from '2(tB.  to  HOe. 
per  tOD,  thie  great  incTHUe  to  the  price  being;  cMtUBed 
by  the  high  nta  of  wmm.  Tha  eomiiuiy  ha^ 
pomrfnl  Cngina  lo  work  tJie  coal  and  ioul  vcnaelH. 

Viimbrrland. — Fallowing  out  tlie  line  of  itoiut,  as 
ginally  propoaed,  we  now  GoDia  (o  llio  oiiUal}  ofCumber- 
bnd,  which  baa  X  enasl  IJoe,  itretohina  aouliiward,  of 
■bout  fifty-SBt  niilea,  namely,  from  Uniken  Day  to  Coal 
Cliff!,  about  eighlfcn  mlloa  MDth  of  Pan  Uaukiiig,  and 
runnini  inland  about  forty  milei.  Thiaoaimty,l£uu^ 
one  of  UIB  MoalleU,  and  in  point  of  festilily  of  aoil  eoa 
of  the  woiM  in  New  South  Wale«,  U  neluliielau  the 
most  impartanl  of  the  wliolo,  from  ita  coutaiuing  tlia 
priadpal  towns  in  the  iSolouy,  »ui  amanpt  these  Sydn^, 
the  capital.  In  thia  county,  alao,  ia  wtuated  the  oele- 
bralal  BoUDy  Bay.  Tbetawnsund  portsinlhiidiatrist 
mre  Sydney  the  capita),  Faraiaalta,  Windsor,  Ljiarpuol, 
Campbdlown,  and  Darling  Harhow.  By  a  referon~  ~ 
lo  the  map,  it  will  be  olneri'od  that  the  const  hero 
opened  Dp  by  spacioue  inli^ta  of  the  wa,  all  of  whicb 
form  eicelieat  barbuura  ;  into  tlia  head  of  one  uf  these 
harbount  ftowa  iJm  Ilawlualiury  lliver,  whose  bankt 
prcariit  a  atretcb  of  flue  alluvial  looda,  lo  Ibo  cxtenl 
of  a  few  thouaaud  acres. 

Sydney  is  situated  oboot  teven  miles  inward»  froiu 
tiie  head  of  Poet  JacksoD,  which  is  Considered 
of  the  ftnaat  natural  harbuun  in  tlio  world.  It  is  built 
npun  two  nedis  of  land,  with  an  inlet  botwoen  called 
Sydney  Core,  poaeoHing  a  depth  of  water  which  enabi™ 
vcoscli  of  the  grestMb  Curdou  to  oomc  close  to  die  land. 
Halt  a  century  ago,  the  gia and  on  which  Sydney  standit 
wu  a  banau  tlnokta  wild,  coverod  with  wood,  and 
tcnapted  only  by  ntTogea  ood  the  kaogaroo.  In  the 
year  1 300,  its  population,  Goiitisling  of  freo  settlers  and 
eou*ii:t»,a"iciunlEd  tcmbout  ■lUOW,  aud  now  iti"  rcekuntd 
to  be  upwards  of  311,000.  Sydney  b  in  general  a  Uaud- 
Mioely  built  town,  and  here  are  tu  be  found  .more  thou 
alt  the  canvonien.:ifa  and  luxuriea  uf  a  British  town  of 
the  same  extent — regular  atid  handsome  markets,  pub- 
lic BemiaariBi,  banks,  flour-milU,  warebouaes,  holelf, 
distilleries,  breweries,  Bteam-engines,  atage.ooacbM  for 
diHignnt  parte  of  the  ooloay,  tine  uewapaperH — the 
Sydney  lletald,  the  Sydney  Monitor,  the  Sydney  Ca- 
lette,   (bo    AustxalHtn,  and  the   Colonist,  besidea  the 

SgTernmcnt  Gazette,  equally  fcspcclably- looking  perio- 
icahi  nitb  any  published  in  Ibis  country.  Bemg  the 
aeat  of  goveniincnt,  here  centma  the  coliiuial  buBineas ; 
and  the  shipping  tu  and  from  England  and  other  parts 
of  the  world  is  un  an  eitcosjie  scale. 

The  wharfs  and  ivareliouMs  in  Syjuay  arc  of  surpris- 
ing extent,  and  the  fine  secure  harbour  in  frouU  so  ad- 
vanlageouily  adapted  fur  general  Iraflic,  as  well  as  the 
Traction  of  yossf^ls  employed  in  fli«  sperm-whole 
fishery  of  the  suulbem  ocean,  is  a  ifmiid  fcstnta  in  the 
■Bene.  From  all  wo  can  learn  of  Sydney,  it  appears 
thai  the  industry  and  eoteqirise  of  its  inhabitants,  act- 
ing on  the  great  resources  around  tlicm  for  iuUnd  and 
eiternal  tnde,  promise  lo  raise  this  chosen  scat  of 
population  lo  a  high  pitch  of  prosperity  ;  and  we  may 
expect  that  in  a  uw  yean  Sydney  will  be  Vy  far  the 
moal  UDportant  British  city  in  the  colonics.  The  en- 
virons of  the  town  are  said  to  be  very  cbarming,  and 
include  a  botanio  garden,  bud  out  with  handsome  walks 
mad  rides. 

Next  to  Sydney  in  importance,  (hongh  much  iDferior 
t«  it,  is  Paramatta,  ailualed  at  the  bead  of  tbc  narrow 
inlet  of  the  sea  in  which  Port  Jackson  Icmiiaates  above 
Sidney.  Between  Uio  latter  place  and  the  fonuer,  ■ 
dwianee  of  about  sixteen  miles,  Iberc  is  frequent  and 
regular  commuuicaliun  both  by  land  and  water,  two 
coaehs^  on*  morning  and  eroning,  and  two  paiaage- 
boats,  daily  plying  between  the  two  places,  ihc  fore  of 


the  former  Is.  inude  and  2s.  outude.  K 
exceed  the  beauty  of  the  seenecy  which  pn 
on  all  Bidea  as  you  proceed  to  Panuoaltaby 
sea  generally  amootli  as  gbias,  or  but  gently 
a,  slight  breeze;  innumoiable  littlo  pnimi 
vered  with  wood  to  the  water's  edge,  atn 
the  sea,  and  forming  a  corroaponding  numb 
tiful  little  bays  aud  inlets,  in  endless  na 
variuty.  I'arnmatta  contains  upwardi  of 
bitonte.  The  greater  part  of  the  boueca  he 
of  brick  or  wliile  freeatone,  and  being  for  th 
unconnected  with  each  other,  eoT«r  a  grei 
of  ground  altogether  than  its  population  wtn 
warrant.  The  siuiotian  of  Paiamatta  ia  < 
delightful.  It  li«  in  a  spaoiaux  hallow,  c( 
the  richest  verdure,  and  suirouuded  by  failb 
rale  licight.  Here,  loo,  are  churches,  hole 
umioaries,  &o.,  and  all  the  other  appendagi 
siderable  country  town,  witli  a  milHary  ■ 
barrnaks,  jail,  goverument  hoos^  and  the 
torv,  ari  esiabtishmenl  for  the  rSL-eplion  of  ! 
feuiolu  oonvtots.  Many  of  the  pnvala  hoi 
elegant  construction,  with  parka  and  garden 
llie  place  altogether  tbusf(iTming  rather  an 
of  cottages  than  a  town:  the  atrceta,  howei 
gubki'ly  laid  uul,  runnijig  north  and  soutl 

Pursuing  an  inUnd  course  foe  about  twentj 
the  traveller  naxt  arrive*  at  Windsor,  o 

aulaiion  of  about  ^OW.  From  Patama 
o  town  a  coach  runs  three  limes  a- we«k. 
which,  in  the  description  of  il«  buildings,  m 
bias  Paramatta,  is  built  upon  a  hill  close  by 
liankcfibury,  which  forma  the  north  And 
woBtorh  bouudary  of  the  county,  ami  whi> 
circuitous  route  of  about  141)  milee,  dlsehl 
into  ilrokeu  Bay.  Windsor  abio  canMiiu  ■ 
government  house,  with  exteiiuve  gMiln* 
churches,  a- jail,  court-house,  milttarr  knj  t 
rscks,  taverns,  innn,  ahops,  &e.  The  lauds  h 
bourhood  of  WiudKor  arc  exceedingly  feltil 
advantage  iff  more  thaji  counterbalanced  }ty  i 
Uabilily  to  iiiundatiuu  from  the  Itawketbui 
BC4uence  of  its  vicinity  to  the  Blue  MounU 
luu  been  known  to  rise  to  Iho  almoet  iDcivd 
of  !I3  feel  above  its  ordinary  level.  Inond* 
and  OU  feel  are  of  frequent  occurrence,  lad 
queiiccs  lo  settlers  within  its  reach  ar«  oftei 
alwava  ruhions  lo  their  settlements.  The 
whicli  ia  built  on  an  eminence  of  about  1(W 
the  level  of  the  river,  baa  hitherto  ewapcd 
mcnduus  overflowings ;  but  as  its  elerwlioa 
highest  known  floods  is  only  a  few  f»e«,  it 
1  as  free  from  danger,  Neil  to  Win 
porlanae  is  Liverpool,  at  the  distanee  of  abol 
.Aenly  miles  from  Sydney,  in  a  south-wM 
iween  these  two  places  a  stage^coacb  ri> 
ra  a-week.  Liverpool  ia  situated  (m  III 
irge's  River,  which  dischargus  itself  In 
f.  It  possesses  a  church,  two  or  tlm* 
:es,  courl-honse,  jail,  and  the  usuaT  AONtt 
L  town  in  New  South  Walea— a  oontict  a* 
kirracks.  The  soil  around  Liverpool  la  of 
-liHerent  quality;  but  as  the  town  nccupiaa 
iltuation  between  Sydney  and  some  f*rUl*J 
the  counties  south  and  wctit  of  it,  it  is,  oMntB 
a  place  of  considerable  bustle  and  of  riaipf  b 
Ceorge'a  Biver,  on  whicb  it  is  situated,  » 
about  half  the  si»  of  the  Hawkesbury,  is  m< 
boats  of  about  twenty  tons  burden  aa  bigti  I 
town.  Recurring  agab  to  the  coast  llna,  •< 
the  county  of 

C '.I xrifrn— emending  south  from  Coal  OSA 
Haven,  a  distance  of  from  tbirty-Svoto  fi»tyi 
stretching  interiorly  north  about  aUly  milit 
average  breadth  of  about  twenty  miles,  ttm 
yelBiiy  towns  in  this  county,  ll)  iiiai  wsa.  hii 
average  ■(uotiljijofferlile  land,  but  is  matiyi 
witci- ;  the  veiv  limited  supply  which  It  fcl* 


EMIGRATION  TO  AUSTRALIA. 


rom  bnneliM  of  the  Cow  Pasture  and  other 
is  defect  operates,  as  might  be  expected, 
inst  the  prosperity  of  the  district,  since, 
t  important  element,  its  fertile  plains  can 
noptstion  for  the  settler.  Nor  is  there 
ort  supply  for  the  irrigation  of  the  soil ;  we 
.  that  water  can  scarcely  be  obtained  even 
mon  purpoaes  of  life.  Mr  P.  Cunningham 
t  he  **  once  travelled  for  twelve  miles  along 
nain  roads  (in  this  county)  in  the  height  of 
t  could  only  obtain  one  drink  of  hot  nmddv 
tghout  all  that  distance."  Camden,  though 
able  for  its  extent  of  cultivable  land,  pes- 
baps,  a  larger  proportion  of  pisture-land 
the  colony,  and  this  of  acknowledged  supe- 
.  The  most  flourishing  local  district  in  this 
le  lllawarra,  situated  at  the  foot  of  a  moun- 
t  name,  a  few  miles  inland  from  the  sea- 
one  of  the  most  beautiful  and  fertile  local!- 
whole  colony.    Continuing  the  coast  line, 

nt. — This  county  is  of  considerable  length, 
es  several  good  harbours,  particularly  Shoal 
vis  Bay,  and  Bateman  Bav.  It  is  well  watered 
r  of  streanui,  one  of  which,  called  the  Clyde, 
'  parallel  to  the  sea  for  a  considerable  dis- 

lands  generally  in  tills  county  are  described 
th  open  plains,  watered  by  copious  ncver- 
ams.  There  are  many  parts  on  the  Shoal 
er  which  are  admirably  adapted  for  agri- 
erations,  and  the  same  may  be  said  of  those 
le. 

-This  county  is  about  sixty  miles  in  length, 
.verage  breadth  of  firom  twenty-five  to  thirty. 
me-half  of  it  is  indented,  as  it  were,  between 
of  Camden  on  the  coast,  or  eastern  side,  and 

of  Westmoreland  interiorly.  It  is  one  of 
iatricts  in  New  South  Wales,  producing  wheat 
igricultural  commodities  of  the  first  quality, 

greatest  abundance.  Large  tracts,  too,  of 
Mure-land  are  every  where  to  be  met  with  ; 

its  geographical  position,  its  climate  is  of 
clightful  kind,  highly  favourable  not  only  to 
z  of  every  description  of  cattle,  but  render- 
ble  of  producing,  in  great  perfection,  all  the 
vegetables  of  Europe. 

•eland — stretching  from  north  to  south  about 
s,  and  averaging  in  breadth  about  forty.  This 
mountainous  district  in  the  settled  portion  of 
I  Wales  ;  and  although  none  of  these  ore  of 
iieight  (the  highest  not  much  exceeding  3000 
they  ore  so  numerous,  extensive,  and  withal 
that  but  a  very  small  portisn  of  cultivable 
:.     It  is  not,  however,  without  some  fertile 

some  excellent  grazing  districts.  Amongst 
'  these  is  an  extensive  flat  called  Emu  Plains ; 
tieral  diaracter  of  the  country  is  highly  un- 
to tlie  agriculturist  There  being  little  more 
of  particular  notice  in  Uiis  county,  we  proceed 
onuig  couutv  of 

«a — situated  behind  the  Blue  Mountains*,  and 
n  the  north  and  east  by  the  counties  of  West- 
and  Roxburgh,  and  thence  stretching  south 
ateriorly,  but  without  any  definite  limits  being 
)d  to  it  in  that  direction.  This  county  presents 
ir  and  varied  surface.     It  is,  however,  com- 

liehtly  timbered,  and  generally  easily  acoes- 
f  although  particularly  adapted  for  grazing,  it 
nly  a  small  portion  for  tlie  plough,  and  that 

merely  of  occasional  patches  on  the  banks 
usd  streams.  As  a  grazing  district,  however, 
iferior  to  the  best  in  the  colony,  and,  in  this 
iew^  is  an  exceedingly  desirable  place  for  the 

pi&  is  separated  from  the  sea  by  the  counties 
imberiand  and  Durham,  and  lies  beyond  the 
ntains.  It  contains  a  large  proportion  of  hilly 
n  country,  but  possesses  some  tracts  of  good 
id,  and  is  well  adapted  for  grazing. 


BathursL — This  county  at  one  time  formed  a  portion 
of  Roxburgh.  It  consists  of  extensive  plains  of  remark- 
able beauty  and  fertility,  and  contains  many  thousand 
acres  of  tlie  finest  pasturage.  Theseare  now  covered  with 
the  flocks  and  herds  of  settlers  to  an  immense  amount^ 
this  territory  alone  furnishing  the  greater  proportion 
of  the  whole  quantity  of  wool  exported  from  the  colony. 
It  has  also  acquired  great  reputetion  for  its  dairy  pro- 
duce, and  is  coi^sidered,  with  regard  to  its  cheese,  as 
the  Cheshire  of  Now  South  Wales.  Settlers  here,  how- 
ever, labour  under  the  same  disadvantage  with  all  those 
in  the  interior  districts,  namely,  the  being  far  distant 
from  any  market.  This,  however,  materially  affects 
the  agriculturist  only,  and  not  the  grazier,  whose  pro- 
perty can  transfer  itself.  The  rich  territory  of  Bathurat 
Plains  was  discovered  only  a  few  years  since,  and  was 
then  considered,  as  it  still  is,  a  discovery  of  the  highest 
importance  to  the  colony.  Nearly  the  whole  of  the 
available  lands  in  the  counties  next  the  sea,  oecupying 
the  space  between  the  barren  range  of  mountains  and 
the  coast,  having  been  already  located,  or  in  the  pos- 
session of  settlers,  there  was  none  left  for  the  thousands 
that  were  yearly  arriving  in  the  colony.  On  the  disco- 
very of  these  fertile  plains,  therefore,  the  superabun- 
dant emigrant  population,  which  had  been  pent  up,  as 
it  were,  on  the  narrow  strip  between  the  mountains 
and  the  sea,  left  that  territory,  and,  crossing  the  moun- 
tains with  their  flocks  and  herds,  poured  down  upon  this 
new  land  of  promise,  spreading  themselves  and  their 
flocks  far  and  wide  over  its  rich  pastures. 

The  climate  at  Bathurst,  from  its  great  height  above 
the  level  of  the  sea  (about  2000  feet),  is  considerably 
colder  than  in  the  eastern  districts  near  the  coast,  and 
on  this  account,  none  of  the  tropical  productions,  which 
thrive  so  well  in  the  latter,  can  be  raised  there  to  any 
perfection.  In  the  midst  of  these  fine  lands  is  a  thriv- 
ing town  of  the  same  name,  namely,  Bathurst  Town. 
Here  there  are  several  institutions,  bespeaking  the 
wealth  and  intelligence  of  the  surrounding  settlers. 
Amongst  these  are  an  academy,  literary  society,  and 
public  library.  Proceeding  still  northwards,  we  arrive 
at  the  county  of 

Cambridf/e,  which  is  separated  from  the  sea  by  the 
county  of  Ayr.  The  land  is  in  general  good  for  grazing, 
but  it  is  said  sometimes  to  be  inundated  with  water 
from  the  mountains.  It  formerly  contained  some  valu- 
able flat  land,  which  now  forms  part  of  the  county  of 

Liverpool, — This  county  contains  a  tract  of  valuable 
land  called  Liverpool  Plains,  lying  behind  a  range  of 
mountains  which  run  east  and  west.  Although  of  a  very 
inferior  description  of  land  to  Bathurst  Plains,  these 
arc,  notwithstanding,  well  adapted  for  grazing  cattle 
and  horses ;  but  from  their  being  subject  to  inundation 
in  the  rainy  season,  the  best  portion  of  them  being 
under  water  during  that  period,  they  are  neither  adapted 
for  agricultui'al  purposes  nor  for  the  rearing  of  sheep. 
The  Liverpool  Plains  extend  about  forty  miles  in  every 
direction.  There  are  few  settlements  in  this  county 
besides  those  on  the  plains  just  named,  although  it  pos- 
sesses some  very  eligible  lands  ;  but  they  ai*e  remote, 
and  of  limited  extent. 

WLONIaL  gov I-IRXMENT.— society. — TRADE,  &C. 

The  government  of  New  South  Wales  is  conducted 
by  a  governor  and  a  legislative  and  executive  council : 
both  of  the  two  last,  as  well  as  the  governor,  are  a])- 
poinfbd  by  the  ministry  at  home.  The  legislative  coun- 
cil is  composed  principally  of  persons  holding  official 
situations,  and  these  chiefly  residing  in  the  government 
towns.  The  executive  council,  again,  is  composed  of 
persons  filling  the  highest  government  appointments. 
There  are,  besides,  a  class  of  functionaries  called  police 
magistrates,  distributed  throughout  the  colony,  and  who 
take  especial  cognisance  of  offences  committed  by  con- 
victs, whom  they  have  a  power  to  punish  by  flogging 
or  condemning  to  work  in  irons. 

Sydney  is  the  chief  seat  of  the  colonial  government, 
comprehending  the  supreme  court,  and  the  heads  of  all 
the  civil  and  militarv  estahlishnionts  of  the  country. 


CHAMBERS'S  INTORHATiOM  FOtL  TB&tVOthE. 


MMK«wBiM0iWalte. 
d  aad  4sBwlie  Imds  «f  Aiutmtb  hw 
Huvat;  Tat'mafid  h«a  a  itata  of  iii&iio;;  bat 
tt  li  fiMt  ptnfaiK  Wrmgth ;  ud  !f  do  nnfanMvn  dt- 
sanutuMW  dtoald  aiiM  to  shaA  Ita  pmpnit;,  Ab»- 

tnlkwUl«wda7b>*o<»>  VHbnot '- 

hr  Ilia  mot  imparlut  «f  all  lira  Bi 
tJanmi.  !!■  Iwidhig  mport  MtUM  m«  ««o],  and 
•Ml  and  *li^  oUii*  gnal  put  of  Iha  httir  k  <rf 
that  vsloabla  kind  Mllad  qiam«il,  pioduad  br  ■  ' 
HiiptiM  of  wbala  feand  !■  On  e«Btti  Smb  onlj, 
whSeb  mtmnnj  briiiM  doable  the  priM  of  the  ooh 
nhth  nil  Id  A*  utkto  tt  «U.  vUoh  hw  ontr 
hMy  WoMM  M  ol^  of  Mitms  unddBnlion  to  the 
MfaaiMa,  tka  InpioTaBMnt  h*B  Immi  femukaM^  iDiM, 

Am*  bdin  do*  mwdt  of  40 '- ' 

tmnaga  oT  dwi!;  10,MM,  belonj  ~ 
ofPoTt  JHbm»lofie,«id(  ' 
"Inr.    AnrihtaRi  " 
of  IhaooloDjili 


?y 


belonrii^  to  ud  wDu 
liijiiifj  ■imagiiilliilln 

MB  of  Ihll  llMlliaiItt  |ll 


M  oTiti  iMTia^  Id 


Ibwr  yoBnt  to  MM*  IbMmmw  MMvlj,  aad  In  olkM*  1 
Ihu  doDbM,  Ibt  anuMiit  of  hi  propar^  b  cattlt  aad 
Amp,  and  tlw  oxiMrt  of  lb  «DlliTaiad  laod. 

The  nmiDe  cf  Haw  8«Mh  Wain  had  adntiecd  ia 
I8S7  to  LMtJKM,  U.  IMytndependeDtlvof  tfaOTeianna 
flna  ibetaleDf  huid,  whkhaaanpward* 
nepriaeipationneof  IbaooloDialraTeDDi 
•Klt<Woo«llaDe(%aD"  "  - 
itoaK  dfatra^nK  tar  ^ 
•npaiBBeet  Tba  land-Mremw  la  a  moet  hnportaat 
Itam ;  but  from  all  wa  ean  lean,  tt  haa  lattenj  been 
demled  to  a  liqaidation  of  eupcnMO  inenrred  for  jille 
and  [Hilic«,  inatrad  uf  pij'ing  for  the  iioport  of  free 
point,   grent 


ofL.12T,«>0. 
efathedntiee 
aDdtbrHaMMMto  dtalefe— a  ~ 


mm  for 


8  (he 


isipg  ■ 


subject  by  the  cfiloniBtti,  that 
be  enpecled  (n  be  ■rniiiged  on  a  satisfactory  fouting. 
We  nerd  notparticularixe  the  great  antliniBcellaneai 
import  atid  uport  trade  of  the  colony,  but  confine  ou 
aclve*  ■»  a  few  leading  facts  aa  an  etidenca  of  gfner 
pToaperity.  The  import*,  which  amxunteil  to  L.2SD.D()a 
iti  ia,>6,  had  incrtaaed  to  L.I,2.'>I.!IG9  in  IS39  i  i  '" 
the  exports  fnim  Ihe  cninny,  including  Ihe  prodi 
the  fiiilivrips.  had  incrrased  from  L.  1 0<>,U00  in  tiie  f. 
year,  to  L.9<B,776  in  the  lalier.  In  iB.>4,  the  exports 
of  ntnol  amoiuited  to  ^la/iOO  lbs, ;  in  1<J37,  Ihey  sere 
4,G0G,91.'S  ibi;  In  the  Savitip'  Batik  of  N'c>r  South 
Wales,  the  depnaits  inercurd  from  L.34.-IG9  in  Decem- 
ber IR35  to  L.IST.OOO  in  August  tH40.  The  intercsl  paid 
for  drposiLcd  money  In  the  ordinary  colonial  banks  is, 
we  believe,  at  the  rata  uf  from  C  lo  8  per  cent. ;  and 
at  iheM  banks  bills  On  London  will  be  discounted  on 
(aTourabte  terms  to  cmii^ants  bringing  money  in  (his 
form.  Parties  emigraiinj;  shrmld  exchange  their  csjih 
for  bills  at  respectable  and  old-t'Slablished  banks  before 
leaving  home,  this  being  in  every  respect   the  safest 


intruduecd  as  exotics.     Siime  vinen  of  a  fine  qnality, 

E resented  by  I^miK-l'bilippe,  King  of  the  French,  lo  the 
lie  King  Wiilinm  IV.,  Iiave  b«n  sent  lo  New  South 
Walee,  whose  clarets  may  by  and  bye  rival  those  of 
France.  Alreaity,  from  Rrapes  grown  in  the  vineyards 
of  the  colony,  excellent  wine  iniglit  be  pnidnccd,  if  any 
Ihiiie  liki-  EiHul  nMiiS»rment  were  ■'xrreised.  From 
the  peaches  ,<t  N.-w  S..nih  Wales  the  lin.'sl  brandy  is 
dUtilled :  k"  su[ieri.ir  is  this  nriiele,  that,  if  it  w,-re 
aUowrd  to  be  ImiKirtL-d  into  Great  llrilam,  it  wouht 
"  ndi.»  of  France 

ni  the  abundance 


of  dM  umlbenv) :  i*  MtLvMriMari 

TBtaahUartUo^i-        ■M<faiiin4E«*, 
wUehlheaUMBli  ..mbKiriAliriHwi 


tnimrtan baa  been  formed,  &om  wliicii  u 
100,0)0  douoa  of  orang«  have  been  lent  inb' 
hat  tbara  la  a  T>ar',  and  an  Emmeuic  quanli 
gi^ea  an  aoBtby  a  aieamer  from  H  un  ter's  Ri 
day  In  the  eeaaon,  to  tlie  Sydney  market, 
•nlelsa  of  food  in  general  use  not  product 
OoloDJ,  are  lea  and  sngar;  bat  these  on  la 
ported  and  aold  «t  pwhaps  nol  the  thinl  of  il 
la  4i8  eoantry.     In  iho  atlvpritsciix'iiu  in  lb 


for  sale  by  ttadSF;.  <  r\-  whc 

wsalthhatsatablti 

The  pfodnetkn  of  wMl  haa  fcc  aa*a  ttae  1 
a  primaty  oonndentioa  irUb  the  taM«\  aad  < 
of  lata  bwiD  to  pv  more  attettlioa  te  tbe  m 
Ibey  did  fomei^,  foaat)^  deM  haTiaf  Sm 
tiaiealltbeyalvadat.  ritmihaimirSmm 
baa  takao  plaoa  in  the  breed  «f  Aiip,  m  mM 
mode  of  pieparian  the  irael  Snr  the  nwta^'i 
wool  haa  DO*  beoDBa  aa  otjeet «(  MBah  laM 


Dfodtieod  from  it,  and  »Ueh,  If  •oagUnsdid 
UAer  d^iae  gf  aaaBeM-*  tB*nH  Oat  DMl 
Is*  tbe  eai*  aod  altaMiea  ttiat  tt  MW  bMai 
—wirald  phee  it  oa  a  brd  wUi  tta  bMt  p 
oflwr  eoDBtriea^  asd  eoDeeqaeDlly  dheet  aal 
tMe  ilnam  cf  wealth  ipto  the  eohMv;  tmt  1 
two  JnmnrtaDt  eoaJdtratfaae  at  ftii  Mceaiad  i 
toprodueetfafateffMt  nieltnloftbwelilhii 
of  tbe  marital,  aad  dw  hir  renoDamtbg  lil 
the  eettler  (riMaina'ftar  hi*  wsd  t  the  aaaa,  Am 


their  whole  attention  to  tbe  Teariag  of  oaMa  ■ 

in  preference  to  agricultural  preducttom. 

The  BUIe  of  society  in  New  SouUi  Walea 
to  a  considerable  extent  affected  by  the  traaa 


from  this  moral  st 
followed  by  governmeiil 
-'    ilarlydeei 

tiary  on  a  great  and  improved  seue. 

The  most  unhappy  circumstance  conneeled 
•tale  of  general  ||iciety  is,  that  the  emaneipBtet 
and  their  descendants,  however  well  behaved, 
as  a  degraded  or  inferior  class  by  the  fire  oett 
thus  two  fictions  bare  sprung  up  in  the  eol> 
virulently  persecute  each  other,  and  cauae  di 
what  would  be  otherwise  an  agreeable  eon 
affairs.  As  tbe  settlement  of  convicts  as  lab 
abandoned  as  a  pnictieo  unworthy  of  ao  sal 
government,  it  is  to  be  hoped  that  the  line  ol 
tion  between  the  two  claases  of  inhabilanta 
dually  di'Wppear.  In  Sydney,  where  society  ' 
and  good  equally  flourishes,  there  an  maoy  1 
>f  families  of  the  highest  respectability,  caj' 
he  elegancies  of  refined  life,  exchanging  ita  Ci 
.nd  cultivating  its  amusementa  and  pleaaniaa; 
equipages  are  to  be  seen  rolling  along  itaati 
[lubtic  dancing  and  assembly  rooms  bkuing  ■ 
iiid  filled,  a»  our  newspapers  would  say,  with 
indlanhion;"  music  panic*  and  theatricals! 
ilic  measure  of  tlie  happiness  of  a  :jydney  lif 
lo  Sydney,  IJaihursI  has  probably  the  hiftaol 
lioiw  to  a  su|ieriority  in  the  general  ehuaci 
Hicicly.     Besides  its  lilenry  inslitutiona,  it  t 


n  called  the  Batbui 


I  Hue 


iuni,  eempce 
rnllenien  who  reside  in  the  dietri 
s  niiituTui,  and  are,  a*  a  body,  no  way  ta 
inilar  society  in  England. 
!  convict  system  only  cxteodsd  tft  NavSa«l 


I*  «r  IliH  onnl  flat  soa  ■ 
eh  AuMnin  ofenon^     ttaai  rUlua  arr  ninn 
I  aofanil  nib  1i*rta|^  «lltalil»  t^  tliHp  ptMii 


ifirmi  til'   L..  .  ,  ,    '    '  -lunreii* 

ItK.  'rii«  .■.J>|->«r.-.iir<.  .,(  >f..ll„.ijriii-  U  |-*lti.-lj 
aAarfulj  k  fiicvigiiw  uiMcquaUMrtl  oilb  tlu  Mrtin<- 
mine  diitonuliicil.  obHaele-vnmwvotini;  plunuiur  of 
r  cDunlrjiniBn,  eottld  no^er  b«ii»vu  ttini  it  hw  tb* 
nUon  of  elgltmn  numilu'  indiMU^.  Tli*  vnoil  «l 
>  tojigiclikii  001114  not  )uv«  •nVnbul  a  oh^gv  nvrv 
odroDs.  If  all  tb«  town*  »hi  ih*  mad  trim  .'wilinij' 
Y>»  »er*  put  b^tlinr — Liverpool.  Ciuiit>Wiuwit, 
Aiilnim,  »i"l  Yw^  Hi«y  wonW  not  m»tw  mi  vwv*«lh 
Is  a  tiiwa  M  M«lba>iriw  now  in.  Tl»  coiBtnuml 
MrtUMnoT  Mdboumc  ii  eviHaiitfmm  tlio  aeUvtV 
Tl»  iuhxbilanU,  kail  Hie  nuintt-r  t>I  »hlp«  Mid  <immnl» 
It  Tiiil  lu  port  (i.  A  Port  Philip),  A  pu*«r(iil 
«m-ahlp,  ie  ivxto  bAtwvfin  thl*  and  ili«  ivaBhtiaudnK 
art*,  u  nrxobKly  roqoired,  uid  woold  p*y  h»r 
a  TMv  li»nd*onic  profit.  I  h"'"  jurt  nnoraea 
rrligbifal  b.«l  Bxeanion  ™  ih«  UauUhl  Vurr*- 
tb«  UMinrj  on  ^  bnnln  of  wUoh  i«  ttiiwt  »»- 
.  *  •  •  Yoii»r»>l  lib»«y  Iffl oiiIhi ■ny  UM 
>w  of  thf»  nnn.Ai' !  th"lr  oomnltiMa  may  li" 
,.1  nn.     Wt.  fiMl  pwfeeily  i»nTiiim<l,  tlinl  liia 

.iiimwunl  ■rilh  Tori  PSiilip.  la  ■  flD« 

uyofaMinihu'rxtanlin  AiMtnliiktiidl 
in  ptunt  nf  loefcUtJ.    *•  ■"  ■*—'■■-- - 


!g^  ■ 


CHAMBERS'S  INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


Mr  RoBsell,  in  hia  tour  in  the  Australian  colonies, 
Ba}*8  of  Port  Philip—''  This  is  a  portion  of  the  Austra- 
lian territory  which  has  in  less  than  two  years  gathered 
%  community  of  about  3500  souls,  who  have  been  at- 
tracted to  the  place  by  its  good  harbour  and  superiority 
of  soil.  Being  more  to  the  south  than  either  Sydney, 
Adelaide,  or  Swan  River,  its  geographical  position  gives 
it  every  advantage  both  in  climate  and  productions. 
Private  enterprise  has  already  raised  it  to  an  important 
colony,  through  the  shipments  of  its  wool  to  the  mother 
country,  besides  the  flocks  of  superior  sheep  seut  to 
South  Australia,  &c.,  and  even  mutton  to  Van  Diemcn's 
Land,  thereby  returning  to  that  fertile  island  their  own 
sheep,  after  being  fattened  on  the  soil  of  Australia 
Felix."  From  tables  in  Mr  Russell's  work,  it  appears 
that,  in  1837,  5f),326  acres  of  land  were  sold  in  this  dis- 
trict, for  which  the  sum  of  L.tin^OO!)  was  obtained,  and 
that  chiefly  from  individuals  well  acquainted  with  the 
capabilities  of  an  Australian  soil.  The  first  settlers 
came  from  Van  Diemen*s  Land  and  New  South  Wales 
to  Port  Philip,  preferring  it  to  the  older  settlements ; 
and  these  being  in  almost  all  cases  young  men,  a  spirit 
of  enterprise  was  at  once  set  aeoing,  which  has  been 
since  of  the  greatest  benefit  to  the  colony. 

Besides  Port  Philip,  Australia  Felix  also  possesses 
an  excellent  station  for  a  town,  in  Portland  Day.  This 
bay  is  rather  exposed  to  a  heavy  swell  during  four 
months  of  the  year,  which  renders  landing  in  it  dange- 
rous ;  but  during  the  remaining  eight  months  the  winds 
blow  off  the  land,  when  it  is  perfectly  safe.  The  inte- 
rior, fur  seventy  miles  back,  according  to  Mr  James 
and  others,  exhibits  one  of  the  richest  and  most  desir- 
able countries  in  the  world,  fit  either  for  grazing  or  for 
the  plough.  Mr  James  thus  speaks  of  Portland  Bay : — 
"  To  the  north-east  of  Portland  Bay  arc  fine  sheep  and 
cattle  runs,  until  you  come  to  the  lakes ;  and  here  may 
be  seen  large  flocks  of  Van  Diemen's  I^and  sheep  de- 
pasturing all  the  way  up  to  Mount  Macedon  and  down 
to  Geelong.  Tiie  country  about  Cape  Otway  is  ri>cky 
and  mountainous.  Thisoape  is  <)p])ositc  HoshV  Straits, 
whirh  are  only  forty  miles  bruad  :it  this  p.irt ;  and  at 
tlic  back  of  thi*  highlands  of  the  capo  the  ;;ra'«  i»  ^ooil, 
though  the  frt'sh  water  is  n«)t  so  ahinulunt  jis  in  the  rear 
of  Portland  Hay."  Tliis  (li^triet  is  about  700  miles 
overland  from  Sulney,  and  the  ruad  is  ^ood  and  well 
marked. 

»n  ni  Ai  ^iKvi.ix. 

Soutli  Au^'tralia  is  a  lar:;e  ili>«trict  of  country,  lyint; 
on  the  s<)uthern  shore  of  the  Australian  continent, 
iM'twei-n  the  Suan  l\iv«*r  si-ttli*nn'iit  or  Western  Aus- 
tralia on  the  wrst,  and  Nrw  S<iuth  Wah'S  on  the  ea*=t. 
It  is  contained  \%ithin  the  'J'ith  and  I{(>th  (lc;;rees  of 
south  latilu«Ie, anil  form»»  a  territory  <»f  nearly  .'ioo^OCO 
^4nare  mik'*s,  or  1:'J,«MH),000  aere-^,  beini;  nearly  double 
the  «liinrnsiiins  i.f  the  Hriti>li  Isli-s.  It  is  penetratvd 
fn»m  the  sfa  hy  S|M*neer's  (lulf  and  'Julf  St  Vincent, 
at  the  entrance  of  which  lies  Kaniraroi)  Islaml.  The 
country  from  the  eastern  side  of  JJulf  St  Vincent  is 
very  j»ictnr«'M|ue  ;  hfini;  in  u'ein-ral  well  wooded,  with 
et»nsiderabK-  spaces  of  npi-n  ei'Unlry.  This  renders  it 
admirably  adapted  f>r  hh*-*-]!  farmiiiL:,  an<l  in  many 
plaet  s  th«'  land  is  n  ady  for  tin   j'louj^h. 

About  ten  or  t^flvf  miles  inlan<l  runs  a  rani;e  of 
hills,  most  nf  whieli  are  ^(mmI  soil  t**  the  ti>|>,  and  afford 
ahundance  of  foi-d  for  cattle.  The  hii;he>t  of  these  is 
Mount  I.ofty,  which  i.s  "J  100  feet  alioxe  the  level  of  the 
st-A.  The  countrv  between  thcM'  hills  and  the  sea  is 
diveroitied,  being  in  home  parts  unduIatiiiL;  and  in  otherb 
l.vel. 

'lulf  St  Vincent  is  di's<'ril»ed  as  with(»ut  an  ibiand, 
ii>ek,  re'-f,  or  s:iiidl>anl.,  and  almost  any  part  of  it  is 
pert«'«'tl\  ^afe  ane!i«»ra::.' all  the  \ear  round,  .'spencer's 
(tult  runs  nt  ally  .'ion  niiii  -  into  the  interior,  beeomint; 
•  {uite  narruw  and  shallow  at  tl:i«  t<>]>.  It  abonndH  with  . 
lilt  t'.-'h  :  hut  the  Country  aroun  I  is  ih  lieient  in  tre.sh 
w.iti  r,  and  hut  a  -mail  portion  of  the  soil  in  eapahle  ol 
I  litivation.  riie  ^r<  af  want  «il  this  colons  isriver-,  bv  ' 
'■■Inch  :.n  intii  colli   ■  \>i:ii  tli«-  intMior  could  be  eiVecte<l.  ■ 


The  largest  river  is  the  Murray,  which  if  dcte 
Mr  James  as  being,  for  the  last  200  miles  of  it 
nearly  as  broad  as  the  Thames  at  London  Brid 
the  banks  of  this  river  are  several  fine  liiuv 
at  present  covered  with  reeds,  but  which  are 
of  being  made  to  yield  abundant  crops  of  grain, 
flats  are  nearly  on  a  level  with  the  river,  and 
irrigated  at  any  season.  The  Murray  delivers  it 
into  Lake  Alexandrina,  which  also  receives  th 
of  the  Ilindmarsh,  and  from  thence  to  the  sea  1 
is  broad  and  deep.  The  next  river  is  the  Tor 
the  banks  of  which  stands  the  town  of  Adeli 
capital  of  the  colonv.  The  site  of  the  towi 
chosen  as  to  tho  healthiness  of  the  situation,  bui 
under  the  disadvantage  of  being  six  miles  from 
hour,  betwixt  which  and  the  town  the  carriage 
is  very  expensive.  The  harbour  is  perfecUy 
shipping,  but  there  is  a  bar  at  the  entrance  «l 
vents  very  large  ships  from  entering.  The  g 
Jection  to  the  site  of  the  town  is  the  want  of  goc 
which  can  only  be  obtained  by  boring  to  the  < 
about  forty  feet,  or  taking  it  from  the  Torren 
degenerates  into  almost  stagnant  pools  in  the  dr 
The  town  of  Adelaide  has  several  good  stone  a< 
houses,  and  the  churches  and  public  offices 
scribed  as  handsome  buildings.  The  Hiver  Gl 
the  eastern  boundary  of  the  colony,  is  of  com 
size  during  the  winter  months,  but  is  almost  dry 
mcr.  Lake  Victoria  is  a  sheet  of  water  abon 
miles  long  and  seven  bniad,  communicating 
Murray  River  by  a  Htream  called  the  Rufus.  1 
abound  with  good  pasturage,  and  the  ooantn 
being  flat,  it  might  be  made  an  admirable  agri 
station.  Lake  Bonney  is  smaller  than  Lake  ' 
but  the  land  around  it  possesses  equal  advanta, 
regard  to  soil. 

Much  has  been  written  upon  the  soil  of  Sou 
tralia.  On  the  one  hand,  it  has  beeu  lauded 
finest  spot  in  the  world,  and  on  the  other  decric 
worth  the  trouble  of  cultivation.  From  the  U-* 
rilies  we  have  been  able  to  consult,  there  appefl 
very  little  of  what  can  be  called  really  barr 
The  principal  part  of  it  is  fit  for  pr.izinij  sh 
cattle,  and  then*  are  many  parts  which  would 
abundant  return  of  grain  if  subjected  to  the 
<  hi  this  subject  Mr  James,  who  is  known  ri-'t  t-i 
favonrahle  to  the  colony,  says,  *'  In  short,  tin  re 
;j;ood  boil  than  will  be  reijuii-ed  for  many  veais  \ 
it  is  jjenerally  com|>os<>d  of  a  ricli  loam.'aV*  r.iiji: 
nine  inches  thick,  on  a  substratum  of  coarse  ca 
ri>ck,  and,  throui^h  the  whole  extent  «if  the  plan 
the  settlement,  ;;ives  evidence  of  having  been  at 
reunite  period  c«#ered  by  the  sea,  everv  stone  ' 
up  beinj;  a  part  of  the  rock,  and  exliibitin::  a  v 
of  little  shells.  Over  the  hills  the  soil  and  \e 
are  still  liner;  and  the  author  vihited  a  tract  i-t 
between  the  mountains  and  the  mouth  of  the  . 
that  seemed  to  contain  nearly  1  oo^imui  .icres  of « 
rich  soil,  in  many  plact^  ready  f«»r  the  j»loni;h.* 

From  the  want  of  mountains,  the  countrv  is> 
from  rains,  and  even  xhv  ri\era  beC(>nn'  eonip.i 
dry  during;  the  summer.  These  difici.i.oies  nr 
the  i:rand  drawbacks  upon  this  (ttherwis*.  f...,. 
With  resj»ect  to  the  ci>n«iition  of  the  c«iiony  up  ' 
period,  we  present  the  follow infj  extract  In-ni  : 
of  the  go\ernor  (liawler)  to  hi.>  le^^islatixe 
April  :\,  IIUO:-  -"  I'he  establishnnnt  of  the  c.>l 
cj.si  a  lar;»e  sum  ;  but  it  is  probable  that  uo 
provine-'  has  ev«  r  attaiin  d  to  the  same  coiidi 
to  sa\  the  least,  a  smaller  i»rice.  ITiwexer  i: 
expenditure  may  be,  tin-  ivsults  are  pn-ut  als.'. 

Three  years  and  a  half  ap.*,  the  s|M.t  on  » 
are  now  standing  was  a  desert  unknown  to  V.ui 
Now  we  are  surrouii'led  by  a  populous,  and,  to 
derable  extent,  hands«>nie  city.  Our  princt]t.ii 
are  lined  with  well-tilied  wareboUMH  and  slii' 
eri»w»ii<l  l»y  all  the  attenuanttt  <if  active  imflic 
some  and  substantial  buildings  are  ti>  l>«>  seen  u 
siile.  and  are  rapidly  incre;i'«in|;.     *hiv  jMirt,  \ 


iM  mil;  illKtluirc*  Uinr  (uvMa  frwia  ili*  fi^f, 
of  ili«  a|iliBl  i>  ■w-ldol  with  panwrww  ted  !•;«- 


CIIA^IBERS'S  INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


Ions  suburbs  and  villa^ ;  while  the  more  distant 
country,  whether  to  the  north,  the  east,  or  the  south, 
is  rapidly  assuming,  in  population,  that  healthy  and  natu- 
ral proportion  which  it  ought  to  bear  to  the  metropolis. 

Farming  establishments  are  in  active  formation  on 
every  side ;  and  it  is  now  a  matter  not  merely  of  hope 
but  of  sober  expectation,  that  our  magnificent  agricul- 
tural valleys  will  soon  be  filled  with  produce  sufficient 
for  home  consuifiption.  Flocks  and  herds  of  cattle 
from  New  South  Wales,  following  each  other  in  count- 
less succession,  already  cover  a  tract  of  two  hundred 
miles  in  length ;  and  tlicir  enterprising  proprietors  are 
even  now  seriously  contemplating  a  noble  attempt  at 
geographical  discovery,  which  bids  fair  to  make  this 
province  the  great  entre|)6t  of  South  Australia.  Our 
institutions  are  assuming  a  condition  of  stability.  Our 
public  departments  have  attained  to  a  high  degree  of 
system  and  order.  The  aborigines  have  been  kept 
under  humane  control ;  and  considerable,  though  I 
regret  to  say,  as  yet  unsatisfactory  efforts,  have  been 
made  towards  their  civiltKation.  Property  and  private 
rights  enjoy  as  much  protection  as  in  any  country  in 
the  world ;  and  peace,  union,  and  good  understanding, 
reign  throughout  the  community. 

Land  has  been  surveyed,  to  an  extent  capable  of 
containing  three  times  the  present  amount  of  popula- 
tion ;  and  the  most  promising  arrangements  are  in 
active  operation,  for  completing,  in  a  comparatively 
short  space  of  time,  the  survey  of  those  rich  and  beau- 
tiful diHtrictB  already  discovered,  which  would  enable 
US  to  increase  it  from  ten  to  twenty  fold." 

We  add  the  following  from  articles  in  the  South 
Australian  RegiHter,  July  1840: — **  In  the  last  general 
notice  of  the  progress  of  South  Australia,  published  in 
August  lH:i9,  the  population  of  the  colony  was  stated 
at  IK'iUO.  This  amount,  we  have  since  ascertained,  was 
almost  exactly  correct.  The  arrivals  since  that  period 
have  increased  the  number  to  nearly  13,250,  of  which 
about  0*7nO  are  located  in  Adelaide  and  the  villages  in 
its  iinnuMliatc  on\inin«,  and  tiio  reinaindor  distributed 
tlir«>ii^h(>ut  the  au'riciiltural  and  pabt(»ral  diKtrict<4.  On 
tin*  .'iOtli  June  l:!."i.'»,  tl.e  stork  in  th(.-  province  was  as 
fullow-: — Slici'j),  .1; ;,.'>(  10  ;  bullocks,  cows,  \c.,  (i"_\*)0  ; 
lior^«-s,  .VJii  :  pi:;-,  liMiM  ;  i^i.at-^,  I  Jin.  On  tin*  30tli  June 
1J;H»,  tlif  o'.nnv  |H>^.-i's>f.i  l;;r;,<Hin  sluM'p;  14,JUK)  hfad 
(•1  cows,  \c. ;  \'2')i)  liorsis;  .'iiiiiM  j>i;;s ;  and  i^.')0  goats 
— slmwini;,  at  the  cIom'  t)f  (»n«*  var,  an  incrraxry  alter 
Fati-f\iii^  tlio  larL'f  consunij»tn'n  ol  tin*  {Hipuiation,  of 
]J7,n(iii  slii-vp,  J'..').*iO  cows,  li»-iUT>,  and  bullocks,  7.'{" 
1joi>i*».,  'JoiiII  I'j;^**,  and  17"  ijoats.  In  tb«'  above  nunibrr 
(■t  f-jii  iji  \\(f  liaNf  iiic!iidi<l  Ki.'n.io  which  have  arrived 
oM-rland  tioiu  New  South  Wah'S  durini;  the*  pn*si*nt 
vv««-li.  I'riiiu  advices  ju>t  n  ceivid,  wc  learn  that  up- 
ward'* of  in.tmo  ^hirj.,  !;iMii)  head  of  cattle,  and  oOO 
hi-r-es,  are  now  on  tiieir  route  overland,  and  may  bo 
rxjuM'ti'ij  within  the  ensuing  tliree  months. 

U  )■•■  prices  at  the  ]>n-»ent  moment  may  be  quoted  as 
under : — 


Sl.i-p. 

•  '.,•-  .'i:!!  lii-ifiT-.  - 
li.li  I'-i  1>  '^  :i|iil  X'Ti  1  I  ■ , 
ll'I-w-«,       - 

li.-.  - 

♦  .■.it-.     - 


!»,  !•>.  ti>     Ul.  (•*, 

1".  '■<.  til    LI.  «>«.. 

.;■-.  "-.  to  i.ii.  ;k, 

I     .',-  tn       7,  7.. 


« Mif.  nf  the  nio-t  fri'ijUriit,  and.  at  il;i.'  same  time, 
liio-t  uiju-l  aiid  inciin>id»T;iti"  sul'i'-cts  ot"  r«  proach,  is, 
tint  Wf  '  ;;r«jw  ni'thiuL;' — that  w«'  *jiroduc«'  nothin::.' 
N<'W-  wl.at'Vi  r  luav  be  th«-  law'.t'i  or  t-rrorr^  «if  tin-  colo- 
ni.'i-,  \\»'  n-.n^t  dvny,  in  tin.  n^o^t  uii(><{ui\noaI  mann«  r, 
th.it  tl.in-  i>  ativ  thin''  ol  thr  ft  .-fi'tn  Irnff  in  th«ir  clia- 
ra«*t<  r  or  prici  rdiii^'-.  '1  hf  hr^^t  handlul  of  M-ttNrs,  in 
li'.'.7  and  l;.;-;'.  e  .i:;il  not  fiiirly  !'•■  ex)  i<'t«  il  to  i^row 
an  anij'.o  f*nj'[>!y  i.\  ;;ra;n  f'-r  theni-i  l\t'*^  anil  T.'r  the 
tlif'Uxand-'  (»1  (  n;i::rant'«  that  wt-ri-  p  uriii:;  in  upon  them. 
I'nrin^  tin'  two  tir-t  si-:i>.i.|]s  i.f  iIm-  -«tii«-ii:(  nt  (  I  .*^<  nth 
Au'^ir.il.a,  it  inu-t  n-'t  !■••  fi-ru'otti'M.  \\\' \  hud  tui  I'limi 
»itrit't/ff  iin-f  (i}ijriij'riii!i'i^  tifi,  rr-.ii  thti/  cmii-t  jntH'tfi 
Vlf'i     tfii  ir  j'lirtrn.'ifj    •■;«■;. /,'li-fi.^.       In    p"iMt    ol     IjK't,    !a>l 

}«ar  va?:  tin;  Ui-l  iii  \%hiih  ii  wa.i  practicable  to  com- 


All 


menee  grain  growing.  Nearly  500  tern  wm 
fenced  in  and  cultiyated.  At  the  present  time,  1 
ing  to  the  most  careful  eatimatw  we  haTa  been  1 
make,  the  number  of  acres,  in  wheat  abne,  < 
1600 ;  and  before  the  middle  of  Morember,  we 
that  Uiere  will  be,  in  maize  and  other  crops,  thrc 
the  province,  considerably  upwards  (MT  2000 
Judging  from  the  activity  with  which  fencing 
ceeding  in  all  directions,  we  may  safely  state  the 
of  land  which  will  be  culUvated  in  1841  at  12,00 
It  is  thus  most  gratifying  to  prove,  that  so  far  fi 
colonists  being  obnoxious  to  the  charge  of  *  di 
thing,*  they  have  been  most  activelv  engaged  in 
the  unlimited  agricultural  capabilities  of  the  c 
good  accoimt  We  are  fully  warranted  in  at 
that  the  harvest  of  1842  will  see  South  Australia 
independent  of  our  neighbours  for  supplies  c 
A  few  years  more,  and  the  probability  is  we 
able  to  supply  them." 

From  a  statistical  return,  June  1840,  we  < 
following  particulars : — 

**  Stock.-Sheep,   180,000;    cattle^   15,000; 
1500 ;  pigs,  3600 ;  goats,  400. 

Shipping, — Ships  arrived  in  the  port,  104  ;  1 
19,399 ;  ships  from  Europe,  18 ;  ships  in  hariM 
tonnage,  3059. 

Rural  lands — number  qf  aerea  »elected, — Dk 
43,086;  district  B,  21,058;  district  C,  16,000; 
D,   1040;   district  £,  7536;   district  F,  480 
number  of  acres  surveyed,  359/)75.    Special 
of  4000  acres  each,  36. 

Houses  in  Adelaide. — Brick  or  stone,  816; 
1 588 ;  churches  aud  meeting-liouses,  8. 

M'ages. — Carpenters,  128.  to  1 00. ;  masons  ai 
layers,  123.  to  148.;  labourers,  68.  to  7s.  p< 
Men-servants,  hSto  to  L.60 ;  women-servants, 
L.25  per  annum. 

Price  of  stock. — Sheep,  25s.  to  40s. ;  cows, 
L.IO;  oxen,  L.IJ  to  L.20;  horses,  L.^ti  to  L.I.* 
L.'J  to  L.O' ;  K"ats,  L..'J  to  I..(i. 

ImpnrU. — [TliObc  we  omit,  as  they  are  such  j 
be  cxjH'Cted.] 

On  comparing  this  return  with  the  one  cnmpil 
end  of  WV.VJy  it  appears  that  the  incre.iHe,  durini; 
six  months  of  the  past  year,  was  as  fulinws:— 
tion,  IMKMI.  .Sheep,  y3,<;04  ;  cattle,  7<)iiO  ;  hun 
pigf^,  (j(»ti ;  jjoat^,  ItMb  Number  of  acres  w.1 
district  A,  7il'i ;  district  B,  If'JO  ;  district  C,  :u 
trict  I),  1040;  district  K,  loJ«;;  district  F,  Mi 
number  (►f  acres  surveye<l  during  this  period. 
Houses  built,  brick  and  stone,  403  ;  wo<k1 
While  theep  have  fallen  about  JOs.,  and  catl 
L.4  each,  wages^emain  the  same." 

\vr>li:R.N  .MSTK.VLIA. 

This  cf»lony,  which  i.s  entirely  dijitinot  fn 
South  Wales,  includi's  the  8ettli-ments  at  >w: 
and  Kin<^  (ieorge's  S»und.  Swan  Riv^r  Sittlenn 
its  name,  as  is  obvious,  fn»ni  the  rivi-r  in  wl; 
nitv  it  is.  TiuM  rivrr  is  situated  on  the  south-w 

m 

of  Australia,  a  little  way  north  <>f  the  nuist 

southfrn   jioint,  on  the?  w«st  siilo  of  the  i^!.tl 

nei;^libourhood  wa**  fir*'t  }»r<»pos<'d  as  a  place  1 

inent  in  the  year  lli-I!,  >^|jen  Captain  Stirling 

j  pointed  lifutenant-;;overnor.     The   latest   ace 

I  tin*  pro;;n'ss  of  this  litth*  colony  are  upon  ti 

favourabh'  altlioU'di  thrv  do  not  cerlainlv  hold 

'  viTV  meat  indui'iiiHJits  for  anv  one  to  i;o  thill 

!      'i  lir  Mill  appear^,  and  real!\  is,  until  \«*a  hi 

!  abi.ut  tllt»rii  or  twrntv  iiiiNs  inland,  extnui 

and  baiTiTi.     At  thi'<  di-tanee  fn>m  tlieC'-ast,  1 

it  ;;n.i!!\  improv.  >.,  ('xhibiiin;;  many  Ifeautitui 

tile  ttart-,  and  b«  ariii;;  si»nu'  of  tin*  ni"St   maj 

trei'.-  in  the  W'-rld.      Hi  ro,  a!M»,  x^  the  s;im(>  p 

of  tlii"-*'  ;,'or;:i'iius  lluwi  rs  which  form  so  renia 

fi-atiii'e  I't    tlir  natural  \i  lettable  prnductiouH 

South  \N  ah-u  and  \  an  |M<  men's  Land.    Its  anil 

duct  ions  are  entirely  similar  ti*  thoM*  of  the  t«i 

colonics,  and  it  X'a  e<|ualiy  free  from  any  t 


EMIGRATION  TO  AUSTRALIA. 


to  mm.    Th«  heat,  however,  would  appear 

oppreniTe  than  in  either  of  the  places  just 
(Whether  thia  arises  from  a  greater  intensity 
B  rays,  or  from  a  lighter  or  more  irregular 
f  those  eoolinff  breezes  which  prevail  in  both 
t  Wales  and  Van  Diemen's  Land,  is  not  ex- 
ot  the  eomplaints  by  the  settlers  here  of  the 
'  the  climate  are  frequent,  while  there  are 
s  particular  from  either  of  the  former.  The 
iwever,  is  exceedingly  salubrious.  Not  only 
mplaints  of  any  kind  whatever,  attributable 
mtry,  appeared  amongst  the  colonists,  but 
enabled  to  bear  exposures  with  impunity, 
nost  other  climates,  might  be  attended  with 
erious  consequences. 
t  land,  indeed  the  only  land,  yet  discovered 

near  the  settlement  worth  cultivating,  is  on 
of  the  Swan  River,  and  on  those  of  an  ad- 
^er  called  the  Canning ;  but  even  there  it 
mds  on  either  side  more  than  two  miles  from 
),  and  not  often  so  far,  and  all  this  land  has 
dy  located.  There  is,  however,  reason  to  be- 
good  tracts  of  country  are  to  be  found  in  the 
ndeed  some  have  been  found :  but  the  young 

not  yet  had  time  to  devote  to  expeditions  of 
or  been  able  to  avail  itself  of  those  that  have 
'..  The  pressure  of  emigration,  however,  and 
re  on  the  part  of  those  already  there,  will  no 
r  soon  extend  the  dependencies  of  the  settle- 
lead  to  some  valuable  acquisitions  of  country, 
ilready  under  cultivation  has  been  found  to 
tnluctive,  bearing  crops  of  wheat  and  other 
il  to  the  best  of  any  other  country,  but  not 
ficient  abundance  to  supply  the  wants  of  the 
^'or  grain,  and  many  other  articles  of  agri- 
•oduce,  it  is  still  indebted  to  New  South  Wales, 
en*8  Land,  and  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope ;  but 
ffs  which  it  has  made,  and  continues  to  make, 
>  leave  it  at  no  distant  date  wholly  independent 
aid. 

re  already  several  thriving  little  towns  in  the 
loiigst  these  Freemantle  and  Perth  ;  the  for- 
•ort,  being  built  at  the  mouth  of  the  Swan 
1  the  latter  the  capital.  The  site  of  Perth  is 
•d  as  happily  chosen.  It  is  situated  on  a  pictu- 
it  on  the  north  bank  of  the  river,  about  twelve 
niles  above  Freemantle.  A  government  house 
»  be  built  here,  and  there  are  many  others, 
Uy  built  of  both  brick  and  stone,  fast  rising 
8.  Colonel  Hanson,  who  has  lately  published 
tting  account  of  the  Swan  River  settlement, 
»f  this  infant  capital,  savs— **  The  society  of 

is  hospitality  personified ;  for  though  their 
!  somewhat  limited,  yet  they  share  them  with 
»t  good  will."  The  intending  emigrant  to  that 
herefore,  may  look  forwara  to  at  least  a  kind 
from  his  countrymen  who  are  already  there ; 
I  no  small  matter  to  a  man  who  has  just  ar- 
ranger in  a  foreign  land,  in  which  he  is  in  all 
y  to  spend  the  remainder  of  his  life,  and 

is  just  about  to  engage  in  an  arduous  struggle 
pport  of  himself  and  his  family. 

KING  George's  sound  sETrLEME.NT. 

8  little  in  this  settlement  that  can  be  consi- 
uliar  to  itwlf,  as  all  its  natural  properties  and 
istics  are  the  same  with  those  of  Swan  River, 
.to  and  is  a  dependency  of  the  latter,  and  is 
n  the  south  side  of  that  point  or  projection  of 
h  places  Swan  River  on  the  west  coast  of  New 

Farmers,  labourers,  mechanics,  and  whale 
I,  are  greatly  wanted  here,  and  are  offered  the 

encouragement,  by  authority  of  Governor 
to  emigrate  thither: — A  guarantee  will  be 
lesired,  to  such  as  wish  to  secure  employment 
iving  home,  of  certain  wages  proportioned  to 
ities  and  industry,  and  regulated  by  their  diffe- 
es ;  these  wages  assured  to  be  about  one-half 
1  what  is  given  in  this  country.  They  will  be 
299 


also  ensured  of  a  supply  of  provisions  at  a  rate  not 
exceeding  a  fourth  more  than  the  prices  of  this  country. 
To  those  who  prefer  devoting  themselves  to  agricultural 
pursuits,  a  gnint  of  land,  at  the  rate  of  one  hundred 
acres  to  each  family,  will' be  made,  free  of  all  charge, 
with  the  advantage  of  fixing  the  prices  of  stock,  pro- 
visions, &c.,  before  starting ;  thus  enabling  the  emi- 
grant to  form  a  correct  idea  of  the  amount  of  capital 
which  he  would  require  before  leaving  his  native  land 
— a  piece  of  information  which  is  often  much  too  long 
of  coming,  sometimes  not  until  it  is  too  late.  It  is  re- 
commended that  all  who  go  thither  should  be  married 
persons,  and  that  they  should  be  accompanied  by  their 
wives, 

SALE  OF  LANDS. 

With  respect  to  the  sale  of  lands  in  these  colonies, 
we  cannot  do  better  than  give  the  ofiicial  answer  to  a 
letter  which  we  sent  to  the  Colonial  Office  for  informa- 
tion:— 

*'  Colonial  Land  and  Emigration  Office, 
9,  Park  Street,  Westminttter, 
1st  December  1940. 

Gentlemen — I  am  directed  by  the  Commissioners  of 
Land  and  Emigration  to  acknowledge  the  receipt  of 
your  letter  of  the  12th  instant,  referred  to  them  by  di- 
rection of  Lord  John  Russell ;  and,  in  compliance  with 
your  request,  that  you  may  be  furnished  with  the  latest 
government  regulations  for  the  sale  of  crown  lands  in 
the  colonies,  mode  of  sale,  and  other  particulars,  I  am 
desired  to  transmit  to  you  the  under-mentioned  papers, 
which  have  been  printed  under  the  authority  of  the 
commissioners.     [Here  certain  papers  are  mentioned.] 

It  will  be  seen  by  the  papers  referred  to,  that,  in 
the  Port  Philip  district  of  New  South  Wales,  and  in 
Western  Australian,  the  public  lands  will  be  sold  at  one 
fixed  price,  which  is  for  the  present  established  at  L.l 
per  acre. 

In  Lower  Canada,  the  public  lands  are  also  hence- 
forward to  be  sold  at  a  fixed  price.  In  the  county  of 
Ottawa,  and  the  county  on  the  south  bank  of  the  St 
Lawrence  as  far  as  the  Kennaba  road,  the  price  is  for 
the  present  fixed  at  Gs.  per  acre,  and  for  the  remainder 
of  the  province  at  4s. 

In  the  following  colonies,  sales  are  made  at  auction, 
and  take  place  at  stated  periods,  the  land  being  offered 
at  the  respective  upset  prices  named  in  the  under- 
mentioned list : — 

Sydney  district  of  New  South  Wales,  comprising  at 
present  all  parts  exclusive  of  tlie  Port  Philip  dis- 
trict,   128.  Od.  per  acre. 

Van  Diemen's  Land,  -        -         lis.  Od. 

Ceylon,  -         -         -         -         -     .58.  Od. 

New  Brunswick,  -        -        -        28. 6d. 

In  Nova  Scotia,  the  upset  price  is  at  the  discretion 
of  the  governor  in  council ;  but  by  a  local  act,  it  is  in  no 
case  to  be  less  than  Is.  per  acre. 

In  Upper  Canada  lands  continue  to  be  sold  by  public 
auction,  at  an  upset  price  to  be  fixed  from  time  to  time 
by  the  lieutenant-governor  in  council.  This  price  varies 
according  to  the  locality,  but  the  average  price  of  land 
in  1836,  1837,  and  1838,  was  89.  per  acre. 

In  the  Port  Philip  district,  and  in  Western  Australia, 
it  is  intended,  as  you  will  perceive  by  the  enclosed 
printed  papers,  to  divide  the  land  into  lots  of  320  acres, 
or  half  a  square  mile.  *  In  Canada  the  lot  has  generally 
been  200  acres ;  in  Ceylon,  100  acres.  In  Van  Diemen's 
Land,  and  the  Sydney  district  of  New  South  Wales,  the 
size  of  the  lot  is  one  square  mile,  except  under  special 
circumstances. 

The  several  prices  above  mentioned  will,  of  course, 
be  subject  at  any  time  to  revision  by  the  proper  autho- 
rities. For  additional  particulars,  1  am  directed  to 
refer  you  to  the  parliamentary  paper  ordered  to  be 
printed  by  the  House  of  Commons,  on  the  motion  of 
Mr  O'Brien,  on  the  18th  July  last.  I  have  the  honour 
to  be,  gentlemen,  your  obedient  servant, 

S.  Walcott,  Secretary.'* 


CHAMBERS'S  INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE, 


Here  [ollow  two  of  llie  cliief  papers  rererred  to : — 
"  Noliet  lo  Ptttont  deriraut  if  purcAaiitip  Land  ot 

Sydney  ot  Port  Philip. 

1.  With   B   view  to    proniDling    seltienieut   in    Iho 

Aontralian  ooloniea,  the  following  meiisurea  hnvc  been 

adopted,  under  the  Banclion  of  her  M&jeBty'a  gavem- 

3.  It  hns  bven  dotermiued  that,  for  at)  purposes  cun- 
Decled  with  the  dispowil  of  land,  that  portion  of  the 
territory  ot  New  fiooth  Walee  which  lies  to  the  soulh 
of  the  coantiea  of  Mumy  and  Si  Vincent,  snil  of  the 
Rivers  Mucrumbidgee  aod  Murray,  u  for  as  the  eut- 
cm  boundary  of  South  Auatnlia,  ahatl  be  acpanted 
ft-um  the  rest  of  New  South  Wales,  and  be  dislineui^ed 
by  the  title  of  the  Southern  or  Port  Philip  dUlncL 

3.  Within  the  Port  Philip  district,  hind  wiU  he»ea- 
(orlh  be  sold  at  the  fined  uniform  price  of  L.l  perncre, 
id  Kdioua  of  one-half  of  a  square  mile,  or  3'20  acres 

4.  Towns  already  laid  out,  and  in  which  any  Und  haa 
actually  been  suld,  will  be  exempt  from  the  operation 
of  the  roregoing  rule,  and  (own  lots  iti  them  continue 
to  be  sold  by  auction;  and  the  government  will  also 
have  tlie  power,  ehould  it  be  deemed  expedient,  to  re- 
■erve  any  sites  of  towns  likely  tu  become  the  aeate  of 
local  administration,  or  any  silea  emioenlly  adapted  for 
ODiDmerciai  eea-porln.  The  formatioa  of  all  other  towns 
and  villages,  including  therefore  every  inland  town, 
eKMpt  where  the  residence  of  a  government  may  be 
Mlabliihed,  will  be  left  to  the  enterprise  and  judgment 
of  iodiiiduaU. 

A.  Certain  lands,  to  he  properly  marked  out  in  maps 
exhibited  at  the  land-office  in  ibe  colony,  will  be  set 


apart  for  roads  and  otlier  public  purposes,  and 

ible  public  property,     lint  it  a  not 

'ery  special  ana  rare  cases,  (o  make 


any  r«Mrvation  of  miiierala,  and  oil  deeds  of  grant, 
therefore,  will  convey  to  the  purehaser  every  thing 

above  ind  every  thing  below  (lie  surfnee. 

fi.  Purcluisera  in  the  colony  must  buy  their  Innd  at 
the  oWee  fur  crown  lands  in  the  district  of  Port  I'liitip. 

T.  Purchasers  in  Enaland  will  have  to  deposit  Iheir 
purchase-money  with  Mr  Barnard,  the  crown  agent  for 
the  cuiuiiy,  No.  2,  PaiUament  Street,  from  whom  they 
will  obtain  a  receipt,  uu  prvducllon  of  which  at  the  office 
of  the  Colonial  Land  and  Emigration  Commissioners, 
No.  9,  Park  Street,  Weslminster,  they  will  be  faraished 
with  an  order,  sUting  the  number  of  acres  which  they 
have  purchased,  and  directing  that  (his  quantity  shall 
be  granted  to  them  opon  thi-ir  naming  in  the  colony 
the  sTKil  of  unappropriated  land  which  lhej|  shall  select. 

B.  The  charts  and  registers  (o  be  kept  in  the  land- 
olBce  at  Melbourne  are  intended  to  furnish  full  and 
kutbenCio  information  of  all  appropriations  of  hind,  and 
of  ill  surveyed  lands  not  appropriated,  and  of  all  por- 
tions of  land  reserved  for  public  purpoaes.     And  each 

purchaser  will  be  allowed '-  *■=-  •—'  '-  ■'-'   -'- 

of  his  application  at  that  o 

9.  Any  one  who  shall  pay 
colony,  the  price  '       *  ' 
nol  be  conliiiiHl ' 


St  his  land  in  the  urdc 


11.  Persons  who  may  wish  to  avail  tk 
above  advantage,  will  be  required  to  sendinlelb 
lists  of  the  names  and  drseriutiaua  of  Ibe  pea; 
propose  fur  a  free  passage  viuin  six  month)  of 
of  their  purchase,  after  which  time  no  further 
any  nominatioD  for  a  free  paasage  will  be  k 
Purchasers  of  special  surveys,  howerer,  will  bs 
eighteen  months. 

12.  In  the  older  parte  of  New  South  Wain 
tuiiag  what  will  henceforward  be  called  the 
district,  land  continaes  to  be  cold  by  auction  at 
price  of  ISa.  per  acre,  in  lola  of  610  acres,  or  on 

13.  Should  any  person,  intending  to  poreh 
in  this  portion  of  New  South  Walo,  tiimk  p 
deposit  money  in  this  country,  in  the  mode  ab< 
tioned,  he  will  receive  from  the  Land  and  En 
CommiBsioners  an  order  entitling  him  to  en 
corresponding  sum  in  the  aci]uintion  of  laB 
public  sales  in  the  colony,  and  he  will  bo  ail 
nominate  emigrants  for  conveyance  to  Sydoe; 

rules  and  regulations  as  above  rHlerr 


Regulations  for  granting  free  paaiagea,  aUw 

the  above  paper  ;— 

"  1.  The  emigrants  must  belong  to  Diaelaa 
chanics  and  handicraftsmen,  agricuhontl  Uboi 
useful  domestic  servnnts.  All  tlie  adulla  I 
capable  of  labour,  and  emigrate  with  the  J 


vorking  for  wages  after  Cheii 

2.   Perfeous,  therefore,  who  ane  prui 
ulony  (0  buy  land,  or  iavei(  a  small  a 


who  shall  pay  iu  this  country,  or  in  (lie 
ice  for  eight  sounro  miles,  or  L..^12ll,  will 
A  to  district)  already  surveyed  and  open 


of  den 

to  acquire, 
e  block,  of 

which  only  the  outer  boundaries,  therefure,  will  be  sur- 
Tcyed.  It  will  also  be  subject  to  all  regulations  which 
nwy  bo  established  in  the  colony,  respecting  (he  pro- 
portion of  front  to  depth,  water-frontage,  reserves  for 
nads,  and  other  conditions  of  siniilar  nature. 

10.  Kver)-  pBrflbassr  will  be  entitled  to  name  ■  num- 
ber of  persons  of  the  labouring  class  for  a  free  passage 
to  the  colony,  Ln  proporllon  to  the  amount  k!  purchase- 
money  which  he  has  pud  in  tliis  country:  vis.,  for 
every  L.CU,  one  adult  person  ot  fourteen  years  and  up- 
wards, or  Iwo  eliUdren  between  seven  and  fourleeo,  or 
Ihrea  children  under  seven.  The  whole  must  be  lub- 
JHCt  to  the  approval  ot  Ibe  conuniasionerii,  and  tall  within 
llisir  gi-a<ral  regulations  on  tliis  subject,  of  which  a 
et>py  will  b*  tumi^ed  in  any  pcnon  requiring  tbem. 


follows  : — shepherds  and  fiu-m-MirTa.  ,  _ . 
employed  in  building,  such  as  carpmlcis,  join 

terers,  bricklayers  and  stone-masons,  quarryr 
brickmakfr^:cmintrybiaeL»Riiths,who>'antho. 
wheelwrights,  and  a  moderate  number  of  tail 
shoemakers. 

4.  The  emigrants  are  required  to  consist  pri 
of  married  people  and  their  families. 

5.  Single  women  without  their  parents,  are 
missiblo  if  they  are  emigrating  under  the  in 
care  ot  some  married  reUtivea,  or  else  alU 
domestic  servants  to  ladies  gtnng  out  as  cabin  pai 

The  luoit  useful  ot  this  class  may  be  lud  ti 
mesiic  servants,  as  just  alluded  to,  sempatrvt 
youDg  women  accustomed  to  farm  or  dsiry  wo 

6.  Single  men  cannot  be  allowed,  exoept  in  a 
not  exceeding  that  of  the  single  women  in  tl 
ship.  It  named  by  a  land  purchaser,  they  can 
accepted  in  case  the  same  parly  has  named  ■ 

7.  The  age  at  persons  accep[cd  as  adults  is  t 
lesit  than  fifteen,  nor,  generally  speakinz,  VM 
thirty-live.  But  the  latter  rulo  will  admit  of  t 
laxed  in  favour  uf  tlie  pannis  ut  sons  and  da 
of  useful  ages,  going  by  the  same  ship. 

R.  liood  cliaracter  is  indispensable,  and  dva 
tilieates  will  he  required  both  to  this  point  ant 
compelenee  in  the  professed  trade  orcalliagof 
posed  emigrant. 

9,  All  appliciitions,  therefore,  mast  be  n»d 
form  hereto  sjinexcd  fur  the  purpose,  duty  flite 
attested,  as  explained  in  (he  form  itself,  aod  ( 
warded  to  this  office.* 

10.  For  the  present,  the  limited  amnunl  i 
does  nol  admit  of  giving  free  passages  etorpi 
C rants  named  by  parlies  who  have  made  pure 
Ihiscountry  of  colonial  land.  No  olhen, theicft 
apply,  ss  it  will  be  impossible  to  somply  with  I 
plies  ■ 


*[A| 


IS  (rf  eoilgnnu,  wl 


EMIGRATION  TO  AUSTRALIA. 


shaien  mmt  make  their  application  within 
X  montba,  after  which  the  right  of  nomina- 
I.  PnrehaBers  of  special  surreys,  however, 
d  eighteen  months.  The  nomination  will  he 
the  approval  of  the  commissioners,  whose 
ist  be  reoeived  before  the  emigrants  are  led 
ly  preparation. 

sarly  answer  will  be  given.  If  approved  of, 
uits  will  be  registered  in  this  office  as  ac- 
a  free  passage,  and  accommodation  be  found 
at  the  first  suitable  opportunity.  But  due 
be  given,  and  they  should  not  in  the  mean- 
draw  from  their  employment, 
emigrants  must  pay  their  own  journey  to  the 
ibarkation. 

risions,  mattresses  and  bolsters,  and  cooking 
ill  be  found  for  them.  But  blankets,  sheets, 
lets,  are  not  supplied,  and  they  must  provide 
it  stock  for  themselves  and  their  families. 
J4  also  bring  their  own  towels,  and  their  own 
1  forks,  with  tin  or  pewter  plates,  spoons,  and 
Bugs. 

emigrants  must  bring  their  own  clothing, 
t  be  allowed  to  proceed  unless  they  provide 
I  with  a  sufficient  supply  for  their  health 
»  voyage.  The  lowest  quantity  that  can  be 
would  consist  of  two  complete  suits  of  exte- 
Dg  (including  two  pairs  of  shoes),  and  of  six 
:  shirts  and  stockings  ;  but  as  a  general  rule, 
stated  that  the  more  abundant  the  stock  of 
le  better  for  health  and  comfort  during  the 
It  should  be  observed,  that  the  usual  length 
tge  to  New  South  Wales  is  alTout  four  months ; 
kt  whatever  season  of  the  vear  it  may  be  made, 
ints  have  to  pass  througn  both  very  hot  and 
weather,  and  should  therefore  be  prepared  for 

1  family  should  furnish  itself  with  two  canvass 
gs,  as  the  heavy  boxes  and  chests  will  be  put 
le  hold,  and  there  will  only  be  access  to  them 
ery  three  or  four  weeks. 

desirable  that  emigrants  should  take  out  with 
(lecesaary  tools  of  their  trades :  bulky  agri- 
aplements,  however,  cannot  be  admitted,  on 
:  their  inconvenient  size  and  weight ;  neither 
»re  be  received  on  board — ^mattresses  espe- 
.  feather  beds,  are  strictly  prohibited. 

whole  quantitv  of  baggage  allowed  for  each 
prant  is  as  much  as  will  measure  twenty  cubic 
lot  exceed  half  a  ton  weight.  It  should  be 
B  far  as  poesible,  into  two  or  three  boxes  of 
than  two  aud  a  half  or  three  feet  lone,  by 
mty  inches  wide  and  eighteen  inches  liigh. 
ould  not  crowd  the  ship  with  boxes  only  half 
I  must  pack  their  effects  close. 
Y  the  luggage  really  belonging  to  each  family 
gers  is  intended  to  be  taken  under  the  fore- 
wance.  If  any  one  should  attempt  to  impose 
nmissioners,  by  letting  the  baggage  of  other 
lot  members  of  his  family,  go  under  his  name, 
rfeit  his  passage,  and  not  be  suffered  to  pro- 

ters  and  applications  should  be  addressed 
;)  to  Stephen  Walcott,  Esquire,  Secretary  to 
i  of  Emigration,  No.  9,  Park  Street,  West- 
-By  Order  of  the  Board, 

Stephen  Walcott,  Secretary." 

lltATION  A!fD  miscellaneous  INFORMATION. 

he  above  accounts  of  the  various  settlements 
Ua,  it  will  appear  that  they  are  in  a  condition 
,  employ,  and  comfortably  sustain,  an  immense 
1.  At  present  the  whole  country  is  only  in  its 
ad  it  is  perhaps  not  too  much  to  say,  that  fifty 
fitmilies  could  be  accommodated  from  Great 
innally,  for  a  century  to  come.  Two  or  three 
B  peculiar  in  the  adaptation  of  Australia  to 
Some  parts  are  well  suited  for  carrying  on 
re  and  gudening ;  but,  from  the  dry  nature  of 
301 


the  climate,  the  grand  object  of  pursuit  must  be  sheep- 
farming,  and  it  may  be  recollected  that  America  and 
England  will  take  any  quantity  of  wool  that  can  be 
sent,  and  for  which  food,  clothing,  and  all  desirable 
articles,  will  be  given  in  return.  Hence,  to  become  a 
pastoral  farmer  may  be  considered  the  prime  intention 
of  the  emigrant  who  possesses  a  sufficiency  of  capital, 
and  to  employ  themselves  as  shepherds  or  to  work  as 
mechanics  is  what  all  labourers  without  capital  will 
naturally  turn  to. 

The  rapid  extension  of  pastoral  farming  in  all  the 
settlements,  particuUrly  New  South  Wales,  Port  Philip 
district,  and  South  Australia,  and  the  increasing  size 
of  towns,  along  with  the  stoppage  of  convict  assign- 
ment, have  caused  a  most  extraordinary  denuind  for 
labourers,  and  wages  are  very  high.  In  a  letter  from 
a  gentleman  at  Melbourne  (Port  Philip),  dated  Julv  23, 
1840,  to  his  father  in  this  countrv,  and  which  has  been 
obligingly  shown  to  us,  we  find  the  following  passages : 
— **  Melbourne  is  spreading  out  daily  to  a  great  extent. 
Labour  is  the  cry.  We  have  had  three  ships  from  Mr 
Marshall  of  London,  during  the  last  three  weeks,  each 
vessel  bringing  at  least  200  emigrants ;  yet  the  wages 
are  12s.  per  day  for  mechanics,  8s.  per  day  for  labourers, 
and  shepherds  L.35  per  annum,  with  rations ;  female 
house-servants,  L.20,  and  female  cooks,  L.25  to  L.30 
per  annum,  with  board  and  lodging.  These  are  the 
wages  now,  and  no  prospect  of  a  mil.  No  sooner  does 
an  emigrant  ship  arrive  in  the  bay,  than  numbers  go 
down  and  engage  servants,  and  before  a  week  has 
passed,  they  are  all  taken  up."  It  is  true,  the  expense 
of  living  is  higher  at  Melbourne  than  it  is  in  thb  coun- 
try, but  we  should  suppose  not  more  than  a  fourth  can 
be  reasonably  deducted  from  the  rate  of  wages  on  this 
account ;  and  it  is  very  certain  that  no  man  or  woman 
of  honest  character,  who  is  willing  to  work,  need  lack 
the  means  of  a  comfortable  mode  of  life,  besides  the 
prospect  of  still  greater  advantages. 

So  great  is  the  demand  for  labourers,  that  govern- 
ment, as  we  have  seen,  hold  out  the  inducement  of  a 
free  passage  to  young  persons  of  both  sexes,  and  a  por- 
tion of  all  the  money  laid  out  iu  land  is  set  aside  as 
a  fund  wherewith  to  accomplish  this  desirable  object. 
Persons  in  humble  life,  therefore,  who  are  of  the  age, 
and  belong  to  any  of  Uie  professions  named,  can  now 
get  a  free  passage  by  applying  to  the  pi*oper  authori- 
ties ;  and  as  there  are  shippers  who  negotiate  these  free 
passages  in  every  principal  sea-port,  very  little  trouble 
need  be  encountered  on  the  subject.  They  will  bo 
supported  for  ten  days  after  landing,  but  it  is  not  pro- 
bable they  li^-ill  be  ten  hours  without  eetting  into  work. 

Others,  who  do  not  come  under  the  class  for  free 
passages,  or  who  prefer  selecting  their  own  mode  of 
transit,  can  be  at  no  loss  whatever  to  find  vessels  fitted 
for  their  reception.  About  the  months  of  March  and 
April  of  each  year,  emigrant  vessels  sail  in  great  num- 
bers to  Australia.  The  same  expense,  we  believe,  is 
incurred  for  a  passage  to  Sydney,  Port  Philip,  or 
Adelaide.  The  common  price  of  passage,  including 
provisions,  is,  for  a  single  man  in  the  steerage,  about 
L.23,  and  in  the  cabin,  from  L.55  to  L.60;  for  a  married 
couple,  somewhat  less  than  the  double ;  and  for  single 
females  the  charge  is  about  L.3  less  in  the  steerage, 
and  L.5  in  the  cabin.  Children  are  rated  according  to 
their  ages  from  sixteen,  at  three- fourths  of  the  above 
rates  down  to  six,  at  one-fourth ;  when  unjler  twelve 
months  old,  no  charge  is  made.  Each  passenger  is 
allowed  half  a  ton  of  luggage.  They  furnish  their  own 
bedding,  and,  in  the  case  of  steerage  passengers,  their 
own  spoons,  knives,  forks,  &c.  When  the  passage- 
money,  however,  is  found  to  be  lower  than  that  stated 
above,  it  would  be  well  for  the  intending  voyager  to  see 
that  the  difference  is  not  made  up  by  a  deficiency  in 
the  quantity  or  quality  of  his  provisions,  or  that  it  is 
not  perhaps  much  more  than  compensated  by  some  such 
arrangement,  probably,  as  putting  three  grown-up  per- 
sons into  one  bed,  when  there  are  no  ordinary  ship  beds 
that  can  with  any  degree  of  comfort  accommodate  more 
than  two. 


t;tlAMISl:«K»  »  inj-v... 


re  follow  two  of  the  diief  papers  referred  to : — 
'  Notice  to  Persons  desirous  ^purchasing  Land  at 
Sydney  or  Port  Philip. 

1.  With   a  view  to   promoting   settlemeut   in  the 
UBtralian  colonies,  the  following  measures  have  been 
iopted,  under  the  sanction  of  her  Majesty's  govem- 
jent  :— 

2.  It  has  been  determined  that,  for  all  purposes  con- 
nected with  the  disposal  of  land,  that  portion  of  the 
territory  of  New  South  Wales  which  lies  to  the  south 
of  the  counties  of  Murray  and  St  Vincent,  and  of  the 
Rivers  Murmmbidgee  and  Murray,  as  lar  as  the  east- 
em  boundary  of  South  Australia,  shall  be  separated 
from  the  rest  of  New  South  Wales,  and  be  distinguished 
by  the  title  of  the  Southern  or  Port  Philip  district 

3.  Within  the  Port  Philip  district,  land  will  hence- 
forth be  sold  at  the  fixed  uniform  price  of  L.1  per  acre, 
in  sections  of  one-half  of  a  square  mile,  or  320  acres 
eadi. 

4.  Towns  already  laid  out,  and  in  which  any  land  has 
actually  been  sold,  will  be  exempt  from  the  operation 
of  the  foregoing  rule,  and  town  lots  in  them  continue 
to  be  sold  by  auction ;  and  the  government  will  also 
have  the  power,  6hould.it  be  deemed  expedient,  to  re- 
serve any  sites  of  towns  likely  to  become  the  seats  of 
local  administration,  or  any  sites  eminentiv  adapted  for 
commercial  sea-ports.  The  formation  of  all  other  towns 
and  villages,  including  therefore  every  inland  town, 
except  where  the  residence  of  a  government  may  be 
established,  will  be  left  to  the  enterprise  and  judgment 
of  individuals. 

5.  Certain  hmds,  to  be  properlv  marked  out  in  maps 
exhibited  at  the  land-office  m  tne  colony,  will  be  set 
apart  for  roads  and  other  public  purposes,  and  will  be 
regarded  as  inalienable  public  property.  But  it  is  not 
intended,  unless  in  very  special  and  rare  cases,  to  make 
any  reservation  of  minerals,  and  all  deeds  of  grant, 
therefore,  will  convey  to  the  purchaser  every  thing 
above  and  every  thing  below  the  surface. 

6.  Purchasers  in  the  colony  must  buy  their  land  at 
the  oftice  fur  crowu  lands  in  the  district  of  Port  Philip. 

7.  Purchasers  in  En>;land  will  have  to  deposit  their 
purchase-money  with  Mr  Barnard,  the  crown  agent  for 
the  colony,  No.  2,  Parliament  Street,  from  whom  they 
will  obtain  a  receipt,  on  production  of  which  at  the  office 
of  the  Colonial  Land  and  Emigration  Commissioners, 
No.  9,  Park  Sti"eet,  Westminster,  they  will  be  furnished 
with  an  order,  stating  the  number  of  acres  which  they 
have  purchased,  and  directing  that  this  quantity  shall 
be  granted  to  them  upon  thrir  naming  in  the  cohniy 
the  spot  of  unappropriated  land  which  they  shall  select. 

8.  The  charts  and  registers  to  be  kept  in  the  land- 
office  at  Melbourne  are  intended  to  furnish  full  and 

--'"•^rniation  of  all  appropriations  of  land,  and 
■  -'-"roDriated,  and  of  all  por- 

And  each 


1 1.  Persons  wbo  mmj 

above  advantage,  will  be  requirea  iw  •«. 

lists  of  the  names  and  deseriptioiia  of  thi 
propose  for  a  free  passage  witnin  six  moot 
of  their  purchase,  after  which  time  no  foi 
any  nomination  for  a  free  passage  will 
Purchasers  of  special  surveysy  however,  w 
eighteen  months. 

12.  In  the  older  parts  of  New  South  ^ 
tuting  what  will  henceforward  be  called 
district,  land  continues  to  be  sold  by  auetio 
price  of  12s.  per  acre,  in  lots  of  640  acrea,  < 
mile. 

13.  Should  any  person,  intending  to  pi 
in  this  portion  of  New  South  Wales,  thii 
deposit  money  in  this  country,  in  the  modi 
tioned,  he  will  receive  from  the  Land  anc 
Commissioners  an  order  entitling  him  tc 
correspondiuff  sum  in  the  acquisition  of 
public  sales  in  the  colony,  and  he  will  b> 
nominate  emigrants  for  conveyance  to  $3 
the  same  rules  and  regulations  as  above  r< 
the  district  of  Port  Philip. — By  order  of  i 

S.  Walcott 

Regulations  for  granting  free  paasages, 
the  above  paper  : — 

"  1.  The  emigrants  must  belong  to  the 
chanics  and  handicraftsmen,  agricultural 
useful    domestic  servants.      All  tlie  ad 
capable  of  labour,  and  emigrate  with  tb 
working  for  wages  after  their  arrival. 

2.  Persons,  therefore,  who  are  pro< 
colony  to  buy  land,  or  invest  a  small  a 
are  not  eligible  for  a  free  passage. 

3.  The  classes  most  in  aemand  may 
follows  : — shepherds  and  farm-servao 
employed  in  building,  such  as  carpent< 
terers,  bricklayers  and  stone-masons, 
brickmakers;  country  blacksmiths,  wh« 
wheelwrights,  and  a  moderate  numb 
shoemakers. 

4.  The  emigrants  are  required  to  ' 
of  married  people  and  their  families. 

.').  Single  women  without  their  pa' 
missihie  if  they  are  emigrating  un 
care  of  some   marrietl  relatives,  c 
domestic  servants  to  ladies  going  out 
in  the  same  ship. 

The  most  useful  of  this  class  m 
mestic  servants,  as  just  alluded  t 
young  women  accustomed  to  fanr 

0".  Single  men  cannot  be  allowe* 
not  exceeding  that  of  the  single 
ship.     If  named  by  a  land  purch 
accepted  in  ca>c  the  same  partj 


rr  pnitBc**--'  Fnm  Uabik,  *a  bM  tiK  tic*  |ihi- 
rrc  kto  bid  omns  Traai  TaielaaS.  anil  li*4  Iimh 
rf  n  pot  fn^'  H-'-  i-tH,  i"  f—nw-p-n,-.  „t  ilm  Vul 


r  tknw  UuUtUmI*  inias  <■>  l^  >»"'>  an 
■r  dw«)i,  b  iba  lafuC  uil  but  aaj  fur  ti 


n  IhV  1  nil  wn  c» 

mo  in  •ifilil  at  Inn.),  u»!  bv  Utm 

r«k  ttft«m.«)imT 

ill  Riiiul  .d  i!<^ 

\  L.[li»lnr.'    iiitat,   ptKViniUiat  lUul 

kvti.lli.-  ..  .■   ■ 

--.      i^j.,l»MrnveM.ri»lj!» 

J.*->,l, 

;.'.ity:>Di1  Idldpiit 

kl  nil  il'  ■  -I  vin*  nl  AiiitMtift 

U.  tli>».  <r.  ili-L    Tlinvioil 

tinurri  n.ii  '    !<;■,  dnrlngwhiiA  wa 

kml  ont  JUi'l  in,  trralntif  tirili'  |uii)[ri™i  U>  lS»  ^Mt- 
il  [wlul  &  trtni  uf  B  >i*iui»-tU|{  here  i1 ;  but  thi>  ii|i- 
nwEN  at  tb>  aMuntry  irojirDiBd  iudvIi.  buluK  nuw 
Jiwl  wilh  (■irorlduwnUitlKi  shon.  ■ml  ve  Dvijiunll/ 
:lli||Ulcllifl]  flm  ivliiiib  UiB  naUdnf  rui*d  u  ai^kl*. 
3  luid  n  made  flcvt  ma  bstwtxt  Purtlanil  Baf  and 
M  Crtny.  Oo  Uie  ITtli,  wo  uihtnd  I'on  I'lolip  fojr 
M  ivrj  nsmiv  nntranw,  not  mur"  than  liatr  k  m'da  I 
lad ;  bill  in  K^itintt  tliniusH  "luit  artt  eaQ«d  Iho 
ttdpit'  ihp  liBj  ufmnA  U|i  liitti  A  Huit  nht^vl  tjT  waU<r, 
lowtwro  abuut  tliJrly  mllnn  lung  and  twiMtl*  bri'iu). 
a  coantiy  na  iiat/a  aid*  I*  richly  nondol,  and  Tathvv 
b.  We  aaLUd  np  In  tlie  aJtefieoa.  llie  bay  tnins  aa 
m  u  •  locb,  with  ih*  inn  aiiining  oIht  and  boa  allliil, 


eiplul  sf  Ilia  fort  {"billp  dl>tri«l,  waa  Mnuij;*  lu 
— •  ircat  iDktiy  brick  hunan  and  tenia  buliiii  aoattMul 
lut  b«r«  and  tJiacD.  Tbo  price  ol  proilaloii*  b  tMU' 
hingt)'  high,  but  il  mora  ihan  coinpanatnl  bV  pru> 
■tttuwtaly  hi)[b  icagea.  All  the  mealuuiln  mi  lioirl 
rii  engaged  tlic  titvt  day  at  12ii.  p«r  itay,  *ud  l-mplo 
iting  aoil  cmune  on  bo&rd  to  g«t  thcni.  Wo  Iia4 
:  bill*  dua<iuiitwd--ihe  thirty  day*'  oiwa  at  '2  iwr  o«il. 
imiuiDiMidwegiitApar  etiiLliit«r«tfmin  tJi*  banka 

dvpuhita:  for  owiicy  leal,  ibe  eommnn  nta  1*  1* 


plan,  (oi 
nmbiii);  hut  a  fait  tniul  hnta 

—     .. LMQiniDg  til*  aiipttraMW  bf « 

Already,  tiia  v^it.  is.  ihiv^\^^4  vAwn 


CHAMDEBS'S  INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


rtUvcut 
n  hditaub 


pUceniiiitb  CBttic  itnd  sheop ;  iberu  arc  nowfo 

oirgD  at  wool  for  London,  beeides  TsriouB  a 
engngcd  in  the  eoanting  Irmie.  Wo  will  g 
Muntry,  otiiI  ■bould  we  oot  loetX  with  •ny  Ih 
uain  tbfl  wsyolacituklion  (for  we  will  not  1 
mene)'  till  wc  acquire  a  knowledge  to  da  u  hdnutage- 
oiuly),  we  will  relurn  to  town,  and  hftve  no  Joubt  of 
getting  emplaymeut." 

Our  next  extmct  is  from  » letter  dated  Jftnaarj  1840. 
«  When  i  wrote  on  arriral,  I  did  not  tliink  it  would  be 
AdVBtitageoua  to  buy  ebeep,  from  the  hjgbueaa  of  their 
priue.  1  could  have  ^t  a  utuatiou  in  a  merchant's 
office  ui  tietboame,  with  a  nUary  of  L.130,  but,  after 
all,  did  not  bke  taking  to  tbo  pan  agsin.     Having  been 

iiittoiluced  to  Mr ,  WB  visited  liis  station,  about 

BOVtDty  miles  from  Miiibourue,  and  there  we  bought 
SUO  owes.     We  tired  there  nEorly  two  months,  and  ] 
a  good  deal  of  insight  into  the  bnoinesa  of  aheep>far 
iag:  were  it  auch  a  science  oa  it  ia  at  home,  1  wcii 
feel  a  little  afraid  of  sueeeeding,  but  there  ia  really 
luyitery  about  it.     Wo  left  that  station  the  day  after 
Chrlalnuu,  and  piooeedvd  with  our  slieep  about '       - 
Sre  miles  farther  up  the  country,  where  we  a 
Mttled,  and  have  got  our  hut  erected.      It  would  be 
impowible  to  give  you  an  outline  of  all  llie  adventures 
WH  have  encountered  op  to  this  liiue,  and  I  am  so 
burrlcd  as  to  be  able  to  write  only  in  siuttohea.     You 
will  have  heard  that  wo  are  settled  in  comjiony  with 

Mr and  Mr  [two  acquaintances j,  which  is 

for  the  purpose  of  avoiding  the  expense  which  a  nnall 
numbrr  of  sheep  take."  Here  we  stop  lo  say,  that  in 
n  letter  from  the  otlier  brother,  it  is  eiplaiDed  that  tliey 
hod  procured  a  lieense  from  government  to  gnas  and 
posture  in  a  eertun  district, tnusavoidingthe      ~ 

of  buying  land;  and  the  foilor- '- 

the  sbeep-puichaw  sn  d 


lount  ta  givi 
iti_''Wol; 


t  beginning.  Thero 
are  lour  oi  us  cimcerueu  m  iiw  uudertijiing.  We  hive 
begun  on  a  very  economical  system,  managing  the  sbeep 
ourwlves,  one  of  us  going  out  with  tliem  for  a  week 
allenialely,  while  the  others  are  duiug  any  thing  about 
the  place.  W'e  run  the  whole  in  one  flock,  tiil  the  lamb- 
ing, which  takes  place  about  the  middle  uf  Mareh,  when 

man-Bvrvant  nlroady,  who  drivea  and  looks  after  our 
bullocks,  beoides  making  himself  generally  uecful.  The 
sheep  require  the  ulmobt  core  and  attention  possible. 
One  nsa  to  take  iliem  out  at  sunrise,  so  as  to  get  the 
dew,  and  remain  with  them  the  whole  dsy,  bringing 
thetn  back  at  sundown.  They  require  tu  be  always 
watched,  both  in  couseciueuoe  of  the  natives  and  wild- 
dogs  I  the  dogs  are  must  to  bo  feared,  as  they  often  rush 
into  the  Bocks  by  day,  and  sneak  into  the  peneat  l>ighL  ' 
We  have  as  yet  escaped  both  evils ;  but  I  bava  B«n  a>  ! 
many  as  six  killed  in  a  flock  in  one  night  by  llie  wild- 
dog.  The  sheep  here  are  very  subject  to  H  disease  called 
scab,  bnt  it  just  requires  core  in  looking  after  to  be 
kept  under.  I  think,  if  wool  keep  the  same  price,  wo  1 
wilt  get  about  Is.  oi,  per  pound,  the  ptoduce  averog- 1 
ing  3  lb*,  per  sheep,  wsshed.  1  hardly  think  the  wool 
will  clear  our  eipeneea  this  year,  but  then  we  hsvo  | 
the  increase  always  coming  ou  ;  and  allhougli  the  way  | 
we  live  is  far  from  comfortable,  in  a  wn-lched  turf , 


Dot  there  are  other  places  which  look  u*B 
as  you  can  conceive — iinmcnse  plains  Willi  ■ 
short  grass  on  them — no  water — and  otralri 
to  the  horizon.  You  cannot  see  a  tree  or  ■■ 
them ;  and  they  are  only  inhabited  bf 
turkeys,  and  snake*.  The  gt*a>  ia  innal  pM 
plains  aflbrds  encetleut  posluran  fur  ibaim 
(he  wsnt  of  wood  and  water,  Uiry  arc  uad 
must  be  near  some  river  i^  watcr-holo.  ID  i 
the  sheep  may  drink  every  day ;  this  tliey  i 
do  when  there  is  nu  nun  and  the  weather  M 
for  some  time,  when  Ibe  gnus  bvootno  ao  i 

EDu  take  a  little  you  can  rub  it  in  your  bn 
ke  Bnulf.  Our  place  ia  very  pretty,  being  • 
or  walcr-holes,  which  are  eonoecled  with  ■ 
which  we  do  not  know  the  name.  ThcM  is 
[or  series  of  pools]  run  during  wiiim,  but  )> 
in  the  summer,  except  llie  very  deep  hol(& 
, fallen  ;-- 


Olid    A 


a  lialf  h 


still  flour>afaiH|fc 

gnsB  long  and  luKurioot,  and  forming  exeelG 
hr  our  bullocks.  Our  hut  is  placcJ^a  few  y 
Ihean  boles,     '-'■'-      ■  ._.... 


'Iththe 


woody  oonntry,  gotai 
body  knows  how  IhT,  aflbrding  sheltar  M  N 
kangaroos,  and  emus." 

From  other  passages  in  these  tpttvnt  ■•  I 
the  writers  are  (or  from  being  satisSeil  villi  i 
ation — the  miieries  of  livins  io  a  torf-bvill 
swarms  of  fleas — the  dresdful  solitude  th^f 
pelled  Id  endure,  Iwing  twenty  tnilea  (ran  1 
■eKiement — tlieir  hall-aavagx  mode  of  Vt^m 
collections  of  home — all  tend  (o  iiwpirv  diMiri 
lot.  We  believe  tliat  ench  sensations  on  • 
ail  young  emigrants  who  have  abruptly  M 
society  and  plunged  all  at  once  Into  tbad 
of  sheep-farming  m  the  wildernesL     Illadfq 

sonably  expect  lo  avoid  eiperieiKicii;  aDahfl 
Take  any  man  from  a  eounl«ror  desk,  moAfl 
a  respectable  drswing-room,  and  oblige  Ua  i 
tolhedrudeoriesof-^-       -        ■  "    '^ 

or  Roahurgnshiro, 


only  bav 


s  temporary  opcntion.     Ab 


emigrant  has 


ipensalc  for  Ibf 
lu  contemplate  at  the  begismai 
the  first  shock.     That  pw^ 


be  hoped  that,  with  a  fuir  shai_  . 
vemnce,  ho  will^bcgin  to  find  pit 
eontemplnte  in  a  simple  ruiml  life. 
The  tost  letter  of  our  two  young 
1R40,  tends  lu  support  these  views. 


■ingb. 


irit  than  Ihoee  p 

Eun  to  improve  in  appealur 
ad  passed,  leaving  fdly  a  I 


\ 


p*y. 


ociely,  elill  I  have 


Speaking  of  the  appearance  of  the  coni^try,  one  of 

an  awsre,  ia  list,  and  appearing  nl  a  distance  as  if 
thickly  wooded;  but  when  you  enter  this  woody  dis- 
tricl,  }ou  Rnd  eenernltylhe  trees  a  good  deal  separated 
from  one  another,  with  swonl  omoug  them.  This  is 
considered  the  b^st  ground  for  sheep,  sa  it  nflbrds  good 
shelter  from  the  cold,  and  shade  from  the  sim.  There 
AT*  really  many  beautiful  pans,  and  more  like  the  park 
teaofiy  aroavd  a  noUeman'a  teat  ihl 


young  limbs,  and  another  dropping  e^s^j 
expected  in  November ;  "  but,"  says  the  wiiM 
hoe  been  a  grest  outlay,  and  there  wiU  h*  liUl 
tilt  [he  third  year;  the  wool  should  An  fn 
peuiieH,  the  increase  of  flock  being  the  pnCL 
stock  wo  will  liave  lo  sell  will  be  wetliei%  » 
SI  present  selling  for  eOs.  eoeb."  The  poj^ 
begun  lo  cultivate  a  few  acres  of  Uod.  forlka 
of  raiainB  wheat,  which  is  excessively  npsnil 
colony,  also  lo  lay  out  a  garden,  and  to  WM  bl 
only  drawback,  it  is  added,  is  the  uwnl  ^^Um 
this  keeps  every  thing  behind.  The  vrits-os 
tnughs  than  laments  over  ■'  [hs  domedic  orxMM 
of  the  hut :  one  of  his  compaaione  had  eoniM 
wife  from  Scotland,  and  sent  for  two  nepbaiiri 
in  iho  farm,  while  all  were  looking  forwud  t* 
of  moderate  prosperity  and  comfort. 


niasnaaa,! 


piU,  vn7  pavf,  |in>rol)n>  ■  otU  lUu  mU,  uf  U 
ttlnc.  V  Ml  DiuDcn'a  L^aJ,  iLifuab  U  rwnirt  b*  otUl 
'od  ciuuiln-,  UjBt  muM  npttlnr  la  thai  n. 
pi'Ct  In  N»w  Cwniili  w  alat.  Uesdf*  mivmbI  ■&km«M 
iku  aifkUimiil  ihTmgtiout  llin  IntaciM',  il  p 
iiiuitlcnUe  nutnlinr  o(  rivin ;  knil  !■  ahnntt  eirry 
ittrint  uf  t]i#  itUnd  wkinr  w  to  b«  (iiHsi  Thn  mniH  ~ 
f  llu  Iwii  lAr;,'niU  rivnn  Mi>  tha  IlrnrMl  Will  llw 

lu  ttiinlltar  iia|Mrtant  iwrtleuUr.  tliiit  Etknil  it 
jwljr  AirUimits,  tlutt  1*,  (a  UiD  aunitm  au4 
>  liarhaun,  iiu  plue  uf  ■iaiDur  micut  li 
iiplijlil>  lii.riL-  ii(iul1  Io  it  in  Ihii  rmmil, 

'   '  iimcri'  lUrUuiir  un  tfa* 
I     I)iJrytD|tlK  ••n  Uiii  iiiniliH^ 


oatb,  not,  uiil  wwuim  aiilM  oF  Ilic  klanil  i 
lOTtb,  howavn'i  it  prWHnta  k  liiw  iit  luw  alUriHtUi  M 
■•mIiw,  on  wlitali  tli*  inirf  ru!l«  wiiti  tmi  iuiuntut 
lariiiK  Uui  pniv»Inncaof  nunliarlji  Aitlt,  Iron  . 
oUrenutf  hiilr  natura  of  Uio  country,  Uiom  b  but 
nnipantlTtd/ niuU  pwportiiui  of  It  aiUpicd  fiw 
■lau)(1i,  iliou^i  pmcniing  Bbuu<Unot'  of  uxmUuiI  ~ 
imgc  Tlin  «xt*nt  of  rculy  avnUabla  hiul  ttiron^ 
Iw  kiMnvn  pMt  <>t  Ui*  bilanSi  ba*  Imno  mainwUid  at  inu^ 
Itlnl  of  the  whole,  bud  ihl>  (■  uaiu  iliviAhl  iiiLn  ftiov 
*Tll>,  ctvlng  dm  for  tbo  plough  and  1I10  oilier  lliMo 
or  ^tuMi  thiu,  out  dTIWiMBcriaaf  land,  alianl  ISO 
till  ba  faoml  fit  (or  eiiltivotiaii,  wid  &(i)il  3* 
or  p^iiKi;.  Tbii  it,  of  «ounu>,  a  tough  caiii 
iwjr  h*  fiiuud  not  to  bi>  earrrat  in  many  inaUoca 
n  Ki'imrHl  <**  Iwlitive  it  will  uuL  tw  far  tnim  ttin  ti 


Vail  Diomui'i  IjuiiI  wm  orlKiualtjr  dirldod  lutq  U 
sountia,  Oacliiiigluni  and  Cornwall ;  ih*  tatmei;  ixra 
lying  (he  nortlicrD.  DDd  tlio  latior  ilia  Boutbem  portln 
if  tuc  iiUncL  IWm  oouatios  bava  been  again  wib 
lividwl  into  tllfl  fullawinv  diKtnct>:~H<ibart  Tnwi^  ~ 
Now  Norfdlk.  BkiblnniHl,  I:i}di!,  UaUaiutii,  (iyM»  Bay, 
DuaplMltumj,  N«rftilk  Plulnx,  mid  LauncMton. 

Haiarl  Tlitwn  DUlritl,  llioiigh  tbo  amallMt  in  axtoit 
iif  auf  In  Lbo  Ubmd,  U  f  ci  iIib  moit  itnpoila&l  in  tlia 
»lony,  u  well  froni  llie  airBumttaae*  uf  iM  indadi: — 
llobart  Town,  llio  oapilal  of  tli«  iitland,  a*  from  ila  pt. 
munft  miui;  lupvriur  looal  advnDtana ;  and,  amoap 
ditiKi,  that  of  it*  being  acranihln  \y  watrr  un  thn 
lifOient  iiiil«»~tij-  till  Hui'ii  ILivvr,  wliieh  fnnw  tt 
Knitlmrn  bounila^,  bj  the  IJerwoni  u 


ant,  ami  bv  the  aaa  on  Iha  aaat.  I'h*  wliolo  dltlrM 
ncludina  iho  Inland  of  fltuny,  ohlek  llta  idt  On  c  " 
3I  the  lluoti  IliftT,  and  Ibnaa  part  0/  it,  compriK 


AcludiDji  iho  Inland  of  fltuny,  ohlek  llta  idt  On  n 
I  IliftT,  and  IbniM  part  0/  it,  compriKi 
jijoam  tnllca,  or  nbuul  ■J.i,(liJO  iici«.    tVuj  whAti^ 


CHAMBERS'S  WFOBiUTIOX  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


tfili  diatTlot.howeTer,  is  in  genenl  so  hlllv,  Ituit  out 
erf  theee  n,OW>  aorra  there  nre  not  abo»B  1  BOO  ur  " 
UI1ag« ;  "Tid  it  U  mid  thnt  lliH  iint  cu«l  of  charing 
prep»riiiB  UiMe  lands  tor  the  |>lou((li  greiilly  exa 
wh«  Ihoy  would   now  bring  allogollior  it  pat  oj 
pablie  smb.    Tha  best  and  prinoipkl  farfiu  here 
■iliutrd  on  tlie  baolis  of  the  Derwent,  and  south  oF 
Hnh»rt  Town  in  the  diitelion  of  FnirUe's  Co»e  ;  behind 
till*  interiorljr  ther«  ara  but  few  loationi,  nor  does  the 
■pppuranoB  of  thn  onuntry  t™d  much  to  inrite  f 
Boltlprx.  tho  soil  being  io  gener&l  bo  thia,  and  so  ht 
eneunibend  with  liwea,  that  even   it»  vicinity  to  the 
Eapiial  ia  uarcely  an  inducement  enffiaient  to  an, 
to  aiutinpl  it*  eiillifatioa. 

In  thia  dlsiript,  llobitrt  Town,  the  capital  of  the 
enlimy,  a>  we  have  »lri>aily  said,  ia  eilnated.  Hobai 
Tiiwn  U  tauill  on  the  led  bank  of  the  RiTcr  Derwen 
at  the  head  of  a  baauliful  aive  or  bay,  distant  nboi 
twnDEy  mil™  frooi  it«  Junution  with  the  sea.  The  low 
ii  pl«u«nlly  diluatod  on  a  gonlly  riaine  ^und,  whiol 
sradoally  raliriiig,  teimlnatee  ultimately  in  hills  of  ooi 
^dsnble  helKht,  coTorcd  wilh  wnod,  and  piwwnling 
mnet  romantic  appearaneB.  Thsae,  again,  are  ovei 
lo»h«d  by  one  of  atill  gndter  altitude,  called  Monnt 
WBlllnfflon,  which  risM  lo  the  hrajht  of  4000  feetaboTe 
Uw  level  of  the  ■«.  Hobart  Tnwn  b  thus  bappily 
plaiwl  between  highly  piciureaqua  bilta  on  the  one  hand, 
■nd  a  buDtitui  bay  or  arm  of  the  ana  on  the  other 


■till  aak,  and  of  o 


e,  that 


rr  bein, 


ire  than  a  aquare  mile  of  groand  ; 
the  honnet  are  priniripally  oonalriicted  of  wood,  though 
many  uf  them  ire  at  brick  and  ftceiitone.  Tlio  atreet: 
are  regnhirly  laid  out,  and  IhoM  of  them  thnl  bare  bcei 
Omnplelad  are  maeadamised,  and  present  on  either  tridi 
long  rowH  uf  large  and  baadwme  ahopa.    The  town  do- 


apart  trom  eadi  other,  ea^  having  a  aniall  plot  of 

ground,  from  s  quarter  lo  lial'  — •—  '    -■ 

tached  to  it.  lis  publio  boild 
many  of  them  would  be  eon: 
In  Bntain.  The  town  coaiain^  breweric^a,  tannenee, 
dietillerisa,  floai^mllla,  two  or  three  banks,  hospitals, 
cburchee,  xhnola  charitable  and  stipendiary,  inna, 
tavema,  hotela,  and  grog-shops  ad  infinilHm,  and  every 
thing  else  which  beKpeaka  a  thriving,  bustling,  Indus* 
trinun,  and  civilised  community.  Nor.are  they  behind 
in  the  department  at  literature:  two  or  three  news- 
pnpera  am  hero  published  weekly,  besides  a  yearly 
Almanac,  coniaiiiing  a  great  deal  of  atatisticnl  and  other 
intemting  information  regarding  Ilie  colony,  and  an 
olftcial  Uaeettc. 

AVw  fllor/alk  Distrial  liea  inuaediali-Iy  behind  the 
fbmier,  and  is  entirely  inland,  no  part  of  it  approaching 
the  Ma :  its  extent  from  eael  to  west  ia  about  fifty  miles, 
and  from  north  lo  aonth  abool  thirty — thus  comprising 
1500  square  miles,  or  iKHI.OOO  acnsi.  This  ditlncl  is 
in  general  much  mate  fenile  than  that  of  Hobarl  Town, 
returning  on  an  averaj^e  from  six  to  eiahc  buflhela  of 
wheal  per  acre  more  than  the  latter.  The  farms,  loo, 
are  of  much  larger  eilenl,  many  of  them  amonnijng  to 
SOOO  acns,  some  of  which  are  delightfully  sitnated  < 
the  banks  of  the  Riven  DerwenI  and  Jordan,  the  latter 
of  which  btrenms,  after  passing  tbronuh  an 
baautiful  Intel  of  eountry,ultimately(a[lBin< 
at  a  place  called  Herdsman's  Cove.  In  this  c 
is  alM  a  lar^  proportion  ut  rich  sheep  pasture.  New 
Norfolk  ia  iutcrstcted,  ui  a  north-westerly  direction,  by 
a  ohatn  of  lofty  mountains,  covered  with  the  most  mai[- 
niflecnl  IJUibcr,  and  exhibiting  snow  on  their  summits 
throughout  the  greater  part  of  (he  year.  Fmm  ils 
Tieinity  to  llobart  Town,  and  the  advantage  of  water 
carnage  which  the  lower  part  of  the  district  pusaesses, 
Ihnv  IB  a  irrealer  proportion  of  agrii    ''       '  ' 


that  of  the  Hobaii  Town  dUtriet  IlenkKi 
situated  little  town  or  village,  bearing  (he  aai 
district,  nod  distant  from  Hobart  Town  abmn 
two  miles.  A  coaA  and  van,  the  tonmir  i 
horaos  and  the  latter  with  two,  run  daily  ti 
and  llobart  Town ;  besides  th«a>>.  there  1*  a  ■ 
plyin)!  on  the  Derwent  between  the  two  |ila« 
mcJtmand  Dulritl  extends  on  tlia  sea  eoi 
ProBser's  River  to  Tasman'a  Ponlnaula,  a  tne 
IcrrupIodsCerilily,  being  rocky,  monnlaiooaa,  a 
to  the  but  degree.  The  ridge  of  bleak  and  t 
through  thia   whole  k 


«viiy  liml 
-ailable  I 


I Ihe  pur 


still  hilly,  there  are  a  nnmber  of  beantifnl  a 
valleya;aud  arannd  Pitt  WBler,aBalt-waterL 
miles  in  length  and  three  in  breadth,  there  t 
derable  ^rlion  of  comparatively  Itvel  land  erf 
doscripliun,  aud  well  adapted  for  agriculuiral 
In  this  disirict  there  are  two  towns  or  viUa«> 
mond  and  Serrcl ;  the  Qrst  fourteen,  and  u 
iwcnly-two  miles  dklant  from  Hobart  Town. 
lattur  there  are  Bereral  gnod  inns,  a  panuiw 
church,  jail,  ii.e. ;  the  former  is  not  so  well  I 
witb  inns,  but  there  are  several  rwpeetabfi 
houses.  Serrcl  is  situated  ia  the  fertile  luualii 
Water,  and  ia  eurrouadcd  on  all  sides  with 
highly  cultivated  farms.  This  dislriei  ooolaii 
ther  abnnl  673,0{H)  nares,  or  aboat  10^0  •joai 
OaltaniU  Dutriet  is  separated  from  tha  ■■ 
of  tlie  Oyster  Bay  diairicl,  and  bntinded  inta 
on  the  weel,  by  the  diatriet  of  Qyde,  and  on  I 
by  that  of  Campbeltown.  This  dislrlst  is  i 
ttvely  but  of  imail  extent,  and  fornis  a  Kquat* 
thirty  milea  on  each  aide,  eootaialng  9M  aqiM 
or  about  fi76,000  acre*,  Though  oaa  of  lb« 
aubdiviinona  of  the  island,  Oatluids  la  one  if 
perhaps,  a  greater  prooaniaait  ■ 
B  and  graiing  land,  antl  that  of  li 
m  any  other  locality  of  similar  bone 
btautiful  open  and  exlenAive  dovr 
paniurago,  and  its  arable  laAds  aiv 
productive  with  tlio  best  in  the  enl 


to  the  former 


any  of  11 


Itu 


the  former.  The  advantages  whicb  this  disii 
have  been  duly  apprecia led,  and  agna 
portion  of  it,  taking  its  liiniied  entnot  into 
has  been  located  than  of  any  other  diHrin 
y.  Coal  is  found  here,  but  in  loo  renuM 
a  aBbrd  any  profit  in  the  working.  WH 
cl  aro  situated  wbal  are  called  the  & 
B,ab#antirul  level  Iracl  of  fenila  country, 
m  extent,  terminated  in  the  dislaDCe 
v  of  Ihe  most  magnifleenl  hilts.  Thaa 
derive  their  somewhat  singular  name  from  ihf 
lakes,  orponda,  which  are  so  stro'igly  impngna 
salt,  that  they  yield  by  a  natural  prnens  ebi 
of  liiat  essential  article  of  life  annually.  T)h 
nnt  equal  in  quality  lo  Engliih  salt,  ba^  aavei 
brini^  lOe.  A-hundred weight  in  the  oniony.  Tl 
ifOatlandji,  ntuatcd  in  this  diatriet,  fifty-oasmil 
llobart  Town,  conUuns  a  military  barraefca,  ft 
nn,  several  huge  stores,  and  a  oumbcET  af  v 

CVjri/fZtij/riefeDmpruee  about  ITOOtqmias 
,Olt(l,UUO  acres.  I'liia  district  ii  in  geoenl  U 
ifTorda  excellent  atul  extensive  paaiuracs.  !■ 
•rmiroia  Hobart  Town,  and  thn  dillienllyiif  In 
ng  at-riculluial  produce  to  that  niarkei,  frun 
gnid  n.Hirls,  has  tendi^  lo  keep  li  alinoiS  sidn 
psAtural  diatriet.  The  proportion  of  eBllivU 
here  is  exceedingly  small-  iSome  of  the  beal  ■ 
IB,  however,  in  Ihe  island,  are  to  bafMiM 

herds  of  the  various  eetilera,     This  dbuM 
mtage  of  many  of  the  other*  in  Um  tolwy 


opUttaKonbBdc.    Tbara  uv  inv  fiiinljh  limit 
vbM  hare  (ba  EpiH!u|atl%ii  ana  U»  Sk-IIwIi  f  nw 

"""'"''"'"""'"" ""'  ■'""'■" '"'  •■■^'^i 

:  -up- 
■  ■.-f  « 


li**n  Mvoiail  unui  > :..  t'l  inilniiU 

■-TliU  ia  of  (trout  i!i!ii»..'iiiii.iiLii !«  ihr.  iii»rcliwii», 

uccnalu,  b;  a  omId  at  i^gQkU  deviud  fnr  ouili 
akutlle  boiuD,  nbcn  >  vcsel  eitlict  cnWn  nr  elnm 
SMdi  d(  Ge<«^  Trou  i  Uie  rawil  boinit  taterly 
to  w*,  wCai  iba  ownac  or  neaBieDoi,  tbirt;  tuibji 
jit,  ii  put  in  pn*MHi(ia  ml  tba  mt,  tlwun^  llUl 
Jitnt  iBMliiini  of 1— .1-.-  -.i.~ ..-  —  • — t^ 


•ntMrptko  bltlurtu  ill»- 
cd  bjr  UiB  luhkbilkiiUi  Ibsl  Ibis  waul  will  tu«  bnid 
1  long  oomplainMt  ot. 

I  HuMcK,  a  yews  StMeimiim,  tauid  n  Inur  la  IIm 
inliaTi  Nil«nl««  in  IB.IJk,  ditritii;  ntiicrh  ho  nnid  a 

to  l^uiinraioii  dixiriet  in  Vnn  DixtnFit*!  LjihiI  g 
Xr«in  hill  remwk*  on  tli«  eoutiUy  wn  offn-  ib»  (ni- 
ne ninut: — 

ifho  bank*  of  ihs  IUt«t  Tftiiutr  art  nr  n  nuni  ro> 
lie  dtaor^iUon,  nther  iliicklj'  Umbtml,  wiih  litu 
thoten  twrnfcrteblc-laoklDg  roideaeo,  lui*lii|t  tha 

dIhiwI  in  iu  ntigbbmirboodt  tbe  Adds  {irraiua 
llmt  aropn.  Sernnil  Hour-niilk,  jto^  atv  bam  tJiio, 
n  ha<riiig  p^ot  fui'ililj'  in  oviivaj'iiig  imnliuw  by 
N  In  nnir  [than  Bi(h«r  oji  (ir  down  tbn  rivnr. 
nn  kj'ummnen  nf  LaunciwlAn  hsrbouT,  (imn  ita 
rot  aiiTitnUgc*  lorabbicd  »ilh  «  cUu  or  varjr  antur* 


mid  Iiw)  ohd  m  nippmw  thai  ilnw 
,.  ,  loldGnalBud.  Thatliipplojiofthbi 
!  hai  incnaxil  y<ny  niunh  of  bua,  botli  m  tonuaga 
in  numbar.  Wlmra  thwIb  of  l&O  ton*  bordctt 
I  formarl;  hmujtht  up  wiili  diiKinitir,  olban  of  ADO 
V  fill  ibair  ptasa  aaiul)-,  tnanjr  of  thiw 


CHAMBERS'S  INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


Iihlla  Ibbl  part  oC  the  iBl&nd,  from  it*  geogmpbieal  pnsi- 
&tm  Wid  rtohor  soil  (though  limited),  grevr  crops  suffi- 
cient U  prove  its  aiiperiurity  ma  &a  agricultural  dielrict. 
Any  one  viBitiDR  the  brma  on  tlm  buika  at  the  'I'lUimr, 
No«h  Enk,  or  Norfolk  Pluiiis,  will  ceue  to  woiiacr  ill 
the  sIlipoienlB  of  grain  and  oilier  prodacc.  It  hu 
ltonaar1rlieeiiteTm«llhegTwuir;  ot  New  Rollnitd,  and 
now  fully  ro»li»e8  Iba  title.  Farmers  UBoally  gel  conviM 
Inbourcn  nuigned  to  ttiam  by  goveninieDt,  whioh  is  of 
iiiuuli  conscqoenee,  where  free  Uboiir  is  yet  nciircc. 
Kxluiielvo  MWhliilimBntB  bto  provided  wilh  one  or 
more  mrolianica ;  they  being  otorealer  value,  are  esli- 
malvd  ai  wordi  two  or  three  labourers,  nnd  anigiied 
aeeordinely.  .  Female  conviclB  an.'  aUo  assigned ;  the 
parties  blading  thenueliea  to  furnish  nil  such  servnntB 
wilh  mtioDS  nnd  clothing,  agreeably  to  a  governiueut 
Kwls  [Qmished  them. 

There  are  Bome  fine  Ihriving  cunntry  tovnia  in  this 
northern  dielriet,  amongst  them  Campbeltown,  Long- 
ford, Evandale,Bud  Perth,  which  is  beautifully  situated 
ou  tiio  banks  of  the  y>k.  Two  bridgee  of  couBidcnihle 
^meosians  arc  in  pruoeas  of  building  across  this  river, 
tba  churchos,  mills,  Ac,  forming  a  moat  picluresque 
sOBoe.  There  are  also  stores  for  nierGhuidise,  nnd  inns 
for  aeeommodation — two  very  oectsBary  appendage* 
in  country  eeltleinent*. 

The  road*  in  Van  Diemon's  Land  are  rather  superior, 
from  the  quantity  of  metal  alu^ya  to  be  had,  and  the 
nameroua  chain-gang  parties  conitanlly  employed  in 
making  and  repairing  them.  Toll*  are  yet  nnlnown 
ber«.  In  general,  the  draja  used  for  conTcying  all 
kinds  of  mitli^rinl,  are  drawn  by  teama  of  ballockB,  con- 
■isting  of  from  two  to  eight  in  number,  u  the  occasion 
reiiuires.  The  traffic  along  the  diirerent  roads  wilh 
vehicles  of  all  sorta  is  very  great,  inoludlDgmaib,  sCa^ 
eoachea,  tandems,  &c.,  up  to  the  rolling  carriage  wilh 
liveried  aervanl ;  some  the  molt  of  unsurpassed  indus- 
try, and  some  through  means  more  equirocal.  Thei<e 
are  many  eiDgular  inatanoea  in  the  ebangea  of  fortuiie 
theaa  eotonies  have  produced  on  the  persons  anil  in  thi 


jrigiimlly. 
The  road  bet  wee 


iloii  nnd  Gcorfie  Towt 


less  and  action  at  the  same  time,  aap«*in  t 
saw  in  South  Auatnlia.  Shortly  beroiii  my  ai 
Launccston,  there  was  uid  to  have  been  a  6u 
of  saddle-horses  at  the  annual  raeee,  whieh  to 
on  the  course,  a  flat  piece  of  ground  on  til*  bai 
North  Eak,  well  laid  olT,  and  baring  high  Ui 
neighbourhood,  apparently  very  suitable  for 
purpose.  There  is  also  sport  of  another  kiad  I 
with  the  kangaroo  and  oposBum,  which  are  *a 
ful  on  this  ishuid.  The  Bkins  of  these  animali 
verted  into  many  purposes,  such  as  shoes,  rug 
The  bmd  on  the  North  Eak.  and  that  which 
the  line  of  road  to  Ilobart  Town  through  I'tri 
and  Campbeltown,  ai  far  aa  OalUnds,  is  lolen 
cleared  of  timber,  and  many  eilensire  field* 
&c.,  are  to  be  seen.  This  Utter  pUcu  lies  a 
ccfitre  of  the  islatid.  The  countryfrom  thence 
Hobart  Town  becomca  very  hilly,  wilh  here  a 
a  few  farms  in  the  YalleyH ;  tlie  buih,  of  coui* 
sheep,  boraea,  aud  cattle  in  abundance  depasti 
its  soil.  The  Imrvcst  of  Van  Diemen's  I,and  i 
commences  in  FebrunJrvi  Around  the  capital 
tu  be  some  lino  spots.  The  government  gardei 
three  miles  dUlant,  are  considered  worthy  a 
from  the  many  viotica  and  fruits  grown 
Bppie«,  pears,  and  all  other  Fnglish  (miii,  gr 
great  perfection.  The  grapes  raised  against 
are  as  hirge  a>  thOBC  of  Spain  or  I'orlugij ;  In 
who  haa  spent  much  time  in  all  these  place*  i 
IhiaTasmnniancropdeficienl.  As  in  the  nlher 
many  of  the  settlers  here  have  been  ofljceis  in 
and  navy,  gmnts  of  land  bemg  given  thnm  on 
from  active  service,  which  has,  no  doubt.  Mod 
tu  the  formation  of  an  excellent  community 
civilians  who  ventured  their  future  bappineaa 
grating  to  this  island,  have  been  very  proqieni 
cipally  by  dint  of  determined  persevenmce." 

I^LHUTR,  BOTI,  N4TDIU1.  nUtDI.'CRIlta,  IlB 

The  climate  of  Van  Diemen's  Land  1*  au 

pleasant  and  salubrious,  and  is  especially  *d 


I    hei 


:  of  A 


diflerent   turning* 
leads  them,  always 

■oiDe  gangs  at  work,  farming  an  excellent  road,  wl 
will  soon  be  in  nse.     I  had  a  good  opportunity  of  seeing 

the  fertility  of  soil  on  the  banks  of  the  Ti '  - 

a  viait  to  a  family,  and  of  being  bIUI  mart 
vineed,  that  here,  aa  every  where  else,  farming  requires 
considerable  attention  in  taking  theadranlage  of  seasoni 
During  the  past  season,  notwithstanding  the  droughl 
this  iiMustrious  olasB  have  had  excellent  returns  frun 
their  crops.  The  growth  of  vegetables,  &.C,  at  thi 
fcrm,  partiouhiriy  allrneted  my  attention  beyond  any 
thing  I  had  ever  seen  in  Europe. 

'imontt  the  many  insiaaces  of  individual 


that  could  b. 


wliei 


south  banks  of  the  NorUi  Kuk,  was 
erected  through  the  spirited  e%ertiona  of  a  merchant 
who  H  a  native,  and  an  honour  to  the  colony  which  gavi 
him  birth.  This  erection  is  a  line  light  structure,  v.h( 
■uited  fur  all  parpoae«.  1  understand  that  governmeu' 
afterwards  compenaaled  this  gentleinnn  by  some  granli 

On  Norfolk  Phuoa  are  some  extensive  and  fertile 
farms,  having  very  excellent  steadings.  The  bouses 
are  principally  built  of  brick,  having  the  roofs  shingled, 
that  ia,  siverad  with  pieces  of  wood  Biniilar  in  sizt 
■haps  to  the  common  shitc. 


>ften  much  surpassing  t 
■outheru  pan*  of  England ;  while  the  mani 
eveniugB,  even  at  the  hottest  periods  of  the  i 
always  cool  and  agreeable.  The  rotd  iu  win! 
ever,  though  mild  when  compared  to  what  i 

duration  than  that  of  A^^:trBliB,  anow  lying  b 
on  the  higher  mountains  throughoot  the  grta 
of  the  year;  but  in  the  valleys  and  lower  dii 
seldom  remains  more  than  a  few  hours-  Th 
net  yet  appeared  any  diseases  which  ean  b* 

and,  on  the  whole,  the  chances  of  life  an  t 
tfl  be  considembly  more  in  favoor  of  Van  I 
Land  than  of  Britain  or  any  other  of  the  UMi 
parts  of  Europe.  Celds  are  sometintea  a 
winter,  hut  never  prove  faul  un1e«  nOgUi 
is  not  BUbji'ut  to  any  extremes  of  heat  or  ( 
seasons  nre  regular,  mild,  aud  agreeable;  ll 
sphere  conalanlly  pure  and  clastic ;  and  the  a 
unclouded,  nnd  brillianl.  The  avenge  nambe 
an  which  ntin  falls  throughout  the  year,  is  t 
to  sixty.  The  island  posaessea  a  couiderabfa 
of  trees  and  ahrubn.     The  gum-ttvc  is  the  UlJ 

house  building.  The  trees  are  all  tall  and 
branching  only  at  the  top,  and  they  am  nearly 
grseiiB.   The  bark  of  the  tree*  is  in  genenl  oT 


ably  well  upon  it.    The 
where  lliey  exhibit  a  mi 

loud  gru»H,  and  muden 


horses  used  in  harness  s' 
than  those  across  the  at 
re  relaxed  appearance.     1 


pd  in  England  and  Scotland,  a 
.    ditKeully — apples,  peara,  plums,  gam 

which  the  warmer  temperature  of  Amilntlia 
vniirnble,  are  produced  here  in  great  ahuuli 
of  c).iiellcut  9uahtv.     Itolh  the  climate  •inl  Un 


ClLrlMBERS'S  INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPlE 


nol  t«  bo  louQd  here ;  liut  in  iU  plam  tliere  is  sn  sni- 
innl  erf  (ho  panther  tribe,  which,  though  it  fliea  from 
man  willi  tlie  timidity  of  a  lure,  is  yet  extrcintij  dt- 
•tratitive  to  the  fluclu  of  the  sutttera,  smnngal  nbich  il 
fraquentl;  eoiomits  the  moat  drendful  hi>vD«.  This 
■□inui  Mlitinl  Doniddenbte  size,  liavjni;  been  fonad  In 
many  iiiMances  to  messure  aix  feet  froai  tlie  iaoat  to 
tlie  enlremily  of  tlie  tail.  The  birda  of  Van  Diemeu's 
Luid  are  the  «tiu,  or  Aaatr^an  ostrich,  parroL,  cDcka- 
tiH»,  hprniui.  BwaDu,  peliciuis,  &c.  There  are  here,  too, 
a  coneidrntble  oaniiwr  and  variet;  of  poiionous  r<f[i- 
tilm ;  bol  tliesa,  on  the  whale,  are  neither  w>  oumcroua 

Tha  MW  juvund  Van  Dieinen's  Land  abound  vitb 
whal«,dnlphiiiB,andBi!al8,ai>d  JtaehDrea  iviib  sbell-fisb, 
pu'tienlU'ly  the  muBwl,  these  laM  literally  uavering  the 
rocka  <ni  ita  cout,  and  in  ica  bsyii,  creeks,  and  harboui-B. 
Oyatora  vi«re  once  ptentiful,  but  they  have  become  al- 

The  leuliD)!  it  not  almoat  the  only  miiCirtune  under 
^hiob  Van  Diemen'a  Land  labours,  is  a  dcRcioncy  of 
^md  roada.     This  prevents  oil  eunununicatioa  on  a  pi 
fltablo  or  oaDVenieut  (cale,  eKce|>t  in  the  fuw  cawn 
which    proper  thurougb^ireB  liave   been  nude.     I 
Dixon,  a  late  writer  on  the  country,  obBerres,  tl 
the  euM  of  tranaporling  farm-pniduce  a  distance 
thirty  miloc,   i*  u  great  aa  is  the  coet  of   bringing 
the  aame  quonlily  trf  artielua  from  Great  Britain;  ''- 
otlii-r  worda,  a  baf  rel  of  beef  can  be  sent  &om  Londi 
to  llobart  Town  fur  the   same  priee  an  it  could  be 
sent  frntn  tliirty  miles  inland  la  Hoharl  Town.     If  Ihit 
b«  iniH,  it  is  a  fact  most  diBSraceful  to  the  local  autho' 
ritieii ;  for  wilboul  gaai  ruads  it  is  utterly  impossiblt 
tn  carry  ou  agricultural  opemtiuus  with  advaulagu.' 
The    Blatistical    accounts  of  llie  ioland  meotiuu,  that 
latterly  great  improTements  have  been  made  in  this 
respect,    Ibere   beio^  now  upwards  of    100  miles   of 
maeadaniAed  roads  in  the  colony,  also  several  bridges, 
and  ffiud  cross  -  ri  lUds ;    but  wo  fear  thi ' 
remuuis  to  bo  dune  to  exivod  the  nicoaa 


BBove 


cut  of  il 


of  the  island  is  now  conduated  by  a  lieutenant-eoven 
and  an  eiecnliTe  and  legialative  council.     There 
alko  here  a  obief-jugtiee,  attorn ey-geoenl,  and  all 
othtr  appendages  of  a  supreme  court  of  judicata 
eourU   of  reijueats,    attorneys,    barrblers,    soliciti 
proctors,  sheriffs,  justipca  of  the  peace,  and  the  tvl 
of  the  paraphernalia  ot  civil  and  criminal  jurisp 
dence  Imowa  jn  this  country.     There  are,  brides, 
in  Nvw  South  Wales,  a  Dnmber  of  police  magistrates, 
each  having  a  sciurata  and  distinct  district  under  ' ' 
judicial  antborily;  these  are,  aa  in  the  former  co 
etijirndiary.     The  Uws  here  are  the  same  wilb  those 
in  Engtand.  in  so  far  as  the 
iMiy  will  admit.     The  menib 
tutioiu  are  appointed  by  the 
execuliVB  council,  of  four  in   number,  including 
gOtumiT,  Bud  in  the  legislative  of  Kftecn,  also  iodud- 
ing  that  officer.     The  expense  of  the  judicial  depart- 
ment amounts  to  about  £.13,000  per  annum,  and  the 
■cclesiastioal  lo  about  L.GSOD.     The  miliUry  and  con- 
'riot  eBUkblishmenl  are  paid  by  the  mother  country.  The 
gnvernor'a  situation  is  reckoned  worth  L..^000  per  sn- 
nun,  although  his  net  salarr  is  only  L.3500  ;  Ihe  diTt^r- 
euc*  is  made  up  by  tailing  mio  account  various  il«ms. 
— 1.  __  .. —  -_v_i   iioug,^  gardens,  (arms,  ssrvanls. 


South  Wales,  is  made  np  of  free  s< 
■  ItrlHaes^)  iit«mtlo«  oi 


lI  of  Nc' 


emigrated  from  this  country,  anJ  of  convicts, 
is  so  mnch  alike  in  both  countries,  that  it  is 
sary  for  u<  to  say  any  thing  regarding  it  in  tk 
Tlie  eoDvicta  io  Van  Dieoiea's  Laud  ar«  io  all 
treated  the  same  aa  b  New  South  Walcst 
artido  we  refer  far  particalars.     Tbere  are 

f lines  now  in  Van  Dieaien'a  Land,  these  hav 
tlely  eoaveyed  to  an  island  in  Bass's  Strait 
order  has  been  inaued  by  the  home  goverii 
their  removal  to  I'ort  Philip  district,  NewSoui 
Regarding  the  bush-rangers,  or  runaway 
trum  the  oHeolive  police  foreo  kept  op,  ibrir 
lions  are  confined  to  the  less  populated  disu 
even  there  they  seldom  eiiit  long  without  b 
tured.  We  uuaerstacd,  tbut  wlule  we  arv  not 
rf  adoption  for 


ig  the  I 


ide  ot  CI 


and  leaving  the  coloaists  to  be  more  ilapaDds 
asnistance  of  free  labourers  Ihao  forauriy. 
inforiQAiiou  amy  be  ohtAinetl  on  tbis  pMol  a 

We  gather  the  following  Informatton  rtspe 
eooditiou  of  Van  Diemen'a  Land  froiu  an  offisi 
drawn  up  by  the  Colonial  Secretary  lo  the  gm 
for  the  years  1  B3l>-7-8,  and  pnbluhed  in  tb 
Town  Courier,  1839.  1 1  appeara  that  the  liwd 
of  the  coloDV  has  incteawid  from  L.91,3311  il 
L.9Ii,08l  io  1b3B,  although  io  the  intBrval  t 
been  a  decrease  of  L.lS,OaD  on  the  anaual  ran 
spirit  duties.    The  number  of  li 


of  the  polio 


snt,  formerly  paid  by  i 


Boreniment.  The  aiunber  of  tuwIs  cltMwl 
m  1 835  was  S39,  with  a  tonnage  ol  55,853:  is 
number  of  vessflUhad  increased  (o  S70,  widis 
of  64,454.  The  number  ot  vesssls  cleared  ool 
183.;  was  225,  with  a  tonnage  of  S3,.^fi0 ;  in 
number  was  ^tiiJ,  aod  the  (ounage  €3,392.    Ttn 

the  colony,  witli  a  tonnage  amounting  to  3^3, 
193S  the  uiuuber  built  yiu  tea,  tonnage  1^7. 
It  also  appears  that  the  nnmber  of  aerea  in 
inerenscdfnun  07,283  to  108,000,  or  nearly  24 
The  number  of  horses  had  incre:uied  at  the  I 
per  gent.,  and  tliat  of  sheep  from  8:}4,:>5G  to  I 
hlanufaolories  and  tnules  are  pragrsafiircly  il 
in  ahnost  every  branch.  In  1835  Ihe  nundxi 
drircu  by  water  or  wind  was  47  i  in  1S3S,  51 
place  of  one  fotmerly  driven  by  steam  paver  < 


Van  Diemen'a  Land  is  eooner  reached  tl 
South  Wales  (the  distance  from  Uobart  Town 
ney  being  about  !iUI>  miles):  on  which  aM 
ebarge  for  passage  lo  Hobart  Tova  UinrCBeai 
pounds  leas  than  to  Sydney.  For  a  aiogle  w 
eahio,  including  provisions,  it  is  abont  L.5 
former,  and  L.55  to  the  buler;  and  in  Ac 
about  L.Cl  and  L.S3:  the  difference,  in  ihur), 
L.S  in  the  case  of  a  cabin  pasuDger,  and  ba 
L.3  in  tlial  of  a  eteursge  ]i]kR8eiiger< — in  both. 
sage-nioney  for  a  married  couple  is  somewhal 
double.  Each  passenger  is  allowed  a  certain 
of  luggage  freight  frt't',  generally  aboot  ha 
illhongh  in  (his  particular  there  is  ■  oonalda 

greater  number  less. 


orm  a  beautituUy  cultured  and  lMg«  la 
ing  country,  perhaps  as  much  «o  ni  pfQQ 
a  England.    The  pro 


l*€U4  lii1ilfteau)^U3.;«ita^ui4lBlOSf  Ihtelod 
ermard  to  3,tAB>ll>.  Ftnm  aU  wn  ou  lami,  Uia 
nroue  i-f  itKJt  U  Vui  Dwbcb'i  L«ud  U  audi  ilia 
Be  u  U  Kim  bmali  WoIm,  nuadr,  U  p«  eoL, 
d  ibo  iam  fnuo  JntkB,  Ae,  ahmit  1  fcr  nmt. 
BauilM  t1i(  smwinf;  iif  «iel,  Ibm  ii  ■Bother  ■■• 
uliiijty  ]ir:imhiivv'  •.-...n-r'  cf  f.i;v'ih  .  p-c  in  ilirtMllat 


olllrM-JUoI  II 


TO  boUl  kf  ihnii  wiieln  fivni  Nw*  iiuulli  < 
■  CapvirfGoodllupa.  liiilnd,iii  Uiet»nMiiri3ntiiii7, 
un  Ii  inurr  Uoa  uiw  ■■omii  vIiu,  uualj  iivii^iHg 
iniual?«i  M  tUi  ptuliiaUa  Imuidi  ■#  bnn'fvwIaM^ 
B  rvpUlf  maUiia;  kmno.  Aaj  |<mi>n,  linnt — 
loK  imt  ailb  ■  IbunniEb  fcunirMH  uf  ilurv  nun 


'■"■■  i' 

^  uilU^  HOkiJii  (L.  n'll  tit  toJii:  wuJi  liim  a  oiiM  ""' 
{{nullah  i^aaa-MfiiU  iif  titriui»  Unil*,  ■■111  juTtlEvlarlw 
Hieh  nlnrnv  wliuli,  wlmH  una*  ■vttlwt,  b*  ■tii>u4 
wdjft  CMiy  ftbiiut  Willi  liim,  »[iriJ.l.liiij, 

OTV  Ul  ItCJtMMITVVT  lii     ' 

Ihegnunca  Ui  Vui: 
Bir  rfehuem,  luu)  I  ■ 


K'  -alt"..  rfiff.TJPi'  milv  rii  -v..  fnr  w  n  p-.-!i\«T  .Ir^rn  <A 
Minauninior  rwiuirot  tlui  li  olnuliL  Tlwr*  i*  iM' 
»  guno  sbtvwl,  OiU  kll  tb*  giwd  buid  tu  tlig  lilkud  li 
tckdf  In  tlie  ptMWMKiu  al  Mttlot*  ;  Lial  tliia  ni|iurf 
incorrect  1  thtro  w  ia*a;  cailLuiDn  uf  aciiA  of  ht^ 
«  oountry  «tUl  to  dispow  ot.  I'mbsbl^  by  mucb 
-otor  put  nf  th«  Ixot  tiiiiatod  Isiiil*,  in  w  (ir  ■ 
ntignil]'  to  tnukal  iw  Vi  paintN  of  umliBrkiUiuii  iii  i 

II  Ihero  U  iiia^  vkliuble  graiini)  III  Um  uiimir 
430pl«l,  wutlmilfljil'  ■  flno  arvlf  diuiivmnl  Iroe 
e  buck  or  Mount  Wfllini^iii,  wliivli  will  ■liiiia  nffinl 
.collanl  lonitioiu  to  all  wlio  H»y  : 

A  rvo*nt  writer  in  Ui*  Cotonui)  Mftgaatnc,  Mr  tiavid 
nnt,  k  BMtler  in  Vui  Uienien'*  Laiid,  ajn,  tliai  •>>■ 
■111  occupied  fumt  ■  mere  bell  alODg  tlie  rillB*  nl  lh« 
mrani,  nod  thai  tlien  ia  abucdaiiw  of  Uod  In  utlwr 
Jl»  fthidi  bu  BDt  bmfn  euMi  ■urvwyod.  "  Tin  —  '" 
uch  land,  too,  ttliiali  liaa  b*cn  ' 
rfaoi,  but  a  nlifT  uU y  |[rii«nUly 
wnchlng..   ■ 

«  rocka,  th»l,  biMn  lb«  gri«vo«M 


uch  land,  loo,  ttliiali  liaa  b*cn  diM^iiu]  fur  II*  auidy 
IfToUy  icriiKnUly  liea  lH'.iiealli,aiid_IL  n 
trvnchina  nuch  ground  etTwWk 
,  DmBraT  «Uh    large   lurfaM  ■ 
Wt  anpraaehiog  to  rocka,  th»l,  bvtn  lb« 
it  of  labour,  it  btooaiCB  almoat  impoMlbN 


■II  kuuirii  wliat  tnnchina  nuch  ground  ctTwlA     ThiU« 
r   apuu,  BOtend  «Uh    laTEo   lurfaM  Uobm^. 


Jtliiiugh. 


.._ n»»rlad,  Oi»y  liav*  ySi 

turn,"  Land  in  K>ld  In  Vui  t>iMUiiu'i  t-aiiit  by  |nibUa 
:ct)ait,  In  iota  of  uoc  a^iura  (ullc,  or  0(0  aeoa,  U«% 
■Ml  ptlw  ol  l"i».  V't  acT*. 


CHAMBERS'S  INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE.  ^^^ 

-A 
differeDl  from  what  they  an  in  thi*  aonsUTi  ■• 
ofl'er  tilt  fallotting  ohMrrktioH  on  tbm  piajwl 
ui<l  node  of  pl&iiiing  in  the  kitctwn  jpww,  a| 
from  the  Appendix  M  Iba  wDik  uT  W.  C  W«| 
Tho  obscmtiuiu  ttpplr  to  Nb"  Sonih  Walnli 
eutur,  bat  iub;  with  >  reauooabla  kllowkne*  ] 
useful  u  reg&nls  Van  Uwpieii's  Land : —  ^ 

Pntatuea,  for  a  eaocnl  wiot*!  crop  in  AcU  or  J 
(houM  !iti  pl&nli^J  from  Ilic  cad  of  Jumnry  M| 
of  Felinur;,  or  O'en  the  bcsinniu  of  Mu<4^ 
thmn  loae  tho  pUnliiiSi  &>><■  '"^  *>"  con"  llda 
when  cabbige  and  other  vvK«titblw  rr~ ' 


The  demand  for  meehanics  is  cqully  gro»t  in  Vi 
Diemen's  Land  m  in  AuBtralia,  nod  the  eacouragenient 
tlie  uiuc.  The  diMription  nf  meehanica  moxl  ia  demand 
hare  lire  coopem,  «liip  «.nd  house  oarpenMrA,  cjtbinet- 
makem,  joincni,  ohcetvrrighta,  briDknuben,  uwyen, 
qnarriers,  stono-cnlle™,  and  niuan«.  Tho  wage*  which 
neta  receive  vary  frnni  as.  (ii  B9.  iwr  day,  aocording  to 
the  nhilily  of  the  workronn.  Living  ii  uid  to  Iw  higher 
here  than  in  New  South  Wales,  but  fram  kU  the  iufur- 
malion  we  liftve  been  able  to  procure,  aitielee  do  not 
appear  to  be  dmrer  in  the  one  place  than  in  the  othi— 
Beef  Balls  nt  from  Sd.  to  M.  per  lb. ;  multoD,  S^d.  to  6c 
TCBl,  (td.;hani,  lOd.  to  !■.;  bread,  1  >,  6d.  per  4  lb.  loaf; 
<HtIniDkl,  Sd,  per  lb. 

Farm-Berrants  and  labourers  are  kIho  greatly  wanted 
In  the  floliny,  and  readily  obtain  enipluyniont  on  good 
l*m».  Shvpberd*  and  good  ploughmen  receive  from 
L.lfl  to  L.25  per  annum,  with  ample  previeions,  pro- 
riding  they  be  Inutworihy,  and  well  aequaiuted  »i~'~ 
their  prafesaioni.  Common  labouren  generally  reoei 
(bout  la.  per  day  with  provisions. 

Both  the  mcclianie  and  labourer  «baald  be  infonned, 
al«e,  lliMt  the  eoloniata  pay  na  Ultlc  in  money  to  any  of 
dieir  workmen  aa  they  pouibly  can,  always  itipuUlin)! 
lor  a  portion  of  their  wages  being  talteu  in  produce. 
Tliia  daoa  not  apply  ao  much  to  their  principal  towns, 
Moh  a*  Sydney,  IJobart  Tnwu,  Launceslon,  &e.;  bnt 

•hart,  i>  >n  Dxeeedtogly  Karee  commiidil}'  in  the  CDloay, 
and  ile  place  is  as  Car  aa  poisiblc  cupplied  with  the  pro- 
duo*  iif  tlie  anil. 

The  f.dlo»ing  announcement,  relali 
■dco  of  free  emigranu  from  Britain 
Jjind,  has  reeenllY  been  inued  by  ll 
tan  t—''  1 .  That  the  com  of  L.4fl  be  paid  towards 
deirayin;;  the  puaage  of  a  roan  and  Iii*uife(and  child. 
r«n  uiiiler  three  yeara  at  age),  provided  the  agea  of  the 
married  couple  do  not  excenl  on  embarkation  Uijrty- 
five  ycara  reipeclively.  3.  Tlul  lho,>um  of  L.19  be 
paid  towards  defraying  the  paasage  of  each  female  emi 
grant  above  eighteen  years  of  age,  and  not  exoeedini 
tbirty-five  year^  on  arrival.  3.  That  the  aum  of  L.K 
be  pud  lowarda  defraying  the  pasaage  of  each  female 
domeelic  above  the  age  of  aeventceu  years,  and  not  ex- 
ceeding ihirty-ftve  yeara,  on  arrival.  ■!.  Thai  the  eum 
of  L.7  be  paid  fnr  the  pavage  of  each  child  from  three 
to  ten  year«  uf  ago,  and  of  L.l^  for  lada  bctneen  the 
agaa  of  ten  and  eighteen,  and  feinalca  between  ten  and 
aeventcen,  reapeclively,  for  whoae  paroiila  or  parent 
the  rale  of  bounty  specifled  in  Nu.  l.tiuay  be  allowed. 
a.  That  there  be  allowed  to  Uie  mai-lcr  of  c.icli  .csbcI 
bringing  out  emigraola  under  the  lernui  uf  this  notice, 
a  gratuity  of  Ta.,  la  the  ehief  mate  3s..  and  to  Ihe  eecoud 
mate  Is.  Gd.,  for  each  person  abavo  uiiaye.-irof  age,  pro- 
vided their  eunduct  to  auch  emigrants  during  the  voyage 
prove  aalisfaclory  to  the  lieuteiiant-goyernor.  6.  T' 
parties  applying  for  servants  under  the  terms  of 
noiiee,  bo  rrriuircd,  before  receiving  tho  bounty 
enter  into  an  engagement  to  maiiilaiu  tlieni  for 
term  of  the  agreement  hereiuafLer  alluded  to,  unless 
parted  irilli  by  mutual  consent,  or  discharged  by  due 
eoaree  of  law.  7.  That  persona  requiring  servants 
nndcr  the  bnunliei  thus  onered,  be  alloutd  to  choose 
their  uwD  ships;  but  it  ia  recoinmriided  l)mt  regular 
traders  to  aud  from  the  porln  of  lli^bnrt  Town  and 
Latincestoa  be  aelected.  8-  That  no  emigrant  brought 
out  under  the  turegoing  regulations  be  engaged  for  a 
leas  period  than  llireo  yenra,  under  a  wnllen  agree- 
ment, according  10  a  form  hereafter  to  be  published, 
wid  to  date  from  tlin  day  that  luch  agreenieul  it  eulerud 
into  in  Gnat  Drilaui  or  Ireland.  9.  That  these  re- 
spective buuntiea  bealluwid  for  omigranls  of  the  follow- 
ing descriptioQ  only :— agricultural  labourem,  ahep- 
bards,  masons,  bricklayers,  blacksmiths,  wheelwrights, 
'  ipwrigfate,  and  all  other  descriplioua  of  mechanic*, 


■hipwrigfal 


u  of  the  /car  la  Iheas  colonin  being  "icrj 


The  ground  should,  if  possible,  be  pr*Jiar*d  ■ 
before  tho  ulanting,  and  a  prefaranea  gire^l 


In  July  the  ground  should  bcprcpAnd  forllNfl 
crop,  at  which  time  tho  winter  «fnp  will  te 
digging ;  and  In  this  prooeas  care  must  be  (■&«■] 
rent  the  potatoes  being  broiacd.  If  poaaiUi 
should  be  dug  in  cloudy  weather,  to  avuid  vapd 
the  sun,  which  would  cot  them  ;  wherra^,  If  Mj 
preserved,  they  will  keep  sound  for  a  length  at] 
a  result  tJie  mure  desirable,  as  at  lliia  aeaKia  HM 
are  generally  scarce  and  dear.  The  plantlnc  abfi 
place  in  August,  or  even  iu  Seplamber,  S  oM 
and  at  the  end  of  the  Utter  oiuntb.  or  la  Q 
they  will  require  to  be  hilled  and  aartha^  |i 
cleansed  from  weeds,  which  muat  aim  iMwaaA 
done  as  weeds  tn^e  their  appearanae.  tn  IM 
of  seed  fur  this  crop,  a  middle-siaod  polala  Jti 
preferred,  wlthoal  any  objection  lo  toair  lwaa|« 
islhecnstomaryroodeof  planting.  In  Oetotwrjl 
also  plant  potatoes  foe  a  later  crop ;  and  tlu^  I 
perhaps  less  abundant  than  that  sown  in  AogW 
beginning  of  September,  will  iicvcrtlidvwi  Ws^ 
productive  to  pay  well  the  expenwi  aud  labnufll 
ing.  The  putaio  ia  so  o^wniial  and  dealnUeMn 
of  food,  tlmt  too  musb  care  cannot  be  beatnvM 
cnltare  and  preservation ;  for  should  atinr  ^j 
sliuri,  this  will  afford  the  grower  a  esnila  a^ 
Bupponing  his  family. 


je  dug  deep,  and  broken  uii 

-e'rvliitv.     IfUw 

ight,  tbe  seed  should  be  sown 

onacalmday.M 

n.     Carrots  and  lAi-snipa  ma 

alMbeplanladh 

and  also  i,.  November.      The 

tlirive  hoi  ia  m 

situation,  on  a  liglit  sandy  sol 

;  and  after  Owvw 

garden  hoe. 

Cabbages,  for  a  conefanl  supply,  maj  ba  « 
January,  April,  May,  July,  August,  OotolMr,Mil 
in  November,  at  a  time  when  tlie  ground  ia  ia  ft 
st.ite.  The  plants  sown  in  April  will  nnt  rwt  li 
l.'are  shanld  be  taken  to  set  out  the  plasli  IB*  ( 
and  stronger  gi-uuiid  than  the  bed  thej  aM' 
from,  otherwise  the  crop  will  bo  poor.     Tbairft 


The  ground  for  turnips  should  be  prepared  b 

uary,  and  at  tlio  latter  end  of  tho  month  ao(M 

e  planted,  for  nhich  purpose  gentle  ahowaiy  M 

I  must  favourable.    Tumt|>s  fjr  a  geaenl  ercy ■ 

e  sown  Mrly  in  Jlardi,  and  they   will  Iw  nM 

food  For  sheep  in  the  beginning  of  May.     DoibB 

ivlh  tlicy  rciuire  hoeing  once  or  twice,  la  M 

1  them  clean,  if  the  land  be  fool.    Tttmisafcr 

may  be  nown  at  any  time  between  Hardi  *■! 

ber,  or  the  beginning  uf  November,  when  abnl 

he  sei'd  of  cauliflower  may  be  sows  al  an  111 
Ml  November  aud  February,  but  baat  la  UaaM 
le  sow  aboDt  the  middle  of  May  for  ■■lililMf 

and  this  practice  is  found  to  answer. 

In  March  prepare  Ihe  ground  fnr  Muon^  l^b 

ing  it  up  well,  and  richly  mainariiig  IL    it  VU 


EMIGRATION  TO  NEW  ZEALAND. 


Bth,  Mid  beginniiig  of  April,  sow  a  light  crop 
«■  for  immediate  use.  In  April  prepare  for  a 
1  crop,  which  should  be  sown  at  the  latter  end  of 
oth,  or  beginning  of  May,  to  keep  them  from 
o  seed.  Wron  they  grow  to  a  proper  size,  which 

from  the  latter  end  of  October  to  the  beginning 
ember,  they  should  be  carefully  laid  down,  so  as 
break  the  tops ;  for  should  the  tops  be  broken, 
e  wet  penetrate,  the  onions  will  inevitably  siioil. 

fit  to  draw,  they  should  be  gathered  on  a  tine 
y,  and  laid  under  cover,  so  as  not  to  be  at  all  ex- 
to  the  sun.  « 

ground  should  be  prepared  in  March  for  peas 
ana  of  all  kinds,  by  well  working  and  manuring ; 
,  the  end  of  the  month,  and  in  April,  they  may 
Ik  for  a  Bprine  crop.  Some  sow  from  the  begin- 
f  March  till  the  middle  of  June,  as  occasion  may 

e.  Prepare  in  August  for  a  later  crop :  French 
may  be  as  well  sown  in  October  as  at  any  other 

Tan  Diemen's  Land,  the  farmer  sows  his  grain 

f,  August,  and  September,  which  are  the  spring 
s ;  in  October  he  prepares  the  land  for  Swedish 
B ;  in  November  he  gets  in  his  potato  and  turnip 
;  December  is  the  height  of  his  hay  harvest ;  at 
the  middle  of  January  his  wheat  harvest  com- 
s,  and  continues  through  February ;  in  March  he 
Itention  to  his  fallowing  and  husbandry ;  in  April 
hen  his  second  crop  of  potatoes  ;  in  May  he  lays 
his  English  grasses  ;  and  in  June  he  continues 
mgfaing  and  Burrowing.  Thus  he  has  a  continual 
of  pleasurable  occupation  in  his  fields. 


NBW   ZEALAND. 

ZfiALAin>  consists  mainly  of  two  lai'sc   ishinds, 

the  Middle  Island  and  the  North  Island,  scpa- 

by  a  passage  called  Cook's  Straits,  with  numerous 

r  isles  scattered  around  their  shores.     They  lie 

great  southern  ocean  in  an  easterly  direction 
Australia,  and  although  at  a  distance  of  about 
oiles  from  that  continent,  may  be  considered  as 
ling  to  the  same  division  of  the  globe.  The  New 
id  lalands  lie  between  the  34th  and  48th  degrees 
di  Utitude,  and  the  166th  and  179th  of  east  longi- 

The  southern  or  Middle  Island  is  about  500 
long,  and  from  100  to  120  broad.     The  northern 

is  the  smaller,  being  about  400  miles  long, 
•om  5  to  30  broad ;  bow  being  estimated  to  con- 
sariy  95,000  square  miles,  of  which  two-thirds  are 

cultivation.  New  Zealand  was  first  discovered 
12  by  Tasman,  who,  however,  did  not  land,  sup- 
;  it  to  form  a  part  of  the  southern  continent. 
in  Cook  first  sailed  round  the  islands,  and  sur- 

their  shores  with  so  much  accuracy,  that  his 
depended  upon  even  to  the  present  day. 


I  distance  of  New  2iealand  from  Great  Britain  is 
'  more  than  to  New  South  Wales,  or  about  1 6,000 
but  is  reached  by  the  same  line  of  voyage  round 
ape  of  Good  Hope,  the  return  being  by  Cape 
Vessels  reach  New  Zealand  from  Sydney  in 
'  twelre  days. 

w  Zealand  is  evidently  of  volcanic  origin,  there 
many  extinct  and  a  few  active  volcanoes  in  the 
or  of  the  islands.  According  to  Mr  Darwin,  a 
alist  who  visited  the  islands  in  the  ship  Beagle, 
■on  is  volcanic ;  in  several  parts  we  passed  over 
f  and  vesicular  lavas,  and  the  form  of  a  crater 
dearly  be  distinguished  in  several  of  the  neigh- 
1^  hiUs.**  Hot  springs  have  also  been  found, 
m  which  are  described  as  higher  than  boiling 
and  most  of  them  '^  of  a  sufficient  temperature  to 
any  kind  of  native  food.  There  is  one  spring  of 
J  remarkable  quality ;  it  is  to  the  touch  as  soft  as 
ad,  without  the  use  of  soap  or  any  alkali  except 
the. water  itself  contains,  will  cleanse  the  dirtiest 
Mti,  remoTing  every  particle  of  grease,  however 

;il3 


suUied  they  mav  be  with  it."  A  chain  of  mountains 
runs  through  the  whole  of  the  southern  and  a  con- 
siderable part  of  the  northern  island.  Some  of  these 
mountains  are  as  high  as  14,000  feet  above  the  level 
of  the  sea,  their  tops  being  covered  with  perpetual 
snow,  and  their  sides  with  forest-trees  and  luxuriant 
ferns.  Besides  this  chain  of  mountains,  there  are  other 
subordinate  ranges,  which,  for  the  most  part,  are  co- 
vered with  vegetation  to  the  top.  From  their  volcanic 
origin,  these  mountains  are  studded  with  large  caves ; 
the  diameter  of  whose  openings  was  ascertain^  in  some 
cases  to  be  above  thirty  feet.  Tlie  mountains  are  all 
abrupt,  and  highly  picturesque  in  appearance,  the  per- 
petual snow  on  the  tops  forming  a  fine  contrast  to  the 
agreeable  climate  and  rich  vegetation  of  the  valleys 
below. 

There  are  numbers  of  fine  streams  and  rivers  scat- 
tered throughout  the  country,  which  have  their  origin 
in  these  mountains.  Several  of  the  rivera  are  navigable 
to  a  considerable  extent,  and  possess  waterfalls  which 
afford  the  means  of  establishing  mills  in  most  jjarts  of 
the  country.  From  the  shape  of  the  islands,  and  the 
mountains  which  intersect  them,  the  rivers  do  not  run 
to  any  great  length,  from  lOO'to  200  miles  being  the 
average.  In  1838,  the  ship  Pelorus  entered  a  river  in 
the  southern  island  falling  into  Cook's  Straits,  and 
sailed  up  nearly  forty  miles,  and  her  boats 'continued 
the  navigation  for  twenty  miles  farther.  The  liiver 
Hokianga,  in  the  northern  island,  situated  almost  op- 
posite the  Bay  of  Islands,  has  been  navigated  thirty 
miles  by  vessels  of  500  toils  burden.  Another  river, 
the  Ilaritoua,  which  falls  into  Port  Nicholson,  is  said 
to  be  navigable  for  nearly  100  miles.  Besides  these, 
there  are  numerous  streams  which  cross  and  intersect 
tlie  country  in  all  directions,  affording  abundant  means 
for  irrigation  where  this  is  necessary. 

The  bays  and  harbtmrs  of  New  Zealand  are  not  sur- 
passed either  in  number  or  advantages  by  those  of  any 
country  in  the  world.    Beginning  with  the  North  Islana, 
we  have  first  the  harbour  of  Wangaroa,  the  entrance  to 
which  is  narrow,  but  inside  the  harbour  is  spacious  and 
well  sheltered.   Tlie  Bay  of  Islands  is  about  twenty-five 
miles  south  of  Wangaroa,  and  is  the  harbour  which  has 
been  hitherto  most  frequented  by  Europeans.    The  en- 
trance to  the  bay  is  eleven  miles  broad,  and  perfectly 
safe,  there  being  no  bar.     Inside,  the  bay  is  studded 
with  a  number  of  rocky  islands ;  the  water  is  deep  close 
to  the  shore,  and  the  anchorage  is  excellent.    This  buy 
has  been  long  visited  by  whaling  vessels  for  supplies, 
and  a  considerable  part  of  the  surrounding  country  is 
in  the  possession  of  Europeans.     To  the  south  of  the 
Bay  of-  Islands  is  the  Frith  of  the  Thames,  which  con- 
tains several  well-protected  harbours.     The  tide  flows 
in  this  frith  to  the  height  of  from  eight  to  ten  feet,  and 
at  all  times  there  is  plenty  of  water  for  ships  of  almost 
any  tonnage.     The  Bay  of  Plenty,  on  the  north-east 
coast,  is  formed  by  the  island  becoming  much  broader 
in  a  curved  du^ection.    This  bay  is  very  large,  and  pos- 
sesses an  excellent  harbour  called  Tauranga,  which  is 
much  frequented  for  the  shipment  of  flax,  He.  Poverty 
Bay  is  tlie  place  where  Captain  Cook  landed,  and,  ac- 
cording to  him,  it  affords  good  anchorage,   llawkc's  Bay 
is  very  extensive  and  deep,  the  soundings  showing  from 
six  to  twenty- seven  fathoms  water.     The  most  impor- 
tant harbour  in  the  northern  island  is  Port  Nicholson, 
situated  in  Cook's  Straits.     This  is  the  port  flxed  upon 
by  government  as  the  future  capital  of  the  country,  and 
numerous  settlements  arc  now  being  formed  on  its 
shores.     The  bay  is  about  twelve  miles  long  and  three 
broad,  perfectly  sheltered,  and  ships  may  enter  or  leave 
with  any  wind.     The  depth  of  water  is  from  seven  to 
eleven  fathoms,  and  the  whole  bay  is  described  as  of 
sufiicient  capacity  to  hold  a  navy.    The  River  Haritoua 
falls  into  this  port,  the  banks  of  which  are  high  and 
well  wooded.    I'ort  Nicholson  has  the  disadvantage  of 
being  upon  a  lee  shore,  but  this  objection  can  only  have 
weight  with  regard  to  the  navigation  of  Cook*s  Straits, 
not  to  vessels  lying  in  the  port  itself.     On  the  west 
coast  of  the  North  Island  the  harbours  have  generally 


n  bu"  at  tho  entrance,  which  rendar  tbcir  luvigailai 
moro  duiiteroiu  thui  1I1O10  on  tlie  eul  eotA.  Tho  best 
faarhnnrnit  llio  Hnt  ooul  ie  Ilut  of  Kokunga,  whicb 
ui  ■&!>!  to  run  nearly  thirty  milca  inland.     It  rwiivcB 

■tnuni ;  nnd  from  all  accounte  it  eeeaa  to  be  >  Talii- 
kbi*  dittrict  for  settlement.  Tbere  is  >  b&r  it  tlie  an- 
tntDM,  irlth  three  fstboms  wntor  M  low  ebb ;  but  tba 
tide  tiaBi  twette  r«et,  uid  inaide  tbe  hHTbour  deepotu 
to  HTSnlwn  Ihthoms.  To  the  aouUi  at  KokianES  on 
the  harbour  of  Kaipan,  whiafa  ia  thirtj  mites  long, 
recelTea  like  waleni  of  three  conidderable  atroama.  ' 

ia  obBtrueted  by  two  aand-ltaiika,  but  between 
il  iooide  llie  harboDT  ia 


e  pman  la  d 


__  .  BDutbcTD  islanJ,  withio  Cook's  StroitH,  ia  the 
ftne  bftrbour  of  Queen  Charlolle's  Sound,  which  ii 
nearly  Ihirt}'  milea  long.  Sliip  Core,  within  this  lountl 
is  a  *ery  One  harbour,  to  which  European  ve«el*  havi 
hing  repMred,  in  coii»eouenc«  of  iu  ha»ing  been  do- 
Miribed  by  Captain  Cook.  The  harbour  is  perfectly 
Bhellored,  and  the  ooundin^ehowtpu  fathoms  a  cabled 
length  freio  the  ahore.  At  the  north-western  extre- 
niily  of  this  island  ia  Qoady  Bay,  which  Tiuu  fineaa 
mitea  inlbuid,  and  ia  about  four  miiea  broad.  This  Iny 
a  thought  the  l>eet  statioa  fur  the  black  whale  flsben', 
and,  in  eonseqneDee,  eeveral  Enropeana  have  already 
aettled  Ml  its  aliorea.  Bendea  Iheae  two  harhoura,  there 
•re  many  othera  in  the  island,  such  u  Lookere-on  Bity, 
Twited  by  Captain  Cook,  Pert  Gore,  Blind  Bay,  Admi- 
i^iy  Bay,  and  otberB  which  Iuits  not  yet  been  properly 


From  t!i«  position  of  Now  Zealand  being  north  and 
south,  it  preeents  grest  variety  of  climate  consideriag 
Iho  siis  ef  the  country.  All  accounts  agree,  howerer, 
in  deeoriMiig  it  as  highly  aatubrioae,  and  very  congenial 
to  Eunfpmi  eonalitutions.  Spring  commences  in  the 
lniddl#  V  Atlgnsl;  ■ammcr  in  Deceniber;  aulamn  in 
Marohf  and  winter  in  July.  During  winter  the  tem- 
pcnluro  nuigca  from  4D*  to  SO'  in  aome  parts,  and  In 
others  tho  average  is  higher.  According  to  Cnptain 
Cook,  while  lying  in  Queen  Charlulte'a  Sound,  the  iher- 
tnometor  never  euuk  below  41!''  in  Jnuc,  which  corres- 
ponds to  our  December.  "  The  trees  at  that  lime  re- 
tained their  verdure  as  if  in  the  suTnioer  season  ;  so  that 
I  believe  tlieir  foliage  is  never  shed  till  pushed  by  IHo 
succeeding  leaves  in  spring.''  In  summer  the  thermo- 
meter ranges  from  Gi°  to  80°,  which  is  the  highest 
number  given.  In  Queen  Charlotte's  Sonnil  Captain 
Cook  Bsys  it  did  not  rise  higher  than  66",  and  in  the 
Bay  at  IsUnde,  in  the  northern  island,  a  Ibermumeter 
koptby  oneof  IhamiBsionaricB  "never  rose  higher  than 
73°  or  7i',  nor  went  below  64*."  Mr  Yate,  in  his  Ac 
count  of  New  Zi-aLind,  speaking  of  the  climate,  says — 

health ;  the  healthy  become  rubuat,  and  the  robust  fat. 
North  of  the  Thames  snows  aro  unknown ;  and  fnisla 
■re  uff  the  ground  by  nine  o' 

country,  during  eix  monthB  _       ,  ,   -    - 

heavy  ^es  from  the  eiul  and  north-east,  which  gvni 
rally  last  for  three  days,  and  aro  accompanied  with 
ImmendoDS  falls  of  rain.  These  sales  utiually  com- 
mence in  the  eut,  and  gradually  haul  round  to  Iho 
north-west,  where  they  terminate  in  a  violent  gusl 
almosl  approaching  lu  a  hurricane ;  the  clouds  then 
piss  away,  sud  the  westerly  wind  blows  again  with  some 
viulnnce.  Iu  the  ■inter  seuaon  the  moon  raruly  cither 
changes  or  wanes  without  raisini  one  of  thene  tcinpos- 
luous  gales ;  arid  during  tho  wliola  year  the  wind  is 
■uro  to  blow, 

diange  of  Ih 

Tho  spring  and  autumn  are  delightfully  temperate, 
but  subject  to  showetit  from  tho  wcil-soulh-HCst.  In- 
deed, however  flue  tho  suronmr  may  he,  we  am  fre- 
f  neotlj'  viiited  by  refrcshiog  rains,  which  giva  a  pecu- 
Aar  ridwrma  Id  the  rrgelaCiou  and  terUlity  of  the  land. 
TTtepnrmUiag  winds  orv  from  tbe  aouth- wist  and  nurtW 


west,  which,  within  this  range,  blow  tipv  .. 

montliB  in  the  year ;  muiv  Irrqucatly  tb*  «lai  bM 
west.  Tliiiiii^ri  I  111  I  I  1  I  I  ml  liifliiiii  ^Ht 
coast,  and  meet  each  other  half  way  »i  iO<i  tba  IiImAI 
Colonel  Wakefleld  comparm  tba  climate  to  thtf  « 
tbe  north  of  Portngal ;  and  another  vriur,  Hr  Vmi 
to  "  that  of  ihs  land  lying  between  tba  ainUh  «4  7m 
tugal  and  the  north  of  Franco — pervading  bnt  wHM 
exeeeiling  the  most  favoured  jarl  of  Ills  tonpMH 
n-gi'in  ;  anrl  numeruus  witneaan,  of  ample  expcri^a 
concur  in  dmcribing  the  extivmes  of  sold  in  ^M 
and  heat  in  summer,  u  being  wiihiD  peeoliarly  oanll 
limita ;  which  is  la  describe  the  dimale  aa  oaa  of  tt 
most  equable  in  Ilia  world."  Mr  WaUuna,  in  btSM 
mination  before  Iho  Committee  of  the  llonw)  of  La<4 
being  ashed  if  tho  vieiasitudea  appaarad  gtstf  M 


ing  in  the  houses,  which  are  very  aofit  fat 
people." 

The  climate  of  New  Zealand  has  one  gral  M 
over  that  of  Aostnlia,   in  not  hniiig  soldi'  ~' 
severe  droughts  whieh  so  often  dealmy  the  h 
farmer  in  that  country.    lis  insi  ' 
lofty  mountains  which  intersect  tho  coantry,  c 

-  supply  of  rain.     This  eircumsluM*  |b«l 


of  grain  ;  tfaougfa  we  ore  not  swan  of  ili 
superior  to  Van  Diemen'a  Lnod. 

II  does  not  appear  that  there  ars  any  diat 
liar  to  the  olimato  of  New  Zealand:  all  ac 
in  describing  the  inhabitants  as  a  rabuat  M 
looking  people.  Oiptain  Cook  eaya  he  ni 
single  person  among  them  who  appeared  I 
bodily  comphklnt ;  and  their  wounds  heated  srith  ri 
uishiiig  rapidity.  "  A  further  proof  tint  human  ti 
is  here  uiiULiiited  with  diseave,  is  the  gimt  numbfrt 
old  men  we  saw ;  many  of  whom,  by  Uie  loss  of  tW 
hair  and  teeth,  appeared  to  bo  very  ancient,  yvt  asa 
of  ILcmwero  dccrepid ;  nnd  though  not  equal  to  til 
young  in  muscular  strength,  wi're  not  a  whit  hfcU 
ihcm  in  cheerfulness  and  vivsctty."  From  thifr  ■>■ 
course  with  Europeans,  however,  many  diatWM  !■■ 
spread  nmongnl  the  tislive  inhabitants ;  iIm  OosMfHB 
of  which  ia,  that  iu  some  jiorls  their  tUUBbsni||i 
to  bo  on  the  decline. 


of  New  Zealand  appMirs  in  a 

"-  ■    --"  adapted  for  eabiTCtiB 

most  Europeaii  vapli 

of  pumiee-sloue,  tumeuhal  rcserahling  that  cf  ■ 
parts  of  Italy,  In  oilier  parts,  it  appean  to  tea 
Biilf  loam  and  vegetable  iiiuuld,  very  prodDetitVb    I 


with  wood,  is  in  gi 

:  fertile;  and  in  the  opinion  of  Kir  BulctHl 

andcr,  aswnll  as  of  every  other  gcnt]«ll»n««h 

'r;y  kind  of  European  grain,  plant,  and  ff^  4 

tloutisli  herein  ihii  iitinoat  luturianee.  Fitm  IMV 

tables  that  we  found  here,  there  is  rca* 

at  tho  winters  are  milder  than  those  in       __, , 

a  found  the  sninmec  not  hotter,  though  UwMI 
lually  warm;  so  that  if  this  country  abouM  haM" 
by  people  from  Europe,  they  would,  with  >  IKlli  h 
try,  be  very  soon  supplied,  not  only  wjtli  ih*  MVi^ 

""""■        ' ies  of  life,  in  jgmtt  nhanlinni" 

cuUivatethe  potMoincOMitaalbM 
Y<^V<U  tUem  a  good  mif  "UmM  ■ 


-i  .,tl>rtVH 
.  «rib% 

l:"    tUUb 

..V    \ 

ra-trwn  wliioli  ■■  Utiil  tu  tK  ft  guixj  itu]i*tftiitD  titt  Uat 

Mr  WanI  «iiiiia  uji  fain  uHxiuiit  •^f  tliB  ii'st'lttlilv  pro* 

dUruu  III' tht  rouiiu-y  in  iJis  MU'v'aiii  wurdi; "ffinF 

nlvid  U  flUol  li/  UAluri)  liir  tlw  riruJiuiiAi  In  itlmiv 
UM  of  Uiou  thno  utiolM  wUah  luve  ^wajH  Wmi 
<>ir4«d  a*  Lh«  Mpooi«l  ligM  of  Om  plrjilv,  i«c«lth, 
d  luxury  »r  B  ooudtr}' — aorn,  wLnr^  uid  oU.  IM 
■till  jiUfim  aitiLjit  It  tu  tliD  Buy  oultlvaliaa  nf  grkl% 
■  tk*  )>ur[)lju  [iruilUGtiau  u(  nliioli  It  will  jiMa 

ulj  mukel,  (rom  iM  vicinity  to  Kmw  fjoulh  Wall 

ji  Uuudoii'e  Lftad,  wliwm,  trwi  tilt  M)f)i  nruftla  at 
'Ol-gi'aiTUig,  grain  troiu  foivigii  nuuulrlai  wlu  ulwayi 
4  a  v«a4y  dwnaud.  Aud  Uia  Kcv  ZcaUod  liarvmi 
qr  b«  iiafily  anticupatin]  Iq  be  fruo  A'am  (bo  tollDniM 
tbuno  UwCruotivii  droujclita  wliich  ciuit  rvvt  IN 
inniw  to  tbo  pru^itwtit  uf  >xrimilluni  ia  Awtnllh 
i«  viii*  hM  buKU  aUuidy  founil  tu  Ibrivv  luiiirniitlj 
tlui  Ulaudii,  and  (ho  powlbilil;  uf  lla  tuecaaalul  «id- 
iLtion,  both  fur  binno  aoEuaniptiiiu  and  cwntatnK' 
mlu  of  DO  doubt.  Wo  have  provioualjr  riui  Iha  praif 
n  BttODg  reaaiolilaiioe  to  tbo  •olennU  Knl  of  Italv  m 
)  nortlicm  iabmit ;  aaii  tliora  in  good  rounti  tu  bollovf 
a  tlia  win»  not  uulj'  of  ItAly,  but  of  Spaloi  Poitufi^ 
d  tiia  guuth  ot  fnnou,  uii^lit  Iw  bniuj^t  la  ••  ynat 
rfvatiun  ll  iu  thoaa  euimirita." 
S'ba  vary  etrouniriaiiov  ot  Sov  ZitUuiI  Mas  vAUii 
•  tbe  cuHivaiian  ot  siklii,  render*  ll  uiilit  Rui  v\»t 
eoiiiiiig  an  EXtoluiva  EMKuig  oouutry,  at  Icaal  fbr  UiH 
}wlli  ofUie  AudwddU  «f  Aoitialio.  Tlia  foUswJujt 
lufka  ttata  the  Sydasy  Ifpnid  novipapar, 
'iti«D  by  a  iwnqn  kIio  bad  tuilod  N«v  Zualaod  «a 
(uidiOtnae  utnaaivu:— >'Nc*>  Zi«Un4Vh%M<i^>q 
ton  W  Wane  Om  potttn  ^1&v«  %cra^'V  £<&■ "" 


CIUMBERSS  INFORMATION  FOR  TUE  PEOPLE. 


fertility  of  the  sail,  the  excclleace  of  tbe  climate,  «ni), 
aboTe  ill,  the  regularity  of  llie  bcosodb,  erainunlly  com- 
blue  lo  tit  it  for  an  agricullural  couatry.  But  it  ia  only 
ks  nn  BgrictiltursI  aetllrmsiil  thai  New  Zealand  can 
flouriab  ;  u  a  pulonl  couDlry  it  can  never  compete 
with  New  South  Wale*.  The  sxperimcnl  liu  again  snd 
aguo  been  tried,  an4  the  reauh  lias  iararinbly  been  the 
ume.  Tlie  cliniate  is  too  inoiHt  fur  iihee(i  pisturoa :  aud 
tlie  Sne  wool  for  which  Nuw  Soutli  Wales  i<  so  reinark- 
■Ue,  Bpvedily  iteteriuratcs  in  qnality  od  the  tranapor- 
tation  of  the  eheep  to  New  Zealand.  The  new  oalony, 
eniuequentlj,  can  never  cnine  into  auy  hurlful  eompO' 
(itiuo  with  New  South  Wales ;  on  the  coDtmry,  tlie  Bet- 
tlement  of  the  farmer  must  be  highly  conducive  to  the 
advanceiueiit  of  the  laller." 

Mr  Ward  gives  the  following  EUggcetioos  for  the  eon- 
Teysnco  of  seeds  and  jilauls  to  ihese  colonies,  which  may 
not  be  out  of  phtco  here : — "  The  chief  articles  of  pro- 
duce to  be  firi>fthoughl  of  are  such  ae—lst,  oall  Ibr  httle 
labour ;  3d,  are  not  bulky  for  exportation  ;  3d,  miiCabla 
tor  Cbosnmption  in  the  culony  ;  4lh,  aHurdiiig  a  miiok 
return.  Froit-treei  have  the  linl  lequUito.  If  an 
emigrant  (akw  out  a  few  buahels  of  almonda  (which  we 
now  import  from  Sicily)  the^willioon  be  bearing  treer, 
and  cither  the  fruit  or  the  oil  is  a  good  article  of  export. 
From  a  hondreilweighl  of  rjusins  of  the  sod  (from  the 
aoedflof  which  a  good  vine  has  been  known  to  be  raided) 
be  might  sow  several  acres ;  it  would  be  ueedful  only  to 

Elanl  out  tlie  seedlings  at  tlic  end  of  the  year,  and  Iben 
A  tliom  stay  till  ihey  had  borne  fruit  enough  to  judge 


there  would  be  a  floarishing  vineyard.  Or  from 
any  of  the  wine  conntrlM,  tlio  Diaro  tuighl  be  procured 
in  a  dry  ntaU^  (it  i*  fur  fuel  lliey  keep  it),  which  contains 
all  the  grape  stones.  Of  waliiuta,  the  eame  niay  be  said 
as  of  almonds.  .  The  kumcik  or  sweet  potato,  which  is 
well  known  in  New  Zeal^ind,  has  been  found  in  Anierica 
to  niako  beer  exactly  like  malt ;  five  boBhela  bcine  equi- 
valent la  three  The  olive,  when  once  established,  may 
baprapagatedquicklyby  outlings,  asaUotheflg.  Plaula 
to  be  Iraii^portcd  by  sea  should  be  covered  over  with 
a  glata  hcrnicticatly  svaled,  and  never  uncovered  till 
they  arrive." 

Linl.'  ii  k(io>v(i  of  tliu  niiuernl  pruductious  of  Nuw 
Zealand,  no  giHiliit;lcal  sui'vcy  of  the  iabiids  having  ever 

along  with  bitumen,  freestone,  marble,  and  sulphur.  A 
blue  pigmgiit  made  use  of  by  the  natives  is  said  to  be 

exclusively  in  the  southern  iaiand.  There  is  also  abnn- 
danoe  of  day  fit  for  brick-making. 

There  are  nu  native  quadrupeds  in  Sbv  Zealand, 
those  at  present  existing  having  beun  left  by  Captain 
Cook  and  other  Europeans  during  their  visits  ta  the 
islands.  I'igs  are  numerous,  having  npread  very  rapidly 
tbroughoDt  the  country,  'i'hey  are  said  to  grow  to  an 
enormous  aize,  and  are  highly  valued  by  the  natives. 
Dugs  abound,  cspecinlly  about  the  Bay  of  Islands ;  and 
cata  an  also  plentiful,  and  are  eaten  by  the  natives. 
The  cattle  which  have  been  mtrodueed  by  the  misaiun- 
aries  are  snid  To  thrive  well.  Sheep  have  nleo  been 
tried,  aud  in  some  open  parts  succeeded  ;  but  New 
Zealand,  as  already  stated,  is  mam  of  an  agricultural 
than  a  pagtoral  country.  The  only  reptile  yet  ai-en  in 
the  islands  is  a  small  apeeiee  of  lizard. 

Birds  are  very  nuraeroux,  anil  are  described  by  all 
travellern  a*  beautiful  songaters;  I'aptain  Conk  Ba>  a  of 
them — "The  sliin  biy  at  the  di^-lanec  uf  some  what  les.-! 
than  a  nuact<>r  of  n  mile  fr,™  the  bhore  in  Quwc  Pi.  .i  - 

by  the  singing  of  the  birds  ;  the  numljL-r  was  iiicn-  '■  ' 

each  o^er.  This  wild  melody  wis  infinitely  tuj-  vi-i 
to  any  that  we  had  ever  heard  of  the  .sanie  kind  ;  it 
seemed  to  be  like  small  bella  most  eaqnisilely  tuned  j 
and  jierlisp^  the  distance  and  the  water  between  might 
^  ao  am4/l  ndranlagB  to  Ihe  sound.    Vnoniuquir:!  we 

me 


found  tbat  the  birds  here  almys 

two  hours  after  midnight,  anil  CM  .      _, 

till  Hunrlse,  were,  like  our  nighlingafaa. 

Amongst  (Jio  feathered  tcibe  inay  be : 
geese,  woodeneke,  snipes,  cnrlews,  and  w( 
affording  food  to  wnn.    These  are  ver; 
the  wood-pigeons  eapedaliy  are  liifhly 
delicacy  of  their  flesh.     They  are  iiiuali 


inti7,  > 


Unerii 
•Ij-^s^ 


,  Udiig  tbe  M 
vetyrmiTksbhj 
s  the  power  «dt| 


ajid  may  bo  taught  loarcpcat  sentonac*  m 


Btnibles  that  of  Llie  Australian  emu.  Will  lea 
and  coarse.  It  has  neither  wings  nor  lai^  bat  tm 
great  swiftness  aldng  the  ground,  and  can  only  ka, 
by  dogs.  The  natives  prixe  it  highly,  and  oak 
ments  of  its  skin.  J 

Fish  aio  very  abundant  all  munil  the  ooasLJ 
of  must  excellent  quality.  "  Wo  have,"  aaji  10 
"  a  rich  supply  of  salt-water  lisli  ;  but  notiuM 
than  i-els  in  any  of  the  fresli-watrr  strvama  orl 
New  Zealand.  Those  moat  plcnUful  anil  of  | 
note  are  soles,  mackerel,  codtith,  a  speeiM  of  fl 
whiting,  snapper,  mulliil,  beain-akatv,  gumanll 
few  smaller  kinds,  some  not  so  targe  as  a  apM 
an  abnadance  of  erayfiah,  oysters,  sluimpa^j 
mussels,  and  cockles.  Ad  immaieelj  lana  J 
measuring  from  eleven  to  thirteen  ioehc^MJI 
great  abundanoe  at  K>ipara,a  harbour  on  Omi 


Bay 


,  and  some  few  of  this  Rah  are  pieksa)  4| 
a[  Islands.  These  InbabiUnM  of  tlia  daaS 
r-faiJing  resource  for  the  supply  of  n«M 
but  fishing  is  not  now  much  re^uved.  eXMl' 
mackerel  season,  when  several  tribes  go  UKtttli 
little  creeks  which  these  fish  freq uent,  and  alMl 
ceed  in  capturing  some  bundreda  of  tlton^HH 
they  return,  the  greater  part  of  whiek  Omj^ 
for  winter  stock.  They  always  catch  tbeaa  m| 
darkest  nights,  when  they  are  able  to  sec  th^dt 
the  shoal  takes  from  the  phosphoresceot  BM 


yards  long,  and  di-ag  them  in  vast  numbers  to  IIh 
where  the  contcnl:  are  regularly  divided  aa* 
peiiulc  to  whom  the  net  belonged." 

Whales  frequent  (he  eoasts  of  New  ZsaUal ' 

?tirp09C  of  calving,  and  arc  caught  in  laTga  Mt 
his  trade  alune  is  very  considerable,  and  «• 
duubl  he  greatly  extended  Hei-e  settlementa  BW 

The  aboriuinnl  natives  of  New  Zealand  vanik 

savagB  and  dangi-rius,  but  are  now  partially  M 
and  riannlcBs  in  dispoailion.  From  all  acMM 
Bill  eusceptiblo  uf  much  greater  impraWNMri 
the  natives  of  Anrfrolia,  being  ready  in  appni 
a„.l  .r"-t>,W,-,,  Tli"vj™erallydwdlin^i« 
111  ili'.L  'I'".'..:.:  .  v.ali  i:ur.,,,Fan3,  the  Nat 
l.iri.-  ■■,,-iotis  luamfcsled  a  da 

li.ii  ■■  .1    inacquiringcivilisedw 

■  ithamerechUdS 


ceaci 


<e  male  of  a  eoZoai 
though  oecaaional  instjinccs  of  theft  ha 
iinii[i;^«t  tliese  people,  yet  upon  the  «lnh 
^  ''^  ' ..  fx-em  To  be  i»f  n  biifh  onWr. 

I  i  -.vies  have  acquired  coiwidBnUs  M 


d  have 


I  all  e 


suggestion,  road*  haw 

'  :.  '  :  'i;^-<-s  erected,  and  sliipa  of  aemal  li 
buracTi  built.  Mr  Darwin,  Our  MataraMr 
eying  expedition  of  the  Beagle,  givasa  d4 
re  of  a  farm  esUbUshment  which  ha  vUtad.' 
ra.poIalDca,  and  clover,  isan  w^giiaw^ 


'  XBALANI>. 


UlGiVWrMtlircBi.li>  ■  lUnail 

b»tDf[ fnltdimDE I'l'  '  I' niuDt. 

>  vi^iign  of  tin  Ttir^  v,,„  ,„,„[,v,,,;„.  ..,,„  unwm- 

Iiilkof  Au|iii»l,*l»ibnt«iii»igblnrCapaF&nn>fni 
M-iluxn  i»»it  of  Ihn  HiuUuni  IiiUnil,  on'I  wlboli 
mie  (Ida  n(  tba  optnlait,  mnwil  Ctwk'a  Sinilu, 
Dii  thft  iim  uikiida.  Sbo  Joal  ru)  Ibiiv  In  inuullng 
;h  Itra  (tnuu,  Nxi  an  iho  1  Sth  aho  ■ndioml  la 
invv,  «■  ntbrly  ■*  pomble  in  the  iwiiin  apax  that 
in  Ciiok  iiveiipiiHl  in  hit  thnw  tiiiti  to  tbe  Iriuittt 
>!  WukvflvM.in  hinJimriMl,  dnvribni  tb»  aimtbcrn 

>i  ftrrbiddiug  in  Ita  ftiipviiniiiiMt  nt  a  ili)UiTi«a 

MMMOii  cf  appMonily  buraomfiuiiuiiit  Miwl<:hln|t 
Avm  th«  coMt  llll  tfiDy  roa«h  thniw  a'lTxrail  wldi 
■n  th«  interior."  Bu^  "  «a  DcMlug  tlia  luiil,  vuu 
:i»t  IliD  wholn  ii  oriTerwl  to  Uie  xery  lil{>he*t  iHiinta 
.iratmi'  1111(1  bruniiwoed,  wlu«b  uf*  till  ilien  batny 
ptrpWiul  veriliiTw,"  Uiip  Cove,  in  the  nortliKfn 
,  VM  a  boiutirul  iilkot.  '>  Tlie  water,  iruH|QiI  m 
luid  l*kv,  bw  (vn  futhnnit'  liapili  witbln  &  ■tiip'a 
I  of  tile  ohorc,  which  bi  coVtirEil  t»  tlin  wMvi'a 
rith  ui  CTfTgrnn  fomt,  CMuiMing  of  xrrjr  VKrlMy 
igcnouB  trm  uid  alirub,  u  thick  u  to  bn  tcitrerly 
rsblp,  and  pmmtiDg  U  iho  ajt  oa  unrtulailng 
t  ef  venlurH  miilvinB  to  thi>  lumtnii  of  tlio  na- 


„       ,  _   .  .  .  I,  th« 

which  be  ha»  aptly  likened  to  lite  Unltline 
all  bcllB  i  and  the  Ml  ttcni*  with  &A,  at  witleli  wii 
It  Mion^  irilh  hooka  and  linn  for  the  oholit  tlilii, 
B  w*  dropped  amlior.  Tbca*  cuniktinl  of  hunk, 
'~'~  -pattM  dug-ftilr,  guTucl,lloui>'li)r>ain]  jve-fUli, 


Mai  WakefitJd  fnuod  no  dilHviilty  in  unmmuui- 
X  with  the  nallofl  clileb;  hot  K  wan  n-it  «i  noj  lu 
re  laud*,  not  owinit  U>  any  dbiiiieliiinlini]  iil  Iha 
■■  to  icll  thom  It  a  moderaU  prist,  Init  bDoaiiH*  il 
Uffloult  lo  aneerlaio  who  wsro  thu  pniper  uwnvn, 
a  niiD«n  who  eonld  «anvay  a  muiiiI  ilUa-  Tim 
■fti  fwting  nt  the  ni>\Vsi»  w  \si  Wiviv  lA.  Vf^e^^ 


CHAMBERS'S  INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


Brttlements.  They  have  Usted  the  benelits  of  uvitiaa- 
tion  Bafficientlj,  to  he  verranxioiu  Cor  increased  iotfr- 
course  with  the  Eneiish,  and  fur  this  reason  tJiey  ap- 
peared to  Colonel  Wakefield  as  if  the;  woulil  have 
viUingly  alloifeil  iha  aoil  to  he  appropriated  to  a  large 
esleat,  without  looking  for  on;  lemuDcnition-  But  the 
eompanj  wai  anxious  that  a  ToaBonabLe^  andfOonaidering 
the  eircuoiBlAnMa,  k  llbcml  price,  should  be  given  for 
lands;  and  the  main  dillicMilty,  as  juBt  stated,  «ns  to 
discover  the  parties  who  were  entitled  to  part  with  the 
■oiL  An  immniisD  qiniility  at  land  had  already  been 
»ppropriated  by  priiat<t  jiersons  or  by  tlie  miamoaary 


ll 


journal  com- 


hu  jourm 
h  a  deacTi) 


Colonel  Wakefield  aeni  home  , 
to  (he  2d  of  September,  and  not  1 
another  seetioa  of  it,  cootainii 
iDteUigencc.  Tlie  second  nectir 
mences  on  the  Gill  of  September  with  a  description  of 
the  tiade  carried  on  in  Queen  Cbarlotte'a  Sound  and 
other  bays  connected  irith  Cook's  Slmila.  He  describes 
wbalera  in  the  pay  of  Sydney  (Bpitalists  as  bung  the 
chief  lollowers  of  this  liazanlous  bnt  profilnble  coni- 
merco.  It  is  estimated  thnt  the  n-hale-Behery  jirodaces 
1200  tons  of  oil  per  annum,  aud  that  the  number  of 
British  who  coropoto  "  ahore-partJee"  in  Cook's  Straits 
tuul  tlie  stations  on  Baaks'*  Penineula,  nrs  about  500. 
They  ar"  u  biirl«s  net  of  people,  qnarrolliug  with  the 
nalJvM  aud  among  Ihenuelte*.  "ThBrs  arc,  however, 
■one  ranpeelabls  peraons  amone  Ihem. 

Lmning  that  ths  cluircli  misaionsriea  were  sndeB' 
'ronrbg  to  fnisttate  theii  viewa  Rspccling  Port  Nichol- 
•on,  a  vaa  hwbaur  kod  country  in  the  nortliem  island, 
ftbovt  tb«  esDlra  of  Cook's  Straits,  Colonel  Wahdield 
now  miulo  haste  thither.  lis  met  with  a  very  h'sarly 
rMNipliiin  from  the  chicle.  "  Epuri,  an  aid  chief,  eagerly 
itutuired  ihn  motives  of  our  liail,  and  bettsyed  the  iiioxl 
lively  aatiHTaetion  at  being  iutormed  that  vre  wialiod  to 
buy  ih*  place,  and  biutf  white  men  to  it.  He  ww  fol- 
lowed  by  Wai^ori,  his  nephew,  who  is  about  lUr^iiTe 
year*  old,  and  haa  for  some  years  saperseded  the  older 
chiefs  ill  iiitluence,  ty  hie  prowess  in  war,  and  ekill  in 
the  rude  aria  cultivoled  by  thceo  people."  Colonel 
Wakclield  luioended  the  princijini  river  which  falls  into 
Uio  bgy,  and  was  well  satitlied  with  the  capabilities  of 
the  district.  Tho  soil  is  a  rich  black  loam ;  the  limber 
excellent  in  quality  and  of  various  desoriptiona ;  and 
the  narigalion  of  the  river,  which  was  nlHlnictcd  by 
faeapa  of  etonea  and  trees  thrown  scroas,  suscepliblo  ot 
gmt  improvement  at  slight  expense. 

Colonel  Wabefield  determined  to  flx  upon  this  part 
ot  the  island  for  the  Rist  and  principal  oeltlcment  of  the 
company ;  and  be  lost  no  time  in  coining  to  terms  with 
the  natives.     Ho  thus  deaoribw  his  purebaec  ; — 

•■  1  fDUnd  a  territory  of  forty  or  fifty  miles  in  lenoth 
by  twcnly.live  or  thirty  in  brradlh,  CiHilatniog  a  noble 
harbour,  aCL^essihle  at  all  times,  sod  in  the  very  high- 
way between  ^>ew  lloiland  and  the  Western  world,  and 
land  exceeding  in  fertility  any  I  have  seen  in  these 
ialanda,  and  equalling  that  of  an  English  garden.  I 
fonnd  a  nee  of  peopls  of  warlike  habits,  and  but  little 
usnl  to  inIerci>ur«B  with  KurKpeans,  just  emerging 
from  Ihvir  barbarism,  and  inelmed  to  cultivate  the 
arta  and  iiitiinaicir  of  (ireat  UnUin;  appreciating  tbe 
pmteotioii  from  their  hwlile  and  atill  savn^  enemies 
that  Britixh  nsttlen  would  alTord,  and  anxiuusiy  desiring 
to  oMust  Ihmn  in  (heir  first  laboura  in  a  new  cDuntry. 
Under  Ihwe  eimraistaiice*,  and  following  out  the  spirit 
of  my  inatnictioiM,  I  delerminrd  to  act  in  (he  moat 
litwral  manner  in  the  Inuieaetion.  llnrmrer.  I  was 
moat  anxious  to  dialinguith  tliii  bargain  from  sli  others 
that  have  been  made  in  Kew  Zealand,  that  none  of  the 
haiQ-lini;  and  petty  trading  which  usually  lake  place 
bslweeu  KumpMuis  and  the  natives  of  this  oeuntry 
should  enter  into  any  ojicratHnis  between  the  latter  and 
tho  company's  oceuia  ;  and  lluit  Ilie  volun  of  Ihm  pro- 
party  sboulJ  not  be  n^piloted  by  what  has  hitherto  been 
coooidond  the  slaudjtrd  of  exchange  in  similar  irana- 


llieai 


ll  paid,  of  oonms,  ia  not  publbhed ;  but  the 


natives  ntrs  highly  pleased  with  tbdr  bM| 
eager  in  sell  more  of  their  land.  The  chiefs 
exnmined  the  articlee  given  in  barter,  and  th 
a  formal  deed,  alioDating  the  land  for  over. 
dance,  tho  hoisting  of  the  New  Zealand  Dag, 
formal  ceremony  of  taking  poaseaeion  of  the 
are  vividly  deecribed.  CuTonel  Wskefield  lefi 
in  charge  of  hia  newly^cquired  territory. 

This  important  busincas  being  settled,  tbe  ' 
ceeded  along  the  coast  of  the  northern  idani 
the  north,  and  on  the  16th  October  came  to  i 
oa  Kapiti,  near  Evans's  Island.  A  suioH  I 
just  then  taken  plsce  between  the  two  chief 
those  parts,  the  Ngatiroeowaa,  and  NgaUawai 
ter  of  whom,  a  comparatively  civilised  and  pa 
had  acted  on  tho  d^ensive,  aud  been  vietorioi 
nel  Wakefield  had  some  intercourse  with  R 
corrupt  diief  of  tbe  KaRa  tribe,  who  hod  i 
instigated  the  Ngatirocowaa,  and  with  Ililii^  a 
young  chief  of  the  Ngaliawaa ;  and  after  some 
tioua,  and  one  samewbat  wild  scene,  parcbaai 
tensive  tmcla  of  Und  on  both  sides  of  Ck»k 
fomiiog  "  the  commanding  portiona  of  the  two 
The  goods  given  in  exchange  were  npon  (he  ■ 
ral  scale  as  in  the  case  at  Port  Nicholson, 
mately  all  the  natives  expressed  tbomsdm 
satisfied.  With  regard  to  some  portions  of  ii 
purchnsed,  it  was  known  that  there  were  otb 
now  disposeeesed,  who  hod  claims  upon  them; 
IheiHi  parlies  Colonel  Wakefield  apprehended  n 
of  any  consequence.  In  all  cases  he  took  ear 
deeds  of  ecieian  formally  executed  on  the  spa 
caution  the  more  nocesaary,  as  already  speonla 
sending  emissaries  from  Sydney  to  buy  up  Ian 
Zenliuv],  on  a  suppoaition  of  ita  aooa  aoquiiic 


hetablo  vnlue.  tar  the 
nel  Wakelieh]  employed 
poinU  in  Cook^  Strailo,  in  order 

■'    ■ '       •  tneat 

nf  thi    .._      . 
in  all  te 


r  lo  buy  up  i 
In  ■— "-'—"■I 
haiiiTeaaHl 


eslimntes  as  Mn>i>iinting  in 

Colonel  Wakefield  now  proceeded  to  Hoi 
deep  inlet  near  the  farther  extremity  of  the 
iskiul,  leaving  Mr  Barrett,  a  whsiing  mer 
arrange  with  the  natives  for  the  purchase  of 
more  immediately  to  the  north  of  Cook's  Stn 
reached  Hokianga  on  the  ^d  Decvrabar,  bM 

the  Day  of  Islands,  on  the  oppoeilc  or  essi  « 
country.  The  natives  are  nut  here  so  Jlns 
phyaiealty  or  morally,  as  in  tbe  south,  and  nM 
to  cede  their  lands.  Colonel  Waketield  obM 
session  of  a  tract  at  Herd's  Point,  being  the  I 
chased  by  Captain  Herd,  in  lH*2e,  for  the  eU 
— reserved  by  the  natives  unce  that  tua»- 
Rcmpulously  mndo  over  to  their  suecMerva.  1 
he  left  Hokiangaon  the  13th  t>pcember  b« 
another  imporUut  inlet,  a  little  farther  l«  ll 
At  this  point,  he  completed  his  third  dispaMt 
According  to  subsequent  diapatchee.  the  Te 
upon  ll  (soppoaed)  newly-formeil  a»id-bMill 
iniD  Kaipara  bay  or  harbour,  and,  theugb  | 
Iwanty-four  hiiir«,  auslained  snch  damage  thi 
WakeReld  judged  it  prudent  to  leave  her  fin 
and  proceed  with  his  land-buying  ope«Mio«« 
therefore  secured  all  important  papers,  be  walk 
the  continent  to  the  liay  of  Islands,  andtbetvi 
a  stnsil  l<rig  to  go  to  Kaipora,  ti>  take  char) 
cargo  and  passsngere.  He  likewise  engajed 
small  vessel  lo  take  him  lo  Port  Hardy  in  D 
Island  (Cook's  .Straits),  the  place  of  rendewc 
eraigraut  ships.  Ho  reached  I'ort  llanly  oB 
Jnunsry;  but  finding  none  of  the  emigran 
arrived,  he  judged  it  bent  lo  ornsB  the  cmil 
Nicholson,  which  he  did  in  a  whole  boM,  1« 
Englishman  to  direct  tlieee*«Mels  to  CoUoa'Ut 


thought  ■nitablo 


>  for  tbe  am 


EMIGRATION  TO  NEW  ZEALAND. 


tons  to  prepare  matters  as  far  as  possible  for 
al  of  the  settlers.  These  now  began  to  arrive 
leeesaiye  yessels,  of  which  all  t^t  had  been 
^  in  1839  arriTed  before  March  7, 1840. 
vhile  the  goremment  had  deemed  it  necessary 
some  step  regarding  the  colonisation  of  New 
In  Angost  1839,  it  dispatched  Captain  Hob- 
^  as  Lieatenant-Goremor  of  New  Zealand.  He 
it  the  Baj  of  Islands  on  the  30th  of  January, 
bat  day  issued  a  proclamation,  intimating  that 
n  did  not  deem  it  expedient  for  the  interests 
her  British  subjeets  resorting  to  New  Zealand, 
oee  of  the  native  tribes,  to  recognise  as  valid 
I  to  land  not  derived  from  or  coi^rmed  by  her 
;  bot  yet,  ^  to  dispel  any  apprehension  that  it 
j^otd  to  dispossess  the  owners  of  land  acquired 
bble  conditions,  and  not  in  extent  or  otherwise 
ial  to  the  present  or  prospective  interests  of  the 
ity,"  declaring  **  that  her  Majesty  had  been 

0  direct  that  a  commission  should  be  appointed, 
tain  powers  to  be  derived  from  a  Governor  and 
ve  Cbancil  of  New  South  Wales,  to  inquire  into 
•port  on  all  claims  to  such  lands  f*  and  further 
ig  that  "  purchases  of  land  in  any  part  of  New 
which  may  be  made  from  any  of  tne  chiefs  or 
ibes  after  the  date  of  these  presents  [January 
],  will  be  considered  as  null  and  void,  and  will 
sonfirmed,  or  in  any  way  recognised,  by  her 

ms  of  this  proclamation,  it  will  be  necessary 
rbo  have  purchased  land  in  New  Zealand  to 
leir  rights  before  the  commission.  Captain 
(eft  the  Bay  of  Islands  on  the  17th  February, 
i;  it  an  unfit  place  to  be  the  seat  of  government 
Zealand,  being  distant  from  the  more  fertile 
the  country,  and  cut  off  from  all  easy  oommu- 
with  the  southward.  He  had  previously  had 
iferences  with  the  native  chiefs  relative  to  the 
>n8  of  land  by  the  missionaries.  A  paralytic 
t>aght  his  measuves  to  an  abrupt  conclusion, 
owever,  was  only  temporary,  as  he  soon  so  far 
d  as  to  resume  his  functions, 
companies  besides  that  represented  by  Colonel 
d  have  in  the  mean  time  been  taking  steps  for 
ig  the  colonisation  of  New  Zealan£  One  of 
e  Plymouth  Company  of  Nae  Zealand,  adver- 
the  18th  July  that  it  had  secured  an  extensive 
t  of  land,  and  had  sent  out  orders  for  the  selec- 
settlement.  A  thousand  sections  of  town  and 
id  were  in  the  way  of  being  engaged,  on  the 
nding  that,  out  of  the  L.70  of  purchase*money 
section,  L.40  was  to  be  expended  in  carrying 
nrers.  The  New  Zealand  Manakou  and  Waite- 
npanp  acquired  valuable  tracts  on  those  har- 

1  the  northern  island)  in  183R,  and  sent  out  a 
rang  officer,  Captain  W.  C.  Symondft,  H.M.S., 
f  the  same  and  report,  before  taking  any  fur- 
>.  A  report  from  Captain  Symonds,  dated  in 
y  1840,  and  of  a  highly  favourable  nature,  was 

in  July,  and  the  company  then  proceeded  to 
ipplications  for  200  sections,  of  I   town  acre 
country  acres  each,  at  L.lOl  each,  65  percent, 
urchase-nioney  to  be  expended  in  taking  out 
s.     In  July  1840,  the  Pauley  New  Zealand 
ion  Society  was  forme<l  in  connexion  with  the 
Company,  for  the  purpose  of  promoting  an 
e  emigration  of  hand-loom  weavers  from  the 
Scotland  to  New  Zealand. 
these  proceedings  were  going  on  on  the  part 
ritish,  a  French  expedition  8aile<l  for  the  same 
designing  to  appropriate  land  for  a  settlement, 
Ry  to  all  appearance  with  a  view  to  the  whale- 
Disputes  between  France  and  England  re- 
Uie  sovereignty  of  New  Zealand,  have  been 
d  ;  but  we  have  no  fear  that  any  thing  of  the 
an  extent  at  all  troublesome,  will  take  place. 
lUewing  has  been  issued  by  the  colonial  secre- 
jpeetmg  the  plan  of  government  to  be  adopted 

^  319 


The  colony  is  to  be  entirely  separate  from  and  inde- 
pendent of  New  South  Wales.  A  local  legislature,  to 
be  composed  for  the  present  of  the  chief  officers  of  the 
local  government,  and  some  of  the  chief  inhabitants,  is 
to  be  constituted,  to  make  laws  for  the  peace,  orderj 
and  good  government  of  the  colony. 

yfiih  respect  to  all  lands  acquired  in  the  colony  under 
anv  other  than  that  of  grants  made  in  the  name  and  on 
behalf  of  her  Majesty,  it  is  proposed  that  the  titles  of 
the  claimants  should  be  subjected  to  the  investigation 
of  a  commission  to  be  constituted  for  the  purpose.  The 
basis  of  that  inquiry  will  be  the  assertion  on  the  part 
of  the  crown  of  a  title  to  all  lands  situate  in  New  Zea- 
land, which  have  heretofore  been  granted  by  the  chiefis 
of  those  islands  according  to  the  customs  of  the  eonntry, 
and  in  return  for  some  aidequate  consideration. 

An  account  of  all  the  just  and  moderate  expenses  of 
the  company  hitherto  incurred  in  forwarding  the  colo- 
nisation of  New  Zealand  to  be  nuide  out,  and  the  crown 
to  grant  the  company  as  many  acres  of  land  as  shall  be 
equal  to  four  times  the  number  of  pounds  sterling  which 
they  shall  be  found  to  have  expended  in  the  manner 
stated.  The  lands  to  be  taken  by  the  company  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  their  respective  settlements  at  Port 
Nicholson  and  New  Plymouth. 

The  company  to  forego  all  claim  to  any  lands  pur- 
chased or  acquired  by  them  in  New  Zealand,  other  than 
the  lands  so  to  be  granted  to  them,  and  other  than  any 
lands  which  they  may  hereafter  acquire  from  the 
crown,  or  other  persons  deriving  their  title  from  the 
crown. 

It  is  proposed  to  apply  to  all  other  British  subjects 
the  rule  to  which  the  Now  Zealand  Company  will  be 
subject  in  respect  of  the  lands  claimed  by  them  within 
the  colony.  This  advantage,  however,  will  be  offered 
only  to  those  whose  lands  were  acqnireid  before  the  5th 
day  of  January  1840,  the  date  of  proclamation  issued 
by  Sir  George  Gipps  on  the  subject. 

The  governor  of  New  Zealand  will  be  instructed  to 
recommend  to  the  local  legislature  the  enactment  of  a 
law  to  incorporate,  as  a  municipal  body,  settlers  who 
have,  at  the  charge  of  the  company,  resorted  to  Port 
Nicholson,  and  settled  themselves  there  or  in  that  vici- 
nity. For  the  present,  her  majesty's  government  engage 
that  all  sums  of  money  which  shall  be  paid  by  the  com- 
pany for  the  purcliase  of  land  in  New  Zealand,  shall, 
whenever  such  money  shall  be  paid  in  this  country,  be 
laid  out  in  the  removal  of  emigrants  to  New  Zealand, 
it  being  left  to  the  company,  fh>m  time  te  time,  to  de- 
termine whether  such  money  shall  be  so  laid  out  by 
the  Commissioners  of  Colonial  Lands  and  Emigration  or 
by  the  company  themselves,  under  the  superintendence 
and  with  the  concurrence  and  sanction  of  those  com- 
missioners. The  native  reserves  made  by  the  company 
to  be  sanctioned  by  the  crown. 

A  charter  to  be  granted  for  forty  years,  but  to  con- 
tain provisions  enabling  the  crown  to  resume  the 
charter  and  purchase  the  lands  and  other  property  of 
the  company  on  just  and  equitable  terms,  in  ease  the 
public  interest  should  require  such  resumption  and 
purchase. 

A  township  has  been  marked  out  on  the  shores  of 
Port  Niciiolson,  and  named  Wellington,  which  it  is 
thought  will  be  the  capital  of  the  colony.  It  is  also 
proposed  to  build  a  town  at  the  harbour  of  Hokianga, 
to  be  called  Churchill ;  another  at  tho  Bay  of  Islands, 
to  be  called  Russell;  and  a  fourth  at  the  Frith  of 
Thames,  to  be  called  Auckland. 

Up  till  tho  period  we  write  (April  1841),  so  little 
information  of  a  substantial  nature  has  been  made 
kno^'u  respecting  the  settlement  of  New  Zealand,  that 
we  are  unable  to  say  distinctly  how  the  colony  is  ad- 
vancing, though,  from  floating  intelligence,  tliere  is  the 
greatest  prospect  of  success  ;  ships  with  emigrants, 
both  capitalists  and  labourers,  and  also  large  stocks  of 
provision  and  merchandise,  are  regularly  sailing,  and 
the  country  must  soon  present  the  spectacle  of  general 
industry  and  comfort. 


CHAMBERS'S  INFOKMATION  FOIl  THE  PEOPLE.  ■ 

ment  in  money  irmtteni,  Mid  wo  few  >l>*(^^| 

Uy  his  mccount  with  Bctnmnyuid  unpEtifldH 
barter  in  relmlion  to  miMit  prodneH  of  UlLJH 
Austntlia  is  maoh  belter  adapted  fbr  ^fl 
of  cnpiulista  thui  any  part  of  AnMrtlcK.''^ 
henr  of  any  one  making  a  fortune  in  oitbtr  • 
the  United  States,  but  nanj  in  Ne«  Soatfa  V 
wonid  almoHt  appear  thae,  whatever  be  lb 
motley  a  man  expends  on  land  in  Aineries,  I 


In  the  prewnl  and  preeadlns  three  slieet*,  wo  have 
proMnlKl,  to  the  ben  of  our  ability,  a  practical  tibw  of 
the  Kiibjecl  of  cmig^tion  tu  Canada  and  other  British 
Amerlenii  pogeeaiions,  lo  tlio  United  Slatesof  Amenca, 
10  the  dilfsrent  colonies  on  tlie  m^iinland  of  AuMnlia, 
and  to  Van  Diemen's  Ijind  and  New  Zealand.  These 
ilo  not  comprehend  all  tlie  fields  for  emigration,  bat 
tboy  are  the  prineipal,  and  lliose  which  aeem  most  eom- 
monljr  available.  The  placet  of  wliich  we  faave  not 
formally  iFMi  ted, are  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  the  Britioh 
Wwl  liidiHi,  and  Oylon,  all  of  which  are  crown  eolonies, 
«nil  open  to  settlers,  (ktjlnn,  being  situated  within  a 
few  ilegracs  of  the  line,  and  allogetlier  tropical  in  chn. 
tnclur,  ta  not  to  be  mentioned  ai  auitable  for  British 
cmiEninIs  ;  and  the  same  tiling  may  alinnet  be  aaid  of 
the  West  Indiee.  The  Cape  of  Gaud  Hope,  conaistiug 
of  a  large  portion  of  Sualli  Afncn.  from  nil  we  etin 
undecMaiid,  is  now  in  n  thriving  oondition,  and  to  many 
it  famu  a  tempting  field  of  aettlement.  The  climate  j> 
agreeable,  the  goremmenl  ia  aettled  and  liberal  in  cha- 
racter, and  there  are  large  tracts  of  land  open  to  settlers 
on  easj  ternu.  Farms  abandoned  by  Dutch  proprittors 
who  have  emigrated  id  more  remote  districts,  can 
always  be  obtained  at  a  eheap  price  ;  and  aa  respects 
pastoral  qaaliliee,  the  lorrilory  is  equal,  if  not  superior, 
to  many  portions  of  Australia.  A%  however,  we  have 
no  oflieial  papers  on  the  subject  before  us,  we  paas  lo 
a  gnnnral  consideration  of  those  fields  of  emigration 
which  liate  been  separately  described. 

Tlio  roadera  of  llieee  sheets  will  have  obeervcl,  that 
each  country  or  dUlriet  referred  to  possessee  a  certain 
peculiarily  of  character,  or,  as  we  may  say,  has  good 
and  had  points  in  a  greater  or  lesser  ratio,  which  it  will 
brIinvH  the  intending  emigrant  to  consider. 

Canada  poaaeseea  a  most  fertile  soil,  but  it  has  very 
inditTerent  roidsi  is  alow  iu  impro*inf>,  and  labours 
vnder  the  drawbaok  of  a  long  and  extnnuly  cold  win- 
tor.  It  seems  best  adapted  for  small  eapitalists  who 
wish  to  pursue  Sj^cuiturnl  pursuits,  or  field  labourers 
and  artisans  uf  a  common  kind.  It  has  also  the  great 
advantage  of  being  speedily  and  cheaply  reached  ;  yet, 
lo  a  person  with  a  few  pounds  lo  spare,  such  an  advan- 
tage should  gu  for  nothing.  In  taking  the  step  of  emt- 
jrralion,  it  is  of  importanoe  that  it  sliould  be  done  well, 
and  once  for  all. 

The  United  States  offer  a  far  more  ngrecnble  scene 
for  agrioullurni  laboDr,  because,  while  the  toil  is  equally 
forlile  with  tlial  of  Canada,  lliu  winters  ore  sliorler. 
Some  of  the  fine  prairie-lands  of  the  western  states 
poBesa  Btlractions  which  cannot  be  enrpoaaed.  As  it 
is  cany  to  reach  these  di»triete  from  Canada,  many 
spirited  emigrants  will  push  on  tliitlier  if  they  find  such 
a  step  advisable.  The  United  States  possess  a  prudigiou> 
iuperiorily  over  Canada  in  one  particular^ihe  sale  •■! 
lands.  In  Canada,  the  abominable  plan  of  selling  lands 
by  auction  to  the  liigbest  bidder,  at  periodic  intervals, 
■till  oinlinues,  and,  by  disheartening  eniigranta  and 
wearing  out  their  means,  sends  shoals  onwards  to  the 
States,  where  the  land  pitched  upon  linn  its  exact 
price,  and  a  purchase  can  be  at  once  effected.  ][  emi- 
rnntti  to  Canada,  therefore,  cannot  buy  half-cleared 
lots  on  the  iDSlani,  which  perhapa  they  will  find  uo 
dineully  in  doing,  we  recommend  Iliem  to  proceed  im- 
mediatcty  into  Michigan,  IllinoiH,  or  some  otlier  western 
•tite  of  the  Union.  They  will  (ind  so  many  persons  on 
tlie  road,  that  the  exact  route  need  not  here  be  deHned. 


W(-r 


u  gove 


a  plan  ( 


ealonifting  Canada,  on  a  great  scab 
order  of  tettlera,  and  at  the  same  lime  permit  tlie  free 
impLTlatiuu  of  earn  from  that  part  of  the  empire,  we 
might  expect  to  tind  the  country  in  a  state  of  rapid 
progression  in  a  very  short  period  of  lime  ;  but  neilher 
of  lliew  arrangcmeiiiB  is  at  present  likely  to  be  carried 
into  effect.  It  is  pru]H-r  to  meution,  that  although  the 
L'nited  Slates  possess  that  degree  of  citil  and  religious 
libeity,  wUidi  leaves  uotbiog  to  be  wished  for  on  that 
Mwv,  ibo  eoQntry  labours  under  a  universal  denuige- 


'.'bC 


two  causes^  loch  of  cheap  labour 
OS  oniiet  lur  produce.  Provided  a  course  ol 
and  sobriety  bo  pursued,  he  will  unqueations 
a  Blnto  of  competency  and  tranquillity,  and  ■ 
family  rising  around  him  with  the  prospect*  C 
able  settlement;  but  we  fear  that,  unless  U 
change  take  place  ju  Canadian  afGurs,  h* 
alender  chance  of  ever  getting  above  the  eom 
amail  farmer  ;  consequently  there  is  uo  temj 
persons  of  oomparatiTe  wealth  to  onconntsr 
and  annoying-  difBeulliee  of  sctUeiaeot  In  ' 
country.  In  Australia,  the  emigrant  will  ■ 
rience  poreonal  discomfort  and  deluriorMion 
But  a  time  comes  when  he  can  sit  down  wilt 
uf  ease,  calmly  reposiutt  on  the  advaniaga 
earued-— he  can  reasonably  look  forward  to  u 
in  refinements  sueh  as  wealth  purchawa  ia 
and  with  Ibis  pleasing  hope,  any  species  of  i 
toil  is  of  IriRiiig  considvrstton.  BoHiies,  Id 
son  who  loves  a  fine  climate,  where  on  cai 
a  more  delightful  country  be  found  than  I 
Cold  Hcidom  or  never  ainlu  to  that  pilcb  w 
duces  snow,  and  the  heat,  also,  is  ^  no  n 
treme.  As  respects  climate  and  nalaral 
we  should  eoneider  some  parts  of  New  Sn 
-    -   •  ■      ■    ■    —         md  adjac     '  '  ' 


British  subjects  are  at  liber^  to 
agreeable  field  of  industry,  and  thi 
vUegM  whieh  otir  lam  uid  eonsiil 

la  to  be  a  boon  of  which  sre  cannot  be  to 


□  Auitraliar- 


le  material  drnwba 
of  regular  and  frequenl  rains.  Tliiu  le«is  oa 
to  extreme  droughts,  which  parch  the  gToaa 
many  parte  render  the  businem  of  the  an 
very  precarious.  On  ihat  account  AnalraSl 
fitted  for  pasturage  than  agriculture.  Van 
Land,  and  also  New  Zealand,  on  the  other  hi 
lo  be  more  agrieuliural  than  paeturaL  (irain 
two  grand  staples  in  human  alTAirs,  will  m 
become  the  permansnt  products  of  tlieae  fartii 


itional  e 


what  a  countryproduces,  provided  it  prodoesi 
whieli  can  be  sold  iu  the  general  market  of  I 
Let  the  mainland  of  Australia,  therefim^  tt 
Bprrily  by  its  wool,  and  perhap*  its  wincn  B«J  I 


whale  fisheries.  In  both  New  Sooth  Wal« 
Diemen's  Land,  the  sales  of  hind  are  by  anal 
Canada — an  evil  uf  serious  consequence,  ftrao' 
Port  Philip  district  and  South  Australia  are  fb 
exempt. 

It  IS  grsUfying  lo  reflect,  that  every  yesira 
in  any  of  the  eoloiiies  is  becoming  leas  precai 
promises  a  higher  measure  of  Bucee«.  U 
have  gone  before,  instead  of  absorbing  all  tha 
are  only  preparers  of  the  way  fur  others, 
not  the  Ifiisl  chance  of  any  one  coins  too  lal^ 
he  will.  There  b  ample  iwm  Sir  all.  Tba  e 
go,  indeed,  the  greater  is  the  likelihood  tt 
prosperily.  Tho  fuDdameutalevil,a  laokofll 
is  daily  lessening  by  the  free  and  purchaisd  (■ 
iho  young  and  industrious  classes,  and  in  pnf 
lliis  stream  of  emigration  is  suslsined,  so  Bi 
peot  the  various  fields  of  emi^linn  to  be  man 
'le  resort  of  cspital  and  inteUigem  anlop 


PrInlHl  and  r 


V-andK. 


.  .         '<   tliiu  Jctinmliuilli'ii 
.)iL'  t'ljli^iiii,  iiiiJ  i.(  the  oliiliiuii 
iBtrf  iu  B^orlug  to  tiiar  Jfviai 
tutine  oocomuioM  took  pbtv.    Tli" 
h1  to  imimrt  or  to  uiw  8rtLi«|i  man  ii 
[  plM<n  in  nliiioH  •!■  llip  ioi*o»,  tiut  elilaHj'  iii  U .. 
;  and  llM  Mitsit  kiiietM  which  w*r*  hik  out  wvra  1 
lii>X«<L    A  ■n«wUiig  dT  dDlntla  frau  ihc  wvoml  I 
-'-  ~t  dlxtrioU  WM  li*U  IU  IfHS,  U  pcUltoQ  and  1 
IB  ukiiuit  wlut  tliojr  Mniidcred  »a  InJisKiN- 

I  tha  btiti«l>  S' '     '    ■  ""    "■ 

reBW»li>noti.      _ 

n  Mime  ut  thw  impotiluiufi  which  li 

laliiin,  the  rijtht  of  t&xlog  llit>  vulimlai  mu  viinirc     , 

in,  filaH,  kiul  palotE,    TIio  pisrtiinieitj>  nt  botu  |nT> 
l«il  ta  trcrincut  TioltincFr  iinil  K^  ISDglli  Ib  bMiuI 
ranxlniticnw  uf  vrnr  ua  tlie  part  of  ibo  Aniartmnc. 
r  stiiiiil  wvwi  y**™,  fnnn  177ft  l« 
^,  ftnd  ei)ncliiil»0  at  Iwt,  m  nii|t>ii  ham  Iwim  ki  .. 
itcd,  by  Iho  Uriliiib  twlnv  cntiipallcJ  ta  ndtmiutah  A    ' 
ntrj  vt  which  cTvry  lonaUiant  wm  tlmtr  oiionij-. 
t  w  WW  eondiietcil  on  the  part  of  ttip  AnivinuB 
G«DtTal  Qvorje  Waatungton,  t/)  wlioie  tnlnnta  inii 
HTnroDco  ho  >[im<);  tmuiiution  wm  nvNUj  uwino, 
<  whuw  modmtion  in  uaing  thv  influmcM  whiw 
id  eiii«n  him  OT*r  hU  oHiuitniiian,  h 
n  nnitatMt  by  Bnni|unron.    Tbo  onv 
QtniLandtbatf  Dt^ltttlomwithnllicrpawi 
ti  malol/  (Hrretod  during  tlitmo  tniniwtloni  Vf  % 
iId  FnMlln,  n  nan  who  w«i  crintlljr  itkilnKuiahcd 
"'''''    phor  and  >  lovm:  ufhi*  ODDnlry. 

f  pMCU  betvrvcia  Urmt  Britain 
AmonsB,  uw  ■viiuwioit  thirtMu  Mkbia  farmed  llw 
Bbltn  (if  IhR  UiiiUd   KutBR-.  — N»w   HMii|wl>ir 


a,  Konb  CMoUita,  ticulb  Carolina,  and  Gtarftt. 
IhtM  hava  been  ndded,  ftma  timr  to  tinit<,  Mauiv, 
•nont,  Gilnmbi*,  AhMioa,  LaaUkina  Vjpx^ 
n  Die  Fwiftc^  la  \W)a\,  UVio,  WXtWugw..  \«ll 


CHAMBERS'S  INFOKMATION  FOH  THE  PEOPLE. 


I 


I 


OT7XI'    OS    MEXICO 


f  settl(!d  in  Anle- 


wilh  (p.vtr. 
tJie  king,  l>< 
IMiTn.  ■■ 
with  tha  !.. 


iicml  K 


luiud  ti 


S|i]>uiulc<J  by  tbs 
aliM  KliargD  of  mich  [iitioiiaJ  iiflaini  aa  the  atalM  eoulil 
)M  Duniiiia  M'lwralwl)'.  TIm  Rtiiles  hitvd  hj:Ii  a  seiAt« 
Mid  IiiioM  ••!  rupiwniiiitiUiviB ;  (he  members  nf  iho 
jNtiwr  at*  Ivfrl  In  iiuinber  lliaa  tliiin''  •'(  tlia  iMLer, 
Jm/  ■  fiart  ul  lfa«u  onljr  U  ebuwa  HI  ueli  •! 


cunKlttulea  lliciu  part  a{  tliii  iaw.  Btrth  •« 
repri-'iwiiUlivea  *re  paid  tor  Ihcir  -"— If^ 
)fulilic  buniiicras,  gcnomUy  at  tbe  rata  of  Ma  i 
mm  shillings  Biurlinu)  per  cUf,  bcudia  M 
for  Craveiling  expeiiKs.  The  right  of  fHaOk 
in  Ibe  ])i-'o|)1o  uiid«r        "  '     '' 


hon,  tU  iwoIm 
Mideae*  in  Ut  «l 


there  Br«  only  eight  of  the  sutot  ia  irkioh  M 
uvallnwedtDgirevatei.  Ttia  jnJsnawl  Bl) 
irntea  an  ui  Hiiue  olatvs  elecfasd  bj  Uw  imi^IcJ 
liy  l>ra  ga\  emor,  aubject  to  Itw  aMinnBl  a 
liauica :  koiI  their  Uuura  oT  utUea  b  In  mob  I 
of  yuan ;  ia  oihen,  during  goud  bt^TioBeil 
I  veinl,u\VVnB\t>i\JitxiiJK^«  eat«^ait*(aM 


.'MTED  STATSa. 


a-a* 

—  .rft™rrir.,.^i-.™,.,    -         -       -     aUiiM 

■■■■'-'■■  '' r„.,l..v,., f..ls«w| 

■■    ■«  WJ 
I;  «M 

<.r  Uia 


tlib  «auunM  in  i^iA  to  ^!)0,e3l. 


■fTM 


i«ra  ft "-  .......  -J -  ,  .  .uij  Uiaic 

v|ii  in  cxtnuiKliiuiry  onau. 

'bv  navy  enimbiU  uf  1  tUif*  at  Urn  Uiw.  BUd  3 

•r<  loiiiJbi;  -.  lO  Imid-.*  "l  1 1  siiii".  '.'  of  iO  guut, 
■■■■  v,w]^ 


1IDU7  of  llu  nuliUi}  mA  nK<*L\i»ti«. 


CHAMBERS'S  INFORMATION  FOK  THE  PEOPLE. 


NotvithEtiinding  Ihe  free  gcniua  of  llie  Americori 
COnsliluUotJ,  null  the  lictle  Bltention  paid  ta  wealth  oi 
diffsrrnci!  i>r  rsok  in  coniniOD  [Ut,  discipline  ia  enforced 
with  great  Blrieueei  in  the  naTal  aorvice,  uid  with  the 
mort  j«lou»y,  perliapa,  because  there  is  alwa; 
ilauger  of  the  snineii  nnd  itiferior  officers  falling 
the  iudepindeiit  habits  of  tlieir  caDutiymcn,  ikhicJi 
wotlld  be  ineoDsistent  nilhtlis  autliorilTof  acammaiider 
nt  sea.  Captain  Ijnll  tella  a  storjr  of  a  young  afBccr 
who  announced  liis  inleutiun  of  appealing  to  tlio  people 
on  having  been  r^rimanded  by  bia  captaii 
being  reported  at  bvad-quarlcra,  an  order  cai 
lo  tay,  that  the  offiuer  was  perfeelly  at  liberty  to  appeal 
aa  he  projHBed  ;  aud  in  order  that  In      ■  ■-  ■    -       --' 


Histiing  to  enter  the  naval  service  ;  and  tlieae  gei 

tleraen  an  atao  exposed,  aftvrwarda,  la  frei|neiit  and 
ligorou*  euuninatious,  b;  which  nieana  iacoijijieteat 
persona  are  excluded. 

The  »hip«  uf  the  American  navy  are  genemlly  well 
built,  and  good  sailcra :  they  are  constructed  in  great 
part  of  a  wood  called  Ilie  liet  tak,  or  evergreen  oak, 
whieh  growl  in  tlio  salt  niarahes  of  Florida,  and  whicli 
is  almost  incormplible.  Large  nlaDtntiana  of  this  valu- 
able tree  are  furnieil,  and  carefully  attended  to  by  the 
government,  the  only  inslance  in  »bich  loreal  ■ 
al  all  cared  for  in  America. 


The  fsft  extent  of  cullurablD  and  prolilia  land  in 
tlie  United  States,  and  the  constant  deouiud  for  latse 
supplies  for  food,  forms  a  reason  why  the  nation  should 
reaurt  more  to  agriculture  than  aianufacturingi 
aa  a  Maple  employment.  The  Americans,  neverllieltsi, 
.  ftom  a  strong  desire  Id  be  indepeilHcDt  of  foreign  coun- 
triu  far  a  uMpply  uf  vticUa  al  eUiibing.  have  ttiirvwa 
UuiDnelva  energeljoally  into  a  eoone  of  nuumfikcturiag, 
in  ralation  both  to  soft  and  hard  goods.  Doubtless, 
ihey  coulil  lo  supplied  with  Ihe  articli'S  clieapor  ft 
England  than  they  could  make  them  ;  but  this  seem 
matter  of  indilTErcnce,  and  as  Ihe  English  lliiuk  Gl  to 
exclude  American  grain  from  their  luarkel,  Ihe  Amori- 
(Kclude  English  goods.  At  present,  they 
a  kind  of  rivalry  with  Brilain,  and  it  is 
lEat  Ihey  arc  bet  overtaking  it,  holh  in  the  ex- 
I  and  oheapucsa  of  their  products. 

The  tnauufiiclures  whicli  are  followed  with  mnst 
advantage  in  America,  and  without  fear  of  Eiiglisli 
rivalry,  are  thota  which  produce  articles  too  bulky  or 
too  heavy,  in  proporlion  lo  tlieir  value,  lo  bear  the 
expense  of  a  long  carriage,  or  of  which  the  malerials 
are  found  in  the  country,  and  can  be  wrought  up  there 
at  leas  expense  than  by  carrying  them  lo  chcaiicr 
trkdcamen  at  a  distance.  Some  of  these  branches  may 
bo  mentioned — such  as  the  making  of  soap,  candles, 
and  hats  j  tanning  and  working  in  leather,  particularly 
bulky  arlictea;  buildinB  of  carriages;  maLlng  of  all 
kinda  of  agricultural  implements;  carpentry,  sawing, 
and  turning  of  most  drecriplions ;  building  of  ships 
and  sleam-boata  ;  constructing  and  putting  up  uf  mill- 
imork  and  maehiniry ;  distilling;  the  eniploymenls  of 
guldainithB,  litwmilhs,  and  priutan.  There  are  several 
busioosses,  however,  whose  prospecta  di-pcDd  chiefly  on 

liuE  the  clieaiier  IT  ~     '  '     ' 

which  0 

atioa  in  the  tariff  laws 

aud  earthenware;  epii 


srs 


hempen  goods  and  silk  goods. 

Within  ihe  last  tew  years  Ihe  DUUiufaeturo  of  eolton 
haa  bevn  conducted  on  a  great  scale,  by  means  of  facto- 
ries on  the  same  plan  as  tliosa  in  Kogbuid.     The  cutinn 

it  vras  found  that  the  number  el  mills  in  twelve  sUIes 
was  TPi,  of  spindles  l,S46303,  of  power  looms  3.^306  ; 
of  males  employed  in  the  manuteture  1 8,&39,  females 
3BJia7—(oul  employed,  S7,<fiK.  The  amount  of  capital 
324 


now  invested  in  this  thriving  braneli  of  Ir 

mated  at  45,O0U,0O0  dolbirs,e4uallo  X9,37a,0 
being  about  a  fourth  part  of  Ihe  capiud  tun 
cotton  nianufncture  in  Great  Ilntain.  lly 
the  cotton  cheaper  tlian  can  he  done  in  Ei 
Americans  have  nn  important  advantage ;  v 
ever,  arc  higher.  Tiie  principal  oallan  nuu 
dtatricls  are  in  Ma»achuselts,  Haine,  and  < 
oa  the  coaat.  The  chief  seat  of  the  man 
Lowell,  in  Massachusetts,  and  it  may  be  ' 
Manchester  of  America.  Beudea  containii 
a  dozen  raclories  fur  cotton  and  woollen  fabi 
poBscBBSB  large  machine-making  establishm< 
eniplny  many  hundreds  of  workmen.  All  tti 
menla  in  rocdiauism  in  England  speedily 
way  to  this  epol. 

Iluusehold  manufactures  of  woollen,  linen, 
are  made  to  a  ercat  extent.  Many  {Junilies  a 
and  make  up  uieir  own  clothing,  slieetiof;, 
ic.  They  purchase  cotton,  and  mix  it  op  i 
with  their  linen  and  wooUea  stuff's;  blaidi 
coverlids,  stockinga.  mils,  &c,  are  made  ch 
bnuly.  These  arc  perhaps  neither  so  fine  n 
expcditiausly  as  thou:  of  regular  tradesmen 
are  producud  fur  domestic  use  at  limes  wlii 
no  olbei-  ciiiploymeni,  and  in  this  manner  a 

made.      It  is  supposed  that  nearly  Iwo-ihi 


is  elotliiiig  ii 


families,  as  in  Canada,  having  a  loam  ir 
is  lira  same  with  soap,  candles,  and  mapie.si 
which  are  manufactured  by  the  farmers  at  h 
articles  made  by  families  in  tho  slate  of  Ne< 
their  own  use,  were,  in  1831,  i«ekuned  al  i 
in  value.  Alteoipts  have  recently  been  n 
great  success,  to  introdaee  themanoCkctani 
mulberry-tree  grows  sponlaDeoiuly  in  the  mil 
and  the  light  euy  labour  which  the  ecdlscti 
silk  requires,  would  afford  employment  to 
and  feniali's,  cnnhliiig  them  to  add  to  the 
Iheir  faroilie^  when  they  could  not  otherwi 

The'n'^ 


conliuuBl  call  for 


dant  1 


lew  hands.     Capital  also  f 


that  tlnre  seems  to  be  no  necessity  for  the  . 
lUg  ihouixelvcs  to  eetablieli  new  mai 
ir  spare  hands  and  spare  money  beii 
oepnpied  to  advantage.  English  workmen 
ikilfUl  and  steady,  are  almost  certain  of  findii 
meiit  with  good  wag™,  in  one  or  other  of  the 
luring  lowua ;  hut  ii  is  hero  necesaary  to  atab 

against  operatives  fnun  Drilish  faetoriea,  * 
describe  aa  arrogant,  intemperate,  and  bb 
habits.  The  chi<^  ground  of  oomplaint  is  tb 
peranoe,  a  circumstance  partly  arising  frea  1 
neSB  and  abundance  of  iutohicating  liquor^bnf 
I  of  due  personal  control.  We  mnuioi 
ng ;  for  no  inlemperalely  dispoacd  work 
of  leaving  their  employment  in  Britai 
'lum  in  American  factories. 
:he  southern  stales  there  is  little  mannl 
the  inhnbitants  there  depend  o 


sugar,  and  other  raw  mat 


rfisn 


Tlie  wealthiest  class  iu  tho  United  SlilM 
rally  the  mcrchaDteofUr^sea-port  towns.   C 

'je  considered  ita  terming  the  arisMcni 

ry,  and  is  regarded  every  where  aa  hi^- 
Voung  people  arc  educated  for  il  Ali 
as  for  the  srmy,  or  for  any  of  the  Im 
feaaiona;  and  Iheyacqniro  '  '  "  ---  ■ 
of  the  foreign  counlrie*  w 
connected,  their  mode*  a 


re  a  knowMn  of  Ih*  1 
with  wUsh  thnr  pra 
of  WiiiiWln  hMii 


i.<   I iiinie  Irom  oorlli  III  (nllth 
<  ii.ui  iDijiht  be  luferrul,  oveo 

iiiiil  li-rulc  by  the  riviirai 

■  ■;  (tio  norihirrn  ■oil  wuiluirn 
on  ills  »',L'C(>iu.t  BrD  ui  dinVnrnl  from  raoli 
Uisw)  bbmil,  while  ilia  (UitM  in  iliat  inirl  of 
itrjr  bnv*  Umh  lougur  tiid  mora  d*ii*»ly  pan- 
Hiiii  Mtir*  inWrcDiicM  by  riven,  unAla,  nlt- 
.nd  •v*-ei»Bi,  IncrouMH  tJio  vkIuc  uf  Uiid  mmI 
Ery  every  nhcrc :  Ihe  produes  o(  the  KgrlcullUMl 
:•  can  olvayii  be  «eii(  cMily  W  Uie  tuiciii,  «iid 
DODofactaTtiig  plaww  to  Qiuao  w|u«h  uu  Tonrv 
■«ly  ftgticulturiu,  Tliu  Unitad  Btulcs  Imva  tuu 
inmanaed  inila«trwtu[it)rKtiouii,lo)ioHH9«i>itb«r 
Ith  ur  availkbl*  ruHuunws  <>r  iiuch  an  «lU-«»UtiHl 
utiinuK  country  M  Entluid,  ami  th«r«foro  bolli 
^ncy  and  tiiwuw  u(  <l^viie«  we  upun  o  compv- 
ttu.'Ogn!  aealc.  The  bulk  of  tlic  munry,  for  in> 
ciDployttd  on  gscAC  vablic  worlu,  Hiiil  borrtiwml 
Itffciviit  iUila,  baabrea  loot  l>y  Itriiiiih  >ni|i<l»l- 
tliesto«k  of  lbs  United  fiUWo  Biulh.  li  vcHMVKKtJiii 
orrtuod  to  belong  lo  hliickud.  tiu  Hluimnduui, 
r,  &ra  thv  naLurul  rwuiurcm  of  tliu  Stole*,  ftiid 
ly  inay  Ihey  b«  ilovulo[wil,  thai  willi  poMre.  aiid 
iwiiig  thoH  |>un>ul(«  of  lodiulry  nliicli  an 
■iaic  ta  Ibn  caunuy,  lb«  Dallon  tX  largo  iMUiut  ~ 
luag  a  debtor  to  fucolgn  powvn. 


1  Amsrin  urai  fint  •elttnli  Ifao  pniplo  oboM 
the  (ioinity  <•(  Uie  ■«>  i>r  wtiiriblv  ri*«r*,  to 
,r»  itiDniMuuof  fnMniiDinitulcatt'liitiialljiart* 
I ;  and  tainl*  eon  ut  lofi>ri«c  (vulii]  a<at«  IoobA 
n1ua\iio  ta  meU  •tWtxtoVa  ^Aulu  x\iwx  «i^  Va 


I 


ehannels  have  opened  the  tide  of  population  and  prospe- 
rity into  inland  districte  and  rich  lands,  \%'hich  must 
otherwise  have  lain  waste  and  lost,  except  to  a  few 
slovenly  and  ignorant  persons.  One  of  the  states  alone 
(Pennsylvania)  has,  since  1826,  devoted  no  less  than 
j£5,800,000  to  this  object.  New  York  has  been  even 
more  liberal ;  and  there  is  no  part  of  the  country 
(always  excepting  the  slave  states,  which  in  this  re- 
spect, as  in  ail  others,  are  gr^ttly  behind)  where  such 
means  are  not  taken  to  afford  the  occupiers  of  land 
means  of  bringing  their  produce  to  the  market  of  cities. 
This  is  a  matter  which  very  nearly  concerns  the  settler 
erery  where;  because,  however  good  the  soil  of  his 
fium,  or  however  unremitting  ha  own  industry  may 
be,  every  advantage  would  be  uirown  away,  if  he  could 
not  get  the  produce  dis])08ed  of.  Some  of  the  settlers 
in  Canada,  at  the  head  of  Lake  Erie,  were  so  badly  off 
in  this  respect,  till  the  opening  of  the  Erie  canal,  that 
their  surplus  wheat  and  cattle  were  worth  nothing: 
money  was  not  given  for  farm-produce  in  that  quarter. 
Wherever  there  is  a  good  canal  or  navigable  river,  on 
the  other  hand,  the  prices  of  farm-prc^nce  rise,  and 
land  which  was  unsaleable  becomes  in  request,  and  is 
covered  with  a  throng  of  settters  from  Europe,  or  of 
the  restless  speculators  of  America. 

The  Erie  canal  was  planned  by  an  American  patriot, 
Mr  De  Witt  Clinton,  and  was  carried  into  effect  at  the 
expense  of  the  state  of  New  York.  It  extends  three 
hundred  and  sixty  miles  along  a  rich  and  fertile  country, 
.  whieh  had  formerly  no  communication  with  markets, 
but  which  oui  now  send  its  produce  to  the  sea  in  two 
direetiops.  It  is  forty  feet  wide  at  top,  twenty-eight  at 
bottom,  and  four  feet  deep.  It  was  finished  in  five 
years,  at  an  expense  of  9,027,456  dolhurs.  The  waters 
of  Lake  Champlain  are  connected  with  the  Erie  eanal 
by  another  sixty*  three  miles  long,  which  was  executed 
mt  an  expense  of  1,179,871  dolUrs.  The  amount  of 
tolls  eolleeted  on  these  canals  in  1822  was  44,486 
dollars,  and  in  1834  this  had  increased  to  1,313,155 
dolUrs. 

Houses,  vfllages,  and  towns,  are  starting  up  along 
the  whole  line  of  the  Erie  canal,  with  unexampled  rapi- 
dity. Loekport,  for  example,  is  a  place  where  the 
eaoal  is  earned  by  locks  up  a  steep  rock  of  seventy  feet. 
This  spot  has  been  suddenly  transformed  from  a  wilder- 
ness into  a  thriving  village  of  two  thousand  inhabitants. 
RochoHtor  is  another  example  of  the  benefits  the  canal 
has  conferred  on  the  country :  at  that  place  there  was 
abundance  of  most  fertile  Jand,  and  there  were  also 
certain  falls  on  the  river  (Jenes^ice,  wliidi  were  adini- 
rablv  adapt4Ml  for  pivinp  water-pow»'r  to  niillH  and  other 
machinery  ;  but  all  these  advantages  existed  to  little 
pur|)os«*  %\ithout  go<Ml  roads  and  nuirketn.  The  openinj^  ■ 
of  the  canal  has  HuppIie<I  theste ;  and  the  consequenco 
liaH  b<'en,  that  Kochef»ter  has  all  at  once  started  up  from 
a  desert  into  a  populous  city,  and  j)resentfl,  eays  Mr 
Fergufi&on,  a  remarkable  instance  of  what  may  be  done 
in  tlie  way  of  transition,  exhibiting  in  its  streets  a  per- 
fect sample  of  the  j>r<»greH.s  from  stumps  to  Ktee}»K»s. 
Jt  jj»  not  i«n;»  ago  since  its  most  crowded  streets  were 
M  forest.  The  first  twttJcrs  cut  down  the  trees,  leaving 
iiie  gtumpe  bianding  tiii  they  liad  more  leisure*,  j)Lud\ 

320* 


*  «  *  «.^A  K»   ^^«      AX 


\ 


a  canal  stretches  from  the  Delftwue  to  ti 

from  the  DeUware  to  the  Cheaspsake ;  M 

Chesapeake  to  the  Ohio.  The  rivers  Poton 

nandoah,  which  were  formerly  ohstmotei 

have  been  rendered  completely  navinUt 

struction  of  canals  and  loekage  at  eaoi  vi  t 

It  would  be  idle  in  us  to  attempt  hers  i 

tion  of  even  a  small  proportion  of  the  i 

of  this  nature,  which  have  been  exeeiited  ; 

Wherever  the  navigation  of  a  river  has  hi 

by  rapids  or  the  occasional  shallowness  oC 

obstacle  has  been  overcome,  if  there  weie  « 

minerals  or  fertile  land  to  be  made  aeesai 

the  banks  of  some  rivers  of  thb  kind^  mml 

carried  for  100  miles ;  as,  for  instance^  tii^ 

the  Lehigh  and  Schuylkill,  in  Pennsylvmajfti 

two  navigable  streams,  flowing  to  diftra 

separated  by  a  ridge  whieh  it »  pcaiUe  t 

by  a  caRal,  the  work  is  attemptea«  aad  lii 

cation  made  complete  from  sea  to  sea.    1 

this  are  found  in  the  Champlain  Ganalf  vh 

pleted,  and  connects  the  Hudson  and  8l  Lin 

m  canals  between  the  Miami  and  the  Wata 

River  and  the  Ovisconsin,  whieh  are  both 

effected.    It  is  not  that  the  Amerieaas 

reus  or  more  patriotic  than  other 

undertake  these  works ;  it  seems 

a  spirit  of  restless  enterprise,  whidl 

with  turning  to  advantage  the  land 

but  must  Iw  always  hurrying  away  to 

sources  of  some  new  region  which  Is 

more  fertile  than  any  yet  diseovered.    JlmI 

for  the  manner  in  which  the  AmerinM  X 

British  in  this  species  of  underUklog^  ow^ 

tioned.    All  great  improvements  in  thS  « 

impeded  by  powerful  uietions  of  men  wfa9 1 

ancient  systems,  howeter  absurd ;  whswM  1 

all  classes  seem  to  strive  to  improre  ths  < 

general  principles  of  utility,  without  regn4  to 

usages.    Whatever  may  be  the  cftnse^  R '% 

effect  of  opening  up  to  the  orer-owwdsd  m 

Europe  rich  and  inexhaustible  roiintTJWj^lF 

may  emigrate  for  iLges  without  fiUing  (hM|^ 

would  have  been  or  little  advanta^  wttbMl 

nels  of  communication  now  opening  by  &•  i 

Although  it  is  only  since  the  year  1824  thi 

have  been  used  for  general  trafRc  in  the  Uni 

yet  that  country  lias  a  greater  extent  of  rail 

any  country  in  Europe.     Some  of  these  ai 

niajL;nitudt',  and  others  liavi>  been  constroete 

wiicre  the  ditliculties  mi;;ht  have  Ihh«u  thou 

insurmountahle.     The  Camden  and  Amboy 

sixty-one  milfs  in  lenjjth,  and  brings  the  citi 

York  and  Thiladelphia  within  a  few  hours' 

each  other.     The  Philadelphia  and  Columbia 

the  portage-road  over  the  Allegh&ny  moon) 

stitute  part  of  the  great  inland  comnnmieatin 

the  Delaware  and  Lake  Krie.     ThermilroM 

moimtains  is  thirty-six  miles  long,  and  in  th 

overcomi's  a  rise  and  fall  of  2570  feet.     Id  < 

it  there  is  a  tunnel  900  feet  long  evt  tioNM^ 

xueV,  mA'\\.  \A&\,<^\i  vtoXiQuary 


AT&S. 

^^^  K'7"-<r..r'.^    1 

K: 

■■■•,.:3: 

VInl 
-ll*d 

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.    I'lniiJ 

KM 

iha 

HCrl 

Hrit' 

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1 

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iB«t  I"- 

:  Ilia 

■ntkiiion 

B  MUUiMaM  *riU  t)n  UlrUt,  dhplh, 

ft^aTllM      ■ 

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StlU*. 

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m 

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ftU 

nnLiKiva. 

«i«          1 

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m 

soo 

wi          1 

«  «r  Uin  T] 

ri«>.l.l«  rim-  -rf  d.-  rr..it-4  5*>ta       1 

„  Hi„  L.!.r« 

■'■"I" >■''' 

1  »"*>Mrt 

"\"« 

<•■ 

:.  lU-y 

■     1  .li-H*! 

ii-,ii..  ihitlr 

ttiorc  (m  riiat  «Meh  la  troxl  tbo  mn 

Ui«v  Iwra 

^d  ottion. 

to  gH*  tiifnt  an  ouU<n,  to 

•h>  o(««n 

Uiiur  pwn 

WiTihinr 

.ty£ 

01     I*   %h«M 

■*>!  (wnpttw,  rrom  iSb 

■n  at  Knr 

b}'  >  oiol 

tnLalieI^'n;Ui-nv#  t» 

n<»'>n  u>d 

»>•;  -od  b 

•aliu-suM 

by  etl)<!«  ewal 

.  Iff  tlw  In- 

LaMnrtho 

mil. 

mfoJt  JfiWM Tlie 

navlGablD  Wver<   nn  tliit        | 

rmldeorAinnrlaiiira 

«T  Aral  mei 

tian  llw  CfltHiwU™*.  a  1 

ri-  itmun 

E  into  xli* 

AiUnlio  n«r  rt.a  ih«-.1>. 

ni>(  viut  »t 

}.Und:  ll«  tt<id»»i,D 

ritsr  lui*«itn<> 

o!  .1,0  Uv 

".Tot 

...itmo, 

un^'nivcr 

and  «t! 

'■.--.  of 

pala.  «ii«.h.  V  r. 

,  t«  t(-i»li> 

fif  f'l.r'  I,. 

'",'"  """' 

„"Ml...,i,..rl,' 

cl»aneli  tbr  ih 

udi  CftnliDA 

n<lGwTcift 

^ 

CUAMBKRa-S  INFORMATION  FOE  THE  PEOPLE. 


use  the  cipreeaion')  by  the  livers  Podee,  Saalee,  S>- 

TBJiiiah,  Og««clice,  Alittanuilw,  fte.  ;  and  East  riorida 
aijo}s  the  same  conreuieiice  iu  the  Iliver  St  Johu'ii  and 
its  branches.  _, 

But  thn  cMtern  rivers,  luefiil  as  they  an  (and  thej 
hB««  ccrlaialy  aa  yet  be«a  the  ohier  seats  oF  camDiecce 
in  the  country),  aro  by  the  Amerieans  (hamaelvea  ea- 
tinly  luBl  sight  o[  in  tlxo  culhusiaera  of  their  admiratian 
for  the  immcnBe  atreama  which  water  the  wotem  and 
inland  stain.  Theae  great  rivers  ore  certainly  not  to 
Iw  niuallnl  iu  any  other  country,  at  leoal  in  any  eoaa- 
try  which  haa  had  such  skill,  or  such  a  form  i>f  gavern- 
meat.  as  have  enabled  its  puople  to  turu  the  conimer- 
Eial  Ihcilitici  of  their  inland  waters  to  proper  advantage. 
The  rivoTB  to  which  we  allude  are  the  Mississippi,  and 
the  large  tributarias  which  nrnve  froiii  (he  east  and 
west  to  fall  into  llie  channel  of  tlint  great  elrcam. 

The  Duniber  of  slaain-hoatB  on  the  western  rivers  in 
1 834  was  about  230,  nieasuriDg  39,n0()  tonii.  Besides 
these,  there  are  4000  tiat-bottoiuud  and  keel  boats, 
with  a  tannage  amounting  Iu  lfiO,000.  Onlya  few  ui 
th«o  vtaBels,  however,  are  fil  to  go  tu  sea,  being  only 
anited  for  river  navigation. 


rhere  is  a  great  variety  of  useful  m'meralfl  distributed 
through  dilFeront  parts  of  tJie  states.  Coal  may  bo 
mtntinned  among  the  first :  it  exists  ttirough  all  the 
MHinlry,  lyiug  north  of  a  line  drawn  from  PliiladelpLi 
la  the  mouth  of  the  Ohio,  and  is  particularly  abundau 
on  the  upper  waters  of  the  Susguehannali,  as  well  s 
on  the  Alleghany  and  the  Monungaheht.  At  Pittshur, 
there  is  a  hill  principally  eoinpoaed  of  coal,  and  it  i 
found  at  many  places  in  this  district  within  a  few  feet 
of  the  aurfaee.  There  are  extensive  eoal-miae*  also 
on  Iha  Roanolm  and  Appumatox,  in  Virginia. 

nie  aoaatry  on  the  tibia  ■>  particularly  rich 
MBftl  ptodootiona^  The  whola  diaUot  ia  bottomed  oo 
luneelane,  on  which  rents  the  wide  and  valuable  ooal 
formation  nicnliimed  above,  extending  from  the  lii^nd 
waters  of  the  Ohio,  in  Pennsylvania,  tti 
Tombigbec.  Iron  ore  is  found  abundantly 
district,  principally  loivarda  the  upper  part  of  the 
Ohio ;  bog  ore  is  fuuud  in  tho  volleys  of  the  Alleghany 
ehaia  ;  and  various  kinds  of  ores,  of  the  saiuo  melul, 
are  met  with  in  the  New  England  states  :  at  one  phice, 
earbonate  of  imn  is  found,  which,  on  being  reduced, 
produces  steel,  and  ia  called  tleel  ore.  Bhuik  lead,  ir 
beds  of  from  five  to  six  feel  wide;  travorsea  tha  lUtei 
of  New  York,  Jersey,  Virginia,  Carolina,  &c.  Coppei 
ore  is  found  in  Virginis,  in  Connccljoul,  and  iu  Ne» 
Jersey  :  it  eiiata  also  in  the  nciElibourliuod  of  the 
lake*  ;  and  a  piece  of  purs  malleable  copper,  weighing 
three  pounds,  was  found  in  Illinois. 

Gold  mines  have  been  traced  extending  titrough  a 
large  tnct  of  country  in  the  western  parts  of  Virginia, 
North  and  South  (>rollo'a,  and  Gwrgia  :  they  are 
wrought  to  a  coouderablo  extent,  20.00(1  men  being  em- 
ployed at  the  different  workings  :  the  miners,  who  arc 
people  of  all  countries,  say  that  the  produce  is  richer 
than  tlial  of  any  other  mines  on  tho  globe  :  one  piece 
of  pure  gold  was  ''und  weighing  twenty-eight  pounds. 
The  Bonual  produu  t  about  one  million  aterling  ;  but 
we  have  not  heard  wliat  proportion  of  this  is  expended 
iu  the  work,  or  what  aclnaf  profit  has  been  realised. 
One  singular  fact  ia  remarked  concerning  these  mines, 
whiohis,tlieindubilableevidenceafuundlhat  lliey  have 
been  wrought  at  some  period  before  America  was 
known  to  tlie  Europeans.  Many  pieces  of  inschincry 
which  were  used  for  this  purpose  have  been  discovered 
in  the  workings,  among  which  were  several  crucibles  of 
earthauwarr,  which  are  fur  better  than  tliuso  now  in  use. 

Silver  and  its  ores  an^  nut  of  frequent  or  extenaiTe 
OMuersnai.  Mercury  has  iHen  found  native  in  Ken- 
tudiy,  but  It  oeeun  plentifully  in  the  ore  as  bituminous 
einnabiu',  through  the  Ohio  aud  Miehinn  territory, 
tl  ia  found  in  the  soil  as  a  black  or  red  sand,  some- 


d>,. 


Miaaoarl ;  they  are  said  to  occupy  a  anrb 
hundred  miles  in  length,  aud  two  linndnd  it 
One  miner  will  raise  about  two  thouiand  pc 
day,  which  sell  for  forty-live  dollars,  and  jii 
hnndred  pounds  of  pure  lead. 

Epaom  salts,  Glauber  salts,  and  nitr^  an 
Ohio  nnd  I  ndiana  ;  the  two  Utter  in  cavaa,  II 
in  a  thin  layer  on  rocky  Burfaces.  Salt,  vbid 
tries  far  removed  from  the  sea  is  an  artiek 
expense,  is  produced  ^msall  springs,  or  &d 
in  different  parts  of  the  wesWrn  country. 
medicinal  qualities 


id,  ia  got  almost  pure  liom  the  earth,  in  ' 
near  the  town  of  Byron.  It  ooecs  out  bom  1 
a  low  hummock,  and  may  be  collected  by  di^ 
in  the  ground.  There  are  several  pUc«  whn 
mable  goa  issues  from  the  earth  :  ana  i*  a  • 
called  Sodom,  the  bottom  of  whioh  is  farmed 
green  sUte,  tha  sides  of  whilo  shell-marl,  and 
of  blnck mould  ;  thewaler  ia  nnoTmmonlytis 
BO  that  the  basin  looks  like  an  immenae  poroeli 
the  water  is  of  the  quality  of  thai  of  HamiW| 
gas  isGues  fromilahundantlv,  and,  wlwn  hindl 
alung  the  surface  with  a  bright  red  Uamefay 


lining  the  geological  slructurs  of 
nent,  some  aingulaiities  lukve  berrt 
whicli  are  believed  not  to  oorreapoud  with  tl" 
formed  in  Europe  on  this  subjeet.  We  shat 
a  few  of' those  which  appear  to  be  tuoM  ki 
chalk  found  any  where  In  tlis  MaM 


9  tiler 


«(or 


logists),  though  the  localities  where  both  imi 
pMtcd  are  suffioiently  marked.  Hf  Uanlsi 
that  some  shells  of  the  reosot  allavial  fbni 

New  Jersey  arc  iden^col  with  speclea  found  i 
condary  rocks.  Thore  have  been  discovert 
luncstoiie  <if  Ihe  eld^r  secondary  formatiun,  1 
of  human  feet  ;  the  marks  are  those  of  a  ma 
nary  size  standing  creel,  with  bis  herls  drav 
his  toes  turned  ontward  ;  the  toes  are  muc 
aud  the  feet  flattened,  like  those  of  people  ■: 
tomed  to  shoes  ;  the  impreeaious  are  stnkingi 
exhibiting  every  moseular  swell  and  deprM 
accumcy.  Every  thing  seems  to  warrant  Ih 
aion,  that  these  marks  were  made  at  a  tinte 
rock  wag  soft,  aud  received  them  by  prcMI 
geology  dates  at  a  period  very  lone  mdeed  1 
general  Hood.  They  were  examined  by  (ior* 
and  Kfr  Schoolcraft,  at  St  Louis  and  llereoh 
the  Mississippi,  and  they  exist  also  at  lbs 
Und  mountains,  always  in  the  same  kind  of  I 
Other  singular  &cls  (uncoanoctod,  howeT<r\ 
above)  have  been  observed  in  this  districL 
away  plains,  on  the  Ohio,  a  human  skeletaal 
seventeen  feet  below  the  surface,  in  a  bod  < 
and  shelLi  deposited  by  water,  and  havine  tu 
earth  over  them.  At  Cincinnati,  in  diggiM  i 
arrow-head  was  found  ninety  feel  below  tEe 
and  in  Illinoia,  fragments  of  anlii|uu  pctMiJ 


vural  hun  ^  _        .  ^ 

feet.  1'hey  were  chiefly  of  two  kinds  of  ■• 
watermusscl.of  which  several  B|>ccieB  exist  h) 
one,  called  imiirifin,  is  used  for  food  in  Zet 
another  ia  eaten  about  Cork,  where  ic  b  nl 
looiu  ;  we  do  not  know  if  tho  S|>ccica  which  ' 
out  of  the  aravcl  arc  found  among  tho  prvHi 
can  Bhelllish.  f.ifiuji  letuli  have  bwn  foumlin 
OS  here,  in  aulid  roek,  of  what  bos  been  CsUcd 
stone-griL 


Amerim  isgeoerallycv 


DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


■ntry,  iU  people  is  forminff  a  siDgle  natioD,  and  the 
■lurki  which  are  made  with  regard  to  one  part  of  it 
fl  eappoeed  to  be  equally  applicable  to  all.  No  idea, 
nrorer,  ean  be  more  fallacioas.     The  region  which 

•  term  the  United  States  is  composed  of  sections  of 
mtry  as  remote  from  each  other  as  London  is  from 
iistantinflple,  or  Madrid  from  Berlin :  they  lie  under 
flbrent  dimalesi  and  the  different  circumstances  under 
^aA  ihmr  inhabitants  are  placed  form  in  each  a  totally 
flteent  set  of  manners.  The  English  language  is 
mmon  to  all,  and  they  all  profess  the  Christian  reli- 
tm\  but  in  most  other  respeots  the  difference  between 
■Bi  is  as  pvat  as  between  any  two  European  nations, 
be  great  oiyisions  under  which  the  country  ought  to 
»  vinred  are  the  north-eastern  or  New  England  states, 

I  wbish  for  the  present  may  be  included  Pennsylvania ; 
^  Use  southern  or  slave  states,  to  which  section  also 

•  may  refer  Kentucky  and  Tenessee ;  and,  8d,  The 
tv  states  of  the  west,  which  are  in  progress  of  settle- 
KBt  The  manners  of  the  New  EdigUnd  states  are 
■sBcd  on  the  model  of  those  of  our  own  country,  and 
feete  an  few  eiroumstances  in  the  nature  of  the  <jimate 
•Ueh  tend  to  mrodnoe  any  material  alteration ;  it  Is 
Bsng  them  only  that  due  provision  is  made  for  the 
iacaiion  of  the  people  or  for  religious  instruction. 
1»  inrodttetiDos  ot  the  soil — the  modes  of  a^culture 
-the  arts  and  occupations  to  which  these  give  rise— 
ke  alternations  of  season — and  many  other  things,  have 

II  a  resemblaaee  to  those  of  our  own  country.  They 
■hivate  wheat  and  the  other  European  grains ;  their 
Mnltn  veoetablei^  potatoes,  turnips,  carrots,  cabbages, 
la,  are  toe  same  as  ours ;  th^  employ  tlie  same  do- 
■■lie  animals ; .  and  they  use,  of  course,  the  same  agri- 
ritoral  implements,  the  same  grist-mills^  &c.,  requiring 
|m  the  same  tradesmen  to  prepare  and  work  them. 

Even  in  these  great  divisions  which  we  have  pointed 
•^  there  are  portions  which  differ  exceedingly  from 
M^  other.  New  Orleans,  for  instance,  which  belongs 
a  the  slave  states^  has  a  completely  different  set  of 
macts  from  Charleston  in  Vinnuiia.  The  former  is  a 
ify  dT  immense  trade,  situatccr  at  the  mouth  of  the 
(Rat  river  Mississippi ;  it  contains  a  mixed  populntion 
f  blacks  of  all  sliades,  and  of  white  men  from  every 
Mion  in  Europe.  Its  streets  are  crowded  and  speckled 
lilh  people  of  every  colour ;  its  quays  with  snipe  of 
9tn  country ;  and  its  wharfs  are  loaded  with  bales  of 
pods  ffom  all  quarters  of  the  earth,  some  ooming  from 
HBope  or  from  Chin%  to  be  carried  for  three  thousand 
■lea  up  the  inland  rivers  of  America;  others  sent 
Isvn  these  rivers  some  months'  voyage,  to  be  carried 

•  the  West  Indies  or  the  Mediterranean.  The  air  of 
bs  pfaioe  is  unwholesome,  and  it  is  a  mart  where  poo- 
ls Bony  to  make  money  before  they  be  overtaken  with 
iMBse  sad  death.  Such  are  the  influences  under  which 
hsOHUUiers  and  character  o/tho  people  of  New  Orleans 
■«  formed.  Charleston,  on  tlie  other  hand,  is  tlie 
pyilal  of  a  wealthy  agricultural  state ;  the  pursuits  of 
hs  people  are  not  decidedly  commercial ;  the  town  is 
kt  resort  of  numerous  country  gentlemen,  who  pride 
JMBsdves  rather  on  tho  oldness  and  rospectabilitv  of 
hiir  fiuniliesy  and  the  extent  of  their  property,  than 
■  the  activity  of  their  business  habits.  The  gentry 
Arive  to  keep  up,  between  themselves  and  their  slaveu, 
VS  exterior  resemblance  to  the  feudal  relations  of 
Eorope ;  coats  of  arms  are  fashionable,  as  arc  liveries 
tpr  servants:  there  is  a  general  air  of  elegance  and 
iplsndour  in  the  buildings  of  the  town:  some  of  the 
■Mses  ^are  real  palazzos,  surrounded  with  orange 
hsssy  maguoliss,  and  other  trees  of  an  almost  tropical 
dtaAte."  There  is  much  taste  for  the  fine  arts  among 
As  higher  classes,  and  among  the  lower  an  absence  of 
dl  that  bustle  and  variety  of  language  and  dress  which 
wmA  a  great  commercial  city,  ft  is  obvious,  therefore, 
ibsl  the  manners  of  these  two  places  can  have  very 
Eltle  in  common. 

If  we  glance  at  the  northern  states,  we  sliall  find 

•  difference  of  a  similar  kind  existing  between  New 
York  and  Phihklelphia.  The  former  city  is  the  great 
AflMchfiNre  of  ail  emigrants  and  commercial  agents 

329 


who  arrive  from  Europe ;  the  people  passing  through 
it  daily  are  sometimes  estimated  at  15,000  or  20,000 ; 
it  lies  at  a  eenti*al  point,  having  communication,  by 
rivers,  cuials,  and  railroads,  with  the  whole  northern 
parts  oMbe  American  continent.  Grain,  provisions, 
lumber,  and  manufactures,  are  brought  from  countries 
a  thousand  miles  inland,  for  exportation,  or  for  the  use 
of  places  along  the  coast  which  have  not  the  same 
facility  of  conveyance.  People  arriving  there  are  seciure 
of  finding  a  passage  to  every  other  city  inland  or  coast- 
ways;  hence  tho  streets  and  quays  are  constantly 
crowded  with  travellers  and  their  luggage.  The  extent 
of  its  commercial  transactions  gives  a  facility  to  those 
who  wish  to  engage  in  any  kind  of  speculation,  because 
here  they  can  always  learn  the  prices  or  the  demand 
for  every  article  of  American  produce ;  hence  there  is 
a  restlessness,  bustle,  and  continual  spirit  of  cliadge 
among  its  population,  or  a  great  part  of  it,  which  it 
would  be  vain  to  seek  elsewhere  in  Europe  or  in 
America.  Philadelphia,  on  the  other  hand,  though  also 
a  place  of  very  extensive  commerce,  has  fewer  channels 
of  communication  with  the  distant  inland  countries, 
and  has  of  course  a  smaller  variety  of  produce  either 
raw  or  manufactured :  hence  there  is  loss  speculation ; 
business  proceeds  with  more  steadiness,  but  less  appa- 
rent bustle ;  there  is  in  the  streets  an  air  of  quiet  regu- 
larity, where  every  one  seems  to  go  easily  and  leisurely 
about  his  business :  and  the  transit  of  strangers  through 
the  place  is  but  inconsiderable.  The  prevailing  religion, 
which  is  Quakerism,  has  also  a  manifest  influence  in 
producing  these  effects.  The  influenco  of  circum- 
stances upon  the  manners  of  a  people  is  nowhere  more 
remarkable  than  it  is  here  in  the  case  of  the  negroes. 
Slavery  is  not  permitted  in  this  state  ;  and  the  inhabi- 
tants do  not  countenance  in  all  its  severity  that  feeling 
of  contempt  with  which  black  people  are  regarded  in 
other  parts  of  the  Union ;  hence  the  Africans  reside 
here  in  freedom  and  comfort,  while  they  see  their  coun- 
trymen, a  few  miles  to  the  southward,  poor  degraded 
slaves ;  and  they  are  generally  in  consequence  a  con- 
tented, cheerful,  and  industrious  caste. 

Again,  if  we  look  at  the  western  states,  we  shall  find 
that,  though  there  is  a  certain  uniformity  of  numners 
over  the  whole,  thsy  are  here  also  differently  modified, 
according  to  circumstances.  Pittsburg,  for  instance, 
with  the  neighbouring  towns.  Wheeling  and  Steuben- 
ville,  are  in  the  centre  of  a  country  which  is  rich  in 
various  kinds  of  minerals— coal,  iron,  lime,  &c. ;  they 
are  therefore  filled  with  a  manufacturing  population, 
and  the  pursuits,  appearance,  and  manners  of  their 
inhabitants,  differ  from  those  of  the  country  around 
them,  as  those  of  Birmingham  may  be  supposed  to  do 
from  other  places  in  the  centre  of  England.  The  town 
of  Cincinnati,  again,  which  is  situated  on  the  Ohio,  as 
these  places  also  are,  is  a  great  inland  depot  for  mer- 
chandise to  be  exported  or  imported.  Its  inhabitants 
are  merchants,  attendants  in  counting-houses  and  ware- 
rooms,  owners  of  river  steam-boats,  and  a  population 
attracted  by  tlie  general  trade  of  the  place,  while  there 
in  also  a  large  number  who  are  occupied  in  tho  very 
peculiar  business  of  killing  and  preserving  for  expor- 
tation the  immense  quantities  of  live-stock  reared  in  the 
country. 

CLIMATE,  SOIL,  AND  NATUR.VL  PRODUCTIO.NS. 

The  state  of  Maine,  which  is  the  farthest  north  of  the 
Union,  reaches  to  latitude  48° :  Florida,  on  the  south, 
extends  to  within  25°  of  the  equator.  Between  these  two 
points  there  is  a  great  variety  of  climate,  and  the  diffe- 
rences of  temperature  arc  increased  by  the  flat  or  shel- 
tered situation  of  some  districts,  and  the  mountainous 
features  of  others.  The  New  England  states  and  Penn- 
sylvania, lying  between  40°  and  48°  north,  approach 
nearest  to  the  climate  of  England ;  but,  owing  to  causes 
which  are  not  yet  perfectly  understood,  the  whole  At- 
lantic coast  is  wanner  in  summer  and  colder  in  winter 
by  about  10  degrees,  than  tlie  same  latitudes  in  Europe. 
Some  of  the  plants  of  this  country,  such  as  the  holly, 
and  the  common  tehin  or  furze,  when  transplanted 


CHAMBERS'S  INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


Inpwuho 


«fmi 


ind  <»«<»»-   Thr  tit  k  in  IMbI 

..unlry.  Hid  wol  iihowery  wiaMB 

lw«  fr^nmt;  w  liiAt  brni  vnrk  iHpcadiieU'4  with  more 
iwutor.iy  iind  tocpb  •eeurily  Hum  *>iii  u*.  Winler 
den  not  w(  in  I>>1  t)M  miildl*  of  Doccmbor;  mOer 
whioh  frwW  cooliBoe  with  tiiinw  or  Im  werity  till 
Mwnh,  «llh  frBiu«nt  »ni)  gr«il  ch»njt««  (Vom  mild 
wntba  l4  lnl«n*e  mtd.  In  April  Iha  •cmod  becoiun 
unln  floe,  ■iinny,  tnJ  irj.         •■ 

Id  chv  «uuw  Miutli  ot  the  PoteniM,  tlw  rtinuK  Is 
tmicb  wBrmtT  i  th«  wiiit«rt,  wliidli  iodwd  Br«  h»jrfly 
to  tiK  (»ll«l  •IniM*  In  flur  wmw  of  Uin  word,  nre  short 
snd  wad,  frurt  being  littt"  Mt  mw? pt  doring  iho  night. 
Th*  hwt  ot  th*  nrm  ■*>*<■»  U  UlM  tUt  of  trouml 
onnoCrla ;  but  tlila  i>  Tall  cbk.-lly  on  tlw  MS-cout,  whicli 
b  lu  fPBtni  tow,  lUl,  wid  far  fram  bvalthy.  Tli*  in- 
kad  |iM1>l  twinic  men  elerftlcd  btiiI  hilty,  th*  cUtiuUe 
tlMT*  li  inan>-l«niwnt«.  Th*  whola  enwl  tmm  norlh 
umuth  !■  nibjpct  to  Irmnvndnut  liartleanca,  vhich 
■omMimH  do  mooh  miscliirr. 

TImi  ellmue  of  the  wmiH-ni  •bvlai,  farming  what  ii 
aHedihe  Itknin  of  ttm  Ohir^Udiirernit  both  from U<&t 
of  ri»w  Knihind  ■nd  from  Uio  nooihornifislriW"  in  Ihi- 
tanm  l»tim3=i.  Tlio  avrragi  Icmperalurt  ^  the  yri 
h  ii««riy  th«  mmc  ix  «ormpondiiis  jmtntit  on  boUi ;  hi 
thrra  are  fewer  inr^naliCiM  in  Ihn  wml,  imtthar  tl 
bMl  nor  «*M  iwaphrng  Ihn  mtn"  eiilwnie«L     The  ther- 


nfill 


ntrao] 


-olTI  d. 


bflow  th*  rr»M>njt-]>nlnl.     Froil  dooi  Dot 
manant  till  nor  llie  clou  of  Dnwmbcr.  wl  ^ 

mtur  and  Mn*(l  riib  kn  fraxcn  fnmi  thr»«  to  fifl<>«n 
daya.    Utny  ntanti.  mob  u  lh«  cotton,  the  4»1pa, 
mnafru,  th*  llliiioiiinnt,Sonriidi  InthvwwiernMi  ~  - 
fal  btitudm  whvra  Unrf  would  bM  Ihrira  tm  Ihe 
coaA    ThH  tir  ft  nuH«  molat,  fbgt  and  hMTf  dam 

■V,,/.— rfNiL  "("-irli™  of  (hr  Npw  EnRlsiid  RtsttB  whl^h 
:i,.i  .■jL.i  '.I  itir-  rivpr  Iliid-in.  U  bn.Un  and  h.lly  ;  the 
Kill  in  grnpniJ  lliin,  unprnditctive,  and  bL^tUr  adapted 
for  fmrtum  tltnn  tiHaff".     From  Now  York,  all  aloDg 


hundrrd  ui'iIm;  it  produe«s  nntliing  but  shruba 

ElnE'trvea,.  cxivpt  on  Iho  banks  of  rivi 
y  plapM. 


and  rlna-trce*,.  rswpt 

manny  cWm.  where  ri™  i*  grow^  Diekward  froi 
thl*  lino  lo  tho  fnol  of  (hn  Alloghaif  Mountiiins.  thor 
id  a  tnun  of  mno  laiidof — '-' '   '      "'''"  '^   -   * 


Daekward  fn 

if  (hn  Alir.      ~ 
laud  'if  TitrlaiilL-  bri'adih.  but  nf  great 


hwwllbly  pntdi 

Afiniltural  I'todaeHoHi. — OitB,  rr(,  and  barl<>y,  are 
raia^  in  all  iha  northern  «talwi,  and  airo  ii^lba  hilly 
ditlriru  uf  th*  unnlh,  Of  bu-lcy,  luro  oropa  ia  a  aeaaon 
■Tti  obtainvd  in  favoaralile  altuatiiuis.  Maii«  ia  cnm- 
ninn  in  i>vef7  pari  of  tho  Union,  but  thrives  beat  in  the 
niiddl*  atatca,'  II  U  a  *nt«Iabta  adapted  to  a  (pinti^r 
variriy  of  wiii  and  elimnto  than  wheal,  and  yields  a 
much  largar  pruduc*.  The  nuguT  nuple  grows  ov^ry 
where,  but  llim--  b"l  in  tlic  g-«il  inaiio  districls. 

Wli»alfaa]«.ri, '■  ■<  .,n-....^,.  »li<,lc  Union;  but 

lliaonlyai>n>ili  .1  "H  .,f  the  rotnmac, 

or  Id  ib«  hill^  iir>'  <;i  t)ic«  lituatiuns 

^Idalatjf  ■■!■  ■   ii  .(ualiiy;  inths 

In  p'li^rul,  it  is  remarked 

rim  are  (avounble  to  the 

I,  andtliatin  rice  eountriea,  wbioh 

1st,  Uis  AMoui  popotation  hu  a  great 

mpartdi  h«iith  and  longetilviiYer  wEiwi, 

~ilJoa  of  loliaceo  begins  in  Maryland,  tn 

Jl  li  ralacd  tn  a  ||ruU<^  extent  in  that 

ila  tliaa  In  any  ottirra  of  ilia  tiainn  ; 

in  all  th*  wntotn  atatei.    Cution  I 

330 


doM  not  sncoMd  «otl  larlbw  oonll  tltto  Hw  la 
37*,  IlioDgh  some  of  the  dirtriot*  ni«  it  lor  i 
n*e ;  it  fumia  the  ataple  of  all  Ula  diiUtaU  looi 
river  Rnamike.  The  b**t  kinds  grow  in  SoWb 
aod  Geot^ia,  in  dry  situationa.  npua  Iha  aos-coi 
cultivation  of  riM  ooeupiea  naarly  iha  ama  i 
that  of  cotton;  it  b  a  very  nnbcaJuty  occopatM 
(laves  who  or*  engactd  In  h.  The  dinato  > 
favourable  to  nugar  dun  nol  CXtaod  bayood  itn 
of  32° ;  it  is  rauad  in  the  slatw  efaiafty  firr  i 
use,  and  ia  not  an  article  at  export  fo  any  aata 
crop  la  ratlier  prenHons,  frqm  tlio  fniala  whif 
timM  oceor  oven  in  Ihe  mo«l  auuthariy  diatriela. 
has  b««n  tried  in  America,  but  enuld  nut  at 
ooropaiitivn  with  that  of  Benga}. 

The  vine  growa  npoutancoosiy  in  mnat  ot  iha  i 
and  wastera  stalea,  and  is  cullivMed  aa  a  bn 
Pli3adel{jiia.  Tbo  mnlbvTTy  trae,  hopa,  and  h 
HDcescd  well  in  the  middle  and  wfatrrn  arata. 


and  many  of  ibctn  of  the  tml  nuallty.  Th 
lwenty-«li  kinds  of  oali.  of  whian  rlevea  ai 
apeeln  are  In  requTst ;  tho  lisat  (or  vntntnim  | 
is  tho  tehiU  oak,  a  tmi  which  is  (wind  |>l*nllfii 
thawhoh)  (OUDiry:  thefJEKOB*  grow*  In  maial 
DKBT  Ihe  Bta,  and  haa  a  hard,  haaiy,  and  donMi 
Riueh  ussd  fur  *hi|>- building.  Thore  aiv  eighW 
uF  piiiB,  eudar,  and  larch ;  aevni  kinds  of  m^ 
or  four  of  which  furui^  sugar^-tba  bast  is  ca 
sugar  maple;  tea  kinda  of  walnut  tri!«;  fon- 
birnb,  the  bark  of  one  of  which  rumialin  liia 
with  canoes;  sii  kind*  of  ash  (ttia  ash  of  tkia 
ia  not  of  ths  number);  bMldtu  nuuiy  olhar  I 
very  useful  ijoaiitlra.  Thrra  ar*  oua  boodrMt  an 
kinda  whicli  riiM  lu  a  hoigbt  of  mors  tkaa  lUi 
whilo  in  I'TBue*  thore  arc  only  lUny-wvea  of  tl 
Tba  HowerinfF  abfub^  ilra^iaia  and  nlodaiM^rw 
KM  eullivaicd  hai«  mlh  aa  moeb  aucmtion  li 
splendid  (lowers,  grow  wild  on  Ihefldeiorihe  Al 
hilia,  to  Ihe  ht-iglit  of  fifteen  or  twenty  f«rt, 

EvHn  in  the  most  thickly  peojiled  slates,  di 
still  remaining  large  tracts  of  nncleared  «ot 
which  give  the  country  a  wild  appearance,  ai 
an  asptet  on  the  whole  very  diffen-nl  from  al 
Europe,  where  forests   liave   long  b 


valuable  I 


lum  or  puorrr,  wiao,  un>  nnji  m  utd 
There  Is  abundance  of  fertile  land  in  (he 
Statca,  which  neiMla  <iuly  to  be  broken  up  ant 
of  woods  to  yield  largo  return?  for  a  (lilfti 
There  are  none  of  thdsc  obstaelea  to  the  ciHitT 
solitaiy  diHtrlcta  which  exist  in  tho  lawhiaa  at 
proved  condition  of  som^  other  counttv*.  P, 
■-  aecuro  every  where,  and  there  is  hardly  •! 


h  hum 


by  rivor»,  eanala,  or  roads,  with  o  

large  citiea.  Hence,  fertilo  laiida  whwh  aW  I 
aceesa  are  to  be  found  by  every  on*  who  ia  «4  al 
cmploj-menl.  or  who  thinks  his  prsMmt  occBi^ 
proHtoble  than  he  would  wish.  On  aoah  h1 
aceumulation  of  capiial  in  sgriculturo  ia  mad 
rapid  than  li.is  ever  been  exhibited Inatiy  iNlMr: 
The  valualious  of  l?»9  and  18H  furoiah  UM 
infomulion  on  this  bead.  Frum  (Iiomi  it  imaaa 
in  Ihe  fifleon  years  between  lhe«  perioda,  Uw  »! 
lands  aod  houses  [not  reckoning  alaven)  in  (b* 


s,liai: 


indrnd  to  tva  bi 


and  sixty  per  cvnt.,  o 
and  slxly.  Tiic  rale 
fif  per  cent.,  and  t)ie  original  captui  ksdoabMIa 
eleven  ysara.  At  tbia  rat<s  capital  am  iiiiiiiltlM 
^lan  Iwica  an  flat  ai  popoUtion ;  or  in  Dilwrwtai 
Inereaseof  IhepeoplKisulwaysmelbyadoohlah 
of  the  means  fur  employing  and  niaiiitaiBiii( 
Thne  rcniarks  are  derived  tram  iha  conditioa 
BgHculIural  population  ;  bat  they  apply  «<(WI; 
whole,  the  rale  uf  profit  being  the  (amo  in  ail « 


^10  ciglii;  (1801J)  wen  tznignnM  trMti  Ku»|w,  i 
IvIb^  io  tlio  uppw  tiiU}'  country. 

Slitvai. — TlifiitiLtv*  wlilcItntvtinuotunippBrttJam 
jn  tliniM  wliioli  lis  math  of  r«uiur'^"°^  *■"'  *^'  ^^ 
:>hia,  Willi  Ibu  new  dWtiicti  to  ik*  wmtwwd  «( ll 
>I.:-:'i^i)')<i:ir^aII  I V  otbm  it  is  alinliali'xL  Tbowbt 
:>i  1)1.10  wwUu  nilUlmM,  'thu  c- 
[>i'<i|)ln  w  t-trtj  wliHTa  Veif  li 

'  iI.  ItjiIgHd,  aodattoDdod  la,c» 
"  u*  iK&i  on  wliioli  kmtenln 

1  t)iciv  ox«D  Bnd  honn  ;  n  iiIm 
-1  -I'rrv  In  iK't  llir-m  dfuig  <ir  tiUHiMil,  lunM*  6*  li. 
Jidr  Ubuui',  but  th*]'  iii*»t  with  no  fuilwrtvipird. 
»  h'sqiwiitlj'  pn)Gtatilii  to  oultivkif  rltv  ts  *Erj  mui 
fruuncit,  w  lu  lidib  kitilielnll;  tmerilawed,  wlicre 
ii«|[(>ua>  iDUM  work  uf  ia  liunr  ket»  in  vaUr  ia 
lK*t  of  the  day.  KnlulvT*  Ol  i)>inn  toi^  ainli  bihI 
Id  thb  nnlivalllgr  ooou|tt^oa ;  liul  tUc  |>ljuiUir  odW 
EttUt«  irluilbpr  tiw  pntftU  of  bi*  epom  wUl  poT  6> 
unwba  of  n«<<  uvtrna*  wlilch  fac  is  obliK«l  in  tngr 
naTar  Uiitika  of  Uib  ili*lm  o(  ibew  wnii'  nmiyit, 
■rv«u  lakcn  crmlit  tu  liinwlf  in  bniiiK  IllisnJ  in  MErtA 
iti|f  bU  bLclw.  Id  order  to  ka^  Diuh  i^i  anuuiL 
eiUIiralioD  wh)(iti«b>rHlHiiiiu)ilH'laaIlaUi*  won 
Mr  Sinan  of  Ihinwiru  luoutloDi,  tlut  vita  nliEnt 
aIdtb  wrm  mU  full  miJ  UlcniJnl  to  (m  to  a  tte  I 
rot  iif  mf  rr  {TopriiVQT  to  Jit  villi  liii  twt^),  In  k 
tllvm,  in  rcupcct  M  luuiviWe*  anJ  (iwlinK,  tUUo 
noTpil  fn'iii  lirutH,  wliil*  all  diuluvd  a>iunMl>i> 
bappy  Htiil  tn1>»nible  In  tliMr  wiuatuui.  Wbim 
twl»  lut  luuud  dufluiinl.  lti"T  art.  ■Iilppi.-J,  |nil  i 
iituvka,ur  funrnl  to  iBmr  ir'.iin,  I  lie  prjHin  nu 
tiabll  ul  pnuikluKi;  bi*  tiaits  Ly  fixbig  l^am  di>*n  .| 


CHAMBERS'S  INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


nwnL  The  cniM  ownw  miglit  have  been  punished  bf 
law  luid  Ibcre  been  Bufficient  evidence  o(  Ihe  fiutU; 
but  u  he  look  rare  to  bsre  do  one  jiresent  but  slaree, 
whwe  tHtimnuj  ia  nut  admitted  in  the  ecur^  nothing 
«aald  be  dune. 

The  gBD|^  of  Klavts  on  latge  estatos  are  in  general 
lulerably  well  foil  and  clotlitd  ;  but  there  is  anumeroiw 
class  of  »laTe«  briongiii):  tii  very  iwor,  and  often  very 
im provident,  whitt  pwilile,  and  lUese  are  exccedinglj 
wretelied,  toiling  liard,  •'ilh  little  luluiatcnw  and  tiie 
himbeM  treatnitml.  lu  all  caaas,  tile  slaves  live  to- 
gether  with  little  more  reeling  of  ^e  dvceDCJes  of  life 
than  the  bruto*  that  iwrisli,  Even  when  thcj  are  em- 
ployed M  wfliten  in  the  Urge  inua  and  hotels  of  cilica. 
Iliey  at*  not  fiimtahed  with  bode,  all  Ijing  like  dugs  iu 
the  pOBUgee  ol  the  liousi-.  U'bere  are  bws  by  which 
tvary  otm  wtio  sliall  teacli  a  slave  to  read,  or  |>emiil 
him  to  betaught,  may  beimpriMinod  fur  twelve  months. 
The  advantagH  ^  having  btbour  performed  by  Slav  M, 
1*  l«  Ihe  proprietor  very  considBrabie :  they  are  main- 
laintd  at  au  anmialeapense  of  about  thirty-live  dollan 
gash ;  while  lh«  interwl  on  tlieir  original  cost,  at  ten 
per  wiit.imay  bo  forty  dollars;  Ihe  amount  is  eeventy- 
Bve  dcilUra,  or  about  £17  per  amiDm.  Now,  the  wages 
of  a  white  labrarer  an  bwe  three  times  as  great  aa  ia 
Europe,  and  cannot  be  reckoned  at  leea  tliaii  live  bun< 
drvd  or  n%  hnnflrKd  dullan,  from  £l1il  lo  £IH0.  It 
ia  nu  wonder,  thfrefore,  that  tlu>  proprietora  of  slaves 
In  America  arc  jealous  of  any  altempu  lo  instruct  or 
emancipate  them. 

Free  IHacki  and  Coluartd  People — From  tlie  black 
people  havinjc  been  tiist  introduced  into  America  as 
•bVBi,  lliey  are  regarded  every  where  with  great  coo- 
tompl,  whether  free  or  in  bondage.  In  Ihestatis  where 
•larevy  rvmaina  in  force,  llie  free  negrDes  or  mulattos 
•retrained  with  thegreateet  contumely  i  every  impedi. 
mant  ia  thrown  in  tlie  way  of  their  obtaining  education  ; 
and  the  senate  of  Virginia  even  «ot«d  that  the  iocreaae 
</  ■cboola  for  oolourad  people  waa  a  nuisance  whieh 
ought  to  be  put  down  :  by  hiws  in  the  several  states,  any 

treatment,  or  in  any  way  to  diminish  the  rtspccl  which 
is  eomtnanded  tu  free  people  of  colour  for  the  uhiteSi 
may  be  punished  by  Hiw  and  imprisonment.  Clergy- 
men in  llieir  pulpiti,  and  judges  on  the  bench,  are  not 
exempted  from  this  regulation.  But  even  in  the  free 
atatea,  tliongh  laws  of  this  kind  are  nut  in  exialence, 
people  of  colour  are  subjected  (o  every  mortification  : 
tliey  are  nut  allowed  loeatal  the  aame  table  with  white 
men,  lu  attend  at  the  same  public  meetings,  or  even  lu 
enter  the  same  ehurehoH.  From  being  thus  always  ex- 
bibit<..d  in  a  kind  of  degraded  lieht  among  the  more 
paTiertuI  d|p*b,  they  have  not  the  satiie  nvpircl  for 
tfaentselvM  wbieli  Ihuy  ought  to  entertain.  Uf  the  per- 
sons who  are  puniahtd  for  crimes,  a  hirger  pruponion 
are  people  of  colour  than  whiles.  They  iinve  ■  greater 
difliculty  in  getting  proper  remuneratitin  for  their  in- 
duati^  or  laleiiM  than  that  favoured  class ;  and  their 
exertions  arc  discouroged  in  all  the  higlier  linea  of  life. 
Numbers  of  them,  liowaver,  notwiihslanding  all  iheoe 
difficulliee,  rise  to  gnvt  weallli,  and  live  in  a  style  of 
much  elegance.  They  have  churches  and  scliools  for 
Uiemselves,  with  ministers  and  teachers  of  their  own 
poapls.  (treat  eiertiuns  are  making  by  tlio  Quaken, 
and  ulher  benevulent  persona  in  tlie  frre  stales,  to  ee- 
Bkblitti  and  mahitaia  respectable  scboula  fur  the  educa- 
tion of  black  children.  As  llie  memory  of  their  for- 
mer slavery  wear*  away,  they  will  come  to  be  regarded 
in  a  more  favourable  view.  The  whole  number  uf  tree 
colourcil  petiHina  in  the  itatca  is  about  StiO.OOU. 

Th*  Inkiaiu, — The  number  of  Indians  now  remain- 
ing within  the  lerrilury  of  the  states,  is  esliuutled  to  be 
•ORtewhere  between  1(H},U0<)  and  61>0,DUO ;   of  thei 


iz& 


JiJining  states  havv  u 


J  very  di 


tliem  ejeeted  from  it :  they  still,  Lowbt**,  »• 
eesaion ;  and  as  any  violence  done  to  tbssn 
would  excite  mach  odium  both  in  Europe  aw 
welt-thinking  people  in  the  Hates,  they  are  \i 
to  remain  undisturbed.  They  have  quite  tmhiii 
character  of  savnges,  and  are  all  mut«  or  1™ 
gress  (awards  clvfllsatiou  ;  they  enltiv ate  whei 
pumpkins ;  rear  cuttle  and  horses ;  manulacli. 
oil,  leather,  &e.  The  tribe  which  has  n 
greatest  ailvaacea  ia  the  Cherokees,  whose  pu 
io  lB-2*,  was  ifl,5(iO;in  IBUI.itwas  1'>,-10U,»» 
■re  not  falling  off  in  number  like  the  other 
They  pDweaa  a  line,  well-walered,  and  anble 
of  five  millions  of  acres ;  sgricuhnre  is  well  un< 
apple  and  peach  orcliarda  are  comntou ;  bo 
eheese  are  produced  of  good  qualities :  thej  ha' 
good  horses^  and  about  'J2,U0D  head  of  esttl*. 
of  them  are  good  tradesmen,  as  blaekamithe, 
millers ;  and  they  have  saw-inJIls.  grist-mills, 
and  olher  furnituiv  of  an  improving  oammuntl 
have  a  newspaper  edited  by  one  of  their  own  ( 
their  own  language,  Numcreus  and  flouris 
kgea  are  seen  in  every  section  of  the  eountr; 
are  remarkably  clean  and  neat  in  their  pen 
pi'actise  balliiiig  universally.  A  young  man 
the  hand  of  a  young  Cherokee  woman:  she 
his  ofler,  and  gave  as  a  principal  leaxm  thai 
not  clean  in  his  appearance;  that  he  did  noi 
Cherokees  do,  bathe  himself  in  the  river.  T 
sider  bathing  and  cleaaUnesa  in  the  light  of 

The  Choctawa,  Cbiekasaws,  and  Creeks,  have 
BO  much  noticed  as  ths  Cherokees;. but  th^, 
in  a  Bktistactory  progresa  towards  civilisaliM 
have  good  orcliards  and  eom  tields,  and  aimw 
are  Ihe  owners  of  inns  or  hotels  on  die  mads 
their  country,  which  are  found,  we  belien^  M 
MmlbrtaUe  places  of  anteiUunmeitt  to  U 
There  are  a  tew  bocJu  in  the  Choctaw  langn 
the  Creeks  produce  very  neat  articles  of  poUe 
vaMw,  &.e.,  and  pi|ie-hcBdH  uf  black   marble 

their  thriving  condition,  and  the  growth  of  aa 

The  Indiana  in  the  northern  part  of  the  sti 
along  the  lakes,  retain  much  more  of  the  idle  i 
habits  of  their  ancestors  than  the  southera  Iri) 
those  of  them  who  remain  near  the  white  set 
littto  superior  in  appearance  or  obaranter  to  lb 
oF  Europe.  Reserves  of  land  have  been  set  i 
them  out  of  Iheirformer  hunting  grounds,  and 
eases  these  have  been  entirely  surrounded  by  I 
and  settlemenia  of  the  whiles,  the  Indians  sUU 
tng  in  Ihsir  original  patch  nf  forest.  In  this  at 
appear  to  be  like  animals  of  prey  under  ctmil 
their  natural  occupation  is  taken  from  them,  i 
seem  to  have  no  powers  for  any  other.  Thnr  i 
are  found  lo  bo  smaller  upon  every  enumenli 
Ilieir  idle,  uncomfortable  way  of  living,  with  ll 
spect  which  is  every  where  shown  them  faj  thi 
lend  greally  to  prevent  any  spirit  of  union  aam 
or  any  stepi  to  prosperity.  Some  few  of  tfc 
sellled  into  sgricullural  comniuiu^es,  and  hi 


les,  churches,  &.e. 


e  auboiitb 
Bb 


Treaty  s 

most  uf  the  ti 
from 


prefer  a  guud  hunter  to  a  goad  B 
■Idem  !!».■  etradlnesB  to  perseverSL 
ipulnticiii;,  as  Ihey  are  called,  ha 
.  between  liie  Amiiriewi  govenun 
ii,rui- the.  removal  of  ll 


hat  been  jiiRly  cnrrivd  into  efleel,  and  U  anss 
ihat  Ihe  Indians  will  soon  be  removed  allotw 
Ihe  Slates.  In  IBiHl,  2S.1S9  liidiaoSet  ■  " 
the  Mississippi,  and  by  this  tlie  Amc  ' 

ac<[uired  1  U,2.il>,(>lK)  acres  uf  land,  I 


.l.rSK.OOO  di 


ll  ri^giLtd  to  thuse  Indians  who  V 


UWITW)  STATIS. 

<!?  rnriT  «!lli  tliina  tliin  in  tliifMiiiitcy;  mdi 

-■■■"'■'■■'■  - t'""^  (iilMa  pncUiaadMudiDC 

h,  ..[-li  tliD*  )ui*B  •Imnm  kliur  '    ■ 

'  riiniUi)B««onBlun*libbi»iK 


laiaB  BitabluluiinilB  tliu  fonulu  u«  uunr  ndcd 

any  mrt  ™jl  rif  lioim. 


nonl  nn  iuijlnttiali  iif  Inaf  Jancx,  ami  nuVur  Uihx>«1 
a  dcniDcnIioiuiaiiiiMiwhiuh  I  wu  UUghl  lacijiecl 
lOliipil  Ibe  lower  orden." 

rhnc  arc  certain  lawa  in  th»  UnlKd  StaU»  wliiah 
re  •  peculiar  tnfluciwii  an  tlio  tnancen  nf  Ihi  ooiinirjr. 
u  oM,  fer  iuMatun,  allowpJ  fur  »  rivli  Bnqiriakir  W 
VB  th*  wtiolM  nf  bi*  wmllh  lo  aiiy  ihih  iiT  )ii*  elillilnu , 
I  Ikvra  ditwct  that  ll  iliall  bo  diildci  pgiwltj',  or  Dawlf 
ainouit  the  whuln.  lleiiee  larn  jiropsrtioi  sra 
ikon  ildwn,  and  (lie  krlatooincf  ol  laitdliDliiar*,  th« 
Mt  Important  eUia  in  aU  other  iiountrlvi>,  hamoawKr 
luce  in  tiiostatea,  A>it  u(lii>  oUnsntiirli  lii  Kuni)i* 
M  ihn  tuna  to  a  Ermt  lutaj  at  tlic  ulrnvrvAticea  auil 
ni  f'wling*  of  ■and}',  iho  waiil  iit  it  In  A.madca  baa 
HiwirAil  InHumee  lu  faniilas  a  Ml  of  mauutrB  ditla- 
It  from  OUT*:  the  himKr*  thorvnro  Mnioat  uninr- 

?tbn  proptleloni  of  tlie  IbdiI  wliicli  iittj  iisnipj-| 
it  i*  atJuotn  »«rv  exldiair*.    TU»y  liavn  nu  wui* 


n!; 


fcwMTtiivma,) 


lo  »M  ll)«  rl«lin<t  sfoi*  in  the  Unitvd  StatM^ 
••■  liiab  ai  £l»fiOO  ot£-2tifim  jwt  b» 

iny  hlTK  tnm  <£  JOOO  to  4aO0O,  but  tlw  iixnimo  i 
iJQritjr<lD  Dot  probablr  »xc«nl  rraiii  £TuiJ  lo  411400 
c  uinoni.  Thn  nuxl  olua  to  th«  ijUDl«n,  in  point 
woallli,  am  tlm  grmt  marehaoiB  iii  tha  coniunmial 
ian,  »ama  of  whom  ponww  (aHuiiM  nf  £3MfllKit 
*e,  liaoevnr,  aw  not  nuwcrou*.  A»  non*  of  Uhm' 
iia  ttfi,  however,  equal  to  th<!  Urg*  rartuin  wldob 
3  bhorited  in  EurajM  tiy  the  aacuiiiuJaUant  at  mvomI 
-lonliooa  iu  oith  twrMin,  it  iM  HTidouI  that  llitn  mar 
t  txitt  in  Amvriea  tlioao  eluba  of  eaomiinuly  wMltliy 
Itvidualu,  whu  ban  such  a  ^werful  InfloanM  in  all 
( AlDiin  of  tiie  oldoi  coantnN.  Extenaiia  Mnoanw 
d  gnM  caublisbmeatij  wtiieh  in  ulhor  coaniriea  *(* 
ppartcd  by  unglo  iniUi^daala.  Km  hwrv  carried  on  by 
Di-«toek  eompBnini:  not  ouf}  i*  thia  tlio  OMn  with 
Hit  and  oanab,  bot  witii  miila,  aUmn-lioata,  woolltn, 
manufaelori"!.  Tlw  ahariM  In  lira 
npaiilaa  *i«  lonnraUy  *inali,  and  thu« 
tarn*  («v  TOvriiMisi,  \aVi*««»,  mJw 


^n,  MBO.   >T 


CTIAMBERS-S  ISFORMATIOJT  FOR  THE  PEOPLK. 


iurialiiig  their  uTiDg*  with  «1- 

«  (n  whirtip«>pi* 

of  lb*  middling  cliw'i  i  Knunilj  Hud  ihmD**b'*>>  thvra 
are  twt  Ihn  miiiw  n*lnIiiM  upon  ilreir  nio*mg  tram 
p1u«  M  |>UM)  la  iniprovo  iholi  dreoiMtwiMa,  w  ihera 
»r«  in  EtaniH.  Yuuoe  peiMni  liave  twvkt  tta  apprs- 
liinnina.  fnF  liMi^nH,  oT  IcBTUi);  tlioir  pumta  dtmltuM^ 
Mm  mJIimi,  whirti  ulUn  knp  IbOD  Kl 
M>m»d  I»np1",  .ignin,  wtlh  K  mwinf 
tuaiif,  ln*e  gvniTKll)' >  onlficHint  •tack  lamuUo  lh«m 
to  mora  kwiy  with  all  thtrir  liiiildrcn,  uid  Utn  ■  bin;; 
jnan*;  in  whstuvnr  dlmulbin  tlitf  loa;  •««  m  frmptel 
of  IhnTiiig.  Ill  KiiRl^nJ.  where  they  havo  tuntly  a 
vullldnMjr  ttam  onn  J»y  to  ftnollifT,  Uii»  wntild  bo  iin- 

EmKOAm  s  uul  hcDce  iJie  unall  nomlwr  nf  mwkinf  pcolile 
thtx  couDtry  who  are  iblv  ii>tr»iwpoTtllieniiel»M  to 
take  adnBaiiD  of  the  higher  wsgts  >iid  bcner  living  vt 
Aineiiu.  Tho  jeuTncy  by  eiiik!,  linr,  uiU  l»lw,  bo 
tomo  of  th«  bunk  MitllmiiraM  there  from  the  caul,  IB 
won  ixpnw'rv*  tlun  tint  -d  >m  Kngtiih  Ikmily  woidd 
he  to  llftliriu,  lUid  t>M  Imttrovemcnl  of  oirvuowUneefl 
hnrdly  to  gmt ;  yot  how  lew  m  thin  ooutilry,  to  wbiim 
tliin  improTemcnt  would  b«  th«  gr«kl<<>t,  >re  able  to 
Uko  UYKntue  of  it  1  ThtH  powrr  iif  iihiflitig  th( 
plwiev  ntd  «ee(ing  tu  better  thraMWm,  luu  bad  k  mo 
pcmilkr  effi-ct  upon  (he  chonietur  of  the  Americ&n* 
than  way  oitwr  slrcooutum.  They  luvc  Iro  of 
tliat  Mitwntltiiiai  allaelitniilit  la  one  spot  t)un  is  found 
111  ixmrer  enuntrlu,  where  the  people  cMinot  Imve  '"  - 
ImiiiUob  Iliin](  Ultlo  of  a  Journey  of  •oma  bumlrvd*, 
o«ca  Ihonaudia  of  milm ;  and  the  uuwbcra  *bo  i 
eaiitinuaU*  moTinj  with  their  luggag*!  ha*  madu  tba 
opening  of  new  cuiabi  aiid  raitrusU*  M  dintaol  paru 
mora  proBlable  tJiui  it  could  have  been  in  any  otbcr 
ruuolry. 

All  ti>miii  lit  fillglon  arc  equally  fatonred  by  the  sta 
tn  Aniniea,  and  ttia  membcn  ot^  all  luive  njual  pri' 


leg^  Kmio  of  tiie  clergy  bi«  paid  by  nrernineDt, 
out  of  publie  pTopeny.  iu  any  «haps;  th^  depaod 
their  Mlariei  entiroly  npiinlneoiingrc(pliODBlorwli 


loerelr  dipiilariex,  er  «lw  iMll  tt 


.     Inr 

thpj  officiate,  luid  fiy  which  thcj"  are  clecl«l.  Thi 
bihlio|>a,  miuisier*,  rliliTB,  or  i>thi^r  offiwr*,  ato  chosei 
by  ihu  membtra  of  eaoh  per«uiiaion,  according  lo  thcii 
xtfviral  forms  of  church  government,  without  tho  in- 
tiTvemioii  nf  any  other  party.  There  aro  a  great 
numberofdiHtrentdcnommatiousof  Christians  in  Ame- 
rica; tlie  principal  are  tlio  umo  as  in  this  country, 
cntuiiitiug  of  CaihoUca,  ProteitanI  Episcopalians,  I'lva- 
brlerians,  Qoaken,  and  tha  Tariona  cl>as««  of  Inde- 
]>i.'iidcnu.  In  some  of  the  states  tbcru  are  certain 
■iLaum illations  mora  prevalent  tlian  other*.  New  Eng- 
land, for  instance,  was  settled  by  the  Puritans  in  Crom- 
well's time,  and  its  religious  erudition  bears  the  impress 
nf  that  urigin.  Marjland  was  colonised  by  ftaman 
(.'alhoUeSi  who  are  still  numerous  tht-re:  Pennsylvania 
bv  the  Quakers  or  Friends  ;  while  Episcopacy  prevailed 
ill  Virginia,  tfao  Carolinae,  and  Georgia.  Tbs  4rat 
rrwbyterians  cimu  from  England,  Scotland,  and  Itv- 
Udi],  and  settled  in  Delaware  and  New  Jersey.  If  tho 
whole  popnUlion  of  the  Htstea  were  divided  into  twclvo 
parts,  three  of  them  would  bo  Calvinists,  chielly  of  Uio 
ludependonl  and  Presbyterian  sects ;  two  Uaptiata  ; 
IwaMelhodiits;  one  ^:plllCopallBnsand  Lulherans.  Tho 
rest  include  persons  uf  many  yanoua  forms  of  belief, 
and  a  considerable  number  who  follow  no  religions  pro- 

Tbure  are  about  ti^ly  colleges  and  seminaries  fur  l!ie 
educstian  of  young  wen  devot<-U  to  ths  church,  of  all 
the  dilfercDI  Mela.  In  New  \iirl,  H  is  found  that  there 
li  one  clergyman  to  every  ISBl  of  the  popuhklion  ;  in 
i'caosylvauu  tlicre  is  one  to  avery  1133  ;  in  Kentucky, 
one  Id  every  1.177  of  the  white  iuliabiluit*.  In  Grr^tt 
Orilain,  tin  pruuortiun  !•  one  to  every  etra  or  900 — in 
EurooD  gooually.  ^ue  lo  every  tWK).  It  must  bo  recol- 
A«m4  »w»rer,  th»l  in  America  tbiswbolo  DUinb«r 
^(«  MttnaJ^f  employed  in  tlic  mlulstry  ;  tltoto  an  tums 


sre  merely  aif 
iTi«gforiI.ein 


Time  remarks  apply  ebiefly  to  the  nid- 
die  east  and  rronli ;  and  on  this  siibJMt  «•  ki(  t 
pr»  the  following  rilrael  from  tSe  wmIi  gf  «  »i 
traveller  of  our  own  eonntry,  Mr  Ketfuwon  e(W 

"  Thv  r*li|{on  of  tb*  stalo*  to  marVod  bj  •  _    , 

liar  fvalurca.  It  baa  beru  too  tteimenllr  ilhgim^M 
wild  and  eilnvuani  fonatlos  and VnKaftanSn  k^l 
nuuiy  pIseiB  made  dlvadtul  stridca.  Still,  fba  a 
■ion  lo  whifih  I  hnve  came  is  favourable  ta  lit*  s 
of  pure  and  vital  Christianity  in  the  pmulow  udi 
lised  portion  of  the  stato,  I  observad,  hi  jiiiWi' 
in  pnvato,  a  di>e«ut  obnorrano*  vt  the  SaUalh.  ' 
official  papen  of  the  govrmtnant  anifurmly  ^- 
tliii  supnrinlcnding  can  of  a  betifKeenl  lioii. 
won)  to  be  seen  open  on  the  day  of  lacrvd  ro 
wero  tb«  theatre*  or  plan*  of  pubbo  ami 
tpavsUing  was  not  in  general  uao,  and  t 
of  the  mail  on  that  day  bad  bew  debated  b  Ifaei. 
ing  session  of  Congresa,  when  the  >)a<*tinti  ww 
chiefly  on  the  grouni)  that  tl>e  constitulsm  (brlai*~ 
interhTriK«  by  government  with  nialtm  ef  mM 
There  oan  he  no  doubt,  huwevTT,  tint  SkUalk 
nation  i»  practised  in  sumo  ouanrt*  to  a  gnat  i 
As  regards  the  fhiits  of  rdigion,  IherB  can  il 
'^UDslloD,  that,  taking  Ihcni  as  a  people,  I 


Is  visited  byline  and  I 
cities,  St  Iviet  of  tho  middle  and  nortlitn  rtdl 
dms  uot  stalk  abroad  in  that  diiKuHing  fy^m 
msy  be  said  In  deprive  respeetahle  fruialm  Id  Sn 
(own*  of  tho  free  onjoymeni  of  uur  publ!«  l||  1 1'tll 

We  glT8  one  mors  ottncl  on  thla  mlijaql  t  k ) 
Mr  Stuart  of  Dnncam  i^ — 

"  We  went  to  atleod  divine  wrrico 
chnreh.  lie  had  gone  from  home,  and  was  una 
detnincd  ;  nnd  tlic  person  who  liad  prumisej  lo 
fiT  lilm  failed  lo  .i|^)>e\r.  in  cnnwquenco  at  tli« 
etomiy.  The  cutigregation 
ii  at  lenclh  Dc  ;- •'     - 


Lfging  1hD?e  religious  duties  which  liad  M4| 
»i>mlle  on  the  first  day  of  tho  neck.  Ua  tM 
ut  a  psahn  from  his  own  seat,  and  aftui  uatJiy 
n  the  mean  time,  be  had  sent  bomooncof  Ui4i 
ir  a  Tolumo  of  eermous,  one  ut^wbldl  he  ri_ 
Bcond  paalm  vru  given  out  by  him  and  HMI 
hich  the  service  was  concluded  by  a  pn^SxCJ 
.isler,  a  farmer  in  the  neighbourhood,  aail  v* 
elders — the  whole  wilbout  any  ap|>eatanaa  «(1 
exertion."  There  are  ■  great  Dumber  of  ' 
nowspapen  in  America,  which  is  a  turthsrnt 
serious  nsbila  of  a  lai^  part  of  the  [  i[  iitalwi 
Tho  remarks  we  have  here  tnada  a|»l]«t 
to  tho  New  England  states,  and  to  llio  uU«r  L , 
iricts  of  tliB  onst ;  tliey  may  also  Dorliaps  haj 
to  the  toviu  of  the  uewly-fa  ~  .  .      . 

uhich  niueh  attention  is  given 
eountries,  however,  this  conditi 
North  Carolina,  wi 

fifty  clergymen;  and  South  Carolina,  wElJi 
habitania,  tias  not  more  than  (orly.    1 1   ~ 
were  ouly  ten  in  1U18.     In  Vitgi  *  . 
nbiiut  one  milliiiii ;  the  number  ut  iilniijiw '■ 
hundred.     The  situation  of  Maryh     " 

In  the  couutriea  on  tlie  Ohio,  M 
sre  in  pronreEs  of  aelilenient,  there  aro  IM 


population  of  eO0,000,ka] 


rgHiia,  uie  pnp— I 
^r  ut  all  rpTiw  tt 
uylsnd  is  inrilift-  jl 

I,  Michigan,  A&,  Mb 


mOTEU  STATB8. 


'  Ut^  linfnrlit*  el  ilinvtui 


1 1"  link 


'<:l>Ma>, 

l.lpte 


^rim,  and  cslcbnitoJ  fur  bu  mnurhH  intQ  1^ 
dry  ^04  aAulrin  ot  Uic  ^IKircnt  Indiiu  t-ntcoTA 


.    liimllgi 

le,  ttn<l   ■■  ■■Kli  IJM 

t  EuKi  I  '  '  ■    wliieti 

mil  )...'  ...us  Biui 

i»i)iiui  tvi'  .    .      _  ■  I  iii-J  bulii 

t  hlMorian  onJ  a  nt-vflitl ;  Cijiuit,  s  j>iTc»  of 
rer  and  alrjascs:  Cooppr,  wliiMa  floUtiooa  n 
M  b«vi!  attainxl  R  funo  luwiUy  iiihrior  t»  tha 
i(t,  und  *fhirh  mlilfaii  aiwi  li  iinnncT*  cuniilaliilT 
jmul  M  KurupMiii.  It  w  qanUuioLliii  fedaridi 
iU]«r  tlwra  b  not  w  |tmi  «  {irvponlflii  ctf  liWng 
inrjoui  wriun  who  havo  ouuiisd  ralthvit;  in  'Sig- 
J,  u  tlwre  are  of  Euglkli  andiora  of  ilm  pnwnt 
■  nhoM  wcirki  arc  mad  <ni  tli<  oihcr  alilv  uf  ilm 
anile.  Tlia  Ainitrinui  nvimm,  wliidi  uAnu  irtt* 
illcllj  to  iho  n|)>uic)lll  of  mui  of  taloit  la  Uiat 
inttT,  aa  our*  da  to  thoaauf  iilulauphmand  nat(»' 
n  bm,  prodUM  treqiienUf  M  doep  an  impnwiiiB 
&n)>  Kampwui  publleailoiw  of  a  nirailur  Uml ;  bd4 
.  wl«rliiiii*  wlilch  a|ipt>r  now  aiid  ihaa  tn  t)iia 
Wiry  from  iho  Aiocnein  jwriiniiHJ  llteraumi,  bI«o 
dviiui)  of  u  bigh  talcinl  ill  tlio  writing  and  iil  aa 
livated  lariolntKvTniuiitnifarwtiam  It  n  iire|wLn4, 

knj  thing  uT  til*  lOiiM  dcjnri|ition  nnoog  our* 


■  Tli«m  fit  !n  llii*  conntrir  no  claa  of  m 


iD  wnUen  wki  tbe  maWc  <A 


CDAMBERB'S  WFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


in  the  vioinity  at  large  ond  wi-llfuniiilipd  libraries,  Uut 
uihIvt  BireumalBnocii  of  inoonvooieucc  sad  ambBrrais- 
mani.  It  wmUid  ihrrefon  be  unmsonabic  to  expect 
tfakl  Ihsy  duuld  inilioMB  llut  degree  of  erudition  and 
llICTUf  Quiture  which  might  be  looked  far  under  mere 
hvonnUe  eircnimtanee*.  I)r  Franklin,  the  f^l««t 
Ani»rii»n  iihiloanpher,  fnllowed  during  most  of  Iiig  life 
llir  iinifiwi-uni  nf  a  printer ;  nJid  Dr  Buwdileb,  tlie  most 
i:niiti>'ii(  Aiovrioui  malhemalician  and  aBtronomer,  was; 
itiiriije  Ilia  uholo  life,  devoted  to  busineas  relating  to 
iisvicatioii  uuiI  mmmerce,  or  Bnanee.  The  moat  dulia- 
Eukned  Ami-Tican  IbeolagiBna,  ai  for  example,  Mather, 
Ildwarda,  and  Dwigbt,  were  dcioted  In  laboiioua  pro- 

Sineo  iho  beginning  of  the  preeent  ceutarjr  there 
ba>  been  n  vast  increnao  of  persons  who  have  wrilten 
(or  the  press,  and  also  of  the  number  (if  worka  puli- 
iijicd."  The  American  Almanack,  from  which  the 
above  is  quuled,  gives  a  list  of  776  naniei  ot  Anleri- 
ean  wrilen.  The  aame  authority  cAtlmatea  ihe  num- 
ber of  coiiiai  of  uawspapon  drculaled  in  the  United 
Slate*  at  lua,UUU,UUU. 

In  ■eicnee,  the  reputation  of  Europe  ia  n  compacted 
of  what  Iter  philoBophera  of  ftirmec  times  have  done, 
and  of  what  in  new  dainE  hy  tlioeo  who  continue  their 
rHHUrobiai,  that  it  wonld  be  abiiurd  to  inatltute  •  com- 
panion ill  lliia  riMpoct.  It  may  be  remarked,  how- 
ever, III  rcKJird  to  America,  that  ahe  posseaies  men  ivho 
lirpp  piifv  Hith  all  the  diaeovrriea  and  iuiprutementi 
oflfar  tJ^irnci-K.  and  who  are  ablv  to  canvass  and  examine 
eviTy  tiling  which  any  now  trsiii  of  invcetigation  may 
bring  lu  light  in  fillier  ainnlriea:  if  we  add,  farther, 
that  one  of  Iho  moat  aplaudid  of  these  original  train* 
of  tDvt9li|iation  was  dovi*cd  and  traced  to  ila  result — the 
idontily  of  the  eleetrio  fluid  with  liglitniug— 4jr  the 
Amcricaa  philoMpber  Pnuiltlin,  we  ahull  have  said  aa 
much  for  the  scienUfic  fame  of  America,  a*  oan  be 
trtogUnd  (0  itself  by  any  European  country.  Ot  the 
American  joBmalii  of  seienDe,  that  of  Dr  Silliuian  ia 
wstl  knowu  in  lilurope,  where  it  enjoys  a  high  and  well- 
raeriiBd  celebrity.  The  resent  growth  of  erory  thing 
in  America  In*  not  given  time  as  yet  fur  the  furmnlion 
of  those  extensive  inuwum*  and  libraries  whicli   go 

power  to  vote  money  fur  these  objects,  it  may  be  a  con- 
siderable time  liefore  any  tiling  ii  Hilneased  there  like 
tlie  apleudid  national  eoilections  of  I'srin,  London,  and 
Rome.  There  are,  however,  seveml  museunis ;  as,  for 
instance,  those  at  Salem,  Boston,  nnd  I'hiladelphia, 
wlioic  famo  will  gradually  accelerate  their  own  in- 
oreue,  and  mny  at  last  attract  national  attention  to  the 
•ubjvcl.  There  is  nu  public  astrononiical  ubscrvatoiy 
in  thq  state*,  and  Ihe  expense  would  be  too  great  fur 
any  private  means. 

In  mix-hanical  science,  which  is  the  absorbing  pur- 
suit of  the  present  day,  the  Americans  have  been  no 
whil  behind  other  nations  in  devising  means  for  faci- 
litating and  abridging  such  processes  of  labour  as  arc 
carried  on  in  tbeir  own  country.  Sleani  navigation, 
though  certainly  first  discovered  in  Scotland  by  Mr 
Taylor,  was  as  certainly  fir^l  brought  10  a  useful  and 
practical  result  in  Anieiica  by  Mr  l''ullon.  The  nia- 
cliine  which  was  contrived  by  an  American  for  sepa- 
rating cotton  from  the  seed — that  fur  distilling  salt 
water,  or  procuring  sweet  water  at  wa,  by  Bcparaling 
it  fi'om  the  salt — tume  contrivanci'S  for  abridKin;;  the 
manufacture  of  iron-work — and  in.iny  others  adapted 


» the  pec 


aequa 


ually  ingenious 


as  the  English  or  any  other  nation. 

The  (ciencc  ot  the  Americans,  as  we  have  seen,  has 
also  been  displayed  in  a  very  remarkable  and  useful 
manner,  in  tlie  construction  of  several  large  canals  and 
railways,  some  of  which  are  hardly  lo  be  ei|ualle<l  in 
any  otlier  country.  The  same  skill  is  exhibited  in  im- 
proriag  Ilia  navigation  of  their  riven,  in  eonstruoting 
biJdge^  in  Mrehilcctam,  and  in  ship-building. 
336 


:s  DM) mi  9Tftti^ 


Froi 


the  rapidity  with  which  the  popu 
las   hitherto  increased,  and   w  d(l 


inereasnl,  a 
the  wide  and  fertile  contincDl  at  v 
posseaaion,  the  moat  magniHcvM  anlinpalii 
formed  by  the  Americans  of  ths  futur*  mtl 
their  nation.  "Let  ui  aaaurae,"  mj  iW. 
appears  highly  probable,  tliat  the  pooplo  uf  tLa 
Slnlfs  will    ultimately   spread    thcmMlvM    <n 

sippi,  between  the  parallels  30'  and  4!>'.  a«  bl 
Pacific  Ooaan.  ThU  wiU  b«  loand  to  add  1. 
square  milee  lo  the  territory  east  of  ths  >liai 
and,  putting  botli  togother,  tho  art«  oT  lbs 
Slates,  tliua  enlarged,  will  be  2,700^00  aiinaci 
A  BUrfaCc  of  such  extent,  if  peoplul  tn  lb*  dn 
MasBaclinsetIa,  would  contain  two  handred  m 
or  if  poofled  to  the  deuwiy  of  Great  Brilain  a 
hind,  four  hundred  and  thirty  milliooi.  If  tbt 
lation  nf  the  United  Snues  eonliuuo  to  multipli 
same  proportion  as  hitherto,  it  is  dommialiu 
the  two  hundred  millions,  iiii  awii  j  lo  jwob 
srritory,  will  in  producud   wiltila  % 


we  must  remark,  that,  whatever  they  may  add 
national  greatness  ot  the  American  iam(>  Aej 
no  moans  likely  lo  be  favourablo  in  thv  aaiB* 
lo  the  IndlvMua)  comfort  of  the  niemlMn*  o(  ill 
lation.  It  cannot  be  doubted  but  that  lb*  bk) 
of  wagrs  nnd  profits,  and  the  rapidity  with  «l£ 
lal  now  accumulates  in  that  country,  ar*  pattb 
to  tha  large  tracis  of  fertile  aud  eoailv  an  liitil 
which  arv  always  at  the  dispo«al  of  in  intal 
Were  the  eoverumcnt  weak,  Ignorant,  or  paMW 
unoecupisd  territories  might  exist,  as  their  da  il 
other  oountries  ot  the  VDrld,  without  beuiiaf. 
tage  to  any  one.  In  Anierica,  the  oaaliliM 
government  render  them  easily  availaUls  >■  I 
they  last  I  but  nothing  can  r  "■"  ' 


after 


e  been 


which  th 


I  ponded.     As  ttew  ■ 
■efoadefiiri 


proepeels,  in 

approach  to  reatiAauon,  inc  ijuanuuea 
be  daily  growing  less— the  rapidity  w 
HOW  accuumlolcs  will  be  diminielnng  id  iiw  aan 
portion — the  wages  of  industry  will  gradoally  bl 
and  as  the  nation  becomes  greater  and  man  pat 
in  Ihe  same  degree  will  the  resources  of  iia  iadt 
papulation  be  lessened.  Uul  the  truth  is,  tbea*4 
concerning  the  rapid  increase  of  populatios,  • 
filling  of  Ihe  whole  American  continent  with  a 
of  unparalleled  power,  "  greater  than  the  Bodi 
sea  in  multitude,"  are  mere  pUythincs  id  tk( 
nation.  Too  little  ia  known  of  the  real  nnmniN 
grcss  of  popuUtion  to  enable  ui  to  say  any  t^it^i 

ocetipied,  whici 
pride  to  the  Americans,  however  powerful  th*  i 
might  then  be,  but  rather  that  their  gigantic  pop 
has  rich  tivlds  nnd  abundant  pasture  in  wbidi  M 
on  its  iiicn'.titc  for  many  ages.  During  this  tint,! 
set  an  example  of  e<|Ual  government  aud  ftvM 
dnstry  to  the  rest  of  the  world,  which,  unhaHil} 
been  hitherto  wanting  ;  and  by  the  reaction  M  JHl 
ciples  on  the  iiiMueniial  part  of  the  old  contion 
iuns  of  the  west  may  be  the  means  of  redo 
many  oppressions.  When  then  arena 
be  seen,  llial,  in  our  world  too,  tlten  i 
,  abundance  of  unoccupied  and  nob  load: 
kingdoms  and  provioces  of  burope,  Asia,  ud  k 
arc  at  iirexent  tthut  up  from  industry  bj  one  U 
other,  and  Ihe  example  of  A 


liable 


fiirtilily. 


■  mtnt  tigiuitii]  femu.    "In _. 

jntinvnt,  uj*  Hiunbolilt,  *>  w*  •Iniuit  amna^ 
■mlini  Id  rxjpnl  Dum  na  iiel  barn^  i>wnillnl 
Ht  iif  utiin-,  'HiH  autl^i*  IuiuImI  wilb  pluta, 
]|t  ImiwilM  UwJt  lliKvli^elDaiit.  An  iinuwntu 
wo  ninulJ  nuuifuU  lln-  uiim[.rrLi|H<-ii  ai-ima 

upowcn.    Tho  mn:- '  ■■  iof 

ullilitK,  liu  minii-lliliii;  lu  ii  ■ti'iiti;.-''  »ri,i  nuil, 
tu  roconclla  oonalvet  with  dilHoult;  nn  Iba 
d  uold  the  auida  oC  Africa ;  lh«D|[h  in  Uimm 
liero  uothUig  rcoJU  U  mind  our  ttetdn,  an 
id  Dur  ■tr«iuDi,  wo  Kn  Imai  Matonislicd  M  llin 
ide  UirnoKb  whicii  wi>  fow^  llnrri  la  a  fertUa 
Bdorit«J  wilb  vlunnl  rvriluro,  we  (wak  in  nun 
I  iif  UiB  [Hivrr  at  nivi ;  we  tmrax  to  )m  lnn»- 
to  %  worU  different  l^ooi  that  wbxcli  jpiva  lu 


ErMonwd 
«  Unli^il 


lugniiut  lbs  ontiro  longui  of  Smith 
MLmiu  of  Dariui.  and  am,  '  ■  ' 
]i  Aniuric»,tnii«t«ini;  Mwxi 
faf  M  llin  thorv*  uf  tlio  PnUr  Sra.  Tbo 
AndM  TU;  vtn  mu«h  hi  bnadth.  Nmr 
d  lake  Titimcn  (fai  BoUiia)  tha  oluun  it  180 
04.  Tlic  lofUnat,  vhieh  ftn  mm-  Quito,  and«r 
WTi  mra,  until  tlw  briglil  of  tl>«  Illnulivk 
claiued,  slwavs  aMQiuii«l  tha  loftiod  tn  tiia 
■he  Pico  (Is  Ifllmui,  tint  prtk,  ia  S4,4M  fett 

I  the  iwen&d  peak  nf  the  «atn«  24,900  IM ; 
.,0[)(rf«ct:Chhubonuso!)^40f>«l;  Cotopaid 
<t  I  and  Pniod  Itf^OOO  fcvl  aboi*  tha  oomn 

II  IhcM  arc  in  Pom  and  OoIiTia,  and  thav  am 
nt  mauntaina  in  South  Am*riaa.  When 
(  oriMwd  tli«  AudNi,hiipaaaed  tlirangh  ad«p 
lich  took  Ilim  about  twclvti  days  to  iravei'w, 
LI  which  time  not  lliH  Rlighfawt  lrae«  of  maa 
■  Been.  The  pasaovor  Uin  ridge  wt»  not  lilitw 
m  one  to  twu  feet  broad,  uid  itiuinihlcd  » 
tlltrry  open  to  the  skf.    The  Qiwhradas  sr* 

reata,  dividing  Iho  miwB  of  the  Aodo,  aiiil 
the  eoDtinuity  of  tho  chain  whidi  tbo;'  tca- 
doDDlaiDS  oT  great  size  might  tn  awaUovcd  ni> 
jklmMt  fnthomleea  ruvinvn,  at  Uw  bottom  of 
Jy  tha  aatiiniafaod  trervlltir  otui  Judga  nf  Itia 
^ifieuno*  of  tiM  niOBKtainii. 
)i«ra»j>>i(.-ti«fiautbAiii<.-i'icamurp<liBtin^i)fAed 
lie  nuiubor  and  magnitude  nf  Iter  riirn,  noaut 

fi  proprltl;  bo  daaortbMl  m  ruiuiia) 
the  AmaBon,  or  Uannon,  bUim^^^ 
fe  (iiBce  of  22*,  Id  atewA,  nMa^dUi^^H 


CHAMBERS'S  INFORMATION  FOB  THE  PEOPl^ 


i1i»tauM,  not  o  eingle  stream  descends  ths  Gutem  >!da 
of  liui  Amirs,  bill  wlist  canlriliutu)  lu  swell  Uie  oe«ui- 
flagd  of  tliLS  river,  which,  fur  Icnglh  of  couno  and 
YoliiUW  of  wuH-r,  hu  no  pamUel  iu  Iho  world.  The 
UIU&  niuik  is  cuniptised  of  Bcrcril  very  largo  ntrauiu, 
ila'rtriof  eSuenWheingderivodfromlhe  south.  First  ia 
llio  IliuUftgK,  whoso  source  may  bo  Imccd  to  the  noigli- 
bourhood  of  Limn,  not  far  frum  tiiosv  of  tho  HantDoti 
itself.  Tbe  neiit  is  thu  Vatjule,  a  river  not  inferior  to 
tlio  MaranoD  at  its  junction,  and  sometimes  hoid  to  be 
tho  trae  Mamnon.  Tlie  Pums,  or  Cuchirsra,  ia  also 
a  river  of  the  first  class  ;  but  tlic  most  colebratcil  of 
these  tribataiiei  ia  the  Madera,  formed  frWn  the  BcnS, 
tlie  Maraiore,  and  tho  Itenes.  TLe  Rio  Negro,  which 
cornea  in  from  tho  oorth,  ia  likewise  avorylai^  stream. 
Uaviag  said  this,  we  muat  refer  the  reader  to  tbe  map 
for  a  descriiJlion  of  its  onward  course  to  the  ocean.  Tlia 
total  navigable  courw  of  tho  Maisnon  is  calculated  at 
upwards  of  3000  miles  in  a  direct  lino  i  but  tha  length 
oi  its  coursti  is  estimated  at  40!)5  miles.  Ships  of  iuO 
tons  burden  might  ucend  itfor2fil)0  raises,  while  maujr 
of  itii  tributarinB  an  cguaUy  rnivigable  ilmoat  to  their 
■ouree.  More  thau  oac-Ualf,  iudecd,  of  tliis  vaat  coa- 
tiuciit  might  enjujr  a  maritime  shore  from  these 
uuuLberieas  streams,  ouy  of  which  wodIiI  spread  com- 
merce and  civiijsaliou  IhroQgh  a  widelr  exleuded 
empire.  Tho  territory  watered  hy  tho  chief  stream 
and  ill  brauchcs  is  at  haat  equal  in  extent  to  couti- 
Uental  Kurope,  aad  may  be  staled  at  2,177,000  English 
diUm.    There  sru  no  saad-biuiliB,  nor  shelving  rocks. 


and  Ml  strung  an  aasterlj  wind  blows  conatantly  from 
Uie  Atlantic,  aa  to  carry  up  vessels  against  the  tide. 
Yet,  notwithstanding  all  these  advantages,  the  mighty 
Manmoia  mils  on  its  course  IhroUEb  regions  unknown 
to  industiy  or  civilisation.  ThroDjiliDUt  its  whole  course 
it  is  sludtled  with  large  and  fertile  ishmds,  from  live, 
ten,  twenEy,  to  a  hundred  leagues  in  circumference. 
Tho  waters  of  this  mi^ty  stream,  and  tboeo  of  its  tri- 
butaries, are  stored  with  an  ioSnlle  variety  of  fish  of 
tbe  nuMt  dclieioua  kinds. 

The  La  PlMa,  PUto,  or  Klver  Rivar,  is  ne«  in 
magnitude  to  the  Amazon.     It  U  eompcoed  of  tlirea 

B'incipal  BtnuuDS,  the  Parana,  llie  Pimguny,  and  the 
ruguay,  stid  receives  all  the  waters  that  How  frt  " 
easloru  iloclivity  o{  the  Oiilian  Ande^,  and  froi 
■outtiern,  souih-woBtem,  and  western  faces  of  Iho  Dra- 
xilian  mountains.  Thu  three  principal  stream!,  with 
their  tribalorlca,  offer  fscihtiei  for  inland  navigation 
little  inferior  to  the  Amazon  itself.  The  cstosry  of  tho 
La  Plata  is  broader  Ihan  the  llritiali  Cliannel.  Tho 
length  of  its  course  is  estimated  at  2430  miles,  and  the 
area  of  its  basin  at  l,S40,aD0  milos. 

Tho  Orinooo  is  the  third  largest  river  in  South 
America,  but  much  inferior  to  the  two  above 
tinned.  Through  a  direct  couree  of  about  1200 
miles,  it  receives  all  the  streams  that  water  the  Coraecas 
and  New  Granada,  with  tlie  exception  of  Ibi 
rivers.  It  was  onlyabuut  fifty  yearsagu  that  th< 
discovered  a  communication  between  Siis  river  and  tho 
Amazon,  by  means  of  tbo  Itio  Negro.  IIumLoldt,  wl 
has  since  explored  these  rivers,  has  accurately  la 
down  tbe  previous  courses  and  junction  of  tliu  Kio 
Kegro  and  llio  Orinoco.  In  ono  pajt  of  tlieir 
they  flow  along  a  level  plateau,  which  lias  liltli 
declivity ;  their  braucliing  waters  meet  and  mingle  in 
a  sort  uf  bnsin ;  and  when  thus  united,  they  form  what 
is  ciillcd  the  natural  canal  of  Cassiquiare,  There  arc 
several  cataracts  and  rapids  on  the  Urinoco,  describi 
by  Humboldt  as  splendid  in  tho  extreme.  There  a: 
■uinu  other  very  large  streams  in  South  Aroorica.  nn 
ticularly  in  Ilraiil ;  these  will  be  noticed 
of  the  individual  countries  iti  which  they 


zones  which  result  from  &  diftstime*  ol 
agreeable,  tho  salutary  vicissitudes  of  lbs  M 
' '  ig  in  those  regions  that  an  here  ditting 
;uomuuitioos  of  /rigid,  temptraU,  A«t, 
In  the  frigid  Kone  it  ie  not  tho  iulenaily  bal 
tinnance  of  the  cold — the  abaenco  of  ul  riv 

,  perpetuates  tl; 
checked  perspiration.  Tbe  hot  Mne  of  Al 
doee  not  experience  exceaiive  heal;  but  It 
'uuouce  of  thu  heat,  togelber  with  exbalalioi 
larshy  soil,  and  tha  miasmata  of  an  immens 
vegetable  putribotion,  added  to  the  eBeeta 
tremc  humidity,  that  produces  [evert  of  a  mc 
destructivo  uature,  and  spreads  tlirongh  I 
mal  and  vegetable  world  the  agitation  of  I 
raut  but  deranged  vita]  pnndple.  The  tvmpo 
by  possessing  ouly  a  moderate  and  oonslaal 
like  that  of  a  hot-honse,  excludes  froni  its  !! 
the  animals  and  vcgetablea  that  deligbl  in  tbs 
of  heat  Olid  cold,  and  produces  its  own  peotli 
which  can  neither  grow  above  iU  tinuU,  DO 
beloir  them.     Its  tcmpcmture,  i 

spring  on  the  diseases  of  hot  regiotu,  and  lib 
on  thoso  of  the  frosca  regious.  AccorUn^ 
joumoy  from  the  summit  of  tho  Andes  to  w 
the  sea,  or  oiet  vtria,  proves  an  imtMrtaal 
fgent,  w-  ■  •   ■        " -      ' 


imo  laige  lakes,  which  will  be  described 


be  oonMSM 
mneaof^lallli 


is  suffleient  to  produce  tbe  Hi 


ing  changes  in  the  human  body.  But  li*iA(  < 
in  either  one  or  the  other  of  these  uiMi^  a 
vate  both  the  mind  and  tbe  body  by  it*  W 
tranquillity.  The  aunnner,  the  spiiDi^  ami  tt 
are  hero  seated  on  throe  distinct  ihroDO^  > 
never  qnit,  and  are  constantly  snrroDiided  }e[ 
buies  of  tlieir  power.  Vegetation  ni  imiW  i 
number  uf  gndations,  of  which  it  fcteoiHW  I 
to  point  out  the  principal. 

In  the  region  of  tbe  palma,  next  the  mB|<I 
cultivate  thobsniina,  jalroplio,  maL[e,andcoo 


i  level  of  atoO  feet,  a 


After  passing  the  level  of  STOO  feet,  all  tl 
breomo  rare,  and  only  prosper  in  pnrtieaSa!  I 
It  is  thus  that  the  sugar-cane  grows  ereBlll 
of  7500  feet.  Coffee  and  cotton  extend  aoa 
these  regions.  The  cultivation  of  wheal  «• 
at  3000  feet  1  but  its  gnivth  is  not  eoiala 
blished  lower  than  1500  feet  above  t)^  b* 
is  the  most  vigorous,  from  a  height  of  4M 
feet.  One  year  with  another,  it  prodnSM  ' 
grains  for  1.  Abovn  SJOO  feet,  the  fruit  Bit 
does  not  easily  ripen  j  but  the  pUnt  is  Mfflt 
although  in  a  feeble  condition,  2400  fe  "  "  "" 
region  compreliended  bctueen  4920  i 
also  the  one  wliidi  principally  abounds  * 
or  L'n/l/ioxylum  PeruviaHuin,  a  few  Intn*  • 
mixed  with  quicklime,  support  tho  Penriu 
his  longest  jeumeys  tlirough  the  CardHleia. 
the  elevation  of  GOOD  and  0000  feet,  that  lb* 
diiim  ^uinoo  and  the  various  Eraios  of  Egrufs 
eipally  cultivated :  tlieir  caltivotion  is  grsatlj 
by  the  cilcnsive  ptateaizs  thai  exist  in  (hat 
of  the  Andes,  tlie  soil  of  which  being  of  smood 
and  niiiuiring  litllo  labour,  resembles  Ibo  I 
ancient  lakes.  At  tha  height  of  9600  or  10 
frost  and  iiail  often  destroy  the  crops  of  whss 
corn  ia  scarcely  any  longer  cultivated  above  I 
tion  of  7300  feet;  1000  feet  bighor  and  te 
produced ;  but  it  ceases  at  12,A00  hat.  < 
10.200  feet  barley  no  longer  grows,  and  13 
Bown,  although  even  tiiis  grain  luife™  from 
heal.  Above  11,040  feet  all  culture  anl  | 
cease;  and  tuan  dwells  in  the  midst  of  DnmB' 
,  rH  \Mnaa,  ilbec^,  lud  osen,  wbicti, « 


DESCRIPTION  OF  SOUTH  AMERICA. 


m  toaOMtimes  lost  in  the  region  of  perpetual 


limUL  KnfODOM* 

mnltitnde  and  dtyersity  of'its  zoological  richea 
dies  with  the  other  magnificent  characteristics  of 
imerica.  Among  the  ^nadmped  beasts  of  prey, 
nan  are  the  moat  formidable,  being  of  enormous 
'hej  generally  freauent  the  impenetrable  iungles 
irt  the  banks  of  tne  larger  streams ;  and  Hum- 
r^o  explored  the  Orinoco  and  many  of  its  tri- 
B,  had  many  narrow  escapes  from  them.  The 
y  however,  attack  them  fearlessly,  receiving  them, 
ley  spring,  upon  the  point  of  a  pike ;  a  manceuyre 
h  they  seldom  fail.  Pumas,  a  small  species  of 
ielots,  and  long-tailed  tiger>cats,  are  common, 
appear  to  be  niumown,  and  the  largest  wild  ani- 
ipear  to  be  the  tapirs.  Decrs  and  antelopes  are 
;Iy  scattered ;  in  which  respect  South  America 
t  singular  contrast  to  the  opposite  continent  of 

Monkeys,  squirrels,  and  some  other  inferior 
peds  abound.    Of  domestic  animals  the  list  is 

The  hone  and  mule,  originally  brought  by  the 
rds  from  the  old  world,  are  the  most  uniyereally 
,  tiie  new,  where  they  have  multiplied  prodigi- 
The  immense  herds  of  wild  oxen  which  swarm 
le  pampas  of  Buenos  Ayres,  are  well  known; 
ire  also  of  European  descent.  The  guanaco, 
slpaeo,  and  vicuna,  Animals  closely  allied  to  the 
>f  Africa,  are  found  in  abundance  on  the  Andes 
1,  Bolivia,  and  Chili.  These  were  the  only  rumi- 
fpiim^li^  found  in  America  on  its  discovery  by 
iniards.  They  are  not  only  valuable  as  beasts 
fen,  but  on  account  of  their  rich  fleeces.  The 
l^qr  of  South  America  is  celebrated  for  its 
and  splendour,  but  we  cannot  enter  into  details. 
it  necessary  to  occupy  space  with  descriptions 
eptiles,  insects,  and  fishes.  The  forests  abound 
e  two  former,  and  the  rivers  and  seas  with  the 

KABTHQUAKES  AKD  VOLCANOES. 

lie  whole  of  the  active  volcanoes  known  to  exist 
world,  by  &r  the  greater  number  are  scattered 
tiat  range  of  mountains  which  has  been  described 
mding,  under  the  name  of  the  Andes,  from  the 
to  the  north  extremity  of  South  America,  and 
passing  along  the  Isthmus  of  Panama  into  North 
ga,  every  where  keeping  near  the  shore  of  the 
Ocean.  South  America  is  therefore  eminently 
laie  region.  From  the  46th  degree  of  latitude, 
aad  to  the  27th,  there  is  an  uninterrupted  line 
pa  T<deanoes ;  fsrther  to  the  north,  in  rem  and 
tliey  are  less  numerous,  but  very  lofty  and  con- 
Mk  The  volcanoes  of  Chili  rise  tfaf^ugh  granitic 
llm ;  that  of  Villarica,  which  is  so  high  ia  to  be 
viahed  at  the  distance  of  150  miles,  bums  with- 
■raussion.  In  Quito  there  are  some  above  16,000 
height,  as  Antisana,  Cotopaxi,  and  Tunguragua, 
n^bieh  frequently  emit  flames.  As  a  necessary 
nenee  of  so  much  volcanic  action,  the  region  of 
ides  is  remarkable  for  frequent  earthquakes.  In 
learoely  a  week  passes  without  some  slight  tremor 
ffiiifn»f»  being  felt.     In  Chili,  it  is  seldom  that  a 

I  unmarked  by  some  considerable  shock.  About 
i  eentory,  or  oftener,  a  tremendous  earthquake 
the  greater  part  of  the  Andean  region,  destroy- 
iea  and  towns,  and  producing  extensive  changes 
earth's  surlace.    One  of  the  most  destructive  in 

II  times  was  that  which  occurred  at  Caraccas  in 
Rfhen  about  20,000  people  in  the  city  and  sur- 
B|^  district  (16,000  of  whom  belonged  to  the  city 
vwe  destroyed,  being  swallowed  up  by  the  rend- 
lis  tmiihf  or  buried  beneath  the  ruins  occasioned 

One  remarkable  result  of  these  great 

I  an  elevation  of  the  land.   In  consequence 

earthquake  in  Chili  in  1821,  the  land  was 

1  feet  alons  a  space  of  a  thousand  miles, 

k  reeeding  from  it  accordingly,  and  leaving  dry 

339 


an  extensive  tract  formerly  covered  by  the  ocean. 
Similar  raised  beaches  are  to  be  traced  at  various 
elevations  along  the  slope  between  the  sea  and  the  Andes, 
showing  that  pnenomena  of  the  same  kind  must  have 
taken  place  at  difierent  distances  of  time.  Indeed,  it 
is  now  the  belief  of  geologists  that  the  whole  of  the 
continent  of  South  America  has  been  raised  out  of  the 
sea  at  a  comparatively  recent  period ;  and  it  is,  ascer- 
tained that  a  sinking  of  it  to  the  extent  of  only  five 
hundred  feet  would  again  submerge  the  greater  part. 
Humboldt  is  of  opinion  that  the  Andean  volcanoes  are 
but  the  spiracles  of  an  immense  volcanic  vault,  extend- 
ing under  the  surface  of  this  part  of  the  globe,  and  part 
of  which  is  covered  by  the  bed  of  the  Pacific.  The 
connection  of  the  volcano  of  Paste  in  New  Grenada  with 
the  volcanoes  of  Quito,  was  strikingly  displayed  in  1797. 
A  column  of  black  smoke  had  continued  for  several 
months  to  issue  from  the  former,  but  it  suddenly  disap- 
peared on  the  4th  February  of  the  same  year,  at  the 
precise  moment  when,  at  sixty-five  leagues  from  the 
city  of  Paste,  the  city  of  Riobamba,  near  Tunguragua, 
was  swallowed  up  by  an  earthquake.  This  eruption 
was  of  a  very  extraordinary  nature.  An  enormous  area 
of  ground  rolled  backwards  and  forwards,  like  the  sea, 
for  four  minutes,  during  which  time  every  town  on  its 
undulating  surface  was  levelled  with  the  ground,  and 
the  cities  of  Riobamba  and  Quero  were  buried  under 
the  ruins  of  the  impending  mountains.  Tunguraeua 
was  rent  asimder  and  vomited  a  sea  of  mud,  covermg 
the  valleys  to  the  depth  of  600  feet. 

NATIVES. 

The  question  respecting  the  origin  of  the  native 
population  of  both  continents  of  America,  seems  to 
have  been  settled  by  the  discovery  of  Behring's  Straits, 
and  there  is  now  scarcely  a  doubt  entertained  of  their 
descent  being  Asiatic.  There  are,  throughout  most 
parts  of  the  interior  of  South  America,  innumerable 
hordes  of  Indians  still  living  in  a  savage  and  primitive 
state.  Of  the  general  features  of  these  people  it  would 
be  in  vain  to  attempt  an  enumeration  here,  as  they 
aro  divided  into  thousands  of  small  tribes,  or  nationsy 
as  they  call  themselves,  all  distinguished  by  their  own 
peculiar  characteristics.  Many  of  them,  such  as  the 
Chilians  and  Peruvians — and  of  the  former,  the  Arau- 
canians  more  especially — were  certainly  marked,  from 
the  earliest  period  of  their  discovery  by  Europeans,  by 
many  of  the  finest  and  noblest  traits  of  human  nature 
while  in  an  unenlightened  state — hospitable,  faithful, 
social,  peaceful,  and  afiectionate  ;  while  those  in  other 
parts  of  the  immense  continent  were  conspicuous,  as 
many  of  them  indeed  still  are,  for  all  the  cruel,  deceit- 
ful, bloody,  and  barbarous  features  displayed  by  the 
most  savage  nations. 

SUBJTGATION  OP  THE  COUNTRY  BY  EUR0FBAM8. 

After  the  discovery  of  Brazil  by  the  Portuguese  in 
1499,  the  country  was  taken  possession  of  in  the  name 
of  the  sovereign  of  Portugal.  In  1531,  it  was  divided 
into  captaincies^  and  granted  to  such  persons  as  were 
willing  to  undertake  their  settlement.  But  these  lords 
possessors  abused  their  powers,  and  a  governor-general 
was  appointed,  with  full  authority,  civil  and  criminal. 
The  first  individual  selected  for  this  high  oflBco  entered 
upon  the  duties  of  it  in  the  year  1 54  9.  Tne  Pacific  Ocean 
was  discovered  in  1512  by  Nunez  do  Balboa,  governor 
of  Darien,  which  a  few  years  before  had  been  colonised 
by  the  Spaniards.  In  1524,  the  famous,  or  infamous, 
Irancisco  PizaiTO  landed  in  Peru,  which  he  found  in 
a  partially  civilised  state,  and  governed  by  a  race  of 
princes  named  iucas.  In  a  few  years  ho  completely 
subjugated  this  simple,  and,  in  many  respects,  ami- 
able people.  The  treachery,  cmelty,  and  perfidy,  by 
which  he  cficctcd  his  object,  Iiave  rendered  his  name 
odious  to  mankind ;  but  into  details  we  cannot  enter. 
An  army  was  dispatched  from  Peru  for  the  conquest, 
of  Chili,  but  this  proved  a  very  difficult  undertaking, 
on  account  of  the  indomitable  courage  of  the  natives. 
Of  all  the  aboriginal  nations  of  America,  the  Pro- 


erer,  showed  something  of  the  spirit  of  the  Chilenos, 
and  were  only  subdued  with  difficulty.  The  territory 
of  New  Granada  was  formed  into  a  government  in  1547, 
and  Venezuela  in  1550.  Quito  depended  on  the  govern- 
ment of  Peru  till  1564,  when  it  was  constituted  a  pre- 
■deney.  These  three  territories  underwent  repeated 
dianges,  but  finally  became  known  under  the  names  of 
the  captain-generalship  of  Caracas  (Venezuela),  the 
Tioeroyalty  of  New  Granada,  and  the  presidency  of 
Quito.  Guiana  was  settled  in  1550  by  some  French 
Protestants,  who  had  fled  thither  as  to  an  asylum  from 
the  persecution  of  the  League.  The  Dutch  settled  Ber- 
blee  in  1626 ;  Essequibo  in  1698 ;  and  Demerara  some- 
what later.  The  history  of  the  ill-fated  colony  of  Daricn, 
established  by  the  Scotch  at  the  close  of  the  seventeenth 
century,  is  well  known.  The  country  situated  on  the 
shores  ot  the  Rio  de  la  Plata  remains  to  be  notified.  A 
eonstderable  part  of  the  river  having  been  explored  by 
Sebastian  Gu>ot  in  1526,  the  region  was  taken  posses- 
lion  of  for  the  Spanish  erown.  Buenos  Ayres  (jfood 
ahii)  was  founded  in  1535,  but  soon  after  destroyed  by 
the  natives.  It  was  rebuilt,  but  a  second  time  reduoed 
to  rains  by  the  savages;  and  not  until  1580  did  the 
Spaniards  succeed  in  their  object  of  erecting  a  city  on 
this  spot.  In  the  meanwhile  Paraguay  had  been  colo- 
nised, and  the  country  conquered  as  far  as  Potosi.  The 
permanent  settiement  of  the  Spaniards  here  was  greatly 
noilitated  by  the  Jesuits,  who  founded  those  celebrated 
communities  called  reduetiontt  or  missions,  in  which  they 
made  strenuous  efforts  to  eivUise  the  natives,  and  bring 
tbem  wHhin  the  pale  of  Christianity. 

oomnnoif  or  south  ammmica.  vkomm  ths  spanurob. 

The  power  of  Spain  and  Portugal  having  been  firmly 
ccUblished  over  the  greater  part  of  the  South  American 
eontinent,  snch  methods  of  government  were  adopted 
M  teemed  best  calculated  to  secure  the  allefnuice  of 
tbcM  territories  to  the  mother  countries.  That  the 
iBMiarea  to  which  the  Eoropeans  had  recourse  for 
this  pmrpoac  were  tyrannical  and  most  oppressive  to 
the  mUiTcs,  may  be  taken  for  granted.  We  shall,  in 
the  first  plaocy  treat  of  the  Spanish  dominions,  leaving 
Brasil  to  be  noticed  afterwards.  The  whole  of  the 
Spanish  possessions  in  the  new  world  were  originally 
divided  into  two  immense  goYcmments,  one  subject  to 
the  vicerov  of  Mexico,  and  the  other  to  the  vicerov  of 


The  Creole,  or  American-bom  S{ 
from  all  public  offices,  from  the  higliest  li 
all  of  which  were  bestowed  on  the  naiit 
These  functionaries,  whose  sole  object  i 
money,  acted  the  part  of  tme  despots  towai 
cUsses ;  plundering,  taxing,  and  exm&Uaffi 
slightest  regard  to  mercy  or  jostaoe.  J 
affluence  in  offices  witiiout  sauuriet,  and 
rivalled  the  Uymen  in  the  art  of  extraeth^ 
the  natives.  In  a  word,  the  Creoias  mmn 
situated  than  the  miserable  Indiana,  i 
seneral  knowledge  or  informatkm  were  pro 
being  imported ;  schools  of  every  kind  < 
while  the  priests  filled  the  minds  of  the 
the  most  childish  superstitions  and  religj 
Even  to  visit  foreign  conntriea  was  gensn 
to  the  people. 

Amongst  other  deeds  of  darkness  wUdi  i 
to  liffht  by  that  remarkable  docamcDt^  tl 
put  forth  bv  the  congress  of  Boenoa  Ayra 
of  the  revolution,  we  find  it  stated  that  " 
was  disposed  on  the  part  of  Spain,  in  AnM 
the  degradation  of  her  sons.  It  did  not  M 
of  Spain  that  sages  should  rise  up  anion|ps 
lest  men  of  genius  should  remind  thea  i 
tlie  condition  of  their  country,  and  cf  in 
morak  and  excellent  capacities  with  wkUk 
been  gifted  b^  their  creator.  It  waa  hmt 
santly  to  dinunish  and  depress  oor  firynkl 
day  we  should  imagine  aught  againat  hmt 
guarded  by  a  force  too  contempCibla  lor  ka 
jection  regions  so  various  and  vaaL  Ga 
exclusively  confined  to  herself,  from  n  mt 
that  opulence  would  make  us  pcoody  an 
capable  of  aspiring  to  tree  onrselvca  hem  m 
tions.  The  growth  of  industry  was  dMch 
that  the  means  of  escaping  from  oor  wrsli 
poverty  inight  be  denied  us ;  and  wa  wava  m 
all  participation  in  public  employoicnti^  ii 
the  natives  of  the  peninsola  might  havnani 
over  the  country,  so  as  to  fbrm  the  ImI 
habits  necessary  for  retaining  us  in  a  iii 
dance,  that  would  neither  pennit  ostathiij 
in  eonformitv  to  the  modes  dictated  bv  tiM 

We  must  here  find  a  place  for  the  asseti 

distinct  fp&turMt  nf  tlm  tvmnnv 


DESCRIPTION  OF  SOUTH  AMERICA. 


iitdf  for  there  were  seyend  other  causes  which 
ted  to  thin  the  population,  such  as  small-pox, 
r  diseases,  and  the  intemperate  use  of  ardent 
he  mortality   arising  from  which  might  be 

to  the  operation  of  the  mUa,  But  such  a 
t  being  made  by  the  Spaniards  themselves  is  a 
;  proof  of  the  horrible  nature  of  this  conscrip* 
lie  other  grievance,  called  the  repartimientOf 
ivilege  originally  granted- to  the  corregidors  or 
B  of  districts,  empowering  them  to  furnish  to 
ins,  at  a  fair  price,  articles  of  necessary  con- 
I.  In  course  of  time,  this  privilege  degenerated 
mpulsory  and  oppressive  exaction.  Not  only 
Indians  compelled  to  purchase  the  most  worth« 
modities  at  an  enormous  price,  but  articles 
h  they  had  no  use  were  forced  upon  them, 
mce,  razors  for  men  without  beards ;  furs  and 
or  people  who  lived  within  the  tropics ;  silk 
I  for  Indians  who  went  barefoot  at  all  seasons ; 
rtacles  for  those  whose  strength  of  vision  was 
aL  Even  luxuries,  the  very  use  of  which  was 
1  to  them,  formed  part  of  the  supplies  which 
«  compelled  to  purchase.  Such  is  a  brief  out- 
lie  system  by  which  Spain  continued  for  three 
I  to  sacrifice  the  iuterests  and  degrade  the 
f  many  millions  of  human  beings, 
before  the  great  revolt  of  the  American  pro- 
»f  Spain,  partial  attempts  to  shake  off  her 
re  yoke  were  made  in  several  of  the  provinces ; 

have  seen  that  it  was  never  very  securely 
ni>on  the  warlike  natives  of  ChilL  The  most 
.ble  of  these  efforts  to  achieve  independence 
t  made  by  Tupac  Amaru,  in  the  year  1780. 
led  to  be  a  descendant  of  the  last  inca  of  Peru, 

beheaded  in  1662 ;  and  to  give  eclat  to  the 
e  assumed  not  only  the  name  of  his  ancestor 
means  the  h^hly  endowed),  but  the  style  and 

the  iucas.  The  immediate  cause  of  the  revolt 
shameful  avarice  of  the  corregidors  of  some 
,  who  imposed  upon  the  Indians  more  reparti- 

than  the  law  gave  the  authorities  power  to 
I  tliem.     At  first  it  wore  a  very  serious  aspect, 

ultimately  suppressed,  after  one-third  of  the 
opulation  of  Feru  had  perished  by  violence. 
mpt  at  revolution  was  made  in  Venezuela  in 
id  another  in  1806,  both  without  success.  But 
rere  taking  place  on  the  continent  of  Europe, 
angularly  enough,  were  completely  to  change 
inies  of  South  America. 

THE  WAR  OF  IISDEPENDENCE. 

k  remarkable  fact,  that  the  first  revolutionary 

nt  originated  not  in  a  spirit  of  resistance  to  the 

by  which  America  was  oppressed,  but  in  a 

enthusiastic  loyalty  to  the  imbecile  Ferdinand, 

ereini  ruler  of  Spain  and  the  Indies.     When 

Banm  was  deposed  and  imprisoned  by  Napoleon, 

eonqneror's  brother  Joseph  was  placed  on  the 

orders   were  dispatched   to  the   colonies  to 

1  their  submission  to  the  ucw  dynasty.  But  they 

to  transfer  their  allegiance  from   Ferdinand 

loved"  to  a  usurper,  although  he  was  the  brother 

oleon,  who  had  then  just  reached  the  zenith  of 

er.     In  this  the  Americans  showed  a  great  and 

Bdable  spirit  of  independence — it  was  a  good 

f  what  snould  soon  take  place.     On  the  15th  of 

108,  the  people  of  Caracas  took  the  lead   in 

ning  Ferdinand  YII.,  the  captain-general  and 

aa  being  compelled  to  give  way  to  popular  feel- 

d  a  solemn  oath  of  allegiance  to  the  legitimate 

ii  was  taken  by  acclamation.     By  an  ancient 

it  was  provided,  that,  in  coses  of  emergency, 

rroeation  of  cortes  or  general  juntas,  iu  the 

ive  kingdoms  of  Spanish  America,  might  take 

Here,  then,  was  an  emergency  as  momentous 

that  conld  possibly  occur.    They  were  about 

fcransferred  from  their  legitimate  monarch  to 

er  of  France,  as  if  they  had  no  voice  in  the 

fduiterer.  aikl  this  they  would  not  tolerate. 

341 


The  exercise  of  the  right  legally  and  constitutionally 
vested  in  these  juntas  seemed  the  best  means  of  saving 
the  colonies  from  the  yoke  of  France.     Yet  such  was 
the  singular  state  of  affairs  at  the  time,  that  this  de- 
monstration   of  attachment  to  the  lawful  sovereign 
proved  the  signal  for  the  declaration  of  hostilities  by 
Spain,  and  the  commencement  of  a  war  of  extermina- 
tion.    But  how  could  it  be  otherwise  !    Napoleon  was 
now  omnipotent  in  the  mother  country,  and  the  loss  of 
any  of  her  colonies,  which  their  standing  out  for  Fer- 
dinand must  have  virtually  been,  was  not  likely  to  be 
tolerated.     So  that  instructions  to  the  powers  in  the 
colonies  to  suppress  any  demonstration  of  the  kind, 
followed  as  a  necessary  consequence  of  the  position  of 
the  Spanish  crown,  and  the  affairs  in  the  peninsula  at 
the  time.     But  a  flame  was  kindled  which  was  not  to 
be  quenched  even  at  the  fiat  of  a  Napoleon.     We  are 
far,  however,  from  thinking  that  ardent  attachment  to 
legitimacy  was  the  sole  or  even  the  leading  motive 
which  determined  the  simultaneous  movement  which 
took  place  throughout  the  whole  of  Spanish  America. 
It  was  the  ostensible  ground  for  the  formation  of  juntas, 
but  entire  independence  was  clearly  the  ultiniate  aim 
of  thousands,  who  were  content  at  first  to  mask  their 
operations  with  this  disguise.  In  Caracas,  the  supreme 
junta  assembled  on  the  19th  of  April  1809,  and  one  of 
its  first  acts  was  to  banish  the  captain-general  and  the 
members  of  the  audiencia.  Juntas  of  government  were 
conv^ed  at  La  Paz,  in  Upper  Peru,  on  the  15th  of 
July  in  the  same  year ;  at  Quito  on  the  19tli  of  August 
following ;  at  Santa  Fe  de  Rogota  on  the  25th  of  May 
1810;  at  Buenos  Ayres  on  the  same  day;  and  at 
Santiago  of  Chili  on  the  18th  September. 

Buenos  A^tcs  has  been  called  the  cradle  of  South 
American  independence ;  yet  at  the  period  of  the  first 
British  invasion  of  that  city,  Spain  had  nowhere  more 
loyal  subjects.  But  many  of  the  inhabitants  had  grown 
rich  by  trade,  and  enlightened  views  had  become  dis- 
seminated amongst  them,  so  that,  although  they  dis- 
played equal  zeal  with  the  other  colonies  in  the  cause 
of  Ferdinand,  they  did  not  long  conceal  their  design  of 
ultimately    erecting   the    standard   of   independence. 
Attempts  were  made  to  foist  upon  them  a  lopped-off 
scion  of  the  royal  stock  of  Portugal,  but  this  scheme 
proved    abortive.     After  some  political    squabbling, 
Cisneros,  the  viceroy,  was  deposed,  and  banbhed  from 
Ihe  country  along  with  the  oidores.     The  junta,  con- 
sisting of  nine  individuals,  amongst  whom  were  some 
very  able  men,  now  made  no  secret  of  their  intentions. 
The  people  acquiesced,  and  thus,  without  bloodshed,  a 
complete  revolution  was  effected  in  Buenos  Ayres.  The 
city  soon  felt  itself  powerful  enough  to  proselytise  in 
the  distant  provinces  of  the  viceroyalty,  where  some 
royalist  generals  had  collected  bodies  of  troops,  de- 
clared against  the  revolution,  and  taken  measures  for 
putting  the  question  to  the  arbitration  of  the  sword. 
The  army  of  the  republic  was  entrusted  to  Balcarce, 
and  its  first  campaign  proved  completely  successful. 
Cordova,  a  city  of  the  interior,  attempted  to  change 
the  course  of  events,  but  all  opposition  in  this  quarter 
was  speedily  suppressed.     On  the  27th  of  October  and 
7  th  of  November  1810,  the  royalists  were  defeated  at 
two  different  places  on  the  distant  frontiers  of  the 
viceroyalty.   These  successes  gave  Balcarce  possession 
eC  the  country  as  far  as  the  Bridee  of  the  Incas,  near 
the  great  lake  of  Titicaca;  and  on  the  25th  of  May  181 1, 
the  first  anniversary  of  independence  was  celebrated 
oil  its  shores,  amid  the  ruins  of  the  ancient  incarial 
palace,  2000  miles  distant  from  Buenos  Ayres.    Mean- 
while Castelli,  a  man  of  great  talents  but  most  reckless 
temper,  had  joined  Balcarce,  having  been  sent  to  act 
in  concert  with  him,  and  to  assume  the  governorship 
of  Upper  Peru.     But  whilst  the  cruelties  of  this  chief 
struck  terror  and  dismay  to  the  hearts  of  the  Spaniards, 
his  dissoluteness  and  want  of  attention  to  the  affairs  of 
the  provinces,  alienated  the  affections  of  the  inhabt- 
tants  of  Upijer  Peru  from  their  deliverers,  and  the 
common  cause  of  both.    This  gave  opportunity  for 
Abascal,  viceroy  of  Peru,  striking  a  powerful  blow  in 


sought  an  asylom  amongst  the  neighbouring  mountains. 
The  history  of  Buenos  Avres  becomes  now  closely 
interwoTen  with  that  of  Upper  Peru.  Indeed,  the 
transactions  which  took  place  throughout  the  whole 
of  the  goYemments,  are  mtimately  blended  with  one 
another.  A  principle  of  mutual  assistance  was  acted 
upon,  and  armies  successful  in  one  place  marched  many 
hundred  miles  to  the  assistance  of  their  fellow-patriots, 
who  were  hardly  pressed  by  the  Spaniards  in  another. 
Thus  the  troops  of  different  proyinoes,  or  republics,  as 
they  soon  were  designated,  became  mixed  together,  and 
Buenos  Ayreans,  Giilinos,  Bolivians,  Peruvians,  and 
Colombians,  fought  side  by  side  on  the  same  field.  This 
friendly  co-operation  amongst  the  republicans  greatly 
eontributed  to  their  success ;  the  struggle  might  other- 
wise have  been  proliacted  in  many  places,  tiU  a  period 
long  subsequent  to  that  when  the  Spaniards  were 
fiuQly  expelled  from  South  America. 

We  have  already  had  occasion  to  notice  the  valour 
and  patriotism  of  the  natives  of  Chili,  so  that  the  reader 
is  probably  prepared  for  a  speedy  overthrow  of  the 
Spanish  power  in  that  quarter  ;  but  events  often  take 
a  very  different  course  from  what  they  at  first  promise, 
and  from  what  is  anticipated.  The  first  revolutionair 
movements,  indeed,  were  here  accomplished  without  dif- 
ficulty or  violence,  being  greatly  ikcilitated  by  a  commis- 
sioner sent  from  Buenos  Ayres.  The  Spanish  governor 
was  deposed ;  a  junta  was  formed  on  the  18th  September 
1810,  still,  however,  admowledging  the  supremacy  of 
Spain ;  and  in  spite  of  attempts  to  upset  the  new  govern- 
ment, a  congress  met  in  June  1811,  when  many  wise 
measures  were  adopted.  Reforms  in  civil  and  ecde- 
iUstieal  establishments  were  projected ;  freedom  qf 
eommerce  and  of  the  press  was  declared ;  and  this  was 
the  first  legislature  in  South  America  which  adopted 
efficient  measures  for  the  extinction  of  slavery.  But 
the  smiling  aspect  which  affairs  began  to  assume  was 
■con  overcast  by  the  ambition  of  three  brothers  named 
Carera,  who  succeeded  in  forming  a  new  government, 
and  dividing  the  interests  of  the  eoontry  just  at  the 
very  moment  when  union  was  almost  indispensable  to 
the  existence  of  the  new  system  of  things.  The  Spaniards 
in  Peru  took  advantage  of  the  erisis,  unded  an  annyin 
Chili,  and  seised  the  city  of  Conception  and  some  other 
pUct«.  This  occurred  early  in  1 813.  The  Chilinos  were 
not  long  in  making  head  against  tho  foe,  and  a  bloody 
battle  was  fouglit,  in  which  the  patriots  were  victorious, 
the  Spaniards  retreating  to  a  tov^ii  which  they  strongly 
fortified.  But  various  engaijemcnts  took  place,  in  which 
the  rt)yalLsts  were  generally  successful,  and  by  tlie  end 
of  1814,  Ujo  principal  Chilinos  K^dors  wore  forced  to 
seek  refuge  beyond  tho  Andes,  wliieh  divide  Chili  from 
,  the  plains  of  La  Plat.a.  Once  more,  then,  the  Spanish 
power  became  dominant  in  Chili,  but  its  ascendancy 
was  of  short  duration,  for  tho  celebrated  general,  San 
Martin,  who  makes  such  a  figure  in  the  subsetiuent 
history  of  South  America,  was  at  this  period  busily 
employed  in  organising  an  army  for  the  liberation  of 
his  country,  and  with  which  ho  in  no  long  time  achieved 
it 

In  New  Granada  and  Venezuela  the  strugglo  was 
more  bloody,  variable,  and  protracted,  than  in  any 
other  part  of  South  America,    This  portion  of  the  do- 
minions of  Spain  being  comparatively  easy  of  access, 
mnd,  from  ita  central  pomtiou,  to  a  certain  extent  a  key 
io  the  whole,  fhe  mnac  proportionate  attempts  to  T«ta.\n 

342 


^w^tm 


««**««»*     WA  %ifk^v-*A«r%»%ft    a«i«ywaA    ^a    man  »■■■%<  v  **»jr   a 

he  reappeared  on  the  scene  of  hia  foniMV  di 
In  July  1811,  VenezueU  declared  ite  lodUf 
Spain  and  all  other  nations ;  a  eonsUtution 
up,  a  congress  assembled  early  in  ISI^aiid' 
seemed  to  promise  a  speedy  terminatiaB  tol 
in  this  quarter.  But  the  whole  sipeql  nf 
changed  by  an  earthquake, whidi  uimwiijh 
of  Caracas,  burying  many  thoosuids  nf  ihi 
under  the  ruins.  It  is  not  new  for  Hw  ■ 
inhabitants  of  the  peninsula  to  attribiila«ili 
duced  hy  natural  causes  to  the  dbeet  inli 
the  Almighty  with  the  affldrs  of  man.  Tim 
quake  which  destroyed  the  city  of  LMm%« 
attributed  to  the  Jesuits,  who  woro  tngffM 
drawn  down  the  vengeance  of  hoatenl 
was  the  pernicious  iimuenoe  of  tho  «im; 
minds  of  the  people  on  the  preoent  oeQMH 
dreadful  casualty  came  to  bo  geiidcmIl|T  IM 
work  of  divine  Tenseance  for  th^  aoofn 
order  of  things.  The  eonseqiMooa  wm mm 
for  the  worse  in  pobUo  opimon,  wUeh  flS 
were  not  slow  to  take  advantage  oil  lln 
rmlist  general,  marched  Wim*  GUMM 
erocted  its  resubjugation,  Bdivar  hfrnaril  ( 
Curacoa.  In  1813,  he  retomed ;  and  bsta 
with  an  army  by  the  oonffrdentfion  of  QmiM 
effected  the  ablation  of  Yeneinda. 
sity  of  entrusting  their  affairs  to  tho 
one  energetic  mind,  the  Venoxoelaiia 
tator ;  and  by  his  exertionik  a  wui 
publics  of  Granada  and  VeDemda  vat  I 
time  efibcted  in  1819,  Quito  beiB«  aft  tUi  \ 
the  dominion  of  the  Spaniards,  ftia  was  tt 
federation,  stvled  the  JUpMie  ^  CWnaii 
congress  which  ensued,  a  repablioia  ooaii 
estMlished,  Bolivar  being  elected  prsridMl 
tander  vice-president  TbafoimerimMiilrti 
to  the  seat  of  war ;  and  after  two  jiiiT  M 
details  of  which  it  is  impoasiblo  to  giv«kM 
in  completely  overthrowing  tho  SpanUtfi 
lombia. 

The  most  decisive  battle  of  the  wiioltv« 
on  the  7th  of  August  1819^  aft  the  M^ 
where  the  royalists  were  ooiiinlelol|y  vA 
their  whole  army  being  taken  pnaonenL  Tl 
decided  tho  fate  of  New  Granada,  giving  ^ 
an  ascendancy  which  they  never  aflerwiAi 
a  coincidence  not  imworthy  of  being  notiet 
last  battle  in  wliidi  the  liberties  of  the  and 
tants  of  the  country  were  stricken  down  by  the 
was  fouglit  (HI  the  same  sjwt.  Tho  balam 
restored  by  the  fi^rtunc  of  war. 

We  left  General  Balairco  with  the  army 
Ayres  retiring  before  the  royalists  of  Uppei 
was  superseded  by  General  Belgrano,  who,  i 
two  victories,  was  totally  defeated  on  the  1 
vember  1813  ;  the  patriot  cause  was  thus  I 
low  ebb  in  tho  interior.  Buenos  Ayres  bade 
its  attention  to  the  important  province  ol 
where,  after  various  changes  of  fortune^  a  i 
ment  was  finally  eroct<^Kl,  with  the  celebrated 
at  its  head,  as  dictator.  The  careor  of  tin 
has  been  moi*c  extraordinary  than  that  < 
whom  tho  revolutionary  struggle  broogb 
theatre  of  action.  The  govemmoit  wbidJuil 
W'Tva  ^A  co\vi\\&\Ay{  des^jQtic  aa  any  tfattt  mi 


n  AMsaicA, 


:'z 


naUy  apObliatittL    AlMt  a  serlw  sf  murJiw  uid 
■vim,  Ui*  lilientioii  wnjr  wiii  tfc»  rofaliMB  art 

'  pliiin  .-if  :\vn''ii''t#,  whini  k  balUn  n>  biogfal, 

.'   tliaiial  MiUn  Mrl^  "war 

'     TtMSpwatlanwuMoU 

II  mr  W  DBoalilaiM  m  llw 


;7& 


<;.  i|!>il  for  lh«  n>cf>t*f7  ml 
.-.1  niliiiu*.     It  WM  DiDKlilaien  Uie  Sill  nT  IV 
>r  liTJt. 
UoiNIa,  DT  UpiuT  I'ffni,  U>o  ra^luj  «!U  nl«iar4 

__! ._. ....,  ,|„  iicwry  dI  AtuwIui 

'  ti«^  Iiilo  ilm 

JaUuauUbod  llir 

ronln'  nvldl  V 

Spnb  >«m>>i<l<r,  inaXilba 

bI  hi*  on  ranolM  auo]a  In 


Anm  tUa  Hem  aU  aarioa  o| 


Foe  tJ 
nnitali 
_        ,  o  tlw  IStb  (i 

117  inss.  AInMK  cocMmimnmnini^y  wiib  UiU 
,  tlie  iiluul  nf  ChiliH  ma  ajiCiivd  d^  a  falltoc 
and  ibo  Spanult  ftiur  mAaeA  to  wan  no  tLa  trrri- 
ifChih. 

ihall  DOW  ]iT)iiu<  a  vlnvr  irf  th*  Tnriniit  iwjnililifa 
I  arof*  (Hit  iif  III*  nilBi  nf  th>  Stiaiiisli  ilominuin* 
lUi  Atnotin ;  tlinunh  wiihnnt  |i1«'l)(ln|;  punwivaa 
*l  necuT*^  of  all  oat  StMUi,  na  Uie  Muls  i;t  liif  jd- 
n  on  di>«rDr.>dttflln|[pDlitlealGaiuliiiaaaod  B'lu'- 
tUnlca  of  the  diSOtmt  atatn  is  eiondlngljr  Stttn- 
DtBzil.  tbo  laiTMl  and  tuoat  imrortaiii  ilaCu  uf 
-oatiiieicl,  vu  aU  b]od(|:  tutallj  unc«Rninit>Ml  n'Mi 
I  and  MoDlcin^  lu  annlliaT  I'rdor  nf  L>>iiiK"< 
diflvrtnt  dMliny.  lt»-  i^ubUv  in 
xfim  laid  to  liavB  nriitliiitted,  iwd 
iMw  iho  vjtol  iBcngtli  (bat  eomari  tltl- 

Knta,  on  THi  irarran  vnonwcw  of  imi 

>  onitMl  pmviticM  irf  La  I'lat*.  iir  Ui«  AT$«nl«iu 
btte,  comm'iHiii  the  «hn)e  of  thai  tw>C  ipatw  nv- 
ig  fram  thn  cordtDora  of  CliUi  and  Puru  I0  Ibacfl, 
Jis  mcovtian  of  Paragnay  and  tbe  Bandn  Orlenial, 
I  am  ma»p«Dd«Dt  alaiML  It  extendi  frtrm  tbo  32a 
i4litd#f[rai)0f»inilhlBtitiid»,  aadftomU  dosnoi 
nut*»  to  T I  (UtgTttM  at  wmI  Innj^tu'lv,  «om»ndiir 


fa  of  7M,000  (((aara  lnit*a  Kiieltah,  and 
iln«an  (irnThnn,  wblch,  to  acoruT 
h>It«  ind*p«ndantlf  of  each  atbef , 


iln«an  prnThnn,  wblch,  to  acoirCaIueatant,aOTarn 
'   '         ■     "     ■      ■-    -   -  bntforaUs" 


r  natcmal  pnrpouM,  ar*  cai>fnd(inii«d  by  eaimn- 
ogrMniinua-  Forvant nf antorvdrKriiiHliiatioDal 
itm,  tba  pnniDirial  n^aranvat  of  Hiivniia  Ajtw 
— — "-  ->— — •  — ivi.  ——A..  „„  ihe  hoalnna 
vtih  tluirauiag*- 
r*piiblii)  la  earn- 


td  in  IM1,  te  TcM«d  in  tha  gorerniir  or  oaptun- 
»1,  w  he  i*  atyM,  aided  br  a  o»un«il  of  latniinan 
nted  fay  himalf,  rtapeiMlbt*  to  the  juntL  or  l»|t!a- 
aMamaly  of  !)>•  pinvinoe  by  whbli  ba  It 
mte  tlaeireeiudnxrffortT^FdapiitlM, 
nnually  iwioircd  by  pftpula  ' 
Mmptni  to  ralaliliin  a  ty 
eh  Otii-nne  AyrM  tlumld  ci 
antlnl  ovur  tho  othor  profinooi )  bit  ffna 
.!,_  _i injvwl  -juil*  abortiTe.    Tlw  n 


ciiambehs's  information  for  the  people. 


boait  of  TohmUry  conledcTStiOD,  not  euly  wiili  each 
other,  but  wllh  tho  old  motropoliB,  BuctiM  Ajrea  The 
whola  terrilory  U  in  almoBt  uniforml);  level  plain  of 
gretl  feriilit)',  viitcml  b/  the  lurge  riTera  La  Plata, 
t'anaa,  Pangiuy.  Btiil  Uruguay,  and  aevsral  others  of 
wnsller  diitHiuioiu  ;  the  Talado,  Pileomayo,  Vermifo, 
Nuevo,  and  Ihat  which  eiDptiea  itself  into  the  lake 
SoUto*,  beins  the  most  important.  There  are  likcHiK 
a  numbeT  of  hikes,  the  waten  of  vhtch  are  brackish. 
There  ore  almost  no  natural  trees  iu  the  province,  but 
there  are  numerous  plsotatians,  or  rather  orchards,  of 
peach  trees,  which  the  natives  cultivate  far  Brewood 
— the  fruil  being  applied  lo  feeding  the  swine  and  poul- 
try. Immense  Toresls  of  thistle*  spring  up  at  certain 
seaiDiu  of  the  rear,  of  ton  and  twelve  feel  in  height. 
Doer  are  plentiful  iu  the  wilder  parts,  but  little  prized 
where  there  is  aa  much  line  beef.  The  climate  is  ex- 
tremely aaluhriaDB,  and,  siiicularly  enough,  is  almoct 
entirely  govemod  by  the  wind*,  which,  generally  speak- 
ing, are  northerly. 

Une  of  llie  diatiugaithinf!  charxclcriadcs  of  La  Plata, 
■re  the  vast  plains  called  pampas,  one  portion  of  which 
extends  from  tlie  bHiiks  of  tlie  Paraguay  westward  to 
the  frontiers  of  Los  Charcas.  and  northward  to  the 
mountain*  of  Chiquilos--another  immense  jilain,  300 
miles  in  length  from  east  to  west,  and  1500  miles  from 
north  to  south,  as  far  as  I'alsgonta.  These  plains  pre* 
aenl  one  uuifarm  expanse  of  waving  gnts^,  unintcr- 
rupWd  by  either  wo«J  or  eminence,  although  in  norne 
plMK*  parched  and  barren,  and  perfectly  uniohabiled, 
DnlesB  by  innujnerablo  herds  uC  wild  oxen,  horses, 
eatrielies,  and  other  animals.  Over  these  pampas  lies 
the  only  runia  by  land  [mm  Duenos  Ayres  to  Chili, 
whii-h  Juumey  was  formerly  performed  by  largo  com- 
paniea,  as  the  phkios  were  Infeeled  by  hordes  of  roving 
lodlaiu,  who  went  Ibere  to  hnnt,  catch  wild  lioroes,  and 
Iilander.  Fmm  tho  abieaee  of  all  permanent  laud- 
mtria,  the  travelleia  over  these  immense  plains  shaped 
their  course  by  tho  compass,  and  iheir  caravans  were 
in  r«aUty  moveable  houses,  sulid  and  defensible.  Of 
late  years,  regular  poHl-llonscs  have  been  established 
along  the  whole  line  of  road  betwixt  Santiago  (the 
capital  of  Chili )  and  Buenos  Ayrea — a  distance  of  nearly 
UOO  miles— and  a  regular  communicalion  is  kept  up 
betwixt  tlie  two  republics  by  means  of  couriers,  who 
'  -m  their  iourueys  with  uncommon  speed. 
icityofUueni  ...... 


TUB  city  of  U 
mamn  of  the 

by  Iht  eonflue 


r  PlaU 


IU  the  southern 


\e  of  the  Parana,  Uruguay,  and  Negro 
is  thus,  as  it  were,  the  key  to  all  the  inlcriial 
navigation.  The  length  of  the  I'lala,  from  ils  formaliou 
to  the  ocean,  is  upwards  of  70U  miles.  The  city  occupies 
a  large  extent  ol  ground,  being  about  two  miles  long, 
and  a  mile  and  a  half  broad,  alt  (he  streets  erosaing  at 
right  anghs.  There  are  a  Duiversily,  several  educa- 
tional establish iiieiiti,  and  a  number  of  churches.  The 
pruHpcf  iiy  of  Uusnos  Ayres  and  the  other  provinces  is 
greatly  iiapeded  by  Ilis  dcfoclivs  navigation  of  the 
river  Plata,  which  is  filled  with  shoals  and  sandbanks, 
and  ihertfore  dangerous  to  large  vessels,  otherwise  the 
city  of  Baenoa  Ayres  would  become  une  of  the  largest 
emporiums  of  commerce  in  the  world.  The  rivers 
Parana  and  Uruguay  arc  each  navigable  for  vessels  ot 
from  300  to  300  tons,  1500  miles  into  the  interior  j  tlie 
former  ronuiug  through  Paraguay  into  the  centre  of 
Bolivia.  In  ISOfi,  Buenos  Ayres  was  taken  by  a  small 
English  expedition,  under  Admiral  Pupham  and  Geue- 
nl  Berssford ;  but  the  inhabiUnta,  recovering  from 
Iluir  surprise,  soon  afterwards  drove  their  assailants 
from  the  town.  In  the  following  year,  Ileneriil  Wttile- 
locks  arrived   with  reiDtoroementa ;   the  troops  were 


quietly  perniittcd  t< 
repulsed  with  gr«at 


they  w 


h  gr«at  slaughter,  and  ultimately  compelled 
'acuBie  the  Ia  ['lata.  There  were  uo  furlifieations 
letimo  the  city  waa  attacked  by  the  British  troops, 
it  was  indebted  fur  ita  atrvngtli  solely  to  the  pecu- 
struclore  of  iu  buildings. 

the  province*  oF  the  Rio 


habitants,  from  lflO,000  (o  300.UO0  were  tvdioa 
belonging  to  Bueuoe  Ayres.  Into  detail*  ul  Urn 
caunot  enter  ;  iudeed,  it  Is  impossible  to  obtain  n 
infomialioa  regarding  the  interior  provinces,  then 
meree  being  mostly  of  a  domestic  or  internal  m 
Buenos  Ayres  it  of  course  the  great  centre  of  h 
trade.  In  IB37,  tlie  imports  from  Great  B 
■moania  to  £696,104;  the  total  import*  inia  It 

Sublic  being  valued  at  7,000,000  dollars.  The  ci 
uring  the  same  year  amounted  to  ifiilMS  i 
conaistiDE  chiefly  of  ox  hides,  gold  and  silver,  iJ 
wool,  jerk  beef,  horse  hair,  fallow,  sheop-diiiii 
other  products  ol  the  oountiy.  Ot  late  years,  ll 
ports  mto  Buenos  Ayrea  have  decreased,  wbilsl 
of  Monte  Video  have  increased. 

The  repoblic  of  Paraguay,  formerly  one  of  tin  x 
provinces  of  the  vice- royalty  of  Bueuos  Ayr**,  a 
ated  between  the  riven  Parana  (on  Ilie  east  audi 
Bud  Paraguay  (on  the  west).  It  IS  divided  by  ■< 
tract  from  Braxll  on  the  north.  It  oompriK*  u 
of  about  50,000  square  miles,  with  a  popuUtiOD  e( 
350,000,  seven-tenths  of  which  are  Creoles. 

The  dimate  i^  Paraguay  is  mild  and  healthy,  altl 
moist,  being  low  and  level.  All  soru  of  trcniieall 
corn,  vines,  sugar-cane,  rice,  maixe,  lubacoo,  Ui4if 
a  number  of  valuable  medicinal  plants,  abolsd  tl 
fusion.  There  is  a  parlieuUr  plant  pccallar  tt 
guay,  called  ftrba,  and,  vben  decocted,  KaU*^ ' 
greatly  resembles  the  lea  oF  China,  and  i*  by 
preferred  to  the  latter.  It  is  uiuvenall^  UMd  (a 
Amorrca.    Of  late  yeoi's  it  his  been  ealtival*d  la  I 

the  vast  plains,  whose  hides  and  talkiw  haa  aai 

Prom  shortly  siior  the  declaration  of  indepaa 
in  IBI 1,  until  1838,  this  beautiful  and  prolific  I 
was  governed  in  a  despotic  manner  by  Doctor  Fi 
a  man  of  considerable  Ulent,  but  it  is  belicvsid 
craied  in  mind,  who  had  the  address,  like  Crona 
dissolve  the  tompomry  eovemmeut  estabtahall 
revolutionary  party,  and  to  appoint  himacif  aJ 
perpetual  dictator  ot  the  stale.  All  thiog*  aw 
managed  by  him  ;  he  planned  roads,  bridges,  and 
public  works,  organised  the  army,  and  interfered 
most  minute  arrangements.  His  rule  was  aan 
by  excessive  cruelly,  and  he  iivod  in  cnnstaal  j 
asEaseiualion.  This  extmordioary  despot  die^ 
eighty-second  year,  in  1838;  but  what  has  bii 
political  condition  of  the  state  since  we  have  not  I 
Some  writer*  are  disposed  to  thinli  lliat  upon  iha 
t'rancia's  dictatorship  was  beneficial  for  the  eoi 
as  ho  carried  on  various  objects  of  utility,  audpn 
respect  and  tranquillity  for  hia  people. 


This  coniparalively  small  stale,  which  oettm 
long  and  bloody  contention  between  the  onitM 
(inces  and  the  Hnuilian  government,  is  dluoli 
tween  the  river  Uruguay  and  the  Atlantic  fraiB 
to  north,  and  between  the  rivers  Plata  and  S 
from  east  to  wesL  Prom  ils  jiosition,  betwvc 
Spanish  and  Portuguese  set llemcnta.  it  aoon  beca: 

to  follow  the  course  of  the  struggle.  Suffice  U  I 
ilial  after  much  blond  had  been  shed  on  both  aid 
a  vrar  of  more  than  half  a  ceatury's  duralioo,  ( 
which  the  disputed  territory,  by  being  the  eat 
battle-field,  waa  devastated  by  both,  the  eoaU 
parlies  at  last  drew  slakea,  and  it  was  erecMd  ii 
independent  slate  in  182$.  It  is  equally  diMiiui 
for  fertility  of  soil,  salubrity  of  climate,  natur«J  b 
and  geographicsJ  poaition.  It  abounds  iu  eu 
pastures,  wiiich  are  fertilised  by  an  untnoally 
number  of  strsaioe,  in  which  respect  it  is  greatly 
rior  to  the  rival  provinces  on  tha  eppMil*  faaala  i 


DEftCIUPTION  OF  SOXnti  AMEMCA. 


_  aipart  tndr.  ohllal  tkiuc  i4  HaciiuB  Ayn^    mrvr  I'ltia-    l't)<ijR>p<ilattun  uf  the  Baoila  OricsMl  is 

■IW  tnnwnn  aup^lwlvir  li>  ri'nl.  Bod  beuonut  so  |  liiU^DU  U  1^,000  kMIh.  ubJ  n  ni'itlTj  hKrnamig. 


CUAMBERS'S  IKFOUMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


CSOI. 
tliUi  U  booniUd  OD  tha  nurth  by  Ia  Plato,  on  th« 
a  Mi*  Mid  •miili  \ij  PftUffonU,  from  vhieli  it  w  Mpa- 
n^  b;  UiD  Andc«,  and  on  the  west  by  tbe  Pacific 
OmBi  along  tbe  ahorc*  of  which  it  alretchea  from  21° 
to  *t'  of  wuth  latitude.  It  ii  1300  milu  long,  and 
tron  SO  lo  130  brood.  The  greund  luceudi  sradunltjr 
finm  IIm  ocean  to  the  Andtc,  bat  in  inlerMcIed  by  their 
jiruJMtiug  bnnchea,  soioe  of  irhicb  mn  abnoat  down  (fl 
the  Mn-iinare.  There  ii  no  deflcicncy  of  rivers  in  Chili, 
but  iu  goDoral  tfaey  are  snuiU,  and  running  from  Ihc 
Conllllem  to  the  Pacific,  they  have  neccsaarily  abort 
Oonnoi.  These  Klieama  are  indispensable  to  the 
oxl>tcnc«  of  Bgrienlture,  in  a  country  where  it  rains 
Tcry  wldoni,  and  to  a  lery  limited  c;ilciit.  The  ferti- 
lity of  the  loil  of  Chili  haa  in  many  rmpecls  Iwen  much 
ovvrralod.  It  presents  great  diTersitio.  In  >ome 
jATta  wiiura  irrigntloo  is  defident,  it  ia  barren  and  Dti- 
produotire ;  in"  otborn  quite  the  reverse ;  and  amid 
^{lUndld  woodlanda,  the  fineat  crops  uf  wheat,  barley, 
iy«,  and  otlior  upccie*  of  grain,  an  raised,  with  amrcBly 
•ny  trouble  ta  tlic  cultivator  beyond  scattering  the 
•cod.  Cotton,  iDgar-eana,  vinos,  &c.,  are  also  axteii. 
■Inly  cnllivaliMl.  Tbo  country  is  perfectly  {re«  of  all 
noxiouB  rciitilM,  the  climale  aJubrioiu,  and  the  wcathor 
Mrrne.  Ill*  want  of  narigable  rivers  is  unfavourBble 
tu  oomniorcn  ;  and  although  there  are  many  rjoh  mines 
(if  gulil,  silver,  and  copper,  in  the  northern  provinoes, 
tha  ttcrility  of  the  country  around  them  prevents  many 
of  them  ttrom  being  wrought. 

In  1)137,  the  directorship  of  Cliili  was  changed  into 
»  preeidenojr,  in  inutatiou  of  the  United  StalnB.  The 
MtabUihed  religion  ia  tha  Itoman  Catholic,  the  prioat- 
liood  not  being  numerous,  as  waa  the  ease  prior  to 
th»  revolution.  The  conatitution  of  Cbili  ia  that  of  a 
(cd4^  republic,  couaisting  of  throo  slates,  namely, 
Coquimbo,  Santiago,  and  (Smeepiion,  and  one  distriot, 
ChUoa,  oaeh  having  b  provitioial  assembly, 

t,  oonimoii  eongreae,  or  oiBcnC 

!■  dlUiup  at  Santiago. 

Cblll  H  dividad  into  eight  provinces,  which  contain  a 


Ever  since  the  deelarBtion  of  in  _ 
been  a  scene  of  political  aqrabbUng  and  daM 
the  details  of  which  wo  need  not  enter.  Id  n 
country  was  divided  into  North  Pern  sod  SoM 
the  chief  power  being  veated  In  a  aiipianf  ft 
and  a  close  intimacy  waa  thai  «nlerad  lalo  if 
neig;hhouring  repnhlie  of  BnUrta.  Tho  MO^ 
catabliahed  by  a  congreea  of  tbo  (kr*a  Cdali 
states  of  North  and  South  Peru.aDd  Balj*ia,  ton 
upon  that  of  the  United  Statea  of  Hbrtb  flmarid 
of  the  three  ropubliee  was  to  turn  Its  own  di^ 
gresB,  and,  collectively,  they  may  b«  mM  I*  hn^ 
a  federal  republic,  united  to  ona  another  ftvl 
inpport  and  protection.  The  head  of  tfae  «nM 
iras  chosen  by  the  general  conj^rSHs.  out  of  rfl 
dates  proposed  by  tbe  three  republini.  Thaflfri 
appointed  to  the  protcctonbip  of  tbo  PeruviM 
confederation  vas  General  Santa  Cra*,  wha  ( 
tually  became  tho  head  of  thr>»  ladepandM 
He  ivas  elected  for  ten  years.  With  Kginlln 
ililution  of  each  republic,  little  appana  to  W 
igrecd  to  besides  tho  gctteral  principle  lliat  llMJ 
nenC  of  the  countries  should  bn  ontnatad  ta  j 
and  house  of  reprceenlatirea,  , 

Wo  have  already  allnded  to  the  dectantiMi 
which  have  pasaod  between  Peru  «nd  CSlQL  i 
'  '  appear  to  have  yet  terminate^  ■ 
n,  instead  of  bending  their  ill  iglijj 
developetnent  of  the  resourocs  of  tha  oaaaajff 
ing  each  other  to  pieces  by  the  bloody  uid  Mt 
gnmo  of  war.  A  si)uadrDn  from  Chili  took  ftl 
Lima,  in  Aujtust  1II3S,  after  an  action  ia  an 
men  were  killed.  Siutta  Crux  immediatsh^ 
upon  the  city,  but  ii  "'  -        ..  — 


which  holds 


SSiUOOl  Conception,  with  10,500 ;  and  there  are,  beudes, 
Pono,  Ci«|Uiinbo,  Copinpo,  and  othei's  of  inferior  note. 
In  inaii,  the  Duthiy  of  thoBlato  was  reckoned  at  !,B40,:U4 
dollara,  tbo  receipts  hein^  above  3U0,I)UU  dollars  more, 
which  served  Iu  pay  tho  interest  of  the  English  loan, 
or,  ot  all  oventa,  a  part  of  it ;  for  their  affaira  are  in 
groat  confusion,  and  their  debts  arc  «o  milted  up  with 
thmw  uf  Peru,  that  it  U  difficnlt  to  detennino  how  they 
atniiil.  Ity  allowing  the  intereat  of  their  loan  to  remain 
for  ycivra  un|«id,  the  debt  has  accumulated  iu  such  a 
tnaiHier  as  to  have  destroyed  national  credit.  The  per- 
petual broils  with  Peru  lu>vo  materially  contributed  ' " 
nrtard  the  advancement  of  this  countiy,  which  has  cp 
tninly  very  considerable  reaourccs,  and  an  enterprising 
Und  liiltihgent  population.  To  enter  into  particulars 
rofardlng  this  long-etauding  quarrel,  is  not  eompatiblo 
With  our  limits.  It  originated  in  a  loan  which  Chili 
gave  to  Peru,  to  aniat  her  in  the  pei^od  of  her  distress, 
and  which  the  latter  liaa  not  been  grateful  of  honest 
enough  to  refund.  Pence  and  war  have  more  than 
onoc  buen  proclaimed  between  the  two  states  v 
lhc«  tow  years,  and  so  kto  as  1H3U  the  army  of 
Was,  ihroDgh  treachery,  it  is  said,  nearly  extirpated  by 
tha  troopa  of  Chili. — See  Pbri;. 

During  the  year  ISM,  there  waa  enportcd  from  Giili, 
•old,  silver,  and  copper,  to  the  amount  of  :),l.'jl!,143 
SalUm.  The  other  chief  articles  of  cxiWTt  arc  hidrs, 
tUnbar,  wheat,  (lour,  fruiLt,  Cortex  Poruvianus,  bdigo, 
tin,  Bkud  aeal*tina.  Tho  imports  into  Chili  from  Urcat 
Britain,  ehielly  of  tuanufaot  ured  j;ooda,  amounted  in  1 1135 
to  £606,176.  The  native  manu&cturea  of  Chili  arc  in- 
■IgniAcaut.  A  great  number  of  islands  slreteh  along 
ibe  eoast,  aud  belong  to  tbii  republic,  but  they  ar 
tmAll  aoJ  uuimjwrtani  to  require  Hpcciai  notice  u 
Abm  VaJiwaiMt  is  Ilia  creat  port  o(  Ouii  into  inUeL 
3tli 


tbTcua 


cither  killed  or  taken  prisoners.  SanliCniiai 
published  a  proclamation,  by  which  ha  abdia 

Erotectoral  authority  over  Peru;  Bnd,byaDodNI 
8  resigned  the  presidency  of  Bolivia.  It  were 
speculate  how  matters  will  terminate ;  but  in  a 
hood  llulivia  will  rcnuiiu  a  separate  Ktate,  tai 
and  South  Peru  will  again  anialgama(«  and  tt 

The  bnundiries  of  North  and  South  Pttv  Mt 
so  imperfectly  detined,  that  in  our  deeeriptJM 
region  we  ahall  eonaider  them  aa  farmingoni 
Indeed,  it  is  very  probable,  aa  we  have  aud,  tt 
will  soon  again  be  united  as  formerly.  Pem 
from  3  degrees  34  minutes  to  about  33  dsgraai 
latitude,  and  from  SI  iegreea  to  S2  ilsui  in  ■ 
longitude.  Its  length  is  computed  at  15$0  ai 
its  coast  line  on  the  Pacific  (hjean  cannot  ba  k 
SlOl),  reckoning  the  bcndings  of  the  shon^  At 
to  Humboldt's  estimate,  Pum  oompriaa  as  i 
45,£00  aqnare  leagues.  The  surfaoe  of  Ihism 
tory  is  of  the  hotdrat  and  most  varied  dsHr^ 
is  naturally  divided  into  three  regions,  Weaur 
gituated  to  the  west  of  the  Andes  ;  Ewoeni  P«| 
ated  te  the  cast  of  that  mountain  chain  ;  and 
the  Andes,  vhieh  comprises  the  mounuunona  < 
Westom  Peru  is  a  belt  or  Eone  of  sand  »•> 
miles  in  Ivngth,  and  having  an  aversge  bn 
thirty  or  fnrty  miles.  No  tsin  falla  tliiwu4 
whole  of  this  desolate  Sahara  of  tha  ww,  aai. 
tioo  only  springs  up  on  tho  banks  et  A*  livM 
run  from  tho  Andes  to  the  I'ocifio.  Ilia  1 
porta  of  Western  Pern,  therefore,  are  mambi 
of  oases  "  isUnded  amid  the  waste  of  aand,'al 
of  Africa.     Yet  here  are  situated  tha  dly  ^  Ii 


«  \iitw4  ^v«ti«L  abova  (i 


DESCRIPTION  OF  SOUTH  AMERICA. 


etits  a  grcai  diTetsity  of  soil^  climate,  and  vegetation. 
ofllee  it  to  say,  that  in  different  parts  it  exhibits  every 
pedes  of  Droductiony  from  the  dwarf  plants  of  Lapland 
rhidi  dothe  the  lofty  mountain  tope,  to  the  aromatic 
peeies  of  Somatra,  which  shed  their  odours  at  its  base. 
liis  portion  of  Pern  contains  the  sources  of  those  vast 
irers  which  traverse  the  whole  continent  of  South 
JBerica,  and  are  the  greatest  on  the  face  of  the  globe. 
tot  by  far  the  largest,  most  beautiful,  and  most  valu- 
Ue  part  of  the  Peruvian  territory,  lies  to  the  east  of 
ha  Andes,  commencing  on  the  eastern  declivity  of  the 
mmd  chain,'  and  stretching  to  the  confines  of  Brazil. 
B  this  vast  region,  a  thousand  sources  of  wealth  lie 
■ried,  for  the  greater  part  of  it  may  be  said  to  be  yet 
nknown,  although  the  riches  which  it  contains  are 
■mrnse.   In  fertility,  luxuriance,  and  variety  of  vege- 
itioD,  it  rivals  Braul,  and  the  world  docs  not  present 
■  with  any  higher  standard  of  comparison.  Every  sort 
f^  production  which  cnprings  from  the  ground  may  be 
lised  in  one  part  of  Peru  or  another  in  the  amplest 
handance.     Its  mineral  treasures  are  gold,  silver, 
Irtina,  tin,  copper,  lead,  quicksilver,  predous  stones, 
itty  almn,  saf^Mtre,  coal,  sulphur,  and  others.    The 
Mat  Taloable  of  these  are  in  ereat  plenty. 
Para  carries  on  condderabTe  trade  with  Great  Bri- 
ifa^  the  United  States,  France,  the  kindred  rcpub- 
cf  South  America,  and  other  places.    A  treaty  of 
Gonmierce,  and  navigation,  with  Great  Britain, 
■M  aigBedat  Lima-on  the  6u  of  June,  1837 ;  by  which 
arpataal  f^feedom  of  trade  was  established  with  the 
riea  of  the  Peruvio-BoHvian  confederation.    The 
articles  of  export  are  gold  and  silver,  Peruvian 
,  hides,  nitre,  sugar  (unrefined),  cotton,  and  shesps' 
tin,  molasses,  pot  and  pearl  aishes,  &c    The  im- 
into  Pern  from  Grreat  Britain,  chiefly  of  manu- 
~  ^pods,  amounted,  in  1833,  to  £387,524.    In 
the  nnports  feU,  on  account  of  political  agitations, 
have  since  risen,  and  on  an  average  of  years 
■tdidily  increasing.    In  1835,  they  amounted  to 
11,824.    The  exports  to  the  United  States,  in  1835, 
~  to  1,118,278  dollars ;  those  to  France  and 
places  were  Ukewise  considerable.    The  present 
le  of  Pern  has  been  estimated  at  £1,250,000 ;  the 
at  a  little  less  than  that  sum;  and  the 
debt  at  £6,000,000.     But  precise  information 
)  points  is  not  to  be  obtained.  There  is  a  stand- 
^  snny  of  3000  men  maintained  in  Peru,  and  2000 
rBoGvia,  according  to  the  articles  of  confederation. 
'  iidigion  of  the  republic  is  the  Roman  Catholic,  no 
t  bemg  tolerated.  Slavery  has  been  long  abolished 
»;  but  the  state  of  tho  country  in  regard  to  edu- 
and  morals,  is  still  very  low.    The  total  popu- 
of  Peru  in  1838,  was  estimated  at  1,700,000, 
ig  of  three  original  castes — Spaniards,  Indians, 
iKeeroes,  and  all  their  possible  combinations.  Lima, 
>  capital,  which  was  formerly  the  grand  entrepot  for 
'tiade  of  all  the  west  coast  of  South  America,  con- 
H  a  popnlation  of  70,000.    All  the  trade  is  carried 
al  CSdiao,  which,  although  six  miles  distant,  is  tho 
tof  Lima.  The  next  most  important  place  is  Cuzco, 
I  cUef  town  of  the  interior,  and  the  ancient  capital 
tiie  ineaa.    Here  are  some  magnificent  remains  of 
I  Ibnner  riches  and  splendour  of  Peru,  particularly 
^^iVnif^  of  the  Sun,  the  wealth  of  which,  when  first 
Ptflsd  by  tiie  Spaniards,  was  almost  incalculable.   Tho 
itoemlnaiice  of  the  andent  heathen  worship  is  still 
%^BSijiiiid  by  an  honorary  institution,  called  the  *'  Order 
^llie  Son."  Besides  Luna  and  Cusco,  the  next  largest 
Nm  is  the  maritime  port  of  Arequipa,  which  has  been 
Is  times  destroyed  by  eruptions  from  a  neighbouring 
iMtrtain,  and  yet  possessed  a  population  of  40,000, 
i^iiuas  to  the  revolution.    There  are  also  a  great 
tMT  oftiiet  towns  of  minor  importance.    Earthquakes 
W9  mqoent  in  Pern.  The  dty  of  Lima  has  been  three 
kMB  almost  entarely  destroyed  by  these  visitations — 
i  1687j  1746,  and  1828. 

BOLIVIA. 

Aflar  Indepaidenee  was  established  in  1825,  tliis 

847 


portion  of  the  andent  viqeroyalty  of  Buenos  Ayrea 
received  the  name  which  it  now  bears,  conferred  in 
honour  of  the  liberator,  General  Bolivar.  A- constitu- 
tion, drawn  up  chiefly  by  Bolivar,  and  called  the  Boli- 
vian Code,  was  immediately  introduced,  and  for  two 
years  the  republic  was  tranquil  under  the  presidency 
of  General  Sucre.  But  when  tho  great  libertador 
became  unpopular  in  his  own  country,  and  those  troubles 
arose  which  darkened  the  dose  of  his  career,  his  con- 
stitution was  rejected  from  Bolivia,  the  president  was 
deposed,  and  Santa  Cruz  was  elevated  to  the  dignity. 
The  present  position  of  this  republic  we  havo  already 
spoken  of  under  Peru. 

Bolivia  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  Peru  and  Brazil, 
on  the  east  by  Brazil,  on  the  south  by  the  Buenos 
Ayrean  provinces  and  Chili,  and  on  the  west  by  the 
Pacific  Ocean  and  Peru.    It  comprehends  a  space  of 
480,000  square  miles,  and  the  population  is  estimated 
at  1,200,000,  of  whom  probably  two-thirds  are  Indians. 
This  republic  includes  five  of  the  provinces  which  were 
formerly  under  the  Buenos  Ayrean  viceroyalty,  but 
has  been  divided  by  the  new  government  into  six  de- 
partments, namely,  I'otdd,  Chuquisaca,  La  Paz,  Santa 
Cruz,  CochabamlM^  and  Oruro.    The  greater  part  of 
Bolivia  is  situated  at  a  very  high  elevation,  but  towards 
the  east  it  stretches  down  in  extensive  plains  towards 
Brazil.    The  climate,  therefore,  is  extremely  various. 
On  the  high  parts,  snow-storms  and  hurricanes  fre- 
quently prevail,  and  the  plains,  from  the  rigour  of  the 
weather,  are  nearly  destitute  of  vegetation.  The  climato 
of  Potosi,  at  an  average  elevation  of  13,400  feet,  is  so 
changeable,  that  it  frequently  exhibits  in  one  day  all 
the  vicissitudes  of  the  four  seasons  of  the  year.   Thence 
descending  through  the  regions  of  Oruro,  at  an  eleva- 
tion of  12,400  feet,  La  Paz  at  12,100,  Chuquisaca  at 
9300,  Cochabamba  at  8400,  down  to  the  plains  of  Majos 
and  Chiquitos,  all  the  known  degrees  of  temperature, 
from  extreme  cold  to  extreme  heat,  are  experienced. 
This  elevated  region  is  enriched  with  tho  most  valuablo 
mines  of  gold  and  silver,  which,  with  other  precious 
metals,  form  the  only  articles  of  Bolivian  commerce. 
The  moufitain  of  Ulumini,  in  La  Paz,  which  is  supposed 
to  contain  rich  veins  of  gold  ore,  is  24,000  feet  above 
the  level  of  tho  sea.   From  the  great  difficulty  of  work- 
ing tiio  mines,  and  the  expense  of  extracting  tho  ore, 
the  greater  part  of  the  gold  of  Bolivia  is  obtamed  from 
the  lavaderoSf  or  cold  washings  in  the  beds  of  rivulets, 
where  it  is  found  in  the  shape  of  grains.     The  most 
productive  of  these  lavaderos  are  those  of  Tipuani,  in 
the  province  of  Larecaja.    Silver,  however,  is  the  great 
staple  metallic  production  of  Bolivia ;  and  the  famous 
mountain  of  Potosi  is  ranked  next  in  importance  to  the 
mines  of  Guanaxuata  in  Mexico.     On  account  of  the 
inconsiderable  nature  of  the  rivers  flowing  from  Bolivia 
to  the  Pacific,  and  the  badness  of  the  roads,  it  is  impos- 
sible this  country  can  enjoy  much  commerce  with  tho 
Pacific;  but  towards  the  east,  several  large  streams 
communicate  ^ith  the  great  navigable  rivers  that  flow 
into  tho  Atlantic  Ocean.     The  river  Pare,  or  Beni, 
which  rises  near  La  Paz,  and  tho  Guapey,  which  rises 
near  Cochabamba,  after  a  long  sweep,  unite  with  the 
Mamori,  and,  flowing  to  the  north-east,  mingle  with  the 
waters  of  the  Maranon  or  Amazon.     The  Picomayo, 
again,  which  rises  near  Potosi  and  Chuquisaca,  and  the 
Vcrmejo,  which  rises  in  the  valley  of  Tareja,  flow  to 
the  south-east,  and  mingle  with  the  Paraguay,  the  upper 
part  of  tho  mighty  Rio  de  La  Plata.    All  these  rivers 
are  navigable  almost  to  their  source,  and,  with  steam 
navigation,  would  open  up  a  direct  commimication 
between  these  rich  districts  and  the  nations  of  Europe. 

The  table  land  of  Titicaca  is  the  most  elevated  on  the 
globe,  with  the  exception  of  tiiat  of  Thibet ;  but  while 
the  latter  only  presents  pastures  and  flocks  of  sheep, 
the  former  exhibits  towns  and  populous  cities,  and  is 
covered  with  fine  crops  of  wheat,  barley,  rye,  &c  Tho 
lake  of  Titicaca  is  12,700  feet  above  the  level  of  the 
sea,  and  is  twenty  times  the  size  of  the  lake  of  Geneva. 
It  contains  sevend  islands,  the  largest  of  which,  named 
Titicaca,  is  the  phice  whence  Manco  Capac,  and  hia 


CHAMBERS'S  INFORMATION  FOB  THE  PEOPLE. 


*ifeM»neoOclloHn«co,werereprcBonled  by  Penivimi 
tnulition  to  li«ve  come  furlli  lo  foniid  tlie  empiro  of  tin- 
ioHui,»Dd«pre«doivil[Hition,iucliwtr;)',«pdgo«dgovBrn- 
munl  thraugli  tbo  nationK.  A  niBgnilicciituiil  gorgEou* 
Tcmpie  of  ibe  Sua  wiis  sflerwardi  en-ctrd  Mta,  tUe 
whale  oTDMnenls  and  weitlth  of  »bicb  are  uiid  lo  lav  e 
Ixieu  thrown  into  the  Me,  to  prevent  their  faltiiig  into 
the  hands  o(  (he  Spaniiu'dE. 


Suituidcr  being  vice-pnBiilBnt,  and  exercising  e 


II  Bolivar's  abseiiM.     The  Pi^ruvii 


eleoted  Ibe  1b(1«t  preaideot  for  life,  and  adapted  liin 
celebrated  code;  bul  m  he  belanged  lo  Colambia,  aud 
aa  tymptooi*  of  rebellion  bad  btxume  uppareDl  in  thai 
cuuntry,  he  resolved  on  reliac|uishing  all  the  honours 
which  the  Ponitiana  we™  desirous  of  conferriu^  oo 
him,  and  reLuroiDg  to  bis  native  coonlr)'.  He  arnvcil 
towards  the  close  of  I02G,  from  wliicli  period  till  his 
death  in  !S3(I,  Colombia  was  a  sccue  of  turmoil  and 
bloodshed.  The  person  who  phijud  Ihe  most  couspi- 
euoiu  part  iu  this  luniultuoua  druna,  besides  BoliKir 
himself,  was  Genera]  Paex,  who  had  been  appoliiled 
lo  tile  comouuid  of  Veueiaela.  lie  gave  grent  oHcucc 
bj  his  arhitnU7  conducE,  was  impeached,  bul  refused 
to  make  liis  appearnnep.  Immedialeljr  Ihereafler,  he 
placed  binmelf  at  the  htad  of  a  etrong  parly  opposed 
to  the  central  system,  and  deairous  of  a  aepsration 
from  New  Gnuiada.  BohvarsucceedEd  in  quelling  this 
insurreclioD  of  the  north-eastern  proviacea,  bul  Ihe 
violence  of  urlies  again  broke  forth  in  1S2B.  The 
events  which  followed  finally  resulted  in  Bolivar's 
assuming  absolute  autiiority ;  frvio  which  period  his 


impts 

the  pnijectors,  aud  in  Bolivar'a  exercisiug,  probably 
to  an  unwurautable  exlent,  Ihe  absolute  power  which 
had  been  eotmsted  lo  him.  In  1839,  war  was  declared 
against  Columbia  by  Peru.  The  causes  of  this  are 
partly  M  be  attributed  to  personal  auimosily,  partly  Uo 
national  jealousy,  partly  lo  a  dcsiru  to  get  possesaion 
of  Guayaquil,  uue  of  Ihu  priucii*!  ports  uf  the  Colom- 
bian territory.  The  armi™  met  at  Tarqui,  in  tiuilo, 
when  a  BBiigoiimry  canHict  took  place,  lu  whicb  the 
Peruvians  were  di^fenlcd  i  and  this,  along  with  other  cir- 
cumctauces,  for  a  tiuie  nised  the  hopes  of  Bolivar  and 
bis  friends.  The  great  cause  of  difference  between  (be 
dictator  and  the  people  was  the  Bolivian  code  or  cou- 
Blituticn,  which  did  not,  it  was  asserted,  allow  eiiougli 
of  liberty  to  the  subject,  the  country  being  emiuently 
republican  and  democratic  in  its  views.  The  fact  is, 
the  people  had  become  intoxicated  with  their  freedom, 
and  uothing  abort  of  licentiousness  would  SBliify  them. 
But  a  civil  war  was  prevented  by  Ihe  death  of  Bolivar, 
which  took  place  on  the  lilh  of  IX'Cembcr  1B30,  As 
soon  aa  this  event  became  kuown,  the  three  component 
stales  of  Coloiubia  peaceably  agreed  to  become  inde- 
pendent  of  one  another.  The  limits  of  these  sUtes  arc 
ni'urly  the  same  as  they  were  whrn  each  was  a  separate 

biijted  un  the  most  liberal  republican  principles,  and 
they  are  leagued  together  fur  mutual  support  a^iiiat 
foru-ign  aggrwiaiou.  The  national  debt  of  Qilombia  waa 
equally  £tidcd  amongst  llie  three  states  in  December 
lK3t;  slavery  was  for  ever  abolished  in  all  of  lliem; 
and,  upon  the  wliole,  lliey  are  tiUely  10  go  on  much 
nicire  peaceably  and  rationally  npai-t,  llinii  if  Iliey  were 
united  under  one  head.     We  >>liallgive  a  brief  descrip- 


This  republic  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  Carib- 
bean Sea  and  Ciualcmala;  on  the  east  by  Venezuela 
aud  Guiana  ;  on  the  south  by  the  Ajnaion  and  tjuilo  ; 
Uld  on  the  west  b)  Ibe  Pacific  Ucean.  The  great  chain 
pft/itAadcc  Ira  >  i^nes  this  country,  and  the  moDUIwiu 
31M 


are  extremely  rich  in  gold  and  ailTcrti 
also  mines  of  plalina,  copper,  Isa/i,  uid  -' 

value  of  gold  and  silver  produced  unia_  , 

i:U^O,000.     It  is  divided  into  five  diatrl«ia  slid 
province*,  tbo  unil«d  population  of  wblel^  ireMi 
the  census  of  1B3J,  amount*  to  lfi»T.il)9;at,mt 
of  en^)rB,  1.71)0,000.   Santa  Fe  de  KogoM  u  lb 
of  the  republic;  it  has  a  population  of  abont 
Here  a  national  academy  wfts  opened  ill  tSSS.  Is  II 
the  utcome  amounted  lo  3,337,83«  dolkn 
expenditure  to  2,21l,iiS4  dolktmi  liaritif  a 
126,383  dollars  for  payment  of  tlie  iutcrert 
tiooal  debt-     The  share  which  fell  la  K« 
was  above  £3,000,000.   The  principal  uiioin  of  an 
are  caeoa,  indigo,  tobacco,  coBm,  hidva,  asd  tm 
The  imports  are  manufaclnred  guwla  of  alnml 
description.     What  the  value  of  tbcH  niav  ba, 


This  slalo  extends  from  the  republic  of  Qoila  at' 
Equator  to  H  degrees  of  north  latitude,  and  b^M 
degrees  to  71  degrees  30  minntoi  of  west  Is  , 
On  the  north  and  eaal  it  Is  wa«hiul  by  Uw  Al 
Ocean,  and  baa  a  number  of  good  porta.  Tb* 
remarkable  feature  of  Ihe  country  i>  Iba  (i— I ; 
Oriutico.  It  is  also  traverued  by  Oie  AixUa ;  aM 
great  lakes  of  AUracaybo  and  Valoocia  beknc  I 
territory.  The  northern  part  is  moontauiiai)*  i  M 
Ihe  eouih,  on  the  banks  of  the  Orinnra,  ar>  iOM 
planca,  calked  //ohim,  the  climate  of  which  lalMStM 
soyie  parts  unhealthy.  The  year  ia  ooniplclalj  M 
into  the  nuny  and  the  dry  aeasou*  ;  the  fiinntf  R 
mencing  in  November  and  ending  in  ApriL  TW) 
ductions  are  eugar,  coffee,  indigo,  Doiton.  aoJ  Ui 
I'be  ptaina  on  the  Urinoco  furuufa  extenoira  |Hti 
which  support  numerous  berds  of  cattle.  Vsocod 
partitioned  into  four  dcparlmenia,  and  fnrllier  dM 
inlo  twelve  provinces,  wtuch  contain  in  all  a  ps^lM 
of  S3S,000.    The  budget  for  1838  waa  — =-- "J 


;ding  b 


natiuual  debt  already  noticed,  £1,941,705  Ml  Isl 
xhare  of  Veneiueia.  The  patronage  of  the  cl 
been  taken  from  the  archbishop  of  Cunat,  a*ri 
now  in  Ihe  hands  of  Ihe  president.  Tilbea  ar*  al 
liilicd,  the  clergy  being  paid  by  the  ■ 
institutions  and  missions  have  been  done  >■>;  «l 
their  iucume  and  pouetsious  being  applied  lo  tbt  ■ 
if  the  National  College  eetablisbcd  at  Uan*ayl)*  I 


mblic 


liege  eeta 
■fhepri. 


ly«3l 


jf  cattle. 


towns  of  V< 
of  probably  tl 
port,  ni'th  2ifiOO  inhabitants;  TaiiM 
lid  Alaracaybo,  situated  on  the  IMqi 
ke  of  tlie  same  name,  which  haaSWM 
le  cultivation  of  the  soil  and  1^1      ' 
he  great  objecls  of  industi^ial 
)iuuiiL-.     With  the  overplus  of  these,  Ihe  isla 
obuin  the  nianafaclures  of  Europe.    The  eUrf I 
of  export   are   cocoa,  coffee,  sugar,   tobaco^ 
hides,  dye-woods,  Earsaparilhi,  Peruvian  baili, 
indigo,  furs,  &c.     The  imports  ai     ' 
the  fabrics  of  Kngtand  and  Pniiii 
slate  with  certainly  what  the  eiporta  and  im] 
amoniil  lo  rcBpcclively,  bul  the  former  may  U 
mated   at   3,U00,IIU0,   and  Ihe   latter  at    (,000^ 
piaslres.     (A  piastre  is  equal  to  4s.  3jd.  sUrliug.) 

The  terrilory  of  the  Eiiuntor  comprchc^  M 
ancient  presidency  of  tjuilo,  extending  from  2  fcjW 
of  north  toG  degrees  of  south  latitude,  and  tt^'i 
degrees  SI)  miuuii'S  to  30  d^Tecs  40  uiinnleaof  *l 
longitude.  On  the  south  it  borders        '■  ■  ■^- 

the  lalter  country  funning  also  il 

on  the  north  its  limits  are  Now  Granada,  • 

washed  by  the  Parilic  Ocean  on  the  weal.  This  nmlk 
I'd  by  bolh  cliains  of  llie  Andn^  tni  MH 


I  boun^m; 


aequeut]ypra»euisgrealdivenily«fKiiU«*inJdi 


TH  AHEBIOA. 


JWA 


Dlthniub  uiaoted  in  Uw  latyra  at  I'artogtl  In 
umu)  dmuicmUe'  Inwncrtioiu  hrcAa  i-ui  m  Ptt' 
niea  i   unit  alttuiugh  rnipiri^  J,  tli>»"nl--nt  itlll 


In  lB33,fa«  *>»  i  .;«a  In 

.Ilia  titla»nil  Ih"  it'll' :  ..ri'ae- 

-IcduKl  by  hi*  &Uiri'.    i..'.^. »..,...'   »m  tritb 

10*  Ayrt*  r«*|i«otliiu  ilm  Uoutlu '.*t».*iiLU,  Mtildi,  ill 
rniiuatloii In  ISSU.ldt tko tauuaf  dcnWo ofM 
may  t>ut  {ttper.  Thb  exited  muah  i&ieantntt. 
It  ll>e  Hnug  tiiae,  tSte  kboliuou  of  Uif  IHu-tnpuiM 
.imllDn  by  Migud  Bxeiltxl  iiut  Mwpidnai  "f  itio 
JliuiB  tliol  (liat  CTWiit  wu  only  tli*>  prrhldn  In  ]i 

rDntnt  uf  fmlm  timd  U  iJl  lu  aU&y  llicir  l<u».  Id 
I  tsno,  thw  nall<m  hod  beooaiB  dtridiuj  biiu  muutfi- 
DklitU  (BnElUui*)  and  nbMlatlata  (Pariugiuan) ; 
ji  aUctnpt  hkviog  foiled  to  mduee  tlin  lr«o|it  m 
j«  Uie  •mperor  KbvoIiiU^  ha  to  all  ■pp<*&n>nm 
A  tliiB  omwtiWtiunvlwbt.  His  rnrnxum  xnd  ann- 
UowRviir,  coniinuvd  m>  aiiuiviral,  lb*t,  iii  tinrvli 
,  Dunif<*Utiti»>  of  popular  iriciMniunt  bruku  ool. 
DitTMiic  rlnDur  he  cxcrdHid  an  Ihl*  oovaalan,  hnd 
ul»e^u«>t  vMiUatioD.  bioreucd  *ad  InonuHl  III* 
lies  more  mnd  mure ;  uid  in  the  'April  Coilowui^ 
rbaniiv  bruin  nut  in  which  auny  paqvuiu  own 
Ji  r*dra  iinm*din(t-)y  knuomiiMd  a  olnogO  nt  oti- 
y  ;  thu  piiUin  rnnuniiitratwl  agaliiHl  (liiii,  but  Lit 


tS)  au  imninvcllan,  hi  wMeh  IbelrnMia 
E«n*taaeiiac :  and  next  tnomtti*  PcdM 
aMd  hi  U-raav  ta  bla  Inflint  mh,  Pcdtn  11^  ul 


Lrked  tron  Rio  Jui«iro,  on  bcMrd  ko  Englbh  Mf 
ar,  canrhje  witli  him  ui  immeiua  trranim  in  A!k> 
in  null  jnH'cLt.  A  iirnnaiwnt  raccirey  wia  *|ipnliiUMl 
an*e»  il»  KnriiniiDfnt  [|uriii|[  ihv  uiitiorUy  t4  llM 
3ror ;  but  pulitic*!  slDrnu  luvtt  uut  cnMd  m  **  hivar 
I  thia  home."  In*iirtoetlona  are  by  no  tncMia  ns- 
noa  in  Druil ;  winD  iiMout  iorMd*  of  Iho  tndiui 
ie  h>*«  tnta  ati«nded  *iih  niidi  loa*  of  life  anJ 
iTty.  The  oity  of  Pura  wu  Ukta  in  IftSt,  tfnl 
'wardd  BTacuattnL  Bitliia  waa  likwiM  captnxratiy  ( 
Kl  army  at  lodUu*  nud  otlnn,  but  wrmtud  frum 
1  by  tlio  EtnjiiiHil  tnii>|i»  iriih  ■  grral  Iiim  on  tHHb 
I.  This  event  occurred  Mi  lato  a*  IkfareU  IS^R.  \ 
■n*  inmrrcctlaD  iut*  recently  hmken  oat  in  the  pra- 
t  of  lUa  Grande.  ThahnpcrUllrouj>a«fr«raiieal- 
diffmtod,  anil  lliat  portion  <•{  tha  eountry  hm 
■rad  ita  indii|>md«iBD.     Thai  thia  will  1m  maih* 

1  dncribc  niinulvly  Ihn  phy«im1  ohanoivriMiea  of 
ut  a  region  aa  tlial  ol  Braxil,  wimld  c*i-ry  ua  far 
ind  our  Umlla.  Gwnvrally  apculiing,  ihuro  I*  not 
he  globe  a  tlner  canniry,  ana  bl«tac3  vilh  a  nwM 
nl  clinmte,  or  a  more  fertile  aoil  i  more  hnt^ly 
nifird  *'ith  wood  and  water,  or  with  atiundaiiM  Vt 
jpiblo  rittn  i  or  more  famtd  fir  ila  prnduos  of 
and  itiamoDda.  Nvarly  the  wbuhi  of  thn  moat 
iy  vala«d  iiroduntiuiiii  af  tliv  aarlh  are  rataad  within 
rrriloTy.  The  land  riant  by  pinlln  (^nilaliiiiw  rrnio 
tiwTo  Ui  lh«  Inlvdcir,  to  thu  liiught  of  Iriini  ttiraa 


,  and  Earopoao  fralta 


«>,  the  climj 
ind  raiiu  a 
[  Tallryii  tia' 


CHAMBEHS'S  INFOOMATION  FOR  TIIE  PEOPLE. 


le  [uiita  covered  witli  for 


.,  hiKl. 


MiarKlod  from  uach  o^cr  bj'  vkIm,  tho  vegetnili>ii  ■ 
wbioh  U  dnoribcd  w  extromi!];  beiutiful.  Tim  vie 
gf  tbe  mIuiiI  from  tli«  uk  bus  been  iaag  uelebnted  ft 
ilB  s|ilenili)UT ;  Ihe  inuunUiiib  soiuetuDes  appciiriu 
■boite  llw  elouJa,  and  atuddtid  with  toreata.  The  gnuit 
,  mivann^Lii  iir  pluuH  aj¥  covered  with  tbe  moat  btauti- 
Fu]  n^liirw,  wtwdft,  nod  all  the  ma^ilioent  vegctaluin 
iif  Uiu  trii|>li».  the  roaDiitiins  in  some  ports  rcacli  > 
grivt  lu.i^lit ;  Blue  Mouataiii  P«k  being  7770  feetaborc 
thi>  lavvl  ..r  ilio  MML :  IVirtUnd  Gap  HI<^  KSUI  ;  Cathi 
rine'a  l'e«k  497U;  and  othcii  nf  a  lawar  clavntiui 
SomB  autlioritioB  luHii,  llial  Kt  Ibc  oaalem  part  ut  th 
iiitkDd,  tlircc  penks  of  the  grand  rid^  of  Uiu  ltlii_ 
MouDUUDa  reneh  the  hdglKa  ef  UIU4,  7U£G,  and  7A7G 
fmt  aborc  Ibu  level  o[  tbe  tn.  The  mounlaina  are 
gMieralljr  of  a  nmioal  lorn),  vrry  ttevp,  and  approacbing 
(in  tlie  nurlh  aide  very  nor  to  tlie  era.  The  deep 
mvinea  between  the  liifi/  mounlaioi  arc  deowly  aovered 
will)  woudn,  and  arc  denominated  ooekpiw.  ' 
a  olriking  cuntraM  to  tite  lower  nwuntaina, 
ODfTfA-pliuit,  piiueato,  cotton,  &c,,  are  cultit 
llie  Muth  side,  the  iDouubuiis  ifte  aituaud  a  litUo  die- 
tanl  fram  the  eca,  leaving  plaiiu  of  about  tneh 

lliera  am  uunietw  rivera  in  Jamaica,  two  liuudrcd 
of  wbioh  liave  been  eDumeraled ;  but  none,  o»iii|i  la 
III*  Irriqtular  nature  of  tlie  eountr)',  urs  navigable  foi 
nsacla  of  any  burden.  Black  river  is  the  largen ;  and 
iniugli  •  flat  country,  is  navigable  lor  veaacli 
tonnage  f<>r  about  tliirty  miles.  Tlie  only  othct 
livera  of  any  note  are  tlie  Rio  Cobro  and  Rio  Jliiibo 

Stlie  Booth  :  and  the  Marthabiw,  White,  <j 
Mt  RiTer  CD  tlic  north  side.  ThcM  rive 
Iranwly  valuaUa  in  the  eullivmtiiM  ot  the  nU,  ^gnat 
hei^  from  which  tbe  water  nna  allowing  it  lo  be 
carriud  a  cuiiaiderablc  length  in  irrigatinf-  tlie  conntry, 
and  turning  niilla  upon  [iliiii unions.  Tbe  rnpidily  c,t 
the  current  also  prevents  ii  from  Btjignntin); ;  and  thus 
it  is  kept  pure  for  ajiimals  to  dritik,  from  ita  aourca 
■O  tbe  oc«an.  There  are  nunicroni  aprings  and  rivu- 
lets throughout  the  country,  wveral  of  which  are  of 
a  tuodlciiiai  nature.  Two  aulphureaua  eprings,  one  hot 
and  the  other  eold,  are  very  cclebniled,  and  exceed- 
ingly beneficial  in  cataneoua  diaoMS.  There  ore  six- 
teen  priuoipal  liorboun,  wbicli  afford  secure  havens  for 
■liipping,  and  tliirly  bays  or  roads  with  good  anchorage. 
The  soil  of  the  country  ia  generally  ifeep  aud  fertile, 
preoenUng  a  ahkitng  appearance  to  the  eye  when  tiret 
turned  up.  In  some  parte  it  is  of  a  chocolate  eolour, 
in  Dthera  a  bright  yellow,  and  even  acarlel.  The  bo»[ 
soil  for  cultivation  is  what  ia  lorniud  the  brick  mould, 
which  isof  great  depth,  eo  rich  as  to  require  no  manure, 
and  of  a  qiialily  which  seems  well  auilod  for  the  clinuile. 
It  ia  ao  far  retentive,  that  iu  dry  weather  it  relajju 
enough  «f  nioislure  for  Ibo  preai-rvaUou  of  the  planla. 
and  BO  porous  as  to  admit  of  the  guprnuoua  water 
nuking  through  it  daring  heavy  r<Mi  Thlssoiliiicom- 

Ced  of  clay,  sul,  and  bUck  mould,  nud  vtbougbt  the 
I  soil  in  tbef^d  for  the  cultivation  Of  the  sugar- 
cane. The  noiVnU  iu  point  of  fertility  ix  the  black 
shell  mould ;  aad  tbeie  are  many  varieties  Ihrnugliout 
lbs  island,  all  morvor  lata  fitted  for  cultivation,  iiilvar 
Ud  gold  inira  frequentlUcenr  in  the  eoil,  and  tile  lailcl 
iSBometimeBmirtakenifrgDlddust.  Nu  gold  haa ever 
been  discovered,  howevM,  ultbough  it  is  ccrlaiD  lliat 
tbe  nativcaweropa«ee«8edor  plenty  when  the  Spaniards 
fitvt  visited  the  iilitnd.  A  rich  load  uro  is  found  in 
■omo  par^a  of  the  couilry,  iiliieli  ia  impn-gnad'd  nilh 
silver.  This  ore  is  workM^t  Liguaua;  Mid  vari<:'l><.s 
■iC  copper,  slriati:d  antimony,  and  irm^Aoae.  have  nlw 
bean  obtBined  in  aoiue  parts  of  dw  island.  Wbilv  fiL'e- 
alono,  i|uarla,  limestone,  aittf  M  qvcies  of  basUrd 
marble,  aUo  occur  in  EousidaraUa  quaulilirs. 

JamaieB  la  divided  into  thmi  oouiUiM,  Jtiddl.sax. 
Surrey,  aud  Cornwall.  Middlvwa  u  diiiiLd  iutu  uluu 
{iiUMiM»|San«/iatosovoti,aadCaruwa]IiutoHvc.'Hrii(i  I 


•eat  of  goTemment  ia  ^Kuiah  Towii,  in  lb  a 
Middlesex,  vJluated  at  Uie  extremity  of  id  u 
plain.  The  mountaina  closely  approoell  Ibc  U 
the  river  Cobro  runs  past  it,  at  Uia  diituistif 
i]aartcr  of  a  mile.  The  town  ia  oul  large,  bsl  lt 
ings  are  very  magmtieenl,  being  Uuil!  in  11h 
^jpanisb  arebiteelure.  The  lineat  buildini  it  it 
nor's  residence,  calli'd  King's  llnuic,  wbidl 
one  whole  aide  of  a  quadnnglct  KingllM  k 
important  town  in  the  island, audi*  RMikUjr* 
as  tbe  capital,  although  not  Mcoioall;  BO.  Iii 
...u,»  .  -^M.i..  '"iljned  plain,  whieli  u  cncli» 
aua  ridge  of  moontainr.  Tt> 
of  semicircle,  and  the  plaia 
-  the  fii 


down  to  the  list 
world.  11  affords  e: 
the  largest  merchant  ship 
harbour  is  defended  byni 
sidered  perfectly  unaHsihUe  fhmtliese 
iif  Kingston  are  built  with  Ihe  grealci  i 
somewhat  in  the  style  of  the  New  Town  of  I 
TliB  houses  are  principally  of  wood,  and,  i 
two  Btoi«ys  high,  with  verandas  above  aud  b 
Engliab  and  t>colcli  churches  are  very  cle^nt 
particularly  tbe  former,  tl  contains  abonl 
habitanta,  of  whom  13,00(1  arv  wbilea,  an 
iieople  of  colour.  There  are  excelleul  ui 
Dutcber  meal,  fish,  and  vegetablw  of  every  d 
On  a  plain  at  tho  ti^  of  tliu  dvcliTity  on  wnio 
is  aitualcd,  stands  a  fine  rongo  of  barracks, 
l*ark  Camp.  This  samp  is  situated  about  tn 
fe«l  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  and  b  ca|iablt 
inodatiue  upwards  of  Iwclrc  huudred  men. 
uu  eitcelTent  bi<»|iital  ittacbiil  to  the  banx 
bath,  which,  only  four  foet  deep,  is  npsble  c 
ing  (0,000  gallons  of  runuiog  water.  Uos 
ajiuated  oa  the  opposite  tUt  «f  Iha  ishnd  h< 
ton.ia  a  seaport  of  some  importanes.  It  1 
foot  of  a  range  of  mountains  which  nearly 

b.irmck>i.  Falninulli  is  xituatcil  about  fifteen 
of  Monlego,  and  la  rising  rapidly  lo  importai 
harbour  iu  tho  inside  is  deep  and  well  ^eli 
the  .'ntnincB  is  intricate,  and  not  more  tbaa 
feel  deep  across  the  bar.  The  lawn  i>  bnill  i* 
.tide  of  the  harbour,  and  peaseaaes  several  p 
offices,  a  free  school,  and  ounimodiuua  bamc 
is  more  produce  abipj>ed  from  this  port  than 
other  iu  tbe  inland  after  Kingston.  Savanna 
is  a  fine  healthy  military  station,  aitualad 
moreland  pariah.  The  town  ia  built  upon  t 
the  harbour  of  which  is  good,  and  tbe  hat 
situated  about  a  mile  from  tbe  town,  in  tha  b 
biglily  cultivated  cuuntry. 

The  govemmunt  of  Jnoiaica  eoosiaU  of  a 

a  council  at  twelve,  and  a  huujte  of  awii  ml 

renior  has  the  cliief  civil  and  military  aMb 

holda  liis  appointment  from  llir  haiD«  fov 

u  mcmbt'rs  of  tbe  council  are  Beleoted  '•»> 

tbe  juslicca  of  the  peace  by  tbe  iiunm  ;  tl 

lovomor,  Hlturiiey-generai,  and  bi»lu))vl)- 

ly  right  of  tbe  olfioes  they  hold.    Tiw  ft 

ily  oonsista  of  forty-five  momlwrs,  t»alM 

caeh  psrish,  aud  one  additional  fi-oni  mmI-  -  ■ 

of  Kiugston,  Spaniel]  Toan,  luid  I'oM  Uapi. , 

also  u  supreme  court,  on  at^iie  court,  a  ONT 

inu  |ileiis,wliidi  ait  nl  stated  tiuis  furtbfM 

r  crnnc.    Tbe  miUtary  force  of  the  Mw|(c 

about  tlirM  IboBaand  r^gubu  tr-ioiia,  aont  of  i 

penplu  of  colour;  and  tbe  militia  fot^  *bHfa 

■    from  sixt«n  lo  eighteen  thousand  nen. 

dea,  from  the  n^  of  flftocn  to  siaty,  on  < 

list  in    the  militw   service,  and  an  pihatit 


Thia  island,  ihe  next  in  importaoa  u>  • 

the  Britiidi  nVst  ludm  [■■  -  --n'r-i-.  iafavo* 
alvd  M  Ibo  luuutlu  ul  the  huM  rivtx  (Mom 


ynrjiMBtacA. 

■.MlattMBrMiCa 
UnrapMleryilV 


lathoHrMlhtt:'-- ■'    ■ 


oununniiLtTol  fudiatMiilioni 
Um  puriiMlinii  •!!  pciwal! 
nmrnbom  td  tt>  Annta. 


-«J  JiaJ".,      .  , .  

nduonl  ','  <i>  ■*  vollia  of*fI| 

'n  not  I  "  ;iciaUia>L     !%!» 

,-■  f.,u[,ltM.  an  Dioiuni  uiJ 
I .  I  iig  Uio  [Icli  uul  inrUhnt  T*1n 
^>!  frinn,  u  donng  tlw  pavad 

.-.-:,lJ»IllL 

>.i.>.i^>i.  mj:^.,^,i.-,  ilia  iMiJVM  <>r  Souiii  Amniim 
A  uudi  lUuiv  wiUni  >ii<I  UliIuMnuua  ls«  of  dmi 

)  the  ereola  of  udiar  trujilial  MBtiifin.    Tlw  Spn- 

.  aataa  <J  the  ffMla.  ov  omuMlutfi^  ii  tnlviinajljr 

.»l';r(i  but   Ijoili   ticlors  alul  »tlor  Uikl  ptfod  « 

.  I  y  engHgnJ  uitlicr  iu  tnuuBoll»j{ 

'  airJ  rrcni'iag  viiiu^  ■lliini]iig| 

«"nMl  lliu  wliiiM  m  Uh  Wart 


1  ftt  luni  and  iu  {ii'ii  '  ii*^*liii|> 

-oilod  DC  itfimad  be>  i ,  '  .,<!  .itbrt 

Hin  of  nil  ruin  u.^  ..JL:.,^l.^..  ...^'.  -.  ii.u  uaaa 
nl,  uiil  biii9  thaur  liiau  in,  tlu  uuc  luum,  apiia 
,«  *j>n>ul  'Ivwn  tor  tb*  jiurpvtr.  TmcUen  ot 
MCUibilll]'  f[miiaUy  iniileavuuf,  liowuror,  to  stiip  at 
boiua  <a  pit){iriotnn>  nMr  ttw  wb}«i<1«,  wlm  Itra  En 

K'  I  o(  vrmilhj  cue  uid  laiiu^. 
&)«ra*h  Mnincnwait  of  bnll-baillnji  t*  punund 
1  great  avidity  by  tbe  Soulli  Aracdcuu.  Jlut  pnr- 
■  >  man  deraonllibj;  uid  pcitiuclain  unuieiDoai 
!h*  bwHtling  r'te*  of  ipunbling,  in  which  all  eiuaea 
lit  Inirn*  liidulrat  to  a  Kraut  ixtvnt.  Tlin  mitliod 
Pitching  Ik*  vud  enttls  uiM  rvr«  in  immenHt  liwda 
r  the  pamjHU,  U  «  pnctleo  ■JlOKullinr  iiaeiiliar  tu  tha 
th  AiDcnuuu.  Tho  ifiBtmiacat  ukcd  it  iailju4  n  Iwuo, 
D  tliv  Spknioh  Iiuo,  BguifyJDg  >iip-kiiDt  nr  ii-)«*r,  «i4 
oiwrMian  tif  using  it  is  eallod  ]«nKiiii^.  It  eoiulitt 
I  mjM  nuuln  of  atrip*  uf  natanued  hido,  raryii —  '~ 

rth  from  Bftfwn  to  Iwouty  yarJe,  and  ii  abont  «■ 

the  Utile  flnnr.  It  ha*  a  uuwa  or  running-knot  at 
oad,  tho  olW  Mtnmlty  bniuit  tulvocd  bjf  ao  ov* 
buiton  to  B  ting  In  ■  itnug  ludi>-baU  at  ■uteionv, 
ndl^blljroiuuidieliono.    The  coillairup 


^BTod  frointha  luuul,tlie  noow  praervc*  ttautt  n|w» 
it  Saiia  DTffic  the  DbJMt  at  whidt  it  baa  bc«u  aliuwl. 
Vild  hoiwB  an  oaptuivd  with  what  is  caUiil,  bi  llui' 
juagw  of  thv  Oauoliu,  "  laa  biriai^"  or  lulla  ■  noal 
niilaUv  wia|inn  In  tlis  lianda  ot  him  who  knowi  ban 
uwit.  It aain>i«e» of  ilitwv tJion|t»ornirdaa(hido, 
h  ainm  lh»a  *  yard  lonib  having  Iwllii  attaabud  to 

estromlliea.  Ilia  '  bolEadiir,"  vt  Im  wlio  ia  BO'nj{ 
Uog  tlw  haUB,tabOi  one  ball  In  hu  h]Uiil,aud  orioR' 

lH«  othsn  npidlr  iviuul  hia  liuul,  Itiruwa  'Iu 
an"  with  aU  bia  might,  nod  anarring  ourtahit/^ 
od  iha  hind  kga  of  hii  vietimi  «hleh  kunodi^i^f 
m  to  tha  grmuil. 


CliAMBEUS'S  INFORMATION  FOU  THE  PEOPLE. 


Thi*  ■■  thoaghl  Ihe  mnst  bMnlirol  of  the  Cwribnii 
iaUnil»i  il  wu  dwcovered  bj  Columbui  In  MSB.  Il 
inalHiiitlAanlj'-rDUrniilrsluitgftndlventy  briMil:  Mfy- 
Sr*  niilM  WMt  Dt  BarbAiloBi,  »iid  abonl  the  amv  dis- 
IMie*  [ram  GrsnwU.  Thi*  island  wu  flnt  wlUwl  by 
tin  (Vsneh :  o^itared  bjr  the  British,  Kud  reUken  ;  bnt 
ftially  onJed  ta  tliis  coantry  In  1783.  Its  ohiirMUr  is 
deeidittdlf  Volc»ni*,  t«M«  of  strBln  whiph  hdvit  under- 
gone the  nclioD  ol  lira  being  er»rjr  where  vwiljle.  Thv 
moUUUtlns  are  high  and  tht.Tp  st  the  lop,  running 
from  north  to  south,  with  d«p  vslleys  between.     The 

more  MticJy  nature  on  the  hilly  ground,  la  I81'.',  St 
Vinoent  was  visited  by  ■  severe  vi<1canie  eruptinn.  the 
naltar  rrnm  which  nearly  eovrred  Ihe  whole  surfuce  of 
Uia  Maud  ;  aonio  particles  even  reached  Barbftiliws  ; 
fend  th»  niHMi  was  heard  For  three  hundred  mill 
AuDMB  dona  In  the  Ulaod  was  i 


ot  gruit,bui  flft*  pcTMina 
.   I'ho  island  a  divided 


ivc«pital,Klngiton,iiBiUial^  ThehouBoiof 
Ibe  tiiwn  are  built  of  Moua  in  the  lower  alnreya  lud 
wood  ill  the  U[>p7r ;  and  there  ara  manj'  romniadlDiu 
publio  building,  but  none  uftlii^in  of  vxy  grtttt  vIcgnDoe. 
Thno  is  a  faimiuH  Imunio  ganlun  about  oun  Riilfl  from 
Kuigilun,  weujifinff  almul  lliirlji  ncrea  of  ground,  and 
Vniiainins  a  tiuBcolTeclioiinftniplEal  plants.  The  iniwt 
*»l«bniti«I  nbjecl  in  this  itilanJ  ia  the  (wuHriBre,  a  vol- 
C«i)r>,  ilni  craler  of  which  ia  throe  milrs  in  circunifn- 
ri>Tii-i',  »nil  Uru  hundroJ  reel  In  depth.  The  Gliniate  in 
thm^lit  very  huJthy  ;  but  liurTicauet are  treqi 
kniiii-iiiiu-H  very  destruetivo.  This  island  ' 
much  in  the  innia  nutnner  aa  Gfenul*. 
eight  sainll  istnnds  adjuining  to  St  V 
eulcivaleit;  but  the/  .     .    .  -■ 

wamtat  particular  n 


Thorc 
I,  which 
not  of  iueh  iniporlance  ai 


It  was  colonised  tijr  the 
having  made  a  grant  ol  il 
•MMiuraged   eini|pvtiu>i   r 


imde  .>r  il  brine  i 


■t  for 


:u,  iBia  vane  iis  whom  exienl.     Tba  !«■■ 
this  meUncholy  occaiion  waa  Mtlloatad  I 
thoufiand,  and  pni|Mri}'  valued  at  Dpwsrda  ut  K 
The  iaiand  is  mlod  bj  mgi—' 
'    inreaentalWra.    Tb« 


nlireff  negatlvn,  h«  httat^ 
I  meaanrea  to  O*  MWiBW 
>piorrejccL    BaHHMhml 
have  reuhnl  the  height  of  Its  pm^entf  at  d< 

■'  ■  " -"liiieelhat  ilraell 


they'inay  diher  adop 

have  reuhnl  the  heiL 

Ihe  aevenleenth  eeniuiy,  and  li 

lalion  has  in  lotno  meamre  dcereaapd.     [n  Ifl 

white  pnnuhition  woa  estimated  Bi  AO.'KKI.and  lb 

at  100.000,  while  at  pmejit  the  whola  (rapdad 

not  exceed  ST  """  • 


Tliia  island  is  flituated  in  Istitndo  IS'IWh 
longitude  UU'  W  west  It  is  ahoDi  ihirn-M 
long  and  twelve  broad.  The  Ufflish  wan  6*1 
made  a  settlement  in  this  island,  bat  tl 
nnhpluuly  doatmycd  by  the  oativen. 
Mttled,  and  sinoo  that  tmia  hsa  paMed 
the  Briliiih  to  the  French,  until  IHoa.  laha 
tur»d  by  tlin  Ilritish,  in  vlme  po^Ming  il 
^uce  reiuiinnl.  Thia  iaiand  ismvcraed  longi 
or  fnxn  niiiih  to  muth,  by  a  ridg*  of  lof^  « 
■rhioli  itrminatoln  iiinat  fantutie  sharp  faiH 

tmcliun  uf  the  tree*,  are  completely  mvalop^  < 
The  approach  to  the  island  from  tba  aanUl  il 
nutrkabi*.  Two  rocks,  called  th«  Supo^tA 
perpenUieularlv  ont  of  the  en,  tapei^i  Mng 
the  wmnilt,  Theea  rncha  are  eunred  wtlMi 
nnd  stand  at  esch  side  of  th«  «nu«tMalaa 
bay.  On  the  w»t  coast,  there  Is  aa  «tb«IIih» 
called  the  Liiile  (Jareeiiage,  irliieli,  adraittinf 
1  capable  of  ennla 


Ihe  1. 


IB  divii 


unliHUthr,tfa*airi 

ao-r.  and  lb*  vOm 
As  eultivaiiea  m 
!  remivrd,  mH  ^ 
I  Its  noighbocidiMA 


pulati 


The 


iaiand  is  generslly  level,  except  in  the  nnrth-ei 
quarter,  a'ld  li ere,  in  some  piirin,  the  hilli  reach  the 
heiKhl  or  llUltUwt.  It  lm«  a  lieanLifol  Hppeuranee, 
(rolu  the  land  t^uig  well  ciiltivnt|.d  and  the  Yegetalliiii 


a  light  cniid,  anil  a  red  d 
depth  i«  uecasiiiniiUy  Found.  There 
epriii^  ill  Ilie  ixlaiiil,  one  of  wliicli 


.,  .f  t, 


nnd  a  place  uf  nn  inipnrtance.     There  isBi 
called   I'lgeoa   Ulnnil,  about  ux  rnUpt  (km 


Thin  Inland  is  situated  between  th«  Pi«B^«| 
nfMi.rlini.|.ieaT.dGusJ-lnupe.inlS-2S'nortfcfi 
and  Bl'  l.V  «i-8t  longitude.  It  ia  aboul  lw«| 
miles  in  leAglh  and  sixteen  in  breadlli,  ooMalabv 
IRfi.tS'i  acres.  It  was  considered  k  neutral  Waa 
l7.">^,  w^lion  il  WBB  taken  iiuwesainn  of  ^  tlM  II 
».Tl.  ..I,,,,,,,  „fipr  being  repeatedly  tak«iM)dll 
.     .'.Ur.iii'.-ni«ins.    D.>m>niui>ar*«la^i 


W»i 


»b,ll,e 


•upph™.     I'loven,  curlaw»,  wild-dnek,  teal,'  ind  other 
ValM  game,  tre.]aeiit  Ihe  wNut  in  grBat  numboDL,  and 
mttirrd  ma  igiveablt  anicla'tif  tuwl. 
/larb>ij,.M  Is  djvijml  into  five  diatrieU  and  eli 


an.™,  whiob  fr*VM«l 
liming  sulphur  i  Md  m 


iintiLies  of  bumliig  sulphur ; 
ler  springs    '        ."  " 

riile,  well  watered  *llh  (faif^ 


I4<t    c 


»  foor  lowlM,     Brideetuw-n,  tW\  i.iiAa  l>uaM>H  at  taiaaAxn^iin  tilwa,    ' 


u  If  nngi  in  U 

one  uTlnn  im)Tr«nifUi'i<M,  are  iu>t  lit  fLr  ilrlnkiiijt, 

:)  tn*  InhnbitMiE*  bail*  to  wllrel  rkin  ' 
it  nuriinHM.    Thin  idan-l  ia 
id  heklth;,  Uis  MJn*  tmitig  muri'  ftvi|iiaL[  I 
111  tbe  onnir*  uf  tb«  Luul  iimvuntiiij;  itin  i 
ngnulng.  Tlic  caiplui  ^  Iluiu'tiim,  wliioii  u  ui« 
lipping  UUiaa.    Tlln  gavcrn>ili<Til  c»iiaii>ti<  n[  a  |u 
tnvgoi'imor,  couiuil,  uid  hunra  o(  uwunihlj' ; 
—  rnlmilM*  iiavu  »lwiiy»  ibown  n  ilaUn'hi  y-"- 


ThU  Iwvitifnl  littlg  iflsnrI,coii<iiitlngnnI}'Df  a  A„ 
iQUitUuti,  <*liieli  rixni  likt*  coiin  out  ef  Uic  (niigiw 
nbrakcn.  &ud  v«T<Unt  to  tliv  lumniit,  mm  diMiivu 
J  CalDnibuK  at  Uig  aantv  tiitie  wiUi  St  dirotiiphtf^ 
■nm  vbwh  It  U  Kjikniiiiil  b;  kcliaiinwlabnul  two  nilV 
rokd.    It  WHS  Dm  taken  (KiwcMiDii  of  bj'  ■  nulf  id 
IneJlib  fram  £t  ChrUtophtr'* ;  and  th>  imjiuUUHn  3 
lid  to  h>*B  ntpidljr  inomaed.  The  inuuuiaiii  iif  wlil  * 
Irria  ia  ooinpiwrd  ia  abmit  four  mOca  In  laiiiph,  a 
inw  in  bnwlth ;  ita  am  bung  ttbvut  tweut;  aiii 
lilm.    Tlio  anminSt  ba«  tini  a|ii)panuia«  ol  a  en 
'h*  bin  I*  will  fulUvalml;  suit  at  (ha  luiight  <•! 
nlliTitloa  ermct,  DVi'»m-n  (urwi-lmn  gr^iw  tuiut 
ntiy,  tliB  «holo  liland  nuviog  a  clivarful,  |iiinurB'| 
ipvet.    It  ia  dirided  IdId  Hvt  (nrwlini,  ntlib  tbrai  p, 
Mdatoidib    The  capital  b.  Ouulortuivn,  whinli  ia  *li 
gribxl  M  a  nntl  veU-bnlJc  tuwb,  -iraln,  •«<    '  ~ 


CHAMBERS'S  INFOBMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 

I  of  St  OiriBtaphor'*,  lollli  n  < 


II  nnil  UBpmbl]',  subject  in  curUio  m 
nmont  of  St  Chrialoplior'ii. 


pci'lj  bv  elsBt^d  togellier,  from  the  nimlUrity 
scciiur;  uid  Ih<i  oircupatioiu  of  the  inhsbilants.  Barbuib 
is  lituated  nbiiat  twsniy  rnilen  norlh-cut  of  St  Cliris- 
lophrr'it,  anil  Ion  norlli  of  Antigua.  It  is  about  twculj' 
til  J««  lung  uid  twelve  broid.  Tba  first  notice  made  of 
H«rbudii  is  in  the  time  of  ftueeii  Anne,  when  it  war 
Kiveii  III  perpetnul  gr»nt  lo  General  CoijrlDgton  am 
hk  diwcuiidnnts,  by  whom  the  greater  portion  o(  it  ii 
alill  posuiwcd.  Anguilk,  or  Snake  Uluid,  isabout  lOO 
mile*  nortb  of  Barbuda,  and  the  same  dislanoe  north- 
norlh-wcit  of  St  ChHslopher'ii,  situated  in  latitude  10" 
nortli,  and  loinfitude  64'  we«t.  It  is  thirtjr  miles  long 
Uid  UiTM  bniwl,  and  roceiues  its  name  (signifyiiig  an 
tel)  from  the  pocullarJy  winding  shape  it  preBCiils. 
TliLw  uilandH  ware  both  flr«l  settled  by  the  Britisb ; 
and,  although  subject  to  oeeaaional  attacks  &um  other 
powon,  they  bare  alwaya  remained  in  the  poweuion  of 

The  inleriov  aspect  of  tboBe  two  islands  is  qaite  dif- 
ferent fivin  that  of  any  uf  our  other  West  Indian  set- 
tlements, btaag  in  miuiy  reepocta,  indeed,  quite  Engliih 
The  eo)o  occupation  of  the  inhabitanU  is  fanning 
rearing  iit4K!k,  and  caltivatiug  provisiong,  for  which  c 
rmij  market  is  found  in  the  neighbouring  iBlanda 
Tliero  ire  no  groups  of  miMs  in  the  bays  and  Imrbours 
and  inatnad  of  the  laboriuua  bUHtle,  anioke,  and  noiaS; 
incidantal  Id  the  sugar  and  coffee  pluilationsi  there  an 
ta  be  seen  only  numerous  Httte  ruiol  dwellings,  auT' 
rounded  by  waving  crop*  of  grain,  and  verdant  Selds 
CuVered  with  sheep  and  eattlr 

This  name  was  given  by  the  discoverer  Colambiu 
(in  1493)  to  a  group  of  about  forty  small  ialandi,  lyine 
to  the  noribward  of  the  Leeward  Carribean  lalonda,  and 
between  tbem  «nd  Puerto  (or  Porto)  Rico.  Tliey  ex- 
tend about  twenty-four  leagues  from  east  to  wea^  and 
about  sixteen  from  nortb  to  Bouth.  They  are  divided 
itisli,  Danes,  .ind  Spaniards,  but  much 


!■  large 


and  ti 


r  belong  In  the 


ja  of  these  arc  Toriula,  Virgin  Gorda 

roirii).  Joslan  Dykes,  (iiiana  I«lr>,  Beef  and  fliatcli 
Inlnuds,  Anegada,  Nioliar,  rriekly  I'l-ar,  CamaiuiB, 
Ginger,  Cooper's,  Sail  Island,  St  Pater's  Island,  and 
-..■Ycral  othe™  of  liille  or  no  value.  TlioMi  helongiiig 
ti>  tile  Danca  and  SpanisnlA  will  be  noticed  in  tlicii; 
piMimr  places. 

The  Driliih  Virgin  Itlandi  were  first  poaseased  by  a 
party  of  Dutch  liuceiinecni,  who  built  a  fort  on  Tortola, 
but  they  were  expelled  eiwn  after  by  a  parly  of  Eog- 
■■  ■      They' -■—..-..-.  ■-    ....-■. 


inrty  e 


The  h 


I  of  t 


Anegada,  the  neit  Tortola;  and  although  never  con- 
sidered n  any  great  imporlanee,  they  aBbrdcd  enci'l- 
leiit  shelter  to  shipping  during  Ilia  late  war.  Torl.,l» 
i»  inountaJnons,  the  interior  contaiiiine  large  tracts  of 
waste  hind  difRcult  of  aecess.  The  soil  ia  Ihiii,  and  not 
tvi'llauited  lo  ihe  oulllvatioii  of  theaugar-cane,althuiig1i 
thin  and  oottnn  arc  tlie  chief  articles  of  produce.  Tbc 
iinrbour  of  Torlola  ia  very  extensive,  completely  land- 
Ineki'd,  and  has  aflurded  shelter,  in  many  cases  during 
llie  war.  ti  J<"1  ve^wl^,  Anef^da,  «!il»iu^'li  ill'.-  largest 


•i(  produce  are  sugar,  Indign,  tobacco,  and  cnllu 
iilanda  were  formerly  ruled  by  a  deputy-gove 
Boaacl/,  who  axerthed  huth  the  legislative  an 
III  r  authority,  bill  llifv  an-  ni>w  mbjcet  In  the  govern-  , 


XV. THE  DUllMiS  OB  Ll'IMlOa  ULtXm.  j 

These  are  the  most  norUierly  of  all  lb*  Waal  taM 
islnuds,  stretching  towards  the  ooHM  of  Klorid^  ■ 
forming  with  it  the  channel  callc-d  iha  .'icnllcf  fk^ 
They  were  the  lirst  land  diKMn'red  bj  OdBintM  i 
I49^,and  amount  in  number  to  fully  five  bmtdtvd- ft 
island  which  gives  tlis  name  to  the  whu^e  ia  (he  Ma 
norlliom,  aa  well  aa  thi>  most  tmporUnt  of  thr  |M 
A  settlement  was  eatablished  by  the  Driliah  in  IQ 
which  waa  ravaged  by  tlie  French  and  Spaniarda  mn 
rat  times,  and  lEe  group  of  ialands  beoaine  i 


beginn 
ley  were  expelled  by  the  Brttisli. 
(idently  of  ooml  formation,  and  alllimigb  ft 
very  pleasing  anpiwt,  frnm  tlie  Hmo^ 


ing  of  the  Lul  onrlnfy.  (tfl 
le  Brie  "      —     -  ■ 

ry  pleasing  annwt,  fmi 
'cgetation.  The  chief  island  ia  N 
contains  the  capital  Nasi 
healthy,  and  &om  their  si 

fill,  being  of  a  medium  temperalum.     Tba  d 
tide  produced  for  exportation  is  coltoo       '' 
nor  coffee  having  succeeded.  I'rovlniona 
very  plentiful,  cattle  and  aheep  thrive 
shores  abound  with  liah  and  turtle.     The  f 
eonsialB  of  a  governor,  council,  and  hi 


These  are  a  small  cluator  of  islands,  lyiu  ahM*' 
tlie  shape  of  a  shepherd's  crook,  iu  jatituda  33*  3tjf 
longitudeG4'6U',disUnlabouluahiU  '      '      ~^" 
tho  nearest  point  of  the  AinericaD  o 
discovery  was  owing  lo  the  shuiwrook  of  4uam  4i 
mudei,  a  Spaniard,  who  was  dtireii  aahoN  DpaBlj 
iihuida  while  on  a  voro^  freni  Sp<tin  >o  Qw  % 
same  fate  happened  lo  Sir  George  SonMm,  an  Bt 
man,  iu  16119,  who  was  the  first  U>  oolonisfl  the  B 
das.    Tlioy  are  upwards  ut  three  handnd  in  d 
conlain  about  fourteen  thousand  aero*  of  land,  ■ 
BO  much  alike  in  eharacler,  thai  to  desoib*  aMl| 
describe   tba    whole.      Tlie   principal    iilaiiiti   Mlfl 
George,  Ireland,  SI  David,  Somerset,  Lung  oad  $" 
Islands,  &c.    Thi-se  lie  ohse  together,  in  tuck 

n'lipn  once  got  into.  Tile  coast,  however,  ia  aflbsaS 
daiiftsrouadescriiitiun,  being  thickly  studded  witknM 
whicli  are  visible  at  low  wator,  and  disappear  alSdi 
tide.  The  chief  arliclea  of  produce  consist  of  am^ 
root,  colTeo,  cotton,  and  indign.  The  cedar-trae  pa4 
lo  u  givu  height,  and  is  uscil  for  ship- building,  aai  Al 
palmetto  is  much  cullivaled  for  making  alia*  tMi 
The  soil  is  very  fertile,  and  produces  many  liiwh  d 
vi-gelables  fit  for  food  ;  and  medicinal  plants,  mA  H 
the  aloe,  jalap,  &c,,  grow  sponlaueously.  The  whaltk 
an  annual  visitor  to  the  cuaat,  the  catching  of  wliii 
forma  a  lucrative  employment  to  the  inh^lwHs.  Bv 
mudas  possesses  no  freah  waler  streams,  and  aa|j  ■ 
few  wells,  the  water  of  which  ia  brackish  ;  but  Ani 
are  a  great  many  tanks  which  fill  dnriiw  tbi  n^ 
seawu,  and  supply  ilie  iidiabilants.  The  -rjimwr  MM) 
eiiiisidorcd  heallliy,  the  yellow  fever  bning  of  b 


iuhnbitauts  being  able  to  tell  their  appniaolt  hf 

— nd  Ills  moon.   The  Bermudas  have *  -  - 

ired  of  great  iinportane 


:rsW: 


The  British  South  American  sctilemaaU,  m«  fa» 
ing  the  colony  of  Guiana,  alttioofih  iiul  ptvpsdy  WM; 
lug  to  tlin  West  Indies,  natunJly  come  ta  b«  mAm 
liere.  This  colony,  an  claimed  by  Itrjlain,  iilHinihflW 
Ihe  river  Coventyn,  in  M*  SU',  lo  PuMa  UaiiBM,  at  *• 
southern  outlet  of  the  Orinoco,  in  <M'  0-  veal  liiii|jlwl», 
in  brradlh,  and  from  the  Aearia  laountalna  Iu  uCm 
in  luugtii.  It  formerly  conaisted  uf  (ha  SBtU^naMll 
\^i:TreTiMii,V.^wc\\\vhn,  and  Berbios^  bal  IImmMBM^ 


igolonf  Wh  diioBfRQil  gtnettSifim  Cu- inbadM 
TDK  uc  luvi^blc,     SSaeh  pLmutioD  faa*  a  ■burf 

iillr^j-iiljTO  r.f  iti  mi-n,  nnfl  .-iidr.ts  nrr  ml  fnlo  UiB 


lai  iii(liiiiti7  Mill  im  vyta.  Tlw  exltrul  uT  onm- 
ImiiJ,  liowcvor,  u  ([tiuIuaDj  iaeNaitn|  oa  tll>  Bib 

gtaufttic  colony M«b«i!omiiiitkaowii,  Thtralii^ 

Lboogbt,  tnin  UJr  t< ''  -iri'i  ihc 

)ImiI>  mi^  Im  '-"i  •  yrj 

I  ftnd  rastunr  lhr>iii;  .  rmmn 
Mil)g!HI,tbii  (niniiiMi  >.  i  lh^ilta- 
tbout  83  ddjcnw*.  Tw"  *'i  ""J  i^ii  iliy  uumiia 
ituLw  tl>v  cli«>gM  dI  lliD  yeax ;  tlie  gnat  wiit  wwon, 

II  ojlwd,  (toinniHUitns  In  tho  middle,  *ui1  emlniiiinc 
«  vuil,  tif  Aii||iHit,ftDd  the  enat  dry  ■runo  (ram  tlin 
f  AujpHit  till  lltc  md  of  htivmibn-.  Tlw  »linrl  wel 
n  iwcim  (I'um  DmiihIkkt  toUia  iiiiJdIc  of  t'cltniarjr, 
lie  ibert  dry  aeamoa  (vvm  I'Vbnuiry  in  A^riU  llw 
nioa  npplln  to  thn  ooui  r«|{inn)i,  tUo  inirriiir  Inint* 
eil  Dy  coily  Iwo  xrwti  diaiiKM  duHii};  llui  yniiT. 
'iekOM  nsnir  occur  iu  till*  cuiniiy,  ftnd  at- tin  iw«kiv 
•re  lit(J«  tuiowu.  IC)irUi4Uit]«M  mg  ocnaihintlly 
jnt  th«y  %n  nuy  aU|[lit,  uiil  litUo  ftUcniiou  I*  (mitl 
}iii  by  th«  iuh»bltMiU. 

«  Mpitiil  of  Itriliah  Uniuia  ta  Gciitju>ta*ii,  Nta> 
on  tlio  wiatani  bank  of  Ibe  river  Otiaunm,  wiiidt 
I  uopnlaliQii  at  from  twrni^  1«  twnnty-flve  tiuio- 
Thc  BlrfotB  iLtt>  guncntfly  «{d«,  tnivuniaJ  by 
«',  tlio  bauHS  built  ^wDud,  two  vIOTvy*  hMi,  uul 
■Kted  tram  ohIi  otbvr  by  puilHim  uul  dileliM. 
bant  In  Iwa  »wi,  alxiul  ■  uiUh  laog,  on  ilia  rlntr 

urdwui  th«  dliief  Itim. 

ids  about  m  inila  and  n  half  olong  llu  * 
of  tha  ri«ur  UofUoc.    "ibe  houui  hara  all  |;ar< 
bohind,  and  aro  wniratiinl  firaiii  «a«h  aliiiT  hj 

li  or  trniiehn,  and  (lie  Itntn  in  daaaribrd  u  ^nt- 

m  a  vary  pWiOj  aipmt  on  tnlBriiuf  tliM  nvar. 

ripuUliou  of  thia  town,  aoogrdiii);  tu  iTh  laM  pait- 
ouuua,  waa  ^901),  and  Ihfire  an  nuny  ultiar  Tlt- 
.  wlilcti  ai'o  Kradiiaily  riiioit  In  liniHurtnneu. 
10  cxportii  from  Uuiwia, aak  tlia  cguw  with  nil  tho 
rWcat  India  Ml«tua>i,hava  dai:r«iued  uf  UU  ywia, 
from  ihw  •nanuniK«nu>ni  whiob  1*  auw  glrvn  to 
Tanl^  El  it  li'ipcd  itwi  ihia  «lil  ta  iW  «imxWiiA. 


CnAMREUS'S  ISFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


ft  In  IB39  Hiiounled  to  35,BiS  hop(he»ii«,  SIBS 

B,  539«  buiTBta  of  BDj^r  ;  13.'245  punohenns,  3U]  7 

FtiMnhtwh,  B8-3  b«rrel»  of  ram  ;  I  I,li6<  cmIis,  HS  hop- 

LlMtli,  U  bnrrein  of  iDnUssee  ;  l^lJiG.TDO  Iba.  of  eolfw  : 

[M3  biles  of  eutton.     The  Talue  nf  the  imiiorta  in  IH3E 

«  fLSOl^lhO,  and  siDce  Ihnt  |ieriod  tl  b  thought  - 

to«  iui!n«»ed  to  nenrly  £l,5tMl,000,' 

Tho  ponulittfoD  of  Guuna  ma;'  bo  di>idcd  into  Bunv 
paam,  Arrirans,  people  of  oolnur  fniin  other  pan*, 
•nd  native  Americana.    1'he  nstlve  Amsrieuis  hnte 
dwinjiod  down  to  a  verj  nnall  number,  who  Enad 
Wandering  life  on  the  fnnitiera  hnd  uvannahv  of  t 

The  gfivemmnnt  la  vrelod  In  a  goremor  and  cpc 
of  policy,  einiuallng  of  iho  gartianr,  chief-jiwlics,  i 
lortwy-gitneral.colipctornf  customs,  gofernnienlMPi 
lary.  and  an  cqunJ  number  of  peiwms  elected  from 
«nnmgBllhcoolomslH,  I'ormiTly  all  free 


r 


r,  but  BJ 


haa  been  disbanded.  Thi 
Iscal  gnvemmout  liave  made  the  greatest  efforte  to  pro- 
.mow  eduCMinn  in  the  colony,  and  many  erhoolB  ani* 
WlurelieB  have  been  erected,  at  e«n>iderable  expense 
Wie  number  of  ipdividuala  who  received  instruction  ii 
nSfi  amounted  to  4fi!!3  adulta,  and  6(JSD  ebildren 
together  11,363. 


The  forms  of  Kovemmrnt  eslahlished  in  the  Bri 
ColuTilea  in  the  Went  luili«»smaj  he  divided  into 
Ulliirn ;  thove  having  a  gnvcmor,  eoundl,  and  reprs- 
•tntative  awmbly ;  and  thoae  having  only  a  sovirnoi 
Mid  Iwialatire  enuDell.  The  Hm  tiieludeg  Jamaica 
Barbldne^  Antigua,  Tnb«^  Grenada,  St  Vineent 
"oBlwrral,  Nevis,  St  Chrulopher"*,  Hondums,  thi 
ll^n  Ifiland*,  the  Dahamas,  and  the  Bermuda* ;  anc 
'^  Hcand,  Ouiana,  Trinidad,  and  St  Lncia.  The  rcu- 
fi>r  this  differeiioe  is,  that  mont  of  the  colonies  wen 
[Hired  by  eoDqunt,  and  the  inhabiianta  who  chone 
main  in  iho  island  were  guonntecd  their  lam  and 
-Hie  exercise  of  their  religion.  The  goxemor  haa  the 
chief  civil  and  military  anthoril;;  the  council  b  xime- 
irhat  annhiguu*  to  the  privy-conncil  In  this  country, 
Hou«a  of  Commons. 


^^  monuerru 
W  jl?:in  Isia 
^^LBa  Hcand, 
■mi  fi>r  this 
^Sguircdb^ 


oflhe  Itoi 


mbty  ir 


hiild  of  .£300  per 
mtate  of  £SIHIO  ;  and  an  eleeuir  must  have  a  freehold 
of  £10  per  annum  in  the  pariah  for  which  ha  votes. 
Some  of  the  istanda  have  only  lieolenant-govemorii, 
who  are  under  the  governor  of  pome  adjaeenl  island. 
The  lieulenant-govcrnura  of  St  Vincent,  (Jrenmbj,  To- 
liago,  and  iiuinUH,  arc  under  the  governor  of  Darbud'ics. 
Their  pnwem,  however,  are  nearly  equal  lo  llioae  of  a 
^vemiir.  In  those  islands  which  have  no  rqireaenln- 
tive  aAeembly,Ihe  legislative  council  conaiata  of  the  ohief 
Mcrclary,  the  trwuurer,  the  chief-juBtiee,  the  altomey- 
general,  and  Ibe  coniraander  of  the  iroi>p8.     Thene  arc 

pnneipal  landed  prop] 

poveroment,  who  send  their  represenlalivea  to  the 
■aland  which  is  the  Kit  of  legislature  fur  the  time 
being.  Thim,  in  the  Leonard  l«l;irid.,  SI  niHul^phcrV, 


nade  membera  of  the 


v>r  P 


entitled  to  a  pawi,  or  to  find  «e 

they  may  leave  unpaid  in  the  tal 

preeaniion,  maslera  of  retseli  Br 

heavy  penalties,  not  lo  carry  o( 

Buch  paaa.     Tl<e  iirocednre  i^  lh«  awaihty  I 

near  aa  may  he  the  fanimla  of  Ih*  ISritMi  It 

and  all  their  bills  have  the  force  of  law*  M  ■ 

Ewemor"*  asaent  is  obtained  The  power  o/ 
owever,  ia  veated  In  the  erown,  but,  until  r^ 
laws  are  valid.  The  governar  can  also  t 
aaaent  to  all  saeh  laws,  and  can  diaolve  an 
gether  the  a»eemb1y  at  pleaaure,  lib  mIm 
partly  by  the  crown,  atid  partJf  from  Iks  ) 


The  French  noweBaions  i 
the  inlands  of  Mnrliiiique,  GuadaliKipe,  Uaril 
and  Deaeada.  Mariiuiijue  ia  iiltunlod  at  th« 
lo  the  Gulf  of  Meaieo,  between  the  paralMi  I 
and  14*  62*  north,  and  SS*  C  and  It3*>1'^ 
Paris.  It  IB  about  fifty  inil«a  long  and  twin 
and  a  hundred  and  for^  miles  In  eircumbtsaiM 
Tole^nie  origin ;  romantie  in  appearance ;  atrf^ 
tains  are  oovered  with  alnioet  impeMmU 
Martlniqne  ia  well  watered,  seventy  flm  tiH 
enumerated  ;  and  there  are  many  other  atrett 
island.  The  soil  la  good,  allhxagh  It  varfM) 
aceonnt  of  the  volcanic  eruption*,  vliiofa  bnt 
ptncea  coviired  the  surface  of  thn  land,  M 
fitthsoftbe  whole  island  are  eulUealvd;  thaM 
occupied  with  niminlaini,  rorcata,  and  pU^ 
latter  yieldgond  herbage  for  cMtln.  Pwl  M 
capital,  is  situated  on  one  of  the  wreral  tq 
indent  the  coast,  and  poasemea  the  nf^ll 
eapaciou*  liarbour  in  the  West  Indleai  Itl^ 
well  built,  the  atniaci  regular,  and  raudl^ 
angles  to  each  other,  with  a  Mmm  of  ««^9 
side.     Tlie  population  ii  about  7000.     Tl*  M 


gh.  Hflflt  I 


ceedingly  neat. 

lation  311.000.  The  papulation  of  the  whds  k 
estimated  at  101,)tlj.t  inhahiunt^  of  whan,  E 
9937  were  whites,  10,7HG  free  people  of  Mk 
ei,N'2shivfa. 

(iuadaloupo  io  Eltnnted  in  latilnde  1S^  V 
and  longitude  r>2'  wcM.  It  it  divided  thtawh* 
bva  small  channel,  which  innavigable ftVTOil 
tiioH,  and  forms  as  il  were  (wo  iidaada.  n* 
divialon,  called  Grandeterre,  is  fourtem  h^ 


■agues  long  and  fourteen  broad.  Then  «« 
oleanio  mountains  in  Guadalonpe,  Mie  at  «4 
milHsmoke,  and  admelimce  sparks  of  fin,  Tl 
.  well  watered,  and  diversified  with  hills  aal 
he  soil  ia  good,  and  yields  abundance  rf  fr 
rain.  The  chief  productiana  are  sugar,  whid^l 
light,  ii>notgMd;M 


ivl  froi 


the  peace  decide  euramarily  in  sn 

a  aro  offices  whera  ail  deeds,  • 

are  recorded.  All  persons  intent 

e  island  are  obliged  lo  give  notice  at 

0  o/  earolmevt  three  week*  before  they  can  bo 

*  Sclllialianli't  I 


o  leave  tile  iaia 


■  ■      ■■  i.bl>leiii«-n,withnianyfiaeb«ild«( 

■  .  :  I   II.;...- jianlc-ns. 

1  .111. I  .Marie  Galanle  are  email  nbni 
leiir  Ijuiulaloupe,  and  aubjecl  to  iia  nn 
orroer  is  famous  for  its  caitun.  and  thelalt 


\>:a'^ 


ra  ago,  the  colonial  p 

in  till-  frontiers  of  the  f  

>he  haa  not  a  tnoi  ii  laa 


>  olirMla  or 


1  Oulch  mnmnmAmt  in  tli*  W«t  tndin  ara  Cv* 
>i»l  M  l-,u*utUu>,  S*l»,  flod  pin  i>r  Si  Uamui— 
tin  UuTibuu  |[nui|i.  Tin  twii  (><ii>«r  nn  iwtu. 
hwnui.  Cum^u,  Inim  in  pmimiiji  in  Hnnih 
'ItH,  vai  tUmwrly  %  gilhti  itt    i;ii  ^i    <:i ki imlnad 

<[  but,  «luo«  UiB  Will'  I  II,  it 

mihI  ill  B  frnx  Dn  li  it 


««  or  IWlO  IIJFX  .. 

To-ainnk,    Tlinr-i  11 

4llUlin|p  Ktit  Ihn-., 
nblUiiU  «   t*W   " 


luait  and 

'LdJun 


■IditiTti  ths  niUB  f"" 


1,  until  ITBl,  when  It  wu  mfiiarnil  bf  iimittA 

""-■   ' '"■   {bU  Into  Uia  luuiil*  nr  thd 

a  MilfUBtol  U  £Lf>0»^m 
>  tb«  iJnicil  by  liia  paea 

piin  uirtured  by  the  &ug- 
riD  Uulvb  by  Uia  jhmcv  of 

HI  fttiil  Si  MarUn  an  toa  inootitiilknbt*  M  iu>d 


igroun,  Km  thna  in  nambti^-Sl  LroU  (i>r  Saiit* 
1, 9t  TlunuM,  >n4  Sc  Jain,  of  which  Uie  fvmur 
i•ufa^ylIn|MlrM^m^  Itisabmit  «i||l>lT-linK  milw 
■V,  uil  cniilsuin  aboat  Ihnly  thoumiHl  uthabtcsilM, 
Kdl  i«  f*rtil*  anil  wall  eallivntwl,  pniduetof  nuffa, 
and  lebaccu.  St  Thoiiuui  it  Hbuut  nix,  IngnH  in 
mJcniaoe,  aud  ^i  Julm  aboui  tb«  tanw.  Tli*y  am 
quito  moaiwidai'iiblo. 


«  mly  coliiD}'  b*Jaii(iu|;  to  tb*  SwmIm  U  t)m  imail 
1  of  at  BwlhoJomuv,  in  ttw  iMward  CnrribiwB 
1,  and  about  tifieaa  diIIm  In  ciriruiiif'tninaii.  It 
Illy  4DD  towa  and  odh  harbnui^^UiMlaria,  anil  La 
nai^a.    Tba  populBClon  i*  aboul  uli  ihouaosd. 


ipanioU,OT  LitUnSpam,  but  tlm  imtlva  inhabuaoU 
t  Uayti,  ur  (ha  RMUBUiiinua  ban).  Ttia  Fniuli 
Siiuiiarila  toidt  yct—iiuii  uf  ihii  ialand  in  IWO, 
bijt  >l  bMmvn  ihain.  Ku  particnUr  traat  unV 
llJl  the  potlod  of  tba  Prani-li  ICvTDlutinn,  wlivn, 
Jt  ailvantaiia  ot  iIid  EOiitmt  bvloviin  tin  ruyaliita 
rapuUlouw,  iha  nalivM  wid  aliivM  mw  in  n  iHKly, 
aend  tha  wlilu^  and  wtaUliAvd  Ui«ir  iiHhiMii- 
~ ■       &<2w<iA« 


k  ClltManh»,(oFmsrli*.' 


CHAMBERS'S  INFORMATION  FOU  TBE  PEOPLE. 


11  his  jealouny  and  deapotisra  caused  a  gcnrml  re- 
volt, uid,  Hccmg  hia  nHairs  desperate,  he  shut  Iiimself. 
A  repuhlie  was  then  pitabliBheJ,  which  was  fioon  ex- 
tradcd  nver  the  wliolc  istaad,  the  SpaniijU  half  huviog 
also  made  a  mcnssful  rovoll.  The  ^ovemmeDt  itt  pre- 
aeut  cunKiati  of  a  preeidant,  who  U  eli!cled  for  life,  and 
a  senalD  and  ahamber  of  represcntalirea. 

Tbu  greater  part  of  the  coast  u!  St  Damingo  is  rock; 
RiiU  dangerous ;  hut  the  bajsurSalnaiiaaDd  Nt^ybaaffurd 
secure  nnehuraga  for  Urge  ships.  There  are  aUo  many 
Binatl  ports,  situaltd  generally  at  the  mouths  of  rivera, 
in  which  btubII  Teasels  can  nnclior  with  mCety.  The 
rivers  ar«  uumeroas,  thu  princlpat  bein^  the  Maiiia, 
the  Kigua,  the  Sejbi,  and  the  Yima,  which  are  navi- 
e:U>le  for  come  leagues  from  tlioir  entrauce.  In  thiii 
uland  a  sall-water  lake  exists,  which  is  nbuut  eighteen 
keagues  in  circB inference,  and  cimtains  Itsh  UDiilor  to 
those  fonnd  iii  the  sea,  auch  as  the  sliarl:,  tlie  seal,  the 
porpoise,  &c.  I'he  country  is  luouotainous,  but  ioter- 
■perBed  willi  lino  plains  of  greiit  fertihtj.  The  mouB' 
toiua  intcrscot  the  island  from  east  to  wosl,  some  of 
them  reaching  the  height  of  GOOD  feet  above  the  level 

plain,  euppnsEil  to  be  Eighty  leagues  long,  and  frum  ten 
to  fift«en  broad,  which  ie  entremely  fertile,  being 
watered  by  nameroun  streams.  The  soil  is  of  the  linul 
dracription,  and  is  diatinguiahed  by  the  variety  of  its 
vegetable  prudactions.  The  mahugany-tree  grows  to 
a  great  height,  and  the  maneliineel  affords  a  special  of 
wood  veioM  like  marble,  aad  which  is  suHceptible  of 
the  highest  polish-  Several  species  of  dye-woods  are 
found  in  the  island,  and  also  the  lignum-rilui,  iron-wood, 
a  speoiea  of  oak  of  gn'iit  size,  und  abundance  of  pioe. 
The  calton'trvo  is  tile  hirgest  in  the  island,  and  is  formed 
fay  the  nUivea  into  ennoes,  which  are  light  and  capacious. 
Ille  fruits  are  very  numerous,  and  are  described  as 
extn.'nie1y  fine ;  and  flowets  of  endless  vnriely  adoni 
the  woods.    The  indigenous  quadrupeds  wen'  only  four 

and  Spaniards,  however,  introduced  breeds  of  hotiiod 
caltlo,  hogn,  sheep,  horses,  mules,  and  asBes,  uhieh 
liave  multiplied  eioeedingly,  and  are  of  great  value  to 
the  bhabitants.  Wild-fowl  are  abundant  [  and  turtle, 
and  iiumerouB  varieties  of  tisb,  are  caught  on  the  coast 

opper,  were  formerly  found  in  this  island,  bat  it  dues 
nut  appear  tluit  they  are  worked  to  anj;  extent  at  pre- 
sent. 'I'liH  iaiaud  is  divided  into  six  districts,  named 
eencrally  from  (heir  positions,  Wcat,  South,  Antihonite, 
Nortli,  Nurth-east,  and  Soutli-easI, 

St  Domingo  was  formerly  considered  one  of  the  most 
important  islands  in  the  West  Indies,  and  it  is  evident 
from  its  siie,  and  the  fertility  of  tlie  soil,  that  it  might 
be  made  so  again.  Tlie  policy  of  the  eovermnuiit,  since 
the  independence  of  the  island  was  declared,  faiw  been 
illiberal ;  heavy  burdens  are  imposed  upon  merchants 
settling  in  the  eounlry,  and  all  foreign  merchandise  is 
liable  to  a  duty  of  12  per  cent,  apon  entering  the  coun- 
try, Dscepl  French,  which  pays  S  per  cent.  Sugar  and 
coffee  were  formerly  eaporled  in  very  largo  quantities, 
hut  tbuBO  have  now  very  much  decreiteed.  In  17RU,  the 
itRionul  of  raw  sngar  exported  was  93,SaO,aUU  Krench 
pounds,  and  in  IROl  tliia  had  fallen  off  to  ) R.aOO.UOO. 
The  export  of  coffee  in  I7S9  waa  7G,H»5,2I1>  pounds, 


and  in  1601  tl 


Bliad 


i'lportalion  of  wood  has  incresaed  oa  llint  of  sugar  and 
Colfni  haio  declined,  and  luhaccu  is  alwi  mure  exten- 
sively rultivaled.  The  population  of  the  island  has 
diminished  coniuderAhlr  sincu  the  revolution.  Accord- 
ing' to  some  acoounU,'it  is  estimated  at  i'lifiiS,  but 
oliirm  give  it  ao  high  as  DuO.DOO.  Purt-au- Prince,  the 
oapilal,  in  situated  iu  the  department  of  the  West,  has 
BO  rxiH^llenl  roadstead,  and  is  the  chief  seal  of  trade, 
'riio  I'lwn  is  buili  of  wood :  the  streets  are  unpaved,  and, 
fmin  ti»-  iiuirshy  nature  of  the  surrouniling  country,  it 
is  riry  uuhnaltliy  Iu  •ummer.  Tha  popolatlou  is  atwnt 
1  J,(HH>.    'J'hu  ullicr  tttWD'  nro  Tort  llaylien,  whi<^  is 


first  commencing  wiUi  the  mild  vernal  rain  is 
or  May,  which  usually  last  «i  weeks  i  the  mm 
eludes  Juite,  July,  Angust — hoi  and  d>y;  Iba 
includes  Soptember,  October,  and  November, 
are  the  hurricane  and  rainy  montba ;  and  the  I 
December,  January,  February,  and  &Iareb,  «U 
the  moat  tsercne  and  cool  mouths. 

of  the  We«e  Indio  Is  nrelQriMMl 


in  all  til 


da.  The  avemge  of  ill 


mer  montiie  (frm..  .,  ..... 

to  above  go,  but  in  the  mouulains  it  haa  Imm  b 
be  ao  low  o!)  44  degrees,  ao  that  a  hre  at  noon  i 
neccaaai7  a  great  part  of  the  year.  The  tempen 
kept  coo!  by  the  altematiinia  of  the  sea  and  landt 
the  former  blowing  only  during  the  day,  the  ton 
during  the  night.  Of  the  latter,  which  alwajl 
from  the  centre  of  the  island  (be  it  vrei  mr  OBI 
only  tcicntilic  accotml  ever  given  is  that  of  Dr  Fl 
which  is  as  follows  : — "  As  soon  as  the  sea-hiH 
away  (in  the  attemoim),  the  air  of  the  phloi 
rarefieJ,  ascends  towards  the  tops  of  the  mM 
and  is  Ihera  condeneed  by  tlio  cold,  which,  ■■ 
specifically  heavier  than  it  was  before,  it  dMsm 
to  the  plauis  on  buth  sides  of  ^le  riiln."  Ilas 
htr  dispensation  of  Providenfl?,  tluktln  DarhaA 
the  uualter  windward  Cnrribean  islands,  M 
without  these  landward  breezes,  the  aea.bm 
trade-wind)  blows  both  niglit  and  day. 

The  most  delightful  time  of  day  Id  Jomaia  iii 
dawD,  before  the  inii  has  yvt  bcmm  ts  povH 
genee  aver  die  hemisphere  of  theOtirUms,  Ml 
ibe  Innd-breeio  has  died  away.  The  sra-bra 
"doctor,"  as  it  is  gratefully  do^t^ated  by  the  J 
(ants  of  JsuLiicii,  which  inVHrinblybluwE  from  the 
east,  or  some  other  point  ranging  from  aoolb  I 
gcnuraily  sets  in  about  nine  o'clock  ji.M.,tf  fa 
gently  rippling  the  surface  of  the  noran,aiMl  iMl 
gradually,  until  it  ofioii  auume*  theatrengthtti 
porory  hurricane.  Its  coming  is  huled  bf  ibefi 
...J  i:..__ii..    -,g][;[,g  inhabitants,  wilb  •  M 


inkfuli 


of  r. 


be  known  by  those  whose  lot  it 
oppressive  and  tuifaeating  atmiwphrre  of  ihavl 
Were  it  not  for  tliis  reguLu  altamaiinn  «l 
winds  and  inland- breeieii,  tliu  islands  et  ibM 
would,  to  Europeans  at  least,  ba  perf wetlf  wli 
able.  Let  such  of  our  readers,  tlierefbr*^  «lM 
tiny  has  never  led  them  beyond  the  ruol  At 
Britain,  ,         ■       —    ■  - 


irothren   in   the   tropics,   when   it    happens  tk 
'doctor"  absents  himself  for  a  whole  (oraifk 

In  the  afternoon,  the  stu^breezc  dies  kVlf, 
coiueE — gradually  ;  after  which,  for  a  few  hotn 
and  sea  are  agam  locked  in  a  stillness  tl  nf 

thing  almost  ominous  ;  and  as  hia  imaginUM  li 
rally  saturated  before  hia  arrival  with   ill  wail  i 

those  fearful  visitations,  the  earthiioakaa «U 

there  ao  frequent,  though  seldom  ocoaaioniit 
damage — he  insljneiively  listens,  in  that  f«iM4 ' 
fomid  stillness,  for  the  tlr»I  rumt>Unt(n>wl  )«■ 
(he  volcanic  ex]ikision.  Earihiiuikia.  kawwtrt 
for  many  years  been  becoming  rarer  and  mm 
West  Indies — a  fact  which  seems  to  eooAna  (hi 
thesis  that  tlivse  islands  having,  at  oua  lltiM  M 
had  their  origin  in  voleatiie  eruntiaiH,  an  gn 
cooling,  and  that  these  f.arfo!  vLnlationa  wid  SM 
gcther  cease.  There  ia  hcnrei.ly  a  huuae.  hvM 
litany  yean'  atanding,  in  the  walla  of  wUch  i 
hugo  ci-ack*  are  not  to  be  Men, 
The  must  ilraidful  acouip  of  Ittam  Uaidi 


Dili  'joiy  iiniu'tili  Ibe  polii  oiiil  tiMf  licluil,  hm* 
le  su^iirt  in  lavtinag  J'lutu  >ir  v*tTy  tuna  ftnil 
uur.  ^rliiuli  ™»«  with  J"l'"i.  rnrn.  nnj  crLuMiii, 

■iilM  uf  Iti*  Mbk  t."-i-      '"  ■<■- til.;  tuh 

Hoi  ■povi'a  kniUiiv  I  .1 -dQ  fitr 

Ear  Inuiuit*!   Iruiti  <ii.   man'* 

ltd,  liiul  aiiuliar  •.'■ :  "i»  tlwir 

irkbmDiil  Irom  IL^  111  >  i  n^u  >*  tli" 

Mure  iif  ibc  wiuili.  Ai  11  luniuiu'i  L- v,.'!!  lui-uumpel- 
h,  uhlM  Imvo  KBia  uuiilr  -li  tUii'v  (.Uli^,  iw  tliii 
K  iitTimna  tbam  iii  tJ»  hcana  nf  tlia  mid-Oit;  lUn. 
a  Hnliwrj'  ■rot  ruwa  ■  wilil   (iK-liTR,   no*  of  tJin 


«,  t)iH  tnw  (iiriM,  wliidi  bn  tin  |)rii 
aur  •cniifrjr,  itpgcai  at  Inl«mla : 


■,  hftTo  oUmbiil  Uipir  liisih  ilfinuk 
Iteit  iiiuRl*il  gnrluida.    Tlio  Cruit*  hT 

tI«nHi  wiUiin  our  nMi>'>l'.  >inl  tlit 


1  ■wqiMidnl  tb^it  iiiuRl*il  gnrluida.    Tlio  Cruit*  hI 


_    _  .,      itiidlBnifMb, 

VB  111  minbitcr  bi  our  roTnuilinieiil,  uid  t<i  cuii«ny 
AT  from  tliD  ndflklxiDnng  iprinc.  (Id  ettty  %iii, 
tmMnblD  pklnw  ol  yaxUm*  gootm,  tlw  isa«(«-Dm, 
^,«llbln^  pklm,  Ao„wboM  Itavn  purl  like  plunus, 
ot  up  iiwjviiiiaLlly  thwr  bkrn  wid  vvni  euluinnit 
HI  tliip  wmiil."  Altliough  tii«  fori'Kiiiiij!  il.wflptiim 
I  wriUttiT  for  St  Vluevut  al«iu,  llio  vvjti^iiUJuu  iif 
M  Uluidi  1j  »  modi  alikt,  Uul  wlul  u  uld  si  uno 
I  *PFly  '^lullj'  t"  the  rut. 

'otatoM  Km  oultivatvd,  bnt  lliifj  ira  wMmi'i  wkI 
IT  MltHiu  a  lu^  nixR,  TIi»  yiuu  ^na  In  llw 
unuiii*,  hiiwvVDr^  te  mneb  mtMiucil ;  and  Ilia  mm- 
U  am  well  lupplud  with  potatota  rmm  Urtlaln  aud 
lann.  then  nro  grasu  pun  at  all  icuana,  sod  » 
nl  cuUvd  nllalno,  nminbluig  ipiuuili,  in  mueb  umd 
t]r  iiiti-rior.  Tl>«  jilAnUin,  aiid  wIibi  i»  eatlvd  tli« 
lira  liutiToWi  MB  al*u  ■buiiilMit,  and  niuah  tii  n- 
wt  la  toad.    TliB  flowor*  Indii^iaiu  to  th«e  bloiidi 

anm«T«ut,  and  excndiu^  Hob  in  colour  t  and  It 
juobUt  hippeiw  tliut  (nuta  and  blmnuim  nro  mod 
ttiug  &am  Uw  aaim  limiiDh. 
Imrdioii  tlui  «uUiVBUiHi  of  iIidm  plant*  wUcb  give 

Wiwt  luiliun  tliElr  Twt  iinnortaiiMi  wo  ijuote  th* 
anlDlt  Crom  Lnudon'*  BnejalDpicdia u(  A^onllura: 
h«  eollure  of  the  Rugor-daiie  in  Juaaiat  in  Mtnc 
l>»ot«  ronmblM  thai  i)f  Dia  luiu  in  tlik  onanby. 
•  gniilnd  iMiug  elcartd,  and  worlwd  ■  foot  OF  hutq 
d*Iith,  llio  wU  OF  eultinjci  of  the  nn*,  wlildi  nr« 

loo*  (it  Ibo  ihoot*  eut  off  about  a  Tool  bingi  u« 
ntcd  in  rowa,  genHially  fiiu  ftifl  ditlaiii,  anil  bwn 

lu  flvo  fMit  aiwt  ia  Ifio  mw,  aeconlluB  la  llm  nua- 

•if  tbii  Mill,  tnure  planlit  htdug  alJawed  ^c  |«ac  Uisu 
n  aiiil.  Tba  growod  t*  kent  fimi  btm  wenU,  fro- 
iuilyallTKd.aiidMiniPcartii  dnimup  tolhs  plaitta. 
im.  eaeb  bill,  a  nomlwr  of  itwou  aro  praitHo«il :  In 
'  inra,  tltxaa  will  fptDiintlljrlHi  rniTn*in''n 

lh«»liinMnoWli,4tT(,>.™V\*\V0iie,'''**-"'1 


CUAMBERS'S  INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOH^ 


\Mtli  »grPJ">r  bronn  pith  and  »¥reel  glutinous  juica. 
In  thto  »l*lfl,  tlia  eni.™  are  cut,  tied  in  bundlBii  or 
■hukVt*,  uid  tattmi  tu  ttie  mill  li>  be  divuted  of  their 
lairM  and  decayed  part*,  wid  tliwl  passed  through 
rollvra  tn  expreea  their  juii^e,  &a.  Cun  plantalioaa 
bnl  fnrini);!  eithtr  in  May  or  J  UDC,  or  in  Deoember  and 
JanUfir;,  lliese  bting  the  rainj>  Beasotu. 

'I'tac  eutlan  phint  ia  progiagated  b;  need,  which  U  act 
In  niwa,  about  ftve  feel  asunder,  at  the  end  of  Seplem- 
lior  or  beginning  of  OotohBr  j  at  first  but  slightly  co- 
nred,  but  after  it  ia  grown  up,  tlieiwit  i>¥iell  moulded. 
Tlw  awd  is  cutjjeet  to  decay  wlien  it  is  set  too  deep, 
■apeeidly  in  wvt  weather.  The  ground  ia  hoed  fro 
queuliy,  and  kept  Tery  dean  about  the  vuuDg  plants, 
ontll  tbuyrise  lo  a  Tnoderale  boiclit;  olherwijM  they 
an  apt  la  be  deslroyed  by  ealerpiiUn.  Ilgtowafi- 
(bur  lo  nil  feel  high,  and  produces  two  erons  annual 
Um  flnt  in  eight  months  from  tbe  time  ol  aowiug 
*Md,  lliB  areund  wiihin  fi>UF  months  after  I)i«  6jKt ; 
ailJ  the  produce  of  each  plant  is  reclioned  about  e 
pound  wslgiiL  Wlien  a  grvat  part  ot  the  pud 
eapanilcd,  the  *o«l  t*  piclied,  and  afterwards  cloaml 
from  the  sceda  by  a  machine  called  a  |in,  ooniposed  of 
two  or  tbm  aniDoth  wimhIhu  rollers  of  about  one  inch 
in  diam«tt<r,  ranged  hurlzontsliy,  cIdm  and  parallel  In 
each  iiUkt,  in  a  limoie ;  at  each  cxlreiniiy  Ilicy  an 
luotlietl  or  channeUed  lungiludmally,  carr«pondiu|{  oni 
With  atu'ther,  and  Uie  oeutnl  roller  being  tnoVEd  wiili 
k  Ami-lathe,  tnakee  the  two  others  reYot*e  in  contrary 
diriQliona.  Tlie  cotton  ia  laid  upoa  these  rollera  whilst 
lliey  an  in  motion,  and,  readily  passing  between  thein, 
dmUB  itiio  a  uck  lieuealli,  leaving  tbe  seeds,  which  an 
too  large  10  pass  througli  btliind. 

Indigo  llirives  beu  in  a  ridi  trro  soil  and  a  warm 
alMiatiuu  tMiqueiitly  refrabnl  willi  moiiture.  Having 
flnt  choaBD  ft  pnptt  piece  of  ground  and  elsared  it, 
kfanMdlinlB  DttletnnolKs,  not  alMrra  two  inches  or 
two  hielm  and  a  half  in  depth,  nor  more  than  touiieen 
or  tifieen  inches  asunder,  in  the  butiuiu  uf  thtsa.ntuuy 

and  iuiniecjialely  covered-  Aa  the  plants  shoot,  they 
are  trcqueotly  weeded  and  liept  constantly  clean,  until 
they  thread  sufficiently  to  cover  the  ground.  Those 
who  eullitale  gival  quantities,  only  alnsw  the  seeds 

E ratty  thick  in  little  sballow  pita,  lioed  up  irregtilarly, 
ut  generally  witliin  four,  five,  or  nix  inches  of  one 
anotUer,  and  covered  la  before.  Ths  plants  grow  to 
full  iierfsction  in  twoorltireetnooths,  and  are  oliserved 
to  answer  beat  when  cut  in  full  blunoiii.  They  are  cut 
with  reaping-hooks  a  few  inchoi  abuvo  ths  ruol,  tied 
in  loads,  carried  lo  tho  works,  and  laid  by  BU-ata  in  thi 

In  cultivating  ths  coffH,  the  berries  are  sown  imTne- 
dlately  after  being  gathered,  as  they  arc  fuund  to  retail 
their  vegetaUro  quality  only  a  few  we«ks.  In  llirtn 
moutha  they  are  tit  to  Inuuplani,  either  to  a  nnraery 
or  to  a  final  plaulatiou.  In  l)ie  low  lands,  tliey  are 
pUnlcd  &ve  feet  nparl,  and  in  tbe  mounuiiu  ten  feet 
ur  niurv.  In  three  years,  the  pHuta  will  produce  a 
erup,  atid  continue  bearing  for  a  number  iif  yeitia.  The 
berries  aro  gatliereil  when  they  are  jusi  abimt  lo  drop; 
and  aro  iinniediately  carried  to  sh«lis  where  lliey  are 
dried  upon  cloths,  or  mats,  till  the  husk  shrirels.  They 
an  then  passed  ibruugli  betweeu  wooden  rollers  lunied 
by  a  mole,  wljieb  seiiarates  the  busk,  after  which  tliey 
an  winiiowtd,  sifted,  cleaned,  exposed  tu  the  sun  Ivr 
a  fsw  days,  and  iJien  harrelled  up  for  sals." 

Variiiu*  European  animals  thrive  remarkably  wuli  in 
lonie  of  the  Islanila.  Ainungit  these  may  be  raeotiont^ 
the  oa,  which  is  much  uaad  both  for  lood  and  labour. 
Oaau  never  attain  such  a  silo  in  tropical  climes  as  in 
this  euuutry ;  and  from  th>  labour  lliey  have  lu  uudcr- 
gfi,  tlio  beat  la  not  so  goud.  Horses  aud  mules  an 
abundant  in  Jamaica,  tl»!y  bwng  principally  used  for 
riding  or  drawmg  light  burdena.  Sheep  ars  alw  plen- 
tiful, but  tbe  luuiuiu  is  coarw.  I'lgs,  capecially  such 
tu  an  fed  upon  augai  ntatn,  an  very  liigtily  esteemed 
M  tiMd :  thalr  fleab  biting  de«ribed  as  excut^jng'y  deli- 
Ml»    G9M  tn  kejit  Id  oonaideraUo  numbm  fur  tho 


»»-,U.._  0» 


sake  of  their  milk,  which  U  Cbougb*  htUsr  ite 
cows.  Fi.ih  an  very  abundant  UD  ifa*  ahav* 
island,  and  form  an  important  Mttde  <d  aaai 
I'heiT  flesh  is  deMribed,  boaever.  as  t^fjt  ^ 
be  compared  to  iJiat  nf  tb*  wJmpd.     *»■  aaM 

land  lurllo  are  al*o  tnuum^y  ■> 
lo  be  seen  lianging  on  the  pundat 
low,  which  gnw  into  the  watw.  'I'tu  bladl 
Jamaica  Is  iwtwraed  as  a  gnat  dsU»^ ;  Md 
what  peculiar  In  its  habit*  Thay  hnrmw  in 
during  u^e  sfatsoo,  and  at  vLlisas  they  an  fe 
fuund  hr  into  the  iutenur  of  lb*  onintiy.  U 
piBted  thai  they  migrate  aeno  Ihu  ialaii*  a 
they  an  found  annually.  Tho  dasDMti*  fowh 
menus,  comprehending  almost  «*Try  kind  k 
Uiis  country,  except  geex  and  th*  cvimman  4 
place  of  Uiese,  however,  the  Muamvjr  du^  lb 
and  the  Guinea  fowl,  thrive  remsrkaUy  wdL 

The  groen  lunle  is  very  ciimnmn  tn  wan 
West  India  islands,  and  ia  modi  prined  aa  ai 
of  food.  This  species  derivm  ila  okUM  turn 
being  green,  and  is  that  nHMI  aEicriiKd  bf  i 
Then  an  tery  few  ghell-fisb  in  tho  West  !■!■ 
an  either  useful  or  ormunenKtl.    The  tOMl  I 


plecocboilua  uudulatua,  which  i> 
idooc. 

With  such  reeources,  il  may  b«  aupBaml 
inhabitants  live  in  comfort,  ftoro  th»  higtH 
lowest.  Tbe  mode  of  life  fulliiwud  in  Tnoi^ 
scribed  to  us  by  a  resident,  is  to  rias  al  £va^  | 
of  cuRee,  and  EO  lo  boaineaa  till  •even.  B(a 
then  served,  aud  businc»  ia  suspeiuled  fur  t*« 
houra  dnring  the  best  of  iha  day,  duringjsb 
tiie  reading-room  is  maeh  frequraled.  Wm 
— Iftmmrfiieta  ths-* ■ 


One  of  the  ino«t 
is  the  myriads  of  anla  thai  every  wiien  swanai 
within  as  without  doors.  There  are  imiDnMsahi 
ties  of  them — some  bbd^  some  Irrown,  Bum*  hi 
some  very  small.  But,  hke  alt  the  uthM-  pm 
of  aaturs,  these  tittle  aniinaU,  which,  by  sons 
Hcia]  writers,  have  been  called  the  "  pUguecfll 
Indies,"  prove  of  the  most  bcnelleutl  cnni[i 
the  health  ot  ths  islnnd.     They  ara  Baminrt 

Their  seent  is  nmurkably  acute,  and  a  dtsd  », 
or  even  mosquito,  will  not  he  on  til*  fluor  ftc ' 
mites,  before  a  proceasion  of  anla  will  to  mm 
from  some  diitant  comer  .of  the  apartnwal,  « 
otr  tile  priie  bodily  lu  their  a 
sumed  al  tlieir  leisure. 

Pcrliaps  the  greatest  anno; 
settlers  in  those  islands  ia  f m 
tos,  althuugli  thsM  animsls  are  not  nearlr  M 
diiblB  llien,  in  siie  or  sling,  aa  on  the  SoutbA 
conlineuL  In  the  blur  they  an  so  dnwMt 
that  people  obliged  to  sleep  out  nf  iluun  cat  ■ 
pniteclion  frooi  the  smoke  •>(  rank  and  paa 
thrown  upon  a  fin  lo  windward  of  thaaa.  ' 
islands,  however,  tbey  an  eieecdiugly  trMl 
and  a  new  settler  msy  almost  be  reoignUad  B 
blotched  and  swelled  appeaniiM  of  his  tuB*,  In 
ankles — in  slnut,  every  part  of  his  pertanac] 
their  venomous  probiHu-es.  Tliey  nweotbtt  •«» 
Urilisli  midge,  and  aro  in   fad  of  U»  h 


AIUT  a  short 


vh^U 


■tings,  and  wnom,  inDecO,  Uiey  eoaa*  lo  lU  up 
being  some  time  !n  the  country.  Tb«y  d» 
all  tnublo  tho  .Vcgrocs,  whusu  uUy  *Uu  an 
viuua  to  tlieir  stingt.  Theyanmuat  tannenba| 
the  night,  aud,  lu  guard  against  tbeir  attMh 
curtains  are  hung  round  tlM  bad  of  V 
inhahitaiit  in  town  vr  oouDlr7.    TIm  p 


nwl  bi  Ihs  iit&uil*.  Li*,  it  tut-iat,  Iwm  ihibtiI 
afvn  Fuustiiiq  Imi>7  rvntu   ['ir  vnltaaw  Uid 

nxi  Juugvr  r&wta,  oud  ImujalUilj'  «ail  istfunt^ 
iMr*  prvtuiL 

'iiiiiilciL,  lia  bitnid  UiH  Urgmim  iiuuiifMtlint  Lff^t 
fur  luaiructbin — t.  tliiii);  ibat  •Oknivit  lit  *ali[  iif 
'l»li  yakMUlr;.  Oon  day,  he  otiBcrvsa.  "Tlw 
Htharad  nmuDd  ni,  knd  a  womui  eun*  hirmrA 
U  dT  the  mmpU!;,  to  beg  for  k  Khaal.    •  Wa 

STaC  a  MliaiJ,  wud  HI*  I  *wa  ara  Iknl  el 
iu'  Kor  vera  thsM  idia  wnrdii)  ^  lllA 
D  thin  and  a  nei'ghbonrin);  (■mpBrt]'  hixl  aicranl 
ribo  riilit  ilallani  )■«-  niniitli  in  {'■"'(  inynml 
'bar.  Ni>th<ii|;,  iiidiwd,  Mn  ba  iii'>Twtatf*'l''<>'l 
ra  of  th«  iii>^r'n<>i  of  Diiuijuica  Inr  vdacatCuo— 
m  dc4*miii»ul  10  ivlitaiii  It  i  and  R  ii  j[nuif;lng 
lint  tliw  alfurtji  iiuit  liiaklng  for  tha  par)na* 
inoa  DnnaldeiabU  *Jid  fOTUtaa'al.  Thtn  ar* 
DO  «chaUr»  In  tba  tout  M'lM  letiwlii,  o  lilvh  &r* 
iduetad,  aud  balDg  ({Uits  almr  uf  an;>  pmiDliar 
I  bUi^  aw  »ci.H'iiUit.li-  Id  llir  <ih")B  it^aiatHin." 

nuaiii.-'  ^.lion.     In  Dd- 

■  luj'ii:'  II  i)i<  iFfwUiiira 


lit  nuMtii  (.f  .u■Av>.,.:v^.,s^,  \i.-  w»-i 


I  lint  llit>  MU^^^J 


CEAMTIEUS'S  INKORMATION  FOR  TIIE  PEOPLE. 


which  fell  unilcr  Mr  Gumay's  naCife  at 
Dixnlaie*  doHi-TM  to  be  uudo  uridply  known.  Duriog 
■UTcr]',  it  wu  below  the  digui'y  of  nny  tree  pi>rsoti  to 
Ubour  in  tlie  fields ;  and  all  who  could  da  au  preferred 
la  Ii<c  in  idJFQMi  rather  than  work.  The  abolilim  of 
•lavery  haa  removed  this  deteslahle  plea  (or  living  id  a 
U*l«  of  Blolhful  indulgence.  /'  ii  lunr  fuif«  rfipeciabit 
lo  ipont— labour  iu  the  fields  is  iial  diacn^itable.  This 
indioatf*  an  important  social  improtemcnl.  In  Bpoak- 
ing  of  Jiinuuca,  Mr  Gomey  abuw*,  that  a  coffue  ealate 
-  whinh  he  vUiled  i«  now  condncted  at  a  inuoh  cheaper 
■luring  slavery,  when  (lin  \> 


joun«. 


ligail  to  aappail  not  only  Uio  actual  wurken,  but  all  the 
unjt,  old,  lick,  and  idle.  The  owner  of  itn  ontUe  in 
•Mian  dncribed  the  two  ditferaut  conditlonB  of  aOtin 
aa  follam  i— *'  One  hundred  and  uvonty  alavea,  or  ap- 
pnntlec*,  used  (o  bo  supponed  on  Lliia  ntalo.  Now. 
our  (riond  omployj  fifty-four  (res  laboui*!*,  who  work 
for  him  tour  ihiys  in  the  weok,  taking  ana  day  for  Cieir 
provition-gl'ounds  and  anolhrr  for  market.  Tbia  i*  all 
-'-   labour  timl  bo  reqalrea,  iu  order  (o  keep  op  his  foc- 

eslent  of  cullivatiou.   And  willinRly  did  be  aoknow- 

iMign  iha  tuperior  advantage  wbioh  altondstbe  preeont 
""Weni.     Tho  eaiing  of  enfienu  ia  obvknlH. 

I  undmitond  our  friend  to  allow  that  tb«  avenge 
CMt  of  aupparting  a  iUto  was  £S  stH-ling  fit  umnn. 
lT»(Lin*.alU.ippr(uuiuoi.li  ■       -     I.JIX    »   a 

Ngw.  I»  va)t  M/n-ii  Ubounm  4i.  IM.  par  w»k, 


Aavint  uo^  tnoAuai, 


tfM  H 


In  tbo  eoutw  of  another  journey,  MrGumcyolTen 
the  following  nw^l  fact :—"  '  Do  you  ate  that  eieelteLit 
tww  atono  wall  round  tliu  flold  below  ust'  aaid  the 
ynnng  phyaiciiui  to  mo,  ui  we  stood  at  A  Q'a  l^nt 
dour,  «ar*«yin>  the  delijclit(iil  eoenery.  '  That  wall 
aonld  watedy  bate  hewt  boilt  s«  all  wuder  slatery  or 
the  apprvnlicishjp ;  the  noceaaary  labour  could  not  then 
bavo  boen  hired  at  ksilhan  jt!5  eurrenn',  or  \6  JnllHrs 
p«r  rhain.  L'nder  freedom,  it  enst  only  from  3^  dollars 
to  *  dollars  per  chain — not  one-lhird  nf  the  amounl. 
Still  more  reinai-kabio  is  the  fact,  that  tho  whole  of  il 
wa>  built  under  the  itmiulus  of  jub-work,  by  an  invalid 
Negro,  who  during  Hlavery  hid  been  given  up  In  total 
This  was  tho  suhstauee'if  ourconverKitiun 


isafterw 


>e  frcih  h 


fully  c. 


infuH-d  in 


leil  by  the 


Yoius  of  this  decrepid  person  by  the  genial  hand  of  free, 
doiu,  tliaC  he  had  been  redeemed  IVom  nhsololc  nselras- 
DesB^-had  exBouted  a  noble  work — hod   greatly  im- 

E roved  Ilia  master's  propsrty — nnd,  finally,  had  realised 
rt  himst^If  a  liandsnmc  sum  of  money.  This  shigte  fad 
la  ndniimbly  and  undeuiahly  illustrative  of  the  prin- 
ciples of  the  ease,  and  for  that  pur]K>se  is  as  gnod  as  a 
thonsand."  Of  (he  condition  of  Jamaica  geuerally, 
Ur  (inrney  observes — "  The  imports  of  the  island  are 
i^dly  inoreasing ;  trado  fniproyine  \  the  towns  thriv- 
ing; now  Tillages  rising  in  tteiy  dirnclion ;  property 
Dueli  enhancod  in  value ;  vipH-maiiajjed  esUles,  pro- 
daetive  and  profilahio  ;  expenses  of  ninnngement  di- 
minisbud  \  short  methuds  of  labour  adiipled  ;  pmvisl'ins 
iwltirated  nn  a  larger  scale  than  ever;  and  the  people, 
wherever  Uiey  are  pniperly  treated,  itidUBtrious,  con- 
tented, and  gradually  accuinulaling  wenllli.  Above 
all,  eduealioo  is  rapidly  Bpreailing ;  the  morals  of  thtr 
community  improving  ;  crime  in  many  diatricla  diwir- 
pearing ;  and  Chrisliauily  asserting  her  »< 
VMlly  augmented  force,  over  the  maas  of  Ih 
tion.  Cease  from  ail  attempts  to  oppose  th 
of  jUBtics  and  nteny — remove  every  iibsinicl 
fair  and  full  »-orking  of  freodum— and  the  bud  of  Ja> 
makw'a  prosperity,  already  fragnnt  and  vigorous,  will 
MKin  liurst  into  a  glnrioas  Sower." 
A'otH/fJiManding  the  symiitoBu  of  industry  and  im- 
nron-airnt  which  prrvuf,  it  happens  that  the  VIe«t 
JuJic-t  usirer  fivm  a  ^neral  defioielicy  of  lftliouttt>, 


e  pnpuU 


and  to  relieve  tliis  serious  difEeulty  variooi  t 
have  been  adopted,  though  without  an*  irapM 
suit.  Whether  from  this  defiOBDeyC* %«■■ 
of  the  seasons,  the  produca  ud  traika  of  AhUb 
not  hept  pace  with  the  iupratnOMM  In  IM^ 
dition.  Wo  have  been  unable  to  flad  H^  gflq 
munt  which  can  furnish  a  view  of  tbs  aa^o<l  I 
port  trade  during  tale  yean.  tnl83S,tl>«expa 
the  West  Indies  aniouuted  to  £8,008^8.  sal 
they  were  auly£5,«l«,II&.  The  sx)«rta  of  A) 
Dies  aiv  considerably  greater  than  their  imp) 
consist  of  four  leading  articles — ssfar,  Kaa,^ 
and  cotfec.  In  IS3S  Ihey  sonl  oat  S,^4,20>  { 
sugar,  5,153,317  gallon*  of  ruts,  1107,627  Oiri* 
lassm,  and  14,866,580  lbs.  of  colfoa.    Mneh  Ifa 


j.'3,8nS,Ul,  a  Bom  so  inferior  ta  Ibt  *•!■ 
expnrU,  that  thcro  mnat  b«  a  gnat  fJlUM 
plantera  in  cash. 

The  priueiplo  on  which  the  trade  with  tb*  1 
diea  is  eniiduetcd,  like  that  of  all  our  o4onia%l 
cious  in  the  extreme.  It  eoiulsta  in  our  ohb 
prefer  huyuig  ft«ra  tbem  InMoid  rf  from  Onm 
otherforoigneonntry.whifllieiinldsupytjiwsala 
rate.  While  we  now  write,  for  wtaiinJe,  ud 
ho  imported  into  Uritaia  [mm  Bnxil  st  t"^ 
thu  pries  we  are  paying  for  it  t»  the  Waal  1h 
people  of  the  United  luogdvni  are  iii  ihk'M 
It  is  calculated,  keing  u^venl  tnHliasu  par  IT 
elusively  of  civil  and  milii  *' '~ 


d  military  wiMiiaM.   !•  4| 
ID  (hia  alJaniJ  STSlsiD  sf  ■ 


the  tariff  of  impoT 

injury  to  the  inother  ceuutry,  and  whkh  Is  « 

by  110  commercwl  advuiBtgo  wbataoeti^ 

The  eurreuoy  employod  in  the  WsM  M 
imaginary  money,  and  has  a  diffpreal  valai 
culoniea.     The  following  are  tba  vatoss  of  4| 
ling,  and  of  a  dollar,  in  the  e 


populHtiun  of  1 
Ho  (ollowing  , 

uf   tllD    pOpululi 


ria 


VilnWk  snA  fuMl>ti*d  bgr  W.  nM  R-  r-.-— —  ji 


Irs 


I  THE  PEOPLE. 

EAST  tXDIES. 


»l  pnlnt  of  iitw. 

I  loiiiliFra  dbtrUl  (if  Uiia  in]ij[uiGi.'''nt  tbIIoi'  fa 

Bangnl,  ■lui  «Kien<li  bIudji  Ibv  ara  fruii  dlulUi> 
w  lUlMOrv,  afaml  fimr  hnu'liwl  iiiU«is*"<(  rwebvii 

t}ia  Minn  diiAanoa  nortli'mu-iL  lUa  wb-oiul  ik 
M  nicMl  rortil*  or  luriul  put  of  iMi  tcrrlU-t'f  t 
]urt  (if  it  luwBrdH  Ihf  ccati-e  bciug  romnnwil  uf 
ly  Erbund,  nr  at  mud  itUodi^  iniinis  wuu^  dk* 
lie*  oj'  lli«  river  Kt*  *pr>uii1  Iik«  nni-work.  IWb 
■  Ma  covcrtd  «lth  a  ntik  n^utinn  nf  r«i4*i 

MO  •omotioiai  Itrenty  or  tlilrty  fw(  lilghi  m 
nc*  ud  underwood  w  Ull  Mid  d*nw,  tliu  ft  te 
nbb  to  p«n«rtrUe  Ihun.    Tliojr  atCoril  (luiilw  bt 

ftnd  otiwr  wild  uunuila,  but  tha  air  nf  tlia  wlinla 
m  ill  pn-niiHouo  tn  liMlth.  Abnai  ISO  idIIm  up- 
,  Iba  Mil  Iwcuinni  lliglier  nnd  1«m  11MMI17,  mi  u 
ltd  giwid  groiitHl  for  culliT^tion  ■  aad  tin  oimilry 
?  rcrti}«  KnJ  diioklj'  (woplvil,  It  is  in  tliia  dntiivi, 
liai«U  BboTD  iIm  mnuilis  ut  tb*  GiiieM,  thU 
;tn,  Ifia  oaolMl  of  Qrlllih  India,  !■  •Iluitcd.  Tlia 
itintM  of  Us  Qarign  aa'nr  and  fvilili-ii  iinnimw 

of  the  Ifvol  BDUiitry  nsar  ilio  rivirr,  wIiUh  iii1i>ji 

TfiDob;  procurv  the  um*  advnniAg-i.  ft<ini  m 
ial  irrigatiaii.  LniurisiU  ttolili,  dlvulvd  I-t  gnnia 
I  IrtM*,  witli  viltaKM  under  ttitir  ■liell«r,  nud 


•e  can  •now,  lurm 
ll  pluu  of  Bengal. 


iniKtrm  ttrritftciaJ  and  polilioal  inbdliiilnni  nf 
nuij  thu*1i*  B|w*iift*d :— Firm.  Nammnw  Hm- 
1,  au  «xwii»iv«  and  ruggnl  iFrritor;,  coiuficuliuiil- 

9  CoudItt  iMtBOSu  tint  (.  KvimiKin. 

jtrjft  auil  Jnrana,  ft.  l>«iiibbuidi. 

nrmi  or  Scriii»gar.  0.  DIuitaiH. 

OTM  of  iliB  a>Dc*«,  7,  DtaeixAMM  tA  '*»if»i. 


CliAMBEIlS'S  rarOKMATION  FOK  THE  7E0FLE. 


mvhftnslTe  divimoa.    It  alrel«bo  >eron  the  cent 
India,  mill  obUloB  the  mmt  proTuiDi^nt  place  it 
biiitor]'  of  tbe  old  M&bDuun«!iiii  eoipirtH  o(  India.     It 
Icacbca  soutli  to  tbe  Nerbuclds  riTcr,  whero  the 
can  coiDDieneeei  and  iacludea  Uie  following  tbirteen 
large  proTinceB : — 

1.  BengBl.  B.  Cnxhmere. 

2.  Uahu.  9.  AJmeer. 

3.  Allahabad.  10.  ^loa!taI]. 

4.  Oude.  II.  CuWh. 
fi.  AgT%,  12.  (juzfrat. 
G.  DelhL        7.  Laliore.        13.  Malws. 

Third,  Tii>  Drax;*!'.— This  division  lies  next,  in 
amitliarly  direction,  to  the  sbovo,  eileuding  bvin  the 
Ncrtiudda  iiTer  on  the  north,  wbich  flows  into  the  u 
on  the  w«l  cout,  to  tbe  Krishna,  a  river  flowing  in 
the  MB  or  Bn;  of  Uengul  on  the  east  coo^t.    Uctwe< 
tiicae  Hvem  bes  tbe  Deccan,  amnchleas  Terlile  diviaii 
ot  India  than  the  preceding  ;  Bonibiy,  a  «nukll  iidand 
on  tho  weet  coast,  belongs  to  tbe  pruvioce  uf  Auruuga- 
badinlhiediviBioQ.     The  Deccan  comprebenda  die  ful- 
lowing  provinces,  a  portion  of  wliioh  oubo  formed  the 
Maliratta  vnipire  '■ — 

1.  Gundvrtna.  6.  Beeder. 

2.  OriHso.  T.  Hyderabad. 

5.  Tiie  NortheTD  Ciicara.    H.  Aurungabad. 
4.  Candeish.  !>.  Bcjapoor. 

fi.  Berar. 
FouTlh,  India  Soum  of  thr  Kbmhni— Thi«  diTidoc 
forma  tho  cxlreme  soullierly  portion  of  tlie  Indian  pen- 
iniiiila,  and  comprehends  tlw  following  proriiice* : — 
1.  Canara.  U.  Myion^ 

S.  Malabar.  7.  Coimbaloor. 

3.  Cochin.  tl.  Salem,  and  the  Bam- 

4.  TraTancore.  mahal. 

fi.  Dalagbaul,  Mded  dM-        9.  The  Carruttio,  in  which 

trtou.  ia  altnated  Madraa. 

Besides  tbe  foregoing  divieione  and  provinece,  tli 
Urge  territoriM  of  Ava  and  llio  Burmese  empire,  ijiiig 
eiul  from  the  Brnhniapulni,  am  now  attaclic  ' 
India,  besides  other  coutemiiiioua  regions  in  US- 
quarteiB. 

What  was  the  original  political  condition  of  (lie  vast 
territocT  now  composing  the  Urilish  Indian  cnipii  . 
would  be  neadlvsB  to  detail  minatcly.  Like  other 
portions  of  Asia,  it  was  early  inliabited  by  a  primitive 
people,   more  or  less  barbaraus,  profoaaing  dilTerent 

Cagan  religions,  and  speaking  many  more  different 
m^uagcs.  The  principit  religion,  bowever,  was  Hin- 
dooism,  wbich  wc  shall  afterwards  allude  to ;  and  it  has 
beenaaid  by  some  historians  IbaCthe  early  Ilindno  race 
of  inhabitants  manifested  many  symptoma  of  civilisa- 
tion, and  even  a  knowledge  of  eome  of  tlie  sciences. 
However  this  may  have  been,  the  inhabitants  generally 
were  in  some  measure  on  industrions  but  simple  race, 
Mid  little  inclined  to  war.  Reasoning  from  what  his 
oeciured  in  their  history,  as  well  as  from  the  informa- 
tion eonimuuicaled  regarding  Ibem,  they  teem,  from 
the  earliest  times,  to  liave  had  litilo  or  no  care  witli 
regard  to  who  ruled  over  Ihem,  protided  they  were 
ensured  in  the  possession  of  their  ancient  religious 
usages,  and  tlieir  system  of  Jiving  in  small  commuDLtiee, 
lnulrr  a  primitive  species  <if  local  goTcmnicnt.  They 
were  reekleos  of  what  sovereign  was  phLced  over  them, 
or  to  what  dynastjr  they  were  tranalerred,  so  long  tm 
the  inlernal  economy  of'^ their  village  dislricls  renuuned 
tho  same.  This  species  of  political  npalby  produced 
the  results  which  niiuht  have  been  eiipected.  From 
the  most  remote  periiid  of  which  any  record  is  pre- 
•rrred,  the  inhabitants  uf  India,  including  those  tribes 
which  possessed  mare  decided  warlike  propeosilies,  or 
who  had  the  ^irit  lu  resist  aggt«at>ion,  were  subjected 
to  the  govenunent  of  stnngors,  who  seised  upon  their 
temturics.  and  made  them  the  objeels  of  taxation. 
Among  otlier  warlike  princes  who  tiius  iiukIf  inroads 
on  tbe  country,  Aleaander  the  Great,  ia  the  course  of 
bis  ainbilioos  cafWr,  marslicd  with  an  army  to  India, 
Ih*  northern  part  ol  whiab  hi>  conquered. 


Of  this  remote  period  of  Indian  bi<to(},IInl> 
redly  known  ;  all  that  may  be  said  of  It  is.  lb 
tbe  Greeks  and  Romans  wera  mpplicd  iriih  i 
their  articlea  nl  luxury  bvm  HiaAanaB.  aid 
many  centuries  this  eulom  elime  was  iDpp^ 
itl-instmcled  inhabitants  of  distant  pain  of  t 
Europe,  to  he  the  tiebeet  and  moat  snni|m<m> 
Da  tbe  globe.  The  tales  reUtad  of  Indiaa  | 
appear  to  hava  in  time  exeitod  ^  avarin  u 
tiou  of  Mabomniedan  or  Saracen  duels.  TV 
tills  barbarous  Ibongh  intrepid  taee,  who  mai 
ce»iful  inroad  upon  India,  waa  MahawBd,  i 
Gluzni,  or  ASghanistan,  a  kingdom  on  the  nett 
India.  Mahmoud  commenced  faia  anootafa 
tionH  into  India  about  the  year  1000,  and  h*  ( 
them  till  1024,  making  the  destrunljon  of  pagit 
more  the  object  of  bis  visits  than  tbe  sr<|s 
wealth  or  power.  In  this  period  uJ  twvn^ 
he  had  subdued  a  conaiderabls  munbci  of  ( 
princes,  and,  notwitbilanding  his  profcasigna 
immcnso  tributes  in  gold  and  eveiTy  kind  of 
eommodity.  A  successor  of  MaluniKid,  Daned 
med,  after  carrying  on  war  with  the  Indian  p 
some  tune,  at  length,  abont  tbe  year  119^ 
Hindoston  with  an  cxcee^ogly  large  font, 
down  all  oppositioii.  The  kmg  of  Delhi  wii 
buttle,  and  having  advanced  to  that  utam 
MahoQitaed  there  left  a  viceroy  to  malaUio  1 
rity.  lu  this  manner  a  IiIahammedaD  duin 
for  the  flrst  time  established  in  the  htsrl  of  I 
in  one  of  iui  gceateet  citiis ;  and  thns  cnmni 
Affghan  or  I'alan  ■orereieni  and  their  dyMH 

The  dynasty  so  pbinlod  continued  ia  en 
rather  more  tlum  tfirm  hundred  ^sn,  wlua 
or  1 526,  it  was  snbverlcd  by  Uaber,  who  was  ■ 
one  of  tbe  most  adreotorous  warriora  of  tm' 
who,  like  his  prohitype  Mahommed,  was  of  (h 


faith.     Baber  w 

■  chief,  0 


1  a  race  called  Moj 
assifiiea  mm  in  nis  aiteuipts  upon  tii^;  J 
eaasea  of  this  nature,  the  empire  which  he  lb 
HiadoBton  has  ever  since  been  called  the  Mo|g 
Prom  the  year  lJi2<i,  a  series  of  MahoraraeA 
rors,  whose  seat  of  authority  was  at  Delfa^ : 
largest  and  flnest  ]>ortions  of  India.  }>f  i 
eouolry  was  in  many  places  newly  subdivUkd 
vinces,  and  put  under  Oie  gorernmeut  of  trihM 
or  naliobs,  wlio  snpersednl  tbe  Hindoo  njtl» 
princes.  One  of  the  greatest  of  these  Uogul ' 
was  Akbar,  who  flouriBlied  between  tbe  yean 
1605.  By  his  daruig  and  judicious  managft 
central  provinoes  were  preserved  tu  compliW 
Uty,  undUoaent,  Bengal,  and  part  of  the  Deci 
"  'ded  lojiia  already  extensive  empira. 

While  the  emperors  of  India  were  thnanl 
their  power,  multifarious  schemes  nrs  A 
Kurope  for  getting  poessesion  of  some  of  Ike  ' 
not  some  portions  of  tbe  territory,  of  IliodoA 
commodities  of  Indian  manafactnn  or  prgl 
hitherto  imported  into  the  European  sIsM 
means  of  tedious  overland  journeys,  or  ftrl 
Red  Sea,  and  were  endangered  in  their  pa«ll| 
stUcks  of  ferocious  Tartar  and  Turkiah  Itft 
discovery  of  a  new  and  safe  rood  tn  India  tkm 
a  matlerof  very  great  consequence.  A  wd 
round  tbe  Cape  of  Good  Hope  was  it  last  fta«t 
Portuguese,  who,  under  the  eommaod  <if  ^ 
Uania,  in  1198,  landed  in  Hlndosian,  Ml  Iks 
Malabar,  where  they  at  ones  nlablUMd  Al 
""  whole  coimnerce  of  the  East  lintif  W 
Is  of  the  Portuguese  for  nearly  a  uwjlwf- 
the  golden  ago  of  TortugaL  I^iea  M> 
great  dep^t  of  Indian  Spices  and  otlisr  em 
ereatty  to  the  envy  of  the  Dnieti  aul  Mm 
l-ortugai  was  nniled  lo  Spain  In  IMO-lb*  I 
opprrstcd  Holland,  and  caused  it  to  iwrab  d 
IB  followed  by  the  capture  cf  tfa*  DnUArflp 

Lisbon — and  this  capture  eompclM  iksl 


nul  j)Kilu>iiM  ■  •   -> 


OD  i-f  wenrtu  UiB  JniatleUoa  at  (•riiibtw,  of 
oil/  tn  ilia  m'M.  A  Bauhlid  bjftBti»  irO  ttiKm 
J,  on  ftD  oaarimw.  a  ravonoM  lavuil*  Uia  p^- 
■rajr  oT  tha  omIt*  Mnpunn,  njolbi,  uid  uabobki 
li^Ml  Ems  Iwlb  Comraar,  villi  IM  olurtm 
'arcjil  Ibwa  dltfvl^d  aail  miuwmI,  eonUnnJ 
:(uinl  tlw  MnnitSDib  Mnivrj  to  ourry  ou  •  pni- 
UB>  wltb  tha  EwL  it*  faolaiMi  won  ■>- 
.  M  J*TB,  Snm>U*,  Jknmcn,  tte  Otudk  loluidiu 
■,  U*Lua>,  Siun,  th«  raww  of  AUUhw  >ad 


"■a 


I  >luui)'*a  MtlkmoaU  In  ladja 

i  »ayi-j.-iil  t>oeiii.i.)nii  abuut  Uiii  |wn«il,  uauivil  bjr 
lorliiir  aklU  of  Ihe  Dciliili  in minliouii!.  la  ITii, 
WHLV  beliig  WDl  DU  a  oomoKrcial  commuaioD  t« 

it  nnrpcnxl  tlul  a  «»")('■»!  <^nl!?ni.in  tuitoed 

Uin,  Wba  MMDipAni'")   'l"-  h^i-',.:.     l.-.il  ilii.  )^„i 

J  to«iiTelh«EmF>-i..i  ■  r..  ll^ 

vluoli  could  llOt   I  '  rant 

iilijuidui*.    tnRi'i''  :' uir< 

hUDUh   it   U   libklj    M  i:  '  "^'  "-ItU 

IM  MDipaajrllud  an  ciiuuli  v  iiui  i.ill  i:j;,'  -.'lii'ill.  Uia 
IT  BMaUKl  Utnrty  U  itu:  Cuuifi"'/  i"  (HUiJiiiiie  la        i 
I  tAiRjT'WTOii  Winullip*  tn  tddiliuu  to  lliftt  uT       I 
Ik  I  bo  klto  Mnfcmwi  upcn  tlivm  toiar  iimurtiuit 
tdUI  privili'giK,  vliicL  tooa  tuudnrLiI  C^uutta  a       I 
Diiig  •rttlemmt.  I 

oWta  i>f  tlio  EMt  IdiIa  Coinfiuijr  wm  tram       ,1 
■  limit  nHiwwvil  duriiig  Urn  wkIiUvuUi  owuduxi       I 
{but   i]iit  wUIwnt  gimt  dilHijull}')   ngpilitaL  •         ' 
111  uppoalttuD.    Bat  loana  to  gnvunmuuit  arriatl        i 
J«a]>*thrflUgh  ibcwombunMuiioiiW.    In  ITJi,       fl 
ilvuiiwd  jt'l.Ottli.UOa  III  t]ir«a  per  ceaL,  la  ron-       ' 
ioa  cd  an  nuiuuon  of  Uinir  priviivgM  till  1 IM. 
to  we  luiVD  •Bin  iliU  coinpuij'  uf  Luiiriidi  imir-        | 
ulinj;  only  fur  tli«  avowwl  iilijKcl  I'f  ooniiniir- 
■ornutirvB  witli  liHlisi  wu  now  o[>vn  >  iivvr  V*V* 
r  hklDTj,  vul  kliuw  tlw  vrigia  ol  thuir  poUllul 

Ijlut  IndU  Curapui}  unumcd  the  gualiflwtinM 
llitvy  uidpiiUueftl  puwcria  tliopsr  174N.  Out 
^itiiicc*  tuwkrdi  MmtoriBi  dominiuii  wuro  ro- 

by  B  rivij,  nbioh  gnrs  tlioin  ni>  biuU  tmuble, 
DDipMitot  wu  Fnuic«v  wbidi  bad  in  tbu  inoui 
Aitanol  to  iban  ia  tUa  oDmincro*  unl  apiilij  of 
In  I74G,  k  FrrnoU  bkti&liou  luul  d(<itln'y«>l  tli« 
rf  tbo  Ilal^b  of  Uia  Cuuatia,  ai"l  »uun  lutor  lh« 
1  vtEiMn  auocwnlvd  in  dljicipiimiis  indliui  tRin]ia 
iu^  iv  tbo  Europvan  niot>u>iL     llm  iuhnoriw 

oatlra  IikIIild  tnurn  oppiMrd  U  Jfuroiaail  Mil* 
am)  Uia  fiwUllv  uf  iavnauiiMt  \iA«a  «^-gcnt 


CHAMBERS'S  INFORMATION  FOR  THE  f 


wu  thus  proved.  Ambition  and  avarice,  political 
anil  niereanlile  eunning,  could  now  act  on  a  larger 
scale ;  and  llie  iudepeiiiioiice  of  tlie  Indian  princes  woa 
gone  nhoocver  this  trading  CampaQ}',  Yibich  nas  al- 
ready cucroaeliing  iipoa  all  the  rights,  bolU  of  the 
mleiv  aud  the  peeple  c;rthe9ecountriui,Bhou)d(«tabli3h 
ft  perouineDt  mililar}'  Torce.  Thud  Tor  the  militaiy 
orgauiialioa  of  the  Cumpaay  liod  been  merQly  on  the 
defenaiva;  it  nun  became  able  to  act  oS^osively;  and 
th«eatiradiHenaeao(liiaEurtipGBOand  Indian  notions 
of  Uw  oould  never  bil  to  /urnitdi  oppaKuoiliee  to  put 
this  now  meaoa  of  power  into  aotioii.  Tlie  righla  of 
succession,  aod  all  Lhe  rights  of  prtnoce,  aabjecls,  and 
Auoiliea,  were  lo  much  dLe]iuttd.  on  tlie  different  prin- 
dploe  of  the  Indian,  Klahomraedan,  and  British  UwSt 
tliat  the  Couipanr,  which  ofiea  inlerfered  oa  arbitrator, 
easily  sucocoded  in  Gxtfnding  Iheir  legal  jiirisdicUon. 
If  called  tu  acsannt  in  Fnslaml  fur  any  of  its  undef- 
taklngs.  It  waa  easy  lo  uphold  tlie  correotnoaa  of  ila 
oonduet,  palitii»lly,UDtlK  ground  of  Bclf-deFence,iihieh 
■1  lhe  distance  of  teveral  ihousand  mil«a,  could  nut  be 
called  in  quiwluui ;  and,  in  legal  mattera,  by  Uking  bd- 
vaotage  of  lhe  impenetrable  Isbyrintli  u(  the  law, 
Edmund  Burke,  who  experienced,  in  Ihecaso  of  Warren 
Hastings,  the  bead  of  lhe  Company's  aflairs  in  the  cast, 
this  inpcegDalulily  of  the  aasucialton,  aocoMd  tlicm 
jnatly  "  of  linving  sold  every  munarch.princo,  and  alalo 
in  Ini^  broken  every  cdntmcl,  and  i-uiued  evei^alale 
wbohad  trusted  tliero."  la  H-Ill,  therobbaries  of  the 
Company  began  willi  lhe  protcclion  of  Ibc  j^'etendsr  of 
Taujore,  a  Hau  proviniw  of  the  Caroatie.  Uudei'  pre- 
tence of  illegitiuiaey,  the  nabob  of  this  distrlet  was 
driven  out  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining  some  ees&luua 
of  territuiy,  and  tbi^u  restored  on  niuking  further  cnn- 
rnni'inn  The  rapid  progreaj  of  the  Company  in  lhe 
an  of  BKlending  tlieir  poawsaions,  appcara  (rum  tlieir 
toaatiai  with  Siiir*jee-l>Bwlab,  the  nabd>  «f  ikogal, 
wboralhftyeoiitrivedio  depose  in  17S7,  when  large  ud 
ri«h  proTintca  were  tho  rewnrd  of  thoir  failhleu  policy. 
The  French,  who  in  a.  biiaibir  manner  had  acquin-d 
considerable  Itirilorisl  possesaiona  in  tho  Carnntio,  now 
came  into  collisiun  with  llie  Uriliiili  uierchante,  and  a 
boC  war  was  oarried  on  in  India  belween  theso  con- 
tending Europeans.  Xlie  induicDcy  u(  this  conflict  an 
to  which  party  should  be  the  grcateal  robber,  eoeiiia  tn 
have  shamed  both  Franca  and  Iilngland,  and  coumit- 
■ionsts  were  mulnally  aenl  lo  India  lo  recoiicila  lhe 
dUTereocea  which  existed,  as  well  aa  to  check  the  ac- 
quisition of  tarrilory  eilbar  by  the  tlnglish  or  French 
lanies.  As  a  matter  of  couro*,  this  aficctalion  of 
!0  ended  in  nothiue.  Aflcr  Iheconimiasionershad 
■greed  that  each  sboutd  restore  its  ncquired  territories, 
and  after  a  "  sultmu"  treaty  to  tl^at  eifuct  bad  been 
arranged,  hoatililies  commenced  aa  before.  It  would  be 
needlcaa  to  recount  the  particulars  of  this  slrugglo  for 
power;  it  will  suEHcs  to  stale,  that  the  French  ulti- 
mately were  deprived  by  the  Brilisli  of  their  posenaione. 
By  the  defeat  of  the  Freiiah  forces  in  ITGl,  Ihu  Bri- 
tish were  left  at  liberty  to  pun-uo  ilicir  echemea  on 
India,  b«ng  in  no  small  degrcu  favoured  by  tlic  un- 
happy political  condition  of  the  Mogul  empire.  Tbis 
large  empire  came  uudpr  the  rule  of  Aurungzebe,  a 
deucenduiit  of  Akbar,  in  1115)1,  and  his  reign  lasted  tilt 
lusdeath  m  17U7.  Under  IhJscelebratod  Malionmiedan 
ompeiur,  the  enipiKof  the  Moguie  eune  lo  the  heiglil 
of  ilB  glory,  and  attained  its  largest  extent.  Alter 
AurungKeb«  had  added  to  it  the  kingdoms  of  the  Oecoaii, 
It  included  nearly  tliD  whole  pcmnsula  of  Iliuduatau, 
with  the  neighbouring  regions  otCnbul  and  Assam.  The 
rersDUCi  citvrted  from  this  pnpulou*  and  iveaUhy  (er- 
ritory  aiuoiinl«d  to  £^'J,tlUO,Ul>U  sterling.  During  the 
reign  uf  Aurungicbe,  it  was  attacked  by  the  r«rsiins 
unwr  Uie  bold  prince  Nadir,  and  alia  by  a  growing 
nation,  catlod  Uahrattas,  whi-se  kiugdoin  eainprvhanded 
targe  (luKlutiii  of  Iha  provmcrs  of  Malwa,  Cundewli, 
Aurungabad,  and  Ucjaporr,  in  the  Usccau.  lly  Nadir, 
and  his  lucceasor  Ahmed  Abdallah,  the  Mogul  eiupiro, 
aflvr  the  death  of  Anmngaebe,  was  almnt  entirely  anb- 
««fMd  to  tlM  obaraotcr  of  a  tributary  to  iha  l*eiBaiia. 
373 


between  the  ARgbaus,  whaa«  kingdom  1^ 

wesl,andtbe  Mahmttas,  theeinpii*«nM'_.. 

made  the  object  of  grecily  ooatcat.  The  Afl)^ 
at  length  victorious  over  their  cBUsy :  and  w  01 
placed  a  descendant  of  tb«  old  ^farty  m  IM  ' 
and  in  llie  possession  of  the  empty  but  >lill  i« 
title  of  Great  Mogul,  to  be  the  to"l  or  captiM 
firs!  daring  power  which  should  teim  tlis  eafMi 
From  lliis  period  the  dignity  of  llie  em|Hi*«i 
end,  and  n  favourable  opportunity  was  olTiml 
various  dependent  princes  to  lhn>w  off  theimlli 
aa  well  as  to  euterprising  chiefs  to  lake  »S<u 
the  unsettled  state  of  things,  and  ostahli'li  tif 
doms  for  IhemsclveH.  In  this  lUU  of  gemnl 
tion,  a  bold  Mahumraedan  adventurer  are*  I 
obscure  i-ank,  namol  Il.vder  All,  who,  by  ibdi 
round  hhn  bdid  and  predatory  hands,  and  wigi 
with  considerable  aiMma,  calabtiahud  his  pov 
•overeign  in  the  Uysoiw,  a  tcnitoij'  (^miiiii  m 
most  remarkable  of  those  elevated  lable-lu 
diverii^  the  (oulhern  ptovinew.  llyder  »»•*• 
in  lTH'>byhia  son  TippDO,apeniHir4|inHyboM^ 
less  prudent  and  fortonate.  Against  bntlithw) 
rulers  the  British  foranamberofynn  wsj^^ 
various  ■uece^'i.  In  1793,  Ser'mgapBtam,  Uni 
the  MjMi*,  wns  beaieged  by  the  HartBis  I* 
with  a  fllrong  British  army,  and  alter  some  ibi 
sistntice,  Tippoo  was  fain  to  offer  terms  of  m 
He  agreed  ti>  ^ve  op  half  of  bis  domlniOU^' 
£3,500,000  in  boll  ion.  For  the  folfilmealodti 
he  was  under  the  neceiwiy  nf  giving  uplntof 
OS  hostages.  Having  fill  filled  his  mgagenM 
young  piincca  were  Tcturoed  in  1T94:  buialM 
again  corameMsd  bosttlitiM,  and  In  ItIS  Oi 
fMeea,  under  Gtntni  Btati,  oDoe  mon  Wm 
now  captured  Seringapatam.  In  theecnenli 
which  occurred  iu  entering  this  strongly  f(<rti£< 
Tippoo  was  shot,  and  hia  bodv  wiu  nftvrvanl 
uuong  a  heap  of  the  shun.  Thus  terminaiad  a 
wbioli,  though  short,  aud  limited  inrnniecl'' 

best  organised  of  any  that  had  sprung  out  sllll 
of  the  Mogul  empire.  The  principal  war  ia  ■ 
li^tat  India  Company  waa  engaged  after  (Insil 
coDleat,  was  that  with  the  Piudareea,  rovilf  \ 
Mahrattoa,  who,  wilhont  any  territory,  eafncd 
datory  warfare  against  nil  whom  they  eoiiU  i 
impniilly.  The  war  with  the  I'indaceea  ■*> 
great  difficully,  and  it  cost  the  Bmisfa  a  M 
years  before  tliey  fioally  quelk-d  ll>ein.  TW  1 
war  termioaleil  in  1317,  and  it  wan  followal  h 
teat  betwixt  tlio  British  and  the  Bimian  emit 
was  successfully  clooed  in  IS2G,  end  by  ahkhl 
uny  gained  a  eoiiaidcntbla  territory  alMClh 
Bengal,  east  of  the  Brahmaputra  river,  lly  I 
going,  and  other  lees  conspicuous  cnitc-ta  will 
princes,  among  vhlch  may  be  rpckourt!  the  Ml 
(he  Ne|Hiul,  in  IKH,  and  also  by  meanBor]* 
neguttntioDS,  and  voluntary  or  involuiilaiT'  t«m 
territurv,  including  the  capture  or  eesaian  If  I 
the  French  and  Dutch  settlemeals,  the  BfM 
wns  nl  length  cetablLibed  as  supreme  ottch 
wbule  of  Indis. 


Tbs  followiag  has  been  ^van  by  the  boM  an 
as  an  eslimate  of  llio  extent  and  popnlalioB  af 
riloriee  now  included  in  britiali  India; — 

Presidency  of  Bengal,         ■  :>2U,31S        O 

Madras,         -         .         .         .  Hl^lS^       H 

liombay,  -        -        -        .  59,4381       ' 

Districts,  the  population  of 

which  is  deobml,  9lfiM 


THE  EAST  INDIES. 


M  Miolhar  Btatement,  tbc  teiritariBl  extent 
ueinil«a,aDd  the  population  is  e9^77,S0(). 
of  the  allied  or  protected,  thot  is,  the  Hub- 
eitinuted  M  614,610  sqUKre  miles ;  tlieir 
ivcrrer,  is  not  soppoeed  nearly  equal  to  that 
ria  under  the  itninediale  gofemment  of 
Mr  Hamilton,  in  (he  aecond  edilion  of 
I  Gantteer,  eatiniatoa  it  as  tollows ; — 


im,        -        -        - 

-    10^00,000 

^ix-  ■■ 

SfiOOfiOO 

-    3,000,000 

2,000,000 

«B.jab,        . 

-    1,500,000 

3,000,000 

>re  and  Cochin, 

-    1,000,000 

and  Dtlier  petty  atatei. 


iDlbor  makes  the  follawin;  conjoeture  as 
that  Btill  remain  indopendent : — 

4,000,000 

Kajah  RaDJeit  Singh,      ■    3,000,000 

1,000,000 

-  _     .        -   2,000,000 
e  and  other  dittricla  belong- 
tbe  King  of  Cabul,        -       1,000,000 

11,000,000 
give  for  the  whole  of  India  ■  population 
f  140  millicma;  bal  in  the  foi-egoing  eeti- 
a  not  taliea  of  the  portion  of  India  beyond 
including  part  of  the  Bunness  territni-y, 

and  a  pupalntinn  of  Joi,000. 
he  Company  have  governed  their  Indian 
I  meani  of  the  preaidenojea  of  Calcutta, 

Bombay,  each  of  theae  places  bang  the 
>  of  a  local  military  and  ciTil  government. 
^  ifill  be  another  presidency,  that  of  Agra, 
to  ID  the  interior.     The  whole  are  under 

control  of  a  govemor-^neriLl  appointed 
h  court;  these  govemoTB-general  aeldnni 
iituitiona  above  a  few  years.     Mr  Pilt,  in 

an  act  establishing  a  Board  of  Control, 
six  privy-conn ci I lors,  to  superintend  the 
DCeniB  of  the  CoinpaDy,  which  check  is 
i,  and  reappmnlcd  under  the  act  of  \aS3. 
•leMion  of  BO  large  a  territory  as  India, 

require  to  keep  up  a  nuinerona  and  well- 
mcd  forco,  i^'hich  ia  compoHed  chiefly  of 
'poya,  with  Briiish  olflcerg,  and  partly  of 

in  (ireat  Brilain.  The  Company  further 
iber  ot  queen's  regiment*,  who  have  double 
Ihein.     Mr  Uaniilton  gives  the  following 
tile  amount  uf  the  forces  employed  : — 
illery,        -        -        -        15,783 
Ive  cavalry,   -        -        -  26,094 
—  in&iitry,        -        -   334,412 
^Bten,  -        -        -        ■    4,575 
«u'Bti«ap«,        -        -      2M31 

Total,  -  -  30'J,797 
irregulars  of  all  descriptions  amounted  to 
This  formidable  army  of  native  and 
Idiera  ia  distributed  throughout  Hindos- 
nted  tlatioDB,  forming  a  chain  ofmilitarr 
^piDg  up  a  eontinuni  comntunication  with 
the  vurioDR  prcsidenciei*.  Latterly,  the 
Toopa  may  bo  difltrent  from  tliat  above 
KSO,  thry  amounted  to  '224,444  men. 
una  which  subsist  betwixt  the  Company 
utary  and  dependent  states  may  thus  be 
The  Company  undtrlabe  the  defence  of 
It  prince's  territories  against  all  enemies, 
fbnilD.  He  in  bouml,  un  the  other  hand, 
373 


to  enter  into  no  alliancpa  with  other  sovereigns  or  statoa 
without  the  Company's  consent ;  and  he  pays  them  a 
certain  annual  eubaidy  out  of  his  reveuues  for  their 
protection,  while  he  generally  keeps  up  an  army  at  the 
same  time,  for  tho  maintenance  ot  internal  tranquillity. 
In  some  casee,  instead  of  paying  a  Bubaidy,  the  pHnee 
cedes  a  portion  of  his  territories,  of  which  the  Company 
draw  the  entire  taxes.  The  Company  keep  a  resident 
at  the  prince's  court,  who  is  entitled  to  demand  an 
audience  at  any  time ;  and  hy  this  agent,  the  Company 
do  in  fact  interfere  pretty  regularly  in  the  internal  con- 
cerns of  the  stale,  particulariy  in  settling  the  succea- 
sion  to  the  throne.  Ihe  princes  are  in  reality  mere 
vicenii-s,  or  rather  tax -eo hectors  for  tho  Company; 
and  when  in  any  state  gross  miamanagement  or  breach 
of  engagement  repeatedly  occurs,  these  pBgeants  are 
dethroned  and  pensioned  off,  and  the  Company  take  the 

Jovemment  of  the  country  into  their  own  hands.  The 
ompany's  pfoteelion  is  often  found  to  shelter  internal 
misgovemmcBt ;  for  the  prince,  being  secured  by  the 
British  nrmy  sgaiust  the  refcnlment  of  his  own  sub- 
jects, is  tempted  to  indulge  the  more  freely  in  extortion 
and  oppression. 

KEVENl'B  STBTSH  O?  INDIA. 

To  sustain  not  only  the  above  nililary  force,  but  tha 
civil  management  of  India,  a  revenue  of  £23,000,000 
requires  to  be  levied.  About  two-tbirds  of  this  large 
sum  is  derived  from  a  tax  on  land ;  and  as  the  mode 
of  collecting,  impo^ng,  and  administering  it,  enters 
deeply  into  l)ic  system  of  Indian  policy,  and  has  a 
ponerfid  influence  on  the  social  condition  of  the  people, 
we  slisll  here  allempt  its  explanation. 

Under  the  old  Mogul  empire,  the  sovereign  was 
considLTpd  tho  universal  proprietor  of  the  soil  j  but  tha 
ryuts,  or  cultivators,  or  actual  owners,  were  held  to 
have  n  perpetual  right  of  occupancy,  so  long  as  they 
paid  the  fixed  annual  tribute  or  rent  demanded  by  the 
sovereign.  The  rent  was  ffxed  at  a  third,  and  aome- 
timcs  at  a  half,  of  the  value  of  the  produce,  and  the 
futicUonnries  appointed  to  ascertain  the  amount  leviable, 
and  to  collect  it,  were  called  venini/an.  In  1793,  Lord 
C-ornwallis,  govcmor-gcneTal,  with  a  view  to  establish 
a  bstlsTsyBtem  fur  all  parties,  changed  the  zemindara 
friim  the  character  of  hereditarj'  Is i -co Hectors  to  that 
of  proprietors  of  the  Boil,  Ihciugh  still  accountable  to 
government  for  the  rent.  Tim  created  a  vast  deal  of 
misery  at  the  time  ;  thousands  of  poor  ryots  were 
ejected  from  their  ancient  possessions  ;  but  ullimnlcly 
the  country  at  large  was  brneRted,  It  was  arranged 
that  the  sum  payable  by  the  ryot  for  several  yean, 
should  be  fixed  as  the  permanent  rent;  one-tenth  of 
this  was  allowed  as  Ihu  zemindar's  share,  and  the  other 
nine-tenths  the  proportion  psyahle  to  the  government 
or  (.'ompany.  The  rent  paid  to  the  Company  being 
fixed,  great  quantities  of  land  which  had  been  "con- 

fonnerly  made,  and  which  had  lain  in  a  wild  stale,  or 

to  allow  tho  rj-ot  to  occupy  wasto  lands  rent-free  for 
three  years,  and  to  cliurge  only  n  moderate  rent  for  a 
few  years  more.  In  this  way  a  conaiderabie  extcnuon 
of  cultivation  has  taken  place  ;  and  Boroe  of  the  zemin- 
dars have  acquired  wealth.  I'rom  llicir  imjirovident 
habits,  however,  such  wealth  seldom  lasts  more  than  one 
generation  ;  and  no  progre»8  has  been  made  towards  tho 
institution  ot  a  rural  aristocracy.  The  Company  have 
begun  very  recently  to  relraco  Uicir  stcpK.  When 
xeinindariea  fall  into  their  hands,  as  they  arc  always 
doing  from  time  to  time,  by  the  inability  ot  the  holders 
to  fulfil  their  engagements,  the  Comi>any  replace  the 
ryola  as  nearly  as  they  are  able  in  their  original  situa- 
tion, allowing  Ihein  to  hold  their  lands  under  payment 
ot  a  rent  which  remains  tixvd,  either  permanently  or 
for  a  period  of  yeant.  The  Cum]inny  in  this  case  come 
in  the  room  of  the  zemindar,  and  collect  the  renls  ia 
detail  from  the  ryots  by  their  agents. 

This  system  of  "  Keinindary  selllemenl"  prevaila 
generally  iu  Bengal,  Dalinr,  Urb:sn,  and  Benares,    It 


CUAMBERS'S  INFOBMATIONTOR  TUE  PEOPLE. 


^ 


(nu  klM  bMn  tried  on  n  cmill  scale  in  Ihe  Hadm  pre- 
•iilant^y,  bat  with  Tecy  had  saocess ;  but  in  &  modified 
fiinn  rt  tuu  loDg  enatid  in  mnic  pans  of  SDUlhem 
InilJk.  wlicra  hvirdiUrr  chiefs,  callM  /ndgsari,  occupj 
B  aimilkr  nitiutioa  to  tbal  uf  the  EeminiliLn  in  BcDgiU. 
Thmi  ITH  oUnr  two  moilM  of  collectine  the  rant  nt 
Und-taJi  (Tor it  tnayrMcivs  either  nunc);  the  Itgol- 

Tba  rjtilttar  wa*  tint  citenBinly  introdueed  by  the 
kle  oxwlluul  Sir  Thnmu  Munro,  whoa  goveroor  of 
Madiw,  b  1 B02.  I  n  tlus  >y3tcia,  the  |a*eniiDeal  col- 
]m(*  Ihe  rent  directly  from  lio  ryots,  without  the  intCT- 
Tnntion  of  lomlinUis.  Ad  ftcliuJ  iiUTey  wis  nmde, 
»ith  great  labonc  and  cipauo,  of  ths  bini!*  of  Uio  fit- 
bjiM,  tn  which  il  WW  atleniptvd  t»  fix  the  «t«nt  and 
vaiuir  Dot  merely  of  every  ocrapanry,  but  uferery  field. 
Tlie  lecord*  lAoved  tha  wbola  nim  which  iha  TiUap 
had  j«Id  io  former  fcara ;  aiid  fruin  tli!*,  with  tlw  oni- 
liliii»  of  practised  aMMMini,  ohecltHl  and^ided  lij  the 
kdtlee  of  the  village  ^wfdii  and  Mrnun  (Uw  lieadamAO 
and  accaunCant),  ao  Mliinate  «m  f^iniicd  of  the  grom 
pmduH,  lorly-lina  jwr  etuL  of  which  wm  anumiHl  aa 
the  reet.  The  sum  thai  aseerlutinl  wu  flxed  aa  the 
maiimum  which  th*  l«uaDt  should  be  called  on  M  pay. 
The  rent  is  tidten  from  the  ryots  in  monthly  paymButa, 
knd  Tnry  sumiuary  uhuis  ue  used  to  exlurl  it.  The 
•yalrm  •■*  citTcniely  oupoputar  at  iU  intruductiuo, 
Biid  DCeaBiimed  Erotl  diattw ;  but  thia  ww  aUribatcd 
to  tlw  eaeeaaive  amouut  of  the  lat,  ntliir  tlian  lo 
dtfceu  lu  its  ImpcMiliuD.  Tha  n^dnr  xliould  bo  told, 
lliat  liw  pernu»il««  of  the  polaii,  eunium,  h 
aatrulogrr.  seliuolmulart  aou  a  long  train  of  u: 
lacs  funeiionarieB,  are  >uipi<iii>ed  to  abaorb  icd  i 
Mtht  ryot'a  wp,  w  that  uie  furty-tiro  per  cent,  whieh 
(oimimenl  tmil  in  a  (oud  year,  was,  and  was  mi 
la  be,  ane-balt  lit  Iha  clear  produee  after  ihia  dedue 
WM  mada.  Iq  cunsnjiunoa  of  the  oulcry  uainst 
te>i  BDmidarabla abairtnenla  were  mada;  aMthe^ 
■»r  antom  renuJiia  in  opetatian  in  a  part 
prewdencvatthiatii 

('i«ujw  trllleiMitU. — The  third  sjstoin  is  tliB  nfii 
aavur,  ur  "tillage  selttement."  A  villB^M!  in  Iiid 
dv<s  not  mean  a  colleclion  uf  honsea  at  ■  paniculi 
apul,  but  corresponds  to  wb&l  ia  called  a  township 
AiuerioL  "  ll  iia  traetof  eountr)' (saysHr  llamillun) 
campriainit  aome  IbDuxaDdi  ot  aerea  ' 
land ;  politieally  viewed,  it  resembles  a  cnt^ratian  or 
(ownalnp.  Ita  proper  eHtabtiahment  of  oflicen  and  aer- 
Mota  cuiniliita  of  the  followiBg  deacHptions : — The 
wtAil,  or  bead  inlubituit,  who  hJu  the  generiLl  sapei^ 

iDlandeiiee  of  the  ar 

putaa  uf  Llie  inhabit 
lonns  the  imgnrlaut  duty  of  collecting  the  reveuaea 
within  Ilia  village — a  duly  which  his  personal  inHuenee, 
and  minute  acqustutaDce  with  the  aitualion  and  eon- 
Ceriu  uf  tha  people,  reader  hliD  beat  qiudilied  to  db- 
cluu^ai  tlie  cunium,  who  keeps  tha  •ceounls  of  culti- 
valiuD,  atid  registers  every  thine  connected  with  it :  the 
laJiiar  (c>iuataLle),or  lolit  (walcimiaD) ;  the  duly  of  tile 
former  apiiearing  to  consist  in  gzkining  infumutjon  id 
BrimcB  and  utTcuCM,  and  in  eaoirling  and  protecting 
ptirwioB  travrliing  from  one  village  to  anuther "  ''" " 
prufiucfl  ot  the  [slur  appearing  to  be  more  I 
dialely  confined  ID  tlie  village,  couiisling,  among  other 
duties,  in  guarding  the  crajis,  and  aaaullng  in  m< 
•Uring  them :  the  boundary  man,  who  preserves  t 
limita  of  Ihe  village,  or  givee  oridenca  concerning  th< 
in  caaea  ot  diapute:  the  anperinteudant  of  the  lanlu 
•nd  waler.CaurBm,  whodistrihulealbe  water  thcrrfrom 
liar  the  pnrpoaa  of  aericulliire  ;  the  brahmin,  wl 
fermatiM villaeoworwip:  tho aohonbuaatar, who 
tawhiag  tha  dilldna  in  the  Tillage*  to  read  and  write 
in  tha  nnd :  Iha  ealendar  brahnin,  or  aatrologer, 
proabtinw  the  loaky  or  unprupitious  periods  for  so 
Mid  Ihnahing:  111*  aniilb  and  carpenter,  who  manu- 
laoture  ttta  inplamants  of  agriaullur«,  and  build  the 
dwsUintf  of  the  170I :  tlie  potman,  or  potter :  the  Baher- 
Buta  I  the  barber;  tlia  euntkerfer,  who  locka  after  the 


kcla  aa  the  petty  jo' 
r  renter  of  the  villu 
Lt  nnder  the  comind 


idtheryM* 
of  Hadna 

'B  believe,  comparatively 


cattle;  the  doctor;  Ihe  dancing  girl,  1 
rejoicings ;  the  mnucian,  and  tbe  pool.  Theve 
and  servants  generally  con-ttitnle  tlie  ealablidi 
a  village  ;  but  in  some  parta  of  Ihe  oounlry  il  i 

t,  some  of  the  duties  and  fiuieliana  abore  d 
nniled  in  tbe  aame  peraoa  ;  in  othoni,  il 

umber  of  individuals  which  have  been  dr 
L'oder  thia  simple  form  of  municipal  govornm 
inhabitants  of  the  country  have  lived  from  tim> 
morial.  The  bcnndariea  of  the  villages  have  t 
seldom  altered ;  and  though  the  villages  thontseli 
been  aometiTnes  injured,  and  even  dooUted, 

la,  or  diacMc,  the  aame  name,  tho  aame  lin 
even  Iha  same  familifa,  haTO  contiDued  for  an 
lolubiUots  give  thomsetrcs  no  trouble  ahont  U» 
ing  up  and  division  of  kingdoms ;  while  the 
remains  ontin,  they  care  not  to  what  power  it  i 
fcrred,  or  to  what  soveraiga  it  devolves  ;  ila 

imy  remains  unohanged ;  the  potall  b  1 

inliabilant,  and  stiU  acta  aa  tl 
mai-iBtralc,  and  coltoctur  1 

It  will  be  understood  thai  di 
dement,  tbe  government  tr 
'-r  an  extenHire  district,  probably  as  lar]g*  as  a 
ider  the  mouzawar  or  village  aiRlcmeni,  it  □ 
ilh  the  chief  person  of  the  village  tor  the  whl 
munity ;  and,  under  the  ryotwar  aelllement,  i 
acts  with  each  individual  eoltivalor.  Il  may  bi 
toad<l,  tliat  in  ludia  a  ryot  seldom  holds  mc 
tlian  ho  and  bio  family  are  able  to  cultivate,  a 
there  are  fov  farm-servants  in  our  sense  of  tb< 
Of  the  three  modoii  of  settlement,  it  may  b 
thai  the  lemindary  plan  has  yiddod  the  largest  r 
Ihe  method  of  "  village  settlement"  does  do 
much  more  traublo  to  tha  government,  and  i 
liked  by  the  oulljvalon;  tlin  ryotwar  ia  the  n 

ScnstVD  and  troublnuins,  and  has  been  tha  1b 
uclive  of  revenue ;  but  il  wonld  be  the  moat  s 
and  most  advojitagooaa  to  the  people^  if  ths 
justice  were  nut  dtfealsd  by  the  frands  of  thi 
uSicers  intm.'^ted  wiih  its  dL'tails,  and  whose  coi 

Tbe  revenue  derivable  from  land  by  Ihesa 
prucesses  of  exaction,  amounts,  at  has  been 
two-thirds  of  the  whole  revenue  of  the  CompaB] 
sum  of  £U,IIUO,OtlO.  The  next  gnrateM  head  < 
nue  is  the  receipt  from  italire  priDcei,  or  fro 
and  conquer^  countries,  and  which  averages  in 
from  i7 ,1)00,000  W  £8,000,000. 

Tbe  Company  have  hitherto  gained  amiUimi 
per  annum  by  Iho  monopoly  of  opinm.  Th' 
ofTcred  a  price  annually,  which  has  been  fit«i 
lowest  nte  thai  will  remunerate  tho  prodoe 
ryots,  whose  lands  have  been  suited  to  the  eul 
enletwl  into  engsgemenla  to  deliver  certain  qn 
About  twD-lhirdB  of  the  opium  nsed  to  be  amnn 
China,  until  tbe  ChiD»s  stopped  tlia  importUt 
pDe-lhird  was  sent  to  the  eastern  isle*,  Java,  S 
&o.  Salthualsobeenanarlicieofvaluabtelui 
baa  been  manufaclnrrd  on  the  C0.1KI  of  Ihe  Bay  u 
exclusivtly  for  Iho  Cumgiuif.  Befoie  il  iw 
consumer,  ita  pricf  is  enh-inccd  five,  eight,  or ' 
Tho  Company  have  r«itiscd  a  gross  rarcniu 
milUiins  per  annum  from  thia  oouopoly. 

The  customs  dtswn  by  tlie  Company  conaJa 
of  taxes  ci'llecled  at  the  seaports  on  forvu 
brought  in,  snd  portly  of  fraiuil  duties  levMi 
puling  through  tlio  country.  There  are  fi 
duties  paid  in  patelng  from  one  piesidenoy  U>  1 
town  dniicB  on  certain  articles  at  the  gala  ol 
and  market  duties  levied  at  the  market  statios 
fairs  are  held.  To  eoDect  thetw  taxes,  and  gnari 
enntraband  trade,  there  are  eiutomhouses,  mi. 
jtirj,  at  every  eonsiderable  village.  Intheaingh 

of  Madura,  • '        ■■-•»- 

dencT,  111  ere 

which  has  fun 

at  thw  stations,  even  wben  no  dud^  arw  eaigi 

are  Gharscd  by  the  lUtiTii  offiecia  for  iho  toi 


TH£  EAST  INDIES. 


cuniiiatioiif  and  a  good  deal  of  delay  is  caused  in  the 
aiMmisrion  of  merchandise.  These  taxes  are  sources 
f  annojanee  and  occasional  extortion  to  the  trading 
ansa.  Thej  produce  a  gross  sum  of  ^£1,800,000, 
hiefa  is  reduced  to  £1,600,000  by  the  charges  of  col- 
ctiooy  &0.  We  believe  that  a  considerable  portion  of 
w  xeTeftoe  deriTed  from  these  duties  on  traffic  is  laid 
It  by  the  Company  in  the  constmction  of  roads  and 
ridges,  where  improyementa  of  this  kind  are  most 
anted. 
'erritorial  Revenue  of  IndiOj  for  the  year  182d-30. 

Mints, £36,483 

Post-dBce, 132,565 

Stamps, 424,602 

Judical  (fees),  ....  114,670 
Land-rerenne,  ....  14,314,660 
Customs,        ....  1,837,127 

Ceded  territory,  -        -        -        569,676 

Burmese  cessions,  -        -        -        .   103,240 

Salt, 2,421,619 

Opium, 1,757,400 

Muring 61,769 

Ava  indemnification,  ...  92,220 
Bhortpore,         ....         34,800 

Subsidies, 392,355 

Bank  profits,       ....  8,640 

£22,301,946 
Dedoct  orer-estimation  in  land- 
rerenues  at  Bombay,  247,500 


Total  rerenues,  -  £22,054,416 
In  183^-4,  the  annual  rerenue  was  £13,680,165,  but 
lis  large  sum  scarcely  covered  the  expenditure,  in- 
lading  interest  on  the  debt  due  by  the  Company,  which 
i  that  time  amounted  to  £35,463,483.  As  India,  by 
le  taxes  which  it  contributes  to  the  Company,  clears 
le  eost  of  its  own  protection  and  all  its  other  expenses, 
may  be  considered  as  the  only  foreign  possession  of 
ritain  whose  connexion  is  not  a  cause  of  loss  to  the 
other  country.  By  means  of  its  vast  import  trade, 
idia  forms  one  of  the  best  customers  for  British 
ADofiictures,  and  is  therefore  a  source  of  wealth  to 
le  United  I^ngdom.  In  this  respect,  India  has  been 
Jled  **  the  right  arm  of  England." 
Aa  may  be  generally  known,  an  act  of  Parliament 
aa  passed  in  ue  year  1813,  permitting  the  free  trad- 
ig  of  British  subjects  with  India,  reserving  the  com- 
teree  of  China  to  the  Company  ;  the  territorial  and 
mimercial  branches  were  separated,  as  well  as  all 
^counts  connected  with  them  ;  and  the  king  was  em- 
}wered  to  create  a  bishop  of  India,  and  tmree  arch- 
Bacons,  to  be  paid  by  the  Company.  This  act,  which 
aa  in  force  till  the  22d  day  of  April  1834,  did  not  afford 
srfeet  freedom  of  trade  to  India,  yet  it  led  towards 
lat  desirable  result,  and  greatly  increased  the  com- 
leree  with  the  East  By  the  act  3dand  4th  Will  IV. 
mw  85,  passed  in  August  1833,  entitled  *<  An  act  for 
Seeting  an  arrangement  with  the  East  India  Company, 
id  for  the  better  government  of  his  Majesty's  Indian 
arritories,  till  the  30th  day  of  April  1854,''  the  com- 
iny  were  deprived  of  the  exclusive  right  of  trading 
ith  China,  and  ordained  to  close  the  whole  of  their 
immereial  business,  and  nuike  sale  of  their  merchan- 
iae,  stores,  and  effects,  so  far  as  regarded  commercial 
■ets.  It  was  further  ordained,  that  the  whole  debts 
I  the  Company  should  be  chargeable  upon  the  revenues 
r  their  Indian  territories,  but  leaving  a  yearly  divi- 
uid  of  ten  per  cent,  to  be  retained  by  the  Company  ; 
lis  dividend  to  be  redeemable  by  Parliament.  The 
ompany  to  pay  into  the  Bank  of  EngUnd  two  millions 
mually,  till  the  sum  of  twelve  millions  is  accumulated, 
I  a  security  fund  to  the  government.  The  other  prin- 
pal  provisions  were— A  board  of  commissioners,  to  be 
ppointed  by  the  king,  to  superintend  affairs  of  India ; 
engal  presidency  to  be  divided  into  two  presidencies 
-Fort  William  (Calcutta)  and  Agra ;  the  whole  govem- 
lenty  civil  and  military,  of  India,  to  be  rested  in  a 
iTenior*general  and  councillors, 

375 


The  81st  clause  is  in  these  terms : — '^  And  be  it 
enacted.  That  it  shall  be  lawful  for  any  natural  born 
subject  of  his  majesty  to  proceed  by  sea  to  any  port  or 
place  having  a  customhouse  establishment  within  the 
said  territories,  and  to  reside  thereat,  or  to  proceed  to 
and  reside  in,  or  pass  through,  any  part  of  such  of  the 
said  territories  as  were  under  the  government  of  the 
said  Company  on  the  Ist  day  of  January  1800,  and  in 
any  part  of  the  countries  ceded  by  the  nabob  of  the 
Cajrnatic,  of  the  province  of  Cattack,  and  of  the  settle- 
ments of  Singapore  and  Malacca,  without  any  license 
whatever ;  provided  that  all  subjects  of  his  majesty, 
not  natives  of  the  said  territories,  shall,  on  their  arri^ 
in  any  port  of  the  said  territories,  from  any  port  or 
place  not  within  the  said  territories,  make  known  in 
writing  their  names,  places  of  destination,  and  objects 
of  pursuit  in  India,  to  the  chief  officer  of  the  customs, 
or  other  officer  authorised  for  that  purpose,  at  such 
port  or  place  as  aforesaid."  Clause  86  permits  his 
majesty's  natural  bom  subjects  to  purchase  lands  in 
India :  87  enacts  that  no  native  of  India,  or  natural 
bom  subject  of  his  majesty,  shall,  by  reason  only  of  his 
relieion,  place  of  birth,  descent,  colour,  be  disabled  from 
holding  any  place,  office,  or  employment  imder  the 
Company :  1 12  enacts  that  St  Helena  be  placed  under 
his  maiesty's  government. 

By  this  act,  it  will  be  perceived  that  several  very 
important  provisions  are  made  for  the  benefit  both  of 
Uindostan  and  Great  Britain.  India  is  henceforth 
open  to  the  settlement  of  British  emigrants  ;  trade  may 
be  carried  on  freely  with  either  India  or  China ;  and 
Indo-Britons,  Hindoos,  or  other  natives,  are  now  placed 
on  a  level  as  to  political,  military,  or  civil  distinctions, 
with  Englishmen.  It  is  stipulated  that  the  governor- 
general  m  council  is  empowered  to  legislate  for  India, 
and  for  all  persons,  whether  British  or  native,  foreigners 
or  others :  if  the  laws  thus  made  by  the  governor- 
general  are  disallowed  by  tlio  authorities  in  England, 
they  shall  be  annulled  by  the  governor-generaL  In 
virtue  of  these  arrangements,  it  is  evident  that  India, 
with  all  its  social  improvements,  retains  very  much  of 
the  character  of  a  despotically  governed  country  ;  no 
part  of  the  population  having  any  right  to  interfere  in  the 
l^islation  or  executive.  To  enlightened  foreigners  this 
may  prove  an  inconvenience ;  but,  in  the  extraordinary 
condition  of  the  whole  Indian  territory,  a  more  liberal 
policy  would  most  likely  be  unsuitable  If  not  injurious. 
As  it  is,  England  may  expect  to  derive  very  great  ad- 
vantages from  the  policy  pursued.  To  use  the  words 
of  Dr  Wallich,  superintendant  of  the  Company's  botanic 
gardens  at  Calcutta — ^  The  Company's  territories  in 
India  are  productive  of  every  article  which  can  conduce 
to  the  happiness  of  men ;  and  it  only  requires  skill,  and 
ingenuity,  and  encouragement,  both  to  the  natives  and 
Europeans  in  India,  to  select  every  thing  that  can  pos- 
sibly be  desired."  As  the  Indian  population  possess  a 
taste  for  British  manufactures,  a  reciprocal  benefit  will 
be  the  result  of  every  increase  of  intercourse. 

NATIVE  POPULATION — IIIXDOOS. 

The  bulk  of  the  population  of  India  is  composed  of 
Hindoos,  the  primitive  inhabitants  of  the  country',  and 
forming  one  of  the  most  ancient  nations  in  the  world. 
This  race  was  distinguished  for  their  humanity,  gentle- 
ness, industry,  and  were  polished  by  letters  and  arts, 
at  a  time  when  most  of  their  Asiatic  neighbours  were 
yet  only  in  the  first  stages  of  civilisation.  This  remark- 
able people  have  preserved  their  national  character 
for  thousands  of  years,  even  under  the  dominion  of 
foreigners,  and  have  retained  to  the  present  day  their 
language,  their  written  characters,  their  local  govern- 
ment, religion,  manners,  customs,  and  habits  of  life. 
The  Hindoos  are  in  general  of  a  brownish-yellow  com- 
plexion, but  the  higher  and  richer  classes  are  almost 
as  white  as  Europeans.  They  are  somewhat  above  the 
middle  height,  well  proportioned,  and  very  flexible  and 
dexterous.  Temperance,  frugality,  hospitality,  and 
obliging  manners,  are  the  favourable  traits  in  their 
character }  but  they  are  now  reproached  with  indolence 


CIIAMBERSS  INFORMATION  FOR  TUE  PEOPLE. 


n^  pOMMl  gnM  luitoral  UlenU,  but  arv  u  preHut 
dMrindefopportunitiM  for  their  devalripement.  Thp^i 
pnclbcRglMultur*,  bivediiiguraillle,  H>)iing,hDnlliig, 
and  mittjng,  >nil  ar*  l>r|{aly  wigkged  in  inauuhcturc«, 
auamunt,  aad  naiifsliuti.  Tln^y  minuruture  riatlis 
of  gntt  varialj  and  valuo,  parlleiilu'ly  cotton  auiJailli, 
unons  wUc^  "«  tlii  ll»*M  niiulitw  Kiid  ihawla,  tnuts, 
twidotau  lonther,  Ha,,  Kod  ate  inimit&bEe  in  djeing. 
In  tliB  &ru  oF  iniiuc  and  (Uiging  lliey  are  backward, 
but  in  Janeioe,  slatuary,  Hml  arehiteolui«,  they  are 
nuirs  ndvaucrd.  They  arc  aciqnaiulcd  vith  arithDietic, 
Utronomy.  and  ohranolo^,  and  are  loud  ef  poetry. 

Tito  most  extmordiitary  peculiarity  in  the  Uiodoos 
U  ftrlr  dinnion  into  ctulei,  or  perfectly  distinct  orders 
at  avoitty.  whieli  hara  cxiaud  bom  the  renwtcat  tiniM. 
There  are  four  uaatai,  and  it  ■«  alriclly  enjoined  by  the 
Bindoo  nlicion  Ifaat  bo  truuitian  froni  one  (o  anotlicr 
■lull  lakr>  placo ;  no  cunneiLion  between  Ihom  by  mar- 
riag*  or  any  other  way  '»  allowed,  and  no  individual  of 
on*  oUm  call  auuliM  xhe  habila  or  engage  in  tlie  oecu- 
pationa  of  another.  Th#  dialinction  ia  eomptetfl  in 
ersry  •onm,  herrdilary  and  iwrBoniil ;  till  tlie  pririleg« 
or  diaabilitlcfl  are  inherilil ;  no  one  is  permitted  to 
tteeume  what  bo  i>  dntinvd  to  b*  by  hit  natutal  abilities, 
but  i«  obliged  to  bvouinc  only  what  hiibirtlipermibi,  or 
to  T«nuin  what  it  aflmleinna  him  to  be.  Tlie  ali^Unt 
iButtliMM  bWK  in  puuiihed  with  loan  at  cute, 

w,  iu  panioHtar  ouet,  with  dcaih.    " — 

*  of  food  l4 


*  |ireci*ely  Diarknd  o 


Thui;  llH  low< 

reatrietcd 


1,  and  ma; 


av  vat  wbal  |b«y  pl««H 
iIm  Iliuitii",  Uie  ]tm  hu  i 


Ilia  meat  nnd  drink ;  but,  on  the  other 
bainli  the  bordvUMUiM  i«>lri<:liuiH  iuiTnoso  Willi  the 
inftfriority  u[  rank. 
Til*  Fint,  or  moat  noble  cute  Df  the  Uindrnwi  W« 

dnn>>(iiiiiBti-<l  Brahtnins;  they  ars  priest!,  scholar*, 
ti-aci.i-r-,  ];.w_n-i'-i,  ana  aliile  uflicen,  and  art  rcijuirod 
tu  Li' \ irtui'u'i.  Imrnvd,  pcacciLblo,  Jutt,  and  self-dany' 
iog.  The  second  order  is  tlie  Kyctra,  who  are  kiiip< 
and  warriori ;  and  ihcy  are  retiuircd  to  ha>  e  a  thiiiit 
for  glory,  to  die  mlhcr  tlian  retreat,  and  to  he  generous 
tu  eaptire*.  They  preserve  the  aneieol  name  of  nja- 
pnU,  by  aay  of  distiuelion,  in  Ilioir  old  hcredilary 
douiiniona  The  third  order,  which  is  called  Ithysya, 
or  Vaim,  are  liusbandmen  Badin*rDbniits.  Tliefuurdi 
oaalo  ii  that  of  tho  Soodras,  who  am  labourera,  and 
\o  serve  with  palienuB  anJ  fidelity.  A 

,  are  tlie  PaTUB— 

ihi^ir  station  in  the 


kmer  caste,  if  it  can  be  calle< 
tliose  unhappy  lieinis  who  have  loii 
noble  orders,  and  w^in  are  obliged  tii  do  whatcier 
une  else  can  do  williout  polluiiun.     Tliey  are  not  only 
reckoned  unclean  tliemaclvis,  but  they  nmder  unclean 
every  thing  they  touch.    They  are  deprived  of  all  civil 
privikges,  and  stifiiiiatiiied  by  parlJcuUr  law», 
ing  llieir  mode  of  life,  their  housvs,  and  their  fi 
ttiey  are  doI  allowed  to  enter  the  templei  of  llie  olber 
order),  but  ninal  worship  by  IhemtcWee.     Their  bousf 
are  miserable  hovvla,  distant  from  cilice  and  vilbgea. 
Tho  Urahmins,  who  are  not  leei^malely  entitled  ' 
■      ■         ustliveui         ■     ■ 


"  To  say  tliat  the  llindcos  or  MuatulmaiM 

cienl  in  any  euenlial  feature  of  a  civilited  mch 

nsacrtioa  which  I  can  scarcely  siippDSv  to  be  i 

.    any  who  havu  hied  with  tbeni:  their  Dianoer 

;   leul  aa  pleaeh^  aial  eoorleous  as  ihoae  in  ih 

'    spoudinf!  etationi  of  lifs  auiuu(>  ourselves;  tttat 

Their  bouiics  ;  are  birgrr,  and,  Mcordiu^  to  their  wants  and 

rO  tho  full  as  convenient  as  uurs ;  llieir  a)^iu 

it  least  as  eli'^iit ;  nor  is  il  true  thai  iu  the  n 

,  ,  ,      «  uifdrior  li.  the  genera)  mn  of  L 

of  others  for  their  sup[>orl,  clierish  iu  (he  people  •the  j  natinus.     Where  they  CilJ  sliuri  of  us  (which  ■ 

most  debasin);  supeteti lions,  and  exact  from  them  tlie    in  ^lieultnral  implumcnli),  and  tlie  inecliaBias 


man  who  rooks  a  dinner  serve  it  np,  Dor  At 
who  wails  at  table  sweep  the  tdori  ;  and  the  k 
of  elaosiiicatiun  goes  ou  through  all  tlie  pursui 
1b  a  Lumber  of  inBtancea,  Brahmins  liavi 
toldifirs  In  the  eervico  of  the  East  India  CofDD 
without  engaging  iu  menial  employ  ubuls;  and 
claim  precedence  ercu  of  king*,  in  point  vf  ■ 
This  rigoroua  ciacufieatioa  (if  tliv  Hindoos  Und 
prMeuIs  an  obstacle  la  the  advatKcmenl  of  tJbt 
wbiidi,  though  hardlythoughlof  by  thcUriiish 
is  next  to  tniBimouuUblc,  and  will  retard  pr< 
for  an  indefinite  period.  The  Iliudoo  who  bi 
Christi.iu  loses  his  caste  by  partaking  of  tli 
Supper,  and  it  therefore  requires  an  extra 
strength  of  mind  to  nuike  a  profcasion  of  fait 
gospel ;  fur  by  Iwing  his  caale  in  this  or  any  ol 
no  one  will  speak  lu  him,  or  touch  him,  or  I 
liis  own  wife  and  luiit] 
a  I'aria,  a  dog. 


gome  ngoruiu  el 
an  obalacle  to  lupimcBieul  in  niAiin>«*  than 
inerly  supposed.  It  would  aoem  tliat  the  clae 
IB  more  (lleorctio  than  practical  The  altered 
society  luu  obliged  aMmbcrs  of  tho uuiucmlio 
engage  in  divers  rmpluyments  DC  tradot  not  p 
by  their  religion ;  but  tu  al^eu^1plisb  thisebjccl 
sublwAigea  and  self-di.i.ytHio'is  ore  practised. 
there  bavu  arisen  a  pr<H3>gi.>u)  vanetf  of  sub 
the  iiitermial 


by  the  inter 
>llnw«t  to  II 


uixnloi 


»;  Wij'lC 


description 

•ants  of  hnmau  soeiuty  lisvu  crrM 
,>iinlnfract,wciLrcloUlby  thebeats 
ihal  men  of  all  caatc*  may  be  seen  wartiiiii  tn| 
one  handicraft  employnuol.  A  kind  ut  purity 
ia  perhaps,  ncverihclew,  ki^  up  by  Iho  sMd 
diffcxeni  caates  not  eating  wftb  each  othe^  oc 
iDftferliiddenltilnga.  ttiiTalaledtbatfittttya 
nutainedbymesnaofcluhs  or  lodges  sealterM' 
out  Hindustan,  and  eiistiiig  in  eounidcrable 
every  large  town  ;  yeC  il  seems  Ihat  eicmnmt 
from  ilicij;  fralomilies,  i*,  upon  the  whole,  B 
prevent  tbc  bi  caking  dunn  of  ancient  habits,  o 
due  the  dispoallion  to  iniilale  Ills  English  iath 
civilisid  life.  The  Hindoo  racesare,  indeed,  d 
as  now  exeesdingly  anxious  for  improvemimt ; 
raliouiil  to  expect,  that,  tlirough  iJie  roeaoa  ol 
for  education,  a»d  a  ojuullialory  behaviour  on 
of  their  British  neighbours,  they  will  attain 
dtgreeofenllivBtiou.  (In  thb  subjeel,  Buhe 
— an  authority  on  whom  every  clepciideiia»< 
placed — mokes  the  following  atal«menla  in  bit 


ead  of  being  holy,  harm-    mon  lift),  tbey  are  not,  so  ^  as  I  have  m. 

Um,  a'nd  nndsliled,  Ihey  arc  vicious,  tyrannical,  avari-  Italy  and  th>!  soatb  of  t'rance,  imrptiwril  in  >n< 
cious,  and  In  tlie  last  dcgrt'c  impure.  This  inftmous  |  by  the  pof  le  of  those  eounlries.  Their  goUMi 
arialucracy  is  tlie  curse  of  India,  and  priscuU  a  barrier  i  wcavi-rs  produce  as  beautiful  fabrics  m  oar  o« 
lu  llie  attempts  which  hnre  becu  made  to  meliorate  the  |  it  i>  so  far  from  true  llmt  tliey  arv  ubaliaalaly 
eondltion  of  the  Inforiui-  ordi'rs.  Wa  believe  the  Kyetra  |  to  Iheir  old  uatlern",  tliat  Ihoy  show  an  anxiet} 
and  IlhysyA  castes  are  noarly  extinct,  and  that  the  |  lAle  our  mudeU,  and  do  imitate  them  eery  enoe 
UinduonationianiiwcunipogedprincijiallyurBnihmins  ,  The  ships  built  by  uatiie  artists  at  Ikuabay  an 
knd8oodraN,wIlhlhi>ir*ulKlivisiuiis.  Thusu subdiriaiaDB  ouily  as  guod  as  any  ahich  sail  from  London  M 
«ra  innumeriHo : — Kvery  irads)  every  peculiar  depart-    pool. 

mant  of  arrviea,  has  tt*'  elttib  wherefore  Ihv  retinue  Id  the  sclioola  which  have  bsen  lately  calaU 
of  B*r<raiita  to  be  kept  la  very  Urge ;  for  the  nun  wbo  this  part  of  the  empiru,  of  which  ib«ti>  are  al 
eatrtea  iu  your  water  cannot  wail  at  table,  ti'jr  ilia  '  uirie  established  lif  the  Church  W    ' 


THE  EAST  INDIES. 


e  of  the 


liatun  Knowledge  Soeietin,  aone  vtrj  nttex- 
;U  b>vo  ocenrred.  As  k11  direct  attempt*  to 
he  childreD  are  dueliumed,  the  peiente  send 
iDat  HiniplB.  But  it  is  no  lera  Btntnee  tlun 
,  there  is  no  olijectioD  nude  to  t1 
New  Tatamept  u  a  cUaa-book ; 
Aen  do  imC  urge  Ihemto  »t  what  will  msLe 
T  their  cute,  or  to  be  baptised,  or  to  curte 
itcy'agudB,  the;  readily  eonaent  to  eTery  thing 
J  not  ooly  Hnnnlmana,  bnt  Urabmlnt,  stand 
perfect  eoolneaa,  and  listen  aametimea  with 
iutenat  uid  ptstuure,  while  tba  tcholats,  by 


the  roadside,  are  reading  the  atoriea  of  the  oieation 
and  of  Jeaua  Christ. 

The  different  nations  which  I  hare  seen  in  India 
(for  it  in  a  great  mistake  (o  suppose  that  all  India  is 
peopled  by  a  single  race,  or  that  there  is  not  as  p*at 
a  dis^rtly  between  the  inhabitants  of  Guzerat,  Ben- 
gal, the  D«aab,  and  the  Deccan,  both  in  language,  man- 
ner, and  physiugnotny,  as  between  any  four  nations  in 
Europe),  have  of  course,  in  a  greater  or  lees  degree, 
the  vices  which  muat  be  expected  to  attend  on  arbi- 
trary government,  a  demoiaJiiing  and  absurd  religion, 
and  (iu  all  the  independent  statea>  and  in  some  of  the 


CHAMBERS'S  INFORMATION  FOR  TUE  PEOPLE. 


diilriaU  vihioll  &re  p&rlisll]'  ■ubjcct  to  the  Britisb)  a 
liuity  >>[  law,  and  an  alniogl  univerul  ureralsncs  of 
intenine  (eiuLi  iLai  bahia  of  plundor.  Ibeir  genonl 
thunctcr,  hawerer,  baa  much  which  ia  eslremoly 
pIcMlog  Ca  ine:  Ukji  are  bravo,  euuiifoui,  mlalligi>nl, 
and  ma*l  ca^cr  after  knowledge  and  improTmiciuti  vitb 


kabto  U 


Domf ,  &o.,  I 


iiutinmriiw.  and  eleinentaiy  ioMmi^tion ;  the  indiapo- 
ution,  or  ralher  tlie  horror,  antortMUHd,  till  iilelj,  by 
many  Binang  liieir  ICurajMnQ  muWrs,  for  giving  them 
inurucLion  of  any  land ;  Bud  now  from  the  real  diffi- 
enlty  which  eiisU  of  inuulatinf  workB  of  scienea  ioM 
Uugnages  which  faava  do  iwrTHpuadiiig  Mrms-" 

The  Tvlipoua  belief  of  tbo  Itindooa  ia  called  Brah- 
miniun,  and  is  founded  on  a  most  uxleDuve  coUectioD 
of  aaored  recorda,  of  whioh  the  Bnbmina  are  al!o>v«! 
to  be  the  »te  expoiuidere.  "Theso  Baered  wrilingn 
(>aji  Mr  Slalbnai,  in  his  *  Indian  ReeollnAions'}  arc 
of  two  Idnda — the  Vedaa  aad  Sluatree.  The  former 
may  be  termed  their  Scriptnres,  the  lalMr  expositioiu 
of  them.  De«9  Muni  (Uiat  ix.  Bean  the  Inspired), 
a  prophet  who  lived  in  the  reign  of  Judi^eer,  on  the 
banka  of  the  JuQUUi,  near  the  present  city  of  Ddfai, 
eulleeted  all  the  delaehed  piccea  which  form  the  Vedaa, 
flmm  all  nartii  of  India,  and  gnvo  them  their  pr«Bent 
form  anJ  amogement.  They  are  di*id(4  iotn  four 
bookii,  all  wtituai  in  tht  SuEerit.  The  firct  book  ii 
tailed  Bug  Veda,  whioh  dgnidas  the  Science  of  Diviua- 
Ijan,  eoDMming  whioli  ilprinripally  treats.  Tlie  second 
li  dittinjuiahed  by  tlw  till*  of  tib^iam,  which  eignifica 
Piety  or  Derotioii,  and  th'i*  book  tttmia  of  religious  and 
moral  dntka.  The  third  ia  Qia  Jaipa  Veda,  vhicd^  aa 
the  word  Impliu^  faidade*  the  whole  aolenoeu  Rriifiona 
lUtes  and  Ceremoniei!.  Tlie  fourth  is  denominated  Oba- 
ter  Bah :  in  the  Ssnaeril,  Btalrr  signifiefl  the  being  or 
eeeence,  and  tnih,  good ;  thia,  literally  interprel^Ml,  i^  the 
knowledge  of  the  Good  Being,  and  luwardingly  ihiabook 
comprehenda  the  whole  Bcienee  of  theology  and  meta< 
phyaical  philosophy. 

The  Vedae,  ns  also  the  Shaftres  or  EomlneittaTleG, 
lovtend  to  great  antiquity ;  so  much  so,  (hat  many 
Europeana  have  been  strangely  alaggecwl  in  their  belief 


The  idaa  which  the  Shattree  give  of  God,  ia  that  there 
!•  one  npreme  Being,  whom  they  clyle  Bhoeabon  or 
Edier,  aoiMtiinee  Kbodab;  pruwediog  from  Iiim,  are 
three  powers  or  deities,  namely,  Brnhmha,  ilie  Creator 
of  all ;  Vishnn,  the  Preserrer  of  all ;  and  Seeb  or  Sheva, 
the  Deatroyor  of  alL  Now,  whilit  the  latter  is  woi>. 
■hipped  by  all,  tha  former  has  scarcely  any  attention 
paid  to  bis  temptea ;  and  even  Viahnn,  tlie  Preserver, 
haa  few  vutarics  compared  wiih  the  destroyer  Seel. 
«  theM  are  330,000,000  iBft-nor  goda  and 


"ding  powers  oflenliniea  secies  to  oncronch  upqn  the 
ererugative  of  his  compeer,  aod  thus  are  oflen  quarrel- 
unf  aod  tcekmg  to  subvert  eacli  other's  arrangementa." 
One  of  their  most  superslltioua  practices  cotiaiila  in 
worshipping  or  deifying  the  waters  of  the  Ganges. 
This  Urge  and  beautiful  river  eitenda  from  weat  to 
•aM  acroas  an  eitsnaivg  dialriot  in  lliudoslan  Proper, 
bauries  may  be  rooehed  by  a  very  large 


I  iu  the  population  i 


a 


the  water  are  carried  to  all  parts  of  InJii 
BWom  by  in  coons  of  josticeL  "At  Alkfai 
tinum  liia  above  entertajning  writer),  where  tl 
of  tbo  Gauges  and  Jamna  unite,  the  eoaaaj 
miles  round  is  considered  aaored  groniid  ■  aa 
ia  the  number  of  {Hlgrim«  who  resort  thlthn 
'  T  haa  received  in  ouo  your 
.  ,  niasioD  la  enjoy  the  boMfil 
.  .  sacred  flood.     Uaoy  Mn  the  Uirea 

hero  annually.  The  penoas  who  thna  U) 
their  aoperatition  an  geaerally  fomalas,  who 
all  parts  of  the  eouotry  to  perform  the  tiuic 
who  show  a  liniuiaa  of  purpose  worthy  a  bs 
Several  of  them,  accompanied  by  tbe  prieal 
in  a  boat,  and  proceed  to  the  spit  where  tl 
unite,  when  cacli  of  the  vietims  in  sncct— itw 
from  the  boat  to  the  river,  with  a  Ur;ge  «• 
fastened  In  lier  body,  and  u  nupported  by  a 
aliB  liaafllled  the  pan  with  watrrfrom  theatn 
the  priest  lets  go  his  hold,  andsheunkstoiis 
amidst  the  sppTaUMa  of  tha  spectators,  wbilat 
mlns  onjovlhe  »eene,  ind  extol  the  fortitude 
victim  to  her  who  is  about  lo  tbllow." 

The  MW  ia  an  aniniiil  held  aacred  nmong 
does,  and  cow-dung  is  used  in  the  templra 
piseea  as  n  species  of  holy  ointment.  The  lot 
with  tail  laxctriant  loavf^  is  hkewiie  held  in 
ration.  Some  of  the  temples  or  pagodas  at  & 
'  high  antiquity  nnd  giniuic  cane<|ptiai 


■ppeaninei 
always  ma< 

:h  gradually  grow 


ifulal 


«.  1*he. 


madeiuahugepyramidf  Ina  numbsti 
gradually  grow  ttarrower  •■  they  sff 
top.  losidemaybeseen  theeowljwoown, 
or  some  other  object  of  adontion.  IIa«  nv 
pUce.  One  of  the  mo 
that  of  Juggemanl,  whM 
n^lc^  disCanee.  Bnoi  m 
prooesiiDna  of  idol  can,  targe  hesvy  tn 
lurea,  which  are  dragged  aTong  by  the  uiuiu. 
(lie  thoulB  of  BSEcmUedthousands.  As  the  w 
swiftly  on,  felf-devotcd  vielims  rush  forwaJ 
themsetvea  before  them,  and  are  crushed 
exullbe  in  the  hope  of  thus  eecuring  a  [MB 
celesliiJ  abodes.  The  practice  of  widow*  I 
themselves  on  the  funeral  pile  of  their  Imi 
another  horrid  rite ;  hut  it  has  been  sapima 
cent  times  by  the  British  government. 

Besides  Braliminigm,  there  are  a  variety  ti 
beliefs  and  cocts  in  loiUa,  but  all  less  or  atr 
on  the  most  gross  Bupcralitipoa.  Each  pM 
own  templea,  imageSi  and  orders  of  prietfM 
Boodiiists,  previous  to  thuir  violent  eipulat 
lliudooe,  were  second  in  poiot  of  nambera; 
rel^on  is  riCw  hitle  known  in  India,  and  it 
chiefly  to  Thibet,  Birmah,  Siam,  and  Ceylon. 


There  are,  it  is  believed,  four  original  ladj 
India,  and  of  these  there  are  s-ime  hundreds  (■ 
diffurtng  leas  or  more  fn>ni  each  other  and! 
originals,  and  maintaining  bIh)  a  partial  dislmci 
tbe  introduction  of  Arabic,  Pereic,  and  otba 
words.  While,  however,  each  tribe  haa  lis  a 
li.ir  dialect,  all  use  one  language,  the  Suucnl 
sacred  writings.  The  Sanscrit  is  a  dead  laagnaf 
prubably  once  spoken  ;  it  is  wonderfnliy  peni 
construction,  and  extremely  enpioua.  Its  al] 
called  DrvmagaTi,  divine  Blpbabet,  becanaa 
to  have  t^d  its  origin  from  the  gods,  wboes 
ii  is;  it  consiats  of  lifty  tetters,  and  ha*  three 
The  next  language  in  estimatian  ia  the  Pracr 
comprehends  the  various  dialects  nsedia  eaot 
ingandaociiU  tnlercuurw.  The  dialects  of  Ih 
an  spoken  in  llengal,  and  include  that  whi^ 
'lo  principal  spokea  longoe  lb  1 


THE  EAST  INDIES. 


total  population ;  and  notwithstanding  the  suh- 
.  of  their  political  predominance  by  a  Cliristian 
their  religion  continues  to  expand.  They  are 
;er,  however^  the  sanguinary  zealots  who,  eight 
d  years  ago,  in  the  name  of  God  and  the  prophet, 
desolation  and  slaughter  among  the  unconverted 
Open  violence  produced  uttle  effect  on  so 
a  people ;  and  although  the  Mahommedans  sub- 
tly lived  for  centuries  intermixed  with  Hindoos, 
ical  change  was  produced  in  the  manners  or 
9f  the  latter ;  on  the  contrary,  for  almost  a  cen- 
st,  the  Mahommedans  have  evinced  much  defe- 

0  the  prejudices  of  their  Hindoo  neighbours,  and 
ig  predilection  towards  many  of  their  ceremo- 

Tfae  warlike  portion  of  the  Mahommedans  hav- 
sently  been  dislodged  by  the  British  from  the 
tta  courts,  where  they  had  found  shelter,  thoy 
een  obliged  to  seek  employment  in  inferior  sta- 

The  BlMiommedans  of  India  are  more  intelli- 
nd.  possess  ereater  strength  and  courage  than 
odoos ;  but  they  are  also  more  proud,  jealous,  rc- 
il,  and  rapacious,  and  their  fidelity  ia  much  less 
m  by  the  British  government.  In  some  districts 
iioDunedan  popuLktion  is  nearly  as  numerous  as 
the  Hindoos,  and  both  seem  to  live  in  a  state  of 

amity, 
ies  the  Hindoos  and  Mahommedans,  there  are 

1  scattered  tribes  in  India,  of  a  very  different 
ter  from  either,  and  often  inhabiting  mountainous 
if  country,  and  cdled  Garrows,  Moneuls,  Tartars, 
jnonff  the  different  races  is  found  that  of  the 
B  or  Persians,  the  ancient  worshippers  of  fire, 
ice  driven  from  their  native  country  by  the  per- 
g  Bword  of  the  Arabs.  Many  of  this  people  are 
:,  and  they  take  the  lead  in  the  commercial  tran- 
s  of  Bombay,  Surat,  and  other  north-western 

Their  genenl  conduct  is  quiet,  orderly,  and 
able. 

rithstanding  what  has  been  related  of  the  strict- 
'  the  Hindoos  ro^arding  modes  of  living,  they 
iable  to  fall  in  with  European  usages.  In  Cal- 
ind  other  laive  towns,  many  of  the  wealthy 
I  imitate  the  British  in  their  dress,  household 
ire,  equipages,  and  style  of  living,  and  show  a 

dttire  to  mix  in  their  social  parties,  to  which, 
nr,  they  rarely  find  access.  The  English  take 
IS  to  conciliate  the  friendship  of  the  native  tribes, 
er  weU  behaved  and  intelligent  they  may  bo. 
his  foolish,  surly,  national  prido  (says  Bishop 
'),  I  see  but  too  manv  instances  daily,  and  I  am 
leed  it  docs  us  much  harm  in  tliis  country.  We 
It  guilty  of  injustice,  or  wilful  oppression,  but  we 
)Qt  the  natives  from  our  society,  and  a  bullying, 
nt  manner  is  continually  assumed  in  speaking  to 
*  The  exclusivencss  of  this  species  of  nauteur  is 
ips  folly  more  remarkable  with  respect  to  that 
of  persons  who  have  drawn  their  ori^n  irom  the 
tonne  betwixt  the  English  and  natives.  These 
^■Britiah,  as  they  are  culed,  form  a  part  of  the 
■btion  of  Calcutta,  and  are  a  very  interesting  and 
■ning  people.  **Many  of  them  (sa^'s  Statham) 
^9j  opulent,  and  others  can  vie  with  the  more 
|»led  of  their  European  neighbours  in  literary 
WHWiiUi ;  notwithstanding  tliis,  there  is  a  marked 
»V(t  shown  them  by  Europeans  generally.  If  a 
^■^  lady  should  wed  with  an  Indo-Briton,  the 
«  of  an  the  higher  circles  would  be  closed  against 
Wwever  rich  the  man  of  her  choice  might  be." 
i,itata,of  tilings  will  happily  be  modified  by  the 
vioos  (^  the  act  of  Parliament  already  narrated. 

BUBAL  CHABACIKBI8TIGS  AKD  PIIODUCTS. 

ththige  and  fertile  territory  of  Bengal,  as  well 
all  other  parts  of  India  where  the  cultivation  of 
ofl  is  pnxBued,  the  art  of  the  husbandman  is,  as 
be  expected,  still  in  the  rudest  state;  and  in  every 
iff  thflce  exists  great  room  for  improvement,  which 
9g  eofuld  so  well  facilitate  as  the  settlement  of 
icnt  European  families.    In  the  inundated  dis- 

379 


tricts  of  Bengal,  rice  is  the  main  crop  which  is  raisedi 
at  least  durine  the  wet  season :  it  grows  to  its  greatest 
height  while  the  lands  are  overflowed,  and  is  frequently 
reaped  by  men  in  canoes,  the  ear  only  being  cut  off, 
and  the  stalk  left.  When  the  peasants  go  to  market 
during  the  height  of  the  flood,  they  teke  their  families 
with  them,  lest  the  house  should  be  washed  off  during 
their  absence  with  the  boats.  Rice  is  the  summer 
crop,  requiring  much  heat  and  moisture ;  but  during 
the  cool  dry  season,  from  November  to  April,  they 
sow  and  reap  another  harvest,  consisting  of  wheat, 
barley,  or  different  kinds  of  pulse :  this  is  called  the 
dry  crop,  because  it  is  reared  without  flooding  the  lands ; 
the  rice  being  considered  as  the  taei  crop,  for  a  contrary 
reason.  There  are,  therefore,  two  seedtimes  and  two 
harvests  in  this  rich  country.  Besides  these  regular 
crops,  many  small  grains  are  sown,  which  are  limited 
to  no  particular  season  of  the  year,  and  which  reward 
the  industry  of  the  Indian  cultivator  with  a  rich  vege- 
tation at  all  times. 

Besides  the  different  kinds  of  grain,  the  fSarmers  of 
Beneal  raise  a  number  of  other  products,  of  great  value. 
Of  these,  one  of  the  principal  is  indigo :  this  is  a  small 
plant,  shrubby  in  its  growth,  but  in  its  leaves  and  flowers 
very  much  Uke  the  common  tares  of  this  country ;  it  is 
sown  during  the  rains,  and  raised  in  rows  or  drills. 
The  leaves  only  are  useful,  on  which  account  it  is  cut 
repeatedly,  without  being  allowed  to  flower,  which 
would  make  it  drier  and  less  juicy.  The  leaves  are 
steeped  and  beaten  in  a  vat  among  water;  i^r  which 
the  liquid  is  strained  through  cloths,  and  set  to  evapo- 
rate in  shallow  troughs  phiced  in  the  shade.  This  is 
soon  effected  in  that  warm  dry  dimate ;  and  the  indigo 
is  then  found  deposited  in  a  crust  at  the  bottom.  The 
process  requires  much  preparation  and  expense ;  and 
it  has  only  succeeded  well  since  the  country  has  enjoyed 
peace,  and  there  has  been  a  prospect  of  employing 
large  capitals  with  security.  It  now  produces,  however, 
a  large  return  to  the  cultivators;  and  gives  a  new 
source  of  wealth  to  the  country.  It  is  cultivated  along 
the  whole  course  of  the  Ganges  up  to  Delhi,  and  is  an 
annual  in  the  lower,  but  a  triennial  in  the  upper  pro- 
vinces. It  succeeds  best  on  overflowed  grounds,  and 
in  dry  seasons  is  apt  to  fail.  The  number  of  factories 
of  indigo  in  tho  Bengal  presidency  is  estimated  at  300 
or  400.  A  few  of  uiem  belong  to  natives ;  but  they 
are  chiefly  in  the  hands  of  Englishmen,  who  take  leases 
of  ten  or  twenty  thousand  acres  of  land  in  the  name  of 
native  servants  (not  being  allowed  to  hold  it  in  their 
own)  from  a  zemindar,  for  the  purpose.  They  encou- 
rage the  ryots  (native  cultivators)  to  raise  crops  of  the 
plant,  by  making  advances  to  them  in  money.  They 
purchase  the  produce  at  a  price  agreed  on,  and  erect 
works  for  extracting  the  dye  fi*om  the  plant ;  the  whole 
of  the  operations  being  generally  conducted  by  native 
labourers,  under  native  superintendants.  It  is  observed 
that  the  establishment  of  such  factories  raises  the  value 
of  land,  extends  cultivation,  and  spreads  a  certain 
degree  of  improvement  in  tho  villages.  The  importa- 
tion of  Bengal  mdigo  into  Britain  began  about  forty 
years  ago,  and  has  since  increased  to  an  amazing  extent. 
Mr  Crawfurd  calculates  that  about  9,000,000  lbs.  are 
annually  exported  from  Calcutta,  of  which  7,000,000 
lbs.  come  to  Britain,  and  tho  rest  goes  to  America, 
France,  Germany,  Sweden,  &c.  About  £1,680,000, 
he  thinks,  arc  expended  for  rent  and  labour  in  its  pro- 
duction, and  it  realises  in  Europe  a  sum  of  £3,600,000. 
In  the  countries  named,  Bengal  indigo  is  silently  obtain- 
ing a  preference  over  every  other. 
'  Silk  is  raised  in  great  quantities  in  Bengal  and  Orissa, 
between  the  latitudes  of  '22**  and  26%  and  it  has  hitherto 
been  very  nearly  a  monopoly  in  the  hands  of  the  Com- 
pany. It  is  chiefly  produced  by  the  native  Indian  worm, 
which  affords  four  crops,  or  sometimes  six  in  the  year : 
the  Italian  worm,  which  was  introducetf  half  a  century 
ago,  yields  only  one  crop  a-year,  but  of  a  finer  quality. 
The  Indian  silk,  compared  with  the  best  European 
varieties,  is  ^  foul,  uneven,  and  wants  staple ;"  but  its 
cheapness  has  brought  it  into  extensive  consumption. 


CHAMBEUS'S  INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


Tho  Qiinp&ay  hxre  cler^D  tmUitiea,  or  "  fllalureB," 
whicb  fonii  the  cmitrea  uf  "dtvlts"  vUliin  which  the 
enlHTmlion  of  silk  ia  cUTiinl  on,  och  having  o  ceitain 
nunibor  ut  tubordinilc  Btetlons.  The  silk,  in  Ihe  raw 
Mtiile,  ia  purchjvwd  from  t]ia  ryots  kt  tlio  facto  riea  or  buU- 
tavlomi,  vouitd  off  tho  coeoona,  Uid  |irepa»d  far  traoa- 
mlMion  to  Europe.  AWut  1,81)0,000  ]le.  are  aanualljr 
brought  to  Englanii,  of  wbioh  a  ven  Bnmll  quanlitj  (one 
per  Dml)  it  eqoil  to  the  finest  silk  ;  the  mass  of  it  is 
deoidtdly  inferiur.  There  ig  Mruug  ground  to  moclude 
that,  ander  the  new  act,  ihe  uroduction  of  Bilk  in  India 
will  be  gi'sally  tocreued,  audits  prioo  in  Great  Britain 
iDwered. 

C"ltun  has  loog  been  cultiTnlcd  by  tlie  natirca  In  all 
tlia  three  presiileodes.  It  ia  universaU;  of  the  kind 
called  "  aiiorl  Btaple,"  and  being  coane  in  qiulity,  and 
badly  cleaned,  it  felchta  oaly  Ino-Ihirik  of  thepnce  of 
American  aliort  ataple  in  Iha  Bi'ilisll  market.  Tile  heat 
qnalitv  comee  from  Banihay  (the  Quaenkl) ;  the  next 
Ironi  Hodnu ;  and  the  wont  from  Bengal.  The  culti- 
Tatian  being  enlinity  in  the  hands  of  iJte  naliro,  ie 
rodeJyci»id"Oted;«Bd,iii  |mrlicular,pniueare  not  taken 
U  renew  the  plant  coDSlnnlly  from  the  aaed,  ae  the 
Amerieana  do  with  the         .      •      ■ 


of  til. 


Cdnipnny,  and  by  private  iadividuali . 
cultlrata  liner  eiKCies  than  tluwe  iu  use,  but  they  have 
■enerally  been  failure*.  There  i«  no  doubt,  however, 
tliai  by  tliD  iniroduciion  of  European  cipilal  and  tkiil, 
ilie  qualin  of  Indian  eotton  may  be  much  improved, 
and  what  M  raised  aaot  to  the  market  in  k  much  cleaner 
and  bcilcr  oondiiion.  The  exporta  uf  collon  from  India 
to  all  countries  amouotvd  in  1627  Iu  68,0(10.100  lbs.,  uf 
wUieh  only  a  tiilrd  pirt  comv  Iu  Gr*al  Urilain, 

Tlie  eultivalion  of  the  sugar-ooiw  is  punned 
|ntaC  lueeewi  in  Bengal  end  ulher  parts  of  India, 
obisSy  by  the  nalires,  for  domaitie  ooe.  Tbe  pnHMSf 
of  brahing  tbe  eanea  ia  an  a  rude  plan,  and  the  augar 
which  is  produced  ia  from  ihisor  someullier  causa  very 
inferior  to  the  Bugar  of  lh>:  West  Indies,  tn  no  arlide 
of  priiduce  is  there  grcaliT  room  for  improvement  Ih^in 
in  thin.  The  cultivation  of  the  cane  requirca  great  earn 
and  ekill,  and  tlic  mecliamsn)  fur  extracting  and  pre- 
paring the  sugar  can  only  be  ei'ccled  at  a  great  outlay 
of  capital.  It  is  anticipated  that  when  Europeans  are 
permitted  to  hold  hinds  freely,  and  la  embark  capital 
on  sugar  plantBliuiix,  sugar  of  good  quality  may  be 
ninnubctured  much  cheaper  tlus  in  the  West  Indies, 
where  Ihe  price  of  Isbonr  is  much  higher. 

The  bamboo^  a  speinea  of  cane  or  reed,  ia  much  cul- 
tivated in  Bengal,  It  grows  la  the  aniazidg  height  of 
forty  feet ;  and  though  it  arrives  at  perfection  in  two 
yean,  il  has  all  the  firmiies*  of  the  hardest  timber.  It 
has  joints  like  a  reed,  or  tike  grass,  and  'la,  like  them, 
quite  holluw ;  yet  il  is  ho  strong  that  the  porters  of  the 
country  use  it  far  Euapending  the  heaviest  burdens 
betwern  their  shoulders.  It  is  used  for  besma  and 
uprights  in  building  houses;  and  beiug  pruteoled  from 
damp  by  a  kind  of  nalunl  varnish,  it  will  last  iu  endi 
wlnationa  fur  a  hundred  years.  It  serves  alsit  for 
making  bridges,  fur  the  maslii  of  Hmall  boats,  and  for 
inoumerable  other  purpose* ;  yet  of  this  useful  material, 
one  acre  of  land  will  yield  ten  times  as  much  as  Ihe 
aame  space  will  produce  of  other  wood.  None  of  the 
jiniduclian*  of  India  put*  ao  many  eonvnniences,  in  re- 
gard to  furniture,  house*,  boats,  &c.,  wilhin  reach  of 
the  poorer  classes,  a<  the  bamboo.  It  would  require  a 
large  s|>ace  lo  mention  eteu  the  tuuneg  of  the  plants 
useful  to  mmi,  whieh  Sourlsli  in  tlie  luxuriant  soil  of 
Ueiigal,  Cutliiu,  tobacco,  tlieopinm  puppy,  rape  (which 
i)  oullivsted  for  llie  sake  of  its  oil),  eucumben.  vege- 
Ukle  marrow  (as  one  of  the  gourd  tribe  is  called),  and 
innumerable  other  phuils,  always  aSord  a  pleutiful  hai^ 
vest.  Of  fruit-treee,  there  ore  tlie  nianeu.  which  ia 
■onielbing  like  our  peach,  the  dale-tree. 


-^ 


In  high  perfvolioi 
■Ijalin.    -^^  ■■ 


eient  for  the  fiubsl»ler>ee  of  mankind  in  the  (onotllq 
where  it  grows,  ra  various  and  useful  are  its  prodlMl^ 
iode«d,  there  are  some  populous  islands — -Ilic  klaUM 
and  Laccadivee — on  the  coast  of  IndU,  where  liUlaM 
ia  cultivated.  IM 

In  tlie  iiileriuT  of  iBdia,  Ihe  lea-plonl  is  aaU  M  M 
risli,  and  is  likely  to  become  of  great  iniponancc  US 
tmde  of  the  country.  Diatricti  lying  between  the  M 
and  Seih  degrees  of  north  Utitude,  aud  Ihe  Sllh  od 
96tlidcgreeBof  east  longitude,  are  dt scribed  as  poooa 
ing  this  shrub  in  abundance,  and  of  a  quality  equal  a 
thai  of  China.  In  ABSsm,whichlies  between  Bob^sm 
Thibet,  the  attempt  haa  lately  been  mads  to  eutlitat 
and  gather  the  product  «f  Uiv  tea-plant  for  purpOMi  0 


.  ms,  I 


liiund  to  be  of  a  good  qualiqt,     Pm 
sons  skilled  iu  the  gathering  and  pmpoi^ioa  ef  dk| 
leaves  liave  been  introduocd  from  China;  a    '    ' - 
■eem*  little  reason  to  doubt  that  Assam  is  a 
producing  lea  to  auy  extunl,  if  euflicieot  ^ 
enlerpiue  were  exerted  la  tbe  imdertalting. 


India  poaeeeaea  a  variety  of  aiiimoEs,  boll)  ql 

nd  birde,  which  ai'e  found  in  no  otii' 
>  quadrupedi,  the  most  cnnapicm 
licli  affords  ai~ "  "  '~  "'    """ 


iwki^ 


of  great  service,  when  tamed,  la  carrying  peiyi 
its  back,  in  an  ornamental  and  coiuuiadioue  •aalS 
up  for  Ihe  purpose.  The  tiger  is  round  in  iW 
marshy  n^ioiH,  or  jungles,  and  Is  also  made  tbe  «1 
of  hunting ;  but  this  ferocious  ouimal  is  now  boaai 
of  rare  appearance,  except  in  the  rvmo4e  poiaal 
India  abouoils  in  inunkeya,  and  hM  a 


if  dogs.  When  Enghah-br«d  d«M, 
(anon  HI  uio  country,  Ihey  speedily  degnnnM*.  b 
toresto,  deer  of  different  kind^  and  arvoailai '  *^^ 


prevail.    There  are  ah 
among  which  is  th< 

creupen,  the  ring-ncckcd  [wrmjufl,  lories,  coohaUa 

firrots,  and  oilier  highly  coloured  feathi-iej  animdl 
here  ore  likewise  vulture*,  bUHtords,  peacaoka,  aa 
neartyall  the  game  birds  and  poullryof  Britain.  1>4J 
and  its  islan£i  possess  many  dangerous  reptiln,  ■ 
erocodilefl,  lizards,  and  poisonous  serpent*  or  soaha 
all  of  which  arc  more  or  Icvs  found  about  river*  aa 
marshes,  aud  render  bathing  in  the  water*  by  no  nwMI 
aafe.  India  bus  olio  many  remarkable  insect  tifta 
one  of  which,  tlie  ketmes,  produces  a  fine  teariet  M 
Fill),  of  an  immense  number  of  varieties,  obsuud^ 
all  Ihe  streams  and  waters,  and  are  frequently  of  M 
ceeding  brilliancy  in  colour. 

The  climate  of  India,  though  in  some  high  dwtiW 
salubrious  and  pli-asanl,  is,  on  the  whole,  til  su1m4I 
Ihe  constitutions ol Europeans.  Therearv  ibreeaaaM 
— Ihe  rainy,  ould,  and  hot ;  llie  rainy  iu  general  aila^ 
from  June  till  Oclober;  the  cold  from  November  tl 
t'ebruary ;  Ihe  hut  from  March  till  May,  liuri»  ih 
rains  (he  ulimate  is  unhealthy.  Tlie  teuiperoiui^  j| 
atmosphere  range*  during  tho  hot  months  tram  nM 
105'.  Al  Calcutta,  Ihe  temperature  variMtlitQ^J 
the  year  from  69*  to  Ba°,  but  is  more  commeBly  id 
Bi'.  At  Bombay,  the  temperature  is  generally  mSI 
what  higher ;  and  at  Madras  it  is  higher  still,  lAa3 
notie  being  a  dry  and  hot  tvgion.  This  gnier»l  liotMJI 
uf  India,  and  the  iiisalubriuoa  charaeter  uf  Ihe  t^ 
sctwuii,  produccfi  not  only  discomfort,  but  rendM 
Europeans  liable  to  fevers,  diseaaes  of  the  lirer,  ■« 
compUiuls    not    common  iu    Knglsiid.      To « 


utide,  l! 


try,  on  llie  hinher  grounds,  whe 

agreeable  ;  but  these  pbien 

on  by  the  enfeebled  fuoctii 

vioiu  to  England  ore  often  nenwiary  lor  the  pn 

lion  of  life.     In  cousequence  uf  the  heat  of  the  d 

Kuropawis  amply  provide  thenistrlvea  with  ligl 

gorawnl*!  which  an  uairenally  worn  *i 


0   '•lli.MW 

Kviruiw  NIT  luburb* 

:viiii.anl  lo  inHiapl 

■  i  LH  tho  ninoaiuliug 

■     ■    ■    I  I'.VTiiijriniln  tluR  !■ 

'r-]<uliiii<iii  111  I'i'it'lv  two  riii'I  li  half  tmllluna, 

feMumaitr,  •  Dimhii  ulU«iiiFnl>  sboirt  (wslui  inilM 

nt  Caloiitlu,  !■  Uia  (iml-qvkrlm  or  >h«  nuwountrv*- 

il  from  Buropc.  and  lif««  ■  priiiting>i<nwi  ban  bran* , 

nblulicd,  from  whieb  Uililn  in  »  enwt  vancij  at' 

^uBgw  ha*  b«ni  innvd.     Th*  ihiMilaiuutii»  .alio 

^  ocndncl  ft  ooUt^  fur  lti«  -<uliica*luii  of  nalha 

riHinra,  HindiM^  ur  ftUt«mni<Mliiti*.  ^^niil«r)iviM 

1  Ji]4ieUn>*  oxtrtiMM  of  Iha  mlaakaikr;  bnilji  ft!  lllla 


Vodnu,  lUn  Mat  nf  MiantnuHii  vt  SootiiiOB  IndW 
ilnuttcd  Id  Iha  CwnkUe,  on  llw  ihore  at  tliH  Bay  of 
ngalt In iMltuila  Il'S'narlJi,  iMo^viaHO'  9i'«ML 
a  iliare  b  hvi*  liH<>,  did  dangcmtn  to  npproaoh  b^ 
Mch.  Ob  theboM^ktuiib  tVnf'cOijnrRi-,!!  lilwuiiA 
uiihnMsiirangtii.iuul  ivhiahniay  tw  ruilj  il>r>in>leit 
a  Mtukll  ^m«on.  A  nublH  naev  ot  puMic  cdUlcc*^ 
'Inking  a  eimtainbauau  anil  Murllinmi^t  aImi  aiJurn 
Hi  i«  (r»lt*d  llw  iinrlh  hwch.  Modiw  illlfrn  In  ap* 
LranM  from  OiIituiu.  II  liu  propsrlj  nu  Baroptui 
tn,  t))H  Mttlon)  rmidliiic  in  Ihclr  honin  iu  tbo  niiUt  uf 
4iim>,  and  tmimaciiiig  Itiuinos  la  ih*  di'trlot  a^ipriv 
mtcd  10  the  n-ijt  iirf  of  Ih"  notrvpi.  Tim  iiruioiral 
jfdi  In  M-.irn-  -^i  ii.-..i"~''«,  i>  n  t)*autifu1  KlKiOB. 
ifTBart  III.'  ■  ■'.! « liTt-jandtheiwlioul 

male  1!'  >i  Uiflb  Lho  pbilaitlhoi- 

■  Dril-ll  .'iriaatjUianel  iihir 

viT;  !■■  '  I  I  "'  III"  kind  In  Calcutta. 

miM>'  iiiTiiUxlthajiIliai  DtCai- 

..<mfm>.inu\iir.  Tlie  KwU  la  lh» 
iiiii  nffuril  LuMi  iiinwahta  dnvM 

!<  iibk    AeoMdInK  to  llobnr, " ito 

iii»n«rnii»aaillnerMiiDg,faulan\ 

riiriim^Ulr,  u  )<'""1  d«al  dIvliUd  about  cuMt."    "Vli, 


CHAMBERS'S  INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


wpallhy.  A  Scnich  PreBbj-terian  church  is  now  creeled. 
The  pfipnlntion  ot  Madras  and  iu  saburtis  baa  beon 
eUted  at  DpnrdB  of  JOU,UDD. 

liambajr,  til*  Beat  ot  giivemment  for  tbe  weslcni 
parlBof  Indik,  taksnull  rocky  bUad,  ipog  oa  the  vest 
cnut  of  lliadoetiui.  In  Ikllmde  18*  56*  north,  longituda 
73*  £7'  east.  tlaiiib*y  *u  origin&Ur  some  hilly  rocky 
isl^  but  thae,  by  ths  influaiiceof  the  liigh  (JdeajliaT* 

been  Joined  lo  «ich  othor;  uid  bow  th«  island  '    

powd  pnncrpftlly  of  tvo  nnnjual  ranees  of  wh 
rocki,  extending  from  Rtc  la  eight  initea  in  tenglh,  and 
at  the  diitance  of  about  three  miles  6tnn  each  other. 
All  the  grotmd  that  nn  ba  euliirated  is  now  Uid  out  iu 
agrieultnre,  and  ths  remainder  is  cither  barren  or 
corered  wiUi  the  raddeooca  of  Eurnpcans  and  native*. 
Theae  raideoiiea  ara  on  wet,  low,  nnd  unheBllhjr 
gnnioda,  ever  below  htgh-waler  mark ;  and  from  this 
and  otiier  circunutJuicea,  Bombay  is  draeribed  as  brine 
the  Dioet  inBalubrioQS  of  the  preeidenci™.  The  fort  of 
Binnbay  is  aitnated  at  the  Bonlh.eastem  eitremily  ot  the 
Island,  an  a  narrow  neck  of  land.  The  chief  adrautage 
ot  Bombay  is  ita  deep  tide  water,  which  permits  the  most 
extensive  nalem  of  maritime  trade:  oxcellenl  docks 
are  erected  for  Iha  accommodation  of  the  shipping. 
Bombay  is  the  seat  of  Tery  cxIenHive  trade  with  the 
Persian  Gulf  on  the  north,  as  well  as  with  the  eontlt  ol 
India.  Cotton  is  the  principal  article  of  export.  The 
popalatioa  is  Mated  at  abotit  160,000,  composed  of 
Ch natians,  Jews,  MahatninedanB,lIindacs,  and  Parsees. 

Dtihi,  onee  the  o^iltal  of  the  Mogul  onpire,  is  silu- 
aled  in  26'  41'  norUi,  in  the  province  U>  which  it  gives 
its  name,  and  at  the  distance  ot  976  miles  frnm  Cal- 
CQtla.  This  once  maeniScent  city  is  said  to  have,  in 
former  times,  coTercd  aspaee  of  twenty  sqnaro  miles; 
iu  the  prwent  day  an  immense  nmnber  ot  its  ancient 
ttreets,  hauass,  temples,  and  othar  edi&wa,  ant  in  mins, 
■Dd  ttw  modern  town,  removad  at  aame  distance  fron 
Iheold,  occopieaaepoocofeoven  miles  in  circumference. 
It  is  seated  on  a  niiiRe  of  rooty  hilln,  and  is  hnrn.nnit-'il 
by  walls,  recently  improved  and  Btrccgthcned  by 
British.  The  city  contains  many  Urge  and  good  hoi 
maetly  built  of  brick.  There  are  a  great  numbc 
moaqnes,  with  high  minarets  and  gilded  domes, 
above  all  areseenthepaUco  of  the  emperors,  a  very 
and  extensive  cluster  of  Giilbic  towfr?  and  batllementB, 
and  the  Jumna  Musjeed,  the  Isrgest  and  baiidsorafBt 
place  ot  Alsliommednn  worship  in  Hindostui.  The  chief 
materia!  of  th«ie  poblir  buildings  is  rvd  granite,  of  an 
agreeable  colour,  inlaid  in  tome  of  the  ornamental  parts 
with  white  marble.  One  of  the  principal  characteristics 
of  Delhi  is  thns  described  by  Uisfaop  Heber  :~"  We 
passed,  in  our  way  to  the  Agra  gate,  along  a  very  brond 
but  irregular  street,  with  a  channel  of  water,  eased  with 
atone,  eoadnctcd  along  its  middle.  Thin  is  part  of  the 
eelebnted  aqueduct,  constructed,  in  the  f(rst  instance, 
bj  All  Merdan  Kliln,  a  Pcnian  nobleman  in  the  sei^ 
Tico  of  the  Emperor  Shahjehan,  then  long  neglected 
during  the  troubles  of  India  and  the  decay  of  the  Mogul 
power,  and  within  these  few  yean  repaired  bj  the  Eng- 
lish government.  It  is  conducted  from  the  Jumna,  im- 
mediately  on  leaving  its  mountains,  and  while  its  stream 
i«  yet  pure  and  wholesome,  for  a  distance  of  about  1 2(1 
miles;  and  is  a  noble  work,  giving  fertility  to  a  very 
large  extent  of  country  near  its  buiks,  and  absolutely 

theaole  source  of ■-'-  --  "  -         ■  *  »...t- 

besldes  fknuiihing 

drinkable  water  within  their  iwh.' 

The  British  resident  st  Delhi 
tenaive  autliority,  from  his  having  the  exclusive  charge 
of  the  emperor  and  hi>  family,  his  taking  mcnisanee  of 
all  political  events  iu  the  north. west  of  India,  and  his 
■uperintendenoe  of  many  ex.kings  and  cliiefa.  The 
o«ee  is  therefore  alwap  Riled  by  one  nf  the  ableit  and 
innsl  experienced  of  the  public  fonctinnarirs  of  the 
Company.  The  population  of  Dellii  is  now  computed 
not  to  exceed  3DO,nA0. 

Jlprv,  the  capital  of  the  province  of  the  same  name, 

U  eomnodiously  filiated  on  the  south-weU  side  of  the 

river  Jumna,  in  latitude  37*  ll'north.    The  greater 

3B2 


part  of  this  once  floBrisliing  raly  is  now  in  n 
the  huhilable  part,  the  housts  are  several  n 
height,  and  the  streets  remarkably  najrow. 
a  large  and  ancient  fort,  aurroiuided  with  h 
and  loweia  of  red  stone,  which  conuoanda  MR 
views  of  the  city  and  its  environs.  Tba  prindf 
according  to  Hcber,  are  the  Motee  Mnsjeed, 
fnl  moeique  of  white  marble,  ournl  with  esqa 
plidty  and  elegance:  and  the  palace  bnill  b 
in  a  great  degree  ot  the  same  material,  and  Ci 
some  noble  rooms,  now  sadly  disfigured  and  t 
by  neglect.  Agra  has  been  in  some  mBasnrw  r 
by  the  British  ;  and  when  made  the  seat  of  apr 
wilt  most  likejy  be  still  farther  impnived. 

Ilcnaret  is  an  ancient  and  highly  veoeratc 
Itlndostan,  situated  in  latitude  33°  SV  oorll 
clevnted  piece  of  ground  on  tho  banks  of  tht 
about  hajf-way  betwixt  Agra  and  Calcntl:!.  Tl 
of  this  holy  city  are  extremely  narrow,  and  Ih 
which  rise  to  the  height  of  six  storeys,  are  inou 
united  by  gallories.  The  number  of  stone  i 
houses  from  one  to  six  storeyi  high  eieeodi 
and  the  mud  bonsea  are  about  I6/I<i0,  beside 
hounes.  Tlie  number  of  inhabitants  U  cstji 
opwsrda  of  KUa,000,  exelusivs  of  a  large  bodj 
por>T7  residents,  who  cotno  hither  for  religi 
poses  from  all  parts  of  India.  Benarvs  may 
the  university  town  of  the  Hindooo,  ns  their  I 
religion  are  here  taught  by  Brahmins  aod  leai 
in  various  establishmeniH  for  the  purpose. 
rcckoneil  to  be  o  place  ot  exlroordiuary  ssoel 
in  die  at  Benares  is  the  greatest  happiness  of  a 
because  ha  is  then  sure  of  immediate  admis 
heaven.  The  town  is  distinguished  by  a  ma 
temple  dedicated  to  Siva.  From  ita  great  a 
leliea  of  foraaer  gmtnen,  and  Mtigioua  el 
Benares  may  be  oaiisidel«d  the  DMM  ioterMb 


The  poaeessions  of  tlie  Portuguese  in  IndiiS 
cDiiiined  to  Goa,  and  a  tmail  territory  round  it ;  1 
a  sea-port  tii  the  province  of  Gtizerat;  Din, 
island  near  the  soutbera  extremity  of  the  Gnu 
in)^ula ;  Dhelli,  on  the  island  of  Timor ;  also  U 
China  ;  and  establishments  on  Sumbhawa,  Fk) 
Bomeolhersoftha  Eastern  Itles,  Cob  is  the  oi 
tiere  worthy  of  notice.  It  is  situated  on  the  w 
of  India,  ill  the  province  of  Ilejapoor,  in  latilsd 
north.  2S0  miles  soulb-enst  of  Bombay.  Do. 
period  of  Portuguese  dominion  in  India,  this  ■ 
«p1endid  nnd  populous  capital,  ihe  head -quarter) 
tyranny,  the  seat  of  their  inqnisiiion.  1 1  is  nowi 
ness.  of  which  the  monasteries  furm  the  olUj  I 
portion,  iqd  a  few  miserable  monks,  half  of  than 
-  Ihe  only  inhabitants.  "  Indecd^sayaMr  H 
city  may  be  traveraed  from  one  cxtRmil 
other  without  meeting  a  huliuui  being,  or  any  ell 


off. 


r  popi 


„;"ni« 


grasa,  gardens  and  court-yards  choke'l  with  v 
ajid  princely  dwetlings  and  venerable  abbeys  n 
rapidly  lo  deoay."     There  are  (till  several  dni 


Psnjim,  or  New  Goa,  is  silaated  hve  nulea  ne' 

cntnnce  to  the  harbour  of  Gi<a,  and  ia  new  lb 

Porlugnese  authorities,  and  of  the  busiaeas 

The  territory  in  tho  neighbourhood  of  Oi 


and  chapels,  and  above  two 


from  proximity  and  similarity  id 
Ceylon,  Sumatra,  Java,  and  Uunna,  wtlli  i 
luecaa  and  a  great  number  of  smallsir  ail*. 
lying  between  5°  SO'  and  9°  60"  north  lalitud*,  a 


*«n  Uwir  Iiw4  M<t  Wh.    Ail  r 
tiKl  l>iu-lkniri  .^ 

Vjilii  nil)]' lenull  llii'  < 

la  ifa*  nw  liU>  niiN  (bt,  am 

■I  tiM  iHui,  liUiajt  ilu  *tut«  tinw  M  Uib  iliiiir  nf  ba 

■tuimr  t  <llB  iiu>*»j'«  »)ip»mlTTii  ngint»  ImttlwiJUdBir 

Ktrwforifatiitan— n^*  ■' -— ^  •■<  •n  llnlir'« 

■Ion  (■■  utj  iithi 


Ui  lliEan  Utrj  fti- 
raltfa*     - 


Tha  aliacsKit  u[  u»>l  111  kit  iliu  ptvu^aa  nC 
■urkUIB  SUA  of 


nijtiiAaaarjIamlalaMaiwi  aiul  UiBwbDl* 
*  of  1t>«  panjifat  an  M^immiUt  M  ti»  lu**tt  ebb 
Ttwtti  U>  mnaali*  NommaxitUJDaa  <)r  fnoatal  tio^ 
liluwiila.  ThnircnldmU^ooanlrniiku,  lUauuubiia. 
>r,«llo  dthi  Ul->  r  in  ()>»  nwnlrf ,  bfJlB*<i|  Ikal  axiMf. 

Unm  iiui  i> '  i.r-..  ..i...ii...r  11.11  OnUih  ur  Uw  M»-l 


I  ifD  h,  lhfr«  >i 


,,.„.i..rftil.i 


nbselt,  or  ou  tbc  i'  -  '^arrli-il 

i*J4aqi]lii> — a  ipr":  i '  '  i :  lovii'* 

vldan.     Tii«Fe  t .  :i  i,  uult 

rellw  t»  abUgjcd  lu  ■-■;-;  .     ..  -■.:■-  ,  ■_  ■.niiun*  for 

a  th*  sUtn  dF  Dbopanl,  Oute,  Gi*«f  ior,  Md  Oiadil- 
kI,  tud  Ae  Cqiopiui}'*  pwwmiM*  in  tba  DoKb,  M 
!  ■»  in  unnin  <tt)i*r  iiuwtm,  (linro  ciint  tinrd«*  of 
■Ichis,  ealliti]  Ttiiif>,  wha  iulcM  th«  rua Jo,  Ind  usrrj 
itnalhoilli;  •jaNnuofnuiTilar,  (anhBaakiiof  {iliuxlvr, 
i;  kill  bf  ulnngUDg  tiuii  Qutiftppy  TicUra*.  Tim 
ip  firm  a  iwiuliur  ract^  ami  practice  their  nmnLun, 
n  allcgril,  (rom  B  r<di;$l(nia  principle  I  At  all  ercnla, 
r  bttach  no  iApa  of  arnnimJil]'  in  the  n^'lMH^e.   Th«y 


Utery  proviiU  in  DMieal  wiJ  wrac  «thi>r  puphi  of 
u,  but  ceilher  Id  a  Ri^otl  •xttiil  nor  md  a  avvam 
iclplD.      Tbo   ■IdTM   ore  moall}'  ami  Id  itomtalic 


Bnuuait  doM  not  coonCeniuiea  iU*arj>.  H  omiM  bo 
id  almait  imiosaible  to  oKtirpato  il,  aillior  lif  btv 
HlmDnicion,  for  il  oriftiiulw*  in  tbu  iwUi  at  dillilran 
nninU  (lining  famJuM,  or  uodtr  clitnmuitaDaM  at 
itiar  calainlly.  Snub  U  aonlatlmoo  IllO  lUMrOM  of 
fMroiti,  tiial  tiiBj  will  dlipow  of  Vjcir  oAnrinji  for 
mercM  Irille,  not  trma  wanl  of  alhcttoc,  Imt  laam 
[*  with  ■  viow  M  the  Mving  of  thoir  lirou  SoUiii); 
aran  into  ilavorjr,  th««fon>,  |>r(iv«n>»  i»&lntiddi>,iirf 
t  ia  «  bail,  dmih  bf  iiiM-vaU'Mi;  Mid  id  lon^  na  no 
I  KXiMa  to  r*liwv*  U«  Guiiiihiiq;  catitai  dHrinit 
m  of  »ii|t*iic]'.  it  dow  nol  avtiii  jiMidht*  lo  pfvnuil 


',  homrvr,  nalimlly  npsM  tiial,  wllli  Ilia  adnmot 
UTJIiMClon  and  babiu  at  tMctulwM.  liMnfC]  -W^ 


t 


cnAMBERS-S  INFORitATION  FOR  TTTE  PROM.R. 
ftequcntl)'  libemted  bj  thEir  awuerB  timn  mo 


mm 


IndepoodFiill)'  of  the  « fTorta  of  the  Bishop  of  India 
tnA  IbB  Tolifiii'UB  HtablishiDFat  with  which  hs  is  eon- 
neet*d,  the  Church  ol  Scotlmnd  and  othvr  bodie*  n( 
CtiriHlUm*  have  fur  Mine  j'rmi  btca  pulling  forth  thuir 
luiirliDna  to  attempt  the  conversinn  of  t!«  native  pwan 
TaoM,  aiid  ennsequcntt]'  to  elerale  Iheir  onditioa.  But 
on  the  whale,  very  little  luceeea  hu  crowned  their  well- 
meant  labonra ;  the  Ioh  of  cute,  whiah  ineirilably  fol- 
low* the  abnndontneut  of  the  Hindoo  faith,  maj  be  stated 
M  a  barrier  to  con*ertiion  which  no  power  of  penna- 
■ian  can  tvmove  ;  in  short,  it  has  been  proved  bej'ond 
the  jHiHibilily  of  doubt,  (hat  to  Clirisliuoise  India,  the 

Eoplii  must  in  the  lint  place  be  instracled  in  secular 
lOwledgo.  Aware  of  tliia  fact,  nltention  is  bcginuiog 
lu  bo  directed  to  the  cducitiou  of  the  youDe.  Porlu- 
iiately,  lbs  gcDeral  populntiou  tbrougliout  iMDgal  and 
lUhar,  where  inTesligationa  have  been  made,  are  Kcal- 
eusly  auxious  fur  instruction  in  useful  knoivltdge,  as 
Well  aa  to  Icaru  the  English  language  ;  and  thpre 
ia  a  pro»peot  of  a  plan  of  education  beins  carried 
into  effect,  on  the  basis  of  nalivo  echools  aTrcady  in 

From  all  that  we  can  learn,  it  woultl  appear  that  the 
piewnt  rude  alate  of  learning  amoiie  tlia  native  popu- 
lation Ik  a  degenencj'  from  aoinetliing  of  a  lofl)'  cha- 
jaeter  in  ancient  tunee.  Il  sevma  beyond  a  dnub^  that, 
■onio  IhouBuids  of  years  age,  there  was  aa  enllghteued 
ft  mce  of  liiliabitania  in  tliDdonlan  aa  tlitre  was  abnut 
tbo  wme  period  in  Egypt.  Certain  remains  of  art  are 
on  a  truljr  gigantic  and  splendid  scale.  The  most  ccle- 
bratod  kt«  the  leniploa  of  Ellora.  a  town  near  Arun- 
gabad,  260  miles  from  Bombay.  They  are  said  to 
(Xleud  over  a  circuit  uf  three  h-agun,  and  connisc  of 
atniieailiiua  edilicea  sculptured  in  tlie  solid  rDek,  lUie 
■lie  must  exact  and  beantifnl  archilecture.  They  are 
generallyaboul  100  feet  high,  1 45  fret  long,  and  63  feel 
wide ;  and  contain  thouMnds  of  iculptunid  fignms,  in- 
cluding sphinxes  and  ether  abjei-ta  similar  to  those 
now  seen  among  tlie  ruins  of  Iigjpl.  The  history  of 
these  now  deserted  temples  is  enilrely  lost,  and  imsgi- 
nation  wanders  in  quest  of  tlieir  retnola  and  myiteriouf 


Tui'imig  from  such  matlcrs  lo  otlicra  more  iiiiimately 
conueeteil  nitli  tlie  modem  eonditipn  of  aRoire,  it  is 
grHliryiog  to  anticipate  that  Uritish  capital  and  tkill 
will  speedily  be  directed  in  India  to  the  culliratiou  of 
sugar,  eDlffe,  tobacco,  and  partieuUrly  cotton,  all  which 
products,  from  tlie  extrunrdinarj  cheapueH  uf  labnar, 
may  be  increased  to  an  incalculable  extent,  and  with 
the  must  enlivening  prospect  of  profit,  llilherta  the 
system  of  jurisprudenco  enlablishcd  by  the  Company 
has  been  a  tain  mixture  uf  Hiiiiion.  Itlahonimedan,  and 
English  law,  and  by  no  meana  well  calculated  to  pre- 
aervo  public  tnoquilliEj.  Should  the  giivernment  pro- 
ceed to  modi^  and  extend  the  Kyslcm  uf  administering 
the  Ism's,  at  the  same  lime  relaxing  the  burden  of  tax- 
ation ou  land,  and  endeavouring  to  conciliate  tliii  nativeB 
by  pmmollng  (hose  worthy  of  tru!.!,  mucli  good  niiglit 
bo  anticipated.  By  these  and  oilier  mentures,  suited 
to  (he  geniui  of  the  people,  a  solid  basis  would  be 
afforded  for  the  tureslment  uf  capital,  and  India  would 
gradually  improve  both  in  its  moral  and  pliysical 
coi'diliim. 

Until  within  the  lost  few  years,  the  inlercourte  w 
India  was  carried  on  by  meana  of  vessels  bclniiging 
the  East  India  Company  or  private  traders,  which  um 
the  passage  in  about  live  months  by  the  Atlantic  a 
Cape  of  (iuod  Hope.     This  most  tedious  roule  ia  e 
puntued  by  trading  vessets;  but  the  more  expedilii 
routs  by  the  Mediterranean,  lilgjpt,  and  Red  Sea,  Ici 
Bombay,  with  concurn.'nee  of  Me'hemct  Ali,  is  adopte.t 
for  mail  couvevanee  and  passengers  who  dec  ire  a  guicl; 
traniit.     The  line  pursueil  is  London  to  I'ari*;  I'aris 
lo  Lyons  and  Mameillea  ;  thence  by  steam-boat,  toiieli- 
ing  at  Leghorn  and  Kaplea,  tc  Malta  ;  and  by  another 
tiBuaer  aotn  JVIaita  to  A  iexaadria ;  from  AUvkndria 
bjr  tmiuJ  to  the  Nih,  and  anwarda  by  boftt  lo  Cairo ',\' 
384  * 


thence  by  a  land  Journey  to  SOM  i  down  tte 
from  Suez  lo  lluinb»,  tooehing  al  Hed 
length  of  time  from  London  K>  Bombaj.  i 
daya.  The  expense  of  a  singla  traveller  Is  j 
£lhi,  IBs.  Dd. 

The  circulating  medium  of  India  enuslKsof 
silver  coin*,  paper-money,  and  cuwiua,  3 
common  silver  onrrenoy  is  the  now  eainag*  of 
Potdars,  or  nioney-ehangeTs,  are  a  oomngim 
every  town,  and  sit  generally  inlbe  <]?*"  air  ■■ 
of  cowries  phioed  Wore  tlioni.  Cowries  ■ 
sholla,  which,  not  being  depreciable  by  imilatl 
a  good  medium  for  buying  and  sejling  among ' 
classes.  Their  raJuo  varieii  in  different  {i)m 
following  ia  their  value  in  Caleuttai — I  oowri 
da  ;  20  gundae  1  pen  ;  3'2  pons  1  current  TVft 
shillingH  sterling  (3560  cowrie*) ;  10  eurnr* 
1  pound  sterling.  The  lueca  rupw  ia  10  |urr 
in  value  lluin  the  current  rupee,  which  ia  au  b 
coin.    The  Bombay  rupee  ia  valuad  al  3l  X 

EDda  is  Ss.  The  Britii^h  goveiBinnil  uow  a 
andsomo  and  comiuudluus  coinage,  tho  mor« 
silver  coin  beine  the  rupee,  which  iiearl;  rt«u 
half-crown. 

An  idea  of  the  trade  with  India  may  b«  ohtal 
the  rollowlng  statements :— The  leadtlig'  Mtid 
port  lo  India  bom  BriUin  in  11133,  vnT*  COtli 
faclureB.valuedalL.I,531.tM)D;  Mtton  twiat  I 
L.UO.n.OUD;  wnoik'u  manulacturca,  L.S3T,M0 
wrought  and  aiiwraught,  L.S64,IHK);  imii 
and  unwroiight.  L.Ut.DOO;  liaHwar*  and 
LH-i.Onn:  winei,  L.15a,a0<);  brvr  awl  A,  1 
glass,  L.101,U0U;atationerv,L.5n.00a:bonka,l 
linen  manufactures.  L.4ti,ni>0  :  jexctlen,  tO, 
manufaclurea,  L.I'J.^OOn  ;  apittrel,  U3,IM| 
of  the  other  artioles  ia  under  L  30,000.  T«l 
of  the  artielea  exported,  1.-3,750.000.  In  1 
eluding  those  to  Ceylon,  the  Ullal  ttpt 
L.3Jire.l9S.  , 

The  leading  artioleA  of  import  tfcn  JaSk 
were-indiRO,  L.1,242,000  :  raw  sllli.  L.I.IIM* 
WDnl,L.I<07,tlU0;nttpelre,L.413,0U0;oA^U 
sugar,  ran-,  I,.2US,000  ;  dyed  ooKon,  L.tW^ 
caltei>e'<  .iiid  nui!^liiiB,  L.4!l.nW ;  rlrr,  nM  i 
l,.12K,linU;  prpper,  L.7n,yUU;  torl"i»e-6hell,  I 
i:acli  of  the  other  articles  was  tinder  L.IJ/NM. 


The  folloning  uorils  are  frequently  naediar 
lo  India  ;- 

A<ipiclet.  a  e<iurt  of  ju.ittee. — Uega,  a  brad  I 
amounling  in  llL-ngal  tu  nboul  ihc  ihiH  of  al 
BangaliiiB,  a  dwelling  formed  of  nood,  bamta 
am!  iilhri'  bi.'1><  m-.iU-rMH.—rhattyiar,  a  nld 

— <  .      .■  f  cunlrv.— CWi«% 


..■n    ■     -    ■  ■,■,...,  oi.-^CfSM 

„_■■  .    .    :   ■■  ■>  .   _.;Aa»(,s« 

i>ii-,  I  !■■■ '■  ■-  - ■'—    " '-A*; 

..,!,, 1  ..:,  ;i.,   1......  „i  ..i,  >..  |,i I.— /.or.  u»» 

hi.u-.jii,l.— 7.«.Mr,aualJ>-t.'.~Ji;iir.— tmiif-sp" 
-Mtiinud,  f>  Ihroue.— .Vntoi,  or  A-bb™*,  • 
;o.eM.or  under  the  M.igul  emplre_/'flrfJy. "» 
\»-\..-l;if!.'.l„,  a  wnrd  of    Kt>r<>|iHni  Ut  ■ 

.'>■!'■■  "  ■  >  ■'  ■  '.■'/'inletTf  »2^^>.-W 
.  :.  '   :  <vo»]  Brahmin.— X^ 

11'  :>L>rnlly,  tlie  off^rilf  ^ 

I ."  ..  .:  I  <  I  '  '<i-"l''iL^iiuction.->5;MM,* 

■f  iMi-ntj-iiiii  ciTOjr?.— SuiuArfor.thegiiTerni* 
;oj  nf  a  soubah.— 7^«,  a  lunch,  or  mid-day 
Vakt'l,  an  ngenl  or  ambamdur. 

I  riiblbhai  by  W.  sBd  R.  Cauaias.  I 


nod  l^ih-X^Kii  on  tin 
^-cIiBwi  on  tllB  K»"t  ; 
ui.  kad  KniH-cliow  ■»'  ' 
iJ  K&uig'at  in  ilir  ••■ .  I 

lutD  punlon*  i.'i't'i 
oodduntct*.    Ot  In 


!!■  Bigiiiftn  the  DorOieru  court,  in  c^itnuKMtm- 
Kaiikin,  er  tlie  ■onilicnj  com,  wbora  i]ia  « 
nvrl^  ruiidvdi 


1  iM  iinniillM  «]tMnt,  It  may  e»tiij  he  Uiinjtlar^ 
lion  prcauiH  almoM  every  variety  of  titiutj. 
il«rM'i:ttil  by  thrvw  lkr|^  riroN,  nno  of  wliiA^ 
■g-tuc-muii,  ii  dtterStiM  m  p*  rliaiw  tlu  targoa 
Mriil,  atii  I*  mivri(Mt«d  witti  kII  (ha  ntlMn  bf 
Thcra  BTC  nlM  nwny  other  rtlrviinu,  anil  m*h> 
«  blu  in  the  IbtMior;  but  notliiiiK  i>  kuiiwii  «B 

■  actual  rxlftii.  "  la  UiB  laii|t  liiw  of  lutcmttl 
iim,"  mrri  Mr  Upwrow,  "betircpn  tl«  mpiial 
I  BiM  C^ton,  nr  r^n  milM,  wiUi  but  uu*  *livrl 
pdOJ],  ti>«  Irnvctler  win  iiiiwrTB  erer/  Mfliity 
iCV,  bat  dlipmied  la  a  Tory  tvnarbiblr  maanur, 
I  mum.    K«r  many  day*  hp  ivill  ■»•  uoUiiiig 

■  nniform  extrnded  plaio,  nltliant  tli«  snullvit 
;  a^ii,  for  at  many  day<s  Ixo  will  In  Itvuimnl 
urn  invaiiiitmit  utountuu  at  iha  umw  ia.k»d 
■1-,  AMil  M  uiiTari^iI  in  tbnir  aptitunnai  a*  Iliu 
uiil,  la*Uy,  trni  or  twvlvi  (layii'  mil  omnng  hkoi, 
I,  aad  moruac)^  will  oomplvta  tki  oAtaloEua  of 
ovlu  ualTorml^.  T liera  la  a  cnnnlant  miKMWiIoa 

villogn^  lownc,  knd  eiliea,  with  lil^  walla,  Iflflf 
ind  more  lofty  puodu  [  htgt  uavlgibl*  rivnn^ 
aiwtlng  by  BTljflaitl  canali,  botb  eroirilnl  wUh 
'or  pMMdgrn  lad  baifci  fi>r  burdsii,  ta  dlHimi 
Hth  nUivr,  in  irmj  Tnvi  anil  nvrn  canal,  w 
>  all  dllTwTiat  (Vuin  any  thing  uf  til*  kind  iu  lira 
hawutU."  Obb  gitorraJ  Tiiiiurn,  hawmtr,  ytt- 
10  empln) — iho  ti  itvr  italicUaeM  iif  iJw  oouutry 
!cls  ircca  end  licdgns. 

ilimnle  of  China  ambrnecH  nlmoM  owry  Aenrv 
JiorraoiD'lir,      In  TaHinn  il  rangffii  tnun  «» I* 


Cn^OIBEKS'S  IKFOllllATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


htvh,  to  ta  f'.und  growing  in  a»ory  other  eountry  of 
thn  world.  The  tonipcnture,  however,  iti>r  be  gene- 
t«1ly  doMTlbcd  u  r»llitr  warm  tlian  cold;  but  it  u 
niiich  altvelcd  by  tba  iliraotioa  ut  thit  winds,  whidi  m*y 
be  Utc«U/»id  Wfcv  U»  eompua,"  with  nnitomi 
l^nbritjr,  during  tin  TariougaewKiiu  of  Uioyeor.  Tbey 
Mow  teem  llie  Dortli  nnd  norlh-eut  id  October,  Nov 
ha,  Dwcinber,  Jauiury,  Fubrunry,  and  March,  dm 
wiii«h  nxuillu  lbs  w(Kth«r  is  nllicr  cold  j  in  April 
May,  Tmin  cut  and  noutli-eiul,  wlien  it  is  tuildor, 
klitl  wol;  in  Judo  and  July,  frrnn  the  uulh  uid  nouth- 
wnl,  wiuiii  it  13  hot ;  and  in  August  and  S«|iten>b«r, 
ban  thB-*m,  wban  Ihs  tempcntiiTB  a  oiiprMBively 
Hullrriind  li<it.  Spa^ngsumiuarilyiths  Eoldestmontha 
us  NoTomher,  IJeomiber,  uid  Jinusrj ;  tha  warmiial 
July,  AuausI,  and  Svplember.  Cunlon,  altliough  situ- 
fttud  in  tTiQ  same  parallel  of  Ulituds  as  Calcutta,  is  so 
nuoli  cooler  during  the  winter  inontJis,  that  Kn»  nre 
smcnll;  usvd ;  nay,  ice  haa  frvquunlly  been  found  at 
C^Ioii  of  the  tbialiueiia  of  a  Uollar,  but  anaw  i«  never 
or  nurly  leen.  The  air  ii  ceneratlj'  dry  during  the 
north,  aiiiist  during  tho  muU,  nnd  cteaT  during  the 
WMt  itiuil*.  Tho  uoith  windi  >M  the  most  violent, 
Mid  iJiD  tuulli  Ilio  mwt  feeble.  In  tlio  monthi  vl 
July,  Au|^t,andS*Dl«mbflr,  tha  hurriouiea,  called  by 
Ihs  iubabtUkDta  7'ujr-/un,UHuallj^  occur,  which,  olthuugb 
extremely  viDlenl,  and  ooming  in  eudden  ensta,  seldom 
ooauian  muoh  disaeter,  owing  to  Ihii  inhabitants  being 
prepared  fur  them.  Tha  atiiualc  of  China  a,  on  tho 
vhule,  higlily  ealubriouB ;  and  ninny  of  the  uiiiii)ilainta 
canimoa  in  the  wliole  of  Europo  aro  there  unknown. 
Th*  QiiuEM  pTofeu  to  be  tree  from  atone,  goul,  and 
gisvol  gninplainta;  and  Ibey  aro  at  all  ovcuta  soldom 
'  ■ffwbfd'witli  culaDooDi  diseasoa.  Much,  doubllcM,  i* 
^inc  tu  ihoir  unconuuouly  temperate  mode  of  livi 

of  wnieli  •to  will  have  oec""'"- 

E(ildcnila  foveas  iMwaver, 


tii'ul  lu  XliL'  mode  cif  Iri-atdieiit.  Their  physieiHDB  pru- 
teiulcd  to  distinguiiih /orf ji  dillVreiit  kindaDf  small-pax  ; 
atidwben  a  favtiunblewjrt  appeared,  lliey  eodcavourtd 
to  pcu|iuate  it,  not  by  inoculation  in  the  usual  niodo  of 
iocutiaiuliut  by  inserting  into  the  nostril  a  little  cotton 
VvA  Vfft^  in  the  rtriu,  or  putliuf;  on  tha  clothes  of 
ait  Infcotcdl  Of  late  jears,  however,  the  Europeun 
tnodo  of  VMCination  has  generally  bci-n  adopted,  and  at 
the  pre»ut  moment  has  pi/rliapa  entirely  supcnwded  tho 
amtujut  praetico.  Sore  tyeo,  and  evi'U  tuial  blindneaa, 
>r«  vary  eoaimon,  and  ar«  undoubtedly  la  be  ascribed 
(u  thtto  Jww,  cmwdi'd,  and  emoky  Lahilaliuiui,  conjoined 
wiUi  thdr  practice  of  batliing  the  face  iu  manu  water 
even  In  the  hottest  of  the  summer  niuntli*. 

Several  paria  of  China  have  sulfered  much  from 
MTlli^uakca ;  but  Iliere  is  no  appcorniico  of  volcanic 
orupUons  throughout  the  country,  though  various  sub- 
■unaea  of  tlial  dekcription  are  found  in  Butua  of  the 
ialaada  along  the  western  and  aoutliim  ooaits. 


From  the  groimly  fahuluu*  and  exaggemled  naturo 
of  the  Cliiiiese  n'cords,  an  air  uf  doubt  luu  been  tlirown 
over  all  lh>ir  early  aunala.  I'reteudiiij*,  as  tliey  do,  to 
IntM  the  foundaUuii  of  iheir  empire  not  only  as  far 
Wk  a*  the  time  of  ihs  Uolnge  (of  which,  it  is  well 
wiirlhy  of  rsfiutrk,  their  tnditione  bear  alteetation], 
but  aivii  to  a  urrjud  long  anteoedcui  to  it,  it  can 
ncamrly  Uo  wonderirt  at  tJiM  a  disposiliuu  should  pro- 
vail  to  reject  tho  whole  as  purely  fictitious.  Theni 
niaj'  be  as  much  arror  in  too  great  disbehe^  however, 
M  in  too  rvad^  aoraplaiieo.  The  early  annals  of  every 
— '—  — •  nungltd  up  witk  much  that  is  absurd,  and 
by  tba  snggcations  of  ignoranoe  and  superati. 
lion.  n>«  are  those  Chiuesu  hifttoriani,  who  traoe  the 
citi||iii  of  their  kineduni  hack  tbroug)i  ninety  millione  of 
yean  briore  the  Christian  era,  a  whit  mors  deservmg 
<,f  lidiculo  than  tlie  Homam  tliemselvoi,  who,  with  all 
3SI> 


their  enlightenment,  believed  ttuU  t^  god 
barbarous  mythology  look  an  inunedtata  s 
share  in  sublunary  matlers.  The  onl^  i 
ground  for  wonder,  in  regard  to  China,  is, 
inodcm  writers,  some  even  of  our  own  cuual 
have  given  in  their  adhesion  lit  tliu  fabutoaa 
the  native  hiaturiaDs,  and  prctendud  to  havoi 
beyond  doubt  that  the  Chinciw  emjiire  wi 
more  tliau  2000  years  before  tho  Cliristian  • 
following  may  bo  g^ven  as  an  abstract  of  tin 
their  veracious  tliaorita: — The;  suppose  that 
Mount  Ararat,  doee  not  mean  to  pariieularisi 
vidusl  mouitlain,  bnlmerely  the  flnt  laud  wbi 
itself  upua  the  subsiding  of  tlia  deluge,  which 
iccturc  to  be  the  elevated  ports  of  Asia :  That 
lowed  tlie  track  of  tho  Urge  rivers  of  China  i 
southward,  as  lending  to  a  fertile  and  opei 
and  became  tlie  founder  of  the  Chinese  mi 
idoaliijing  him  with  the  Fo-hee  or  Foo^ht 
hiitory  :  That,  beeonung  offended  with  the 
bis  rebel  offspring,  he  sepaiated  1>imiM>lf  fj 
i^hurtly  before  their  prcauiuptuuua  cr«ctiu 
Tower  of  Babel ;  and,  steeriug  bis  counu 
afler  2UD  yearn'  (lervgrinatiurk  settled  blniai 
of  the  norlherit  provinces  of  China  ('J  1 1 4  ya 
Christ).  Uere,  liavlng  sottlod  bia  colony, 
bliaht'd  the  religion,  laws,  aud  ^venuncul, 
had  received  from  his  antediluvian  nucesion 
in  the  llSih  year  of  bis  reisn,  nnd  SoOth  < 
(1999  years  before  Cbriit).  lis  was  suececdv 
nong  or  Zing-nuivg,  who  reigned  140  ycaJ^  i 
death  (IH59  years  before  Christ)  left  the 
Whang-tee  or  lla«ng-lee,theioveniDrt)(  Chin 
metic  and  other  ana,  who  reigoed  100  vcar 
,his  death  left  the  crown  to  Shau-hau  (lliS 
Christ). 


d  which  is  aotualhr  I 
llhoQ^h  witbout  l£e 


in  the  book  of  Joshua,  ai 
the  old  Chiuuse  annals,  allhoa^ 
tion  o(  any  year.  From  tins  time  dewna 
national  records  hare  undoubtedly  some  appa 
veracity,  being  priucip^y  contained  in  tlte  A 
(w  history)  wnlten  by  Confucius,  who  lived! 
yean  before  the  birth  of  ChrisL  Mr  Bamw, 
researches  tlia  present  age  is  cliielly  indebla 
hifomuitiaa  most  deserting  of  belief  nesps 
ain^lar  nation,  suggests  a  much  mora  nwdi 
rational  supponitiun,  of  vbicb  the  followinc  is 
Blatice; — He  obsei-rus,  that  although  tha  CU 
be  admitted  lo  have  been  among  th«  DiM  a 
the  world,  afl«r  tho  Flood,  yet  thrj  ia  BOII 
have  made  such  progress  in  arts  and  limiiji 
Chaldeans  or  Assyrums;  that  It  is  only  troB 
uf  Confucius  that  they  seem  to  have  silmiiafl 
sationi   that   previous   to  his  tims,  tbe  «en 


;  that  their  hiilorieal  rvenrda  are  m 
abundant  and  couiplete  during  Ihu  last  3000  |t 
the  transactions  nf  each  reign  lUlly  detaiU 
interruption,  down  to  the  priaenl  tioMi  M 
during  tliU  time,  Ilia  empire  of  Qiiua  haa  ti 

any  other  purliou  of  the  world  of  wliidi  «e  pM 


Even  from  this  view  nf  IhesubJMt  venrfi 
ions  must  be  made.     Wo  are,  huw«---      - 
walk  according  Iu  our  lights,  and  t« 
summary  of  Uie  Chinese  djuastiw 
'     .  their  chronicles  begin  to  anun 


utbH 


CHINA. 


*  Tal-tsin,  iu  1644  (a.  dX  the  Chinese  annals  enume- 
ito  twenty-two  unpeinal  aynasties.  Three  royal  fami- 
m  an  mentioned  u  having  possessed  the  throne  from 
'67  tiU  258  before  Christ— Kia,  Shang,  and  Cliow. 
boat  the  hUter  year  appeared  a  Chinese  hero,  Chi- 
NUig-ti,  who  overran  the  empire,  extirpating  all  the 
itty  chieliB  and  rulers,  and  uniting  the  whole  of  China. 
e  also  built  the  great  Tartar  or  Mongolian  wall,  and 
tgued  until  the  vear  207  before  Cliriht.  This  prince 
le  the  first  of  the  present  family  of  Tai-tsiii,  who  of 
unw  are  justly  proud  of  their  great  claims  to  anti- 
litr. 

The  empire  was,  however,  again  dismembered,  after 
a  death,  under  lua  son  Ul-ehi,  but  was  re-united,  ten 
mrs  later,  bv  Lieu-pang.    He  adopted  the  new  name 
'  Hangf  and  founded  the  dynasty  of  Hang.     The 
rinees  of  this  dynasty  extendeid  their  conquests  confti- 
nrably  to  the  west,  and  took  part  in  tlie  affairs  of 
e&tral  Asia.    The  reli^on  of  Tao-tse  prevailed  during 
letr  ascendancy ;  and  m  the  same  period  Judaism  was 
trodnced  into  China.    In  tlie  course  of  time,  the 
rinees  degenerated,  and,  under  Hien-ti,  Cliiua  was 
vided  into  three  kingdoms  (220),  which  were  again 
sited  by  Wu-ti  (280).    Whilst  the  whole  aspect  of 
uope  was  changed  by  the  general    migration  of 
itiona,  two  empires  wore  formed  in  China,  with  the 
Ltinietion  of  the  dynasty  of  Tsin— one  in  the  north 
tse),  and  the  oUier  in  the  south  (420).    After  this, 
Una  was  torn  by  internal  commotions,  and  almost 
rery  province  had  a  separate  ruler,  when,  iu  990,  the 
iople  elected  the  able  Shao-Quang-Yu  emperor.    He 
M  the  founder  of  tlie  dynasty  Sing,  or  Song,  which 
igned  till  1279.    His  immediate  successors  resembled 
ia,  yet  the  country  suffered  considerably  by  the 
nrastations  of  the  Tartars.    Under  Yiu-tsong  (1012), 
le  Chinese  were  forced  to  pay  tribute  to  the  Tartar 
Mo-tsang.      Whey-tsong  overthrew  tlie  empire  of 
Mo-tsang  (1101);  but  the  Tartars  possessed  them- 
dvea  of  the  whole  of  the  north  of  Chma  (Pe-cheli), 
125.    Kaot-song  II.  was  their  tributary,  and  reigned 
rtr  the  aouthem  provinces  only.    Under  the  emperor 
Bag  timnr  the  Chmeseformed  an  alliance  with  Genghis- 
Chan,  and  the  Niu-eheng  submitted  to  this  great  con- 
Mpor  (1181).     But  the  Mongols  themselves  turned 
Mir  anna  against  Cliina,  and  Kublai-Khan  subjected 
km,  after  the  death  of  the  last  emperor,  Ti-ping 
1260).    Under  the  Tang  dynasty,  arts  and  sciences 
bvished  in  China;   several  of  the  emperors  theni- 
\  were  learned  men.    The  Chinese  authors  call  the 
dynasty  of  emperors  Yuen  (from  1279  till 
.  ^  and  Kublai-Khan  is  by  .them  called  Shi-Uu,   This 
1  the  first  time  that  the  whole  of  Giiua  was  subjected 
fneign  princes.    But  the  conquerors  conformed 
entirely  to  the  Chinese  cuHtonis,  and  left 
lawji^  manners,  and  religion  of  the  country  un- 
Most  of  the  emperors  of  this  line  were  able 
Bat  after  the  death  of  Timur-Kliau,  or  Tsing- 
(Tameriane),  1307,  and  still  more  after  that  of 
hTimur-Khan,  or  Tai-ting  (1318),  divisions  in  the 
fiunily  frequently  occasioned  internal  wars, 
weakened  the  strength  of  the  Mongols.    The 
I  Cba  took  up  arms  acainst  the  voluptuous 
lor-Khan  or  Shunti,  and  the  Mongolian  graiulecs 
divided  among  themselves.     Toka-mur-Klian 
iiato  Mongolia  (1368),  where  he  died  (1379).     His 
Bisnrdar  fixed  his  residence  in  the  ancient  Mim- 
eapital  Kuvkorum,  and  was  the  founder  of  the 
01  the  Kalkas,  or  northern  Yuen.    This  state 
aot  vemain  long  united;  but,  after  the  death  of 
-Timnr  (1460),  each  horde,  under  its  own  khan, 
independent;  in  consequence  of  which,  they 
,  with  few  exceptions,  constantly  kept  in  suhjec- 
to  C*'"*  after  this  period.    Chu,  afterwards  caiU>d 
I  IV.,  a  private  individual,  but  worthy  of  the 
deliverei  his  country  from  the  foreign  yoke, 
^  founded  the  dynasty  of  &Ung  (1368  till  1644), 
Mdi  gave  the  empire  sixteen  sovereigns,  most  of 
km  were  men  of  merit.    On  the  frontiers  of  the 
kwre.  the  zcmaina  of  the  Niudj»hco  Tartars^  now 

387 


called  Mantchoos,  still  existed.  Tho  emperor  Shin- 
tsong  II.  gavo  them  lands  in  the  provinee  of  Leao* 
tung;  and  when  an  attempt  was  made  soon  after  to 
expel  them,  they  resisted  successfully,  under  their 
prince  Tai-tsu,  and  obtained  possession  of  Lcao-tong, 
upon  which  their  chief  assumed  the  title  of  emperor. 
Ho  continued  the  war  during  the  reigns  of  the  Chuiese 
emperors  Huan-tsong  and  lii-tsong,  until  his  death. 
His  son  Ta-tsong  succeeded  him,  and  Hoai-tsong,  a 
good  but  weak  pi*ince,  was  the  successor  of  lli-tsong 
on  the  throne  of  China.  On  the  deatli  of  Ta-tsong,  the 
Tartars  did  not  appoint  any  one  to  succeed  him,  aud 
discontinued  the  war.  But  in  China,  Li-tching  excited 
an  insurrection,  during  which  Hong-Puan  put  an  end 
to  lus  life  (1644).  Li-tching's  opponents  called  iu  tho 
Mantchoos  to  their  assistance.  They  got  p>8session  of 
Pekin,  and  of  tlie  whole  empire,  over  which  they  still 
reign.  Under  Shum-chi,  a  child  of  six  years  old,  tho 
conquest  of  China  was  completed  (1646-47)*  and  the 
present  dynasty  of  Tsing  was  finally  establlbhed.  Ue 
was  succeeded,  in  1662,  by  his  son  Kang-hi,  who  sub- 
dued the  khau  of  the  Mongols,  took  Formosa,  and  made 
several  other  additions  to  his  empire.  During  the 
reigu  of  tliis  prince,  the  Christian  religion  was  tolerated, 
but  his  son  Yong-chiug  prohibited  it  m  1 724.  The  son 
of  the  latter,  Kien-Lungj  continued  the  persecution 
agaiust  the  Christians  (1746-73).  He  conquered 
Cashgar,  Yarkand,  the  greatest  p:irt  of  Songaria,  the 
north-eastern  part  of  Thibet  and  Lassa,  the  empires  of 
Miao-tse  and  Siao-Kin-tshuen,  and  extended  his  terri- 
tories to  Hindostan  and  Bucharia.  He  peopled  tho 
Calmuck  country,  which  tho  expulsion  of  the  Songarians 
had  rendered  almost  a  desert,  with  the  fugitive  Torgota 
and  Songarians  from  Kussia.  In  1768,  he  was  totally 
defeated  by  the  Burmese  of  Ava:  nevertheless,  the 
Chinese  took  possession  of  a  town  in  Ava  in  1770,  and 
returned  to  their  country  witli  tho  loss  of  half  their 
army.  They  were  more  successful  against  tlie  Miao-tse 
(mountaineers).  Towards  the  end  of  his  reign,  his 
minister,  favourite,  and  son-in-law,  Ho-Tehing-tou, 
abused  his  influence  over  him.  Kicn-Lung  was  suc- 
ceeded, iu  1799,  by  his  15th  son,  Kia-King.  His  reigu 
was  frc(}ucntly  disturbed  by  internal  cominution.s.  Tho 
Catholics,  whom  ho  favoured,  have  lust  most  of  their 
privileges  by  their  inconsiderate  zeal ;  and  at  Pekin, 


Daoguan, 

Such  is  a  brief  summary  of  the  historical  annals  of 
this  singular  people.  Throughout  their  chronicles  occur 
many  periods  which  ai'O  completely  blank,  and  these 
chasms  have  been  lilled  up,  as  usual,  with  gross  fables, 
which  throw  an  air  of  doubt  over  the  whole ;  but  it 
is  worthy  of  remark,  that  many  of  the  leading  facts 
recorded  in  their  more  veritable  histories,  have  been 
confirmed  by  cuutempoi-ary  travellers  and  historiaiis  of 
other  nations. 

On  the  whole,  however,  it  api>ears,  that,  instead  of 
having  existed  as  a  great  and  united  nation  from  a 
period  of  3000  years  before  Christ,  as  the  natives  pre- 
tend, China  was  not  formed  into  one  stiite  until  between 
200  and  300  years  before  Christ.  Since  the  cstablibh- 
inent  of  the  Mogul  dynasty,  the  empire  has  not  been 
again  divided,  but  has  experienced  two  great  revolu- 
tions, at  the  accession  of  the  Chinese  dynasty  of  Ming, 
and  the  re-accession  of  the  Mantehoo  Tartar  dynasty 
(Tsing)  in  1644;  and  has  scarcely  in  any  reigu  been 
free  from  revolts*,  wars,  and  domestic  seditions.  Instead, 
therefore,  of  having  a  right  to  be  reganletl  as  a  privi- 
leged country,  governed  from  time  immemorial  by  tho 
same  constitution,  exempt  from  foi-eign  conquest  and 
intestine  commotions,  the  only  peculuirity  it  possesses, 
distinct  from  the  other  empires  which  have  been  swept 
from  the  earth,  is — that  owing  perhaps  to  its  peninsular 
situation,  at  the  extremity  of  the  habitable  world,  and 
its  conse<iuent  exemptions  from  tho  destructive  sweep 
of  those  conquering  nations  who  supplanted  those  whom 
they  overthrew,  it  has  preserved  its  usages  and  man. 


CttAMBEIlSS  INFOHMATION  FOR  TIIE  PEOPLE. 


«ir«airo 


luro  onaltered,  wnid  Ihe  many  inter- 
im nndergonc.  Slill,  the  fact  of  tliu, 
Ibc  gr«mt  miss  of  pa|>uliLti(in  whicli  wm  aver  aailed 
Undur  uiie  gotommeal,  being  kepi  togetliec  ja  0D«  bond 
of  uuioDfarit|>eru<dor  lims  far  eiceediue  that  Kt  wliieh 
tke  eulieal  European  ustion  majr  be  said  to  commeiue, 
preBenU  a  manl  phetiomenan  of  the  greatest  intcreiK, 
•nd  *«m>  alloaetlier  incxplicaWe  by  any  of  the  umal 
priuciplw  whioh  are  auppueed  to  bind  •oeicly  logalber. 
That  It  ha*  ueitlier  been  owing  (o  the  nature  of  the 
gooemment,  nor  the  vinue  ol  the  priaeea,  nor  (be 
morality  and  peaceablo  diipowtion  of  llio  peopl*,  U 
■  ■  ly  conjeclurc  that  the  ByBtem  of 

.11  EOinniuiiicaliim  vith  foreign 
npiieaUng  to  ancient 
Juct  io  all  matters  of 
habit*  and 


alriol  exclui 

nation*,  and  the  naiinoal  baiji 

lUage  a*  tlie  aniverul 

life,  have  served  Io  pn 


their  prlmi 


great  meuorc  unclinngcd.  and  left  unstimu- 
e  energies  invariably  callod  into  acliun  by  the 


The  ^vpmmeBt  of  China  i«  not  ao  much  what  is 
naually  imderstood  by  an  "abaolule  monaroby,"  as  a 
apeciinrii  uf  what  we  learn  from  history  to  have  been 
tliB  buculI  nrrangenienl  of  a  pnlrisrebai  faniily.  TIil' 
•iiipDror,  like  liie  "head  of  a  house"  in  Ihoss  limrs. 
is  perfectly  unlimited  in  bia  power  over  all  nnder  him. 
Ho  can  disiwse  of  Uie  lire*  of  his  subjecia  at  pleasure  : 
can  make  or  nbrogate  whatever  laws  lie  chooaea;  all 
offirn  and  einulunienl*  emanate  from  him  alone ;  in 
abort,  lie  ia  equally  the  snuree  of  all  power,  honour, 
anU  invrcy  iu  the  ntnte.  Ha  ean  even  appoint  his  ovrn 
aneceuor  to  the  throne,  either  from  hi*  own  ^mily,  or 
whatever  daaa  of  his  subjeeta  he  pleaiea.  One  of  the 
leading  principle*  in  the  Chineoo  coualitutioo  is  to  place 
•a  S'etit  *  dislanec  u  poeeible  between  this  univeraat 
autoerat  and  his  subjeeta,  and  ta  hold  bim  up  aa  a 
ilemigod,  a  sort  of  drayontan  betwixt  heaven  and  mor- 
tals, altvnutely  communicating  tho  decrees  of  the  one 
•nd  the  petitions  ot  the  other.  lie  is  altogether  exalted 
•bore  In*  eonunon  groas  sphere  of  bumanity.  He  ia 
atyled  the  "  Holy  Son  of  Heaven,  *ale  guardian  of  the 
Mrth,  and  father  and  mother  of  his  people."  In  fact, 
he  is  beltevtd  to  be  a(  hwiveiily  origin  ;  and  this  super- 
*lilioUB  notion   appeared   sufficii'iiilv   ulnniij^    bv    ilir 

obstaeb.*  op[ri)sed   to    tli*;   huccr... iii<     ]  :-  -i  :.. 

Mantclioo  dynaatyi  on  accL>unt  t^i  \\.'    -   ■ 

able  to  trace  its  descent  through  rn  : 

rations.      The  new  munarch,  hm.i!.      i      .  j 

genciluyy  to  be  drawn  out  and  puMisiiod,  iibuflii  it 
waa  givtiu  out  tliat  the  daughter  of  heavrn,  descending 
on  Ihe  borders  of  the  Ukt  I'uulkouii,  at  tlio  foot  of  Ihe 
Whilo  Mountain,  and  ealinK  unnie  red  fruil,  conceived 
and  bore  a  son,  partakin?  ..f  Ii^t  iiituv.  iiml  endowed 
■'■■■  ■  '■  ■'  ili'MiPop'' 


UtsnoMl 

laufh* 
and« 


Confueiua,  £00  fears  bdtw*  Cbriat;  and  imd 
doctrine  of  tlie  Chinees  at  this  boor.  i 

This  irresponsible  antoectt  boan  tvn  dkA 
racters:  first,  that  of  Uigit  priest;  and.  oeciri 
of  the  sovereign  of  llie  empire,  or  "  hther  arf 
ot  the  people."  In  Ihe  &nt  clianolac,  he  ia  «j 
ator  with  Heaven  fur  the  rina  of  the  natioB); 
officiator  at  all  solemn  rilra 
ing  the  favour  of  God.  Ite  1 
of  all  the  bleseings  the  peof 
crops,  favourable  weather,  J 
of  public  eataiuity,  storms,  i 
IsK,  are  also  Uid  to  his  cliai(o,  y<K  aueh  l| 
tatustion  of  Ihe  people,  that  they  forglT*  Utj 
consideration  of  Ihe  proof  ibuialfotdcdoj  thai 
of  Heaven  to  his  conduct '.  Uul  care  ia  «tn>^ 
present  his  charaeler  m  the  most  amiable  XipA 
to  his  subjects,  who  only  licar  of  bim  M  fM 
the  Utopian  virtues  of  bisslaiioa — rcmittisf  li 
poniahnients,  protecting  virtue,  puniahing  tm 
relieving  Ihe  poor.  So  mush  fur  tlw  head  at  t 
cutive.  WhatmaybecoUedtheadiDiiwaraliM 
inenl,  oomusts  of  the  omperur**  cOBneil  aod  4 
public  tribunals.  The  coBiidl  la  i'riflt»<|j 
iiiinistera  of  stale,  taken  from  (h*  ttral  'HlT 
darina,  and  presidents  of  ih«  sapratna  IritiMW 
never  assembled  except  upon  oceaalima  ot  caHf 
lie  iniportiuice ;  every  thing  being  in  g«nan|( 
by  an  mocr  council,  whore  the  emperor  ailalari 
There  arc  six  superior  Iribunsla  at  IVkln.  I 
named  LU-poo,  watches  over  the  tratniaf  m 
rina,  or  persona  to  fill  olGcial  aittiation^  aavd 
their  conduct  aft^r  being  appuinlml  ti>  oSm) 
their  proceedings  and  obaneter  to  Ih*  MipM 
in  sliorl,  bis  them  entirely  midw  it*  (orK 
The  second  tribunal,  called  flo.poii,  may  tia  da 
the  court  of  finance,  where  afl  tha  rsvs^M 
empire,  the  myal  treasure*  and  dinn>ia\  mt 
branch  of  public  expenditure,  aro  managed.  11 
tribunal.  Lee-poo,  or  tho  court  of  cerenioiDM,  ■ 
(ends  the  observance  of  ancient  M*t«na  aal  ■ 
ceremonies ;  eKaminee  the  public  srirao^  Mi, 
the  progressof  the  sciences;  reoeites  fateign  <■! 
(a  great  tax  on  their  time  !)  and  rcfulataalti 
of  eiiijuellc  sbuut  the  court.  The  fourth  ttibom 


that  nutinn  chose  bin 
bim  Koa  desceudeil 
eiled  the  throue  ol 


bllllJ 

"K^. 

aimlh  nniii-   nu 

imfacturics,  &c    i 

tribu 

ualsl 

tvc  under  them 

a  great  numb«ra(« 

nale 

ribun 

tls  acatlarcd  thr 

vien 

to  the 

r  vnriouB  objecia  of  insiilutiOB.~CMl 

e  iribuiiala  has 

i'arur  by  blnli 

and  tlie  otbw  •  C 

Tlu.y 

have 

alw,  lacQly.fu 

am. 

BO,  ll 

If  Tarla™. 

Tl 

atao,  auodier  tr 

bunal.  theutnad 

,':;'- 

itself  the  .mrf  r 

rntnTisMl   1 

M-ry  lliing  di-pc 

I  (.f  lllf 


,.  iti 


■1  frii 


been  personally  preeei 

with  such  supenliiiouB  i 

b«  reoltoned  not  ouly  tli 

tint  "arid  hcaidai,  Ihu  utiier  roj.J  j,  i -■  ....^i.,  1,,..,,^  wurl— to  r« 
iDprrI/-  lua  taiuatg.  "  Jfeavcn  liin  not  Iwo  f^mb  ■,  lavv^i  lb*  groiiivl,  u 
/uu  lint  two  kingiia  family  has  not  two  maalers;  wNe- ■  'HVlC  \«au 
niga  power  liaa  nut  two  dirBctoca :  only  una  God  aivd  nwia  '^akI. 
"  ■  Sach  wen  tho  nrocepla  ol  Vho  teatoei  \  i.-v©i\atei, 
30S 


■I'eedinga  uf  each  of  the  t> 
id  subordinate  These  fiinj  tiinialis*' 
prucfvdings  of  the  tribunal^  bwt  fla 
IO  all  Ihe  proceedings,  which  tfaqr  n 
l|<als,  and  these  again  to  the  ampenc 

in  Bhorl,  bis  spies ;  and  by  them  bold 

I  empire.   ""' ilniiiisaii  iihssp 

lu  to  another  every  tbm  ynn,  M| 

I'in^  too  much  inllaeoeo  with  |h*  fM 

obliged  to  appear  npJl 


nthe 


Isofol 


'wi>'W(|iir  uprariU  ta  iha  Mnrnrdit".  • 

I  M  lliu  aUra  o[  bini  immuJiitlttf  Buovo 

Mhkt  k  MiM,  all  ■>«  >«>»•  nr  tb*  bfwnn  oT 

nlirr,  nad  Uinta  h*  wi  iiUiar  heait  (b  hdU  biiIhIj 

ur  mjM  CliE  dii4iu*  of  lynuin]!'. 


'•-»!>  i<  Ulum  tint  Ihc  elilia 

'  -  -, -i  -.|.urili([  tUu  roJ.    Ttl»  kKOtlfUEi, 

i-tf,  It  nnl  iiMii  iiifj-olj  M  an  inittnuniiit  fiw  flaj- 
.>u>7Hoplc.  IniliafimJiimmUlliiwvorthawnpin-, 
ma  tin  v«lt  by  wliioh  uU  {miiUhmoiita  sr*  aiip- 

Ul  bd  linnnrtliiiu'il  lo  lliu'  .Ttliira  nj.iilwtl.-],  u>d 


■  Ittwa  an  mubnccil  In  k  oudc  ulM  tliii  l.Hi-la*, 
1  liui  RonimiUy  niuJ»r»ine  irntur  nioiliJiutlcnt 
f  Mcti  lifvv  ill  ii;i.iy,  >(in  liM  roiiuaucd  CamUiiiitii- 
LlicMiu.  1;  ,1      UnaiM«rihii 

»  of  ill'  i>iFpnipla  In  tlia 

•inBB  u(  ■  .  ■ .   Iilivwlai  pcveiul- 

in  oil   :■■  ,       .1-  >.»<iliiiu'i«.     Tbe 

of  UiP  pi.  ,  ■  ■  ■      -  -'"^  'i'«i-t»in  1.11114m, 

stlrnf  «ix  K"'.ii.  liv.iil,.  In  ,-f:vr«ijJwid  \a  tlio  fiui^ 

(it  th«  cix  liujinrui*  Iriliunal*,  kud  omiiira 
mo  of  tb«  wlinl*  tijfiiunu  df  coiranuDUil. 
a»  ii<mld  uiM,  wt  b*lia*t,  tliMili  uh  for  m  axpMU 
)f  this  lumtuU  of  Atlktio  >rI«|>THdwiiD«  t  hut  iba 

divuieu,  nJativ*  to  crimoa  «jmI  iiunuliniBnta^ 
jn>  matter  <affl«aDUy  norioiu  miu  ivimMliig, 
Min— ^wliielii  bwHclu  tbn  uiiue  of  i«balli(iB,  (nm- 
■luLt  iivn*  iillwr  ii[iinii»  nf  aHwUM^ 

.  .  ,11  lliDfDTnnv.i 

uiB  iM*t  luinriDg  htrloroi.    Sut  it  u  mft  mortlj 

llio  crJmuuT  hiauelf  thai  the  penall;  tai  tnaaun 
All  III"  mill*  reUtioia  of  luoh  p*niiw>ni  iiidi»> 
inttBly  liehi«it«l,  IliH  fsuulM  Mid  lalo  klavvij,  «ail 
vircuimitxiun*n>Unila«>ljr)nitlad«Mb.  And  Ul« 
lid  t}ie  TongMiiec  of  tho  Uw  alwkn  tenuiiiMB  hmi) 
t  too  frcquenUy  hftppoii*  tbw  wliola  vUagtiL  ant) 
tiDHw  autlrs  diMriMa,  are  IndiMrimiiuUalf  tla^b- 
,lbrtht>«rinnuf<inatiiUiTidualI  Tu  bitruib  liitotM 
>r  lb*  irajHrrUI  retiiiu*  wbilo  tha  emparur  ii  tnv(J< 

mUocti  tlw  nifetHlBr  to  dntb.  Unt  uf  Iba  iDMt 
iMdlnan- dtcrvca  la,  thai  if  lb«  •nip«rt>i'(  phynldaii 
mutciw  eoippounaliig  laj  iiuKliaiiiB  In  a  mannar 
■iMliDnail  br  eatabliabod  uiii^,  bg  U  |iuiiub>d  vitb 
iilowa,     Ituqi  dirt  in  fiiuud  amongut  bb  nwJMt^'a 

th*  emk  rMMTM  vigblj'  blowa  i  aul  It  ba  laiua 
untwiui  !ngr«diwnt  or  uuot>,  wbnih  hU  majHiy '• 
A  doaa  not  agnw  vith,  Iw  rcasiviM  100  bluwi,  an-t 
mMlted  to  oratlawtha  luUd*  hini.rin  All  euMm 
idiWale  tourdo*  are  punbttmblD  by  iltatli ;  anil 
1,  witli  llip  meat  liu^nns  t<.<rlurv>i.  la  dunuuiiuoj 
wt pirrioiitra.  Tlitmiwltj' of dcatbhalauawiirdnl 
ut  a  alavD  whi>  lUiall  Ktriki*  bia  maatrr;  a  aen  *ha 

atrlko  hi*  Iklllar  ur  muUier ;  a  gnuulMin  wlui  olntll 
0  bia  gntDituiuir  m  gnmdinothsr  ( a  wiln  who  altalt 
«  hci  buabtnd'a  Sitbcr,  lODlbiir,  fmidtatbar,  ra 

' '   -     Jlut  jf  a  rathor  kill  a  Kin,  gnuulKinj  III 

dEutnlly,  tba  puniakniMil  U  do  mom  loan 
■^-'—  -  ii.ju.daypw'.  i 


CnAMBERS'S  INTORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


Iltwon  UiisimpnrlontliQmt  iifiO-llicr  illustrated  hvllie 
following  decree—"  Tlint  a  t^iiiia  or  grandchild,  wlio  is 
euilly  of  luidroBiihig  kbuuTe  Unguage  to  liis  or  lior' 
[MberiirmolheripalernaJgnndfalherDrgniiidinalher ; 
K  wi/s  who  is  guilty  of  the  Hkma  to  her  liiuband's  fathe-r 
or  mother,  paternal  grwidfather  or  graadmoUier — Bboll 
'- -  "--  -'rulft  l-ylidnp  ilranpleJP' 


merely  to  he  in  Ihp  way  of  reprooF  and  admonition. 
Thecorrection  entendsfromfour  lo  Iwenly  bloi™.  The 
Bcoond  degree  on  tends  from  twenty  lo  forty  of  the  hvrgor 
bamboo-  The  third  it  tcmpontry  baniGhmont  ta  the 
distanu  of  1£0  milea,  extending  from  one  to  three  years. 
The  fourth  degree  ia  perpetual  baniehment,  with  one 
handred  bEo*>  of  the  bamboo.    The  fifth  and  ultimate 

EaiushmeDt  is  death,  nther  by  Btrangulatton  or  dvcol- 
ition.  There  are  abo  variooB  kitida  of  torture  to 
ertort  confession  and  evideiiee.  The  pnniehment  by 
tho  bamboo,  hiiweTer,  ia,  in  the  ease  of  offences  cora- 

or  degradation,  and,  onder  peenlior  circametanees,  the 
benefit  of  etimmutation  by  line  ia  extended  also  to  pri- 
vate indiridnala.  In  fket.  there  b  a  regular  eeaje  of 
charge*  for  those  not  lecally  excluded  from  tlie  degra- 
dation of  Hogging,  of  which  ail  who  are  rich  cnoogh 
may  avail  themftelves.  The  motive  of  thia  regulation 
ia  Dvidaotly  to  till  ibo  poffcra  of  the  royal  treasury. 


No  correct  cdtimnte,  for  wnnt  of  tho  nncessnry  data, 
has  ever  been  ascertained  of  the  actual  amount  of  the 
revenues  of  this  immense  eraiiire,  o!)d  the  most  diffe- 
rent alatenients  have  been  put  forth  on  tlio  lubject  by 
various  wriien  and  travellers.  TheChlneaothemBDlves, 
of  eoune,  attempt  to  impress  foreigners  with  a  mo»t 
ejcaggmted  idea  of  its  msgnitndc.  A  Chinese  minister 
represented  it  to  Lord  Macartney  as  amounting  to  a 
■um  aooeding  eixtj'  milltoDS  sterling,  of  which,  aflar 
defraying  all  the  eivil  and  military  expenses,  about 
twelve  milSons  were  supposed  lo  remain  for  the  empe- 
ror^ private  support.  Mr  Barrow  rcclcons  '■  lliat  fifty 
mLllions,  in  an  ecanDmieal  government  lilio  this,  whtro 
the  ofHects  and  mngialrates  sreen  Bliitniefullypaid  th.it 
they  could  But  live  without  robbing  the  people,  may  be 

cjttlmate  as  low  as  twelve  millions ;  but  such  a  ealcu la- 
tino is  evidently  absurd.  Perhaps  tho  nearest  to  lite 
truth  ia  thnt  nt  the  intetHgenl  H.  do  GuiRnes,  who 
acmmpaniiid  the  fJutcli  emliiishy  !u  1794.  Ilodrewup 
a  minute  summary  of  each  individual  tax  and  bmngfi 
of  eipendilurc,  and  their  amounl,  and  the  result  was 


Rev 


£.11,; 


e,Ba)-s,' 
ehI  I 
of  ills  Oi 

forgulten  what  lie  himsolf  states  In  nnothefplace,  nln  1 1 
spenking  of  the  various  means  adopted  to  presenc  [li 
emperor's  popuUrily,  he  tells  us  llisl  the  aoveni;.'!! 
snmclimea  remits  a  ivhiilo  yenr's  ta.ifs  lo  his  people — n 
pnjcreding  which  could  uot  eimily  be  put  in  pratlice 
with  an  empty  eicheijuer.     The  emperor  has  also  pri- 

>  Tbli  bntnimenl,  wUlcli  mikca  m  onsiilcnnns  ■  Iljriire  In  lb« 


wvHtblm  t<ro  mil  Iim-thlM  pounili:  Itic  •nioUei  ta  Vl\t  nlr 
tewtb,  f-nlnc'iea  bnni,  aaa  and  nnn-firih  thkk,  iiii'l«c\^t  01 
'BaOTo-UxtUtormfeianil.  The  Inllictlon  la  applied  In  open  «ni 
Buualiiltly  n/wo  am  Vncv  bang  poMcd. 


vnle  domains,  the  revenue  of  wlileh  w««  m 
M.  de  Gurgnes  at  upwards  et  four  minioiw. 

The  revenae  ia  raised  from  a  taitit-lox,  aau 
about  a  tenth  of  its  produce,  one-liajtot  wbicfc  Ml 
in  money,  and  lira  other  half  in  kind.  TfaetviiiM 
this,  a  tax  on  mlt,  coils,  andniaiiu1aiiliir«a;iMtl 
tation-tax  upon  merchants,  arlisans,  fto.,  <ilu  M* 
lowest  in  the  acale  of  society.  It  is  a  odriow  b^ 
the  regclntions  for  colleetine  the  diHiat  en  nM 
tnres,  and  preventing  smuggling,  rMemtils  mmA 
British  ey«iem  of  permila,  exci>*w>(Be>rri,  IigMW% 
In  addition  to  these  TcvenuM  ta  the  laig*  0400001  n_^ 
by  the  duties  on  foreign  shipping  and  mardiMdiH 
which  we  will  hire  further  to  speak  wtiea  wa  etw 
treat  of  tlio  tntde  of  Chin*. 


As  may  be  iinagined,  the  empercr  ia  domieiTaH..^ 
a  style  suited  to  bis  immense  wrnllh,  hif>h  rank,  ^ 
pretensions  to  unlimited  sway.  His  troia  of  enf''^ 
ofncers  of  state,  and  other  attendants,  wheA  he  u 

public,  which  is  exceedingly  seldom.  Ulo 


silver,  th^  appearance  is  inexjiresnbly  ii-„ 

But  it  is  only  while  going  through  tta»  pnUie  ■ 
tiou  that  all  this  show  of  wealth  and  nu^oilicene. 
any  reality.  When  released  from  duly,  tb«T  llfil 
their  mean  and  sotit.'Lry  cells  iu  the  oubikfatU  tfj| 

Calace,  where  they  devour  their  ric«  nut  ti  vMT 
owls  with  their  chop-sticks,  and  then  He  downoaS 
mats  on  the  uncovetwd  Udot,  to  slumber  awmy  iha  ^ 
till  their  services  are  ig^n  required  ;  for  to  Mdi 
oenvorsation  with  his  fellow-alaveet,  would,  tM  bl 
strange  a  dpparture  from  the  national  tacrtante^S 
ject  the  parliea  to  tbe  suspicion  of  oonspinn, 
The  ei *■--  " -' '      —     ^ 

of  two  queens  and  their  attendanti;  um  All 
of  six  qnoetu  and  their  oltcndauta.  Tba  tpifm. 
wives  and  women  are  doomed  to  reaiila  Ibr  t 
witliin  the  walls  of  the  palace,  aud  ar«,  alter  U*  Al 

imprisoned  for  life  in  a  pris'jn  called  the  "  ~ 
Chastily." 

The  princes  of  the  blood  whe 
direct  line  fr.im  Iho  reigning  family,  have  (1 
and  dates  of  biitli  registered  in  a  jeUow  bi 
have  tho  privilege  of  wearing  a  yellow  girdle;  t 
who  are  only  of  coUalcral  desccnl,  Iiava  tlMr  ■ 
cnmiled  in  a  red  boob,  and  wear  a  red  girdle.   SiS 


ipirit  of  tho  ^ 
multitudinou3uobilily,tlint  even  the  prii 
beyond  the  third  gencp-'- 


>oftb*il 


mploymeu 


nine  'f 


nend  tl 


which  rank  is  nttaelied,gradBsl^MI 

-..■-  — Jn  mass.    The  princeshavothajl^ 

of  being  tried  only  by  their  peers,  and  may  pM 
eiiiptic)ri  from  any  corporal  punish  men  I  byafit 
]«.'n,<in^  of  ih-.se  whf.  wear  tlie  yellow  ginUo  anU 
...  ._    ,.,..._.  de*th.I 


'       ■        I    ■  '    .:l,t  ifl[i>K  coll 

i'>^l  fauiily,  like  the  a 

■   i-.Ii.ur.     The  empepor,  tuax 

il    -     ■  '  'h'    I'l   '  T-;Ltili,^re  also  distinguihod  bj 

ft  ilr.ii^iiiis  M  lib  live  claws  embroijcm]  on  llMtr  IW' 

menls;  pvinces  of  the  second  rank  havx  diWMN  ^ft 

four  cl.iws;  these  orihcihlrd  rank,aa  well  a*  thei^ifc 

rins,  h.%ye.  inslcod  of  dragons,  serpents  with  fuw^^* 

The  hutlon  qf  n-rmeny  en  tbe  hoaddreas  of  iW  ^ 

It  consisfg  of  three  dragons  of  g..ld,  pUeai  <m4m 

other,  encircled  and  studded  With  n^rb.  H»aM 


nu  bur,  uhI  IIk  |irnuilwt  rank  iann  roiDiainMicUlinO.  i 
tliK  tndciidual.  Thl»  iiyiOiiiu  ua  ilnubt  ■onlhn  iba 
liUo  mind,  anil  Inducei  Ih*  pounlti  in  lirar  nilh 
lalor  pOiDnee  dut  liunleacn  of  alKc*  miil  Mfctob  sC 
■rat  whieh  Ihej  Ibmatlra  have  Ilu  |)ruap*eL  ot  •>» 
suing  ia  turn.  TSit  r«a)(^  hoocTcr,  la  riMil*  In  HiM 
rnno  nrtj'd  tothfl  i>liii»ilnlity  of  Uio  tjitcm.  "Whurt 
-I  (lOioMt  if  Dlate,"  MTU  Mr  Ituruw,  ■*  ore  ofmi  to  tlM 


ry  lowwt  of  Uio  pewU,  »hBn  )hmm«mi<1  «f  tbo       _ 

l«tU  qiuJUaiUoiH,  tbo  cAudidMiH  fur  emulof  nmol 

a  ounuroiu,  tiiftt  orcry  trilliag  haJi  b  uj 


M  dT  la  oreat*  s  vMnnnj  obd  tlim*  (rtnacat  „ 
noli&Ddilfgradktiuiu&ill  uipnciidy  with  t&aqwtcsa 
govrrnmi^nt,  wliin!)  it  lo  brwc  down,  all  iwiuii>ij<qi 
tvium  Uio  cilRiMr*  aod  tli«  people,  and  tt>  turn  Itia 
ijwot  and  Tcntratlon  of  tiio  UtMr  itKcluJnb  IA  li» 
inniga."  Il  li  ftnmJ,  tlud  Um  ninra  mEBntlM  ori. 
1^  ccodlllan  of  a  tqandariu  haa  Imhii,  Uib  mora  op^ 
casirv  aad  oxtortionato  la  111*  c<induct  tu  thoM  noda 
m,  nol  oul;  irith  tb«  n«w  of  moklua  bin  titifin  lu  fnik, 
tWa  in  his  jirowal  ricratlon,  but,  knuitinu  iIm  inaa 
rity  nf  lii«  kitiuidniii  of  making  tlia  moil  uiU  oliils  ji 
ill  tu»  powur.  Tha  pwipln,  liuwi'vnr,  su  tuujt  psliuttlv 
hi*  exaction*,  aniiTDd  Uut  bin  dinioigaal  M  whlm-i 
«y  lira  acrtaliij  'nrlll  open  LUe  wa;  fi-r  okd  of  tiiM 
Ivca  to  enjoy  tlie  name  i^portUDlUai  uf  fnXihay  ai 

In  Bwordan**  wilL  (ho  national  »yitinn,  lifiwovaii^ 
:«  offlm  of  tnanilarin,  lo  wliieh  all  nnki  nigcrl/  o^ 
re,  ia  atinnil  wliuUy  vnxrumMd  I;  iudiitidiialaa«lMt«d:< 
om  tba  UitM  humlilMt  eliuaeii  tlio  liuabaiiiiiniin,  lli>> 
■Uaan*.  and  tht  marahanta.  TIim«  wba  bataooqiiinll. 
callh,  by  whata<rer  mouu,  ecntmll;  *nwr  Into  uaam' 
'  ihtae  oaonpailoim  to  render  them  ntoiv  •U|[lblii  Ibr 
IB  oinea,  in  ordnr  that,  by  aUuning  it,  they  nay  enjqr 
iidrpBuia*«iep»laim)rai>oettritj.  UAmv  iinrduaa  iJiK< 
Soa  wiUi  ttieiT  wbula  (ortunit,  tKnira  ol  noifins  Ui^ 
Mina  of  raanmng  ifaclr  Itnaneca  dniiiig  IfacLi  Um# 
dim'  admtnlitralbin. 

TliB  Duuidirlin  coiulat  ortw<icIiimai,thfl<iitlluidt)h« 
dlitary.    Tb«  fomet,  titwM«t,  «v.  i^it  <\.\<A  ^«la•^ 


CHAMBERS'S  INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


yinw  or  city  they  gfiYfrn,  nor  hold  pfiice  in  a  province 
whhiii  fift)'  leagues  i>f  Ihal  where  lliey  were  born,  uutil 
the}  ure  ■ixtj' years  oM ;  wilb  numy  nlher  ilespolic  rcgu. 
InlJona  ol  the  lume  imturc.  A  muidarin  bfts  unlimiMj 
power  in  li»  dtitrict,  but  his  eonduet  is  watelied  I7 
thOH  above  him,  as  it  is  the  policy  of  the  Chiiieu; 
Kavemmcnl  to  make  every  depBrtmeat  mpousible  Tor 
Ilie  one  immedisU^ly  inferior  lu  it.  Not  with  standing  Lbls 
BUrveiltnnee,  bowerer,  aud  although  tlieir  salary  is 
barely  sufficient  for  simple  maintenanoc,  il  is  regarded 
u  a  pbenomenon  by  the  Cliinsbe  to  see  a  muidanii 
leave  office  williout  nmauing  great  richee.  Tbeir  means 
of  accomplialiing  tliis  we  have  already  explained  nniler 
the  bead  of  Goiemmeut.  Nulwithitanduie  their  in- 
famaiM  exnclions,  the  people  observs  lowanblheni  the 
greatest  rerereaee.  Xhey  are  ululed  with  the  title  et 
"Grent  Lnrd,"  and  every  qdo  bends  the  knt<on*bile  ad- 
dreniug  thein.  The  two  cbitl' ela>ei«  of  nnuidnrinsare 
divided  inlo  nine  different  orders,  who  are  allminulcly 
distinguisbeJ  by  pnrlieubv  psria  of  Iheir  dress.  The 
moat  marked,  however,  is  the  bullun  in  the  bonnet, 
wliieli,  among  ihoH  of  the  first  order,  eoiisists  of  a  red 
rnbj;  others  of  n  meaner  order  have  a  roct  crystal : 
and  Ibe  most  inferiur,  one  of  guid.  The  number  of  civil 
and  military  luaadariDS  is  calculaled  at  huUecn 30,000 
and  30,000. 

Tlie  liltrali  form  the  moat  distinguished  part  of  the 
CliineM  nation,  as  it  is  fiurn  amongst  these  lliat  the 
individuals  ncoessary  for  di&charsing  all  the  higher 
duties  ia  tbc  stale  are  rccrajtcd.  Tu  ensure  tbo  ade- 
quate accomplishoivnt  of  Ibese  learned  Hlate^men,  there 
is,  aa  before  (.Uled  (under  the  bead  of  Government),  a 
board  of  ceouin,  named  LS-pao,  to  direct  their  studius, 
and  eiamine  into  the  progtea  of  their  erudition ;  uid 
government  ha«  fixed  for  i-very  city  of  the  first,  aecond, 
and  third  claiM,  the  number  of  literati  allowed  to  qualify 
themselves  annually  in  each,  by  taking  out  a  diploma, 
cotretvonding  to  tbe  dcsree  of  Uachelor  of  Arts  m  Bri- 
UtiD.  There  are,  iben,  in  Cbin.-i,  upwai-ds  of  a<,700  in- 
dividuals annually  added  lo  the  qiialifted  literati ;  and 
it  il  tberefore  eonjeenired,  that  there  are  never  Icn 
Iban  49S,00D  of  this  body.  Tbesn  are  all  exempt  from 
taxes  of  every  deseription ;  and  as  eoon  as  they  have 
taken  out  Ibeir  dogre™,  their  names  are  enrolled  In  Hie 
IwlB  of  Ihe  /.ii-;m.i,  "li"  oli.iD^t  fi'„in  :,uiimgst  llicm  Ibt 
higber  orders  ■■:  m  ii.'l..!  --i  - 

It  is,  lia»e<M,  iir  that  perhaps 

third,  amounli.v.  ..  1        '  _  ■"■  .ixil  Hiid  mililnry 


niniai; 


to  lie  naale ;  and  it  is  catimated  tliat  a 
whole  country  con^u  of  lakea  antl  Kianipa,  aarij 
which  are  Capable  of  being  drained.  Il  idll  Mriyi 
seen  how  inadequate  the  prodBMsflba  Mil  btsMB^ 
a  regular  supply  of  food  to  lh«  infaftbitMiti^  li  mmm 
of  scarcity,  occuaioned  by  long  droafht^  vtiA  h 
i]uently  oecnr  ;  and  when  it  ii  Eonwdtred  tlM  llani 
no  foreign  supply  of  grain  lo  make  up  for  datfdnA 
Utile  wonder  need  be  exj.resMd  at  th*  tnrib  turn 
wliieh  often  afflict  Ihe  nation.  Tu  rrmiili  njciiiM  tU 
scarcities,  n  year's  produce  of  til*  laud  isalnntq 
Btored  up  in  public  granaries  -,  but  tin*  ptiytiaka  It  on 
found  auSicieiil  to  prevent  the  frei|iiai(  m  uriiaia 
the  most  dnwlful  sGenes  of  starvanaD. 
lomewhai 

the  population  of  IThiiiai 
acoounts  agree  Ibiu  it  is  sonetbine  an 
is  a  diffemnec  of  millions  between  &ti  « 

ceeding  from  what  nisy  be  termed  tl  

»Durcee  known.  Tbu  mandarina  awcndanl  on  ( 
Macartney,  in  tbo  j-ear  1793,  gave 
at  333milbona  ;  and  by  aoelisiUMk 
of  the  Chioesc  government,  tliia  manBI 
■welled  up  lo  367,831,G47,  whiah  pirn  abimlM' 
tlie  square  mile.  Aeoording  lo  a  ■UMtsonl  ia  kCliH 
official  document  which  is  quoted  witll  apin  iiharial 
Dr  MorriBon,  the  pnpuhoion  at  prmant  i*  KflJtMM 
Of  the  truth  of  lliis  Ktalcmeiit  noUiing  cm  be  vi^S 
considering  tlie  xiiudl  extent  of  cultivated  hndlU 
empire,  il  appcirs  lo  be  greatly  cxagfatMai.  ^ 
supposition  is,  tlut  it  not  ooly  includea  Cblitt  Pf^l 
but  ail  the  surrounding  etat«^  which  are  eiitwrdifa 
dnni  npon,  or  pay  tribute  to  the  tinpir*.  ABeotdiMl 
Tbom,  Ibe  population  b  161,780,163.  wludhlMdiA 
into  the  following  religioua  sects  :~- 
Foltoweni  of  Confucioa,  Laou-lsin, 

and  Taoo,  ■         lS!),33l),ia^ 

Worshippers  of  Lama,  -     IS/we,Ml 

MaliommcdaDi,     .        -        .        .  IfitiifmM 
Roman  Catholics,        -        -  _— » 

Boodliisls  and  others, 

lfll.TB8.l<t 

This  tnble  ia  perbnp!<  as  ui-ar  .-in  approxiuiaiion  t»A 

by  Kline  to  bo  lno  high  U'T  i\\c  oxunt  of  caIli<aB 
ground.  According  to  a  parli»iiiiiitiirv  paper  pnUiita 
in  1830,  Ibe  pnpiihilinn  of  Oiii.i  Trow-r,  exclaim* 
Tar.«.-y  ami  lUs  oiIkt  dn^-nd-iir-ies   is    Ul.lWi 


iOo,#M| 

SSI 

'B8.l<t    • 


La  PnfMl 


,  i^ugnr,  salt 
<-  is  the  grenl 


s  (!:itL^ubiiHl  si  3J,44B  n 

arcelsin,  tin,  lead,  mask, 
%  wines,  fruils,  and  i-adi 


'   ■       I 

y 


of  aerca  uaJer  ealtintion,  out  ot  the  G'IO,000,lliiii  ,^. 

pointed  la  he  enpMiblu  uf  tillage.     From  thn  v:,'.- 

eoterprw!,  but  elifJ  more  from  the  want  of  aV^U  ^, 

MuilablB  iinplemenls,  immense  tracts  of  land  arc  iillu" 

393 


— C-- -  !>f  twKl;  aadaoMd 

L-nrd.'d.  ihal  a  high  festival  bM 

■■-...L-l,  F^.,-,i(inie.     TheeuM 

I    i.<n-i.hlniseirrorlb<AM 

!i]j,l  praj.-r.     He  ibM^ 

u.i'plouifbiiihiaownhM* 

I  '»'•  in   the  first  aotd  tt* 

i-i|.i(i.'  in  every  part  ottlietaiM 

ihi:.  H'ed  is  pmierved  in  gnMM 
,sjii:rill«*.     Tlie  cullivuun  tl  tt 

ituppliia-  --    - 


rlr.1  I.; 

ihirli  

ihiinM  luiJ  llin  i^«iitseItbeIIon|tniat«ll*iiti>(i . 

c  tiwdMtrislsuiil{>aroIiaai!^iuuiil(lao{|]i«<lrii>il 
n  nf  cbo  ftnt,  tteaai,  uut  Uiuii  niboFla|k,  itiiuri- 
iHnfi  111*  learn  ot  yauug  md  DlfTpbuiUi,  muI  lliuia 
■n  in  w*l)'kui>vD  fttmunliln  hiidu.      Tlwy  iJkii 


3t  ot  n 

erveu  t«>  U'lCMliivkly  (lri»d  tiwn  ih«  lilask;  uiii 
biu-rriw  mppowa  thM  it  i»  IWut  tli«  romer  tlio* 
>nini;  miiob  of  iu  DMunl  Julcw,  IliM  lU  nurvnua 
wtiM  fjgmaa^  McrlW  I»  lu  btiiij;  Hria4  b 
«r  vbhmIh}  ar*  w  1m  impated.  Tin  antn  t<«  it 
JJy  pimd  luin  elwM  wliilK  liot,  to  pre  U  a  Raar 
<i)r.  lira  twL  i»  mxl*  Inlo  parwlt  of  from  lOU  lo 
cliesta  EAoh,  wHb  a  diatineliVH  iwmii  lo  oub  [OMiU, 
eontumiitj'  of  qnaUtj',  whera  tb«  iM-mnrdiuit  mU 
u-iijr;  lieiiM  thoM  p&recti  <rt  ten,  uliloh,  vain 
Lin  ChiiiMW  intms*,  hnvo  f>r4Ted,  la  »  kisji  iif  y  wini, 
toellenl  qunliijr  uui  oiiiulBr  thirnvttn,  uid  wliinl) 
pt»iij  wu|{lic  after  M  tho  I.oadoii  mIs,  on  nut 
M>»<)u<n  ot  an;  ponioular  fsnn,  but  om  tlwir  eh»- 
itr  M  tli«  tkin  and  good  fiidi  witji  whieh  the  1m- 
alwnl  or  the  Uong  mcrehant'ii  i^{«iil  Imvn  ■xtonUl 
•  niiimiiaiijoiu  in  Klnitmj;  onlr  ituiici'tor  jwnii^  of 
M  tu  th«  niorki'ta  uf  Wva-v-t^ta,  Ukt  tlia  black 
tli6  itur«mil  oUunin  an>  formiil  by  nt*Uiii>  i3m 
It  tram  the  Inferior  l«iv*w  nfivr  wiy luretwou 
i ;  tho  lielit  Imw  MtBomWd  Ly  u,  winauwiag  ni»- 
H  friim  llio  bokvicr,  Ilic  UUor  af  wliiiA  oooitituw 
^ni>ow<]«r  Ua ;  tha  lighter  are  ot  latetiai  qaoliij. 


1  by  (U«  comiDon  ti«ot>le. 
a  Kto,  xai  by  rubti 


'  ot  liywB,  jtmtpowdi'r,  ic,  ._  __  , 
■  tlic  effacM  ot  cjtrrCully  roMtius  llic  ImvM 


Jug  I 

■  '>f  tha  TSHdi  in  tbla  jirocaa.'wilh  tha  vnwn 
,  uinob  nkitl  i»  r«qui«l«,  aad  thorn  is  a  claw  or  jwr- 
lltn>d  b]'  aoino  •»  tha  loa-inoniluiiila  to  itupKriaVgiul 
r  icajiectitu  iiuaufaottviM.  Tbs  bobiak  tan  u  iviin. 
ilportlvof  tbo  lower  fntdcvntlho  Wuu-j 
sh  liu  been  loft  uniold  after  tlio  dcpon  .   . 

■tilp*  of  tiM  Moaon,  nod  iwril;;  of  tl"  Im  gruva  ia 
distriet  of  Canton  ualliNl  wo-ping. 
Iia  twotnuti  unilCTg'i  wMm  ncrntiny  In  Contoa, 


CHAMBERS'S  WFOUMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


a  rnip;  jMa  Mi  it  pnre  (prin^  vster  at  full  boiling 
hexl ;  plaM  tlii-  nucer  ttbove  the  cup,  GlliDgil  hiia  wilit 
biiiling  walnr  to  inoreMe  the  beal:  aflfr  K  Bufficlent 
liniD  lia«  elapsed  for  tlie  tUTes  In  Dnfold  themselvi 
examine  Ae  appewanee,  flavour,  bat  particuiarlj  tbe 
to/mr  "I  the  iiifiinon.  Tha  latter  qnality  is  of  coone 
only  known  to  the  initiated. 

Tea  U  the  universal  beiersge  of  China.  It  i>  drank 
»t  nil  in(a]B,Bad  b  ^mnst  tbo  unly  liquor  used  at  feaeta, 
and  white  vintiDg  each  otiirr.  But  it  is  a  genenl  rule 
amonpit  them  norer  to  drink  tea  immediately  after  a 
IflDE  uat|  it  bdag  apt  to  nfTpCl  tho  Qerres,  and  create 
giddiness.  The  tea-ehrub  is  eultjrated  only  in  Chin» 
and  Japan,  and  is  Bopposed  to  be  indigenon*  to  one  oi 
both  of  th«se  cmintrieti.  All  attempla  to  iDtrodaee  il 
into  Europe  have  hitherto  failed. 

The  quantity  of  tea  annnally  plucted  in  Giina,  it  if 
impowible  to  ealeulsle,  Dntem  we  also  knew  the  quantil; 
eouganied  by  the  nalivn.  AbootS4,0DD,0a0of  lbs.an 
anonally  exported  from  Canton  to  all  parts  of  the  globe  . 
and  it  is  a  remarkable  fai^l,  that  of  Ibis  quantity  Great 
Britwn  and  Ireland  alone  consume  nearly  33,000,000 
Ibe. — being  about  10,000,000  lbs.  more  than  all  tbe 
nalioni  of  the  ciTilised  world  put  together ! 

As  (Dbfltilutea  for  tea,  tbe  ChiD«e  use  a  sprciea  of 
moss  eomtnon  to  the  monatains  of  Shan-Inng ;  an  '  ' 
tion  of  diHerent  sorts  of  fema,  and  the  leaves  o 

A  plant  called  the  oii-bearing  tea,  is  mneh  cuttivalod 
for  its  sefdB,  from  which  an  oil  ia  eipressed,  in  *orj' 
general  nse  in  the  domestic  economy  of  China.  The 
seeds  are  ground  to  a  coarse  Dowder,  boiled  in  ban, 
and  tiiCD  pressed,  Rhen  the  oil  is  yielded.  There  is  oko 
cultivated  a  tree  of  conttderable  height,  eaUed  tbe  lal- 
low-tree,  from  the  seeds  of  which  a  substanee  is  pre. 
pared,  having  all  the  properties  of  animal  tallow.  A 
species  of  white  eabboge  ii  in  very  geneml  Use,  and  is 
considered  to  be  to  tbe  Chinese  what  the  potato  i  ' 
tbe  Irisli.  Fmils  of  ever;  kind  abound,  but  they 
not  considered  good,  «x«opt  the  orange,  and  a  species 
called  IsD-tohee. 


From  the  inveterate  adherence  of  the  Chinese 

cient  postoms  and  practices  of  every  descriptioa,  they 
)i;ive  Leeu  \e!t  cumplDlely  behind  by  almost 
tiApd  nition  in  otl  useful  mecliaoicil  arts, 
which  urigiuBted  with  themselvea.  Every  t  _ 
tn  hive  sluod  still  in  China  but  lime.  Nothing  can  be 
more  illastrative  of  this  fact  than  the  case  of  the  silk- 
roaiiufncluro,  of  which  thej  were  undouhledly  the  in- 
TL-iibirs,  and  the  knowledge  of  which,  as  their  orniala 
bonat,  they  posseesed  3000  years  before  Christ.  Tho 
native  reeler  and  weaver  still  continue  to  labour  on  by 
the  same  tardy  process,  and  with  the  verv  samo  mate- 
rials,  as  were  u<ied  by  their  ancestors ;  while  in  England, 
where  the  manufacture  was  lotally  unknown  untd  the 
fourteenth  century  of  tbe  Chrisliun  era.  Sir  Thomaa 
Lombe,  so  bx  back  as  1 7 1 8,  erected  at  Derby  a  machine 
driven  by  a  waler-whee),  by  every  revolution  of  which 
wheel  73,73s  yards  of  organised  silk-thread  were  tliTDwn 
nlf,  and  amounting  per  day  to  3tR,.'>01,960  yards  I  At 
tills  day,  the  silks  of  China  will  not  bear  comparitioa 
with  IhoBo  of  Lyons,  SpitalRelds,  and  Edinburgh ;  the; 
finst  r.,r  light  fabrics,  the  second  for  the  more  substnu- 
tinl,  and  the  List  for  shawls.  Again,  in  the  arliola  of 
porcelain  (from  the  Portuguese  poreella,  a  cup,  they 
being  the  first  who  huroduced  it  into  Europe),  which, 
imill  a  very  late  period,  continued  to  be  the  acbuimliun 
of  (he  world,  wo  have  been  enabled,  through  the  re- 
ts of  Iteannmr  and  other  chemists,  to  compound 


purths  n 


which  n 


(he  Chinese,  and  not  only  equal  thi 
fineness  and  durahitity  of  the  ware,  but  infinitely  excel 
them  in  elegance  of  manufuclure.  For  nearly  a  cen- 
tury, the  cIuiuHyfiLlirics  of  the  Chinese,  with  their  daubs 
of  blue  paint,  which  formerly  were  the  principal  orna- 
iDciiU  of  the  mansions  of  the  wealthy,  have  been  driveit 
out  of  Iho  niar&c(  by  the  beautiful  waxes  of  Dresden, 
SliilI'or4»b!r»,  and  S^vres- 


The  name  remarks  may  be  app&d  to  al  a»  iH 
manufaetum  of  China,  tlia  principal  of  what^  MM 
the  two  above  mentioned,  an  tluBa  of  ekili,  mahm 
(or  cotton),  linsn,  paper,  and  ink.  In  ■kiwiii  jijiil 
meni  of  an  the  ChincM  oontiaue  to  RniiiBin  •Mifai 
orily  over,  or  etinality  with,  the  rOTt  ef  llw  iMstI,  III 
cause  is  to  be  found  in  Uie  bounty  of  wUdrv,  bm  'tiik 
own  ingenaity.  Thna,  the  beKBtiral  yvjlo*  •hash  dta 
tingnishes  tbe  Dankeen  cloth,  iaanatunl^vaUtTaf  A 
cotton  grown  in  the  province  of  Ktanf^naii  (af  wlU 
Nankin  is  the  capital),  and  b  to  b«  (cniad  in  ■»  «■!■ 
district  of  China.  The  ChlnsM  siilt  jwrtinaeimnlT  ri 
here  to  their  ancient  practice  nf  flibrU9Mla|t  lli^  |ap 
from  the  bark  of  the  bamboo  and  koo-tehiM  [hf  A 
latter  of  which  names  they  Iffm  it),  mil  iilthswiiilh 
Iheir  being  perfMlIy  well  aware  of  tb*  ■OpWiMtq'l 
that  made  from  rags,  and  the  inRDltdy  |m>M»  ^ 
noss  and  sirapllchy  of  the  manofactnitb  "" 

Tho  Chinese  ink  Is  obtained  from  U>»  Met  pnft 
by  tho  smoke  of  pines  and  the  oil  in  Lamps,  lUMdV 
the  iainElass  of  wanf  akin  and  mnak.  to  wniMt' 
odour  of  tho  oil.  It  Is  pnneipallymB^in  (haptMl 
of  Kiang-Qsn.  ' 


What  we  hare  said  rtapfcting  ths 

lion  of  thsmsnnfactnree,app'" 

Bciencea  of  China.     The  proi 

the  aame  as  when  oririnally  ii 

about  1700  years  since.  The  chai  .  ..__      _ 

on  paper,  which  is  glued  upon  bi^nla  <S  \ai4  « 

and  the  engraver  carves  the  charartir*  nprni  lbs  f 

hollowing  out  the  inlermediale  fuirls.       wlwn  M 

preasion  is  to  be  taken  off,  the  printer  lajn  oi 


with  a  greater  or  less  degree  of  preamn^  ■ 
to  theqaanlity  otink  laidon.      S--*-  '    ■*-  " 

mode  of  printing  still  peraevered  L._ 

tenor  of  China,  althongh  moveable  tyt*™  ***  "^  *% 
necessary  in  printing  the  Iloyal  Oaselte  of  tSkll^4 
is  issned  daily,  and  other  docnmeDts. 

One  of  the  most  singular  features  of  OAtm. 
is  dovclivped  intheirnttemplsnt  painting.  They  a 
extraordinary  powers  of  minute  imit-iticii         '    ~ 
with  the  utmnst  exactness  thenumber  of 
spnlB,  4c.,  of  a  flower,  and  the  scales  of  a  fli 
are  utterly  unable  to  mix  ami  soften  their  ti 
copy  every  dcrcct  as  well  ai  e:iee)lence  in  tfae  sUMA 
their  imiUtion.     They  have  not  ihe  slighHMMtfl 
perspective,  considering  the  diminished  andUlly 
penmnco  of  distant  objects  as  Ihe  conseq 
defect  of  vision  ;  and  Ihey  therefore  insist  n; 
every  object  in  the  foreground.     When  O 
ministers  of  sLile  beheld  a  portrait  of  his  B 
msjcraly,  he  remarked  that  it  was  a  pity  It  <i 
beun  spoiled  by  the  dirt  on  the  face — meania; 
fng  of  the  nose.     When  Ihey  draw  a  pieti 
emperor,  they  consider  it  would  be  almoM  ii 
reprcsKnl  him  of  (he  ordinary  human  proporf. 
therefore  make  him  twice  as  large  as  any  of  Uilfl 
dants— the  head  particularly.     Dut  this  aelf«a    ' 

art,  pre-eminent  over  all  other  nationa,  ami  rmSril 
disdain  the  remonstrances  of  European  aitisla. 

In  sculpture,  as  in  painting,  the  t^hineae  ba<NMII 
eeplion  of  order,  altitude,  or  proportion;  tai  %~ 


lung  n 


figures  whiuh  , 


a  the* 


The  Chinese  muRlo  remuns  in  that  sCaMt^L 
re  simplicity  in  which  il  has  been  ohaarvad  to 
all  barbarous  nalians.  Dr  Bi 
e  melodies  of  this  nation  have 
old  Scottish  lui 

~:nt  Greece;"  and  that  "the  musicof  all 


I  have  a  ■iront  Anaicfjl*  W 
"  both  rcsemUs  ihr  ssaMv! 

1 


iiuulfiFi»,I]ial)iath 
.mo  poarofc  Thn 
iiMi  thnir  cbTonn- 

'   '     IlutltriD 

ion  or 


d  luitioo,  isiim  A 
'cr  Unw  the  hImi: 


ui-uJ,  and  Uie  gi'uu  ignuriuieu 
heir  idoliiKHl  taifta,  Tlie&M  b,  iIim  tlu>  i>ii>taiiLfd 
wt«]^  of  tbe  lilmtj,  uid  mioUUoua  latlnma^  (if 
■nriig  bj  tbr  pyrtrmnmi,  b  it  mnto  •Uktiktri':fc,  tar 
|iUTpo«>  of  •isitin^  l>i«  vatiBnitinn  cit  Uid  icuuruit 
litmk. 

•I  mturtl  pltlliMivph]',  m  cluiniiitr;,  tlui  Chlraaa 
vliuniil7nathl]if,»oi)ptfrnmB  prucllcal  noi^tiot' 
D  with  live  ivnilla  d(  ocrUiln  ttiuco.  UI  moijidnc, 
1  wtCD^  tbtlr  wbole  rtook  of  knoirl«dea  ii  a  eom* 
illon  of  qineliOTJ'  uut  cmpEriciBRi  i  anil  it  In  k  nh 
rlubld  bet,  that  th*  li(OliiiR  nri,  whidt,  In  nlmirt 
ry  other  nnmiKraf  the  known  iwirli!,  wliiiliu  MTnipi 
ilTUiwd,  juatly  vbUin*  for  lU  profaKon  Die  hiffaot  , 
pool,  Kuwiiins  itnd  unnlBinont.  ii  In  Cltiiit  w  litU*  , 
mntsii,  thul  ftll  cloBDi  ua  ■lluwd  to  pnotit*  il  ai< 
ftnn.  Tl><iT«  arc  no  Mboola  for  innliaM  nutmatiun  ; 
ttwory  of  tUs  humui  fnmtB  it  «hnlly  uiikaawti  la 
m ;  uia  ibtiy  ar^a  njoet  t1if>  doctriiw  of  ihe  clnni- 
uit  of  tbe  blood.  Their  ninnlim  nv  chldl*  of  • 
-fiUble  nMiiTi^  uiil  «aniu>it  almoat  110I0I7  n(  linMltg 
iu>lm>  mot.  vlilch  thcnr  pratcnd  10  pnfmtt  in 
entT-wVen  ailFtmm  <*>T*)<  rbnbarb,  Chink-rmt,  uid 
,  Thnir  MaglMd  ksoolEOg*  i>  'ittuUy  drfui-tivn,  m 
r  b»  Jaigti  hf  Urn  bet,  tint  Did  iinitninK  nt  !i  U 
Bad  mbmM  oUMj  to  Ina  IwnourabU  f ntamlijr  cf 
'bn*.  nB(r«f*Mla<ueciQsiMinii'.<ui»fl  A  ' 
•atiag  wiUUiMiait,  lattlna  falnod,  bj^  w  - ' ' 


■roi  oClh*  laneex«>aAiwli{nhi,'%iu\e^,eaM6ayi' 


CHAMBERS'S  INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


dniiiag  the  ntn,  lirealiing  the  nose,  bcatjag  tic  bmV, 
pullii>g  ihe  joinu  till  lliey  cnck ;  in  iliort,  we  mo)'  ftun 
up  ouracmuDt  a[  Cbinew  knowledge  orthehmling  art 
wilb  (b*  renurk  of  the  Ute  Dr  Grpgorj'  of  Edinburgh, 
that  ■■  the  emperor  of  China  could  uol  cotnound  in  kll 
111*  domiaioiu  >Dch  niedieal  ftid  u  a  wnart 
teen,  who  had  been  appretilico  tor  one  je« 
emylojvi  Ediaburgli  aurgeon,  would  bo  able 


[0  atTurd.' 


The  language  of  llie  Chinese  is  another  bmneli  of 
llirir  hiitarj,  reapectipg  which  the  rest  of  the  world  haa 
b*«n  imprewed  Willi  llie  most  preposIiT 
gentod  ideas.  It  has  been  rotire*''°tad: 
millioiu  of  cliaraclcrs— )U  belnB  perfeetl}'  unattainable 
Vy  fWB'B""'™*  ■'"l»'''''rth;andlliush»a  thia  truly  bar- 
Imrana  nation  acquired  a  reputation  for  philologii»J 
RMcncB  SB  fpurloni  aa  that  which  they  have  etijfl}-e.d 
for  other  branchea  of  antique  erudition.  ■■  It  is  true," 
as  Mr  Barrow  ea^ii,  "  that  their  langnage,  more  than 
any  Ifaiug  else,  sumps  them  ai  an  original  people.  It 
has  no  resemblance  whatever  to  any  other  language, 
liviug  or  dead,  ancient  or  modem.  It  has 
borrowed  nor  lent  auy  thing  lo  any  other  oi 
people,  excepOng  to  those  who  are  um^ueslionably  of 
CliincM  origm.    The  written  charaolor  is 

J-  .f__.  . any  alphabolical  arrangemi 

fl ;  and  the  apt 
^  a  eteji  beyond  the  ongi 
meagre  aud  inflexible  tnaiwryllable-"  All  this  certainly 
goea  to  prove  the  Chiiiene  to  be  a  primit! re  people,  and 
•a  far  the  cireumatanee  is  a  moral  curiunity  ;  but  at  Ih  e 
same  time  It  shows  their  invelentle  and  immoveable  oti- 
ttinacy  in  adbering  lo  a  nystem  nf  characters  ao  utterly 
unreduciblu  to  any  bind  of  intelligible  vocabnlarj^  The 
foundation  of  the  laugnagc  ia  purely  hieroglyphic  and 
BjTabolioU,  iilcludmg  all  the  ramarluible  objeota  of 
nature,  such  an  the  sun,  moon,  earth,  tire,  water,  wood. 
■loue,  a  horse,  n  cow,  a  dragon,  &c. ;  the  utensils  most 
eomBmUy  in  use — a  knife,  a  apoon,  a  boa,  &e. ;  the 
primary  relations  of  life — a  father,  mother,  brother, 

—   ..-  . r  .1 tt  obvious  qualiliaa  of  bodie*, 

IB,  &.e.  &C.    Togi J---" 


of  the  T>i«1 


of  Hh- 


language, 


rouL'h   i( 


eHMMarad^ 


Mputtnivt* 


\o  be  found  in  every  vi 


some  of  Oasian  ■  niblime  ptUMtcei^  oomhI  m  IMaq 

S'ble  imagery ;  their  novel*  of  aulr  and  pnott^Mdl 
eir  hiiiories,  ai  we  have  ahraJy  aeeoi  ef  fkUasia* 
their  dramas,  although  for  the  m  -- 
yet  exbibiting  nature  iu  her  moi 
de  Quiguea,  Mr  BArrow,  and  other  *i*ilc««  of  ISUi 
assure  us  that  the  theatrical  exhiMtiooa  KM  fasfW 
every  thine  abominable  and  diagualinfi. 

It  has  mraialied  nuitter  of  anninw  to  all  OTtat 
how  a  government  ao  despulio  as  tliM  of  CWcft  iAmI 
make  the  cultivatiou  of  letters  a  lubjcct  of  «wll  ^'^ 
anxiety.  Eien  tlwiulelligeut  MrBarww  iw>Iim»  — 
rel  of  this  Gtet,  nolwitlistanding  AM  Ua  own  "liAH 
(had  we  no  other  authority)  fumiah  a  aoficieDl  ana 
— >- —  of  the  seemiag  anomaly.  Il  ia  tra>i  diua  *■ 
'-  very  vul^a  of  CUo*,  and  llM 
pupils  furmi  niw  tt  iha  mm 
anxious  concerns  oi  tiie  govemmrnl :  but  what  la  ti 
ualureor  purpoeeof  tlieirednottiuul  To  iintc«et  Ika 
in  all  the  erroneous  doctrines  bf  their  pannta— 4a  ■■ 
fine  tiieir  knowledge  to  the  naCivcpmductioiwafCl 

writers — la  nuke,  in  short.  Chin        "    '*"'"' '' 

The  boasted  system  of  education 


Tbs  religion  of  Ihe  ChinSM  ia  allied 
the  Boodhism  of  the  Ilinnati  einpiiv,  Japan,  Ski^i 
olber  part*  of  Easteru  Asia  ;  and,  uiidvr  whataTcr  M 
■'  may  be  defined  as  a  superstiti      '  ' '      '  '  "^ 


ibacrvBDcco  in  paeoda*  and 
According  to  Howard  Malcom,  the  latest  as'^ 
the  subject,*  the  Cbinoee  are  divided  iDl»  tl 
~  mivly,  those  of  Ju-keik-«u,  'I^ou,  and  Boodh 
"  Tlie  Jukeuuisis  nre  the  followvn  of  Km 
',  aa  the  Jesuits  Latinise  it,  Contucins,  wIm 
about  itiO  yean  before  Chrial,  and  wn*  Ibaii 

Israpotary  irith  Pythagoras.    Me  waautngali.      

and  a  mandarin,  but  early  resigned  oflkial  Bth> 
rated  himself  to  literature,  morals,  and  fctSt^m 
nv.  Reducing  the  maiinu  of  former  saga  to  Mi 
.-Killed  vsln.iblc  extracts  from  curiful  worti,  «i 
'      ■   sayings  of  his  oun,  and  prodi       '        " 


have  proved  almo^'t  altogeitii-i' 
nf  Ur  Marslialmnn  and  i)r  .\ 
»ith  grammars  slid  dictiDiinr 
|i;uage,andi>lacedn:iiliiiiDur  ru 


Ighly  extolMlr&» 


in  the  ulwle,  about 


s  founled  tr 
Clii».n4 


liuri'ow  speak*.     'I'lii-rc  are  iiu  doubt  a  profusion  < 
pm-iog  [ail  callod),  novels,  biitorieii,  and  dramas,  ^e. 
bul  of  whM  ahtraclor  are  they  I    From  the  translatioi 
whicli  ire  tut  tv  yet  been  fatourcd  with,  Ihu  oociut,\iVe 
39li 


iii'i'ii''     ii'ii.ii--'  I.J.k- prec-jiia  whicai* 

i:.     -  ..■  ^    ■  ,  -lOftimr*  (p<lI(dnM 

■'I  !■  '■■!;-  I  I- ■  !■    : ri   .■^-rj|.l.y  o{  /'w4.*heka 

L-.-J  .ii.,a.-.|.iai<lj  u„.,i-     1..^  v.,.i,.^.-  ..L,i.i^-.,.,i, t  J^h-la,  or  Boodlo.    If 

Uuodliuui  of  Llmu.  I.  Ihu  same  as  ttut  of  Blink,* 

(for  an  account  of  which  we  refer  to  the  arlisle  Pmi* 
Relkiiu.is,  in  the  prCEeut  series  of  papers.)  "Thtq* 


tiUigmi*  and  tnlUdcs.  lilt  ■£•  )■  knl  iLtriy-^it. 
uf  Quun*  nidisniaml  W  nutlutjin  tmii  proBtnlila 
im.  My  haat  jmnwd  via  liloi:  nnti  Khro  bo 
rxl  m*  tliit  bemnat  Mtuil  Anuirint  In  hj-mrnr 


I  'itoArai  gilt*  iir 

...iinri™  nrdlflWwal 

................  i.. ... .- -..,ii  hiCbbwh,  H«Hkn, 

:i'  Lcii'Ui  uf  t,JUiii3 ;  bui  liity  tiuko  liltli^  jmgrna 
1ti1*1iu[  Uw  iwpukiluii,  nil  ae>K>uni  at  \\n  >liffi- 
•i  tha  uiDgiugc  ADil  ilio  (-I^iruua  otlh'^-i'niM  nf 


aded  111  .  L  .1)  Urn 

M  taw,''  w'lioli  ifl;-,  'iw  'Ih.'  ciiicf  r)(  liiij  Pixtt  wfcn 
ew  tli»  piDplfi  (ram  t1u<ir  dolica  tinder  nliglaQa 
W10UK,  Bh»II  bv  titn>ii;(lK(l. 


MmKW  «F  tumntf,  cntiucTxit, 
FORI  all  wo  hayt  uld,  it  will  bo  ovidvnt  tlint  nrllb 
•a  liu  u  jrct  uivftoocd  littto  bey und  Uin  hifanAy  if 
t  ms/  bo  cailod  igFicultuTol  widtijr  ^  Uibu.     It 

bo  tvidily  ulmcttod  IliM  th?  irtre  amnusM  tba 

of  cnMinB  lutiiim  who  arririnl  Bt  B  Mrtain  dTOTta 
uwrllcnm ;  but  H  is  not  leu  nvidrnt  lluit  tlirjr  liiTB 

rvnwiBtd  •Utiiissr}',  ind  liavo  iwun  Lii  nnm*  I'irini* 
iiETiiiM.  '■Th#y«iiuiil;b(iMid,'*ul)wr'MMr  Bap- 
. "to  Im  frol  In  triflw, wMM tlioy  aiv ruaJtj  iriSliis 
itF/  Mtii  tlut  i>  gnat."  The  luUovbii  mhtUmu 
Ir  wQliBm  JonM  may  »liiuwi  b«  nirraliy  uli>|<i£d : 
Their  iMten,  if  wa  may  to  eull  tli^ni.  ara  merrlj 
!'f  nibals  nf  iilnu :  tlivir  lilitlixoiiliy  in  in  mi  riirln  a 
I  an  Ittrdljr  tu  ilvwrvii  t!i«  iip|ii'l1iill»n  )  (liiiy  lutva 
noiont  inunutneiita  froni  wlilch  thoir  iirijflii  iiukjr  Im 
>d,  rron  by  pUuiJb]*  conjoctun ;  tliair  uiHieca  ara 
ll}  exotic  I  ud  tlinr  oiDMiaoical  aru  Ii«*«  naUibig 
inn  ehanetoristis  of  «  {Ririicular  fniuily— flntUne 
ill  ujr  wt  af  men  in  »  tMunUy  w  hisUj*  TkraiirM 
nt  not  linve  dbtaoToted  and  iiupru*<nl." 
i  thwir  moml  ijualilug^  thv  Cniutv)  am  a  (tianga 
pnnndof  laail/and  nwannswi,  ■tfi'ctwl  craiity  anil 

friroltl;— oa  otter  want  of  all  manlf  Judenunt  ind 
«,  eombuHid  with  ihs  tnoat  iniddlaui  art  uid  onanuiKi 
uiukl  Mcompjuiimenti  of  vulgnr  Igiuinnw.  Tb» 
\Mi  raoa  an  diitingninhcd  bj  a  blunt  and  luuUidied 
kn»»  of  mitnaw  and  Dpfniwa*  of  di»|i««ilii«i ;  but 


11  not  ttiv  iiliglilut  rcnrd  to  truth,  Bud  will  aooii 
deiiruiy  tiling  with  ilic  oumI  uiibliuhins  titmaunj, 
ig  alio  cntiiiiif  dPBtitulc  of  •liame.    l"m  jiain  in- 
cil  bj>  Iho  bunboo  is  Uiv  uiily  cuiiaidHTviiun  t&TT 
«b  to  public  and  diagnefful  cuijiDrul  puninliDiwiT. 
'/  haTH  niriihiir  atniM  nf  honour  n-t  oclf-rmprct. 
C^iinnM  prlnot,  or  poi^vrtul  luandorin,"  ny»  ■ 
ml  iravnllKT,  '■  irlll  eMnmit  cxtonioD  or  apprurlua 
•nnvrr  In  can  da  It  with  itmuuitj',  and  TT^gard*  It  ■■ 
aCtcrot  right  •tlachsd  tobia  Malion.    A  Chbiws  I| 
Icr  will  ish<al  and  dvfraud  vbvnvTar  it  ia  In  Ili«  jt 
and  ar«n  piiiuwi  hiuwtlf  npua  hia  «kill  in  oror-  0 
-  acaproiifat  hii  tatanl.    A  ChtD«<i«  fnMiBI  I 

•odstMlwtiaMTvr  !•  within  hbtrvwh,  whim-  H 

be  eu)  lio(«  tn  «(»)«  btotf^wa',  k.b\  4m  wWi*  I 


'^S, 


CILVMBEIIS'S  INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


BiilLoa  ia*f  be  iffinued  to  liaye  aloiott  Dulhlug  In  liow 
but  th^  own  selT-inlfnat  uJ  seeurily.  Tlwir  gcDonkl 
eUurUter,  in  short,  in  iwiiit  lit  uunU,  cawparcd  Willi 
ths  niiuuU  eururceiusut  of  duly  ty  Uio  peiikl  Ixvs, 
Bfrar4i  U)  irrmuitililci  pruot  uf  tlio  utter  ineoiD^Ieiic; 
of  leguktioD,  williuut  the  kid  of  religious  principle,  to 
reach  bcjood  the  more  DxtcTiul  cvuduct  of  indiridiula, 
or  t«  produce  auy  thing  Ulla  l«<il  soeiftl  virtue  uaong 
buDUn  b^DgB."  Id  tinit  fceliugs,  the  Chinese  uru 
cruel,  saowul,  and  vindictive.  Ur  Buruir,  U.  de 
Guijiwo,  snd  other  imvellrr*.  M  wreo  in  llieir  repre- 
■eDlaliau  of  the  inhuuian  cooduct  uf  IIium!  iu  aulhucity. 
One  of  the  •rhiOrary  kws  of  China  is  the  ooiiipuiliiig  of 
ths  n&lives  ta  puU  the  imperiul  buijiM  doiigd  the 
canala :  uid  Mr  Barruw  kud  aevcml  oppoilunitin  of 
wiluesiuiig  the  nwrailen  exerciw  of  thii  BUtliarity  uu 
Ibe  put  of  the  milituy.  The  iuipra»ed  Ubounrs 
lAok,  of  eourae,  every  opportuiiity  of  diMortiiig ;  m»] 
nhoUDVCt  Ibere  wu  a  dctieieucy  ul  huidii,  tbv  deapotic 
officials  wt  off  to  tli«  ncar«t  hamlet,  routed  tlio  nativiM 
out  uf  bed  witJi  tho  whip,  mailn  tlicni  jump  into  the 
vstcr  to  aniat  thu  lowiuR  uparHtioDa,  hiahiug  tbeoi  with 
louK  sart-whipanlllho  wTiile  wilii  the  moat  rutlileM  hu- 
baiity.  &Ir  Unrniir  also  nlatca  another  qi««iin*a  of 
Chineae  iodiHervoce  to  huiuaii  life,  which  he  ■itniwed 
in  puaiaa  down  tlii;  great  caoal  hotwUt  Caolou  and 
FekiU.  SuTeral  pcrMnu  who  hud  crowded  to  the  briuli 
of  the  eatui,  had  |>o>ted  thenuelvee  upon  the  liigh  pro- 
joctinf  stern  uf  au  old  teuel,  wbich  broke  down  witli 
their  weight,  and  precipiuted  the  whole  group  iula  the 
water.  Although  nuinbera  of  boats  were  plying  aboul 
at  the  fory  snot,  nut  one  waa  obaerved  to  go  to  llio 
awiatance  uf  the  druwning  wr«(£hca,  whoM  eluiekaaad 
eri*e  were  totally  dieregajdcd. 

Notiiing  ie  su  tignifleant  of  the  inaral  eoudilicm  of 
people  M  llietr  treatmeut  of  the  female  sea,  and  nc 
wherv  are  the  wuniun  eo  inbumaaly  used  aa  in  China. 
They  are  not  permitted  to  etir  out  of  doon,  eicepiini;! 
th«  wiTM  of  the  lower  orders,  who  are  In  be  aMit  toil 
ing  at  ^  kind!  of  Isboriouii  taaks,  while  their  indolent 
hiubauds  are  sitting  quietly  smoking  ^eir  pipea.  In 
tbe  oouDtry  they  are  even  to  bo  setin  drawing  ilie 
plough  aud  harrow,  wliilu  tlieir  lazy  belpmats  drivee 

'■ll.L-  [.k-iL-li.-  ..I  .M",.rini(i;  the  fi'el  ot  fomillea  ..f  Un 


While  ■! 


lh;it,  IU  i..:  .,auv_  1^.  !■.■■,  liiu  whole  la  iiVW.    Tbefu 
l/diiw  lilt.  U„t-v  i*  i.rr«.Bd  into  a  line  wilh  the  kg, 
ndJ  to  tlie  height  uf  Ilio  little  luBerer,  while  Iwa  uf  tlie 
tuL.>  are  bent  under  the  sole,  Ihftt  its  breadth  may 
uuly  of  tlie  leant  dinienaions.   The  agiiny  of  euuli  a  p: 
ci'?9  it  would  Ije  liurd  to  estiiiiute;  but  it  is  iald  to  last 
nhoul  six  weeks,  whi.'n  I  suppose  the  wasting  of  all  the 
puim,  and  theCE'uiitiun  of  many  of  Ilieit  fli  nc  tin  na,  have 
reudered  the  whole  iuseniible  to  pain.     Xlte  develi,p- 
ineul  of  the  muscles  wliich  form  ilio  calf  uf  the  leg  being 
hceked,  the  liiub  ooiisequenlly  tapers  frri      ''  '    - 


.lu» 


lnthot<xiI,wl(hau 


inynwi 


>.  Thi 


hruughout  ita  length  Uia 
■  r<:tain  its  natural  t.Ue 


I  the  asylum  of  a  long  train.  Pacta 
rale  the  little  '  galdeu  liliea,'  in  cmleSBity  wfA  1 
eustooi;  aud  it  would  be  iiidi9creula»Mll>»e  _ 
of  the  thing,  wtiethoi  he  said  k  fool  waa  «atfl«*)H 
long,  wliioh  waa  thrice  that  Isoph ;  or  oaiM  AM 
purfectiou  uf  boaoty  which  is,  m  trath,  <mlf  a  ■ 
dntonoiiy."  * 

Anuinnt  tbe  other  menl  bDi|aitiaB  of  the  Q 
is  the  criaiD  uf  infanturidti  and  fnon  tin  aMt* 
whish  fimiales  are  nnorally  liaJil,  pi 
fflinals  clilldreu  wiuiuut  the  alighlcal  n 
part  of  the  doty  of  the  Pskln  i«ltee  la  go  thdvi* 
with  uarta,  at  an  early  buur  of  ill*  iBonla^  M  fki 
tlic  bodice  uf  the  infant*  thai  have 
tbealreeta  in  the  course  nf  tbe  oigbl,  and  CD  mhtA 
without  U|iiuit7,  to  a  ooml  ■-*■      - -^  -  -^ — 

where  thoy  are  tlirowu  id  prnnuaeaoaslr.  It  ttm 
oaleuUlwl  tlial  there  are  betwMa  90,M*  ud  • 
fsnude  iofauts  Uius  yearly  ncrifleed  in  Ckina  I     ^^ 

In  emnparisuD  witli  lliehiwer  omlwaolllMCI 
the  eouditlua  of  the  slavea  iu  oar  Wat  Indte  ■ 
WM  that  of  princes.  They  ha*«  aeaneljr  on  Ml 
furniture,  bceidea  two  or  ihm  Jace^  ft  fa*  W 


but  at  mmla  all  tbe  (unity  eit  opea  tinir  b 
large  ]>ut,  with  •  bowl  in  each  of  tlieir  la 
taking  the  nee  from  the  pot  with  a  aponn,  llwlbMf 

tlieir  cbup^lidis,  which  cuasiat  u(  two  emdi  ;•<■ 
wood,  or  generally  of  pco^iupiuee'  ituills,  an4«e- 
bclweeu  lUe  two  first  fingera  of  the  righi  hanA.  -I 


It  all  Mirts  iif  aninul  awl  TsgM 

board  iho  ships  in  llio  river  :it  CaotoB,  ai*  gni 
plekt'd  up  by  Iho  naiivc^:  and  in  lb*  publia  mm 
iliigo,  ciits,  aud  ratiH  are  i^xliiliiied  fur  aaleu  timi 
di-giTuiiug  socijil  vicu  of  the  Uiioeao  ia  that  rf  «|l 

fium  an  iiidulgeneo  In  iutuaicating  bquora. 


"'"  ■!■*! 


Tho  syetenuitia  disoouragenunl  whidi  |Im4 
goveniuiuut  ulTers  ti>  all  iuterooune  wJ4h  tH/t 

on  in  a  cuunlry  adapted  better  than  uyp«Aa' 
world  fur  its  pnneeuiion,  whether  m  MHH 
gcugraphical  situation,  its  productiuiis,  or  lla  ■■ 


yet  there  is  nu  n-gulnr  nptcni  of  trade  unrn 
it  ciiiiHiita  almo«l  suivly  >if  barter,  there  bcti  _ 
Ciilaiing  mi'dium,  exr-'piing  a  iiiiall  o^ncr  «^.' 
value  ut  which  is  ahui'Kt  too  luinnte  (or  i  iliiiilitiia 

ii,,...ii-d-:  ;{  lO.limi  l."nu  (Liid  barUM  o(  imiiiiifcM 

'ruhang*  ef  MlMH 


<\  i;B)>i>biljii< 


I  and  language  ean  supply.  Uut  [.^^ir  naperial  eillns, 
'llimdwl;  (or  when  slripyri  ul\  mianKCiUJB  uyeaiiti 
it   is  ■  piteous  uuuiB  u(   \iI>i\c>iBWat.\>Ju'\iere,uniuuV 


e/iithata  whifli  luiture 
Joi  iiemutien  era  nluigrl  I 

/to   i^iijr  inreelrueiiU,  Jl    _   .,  , 

iaUgmnept,  which   reseinblca   the  akia  lit 


V  nnl  pcfmltiid  lu  f-ii  Mlior*  and  » 
-  '  "'r^.  Xhnit  im\f  l<uid  aUUUt< 
T  bMurm,  nWai  kuwiiI  in  » 
'iiv  titvr,  Inm  akidi  Ibn-  nta 
;.ink.  TIWfUvliiullwikUMil 
.::im>i„l..  in  Iruit.    Tlw  bun 


«ll  llUllltlMIlt  Ullll 


.ufur 


7biu-d,i,^._    _   . 

p>l»pnl-[duirsf-,ilicl"'i 

fmtua). 

11 »(  «W  ton*  wpttaM-r. 

ta  AbDui  7<W0  doUm  u 

ha  ibnlini  m*iw)i«>ii'  it 
Maui,  f^neh,  iJuit-'t 

faiiMn  cr.ti.M 

r  HHlkh, 

"l>a.iW., 

tugiuw,  lOiJIndlin  1! 

'  <u  iBxi 

untcd  to  114.    'JK. ,. 

i>i>ll>b- 

«B,»rimAtiwrii!iiTi, 

'  khsIi 

uluni  tfaaCaotnn  Ic^ 

■s;lm  «nd 

■JbhKWa  Couriw  i>n«  > 

u  iit  Karnuniw 

•ICli  lU 

DM  M  CaMDD  la  nlUiTlly 

«UT..<1  J  by  n 

utus  of  a 

«.»U(furHPi.nQotL...^ 

alltJulanmuiKe 

.DZllib,  1-..      ' 

..,i.Utb«- 

Bl'dS   hill 

Xl-  .r,   . 

.«rtpo^ 

iX'.i'i. 

.  'il.t.  riti 

™i  Whilrfl 

l»libiiiiLj.'    .      '  '    .    ■  ^Ui^iui,  cimtiilii)ii|[  ft 

t  or  MiBDcj  af  did  FDrtugacH,  uid  hm  •!>□  U» 
ili»  of  EunmaD  murshaoU  M  Canton  Inn  buta 
■riKl  111  mgiila.  Tlin  I'lirtuciiFtm  privilireMI  \aya 
1  laUarly  wueh  eiwuauiDribed,  aiiil  tliuc  Imdo 
111;  ilttnlaliihwl.  "  Knnn  Macao  to  th»  Ui>ea  TWia 
ruv  Bttniiai  nf  (ho  riw  It>r«««a>ling  iipwuidil  b 

foity  milci.  affording  a  •lotj  lafp  chnnnn  for  iIib 
Ml  iliitm.  As  fu  aa  tli*  Boob  or  Hngun,  Ihn  whHlM 
tiraad  Mtiury  of  Ifw  hMi,  iiitcntwnwd  wltli  U1si»li>, 
liioll  lltu  wall-kiiiiim  UnUu  lieu  Jiut  mldtvikT  tiElwera 
EM>  and  th*  Itaguo.  Llmln  U  on  tb?  riolit  of  tiio 
mal  Ii>r  ihipK,  and  abmat  of  it  en  tlic  lull  fa  Laokovt 
nd,  tbnung  twhind  it  tb«  barlraur  of  Kunuinq^nuivDi 
r*  tha  opium  *liip«  at  Mo  you*  wer*  aeeiMtamcd'tP 
>(  uwlMr  in  •afet/.  Thtrro  la  no  EDlrancc  to  tfa*  Ckn- 
rirar  M^eaclw*tdD(tti«BucaTlj[ri>ilnt«ti  (lu 
I  th*  MH  U  wlddjr  diAmit  t  and  it  la  thore  that 
principal  diffloultiM  of  a  bloa1iatlit>g  Muaiimn  axlat. 

main  iKirt  of  tha  rjvvr  fliiwi  tlirouKJi  thp  llanit  i 
W  Ihn  «>**l<ranJ  lliara  Mrrwhrn  »  kt'aI  dalla,  whir 

b*an  craitually  ronnfl  by  d'fHsiiiu'A*  (A  WWswa. 

lutWi  «atM«,  an4  W  civawA  Vti  ».\i  *iwi*'j*«» 
llow  diaimtU  ooroiwwiicMJ.iiMt'WCftv  ew^i  «*»« 
li  Canton.    Sonus  d,  >liaw  d«»w«J«  ^«'»** 


CHAMBERS'S  INFORMATION  FOR  TILE  PEOPLE. 


jMttiH}e.  t>;  whicli  th«  British  trmd^ra  uaed  genenllji  lo 
proceed  between  Csnlna  and  Macao,  paning  a  town 
called  Heang-ahan,  tho  residence  of  the  diUfmagittmla 
of  the  Macao  distiicL  These  aballov  channels  to  the 
wealward,  though  they  arc  impaaaable  by  English  ahipfi. 
preMMitQO  ohatacle  to  the  flat-botloiued  trading  craft  uf 
the  Chiiwse,  helo*  llic  size  of  the  larger  juuliis."  • 

tt  hail  been  by  meane  of  the  uatigablr  inlet  Ibna 
dMCribnl,  (hat  nearly  all  intercourae  with  the  Chinese 
baa  lahen  place;  all  thi^  ulher  ports  nhicb  lie  to  the 
northward  being  abut  against  European  commeree.  The 
gratteatpDUible  care  baa  at  leant  been  taken  to  prevent 
any  iiilrr«aurw  by  the  river  Yang-lEo-Kpang,  which, 
by  its  conne  nion  with  the  great  cwial,  leadi  to  Pekin 
wd  Iho  chief  northern  distriela. 

The  priocipal  tradora  Willi  Ihe  Chineeo  h«To  Utterly 
bam  the  Americana  and  British.  "  The  American  in- 
lereouraa  with  China,"  says  M'CallDcb,  "commenced 
■borlly  after  the  termination  of  tlie  reTolutJonary  wiir, 
Dud  has  BiDoe  gone  on  rapidly  increasing,  ao  as  to  con- 
Btitute  one  of  tho  most  laluable  branches  of  the  Inule  of 
tfaa  United  Stalee."  Mr  lIKTulloch  gives  a  table  ' 
ing  Ihc  extent  of  the  exports  from  Canton  to  An 
from  ifSOi  to  1G26-T,  bv  which,  in  the  laat-men' 
year,  it  is  seen  that  the  Ameneatis  had  twenty-MH 
ahipa  in  the  te»-triu]ii,  and  that  the  total  value  of  ex' 
ports  from  China  was  4,3li3,7Ba  dolUra.  "  The  prin- 
cipal articien,"  con^ivuea  tliis  most  accurate  authority, 
"  carried  by  the  Americans  to  China,  are  bullion,  furs, 
Turkey  opium,  English  wooUens  and  cottoDB,  and  gui 
Mng.  Tn6  eommadities  exported  by  Ihe  American 
from  China  are  tea,  nankeens,  raw  and  wrouftht  Rilk, 

BUgar.  cassia,  and  camphor,  with  minor  ai ' "' 

Aniencans  are  exceedingly  fnterprising 
»¥«ry  other  trade  in  which  ihey  engage. 

'I'lic  Uritiib  trade  witli  Canton  was  formerly  earned 
on  by  the  Eut  India  Company,  but  by  an  act  of  par- 
liament which  came  into  oueralion  in  April  IfiW,  the 
trade  was  thrown  open  to  all  claases  of  Uritish  aubjei 
From  enjoying  a  monopoly,  tho  East  India  Comp<  . 
V  the  only  *«llerB  of  lea  ill  this  oouatry,  and  oould 


im-trade."  Aa  already  inautioatS,  tha  i 
gc  in  opium-smoking,  but  fmm  the  injarloa 
of  thu  pi'Bclice,  it  is  uslenaibly  prohibited,  aodtk 
'  '  'on  of  the  article  is  legally  declared  to  b*MBk 
ilhsUnding  tlie  illegality  of  the  tiafie,  h 
I  over  been  exi«m.ivcly  enrned  on,  not  in  I 
but  open  manner,  by  smuggliDj^-TMaetB  on  th 
Remonstraneaa  againat  it  by  tli«  Chineaa  (•*« 
were  generally  disregarded,  becaow  111*  W»MB 

empty  thrrala,  apparently  pal  furwaN  be  iHa 
exteim)  decency.  Lulled  into  Ginelad  atctol 
feeling  that  they  were  more 'cncaur«E>^  ^^i*^ 
mged,  the  BritisTi  continued  to  pour  in  opioid  fm 
til^by  asuddeu  outbreak,  tho  whoteetoek  m  ihi 
at  Canton  was  seiied  and  publicly  burnt,  eanai 
of  from  two  to  three  million*  of  poundi  alnVa 
parties  interested.  It  is  here  neeuaary  to  SMnti 
the  chief  promoters  of  tlic  upimn  trad«  wa««l 
India  Company,  and  the  Bt<ippa«  of  it  <*M J 
pto*e  most  dinalrouB  to  British  ratenala  in  ■ 
empire.  The  rnjaluand  pettypriueta  of  nEnil 
the  chief  growers  of  the  Voppy,  and  it  ia  imp 
conciliate  their  favour.  The  bort  opimu  ia  ft^ 
Malwa,  a  district  uf  tndis.  From  tliat  i|Bart« 
at  Bombay  a  duly  of  i25  mpecB  {£13,  lOa.)  p 
fetching  in  that  market  from  4(10  to  iOO  mp 
to  fSOl  This  quantity  sella  on  the  Oiintw  i 
700  dollars  (£loI,  6i.  4d.),  and  perhai*  bm 
The  temptation  to  get  so  largo  a  profll  aM*  aH  J 
stopping  the  trade  at  defiance.  "  Tho  tftm 
(observes  Lord  Joeelyn),*  howifrrrhBl«fhUll| 


but 

from 

t«  was  greater 

In  this  cou 

all 

they'd  April  10.1-1, 

nga 

s-poun 

RS'S 

I  THE  PEOPLE. 


Piuin  l^iL 


DTERY— NAVIGATION. 


i[u*ltli>>I>>'<lbrwMiIinU 

mt.  l4k«i}iek>ul,klM, 

1,  vunwatiDj;  of  plant* 

ill'  idjiiiut  LtuJii.  all  I,/ 

Im-li  iiiti  n.i.'llvx'lttl^ 

urnin  Ivtol,  tliNy  umiini^  «■  u  well  knoirn,  lis 
ut(ri>r  Unud«.iui>l  wliiui  of  a  Ur|p>  ■>»,  nf  ami* 
IB.     TUui,  tlm  trwjU  of  Jry  lu»l  atv  !ti  iilio  WIM 

:i{i«  or  itiiitnilunB  ruing  fruni  tlie  Uomiu  uf  Uiv 


n  mliUl  of  ilia  Ua,  un  J  tfiowiiiiiiM  l>y  tlia  pajuai 
nulHtian  i.r  matUr  drrpmitsd  by  toroUun  SoMUl 
I  nf  lunl  nr*  ftdilml  lo  eo&tiit>iiii%aad 


.  •  uImii  fruiii  iliiim,  \iy  lh»  iikHiwim  uf 
9nl>,  rivtn,  *tid  oUier  nntnritl  csuimm,  I>m  Iha- 
4y  Mqilainuj  in  tbr  axtiete  Gveurar. 


I*  vaton  of  til*  BSi  may  Mhibit  la  tho  ajw  k  (aim 
Jllod  Mtrftuw  «litu  nut  agiuiwl  by  wiiiilii,  bol  ttwi' 

levoralWgclhcralUl.  TlwivDCoKfaHniaUoii.whloB 
be  impnrtuit  ttfTcet  of  praMrviiig  Uirm  from  atHt- 
-n,  »  muwd  by  Iwu  |[r>B(  ri*ii>)pi  ami  il*|iniwu>iui, 
iwingauid  cbblnipt,  nS  thewktrni,  iu  tlm  niiuna  ut 
(f -four  hoon,  Imoirs  by  itw  uutiB  of  ijdia.  'nm 
tidaa  or  flonvin^  uf  tliu  ara  am  avprritmMHl  da^y 
vor  tlie  glob",  thiAigh  in  mnw  vtmt^f  trxtni  ptiaii&iv 


T  or  full  t!ct«  osoun  at  iltreutly  opptMilo  ti 
»rUi  at  Ihr  wuna  llm>.     Whtrti  it  in  tilub  w. 

itude  ti,  it  b>  alio  bi^  water  at  loogltudo  I  ti),  m 


DwmiiM  ponila  «f  tha  «fftb. 


ie  nuon  tianlliil  uf  lull 

baa  l>c«u  ateaxtaliicd,  beymiiiaU  rpaMinnlila  doubly 
the  tides  art  mwoil  by  uiv  atimciiio  influmse  of 
noon.  Itytlianuiifr^Uwuf  ■Ilnulioii  or|trarl- 
n,  all  Diawaii  of  niattnr  Imve  a  tcndrniry  to  bm 
tft«d  or  dnwn  toivardi  cash  otlier,  Th*  mom, 
raora,  as  a  mua  of  raallar.  in  gaiBinjc  runwt  tlra 
n,  lia>  a  tui'lrijey  to  dniw  tiiv  I'arlli  alhsr  tl,  or  tml 
K  nainrai  rvlstlvu  paltbm,  aud  it  really  doea  to  W 
lali  exteQi.  Aa  it  pHun  rouDil,  it  drawa  up  tlia 
'r>  in  a  protubmrnoo,  or, 
f»  wvnt  alUr  ic  Unt 
E  the  iiTolubcninw,  and  h  cbiuts  the  Df^aaiieaUt 
lo  globo  to  bo  drawn  nwny  fnnn  tliu  ixmui,  Imn'mg 
-vatvra  tlirao  tn  tuna  a  Mmitar  prulubf^naco  or  ItlgE 
?.  In  Ibe  one  cnao,  tho  wator  la  draiTD  dirwlJjr  a; 
>varda  Ilia  moon  i  iiitliooU>«r,  Uic  mlnriaiaBaoat 
•e  letl  bahind  by  tha  land  buing  pulbd  tinf  tnm 
In  both  a  kimiiir  flftnti  ia  pnwiuefti;  tvu  )il|^ 


between  tho'^}  two  ]M)intfl.  A  tide  requires  six  hours 
to  riHC,  which  it  do^'H  by  mnall  iiMpuIt>cs  or  rippHngn 
of  the  water  on  the  Hhore,  and  six  hours  to  ebb  or 
fall ;  but  every  Ruccesxive  high  water  is  from  twenty  to 
twenty-HCven  ininutcH  later  tluin  the  preceding,  or,  on  an 
average,  alxiut  tifty  ininut<*H  for  tvro  tides,  in  consequence 
of  the  earth  re<iuiring  that  time  above  the  twenty-four 
lioura  to  bring  any  given  point  again  beneath  the  moon. 
The  tides  are  tlius  retarded  by  the  same  reason  that 
the  moon  riM>s  fifty  minutes  later  everyday.  It  is 
evident  that  the  tides  will  be  greatest  at  that  point  of 
the  earth's  surface  which  is  nearest  to  the  moon,  or 
where  the  latter  is  vertical.  She  is  so  between  the  tro- 
pics ;  and  accordingly  the  tides  are  there  greatest,  and 
they  diminish  as  we  appn)acli  either  poles.  It  is  further 
to  be  remarked,  that  the  moon  does  not  anywhere  draw 
up  the  tides  immediately.  Three  hours  ela]>se  before  the 
waters  are  raised,  in  consequence  of  the  law  of  inertia, 
or  a  disposition  wliich  every  body  has  to  continue  in  the 
condition  of  rest  or  motion  in  which  it  happens  to  bo 
placed.  This  stubhonniess  to  resist  the  moon's  influ- 
enoe  is  only  overcome  by  a  three  hours'  action  upon 
the  waters ;  and  thus  the  tidal  wave  is  always  three 
hours  behind  the  moon  in  its  )>assage.  Twice  a-year, 
namely,  in  March  and  September,  the  tides  are  higher 
than  at  other  times,  because  then  the  attraction  of  the 
sun  and  moon  are  strongpst.  In  some  of  the  firths  or 
arms  of  the  sea  on  the  east  coast  of  Scotland,  it  has 
been  occasionally  noticed  that  there  have  been  four 
high  wat<»rs  in  the  twenty-four  hours.  These,  however, 
are  not  simple  tides.  The  double  risings  are  caused 
by  the  irn*gular  passage  of  the  tidal  wave  from  the 
Atlantic  round  the  north  and  south  points  of  the  island 
of  Great  Hritain.  When  that  ])ortion  of  the  wave  which 
proceeds  by  the  south  reaches  the  east  coast  sooner 
than  that  bv  the  north,  or  vice  versa,  there  will  l>e  two 
risings  of  the  water  instead  of  one.  A  similar  pheno- 
menon may  perhaps  l>e  observed  in  other  parts  of  the 
earth.  In  the  Mediterranean  Sea  the  tides  are  small, 
and  in  some  places  scarcely  perceptible ;  this  is  caused 
by  the  general  confinement  of  that  inhind  branch  of  the 
oooan  by  the  Straits  of  Gibraltar,  which  prevent  the 
full  action  of  the  tidal  wave  cither  in  its  rising  or  reces- 
sion. 

CURRENTS. 


Gulf  Stream,  which  is  perhaps  the  mos 
current  in  the  world. 

It  is  obvious,  that  to  the  mariner  < 
be  of  great  imfiortance.  From  Portuga 
ships  nave  sailed  to  the  Bights  of  J 
Guinea  coast,  being  150  leagues,  in  tin 
they  could  not  return  in  less  thui  aerei 
also  common  for  vessels  to  descend  to  ' 
the  Canary  Islands,  in  order  to  set  inf 
current  across  the  Atlantic,  which  oa 
America  in  a  comparatively  short  time: 
current  tliat  Columbus  was  carried  so  i 
his  first  voyage  to  the  new  continent. 
is  said,  can  be  crossed  in  this  way  In  ftb 
being  at  the  rate  of  1000  miles  per  w« 
marmers  have  expressed  an  o^nion  thi 
bo  reached  by  thb  route  in  leas  time  than 
course  round  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope. 

For  the  same  reason  that  the  scft  flow 
west,  the  air  has  a  tendency,  when  no 
by  other  causes,  to  move  in  the  same  d 
earth  in  its  motion  leaves  the  air,  like  1 
behind  it ;  in  other  words,  docs  not  eun; 
ward :  hence  what  are  called  the  trade 
operating  in  the  same  direction  with  thi 
increatse  the  facility  of  navigation  to  the 
very  great  degree.  It  is  impossible  to 
ing,  that  these  natural  phenomena,  whi 
supposed,  might  have  been  counteract 
lised  from  the  beginning,  must  have  bee 
some  end  useful  and  necessary  in  the  • 
world.  Perha]>s,  like  the  diflhsive  powe 
seeds  of  certain  plants,  they  were  intends 
dih})ersion  of  the  human  race  over  the  gl 
known  that  population  exists  in  manj 
appear  cut  ofl'  from  all  connection  with  < 
that  must  have  been  impassable  hj  na^ 
early  ages  of  their  art.  Men  could  on^ 
such  places  in  early  ages  by  the  cnire 
and  air ;  and  thus  the  cultivation  of  Urge 
regions  must  liave  commenced  much  earl 
have  otherwise  been  the  case. 

Besides  the  grand  equatorial  or  tro 
there  is  one  of  a  less  decided  chanusler ' 
to  the  equator.    The  sea  under  the  trof 

to  n  f»'ri»nt<«r  oxtont  thnn  oluMik-ltAwt     *»«»  •' 


'OVERT— KAVICATION. 


How,  kf  jircviiit  th«  iinmnn 

d*  would  iHnpoiHul  tub; 

nab\y  to  buii*,  i,.. ' 

-..in  k 
■ohifh  ibdt 

«».tMt  with 

.. . ,..,  ^ 

»dll^ 


^siiraiuTrnii  or  nm  m 


,     .         of  tl,«  ."i.  m<.  timt  <>r  lh?ak)fi 

aUt iift!ct«dt^iti"  i-'"'ii ,1  ti-  -,-„ntr»r- 

vir,  tiutDol  to  li'<jM'  <    :»  Iba 

WiliiiD  ihn  Wnplfi.,  i-jdli' 

nfluuQBn^  tt  i*  ip'iii  : .  ''  -ir  ill 

niavl.  UioD  Ihe  wm   <  :;.  air, 

ri  u  tlepritfii  lo   a   ■    ■  'r  it,  j>i 

■  ImwiTj  im  llie  |i'  I'lluiiB 

Miiitli  or  MwTd  D»  '  .'h  dm 

of  tlin  (un  mum  i'  n  Iwlfc 

llau  Ijy  Intlnxic,  '>'  ...I.  tiin 

JH  bwD  ftiuiiil.  (iM  I  I  ,l.ro(|. 

*t  arse  houDi.  <  ^  ...n.  or 

i  thuu][h  in  Miiii'  i'  tMiiBj 

'«!  itcj^re**  mnr*  ijr  i        .    .  ■        ■  .iri,  ntp] 

r  seu'lj'  tha  Munc  Intiiii.Ii-,  Tltf  I'lurf  cnW  uf 
jiriHtrmi  ia  the  iHsrpvtu&l  flow  oT  water  from  (h* 

iH  dm  itquaLiir,  wliinli  hu  bwn  nlmiijy  c\pla(ii*iL 
*  twaii  I>rc(t;  mnu-lj'  Ma>rtain*il,  tlml,  in  lli«  tru- 
•{■I,  tl  tmogca  about  3  dejtn»<i  of  t'shn^alinll ;  in 
liddte  of  tliu  tenyitaxe  ioqb  abant  1'2  I  Uii  Attmt 
•IwrcawK  with  a  nmro  rapid  nud  mrrB  rauabla 

>»  l«iii|»'mturi<  of  tliN  Kcu  ill  klin  ftthwlni 


dojlth.      Ill  diio|i  * 

lilmnU^ 


diinlnUhf 
1  Utitudn,  it 
Mr.  Tim  wn  i»  ft  bud  oniulnvliw  -f  limt;  tJi* 
nyil  Qto  only  puMtnM  alKiiil  llii''"  hua-lnri  hM 
r  Iha  nirfiimi  lOr  doot  tlw  Ilglil  ilnuaoid  «>]r 
er,  A  (mull  dU&ronrio  if  4iiiMTar«l  bctrnMUn 
■vatli)iu>  Ml  tiim|ii4nturp  in  tlin  '    ' 


CHAMBEHS'S  raFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE- 


dmning  Iho  Mrs.  tw«aklng  the  tioM>,  beMliig  the  back, 
IiuUint:  the  jgliita  till  tliey  orMk ;  in  short,  we  may  sum 
up  uiiritccimnt  of  CtiincH  knowled^  or  the  lieniiag  nrl 
with  the  Mn»rk  of  the  \*M  Or  Grrgorj  of  Kdinburgli. 
ihU  "tho  •Rii«rar  of  Chtnit  could  mil  CDinTDuid  in  til 
hi>  domiBioiw  aoch  lucdienl  kid  u  a  inurt  bajr  «t  six- 
tt«iii  who  hkii  boon  kpprenlire  for  ano  yciir  to  ■  icell- 
■niplojred  lUinbui^h  tUTgeoD,  would  bv  &blo  tq  kHbrd." 


Tha  latigame  of  the  Cliiarsa  is  nnother  bntnch  of 
thpir  buil'irir,  rcBpectiog  which  th«  r^al  of  the 
t>Mi  iinpTiMMil  witli  the  niosl  preptMlcraUK  i 
gnnlml  id«u.  It  has  been  Tepmeuted  aa  oomisling  of 
miltlon*  of  elianwtei'*-*«<  b«inE  pcrfeellj'  unstlutuible 
by  fordpi«*»,  »nd»o  forth:  and  lliuihMtbij  truly  b»r- 
barooa  tIktioD  aeqaired  a  ivpuUtiDn  for  philological 
(cicDOe  u  jpurious  u  lliat  which  Ihoy  bare  enjoyed 
for  other  branches  of  antique  erudition.  "  It  i«  true," 
u  klr  Barrow  nyH,  ■>  that  liieir  Uncage,  more  than 
any  thing  nlns,  aunipii  them  a>  an  original  people.  Il 
lia*  nu  muniblance  whatever  to  any  uther  l^guage, 
living  or  dead.  anoJent  or  uiodeni.  It  fau  neither 
borpuwad  nor  Unt  any  tliiDg  lo  any  other  nation  tir 
people,  oneeptiug  to  Itioen  wbo  an  nnqueatioaably  of 
Chinaiv  orJKin-  Th*  writl«n  Bharaeler  ia  jusl  now  bb 
diattnel  from  any  alphabutical  arrangeniml 


mm^'<*l>  iodltdiiiK  • 


of  yean  aen  ■  and  the  apoken  langiuge 
baa  not  proeceiled  a  (Ingle  atcp  beyond  the  anginal 
mcMgra  and  inHcxlble  monD*ylUbl&"  All  this  certainly 
gota  to  prove  tha  Chinaca  to  be  a  primitive  people,  and 
•0  fat  the  cireanntano*  it  a  inoiweurioeity ;  but  at  the 
■anw  time  it  ahowa  Itieir  faivetetMa  and  imnioreabte  oh- 
■tinaoy  in  adhering  lo  a  ayMam  of  Bbaimdera  ao  utterly 
untnlnoibla  (n  any  kindc^iDMllltibleTDcabulary.  The 
liMndatiun  of  tlie  lanpwM  u  parolj*  bieroglyphio  and 
"ndtiiK  all  tha  ramaHmibla  objeeta  of 
moon,  aarth,  Rre,  wal«r,  wood, 
atone,  a  horhP,  «  cow,  u  dmgou,  &.c. ;  the  utensils  ino«l 
commonly  in  uh.' — a  kmlr,  a  Bnoun,  a  box,  &c. ;  Ihe 
priinary  relnlions  of  lifs^ji  failirr,  mother,  brolbfr, 
sun,  &c. ;  Bonie  of  the  moit  obvious  qualities  of  bodiex, 
aj  sttaightneaa,  cnwkednets,  &c  Kc  Togire  a  detail 
of  the  bialory  oF  the  Chinese  language,  throngh  its 
fariuus  nioditiEatiun)  and  arrangements,  would  dcgup) 
the  Hpan  of  volumea,  and  to  no  purpose  beyond  tni 
aiiiuaemeiii  it  might  aflbrd  to  tlioau  aoliquariana  whc 
delight  in  the  invatigation  of  mallen  as  frivolous  ai 
they  an  ob«lete.  Suffiee  it  to  say,  that  the  Chinese 
bnguagi*,  which  has  bilhcrta  prored  >uch  a  myalery  Ic 
all  llie  ro-it  of  ihe  world,  hoa  at  teogth  been  fatliooied 
aiKl  ri^ndered  clear  by  the  industry  of  Bntisli  geniu 
In  faol,  the  ditliculties  attending  the  ocquisiliun  of 
have  proved  almont  altogether  visionary.  The  indutlry 
of  Dr  Maralialman  and  Dr  Murrison  has  suppliei'  - 
with  gmnnun  and  dictmnariea  of  ifaia  singular 
guaite,  and  placedwiihin  our  reach  all  tlieauppuaed  trea- 
■urH  it  eoniained.  "  JJuropeans,"  says  Sir  Uorrow, 
"  have  been  deceived  aa  to  the  vast  number  of  cbarae- 
n  this  laDtoage,  whivh  was  auppoafld  to  create  its 
-■'        'n  the  great  Diclioimry  of  Kauna-hee  there 

I  than  iOfiOf)  characters,  nf  which  about 

HHt  only  are  in  use.  The  Lfiicvn  of  Scapula  con- 
■.nhoul  41.000  words.Ainswurth's  Dictiaoar)'  45,0011, 
Jtdinwo's  about  the  aamo  number.  The  whule 
ka  i>r  i:«nrucius  contain  only  about  3000  ditTerenl 
net-rn.  The  ^fu-/rr  niay  have,  on  the  whole,  about 
,Ui>ii  ehiiraelera.  but  not  more  than  ISeU  dilF 
>  throughout  the  whole  work.  Where,  then 
re  poHibly  he  anj;  difficulty  T'  The  same  wrilei 
UIM  nunierou*  inslaucea  of  Europeans  aequ 
'"        ka  language  in  a  comparatively  . ' 


some  of  Oiaian'a  enblime  passages,  eonnst  of 
gibia  imagery  ;  (lipir  novels  of  silly  and  pointtes 
their  hl-lorics,  as  we  have  already  seen,  of  fiti 
their  drama*,  although  for  the  most  part  tme  < 
yet  eiiiibitlng  nature  in  her  moat  revolting  foi 
de  Guigiies,  ilr  Biirrow,  and  other  visilcn  i 
asaare  ui  that  Ihe  theali'ical  exhitnliona  w 
every  thing  abominable  and  disgusting. 

It  has  furnished  matter  of  surpriM  to  al 
how  a  eovemmant  so  despotio  as  that  of  Chii 
make  the  cultivnUon  of  letters  a  subject  of  sue 
anxiety.  Even  the  iulelllgent  Mr  Harrow  make 
vel  of  this  fuct,  not  withstanding  that  hi*  own 
(had  we  no  other  authority)  fumlah  a  suffidui 
nation  of  the  aceiniag  anomaly.  It  is  true,  tl 
school  lit  be  found  in  every  village  of  China,  i 
the  inslruetiou  of  the  pupils  forma  one  of  t 
anxioUB  concerns  of  the  goremment :  hot  wfa 
natureor  pnrpoBvortheireducalioul  Toiostr: 
in  all  the  erroneous  doctrineg  nf  their  panola- 

wrilerB—lo  make,  in  short,  Cbinew  politiciana 
The  iKMBled  system  of  education  in  China  is  n. 
pulTKiae  or  enliahtening  the  people,  but  uT  kecpi 
in  darkness.  They  arc  allowed  tnknuw  nothing 
nations,  and  cnunot  therefore  comprehend  ll 
degraded  end  enslaved  condiliou. 

The  religion  of  the  Cfaioeae  is  allied  in  ohai 
the  lloodhiini  of  the  Birman  empire,  Japan,  Si 
other  parts  of  EasUtm  Aua ;  and,  under  wlialev' 
it  may  be  deKued  as  a  snperstiliua  iatimalely  ai 
with  ceremonial  observances  in  pagodas  and 
According  l<i  Howard  Alalcom,  the  lateal  aoth 


the  subject,*  the  Chini 


9  are  divided  into  thr 


difficolly.     In 


I'lTI 


<alltt 


«of  Icani 


jng  the  Chineac  language  will  be  very  inlu]elluatelyeolu- 

Elual«d    by    the    literary  "  treasures"   of  which  Mr 
Trow  (peaks.     ThiTc  are  no  doubt  a  profusiou  of 
Mwmi  (ao  callnl),  novels,  histories,  and  diTiiiias,  &.&  ; 
Mil  nf  what  cliatBSIor  are  they  (   fRnn  the  tianslaliou* 
wbieh  we  have  yet  been  favoured  with,  the  poems,  like 
39U 


Jokauniaia  ore  the  followers  of  Kane 

-,  M  the  Jesuits  Latinise  il,  Confucius,  who  St 

iiiul  oliO  years  before  Christ,  and  was  Iherefi 

mporary  with  Pythagoras.     Ho  was  of  royal 

id  a  mandarin,  hut  early  rosif;ncd  oSlcial  I 

■voted  himself  to  literature,  nuirahi,  and  politi 

imy.    Reducing  the  maxims  of  funner  sagca  ti 

ue  added  valunhle  extracts  from  current  wor 

prudeol  sayings  of  his  own,  and  producn)  i 

wliich  continues  to  be  the  ulHma  iHule  of  China 

Travelling  extensively  as  a  popular  lecturer,  a 

tained,  not  leas  by  his  high  birth  and  eloquent  > 

than  by  tha  excellence  of  Ilia  duct  rines,  he  boob  t 

a  sect  which  became  virtually  the  state  religion 

however,  much  less  intulenntly  maintained  thai 

Popery  or  I'mteelantiEim,  where  united  with  th 

The  other  religions  are  allowed,  and  sometimeafi 

Great  officers,  and  even  the  emperor  himaelf,  it 

endow  Boodliist  and  Toouial  temples. 

Tlie  system  of  Confucius  la  highly  extolled  b] 
pean  writers,  aud  most  extravsganlty  by  CUmi 

stop  to  describe  it.  He  seems  to  have  regarded  i 
less  than  politics,  and  the  burden  of  hia  wtgrka 
to  social  Tirtuos,  civil  gOTomnicnl,  and  adben 
onceatml  liabila. 

The  sect  of  Taou  (literally  rrann)  was  Sran: 

Laon-Keuin,  a  contemporary  and  rival  of  Cat 

llin  rollowars  may  be  eaikJ  il.e  niyhtic*  of  China 

profcu  alchemy,  assume  iiijsleriouji  uirs,  mad  di 

on  the  palms,  and  make  grnil  prclvDHions  to  d 

nil  and  superior  light.     I'heir  practical  wur^ 

I,  in  geneml,  Ihe  same  Isuihibis  pnniila  wU 

nieh  the  system  of  the  Jn-kea-su. 

'lie  Iliird  sect  fiillow  To-e.  .onietimea  apellst 

u  said  to  be  the  old  orlimgraphy  of  Fmk,  ■ 

Chincae  abbreviation  of  fuA-M,  or  Uoodha 

BuoJhism  of  China  ia  the  same  aa  that  of  Bii 

'  Tor  an  aceouul  of  which  ar  refer  to  the  artiela 

;ixioio.'<^  in  the  present  scrios  of  papwa.)  "  B 

•  Tntsis ia IIIaduMan and OhlBia   (VN|IAMiki 


CHINA. 


tm  is  certainly  fiur  older  than  either  of  the  others. 
It  is  f^enerally  supposed  to  have  been  introduced  about 
LSK  70.  Kempfer  dates  the  introduction  about  a.  d.  518, 
vhen  '  Darma,  a  great  saint,  came  from  the  west,  and 
hid  the  foundation,'  &c.  Chinese  historians  agree  that 
the  worship  of  Fohi  was  originally  brought  from  India. 
Sir  William  Jones  says  confidently,  *  Boodh  was  un- 
qnestionably  the  Fo-e  of  China.' 

This  sect  probably  embraces  one-third  of  the  entire 
population.  The  government  acts  with  indecision  to- 
wards it,  at  one  time  denouncing  it  as  dangerous,  and 
It  another  contributing  to  its  support.  M.  Gutzlaff 
AW  at  Pooto  some  placards  calling  on  the  people,  in 
;be  name  of  the  emperor,  to  repair  to  the  Boodhist 
emple  of  that  place,  m  order  to  propitiate  Heaven  for 
i  fruitful  spring.  The  priests  are  numerous,  but  not 
ereatly  respected.  I  saw  some  of  them  in  the  streets 
iaily.  A  few  were  exceedingly  well-dressed,  but  gene- 
rally thejr  were  both  shabby  and  dirty,  sometimes  quite 


ratsed. 


Malcom  gives  the  following  account  of  a  visit  to 

i  Boodhist  temple  at  Canton : — **  There  are  124  temples 

n  Canton,  besides  the  numerous  public  altars  seen  in 

iie  streets.   I  saw  the  principal  ones  without  the  walls, 

rhieh  are  said  not  to  be  inferior,  on  the  whole,  to  those 

rithin.     They  strikingly  resemble  the  monasteries  of 

iilurope.     The  handsomest  is  one  of  tho  Boodhists,  in 

iie  suburb  of  Ho-nan,  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  river. 

Being  accompanied  by  Messrs  Bridgman,  Parker,  and 

klomson,  who  were  acquainted  with  the  superior,  I 

vas  not  only  shown  every  part  by  his  order,  but  had 

ihe  pleasure  of  bis  society  for  an  hour.     Cloisters,  cor- 

fidors,  courtyards,  chapels,  image-houses,  and  various 

ifiees,  are  scattered,  with  little  regard  to  order,  over 

I  space  of  five  or  six  acres.  Priests,  with  shaven  crowns 

IM  rosaries,  loitered  about ;  but  I  never  saw  common 

people  come  to  worship  either  at  this  or  other  establish- 

Dwnta.    Some  of  the  priests  occupied  small  and  mean 

ipartments ;  but  those  of  the  superior  are  spacious,  and 

famished  not  only  with  the  ordinary  conveniences,  but 

with  chandeliers,  mirrors,  picturcF,  &c.,  and  with  an 

extensive  library.    The  buildings  are  chiefly  of  brick, 

M»  storey  high,  the  walks  handsomely  flagged,  and  the 

eoortyard  ornamented  with  lar^c  trees,  or  beautiful 

firterres  of  flowers.     The  printmg-oflice  contains  ste- 

isotjpe  plates  enough  to  load  a  small  vessel,  so  arranged 

M  that  every  work  is  rt;adily  accessible.    The  principal 

•ptrtment  or  temple  is  about  100  feet  square,  with  the 

wal  images,  &c.     We  attended  here  to  witness  the 

ngidaT  evening  service.     It  seemed  to  create  little 

iBierest,  for  out  of  160  resident  priests,  there  were  but 

fifty  present ;  and  these  uttered  their  repetitions  with 

the  most  obvious  indifference.     Their  prayers  are  in 

ha  ostensibly,  but  I  am  told  not  truly,  as  their  mode 

tf  writing  renders  it  utterly  unintelligible  to  any  one. 

thej  keep  time  by  striking  a  wooden  drum,  and  occa- 

ttoosUy  a  bell.     At  a  certain  stage  of  the  process,  the 

whole  company  formed  into  single  flle,  and  marched 

RMud  the  hall,  without  ceasing  their  repetitions.   This 

five  us  a  full  view  of  their  countenances ;  and  so  far 

M  these  indicated,  a  more  stupid  set  could  not  be  picked 

Mrt  in  all  Canton.     I  have  already  remarked  this  cha- 

neteristic  of  the  Boodhist  priesthood  in  other  couutries, 

ind  am  confirmed  in  the  belief  of  its  beinz  attributable 

to  the  character  of  their  religion,  and  the  nature  of 

their  duties. 

Instead  of  tho  humble  dress  of  Birman  and  Siam 
priests^  these  wear  as  handsome  as  they  can  get,  with 
ihoes  and  stockings.  What  is  worse,  some  are  in  rags, 
barefoot,  and  squalid,  with  apparent  poverty.  They 
hsve,  however,  a  common  refectory,  where  I  presume 
all  Uie  alike.  The  buildings  were  erected  at  different 
times  by  the  muniflcence  of  individuals,  and  by  the 
revenues  of  the  establishment,  which  amount  to  about 
8000  dollars  per  annum. 

While  we  walked  over  the  premises,  the  superior  had 
prepared  us  a  repast  of  sweetmeats  and  fruits,  to  which 
he  sat  down  with  no.  His  manners  were  easy  and  ele- 
cant,  his  dress  unosteDtatioiis,  and  his  countenance  full 

397 


of  intelligence  and  mildness.  His  age  is  but  thirty-eight. 
We  of  course  endeavoured  to  make  the  visit  profitable 
to  him.  My  heart  yearned  over  him;  and  when  he 
assured  me  that  he  meant  to  visit  America  in  a  year  or 
two,  I  was  happy  to  promise  him  a  most  cordial  recep- 
tion. Priests  may  leave  the  country  and  return,  with- 
out the  restraints  which  make  it  dangerous  to  others. 

The  whole  number  of  priests  in  Canton  is  estimated 
at  2000;  of  nuns,  1000.  The  annual  expense  of  the 
124  temples  is  250,000  dollars.  An  equal  sum  is  re- 
quired  for  the  periodical  festivals.  Half  a  million, 
annually  paid  in  one  city  for  religion,  by  pagans !  And 
the  whole  amount  which  all  Cliristendom  gives  for 
pa^ms  in  a  year,  is  but  six  times  as  much !'' 

For  many  years.  Christian  missionaries  of  different 
denominations  have  been  established  at  Canton,  Macao, 
and  other  parts  of  China ;  but  they  make  little  progress 
in  proselytising  the  population,  on  account  of  the  diffi- 
culties of  the  kinguage  and  the  rii^orous  adherence  of 
the  natives  to  ancient  customs.  Cluna  likewise  contains 
some  Mahommedans  and  Jews;  and  these,  with  the 
Christians,  seem  to  be  tolerated  merely  on  account  of 
the  public  usefulness  and  learning  of  the  missionaries 
of  these  sects.  The  Christians,  for  the  same  reason,  are 
the  most  generally  respected,  but  have  been  treated, 
from  time  to  time,  with  the  most  arbitrary  capricious- 
ness,  being  persecuted  by  one  emperor  and  encouraged 
by  another.  In  the  year  1747,  Ave  missionaries  were 
beheaded  in  Fo-kien,  and  two  Jesuits  strangled  in  the 
same  year  in  Kiang-nan,  all  of  which  was  done  *'  accord- 
ing to  law,"  which  says,  that  the  chief  of  any  sect  who 
seduces  the  people  from  their  duties  under  religious 
pretences,  shall  be  strangled. 

REVIEW  OP  MA:<NEBS,  CnAAACTER,  IND  CONDITION. 

From  all  we  have  said,  it  will  be  evident  that  civilL* 
sation  has  as  yet  advanced  little  beyond  tho  infancy  of 
what  may  be  called  agricultural  society  in  China.  It 
may  be  readily  admitted  that  they  were  amongst  the 
first  of  existing  nations  who  arrived  at  a  cei*tain  degree 
of  excellence ;  but  it  is  not  less  evident  that  they  have 
long  remained  stationary,  and  have  even  in  some  points 
retrograded.  "  They  can  only  be  said,"  observes  Mr  Bar- 
row, "  to  be  great  in  trifles,  whilst  they  are  really  triflipg 
in  every  thing  that  is  great."  Tlie  f(»lluwing  assertion 
of  Sir  William  Jones  may  almost  be  literally  adopted : 
— "  Their  letters,  if  wo  may  so  call  them,  are  merely 
the  symbols  of  ideas :  their  philosophy  is  in  so  rude  a 
state  as  hardly  to  deserve  the  appellation ;  they  have 
no  ancient  monuments  from  which  their  origin  may  bo 
traced,  even  by  plausible  conjecture  ;  their  sciences  are 
wholly  exotic ;  and  their  mechanical  arts  have  nothing 
in  them  characteristic  of  a  particular  family — nothing 
which  any  set  of  men  in  a  country  so  highly  favoured 
might  not  have  discovered  and  improved." 

In  their  moral  qualities,  the  Chinese  are  a  strange 
compound  of  vanity  and  meanness,  affected  gravity  and 
real  frivolity — an  utter  want  of  all  manly  judgment  and 
sense,  combined  with  the  most  insidious  art  and  cunning, 
the  usual  accompaniments  of  vulgar  ignoniiice.  The 
Tartar  race  are  distinguished  by  a  blunt  and  unstudied 
frankness  of  manner  and  openness  of  disposition ;  but 
the  true  Chinese  betray  the  most  debasing  servility  of 
tone  and  manner — plausible,  sly,  and  artful.  They 
have  not  the  slightest  regard  to  truth,  and  will  assert 
and  deny  any  thing  with  the  mobt  unblushing  effrontery, 
being  also  entirely  destitute  of  shame.  The  pain  in- 
flicted by  the  bamboo  is  tlie  only  consideration  they 
attach  to  public  and  disgraceful  corporal  punishment. 
They  have  neither  sense  of  honour  nor  self-respect. 
"  A  Chinese  prince,  or  powerful  mandarin,"  says  a 
recent  traveller,  **  will  commit  extortion  or  oppression 
whenever  he  can  do  it  with  impunity,  and  regards  it  as 
a  matter  of  right  attached  to  his  station.  A  Chinese 
trader  will  cheat  and  defraud  whenever  it  is  in  his 
power,  and  even  piques  himself  upou  his  skill  in  over- 
reaching, as  a  proof  of  his  talent.  A  Chinese  peasant 
will  pilfer  and  steal  whatever  is  within  his  reach,  when- 
ever ho  can  hope  to  escape  detection ;  aud  the  whole 


CUAMBEES'S  lNFORiL\TiON  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


Utiiui  may  tw  iffirmed  la  h«v*  liaiott  aothiag  in  view 
but  iheir  u«"  »tlMfli*twt  uti  eweurily.  Their  genor*! 
cbATBOWr,  iu  iJiurl,  in  iwiiit  uf  tuurals,  compitred  wiUi 
tba  iniuuta  cntommeut  of  diilj'  by  tlis  pviuJ  laws, 
affoiiia  ui  imuKibla  proof  ol  tb«  utUir  lacuinpi.'Woc}' 
of  li^wUtioo,  witliout  iLe  aid  oT  rdisiuiu  priiici|ilo,  to 
reaeb  bejoad  tlic  aum  eiUriul  cuuduct  of  tDdividualB, 
ur  W  produco  any  iUur  like  re&l  wciU  virtua  uuoug 
liunun  bcingB."  In  tnisir  fecUaes,  tlio  CliiniBa  ore 
cnid,  wiuiwi.  and  vimLiitive.  Mr  JJurnxT.  M.  de 
Gulgoe*,  and  other  tMToUer^  all  MCm:  in  ibcir  rcpre- 
•miUtioDB  o(  the  inbunikn  eonduol  of  tlioH  in  ttulJiiwit>. 
Out)  of  tliH  arliitnry  lava  of  China  is  tha  oouipcllinji  uf 
thn  nali'M  Iu  t"'^  '''^  imnacijil  borgw  alongst  Ibu 
oaiutli;  and  Ut  Harrow  bad  Mveral  opporUinitiM  of 
wiluwniiig  the  iui!rcilc«  rxaroiae  of  this  aalhorily  on 
UiB  iwrl  ut  tha  military.  TJie  imprawil  labonren 
teok,  uf  oouTM.  arvry  opporiuuitj'  ii(  dcaiiitiiig ;  aad 
whMWTor  dim  WM  »  dcfteiciicy  ol  baiid^  tlte  deapotia 
oBlelal*  aet  off  to  til*  iicaitM  hjwilet.  rouiad  the  natiiM 
out  of  bed  wilh  tlia  whip,  nudo  liMxa  jump  ' 
«at«r  (oagaiatthBiowiDEopanUiaai^  '"''*-''' 
louK  oart-whiua  all  Iho  wbib  wilb  tlie  i 
Wily.  Mr  Uorrui'  bIh  mlatni  aiH 
Cbin-M  indlffercDCD  to  huuiaii  life,  wbivL  la  O'ilncaaril 
ill  liaaaiiiff  d^jwu  th«  g^ovl  cuiai  Lotwjxl  Duttoo  aud 
I'akln.  SuTtrii  4iarwui  who  liad  crowded  lo  tlia  brink 
of  lie  sanil,  lisd  listed  Ibiuusd***  upon  the  MgU  pro- 
jNIii^  ■tvni  uf  au  old  Tuael,  which  broks  dowa  with 
thnir  wviglii,  and  predDitMcd  tlia  wbol*  group  iota  tba 
wattT.  Although  Qiuubon  uf  baata  war*  plying  idiwut 
at  tlw  »ery  aiiol,  not  oiw  "aa  ubiwrrvd  to  Jii  to  th* 
aaaiatanro  of  llio  drowning  wreWbon,  *hoao  aliridta  aad 
erica  wero  totally  diarvnardcd. 

Nathbg  <a  m  aijniiOcMil  of  dw  moral  eonditinn  of  a 
p«apl«  H  tbair  trvatuiaiil  <^  Uu  bmal' 


thty  an  aol  ponnittod  to  alir  ost  oif  doon,  uGeptiog 


Tlie  practice  of  daformlng  Uie  feet  of  femalei  of  the 
batter  clauM  boa  loug  been  prevalent.  WhilvtIiU  cliil- 
dren,  the  fret  aro  bound  orconipraieod  in  lucha  niui- 
ner  ai  ouuipletely  to  prevent  their  gniwtli.  "  At  five. 
Ilia  tich  Duui'a  daughter  liaa  her  foot  as  firmly  bound, 
Ihala  in  tlie  naliTO  pbiue,  the  whole  is  MM.  Tbafout 
below  the  iuttep  ia  preaaed  iulo  a  lino  with  tba  Ick.  to 
add  to  tba  h«igbt  of  liia  little  aufferer,  wbiJe  two  of  tbv 
Iota  an  brot  under  the  aole,  that  ila  breftdib  nuy  be 
Olily  of  tlia  leaat  dimenuona.  The  B«on;r  of  au?h  a  pro- 
iHMi  il  would  be  hard  to  eitiniate  i  but  it  is  said  la  last 
about  atx  wreka,  when  t  lUppua*  Ibe  waMiii;  of  all  the 
parta,aDd  thaeeuatiunuf  uiauyuf  tlieirfuacliunii,haTo 
rsodercd  tlie  whole  ioaenaiblo  Iu  {vain.  'I'be  develup- 
ineol  of  Ills  muactcs  which  form  thr  calf  of  (he  legbei-- 
eliackod,  Iho  limb  eonaaquently  Upvn  fniii  ila  mwI 
down  lolbafoot,  without  any  riutignurinHeoliona.  Tbia 
i*  regarded  aa  the  perfMlino  o(  beauty  by  the  Cliineae, 
whoaay  that  the  kuee  uf  Iba  fi-maio  it  ui>l  prolubetanl, 
Ilka  Ihr  knen  iif  the  toaie,  aad  ii  so  well  cOTcred,  thai 
alio  can  remain  kuecUug  a  loDg  liiue  without  incunvc- 
nianoa.  Il  i*  porhapa  Icia  ihruughuut  iu  leugib  tliaii 
when  tliD  foot  ia  allowed  Iu  retain  ila  natural  sixe; 
but  whetliar  thu  be  froui  Ilia  want  of  exerciK,  wliidli 
crtr  aclK  a*  a  atimulua  tu  uiuamlar  deformity,  ur  from 
tha  birk  ••!  imtrimeDt  tlirough  functional  duturbance,  I 
rannul  take  upon  me  (u  aay  ;  but  I  uupeet  the  former 
ia  tlie  teal  cauae ;  otharwiae  the  tDatler  w.iuld  grow 
from  bad  to  wona,  till  tbe  wliule  was  dmlruynd  by 
atrophy.  A  foul  two  inchea  in  lencth  ia  tlio  idol  of 
a  Chinaman,  oa  which  ha  buinlim  tlia  uioM  pmiioDa 
apithela  which  natare  and  languaKa  can  ■uppi;'.  But 
ila  baiaulies  are  allogctbcr  ideal ;  lot  wbcn  tlnpped  uf 
Ha  Kay  tatealmenta,  it  ia  a  pileuua  niaa*  of  Ufnlra 
tatainmeat,  wbieh  (caeniblpa  Iho  akin  of  »  waaboT* 


woman'a  liaod  after  it  baa  uadcr^na  m  lonj;  IMMI 
lioa  in  Boap  and  water.  I'bo  aighl  of  it  ia  wall  in 
to  excite  our  uonipaiaiou,  not  our  eommondatia*! 
beautiful  limb  CTUshad  into  a  heap  of  dclonnityt 
former  ages  for  tha  dami    ~ 


'abea,  which  BWept  npun  the  |;rouud,  ami  kef4i 
'*_■■■         Id  be  .    -     . 

ihe  ladies  td 


of  light:  il  would 

fS  to  restore  tliem  again  to  use,  aud  alio*  a 
ioslruutenia  of  progrctaiun  Bo  retain  their  uatonl  ik 
in  the  aeylum  oif  a  long  train,  toela  wight  aliU  (d 
brato  the  little  '  golden  lilies,'  in  contDrniily  with  baa 
OBitum ;  and  ic  would  be  indifTcreal  aa  to  iha  nwnS 
of  lliB  thing,  nlielboT  he  aaid  a  fool  «aa  only  two  ind 
lung,  which  wm  thrice  that  length ;  or  called  that  H 
fwrleetioii  of  beauty  wbicb  it,  in  truth,  oalj  a  du«i 
dsfunnily."  * 
Amongst  tha  other  moral  iuiqaitiea  of  tha  ChiaN 


of  iolantieide ;  aud  from  the  oonlcHnt' 

Cemaln  aro  nmuraUy  tudd,  parania  eapoai  oH 
fenialfi  chlldron  wiuiuul  llie  alighlef 


whiob  femaln 


part  uf  tU«  duty  uf  the  I'okin  polloa  lo  g<>  ih^  nta 
with  carta,  at  au  oafly  huur  uf  tha  momlng,  lo  pickl 
tbi]  Uidioauf  tha  infant*  that  hare  been  Ihiomi  Mlb 
the  atraele  ill  ihe  courae  of  Ibe  oigbt,  and  to  mrtj  !>■ 
wltbuut  inqoiry,  to  a  common  pit  without  tba  fity  «d 
wlian  tboy  aro  thrown  in  promiieaoualy.  ||  baal* 
calculated  that  then  aro  betwaan  30.0M  and  Itft 
fomala  tufanla  thus  yarly  neriSoad  in  Cbina  I  I 
In  eompariiuu  with  tlie  lower  ordan  ot  tha  ChiM 
tba  ooudiliuu  of  tlia  alaTSa  in  our  Wcat  IndU  e*M 
waa  that  of  pciiieva.  They  hn«a  acarealy  an  aitidHl 
furnilure,  beeldcs  two  or  three  JM*,  a  Ibw  biab^J 
Guane  carilicoware,  a  large  iron  pot,  a  trjiUf-ftOtM 
a  punabls  alove.  Xlicy  uhb  neither  lablin  nor  <M 
but  at  meabi  all  tha  fainUy  ait  apos  tbair  bfaia  roM 
Urge  put,  with  a  bowl  in  each  uf  tlMur  luoala,  U 
K&omliiapatiRdiaepBOO,  II)  *' 


chop 

or] 

.iftioks,  which  can»M 

^oerally  .if  porcupin 

oftmttuaa 

e»'  4oilK  and 

sz 

I.  if 

t  iwj  lirsl  fiiif! 

•raof 

llic  rlglii  liaiid.     WH 

■  Ibclr  food 

mtolba 

fb"re^kabi! 

Gxpedilion.      Boiled  net 

lapl 

food,  with  Ihe 

addi 

on  of  uulUl 

rbartq 

ayl^ 

tcwiae  eat  all 

«*"» 

i  •^ainai^ 

"g-ab 

their 

pntreKenl  Bubalanccs.  The  dead  hoga  tbnwa  an 
board  the  shipa  iu  Iho  river  at  Cantou,  aro  gnadi 
picked  up  by  iho  nativei  i  and  in  Ilia  public  inallH 
dogs,  catd,  and  rula,  are  exhibited  for  aale.  Tbaai 
ddgndiog  Mwiul  vice  of  the  Chiuewi  it  that  of  B|iiai 
Bnioking,iheeireclHof  which  are  much  worse  than tt« 
from  an  indulgcuce  in  iutoxicating  hquora* 


The  ayBlemalie  disoouragemool  wbloh  tba  OJMI 
guvemmetit  oiTdr*  Iu  all  inlereoune  with  funi^  ■ 

on  in  a  counlry  adapted  better  tlian  any  DtW  la  M 
world  for  ila  pruaecutiun,  whether  w«  eaaaite  I 
gmgraphiiml  tituiUion,  its  productiuuii,  ur  tha  a  aiha  i 
the  peuple.  The  innumerable  rircn  aud  eaaabidi 
wbicli  tlie  country  ia  luliiraeeted,  preaeut  brtUtiaft 
interual  communicaliuD  poHieaaed  by  no  oUmfcUMM] 
yet  there  ia  no  reguUr  ^atem  of  tnda  amoB^  th^ 
it  cuiucala  almoat  sulely  of  barter,  thar*  bvini  tm^ 
culatine  medium,  excepting  a  umall  anpucr  ostot  i 
value  of  wliich  ia  almoii  (ou  uiinuie  (or  calealaliMi  i 
u  rvirkoned,  that  on  Ilia  grand  I'akio  Cmual  ikeMfl 
upward!  uf  lO.OUU  boaU  and  baign  of  TaTNVa  da^ 
tiunsvuntiuuallvenipluycdialheinterehanceofaMlH 
pr>Kluce.  <Jf  iho  cumiiirroial  capabihtiea  of  QiiM)  I 
d«d,  wo  hareaiDpIt'  vvidi'iivu  m  the  iiuinwwa madl 
and  cnindod  atale  uf  lliu  nitiea.  Tbeto  un  dinMl 
the  L'hiiieM  lutu  llirae  cUnsn,  aocarduig  W  tba  nilt^ 
of  leagues  which  they  occupy  ;  ati.1  of  tba  Am  daaaaki 


ward*  uf  4UUU.  Ther 
a  doubt ;  but  even  »iii 
a  Uy^ '■  Cblaaa  aa  ibay  an." 


CfflNA. 


eommtmitics  at  a  third,  oi*  even  a  fourth,  of 
Mt  down  hy  the  Chinese,  what  an  euormons 
r  eonsmnption  for  all  the  necessaries  of  life  is 
iwn  1  What  an  unbounded  mart  for  all  kinds 
h  manufactures  would  be  thrown  open  hy  the 
of  the  poTemment  restrictions  upon  commerce ! 
i  peopfo  of  China  are  anxious  for  this  free  in- 
9  with  other  nations,  has  been  abundantly 
and  in  fact  their  greedy  and  peculatory  dispo- 
fficiently  guarantees  the  readiness  with  which 
•uid  engage  in  foreign  traffic.  But  the  all- 
.  constnints  of  the  goyemment  hang  like  a  miU- 
ind  their  necks.  Whatever  be  the  ignorance 
wer  classes,  there  is  no  want  of  enliehtenment 
Lecutive,  which  is  conscious  that  a  free  trade 
evitably  lead  to  the  breaking  up  of  the  whole 
system  of  ruline.  Their  jealousy,  indeed,  is  not 
to  be  wondered  at,  considering  the  precedent 
liem  in  the  rise  of  the  Briti^i  power  in  the 
iring  peninsula  of  India  ;  the  only  wonder  is, 
d  all  Uie  turmoils  of  war  which  have  disturbed 
d  during  so  many  ages,  this  country,  so  fertile 
'  thing  which  can  make  a  country  desirable, 
ave  remained  comparatively  unmolested, 
fell  known  that  the  foreign  trade  of  China  is 
exclusively  to  one  port — that  df  Canton.  The 
I  trade  with  Russia  and  India  has  now  almost 
ceased.  So  great  is  their  jealousy  of  the  Ru9- 
deed,  that  the  latter  are  the  only  people  inter- 
•om  even  visiting  Canton, 
oes  not  appear  to  have  been  known  in  Britain 
i  to  1650;  and  it  is  evident,  from  the  following 
VIr  Pepys*  Diary,  that  many  years  elapsed  pre* 
oits  coming  into  general  use  : — *'  September  25, 
[  sent  for  a  cup  of  tea  (a  China  drink),  of  which 
lever  drunk  before."  And  in  1664,  there  is 
made  of  the  East  India  Company  commission- 
r  foreign  agent  to  purchase  2  11ml  2  oz.  of  tea 
sent  to  his  majesty  !  From  this  time  forward, 
*,  the  consumption  of  tea  increased  with  a  rapi- 
rcely  less  wonderful  than  the  progress  of  the 
cotton  manufacture. 

n,  at  which  the  principal  foreign  commerce 
td  on  bv  the  Chinese,  and  at  which  all  the  ex- 
tea  take  place,  is  situated  on  the  eastern  bank 
river  Pekiang,  a  beautiful  placid  stream,  as 
the  Thames  at  l4ondon.  This  grei^t  outlet  of 
trade  is  about  400  miles  in  length,  and  Canton 
t  the  distance  of  80  miles  from  its  mouth.  Can- 
tists  of  two  descriptions  of  towns— that  which 
ied  by  walls,  and  tlie  suburbs  ;  both  together, 
)  said  to  contain  from  seven  to  eight  hundred 
d  inhabitants.  The  circuit  of  the  walls,  which 
i  moderate  height,  and  furnished  with  a  few 
is  estimated  by  some  at  five,  and  by  others  at 
ies.  Only  about  a  third  part,  however,  of  the 
aclosed  is  covered  with  buildings;  the  rest  is 

I  with  pleasure-grounds  and  fi^-ponds.  The 
uring  country  is  very  charming — hilly  towards 
iy  and  presenting  in  that  quarter  a  beautiful 
L  The  streets  are  long  and  narrow ;  the  houses 
y  low,  and  towering  above  them  may  be  seen 
and  pagodas.  At  ni^t  the  gates  are  closed,  and 
■own  across  the  entrance  to  the  streets.  From 
loaed  city,  as  well  as  from  every  other  town  in 

II  foreigners  are  rigorously  excluded ;  and  these, 
obtain  permission,  must  take  up  their  abode 
burbs,  which  contain  a  very  miscellaneous  popu- 
lough  not  therefore  inferior  in  point  of  accommo- 
ir  appearance.  But  the  most  curious  particular 
ig  Canton  is  the  existence  of  a  floating  town  on 
r,  consisting  of  perhaps  forty  or  fifty  thousand 
jonks,  and  vessels  of  various  kinds,  arranged 
each  other  in  regular  rows,  with  passages  be- 
hem  to  allow  other  vessels  to  pass.  This  float- 
Q  extends  several  miles  in  length.  For  what 
we  know  not,  the  owners  of  these  vessels  and 
milies  are  not  allowed  to  come  ashore,  and  so 
end  the  whole  of  their  lives  on  the  water. 

399 


Foreigners  are  not  permitted  to  go  ashore  and  re« 
side  at  pleasure  at  Canton.  Their  only  Und  establish- 
ments consist  of  hotiffs  or  factories,  which  extend  in  a 
line  along  the  banks  of  the  river,  from  which  they  are 
distant  about  a  hundred  yards.  They  are  built  on  a  broad 
quay,  with  a  spacious  promenade  in  front.  The  honga 
or  factories  individually  consist  of  courts  or  lanes,  ad- 
mitting of  no  thoroughfare,  and  solely  dedicated  to  Uie 
accommodation  of  tlie  foreign  residents.  Large  ware- 
houses for  the  reception  of  goods  are  adjacent.  The 
place  of  the  Chinese  suburbs  which  is  most  frequented 
by  foreigners,  is  termed  China  Street,  consisting  entirely 
of  shops,  in  which  the  native  dealers  are  to  be  seen 
seated  from  morning  till  night.  Their  tricks  in  entrap- 
ping British  seamen  into  purchasing  their  commodities, 
have  long  been  matter  of  notoriety.  Their  signs  uni- 
formly exhibit  an  English  name  as  well  as  a  Chinese 
one ;  and  having  picked  up  an  acquaintance  with  the 
most  familiar  of  Jack's  expressions,  their  mode  of  ad- 
dressing their  rough  customers  evinces  at  once  the 
crafty  and  unscrupulous  disposition  of  the  natives. 

The  manner  in  which  foreigners  have  heretofore  con- 
ducted business  at  Canton  is  as  follows  ^— .When  a  ship 
arrives,  it  is  necessary  immediately  to  get  a  native  mer- 
chant (or,  as  he  is  called,  a  hong  merchant)  to  become 
security  for  the  import  and  export  dues,  as  well  as  for 
the  good  behaviour  of  the  crew.  In  this  there  is  never 
found  the  slightest  difficulty,  there  being,  on  the  con- 
trary, always  a  competition  amongst  the  natives  for  the 
honour  of  a  consignment.  The  import  duties  consist  of 
a  tax  upon  the  different  species  of  goods,  as  well  as  a 
tonnage  upon  the  vesseL  In  addition  to  the  tonnage  and 
cargo  charges,  there  is  also  levied  what  is  called  a  Artim- 
shaw,  or  present  to  government,  exigible  from  ships  of 
every  burden  alike.  It  has  been  estimated  tliat  all  these 
various  port  diarges,  including  the  expenses  of  victual- 
ling the  ships,  &c.,  amount  to  about  7000  dollars  on 
a  ship  of  400  tons  register. 

The  foreign  merchants  at  Canton  consist  of  British, 
American,  S'rench,  Dutch,  Danish,  Swedish,  Spanish, 
Portuguese,  and  Indian  British  subjects,  who  in  1832 
amounted  to  1 10.  There  are  eight  British  establish- 
menis,  seven  American,  and  one  joint  Dutch  and  French 
establishment.  Two  English  newspapers  are  published 
in  Canton ;  the  Canton  liogister  once  a-fortnight,  and 
the  Chinese  Courier  once  a-week. 

The  personal  intercourse  of  Europeans  with  the 
Chinese  at  Canton  is  chiefly  carried  on  by  means  of  a 
gibberish  (for  it  cannot  be  called  a  language)  composed 
of  English,  Portuguese,  Chinese,  and  other  words,  but 
the  whole  greatly  broken  or  altered  in  sound,  and  pos- 
sessing no  sort  of  grammatical  construction. 

At  the  entrance  to  an  estuary  of  the  river  on  which 
Canton  is  situated,  is  the  island  of  Macao,  containing  a 
town  of  the  same  name,  part  of  which  forms  a  settle- 
ment or  tenancy  of  the  Portuguese,  and  here  also  the 
families  of  European  merchants  at  Canton  have  been 
suffered  to  reside.  The  Portuguese  privileges  have 
been  latterly  much  circumscribed,  and  their  trade 
greatly  diminished.  **  From  Macao  to  the  Boca  Tigris 
or  true  entrance  of  the  river  [proceeding  upwards]  is 
just  forty  miles,  affording  a  very  safe  channel  foi*  the 
largest  ships.  As  far  as  the  Boca  or  Bogue,  the  whole 
is  a  broad  estuary  of  the  sea,  interspersed  with  islands, 
of  which  the  well-known  Lintin  lies  just  midway  between 
Macao  and  the  Bogue.  Lintin  is  on  the  right  of  the 
channel  for  ships,  and  abreast  of  it  on  the  left  is  Lankeet 
Island,  forming  behind  it  the  harbour  of  Kurosing-moon, 
where  the  opium  ships  of  late  years  were  accustomed  to 
lie  at  anchor  in  safety.  There  is  no  entrance  to  the  Can- 
ton river  to  the  eastward  of  the  Boca  Tigris ;  but  on  the 
west  the  case  is  widely  different ;  and  it  is  there  that 
the  principal  difficulties  of  a  blockading  squadron  exist. 
The  main  part  of  the  river  flows  through  the  Bogue ; 
but  to  the  westward  there  stretches  a  great  delta,  which 
has  been  gradually  formed  by  depositions  of  soil  from 
the  turbid  waters,  and  is  crossed  in  all  directions  by 
shallow  channeb  communicating  with  each  other  and 
with  Canton.    Some  of  these  channels  form  the  inner 


COAMBERS'S  INFOIIMATION  FOR  TIIK  PEOPLK. 


absorbed.  Then  llie  Uud  air,  lieing  below  the  tempcrn- 
lura  of  Ihe  ten  nir,  Tiuhes  m  tu  lupply  its  placp,  uid 
IhiM  during  Ilio  uiffht,  II  l»nd-bCMiw,  or  a  current  of  air 
from  the  knd  to  tEe  eva,  is  piixJuccd.  When  the  aea- 
breeze  Urst  iets  in,  it  cuiumciiccs  very  netkr  tbe  sbore, 
&ud  iradually  extends  ilaoK  funlier  out  at  ■£%  uid,  u 
the  day  advAueoa,  becomes  more  or  iess  hot.  Hcuce^ 
tlia  buIb  of  eliipa  have  been  observed  quite  becitlmed 
six  or  eight  milea  out  at  sen,  wliilu  nt  the  iiarae  time  a 
fre«h  se&-brceie  has  been  blnsin^  upon  the  ehore.  The 
cau»o  of  tliia  U  obvious;  for  it  Ja  DBturaJ  In  auppoao 
that  the  moBB  of  uir  nenreet  the  land  uill be  iho first  to 
ruBh  in,  for  the  purpose  of  supplying  tlie  pkee  of  Ilie 
lUT  whicii  is  mnfled  immediately  above  it.  On  this 
■ecouDt  the  effect  of  tbe  aea-breeio  is  aaid  not  to  be 

GFceptible  at  a  distanee  of  more  than  fire  or  six 
ignes  from  the  shore,  and  for  tbe  most  part  beoamt.« 
iaialer  in  proportion  to  its  distuice  from  land.  The 
distance,  on  the  otiier  hand,  to  whieh  Iho  [and-brcezo 
extends  in  blowing  across  tliesen,  depends  on  the  more 
or  less  exposed  aspoct  of  the  coast  from  whieh  it  pro- 
ceeds. In  some  places  this  breeze  was  found  by 
Dampier  brisk  three  or  four  leagues  off  shore  i  in 
other  phiees  not  so  loiaiy  miles ;  iu  others,  again,  it 
scarcely  extended  without  the  rocks.  The  sea-breeze, 
from  blowing  over  a  more  open  tract,  is  a]  ways  stronger 
than  tlio  land-breeze;  but  it  is  observed  that  the  land- 
breeie  is  much  colder  thun  tlis  sea-breeze.  Porther- 
morc,  it  has  been  noticed  that  the  tendency  of  the 

pondence  with  the  sea-brecie  of  the  preceding  or  fol- 
lowing day.  "Should  the  land-wind  from  being  east, 
dran',  in  the  course  of  the  night,  towards  the  north, 
it  would  be  looked  upou,"  says  hiarsdea,  in  his  tlUlory 
<lf  Sianalra,  "  as  an  infallible  proguostic  of  a  west  and 
north-west  wind  the  next  daf ;  and  on  tliis  principle  it 
is  thai  the  natives  foretell  the  direction  of  tlie  wind, 
by  the  noise  of  the  surf  at  night,  which,  if  heard  from 
the  northward,  is  esteemed  the  forerunner  of  a  northerly 
wind,  and  new  twrso.  The  quarter  from  which  the 
DOtse  is  hsard  depends  on  the  conrsu  of  Ihe  land-wind, 
wiileh  brings  the  sound  with  it,  and  drowns  it  to  lee- 
WKrd  1  the  land-wind  has  a  correspondence  with  liie 


iK'd  for. 


lators  of.  Towards  the  east,  tho  face  of  tha 
prescnled  to  our  view  a  number  of  flery  roda- 
cal  bruslics— which  wsro  through  tbe  »h^ 
sbuoling  and  dai*ting  in  all  directions  ;  likswl 
balls,  which  Hew  up  and  donn,  here  and  Ih 
burst  into  a  number  of  aniall  pieces,  which,  lilu 
of  naming  straw,  came  very  near  the  road  ■ 
Jay  ;  yet,  notwithalnndmg  all  these  phenomiena, 
and  Ughliiing  were  abundantly  great." 

Ilurrioanes  eommeace  in  vaiious  ways:  « 
from  a  ungle  and  small  deud,   whieh  sadil 

Ends,  overspreading,  as  with  a  denso  ahraud,  t 
Bvens  ;  siud  sometimes  fram  a  slowly  pathar 
of  clouds  wliich  appear  io  be  irradiated  with  eLei 
When  the  en  leirrialng  navigator,  Coluniblia,  « 
to  depart  from  Isabella  Isluid,  while  hia  Ta> 
s^ll  lu  the  harbour,  one  of  tliese  dreaiifal  he 
arose.  "About  mid-day,"  says  Wasfaiogtoa 
"  a  furious  wind  sprang  up  from  the  east,  drivii 
it  dense  volumes  of  cloud  and  vapour.  Ka*n 
another  tempest  from  tlie  west,  it  ai^waiad 
violent  contliet  ensued.  Tlie  eloada  weN  rani  1 
sant  ttosheBorrathersIreauiBof  lighttun^.  At< 
they  were  piled  up  high  iu  the  sky,  U  WDOt 
descended  to  tlie  earth,  filling  lh«  air  with  i 
darkness  more  impenelraUa  tluu  tint  ahamirit] 
night.  Wherever  tho  hurricane  pasMsd,  wtw 
of  forests  were  shivered  and  stripped  ut  tlini 
and  brandies,  and  those  ef  gigantic  ciae  wliieh 
the  bhul,  were  torn  up  by  the  ruota,  add  hoe 
great  dialanoe.  Groves  wore  torn  frotD  the  a 
precipices,  and  vast  mosses  of  eanli  and  m 
pitated  into  tbe  valleys  with  lerrifie  noiae,  dMi 
course  of  tlio  rivers.  The  fearful  aoanda  in  the 
on  tlie  earth— Iho  pealiug  thunder — tha  vivid  li 
— tho  howling  of  the  wind — tbe  cnali  cf  bUk 
and  rocks — eiled  every  one  with  affcisb^  on 
thought  that  the  oud  of  the  world  was  at  JwHt 
fled  to  caverns  for  safety,  for  Ibeir  fr«il  bma 
blown  down,  and  the  air  waa  filled  wilb  lb  In 
branches  of  trees,  and  even  with  fFagroeola  at 
corri.-d  along  liy  Ibe  fury  (,f  Ihe  tenip«l,  W. 
hunimne  ii-aAv-A  iIil.  Iiarboi.r,  it  whirled  ll 
roiuid  U.5  lliry  liiy  at  :.iic(ii>r,  ^run.pcd  rbgir  caW 


le  «-c5t 


ii(i|pnM,liiii:i_v  l-i|ir"gii.Biie:iiea.    '1  lie  hurneaue 

e<iual  difiributiiiu  lliruii^li  ili>.'  iiuml  lupiiur.     Ii^tc 

1  -iili.r  iu  III,'  ili-i  nuartcr  or  m  the  full  cbaoge 

1  ni.ioii.      1 1  ii  c„i,L.-  ..II  at  the  full,  i]k^  «|  the  prt 

cloud,  Bhile  in  an..lb.r  it  is  d.liiiiiit ;  .■in.U-onB,..iii,.„liv 

'  cli^.ii-.-  th,:  tkv  lo..ks  troubled,  and  the  sun  at 

to  regain  its  i.iuiiil.riuiii,  it  H.ish.s  in  tlie  form  ..1  li^ln 

;  11,:,.,  ..sLi.,1 ;  l,...si,L,.s  wliii-h,  there  is  a  .lead  eaha 

ning  from  tho  surcliai-p.'d  el„iid.  to  the  clmij  tl.,r  i. 

■>-i  L..'   ..1  i.irLMlii-iopsiiie  free  from  Ihusc  miA 

uudirckirged,  urto  tlii'  eiirlh  il.tir.  Hence,  hurt],  n  . 

:...ii;:lii.ni.     In  the  eavems  of  ths 

arc  .ilw.-iys    attended    uith   electrical   manilrhiC.M  . 
which  add  gn'atly  to  the  trasi<-al  horrors  of  lli>-  ^|    ■ 

"      I  1    '     .  .  :i   lu>ll<,>v  i-unibling  noise,  like  a  r 

■       li-    l..:.l,  :iiid  .■iniiiials  are  observed  too 

Incle   tho*   esliibil.      In    d.-scriluiift    the   lr.-iiu],.I.u,- 

Imrriean..  whieh  took  plaeein  the  West  Indies  in  177:', 

I..  I„.  ^  .ry  s,  ii-ible  of  any  ehaiige  in  tlie  deetria 

tho  writer  uUm'Vvcii,  "  i  must  sliil  nuniinii  how  dri'.-id- 

of  the  utmoplicre,  and  indicate  their  DMaai 

ful  every  lliiii):  luok.-d  in  thin  horrible  and  dark  ni>:ht. 

moui.ing  ami  gnat  resllcssnctu.     At  night  tbi 
seem  larg.r  iIiilu  usual,  and  are  ir«ia^min 

IheTv  being  w>  many  fiery  ineleors  in  the  air,  whicli  1, 

■odof/K-m  tiJioni-rcin  the  lonie  BituaUuli,  wcru  atiec- 

withhal.«.     It  instill, also,  that  th^Bsai^. 

SCOVEnV— NAVIOATION. 

iie  «illi  wem  mint ;  Kill  HI  ^  ^>  galliMvJ  *ay. 

>eTioii  IiaxluA  Ihn  clitib^lDt  ayn  ••!  Ill*  M" 

tttnn  li*  fnlt  ^  qinEua  ot  tba  hImIiI  yrmrinn 

.lii  hMid,  li;i  iha  Hiiaa  of  Uid  wster  afou  tJu  rnddiv. 


"  AAo  Uui  e«nt!nun)  action  nf  ili«  ma  liw  ai  U 
Bullod  MW  ilu  fnat  body  ol  iw,  a  ■horl  anil  •liiU. 
nWv*!  dF  wMnnlli  occun.     lu  ttx   i;i» 
iit«k>,DiiJy viuCcilb^rkbraUngDii'i   -'■■■  'i 
igidu  runtuint*  hi*  tnrninndoDi.  ^  ^' r ' 
ul  AugniljIuidUinKuiiwtaJb  l(>  il' 
EtotlMlur*  Udubvr.    Alung  i!^ 
Trvtli  vatrr,  poumd  ftinn  ti«u1>-< 
thavtiiifc  offeimor  mUm^iuoI'  >igi<".  lor 
MUTHlW  iiibi  iwliil  ion.    A*  tbc  o»U  u  _ 
«ir  ilnpndu  iu  mtnaluiw,  in  llie  form  of  a  tas,  tibld 
rrcME*  into  « tUia  gnuuuir  cntLiti^,  or  iduidei  ieiR^- 
dirpDrwil  throng  tlie  aiiaoiijiti(ini,  unit  «o  w 
minutrv  Uiat  tiny  mviu  to  jiioui  and  ■  — 
(kin.    Tlin  himr-fmat  nUka  pitihatlr, 
cluMo*,  uu  avurv  pmatni-nw.    The  hub 
tbo  MB  Rouii*  llbo  >  liow-UIn ; . 


uiil  ufl^n  f(»iiiH  liiv  tuieijioHi  oi  *a  luiih  la  %  ting 
Jiljtlil.  TlivdarhiinMorajimluiii^wiiitM 
imjicDetrablf  nvec  iha  fnixim  cunUtwut.  unraw 
niDoa  eliooec  at  liin«  lo  obtnid*  bA  fnint  nt;*,  w_„ 
oolj'  dwsovnr  lb«  hotnm  uid  wlda  dcMlkUiia  iiT  It 
Kvut."  Th«  wrvtohod  nMlua,  esvcn<l  witli  a  load  i, 
boarndLiiu,  ruiiain  crowilad  And  intmurad  b  UwteliiM 
«nry  dilnk  of  wlileh.  Ilit;  carefullr  atop  ngiim 
T/ietvinK  cxIcnuJ  oold,  uid,  Miraiinn  abuut  tb*  i 
DT  Hut  lamp,  (hojr  iMi^  M  dose  mray  ibo  tudiiiui  i  ^ 
Tlmir  Blcndrr  lUiek  of  [tutUoih.  ihuugh  krpt  in  tl 
HUiiu  B|wtni»n(,  worMn  fiucun  BoliKrd««ta  rwinh 
M  bo  cut  witU  tt  lintdtut.  tba  vlialu  of  lint  jiwid*  l 
tholr  but  b«e«uc9  lined  trhii  k  Uilek  criul 

if  tbvjr  bappeu  for  an  iiwUnt  lo  upon  a ,  . 

iiMiitlui««tha  a«iiGi)*dafr  ii  itnmnlialolj' pnvlpllal 
Lu  t)ia  liinn  of  a  rtiower  of  aiiuw.  A«  tlia  Irott  •vai 
uuca  to  pnnelMtc  deeper,  the  xoeUt  am  hvard  « 
diaUDOc  to  split  willi  luuit  eiploilan*.  Tbo  aW] 
dtath  wwnii  to  wrap  up  Uio  HMUie  in  utlsr  ami  obli*] 
ruiii.  _  At  lan^lii  llie  mid  nsappcam  aibavc  tile  bor 
hul  hw  languid  brains  nthtr  baCray  Iha  w 


buU^  in  nueat  ot  liali  uti  tiia  iiuirj{iii  o(  Ih*  wa. 

Kuii  aeij;U1MB  elevation,  bl>  paoer  In  sivatl}  it . . 

llic  enow  gndwU;  waatca  away,  tbo  tec  dtaa 


ajiu  unovrmiDvu  vancquu  prfwipii4UT  uiomauTia  oq 
aliuTM  wltb  Ihe  nolut  and  oraih  of  lliuadw.   The  w  „ 
is  now  DDbound,  and  IH  Icy  donra  bruins  up  wllh  U 
ncndona  rupture.    Tba  enormoaii  flbld*  of  ieo  ibuR 
afloat,  an,  ay  thv  violtaioa  st  wind*  oud  ourrenW,  >( 
diiiMv«rtd  tod  diipcncd.  fioinsliiiiM  im|i*llHl  in 
tiu  ditoctloM,  tUcy  approacb,  and  alrlka  vitli  a  i 
■book  like  the  cralh  ol  worldi    rufflelrot,  l(  uj 
to  redimi  i4i  lUonm,  in  a  mniuuiit,  tb*  t'roudiHt  nii 
mpnl*  of  liuDuui  (lowuc.     It  in  iininiiBibli.'  lo  pietu: 
■itualian  mora  anfiil  Ihui  tliot  iif  thv  [hhit  erinr 
wlialer,  wlio  »o  ilieir  b'ul  bark  tlins  Mally  tuioU 

uiB  ImmHliul*  nod  fiitjtj  dntrtiction.    IliAiraU 

[  Jiuiri  tlin  abvola  of  am  la  llie  ai 


CH.ISIBERS'S  INFORMATION  FOR  THBTEOPLE. 


Whim  Oio  higher  part  ot  eilher  of  thtae  grtnt  Iiill«w9 ' 
■bika  our  [hasIb,  we  Imve  Ihe  phennmetiun  uf  high 
iwMT ;  anil  when  the  lowwr  l^uchca  m,  il  a  low  water. 
Xwh  of  Iho  wiiTra  {>  brongUl  over  anif  giten  pUoo 
in  the  ctreomfWeiice  uf  tho  e»rth  in  (wenty-foar  hours, 
M  u  Id  nuH  high  water  twice  ft-iUy.  Tlie  bdu  iBsko 
knovn  to  ban-  m  deOnin  MiracUve  infiuence 


•  of  aui  octan, 
(llM  Inminwy,  tho  ff 
whoi  ihU  minor  '-' 
that  of  Ihe  noon, 


iHupnce  of  the  bui 


gt;  BDiaJl.     But 


lo  wny.  «*  perceive 

hato  what  arc  callnd  tpiing  or  largi  tiilE*.     Whsn  the 
acilar  and  tuuar  atlnutiooa  &et  in  oppositJDn,  we  have 
nnip  ur  small  tides.     Tlie  BpriuE  tides  happen  twice 
a  month,  wbm  Iho  moon  b  at  fall  and  chan^ ;  and 
Iha  neap  wbon  tho  nwou  la  in  Ibe  middle  of  iIb  orbit 
belwm'n  lliiMe  two  poiBlA     A  tiria  leqiiirea  six  boun 
to  riw,  »hicli  il  lioffli  bj  smatl  iinpulsea  or  rippUnga 
t^  tho  water  ou  tlie  shure,  and  bIi  boon  to  ebb  or 
fall;  but  over;  suecenaiTe  high  water  is  from  Iwentylo 
Iwoiitirvairtiii  minutoa  later  thaa  Ihe  preceding,  or,  on  an 
»"r»>t»j[»,  about  fifty  minutes  for  two  tidw,  in  ooneequence 
of  tho  Barth  requiring  that  time  above  ihe  twonly-four 
bnnra  to  bring  any  given  point  again  beneath  tho  moon. 
The  Udn  an  thua  rotarded  by  lh«  aame  reaaon  that 
ttw  mnm  riim  fifty  minutes  later  everyday.      Il  ia 
■vidat  thkt  Ihe  tides  will  be  ptMcet  at  that  point  of 
the  earih'a  auifac*  which  a  nearest  to  the  moon 
wham  iba  lotlc*  ia  verlleal.    She  is  an  Iwlweea  Ifae 
jiiea  i  and  areordingly  the  tides  ■!«  there  grealest. 
thsydiluinwh  as  we  approaeli  cither  poles.    It  is  fun 
to  ba  rooiarktd,  that  ihc  moon  does  not  anywhere  d 
npthatldeaimmedjatcly.  Three  houra  Blajwe  befnrt 
watan  ara  raiaad,  in  oonaequence  of  Ihe  law  of  iiiei 

which  avHiy  body  baa  to  continue  in  the 

— -._  1 — rlijrt  i(  happana  to  be 

mil*  titt  Dwon'a  isflD. 
la  only  ovcrpomo  by  a  three  h(turB*  action  upon 

naiuvly,  in  March  and  Si^ptetnber,  the  tides  ore  bit'lii? 
than  at  other  times,  betauno  then  the  allraclion  of  the 
BUD  and  nWHin  are  ittronge»L  In  somr'  of  ihe  firihn  or 
ansa  of  the  sua  on  the  eaat  eoast  of  Scotland,  it  hna 
bsMi  oeciwkinnlly  noticed  Ujat  there  hava  Iwen  four 

■M  not  simpla  tides,     'i'he  double  risinun  nre  causud 
irf  the  Irregular  pafsnco  of  ihe  tii* 
Athuille  ivuiid  the  north  and  south 
of  (ir«l  Urilaia.    W  hen  that  po 


I  north,  I 


Il  reaches  the  m 


will  be  In 
A  sinlihir  phen< 
ilher  parta  of  the 


riahigs  of  Uio  water  imlead  of 

uwiion  may  perhaps  ' 

•wlh.     In  the  hledil 

Mid  in  soma  phuea  wareely  percaptille ;  tliin  is  caused 

by  Ihe  eenend  conlinement  of  that  inland  branch  of  ~'  ~ 

Ocon  by  tlw  Straila  of  Uihr^tar,  which  prevent 

full  adiuii  of  Ihc  tidal  wave  either  in  ita  rising  or  rei 


motion  of  the 
■nded  boundw, 
inmilly  in  par- 


Dosldes  being  aFTeeted  by  tho  ri 
tidca,  the  oei-an,  in  many  farw  uf 
k  influenced  by  eur^enl^  which  an  eotiur 
tionlar  dinctiuDs.  Cnn-enlB  are  the  resu 
cauwa,  such  as  tcmpemtufe,  winds,  p(«u] 
timi  of  eoasta  and  inlets,  bnl  diiefly,  as  ia 
tba  rotary  motion  nf  tho  earth.    Theglohe 


;,  Ihe  fluii 


bind;  ai 


M  diurnal 


titers  is  a  perpetur 
ciiaats  uf  Kumpe  ami  Africa  towanls  the  cgulem  land- 
tooni,  as  It  is  called,  of  America,  and  trtan  Ihe  w(sl  of 
AmeriCB  to  the  eaflcm  coast  of  Asia.  This  movement 
is  chieHy  confined  to  tbo  tro['iM,  uulesa  where  tlic  sea 
hi  lamad  aMde  by  the  land,  and  cnu>«d  to  diverge  to- 
*«nl>  the  north  or  soriih.  If  we  Marl  in  a  survey  of 
thia  iMtion  ftvm  the  wealam  ooost  of  Anmja^  wo  BttA 


s  for< 


through  tlie  lodian  Ocean,  and  round  the  Cape  o 
Hope,  lilt  it  reaches  the  fraa  expanse  of  the  A 
BcroBB  which  it  {iroceeds  in  the  aame  manner  as 
Uie  I'ncilic.  The  current  of  the  Atlantio  •Iril 
coast  of  Braul,  and  breaks  at  Cjiihi  ^t  Auguiii 
two  divisions,  one  of  which  proceeds  round  Cap 
into  ibe  Pacific,  while  the  other  advances  1. 
the  Caribbean  Sea,  and  so  on  bt«  tbe  Golf  of  ) 
This  latter  branch  conspires,  with  the  vast  i, 
treah  waters  wliich  pours  into  the  Gulf  ot  Mei 
raise  the  level  of  that  aea  alH>Te  that  of  tho  neig 
ing  ocean,  and,  causing  the  aurplna  lo  force  iis  < 
between  Florida  and  Cuba,  produces  Ihe  cel< 
Gulf  Stream,  which  is  pcrliaps  the  moct  power 


>  the  n 


Bailed  lo  Ihe  Bights  of  Uoiiii,  < 
Gomea  eoaat,  being  lAO  Ungues,  in  two  days, 
tlisy  could  not  return  in  less  than  sereii  wivIb> 
also  common  for  veasels  lo  descend  to  the  latii 
tJie  Cauory  Islands,  in  order  to  got  into  the  1 
current  ocron  tho  Atlantic,  which  earriea  tl 
America  in  a  eomparalively  abort  limo ;  it  was 
cnrrent  thai  Columbus  was  carried  *o  emoelld 
his  first  voyage  lo  tbe  new  coBtininit.  Tlie  Pai 
is  said,  vta  bo  erosaed  in  this  way  in  aUint  Ma 
h«inc  at  the  rate  of  1000  milea  per  woeli ;  ^ 
inaniicn  have  eaprcued  an  opiolaii  that  Chin 
b«  rentbed  by  this  route  in  less  time  than  by  Iha  i 
course  round  the  Cape  of  Good  Hop*. 

for  the  aame  reaaon  tlial  the  •■■  tfowt  hem 


n  thL'  SI 


leavi^  tho  air,  like  the  an, 
word.H,  d(«>s  not  carry  it  so  t 
are  ctiJle.!  the  l^l.le■wiBd^ 
with  Ibu  wa^ 


ry  grcBl  dc 
;,  that  thcs 


faciltiy  of  navigation  lo 

p>    It  is  impoasihlclo  aroidr 

latural  phenomena,  which,  it  ■ 
ipposed,  migiit  h.ivfl  been  countei^etod  or  i 
liMd  from  the  bei^nning,  must  have  Iwen  dengi 
some  end  useful  and  necessary  in  Ihe  coonoiny 
world.  Pcrhajx,  like  the  dilTusire  puwen  givei 
seeds  of  eerlaui  plants,  they  were  intended  toaa! 

kuown  that  population  oxisN  m    r  ■  .    i    i  :  I'l  -, 

lliat  roust  have  bi<en  impRf^ii< 

early  ages  of  their  art.     Aim  r-i.  .i   .:  ■■, 

Buoh  places  m  early  ages  Iv  il.o  i,.i  .-..l,  „i  i 

and  air  ;  and  llms  the  cultivation  ••!  liu^v  aiulitB) 

rcjj^ns  mort  have  commenccdmuch  earlMTttaaa 

have  otherwise  been  the  case. 

Besides  the  gnuid  equatorial  or  tt«t>iiaj  n 
there  ia  one  of  a  li'W  decided  chancbr  {toid  th 
lo  the  n]uator.  The  eea  under  the  tropin  et^ 
to  a  KTcalcr  cxienl  than  eJseM'bere,  by  Ihe  inllni 
a  vertical  sun.  The  vapours  are  apt  lo  pmceod  1 
the  north  and  south,  where  they  desoeud  in  n 
surplus  of  waler  is  thus  prodnccd  in  tlie  hi^  hi 
which  naturally  Howa  back  towardi  the  equMcr. 
acotistiint  but  comparatively  slight  Ilowfrc-nilhi 
riTirion  oflb> 


Under  tlie 


I  of  thia 


are  conslantly  bcciming  ileiached  froni  tits  putar 
and  driDed  lo  the  ironies.  In  some  of  tho  bays 
north  side  of  Iceland,  this  fripd  sabatanev  «« 
vast  quantities,  insomuch  as  to  chiiko  them  tm 
dvpth  of  illO  feel.     Whnl   ii  sidl  ntaroilrw^ 

bo  the  prxlaoe  tt  llw 


of  whioh  arc  known 
xone  iu  America  :  thi 
ifae  nofthcm  diviuuii  of  the  |t«M 


Tbyll 


"la 


plkvBil  ia  tliB  uudM  uf  tiio  Id  ..... ._ 

4  iittcmulwlilD  tircaujlh;  ami  tiuil,  at  «  MHiUtl 
iGO  from  land,  liia  WkMn  iraro  ■kroudod  Eu  nteniKt 
«■>.  WltLMHbiiDtioiiBpMTi^ntigMnaugoianUiul 
wuiouid*  of  jmr*,  U  ia  not  narpriHug  tiiU  Om 
1  luTu  m*da  M)  «liiw  vlTsROiw  in  tbssrt  of  Mt> 
I,  or  diim  Ml  LiUlv  for  nufiliiu*  iU«ii'iv*rir. 
riogp  tha  Duddio  Bgo*  {^faurth  ta  lh«  tiiurtoinitlk 
~  ),  (Jiip-bailding  ma  coiuidaAbhr  impraral  by 
*"    "' 'rotwi  »  £u'»  -    -^'-- 


ipcr  Ktata  of  th«  Urni,  wu  tlilJ  in  41*  Infuay, 


liogof  t£e 


t  b»  uld  bi  eoiuuiMiui  till  Qm 
le  fourMcottl  eeutui]',  Kkui  tititi  •oiidiir- 
1,  tho  maruMt'B  ana^um,  wm  dicoovdr^ 
uvHjM  inl«DbiMnnttJiiuiiiBan>[ic.  Ofihcpolkril; 

aupwt,  IT  >la  (wDdnncy  to  point  to  tijui  pulii*!  ft 
itDt  in[)>Uiiiitiuii  will  be  uJTVii  in  Ihe  krliolti  Euc- 
T  uio  MjuiNKtiHi ;  »oS  It  1>  li'ire  nulv  diwm- 
a  dcMribt  how  lllia  {HiUrity  1*  rcaderral  mIkus 
la  IliB  pnrpoua  of  tiw  tuTjgabit.  Tbi  marinor^ 
mtf  whuilk  ooniI«tii  of  u  magnBtiud  ilip  uf  ninW, 
'dMi  aa  it  i>  a*ll«d;  pnixd  cm  il«  ountm,  wid  fnw  to 
ti>  tjie  (Hill!*,  wMfirMntbdu  known,  ufuu  it  CMi 
sHkiuwl,  by  (uio  FUvlo  (iluja,  lut  lutllui,  iu  tlui 

SOU.  Aa  with  Kfl  gnat  dlKovwie^itaulTBnCasa 
not  at  oaoo  rMagiuaal— it  tud  to  oontmi]  aauut 
Btj  of  prviudioni ;  but  tlm*  in  tinra  i-aiualiM,  anil 

tli«  ouddla  of  ih*  fMutoiHitli  (Snuturji  iU  imjiUT- 
MB  worn  ailonwd  and  i»(atiliiih»d. 
rigaiion  naw  aaaunuHl  a  mucli  biildcr  cbanolar 
romuirl)'.  Thn  £iij;U*h,  PortDKOOM,  Ilaliana,  and 
uda,  piulud  Ihoir  nwili  into  dl*trlcl«  of  oettut 

prcnoDit;  mvawd,  aod  Unu  ilio  way  mu  billy 
4  Ivr  iniu'iuta*  diaeoTcry.  Tlte  flnl  (nat  di»- 
BF  vbo  made  tua  of  ibB  omt^iMBi  •Ad'pr''" 


CHAMBERS'S  INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


wljo  is  knowti  ui  history  by 
_.._  .  ri.on(or.  This  inlelligonl  and 

enterprkiDg  prince  (born  I3S4,  died  1461),  with  tbe 
cononrraneo  uf  tlio  Portuguese  goTemmont,  cet  On  toot 
t  series  of  marllime  eDtErjiriseB,  with  ILo  view  of  dis- 
corering  a  roiilfllo  Indinhy  wsyof  the  AlUitiUiT.  These 
voyagoa  ullimHtely  jirovcd  BUcceBsful;  the  islands  oT 
Puerto  Suito,  MBamro,  and  the  CanorieB,  were  sucees- 
eirely  discovered,  ind  nnnrxed  to  the  crown  of  Portugal. 


afterwards  went  as  far  as  Capo  Dlanco,  and  ditcorered 
the  Island  of  Arguiu  and  the  Cape  de  Verde  Isles  ;  and 
in  144B,  the  Axons  wer«  rsachcd  and  made  known. 
Henry  the  Navigator  thug  etruclc  a  spark  which 
kindled  to  a  6anic  all  over  Earope.  Not  long  after  hia 
death,  the  Guinea  coast  hus  added  to  the  PortUEuew 
discoveriet.  In  Uftl,  the  Coogowas  reached  by  Diego 
Cora;  in  H87,  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  was  doubled 
by  Banholamew  biaz ;  and  in  1498,  Vbmo  de  Ganja 
touched  the  tdiores  ur  Hindoalan.  The  Portuguese 
having  received  an  assignment  from  the  pope  of  all 
lauds  tltat  could  be  discovered  on  Iho  African  coasts, 
the  SjMUiisli  goveromenl,  burning  with  anxiety  to  emu- 
tato  the  late  proceedings  of  its  neighboun,  was  com- 

rillcd  10  Beck  nut  new  coontries  in  a  differont  direction, 
erdinicd  and  Isabella,  thesovereigns  of  Spain,  lislened, 
therefore,  to  the  apeculaliona  ol  Columbun  regarding  a 
route  111  India  ncrosa  the  Atlantic,  and  sent  him  off 
an  a  mission.  In  this  his  bold  attempt  to  reach  llin- 
dostan  by  pursuing  a  direction  acmes  the  AtlantFc,  he 
landed  on  one  o[  the  American  islands,  now  called 
the  Bahamas,  on  the  12(h  of  October  U92.  About  the 
year  143fl,  Amerigo  Vcspnccii,  under  an  appointment 
from  tlie  Spanish  government,  discovered  the  coast  of 
the  South  Amorican  continent,  and  hence  tiie  name  of 
Amtriea  was  given  to  the  New  World,  although,  u  is 
well  known,  Culunibna  liad  previously'  diseorered  and 


I  on  Soutli  America,  without  bi    „ 

was  the  continent  which  he  liad  reaebed. 

Several  subsequent  voyages  by  Spanish  n 
disclosed  the  extent  of  the  east  eoast  of  South 
and  in  l.ilS.  Nunez  do  Balboa  crossed  the  in 


d  of  til 


astern  oosst  of  North  Aneriet,  Mil 
.n  the  ^ean  1740  aid  lfU,i 
imnavigstinK  tba  sloK  "< 


iintt  tba  globik  u 
C  but  Ihi*  «Mbi 


was  employed  in 
ing  different  parts  uf 

protracted  voyage  added  little  to  the  usiM  .„  _  . 
of  generaphy.  At  a  Inter  period,  in  Um  TtAgm  »l  A 
1 1 1.,  Cook  explored  the  groups  at  iiUnda  in  lh»  R 
making  various  interesting  diaeonvrni,  'un  *Wri 
InclDdeda  sorvey  of  the  eastern  enaatAOt  AnabtM 
Van  Uieumn's  Land,  also  a  vi^l  ta  tiM  Nw  & 
islands.  After  the  voyages  of  this  aulerfrbang 
gator,  little  waa  left  to  perform  in  the  nty  a(  inH 
di»cavcry,  exoopt  in  exploring  the  northern  eitra 
of  the  American  continent  A  ■eriea  af  voyagi 
tills  purpose  was  begun  in  1816,  eaodueteil  bj 
Parry,  and  others,  and  which  latrly  tarminaUd  b] 
blisbing  the  fact,  that  a  passage  for  sliipa  custa  fae 
the  Atlantic  and  Pocilic,  round  the  northern  po 
tories  of  America,  but  tliBl,  (roni  thv  blocking  < 
such  a  pBuage  can  only  on  rare  oooafli->i»  b«  a| 
navigators,  and  is  therefore  of  no  i>rmctic»l  valoL 


The  great 
of  the  tifteeuLii  cenmry,  wuicu  ac  «i^  uywHu 
new  view  of  tlie  globe,  led  lo  varioos  liniNi'isnM 
navigalinn.  The  in^,  for  measuring  tba  •liiji'a  pn 
also  ehnrts  on  Mercator's  projertion,  wer*  isM 
In  1G14,  Napier  discovered  the  ealculation of  HH 
uuantities  by  logarithms ;  and  nbovt  the  jraar 
Uunter  invented  a  scale,  by  the  help  of  whicb,  i 
psir  of  compasnes,  every  question  tn  iriMfioiuMi^l 
eauly  be  cnlculslcd  by  the  mariner.  In  1T)I,  A 
of  navigation  was  jtrenlly  advanced  by  llie  in« 
or  rather  iuiprovement,  by  Iladley,  of  tba  wai 
an  inalmment  for  ascertaining,  by  an  ■rfwn-vatbsl 
sun,  tho  true  latitude  of  a  ship  at  sen.  TiU  nau^ 
period,  an  instrument  called  an  aslnlotr,  •  ifM 
sun  ring,  had  been  employed  for  this  pnr^e^  ad 

very  imperfect  in  Its  oper''"      "  "    '" 

1765  and  1774,  Uarriaon  ii 

■y  which  tJi         ^  

h  nearly  perfect  accut^ey ;  anl 
uay  be  Raid  lo  have  bee* 
iif  ilii'  1  ij;iL:c'r-nlh  ceniniyi 
.  "  .-   ^:il  ;   I  ..,.1.-  knows  It 


il  a  nejiFly  cvmpleH  k 
;U>bv,  a;«wL-nMa(te 


t  important  instrument  For  the  nidM 
r  is  the  eeinp«>.<i.     There  are  diftnrtl 

■i^,  tir  -uit  ]'o.-uli,ir purposes  :  bottbiA* 
-  i!i   11- 1   -liip^nard   is   of  the  bk 


!-.  - -.  -;.i    '^  iiwcatlol  lodlriuiicut*  f-iC  dU«i!l 

g  ill-'  oiiiii'Li;  uiiJ  uHiirMiulnii  (Ac  iluiapire,  dm  ntn 
-tor  ntivi  bo  pruridcd  wjib  oetanu  nf  douliln  nSffoUmi. 

nii<Mun<  llm  ^tltuiti  nf  tli*  liiuvmtf  tiniUrOf  md  A 
rclr,  urmnUuit,  tnHra  iihwiy  arAiliuW,  to  muMUi 
■tkiinM  tiviwiiill  Uw  uioon  «iiil  iitiio.  Ill  nl'MiId  afa 
iT>  wLtli  lilm  K  book  cuntklnlug  Qm  iMpinUiDw  i 
uubim,  lioa,  taagniU,  atnl  wMiIta,  U>  nuiiUMn  ti 
iiibiinitriBBl  oaJouluUuiu ;  tab)i«  for  oimx^linq  alt 

.  r_.     [UlTl    ijf  tt*   WuJld 

'  "Ml  nliidi,  ot  oJI  limo^ 


'<^>unui,  '     i<]  tb*b 

ijy,  Willi   !■.■.■.  ..    (iv  h)w*t» 

itlQH.      Ii'milll  V,  Iji.1  ritli.l  li.    |<riii,iili  il  xilti  tliu  pBIIU«4' 

id  local  oliuuimtillcaltlol^hu  omitoin|r'-*— ' 

lioa  funhluiL  UM  niuriacr  may  mt  hm.  .  .  _  

incH)  nmb;  do  ou  witli  Dei  oUinr  abbi  lluui  Uitie 
Hiii>Mii,  liic  (lUkdmii,  ft  ■iii|[le  chul,  iwd  luHtlc  '' 
vvlgMloaf  luid  arriTc  in  wtflty.  Hal  U  l»  \ia»  vi 
uiotH  (a  linrw  wiili  baw  littto  euv  a  djp  im*  ' 
tvlgutvl,  tb&D  to  nhoH'  buw  ulio  may  ba  ourlad  a 
H%  til  purt  nith  tha  |nal*>«  (HMaLlile  nrrtainty.  Ibm 
gt  lakKii  left>«  of  lli«  port,  and,  vhrai  liw  kn  land  I 
Mtrt  la  diMppcw  trout  Tiev.  oliluir  ftvm  tlWfi 
jUow  or  tha  interroaliau  of  night,  ihe  ntartniir 
iiuD  snn»|Hitiiaiia  huulbiiiJ,  of  irliicli  iha  Utintilii  h 
iiKitudu  an>  natad  in  lii*  lablta,  aud,  pianiUB  a  ecu 
(w  lu  Homo  cleTatcd  poildoni  ruinoie  tniiu  astf  ifi 
jjrcl  to  dumrb  ila  pobritj',  [iroo«wLi  tu  datonnmtL.^ 
earing,  Mid  MtimMa  bid  distaimi  from  it,  nitibM'  If 
I*  iinwrww  aiulir  fnun  It,  or  bj^  th«  natdy  oMb — ' — * 
Or,  takbig  tb«  dmultiuieoiu  b 

-  0  diiMct  potiita  et  NwC  lis  bu  iiiU  lur 

.1  dBdtioiag  hia  poaitiiin.  Ttiw  w  <uUnl  MtMi^  iKi 
rpatlttrt,  and  w  cai«ful>  iintul  oii  tlin  inK-iiUtv,  Klfti 
» liiou  of  making  ths  otiMmKlou.  'rhuncdartb  lluj 
ig  ji  throiiru  etorjr  houTi  wid  ilw  coorw  and  diitannj 
re  NittTcd  ni<aii  Ih*  vlMc,  to  bv  vniiivil  inio  tha  li>|^ 
oak  At  tho  «iiJ  uf  thtf  dn;.  Thu  Kni  Uiinjt  obich  Ihm 
■vigatuc  attiindii  li>,  after  niakinK  ths  Mag  wblflbit 
nidcooe  dlctaln  to  ekat  ibo  dan^iciinf  ilm  biiid>ii>'- 
Itape  hia  Mutw!  for  thv  )K>rt  of  lim  dwtiiwtkiii.  Al 
rat  hn  MaroUw  in  Um  oliarl  If  tliuni  bu  any  tMtnl 
iiid,  ixtiuid,  uT  rock,  iiilflrreitliig  lu  hli  vw,  II  tba 
«,  Ibccouras  1*  primarily  ebi>p«d  with  nrfumiMlutl 
ADger  1  if  nut,  Ihv  diffvnDMii  ot  latiluda  and  Imjiiiw 
«twviitn  lli«  Iirn  pbuwi  bdni  taken,  Iba  oDDnM  al 
.iiiane*  arv  obtabicd  by  the  Kiel  of  trigqiu)iD«try.  Ti 
hortcai  dUlananboiwoutianytwoblaoMoii  tbanuAiM' 
{our  aphare,  it  tin  aro  of  a  grwt  wrain  tutaaiBK  Uirov^ 
bow  t*»  fUastu  Thut,  battrccu  Cap*  Huiry,  in  iMh 
udc  37'.  aiid  tiu  InUad  of  St  Marr  iti  tha  aame  Ittihudoi 
lut  iO'  loaptain  fartbar  niuiC,  Um  dbtancf  ii  30  oiiMl 


pntelipcd  (ij 
r  two  diaUn 


■wliiig  un  a  gr<«t  cirvlv,  tliao  if  yua  warn  ('■  «al|i 
In*  «i>al  «u  a  paralbt  ut  liLliLudit,  imuI  «unHeu}t«D&i  -" 


CUAMBERS-8  INFORMATION  FOR  TUE  PEOPI.E. 


Tlievili«Dr(l>tuirvpWt*hich  animafi  piny  Id  colonr- 
itig  iliu  ucwi,  amy  1m  dsmoiiEUiitcd  by  alluiling  to  Ibe 
Mm*  tntcU  or  the  nortfaim  h»,  «rliic)i  umong  nuruieTi 
■ra  (uuilnrly  kuowii  u  grem  nhUft,  aai  which  do  nnt. 
tiiid«f  Buy  niconutsiKiH,  assumo  a  Uos  tint.  Mi 
SiMTmby  thuH  describflB  them; — ^  After  ■  long  run 
llmnigli  wmur  of  ihe  comnuHi  bloo  colour,  the  w* 
liMnui*  (I'Von  wvJ  !«■  crannpuvat.  The  colour  wv 
nnrly  gnaa-grinn,  with  k  hbaae  of  black.  Sometime! 
tbo  tniuilioii  between  the  green  anil  bine  WHtcr  is 

are«it«,  puaing  throagh  tbe  intenunluile  ahwlei 
u  iqiaee  at  ten  or  twelve  miln  ;  al  others,  it  is  H 
HddcnthMtlielJiie  i>(  wpontioo  u  aeen  like  the  nppN 
ef  keiin«Dt,*nd>lietoa  lunjities  of  water  keriiapps- 
HUlf  M  diMJool  as  the  waMre  of  a  largo  mud.iy  ri»ei 
Ml  BrM  antainf- Uie  BUk  Id  1S17,  I  fell  in  with  snct 
nanqw  ■trijiH  of  variouB  ooloured  walor,  that  wo  paiBci! 
Hraun*  of  ^aie  grsen,  <iliva  gtv«n,  and  tnjuporeii 
bluo.  Id  the  cDuna  of  tea  tnioulea'  miting."*  *~ 
grnta  ivglons  eiteiul  for  tens  of  thousandt  of 


uioToacopic  aniiiuJii,  principally  inintits  lea  b 
■udH>a,anJiiif<itDrla.  Somnoftheaeaninialaart  „ 
and  directly  produee  lh«  eolour  which  ia  exhibited,  but 
many  mor«  are  yellow,  whiah  oolour,  oombining  with 
tliH  blue  of  tbe  w»  water,  will  alio,  na  evety  one  kuow*, 
|>n>duc«  a  gnen  tint. 

UUkt  ap|>aaMii«Q^  proceeding  li-otn  ft  similar  eause, 
•nd,  if  povuble,  atill  mnv  atrikiug,  an  «iio  witncaed. 
Thai,  and  te/aur,  lonietiaieB  charaderiaed  as  blood  or 
fannim  red*  frixpieiRly  aatoniahea  the  Toyager.  The 
water  ofllwtiDUurcJifomia  in  UioNonhnn  Paeille 
■ometimea  named  the  Vonoili 


Ihfi  eoBKt  abounds,  nnd  froni  wh 

he  nd<l»,  "  fi-ir  ft  »  hnlo  dnv  m  jianBini?  tliroucli  various 
aou  of  them."  The  eele'brnted  naluraUet  Il'Orbigny 
makes  aimilar  remarlii  concerning  the 
AUantie.  "Thtre  aiv  immense  tracts," 
the  coaala  of  Uruil,  filled  with  mrnll  anii 
row  aa  to  impart  a  red  colour  to  the  »ea ;  large  portioiui 
wa  thtu  highly  eoloured,  and  receive  from  the  sailors 
the  name  of  the  Bnzil  Iduik.  This  hank  extends  over 
a  great  part  of  llitf  coiui  of  that  country,  kcepinzat 
nwrly  (he  tamo  distaneo  from  the  shore.  Another 
bank  of  the  Nime  tntt  occurs  near  Cape  Horn,  in  Intl- 
tude  &7  degrees.  Captain  Cook,  in  his  third  voyage, 
aneouDt*qKd  the  same  appearuicen,  and  iifttea,  "  lliat 
on  examination  the  phenomenon  was  found  to  proceed 
froiD  an  iufinily  of  little  animals  which,  whei 
by  Ihe  mienMcupc,  had  lliu  shape  of  cray  (ish  of  a  red 
colour."  llencD  we  are  not  lo  wouder,  that^  aceordictg 
loan  intelligent  mariner,  "  the  southern  aeas  unmet imcs 
presented  an  appearance  which  terrified  their  early 
Davigatora,  who,  seeing  lam  spaces  of  the  sea  of  a 
lilood-twl  colour,  coneeired  it  a  portent  of  Miiiiu  dread- 
ful eataslropho,"  Thcso  singular  appearances  arc  irol, 
however,  ramSued  to  •outhem  n-giuns.  At  aJl  events, 
Mr  Sonrveby  narrates,  that  tic  noticed  in  hi*  last  voyage, 
in  IIISS,  wiine  inwlaled  patcheaof  rcifiuA-irotm  water, 
which  were  fOQnd  to  beoecaaioncd  by  animalcuLE  j  and 
often,  too,  were  tlic  icelierE*  and  lUiows  tineetl  with  ail 
tranfff-f/rl/ow  slain,     ■■  The  animal,"  he  adds,  "  wl 


l*l«.K 


it  the ! 


a  pin'*  head,  limiuipBrvnt,  and  marked 
tlnetpBl«hesurabruwniBhcol(iur."  The  same  apjiear- 
anoM  havenot  unfi»i|UnnOybecn  noticed  in  fresh  water ; 
and,  under  the  iiainu  of  tlood-Tiiiii,  have  aoinctime^ 
raiuwl  no  small  alarm  nver  wide  do 


■nipt 


t  M.  I 


a  fen,'*  he  remarks,  **  with  a  pool  of  wattf,  fb 
red  blood  colour  was  very  ■Iriking,  even  M  k  d 

the  slimy  surface,  which  in  differeot  ptaoM  Ih 
■hining  skin.  Tbe  red  colour  wM  dainat  Dp  ll 
of  the  marsh.  M.  Chantran,  in  the  year  1 797,  m 
in  Prauee  a  pond  which  exhibited  thaiain*  appca 
the  water  being  of  a  brilliant  ird  colour.  <nth  i 
between  einnaber  and  carmine  ;  aa  did  Weber 
many,  near  Halle,  in  1790.  I  n  all  theao  bittsf  ini 
the  colour  was  pnidueed  by  infuBory  antmak. 
vAife  ia  another  colour  whicli  is  not  nnfrvquent 
tioned.  Thne  Caplaiu  Tuckey  states,  that,  nei 
Palmiis,  upon  the  coast  of  Otiinea,  his  vwmcl  a| 
to  move  in  milk,  which  circnmstanee  areoe  fi 
ranlHlndo  of  animals  upon  the  surbee  whieb  ol 
the  natural  colour  of  the  liquid.  And  once  mi 
ciislenco  of  a  yeF/iHs-roburnf  aea  from  the  aam 
is  tatisAu^orily  established.  ■■  In  approaching  ll: 
point  of  America,"  sayaCapli^a  Culaot,  "  we  lli 
noon  passed  sevenl  tields  of  spawn,  which  Cui 
water  to  bear  the  appearance  of  barlejr,  oorcr 
gnrfaco  of  a  bank," 

These  eauHQ  of  varied  colour  in  the  «o(«n,  t 
Btrildnj!  in  Ujcimselvea,  ore  not  liki-ly  ti 


eiuher 


It 


proceed,  and  which  we  may  arrange  tmder  ibo 
Ihe  rrjleeliim  o/  etiowed  myi  froiu  Ihn  <W  »r  h 
Of  iM.  Sometimes,  indeed,  though  rarely,  th 
peamneea  arc  uuite  as  singular  as  any  wu  have  I 
ooDaidi-red.  Tlius,  in  the  Bay  of  Loango,  Um 
are  aimoci  alwajMi  of  a  deep  red  coUtiir  t  aa  n 
that  tliey  oro  said  to  Ite  mixed  witJi  tdood,  and  < 
Tucker  tatisfled  liimielf  thai  the  Uittom  ■■  in 
red.  Let  us  aubetitute  for  this  brifthl  Iwd  bull 
of  the  nma  dudo,  but  obscure  and  sli^tly  nl 
and  Ihe  waMr  of  the  Bay  of  Iioango  avuld  ttiea 
of  an  erangr-i/el/eie  mluur.    Far  more  frrnuenll; 

sllKbt  blue  of  Ihe  pore  water  will  scarclj  atfeet 
then  llic  wstcn  will  appear  yr/tow — a  tint  whid 

sca-sbonv.  But  bright  sellim  in  by  no  mnanai 
mon  a  lint  of  sea^und  as  is  i/uJ/  or  obtcart  yrOa 
this,  owing  both  to  its  own  proper  colour,  and 
its  being  obwurei]  by  a  great  nuss  of  anperii 
water.  When  the  yellow  hue  is  thus  rednoeJ,  tl> 
my  retlecled  frum  tile  bottom,  mixing  with  life  pi 
nf  the  ocean,  produces,  as  Is  universuly  known,  i 
lint,  which  ia  oammnnieatcd  to  the  water;  and 
one  of  liie  roost  widely  epread  roodifyinj  cmi 
cliange  in  the  proper  colour  of  Iho  aca. 

Hut  the  inuit  ilifiicult  part  ot  the  problem  >' 
mains ;  and  that  is,  to  account  for  Ow  green  «(« 
the  oc<«n  in  those  places  where  it  is  himdiv* 
thonsanda  of  fathoms  deep,  and  where,  of  ecKUist 
thing  like  reflection  from  Ibo  botlom  is  qnita  ool 
question,  Jl.  ArBg.i.  to  scoounl  for  llw  pba 
weiirriug  midcr  such  circunistancet  oSva  • 
ohivh  TCMilven  itwif  into  the  principlv,  thalwt 
lurfaco  iairouliled,  the  luminous  rays,  ooiuin{  fr 


'  <■?".  c 


rtiof 


of  rrjlfeltd  mys,  and  therefor*  are  gi 

to  this  view,  the  apptJarancra  (iliibit  t! 

during  a  brcese  which  disturbs  the  mrfkoe,  \ 
Ihe  iniiUt  of  d  swell,  bo  common  over  tlio  oe«aa 
ohicrver  stands  upon  tile  dick  of  the  vimI,  111*  I 
often  overtopping  ihe  level  of  I  he  ship  ;  Ihs  tu 
mys  which  rencli  Ihe  eye  from  these*  moBtftB** 
from  the  di^iAtil  huriiou  through  one  or  not* 
"atcrj-  ridges;  thus  the  transniitlwd  raja  bars 
miimted  ovit  tbe  reKecled  onm,  and  so,  aoOori 
the  alloncd  fact,  must  be  pmn. 


lOVmi-SAVIClTIOX. 


r.lvim*l(i  mi.tY-r.ril.^ 

■r.-™.  ■•U^  l-n  ectmn 

„:::K 

i"™^ 

•>  la» 

■■  ,!4ca 

.  .:«>«1 

ll  of  .■.' 

'.-.  ib» 

■    r.tr  K 

\  ■'" 

,53 

'.|U 

...r   Ol» 

i  .'.p^ 

■'IB 

...I'lllU 

-;oBi,, 

:'.r™" 

..1,  kuJ 

..■■imprt 

.    1,.  Ilula 

Don,  WEnlwr  wiiii  il . 
uliln,  wlilcli  I>  uiii 


tiMkfor  ii-^  ,...^.„., .  „,  .,.w,  -: ML 

to  Iba  lUtrmikiilw  oC  Itn  Mrdi. 


■mnMnit  lo- 


ualntod  vltb  tlis  law*  ot  flutJ  and  atmiw|>InTf« 

am.    Thtaa  uv  trvtM  of  iii  othiir  part*  of  riw 

■DDt  wdA,  hhI  dm»1  livrct  bx  unly  allulAd  to  Is  ft 

<arml  '■s;  in  iwfWTwnctv  tn  lUu  willug  of  vnsi*li, 

k  ahip  at  «n  dupoiils  prlDduUy  on  (Im  wind*  U  a 

UM  ot  impaljilini  lo  Ii«  dMUOHl  port.     tn>ninving 

■fflgh  tbo  irBi«r,  It  onoMtnun  ;>  ci<ru!ii  i*ai|Uuu<ii 

Ich  DiQit  be  overeoma  k;  tliu  pm<Mir«  on  tllu  uil«> 

t  ili'gnH)  of  UitR  nwinuncD  il«iwiidi  on  Uiu  di*H  of 

Toval,  mM  ulna  lui  th*  dogiwe  of  rf^ci  to  tf }i|di  tli* 

wd  ia  untBd  In  tla  oounD.    Of  ttto  i«n)ii«r  ifaiuia  «f 

vnowt  lo  d4v«  tlio  l(«rt  pMnblo  rNir*Un«ii,  wa  Wt* 

'  Wit  of  Al[<i:iiT>i<li'9m  thoMwIiiob  oalim  bw  pc«- 

iLiiiit  EnllMfnrni  nt  ttia  daffk  wtd 

I'll  latho  iTDutihaililiicliiHkliuiin, 

-  'f  ti»b.     In  alltliMK  iwluni 

1 1. 1  >f  s  wndp  with  iIhi  br<>*d  nod 

,  ML  .,..'  Tijirrow  tniMriiiji  and  b^lilod  In 

ji»  llv  di*iiUci  J  lliiiii  10  ili«f€ir»  itauUtwAi.  "^ — 


CHAMBERS'S  WFORMATION  TOR  TTTE  TEOPLE. 


bMomeB  more  eenaidernbli-,  >b  the  aaM  c!rc1i>s  grow 
Rmaller;  tbD>,in  the  Intituilo  of  (>0°,  a>liaUn«e({iial  la 
tbal  between  Cape  Henry  and  St  Mai?  would  ofTera  dia- 
pant;  ot  nearly  QUO  tuites,  But  u  il  ia  only  in  aailing 
on  Ine  wjnatar,  or  on  a  meridiui,  that  the  <iom])aBs 
pointa  n«  uniformly  along  a  great  circle  of  the  ephore, 
jQ  mngt  eaH^itvould  be  uecefuary  to  change  the  coixme 
St  iJiqrt  inlermls,  in  order  to  attain  even  an  approxi- 
lualioD  lowinla  tilts  dcaideratum. 


At  the  Bret  noon  auceceiliDft  tlio  time  of  taking  hia 
departnre,  the  mariner  works  up  hie  rcchaniiig.  Noon 
uua  epocli  fined  by  nature,  being  dolenniuodby  the 
" ''  -.1-  -   iridiftD,  and  is  therefore 

day.  The  log-alale 
itnd  distanccB,  if 
from  head-winda  or  other  auiae  they  hSTo  been  varinus  ; 
the  departure  from  the  land  is  aW>  oonvcrled  into  a 
eoune ;  as  is  also  the  currant,  if  there  bo  any  known 
one.  He  next  proceeds  to  find  the  diiferanife  of  latj- 
tuds  and  dcputaro  from  the  meridian  corresponding 
to  each  eoureo,  either  by  geonielrical  oalaulaiion,  or, 
more  expeditiously,  by  reference  to  tables;  then  he 
adds  the  several  dilfereoceB  of  latitude  and  departure, 
nnd,  if  they  l>e  of  diflVrent  nsmeo,  an  some  north  and 
some  eonth,  some  east  nnd  others  wiwt,  dedncle  the  less 
from  the  greater.  Wilh  Ihe  remaining  diHference  <.f 
Jaiitndeand  departure,  he  mtt  only  linds  the  cinirve  and 
dislanm  made  good,  but  also  the  latilnde  and  longilude 
in  i  the  differenee  of  latitude  being  applied  to  the  lati- 
tude left,  by  adding  or  subtracting,  in  saiiing  from  or 
towards  the  equstiir,  at  unco  givca  the  lalltude  of  the 
ship.  Bui  before  the  departure  can  be  Ibua  applied  to 
fifid  the  longitude,  it  ia  necessary  to  reduce  it  for  the 
(nnrerging  of  the  meridians  liivards  the  poles;  for, 
thonffli  all  degrees  of  longitude  are  divided,  like  those 
of  latJtndc^  inl^  60  minatvs  or  miles,  yet  they  docrcaae 
in  length,  from  being  equal  to  a  derree  of  latitude  at 
the  •qvacor,  until  tbiaj  become  natbing  at  the  poles. 
Hwm  Bre  many  ways,  more  or  less  accurala,  of  dedue- 
ing  the  diffcrcnco  of  lonsitude  from  the  departure,  the 
latitude  being  known  ;  tney  are  founilf.'d  upuii  this  prin- 


the  departure 

4  lu  the  din 

rente  r. 

iniist  easy  and  corroct  viay  o 

oht:iiii 

ol  luugilude,  ni 

ail  oblique 

tabic   of   DKrid 

or.  hav 

meridional  dilTu 

^nce^o'  lali 

ide.  111 

a-ss 

ddifferwl^e'' 

r  .i.r, 

tt>  tile  ditforenc 

tu'le  til  III  nlitiL 

.*ll''iFl'|"p 

BiMiM  or  etibt 

nhicii,  K-ith  the 

iiineaherpoail 

nc  thus  descri 

jljV  i>'.--,i] 

fruin  infallible. 

deed,  do  pretty 

wtll  i.i  HJi^.rt 

creep  in  'from 

many  cjiubps 

Bscaniiw 

calculation. 

a»  lind  steerage 

hfcivav,  heavo  of  the  sea,  unko 

eiirrmlA,  and  ati  tlieea'nceun 

ulote, 

hrnUe  at  the  e 

Id  of  n  Kmg 

erage. 

«iry  for  the  m 

cd  from  all  rofrrcnn 

.■rrtslrial  olijeelH,  Ui  re'ort 

0  tlic  i 

n  the  -heavens 

whii^e  mod 

ns  the 

God  that  p 

J  deduced  from  single  or  douli 

ut  the  meridian  altitude  of  the  tan  'u  whtU  fun 
St  correct  method  rf 
n  aluiud<«i  of  tb*  at 


.^ 


nesB  and  waul  of  brilliaaey  make  o 
some  and  uncertain ;  but  when  the 
roeridian,  the  obeerter  brings  a  brilliant  utd  [lalcHl 
object  down  to  a  well-deHned  horiioa ;  tbn,  laottw  H| 
the  advanlaee  of  observing,  at  a  half-fiaed  vpwll,  lli 
beginning  of  a  now  day.  So  groat,  iiiilr#if,  are  tJx  sA 
vaninges  offered  by  the  meridian  altiludo  of  ih*  SB^ 
that  no  other  meuis  of  finding  the  taiitnda  an  «■< 
except  when  these  have  ^iled  from  a  clo<i>lcd  ida» 
sphere,  or  when  the  momentary  eKpodatioD  of  iie~*^~ 
the  land  quickens  the  mariner's  utxieQ'.  W*  i 
therefore,  now  explain  Ihe  method  of  dwjuong  lb 
tude  from  the  sun's  meridian  altitude. 


Pnmiabed  with  n  sextant,  cirale,  or  IMrtBiil 
flection,  the  observer  goes  upon  iledt,  and, 
examined  the  adjustment  of  his  Inatrtiment,  p 
to  bring  down  the  image  of  the  snn  refl««lsd  tg' 
mirror,  until  the  lower  thnb  jurt  swesps  ibe  bami 
Me  eontinues  to  foUuw  and  ueasi 
eeaaes  to  rise ;  Ihe  moment  that  it  bejpnB  W  hOft 
the  tower  limb  dips  in  the  honion,  the  eua  tatjir^ 
the  meridian.  The  attitude  marled  by  tli»  indix  t 
read  olf,  it  ja  next  rameted.  And  Bnt,  lbs  AtaM 
adds  Ihe  semi-diaoieler,  in  order  to  make  tbe  tU 
apply  to  the  centre  of  the  object ;  next,  he  saMi 
l/iB  clip,  lo  meet  Ibe  error  eaused  by  the  cat>i«M 
the  horizon,  in  tonseipience  of  thu  rulBiiitily  tf  ^ 
earth,  and  the  elerwion  of  his  eye  nbav«  Its  — '- 
also  the  nAwtion  of  tlie  atmotphere,  by  * 
object,  when  not  Tertieal,  is  niaiie  to  arpOV  •_ 
than  its  traeytwM!  lastlT,beadds  tbaparaUn^a 
oorrection,  loMnadanUe  from  the  saa^  "  '  ■"' 
order  to  reduce  the  culcuIatiDn  for  Iho  o  _ 
earth  ;  from  whteh  point  all  oaleuIatioiM  aM  ■ 
-"'"""'"'      lupposed  lo  belhof-  * —^ 


raa 


le  fcalled  hie  dedinalien)  _        „  

k-clination  in  given  in  the  Almanai^M4| 
hday;  by  eorn'cdng  it  for  tiiettaiaif 

ipsi.d,  noccmlin;.;  as  the  sun  conM*  Ht>' 
'u    l-.r---  ni'-n!:ia,  hy  his  portion  •■•it' 


i\rc,  bf  ilio  rcToluiioii  nf  Ihe  cirtli,  daily  brouglil  to  the 
meridian,  at  which  time,  if  th>'lr  atiiluJe  be  meuiured, 
t/ieir  Jeelioation  or  distance  from  ilm  equinux  haag 
kaavm,   lh»  iatiCDcle  is  readily  deduced;  it  ma;  «)« 


' -!■!'    'I    I'  ■"  ■  J  ■-.-'■ 'T.  by  KuL^lrvcting  wha  ■ 

ner  of  our  day,  a  desideratum  of  eaayattaiimnC.  » 
its  aid,  notliing  is  easier  than  lo  sail  dear  of  uy  nk 
or  about  tbal  crosses  bin  track,  cither  by  «  esklH  . 
lrt)k-o(it  at  the  moment  of  passing  ita  lalltojc,  W  4a 
by  avoiding  Ha  pnrsllel  enlirely,  until  It  be  Hirictjfi— ' 
Moreover,  this  is  his  best  and  sutvsl  gasde  in  ^ 
St  his  destined  port ;  for  be  haa  but  to  aUain  llsi_-. 
latitude  it  lies  in,  and  tbea  sail  directly  tnin  t^Mtfti' 


COTKRY-TlAVrGATION. 


"tirn  Ii  fxRur 


[  :'<->l  at 


■:::^-:^ 


Mil  wit 

nnil  oliiinrvKliijiK  on  buaii  iUM 


itwekioi  i„,  J,,.;, 1  ...-,-   

iDVfFTU'l  into  ai'lniu  »n<t  nrnv.-iu.^tlii 
f  to  Iho  aiitrcmiiiM  <it  ihg  «nr(h. 

It  U  imjiOTtuA  thitt  joDDS  men,  bi  amairjaff  to*  I 
raetion  Id  nitlguXon,  (hoolil  aImo  luaku  (I'rniMtn  4 
:alutliitBd  wiiU  tlio  Uws  of  flui'l  aoil  iilm(«jili»irls  J 
■lion,  Tbon  ion  trwttril  f  f  in  »i1i<t  |nuru  nt  Ui^  J 
wnt  woA)  and  nwnl  Iirrw  tio  nnl^  ttllndol  Iq  tn  li  I 
uwnl  my  in  r*r4tfatiMi  to  the  (utUing  of  vcnftln         ^ 

A  diip  at  Km  dripend*  prlDdpolly  on  lh«  vrlnili  •«  >  1 
•ui*  of  impuldon  v>  iu  dettincil  piiri.    tn  niHritiit  J 
iroogb  tbc  wator,  it  cnonuniM*  it  ccruiu  iwlfiuiot  1 
hUh  muni  be  ovBrooni*  bj  itiu  I'r«•u^'^  uu  ths  iiOl). 
li«  ilegrm  of  lliiH  rsnuldjioa  dcpunili  on  Ibu  aluii'v  ut 
If  vntiwil,  tuid  ftliu  UD  tha  ingrot  of  '{Hrc^  lu  wlilufi  III* 
WM>1  ia  uiucd  tn  It*  WW**.     Of  Ihn  iir«]«r  •ImiKi  rf 
u  vhhI  [>i  iflv*  Ihv  l«uil  poaiitila  rmiHtiUKC,  ■«  lAV* 
n;  Ijrit  'if  Till  -lutiFr)"*  in  tluiMVliicli  nftture  ha*  pra--l 
r  -  iiiim  in  th*  birm  of  thi'  iludi  >iii|  4 
:ilv)  in  til*  tr-iiit,  liitddiu'.k,  Mtltanth  l] 
I  iiU  .if  fiikh.     111  nU  Lheu  nnium  I 

hui  ut*  w*J2«  with  tlio  broiul  enla 

..- , ,  :..i-....  il.>;  lartvv  taporiiig  «nd  loliivd  tt* 


CHAMREES'8  INFORMATION  FOtt  TlIE  PEOPLE. 


b  i>f  l«H  imporUncc  tu  li»c  ulikrp  bow*  M  clotve 

■■"into  h»'e»^MrflH  or  ({TKinilUper from 

Of  ihis  iHVutwriljr  of  coDBtnirliaii  He 

•hall  hnaJltiT  lurak  iu  iht  aiiiclv  Sum  i  our  oliJKt  at 

rmil  u  oliipllv  Id  nutiiv  Iha  prtnri|ile  of  iWsliuioa 
n-Ution  lu  ihu  *p*vd.  Aeaadlag  to  the  Inns  ut 
liqiiiili,  (Ac  r(«iiliin» /irumW  £|i  I^i  waltr  iruTcawi 
Of  (Ac  MBura  <>/'  (hf  <p«>  tbot  In,  tho  t«iuluicE  is  four 

.       _  !...  ....     _        ,      ....         __.  ,     _..         .  ,J.^i^ 


■  icmtcr  witli  nnlj  a  iloubln  ralo  of  ni«cd. 
law  ot  Hulil  aoli'in  in  Mini>l]'  anil  bmuUtaUf  axi'l 
)>}  I>r  Arnul.  "  A  boat  ulileli  mortu  una  mila  urr 
bunr,  diaplaem  a  certaiii  quantity  of  water,  and  with  a 
certalu  nlfwi^ ;  if  it  mare  Iwiu  u  fait,  it  of  «ourwi 
draplaMa  l*i«fi  u  manr  paitioira  in  tho  «un*  time,  kdiI 
r«)i]irt«  lo  Iw  ninvxl  liy  twleatb*  ronn  on  that  account; 
but  it  alH  lUwIacM  citry  porttulo  with  a  duuUe  vhIu- 
tily,  and  roqiurm  anotber  doubling  of  Iho  powaron  IbU 
aocoDDt:  lliepowerthuaheiDgdDDblcdontu'Ofteeouuia, 
bocumei  a  pown  of  foar.  In  tl>«  mudi  mamua,  with  a 
•(■■Fil  of  thnw,  thrK«  linin  m  mnnjr  [laninliw  are  iiioviKt, 
and  (Avli  iwrticla  with  tlirev  timca  the  tuloejtr  ;  Uiaru- 
fur*,  to  ureiemue  the  roidatluicc,  a  forca  a  nine  u 
vanted  ;  for  a  ipeed  of  f«ur,  a  power  of  liilvcn ;  for  a 

Scd  of  Bru,  n  power  uf  twimtj'-fitp,  and  m  forth. 
m,  ovun  if  IJiB  n*>>l»OEU  bI  the  biiw  {(or*  part]  of  a 

rvwt\  wore  all  that  had  lo  ba  en ' 

lp<]  hi^nca  would  onlf  dnjt  ^  *<> 

u  the  forco  of  ODD  horH.   Bat  tbi 

liuit  tl{;jii''iit  in  Uin  ciiloutaliuii,  iini'K --  ... 

a*  tliv  ai'i^d  ijiu^tnii,  of  tha  tuiiial  ^'  .     .      : . 

Ih>'  wtrni  tj>i"^  (v^Ji  wliich  pn-viii 

tvl,  iaviiudtatlioprcBuruonlhi'  tr<<t>  .  .ui.i  il.    i 

^ftrrfor^j-iiquirnl  to  prwluoe  an  incn-iiMil  v.Jneiiy  (n 
~  ~"U  wniidtirablj'  (tniilur  than  Uial  iiuted.  I'herc  ■■ 
'  a  mom  linpiirtBut  trutli  In  uLyidaa  tlian  the  law  of 
j1  ty*!ylaiico  to  moTlng  bodlcii,  hero  trcatcj  of;  It 
llplaiw  M  aiMuy  phemnnetui  of  lutun^  and  booonia 
'  ^Ide  in  «>  many  mttten  of  nrt. 

Jl  now  (ountiniim  llio  Dodoi)  set  tbrlb  mmc 
fabratfiuK  vaunpW  It  cipluoti  at  what  a  heav; 
■tnouB  a  coal  Itigh  telositioit  ara  ohtaioed  in  sioatn- 
tSoK.  If  an  angUio  of  about  £0  hone  power  wouiil 
flivL'  a  boat  1  imlofl  an  hour,  two  on(;iaes  of  iO,  or  one 
(if  i  OU.  wouid  bo  rei|uir«d  lo 


i 


paddle-wbeola  of  a  itoiin-bfial,  and  ta 
crow  might  duli'er  thcniaoliw  litaa  fli 
diflaatroue  conaaqoim^ft,  of  a  loi>^  a 

Tbe  impidw  wbi«l(  a  v<na*l  at  aai. 

wind,  i*  f/mitHHy  of  greaUr  tmlos  wltaa  ^M 
degrue  aidcwaj'a,  thaii  wluoi  dlivct  on  Iba 
l«nt  il  ia  ao  whoa  Ibm  arc  an-aal  naan 
Tberouooof  thiaia  vary  olmoiia:  wboitlwii 
dlroetl;  aatero,  it  can  mAj  aS>^  ona  or  m 
aaili  witb  an;r  ooimneD««ista  ft>ret ;  bat  wtw 
alanlinglT  on  the  vnaal  iu  the  ditvetkm  of  ! 
CTcry  aail  in  tha  ahh>  vny  be  Irinunod  to 
brcoM,  and  ao  all  reeeiTiDg  an  H|ul(f  powoft 
a  correapondiDg  effect  ia  prodnead.  It  ia  a 
prime  aria  in  Hamanahlu  ao  to  trim  cr  af 
Mtibt  uf  a  Teaael,  aa  lo  take  advanlag*  of  •  w 
ia  almuM  right  ahead.  This  ta  called  aaUii^  d 
wlud.  Some  vtwets,  b;  tackiog,  or  Mtlinfflt 
direction,  can  be  made  lo  prmwd  witbiB  a 


iu!d  ba  oemprlled  lo 
etbod  tvwU 


Caf." 


riggiwl  and  m      „    , 

alo|i.     Dr  Amot  ouggtats  a  metbod  bv  «U 

might  be  made   to  steCT,   Ibat  ia,  (OMb  I 

tbrpii^h  the  nccan,  parlioularljr  im  aaaa»«f  • 
■*  ll  ia  powihlu  to  nialia  a  aliin  or  VwlMM 
['lu'iKf;  a  piiwerful  vans  on  tl»  truMl-batt^ 
jiii-iinit  't  w'"  'I""  tiUer-rone.i  i-y  two  l'T<t** 
iL'.m  limis.  If  it  wcrv  dwirM  to  makodt 
.lii'^rtlrboforK  the  wind,  tlielillor-rvnawwmd 
!..  l)i<:  van.<.  antiial  tha  h.lm  Rh..iil4  b.  in  ( 


vaaa  atri;tclivJ  \i{'uii 
turn  witli  iilUc  fiTF", 
throUKh  its  mi.i.iU  ,  • 


While  Lbi>i 

ll.yalleW" 


anivef 


a  mailing  and   vurl.ir.: 
oeeidenta  in  bad  w>:ut!i>  r       I'ii 
Olinwc  liavo  not,  for  II      -ji 

Rlllf^h   XUll  BR   HlOeC   l>f    I  II 

bul  n  litliu  slontr  on  llui    laco 
Under  jury- [na»IK  ilnvs 
medMlnoBtp^plewo    d      | 
niiaiBw  eipiaiua  also         a 


wind,  although  Willi  t.     rvag 
aail  at  Iho  rati-  of  H  nr  I    in 
oart  of  that  force  otwin 
IirMir,  will  drive  htr  I  m      p 
400111  i'ort  will   driyo  h      half      in 
,  during  a  aols,  a  fi^w^c      pn  boa 

lalv«  Mf  at  a  iien!>itiU>  rnto, 

Thoan  coagyLnitliiim  sliow  atriliinglj  of  what  impor- 
lanpn  l»  naf1i||i(>n  ii  miglil  be  i.i  Imvo,  na  a  part  of  a 
«bij<'*  ordinary  e'juipmeiil,  (me  or  tHO  niLler-wlieebi  to 
h»  mOxm'  ujioii  lJl«  ahip'a  aide  when  Tortured,  like  flie 


»h>t  u 


^gOT, 


,  wliich  it  would  bt  n 
lid  ia  ptsctiMU)'  an  HUpV' 
W  tfatn  tho  b«t  Xfwnt]  jun 
time  fbrc«  haa  gni*  u  op  b 
led  Stale*  nf  AmeriO,  iti 


tax.     I':ach  D 


n  rcU^i 


n  board  of  •  abipawp 


PlUUB  1^. 


ILE  FtSUEIilE^ 


^^^^^^^^H 

^^^^1 

1 

1 

■ 

^ 

.i^r.nt 
n.  «ny 

TW  l«iit ,. 

ami  ifi<E  l^kilmii 
niiiiTmn-nU  tit  looo. 

.i;-_  ^■^.,» 

._... 

iiL- 

■.iAa-u...i> 

CIIAMBERS'3  ISFORjrATIOS  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


Biieo  m  Btrvku  n 


at  Itxgp  bums  high 
The  colour  of  ihe 

under  p»rt  of  thu 


bcul  nnd  abdonien,  imd  Lhe  j 
pullf  white  snd  partly  of  , 
whales,  much  more  of  llie  borjj  nssiimea  the  lalter  tint, 
ftnd  the  Btreaka  aomeiamea  reaemljlt!  k  beautiful  Und- 
Mape  at  trees.  On  the  toil,  in  one  insUuico  caliced  by 
Ray,  nature,  ia  a  frenkieh  mood,  had  get  dawn  tin 
number  122,  in  hirge  and  vciy  distinct  clianietera. 
TIm  eym  of  the  whale  are  about  a  foot  bdiind  tlie  anj^li 
of  the  moulli,  and  are  not  much  larger  than  those  o 
Ae  ox.  The  iria  <■  of  a  white  eolqur,  and  the  orgatu 
■d  by  liila  and  laahes  as  in  quadrupeds.     Thi 


■e  Euord^  by 


of  th 


whale. 


(he  bead,  and  deecendioe  perpendicularly  througti 
lor  a  length  of  twdie  inch*a  or  so  into  the  top  (^  I 
windpi)>e,  are  the  only  other  fiaitnrea  worthy  of  noti 
in  the  exterior  aspect  of  the  Greenland  whale. 

The  mouth  of  lhe  common  wbnle  is  an  org^  of  very 
wonderful  conEtmetion.  In  a  large  fipe^smen  of  thi 
n«m,  it  may  meamre,  when  fully  opened,  about  oixteiet 
bellmit,  twelve  f<«t  higb.and  ten  feet  wide — un  aiiarl 
UHM,  In  truth,  of  very  guodly  liimenuons.  It  conlaini 
no  MMb,  and  ennrmou!!  as  the  bulk  et  the  creature  is 
lU  threat  i*  so  narraw  that  it  would  choice  upon  a  mor 
«ri  Sued  for  the  deglutition  o(  an  ox.  At)  inch  and  b 
Uf  b  Hated  to  be  the  diametur  of  the  ^Uet  I 
TBty  larf^t  whales.  From  ihin  (HKniliaTity  of  ft 
ttoil.  il  tnay  be  aullcipnted  that  tlie  food  of  ibe  animal 
i*  of  a  rary  minute  nature,  notwiltmlaadlng  Ibe  <n 
of  dia  nvily  nhich  is  prcfwrcd  for  tttiprimary  rocen. 
don.  The  animal  U  indeed  myputUii  apon  a  mnJiiRida 
of  (lualler  inhabitants  of  the  diwp,  and,  to  permil  thi>, 
its  mouth  is  provided  with  a  remarkable  ippatalns, 
oonipoeed  of  wttat  is  oiled  the  Mrm,  or  ilie  well 
kDtnm  uAufeJan*  of 
janpd  in  two  tow*  of  lamiiui)  nrthin  platee,  projeeting 
"tairally  fmrn  a  line  in  the  centre  of  Ifae  anh  of 
_  .  ,  .  somewhat  like  the  lamina  of  a  feather. 
'Vtawarda  the  point  of  ongin,  they  are  oomparBtiTelj 
"""  ■  '     "  hilo  towards  tlie  lips  Ihey 

oiima  nnu  inprr  nnjiy  mw  mere  briEtlrs,  fonnini;  a 
Iwwe  imnjjiHc  fringe  or  burdcr.  There  are  sbuut  tliree 
bnndrcd  of  Uicse  pbitea  on  eaeh  side,  and,  when  dried, 
they  weigh  usually  aboTe  a  Ion.  In  the  rorqual  whale 
thoyara  more  numc^ou^<,  nnd  we  Snd  from  the  descrip- 
tion, given  b;  Mr  Frfilericli  J.  Knox,  of  the  akeletun 
prapared  and  exhibited  at  Edinburgh,  that  three  hun- 
dred and  fourteen  external  pbtes  were  counted  on  t^ch 
aide  ui  the  month  of  that  animaL  The  whole  number 
of  platcflwhioh  eDu/iibeeaDnted,not  including  the  more 
minute  brially  lerminationn,  was  S7(>tl.  The  longest 
phle  of  baleen,  which  ifi  alwayn  placed  about  the  centre 
of  Ifae  sericB  on  each  Bide,  measured  two  feet  tw-o  inches 
Id  length  by  fifteen  inches  in  breadth.  "  The  Euliatanoe 
when  recent  (say»  Mr  Knoi)  u  hiBhly  ehistic." 

The  use  of  these  pbitee,  with  their  pendoloua  satre- 
mitiee  nnd  fringe^  la  lo  lebiin,  as  in  a  net,  (he  multi- 
tude uf  small  animabi  which  are  floiLlcd  into  the  moulh 
nf  tlie  wliale  wheaeTer  it  is  openvd.  Were  it  not  for 
moh  a  dnuner,  formed  by  these  fringes  with  the  aid  of 
the  tongue,  which  is  merely  a  great  masa  of  £kt  lied 
down  lo  the  lower  jaw,  the  emission  of  the  water  woold 
bo  attended  by  the  B»aipe  of  all  the  objects  which 
entered  wiih  it.  As  it  i»,  the  most  minute  matlers  uro 
retained ;  and  shrimps,  sea  snails,  small  crobo,  iui!du»e, 
&•»  are  thug  enliapped  to  support  the  great  monster 
of  the  deep. 

The  Tcmajnin^  ftatures  in  the  etmctnre  of  the  whale 
lli^  not  he  indindnally  desiuibed  at  the  same  length. 
Tb&  KkJn  conxitta,  /!r«t  of  the  scarf-skin,  nr  epidennia.  | 
which  a  nidiitened  by  an  oily  fluid,  enabii 


which,  tot  particular  puTpoiei,  (■  efot  la  lr«tn 
to  contain  oil,  or  blubber  as  it  ia  oilied,  hi  eml 
tities.     This  maa  of  oil,  surrounding  the  *Cdi  i 


s  the  importan 


line  mere  ikui  thirty  Mi 

end  of  keeping  the  aai^ 

>wei^  amid  line  celdMq[ 


.  Po«* 


eeplng  the  M 
.  amid  the  cOU  .^ 
of  the  (xitar  ocean,  aoj  is  also  calcalaied  toWi 
enonnous  pressure  to  which  tile  fawiy  of  tlwa 
must  l>e  subjected  at  the  deptlia  to  wbid  I 
deeeenda.  Whales  have  bt<en  known  to  tato 
perpendiealtrly  down  to  the  full  ratoil  of  a  B 
iiad  not  this  ample  byer  of  tat,  be^mmn  ana  | 
feet  thick,  been  wrapped  around  tba 
resisting  power  like  that  of  eaoutcIlOiM 
imagine  bow,  in  «uch  a  oae,  they  oouii  «■■ 
immeuse  weight  of  saperincntnbetit  WMW.  Ma 
being  inferior  in  speeifiegra'itj-lolho  waif.  It  bi 
that  all  Ihia  body  of  oil  must  be  of  iaakvUh 
augmenting  the  baoyancy  of  the  animal's  InmA 
the  skin  are  sitoated  the  miucle*  or  flaeh,  nd  ( 
raster  of  tliis  structure  is  much  the  auuo  in  ih 
ss  in  the  ox  or  bom.  With  the  euulMl  «f  I 
the  arrangement  of  the  vanoos  mtiaolaa  ct  tb 
does  not  ditfer  Tery  much  from  IJhat  of  qnad 
and  the  same  rerasrh  applies  to  the  o»eeM  «ti 
The  fiua  are  merely  rudimental  armi^  coataloitf 


eoJnmn  of  the  rorqual  wi  _ 

tlioM  of  til e  Greenland  whale  aro  nd  qoiMv 
nm*    Thoskullw       -     --■      -         -  ^    - 


archway.    Tta*  whole  c 

porous,  and  aome  of  them,  u  the  len 

Iwn  oil,  but  lliey  are  aaid  10  have  no  H^ipar  *■! 

msmiw.    Tho  total  woisht  of  Dr  Kiuin'a  ntfi 

k-ton  was  lweoly.vJ^ht  tuns. 

The  org«ns  <i  resmralioa  In  Uia  wfaab  m^ 
DpoQ  the  mno  prinMpte  aa  then*  rlt  iHd  iMV 
with  moditicBlioai  to  suit  iha  t>cculiaT  fIomM  j| 
the  ovature  Ui-ea.  It  ia  pbun  that  miim  fim^ 
rei|uired  to  permit  the  whale  to  breattio  wMi 
risk  of  ImvLig  the  lungs  tilled  with  waler.  Tha 
compliahed  by  the  extension  of  the  tup  ef  Or 
pipe  into  the  nostrils  or  blus-holes,  or  tatbwb 

By  this  ciintrivauce,  the  erralore  can  i&haloA 
it  is  feedmg  or  bus  iu  mnuth  fuU  of  *Me(^  4 
lemstrial  animals,  the  air  gtveo  a  red  «^D^ 
blood,  or,  in  other  words,  oxjgenales  it,  aNlB 
the  animal  heat.  The  whale  has  fTOtjnenllj  |)  ■ 
the  surface,  aecaTdingly,  lo  get  ila  air,  bat  lUii 
tion  is  rendered  less  frecjuenlly  ni-nf  ary  toltf 
sion  of  a  reaervoir  of  oiygenaied  bl«M^  triiiak't 
drawn  upon  when  roquiivd.  I'hts  is  tfaocaoHV 
animal  has  si   '  ~  '      ' 


ley  We  ail 
■'i  in  the 


leh  a  vast  proportionate  qmuilteri 
The  brain  of  the  whale  is  heUM 
rcblion  to  the  animal,  but  iw  iL 
DOS  have  ticen  reaclivd  on  tlw  p 
nents  of  tho  whole  Dcrroaa  mH 
.nderstood.  It isknown thalwhaWl 
-isifin,  but  there  is  a  doubt  wbvlhw 
extemalear.  Their  tenHaf^^ 
H-holes,  yet  the  strunnM  naa 


icribing  such  a  faculty  to  thero  at  all  u 
lie  half-trad II ionsry  notion  of  snuhm,  that  if  t 
iirong  Binvllini;  substances  are  thrown  Ofwj 
whalua  will  Hy  from  the  spot  at  onee.  Tb«  nMM 
iugs  of  the  coDimon  whale  are  two  in  onmbM 
iliacAed  In  the  abdomen;  in  the  tsM  af  Mpw 
rarielies,  they  are  placed  on  the  brvart,  laftil 
ituated  interiorly.     The  milk  «f  Ikat 


tia  acUoa  at  waU 


.      condly,  i 

o  contain  the  culouring 

:  anij,  tliErdlv,  ot  th«  Uu«  dan. 


THE  OCEAN— MARITIME  DISC0VERY-.NA\1GATI0N. 


sure  of  succcsa.    And  here  nature  is  again 
by  a  singular  coincidence,  discoverable  in 
the  map  of  the  world,  most  coasts  and  con- 
in  a  northern  and  southern  direction.  Hence 
ttached,  by  seamen,  to  an  accurate  know- 
e  latitude ;  and  hence  the  saying  of  ^  Lati- 
ind  look-out."    Although,  as  we  have  stated, 
s  follow  a  northern  and  southern  direction, 
et  not  a  few  which  lie  east  and  west,  so  that 
i;  them  are  only  determined  by  the  longitude, 
to  have  the  satisfaction,  not  merely  to  run 
iloDg  the  chart,  and  say,  *'  I  am  somewhere 
parallel,"  but  to  be  able  to  point  to  the  spot, 
I  am  there,"  is,  to  the  nice  navigator,  no 
motive. 

TO  FIND  TOE  LONGITUDE. 

ways  have  been  devised  to  find  the  longitude, 
ich  tlic  great  element  is  time.  The  earth  per- 
diurnal  revolution  in  24  hours,  or,  in  other 
h  [>ai*t  of  the  circumference  of  the  globe, 
livided  into  360  degrees,  is  brought  under 
ce  a-day.  Hence,  each  part  of  the  circum- 
ckoning  from  east  to  west),  has  its  own  pecu- 
)f  day.  When  it  is  noon  at  one  place,  it  is 
:  afternoon  at  another  place,  two  at  another, 

the  time  differs  all  round  the  globe.  Divid- 
)  degrees  by  24,  we  find  that  15  is  the  result ; 
5  degrees,  therefore,  along  the  circumference, 
twards,  there  is  an  hour  of  difference,  in 
ind,  going  eastwards,  an  hour  behind.     If  it 

Greenwich,  it  will  be  one  o'clock  at  a  point 
3  ca^it  from  it  (that  is,  the  sun  has  passed 
hour  ago),  and  eleven  o'doek  forenoon  at  a 
L'grees  west  from  it  (that  is,  the  sun  will  be 

getting  up  to  it).  Dividing  the  60  minutes 
r  by  15,  the  result  is  4 ;  the  earth,  therefore, 
Icr  tlie  sun  at  the  rate  of  a  d^^ree,  or  60 
»il  milcH,  in  four  minutes,  or  16  miles  in  the 
'  one  mile  in  the  four  ecconda,  or  a  quarter  of 
he  second.  Here,  then,  the  element  of  time 
at  once,  and  in  the  most  satisfactory  manner, 
Ktn  the  distance  of  any  given  place,  east  or 

any  other  given  place.  The  measuring  of 
ance  is  called  finding  the  longitude.  Different 
the  globe  have  been  established  as  starting 
making  these  measurements.  The  Frencli 
)m  Paris,  and  the  English  from  Greenwich, 
lear  London,  where  an  astronomical  obser- 
}  been  long  established  and  supported  at  the 
;>cnse.  In  all  Englisli  works  of  geography, 
ade  is  reckoned  from  Greenwich,  although 
3sly  mentioned.  Navigators  determine  their 
)y  watches  or  chronometers,  whose  movements 
let  as  can  possibly  be  obtained  from  mecha- 

setting  out  on  a  voyage,  the  chronometer  is 
idon  time,  and  kept  going  at  that  time.  At 
of  noon  of  each  day,  as  determined  by  an 
»n  with  the  sextant,  Uib  difference  is  estimated 
hat  hour  and  the  hour  indicated  by  the  chro- 
and  that  difference  is  the  longitude  east  or 
reenwich,  as  the  case  may  be.  Some  mari- 
secunty,  take  several  chrontmeteni  to  sea 
,  as  one  only  is  by  no  means  a  safe  guide.  In 
lowever,  the  masters  of  coasting  traders,  or 
)  pursue  short  voyages  by  regular  lines  of 
[lend  on  books  containing  lists  of  longitudes 
of  latitudes. 

MARINE  B\R0METER<1. — ^LOO-BOOK. 

t  great  requisite  in  navigation  is  a  good  baro- 
indicate  the  approach  of  foul  weather.  The 
»te  instrument  of  this  kind  is  the  sympeso- 
Adie,  by  which  the  earliest  and  most  certain 
IS  are  presented  of  coming  storms.  In  treating 
ture  and  value  of  instruments  of  this  nature, 
t  makes  the  following  observations : — "*  The 
captain  of  the  present  day,  trusting  to  this 
narr  Inonitor,  is  frequently  enabled  to  take  in 
4U 


sail  and  to  make  ready  for  the  storm,  when  in  former 
times  the  dreadful  visitation  would  have  fallen  upon 
him  unprepai'ed.  The  marine  barometer  has  not  been 
in  general  use  for  many  years,  and  the  author  was  one 
of  a  numerous  crew  who  probably  owed  their  preser- 
vation to  its  almost  miraculous  warning.  It  was  in  a 
southern  latitude.  The  sun  had  just  set  with  placid 
appearance,  closing  a  beautiful  afternoon,  and  the  usual 
mirth  of  the  evening  watch  was  proceeding,  wlien  the 
captain's  order  came  to  prepare  with  all  haste  for  a 
storm.  The  barometer  had  begun  to  fall  with  appalling 
rapidity.  As  yet,  the  oldest  sailors  had  not  perceived 
even  a  threatening  in  the  sky,  and  were  surprised  at 
the  extent  and  hurry  of  the  preparations:  but  the 
required  measures  were  not  completed,  when  a  more 
awful  hurricane  burst  upon  them  than  the  most  expe- 
rienced Imd  ever  braved.  Nothing  could  withstand  it ; 
the  sails,  already  furled  and  closely  bound  to  the  \'ards, 
were  riven  away  in  tatters :  even  the  bare  yards  and 
masts  were  in  great  part  disabled  ;  and  at  one  time  the 
whole  rigging  had  nearly  fallen  by  the  board.  Such, 
for  a  few  hours,  was  the  mingled  roar  of  the  hurricane 
above,  of  the  waves  around,  and  of  the  incessant  peals 
of  thunder,  that  no  human  voice  could  be  heard,  and 
amidst  the  general  consternation  even  the  trumpet 
sounded  in  vain.  In  that  awful  night,  but  for  the  little 
tube  of  mercury  which  had  given  the  warning,  neither 
the  strength  of  the  noble  ship,  nor  the  skill  and  energies 
of  the  commander,  could  have  saved  one  man  to  tell 
the  tale.  On  the  following  morning  the  wind  was  again 
at  rest,  but  the  ship  lay  upon  the  yet  heaving  waves, 
an  unsightly  wreck, 

A  journal  of  events  and  obspr>'ations  on  board  ship 
is  usually  kept  in  what  is  called  the  log-board,  and 
transferred  thence  into  the  log-book.  The  log-board 
consists  of  two  boards  shutting  together  like  a  book, 
and  divided  into  several  colunms,  containing  the  hours 
of  the  day  and  night,  the  direction  of  the  winds,  and 
the  course  of  the  ship,  with  all  the  material  occurrences 
that  happen  during  the  twenty-four  hours,  or  from  nooa 
to  noon,  together  with  the  latitude  of  observation.  From 
this  table,  which  is  written  in  chalk  and  daily  effiiced, 
the  officers  work  the  6hip*8  way,  and  compile  their 
journals.  From  it,  also,  entries  are  carried  to  the 
log-book,  in  an  expanded  foi*ra^  t**ith  any  observations 
and  additional  particulars  supposed  to  bo  necessary. 
The  log-book  is  thus  the  journal  of  the  ship,  and  is 
preserved  with  great  care  for  exhibition,  if  required, 
at  the  termination  of  tlie  voyage. 

Thus,  then,  by  the  use  of  various  instruments  and 
practical  experience  in  navigation,  a  ship  is  conducted 
from  port  to  port,  dangers  avoided  and  difficulties  over- 
come. Though  they  who  traverse  the  vast  ocean  leave 
no  track  for  the  guidance  of  those  who  follow,  it  is  thus 
converted  into  a  plain  and  convenient  highway,  extend- 
ing to  the  extremities  of  the  eai*th. 

SAILING. 

It  is  important  that  young  men,  in  acquiring  in- 
struction in  navigation,  should  also  make  themselves 
acquainted  with  the  laws  of  fluitl  and  atmos])}ieno 
action.  These  are  treated  of  in  otlier  parts  of  tlio 
present  work,  and  need  liere  bo  only  alluded  to  in  a 
general  way  in  reference  to  the  sailing  of  vessels. 

A  ship  at  sea  depends  principally  on  the  winds  as  a 
means  of  impulsion  to  its  destined  port.  In  moving 
through  the  water,  it  encounters  a  certain  resistance 
which  must  be  overcome  by  the  pressure  on  the  sails. 
The  degree  of  this  resistance  depends  on  the  shape  of 
the  vessel,  and  also  on  the  degree  of  speed  to  which  tho 
vessel  is  urged  in  its  course.  Of  the  proper  shape  of 
the  vessel  to  give  the  least  possible  resistance,  we  have 
the  best  of  all  examples  in  those  which  nature  has  pre- 
sented to  our  observation  in  the  form  of  the  duck  and 
other  water-fowl,  and  also  in  the  trout,  haddock,  salmon, 
and  various  other  kinds  of  fish.  In  all  these  natural 
models,  the  form  is  that  of  a  wedge  with  the  broad  end 
foremost,  leaving  the  narrow  tapering  end  behind  to 
allow  the  displaced  fluid  to  disperse  itself  freely.  Thus, 


CHAMBERS'S  INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


it  w  uf  Ices  importance  to  have  sharp  bows  to  cleave 
the  water,  than  to  have  a  fine  r!in  or  gradual  taper  from 
Lows  to«Btcm.     Of  this  iK'culiarity  of  construction  we 
shall  liereafter  ppeak  in  the  article  Shus;  our  object  at 
present  ia  chieily  to  notice  the  principle  of  resistance 
in  relation  to  the   fpeed.     Accordin;^  to  the  laws  of 
li(piid.s,  the  resistance  presented  by  the  tcater  increases 
as  the  square  of  the  speed,  that  i»,  the  resistance  b  four 
times  greater  with  only  a  double  rate  of  speed.     This 
law  of  tluid  action  i.s  simply  and  beautifully  explained 
by  Dr  Arnot.     "  A   boat  %\hich  moves  one  mile  per 
hour,  displaces  a  certain  quantity  of  water,  and  with  a 
certain  velocity ;  if  it  move  twice  as  fast,  it  of  couiijo 
displaces  twice  as  many  particles  in  the  same  time,  and 
requires  to  be  moved  l)y  twice  the  force  on  that  account; 
but  it  also  displaces  every  particle  with  a  double  velo- 
city, and  requires  another  doubling  of  the  |H)wer  on  this 
account :  the  power  thus  being  doubled  on  two  accounts, 
becomes  a  power  of  four.    In  the  same  manner,  with  a 
speed  of  thn'e,  three  times  as  many  particles  arc  moved, 
and  each  particle  with  thnni  t inn's  the  velocity ;  thei-e- 
forc,  to  overcjime  the  resistance,  a  force  of  nine  is 
wanted  ;  for  a  ajteed  of  four,  a  power  of  sixteen  ;  for  a 
speed   of  five,  a  power  »*f  twenty-five,  and  so  forth. 
Thus,  even  if  the  resistance  at  the  bow  [fore  part]  of  a 
vessel  %^ere  all  that  had  to  bo  consideii-d,  the  force  of 
1V<)  horses  would  only  drag  the  vessel  ten  times  as  fast 
as  the  foix'e  of  one  horse.    Jtut  there  is  another  impor- 
tant elt:nient  in  the  calculation,  namely,  the  lessening, 
AS  the  speed  (piicUens,  of  the  usual  water  ]>ressure  on 
the  stem  [hind  part],  wliich  pressure,  while  she  is  at 
rest,  is  equal  to  the  pres^uiH;  on  the  bow  ;  and  the  foixM>, 
therefore,  reipiiivd  to  produce  an  increas«;d  velocity  is 
Ftill  considerably  greater  than  that  noted.     There  is 
not  a  more  importiint  truth  in  physics  than  the  law  of 
fluid  resibtance  to  moving  bodies,  here  tn'ated  of ;  it 
explains  so  many  phenomena  of  nature,  and  becomes 
n  guide  in  so  many  matters  of  art. 

\Ve  ^h:liI  imw  (ei'ntinM--^  i!:e  l)nctor)  set  forth  ^onie 
iiiti  r  :iiii:  e\;iini>It'.  It  rxiilain-.  at  what  a  heavy 
exp'  iisi'  nl'  enal  \\..:h  ^<  !''fiii's  an-  <'l'l:iiiM.(l  in  .'-tt'ati.- 
l.-at-.  If  an  ei'.L::>!<-  ni  alw  ut  .*>'>  iiurs'-  j-i-wi  r  wduM 
fil■i^  !■  a  bnaf  7  iiii:«  ••  an  1  "ur,  t\\ti  »  iiuin«  >  d'  .')<•,  <■!■  •  i.-- 
{'\'  |(ii'.  wiiuld  1,1-  !•(  ,|iiii-.-.l  t(i  ilr:\  ir  l(f  mile'-',  au'l  llin '• 
meli  ti)  tlrivi'  it  IJ  imii  .■' ;  iviji  M-j-p-'xin;;  tlic  iufn  a  ;  il 
r«  i^taiK'e  at  tli-*  I"'Nv,  a-^  airtaily  ■tatt-d,  t'>  l';.'  1;:' 
n;--a'-uii-  <■}  tlic  wlh  !-•  \s«>ilv  t!ii::i-,  wliifli  it  i-  r.'»t.  aii'l 
tlial  •  iiirim  -  "■•ju  l"  tlu-  -.mho  ;.>I\ant,i-;e  villi  a  li:i:ii 
\»i«'*!!va.  \Mt!i  a  I'A.  \\i::i'h  tln-v  di»  hmT.  \\)V  la- 
.»-ame  1' a- ■  1.-,  il  ail  the  ctial  whii'h  a  ^liij' ei>ulil  (*<m- 
\«iiitnt^  rarrv  wi  ri'  iu^:  '•utlioit' at  t<»  <!  i\«-  l.-r  lOMr 
ir.iN-.  al  t::i-  r.  h-  .if  I  J  JuiU  -  \n  v  la  wv,  i;  v,  n>;I  I  <Ii-i\.' 
h-  r  ima'li  iii"i"  t':an  .",0(i(i  ;,(  ;>  mt.-  ..f  7  niil«  -^  p-.r 
li..wr;  a'nl  nun  li  r.i*  ri-  t;:.iti  li'ioii  at  a  rar-' i»r  .")  hiilr-. 
p(  r  IiciM".  1  iii:-  !>- a  \t  r\  ii:,|  -riant  f<>ii«»i«'aTatii'ii  fur 
|K-i--;.i;  o'-M.-ii-iM  il  in  -:■  .11:.  I..;'.  :i::if"ii  t"  tji-t.nit  part^^. 
Tin- .'.ji.'.e  Ia\.  'I'  \\-  t!.-  :  •..\  of  nnfi'i,:  m  r\  I  ii'L'f 
'•a!.-'  t'li  a  rliii'  ;  ti.  ■  t:'*'Mi4  a  h  .iMt.::<-  in  |<'iiit  t  l"  '«pt «  ■! 
I'V  iiM  ni' an-«  •■  I'j-  :-.m.j  !•  r  lla  a'lilitinnal  exptn  ■ 
1-1"  niaKini:  an-l  \' ■■:'.•;.'  !l<-  ^aii-,  anl  tli-"  n^^K  <  1' 
aoi'i'l*  III-  in  l-ail  w.  ..i:  :'.  i'lie  '«l;ii'>  i>f  li;r  pruih  M 
(  lii:i'    •■  I'.iw   i.i'l,  :  il' :!.•■  -aim-  t"iinai;»',  cnr-iliiiil  .-■•-• 

i-.'if''i   -;rl  .'-.  i' <  t"   l.'.ii-i"  an.-,  and  y«'t  thiyinii\«' 

I  I.;'  ;.  li*';,  sliv  ■  r  ..11  t:..it  .•.t.'i'i.wni.  A  Knr«.p<  an  sinp 
ui.I  r  iur\  r:.a-r.-  A  >  •  i  <■•  j'>-»'  >«•  nmoli  of  her  usuil 
*.jii-i   1  a  •  !..■•-!  I  ■  "i'l'-  '.si-al-l  i\|e.-r. 

'Ill;  l.i'A  .  Nj-l.tin-i  ;.!-  ■  ul:\  a  .-L.p  u"'!«>  tlir.tni;h  tlie 
^va'■  r  1  <  v  '-'  i-  ■  -  -^'i  'i  •';i'  ^''s'  !'  t'''  i-  i-  ^*  ly  litii-- 
Nv  I.-!.  a!r:-':.::li  \\u!i  a  ':rii;:r  l-r- ■•/••  -lio  w.-uM  on.y 
•  i.  ;,f  ti..  r.,!.  ..!'  :,  .  V  |ii  nnli'..  1  ■  --  ilian  tin-  |oii;.i 
I  .\i'.  ■  ;'  i.i;it  t  '  i-'  ■  :'  \'.  ::.l  \\  'i'-'i  .lri\<-.-  lar  !'•  min  -  .in 
1..  .:.  V  .  .Ir  \i  li  r  1  I  u!--  ]•■  r  li.'.r,  and  I  --^  ll.a:i  ti.i- 
:''""'i  j.ii-!  Ml.!  <l!•;^•  li-  I  li.iM"  a  nnlf.  'I  l:u-,  a!-.'. 
.I'.i  il  J  a  iMlin.  a  t'--\  fli-  i  pi'Ilii:  .'  r.i  a  l-.-at  <';::i  iii«i\  ••  a 
i..ij-      liip  at  ;.-.!:  i.  !•  . 

'I  111 -(■  <-..ubi<!-  ra'  ••'■'•'•  ■  Il  '^^  -li 'i.iii;:Iv  <.ruli.if  imi^nr- 
t  ••  I''   T  .  i.i\iKUti-  '•!  "  I.. ..'I.'  l'«'  t"  I  av'-,  a.  a  ]«art  el  a 

'..|  "•    ■  :■  .iliai"\  «    i'.  liinti',  1  :;•    c;-  I  .«)  w.iti  r-whi'eJH,  tn 
I  ■   .illi\«d  nj-'.'n  thv  :':''•"■    •■*.■   \\h-  u  r«  |[^il^■•l,  Iil*e  tin 

't  I 


paddle-wheels  of  a  steam-boat,  and  by  laming  wfaidi  the 
crew  might  deliver  themselves  from  the  tedium,  or  erca 
disastrous  consequeuo^  of  a  long  calm  at  sea.** 

The  impulse  which  a  vessel  at  hCA  receives  froi%th« 
wind,  is  genei*ally  of  greater  value  when  given  in  some 
degree  sideways,  than  when  direct  on  tlie  frtem,  a: 
least  it  is  so  when  there  are  several  masts  and  saiUr 
The  reason  of  this  is  very  obvious :  when  the  wlntl  blovi 
directly  astern,  it  can  only  aifect  one  or  perhaps  twn 
sails  with  anv  commensurate  force ;  but  when  it  b1oǤ 
slantingly  ou  tho  vessel  in  the  dii*ection  of  its  course, 
every  sail  in  the  ship  may  be  trimmed  to  meet  the 
breeze,  and  so  all  receiving  an  equally  powerful  impulse, 
a  corresfionding  eftect  is  produceil.  It  is  one  of  the 
prime  arts  in  seamanship  so  to  trim  or  arrange  the 
sails  of  a  vessel,  as  to  take  advantage  of  a  wind  which 
is  almost  right  ahead.  This  Ls  called  Kiiling  close  to  the 
wmd.  Some  vessels,  by  tacking,  or  sailing  in  a  zig-aas 
direction,  can  be  made  to  pr«>ceed  within  a  vcr)  few 
points  of  the  wind,  and  thus  are  alwavs  getting  on  a 
little  in  their  course,  while  others,  less  favouraiily 
rigged  and  managed,  would  be  compelleil  to  lay  to  nr 
stop.  Dr  Arnot  suggests  a  method  by  which  ve-ijelsi 
might  be  made  to  steer,  that  is,  guide,  themwlvci 
through  the  ocean,  iiarticularly  in  cases  of  einerg^roin 

*'  It  is  i>ossil)le  to  make  a  ship  or  boat  steer  itself,  hj 
placing  a  powerful  vane  on  the  nuist-head,  and  con- 
necting it  with  the  tiller-ropes  by  two  projecting  armi 
from  its  axis.     If  it  were  desired  to  make  the  ship  sail 
directly  before  the  wind,  the  tiller-ropes  would  be  f!u4 
to  the  vane,  so  that  the  helm  should  be  in  the  middle 
position  when  the  vane  were  pointing  directly  fomuit? 
should  the  vessel,' then,  from  any  cause  deviate  firm 
her  course,  the  vane,  by  its  changed   position  vHfc 
respiH't  to  her,  would  have  pro<luced  a  c«irTvspi)ndiB| 
change  on  tho  |R>Bition  of  the  hi'lm,  and  just  such  ai  to 
bring  her  back  to  her  course.  Agiiin,  it  is  evident  tb:rt| 
by  adjusting  sueli  a  vane  and  rudder  to  each  iitheris 
ditferent    wnvs,   anv   otlier   (h.'sired   course   miclil  I* 
oiitaiiu'd,  and  which   would  alter  I'ulv  with  t:'.e  wi^L 
riic  Nanc  Would  retpiire  to  be  i»i  large  si.:*'  :■•  l:a^«'  f.;^ 
lui'c-.-ary  power;  a  wi«lc  hoop,  for  iii^taniv'.  wiTi  u"- 

■  va—  j-tn  tehed  upon  it ;  an>l  ;l.e  nidd»-r,  il.at  it  ir.  .-'ii 

■  turn  ^\.tll  iittle  force,  would  he  Imn^  «iii  an  a\i-  ia*.-'l 
•  lliriiu^ii  !;-.  middle,  inMe^fl  if.  a><  u^nal,  by  hiiij-"-!* 
.one  v.l'j^r.  '.iM^  have  oee!:rr»  I  ulnr*'  .-liij'«rV'  1 
!  iii'i'hons  iiiiLjht   Jiave -eiit  intelli^.-in- '  of  llmr  •Ii-'J'''' 

ti)  a  »li-taiit  etia*^t   by  a  srr.all  %e':--l.  i»r  eviji  ;i  i.i-r'i  ■•! 
.  \\.»i.<l  fill- il  nji   in    tJii*<  way;  and    tho    ni- tlii'l  r.»-.:'' 
'  stiiin^iinic.-  -aNe  an  ;;'l'liii"na!  Iian.l  in  a  bjat'-*  tfiw. 
j  ii.'">!i\iiiN  i.r  nil;  -i  «.<. 

It  il  a  eoiiMii'-n  \.\\\  ..f  iiari->r;- li.at  lli-.'ort'iin  if-.ifr"' 

,  and  iini\er.-al  Mjliway.  w  jiii'l'  no  .-fat*- I'au  a|rr':T"'' 

I  to  it-,  own  « -p  fial   u-.-.      U'lii.,*  tlii- •xi-.tJt  a>  a|n?T 

I  eiple  ::•  nrrali\  ree    ;m:s.'1  li\  all  eivili-i   I  p.  •\i  j-**. 'Ir'- 

I'riiani  lias  lor  a   eui-'Iv-ralile  p-rii-d  of  tinv.  ••"  nn   1 

(.'f'  tininifitnn   tj   tfn'  •..-•>,   a>  a    r:^i;t  ae.pi'nl  i  .^  ;•' 

(Men-ive   ennqm-t  ,  anil  liie   skill  and   ^.ilur  "^ ''* 

I  s«  ann  II.      Wy  tliis  elaini,  it  i-.  -lol   a—ii^n-  1  tl:it  •'"■^'' 

111  iiain  p<  .«i«.t.  v-*.  •.-  a  Ii.-al  ri:;lit  «  f  pr-j-  ily  in  ti'.-  \«  ''■  ■" 

of  the  oc!  an,  nr  tin-  lan-N  wlia'h  Jievniax  e-  ^^r.     1^' 

elaini    rr-i>l\''«  il-«  If  int..   «ii;;:   ix   tiMT.i.  1   lit  :*'*".* 

miiit.-iiv  soM  rei::nr\,"  \\1  j.di  i;   v.- uiil  1      ial*-''-." 

liitrte'.ill  to  il-lint-,  ami  i:^  i'r.ti-lii'all\  an  fr\y'\  ::  i  *   ■' 

L'l  'ri-ni- l)oa-t.      Uiihin  ;lie  la-t  t\V'-!;*_\  %•.•:-.   i  ■'■''• 

ui.icli  a  larL'"'  niarilinie  i"Vr'    lia-   .::■•  ■■       :    ::•  1  r.'-'^' 

liu  — i.i.  an<l  tl.f  I'liilfil  .■-tat.  -  ■.?"  .\^\  'I-mm,  v  ■   i " .   "   • 

t'n-  r.rifi-li  to  lla.'  i!iin:in:ii:i  i.;    :i-  ■  -.   i»   !    .-  ■  ■     ■    " 

in-ard  i  it.  and  i.'-  pil  ;.•]■-  n-.i  a  .i-a-i  .    "  ■  i 

l:\\\.  a-  il    IS  in  l.ivt.      r.aeii   in'.,   n   i    •  . 

••"•iitr"!  oNrr  it^\«-— 1-  and  t;.iir  I'r.  •■» '. 

l-ail  of  the  nee.'in  tisrv  ij!a\   I...-  ;  all  er;i.:' 

nn  anonrs  ei.n.ir.ittt  •!  i-ii  lnard  .  f  a  -!:  p  an- 1  -ii*J^'"' 

;  by  la\\.  a**  r.n'n  a-  tiir   \t--<l  v>  i 'ij.  -  li^-   c -uf'tT)  ' 

'  wlih'ii  It  1'il'tir.i?-. 


■.  •  ..i."i 

.k  }■■''- 
•I  V.  .la:  '  ■' 
a:.  I  n.  • ;  ' 


'      rin!'.  1  ..nl  l'i!!<Ii-].(  !  1  y  W.  ..ml  M   (    i  \MV.rr.-.  r.^nlifft^ 
.-:.  li  .il  ■•  l'\  \v    >.«»».'.  \  C"..  I^'l:-I-  a 

I 


tnaa  trill-: 

In  til"  N»i>inuw:* ., ..-  - ,. „-, . 

H  condaeC  of  Sir  WiIIidid  jHrdinD,  W>  find  th*  Si 
i|  luluor  Hciiimi  uf  wholmcQuixiciratcJ,  otlcr  «  iSmut 
nu  Dt  llic  tn^mtiaetiu,  tbc  lorqunla,  uM  Uia  c*pJuil 
ja  tbrM  *iiri<4iu  of  grcaust  un  to  ibbh,  lit,  1 
ftrwhul.  or  w»-uin«)Tn,  >n  uiiinut  fmm  lixtnil  I 
VNlty  fWt  >ong,  Atiil  pruriilifd  with  a  iitrti(1lt  llliih.  • 
■)tn(i>MuMiniM  two),  about  four  orfivatavt  In  tMif 
ihI  projMtkig  fioin  ilic  wout.  Thu  uiikuil  Iw 
Mttad,  grcjuih  bodir,  handjKuaidy  nnuilvd  uti,  ( 
MiUinlng  nauftll;'  n«>r  a  ton  o(  uil,  tmi^  prlMil  I 
in  tiToomndm,  on  wlnnsetiMta  tlia  uirwlml  U  orti 


'IhIuh.  ThuBe  *ro  of  n  kih  ihnlkl  la  iJu  nrvMdlnl 
u>l  kro  k  tuiMj  of  U»1«  or  DO  vaJqc.  .1>1,  Tlut  h}  u 
imhIoo*,  anbniJi  of  k  d^iA  ooTour,  ilinul  twanty  k~ 
init,  and  dutinguulied  bjr  luiobn  in  jiImm  of  Inl 
til  «ii(l  Ml  Ttra  aoiluiw  and  llii'  xi)i)iiiia,  two  cImi 
f  mull  UHiiilM*  wluliM.  Stb,  Tlio  ba]ugl^  or  wlil_ 
'hull,  a  cTAtturo  of  pur*  whiui  colitar,  «]iecc>tlii||| 
ouiidwl  anil  lyiDiiutiiciU  in  (orm,  luid  trow  twdta  I 
Kciity  fnt  ivug.  It  Bbnundu  on  Lliv  nntUivm  oom 
f  Alia  and  AmeHoa.  lu  IBlft,  a  buiilifiil  iiitaiiu 
f  tlie  mw  liaaiilffil  tUia  ■''urlli  fivr  tlirra  niunUiii,  « 
•aa  fliull?  kiUrJ.Biid  |iUtvd  in  Iho  EdliUuirxU  MiuaiA, 
lb, 'ni»ilsli>liiiiapt<Bnu,a(ioiitti-K«*'hal(,  baboatd 
ml  bmN,  aod  roiurkaUE  oul;  for  btiag  baakcd  •oDir' 
'hat  Ilka  a  bird.  6ih,  Tbo  dnliiMor  ii  au  Arotie  animii 
itaek  Ui  eolourt  and  twwtty  or  twanty-fuur  flMt  liinj  ^^ 
t  baa  waiinlj  aii)'  wmut,  aail  i>  nuwt  iiowil  fw  ll 
«««  of  nllvriiii  laud  crii*  vbcn  lu  diauvBt,  whid 
ircnmaiBBM  ha*  ablainvd  fnr  it  iho  tuuue  of  tlie  atUn 


CHAMBERS'S  INFOR^IATIOX  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


to  tlie  body.  This  nppondapfo  is  placed  horizontally, 
and  is  about  twenty- four  fcft  broad.  It  is  an  instru- 
ment of  inimeiisc  pdwor,  and  the  >%'halc  has  sometimes 
eivcn  a  stroke  with  it  which  has  sent  large  boats  hip;h 
into  the  air  in  a  thousand  splinters.  The  colour  of  the 
body  is  mainly  a  velvety  black  ;  the  under  part  of  the 
head  and  abdomen,  and  the  junction  of  the  tail,  being 
partly  white  and  partfy  of  a  freckled  grey.  In  old 
whalefl,  much  more  of  tiie  body  assumes  the  latter  tint, 
and  the  streaks  sometimes  resemble  a  beautiful  land- 
scape of  trees.  On  the  tail,  in  one  instance  noticed  by 
Ray,  natun.*,  in  a  freakish  mood,  had  sot  down  the 
number  l'J'2,  in  largo  and  very  distinct  characters. 
The  eyes  of  the  whale  are  about  a  foot  behind  the  angle 
of  the  mouth,  and  are  not  much  larger  than  those  of 
the  ox.  Tiie  iriH  is  of  a  white  colour,  and  the  organs 
are  guarded  by  lids  and  lashes  as  in  (quadrupeds.  The 
two  blow-holes  of  the  whale,  situated  on  the  summit  of 
the  hrad,  and  descending  perpendicularly  through  it 
for  a  length  of  twdve  inclies  or  so  into  the  top  of  the 
windpi))e,  are  the  only  other  features  worthy  of  notico 
in  the  exttrrior  asjwct  of  the  Greenland  whale. 

The  mouth  of  the  common  whale  is  an  oi*gan  of  very 
Ti'nnderf'ul  Ci»nbtruction.  Jn  a  large  specimen  of  the 
r:ice,  it  may  mfa*'ure,  when  fully  (»pene<l,  about  sixti»en 
fii'l  long,  iwi'ive  ft-et  l)igh,and  ten  ieet  wide — an  apart- 
ment, in  truth,  of  very  goodly  dimennions.  It  contains 
no  teeth,  and  enonnoiiH  as  the  bulk  of  the  cre;iture  is, 
ita  throat  is  so  narniw  that  it  would  choke  upon  a  mor- 
8i'l  fitted  for  the  dv'L^Iutition  of  an  ox.  An  inch  and  a 
half  is  stated  to  be  the  diameter  of  the  gullet  in  tlic 
Tery  larg».*>t  whales.  Fn»m  this  peculiarity  of  funna- 
tion,  it  may  be  anticipated  that  the  food  of  the  animal 
Ls  of  a  very  minute  nature,  notwithstanding  the  vastness 
of  the  cavity  which  is  jirepared  for  its  primary  rcci'p- 
tion.  The  animal  is  indeed  supported  n]Kin  a  multitude 
c»f  smaller  iiihahitants  of  the  deep,  and,  tu  jH*nnit  this, 
its  nmuih  is  proviihd  with  a  n-mai-kaMo   anpnratiiM, 

CiiM  jii«..-il     (f    ^^ll.•lt     !-.     C;-!!")!     th^.*    ■'.'".»■//,    nr     iIm'    \^t'II 

Umi'.\ii  ti-^i.i:',  ■'■•,iii-  fl  I'-iMi:..  r<*>'.  J  ■:■•  l>.i.' •■ii  i-  ;ir- 
r;;!;:;'  -1  J!)  t-.\"  r<'"^  «■{"  l.iii';:;  !■  i-r  :!:.!i  j'.i'i-.  jr.  ij:  i'"in;: 
l.i'"  r.i  .\    iy  ■'  ;    ;i    lii  ■•    i;;    '  .■•    c   ■••■■    i  t"    iL- 


:iri''i 


i;    ■"   ;      ,1      ii[  ■•     I!:      .    i--     i"    ■ i      iii--     »iri-"i     !■ 

tli^'    j-;i  ;;r".    :  ■  li  l■\^  I...*.     ]','.:'•    •!■'    •.■■:    il":-.-    i-l'    .<     •     ■t.'i-j". 


which,  for  particular  purposes,  is  open  in  toxf  ar^,  «4  ss 
to  contain  oil,  or  blubber  as  it  is  called,  in  i;reai  qur.9- 
titles.  This  mass  of  oil,  surrounding  the  whole  aninil, 
and  sometimes  weighing  more  than  thirty  tons  h  all, 
serves  the  imiMrtant  end  of  keeping  the  animal  winn 
by  its  weak  conducting  powers,  amid  the  ci>ldest  rccc»ti 
of  the  polar  ocean,  and  is  also  calculated  to  re>i^t  tko 
enormous  pressure  to  which  the  body  of  the  creatart 
must  be  subjected  at  the  depths  to  which  it  ofui 
descends.  Whales  have  been  known  to  take  a  Lias 
perpendicularly  down  to  tho  full  extent  of  a  mile,  and 
had  not  this  ample  layer  of  fat,  between  one  and  two 
feet  thick,  been  WTapped  around  them,  posse^si^*  a 
rcHisting  power  like  that  of  caoutchouc,  it  is  difficult  to 
imagine  how,  in  such  a  case,  they  could  endurv  thf 
immense  weight  of  superincumbent  water.  Moreover, 
being  inferior  in  specific  gravity  to  tlie  water,  it  is  obviuoi 
that  all  this  body  of  oil  must  be  of  incalculable  u.<«  ii 
augmenting  the  buo\'ancy  of  the  animal's  frame.  l>i<>v 
the  skin  are  situated  the  muscles  or  flesh,  and  the  chi- 
racter  of  this  structure  is  much  the  same  in  the  wlulf 
as  in  the  ox  or  liorse.  With  the  exct*]ition  of  the  tAii. 
the  arrangement  of  tho  various  muscles  of  tlte  wlaie 
does  not  differ  very  much  from  that  of  quadruiix'i^ 
and  the  same  remark  applies  to  the  osseous  structuiv. 
The  Hnsarc merely  rudimental  arms,  cont^iining  ntarijr 
the  same  bones  as  in  man,  and  the  chcKt  stn)u;lv  n* 
semblt^  that  of  ordinarv'  quadru{.tcd».  The  verlfbni 
column  of  the  rorqual  wliale  contains  sixty-threeLuon^ 
those  of  the  Givenland  whale  are  not  quite  so  nurD^ 
rr)us.  The  skull  consists  of  the  crown-bone,  from  which 
the  facial  bones  and  uiiper  jaw  project  forwanl,  «hut 
the  lower  jaw  is  composed  of  two  long  curved  boiie% 
that  meet  at  the  point  or  fore-part  of  the  mouth.  Thm 
aro  often  put  up  over  gates,  and  make  a  hanJioai 
archway.  The  whole  of  these  Innies  are  hard  inl 
porous,  and  some  of  them,  as  the  lower  jaw-bones.  «)■• 
tain  oil,  but  they  ai*e  s.'iid  to  h:ive  no  ]>riipfr  nirhi!!i<T 
inarmw.  The  total  wrii^lit  of  I>r  J\i.«i.\\  n-r  |'::i.  ^^c- 
n  t'ti  \\:i^  t\\«^ntv-ti''ht  to'i^. 

Tin- i>i'::-iiis  of  ri'><jiirat:iiii  in  il."  w],::!-  m--  :*-*1 
v.-   -M  till- --atin.'  J  riiuMjiif  ;is  tl.i- f  i-t   I.i> -i   :i:  i- .: 


'l■..^^  ;.!•■! 

l"'-".    i:l    1:   .1!:' 

l;:i:.  "I  ■■  i     1  '.:  ■ 
Ti.._\   v..  .^■■:  i:-  .^ 
l::"y  -.i:-    :•  .<  :■■ 
1 1 '  1 1 . ,  J  \  I  ■  > ;    i  » 
I'll  ;-i:  ■  -i  :r.    .    ■ 
■  !:'•  'i  ;r-i   •■ry, 

i-  ■'[  ■    I!      !■:■     1:.-   1 


■nj!' 


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i,  y  111-..    (•■■':i|':i:'.i'  :v(  .\ 

;i\\.i_v  ;  .:■■  Tin  r<»  l-ri-*-'--,  f>-riii::_'  a 
■_'•■  ■  ;■  '  -r.!'  r.  "M  <  n-  ;ir--  nl'-Mt  '.';  '.•■<• 
I'.  .:.  -  I'll  t  .ii-!i  ?-i-ic,   M.-!,  \\ !.'.  :i  *[:'.•■  \. 


.1. 


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t;:i-l  :i-.  1 


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til!  "i!!- 


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.'".r--.:.     'I  l.c   ].:•.<.:•  -' 

"'•  ■!  ill-  ';:  ;!;<•  i---  ;.rri- 

;;■.>.    :i  ■  '  'wi)  Itui.i-s 

li.    •■  'I  ■'  ■•  -iil'-tarKM- 

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.r  '.  ::  ,•■•  ■•M  ♦  t  \'v  - 
■:.  .1  ;.'  !,  iiiv  1  \\.-  i- 
..:■■■]  ii;'-'  t!i.-  Ill  ■.■:!! 
i,      W't  i-i-   i'    ::  .'.  I.-v 


.  w.i'i  iM'ili:'.('..rioiis!  to  ^•.'.it  thi*  jn  i"i!':ir  ■  i<':.'.i.;;t  .ii   •.■    i 

,  t!.'   i'i.-.i:i;:v  l[\v<.      It  \<  ji!;iiu  lli.it  ^-''-.t-  jr-vi^.  ;■'■.* 

I  n',i:ii->.l  to  1  »  rniit  t!ii*  wiiaif  i'>  l-i-'TiTij.-  u.r:.-.:  ':.: 

rl'!*  o{   IxivIml;  !l;i'  liii:'^s  li,;i-(l  \\\'^\  w.ifi  r.     ']..  -  ;-  i"- 

i*';i.j..i>s!u-.l  l;v   rjii.'  i'\:vu».i'>ii  of  t;r-  ♦■  ji  .  •'  li  -■  w  ■:• 

■  I'lj'-  i:'.f'>  till' i.o-rri:',  i>r  111  ■■■^  ii-l.  -,  ,v  r.ir;..  r  :■:'■-  * 
[■■.~-  I.:'-  wlii'-h  l'ri.;-:i  ;iis  in  f  .  -.■  m  tj  .  .-.I'-.-.i;:  •■.  w-  .  ■•. 
llv  till-  (■■■i/riv.iiu'.  ,  tl;,- ,'r.  .:t,jj-,.  ,.,..,  il.",  i.i*  ..:r  \' •  •■• 
r-   ■-  f«    il::  i:  ov  i.i^   i!>   jr.'.ul'-:   mil   i  t"  ^v.'.I•  r.      \-  ■'  "- 

.  I'VV'  ~'v.a\  ;ii-i;.i,i.^,  th"  air  ::i\'-::  r'-.l  i*'.".-  !•  'i-  '  ■ 
i- ■,■■■!.  I.;-,  i.i  o!;.i  r  »\-r.i-.  ^•\\  ^^  i.-.i*.'.  -.  i*.  ,i  i  •■  .--.j.i.: 
'.'!:•■  ;i::ii.  .i".  Ii-m:.  '["..i-  wl:.i!r  h  i-  tr--  jUiii:,^-  T  ■■  i-  ■• '  ■ 
t!:-    -iirl.n'i-.  ;n'iMi  ■!!!  ::!_v,  to  ij'-t  it-:  ;,,p,  )  -.j  •',;,  ,  j . : j- 

■  t:i  n  i-  vk  imjti-.I  .(•-•,  :i-i-  .ijj  nf  .v  !5«'C«>-;ir\  ii\  '!■•;;  "■  ■ 
^i"ii  ffa  i<-.r\oir  of  --w  i;,  i,.i'.-.l   I. j. ,•■•!,  \v:,|.-S  ,.»..". 

•  liMwii  iij'-iri  \\l:»n  ri''|Miriii.     'i  hi-;  i*.  tli- r;i'.-- u->  v  ■• 
;i!.:i!:;4!  I..;.siji-li  a  \:i~t  ir"i--r:i"i;ati-  ■.■.;t::*,*.v  .  •  "       ; 


i:i  i:  -  liMiii*'.      1 11' 

To   |...   !.:!■■',■  i'l  !■■  !.. 


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I.-  I  ■■•.\-;.i;i  ~,  y*  \\  .■  v: 
o  •  -■:••■.  M  {:\\.'\\\\.\  t'>  til  ii'i  :i'.  ;.  , 
i'.'.  "1  ■.  ■  .■:'u"_\  :ii  ••..'■  -1  o!  h;i!  ir 
••■'■i::  .  ■  I-  .  '  ,•  f-A-  't.i:'.''-  -  ;i:"  ti  : 
'•.,■■  ■  \-  .\  ''v  !s---in  *-\  ■■  -■  ■*,  ;■?  ■■■  ■•■■. 
..:-  if  l!.i>  ('•.rrii:ii  :i  -.vl./i-  ;■!.•  t.i.. 
'  ii*h' ii  t-i  ti.'-  al.ij.  v;.  Tl  ;  ill  »!;•■  iVi-.-  if  --v.-  -• 
;  '•'  -.  !  lit- '.;.:•.•  I  :.,..-i  t  <  !i  l'"-  1  :■■  .■-*.  I:;  I  ■  '•  c  . 
•'   .t:-i- '■Til.:*-  :   .-;■   r-'-r.v.      j '•.-.    :.i.;,i  i.f  ir  .-  a:-,. 


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!  t  I  !  '•  I  ii-'i  .ir:  !  iTi  \\'.\y. 


^.:cii  .ii'  ti:--  -z-  I. ■■••a!  fhruactor  •  if  **nir:;jr-*  »t.  tV" 
v.}!:i..;  tr-' ■■.  aiil,  ■■;!  ri\:;tr«liii^  tlw-iii  atten'i^fj-lv,  •  •  •? 
••ai.r.it  \'i\  1-  fl  am.i/i  d  at  tl.v  mhiih:!^  .-.ini'lu-jtv    •  n- 


imaginary  shelter ;  or  it  roturns  in«;tantly  to  the  sur- 
face, and  gives  evidence  of  its  agony  by  the  moHt  con- 
vulflivc  throes,  in  which  itsfinn  and  tail  are  alternutoly 
diflplayed  in  the  air,  and  dashed  into  the  water  with 
trenicndoas  violence.  The  former  behaviour,  however, 
that  is,  to  dive  towards  the  bottom  of  the  sea,  is  so  fre- 
quent, in  comparison  of  any  other,  that  it  may  be  con- 
sidered as  the  g(fneral  conduct  of  a  fast  fish. 

A  whale  struck  near  the  edge  of  any  large  sheet  of 
ice,  and  passing  underno.ath  it,  will  sometimes  run  the 
whole  of  the  lines  out  of  the  boat,  in  the  space  of  eight 
or  ten  minutes  of  time.  This  being  the  case,  when  the 
'  fast  boat'  is  at  a  distance,  br^th  fi-oin  the  ship  and  from 
any  other  boat,  it  frequently  happens  that  the  lines  are 
all  withdrawn  before  assistance  arrives,  and,  witli  the 
fish,  entirely  lost.  In  some  cases,  however,  they  are 
recovered.  To  retard,  therefore,  n»  much  as  possible, 
the  flight  of  the  whale,  it  is  usual  for  the  harpooner 
who  strikes  it,  to  cast  one,  two,  or  more  turns  of  line 
round  a  kind  of  post,  called  a  ballaitl,  which  is  fixed 
within  ten  or  twelve  inches  of  the  stem  of  the  boat  for 
the  purpose.  Such  is  the  friction  of  the  line,  when 
running  round  the  ballard,  that  it  frequently  envelopes 
the  harpooner  in  ainoke ;  and  if  the  wood  were  not 
repeatedly  wetted,  would  probably  set  fire  to  the  boat. 
During  the  capture  of  one  whale,  a  groove  is  sometimes 
cut  in  the  ballard,  near  an  inch  in  depth ;  and  wore  it 
not  for  a  plate  of  brass,  iron,  or  a  block  of  ligimm  vita>, 
which  covers  tbe  top  of  the  stem  where  the  lino  passes 
over,  it  is  apprehended  that  the  action  of  the  line  on 
the  material  of  the  bout  would  cut  it  down  to  the 
water's  edge,  in  the  course  of  one  season  of  successful 
fishing.  The  appnuicliing  diHtresa  of  a  boat,  for  want 
of  line,  is  indicated  by  the  elevation  of  an  oar,  in  the 
way  of  a  mast,  to  which  is  added  a  second,  a  third,  or 
even  a  fourth,  in  proportion  to  the  nature  of  tJie  exi- 
gency. The  utmost  care  and  attention  arc  rcMjuisite,  ou 
the  part  of  every  person  in  the  boat,  when  the  lines  are 
running  out ;  fatal  consequences  having  been  sometimes 

Eroduced  by  the  most  trifling  ueglecL  When  the  line 
appens  '  to  run  foul,'  and  caimot  be  cleared  on  the 
instant,  it  sometimes  draws  the  boat  under  water ;  on 
which,  if  no  auxiliary  boat  or  convenient  piece  of  ice 
be  at  hand,  the  crew  are  plunged  into  the  sea,  and  are 
obliged  to  trust  to  the  buoyancy  of  their  oars,  or  to  their 
skill  hi  swimming,  for  supporting  themHilvcs  on  the 


j  milfs,  per  hour.  By  the  motions  of  the  fai 
simultaneous  movements  of  the  whali*  are 
The  auxiliary  boats,  according! v,  take  thi 
about  the  situation  wliere  tlie  whale,  from  tiic 
may  reasonably  be  ex{>ccted  to  appear. 
I  Tlie  average  stay  under  water  of  a  wonii 
which  steadily  descends  after  being  btmck, 
to  tlie  most  usual  conduct  of  the  animal,  is  al 
minutes.  The  U)ngost  I  ever  observed  vj 
minutes;  but  in  shullow  water,  I  have  been 
it  has  sometimes  been  known  to  remain  an  1 
half  at  the  bottom  after  being  struck,  an 
returned  to  the  surface  alive.  The  greater  tl 
the  more  considerable  the  distance  to  which  i 
and  the  longer  the  time  it  remains  under  wate 
greater  in  proportion  is  the  extent  of  its  exhi 
the  consequent  facility  of  accomplishing  if 
Immediately  on  its  reappearing,  the  assisting  1 
for  the  place  with  their  utmost  speed,  and  as 
it,  trach  harpooner  plunges  his  Iwrpoon  int 
to  the  amount  of  three,  four,  or  more,  aceon 
size  of  the  whale  and  the  nature  of  the  situati 
fre<iu('ntly,  however,  it  dceecnds  for  a  few  mil 
receiving  the  second  harpoon,  and  obliges 
boats  to  await  its  return  to  the  sarface,  I 
further  attack  can  be  made.  It  is  aflenvan 
plied  with  lances,  which  are  thrust  into  its  bo 
at  its  vitals.  At  length,  when  exhansted  bj 
wounds  and  the  loss  of  blood,  which  flown  hit 
animal  in  copious  streams,  it  indieafeeB  the  a] 
its  dissolution  by  discharging  from  its  'M 
mixture  of  blood  along  with  the  air  and  mi 
it  usually  expires,  and  finally  iets  of  blood  al 
sea,  to  a  great  extent  around,  is  dyed  with 
and  the  ice,  boats,  and  men,  are  sometisBCt 
with  the  same.  I  ts  track  is  likewise  marked  ^ 
pellicle  of  oil,  whicli  exudes  from  its  ww 
appears  on  the  surface  of  the  son. 

Its  final  capture  is  sometimes  preeedcd  In* 
Hive  struggle,  in  which  its  tail,  reared,  m 
violently  jerked  in  the  air,  reeonnda  to  tbe^d 
miles.  In  dying,  it  turns  on  its  b^ek  or  m 
which  joyful  circuinstince  Is  annonneed  bj 
turei*ri  with  the  striking  of  their  flags,  aceom 
three  lively  huzzas  V 

The  writer  of  this  animated  descripiioD  i 


j|c,  DF  nau)/  (II  (IiD  (iial  ioIiito  it  undo  llin 
.  Tbiu^  tlie  idiip**  boU*,  If  *Utloninl  nhiUQ  iJla 
1  of  Iba  Hold,  oui  Kt  cinw  horpooa  ll  a  wotind 
ind  iliupBt^  it.  la  opea  vatcr,  ths  whula,  h; 
M  ft  ■»()(  ttt  apATt  ft^  when  ii  ■Herd,  j^IM 
>  btTiuha  rr»]y  and  resruit  iM  itrn^lh,  and  in 
linukii  away  aiUtgnluff,  or  ptntty  prolnru  ttia 
la.  Ciir  till*  roannit,  nU  bnaU  al  •  field  w4ll  do 
rlt  of  IwcWd  tu  a{i*n  »ml,  Twn  or  mnr*  fdih  orn 
nUy  takun  at  a  (irid  al  cim  timo,  anil  in>  a  |ianl- 
Mcwiuli  aU  Hib  l>»r«  actualljr  enptuisid  at  nneu 
I  lovm  boaU  ti  n  aiaslo  ablp,  ErEu  In  nuvll 
•r  M  lundon  Sabing  rmpTa«tiGaUe  et>p»biini. 
Mug  nan  bo  praMnnMd  wiUi  ^emaa.  tiat  tbirc 
sadTMilai^  nhn  aUn»<]uit  on  tba  mndn  Tha 
Hiiitw  of  tli^djt  <)f  iw  vrn  h>  rap^di  van*ivai  aud 
^UIllablc,  and  ihfllr  pi>wi<n  uf  diniiu  nrithblHr  •> 
ted,  llint  tliD  utinuvt  prOdeoM  and  tkf U  cannot  cn- 
uouFft  vcawlilf<ngladielKvleluit;from  ili«ri«k 
lire  dmaaga  or  tot^  deatruclian.  SmaU  fidd*  itr 
r«  wpcBuilljr  lUnnroiu.  panimilATly  if  tiny  mia- 
iiaJt  cmcbt  flr  hehia  ia  iiii>  wntre  of  Uiiunt  rha 
r  ur  a  Ruditmi  movamiut  in  aiicJi  nrnx  ia  mueh 
r  thui  in  tha  coav  of  tha  larga  litldiL  aiid,  iiiora- 
>A«i  buinz  nrndi.  tlM  wlutw  nGiwnJlj  inakM  for 
NirtnMi  ia  the  tec^  and  (hriv  brfaUiea  tntljr, 
•me  it  OTCcnarv  far  tirc  men  la  ero«  llw  Huld  on 
uid  ilnpaloJi  uiair  pny  u-iih  (bv  lunin.  E*ni 
lli«]'  MieoMll  in  Jnbijc  thi>s  IbTrw  in  no  voj  uf 
{  oul  tin  whal*  but  b;  ilnliiiijt  it,  uij  draggini; 
1  bolov  the  IrM^  al  Qw  nvat  nali  iit  pullW  imi 
irpoon  itltogclbar  i  or  by  euu'i>2  iho  Idutitwt 
and  Inntportiiig  it  o*t>r  the  aurfaM  of  lb*  Uita, 
brpiMA.  ThtiM  nporntiou  are  atWniltd  wiifa 
tbiiiH-  and  1««  of  lima.  "  Xt  eoiinmitad  with  tlib 
■S  (•ajr*  CapIalR  Seumb}),  I  eaiiiiHt  |)wi  ov«r  a 
naljuica  vihicb  nconircd  willilii  my  own  nhmirTa* 
uul  whieb  saaliwl  m*  blflhnt  admlnttliin.  Ita 
Ji  of  Jid;  1U13,  the  diip  Gak  Ut  hy  lb>  vd|{a  uf 
it  of  i<w,  fii  whiirb  w«r«  Hsrttvl  iliinjauu^  and 
bolaiL  ilara  a  tiili  Ihui^  btanj  Uomtif,  r  '*~~ 
will)  •  Una  cunimHinl  hi  ft,  waa  eoORi^iif 


1/IAJ1.\;A0        A4&iiAV  «Afc^\A         «>J«a«J        X#AA  X^«A»A*V*<^»«AV'K.f        ••*A\* 


't" 


wish  that  the  huriKion  were  bettor  fast ;  observing,  at 
the  same  time,  that  if  it  should  slip  out,  the  whale  would 
eitiier  bo  lost  or  they  would  be  under  the  necessity  of 
cutting  it  up  where  it  lay,  and  of  di'a^s^iug  the  pieces 
of  blubber  over  the  ice  to  the  ship — a  kind  and  degree 
of  labour  which  every  one  was  anxious  to  avoid.  No 
sooner  w;ls  the  wish  expressed,  and  its  importance  made 
knnwn,  than  one  of  the  sailors,  a  smart  and  enterprising 
fellow,  stepped  fon^'ard  and  volunteered  his  services  to 
strike  it  better  in.  Not  at  all  intimidated  by  the  sur- 
prise which  was  manifested  in  every  countenance  by 
such  a  bold  proposal,  he  pulled  out  his  pocket-knife, 
leaped  upon  the  back  of  the  living  whale,  and  immedi- 
ately cut  the  harpoon  out.  Stimulated  by  this  coura- 
geous example,  one  of  his  companions  proceeded  to  his 
assistance.  While  one  of  them  hauled  upon  the  line 
and  held  it  in  his  hands,  the  other  set  his  shoulder 
against  the  extremity  of  the  harpoon,  and  though  it  was 
without  a  stock,  he  contrived  to  strike  it  again  into  the 
fish  more  effectually  than  it  was  at  tirst ;  the  fish  was 
in  motion  before  they  finished.  After  they  got  off  its 
back,  it  advanci*d  a  considerable  distance,  breaking  the 
ice  all  the  way,  and  survived  this  unconmion  treatment 
ten  or  fifteen  minutes.  This  admirable  act  was  an 
es-xentinl  benefit.  The  fish  fortunately  sank  spontane- 
ously after  being  killed,  on  which  it  was  hauled  out  to 
the  edge  of  the  ice  by  the  line,  and  secured  without 
further  trouble.  It  proved  a  stout  whale,  and  an  accept- 
able prize." 

If  wliulers  could  choose  their  o^ii  ground  for  fish- 
ing, many  of  them  would  probably  prefer  a  position 
among  o}K'n,  navigable  drift-ice,  whebc  the  force  of  the 
B<:a  is  bi"uken,  aniL  heavy  swells  prevented"  from  afTect- 
in<;  the  vessel.  This  kind  of  fishing  is  called  open  jnick- 
JiJiiugy  and  is  held  to  be  advantageous  for  the  capture 
of  whales.  Where  the  ice  is  ci*owded,  however,  and 
affords  room  only  for  boats  to  pass  through  it,  the 
chase  becomes  difficult  and  hazardous.  Still,  as  the 
fishers  must  take  the  seas  as  they  find  them,  fishing  is 
often  conducted  in  this  situation  of  things.  Suceefis 
depends  on  the  boats  iM^ng  spread  widely,  on  the  in- 
cctiKint  watchfulness  of  the  harpooners,  and  on  their 


K/V  A\/ ««       ^t\\J       A\.\^. 


If  this  plan  failed.  Captain  Seoresby  pla 
a  pair  of  ice-shoes,  formed  simply  of  i\ 
to  the  centre  of  which  tlio  feet  wero  tk 
boldly  crossed  the  thin  ice  to  the  point 
direction  of  the  line,  he  knew  the  fiah  ^ 
three  instances  he  was  fortonrnte  tiam 
whale  through  the  ice  and  to  plunge  h 
its  body,  after  which  he  used  hia  l&nce,  i 
the  fish  was  killed.  The  fish  actoallj 
twice  beneath  the  ver>'  spot  where  he  H 
through  the  ice  with  its  head.  He  «m 
to  escape  all  injury,  howe%*er,  thongh 
places  could  not  have  borne  the  weight 
ing  in  common  shoes.  This  kind  of 
though  successful,  will  be  renrded  by  i 
somewhat  daring  and  hazardous. 

Of  course,  in  all  these  Torious  ways 
cumstances  now  and  then  occur  which 
all  ordinary  rules.  The  whale,  for  i 
struck  near  the  margin  of  a  small  floe, 
in  restraint,  and  killed  by  the  use  of  tb 
most  tteo  boats.  On  the  *25th  of  June 
a  hari)ooner  belonging  to  the  Resolati 
struck  a  fish  close  by  a  small  floe,  nnd 
appeared.  Assistance  m-as  quickly  give 
boat^s  lines  were  attached  to  thoee  of  t 
boat  attaclied  to  tlie  whale),  alter  whid 
the  other  boatmen,  who  spread  out  for  i 
j)ut  in  a  short  time  distress  Bignabi  we 
fast-boat,  and  before  aid  could  be  affc 
were  seen  to  throw  themselves  into  ti 
diately  afterwards  the  bow  of  the  ba 
water,  the  stem  rose  in  the  air,  and  the 
cally  disappeared.  An  accidental  cir 
prevented  the  cutting  of  the  lines. 
]ncked  up,  and  a  search  commenced  for 
\%'as  ere  long  seen,  and  no  leas  than  t 
each  having  a  boat  and  its  lines  attae 
buried  in  the  ani mars  body.  KvoryoDi 
all  was  now  siMrure  beyond  risk.  Not  so, 
whale  pushed  impetuously  forward,  an 
of  one  b(»at  found  their  lines  run  out.  ai 


•»  ><D  I7  bji&ae,  ud  Dm  witabtol 
;r*<ni>,  UiK  oaoiB  of  til* 


ilga  Bucr  biniB  («  1^  *««■  «f  Origin  fi 
tanl,  WW  that  )u<Mi|fil  ftiuB  SjiiidMifi 

911.    It  winrim.3  uf  *4  irtwha,  «■-'-■■  --^ 
luiu  nT  idl,  valine  nArapil  u  iCS 
•  BriiM  nf  Uul  for.  OMI ;  >ni1  »ba  4 
I  mUbI  ibB  •rthiu  iif  (ha  wlalilwHa,  mii]  " 

ID  fodeht  moM  «ppnir  la  lu< ' 

Vbtodlrat  tu  i.'1'O  i>"r  l.^j,  •11.1,1 


a  kMh  h*&  npuii  m 


»  1814,  Ull,  inU,  iti.i  JKIT,  -Ir:  T. 
Uithiul,  and  1"!  ■  ■  r 

.    or  ihaib  tkr 


y,  tlin  vni  In  fi-r 
U,  4IJ, uu)  as.  Tl: 
bnikh  *U|M  In  (I<> 
MAt^MiriMiuiirK.i 

D  Bntnj^  to  e■c:^  . 


nombi'T  vna  raJiie*il  to  A9.     I1 

Hi,  tlr*111]')rMnlwfutll,llll4»l>l 


>  bll  UWUIJ  to  tlu-i-.     I  . 

,litt  bllUllWUnli  I'l 
in  iha  ialuii],  liu  I" 
urluklp-nil,  uid  th«  M I  < 

rl    niMCi,    thfl    flTlTii  r 
■II  luim  hiwn  Ri'aill}'  •'> 

uiiilw  the  nrccaitj'  at 
aitudca  fi»  the  objoeU  of  thuir  punuit.    Thn 
e U m « moMUTB B DoroUiry   '■'-  '*■  - 

conwiiawiioo  nt  oDlnrinil  U 
siU  Uui  nilirr  ■utular  acot,  ft  tUM  oi  uiu  inu 
]4ut  ukso  i>lBf«ul  bw  yo*t^  Meiutulvaaud 
that  mcnUDtlla  tana  have  bKoms  nnwIUIng 
■!ri^.l,iI.il.Jiiilwiiiii;TiiliMrriiisri.'(iri',  in  f iicli 


r«  Vwi',  »a4  WiWft,  WW.  w  ^i*^"^'^  "^  "^^ 


CHAMBERS'S  INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


In  slrildng  tbe  nliftle  at  ttio  ^intnncc  of  iM  y^rii 
trom  lliti  WTge.  It  dn^jied  out  tea  Uoea  (34(10  yu-ds], 
kiitl  WW  Mippoud  lo  be  •een  blowiug  ia  different  lioles 
ill  tliv  ice.  AfUT  MODe  time  il  lu|)p«»d  ta  maJce  iU 
apfomuioc  Ou  tlio  exterior,  nhen  &  harpoon  was  struck 
at  the  memtul  It  WW  pnoovdiog  again  beneath.  About 
100  jnuda  froni  the  edge,  it  broke  the  ice  where  it  was 
aroot  in  thidioeauitfaite  emwii, and nipire J  throngh 
tlio  oiwuini.  It  then  ilelonoinalelj  ))ushed  Ibrwanl, 
brealiliiK  tiia  Ice  «s  it  advancad,  ia  spile  of  the  lanceB 
coniRantl^r  jLrected  uiuoM  it.  It  reiLohed,  at  Icng^i,  > 
kind  of  buin  in  tlie  ti«lil,  where  it  Stated  on  the  anrbM 
oi  the  water  wiUiout  anv  eacunibrancg  train  ieo.  Its 
back  being  laic-ij  exposed,  the  harpuan,  Hruck  from  the 
boat  oo  tbe  oataide,  was  obierved  to  bo  an  lljgbtly  en- 
tangled that  it  was  Kaij  to  drop  oat.  Semo  of  tlis 
olGmre  lamented  thia  eircuinetaaoe,  and  etpresaed  a 
wi*!)  tlitU  tbe  Larpoon  were  better  butt  [  obHrrbg,  at 
ttio  gaois  time,  that  if  it  abould  dip  out,  tlia  whais  would 
aiiJiei  ba  loot  or  titay  would  be  uodec  the  hmmnUji  of 
cuUlug  it  up  wbtm  it  laf,  and  of  dragging  the  pieoee 
of  bluLbcT  over  tlie  ice  to  the  ahip — s  kind  and  degree 
of  labour  wluiili  vney  one  waa  auxiaua  to  armd.  Na 
•ooDcr  was  the  wish  expreascd,  and  its  imporlauce  made 
knuwn,  than  one  of  the  aaiton,  a  uuart  uid  enterprUing 
fellow,  ilupped  forward  and  votuuteered  Itia  serviecH  to 
atriku  it  U'llcr  in,  Not  at  ali  intimidated  bj  the  ear. 
tn-iee  wliich  wai  manifealvd  in  every  conntenanee  by 
miell  a  bold  prouoaal,  be  puliod  oat  bia  poekel-kaile, 
laaiwd  upua  the  back  of  the  living  whale,  aod  immedi- 
aloly  cut  tlie  harpooa  out.  StiuiuUled  by  thii  coam- 
~iple.  one  of  hia  gomimniona  pnmeded  to  his 


and  held 


While  one  of  tlMm  banlcd  upon  tho  Llpu 
in  hia  luiaita,  tlit  other  act  bi*  shoulijer 
•gainit  the  exlmiiily  of  tlis  haqtaaa,  and  Ihau^  il  wu 
wilbwul  a  Btoek,  iiu  cnntrived  la  strike  it  Bgun  into  tho 
fi«h  IUOr«  «tr«etually  tlian  it  Waa  at  &at ;  the  fiah  waa 
in  tBg&ni  bebre  they  fiiuabed.  After  tlH7  got  off  ha 
baiJi,  It  advanced  a  oooaidemble  diatanee,  breaking  tho 

tvu  or  llltcau'niinules.  Thia  admirublo  act  v.*a  ao 
nexnlial  UonKllt.  Tlio  fiah  funuiatety  eauk  ^Hiutane- 
Dualy  after  being  hlUrxl,  on  which  it  was  bauled  out  to 
the  edge  of  the  ice  by  the  line,  and  accured  without 
further  trouble.  It  provedaatoutwhaleiandanacoept- 
able  priai." 

If  whalera  could  ehooee  their  own  ground  for  Bull- 
ing, many  of  tliem  would  probably  prefer  a  poailion 
among  open,  naviL(nbla  drifl-iee,  whetv  the  force  of  the 
aea  is  bnikcn,  aniL  heavy  awctla  prevenletT  (rom  affect' 
ing  the  veiurl.  Tina  kind  of  fiehiug  is  called  opm  pati- 
fiihing,  and  ia  held  to  be  advantageona  for  tbe  capture 
of  whalea.  Wlmre  (be  ice  Is  crowded,  howevor,  and 
aHiirdn  room  iinly  tor  boats  lo  pua  tlirough  it,  the 
ohaae  Uvomcs  ddScult  and  huardona.  Sllll,  ~  ~  ''  ~ 
fialuin  muat  tiko  tlie  aaaa  as  tbey  find  them,  Ga 
otif  u  conducted  In  this  ailuation  of  things.  Surceaa 
dependa  on  the  boate  being  spread  widely,  on  Uie  in- 
eeaianl  watehfutnraa  of  the  hartwoncn,  and  on  theii 
occaaionally  udiiiie  the  Iienefit  of  a  man  of  ire,  from 
tbe  elevation  of  which  the  tub  may  Bomotimea  be  seen 
blowing  in  the  intenpacci.  Celerity  in  rowing,  uid  tbe 
bighaM  degree  of  activity  iu  all  tho  proceeding,  < 
-*  -    .  -    .1    —  -e — -- — -- open  paok'fliihuig. 


ande. 


nbat 


■II  tlio  dlinculliea  attending  the  prooecnlion  of  then 
anptoyment  in  tlorwu  and  feg$.  When  a  nle  oe*urti 
during  a  cbaie,  and  after  a  fiih  baa  been  harpouued, 
fluhen  are  uften  obligod  to  cot  the  lines  aod  let  their 
ptue  go.  Sunielimes  Ibia  takes  plaoo  even  when  the 
fiah  ia  killed,  and  it  ie  wurtby  of  remark  that  a  whale 
•o  abandoned  U-comr*  tbe  lawful  pHxe  of  the  abip  that 
fint  get*  bold  of  it,  though  this  may  occur  in  tbe  fiieo 
of  tlie  (iriginal  oapton.  Bnl  it  i*  common  enoneh  for 
wliah^n  during  a  alorm  to  keep  a  fifth  arcurea  by  a 
tiaWBrr  to  the  ahip,  and  lo  retain  it  thn>  till  the  rclum 
Of  modermte  weather.  Few  whaltn  venture  to  oom- 
■ncnee  filing  while  a  atonn  exiata,  and  it  tv  a  matter 
uf  c^ual  difficulty  and  unerriaiuty  to  liah  during  •  fog. 


The  mist  on  auch  oecaaions  is  *o  thicJi  that  it 
poBsible  to  aee  objecla,  however  Ur]^»bav»  IW 
yards  oir ;  and  wboD  a  bant  ia  led  away  by  Ilia  d 
a  distance  that  a  bell  or  a  bors  cannM  b« 
luation  booomes  very  periloue.  The  only  i 
nues  ia  to  make  every  poiaibla  cxtftkn)  : 
rapid  dispatch  of  tbo  whale,  and  if  thia  fc«  in 
cable,  to  leave  it. 

(^ptain  Scorcaby  gives  an  intcroating  aMoanl 
phui  pursued  by  huiuelf  in  bm-iM  fiMng. 
locked  up  with  bia  ship  in  a  field  of  lUn  bay4 
was  unlit  in  many  plaocs  to  bear  a  man's  w«a) 
plaeed  a  number  of  boats  in  various  Meningi 
Listed  a  short  way  from  the  vfsseL  WImd  a 
bme  to  tlieeo  apertures  to  breathe,  it  was  i 
id  tha  men  endeavoured  to  drown  it,  when  it 
below  the  ice,  by  keo]HDg  a  steady  stiain  on  II 
If  tbia  plan  foiled.  Captain  Sooroby  plantud  hia 
a  pair  of  ice-iboea,  formed  simply  of  thin  deal-l 
to  the  eeniro  of  which  tbe  feet  wen  tied,  and  t 
boldly  crosaed  tbe  tliiii  ice  to  ^e  piunt  whoa, 
direction  of  tbe  line,  he  knew  the  liah  would  lii 
three  instancca  be  was  fortunate  enongh  Vt  i 
whale  through  Iho  ice  and  lo  plunge  Iu*  harpo 
its  body,  after  which  be  used  his  lanoe,  t3l  tn  «M 
the  lisb  was  killed.  The  fish  actually  nos  a 
twice  beneath  the  very  spot  where  be  Btoodi  nd 
tlirough  the  ice  with  its  head,  lie  wis  Inefcyi 
to  escape  all  injury,  howevor,  though  tha  ■«■  I 
places  could  not  hale  homo  Iho  vd^l  of  a  bnjr 
ing  in  common  ahoes.  This  kind  of  baj-les  t 
tliongh  sucreBsful,  will  be  regarded  by  tnost  pen 
somewhat  daring  and  harardoua, 


Of  e< 


Lt  daring  ai 
e,  in  aU  tl 


vayaof  fl 


all  ordinary  mles.  The  whalo,  for  exampli^ 
struck  near  the  margin  of  a  am^  torn,  ia  iu«at 
in  natniat,  and  kOtod  by  the  nas  of  iha  Ena  I 
moat  lim  boats.    On  ibe  2Aih  of  June  ISIS,  Im 

a  harpiioner  bclmiging  lo  the  lleeoloiion  of  W 
struck  a  luh  close  by  a  emiJl  Roc,  under  wbieb 
appc.-ireil,  Auisiance  h-bs  quickly  given,  and  ■ 
boat's  lines  were  atuebed  to  those  of  the  bM-b 
boat  attached  to  the  whale),  alter  which  it  «■• 
the  oihcr  lmatiueo,who  spread  out  for  a  aeooadi 
But  in  a  short  time  disireaa  signals  were  mads 
1,  and  beture  aid  could  be  aflorded,  Ik 


v  than 


othe 


diatcly  afterwards  tbe  bow 
water,  Ibe  etcm  rose  in  the  air,  and  tbe  wbala  b 
cally  dinppcarcd.  An  accidental  cireuroitant 
prevented  the  cutting  of  tbe  iineii.  The  net 
picked  up,  and  a  sesrcli  commenced  tor  tin  whn 
was  ere  long  seen,  and  do  less  than  thre«  hat 
each  having  a  boat  and  its  lines  alloched  to  il 
hurled  in  tliti  animal's  body,  l^veryofie  i'^'y— 
all  was  now  secure  beyond  risk.  Not  so,  howei* 
whale  pushed  impetuously  forward,  and  eoon  lb 
ofoue  boat  found  their  lines  run  out,  and  vara  I 
tn  cut  them.  The  harpoon  of  analber  boat  ma 
out  from  lite  biidy  of  Ibe  lifih,  and  now  one  boi 
TMnsined  in  connection  with  the  animah  Tba  (r 
still  darted  forward  with  the  vcliicity  of  ligtit,  • 
only  pulled  ont  the  lines  of  tbe  remaitiiDg  boat,  la 
it  fly  along  liko  an  arrow.  At  lenglb  Iha  Udb 
and  Iho  whale  went  olT  fne,  wilh  a  boat  and 
yardi,  or  about  3]  English  miles,  of  line  behlBil  { 
olistruction  lo  its  progrrss,  caused  by  theaoBkci 
and  by  the  lines  also,  wbich  weighed  ii  ewl, 
iiavo  been  immense,  jet  the  whale  pusbMl  a 
unabated  vigour.  It  wis  pursued,  ami  abou  to 
from  the  spot  where  it  wm  firnt  atnick,  it  «m 
slrarfi  by  four  bsrpoa^^  and  jni-Ided  al  Utttth 
fate.  (Calculating  the  additional  linea  used  al  Um 
this  Rah  ran  out  nearly  six  mild  of  line*.  Tb 
and3l,200yarJ.oflinewerelo.t.  Alteri^lfa* 
proved  to  be  one  but  of  Iho  second  or  third  slaK 
the  Urgegi  are  by  nu  meani  tha  Biost  dlffloidl,  bp 
tokUI. 


imd  wartli  at  Inwt  XAQO. 

ireoli,  uur>  ftnr-  jiiriiijInK  In   Anfftut,  n 


1,  1^  ubllUD  >1|>  I" 

■Ji„v..in.iKl>l.'     A„ 

gC  ohAlo  DU»Idd1>  ii^'r 

lijrht  »ir  of  wind  Hiriiiiit, 
niiy  lowwTid  willioul  ilw  lo 
'      -   '    lluC  ftlttioa  ' 


Bod  MCiTlI;  Id  posiible,  i 

unaJvM^  wiU  liad  »liiii 


boato  cIiDriiil  tliv  slup'a  bidr,  (Imi 


Uclr  IhjaUi  lilei  tlie  ululo.  Ttic  Mbols  nl 
B  Jutfly  bci;BU  tha  chMb— jiluo  boau  In  ntt, 
-e  from  eaah  diip-  Tliey  ■!!  nerloil  ihaio- 
wir  ulmusl,  uul,  Mw^miwctail,  in  vain;  for 
f  at  th*  htntitt  liad  ant  situ  iwar  him,  Ilia 
ouinui  hdail  his  widely  oxMuded  fluk«,  and 

£r|N'u>luubr1y  iuto  tliu  de^illii  of  tbo  owu 
iM  ru  Uiv  Ixiala,  Iiuw.tnr,  lmvin|  ndtiacil 
lirwwilwIunwariUtUiiiikiiigtliu  «lialaivoulii 
Id  |)untue  ibo  Mmo  direction  under  watci; 
WW  ffiiug  iluwiv  at  llie  tiino  Ito  nag  up,  ilmy 
rocwd  mura  tliui  a  iiiili)  from  ih*  j>Im« 
ID  UMOBUilvd,  UiTuro  Ihuj  acpanilfd  oUfhI  a 
■ar<l*  Inun  eftcli  Dtlirr,  and  Ilicir '  pimitn^' 
,  ii\  ilio  men  In  waoU  boat  >to«d  u|',  Jui>Kiiig 
I  ■llrmlionii,  «>  a«  to  catch  tliH  fimt  ii|yk»  - 
I  Kp^ul  wlwn  Ihavhali:  afoin  niM  I'l  linai><"  : 
luuT  afler  till  diwMDt  had  cipirvd.iUe  ntcoa- 
nj;  uawljo  (mn  on  Loiu'd  t}io  tlil^i  lireaouT 


mp' 


CHAMBERS-S  INFOBMATION  f  OU  THE  PEOPLE. 


wcru  Imt.  The  miuliier  lias  progreeaircly  iaatvuitti. 
In  1S37,  the  DAiia' Slrailt  »lule-tlect  Imt  ■ercTftl  of 
ib>  number,  knJ  Uiuiy  veaaela  were  locked  up  in  the  ice 
through  the  vrinttr,  to  the  loM  of  the  (^rcalcr  part  nf  Ihoii 
civws,  and  At  the  cost  of  atniUBt  uni«r>l1iU«d  BuFErinzi 
to  llin  rattjr  remntuits  of  llicm  wliich  escnped  witb  lin. 
And  wliilfl  the  prrila  of  Ihv  tmie  have  lhu«  Urg^ly  in- 
crwiMd,  the  prolib!,  owing  to  iho  grcalor  iJiffin)lt;r  ot 
fiirit<n|  nhnlea,  lv»ve  suffti'ed  icon-espoudingilecrCMe. 
In  IH30,  34  out  M  the  ST  vcHteIg  gent  out  to  Unviii' 
Slrtilij  rHlunHNl  clean.  Not*  fisli  nnHtukwi  bytlicm. 
In  (he  nmt  of  the  years  that  have  fullowed,  tlie  majority 
or  tiM  whalenhato  retuiUHl  villi  eomjmratively  \KMty 
bvlgbla,  knd  Dlatly  willioul  a  pound  of  btubbar. 

I'be  dNlenoion,  u\d  »pBrenl  approoeliiug  ertlnetii 
of  tlw  northern  wh»le-fi«lihij!,  whieli  haa  so  long  bee 
nn  importsnt  pillar  of  our  cuminorclal  greatneso,  could 
not  hu  t  aaeite  jiiouiaesa  vid  regr«t  in  tb«  mindi  ofmany 
poiwiQg  who  have  opportunities  ofmaliingDhsorTatiDna 
00  the  lUbjoM,  Aeeordlnd)',  trelindUiat  voHoiib  plana 
bave  bMn  proposed  for  the  revival  of  tfiU  branch  of 
the  tnul*  of  Britain.  Allbough  we  conceive  that  thu 
■ub^iluliun  uf  giv  for  oil  ii  oiio  iinporlant  cause  of  (lie 
decrciur^d  ardour  for  whaling  culei^riseB,  aud  a  Uaac, 
brnidi-a.  neitlicr  In  be  deplored  nor  cjipabic  of  remedy, 
mill  nlthoiiKli  it  also  appears  to  in  that  Ibe  exhanrtion  of 
Uiv  uld  whaling  fields  ia  another  source  of  the  evils  com- 
plained of,  oiiaune  only  to  be  affected  by  linie,  y«t  there 
might,  w«  believe,  be  plana  adopted,  ■Miieh  Wunld  help 
ati«M  to  rvalore  the  lucrative  ehnracler  of  ihe  whole 
Hiibviy,  and  to  alleviate  or  entirely  prevent  the  misfor- 
luiiu  whieli  have  attended  its  jirosecolion  of  lato  yeara. 
Tlia  moat  rational  Khenie  which  we  have  jet  ehaiieed 
to  a»  pronoHid,  ia  conlofned  in  the  following;  — '-  ' 
fnno  th«  Alierdeen  Herald  ;— 

mwipriaidi     

..    M  Tieinily  of  Davia'  Straits,  and  to  eMpley  dnty 

many  large  veiuela  as  may  be  n'Cessary  tu  arn-y  oui 

proviaioua  to  Uic  colony,  nild  f.-tdi  hun>e  the  oil,  L>Iub- 

Ihouglil  worlh  importing.  From  all  the  information 
ibat  we  at  prfsent  poFseaa,  we  should  think  that  (lie 
most  eligible  position  for  the  seltlotnciit  vould  be  at 
Pond'a  Oay,  or  eomewliere  between  that  and  Laneta- 
ter  Sound,  on  the  welt  eonat  of  UdOIuI  Bay.  There 
are  Bome  situations  ou  (lie  norlh-caat  shore  (Priui 


whales  have  been  i 


t  plentiful   towards  th*  other 


The  proeticahilily  of  carrying  anch  a  plan  Into  cfleel, 
and  Ilie  advaulagts  likely  to  result  from  it,  an  Ihe 
only  two  Mints  lliat  fall  to  be  nolieed  here.  The  tea- 
liniony  of  recent  li^vetlera,  ns  well  as  of  aeamcu  who 
hare  been  «ompeUed  to  winter  in  ths  higli  Inlitudea, 
goes  to  prove  (he  practicability  of  esloblidiing  and 
malDtaiumg  on  efficienl  eolony,  BVenaafornonhasIhe 
plaeo  we  liave  poJated  out.  Captain  Itos^'g  remark, 
thai 'the  lenipcrature  of  senntlon  in  more  relative  than 
ii  imagined,  the  body  Koan  contriving  to  tind  a  new  and 
niucli  lower  aeale  of  comforlable  or  endurable  heat,' 
boa  been  compklely  verified  by  all  who  havo  visited  the 
Polar  region!.  The  attention  now  paid  to  tlie  quality 
of  ship  proviaions,  and  ths  Iioprored  mrlhoda  of  pre- 
oerving  them,  have  not  only  put  a  stop  tn  the  inroads 


bour,  tlie  hare,  auil  a  number  of  other  qmdl 
would  nlTord  them  at  once  sportanilaTaliiMiiaa 
to  their  mcana  of  sustenance.  Birds,  too,  Oiii 
fish  of  Torioua  kinds,  would  not  be  truitiaf  ' 
variety  to  th*ir  repasts ;  whilr  lobsters,  nitnsa 
Other  ihell-fbd],  could  be  bad  uabuni<aiiif^a«  a< 
To  aroid  all  risks  of  hunuie,  It  noold  be  proper  i 
alway»  in  the  lettlemanl  prwistuns  for  two  yt» 
though  it  could  hardly  ever  happen  that  thaoettler 
be  BO  completely  shut  up  BtilobeiuacceSHibledui 
whole  of  Ihe  sitmmer  montha. 

The advanlajira  of  haviognniimermis  bodynf 
on  the  spot,  Inglead  of  apndlnf!  theni  out  ofunnl 
easily  be  mode  apparent.  Isl,  Tlien^  would  b*  i 
of  onilaid  capiinl.  Fur  aonie  time  past,  the  oM 
IVoin  Great  Britain  to  Davis'  SlniU  mny  ha' 
raged  100  ench  yvta-;  and  we  belli-vu  we  (pMk 
IhuiU  when  we  a«erl,  tliat  the  oil  and  w^ipEboBi 
Ih^  hate  brouglil  tiome  might  eooily  b>*e  be 
ried  by  ono-fihh  of  Ihe  number,  SnppdMaprr 
edon/of  4UUa  fialleTs  wen  eMalilislied  at  Da«i^ 
and  it)  of  the  HID  rraela  employad  in  tjtaa  a 
trade,  the  otlier  00  Traeeb  might  at  nncvtWdiA 
Rukuig  a  saving  of  oul-htld  capital  to  the  exMi 
Inst  £830,000.  InlhlscalculaUon.we  t^anaa 
mat  of  the  shipi,  a*  the  boaU,  hoTpmnHi,  aai 
other  npjianiius,  and  Ihe  pruvtstaon  inetudeJ 
outiil,  would  allbercquirsd  in  thei  -'  '       ' 


I,  would  all  be  rcquirsd  in  the  settlelU 
ry  would  ha^e  a  iMitier  ehsnee  of  bet 
_r(!»cnl  it  aointliinei  '- 

Into'  the  proper  flailing 

advanced  IhattlieysraUHdei 


fbeinraD 


Atpr<!Mnt  it  aointtiincB  happens  that  vc 
Into  the  proper  flailing  tntion  (ill  the  seMon  •« 
hv  Deeewitj  of  ret 
ig  thuir  bmts,  and  ihL*  11 
arises  not  n-om  the  want  of  open  eea  within  Ih*  i 
but  from  orcnmulaiinna  of  ice  drifted  fnun  the 
extremiiy  of  Itafllit's  Say  to  the  Lobndor  osa 
SBtUcmenl  of  fnherv  winterlnir  inaide,  wMild  ii 
owes  make  a  i^ted  <i«h<Dg  before  llie  BritMl  rinj 


It  is  now  our  purpose  to  devote  aomo  apti 
proceedings  in  ihe  sperm-whale  liibeij,  a  b 
marillme  eaterprise  only  Inferior  in  impoittai 
iiorlhcm  fiiiliery.  There  it  no  occasion  Inr  di 
the  vessels  or  a;ipamtus  employed,  Ihoe  beinl 
every  essential   point  tu  those  already  d> 


■srtnderflsa 


Timid  as  it  is,  the  cachalot  often  « 
its  Couvnlaive  elTorl 

1cs«  exciting  than  that  of  tlio  mystlcelus.  Y<n^ 
in  particuliir,  fro^enlly  give  a  world  of  Im 
thctr  pursuers,  aiid  soiuetlmes  turn  up«i  ibtai 
nnboujided  fury,  intent  on  inisL-lucr,  and  oAd 
both  with  teeth  and  tail.  The  Sonth  Sea  wbtar 
leir  northern  brethreu,  liave  their  |iai  liiiilW 
and  wslcliwoidtt  in  the  prosecalion  of  the  rhsaf 
a  whale  ia  seen  by  the  man  at  the  look.«i^  d 
burata  from  his  lipa,  "  There  she  epovla  ?■  tm 
■ho  captain  elarts  ou  deck,  with  the  respoMin 
mation,"  Where awajr'  Anaoswurii  Bcanrf^* 
for  all  on  board  tKjon  perceive  the  hogc  iiliriiMi 
ing  regularly  at  intervola  of  ten  aeeunda,  IT  «1 
oioderato  dislunce.  I'or  a  half-mlunie  the  ^bb 
■azin^',  and  nl  every  sponl  thrapinlud  rirhcMfti 
rum  them  aimullaueously,  "  There  a^in  f  t» 
leaa  ia  not  long  Ihe  order  of  (he  day.    Th*  ha 


iwered,  Ihe  m 


circle,  isasiiiall  towD,wllh  aehurcli  and  aclercyru 
and  still  higher  up,  at  Licvlr,  in  Dlttco  lihiud,  the  chief 
Doltish  nivemur  reshloa.  With  au  ample  (tore  of  food 
and  ckrUiinc.  and  nutteriala  for  oonslrueling  houaea, 
there  can  be  no  doubt  that  a  colony  of  hardy  whiilers 
woaU  ooDtrivs  to  pose  the  winter  agreeably  and  la  r  ~  " 
Cwi  flor  would  tliov  be  deprudvnl  allogvlher  Or 
suppUw  arried  wilJi  them,  or  proeurad  from  the 
■opllisr  CMntry.    Thamnikoaithetvindecr,  tlie  white 


le  wUI  ba  fa 


is  the  cxdsmaLion.  Bnl  one  boai  near*  bub. 
more  apont  (sap  Mr  Beale'a  .tninuled  iiaiml 
Been  slowly  curhna  forth— it  iahb  lael  farlhbili 
his  back  ui  bent,  Ul  cuonnoua  toil  la  npMaliit  I 
pear  every  inatanl,  hut  the  boat  ahoul*  Ta^idl^i 
side  of  the  gigantic  crealnre.  '  Pvik  vwMr  i 
exdabtu  ihe  mate,  and  dimtty  (hry  nw  fcaiW 
the  air;  thegHstcniDgbarpnon'lt  aMtt  iWami  tn 


iiuiu  lli*u  ilia  OL-cumuKud  «^llr  of 
VTo  Imm   ciuU,  wliQv  mhiih  nf  (hem 


i,.«[l  wl,,.!,..  T)i«„  ,.,,.  hum  SOOtaUm 
acrvinit  trma  33  u  10  man,  •ml  ar» 
M33m»nl)<i.  Tbnir  anmbiir  t*  abmit 
i.ono  wniv  itnd  oMiyhig  tum-l;  MtM 
ulitM  Mil  lA  111*  couta  nT  Atriat  and 
of  tlu  comiDDii  or  right  vrhiiln.  They  bI 
IIi»UMel>.BUiyot»ut3Jini>n,»nd-- 
lonlhs,  Tb*  whotn  aaoiuit  of  tomi: 
mut'lO.DO');  niuniHvaf  HunancD»u«l,3(^^ 
iii(*  nt  iMtRi  uil  imueht  hun»  Id  ISIt,  4|P 
ml*;  In  iUSO,  34,700;  in  IMA,  in,34(*i  and, 
lOitJIOn.  Tlia  qwuiUtr  of  whal*  ur  bLuk  id 
In  in  18S0,  ma  nboiit  IIS^OU  burnln;  uT 


nil  ti>  Ihe  VKlDa  t<r  h.U,U^  d'^lla 
>  »b1oo  of  &3fiit  dnOm;  wli  .  ._ 

ISS^-]  dollnnjuidnumuLCctl  eaojlk*  (*:■ 
}I7^30dalbirL  ' 

■Xlont  of  Qit  mflWinii;*  unDiMEniM  oijini 
^eri.  B  sinitlD  cuiniila  nuiv  bn  k"> 
AlfT^Mn  wWbt.  eol'cd  for'D»»u'fi 
Id,  MiiS,  »IlVT  lauij  difiliuiliici^  wu  oi 
d  up  En  Uw  Iw,  ift  OcteiW  tA  '&>•>  «u»n^ 


CHAMBERS'S  mFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOrLE. 


wnrfcine  of  Iho  il!;*.  All  thore  who  were  down  nflcT 
tha  wIibIo,  »f  pMtvd  M  fmrrtah  willi  anxiety  u  our- 
■■Ivts,  tar  eiury  now  no-l  thro  ihej  were  to  be  wen 
•htftlng  llioir  pwiUoia  a  lilllo,  thinking  to  do  to  with 
■4Tiuiug«i  (Iini  timy  wnold  miih  ro«inf(>  ^Q^  otuid 
upon  lb»  HSU  of  the  boati,  uid  look  all  Tound  over  the 
■mnolh  MiTfitea  of  tha  oecui  with  ardent  axe.  But 
one  boar  and  Cm  fnlnntn  mpired  before  t£e  inOiiiit4ir 
of  tho  deep  thought  pnptr  to  breafc  cotot  ;  and  when 
be  did,  Ihm  a  Wltiing  ohaw  oommenecil  with  the  whole 
of  th«  boal>,  and  th»y  r*«lly  flow  aioag  in  fine  styie, 
■oniB  of  Ihwn  aotQally  ajipeariog  to  be  lifted  ([Qite  (jq 
lie  mrbee  of  tliii  water,  flwo  the  gmit  power  of  the 
nwna ;  aod  v«  had  the  ntufaction  of  obMi-vinK.  thai 
our  hoeU  wtra  q^te  equal  to  the  othen  ia  tho  tpeed 
with  which  Ihoy  wore  proi*ll"d.  Bui  it  ■yna  apUn  ■ 
wultM  twk,  aa  tba  old  '  euliaolmaiter'  had  oatvntted 
IhOM  Id  tho  boaW,  by  haTiog  mino— white  ander  water 
— loneh  farther  ttui  any  of  bit  punnen  bad  antici- 
pated,  an<l  tli'y  aiiun  tud  the  morliHeatiun  cf  nicneoi- 
mg  Uie  turning  of  hie  fluka  u  be  onoo  nwre  dnccnded 
tola  the  dopth»  of  hid  vest  domain.  We  new  kosw  to 
a  mhiDle  Uie  tiiDs  that  he  would  remain  below,  while 
tbopeopln  in  the  boat*  eontUiaed  to  row  slowly  onwards 
the  whole  tlmo.  A  Roe  brene  now  nmag  np,  >o  lliat 
w«  ww«  enabled  to  keep  eorop»ny  with  the  U«ta,  keep- 
ln(  a  little  to  «uidwu<l  of  them,  u  tbe  whale  waa  pin^ 
■  oa  a  wind,'  aa  a  iMunan  would  my,  meamng  lliat  it 
wii  blowing  aRifoea  hfm. 

Wbrn  the  lionr  and  ten  minates  had  agwn  nearly 
pBMied.lhcaiDelioaliiwvrvnmriyabrtut  oleach  other, 
and  tMt  muoh  witianied,  m  Ihat  the  lueceia  of  fint 
•trikiiu-  the  whale  depended  very  much  upon  the 
Kwlflmi  boat,  ejpreinlly  if  the  whale  eame  np  ahaad. 
We  lad  iww  all  the  bvata  no  onr  ■  l»-b«am,*  while  the 
aUpa  were  all  aatam  of  m,  the  moat  distSDl  not  beilng 
own  than  half  a  nil^  ao  that ««  CBjonl «»  oaoalleBt 
ir3ew«rf  this  moat  exciting  and  anlmaleaae^M.  Tneto 
his  linip,  the  ievisthan  ut  length  arose  rijlit  aliKul  of 

tool  rrom'  ilii'm.  Tlie  excLt-^ment  nmon;;  tlie  crews  nf 
the  various  boats  when  they  saw  his  lirst  spout  WHa 
tremcndoUH ;  tiicy  did  not  »houl,  but  we  eoald  b(sr  an 
agitated  nunnur  from  thdr  united  voie««  reverbcnt- 
Ing  along  the  aurfico  of  tho  d«p.  They  fli 
limfnd  wavea  at  a  rapid  rate ;  the  niolca  of 
bwls  cheered  their  respecli™  crowa  by  various  urgent 
exelamatiDnfl,  'Swing  oa  your  oare,  my  boys,  for  Ibe 
honour  of  tho  Ilennetta,'  cried  ono ;  *  Spring  away, 
hearties,'  shnnted  another,  and  yet  scarcely  able  to 
breathe  from  anxiely  and  exertion.  *  It's  our  fish,' 
vadleroti^  a  third,  as  he  psssed  tho  real  of  his  oppo- 
nenU  but  a  trifling  dirtance.  '  Lay  on,  my  boys,'  cried 
j«ung  Clark,  our  first  mate,  as  ho  steered  the  boBt  with 
one  hand,  and  prceeed  down  the  after  oar  with  tlie 
Other.  '  Shell  be  ours  yet ;  let's  haTO  a  strong  pull,  a 
long  poll,  and  a  pull  altog^er,'  ho  exclaimed,  aa  ho 

Cled  from  hie  exertions  at  the  after  «r,  which  soon 
ighl  np  hi«  boat  quite  abreast  of  tho  foremost. 
But  the  giant  of  the  occu,  who  waa  only  a  short  dis- 
tance before  thnn,  now  appeareil  rather  '  gillied,'  or 
frishtciMd,  boTing  probably  seen  or  heard  the  boats; 
and  ss  he  puOed  up  his  spuut  to  a  great  heizlit,  nnil 
Itiared  his  enormous  head,  he  increaaed  bis  speed,  and 
wont  along  qnilo  M  fast  aa  tlie  boats,  but  for  only  two 
0*  three  nUnute*.  when  be  appeared  to  gel  perfectly 
ijalet  again,  while  the  boats  gained  rapidly  upon  him, 
and  werv  soon  ctiiae  in  his  *  wake'  '  Stand  up,'  cried 
junog  CIsfk  to  tlie  harpooner,  who  is  alsn  tho  bow- 
aanman,  while  the  same  or.icp  was  instantly  given  by 
his  opponent,  whose  boat  was  abiract  of  our  male's, 
with  the  rest  dose  to  their  sternik  The  ordera  were 
Instantly  obereJ,  for  in  a  second  of  time  bolh  boat- 
ateeren  sI4idJ  in  the  bowsof  Ikeirrespic^veboola,  with 
Uulr  har)<<iDna  held  above  their  ItMd*  ready  for  the 
dart !  but  they  twlli  panted  1o  be  a  few  yards  nearer  to 
the  whale,  to  do  so  with  eueceu.  The  monster  ploughed 
Ihrougb  tlie  main  qniokly,  but  the  boata  gained  upon 
fatD  ararj  momaii,  wh«n  the  agiiatinn  of  all  parties 
4Sn 


9  of  the  various 


ing  of  tbe  oars,  rolled  along  the  narlaea  iJ  4 
both  the  harpoonen  darted  their  wapMS  I 
which,  if  they  had  both  struck  tho  wbal^  aw 


jrif^naled  a  eonlention  betwean  thrm  rspif 
claims.  But,  as  it  happened,  neilher  nf  than 
good  fortune ;  for  at  the  moment  of  ttirlr  dsi 
harpoonit,  the  whale  dcaoended  like  a  ahot,  and 
their  inflietioD,  leaviog  nolfaing  but  a  wliiie>«a 
looking-TOrtex  in  the  distoTbed  Uua  Mean,  to  t 
spot  where  hia  monstrous  form  SB  iM^iloated.  J 
huxza  bunt  from  tlta  atereiDoal  boata  whn  i 


at  nsiiig  ol 
Boon  began  to  sepaate  Ifaemi^vta  a  llut^  id 
onwards  sgun  in  the  eonrsevbidl  Ikeytbaa^ 
taken.  Our  captain,  feeling  imiated  at  tbe  Ul 
of  the  male,  now  ordered  his  own  boat  lo  ba 
intending  to  make  one  in  tbe  chaan  hlnwlt; 
as  he  had  parted  from  the  ship,  goiut  down  i 
leeward,  a  tremendoas  shout  aroso  fnm  the  ] 
our  own  boats,  joioed  wiih  a  loud  omiwaiiiv 
rest  of  tbe  bnala'  crews;  for  the  whal^  oa 
had  ail  ila  ■  spoulings  out,'  had  bow  riaen 
llnish  them,  and  WH  oonunj^  to  windw*t4  at 
rate,  right  towards  our  aliip.  The  captiJn 
favourable  siluallon  in  a  muRionL  and,  paalu 
to  tbn  Ixiwg  of  the  boat,  bs  stood  to  w»yla)r  bl 
careering  along,  throwing  bia  enotBi 
stelyoul  cJtbe  water,  ftv  a*  waa  bow  «i 
.  _  He  soon  came,  and  cauj^  a  togbl  w 
JDSt  as  be  got  within  dart ;  thu  vaal  animal  Ml 
over  inanagoivaf  fear,  toaKerltacodtsat  1 
i  tha  hanoos  wh  harlad  vtlta  Mil 
plaoged  deeply  into  bia  nds  nwr  A* 

' ■ almost  flew  oDt  of  I 

of  spray  high  Inli 


loo  late;  tha 


sliowin 


IE  Ihnt 


I '  fast,'  a  trim 


IbD  sliip,  accompauii;^  by  exclamat 
and  not  of  the  most  favourable  kind  to  a%  fbM 
rest.  But  onwards  they  all  came,  and  aOM  d 
rendered  assistance  to  complete  its  daOvsli 

difficulty,  the  whale  continuing  to  de«»nd  the 
cither  of  the  boat*  got  nearly  within  dart  of  kt 
after  an  hour's  exertion  in  this  way,  sii  ota  «l 
boats  which  were  now  enng^  S"'  f"**  ^  ^'B 
liarpnons,  but  not  one  of  them  eonid  gel  saw 
to  give  him  a  fatal  lance ;  be  towmi  lliinn  all  k 
directions  for  some  lime,  taking  care  lo  dsaoa 
the  surface  the  moment  a  boat  lirvw  up  cn«  H 
or  olbcrwise  drew  near,  which  reuderrd  11  A 
ponsible  to  strike  him  in  Ihe  body,  eteii  wb«B  il 
was  darted,  althongh  the  after  part  iJ  his  *MI 
perforated  in  a  hundred  places :  from  tbn*  «■• 
blood  intshed  in  contideiablequantitii^aMlwl 
moved  atung,  tawing  tlie  boaM,  bsU 
led  stain  in  the  oenn.  At  bkst,  bm^ 
id  dofp  wounds,  he  Ws 
capable  of  avoiding  bis  foes,  which  gave  aa  affl 
foroneofthem  topiemhim  to  thellfe.  Dm 
that  moment  the  acute  pain  whicli  the  I*tialbl 
ricnced,  and  which  roused  the  durrnanl  metldi 
'      ife'sblo.Klgur^MlUik' 


anguined 


THE  WHALE. 


mor  Jack,*  Is  the  hero  of  many  Btrango  Btoriea,  such 
of  his  destroying  erery  boat  which  was  sent  out 
inst  him,  until  a  contrivance  was  made  by  lashing 
Arrel  to  the  end  of  the  harpoon  with  which  he  was 
uck,  and  whilst  his  attention  was  directed  and  divided 
on|^  several  boats,  means  were  found  of  giving  him 
death-wound. 

[n  the  year  1804,  the  ship  ^Adonis/  being  in  corn- 
ay  with  several  others,  struck  a  largo  wliale  off  the 
kit  of  New  Zealand,  which  *  stove'  or  destroyed  nine 
its  before  breakfast,  and  the  chase  consequently  was 
Mnarily  given  up.  After  destroying  boats  belonging 
many  6hii>s,  this  whale  was  at  last  captured,  and 
Ay  harpoons  of  the  various  ships  that  had  from  time 
time  been  sent  out  against  him  were  found  sticking 
bis  body.  This  whale  was  called  '  New  Zealand  Tom,* 
d  the  tradition  is  carefully  prescr\'ed  by  whalers. 
Accidents  of  tlie  most  fearful  nature  have  frequently 
mrred  in  this  hazardous  pursuit,  which  to  enumerate 
old  fill  the  space  of  volumes ;  fur  not  only  boats,  but 
betimes  even  ships,  have  been  dcRtroyed  by  these 
■erful  creatures.  It  is  a  well  authenticated  fact, 
&t  an  American  whale-ship  called  the  '  Essex'  was 
itroved  in  the  South  PaciHc  Ocean  bv  nn  enormous 
MID  whale.  While  the  greater  part  of  the  crew  were 
my  in  the  boats  pursuing  whales,  the  few  people  re- 
ining on  board  saw  an  rnimensc  sperm  whale  come 
ck>Be  to  the  ship,  and  when  very  near,  he  appeared 
EO  down  for  the  purpose  of  avoiding  the  vessel,  nnd 
doing  so  he  stnick  his  body  against  some  part  of  the 
i^  which  was  broken  off  by  the  force  of  the  blow,  and 
ited  to  the  surface ;  the  whale  was  then  observed  to 
B  a  abort  distance  from  the  ship,  and  come  with  np- 
rently  great  fury  towards  it,  striking  against  one  of 
I  bows  with  his  head,  and  completely  '  staving*  it  in. 

*  ship  of  course  immeduitely  filled,  and  fell  over  on 
riide,  in  which  dreadful  position  the  poor  follows  in 
I  boats  soon  esy»ied  their  only  home,  being  distant 
IB  the  nearest  land  many  hundred  miles ;  on  return- 
\  to  the  wreck,  they  found  the  few  who  had  been  left 
board  hastily  congregated  in  a  remaining  whale-boat, 
to  which  they  had  scarcely  time  to  take  refuge  before 
I  vessel  capsized.  They  with  much  difficulty  obtained 
Kanty  supply  of  provisions  from  the  wreck,  their  only 
pport  on  the  long  and  dreary  passage  before  them 

the  coast  of  Peru,  to  which  they  endeavoured  to 
ike  the  best  of  their  way.  One  boat  was  fortunately 
■nd  by  a  vessel  not  far  from  the  coast ;  in  it  were  the 
if  survivors  of  the  unfortunate  crew,  three  in  nuni- 
tr,  the  remainder  having  perished  under  unheard-of 
ftring  and  privation.  These  threo  men  wero  in  a 
Me  o[  stupefaction,  allowing  their  boat  to  drift  about 
here  the  winds  and  waves  listed ;  one  of  these  sur- 
Cffon  was  the  master ;  by  kind  and  careful  attention 
ithe  part  of  their  deliverers,  they  were  eventually 
■Koed  from  the  ja^'s  of  death  to  relate  the  melancholy 

Kot  being  attended  with  the  dangers  to  which  a 
■Bbem  climate  exposes  the  hunters  of  the  mysticetus, 
■••erm- whalers  of  Britain  have  greatly  increased  in 
^UiB  of  late  years,  and  at  this  day  the  fishing  is 
pBcnted  with  great  success.  As  in  the  case  of  the 
J*i»land  fishery,  bounties  were  given  up  to  1821, 
'■81  the  trado  was  fairly  left  to  private  enterprise. 
'  '791,  the  sperm-oil  imported  into  Britain  amounted 

*  1258  tons  ;  in  1827,  5.'>.V2  tons  wero  imported  ;  and 
!  '836,  the  amount  was  7001  tons.  One  good  whale  will 
•M  forty  barrels  of  oil,  and  ten  Ixarrels  of  spcrmaecti 

*  ^equently  taken  from  one  head.  About  ton  large 
t^b  make  a  ton.  Both  sperm-oil  and  spermaceti 
^  a  high  price  in  the  market,  and  are  of  great  utility 
^^lions  respects.  There  is  little  chance  of  a  decline 
^e  sperm-whale  branch  of  our  maritime  traffic,  not 
7  because  the  fishing  latitudes  aro  comparatively 

*  from  dangers,  but  because  the  invention  of  gas 
'i  not  trench  on  the  use  of  sperm-oil  as  it  did  on  that 

Um  Greenland  oil,  and  because  spermaceti  and 
^U  oil  are  likely  to  be  more  and  more  employed  as 
'  eonntrj  progresses  in  civilisation. 

431 


FOnETON  WHALE-FISHERTES.' 

The  whale-fisheries  of  other  civilised  nations  have 
undergone  as  great  vicissitudes  as  those  of  Britain. 
About  the  year  1G80,  the  Dutch  sent  out  not  less  than 
260  ships,  manned  by  14,000  men,  to  the  northern 
fishery.  In  1828,  only  one  whale-ship  sailed  from 
Holland!  France  has  never  prosecuted  this  branch 
of  commerce  with  much  activity  or  success,  yet  the  little 
that  was  once  done  in  this  way  has  become  still  less. 
In  1790,  40  French  ships  were  employed  in  the  Green- 
land seas.  The  revolution  put  a  stop  to  the  fishing,  and 
though  of  Ute  years  the  government  has  made  an  attempt 
to  reWve  it,  very  little  success  has  resulted. 

The  people  of  the  United  States  have  been  more  active 
and  successful  in  whale-fishing  than  almost  any  other 
nation  in  recent  days.  While  dependent  colonists,  they 
embarked  in  it  with  great  spirit.  From  1771  to  177.'j, 
Massachusetts  employed  annually  1 83  vessels,  of  1 3,820 
tons,  in  the  northern  fishery ;  and  121  vessels,  of  14,02G 
tons,  in  the  fisheries  of  the  south.  They  wei-c  the  fir»t 
to  prosecute  the  trside  in  the  southern  Atlantic,  on  tho 
coasts  of  Africa  and  Brazil ;  and  they,  too,  led  the  way 
into  the  Pacific  seas : — "  Look  at  tho  manner,"  says 
Burke  (1774),  "  in  which  tho  New  England  iKJople  carry 
on  the  whale  fishery.  While  we  follow  them  among 
the  tumbling  mountains  of  ice,  and  behold  them  pene- 
trating into  the  deepest  frozen  recesses  of  lludsr^n's 
Bay  and  Davis'  Straits ;  while  we  are  looking  for  them 
beneath  the  Arctic  circle,  we  hear  that  they  have  pierced 
into  the  opposite  region  of  polar  cold ;  that  they  are  at 
the  antipodes,  and  engaged  under  the  frozen  8ci*pent  of 
the  south.  Falkland  Island,  which  seemed  too  remote 
and  too  romantic  an  object  for  the  grasp  of  national 
ambition,  is  but  a  stA^e  and  resting-place  for  their  vic- 
torious industry.  ?*or  is  the  equinoctial  heat  moro 
discouraging  to  them  than  the  accumulated  winter  of 
both  the  poles.  Wo  learn  that,  while  some  of  them 
draw  the  line  or  strike  the  harpoon  on  the  coast  of 
Africa,  others  run  the  longitude,  and  pursue  their 
gigantic  game  along  tho  coast  of  Brazil."  These  aro 
the  seas  that  are  still  vexed  by  the  American  fisheries, 
which  have  been  pushed,  however,  into  higher  southern 
latitudes  than  had  over  before  been  visiter!,  and  aro 
carried  on  from  the  shores  of  Japan  to  the  icy  rocks  of 
New  South  Shetland.  They  have  been  principally  car- 
ried on  from  Nantucket  and  New  Bedford,  and'  havo 
proved  very  lucrative.  At  present  they  are  also  prose- 
cuted with  great  success  from  several  other  ])laces.  One 
class  of  ships  is  fitted  out  for  the  Pacific  in  ])ursuit  of 
the  spermaceti  whale.  These  are  from  300  to  .500  tons 
burden,  carrying  from  25  to  30  men,  and  are  absent 
about  30  to  'Mt  months.  Their  number  is  about  170,  of 
about  62,000  tons,  and  carrj-ing  nearly  5000  men. 
Another  class  sail  to  the  coasts  of  Africa  and  Brazil, 
in  search  of  the  common  or  right  whale.  They  average 
about  325  tons  each,  caiTy  about  25  men,  and  are  absent 
8  to  12  months.  Tho  whole  amount  of  tonnage  of  this 
class  is  about  40,000 ;  number  of  seamen  engaged,  3000. 
The  quantity  of  apenn  oil  brought  home  in  1815,  was 
3944  barrels;  in  1820,  34,700;  in  1825,  C2,2J0;  and, 
in  1830,  10h',8n0.  Tho  quantity  of  whale  or  black  oil 
brought  in  in  1830,  was  .ibout  115,000  barrels;  of 
whal(?bone,  about  120,000  pounds.  The  sporiu  oil  is 
chiefly  used  at  home ;  and  2,500,000  pounds  of  sperm 
candles  aro  made,  employing  about  30  mamifjietories. 
Tho  whale  oil  and  whalebone  aro  chi«-fly  exported  to 
Europe.  From  tho  rei>ort  of  tho  secretary  of  the  trea- 
sury. May  4,  1832,  it  appears  that  for  the  year  ending 
September  30,  1831,  there  wero  exj)orted  whale  and 
other  fish  oil  to  the  value  of  554,440  dollars ;  spemiaceti 
oil  to  tho  valuo  of  53,526  dollars;  whalebone  to  tho 
value  of  133,842  dollars ;  and  spermaceti  candles  to  the 
value  of  2 17,830  dollars. 

Of  the  extent  of  the  sufferings  sometimes  experienced 
by  the  whalers,  a  single  example  may  be  given.  Tho 
Dee,  an  Aberdeen  whaler,  sailed  for  Davis'  Straits  in 
April  1856,  and,  after  many  difficulties,  was  ultimately 
fast  locked  up  in  the  ice,  in  October  of  the  same  year, 


r»  V.' 


CUAMBERS'S  INFORMATION  FOR  TIIE  PEOPLE. 


b  wrt  of  umbrcllo,  fixed  upon  s  rod  risini  from  Ihe 
ninlre  or  back  of  Ilia  c«r ;  the  reins  •Ktre  the  Mine  aa 
thoae  iu«d  for  liometi,  niid  ■ppursntlj'  furoiahed  with  ■ 
bit;  lUid  botHlDB  Uie  driTer,  a  gnxx"  Bometiniea  nt- 
Undtd  on  foot,  it  tlie  head  of  the  aniinals,  perliapB 
fnuliiig  IhiTin  BHtho]'  went.  The  umiextd  wood  engrav- 
ing ni|irrMrnta  an  KlhiopiaD  princess,  who  u  oa  her 
jaoToty  ihrough  Upper  Bgj'pt  lo  Theheg,  where  tlio 
murt  llicn  resided.   TLo  p' "-'  ■-  " ■- 


4»l  > 


,d  a  tore  of  pa- 


imrpoHi  ol 


lim-chiur,  in  which  ttie; 
...         .  r  open  pieMure-lH*t»,  < 

when  the;  Wbhed  to  avoid  tlie  ean." 

Frani  tho  rauBMhcs  of  Mr  Wilkinenn,  we  &re  enabled 
to  tartu  Home  eatimite  of  the  onnrnioui  tiuublu  iocurred 
bjt  tliB  aneieiit  Ggyptiaiw  in  tb*  tmnsport  of  ihe  heavy 
•lonea  wh'oh  they  employed  in  building  their  terojilea. 
Some  ur  (lieae  alouee  weigliud  5000  tons,  and  were 
twuall)'  conveyed  from  the  (juarrie*  froni  which  they 
««ra  eul  in  Hnt-ballfiined  boali,  oa  canall  muds  ibe  the 

Innspertmu  uosuitalil*,  the  auton  was  drawn  on  al  edges, 
prriiBpa  Biiiiie  hundred*  of  uiilea,  by  ot«n  or  by  luunan 
labour.  Thn  aecouipanylng  woodcut  repreaenta,  in  an 
abridgud  fonn,  tlie  mode  of  onnvtyiac  eolnHMil  Henrea 
in  lUiue  fnim  the  i]unrriea  lo  llie  Isntploa  iu  wliinii  ahuy 
wen tabeaetup.  "Oaaliuudroduodauvouly-lwuiueii, 


pound  friim  a  vnHe  by  a  perB.111  ftlnndiiig  ou  the  pi 
deaul  of  Iho  BlMUe,  in  order  to  fneijiwte  ilH  progrei 
na  it  klldra  ovpr  the  ground,  which  was  probably  01 
Yerert  willi  a  bud  nf  |)lanl(H,  Ihouijh  they  are  not'iud 


.iid    . 


measured  ciidenoe 


oliB< 


KlUght, 


k  Ihi 


four  foei,  inehidlug  Iho  prdmtal.  It  nni  bound  tu  tiie 
sltdgo  by  rupm,  which  were  tightened  by  means  of 
peg«  inttrled  between  Iheni,  ami  twisted  round  until 
pouipleu-ly  braced;  and  to  prevent  injury  from  Ibe 
friction  of  the  ro]iea  upon  the  atone,  a  compreaa  of 
leather  or  other  subatanre  wa>  introduced  al  Iho  pnrt 
where  Ihey  tnucbed  the  statue."  It  may  be  added,  chat 
(Ae  repreMafatinn  w  conslruuted  wilhoM  any  ruterenca 
tapermpecliYc,  whreJi  h'im  not  undorttood  by  rhe  ancitnt 
BgyptiiB  deiioiatoni.  Besiden  tbe  great  nambeT  of  pci- 
■  'n  drawing  these  Imge  WncVa,  \t  -i™ 
blujd  gf  some  huuikvde  ot  nul^Lsn  Vi 


jelling  obedi 
degrading  mcaas  of  n 
impomdlile  lo  represent. 

Ctinoeymact  bf  Caiiit/>.-~Fmtn  the 
camel,  in  its  two  varieties  of  caitiei  anq  anvH 
has  been  employed  in  the  iandy  n^ona  of  Ad 
beast  of  burden ;  and  (rktavol  IM  iniwl«»U>  «w4 
this  respect,  lliene  counlries  oould  wemreAf  taiJ 
habitable.  In  the  sacred  writinn  «■  tutA  hi 
notices  of  the  camel  in  conn*al<in  with  eooM 
transport.  The  brethren  of  JuMrph  luviBf  «■ 
fntn  a  pit,  "they  sat  down  to  eal  bread;  Ml 
lifted  up  their  ttyn  and  looked,  and  bdtuld  a  M 
of  Uhmnelitcs  came  from  Uilcad.  Kith  (bcirl 
bearing  spicery,  and  balm,  and  myrrli,  bii1d(  (• 
it  down  into  Egypt."  Thus  thv  caiual  (bim 
engiiw  of  cornngB  amon^  the  mrrchanla  of  4 
and  conveyed  the  prodaota  of  India  acna  ll»i 
lo  the  populous  and  wealthy  land  of  E^CTpt.  1 

The  camel  is  enpreaaly  suited  by  nature  forH 
ing  and  Iraversine  sandy  and  parchwd  dwKrt^  Ml 
there  are  pkee«  iff  rest  and  rcfreshmenl  onhr  lia 
dialaneea.  "  It  is  the  moat  lampenta  af  d  Ml 
and  can  continue  10  trarel  ■sToral  daya  mitjumt 
iug.  In  thoea  vast  deserta,  wfarm  the  CBClh  lb 
where  dry  and  sandy — where  tliern  am  oailfaH 
nor  beast*,  neithi^r  luseot*  nor  vegoUbtn— ■«) 
thing  U  lo  be  seen  but  hiUs  ot  wad  a«l  M 
bonea,  there  the  1 
out  requirmg  eitlier  drink  or  paMor*,  and  teofl 

its  feet  are  formed  for  traTelliiig  upon  M 
formoiBtormanhyphicaBi  thai  * 
find  a  moat  useful  aasisUuit  In  ti 
1 1  IT  could  subsist,  and  by  its  mrani^a 
Is  with  safely,  whioh  would  b«  ia 

Kiiin,  cannot  In  propagalad  in  ooaolaiU 
.Many  vain  efforts  have  bceu  tr»d  »  f  _.^^ 
camel  In  Spain  and  Americn,  but  tbcy  haTa  ■■& 
in  neither  of  thcM  euunlriee.  Tl  is  ime,  hM 
they  may  be  bniupht  inm  bulb  counlriaa,  wd 
pcrluipK  be  fuuiid  10  pnidueo  there ;  but  Ih*  m 
keeping  lliem  in  so  great,  and  the  ae*Ml<m>M< 
tliey  are  exposed,  (roin  the  cliangeablaMMa  a(  A 
mate,  are  to  many,  that  thrydo  not  rew^lh** 
keeping.  In  a  few  years,  also,  they  an  aeaS 
nerate ;  Ihcir  strength  and  their  patieoea  fiMMhi 
and,  inslend  of  making  the  riches,  Ibej  b<NnM*A 
den  of  their  kecjiers. 

The  ciimel  is  easily  instnicled  in  tb.in«dM*M 
ing  up  and  supgwrting  his  burden  ;  thai*  lighl 
diivs  after  they  are  proilucod.  ate  bent  aiMUrd^ 
thi'V  ore  in  tliix  nmnxer  loaded, and  taujcht  mMi 
burden  is  every  day  thus  incnsaaed,  by  UMl^ 
capable  of  BuppsttWCtf* 


ing  tr 


flforc 


rfooi 


Theu 


astrained  for  days  together. 
line  nre  increased  in  proportion  aa  the  amrasl  < 
ipable  of  sustaining  them.  Ily  tbis  metfaad  aft 
on,  they  live  live  or  si  a  day*  without  fuodar* 
id  their  stDiuach  ia  formed  niosi  admimblj  bf* 
I  lit  them  for  long  abstinence.  Boridis  it 
omaehawhii 


it  hwaOfthM 


bold  a 


quantity  of  v 
■upling,  or  1 


I  the  animal  hu  on  ii 

ter,  where  the  fluid  reauuna  wilhM 

thont  being  adultented  by  ti*  «lM 
tha  cornel  fluds  itaelf  ^nmak  «tlb  t 


WMUBU-J 


ployed  . 
r  fvr  a 


Mb  bcubyitit  Ndl 
.ttrty  inta  i*  nudf  iiMi  hii  titdt  lo  huiil  uB  iIhmi| 
ul  Ihu  appruuliw  liim ;  ouu  t>iul>  HrpuWa*  Ufl 
unci*  M  It  wouU  icptrato  a  eoupU  iJ  bwla;  and 
•mvli  more  away,  •|uit»  uneun*Diuu*  uf  "  -  -' — 
Jinoih  UU  auntiioc  luuvuuiout  •wlu|[«  U 

^  \  i 


TtM  umdM  nf  tnvdUog  sud  convejraDOD  gnaupalhj 
■«n>  iiT  A  oumiiomlivel)'  rudi-  aad  primltira  TdoA  B 
InUiii  UU  Uio  UUar  pari  of  tlm  ■<•*< 


10  hava  bit«ii  liuown  tilt  a  canlurji 
'bm  Duil-awMhiog  mm  ialrc4uceil.  Id  aid  tltnm 
«cipla  of  >  liiiiulil»  rank  travolltil  unl;  tui  (m>1,  aw 
hoM  of  a  hiahcr  iWUm)  cm  honotucli.    Nabionun 


a  AkKu^tttB^  *»»•  *"«*  '■''• 


little  picco  of  ground,  which  to  this  day  bears  tlic 
name  of  the  /^o*7  Rij — a  term  C4uivalont  to  the  pof?t- 
inan*s  field,  and  au  unquestionable  proof,  as  all  the 
villagers  at  Hume  devoutly  bcHcvc,  of  the  truth  of 
the  anecdote.  The  custom  of  ke«*j>inn:  a  running  fo«»t- 
mau  did  not  cease  amongst  noble  families  in  Scotland 
till  the  middle  of  the  l&st  century.  The  Karl  of  March, 
father  to  the  late  Duke  of  Queunsberry,  and  who  lived 
at  Neidpath  Castle  nt'ar  Peebles,  had  one  name^I  >John 
Mann,  who  used  to  run  in  front  of  the  carriage,  with  a 
long  staff.  I  u  the  liead  of  the  staff  there  was-a  i^ecess 
for  a  hard-boiled  egg,  such  being  the  only  food  taken 
hy  Mann  during  a  long  journey. 

When  the  matter  of  communication  was  of  particular 
importance,  or  rei^uired  to  be  dispatched  to  a  consider- 
able distance,  horficmen  were  employed ;  and  these,  by 
means  of  relays  of  fresh  animals  and  great  toil  of  body, 
would  proceed  journeys  of  some  hundreds  of  miles  to 
acoomplisli  what  would  now  be  nmch  better  done  by  a 
post  letter.  Some  journeys  performed  on  horseback  in 
former  days  would  be  considered  wonderful  even  in 
modern  times  with  good  roads.  Queen  Klizabeth  died 
at  one  o'clock  of  the  morning  of  Thursdiy  the  24th 
of  March  1603.  Between  nine  and  ten,  Sir  Robert 
Carey  left  London  (after  having  been  up  all  night),  for 
the  purpose  of  conveying  the  intelligence  to  her  suc- 
cessor James,  at  Edinburgh.  That  night  ho  rode  to 
Donoastcr,  a  hundred  and  fifty-five  mile^.  I^ext  night 
ho  reached  Witheringtou,  near  Morpeth.  Early  on 
Saturday  morning  be  proceeded  by  Noiliam  across  the 
Border;  and  that  evennig,  at  no  late  hour,  kneeled 
beside  the  king*s  bed  at  Holyrood,  and  saluted  him  as 
King  of  England,  France,  and  Ireland.  He  had  thus 
travelled  four  hundred  miles  in  threo  days,  resting 
during  the  two  intcrnKHliate  nights.  But  it  must  not 
bo  supposed  that  speetl  like  this  was  attained  on  all  oc- 
casions. At  the  comnioncement  of  the  religious  troubles 
in  the  reign  of  Charles  1.,  when  matters  of  the  utmost 
importance  were  debated  between  the  king  and  his 
northern  subjects,  it  uniformly  appeal's  that  a  com- 
munication from  Edinburgh  to  Londi)n,  however  press- 
ing might  be  the  occ:uuon,  was  not  answered  in  less 
than  a  fortnight.  The  crowds  of  nobles,  clerg}'men, 
l^entlemen,  and  burghers,  who  at  that  time  assembled 
in  Edinburgh  to  concert  measures  for  opposing  tlie 


rare  in  Scotlaud.     For  a  long  tinae,  th 
were  only  used  by  old  people,  who  could  not 
riding.     The  young  and  active  despised  tlienii 
ing  to  effeminacy,  and  as  not  being  so  quick 
ment  as  the  horse.   The  Duke  of  Buekinghani 
fir»t  used  a  coach  with  aix  horses — a  piece 
which  the  Duke  of  Northumberland  tlMHight  j 
ridicule  by  setting  up  one  with  eight.     Chan 
the  first  I3ritish  sovereign  who  had  a  siata 
Although  Henri  IV.  was  killed  in  a  eoadi— 
one,  by  the  way,  he  i>ossessed — his  ordiaarjr « 
peiiring  in  tlio  btreets  of  Paris  was  on  boiashi 
a  large  cloak  strapped  on  behind,  to  be  used  i 
rain.     In  Scotland,  previous  to  tlie  time  of 
war,  coaches  were  only  used  by  parsons  Ug 
state.     It  is  very  curious  to  find  thai  the  aasi 
complaints  now  made  by  persons  interested  hi 
respecting  the  introduction  of  steam-looonx>lii 
made  when   coaclies  were   introdueed.      Tij 
water-poet,  complains,  in  tho  reign  of  Charls 
large  retinues  of  men  were  now  given  up  bj  t 
since  they  had  begun  to  use  coaches.    Te^ 
thirty,  fifty,  yea  a  hundred  proper  aenriag  B 
transfoi*med,  he  sa}'8,  into  two  or  throe 
old-wiiical  thinkers  of  that  day  were 
about  the  fate  of  tlie  discharged  men 
twaddlers  of  the  present  are  distressed  alMMi  1 
less  horses.     It  is  further  very  amusing  to  in 
in  his  antipathy  to  cc«aches,  comphuni^g  tl 
drivers  were  all  of  them  hard  drinkers. 

In  a  pamphlet  called  the  **  Graud 
land  Explained,"  published  in  1673,  the 
gravely  attempts  to  make  out  that  the  inti 
of  coaches  was  ruining  the  trade  of 
following  is  an  example  of  his  mode  itf 
^  Before  the  coaches  were  set  up,  trsTaHi 
horseback,  and  men  liad  boots,  spurs, 
saddle-cloths,  and  good  ridiDg-suita, 
stockings  and  luita,  whereby  the  wool  nod  I 
the  kingdom  were  consumed.  Besides* 
men  when  they  travelled  on  honebaek 
with  swords,  belts,  pistols,  holsters, 
luit-cases,  which  in  these  coaches  they  baT#  li 
occasion  for.  For  when  they  rode  on 
rode  in  one  suit,  and  carried  another  to 


ktll>ra-n »•)»•■  th>lu>*li:  mi)    ' 

>d  M  a  miulibirklilB  boif  lit. 

7e  jpaHKlly  eoD4uxte>)  !□  *  lin 

1  UuUj-  luiuttrucWil  patlu.  ilui 

Tjina  a  boll,  I7  Hid  tuikUii^  r 

'iJnJp  wu  liD)>t  [ram  ctnggliiip  in '.' 

KiiiVmglt  ruJv  tno'lo  o[  osnx^iuic 

■csliiiil  10  <i.R>i"  parli  cf  tbv  iTfittnti^  (Ql  IW 

Ul,  i>E  tlivrKalniu U,  ohnn  oncU'iivi  ruMta  oami 


ul  U  ^rwidail  widi  (bar  brand  «iJ  liii|t«  ohanK  am 
Int'u  b)'  •In  l>uv>  hot»w,  Uio  dri»*r  w- — ""  -■ " 


Tha  l<sj(lh  of  timo  eanwniEd  in  jnuniajw  \if« 
-a  boil  kind  of  eaTringaa  of  put  timM,  b  uinr  ai~' 
r  lari'rbo.     Tliu  Btagx-ouacli  wliioli  «   "  '" 

•jnSea  uid  Oxfitrd  in  th*  rtieu  i>)'  CUiuii^  n,.  vm 

kimi  two  ilnyit,  though  the  nint ni'.   1  i' .     <  la 

Mm.   I'hRttoSxoloraHSlnillr-i  ' 

I  t7U3,  whin  Prinov  GtnfK*  <>[  ''■  "in 

'inlboT  lo  PrtworUi  Vi  lom't  <  ^'-n  ■  '      1  '  "i 

lvdul*n««lMillJ{«l>OUt  ttf^y  K'll''  ,    '■•     !■■, ■■■!■■.   rxl'- 

«ii  lioun  Toe  tho  jaUTDoy,  the  lut  ninn  miint  UlilnCi 
n.    The  portoo  Willi  r«mw4»  tl>i«  fwt,  «i)w,  Uut  t^™ 
tig  tliao  WM  tin  mun  turiiriiiiitf.  m.  rrrepl  ■  la^ 
■trlurnAl^  orwli'n  «iuiit(  (tw(  la  the  mini,  tiU  r« 


vuljr  tlilW)  iLuv,  DC 
■vmcnl ! — "  Tbe  1 
iMh  nt  Oitl  tbla  II 
■nm  tin  Bam  Inn, 


cnAMRERS'S  INFORMATION  FOU  THE  PEOPLE. 


cicncy  of  sllrer  lyumnB.  IniUuitly  th«  foolruKn  wu 
wot  off  to  tiia  dakc'i  otliBr  M«t  at  I^hinslon,  near 
IladditigUin,  Tully  iwr«il»n  miloa  off,  nnd  uctohb  hitis 
anil  mnora,  tor  a  ■upplj>  of  the  QHesaur;'  artielc.  lie 
relucnod  *lth  s  bundle  of  bwiotu,  iu  time  for  dmncr. 
AgB'Q— at  IIuiuaCMtle  in  BerwickKliiro,  the  Earl  of 
llgme  bu)  pne  night  giTon  hia  rontmiui  »  conmiuian 
10  praee»l  ti>  F^nbui^h  (thirly-livc  milea  off),  in  order 
to  deliver  n  nieuage  of  higli  political  oon«e<tuence. 
Nvxl  mariiins  early,  whon  bi*  lirdBhip  CDlered  tha 
hall,  be  uw  the  tiian  cleetiiuB  mi  a  beiieli,  Knd  concciv- 
iu  tbat  bo  bad  tieglceted  his  dolf,  wac  kboul  to  coiu- 
idA  Mme  nab  act,  when  the  paar  fellow  awake,  and 
isfarmed  Lord  Kame  llial  hi*  eoDimiMioii  had  been 
executed,  aad  that,  haviait  rvtamod  belorc  his  lorililiip 
was  stirring,  lia  hail  only  taken  leare  la  mt  himectf  a 
little.  TliK  eari,  eijually  aatoiilalied  and  gratitied  bv  the 
■ctiiity  of  hii  futiifal  vhbii],  rewarded  hira  with  » 
little  piece  of  ground,  wliioh  to  Ibts  day  benm  the 
Diuae  of  the  Foil  Wj— •  terni  eriniviilcnl  to  tlin  posl- 
mail'i  Held,  and  an  iini|ueationable  pruof,  as  all  Ihd 
Tillafien  «t  Hums  derontly  bvlieve,  of  the  ttiilh  nf 
the  anecduto.  The  Eioloin  uf  |[ee|nng  n  running  foot- 
toau  did  not  ceaae  amongat  noble  fnmlliea  in  Sf^'llDnd 
till  tlio  middle  of  the  Itet  century.  The  Earl  of  Mnreb, 
Ihlher  to  the  late  Duke  of  (^ueeaiberry,  and  who  Kred 
al  Ncidpath  (.'aatlc  urar  Pcebleg,  had  one  named  John 
Mbbd,  who  uaed  to  run  in  front  of  Ilic  carriage,  with  a 
lung  atalT.  Iu  the  bead  of  the  atair  there  «>■.«  receu 
tor  a  hard'bnlled  rgi,  aueh  being  the  only  food  taken 
by  tlaun  duling  a  long  joorney. 

When  the  Blatter  of  oeiamuDioalian  na  of  partimlar 
iiUportjUMV,  or  required  ts  1»  diapalcbnl  to  ■  conaider- 
■bM  diatanrw,  hnwiuvu  wive  employed :  and  th^,  by 
BUMOB  of  retajra  of  frMli  snimala  and  urmt  tinJ  of  budy, 
waald  ptoee«d  Jaameva  of  aiitnu  bandreda  of  milee  M 
---mpUab  wbuwouldnowtw '- "■ '-   -  ■  - - 


mmMM.    S«iMjDan.,_^_.    ._    _ ___ 

Romer  dajw  would  ba  ooiuideroit  wonderful  tr  .. 

moJcra  tluics  with  g^d  roads.     CiiiL'cn  Eii/.abt'tli  il 


-         „  t  i-ode 

DoDiaMer,  a  Imndred  and  iTifty-fiirc  niilea.  Next  night 
he  rcaebed  Witheringlon,  near  Murpetb.  Early  n 
Satard^  xnoming  be  prooeedcd  by  Norham  aeroea  lb 
Bonier;  and  that  eveniiic,  at  no  late  hour,  kneolc 
beside  the  king'a  bed  at  iTolymnd,  and  mlulcd  him  i 
King  of  Enj;l»iid,  France,  and  Ireinnd.  IIl-  bad  tliu 
travelled  (our  buodred  milca  in  llin^  dny^  i-eallu 
dunng  the  two  intermediate  nighta,  Ditt  It  must  ni 
be  auppoaed  tliat  aiieed  like  thia  was  attained  on  all  oi 
saaiouB.  At  the  commencement  of  the  religiona  troulilt 
in  the  reign  of  Cbarlee  I.,  when  mallera  of  the  ulmoi 
importance  were  debated  between  tbo  king  and  hia 
northern  aobjecta,  it  unifomily  ajipeara  tliat  a  i 
nunication  fiuio  Edinbnrgli  to  Laniluii,  baircver  p 
iog  might  be  Ilic  occaaiun,  was  not  auawered  in 
Ibaa  a  forUiiKht.  Tlin  cromla  of  nobles,  olergyiii-;ii, 
f^thmcii,  and  burthen-,  who  at  that  time  aaaembled 
in  Ediiiburgb  to  concert  measures  for  opposing  the 
de«f!»"  of  the  court,  always  diapiraed  biick  In  their 
homea  afli-r  dispslchiiig  a  meamge  to  King  Cbarka, 
and  awHinibled  again  a  fortiiiglit  thereafter,  in  order 
to  raeelvalbe  reply,  and  take  such  meatiurCB  aa  it  niigh 
call  tor.  And  eran  till  the  last  century  ■«  pretty  fai 
advanced,  the  ordinary  tidinj^  post  belMceu  I/indon 
and  Edinburgh  regularly  look  a  week  to  i 
In  oonaeiiUGnca  uf  the  InallL'nlion  of  i 
In  roada,  and  the  trrelehtd  itaU  in  which  tli 


Wealcrn  Buropo  in  uautfMMbea.  Ttacgr  «fff 
dneed  IhmcQ  Into  England  aMiM  tlroo  in  tha  ■ 
century,  but  were,  after  all,  m  UlUe  in  vt^e  ll 
-  the  nbole  reign  of  Ellmbeth,  that  Qumi  i»  ■ 
..  jer  having  oter  used  ouat  Lord  Grey  da 
who  died  in  1<^93,  introduced  a  coach  into  li«b 
first  eror  used  in  that  country.  One  i 
Scotland— we  rather  thuiL  from  Fn 
■  1S71.  It  belonged  to  the  fsmuiu  Secretor 
land  of  LetbinEtoR,  hIio,  during  the  horrid  • 
'  '  n  lliG  adliet«iila  ef  Mary  and  thoae  ct  I 
,  niadeajoumey  in  that  vehicle  b-omEdi 
Castle,' whicii  be  was  holding  out  for  the  i|u*«a, 
dry  in  West  L^ltian,  for  tha  purpoa*  of  bukbu 
anJtation  with  some  othera  uf  her  frianda  U 
lime,  il  is  believed,  that  a  cloae  cnrriaaD-waa  e* 
in  Scotland.  Fynes  itoriflon,  wbo  wrMe  la  11 
I6l7,speakg  of  coaehee  aa  rocently  intraduoad. i 
rare  in  ScotUnd.  F»r  a  long  lime,  tliaao  ooava 
were  Only  uaed  by  old  people,  who  Could  Bot  wi 
riding.  Die  young  and  active  dcspiard  titeoi,  ; 
iiig  to  effonunacy,  aud  u  not  being  «u  quick  ol 
meat  a*  ihv  iiar»'.  Tlit  Uuke  uf  Buckiiigluua,  I 
first  iiimd  a  coocJi  with  aix  iuireea — a  pinaa  ti 
which  tbe  Puku  uf  Norlbuinberlantl  tluugblpi 
rldlcirl*  by  ii*ltini>  up  oao  nitU  eight,  uiarw 
the  Tint  Uriliali  aovcrciga  wlu>  had  a  (DUa  « 
AllhoLigh  Henri  IV.  was  killed  in  a  eoach-tl 
one,  by  the  way,  he  poneaaed — hia  ordiua^  *^ 
pearini;  in  tha  slml"  of  Paris  hbd  on  hoiaalw 
a  large  cloak  atrapiHid  on  babiiM,  tu  b*  <M*d  in 

war,  Coachiai  were  only  uaed  by  ptmuoa  bigfa 
alate.  It  i>  vrry  curious  to  find  thai  tha  mmm 
comji taints  uow  niade  by  potions  btareiled  l»« 
rcBMCifng th-  ■-■-■'--* 
made  when 
water-poet,  ootnnMna,  in  the  rei^  of  ChadM 
large  relinilea  of  men  weta  now giren  ti^hyil 
since  tliey  had  becan  to  use  coaches.  Tea,  I 
tliirly,  fifty,  yea  a  liniidrfd  ini>litT  serrini;  lUii 

uld-wilical  thinken  of  Ibat  day  were  aa  muAlM 
about  the  fale  nf  the  dischargod  nil  n  in  »»■ 
twaddlers  orthopreacnt  are  diatreaaad  lihwd  m 
less  buraus.  It  a  further  very  anuutag  ••  UI 
in  his  niilipathy  to  coaches,  complainMf  Ikri 
drivcra  were  all  of  Ibi-in  bard  drinkeia. 

la  a  pamphlet  calii^d  tba  "  Grand  Cuaiirat 
land  Explaini'd,"  published  in  ]b7a,  the  l^ 
gravely  attempla  lo  make  out  thai  tha  iMid 
of  coaches  was  ruiuing  tbe  trade  of  btibal 
following  is  au  example  of  hia  mode  of  nana 
"  Before  tho  ooacliea  were  aat  up,  travalhvi 
horseback,  aud  men  bad  boot*,  apurs,  aaddlaa^l 
saddle-cloths,  and  good  riding^niu,  ooaoi  tat 
(tockingi  aud  bal^  whereby  the  wool  and  M 

tho  kingdom *      •■-  -» 

men  wtTen  J 


rariutu  hlnda  wire  in  uao  among  tbo  ancients, 
oarriage  or  coadi  ia  of  mod>rn  invention.  'J 
oaaeA  b  Hungarian,  and  tfa«  tohide  itself  ia  aupposod 
tft  ham  eriginated  in  Hungary.  Germany  certainly  up- 
]i«tr«  lo  ba*t  taken  the  precedence  of  llw  natiena  of 


liat-caise.4,  \ 


ley  travclkd  on 

bulls,  pislola,  holsters,  , 

icli  in  llieso  coaefaea  they  hai 


rode  in  one  soil,  and  oairied  another  la  *«M 
Ihcy  came  to  Uieir  juiimey'a  end,  or  lay  Ij  Ih 
hut  in  cuRches  they  rido  in  a  ailk  auil,  ■lib  *■ 
guwii,  with  a  sash,  silk  stacking!,  and  the  bMV 
men  rido  in,  and  carry  uo  other  wiib  IbeMl  ' 
iH'cauao  tl'.cy  cacapo  the  wet  and  dirt  which  M 
hack  Lliey  csnnot  avoid  ;  whoreai  in  two  or  ihH 
neys  on  humeback,  tbeee  elolhea  and  hat*  m 
to  bo  spi'ili'J ;  »bich  done,  they  wera  fiaiead  I 
uuw  I'Hi'j  i,rii.'ii,  and  lluil  incruaaed  tlw  eaBH 
of  inaimfaeturv.  If  tliey  were  womra  thai  Ui 
they  used  lo  liavo  aafej-oards  aud  booda,  M^ 
and  piilionj',  with  tlrappiugs,  saddle  or  fSHim 
nliicli,  for  tliu  matt  part,  were  laced  and  Milaii 
til  the  infilling  nf  which  Iliere  went  many  aaaaal 
now  ruined.''  Uut  tho  writer  baa  ether  laaaMa 
aeaiust  coacb  travaUiug.    "Tboso  wbe  tnnt 


CONVEYANCE. 


olaerrei,  'bcMon  weary  >nd  liBtlcea  nlicn 
r«irin!li!»,  unwilling  to  got  on  hansebacL, 
to  endure  fro«t,  •oov,  or  raJD,  or  to  lodge 
>."     Bnideo,  he  uks  "  wluit  wlTHntnge  it 

man's  health  to  be  called  uat  of  bed  iuto 
n  an  hour  or  two  before  day  in  the  inom- 
lurried  in  tlieirifram  place  to  plaee  till  one, 
e  hours  witiiin  nfght;  iDEOUiuch  that,  nfter 
ay,  in  the  summer  time,  slitlcd  with  heat 
with  dust — or  in  the  wiater  time,  starving 
with  cold,  or  choked  with  firthy  togs,  they 
vught  into  ihrir  iiina  by  torch-light,  wheu 

to  sit  up  to  get  mpper,  and  next  morning 
■ced  into  the  coach  so  early  tliat  lliey  eaii 
ifasH     ■What  artdilion  is  it  to  men's  healll. 

to  ride  all  day  witli  Btrangera,  oftentimes 
:,  di«ca£cd  persons,  or  young  children  cry- 
ise  liumouis  he  Is  obliged  to  put  np  with, 
wisoned  with  their  nasty  scenta,  and  crippled 
and  bnndlcal  Is  it  fir  a  man's  health  lo 
in  Ihe  fi>al  aayt,  and  fortcd  la  trade  tip  la 

mirei  nflerwardi  sit  in  the  cold  till  teams 
in  be  Milt  lo  pull  the  co:ich  oott  Is  it  tor 
I  to  trarel  in  rotten  cuaches,  and  to  have 
■,  _or  perch,  or  axle-tree  broken ;  and  tlien 
^e'or  four  hours  (lometimos  half  the  day), 
irds  to  tmTel  all  night  to  moke  good  (heir 

werer,  do  not  exhaust  the  patriotic  clamours 
sr  against  the  odious  innovation  of  atage- 
Ke  says  (hat  the  pmclico  "  discourages  the 
Tsea,"  an  argument  which  it  is  amusing  to 


said,  confined  chiefly  to  the  great  lines  of  road  in  Eng- 
land.   On  all  the  leaa  important  routes,  and  partieulaiTy 
"    Scotland,  the  ouly  nieana  of  conveyance  for  gooda 
e  by  pack-boraea.    Theao  animals  were  loaded  wlUi 


.r^' 


d,  but  in  no  other. 

^  continued,  to  wit,  one  to  every  Bhirc-tonn 
,  to  go  once  a-wcck  backward  and  forward, 
lirongh  Willi  the  samo  horees  they  set  forth 
not  travel  above  thirty  miles  a-day  in  the 
nd  twenty-five  in  the  winter,  and  to  ahifl 

journey,  that  so  trade  miglit  be  dilTused — 
I  be  BnfKcienl  to  carry  the  sick  and  (be  lame, 
pretend  cannot  travel  on  hoi'Seback;  and, 

regulated,  (liey  would  do  little  or  no  harm  ; 
r  all  be  auppreaacd  within  fifty  miles  of  Lou- 

theyare  no  way  necessary,  and  yotso  highly 

1  thought  fit  to  introdnee  these  cxtiaets  hei-e, 
:h  for  (he  purpose  of  amusing  our  readers 
absurdity,  as  to  afford  a  caution  to  the  gene- 
nts  of  improvement.  Argmueuis  of  a  sinii- 
I  natnre  are  now  used  in  reference  to  almost 

leas,  in  a  cenlor}-  hence,  be  quoted  fur  their 
id  folly,  thoueh  at  present  meeting  with  coun- 
im  a  brge  claBS  in  tlic  coinmuuity. 
standing  the  introduction  of  staEe-coachCB  in 
tenth  century,  they  were  placed  only  on  the 
■oadB,und  used  almost  excluaively  by  persona  . 
taste  and  wealth.  The  popular  niodo  of  con- 1 
intinued  fur  at  least  a  centun-  uflerwarda  to  | 
e-waggonB ;  these  were  very  large  and  cum-  . 
lachines,  drawn  by  six  or  eight  homcB,  and  | 
lit-fly  lo  the  carriage  ot  gowla  to  and  from 
poiis.  The  only  part  of  the  vehicle  which 
eeomniodalion  to  paaaengera,  was  the  tail  of 
n,  as  it  waa  called  a  reserved  apace  with  a  | 
coTeratthohiuderpartof  the  machine  land  . 
ng  npon  straw  aa  they  best  eiiuld.  Borne  half- 1 
aengera  were  slowly  conveyed  on  tkeir  jour- , 
I  chance  attacks  of  highwaymen,  and  other 
rhich  occurred  to  the  occupaiifs  of  the  waggon, 
adventures  at  the  inns  where  they  slept  for 
are  graphically  described  by  Smollett  in  hia 
wleriek  Itandom,  and  will  be  in  the  recollec- 
■t  of  cmr  readers. 
ggoM  dins  .employed  in  the  double  office  of 


sacks  tbroivn  acruaa  the  hack ;  and,  if  not  too  heavy, 
piled  to  a  conBiderable  height.  A  number  together 
;re  generally  conducted  in  a  line  along  the  narrow 
id  badly  constructed  piths,  that  uliich  went  before 
carrying  a  bell,  by  tlie  tinkling  sound  of  which  Ihe 
cavalcade  was  kept  from  straggling  after  nightfall.  This 
exceedingly  rude  mode  of  conveyance  continued  in 
operation  in  some  parts  of  the  ceunlry  till  the  year 
1700,  OE  tbereaboulB,  when  ouc-huise  carts  came  into 

The  old-fashioned  waggons  still  remain  in  use  in 
England,  notwilh standing  the  numerous  improvements 
in  modes  of  conveyance  and  locomotion.  They  are 
chiefly  employed  for  the  carriage  of  goods  ttetwcen  the 
metropolis  and  country  towns  which  are  at  a  distance 
from  any  liito  of  canal  or  railroad.  A  waggon  of  this 
kind  is  provided  willi  four  broad  and  huge  wheels,  and 
ia  drawn  by  six  large  boraea^  Che  driver  usually  riding 
on  a  separate  small  pony.    The  waggnns  employed  in 


London  to  convey  cn^  from  the  wha: 
of  consumers,  or  beer  fr.im  brewers, 
unwieldy  form,  and  are  drawn  with  a  ueedleea  expen- 
diture of  power. 

The  length  of  time  consumed  in  joumeys  by  even 
the  best  kind  of  carriages  of  past  (imex,  la  now  matter 
for  surprise.  The  stage-coach  which  went  between 
London  and  Oxford  in  the  reign  of  Charles  II.,  re- 
i^uired  two  days,  though  the  space  is  only  lifly-elght 
miles.  That  to  Kxeler  (lost  ui'les)  required  four  dayi. 
In  1703,  whtn  Prince  George  of  Itenmark  went  trim 
Windsor  to  Petwortli  to  meet  Charles  III.  of  Spain, 
the  distance  being  about  forty  miles,  he  required  four- 
teen hours  for  the  journey,  the  last  nine  miles  taking 
six.  The  person  who  records  this  fact,  says,  that  tlie 
long  time  waa  tlie  more  surprising,  ai,  mf/il  trhm 
actrluraed,  OT  when  stuck  fast  in  the  mini,  his  royal 
highncBs  made  no  atop  during  the  journey. 

,  ruUB  in  Kugland  than  in  Cliarlcs  Il.'s  time;  but  it  does 
not  ajyear  that  they  moved  any  faster.  The  journey 
from  London  to  Birmingham  (1  Iti  miles)  then  occupied 
nearly  three  days,  as  appears  from  tlie  following  advei^ 
tisement :— "  The  Lilchlield  anrl  Birmingham  stage- 
coach set  out  this  morning  (Monday,  Apnl  1*2,  17-l'J], 
from  ihe  Rose  Inn,  Holboru  Bridge,  London,  and  will 
be  b(  the  Angel,  and  the  Ilcn  and  Chickens,  in  tlio 
High  Town,  Birmingham,  on  Wednesday  next,  to  din- 
ner: anil  goes  (he  same  nftenioi'n  In  Litchfield.     It 


to  every  car — Macadamised. 

In  introducing  tliit)  improvement  into  Hritish  i*oad8, 
Mr  M^Vdam  had  Bpent  several  thou<iand  pounds  fix>ni 
hiB  own  resources.  In  18-.),  he  proved  tliis  expenditure 
before  a  committee  of  the  House  of  Commons,  when  an 
equivalent  sum  was  voted  to  liini,  besides  an  lionorary 
tribute  of  two  thousand  pounds,  in  consideration  of  the 
public  benefits  resulting  from  his  labours.  The  inade- 
quacy of  this  remuneration  is  very  striking ;  and  it  is 
impossible  to  avoid  ctmtrasting  it,  in  some  bitterness  of 
spirit,  with  the  ratio  in  which  services  of  other  and  less 
beneficial  kinds  arc  usually  acknowledged.  Many  a  lieu- 
tenant, in  being  promoted  to  a  captaincy  for  some  little 
display  of  persouai  bravery,  has  reapc4l  nearly  as  valuable 
a  reward  as  that  bestowed  upon  Mr  M'Adam  for  bring- 
ing into  operation  a  mechanical  improvement,  the  con- 
nequences  of  which,  in  saving  animal  labour,  facilitating 
commercial  intercourse,  and  rendef  ing  travellini;  easy, 

auiet,  and  pleasant,  are  beyond  all  calculation.  Though 
le  remuneration  was  thus  small,  and  never,  as  wo  have 
been  informed,  fully  paid,  Mr  M'Adam  would  have  been 
tlie  last  to  complain  of  it.  Ho  never  made  money  an 
object^  but,  on  tlio  contrary,  rejected  on  principle  many 
opportunities  of  gathering  wealth,  which  his  office  as  a 
superintendant  opened  up  to  him,  and  which  many  men 
of  by  no  means  blunt  feelings  as  to  professional  pro- 
priety would  have  taken  advantage  of.  He  therefore 
died  a  poor,  but,  as  he  frequently  expressed  himself, 
^at  least  an  honest  man."  Mr  M*  Adam's  decease  took 
place,  November  2G,  1836,  at  Moffat.  He  was  in  the 
Blst  year  of  his  age. 

According  to  the  principles  of  road-making,  as  laid 
down  and  consistently  acted  upon  by  Mr  M' Adam,  a  road 
<iught  to  bo  an  artificial  and  luird  flooring,  placed  on  a 
level  and  dry  surface.  To  make  a  good  road,  tliercfore, 
wo  must  in  the  first  place  level  and  prepare  the  ground. 
If  the  ground  be  soft,  as,  for  instance,  liave  a  covering 
of  turf  and  earthy  matter  beneath,  the  top  must  bo 
]»ared  off,  and  as  much  earth  removed  as  will  produce 
»  hardish  base.  In  some  instances,  it  may  be  necessary 
to  excavate,  and  fill  up  the  gap  with  compact  and  sub- 
stantial materials;  but  should  this  be  the  case,  the 
materials  used  must  on  no  account  include  any  large 
stones,  or  be  otherwise  unequal  in  their  nature  :  The 
principles  on  which  the  road  should  be  made  are  thus 
alluded  to  by  Mr  M*Adani  : — ^**  Roads  can  never  be 


heavily  loaded  vehicle,  but  will  sostaia  aa 
and  wear  as  any  other  portitm  of  the  liigbi 

The  width  of  the  road  is  a  matter  of  tM 
venience,  but  it  should  not  bo  lesa  tlMui  \ 
'  foot,  to  allow  a  frco  paitsage  of  Tohidbs  i 
directions.  On  all  the  good  roads  in  Bi 
towii.q,  a  side  footpath  protected  by  a  ei 
addi-d  to  the  ordinary  breadth.  *^  With  re 
shape  of  the  surface  of  the  road,  when  conn 
is  also  some  difference  of  opinion  ;  but  all 
it  should  be  convex,  the  only  difference  b 
quantity.  The  degree  of  convexity  sboold  I 
in  a  great  degree  by  the  locality.  A  mac 
soft  materials  should  have  a  greater  cmitsz 
formed  of  hard  materials ;  for  the  obvious 
water  will  injure  a  soft  road  quicker  than 
A  road  upon  uneven  ground  should  havea| 
vexity  than  one  upon  level  ground,  to  prev 
scent  of  rain- water  along  the  face  of  tM  I 
is  there  caught  by  the  slightest  impresdbmi 
and  thus  wear  channels,  as  may  too  oAsa  bi 
the  top  to  the  bottom  of  the  hilL  A  wM 
requires  to  be  more  crowning  than  a  nsr 
which  more  readily  frees  itself  from  nia-« 
much  as  the  distance  the  water  has  to  run  i 
it  must  be  borne  in  mind,  that  the  freeing  i 
rain-water  is  n(»t  the  only  object  to  be  kcpl 
making  a  road  crowning.  The  ease  and  mi 
riagcs,  and  particularly  those  with  b«aTy1 
with  high  loads,  must  be  consulted.  A  can 
most  freely,  or  ^ith  the  least  resistanee,  wh 
lies  evenly  upon  the  wheels.  Just  in  propoi 
weight  or  load  is  thrown  on  one  idde  or  thi 
resistance  is  increased.  Hence  the  ineoarc 
very  crowning  road  on  a  steep ;  and  hence  t 
bars  or  breaks  in  long  ascents.  It  is  plain  1 
should  be  equally  and  duly  conrex  In  erti^ 
otherwise  it  becomes  more  partially 
level  parts  being  most  used. 

When  a  road  is  carried  round  a  hUl 
directly  over  it,  or  when  a  road  is 
it  should  not  be  made  convex  from  the 
should  be  formed  like  half  of  a  common 
highest  part  on  the  upper  side,  thus  giviiV 
tendency  to  run  off  on  the  lower  aide.     ] 
roeonimenda  the  least  possible  convexitvcnr 


:  Willi  |i»rtid» 


)i»t  fiina  lUi  U|>]»-r 
\MXBagrA. 

M  Inini  BdianUf^iii     i 
irP  ili^jrM  n  nmtr.' 
la  kwp  ■!!  tl.o  r: 


;,-.-5 


;!:;3 


Mf,  and  in  WiiJ»  I.W.    Tli«  btthei'  Ii 
Nwirlr  ^  thu  Tiad  irasM  kt*  in  debt  far  Im«- 
iDDiMy.    It  b  lupiiiwcil  Uiat  iIik  d«U  J>  an  «a 

}e  L^O  per  inUr,  ar  piobabljr  L.fi,l>a<l,HOO  fiw 


V''*»i'<w'— For 


Muidafclf, 


«  bocgnu  »  pikrt  of  tin  eamntm  law.  Tba  tar 
l«fttl  in,  ttuW  »h(ii  drirer*  liinl  frum  riilfiitMa 
<in«,  Mwh  filuJI  kcc|i  hit  Ml  limiid  tn  tliir  w*!!  nr 
Ui.  SvcoiKUy,  •niiDa  oac  driroF  0<rsiliiJ[et  auuilior, 
aUf  tu  iw  liin.  li«  niiul  karu  hii  Idl  huiil  iv 
'liidv  KUidi  b*  I'vawt.  In  ttit>  iwbb  of  elthoF 
^  III  lUMdii):,  cacti  jiartgi  i*  eiiLlUmt  toUn<  Hit 
ruxt.  'fh*  uuttB mlM  nyplf  lo  riduL  IftluiM 
Uoii*  he  neglDRleil,  aixi  ui  Beciilciit  ocEur,  Iba 


■■R^M 


cnAMBEnS'S  INFORMATION  FOIl  THE  PEOPtE. 


iiw  !■  al«»jf*  in  favour  of  the  part;  whn  kepi  his  own 
pniper  side,  »nd  ui>  tieuse  c«q  slielWr  the  «ggreB«ir. 
Tho  tru«Ie«s  of  the  n>ki!  ira  lMi\e  in  Ui  ■ctiga  of  dji- 
inagn  Far  ui;  iojaiv  IbM  may  be  suitaiaed  tlimngh 
Ui«  cBwltiMneHi  of  iliCTDiwWBs  or  BervanU,  in  leariai; 
the  roiid  gromly  out  of  repair, 

Accamling  tq  ■  well-knovru  rolf,  foot  pamngOTi  on 
patementa  m  siJe-pitliB,  are  enpecled  to  Halh  vith 
their  right  bund  to  ilie  wall— that  ia,  Ibe}  keep  Xiieit 
left  Iiand  to  tl.oao  whom  they  are  uieetion  and  paasing. 
This  custom  preveota  oonfuuon  in  the  atroots  of  larga 
loWDO,  but  i>  not  a  mailer  lit  law. 


CANALS. 

A  ean«l  !■  *«  artificial  channel  i.f  wati^  Mid  isiuaalty 
eoiialruelfd  for  inlnod  na»igaliun.  Whore  natural 
Ann  can  bo  resorted  to  for  purponoe  of  thi»  kind,  they 
ftTB  preferable  to  canals,  becauoe  lltHu  espenae  may  be 
rediiir«l  In  luit  them  for  navlgatioo,  and  they  may  b* 
ouily  kept  in  repair.  Out  fe*  riyers,  generally  apoat- 
kf,  are  Boffleiently  lerel,  straight,  or  doep,  to  admit  of 
beiiig  profttaUy  narigaled  by  bargea,  and  tlicrcfore 
ftrliflcial  ohaimelB  reqnire  to  be  ouL  Canals  are  ei- 
tnnnnly  wiiuble  In  level  counlriea,  posMneing  rivers  or 
bmokewhichcanaifordaduBBupplyofwalCT.  Ill  China, 
tHiai  a  Tory  early  age,  certain  large  riven  have  formed 
Malunl  canals  longiludioally  Ihniugli  tile  eountry  rrom 
west  la  laal,  while  artlRcUl  Canals  have  been  made  to 
prnoeei)  in  a  onta*  direction  from  north  In  south,  thu* 
efTecliiig  a  naiverMl  water  coramuniuation  thinughiiut 
tlio  empire.  Oumls  extatod  in  anriunl  Egypt  iu  con- 
noKion  with  Iba  Nile,  on  a  aimiUr  plan  to  what  now 

treraila  in  Cbioa.  Xolwithstaoding  that  eanals  were 
ngwD  to  have  eaiited  from  a  remote  antiquity  in  the 
east,  it  wan  long  before  ihoy  were  iDlrodnced  iulo 
wenlem  Europe.  In  modura  timea,  thev  wore  first 
used  b;  the  iuhabitanbtof  the  Notberla4ida,  in  eonae- 

rinee  of  the  nlreine  flatncM  of  their  country,  and 
nnmeroua  ehanndi  of  water  which  interaect  '*  *~ 


leRhin 


ind  other 


[1  Holl 


!r  branches  of 
til  and  tiet^um. 


y  wet  dilchba 


rdruii 


of  ciinimercial  ipeculaii 
enrilingly,  in  forming  the 
the  anticipated  amount 


y  coubtiluted,  canala  am  co 

un.      The  great  question,  a 

frojecl  of  a  canal,  ia,  wheth< 
Inffie  will  raise  tolls  auf 
lutlay  of  the  undorUKing  ixi 
repair  and  supen  file  n '!■■"■■ 
"     know  the  fi.lli.i' .: 


;oteu 


.   Thoi 


When  the  undertaking  appeal*  wi 
careful  conaidcratiou  of  circunutane^  iha 
to  be  taken  into  aeconnt  ia  the  bbtaining  ef  ai 
supply  of  water,  and  the  fixing  on  tha  Iim^— 
most  level  and  niiuxpenuve — line  uf  rouK 
parla  of  England,  where  an  eiMtrmoiw  mtti 
reckoned  upon,  rnula  have  been  pn^eotadaa 
(in  a  tlupendoue  eeale ;  mounlaiiis  liavc  beaa 
to  admit  clianoels  of  water  thniush  tbcia,  val 
by  embabkmeote,  and  bridgea  built  hi  tb«  toe 
duets  acroaa  riven  \  in  abort,  no  «pinuii 
apared  to  render  the  inland  Davif^tiua  aaof 

The  supply  of  watar  neooury  (ark cam 
level  ihrouglioul  ite  oounr,  is  sinall  in  eempi 
that  of  ODe  pursuing  an  unsvvn  iin*.    Whn 

is  l^  cvapiirBtiiin ;  but  whas  tlx  leva!  U  vtit 
loss  is  incurred  al  the  toeks  iu  oMag^r  ba 
■da.     A  lock  U  a  ponton  of  the  eanalanela 


another,  it  is  drawn  up  to  tliu  dour*  <d  the 
Iheae  are  opanod  to  admit  il.  Uatiajc  ails 
lock,  the  doors  are  clowd  behind  it,  and  II I 
kind  of  prison  from  which  lliera  ia  no  apim 
While  in  this  situation,  the  dsnt>  at  tha  «Dp 
the  lock,  which  relaiu  tb*  water  at  llia  Ini 
are  slowly  opunrd,  and  admit  a  riuh  af  IhaUi 
whieli  spuedily  buoy*  up  Iha  vmiail,  aad  tl 
■all  uir  along  the  higher  level.  The  \aA  taj 
dtalcly  emptied,  but  remains  fait  of  watar,  an 
tore  ready  to  bo  umplnypd  in  bnting  a  tsa 
Whet)  the  vEAMil  Bppruaoliea,  and  M  &irijt 
luck,  the  upper  Uoura  am alinliandthinitbali 
an  opened ;  b/  ihla  laean*  the  fwafi  la  osfnt 
lowar  level  ^ng  villi  the  rush  of  liqvii^aai 
on  its  cuurw.  A  loekful  of  watu  bM  IM 
been  shut  from  a  higher  to  a  lowrr  javal  an  I 
and  ia  lost,  uutcsB  r<ii|ui»d  for  lowar  lo*k&  t, 
inundalion  of  tile  banka  from  the  i>waiq|ar* 
the  locks,  waste  outlets  reqDire  to  be  |iHillll 
tain  dislances,  partieularly  al  the  lowei  Mori 
tha  liueof  caiiaL     The  provision  of  waMtlsi 

blixhed  n^ur  ilic  lii^-l>,'ni  j^uml  in  the  has. 

thirty  rsiii,  anil  die  d<;plli  from  four  La  (ilM 


for  l>^K<1.0He 


e  t>eing  less  liqi 
displaced.     At  one  aide  of  "' 
called  the  towio^}iath,  is  o 


icUnl,  aiijj 

ibe  dnnn 

id  II  u  Ui»F< 


ice  is  by  sluous,  smacks,  brigs,  |m'  i 


by  land,  till  riulvtays  and  roads,  the  la«t  being  tliedcs 
though  ufLan  thu  only  means  of  transpurt  which  ci 
obtaiuttd.  According  tu  this  view,  eaualH  can  u 
answer  as  pvofiUiblu  apeeulaliona,  when  tliey  hai 
oomiwlo  with  CiuaiiHj;  >c-M.'U  of  any  deMiipii'n 


ly  specj. 


Th.o 
'  auccessfuU.v  i 


-■I  from  il 


1 


Cam^Liarrgrailimliv^ 

of  guilds  (or  *  bich  qu 

the  sake  of  ucoiiomy 
d*nnMc  that  them  t 

nattonal  reeourcos,  it  la  very 
lis  in  ttatistica  sliould  be  gene- 


ts along  the  Irinlir^ 
ac,  llieJnagblulri 


le  Jnogbl  III 
run  Willi  a  lOBs  of  pouer,  for  inatMi  m- 
rHii;<lit  beliind,  it  is  uUique,  or  m  ibe  JV 
ipt-  tilutiling  lo  tha  voucl.  The  tanihM 
III  is  lo  bring  the  boat  to  ttie  dwif,  ■ 
bracied  by  lliv  helm,  and  Ibis  aninsafa 
\iiug  tile  gtiieral  amount  of  avaiiabis  M 
rou>:hout  the  canals  of  Kugland  ana  f 
me  horso  is  employed  lo  drag  a  boM  k 
iltntiif  from  fifty  lo  ■    -  -   *- 

I  .ImgBirg  after  it  in 


canal  cuuveyaucc ;  but  laying  ai 


ROADS. 


re;  and  I  iliink  that  more  water  actually  atauds 
>a  a  \  ery  convex  road,  than  on  one  which  is  reasou- 
yflat' 

in  Uying  out  a  new  road,  it  ia  of  some  importance 
it  the  rises  and  falls  be  not  too  great.  The  most 
noved  angles  of  ascents  and  descents  in  England  are 
iut  one  inch  in  a  foot — from  this  to  one  inch  in  a 
rit.  In  order  to  obtain  ascents  not  exceeding  these, 
is  necessary  in  our  uneven  country  to  wind  up  a 
1  instead  of  going  directly  over  it.  In  such  cases 
i  road  ia  to  be  built  upon  the  side  of  a  hill,  and  tliia 
conMidered  the  most  advantageous  ground  upon  which 
road  can  be  built,  provided  the  hill  has  not  too  great 

ascent ;  because  what  is  taken  from  the  upper  side 
rvcs  to  form  the  embankment  on  the  lower  side, 
hile  wc  are  speaking  of  embankments,  we  may  men- 
m  tJie  English  method  of  forming  them,  which  is  so 
anifestly  sui>eriur  to  our  own,  tliat  it  deserves  to  be 
litated.  *  The  natural  sod,  which  would  be  covei'ed  by 
e  base  of  the  embankment,  having  beon  cut  oif  and 
t  aeitle,  the  earth  is  then  wheeled  or  carted  on  to  form 
le  two  outsides,  which  arc  raised  to  the  required  height, 
■riiig  the  middle  open.  The  sods  aro  then  placed  on 
le  another,  the  grassy  surface  at  right  angles  to  the 
M  of  tlie  outer  slopes,  forming  as  it  were  a  battering 
•U  of  sods  against  the  embankment.'  This  method  is 
fOid  effectual  in  preventing  the  banks  fix>ni  washing 
■ay  and  guliyinc.  While  the  outsides  are  forming, 
M  lampa  of  earth,  stone,  &c.,  run  downward  to  the 
riddle ;  and  in  this  way  the  whole  is  fmiphed.  When 
le  work  settles,  it  is  found  to  tend  towai*ds  tlio  centre, 
Mu  preventing  the  outside  slo]>es  from  giving  way.*'* 

The  following  judidousobser^-ationsarc  made  by  the 
iBe  authority  on  the  subject  of  fences,  and  junctions 
f  diflferent  roads : — **  Fences  are  necci«ary  along  the 
Uiesof  a  road  in  all  enclosed  countries ;  but  they  should 
mcr  be  allowed  to  rine  higher  than  four  feet  on  com- 
m  ruads.  It  is  absolutely  necessary  that  the  air  and 
pB  have  free  admission  to  a  road ;  besides,  where  tho 
hMes  are  high,  it  gives  a  sweeping  power  to  the  wind, 
Aieh  ia  not  beneficial.  Mr  Telford  thinks  that  fences 
honld  never  bo  more  than  four  feet  high,  and  that  all 
taMS  witliin  twenty  feet  of  tho  sides  of  the  road  should 
b  removed.  He  also  thiuks  that  twenty  per  cent,  of 
dMeapense  of  i*epairing  or  improving  roads  'la  incurred 
hr  the  improper  state  of  tlie  fences  and  trees  along  the 
Ha,  particularly  on  the  sunny  side ;  this  will  be  ma- 
pHitt  to  any  person  who  will  take  tho  trouble  to  ex- 
l^ne  the  condition  of  that  part  of  a  road  which  is 
■kdi  shaded,  compared  to  the  other  parts  which  are 
toosed  to  tho  sun  and  air. 

'The  junction  of  one  road  witli  another  requires  a 
ktle  attention :  it  should  always  be  mudo  at  right 
iPgles,  and  on  the  same  level,  if  possible.  All  engineers 
Rpte  that  plantations  of  trees  should  not  be  made  close 
"  Xtiads ;  but  what  tho  di:»tance  should  be,  dei>ends  on 

t  elevation  of  the  country,  tlie  soil,  the  breadth  of 
road,  as  well  as  its  direction,  &c.  ^c.  An  elevated 
'vUation  ia  always  more  e.\]>oscd  to  winds  tlum  a  level 
jf  hollow.  A  broad  winding;  road  has  chances  of  the 
Vl^ot  influence  of  the  sun  uud  wind,  according  to  the 
^iqnity  of  its  angles ;  a  road  running  imrth  and  soutli, 
'kkugh  planted  closely  on  botli  sides,  will  enjoy  tho  sun 
'iiriug  a  part  (»f  every  day  in  the  year ;  one  running 
Mt  and  west,  planted  on  the  south  side  with  trees  forty 
^  highy  or  more,  will  enjoy  no  sun  during  the  winter 
''onths.  The  least  injurious  trees  are  single  rows 
i^ined  to  high  stems,  properly  pruned.'* 

i<*or  some  time  after  a  i*oad  bus  been  laid  with  fresh 
t%teriAlSy  it  presents  a  rough  surface,  unpleasant  to 
(^  feelings  of  those  who  are  conveyed  over  it ;  but  this 
OughnesB  is  gradually  abated,  tho  small  stones  arc 
tQahed  into  a  compact  mass,  and  fiiully,  th<.*  road  is 
Haootb,  hard,  and  level.  The  length  of  time  that  may 
l«pM»  before  any  new  repair  is  required,  depends  on 
kc  amoont  and  kind  of  traffic,  as  well  as  tho  weather. 
UiD  is  a  great  enemy  to  macadamised  roads,  and  par- 


«  Scientific  Tractii.   Bustuu :  liEtTi. 
441 


ticularly  so  when  aceompaniod  with  much  traffic.  Tho 
water  lies  on  the  surface?,  and  softening  the  material, 
the  action  of  the  hoi*8es'  feet  and  of  the  wheels  causes 
a  certain  depth  of  thin  liquid  mud.  This  mud  should, 
by  all  means,  be  scraped  off  to  a  side,  for  the  longer  it 
lies,  the  stratum  beneath  is  the  more  liable  to  be  cut 
up  and  damaged.  The  scraping  of  the  roadR,  therefore, 
becomes  an  essential  duty  of  all  who  are  interested  in 
preserving  the  highways  economically  in  repair.  When 
the  mud  which  is  scrnpod  aside  thickens  by  exposure, 
it  should  be  carted  oft',  and  may  Xw  employed  on  many 
soils  as  a  useful  manure.  Desides  containing  a  ])ropor- 
tion  of  refuse  from  horses,  it  is  loaded  with  particles 
of  iron  from  wheels  and  horso  shoes ;  and  being  sub- 
stantially silica  or  ground  stone,  it  may  be  administered 
with  special  advantage  to  heavy  clay  grounds. 

Roads  exposed  to  much  traffic  require  to  be  renewed 
in  burface  at  least  once  a-yonr.  The  first  indications 
of  decay  are  observable  in  the  form  of  slight  hollows, 
and  ruts  next  make  their  appearance.  In  some  cases, 
where  tho  decay  is  only  partial,  a  small  quantity  of 
metal  may  be  scattered  in  the  hollows,  bringing  them 
up  to  a  level  with  all  around.  However,  this  is  not  usu- 
ally done  on  well-kept  roads  near  large  towns.  There 
the  road  undergoes  a  thorongh  repair  once  a-year, 
which  is  preferable  to  partial  mendings.  The  best  time 
for  repairing  roads  is  about  November,  or  before  the 
winter  frost  and  snow  set  in.  In  commencing  the  re- 
pair, the  road  should  bo  picked  acros.<4,  at  intervals  of 
twelve  or  fifteen  inches.  This  is  done  by  men,  each 
having  a  pick  by  which  ho  indents  tho  hard  bottom, 
or  forms  scores  an  inch  deep  in  the  road.  The  use  of 
such  a  preliminary  process,  is  to  cause  a  ready  union 
between  the  new  ainl  old  materials.  If  the  fresh  metal 
were  scattered  over  the  old  road,  without  any  prepa- 
ration, it  would  with  difficulty  unite  to  the  substratum, 
and  at  best  form  an  upper  crust,  which  would  be  too 
easily  damaged. 

With  respect  to  the  keeping  of  roads  in  efficient  re- 
pair, the  most  advantageous  plan  consists  in  assigning 
the  entire  duty  to  a  contractor.  This  person,  by  under- 
taking to  keep  all  tho  roads  in  a  county  or  district 
in  constant  and  uniform  repair,  is  able  to  execute  his 
functions  much  more  economically  than  the  private 
gentlemen  who  act  as  trustees  of  the  highways  and 
turnpikes.  The  trustees  appointed  by  local  acts  of  par- 
liament to  superintend  highways,  now  generally  employ 
contractors  to  keep  the  roads  in  repair  at  a  specified 
price  per  mile,  the  payment  being  made  from  funds 
collected  from  the  les^sees  of  the  toll-bars. 

The  aggregate  length  of  the  turnpike  roads  of  Great 
Britain  is  now  calculated  to  he  '25,0U0  miles,  at  a  gene- 
r.il  breadth  of  from  fifty  to  sixty  feet.*  The  cost  of 
keeping  these  roads  in  repair  differs  considerably  in 
dift'erent  counties.  In  the  neighbourhood  of  London, 
the  annual  cost  is  about  L.550  per  mile,  in  Yorkshiae 
it  is  L.CO,  and  in  Wales  L.'20.  The  average  is  about 
L.50.  Nearly  all  tlie  road  trusts  are  in  debt  for  bor- 
rowed money.  It  is  supposed  that  the  debt  is  on  an 
average  L.320  per  mile,  or  probably  L.G,0()0,OUO  for 
tlie  whole. 

Law  of  the  Hand. — For  general  convenience  and  safety, 
drivers  of  vehicles  and  ridel's,  in  travelling  along  a  road, 
a]*e  expected  to  take  a  particular  side  ;  and  this  practice 
is  now  so  well  understood,  and  is  in  itself  so  proper,  as 
to  have  become  a  part  of  the  common  law.  The  law 
of  the  road  is,  that  when  drivers  meet  from  different 
directions,  each  shall  keep  his  left  hand  to  the  wall  or 
footpath.  Secondly,  when  one  driver  overtakes  another, 
and  wishes  to  pass  him,  he  must  keep  his  left  hand  to 
tho  vehicle  which  he  passes,  in  the  case  of  either 
meeting  or  passing,  each  party  is  entitled  to  the  half 
of  the  road.  The  s:imo  rules  a|>ply  to  riders.  If  these 
regulations  be  neglected,  and  an  accident  occur,  the 

•  Turnpike* were  w  calleil  fmni  poK^  or  Ixirs,  swung  on  u  pivot, 
liuving  bi%>n  phu'Cil  on  tliexn,  iind  tunu><l  eitlirr  way  wlicn  duiM 
were  jiaiiL  Cutes  iiro  nuwftubstituttd  for  tluM*  jh^U-s  in  nr«at 
Uritaiu.  In  Cicnnany,  the  {lulc  Im  titill  uh'iI,  ono  etn\  boing  *lu* 
preiacd  to  raibc  the  other,  and  k)  iwruiit  a  free  v'^-i-t'h^'* 


# 


CHAMBERS'S  INFORMATION  FOR  TTIE  PEOPLE. 


tlie  ii 


t  o(  the  lin«  or  rami,  wnf 

'  Mlwiy^  hwi  BanW  in  nn  eiU-aordiniry  drgtip,  giSMitly 
tn  IholoM  of  the  pmpricum.  Ireland  tni  kbout  3<1(l 
ailtos  t^  cuDala,  mnsHj  gnvenmeiK  undntakiDj^  uid 
In  gencnl  thry  paBwm  litClF  tmJp. 

Stolliind  hB«»  nmnbn-of  cannlijbutthiiyiiroehieflj 
oonllnril  M  the  wtalem  and  mid  dntrirt  of  Ihe  comitry. 
That  viiiioh  [)nwe»«  Ihe  brgHit  tnfltr  U  the  Forth 
nnr]  I'ltdi'  Vana.],  rraehlaa  trom  llie  Clyde,  n  dlort  w>^ 
hUx-v  bmuUarton,  (a  the  Forth  M  Gnuigcniaulh,  Thu 
cBiml,  whlcti  w«a  ojiened  in  ITHO,  and  nffordu  (t  ready 
oommimiottioii  for  Bmall  v««ieU  brtivpoti  the  ciial  ano 
w«9t  poMl,  extend*  39  miles  in  tonph ;  it«  highest  IpvoI 
!■  160  tr*l,  with  20  Ipcfca  On  lh«  easletn  acciivily  and 
19  on  the  weataro.  The  eannl  is  connected  with  Gl»«- 
row  l.j  ■  aldo  cQl ;  and  it  U  now  joioed  by  the  Union 
C^oaL  which  exleiidn  Itoni  near  it»  cnstern  oitivinlty 
lo  Rdinburgh.  This  latter  canal  hu  proved  b  ixior 
oominclnlcl  ipccoUtiHo,  but  has  been  of  great  Benriw 
..  ».'  1 .  _  1.    ....  • ....] —  — 1  ..  ^  cheap 


The 


to  Edinbnrftli,  hy  imrDdueing  coal  nt  a  cheap  rale 
the  oily,  and  affording  an  exceedingly  c<m»en!ec*  ~"- 
df  oonreyanea  (or  goods  to  and  from  GUsgoi 
Odedonian  Canal  i»  formed  in  a  groat  meaanrc  by  a 
slwin  of  lakcB,  Hlretehing  aerti™  the  country  from  In- 
vomew  nn  the  cast  U)  l-ooh  Eil  on  the  west  ecus 


.  \nd  1 10  feci  at  lop,  which  nffo 
LlcB  of  31  gunB,  or  merchant  vemwh 

Thta  great  canal  waa  unJortalwn  a» 

■  pubtlc  work  by  goreminent ;  aad  Bller  a  labour  uT 
viKlittea  years  waa  opened  in  1622,  haTing  Uien  ci»t 
feiM.miD.  It  poeceswH  13  loola  ua  the  east  and  12 
looks  on  lliu  wert  niMt,  the  higlteat  Itvtl  being  94  (set. 
Uy  tbb  eanal  the  dangera  qf  rounding  the  northvm 


•  pftsangi-  Ic 


nii^of  tho  island,  by  iho  PviitUn4  Tilth,  iiiny  Iw 

araijed :  bn(  fruui  tlio  picjndicc*  of  scameii  it  lia« 
never  bwin  loudi  oavd,  aud  ia  now  abandoned  bv  go- 
vmirnnit  In  a  pilvalo  cuinpany.  As  a  niDaiu  uT  allow- 
Ing  »t*ani-h<uia  to  run  betwuui  tho  Uydv  and  lav^fuu"! 
tilt  caoal  hu  tiqen  o(  jDHl  in^ilN  WTvJiv 


Steam 


asting  and 


vii^ation  has  hiUxrM  b 


and  vnyagtng  ^a  riven 

ria  it^ia*  freally  a 


•Hand  till 
Q  Uwrut 

doni  and  coloulca  tiJO  ateam-veBels,  poiad 
gregalo  burden  of  '\fit>0  torn.  Tba  rim* 
they  piineipally  plied  wFr«  lU«  TiuniM^  IM 
the  dyde,  the  Vorlli,  the  Tyna,  a  "  "  "* 
Clyde  alone  ownf^l  75  .J— «■*. 


regnlarty  between  dilTeRnt  eoaiiu  in 
land,  and  between  din^nnt  porta  and  lln 
Prom  the  Thamca,  alao.  «wimer»  »n>w*M 
dlflbrent  porta  en  the  oonlinent.  In  alicM, 
are  now  found  trafertliig  (hi*  whol*  lin*  id  en 
in^  uji  and  down  tivfc*,  and  linldlng  caOiii 
Willi  [H>rta  III  iliitant  puia  of  lUc  jttubo. 

One  nf  the  Titxtrt  linaa  c^f  larj^e  urmtoen  M 
ration  in  Bntain  [a  that  bctw<.-'n  1-^mhiirsb 
don;  it  ha«  for  lereral  jeari  c.inmrted  ol  hi 
■ight  reaaeb  of  abaat  BOO  Kim  ea^r  •b4  I 
—  •__...  i^^  a-week,  Formrrij,  t^jl 
laols  oc«UpM,  on  an  a»«i»W**'' 
days,  btit  BOinetimea  il  wal  tUm  <<«■ 


regnlarly  I 
aailing  Hma< 
lays,    bnt    FtmnrmnvH    It   WB«    friKnr   nnv^i 

lojage  by  Ktvam  !a  performed  with  i  iintiln 
eiBinii  in  rroni  lU  to  S4  houn,  ihe  ■"-'Win.t 


milcn.     Tlie  line 


packeU  bcl«»^. 
ana  TitllM,  Una 
AbrnUrn  moi  LiM 


DuWi 

dxpaiiJ  London,  Luiulon  and  Rotterdam,  td 
Hull,  I.dndun  and  Nvwcanth',  Aiuthiintiwtii* 
Dover  and  ralaia,  are  all  ujkhi  a  arciil  i-rtit^  ■ 
nn  amount  of  comniuuicatinn  fur  [•auni^eni 
■it  for  goode,  ut  ifhidi  uo  dcicriplioa  uf  aaiial 
vev  any  just  idei, 

'rhe  aWo  nny,  huwi      .,         __ 
cluJo  llxise  Viiuiln  whirh  priicmd     _ 
morelhantwii  lUiji'' Juration.  LaiUrly 
added  atcanieri  wtiicli  prooeFd  b«l~— 
tJslMin.  and  theocc  to  MMena ;  thai 
Uia  Cape  of  Good  Hope :  and  man  lahjjri 
which  uiatte  liie  voyage  aemaa  the  Atlulj 
niciHs  of  regular  e,>iTiiiiuuiiM[i.iii  betmw 


•  7i1i  of  April  1US«,  m 
V.:rt,  ..II  ila'  TM  uf  tite  umu  mondi  j  bat  Ai4 
i.cciipii^d  un  lUi:  iKwragu  wuro  only  It.  till 
I'^laLliilicd  ilie  praetic^ibility  iiT  ■lauu>TH*lte> 
Ihe  Atlanlic,  and  nu«  llitru  ura  wvanl  ttU 
rL'^tiii'  liil«rvalii.  Uciidea  crvsaing  (nm  ImA 
tol,  ami  Liverpijol,  to  Nvw  \ark.  and  MHil 
i»  al«i  a  hiio  of  l.Uj;o  sleaniMw  vhUk ■SI 
Liverpool  aiiU  ItaUIai  in  Nova  Souia.  Ifetll 
tlio  All^iiilie  t.It'aiu-buaU  ii>  tli"  UnlUt  QmI 
u>«:u<ur.<»  in  I'otiro  length  27.S  feet.  Ibr  W 
J...'  .  1'  -M  Ju,r^o  i-racr  imcIi.  and  ah*  it  «•■ 
'  tt'Lij.    The  outwartl  Tojrafa  )lli 

It  sliLiiin-vcHi'l  rrqulTMairift 

'1'  coui,  and  hvr  booivwMd  1«|N 
[.ii's^'v  aud  uHint  ponifclM 

■  .11.  I  K'-i-K  of  Noilh  AOBiiH 

I. II  or  any  otiier  naa 


power,  u  apiilicablu  to  prol.olHi.i., 
article  on  the  &TE4ii-EnciSK,  wo  need  here  only  allude 
to  the  inUnordlnary  ohaugea  wliich  havo  bren  i-lt'wli'd  I 
a  nuivoj-anw  by  im  and  luid  by  tliii  newly  ap- 


M^^utm  eonvo 


by  tteam-rcMelit,  chiefly  for  rimUjlM  (MM 
inifSv.^^  v\m'Jl  ixc  nioKily  made  hi  Knj^luU. 


ly  mi  Praioh  btkO  ' 


Ik  evCKnuncctl  in  ttic  hMimy  U  inlaiirl 


lit**  vvra  wrtkbliHl 

Ml  and  M'l'. 


.<  alui  ■nuU- 
'I  ]iarU>aimit  Cw 


■n  ia  Uiltein. 

riiia  UnB  of  nilwK)'  tl 

I)- leml  ihrmiglioiit 


.    .  Wily  [•*itlil«m 

Twt  vie  iiitic,  «nd  iliJs  doM  not  prodoDt 
itnnlatlwi,  which  it  inml<I  bo  abmluUlj'  nvniw 
•  obnUw  Itj  an  monv  (if  Hxp#riililni«.  Evurj' 
Im,  la  niTiud,  «r  bant  tnaa  a  tmly  lUafgM 
»n,  al  vnrl«iia  plaes  tn  )ta  oounoT  f^  Uib  b 
r  D*U  vharh  il  ii  iwnaianry  to  tnlnnu  la  ■  art- 
Unl  ntlnv  (haii  avtiiit  b;  iiieBimniiiirAl  miiUy. 
I*  twamni  now  ^tsd,  nearly  all  rulwava  an 

jla  tlw  eMT,  lli"r"  i-  •  ^•"~  ■■'  •■•."■■■'  '■■  .iri-lnn 


ordinary  roughness  of  the  iron. 

Hails. — The  experience  of  ten  years  has  introduced 
a  few  iinprovenients  in  tlie  construction  and  manage- 
ment of  lines  of  railroad.  At  first,  malleable  iron  rails 
were  supposed  to  be  preferable  to  those  of  cast-metal ; 
1>ut  now  it  is  undei*Htood  that  cast  rails,  if  ]>ropt>rly 
made,  will  endure  all  the  tear  and  wear  to  which  thev 
can  be  fairly  subjected.  To  be  of  the  strongest  and 
best  form,  each  individual  rail  should  be  at  least  twelve 
feet  in  length,  six  inches  in  depth  at  the  two  ends,  and 
thence  gradually  deepening  beneath  in  the  fi.sh-bclly 
form  to  the  centre.  The  tliickness  should  be  fully  one 
inch,  and  the  upper  surface,  on  which  the  wheel  is  to 
run,  bhould  be  an  inch  and  three-<|uarterfl  or  two 
inches,  so  as  to  project  laterally  like  the  cross  top  of 
the  letter  T.  The  rails  are  to  be  8up]>orted  at  their 
joint  extremities,  where  they  are  ]>iuucd  together,  and 
also  at  intcr\'als  of  every  three  feet.  The  supporters 
should  consist  of  ti'ansverse  bars  of  wood,  sunk  in  the 
grouud;  by  being  thus  crossing  from  the  one  track  to 
the  other,  both  lines  of  rail  are  kept  from  separating 
or  shifting,  and  if  there  is  any  tendency  to  subside, 
both  are  equally  lowered.  On  many  lines  of  railroad 
stono  sleepers  are  preferred  to  wood,  but,  as  it  seems, 
with  no  adequate  advantage.  Stone  sleepers  ])resent 
too  unyielding  a  base  to  the  rolling  of  the  whc«>lH,  and 
cause  a  jolting  most  injurious  to  the  mechanism  of 
the  carriages.  In  sevcmi  instances,  lines  with  8t<me 
sleepers  have  been  taken  up,  and  wood  substituted. 
The  railw^ays  in  Belgium  are  laid  on  wood.  To  attain 
the  highest  perfection  in  the  mode  of  laying  rails,  a 
plan  has  been  followed  on  the  Newciistle  and  Shields 
line,  and  also  on  that  of  the  Grezit  Western  between 
London  and  Itristol,  of  placing  rails  having  an  even 
under  side  upon  longitudinal  beams  of  timber,  which 
are  united  at  certain  intervals  by  transverse  bars: 
thus  the  whole  substructure  is  a  handsome  framework 
laid  on  the  ground,  and  presents  the  best  species  of 
sup|M)rt.  In  general,  this  will  be  found  too  expensive 
a  kind  of  railway ;  and  it  may  be  anticipated  that  the 
method  i>f  fixing  rails  ujion  cross  bars  of  wood,  at  inter- 
vals of  three  feet^  will  ultimately  O0me  into  universal 
use. 


are  about  an  inch  aud  a  htflf  in  depth.  *  1 
of  locomotivcis  are  now  made  watbiMit  fl 
fore  and  hind  pair  r^uire  flanges  of  rat 
usual  depth.  Wheels  of  large  diunel 
greater  ease  over  the  rails  than  those  wl 
because  the  large  ones,  in  this  as  in  sU 
have  more  power  in  overcoming  obsCsd 
is  a  proper  medium  in  the  dimensions  of  « 
wheels  are  inconvenient  in  point  of  heigl 
to  produce  a  rocking  motion.  It  woal 
the  most  suitable  diiimeter  for  the  wsgg 
wheels  is  from  two  and  a-half  to  three 
the  usual  size.  The  wheels  of  the  loeo 
diameter  of  about  four  feet ;  to  malra  til 
considered  injudicious. 

Curvaturt4  inUhe  Jioad. — ^Thoeurrsta 
road  ])re8ent  some  obfltniotions,  since  tfa 
car  and  waggons  being  usually  fixed 
frames,  every  bend  of  the  tracks  most  9 
some  lateral  rubbing,  or  pressure  of  thi 
the  rails,  which  will  occasion  an  innreass 
the  wheels  are  iixed  to  the  axles^  so  that 
volve  together,  according  to  the  mods  d 
hitherto  most  usually  adopted  in  fiTriig 
wheel  that  moves  on  the  outside  or  loa( 
bo  slided  over  whatever  'littanftf  it  eaos 
of  the  other  rail,  in  case  both  wheels  roUi 
same  diameter.  Thin  is  an  obstmetioa 
almost  every  railroad,  since  it  is  larelj  { 
make  such  a  ruad  straighL  The  sbmU 
that  is  allowable  should  not  be  less  thai 
300  feet.  1  n  going  round  a  height,  the 
on  no  account  be  so  small  as  thi%  m  a 
engine  drivers  may  have  a  eh 


so  prevent  collisions  and  overtakiDss  cm  < 
Inclined  Planes. — Where  the  **?irTi^ 
is  greater  than  that  for  which  the  Ofdi 
calculated,  the  ascent  most  be  efilBetsd  bg 
additional  power,  the  amount  of  whieh  t 
computed,  since  in  those  parts  no  addH 
of  the  cars  or  wheels  is  to  be  providsd 
the  additional  resistance  arisiag  from  n 
overcome.     If,  for  instance,  tlie  additm 


BHCfth  hiioinniliB  oaittMi  of  ■  Umc  it*1l 


nil;  wDNUd-clnmi  evriafU*  ar*  (mra 
^*^^k  pilei)  Bud  futiDDil  t 


CHAMBERS'S  INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


Iiigber  than  they  need  bo  ;  a  com 
le  rate  of  3d.  per  mijB   lor  Mcl 


uuld  ci 


peontory  amount  of  tratKe. 

Thtre  arc  teftAta  aKCeQcrncea  In  ihp  urangentnU 
of  »11  Iho  mriwayB  whioh  doaervc  ti>  Uri  iQcnttaned. 
Each  line,  bi^iug  tlio  properl;  of  n  prix-ato  tasudntioii, 
ia  Mcludcd  from  aae  end  tu  thaotlier  frooi  the  iiitru- 
■iOD  of  the  public ;  and  (hi^refore  no  ji»(1iiig  or  coiifii- 
eion  tokea  place,  either  upoii  anti^iiiig  or  levriog  tlw 
carriiiftes.  The  raits  of  ono  line,  iiliewiaa,  j-jin  tliose  of 
anolhor,  by  wbicb  loeana  caa'ags^  generally,  proceed 
onwards  williout  chsng;ing  paiisengi-rs  or  luj^ge.  A 
Oarriagiiin  whicb  paasengera  take  llicicBiiatJ  at  Loiiduu 
BCKB  utraight  on  to  I'rastou — that  U,  along  th?  lines  of 
HICM  oiiinpaniiia.  Tlio  extraonlinary  magnitude  of 
the  railiray  undortakingfl  ha«  enabled  the  dirpctora  to 
organiie  rules  which  eunld  never  be  enforced 
irregular  Bcramble  of  stage- coach ing.    It  io  customary 

to  drHB  tlie  aubordi'nate  fiuiolionutte  

In  a  oaiform  reienitling  Ihi 
*aah  inan  havuiB  liia  uaudinr 


wure  allowed  to  raise  by  Bl>ar«  was  £»fiM 
were  besides  allowed  to  raiso  by  toon  £\S,i1 
Mnaidrrnble  nirfnber  of  Iheao  railwayi  ti«i 
or  at  Ii^ut  crude  apeciilalione,  bavo  nnor  « 
and  the  number  of  railways  actually  bejtan 
pored  Of  Aufelcd  atf be ^imrinacf  IHRtt 
kinEdoin,  was  ody  tboM  nify.  The  prluc^ 
— tbo  Liverpool  and  Manclie^lrrltaltway,  ab 
two  uiilra  long,  and  uuiliug  tii'^se  popnlmu  i 


if  llio  Lou 


ing  peeuVuuIiT  i 
1  to  tlio  hielic 
m  nfficor  Bliall  < 


m  police— 

of  hia  drens  ;  aa  that,  if  any  one  be  guilty  of 
liieivlltty  nr  inattention,  ho  can  he  eatily  reuortcd  '~ 
hi*  iiu[HiiSon.  There  is  one  plea^ng  peeuVuuIlj 
the  arrangeniBnta,  which  ie  entitled 
cammendalinn :  it  ia  the  rule  Utat 
any  acoouut  take  a  fee  troiu  paesengeni,  on  psio  o[  in- 
Ktant  diimiliuinl.  Tliose  who  inugine  that  fooa  lo  guards, 
oiiaelinien,  or  wailare,  bi«  requiiiits  lo  cnauro  oivilitj, 
wilt  be  Burprieed  to  find  that  railway  aUendinla  are 
infinitely  mure  polite  and  attentive  tliau  Ibeii  bretlireii 
of  the  ooaeh  eonveyanwe.  Tbia,  in  ilaelf.  yivea  Ira- 
TBtllng  by  milway  it  great  superiority  oror  uU  otlior 
—  '--  if  pmblio  oonraj-anco. 


has  alwayH  apjieareil 
naKBd  of  the  rnrious  r» 
plete  in  alt  iU  arranerii 

tM  the  tinea  there  are  <vai  ting- rooms  U-ih  for  ladiea 
and  gentlemen  nt  tlie  different  elaliDnii  but  exduairely 
of  iboae  on  thti  line,  tbi're  is  a  Urge  and  oomTuodioiu 
house  of  entertainment  at  tlio  Rirminghnm  terminus, 
where  meals  Bband  ready  prcpnrorl  for  the  panseiigors. 
At  Hampton,  a  place  tialf  wny  from  (he  luelropolis, 
and  where  the  train  atops  ten  ininulea,  there  is  likcwiau 
a  Urge  esCabUslimeut  in  the  tomi  of  an  open  booth  or 
ahop,  where  tsa,  c<ifreG,  or  vjaDila  of  a  more  aubitantial 
kind,  with  different  liquors,  are  sold  ou  the  instant  to 
those  who  reynire  pefitahnieirt. 

Panengeni  whs  make  the  journey  tor  the  Rrst  time 
by  the  mail  train,  will  be  nniuaed  by  obbcrviii;;  a  tra- 
velling iioai-oHice  in  the  string  of  earriucs.  Tbia 
"  Grand  Northern  Railway  I'ost-Ofitce,"  aa  l£e  iDttorip- 
tion  an  it!  aide  dL-nott*,  ia  a  earriai^  eoniiatiug  of  two 
amall  apartments,  one  of  whieh^KjHnntpriali.'d  to  tfic 
guard,  whan  doty  is  lo  cachi^^Phe  baei*,  aotl  tho 
other  is  fitted  up  with  a  table  R>F  sorting  leUera,  and 
holes  round  Ihe  walla  fur  tlicir  rccviniun.  The  nutnner 
in  which  the  dulin  of  thcelcrk  aiid  guard  are  per- 


Dng_  the  beat  ma- 
*yon)modft- 


.  Outaide  the  vehicle  a  apecieaaf  Belie  eatonded 
by  a  hoop,  and  into  this  Ihe  loUer-bag*  are  dropped  aa 
the  train  aweepa  onward  in  its  oourae,  the  baj^i  which 
are  to  be  left  being  at  tlie  aaino  lime  (osaed  from  the 
window  by  llie  guard.  Tlie  fi-esll  bag  of  letura  being 
received,  it  iaapeedily  Dpeueil.iUoouinrtB  ra-arranged, 
and  a  new  bag  tor  next  Awn  being  made  up,  it  is  i>ro- 
jeeted  aa  before  at  ih^didl  of  lift  dealination.  By  Ifaia 
nieana  a  letter  may  VpHttun,  sent  through  the  poat- 
allior,  and  delirt-red  wRe  distance  of  twenty  lailai,  in 
tlw  mpocB  of  a  single  MOr. 

The  Dunibvr  ol  lailway  coni[iauiiw  inoiinani«d  bv 
act  ofiKrliaraanl  up  Mil  Jami""  l»^'i    '-  »!"<»'  »"■- 


I!uUaiw  III  1I»  Ratl>R>y  Ti 
London  and  Ihnnliigliam  Ilallnraf,  a] 
and  (welr«  milra  long,  conlwcliug  Ih 

the  centre  of  England  r  *«  Gf^nd  J 

coniinHiiTgthBLoii.ir.n  and  BhmfnfthaMfl 


iv^llj  Suutb^mplon  :  the 

w-iy,  wionoctiiig  ihoe  p 

tliri  Kdinhurgli  nnd  GloagowlUih  .__ , 

an.l.\)Tllailway,We  the  prUteipal  liDCCi  M 
if  (ho  whole  of  these  umlerlakinga  U  tb*  Gm 
m.  Thia  line  liaa  two  traeks,aa<liarinw| 
while  on  ill  other  milwa^s  in  tbla  minrtijflb 


Ferenue  of  which 


in  GT«at  Un- 


ret;  thecanvMl 
Weatern,  laoMfeM 
loal  prospcrwaaafd 
ind  llinilnitfaH%*4 
.  ards  of  fl«,uM:i 
leof  Ihe  Grand  d unction,  wliieii  ^aJMlk 
speed  al  which  railway  train*  aana^fl 
.wvnly  to  twcBly-fii'i.-  iniloa  ft  IHV 
me«  it  is  mueU  more.  At  ike  o>i>i^ 
a  journoyfroni  London  to  Livetpaal-lg 
ipaifonnod  in  about  nine  Imustanl^ 
lea  cilended  north  to  Kdinbnrgli,  it 
from  London  ti>  Ihal  city  will  be  |  ifinnsrfU 
hoora,  or  pcrliopa  lew.  Travelling  by  ittm 
of  Ihe  oommon  rates  of  qieed  la  UMliiA! 
ger  Ihui  fitago-onehlng^  basMr 
perfi'illr  under  eonlroL  A^f  4 
perMinat  injuriee  which  have  oenirnrf  «B  nit 
with  acnroelyan  exception,  Btli'ibMaUetolh* 
nesa  nf  llie  engine-drivers,  and  by  Ih"  iwifl^ 
auftcrioi'  claiis  of  men  to  direct  the  »atioBa  aid 
(liu  fi'uiiful  eause  of  miuhief  u  in  the  tamlPl 
otiviah^d.  With  this  impruvemei 
Kiqa  will  bo  ranked  among  the 
MKdoua  iiivenlioni  of  urt. 


k        ^m^ 


uUt 


ItJBg  «t  tlia  Tarivty  at  xulnikl  (omn  tnmad  uk 

ur  u  tiMlva  of  vditr  ditoaln  ruU«l«<l  liv 
i^Muui — (l»  mind  iuitu«J'x»«iwci«l«>  U>jjdU«w 


J.  rnaKtnai^  nut 

that  ttiH  i.lTnimiiB  of  ujr 
li*  pimobi,  luiiu^  >llt^iiM 


lurCL'S'^arv  to  takt.'  i:ri.'»it  cart-  to  avi.i<.l  t-rrorH  ari^ilJ2 
from  vuriatioiis  in  the  forin.i  ut  aiiiinal.s  at  (litiorent 
jjfi'irids  of  tli«-ir  existence. 

A  niiiiilitT  of  sprcirs,  difrorin;*  from  c.icli  other  in 
trivial  jKunt!-,  hut  having  a  f:trt)n;;  ;;»Mir'ral  rt'f-cmblance, 
an-  saiil  to  hclon^  to  one  t/enins.  The  ponera  mosi 
nearly  uUir<l  are  united  into  oim/amily;  several  families 
into  an  onirr;  and  s'tveral  orders  into  a  r/d**.  The 
class,  therefore,  c«)ntainjj  a  very  large  number  of  speeieM, 
many  of  them  dillerin^  widely  from  eaeli  other,  but  all 
ii;:r<.ein^  in  Humu  prominent  and  important  character. 
Anil  the  chtHses  composing  the  Animal  Kingdom  are 
arrang«'d  under  four  groups,  on  account  of  their  cor- 
respondence in  certain  general  particular?,  and  their 
diflerenee  in  others  :  thesi;  are  callcil  siib-kinffflitfnt>. 
This  is  the  alphabet  of  the  science ;  and  when  thiH  has 
lieeii  ac({uired,  the  student  will  proceed  to  hifl  grammar, 
^\hieh  eoiu<if«Ls  uf  biich  a  Knowledge  of  the  principal 
divisions  of  tiie  animal  kingdom,  as  will  enable  him  to 
read  the  language  of  nature  with  understanding,  ku  as 
to  learn  from  the  bimple  ruime  much  ri'^pecting  the 
Htmcture  and  character  of  the  {larticular  Rpecimen,  of 
^vhieli  ho  would  otherwise  be  ignorant. 

rillMARV  DIVISION?  OF  Tlir.  AM  MAI.  KINfiPOM, 

In  considering  the  primary  subdivisions  of  the 
Animal  Kingdom,  it  m  desirable  to  view  them  at  Hnt  in 
their  inoht  (simple  aspect,  and  to  regard  merely  the 
points  of  agreement  amongst  all  the  beingH  contained 
in  each  group,  and  their  mobt  striking  ditfcrences  from 
the  niemberii  of  other  groups.  The  Hubordinate  difTe- 
reiiees  amongst  the  forms  contained  in  any  one  of  the 
primary  groups,  will  be  tubt-eijuently  attended  to. 
J''i»lli»wing  the  armngement  <»f  C-uvier,  which  in  this 
^<'^pect  in  unexceptiiniable,  we  divide  the  animal  kiiig- 
di»m  into  fnur  sub*kini;doms — VK.iii'KimArA,  AitTicu- 
I.AIA,  .^lo|.|.^M■.v,  and  Uapiata.  The  ]>riuL'ipal  charac- 
ter i'»iic-«  of  these  Will  now  be  pointed  out. 

Till."  N'KrtTKimvTv  derive  their  name  from  the  |>ecu- 
liarity  of  their  skeleton,  which  essentially  consists  of  a 
back-bofif*  or  spinal  column,  formed  of  a  number  of 
Ke|»anite  ]>inces,  ho  uniteil  as  to  combine  great  sti'ength 
with  f1''\iliility.  These  an;  ternuHl  rrr/r/'rii".  Each  is 
j..  I  }..iMti -1  \\\i),  .1  I.ir:;''  :ij"Ttui'e ;  an-i,  \^\\vu  ;il|  are 
.1  e  I',*::.'!  >n^  l:;'t-  i-  JiiriiHil,  in  wliirh  is  iii.!:n-d 
■. ■  '  '.■■.■■'.■•,  a  \.-rv  iin]<<>r;:(i.t  j-.iit  »;t  the  ii.  r- 
■'.  -  i-.  'I-  .ff  ilitViT'.!!*  Iiipi  tli'"  ■ .  /,r(«  /■  d' 
:  !  ..I.  ■■i.y  -ijli-t.-itiC'',  m;'i--  rvi-  rit  !<• 
A-  ■■!.'■  •■\rr>-Mi:v,  tin-  -mi. .si  e-,'.-.nnii 

m  I 

;:i:'i    ;i    l.irj'"    b'-riv    ^trii."ti;r",    lii>'    >A '/.V, 

■;"..i;"_\  ■:!■■  ■.■i!i<l  liii"  tii*'  prwti  I'ti--:!  «-t   tiie 

I-  'i  !  I  .  I.  .     I !■  :■■.■•." i^  iii;i-»,  u  hii'li  ii;  i\  !•■■  r-  ;:;ir'liil  as 

j-.!.-.- .     .  ■■{   lii-      I'll. .'J  n;in''A  )  .'lU'l  fi  III'"  iir;::iM.'^ 

At  :!;■   .i!!i«  r  i-\ri-'  ;Mi»v  it  i-- 


/  ■  ■.  ■     '  ■ 
-\    :■  !■: 
■   i-    !:■     . 

:   in-it 

.*■   ImI.     1 

!.    i-   •  ■■:■ 


I 


I" 


I 


•  •  i.'j  ii"i  i  iJir-i  a  '-'I'-,  ih"  -i/-  aii<i  j'riiliiti:;atii>ii  nt" 
v.".  -li  .!.""  !!■>  i.;]!\  tT!' ar- r  in  |  ]-<<;<(>rtii>ii  ti  thi*  f-nsall 
!i'"<f  ill"  ■.'■:.  (  i.ijiii  etiil  wiih  llji*.  :-.j'iiial  ei-Iiiiim  I 
siri'  a  ►i-ri'*-  «  I  "'">,  wlin'Ii  |  i--*  ■  M  *.:>>'.n  i'  on  eaoh  silr, 
:.».  I  /•  11'  !  .ill  V  ;ri«  •  r  a::am  in  a  !■!'<  .i  -i  -IkiH'',  et>c|f>iiig  a 
t\-  'y  f«i..it  ■  f  :h--  fl.'-tj,  I'l  V  Jiii'i  :ir>-  e-iiiTaiii'- 1  si.nie 
.'  •[.  ■  ■iji-:-  '!  Mi'i-iii-Mi.  .\['j'iii»  I  t>i  It  ar"  :wo 
I  .ii  ■  .  I  ■  .'  '  rv  I, J-  f  i  fit  fiifi,-,  «lii'!i  at'.'  U'-naiiv  tlo- 
I      ♦:   :-■.•  '  ■-  •■]    :     •■■:  i   'i  -"i.      .\!'!:  ■ 


:-i    tli<  -•    ai"    A «  TV 


They  have  all  red  blood,  which  is  projit'liei 
th«f  sv^t(.*m  bv  a  muscular  heart.  The  moi 
nihhed  with  two  jaws,  which  arc  ]ilaced  one 
fu-fiire  the  other ;  there  are  never  miire  than 
they  never  open  j-ideways  as  in  the  Articula; 
are  usually  armed  with  teeth,  w  hich  arc  in 
very  analogous  to  bono. 

The  A'etebrata  arc  characterised  by  a  higli 
(>f  intcUiyrncc  than  is  possessed  by  any  otb 
The  animal  powers  of  sensibility  and  spontai 
tion  arc  also  greatly  dcveIi>|>oil ;  and  in  m 
with  these,  a  complete  s>Tnmetry  or  conw 
between  the  two  sides  of  the  body  is  obeeml 
nally.  But  this  s\mmetry  does  not  extei 
organs  of  vegetative  life,  which  arc  iirego 
I>osed  in  the  cavities  which  they  occupy. 

In  the  Articti^ta,  the  skeleton  is  rj/rmo/, 
ing  not  only  the  ner\'ous  system  bat  the  nit 
with  the  muscles  which  move  it ;  these,  as  is 
in  the  crab  or  lobster  (which  arc  the  largn 
of  this  group),  being  attached  to  the  intuv 
firm  casing.  This  skeleton  is  formed  of  a  n 
pieces  or  segments^  jointed  or  ariitulated  tc 
whence  the  name  of  the  gmup.  The  centi] 
very  characteristic  illustration  of  this  struem 
legs,  as  well  as  the  body,  arc  here  seen  to  be 
iu  a  firm  envelope,  of  which  the  pieces  aro  < 
together  by  a  flexible  membrane;  and  thesej 
the  b(Mly  ai*e  nearly  alike  along  its  entire  \tnt 
in  the  Iiigher  classes  of  this  sub-kingdom,  ti 
movuiiicnt  is  performed  entirely  by  tlie  legs,  ^ 
tace:^  or  by  the  legs  and  wings,  as  in  Insects 
nients  of  the  body  tu  which  these  are  attachedi 
united  together,  in  order  to  give  their  miudi 
point  from  which  to  act.  But,  in  the  lower  elai 
as  the  leech  and  worm,  where  the  extreme  : 
of  tho  body,  and  the  change  of  its  dimeiwioi 
only  means  of  locomotion  (no  members  being 
the  whole  envelope  of  tlie  body  is  so  soft,  thai 
sion  into  segments  is  scarcely  }»erccptible.  Tlu 
syMem  of  tlie  Articulata  is  not  by  any  means 
developed  as  tluit  of  the  Vcrtebrata;  in  get 
orgiins  «»f  taste  and  virion  are  all  that  c.in  be 
in  llierii :  tliit.-e  of  hearing  anil  Mm  11  biiru 
i':ily  l.\  a  lew  ol  the  h:i;l;,-r  tniiir-.  Tl.i-  im;:iiI-i 
^sl!■  :i  tii>  -e  are  priseiii,  i-^  i>\\>  n  \\v\  iZT'-nl  ; 
tu'M'V  !•  J.S  ti:an  .-i\.  M'lii'  ti..i:i  oni-  i'.»ir  ol  j  *« 
exi'-r,  and  lii«v  ..ii-  n  lateraliv.  '[  ii-'  i  .-.id  i^  w 
•  ■iiiy  iu  till'  li::^!!i..«t  ei.i--i's  is  j-ii-pi  ii-.i  I*  a 
heart.  J"h"  Artioiil.tta  l:a^^■  th- ir  u ;  .  ■.» 
a-i-ijiti  il  t'»  L'p  at  actiMiy  ot  i-ioi-mutii  :i.  '4"..i  ti 
l-'i'iiiaoi'e  I.I  iw^ihf'lirt'  :ieti'<Tis  •>!'  n  Ic^Ij  *• 
"1  ill-  e!.!.-"^  m  w  li.'i-li  tins  is  inii>t  i'\id»nt-  --I.-ii  • 
-  i-i  I'V  tar  I'  ••  iaiL;e--t  in  the  \v|i..lo  ar-i-Lil 
Ihf  l-i_\,  ul..^•h  i-  n--,ially  i.f  >iii:»ll  -i/i.  •!' 
priiu'ij-ai  t-nik  Imin  Ow  t'rL'a'w  i-f  'i\ir:,..'  h'.^\  i 
tl.f  iiiii-e]i-«  ulijeh  iiiuve  tiie  extr«je,iti» -^ ;  a:"l 
r/j'  ^i,i:::!ir!rtj  i-  iVf  ii  nt'-re  remark. tb!--  ni  lli-n 
th«-  \  I  rtebrata,  ext»iidiiig  in  j-arr  t-i  *\w  i^rc" 
tritii'M  a-  \»«'I|  a^  to  ihn'-r  i.t  -en***"  ao  I  fi:'t'-«n. 

1  he  LM'"np  t'{  M.ii  !  r  ^<  V  iu\i-t  ht-  de«<Ti^ii^l 
iTs  n«^ajni'  than  it«'  j<ositi>e  char.irtrT^.  ft''' 
:ho  ii.ti:i<-  ii'ipijit^,  i-- ill -re  r^ift.  aii-l  •Ir-.litTilCul 


ZOOLOGY.  — VERTEBILVTA. 


kc1«toii.  It  is  enveloped  In  a  loose  elastic  skin, 
in  tenned  the  mantle ;  and  the  outer  eurfacu  (»f 
lA  often  the  )>ower  of  secreting  a  Bliell.  But  this 
s  by  no  meauR  adapted  to  the  form  of  the  aninuil ; 
no  regular  Berica  of  joints  for  the  purpose  of  faci- 
g  t)ie  movement  of  tlic  body,  and  it  has  no  pro- 
ions  for  giving  protection  and  support  to  loconio- 
ppendages.  Moreover,  of  two  species  closely 
iu  general  structure,  it  is  often  ])rosent  in  one 
36ent  iu  the  other,  as  in  the  snail  and  slug  ;  and, 
present  in  both,  often  differs  much  in  form ;  so 
C  cannot  be  regarded  as  a  part  of  the  structure 
iai  to  our  idea  of  a  molluscous  animal.  That 
s  principally  founded  upon  the  softness  of  the 
the  high  development  of  the  organs  of  digesti(»u, 
ion,  &c. — in  fact,  of  the  system  of  veyetative  life, 

constitutes  the  bulk  of  the  body;  and,  on  tlie 
i,ry,  the  low  development  of  the  i>owers  of  sensa- 
ind  locomotion,  and  the  organs  of  animal  life, 
of  them  arc  entirely  fixed  t«)  one  spot  during  all 
le  very  earliest  period  of  lite ;  and  in  the  lowest 
S  there  is  a  tendency  to  aggregation  into  a  com- 
Htructure,  like  that  which  is  .noen  in  the  zoophytes. 
umlK'r  of  Mollusca  possessing  active  powers  of  lo- 
inn  is  comparatively  small ;  and  of  those  which 
t  entirely  fixed,  the  general  character  is  sluygiah- 

The  blood  is  generally  white ;  and  is  often  pro- 
by  a  powerful  heart,  and  distributed  through  a 
ex  system  of  vessels,  even  where  tlic  animal  seems 
;  inert.  Where  any  correspondence  between  the 
ies  of  tho  body  exists,  it  is  usually  restricted  to 
parts  which  are  concerned  in  the  functions  of 
I  life ;  especially  the  head,  on  which  tho  organs 
;ial  sense  (when  they  exist)  are  placed, 
diviniou  Uadiata  includes  the  lowest  members  of 
inial  kingdom,  and  those,  therefore,  which  most 

approximate  to  vegetables.  There  is  a  great 
icy  in  the  animals  of  this  group  to  associate  into 
und  structures,  in  which  each  individual  has  a 
I  degree  of  connexion  with  the  rest.  Thus  are 
1  tliuso  assemblages  which,  from  their  general 
bloncc  to  plants,  arc  commonly  called  Zoophytes 
kl  plants).  But  as,  iu  investigating  the  cliaruc- 
'Atree,  we  study  the  separate  flowers  and  leaves, 
tudying  the  zoophytes,  we  consider  the  individual 
a  which  form  them.  These  polypes,  in  common 
he  higher  kinds  of  radiated  animals,  which  arc 
1  to  exist  separately  (such  as  the  star-fioh),  arc 
luished  by  the  circular  arrangement  of  their  or- 
irouud  a  centre,  in  which  the  mouth  is  placed  ; 
om  this  arrangement  the  name  of  tho  group  is 
d.  There  is  thus  a  repetition  of  shnihir  parts ; 
s  in  miwt  other  instances  where  this  Is  the  case, 
it  power  of  reproducing  those  which  have  been 
In  many  of  the  Kjidiata  there  is  no  distinct  skelc- 
1  others  a  very  firm  support  exists,  almost  always 
ling  of  the  circular  arrangement  of  the  soft  parts,  j 
*A-anemone  is  a  good  example  of  the  lower  forms 
I  group ;  the  star-tish  or  sea-urchin  of  the  higher ; 
ew  species  belonging  to  it  possess  nmch  scnsibi- 
'  power  of  locomotion.  In  many  instances  there 
D  distinct  blood-vessels,  but  the  nourishment  is 
yed  to  tlie  tissues  by  direct  absorption  from  the 
i&l  surface  and  from  tho  walls  of  the  stomach. 


^^/W^^A^^^M^^  ^^^ 


SVD'KINGDOM—VERTEDRATA, 

ting  off  with  the  idea  of  a  vrrtchraUd  animal  as 
imeming  an  internal  bony  skeleton,  essentially 
wed  of  a  jointed  spinal  column,  containing  the 
1  marrow,  and  expanded  at  one  extremity  into  a 
OAsefor  the  reception  of  the  brain,  having  usually 
len  or  appendages  for  locomotion,  which  never 
dybttr  in  number,  endowed  with  all  the  five  senses, 
B  general  with  considerable  activity,  having  red 
,  and  altogether  a  more  complex  organisation  than 
«^  dasaes  pofeeas,  as  well  as  a  higher  degree  of 
genee^we  next  proceed  to  consider  ni>oii  what 

4.il 


principles  this  extensive  group  may  be  subdivided  into 
others,  which,  agreeing  in  all  these  particulars,  shall 
yet  differ  in  other  important  characteristics. 

The  ordinary  observer  would  readily  establish  three 
subdivisions  or  classes,  upon  tho  three  well-marked 
types  of  form  which  he  perceives  to  be  adapted  to 
existence  in  the  three  different  elements.  He  sees  that 
one  largo  group  is  entirely  confined  to  the  water ;  that 
tho  form  vi  its  body  is  pi^culiarly  adapted  for  motion  in 
that  medium ;  that  its  members  are  constructed  foi* 
most  advantageous  propulsirni  in  it ;  and  that  it  is  in- 
capable of  existing,  at  least  for  any  length  of  time,  out 
of  it.  This  group  lie  citlls  by  the  name  of  Fishes;  and 
he  naturally  associates  with  it  some  of  a  higher  class, 
which  resemble  it  in  external  appearance  and  mode  of 
life.  Another  large  group  ho  observes  to  be  formed  to 
pass  a  great  part  of  its  life  buoyed  up  only  by  the  air ; 
that  the  form  of  its  body,  tho  construction  of  its  mem- 
bers, and  tho  peculiar  covering  with  which  these  aro 
invested,  specially  adapt  it  for  this  peculiar  mode  of 
support,  and  for  rnpid  motltm  through  the  element  it 
inhabits ;  and  that  it  is  incapable  of  existing  for  moro 
than  a  few  minutes  under  water.  This  is  the  class  of 
BiKi>s;  and  wiih  it,  also,  tho  ordinary  observer  asso- 
ciates a  portion  of  a  superior  class,  which  is  ad:ipted 
in  part  to  a  similar  mode  of  existence.  A  third  group 
would  consist  of  animals  possessed  of  four  legs,  adapt- 
ing them  to  a  residence  on  the  earth,  and  to  motion  on 
its  surface ;  theso  would  also  be  found  to  agree  in  their 
incapability  of  living  beneath  water  like  fishes,  or  of 
rising  into  tho  air  like  birds.  Ihit  further  examination 
of  theso  qnadrupeds  would  disclose  some  important 
differences  in  structure  and  vitjil  actions,  which  sepa- 
rate them  into  two  great  diWsions,  very  widely  apart 
from  each  other.  It  is  soon  observed  that  some  aro 
warm'l/lootlcflf  maintaining  a  constant  and  elevated 
temperaturt*,  whilst  the  others  are  cohl-blomled,  their 
bodily  heat  varying  with  that  of  the  atmosphere,  and 
in  general  being  but  little  above  it ;  that  the  former  are 
covered  with  hair  or  something  analogous  to  it,  whilst 
tho  latter  are  coated  with  scales ;  and  that  the  former 
produce  their  young  alive,  or  are  viviparou^y  and  nou- 
rish them  afterwartls  by  suckling,  whilst  the  latter  rear 
them  from  eggs,  or  aro  oviparous.  Hence  this  group 
is  subdivided  by  the  naturalist  into  two,  of  which  one— 
that  of  Mammalia — is  superior  in  its  general  organisa- 
tion to  birds,  whilst  the  other — that  of  HKiTiLKfi — is 
intermediate  between  birds  and  fishes.  The  scientifio 
characters  of  these  groups  will  next  be  considered. 

Fisiiris  are  oviparous  vertebrata,  inhabiting  the  water, 
and  respiring  that  element  by  means  oi .hranchins  or 
gills,  which  are  filamentous  prolongati<ms  of  the  sur- 
face, into  which  the  blood  is  propelled,  in  ord^r  to  bo 
brought  into  relation  with  the  air  contained  in  the  sur- 
rounding water.  The  heart  only  contains  two  oavitios ; 
one  of  these  receives  the  blood  which  returns  from  the 
system,  and  the  otht.'r  propels  it  through  the  gills,  from 
which  it  is  conveyed  by  the  blood-ves«ols  to  the  body 
at  large.  They  are  in  general  cold-blooded,  but  few 
of  them  maintaining  a  temperature  above  that  of  the 
surrounding  medium.  Living  habitually  in  an  element 
which  is  nearly  of  the  Kime  specific  gravity  with  their 
bodies,  fishes  have  no  weight  to  sujiport,  and  have  only 
to  propel  themselves  through  the  water.  Accordingly, 
we  find  their  structure  adapted  for  great  freedom  of 
motion,  rather  than  fi»r  firmness  and  solidity  ;  progres- 
sive moti<m  is  chiefly  accomplished  by  the  lateral 
action  of  the  spine,  which  is  en<lowed  with  gi-eat  flexi- 
bility. The  vertebnv,  instead  of  being  articulated  by 
a  Hat  surface,  as  \\\  the  Manmialia,  or  by  a  ball-and- 
socket  joint,  as  in  serpents,  have  each  of  their  sfirfaces 
concave,  and  these  glide  over  a  bag  of  fluid,  which  is 
interposed  between  each  pair  of  vertebne.  I'he  tail  ib: 
flattened  vertically  ;  and  it  Ls  by  its  movement  from 
side  t4i  side  that  the  flsh  is  urged  forwards,  as  a  IJoat  by 
a  sculler.  The  pectoral  fins,  which  answer  to  the  hands 
of  man,  and  the  ventral  fins,  which  represent  the  feet, 
serve  rather  as  steering  than  as  propelling  organs ;  and 
they  also  assist  in  raising  and  depressing  the  animal 


CHAMBERS'S  iSfORMATlOK'F6n  flTfe  PKOPLE. 


In  tlie  tnt«r.  In  ■  large  prvpcrtioii  of  llii«  clus,  tlio 
•kelptOD  i(«arti]>giiianB  onl;  ;aii<l  in  s  len  rif  llii;  lowest 
tbo  Teiiebral  eolamn  ts  not  lUviiled  into  dulinct  por- 
llooa,  bat  foaat  aoe  cuntitiudiii  lube  of  grullc  or  eirn 
et  membruin  011I7.  The  earliiiK  of  tlie  bodv  of  Elihca 
'M  alinint  tlirays  cDVcred  wlili  Bcalai ;  luia  thase  ve 
■pmelimca  quite  luinjr,  ■ml  filled  ctuwif  iDgi-tfavr,  gepe- 
dkllj  where  Uic  interukl  ebi'tuton  ia  mfL 

lUFTiLla  are  alsaoiipufooa,  culd -blooded  vertcbrata  ; 
but,  in  their  adult  atiilt,  thuy  trtsilic  air,  vflucli  ie  iii- 
Uvdiiecd  iolo /iiHfit  arinteTDali»ritia;  and  thejr  moetl): 


are  formed  U 


a  land— tlioKC  which  inhabit  liio 


1  the  B^lEin  at 
Ivegu  I  Uix  |>un)  tmd  iaipure  bluod  are  mixed  in  tlio 
third  eavlly,  and  the  fluid  is  propelled  by  It  panljr  ta 
the  lung*  and  urllv  la  llic  builj'.  Thus  onlj'  part  uf 
the  blond  ouppilcd  fcoui  ths  hrart  ib  Bxpoeed  to  tba  in- 
flncDM  of  the  sir  at  each  coulracliDn  1  Bud  tliis  doR- 
aimejr  ia  aocompanled  b]'  a  general  inBctnesa  of  the 
Other  fnnotiiniii.  Their  motioni  aro  chieRy  fonfined  to 
cnwUnsand  swimming  1  forlhoiigli  a  few  at  times  can 
ran  audlcap tct^t quickl;,  tlieir aenrral hsbtta are  slug- 
^fti,  tlidr  svnaatiuui  obtiue,  aud  thtir  digettioa  alow, 
Hcneo  iimj  san  exial  for  a  long  Cinia  With  a  very  feeble 
exeroiwi  of  iheia  fanclioni,  under  cireurnataneea  that 
would  be  fatal  to  animaU  in  which  they  an  pcrfornicil 
with  greater  activity.  In  eold  and  temperate  climala 
ttiB]-i>aaithewho1a  winter  in  a  state  of  torpidity,  TlKce 
it  (TBBWr  dirvruly  of  fnrni  and  stFucturo  among  the 
mcmWi  of  llii«  elat^lhanln  any  oUier  dinaionof  tli« 
vertebniad  mHc*.  The  ivrfouei,  lixardt,  and  urpmii 
Dppear  to  different,  that  a  comuion  obcerver  would 
Mparatelheni  widely;  and  yet  Ibey  not  onlyngrceln  all 
tbo  forcjolng  ehamcMra,  but  paa*  into  vaoh  other  by 
IIdIu  of  traaaitian  eo  gradual,  that  it  ia  difficolt  to  clae- 
■JIV  t1ie».  Tiioro  ii  one  group  which,  in  its  adult  oon- 
dllunii  bean  a  general  eorre^jiondencs  with  rejitilex, 
iqid  tuts  tieen  commonly  aaaoeioted  with  (hem  ;  but 
imleh  only  arrtTea  at  thw  eondilion  by  pesainE  through, 
a  kind  of  tnetamorphoaie,  like  that  of  ijisecU :  (his  is 
the /m>^  tribe,  which  includoa  acveral  atiinials  hmring 
the  fonn  of  liiards  ami  .      .    .    .  ~    . 


Iiaying  « 


eadutai 


niyo,,,.. 
— that  whieh. 


icinlu  togatlirr  WMH 
'ml  resemblatte^  M*! 
whieh  haTo  ihell«lLH 

"liirli  nvo  BclMted fir  J 


like  tliat  of  nsbea  in  all  »wentLil  purliculam.  Those 
differeneee  have  been  regarded  by  some  natiimliets  aa 
BStabliahing  their  title  tu  rank  as  n  diitinet  class,  to 
vbieh  the  term  Ahviiibu  has  been  given. 

BiBDS  are,  like  fiahea  and  reptiles,  nvipamns  verte- 
bnta,  aadlUie  the  true  re]>tilM,  they  breathe  air  during 
thewhole  of  IheirpKislenre  ;  but  Iheyare  wami-llooded, 
haring  a  heart  with  four  cavities  and  a  cuniplete  double 
ctreulation,  by  wliieh  all  the  blood  returned  ftvm  tUc 
syslem  ia  transmitted  to  (he  lungs,  before  being  dislri- 
biildd  to  It  again.  This  high  amount  nf  oxygenation  of 
Ibe  blood  is  aceompanied  by  gren.t  acUvlty  and  encrf>)' 
of  all  theorgaaiofunclionii,  ncutene«a  of  ihescDsn,  nnd 
rapid  and  powerful  loccimotlDtl.  The  elass  is  further 
dislingiiiibed  by  the  position  ol  the  body  upon  two  l.'ga 
only,  and  by  the  iiiodilleatron  of  the  anterior  members 
for  winga  ;  by  tile  covering  nf  the  body  willi  feathers, 
or  aoinolhing  analrpius  to  thim  ;  by  the  defleiencv  of 
teeth,  in  pUoe  »t  whieh  the  jawn  are  fnmisheJ  witli  a 
homy  Eorering  or  bill ;  snd  by  varioDB  nlhcr  ch.irsd- 
teni  of  lees  imporlanoe.  There  is  n  peculiar  eonfomiily 
in  the  general  ulruclnre  and  ikHjiect  of  all  the  membei? 
of  this  Clara,  with  which  acnrcefy  any  "Iher  aiiinmls  nre 
liable  to  bo  eonfnunded.  Birda  have  been  not  insi.j.ro- 
prlately  termed  the  insceta  of  the  veitebraled  elnases. 
.The  MmHiLM  agree  with  birds  in  poseesning  n  com- 
fltte  double  circutalion  and  warm  blund ;  and  with  rcp- 
tifasiobrMlMnfair.andj^enillylttinsDnlhesurheo  siuce  on  the-e  will  depend  mneh  of  itia 
oftltB  etfth;  hot  they  diner  from  nil  other  'rirtebnta,yBnnDg.\,niMlii.uumbi'r  of  dllfrmi 
net  MO  maeh  in  p roduoing  their  young  alWe  l^whicYt  is  \  aniouM  t>t  '<v>.  'vni^ti;!w».  '^\m 
lhatm't&io  a  few  aptMieB  of  rcptilea  andftalieaY  as  \n\Hi«  oti^aTiB  rit  xwwitt  \»  iMonlutlk'' 
"HWr  mbmntofot  nmtUmuiai  of  tlwm  by  boAWue— Vma^iitA-nitAioftn^m,*!*^!^! 
^  452 


whieb  clreumsMnee  the  v 


Ckctd  St  ilie  lirad  of  tlw  animal  Ua| 
eina  tJie  ..u"  lo  which  nun  balling 
tiocautie  it  IS  Ibiit  whldi  cnjo>>-  lh«  loosl  I 
faculties,  the  i<>u»l  ih'ltiste  m-iwuIods,  tlie  m 

powers  of  njHiiuu  -.  and  in  uliich  nil  tin'  iiff^' 
tica  aeein  eombiued  to  pni'--"  -  1 — •-■  r — •■■ 
of  inlBlligenee  ;  (ho  QUO  II,  .-i  ■    ■     ■ 
susceptible  of  perTection.  .1 

Althoiu[h  priiicipally  a<l!iiii' 

we  find  one  IribJ-  |>n»a»f«"d  .  ■  ■  •■  ; 
thoairlikr  Urdu,  and  aiwiunr  li.rmeit  10  m 
water  llkv  Bshn  1  but  bulb  ihoo  agT«e  •mitoii 
innlia  in  all  ewi-Jilial  diaracten^  and  di'flitr  t* 
from  (ha  sUssm  uilli  which  llieir  habits '•*<« 
oiBtM  thoia.  I'o  Iho  Uammalia  is  *onfia*d  4 
tion  of  (he  body  by  IimV  or  fur  ;  the  osarwi 
lo  U  being  in  (ho  Inir-lilh  fcallirn  uf  a  (r 
of  birds.  But  1I10  pr"wi<eu  nl  iliii  oovcciaf 
inwiiB  Huivctsal  in  Uie  Jlajiunalia. 


e  anioial  kai^mu 
eh  man  btlMOSU 
-e  ia  cancFmeJ),  M 
CK  organioitwiLal 


llie  Mammalia  arc  universally  reeudella 
ing  Iho  higheat  group  in  iJieanioial  koi^m 

from  being  the  one  lo  which  tr—  •-' 

least,  lit  hi*  bo-lily  et 

pnssPssioE  the  most  ,  __,  .  „_ 

perform  the  erealcst  nuiyber  and  variiiy  l^m 

■-  '"^ -'■'-  ■"■ west  iolsUcsf 

lu  belweSB  lb 
When  w  M 
FRgMity  «{  a  dog,  and  the  great  tarie^  of  wW 
ill  whiiih  ho  will  display  an  iii(«IIifRat  •M 
ineanH  Id  eods,  with  tbe  liniilnd  oMtalfantt* 
seel,  over  whioh  the  ju^pn«nt  and  wl^  MM 
no  control,  wc  rannot  help  I>eiiiB«tri|elt«AA 
enoe,  The  one  ia  nIfnjUr  in  ">*,li%h{tfL4| 
to  niaa  I  the  other  cotild  not  W'aafl  HjI 
htbita  hy  the  most  pmloiigod  eaiiiM  SI  ^iM 
Bseending  the  animal  scale,  wo  oWmW 
gradnslly  becoming  siiboi'dinaieil  to  tb*^ 
'  Ihit  iniij  ba  i-i.irlicularlj  ar"-^ 


the  mcnibirs  <■!  Ill 

If  we  regard 

of  the  Mam...:, 
principal  vsriwi 
leued  by  (he  '■■■ 


Icty  ill 


r,c 


Oiittif 


widely  St 


we  thro 


l."h-.'"!Qe 


irgsnisatloB  to  tjft 

nof>^t.wti«<irin 


■hall  net  tal;^ 

ilinct  groups  all  If 
of  these  modes  nl 
ich  are  adapted  d 
.me  slighter  dilfm 


w^qeal 


PATA- 


k  iioj/t^tUakil  Miinuli  liariag  tttroc  aorU  of 
y  b*  Jhridw)  inra  ^«  vx  fvllowing  ordnn: — 
i-m^-jkn  eofiulitf  niMi  only,  wlio  in  clmnii* 
«oloit1c>lly  li;  Ihc  ukpUliaa  uf  hi«  tnuiui  to 

rlUTK  nijipattcd  ii(uia  hu  posterior  utn- 
uDil  b;  poMeaoiiig  ftamU  (tbat  U,  (tct 
^i»hh  tiiunstiB)  on  tlin  »0[i»ri<ii'  o"  *"    "  '" 


lUHioi  t»A-— Tliia  ordT  luclaJis  Uiw  >|ioa,  nwa* 
,  whiuli  biivc  lioada  aa  kU  f<>iir  oxtrunlUea, 
UMnuu. — la  thn  order,  knoini  m  thu  lntL 
2  uUctior  utrimiuet  ■»  fomud  inta  wJhb* 
n*.  vhwh  vniiiit  tba  snimoi*  to  rlw  inU  tbi 

irnvoKi.— Thw  kuiiiuilK  of  tliiii  trib*,  whloli 
tlu  lutdavhtiib  nielt.  Ail,  Iuvd  I]iu  iiuaulUr 
ji  lit  thmt  tectlt  10  Inicct  food,  Jiut  uont  ilv- 

Mtou.— la  tliia  <r*rr  csIsduto  grtnqi,  of 
B  »t  tribo  mil)-  till  tnkea  m  ui  UliuUaiiati,  ilt« 
■uiftat,  in.  tl)"  iBtj»l  m.mukkUa  v "''" " 


CHAMBERS'S  INPOllMATtON  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


itaiiMa,  faUoira  very  lulanlly  on  tlia  kqaotis  forms  of 
Ihc  CaroiTan;  siuce  ila  digntivo  ijxitein  exliibiu  tht? 
nme  gEnonl  chBtsclcr,  sltiMUgh  lh«  ulapUlioo  of  llie 
«xUvinLticB  (or  switnoiiug  prtivenls  Uitim  from  sbowuig 
ih*  sanw  bmn. 

TtiB  twu  oiher  orders  i>F  Un^iculitlcd  Mitinni*.lui 
■j«  adMrted  putlj  to  vegetable,  and  parUy  to  uiinutl 
fuud.     Thi^  are — 

7.  RnDX9fTu.~lD  th«w  the  toes  diflVr  bm  Kitlo 
fruBi  thiiM  uf  ibe  Cnmivom  i  but  the  jawsare  dcHeient 
ID  true  IbcImus,  *eir  plaoe  being  BuppUwl  bv  the  ca- 
ninfa,  whieh  are  brought  very  maeh  tomira  (w  thai 
B  wide  iiili>r*a1  axbls  between  thrm  «id  ^o  mulara), 
and  are  adapted  to  gnawing.  Tbis  order  includes  the 
beavvr,  nl,liBre,  &e. 

B.  Eumrri'H. — This  order  is  bo  named  fmm  the  ab- 
»«nct>  of  treat  teeth,  wnnetimea  aiso  of  caninei,  and 
even  of  iDuUr&  The  extreniilies  of  Iheir  ln«  are  nearly 
iiuludod  IQ  large  nails,  -ahif  h  approach  in  chdraeter  to 
boob.  To  ttiH  ordL-r  belong  the  slulh,  aiit.i»Uer,  iima- 
diflo,  Ae. 

B.  The  DnfnJated  Mimmalia  fbrm  I  wo  orden  niily 
-~tii0*»  which  rumino/r  (or  rfiew  the  end),  And  thoM 
wliidi  (hi  not.     The  Utter  differ  moch  aOiDOgn  each 

0.  I'tomiutuiiTa. — In  >ome  nf  then  tbE  ton  are 
■111)  partly  Kparatcd,  in  others  they  are  ontitdy  united. 
'I'btt  food  ia  mostly  vegetable  :  all  three  Mnda  of  teelh 
nre  somuttnies  preeont;  in  some  Ihs  canines,  and  in 
Dthera  tbe  ioc>sor«,  arc  dpfldcnt.  Beaides  llie  elephant, 
horse,  he^,  &e.,  tijis  order  praperiy  in^lades  eerlaifl 
aqoafie  [urms,  which  have  been  corudodIj  aeaociiMed 
with  the  Cvtaoea,  hat  which  are  strictly  berlii  vnroua, 
noil  a^roaeb  itrf  nearly  to  the  hippopotamns. 

10.  Rimnijjm*.— This  order,  coutaininj  ibe  ot, 
£hoe|i,  dr*F>  At.,  h  a  vety  distinct  one,  and  LS  chanus 
teriaad  t>y  id  cloven  feet,  the  absence  of  inoiaarB  in  the 
tipper  jaw,  Mid  (he  eomplex  urrangement  of  the  sto- 
niaoh;by  which  ruminatiuB  is  elTeeted. 

11.  The  nib-daaa  Ovo-eMpaira,  ts  easily  itividtd  into 
two  DCdn«— lbs  one  having  a  pdueb,  air  iWMM^MnT,  jb 
which  the  young  are  reedved  and  nourished  for  sonie 
time  after  their  birtb,  and  the  oiher  being  deatitote 


of  it. 


n.xuwL'i 


— TIk- 


,,  kanf 


■imls  of  ll>l.«  orJiT 
tieirVaod'und  hnliit 


ably  amongst  rs 

the  arraDgeiaeoi  oi  tiieir  teetn,  or  incir  neniii'un,  v.i- 
ries  aecorUingly.  Tliey  have  mostly  three  tiiida  of 
teeth,  the  iucisoni  more  than  six  in  number,  and  their 
feet  are  noguiculated,  wiili  nn  opposable  thunib,  in 
some  inttaaees,  on  the  hind  fuut. 

13.  MoNOTRt^iiAtA. — -This  is  unq^irezationahly  the?  group 
which  approaches  must  nearly  to  oviparous  Rniiiials. 
It  eoutains  only  two  genora,  in  one  of  which  tlie  leelh 
are  altrigether  ahient ;  and  in  the  Other  nearly  so,  the 
jaws  being  covered  with  u  hurny  bill.  In  ndiliciou  to 
five  elaws  on  each  fool,  the  males  have  a  peculiBT  Bpur 
on  tbe  hind  ones,  like  that  of  a  cock. 

The  foregoing  arrangement,  founded  entirely  on  ex- 
ternal oharaclers,  does  not  gtre  an  aliogelhcr  accurate 
representation  of  the  relative  intelligence  nf  the  difle- 
renl  orders.  If  this  be  titen  as  the  guide,  nc  should 
lii-al  arrange  the  Viviparous  Mnmmalin  into  a  J?»)jiA(i- 
joiii  (or  animal  feeding)  and  n  J'huloplingixu  ("r  vege- 
Ulle-feedine)  eerieii,  of  <*-i,it]i  the  former  vriU  nak 
highest  on  Uie  whole,  although  the  highest  u(  the  latter 
may  aurpauB  its  lowest  forms. 

The  Xa..phagout  subdivision  will  inelude  (he  nni.kSA, 
Qti*nR[<Ht>t,  CaRmvou,  Isnumvolu,  Ciit^rnni'ii.ii.i, 
and  CxtkiiKJk. 

Tn  tile  PhplBpHaffaut  belong  t)|e  rtnii-niiuHATA, 
HuHINtMTii,  KuiiisiTii,  and  EnfL\ini. 

These  laal  »iiproach  most  m-arly  of  the  TlP'/wrn  (o 
birds  111  the  structure  of  iheir  l.minH  ;  hut  a  i-lill  lower 
tj'pe  is  eKhibitrd  by  the  Oe't-Fiiirxirn,  which  (ne  un- 
questionably the  luwiat  ttt  tlie  Itlainiualia  in  point  of 


OidaL- 

If  we  regard  tba  p 
peeuiiar  ehiuaetecT"^" 
liave  DU  bsiilation 
which  Man  alone  bahwH,  U  ihi  (»W  W 
being  the  form  nXHt  todika  llau  •<  Mqr  all 
on  whicli  tliie  das*  bnrdera.  It  Iiaa  Im 
It  there  is  an  imj 
development  ef  tJ 
of  tha  inteUnent  powera  nf  tki* 
arity  which  ms^Dguioheait  fr(«n  allat  . 
pToiongatioB  of  the  period  dorin^  wUcfa  IJ 
dependent  on  its  parrtit  for  aiqipin.  Atd 
lonsatioo  is  greater  in  llin  hiiiinn  spiiia^  !■ 
to  the  whole  Icnclh  of  lifo,  tbjili  in  any  idi 
has  evidently  a  direct  oanpeiuaa  with  lb.  ok 
develupment  of  the  mind  sod  bodf  of  the  «A 
alMi  a  inoal  iraportHa  loiUreM  mlaMea  «■ 
ooudiiion  of  the  human  race.  nn»  M^ 
in  (he  higbHtt  degree  tbs  ebanolMS  wkM  I 
staled  lu  dialiQciJve  of  the  Manmalk,  b  iwl 
at  the  head  of  the  claoa,  aJl^ofl^  «■  ■• 
appear,  lie  is  snrpass*d  by  lnuutiy  uilwT  aaka 
ticular  portions  of  tile  bodily  orgaokuks.  ~ 

The  order  Bimnna  include*  Imt  lb  M| 
ffomo,  or  Man.  Man  is  the  only  luiiiinillw 
to  which  the  erect  position  i*  niiural.Mid  h  H 
'a  an  esseutiaJ  diRVrrneC  111  <  he  ornaiati^  M 
of  the  twopiUtviirextreinilini.  bilJMa*<ifll 
tribe  vhosa  fimn  ifipmachn  etoit  Mvtrt 
erect  poalum  u  nirt  nataral  but  caMtniuiili 
of  tbuse  i^le  uioremcnla  w>  pecoIUr  Utk*) 
be  eihibiled,  nulcM  the  body  ii  aoppMtsdii 
wcli  as  beldnd.  All  the  estremiiita  ef  ihM 
are  slilie  fannwl  as  organs  of  prebuNMaa;  ii 
niroro,  aU  are  alike  or^ns  nf  prohenaia  Ml 
in  Uie  hoofed  animals,  all  are  ur|:aBa  <f  llfH 
iu  uum,  tbe  anteriiir  or  upper  eitnmitia  til 
for  prcimnsion,  anil  tb  pMtcrinr  or  tuNrt 
euppmt.  When  we  eaaiaine  tinaa  BMa|M 
we  obu^rve  that  each  pair  is  adapted  to  iBI 
use  iu  a  higher  degree  than  the  lllln'irf 
monkey  or  any  othi^r  animal.  Tbe  foot  cfna 
and  iu.'eurf.i,co  cipwidi^J  ;  unJ  the  leg  b«sl«' 
upon  it,  the  heel  resting  up.m  the  gnol. 
monkeTS  it  is  a  sort  of  ubliiiuo  contiBualisCM 
US  the  band  of  the  arm,  and  suppoMa  lb  U 
by  ila  iiu»era  of  preheiuign.  The  wh^  « 
tho  body  is  adapted  to  being  eaolusii^MJI 
the  feet  Tho  leg^  arc  so  lung,  that  mn  Mf 
he  willed  it,  walk  on  nll-foun;  his  ahatl^ 
inX.'ilblB  f.int,  and  bU  long  tli'igh,  waitll 
kiiee  to  tlie  ground  ;  wliitat  hU  widelMI|^ 
and  Ills  shoulders,  which  are  but  bna*(|r  « 
the  trunk,  would  ill  nuppgri  thu  l.iro  flutU 

Bui  by  the  adapiuiiou  of  his  wboU  b«* 
erect  ponture,  his  upper  cxtremillai  MaMTi 
liberty,  whilst  his  oi'gsna  of  scdh  are  outf  M 
situated  fur  observation.  The  hand  ot  au*h 
to  a  far  greater  v.Miety  of  purposes  (haa  tk 
m.iuke>s,  in  whii^li  it  is  most  pBrfmct.  Ili|» 
nins  t:liietly  in  the  size  and  strength  ol  IhaikB* 
mil  linve  its  lip  broujiht  intu  uppuwlisu  ^ 
niiy  i)f  tile  lingers  ;  and  all  tlieee  aiv  0^«M 
moved  ECparuiely.  Id  none  of  the  maiuijt 
thumb  bo  oppoii'd  to  the  linger*  witb  $Mfi 
force,  aud  in  tnnny  their  tips  cannot  bt  MM 
cuulart ;  so  that,  tlHiugh  aduurabl;  *MUi 
iiig  round  budies  of  a  certain  siie,  tui  M  I 
branches  of  trees,  their  hauU>  oMi  Sailbir  • 
minute  ubjecta  nursuppnrl  large  odib.  Ttlh 
limn  Hime  have  attributed  his  eupetidrlH;  t 
be  uifely  said  thnl  he  owes  this  taliia  Bad* 
strum  en  ts  conjoin  lly.    The  band  wooM  ta  ■■ 

would  soon  be  reduced  to  *  ^vrf  auiwdl^ 

eiitieuce,  if  not  upcedily  cXtingnisbA  ^I'Pt 
&lim,  \fwaeiai'd  of  au  reuiukahlekVMHiJ 


aOOLOGY.— VERTEBRATA. 


1  his  meoUl  iDgenuity  devisea, » less  pro- 
xi  i<ah  to  Muteness  of  semibilitj'  nad  to 
rtr,  Ihu  manf  other  DUminnlia.  His 
inning  is  Inferior  to  that  of  other  sniirolB 
Tlie  smaliacss  of  his  face,  eampared  with 
inintn,  shows  that  the  portion  of  the  ner- 
ronnecled  with  the  external  senses  ia  less 
aim  than  in  most  other  animals.  Accord- 
irpasaed  by  many  in  Iho  aeutenesa  of  his 
light.  Bound,  lid.  But  he  stands  alone  in 
^omparine  his  sensations  and  drawing  eon- 

them.     Sloreover,  aWiouefi  none  of  his 
17  acute  in  his  natural  state,  they 
1,  which  is  not  the  cisii  in  other  an 

capahic  (as  is  also  his  swiftness  of  foot) 
ih  improved  by  praelice,  especially  when 
i  strongly  call  for  their  exercise, 
ivenbility  is  one  of  the  moat  remarkable 
t  of  the  bodily  as  well  as  the  mental  con- 
lan.  It  is  to  a  gndual  advance  in  both, 
Ised  races  row  enjoy  bo  much  uf  cumfort, 
a  of  still  further  elovatiuQ.  In  the  pro- 
ieli  these  arc  attained,  wo  observe  a  re- 
'ereuco  between  the  chnracter  of  man  and 

■  animals.  The  arts  of  which  these  are 
imiled  and  peculiar  to  each  Bpecien;  and 
;o  be  no  evidoneo  of  a  power  of  iuvenlion, 
ilinn  for  any  purpose,  beyond  that  ta  which 
.ndinstinelive  powers  are  adapted.  Hence 
■ar  that  llicrc  is  no  proof  of  any  species  or 
he  lower  animals  ever  making  an  advance 
mprovemcnt  ur  an  allcralion  in  its  eondi- 
tero  a  particular  ndaplatioii  of  means  to 
'Hs  to  circumstances,  is  made  by  an  indivi- 
ten  the  case  where  some  amount  of  intelii- 
iunality  exists),  the  rest  do  not  seem  to 

mueli  distinguished,  then,  from  the  lower 
lis  mental  as  by  his  corporeal  eiiduwnienta. 
:  not  of  a  kind  altogether  different  from 
«e  may  elsewhere  see.  In  common  wi''" 
Tibee,  he  possesses  strong  instinctive  ^1 
ich  are  kept  under  control,  howi ■■ 

■  •   ■     fiutwl       ■■ 


^  which  takes  ib 


oped,  as  in  early  childhood  and  idiocy; 
e  sway  uf  the  instincts  is  obvious.     Tht 

whilst  they  give  great  activity  to  Iho  opera- 


SluDko'. 


The  order  Quadru 
the  peculiar  conformation  of  the  extremities  of  the 
animals  composing  it — all  four  of  them  having  one  a( 
the  toes  opposed  to  the  rest,  bka  Iha  thumb  of  man 
to  his  fingers — are  remarkable  for  tlieir  facility  in 
climbing,  which  they  gain  by  the  graiping  power  con- 
ferred upon  them  bytheposaesuouuf/ourAnnrfi.  Tkieir 
anatomieal  structure  refulua  the 
common  idea,  that  the  uprigli 
position  ia  natural  to  them  f  aui 
It  ia  certain  that,  though  they 
may  be  taught  in  a  atalo  of  cap-  C-S^ 
tivity  ta  walk  erect  like  men,  *" 
they  usually  support  themselves 
by  their  anterior  as  well  as  their 
poaleriur  limbs.  It  may  bo  ob- 
served, that  those  species  which 
approach  the  nearest  to  nwu 
'  npun  the  outer  side  of  the 
only,  and  not  upon  its  sole, 
n  imitating  Ins  position  ; 
and  that  they  aro  very  iosecuro  ia  it.  And  to  those 
which  are  intermediate  between  the  higlwr  Quadru- 
mona  and  the  succeeding  orders,  the  maintenance  of 
the  erect  poniti^iu  without  supi-ort  for  any  length  of 
time  is  impossible.  It  might  be  supposed  that  the  pos- 
session of  "  four  hands"  is  a  character  which  raises  the 
auimals  poeacsain^  it  at>ovo  two-handed  man ;  but  a 
little  reflection  will  show  that  this  is  not  the  case,  sineo 
the  hand  even  of  the  highest  Quadrumaua  ia  very  in- 

tlie  variety  of  movement  to  which  it  is  adiipled,  whilst 
Chat  of  the  lower  shows  but  a  slight  advance  upon  the 
foot  of  the  Camivura.  A  corresponding  setisa  of  gra- 
dations may  be  traced  in  the  aspect  of  the  Tuce  ;  fur 
whilst,  at  one  end  uf  the  series,  tlie  muzHa  {at  least  in 
the  young  animal)  ja  not  much  more  prominent  tliaii 

semblestliat  of  other  mammalia.  Nevertheless,  through- 
out the  order,  a  certaiu  degree  of  resemblance  tii  nian 
may  be  perceived,  in  the  gealurcs  as  well  as  in  the 
general  aspect  of  these  animals.  All  of  them,  like  man 
and  the  Cam'  ---  "   '  ■     "'   "   -' 


loped  than  ii 


full-gro 


,d  the  ut 


and  tliere  ai 
tcelh,  which  a 


n  mind  above  that  of  aiimials, 
IS  like  it  reasoning  faculties,  often  ta  >s( 
,  and  arc  actuated  by  emotions  and  moral 
ne  of  the  most  important  aids  ta  the  ust 
ment  of  tlio  human  mind,  is  tlie  power  0: 
rticulaU  sounds,  or  langnage  ;  of  which,  si 
lov,  man  is  (ho  only  animal  in  possessiun 
doubt  that  many  other  species  have  certaii 
communication  amongst  individuals;  bu 
robably  ven  limited,  and  of  a  kind  vei-j 
m  a  verbal  iangnage. 

I  we  study  the  pliyeieal  and  mental  const! 
m,  the  more  arc  we  led  to  the  belief,  that  1 
ipUtion  ot  tUe  whole  to  a  great  variety  of 
-es  that  iU  great  perfeotLnii  consists.    Thi 
ajly  any  coiidilioji  in  which  ho  cannot  si 
f.     He  is  CB)>ablo  of  sustaining  the  low- 
he  highest  extremes  ot  lenicorature.     1 
rally  of  a  mixed  kind;  but  he  can  eupport 
health  and  Blrenelh  on  either  animal  or 
«d  exclusively.     At  the  same  time,  it  is  by 
a  which  his  peculiar  condition  makes  upon 
B  of  hia  ingenuity,  that  his  mental  powers 
led  into  active  operation ;  and,  when  one 
sir  devclopmnit  lus  no  aasigmibls  limit* 

liiIM  fuqnliT  lata  Ibe  cliamclcn  nl  tlie  Aiirtsca 


.    _,  ...  lUolhel 

Tho  Quadrumaiia  may  be  divided  into  three  families 

-the  SiuuD.e,  or  Monkeys  of  the  Uld  World  ;  tbo 
CiuiiD.K,  or  American  Muukpys ;  and  the  LEMt'itin^ 
or  Lemur  tribe,  which  aupply  the  place  of  monkeys  in 
Sladagaacar  and  sumo  parts  uf  Africs  and  India.  Tliis 
restrielion  of  distinct  types  of  structure  to  different 
portions  of  the  surface  uf  tlio  globe,  is  not  a  liillo  re- 
-larkable  ;  and  it  may  be  traced  even  in  the  suburdinuW 


The  Simiadje 
World  known  as 

lopmeut  of  the  ti 


nclude   all  tlie  animals  of  the  CHd 

ily  bestowed  aeeordiiig  to  the  dcTO- 
,  the  »]>(«  having  none,  the  monkeys 


having  a  long  one,  and  the  baboons  a  short  on*.  All 
tliesohave  leii  mohtr  teeth  only  in  each  jaw;  and  they 
have  the  partition  between  the  nostrils  very  slender,  so 
tliat  the  apertures  are  close  to  one  another,  as  in  nian. 
On  the  oilier  hand,  all  the  Cchid.r  are  pnssesacil  of  a 
tail,  whiuli  is  an  extremely  important  organ  to  them, 
having  great  preliensile  iiowem ;  Ihi'y  have  tirelvt 
molar  teeth  in  each  jaw ;  and  the  partition  between  the 
ntstrils  is  thick,  so  that  the  apertures  are  widu  apart, 
as  in  the  lower  animals.  The  thumb  of  tho  hand,  ur 
fore  foot,  ia  not  opposable  ;  and  it  is  entirely  wanting  ill 
seme  of  the  genera.  Tlie  Lkkliudj:  ore  ■Iihtiiigui>he(l 
from  the  monkeys,  partly  by  tho  greater  prolongation 
of  the  muzzle,  tho  possession  of  a  largo  bushy  tail 
(which  is  not,  however,  prehensih;),  of  upposabh;  lliuiiiba 
,  ou  all  tliu  feet,  aud  of  u  crooked  and  puiutcJ  cUw  ou 


fc\/       l«l«»l«      «%A  ^        %%^       ^W       A\»%4ft«««a 


&'^  v«»        »  ••««• 


considerable  size  when  full  grown  ;  ]>robal)l/  in  thoir 
native  climate  the  former  rising  to  tive  feet,  and  the 
latter  to  seven  ;  but  no  living  8|>ecimeus  of  Uioae  sizes 
have  ever  been  Been  in  this  country.  In  both,  there 
is  a  remarkable  difference  between  the  young  and  tlie 
adult  form  of  the  skull — the  young  bearing  the  greatest 
resemblance  to  that  of  man,  whilst  in  the  adult,  the 
Dmzzle  is  so  much  prolonged,  and  the  canine  teeth  are 
Bo  much  developed,  as  to  give  the  fuce  nmch  more  tho 
aspect  of  that  of  the  baboon.  Tliiri  diti'ercnco,  together 
with  a  cliiingc  hi  the  colour  of  the  hair,  huH  cauied 
specimens  of  the  orang,at  different  ages,  to  be  accouuttHl 
distinct  species.  The  character  of  the  animal  albo 
changes,  being  mild  and  gentle  when  young,  but  hav- 
ing a  good  deal  of  babuou>Uke  feitjcity  when  come  to 
its  full  development.  In  the  (Hbbont^  or  long-armed 
apes,  the  length  of  the  anterior  members  is  so  great, 
that  they  touch  the  ground  when  the  aniuial  is  in  a 
semi-erect  attitude  ;  these  present  an  approach  to  tho 
monkeys,  in  the  possession  of  callositios  on  the  buttocks 
by  some  of  the  s|>ecies. 

The  Monkeys  of  the  Old  World  arc  distinguished  (in 
addition  to  the  characters  which  Hei)arate  them  from 
the  Cebidie)  by  the  possession  of  clieek-pouchcs,  callo- 
sities, and  a  tail,  which  separate  them  from  the  apes ; 
the  tail  is  longer  than  in  tiie  babooiiK,  the  muzzle  less 
protuberant,  and  the  aspect  less  ferocious.  The  group 
contains,  however,  some  species  which  present  an  ai>- 
proach  to  the  apes,  and  others  which  form  a  transition 
to  tho  baboons.  The  true  Monkeys  are  also  remarkable 
for  the  shortness  of  the  arms  in  proportion  to  the  legs, 
which  causes  some  species  to  walk  on  all-fours  with 
difficulty,  climbing  being  their  usual  mode  of  U>como- 
tion  ;  but,  by  common  observers,  they  are  still  more 
noticed  for  the  beauty  of  their  colouring,  their  activity 
of  inovemont,  and  gentleness  of  demeantmr.  Their 
character  \^  much  changed,  however,  by  confinement 
They  are  found  in  almost  all  the  tropical  countries  of 
the  Old  World,  and  iMirticular  genera  have  a  peculiar 
li>cal  distribution.  Many  of  them  live  in  societies^ 
chiefly  inlubiting  tlie  woods,  but  ci>mniittiiig  great  de- 
vastations on  any  cultivated  ground  in  the  neichbonr- 
luiod.  In  sever.il  Kpeci«'H  tlie  oi^pfot  of  the  liead  la 
»'\(ri"niely  urote^^'pi--,  :i«^  :ir»'  also  tin'  uttiludi's  of  th*-  ' 
aiiiiiial.  Till'  iiuihIk  r  of  .-.pfcii-s  \a  alt<ii;ftlii'r  e'in<-i(!i  r- 
a!>ii'.  Their  fi'ml  .•-*  i  ii.>  to  1h'  I'.itlur  vf;;i'talilt;  lliaii 
:i:iiinal  ;  ami  in  nin*  m'liiis  this  is  •li'^tirii'tiv  iiiilioati  il 
I'V  the  i«triicturi-  i»l  tin-  Uv\\\  aiiil  nf  tht-  si.'inai-ii.  <  hu* 
;:« nils,  iM-»trii'tt'<l  to  Africa,  is  do^titiiJe  nf  thunil.'^  <ii 
til'"  anlrriur  t  \tn  iniiii-s,  aij'l  tin.-  «irficirn('v  is  i-.irtlv 
Mil'plird  li\  ihi-  ^n  at  iK'Viloji;ii»iit  of  the  tail,  wlm-h  is 
ni't,  how«  \«r,  |«ri-hi  Il^iJl■,  as  in  tlw  Anu-rleaii  iiu-iikiy-. 

riif  UtiLtmns  liaNi*  ii^^uallv  a  sli'-rt  tail,  nr  wvuv  at 
ali  ;  liiit  thrr<*  !>.  iiiueli  variation  in  tlii^  ri-.-|nct.  '1  liiy 
ari-  r.itiuT  ilistiii;;uis|ii-4l  fniin  thf  ajx  -.  aii'l  iii<>!ikt  \m 
by  till*  pP'tnl'i  raiiei'  «if  the  iihi//m',  and  tiie  frrm'ity  of 
ap|i»  el  \*liieh  \a  i-artly  ili-prii'it  nt  ujniii  thi»'  ;  tin-  eaiiiui* 
tuiii  ar«'  ^^t-in-rallv  l.ir;;*'  anl  '«tr<<n^'.  Th«-  r>ali'>nn«> 
hav»'  aUc  a  l.ir»;f'  Imj;  ewTiiHvt*  ■!  \\i\\\  thi-  i.rjaii  ••! 
voiei-,  l<\  llif  1-4  ?%.>ii:tiiOf  of  wiiii'li  liir  pi.wi-r  »if  their  lii.d 
an>l  ilitoiiiiLiiit  rji' -  i-  u.i  :itlv  iiienafid.     In  a  >\;\.w 


Cebidw  arc  generally  of  smaller  size  tiiaii  the . 
none  of  them  attaining  nearly  the  dimen»ioi 
ckinipausee,  oraiig,  or  mandril  ;  they  nra 
malicious,  luoro  easily  tamed,  and  susceptible  c 
constant  attachment  ;  but  they  seem  to  posMi 
telligeiico.  They  arc  found  in  very  large  nui 
the  woods  of  South  America,  where  they  chit fl 
OH  vegotablu  food,  to  which  their  teetli  show  a 
adaptalioiu  The  largest  of  tbein  ai*e  the  JU 
howling  monkeys,  which  derive  UieirtrtMiiejidui] 
I  if  voice  from  a  sort  of  hollow  di'iuu  CiUinectid 
larynx  (somewhat  resembling  that  of  the  t 
which  is  peculiar  to  them  amongst  the  i'ebida 
are  bliaggy  animals,  about  the  size  of  a  fu 
Atelc*i  or  B|Mder-moukcys,  are  remarkable 
length  and  prehensile  power  of  their  tails,  am 
abbeuce  (in  some  species  entire,  in  others*  nea 
plete)  of  the  thumb  ;  whence  they  are  call 
fingered  monkeys.  A  large  nuu^ber  of  other 
including  many  species,  might  be  enumers(e« 
of  these  arc  remarkable  for  their  nocturnal  hal 
others  for  their  carnivorous  propensities. 

3.  The  third  family  of  (^uadrumaiia,  that  o 
RiDJi,  has  in  many  resiiocts  the  general  a^pM 
American  monkeys ;  but  the  muzzle  is  much  pi 
resembling  that  of  insectivorous  or  caruivor 
muls ;  tho  teeth,  also,  are  modified  fur  aiun 
presenting  sliarp  tubercle-'^,  lucking  into  eael 
and  the  grinding  motion  of  the  lower  jaw  is 
so  that  its  action  posfscssos  inure  of  the  tcii 
character  of  tliat  of  the  animal-feedcry.  1 
thumbs  of  these  animals  are  well  developed  k 
sable  ;  Uio  claw-liku  asi'jct  of  tho  nail  of  the  I 
finger  lias  been  ali*eady  imticed  as  one  of  the  nu 
recognised  characters  of  the  family.  Tho  ci 
the  lower  jaw  have  the  charocter  of  additional 
and  tlic  fii-st  molars  rescnibio  the  nrdinanr 
The  total  number  of  tcctli  in  each  jaw  is  i-igt 
in  the  American  monkeys.  Tho  true  Lemun 
tiuguished  by  their  very  large  and  handaui 
which  are  elevated  when  the  animals  arc  i« 
and  not  trailed  after  them.  They  average  tiM 
a  large  eat,  but  have  loii;;er  liinh-:.  They  ait*  a 
«>r  t\\ili;;lit  animal  =,  |ia*;-iiii,'  tlw  li^sy  in  >:ti  j.  i 
ill  th«.-  form  <tf  a  l^ali  ;  at  ir;;Iit  i!u  \  nii-o  th«: 
an»l  ^inini;  with  tii"  ;;r«;(t«'>;  ai"i\ji\  in  -■  iiic- 
f.nMl,  which  prinrij«allv  f..n-i-ts  if  tri;!:".  Ti 
tiitinly  cimmjumI  t'»  Maii.i::.iMTii*.  wliiTfal  \yX*\ 
.-^jn  rii  s  are  Kn-wn  t'»  i\i-.r,  iliJVi-iiii^  fr.ini  eji 
l»ut  littlr;  cvi'i'i-t  in  roi-nr.  Hn  li.v  i.iiii.-r  h 
'i/i/.' .'//'»;,  which  ari'  f<.un<l  in  tl;r  n::;^;.!  o'i:lit»-i 
liivtr  Si  iir^'al,  are  pr<-i'nnnti;!'._\  ni-^vtiv.  nm- 

This  :;ri'np  is  oonnreti-I  wiili  tin.  <"ln  r  j'ti 
\«ry  ninarkal.I''  iiiprnal — ih**  /. //n.fy.i.'/if  !•«>,  v 
li'ii.nr,  which  so  r.ineh  r»-cinl.Ji>  tin-  la*-,  an 
hfrii  i-IaiNiI  with  tlicin  hv  nianv  nati:r.i.i-i> 
liiiw«'\«r,  a  Uviur  in  all  it**  i'>-«»iiitial  eharaett-r 
has  its  ]iln^^  Oiinni  ete<l  by  tliin  skin,  **h'.c':»  tln-j 
«.ut,as  il;»»  traim-wiirk  i»fau  nntbrella  •.u;-|ifrti*  il 
in;;,  \\\  this  sinj^uiar  stnicturf  tlie  animal  i-  m 
in  the  air,  aft  \\  a  paraeliUti- ;  but  it  h.t-*  n«  t  ill 


ZOOLOGY.— VERTEBRATA. 


nntniiiiiis  a  continued  flight,  tliough  it  can  leap  a 
lUnoe  of  a  hundred  yards  with  a  gradual  descent, 
ko  the  bats,  it  feeds  ou  insects,  and  slee]>s  with  its 
•d  downwards,  suspended  by  its  hind  legs.  It  is  a 
KttTc  of  tha  Indian  archipelago. 

Order  III.— Chclroptenu 

The  order  Cheiroptera  (formerly  arranged  by  Chivicr 
» the  first  family  of  the  order  Carnaria)  is  perhaps  the 
■it  distinctly  circumscribed  group  of  the  whole  class 
rtmnialia ;  for  all  the  animals  composing  it  agree  in 
«  poiiK<»s8ion  of  a  pair  of  wings,  formed  by  an  extcu- 
m  of  the  skin  over  the  very  elungatcd  fingers  of  the 
IB  legs,  and  connected  also  witli  the  hind  legs,  by 
rieh  they  are  adapted  to  raise  and  sustain  theniselves 
Cti«  air,  and  also  to  propel  themselvcri  through  it  by 
;nlar  continued  movements,  in  precisely  tlie  same 
iiliur  as  birds.  Now,  although  in  other  groups  we 
j"  «il»ftcrve  a  tendency  towards  the  same  adaptation, 
B  never  carrieil  farther  than  to  give  to  the  animal 
s«nMing  it  the  power  of  {lartially  supporting  itself  in 
mir^  so  as  to  prolong  it^  leaps,  as  is  tlie  esse  with 

flying-aquirrel,  the  flying-lemur,  and  flyiiig-opos- 
n.  '  None  of  these  animals  can  really ^y,  like  bats 
I  Irfnls. 

^«  sec  in  the  >>ats  a  very  interesting  modiAeation  of 
iw!iole  chamcter  of  the  mammal,  to  enable  it  lo  load 

life  of  a  bini,  just  as  in  the  whale  tribe  we  see  a 
lilar  adaptation  to  the  life  of  a  fish.  The  insoetivo- 
ta  bats  boar  a  ntron;  analnf^y  to  the  swallow,  in  the 
Jracter  of  tlie  Timm)  itnelf  as  in  the  mode  in  whtt'h  they 
lain  it — by  tlif>  rapid  pnrsuit  of  inHocts  on  the  wing; 

chief  di'flertMicc  in  habit  UHng  the  time  at  which 
y  respectively  go  forth  in  search  of  their  prey, 
rtie  wlmle  fttrncturo  of  the  Cheiroptera  is  obviously 
If  >tiMl  to  tlio  fulfilment  of  the  object  which  is  the  dis- 
^ntsliing  churrtcter  of  the  group.  All  the  bones  of 
■  np)ter  extremity,  as  wvll  as  those  which  give  at- 
liinent  to  its  muscles,  are  very  largely  developed, 
e  niomber  itself,  although  conMsting  essentiully  of 
'  «iine  parts  as  in  man,  has  \tA  aspect  gi*eatly  cliangi>(l 
the  extraordinary  prolongation  (»f  the  finger  bonwi, 
^M  which  chiefly  the  skin  of  the  wings  is  ttrctched. 
is  hkin  is  extremely  thin,  and  is  generally  devoid  of 
ir  on  lioth  Rides,  ft  extends  not  only  between  the 
^ers,  but  fnjm  the  last  iinp:er  to  the  posterior  extre- 
ty,  and  from  this  to  th'j  tail,  where  one  cxi-sts.  This 
r>ans!oii  of  the  tail  probably  5terveH  as  a  rudder,  en- 
frng  the  animnl  to  change  its  coni*Re  rapidly  in  pur- 
-fc  of  its  inbcct  pi-ey — an  idea  which  is  supported  by 
>  fact,  that  in  the  bats  wliich  feed  on  vegetable  sub- 
decs,  or  on  animals  ^^hie!l  require  less  activity  of 
^uit,  this  part  is  cither  wholly  wanting  or  is  much 
^suniFcribed  in  extent  and  power, 
^he  four  flngerd  of  the  anterior  extremity  being 
^«lve<l  in  the  expansion  of  the  membrane,  only  tlu^ 
cimb  is  left  fi-ee ;  this  is  of  moderate  length,  and  is 
E'^ntshcd  with  a  crooked  nail,  which  is  of  great  use  to 
^  aoimut  in  elimbing  and  making  its  way  along  the 
Ound.  Tlii'  toes  of  the  hind  feet  are  i<hort,  and  fnr- 
^bcd  with  claws,  by  which  the  bats  suspend  them- 
^ves  from  the  trees  or  walls  on  which  they  rest,  hang- 
^  with  the  head  downwards.  They  walk  with  slow- 
^9r  ami  dlRicnlty  when  placi'd  on  the  ground ;  the 
•ngs  are  folded  np ;  and  they  rc«t  upon  the  hind  feet, 
►d  U|Hiu  the  e!;*\v  of  the  thumb,  by  which  they  crawl 
t>v.-ard!!^  pushing  on  firM  one  uide  and  then  the  other. 
tit  they  can  climb  up  pi-rpendioular  surfaces  with 
iihiderable  agility.  The  expanded  hkm  of  the  wings 
•pears  to  be  endowed  with  a  sensibility  of  a  peculiar 
lid,  enabling  tho  animals  to  perceive  their  proximity 
solid  bodlc-s  without  the  assistance  of  sight.  That 
ey  have  a  very  aeute  j)erception  of  this  kind  was  long 
;o  ahown  hy  the  experiments  of  Spallanzani,  who 
and  thrit  bats  deprived  of  bight,  and,  as  far  as  pos- 
irfe,  of  hearing  also,  were  still  capable  of  dircetiug 
eir  flight  \%ilh  security  and  accuracy,  finding  their 
\y  through  passageH  only  just  large  enougV.  to  admit 
im  withoiit  coming  in  contact  with  the  sides,  and  even 

457 


avoiding  numei'ous  small  threads  which  were  stretched 
across  the  room  in  various  directions — the  wings  never, 
even  by  accident,  touching  them.  It  is  probably  through 
the  vibi*atii>ns  of  the  air,  which  will  differ  according  as 
the  wing  strikes  it  in  the  neighbourhood  or  the  absence 
of  any  solid  body,  that  the  knowledge  of  the  proximity 
of  such  id  communicated  to  the  delicate  and  expanded 
organ  of  touch.  The  use  of  this  cuiious  power  to  ani- 
mals intended  to  execute  rapid  and  varied  movements 
ill  the  dark,  and  amongst  trees,  buildings,  &c.,  is  suffi* 
cicntly  evident. 

This  tendency  to  a  great  extension  of  the  skin  is 
manifested  in  other  parts  of  the  body.  In  many  bats, 
especially  of  tlie  insectivorous  khid,  the  external  ear  is 
enonnously  developed ;  being,  iit  the  long-eared  bat  of 
this  country,  nearly  as  long  as  the  body.  In  the  fru- 
givorous  bats,  it  is  of  oinlinar}'  size.  The  organ  of 
smell,  too,  in  many  of  the  insectiv(»rou8  hats,  is  fur- 
nished with  curious  Iraf-liko  appendages,  formed  of  the 
integument  doubled,  folded,  and  cut  into  the  most  cu- 
nous  and  grotesque  forms.  The  group  in  which  those 
are  most  remarkable,  is  one  which  avoids  the  light  of 
day  even  more  than  others ;  the  animals  eomposing 
it  exist  almost  constantly  in  the  darkest  recesses  of 
caverns;  and  it  is  pndiable  that,  by  this  )>eculiar  con- 
formation, they  gain  inci-eased  power  and  delicacy  of 
the  sense  of  smell,  which  in  part  compensates  for  the 
inutility  of  the  organs  of  virion. 

The  families  ctnnposing  this  order,  may  be  arranged 
under  two  principal  divisions,  which  are  Ftrongly  con- 
trasted with  each  other  in  regard  to  the  nature  of  their 
food,  the  conformation  of  their  teeth  and  digestive 
system,  and  the  pecnliarities  of  structure  which  are 
connected  with  the  mode  in  whieli  food  is  obtained. 
One  of  these  groups,  whi«*h  may  be  regarded  as  typical 
of  the  oxflcr,  is  insectivorous;  the  molar  teeth  are  fur- 
nished with  pointed  tubercles,  as  in  the  order  Iiisecti- 
vora ;  and  the  stomach  and  digestive  system  are  evi- 
dently adapted  to  animal  food.  Tho  other  group  is 
pi-obably  omnivorous,  like  many  of  the  monkeys — feed- 
ing chieflv  on  fruits,  but  pursuing  small  birds,  or  large 
insects,  that  may  bo  obtained  without  mneh  dilliculty  ; 
their  molar  teeth  have  flattened  crowns,  adapted  for 
bruising  and  grinding  their  food;  and  tho  complex 
structui*e  of  the  .stomach  and  intestinal  canal  hhows  its 
adaptation  to  a  vegetable  diet.  The  proportional  length 
of  the  intestine,  in  specimens  of  tht'sc  two  groups,  is  a 
rL'markable  illustration  of  this  diflerencc  of  adaptatitni. 
In  tho  great  bat  of  this  country,  belonging  to  the  former 
group,  it  is  only  twice  the  length  of  the  body  ;  whilbt 
in  tlic  frugivorous  pterojms  of  the  tropics,  it  is  seven 
tinii-s. 

The  insectivorous  gronp  maybe  distributed  into  four 
families: — 1.  Hiiinoi.oimmn.e :  in  these,  the  nose-leaf 
Ls  of  complicated  structure,  and  is  membranaceous ; 
the  index  or  forefinger  has  but  one  joint ;  the  wings 
arc  large  and  broad,  t?.  Phvllostomin.l,  which  have 
the  n.asal  appendage  simple  and  fleshy,  ami  an  index- 
linger  of  two  joints.  3.  Vt:sPi:uTiLio.MD-K,  which  aro 
dehtitute  of  nasal  appendages,  and  have  a  single  joint 
in  the  forefinger.  4.  Noltii.ioxin.i:,  which  are  also 
destitute  of  nasal  ap[>endages,  but  have  two  joints  in 
tho  index-finger. 

1.  To  the  first  of  these  families,  the  Hiiinoi/)PHII«j:, 
belong  the  greater  and  lesser  liorse-i>ho€  Liits^  which  are 
found  in  the  darkest  and  mobt  secluded  reti'cats  of  our 
own  cuuntry ;  their  name  is  derived  from  the  peculiar 
form  of  the  anteri«>r  nasal  appendage.  The  family 
conUiins  many  other  genera  and  species,  most  of  which 
are  inhabitants  of  thu  Old  World. 

2.  T«)  the  second  family,  the  Piivi.i.ost(>min.f.,  belongs 
tho  celebrated  vatupyte,  of  the  blooil- thirsty  pro|)en- 
sitics  of  which  such  marvellous  stories  have  lH;en  told. 
The  wound  inflicted  by  its  teeth  is  very  small ;  but  its 
tongue  is  endowed  with  a  peculL'ir  power  of  suction, 
by  which  a  consiilerable  amount  of  blood  may  perhaps 
lie  drawn.  There  are  no  well-autlieuticntt*d  accounts 
of  the  death  uf  auy  animal  having  been  occasioned  by 
this  creature;  and  the  8t4:ry  of  its  fanning  its  victim 


CHAMBERS'S  INFOHMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE 


villi  its  wings  to  Vtc\<  Mm  con),  *.u3  render  his  sleep 
morn  urDfouQii,  is  profaadlj  b  fiction  of  Ihe  imagination. 
Some  of  these  bsW  bxye  Ihe  tail  very  thorl,  ^ai  m 
Kthure  it  i*  altogetlier  abaeiil,  Tliey  a^pcnr  to  feed 
in  part  upon  BadjulGDt  fruits ;  tut  tlisre  is  oue  genus, 
Ihe  elEcvme  diortiun!)  of  whose  intestine  indicate  Ihal 
il  mint  derive  Its  foo^  fi^m  Bnimal  matter  ahnnst  ex- 
eloirifel)'.  One  of  these  has  b<en  taken  in  the  act  of 
auoking  bl""d  from  the  neck  of  a  bo»e.  The  vainpyre* 
«»  confined  to  South  America ;  but  other  menlbcra  of 
this  faoiiiv  inhabit  the  casWrn  hemiflphere.  Man;^  of 
Uiera  attain  eoniiidorable  dimensions;  iho  body  being 
pqual  in  aiM  to  that  of  a  mogpio,  and  the  wingx,  wlion 
exiiai).l"(l|  nicasuriug  between  two  and  three  feet  aeroM. 
B.  Tiio  third  famay,  VHPEimLio^iD^  is  by  far  the 
ninat  nunierau),  andinelude^  must  of  Ihe  bnU  of  leni- 
ustttto  climates.    At  least  ihirteen  species  exist  in  this 


Iont-eW*d  Btt. 

«mmtrj>,  A«  larcert  of  whleb  is  the  mous^ealoured 
bil,  the  expansion  of  wboae  wings  measure  fi' 
inolige;  but  tliis  b<  of  rare  'iccuntrncc.  A  more 
ni(in  one  ia  the  noelnle,  pr  great  bat,  which  is  but  little 
•mailer  j  this  ia  often  met  with  in  considerable  num- 
bers, seeking  its  retreat  somelimes  in  the  hallows  of 
trees,  at  otiiera  under  the  roeb  and  eaves  of  liouses. 
I'ciibfthiy  the  nnut  abundtint   is  the   long^eared   bat. 


hybernation  or  profoond  sleep.  It  ia  eanly  tatnei 
when  in  eonfinsment,  and  may  be  brouglit  to  consider- 
able fninilinrily,  so  aa  to  cM  fnim  the  hand.  It  Ims  an 
aeala  and  shrill  hut  not  loud  «ry. 

4.  Tlie  bsta  of  tlie  f<iurth  family,  NocntJOMNJ!,  are 
almnsi  oaeluaixly  conEiaed  to  ImplcaJ  Eooatries.  The 
number  of  epecita  belonging  to  this  group  is  very  large, 
but  f^*  of  tliem  present  any  important  pecoliarities. 

5.  The  frugivorouB  or  omnivorous  group  conlsins 
but  one  family,  the  Pranofm*.  This  is  widely  diffn<ed 
tltrougliaut  warm  cliniales,  and  contains  some  of  th 
Utgi'nl  ■peciea  of  the  order.  Il  is  not  improbable  that 
til*  fabttl<ius  harpy  may  liave  had  its  origin  in  some  of 
tlicae.  Suae  of  tbem  have  the  tail  much  d.-riilnpcd, 
and  in  many  it  is  entirely  absent.  The  plfT^pm  Jaon- 
rtitut  is  a  vury  ehnraotvristio  example  of  this  family. 
It  ia  probably  the  largest  of  the  bats — its  expanded 
wing*  measuring  five  feel  across.  It  is  extremely 
abaodanl  in  the  tower  part*  of  Jara,  and  uniformly 
Ji>e«  in  Boeieliee.  They  suspend  themielves  from  trees 
during  Iho  riaj;  nod,  from  ttieir  molionless  aspect  and 
eonlraoted  bodiea,  they  might  bo  mistaken  for  parts 
of  the  tree,  or  for  fruit  eospcnded  from  iC«  brsnches, 
Whennijcht  enmee,  they  bf^ii  to  moive,  and  go  in  search 
of  food  to  the  fnresla,  vilUi;e«,  and  pbuitstions,  in  all  of 
w)ii«bth*y  do  great  misehief,  attacking  indiscrintinately 
aliDOat  any  kind  af  fniit,  uf  which  they  devour  a  Urge 

Siasnllty.     In  IheJr  tnm,  Ibey  are  eaten  by  '*     ' 
ahabiianlK  of  some  of  Ihe  wmniries  where  If 
who  enitM'ti'r  ihMn  a*  drileadn.  TIio  ttcsh 
Mnn  rxuosna  of  th«  Mauritius  has  boeo  oompared  to 
,  Uial  ut  Ibe  laM  Mid  p«itri>tt;«. 


The  Cheiroptera,  iohabitii  ^ 
remiJD  in  a  torpid  slate  dunug  the  winter. 
them  maliB  their  sppearAace,  bowrveTi  in  mi 
but  aa  casual  reilvnts  during  tha  BewOA  flf  n 
iniuHnuB  to  tliem,  they  Usually  bet*k«  ttioQI 
of  whicli  the  bnuperatura  U  tut  recdilj 


by  external  vioisHludes.  The  offioa  of  Ikis 
the  economy  of  nature,  is  evidently  to  am^st 
restnunlng  the  too  rapid  mu1tiuIiG>tioD  nf  Im 
to  keep  down  the  luxuriance  oEinipteat  VcgW 
Onler  IV.— InmTliMii. 

The  order  Initeetlvora  forms  ■  group  wUck 
mediate  bflween  the  Cheir<^laria  and  the  Q 
Like  Iho  greater  part  of  the  fint-namcd  of  iIm* 
the  ai^tnala  composing  il  are  formed  lo  lire  vf 
food  ;  their  molar  loelh  are  l>iMet  with  poiglei 
tubcNiee,  adapted  b)  eruali  the  lurd  env>lopM 
prey  ;  sad  they  s>re,  for  the  matA  parlt  hu  I 
noctumi!  animals— like  Ihem,  luo,  pawiu([  & 
of  temperate  olimales  in  a  stale  of  lorfildtty.  I 
are  completely  dcalitute  af  Iho  wing-like  O] 
wlilch  enable  those  animals  to  Hm  Into  the  ilrS 
of  their  prey ;  it  Is  Ihfir  funeibn  to  sacJi  II  i^ 
eround,  or  even  by  burrowing  bnaokth  it,  B'l 
IbeirgeDcralorganisatiuu,  they  more  mMnit(*1 
nivorSj-  bnt  they  relaUi  the  rlaviolc  {ootlar-bM 
higher  ('rd«i<^  whieh  in  Iho  Cnralvura  U  nj^ 
ilgnmcnl,  and  this  alTordi,  In  the  burr>i«l^i| 
very  ImiHirtsJit  htlachtni'nt  to  the  ponerM  m 
which  their  aiiterlar  membeni  arc  put  ia  aolii 

The  fecth  !n  this  order  ate  extremelj  *»riJ 
cannot  be  so  Bofcly  folIoHrcd  as  suida  to  «b«J 
OS  the  gmieral  structura  aiid  hahila>  AS  iksj 
belniigme  to  it  pusses*  th*  jHciiliaTconrunntfis 
tnolars  already  deflcribed;  tliK  from  nn.ilAr,  lio« 
ntnally  ofafbrm  adapted  fur  l<.'  -  ...  '  . 
CamiVora ;  liUt  pwlerTm-  [ 


nil  the  tt'eth  nro  often  so  niucli  Qli.iiiftd  ibil  il, 
cult  to  assign  them  to  their  rcspectiire  c1iibA„ 
This  order  may  he  divided  into  four  tefi* 
aro  chaisetcrised  by  their  habits  as  wdl  ili\ 
ettemal  form  and  intamal  Hiructura.  LTui 
Mole  tribe.  These  are  pre-eminenlly  silH 
tisltngniMhed  by  Uuir  exUAurdinslj  b 

„    .  ibi       .  ._     ._.,  _ 

burn,  fee  J,  breed,  hybernate,  and  die.  3 

ur5Ar(wi.  Tlicneare  a  sortof  CAmitoniiUMta 

though  Ihey  do  not  actually  bunow,  retivlH 
winlar,  and  in  tlieir  ordinary  re^se,  iBUlM| 
feed,  however,  on  the  surfiiee  or  in  tlie  HM| 
of  Ihem  boine  partially  aquatic,  diving  wlj^ 
after  ai^ualio  lusects,  and  remaining  wijiutlj 
a  long  timoundcrwater.  3.  EtuMi:KAlUt,ori|ii 
Here  we  Lave  still  hybornatlng  aIliaukL^  Mnl 
burrowing  or  descending  into  deep  e  """ 


id  thei 


fuod.     The  Iiair 


wax  the  surlaeit  4p 


1.  TcPxiAoi,  a 
single  genna,  the  Tnpaia.      These  partakstf 
racier  of  the  InseetivarausQuadrulDaaa,''~'~ 
which  they  cliinb  witli  the  agility  of  • 

It  is  remarlsbli!  Ihal,  aa  faraayst  Ln^aBiH 
of  this  order  exi!.t  in  Soulli  America  oc  AoiW 
the  former  continent  Iheir  place  soeuM  tultl 
by  the  Edentata,  of  whicli  many  sjieeiM  H*  jl 
their  food  and  habiU  ;  and  In  New  SsUsM 
replaced  by  numerous  smalt  MarsuplNilii  H 
same  gcnemt  adaptstiun  of  their  ill  ■!  IIM.  I 
fofiJ  and  lo  an  underground  rc&idenM.  j 

1.  Of  the  T.i.riD«:,  the  common  En^  « 
very  characteristic  exnmple.  Tlis  wluIaWni 
this  animal  Is  beaittifully  adapt-'d  lo  lV*"l 
life  wbleli  it  Itnds,  and  to  llis  uii>Je  in  vtfrk 


CHAMBERS'S  INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPH 


mtil.  In  nil,  the  toto  »re  fumisbed  wiLh  oUws,  i 
aiB  peculiarly  sbnrp  in  Ibe  cuts,  and  are  ia  them  kepi 
ready  for  tise  witliiu  a  ahestb,  from  which  they  can  be 
pmjfDtal  at  the  will  of  tlia  aniinsl.  The  ntnmnch  nf 
llie  CMiiiTora  is  very  aiinple  in  ils  f.ipm,  uld  llii'  ijites' 
tinea  are  >Iinct,  in  accaiilaace  with  the  eaaily  digfaled 
eliarncler  (T  tbeir  food. 

The  whole  bony  and  muKular  cystem  exbihil 
aimiUr  inodiHeation.  Titus,  wbilst  ihe  puweifu) 
■elite  and  tiexible  muvements  <■(  the  purely  ciirDiToi 
■iiiiniLlii  ar«  adapted  Oul;  to  Ihe  narBuil  and  destruc 
uf  liritiii  prey,  llie  more  Blogeish  habiM  Of  moBl  at  Ibe 
Bear  tnlw,  tlieir  pccalrar  mode  ot  proeresBinu,  and  the 
ni(Hlined>truclQifeaf  tile  skull,  the  leetn.nnd  the  limbs. 


Uillles,  nod  in  Iho  mode  of  using  them,  is  very  atrl king 
iu  theaa  two  anUgnnisad  cronps.  In  the  former,  the 
««dl  of  thn  toes  only  toncli  the  gniund,  the  heel  imiiig 
euntiduniblr  wJMd  inlo  the  ah ;  in  tliia  way,  tba"    '  - 


■priugio);!  thatnin 


Lo  much  greater  advonlnge  m  runkring  i 
rtnli  poaieaaiiigthispoiifofmfitioo 
turmed  dijUifTade  C»rni»ora.    In  the  latt*r,  ib»  whiJe 
(•mi  rcila  on  the  gtonai — &  elracture  more  &vinirnble 
to  tiie  laaintenance  of  a  Sno  poeitioii,  bot  prevcu 
gr«kl  acljvily  of  progreaBioO:  these  are  rafted  jjfi 
graile  Qtrnivora.     There  ia  a  third  very  remai'kahle 
rurioty  urerinrurmMidn  in  tlKieKlfcmltieSof  DiUordtr; 
and  this  is  exbibticd  in  tlia  Seals.   Ilcrt  Ibii  aiilci-lorM 
well  ■■  iho  posterior  fmet  are  farmtil  (or  swimming, 
beliig  spread  into  lin-litie  ;paddh!S  i  and  IJia  u^la  ir- 
raiigcment  of  tlieb-  organn  is  adiuifnbly  ailB^tcd  lo  tba 
jmrmll  and  rapture  ul  their  ualy  prfv. 
The  Ckniivurs  ma^  be  subdiviiled  mtp'  tlva  families, 
I.  l'(iijn«,onT»i 


mav  be  Bubd 
well-kaowu  ft 


They   are   characleriwd  by  tbeiv  euDi'l 
■'"--■      -■"'    -'-         --i3  the  peeulinr 


*ach  ouotaii 
lrih>s    In 

pDweriul  jaws,  tlieir  relnictib 

Biioiiilingoiie  l«li,iv.  :.  C'..mi.,-.,  •>!■  /'".I/  inh,:  Tli.->% 
like  IbL.  ciiU,  arc  dieilifiuia,^ ;  luit  (lieii-  olawB  ar,.  ii„i 
retraelilu  ;  and  tlicv  have  Iwu  flat  lubureuUliiJ  ti.ipUi'b 
behiudll.egrealHesb-euller.    3.  MvstCLin*!,  oi'  llWrf 

the  sole  touching  the  eriiund.  The}  are  diBilngulsbed 
by  llieir  long  lurmw  budies,  and  by  the  iircncncC  uf 
only  one  tuburculated  uiuUr.  4.  lIm>[U£,  oi'  Ile-ir  tribe. 
These  are  Ihe  only  true  |>Iantigr.idt]  Cunrivoiii.  Mud 
of  thtni  poBSessseveral  tuberculuus  lertb.  H.  I'liOciD^B, 
or  Sfal  tribe.  Theite  are  at  once  distliigBiahed  Ly  (hi^ 
adaptati<        * .»    ■    ^  —     .  .  ■    -  -  ■  i 


aspect — so  oluiii.ly    odu  d  that  osi^y  ut  I  i'  ei^c  ■«  cai 

only  be  diatmguiahed  by  their  ai2e  andby  the  maiL.  nra 

urUereku       They  all  agree  too  ui  t)  c  n    de    f        T 

Ing  tl  c  T  pruy  wl     I   u  to  atoal  npu  » 

eeae    l  w  tb  a  audd  u  epr  ng    n  h 

their  energy  often  ahDlung  off  wt 

■a  Tory  d  l&tiult  to  «  bdi    d    ll  a  tanul 

tl  e  Biro  (,  geneml  rcsaoibbu  oe  of  t& 

of  ll  cm  are  snllie  ently  wUl  k  own  lu  r       •ir  a  }  pieu 

lar  duacr  puuu  of  il  em  uu  ecesaary      U  ouy   huw 


tropical  Asia ;  in  Amrricn  tbcy  a»  miaA^ 
pHaa  and  jofftmr,  wliidi  are  ConllnedlD  Ool  M> 
In  the  same  manner,  we  find  Ihe  poaAtra 
pard  epreiid  ovnr  iropiCM  Awa  and  Afitn;ihi 
iuhabilinglllP  Ai-i:itlcinauR<aIna  :  (hi eoraiBf «r1 
and  Penis,  nnJ  lbs  i^nxoT  Nortbsrn  KerppE  ' 
itpd  hv  the  oetlai  ta  Suutii  AMI 


lie  falcons,  will  «nly  a 
have  themsrtvi^B  kitliMl,  except  wfant  tatttili 
mestication  or  connuemunl,  or  wbcn  eoapt 
hungrr. 

!.  'I'tio  rnmily  of  CiVroJK  inrladi«  •  aoit 
nunibrr  ot  different  fumra,  aonie  of  wbJch  an>« 
to  the  Cnt  ti'lbe,  and  others  to  iha  wnaMb  sal 
This  ttndoney  lo  variniiun  from  a  Itpieallam; 
rPni^irliahty  iibnwn  iu  t£o  rao»  of*  the  oraM 
whji-b  are  belierod  to  have  all  harl  the  mae 
nllbuugh  lb'.- eommenixnieut  nt  nto-t  of  thasial 
mllinuwn.  The  animuls  of  tha  fwnityapwi 
greater  or  lusa  adaptation  lo  a  miird  diu.  Al 
aulmal  flesh  natnrally  mnaiitutca  iho  vrioaid 
nil,  they  do  not  ottuli  llviftg  aninuUi  widi  i  di 
baldness  prapoFlianal  to  their  streoglh,  sliS  i 
them  leei  upon  carriaa,  sometimra  n«D  vU 
much  piilrefliid.  Tbeiro/t«l,j^ff,  ani^-fta^ 
a'lilmulB  which  moalneartj  appruiiehlhe  doj;  ■ 
the  tiTtt  iif  Oieso  il  ^3  r^arda)  hj  muty  Dstiui 
being  really  idBOtleBJ. 

The  /tiiitntu  con-Jhule  a  group  TeniaHiaVt  i 
from  th«  true  C&nidic,  and  yet  tw^ng  ruoupi  i 
churactei's  to  re<)iiireli>  IwBEaooliiiv]  wiifatlica 
are  iii'iir^  ]iurely  carnlvuroue  ibnu  the  d<^  liil 
uniiroaell  in  the  di^liciencr  of  I  uhMcnlal?*  in 
Unt  thoy  dilfer  frQni  (be"-,  iT'<t  onlyi 


rJ  r.<p>-et,  nlileb  i 


Ihe  duf. 


It  ftLw 


I  ihe  n1..s. 


two  pun[«.  They  ai'o  peenllnrly  fenKM.I 
combining  tbn  [Kiracvoriug  dangedntu  of  dWfll 
Wilb  the  (uriuus  hloodlbirstmesa  of  Iha  tklMlf 
htbllBarenuelDt-tuil — uiore  sothan  Iboie^  W 
Caniivora.  Hyu'uas  are  now  chieHy  eoullM« 
and  ibe  euath  of  Atm  ;  but  there  »  no  ddub^  G 
ahundsnl  reninin:^  of  ibsni  wliicb  arc  pranTC 
that  they  um»t  have  funowly  lived  in  UT|a  » 
in  thia  eounti^,  and  in  other  parts  of  L'artMi 
Iho  Hyli^nsB  iniy  be  B«iie!ati-d  the  rftMir  i 
idxTUiaiuin  vl  K!,7pt,  which  reTtrains  uienMli 
of  crocodilL^s  lis  iL^eding  on  tbeir  eirni. 

3   The  Mi'^i-tTi'EDK  the 
ijie  Can  lum    bat  thn'sre         so  mnA 
derotirmg  finh  m  u  ■e  the  Fe  diu.     TlifM-: 
Bccou  I  of  lb    1       (I     f  t!  e  b«!y  and  Ul« 


pj  Bfr«ift™.  Aai 

>.         {H  liltndvfliUll 

h  [t      (g~>b  VanHU 

-t       ]  diarscluxady 

f   he  mo»l«iiig("  — 


biT     /     u,.   ij      n  Ic*.  «e.    ■, 
nl    d  tr  d         bald  r,  bavlll^^ 

a  1  II  po  teal  ■  a  gmtl  tit— 
^  ]  'ri?rv  and  wiutcu.  \tt  fl 
a  t(r  ngl  s  1  d  w  gre  m.Uj  odomu 
a  i  uchn  d  f  leu  ;  but  If  bl 
^u  t  ng  m  lie  last  1 )  Otlt  i  eouatiniU  M 
form  uf  tbisfamilj.  bat  n.L.  Hie  a«TUDite..Mi4M^ 
dentition  with  the  weoai'li,  but  bouf  I  ( aiTih 
guisbcd  (rutu  all  other  griicra  of  th«  bAiiI|r 
wuhbcd  loee  and  WnzuiituIIy  BoIWmiI  UK.  31 
MKl  un  li>h. 
i.  The  ITHU  liUntiKnUa  CaniTun,  MwUtf 


ZOOLOGY.— VERTEBRATA. 


if  Vii^iDiB,  participate  in  the  compai-ativc  slow 
aiid  iioctunial  life  uf  tho  Inscctivora  ;  and  lil;c 
K)^  the  species  which  inhabit  cold  eountrioM  pas^} 
ter  iu  a  doniiant  htate.  In  thu  JUvam,  thu  cai*- 
r  tho  uusc  is  oiotmuted  and  muveahlc,  somewhat 
ing  tlut  uf  the  Shrews.  These  animals  ptM^st'.ss 
facility,  from  the  Htructiire  of  the  sole,  of  rcar- 
iiuelvus  up  on  their  hind  feet ;  and  this  may  be 
ly  uoticed  in  Huch  as  are,  like  the  bears,  fruit- 
jccoming  carnivorous  only  from  neceabity ;  tluy 
i  enabled  to  climb  ti'ccs  iu  search  of  food.  The 
re  the  largest  of  tho  family ;  and  some  species 

arc  pretty  widely  diiTut^cd  over  the  globe.  The 
,  which  resemble  bears  in  miniature,  with  the 
in  of  the  greater  length  of  the  tail,  ai'e  confined 
ew  world. 

Sm^t'r.s  lareU  or  Badgers  of  America,  and  the 
ncsf  form  a  tribe  connecting  the  Bears  with  the 
da'.   The  badger,  for  example,  is  only  semi-plan- 

and  has  a  dentition  very  like  that  of  the  weasels 
)rs,  but  adauted  for  a  less  carnivorous  regimen, 
las  the  tardj'  gait  and  nocturnal  habits  of  tho 
lantigrades ;  it  docs  nut,  however,  become  tor- 
inter.     All  these  animals,  like  the  weasel  tribe, 

0  power  of  emitting  a  fetid  odour  at  will. 

ic  last  family,  that  of  Puocid^e  (the  Amphibia 
?r),  is  EofBcientl^'  disthiguished  fmrn  ail  tlu>  rest 
xculiar  adaptation  of  the  animals  composing  it 
riue  residence.  Their  feet  are  so  siKU't,  ami  bo 
ed  in  the  skin,  that  they  are  of  little  use  in  pr**- 

1  ou  land.  In  fact,  the  seal  employs  tlicm  only 
lamberiug,  wrig";ling  itself  forwards  along  a 
irface  by  tiic  action  of  the  abdominal  musck's. 
crvala  between  the  tues  are  occupied  by  iiiem- 

Bo  as  to  Convert  tho  feet  into  oars.  The  body 
heiied,.  and  tho  Hpino  very  flexible,  as  iu  the 

and  Fi{<hes  ;  and  the  animals  arc  coveiHMl  with 
close  fur,  bittiii;^  flat  upon  the  Kkin.  All  these 
ions  combine  to  render  them  able  swinuners ; 
y  pass  the  greatest  pai*t  of  their  time  in  the 
which  they  only  quit  to  ha^k  in  the  sunshine 
•uvklo  tlu-ir  yiiun::. 

le  two  gemra,  ihe  Sral  and  the  Morse,  which 
lily  contain.^,  the  former  piM>Sfnts  the  le.ast  de- 
Iniin  the  gencinl  t\pe  (»i'  the  order,  being 
.,  a.s  to  its  t«'eth  and  digestive  org.ins,  for  animal 
le  latter  group  \h  chivfly  herbivorous. 

OnltT  VI.— Cetncca. 

e  order  Cetacua,  or  Whale  tribe,  the  adaptation 
mainmifertms  structure  to  the  life  of  a  ti^^h  is 
luarkably  displayed.  The  w  hole  body  is  formetl 
exclusive  residence  in  the  water.  The  po.sterior 
llics  arc  no  longer  present,  as  in  the  seal,  to 
a  progression  on  land;  nor  are  the  toes  (>f  the 
r  furnished  with  claws.  The  trunk  is  prolonged 
hick  tail,  which  terminates  in  a  homontal  ear- 
U8  fin,  by  the  vertical  movement  of  which  the 
ion  of  the  Ixidy  is  ellectrcl.  The  hrad  is  very 
lid  i:4  c<muected  with  the  IkmU'  (as  in  iishes)  by  m» 
id  thick  a  nock,  that  no  diminution  of  its  circum- 
i^  |H.'rceptible  ;  and  the  cervical  vertebne,  which 
1  (as  in  all  Mammalia)  sevt-ii  in  number,  are 
in,  and  partly  united  tt»gether.  The  bones  of 
1  and  fore-arm  are  verv  fhort ;  and  those  of  tlie 
t?  flattened,  and  envvli^ped  in  a  tendinous  moni- 
which  redui*es  them  to  the  condition  of  fin*:. 
their  whole  aspect  is  that  of  fishes,  except  thai 
e  not  covered  with  scales,  and  that  tl'.i'v  have 
-fin  expanded  in  the  contrary  direction.  The 
of  this  last  provision  is  to  enable  tht^m  more 
to  eome  to  the  surface  to  bre.nthe,  whieh  they 
iffod  frequently  to  do.  The  largest  species  can 
,  however,  for  an  hour  under  water.  Their  bloinl, 
X  of  other  Mammalia,  is  warm;  and  ti»  prevent 
nal  temperature  frtmi  being  i*apidly  lowen'd  by 
duotini;  jiower  of  the  water,  they  are  furnished 
thick  coating  of  fat  over  the  whole  binlv.     There 

4';i 


are  never  any  exlornal  cai"»,  nor  hairs  upon  the  body. 
In  thcbc  general  chai-acters,  some  other  whale-like  aid- 
inals,  now  n^parated  from  the  true  Cetacea,  agi*ce ;  but 
they  difi'er  iu  being  adapted  for  vegetable  food,  whilst 
the  true  whales  are  all  animal-feeders,  and  are,  there- 
fore, properly  associated  with  the  (arnivora,  to  which 
they  make  a  near  approach  through  the  seal.  It  is 
evident  that  the  want  of  claws  should  not  exclude  them 
from  this  division  of  the  .Mammalin,  since  these  arc 
r(>ndered  useless  by  the  ad;iptatioii  of  the  animal  to  an 
exclusively  aquatic  residence.  Some  of  them,  which 
feed  upon  large  marine  animals,  seize  their  prey  with 
their  jaws,  whilst  others,  which  derive  their  support 
fntm  the  sn)aller  kinds,  engulf  them,  with  a  large  quau- 
tity  of  water,  in  their  capacious  mouths. 

The  true  Cetacea  are  further  distinguished  from 
those  herbivorous  forms  which  are  now  associated  with 
the  rachydermata,by  tlie  remarkable  conformation  fixim 
which  tl.i'.y  receive  the  name  of  lilowert.  As  with  their 
pi-ey  they  necessarily  take  in  a  great  volume  of  water, 
a  means  of  getting  rid  of  this  is  required,  and  it  is  ac- 
cordingly transmitted  through  the  nostrils,  and  expelled 
by  a  strong  muscular  action  through  a  narrow  aperture 
pitTced  at  the  summit  of  the  head.  It  is  thus  that  these 
animals  produce  the  jets  by  which  they  are  observed 
at  a  great  distance.  Their  nostrils,  being  continually 
bathed  iu  water,  arc  not  adapted  to  a  delicate  percep- 
tion of  odours ;  and  their  organs  of  hearing,  being  defi- 
cient in  the  external  ear,  and  otherwise  formed  on  a 
l(»wer  t^-pe,  are  also  pi*obably  incajiable  of  very  acute 
perception  of  sound.  But  what  is  deficient  in  these 
respects  seems  to  be  compensated  by  a  very  high  degree 
of  sensibility  of  the  general  surface  ;  and  there  is  rea- 
son to  1>eliev(>  that,  by  this  diffused  sense,  whales  ai*e 
enabled  to  take  cognisance  of  what  passes  in  the  water 
at  a  considerable  distance,  through  tho  medium  of  the 
vibrations  excited  in  the  fluid. 

In  subdividhig  this  order,  the  dentition  does  not 
afford  much  assistance,  for  the  teeth  are  frequently 
absent  altogether ;  and  among  the  species  which  pos- 
sess them,  they  often  exhibit  great  differences,  when 
the  animals  are  closely  allied.  Where  they  exist,  they 
are  mostly  small,  numerous,  and  of  a  conical  form, 
binillar  to  each  other.  These  animals  do  not  chew  their 
food,  but  swallow  it  whole.  The  st(miach  is  usually  of 
a  rather  complex  form.  The  order  may  be  divided 
into  two  families,  according  to  the  relative  size  of  the 
head  and  body.  In  the  f\r^t,  Dt'.U'Hi.Ninj':,  or  the  Dot- 
^Jiin  tribe,  the  head  is  not  out  of  the  u.sual  proportion ; 
in  the  second,  the  Bal.knid.i:,  or  Whaic  tribe,  it  is  ini- 
moderatelv  large. 

I.  The  f)h;Li'iUMD.E have  teeth  throughout  both  jaws, 
all  simple,  and  nearly  always  conical.  They  are  the 
most  carnivorous,  and,  in  proportion  to  their  size,  the 
most  cruel  of  their  order.  The  common  dolf^iin  has 
its  snout  prolonged  into  a  kind  of  beak.  It  is  extremely 
agile  in  its  movements  ;  and  a  number  are  often  seen 
Kpoiiing  togetlier  on  the  surface  of  the  water.  Nearly 
allied  to  the  d<ilphin  is  the  porpohe,  which  has  a  short 
muzzle.  This  is  one  of  the  smallest  of  tho  Cetacea,  not 
exceeding  four  or  five  feet  in  length,  and  is  very  com- 
mon in  various  parts  of  thu  Atlantic,  assembling  in 
vaMt  herds.  Allied  to  the  porpoise  is  the  t/rampus, 
which  has  largt>  conical  teeth,  and  is  the  most  powerful 
of  this  family,  attaining  the  length  of  from  twenty  to 
twenty -Ave  feet.  It  is  a  cruel  enemy  to  the  whale, 
which  it  attacks  in  troops.  Other  species  of  this  family 
ai*e  known  on  our  coasts  by  the  names  of  irhitr  tchalr, 
fftilie-fioaej  nartrha.'or  sea-uniatritf  Kc,  This  hist  animal 
is  remarkable  for  the  enormous  di  veiopment  i>f  a  single 
tooth  or  tusk,  commonly  reputed  to  be  a  horn,  whenco 
tho  name  commonly  given  to  the  species.  In  tho 
general  forai  of  tlie  head  and  body  it  agrees  closely 
with  the  porpoises  ;  but  it  possesses  no  other  teeth  than 
this  tusk,  which  projects  forwards,  apparently  from  the 
centru  of  Uie  upper  jaw,  to  tlie  length  of  ten  feet.  The 
animal  really  iNjesesset^  however,  the  germs  of  two 
tusks,  of  which  only  one  is  eenerally  developed.  That 
on  tlie  left  side  usually  attains  its  full  growth,  whilst 


ciia:mbers's  information  for  the  people. 


the  otlicp  renin  ins  permanently  concealeil  ^vith'm  its 
■ockvt. 

'2.  Tlio  rcnuiininpj  Cetacea,  constituting  tho  family 
Bal-KMO.*:,  liave  the  lioa<l  so  very  larjfcasto  constitute 
onc-thiril,  or  cvon  one-lialf,  of  the  entire  length  ;  but 
neither  the  cranium  nor  tho  brain  participate  in  this 
disproportion,  which  is  entirely  duo  to  an  enormous 
development  of  the  bones  of  tho  face.  This  family 
contains  several  remarkable  and  important  animals, 
amongst  which  the  following  may  be  noticed: — The 
caUnion^  or  spermaceti  whale,  receives  its  technical 
name  from  possessing  teeth  in  the  lower  jaw  only ; 
these  art!  of  considerable  size,  and  lock  into  cavities  in 
the  uppor  jaw  when  tho  mouth  is  closed.  The  superior 
portion  of  the  enormous  head  consists  almost  entirely 
of  large  cavities,  separated  and  covered  by  cartilages, 
and  Hi  led  with  an  oil  that  concretes  in  cooling,  and  is 
known  by  the  name  of  spermaceti.  This  b  commonly, 
but  erroneou$(ly,  reputed  to  be  the  brain  of  the  animal ; 
the  cavities  which  contain  it,  however,  are  very  distinct 
fi*om  the  true  cranial  cavity,  which  is  rather  small,  and 
lies  at  tho  p«>sterior  portion  of  the  head.  Cavities  con- 
taining spermaceti  are  found  in  various  parti  of  the 
body,  even  ramifying  through  the  external  taX  or 
blubber,  and  theso  communicate  with  those  in  the  head. 
This  whale  in  extensively  distributed  through  various 
seas,  but  chiefly  abounds  towards  the  antarctic  region. 
It  sometimes  attains  the  length  of  seventy  feeL 

The  Itaitena,  or  Greenland  whale,  equals  the  caiodon 
in  si/u  and  in  tho  proportional  length  of  the  head,  which 
is  not,  however,  so  much  enlarged  in  front.  I  nstead  of 
teeth,  the  month  is  provideil  with  a  number  of  vertical 
plates,  terminating  in  fringes,  which  are  composed  of  a 
sort  of  fibrous  horn,  and  may  be  regarded  as  a  kind  of 
prohingntion  of  the  gum.  These  friugcd  plates,  com- 
monly known  as  whalebone,  servo  to  retain,  by  strain- 
ing from  the  water,  the  minute  animals  on  which  these 
enormous  beings  bubhiHt.  Their  food  consists  partly  of 
f'ishf**!,  hut  chirfly  f>t"  si-ft  uidllu-c.i,  ;ic:\l<'plin\  \e.  Tlie 
hluMu'r  is  uf  inniuTi*^''  tliicKn '•«•«.,  ainl  fiinii^^hes  a  lari^r 
'lu.'in'iiy  of  I'il — :i  liiii,<ln  d  :iiiil  t\v(  iity  t-uis  hfinj;  Miino- 
t;iiu-<  (ilit;»ii,c.l  Irt'iii  a  ^iiiL'i''  in'liviihial.  'J'ln*  \v!i;iK»- 
\.tiir  :i\<it  i*i  ;iii  liiipurTanr  nl.ji  i«t  <•*'  ]'i:r~i:ir.  This  ani- 
jiia:  'N  -.s  t'liriiiiTly  'lot  wry  nuc->v\\:\yn  in  mir  si  .iS,  hut 
l';is  ii'iw  r»tiri  •!  t"  tin*  i'.w  ii'-rth,  wr-Ti*  it-  r.niiil.'-r',  in 
o.'iisi-.jii'iicf  t't  tiir  atrai'lN-^  ol  uinii.  is  enMSTaritly  »jinu- 
Mr^hiii^.  Thi'  r-i'-yf/'//,  an  alli'-il  »:j  i-cii-*,  attains  tn  still 
LTnMtir  si/.r,  ha\in.;  I.l'.-ii  s'-i-ii  -.f  tli«'  h-ni^lh  i-t  a  hun- 
<lrcil  k*i,-t. 


But  though  the  animals  differ  much  fromoow 
in  size  and  external  appearance,  the  order! 
natural  one ;  all  the  speciee  contained  io  it  k 
markable  for  the  peculiar  adaptation  of  tbrir 
gnawing  hard  vegetable  substaacea,  and  of  the 
and  intestinal  canal  to  the  digestion  of  tba 
mouth  of  a  rodent  animal  is  at  onee  reeogiUK 
two  long  teeth  which  project  foni*ard8  from  « 
working  against  one  another,  and  separated  i 
molars  by  a  wido  interval.  These  are  usually] 
as  incisors ;  but  they  are  really  the  canine^  tl 
tion  of  which  has  changed  in  consequence  of  thi 
of  the  incLsors.  In  uie  hare,  the  small  trw 
teeth  may  be  seen  behind  them.  These  rnavi 
have  enamel  in  front  only;  so  that,  their  j 
edges  being  worn  away  faster  than  the  anteri 
constantly  retain  a  sloping  or  chisel-like  c4gi 
continue  to  grow  at  tho  mot  as  fast  as  they  in 
at  their  points  ;  so  that,  if  either  be  lost  or  br 
antagonist  in  the  other  jaw,  having  ni»thing  ti 
down,  becomes  develop<M|  to  an  enormous  extf 
mode  in  which  the  lower  j.iw  ia  articulated  to  t 
allows  of  no  horizontal  motion  except  bsckw 
forwards ;  and  the  flat-crowned  molar  teeth  fc 
mel  led  ridges  arranged  transversely,  so  is 
opposition  to  tho  horizontal  movement  of  the, 
the  better  to  assist  in  trituration.  In  a  fr 
genera,  the  structure  of  the  molars  more  sp 
that  of  the  Camivora. 


»i» 


t,n..' 


■  \-i 


•  >■  :.  ■•  \  IF.     i:-  •■■■I--  . 

T!'-'  •■:■ !  V  !?■•"■'! I  -i  I  ■  -.;  •  -i  -•.'/.'.'■•.^^  r  -i.ti-i  .r  '..  t'.i- 
".>•  i:i  "1:  r-i  ■■■■  .1-  y.i  II  a-  I..-.  ■■!•-  'if'  i'l-  .  i::ij.-i;  -  r- -lii ]■•■-.- 
:-.,'  i',  w!  -"i  .-.p..  '  r  •)•.■  ii..-.r  |.ii'f,  \iry  jii.  iti!iti\  .■, 
r  ■■•  l'",'  \  ;i :  ■  \  •  i  v  '.»  !■  !  V  ■:  ":i-''il.  a?;  !  r»ri-  <  '*•  :i  <\- 
•r-  .■  ■;  :i':m,.  ■■  ...  i  i;  .  -;  ■■.■..  ^  i  r  ;.■  ■■  1  ;■  i^  r-.iij|.;  i:: 
■  ■.  ■  !  \  ;'.:i-  .  f  '!  ■    •■     r-;  I  ■■\.    :  1  N.  ••  li-     .i'-.|.  ..i--!  --.jii-  - 

'.'.  '  I"      !    ■    ■    .  '  ■■    "    ■  ■     '       "I"'     ■*      .'        t         •■     !      !■  T"     T  '        :    I 

\  ■  '    ■    ■-     ■  I    ■    ■   ■. .    •  •  ■       ■  ■  r;-''i.       *■    ■     •■■*':■■■■"■:•. 

t:  .  ■      ■   ;     •  .  ..>    ■•.":.■,  :•,  ; .,  -^^  "..•  ,  ■;  .  r-  .1- 

•.I-,     .'.    .         .1       '        I      .;;       ..      .      ■... ■,■;.!       T-   'I.'"'.     A:   T-f    ;    !  .    •   ■    l". 

•■  t  .  r"  ■  ■.  ■■»  •■;■  ■  i  1  .  \'y  ■•■■■■!_v  f'l  i-'il  i. ■.!■"'■.  1  !■■.-  !■■!'  r 
.  ■■  •  .-t  .  ■.  ..  .  ■  1..  .  t  •'  .•  :■.  i-.<  ■  M  ■  -t  }■  ■•.:.. il,  il!i'  j.-r 
'■»■  .T  .••■.'■■:■.  ■■  'I-  I>.i\'r.  •  !• -I-  :"i!!\  ■•j-.;»l,.i  _•,  :'■.• 
]■:■  ;■  ■  .  i»'-  r'  '■  '■■■-•  1  r  ''.*'.r  <■*,  ']■>•  M -i.!!;:;.  i.  'I-..- 
1  ■■!"  ■   I    Mr-*  LT  V.  ]i-  ■'!  t||..v  J,,  IV  ;■  |i  V  111.^  )■■  11.^    :i-  :'!i.  r,  [ 

|i   1    «'■   .     I-    ■    ••■.!■      ;,  i.    •■■■    nil  ■■■■■•  ■  ' 

■  ■  ■■  ■■■«  ■  ■■« 


The  form  of  the  body  of  tho  Rodentia  is  i 
such  that  the  hinder  parts  exceed  those  of  tl 
so  that  they  leap  rather  than  run.  In  somt 
this  disproportion  is  as  excessive  as  in  the  ki 
The  inferiority  of  these  animals  to  those  of  ik 
already  considered,  is  perceptible  in  many  i 
their  organisation  ;  the  brain  is  less  coinpla 
ture ;  the  fore-arm  loses  the  power  of  rotatkn 
bones  being  ofti  n  united ;  and  the  eyes  art 
sii|i.\v:iys,  r-liow iii^  their  tendency  to  rt'ireai  fr 
tMiirinii's  riitlii'r  than  to  pur>*ue  llii-ni.  Id  * 
claviclis  (•'ullar-loMc'')  aiv  nearlv  i-r  t-aMivIv 
till-  ant<  rii'T  rxtinnit^  I-imii;:  th«'ii  u.i!:».  *  li'i 
strifL'tli. 

Tin-  Iw.  loi.tin  may  1»«^  tli\  jrlfl  inti.  i»v.  n  fart 
ti-f*i;nii"al  (li'iirn'tii  iis  JK-twii-n  \\hii.''i  an- l-ii"" 
niiniiti*  j'ar:ii'nla:*s  iri  tlio  >trm'tiiri'  ■■!  tl;-*  iT.i". 
ff  till'  h>\\'  r  i;iw.  ].  >i  I r Kill.!:,  cr  .Syir-i;-'  tr. 
l'i"Ii'-!i-lin^  a  l.-ii-;,'«-  nii!i;}-or  ^-f  H;;!ir  ;i:.l  .-..n- 
('!ii.  ?lv  ili>-iin;;iii-l:(il  l\  tia  ir  li-i:*  lj';-i.\  t.i.>. 
th'-ir  a'l:i|'r;inr.n  tn  :i  r<>-iil"-iii-i.-  ifi  tj\-i-,  ai;! 
'i]'<.u  tlnir  ]»ri»liu'i'.  "J.  Mi  u:i'.!.,  .-r  I\tt  U 
(■.\«»it)iiii'.r.,  i>r  Jif'rrr  triln',  irio.ii  li:i;;  lln-^ii 
iii:r!^'-N,  v^r.  4.  lh«'iiiiiiii.i ,  nr  /*'..•,  .,< '.'.r  iriU. 
wii.K,  <r  <'•*..'/»,'/ -y.fr,' Tri  I.  ■•.  •:.  (.iiini  i.ii.i.iiii.,  :l 
c'.i  'il  tril.r.  7.  I.Ki  iiMi'.!.,  iju-  U-'ff'  trili\ 
•'-■■iits  «'|  tla'  l'.'i:it!'.  ti;r!i,  ;,i..l  MViiuli  iu-ii 
=■    titiit.;  .-t"  :1..'  i-;.i\icl",   \Wiifli  ;]]•.-■  i-j  thi  ll:: 

...'111    llll"    S!\lll    Jii>-^'-l.  «.--. 

1.  <  M"  '.II'-   r.ii:iiy  S.  i«^'i»v,   tlii-   i'-.:;:ni  -n  */-i 
'^  •■•  I-  KMtrv  li.av  I.'-   t;  k-  \\  .i-  \  fl:.-.r.i.-»i  r»*ri».* 

•  * 

I'    v\  :\  !i  r  ]  .irii.iii.ir  i:'-iT.|'*i' ji   u:iii<  csiry. 

■     IT.S  •  ly  IJ|"I1    %■■:;•■!  I :   I<-   I-  I  111.   Ml  ""Lil  rh  "t    »UiK"l' 

"•    'i   Lcr- .il  ij^iliry  n-.-iii   luaiirh   t.'   hra'u-a.     h 
"'  <  n  it  i'-  I'M'f  ll  Town  I  II   I'V  a.M 


r'      i»  ■( 


■••-  1-i.L'  a!'!  ]■■  \\^  ri'ii;  h;?!:!  !, .;-,  It   :^  m  .i  ru-.i.-: 


;  .;-■  i    1  % 
;«-ly  T:.':, 
-  :-i  :■■  -  ! 
;.;^.    ■:.    ■ 
•■(.■■       •: 


!!:.- 


I. 


■Mai    *-iiri'  ;(iiri;^    .1   i:.<*  1.:. 


1 1  I ■ r- 
;i  1,  ■■ 
11-:. 1. 


I  « 1  H  li  .il?"  i::i-  .-h  I  iitir 

. ".    iii  n.i 


"  1  ■ 

■     r 


If      ;,•,■■» 
-    !.  i:v!.    .i.rna 

■:  ■  :    i" ^  .1    ■■!    l'  ■■  :'.i:,i*  ii».>i'.a5 

".-.     ■  .'-,   V.  ■.:■  '.  -■  M  '  ■•  ..■«  A   \    ii':i  i:i.;i  .       l! 

«i  ■  ..  \  Tl-  li.i-  >.;ir.ii  i  ;-  1-,  ;!,!  nnii.' 
••■  ■:  *  ;■ -I'  I'i'l:.  \\'...li  an-  |<.irii,r  > 
f,  !•■  .;-  it  ?■  "«l.  Ill  «iil;t»r  rrHfiivi*  I 
i.\--  :-T  :!.(  !••.•  !'->■■■!  -iiiirn  is  ht  inn  ht.ivv,  nil 
ill'.!-  ..'I'l  ;i  1  .■■:]'  I. »l'.-..;/t  ll  i.iji,  ;ii:d  iw.ug, 
:.!■  '.ll.!,  ..!•  ivi-ri  i;j  l.iiir«»\%s  hi  ncutii  it.  Muf 
•■    '■  •■    ■    '■:!■:-   i:i    ll;.-    si'.o    i-f  tlirir  U:l  auJ 


wliit 


I-),; 


„  «,Kl..-i  i.>  Hi.;  vi,-«a  s;.liv.i  (lii.t  t^ivlts  i,. 
Tlii^ir  f<inE-ii:iilii,  Hlning  nrid  trcnrltiint,  ina1>!t.'  tliom  (o 
ifur  o|<<'ii  lliPhc  iif>H,  Mill  niBo  furiiisb  tliL-m  vritli  an 
cfHiclin:  iniittm  of  iIufiMiei'. 

M(Mt  of  tliD  I'lUur  inie  Kileutata  nro  borrowinii  oiii- 
nuls,  ami  ant  tiircni)  willi  a  lU-iiw  ■miuui-,  c»mpnRud 
of  lianl  aenlc*  nrrangi''!  iu  a  (ruM'fa/rrf  inaiiiipr,  or  fitted 
top'tlii-'t  litis  Ktinim  ill  a  pawiiumt.  Ilvtivn-ii  tliu  'lif- 
fitvnt  liandH  nt  thtn;  Ihi-rc  arr  iiarmw  riii)^  of  iiiviii- 
braui',  nrliicli  allow  the  Iwd;  tii  Ih-iiiI.  TIk-}'  ii"*"  eliw 
ailai>te4  for  ilii.'ginR,  scrpii  or  u'lKlit  eyliiuli'iral  miibm 
on  eouh  atdi',  and  »  tunjiDC  but  lilitu  cxluiu-ilili!.  Of 
tlu-su  aniniulii  the  Araidillm  arc  Ibb  cliiL'f,  am)  aro  llio 
fomu  bent  known.  Tln-y  Milmiiit  \'UtK\y  iiu  v■t^>tal■k-■ 
mil inrtlf  on  inwcta      '  "' ''' —    " 


|.iii 


nul  fMdcr. 


I  iiiff  cvMcntly  In  thi-  Mime  Jt'uop.  IW  nva  i 
mfpalhcrium,  nearW  ttic  nli-ilv  Hli*l«1on  hi 

i  Muilied,  by  oumpariiut  dillrrent  iniperffvt 
nnd  there  can  he  littlu  doubt  lluit  it  hHni 
gantti:  niiinial  inlcTmcdiato  betwivn  the  iln 
t.'aivr*.     llH  liaiiiwlivii  iniiM  hars  lieen  mr 

I  fi.vt  wj-iu;  and  ita  budy  f-nrtvpn  fort  tor 

;  liiqh,  I  la  f<-i't  wrro  a  yard  long,  and  tn 
{Cijcunlic vtnw*.     Itnwliotc  structure ■mdii 

.  aila|it»I  tn  dig^iiij;  Iho  mrtb  in  aeareb  of  ll 
nioth  wliich  (iiiihibly  coiiBtitattid  gtmt  fml 

I  Aiii>[]iercKtinct.iiiinialnfthc  aniuedncrift 
liv  litilc  clae  than  its  dawn,  nnd  fragmenla  < 
I.'.  Ill,     From  Ibv  fonn  dF  Ibe  claw,  tbo  ■• 

I  it  li.-is  bi:('ii  named)  was  at  tint  iuppowd 
nivarous  auiiiial ;  but  Cuvier  Kitialiaetarily 
bt'tin;;  In  the  I'lih-ntnliu  Jt  Hvcnw  nrariy 
iiK-^gilliiTiuni.  ICumahin  of  tcivelatPd  buny  i 

I  ninii  bi.'L>ii  fiiiiiid,  wliieli  indicate  llic  fnnnL>r 


c  lately  b 


nofibc 


2.  The  ani'iiiilit  U'lonpiiij;  I.,  tin:  family  Tmfiiit  .  _ 
are  nt  i>nei>  t;iiiiwn  from  ihutruu  Kdentala  by  lliu  ]HH-n- 
liir  Hhnrtni'H  iif  the  niuazlr.  The  name  of  thi'  family 
i*  (Icrivvd  fnim  lliat  cnrnmonly  applied  Id  tile  aniinafs 
eoiniHXinB  it.  Id  Itie  .'itefA*,BeeoTi[in|[  tn  Cuviur,  "  no. 
tntr  wtiiiii  tn  have  aiunwd  hi'nelf  with  nmiluein);  i 
tliini!  iniiiprfitit  nnil  ..     .    ^  .. 

tlip  iircnliaritiiii  of 


The  Kdculata  terminate 

r/iicnf  tiuc  Mammalia 

them  Willi  the  eh 

bii.!b  of  the  toe*,  i 

ill  a  number,  ns  to  appm: 

cnlMiln-ii,   Ihty  h 


(here  arc  wnic  aninng 
mid  Fii  t'livi-Inpiiig  the  < 


tlip  jircnlia 


I  of  their  orKnuiR 


itii  pmiluein 
Ind  if  mi  ( 


faeuliy  of  hemlii 

of  gTO'iiing  nil  ...      _ 

nlnpnce  iif  thin  faculiy  ehanulcriiica  the  Iu 
.  Thry  U3B  llicir  fuel  unly  a*  mipports,  anil 
I  ha«  ii'it  (he  pxner  of  rutaliuD,  ita  two  Itoi 
I  ijueiitty  eoiuriliiLkti'I  into  our,  or  oiie  iiT 


CHAMBERS*S 

3RMATI0N  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 

•NDrCTED  BY  WILLIAM  AND  ROBERT  CHAAIBERS,  EDITORS  OF   CHAMBERS'S 
EDINBURGH  JOURNAL,   EDUCATIONAL  COURSE,   6cc 


New  and  Improved  Series. 


Price  I^d. 


ZOOLOGY-^(Continubd). 


Order  IX. — Pochydennata. 

ciiyderinata,  consisting  of  hoofed  ani- 
not  runiiiiAte,  may  be  divided  into  three 
f  which  flhows  a  tendency  towArds  some 
The  first  of  these,  Piiodo9Cidea,  contain- 
'Jif^ant  and  its  extinct  congeners,  ap- 
tveral  ])articalan  to  the  Rodentia.  In 
vo  large  front  teeth  derelopcd  at  the  ex* 
st,  and  the  grinders  are  foinned  of  paral« 
aniel  mid  bony  matter.  There  are  also 
'  resemblance  in  the  form  of  the  bones, 
icularly  in  those  of  the  extremities.  For 
ins  not  a  complete  hoof,  but  Hve  toes  to 
:h  are  very  distinct  in  the  skeleton ;  but 
il  in  a  callous  skin,  which  surrounds  them 
ternal  indication  of  their  separate  condi- 
n;iiis  at  their  extremities.  The  second 
RrK  pAcnYDcnsiATA,  contains  thoBo  which 
L'c,  or  two  toes  to  their  feet.     Those  in 

make  even  numbers,  a»  the  Srin.E,  or 
t  feet  somewhat  cleft,  and  approximate 
ntia  in  various  \^vi^  of  the  skeleton,  and 
iiplication  of  the  stomach.  Of  the  others, 
;  cloven  feet,  some  approach  the  Probos- 
icli  tlu?y  are  connected  by  forms  now  ex- 
hieh  the  bony  remains  are  sufficient  to 
r  chni-acier.  The  third  group  of  Pachy- 
or.inrNoVLA,  consists  of  quadrnpeds  with 
.ent  toe,  and  a  single  hoof  to  each  foot. 
These  also,  in  their  general  fonn  and 
,  apj»roach  tlw  Ruminantia,  with  which 
pularly  connected  by  the  camel  and  an 
itiuct.  Another  group  should  also  pro- 
iated  with  this  order,  holding  the  same 
the  An^phibia  or  Seal  tribe  among  the 
liis  is  the  Bnmll  family  of  aquatic  hcrbi- 
j,  termed  M.v.v.vtid.k,  which  wei*c  placed 
>ng  the  Cetacea,  but  which  differ  from 
is  in  several  important  particulars,  and 
e  clo.-ely  connected  with  the  hippopota- 
low  extinct. 

group,  PiwBosfiDEA,  contains  only  one 
ic  cfcpftttnt,  ol  whicli  the  mammoth,  which 
»xtinet  within  a  comparatively  recent 
icdspc- 
cxtinct 
;roup  is 

which, 
alien  of 
ears  to 
ity  with 
ms.  All 

agreed 

i  pair  of  Elephant. 

ca  or  front  teeth,  and  a  very  elongated 
iscis;  and  it  is  probable  that  this  last 
465 


organ  was  formed,  as  in  tho  elephant,  to  answer  the 
pnrpows  of  a  handj  laying  hold  of  large  objects  by  coil- 
ing itself  round  them,  and  of  small  by  means  of  the 
flnger-like  organ  at  its  extremity.  Tlie  magnitude  of 
the  sockets  necessary  to  hold  the  tusks,  renders  the 
upper  jaw  so  high,  that  the  nostrils,  which  are  pro- 
longed through  the  trunk,  are  placed  in  the  skeleton 
near  the  top  of  the  face.  By  means  of  its  trunk,  the 
elephant  not  only  lays  hold  of  its  food,  but  sucks  up  its 
drink,  which  it  makes  to  fill  its  capacious  nostrils,  and 
then  discharges,  by  bending  its  trunk,  into  its  mouth. 
By  this  admirable  organ,  the  shortness  of  the  neck, 
rendered  necessary  by  the  weight  of  the  head,  is  fully 
compensated.  The  cavity  for  the  brain  by  no  means 
corresponds  with  the  external  form  of  the  skull ;  for, 
in  order,  lis  it  would  seem,  to  give  a  larger  surface  for 
the  attachment  of  the  muscles  of  the  trunk,  the  outer 
layer  of  bone  it  widely  separated  from  the  inner,  and 
between  the  two  are  a  nuntber  of  large  bony  cells. 

In  none  of  the  Prubn.«cidca  lias  tho  lower  jaw  of  the 
adult  any  front  teeth.  The  arrangement  of  the  grinders 
differs  in  the  Tarious  species ;  but  in  all  they  are  com- 
posed of  alternating  platee  of  hard  enamel  and  softer 
bony  matter,  cemented  together  by  a  third  substance, 
which  IS  termed  the  cortical.  Tlicso  grinders  are  in 
constant  pn>gress  of  renewal ;  but  they  succeed  each 
other,  not  by  rising  from  below  upwards,  as  in  nuin,  but 
by  being  pushed  forwards  from  behind,  in  proportion 
as  the  tooth  before  each  is  worn  away.  There  is  never 
more  than  one  perfect  molar  on  each  bide  ;  but  in  pro- 
I>ortion  to  the  age  of  the  animal  there  may  bo  two, 
three,  four,  or  more,  the  front  ones  being  the  worn- 
down  remains  of  those  at  first  formed.  It  is  stated  that 
the  molars  are  thus  renewed  eight  times.  The  tusks, 
however,  are  only  changed  once  ;  but,  like  the  cutting 
teeth  of  the  Rodents,  they  are  constantly  being  renewed 
at  the  roots.  Two  species  of  elephants  exist  at  the  pre- 
sent day,  both  of  which  inhabit  tropical  climates,  one 
in  Asia  the  other  in  Africa.  Remains  of  the  mammoth 
arc  chiefly  found  in  the  north  of  America  and  of  Sibe- 
ria  ;  and,  from  a  nearly  perfect  specimen,  which  was 
discovered  frozen  in  tho  ice  near  the  mouth  of  the 
River  Lena,  it  appears  that  this  species  was  adapted  to 
live  in  cold  climates — the  skin  being  densely  covered 
with  hair  of  two  kinds.  The  habits  of  the  elephant  are 
sufficiently  wtll  known  to  rentier  it  unnecessary  here 
to  dwell  on  them.  Its  food  is  entirely  vegetable  ;  and, 
in  its  undomcsticatcd  state,  it  consists  chiefiy  of  the 
leaves  and  young  branches  of  trees,  and  of  the  long 
herbage  of  tlic  grouud,  both  of  which  it  gathers  with 
its  trunk.  The  tusks  serve  not  only  as  weapons  of 
offence  and  defence,  but  to  root  up  small  trees  and 
tear  down  cross  branches,  either  to  obtain  tlieir  leaves^ 
or  to  make  a  passage  for  the  bulky  body  of  the  animal 
through  the  tangled  forest. 

2.  Of  the  true  Fachydermata  the  first  fnmilv  is  that 
of  SuiD.15,  the  Pig  kind.     It  is  characterised  by  the 


CIIAMBERS'S  INFOKSIATION  FOIl  THE  PEOPLE.- 


fMoliar  IhidineM  at  thn  abb,  knd  by  the  presence  of 
(Out  taMon  each  f.ml.  Tliuy  have  I  lirte  Mfrto  of  iwrtli 
Id  noh  jnw  ;  Ilia  e*.nliiu  an  dhohIIji  lung.  Bod  prulest 
(iirmrdK  iw  lunlui!  the  •nterior  milium  are  inof»iirle« 
narrow  aixl  coultal,  whllal  «M  pwW-riot  mt9  tuLcrcu- 
Uwd.  Tbtt  fuod  U  prlnaipallj  r«KMabl«,  bm  kdiuits  of 
ooWJomWe  mrUiiuo.  Tli«  doiuestieuod  pig  b  well 
kmorii  to  bo  quit*  m  ornnin>m>iii  aninial.  lu  the  true 
pixi,  the  font  liu  iwu  loM  furnnbtU  «ltli  Urge  liwb, 
■ml  twu  iDUeli  nhnrtcr  ones  lliat  iwarwly  touoli  the 
ground.  The  wi/rf-/™r,  wliioli  iibouiuli  in  Huno  p»rl« 
of  the  contiiiFnl  of  Eunipp,  in  well  known  to  be  b  tery 
fcnwlou*  Animal  (  Mil  the  duDMiticalc4  race  wliicli  u 
derived  ffam  tt  uflain  exhibit*  indiealioni  of  th«  uirae 
dinraclcr.  One  of  tlia  inuM  euHoua  auiinali  of  lliin 
tribe  i*  th«  Auilymuia,  ft  u«tl>o  of  tho  Indian  arclii- 
prlngo  I  tba  upper  eaniniu  uf  wliioli  are  Tory  long,  and 
grvw  aiiinlly  upward*  and  baokwivrJa.  TheMi  wrve 
M  dffMwrivii  WMpoiu  of  a  Ycry  powerful  deiuiripti'ni, 
ufligtiug  Mivsra  laccratioDi  by  an  upward  ttnike  of  Uie 
bend. 

Willi  the  fkmily  o(  Suidie  !■  probably  to  be  jiUoed 
llle  ilip7iafiuAiRU«,  otrivur-Iionteiwhiuh  iienuaiji  uiwiy 
fmjwei*  inierinidiate  betwwn  tils  pi*  mid  the  elepbanl ; 
whiUt  IM  ailiiatie  habila,  and  tbe  ouofornuUian  by  which 
it  ia  adapted  to  IhrM,  approninial*  it  to  tho  Uugonn. 
Only  uua  npFoiw  i*  known,  which  ii  now  confluediu  the 
rinn  ef  mi'Idl*  ami  auudt  Africa.  Uut  fur  ila  iihori, 
thiek,  and  vxry  blunt  inuul(,  il  niiebt  be  Muipared  to 
■  |;Ikhiiiii-  \"a  ■  <!»'  ^""'j  U  ajilremef;  maaaiTr.Bnd  llie 
Ii-L'.  (..:■■:  :■!,..[  !:.,  Ill  Uv  •lino*(  t*iUoli«  tlioftround  ; 
ii:  \  ■     .     .  Y  <:<ii>eTiiig  brit  B  fuw  wHk  and 

M.ii  .  I  ■■   t^aulno  tB*th  am  long  ;   the 

ii;'l<<  .    '  .  .III!  tlie  lowor  oivtm]  butUwordu, 

Hi  ili.it  1..'^  I. ill  .._\u>i--i  cD«h  Other.  AUhuugli  feru- 
cioui.  or  rn'ilK'r  euurii|;i>ouii,  whvn  attacked,  tlioae  un- 
wieldy inlublUiita  of  the  waters  aru  in  tiwir  nature 
•hy,  Knd  feed  entirely  oa  root*  Kiid  utUar  (egetablen, 
MWining  tuptvfertbuM  which  are  jmrCiall]'  dcooiniioanl 
hy  Urn  Mtion  of  tba  wat»r. 

3. 'niBwe.,N.lfniNilx.,rL,,:.-  I '.  - !  ;.  i  ,,„.,!.,  r. o. lu..;, 
I  l)f  TiCIUlO*,"!-  l;..     ,' 


pUcen,  and  nubiigting  on  herbage  and  Oetn 

ly  ekoKaWd, 


first.  Tbe  upper  lip  j*  generally  ekoxiMd, 
>onie  power  of  preUendon.  HiiiBoceni^  k 
been  diaiuterred  in  nwny  pAfta  ol 

4.  The  third  grou(>  of  Pu^yd(mi>*C  ll> 
aitu,  contaiuB  only  one  fiinuly,  thai  of  tba  E 
Uora  tribe.  Though  there  u  only  On*  iff 
and  (ingle  boof  lo  eaeh  UkA,  tiiei*  utwuftn 
neaih  the  abia  which  repment  t»a  lata*!)  n 
well-known  animals  of  tliin  tribe,  the  ibeie.  t 
ITiagga,  Biuigga,  and  dtrgfiimlai,  arrcoomndf 
a*  belonging  lit  bat  nue  graoa ;  bntitaatiMt 
prob4b!y  to  be  aeparated  from  tlm  rart,  fnn 
ouniataDiM  of  ila  tail  boii.g  wholly  dotM  i 
hair,  wlulit  tlul  at  th«  real  ha*  long  hair  loQ 
tlio  tip.  On  Uii*  point,  boweTtrr,  Uwra  ii  mi 
tsinty,  Bribing  from  our  iuniKsso*  V  to  Ha 
■to«k  of  tbe  lioTM.  Id  airihs  inalanan  b  i 
at  present  kmiw  liom*  lo  exixt  in  a  wild  iMIi 
■ppeara  to  hsiVe  been  origioaliy  darititd  (na 
lieated  slock.  Thin  is  certainly  the  ea*e  nit 
to  the  wild  horMS  which  oow  ■prt«d  oiwlb* 
South  Amerlea.  all  of  whidi  are  due-ad^b 
firal  introduced  there  by  tl»  Spaniard*. 

All  the  Bnimalii  just  named  agrev  la  IbAl 
Thera  are  aii  jncison  to  each  jaw,  «U1 
youth,  hare  their  OMnrns  furrowod  byafic 
nx  nii>lani  on  each  tide,  above  and  bekte,  wll 
crowns,  marked,  by  plttea  ct  cnuncl  whidt] 

two  amall  cnuinca  in  tlieir  upper  jsw,  anda 
in  both  ;  Ibtso  are  alorajs  wanting  in  tba  In* 
tween  the  cairioes  aud  the  lint  imdar  itet 
Bpaoe,  which  corretpouda  wilh  liia  aaglt  (f 
wbL-re  tliG  bit  ia  pUced,  by  which  ■loos  nM  I 
enabled  lo  subdue  these  powerfal  i^uadr 
of  tba  Epecies  of  litis  Eiluily  aiie  Sudiga 

ila  uiwoiated  in  Htn  badjjr  Jl 

-I'd  lu  PscliydermaW  still  tWI 

l>iiuiiiiuB  lo  an  aquUio  taUm 

'      ion  thfj  bM 

id  :he  lAi. 


^I  *«,  »r,J   &J|  ftnn,  th,  .1 


uU  die  jfCAiu  luiu  j>|.|>tuiiiu~  Ui^  ul  ;L*  Kit 
imt  iliB  bnriu  arr  lUnMtol  optanU  uul  bM^ 
DiiTia^  ar  lU  iHhat  llu*i  hiia  (lu>  him* 
1  ii[  '-uili  kill  I  i<>iuil*|  Ibe  hen  Is  i<>ljiM,«lkJ. 
:  <'ii>la«ia(ll«ItilSliuiila' 


ntlinr  RUUniuifiTau*  aiiiiuiii.      1 n'   s>  ux'li  unt 


»jr  aiilabiiw*  »Iiieli,  llkn  |Ii»  olnnioiiw  »  ' 

ateluf>in»<   ItiDelodwirnljlbBfqntiMi 


mill  tba  1*11       , 


CHAMBERS'S  INFOEMATION  FOU  THE  PEOPLE. 


HppMra  to  bo  Indleenon*  to  Persia,  where  il  inliulril* 
ibe  iii<iunl«iii«  in  T«Be  troops.  The  k™1"  "f  Ango™, 
Thtbvt.  *c.,  eelebralod  tor  iJiB  fine  (laalil^r  of  iheir  hsif, 

n,„fc  lh»n  varieties  of  the  commompeciea.  Thr 

aim  of  the  old  vorld, 

.in,  u  dallnsnislied  by 
a.    It  h  nid  that  tlib 


lto#,  ivlili^h  inhabit*  tl 
■od  caMelill;  the  CaiiCMian  el 
.      ....,  _.^pgtt,  „f  its  hi" 


«lw«y«  ftilling  oQ^l.^or.1.,  the  ehMicily  of  which 
ilfrom  itiiiirj-.  The  .Vsp  ■•ppear  to  hare  exlrenwly 
Utile  ml  differenoe  from  the  poaW.  »  large  Dumber 
of  raeos  exist,  the  relation  of  which  M  eeeh  otDer  is 
oncerlaini  and  there  ia  dnubt  n»  to  the  nriEimJ  i*>ek 
of  the  whole,  or  tlie  iloroestioallon  of  this  aniniiil  *e 
InTe'an  ntriier  reeord  than  of  11117  olher. 

3.  The  BMciM  of  the  family  Itorin.e,  or  Oi  tribe,  are 
eamiianitively  feH-.  'nny  are  ail  large  animahi,  will,  ft 
bfoad  niuule,  hesvj  nnd  mnuire  body,  and  alaut  liinba. 
Of  the  origiual  elocli  of  the  domestic  01,  wo  h«»e  00 
certjunty,  since,  aa  in  the  com  c.f  horses,  the  eKleling 
racea  of  wild-cattle  arc  probnhly  all  deMended  from 
those  which  have  been  at  Bome  period  sBbeerrient  to 
man.  Of  all  the  uiimkU  which  have  been  rodueed  lo 
hii  nervice,  the  a\  »,  without  exception,  that  to  which 
he  is  moBl  indebted,  for  the  eiteiil  «nd  Tariely  of  ilB 
ineans  of  usefulness.  The  uni'eraal  uUUly  of  ilie  ai  * 
nul  appestB  to  have  betii  very  Boon  deteital:  ajid  « 
lind,  connqucDtly,  that  ita  domsBtieatinn  KMA  IMtowi 
thai  of  sheep,  and  thw  it  is  menlioned  isthEo: 


cient  records  1 


■dogaa 


of  u 


Antongat  ihe'unduroeslical^d  ipeclea  of  ihis  ftiinily, 
whieii  have  all  a  -iirong  gmeral  reaemhlancc  lo  iiich 
utiier,  and  are  the  most  powerful  and  i«T»ge  aiiinials 
of  Iho  wlirile  order,  may  bs  noUeed  tlio  European  ti*oo, 
which  was  formerly  spread  over  Kiirope,  but  is  now 
rwitrielBl  to  Lilhusnia  and  titf  Cau«wian  region  ;  the 
Amsrinit)  bison,  eoiomonly  called  iufiilo,  which  in- 
habit* all  llie  tanpepai!  parla  of  Norlli  AmericB ;  the 


•hi^  Inere  are  MTeral  diin>t«Dl  n 


the  reindeer,  however,  I 


>e  femali*  to  dealilaM 


I  n»>uiiif>  (lie  pluniajeuf  llu 
'  tlie  hiirm.  i>himeom|(Wiil;  1 
bmif,  wkhiMiiporworlpw* 
>•  (;ri  ;iiiy  K(«aPltn>C  lo  tW^ 
M  individual  al  diSitr**!  ■■• 
'siuclf  flat,  and  B*«  MMIly  1 
il   ou  piur,  iIm  Imtn  U 


vu,  or  cvoB  lltrie,  ttluds  at  glniffe,  all  «f  I 
ativva  of  Afrlo^  freqnentilig  chfrfl*  d*  b 
IB  dcaei-la,  Ila  relnailalile  ri>nn,  drmdn 
n  the  great  leneih  of  ila  ueck  Kudfore  lafti  ii 
I  every  ono.     In  Ito-^ao*:   '     " "^ 


neb;  especially  in  th»  W 
neck,  lliB  exLitenco  of  eaIlo«ilic«,  or  hard  ui) 
the  breon  and  knots,  and  (ht-  atis—  of  tl 
Bpuriou*  hoolit.  ](  is  Ihe  lalleM  of  all  caMnalt; 
being  fruqnenlly  mised  eighieen  fwst  ftmatl* 
Ila  ilisposition  »  gentle,  and  it  feed*  nn  kaswt 
ing  Tiiion  the  young  branches  at  a  hrlcU  atd 
that  which  any  other  animal  can  t«a^  vi* 
thetn  towards  iMimnulh  by  !!■  pMhBoi^MI 
Kvei  in  mnili  trenpa  of  live  or  ■>«  lodlaitalt 
very  tlniM,  althou jfl  wpabte  uf  poweffdVy  di 
Itself  by  kicking.  TJotwUhMandiiig  tb*  bM 
neek,  the  tmnber  of  vertubnp  xhieli  tMiftrlt 
Is  no  grcnter  than  in  other  Manim&lla, 

6.  The  Mnu.'HIIU<,  of  Mutk^trr,  are  «sa^ 
termvdialc  between  Ihn  tme  Dirt  and  lli«<Mi 
which  last  nmneeu  iho  Kumiiianlta  '■rtih  1W 
dennau.  Tliey  reeemble  iJie  nrdiaary  Maa 
the  lighineaa  and  elegance  of  llivir  Uiitm.-  art 
nimbleiiesH  of  IhHr  moremenla  ;  anil  (1111*4 
theabaeneeirf  h(ims,andinUl«pr>4Mdw«llfel 
tiioih  01         '  -  ^  — 


(HB  a  arge 
bat  IiuIb  amongst  each  nthi 
llm  ennti's  aurface,  and  *i 
'U-  tim  clinraelor  of  ihe  lioi 


nliicr  Ihe  A  mlnan.  w  unr-Au Mperf.     , 
;\^  vl<sv.i»ilecii«l.     Tlie  dcM  iasaiifdnia 


ZOOLOGY.— VERTEBRATA. 


ttudy  dcsort.  The  dnmedary  a  merely 
tty  of  it,  piuM^oed  nf  gruler  llecUipta 
eTiilurBncc.  The  flciih  and  luilk  of  the 
.  food,  and  the  Luir  for  ths  manuluture 
e  people  whu  luasen  it.  Their  huiiijw, 
npoBed  of  Tat,  are  provi«ion8  uf  auper- 
iinent,  whioh  are  gradually  absorbed  aiid 
iio  ocuaHiim  of  aaCHtcilji  of  olliur  food,  na 
)he  end  uf  a  louft  journey.  Uy  retling 
lilies,  tliey  are  euabled  to  ro)iaBe  on  n 
aer,  mid  their  atoiiiucha  are  adapted  to 
Ij-  of  waUr  auOicienl  fur  aeveral  davn. 
of  South  Ainorica  are  mucL  smaller  than 
;  they  liave  the  two  toua  quite  scparsie, 
It  liuni)u>.  Tlir]>  were  the  ouly  beaataol 
^d  liy  the  reruvtana  at  the  lirtie  of  the 
!y  ean  only  make  Uiart  jouroeya,  andtlie 
(iiir  Bpeciet  known  uaniiut  bubtain  nioi'e 
red  and  lifty  pounds.  Ilemains  of  a  fiis. 
■  I!  been  lately  found,  whiub  inuat  have 


naining  orders  uf  Mammalia,  tbo  Mar- 
aiiiilrenutHjHre  now  usimlly  regni'ded  as 
iistiiicl  auWIasR,  termed  Ono-vivipara, 
letneen  the  truly  vjviparaua  Manituolui 
oua  Birdi  and  Reptilea.  Their  muat  ob- 
ly  is  Iho  preduetion  of  their  youog  at  a 
»1  of  develiipnieut,  ina  alaCe  incapable  of 
jx-ly  eHliibiun|i  the  rudimeuta  of  limbs  ; 
t  until  a  king  time  after  tlieic  birth  that 
eiiiidilton  parallel  lu  tlint  of  a  ncm-borti 
uf  the  lii^hvr  ni'dera,  and  they  much 
the  half'furmed  chick  iu  an  egg  which 
fen'  da yH  incubated.  Inaecoidoiice  wiUi 
lu  of  iliis  imiHUtaul  funelion,  we  Rnd  n 
lity  uf  tho  wtuilo  organualion  to  lliat  of 
(larous  Mammalia,  and  agiproaehva,  in 
atructure,  to  birda  aud  reptilea.  The 
lurvnus  systeni,  the  arraugeiucDt  of  the 
n^ls,nud  the  hi rger  number  ot  (he  iiiciMii' 
I  the  higher  sub-elaiia  never  exceed  six), 
ationn  of  this  ap^mximaiion  ;  and  thin 
d  ill  tho  dulleiency  oF  iutclligence,  which 
their  physiognoiDy  aa  well  as  in  their 


malia,  ai 


11  the  R 


lis  continued  nourishtiieiit  <if  thejouug 
a  tho  most  remarkable.  The  Dew-bnrn 
«in|t  Bttaclica  il«lf  to  llie  tvats  uf  the 
naiiis  lixed  there  until  it  hsa  Bci[uired  a 
lopiiwat  companble  to  Ihnt  with  which 
ire  boni.  The  nkiii  uf  the  abdomen  of 
1  disposed  aa  to  fuiin  a  [ivuoli,  in  whicli 
I  young  are  protected,  nod  into  wtiicti, 
46!' 


long  after  tLey  can  walk,  thcr  retire  for  shelter  on  the 
apprebension  of  danger.  It  Is  fmni  tlie  p.iuch  {martu- 
pium)  that  the  order  takes  ita  name,  ihia  being  its  dix- 
tinguiahing  pccullaiilj.  It  is  remarkable  that,  nolwilli- 
standing  the  general  and  usually  very  Blrihing  resem- 
blance of  the  species  to  each  other,  lliey  dlHiT  so  inueh 
in  the  teelh,  the  digestive  organa,  and  the  feet,  thai,  if 
we  rigidly  adhere  to  these  elunicters,  wctJiould  find  it 


loaepsr, 


„    ..     .  igeofthia  .  .     ,_ 

culiar.  With  the  eiceplion  of  the  Opossum  |;roup, which 
inhabits  Aincrioa,  its  species  are  at  present  altiiodt 
oonfined  to  Australia  and  tlie  nei^liliouriiig  countries, 
where  lliey  constitute,  with  the  Mouotremala,  aliuoat 
the  only  mammiferoua  animals. 

TliullawnpialiamayhcdiYided  into  families  according 
to  the  nature  of  their  fiiod.  Some  of  those  iuliabiling 
Austrutia  are  allogeilier  carnivorous,  and  display  eon- 
sidorablo  ferocity.  The  Opwiunij  have  a  mixed  diet ; 
they  are  remajkahle  fur  pusscsaiiig  an  opposable  thumb, 
liketlistofl^uadruniana.  Annilier  croup  ismore  formed 
to  live  in  ti-ees,  where  they  feed  upon  insects  and  fruit ; 
to  tliis  belongB  the  petaiirui,  or  ftjing-Dpossum,  which 
is  forraod  upon  tlie  same  plan  witli  the  flying-lemur. 
The  JTaB^orwM,  of  which  soveial  bpecies  exist,  resemble 


It  Kan^ateo. 


uminantia  in  fuoJ  and  habits.    They  ara  raraark- 

for  the  enormous  lenalh   of    iheir  hindsr  feet, 

M  their  generis  name,  MaerojMu  (long-footed),  is 

^d.     The  hind  legs  and  tail  are  also  veiy  largely 

developed  ;  whilst  tlio  fore  lega  and  feet  are  very  email. 

"rom  this  great  inequality  in  the  size  of  the  limbs,  lliey 

Ivanee  on  all-fours  very  slowly;  but  they  can  umko 

imenso  leaps  with  the  hind  legs,  tlie  tail  probably 

isiating  them.     Thse  are  fumisiied  with  one  largo 

til,  almost  like  a  hoof,  which  is  a  powerfnl  weapou  uf 

Teiice  and  defence ;  fur,  aupporling  itself  upon  one  leg 

id  its  tail,  the  animal  cuu  iiifliet  a  very  scvt^re  bluw 

ilh  tho  leg  which  is  at  liberty.  It  will  Bomatinieei;ra>-p 

i  enemy  with  ita  fure  paws,  whilst  it  kicka  it  uiili  its 

hind  foot ;  but  this  it  will  only  do  when  attacked,  fur  it 

is  naturaJly  •  very  gentle  ammal.     The  largebt  «|>ecies 

is  sotnetlmea  six  feut  in  lieiglit,  having  the  bulk  of  a 

sheep,  and  weighin;  140  lbs.    Its  flci-h  is  nwd  nf  '    ' 

New  Ugilauders,  n 


by  thu  Ni 


9,  and  ib  described  as  being  u  little 


Onlcr  Xll.-Slciiotremnto. 

The  order  Monotreinata  is  a  very  extraordinary  one. 

It  cuutainb  but  twu  speciL-K,  the  eehidna  or  spiny  aiit- 

;ater,  and  the  otnilhoThyucui  ur  duck-billed  platvpus; 

iiid  these  ai's  found  nowheiu  else  than  iu  New  Holland 

ind  Van  Diemeu'a  Land.  Thcsewen;  included  by  Cuvier 

(who  regarded  the  absence  of  teeth  as  the  chief  cha- 

■  ?r)  ainungal  hin  Ldeiitiitii ;  but  zoologibta  have  now 

rally  agreed  lliatthe  peculiarities  of  their  atruclnrc 

physiology  fully  entitle  them  to  rank  as  a  distinct 

Older,  even  more  disaimihu  to  the  otlier  Maniinali* 

are  the  marsupial  iinadrupeda  jutt  oontidervd. 


ri 


f 


this  is  a  point  of  vory  runiarkaljle  aflinity  with  that 
c!asj»,  which  is  born«  out  In'  tlit-ir  ;j<Micral  organisation. 
There  is  a  nort  of  chivicle  (collar-boni')  common  to  both 
slionldcrs,  phicod  bt-fore  the  ordinary  clavicio,  and 
analopous  to  the  furcula  (morry-thonght)  of  birds. 
Fiach  foot  pf)8S0RS('H  five  chiws;  and,  bosides  these,  the 
mah's  hav«»  a  peculiar  spur  <»n  the  liinder  ones,  like 
that  of  a  ci»rk. 

The  Echidna  is  characterised  by  the  slendemess  of  the 
prolon«;eil  muzzle  or  bill,  whieli  contains  an  extensible 
ton;:ue»  like  that  of  the  ant-eater.  The  feet  are  fihort, 
very  robust,  and  adapted  for  dis;;'"??.  The  whole  upper 
part  of  the  body  is  covered  with  spines,  bearing  gonio 
resemblance  to  those  of  the  hedgehog  ;  and,  when  appre- 
hensive of  dangi'r,  and  unable  to  escape  from  it  by  bur- 
rowing, the  echidna  can  erect  its  spines,  and  roll  itself 
into  a  ball. 

The  habits  of  the  Echidna  in  a  state  of  nature  are 
but  little  known;  for  they  do  nr>t  exist  in  any  large 
number ;  and  they  burrow  so  rapidly  in  the  ground, 
that,  even  when  one  is  discovered,  it  is  not  easily  got 
hold  of.  To  lift  it  from  the  ground,  rctjuires  more 
force  than  would  be  supposed ;  for  it  firmly  fixes  itself 
to  the  earth  in  an  instant,  and  but  a  few  moments 
elapse  before  it  is  so  far  down,  that  its  back  is  level  with 
the  surface.  It  ftK'ds  upon  insects,  princi{>ally  ants, 
which  it  captures  by  its  long  extensile  tongue ;  and  this 
appears  to  be  furni>hed  with  a  glutiuous  secretion  which 
Caus<>s  them  to  adhere  to  it. 

Tiie  ormthffrhyncHx  (so  named  from  its //»r<f-likG  W//), 
is  an  animal  ot  such  extraordinary  as]»ect,  that  thu 
specimen  first  bnuight  to  this  country,  at  the  end  of  the 
last  c«'ntury,  was  sup|M>sed  to  liavc  been  made  »//),  by 
the  attachment  of  the  tM'ak  and  feet  of  a  bird  to  the 
bfidy  of  an  otter-like  quadruped.  It  was  not  until  other 
specimens  had  arrived,  ami  had  been  submitted  to 
nio.^t  careful  examination,  that  naturalists  wero  satis- 
fied of  the  r<*al  existence  of  such  an  animal.  Since 
that  p4*riod,  its  true  place  in  the  scale,  depending  upon 
the  moiie  in  which  it  pn>ductfs  and  nourishes  its  young, 
has  iM'en  a  most  fertile  source  of  controversy  ;  but  the 
qufi4tifiii  may  now  be  re£r:irded  as  set  at  rest  by  the 


command  of  materials  and  of  power  of  ctin 
would  almost  certainly  fail  of  s<dving — so  maJ 
conditions  necessary  to  be  fulfilled,  the  slii;lit< 
in  any  one  of  which  would  have  marred  the  r 
is  onlv  after  attentively  studving  the  struetor 
animals,  as  presented  to  our  view  by  an  all-* 
tor,  that  we  become  awaro  of  the  complex 
these  conditions,  and  of  the  variety  of  adapiatif 
Siirv  to  fulfil  them. 

In  i*egard  to  the  place  of  the  c\t^%  in  tlieve 
series,  this  is  easily  determined  to  be  between 
tiles  and  Mammalia.  Like  the  former,  its  mei 
oviparous,  and  like  the  latter,  they  possess  a 
double  circulation  and  warm  blood.  In  ordri 
the  vertebratcd  animal  to  its  aerial  residence, 
ously  necessary  that  the  body  should  be  of  as  In 
gravity  as  possible,  that  is,  should  be  as  near 
be  of  the  same  weight  with  an  rc^ual  bulk  » 
is  further  necessary  that  the  surface  should  fa 
of  bi'ing  greatly  extended,  and  this  by  som 
appendage  that  should  be  extremely  light,  ai 
same  time  possessed  of  considerable  resihtsr 
great  degree  of  muscular  power  required  f«)i 
and  propulsion  in  the  air  involves  the  neec 
very  high  amount  of  respiration,  for  which  a 
provisirm  also  exists  in  ins4*ct8 ;  and  as  the  ^i 
vity  of  the  vital  processes  depends  greatly  01*01 
temperature  which  this  energetic  respiration 
A  pn)viKion  is  required  for  keeping  in  this 
not  allowing  it  t<}  bo  carried  away  bj  the  at 
through  which  the  bird  is  rapidly  flying. 

The  first  and  third  of  these  objects — tlie  ligl 
the  body  and  the  extension  of  tlie  respiratory 
arc  beautifully  fulfilled  in  a  raiKle  which  wiU 
to  corr(>spond  with  the  plan  adopted  for  the  1 
po80  in  insects.  The  air  which  enters  the  V 
restricted  to  a  single  pair  of  air-s»cs,  or  lun{ 
ncfir  the  throat,  but  is  transmitted  from  the  I 
to  a  series  of  large  air-cells  disponed  in  the 
and  in  various  other  parts  of  the  body.  Even 
rior  of  the  bones  is  made  subservient  to  the  1 
pose,  iH'ing  hollnw  and  lined  with  a  delicate  w 


Ill  br  -vnty  pawrful  i 


ilnu  la  Uial<»iliiriikr  tuu  in  l>ut  thn  i  in  IL*  atMvnnl 
lia  nppar  earl  nf  Ibn  ■bnltdnii  nf  tlio  trnok  U  pH«. 
"   iniinnn  t*  m*Aa    tn   projml  tmuinl*  "iili 


rvinil  TirrU'bnn  Iwliicll  Ip  Iha  l(i»SM>- 
tkti  Maiumixlik  in  n*yr  mo"  tUn  »iiTon)  !•  vmj  . 
iiMukblr,  vkrjtne  fram  twolvc  Ia  twrnij'.tluvit 
hJglml  numlm-  twins  prewat  in  the  Swao  tri))^ 

■n»d  DTinipUUl}  Kwnil  ^ilio  jioiiljtm  MMUiniil  ' 

PMl)  •»  iTi»*ed  in  miy  iareUim.    Ttn  jaw*  bt  ma- 

]r-  i.r  T.iri!!.  M'T  ii'.t  funii-lwi!  wiili  IfbUi  !  hut  am 


Uw  botie  bvonrtb. 


or  on  8oft  herbage,  its  muscles  are  reduced  to  extreme 
tenuity,  so  that  it  is  scarcely  distinguishable  from  the 
proventriculus.  The  dilatation  of  the  craw  is  some- 
times wanting.  In  parrots  and  pigeons  it  is  an  impor- 
tant organ  in  the  nutrition  of  the  young.  It  is  furnished 
with  numerous  glands,  which  become  developed  in  both 
aexes  during  the  period  that  they  alternately- perform 
the  duty  of  incubation ;  the  function  of  these  is  to  secrete 
a  milky  substance,  with  which  a  part  of  the  food  swal- 
lowed by  the  parent  is  impregnated,  and  this  is  then 
disgorged  for  the  supply  of  the  young. 

The  development  of  the  senses  of  birds  varies  in 
different  tribra  according  to  the  modo  in  which  they 
are  adapted  to  obtain  their  prey.  The  sight  is  almost 
always  extremely  acute,  and  is  the  chief  means  of 
■eeking  food.  The  powers  of  vision  in  the  rapacious 
birds  are  probably  the  greatest.  A  hawk  has  been 
known  to  distinguish  a  lark,  coloured  like  the  clod  of 
earth  upon  which  it  is  sitting,  at  twenty  times  the  dis' 
tance  at  which  it  would  be  perceived  either  by  a  dog 
or  man.  The  rapacious  birds  seem  more  remarkable, 
however,  for  their  length  of  sight ;  those  which,  like  the 
swallow,  capture  insect  prey  on  the  wing,  must  have  a 
quickness  of  sight  of  which  we  can  scarcely  form  a  con- 
ception, since,  while  flying  at  the  rate  of  three  miles  in 
a  minute,  they  are  constantly  on  the  watch  for  their 
Tictims.  The  sense  of  smell  does  not  seem  to  be  in 
general  highly  developed  in  birds  ;  even  the  vultnres 
would  seem  to  become  cognisant  of  their  food  at  least 
as  much  by  sight  as  by  scent  The  sense  of  hearing 
seems  to  be  in  general  tolerably  acute,  especially  in 
the  nocturnal  birds  of  prey,  some  of  which  possess— 
what  the  rest  want — an  external  cartilaginous  ear.  The 
tongue  of  birds  does  not  appear  to  serve  as  an  organ 
of  taste,  except  in  a  few  species.  It  is  employed  in 
various  ways  as  a  means  of  obtaining  food.  The  sense 
of  touch  appears  to  be  generally  very  obtuse ;  but  in 
such  as  the  duck,  which  search  for  their  food  in  mud, 
where  neither  sisht  nor  smell  can  be  of  much  avail, 
the  bill  is  covered  with  a  skin  abundantly  supplied  with 
nerves  of  sensation,  in  order  that  tlie  animal  may  feel 
about  for  its  bidden  sustenance. 


i^f  .11   aL.  .^  J 


*_    «*  »1-T_    •_*. 


directix/u  uf  these,  the  wlacc  for 

be  selected ;  their  mat    ials  eoHedad  ;  ^b0] 

selves  built,  and  the  youog  reand  ta  ttMH  j 

tions  are  performed;  and  many  evrinnn- 

are  employed  to  obtain  food.   TbMa  il  farnn 

to  indicate  in  general  terms ;  since  H  In  "^ 

that  the  habits  of  birds  have 

each  species,  yet  that  in  all  tlM  n 

species  they  are  as  preeia^y  nislw  an  Ai 

stances  will  admit.    Neverthalesn»  Hmhv^^ 

in  birds  a  degree  and  kind  of 

conditions,  which  insects  do  not 

display  an  amount  of  ifdeliiffemm 

found  in  that  class.    And  intfae 

tribes  of  birds,  we  see  an 

that  higher  form  of  attachment  to 

bited  by  many  species  am<nig 

There  is  a  more  striking  eonfonnitoin 
class  of  birds  to  one  general  type,  tluuainpv 
in  any  other  group  of  eqnal  extent  in 
kingdom.  The  instances  of  any 
from  it  are  very  few ;  the  chief  is  tlMl 
Ostrich  tribe,  in  which  the  rtnTnlnpmsnl  rf I 
very  small.  In  no  other  instance  ans  nM 
extremities  wanting;  and  thus  birds nMW^ 
irregularity  occasionally  presented  ^Mm 
and  even  Mammalia. 

Owing  to  this  genefal  confomity  of 
vision  of  the  class  is  a  matter  of 
it  is  not  easy  to  say  what  ohaneten 
as  of  most  importance,  dnd  what 
And  this  difficulty  extends  also  to 
sions ;  in  separating  which,  charaetsm  tlMl 
trivial  are  often  necessarily  eniplogpn^lirasB 
others.  The  following  orders  may  pnoikiMbll 
as  constituting  groups  of 
semblance  to  each  other, 
larity  from  the  rest. 

The  Nataiorbs,  or  Swimmin^BM% 
the  union  of  the  toes  n     i  a  veb^ 
which  the  foot  a  »  the 

The  legs  are  ->  ,.^       I  pfaumi  heWBi^g 


m 


j*i  t 


ZOOLOGY— VERTEBRATA. 


eiion  eommon  to  nuuiy  of  them,  and  particularly 
rvable  in  our  ordinary  poultry.  The  character  of 
order  is  chiefly  derived  from  the  structure  of  the 
which  are  furniahed  with  three  toea,  united  at  their 
by  a  abort  membrane,  and  with  one  behind,  higher 
i  the  rest ;  and  these  are  armed  with  short,  blunt, 
robust  Dfl^lsy  for  the  purpose  of  scratching  up  their 

• 

1  the  first  of  these  orders,  the  habitation  is,  more 
ess  exclusively,  aquatic ;  in  the  second,  marshy 
es  are  chiefly  frequented  ;  and  the  third  and  fourth 
ain  birds  essentially  adapted  to  live  on  the  ground, 
t0>  seek  their  food  without  rising  into  the  air.  In 
vtnnaiaing  orders,  the  habitation  is  more  or  less 

hA^SoAMSORBS,  or  Climbers,  pass  most  of  their  time 
rees,  clinging  to  the  brancnes  by  m^ins  of  their 
which  are  specially  adapted  to  that  purpose.  The 
raal  toe  is  turned  backwards,  as  well  as  that  which 
posf^ior  in  the  Rasores,  so  that  they  have  two 
in  front  and  two  behind.  This  conformation  pre- 
s  them  from  walking  readily  on  the  ground ;  and, 
r  powers  of  flight  not  being  usually  great,  they  are 
lo  active  as  the  lusessores. 

tie  Kaptores,  or  Birds  of  Prey,  constitute  a  group 
eiontiy  well  marked  by  the  robustness  and  muscu- 
y  of  the  whole  body,  the  strength  of  the  legs,  and 
M  bill  and  talons.  The  former  is  strong,  curved, 
p-edged,  and  sharp-pointed ;  and  all  of  the  toes — 
e  before  and  one  behind — are  armed  with  long, 
Bg,  and  cix>oked  claws. 

bkere  now  reniains  a  very  extensive  group  of  birds, 
enting  no  very  marked  difierences  amongst  its 
ibera,  and  not  readily  defined  by  any  striking  cha- 
ers  which  separate  it  from  the  rest.  Accordingly, 
usually  made  to  constitute  but  one  order,  that  of 
EHORjas,  or  Perching-Birds.  The  principal  character 
fhieh  all  these  agree,  is  tlie  slenderness  and  short- 
( of  the  legs ;  the  feet  have  three  toes  in  front  and 
behind,  and  the  two  outer  ones  are  united  by  a 
f  short  membrane ;  they  are  all  slender,  flexible, 
moderately  long,  with  long  and  slightly  curved  claws. 
M  feet  are  readily  distinguisliable  from  those  of  the 
er  orders  :  they  are  destitute  of  the  webbed  exyan- 
I  possessed  by  the  Natatores ;  they  have  not  the 
Bst  strength  and  destructive  talons  which  charac- 
M  the  Birds  of  Prey  ;  nor  do  they  present  the  very 
taded  toes  which  enable  the  Waders  to  walk  safely 
r  marshy  soils,  and  tread  lightly  on  the  floating 
68  of  aquatic  plants.  They  are  adapted  to  enable 
bird  to  rest  on  the  branches  of  trees,  but  not  to 
r  to  them  ;  and,  accordingly,  the  birds  of  this  order 
a  large  proportion  of  their  time  on  the  wing. 
r  all  these  orders,  the  Cursores  present  the  neai'est 
roach  to  the  Mammalia  in  their  conformation  and 
e  of  life  ;  but  it  is  among  the  Insessores  that  we 
SDOst  developed  those  characters  which  have  been 
Uoned  as  distinguishing  the  class — power  of  flight, 
ity  of  plumage,  and  melody  of  voice.  These,  there- 
as  the  types  of  the  class,  will  be  first  considered. 

Order  I. — ^InsesBores. 

Ilia  order,  composed  of  the  Perching-Birds,  is  the 
t  numerous  and  varied  of  the  whole  class.  Its 
■acter  seems  principally  negative ;  for  it  embraces 
e  birds  which  are  neither  swimmers,  waders, 
bers,  rapacious,  or  gallinaceous.  Nevertheless,  by 
paring  tlie  different  tribes  it  includes,  a  great  gene- 
resemblance  of  structure  becomes  apparent ;  and 
I  insensible  gradations  are  perceived  between  those 
at  first  appeared  most  unlike,  that  it  is  difficult  to 
blish  the  subdivisions  of  the  group.  The  foot,  as 
name  denotes,  is  especially  formed  for  grasping  or 

hing a  peculiarity  evinced  by  the  situation  of  the 

er  toe,  wnidi  is  invariably  placed  on  the  same  level 
laoe  as  those  in  front.  The  length  of  the  tarsus  or 
ik  (that  which  appears  the  lowest  division  of  the 
bot  is  really  the  higher  part  of  the  foot^  is  moderate, 
gften  very  i^ort  m  comparison  to  what  is  seen  in 

473 


other  orders ;  and,  as  these  birds  never  seize  their  prey 
by  their  daws,  these  weapons  are  never  retractile.  The 
perchers  are  thus  distinguished  from  the  birds  of  prey 
properly  so  called  ;  from  the  climbers  they  are  separated 
by  having  three  toes  directed  forwards ;  whilst  the 
situation  of  the  hind  toe  enables  them  to  be  readily 
known  as  neither  gaUinaceous,  wading,  nor  swimming 
bii'ds.  Their  food  is  various,  but  in  general  mixed, 
consisting  of  insects,  fruit,  and  grain ;  those  in  which 
the  beak  is  stout  and  strong  feed  more  upon  grain,  some 
of  them,  however,  even  pursuing  other  birds ;  and  those 
which  have  a  very  slender  bill  feed  on  insects,  or  on  the 
juices  of  flowers.  The  proportional  length  of  the  wings 
and  their  powers  of  flight,  are  as  various  as  their  habits. 
In  general  the  females  are  smaller  and  less  brilliant  in 
their  plumage  than  the  male ;  they  always  live  in  pairs, 
build  in  trees,  and  dispUy  the  greatest  art  in  the  con- 
struction of  their  nests.  The  young  come  forth  from 
the  egg  in  a  blind  and  naked  state,  and  are  wholly  de- 
pendent for  subsistence,  during  a  certain  period,  upon 
parental  care. 

The  larynx,  or  organ  of  voice,  is  always  of  complex 
structure  in  the  membera  of  this  order,  which  contains 
all  that  are  commonly  known  as  singiiig-birds.  There 
are  few  that  do  not  either  sing,  or  utter  some  peculiar 
note  or  chatter  analogous  to  song,  during  the  season  of 
courtship ;  and  even  of  those  which  in  general  utter 
only  monotonous  cries,  or  of  which  the  notes  are  harsh, 
some  are  frequently  capable  of  being  taught  to  speak, 
to  whistle  airs,  or  to  imitate  other  sounds. 

The  families  composing  this  order  may  be  distributed 
under  four  large  groups  or  assemblages,  characterised 
by  the  respective  forms  of  their  bills.  The  Conirostrgs 
have  a  stout  beak,  more  or  less  conical,  and  with  regular 
edges.  The  DENnROSTRts  have  the  upper  mandible 
notched,  as  in  the  Raptores,  towards  the  point ;  but  this 
notch  only  exists  in  the  horny  covering,  and  not  in  the 
bone.  The  Fissirostrgs  have  a  short,  broad,  horizon- 
tally-depressed beak,  so  formed  that  the  gape  of  the 
mouth  is  extremely  wide  ;  it  is  slightly  hooked,  but 
without  any  tooth  at  the  edge.  The  Tknuirostres  have 
the  bill  very  slender  and  elongated ;  it  is  sometimes 
straight,  and  sometimes  curved. 

I.  Comrostres. — The  Conirostres  are  to  be  regarded 
as  containing  the  types  of  the  order,  the  species  belong- 
ing to  it  having  the  most  varied  faculties.  TheyVeed 
indiscriminately  upon  insects  and  vegetables,  and  are 
therefore  tei*med  omnivorous.  Their  feet  are  so  con- 
structed that  they  can  walk  upon  the  ground  with 
nearly  the  same  facility  as  they  perch  upon  branches. 
The  families  included  in  this  tribe  ai-e  the  CorvidjE,  or 
Crows ;  Sturnid^i:,  or  Starlings ;  pRiNoiLLiDiis,  Finches; 
BucERiD^,  Hornbills ;  and  Loxiad£,  Crossbills. 

Of  the  family  CorviovE,  the  common  Crows  are  the 
most  characteristic  examples,  and  may  be  regarded  as 
combining  the  general  chai*acter8  of  the  class  in  a 
greater  degree  than  any  other  birds.  In  every  climate 
habitable  by  man  these  birds  are  found  ;  they  are  con- 
structed for  powerful  and  continued  flight,  as  well  as 
for  walking  firmly  upon  the  earth ;  they  feed  indiscri- 
minately on  animals  or  vegetables,  and,  when  pressed 
by  hunger,  do  not  refuse  carrion :  their  smell  is  remark- 
ably acute.  They  are  bold  but  wary,  live  in  common 
societies,  and  possess  great  courage  ;  when  domesticated, 
they  possess  a  power  of  imitating  the  human  voice 
nearly  equal  to  that  of  the  parrot ;  and,  like  it,  show 
signs  of  greater  intelligence  than  is  found  in  the  rest 
of  the  class.  Under  the  general  term  Crow  are  included 
the  raven,  which  is  the  largest  of  Kuropean  perching- 
birds,  and  which  is  bold  enough  occasionally  to  carry 
off  poultry ;  the  corby  crow,  which  is  very  destructive 
to  eggs  and  young  game  ;  the  rouk,  which  chiefly  feeds 
on  insects,  and  eapecially  devours  the  grubs  of  the  Cole- 
optera,  though  it  occasionally  eats  grain  if  its  proper 
food  be  scarce;  the  hooded  crow,  which  feeds  upon 
molluscs,  &c.,  on  the  sea-shore  ;  and  the  jackdaw,  which 
is  a  very  vigilant  enemy  of  predatory  birds.  The  maff- 
piet  are  nearly  allied  to  the  crows ;  as  are  also  the  jays, 
which  live  prmeipally,  however,  in  woods,  and  f«>>pd  (lu 


CHAMBERS'S  INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOWiS. 


■rarm,  &e.  The  Sn.'wniis  t,Te  best  known  by  thi 
Europnn  HaTlatp;  the  fsmily  bcpum  like  »  amnllcr 
rtiM  a(  emwB,  which  Ihrj  ^really  reMmble  in  nunaerB 
nil  Etruclure,  but  sre  much  weaker. 

The  FuntaiujOM,  ox  Finclir.',  are  the  BmoILect  of  this 
group  oC  percbiag-birds,  luiil  ve  readily  known  by  the 
■bonneH  and  strength  of  Iheir  conical  billa.  The^ 
■nbaiat  generally  on  grain.  The  nnmber  of  species  IB 
Toiy  great!  w"!  »"J>e  among  tbeia  tra  tverj  *h»re 
diffuwd.  The  aparrowB,  ehnflincheB,  linnebi,  gnlijfinrbf«, 
bullHnchM,  and  Urks,  arc  the  kinds  beet  kuuwn  in  this 
coontry. 

The  BvCRStiDEtOr  Ifambilli,  are  readily  dirtingolihod 
at  ftnt  sight  by  the  enortnotu  aize  of  their  bills,  which 
are  awollei]  or  enlarged  at  the  ba^e  into  prolBberaace* 
roiembling  lioms  or  knobs,  which  are  aomeliinea  aa 
hreo  as  the  beak  itself.  The  form  of  Ibis  eicrcMcnte 
Tarm  much  with  age;  and  in  very  jtmng  indiriduala 
there  it  no  trace  of  it  perceptible.  It  !■  not  solid,  ex- 
tept  iu  one  species,  IjuI  compoaed  of  a  fragile  nelworlf 
of  Imny  fibres.  The  a-m  of  this  curious  appen'Uge  U 
nnbuuwn.  The  llornbiUs  are  gregariou*  noisy  bird»,  of 
brge  aize,  and  are  peculiar  to  tl>e  Old  World.  They 
Nibiist  on  all  aorts  of  food,  derouring  tender  fraita, 

datning  carriun  ;  and  they  breed  in  the  hoUowa  of  lofty 

The  Gunily  of  LoxilD^  or  CToahiB  tribe,  eontaini  a 
large  number  of  genera,  of  which  the  common  crou. 
bill  can  scarcely 


pMuliarity  from  Q 
which    it' take*  r 
its     nam.    not' 
bemg  poassMod 
by  more  than  a 
few   other   spe-    " 
mm.  Thiapeou- 
liaritycDnmstiintb 
BO  that  their  tips  pi 
the  same  side ;  by 
crMik-l   tr,    e„rnr 

■Irone  cnrrainre  of  the  msodihlBs. 
198  each  other,  and  not  always  on 
this  extraordinary  bill  tho  bird  is 
thn   freeii?  rri>m    pine-cones    willi 
rriil  i'  i=  '■'.iilin'Tl  to  liicnIiiiPM  in 

;:;"■■:'""■'■ 

>■■■  .!■■  iiri.  1.      'iiie  Bppcies  com- 
■  1   Dif  ItriTifh   IsW 

more  or  lOM  promi-  /^^ 

by  this  confort 
lion  Iho  bird 
enabled  to  taki 
firm  grasp  of 
food,  and    to  - 


Tha 


Lhnkes  Wilt  rit  for  honn  wal«Jhui<  IWllN| 
IntlulcM  ■ 


Likoiunjitf  Omt 


ibt  of  small  birds,  and.  In  tlu  IcM  ■ 
species,  of  insect) ;  and  will  suddraty  dart  M 
soch  as  come  witiiin  their  reach,  aeUo  il  witf 
and  carry  it  home  to  be  dc*ourcd 
only  pamie  rmiall  Inrda,  bat  niaeBntulljr 

Ihey  intmde  in  the  (joinity  of  tboir  i 
feed  alw  upon  frogn  and  other  small  terrsitoMfl 
This  family  contains  a  large  nnnibvT  oT  ^m| 
tribuled  (Ijrongh  all  quarters  of  the  il*4<«.  7h 
the  nme  general  structure  and  liabiia,  lUWI 
ID  subordtnate  partiaalarB.  Sum*,  wliioh  >ni 
in  powers  of  fllglil,  punme  inwcta  nn  li»  «i«| 
subsist  entirety  on  salt  raterpillan,  iib><b  llSf 
for  among  the  Ailiaga  of  high  tree*;  and  oUuJ 
about  among  bushes  and  underwaod,  fiajiiiglj 
Beets  and  young  or  eiekly  birds,  and  la  lit*  li 
acamn  destroying  great  quantiliea  of  aggi.  « 
The  MeniiLin«,  or  Thnu^ri,  liar*  aa  aOh 
narrow  beak,  but  the  point  is  not  boohad,  a 
laleni  tooth  is  not  m  marked  as  in  lb*  ahnkSi' 
theleBi,  the  tTsmitkm  from  me  form  lo 
voFj  eradunL  This  family  is  inferior 
therenirp,  in  (he  pemiliiT  oreaniaatkai 
paetottB  habits,  but  they  ponem  a  ncMw  «d 
powen.  It  iaintiiBfamilythatwaffndlhalil 
distingnishfld  for  the  aweetnesa,  MtnpaM^  t^l 
lity  of  their  song.     They  am  not  oonfimd  Ml 

of  Ibis  r,,m\h  the  common  Ihru.h  (maris  ar 
IUi'IIbIi),  (111'  l.'.irkl:ir'l,  .iti.I  fiel.lfarf,  are  well  1 
mid  (ilsii  (■bnmctHri'lie  rsninplf".  These,  aa  i 
llln  m**.»rf-Mf»j/j,  Tt^'Hnn,  Hrji)-(ArHj.*,  &&,ai*i 
nllinri  »pL'etv»  nf  llie  saun'  8^""',  of  which  thi 
hpr(;i.>i  nrL'  riT^lribiiterf  nvvr  tlie  whole  glob* 
,),.»■(  h,f,.f,if.ti.  „n  the  other  hand,  which  pnbaU] 

Aiiii'iMM  :  ■;'i|,ii.  .iflhem  approximate  to  llwrilfi 
II..  ir  liniiiri.     A  fi-n-  fpi'ciea  of  this  family  ha** 


>  lo  Ibai 
F  l«  ibt  jl 
n  a^pldl 


■-I 

;.-b  rtttis  IhrongH  lb* 

■"'"■■'"'"•-'«""•"«) 

1   llK'Hp.'^K-XltlilJia 

.■  llir.|s,wv.find.io« 

-nialli^t  birds  hi  9 

>,  the  n,Kh.mKaJe.lb. 

iiritiiraliKt;  as  an  «] 

-.M-Url.sftnJ  tiMB* 

■1  .■v.i-nll,h»habrlal 

■  ■vt„|.,,v.  apeculk 

!■.  '■     ■  -.••[■eriallj* 

M.lniil!,,.  luMstWl 

ir^mnlls,te.rftb«. 

n-iire  of  the  Ihraah 

i-i-v  in« 

tiwroun  bi] 

rdsj  whilal  their  InU 

loul  fn.u 

-rl1"h."f 

<-d  bv  the  awallow  a* 
be  wing.    TheSytf* 
l"n)!;;  apncarinela. 
:l.'d  mu>  lifcandartli 

,  and  dixapprani^  1 

•  f  arc  no  hnrnr  n< 

'.u^W-i' 

uuddinuniabMoraM 

ZOOLOGY—VERTEBRATA. 


*  tlie  frmily  of  AMPPXiDiE,  or  Chatterer 8,  the  most 
acteristio  examples  belong  to  tropical  America,  and 
one  is  found  in  Europe — the  tcajt-wing.  The  birds 
lis  family  are  distinguished  from  all  the  other  Den- 
ttrce  by  the  enormous  width  of  their  gape,  which 
lany  extends  beyond  the  eye,  and  in  some  is  nearly 
ide  as  in  the  goatsucker.  This  bill  is  not  defended 
iriatles,  however,  at  its  comers  ;  and  the  absence 
lese  indicates  that  its  wide  opening  is  not  for  the 
pose  of  catching  insects  on  the  wing,  as  in  tho  swal- 
tribe.  The  chatterers  live  almost  entirely  on  soft 
nes  and  small  fruits,  which  they  swallow  whole ;  and 

food  naturally  requires  a  very  wide  passage.  They 
perpetually  hopping  among  fruit-bearing  trees,  and 
reely  ever  come  to  the  ground.  The  species  which 
f  be  regarded  as  the  types  of  this  family  are  very 
e  known,  being  inhabitants  of  the  deepest  and  most 
Inded  forests  of  tropical  America.  They  are  oftcner 
id  than  seen ;  their  notes  being  peculiarly  loud,  and 
!red  iibming  and  evening  from  the  deepest  recesses 
the  forestf*.  Many  of  them  are  clothed  in  a  very 
a  and  brilliant  plumage,  which  rivals  that  of  the 
maing-birds. 

rbe  ML'sacAPiD^^  or  Fly-catchers,  are  a  family  liardly 
I  numerous  than  that  of  the  warblers ;  and  are  com- 
isd,  Uke  that  group,  entirely  of  f^mall  birds.  This  fa- 
\j  is  more  purely  insectivorous  than  any  other  of  the 
ler,  few  of  the  8i>ecies  belonging  to  it  ever  partaking 
fraits.  These  birds  have  a  bill  flattened  at  its  base ; 
i  the  sides  of  the  mouth  are  defended  vnxYi  stiff 
itles,  to  confine  the  struggles  of  their  prey.  The 
Dbers  of  this  family  are  distributed  through  the 
iperate  and  tropical  portions  of  the  Old  World,  and 
temperate  paits  of  the  New.  Between  the  tropics, 
ever,  they  are  replaced  in  America  by  the  tyrant- 
kes  and  Hy-catching  warblers,  both  which  groups 
Unknown  in  Africa  and  India.  The  ^y-catchers  of 
ope  are  small  birds,  about  the  size  of  a  sparrow. 

species  is  common  in  Britain,  usually  arriving 
It  May.  It  has  been  observed  to  take  its  station 
he  top  of  a  stake  or  post,  from  whence  it  springs 
1  on  its  prey,  catching  a  fly  in  tho  air,  and  hardly 
'  U^uching  the  ground,  but  returning  to  the  same 
d  for  many  times  together. 

I .  Fissi  ROSTRES. — The  group  of  Insessores  thus  dcsig- 
d  is  a  comparatively  small  one ;  but  it  is  very  dis- 
:  from  all  others  in  the  beak,  which  is  short,  broad, 
Kontally  depressed,  slightly  hooked,  and  very  deeply 
9  so  that  the  opening  of  the  month  is  extremely 
>.  The  birds  possessing  this  kind  of  bill  are  adapted 
Capturing  insects  on  the  wing,  receiving  their  prey 
ill  fliglil  into  their  mouths,  which  remain  open  for 

purpose;  and  the  victim  is  secured  by  a  gluey 
Jation  within,  and  a  strong  fence  of  bristles  on  the 
ide,  which  also  serves  to  protect  the  soft  parts  of  the 
1  from  its  struggles.  Although  such  is  the  typical 
haracteristic  form  of  the  bill  in  this  group,  it  is  not 
lys  seen.  In  some  species  the  bill  is  stronger  and 
;er ;  and  these  also  are  distinguished  by  having  the 
^mal  toe  nearly  as  long  as  the  middle  one,  and  at- 
led  to  it  until  nearly  its  end;  to  these  the  name 
'yndaetyii  was  given  by  Cuvier,  who  associated  them 

•  a  separate  gi-ou p.  The  Fissirostres  as  a  whole  are 
uliariy  distinguished  by  having  the  powers  of  flight 
eloped  to  the  highest  degree.  All  the  energies  of 
ir  nature  seem  concentrated  in  this  one  perfection  ; 

their  feet  are  always  very  short  and  weak,  and 
ve  but  for  little  else  than  to  rest  the  body  after  flight. 
*y  may  be  separated  into  diurnal  and  nocturnal,  like 

birds  of  prey. 

.'his  group  may  be  divided  into  the  five  following 
lilies: — Hirundijcid^  or  Swallow  tribe ;  Caprimul- 
c,  or  Goatsuckers — both  these  present,  in  a  remark- 
j  degree,  the  organisation  which  has  been  described 
characteristic  of  tlie  order;  the  remaining  families 
e  ft  longer  and  narrower  bill,  and  are  syndactylous — 
RonDJ^  or  Bee-eaters ;  IIalcyomd^.,  or  King-flsh- 
;  ToDiD^  or  Todies. 

hm  UuiuNDiAiDJE,  containing  the  Bwifts  and  swal- 

476 


lows,  are  diurnal  birds,  remarkable,  like  the  diurnal 
Raptores,  for  their  close  plumage,  the  extreme  length 
of  their  wings,  and  the  rapidity  of  their  flight.  The 
stctfts  possess  these  characters  in  the  highest  degree, 
and  surpass  all  other  birds  in  the  power  of  sustaining 
a  rapid  flight  for  a  long  time.  They  are  distinguished 
from  the  swallows  by  having  the  hind  toe  directed  very 
much  forwards ;  and  all  four  toes  are  armed  with  strong 
crooked  claws,  which  give  to  the  bird  such  a  firm  grasp, 
that  it  can  sustain  itself  by  the  side  of  perpendicular 
rocks  or  buildings  witli  great  facility.  In  some  species, 
the  tail  feathers  are  very  stiff,  as  in  the  woodpeckers,  and 
serve  as  an  additional  support.  They  spend  their  time 
almost  entirely  in  the  air,  and  pursue  insects  in  flocks, 
sometimes  at  a  great  height,  uttering  discordant  screams. 
They  nestle  in  the  holes  of  walls  and  rocks.  The  ftro/- 
Imcs  are  less  capable  of  sustaining  a  continued  flight 
than  the  swifts,  as  is  shown  by  their  weariness  after  or 
during  migration,  on  which  occasions  they  have  been 
seen  to  alight  flat  upon  the  sea.  Several  species  exist 
in  Europe,  and  many  more  in  other  parts  of  the  world. 
Among  them  may  be  mentioned  a  small  species  inhabit- 
ing the  Indian  archipelago,  which  forms  its  nest  of  a 
species  of  sea- weed,  which  it  macerates  in  its  stomach 
and  then  arranges  in  layers.  These  edible  birds*  nests, 
as  they  are  commonly  termed,  are  liighly  prized  as  de- 
licacies in  China,  and  constitute  an  important  article  of 
traffic  with  that  country. 

The  Caprimuixjid^  or  Goat-s^tckers,  are  nocturnal 
birds,  and  have  the  same  light  soft  plumage  which  cha- 
racterises the  owls.  Their  eyes  are  large,  and  their 
gape  still  wider  than  that  of  the  swallows,  so  as  to  be 
capable  of  engulfing  the  largest  insects.  They  come 
forth  in  the  twilight  and  return  to  rest  before  morning ; 
but  in  their  other  habits  they  much  resemble  the  swifts, 
with  which,  indeed,  thev  are  closely  connected  by  inter- 
vening species ;  for,  whilst  there  are  goat-suckers  which 
fly  by  day,  skimming  over  the  surface  of  ponds  in  small 
flocks,  precisely  in'  the  manner  of  swallows,  there  is 
also  a  swift  which  only  flies  at  night. 

The  family  of  MKROPiDiE,  or  Bee-eaters,  is  confined 
to  the  warm  regions  of  the  Old  World  ;  only  one  spe- 
cies being  known  as  having  occasionally  strayed  to 
Britain.  They  have  long  and  pointed  wings  and  short 
feet,  and  fly  in  the  manner  of  swallows.  The  European 
Bee-eater  annually  visits  Italy,  in  flocks  of  twenty  or 
thirty,  and  may  be  seen  skimming  over  the  vineyards 
and  olive-plantations,  especially  pursuing  bees  and 
wasps.  It  is  remarkable  that  they  are  never  stung  by 
these ;  they  seize  the  insect,  and  at  once  crush  it  by 
the  snap  of  their  powerfully  compressive  beak. 

The  Halcyomdje,  or  King-fishers,  are  remarkable 
for  the  great  length  of  the  bill,  and  the  extreme  short- 
ness of  the  feet.  Their  habits  are  sedentary,  much 
resembling  those  of  the  fly-catchers ;  but  their  food  is 
more  various.  The  common  British  species  partly  lives 
on  small  fish,  which  it  takes  by  precipitating  itself  into 
the  water,  either  from  the  branch  on  which  it  had 
perched,  or  by  suddenly  arresting  itself  during  rapid 
flight,  poising  for  an  instant,  and  then  plunging.  It 
returns  to  its  perch  to  gulp  its  prey,  first  killing  it  by 
repeatedly  beating  it  against  a  bough.  The  Todid^ 
or  Todies,  are  small  American  birds,  resembling  the 
king-fishers  in  their  general  form,  and  may  be  regarded 
as  representing  them  in  tho  New  World. 

IV.  Tenuirostres. — This  group,  it  has  been  well  re- 
marked, **  is  among  the  most  interesting  of  the  animal 
world.  Deriving  their  subsistence,  for  tlie  most  part, 
from  tho  nectar  of  flowci-s,  we  never  fail  to  associate 
them  in  our  idea  with  that  more  beautiful  and  perfect 
part  of  the  vegetable  creation,  with  which,  in  their  deli- 
cacy and  fragility  of  form,  their  variety  and  brilliancy 
of  hues,  not  less  than  by  their  extracting  their  nourish- 
ment from  vegetable  juices,  they  appear  to  have  so 
many  relations.**  This  tribe  is  confined  exclusively  to 
the  torrid  zone  and  southern  hemisphere.  The  length 
and  slendemess  of  the  bill  are  its  distinguisliing  clia- 
raeteristics.  It  is  not  by  this,  however,  but  by  the  lone 
filamentous  tongue,  tliat  the  juices  of  flowers  are  suckea 


CHAMBERS'S  INFOBMATION  FOB  THK  P£0P1^ 


Linter's 


up  1  and  lo  protect  Ihw  imporUuil  vrgtn,  the  peeuli 
oootonnatioB  of  lli«  bill  loems  chiefly  inleuded.     T 
louguc  it  often  fimyiy  forked  ;  but  i»  lonielinies  diiid 
iiil*i>oiiiui;>l«D>i«i'fi]>ccDl*iM  lareMtoble 
bruib.    Theft'et  >re  veryihaituid  deUcile.    AH  ihcK 
cbftTUlen  BTs   pre»Dl«d   in   llio  ^r«*t«l  perfection 

by  the  Tunciuun*,    -  " ■■■■- i~~i.   »i.i~i.  —  th- 

tjp»  ot  Iho  group. 

UoopoH.  have  tlic  tougue  short.  Tlie  PtuniiiD^  or 
BinlH  at  P»r»Jiw,  -re  ■eptnled  bj  the  streoglU  of  th& 
flit.  And  the  JteuFUAuiDJi,  or  IIoucr->DcLer>,  have 
the  bill  notchnL 

The  Trociiilib*,  or  IlummiHg-Bird  tribe,  to  cele- 
brated tor  tlia  meullii:  lustre  ot  their  plniuage,  aud 
purlieularly  tor  tlw  gem-like  brilliancy  of  eooie  ot  their 
feWhere,  hare,  mthlii  their  long  slender  beak,  ft  tongue 
callable  of  protnuioii  like  that  uf  the  woodpecker*,  and 
diiided  alinOBt  to  the  bue  into  loo  Rtaniants.  Theso 
filamenla  are  not  tubular,  as  they  are  someliines  de- 
Kribed,  but  are  flattened.  It  a  not  improbable  that  the 
tongue  inay  aarTe  for  ottching  inaeots,  as  well  aa  for 
■ueking  ihe  joioea  of  flowora;  «nceil  is  nnquealioaablc 
that,  like  otliers  of  the  order,  the  hunmuDg-birda  are 
partly  inaeotiroroui.  When  hovering  over  Howera, 
these  bird*  balance  thimaelrea  in  the  air  by  a  rapid 
motioa  of  the  uin^EB,  like  many  fliea ;  and  it  it  by  inii 
moveinent  that  the  AuHMiiny  Miuud  is  produced,  from 
whieh  they  Uke  Iheir  name.  The  flight  of  thv«a  birds^ 
the  amallesl  a!  the  order,  ii  so  rapid  aa  frequently  to 
elude  the  eye.  They  live  solitarily ;  defend  their  neata 
with  eonrage,  attacking  with  their  nocdle-hke  biUs  the 
eyea  of  intruder*,  which  makes  these  minute  creatures 
truly  formidable ',  and  flght  with  each  other  desperately. 

This  bmily  U  eiElusiicly  oufined  M  America ;  and, 
Willi  few  caceplioni,  to  the  •ouLhern  part  of  that  conti- 
nent and  the  adjacent  West  Indian  Iklanda.  More 
than  one  hundred  and  seventy  species  are  at  present 
known;  and  others  are  canslantly  being  diseotered. 
The  MnallfHt  of  them,  when  pludbed,  are  less  than  a 
lari^  hambie-bee ;  and  ana  only,  wliioh  ia  muoh  larger 
lliBii  any  olberaaiiyet  known,  nearly  equals  the  common 
" 'is  also  one  of  the  dulleal  co- 


nil  it 


a  to  Ilie 


feeding,     TIlia  group  ia  «biefl; 
where  (U  member*  abound  \a  tr**^ 
and  wbet«  they  And  a  Mvei^biling 
riant  vegetation  of  tlwt  ~    

The  membets  at  Ilia 
sisu  of  the  Tre»-orH>pB«,  > 
reaemUe  tbe  seanwiriai  bird*  In  (hair  lu 
more  ela»elv  approaimabe  Id  1 
cially  the  MeliphagichK,  la 
those,  they  are  of  aiiiall  size  _ 
toea  directed  forwards,  and  tlio 
and  delieaU  than  tlial  al  the  wwdp* 
crfpfTi  bore  into  trvva,  however,  « 
tail  in  climbing,  muoh  as  do  tha  w 
rather  acek  for  their  food  in  th< 
trees,  or  among  the  maeMB  aud 
branchea.     Tlie  Xulhttchtt  hav  _  .     _^ 

a  straight  aud  pointed,  like  that  of  lfa«  vmJ^ 
They  use  it,  however,  nihar  to  scale  et  tlw  Mk 
to  perforate  it,  and  they  do  not  aupport  tlimni^* 
the  laiL  They  feed  out  only  upon  iMtMi  b* 
tarioui  leedi,  and  are  celebrvtHl  Cor  tk«  iM 
fixing  a  nut  in  a  chink  while  they  fient  itei 
bill,  swinging  the  whole  body  aa  afiio  a  fnAI 
elTeol  to  each  stroke.  The  British  e^Min  itaM 
sue  of  a  robin,  its  note  lund,  and  it*  dopM 
markably  fcarlest. 

Ordn  U.— BttptaTK 

The  rapacioua  birda  constitute  a  wrll-marMl 
which  may  be  compared  wilh  lliat  vt  1^  Qoa 
among  Mammalia.    In  compuiaan  with  lb*  !•■■ 
tlieir  number  is  but  few  ;   for  had  it  bwa  sdl 
Ihey  would  soon  have  eitirjiated  the  whole  nc& 
muilly  breed  but  slowly,  leading  auhlat;  Hn^ 
never  appearing  in  nunieruu*  euUectuuM.  UHtrfl 
are  large  and  powerful  birds ;  and,  what  is  M  ri 
lion  to  the  cenenil  rule,  the  female  is  Utt<r  f'"' 
male,  but  her  planugo  is  uaually  uf  a  dniltr 
There  are  few  of  this  family  which  dn  sot  d 
strength  of  wing ;  but  the  power  and  i  ~  ''^~  ~ 
that  are  poaaeased  by  the  different  t 
their  habits.     As  "  ■'       "  "   ' 


X 


r^'mu'kable  for  tlHir«^ 
o  talons.  The  foreerfH 
r  the  uiuselc.  of  ihakaMJ 
ilaily  but  ot  moJeiatafafi 
'  lint  by  bi-iug  d'SamtUt 

I,    -.^■,>,-,-,l  i,;  (be  1.4,1 


K":. 


ZOOLOGY.— VERTEBRAT  A. 


eenliaritiet  of  the  eeTeral  familiea  will  b« 
a  when  the;  are  particular!;  comidered. 
oMD«,  or  Falcon  tribe,  exhibit  the  perfec- 

order>at]d  correBpond  verj  cloael;  in  their 
ilB,  and  the  adaplaliona  of  structurs  to  th'em, 
eline  tribe  Bmong  the  Carnivora.  Their 
of  moderate  m»  ;  (heir  fonna  light  bul 
lieir  flight  graceful ;  and  iheir  conrage  icry 
•y  are  (echnically  dislinguiihed  from  the 
■  which  (bein^  both  diurual  birdi  of  prey) 
«t  nearly  Btlied,  by  the  bill  being  toothed, 
liorter  and  iharper;  and  by  ihe  icutcDeaa 
cunreor  their  taloni,- which,  like  Ihoae  of 
be,  are  retnelile.  The  memben  of  this 
Jmoat  univcnally  diffused  over  the  earth's 

inidm  haye  been  commonly  divided  into  the 
jnobU;  the  latter  not  being  sueceptihle  ot 
i  to  the  (so-called)  noble  sport  of  falconry, 
division  comprehends  the  Faleoru-proper, 
islinguiehed  frnm  thereat  by  the  size  of  the 
'  mandible,  and  by  the  power  of  their  wings, 
3ng  and  pointed.  They  are  the  most  cou- 
ttl  the  family  in  proportion  to  their  aizej 
tcially  adapted  to  punua  and  bring  down 
'hilsl  it  is  on  the  wing.  The  EaglcM  may 
ed  as  ranking  next  to  the  falcons.  Tliey 
rs(  and  most  powerful  of  tlia  whole  group, 
and  destroy  quadrupeda  aa  well  as  birds, 
islinguished  from  all  other  Raptores  by 
e^s  and  feel  feathered  quite  down  lo  the 

Ifaicki,  Kila,  Otprtj/i,  and  many  other 
'ell  known  forms  of  this  family. 

of  the  foniily  Vilturidjk,  or  VvllUTt  tribe, 
•hole  much  larger  than  those  of  the  pre- 
,  but  Ihey  are  much  less  courageous.  The 
hened,  and  curved  only  at  the  end,  and  it  is 
ast  toothed.  The  power  of  their  talons  by 
irrcsponds  with  the  stature  of  these  birdii, 
.ke  more  use  of  their  beak  than  of  their 
ce  they  are  not  adapted  for  a  contest  with 
a  victim,  and  rather  seek  carrion  already 
,  to  which  ihey  are  attracted — whether  by 

by  Ihe  smell  is  still  B  disputed  question 

gorge  to  repletion  ;  and,  in  order  that  th< 
bird  which  come  most  in  contact  with  thi 
1  should  not  be  soiled  and  matted  together 
lid  be  if  covered  with  feathers),  Ihe  sk'  * 
id  frequently  also  of  the  neck,  ia  desi 
The  legs,  too,  at  their  lower  part, 
I  scales,  and  not  with  feathera  aa  iu 


and  to  enable  them  to  concentrate  the 
of  sight  upon  the  object  directly  before 
we  look  through  the  hand  contracted  ii 
some  object  which  we  desire  to  see  mi 
This  fringe  ia  most  remarkable  in  the  I 
its  a//ic*.    In  the  owla  which  are  partly  di 


a  tube  at 
diatinctly. 


irca  are  most  abundant  in  hoi  climates, 
perform  important  servieca,  by  removing 
carcasses,  which  would  ollierwiee  be  a 
ensive  and  noxious  exhnlaliona.  They  are 
,tl<red  over  the  south  of  Europe ;  in  ^gypt 


efew 


le  individuals  i 


'  of  STRiaiD.)^  or  Otrl  tribe,  including  all 
il  birds  of  prey,  is  chamcltrised  by  the 
tion  of  the  head  to  the  body,  and  by  th> 


d  by  a  fringe  of 


lieir  soft  downy  pli 
lied  from  the  lirm  and  eharjily-cut  feathers 
kl  Raptures.  Alt  these  peculiarities  have 
their  habits.  The  cavity  of  the  brain  is 
'nally  larger  llian  in  other  bird..| ;  and  the 
n  it  and  the  exterior  of  the  skull  is  occu- 
!  cells,  which  communicate 


I,  has  a 


.eof  h 


Thei 


to  thi 

lunlly  to  be  em- 

t  the  birds  are 


ght  in  which  thi , 
pupils  are  so  large 

II  day,  and  henco  in  paii  arises  me  siupio 
'bieb  they  exhibit.  The  fringe  which  sur- 
probably  has  for  its  object  to  prevent  the 
of  light  from  tbs  sides,  above,  or  below, 
177 


stealing  upo 
wings  bTiouIi 


:a  the  m 


1  of  theii 


■a  noiseless  aa  poskible ;  and  tfa 
.wered  by  the  downy  character  of  Ihe 
whole  plumage,  and  by  a  particular  arrangement  of  Ihe 
barbs  of  Ihe  feathers  at  the  edge  of  the  wings.  The 
externa!  loe,  as  in  Ihe  osprcy,  can  be  directed  back- 
wards as  well  as  forwards.  Tl^eir  period  of  activity 
being  ta  ilight,  or  during  moonlight  nights,  that  of  their 
'     ing  the  dny  ;  and,  if  then  disturbed,  they 


inko  Ihe 


which  s 


cipally  intended,  however,  to  enable  then 
view  of  the  object  which  annnyg  them.  Owls  are  feared 
by  all  smaller  birds,  which  do  not  hesitate,  however,  to 
attack  them  during  the  day.  Their  food  is  wholly  aai- 
msl ;  coiisiBting  of  mice,  frogs,  and  other  small  terres- 
trial vertebrala,  small  birds,  lish  in  some  instwiGes,  and 


The  peculTar  disposition  of  lhe,taeB  in  Ihi 
this  order,  two  being  placed  behind,  and  all  fo 


ivel,  gives  them  great  faeilily  in 
of  trees,  but  proportionally  im- 
I  on  level  ground.  By  Itaia  cha- 
iddy  distinguished  from  alt  other 


,  llieir  progreei 

birds,  notwiilistandi  __ 
the  farm  of  the  bill  and  wings.  The  neataof  this  order 
are  generally  leu  skilfully  eonatruBtad  than  those  of 
the  InsessorcB-;  and  the  birds  oftm  employ  for  this 
nurjiote  the  liollnws  in  decayed  trees ;  one  family  is  re- 
iiarkable  for  depositing  its  eggs  in  the  nests  of  other 
'irds.  Their  flight  le  ordinarily  but  moderate.  Tlieir 
lourishment  cimslsts  of  insects  and  fruits  ;  and  the 
pecies  feeding  upon  each  may  be  distinguislicd  by  the 
reater  or  less  robustness  of  the  besk.  This  order  may 
«  divided  into  the  four  following  families:— I.  Ptcicc, 
r  Hoodpecicri,  which  may  be  regarded  as  the  types  of 
the  order,  presenting  its  peculiar  charaetera  in  the 
highest  degree.    3.  Cca.T.rD«,  or  Cuehxn.    B.  R*n- 


CHAMBERS'S  INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


tuisnOA  IT  Toucaru.  i-PaiTucnia,  or  Pamits.  This 
but  family  id  wpuvled  from  Uie  rcet  by  eo  inauj'  pecu- 
lijirititHi,  09  almost  to  coiittiluLe  a,  ilistjuct  onJtir. 

II  TtiH  Finn'  are  oliiefly  characterised  by  Lhcir  long, 
Btrught,  augular  bill,  the  ead  of  which  it  conipruued 
into  a  wedge,  adapted  to  perforale  the  boili  of  rm!«. 
The  tongue  ie  ali«o  of  pL-culiar  coiiforraatioii,  being 
worsi-iike  in  ita  ahape,  b]tri>ed  at  [is  point,  oud  capuhle 
oS  being  HBUdealr  thmWD  out  to  a,  great  leoglii.  By 
this  meeltanism  tbo  bird  wn  iolraducu  it  iuto  liulea  and 
creviuei,  or  even  under  tlie  lODce  barlt  of  trees  iufocted 
by  lliiwc  jieculiac  iniiects  which  il  ia  ila  province  In  de~ 
Mruy ;  nttil  tllcte  tlirr  oblaiii,  not  Only  by  troiiatixing 
them  (Villi  the  borbsid  point,  but  by  causing  Ih'^in  to 
ndhora  lo  it  by  nieuia  of  a  liachl  glua  witli  wliitti  it  ia 
to'trei.  'Itit  feet  nf  these  birds  are  short  but  very 
■troDB  I  the  nula  ue  broad  and  emoked.  As  i.n  adili- 
lionaruiid  powerful  tappon  in  (heir  rapid  aad  perpeii- 
dicuLLT  ascent  up  Iha  trunksoftreiu,  their  tail-feaihera 
are  Ycrj  Brin,  and  tonninBto  in  pointa:  m  that  t'  '- 
membrr,  beilrg  prvBcil  agaiiiet  ihe  Exrli,  la  of  ualstai 
lo  (Lb  bird  iu  m«iiitlMiuug  its  perpenrlicular  attitude. 
The  epeeiea  of  tht*  faniily  are  oxtremely  nuiner 
■0  fenersJIy  distributed  OTec  the  gl.ube,  with 


eept.. 


a  of  Ausinlia. 


2.  TIio  Cucuuu-B,  or  Cuekao  tribe>  are  a 
knd  diversjiied  nuie,  epreatl  over  all  thu 
reeioua  of  the  globe.    They  are  priacipally  dialinguiabed 
by  ihe  abort  and  tlandar  maka  of  tlie  '   -  -'    '     '- 
of  the  back  toi 
The  b«k  ia  of 

pressed  at  iu  aide*.    Most  of  ihi*  family 
and  Bcu«ely  aoy  build  ucst*  of  (heir  i 
npidly,  uid  subalst  upon  iDsccta  mid  fruits.    The  . 
mun  mekuu  has  long  been  cplebrnted  for  Ita  habit  of 
(lepoaiting  ita  eggn  in  Ilia  ttsala  of  otlior  birdd,  generally 


n  ;  Bad,  what  b  mors  SKlraoFdinary, 
tha  tostev  paniDta,  often  of  spoeies  inferior  in  sice,  be- 


I'heylfy 


of  Ih.fi 


[|  JDun; 


for, 


Dthfr  egg-i  are  hatched  nith  tlli((  iif  the  yuuiig 
tlie  latter  speedily  i^jtcts  the  rijjhtful  leiiaiita  from  tht 
neii(,  and  receives  all  tlie  altonduii  of  their  parcu(a 
If  il  were  not  fur  (hin,  it  oiust  speedily  perish  tor  want, 
from  tlie  frequency  4ind  urgency  of  ila  dcinuiida  fm 
i«od,  and  iu  iucapabilily  of  luuietijig  itself,  up  to  ah 
adranced  age.  Tlie  cuckuu  fcoU  principally  on  cater- 
pillars, nnJ  also  devours  cherries  ami  the  stnallerf runs 


iufiwial  bin 


»ldun 


01  congregating  with  its  species, 
ciccpi  at  tne  nine  of  migration. 

S.  Tim  HAHi'UAiiiiuj^  or  roufan  tribe,  arc  easily  lecfg- 
Diswl  by  the  ottumiuus  size  of  the  bill,  whieh  is  nearly 
a*  l*rga  uid  hiug  aa  the  body  itself,  but  internally  Very 
ll^l  and  ceJluUr ;  its  edges  nre  toothed,  and  bulb 
mandiblsa  are  arclied  ti.wards  the  tip.  The  lunguu  hs 
noFrawandelonguted,  and  laterally  barbed  likenfeallier. 
Tlleir  f»«l»re  formed  iiiorofurgra--piiiglluun!limbiiig: 
aecordiligly,  they  always  live  among  trees,  ami  [iri'ccyd 
by  hopping  from  bmncli  lo  lirsncb.  So  light  sud  ele- 
g.uil  are  thuirmoTeioeulK,  ibat  In  ihe  living  bird,  in  its 
luiluiid  aituj^uo,  thu  disprujHirtinn^iicness  uf  tbc  bill 
due*  uoCattiwsl  obserration.     lis  lurge  Bile  is  (u  giie 


fi.r  tli«  parpoMuf  enabling  (be  bii-ds  (o  diaeuver  tlleir 
fiioil,  wliich  coMtats  uliiefly  uf  ibc  i-^^  and  young  of 
(iib<r  binln,  and  also  (i>  >*nuMu  (In-m  ti<  obtiiin  it,  by 

Uiuir  lulurol  abinlus,  lur  wbicli  purpoau  i[a  Burtncu  is 
ciiduweil  with  cutiaidemble  wnoilnliiy,  enabling  it  (u 
feel  ibu  c<F(i(eiits  of  IbcM  nvsis.  The  siw  of  the  tilt 
prevcnis  their  swallowini;  ilieir  food  in  tha  usual  in.in- 
Dur,  and  (Wy  noeonliilgly  throw   it   iulu  Ilic  nir  iiiul 

nidi  il  iu  the  (hruai  as  it  ■]■- ;  .  .->  I  .iiii  .  .  <i 

hy  many  olhvr  birds  alto,  m 

Tuueaiuare  mustly  large-si/.-  ,  i  ,,  ,-.  ..i  ,     ...   .  ,  

I    Williliut  jiluuiage,     Tln*J  nn-  i- .;  Li,  lul.  ■....i.ujl-, 


the  Irunlis  of 

i.  The  PurrEACiDi,  or  PanoU,  e 
wbicli  is  very  widely  diifused  tliruugh  the  tarr 
in  both  Dew  and  old  eoniiaents,  ami  is  dcarcflj 
beyond  it.  It  cuutains  a  birge  uumberut^RCH 
of  which  has  its  peculiar  lucoliiy,  Uie  thiitt  • 
these  binU  uot  enabling  them  tu  Iraveias  hirgi 
of  sea.  Tliey  oorreapoud  with  the  otlier  Scam 
little  else  than  the  Uructurv  of  Ihe  fuut,  aad 
foiTued  rather  fur  grasping  than  for  cUnibui^  1> 
used  for  eouveyitig  fuod  tu  tlia  mouth,  »  fttmVm 
wtiere  else  eeeu  bul  In  the  goat-Mietiu^  .  Slwiv 
stout,  bard,  and  solid,  eurrcU  and  paints  w ; 


siiit,  buwever,  upon  vegeuble  food  al  allaca^aa 
a  {leeuliar  proviuon  for  supplying  their  yuii|g, 
goiu  to  that  wliii^  will  be  doKribed  as  poaaia 
the  pigeons.  Tbsir  jaws  ore  set  in  DiutiuD  by  k| 
variety  of  muscles  llitm  are  loimd  in  uLber  birda. 
tongue  is  thick,  Hesliy,  and  rounded;  and  their  1 
or  organ  of  voice,  is  more  comphcated  than  is 
bird» — by  which  jieouliaritics  thoy  eun  their  hat 
imitating  the  human  loiea  as  weU  aa  iirtlicr  i 
Their  voice,  in  a  state  of  nalure,  however,  ia  Ibi 
harsh.     They  u»e  llieir  vrooked  tiiila  iu  ebai 

-  trees,  and  untie  in  hulluw  truuks.     T1m*i 

tile  lucculent  partii  of  vcgotatilea,  capeciiJlj 

and  fruils.    They  ore  distinguished  Iroiii  the  ml 

orial  birds  by  thotr  iululligouoa  and  ducibty, 

n  obicb   some  species  are  i mniiinil  I 

members  uf  the  dus. 


Thia  order,  cowwpoudrag  witk  fta  Cloflia 
poaltTT  trtbea,  oonaiita  of  birds  with  bidky  ba4k 

""■■— iHnlly  fiinued  lo  live  upon  dry  ground.     Tfc 


ucnish  man   wiili  a 

cniiBide 

rable  amount  of  la 

and  U>e 

IT  fecundity  ia  rcn 

fbemajerilyof  iheni 

nee  known  by  dwci 

Uielc  lugs,  lout;  necks,  slior 

wings,  and  lorg.  . 

mils;  and  the  beads 

,  especially  of  Ibe  I 
crests.    TtMbnai 

^^i 

bill  is  well  seen  in  Ihe 

cuek ;  the  apfwaiai 

8  vaulted,  Hnd,  at  the 

le,  destitute  of  any  r 
having  a  peeoliarl;, 

uscular.bulthtifti 

he  whohi  ia  short  an 

i  strong 

gsarei 

uivo  rounded  ends 

and  tl 

e  breast-bone  pR« 

much  siiiallci  surface 

for  Ilie 

ban  in  tlio  previous 

nrden.. 

HI  thatihspooartf 

lulL  Their  diod,  « 
gelable,  and  their  ^ief  a^ 
.eeds  and  graiuB  «f  variMa  | 
Maliynf  them  eiit  also  Ibe  green  portions,  and  i 
this  res]ieul  nearly  peculiar  among  biida.  Aim 
'  '' luivo  a  Urge  crup  and  uu  eKtreawljBM 

n«r>rca  are  mustly  Eociul  birds,  and  an  P 
ilile.  In  j{i'uenil  tliey  dcpooitMid  hMrt 
(bo  ground,  iu  u  rudf  ly-eonstrucUd  II 
I  HUQie  of  tbeoi,  which  reside  in  fona^ 
Each   msle  usually   asGOcioIa   wilk 


in  riMnin;  llie  lunni:,  and  tlu.e  are  n 
.,11,  ..,1.1  i.l,le  r„  i-uii  iib„ui  nnd  provide  kr 


Wbwil 
more  gaiW^ 
speeiea  nvhiali 


Is  resemble  each  Other,  I 
resimbUiiiee  which  n 


.wing  l»7  U  t^ 
I  uf  liiem  lata  «■ 
■'■o<r{  tribe,  ilk3^ 


ZOOLOGY.  — VEIITEBRATA. 


f  the  shortnefts  of  the  hind  toe,  the  presence  of  spurs 
I  the  k-gft,  and  the  beautiful  develupnienl  of  the  tail. 
C  KACiDiK,  or  Cura»MOW-lfirds,  a  tribe  of  poultry  re- 
rictcd  to  America,  the  Ifga  of  which  are  destitute  of 
>ur««,  and  the  hind  toe  so  much  developed,  as  to  give 
msiderable  power  of  ))crchin^.  3.  TETUAOMDiii:,  I'ar- 
'idge  tribe,  having  a  very  bhort  hind  toe,  and  also  vei*}' 
Jort  tails.  4.  Collmdida^  the  Pigeon  tribe,  which  are 
mc!i  isolated  from  the  re^t,  aud  may  bo  regarded  as 
I  ftome  respects  allied  to  the  Inses.sore8.  From  the 
-fsll-known  character  of  most  of  these  birds,  the  de- 
nription  of  the  families  need  not  be  detailed. 

1.  The  whole  of  the  riiASiAMi)^,  with  the  exception 
f  the  turkey,  are  restricted  to  the  Old  Wurld.  The 
haracters  by  which  they  are  known  from  the  other 
uiiilies,  are  tho^e  which  peculiarly  distinguish  the 
rder  ;  hence  there  can  be  no  hesitation  in  regarding 
bis  family  as  its  type,  it  is  in  the  butter  parts  of  Asia 
bat  the  most  brilliantly  coloured  birds  of  this  family 
iresent  themselves  in  tlie  greatest  numbei-s.  The  pea- 
ecAr,.for  example,  abounds  in  the  forests  of  India  ;  and 
be  wild  specimens  even  surpass  the  domestic  ones  in 
nilliancy.  The  turkeys  are  the  only  representatives 
tf  this  group  in  the  New  World,  whence  they  were 
Ikrought  by  the  early  discoverers,  aud  are  now  quite 
nturalised  in  Europe.  The  ymnea-fotici  is  originally 
ft  native  of  Africa,  where  it  lives  in  large  Hocks,  in  the 
BfrigbbourhiHMl  of  marshes.  Its  noi^y  and  querulous 
dinpusition  renders  it  incommodious  in  poultry-yards, 
lhhou<:h  its  Hesh  is  excellent.  Of  our  common  fowls, 
lite  original  stock,  Uke  that  of  most  domesticated  races, 
hobncure  ;  but  it  was  probably  a  species  of  gallus,  in- 
kbitiug  Java  or  Sunuitra.  The  pheasants  were  origi- 
Mlly  brought  from  the  banks  of  the  Phasis  in  Asia 
Minor  ;  several  very  handsome  species  abound  in  diife- 
Itnt  parts  of  Asia. 

2.  The  Ckacid-k,  or  Curassotcs,  which  are  restricted 
to  America,  otJ'er  a  remarkable  conti*ast,  in  their  plain 
BDlouns,  to  the  brilliant  plumage  of  the  Asiatic  races 
irhicb  occur  in  nearly  tlie  same  parallels  of  latitude. 
riiey  are  equally  capable  of  domestication  with  the 
bwte  ;  and  their  flesh  is  of  excellent  quality. 

3.  The  TfTRAOSi  d,e,  or  Grouse  tribe,  also  dilfer  st  i*ongly 
tjtm  the  i'hasi;inidu},  in  the  comparative  dullness  of 
heir  plumage,  as  well  as  in  the  extreme  shortness  of 
he  tail.  The  grouse  are  formed  to  inhabit  cold  climates, 
aid  are  found  in  Europe,  Asia,  and  North  America. 
*he  largest  species,  commonly  known  as  the  capcr- 
^Izie,  IS  the  largest  of  the  true  poultry,  surpassing 
he  turkey  in  size.  It  particularly  feeds  on  pine  shoots. 
riiese  birds  strut  with  outspread  tail,  in  the  manner  of 
he  turkeys  ;  and  are  polygamous.  The  ptarmigan 
ftre  in  jiaini,  aud  do  not  strut  in  this  manner;  the  moi*e 
penerally  diffused  species  become  white  in  winter ; 
liere  is  one  species  peculiar  to  Britain,  however — the 
ftoor-fowl  or  red  grouse — which  does  not  change. 
Nearly  all  the  grouse  have  the  toes  and  legs  more  or 
wm  covered  with  soft  feathei*s  ;  a  character  whichdis- 
tppears  in  t):e  Partridgesy  an  extensive  group,  scat- 
:cred  iji  nearly  all  parts  of  the  Old  World,  but  unknown 
in  the  New.  In  the  QuaiUf  we  have  the  miniature  re- 
wmblanec  cf  pfirtridges,  but  the  tail  is  so  short  as  to 
tK>  nearly  imperceptible. 

4.  The  family  of  CoiX5iniD^  containing  a  large 
nmiber  of  elegant  and  lovely  birds,  appears  as  much 
■olated  from  the  rest  as  the  Parrots  are  from  the 
Scansores.  Although  it  is  particularly  numerous,  and 
kprcad  over  every  part  of  the  worhl,  there  is  nt)  difli- 
mlty  in  distinguisshing  its  members  from  all  other  birds. 
)De  of  their  chief  peculiarities  is  the  double  dilatation 
it  the  crop,  which  expands  on  each  tide  of  the  gullet ; 
ind  the  young  are  fed  with  grain  diisgorged  from  this 
.veeptacle  by  the  parent,  and  impregnated  with  a  se- 
Tetion  which  it  forms.  These  birds  live  invariably 
D  pain ;  they  nestle  in  trees,  or  in  the  holes  of  rocks, 
ati  lay  bat  few  eggs,  though  they  breed  often.  This 
iamily  ineludea  tlie  whole  of  the  well-  known  tribe  of 
'H^MMUrand  DoveM,  ^me  of  the  tropical  species  are  of 
lonaideimUe  lize,  and  of  very  rich  plumage. 

■^         47» 


nie  passenger-pigeon  of  North  America  breeds  in 
such  inunense  numbers,  as  to  darken  the  air  for  a  con- 
siderable period  when  the  Hock  takes  to  Hight,  and  to 
destroy  all  the  herbage  where  they  settle. 

Order  v.— Cursores. 

This  order  contains  a  small  number  of  species,  differ- 
ing so  considerably  from  one  another,  that  almost  every 
one  may  be  regarded  as  belonging  to  a  diflerent  fan)ily, 
and  yet  all  agreeing  in  one  characteristic — the  non- 
development  of  the  wings,  and  the  enormous  size  and 
power  of  their  legs — by  which  they  seem  justly  sepa- 
rated fix>m  all  other  orders  of  birds.  They  may  bo 
regarded  as  in  many  respects  intermediate  between  the 
Ilasores  aud  Orallatores ;  but  they  also  present  many 
r<;markable  points  of  approximation  to  the  Mammalia. 
The  most  obvious  of  these  are  the  loss  of  the  }M)wei*s  of 
Hight,  and  the  dependence  on  the  legs  alone  for  locomo- 
tion ;  and  the  deficiency  (most  conspicuous  in  the  cas- 
sowary) of  barbs  upon  the  feathers,  so  that  they  much 
resemble  hair.  In  their  internal  structure,  moreover, 
similar  approximations  exist :  thus  the  ostrich  has  the 
rudiment  both  of  a  diaphragm  and  urinary  bladder, 
which  organs  ai*e  wanting  in  other  birds,  whihit  all 
Mammalia  possess  them. 

Although  destitute  of  the  powers  of  flight,  wings  exist 
in  an  undeveloped  or  rudimentary  state ;  and  it  has 
been  observed  that,  when  the  ostrich  is  running,  its 
small  anterior  members  execute  analogous  motions, 
which  seem  to  assist  it.  Their  muscles,  however,  re- 
quiring but  little  strength,  thu  sternum  has  no  promi- 
nent keel,  but  is  Hat  as  in  man ;  whilst,  on  the  other 
hand,  the  muscles  of  the  posterior  extremities  are  of 
enormous  size  and  power.  Only  five  geueni  are  at 
present  known  to  exist  in  this  order ;  and  of  one  more, 
which  seems  now  extinct,  remains  are  preserved  to  ua 
which  indicate  its  existence  tM'o  centuries  since. 

The  struthiOy  or  ostrich,  is  a  well-known  bird  in  the 
tropical  parts  of  the  eastern  hemisphere ;  its  feathers 
do  not  diH'er  so  widely  from  those  of  other  birds  as  do 
.those  of  the  cassowary,  being  furnished  with  barbs ;  but 
these  do  not  adhere  to  one  another,  so  that  no  conti- 
nuous resisting  surface  is  formed.  Still  the  wings  pre- 
sent sutticient  expanse  to  assist  the  bird  in  running ; 
which  movement  it  executes  so  swiftly  that  scarcely  any 
animal  can  overtake  it.  The  rhcay  American  ostrich, 
or  naudon,  is  about  half  the  size  of  the  African  ostrich, 
and  more  thinly  covered  with  feathers.  Two  species 
exist,  one  inhabiting  the  centnil  parts  of  South  America, 
where  it  is  as  abundant  in  some  h>calities  as  th«;  ostrich 
in  Africa ;  and  the  other  in  Pat;igonia,  where  it  is  rare. 
The  naudon  is  easily  tamed  when  young,  and  its  Hesh 
is  eaten :  it  has  been  observed  to  swim  with  facility. 

The  casuarius,  or  cassowary,  has  wings  shorter  than 
those  of  the  ostrich,  and  quite  useless  in  aiding  ]»rogrcs- 
sion.  Besides  the  ])ecuiiarity  of  the  feather,  which  has 
been  already  mentioned  as  giving  it  the  ai»pearance  of 
hair,  there  is  another,  consiAting  in  the  great  develop- 
ment of  the  accessory  plume,  so  that  two  or  even  three 
equal  stems  appear  to  grow  from  the  same  quill.  In  its 
general  form  and  aspect  it  much  resembles  the  ostrich, 
but  differs  in  the  structure  of  its  dtge^tive  <;rgans.  The 
head  is  surmounted  by  a  bony  prominence,  covered 
with  horn.  The  skin  of  the  head  and  neck  is  bare  uf 
feathers,  and  of  a  bright  blue  and  flame  colour ;  it  is 
furnished  with  wattles,  like  those  of  the  turkey-cock, 
which  change  colour  under  the  same  circumstances. 
It  lives  on  fruit  and  eggs,  but  not  on  grain.  It  is  an 
inhabitant  of  the  Indian  archipelago,  and  is  the  largest- 
b(>died  of  birds,  next  to  the  ostrich. 

The  dromaius,  or  emu,  is  a  native  of  New  Holland, 
aud  is  closely  allied  to  the  cassowary ;  but  its  plumage 
is  more  depse,  from  its  feathers  being  more  barbed. 

The  apteryx  of  New  Zealand  appears,  of  all  birds,  to 
have  the  wings  reduced  to  the  most  sin)ple  rudiments; 
and  it  presents,  at  the  same  time,  many  points  of  ap- 
proximation to  the  Mammalia.  It  has  a  complete  dia- 
phragm, and  no  air-cells  exist  in  its  abdomen ;  nomre 
any  of  its  bones  hollow.    The  bill  is  long  aud  slender  i 


cft.\MRlStWS  INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPEB. 


mUMiiUr.  At  a  whole,  Uiev  are  tb*  IBMI  m 
kll  D.('  Watltni  iitX  »  niiKh,  boiranr,  m  M 
llic  culaun  of  ihrir  )iLiinu|^  u  from  tin  *b|a 
wi4  prolanieU  fMliinn  vbieh  iiTUiiiwt  BBuf 
ipccin.  ,  vi'7  boild  in  •oe^ctin,  oMuUf  is  Ul 
iidElibonrhnwl  uf  b«i>k*  of  rifn  ;  bat  pMB 
and  live  ■oliurilj'.  'llwj  an  alinl(l  wifimwi 
tar  whiek  lh«jr  Ktleh  in  •om*  guaoaJMl  ■ittw  _ 
fixing lliraiutliej  pan,  vilh  Ih^lva^amUm 
Th«  >Wrt>  are  l«*  w|iutk  iu  tliair  btttm*  dM^ 
(•r  Ilia  family,  ualltng  bj  pnCovnea  ' 

chiinnvy-iiltcka;  T*eli  pklt  ivIUTnwf  It 
in  llie  oiiriog,  iflvr  ludug  fwt^  Ih''^ 
Th*  cumiiHiii  MliiM  Mark  of  Euru, 
(injiutar  rMpr^  airliigMtDDlilli}^ 

titrjr  oae  Uul  aiio' 

3.  The  SmiJiPAcii 
tliRJr  long,  ilendET,  uid  f«ble  bfll,  i 
lllcin  to  tiOR  in  tho  ina<i  in  Manb  at  m 
iiiieeu,  bat  e  klJ  ncul;  tJir  Hoia  omrfiH 
lubita,  and  llic  buui  diKribultea  af  a> 
in  diffiuult  to  diotinguisb  amon^  tkMB. 
rMdarkalili  tor  llic  dwiicacy  of  iliair  Un 
nnaodliahindvrlOK.     TlHiy  rna  vith  m 
liaiie<»inMilpnibl«|H>K*n<«f  llixltt)  and 
llie  facu  Ity ,  in  par L,bcilh 


visible.  Tbeuxe  of  Ibis  bird  uabont  thai  ota  domcatic 
fo*l,  oni  it>  colour  ■  depp  brovn.  It  runs  milh  rapi- 
dily,  Olid  ilcfuDda  itself  figuruui^ly  wilh  iu  feet.  It  'a 
ngetwnal  So  Us  time  of  action,  and  Bub<l*ts  un  iuM-elB. 

Wilh  ihii  group  i*prabiblf  lobe  aawwiated  tbedmfe, 
now  kiiowri  Id  ub  only  by  Mine  vtrrj  imperfcol  reniain>s 

Jindbyiliepainilnt!iianddescriptinaBofiialiiralislBn«rly 

Itlaud*  nil  tlienulmi  roaat  of  Africa,  eapecially  Mada- 
gMSar;  tliOugbuolraiMaofltcaunawberound  tbere. 

OnW  VI^-GniitMia. 
Til*  GrallaMrM.  Wadm  or  Sliit-birda,  dprire  their 
M  ham  thuit  luibila  and  niiifannatian.     Tb^ir  long 
l«in  raiw  up  iJieir  bodiei  --  '■ '~       -  " 


fe 


,ni-B  in  li:iug  ilerideaj  W  1.W 

..li-;  liirf  ar»   known  by  a  krgei:  n-ni  moieX 

iill,  aiid  bftho  grcattr  knjjtli  ul  t\ic\i  \¥p,\ 
•iiinfh   ia   Miargo  MiidivW-:^  tac,  \jal  s\ii!.\rt4  \ 


id  higli  gmiL  will 
•'n  an«r  being  te 
HK  niftotlylMtwl 
Ito  III  brighlsM*  ij  Ml 
•k,--:.  at*  ib«  cbM  BriM 
Bilffidenlly  iitmalNI^ 


CHAMBERS'S 

I 

^FORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 

CONDUCTED  BY  WILLIAM  AND  ROBERT  CHAMBEItS,  EDITOBB  OF  CHAUDBRB'B 

EDiHDtman  journal,  educational  course,  ac 


New  and  Improved  Seb 


Price  Ijd. 


ZO  0  L  0  O  Y— (Continued.) 


Ilie  family  RallidEe  hu  been  cluwd  a.  reniBiIi- 
d.tlie  place  of  obich  is  rather  doubtful.  This  is 
tingo,  wUich  ia  perhaps  rather  to  be  considered 
if  die  duck  tribe,  with  w>  inordiDatel)'  ione  necic 
I.  The  front  toes  ftre  webbed  to  Iheir  ends,  atid 
d  toe  is  oiliemely  short.  The  mandibles  ace 
y  Itfnt  dowmrarda,  about  the  middle  of  their 
and  they  are  roughened  at  the  edges,  like  those 
lucks,  to  which  (lie  fteahiueaa  of  the  tongue  aleo 
Ji  alliuice.  They  feed  on  mollusca,  imects,  the 
>f  Gsbea,  &c.,  which  they  seize  by  meaog  of  their 
;I:,tuniitig  the  head  downwards,  to  use  to  ad  van- 
I  crook  in  the  upper  maadible.  They  eonatruct 
ests  in  marshy  aitoalions,  placing  thcinsetvea 
of  them  during  llie  act  of  inoubation,  being  in- 
ited  by  the  length  of  their  lags  from  sitting  on 
.  the  usual  iiuuiner. 


I  additionally  on  grain,,  lie rbagc,  &c.  Of  the  plovers* 
several  species  exist  in  Britain  ;  and  others  are  da> 
tributed  through  moat  other  countries.  Some  chiefly 
frequent  the  Eea-ccast,  and  otliera  the  upland  moors. 
The  Lapaingi  are  nearly  allied  lo  the  plovers,  and  like 

( them  are  migratory,  passing  t!ie  winter  in  warm  lati- 
tudes ;  (hey  are  peculiar  lu  the  eastern  hemisphere. 
They  arc  very  noisy  birds,  screaming  at  every  sound 
they  hear,  and  defending  themselves  with  courage 
against  birds  of  prey.     Tliey  derive  their  name  from 

'  (he  ttralogem  by  which  they  lure  away  intruders  from 
their  nests ;  they  drop  (heir  wings  in  flight,  appearing 

I  as  if  wounded,  and  thus  induce  their  portiaers  tu  follow 
them  to  a  considerable  distance. 

Order  TIL— Natalons. 
The  Snimmers  are,  of  all  ihe  orders  of  birds,  tba 
moat  eaoily  recognisable  by  the  structure  and  position 
of  their  oar-like  feet.    This  peeuliarily,  which  oc 


|tt 


iwkwardne 


ibserve  in  ducks  and  geese,  is  extremely  favoDrabls  to 
I  (hose  birds  whose  "business  is  in  the  great  waters." 

The  body  is  boat-shaped,  and  (he  neck  is  very  long  in 
{  proportion,  fur  the  purpose  of  reaching  prey  bcneatli 
I  the  water  when  (lie  bird  is  floating  on  the  surface. 

The  tliick  downy  covering  i»  rendered  impervious  to 


le  CnsKiDBiADf,  or  Ploeer  tribe,  are  lees  aquatic 
KMt  of  the  o(heT  families.  The  legs  are  long, 
B  back  toe  is  either  quite  absent,  or  so  short  as 
raach  the  ground.  They  live  only  on  sandy  and 
ercd  shores,  or  on  exposed  commons,  conRre- 
m  flocks,  and  running  with  great  enifinEns.  The 
■nally  of  moderate  strength,  euabhng  these  birds 
trate  the  ground  in  search  of  worms,  lo  obtain 
they  have  the  habit  of  patting  with  (heir  feet, 
nnaes  the  worms  to  rise.  The  species  in  which 
I  ia  mors  feeble,  frequent  meadows  and  newly 
td  land,  where  this  food  can  be  obtained  with 
■  mm;  Umn*  v^di  have  MronKr  bills  sobsirt 
.       481 


The  bones  of  these  birds  ai 
(he  rest  of  the  chus,  but  are  RIted  with  an  oily  marrow. 
In  (his,  and  in  oilier  points,  their  structure  approxi- 
mates to  tliat  of  reptiieo.  Theif  circulation  is  lesa 
energetic  than  (hot  of  the  other  orders,  and  is  capabje 
of  being  considerably  retarded  in  diving  birds,  by  llio 
obstruction  of  the  i-aspiradon,  widiout  injury. 

As  Ibe  water  is  (he  element  on  which  tlicae  birds  ara 
fbnued  to  move,  so  does  it  also  supply  them  with  food. 
Some  of  them  live  on  aquatic  pUuts  and  submarine  itt- 
sects,  but  the  rreater  proportion  prey  upon  liah  and 
those  innumerable  swimming  and  creeping  things  which 
subsist  in  the  sea  and  cover  its  shores.  In  general, 
several  females  associale  with  one  male,  and  the  young 
are  hatched  in  a  condition  which  renders  tha  oo-opera- 
tion  of  both  pareats  for  their  suppoK  unuMsMry,  being 
able  lo  take  to  the  water  and  awim  about  in  search  of 
food,  the  instant  they  are  libcnted  from  the  egg-cover- 

This  order  may  be  divided  into  fire  families— I.  Tho 
A.\jTiD£,  OC  Dtick  tribe;  3.  The  L:Iriii.e,  oc  Gulit,;^ 
S.  The  I'ELic^UJiDJi,  or  Felicaiu;  4,  The  Coi.vmuida,  or 
Divtri ;  S.  The  Alcid*,  or  I'enguinM.  Tho  ihree  first 
are  distinguished  by  the  length  of  their  wings,  which 
enables  them  to  fiy  well,  while  in  the  two  latter  these 
members  ore  so  short,  that  they  seem  perfectly  useless 
for  any  other  purpose  than  that  of  tins. 

1.  The  AnATiD£  ure  distinguished  by  a  thick  bill, 
which  is  homy  only  at  its  extrtmlly ;  the  remainder  of 
the  mandibles  being  iuToslcd  with  a  soft  ckiu,  which  iu 


CEAMBEBS'S  INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


other  Inrdi  ia  touni  only  »!  l^ir  hinder  pirl.  This  skia 
in  the  ducliB  ia  exlremely  ftonailivc,  iiid  by  it  Ihe  ftui- 
nuU  Ukc  cogDuanco  of  the  food  conUiue^iii  llie  muiI, 
into  wliich  tliey  plungo  dioir  billa.  The  edges  of  tlie 
bill  ■nroug)icn«l,eiUisrbyiitatMorsmikll  Iccth  kris- 
ing  (com  it ;  uul  the  loagao  is  large  and  Bnhy.  These 
birdH  live  mare  in  fresh  waters  lluin  in  the  sea;  <uid 
mBoy  of  Iham  (adch  ae  geese  nod  swniui)  txe  exdosiTely 
YCgtflablo-feedeTB.  The  diicks,  an  the  otfaerbKid,  seb- 
sisl  ill  part  upun  uiiiual  diet;  Uid  one  tribe  of  thecn, 
tlio  loergsQBBra,  feed  almoit  exclusiTely  upon  fiah. 
Under  the  general  dasiKnation  of  ducki,  gceu,  and 
ittani,  oil  tba  bird*  of  this  faniily  may  ba  arraoged; 
and  as  these  typical  forms  are  so  woll  known,  it  is  un- 
necMsary  to  dwell  longer  on  it,  altbiiugli  the  i^Jibits  of 
many  species  arc  extrnmely  uiteresting.  This  family 
is  very  eilensiioly  diffused  over  the  earth's  surface, 
and  supplies  nwa  witb  ao  ianportaut  amount  of  food, 
and  with  lh8  greater  part  of  the  down  which  « 
Lutes  so  greatly  to  his  comfort  and  luxury. 

2,  The  Liftjti*;,  or  Gull  tribe,  more  rBBcmblo  (he 
higher  orders  of  birds  in  their  general  struclnrc,  but  an 
deloieot  in  that  which  eonstitutea  the  perfection  of  tin 
order — Iho  power  of  swimming  and  diring.    The  wingi 
are  very  long,  and  their  powers  of  flight  connderalile 
The  feet,  although  webbed,  are  bo  eonslnotvd  aa  b 
enable  them  towalkKilb  case  along  the  shore  in  search 
of  food ;  tlie  legs  are  slender,  and  •ometimeg  to  long 
to  restmible  t1>ai>o  of  tlie  waders ;  the  hind  toe  ia  ve  . 
amalJ,  and  sometimes  wanting.    Many  of  the  birds  of 
tliii  tribe  have  a  tendency  to  associate  In  HocIib.     In 
consequence  of  their  eapability  of  protracted  flight, 
thvy  ore  met  with  at  a  greater  distance  fioia  land  ihaa 
most  others ;  many  speeiee  are  almost  constantly  on  tl— 
wing,  and  bravo  the  moat  violeot  slorms.     They  see 
to  devour  abuoat  every  description  of  animal  and  veg 
Ubie  food.    This  family  includes,  with  the  Galli,  U 
Skuai,  Tirru,  J'clrtti,  and  also  iho  jllbalrost,  whioh 
the  largest  of  all  aquatic  birds,  and  in  its  genual  habi 
may  be  described  as  a  sort  of  mnriae  vulture.    It  ia 
extremely  Toracious,  and  devours  almost  any  thing  that 
fUls  in  its  way.     ITiough  its  wings  are  powerful,  Its 
flight  is  by  no  means  lofty.     No  species  of  it  exist  in 
the  northern  pari  of  llic  Alloiilie  ;  but  it  is  ver)'  abun- 
dant iH'jond  ill"  Trojiie  ef  C'Li[iri(;orn,  and  is  one  ot  Iho 
gn-nt  ,'i'i.-ii,ii'H  of  ilie  fljiiiE-li^h. 

H.  Tin>  I'l  i.n-AM[ii;,  iir  JV/itu;i  trihe,  are  eharaefer- 

liuii,  nhlrh   renders  ibeir   feSt  perfect  oam,  they  are 


•■nndoring  tribe, 
n  app 


tlegs.  Thfvarealarge, 
livTiinfor  tlio  moat  p.irt 
:]nng  land  but  at  the 


season  of  ini;ubntLon.     llio  i'dli 

markablo  for  tlic  Icnglli  of  t)iu  bill,  wliicli  Ib  uriiicd  nith 

an  abrupt  hook  nt  Ibt  end  ;  lliu  width  nf  Iho  gai*  is 

and  forming  tlie  llirua!,  is  eu  extensible  na  to  dilate  into 
a,  pDueh  capable  of  lioldlng  a  large  ciuaniily  of  fish. 
Thu  C'umiuruutt  are  allied  to  thim,  udd  are  ri'iiiarkablo 
tor  being  not  only  rorociuua  but  docile,  eg  tbut  lliey 
have  bceu  traincil  fiir  fi=.hl»~,  as  hawks  for  fiiwling. 


Forth.  The  Gacnets  take  Ibeir  ptv^  tj  im 
Ihe  air  at  sonie  litiia  distance  oboTe  lb*  SMtl 
tlien  dropping  down  upon  any  fiah  that  t^ 
rising  within  their  reaoh.  The  air-eelli  arcv« 
developed,  aspeeially  under  the  akin  of  the  bvm 


s  almost  Completely  separated  by  Itina  br 
leneath  :  and  it  is  probable  tluU  tile;  mH  (M 
)  break  the  foros  nth  «bM 


of  the  bird  wouJd  otharwiae  ii 

i.  The  CoLTH  Hu>^  or  Divtrt,  majr  ftlaf 
garded  as  intemiodiale  in  atnutora  Mtwa^t 
tribe  and  the  next  family.  They  are  all  lud 
with  a  lengthened,  strong,  atxaight  talU.  IStt  ■ 
kably  short ;  and  Lha  "W  Mm 


n  of  thebt 


behind  tlie  point  of  equilibrinn 

will  not  allow  the  birds  to  wall 

as  docks  ;  but  they  can  pursue  Ui«  tUbm  «fa 

they  feed,  even  beneath  the  watrr,  witli  grMI  n 

They  are  few  in  number,  and  ore  chidly  «Ml 

tbe  aeos  of  northern  regione. 

6.  The  Jiu^iaa,  or  AiJt  tribe,  eihilnl  tb*  I 
nutrkable  adaptation  of  tbe  Blruotura  nt  ttia  Ui 
aquatic  life,  with  which  the  entU«  ordsf  {CM 
This  it  best  seen  in  the  /"cnguiiu,  wb«e  *ta^< 
small,  and  covered  with  mere  veMign  «  ft 
which  resemble  sealus;  so  that  tliry  simaaaA 
flua  or  paddles,  but  are  totally  OKlaa  ht  W^ 
feel  are  pbwud  very  far  back,  to  thai  wImb  tft 
the  bird  stands  nearly  erecL  Havinf  aa  fH 
flight,  and  not  being  able  to  run,  the  ftagakt 
overtaiieD  with  ease  upon  land  ;  but  one*  a  w 
it  distanos  its  pnrsuec*,  swimming  wlik  tt*  4 
rapidity  of  a  fiah,  and  Bpringing  saTtmlMMl 
obelaele  that  may  impede  '-    -  " 


cLAsa  nL— BEFTiLEa. 

The  elau  of  Reptiles,  which  is  lha  out  If  I 
sidered,  ptesents  as  with  more  ditemty  efblM 
its  separate  orders  than  any  other  ditUoaifl 
tebraled  sub-kingdom.  Scixeely  any  aoimsltMB' 
unlike  in  exlcmal  aspect  than  lorluiaaaaolMf 
yet  we  shall  Hnd  that  I  Ii  esc  extreme  fomuannM 
with  each  other  by  a  gradual  seriea;  and  tin  irt 
differences  are  not  so  great  as  to  prrvant  AcirM 
tiun  into  one  clafis,  diilinguiahed  by  chuaMvsl 
are  common  to  all.  These  charaeier«  »r»-«ri 
jiower  of  maintaining  heat,  or  eold-bloodcdaahl 
from  the  imperfect  aersliou  of  iheir  bto(iJ,M.| 
only  a  portion  is  sent  to  tbo  lungs  at  eai4  ap 
the  heart  (see  article  I'liisiOLOoi) ;  their  ovnii 
production;  the  Tesgiiration  of  air  exclauvw  t 
tbe  whole  period  of  life,  no  roetapKinihaM  laM( 
in  this  elsAs;  and  the  protection  of  thalidatt 
Kcales  or  plates.  l)y  tile  lirst  twotheyMediallV 
from  Mammalia  and  jiirdii,  and  by  tlw  olbn 

lygenation  nf  the  UMfc 

-  -      -    >e«  ot  Ikd 

livity  tt  tel 


The  delii 

tion,  ia  connected  with  general  inac 
live  functions,  as  well  aa  with  oblusei 


,L'  biidy  I'l 


wliich  they  usually  exhita  I 
loii^b  at  present  iteptila  I 
.mtively  iii»gnifie»ot  psit  i 
et-pecially  in  teoi[wn*s  d 


latitudes,  TIj.   /  .i  Ij  allied  to  the  &ir- 

■if  «l"i;  (»lii,li  [■  ..L.  :  .  i!  .  I  ,  :l   ■  i:..i-t  powerful  II}' 1      ' 

ill  111 Ul  order— pel' i  1.1  iw  iii'i  In  ihk  surim«sedby  anv  ■■:'  ■ 

bird),  and  in  the  f»rni  of  the  mil  und  bill.     Tli'  >  ' 

upon  fiah,  especially  flying- fish,  loth  darting  al  il  t' 

selves,  when  near  (he  surface,  and  obtaining  it  i 

Dtber  birds,  whom  they  cunipcl   (u  drop  thuir  i  ■■   > 

The  Gannrti  are  aUied  to  the  frigate-birds;  but  il]  , 

wtaga  are  tcm  ellended,  and  the  ^lowera  ot  flielit  ia.-  1  creation  of  birds  and  Mammalia,  when  nontiel 
Stpr.   Solaw  species  are  termed  Hwbiei,  from  uw  M.u-  \  ot  '.Vis  c\m»  oiA  oi^W  eonatitotfil  the  3u«f  ■■ 

^^tfan/ exliibit  when  attacked.    A.  speeiCTa^mut  Ao\vW  «t*,\i'iV,M.VraijAii«a4BBiMBtti>™tii< 

}'      


;■!  iL.hi  the  records  of  eeology,  1 
jj  in  the  eartli's  history,  lont;  ante 
in  of  birds  and  Mammalia,  when  n 


•  JtooM>  is  very  comu..,..  ...  ...i,  .....  -,=._, , - 

Mpooially  on  tbo  Bass  UocU,  in  iUb  ¥n:i.\i  ul\     T\«:\ViTCo-«OiViijj'«o,^OTn»tTm<Aw»,U«i 


ion  in  llio  IJtiV  *  » 


»,  ftui  \  ot  ftw  BWl. 


nuBt  bnportMit  afaabi  ut  Uw>  Kniuf:  us  Ika 
>  nUu,  «r  gnan  Iwlle,  v>  mucb  nJsiil  u  aa 

rr  nnpMu  ftvnliti  wmr  lor- 

-  twtk,  irhkh 

Euddik  Ttwy 


BlMia  uij^gTuI  nil.  :.^  ti'nm 

•]  ahalf  inch  Co  n  fiHit  m  ii;i>|7Mi  ^  uuitn  .it  ilm 
(Nwina  uv  much  largrr,  in  oorenil  ot  tiu'KuijilM 
-ap<tc»  «nd  tlin  plMtroa  an  bat  lomrj;  Dunetl ; 
i>  picoM  iir  Uui  Intlvf  tzr  raorctUilB  opun  ooe  an- 

111*  i«  tbo  fluo  Id  Uio  Ttrrapiiu,  vt  Hax-'tvr- 
^Idi  are  able  tu  draw  t)iM  hmd  aiid  Dmin  oom- 

failo  the  nholl,  and  In  cliMn  ID*  latin'  l>y  foldiiw 
tnrior,  and  la  nama  Ifutiuwea  tha  {luatsrwr,  iC*i> 

the  filaatna  nj^aJnat  tlic  carapaM. 

ramiW  of  TtaTCDiniDJ^  or  £<uul-71irUu/t,  !• 
uiahvd  by  Uin  %hly  ardi»d  earapoce.  and,  ilUl 
hj  Iba  aliurt  elnbliv  te«t,  of  tb«  utimiUa  doiiiiu>p 

Tbdr  annour  la  Wd*r  aiid  tliickcr  in  pniHr- 

tlioir  *ix(^  Bad  alao  mnro  firmly  luiiiad  to)tvtli«r, 
Ht  of  th«  ftquatlo  niadc*.  The  neck  anil  l«|{aara 
and  are  eapable  ci  being  drawu  eiiiinilj  wKUn 
>I1 1  «a  llial  llie  whole  alrueluw  of  Ibu  annual  U 


fijm  ground  viiljr,  aa  tb"  nirlaee  U117'  ptvacnt  ■> 
nail.  ThiyoM  oDbaividnil  intti  tow,  tif  ohlah 
xtn  St»  on  tlw  f«av  fevt  and  (uur  im  tt>»  Iilnil: 
'd  with  ihorl  niuloil  dan,  »dl 
:  of  th>  mnal 


They  feed  only  npou 
n  tha  wornii  and  afiin 
T  Uioj*  Uva  In  moda 


■ill)'  puM  tliu  win! ... 

iitij,  wlwr«  ilwy  lmrni»  nud 

T)i.;j  iirp  g'^ii.Tjillj  diaporwd  lu  all  ttin  wuia 
miierttc  laUiudn;   but  they  do  uot  aMBrallf 

to  Oral  liriCaio,  although  (udlvtdnali  lliat 
vni  intrmtuu^il  lia*n  li*ed  tu  a  grrat  KO  in  tbla 
V.  Tha  couimouaat  apwint  1*  tlio  TVtfvAi  (Awra^ 
[■  an  litbabitiiiit  of  moat  ot  tbu  coniiainl  of  Biurupti, 

aa  of  tnuiy  parti  of  Aala  kod  AfHca  i  It  ea|io< 
ibounda  oeu-  tb«  ihnrea  of  tha  MeditBTancBii. 
wa  attaina  above  a  tint  in  length,  or  wtiKh*  mora 
irn  jKiiind*.  The  HmIi  fomia  ui  inirli  of  food 
HM.     In  the  VmiX  Itidlea  arc  fnund  inDCka  wliiull 

10  a  mucli  itreator  die.  Au  InitWldnal  In  tliu 
ilonoftho  Zc«li>i[Ualfloo«t]rof  lAiridon.iiiEuum 

11  Indua  along  l£«  ounv  of  ths  biok,  tliD  broiilili 
■hell  bvine  3  feet  I  ioeti,  and  the  weight  of  Uia 
ammal  28  J  Iba. 


(Vnler  EnaldiAiiria  Iian  bam  fuundvd  upm  lao 
rdiuar]'  foMU  |[^">>  tbs  IrAgataurta  and  tho 
nurui.  or  thawi  Utllr  cIh  llian  the  boon  la* 
nsrrvcd  to  lu :  ajid  it  la  therefote  imy  MiVJiK  iA 
with  oot^tj  Sn  Tt^ti  Vl  TCOSlI  w<»«> «Jl  *"^*_ 


CIIAMBERS-S  DtFORMATION  FOR  TDE  PEOPLE. 


oTtoTttc*. 


Joirfdiritli 


t  ha*e  beta,  Ihrrelotf, 
taralj  laj  po<rer  of  moTemenC 
onluid  ;  boi,  ailhongifa  iannn/poinu  uiklog^us  lofi>h, 
il  a  nesrlj'  wrtuo  that  tbi^y  breathed  ur  like  rvpiila 
Ip  geocrxL,  and  that  lta«j  must  have  Dccwoniily  coow 
to  tlie  HirfMe  la  respire.  Moreover,  from  the  renutina 
fimitd  in  proiimity  with  tbefo,  il  nuv  b«  ■urmised  with 
probalHlilj  Ihat  the/  Ifd  tipaa  nariK  juiiiD*!*  alone, 
e^wcikU;  upon  the  n^m  tornu  of  CephKlopada,  which 
were  puticularlj  abundant  at  the  epoch  ot  di^r  exiM- 

The  general  form  ol  Ihe  IclhyiuaiaTus  {or  G^.lizard} 
Appears  to  have  been  not  unlike  that  of  a  etocodile, 
with   ihe  aubfltitutiou  of  fina  for  feet.      The  bead  i» 

amied  with  sharp  and  formidable  teoth  ;  it  had  ejea  of 
enonDODB  size,  which  must  have  giren  it  an  extraordi- 
nary aspect,  and  probablv  enibled  it  to  tee  bif  night. 
The  ikeleton  of  the  eominonest  species  (/.  ItauiToilru) 
nuallf  mcasurea  3i  feet  in  length ;  but  pnrtiona  of 
another  kind  haie  been  found,  which  most  have  lie- 
longed  lo  animals  of  aboTe  20  feet.  It  is  probable  that 
the  akin  was  destitute  of  scales,  like  that  of  the  Amphj- 
Wa;  and,  from  recent  inquiries,  it  appears  Uiat  il  pos- 
MBsed  a  sort  of  eartilaginuus  iiu  upon  its  back,  like  that 
of  RUiD)' Cetacea.  This  animal  ma;  thus  be  considered 
■a  presoDting  a  ver}'  remarkable  combination  of  the 
oharacters  of  other  cUaaes.  Its  remaios,  which  are 
fuund  in  the  lias  and  oolitic  formatious,  are  mare  sbun- 
dant  ID  England  Ihan  in  any  oilier  countn'  in  Europe. 
The  fleiioiavrut  was  distinguished  by  the  extraordi- 
nary  length  of  Its  neck,  wbieli,  ia  tlie  cummonesC  spe- 
cies (P.  dolichodrirui),  occupies  nearly  half  the  CDlire 
length.  The  head  is  rery  small  in  proportion,  and  Ihe 
tail  iiahort,  stout,  and  pointed.  Thu  cervical  verlebnc 
exceed  iu  niunber  Ihoao  ot  any  other  uninial  known; 
and,  in  tlieir  conformation,  hais  a  good  deal  of  resem- 
blance to  those  of  the  body  of  a  euake.  It  is  the  eon- 
iecture  of  Ur  Cotiybeare,  by  whom  the  lirat  soienlitic 
IDreetigation  of  the  characters  of  this  strange  creature 
was  made,  that  as  it  breathed  nir  and  had  frequent 
Deed  of  respiration,  il  generally  swam  upon  or  near  the 
mrfaee  of  the  water,  arching  buck  its  lung  neck,  liko 
the  swan,  and  plunging  it  duwiiwur<I»  at  Dip  Hslita  tlmt 
passed  williln  its  reueli.     'I'lie  greater  longlli  of  its  ex- 


the  bank,  until  it  hai 
it  at  Ibeir  leisure. 

The  confdnnadoD  of  llie  acA  1>  ■ 
caunol  be  mored  Tery  for  bom  Ba4*  (■ 
ptay  in  tlie  Teninl  direction  >■  mtA  la 
— '  finds  il  difScolt,  thet«forc,  to  tarn  iattilwt 


from  side  I 


side,  and  ia  of  ;r«>  lapM 


armed,  like  Ihe  hack,  with  Tei?  ■>(<»f  n|q| 

which  form  sharp  Hdges  or  lavmlm  ia  Int  d 

this  weapon  the  crocodiles  can  ia 

upoo  their  enemie*.     This  group  ia  mtinlyt 

Ihe  coontries  bordering  on  i '  '~ 

which  compose  it  may  be  a       .   . 

aiont — the  Croeadilei,  chiefly  inliaUttnc  lba-« 

oilier  African  riren ;  tlie  Gavialt,  t       ■  '  -  —^ 

andolhrr  Asiatic  riters;  and  ilicl 

conltned  to  the  New  World. 

The  charactcrlstio  differenoea  ot  these  ll>l^| 
are  best  marked  in  the  fonn  of  tlie 
have  the  muKzle  exceedingly  i>r»1uugsJ  al 
soiuewbat  resembling  in  form  the  boili  of 
bill.     In  the  true  CneoJUet  il  gndually  ti 
tho  point  towards  the  eyes;  and  '      ''      "' 
itnout  is  mui^  more  roundtrd,  an 
in  proportiun  to  its  length.    Those  laal  s| 
adapted  to  aquatic  habits  than  Ilae  Cnwodill 
vials,  for  tlie  feet  are  not  wehlwd  In  nSM(M| 
extent  as  in  lUc  latter,  and  the  ridgs  whieh^ 
the  aurfacc  of  their  hind  lega  is  wviUnc  hi  t 
tare.    With  these  exceptions,  liowcTCT,th«fl 
formation  of  all,  as  well  as  ihi 


powerful  tia.  The  cmcDdiles  ^ 
tabjibiUnia  of  Ihe  riviere  and  fresh  1 
ninfvs ;  aod  fhej'  are  all  purely  ca 
iloatrojr  their  prcji  by  JitJiiiiijj  it  bcni 


1    prcHaiB  •  M 
hsIUpk 


duur  of  tl 
i'lff  1  gei"--c 


ZOOLOGY.— VERTEBRATA. 


The  greater  part  of  the  Sauria  are  carniTorous,  feed- 
ig  upon  other  animals  of  inferior  size  and  strength  to 
lemselves,  and  almost  always  preferring  living  prey. 
lany  of  them  pursue  nothing  but  insects ;  others  lie  in 
ttit  for  small  birds.  The  Iguanas,  however,  feed  almost 
^oUy  upon  vegetables.  Many  of  them  are  possessed  of 
ery  great  agility  upon  land ;  some  of  them  can  ascend 
■rpendiculiur  walls,  and  even  run  along  the  ceiling  with 
leir  backs  downwards ;  none  of  them  are  inhabitants 
r  the  water,  though  a  few  occasionally  resort  to  it. 
be  activity  of  the  smaller  insectivorous  Uzards,  when 
I  pursuit  of  their  food,  is  exceedingly  curious  and  in- 
treating.  They  watch  with  ail  the  caution  of  a  cat, 
ad  dart  upon  their  prey  with  the  quickness  of  light- 
ing. Their  movements  are  effected  chiefly  by  means 
r  their  feet,  and  in  the  higher  tribes  exclusively  so ;  but 
i  those  species  in  which  the  legs  are  short  and  the 
lei  very  small  in  proportion  to  the  length  of  the  body, 
rogression  is  greatly  assisted  by  the  lateral  motion  of 
le  trunk,  which  works  its  way  along  somewhat  in  the 
kftnner  of  that  of  the  serpents. 

The  order  Sauria  may  be  subdivided  into  five  fami- 
BS — 1.  The  Lacertinidjs,  characterised  by  the  small 
mmd  and  tliick  neck,  but  particularly  by  the  very  long 
moder  forked  tongues  of  the  animals  composing  it. 
Its  group  includes  the  common  lizards  of  this  country, 
nd  most  of  the  Saurians  whose  habits  are  peculiarly 
etive.  2.  The  Iquanidjb,  having  the  same  general  form, 
■It  short  thick  tongues.  This  group  includes  some  of 
at  largest  of  the  Sauria,  both  recent  and  fossil.  3.  The 
I'BCXOTiD^  which  are  all  nocturnal  animals.  These 
Ave  not  the  attenuated  form  of  the  previous  families, 
■t  are  flattened,  especially  on  the  head.  Their  legs 
Ve  sliort,  and  their  movements  comparatively  tardy, 
ir  colour  is  usually  very  sombre ;  and  they  are  rc- 
i,  but  without  foundation,  to  be  venomous.  4.  The 
ELEONIDJB,  whose  tongue  is  of  immense  length,  but 
at  its  point.  The  feet  and  tail  are  both  pecu- 
Bsriy  adapted  for  climbing ;  the  former  having  two  of 
he  toes  opposable  to  the  rest,  and  the  latter  being 
VNiQd  and  prehensile.  Their  movements  are  very  slow, 
i3ttept  when  the  tongue  is  darted  out  to  secure  its  in- 
■et  prey.  5.  The  SaNCOiDiE,  or  Serpent-lizards,  which 
■B  recognised  by  the  shortness  of  the  feet,  the  non- 
3iteosibility  of  the  tongue,  and  the  equality  of  the  tile- 
^  scales  which  cover  the  whole  body  and  tail. 

1.  The  Lacertinio£  are  the  most  agile,  most  in- 
■etnty  and  roost  beautiful  of  the  Saurians.  Though 
k^  share,  in  common  with  the  others,  the  dislike  in 
Ml^  the  animals  of  the  class  of  reptiles  are  held  by 
persons,  they  never  injure  man,  and  are  in  some 
of  considerable  service  to  him.  The  larger  ones 
on  the  ground,  usually  preferring  the  shelter  of 
'  or  of  stones,  and  some  frequenting  marshy 
ns ;  whilst  the  smaller  kinds  resort  to  trees  in 
^Wh  of  their  insect  food,  and,  in  the  liveliness  of  their 
'^Ours  and  the  rapidity  of  their  motions,  bear  no  in- 
*K%iderable  resemblance  to  birds.  Two  small  species 
t^^it  this  country — ^the  lacerta  agiliSf  or  sand-lizard, 
^^jantiful  little  animal,  which  is  sometimes  of  a  brown 
^  eoinetimes  of  a  greenish  hue ;  it  is  found  on  sandy 
^ths,  and  occasionally  seen  basking  on  the  sunny 
^tte  of  green  banks.  A  more  common  one,  however, 
^^^  laeerta  vivipara,  which  inhabits  most  districts  of 
ji^Rland,  and  even  extends  into  Scotland ;  it  is  also  one 
the  few  reptiles  found  in  Ireland.  It  frequents 
t^lhn  and  banks,  and  may  be  seen  on  the  watch  for 
^  insect  prey,  during  the  warm  parts  of  the  day,  from 
^^  early  spring  until  summer  has  far  advanced.  Its 
^MdM  is  derived  from  a  peculiarity  which  it  shares  with 
^  viper — ^its  eggs  are  retained  and  hatched  within  the 
^^j,  so  that  the  young  are  produced  alive. 

&me  gigantic  fossil  bones  have  been  discovered, 
'^feieh  seem  to  be  the  remains  of  enormous  saurians, 
^isd  in  structure  to  the  Lacertidee  of  the  present  time. 
^^wn  the  proportional  length  of  the  head  of  one  of  these, 
^liidi  is  nearly  the  sole  part  preserved,  this  lizard  must 
^ve  been  at  least  seventy  feet  from  head  to  tail. 

i.  The  ikiiiily  Ot  louiJiiDis  approaches  pretty  closely 

405 


to  the  true  lizards  in  many  of  its  eeneral  characters ; 
but  it  contains  several  most  extraordinary  forms,  widely 
differing  from  each  other.  The  true  iguanas  are  con- 
fined to  America ;  but  some  genera  of  this  order  are 
found  over  the  greater  part  of  the  tropical  zone. 

Amon^  these  may  be  noticed  the  genus  Draco,  the 
animals  mcluded  in  which  are  distinguished  at  the  first 
glance  from  all  other  saurians,  by  the  possession  of  a 
pair  of  wing-like  appendages  to  the  sides  of  the  body. 
These  are  formed  by  extensions  of  the  skin,  supported 
by  the  false  ribs,  which  are  greatly  prolonged.  They 
can  be  folded  up  or  extended  at  the  will  of  the  animal, 
but  they  cannot  be  made  to  strike  the  air  and  to  elevate 
the  animal  like  a  bird  or  bat.  They  serve  rather  as  a 
kind  of  parachute,  on  which  this  little  dragon,  not  many 
inches  long,  flutters  from  branch  to  branch  in  search  of 
its  insect  prey ;  and  also  as  a  support  to  it  when  shoot- 
ing, like  the  flying-squirrel,  from  tree  to  tree.  These 
ammals,  the  only  living  representatives  of  the  fabulous 
dragons  of  the  olden  time,  are  found  in  the  woods  of 
tropical  Africa  and  Asia,  especially  in  the  Indian  archi- 
pelago. 

This  is  perhaps  the  proper  place  to  notice  the  very 
extraordinary  fossil,  to  which  tho  name  pterodactylua 
has  been  given.  In  its  general  character  it  was  cer- 
tainly a  lizard  ;  but  it  seems  to  have  been  adapted  to 
raise  itself  and  fly  in  the  air,  like  a  bat  or  bird.  The 
membrane  of  the  wing  was  not  extended,  however,  over 
the  whole  bony  apparatus  of  the  limb,  but  only  one 
finger,  which  was  enormously  developed  to  support  it. 
It  IS  ranked  by  Cuvier  among  the  most  extraordinary 
of  all  the  extinct  animals  that  had  come  under  his  con- 
sideration ;  and  the  one  which,  if  we  saw  them  all  re- 
stored to  life,  would  appear  most  strange,  and  most 
unlike  to  any  thin?  that  exists  in  the  present  world. 
In  the  form  of  its  head  and  the  length  of  its  neck,  it 
resembled  birds  ;  but  it  had  the  bones  and  teeth  of  a 
lizard  ;  its  wings  approached  those  of  bats  in  form  and 
proportion ;  and  its  body  and  tail  resembled  those  of 
ordinary  Mammalia. 

In  general  external  form,  the  pterodactylos  probably 
most  resembled  a  vampire  bat ;  but  in  most  of  the 
species,  the  snout  was  elongated  like  that  of  a  croco- 
dile, and  armed  with  conical  teeth.  Their  eyes  were  of 
enormous  size,  apparently  enabling  them  to  fly  by  night. 
From  their  wings  projected  fingers,  terminated  by  long 
hooks,  like  the  curved  claw  on  the  thumb  of  the  bat. 
These  must  have  formed  powerful  members,  with  which 
the  animals  were  enabled  to  climb,  or  creep,  or  suspend 
themselves  from  trees.  With  regard  to  their  food,  it 
has  been  conjectured  that  they  preyed  upon  insects ; 
and  the  number  of  fossil  remains  of  insects  in  the  strata 
in  which  they  are  found,  proves  that  such  a  source  of 
aliment  was  within  their  roach.  The  head  and  teeth  of 
two  species,  however,  are  so  much  larger  than  would 
be  required  for  the  capture  of  insects,  that  they  mav 
have  possibly  fed  on  fishes  (as  there  were  at  that  epoch 
few  or  no  small  land  animals),  darting  upon  them  urom 
the  air  after  the  manner  of  many  sea-birds. 

From  this  account  of  the  pterodactylus,  it  is  evident 
that  it  is  a  most  remarkable  connecting  hnk  between 
the  classes  of  birds  and  reptiles.  That  it  is  to  be  asso- 
ciated with  the  latter  can  scarcely  be  questioned  ;  but 
if,  as  has  been  recently  stated,  the  covering  of  the  skin 
was  more  analogous  to  hairs  or  feathers  than  to  scales, 
its  affinity  to  birds  must  have  been  extremely  strong. 

The  true  Iguanas  are  confined  to  the  New  World,  and 
frequently  attain  considerable  size.  They  have  a  kind 
of  spine  or  crest  along  the  back,  and  a  hanging  pouch 
under  the  throat,  which  seems  analogous  to  the  dew- 
lap of  oxen  ;  this  pouch  can  be  inflated,  but  under  what 
circumstances  is  not  exactly  known.  They  have  also 
in  some  degree  that  power  of  changing  the  hue  of  the 
skin,  which  is  so  renuirkable  in  the  chameleon.  They 
are  very  agile,  the  legs  being  long  in  proportion  to  the 
body,  and  their  food  is  almost  exclusively  vegetable. 
Some  of  them  attain  the  length  of  five  or  six  feet,  of 
which  tlie  tail  constitutes  a  large  proportion.  Their 
flesh  is  much  esteemed  as  food  \  and,  in  the  countries 


CHAMBERS'S  INFOEMATlON  POB  THE  PEOPLfi. 


whBie  the  J  iboand,  Ibey  ue  sought  famitb  this  object. 
Tbej  are  tMrcmely  tenauious  of  lire.  Wben  BttAcked, 
they  ftssunie  a  formidable,  though  not  a  dongoroiu,  as- 
pect. They  open  thoir  mouthi,  vihrote  their  tongues 
with  ntpiii  motion,  iaflato  thair  tliroaCs,  ami  erect  Uieir 
craata,  while  their  eyes  glanco  with  great  brilliancy. 
All  Ibis,  however,  is  a  domonEtiation  for  defence  and 
not  for  attack.  They  are  nerer  known  to  combat  with 
any  uiiiiuUs  but  those  of  very  amall  size. 

Some  gigantio  fosul  remains,  allied  in  coafarmstinn 
to  the  Iguana,  indicalo  the  fonner  mistenco  of  animals 
of  simiUr  character,  which  attained  enormous  bulk. 
The  chief  of  these  was  the  ■fiuannion,  of  whose  bonra 
Ir»Bnipnla  have  been  fuund  in  Tilgate  Forest.  The 
teeth  are  so  precisely  Himilar  to  those  of  the  igoaaa  in 
the  principles  of  their  conslmction,  as  to  leave  no  donbt 
of  the  near  coanexion  of  this  gigantic  sanrian,  which 
must  have  probably  attained  a  length  of  at  least  seventy 
feet,  with  the  herbivorous  liiarda  ol  oor  own  lime.  The 
examination  of  these  teeth  discloses  some  remarkable 
raecbanical  contrivances,  adapting  them  (o  the  fnnelion 
of  cropping  tough  vegetable  food,  such  as  that  afforded 
bj  the  plants  found  imbedded  with  it. 

The  third  family,  the  GECK<nnD.G,  oonsists  of  a  large 
number  of  animals  bearing  a  strong  resemblance  to 
tnoh  other  in  general  characters.  They  are  all  noc- 
turnal, and  pass  the  day  in  obscure  places  ;  their  eyee 
■re  brge,  and  their  pnpll  contracts  under  the  infloence 
of  light,  like  that  of  cats,  into  a  very  snuill  aperture. 
Their  flktloned  form  and  brood  head  give  to  them  a 
very  striking  and  peculiarly  disagreeable  appearance, 
which  is  aided  by  tbeir  sombre  and  somewhat  load-like 
fane ;  hence,  although  timid  and  harmless,  they  are 
always  regarded  by  the  vulgar  an  having  a  venomous 
efaarscler,  bat  without  the  least  foundation  in  trnlh. 
Uoet  of  them  possess  daws  at  the  extremities  of  the 
toes,  and  these  are  capable  of  being  retracted  like  those 
of  the  FeliniB.  They  appear  more  useftil  to  their  pos- 
■eeeor  in  climbing,  however,  than  in  seourina  tbeir 
prey,  which  consists  principally  of  inscola.  The  Oeekos 
are  found  in  most  warm  coontries  in  both  hemispheres. 
They  frequent  buildings ;  and  some  species  have  a  pe- 
enliar  orgunisation  of  the  feet,  by  whieh  they  can  climb 
smooth  perpendicular  ivnllti,  ur  even  run  bcnealh  ceil- 
Inga.     Tliey  are  often  useful  in  clesrlng  liouacs  of  mu'i- 

uver  which  they  have  paaaed  acquire  poisonous  proper- 
tics,  in  eonsequenoe  of  an  acrid  eiiud.ition  from  the  feet. 
It  is  difficult  to  know  hnw  much  credit  to  give  to  such 
statements;  etjually  positive  ones,  winch  are  entirely 
desliiute  of  foundation  in  fact,  being  cinulalcd  in  this 
conntry  in  re^vd  lo  the  toad. 

The  Ciii«ELEonrn.e,  or  Chamdron  tribe,  are  few  in 
number ;  Iml  they  present  so  many  anomalies  of  orga- 
nisation, that  it  is  noeesaary  to  sepurale  them  from  all 
the  other  snuriana,  and  (o  rank  them  as  h  dittincl  fnniil^'. 
They  are  charactcrist-d,  in  the  first  place  by  the  Btruc- 


at  its  eKtrvmitf.  IthlwIU*) 
ihe  chameleon  entraps  its  insectfood;  nt,  bf 
darting  out  the  toogns,  the  iuse«t  ia  glim,  ■ 
(o  the  end,  and  instaauneonslj  canwyad  In  II 
This  is  the  only  part  of  tlia  bodjr  tlial  wmm 
the  limbs  are  often  quite  motioaloH  tv  IMIM 
the  cliamclcon  walks,  it  advaDcea  witb  tba  gn 
cumapection,  and  there  ecems  a  wmot  el  {■"*■ 
bine  the  actions  of  the  different  membeni  1 
attached  to  a  branch  or  twig  by  tl 


seems  to  have  little  dispositioii  M  ad 
The  peealiar  confomutian  of  tiie  ••«•  oi  it 


feet. 


turo  of  the  feel,  which  are  odsplcd  fr.r  climbmg,  like 
UioBe  (if  the  BcauBori.il  birds  (such  as  the  parrel),  hav- 
ing two  of  the  toes  opposed  to  the  other  three.  The 
toi^^calso  affords  a  remarkable  character  ;  it  is  fleshy, 
and  capable  of  onormomi  elongation ;  the  eitremiij  is 
Ihiclivuod  or  club'Shaped,  and  is  fumishsil  *\i\»  a  "iui 


leon  adds  much  to  the  genenU  aingnlaxity  o/i 
They  are  large  and  prominent,  bat  ma  niBeh  m 
the  scaly  skin  of  the  orbits,  that  tberv  oa^l 
small  hole  in  the  middle  oppouls  the  popiL 
uncommon  thing  to  see  the  aoiimal  diiaLliiigtl 


the  fixity  of  the  body  itself,  so  aa  to  ghw  M 
the  proximity  of  food  in  an*  dJKCtiaii.  D»  ■ 
abstinence  possessed  by  Uaa  MDpiLw  tim\ 
great,  and  hence  moat  probably  arom  Iba  ItHl 
living  on  air.  They  do  not  appcM  iadiDad  Ml 
in  confinement ;  and  have  yet  bem  mean  ts  A 
little  dnring  many  weeks  <^  almost  antin  ahtf 
The  chameleon  has  been  most  remarkatle,  I 
for  its  power  of  clianging  colour,  whicb  wm  I 
the  ancients,  and  is  commonly  snppased  to  b^ 
to  it;  but,  as  already  stated,  other  animals ^ 
a  greater  or  less  degree.  Much  ncaocntaal 
vailed,  as  might  be  expected,  in  the  dneripUM 
phenomenon.  All  the  colours  of  the  raiiiM^ 
as  white  and  black,  have  been  Kpri— l«i  <■ 
sumed  by  it.  Its  natural  hue,  whenatta^al 
shade,  seems  In  be  a  bluish  grey;  ttaia  lUtl 
changes  to  a  browmsh  grey  or  into  a  gt«*h' 
times  the  colour  fades  to  a  pale  gre^,  ud  M 
it  deepens  to  a  dark  brown ;  but  IIwms  an  tfci  iri 
The  phenomenon  has  been  variously  auiuariat! 
late,  It  has  been  generally  supposed  tfatttbskM 
skin  depen^ls  upon  the  degree  in  which  As  (i 
the  blood  is  CLimbined  with  that  pKuliar  to  da 
braue  ;  Rnd  (hat  it  is  altered  by  a  changr  ia  iIn 
tity  of  blood  sent  to  the  surface,  which  is  incn 
the  distension  of  the  lungs  occaiionally  praetel 
animnl.  But  the  recent  inquiries  of  HilosJ 
hiive  shown  that  this  is  only  a  partial  cans*;  I 
the  change  is  principally  owing  to  an  aHotalia 
relative  position  of  two  layer  of  rnlnnringnul** 
the  skin  contains,  so  that  they  may  be  dnftq* 
'  in  various  deerees  of  combination. 
The  last  family  of  the  Saurian  Reptika-J 
III"  E,  or  Skink  tribe,  conducts  ua  so  gndnaBf 
,c  Sffrpentfl,  that  it  is  difficult  to  know  *Wn 
the  line  of  demarcation  between  thorn.  Tim 
cognised  by  tho  shortness  of  the  feet,  the  rgtf 
the  body  and  the  equality  of  the  tilo-h'kB  H 
rf  guo  is  not  eual 

h  m  ro  or  le»  ot  a  ■ 

m  m   nly  two  feel  an  i 

p  pp  roaches  tci  lh< 

re      se     tl    n  the  real  of  ll 
rt  bat  Btmng  fit^ 
e  ifps  has  a  mon 
d  Che  feel  are  so 
gra  become  aimplcc 

seem       e  simple  book*  i 
iA  anodier  anal 


ind  in  the  ehireles,  the  posterior  pair  ■■  wu 
both  these,  the  general  oonformaticoi  of  iIm  I 
Jieha'-  -         ■ 


ZOOLOGY^VERTEBRATA. 


other  Reptila,  bnt  from 
,  ;  eertaia  Dsbea  of  tlie  eel 
the  entile  kncuee  of  memben  or  app«nd«ges 
lOtion.  Althmwb  no  truw  of  these  ia  OTer 
le  mtmiRll;,  Cine  sre  KHne  speein  border- 
tlia  BMiriuu,  in  which  mdimentkrj  legs  cui 
A ;  uid  theae  Bppnraiinate,  thereTore,  towards 
■  in  their  own  tribe,  just  as  the  two-iegnd 
d  lizards  approach   the  serpents  in  theirs. 

apparently  ao  different  from  other  reptiles, 
are  to  be  distinguished  from  lizards  bj'  little 
bsence  of  eitretnitiea ;  unce,  in  the  ponsfrion 
and  in  the  acalj  ooTering  of  their  bodiea,  aa 
iheir  general  interior  organisation,  they  closely 
id  wiui  thero.  The  elon^ted  form  of  their 
minds  us  of  the  Worm  tribe  among  the  Arti- 
hich  they  may  be  regarded  aa  reprsKDting 
fl  Vertebrata,  jnat  as  ttie  class  of  birds  repi«- 
:  of  insects ;  and  they  correspond  with  them 
r  very  curious  p«rticul»i> — the  periodioal  ein- 
f  their  skiu.  All  serpents  pus  the  eoldeat 
be  year  in  a  state  of  torpidity ;  and  it  is  on 

frmn  this  that  they  slough  or  east  their  skio. 
:st  detached  round  the  head,  and  is  gradoally 
S  by  tlie  animal,  being  turned  inside  out  libc 
■ofagloTC. 

vgressioa  of  serpents  aa  the  snrhee  o(  the 
complisbed  in  two  «ay« ;  somelimes  the  whole 
ips  along  the  ground,  the  scales  on  its  under 
og  (like  the  mmote  bristles  of  the  earth-worm) 
y  painla  of  resistance  to  a  backward  moTement, 
t  trunk  is  elongated,  after  being  contracted ; 
times  it  is  bent  upwards  into  a  series  of  aroheo, 

the  tail  is  brought  near  the  head  ;  and  when 
1  straightened,  the  head  is  thereby  projected 
.  In  crawling  along  the  gronnd,  they  are  much 
ly  the  points  of  the  ribs,  which  da  not  meet 

-■ 1,  but  bear  upon  the  ground,  and  serve 


swallowad  vlueh  are  mni^  larger  than  the  diainel«r  of 
the  sBnient  itself.  This  is  accomplished  by  the  aepatB' 
tion  of  the  jaw-bones  into  various  pieces,  which  are 
lery  moveable  on  one  another  and  on  the  akuIL  The 
most  remarkable  species  of  this  bmily,  which  is  the 
most  numerous  of  the  order,  are  the  Btta  Gnuirictort* 
of  the  New  Worid  and  the  Pglharu  of  the  Old ;  thes^ 
"  ■'  length  of  from  thirty  to 


nfeet,  h 


s  of  the  intercostal  muscles, 
pents  can  awim  when  placed  in  the  water  ;  and 
<ne  group  which  is  pre-eminently  acioatic,  and 
pii^ed  by  its  lerticatly-flattened  Uil.  So 
1  the  members  of  this  group  reoemlde  certain 
f  the  eel  tribe,  that  it  ia  not  always  easy  to 
e  to  which  a  specimen  belongs,  until  lis  rcspi- 

Sns  have  been  examined.  The  great  flexi-  ' 
)  body  ia  partly  doe  to  the  veir  largo  num-  ' 
rtebrre  (from  200  to  3001  oomposmg  the  spinal 
each  of  which  ia  unit«l  to  those  before  and 

by  a  very  beautifol  ball-and-socket  joint.  A 
Hip  of  serpenla  is  distingniBhed  by  the  poe- 
F  venomons  teeth,  oi  peisan  fangi,  m  addition 
rdinary  teeth.    These  are  shvp,  long,  and 

they  are  connected  at  their  roots  with  a  gland 

the  poison  is  secreted  ;  and  this  is  instilled 
ironnd  through  the  lube  in  the  tooth, 
the  cane  of  other  reptiles,  ws  find  that  serpents 
in  their  full  development  in  warm  climates, 
'ery  little  proper  heat  of  their  own.  The 
ihatriting  the  temperate  zone  are  not  nearly  so 
ble,  either  for  size,  brilliancy  of  colour,  or 
t  properties,  as  those  which  exist  between  (he 

The  order  may  be  divided  into  five  families. 
!!0LDBERTD«'.,  Consisting  of  the  Boa),  PglhotUi 
.  and  other  non-venomous  snakes  not  belonging 
bseqnent  ordcra.  2.  The  Crotilidx,  contain- 
•attletnake,  riyn-,Bndall  the  venomons  species. 
(TDBOFBinji,  or  Water-tnaket.   4.  The  Abphis- 

or  Dmibte-uatkert.  6.  The  AwotriNin^  or 
m.  These  last  approximate  the  Lizards,  ir. 
men  of  rudimentary  legs  under  the  skin,  as 
I  other  points  of  their  organisation. 
iiHJTBDUD*  are  particnl^ly  diitinniiahed  by 
ir  of  dilating  the  opening  of  the  jaws  to  an 
■  ntmt,  to  *■  to  permit  of  aniioaia  being 
487 


forty  feet,  and  in  thickness  nearlv  equal  a  man's  body. 
They  do  not  fear  to  attack  any  anmial;  and,  if  they  can 
once  coil  themselns  roimd  it,  crodi  it  by  the  enormoua 
combined  power  of  their  mosclea,  in  spite  of  all  its  means 
of  resistance  and  defence.  Theirponeriamnchincreased 
by  coiling  the  tail  round  a  tree,  so  aa  to  give  a  point  of 
support  mtai  which  the  muscles  may  act  more  efficiently ; 
and  it  is  in  this  manner  that  they  commonly  wait  lor 
their  proy.  When  they  have  seized  and  entirely  de- 
stroyed it  by  emshing,  in  which  proeera  all  the  principal 
bones  are  broken,  they  begin  to  swallow  it.  This  pro- 
cess lasts  some  time;  and  when  it  is  complete,  the  posi- 
tion of  the  mass  in  the  alimentaiv  tube  is  at  once  known 
by  the  external  protubersDce.  The  process  of  digestion 
lakes  some  dsya  or  even  weeks  for  its  performance, 
according  to  the  siie  of  the  prey ;  and  during  that  time 
the  monster  lies  in  a  very  mactive  state,  only  issuing 
forth  to  seek  a  new  victim  when  the  digestion  of  the 
hut  has  been  for  some  time  finislied.  The  hair,  horns, 
and  other  least  digestible  parts,  are  usually  disgorged 
daring  the  process.  The  Boas  are  distinguished  from 
other  serpents  by  the  presence  of  two  projecling  bona 
near  the  vent,  which  are  called  ckuperi,  and  which  may 
be  regarded  as  the  rudiments  of  posterior  extremidee. 
'  The  CWuieri,  strictly  so  called,  are  usually  of  com- 
paratively small  size ;  but  (heir  habits  are  the  same  in 
proportion.  The  common  snake  of  this  counti^  attacks 
small  qnadmpeda,  frogs,  birds,  &c.,  in  precisely  the 
same  manner  that  the  boa  seizes  its  larger  victims.  It 
ia  fond  of  marshy  sitoationa,  and  takes  to  the  water 
readily,  inflating  its  lungs  boss  to  render  itself  buoyant. 
The  flexibility  of  body,  which  is  their  means  of  obtain- 
ing support,  is  greater  in  the  non-venomous  scrpenta 
than   in  the  Crotalidic,  which  have  another  mode  of 

Crocurine  it.  Thia  is  shown  by  suspending  a  coluber 
y  its  tail ;  it  can  bend  its  body  so  aa  to  bring  its  head 
I  to  the  pcint  at  which  it  is  held  ;  this  the  veiiumoua  ser- 
pents cannot  do.  AH  the  smaller  species  of  thia  family 
are  perfectly  harmless  to  man,  and  may  be  handled 
without  fear.  Many  of  them  are  remarkable  for  the 
brilliancy  of  their  colours,  and  others  for  the  extreme 
regularity  cj  their  markings. 


oa  ConHriHor  la  cr 


iraonly  applied  to  Ota  Is 
It  only  thoB  of  Ihcwsila 
■bkAi  tlw  mtunliM  bo 


CHAMBERS'S  INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


The  CWMUD J^  or  FtfuomotH  Strpmh,  do  not  d  ifTer 
nnidi  in  oxteriialoh»racterBfi'OTn  ihs  preceding fsuii'y; 
bat  ^0  chumcter  of  thoir  leelh  ie  quite  sutBcienl  lo 
(ll»tlngui»h  IheiB.  The  piibonou*  propurtiea  of  the  dif- 
forent  species  vary  eonaideiubly ;  in  goneral  they  are 
mnre  Mrere  hi  the  ■erpeols  cf  wnrm  climates  than  in 
thusB  of  temperate  regioM.  Casea  of  death  from  the 
bits  nf  the  QritiBh  viper  ire  very  rare,  and  are 
rally  to  bo  atuibnted  in  part  to  some  provioiuly 
iiig  duraliiteiiieut  of  the  eygtem.  There  are  many  »er- 
pents  in  the  torrid  nam,  hnwever,  whoie  bile  is  fatal 
te  man  and  other  hirge  animals  in  a  few  boun,  and  to 
■mall  animals  much  Hooner. 

Tiiia  family  conUios  two  prlneipal  seciBB-tbe  Rallle- 
maktii  and  the  fipfri.  The  former  are  generally  rs- 
garded,  bnt  probably  incorrectly,  ail  the  most  veno- 
mous of  all  serpents.  The  rallle  at  the  end  of  the  tail, 
wUob  in  their  distinguiaiiing  ehntacteristie,  is  formed  of 
several  separate  pieces  of  a  dry  homy  substance,  one  of 
which  is  received  within  another.  They  are  quite  loose, 
and  reocive  no  nourislimcut  after  they  are  once  formed. 
A  new  piece  is  said  to  be  added  every  tims  the  skin  is 
oaal,  which  usually  takes  place  twice  a-year.  The  sound 
made  by  the  rattle  is  not  great  in  the  ordinary  motion 
of  the  serpent,  and  cannot  be  heard  at  more  ihnn  two 
or  throe  yards'  distance.  Several  species  of  Crola/ui 
are  deacrilied,  varying  in  length  from  four  to  eight  teeC 
They  arH  all  natives  of  Araerica.  Their  ordinary  food 
MDsistB  of  birds,  squirrels,  and  other  small  animals. 
It  was  once  supposed  thai  they  posaeiiBcd  the  power  of 
charming  or  fascinating  lliese  aoimals,  so  as  to  draw 
them  by  degrees  to  enter  their  throats.  This  is  cer- 
tainly an  error ;  bnt  it  is  equally  certain  that  most  ani- 
mala  are  so  terrified  at  the  sight  uf  tlie  rattlesnake,  as 
to  lose  the  power  of  escape,  and  to  become  an  easy 
prey  when  it  darts  upon  them. 

'J'he  Vipert,  being  destitute  of  the  peculiar  characte- 
ristic of  the  HaltleBDakes,  are  more  like  the  Coluberidie  ; 
their  forms,  however,  are  less  elegant,  their  colours  less 
mlendid,  and  their  rouvemcnia  leas  active.  In  gBnerai, 
fney  ar^  remarkable  for  tlie  dark  lurid  tints  of  their 
eovcring.  The  most  celebrated  species  of  this  group 
ii  the  cobra  ili  capella  or  •ptelacle-inaki  of  the  Eaat 
Indie.i.  Its  first  name,  Riv™  to  it  bv  the  rnrlupie^e, 
»ic"'Ki-»ll>"ided  snakp,  ;i.i.l  i-  ^m^c^i  f.-uio  llif  f^.y^r 
ofdiUlin;;  the  skin  bcliii..!  ili.'  I..  ...1,  •■  L.  .>  ,u,..u..|,  -. 

^Va\>  appe 


of  moving  citWM 
riiiy.  tS»  tm  at 
>f  the  body  are  »  much  alike,  Uutl  tlwy>«4 
liitiuguiahod  by  a  suparfieial  ohavrter,  iWif 


whole  body  is  of  nearly  eijual 
restricted  to   tbo  warmest  parU  of  Ssolk 
N'olwicbstauding  the  commoD  idsk  of  IB  fM( 
pertics,  it  is  quite  bannlcss,  and  aabsBlaca 
other  small  insects.     It  haa  not  theipowsrtfl 
ing  the  bones  of  the  jair%  which  dbtmga'-'— ■ 

The  AmuiKiDX  may  almost  b«  ealM 
or  serpents,  so  renurkabty  do  they  eon 
racters  of  tlie  two  orders,     lo  one  spn 
mentB  of  hind  legs  form  a  Tiaibia  pi«)aalia*] 
vent;  and  in  another  the  anterior  nbs  ai    ~ 
by  a  cartilage  which  is  the  rudimenl  of  a  tt 
common  ilou--ieorm  or  blind-mrm  o(  tbii 
received  its  second  name  from  the  n) , 
eyes ;  this  ia  an  absurd  error,  huw«TiT, 
though  small,  are  very  brilliant.      Ii  t.   . 
harmless  animal,  feeding  on  inawjta,  alu|^  hi 
said  to  swallow  frogs,  birds,  and  mle*;  bullH 
poaaiblc,  as  the  bones  of  its  jaw  dd  not  se] 
middle,  and  its  swalliiw  ii  conae^uently  ■ 
dilatable.    When  alarmed,  il  throws  tils 
muscles  into  contnunioD  in  a  prouliar  mai 
then  very  brittle,  so  that  it  freqaontly  to 
various  aceidentsi  in  the  course  of  a  y«i 
this  member  is  replaeed.     There  iaa  larnra 
this  family  existing  in  America,  wbiehaHaBSR 
of  two  feet,  and  from  its  eilrenic  tngiUlf  Isi 


CLitSS  IT.— AltPOUUA. 

The  animals  composing  the  clasa  Aaq 
eluded  by  Cuvier  and  many  other  taah>| 


b  tb*t^ 
l■erpRI^«l 


uwm 


head.   "'J 


ivli  appellaiiM 


aubjC'Ct,  the  .lr'].rlL  aii.l  »iiii 
nlilcli  has  elapsed  stiite  lIli 
Iioi^,  and  cunBer[ucnlly  \\ 
has  penetrated  iiilo  tlie  svs 
The  IhDRorlnm^  or  II 
lively  few,and  are  liimti  i 
They  arc  moBtly  foui.^l  ■ 
I^asi  liiiiict,  andiHKriiiK 


a  bloud  by  t'Xpoidog  it  to  watir.    laM 

■i  conipo-iiia  it.  luiign  and  gilbdaaMll 

'  'I   -.  .'I       I  -I  in  a  Btaic  of  actiiify;  W 

ii'  tlie  fiirmcr  are  in^ 

'  .<'  u'llls  are  retained  Ma 

r  ilie  lungs  are  capaUerfl 

'   .lie,  then,  the  oBlyinsa 


.  I    suvh  as  undergo  I&  K 
.nij;  by  gills  alooe  si  A* 


they  feed  ui'iiH  B^..  li  n  -i.in-.i  ui-m  i 
siooally  make  their  way  iutu  hoi.ia.  lli< 
generally  briglit. 

The  Ahfiiisii.emo.i:,  or  Doubtt-n'alkc 
aoialler  group,  iiilerniediule  iu  some  ros 
llie  true  icrpcati  and  llie  Hluw-wurms. 


'I.I'.!  '  I :  I '  I  ]'  --  k  I  I  I .  >til  I  and  naked,  beiB|  dM 

i  ulii.'li  hoii  reference  to  a  ebsj^fe  sf  M» 
the  form  of  a  water-breathing  Osh  ••  ■ 
hiiig  re]'tile ;  and,  when  the;  hatv  aUsiall 
;t  ceiiiliilon,  Ilicy  closely  wrmbla  tNB  ^ 
iwnA  '^Vtitu.t.i^r.    In  uiaoy  -jrrlB^  hms^ 


ZOOLOGY^VERTEBRATA. 


amt  ia  nan  from  the  Uiae  that  th«  ■nimil  emei^ea 
■  tiM  «f»  to  iU  adult  tgn.  With  tha  eicepllon  of 
Craga,  thsy  hmTC  mDch  tb«  form  of  lizardi  (amon); 
lah  aercral  of  them  were  formerly  claaaec!},aud  have 
MallT  four  feet  and  %  lengthened  t&il. 
Hm  sla**,  whieh  oontaii^  but  a  amall  nambar  of  dif- 
Hl  nnerm,  maj  be  best  subdivided  into  orders  chiefljr 
Mding  to  the  degree  to  which  the  metamorphasiB 
■ilia.  Thtu,  ID  the  lint,  ANouiu,  embracing  tlie 
Ipi  and  ToaJ;  the  giUa  are  entirely  loat  in  the  per- 
I  alBte,  and  the  tail  also  diiappeara.  In  ths  Uhodeli, 
hdug  the  SalamandtTi,  WaleT-Neati,  &e.,  the  gills 
Ifptar  in  the  perfect  atate,  but  the  tail  is  retained. 
•  A>rBiP7(EUBTji,  to  whieh  the  Prolem  and  Sirea  be- 
^Mtain  their  gUla  daring  tha  whole  of  life  ;  the  tail 
Mia&ea  to  form  a  laige  part  of  the  body,  and  in  some 
Maeea  only  two  legs  are  developed.  In  tho  AmuN- 
tt,  as  order  which  consisls  only  of  two  litlle-Lnown 
Ma,  no  gills  have  been  found  at  any  period  of  life. 
Ilk*  body  and  tail  aro  evidently  formed  for  Bwim- 
tf.  And  in  the  Apodi,  including  only  one  geuos, 
iCan/ia,  the  body  is  altogether  destitute  of  feet,  and 
I «  aarpcut-like  form. 

Order  L^AaounL 
ba  prindpal  anbdiviaiona  of  the  fint  order  are  the 
ili>.B,  or  Frog  tribe,  and  the  Bufoidi,  or  Tead  tribe. 

ttaiatx  frequent  water,  and  are  adapted  fur  swim- 
K  in  it;  the  latter  are  osually  found  at  a  diilance 
a  water,  and  arsmoch  leaaadaptedforaclive  move- 
to  of  any  kind.  The  melamorphaaia  of  both  these 
tmtSiti  with  the  same  general  phenomena ;  and  as 
kBimati  themselves  are  so  well  known,  a  description 
■ia  proceaa  will  be  a  auBicienl  account  of  those  whieb 
'Ut  Britain.  It  is  one  very  easily  observed,  for,  by 
l«ing  a  little  water  eontainiug  young  tadpoles,  the 
!•  process  may  be  made  to  go  on  under  our  eyes, 

the  young  natuntUst  i>  earneatly  rccomniended  to 
^  it  for  himself. 

lac  spawn,  soon  after  its  deposition  in  pools,  consists 
<■  transparent  gelatinous  mass,  cnvelopinK  a  num- 
«>f  little  bUck  dots,  which  are  regularly  distributed 
■ugh  it,  and  which  are  the  eggs.  Those  are  abun- 
Uy  found  in  stagnant  pools  in  the  month  of  April, 
ig  osually  deposited  (in  tliis  cuuiitry)  at  the  end  ol 
rich,  and  hatched  about  a  month  oflerwarils.  When 
tadpole  first  emerges,  it  is  seen  to  present,  in  ever)' 
s«ct,  the  appearance  of  a  Rsh.  It  has  a  largo  oval 
d,  and  an  elongated  tail,  llattened  vertically,  by  the 
-    "■      lof  which  it  swims  actively  through  the  water. 


v.ly  through 
a  gills  are  found  hanging  in  tufts  on  each  si< 
d;  and,  if  examined  with  a  microscope,  Ihi 
tie  blood  tbrougli  them  may  be  very  beautifully 
k  cittutalioD  may  be  observed,  also,  with  greut 
■  is  the  fin-like  expansion  DQ  the  upper  and  c 
ga  (tf  the  Uil.  Very  soon,  however,  tho  gills  ore 
bWn,  aa  it  were,  into  tha  head,  being  covered 


ottlK 


'  body  a 

taedo: 


s  food  a 


r  power  of 

aaiderably  increased. 

the  tadpole  now  undergoes  but  Utile  change  in  its 
temal  form  for  a  considerable  time,  but  increases 
Mjy  in  bulk.  The  first  appearance  of  limba  is  seen 
« little  tubercle  or  knob  which  pr<>}vcts  at  tho  back 
the  head :  this  is  the  rudiment  of  llie  hind  leg.  It 
)n  acquires  somewhat  the  tumi  of  the  perfect  limb, 

11  continues  very  short,  even  in  proportion  (o  the 
Minative  size  of  the  animal.  Ueanwhile,  the  fore  legs 
■  also  budding  out  in  the  same  manner,  and  gradualTy 
HDH  their  diatinct  and  ultimate  form.  Duriug  this 
•Msa,  the  development  of  the  body  goes  on  at  the  ex- 
■>■  of  (ha  tail,  which  is  gradually  removed  by  absorp- 
■,  an  that  the  hinder  part  of  the  body  bceomes  rounded. 
w  |iU«  ^m^yttx  bj  a  aimilar  proeea*. 


ahowna  of  frogs  having  descended  from  the  sky,  which 
are  still  believed  in  some  parts  of  the  country.  They 
now  grow  with  great  rapidity  during  the  remainder  of 
the  year;  but  on  the  approach  of  winter  they  retire 
lo  the  mud  at  the  bottom  of  the  water,  where  they  con- 
gregate in  large  masses,  remsinuig  torpid  until  the  re- 
turu  of  spring. 

Tho  BVF01D.E,  or  Toadi,  are  a  perfectly  harmless  and 
inoffensive  race,  althuuili  certainly  not  inviting  in  then: 
general  aspect.  Tho  idea  of  their  venomous  character 
ia  altogether  unfounded.  The  body  is  of  a  dull  hue,  iW 
shape  awkward,  and  its  movements  appear  difficult,  hot 
it  ia  by  no  means  deserving  of  that  disgust  which  it  has 
inspired  in  some  naturalists  as  well  as  in  the  popular 
mind,  UnpoascBsed  of  any  power  of  active  defence,  or 
of  rapid  escape  from  its  enemies,  the  dullness  of  its  co- 
lour serves  to  shield  it  from  observation.  Its  eye  bears 
a  renmrksble  expression  of  mildness  and  patient  endur- 
ance, rather  fitted  to  excite  pity  and  compassion  than 
disgust  or  repugnance.  It  issues  forth  from  its  eon- 
ceahnenl  at  twilight  in  search  of  food ;  and  this  con- 
sists of  insect",  wonnn,  slugs,  &c.,  the  inordinate  in- 
crease of  which  it  is  very  useful  in  repressing.  It 
seems  to  prefer  that  uhich  is  actually  alive  and  in  mo- 
tion. When  about  to  feed,  it  remains  motionless,  with 
its  eyes  turned  directly  forwards  upon  the  object,  and 
the  head  inclined  towards  it ;  and  in  this  attitude  it  re- 
mains until  iV.e  animal  mores,  when,  hy  a  stroke  hke 
liglituing,  the  tongue  is  thrown  forward  upon  the  vic- 
tim, Bjjiieh  is  instantly  drawn  into  the  mouth.  So  rapid 
is  this  movement,  that  it  requires  some  little  practice, 
as  well  as  cloBC  observatiim,  lo  distinguish  the  difleretit 
molions  of  the  tongue.  This  organ  is  folded  back  upon 
itself,  as  in  the  frog ;  and  the  under  surface  of  tho  tip 
is  imbued  witli  a  viscid  mucous  secretion,  which  adheri-a 
to  the  prey.  This  is  generally  swallowed  alive;  audita 
motion  within  the  .^tomacli  may  often  be  perceived  for 
some  time  afterwards. 

The  toad,  like  the  rest  of  tho  Amphibia,  becomes 
torpid  in  winter ;  hut,  instead  of  returning  to  tlio  water, 
like  the  frog,  it  chooses  for  its  retreat  some  retired  and 
sheltered  liole,  or  a  space  amongst  large  stones.  Like 
the  other  Amphibia,  toci,  it  is  endowed  with  great  tena- 
city of  life,  and  can  exist  tor  a  very  long  time  deprived 
of  food  and  almost  of  air.  The  knowledge  of  this  fast 
has  occasioned  a  disposition  to  give  loo  ready  credence 
lo  tlie  various  wonderful  accounts  nhich  have  been  cir- 
culated, at  different  times,  of  toads  beiug  found  alive, 
com  plelely  enclosed  in  solid  rock  o"    '       '      '        "     ' 


It   i! 


kely  that  a  toad  whicl 


retired  lo  a  hollow  in  a  tree  in  the  autumn,  may  find 
itself  so  far  enclosed  in  the  spring  as  to  he  unablo  to 
escape  ;  and  that,  through  the  opening,  it  may  obtain 
the  requisilcsupplyof  air,anderenof  fuvd.  In  proceaa 
of  time  new  wood  may  be  deposited  around  it,  ao  that 
the  cavity  shall  be  completely  moulded  upon  its  body  ; 
and  the  opening  will  be  gradually  diminished.  Still,  a 
very  small  aperture  will  be  suflicient  to  admit  air,  mois- 
ture, and  minute  insects,  by  which  it  may  be  supported 
for  many  years,  being  a  long-lived  animal ;  and  in  none 
of  the  cases  on  record  does  there  seem  to  have  boen 
such  a  minute  examination  of  the  cavity  as  to  diaprovo 
the  idea  that  a  connexion  with  the  external  air  still 

of  the  aceotiuta  of  toada  foimd  io  atone*,  &e. 


CHAMBERS'S  ISFOHMATION  FOft  THE  PEOPLfi. 


Ordiv  n, — Crodda. 

Tba  iniinalB  of  the  order  L'rodeta  b«ar  bo  nrorg  a 
general  renemblance  to  lizardti,  tint  they  were  uuiuil 
with  that  group  by  Linoieas,  and  nre  slill  popularly 
regirded  as  audi.  Tlie  Saiamanderi  and  Ilieir  allies, 
however,  are  eaail;  dislinguislied  by  the  Bmootlincss  and 
aoflDeoB  of  Ibeir  skin,  wbich  U  entirely  deatitute  of  those 
Males  whiisli  all  lizards  powess.  Moreover,  tbey  undi:rgo 
a  metaniorphoris  similur  to  thiit  of  the  frogs,  eicipt  that 
Ok  change  of  form  does  not  proceed  la  the  same  extent- 
Like  the  Anoura,  this  order  may  be  subdivided  into  two 
fiunilics,  of  which  one,  that  of  the  Tritons,  is  of  aquatic 
habits  even  ill  the  adult  state,  like  the  frogs ;  vhilet  the 
other,  tliat  of  thetrueSttJiii!ii>Ei»,  hears  more  analogy 
with  the  toads  in  its  aapect  and  habits. 

01  the  Tnrrom  «ever»i  speciee  eiiat  ui  tbis  eounlry, 


■nd  are  knowi 


inder  the  i 


l,^.^[ 


vl,&c 


The  largest  is  about  six  iacliea  in  length 
all  nncommOD  in  ponds  and  large  ditcbce,  whore  it  1i<es 
Upon  aquatic  insects  and  ollter  snu.ll  living  animals ; 
it  even  devonrs  the  emaller  spceioa  of  nowt.  The  eggs 
aie  laid  in  the  spring,  npon  aquatic  leavog,  vihieh  are 
folded  together  by  the  animal ;  and  the  young  tadpole, 
when  it  comes  forth,  bears  considerable  resemblance 
to  that  of  the  frog.  The  gills,  however,  are  in  larger 
tofti,  and  they  slTurd  a  most  advantageous  opportunity 
for  observing  the  circnlation.  The  anterior  legs  sre 
the  lirsl  developed;  and  even  nfler  they  have  arrived 
Bt  nearly  their  full  growth,  the  gills  are  very  large,  and 
actively  performing  their  functions.  The  Innes  are, 
however,  gradnally  developed ;  and,  towards  Uio  end 
of  autumn,  the  gills  are  absorbed,  and  the  animal 
breathes  uir  only.  Sdll  it  does  not  quit  the  water, 
hot  remwna  an  inhabitant  of  llmt  clement,  coming 
occasionally  to  the  surface  to  breathe. 

The.S'a'anafidn' is  aland  animal,  of  the  same  general 
liiaraeter  with  the  walei^newt,  but  possessing  a  rounded 
jiiBtead  of  a  flollened  (ail,  and  a  surface  somewhat  warty, 
like  that  of  (ha  toad.  It  discharge*,  when  alarmed,  an 
tterid  secretion  from  the  tubercles  in  the  skin,  which  is 
■aid  lo  be  poisonous  to  smsll  animals.  In  other  respects 
H  is  quite  harmless,  and  ia  not  posscsBed  of  any  re- 
markable prepeHies.  The  escs  of  the  salamander  nre 
hatched  within  the  body,  bo  that  the  young  are  produeed 
of  the  melamorjihoBis  has  been 

finally  qui  tied 


!e  before 


'Bihe 


at  lirst  inhabits  the  water,  and,  whi 

it,  frequents  damp  in  preference  1 

Bpecles  exists  in  Urilniu,  but  the  Balmnnndera  .-x 

exienaivcly  difluscd  over  other  parts  of  the  gli 

Order  III.— Ami-MmourUi. 
Tlic  animals  bolonging  lo  the  "rdi-r  Ampli 

enact  ly  resemble  salaniandcra  the  'lii'  .■■r  ■ > 

has  been  checked  just  at  the  piTi"!   ' 
ination  from  aquatic  to  air-brejitln  i  -        i< 


unpi  n 
mdiirgi 


llio  pa»Bag«  btftww.i  llirm,     Si.  - 

believed  by  n.ituralists  to  be  ench  ; 

the  discovery  of  others  of  the  saiii 

it  appears  to  sufFor  injurinqsly  fm 

n  light ;  for  not  only 

■Joea  it  prefer  dark  place*,  but  even 

dies  if  it  be  evpnwi 

tn  open  day  for  any  length  of  tini 

of  hidinc  itself.     The  lirm  is  an  an 

mal  of  similar  chs- 

racier,  mhsbiling  the  North  Amer 

cnn  risers,  where  it 

feeds  npon  earth- worm?,  aquatic  in 
of  which  it  burrows  in  the  mud.  0 

ly  the  anterior  pair 

no  rudiment  of  the 

AiB«r(cB,« 


OrtwIT.— 
Tbe  order  Abranebia  ooni 
these  both  peculiar  to  North  A 
and  the  amphiuma.  Theyai 
any  metamorphosi*,  but  brtMho  I7  Inv  4l 
whole  period  of  life,  and  have  never  Imbb  mt 
of  lega.  These  ore,  however,  verv  shott.  B 
almost  UBcless  appeodagea  lo  (Jio  body,  uhlcli  I 
like  that  of  an  eel.  It  is  not  imprvbabltllut, 
salamander,  the  egg  may  be  hatched  within  (k 
the  parent,  and  Uiat  the  yonnj  aiay  not  M 
until  it  has  passed  through  Ita  lailprjt  (Hh 

Diim  T.— Apoda. 

Tbe  order  Apnda  containa  hat  ona  ^ana^  Ih 
blind-newt,  or  naked  serpent.  Tlui  <na  * 
CnvisT  among  the  Serpents,  from  Ibe  aaM 
of  tbe  body,  which  is  dealilute  of  an  nAMi 
But,  in  the  absence  of  scales  on  the«kio,«>*d 
anatomical  choraclcn,  it  rather  comifOB^' 
Amphibia,  forming,  however,  a  moat  inliwil 
tion  to  the  next  class.  It  is  not  bnovn  tavd 
metamorphoais,  lu  name  wu  conferrtdby 
on  account  of  its  aupposed  bllndneiK  Th* 
exceedingly  small,  and  are  nau4y  hijdia  I 
skin,  and  it  la  believed  that,  in  anna  afti 
organs  are  allogetber  wanting.  Thaaa  aulaah 
the  rivers  and  marshy  grounds  of  many  Infl 
tries ;  further  Information  in  rv|^T<]  to  Am 
needed.  They  are  said  to  borrow  in  ttie  jn 
to  liv«  very  much  in  the  manner  of  tarth-vM 
far  as  is  known,  they  are  perfectly  harmInK 

from  this  sketch  of  the  chua  AKrnitU,! 
Been  that,  in  a  scientific  point  of  vlew,tliia 
moat  interesting  in  the  whole  animal  kinedm 
oflitlls  direct  benefit  loman,  itiscettaiiSyBil 
as  any  tribe.  And  thus,  allliougb  l^s  fimlf 
the  species  oSend  against  our  notioo*  •(  ba 
their  love-songs  ^ve  them  the  abara«l«i<f* 
musicians,"  (he  avemion  and  prejndic*  wllfcdl 
irc  ordinarily  regarded  would  be  JDsIlynfM 


ple^ 


■eof  ii 


salyTt 
.dlbri 


CLASS  V— FisnKSL 

The  animals  of  this  class  are  the  > 

beneath  the  surface  of  the  water  tb«y  bAd 
whale  Irihc,  which  so  much  resemble  ar»  ■ 
aspect  and  iu  mode  of  life,  arc  all  sir-bnatUig 
and  they  are  aa  cerlainly  drowned  by  briag  |l 
from  Inking  in  air  at  the  aurface,  ai  aicMi; 
(.nlinarilvlive  on  land,  thou^.bylkik 
.inri  ri,  til py  ore  enabled  to  suBtWi  At 
'.-<  r  time.  The  same  is  true  cf  IN 
iKJ  oilier  reptiles,  which  maa  a  lH| 
ii]i-i-r  water.  But  with  fWMa,tbil 
III  ihese.osititbe  MoUnwmttat 

■  ■  'I'ssary  puriticiition  by  bciag  torn* 

■  i  ill  [hi-Burroundingflnid.   Thai 
i<  n  to  a  eenrs  of  delicole  Rlamail 

'..  encb  of  nhieh  consisla  of  tm 

■  ■  (■■lie  to  convey  the  biood  frem  I 

■  I  1"  reliim  ii)  cnclowd  in  a  defid 
iijli  which  the  chemical  chaaps 

.11.1  ilie  sir  take  place.  But  thrm 
i  I- l.ioflfly  inthc  waler,«BinthBew 
Miilliwa.  They  are  attached  to  boin 
HI  arches,  which  are  amngni  in  pan 
■nd,  and  are  more  or  lew  protected  by 
ng ;  and  (here  is  a  provision  which  euu 
lauge  of  the  fluid  in  contact  viA  tbi 
in  which  they  lie  is  coDncpted  with  It 
,  and  water  is  constantly  taken  in  by  d 
id  forced  by  muscnlar  action  aver  lb*  I 
T  gilla,  passing  off  ihrangb  tibe  1 


mjw 


LATA. 

vfi  wliiUrl  ih*  pmltlon  of  ih«  ollitr,  raao' 
•ttk  lb*  pofmriHr  ■xirMiiiiM  of  Unl  Huawb, 
I  Itn  wma%il,  it  MUrtmljr  vmwIiIii.  Smna> 
-VRitn)  lliw  at*  plBMil  br  buk,  in  the  ouwl 
FUaikitii  and  BaiMlaia  ilwv ■»  tiMil  ftiF 
Bfcn  auttflurlr  O  **>*  IwlnlM.  TtHtcaMu- 
«  vnuiity  Duimoolid  muni  iutiinat>4y  «tw  ilw 
una  ttiM]  tliv  Tbiilntl.  Tluuwl!uiw*ecfnpiaal 
bDUm  vintcdiKd  oviir  •  wt  ot  Iidu]'  or  i^ctilk- 
.^  nliluh  ma;  bo  nganlnl  u  nproeal- 
uoa  aS  Uic  luuid  ai  font  Tbn  bona  •bldb 
limn  *iHi  ibe  ■jann  aiv  nry  tlmrt.  ud  m« 
itfiT  Un  doll  i  (o  tint  th#  ohicf  mutnanHl  «f 
n,  M  it  warn,  at  (h*  unit  anil  ankle  joint*. 
Mr  b/  tbatr  vjbnillau*  thitt  lb*  Bnimd  iit 

■■ "*  in  ilm  w»t«r,  aiul  tlitj  rImi  mhIiI 

glinu  frum  wki  Id  u-lr.  'i'tit  for- 
vimtrol  flu*  i*  cbiiiU.V  iiolinnj 
a  )iaIiU«  InvalVB  a  c»niil'liiraUii 
fcplb  bi  vatar.  Snnutliinet  ant,  and 
,  lit!  trf  thuB  taa  an  ohMnt;  In  tlia 
F  |£b  IWi  b  aaid  ta  be  a/miiii  ot  footloML.  In 
anoiM  dia  peeural  flm  am  monnon*)/  dortH 
)  tin  winn  of  birda,  and  trm  enaUa  Un  ani- 
M  ant  ciT  ihn  watrr  and  to  akim  for  a  iburi 
|*ila  tuTfimk 

lintminp-bliiMer  u  an  organ  uvnally  iin)ipaiwil 
niliir  t<i  Uiia  olua.  In  tlia  hiEliMt  rurnia  l» 
■xIhI^  ImwHViT,  ila  oorrMponduw*  villi  Ihn 
atr-bnathiiiK  aoinmb  k  vwy  (vldaitg  aad 
itUc  dooM  ttaiM  air  la  taken  luto  U  trora  vitb- 
I  er  mplratbn.  In  Iw  Idwbp  v 
n,  howvTCP,  lU  cScD  ia  in<n«  diniM- 
It  U  latirvfy  clowd.  It  ib  dhubJI; 
»  nnwn  air,  and  W  ttrre  aa  a  moan*  iif  ru^a- 
•  aiwcili*  gravity  of  th«  anliaal,  th*  iivtmniiiiff- 
■ring  GomprMviMl  wh«a  tli»  Brf*  dratirai  tu  ■Inl, 
•d  to  <i«pa»d  wh«o  it  dwiirM  In  rtae.  In  iMa 
t  wauM  Mnn  Ibat  cnld-IUha*  aiw  cnahlad  t« 
^d  dcManil  to  tha  water,  vtlhaut  any  moHnUiir 
ibio  tn  ihoMi  wlia  muh  ibotn.  But  it  ia  n>- 
that  thia  4Tf(an  b  aann^tinics  abawnt  In  K  nia- 
ly  alliad  tn  ano  in  wliieli  it  i»  pMwnt ;  auil  uial 
of  it  dnra  not  t^eai  to  maka  any  dllRiPcoai  In 
-II,  Ai  a  cmiml  rule,  it  ii  mora  conataatlr 
1  rirar  HiKm  thaii  in  tha  tiihabilanta  of  tbi 
it  n  tntmt  ^qiHUtUy  abHoit  In  thuH  wbidl 
>uatly  iiatr  tho  bottau  ot  the  <rBl<-r. 
irfaos  ot  tile  body  li  goneintlly  coTM*d  witli 
i  Malra,  irhieli  van  Moiidorul;  is  funn  and 
ifftoront  apeoica,  fikoh  acalo  i*  oumpoacd  iif 
latw,  of  whiota  ffvory  on*  Ml»nil»  on  all  iliUa 
in  ono  on  its  «>t«rior[  hmm  Iho  annnanuiDo 
Mun  oonrvotrio  Hnaa  oa  all  tides,  wbU)  mwli 
9  of  gtuwtii,  tha  laT|[gr  plalta  bolng  tlio  btsl 
Tiuij  thu*  reamnbla  tbn  ahoUa  of  malluaaa  in 
Is  tf  iDCT(a».  Each  acala  la  atlaohad  Ui  iIm 
bo  flth  by  iu  ■nlerlot  cdg»,  which  in  eovanid 
In  front  nf  It,  wbilK  iti  poirtarior  odga  onr- 
■oalaa  Iwhiiid  it.  Thia  ananjinuiant  h  DBt 
,hnvnv*r:  fDrtheacalyoDnrlngiaaoiiwtilliai 
r  a  aoTica  (^  baaj  or  otod  onamel  platoo,  soitad 
that  by  their  rntUv  edm.  Booh  aa  atranpi- 
lont  waa  very  eommon  in  tb*  tliihM  otiating  at 
lotinioof  tlio  ooal  fomiati<jn,liul  ia  cow  DiUcb 

Wb«o  «B  conxidiir  that  mniv  tiiao  twrhthlrdi 
4  tha  tarlli'a  wirfam  b  onVDrni!  with  water, 
[ten  to  a  very  pwat  drpth,  and  thai,  aa  tai 
1  ia  known,  ilio  wholo  of  ttaii  elFinrat  la  h»- 
liable  by  tUbea  foach  ■tratnm  haTinn  (nma 
artiuolar  ■potica  brtnod  to  axitt  in  it),  Kula 
Dubt  can  ia  onlortoinxd  tliai  thty  tarta  thu 
toat  DutoMDil*  otjun  of  vvKuliraU'il  animali. 
"heir  miniti-ni  ara  kaiii  up  by  thisr  aursnu  . 
■rlilliy.  Ill*  endffiiifa  baa  b«n  wortlalwid 
1  lay  not  much  trwor  than  toat  mlllhma  U 
PI*  at  a  dnj[lc  dBMH  I  and  in  otbor  >v*eia«Un 


CHAMBERS'S  INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


are  iidapted  to  de- 
.fth8m  living  ohiefty 
invertebrate  inhahi 


also  extreme.  Almost  nil  of  III 
TOUT  xnil  digest  ■nini&l  food,  boh 
on  rruBtacea,  mollusCB,  and  oth 
tantsoT  (he  ocean  ;  Kodotbereliaving  it  Toi'lhelr  especial 
fauction  to  ki'ep  down  the  inordioale  roultiplication  af 
tiisir  own  kind.  Some  of  these  altaiu  it  couaiderable 
■ixe.  The  pike  has  been  fonnd  nineteea  feet  long ;  and 
there  ia  evidence  of  one  having  lived  for  207  years. 
The  sun-fisli  lia*  reached  the  length  of  twenty-five  feetj 
■nd  eowe  raja  and  Bharhs  have  exceeded  forty  feet. 

The  olaHiGcBlion  of  Fiahea  proposed  by  Cavier  i*  pro- 
bably the  best  that,  in  Ibo  present  state  of  our  knoir- 
ledge  of  this  groap,  can  be  adopted.  It  is  obvious  that, 
from  the  peculiarities  of  the  habitnlion  of  these  snimale, 
•nd  llio  vei7  iniperfect  niuiner  in  which  the  depths  of 
tbe  ocean,  over  a  large  part  of  the  earth's  aurbce,  have 
jrel  been  explored,  tt  great  number  of  existing  species 
probably  yut  remain  to  be  discovered.  And  it  is  also 
certain  that  the  number  of  species  formerl/  existing  in 
the  ■ratei's,  and  of  nhich  vc  Lave  at  present  but  very 
Beauty  retnains,  was  considerable,  and  that  their  forms 
often  differed  widely  from  those  familiar  to  ua.  Hence, 
vlion  these  shall  have  been  more  completely  investi- 
gated, it  is  dot  improbable  llial  this  gUrbK! cation  luosi 
be  greatly  modified  in  order  to  include  them. 

and  Cartilagiaoua  Fishes,  the  former  having  a  hard  bony 
skeleton,  and  the  latter  having  one  of  less  firm  oonsis- 
tcDce,  possessing  but  little  caleareous  matter.  The  for- 
mer group  is  divided  into  six  orders,  which  are  prinei- 
pally  characterised  by  the  struoture  and  arrangement 
of  the  tin  rays.  These  are  distinguished  as  eillier  con- 
sisting of  a  single  piece — in  which  case,  whether  uliff  or 
flexible,  they  are  said  to  be  npiaaui-^-or  as  consisting  of 
a  number  of  jointed  pioce?,  divided  at  their  extremities, 
when  tliey  are  called  lefl  or  arliculaled. 

I.  ActmnniTiHroii,  or  fjii ny-Jfnnerf.  In  this  order, 
which  Domains  the  greatest  number  of  ordinary  lisbcs, 
there  are  spinous  rays  in  the  tirsl  or  anterior  part  of 
the  donal  An,  and  sometimes  these  hare  do  connecting 
membrane.  The  anal  fin  has  also  its  first  rays  spinons, 
and  there  is  generally  one  such  ray  in  the  ventml. 

The  three  next  orders  are  all  g^  or  jointed-finned. 


piece,  in  which,  hov 

the  bony  fishes  may  be  di&Iinguiahed 

furrows,  and  holes.  'This  group  con 

distinguished  from  each  other  by  ll; 

the  month  and  the  arrangement  of  the  plk      ] 

7.  CiioininoinuiTaii  Bbjincdiis  Lmssu  [fmi 
CarlilagiDous  Fislies).  In  thestv  emutHf  dl) 
the  Sturgeons,  the  gills  hang  hiti},  and  usH 
with  a  gill-lid  having  a  single  wide  ojwmf^  ■  b 
seons  Fishes. 

In  the  other  two,  the  gills  am  Bi 
edge,  and  there  is  a  Be|uirBle  opening  for  ibtiM 
the  water  that  passes  over  eseh  areli.    ~— ' 
are  termed  CuoKDROT-rERiGii  BiuTiaiiny 
Gilled  Cartilaginaaa  Fishes,  are  ilistinguii 
other  by  tlie  confomiatiou  of  th*  moutli. 

6,  SEUcit,  or  Shatki  and  Auyi.    Hoi 

9.  Ctclostohi  ^Round-Mouthed). 
fleshy  lip,  by  winch  they  adhere  to 
ing  their  food  by  suction,  and  lliis 

bones.     It  ii 

vertebrated 


lishes  of  this  ordi 
I  lowest  fo 


Oidir  t— AcaothaplMTilL 
The  Spiny.finned  Fishes  are  diviiled  bv  CM! 
fifteen  families,  the  most  iniporlanl  of  wbAi| 
be  noticed. 

Pkocids,  the  TVrcA  tribe.  Hkss  art  viA 
roas  in  the  waters  of  all  warm  olitnalo^  ■■■ 
inhabiting  the  riven,  and  others  th>  mii^B 
bodies  are  oblong,  and  eovercd  Willi  Hl4^ 
scales;  and  the  gill -cover*  an  tonthed  al  dM 
They  are  mostly  (Aarocic,  or  have  A«  ndnf  M 
the  peotonil.  Some,  however,  are  jiifHtrjV 
have  (he  ventral  feus  pUced  upon  Us  dil^l 
forwards  than  the  pectorals  ;  and  some  ai  ""^ 
Their  teeth  aro  very  minute,  ai  "  '  ' 
immernus  rows.  Thvir  flesh  ii 
aii,l  «lii,lr-,,r,„.,    Tlii^fiimilyiucMa-alltlieiil 


id  set  cloB  Mp' 


Iguf  all  i.f  tlli-r/ii(7(j/op«Ttif,Mj|*l 
d  of  HipiJemiinljin'  ptctoralSs* 
r  a  intiiil,ranc  Mretchcd  o'trb* 
;^h  in  the  gurnards  are  unconiMM 
r  llii'sc  on  (he  surface  of  tbewtf 
r.n^e  Ihcmselvca  to  the  beifliltf* 
v.  nud  can  sa^peod  Ihenuelvst  ik* 
"w  (.coiiJa,  often  skimming  lifbll] 

^i      r..Li.,..i,herefor  any  lenglkgl 
r.-li:  and  i(  is  -hen  a* 
1  (comnwsljW 
e  simitar  eiaQ 
iken.     ThtyM' 


n,ph^, 


of  a 


iugtr-hki 


Jie  lina 


ilio    s|>inDU8  porta  of  lb(W  Ml 
.  <»itli  H^lcs  as  not  to  be  diri* 


ZOOLOGY.— VERTEBRATA. 


Inl  seas.  One  of  these,  the  C.  roslraitUf  which  has 
ly  proloDged  snout,  has  the  faculty  of  shooting 
Is  with  drops  of  water  projected  frum  the  mouth, 
t  then  seizes  them  as  they  fall.     This  power  is  the 

extraordinary,  as,  according  to  the  laws  of  the 
{Caon  of  light,  the  place  of  the  insect  will  appear 
t  fish  different  from  the  reality,  the  rays  passing 
A  rarer  to  a  denser  medium ;  and  the  drop  must 
lierefore,  he  projected  in  the  line  in  which  the 
appears  to  be,  but  somewhat  below  it.  This 
lah,  which  is  a  native  of  India,  is  often  kept  in 
vmaes  by  the  residents  there,  as  gold-fish  are  in 
onntry,  for  the  purpose  of  affordmg  amusement 

dexterity. 

»  next  family,  Soohberid^  or  tho  Mackerel  tribe, 
m  €ti  very  great  importance  to  man.  It  com- 
.  a  htrge  number  of  genera,  a  vast  collection  of 
m,  and  numberless  individuals.  The  aspect  of  the 
Mm  mackerel^  with  its  spindle-shaped,  beautifully- 
red,  smooth,  and  small-scaled  body,  is  well  known. 
?  rapidly  dies  out  of  water,  and  soon  becomes 
Mackerel  has  been  supposed  to  be  a  migra- 
Ui,  on  account  of  its  appearing  on  our  shores  in 
■•e  shoals  at  particular  epochs.  But  it  may  be 
Kt  all  the  year  round  on  our  coasts,  which  shows 
ft  does  not  wholly  desert  them,  as  is  done  by  the 
"  migrating  triboi.  The  fact  is,  that  it  passes  most 
f  ^ear  in  the  open  sea,  and  that  its  object  in  ap- 
ihuig  the  shore  is  to  deposit  its  spawn  ^  after  which, 

that  have  escaped  being  entrapped  by  the  inge- 

of  man,  return  to  their  former  quarters.     The 
A  and  importance  of  the  mackerel-fishery  of  Bri- 

especially  in  the  south  and  east,  are  well  known. 
mmnsi  is  an  allied  species,  attaining  a  much  greater 
mad  also  valuable  as  an  article  of  food.  This  fre- 
fai  the  MediteiTanean,  and  is  occasionally  seen  on 
shores.  It  sometimes  attains  the  length  of 
or  even  eighteen  feet.  To  this  order  belongs 
e  s^fjiiasy  or  tivord-fish,  distinguished  by  its  long 


Bword-Fiah. 

led  beak.  This  is  a  most  powerful  ofiTensive  weapon, 
with  it  this  fish  attacks  the  largest  inhabitants  of 
Mean.  By  its  high  dorsal  fin  and  expanded  tail, 
able  to  impel  itself  forwards  with  great  force ;  and 
a  attackine  a  large  animal,  it  makes  a  violent  dart 
Ht  it,  quite  transfixing  it  with  its  sword.  It  has 
I  known  in  this  manner  to  drive  its  beak  into  the 
Mrs  of  a  ship,  and,  not  being  able  to  withdraw  it, 
leak  it  off  and  leave  it.  The  sword-fish  abounds 
Ite -Mediterranean,  but  is  less  frequent  in  theAtlan- 
It  is  very  palatable  as  food ;  and  often  attains  the 
of  fifteen  feet.  The  tUny,  of  which  one  species 
ly  prized  by  epicures,  is  another  fish  of  the  same 
It  is  remarkable  for  the  filamentary  prolonga- 
s  from  its  dorsal  fins.  And  lastly  may  be  mentioned 
ctrppfutna,  commonly  known  as  the  dolphin.  This 
I  luge  and  splendidly  coloured  fish,  which  darts 
N^  the  water  hke  a  radiant  meteor,  exhibiting  an 
^ordinary  play  of  colours  when  brilliantly  illumi- 
id.  It  has  long  been  celebrated  for  its  change  of 
or  when  dying.  It  swims  with  great  rapidity,  and 
mj  voraeious,  committing  great  havoc  among  the 
^fish  and  others  of  like  size.  The  influence  of 
t  OB  the  colour  of  animals  is  remarkably  shown  in 
fiff  saperior  brightness  of  the  Indian  Scomberida^ 
a  eontrasted  with  the  blackish  hue  of  those  of 


flf  the  fianiW  Piubtmqinji  labtwiitoi- 


FORMvE,  are  characterised  by  a  very  peculiar  struc* 
ture,  from  which  they  derive  their  designation.  The 
membranes  of  the  pharynx  (or  back  of  the  mouth) 
are  divided  into  small  irregular  leaves,  containing  cells 
among  them,  which  the  fish  can  at  pleasure  fill  with 
water ;  and,  by  ejecting  a  portion  of  this  water,  it  mois* 
tens  its  gills,  and  may  thus  continue  its  re8pii*ation  out 
of  its  proper  element.  By  means  of  this  apparatus, 
which  resembles  that  possessed  by  the  land-crabs,  these 
fishes  are  enabled  to  quit  the  pool  or  rivulet  which  con- 
stitutes their  usual  element,  and  move  to  a  considerable 
distance  over  land.  Such  a  provision  is  especially  de- 
sirable in  tropical  climates,  where  shallow  lakes  are 
often  dried  up  by  a  continued  drought,  and  their  inha- 
bitants must  perish  if  not  enabled  to  migrate.  Tho 
people  of  India,  who  often  witness  the  appearance  of 
these  fishes  where  they  were  known  not  to  exist,  believe 
that  they  fall  from  heaven.  Some  of  them  are  able  not 
only  to  traverse  plane  grounds,  but  can  climb  steep 
banks  or  even  trees  in  the  course  of  their  journeys. 
Of  these  the  most  curious  is  the  anabasy  commonly 
known  as  the  climbing-perch  of  Tranquebar,  which 
climbs  bushes  and  trees  in  search  of  its  prey,  a  species 
of  land-crab,  by  means  of  the  spines  on  its  back  and 
gill-covers. 

The  members  of  the  family  GoBiODiE,  or  Goby  tribe, 
are  known  by  the  thinness  and  flexibility  of  their 
dorsal  spines.  Many  of  them  are  remarkable  for  pro- 
ducing their  young  alive,  the  eggs  being  hatched  within 
the  body  of  the  parent.  This  is  the  case  with  the  blenny, 
of  which  several  species  frequent  the  British  shores, 
living  in  small  troops  among  the  rockp.  They  are  re- 
markably tenacious  of  life,  being  capable  of  being  kept 
a  good  many  days  in  moist  grass  or  moss,  but  they  are 
of  little  value  as  articles  of  food.  The  true  Gobies  are 
chiefly  remarkable  for  the  nesi  which  thev  construct 
among  the  sea-weed  for  the  protection  of  their  young, 
which  was  observed  by  the  ancients.  They  prefer  a 
clayey  bottom,  in  which  they  excavate  canals,  and  in 
these  they  pass  the  winter. 

The  next  family,  Pbctorales  Pedunculati,  derives 
its  name  from  the  peculiar  structure  of  the  pectoral 
fins,  which  have  a  kind  of  wrist  formed  by  the  elonga- 
tion of  the  bones  to  which  they  are  attached.  This  con- 
formation gives  these  fishes  a  very  strange  appearance, 
and  enables  them  to  leap  suddenly  up  in  the  water  in 
pursuit  of  their  prey,  and  even  to  leap  over  the  mud. 
In  many  of  them  tho  skeleton  is  demi-cartilaginous. 
One  of  the  most  curious  is  the  lophius,  or  Jishingfrogf 
of  the  British  seas,  which  is  met  with  chiefly  on  muddy 
shores.  It  derives  its  name  in  part  from  its  wide  gap- 
ing mouth,  and  in  part  from  the  peculiar  manner  m 
which  it  angles  for  its  prey.  It  has  some  curious  append- 
ages to  its  nead,  which  terminate  in  long,  round,  and 
rather  brilliant  filaments,  having  a  resemblance  to 
worms.  The  animal  lurks  in  the  mud,  and  puts  these 
appendages  in  vibration ;  they  are  mistaken  for  worms 
by  small  fishes,  which  they  attract,  and  these  are  gulped 
down  the  capacious  swallow  of  the  lophius.  To  such  an 
extent  is  this  voracity  carried,  that  the  angler  (as  it  is 
sometimes  called)  is  often  an  article  of  value  for  the  live 
fish  which  it  has  in  its  stomach,  although  its  own  flesh 
is  worth  but  little.  There  is  an  allied  genus,  the  chi- 
ronectes,  of  which  a  species  abounds  on  the  north  coast 
of  Australia.  When  the  tide  ebbs  far  back  in  the  dry 
season,  these  frog-fishes  are  so  abundant,  and  capable 
of  taking  such  vigorous  leaps,  that  those  who  have 
visited  these  places  have  taken  them  at  first  sight  for 
birds.  The  fishes  of  tliis  genus  can  inflate  their  large 
stomachs  with  air,  in  the  manner  of  the  Tetrodons. 

Order  n. — Malaoopterygil  Abdominalea. 

This  order,  consisting  of  soft-spined  Fishes  which  have 
the  ventral  fins  under  the  abdomen,  contains  five  fami- 
lies, all  of  which  are  highly  interesting  to  the  naturalist. 

1.  The  CYPRiNiDiE,  or  Carp  tribe,  are  all  fresh- water 
fishes.  They  have  the  mouth  shallow,  the  jaws  feeble, 
and  very  often  without  teeth,  but  the  pharynx  is  strongly 
toothed.     They  aro  among  the  least  carnivorous  of 


CllAMBERS'S  INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


BAm.  rorfing  ehieflj  on  eeeda,  the  roots  of  pUnta, 
and  deeompowng  vegetaUi  mBtler.  The  cgnunon  carp 
ia  imported  into  Eogluid  Cram  tha  varmar  parts  of 
Europe ;  it  ihrivM  Iwtler  io  pomli  or  Ukea  Xiaa  in 
rivers,  it  feeds  on  iDsecIs  and  womu,  &s  well  as  on 
Tcgelableo,  &nd  it  is  very  teniiciouB  of  life,  fio  tbal  it  ia 
eaailj  nanaporl^d  frum  plaw  to  place 

9.  Tho  fiunily  lisoaD*,  or  Fikt  trib*,  eontuDB  the 
moat  Tonciau  freth-waler  HabtiB,  ae  well  aa  aevenl  im- 
poHant  maiitut  apecies.  The;  are  diDtiaguiahed  bf  the 
abaBDoe  of  btty  matter  in  the  dors&lfiD  (which  exists  in 
tbfl  SahnOD  tribe),  and  by  the  poaitioo  of  this  oppoeite  to 
the  anal  fin.  'tbapikia  very  destructive  of  the  smaller 
Ealies  ID  the  panda  aud  riveis  in  ithich  it  exiata,  and 
aouieiiiDcB  altsina  a  oonaidersible  aixe,  weighing  between 
thirty  aud  forty  pounds.  Tiie  gar-JLth,  or  lea-piki,  'a 
an  allied  Epeciss,  frequenting  the  British  Bhores  and 
BtretchlDg  utta  the  Arctic  regiona.  Somo  of  tliia  kind 
have  been  known  to  attain  the  length  of  eight  feet,  and 
to  bile  very  acveruly;  hence  they  may  be  conaidered 
aa  the  aharks  of  nortbern  aeaa.  To  thta  family  be- 
longs the  moat  common  of  the  flying-fiah,  though,  aa 
already  Btated,  it  is  not  ^e  only  one  which  deserves 
the  liiie.  The  ezoeatui  u  at  once  distinguished  from 
the  rest  of  the  fatuily  by  the  iiamenae  aUe  of  its  | 
taral  fins,  by  the  impulse  of  which  upon  the  water 
enabled  to  riae  into  the  air ;  but  it  can  acarcely  be  said 
lojfV,  aince  it  ia  unable  to  do  more,  without  agjun  dip 
ping  into  the  walar,  than  partially  to  sUBtAJn  its«lf,  and 
to  direct  the  movement  to  which  tha  impetus  wog  given 
at  the  moment  of  4uittiug  the  water.  Nevertheless,  the 
common  flyiog-flsh  can  leap  more  than  two  hundred 
varda  in  diatance,  and  upwards  of  twenty  leet  id  heigh 


They  a 


it  uDfrc<)Uenlly  found  upon  the  decks  of 


They  return  U 
opUebM,  and  ar*  fallowed  by  ll 
from  the  e«gB  Ihey  have  deponted. 
turn,  ascendtfae  riven  fur  the  mbw  PB^cb^ 
undcralood  to  resort  lo  those  in  whieb  art  • 
duced.  The  Irani  appeani  to  van  undl  n  i 
colour,  aeeordiug  to  Uih  climat*  and  othir  eml 
its  reridenee,  no  that  it  ia  didicult  to  di<tlii|dt 


if  food  it 


TbaU 


pau.  This  power  appears  to  be  conferred  upon  them 
to  enable  them  to  escape  from  the  pursuit  uf  the  Cor}' 
phsoa ;  bol,  in  avoiding  one  enemy,  tht'y  put  themselvea 
in  the  way  of  others,  for  voracious  birds  watch  for  them 
and  seize  them  as  theyriao  into  the  air.  They  famish 
an  excellent  article  of  food,  and  are  very  abundant 
the  neighbourhood  of  some  tropical  iaiaiida ;  individuals 
have  oceasionally  appeared  as  alraggli 

""3.  'ilie  SiLBRin*  are  di>tinguL-h( ■!  f 

oftheorderby  the  want  of  true, o:.!.-     >■ 

naked  skin,  or  large  bony  plateN.     [I 

genus  Silurua  inhabit  the  rivers  "I    ■■  1. 

lii.'j'  hive  a  sir'i»Kn>iiieinfrontot  the  .[..i  -. '.  n.i,  -■  h:.  h 

.i<<  ii<<  ;i  formidable  wenpuu;  and  tliC 

!".,i.  I  !>)' it  arc  reputed  (but  probobly 

ir  <     ,  ,    i-'iinus.     One  ipoeies,  belonging 

ll.  ll      ■■  I ,-    I'  ■'•^jileriirtit,  an  iidiubitaut  of  the 

Nile  liiiilurHii.'  lixri'  .if  Ueutral  Africa,  has  electric 
to  those  of  the  torpedo  and  g^'m- 


ing  to  it  resemble  the  Salmonidic 
but  differ  in  baring  no  fatty  matter  in  Hi*  i* 
They  chiefly  inhabit  the  aeaa  of  the  Itopan 
The  AfTrinjr,  which  periodically  visili  on  ri 
Buch  immenso  ehoals,  waafornn-rtj-ta^nMlls 

tuialake,  the  iish  beinj:  almost  unLnuwa  (bAt 
appearing  on  Uie  southero  coaat  uf  Bntata  (■ 
nnrtbem.  The  fact  a  rather  that  tlwli«r% 
mackerel  and  many  other  tlah,  usually  Una  111 
ocean,  and  resorts  to  the  ne«ral  COUt  1»ti 
spawn.  There  are  many  well-known  sfiri*^ 
but  little  from  the  herring,  which  frnpi^ 
loealitiea.  Thus,  the  pileAant  it  cui^  ^ 
the  coast  of  Cornwall  and  other  alion*  H  A 
ward  of  those  on  which  the  herring  BioM  aba 
lorff iriB  ia  taken  on  tbe  weM  coast  of  KHmet  il 
Mediterranean,  "here  the  herrinft  nrvor  afp 
ipral,  iehile-6ait,  i>livl,  and  other  Uiilvfa  qsM 
to  tlie  aame  family ;  as  does  also  the  wuAH|vn 
for  ita  rich  and  peculiar  ftamur,  whidi  it  tkn 
the  Mediterranean.  Other  epveie*  inbilill 
riean,  African,  aad  Indian  aeas  and  rrvaniU 
less  abondacl  than  those  already  mentfoddL 

Order  m.— Mdioopla}!!!  Sl*-Btltll« 
Tbe  soft-rayed  Fishes,  which  ba*«  Ike  M 

brought  forwards  beneath,  or  even  ia  adnM 
pectoral, are  divided  into  three  families,  nietf 
equally  important  to  man  witb  the  last,  if  Ml 
Tills  ia, 

.1,  the  Cod  tribe.    The  Ibbea  of  tl 


ly  known  by  llie 

soflnesa  of  aU  IbM 

uj:  Ilic  venlrala 

nscrted  under  the  ik 

.  riic firealcrnu 

iiber  live  in  colder* 

.dfurnialiamoa 

importaulaitickofll 

propel 

*.  TliB  fibbea  of  the  erJi 
folrnoni  and  Irouli,  are  i  ery  . 
univetBslIy, diflused  o'-i'i- 11  - 
ctiufined  lo  fresh 


the 


ir  lives  in  Ihe  sea,  I.11L  . 

■'^^  ?''',T '';-""■'"  ■■■ " 

1  III  The  ddrtal  tiu,  lium  J'.ul  <,i 
1  -li.^a]ipcar.  All  of  lliis  family 
V  ]i3li.licB  when  young,  as  occurs 
It-!.    Miiiiy  reniain  pernianeuily  spulti 


aim 


eemed  aa  food.     The  . 

asctnding  (hu  rivi^i-sfti 
the  purpose  of  spnun 
injl  ttl  aeosoiia  varying 
with  the  dimiilo.  The 
cfforta  which  tlipy  inako  Riluion. 

to  orereome  difficulties  in  the  aecciit  aro  very  gi 
they  will  not  only  swim  against  powerful  slreura-", 
wilt  leap  op  cnscadce  of  conaidrniblo  eUvition.  B.nd 
C&oir  way  lo  tbe  troolis  and  amall  lakes  uf  loll;  n 
VM 


lo  llie  palate,  and  their  numbers  (owing  to  da 
urdinary  reproductive  power)  exlremelyabui 
cod  ih  nearly  the  largest  of  the  family,  bit  > 
surpassed  by  tho  liriff,  which  is  commonly  In 
lo  four  feet  lung :  both  these  are  eepnklh  nl 
their  excellence  when  aultvd.  The  AwMsrfisi 
»pei' its,  nt  arty  allied  to  the  cod;  for  eating  ia 
slale.it  iaperliaps  the  moat  delicate  of  the  wIb 
MniTy  oilier  spi'eics  nre  Useful  to  mkn,  oe* 
l;,r--.-.iii.iiit..T-  in  i-,irij,.iilnr  localitie*    Sm* 

( "  '■.  ill.'  fMoti,  the  A<ut( 

l.i^li  southern  latita 

M^vr^),  the  rockting,! 

I  ~  'I..  IL  '.I....  as  food,  th»e  bh 

' .    ■:  r.  t.j   [h;  .,d  ubuined  from  ik 

■'.  i..wrjMT»ioeabIeiDlho»flfc 

■■■rA  family  is  that  of  Pi-EDwm! 

'      /'L.rir..(rr  tribe.     The  fnrm  if  lh 

'"'I  I'lily  fi-ir  the  extreDM  flatMwi 

iriili,  l.ui  I'll- ii™  d.^KeJciiey  in  syromewy.    Hi 

Mjrljuv:. — oiii;  of  which  (in  tbe  ordinary  p£«il 

li^ll  dining  lifi')  is  above,  aud  the  other  DeW 

rc;alilj  llieiwoii'/''sof  thetiiih,ditferingiB«nii 

■  - --      Uolli  the  eyes  are  placed  on  I 


jally  Tuoeh  d 


peMonJfiM 
.,„  ....^  v,.iiGr  hand,  the  dorsal  fin,  which  rua 

.  \  u^  1^b\i.\ci«!i.  ci^^tn,  »yn«;QDds  with  the  •»!) 


ZOOLOGY.— VERTEBRATA. 


ler,  and  with  whidi  the  rentralB  are  some- 
So  that,  when  we  look  at  the  fiah  in  its 
1,  its  body  appears  more  symmetrteal  than 
These  fishes  are  destitute  of  air-bladder, 
jaent  the  bottom  of  the  sea,  from  which 
rise  far.  The  colour  of  their  upper  surface 
spends  doselv  with  that  of  the  ground  on 
d ;  and  thus  they  escape  the  observation  of 
s,  and  are  unnoticed  by  the  small  fishes  on 
irey.  Individuals  are  occasionally  found, 
vhich  both  sides  are  alike ;  these  are  called 
t  is  usually  the  dark  side  which  is  doubled. 
f  this  family  are  found  along  the  shores  of 
mtries,  and  are,  generally  speaking,  whole- 
reeable  as  food.  The  form  and  aspect  of 
;  species  exhibits  little  rariation.  The 
boi,  brill,  plaice,  dab,  and  8ole,  are  the  chief 
ir  own  coasts ;  the  halibut  is  a  very  large 
ning  the  length  of  six  or  seven  feet,  and 

0  lbs.,  occasionally  taken  in  the  British 
her  species  inhabit  the  Mediterranean. 
tooBOU,  so  named  from  having  their  ven- 
led  into  a  sucker  or  disk,  are  the  last  fa- 
>rder.   By  this  curious  provision,  the  fishes 

this  family  have  the  power  of  attaching 
to  rocks  and  other  hard  substances,  and 

and  find  their  food  in  situations  where 
species  would  be  swept  away  by  the  cur- 
r. 

Order  IY^-Malscopter7gU  Apoda. 

in  which  the  ventral  fins  are  wanting  form 
oral  fiunily,  the  Muilbmdjs,  or  Eel  tribe. 

1  lengthened  in  form,  have  the  spine  ex- 
ible,  the  skin  thick  and  soft,  and  the  scales 
ble.  In  most  of  them  the  external  gill-aper- 
ry  small,  and  open  very  far  back ;  by  which 
t  they  are  enabled  to  keep  the  gills  moist 
ne  when  out  of  water,  whilst  the  roundness 
ty  of  their  bodies  facilitate  their  motion 
Many  of  them  inhabit  rivers,  whilst  others 

ely  marine.  The  eel  is  the  kind  most  abun- 
ain.  The  conger  is  a  marine  eel,  frequent- 
)pean  seas ;  it  is  one  of  the  largest  of  the 
I  from  four  to  six  feet  long,  and  as  thick  as 
The  gymnotiu,  or  electric  eel,  is  a  native 
I  American  rivers.  It  attains  the  length  of 
feet,  and  communicates  shocks  so  powerful 
d  horses  have  been  stunned  by  them.  This 
I  voluntary,  and  can  be  sent  in  a  particular 
'  even  through  the  water,  the  fish  in  which 
*  stunned  by  its  shocks.  By  giving  these  it 
hausted,  and  requires  rest  and  nourishment 
1  renew  them. 

Order  Y^— LophobranchU. 

r  is  a  very  small  one,  containing  but  one 
hich  thegenera  are  few.  Their  appearance 
uliar.  The  tufted  gills  are  covered  by  a 
ilum ;  but  this  is  bound  down  b v  membranes 
so  that  there  is  only  one  small  hole  for  the 
ape.  The  body  is  covered,  not  with  small 
rith  shields  or  plates,  which  often  give  it  an 
n.  In  general  they  are  of  small  size,  and 
3ut  flesh.  The  synanalhus  possesses  a  long 
at ;  it  is  peculiar  mr  the  protection  which 
its  young,  which  resembles  that  provided 
supiid  Mammalia.  The  e^;s  are  conveyed 
»f  pouch  under  the  body  of  the  male,  and 
I  tnere,  the  young  fry  afterwards  finding 
at.  Some  of  these  are  found  in  the  British 
also  the  hippocampi,  commonly  called  sea- 
1  the  resemblance  of  the  upper  part  of  the 
iaily  when  the  dead  specimen  bends  in  dry- 
head  and  neck  of  a  horse  in  miniature. 
I  prehensile,  and  they  climb  or  hold  on  to 
f  marine  plants  by  its  means.  Some  of  this 
JuuMi  destitute  of  fins,  having  none  but  the 

495 


Order  YL—PleotognathL 

This  order,  the  last  of  the  osseous  Fishes,  approaches 
the  cartilaginous  in  many  points  of  its  organisation; 
prindpally,  however,  in  the  slow  ossification  of  the 
skeleton,  and  the  imperfect  structure  of  the  month. 
They  derive  their  name,  as  already  stated,  from  the 
union  of  the  upper  jaw  to  the  skull ;  so  that  its  motion 
is  obtained,  not  from  a  distinct  joint,  but  by  the  mere 
flexibility  of  the  half-ossified  cartilages.  The  gill-lid  is 
concealed  under  the  thick  skin,  with  only  a  snutll  open- 
ing ;  the  ribs  are  scarcely  developed ;  and  there  are  no 
true  ventral  fins.    This  order  contains  two  fiuniliee. 

1.  The  Gtmmodontes,  or  Naked-TooUied  Fishes,  are 
distinguished  by  having  the  jaws  covered  with  a  sub- 
stance resembling  ivory,  arranged  in  small  plates  (which 
are  reproduced  as  soon  as  destroyed  by  use),  and  really 
representing  united  teeth.  They  live  on  crustaeea  and 
sea-weed,  and  their  flesh  b  not  palatable.  Some  species 
are  reputed  to  be  poisonous,  at  least  at  particular  sea- 
sons. The  most  remarkable  species  of  this  familv  are 
the  spinous  globe-fishes,  diodon  and  tetraodon  (their 
techmcal  names  being  derived  from  the  apparent  divi- 
sion of  their  jaws  into  two  and  four  tootn-like  pieces 
respectiveM,  which  have  the  power  of  blowing  them- 
selv^  up  Uke  balloons,  by  filling  with  air  a  liu*ge  sao 
which  nearly  surrounds  the  abdomen.  When  thus 
inflated,  they  roll  over  with  the  belly  upwards,  and  lose 
all  power  of  directing  their  course ;  but  they  are  re- 
mariuibly  defended  by  spines  over  their  whole  surface, 
^hich  are  erected  as  they  are  inflated.  They  are 
mostly  inhabitants  of  warm  seas,  but  a  specimen  is 
occasionally  drifted  to  our  coasts.  The  sun-JUh  has  a 
body  of  somewhat  similar  form,  but  incapable  of  infla- 
tion ;  the  tail  is  so  short  that  it  looks  like  the  anterior 
half  of  a  fish  cut  in  two  in  the  middle.  Some  species 
attain  an  immense  size.  One  which  is  occasionally 
taken  on  the  British  coast  has  been  known  to  weigh 
800  lbs.,  and  others  are  much  larger. 

2.  The  second  family,  Sojebodebmi,  contains  fishes 
which  are  remarkable  for  their  very  hard  and  granu- 
lated skins.  They  have  a  prolonged  muzzle,  with  dis- 
tinct teeth.  Their  skin  is  covered  with  scales  in  some 
species,  and  in  others  very  rough,  like  a  file,  whence 
they  are  commonly  termed  Jile-fithes,  They  are  prin- 
cipally inhabitants  of  warm  seas,  hving  near  rocks  or 
on  the  surface  of  the  water,  their  brilliant  colours 
sparkling  in  the  sunshine  like  those  of  the  Chsetodons. 

DIVISION  II. — CHONDBOPTEBTOII  OR  CARTILAGINOUS  FISHES. 

The  skeleton  of  these  fishes  is  not  entirely  devoid  of 
calcareous  matter,  but  this  is  disposed  in  separate 
grains,  and  does  not  form  fibres  or  plates.  Hence  the 
hardest  portions  of  the  framework  remain  quite  fiexible. 
The  freedom  of  motion  of  the  spinal  column,  which  is 
characteristic  of  fishes  in  general,  is  here  still  further 
increased,  in  many  species  at  least,  by  the  continuation 
of  the  sac  containing  gelatinous  matter  (which  in  the 
osseous  fifihes  was  simply  interposed  between  each  pair 
of  vertebne)  through  the  whole  colunm,  the  bodies  of 
the  vertebne  being  pierced  in  the  centre  so  as  to  form 
a  continuous  tube.  This  division  contains  two  subor- 
dinate groups:  in  the  first,  the  gills  are  attached  by 
one  edge  only,  hanging  in  fringes  as  in  the  osseous 
fishes ;  in  the  second,  uiey  are  so  attached  to  the  skin 
by  the  second  edges,  that  the  water  cannot  escape  from 
their  intervals  except  by  holes  in  the  surface.  Accord- 
ingly, instead  of  having  a  single  pair  of  large  aper- 
tures, with  a  valve-like  cover,  or  operculum,  behind 
the  head,  they  have  as  many  apertures  on  each  side 
as  there  are  arches  of  gills.  The  first  series  contains 
but  one  order,  and  the  second  the  other  two. 

Order  TIL — ChondropterygU  Branohlls  Liberb. 

This  order  contains  only  one  family,  the  Sturiones, 
or  Sturgeon  tribe.  In  many  of  its  characters,  as  well  as 
in  the  cUspoeition  of  the  gills,  it  is  intermediate  between 
the  Osseous  Fishes  and  the  Shark  tribe,  which  may  be 


CHAMRERS'S  DTFOllMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


ri^«rdcJ  M  the  t)-p«t  of  the  daiilogimjus  division. 
Mnrecuus  are  ehi*llj  riter  fish,  »nd  from  llieir  l«rp>, 
uac  viv-t  numbers,  nnd  the  qiuiiiUly  of  food  ftoit  other' 
inip'ii-laiil  ijrodacw  they  sfford,  ore  eMrtniplj  Tuluoble 
ti)  man.  Tlio  cuinmoa  sturgi^on  of  the  Briuvli  ahoreii 
ii  about  bin  f«t  lorg,  aad  its  Heab  b  Bili*«tthiil  Eka 
vual.  Tba  ri»r*  ttlling  into  tin)  llUck  khd  CaitcAah 
ScM,  bu*eTfT,  i^roiiuce  eevumJ  other  biiccIm,  of  wliith 
the  Urgest  not  unfraquenily  attains  the  lur.gth  of  lift«n 
toot,  one  individual  being  reoordedas  Imvirn  weighed 
SUOO  \ba.  The  roeof  llic  gturgeoD  furniabH  theoviiu' 
■0  much  est««nied  in  Huuiii ;  and  ilR  air-bUdder  fur- 
nishes ieiuglisa.  __  ^ 

The  Mciioii  of  CnoMnwRpjiTtTiT  Buun.mw  Prtwir 
divided  into  two  orden,  the  tirtl  having  lefth,  and  llic 
BMond  having  the  mouth  formed  uito  a  aackar, 
Onlor  Tin-— ScTmIiH. 

Thi«  order  oolyeomprities  one  family,  ihftt  ef  Sharki 
and  Hagi,  A  grenl  mcl»joorpho»i»  hero  Uikea  place  in 
tiio  condition  of  the  bones  uf  (he  tnouth,  thoae  which 
■re  eomiimnlj  termed  the  ia*«,  in  which  [he  teeth  wo 
flxtd.  being  very  different  la  pwitinn  and  □faaraatei  in 
MHow  lisbes,  and  tlie  true  jambaneB  not  being  Iivre 
davuloped.  This  tribo  ia  diatimcuialwd  from  Ahor  fislice 
by  many  pvculiiiritiei ;  in  Kveral  niMnbers  vf  it  tlie 
yeuugure  iirodueedaiive,  the  eggs  buing  hatched  within 
111*. body  of  tha  inreuti  and  inuUion  the  ugpiaraeu- 
oluMd  ID  a  peculiar  boriiy  eaaing,  wliioh  lis*  tfttn  lung 
Undrtl-Ilka  appenjagca.  that  cmI  rewod  «iid  altacG 
them  to  other  bodiei.  This  is  the  anas  with  tiie  oggs  ut 
the  eummun  dog-fith  ut  our  coant,  vulguljr  knows  u 
ta-ptinn.  Tl>e  !5luvrka  niiwh  nwunblc  Dr<iiUAry  lUhea 
iu  uiiir  lunn,  having  lbs  BtiUopcning*  on  the  Dides  of 
tb  iMttii,  nnd  the  (he  cyw  oa  the  Bid«  of  the  head,  iu 
•  Ji  of  which  reapceu  tlie  Bays  difrer  from  lliein. 
e  dny-jWi  of  tlie  Briliali  CMits  diffees  but  alightly 
-'     -    e  aharka,  and  is,  in  its  way,  o^ually 

The  urhilt  ihark  it  the  moat  celebnted  apcciea  of  the 
tribe,  being,  from  ita  size  niid  vormcitx,  tho  terror  i 
'S  in  the  leaa  it  inhabito.     tl  frequents  Harm 


like  thnt  of  the  aharki,  but  Ifaa  MMM  b  «tl 
,(hB  bhulB  uf  •  twprd,  with  atmoc  aod  —WiM 
apIiMe  on  Mh  iMgn.  With  titw  fomid^ 
the  fish,  whicli  ■uinelinin  allutia  Ilia  Initi 
twelve  to  fiftcon  teel,  will  altaek  tlie  tarteiit  • 
inlficldrcfd^lji'tDnl*.  ^d  tk«*JiiUf  VlWliI 
Lh0  angel fiA-of  our  «wu  ooi^D^  wUcli  Am 
to  tlie  rsyi  in  ita  genenl  alraeUiro  and  u| 
eycB  are  aituoted  »n  the  back  or  BpVer  (on 
head  ;  t1i«  boity  i«  broad  anJ  flatteovd  hnvfe" 
the  peetorai  riiw  widrijr*(Baii<tn).  It  avmtn 
to  the  IcDglh  of  Kven  or  ei^t  ftvl ;  Ua  apt 


anpalaUble. 

The  Rayt  tn  lets  numeroua  dias  l^S 
abound  rather  in  temp^^tc  llian  in  \t 
are  eharaclcrised  by  tbc  extmae  Iwr 
of.thf  )iodT,  in  which,  however,  lliex 
MeuTonecbhi)  any  want  of  latenl  fj 
aides  aru  eijiaudtd  hurliontally,  and  iuum 
expanded  and  fleah)'  peetoni  An*  to  funn  am 
oui  surface.  The  eyes  are  placed  on  U«  M 
■urfaeo,  whilst  th«  mmitb,  DoMrilf^  ana  gft 
am  lieiow.  To  tbia  group  baiuns  tin  r«i  • 
(An-uioeiii  and  0(1)111  Hiwoirai  hattiianiitip 
uf  ail  ia  ibH  lar]itji>,ut  nlxari^  r*J.  tT-fi-''T1l 
thaChanud  coast  of  Eilgluid,  but  moniL 
(he  >Iedilerraocuui.  Tbo  alaetnc  appaiatiai 
siiailar  itructure  with  thM  of  tJie  gytmaltt, 
di>|<oaad  ia  tl)o  spaee  bet»-ueti  thn  peqliaah 
hetid  and  gilU.  Iha  ahoi'ta  givia  by  lliicU 
.  -jbeniunhiugaa  iImjm  of  lt»(] 


(heir 


moa>3  ai 


prey  wiliwut  Ihtnii.  Timit 
nyb  ia  »huloaoiiicv  and  liiat  of  niuat  ifMiM  i 
u  food.  The  akin  of  aooie  of  tlicia  U  (mptni 
arts  for  pelishing,  and,  fnuu  (hat  of  olliai^Ni 

The  third  order  of  llie  CactilaginOM  P^tt 
lul  of  the  gIoois  is  d<       ' '  ' 

^Jl■gnJli^atioll.     Tlify  lake  tlioi 

ijajilatiua  uf  the  mouth  to  tlie  purpoi..    .  _ 

IS  Icaiiafurmatiou  iulo  a  round  fleaky  disk,  b 

piiJ  opening  in  the  centre,  and  the  c 

'v  a  ring  cniiiposed  of  tlie  cartUi 

oKctlier.     Tlio  spiiuil  column  losei 

iiiii  verlebriv,  tlie  apace  e1si.'»hcre  eeoqW. 

nd  from  end  lo  end  byaa 

tube  filled  with  a  amdlagiaMi  I 

gbcr  species,  preMuiCa  earljh^ 

H  hicli  are  llie   rudinicota  sT  <t 

lower,  there  ia  no  rCHtiga  of  ikw 

lundmtbsM 

ida.    The  peclursl  aa  weU  m  Ikl 


double-headed  hatiiniei',  wi 

E-KreoiJiy.     The  priiKif 
iiiUiFCftiug  ^vniia.     I 


CHAMBERS'S 

NFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 

CONDUCTED  BY  WILUAM  AND  ROBERT  CHAMBERS,   EDITORS  OF  CHAMBERS'S 
EDINBURGH  JOURNAL,  EDUCATIONAL  COURSE,   ftc. 


[BER  32. 


New  and  Improved  Series. 


Price  l^d. 


Z  O  O  L  O  G  Y— (Continued.) 


SUBKINODOM—A  RTICULA  TA. 

i  the  Vertebrata  we  might  paap,  in  descending  the 
ftl  icale,  either  to  the  Mollnsca  or  the  Articulata, 
of  fvhicli  exhibit  some  points  of  approximation 
them.  In  both  we  meet,  as  in  the  Vertebrata, 
Tcrr  highly  organised  as  well  as  very  simply  con- 
ied  beings.  In  both  we  find  animals  much  superior 
B  lowest  Vertebrata ;  and  in  both,  also,  we  iind 
ee  which  are  in  many  respects  below  the  highest 
»ta.  It  is  the  necessary  consequence  of  a  natural 
igeroent,  whieh  aims  at  grouping  together  the 
pent  forms  of  living  beings  according  to  the  type 
an  on  which  they  are  constructed,  that  such  should 
le  case.  Neitlicr  of  these  two  sub-kingdoms  can 
Marded  as  in  all  respects  superior  to  the  other. 
hagh  development  of  the  locomotive  power  in  tho 
nuita  strikmgly  contrasts  with  its  usually  slight 
Hsion  by  the  MoUusca.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
lUve  and  nutritive  systems  hi  tho  Mollnsca  ai*e 
li  more  complex,  and  attain  a  higher  organisation ; 
lat  the  heart,  for  example,  of  the  Tunicata  is  as 
ntni  in  its  action  on  the  circulating  fluid  as  that  of 
lushest  Articulata.  On  the  whole,  however,  the 
iiuata  sliould  be  regarded  as  ranking  above  the 
hna  in  the  animal  scale,  since  it  is  in  the  animal 
■rt  that  the  former  have  the  superiority, 
ht  general  character  of  the  serii  h  lins  been  already 
ti  as  being  the  jointed  or  articulated  character  of 
rikrieton  or  hard  portion  of  the  atructure,  and  the 
iHore  of  the  whole  body  in  this.  Nothing  can  be 
ii  in  the  MoUusca  at  all  approaching  in  character  to 
■liell  of  a  lobster  or  the  homy  ca«o  of  the  beetle. 
^the  peculiarity  c>f  tho  pkelcton  in  the  Articulata, 
St  not  merely  encloses  tho  body,  bnt  is  prolonged 
the  appendages  for  locomotion,  where  they  cxibt; 
Qko  portions  of  it  which  cover  these  are  alfO  jointed, 
tile  sake  of  conferring  upon  them  the  requisite 
^tty.  This  structure  is  more  apparent,  however, 
lOe  eases  than  in  others.  In  the  lowci-t  animals 
>%  series,  where  there  arc  no  appendages  for  loco- 
^  and  where  all  movements  are  effected  by  the 
itself,  this  is  endowed  with  great  flexibility,  and 
^liole  envelope  is  so  soft  that  the  division  into  seg- 
ft  can  scarcely  be  recognised.  This  is  the  case, 
kaisple,  in  the  leech  and  earthwonn.  The  articu- 
^uuraeter  is  most  apparent  in  the  Centipede  tribe, 
%  the  segments  are  all  of  nearly  equal  size,  and 
^  each  possesses  a  short  pair  of  legs,  which  are 
%dhrca  also  articulated.  But  in  the  highest  classes 
tit  sab-kingdom  we  again  lose  the  appearance  of 
i^ision  into  segments,  from  an  opposite  cause — 
fenwdidation  of  several  rings  into  one  piece.  In 
ortton  as  the  locomotive  power  is  more  intrusted 
m  extmnitiesy  so  does  it  become  unnecessary  that 
«iiiik  ahonld  possess  much  flexibility ;  and  in  tlie 
9  nroportioii  does  it  become  necessary  that  the 

497 


portion  of  it  from  which  arise  the  muscles  of  those  ex- 
tremities should  be  very  flrmly  framed.  Accordingly, 
the  part  of  the  body  behind  the  head,  which  is  called 
the  thorax,  and  from  which  the  legs  and  wings  of  Insects, 
and  the  principal  walking  legs  of  Crustacea,  have  their 
origin,  very  commonly  appears  as  if  composed  of  one 
piece,  although  it  is  really  made  up  of  three  or  more 
segments,  each  one  of  which  gives  origin  to  a  pair  of 
members. 

The  Articulata  arc  almost  invariably  of  small  size ; 
and  the  bulk  of  their  bodies  is  made  up,  not  by  their 
digestive  and  nutritive  apparatus,  but  by  the  mu&clcs 
which  move  it.  It  is  only  in  those  which  approach  the 
MoUusca  in  the  vegetative  nature  of  their  existence, 
that  we  find  any  considerable  dimensions  attained.  As 
the  MoUusca  are  an  essentially  aquatic  group,  so  are 
the  Articulata  principally  adapted  to  atmospheric  respi- 
ration ;  and  the  most  active  among  them  can  even  quit 
the  suifaco  of  the  ground  and  mount  up  into  the  air. 
We  find  their  respiratory  apparatus  constructed,  there- 
fore, upon  an  op}x>site  plan.  Instead  of  the  blood  being 
sent  into  external  prolongations  of  the  surface — the 
giUs— to  meet  tho  air  contained  in  the  surrounding 
fluid,  the  air  is  introduced  into  the  body  to  meet  the 
blood,  this  being  distributed  on  the  sides  of  cavities  or 
tubes  into  which  it  enters.  In  Insects  these  tubes  have 
a  very  complex  and  beautiful  distribution  through  the 
body. 

The  Articulata  exhibit  a  peculiarity  in  the  nervous 
system,  which  often  enables  the  real  character  of 
doubtful  animals  to  be  distinguished.  A  double  cord 
runs  along  the  centre  of  the  lower  surface  of  the  ani- 
mal, studded  with  knots  or  ganglia  at  regular  intervals, 
which  are  so  many  centres  from  which  the  nerves  pass 
ofl'  to  the  different  segments.  The  head,  also,  has  its 
ganglia,  in  which  the  double  cord  terminates  anteriorly. 
Where  the  members,  however,  are  not  uniformly  dis- 
tributed along  the  whole  body,  but  are  concentrated  to 
one  party  as  in  Insects,  Arachnida,  and  the  higher  Crus- 
tacea, we  observe  a  corresponding  concentration  of  tho 
ganglia  in  that  region.  The  degree  of  this  concentra- 
tion indicates  the  elevation  of  the  animal  in  the  series. 

The  following  classes  must  be  arranged  in  the  arti- 
culated scries,  though  in  some  of  them  tlie  character- 
istic structure  is  very  indistinct : — 

An.nblida,  or  Worm  tribe.  In  these  the  body  is  pro- 
longed, without  any  distinct  appendages  for  locomotion. 
The  habitation  is  usually  aquatic,  though  sometimes 
terrestriaL  The  division  into  segments  is  not  very  dis- 
tinct, the  entire  skin  being  soft. 

Myriapoda,  or  Centipede  tribe.  These  have  also  a 
prolonged  body,  but  it  is  provided  with  legs ;  and  the 
articulation  of  the  covering  both  of  the  b<Kly  and  legs 
is  very  distinct. 

IivsBCTS,  which  are  distinguished  in  their  perfect  state 
by  the  possession  of  one  or  two  pairs  of  wings ;  by  tho 
restriction  of  the  legs,  whieh  are  never  more  than  six 


CHAMBEHS'S  INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


nerer  Icfla  than  te 


in  iiamber,  to  (liQ  tliornx  ;  nnd  by  tlie  iJituiou  uf  the 
iradk  ioto  ihrte  )ionions,  the  bead,  thorax,  and  abdo- 
men, wliioli  »M  UBUally  v«ry  di»liDel  froin  one  another. 
Tbey  are  alao  dietingubhed  by  Ihcir  rvmu-kable  mcta- 
morphiMia,  Dotiiineuciiig  Irool  a  (urm  which  reiemblei 
tiiat  or  the  ADaelid&. 

AiuCii)iR»i  the  SpUer  tad  Scvrpim  tribe,  which 
dilTur  from  ioseota  in  hkving  the?  liend  and  tliorax  united, 
in  undergoing  no  metamoriihobiB,  and  in  having  eijjht 

Cb.i:stjiCb;«,  which  hare  a  hard  envelope,  principally 
■onipuaed  of  earthy  matter,  and  which  aru  adapted  for 
■quatio  roepiratiun.  M4Uiy  of  them  have  tho  Tui 
inseela ;  but  their  legs  "~  """- 1— ■ 
brrr. 

'Xhe  foregoing  conUitnte  a,  tolerably  regular  aerie!), 
into  tthieb  we  uiiut  also  intcoduce  llie  Emiozim,  wbicli 
Be«m  to  exhibit  tile  clmraelerB  of  the  Worm  Iribt 
their  most  degiade>d  conditlun,  and  the  aainuli  C 
pneiag  Khich  ore  panuitic  upon  or  within  others  ;  the 
Kmrrcnt,  or  Wtuel-Aninmlouit  tribe, 
approach  the  Polypifera  and  Polygastrica,  whilst  others 
approximate  the  Cruilaeea  ;  and  the  Cirrudkid*,  i 
Jiiarnatf^  tribe,  which  bear  a  strong  geneml  TetHOihlanc 
tu  the  StuUuKB,  but  unquestionably  beloug  to  llua  aeries. 

CLASS  Vl-^NSECT*. 

The  elxM  of  Insects  is  pertwps  the  matt  intereiting 
in  tha  whole  animal  kingdom,  both  in  regard  to  the 
number,  variety,  b(»uty,  and  complexity,  of  the  diHb- 
rent  forms  which  It  cuuiiins,  the  vut  aseeniblages  ' 
jadiilduall  of  the  same  spcvies  wliich  not  uufrequent 
make  lliuir  apprannce  together,  and  their  canaeqani 
iaumrtuiiw  in  the  economy  of  natum. 

The  trns  InsEon  ara  distinguished  from  the  Cm*- 
ftdnlf  ttrir  pMdikr  anUMtu  bt  atmoai&erie  re- 
•pfra^on ;  from  the  AraffinUa  by  having  bnt  ttx  legs 
(eigbt  bein);  tlicnoniberin  Hut  cl;u'«),aiid  by  the  di>i- 
eion  of  the  bi.ily  iiitu  three  parts  ;  iiud  from  the  lljrifl- 
pudu  by  the  limited  unuiber  of  legs  and  sc^^mcnt;^,  the 

it  is  sometimes  difhcult  to  dislinguiah  the  division  into 
segments ;  they  may  generally  be  seen,  howsvcr,  on 
the  lower  siJo  oftho  liody,  especially  on  Hie  abdunieo. 

obscure,  and  their  number  is  very  constant,  being  aU 
most  always  thirteen,  one  forming  the  head.  Of  the 
twelve  segineuta  of  the  body,  three  in  the  perfect  insect 
fnrm  the  thorax,  or  divi«Dn  succeeding  the  head,  whilst 
the  remaining  nine  oonstituto  the  abdomen.  It  is  more 
common  for  one  or  tM'o  segments  to  be  apparently  de- 
fieient  (being  cuneolidated  with  the  rest],  than  for  any 
increased  number  to  be  present. 

Themrtuworpioiu,  or  complete  eh ango  of  form,  which 
may  be  seen  in  the  greater  number  of  insects  during 
their  development,  has  attracted  much  attention  from 
(he  earliest  ages  to  the  present  time.  The  larva,  which 
afterwards  changes  lo  a  beetle,  a  butterfly,  or  a  wasp, 
bears  no  meuibhince  whatSTcr  lu  the  perfect  or  Jmapa 
form,  and  is  in  fact  allied,  in  almost  every  particular  of 
iU  coufomution,  lo  a  class  far  beneath.  Moreove  '' 
luut  lo  go  tlirough  an  intermediate  form — if  any  Ih 
still  more  remarhablo— that  of  the  pupa  or  ehtgnalu, 
iu  which  there  is  an  almost  complete  cessation  of  acti- 
vity, bat  in  which  prepaiation  a  being  niada  for  the 
tail  of  the  perfect  insect  at  its  flual  change.  The  alter- 
ation of  ilie  entire  cbantcler  of  the  animal  is  no  less 
remarlmblo  that  its  change  of  form.  In  the  larca  con- 
'"      '   '  — ,1o  be  concentrated  upon 


the 


e  fuiict 


rapid; 


According  to  Lyor 
full-grown  cttcriollar  of  Ilis 
young  one  just  Crept  out  of  the  egg,  iaii... 
During  iia  increase,  it  tlirows  off  its  sfcineni 
like  the  Cmstace«.  The  larvoe  in  the  tUTcff 
vary  extremely  B«  ta  the  ndegrev  of  tiieirdan 
in  aome  orders  they  are  eattvmely  ODpeTfecl, 
possessing  legs ;  whilst  in  others  they  oiiRa{ 
the  perfect  insect  iu  almost  every  particular  ■ 
preser--  -'-■  - 


of  the  imago  J,  the  insect  uudergues  a  vtt^ 

change,  oeaaiiig  lo  take  food,  and  appant 

all  Bppearauce  of  vitality.    In  this  itale  il  is  t| 

pupa  or  chrysalis.    Many  larvm  enclose  Iheia 

otherbind  ofonvtiH 


:rgoin^  this  change ;  and  renuLia  b 


lodot 


ivity,  w 


months  in  duration 
ground  ;  and  other*,  again,  suspBiid  thumssli 
air.  The  pupn  of  difTiireiit  order*  uf  ieaecU' 
the  larvie,  both  in  form  and  in  degive  <i  tup 
have  the  whole  body  encloaed  in  a  homy  csa 
veetige  of  memben,  and  are  totally  iosclivi 
when  disturtwd;  whilst  olhen  prrsmt  lilt  «■ 
of  the  perfect  insect,  but  appear  as  if  lb*  bMVI 
wera  separately  handseed,  and  laid  in  clow  u 
wliilst  others  retain  all  tlieir  liinfaa  fros  sad 
diminution  ui  their  locomotive  pvwen  ur  hi  ll 
til«  fur  food.  These,  indeed,  van  Marcaly  b 
pass  into  the  pupa  stale  at  all,  their  coadi 
only  indisaled  by  the  gradual  develspoienl  of  I 
This  deveiupmenl  is  diually  taking  place  b* 
envelope  of  the  pupiu  that  are  onclneed  and  n 

The  perfect  insect  or  icnsjgo,  wh^i  il  n 
it!  pupa  ease,  nhibila  ia  alfna    ~'-  " 
irncteristil!  of  Ihe  epe«iea,  an 


Mlba* 


also  :  fetv 
londitii 


h  after 
cely« 


my  sea 
rneutiuued,  tile  tnelve  Be_ 
larva  may  still  be  recognised  here,  but  *e 
changed  in  their  character.  The  tbrev  inle 
ore  often  soldered,  as  it  were,  together; In 
one  Btrong  sheath  for  that  portion  of  the  b 
which  tha  wings  and  legs  proceed,  aod  A 
affords  firm  attachment  for  the  powerful  raaa 
move  these  organs.     Those  which  cousUoiU 

aspect.  The  head  is  now 
and  connected  with  il  b; 
narrow.  From  each  of 'the  segmonU  of  IIm 
pair  of  le^  proceeds ;  and  tlie  swund  and  lUr 
give  origm  to  a  pair  of  wings  each.  WbONt 
nnty  one  pair  of  these  orgaus  eaists,  Hieypna 
the  second  segment.  The  segmenu  of  Ihs 
never  show  any  vestige  of  legs.  The  aecM 
diagram  represents  the  chief  puts  of  lb*  ptrfe 


e  distinct  tittm ' 


ZOOLOGY.— auticulata. 


cgments  of  the  thorax  are  separated  from 
to  show  the  organs  attached  to  them, 
cial  function  of  the  perfect  insect  is  the  con- 
the  species ;  and  the  wings  enable  it  to  seek 
kd  to  obtain  a  situation  fit  for  the  deposition 
which  are  always  laid  in  the  neighbourhood 
:  substances  will  supply  the  larvce  with  nou- 
Ithough  it  most  commonly  happens  that  the 

not  feed  upon  them.  Many  insects,  such 
eorm  moth  and  the  ephemera  or  May-fly,  die 
having  fulfilled  this  object,  to  which  they 
:y  soon  after  their  last  change. 
'  extraordinary  is  the  metamorphosis  of  in- 
y  no  means  unique,  as  was  formerly  supposed." 
i  of  the  tadnole  into  a  frog,  is  an  exact  pa- 
;  for  the  tadpole  is  for  the  time  a  fish,  re- 
lat  class  in  its  entire  organisation,  just  as 
is  for  the  time  a  worm.  Moreover,  \fe  shall 
ee,  in  some  of  the  lower  classes,  a  change 
lly  as  remarkable.  When  the  larva  is  very 
and  the  pupa  inactive,  so-  that  its  change  to 

the  perfect  insect  is  very  strikine,  the  meta- 
is  said  to  bo  complete;  but  if  Uie  larva  is 
iced,  and  the  pupa  differs  little  from  it  and 
erfect  insect,  the  metamorphosis,  is  termed 

n  their  perfect  state,  are  distinguished  beyond 
limals  for  their  power  of  locomotion,  and  for 
on  of  their  instinctive  actions.  In  estimating 
r  of  locomotion,  the  space  traversed  is  of 
pared  with  the  length  of  the  body ;  and  thus 
lat,  rapid  as  is  the  flight  of  many  birds,  that 
ects  far  surpasses  it.  The  senses  of  insects 
ye  acute.  They  have  generally  large  eyes, 
fact,  by  the  union  of  a  great  number  of  small 
I  several  thousand ;  and  although  these  are 
from  their  being  directed  at  various  angles 
er,  a  great  range  of  vision  is  .obtained.  It  is 
at  insects  possess  the  power  of  hearing,  and 
fll ;  though  no  distinct  organs  for  receiving 
wsions  have  been  satisfactorily  determined, 
have  a  delicate  sense  of  touch  in  some  part 
',  even  where  the  general  envelope  is  firm, 
questioned;  and,  from  observations  made 
>cial  insects,  such  as  bees  and  ants,  there  is 
slieve  that  they  communicate  with  each  other 

rrent  organs  on  the  head  of  insects,  furnish, 

rieties  of  conformation,  impoi'tant  characters 

atiun.     It  will,  therefore,  be  necessary  to 

wse  in  some  detail.    The  most  important 

,     upon    which,    in 

primary  subdivision 

88  is  founded,    are 

m  the  structure   of 

;  in  one  large  group 

bed  with  mandible/" 

lapted  for  biting  and 

whilst  in  the  other, 

ed  with  a  haustellium 

is,  adapted  fur  sue- 

,ce  the  flrst  group  is 

LNDiuuLATA,  aQd  the 

AUSTELLATA.      These 

',  however,  but  dif- 

ifieations  of  the  same 

loath  of  the  Mandi- 
principal  pieces  may 
difltiDgaished.  Of 
r  are  arranged  in 
which  work  against 
r  laterally;  a  fifth 
lore  the  upper  pair,  Differont  juirts  of  tho 
Jl  below  the  lower.    .  mouth  of  a  beetle* 

r  ride;  B,  uader  side;  C,  parts  teparated:  a  a,  on- 
jtmi  1 1»  vpp&r  Up; «  m,  numdiblett;  m  x,  maxillic; 
oj  ps4^;  /  S,  labium;  I  p,  labial  palpi;  c  2,  chin  or 

499 


The  two  lateral  pairs  are  the  jaws ;  of  which  the  upper 
pair  is  distinguished  by  the*  name  of  mandible*,  and 
the  lower  by  that  of  mojnllce,  Tho  mandibles  are 
usually  the  largest,  and  are  very  powerful  organs: 
sometimes  they  are  provided  with  sharp  or  toothed 
edges,  working  against  each  other  like  thuse  of  a  pair 
of  scissors  ;  and  sometimes  with  hooked  points,  more 
formidable,  for  the  size  of  the  animal,  than  tlie  teeth 
of  the  tiger.  These  are  the  principal  organs  by  which 
the  food,  of  whatever  description,  is  usually  obtained ; 
but  in  the  bees  and  wasps,  of  which  some  species  are 
adapted  to  obtain  their  nourishment  by  suction,  they 
are  the  instruments  by  which  their  curious  edifices  are 
built  up.  In  a  word,  as  has  been  well  remarked,  they 
supply  the  place  of  trowels,  spades,  pick-axes,  saws, 
scissors,  and  knives,  as  necessity  may  require.  The 
majcillce,  or  under  pair  of  jaws,  are  of  similar  construc- 
tion, but  usually  smaller  aud  less  powerful.  The  pieces 
which  are  applied  above  and  below  to  the  spaces  left 
between  the  jaws,  are  termed  lips ;  the  upper  one 
being  particularised  as  the  labrum,  and  the  lower  one 
as  the  labium. 

Various  modifications  of  these  parts  are  seen  in  the 
different  orders  of  insects,  but  their  existence  may  al- 
ways be  detected  under  some  form  or  other.  The  most 
remarkable  alteratitm  in  the  structure  of  the  mouth  is 
that  which  we  find  in  the  Lepidoptei-a  or  Butterfly  tribe. 
Instead  of  cutting  jaws,  we  observe  a  tubular  appen- 
dage or  trunk,  wliich  is  often  of  considerable  length, 
and  coiled  spirally  bcjpealh  the  head,  but  capable  of 
being  unrolled  when  its  point  is  required  to  descend 
into  the  corolloj  of  flowers.  This  tube  is  composed  of 
two  long  narrow  filament**,  which  are  in  fact  the  majtillcB 
excessively  drawn  out ;  these  filaments  are  channelled 
on  the  sides  at  which  tliey  approach  one  another  ;  and 
by  the  adhesion  of  the  edges  of  these  channel^*,  which 
lock  together  by  means  of  minute  teeth,  a  coniplcto  tube 
is  formed.  In  this  mouth,  therefore,  all  the  parts  ex- 
cept the  maxilltc  would  seem  at  first  sight  to  be  wanting ; 
but  they  may  be  detected  by  a  careful  examination, 
and  the  rudiments  of  the  upper  lip,  of  the  mandibles, 
and  of  the  lower  lip,  as  well  as  of  the  palpi  (organs  to 
be  presently  described),  may  be  distinctly  demonstrated. 
In  other  instances,  an  entirely  different  mndiflcation  of 
the  same  parts  may  bo  observed,  which  will  be  noticed 
in  the  proper  place. 

The  head  of  the  perfect  insect  is  usually  furnished 
with  three  pairs  of  jointed  appendages,  ail  of  which 
are  probably  in- 
struments of  sen- 
sation. The  first 
of  these  are  termed 
antenncB ;  they  are 
affixed  to  the  sides 
of  the  head,  and 
usually  between 
the  eyes  and  the 
mouth.  The  num- 
ber of  joints  in 
them,and  the  forms 
they  present    vary  VariouHly  foiincd  Antenna?. 

in  the  different  tribes  of  insects,  as  also  does  their  size, 
within  very  wide  limits.  Sometimes  they  are  three  or 
four  times  as  long  as  the  wholo  body,  and  sometimes 
they  are  scarcely  to  be  perceived  ;  sometunes  they  are 
simple  thread-like  organs,  gradually  tapering  from  the 
base  to  the  point ;  sometimes  they  swell  out  towards  the 
extremity  ;  and  often  they  possess  side  branches  or  ap- 
pendages of  various  forms.  These  different  characters 
are  extremely  useful  in  classification.  The  palpi,  or 
feelers,  are  organs  which  are  not  dissimilar  in  general 
character,  but  are  usually  of  much  smaller  size,  con- 
sisting of  seldom  more  than  six  joints  ;  of  these,  one 
pair  is  attached  to  the  majnlla,  and  the  other  to  the 
labium,  and  they  ai'e  called  maxillary  aud  labial  palpi 
respectively. 

The  uses  of  these  organs  are  involved  in  some  obscu- 
rity.   There  is  good  reason  to  believe  that  all  of  them 
I  are  orgaxia  of  touch  ;  and  this  aenae  is  probably  some- 


CnAMBEItS'8  INFORMATION  POR  THE  PEOPLE. 

\g^  BrD  her?  %\to  mAnbminnM 


9Ve  Ibat  lbs  seiBC 
whh  the  anteosK ; 

Ut  be  pKMim^Brly  appropriated  tutliui  fnantiflu.  It  has 
klKibMiitliDugMUi^ittbvkiiteiuutmiiiutsr  la  Iliosenae 
of  Bniell. 

Tlie  ulHin  of  iii««ta  aro  the  organi  moiit  peouliav  to 
tliem  ;  noUiing  at  all  bnaloKOus  beinif  developod  in 
uLtaar  utioulited  uiiina]*,  They  coonidt  cf  a  <lfitil>la 
layer  nf  merobratie,  prolonged  front  the  akin  ivln>h 
cover*  Ilie  body,  nod  purtnkitig  of  lU  aharacterv^  Tliis 
meiiibnuH  is  supporfad  by  a  fCMU-oork  of  harder 
■triictuiT,  coiDpoaed  of  riba,  which  ga  by  tka  Duiie  nf 
cEiiM«r  aervti.  Thes*  f^rtol  must  not  be  Buppoaedto 
imply  Any  analpgy  of  gtcuctuis  with  the  origans  they 
deeigtinte  in  blgbcT  aiiiiuale  ;  tbtyare  rather  drawn 
frnni  iheaDalcgnns  pnrta  iu  Ibe  li»vca  of  pJnnta. 

Thfreiaeoffcclynny  DrginiiBcduibatonc«iip(>uwliieli 
inKcla  or*  nal  ada^^cd  tu  pray,  liiKgiinliotliariKMi 
of  iniHvidual  tribes  at  iiuectB,  it  lu&y  here  bo  atatod 
cpiletally,  th*t  aonic  are  pnroty  oarnivoroua,  davonr- 
inR  only  pray  wh<«h  they  have  thmiaelven  kUI«d. 
lUlii'ra  rut  ouriDn,  and  even  k«ep  it  Uotil  ita  decompo- 
■ItiKii  In  advanced.  Othora  bi«.  lierbiTormia  j  aumc 
(ccduig  only  Diiin  jnriicular  apeeiu  of  plnnt^  wbilat 
otliBra  are  not  reatrioted,  but  feed  upon  aUncisl  iioy 
vj>([clHblu  Bubatanoe.  Olftcra  sfptinare  omniTuruuH,  and 
will  atlaoh  almoat  my  Ih[ng  that  faUa  in  tlieir  wny.  Tlte 
.  txixmid  maltlf  licalien  of  inaccis,  whicli  vnald  .niaulc 
ifrmn  lbs  luiomiaiu  number  of-^hcir  tggt,  ,and  from 
.tbeir  rapid  growlh,  ut  prevented  by  the  jnflu«aoe  of 
l.iilber  tribes  nf  nninials,  aa  well  oa  by  the  wara  of  Ibeir 
enii  (ribea  a^inat  cacb  oiher.  I'bu  ikstrocli^u  of  the 
Iai*ni  of  aoDic  ini>ei't>  by  tliose  of  othcta  is  ortuu  cuar- 
u^uB,  and  far  cnr»eda  in  pru|>ortiou  tlic  (Uuiinu^on  in 
,,t,l)eir  unmharB  cflecled  byhiglier  tribts,  Theronra  no 
I  (|«aKe  nf  aalmaffl  formM  to  exUl  on  land,  howcrcr,  of 
jvfiich  part  io  not  derive  n  (p^eot,  proporliou  of  lljoir 
JOAJI  tnm  iniieelB ;  and  thnn,  if  inan  doea  lint  inlarfero 
^^I^H  l}m' .  oebnarny  of  nature,  a  haUnm  ia  muntained, 
llT^ieh  ia.^icly  diaturb«d-.  DhI  if  tbega  bigbci'  tribes 
J^  iieatifsci  [at,  for  ennftiple,  if  a  rookery  be  dis- 
persed], itMiT-la  win  llicn  niulliply  iiiurdinziltly,  and 

InBi^ctanradlstribnltdnlnindniUly  over  nil  thar-m-- 
tioiKuF  tlieglubo  yet  lr..rlil<^ii  by  man.  Even  in  llic 
euldp-il  rcgi<ni9  whicli  1ii<  bna  yet  oxiitocoj,  tbt-y  pccmnit 
tbt'inneJvDs  lo  his  notice  during  tlio  brief  amiimer  ;  and 
no  teveriiy  of  Iho  winter  appciint  cnpabla  of  dtstruyiiig 
tbeir  vitality,  nUIlouch  it  naucen  tlieni  lo  a  slnli-  of 
eoiuplcte  torpidity.  It  ia  in  lri-|iical  regioiiA,  lumcrcr, 
that  lite  largest  nod  moat  briUiant  «peeiea  are   UBUatly 


&.  HoHoraicu  (CieaiU,  Ltalm-ftf^  1^ 
the  (our  wioga  aro  of  the  lanio  ini»il'wi^  tU 
what  i>arclinieDly;  aiul,  vlwn  blibd,  ikty  W 
aattia  like  llie  ruuf  o(s  imoM. 

S.  HsFEUoitiltt.  {Difi,).  TlinanUTwfA 
ia  boroy  or  iMllMry,  hut  )r>'"'''<^lir  t'MM  *<l 
brane;  bolli  piiiraarelHiri«oui»Jvrbt>la%bih 

four  membranoui  •riiix*>  Mven4  vitb  loimii 

i).  UfFTEiU  {(Vna<,  >V)-    •'[>'»•  lM*e  halt* 

oimI  itre  in  iwoy  f*iiti*«t8  iwniUel  to  U«  U 

Ilfnides  Ilieso,  lliero  ar<'  hjhid  rvmll  urlt 
inedinlo  bplwren  tlhs  Jiriiiciptl  froup*  'I'hei  » 
orde^,TnIClIor^Eall,hI■tl<^en  f>jrin<aliialBcl(iilt 
vitm-Jliei,  wliieh  ttnf  JMorniedlnla  VtWtaJ 

TKRA  and  NEIRIirTEKA.  Tlw  vtitw  ^TUIWBU 

coniprcbeoda  a  Email  group  tvnn«4  iraryjt 
■uciliatrkMoWii-lbe  LKPii-Trriini  aaid  Dirn 

Tlm-AriunhKui,  tlia  cnler  lo  mhak  <ita 
ton^MM  cn^Miy  aplmnis  or  "Irrginw,  aadi 
but  oadeTgo  n  nwtainorpbMie,  t>y  vrbiii  Ihq 
alliancie  wflh  tba  Uiplera. 

IQie  WtagleM  inxecls,  wl<>cL  do  not  lyi 
metamoil>hoBai,  nuy  bediatrlbuiitd  >uloM< 

I .  PlIUSlTA  (£««k)  t  tWdtS.  TOTaUIDtM  (j^ 

Sprinff-Ml),    T1i"«e    ooHUMt    irne-  ImaCB  i 
ThcBC  orders  will  now  be  Boniidurrf  tnw  I 


■  coiiTt<rt«d  ii 


^ 


>ii>d  are  l<.'rm<'<l  lUr'O't^i.MTi:. 

1.  L-ffl,»inE»,  (Hsilln).  In  llieso  the  liva  anterior 
wingn  Bi'e  eonverltd  into  n  linniy  nf  Imtllery  gu balance, 
and  encliwe  the  poilerior  when  folded. 

3.  OaTiiomm*  {(.-nutHopprT,  footrnnrft).     In  IIippc 

-  i.  NEi'Mrttiu  {Urngm-l-fij,  WTiilr-lnl).  Tlolh 
ptta  of  wni^  are  meinbranntiR,  nlid  tlie  nervi^B  furin 
'  NW  nrlworii  by  their  biterlacement. 


r  of  « 

vhich 

These  wing-«aaea  are  of  hoviy  DiniMMh 
opaquo,  or  nearly  so.  When  uKaaait^  tit 
lilUoarMhnreiafliehti  Mi.  KhM«lwtU 
along  the  bMk,  in  a  atr*lt  tin*,  vtMH 
Bulnie.  Tbo  second  pair  nf  n'liga  aoafttw 
organs  of  ll%bt;  tlity  sue  of  laf(e  liM^Ml' 
braiiDus  Ic\iui'c;Bnd,  nbcrn  ununipUije>Xlkvl 

liimeatii  tlie  v]j  un,  Ttic  uiiiulh  infiTiMlferaa 
and  poBBOssea  tnn  horny  inandil.lt'*.  The hM 
vtded  with  tWD  acitcnnx,  nf  lariahlejbin^adl 

thcDHTnhwof  ji'irls  is  usunlly  cle»en;  liinaA 
e.ntsi.l..it,Wy  i..  ,1...  t..-..  .,,,c..     Theewiwafc 


i<!  iibJiiniVii.  Tht  f.'iniur  coniisti,  aa.BMlL 
KiTioMt,  ;  l-ul  Ihtj  fii-.t  uf  these  is  »  UxM* 
l],„  exp.n-^(.  ..f  <lK.  .-.-st,  ns  to  appeu'S^S 
iliiic  Ibc  liii,iM\  in  ii.ll/.     Tlw  abdonMoWl 

■■■■r.    .!i  -Iv   ■■]      ■■    II  .^fsmenls;  Ibe  KM 
/  r-'iTO  tlii.  part  b«M| 

■■■'■.     II  I'.,     i-M..inibe;,>n....-rt.la. 

inn,  iJii.ri'  are  Koine  BTiFeim  In  vhieh  lh«  • 
j;lit.iri'B)lo(;ulheri™ntmB,»slnlJiefcpBilh* 
■rm  loliientBliicb  have  elytra,  but  nartc" 
[niii,  ill  ivhich  the  elytr*  ndlim>  tDgtdWt 
lure  ;  rihri-i,  in  whicfi  they  ovortui ;  Mbft^ 
ey  do  n.pt  inn-t ;  and  othern,  in  vhich  at » 
mjiliuliiially  fidded.  It  ia  well  for  tbtttpi 
L'are  Hint  »ueh  exeeptiona  exist  in  mhniMI  «• 
ilunil  Krinip,  iTOwever  definite  itii  danctnti 


ZOOLOGY.— ABTICULATA. 


I  ara  vorni-likc  in  tlieir  iwpect ;  tlic  liand  is 
nf,  mad  tllB  rut  uf  tUo  Lady  lufC  Tlie»  is 
p*ir  of  «liort  jointed  1«gi  nlUichcd  to  each 
)  lint  (cgmiiiui,  repreKJilioe  Ihoio  of  the 
'Ct.  ThoBc  uliich  posacsi  legs  iro  usumlly 
beir  limbita ;  but  there  arc  utheii  vhi<:li, 
itircd  life,  and  Laiag  liiirn  in  (he  niidiit  of 
(mch  as  the  nut  wcovil),  arc  deatUuM  of 
larvn-  of  the  carnivoraas  »(Kii««  have  in 
I  mnet  roliost  lejp  ;  and  in  aonio  i>f  tiic  bar- 
wciea  tlie»o  aro  rop'aee'l  ty  DeBhy  pro- 
rpro-!cg*.    A  pair  of  thuae  genwnlly  exists 


i  of  Beetle*  exeluiif elj  carnivoroiM, 
liDutiiig  after  and  dcTOariDg  other  ingeel*,  and  carnivu- 
roos  cvuii  ill    the  larva  alatc.     TheK  Carnitora  are 

aharactcrisrd  l>y  tha   puucMion  of  lix  yai^i,  aud  by 
ilie  tenninntiun  uf  (he  ja»i  in  a  sort  of  claw  or  hook. 


speei. 


undrr  the  elytra 


Thetai 
liuR  i  d.ei 


w-IkvUc,  lalU'lilTi; 


,  Fepment  of  the  abdomen.  Previonaly  to 
ila  ehatico,  (he  inrva  nften  foi-mii  n  cane  fur 
t  of  CHrth  UT  chips  nf  nnod,  auitrd  by  silken 
jjlni-y  matti-r.  The  pupa  or  chrjualia  ie 
iiti'tiniex  even  fur  years,  and  Intes  no  nour- 
iiit  (lie  form  of  the  future  becllf  ii  plainly 
the  different  parts  being  eneaccd  in  dlatiuet 

niBph  diffieuify  in  fnnnitig  a  sjiiipte  nntnral 
in  of  tliii  immense  tribe,  on  nceount  uf  tho 
Kr  of  distinct  species  it  inehiden,  and  their 
■ml  rpscmblniice  to  one  nnnther.  llenco  it 
erct»i-y  to  report  to  elinraeteni  of  great 
<  as  the  gTounduork  of  the  syMeni ;  and'  it 
hapiicas  that,  bv  the  aJnptionof  audi  ft  plan, 
ch  are  in  iralfty  cloFply  allied  iu  general 
ire  placed  in  dlfl'cren(  gmupn,  and  others  arc 
getiier  which  arc  geiienilty  iliiMciilar.  Vo 
cin  has  yet  bei'n  propoM'd,  liowcvcr.  tlian 
troille,  who  took  aa  the  bnsLs  of  hia  cIuhmO- 
number  of  joiiiIh  in  the  /oral,  or  division!  of 
,c  tlius  formed  the  four  following;  nectionsi — 
\>Kiu  (or  fivu-{iartcil),  iu  wliiirh  the  tarri 
ect  arc  livc-joiutcd,  the  fourlU  being  of  ordi- 

(or  difTercullyiinrted),  in  which  tin 


I  (or  difrercully-|ii 
Hi  aro  live  join  ted, 


d  tlic  t' 


or  fonr  parted),  in  uhich  all  tlio 
jiHnta.  Itlian  lately  been  abserrod, 
lifih  joint  exi^lH  ill  tlii^pe,  allliougb 
and  eunceali'il  in  one  of  tho  others, 
ihree-pa^d),  iu  which  only  three 
intit  exist  hi  the  t-irsi— a  fourth  of 
;r,  bciug  nlsu  preMut.  lleiiee  thtae 
may  be  mure  enrrcelly  deiioinii 
a  and  i'aeudo-TrlniiTa. 
U'CtiDoa  Goiituiuii  Ecvoral  famiUee,  uS 
apurtaut  wiU  unw  Lu  liulicad. 

1._|,  The  lliM   JiiuiLly  of 

.V)l 


:'ial  eamivora  have  Ic^  lit  only  for 
Uody  ht  elongated,  and  their  ryes  are  piomini 

To  (his  division  buloug*  the  tribe  of  Ctrabida,  wbiob 
IB  of  very  great  extern,  aUive  two  thouaaiid  specieG 
bavmg  been  bruught  to- 
{[ellior  by  a  i.iiiglu  nitlector.  N 
rheie  bodies  are  of  very  < 
Hrm  eonaistence,  whereby 
lliey  nre  enabled  to  creep 
ondoi-  stonen,  and  through 
fiaaurea,  and  ai-e  also  pre- 
vented from  being  injured 
by  tho  iuaocls  they  altock. 
They  pruwl  about  ou  the 
lorfaoe  of  tha  ground, 
under  stones,  &e.,  beuenth  ^ 
the  bark  of  trees,  or  in  the 
OMiaBgrowing  at  theirroois, 
aeareh  of  their  liueet 
y,  which  priuciimlly 
oonKieta  of  tlieherbivin'uus  i 
species.   Some  uf  tluni  arc  Catabui  CloUiiad* 

nocturnal   in  their  habilK,  Tecdiui;  upon  Cockehatera 
and  other  Species  nf  herbivorouii  beetles  that  fly  abroad 
'      iiigbl.     Thelmbils  of  (lie  family  src  not  exclusiiely 
uivori'iin,  however,  fur  some  spocicH  gcncrany  found 
torn-iietds  are  clearly  aeeertained  to  feed  upnngi'iiw- 
grain.     Many  lartiT  specieti  of  tliiH  tribe  are  pro- 
vided  nilli  a  very  curiouH  means  of  defence ;  being  en- 
abled lu  exhslea  very  fu'tid  odour,  aud  to  discharge  Iroin 
the  abdomeu,  to  a  connderallu  distance,  an  acrid  Hiiid 
ipable  of  producing  cun«idurab1u  irriiation.     In  the 
■aeMnus,  this  fluid  in  no  highly  volatile,  that,  imn 
intely  on  coming  in  contact  with  the  air,  it  bceiiincs 
luitih  vaponr  of  very  pungent  teeni,  and  niakia  a  u 


rous  tliaii  the  terrestrial  species,  and  arc  cliaracteriMHi 
by  tho  peculiar  iiKidiGealiuD  of  the  leg",  which  adapts 
them  for  tviniiaiiig,  thete  nieinbera  being  flattened 
and  fringed  nilli  Lrii'tlcis  no  as  to  M'rve  as  oars.  They 
jKiFs  their  larva  and  i>erfoct  stales  in  water  ;  quitting 
It,  however,  in  ordet  to  undergo  their  nietainurpliosis 
into  pupu.  Tbe  larvn-  have  the  body  long  and  narrow, 
with  u  strong  head  amitd  with  powerful  mandibteti, 
and  they  are  of  very  active  eamivurous  liabili>.  They 
breathe  by  orgnua  adajited  fnr  ar|ualic  rei-pinition,  but 
the  perruEt  iiisoet  ean  only  breathe  nil-,  and  it  li  obliged 
to  come  to  Uio  aurfacu  occatiionally  f<'r  that  purpoei'. 
The  (fjrfiicuf,  the  princi)^  gi.nus  nf  this  tribe,  i>  o-ni- 
moil  iu  freoh  and  placid  waters,  such  uu  lakeii,pvolii,  or 


MaiKlaalb— Luva  und  Inisgo. 


dildice.  Its  hrvB  feeds  upon  other  aquatio  krvK, 
such  aa  tboss  of  dr:igon-flies,  gnala,  Jic.,  and  inav<ii 
qniekly  through  tha  water,  stHking  it  liy  its  ex^deil 
toil.    TlM  pupse  may  bo  Inuid  buried  in  Uia  adjoiuii-g 


"CHAMBEKS'S  INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPlft." 


2.  The  next  timilj;  U  ihat  of  BturaKLrrRA,  which 
posena  but  four  pnlpi,  luid  are  distinguish  Ed,  as  tlieir 
name  import*,  by  the  shortneBs  at  iho  wing-cases.  The 
family  poiisiata  of  only  one  gena»,  SlapIisHnut,  ot '^hidi 
mm  of  th»  largest  gpecica  i«  kaown  by  the  name  o! 
deiil'i  cnaeb-horse,  add  is  freqatntly  tO  be  Hen  riioiiing 
about  garelira  valks.  These  JDBecta  run  and  flj  with 
equal  agiiiiy.  Thev  are -rery  voracious,  but  do  Dot  feed 
npOTi  living  prey,  deriviug  ihrir  notrimtnl  from  dead 
anil  dreiyiiiK  animal  matters,  tspecblly  fougi,  ftc,  ii| 
which  they  chiefly  reaido.  They  are  also  found  in  pro- 
fuBii>n  under  heaps  of  putreuent  pknts.  They  all 
IKweew  the  farulty  of  cmitans  a  powerful  odoQr,  whith 
aeema  to  tprie  as  a  meaua  of  defence  ;  and  tliis  in,  in 
»omeiii«t»iice«,ofpecii!i»riyfoiliacbarBcter.  Tlielarvjc 
fted  on  thp  aame  eubstuicea,  Aud  frequeut  llie  same 
altuationa,  as  the  perfect  inaect.  Tliia  group  leade,  In 
man}  mpeet^  towarda  the  Earwig  tribe,  with  which 

S.  The  fandty  SEnmcnni'ra  is  diatinguiahed  by  the 
loolhxd  or  BCnated  fumi  of  the  anteniue.  Like  the 
laat,  it  pnaacMwe  four  palpi ;  hut  the  elytra  completely 
enver  the  body.  Some  of  thia  family,  having  tlie  body 
of  aulid  comiaCsoee  and  oml  in  form,  liave  tlie  head 
buried,  as  it  were,  in  the  thonx,  which  advances  on  ita 
two  aidm  DViirly  na  fWr  a.i  the  maath.  In  thia  way  are 
formed  the  Dupralia,  dialioguished  far  the  splendour 
of  ill  euluiira,  many  of  its  speeiea  having  spots  nf  golden 
liUB  upon  an  emerald  ground,  whllal  in  others  oxure 
gliltem  upon  the  gold.  These  hrnUantiprciea  belong  to 
tropical  climate*,  wliich  these  tuscets  app^r  ca^cially 
formed  to  inhabit,  our  native  ■pcclca  nying  with  tlie 
(greatest  activity  in  warm  weather.  They  live  among 
treea  j  and  if  an  effort  ho  made  to  eeiM  them,  they 
oountcrfeit  death,  and  fall  (o  th*>  crouud.  The  beetles 
belonging  ta  the  allied  genmi  Elaler  are  eommonly 
Mlled  skip-jacliH  ;  fur,  when  hid  bo  their  ^m&t,  being 
imable  to  miiie  ihernsi'lvea  on  aecoont  of  the  ihortaen 
of  lli.'jr  n-il,  llii'V  ■•iiiirLi;  [lerpendicnlnvly  in  (he  .lir,  so 
a»ti>ulif;ln  iLj"iii  tljui-  l\.-t.  This  is  effected  by  a  vi,j- 
Iciil  li,rUaiii  111..*  „1  111,-  liea,l  agnin^i  the  eurfjiee  on 
■which  tliey  are  1)  ing.  The  larva  of  an  English  species 
is  known  to  the  farmer  aa  the  wire-worm,  which  does 
much  injury  by  deyiiuring  tlie  roots  of  the  com.  A 
■preies  of  elaler  inhahiling  the  West  Indies  and  South 
America,  haa  two  brilliantly  lumiuoua  apats  upon  the 
front  ut  the  tboi  "  ..... 


g  flight  is  also  ill 


I  of  thia  family  is  the 
of  thia 


na.  The  boJy 
la  very  soft,  especially  the  abdumen  ; 
le  Iwn  nr  time  last  Heginenig  of  thin 
lial  the  phosphorcBcenl  light  for  which 
arkable, '    ' 


nllted.     lis  ii 
deforce  upon  the 


,oof 


/«w)itisonl)-lh..f..m«l..il,...  ,    .:■■ 

de*lltUtW  lif  wiugs  ^ir.d  <-(UL  ■.  ■    .     ■ 

Th-yaf*.mly»rll«.■t.v.„^;|.l  ,    ■ 

t..l>«allri.rl^a,like.".,ili-,l.v   ,   ■    - 

Iwblo  tliat  the  phuti.hi^iv-c,ii,v  i-i  i;.l  I.  i. 
fi.r  the  purjiiBw  "f  (.igiialisiuj;  hiT  pusiliuu 
Hiiwt  iif  the  tropical  epeoii'B,  both  ccxea  a: 


a  dark  ooh^ur — Llick  or  hmntrd.  One  i>f  Ihe  iiiust  ii 
ttrrating  gariure  la  the  .VicrupAuruji,  ur  luryiii^-<>eetl' 
ao  iiaiocil  from  ita  habit  oi  excavating  the  groun 
beneatti  the  dead  bt4i*«  (>f  amall  iiuadnipcdr,  eucli  i 


mice  or  moles ;  nhcn  they  have  iolemd  tlit 
they  deposit  their  egg«  in  il,  and  Uie  lorvx  vba 
feed  upon  tlie  fletb. 

5.  The  PiLPlniR.Ma  also  poncn  anteniia  all 

like  termination ;  hut  these  arc  nerar  looca.u 

shorter,  than  one  of  tlio  palm  of  palpL    Na 

theae  arc  aijuallc,  and  hare  their  lega  (onwJ. 

-.  TbemoatrcmarkatilcgcnaalallicfyfAi 


which  a  large  species,  //.  jiioew,  an  ioeha...  _ 
brown-black  eolonr,  and  liiahlyfi 
1  the  ponds  and  itilehea  of  tai>-tav 


'al,  of  a 


dl,  but  walks  badhr.  Tbt 
laid  in  a  sort  of  cocoon  spun  by  the  lanaik  I 
with  a  gummy  matter  which  t*  irnperrlooa  to 
on  which  it  floats  Thelarvte,  which  have  a' 
body,  with  six  feet,  the  head  Anntil  wilJl  Mr 
dihles,  are  very  voracious,  feeding  upon  tad 
the  young  fry  in  fUh-pondsi  and  uwg  ■nallli 
MoUuaca. 

6.  The  lait  family  of  111*  PentamHiW*  M 
LAUKu-iunLMa,  is  uf  Very  gniBl  esiont,  mJ 
moet  Rtriking  of  the  whule  Uevthi  trib^  hi  I 
the  NM  of  the  body,  and  ihs  larlaty  In  the  li 
hesdand  thorax  in  the  dilfereataoiaa;  audi 
iu  tlio«  species  wbicli  ID  their  parfMt  «a« 
vegetable  subslaneoa,  in  mpect  to  the  brilll 
motallic  Dolour*  with  which  ^cy  kiv  omsaM 
the  miu»rjly  of  the  other  Bpeeiea,  wluch  mA 
composing  rcgetahle  matter,  arw  of  an  nnijo 
or  black  oolour  ;  though  aonie  are  not  mtei 
liancy  to  (be  preceding.  AU  havu  wiii|t«,  aaj 
but  aluwlyalongtliemund.  Noiieuf  themSI 
Their  food  conkials  M  dung,  iiianiir*,  taOgav 
larly  (in  some  specie*)  u  lb*  itxita  «f  f 
whence  (lieM  insects,  especially  la  Ibflr  h 
often  occaaion  great  Ion  to  itm  cnllivMur.  1 
receiirea  it*  Mttne  from  tita  peanliar  mab 


ranged  Lie  a  fan  a 


(Xt 


il^  and  they  enclave  their 
balls  of  tbo  came 
I  they  have  Ijeen 
called  Pilularii),whichtliey 
roll  along  with  their  hind 
feet  (several  often  being 
in  company),  until  they 
reach  the  hole  in  which 
They  are  to  be  deposited. 
Amo<itrcmarkBblyrornied 
B[teeiea  is  the  dyuaales  her- 
nilei,  n  native  of  Braail, 
nhicliBltaioB  the  length  of 
five  inches,  and  o[  which 
Iho  male  possesses  an 
n  projecting 


Zoology.— ARTicnLATA. 


declnictiTe  to  TCgetation  both  in  its  ]tm  ' 
ndition,  feeding  on  ths  roota  in  the  one 
le  learea  and  young  ehoota  in  Ihe  other. 
•a  for  three  or  four  jetrs  beoeatfa  the 
ing  lethar^c  in 


Theii 


ItipUe. 


ited  bj  birds  ;  but  if  theea  be  kept  Bwa;, 
rerj  rapidly,  and  become  ■  complete  peat 
or.  The  perfect  ineect  sometimea  makes 
I  la  euch  iwirnu  as  to  deTUtate  u)  eotire 

mSlag-Beelle)  ierive  Ihevt  coroinnD  nuns 
ullar  form  of  the  tnuidibleB,  which  ure 
TTed,  and  toothed,  like  atag-homa.  The 
le  of  Ihe  largeet  Urilish  inseeta,  the  males 
ieB  or  more  in  length.  This  species  flies 
evening  ia  Ihe  middle  tA  the  summer, 
nd  the  oaks,  upon  the  vood  of  which  the 
emsining  in  that  sUle  for  sereral  yean 
;oing  ita  final  tnHuformation.  Some  of 
eeies  of  this  group  are  ner;  large  and 

UErEROHElu. — The  Coleoptem  of  thi 
I  entirely  feed  on  Tsgetible  eubslaneeB , 
rrestrial,  and  most  of  them  frequent  dark 
le  first  family,  the  Meusoki,  the  body  is 
)wn  or  blaik  colour,  and  for  the  most  part 

sbneni,  tlie  elytra  being  united  along  the 
f  live  fur  the  most  part  in  the  ground, 
■V,  or  in  tlie  rand — often,  also,  in  low  and 

buildings,  such 
bin,  &c.    Thii 


riea,  in  some  parts  of  whidi  it  ahounds.  There  ara 
small  apeeiea  belonging  to  our  own  climate,  which  are 
scarcely  leaa  brilliaat  when  magniiied  in  a  good  light. 

The  second  family  of  the  Tetramerous  Coleopter*  haa 
received  the  name  of  Xilopdaoi  (Wood-eaters)  on  ao- 
eount  of  the  peculiar  habits  of  the  beetles  compodng  iL 
They  usually  live  in  wood,  wliich  their  Isrvee  pierce  ia 
every  direction ;  and,  when  abundant  in  forests,  espe- 
cially tboae  of  pinee  and  Gra,  they  destroy  (he  trees  in 
afevyesra,  and  aomMimes  in  enormous  numbers.  Tht^ 
ar«  destitnte  of  the  orulooged  muzzle  of  the  last  order, 
and  bare  short  anteunee,  thickened  towards  the  tips. 
iportanl  apeeiea  ia  the  botlriehtu 


ippoffrapAm 


found  in  the  evening. 
ily  Trachelidei  tho  head  is  trianguli 
,  and  carried  on  a  hind  of  neck,  which 
from  the  thorax.    The  body  ia  soft,  the 
Rexibla,  and  sometimes  very  short.    Tli 
in  the  perfect  state  upon  different  vegt 
iriDg  the  leaves  or  Bucking  the  honey  of 
Many,  when  seized,  depress  the  bead  and 
feel,  as  if  they  were  dead.     Their  coloui 
J  brilliant.     This  is  well  seen  in  the  cai 
aria  or  bliatcring-fly,  which  is  of  a  shinir 
ie  hue  ;   this  insect  is  most  abundant  i 
^.ears  about  midaommer  in  France,  and 
bundantly  on  the  ash  and  lilac,  of  nhich 
:  leavea.     Its  larva  lives  in  tlie  earth,  ar 
le  roots  of  vegetables. 
I.  TETimiEHA.— All  the  insects  of  this  se 
vise  vegetable-feeders.     The  perfect  inse 
)D  the  flowers  and  leaves  of  plants ;  the 
ten  produced  in  ibeir  interior ;  and,  »hen 

in  the  midit  of  thair  food,  their  legs  are 
try  imperfect.  Very  often  the  true  legs 
iilirely  absent,  and  itielr  place  supplied  by 
ks.  Thefirsl  family,  that  of  KHiNcoriioRf, 
/  (ribe,  is  distingniahed  by  (he  prolongation 
or  part  of  the  bead  into  a  kind  of  muzzle. 
■  of  apeeiea  in  ihia  fainity  is  verv  great; 
have  been  reckoned.  &lany  of  them  are 
iatmetive;  especially  the  ealandra  jFvana- 
■freeril,  whtch  commila  great  havoc  in 
Td  tbia    tdbe    belongs  one  of   the  most 

1,  the  ci 

£03 


lo  named  from  the  fii 


'^5"-^ 


.  of  its  burrovra. 


hich  haa  at  different  Umea  ravaged  the  forests  of  Ger- 
lany.     It  devours  the  soft  wood  beneath  the  bark, 

which  is  most  essential  to  the  Tegetative  procesaCB,^)oth 
I  the  larra  and  perfect  states,  and  thna  causes  Iha 
eath  of  the  tree.  It  was  reckoned  that  a  million  and 
half  of  pines  were  killed  by  thia  apeciei  alone  in  tb* 

Hartz  forest,  in  17S3;  and  that  as  many  as  80,000  in- 
ordinarily  engaged  in  the  deabvetion  of  eaob 

Biles  of  the  family  Longieonut  are  distin> 
gnishedby  thegreatd^elopment  of  the  antennEC,  which 
are  always  at  least  aa  long  as  the  body,  and  often  longer. 
The  larvie  moatly  reaide  m  (he  interior  of  trees  or  under 
the  bark,  and  are  destitute  of  feet,  or  have  them  very 
ill.  They  are  furnished  with  robust  mandibles,  and 
do  much  injury  to  trees,  especially  those  of  large  size, 
by  burrowing  deeply  into  ihera.  They  are  xegelable- 
feedera  in  thwr  perfect  stole  also,  and  do  great  injury 
to  plants,  some  attacking  the  leaves  and  others  Ihe 
roots.  Many  of  them  pnSuce  a  slight  creaking  sound, 
by  (he  fricdon  of  (he  joint  which  unites  the  thorax  (0 
the  abdomen.  Many  of  these  are  brilliantly  coloured, 
especially  Ihe  tropical  speciea.  Some  of  them  nro  re- 
markable fur  exhaling  an  agreeable  musky  odour.  This 
i9  the  case  with  an  Engliiih  apecies,  the  nallichrama 
niojcAa(a,  which  is  about  an  inch  long,  entirely  green  or 
shaded  wiih  bins,  and  is  very  eommon  upon  willows. 


the  remainder  cliicfly  upon  aphides.  To  the  latter 
section  belongs  the  genus  cocdnelln,  of  which  several 
species  sre  known  in  this  country  under  Ihe  name  of 
lady-birds  or  lady-cows.  They  sometimes  appear  in 
great  profusion,  and  have  created  much  alarm.  It  ia 
erroneous  to  eupposc,  however,  that  they  do  any  injury 
)n ;  for,  on  Ihe  contrary,  they  are  of  great 
lants  by  feeding  on  tho  aphides  which  infest 
this  they  do  both  in  the  larva  and  perfect 

Ordv  U— Ortbtptoa. 

The  order  Orthopter»  eomprebenda  all  msect*  that 

have  (he  mouth  armed  with  jaws  fitted  (or  mastieatioi^ 

and  two  pairs  of  wings  ;  of  which  Uje  anterior  eucaso 


benXw 


CIIAMBERSS  INFOnMATION  FOR  TOE  PEOPLE. 


I,  Q2'(>t1ter«,  tlie  noBlcridr  being  iO«nbraoo*re,  ninl  fold- 
Sb  IttoginiJriullT  during  rfpose.  In  nun^r  r*3peot» 
iliej  iTseinUe  the  Ci)]'"^!!**  :  mud  (hej  are  closely 
eonnecial  with  llml  arUeT  bylliePoaFicit.in.e.orfim^ 
wip  tribp,  which  jnwWlteof  tlieeharacfsrsof  bolh.  but 
they  diHtr  troin  llie  Umtles  In  thewifLsr  covtiing  of 
(heir  lui  Jia  ;  m  the  fiirtiaUy  membruiouB  ehankctor  nf 
liie  aotoriw  pair  of -wings,  ihioh  9fmn  intonneiiBtetj*. 
tvtca  tlie  hoTDT  ^Ijtra  of  iiceUca  \ni  ike  nwmbA'siiou 
irinn  of  other  inwcls,  and  vMeh  di  not  oieM  kkuig  tiie 
liauk  ttbeo  closed  ;  and  in  the  ftn  -UUe  niimner  in  »hiEh 
the  poBterior  vinga  are  fnliletl  up  lieaeBlli  them,  whioh 
In  permitttd  by  tlie  straight  din.'Ctiao  <rf  their  »eina. 
Th^r  iittec  also  in  their  iDclinuirpti'isni  %  for,  tbiltt  that 
Af  Ibe  Beetles  is  complete,  (liat  of  lb*  OrliKflBn  is  ooly 
pttriially  so  ;  tor  the  larva  and  pupa  closely  resemble 
the  DMfw4ui«eet  in  turu,  walluug  and  feadaa  -10  tlie 
»nie  manner,  U)4  ^erlivin  hol-ift^e  else  Uiaa  )he 
absDDce  of  the  iriaga  i^i'lf^'tirnai,  wbieh  itre  gra- 
dually devcl(ipcdii]  thB&tlBr.   r 

This  g>d«r  coinprisea  niAtwrnQS  «E!l-]uia>>'n  Ebeecta, 
often  of  lai^  eize  nnd  Hplendtd  Ciilouri ;  mclmagnas- 
hoppers,  (ooobIb,  walkiotj-iieaiea,  aaBoll  as eueltroachea 
i.nd  eorwigs.  Some  of  Iho  largest  of  LnowQ  irseota 
belung  to  ii ;  abr-nftcka  nUauiaf  »ieti2ili  nl  eight 
or  nine  inebc^  nud  au  I'qual  eKpauionoTmifpi,,  Coot- 
piwativeljirewotr  ■ 


B,  aud  cithers  arc  adapted  to  a  miscd  liiel — the 
Cockroiuhes,  for  example,  being  capable  ut  feeding  on 
almost  any  organised  nnllor,  wtiilat  the  gtvil  uiijortly 
feed  upon  plants.  Hcuee,  fram  thnir  large  sbce,  vid 
the  qufuiUly  wliiob  »ch  iudividual  cui  devour,  tiicy 
are  lunong  liie  must  destruclive  of  all  the  ioitect  trilws, 
when  tlicy  appear  in  Isrge  numliara.  This  is  (Kirtlcu- 
larly  tlie  earn  with  lbs  locusts  in  wann  eountciu^  the 
raraees  of  wliich  SM  unfro^ucntlj  nauw  fJUBioamttd 
[K-etilanee,  bath  among  nwn  and  lioaets. 

Tlio  Orthuptem  are  dividod  iato  two  ]>nj»;ip»l  tanai- 
liBt.  In  the  lirsl,  that  of  Cdrsoiui,  the  legs  am  all 
nldiO,  nnd  adapted  for  miiniug.  Tliey  have  ginnriK; 
tlie  wing-cuieni  atid  irih;;s  reituig  huriioutuUv  '  .  \\,- 
boily.     In  tbe  seeeud,  th.^  Sailalaria,  tlie 


aeonnnt  of  tl 

{Rswr.  This  is,  botasTcr,  iit  faHiaa»  ■! 
in  ivBJl  for  its  prey  j  t)ie  (null  of  Iha  IkaiH  J 
vilod,  Batl  Iha  two  fore-legs  baM  isp  ta^ik 
pair  of  arms,  prepare]  lu  iisi'  anji  aam^ 
fall  within  Ibeir  tMdIi.  They  an  olB^wfci 
insects;  and,  if  kept  logeibar WillkaBI  fas4' 
the  victor  derouring  iU  09iuj»« 


oblaii'^'a? 

miicta  larger  llian 
pipvwra  of  li-npiiig. 

"vin'ra  i^tat  an  angle  v,lu.i,  1„ 
n  rouf.     Tlie  luniM  hsv.'  (1,    , 
creakiog  niiiso,  whith  i-,'..-  . 
l.l'hiCiT.soi.r.  ei.,:N>...    . 
the  Earwig, i;x:kfoael..^r-\    ■, 

belwnn  thei 

iclilheiv-    . 

srL-  used  :.■ 
lUallw,  or  <  . 

aiiUotlifi-uji,,.. 

insecuare  n 

ow  prelly  kl-h.-™ 

the  reel,  by  mI 

In  some  of  ll 


. . .  rsniarteable  for  lh«  depn4< 

Cund,  which  is  gccerjilly  aci>iii>ii1i»hed  fcj  ■ 
J  horny  ovipaaitor.     The  mtui"  i'l  whieli  0 
is  pmduced  itfles  in  iliffereni  species. 

The  tiMi  dLvinon  of  the  SallUoru.  ttmicJ . 
incluik»-the  species   known  u  Cri«ket$.     t 
essenlihily  inliahitanbi  vS  (li«  gi 
them  burrow;  fe«bav«any  pa«4 
greater  number  ot  them,  like  llie  ct 

1'hc  nett  subdivision  of  the  Saitaton^  JV 

ii  .li.iir>i;iu.sh'-a  lij-lhc  roof-bke  position  of 

1-  -1  '.■  Ll  thoy  ore  closed  ;   they  also  fm 

-    "  '     :  I  1[!<e  antpnnie.      Tlii*  gioiu  «■ 

.     ■  ^ii^l  tlieiv  allies,  wlrieh,  aldM^ 


:lie  coiBin4nMI 


rat«  oIlmateB,  allliough  i, 


I . .  iL-  i..„i^.i-s  i.r,l,i^sl,iti.,n,aUo.a™i 

..,  .,;..n,-d:k  to  destroy  the  V«g«ut 
1  ■  .  ■  ll  lUi'V  have  settled.  I^wok 
,.i[  :..  -i.'iil  awarrna  to  adjoining  M 
1 13  iIh'  iiiiiiibcr  of  which  lIiMe  mnn 
in  not  speaking  figurallvelj  to  my  Ai 
pacd  by  llieip  pasKige. 


Coeoptetaai 
u  b  bu   dtff  r 


tluufpitiid.  The  litsi  pair  ll!  legi^  i-.  cmi'  .. 
ami  r.-rma  a  very  poivtrful  organ  <if  ;i: 

their  wings  and  bodies  ai-e  often  bi)  aiijipieil 
lire  Jeaies and  Iwigd  ivhicli  surruund  tlieiu, 
tlieai  j-eniarllabic  power  of  eludiug  obiicrfkl' 
th'<tii  iime  been  c^led  walkinR-leavcB.  ' 
"V  titf  miinlit  reliffioMa,  in  regarded  by  tbe  c 
10»aiiFiv*  it   iiihnbita   wilh  aupcriitiUQU-i  t 


mU  ih  Me  at 


ZOOLOGY.— ARTICUI-.\TA. 


Mediate  die,  none  exceeding  in  ilmu-Dsldni  tits 
tt  4nfOD-fliH  of  thin  countij,  nndiiime  i'>:liibitjiig 
■hittleiMiB  oT  Minis  Hymciuiplcnt  and  Cutcopteri. 

differ  in  ihs  «li>neler  or  their  nitlunotplioaia  u 
in  fn  their  kdutt  atraetiire ;  fur  in  mme  tbo  iii«lii> 
llOu  1b  cnmHete,  ttie  l«rva  uiidargoing  a  inarki.-d 
gecrfroim;  in  othcrii  IHl'I'o  ianntiauchiliiTnTDec, 
n  in  Iba  abaencn  ot  niu)^  betncan  thu  birvs  nnd 
cr&ct  insect.  Uy  theiw  (lifTerencca  tlio  uidt-r  iiiny 
"bdivided  into  tno  graupg,  in  (lie  first  of  wliicli  llic 

i>  ftetiTc,  whilst  in  liie  accuiiil  it  is  quti-sccnt,  cx- 
JiBl  bafnre  liia  asBUUi^ilinn  ol  the  fiprFnct  Rliile. 
ant  of  these  granpa  mnj  l>o  ftrllier  divided  into 
•  whieb  liavo  tcrre»trial  litnai,  mcb  ii»  tli"  'I'er- 
(T,  and  those  wbi?li  are  aoiia'i«  hi  (liri*  pitpnrr.- 

ai'atca,  iiteh  u'thu  LU^Klidm,  u-  I>r.'i^uii-Hi(~, 
Ihe  EjAemrr/r,  or  l>ay-tlial-  TbMd  ]>as»  the  tint 
ttagcii  iif  fluiip  Kvn  fn  «s(cl^'  n^pii'iii|;  !>}'  int'.-iii'' 
cjtW'STpiiia  iiliiccd  At  te  nidL'S  ur  L-xdtHUly  of 
Women.  .  Ju  oilier  rapecU  tticlr  larvii-  and  |ii]|  iu- 
gnawnUe  Ibe  jwrfi^t  insFBf;-  Th<^-  crcop  out  of 
nrtef  tb'nadergo  Uic  DiMl  ineUuiiui'|i1i%>'. 
nu)  LiBKLtcLin^  »r*  welMinown  imiretis  bi'iii}; 
r  diatinguiiiliid  br  tho  •lender  Ibnn  nf  tlieir  bodli'ii, 

varied  cfilouns  ihHr  laitte  jtnuEe-likc  w!ng«,  uiid 


.      .  .  slied  nt  ita  BidCK  wUli 
)  eyes.  Tbe  egga  ore  iIi'|>oiiitcd  u|>iin  n<iii!itit!  ptniiti. 
Ibe  brvic  arc  pmrlai^  in  wnter,  in  wliiou  tbiy 
iti  nnlii  tbpir  Inst  inetni»nrpb«>>a. 
nieKiairMiiim.it  di-rirethrir  nntnefmtn  thcsbnit 
Dion  of  their  livt-s  ill  Ihs  perfect  bIb(c.   Iiilbekina 


numboiH  ill  each  ctiluuj  bcini;  nlnust  inealeulable,  and 
tlieir  Toiiicity  extreme.  Tlicir  iiestn  are  sometitnea 
cuiieealiMj  beluw  llic  surfiicc  uf  the  eartb,  cir  in  the  in- 
ti.>rior  ol  li'cep,  limbpra,  A.C. ;  and  throiiglt  these  1I1P7 
burcgal]ei'icaiiiKUuhauiantier,tliat,  tbL'Ugb  theuuter 
in  left  uiitiiuched,  tliey  fall  t      "  ''  " 


glilent  violuii' 


3  tlic  ni 


Mfvoiiil  feet  ahovs  tli«  nirfnee  i^f  tbe  ernund,  aud  have 
a  pf raniidal  rouf.  When  nrrirod  nt  Ilicir  p^fect  elalr, 
tliu  Termites  quit  their  hnbitutioii,  and  By  nbraad  dnriii][ 
Iho  eveiiiiig  or  night  in  greut  iiiiiiiliergi ;  tin:]-  lose  their 
niiiga  U-fui-o  the  iiiariiiiig,  and  soiuu  uf  them,  fallinj;  to 
the  ground,  bceatin  the  ]>rey  uf  birds,  n'litilrs,  &e. 
I'lio  funiales,  however,  are  i>uuf!ht  by  tlic  k 


ver,  are  i>uuf!ht  by  tlic  VMirhers,  nhu 
royal  oliaiiiUci.H  (ts  tlicy  have  been 


tlon  they  exii'tfi-r  two  or  three  vv*T*;  in  this  and 
np«  state  ihey'ret.ide  in  the  water,  bui-mninf!  in 
kala.    In  this eoiiditiim,  llie  abdmiicn  is  funiii^hed 


r,  aft«r  auling  tlirir  sUn,  In  a  new  fnnn ;  but,  by 
;idar  excejilioii  Id  what  is  elsewlierc  ubsiTTi  J,  lliry 

ti>  DiiderKii  aiiiillicr  imiult  hcTnK  tbef  nrc  fit  fi'r 
tgation.  Thi-y  generally  appear  at  sansel  In  ihi' 
lays  of  Biiminef  and  auliiniii,  ahiii|{  tliv  innnpn  uf 
tieam*,  ie^  in  wliicli  they  Imve  bein  di-veb'prd. 
-  take  iio  fouJ  nfler  thirir  Tmal  chniige  ;  and  as  ihu 
^galiou  <.■!  the  raec  is  tlieu  Jinlr  oiily  ul-ji'Ct,  tliey 
Imnst  as  Kuuu  aa  It  b.-ui  Ikbu  iierfoi'iiK^d,  uRvn  in  a 
MUtt  after  their  exit  fnmi  tli«  valer. 

Tbe  TBiiiinii>.«,  ocWIiita  ,^n(l',  im-  terrestriul, 
•t,  aaA  eanuTuroils  or  diunivurcui',  In  all  Uielr 
PL  1b  U'Vend  puiuta  of  tlicir  slmelore  they  ap- 
cb  tho  Ortliuptcra;  wbilst  li)  llieir  liabil  uf  living 
wistiia  they  resemble  the  Ilyinrnuiitvni.  I'nlika 
ocfal  tribes  ainuns  the  former,  IiuveiiT,  tli>'  neuters 
taltxa individuals  in  these  coniniunitiuKiffiaiats  only 
oUien;  and  llioae  wliieh  aru'  here  denoniiiiate<I 
W*  an  in  reality  the  Iutvil',  hIiIcIi  nlosely  rFKiiiblo 
■erffst  insset,  except  in  tbe  aWncc  uf  wings.  TIikcc 
As  Gommil  tbe  nioi-t  r\traiirdliiary  rnv.igcs,  llic 


lemied)  in  (he  ceiilie  of  the  Dent.  The  alHluiiien  sub- 
sequi'iiily  Btbiiiia  on  cnonnuus  Hie  from  the  igiiuiility 
nf  e^J  it  poiitaini ;  and  tliet'e,  when  hiid,  ui'u  can  fully 
tended  by  the  workere  and  ddfcuded  by  the  siJdicra. 

4.  Of  tlis  division  uf  Nturoplera,  in  which  a  more 
enmpleto  niutamra^lioiis  occurs,  thu  I'aniily  ot  MvnM» 
i.MiMi>«  is  nim  of  tho  moat  remarkable.  Tli<:ir  larvie 
have  meeivcd,  from  thdr  peculiar  habits,  tho  name  of 
anl-liimi ;  tliry  exc-ivatc  rnnicnl  pit-fiilla  in  fine  sand, 
and  tini-y  lliemselvesat  the  buttinn,  tbrirlonft  inaniliblvs 
only  nppi-iiring  abiive  the  snrfarn;  and  by  tlicfB  any 
lueklent  insect  that  happens  lu  fall  dimn  the  hide  is  Ini- 
meiliatcly  K-ized  and  killed. 

The  remaining  families  of  this  order  need  not  bo  here 
particularised. 


ra;  but 


In  the  n 
the  insects  of  this  order  teMMulilc  tho  Keur 

they  ean nut  veil  W  miatalivu  fur  them.     Th         . 

winjpi  are  usually  much  larjier  than  tlic  pistcrinr;  tbe 
Teins  ur  neri'iires  nre  much  fewer  in  number  thiol  In 
the  ffeumptera,  and  dn  not  foi-111  a  cIuec  iictworic  by 
thi'ir  rumilieatinns,  as  in  that  order.  In  some  of  the 
minute  sjieeies  the  wmjp>  lire  almost,  or  CTcn  entirely, 


■ImlitnlB  of  nerves.    Another  clinrac 


tho  w 


in  the  ei 


IHistrrinr  during  fli{;t>'i  by  mmus  of  a  series  of  minute 
liuoTiH  along  the  front  edge  nf  the  latter,  wbivh  catch  thu 
hinder  margin  of  the  furmer,  sii  as  to  produce  one  eon- 
tinnou*  inar^iit  on  ■<ai'h  side. 

The  princijial  rliarsicter  of  this  order,  howoTer,  11 
derived  fnnn  the  sti-uclure  uf  tbe  mouth ;  fnr,  althongh 
contidertid  an  mandihulato  inscetn,  the  llymcnnjitera 
arc  much  better  Httcd  fur  imbibing  their  nouriabment 
by  Miction  than  for  nbtainhig  it  by  niaRtiration,  theii- 
maxilh?  being  much  prclonged  and  channelled,  and 
even  nnitine  at  thiir  bii«o  iuln  a  tube,  su  as  lu  form  n 
kind  uf  pniboFcio.  This  is  well  seen  in  llie  bee.  The 
Ilymenui'tern  nro  also  pecalinrly  dbttiiiguished   by  a 

iiTulutigatinn  of  the  tact  (segment  of  tbe  body  in  thu 
cmsle;;,  into  an  organ  ahieu  is  in  one  division  of  the 
oi-ilcr  a  tfiii^,  and  in  the  other  an  orliMflfor,  or  instru- 
ment for  dci?osting  the  eggs,  usually  iiofwaHiig  thu 
povtr  of  lioritig  a  hollow  fur  their  rveeptimi. 
The  Rymtnoi.tera  are  further  t'Ltuurliabte  fur  tho 


CHAMBERS'S  INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


gftut  dcvolopmont  of  Uieir  inatinctWe  faeollin  and  of 
Ueir  loconiotivB  jmwb™.  It  ie  in  jhi»  orilcr  that  wo 
lind  tiw  must  remmrliiible  exunplrs  ot  contiiTBaee,  and 
dlilfDl  adnplJiticiIi  nt  meana  ttiendu;  but  this  adaptation 
resullis  it  wiiuld  apixiar,  not  from  an  exerciae  uf  tnltlli- 
gttwi  on  the  part  uf  tlie  animala  themnelveti  (a*  in  man 
nod  the  higher  Vtrtebrata),  but  froni  their  hiiadiy  fnl- 
lawing  oul  a  plan  laid  duwn  far  them  by  the  Almighty 
Dannaer.  This  infereuce  may  be  dcducvd  from  ths 
iuKaTiaiililg  of  llic  operLlioiui  performed  by  diflerent 
iiuli>Iduala  UDDng  th«  Bams  Bpeeics,  bo  that  a  hiatory 
at  tlio  life  of  one  ia  equally  applicable  to  alL  The  ad- 
Juatuiom  of  itiBtiuGtive  actiaoi  to  each  other  i>  nowhere 
morn  ranarkable  Uian  iu  the  oan  of  the  aacial  ioaecU, 
*hi«h  are  chiefly  reBtrioted  to  this  order.  The  Bees, 
the  Waaps,  the  Ante,  the  Saw-PIiev,  the  ichneamnne. 
Mid  tliii  (.fall-FIien,  have  attracted  the  attention  of  the 
obMrrar  vt  nature  fram  llie  earticat  period. 

The  ioBccU  of  ebin  order  nodergo  a  eompleto  meta- 
morpboais,  the  larrs  being  anongit  the  most  imperfcot 
of  thoaB  of  any  tribe.  In  the  greater  proportion  of  (he 
order  Ihey  are  destitata  of  feet,  and  resemble  little 
wormi.  Tlieie  are  dependent  upoii  Iheiiutinetive  care 
of  the  parent  fur  suppurt[  whioh  ia  either  provided  for 
by  lllo  depoailion  of  iJie  egga  In  siluatians  where  the 
future  grub  will  be  certain  ill  an  oaifila  aavplr  of  food, 
nr  by  tlw  active  exerlioni  nf  the  porrnta,  whieB  onnvcy 
to  tfad  young  tlis  food  lliry  hava  llienuelTea  collected 
for  thorn,  ur  by  rimibr  exeniona  on  tlie  part  of  a  race 


ckMtituccof  p 


When 
erundorgning  seve- 


nrrived  at  Ibeir  uill  growth,  and 

nJ  previous  muultingB,  the  larvmare  nwuiormed  luto 
ioaolive  pupiD,  in  wliiuh  all  the  limbs  of  the  future  in- 
Hot  ate  viitiblc,  cwuoed  in  dislioot  Blicatlis,  and  folded 
nn  the  under  enrfaea  of  the  thonx.  During  tlii*  part 
at  their  exiktence  they  take  iio  food.  In  tlleir  perfect 
itate,  thew  iuaccia,  for  the  nlo«t  polt,  take  but  little 
nourithment  i  And  (hia  almuat  excliuively  couuBtJi  of  the 
BCBti^r  of  flowers.  Man;  of  then>i  however,  luol;  as  the 
'ttupa,  attaoli  and  dexlrny  other  insects;  bnttbeeeare 
often  destined,  not  fur  their  own  aupport,  but  for  the  nou- 


t,  lieii 


le  young. 


fiipltr 


of  frothy  (laid  are  diBchar|«d,  the  l>tl«r  cf  «I4 
the  hole. 

The  fiimUy  of  CnnnoM,  iw  GtU-FS^  pM 
count  of  its  itructure  in  the  Cntomoplugaw  i| 
tlie  Terebrantia,  is  nearly  alFipd  in  haliil*liiaa| 
the  la«I  group.  The  uviposil'ir  does  not  ota 
of  boring  a  hole  by  ilaetf;  but,  lH!ia|[  amcd  ■ 
at  ila  Gxtremily,  it  can  eularge  alita  aln«4f ' 
for  the  depoiritiun  of  ita  egga.  The  fluid  and 
in  (lie  wounded  pnrta  forms  «XRr>*cni«a*  orj 
which  are  enmiDODly  termed  gHltx,  mrf-jr^k 
applft.  Their  form  and  solidity  nrj  tm 
the  part*  of  tho  pinnia  which  have  been  a)IM| 
the  specie!  of  the  insect,  of  whidi  cacb  ti  a 
(0  a  partienUr  kind  of  plant. 


rimplA  MATilfo^^toT  enjfacvJ  In  iT'Tinill^  j 

The  family  of  IniNBCuoiiiiiX  may  be  n^ 

peculiarly  dial '--'-  -'-'-- ' ' 

The  female  de 


chiefly  the  larwe  of  eaterpillara,  on  n 
may  feed  when  hatched.  Sums  of  tl 
long  oi-ipiwilur,  which  is  u»cil  to  " 


e  wiiieh  Ion 


'rvBWlM« 


lomettnieB  in  cunsiderabla  n 
\e  larva,  devour  only  tha  t 
iiliiululi^ly  nceesMiry  « 


a«ary  u>  lils  ;  M 

ui'jrphoaii,  UBf 


-riri^'ui^l'iMt  frutB  lb 


|>r.-^ncc 


ineil  from  the  eaw-liLi'ch 


action  of  the  ovipoaitor.    With  this  iustrument,  they 
Biahe  a  eueeeflsion  of  unall  boles  in  the  hi 
etberparu  otlxet^  in  each  of  which  an  egg 


...--,.,.  .fluch  tlia  I 

.;  -,,i  U.  ii.,ii,>.-d  ill  detail. 

IL 111  1:1 11  J. I.,    I^11L1U[1.G,    BCHBHOIIX,  St 

mil  Ml  tilJ.fPJi,  may  all  be  cof^tei 

il  diwription.    They  fans  ft  fraa 

......  , ..  ...iDvd  ihnt  uf  Fmsorfi  or  Dinam,  lit 

i-nfthe    pi.culi:.r  hnbitB  ;   aiid   Ihpv  are   conuKOiil*  fe 

(  Bu.l  IIW/  ir-^p,.  They  tn  »oLl«y  h  (h 

W,  and  niueequeutly  uo  neutvn  txJMt  anB 

cnvral,  the  fiimalei  exavata  etila  |ft  ^ 

n  DC  locinpmta,  timbersj&c,  iawhiohtbejrd^naia- 

nnd  a  livfip  \ -wiAi.  \\isa  t:6ff,'iu™m*  Urrie,  or ' 


JLHIA. 


■n  ipHoiM  atorw  ti|>  la 


le  mH-iAl  »p«irt  lliore  uv  two  nplnaiul  f^^«l^p^ 
IkblK-UfM,  nr  Wl|.l-Un»,  ind  Uw  IIJia-RtM. 
arniin  II  umblv-BiiM  uT  iliu  cuuDtr;  linin  caTivc* 
sn«U)r  of  Bftj  W 


cnAMnERS'3  INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 

■led  hy  the 


► 


WAX  of  wliich  tlieeouili  is  canatruclcct  tnsEcr 
inw-dt*  liiemaelves,  in  litlle  sciileB,  whlcli  wo! 
l>e«we*nlha  npginenU  uf  tin  abdaniBn.  These  «ro  taken 
«p  nnd  kneaded  b;  the  jawq,  aod  applied  in  Ibe  praper 
nllLDe.  The  drones  are  krllvd  at  the  end  nf  the  numtarv ; 
Mt  the  (jueen  and  ntvM  part  of  the  vnrkon  remaiu ; 
and  wheii,  in  the  Bunimur,  they  increase  to  much  as  to 
over-people  the  hive,  colonies  nre  sent  forth  vritli  young 
queeiu,  in  senrch  or  another  luibltotjon. 

The  insecta  eunlnlned  in  this  order  pment  manir 
eurifflu)  nnonwllea  of  Mrueture  and  \nXi\l,  atid  depnrt 
more  widely  from  llie  general  ttpo  thnn  is  the  cane  in 
ftlmpat  any  ether  diriaion  of  Htc  vlaaa.  IleDBe  tt  in 
diffionlC  to  a^ETEti  any  gcDornl  characters  whiob  nhal) 
Jadada  them  nil.  It  ig  in  the  slruelurs  of  the  nmulti 
Alt  there  h'the  grentest  ngreement.  Thia  U  adiqilcd 
ftrwetion,  the  lungne  being  elon^ted  and  channelled 


^vt 


feDijtlea  am  fuViiielied  vilh  an  nTipmito)',  provldell  ^vllh 
Hvcnd  tmilUed  Mtn ;  and  with  thin  tney  nmkn  Ind- 
riomlnto  tjieleavesorrfemsofplftnlj,  lulu  which  tbiy 
Intniduee  (heir  tggf.  The  nut«i'iai'  pair  i>{  \i\nia  u 
tUMallf  ilinilNr  (u  the  panteriDr  in  coneiiteiice,  hoth 
being  BompDsed  of  a  (Irra  membrane:  that  which  nliSHly 
dlMfuguMheBtlielloiutijiteTa^  haU-erer,  (VomtbeDpteT- 
epteril,ra,thBt  theiinb^lanceoTlhe  anterior  pair,  Vhut- 
■Tcr  be  iU  nnlure,  in  the  dftnie  ttiroughoui,  aqd  thlit, 
»rt(en  folded,  llioj  arc  roof-liko^ 

TMb  order  may  he  divided,  like  the  Cttlenptetfl,  info 
wetions,  acHrrdlnglo  the  number  of  jirintsin  the  tarBl. 
These  Metions  are  only  three  in  umiilKr;  ui  thefUnt, 
ThiMBRi,  the  tarfi  ure  thrwjoiiited ;  !i    " 
DiMSKA,  they  are  bnt  two-joitaled;  and 
Httnoanu,  titer  hate  hnC  one  joint. 
'.  Sectiou  I.  l^jlEIu. — Tbb  ft  roe- join  ted  ditinio 
Bie  Komoptcra  inelodes  three  fimiilies,  of  which 
thfi  rirjninjEand  FufloniD.i;, arp  very  inft-renlltiK. 

Ihe  bf-fsl  cf  il 
measuring  bi'tween  n 
of  its  wiagi,  llieii' 
ihu  i  r  raoeieal  powei-B, 
%en<-nth  the  abdomc 
continued  Eound,  hd 
able  paver.     In 


9  the  third. 


dettitnte  of  fib*  pMafi 

ing  noDnd,  bill  are  distin^ished  bya        *    ~ 


fiilffAin  liacwiurtj, 
extremely  in  theTiriousspec^n,  m-Mi-I 
rons.     It  U  in  ii  tliat  il.     '  .  .  ' 
lanttrn-Jh  ii  mid  tu  e\i  -     ' 
inm^  iif  ohirfi  one  pp  ■ 
Oainiia,  Wiiikt  ano^er  )■  ' 
many  naturali^te.    If  eI  i 
■holt-iiiWEtfni  !':.!^i.^>:  . 


n  II. 


■e  in  gre;,i 


■avcf,  ov  tlie  entniVBHitc  J  up  flu 
Hide  by  IliL-  insecte,  which  i*  kn 
"  '  '  y  of  the  »peeiiai 


_  llic  pupn  is  not  t.. 

III'  inatun-  larva  or  imaRii  stales,  whiMMeM 
I  Ihe  year,  oliu'r  indivldusU  of  thoMlnni 
■I"  I'litli  Ev\i-s  acquire  winpF.  The  nU^jW? 
■  liich  may  U-f-f-.  in  the  f^iiriit-  and  earl?** 
.il  fL-TIHl!ca<-:i|.ii    ■    ■■'.    ]■-.<::-::       '       - 


unlil  I'lfJ  tjl-lnj  lllpiird  l.-Bn  \";inii[  tVVi*»fc 


CILVMBERS^  rarORMATIOS  FOR  THE  PEOPLE- 


lag  bold  with  the  pro-legs,  IhrnM  th«  boij  to  its  full 

Viw  an  called  Ijnop-rnnrGnrmnen.  M&njr  of  liiem 
IMiiiiilili,  in  tlidr  riinnii  uid  coloun,  as  wbU  h  in  their 
jMd*  of  aundtiig  fluid  for  >  great  tengUi  of  Ume  b; 
Ibvir  IiIikI  lif*  only  to  twlgn,  swslt  pieces  of  iliek. 

Tha  frMtcr  nnnibcr  of  fnterpilUn  are  vegeMbU 
fMdna,  and  are  mnlly  eonnned  to  the  l«av«  ;  and  Ih« 
eorropondaiica  tnlwecu  the  deToLoinncnl  cf  the  learei 


^awUlT,  ■ 
«»»  diK« 
ttalai  wk 
I»Ho». 
noclat  of 
•Th«  ta) 


ao  J  DutmUi  dT  Utf  Uinil*  XoUl- 
U<)  flmrpn  of  plant!  nn  the  ons  halid,  wllh  that  of  the 
Wflr|ii11iir>i  ami  buttarHiio  wlilali  arc  Kiip««tin>I]r  |o 
fand  U]Hin  thBin,  cunmil  but  Htrik*  <^ri>ry  on*  as  a  Mao- 
tifu)  Innlatira  of  emativ*  farimiiihl.  But  thera  are  Hirna 
«tlorpUIa»  adapted  to  (cnj  on  tluw*»i  [mlch  as  come 
forth  i»t\j  in  the  vaar):andothcn  allack  acndi,  roots, 

— -* '"le  woodjr  pariian  of  the  gicpi.     Morcovfr. 

faw  wbren  IItk  in  this  stale  upoa  aiunial 
li  u  wuul,  hiilen,  l(«l1i«r,  ADd  fat.  Many 
I  GODsidenible  variety  of  alimentary  mate- 
t  there  are  ollien  that  oan  ooly  Had  aup- 
1*  one  kind,  tha  leaves  of  some  purtieulu 
1pocla«  of  plkot,  for  DxamplB. 

•  Tha  taabiM  ot  Catnpllbn  •»  eitramsly  rarions. 
Boina  burrow  into  tho  aubelanoe  of  leavia,  in  which  they 
VKcairMe  galleries ;  others  envelup  theiaselTes  in  the 


pn-liM'.:  by  npinniiig  a  raroon.  in  ■ 

clomid  during  tile  drealBr  pai'i  "1 

eon  111  met  this  on  lire  ly  of  silk;  i.il'. 

pnrtiiins  nFliBiiVDii  Qr|>uriii'l.-'>i^F  <  <ii 
TlluBc  tlirendsarefui-iiM'.L  1.^  .>  j  >.  .   . 

glands  Which  >eDnis<i..i 

miallupeninBal  tlu-Mi.l  ..,  1 ,■,    ..il... 

intbo  air-    ThLTB  nie  ,^ri.„  L'ji.i,.„Ui=  i.l., 

eoeuuil,  but  wliiuh  arc  c^nU-nlvd  « illi  =usi,^'n 

aalwi  by  Hie  iillnchmi^ut  ul  lliv  hinder  [inrt  i 

rii 

•  l..,l 

ti>  awne  solid  auppuri,  ur  t>y  a  rilllrn  Ibr 

■.■ul 

W-uh(l  ihi'ni.     TbL-  •.hrnMlii  rjr  njujiili  him 

<       ■   ■.    i   -i.'-'l..   i^.Lrta  of  tho  future  ins. 

iiyb. 

i:                              ri>'Mii>.'nl  of  iho  final  imn>- 

"r 

[Utiun 

■■■.■,    ,1.-,  iulcatine  a  red    in, 

nl. 

whio 

■..n .,.1.1  i),oci.co..n.undallov™tl,i. 

..f.h 

[»ntli.    iM'ii..ri>lh'  I'nr.' uiiil  uf  il  in  woUr,  ur 

by  l)ie  nrranaemeul  of  the  ibi-eada  (or  tha  va 

jip 

ofUi 

for  fli^t    From  that  period,  ika  tody  W| 
by  thrui  during  by  lu  Ot»  grtaUUKtV^ 

The  order  of  Lrf^^'^nfttt*  «  wMBy  jiiifct 
aecIiDDB,  whieli  an  diffvtant  alike  iu  llHte  oMI 
and  habits.  Thew  arc— I.  Ilie  Du*ut,  w  | 
ubieh  may  ba  at  osee  leoegaiard  li]r  Aa  «J 
lion  of  the  wiDgs  during  rvpoaa  ;   J,  Il)|l 

uni.,  or  7'ln%l(^Jf■>tlU,  or ■-  '-—'- 

JIforAi,  in  which  ilie  wines  u 

Iha  ancennn  titick  or  elub4bapt4 1  \ 

Oc  tme  Malhi,  wlioae  wiag*  Ue  ata  iimiiM 

dined  in  repont^  bat  wh»e  aninma  an  bm 

tiering  rndu^y  from  tha  baaa  lo  tb*  poiM, 

Swlion  I.  DiiKi^^TlK  fim  aeafailH 
with  Ihe  Linnwan  genua  P-puli^  wkidk  Is  I 
ever,  very  muEh  subditided.  Tha  ButwAa 
lidgnished  from  utbec  L«)iidoptnB  Inr  fte  M 
Ibeir  colonring,  and  by  the  bouiiy  i/ib*  ni 
■4  of  tha  uppnr  tide  of  Uia  wlagai  TtMit  d 
haTC  grnarally  HKte«B  feat,  ksd  ■tub'  Ma»|| 
alw*yadeatjtiiMufaiiyaiUagiMn'da|NCMMii| 
by  tha  tail.  TlieasiwuuBifBirtltaUHHa 
kni^bcd  at  their  eatrstuitSea,  miiiirtiMtifl 
tbidtneiu  Ihrouffhuui,  and  avtnalinB  lK>M 
from  ba*c  to  point.  This  acciloii  nuty  \t  M 
ihrao  fatnilicB,  accordiDg  In  pceuUariiia  ia|| 

Sectiou  II,  CiucrcsoiLiuit — The  •eetiM  f 
Eularia,  or //nuJhAfoAi,  eorrrsponds  wlili 
ganus^hiru,  which  iJerivnl  itanaiiie'- 
attltadvn  (n-Kmbling  that  of  tha  acal 
anliqull  t )  into  which  the  larra  aonirtii 
Although  Ibo  Lapidoptera  arrmnnd  bd 
ou  acmunt  of  their  mniilarity  of  ilnll 
Iwilighl-tUen,  it  is  not  tha  case  witli  tUl  tiri 
Bomo  which  come  abroad  in  opnt  daytUtt)] 
the  juices  of  fiuwecs  with  tbs'tr  ong  inH^ J 
sun  ii  brightly  illaiaining  thctr  winfC  fM 
are  observed  to  be  inOTa  brilUamlr  (oImMII 
rest.  Ininaet  of  the  S{>hiugoathobo^ul|i 
a  dull  brownish -grey  upect,  like  that  «f  ■■ 

iu  nppe.-irance  than  lllutu!  of  tlie  Uullei^^ 
r'Onlca  did  not  lie  so  claH.-Iy  upon  each  other.  1 

{>it|Hti  arc  cillier  eneluwd  in  a  oocmd  «■ 
.-,-lvcs  in  the  earth.     The  IlawL-UMki  WJ 


The  Itullerfls,  when  it  throws  off  ils  last  envclopB  snd 
eomai  foilh  into  lliu  air,  of  whiuh  it  is  hencefurtli  tu 
Jw  DUP  o!  iha  gayent  inhabilanta,  is  uot  allogelher  per- 
fect,  difmUfrli  tr»|iible  of  very  amiu  Ijccoming  so.  'S\v 
fiail*  afipirsr  at  lirM  far^ 

homely  bv  the  aida  ;  atit 

Jo^oDdnf  tiirir  tabtm  with  tit,  by  taking  saiBrai 
Bptnutoaa,  Ihai  ttioy  boeome  oKpWLtieil  -"  "•-  < 


ilL..|^lfbou  the  back  wfihcllwrti.  1 
aL]iii;  kind  of  aauud,  somatliaea  nstbef 
tiiu  nii-du  ill  which  it  ia  produeed  eaK 
I  iiKrcvd.  In  cousojuciice  of  ttu  panl 
lo Jy,  the  sndden  apjwarancc  of  this  InM 
■rs  hus  beta  popularly  rrf-arded  aa  a 
It  is  n  great  enemy  tuheea,  and  <M*r*l 
ndud,  devouring  the  Imney,  »o4  »)■ 
lanta  m  tliat  ihey  «™  to  ka*p  ainrfft 
S^'clion  lll.No<:r™..-The  pwij-rf,., 
ini"^'.i.-«k«l.'(farthehii^»tofiliBo»*r.  1 


a  \ixn%\  M,X*rt,i,\uOB*  --*'^^'-T inn  shii  rtH 


tA  ■^Mnc.\wn  Wk  4ii 


eiu 


>  cbuaneU  tlrrniigh  mbioh  Uxy  ^mw  ihu  H 
c  aoisMtaty  tn^uM,  cuMialiajt  uuiy  ft  due  ui 
'  Um  nunilii  stuvnii  iu  I«m  nud  unu 


iiig  KriMtnllji  eyliudrioil  bwlkw  iiruW, 
iU>H  vt  Ivip  kutDc  biiuul  UHpt  in  s  b*  < 
nau}  tlinru  i>  on  prrifwr  tt1Ul■^lnI^t>t■nl 
kCUM;  tin  akin  of  lb*  Urrn,  xliioh  h~~ 

a,MiJ*lu«tan»,ii>«nuilaf,ii*it  i>i-ni,l|i« „. 

lirymllL  'TIm  lioiljr  i*  dduebed  rrutn  Ita  inlMiWi 
llio  orcw)«  pieiiilKP  to  tiia  Urri,  neb  u  tb* 
(lin  nnmlii,  itdlmrent  la  tb*  innide  of  Uia  lUo, 
inacRu^  tlie  nii^uMd  boiiu  aHainm  tba 
h  mix  and  ^Uunoiu  iiiw,  TilbDut  oay  at  Iha 
ilin  futiin:  iiuFCi  bcrag  TiMblsj  aaiiM  dkjsMik> 
},  h6imcr,  illnu  orutn  bsraaA  ^oriiuuis  u^ 
ret  hnk  Atm  vmatmiA  \\>»  tm&  iM*«  ■*  T«:^% 


H'c;u)iii5.  in  iiit'nrM,  ^m.m'k.i.ka,  iia*  aiuc-iiiia*  iiiccum- 
jiosoil  of  iiiui'C  than  hix  joints;  wlii'.st  iu  all  tlio  ro- 
mainrlcrf  the  nnte'iir:".'  arc  ehort,  n«»t  having  ajiparontlv 
mure  t}ian  three  ilUtinct  joints.  In  the  stconil,  Noi.-.- 
I'A.vriiA,  tlio  la»t  division  of  the  anteiuiii'  is  ri-ally  ct-ni- 
pi)sed  of  two  ;  the  I>robo^^L•is  does  not  jtn'joct  much  from 
the  mouth,  and  in  furnished  with  only  two  lancets.  In 
the  third,  Tanvstoma,  the  nntenmu  have  really  only 
t'.jrec  joints,  the  List  beinp  usually  terminated  hy  a 
srta  or  buntle.  And  in  the  fourth,  the  Athkrichra,  the 
autcnntu  are  only  two  or  thi*cc  jointed,  and  tin.*  pro- 
bosci.H  in  withdrawn  into  the  m(>uth. 

Section  I.  Nkmiickua. — To  the  Nemocrra  bvlong  the 
two  famili'.'i  of  Ci'Linn.r.  and  'i'lpri.in.i: ;  the  form<*r 
known  as  the  (iuat  tril."'.  the  latt'-r  a**  the  Ilarry-hnt}- 
irr/s.  The  former  are  distinguislu-il  by  their  beauti- 
fully tufted  nntennt%.\  <JnatH  are  wi:ll  known  to  abound 
chiefly  iu  damp  Rituations ;  the  reason  being  that  their 
l.irvi(>  ni-o  inhabitants  of  the  water.     In  thib  state  they 

* 

arc  very  active,  swimming  with  great  ngility,  and  often 
desicending,  but  con:inGf  to  the  Furlace  to  breathe,  which 
they  do  head  downward^,  the  i*C3piratory  orifice  being 
at  the  end  of  the  tail.  When  the  tinni  trnnpformatit.n 
(>ecuiv,  the  pkin  i-f  the  pu]>»,  which  t»  being  cant,  serves 
an  a  kind  <if  raft,  which  prevents  the  perfi'ct  insect  from 
being  immersed  in  water.  The  mosquitoes  which  in- 
fest many  countrie:',  c?p«-cially  in  wann  latitudes,  diller 
but  little  fr«>m  the  ci>mnion  gnats.  Thi'y  sometimes 
appear  iu  Kuch  swarm«,  Ci]H'ciariy  in  nuji^ihy  districts, 
as  to  be  kept  off  only  by  fhv. 

.Seeiion  II.  NoTACAvniA. — The  second  section  of  the 
])i|iti'ra  c'««ntainR  thrive  families,  STitATiOMin.i-*,  ItRuip.n, 
and  CiKXOMViP^  which  do  not  attraet  much  hI'h  ntiim, 
ulthougli  fiomeuiftho  insect<;containe<lin  them  are  very 
abundant.  They  are  inosily  small,  but  gaily-eolound 
iuBi'cts,  and  an-  mri^-t  numenu!!-.  iu  moist  Hituritinns,  in 
wliieh  th-,'  lurviv  nre  ^t-nrrall;-  pn  id  need.  They  mottly 
feed  upnu  vegeialde  kUIi'T  ih.-nt  nulmal  juice-. 

Section  III.  TANYsroHA. — Tl'.e  ip.  i  Lt«.  oiup.Kung  the 
third  division  luivc  usually  a  more  pi  rlVct  m-  nth  than 
tho8o  of  the  other  rcctiouM ;  and  they  are  also  remit rk- 
able  for  the  atructure  of  the  head  of  the  larva*,  which 
i>08s<M)    two    claw-like    ap|H?nda'^e8,    bv   which    tln-v 


!  'r 

i 
I 


iii.iur>  iM    ii;i'>  vi^uiiLit  ,   atiit  mi,  it.-    uiv   piouB 

as  many  iniTc  which  have  iMt  beiMi  desc 
htrong  general  resemblanc«f  whie!i  exists  ai 
ppecies,  makes  it  very  difficult  (es|  ccially 
small  bi/.e  i-  Cvjusidered)  to  di^crimiime  l1 
Thi'  larviu  of  the^c  insects,  conmiunly  knowi 
are  si.ft,  venniform,  footlees  grabs,  pouei 
head  a  cuuiili:  of  retractile  hooki«,  hy  wlii 
clin;;  t')  the  substances  on  which  thev  f«cd 
vni;r  various  substances,  both  auunal  bdi 
living,  recently-dead,  or  far  advanced  in  j 
The  e«:;.j^  are  deposited  by  tl:e  fomaV, 
in>;:ineLS,  in  the  neighbourhood,  <>r  in  til 
k!  ni.ee,  «Tlhe  foud  which  is  adnpted  for  tin 
th'^  larva,  however  little  to  its  own  liking. 
The  Ov-<Ti<ifvr.,  or  Dot-Flips^  are  a  family  f 
able  in  regard  to  their  structure  and  liablti 
feet  instett.  rt.';emb!e  large  meat-Hies  in  fm 
hairy,  and  generally  have  these  hair;*  cokNU 
like  hun:ble-beL-s ;  but  they  arc  seMom  MCi 
tii.n  (.f  thfir  lives  being  verj*  short  io  thi 
Their  chief  peculiarity  cen^^iMs  in  the  abi 
propi'-r  inttuth  in  the  inuigti  (in  wliich  reif 
an  analog}'  wi:h  the  Stp'pHipiera),  and  is  < 
habitation  of  ii:e  larva.  This  i«  id  ways  fin 
animals;  its  situation,  ho^-evtr,  varying* 
cir.-s,  of  which  almost  every  herbivorous  man 
or  more  peeuliar  to  it.  Tlio  egw  ig  Jeposii 
in  situations  wi;erc  tlie  larva  may  burrow  ii 
where  it  iieca«<ions  influniuiatory  trnnonn 
coiitained  in  which  r^fford  it  ntuirtehment 
caRes,  the  cggR  or  lan*se,  ex i stint;  npnn  spol 
animal  is  iu  the  habit  of  licking,  are  conv 
tongue  into  the  m<»uth,  wlionce  ihoy  pa^s  i 
inach.  There  they  remain  nnti]  full-grDin 
they  quit  the  body  (as  do  aI»o  those  that 
flesh)  and  fall  to  the  pnrjund,  1)«.ueath  Ihi 
which  they  n:;dcrgo  their  tRmsTorQUitliin/^ 
of  one  species,  xvhich  inhabits  tlie  vhecp,  i 
t!ie  cavities  iu  front  of  the  bones  of  the  rikUi 
parts  i>f  the  nose.  Man  is  pubject  to  the  ai 
or  more  t.ni*cioi*,  which  do  not,  however 
eoMJi'i'V. 


iDirui  (RHfiuor.  «t 


THE  PEOPIiJS, 


rMici-Ii4: 


a^,  Ixtl  it  fa  vrro  Uixliiault  la  aMiga  l|ieir  pm- 
KW  in  til*  aiuo.  Ai  tint  pwaa  t«w  yf  ipiuinl 
■(  thaa.uf  cutiuiQ'  tv  llio  wiMitiAF  naMntM, 


U*dB  XL— ADl<wi)t<Ui>. 
r  RfiMaim  nnty-nnv  funil)',  tha  TcuaiM^ 
I,  all  III  wliidi  nnt  hant*  of  nloalH  wxr. 


uli  nod  m  Uil*  ihty  uuiUrs°  tbeir  elBon  Imu 
M  MiM.  1p  UiMt  purftol  alata,  tlio  ludmiaiU 
winiiii  art  vHibla,  in  tha  fiirra  of  litUv  Mal*^ 
il  M  iIhi  lU'Cniiit  BSil  tbiid  MintanU  of  Iln  liMlK 
ill  Uiem U  oa  pntpac  iliaUueiiauof  diiitMi  mmI 


1  af  aiiiliand  Dun,  b««niiB  iii«r  prfwniw  tin  th» 
H  iniliMtiini  of  n  ^rnu  mnt  n(  (dmnllirua  fl( 
Mom  of  bh«  lowrr  iin<m»l>,  luwavar,  ara  ll>- 

wlili  »iiit  ikr  muTv  afufiwi,  fruin  liiv  aiUwin  tit 
Viry  ani  iinl   »W»  m  dcbnd  Uiriiiieliu;   knil 

III  tk*aiu  Uiar  pralaeclua.  Tbeir  |;inii-j»i>na 
1  isbJi  utluir  vary  nfidl;.  Tt»  faratak  ■» 
oOuoly  danitatii  of  "^ «. 

UM«  X  IlL— tUnUBInn- 
la  inaeMa  'if  tbls  onttr  tbn-c  ia  a  naiMluiU* 

ir«fMtiuitura,iBptia^lj'liinDWdlDtji*>MHiti. 
itiumnme *  — ■ " 


CHAMBERS'S  INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


•B  »>lh  I, 


a  uie  BMC  wi 
gnrd  to"  tlio  pj't* ;  ifi"*!!  (irjpiin  being  fully  developeil 
lu  *->in*,  ■III]  n'liKWl  niil'iiiKiiury  in  oihsra.  The  onler 
CMiUiDi  two  funilio.  In  tlie  lint,  Ihc  LKrilMins,  Ibi 
abdoRira  n  funiinlied  ni  each  ■idi  wilh  ■  row  of  mava- 
^1b  B[ipti]diigei>,  \At  fiilBe  legs,  and  is  uriuinated  b; 
loug  Juinlpd  brintlea,  of  wttlFli  thrva  are  mare  remjub- 
abla.  Than  liuJe  ioiecu  leap  yery  well ;  sonie  freqiwnl 
wony  pUm^  whilst  Mother  is  fnuod  in  sugar,  and  is 
knawn  m  ihv  (iijnr /oru*.  In  the  Ponmunc,  the  appcn- 
dagnto  tli(  Kiiles  of  IheHbdcimen  are  wanting  1  but  Ihe 
cxtramity  uf  it  is  prolonged  into  %  forlied  Ui!,  by  which 


Ytry  mirfrining  leaps  \  iliis, 
»hen  in  in»ction,  i«  spplieci 
■pinit  the  belly-     From  thic 


rXASS  VII.— ARAtllNinA. 
:  Anchuld*,  Including  the  SMm  and 
■  fur  a  1(1118  tiow  ooufauiulM  with  thnl 
d  hu  Imscii  unly  rtoeully  B«ps«l«d.  Tlio 
chwactci's  wliioli  tlity  pTcsant  an)  pcriuclly  diatincl 
Iraii  UtoM  eiilior  uf  liiirou  an  Uio  one  hand  or  of 
CnMlMw  an  (lis  otlitr  |  DeranltolaH  tbcy  preKnl 
nuiBtruiu  relatlaiia  wilh  baUi  Ihoae  groupii. 

llio  Aradinida  may  h<i  dialinguUhcd  from  Insecta 
b;  Uw  aljunn  of  any  division  iMtwaea  ibo  h*ail  and 
tluirui  I  and  the  compound  mua  tliu*  (unnkd  a  tenued 
(lie  ccphalo-tliotan.  Again,  InscoU  iu  tlioir  mature 
•tate  BTD  always  provided  with  sia  legi  and  no  more ; 
lllo  Arachnids  have  oiK III  of  llifw  moiubers.  Moreover, 
tlia  ayen  nre  nut  ounpuund,  but  more  reiemble  tliosB  of 
bigher  Builitaln.  Kroin  CrusUcea  they  are  wparaled 
by  lilt  sufuicsa  o(  thoir  bodiifs  (iu  which  ronpecl,  bow- 
.«**r>  they  are  Bipv"«''l"ii  I'y  t'iriniu  MaoTouroua  De- 
en  poaa  teniicl  .-^!ii'  ■  I  .il  .  i.i.r  ■iillmorocompletely 
by   llloir  cull..  I    ■    i-eBpiralion.      The 


llitir  iillli:a,  n 


the  skin  and  in  the  n«li  of  i 
grtUly  weakening  than  by  (heir  ■ 

especially  the  carrion  brellea.  SiMMofdfc 
rearm  hie  ^idat*  in  fiirm  and  habilia 

Beside*  the  .^  RirJ,  whidi  tana  llupAd 
(his  order,  there  in  a  ruriooa  gnup,  ■hi^  b 
the  name  uf  Ptttuio-Sivrpiaiu.  oo  inf  ta  ^bta 
uf  a  pair  of  laiw  oiawa  taniiinaba|  ID  (m 
like  those  of  tlie  true  aoorpions,  an  Ura 
excessive  dcvelnpinent  of  liie  uri^uv  sb 
seels  are  termed  pxli'L  Thm  is  abstain 
fnmvlyi  which  aume  nBlut3]ii4a  bavpaqaai 
distinct ordpr,tbe/'5fC>w^Bidci,'  Ibcacanlis 
by  the  absence  of  all  special  respiiaMly  Op 

tscca.  They  are  fouud  amon^  SMitM  f 
under  stones  on  the  bench.  Their  nwiiin  a 
ably  slow ;  and  they  are  said  to  hi*  clurf^ 
animals  of  Bivalve  Molliuca. 

Onkt  II — PnlmisisKa 
In  this  order,  tbe  reipiratiou  is  yiafiamti 
of  air-sao9  contained  on  tliii  uuJcc  Mds  -i  Ih 
opeoing  exioruall j  by  atigmala ;  -""—'■"it  I 
turcB  are  eight  iu  number,  Xour  on  eachiii^ 
times  toar,  or  oven  only  two.  Thi>  dimiuu 
to  indicate  a  gradual  elnvatioo  la  iht  cbia 
Kppatatusi  Isading  lu  from  lite  dlffussd  a 
which  it  exi«ta  in  IiiscCU^  to  tbo  msii  01 
form  it  prcsetits  In  higher  animals,  n* 
possess  eight  bt^aihlng-porca ;  and  thaappi 
to  the  Tnuhoary  Aroalnuda  Ihau  do  Iha  B|ii 
offer  thcinHelv<-«  nfxt,  thrrcforp,  to  ouiCMS 
The  family  of  rcuir^Lri  ia  diatintnishsll 


t  r-umv  degree  aaia  ll 
iitiblt  feci;  bm  the  >»» 
I'd  faii^  and  an  pert 


"^uTv^u^h^  T«»4M\i4idki 


ZOOLOGV^ARTICULATA. 


it  the  DM  to  which  it  la  to  ha  Hppliei]  vnriw  in    I 
|wcin.     In  boiiiu  it  fiirnia  nxbii  in  which  am     : 

-d  to  Dinke  a  ilrlii-aie  silken  tubp,  which  lilies 
toliiiii;  and  in  iiihKrs,  it  'a  cliicfly  ustd  fiir 
ilinn  of  a  Nirt  iif  CHNinn  wilti  nliith  Iliu  pgipi 
tndcil.  The  iiintnimenta  hy  wliich  thin  liiivud 
M  are  little  teat-like  pniluherBnM;.i,  temird 
,  (>r  ithivh  fuur  hmuiIIv  exi-it  at  the  pnnterior 
nf  the  alxlomen.  Kacfi  n(  ihnw,  when  hi;,'1i1r 
,  i^  I..1111J  tci  he  r>'rf..ralrd  at  it*  cstremily  by 
lie  oriflciii  nf  pxtruinc  nittiulcneiiH,  thmiiirh 
ii'rvH  (lilt  0  f;lutini>uii  fluid,  in-ctrtcd  hy  )(1niiils 
!iii>  Hiii'l  riHin  linrdcn*  )>y  ex|>i)SDTc  to  the  nir ; 
■aHi  llin:»d,  di-licate  oa  it  may  ocmi,  in  c-im- 
-vi.'ntl  hiiiMml4,orexlrRnicniMiuti-n«w.ri>ilvd 
M.  lliat  it  [josseiiscs  gOHil  &Iruuglh  in  pn>[iOrtion 


H,  cilliir  hy  ci 


tiAf  iif  imniuit,  thcv  j<iuii;^'thi-ir  ji'iii-'iiiril 

niiD  itn  i)i.ily,  dii4  tl.i-  hitc  ix  nMially  nmhi 
niu'iiiniv,  liiiwtviT,  tl^e  iiisret  hiH  Mrenjtili 

r">iM  it*  (.ni'iiiy,  aii<l  In  pn-vi'iit  tiie  iiilheli<in 
li  wminit ;  ami,  a>  a  j<riiliin:;i'd  Htriiititla  iiiiiHit 
ijiiri"iii>  In  thi!  fpiihv.  mi  umiuiit  nf  flip  Milt- 

I'iily,  il  "■■niTiillv  rvtiriK  rniiii  the  mnlmt  if 
li(j   kuivi-it'iil.    iVhiTo   itn  pn-y  )iiiii  h'ni 

ill  it*  Wfli,  linwfvi'r,  lliu  npiiliT  htill  fiinhcr 
:  by  .1  •ilkrn  tlimul,  and  thi'ii  irtirm  until  thi' 
Itn-t  II*  sIri'Tiitih  hy  iiicHi-ctiiai  iitrii<^lr»,  wheii 
■]inlelii-K  its  riitiin. 
iiiiii,'-SpiikT>,  f.tuwl  in  the  Simih  of  Kumpc, 

iu  dry  riii-lriiijiNituntiiinn  cxpinnlln  thi^Kun, 
can  cylinilrtcnl  gallvrii'S,  often  Ivio  feci  deep. 


CLA.«S  rill^Clll'STACEA. 


luiid.     ludeud,  tlii-y 
I'iiin]  fiinii  biith  liy 


I,*  at  iiiwrtx.    I)ut  they 


cry  iinjHirtaiit  ehiiraei 
tile  i>rui(thiLj^npiiaml  ,  . .  ..  _ 
iiIhjiu  J  til  oiiiuttiu  Hiid  iKit  111  aErml  ropinitiKii.  liistuad 
if  liie  WFtemof  liniiiehinglubtvii'liiehH'efiiidin  InHccIs, 
ir  tile  Iniiit-iilii;  eiivitb-H  whicii  luva  mure  cniiernlraled 
'inn  lit  llw  Kiinn  i<lriictun:  in  tiie  Amciniida,  the 
.'rnKtiiivii  ara  funi>iiril  »ii]i  frin|^  nf  iiillx  like  tiinae 
irtheMiiliii'caurl'il'hi-!',  iiilnHltieh  tlieliluodisMiil, 
1*  it  wiTe,  (nit  iif  llw  biidy,  tn  mvi-t  the  nuall  qnaulity 

iii;1iv»t  i>nli>r  iif  tiiis  clanii,  the  giilH  d»  mil  Uuii);  himielj 
iiui)  thi>  b<u1y,  but  aiii  (iivIihiI  in  a  I'avily,  having 
mi  iirilici'i,  ihniui^i  line  nf  wiiich  a  oiiii'iaiit  itn.-uin  3 
tatiT  i*  intrddun-l,  whicii  ia  cjceitil  thruiiKh  tiie  uiiicr 
•y  n  ctirii'i:.-!  uit'Cuaiiicai  ciinti'iTanc?.  Atul  in  a  feir 
ut  thi*  nnit-r,  tlitin'  ii  a  *|H.'eml  pniviginn  tat 
tlii>  i!ill4  mnii-t  ulicn  tluj  niiiinal   Icuvo  tha 

ivuiiiraniiiwleriiiileiifriiid. 

,  me   m-M-hiitiwn  »i  ineiH)  ure  the  J^ud'Cruha  iif  tha 

hv»tln.li-ml.-:anils. 

I       II  i*  mil  fliilr  by  llivir  a(jiiHtie  rOHpiniliiin,  liowover, 

'  tlin;  liir  Crutiacea  nre  diKliiii;iiiiilied,  Imt  aiw)  by  tlie 

I  il  iMiiini'inly  ternivd.  it  a  Hecrrtinn  frum  the  aurfuoe  (if 
llw  Flii-llauf  Mitlluiica  friini  tlieir 


i5.'?:^« 


ire :  l«"\  aiv  hiitclieil  Kitliiii  it,  and  Ihv  youi 
li'ir  lii'-t  rliaiic"''-  b'-dir*-  (inilliii;!  it. 
•'I,a  i'  n-iiiii-kalil<'  t'«r  ihe  ciiriniii'  hhlntnllini 
•i.ii'triii-L'  tiir  im  ^(Jiiiic.     It  spluH  a  hind  nf 

•e- :r  tfiil,  whieh  it  orlaHie*  111  the  imil.-r 

11.-  ..r  f>  cr-vi..,-.  iu  n«-t.  br  wviii  .t  .-iylit 
.lijii;  r.".I. .elw....n  then-,  tin-  i-Ili-*  i.f 


1. 1  li-l 


Tliei 


It  dilTun 


I  of  ill. 

I  lirinit  tlieiiWflvrti  ui 
fi.iincr  Beeunti'lv  I 
iiid,  IIS 


I,  tliat,  wliilnt  the  tatti 
fneUiH-  iinwly  niHl  tn  pmteut  the  |^i 


inlKTi 


..I  the  ••^■^.  Till-  Aniij  rcmuin  in  Ihi*  i.< 
afii-r  llii'V  ST.-  h^iiwiil.  mill  .in-  fUi.nUMl  ti 
I  niih  fund.     Till'  .■Ir'«rni„ia  |..nii*  a  »hilr 


liiibhl 


ir  hi-i 


ig  down  lh.'ir  >.l«iii»  ;  and  lliex'  liublle*     . 
Ill  iiR  U-ll  tiiitil  it  iiHM  Hlk-d  iu     It  then  talicn 
4*  in  thi>  c-ll,  where  it  ii'iiiaiii-  for  the  winti 
ag  Ibe  nuiutii  (iT  llio  b^li.    'I'lio  Jipanr  * 
;  mow  remarlmble  fur  the  ntreiifcth  nf  tl* 
ic  of  tnc  exotic  •i|<i<eii!i>,  tvliich  arc  rcin.irkiible 


uFy  ji>iiiteJ  li.j^' 

n  nd'Iitiiin  b>  tlin  rii.'m  of  tliene  rin;^  would 
!  llK'ir  diaiiK'ii-r,  s»iiii'  I'tln  r  iiii'nn*  iiiii^t  tw  iiro- 
■r  Kti»b:>iiv  Ihv  M/i-ii'r  tiie  elii'll  b>  l^"rp  | 
■n-m-^  bulk  cf  ih«  b>Hlv.    I'iit*  i*  ell 
'i.>tic:il  fi«ri;tiiM,  iT  tlir<)wiii(r  ,^  „f  tl 
id  tlio  fMiiiii,Ti,.ii  i>r  a  new  one.     Tlii*  cl 
d  hy  eviilviii  illni':ii  <>ti  llie  |>art  nf  the 

r  llie  rlii'lt  endiihiii^  tiiu  truiilc  fiplil*  UMi 


trlwl  by 


iiider  !«,. 


i>  alliiw  the  iKHly  tl 


.,  .  Inil  llw  thell  nf  the  Irgs  ai 
tire,  tiiiiiiKii  the  tliiliv  parts  arc  eniireiy  willidrawn 
1'niiii  their  interinr.  I'hi*  ii  the  nrnrc  remarkable,  ai 
ihn  bulk  of  tlie  cinw  is  much  RTFaler  ihiin  the  diaiiiebn- 
uf  the  joint  Ihrouj^li  which  it  is  llins  nlada  to  pass ;  and 


below  that  point,  the  animal  itself  ofleeta  tlie  removal 
of  the  upper  portion,  either  simply  casting  it  off  by 
violent  muscular  contraction,  or  striUiu(r  it  against  tome 
hard  bodv.  'J'ho  same  ia  tlio  caRe  when  the  claw  lias 
been  Accidentally  lost  in  some  other  way  ;  and,  accord^ 
iiigly,  it  ia  by  no  means  uncommon  to  witness*  a  great 
diBproportion  io  the  8i/.u  of  tho  two  members,  one  being 
much  Bmalicr  than  natural,  I'ruui  its  having  been  only 
recently  produced. 

The  number  ol'  legu  poseetsed  by  the  Crustacea  is 
greater  than  that  of  perfect  iiu>ects,  being  never  lean 
than  four  pail's,  besidea  the  ]mir  of  claws  which  may 
be  eoiuudered  as  nietamorpluised  legs.    It  is  iu  the  crab, 
lobster,  craylish,  i^^c,  that  we  find  this  small  number; 
and  these  belong  to  the  highi^st  order,  the  Decapoda, 
or  ten>footed  Crustacea.    In  front  of  these  ui'e  some  eu- 
rious  organs  termed  feet-jaws,  being  intermediate  in 
Btructure  between  these  two  kinds  of  appendages ;  in 
some  of  the  lower  Crustacea  these  become  true  legs. 
And  from  tho  posterior  part  of  the  body  there  hang 
down  eertain  ap]>enduges,  which  are  also  ti'ue  legs  in  the 
lower  ordera.     In  fact,  tlie  lowest  Crustacea  approach 
▼ery  closely  to  the  ^lyriapoda  in  LJieir  general  form 
and  structure,  differing  chieHy  in  their  afjuatic  mode 
of  life;  the  segments  of  the  body  arc  nearly  equal,  and 
are  each  furuislied  with  a  pair  of  logs.     On  the  other 
hand,  among  the  Decapods  we  fiud  an  approxhnation 
to  tho  form  both  of  insects  and  spldern — the  lobster 
representing  the  one,  and  the  f*rab  the  other.     In  the 
lobfiter  wo  iiave  a  re;;ular  division  into  hcaU,  thorart 
and  abdotncthf  as  ia  insects ;  and  it  is  to  the  thorax  alone 
that  the  locomotive  appendages  are  attached,  as  in  the 
perfect  state  of  the  insect.    Tiiere  is  no  rudiment,  how-  | 
ever,  of  wings.     As  n\  the  insect,  We  find  that,  where 
the  force  is  concentrated  in  one  part  of  the  body,  and 
the  genei*al  movement  is  eifected  chiefly  by  the  mem* 
bers,  tlie  segments  u{  that  part  are  consolidated ;  and, 
accordingly,  the  thorax  of  the  lobster  ^ieen)s^  until  cxltc-  | 
fully  exantined,  as  if  comiNised  of  a  single  piece.     The 
segments  uf  the  abdomen,  however,  aro  moveable  on 
each  other ;  and  their  motitins  assist  in  progression, 
the  flattened  tail  serving  as  a  fin  bv  which  the  water  is 


a  sucker.  The&e  two  groups  are  precisely 
to  those  of  Mandibulata  and  Ibiustellata  auio 
The  EucA'TATA  are  divided  iulo  three  orders, 
to  the  form  of  the  oxtreniitics : 

Aka.nkifui<kMi:.s,  in  ^^hicJi  the  extremities  az 
long,  and  adapted  for  walking. 

6Yrjio.NoarroMATA,  in  which  the  ex(rcmiti< 
adapted  for  walking,  are  partly  formed  iitto  ] 
partly  adajited  for  prehension.  . 

LiJiN£ii'oaMK&,   in  which  the  extreraltic-i 

little  developed,  and  the  body  [iresepts  gr<^ak 

form.     Most  of  these  are  parasitic  up«'u  othe 

especially  fishes,  to  which  they  cling  by  mean 

in  which  their  rudimentary  extremities  tena 

The  Maxillosa,  containing  by  far  the  laj^ 

tion,  as  well  as  the  most  higTily  organised  fv] 

class,  are  again  distributea  into  fi>ur  seetiw 

DorHTiiAJUHiA,  in  wliich  the  eyes  are  mounted 

stalks,  and  arc  moveable.     These  have  aim* 

branchiae,  properly  so  called  ;  their  feet  are  | 

bulatory,  partly  prehensile ;  and  the  thurax  i 

with  a  carapace  or  sliield  (like  the  upper  aI 

tUA'Ues),  which  is  fonned  uy  the  great  dcv«l* 

one  of  tl)o  rings,  overlapping  tlie  rest.   f2.  Ki*K 

11  iA,  in  which  the  eyes  are  seasiU^  or  not  niou 

pedicle.     The  branchiie  are  not  &ei>arate  nr^ 

united  with  the  extreuiilies;  these  ai'e  ah:ifl 

seven  on  each  side,  and  adapted  for  walkin*. 

no  carapace.     Z.  BRA.NaiiOfonA,  In  whic!)  the 

gilU,  hut  the  anterior  pairs  of  legs  are  flat: 

plates,  which  ore  subservient  to  rci>plratian 

TOMOSTJUCA,  in  wliich  there  are  no  brancliia*,  i 

(urent  organs  to  supply  their  place.      Tlie 

ses.sile,  r.nd  commonly  united  into  a  single  iaa& 

gruuys  are  again  subdivided  into  nine  ordirr 

lows ; — 

1.  The  Podophthalmia  consist  of  the  Dix 
which  there  are  five  |»airs  of  thoracic  exlrem 
which  have  the  gills  ench»^ed  in  a  f^pecial  re 
cavity;  and  the  8ro.MAi*i>OA,  which  liave  six 
pairt)  of  thoracic  exti*emities  and  external  bra 
'J.   Th<>  Kdriophthalnua  contain   thrvi*   or«. 


■^■^y 


ilr-,  fU  lllBl  (he  dHallK  flf 


«  pUr  nr  Imi^  bruiclutj  cntauiHy  •rhiiH  knre 


CHAMEERS-S  INFORMATroS  TOR  THE  PEOPLB. 


Onler  VUL — Copi^iiniii. 

The  uiimnla  nr  IhisBndlhc  next  order  »re  Oumnnnlj' 

Wrined  monouulowi,  from  Iha  two  f^et  being  unite4 

xAhi  CRIB  mnsii.     In  tbeir  genpn^  hnbilv 

they  ■(p-sB  with  the  former.  The  Cyclops 

in  the  ponds  and  ditches  of  this  enuntiy. 
The  feiunle  has  an  on)  mc  on  (•nch  aiila 
of  the  tall,  in  which  the  e^gs  are  cnrrieil. 
She  ia  able  hi  produce  ten  broods  in  tlie 

apvrdlly  iiliTe  to  reproduce  Iheniiclvee, 
it  han  VfR  enlcillnlcd  that  in  a  7ear,C;TlninVii1pirM. 
4,«<'J.ia!>,Iv'0  young  may  be  l1ie  pmgeny  BiMuUtHi. 
of  one  iiidividunl.  Tiie  niajnrily  of  llioantmala  <)tt?iis 
order  awini  wilh  llle  bacls  downwnrda,  darting  abflDt 
with  griMI  agiliiy.and  moving  tuitUwiirds  or  fnrwarda 
with  eqtini  enae.  In  the  nhoence  of  *ii)mnl  nialter,  on 
whioli  ihey  UBunlly  teed,  they  attach  ypgeiablo  aub- 

Onler  IX. — Oitrntiote. 

tn  habit  aad  genera)  chnmeter,  the  animal*  nf  thii 
order,  of  which  the  commnn  C^prii  of  onr  ponds  i»  ar 
eaainple,  clntwly  reneinblo  those  o(  the  liut,  but  Iheir 
bflJlea  (ire  enveloped  in  a  mvX  of  b(v»1ve  shell.  They 
•wlm,  like  tile  Daphni-x,  by  mpans  of  the  prolonfjed 
antennic,  which  epread  nt  their  extrcrnitiesi  into  tufts 
of  filamonts. 

Tfte  iiniinala  of  the  dhtaion  Edfjitit*  aro  nearly  b!1 
pnnBiiic.  la  Ihoir  geoBnil  organisalion  th?y  are  the 
moot  imperfect  of  nil  Cruslaeeii,some  of  them  appronch- 
ing  ths  blchcr  Enloioo,  whtlut  others  have  a  rewm- 
blnnce  Ui  uio  lowest  Arnehrtida.  The  «arioa<i  >p«<.'lf-H 
of  llwse  onlnrs,  which  need  not  be  more  minutely  par- 
ticulariaod,  iufeat,  more  or  less,  almost  all  mariue  ajti- 

is    the  rsmarlcftble  order 
alt  the  res 


aa  with  an  articulated  bo.l, 
their  cunnirniation  batwi-,  n 
legBOf  iiiHCMand  the  -iii' 
pnme«sBd  by  somo  of  thf  Ai...  .    . 

rmluKkiiigtii  therarmnr«li*irtia4tav«(rt[i 
Ih»y  aredinlixi^iahed  tiy  an  imifivhniiyta<h> 
of  the  eefmentB,  noarty  aa  grMi  ■•  thit^te 
in  tlio  AuuBliila  ;  so  that  xa  /m'bj  hh(1iI  . 
likened  to  an  Mrlhwerm  pnrrHttl  afih  iiD 
Ufnment,  aixt  widi  >lmde>  1*^.;  whta,** 
hand,  ibs  ailarftuiibn  of  the  rMptam  ■: 
breathe  air  with  n^luity  and  tvtJTt  M*^ 
«nn)ip)eKlcy  of  ihesppMMua  ef  maMindai.l 
"ion  of  distinct  eyes,  and  many  other  ebaiM 
«aie  their  affltuif  vith  l(i«eoi»~4ii  whMtta 
■ome  nnluTaliila  oomprelnad  itwtD.  '  -  "' 
Meet  paMOns  ar*  raniliar  wttli  due* 

iiriim-^MCautpt^ 

ptrtis  (ihoniand  legs) ; 


n  of  tl  ,  , ..  _     „ 

would  not  hare  dia  novor  df  Wading  uhQ 
The  legs  are  nward  by  the  aatne  kiod  gf  « 

in  a  NHRla  alaw  or  limk.    "-  "-   iia  ifT^- 

diBtincl  ngion«,  like  thnn  which  am-w  gM 
Iruc  liHoglp,  ran  be  nbtierved  ;  bot,«a-^ 

lii't     ■.  ■  ■■   '"  '  1.  i"   fortiL-hrd  -itlix 

111'  ■  ■  ^'         ■  ■  ■     .    .  ■  I  .1  |.|..niu  Ul'UHf  ln< 


foUtltlluOM'L-V.i...    .  .,.   .1   :lr' 

TlnMvriniV.ilai,„vi.e,l,si 
1 1-1  in.<,  ilr  MilUpr^cJ,  and  ihe 


n  \U 


rwtn-  nrt  ef  tliw  uIim  ai*  i. ' 
(•r.uidMraiiiinlilod  ^uli«tc;,< 

.IiTelI...tjl....^U;it^lu)I.i.L,.-..  - 


■¥  I'lpmi  »n  tii)r>  '  I 

M  U>r<i(it;1i  tlm  wut-T.  Ami  in  t>i-  u-i.  Si- ji- 
>  lioil;  it  ili«til4iU  tnr«n  trl  limn  Vrualiw,  U)t  la 
Ml  vtlh  A  luDlirc  III  nc1<  i-n-l  nt  <hu  l»>^.  TlM 
-or  gnmpk  uvm  ivjeiu'iIixI  by  Cuvbr  iia  ([•nning 

Order  t— Panfbnnchlaii^ 
«  riiMlpiiiiE  onltn,  111*  Uiinibnnehiala  «VP<XV 
*liul«,  ta>  |><WHMi>  Uio  iniiRl  oiuii|ik'S  nUuolun,  M 
tb«  JiiQit  vktiwl  fiunilUnk  uid  tliejr  Mm  ckbUiil 
It  diitiu!tin4*Ue  lonua  ut  Uit  oliu*.  Ilia  bcul 
■t  ■)«>}>  dtitlnct  fi<am  ihe  body,  kiu)  fnmUhcd 


»W  ftrnn 


CHAMBERS'S  INEOBMATIOS  FOR  TUE  PEOPLE 

tils  BbcU.ud 

irittidBwn  inlo-tiw  tube. 

Th.!  Sabella  i'  an  uiii 

UiD  ticrpDla.;  but  It 

fomu  a  HDiibkrUibc,  ibf  iim» 


,  _  iplntian.  tlia  lilood  bringMrxt  intnthsii;! 

bir~Dxpi>»t(t  ts  the  air  oeauiniHl  in  Ilw  mter ;  kUot* 

Knil  bMow  Ihare  are  s«p>riita  briulea,  mtioli  Hioctidiiii- 

g»t»ii,  of  which  the  lower  one  hua  joiolsd  ctumetBf; 

flardnd  h  rudincntiLrj  Isgn.  The  UTAnfHNieiiCaf  tbeiiti 
)WMb  d'Km  much,  faowevEr,  iib  the  Wious  Iriboi  at 

Amiini;  the  man  in  IsrBsCiiig' tonus  or  litis  ordvt  dm^ 
b«  DX-nlii'iiHil  the  liiinii;-  Nebeiiu;,  nr  SdhCgiiUtwdwii 
iif  wliivb  iiimj  >pecioB  inhale  ourowivcouU,  buiniUelii 
Iwiji-r  mm  ire  fniiml  in  U-opicnl  '♦pcib,  Tiiey  Imn'  no 
V*iii>iiiiiiu  JMIWET,  bui  we  ext™m»lv  voracious  ;  Bi'J  ""■ 
nflan  furDl>h«d  with  >  (Kiiiiplei:  nppmlU'fi^'vi'/.iDg 

■IhcJpliriKl,/,-  i-  ■■■  ...11...!  "..;  :.n..wuonourciJiU'W 
uuder  111*  nani''  ■■'  •  ■  ■  ■  ■  ':-j»»i;eiitieii  oa«t 
ap  bykRikle  nf  >m.  .  :   tl  ■iie.^niJslioiier 

and  broiidsr  lli.i"  !■■  ■!  ■■!  ■  "  '■-  i":iiilii.  Tllo  hack  is 
«DV«red  by  two  l"iiK"ii'li""l  i-anjos  of  fcroad  iiitfni- 
bnuiiiuisra1mtumi*rui>ivh  tj»'  gilla  lie  eonix-alrd.  Tlii^ 
miMl  (Hininioii  tffttiim  uf  tiiE>-M<xiiiD  bts  aliniii  sIk  nr 
t^ht  iiioh*B  i«njt,  •i>'(  ifo  or  U.rnr  bnud.  \  gj-i-ni  iiavt 
oTihs  body  in  «ritt«ul  hy>rUI*a«f'tirtUlklIilutice,  and 


I  body  in  witevud  by'brUI*a«f'tirtUlkiii]mice 

Tile  Areuinla  piuatmw,  kiuxni  to  fisliMmen  V  *'"-' 
imiiiH  ul  Lub-uorm,  a  AiiOllier  specie*  cunimiut  oil  our 
(siasta,  :i"d  U  eagurly  MUgbt  an  n  bait.  It  hum'**,  likfi 
the  eitrlli-«Driu,  ia  the  suid  ;  ami  (|iB  pliUM:  nfibi  etat- 
valionn  nay  be  known  by  Uw  ii"la  lm«ps  which  it  tiistF 
up.  Tha  bnniehiil  lofU  am  eunliued  ti>  tlia  ueairu  ■>/ 
the  bi<dy,  where  tbej  form  on  cscii  side  a  eerits  u[ 
bundiee,  which  are  reiqu'kBld'-',  durinit  lliu  lifeuf  the 
ereiilur»,  for  their  bauiiiitul  red  ciiluur,  deriTwl  ftimi 
tlie  ciimBou  bluud  whicb  «n:ul.ktee  copiuusly  ilmiUfli 


Conip»r»tir«ly  1 

lie  is  known  o 

■niuuli  of  th«  ati 

r  Tubiuoia,  w 

m",  Mi  do  n 

oflheowingiiwIiiD 

iclieyform,  h> 

or  U.«  emu..., 

ili..lty   lube  exudp 

A   by   ll,e  iVr- 

pula.     Tl».   iH  f... 

..cd  of  cnlra- 

ililirg  llint  " 

the  ihella  of  Mollu 

M,  »nd  i.pp« 

renlly  secreted  from  the  Burlace 

of  l\\„  body  in  n  e 

milaniiiinnBr 

These  lubeiK  ..biol 

arc  often  f er> 

grmtly   eoutortud 

in    fomi.    ;.« 

BeUBrsllyfuHniloiio 

ruttiiiBU.e»ur 

have  been  .im.wr-i>df..r.iiiv  length 
uf  itiiK-  fti  lb^>  h..tbmi  uF  the  s.t.i  ; 
llley  fti'B  i'I..M-d  at  one  end,  which  Pct)"i 
Ul'irs  to  «  point.  Mid  the  wide  tii.l     i-'*- 

Thi.  animil  riirmine  lh»  nhsll  lifts  if 

K  [vir  otniiiel  ele([nnl  fan-like  »ppi'nJuj{i] 
w.>>-»a  YLTV  brilliant  clouts.  .-It  the  I 
is  a  H«sliy  fllamenl ;  and  one  of  ilieie, 
left  (idcindiffaTeiitly.  it  always  iimlon~i 
it*  oxiianitd'  itxo  a  tial  ditk.  wi.ich  lita 


par(ti:le3  of  ci.td.  gmvcl,  &^:  tti 


■  -   -„  ;     I   . 

The  otdvr  Tcrrieoia  jneluden  wry  te«  ( 
»hl<di  the  i.ue.Mciu,  t.r  eoiuniDO  Sur(i-«w 
diiaf.  'Shiy  li|vn.iii.(iiBOral  buMatli  tba OTd 
(n^ounl,  'okbrti  pcrfi'iailng  Um  dry  .tui,  .f 
iheOitclves  in  Dtiul,  iwlwiviDaflf  ai  ibrmiM 
nqnAtio  IKe.  .  WliMi  .d>«  EUi-Ih-woria  it.l 
iiwiiiuWs  il*  poiaUdi  iMsd  hetwat^u  liie  pi 
AartliiramanKUultiali.idpMWtiitWi-  iilus  n 
iuitfusfioMtioib  thcaulottor  p«tft"f  iIm  budy: 
^lUBMi  ur>bri«tlte«IU-*«d  baokwaf^  wliish-l 
fiDiii  slipptiiBi  Tlif)  liioder  ,|iwrw  »ro  ilioi  i 
warde  by  a  luigitijdinal  coutnu4ion  of  Ills  ab 
—4  luuvaueDI  wl.jeli  the  apioe*  do  ii<>t  of^ 
sweUsluul  i(b(  aaAeriar  .aenuiHiWi  aul  fuoi 
thv  pusni^.  iDlo  vltich  lue  liiail  bad  baa 
liiruaL  'I'be  Bpiues  u|taii  thediiMdur  rln)(*  ill 
lii'oi  .iioLd  u|iou  the  side  uC  ttn  bole  thus  Iw 
prevent  any.  baokward  Diovviutiil  1  Ibo  luei 
'brood  fomurdiaiul,  by«r«|i#Mi(inaf  ilwp 
i«aiaMl«s«tl9.nakMi  iotivw^.  iliruu^  (iMh 
it  would  at  Hrsl  have  seemed  imiKMsible  tat\ 

The  bui'.'owiii;;  of  tlurih-wonika  is  a  prbce 
ingly  useful  to  the  gardener  and  the  ajricutii 
iliEtc  *Biiiuiiu  are  lai  mora  boiwiimal  lo  u 
way  tbou  iiiiurinua  by  devouring  Ih*  TegVa 
ilie  soil  'I'lieygioe  K  kind  of  uuder-iiUaEe |i 
perfunniiig  liiu  saise  baiow  giwtnd  liiat  iWl 
abvic  for  ilio  garden,  and  llie  yluugl\  &)r  *■ 
and  loUHiiiing  tile  earth  »  as  LvruaJer  ■(  | 
tu  Hir  luid  ivaUu.  It  hnn  lately  b«aii  aliow 
will  uven  add  to  llie  depUi  of  Iho  wiil,  asd  si 
where  iimie  CKi.iled  before.,  T^ie  thsf  de  J 
by  thaiuerci^^u  of  tlieir  dif^aalrie  pivcaaa. 
a  lai^e  qujLntity  of  the  soil  through  labieb  ik 
into  tlieir  iulestinil  oanal ;  from  line  Ibey.  ■ 
HrsatT  p!irt  of  the  dueaying  veiietsble  mUl 
qnnlaio,  »iid  n-je.:!  the  reel  in  a  tiaely  ^n 
(orming  wlu.t  are  knowa 
iu<il»<:i.,ii  uf  tho 


1  lield  which 


d  of  oarlh  avenging  ihutaiB  ia 


\i  wili  c 
nppoar  to  be  the  Ok**.  If  itibeditidedaa 


Xhit- 


>  lilth 


li.ice  which  bum  the  IkwI  ail. 
ftn  boura.  Tliis  forms  a  M* 
the  injury.  ButifUi 
i.ie  iiea.i,  tlig  budy  willnnaiaa 
lieaJ  I  aud  the  head  >.>tlb  iwt« 
die.  The  .Saidct,  linwoTrJ,  to" 
nt  «>f  re['ruducttvu  power;  hr  t 
any  pieees,  of  ohion  •aili  will  I 
I ;  and  it  is  stated  tbaC  ■  wfalWl 
louhly,  bat  loantarh  gtualarcal 


■  order  .Suctoriu  cuiitalui  tbe  cwnutOB  b 
iei,  wbich  are  all  atumaliof  *y~**.** 


I 


ZOOLOGY^ARTICULATA. 

ciiin)ilex  lerios  of  canals,  lliroDgli  wtiich  oauTuhnicDt 

Tha  tWhopodt  are  diviilcd  into  (wn  i>rinci|iRt  gmapt 
—the  ptduneHlaleJ  and  thf  u->ti/e.  Tlie  lallcr,  of  wjiieli 
tilt)  ciimniun  Ilaiatiiu  or  .ltm-n-i.lie/1  is  an  example, 
bavt'  thobua  of  tlii!  hhpll  GKcilimiiioiIiatel;  to  meis.  In 
till!  UirtacT,  sDch  ai  llic  voll'liuoiirn  BarniKle,  tb*  aliell 
iaaltacliFcI  by  a  iKiIuncIc  or  luntfllalli,  wliich  eonaiilaiif 
n  liilic  of  Ivatlicrv  ciiiisii'Ci'iuH-,  and  is  iiflcn  of  eoiiiidcr- 
uble  Icngtli.  la  buili  jii'ouiw,  tlio  animilH,  nnt  being 
ircli  c>f  liiiid,  obtain  it  (lirougti  Uie  cor* 


wth  of  Hie  IcFch  ia  Trrj'  intc- 
I  the  middle  of  the  cavil;  «( 
id  ibree  little   orlilagiuous 


.a  of  th 


cilia. 


I.'il  Mlh.  hat 


It  tbrwt  radii  of  n  eirt 
■.  i-n«H  of  Tii^niinntL'  teeth  al 
ililiv  >  i-niall  aemieircnlar  raw.     It  la  im-  I 
hMf  ill  a  lied  of  mueele,  by  tli*  aeiian  of . 
T>rL<?d  ill  Huch  n  mutiiier  na  tn  out  ialo  tlic  | 

li  i>  in  tliia  tnamier  ilmt  the  iTi-rarliiite  i 
li-(Tli-bili>  n  neeaMonrdt  eaeh  toy  hi>httt  I 
a  w|>nra(i-  little  Haw.  The  Iacet^ated  I'Un- 
■  HiRitid  ii  vcrjr  (itvnoral.h-  tn  (bu  llnw  of  . 
IH  furllier  iinimnlvd  by  the  vaciinm  erwled  | 
r.  Tlir  prrntertiuinbvnir  t)ie  l.rrrh  tribe  | 
■t*  iif  frrBh  wdlir ;  some,  Imwerer,  ape  only  , 
iirl  Iherr  iH  one  terreetrial  ajii^fs  ■ 
ciiina  I 


tlii>  point ;  and  aiiu  uiiiivs  ilie 

the  back  vipi.     Tbeae  cover  the  nhole  of 

Bamadi'a  aii;  abundant  in  all  acaa.  and 

n-iicr.  to  ir<i.)d ;  >o  that  s  pieuu 

pmprrly^H'i'j.  arc  ;  of  tiinbt'r  uliii'h  bun  bi'vii  ti>r  a  hliurt  time  floating  in 

leh  a  inanni'T  that  |  thPoocan  iaalnimt  Mire  lube  lartlycnren-J  arrth  tlicni; 

hjioh  uf  [  and   »liip«'  Imttonip,  if  nnt  protected   by  ai|ipeT,  Bie 

ilfru ;  tui  I  I'vndcred  no  foul  an  greatly  tn  impede  their  Miliiig. 


I  appi'ira  lu  b" 


mi. 


M  111, 


e  cif  tlie  Brealwt  jieata  (•(  , 


j:s  Xl.-niIKl[i)l'i;>U.l.  ; 

ii]Hiiiin>  thin  elaw  have  no  many  rhn-  I 
n  Willi  ilio  Molliwca,  that  Vurj  bare  , 
piH"l  aa  iH-kingiiiff  to  that  hub-hiii^- 
d  it<i  npi'i'iH-tiKefi  arc  tlK'niwIifaquiir- 
hiM  tliF  loiuie  tipi'iiiiy  iimacalar  cba- 
L-HI-iindi  with  tb<-  mantle  of  Miillu<v<. 
iKKtvtednahidlieiiiupniwdnrHpreTal  , 
lii-riiiK  ill  i^cneral  uiiieclfrom  multi-  | 
i'.!iiii;  t<i  [bat  dirixion.  Fnnher,  tUe  i 
ii*'nii"lveii  linnly  united  at  tlie 
"M-^  or  thi'y  am  attached  by 
(!<>iiiiiliniii>  ill  nhich  llw  aniina 

ta  tu  wliioll  wi:  nloervfl  liii 

>lnl. 


hi'r  ban.!,  whi-n  in-  r 
>i  tiiai  it  if  |i>-H(Wtly  Kyniiiielric;il  in  it* 
ra^'iiT  iioBlicri-  fxiatiiii;  aiimni;  tlie  )l>i|. 
irt'iiirliiM-diiiiuiella.  Ilabidy  iH|trolun|^, 

thew  liiHTi'  ari^i  a  jinirdf  B|i|wiKlni^'Ron 


m-lliiii 


l»t    HI 


I.  "T  \\K\f  liKir-liki-tiUinenta: 
r  l>av.  Kurlbi.T.  thu  nioutb 
iiwH,  u'hieh  ui>  Mulliiiva  (im- 
ti'iii  ivHiiii>CH  of  a  diinlile  curd, 
'  K-raneiitiif  tlu' IkhIv,  urr- 
Thpi.1       ■      ' 


F.-il|-<-ai.f  earbak 
thuMiell,  wbilKii 
IU9  in  aocctrdanvu 


iir  Acnrii-^liell.  has  miirv  of  &  glnbnlar 
n'liv  ninulli,  and  ia  cnnipiiiMd  of  aeer- 
ryiiii;  in  tlio  ditti-mnt  apeeiea)  of  platua, 
furiii.  an  diapiiHnl,  that  an  addiiiim  tii 
ahall  pii'eHTvp  tliC  pcneral  |in)|H)niain 


inalliti 


In 


ith  the  Bn>wili  of  the  animal. 

rrriiltniFe  the  Hnine  plan  aa  tliat 
ailnpli-d  ill  the  t>b<-ll  nf  the  cetiiDUii.  Xlic  animal  elaH-ljr 
n'H-inble»  the  barnacle.    The  nimlh  i>f  tJie  aliell  is 

vuivis,  which  oliiM-  it  more  or  Kaa  complMi-ljr.  'Hie 
ruck*,  piem,  jn-.ton  many  |arti  of  ilie  couBi,are  covered 
nilli  tliewi  aniniulH ;  ami  hiiibII  i>|H)ci(i>  of  ibciu  alau 
atlncli  thtifiaelvt'H  lii  alirllit  of  various  kinds. 


ri'hopiHbi  tH-loii)tli>lhJn  divi- 
.'in  liii'  liiM'iry  i>f  tbnir  di'vi'lupnitrnt.  '  The  eIniH  Rntifera  In  one  r-inip<wed  entirely  nf  anl- 
II  rmiii  tb''  r%\i.  they  pmeiit  n  form  ■  ntairulvH  which  can  "illy  bn  dintiiielly  fevii  with  lliu 
%Mf.  to  tliat  of  the  liinet'  Cru<tlafca  '  mien<H!<>|»' ;  ati'l  it  taki-a  it*  name  fnim  the  wbeel-hko 
11'  biliilt  animal,  whicU  tliey  only  as- 1  iir^ib  with  wliieh  miwt  of  (hrm  am  ]>mTidi'd,  whence 
}*  of  metaniorphiHi'ii.  TIht'  are  fnr-  ■  they  are  eommonJy  klMwii  »a  Wlieel-Aninialeuleti.  It 
■H-  Biiil  !'}■■><,  bUil  iiHivt!  fri'i-ly  llinniKli  I  i*  only  wiiliin  a  *ery  reci'Ut  period  tluil  the  compIeK 
it  vlii-ii  thi>f  bi't'iiiiv  Havd  lliey  Iiim'  uIho  .  atmcltire  of  llinie  b'inip.  haa  been  undetatiHid,  and  that 
"  [•tfumiedof  MiMpli-    lliey  ha»e  been  Miatati-il  fro      ''  * 


>nt<i.   TliCfbi^ 


hat  of  the  Jloltii^ca,  but  U 


cr««a  by  a  |  ai 


ut  of  the  proton 


CnAMBERS-a  INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPtA 


forni  at  llieii  bo^M,  the  {xHitian  tJ  l>i«  mootli  and  c^n 
ftt  one  cxlremitf,  the  occuinnal  ninrUinf;  ot  tiwiBmu 
Inks  iodioling  »  divisioD  into  H^eDta,  uul  luoM  ot 
ktl  bv  Ilic  Dlwtselar  ut  tlie  iwr*tnu  •ysMm,  oben  that 
can  bo  d«t«rt«d,  llul  ttie  Botir«m  are  rutk«4  in  liie 
uUeuUtrd  Mib-kingdnm.  Uoqueriiaiutilj,  Ibej  brtt 
uvTc  grntTkl  wwlogjF  Id  Uut  Uika  to  nny  other;  but 
(liny  niut  not  be  coaaidared  u  dunderuik  tpocinun* 
UVL 

Thi"  Wrueture  of  the  comtnnn  vbeel-Mnmalcale,  RMi- 
fir  ouijforii' — which  may  bo  founi}  in  manjr  cotleitiuas 
ofatai-Mnl  waicr,«pHiBlI^  iiirb  u  have  been  lODg  sad 
fml)'  cxpoHd  to  the  atnioiipbvre — will  aflbnl  a  (;dih1 
illuurauon  of  that  of  lt>*  cIhb.  The  bodv  eibibiU 
a  pn>l>nigtd  farm  vbsn  (uUji  extended  ;  but,  ■■  tho  in- 
MguinBDl  n  icry  tlantiB,  it  amy  be  drawn  up  into  a 
eirda  ur  made  to  aasunip  a  Rmt  variMj  of  alnpH.  At 
OnvvDilit  iafuniuliFdwilb  a  fiair  of  proimtioo-S  which 
art  Kurmounlicd  b;  dmilar  Inage*  of  cilia.  It  it  bj 
tha  (ibntiuo  dI  tbcH  ciiia  tlial  ibe  curreDls  are  pro. 
duoHl  in  the  water  aroDiidi  whidi  gira  aa  app«traiiea 

vheaht  a  aurt  of  head  cutmda  forward*,  on  which  a 
«nupla  of  red  yiols  luay  be  ilj-wrved,  which  af«  believed 
to  be  *;«.  lb*  month  i«  *ilual«l  at  the  bate  of  tliia 
emtral  projeclion.  At  the  eppnita  end  the  body  k 
prolonged  into  a  unrtotlailifurDiihcd  with  ihieepronp  ; 
and  bjr  ttaia  tb*  aginial  fiaca  ilaelf  when  working  lU 
wheda  for  obtaining  Fuod. 

The  deiioite  membrane  which  «av*r«  the  body  baa 
two  wriva  aS  muscular  fibres  diBpinHMl  within  it;  one 
Ml  ranniiie  lonfitudin»lI]r  Icvia  and  tu  cad  ;  the  olhcT 
traiKTvrwpTy,  au  a*  t(i  fonn  rin^  amund  ih*  body,  lly 
the  ooalraotion  of  the  former  the  budy  ii  ihorlened  ; 
bf  tliU  of  the  latter  ita  diameter  In  dtcrcoacd.  nnd  it  is 
CDnawiapiitly  laiiglheoed.  Thin  t9  tttesune  kuid  uf  ap- 
paratiw  as  that  by  wbleii  the  (oim  oTtlw  leech  and 
«orm  tribe  it  altered.  Tha  IfaDapameyof  tha  iulrgu- 
inent  allow*  the  coolaiaBd  organata  be  diatinclly  seen ; 
•nd  thiae  mc  pcmeived  ID  Gate  i«giilar  otembnuious 
walls  uF  tMr  own,  and  la  be  altogether  distinct  from  '*-  - 
general  aubatance  of  the  body.  The  most  ouTinui 
lliFM  is  the  gizznrd,  or  eet  of  jaws  (aa  it  may  pi^rbapi' 


CLUB  Xin^SXTUOt. 
Thi*  chaadnrleei  fta  «ama  b^^jt^ 

Jiem  being  mhabitanli,  dunig  ih*a**ta 
bodieaof  oUwT  aniniala.  f<aaatjttm»0^ 
DljAtlon,  from  Ihe  jiiieo  of  wMeb  tbf  M 

lorm,  tjio  body  bcuigmueh  pnJAofti^w 

I  dirbaoD  hiio  leimenta.  BUd  tbenaaiil 

ai-'d  at  ooe  ntremiiy.      Tbeie,  Ihfreltar^' 

belong  to  the  Aftuulated  aeriaa      TWn  a 

"  1i,  in  Ihe  abwiw  of  ail  diuinet  —pm,  t 

■reatanty  of  their  form,  tma  to  afiWBii 

?  lUdiaia.    Some  ineiaa,  (oiumlj  IMI 

,  an  now  kno.'ii  la\.  low  khid*  «f  flW 


pnposed,  k 


leKnl. 


may  be  delMted.  Tbw  iliviaiao  eiidollyafi 
tothe  Annebda.  It  ineludee.amongiKa!IMt 
the  Filaria,  at  Guinea- Worm,  whsb  bain 
fi«h  of  man  and  other  t  "■-"'-  in  warn  c 
undisturbed,  it  will  often  contiDiu  ita  opatil 
conaiderabietime  wilhaut  much  uotaaloaMt 
turbed,  IE  eometimce  oecaeionf  the  moM  h 
pain.  Wfam  it  aliowi  itself  eKvmallT,  it  k 
eery  alow!)',  for  foar  of  breaking  it,  m  wb 
romaioder  oould  rvlmt,  and  cantmaaS 
gniwa  to  th»-lpiNtiJi  nf  leivral  jiaTda  T 
itimbritoideM.  or  Kound  Worm  af  tte  Ma 
beionp  lo  tJiis  group.  It  infaiM  nM  «l| 
many  of  Ihe  lower  aniiaali,  and  often  onM 
disease  and  e* on  death.  It  derirM  id  MM 
cific  name  from  ita  rmomblnnce  to  At  M 
The  abort  acTir*  Thraad-worma,  ■ 
the  lower  part  cf  the  iDteuin< 


.   1    C\,-Ti:    passes   bickwanh    a   long 

'xiic'^  1.1. 
KiK  and  »< 
by  tlte  eilia 
Rmall  budi 

niLilViilpi  fopil  chiefly  upon  athere  of  smaller 
pl«F  ciiaracter.    The  currents  set  in,  motion 
are  very  poworfiii,  and  draw  in   whatever 
a  are  nilliin  rlicir  scnpe  :  and  tile  nnmial 
«t  from  these  what  i?  n-tr-i.'-l  f  "ff-H  " 

1  several  hundred,  iW 
inln^  Ihe  leirgih  of  Mnft 
■■.-led  by  the  nnlnlive  «■ 
•  I't-  other;  hot  tbei* 

1,  tliL'  Ultra  dvinjif  it 


■ieii  up.    tei.fltli"ii  .if  parW,  » 


,  and  am  soim  capable  of  jiri'ilic. 
'neuleulated  that,  from  a^in^T*.-  u 
a  miilion  may  be  produc^-'il  in 
his  eiaea,  the  eggs  MubornBiutSK 


'inrl<°  "f  all  the  GnlMta 

■■■  ii.iWyw  (htadtt^i 

I  i  ~c..lc.iirl«a  HoH 


*  wlueb  (lie  genenl  structure  of  Vhe  bigter  b\«< 


200L0GY.-.M0LLUSCA. 


MOogst  the  animals  aaBocUted  with  this  group, 
gh  not  oonfonning  with  it  in  their  residence,  is  the 
L^ria,  a  very  interesting  genus,  of  which  some 
i«s  inhabit  fresh  water  and  others  are  marine. 
hody  is  flat,  and  three  or  fonr  times  as  long  as 
■L  Within  its  soft  tissue  are  channelled  out  not 
»  complex  digestive  cavity,  but  also  a  system  of 
b)s  which  absorb  fluid  from  its  walls  and  convey  it 
ugh  the  RVHtem,  and  a  reproductive  apparatus, 
■tomach  o}»ens,  not  by  a  mouth  at  one  end,  but  by 
pt  of  sucker  pnijecting  from  the  middle  of  the  body ; 
■hroujsh  this  the  Planaria  imbibes  the  juices  of  va- 
■  aquatic  animals  which  it  attacks,  mastering  even 
f9  httle  wonus  by  twiHting  its  body  round  them. 
iDoat  curious  part  of  their  economy  consists  in  their 
•r  of  reproducing  parts  that  have  been  lost,  and  of 
.iring  injuri«f8,  which  seems  almost  as  great  as  that 
he  ilydra  among  Polypes.  They  may  be  divided 
three  parts,  of  which  the  former  shall  contain  the 
minute  spots  which  are  believed  to  be  eye«,  the 
die  one  tiie  sucker,  and  the  posterior  one  the  ropro- 
avo  apparatus ;  and  in  a  fUiort  time,  each  part  will 
slop  itbolf  into  a  new  individual,  perfect  in  all  its 
M.  It  may  be  partially  split  longitudinally  from 
■r  extremity,  so  tiiat  two  heads  or  two  tails  will  bo 
Bed,  uniting  at  the  middle  point,  but  each  being 
iplete  in  itaelL 


^^WWM^^A'V^'^^^M^^ 


sun-KiyoDoyr^MOLLuscA, 

lie  Tnnge  of  animal  forms  comprehended  in  thi<) 
■ion  of  the  Animal  Kingdom  in  so  great,  that  it  would 
lifficult  to  include  them  by  any  detinition  applicable 
hem  all.  The  hi^^hest  class  approaches  Fishes  in 
17  points  of  its  organisation ;  whilst  in  the  lowest 
not  only  lose  sight  of  sonio  of  the  characteristic 
aliaritios  of  the  group,  hut  wo  And  a  near  approxi- 
tion  to  the  higher  Poly])ifora.  In  all  the  Mollusca, 
■body  itself  is  of  soft  consistence,  as  its  name  imports, 
I  is  enclosed  in  a  soft  el.istic  skin,  lined  with  muH- 
•rlibres,  which  is  termed  the  mantle.  This  skin,  in 
By  instances,  is  not  a]iplie(l  closely  to  tlie  body,  but 
M  a  membranous  bag,  having  apertures  (which  arf 
Betimes  prolonged  into  tube^)  for  the  entrance  and 
!m  of  water;  and  through  these  the  respiratory 
■was,  which  are  situated  within  the  cavity,  are  re^u- 
ly supplied  with  the  pure  fluid  noi^ssary  Vor  aJnitini^ 
tt blood;  and  the  mouth,  whon  it  is  not  capable  of 
bg  projected  boyond  this  cavity,  is  bup})Iied  with 
■d  by  the  same  stream. 

Hie  Mullusca  possess  in  general  a  ver}-  complicated 
Mire  and  circulating  apfniratus  ;  but  the  organs  of 
(Motion  and  voluntary  motion  are  comparatively  un- 
^iope<l.  The  great  bulk  of  their  bodies  is  made  up 
he  stomach  and  intestines,  the  liver  and  other  glands 
■Krcted  with  the  alimfMitary  canal,  the  respiratory 
^■litus,  and  the  ovary  for  the  production  of  germs 
->ch  is  usually  very  lurge) ;  and  the  muscular  sys- 
9  which  in  the  Articuluta  forms  so  large  a  propor- 
of  the  \\hoie  structure,  is  here  frequently  reduced 
Tew  »icatti'rt>d  r»ln*ea,  and  in  but  few  instances  at- 
•  any  ci»mplexity  and  power.  A  conhiderablo  num- 
^f  .\loilusca  are  funned  fi»r  an  existence  as  com- 
ply stationary  as  that  of  the  Zoophytes,  and  arc 
^*iidem  fill"  llM'ir  nourisliment  on  the  supplies  of 
^  ctiiually  brought  within  their  reach  by  the  waves 
currents  of  the  ocean.  A  few,  however,  have 
'^rs  of  locomotion  which  enaVile  them  t4»  search 
>'ely  for  it  themselves;  but  the  greater  number 
^der  6lugsn>«hly}  ^^^^  ^he  snail,  from  place  to  place, 
faring  with  voracity  such  supplies  as  they  meet 
^  and  being  capable  of  fasting  for  long  intervals 
^B  none  come  in  their  wav. 

'  t  b  from  the  surface  of  the  mantle  that  tlie  calcareous 
^ter  is  exuded  which  forms  the  shell,  in  those  species 
^eh  poiBss  such  a  protection ;  its  particles  are  held 


Cether  by  a  sort  of  glue,  which  exista  in  much  larger 


OJo 


proportion  in  some  speeies  than  in  others.  In  Tery  hard 
and  brittle  shells,  if  the  calcareous  matter  be  removed 
by  the  action  of  an  acid,  the  animal  matter  that  remains 
appears  in  the  form  of  separate  flakes,  lint  in  many 
other  shells  thus  treated,  the  animal  portion  retains  its 
form  after  the  removal  of  the  lime ;  and  there  are  a 
few  in  which  the  (so-called)  shell  consists  only  of  a  sub- 
stance like  horn,  without  any  intermixture  of  calcareous 
particles.  Such  a  substance  appears  to  be  formed  by 
the  young  animal  before  the  true  shell  is  secreted ;  and 
it  is  also  the  flrst  that  appears  when  the  animal  is  re- 
pairing the  efl'ects  of  an  injury  to  the  old  one.  It  is 
this  that  constitutes  what  is  commonly  termed  the 
epidermis  of  shells — a  covering  possessed  in  their  natu- 
nil  state  by  all  tlmt  are  not  enveloped  in  a  fold  of  the 
mantle,  but  which  is  commonly  removed  when  the 
shell  is  preserved,  as  it  impairs  the  beauty  of  the  ex- 
terior. The  shell  is  most  solid  and  massive  in  those 
species  which  lead  an  inactive  life ;  and  is  usually  light 
and  thin,  or  altogether  deficient,  in  those  whose  powers 
of  locomotion  are  greater.  Its  thickness  often  varies 
greatly  amongst  different  individuals  of  the  same  spe- 
cies, according  to  tlie  roughness  or  tranquillity  of  the 
waters  they  inhabit. 

As  the  sheila  of  Mollusca  are  the  parts  of  their  struc- 
ture by  which  they  were  best  known,  it  was  natural 
that  the  flrst  attempts  at  classiflcation  should  be  founded 
on  their  peculiarities.  Accordingly,  Linnieus  arranged 
them  into  Univalvesy  Bivalves,  and  Afnltivalvcsy  acctird- 
ing  to  the  number  of  pieces  of  which  the  shell  is  com- 
posed; and  this  classification,  from  its  simplicity  and 
the  apparent  faciUty  of  its  application,  has  been  very 
genonilly  adopted,  liut,  as  will  hereafter  be  si«n,  it 
is  only  within  certain  narrow  limits  that  the  character 
of  the  animal  can  be  known  bv  the  structure  of  its 
shell ;  and,  by  the  Linniean  classiflcation,  animals  are 
brought  together  which  are  widely  separated,  and  others 
are  placed  in  distinct  classes  which  are  closely  allied. 
Again,  such  a  classiflcation  is  totally  inaiiplicable  to  the 
very  numerous  shell-less  Mollusca,  some  of  which  ap- 
proach so  clo;:ely  to  those  bearing  shells  (as,  for  example, 
the  Shiff  to  the  Stiail)^  that  i*carcely  any  essential  ditTo- 
rence  exists.  It  is  obvious,  then,  that  although  the 
characters  derived  from  the  shell  may  often  be  valu- 
able in  enabling  us  to  recognise  the  remains  of  par- 
ticular animals,  classiflcation  must  not  be  founded  on 
them,  but  on  the  general  conformation  of  the  animals 
by  which  they  are  produced. 

Followin^this  principle,  the  Mollusca  may  be  divided, 
flrst,  into  those  havins;  a  head — that  is,  a  prominent  part 
of  the  b()dy  011  which  the  mouth  is  situated,  with  organs 
of  sense  in  its  neighbourhood — and  those  which  are 
aerphalotts,  or  headless.  Among  the  former  we  per- 
ceive three  very  distinct  types  of  structure. 

The  Ckpiialopoda,  or  Cuttle-Fish  tribe,  have  feet  op 
tentocula  arranged  in  a  circular  manner  around  the 
head.  In  this  group  wc  And  the  nearest  approxima- 
tion to  the  Vertebrata. 

The  Pteropoda  constitute  a  small  but  interesting 
class,  characterised  by  the  possession  of  a  pair  of  wing- 
hke  expansions  of  the  mantle,  and  by  the  great  sym- 
metrj'  of  their  bodies.  These  expansions  serve  as  flns, 
by  wliich  they  swim  through  the  water  with  great  velo- 
city. 

Tho  Gastkropopa  arc  the  most  extensive  group  of 
the  whole.  Tho  two  former  are  conflncd  entirely  to 
tho  sea;  amongst  the^  we  And  species  adapted  to  live 
in  fresh  water,  and  even  on  land.  They  have  but  one 
muscular  expansion  or  foot,  and  this  proceeds  from  the 
under  surface  of  the  body,  as  may  be  well  seen  in  tlie 
Snail. 

In  each  of  these  orders  we  obser^'o  a  considerable 
variation  in  regard  to  the  relative  size  and  even  the 
exifetence  of  a  shell ;  for  whilst  there  are  some  species 
in  all  of  them  which  are  entirely  destitute  of  this 
pn>tection  (such  being  called  naked  Molluscs),  there 
are  others  which  possess  it  in  a  slight  degree,  having  it 
geuerally  concealed  in  a  fold  of  the  mantle,  whilst  in 
others  it  completely  envelops  the  bi>dy,  when  they 


^«IV<     «««h«\    &      V'ICkft.'-O 


A  A««.     AAA  t««    CftAAA4\/%IA     «'A      frAtV'    «»*  ■ 


CLASS  XIV.— C'RPHALOPODA. 

The  class  of  Cephalopoda,  which  i«%  ko  named  from 
the  arrangement  of  the  fevt  or  locomotive  organs  around 
the  head,  must  be  regarded  as  the  highc:>t  among  the 
MolluKca  iu  respect  to  the  complexity  of  its  organisation* 
and  it  is  the  one  which  approaches  most  nearly  to  Ver- 
tebrated  animals.  In  the  general  form  of  their  bodies, 
and  in  their  adaptation  to  rapid  motion  thmugh  the 
water,  many  species  bear  a  considerable  re«^cmblancc 
to  Fishes,  and  arc,  indeed,  commonly  reputed  as  such. 
The  name  of  the  class  expresses  the  character  which 
distinguishes  it  from  all  others.  On  the  head,  which  is 
furniHlied  with  eyes  resembling  those  of  higher  animals, 
and  also  with  organs  of  hearing,  and  ])erhaiis  also  of 
amell,  are  disposed  in  a  circular  manner  the  curious 
appendages,  wiiich  have  received  the  names  of  feet  or 
arniff,  and  to  which  either  term  may  bo  justly  given,  as 
they  are  organs  of  prehension  as  well  as  of  locomotion. 
These  are  usually  eight  or  ten  in  number;  hut  in  the 
true  Nautilus  ihoy  are  much  more  numerous,  amount- 
ing to  nearly  a  hundred. 

The  mouth,  which  is  »>ituatcd  in  the  centre  of  the 
circle  of  arms,  is  provided  with  a  pair  of  firm  homy 
mandibles  or  jaws,  of  which  one  is  slinrpiv  pointed,  atid 
overlaps  the  other  when  closed,  so  that  tfie  whole  very 
much  resembles  the  bill  of  a  parrot.  This  beak  encloses 
a  large  fleshy  tongue,  roughened  with  homy  prickles ; 
and  the  wsophagus  leads  to  a  muscular  stomach,  which 
much  resembles  the  gixzard  of  bii-ds.  All  the  Cepha- 
lopoda are  aquatic,  and  consequently  breatho  by  gills. 
These  are  disposed  symmetrically  on  the  two  st<les,  and 
ai*c  covered  in  by  the  mantle.  This  envelope  includes 
the  whole  body,  hut  there  is  an  opening  in  it  which 
gives  passage  to  the  head.  Thrtiugh  this  opening  the 
water  enters  to  the  gills,  and  it  is  ex jm 'lied  through  a 
tubular  prolongation  of  the  mantle  termed  the  funncfj 
which  also  serves  as  the  excretory  caiuil  for  other 
fluids. 

Most  of  the  Cephalopotl.'i  posscKS  something  analogous 
to  the  shells  of  other  ^follusca,  although  it  often  exists 
in  a  form  and  imsitifin  which  iniL'iit  almost  i>n»vpnt  its 


and  its  powt-rful  claws,  are  no  prf>recti«n  1 
these  soft-limbed  cuftlo-fish,  which  wind 
round  their  bodies,  and,  fixing  e^'cry  part 
tlieir  suckers,  tear  apart  the  divisions  lif 
means  of  tlieir  hard  parrot-like  bills.  ^ 
these  suckers  adhere,  that,  while  the  ma 
remain  contracted,  it  is  easier  tn  tear  away  tl 
of  the  limb  than  to  release  it  from  its  attac 

The  Cephalopoda  which  are  unprotecte 
temal  shell  arc  furnished  x*ith  a  curioi 
escaping  from  their  enemies.  This  is  the 
a  dark  fluid,  which,  when  emitted  by  the  ai 
the  water  around  to  such  a  degree  that  it  e 
the  cloud  it  has  made.  Tlie  fluid  is  n^oat' 
in  a  bag  communicating  with  the  funnel,  di 
it  is  ejected  under  the  influence  of  alarm.  1 
as  it  is  termed,  is  collected  fnini  the  specie 
the  Indian  seas  ;  the  ink  fomis  a  valnal 
known  to  the  artist  as  sepia^  the  name  of 
which  furnishes  it. 

The  class  of  Cephalopoda  may  be  subdivi 
orders.  In  the  higher  division,  whitfh  fepp 
nearest  tAi  ▼ertebralfr  animals,  the '^r«>d 
are  tivojn  Tfnrfiber,  and  the  order  -im  ttrn 
CHiAtA;  whilst  in  the  one  most  dimifvjj 
GustMopod  Meihiaea,  the  fcra«c!l^«^#L9td| 
ber,  «na  the  order  i»  Unvefoiv  Uffjsfifit^ 


CUIATA. 


•    4 


OrUer  L^Dibtaacfiiata. 

The  Dibvancliiate  order  includes  all  the 
forms  of  tlie  eUss.  .  It  \»  divided  into  tv 
one  of  which  there  are  but  eight  aLCOM^l 
other  there  are  ten,  of  whioh,  however,  iwej 
from  the  rest.  Tlic  fint  of  these,  tennct 
may  be  considered  as  the  highest  in  poinl 
organisation ;  the  second,  termi*d  DfiCAPOi; 
many  points  of  approach  to  the  TetralirdHtfl 
both  in  the  increased  number  of  amis,  apd 
scncti  of  an  inner  circle  of  short  tentacuU^  i 
several  internal  characters.     The  SejM^  < 

('iittl»'-T-'i«,li.  is  a.  f»h:ir:iri»'ri»ttii»  pk.'iiiiiiIh  i.f  tJ 


Z(  )0L0{:  Y— MOLLUSC  A. 


•nd  powerful,  and  that  lUc  body  U  pToparlioTuill)' 
■—  Tlie  anil*  arc  gi^iieraily  united  at  lliuir  liaaca 
^  kind  uf  circular  liii,  by  the  luutiou  i>[  wliicli  the 
ml  can  awiiu  backwarda  with  giviiC  cnergv.  Tliv 
noD  Oct»pm,  o'  I'outp,  of  l^uiiipeHU  sUureB,  liaa 
x«u  u%  tiiilca  Ilia  Imglli  of  tlie  budy,  and  oacii 
nhed  witli  )3t>  giaii-a  uf  bucUltb.  It  cuti  Icitve  tlio 
r*,  and  eaxf  cvur  llio  bencb ;  taking  huld  of  tliu 
ud  befiim  it  by  llic  exteniHon  of  iu  ariiiB,  luid  tlitn 
^ng  tlui  hody  towuril*  tlie  poiut  at  wtiicii  ihu 
Ikn  arc  atUcliiHL 

Tery  iiiurmliiiB  ipccira  i>f  iUb  OctojMid  ^raMf  \» 
^ryonaufa  Argo,  cuiniiinnly  callcil  tlie  I'apft-Nan- 
tmim  tbe  wliitenuM  and  delicacy  of  its  hIiuIL  As 
^Bial  lasJUtlB  in  eummuii  villi  the  true.  Nauti- 
S  Kiiuld  be  uiubIi  butter  if  iba  latuv  diwigDaiiun 

^Wtircty  abandoned,  and  tbe  l«rin  ' 
UHiticil.fur  it.  Tbe  kl.ull  ia  nut  diuu 
wan  one  auiral  curity.  iiila  ubidi  tho  aniniulcun 
Snw  UkIi.  entirely  ;  tliis,  huwivcr,  lias  no  niiu- 
rAtlAchincut  tu  it,  vlicuce  it  luui  been  supposed  by 
v'aiituriiliais  iJiBi  it  Kasuulyai>ariiaiticiiiLabiuiii, 
If^Jkad  fiikcn  up  its  abude  witliin  it,  and  that  tbe 

^bjr  A  Gasteropoil  inalliitc  ullitd  to  tbat  geuus. 
H.jbeen  lately  pruvud.  iiowcver,  bv  the  interealiiig 
nm^Bt*  "^  Maitaiue  I'nwer,  th:Ll  the  iiliall  inenaacs 
ll^;  with  tlie  ;>mwtli  of  tbunniiiiBliwhiehpoMcMe!) 
saner  iiT  Tiiioiriiig  it  when  injured ;  m  tbat  nu 
Scan  exist  tbat  the  Argonanl  is  llie  oi'iginaL  con- 

HJieeisl't  arms  oftha  Arj^imut,  six  taper  Bi-adually 
^ifia  iliB  oxlrviiulieB ;  but  (wu  are  expanded  iula 
■.^tenibranoiu  llaps.  From  veiy  early  timea,  (hia 
^Laa  been  rcpuied  ta  awim  un  the  i>urlac«  of  tbe 
j^  (iHng  it»  anna  aa  oars,  and  spreading  time  ox- 


ea  niombranpi  an  bhIIb  to  the  nind.     Dut  i 
*».  by  accurate  iibai-rvHtion  of  the  living 
%ia  i«  alto)r>l1i^r  a  tictinn  (thuu^h 
B  knd  that  ili«  cxpHudi'd 

»v  1!r>in|iieiv[T  end'nang  ii.     ii  id  o 

ib  than  bv  ths  surfaee  of  the  Iwdy  -^  -,  • 

h^eouH  wcrrtian  is  pnuri'd  out  for  tbe  enfurKcnient 
^aralion  i>f  the  t\\e\\.     lly  th<r  nellmi  of  tbe  arms, 

*  T|fnnant  BWiina  bnekwardn  in  the  name  nianiitr  as 

*  Octopl ;  and  it  cuu  al^ju  creep  along  the  butluiti 
Maes. 


■  Bnu  inai  me  cxpHuai'ii  arnis  arcKpn-iidn' 
«#  the  Hhell.mcPUni;  along  it!<  keel  or  edj;. ,  „..,. 
*K  cnniplelviv  endnrrng  it.     It  id  by  tlieui,  indeed, 


nearly  a  hundred  ;  tliey  are  unprovided  villi  aueken ; 

I  and  ihty  are  bbort  and  hieuder,  reaeuibling  doncly  tlia 

'  (CDtacuIa  of  many  Gastcrupods. 

The  head  of  tli<:  A'aufi/m  supports  a  large  fleshy  disc, 
upriii  itliich  it  ia  believed  tliat  the  aniuial  ci'awls  upon 
the  boTtfloi  Uf  hiden  of  the  ocean,  as  a  Inail  upon  its 
fuot.  The  aniiniil  frv^iiu'iila  deep  valera ;  and,  though 
it  ia  oci;a>>ioiially  touad  at  llic  suifuco,  it  Hiuks  upon  tiie 
luiuit  alarm,  so  that  it  ban  been  very  rarely  eaptored, 
although  lilt  cmTity  cbell  is  so  cnuiinun.  Tliis  jiower 
uf  rvtni;  and  fnUiiig  in  tlie  water  appears  in  aonw  in- 
zvea  cuunecluil  with  the  ^Iruciiireot  tlii^  shell,  and  with 

I  ibc  mods  iti  wjiich  ila  chambera  cnuimuuicate  with  tlw 

I  iKiiIy  by  a  mumbrauuiw  tube  which  pasiiES  thriiugh  all 
tbe  partitions,  and  is  called  the  iiphaiiclt.     Dut  of  the 

I  mudu  ill  which  Lliis  uperatim  no  very  satiafaeloi')'  aeeouut 

I  has  yet  been  given.' 

1  A  lar^K  ninnbcr  of  fiisnil  sbelln,  analOKnun  to  that  of 
the  Mauiilun,  and  bonee  called  aauiUile;  are  found  in 
variiins  htnita,  from  Uie  (ddest  liiuestiDies  and  i>andalonCs 
uf  tin:  Silurian  ayateui,  tu  those  cuverinj*  tlie  chalk, 

CT.AflS  XV.— PTEnoroHA. 
Tho  ricropoda  arc  a  sniall  hut  rruiurkablo  class  of 
UoUuiKa,  dittiuguialied  by  ihu  adaptation  uf  their  struc- 
ture lor  active  locomotion  in  water  uuly.  Their  );enrrat 
orgnoifiaiiun  is  bibber  than  tbat  of  the  Uastei-opuds ; 
and  they  are  jianicuhirl}'  diatinj^uisbed  by  tbe  poKneBiiua 
of  a  iiair  of  lin-liko  or)|Mua,  which  arc  allnclied  to  Iha 
anterior  jiart  of  tin:  body,  and  are  evidently  adauled  for 
pnipelliiig  it  rapidly  DiruuBh  the  w.itei-.  The  body  is 
uniformly  aymuietrieal ;  tliat  is,  its  two  sides  precinely 
con-espond— a  cuiidilion  obviounly  favourable  (or  rapid 
muvemeiit.  It  is  from  the  wiug- like  character  of  theas 
lotenil  ajipeDdagea  that  the  name  uf  tlie  clasa  is  da- 

Thi>  dimensiona  of  the  animala  compoting  this  chiss 
arc  UDiToruily  small ;  hut  (he  iiuuibcr  of  iudividuala 
ubich  associate  loijether  in  aboals  ia  often  cnornious, 
so  that  the  sea  appears  literally  alive  with  thein.  Soinu 
of  them  are  puuetoed  of  a  shell,  whilst  otliurs  are  uu' 
provided  willicucli  a  protection.  Wherever  it  exiata  it 
IS  verv  light  and  delicate  ;  and  it  wMiiiu  covers  mora 
than  tlie  poaterior  part  of  the  body.  Jn  one  beautiful 
little  Mollusc,  the  C^mbulia,  it  is  of  a  hlipper  form,  the 
»  mgs  or  hiis  iwuiiug  Inmi  the  hiri-e  apcning.  The  head  ia 
usually  pi-nmiuont,  poanciuin^  eyes  and  sensitive  tenta- 
ciili ,  and  tlie  interior  organiaatiuD  is  of  very  complux 

Oni.  of  (he  be!.t-kuovn  genera  of  Ibis  gmnp  ia  tlis 
CJiB,  vhicli  abuunila  loth  in  tile  arciic  and  antarctic 
Stan,  and  is  a  very  impurtaal  arliclo  uf  food  to  the 
wliale  The  aapect  of  tbla  animal  will  omvey  agood 
Ceneral  idea  ut  tlial  of  the  whole  cbisa.  The  Clio  u  it- 
self eminvnlly  caruiruroiiu,  and  in  its  whole  oi'gaiiisa* 
linn  is  tiilvd  loneixu  and  prey  upon  the  yet  more  luinute 
inlialiitauta  uf  llui  ileeii. 

The  C'iio  Jiorealii  ia  wi-ll  kiiovn  tn  the  vliale- fish  era 
and  olhurB  as  leAn^'V /uHJ  ;  this 


■  II, — Teirjhninchliitn. 


^braneliiata  ap]H.-; 


*»■•;  nut  the  oniv  Hung  representative  ut  tliem  is 
Uteris  Saulilu,  (N.  i'..m,.ili>is).  In  the  niiiiiial 
li  funiiH  mill  inlialiit.!  the  vc-ll-kimvn  elianilwivd 
-  found  ou  niiwt  tropical  slion'v.  we  observe  uuiiiy 
Wtneea  from  tbe  usual  type  uf  ergaiiiJMiiiou  in  ibt 
bakipoda.  Tbe  arms  are  very  numerous,  aniaunluig 


arctic  seas,  and  wheii  the  weather  is  calm,  these  little 
uiiiiiials  may  be  seen  floating  in  myriads  upun  the  sur- 
■  Btv  Ilr  Buckkimfs  Hrldfewsm  Tnaftw  tor  an  nllonpt  at 

eiplsnaliiin.    ThlilxlefleluitlnlUHpiiUcatlnnlnslltbmcHe* 

the  SjXruto,  AmmtniU,  ke. 


CnAMBERSS  INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPIJ 


fiwe-    AooardtTig  lo  Cniier,  tbd  w 
glult«d  witli  ihem,  t]iat  ^ui  wlmjiw  Mnnot  opsu  Uiejr 
taoullii  wiLliimt    engulling   tliuuMinIn   of    ' 
nolliuas.     An  anab'^iua  »pHri«i,  Uie  C.  j  .    , 

prmn  vqiKilij'  abuuduit  io  ihe  polkr  rugiuna  of  Uut 
KuUHrn  buRiispliere. 


CLASS  XV^-QASTEBOrOCA. 

It  1*  In  the  aniinals  ef  tliii  cIbsb  that »»  find  til*  chft- 
tacum  of  tho  Mollusn  mast  pIDdiinoutljr  djaplaj-rd, 
nanicir,  the  faigll  davdopmcnt  rif  Iba  nulntirvajiiKin- 
taa,  vilh  very  Teetile  powen  of  looomoUan.  la  nil  llie 
more  pcrfnl  forini,  wtiioli  we  unuaJly  eanuToroiu,  b 
dialinct  and  iiraniinent  head  exiiM,  fiimialiMl  tivt  iiu' 
■ilh  UWacaia,  or  fMIan,  but  »ito  with  eyas,  uiil  wil 
filul  app«F  to  b«  tudiinentt  uf  or^o*  nt  »wri\  an 
iMkrSng.  In  thu  pan,  wa  tuaall}'  perenitfl  tliat  'ys 
RDlry  or  cotTe^on'leiicc  between  llie  Ivm  lulvu,  whi< 
ttu  bMD  aijohen  of  as  cbanetvriiiog  tlw  nuiniil  ur^ns 
in  nmral  i  whilst  in  tli»  )iciiit«viaF  ptt  of  tba  bodjr, 
■rhieh  in  made  up  of  the  otgiUM  uf  vegelaliTe  life,  lliis 
l^rnunrln  u  saUoui  Iq  be  ilisonraeiL  I'liey  have  ths 
pooar  uf^arawling  from  odd  placa  lu  nnollier.  by  niiatw 
«f  da  axpandMl  laawiiilaF  due  or  loM.  with  whtch  th'-y 
Vw  fiiratalwd  ;  and  aa  litis  lih>t  f Lroeaeda  fmia  the  ballj' 
gmnrfnr  anrfaca  of  the  auinial,  the  alas*  nmivec  tli* 
Bame  ffivBit  lo  it.  The  nwlii  io  wliich  it  ia  uaed  ntaj 
be  wntl  aievn  liy  placlir;  a  snail  or  alilg  n*  a  uiKii  1/ 
clawi,  ■>>'!  iiiiikiiig  at  It  frau  ths  under  eida.  Many  of 
Hloae  wblrh  billable  Iha  waMr  can  «vini  (vilh  conilder- 
»bla  ni|iidity;  but  tW  pow  tachndly  p<iMiatMMl  by 
llataa  MpBdM  whloh  liave  no  alull,  m  hM  a  very  aligbt 
cam,  Bwl  can  bond  tlidr  bodira  in  any  diiiitlian. 

The  gonural  clikniBtor  of  klin  alwlly  alrucluro,  whvro 
11  exicU,  la  the  lama  as  in  Um  Concliifvn.  It  it  b 
Moaral  coni|H»cd  of  ona  piece,  and  called  a  uHitiofM  ; 
SiMnna'lhnaneea,  bowtrver;  it  I»  a  nn/Maaitw  r  *^i  >n 


nf  • 


n  .K-m 


sllaetipd  Ul  thp 
can  wiihdnw  it  or  project  it  at  ibo  wili  uf  tlie  aniniul ; 
and  llie  0]isix:ulijm  can  be  drawn  down  npoii  Ibe  inuuih 
wilti  e(>iH<iderat>l«  farco.  It  is  Ihe  liabil  of  aoiuo  sptciex, 
(u  the  Limpet  and  Uulimiii},  to  attach  (heoiaelicB,  l>y 
the  expanded  Buriiice  of  tbt^  foot,  to  roeks,  &c. ;  tlie&s 
■re  Kble  Co  draw  the  thell  aloacly  down  upon  tlie  roili, 
with  great  muvmlar  power,  jiut  aa  the  Conchifeiik  draw 
bwether  Iheir  valvea ;  a  abort  inlenal  exiatini;,  liunever, 
■rnon  the  aiuDuii  ia  not  alanued,  fur  the  adniiuinn  uf 
water  or  air  lo  the  carity  of  tho  aliell.  A  Tory  KliRlii 
irritation  will  causo  (lie  anininl  to  draw  t)ie  iihell  cIijxi 
down  on  the  rock,  from  which  it  ia  then  very  difficult 
to  detach  it. 

Thoahcll  ia  formed,  u  in  Mhar  Molluaaa,  by  an  cxn- 
dUian  from  the  mantle;  aad  is  enlarged  at  mwrvikiii, 
in  amiirdance  with  the  incrcaamg  uo  of  the  animal. 
In  ainne,  lbs  addiibm  of  an  enlira  new  ioteriur  Inyvr, 
proJMiing  beyond  the  old  one,  is  made  Bl  every  tuch 
period,  as  in  the  Conobifora;  but  in  othvra  llie  new 
matter  is  eeoreted  only  al  the  edge  of  the  prerioua  shell, 
and  is  joined  on,  aa  it  wem,  to  it ;  in  thew  tile  line  of 
addition  is  oiaally  marked  by  a  pmmiiienl  lib  on  the 
aaterioF,  but  the  inlerioi  ia  bsanlifully  amoolhcd  off. 

Tho  forma  of  llie  shell  in  this  elan  vary  pureniely  ; 
but  Ihuee  whicli  api-uir  mmil  widtly  aepsrared  nmy  !,..■ 


.r  llic  i.iF/i^wK  ni 


It  regarded 


the  tnnajuder  beinn  pm 
Whuitliealialllaspiml, 


."iroiBria,  inwlni-iil 

I  which  the 
spiral  form, 

night  tabe. 


notiu  thaeama  ^m^  k 
like  that  round  whisk  a 
This  is  eaJlad  Uie  coTum 
at  ita  lower  part,  fur  the 
niitry  organi,  wIhc)i  are  placed  ailUi 
The  maifla  of  tlie  ahcli  b  ni4  (mh. 
with  iplni's,  as  io  Ihe  iViaw;  thaa  « 
tiiudar  appendagee  in 
tJlo  CiHiclilfeni,  by 
prolan  gatlniia  af  the 
miuiilv;  and  ihe  dini- 
milar  niuiilier  of  tbem 
in  dlirertnt  apeeiinena 
has  cauaed  llie  c  ' 
blishoient  of  ir 
■pecien,  which, 
Ihat  Ilia  Jiabila  of 
animal  ara  1m 
iuMitm,  prove  to  be  but 
dUfnTonl  turnii  of  the  . 
aanic  For  It  ha*  Imn 
aeccrloinod  thai  tho 
aDimnl  haa  not  only  tba 
power  of  &>nntng  new    . 

oldono.cspcciBllynueh 
as  would  interfere  with 
tho  continued  growth 
of  the  ahoN,  The  edge 
of  Uio  man  lie  is  applied 
Bgiinsl  their  hues,  and 
n  kind  of  iib^rpliuD  of 
Khelly  tnaller  ..vms  to 
take  ptara-'a  nolth 
tilling  Rjrined,  wliivli 
eauata  lAeni  tota  eiBily 
brAm  oE  V«rion»  , 
analogdus  change*  Bra 
jifoduced  ^y  B  similar 

wholly  or  parliftlly  remi'vcd. 
(he  aldarporllun  ni«  tlitimed.  f  ' 
ing  the  aficll ;  and  in  other  <.-.•  < 
ullogethor  reuunvd,  a  gm... 
aniund  itn  iuUrwr,  which  r--i, 
ea.-i^  br«ken  olT:  in  Ihesu  ]u-i 


ZOOLOGY^MOLLUSCA. 

I  sliell  rmuini  doMd  after  the  diviaion.  rnpeetatothe  preerding,  butthebranchlieaTentiuted 

«priTedo[  iLsnpas  isuid  to  be  dtcollaltd.  miJvr  the  inar);ini  of  llie  mantle. 

\y  by  auch  remoTala  that  the  furm  of  uni-  4.  TKCnBRtNC»i«TA.     In  the  ip-puter  part  of  the  uii< 

undergoca  B   great   change.     Somelimea  mala  cniilainerl  in  tliJH  onlrr,  tlie  brnnehin  areaituated 

made  to  them,  nhicli  coinpleleljr  alter  upnn  the  back  or  on  the  side,  and  are  covered  in  by  k 

»  that  two  individuala  of  different  agea  fold  iifthe  tnanlle,  and  this  fold  usually  iDcludesaaheU 

rcely  auppuaed  at  first  sight  to   belong  more  or  leaa  developed. 

cibe.     Uut  iu  all  (hege  chkh  the  form  of  S.  llETKnoPont.     Tliia  la  a  mnalt  ordpr,  charaeteriaed 

lell  may  be  traced  in  that  of  tlie  adult,  by  the  peculiar  form  of  tho  fool,  Khich  ia  not  apread 

g  fijiiirca   df    tUs    riimceKit  abow  thia  out  horizontal ly,  but  enniprcteed  vertically  into  a  aort 

moilerate  degree ;  in  other  genera  it  ia  of  fin.     Tliey  carry  their  branciiiae,  the  tufta  of  which 

nnsrkuble.     In  anotber  group  of  ahella,  are  generally  protected  by  a  ahell,  upon  the  back. 

wmmuR  Covry  isaneiample,  a  atill  more  G.  I'nTrrMititiNriiiATx.     The  aiiimale  of  this  order, 

Stion  takes  place.      Id   the  young  abell  In  which  belong  all  tlie  spiral  alicUs,  except  Ihoae  of 

itrp,  artd  tlie  niuuth  or  opening  of  conni-  the  Pulnionca,  are  ao  namiAl  from  the  comb-like  rumi  of 

lb.     This  state  continues  as  long  as  the  their  gilla,  which  are  usually  siluaied  in  a  eaviiy  behind 

•ing  in  size ;  but  when  it  Ima  arrived  at  the  head,  correKponding  with  the  mpiraloiy  sao  of  the 

1  outer  lip  Ih  thickened,  and  brought  ao  I'ulmoneB.     Thia  ia  by  far  the  most  uunicroua  orderof 

r  u  to  Icnve  but  b  narrow  chink  between  the  whole. 

J  nme  time,  a  prolongation  of  the  mantle  7.  TiBd-imuMCiiTATA.  These  have  many  afRniliea 
depieils  a  uew  layer  of  ahclly  matter  on  with  the  tlat  order,  but  the  riieh  ia  apiral  only  at  its 
'  the  previous  one;  and  aa  lbs  two  pro-  apex,  where  it  is  commonly  tilted  to  (or  rather  en- 
el  along  the  back  (the  line  of  their  jniic-  closed  by)  oilier  bodies,  and  is  prolonged  in  tho  ahapa 
lalty  evidi-'nt  on  the  shell),  thia  additional  <^«tubo  more  or  less  reguUr. 

id  porcWanDxiin  its  texture,  8.  ScirniiaANriiiATJi.     In  thenc,  alno,  there  is  a  eon< 


hell. 


sidernble  rcacmblanee  to  the  I'eetinibranehiala  in  the 
form  and  posiljon  of  the  gilla ;  but  tile  bhelln  ai«  rery 
open,  scarcely  in  any  degree  Kpirat,  and  cover  the  body 
and  gills  like  a  shield ;  and  Iht-y  alao  difler  essentially 
in  their  mode  of  re|irDduclinn. 

9.  CYCLOBitAiiciiiATi.  These  molluaes  have  their  gilla 
diflpoBvd  in  little  tufts  under  the  margins  of  the  mantle, 
much  as  in  the  Infrrobranehiala ;  liut  they  have  Uiella, 
which  are  spread  out  over  the  bod.v,  and  differ  from 
(hat  order  in  their  mode  of  reproduction. 


OfJerI.-1-ul 

moan. 

veonlaiid,sonicBrea<[ualic;huttlie>Le,hkotlieB((uatio 
r-hreaihing  Insects  and  Vertebmla,  are  ohli^'cd  to 
ime  occaaionally  to  the  surface  to  breathe.     They  all 
ed  ehicHy  upon  vegetablca,  and  many  of  tlioni  rxelu- 

?ly« 


and  will 


ilmost  any  organised  matter 
way.  Tliey  are  diffused  through  all  climates,  giartieular 
ppivies  being  restricted  to  each.  Those  without  a  ahcU, 
nimmonly  known  as  Slug*,  constitute  the  funiily  Liha< 
cix.K.  In  the  common  Stagt,  as  in  most  of  the  terrca- 
trial  spedca  of  this  order,  we  observe  a  promiiKnt 
head,  with  four  lentacula,  and  at  the  enil  of  the  longer 


e  eyea 


I'hepi 


.  ly.  It  dfH^ 
the  entire  month  of  the  shell,  but  i 
ide  to  fit  it,  at  all  stages  nf  growth,  i 
iliAil  aeeamry.  Smna  iS  the  land  i<pe< 
n  opBTCiilnm  ;  hnt  in  genpr^il  Iheyarei 
id  tiiey  fiirni  during  hybernation  a  tern 
to  the  mnuih  ul  ihu  ahell,  by 


bble  of  air.     U'-li 


id  includes  on  earth-' 
tLi,  a  Rti'iind  and  and  has  k 
isiouaily  found,  an    countrj',  i 


a  all  the  si 


irds,  by  a  procesx  retiembling  the  inversion 
of  tho  linger  «l  a  glove.  On  the  back  there  is  a  kiud 
lot  of  shield  or  diMS  formed  by  the  mantle,  which  some- 
is  limes  encloses  a  small  shell.  Thia  khield  coven  the 
th  pulmonary  aae,  the  opening  of  which  Is  on  itn  right 
es  xide,  and  the  head  can  be  withdrawn  beneath  it.  Tin 
rs-    Ttjlnetlfa  ia  a  kind  of  slug  which  has  the  disc  of  the 

"    "  ■ '    'irge'y 


,  b  abundant  in  the  south  of  Tranco, 
een  introduced  into  the  gardens  uf  (hi« 
it  is  mul^plying  Ta]>idly. 
n  suBii.  I  lie  Aitaiu  and  their  ■lliea,  conaiiluling  the  family 

Imod  of  IhiK  rxti'n^ive  class  into  ordern,  1Ii:LiciN.«,arcclnselyalliedIotlieSlugBinorgBniaation; 
'ITi-eteil  by  nmiiging  the  dilferrnt  tribes  difl'ering  in  but  little  elso  than  the  [HMweasion  uf  a  <he]t 
the  character  and  {wsition  of  the  respi-  into  which  the  body  may  bo  withdrawn.  Thocomnion 
I,  The  following  are  thvM  adopted  bv  garden-snail  of  this  cuuntrv,  and  (he  IMit  pomalia,  or 
edible  snail  nf  France  and  Itoly,  are  ni-ll- known  ex- 
1.  There  are  termtrini  species,  adapted  am]ilee  of  thin  family.  More  btriking  ones  arc  to  be 
I  air  by  ni<'anr<  i.f  n  pulmonary  xae  or  nir-  fmind,  however,  in  tro]>icnlclliDales;  where  Home  species 
riliee  of  which  ihey  can  open  or  close  at  of  llic  genus  Unlinmt  attain  to  great  size,  the  eggH  being 
lave  no  sliell.  aa  large  anapignin'a.     la  soim^Bpccies  the  directiunof 

'         '     '  "' — ■"""  is  opposite  to  what  it  '    ' 


1^  are  aquatic,  being  adapted  to  respire  spiral  sheila ;  such  ai 

s,  like  other  Molltisca.     Tlie  animals  of  species  of  this  genus 

'e  no  shell,  and  tliey  carry  their  branchiie,  decollation  of  its  shel 

ITuiDDsfnrma,  on  some  part  of  (he  back,  climatea,  aa  the  Acl 

These  are  similar  in  many  shrub*,  chiefly  on  Ihi 


■aid  to  be  meritd,  A.  FIi 
is  one  most  remarliabls 

Another  large  snail  of  tropical 
liina,  which  feeds  on  trees  and 
western  coast  of  Africa,  and  in 


CHAUBEaSS  IKFOEHATION  FOR  TBE  PEOfUC 

disUnguuhiid 


lbs  W«tt  Indies.  Several  of  ils  i 
by  ihe  Uwalf  of  Oivlr  coltrnWi. 

TiM  wiiuiic  rulnuDUu  li&ve  only  two  tcntaonla. 
Tram  Ibv  nnxaai!  of  coming  to  the  uirfaeo  to  breathe, 
tlir;  cMi  "u>y  lira  in  w«t«r  of  imwnuderable  diptli  ; 
end  Ihvy  cliu'lly  inhlkbit  ponds  ond.  feliallow  >tre>ni«,  or 
(be  bkolii  of  ri«oni.  Some,  however,  livo  on  Ibe  ee*- 
*hsr«.  Tha  I'lantrbU,  the  eliell  of  nhieh  ie  quite  flat, 
having  ull  iu  coib  upnn  (he  eame  level,  in  a  very  cnm- 
tiiira  genu*  ia  Ibis  twuutry  ;  u  ia  nUo  tlie  Lg/mnxa, 
wblcb  lecdB  apon  seedg,  >±  well  oa  tha  aofter  parts  of 
planU,  «ad  tlio  utomneb  uE  wbicb  has  &  very  muiciilu' 


Tbc  ininiBla  of  this  urder,  vr 
Su-Slugs,  u-c  ilJ  niarioe ;  tnd 
water  u  any  depths,  and  alsi 
•witn  with  faeUiiy,  they  are  of 
Unoa  froTQ  laud.  Wlien  Cbey 
lUD,  the  foot  beii 


lU  miebt  be  denigmted 
ing  adsptad  to  breathe 

I  found  at  a  great  dia- 

turned  upworda  ;  this 

>B  the  animal  at 

ran*  nne,  auu  aotne  uT  ii«  e|ieciea  attain  a  coimiderabla 
site  ;  hut,  Irom  tlieir  habita,  liltle  ia  kiicwa  of  ibem. 
Ordu  lit — InfiTDbmicIiiiilib 
Th«  few  Molliisea  eonlamed  ia  tbia  order  differ  but 
little  frnm  tl<e  lust,  cxeepi  in  the  puaition  of  tbalr 
twdtheirincapabililynrHwimniing.  Tbey arc, tlierc 
eooHnFd  ui  llicsea-ebore  i  where  Iheyeubuist,  aado  the 
Nudibnuiuliinta,    npuo   sea-weeda   and  other  aqualie 


This  order  hegina  to  allow  an  approiimalion  toward! 
thai  ditpocUinn  of  tin  gilla  whivn  charaeCeriiea  the 
great  bulk  of  iJie  class ;  tiie  nnimala  composing  it  arc 
nurine,  and  live  obitHy  en  the  shore  or  an  Hoating  aca- 
WBada.  A  very  clisiacleristic  eaampieor  tha  order  ialhe 
Apljftia,  ooninjoiily  lermed  Sea-P  ■  ■  '    ■ 

duit  on  many  parts  uf  the  Britieh 
name  it  prubnbly  derived  fruni  tl 

•"I'ti-i. 

hollow 


of  llie  Cariaariii  inbabila 

siunally  apjware  on  imrticular  B  .  _   . 

wbllat  others  are  ptvuliur  (u  the  tnrp}iai  wl 

the  allied  gsnen  aleo  exut.    TW  atwll  of  Ih 

is  interesting,  on  avMtiul  both  aT  ito  wttnBit 

tiirfapvc-XaMB 
□Ms  VI— PeeclBltei 
This  order  ii  not  tmly  hf  (kr  tl 

the  whole  cUh,  but  oonlaina  the  ■ 

he  re^i-ded  as  itn  most  ehaneterutte  i 

have  all  two  lentseula  and  two  eyes,  ■ 

on  stalks,  u  in  the  eoail.    The  moiiia  ii  pi 

a  sort  of  pmbascin;  and  the 

litde  hoots  or  recurved  spina  . 

down  the  liardest  bodies  by  slow  and  oft-ftfri 

Hon.     The  cavity  in  which  the    "  "  --    •■ 


a  tabular  pralangatioD  tif  iha  a 


le  piupose  Dl 


onvajinf  m 
cHriir,  H,  luHL  kuD  uiuiiiu  ckh  bmulia  iiilhiwlj 
ita  bhelter.     By  the  presence  or  abanww  at  iH 
and  by  tlie  Comi  of  the  sbejl,  whidi  hmtf 
bear  a  Bulticienlly  constant  rebiUon  with  tM 
animals,  this  large  group  may  b*  VTM)g*4|l| 
fallowing  families:— 1.  TnncnaiaM,  i»«lMlM| 
■iphon,  and  which  haie  Ihe  muuili  olnaed  1^4 
eulum.    Of  (hi*  the  ccFmmoii  pcriirtALlB  ii  ~ 
rialic  examjile,  Ihongli  very  aDuill  In  iiMfM 
pica)  species.    '2.  dnnjinalt.  which  liafw  i 
shell,  very  much  like  ihal  of  (hu  liin|HM.  w 
suluta  or  notch  at  the  margin  fur  ilit  f 
3.  Buoa.Nom^  which  have  a  rpin 
t  the  ond  of  the  oolumetla  for  ilui 
the  siphon ;  this  is  aometinwa  eatremcl;  MM 
in  the  Murex  ;  and  the  genera  exhi  bi(iwilif#< 
Are  all  nimivoroiis  in  tlieir  habit«    Vv  tl 
belnng  the  animals  fanning  the 
marine  nnivalTe  ibellB  pmcnred  ia  wtian 


.iphon 


Jbyrai-cliDjil 


(inkT  !X.— *.^l..bfnnihi«l 

i>. 

J  fi.n,.  i.f  Il-ci 

Limj*!.,  whid  pril 

iib.F«* 

lAFilread 

><n.ll  (p 

»i«.b>M 

uiuih  gresler  •ii'  *• 

a»B^ 

rv  ompi 

ud  animals. 

0  ibe  difhrentaiW 

A  VW***>>5'^ 

.«*■»- (3.. 

~^4 

Smj^ 


mU  Mid  iir  llin  kliull  »  trtu  tlir  innmanli,  <i«Hh  Om 
IbIm  iMdiiie  la  it,  itia  urAiW  lA  Titfw^.WwwifcB'*.- 


CILVMBEHS'S  mrpRMATION  tor  TTTE  PEOPLEn 


tr  the  large  end,  tin 
THwnpied  by  the  OTnriuin 
Clmtt  W  tliB  is  the  pnwe 
Ilia  vilvM  UQ  be  dn* 
Ibroe.  Tlw  iiiteatinal  ti 
the  ppening  st  the  postei-ior  (or  Tight-liftod)  extrcmitj' 

of  fll«  Rhel^  which  diBcliargei --  •  - 

it  oF  tliB  rttpjiinitory 


iv!(;r  of  the  eliell  is  chiefly 
wLich  the  eggs  aio  farmed. 
I  kddoGtar  miuel^  by  which 
Ingetlier  with  SDii&id(TBl)le 


giilenla,  uid  aerm 


11  Concfiihra;  but 
w*  hnve  now  to  notico  t<ro  orgkiK,  wljlch  are  KbMnt 
tome,  and  In  athorn  more  largely  developed  tbau  iu  tbe 

Eiiil  in8l«noe.      Fmni  the  lower  pMt  uf  Ibe  thelt, 
ng  out  Iwtween  the  sepiirate  edges  o(  the  niBnlle, 
en  tie  jimi,  a  fleshj  muBouliir  organ,  Bomewh»t 
Tnvmbling  the  tongue  of  highr^r  AnJcOHlB,  and  not  con- 
teinitig  >n;  hard  Bupporl,  or  bung  protected  by  any 
mvvlopv.     Tbia  Tnol,  which  i^.the  only  spctiil  Iocihud- 
'    tSn*  OT^D  poaaeBBed  by  ihd  MoUutca  of  tkia  cksB,  Mrvra 
I    4  enal  viriety  of  purpoMB,  Rometlmra  en*bliii)>  the 
animal  to  leup  with  coasideruble  ogillly  along  a  hard 
lurnuw,  Bonietime!!  being  uKd  to  bore  Into  the  sand  or 
'    nnd,  and  Himetimei  uTving  milr  to  afBx  the  anlmnl  to 
■wno  flnn  Biipport.    Prom  tbo  bun  of  thia  foot  thcro 
proMmli,  in  the  nnoseli  a  band  of  lair^ikp  filamenla, 
'    rbmtlDg  whbt'i*  osUnd  thti  Ayniw.    Thm  aomelimn 
I    axiM  in  fCTTHt  ahunilonne,  and  bsfvp,  by  bving  fixBd  by 

hell,  and  yet  to  allow  the  ammal  co 


e  fravdoni  of  motioii 


Fra- 


ETof  Idcomo- 


_        Iv  the  bysaua  ia  altogether  absent. 
'   The  Conetnfnk  hare  DBually  mare  pai 

•  .'MoatbMl  the  Tuuleala.    Some  of  Ihem,  nowever,  as 

I  A*  oy«t«r,  Kiv  attached  lo  one  spot  during  all  but  the 
(MtiMrt  period  of  ^Bir  lir».  ULlicrs  adhere  by  the 
ijmaa,  or  by  the  foot,  by  which  Ihcy  obtaio  a  cHtoin 
nnge  ;  and  others  are  free  during  ^le  whols  of  their 
B*B*,  ewimuiiug  anl  leaping  iritli  oonaidetabte  ogiliiy. 
'~   "'         " — ""   eoniii   of  them   appear  to  lie 

-  Bizecieu  uy  puwisTi-ui  ai^I,and  in  these  are  pcrtMsiited 
Mnall  red  apolB  at  the  edges  of  the  maotle,  whioh  are 

'  believed  to  be.eyes.  They  do  not  appear  to  have  inneh 
cboice  of  food,  n«r  are  they  provided  with  onr  other 
meniia  uf  nblHininK  il  ilmii  tlip  lillory  neti"n,  wtiicli  in- 

In  general  Ihi^y  do  not  attain  oiiy  grpat  tine,  but  they 
are  on  the  whole  larger  tluin  any  Molluics  excppt  the 
Ceplmliipoda  )  nnil  a  few  epeeira  attnin   considerable 
dinieiiBioiiK—ii  /'inno    liKring   been   knoo'n   four  f>-(-t 
Inug,  anJa  TVWucni:  (Oianl  Clump-ihi-il)  li.-ivii,,-  f.  .1, 
known  to  weigh  GUI)  lbs.     They  are  distributi'-l  ■•   ■  ■ 
fihnle   globe,  principally  freijiienliug  Ihu    ^il 
eliolloW!!.     Eieh  region  has  certain  it|iecic"<  y.  < 
most  abundKiil  In  it,  and  (here  nro  fi'w  "liiiii  .1 
limited  to  one  heniiEphere.     Tlif  i"i:<;"  :.'i      .1 
pcin  nafnvgupable  T    ■'     '      • 


thetn 


at  tbe  poilerior  end  it  !>  iiniknifad  inlff  M 
length,  that  can  b*  extendod  Gw  Nqmddi 
the  eonimon  Sottnt  or  ItMur-ShaUa, 

The  Osinireie,  of  nil  ihn(>orden,esUWfld 
approach  tu  the  Tuuicdla,  both  in  the  aliial 
foot,  the  entirely  flxed  couditian  of  tha  betg^ 
low  grade  ol  their  orj^ieatioii  Is  piniwiL 
iteelt  IB  usnoDy  Died  by  adharioo  to  ulfewi 
a  few,  the  animal  is  attached  b<r  a  hjmm. 
tpeeieii,  which  are  unattached,  ha*e  a  4^ 
changing  their  plaee,  by  Buddrmly  (too^  1 
and  squirting  out  the  water  tliat  waa  betirat 
the  true  OgiUm  there  are  no  tnlh  in  ihi 
Ib  held  together  by  the  ligament  tinlj.  S 
exiit,  soiue  of  whioh  an  a>  abundant  la  trsfi 
as  the  common  Oyrter  of  Icmpetate  *••  b  M 
of  Ddlain.  Their  oontinuej  abundaiutvM' 
ing  the  largo  (]uaotitiet  ennoianlly  bal^  ■ 
1««  eurpriBing  when  we  reflect  U|n>ii  Ihatf  I 
fertility,  aa  tamy  aa  1,200,000  em  lAilq 
tested  ID  a  aingie individual.  TheTaolnuk 
'ike  that  of  the  Oynlera,  but  difler  In  baiiw 
if  the  valvps  raiwd  up  iuto  ribi,  tai  ul 
Ln|{ular  projectioD*,  coamionly  tcrnMd  m 
lidea  of  the  hinga.  Man*  of  then  mb  *■■ 
colounid,  and  they  ore  the  moat  aMiwal 
order,  being  entirely  uyattached,  and  I  * 
greater  qiiieluMes  than  would  Lav*  httm  a^ 
heir  imperfecl  mean*  of  loeontMlaii. 

The  foregoing  tribn  of  .OBtraceiai,  and  mf 
chich  might  bo  enumerated,  am  dulinpitdrf 
jreacnce  of  only  one  adductor  niooeU :  to  Ibe  M 
of  llis  order,  a«  in  moat  otiier  ILvalvM^  llNn| 
second,  Amoii^  these  tnay  be  flu" 
Elheria,  which  is  a  eort  of  fre«h-wi 
.deini^  which  furnish  tbe  greater  liiiintiwi 
BO  highly  prized  as  ornamcntK,  are   '   '  ~ 

ach  hide  u!  the  hinge  -,  and  these  are  rrefSBl 
on  one  side.  The  pearl  is  produced  fren  A 
itnilce  as  that  which  llnee  tbe  slitll,  aoJ  ■ 

nii:!ily  known  o.'t  m(>lher->ir-p«u'l.    It  •■•■ 

■    "  '    II' Hi^-   irnli.li.,n  uf  the  duMK 

r       v..    ..  ,.i,u.iu-.ual.nani;tyofp«tr 


i.iLra 


>»aad* 


the  hiT 


t  kindi  arr 


cnnro,  wiin  uio  ejicrpiion  01  tiirco  ni 
wftin/i  ere  fiir  (lie  ingre«»  an<l  egrtia  m 
thint  for  thi-  naaaliiro  uf  llie  tmil,  wills' 
Bintv  i<owri-{„\    i.  CiMHjri'.TT  orfVli 


VovcMMraW^l 


L\\a  riii>i<T,  or  n  ing-flhciui,  approaeh  the  Ha 
iiuiiiy  ri'Kpects ;  tlioy  are  remarkable  for  tha  J« 

'ilky  characfcr  of  the  byuBus  by  which  they  a«id 
icivca  to  rocks,  and  which  is  eolleet«d  inlbeli 


Oriler  IL— SIjIDaco* 
The  or<li'r  ArytilAcese  ia  well  reproMttlalWI 
mon  j1fu..r/,  winch  has  been  atrn^y  jiaulU 

and  from  their  abondi p_, 

their  pllatahilily,  tbey  nerve  M 
^(a<>&.    Ufrloii^ng  to  this  order  m-v  ■ 


ZOOLOGY.— MOLLUSCA. 


I,  therefore,  they  cannot  quit.  By  what  means 
niplish  this  is  unknown.  The  flattened  form 
ill  is  a  sufficient  proof  that  it  is  not  by  mecha- 
>n,  as  in  some  of  the  boring  shells  of  the  order 

The  Anotion  is  a  fresh- water  mussel,  closely 
general  conformation  to  those  inhabiting  the 
litfering  remarkably  in  the  absence  of  teeth  in 
>,  whence  the  name  of  the  genus  is  derived. 
•  is  another  fresh-water  genus,  having  a  more 
cd   hinge.     It  is  remarkable  for  the  pearly 

the  lining  of  the  valves,  and  for  producing 
iris,  sometimes  in  considerable  abundance. 
<!  not  so  pure  in  their  colour,  however,  as  those 
icula,  and  are  but  little  esteemed.  Some  spe- 
Tnio  are  common  in  the  lakes  and  rivers  of 
)ut  the  greater  number  are  peculiar  to  North 
;  many  of  these  are  remarkable  for  their  size 
ir.  There  are  some  marine  Mytilaccse  allied 
lios,  one  of  which  burrows  in  coral. 

Order  III.— Camaccs. 

-dcr  CamacesD  includes  but  a  comparatively 
nber  of  species,  most  of  which  are  peculiar  to 
limates.  The  most  remarkable  is  the  Tridacne 
Giant  Clamp-shell,  of  the  Indian  Ocean.  When 
is  animal  attaches  itself  to  rocks  by  means  of 
ous  foot,  which  serves  as  a  sort  of  byssus ;  but 
shell  becomes  so  massive  that  it  is  in  no  danger 
,  it  detaches  itself,  and  the  groove  of  the  shell 
p.  These  animals,  with  their  shells,  sometimes 
e  weight  of  many  hundred  pounds.  Smaller 
s  arc  often  brought  to  this  country ;  the  valves 
^d  to  receive  water  from  small  fountains,  &c. ; 
he  continent,  they  are  employed  as  reservoirs 
ater  in  the  churches.  The  foot  has  a  structure 
that,  to  separate  the  shell  attached  by  it,  it  is 
r  to  chop  it  with  a  hatchet  like  a  cable. 

Order  IV.— CardlaccxB. 

animals  of  the  order  CAROiACEiE,  or  Cockle 
usually  find  greater  activity  than  in  any  others 
£8.  The  foot  now  comes  to  bo  a  very  impor- 
m,  possessed  of  great  muscular  power,  and 
•f  being  applied  to  a  variety  of  uses.  Many  of 
mals  bury  themselves  in  sand  or  mud  ;  and  it 
&  that  we  find  the  respiratory  orifices  prolonged 
».  In  the  common  Cockle,  however,  these 
1  scarcely  bo  said  to  exist,  the  orifices  not  being 
1  beyond  the  shell.  Its  foot  is  very  large,  and 
?nt  nearly  double  in  the  middle  ;  by  doing  this, 
suddenly  straightening  it,  the  animal  is  enabled 
considerable  leaps.  The  hinge  is  very  bcauti- 
structed ;  and  the  two  valves  lock  closely  to- 
The  Triyonia,  a  very  interesting  genus,  abun- 
ormer  ages  of  the  globe,  but  now  restricted  to 
*s  of  New  Holland,  seems  allied  to  the  cockle 
tructure  of  its  hingo  and  shell,  in  the  size  of 
and  in  its  general  organisation,  although  its 
I  divided  into  two  lobes  along  the  whole  margin 
Ives,  as  in  the  oyster.  This  is  an  instance  of 
npriety  of  basing  our  classification  on  any  single 
rs.  There  are  other  Cardiacete  which  obvi- 
nduct  towards  tho  next  order.  Such  is  the 
Df  which  the  valves,  when  closed  together,  gape 
«terior  extremity  ;  and  through  this  passage 
H  out  two  long  tubes  which  terminate  in  the 
I  orifices  and  funnel.  These  tubes  have  an 
ructure,  and  can  be  entirely  drawn  within  the 
'hese  long  tubes  are  seen  also  in  the  Venus  and 
,  of  which  one  species  is  remarkable  for  the 
les  which  guard  its  posterior  end  ;  and  also  in 
tra^  and  the  animals  allied  to  it.  In  some  cases 
s  are  united  along  their  whole  length,  and  ap- 
«  single  ;  but  they  are  always  in  reality  doable. 
)  animals  are  in  the  habit  of  burying  themselves 
ir  mudy  or  in  stones ;  and  the  tubes  serve  to 
B  imh  water  from  the  entrance  of  their  bur- 


531 


Order  V.— Inclupa. 

In  the  order  Inclusa  we  usually  find  the  valves, 
when  joined  together,  presenting  more  or  less  of  a 
cylindrical  form,  as  in  the  common  Razor-shelL  A 
hollow  is  left  at  each  end,  and  from  one  the  foot  is  pro- 
jected, through  a  passage  in  the  mantle,  whilst  the  other 
gives  exit  to  the  respiratory  tubes,  which  are  often 
prolonged  to  a  great  length.  The  animals  live  almost 
uniformly  buried  in  sand  or4nud,'in  rocks  or  wood* 
The  Solent  or  Razor-shell,  is  a  very  characteristic  ex- 
ample of  the  order,  which  contains,  however,  some 
forms  that  depart  very  widely  from  it.  The  foot,  which 
can  be  projected  from  the  lower  end,  is  firm  anrf  pointed, 
and  serves  as  an  admirable  boring  instrument,  by  the 
use  of  which  the  animal  can  burrow  in  the  sand  with 
great  rapidity,  sinking  very  deep  when  alarmed.  The 
Mya  approaches,  in  the  form  of  its  shell,  and  in  its 
general  organisation,  to  the  previous  family  ;  but  some 
of  its  species  also  closely  approximate  the  Solens.  The 
Phoias  is  a  very  interesting  genus,  the  animal  of  which 
nearly  resembles  that  of  the  Solen,  whilst  the  shell  is 
formed  of  several  pieces,  and  would  thence  be  called  a 
muitivalve.  There  are  two  principal  portions,  and  a 
variable  number  of  accessory  pieces.  Some  species  of 
this  genus  bore  in  mud,  others  in  rocks,  and  a  few  in 
wood.  Their  action  seems  purely  mechanical.  They 
fix  themselves  firmly  by  the  powerful  foot,  and  then 
make  the  shell  revolve ;  the  sharp  edges  of  this  com- 
mence the  perforation,  which  is  afterwards  enlarged  by 
tho  rasp-like  action  of  the  rough  exterior ;  and  Uiougn 
the  shell  must  thus  be  constantly  worn  down,  yet  it  is 
replxtced  by  a  new  formation  from  tho  animal^  so  as 
never  to  be  unfit  for  its  purpose. 

We  now  pass  on  to  some  very  remarkable  forms  of 
this  order,  in  which  the  bivalve  character  of  the  shell 
gradually  disappears,  being  replaced  by  a  new  structure 
of  which  no  examples  have  been  yet  seen.  The  Teredo, 
or  Wood-worm,  as  it  is  commonly  termed,  is  an  animal 
of  the  same  general  organisation  as  the  Pholas ;  but  its 
valves  are  smaller  in  proportion  to  the  body,  and  its 
tubes  still  more  prolonged — at  least  when  the  animal 
may  bo  regarded  as  full-grown.  By  means  of  the 
mechanical  action  of  its  valves,  it  perforates  timber,  in 
the  same  manner  as  the  Pholas  penetrates  st<me.  As 
it  advances,  the  respiratory  tubes  are  prolonged,  so  that 
their  orifice  remains  at  the  entrance  of  tlic  burrow, 
which  is  very  small  in  proportion  to  the  cavity  ft>rmed 
by  the  animal  as  it  increases  ii)  size.  This  orifice  is 
furnished  with  a  pair  of  valve-like  shelly  plates,  termed 
paimu/ije;  by  the  action  of  which  a  current  of  water  is 
driven  towards  the  body  of  the  animal,  in  order  to  serve 
for  its  respiration,  and  at  the  same  time  for  the  supply 
of  its  food.  The  gallery  is  lined  by  a  calcareous  exu- 
dation from  the  surface  of  the  tubular  prolongation  of 
the  mantle,  which  forms  a  kind  of  secondary  shell. 
The  Teredo  is  an  animal  extremely  destructive  to 
timber,  especially  in  warm  climates,  from  which  it 
seems  to  have  been  originally  introduced  into  the  sea- 
ports of  Europe.  In  other  genera  the  valves  are  lost 
in  the  shelly  tube,  so  that  the  ordinary  structure  of  the 
class  is  no  longer  apparent. 

Besides  the  orders  now  described  as  composing  the 
class  Conchifera,  there  is  a  very  curious  group  which 
should  also  be  included  in  it,  although  established  as  a 
separate  class  by  many  naturalists.  This  is  the  group 
of  Bracuiopoda,  containing  only  three  genera  at  pre- 
sent known,  namely,  T^ebratulay  Lingula,  and  Orbi' 
cula ;  but  formerly  of  much  greater  comparative  im- 
portance. These  animals  have  all  bivalve  shells,  differ- 
ing in  no  essential  particular  from  those  of  the  Conchi- 
fera in  general.  The  two  former  genera  are  attached, 
however,  by  a  footstalk  proceeding  from  an  opening  in 
one  of  the  valves  near  the  hinge,  to  solid  substances ; 
and  in  this  respect  they  have  an  affinity  with  the  Tuni- 
cata.  The  Orbicula  is  attached,  like  an  oyster,  by  one 
of  its  valves.  They  bear  considerable  resemblance  to 
the  Tunicata,  also,  in  the  structure  pt  the  nutritive 
system — the  digestive  apparatus,  heart,  gills,  &c.    But 


CaAMBERS'S  lOTORMATlON  FOil  -JUE  PEOPLfi 


in  llie  oomplvxily  of  ifae  iuii£V'ilnr  Dppnralui  prDvii!?iI 
fcir  giving  molicin  lo  Iha  vilyea,  thoy  iiiuoh  BUrpflsa  the 
higheat  oS  tlie  oibee  Ccnclurcca.  'I'hBre  are  ngt  'iiily 
sevenl  inuielefl  provided  fuc  the  cloaun!  i>f  llm  slioll, 
but  uiathor  tel  la  open  it — au  orginiulioij  u-liich  qo 
Dthcr  fiinilvcB  poMou.  The  niiwl  pvtiiliu-  piirt  uf 
ttioir  ttniclure,  and  thai  from  nliicli  tlivy  ilni-ivi^  ilicir 
MniF,  QOiiutta  in  the  prfficncr  nf  twu  vsry  [otig  arms 
or  lantaealH,  between  Iha  veig'ia  of  wliii^li  lbs  hmiuUi  is 
Bllunted.  Thoso  rara  Iw  projpeWd  to  n  cunnido ruble 
diiUinco  from  the  sboll,  or  dmwi"  In  a»d  cuilcil  up 
■inriiK;  (lilbiii  it.  Thflj  do  not  uppcar,  bunever,  tu 
urixf  upon  pTcy ;  but  ralhor,  by  iiihiiih  uf  iIil'  tilia  with 
wbioli  thpT  nro  frlngeil,  to  crcaW  currenu  »h!oU  may 
bring  food  to  Ibo  moatb.    In  the  Tcrcbntuk,  thuiw 


A.  hJts  with 

trms  oro  alD^inl  M 
"wk  within  the  »holl,  Um 
bnt  it  i*  bclicTod  (a  atil,  by  it>  eluticity,  i 
thii  valvM  from  cMh  othci'.     Tbi»  fiwnewo 
'n  the  ■poei«*  Id  which  llio  u 
of  BnuihiopoilB  B 

■  in  tba  oown;  ki ,  _.  

I  to  have  ntiamaett  lo  thu  partJonlap  tt 

■  arc  dislributpd  througl]  all  Ifttiludos. 


The  loweat  uid  BimpleBt  at  the  rociluscous  clnwos  in 
Ihiit  Ut  which  the  name  oF  Tunicata  bsg  buea  girvn,  in 
order  to  mark  the  peculiar  siruclum  of  the  aiitinnlii 
compotlog  It.  Thoy  Wnr  a  general  resemblano;  to  the 
niiimals  which  form  hiralrc  abclla,  but  ore  of  inferior 
organisation.  Tbcy  arc  peculiarly  distiaguished  from 
tliem,  however,  by  the  entire  aWnce  of  any  shelly 
onvelope;  and  by  ihe  pouesslon,  iueteadof  it,  ofa  funis 
or  external  coal,  of  greater  fiminem  than  the  rest  uf 
the  elructum,  which  furrounds  Ibo  whole  body  aud 
aflbcds  it  protection,  bfsjdes  being  the  modiiini  of  its 
atlBchmciit  to  Hie  fixed  subalancn  upon  which  these 
animal*  uraallj'  rest.  This  exteriinl  tunic  is  extremely 
Tariahio  in  eduur,  eoiisislcnee,  and  form.  Sonictinieb 
it  is  dark,  and  of  leathery  tuughueaa  ;  Bomctinies  even 
cartilagiDom;  and  in  many  tpccica  it  exudes  a  gluti- 
nouB  mutter.  Ly  which  panicles  of  aaod,  graiel,  cam- 
minuted  sbells,  &c.,  are  ntincbcd  together,  so  as  to  forni 
an  additional  envelope,  whicli  posscssea  great  linimi-»s. 
Somolimei,  on  the  oilier  hand,  llio  vrliolc  body  is  e*- 

trcniely  soft  and  dalicati ..       .      - 

is  a  thin  li 


1    the  iub 


ii:y  of  the  ligbl  I: 


whit'b 


The  greater  nnniber  of  the  aniin»Ie  of  this  class  aro 
albiebed,  during  llio  prineip.ll  i>tirl  of  their  cxiHtencL', 
-■        ■  '      ■■---   —  ■- siilid  ljiidii-«.     In  a  few  F)ic- 

li  are  iinilerl  by  astern  ivljicb 

all ;  to  that  they  closely  reseuibla  ibe  coinpuuud  I'nlj- 
pifera.  Mora  eoninionly.  hnwevpr,  the  Tunicata  li.e 
in  (odeties,  each  individMal  being  ilislinct  from  the  rest, 
bnt  a  number  adiiering  logelber  to  form  one  niais, 
which  is  often  enelusi-d  in  a  cumtuun  envelope.  In  other 
initaOMa,  each  animal  ia  conipletrly  Kparatn  from  the 
ml.  allliangh  a  nnmbrr  ara  found  in  the  same  locality. 
Wfcov  lliia  b  tlu  cu>e,  the  auimala  am  severally  Itaed 


to  rocks  or  otbor  solid  musam,  aiihcl  by  lb 
ot  the  tuuiu  itself,  or  by  a  sort  uf  {(>olMaU( 

The  (luiic  i*  alwoya  provldcj)  wiUi  ivoaiib 
ara  aouietiDiio  plaoeJ  ovtr  cmIi  oib«r,  aai « 
tiroes  at  tliD  uppuaila  •xtremilia  -A  live  )ioii. 
tbtne  orifices  kerveii  for  tlio  uitrMioaaf  »UB 
cavity  of  Ui>'  mantle,  tba  uUier  fur  IH  eill  t 
bulk  of  llio  body  may  be  cnnniiluvd  aa  i  m 
chamber,  that  is.  u  cavi^  llavd  wiili  a  nwnbn 
which  the  bluod  is  j^lcntifully  di^tribattd,  u  u 
it  may  bu  expoKcd  to  liia  acUuu  uf  (ha  w  mi 
tlid  malvr  iutruducod  intu  it.  Accatdiii|ly,a< 
curn'ol  uf  wUur  b  maintainci  b^  iha  *a(Ut  tf 
[minute,  eonntaally  vibrBtiiig,liair^ke  lilanK 
clalho  the  lining  monibmne ;  and  llilt  niR 
serves  ia  tupj-ly  fMid  to  lb*  UBrtiTi'  imtM 
produces  It.     t\\K  true  muutb,  ur  mtnaat  lai 


It  leai 


o  the  stuUBkch,  i 


kl 


the  brajitiiial  lae,  or  reii[HrBt(>ry  cliaoibni.*! 
ilie  water  introduced  iuto  Uiu  lativr  f^m 
Htiiniocli,  and  after  trarersing  tlic  iabMaln 
fiartiug  witli  whatever  nutriavc  uulciiilail* 
M  cjeclird  from  ilie  second  olifltw  of  llit  1am, 
Btlvani  iWt  hu  merely  pasEcd  oier  tb*  n 
membiaue. 

In  ibcao  actions  nearly  the  nil..)"  Iito  uf 
cala  anpcan  to  oonsial.     Tl><>>. 
rocks  have  no  power  of  cluu^.^: 
allached;  and  tluwv  which  li  ■  i 
oradlierenl  looiw  aoolhor,  1-..  ..I      ■    . 
loooniotion,  eiwpt  what  Ibey  u>.ii<>.'  «'>tii  \ii 
just  deacribcd.     The  ouij  olbsr  uuiicia>:M 
noticed,  ie  thu  oniilnwtiau  uf  tli*  nhole  ^t,  % 
placo  wlien  tlio  animal  ia  irril«tri)  io  m 
water  conlalnod  in  il  Wiog  (uihuiUy  (JMla£ 


companying  figure 
tlie  struclure  of  one  of  these  an'maU-'Ol 
hand  it  ia  seen  in  its  nalnral  conditiun,  ohill 
footttulh;  the  tno  f>r"jcclions  on  th«  tU 
ibort  lubes  lorminatiug  in  the  orific»»  by  ■ 
is  introduced  and  expelled.  Un  Uic  Ml  (h 
the  interior  of  the  sac,  which  hat  beim  WJ 
seen  to  be  nearly  empty,  the  iutctliual  daoil 
side  occupjing  but  a  small  proportion  gf  I 
and  Ihu  membrane  lining  il  is  dispoMd  In  ft 
are  traversed  by   bloiiil- vessels,  so  aa  t0  t 

bv  ibe  air  contained  .n  whieh  Die  >ital  Hail 
fhe  orifice  by  ivhiei.  .lie -iUT  enler»  lh»< 
called  the  btanMal  a,*rtur..,  Lecau«  i|  b 
the  admission  of  walor  to  tlio  6i-,tfiMi.  «r 
that  ihrough  nliich  it  pastes  oul  ia  cnllodlbi 

Tltediriaion  of  this  class  inloordm  b)H 
torily  baaed  upon  Ibu  rclali>«  mdtwa  af 
oritlc«.  which  have  a  dw  rvhlte  mMI 
life  of  twu  gmu|«  of  anraaali  M^MilB 
Amjidix,  tlio  twu  uTiGcw  apfmatll  WKm 


^^^^^n 

ptoTA. 

1 

iplHtjtf  *fcMi  TtTiMfrmii  «w  ti.  fi»rtw»btfaw,  ■ 

^Hfeif-jrrvf?w:ir~/r/rf                         | 

^K"' ' 

.tuLinl    ■ 

^B^Ft'    ' 

mini  ^H 

.'TMV    H 

^■Tu)- 

1   xkiu    ■ 

.olMcb       ■ 

i-ial.    ■ 

' '  -^mi-*     ■ 

ficbu,  a 

...aj  i»    a 

.1^  H 

t^-i^.  ■ 

''r'txT^  1 

!nM».1    V 

1,  inirr-     ^ 

.'ulJft>.ll 

.-■L-a  «F 

tm^ 

A  sain. 

.,    l.l.-utUl 

.      4     -"-I"?* 

.1  It,  <iii  aeoiunt  iiT 

H&'' 

:    .aod  tu  torn*  In- 

^Bu,  i 

'  -  '  ■■ji.nof  au» 

i.r>MW^ 

-  »-iiiiih 

■.iin«tf» 

^r  f 

u  »l.il)ll 

<).^tlu>I 

..I  iJuTBl- 

'■■■  "S^ 

■  VDE'T'  ' 

-  ii™,li™. 

l.^'l-UlW 

'i;':"^ 

".."S;^" 

'"''md*. 

..iiJotcll 

.....  TU^ 

...-i    -   - [wuiwi.w 

S.,1  Lrtliui  ii, 

.  ti^'  1  uJi,  It  u  ijitcuul  111  HUirrK, 
>0m>  ci  dig  Jeilv-Fldi.     AltbODgh 

lie  Comb  kud 

1  or  tlwni  W« 

>  diilloat  isauU>  and  Munuuli  Im- 

rMvf,(r..Ti,-fal 

K«ni,oditn  iiiibiV  it.  m«  plaoU, 

.  .  ."Kiif  ■enuliiUtv.ulhviton'M 

i....>t  di: 

.,..,  of 

,    iiiLiHlv 

«i  lulauiiave 

t  ptiitf,  »laeli 

may  1h>  «ainp>rcd  M  tiat  ndiUnir 

ug  i1<*  dttftTfnl  buJa  uT  k  trv*.    Kvrni  Un  ipottfB    ^| 

b1>  d.r  Kul  (nnri 

BJfM^itblc  in.  mtV  V:-.u^ii™'s  \ii M-V^'»>^"'*''™^B 

■K^''  ' 

,      ■  -:-.".-..- w,«-— 

ft 

1 

CHAMBERS'S  INPOIOIATIOH  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


by  tlwir  exlremo  wftaett,  theaa  luiuiiala  mo  refcdily 
diKUngULBhed. 

The  EciilNOrinUUTA  »lso  lint  Bolitariljiind  tuTC  UiB 
Wiwrr  o(  fi'ew  inuvomont,  oxwjrt  in  m.  fow  tiieciH  whioli 
■pprMrli  llio  I'olypifBtli  t  but  they  sra  readily  disiJu- 
suuhod  («>m  (he  Acalimhii!  by  the  deiislly  of  their  tex- 
ture,  will  mpctinllyhy  tfiu  nmgliiieMot  the  iuwgumenl, 
whijli  1*  UsDolly  bnwl  with  [inclilcs  or  epiiie*,  u  in  the 
Slar-Fi>h  «ntl  SMi-Urclihi. 

In  Uie  two  (iiltottin;;  clusca,  UQ  diBtinctly  ladrntcd 
Mnicturo  eiiii  be  m-vn : — 

Tho  Poi.T(iA«tKii^ii  irliich  are  ordinarily  known  >< 
Anlinolculn,  xm  twlngs  of  extremo  niioulBDeH  arid 

Etnml  limplicity  of  Mmcture.  In  the  •bMiiBo  of  dl»- 
et  orgwi*  tiir  the  vuioiu  purpoBe*  of  Iha  economy, 
they  corrwpund  with  tlw  lowrc  Radtala,  but  tUey  diffor 
in  tin  *xlnraie  aeilvltjr  of  ihwr  inoTemrats.  A  •rpa- 
rata  diriniOD  ol  the  •nimal  kingdom  might  almiwt  bo 
fermvA  for  thtm  alono,  ao  dilliuult  i»  it  to  Msign  them 
Bnr  placo  (n  til*  onlioanrtioale.  Sonic  of  them  cxliibil 
A  IniddDey  M  auoeiala  into  compound  atruolum,  like 
tha  Pirfyplfera, 

Tlie  l*oiti»DU,  or  Sponpr  tribo,  are  of  all  animals 
IhMM  whioh  approiksh  luwivat  to  pUnU,  in  thu  absence 
of  lh«  eharacle™  MCuliar  to  the  kingdom  in  which 
they  U«  placnl,  and  in  thennt  of  deflmUinHW  of  form. 
Certain  movotiiBiiM  cnJiibitrd  by  tbeiu,  huwerer,  and 
thwr  (ilow  afUnlty  with  some  of  llio  I'olypifiira,  render 
it  pra|icr  that  tlioy  ehouU  bo  olimsed  among  aaimsl*. 

CXASS  XLX,— POtYOiSTRlCA. 

'I1t!a  elua  ioalailee  tliu  greater  part  of  tboic  minute 

beluga  tcrmod  Animalfulri,  which  have  been,  from  the 

time  of  tile  dixcuYcry  uT  tha  miemacope,  eooh  fi-rtile 

MUrcn  of  wonder  and  delight,  both  to  tliuw  who  bare 


.•Lis 


■Ugnant  w. 


Yet  I 


iprubabte  and  Biwurd  would 
eemed,  tllat  lueh  beings  are 
at  abouud  in  etery  drop  of 
d  even  exiiit  in  tlis  whole  mass  of  tlic 
haa  been  ahown  to  be  tlie  liCt,  and 


every  iinprovenient 
haa  enlarged  oar  iilc 
the  fluida  of  the  glob 

living  beiiigH,  but  lo. 
In  the  m' 


tho  poa 


of  ll 


t  the  philosopher 
B  poeeible  minute 
ill  further  im|inii 
lending  1  ' 


liTo 


I,  and  not  aa  likely  to  set  any  biiuud  I 


linakulM  may  be  obtained  without  difficulty  fur 

the  ji-ar,  by  skimming  the  surface  of  ponds,  eapcoinlly 
IhowL.  Ill  wli.i'h  the  watiT  exhibits  a  red  or  green  tinm. 


■peeiee  frrqar 
■oftvi'KvlxI'ie  1 


apeeiea  of  true  Aulmaloalea,  and  m 
ger  one* ;  but  as  n  whole,  tba  betop 
nnaller  liiaii  Ilie  llotifora,  utd  Cir  m 
those  of  any  other  eliaa.  Tbe  larnai  amiH 
hut  with  difficulty  eeen  by  lite  naked  eye^ 

an  adequate  conceptioo,  although  llicy  maj 
rically  Btaled.  Tho  slum  lakeaila  namefim 
enteruincd  by  tbe  Folwhraled  tVmiaai  aaN 
Tvnber^  (who  hae  devoted  ^moat  hia  •hoti 
stody  a  tho  minnwcopio  form*  of  «xiMawt 
uiinuila  composing  it  may  bo  charsctenNd 
Haialan  of  many  diatiuct  sMnaelu  or  dig> 
There  is  aome  doubt  opon  ihb  ijnntloili  bo* 
which  can  actually  be  seen  wiU  be  praan 
and  it  will  be  prefimblo  to  ootcr  no  fnrtlu 
question  in  tlii*  ploee. 

Tile bodin  of  Iheec  AnlmalculMareof  >« 
atgtonee,  and  very  trannfareoi ;  eo  that  Ih^ 
flakes  of  very  thin  jelly.  Tlieir  fonna  In 
variable;  and,  in  aome  npeeiee,  Ula  *am*  iv 
diiferent  times  alien  ila  aliajia  M  eonplM* 
CDuld  acai-cety  be  reoopiteed.  Indeed,  mat] 
have  occurred  rrom  this  eaoatt,  Tha  aoaa 
tiaaun  of  the  Palygniilriea  U  alwt  mm  wHm, 
ming,  UiByenaouriLer  an  obalKcle;  tliemaem 
any  limit  to  Iha  ehaugo  at  form  to  a'faieh ) 
aubmil,  innrder  topMW  the  olMtruelian.  1% 
all  «o  flexible,  however ;  for  in  comM  (p«i" 
is  encloavd  in  a  alllceotiB  ahealli  of  vivy  gnil 
whicli  gives  anpport  and  jir«(oction  to  iki 
;o  utraoluree  it  oontaimi.     It  ia  the  afM 


.   _  .  Infusoria  (a»  they Tmv. 
be  hGreatlor  notiiwd.     Sooii 

contained  within  thoabcalh : 
aorl  of  trunk  or  foiil  may  bo  y 


rattirtBtS\,t 
M  th?  oM 


VnrbmJ  Fonnt  of  Aslmalrakk 
The  bodice  of  the  Potygastrica  uv  iOhA 
with  cilia,  by  the  vibrations  of  which  Oiaywl 
in  their  own  mavemenla,  and  also  in  iha  aif 
of  their  food.  Sometimes  thne  eitia  arc  din 
the  whole  extent  ofthe  edgee  of  ihe  bodyj  m 
surround  the  month  only,  uit 


neldnin  absen 


ich  ri'iidinewi  m  any  vegetable  matter :  I 
raw,  ih*  leavea  ut  jilantH,  and  uther  ecnni 


For 

soma  time  aft. 

pooaed  that  tli 

V  must  obtain  their  mm 

uth,  slomach, 

r  alimentary  tube,  eoeU 

K.l.      liiil.    bv 

.    ■,,..|.,..«1  intolbtBd 
-     1  ,t.  ca.ili.-  b«U>e 

.,1.  >,J....,)„ruU,.tfc.S 

Ihein 

eriorot  lb..-  1 

itvnr  mouth  lu  b(  fi«* 

ilIiiiw 

every  iiiNinni- 

,  nud  a  second eriiatb 

d-ml 

e  nunihi'r  rf  m 

'■■<^u'.     Tlie  month  ll« 

furui-. 

hed  with  11  l...r 

.  I'  '>r  dtia.  and  (MMM 

•rluf 

prinrcliiii;  br.- 
Wdor»n,„ll. 
of  lliia  Bpi'"' 

l.-l.Li-  wih,  wbidlV* 

laying 

■  A,inu,.leul™,«iwta* 

foodl 
ni'cdi 

to  tlie  w..<)-  "1  iiic  bod,  b  thoMMlA 
slituto  of  Lliifl  api'vnJage,  tnay  b*  Mn 

ZOOlOOy— RAflATA. 


;  cokmring  putlclea  thmngti  the  wmUr  in  whioh 

iuJcuIm  are  BuriminiDg.  The;  are  seen  to  be 
nto  tfaa  nianth  by  tbe  rortex  or  whirlpool  oe- 
1  by  the  Dctioii  of  the  cilia;  and  soon  after 
:  it,  tliey  arc  observed  to  be  united  togetlier  into 
ind  balls,  an  if  thej  bad  been  compreued  in  a 
herical  eavity.  Tlieee  balls  ar«  eent  one  after 
)r  into  the  general  cavity  of  the  body,  where 
m  to  lie  in  the  midst  of  a  soft  gelatinous  pulp, 
rhich  they  perform  a  slow  revolution — the  forc- 
es eeeaping  at  iotervale  from  the  second  orifice, 
ew  cues  ara  being  pushed  in  from  the  moulh 


ion  of  Khi-e 

a  series  of 

s,  connected  by  an  inlestinsl  tube,  is  not  adopted 

.-  naturalisIB.     Nothing  will  therefore  be  said  of 

liHcBtion  of  tliese  Animalcules,  which  is  princi- 

uKd  upon  characters  fumisbed  (according  to 

Lby  tlie  arrangement  of  the  stomBchs. 
rgest  species  of  the  Polygastrica  probably 
Kcecd  l-2Uili  ot  an  inch  in  length  ;  tbe  smallest 
ent  known  are  about  l-200UCh  of  a  line  in 
r;  but  there  is  no  reason  to  suppose  that  this 
y  means  the  limit  of  minuteness.  They  usually 
'  by  spontaneous  division,  tlio  body  of  the  parent 
;  into  two  or  more  parts,  each  of  whica  soon 
I  a  perfect  being,  capable  of  going  through  the 

Hm  tlic  species  in  which  these  clunges  are  most 
elTected,  it  has  been  calculated  tliat,  under  the 
'ourable  circumstances  as  to  food,  temperature, 
mndred  and  forty  million  millions  may  be  pco- 
I  four  days — a  degree  of  fertility  whicb  assists  in 
ng  the  almost  uiiiverBiU  diffusion  of  these  Ani- 
s,  and  their  eudJeu  appearance  in  countless 

deas  of  the  vast  amount  of  animal  life  existing 
■lass  liavc  lately  received  a  considerable  exten- 
the  discovery  that  tlieir  remains,  minute  as  they 

unfrequently  accumulate  into  masses  of  great 
It  is  only  of  those  species  in  which  the  bodi^ 
■red  with  an  envelope  containing  earlliy  matter, 

remains  can  be  thus  preserved  ;  and  the  sub- 
fornicd  by  their  aggregation  seems  to  be  an 
ble  ponder,  such  is  the  miimteness  of  each 
.*      Such  substances   have  lung   been  known 

wd  m  the  arts  f  r  polishing  melats.     Another 
a  meal  nhtch  has  been  used  in  Sweden, 


uit  of  its  suppi 
1  with  flour  an'l 
Both  til 


Mdl  Bemi^ni  of  Anlnulculcs.  ronnin;  THpolL 

'ilious  qualities,  mixed 

.    bark  of  trees,  in  times 

ity.  Both  these,  as  well  as  mauv  other  sub- 
coniust  entirely  of  the  siliceous  shields  or  en- 
nf  Animalcules,  closely  allied  to,  it  not  identical 
ecio  at  present  existing ;  and  the  quantity  of 
nutter  which  is  dried  up  in  the  latter,  and 
nay  be  determined  by  the  cITect  of  heat  (this 
ng  tbe  animal  portion  and  leaving  the  siliceous 
I  imchanged),  is  suSiciunC  to  account  for  its 
u  properties. 

•  laisiT  ipMles  more  Uiiui  UO  miUIgog  vs  c?itlmiloil 


CLASS  XX.-ECHINODERHATA. 

The  class  of  Ediinodermata,  comprebending  those 


vith  which  moil 


Lribeait 


efroi 


■e  provu 


this  is  not  an  universal  character;  for  some  of  the 
species,  which  border  upon  other  groups,  have  a  slcin 
destitute  of  any  appearance  of  spinea.  There  is  little 
difficulty,  however,  in  distinguishing  theanimalp  of  this 
class  from  all  others,  for  in  nearly  the  whole  of  them 
the  radiated  structure,  or  the  arrangement  of  parts  in 
a  circular  form,  is  very  evident ;  and  they  are  the  only 
animals  among  the  Radiata  which  have  the  power  of 
moving  from  place  to  place,  and  have  at  the  same  time 

Although  the  character  and  degree  of  oi^nisation 
in  the  different  subdivisions  of  this  class  may  be  re- 
garded as  about  the  same,  the  form  of  the  organs,  and 
Sie  mode  in  which  they  are  arranged,  are  very  diflereut, 
so  that  it  will  be  belter  to  describe  each  group  sepa- 
rately. The  class  msy  ho  distributed  into  threeorders; 
the  Stelleridi,  including  the  Star-Fishes  and  their 
allies  ;  the  EaiiMDA,  including  the  Ecliiuu 
allies  ;  and  the  Holotiiuhtda,  a  group  less  c 
known,  and  differing  much  from  the  others. 

Order  L— Blellcrtdls. 
The  common  Jtteriat,  or  Star-Fish,  whidi  may  be 
taken  as  a  type  of  the  order  Slellerida,  is  covered  with 
a     tough     leathery     si' 
beset  with  prickles.      1 
animal  has  the  form  o 
star,  with  five  or  more  n 

dL'c."^lIfthemiddle'of. 
side  of  the  disc  is  situated   - 
the  mouth,  and  this  udo,  * 
according 
habits  of  the  ai 


imouly 


isidered   t 


nio  a  globular  stomach, 
*hich  sends  out  prolongs 


orifice  to  the  digestive  cavity,  so  that  the  indigestible 
parts  are  rejected  bv  the  mouth,  as  in  the  Sea-Anemoiia. 
If  the  tough  prickly  skin  be  removed,  it  is  seen  that 
it  is  anpported  by  a  scries  of  bony  plates,  beautifully 
jointed  together.  Along  the  under  side  of  each  ray,  the 
plates  exhibit  a  aeries  of  perforations,  through  itliich 
there  issue,  in  tlie  living  state,  a  large  number  of  minute 
tubes,  which  may  be  occasionally  seen  projecting  on  the 

of  the  use  to  which  llioy  are  subservient.  Every  one  of 
them  is  connected,  on  tlie  interior  of  the  shell,  with  a 
small  vesicle  or  bag,  which  is  capablo  of  being  distended 
with  water  by  a  system  of  vessels  adapted  to  the  pur- 
pose, and  of  contracting  so  as  to  force  its  contents  into 
the  tube.  The  tube  couaisU  of  a  delicate  ela-tio  mem- 
brane, covered  with  two  layers  of  muscular  fibres,  the 
one  circular,  the  other  longitudinal,  and  furnished  with 
a  sucker  at  its  extremity.  Wlieu  distended  with  water, 
the  tube  projects  from  the  body  ;  and,  if  the  sucker  be 

towards  Uie  body  by  the  elasticity  of  the  membrane, 
when  the  distending  force  is  relaxed.  Although  each 
sucker  is  small  and  weak,  the  combined  efforts  of  many 
give  the  animal  conEiderable  power,  not  only  of  drawing 
prey  towards  the  mouth,  but  of  moving  iU  own  body 
from  place  to  place. 

The  order  Slellerida  includes  a  largo  number  of 
forms,  having  a  general  resemblance  to  the  Slar-Fith, 
but  differing  much  in  the  relative  proportion  of  tbe 
body  and  rays.  Thus,  in  soma  species,  the  arras  seem 
'e  up  ti- ■■ ■—'•    -      -     -    ■    -  -  '-^— 


present,  save  that  formed  by 
'    arms  app         '      ' 

'hicli  tbe  stomach  and  other  important  organs 


In  othen, 
the  arms  appear  simply  appendages  to  the  central  disc, 
'  ■  '   "  and  ut' 


CHAMBERS'S  ISFQKMATIOS  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


the  uma  aEiul  off  laWnl 
inti]j  a^UD  sabdiiide,  (o 
u  produced,  meli  as  He 


•ppendagTB;  Knil  Hit 
tblC  k  liTaiicli'like  I 
IW  in  lliu  ComOila 

A  (pry  runutrkkble  trih«,*t(icluded  among  the  Su'lle- 
rido — iiKK!  ■  gniup  vd'y  rroporunt  in  iu  Dunib«rc, 
wnil  in  lliu  vxient  c«  iu  difFUsiuu  ihroogli  tbc  no.  Iiul 
nitw  (iroMOling  oi\\y  two  or  IhfM  eamtwntivel^v  «cull 

iMcife U  diM  Luoiru  under  tbe  name  a(  (Mnoulea,  or 

ltly-Ilk«  aniuwla.  Tbuse  ue  {onnwl  munh  upin  the 
^n  of  Um  ComaCnla,  but  (lief  arc  iktiubed  bjr  a  juioUvl 
lUlk  to  imlid  BobokinuM,  uauallr  to  ths  boUom  of  tlie 
RO.  Tb«}  thai  riimind  ui  of  the  Pnlypirera,  which 
tlicjr  Mwiii  (o  couuect  villi  llic  EchiDodercnatii.  Tliii 
gruup  eontAiiu  iwn  principal  feobditioioiui — ihe  Eixeri- 
niltt  uid  Ihe  i'enta/iTinilct.  I'lie  fanner  are  iai- 
tiii|:iti)^hF'l  \,j  the  rouniluiKi  of  their  atems,  UiB  jiMtiU 
(il  •vliich  Ltliie  fUtau<l  perruniled  iu  Uie  centre,  un 
kui'i>  1  iiii'Ilt  the  nauiBof  Hheel-stonea.  ot  St  Cnthbtrt'i 
brad-.  Tim  IsUer  have  pentagoiikl  Blenu.  The  liaiKVi 
vivtn  Iu  liavu  been  \Xie  nioat  socicol. 


U  ilie  l^biniJa  wc  find  Ihe  body  uiiutlly  nf  •  *ai 
•lilt  iiloUulac  dhiipe,  nud  eliirlopid  in  a  tirni  ah 
WniiNiacd  of  n  vei'v  tYgular  suc'iva  of  plates  joinwd 

KIwr.  lotlH  Eehiuua,  Ihe  librUof  nrliioiiiiaoiiimo 
ma  w>  tlie  Sen-K^,  we  obserre  two  orirtemoittiated 
•t  tbo  piilwi  aa  it  »«■«,  of  t1i«  globe.     Tbe  largt 
lIlMc  oriBcea  is  the  nuiuth  :  U  Iha  emaller  one 
IDhiMiDBl  lube  t«niiinatee,     The  niouth,  na  in  tbe  t 
Hail,  t»gonen>II;  direcied  iio«u\nirds.     It  u  furuichsd 
'  -'  t  very  eurioua  sppanloaof  leuth,  which  are  voikcd 
jw«nul  mucelea,  attached  to  proJ^alioiiA 
Uinl  may  be  eenti  on  the  iiiuei'  margin 
■nniith  1  HlldUieir  poinlccan  even  bo  protruded  beyond 
IIhi  luontli,  80  H  to  liQ'  hold  of  prey  brought  to  them 
by  tbe  IniiK  tubulnr  (vet.     1);  the  neliou  of  tbe  teeth, 
tno  fuud  it  ground  dowu  heCnra  it  panae«  into  tbe  iu- 
tutlnal  tube,  wbioh  ia  here  of  cnniiiderBble  Icng^,  and 
takca  a  oDu^  of  tuma  round  the  ehell  before  its  ' 
minittiiio.    llound  tbe  aeoond  orifiiw  of  the  aheli 
diB[.u!K;d  llio  ovaiia,  which  are  very  largely  diaten 


by  powinul 

AA  U>i>l  n 


:  and,  (ailing  an  al 

tere,  npoo  llie  poiuls  of  ibiacu  Is  mam  wf 
ipioea  are  lite  or  ain  inchea  loMli  "UMlhi 
.f  Llie  bodyia  muEh  IcB.     Tlleli£>l(rlMril 


muNly  reiliiie  ii|>aD  lliam  aa  lalot^  aiil  im 
forwards  by  iliiw  curiou*  «rnB*-  It  ■  to  t 
bend  thai  tiiu  Ludy  wiU  wei^  moah  laMla« 


estriielarcoftheahcUilMif,  aadlfe** 

the  hiatory  of  ihia  luiiinaL  TbaabaU  h  a^ 
already  ttated,  of  &larp:tkninfae«af  |dMMAif 
great  regulariiy.aiidaeniratelyMtodtEfClhi 

Elates  are  usually  of  an  hnagoaal  MfC)  h 
•tga  bud  small  ones  join,  tbenasof  «(MIHM 
fication.  Now.iliaobvioDslbalsaliBUafaM 
can  only  bu  regularly  inunMLil  n  M  i»*mm 
tlio  otjiml  gtoHlb  of  every  paMof  it.    TIibw 

Erovided  fcr  bj  tha  iiOgraaailion  al  >  llifci  hf  ■ 
rune,  from  which  the  shelly  sutetanw  Mf  > 
&ikd  between  tbe  idg<«  of  alt  (ha  pklNS' 
luembmnr  atra  >tis*E»tha  pnipu—  etfaaiii 
uuxion  botween  the  >lda  eovcriu^  tlia  ifealH 
giBB  of  Rulritioo  within. 

Thov  luiimali  are  gener^y  foand  on  aMj 
and  esfiecislly  in  little  nook*  ancladcd  b^  ■ 
iiiSnenee  of  the  wave*.  Sotne  uf  llvnn  eaiwM 
in  tlie  Baud  by  means  of  tbcir  Kiilnoi,  tAm 
evou  works  iu  way  into  loiid  racb.  IMf  ip 
mixed  quality.  >ragm(nts  of  abclla,  CkiM 
other  marine  animal  prodneCt.  tun  CnnDd  bi  I 
mneh^  aa  well  aa  poriiona  of  iw»-wiraA  1h 
their  prey  wliiUI  lurking  iu  ihair  haM»H^I| 
titoir  lububr  (sot  to  play  loosdy  in  llta  «MW 
and  when  uy  amall  auimal  tau«b«B  ttoaiA 
end  ut  one  of  tJitai,  it  ii  aDom  aecBeed  iiftmi 
at  nlbors,  and  dcBwo  within  tha  iwv  (f  M 
teeth. 

It  ia  not  in  every  Bpeciea  of  Eeblaib  lU 
bularfurm  teeo  well  iiiarlied  n-i  in  the 


:<'i'al>lri  THpidily,   and  »im<7  of  t 
iil>i)ii  mild  anrfneta.  Rmslln 
III  UHlishseaa;  but  on  i 
•Ty  abmidiLiilf  and  grow  i 


■>?  and  fun 

rU<-,  tcM,«rnda 


EOOLOnV^RADUTA. 


I  derived  frum  Ihe  MiojpDj;  power  poasened 
)  tlie  MiimnU  eompiMtng  it.  The  word  U 
;crni  for  nrUlei;  and  b;  tlie  designations 
(HDji-yuAfj,  Aic^thcHiinimilHarepopuUrly 
nil  as  byuiothcr,  alio  expreuive  of  a  olta- 
Iticli  tile  smup  ja  diBtinguiiihed — jel/g-finh. 
lifficull  to  give  nil)'  deacnption  of  Ibo  struc- 
?l.vis  that  sliatl  includo  all  the  membera  of 
do  tlipy  TBry  among  each  other.  They  all 
ho  Polypil'era  in  being  unallached  to  solid 
I  haling  tlie  power  of  freely  moving  tbroujjh 
d  tlicy  dlHer  from  the  Fehinodermata  in 
■overeil  with  a  dense  integument.  Their 
I\vn  14  one  or  (heir  moat  remnrltable  cha- 
me  of  tlicm  attain  coiiaidiTahle  siie,  yet 
nsl  entire  absence  of  any  bnrd  support  or 
indeed,  it  is  only  in  a  few  Bpeciei  that  any 

ffl  of  the  Acaleplitc  are  so  soft,  that  they 
;  lihc  maBses  of  jelly ;  wlicnco  orifiinatod 
in  name.  They  conhist  of  a  aort  of  network 
xmcnls,  the  inters|>3cea  between  wliicii  ore 
li  water  ;  and  bo  larf{e  n  proportion  does 
at  it  drains  nway  when  the  animal  ia  krpl 
uienl  fur  a  shon  time,  leaving  but  a  thin 

^t'nient  of  the  mouth,  stomach,  and  otlirr 
ulij-et  to  great  variation  in  the  diflerent 
!•(  this  cloMi,  and  we  here  encounter  the  ic 
»iile  fact,  of  the  existence  of  animals  of 
uclurc  and  varied  powen,  which  do  not  A' 
ri'Cular  ninuth,  but  imbibe  their  food  like  ci 
l-like  filament!^  Owing  tn  the  difficulty  of  i  s( 
lu  MrucCnre  of  beings  which  can  be  «o  im-  1 1) 
served,  li<iwcvcr,  the  organisation  of  many  |  ti 
curious  species  is  us  yet  very  imperfectly 
and  it  will  be  belter  lo  conHno  oarsclvcs 
oiiirideraliou  of  those  most  cerlainly  known. 
'  eiimmonrat  forma  of  this  clasa  is  tlie  iff 
if  'pfien  seen  floating  in  vast  numbers  on 
days  at  a  little  distance  from  the  shore. 
riiiiHtsis  of  a  lnrf>e  nmbrella-shnped  disc, 
ler  surface  of  which  liang  down  four  brnod 

ul  n-«semblage  of  colours,  like  those  of  tlie 
en  the  ruys  of  the  sun  are  rcHected  from 
■.  Oil  Ihe  under  side  of  the  disc  is  aceii  tlie 
surrounded  by  the 


as  oeoupjnnu  the  part  corresponding  lo  that  included 
betwe«n  the  metallio  stretcher*  of  the  umbrella),  and 
this  broad  ftrea  margin  is  endowed  with  muscular 
powers,  sod  performs  a  •cries  of  regular  undnlatioits, 
by  which  the  aaimal  is  pr^elled  llimush  the  waler. 

The  extreme  sottDesa  of  the  tissueti  of  these  Mrdtita  . 
is  an  obvious  reason  why  they  should  not  expose  them- 
selven  to  the  rough  surface  of  the  ocean,  where  Ibey 
would  be  beaten  lo  piece*  by  tho  waves — or  lo  tho 
proximity  of  the  shore,  from  which  they  would  soon 
receive  fatal  injury.  Although  so  soft,  however,  tbey 
have  the  power  of  maslering  pi-ey  of  much  firmer  atni»- 
turo,  and  hard  Crustacea,  as  well  a.<i  other  marine  ani- 
mal* of  high  organisation,  supply  them  with  food. 

The  Meduta  shares  in  another  property  possessed  by 
most  of  tho  class,  that  of  luminosity  or  phusphoreacence. 
It  is  chiefly  to  the  smaller  tribes,  accumulating  in  im- 
mense numbers,  and  so  transparvnt  as  to  escape  notice 
by  day,  that  the  occasional  phosphoroscence  of  the  sea 
is  duo.  This  very  beautiful  phenomenon  may  be  seen 
not  unfrequenlly  on  Ihe  iihnres  of  BrtUiii;  but  it  is 
most  splendid  in  nanncr  seas,  especially  in  the  Medi- 
terranean. Id  the  miditt  of  the  diffused  luminosity, 
caused  by  ths  alow  of  innumerable  maltitudes  of  small 
Acakphip,  and  oven  of  animalcules  far  atnaller,  the 
larger  ones  sliine  onl  like  stars  in  the  milky-way.  The 
• '  '  ■    ill  underslood.    It 


lion  fom 


anse  of  this  beautiful  appears 

from  tho  surface,  which  can  be  washed  off,  and  a... 
thus  communicate  Ihe  phosphorescence  to  various 
fluids,  in  wliich  it  seems  to  remain  until  decomposition 
has  taken  place.     The  li|;hl  ia  rendered  more  brilliant, 

when  exhibited  by  the  aninia)  itself,  by  any  thing  which 
irritates  it ;  and  this  fact  ia  obseoed  in  the  ease  of  most 

An  interesting  species,  allied  in  general  form  (o  the 


ula,  which 


of  the  inferior  side  of  the  disc,  bnt 
canal*  into  the  subsUuice  of  the  (en- 
number  of  uiinute  pores 
organs.    By  these  Binoll  pores. 


Thi* 


md  is  SI 


k^to- 


■.HhnwlDKlhcm 


ulhin 


ices.  The  animal  may  thus  be  compared, 
■■■e,  (o  a  Sen- Anemone  detached  from  its 
rimming  with  i(»  mnuiU  downward*.  The 
[  the  diw:  exlcnilK  much  beyond  the  *to- 
vrial  chamlisrs  (whieb  vutj  be  dewribed 


as  by  (he  roots  of  plants,  uourishinrnt  is  ^norbed 

tlie  system,  for  the  ends  of  (he  lenlscula  lix  Ihcmselvcs 
like  suckers  upon  the  surface  of  the  animal  they  have 
groaped;  and  imbibe  its  juices.  These  and  other 
Acalephm  which  move  through  the  water  by  llie  nndu- 
latinna  of  their  mcmbrannuB  disc,  are  included  in  the 
order  l'i;iJiuMi]|tAI».  All  the  Acalephic  of  thia  order 
exhibit  a  very  regular  diipusilion  of  their  part*  around 
a  centre,  «o  as  lo  be  truly  raiUaled  animals.  Some  of 
them  attain  a  diameter  of  two  or  three  feet 

piltui,  a  tniall  animal  not  unfrequenlly  found  on  Ihe 
coast  of  Scotland.  When  al  rest  in  the  water,  it  looks 
like  a  bright  globe  of  jelly,  about  half  an  inch  in  dia- 
meter. An  opening  is  seen  at  each  pole  of  tlie  globe ; 
one  of  these  is  Ihe  mouth,  and  at  (ho  other  the  alimen- 
tary canal,  which  runs  straight  across  ihe  body,  ter- 
minates. ilB  surface  ia  marked  by  eight  tMuid*,  raii- 
niiig,  as  it  were,  haia  pole  to  pule ;  these  bands  seem 
to  be  of  firmer  texture  than  the  rest  of  the  body,  and 
on  Ifaem  are  placed  the  rows  of  cilia,  which  can  act 
either  together  or  separately,  so  as  to  give  every  poa- 
*ible  variety  of  motiim  to  the  body.  Hence  this  animal, 
and  other*  resembling  it,  are 
said  (o  belong  lo  the  order 
Citiograda.  The  Deroe  usually 
swim^  by  nieaiu  of  (hem, 
mouth  forwards,  through  the 
waler,  and  thus  a  current  of 

mach,  without  any  furtlicr  ef-         '' 

fort  on  Ihe  part  of  the  animal. 

But  it  is  provided  with  other 

means  of  obtaining  its  food,  in 

two     long     lontacubh    wliich  Btrtiei  n,  e 

ariae  frum  the  posterior  ptui     n-iuth  i  r, 

Of  tlie  body,  and  are  furuislled     »"t«UM. 


tcnahutkA  of 


CHAMBERS'S  CTFOMCATTOH  fOR  THE  raOPtft 


Kith  «  timtibd  of  Islvnl  SUmenlc  ;  thcsB  an  aD  be 
withilrawii  mid  foWed  into  twu  iMTities,  exisTiil«d,  u 
it  wvn.  In  tha  ■abaUnce  of  ibe  bodfiUiii  us  (a«ily 
UnriillHl  "Iwo  nmoirrf  for  iu«. 

A  »rv  eamnKin  form  onbis  clan  in  BOOie  elimaU* 
b  Iha  /'hj/ialia,  known  hi  ««lc>n  as  lb«  ParCugai 
Kaa-of-War.  Thb  ii  dislingnnhcd  lij  Ha  large  a 
Im|^  ■nrmuunted  by  a  Teriical  membrane  or  en 
whtcb  iMuall]'  tWaU  (.boie  the  surface  uf  Ibe  nab 
And  ia  acled  ap<:>n  liy  llie 
genUe  breeie,  iu  tlia  Biine 
naiinrr  a>  Ilw  Ultlo  Eail  of 
tha  Vrirtla.  Tbe  animal 
ortpina  (lUoed  bvlow  ftra 
ivry  ubtcare  in  thpir  rha- 
racur.  No  diatinot  nlamaeh 


,»»«■. 


i.K]; 


UmMula   ai 

thetr  TontB  into  ebamlicra, 

ofwliich  end)  Ri«?  perhapi 

be  ivgunltMl  M  a  digulive 

onil^r.    Eimie  of  Iha  loiU- 

Bula   nra  vvTy  long,   ud 

hane  down  in  (h»  water  » 

lite  d*|iUiQflirte*ii  or  twenty  phnrtii* 

faet  when  tha  auimal  is  liuiliftf.    TJiey  (MiaBMB  conri- 

denbln  nfnglng  pnwer,  and  [irubablj  lerva  tn  oulnp 

tbe  food  DfHni  wtileh  Ilia  slii'tler  Unlacubi,  with  Ihelr 

*ueker-lika  eitrrfmitics,  thin  affix  ibemBcNM,  far  the 

wrpoaa  of  taking  up  ODln'ment  by  abHrption.     TlieH 

Aaftle]4iw  have  bttn  termed  hudretlalie,   from  the 

power  llwr  piwteaa  of  riaing  ov  falling  In  wator,  by  in- 

amiMng  er  dhninisliini;  tbe  bulk  of  Uie  air-bai; ;  but 

liy  wlial  meana  tbey  efTect  this  ohangs  ia  nnl  known. 

In  some  spi-cic«,  coinpnhendeil  wilh  tha  Phj/talia,  in 

tba  order  riinuciuox,  sovaral  small  aif'bitgii  axisl, 

instead  of  a  ^ngle  large  nne.     These  are  usually  Hxcd 

ta  tlia  same  slalk,  like  curranta  ution  Iheir  Btein,  and 

this  rikM  not  of  the  sppAralus  of  tenlacula,  Ac,  of 

«)iieh  til*  animal  may  be  said  rrally  to  oonilat. 

Til*  Acalcphic  luhabll  all  clirii&les,  but  tbe  largest 
furnia  are  to  be  stien  iu  Irojijcal  siuis. 


class  P.ilypiTtn 
Spongw  in  nt 


pyramids  of  tha  Ti'nntlca.  Nn»,  Ihe  t«nl  fscE  is,  tlint 
the  manieB  of  cnnil,  vrndfcpoir.  Sic,  na  Well  as  Ihe 
nn-fnnn  and  ollirl'  tiinilar  Blru«u^o^  wilii  nlflrij' 
ainiillrr  and  iiiorc  dclienla  "niMi,  "f  "liich  suinc  iii'i' 
mnlic'd  niiinr;  tfir   sfn^ii-i-flt.   imd   utliPts  tomniHIilv 

!.\  «l..,..,  if..  \    ,,,.  [.,...! i,   .,,.|  rir- III  IttT'-L.-ardi'dim 


piece  of  tbe  fpilalinona  8iA  kaat 
(Ail  will  be  MimppIi'DI  to  ( 
new  skeletnn. 

Sneh  cimpound  brinn,  tilt*,  «f  mWA 
only  ftirm  a  pari  (like  llie  )«>>«•  «r  liWS 
are  ni.t  iinpropprly  termed  Pvljpdai  w  M 
ing   Animiile.     But  there  ms  BB^^ktilia 

III  iih  hi iiiiii J  rii  ibii  liml  if  Hi"^ 

wbicb  arc  nevpr  fuund  bat  in  a  itiitarj  ^^rr 
the   Sta-Anemimn,   aod    Iha    Itfdiw  ar  ta 

b««<m  the  polypes  of  eDnpaaail  etntftoa 
traced  at  diflcMiLl  spc^ca ;  auna  a(  lh<M«9 
after  noticed. 

The  elan  may  be  dlridtd  talo  fi 
tensed  by  four  di*tinol  types  af  at 


'SHU?: 


the  distil  ^ 

Dndetsuxid  niibout  a  koawMca  af  tha  m 

polf  paa  beton^ing  to  each,  h  win  fee  |m 

at  once  to  the  dewriptian  of  thMi,  A 

popular  information  on  the  s»hJM«  b*^ 

•lull   begin  witb   ibo   oua   gniataOf  a 

wnii>Iatt. 

Ortert— nyhiHi. 
The  tfyilra,  nr  f(Tah-wat«r  P-^v 
often  hinud  hi  gisat-' ' ' 


It  Beenis  to  consist  only  of  a 
kind  of  bap,  mnatituling  iM 

which  ia  diii)»<**d  a  eirain  irf 
long  arms  or  IrmAKu/a,  whilst 
thie  opposite  end  is  prnlongtid 
into  a  foot,  temUiuited  by  a 
kind  of  Bucker,  to  whicb  thb 
■nimnl  aHaohea  iCaett  Tha 
change*  of  form  in  tbia  polypa 
are  very  remarkable.  The 
body  has  sometimes  the  shupo 
.<r  n  long  eviiniler,  vhibi 
01l.r.-B  i[  is'contraclrd  iiilo 
uptipre,  Ihc  nnno  having  sli 

rally  prescniwl   when   the 


."iBli  ilt. 


ablo  tu  nio< 


■  tubirR-lines.    "  _  _ 
'.t-  ?}n?e(lily  brought  ID 


ze.    Nut  unt 


rd  ones  bciiiitM 


te. 


Uiiilof  \'\xk\^  il  » 


I  ■  )nnlu<;*iliB  arms,  the  moalhr 
1 .1 1' I  111' moutli ;  but,  fporo  amtaaM 

'-'  I ! )  iT]-:t  in  rc'produfNHj,  ao  that  §A 
IJ1.1  fiit-Lv  t.r  liffj  piteps  "fll  b«  ««B< 
I  wprtmie  polypea.  Two  bodiea^  ak 
liij'dhcr  by  Ihe  tide,  Uic  tall,  orta 
d  nionirtcrs  with  two  h(*A%  Ian  Mita 
I  [iroduced.     II  waa,  in  fad^  n 


Zoni,ncY.-ItAlUATA. 


nnbr  n—IUliliAfiUi. 


IfiHAMBEHS'S  INFOTIMATION  FOR  TUE  PEOPLC 


liuh  then 


Kcribed.    Sevrra)  otli 

type  i»  iirpsTirted  wiih  varH^au  niinlihtMloji^ 
There  nie  aunic  unang  then)  whleh  lunn 
fBail  in  llir  •iilwtune  oT  tliair  base,  knd  in  me  meni- 
litaneUB  putiticiiM  between  the  ridiUin;;  ch&mben. 
Of  time  i>iMi  «n^  speoiaa  inhabits  the  Uritioh  seu;  II 
lH>l<ni|{ii  Ui  the  genus  OaryojAifllio,  A  vrry  beautiful 
eonllin*  (umuttion  of  this  <le»eription  is  that  produeed 
bj  tha  /■'uHffiit,  sn  KniniBl  aliiud  tu  iha  MB-snenMno, 
uid  iidntiilingc  oulir  tropical  eeaa.  It  eunsiua  ota  tbiek 
r<iund  plnU-,  (HimeilinesseTendinotica  in  diuiieter,  from 
(ino  sutAM^  af  which  arise  thin  TerlimI 


nnd  from  il  tlic  i 
bH  nndmMod, 

'111*  mU»  of  auflh  lolilai?  I>n1rp«s  nri  not  always 
niund,  but  »rt)  •omeiimo*  vury  iimeh  prolonjfrf  in  one 
direction,  ae  tliat  ili»  depreminn  iu  »lic  centre,  inai4Eijig 
the  plocu  9t  ttie  mouth,  towarda  which  all  the  radiflling 
plilM  ftro  directed,  beeoines  a  long  jcroove.  These 
MMiy  nmaia  eoalain  a  coosidenble  quitntily  uf  animal 
nuiIIRr,  by  wliich  the  pulirlrs  of  earbonale  of  lime  are 
gluvd  tflgrtheri  mndwben  a  Ruflieienllyfivah  specimen 
uf  a  atony  coral  is  submitteil  to  the  action  of  an  avid 
whteh  dinaulree  tlMae, 
Its  form. 


The  number  of  stony  conTs  formed  by  the  eompiiiiiiil 
Piiltpifera  in  Tery  gi«at ;  and,  of  the  more  maxaiva 
kinds,  a  Iftrge  pni]iortion  belonoa  to  this  order.  Tboae 
which  are  to  be  ranked  aa  the  iketetona  of  animald 
killed  id  Btrocture  tu  the  urn-anemone,  are  tlistinguislied 
by  a  charaeMr  Tcry  easily  reoogniaeil.  In  each  cell, 
liowever  minute  ii  may  bo,  the  ariwiBenient  of  radial- 
ing  pUlM,  described  in  the  Fuagia,  is  seen  ;  and  frnni 
the  )in«enee  of  these  Ihln  plates,  or  hunella,  tlic  whole 
oTtbia  KrDU|>  of  coral*  and  mndreporea  hare  been  de- 
■  -tn.  A  lamellifonn  coral  is,  lli>.», 
jHilypu  similar  to  the  s(9-aneiiivi< 
\l-irni)\  una  ttius,  by  atteodini;  to  thu  iii<  ' 
(lie  urowlh  of  the  eoral  JapcndB  upon  !;■ 
'  '>f  ill'-  nnimal.  we  ohtaio  a  ralualile  cIult-icIh  i  , 


tbia  group  o 


which  do  not  belong  In  it,  of  obleb  • 
s|*nk.  HuwcTer,  it  ii  to  ibis  wdee 
part  of  Ihoee  specie*  behm;  wUdb  ■ 
ereeliae  themaa>i>urnruct<it*abiMnl 
the  names  of  earml  reefi  and  islaadi^  4 
which  appear  to  have  oxiUcd  io  ""  "" 
in  former  vpocha  of  tbe  carlire 
given  origin  to  tlio  greater  part  of  tJ 
which  Cunttiiute  so  largr  a  propoTUan  << 
known  Co  vs.  ITiis  ordirr  may  bo  dcaamlsi 
jt^n^/orm  Tolypi*,  tram  Ibo  femmU  t««M 
llie  animals  comjwshi^  It  to  dw  Ma-amainiii 
anlhuUa,  frnni  their  aimilattiy  Id  Mpcct,  *>»• 


□■Row. 


•ein— 


The  next  nnl.T  of  roljjiifhi-.i  it.  iTO  iliirr 

oeai-ly  to  the  form  of  tbe  S; 

gronpe  no  bare  been  last  etm- 
an  important  pan  oTtbestT'^ 
iuHtanees  each  may  be  regivl.  ■'■ 
itself  alone,  «ven  ttlierv  msiii  -. 
npctiiie  fleshy  matter.     Bat  iu   I'l-  tT^ay 
IrcBlM  of,  t1x#  polypM  htbiiI  <JuiW  anbordo* 
i;ener,Tl  mnM  »i-eiiia  (A  luVe  (a*  In  tti*  tfti 
more  of  tlie  oharaDl«r  of  a  single  WdinML 
atructnces  we  obMrro,  Ion,  that  the  Iwrd  tM 
ton  isHi-ldom  ao  dUllnct  rrom  (b«  Htinx  tia« 
kmalliform  oarali,  tha  too  often  pui^ 
other  by  nlranrt  iiiKnaible  gtadatian*.    IV 
■he  aketebtn  varin  conaideTably  in  11i#  dilRr 
Soniellmea  it  Is  of  a  ipnnj^r  chuxHtTi  *>  t 
nnin :  nometimea  of  a  stiff  Uiimy  t«atatr,  •* 
jfonin,  or  Seti-Fui ;  and  Kunntim'*  uTasUK 
aa  in  the  Itrd  Coral. 

Til*  Atqptiiti  aro  r«m.l  al'nn4liiMly  <« 
of  the  Ilritioh  ahoroai  aud  itw  kwwu  to  b 


'Vh- 


bi'longing  to  such  stractorcii 
uii.iiB  lleah  cnyeh.ping  tlic 
I'L'r  to  thi:  mtnibramiua  piih 

■Tripourd  IlydniiJii.     It  is  by 

ilie  polypes  llii 


witeJ,  ■ 


uhy 


\y  RpL-eie*  io  wliieJi  the  intervals  bctwuoii 
tuuilirablu.   The  variety  of  i 
irownl  I,  .ery  grt. 


.ir.>  fomiiHl  by  Pulvpifora 
lU'  many  of  tliM  ilesrHpti 


»  in  pTODiiooncee  of  tb*  Bpnn(j  i 
wbioh  tliu  polypes  protrude. 

tlie  sea.ant-m'ini',  hut  ihey  are  WDaBy  M 
and  of  i>]iii'r  ik'lieate  sIriMtnre.  Thcte  H 
viRie  iiiipiu'tint  diflerenced,  apoo  which  lb 
of  Ihi'  nrdiT  i»  founrlxd.  Th«  t••nta«ab^  intfi 
numer>iii8.  nnd  arraii^  in  arttnA  Iii_*^<W 


ZO(  )LOC;  Y.— RADIATA. 


ftber,  aiid  form  one  circle.  Tlit-y  arc  bruuil,  and 
leaf-Iikc,  iustcail  of  being  round  and  slender. 
cuth  is  Mtuatcd  in  the  midst  of  them,  and  leads 
atomacb,  which  occupies  the  centre  of  the  body  ; 
1  the  Bt^miach  are  the  ovarial  chamber Sy  scpai*ated 
liating  (tartittons,  but  only  eight  in  number.  The 
sh  opens  intu  the  canal  upon  the  end  of  which  ihe 
I  is  placed,  and  all  the  fluid  which  enters  the 
appears  to  be  taken  in  through  these  mouths, 
varial  chambers  also  communicate  with  the  canal 
;.h,  indeed  they  may  be  said  to  be  a  continuation 
for  the  partitions  between  them  are  ])rolonged 
vards  into  the  canal,  forming  plaits  or  iulds  of  its 
membrane,  in  which  the  ova  or  germs  are  deve- 
;  so  that  these  are  produced  frum  the  general 
rather  than  fi-um  the  ]>ol}'pe,  and  the  whule  stnic- 
QAjr  be  regarded  as  a  higher  kind  of  Sponge. 
I  poly}>es  arc  capable  of  being  drawn  entirely 
I  the  protuberances  on  the  surface  of  the  Alcyonia, 
ren  thciie  projections  become  flattened  when  the 
Js  are  in  a  htate  of  great  contraction.  In  this  con- 
thcy  arc  often  left  by  the  tide,  and  if  then  placed 
lass  of  clear  wat..T,  their  gradual  expansion  may 
tched.  The  protuberances  from  the  surface  fli-sit 
themselves,  and  the  polypes,  one  by  one,  appear 
eir  summits,  and  slowly  expand  their  ten  taenia, 
the  whole  furface  appears  coven.'d  with  delicate 
>ms.  The  entire  mass  then  not  unfrequcntly  swc  lis 
ice  or  thrice  its  original  size.  If  any  one  of  the 
«s  is  irritated,  it  shrinks  into  its  hiding-place,  but 
Dcar  it  are  not  afiected.  If  the  irritation  of  the 
be  prolonged,  however,  those  in  the  neiglibourhood 
lally  show  themselves  influenced  by  it,  nnd  draw 
aelves  in  ;  and  in  this  manner  the  whole  mass  may 
Itmately  aftected.  The  tame  effects,  however,  may 
t>duced  by  irritating  a  portion  of  the  spongN'  sub- 
«  intermediate  between  the  polypes,  rmin  this 
evident,  that  sensibility  to  impressions  iz  not  con- 
to  the  i)olypes  alone,  but  that  the  whole  mass  must 
^garde<l  as  possessed  of  animal  properties, 
le  Alcyonia  grow  in  the  same  circumtitances  with 
iges,  and  their  correspondence  is  further  shown  by 
existence  of  crystals  of  silex  in  their  tissue,  which 
not  found  in  other  polype-structuix's,  tlie  earthy 
er  in  these  being  entirely  calcareous.  The  difle- 
■pecies  of  the  Alcyonia,  hke  those  of  the  Sponges, 
be  distinguished  by  the  form  of  the  spicuui  pre- 
ed  in  the  skeleton. 

I  other  forms  of  this  order  we  And  the  skeleton, 
nn  sapport,  in  a  more  concentrated  form.  Thus 
le  Gorffonia,  a  beautiful  framework  of  horny  mat- 
consisting  of  a  stem  and  a  minute  network  of 
iches,  occupies  the  centre  of  the  structure ;  and  this 
otbed  with  a  soft  flesh,  through  which  the  channels 
I  that  connect  the  polypes  together.  This  flesh  i^; 
nred  with  a  Arm  skin,  in  which  a  great  amount  of 
by  crystals  is  deposited,  so  as  to  form  a  crust ;  and 
us  are  the  hollows  or  cells  by  which  the  polypes  are 
»cttd.  In  the  dead  structures,  with  which  we  an- 
iliar  under  the  name  of  rea-fans,  the  dark  horny 
ibie  stem  is  seen  to  be  covered  in  many  jMrts  with  a 
tie  cmst,  often  brightly  coloured,  which  can  be 
ed  off  it  and  crumbled  to  powder.  Between  the 
,  in  the  living  state,  the  fleshy  coat  existed ;  the 
sr  part  of  it  being  in  contact  with  the  exterior  of  the 
By  stem,  wliich  wjis  then  soft  and  scarcely  distinct 
n  it,  whilst  the  exterior  part  was  consolidated  by 
earthy  matter  into  the  firm  integument. 
D  the  hh,  we  find  less  stony  matter  on  the  outside  of 


.iM^i^ 


U^ 


V 


PennatuLu 
541 


the  flesh,  but  a  deposition  of  it  at  intorrals  in  the  stem, 
which  thus  obtains  a  jointed  character,  being  flexible 
at  the  points  at  which  the  liomy  matter  has  not  been 
consolidated.  And  in  the  Hed  CV<i/,thc  entire  stem  is 
converted  into  a  very  firm  stony  axis,  which  presents 
no  indication  of  polype-ceils,  these  being  excavated  only 
in  the  flesh  that  clothes  it.  The  Pennatula^  or  Sea- 
Peu,  is  an  interesting  species  belonging  to  the  same 
group,  and  in  some  respects  resembling  the  lied  Coral ; 
it  has  a  stony  axis,  but  this  is  flexible  at  the  oxtrcmi« 
ties ;  and  it  is  not  attached  by  a 
solid  basis, but  is  cari'icd  about  by  the 
mercy  of  tlie  waves.  From  the 
centxulaxis,  which  is  nearly  straight, 
a  regular  series  of  hiteral  brauchos 
passes  off  on  each  side,  like  the  barbs 
of  a  feather ;  and  on  theao  the 
polypes  are  situated.  By  the  simul- 
taneous movements  of  their  teuta- 
cula,  the  animal  (if  it  is  to  be  called 
one)  seems  to  have  some  power  of 
directing  its  course,  if  not  of  proiiel-  Binglc  PoI\-pe  of  Pen- 
ling  itself  through  the  ocean.  A  natula. 
small  species,  which  is  luminous  at  night,  inhabits  the 
British  seas. 

There  is  one  species  in  this  order  which  diifera  from 
all  the  rest  in  the  consolidation  of  the  exterior  rather 
than  of  the  interior  tissue  ;  so  that  a  stony  tube  is 
formed  instead  of  a  central  stem.  This  is  the  Tubipora 
Musica,  of  which  the  skeleton  is  known  as  Organ-pipe 
Coral.  The  polypes  are  not  here  connected  by  any 
system  of  vessels  or  uniting  flesh  ;  each  lives  for  itself 
alone,  but  a  number  (probably  all  produced  from  the 
same  stock,  and  by  oUsets  from  each  other)  unite  for 
mutual  support  in  one  structure.  Each  p<ilype  ha^  a 
cylindrical  form,  and  its  exterior  membrane  is  progres- 
sively consolidated  into  a  stony  tube,  yhieh  is  thus  gra- 
dually increasing  in  length  by  new  dcpusits  at  its  upper 
end.  At  certain  intervals  the  soft  membrane  (which 
is  always  pi-ojecting  beyond  the  mouth  of  the  tube)  is 
flattened  down  into  a  sort  of  collar,  which  is  consoli- 
dated likewise  ;  and  the  collars  of  the  neighbouring 
tubes  coming  in  contact  with  one  another,  form  a  sort 
of  floor  or  shelf,  which  greatly  strengthens  the  mass. 
After  this  collar  is  formed,  the  tube  is  continui  d  as 
before  for  another  period,  when  a  similar  floor  is  again 
produced  by  the  simultaneous  action  of  the  numerous 
polypes  composing  this  beautiful  £tructure. 

To  this  order  the  term  of  Alcyonian  Polypifera  (from 
the  name  of  one  of  its  principal  groups),  may  be  conve- 
niently applied  ;  it  is  nho  known  by  the  designation  of 
Astcroida,  from  the  star- shaped  form  presented  by  the 
tentaoula  when  expanded.  Its  most  luxuriant  kinds  are 
natives  of  tropical  seas ;  thus  i\iQ  Alcyonium  poculum^ 
or  Neptune*8  cup,  which  abounds  in  the  neighbourhood 
of  Singapore,  is  one  of  the  most  bulky  species  at  present 
existing.  But  tho  smaller  tribes  abound  in  our  own 
seas.  No  massive  stony  pol^  paries  arc  formed  by  the 
animals  of  this  order. 

Onlcr  IV.— Ascldiolda. 

The  last  order  of  Polypifera  far  surpasses  all  the  rest 
in  the  complexity  of  its  organisation  ;  although  so  little 
distinguished  fmm  them  in  external  form,  that  a  cur- 
sory examination  would  not  reveal  the  points  of  diffe- 
rence. In  fact,  many  of  tho  6|>ecies  belonging  to  it  have 
been  associated  with  the  Ifydrcfform  Poly|KS,  by  natu- 
ralists of  eminence  ;  and  it  is  only  by  means  of  a  high 
and  clear  magnifying  power  that  their  true  structure  is 
capable  of  heme  ascertained.  The  stony  character  of 
the  polyparies  formed  by  others,  has  led  them  to  bo 
grouped  with  the  Actiniform  Polypes  ;  and  it  is  only 
within  a  very  recent  period  that  opportunities  have 
been  aflbrded  for  that  examination  of  their  living  con- 
dition, upon  which  alone  reliance  can  be  placed. 

Tho  poly})es  of  this  order  seem  more  independent  of 
one  another  than  they  are  in  the  associated  gixiups  of  the 
others  ;  but  tlioy  are  not  known  to  exist  in  an  absolutely 
ioohitcd  Condition.    A  tpccies  lately  dic^covi  red  on  the 


f 

1 


• 

^_  --  • 

« 
• 

:  —  :  ::z  I  *■    .■7''-  <V2*C*; 
.    .    .?     .'■:  r  i-Ti  iirfc  n 


.'■  1 


V 


V  ■ 
i"'  ■ 


1      \ 


:■» 


*■  I 


.    i 


•  :■■■•■.-..  14  7- 
......         * 


ti . . 


.  i 


\  :  .-.-  .' 


;■',''  ■ 


Vt  ;*  i,f  f  f  if-'M.-i*  '.;.  ■...'.:■':,  .:  .-  ;■--«-'  1    :.-*-r-5  :■.■  :::■ 

J.  I .  /,'■  J I . ;.  I    > ' '.  r  ■ ..  '::i ,  vt :.  •.  r  ■:   it  r  ■. :.  .ai . .  -  a    c  .■■>.;■.  r-  l  ' «.-    :  i .  :^;  -.  ^h  ? '« j  v  rf.oial  olkM.'  r  lation.  Bat  h 

Ui!.-  f'.f  'I  ;••   •-■  : ,  I*-.:.:  -'.::i"f  ::.*■»  r-  .'jr.vra:*.  :,  f-  r  a    evi rvV.t j-,irt::'.eiil  cf  nature,  the  tmtl 


.: :   .   -.;,   V     :   *  :.-. ;  -..  -^  u-r  c»Tfr*«i, 

;    ..  -  :•  L-  i  :  .    i  ii ;  *-:*:x=r*  vf  n 

".  r      i  :-       ■ :  -ri  j.r«=  s..». ::  aii<ed. 

r  :  :  r  _  7.  _  -  ri  . :  ::  L*  ■;  ritr  «"««  t 
i"  -.-  :L'  -.-I.  LzT  X  't*»  c.'sstiat'.T  * 
-.:  -.i^'.  :.'i:  r-:  v—re-i  Iv  ihe  HeJi 
:-  r:  *  LT^  i  m-i  •.^  :>.£-:  in  ir.M2r*e 

_  :■  j.-:.r.     7.  .?  Lic:  :*  :3:crwtin^  ■ 


'•^"rf-  w?  ?■■-=: J-T  the  ^*a«t  extent 
^ir.  7.*,  v::.\-/,  irv  at  the  pr«*ent 
:.  izre  .-  ;h?  *-r:^ct*  ».'f  the  g!obe  tha 
:.!r  ::.£-_=  »;f  is:  r.I>bmeci  and  admii 
1  ^:  l-e  fr:r..jk  ^.ih  the  enormoos  u 
r\:*:':n.*L  ;:.j;  n".u>t  l*e  concerned  in ' 
M.^\.  crr.r  :.a«  prevailed  on  this  to 
r%:.i  ;::  e-  r.e  ^^  lets  exap^rations  hsTi 


J,  Um  m^  in  •IiIdIi  Ika  lliiwo  pHad|«l  U 
MnHTiidt*  oajhai*  Uk«0  tfaeiratigili  la  ai 


n  oOou  rauud  oaiy  wiiJiin  inimw  liini^  n  It  j 
)  bHnrMkacvliinili  hT  vtullutit,  Thiuwa 
vt»  oIM  <MnI-ti(  in  fntatiMrm  t  and  vr7 
«»fal  bsdi  In  dui  ong  lA  tlm  Miurn  bmi  nf  I 
L  It  b  inmnilnK  U  maark,  tlui  ihB  Tvmiini 
vWli  ar*  IkmuT  In  ll»  oldrr  lliUMieon,  all 
iitil  Willi  IfaHt  M  pwni  a^uaJluit  msr  lis 

■It  tW  iMiiWotm  tl-n.rt«i  wUlt*        ii 
t«alMvl  in  lU  pr-iT  mia  'M^^J 


[!E  reopj 


to  pTinn  thaX  Uli*  MTt  ul 


CUAMBEBS^  lOTORMATIOM  FOR  TUE  raOPLE. 

lerlseiait  Kliria,  iiT  n  lurh  lb 


bin  ipeoiM  of  lliin  eluv,  Ihcj  M*  probibly  tar  mu-pkard 
by  ihr  kucuiaalBlioiu  of  furmrr  ag'!.  '■■unli  wuMitiilv, 
Id  •dir''  turm  or  ulher.  a  large  pmportinn  ur  thn  aulid 
roak*  of  OOP  larmtrial  ■orfaeii.  Aud  than  w*  ■«■  itir 
(rBMnplUlcM'iMi  <il  a  pniiei|>U  which  baa  frwiuuullj 
vsnia  oiuhr  dot  notien  <ha(  In  the  eeaninii;  of  Nklur* 
Bolhing  ii  uiMgiiiBcanl :  and  that  the  tnoat  fj'i^niie 
tlhtU  nor  b«  ptudund  bj  the  inuliipUcatiaD  bvcu  of 
Iba  bDi&lilMt  amang  Iha  living  inhabitant!  of  th«  globe. 


CLAM  XX 111.— I 
OF  all  Ilia  bvliiifn  iMuallf  Iuiohd  anitr  the  doilgiu. 
tiun  Jftttphflrt.  thf  .S/«n;»  and  their  allis,  oaiwli(UliD| 
Dm  eluM  I'uriii-rB.  acpfar  lo  lime  the  bnt  claiin  lo  tbc 
llllc  J  liitcn  ibt/ uri-HTil  Ru  unniiilate  an  admixture  of 
(he  ehnractvrt  ul  tilanU  aod  aninuU,  tlial  it  in  diSlvult 

ir  1It«,  ■ubMquenll]',  al  leul, 
ri'  iirit  de«et«piii!iit I  thejr  •ocm  ta  eimcaa  no 
iIfIj'.  fur  tbay  oun  bi  tiini  or  Kunnitod  in  JUiy  way 
il  thowinn  by  (hair  innvnni-nU  luiy  Indicatinu  tUT 
alfaclfld  by  Iha  Injury  ;  and  tliKv  do  nut  appnu' 
T*  that  power  at  txttnlUia  viilDnli 
_  irded  oa  the  dl 
IcriMia  <4  aniiiiala.  On  the  other  h&ad,  thvy  pnaciit  a 
•molwrn  «hi(>h  1*  unt  anaJnraui  to  any  thins  found  In 
-....._  ,....,......„__...._._-,.,._    ..^^f    ...  . 

I,  prwmtiB;^ 
iiicraiuiii(  vDlnplEaily  af  atnii 


dUtlDKulat 
!r  luuid,  til 


a  lurt  »f  bonij  annakl  MaMcF,  aa  la  AaasJ 

tpieiLla,  or  na(4l»Um  trp»»lt,  of  •Ua  mi 
n  liina,  diipMed  ammfH  <li«*,  si<'fii|  M< 
lun  niuah  craMr  fiimo^B,  Int  Javtirvl 
k*a  cnnpleu'ly,  i4  llwt  elaatki^  >IM  £a 

"Hia  aullalaiiai  kaoire  a*  qienp^  it,  llaaaH 
(keteloD  of  ibe  bang  ;  vba  aloo,  Hda  Sktm 
i>  clothed,  within  aod  wtUnioi,  by  a  4k. 
•iihitance,  ver/Uknlbvwhilcaraoaet  lb 
tlie  paaaagaa,  and  mreri  Uie  nosfir  W 
awny  wbrn  tin  apoD)[v  i*  raoioivd  [ihb  Ihi  t 
Ikio  L)ia  Mrnliar  viul  cmIbwibmU  ■<  iW  M 
(o  p«i>l>.  Tknw  wa  «aMte«>4,  IM  aHI 
bBlrr)[ular  itruwih,  but  bya*Brb«iaaNiCh 
ouiutaiillylakliitlilaCBWubinlWuilBi  Wkl 
iioiunuliivd  In  ita  liilug  ttala.  IibmUiIIwWI 
■tanl  cnmul  la  uen  (a  iauc  ftiMD  llM  M 
ninile  Fvidenl  by  tlio  diaturbania  of  iIm  4N 
til*  uroremanl  of  f>B»ialw  flrmli^  n  it  III 
ba  u«*nwiiwd  Uurt  a  eimt«t  domtt  WMHf 

>  o  lalcnnlauon  can  be  dEtodc^, 


»i..n>Hjr  -m»U 
ohlehoiUMdrb 


oiijevt  to  oontey  the  nulnlii 

HaUr  into  tba  inlarinr  of  tbe 

oir  111*  iwrtiaW  wliich  are  \o 

tllma  drlacliud  from  the  lixiag  liaMa  ani 

out  tmia  th*  null  alooj  «li£  the  IIMi4 

Tlie  relative  poaition  of  the  farm  m 
muirh  in  the  dillVrmt  kjinl*  of  anuu    M 
Idi^aDdt^ftAtlk 


Puck  Ift 


it  ud)  utmiiff.  Til'  niMV»«  ii  dohIsIiihI  U 
tit*l(;-    ('lunpiiut  DA  th<7  ar*,  lb?  bunsi 

itW  tii  tliuU-  TllllUt;. 

roim  or  Miiunili  uf  idp  n-«VFUi  fulTir  f«  •• 
Um  cmiluii  M  tkiiM.  :\u,-),  ,-  ..,..((1...-. 
uu,  Uk  /mnbif,  tht .     ' 

nolibid,  »DdTalpr..'  ■ 


KtuikBf,  wa  llien    < 


.wii  palalf  bone* ;  Ihe  two  ^r»  < 

lliB  nAll;  tile  vomer,  cr  plvn 
a  paK  of  tiro  huit  of  ilir  mis.  ■ 
^^ioiw,  cw  maaiilarj,  1, 
atotat  Ihedcll  ari  ' 
1  or  bodJiooe,  wh-  ■ 

piece*,  ealled  Ef' 
UlO   DDB   IflW    lllr    nil 

cuTTcd  in  wvenl  j'bci^-,  ih 
itig  a  purvn  £nririinls  ii«ar  ihi 
■rui  ti(  di'  TDrtvbrm  wv  oUlci! 
d4  flvv  rNTnAwtfram  beiiiR  uliurir 
joh,  hiob,  uid  luiiu.     KmIi  VI 


iWmtDK  it  i  kli>l,  bv  ' 


ith  tlinu  Mljoi 

i«,  h  louR  bollno  11 

af  th«  apiwil  in«ro-.    Ivi  th. 

er  |i(irt  of  Ite  terti  ii— '   -  '  ■ 


'=^==-?J3^ 

-.^fJ  ■pffVJCBB 

_J1 

ACCOUNT  OF  THE  HUMAN  BODY. 


ncd  important  agents  in  the  animal  eco- 
muscles  are  uf  a  redUish  brown  colour ; 
>pi>sed  of  accumulated  threads  or  fibres, 
iictimes  in  laverH,  sometimes  in  a  straight 

sonietimeii  obliquely.  They  aro  of  an 
e,  somewhat  like  a  piece  of  India  rubber, 
impulse  of  the  will,  are  lengthened  and 
ernutcly.  A  muscle  is  generally  thick  or 
in  the  middle  ;  it  gradually  gets  tliinner 
.^xtremiiicH,  and,  in  many  instances,  passes 
h  ends  into  a  tendon,  or  tough  white  sub- 
li  is  attached  to  a  lK>ne,  and  serves  the 
>e  as  a  rope  or  cord,  to  iix  the  muscle  to 
m  wliich  it  is  intended  to  act.  These  ten- 
t  numerr>us  about  the  joints,  especially  the 
where  they  allow  of  free  and  unrestrained 
ct  occupy  little  s{>ace  in  situations  where 
in<^  muscle  would  have  beeu  inconvenient, 
irger  joints  of  the  body,  also,  such  as  the 
and  t>houldur-joints,  there  are  numerous 
1  pour  out  an  oily  substance,  that  serves  to 

joint*!,  und  facilitates  the  play  of  the  ten- 
u  are  from  four  to  five  hundred  muscles 
n  body,  all  necessary  for  performing  the 
enients  and  operations  of  the  complicated 
*u  Q||li  side  of  the  back-bone  there  are 
•8  or  strong  nmscles,  which  are  fixed  by 
every  projection  of  the  numerous  bones 
le  spine.  These  nmscles  keep  the  trunk  of 
ct,  and  also  permit  of  the  various  motions 
There  are  a  multitude  of  small  muscles 
ice,  head,  and  eyes,  wliose  various  action 
I  exprettsiou  to  the  human  countenance 
tes  the  prevailing  feelings  and  passions  of 
il.  The  tongue  is  also  supplied  by  intricate 
res,  giving  to  it  that  amazing  volubility  of 
iich  tiio  vabt  number  of  sounds  composing 
e  express<Hl.  Many  are  attached  to  the 
jut  two  in  particular,  the  temporal  muscles, 
urds  throu;;li  an  arch  formed  by  a  project- 
:he  templf-bone,  and  arc  fixed  to  the  ten- 

liead.  These  two  muscles  are  the  most 
moving  the  jaws  in  the  operation  of  chew- 
,  and  arc  very  large  in  sevei-al  animals  of 
ii^r  tint  muscle  inside  the  cheek  is  called 
•r-muhcle,  because  it  assists  in  blowing  from 
md  in  sounding  wind  instruments.  The 
plied  with  numerous  muscles,  which  move 
>>>ard8  and  downwards  in  the  action  of 
A  large  fiat  muscle,  called  the  diaphragm, 
rces  the  trunk  from  side  to  side,  and  sejia- 
tllow  of  the  chest  from  that  of  the  belly,  also 
iiainly  to  the  process  of  breathing.  The  arm 
;e  rolled  inward  and  outwanl  by  a  set  of 
ich  are  placed  on  the  outer  and  inner  sides 
i;tivc  bones  ;  thus,  the  outside  muscles  act 
'y  manner  to  the  inside,  and  reverse  mo- 
e  alternately  perfonned.  The  muscles  of 
n  are  fixed  to  the  scapula  or  shuulder- 
L>  chest,  and  to  the  clavicle,  at  the  u))|>er 

tlic  bono  of  the  arm  at  the  other.     The 

moved  by  mut^cles  situated  in  the  fore- 
arm, and  have  long  slender  tendons,  by 
are  attached.  Two  beautiful  provisions  of 
lere  observed  :  at  the  wrist,  a  circular  ring 
3  substance  binds  down  the  long  tendons, 
1,  in  their  various  motions,  otherwise  start 
ir  plac«*3.  This  ring  at  once  keeps  them  in 
nnits  their  free  and  unhampered  play.  The 
sion  is  seen  in  the  construction  of  tlie  ten- 
fingers.     There  are  two  principal  muscles 

the  joints  of  the  fingers,  and  two  sets  of 
iich  are  inserted,  the  one  into  the  middle 
e  finger,  the  other  into  the  third  row  uf 
the  extremities  of  the   finger.     In   order 

their  free  action,  and  to  make  them  lie 

convenient  nuumer,  there  ia  a  loop  or  slit 

rter  tendon,  by  ^hich  the  other  passes 

ita  insertion  in  the  point  of  the  finger.    By 


this  means,  the  longest  and  strongest  muscle  moves 
the  extremities  of  the  finger,  where  the  greatest  power 
is  wanted,  without  impeding  the  action  of  the  other. 
The  nmscles  which  move  the  lower  extremities  are 
thicker  and  more  powerful  than  those  of  the  arms. 
Several  large  muscles,  acting  in  opposition  to  each 
other,  arc  situated  around  the  thigh-joints,  and  move 
them.     They  are  iixed,  one  end  to  the  trunk  of  the 
body,  some  pretty  far  up,  especially  two,  which  are 
spread  upon  the  front  of  the  abdomen  or  belly,  on  each 
side  of  the  spine,  while  the  other  ends  are  attached  to 
the  thigh-bone.     Several  thick  muscles,  also,  aro  situ- 
ated at  the  back  of  the  trunk.     Two  large  muscles 
compose  the  calf  of  the  leg,  and  join  to  fonu  the  tendon 
of  Achilles,  which  is  fixed  to  the  heel-bone  ;  these 
muscles  act  powerfully  in  bending  the  ankle  and  in 
supporting  the  bo<ly  m  walking.     The  foot  and  toes 
are   moved   by   several    long    slender  muscles,    situ- 
ated in  the  leg,  which  have  tendons  attached  to  them, 
and  terminating  on  the  toes,  exactly  like  those  of  the 
hand  and    fingers.     The  pelvis  and   lower  limbs   of 
man  differ  greatly  from  those  of  all  other  animals 
in   their  superior  proportional  strength,  and   in   the 
number  and  fullness  of  the  nmscles.     This  was  neces- 
sary, as  man  has  been  evidently  intended  by  nature  for 
the  erect  position.     In  the  monkey  tribe,  whose  general 
form  approaches  nearest  to  that  of  man,  the  narrow- 
ness of  the  pelvis  or  hip-bones,  and  the  fiuiallness  of 
the  muscles  of  the  lower  extremities,  clearly  show  that 
they  were  not  destined  by  nature  for  the  erect  attitude; 
in  fact,  all  animals  of  this  class  are  furnished  with  four 
hands  or  p{nes^  the  hinder  pair  exactly  resembling  those 
in  front.     When  they  attempt  to  walk  on  the  hind  ex- 
tremities, they  cannot  )>ut  the  sole  to  the  ground,  but 
press  on  it  edgeways.     Hy  the  nice  balancing  of  the 
muscles,  and  the  great  force  which  they  exert,  man  is 
enabled  to  stand  erect,  and  to  maintain  a  firm  p<»sition, 
or  move  forward  at  pleasure,  notwithhtanding  that  the 
body  diverges  from  the  perpendicular  line  of  the  centre 
of  gravity.     The  head  is  also  balanced  upon  the  neck  by 
means  of  strong  muscles,  whose  constant  though  unob- 
served cxertii>n  is  necessary  to  maintain  it  in  its  position  ; 
for  in  young  children,  when  the  muscles  are  as  yet  weak, 
and  in  persons  asleep,  the  head  has  an  inclination  to 
tiroop,  and  in  the  dead  body  it  falls  down  on  the  shoul- 
der or  breast.     The  muscles  of  tho  neck,  therefore, 
may  be  said  to  exercise  a  |>ower  in  some  degree  invo- 
luntary, or  not  under  the  command  of  the  will,  as  tho 
majority  of  the  muscles  of  the  body  are.     But  there 
are  other  muscles  still  more  distinctly  removed  from 
under  tho  guidance  of  .the  will.     The  heart  is  nothing 
else  than  a  hollow  muscle,  which  contracts  and  expands 
without  the  consciousness  of  the  being;  and,  in  like 
manner,  the  muscles  which  perform  the  act  of  ref>pi- 
ration  are  not  moved  by  the  will.     This  division  of  tho 
muscles  into  two  classes,  shows  as  perfectly  as  any  thing 
could  do,  the  care  with  which  our  frame  is  coubtructed. 
Had  those  muscles  on  which  respiration  and  the  action 
of  the  heart  depend,  been  placed  under  tlie  control  of 
the  being,  their  functions  would  have  been  liable  to  be 
impeded,  at  every  turn,  by  circumstances.     Now,  these 
organs  cannot  cease  to  act  for  the  most  trifling  period 
of  time,  without  fatal  consequences.    The  ari-angement, 
therefore,  which  renders  their  operation  involuntary,  is 
one  to  be  admired  as  essential  to  life  and  comfort. 

TIIK  BLOOD — DLOOD-VESSKLS. 

TTie  lilooiJ. — The  blood  is  the  medium  by  which  all 
the  solid  and  fluid  {tarts  of  the  body  are  supplied  with 
nourishment.  In  its  composition,  therefoi*e,  will  bo 
found  the  majority  of  the  substances  of  which  the  body 
is  composed.  The  blood  consists  of  a  solid  coagulable 
matter,  called  Jibrin ;  of  a  series  of  red  ff lobules  which 
form  the  colouring  nu&tter  ;  and  of  scrum,  or  whey-like 
matter,  which  gives  the  whole  tho  necessary  fluidity. 
From  the  heart,^e  centre  of  the  circulation,  the  blood 
is  conveyed  through  the  body  by  vessels  called  arlerieSf 
and  is  brought  back  to  the  same  part  by  veitm,  Tlie 
1      pose  of        thus  makinjc  the  circuit  of  tho  whole 


t 

1 

I 

I 


ii 


■  I 


I 


I  i 


**  i  ■ 

P 

If  ?. 


whole.  After  traversing  the  body,  it  returns  to  the 
lieurt,  deprived  of  its  nutritious  properties,  and  changed 
in  ookmr  from  a  bright  to  a  dark  red.  Here  the  second 
dreulatiou,  which  is  through  the  lungs,  coramencee. 
The  blood  is  poured  from  the  right  side  of  the  heart, 
which  has  divisions  for  the  purjiose,  into  large  vessels 
which  carry  it  to  the  lungs,  and,  sproading  out  into 
countless  branches,  penetrates  and  permeates  their 
whole  substance.  Collected  again  by  other  vessels  of 
oqual  number  and  extent,  it  is  conducted  by  them  to 
the  left  side  of  the  heart,  to  be  propelled  anew  through 
tbe  frame^  restored  to  its  bright  red  hue,  and  repos- 
MMed  of  all  its  vivifying  qualities.  Both  these  changes 
MO  effected  in  the  lungs.  The  chyle,  which  may  be 
oalled  the  essence  of  our  food  in  a  liquid  state,  is  oon- 
Toyed  fh>m  the  stomach  tlirough  tho  chest  by  a  duet, 
which  empties  itself  into  one  of  tho  veins,  immediately 
before  the  blood  is  transmitted  through  the  lungs.  It 
is  iu  these  organs  that  the  chyle  is  thoroughly  mixed 
up  with  the  circulation  ;  and  it  should  be  remembered, 
tost  tlds  ehyle  is  the  only  benefit,  tho  only  real  food, 
cstraeted  from  all  tho  substanceis  received  into  the 
stomadi»  the  remainder  being  entirely  useless  and 
exoremeatitious.  From  the  chyle  comos  the  material 
of  the  bones,  of  the  fleshy  or  muscular  parts,  of  the 
brain  and  nervous  cords,  of  the  hair,  nails,  enamel  of 
l^e  teeth,  and,  in  short,  of  every  different  structure  of 
the  system.  The  average  quantity  of  blood  contained 
fai  an  ordinary-sized  person,  is  calculated  at  about  30 
lbs.  weight.  The  coloured  globules  of  blood  do  not 
enter  into  the  smallest  vessels  of  the  body,  but  only 
tbe  thinner  part  of  it,  which  has  no  colour ;  thus,  in 
the  eye,  there  are  numerous  blood-vessels,  but  these 
are  so  minute  as  not  to  admit  the  red  puts  of  the  blood ; 
and  this  is  a  necessary  provision  of  nature,  in  order 
that  these  organs  may  retain  their  pure  transpareney 
for  the  purpose  of  vision.  In  inflammation  of  the  eyes, 
when  these  vessels  are  much  enlarged,  the  red  globules 
•ometimes  enter,  and  the  eyes  are  tlien  said  to  l^  blood- 
■hot.  What  is  called  the  pulse,  is  the  flow  of  the  blood 
thro  the  artcriesy  which  is  caused  partly  by  the  im- 
]       «  w.  the  heart's  contractions  or  beatinzs.  and  partly 


auricle  of  the  heart,  and  earty  ^ 
made  the  round  of  the  body,  inic 
is  of  a  dark  purple  colour^  and  it  i 
from  its  coming  from  the  vefe 
auricle  it  is  sent,  by  a  sudden  c 
together  of  the  two  sides  of  the 
ventricle,  immediately  below  the  i 
oating  with  this  by  a  small  opei 
valve ;  by  the  right  ventriele  e 
veyed  by  the  pulmonary  arterii 
two  large  cell-formed  subttaaiee 
chest,  surrounding  the  heart,  i 
the  lungs  it  is  returned  by  tbe  p< 
left  auricle  of  the  heart ;  from  tl 
adjoining  left  ventricle  ;  and,  Inr  i 
of  this  muscular  oavity,  it  flo< 
artery  of  the  heart,  the  mto$i4 
through  every  part  of  the  bodly. 
by  the  veins :  and  thus  the  rowtj 
tinually  going  on. 

The  heart  being  an  extrem^y  i 
with  which  it  contracts  is  Teiw  n 
ventricle  of  the  heart,  too,  nHboi 
is  much  thicker  and  more  jnuo 
having  to  send  the  blood  throngli 
A  beiHitiful  provisioo  is  obeerv 
prevent  the  flowing  baek  of  the  ] 
cavities  during  their  altetnafei 
passa^  of  communieatba  betwi 
ventricle  are  placed  Talvea,  wM 
contracts  to  send  tiie  bhiod  ita 
accurately,  so  as  to  preveatn  Mi 
There  is  the  same  proviaioB  beti 
and  ventricle,  and  alio  at  the  wb 
of  the  aorta  and  pdmonarr  uteri 
eommunicate  with  the  nghl  m 
valves  are  of  beantifiil 


of  three  flaps  that  join  aiecnmiai] 


to  prevent  their  beiDg 
blood  beyond  their  proper  piMlIk 
dmoua  eords  attaahed,  of  vmtth 
In  the  child  b^hiw  biith.  a^ 


ACCOUNT  OF  THE  HDHAN  BODY. 


textare.    Theae  c 


Ml  briDohM  of  the 
a  had  gnat 
racing  liie  eiuct  puiiit  U  wJiidi  tliey  jjaiu 
That  they  do  H,  however,  ia  undeDiable, 
r'  seen  on  (be  Burfuee  of  Ihc  brain.  TJie 
jilier  pyitfni  of  vcbmIb,  itliicU  return  Ihe 
I  ho  exlreniities  of  the  bixiy  la  the  heart. 
rger  and  more  flaccid  th*n  tlia  arterien, 
iiiguiiilied  from  them  by  liaviog  no  |)ul- 
ui'Ue  vi'in  generally  accompanieB  the  cor- 
ai'ler)',  but  the  gnwt  proportinn  of  the 
re  InuurdH  the  aurface,  and  are  nuily  dia- 
^Keiling  (lUt  under  the  diin.  Tbe  numeroiu 
lie  luvtir  extremiliea  join  into  one  trunk  in 
liieh  vein,  after  p.i>aing  (hrougb  the  liver, 
terwardii  deacribed,  joins  ilie  right  auricle 
,  ihe  bK>od  fi'um  tho  upper  hnif  of  the  body 
by  uiiijtiier  simiUr  vein,  lu  tho  Teliu  of 
im  that  liaiig  downwarda,  and  are  apt  to  be 
LliMiil,  tlieru  are  iuterled  nunieroua  valvee, 
oiiceE,  wliicli  prevent  relluK  uf  any  kind. 


,  iH  atrendy  mentioned,  ia  conbuned  in 
t  in  a  soft  masa  of  matter,  cucloacd  iu  i 
ing  membranes  beneath  the  bones  of 
Ihe  Ag:in  by  wliich  mind  scU,  and  c 
lervuUH  euuTfty,  tlic  brain  may  he  deacri 
1  jmfHirtant  and  dignified  of  man^a  bodily 
fell  dencrves  the  moat  cirrful  in  v  est  i  gal  ion. 
in  divided  by  strong   menibtnues  inW  two 
IS — tiic  cerebrum  ur  proper  bruii,  whidi 
beneath  tlie  brow  and  ou  thu  top  and  sides 
,  and  the  cerubellum  nr  lesser  braiu,  wliicli 
Uuth  are  longitudinally  divided  into  halves 

id  Kgnro  otfi-ra  a  lateral   repreaenlnlinn  of 
■■■■■'■ a  beneath  Uie 


1  radial 


led  bell 


and  other  c 


Heal  pulpy  c 


•clallirii 

L-iiliuned  aa  Ij'ing  in  tile  canal  formed  by 

ill  the  spinal  bones.     It  is  round,  of  the 

f  the  finder,  of  the  same  kind  of 

in,  and  fuimed  of  sumller   nervous  cords, 

iralUd  to   eaeh   other:    it  runs   a 

ill  of  the  back  dona  to  the  pel' 


BmaU  whitisli -looking  eards,  which  ptoeatd 
from  the  brain  and  apioal  manow,  and  spread  out 
in  innumeixble  branches  to  every  pnrt  of  the  body. 
A  large  branch  of  a  nrrvu  generally  aceompauiea  everj 
larj(e  artery,  and  every  important  |«rt  of  the  body  haa 
a  branch  of  a  nerve  Mnt  off  to  it.    The  nerres  for 
supplying  tho  organa  of  Hmell  (1),  of  seeing  (S),  OF 
ling    (3),    together  witli   the    great    sympatbatie 
res,  which  give  braiichea  to  the  heart,  lunga,  ito- 
■nach,  and  otlier  iinpurlnnt  viscers,  proceed  diraetlj 
from  the  brain.     The  iiervea  of  motion  and  aetuation 
I  various  parla  of  the  trunk  and  extremitieaa 
origin,  with   a  few  exceptioaa,  from   the 
spinal  cord.     Two  sets   of  ncrvoua  bnnehea  proeaad 
''       cord   on   each    side,   corresponding  neariy 
iction  of  every   vertebral   bono  ;  and  it  IB 
found   ijint   a   brancb   of  these   ncrvea   imparti   mo- 
,  and  tlie  other  sen&ttion  or  feeling.    The  biwa 
a  covering  of  thrc«  (hjn  membmnea ;  the  out- 
ward one  strung  and  thick,  tlie  inner  Dxti«mely  thin 
and  delicate.     The  nerves,  which  are  aofc  and  pulpy 
inside,  have  also  a  thin  external  covering  which  pro- 
tects lliem.     The  nervous  branches  are  nerer  laea 
or  fell  in  Ihe  living  body,  and  what  are  vnlgariy  called 

title  being  given  chiefly  to  (hose  about  the  wriata, 
fingeni,  and  ankle-joints.  Their  great  numbera  and 
minute  divisioua  are  manifeal,  however,  becaoso  we 
cannot  prick  .any  part  of  the  body  with  the  sharp  pcnnt 
of  a  needle,  without  wounding  aomenf  them,  and  uierebj 
cauting  Ihe  sendalion  of  pain.  When  the  nerves  ar* 
injured  in  their  powera  by  disonao,  the  sense  of  feeling 
in  the  part  ia  entirely  lust.  Tlie  brain  in  the  lower 
animals  is  not  generally  nearly  so  large,  in  proportian 
tu  Iheir  bulk,  as  in  man  ;  and  the  cerebrum,  or  npper 
braiu,  is  often  smaller  in  them  than  tho  cerebellum,  or 
lower  brain.  In  many  ela£scs  of  Ihe  inferior  animals 
there  ia  no  distinct  brain,  but  only  ncrvis  running  aUuig 
tlieir  bodies,  nnd  joining  into  knots  or  ganglions.  Tho 
nervous  eyslvm  of  intiects  and  worms  ia  of  this  deaerip- 
lion.  In  the  (wlypus,  and  aome  olher  similar  animab, 
a  distinct  nervous  tysteni  can  aenrcely  be  tneed. 

It  maybe  proper  here  to  make  aome  observations  on 
tho  functiims  of  Ihe  bmin,  considered  abstractly  from 
its  anatomy.  Jinn  surpassea  all  other  animals  in  Uia 
height  and  proportions  of  llio  forehead,  and  in  the  com- 
parative maaa  of  brain  in  tho  upper  part  of  the  skull. 
In  the  human  head  the  lower  pans  of  the  face  bear  a 
smaller  proportion  to  tho  forehead  than  in  the  bmtea. 
The  face  is  pUced  in  nearly  a  perpendicular  liue  with 
the  forehead,  instead  of  projecting  outwarda  into  » 
snout,  as  in  the  lower  animals.  The  brute  tkce  ia 
merely  suited  fur  the  purpose  of  animal  wants  aud  (ur 
dcfL^nee  ;  the  jdwsare  long  and  narrow,  sup- 
plied with  thick,  strong  muscles,  and  short 


It  the  I 


which 


„  ling  feature— Uw 
arched  eyebrows^tlie  ex'juiaitely  formed 
lips,  and  the  rounded  chin  ;  above  all,  there 
is  not  that  play  of  varied  expression,  that 
air  of  intelligence,  and  that  indcscrihabla 
cmanalion  of  a  raliouat  mind,  that  ray  of 
divinity,  at  the  appearance  of  wliicb  the 
most  wild  and  ferocious  of  the  brute  crea* 
tioii  arc  awed  aud  subdued.  But,  beddea, 
Ihc  Creator  seems  to  have  allotted  eharac- 
(crLilic  exleroal  signs  to  express  the  pasdoiu 
•>C  the  mind,  that  in  social  life  man  might 
not  easily  impose  on  his  fellow-man  ;  for  thA 
various  muscles  of  the  face  expi-eaa  the  ae- 
veral  paaaiooB  of  tlio  miud  to  faillifully, 
that  they  may  be  even  I'epresented  in  paint- 
ing. This  is  said  to  be  the  natural  rxpr«a- 
»uu,  and  would  appear  lo  bu  uuderstoud 
even  by  animals  ;  fur  a  dog,  on  looking  to 
the  countenance  of  bis  master,  eaaily  rc- 
cogniaeathe  mute  sxpnuions  eilher  of  com- 
mendation or  disaatiafaedun.  Prom  the  ae- 
tiun  of  the«inu«elea  being  no  oftca  rtpMttd, 


CaAlffiERS-S  INFOIULVTIOX  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


plifsiognoniy  aiuea  ;  tlte  aelion  of  the  preniliuj; 
DIIdioIh  Gk«  ui  eDdaridf  expreuion  on  the  teatarva  ; 
and  ihoB  trum  of  fnn^uent  anger  ofUn  r«tnuii  in  the 
counU^naDce  after  the  puaion  iiscU  ia  gijna  oS,  With 
th«  power  ot  epercti  tnd  rewon,  mmn  hu  >lto  the 
meuig  of  enpHTOing  his  fcelings  and  lassjou  by  Unjh- 
ler  and  weeping,  muiifestaljnaa  vhicfi  are  not  fouiul  in 
Hie  lower  anioula.     Weeping   praeei-di  from  a  deep 

relieve  the  sysleni  of  grirf.  Il  unually  begins  Kiih  deep 
in9pimIiaQ«  of  the  lua;e;s,  after  which  foiJuw  short  aller- 
natf  iiupiralionB  and  »)ur*iiati«.  and  it  is  finished  with 
k  deep  long-drawn  eipiratioa,  which  is  immediatetj-  toU 
Ipwcd  by  an  inspinUiun.  When  moderate,  il  certainly 
kIUtfs  the  dieiresa  arising  from  grief.  Laughter  lioa 
ita  ri^  fmm  name  ludicrous  ideas  impreiwed  npon  the 
mind,  and  would  seem  to  arise  directly  from  a  sort  ol 
titillatiuti  oaareyed  to  the  bnnches  of  certain  internal 
DSrveH,  probably  those  of  the  dii^nagm  ;  immediaiely 
tothlssncceeds  a  namber  of  impfftAil  inspirationa  and 
aipiratiooB,  which  Beem  to  be  checked  by  the  eontnu- 
iton  of  the  glottis  in  (he  throat  or  laryni.  Laughter 
in  a  moderals  degree  may  b«  conduci*e  to  health,  ju  it 
gives  impulse  to,  and  ullimalely  promote!!,  the  circula- 
lian  ;  earrieil  loexeesa,  liowever,  it  maj  prove  danger- 
ous, fmni  accumulating  too  much  blood  in  the  lungi. 


a  power! 


JcoQusis  of  one  deep  inspin 
111  single  expiration,  and  le 


Sneezing  coatisw  of  oni 

eipii 

>f  the  muBoles  of  brmlhing  to  throw 
off  some  cause  of  irritation  in  the  ■easitice  membrane 
of  the  noslrila.  The  conitnon  hiccup  ii  a  apatmodio 
action  of  the  musclee  of  the  sloniach.  caused  by  sume- 
Ibing  irritating  the  etnniach  itself.  Some  of  the  eaueet 
by  which  our  mental  happiDeas  Is  either  increased  or 
diminished,  proceed  entirely  from  the  bodily  seneationa. 
Any  gentle  stimulus  applied  to  a  nerre  seems  to  caose 
a  feelmg  of  pleasure  ;  strong  stimuli,  or  any  can  sea  dia- 
tartiing  seriously  the  naturaJ  condition,  produce  pain. 
Itobing  is  akin  to  pleasure,  and  is  both  caMH  the  flow  of 
bloDd  ia  ipersaBCd  into  the  part  in  wbiek  either  pl**- 
nire  or  tilillatinn  is  perceived ;  but  whan  fiu-tlier  io- 
creued,  it  degenerates  inlo  pain,  or  exeeuiveeeiUAtions 


The  lungs  lun  a  dark  Uaisli  >| , 

ample  of  which  ii  afforded  in  the  Apilr  «U 

pan  generally  appended  ta  Ih«  fceiai  Hd< 

cells,  which  alternately  loflale  or  Mtbaaa 
are  lUled  and  emptied  of  aii^  WbM«Bta| 
made,  and  the  iungi  are  filled  with  tit,  itaM 
cone  expanded;  and  the  blood anrtltiMllkaJ 
of  the  heart,  andRprfadoTBT  tliBerfls.i»'''tpn»i 


.    Aai 


change,  as  formorly  allmied  to,  hecaBb*|<t 
blood :  from  being  of  a  dark  piirpi*  otimu, 
dialely  cban^  to  a  bright  KU-lM,  havitK  all 
taken  up  all  the  oxj-gen,  or  vital  part  M  Its 
parted  with  a  carrespmidtng  valome  af  art 
gas  or  Hied  air,  which  it  had  aci^inml  ia  i 
timugh  the  rnaels  of  the  bndir.  da  ««Mi 
matter  imparled  by  the  air  to  Ih*  blood  fir  I 
animal  eiistenee,  that  the  bniathiii(  oaoM 
pcnded  even  for  a  very  ^ort  pmiod  wiihtolti 
ing  life.  It  is  probable,  loo,  thai  Ih*  bM  d 
is  geneiBted.  and  constantly  k*pt  up,  ia  M 
other,  by  means  of  Ibis  procnH  of  liiilalllit| 
change  which  the  blood  nndergnsa,     Wekasv 

nary  chemical  proeeena,  withoBt  •«  aaeoBH 
chat^  of  heat ;  and  benee  it  >*  pnaaAiriW 
warmth,  derived  by  the  body  tnm  tb«  thai 
in  this  way  produced.  The  linig<^  Ifea  •■ 
internal  organ,  are  coiereid  with  a  Ik*  hi 
membrane  called  the  pitvra  : 
aatht  .... 

iilflan 

pleurisy.  The  trachea  or  windpipa,  ilis  M 
tion  between  the  mouth  and  lunga,  ta  a  Iml 
having  a  aeries  of  canjlaginoos  nun  fmt 
it,  to  prevent  the  poasibitiiy  of  ito  witf  M 
either  by  external  meam,  or  froiD  tb«  lit  I 
-'  BwalluwiRg,  BDd,  hi  conseqaeoMi  (b»  Ml 


Il  t 


s  ita  r 


n  front  of  llw  mrit, 
cartilage  may  be  seen  and  ML    il 

lividea  into  two  parls^  like  the  pfwafS 


the 

iK. 

n!v-'ll 

pal 

>Ol 

rrupt 

s« 

intt 

we 

kens  I 
if  I'l 

"■■ 

,;-.-.; 

bod 

V.  t: 

„,.. 

Lvityorthe 


In  lh«  higlicst  part  of  tli 
vde  of  the  brrosl-boni!,  the  i\iugs  i 
brane  pawing  from  the  breust-boi 
them  into  I"!!  porlions,  the   rigl 
long.     1'tie  right  lung  consiMs  o( 
*'  I,  Ibe  upper,  middle,  and  h^wer  ',  t\v 
'  imal/cr  lu  bulk  by  tlie  prcwucc 
jc  cavity,  lifts  fltily  ""  upper  miS 


■  ■  ■!■  I  !■■  Ii... .u'.     Theair,wb<* 

.    -.  :-»h.ler.mify.l 

■  ■■    i.ii.r  -.-  of  breathing  am 

■  '  ■   ■"   ■■' la„Ksn.,rdo  tbe^b 

.       .     ,  l:iT:.I,„iKllie6idraoflheirbod.«s 

-  lii.L-swtli  small  tubeannn 
:  ■    1    ;   ■  .  T  iiii,idle  tube,  by  which  dx  1 

;i...« iMheir  Huidsi.     Wheiiwetea 

III..  iTiiiiiil  ?cale,  even  IhiR  snbrtiMla  h» 

a-:-^^,  ni]d  pniLablv  the  viul  air  ia  ahBitN 

mnli  l,y  simple  [iires  or  openings  in  ths  A 

TIIR  TKITII OlOESnSG   •""•TtlL. 

1  I-        -:    [  i"fi-'9  performed  in  comwiiM 

'    ...i.n-liiii.'nti'Xbcbodyiaihaid 

1        ..rL.lihi^i9iher<lGceoftUt«lfc 

..— 1  hose  are  placed  in  the  Bpfa 

.  i  i  !>:  K-,i  iliey  are  attached  b»  mm,  » 

i<  tl.r  p.iriiii*  Bocketa  of  the  jaw,  MMkevh 

lie  manner  as  a  nail  ia  fixed  in  a  pfNs 

ui:li  Ihey  are  reUiined  in  place  chieA;  ^ 

rt>,  ur'.und.     Tl.eteeth  areeomposedof  tea 

ered  externally  with  a  Ihia  coat  of  la  ■ 

nl  Hiibttanci-,  ailed  enamel.   ThctcMban 

at  \vS\  \\\u%.  ti"-  \  v'-rt-eV  Ac^vee  than 


ilie  liid}',  although  ] 
il«?Tee  than  moat  other  pans  at  ^' 


-u  doily  m>i«  whisb  Uk<«  {itace  b  lb*  « 
U  Ui*  coniiiuiion  of  aDim&l  bodloi,  ir 
«•  of  vliioli  diry  arc  aon\ptii«l  kn  U 

I  ■oliil  p&rti  are  worn  d«<ra,  iq 
■ntil)  of  Baid  u  cnntUnUy  jrirca  aft  if  A' 

rhid  >"  IT! . . 


Afxl  10  pioewrd  but  Ibr  ft  wry  Khun  n 
iild  MOD  b*  mlneed  to  a  nUitt  of  emnpliia  dj 
iDi  fopiilj  of  ne<r  nwMrUI  i*  thortbnjl 

to  topUce  llutl  whlcb  1*  waMwd ;  an  J  lln' 
iiuppaacdlbAtahunian  bndjr  chan^ta  ita  irf 
■  10*07  bundivd  tiiiia  rnmi  ttia  •— '-J  -^ 
.  doath  ;  and  ihal  an  bidlvldlial,  ■ 

Tpwt*!  Bruotnrp, «  nol  at  all  lb.    .     . 

t  nanhwd  10  what  ho  wa>  wbsn  a  buy,  aar  S 

what  be  *>■  in  hii  primt.  Altitimi-li  Itiiil 
bea  it  mmplBte,  cvan  lo  ilic  bguai  aiul  bimi 
rtaof  Ibr  oanw,  it  ii  brought  about  mi  gim- 
nd  wiUi  lb*  rxgiilar  and  mioatn  ■uballtutliui  of 
tisht  for  another,  that  it  ia  nrvcr  pri-Dtpilhlai 
a  bam  caU*d,  wHli  rvlatiun  to  bi*  dirt,  onuil' 
from  bb  l>«io|;  arfaplMl  10  ti*«  on  sriry  Itlnd 
nbiinM  nioal  <ilh«T  aninwIaareomfiiiFd  Id  dm 
a  dneriptUm.  'Ill*  oralvoruii*  animal*  D*e 
alon^  tbN  miniiilvnroa*  od  grua  and  gntia 
id  (bo  fraiuVutnii*  on  (nJn*  ajid  ollin'  iinaDTl 
Tbcaa  animala  Davar  eliaogo  thalir  riwuttiii 
It,  from  the  ocautmeiioD  of  Ibirir  tavtli,  alo- 
ud  fnleatlD*^  venr  lb(7  evnr  intended  Id  do 
t  In  nun  il  !■  pbila};  nidaiit,  from  hit  ant- 
klmeluTB,  tiiat  b*  ma  uiUn4i.il  to  died  un 
<n  of  (niid  nramiKruinuljr,  or  llukt  b«  MuU 
DM*!)'  Ui  aitbtr  aninui!  ^ir  ii-pTiaM^  fur,  a» 

iu>«BHltylnip*UE>l  III '  '[.[TD 

I  raonlaf  la  Uir  a.^  1  '.,* 


m 


CllAMBERffB  INFOBMATION  FOB  THE  VBOVUB, 


food  being  rewivPil  'Ma  Lbe  moulli,  is  broken  down  and  : 
DURticited  by  Uiu  Welb.  11  u  iici-o  also  reduced  inui 
ksuCl  pulp  by  tbc  Kiliva,  whicli  ttowa  into  lliB  mouih 
by  tho  wlivary  gliuida  ;  M\i  tims  baing  nuffioieatlj 
brultta  down  tuid  iiutloiird,  it  poHs«  into  ihe  »l«maeli. 
TliH  nWiniipli  liMniimoniiu){kiidHKit4ial8dunil»  inner 
«i«t  OF  BurfiuK,  which  sccrcu-  a  wouUu'  fluid  calJ  cd  tho 
KONUis  jaiee,  Hliieh  a  cleat  nnd  calouileBB,  wiih  litclu 
U8tc,  or  uiit^ll,  or  Donsible  qiulitieai.  Ou  tliis  Buid  do- 
]iund«  tba  liii|i(iTliuiI  offiee  of  diginUDD.  ll  hu  Ilie 
power  of  cuagalftllng  gubBUUiee*  in  (be  sloiiuwb,  of  pr«- 
vonting  Lhe  coal«ut&  »(  tbH  lUuniich  from  pasin.^  into 
«  bUUi  yf  ferrooBtttion  or  puWetL«tiaii,  uid  of  dmsnlv- 
ing  tlie  whulo  iiUo  one  boniiigeneon*  niaiis.  When  iha 
KtMWDli  is  firat  filled  with  food,  ii  &pponn  to  ronuua 
Uitre  for  a  eliort  period  without  undaii[aing  any  chnngn ; 
HiMiiuiilly,  honrpvor,  sncceasive  portions  of  llio  fuod,  lu 
tli.-t  .•niii«  into  mnlsEt  with  thi'  gulric  fluid,  nro  dis- 
ir  longer  period,  ■* 


it  would  Bppiar,  Irom  some  recent  obteifiitiDns, 
the  food  in  freed  &oin  ita  aupontbaudanl  iui>ia 
which  druuB  oir  by  some  undiscovered  uieatit  Id 
blood-vewiel^  aud  froui  thence  to  the  kidneje. 
elijmo  then,  an  it  ii  gradunlly  formed,  moves  tt 
oIliareilrBniity  of  tlieatonuich,  called  Uia  pyloric,  wberu 
it  pMMi  out  n  enter  ills  iutcHtiual  caiuiL  ]t  would 
»]rp(«r.  il»o,  tint  tin  pjlorua,  or  lower  mouth  of  the 
aluauch,  has  ■  svuwliru  juwer,  whereby  it  freely  per- 
niila  the  digeitod  chyino  to  pua  oat,  but  refuaei  exit  to 
(ho  undigested  matter,  Tho  chyme  having  paatei  ■— 
Iho  first  part  of  the  inlestinea,  or  tJuodeiium,  ts 
mucd  with  the  bilo  rroia  the  gall-bladder,  and  with  the 
pancTcMie  jaiee.  Both  these  substsncea,  especially  the 
bUe^  seem  eeiwntial  for  Ihe  conveniou  of  the  sliyme 
Jma  proper  alimooltiTy  matter,  but  their  ^ulJar  M- 
tjon  lias  not  yet  been  Mtliraetorily  explained.  That 
Uie  liter  and  hila  ducts  ore  of  Ine  utmost  import- 
once,  however,  eannoi  ha  duubtad,  from  their  mngni- 
tudf,  and  the  can^  I'iili  "Inch  thfv  arc  °up|ilicd  with 


:  fori! 


h  of 


>.  the  (0^4 

ml  MM  Mi« 

Uie  Uving  bwly.kad  MM 

nportant  faM  in  nefi^i 

kind  ar  -timki 

urmn  thai  MM 

1.    Than  an  w 

•e  whab  ^  m 

ueb,  with  a  iit^l 

polyyi  ^n  I 


Kmwth  arc  solely  promu 

iply  formed  aiiimalii  « 

»val_,hullow  bug,  or  » 
tlie  mouth  to  lake  ju 
organ  whaleittr.  The  ce 
iMOUtliaud  ltnll»w  Btoiuadi,  widi  ■ 
arms,  by  which  the  eraturo  aeina  ibc  na 
gtuha  ou  wliMh  it  iMda ;  thcae  il  nralloa^  • 
thcu'  JBio«.  and  then  voids  (he  ntotniit  I 
■iwulh.  The  coinnion  lce«li  has  ita  whJe  Wf 
iboFoTamull  cetls^LLva  piece  of  ka» 

which  it  (eeds.     Flaali-ftHli'uj;  animaUbmi 

bag  fur  a  Btomaoh,  and  their  food  ■•  naif  ■ 
digcited.  Thoee  nniuiiihi.  again,  that  Ma 
wliicli  ia  of  mure  diflieult  digentioD,  !■*• 
stoiuacliB,  into  which  the  foot]  tuecunit' 
it  has  biran  masticateil  or  chewnl  ■  imi 
nimilb.  This  iaihe  caw  wiUi  eowi.  ■! 
ttirda  lliat  (end  on  grain  luv  e  T 
into  wbieli  tliB  food  vnlcrs,  a 
»ideral>le  time,  mixed  with  ajm 
itleuod  and  r 
jithe  ti 


rcmely  atrung  ir 


b>K:ml^i 
of  Bhan-poitilad  |«kM 
irda  always  h»ii1Iow,  it  i*  gruunddom 
,  lie  gaaliic  juice.  This  aunipnuatoito 
eiency  of  teetii  in  fowU.  Cnka  aoA  MaUn 
taeth  in  tbrar  biduUu  :  but  in  tltmr  MMaali 
(bund  three  armor*  teeth,  which  awiiliaaM 
1  they  bed.  % 
lUalitiea  of  tbe  goalrie  Ml«l 
nninulB  accDEComed  te  llM  ril 
.  and  thrive  on  a  vegiilahk  fi 
doga,  atHl  many  birdi.  AS  ^ 
lutural  hiHior>  .>f  auiniali  Oa 
iIk-  uku  uf  tlie  liigcatiie  oitpi 


anged,  that 


chea  Qf  an  anery  u  tksi 
nre.buL  II  hasalaeip 

•  ■i  M  the  tninl.  inMi 
.i<>ni  lhe  blo.>d   framl 


•) 


tliw.'  iiihRtunees  only;  nlieruu,  grain  and  v<-gvc 
pass  through  tho  aloinach  of  a  purely  cariiivnr'iu- 
rini  widiout  UDdetpJiiiR  any  change.  The  pislric 
Jia"  (Ilia  sinffuUr  pro]«rly,  loo,  ihM  a\lVii>u)!.\i  ti  r 
dMclvvi  detii  >»iii>al  tnalters,  and  rL^duces  iVcv 


1,  Bjid  the  iiiuntiiy  of  hi 

'  coiuidersble.    The 


,B  VuA  ot  mlwt  (Or 


■Tided  wi£  ao  M 


Accnrwr  of  tiie  hduan  hodv. 


. .  Inluf  Hill  InlaS        ■ 
jily  Ulbvfmlit,        1 


B&d  lliiv  miililln  of  lln> 


n  ariMWi  anil  pMain^  ui'niu-il*  hy 

.  IF  gnat  Mtarjr  uf  till  hiijjr,  itjoinn 
_._D  mill,  ijing  urnliw  llui  l*fl  iriftvliita 
•^  jioil  tiiuk  pi-un  tin  whula  of  vlw  chjlc 

—TIhw  _.    . 

iTvt  Uiv  Imvk-liiinn,  aluul  onikUiIrd  up  tlic 

,^  '  ...     iiiiowlialliliiiaFi-oUcliWn, 

Pfaltonul  ilnicdlrD  oonaliU  ol  a  Dunilrer of  iiii- 

»Uibm.   XlMf  caebklllw  DliildlcbaDowpart 

mhtfvtary,  tad  ibolr  uw  U  to  Blipr  (rum 

it  tiM  MipanbutuUiil  fluid,  ami  ntlt*  uid  jnirw 

il  iTBDunil  tliw,  llf 

■  mT  two  ■mall  tobc*,  Mllail  di«  urrum,  Ui  tlir 

-lyUwbW.  TfatwotDbtaenMrlhabaalt  part nt Ilia. 

D-fa  a  Uuiiuut  dinetiMi,«bieli  MTTw  III*  ptuiKHW 


Pniio  111*  tnwar  ur  i-yli-r'n  nrlfiM  oF  tba  itoaiadi,  ihii 
dutHSuniuii,  th»  drat  tionUn  uS  din  Ini^ttiiui]  ctnnl,  lain* 
II*  nrigta.  Tbli  KUt  pM«»  hrlow  llin  Ilvrr  ojiil  nwivM 
the  liUe-ducl,  nod  llin  iId>?T  (rum  Ibn  taiicrru,  wlicn  H 
leruiliiatn  in  (be  Juiuumn,  nliLol)  ikgiun  )i>imm  iniii  Iba 
Ucum.  TO  pTbcl[«l  pfirtlim  mt  tb"  tmiiill  mli-MiiHW. 
TiiwD  are  cpf  great  loiqjtJi.  Mid  newijiy  \  (rTMit  fart 
of  the  abdimieii,  Mag  itHmX  anA  tniain'l  lia>liw»Hbi 


1 1  fl^  III)  »){>itJlilluil,  till)  tlllbMillnl  srv 
"licruad.  In  Ibnia  Ihat  ilFri^i.-  <i»-ir  nm 
I  iLulmal  rami,  ihrj  aru  nf  miiiHi  •li-Tli 
Txanuiilibnuunni  lubitiLncrr,  (ulliiilll 
aluue  iii'nrtj  Uio  •bti 

lui£l1l  of  Ihc  iuMalitiar,  and  h-Tid  i  '"' 

•nadiinrrut  and  pFopFrsHapaiuuni  in 

bowck  llBVc  lIlItR  oiutt_kD  eairrnni  >< 

lliem  nitli  tlie  oilier  «tic«[»,  a 

iultinwl  mueou  conruiB' 


MyaboiDiliDbaiM 


Ha  kbnln  oviiy  oT  tbo  btll;  ia  IiuihI  by b^iiii mtan- 
IR^  nikil  ihc  pcriMnenm,  which  in  duuble,  being 


rl*i«, 
.  iaiii 


/•■en  a  tory  vlulenl  diinMn 

Liici,  W«  iJlUI  IDbjVOt  Is  till 

V  Hriw  Ihiiii  HUCF  being  fnmipil 
lit  til*  nvntont'Oin. 
M  J^^tAulit  I'niKit,— llirw  we  aOKtlier  ditUnci 
t  iiiBili  •proul  m'er  all  tbe  inner  cavilUa  ef  liii 
IV  MHI  alw  ibnniahum  Ilia  tfcili.  uo  vliial)  tlwy  utwi 
i>^wii«iilili  mall  moutlu.  Their  <iA«b  aiiiran  ti 
~  a  Ua  IdiHil  a  Uiin  lyiiii-li,  wlii<ib  tlfi 
(iT).avii   -  ■        ■      '  ■ 


^  l^mnA 


■a-^ 


,iir  fnnii 


_„ le  liwij.     Till*  inoUlurD  liTmit  ili 

M,  awl  anenl  p<nunU  of  llnU  an  diutf  ilnlnn)  i-t) 
«  tlw  Wy  i>  tiii*  DODiKT,  o»ii  wben  tiUtn  or  n- 
"Ij  vaaeeiMt  ia  lakvn,  dir  |-n[ilnjl-iu  cuulBiuli 
>  M»  iiiwwililyi    Tfai«<  i*Mi  w«  aiiii|u«rd  of 


of  sight,  and  is  a  most  beautiful  and  ingeniously  con- 
structed object.  The  eye  may  be  compared  in  its  struc- 
ture to  a  telescope,  the  purpose  of  both  being  to  collect 
the  rays  of  light  proceeding  from  the  surface  of  bodies, 
to  concentrate  these  rays,  by  means  of  a  refi-acting  lens, 
into  a  focus,  and,  therefore,  to  form  a  very  small  image 
or  picture  of  the  object  before  them.  The  human  eye 
18  placed  in  a  large  hollow  or  socket  in  the  apper  bones 
of  the  face,  surrounded  by  fatty  substance,  and  the 
various  muscles  necessary  for  moving  the  eyeball  and 
eyelid.  At  the  upper  and  outer  angle  of  the  eye-socket 
is  placed  a  gland,  which  secretes  the  tears  that  serve 
to  moisten  the  delicate  surface  of  the  eye,  to  wash  off 
any  dust  or  other  substnnce,  and  to  keep  the  eye  con- 
tinually wet  and  transparent  for  the  purpose  of  perfect 
vision.  The  tears,  after  spreading  over  the  eyeball, 
oollect  at  the  inner  angle,  where,  at  each  comer  of  the 
eyelid,  both  above  and  below,  there  is  a  small  opening 
visible,  which  carries  the  tears  down  a  passage  into  the 
nose.     The  edges  of  the  eyelids  are  also  supplied  with 

?;landsy  which  pour  out  a  mucous  that  prevents  them 
rom  adhering  together ;  and  these,  when  irritated  and 
inflamed,  arc  often  the  seat  of  disease.  The  membrane 
which  covers  and  imparts  the  white  colour  to  part  of 
the  eyeball  in  front,  is  called  the  sclerotic  coat.  The 
middle  transparent  part  of  the  eye  in  front  is  called  the 
cornea,  which  is  filled  with  the  aqueous  humour  of  the 
eye.  Immediately  behind  the  cornea  is  seen  a  circular 
fringed-like  substance,  which  varies  in  colour  in  diffe- 
rent individuals,  being  blue,  black,  hazel,  &c. ;  and 
hence  it  is  called  the  iris,  or  rainbow  curtain.  This 
iris  has  the  property  of  opening  and  closing,  according 
to  the  quantity  of  light  which  falls  upon  the  eye ;  and 
thus  the  pupil,  a  black  circle  contained  within  the  iris, 
is  enlarged  or  lessened.  Behind  the  iris  is  situated  the 
crystalliiie  lens,  in  shape  resembling  the  small  lens  or 
ground  glans  of  a  common  telescope,  bi|t  of  unequal 
swell  on  each  side,  being  more  flattened  before  than 
behind.  This  lens  is  contained  within  a  capsule,  or  thin 
covering  of  delicate  membrane.  A  familiar  example  of 
the  lens  of  a  fisli*6  eye  is  presented  every  day  in  that 
white  globular  substance  found  in  such  eyes  after  boil- 
ing. The  heat  coagulates  the  lens,  which  is  of  the  same 
nature  as  the  white  of  an  egg ;  and  in  the  fish  it  is  nearly 
a  circular  body,  to  adapt  the  animaPB  vision  to  the  dense 


miniature.  All  these  objeets  arepaii 
in  a  reversed  position,  or  tomed  npek 
as  happens  in  a  common  mieroseope  ; 
perceived  in  their  upright  position  thi 
of  sensation,  is  a  curious  question,  no 
of  explanation.  Each  eye,  too,  forma 
sion  of  every  object,  and  yet  things  mm 
but  both  eyes  combine  to  give  one  i 
brain  or  seat  of  perception.  ~ 
muscles  which  roll  the  eyeball  in 
adapt  it  to  the  various  positions  of  vi 
also  a  power,  in  the  cornea  or  front  i 
whereby  it  can  flatten  or  become  mm 
ing  as  the  object  viewed  is  at  a  grent4 
from  the  eye,  thus  adapting  itself  to  I 
in  a  similar  manner  as  the  joints  o 
drawn  out  or  pushed  inwards.  Wli 
from  its  natural  form,  of  too  rounded  < 
ture,  distant  objects  are  always  seen  ii 
causing  what  is  called  nigh-sigbtedm 
hand,  when  it  is  too  flat  in  form,  neu 
seen  indistinctly.  This  change  oceor 
cornea  as  old  age  approaches,  and  he 
artificial  rounded  lenses,  to  aid  the  ft 
arc  in  such  cases  made  use  of  with  t 
From  the  different  densities  of  the  th] 
posing  the  eye,  the  refraction,  or  bre 
into  the  various  coloured  rays,  is  uxi 
long  time  was  a  great  objection  to  td 
rent  kinds  of  glass  were  joined  togetl 
thus  imitating  the  resources  of  natan 
eyes  are  supplied  by  two  large  optie  n 
by  separate  trunks  from  the  btmin ;  1 
for  a  short  space  within  the  cranium, 
separate,  and  each  entering  an  openin 
of  the  orbit,  spreads  out  into  branchc 
Sometimes  these  nerves  lose  their  po^ 
and  total  blindness  is  occasioned  witnot 
disease  of  the  eye :  this  is  called  am 
most  cases  incurable.  All  the  larger 
animals  arc  possessed  of  eyes.  Bird 
very  acute  vision,  especially  birds  o 
them  to  distinguish  their  victims  at 
the  air.  They  have  also  a  tliird  eyeli 
membrane  which  covers  the  evebal 


nounut  tiT»iiTiiii  . 

'pn"i' 

u  tr.hi-  ' 
funWririi-: . 

Tn  IIm  tiNWiT  iirr--L 
•hi>rt  tinir.    It  i-  ] 
■ftwUrm  .if  tWllrr-iv 
ml  NHiiaiiun. 

.hi»  r»Ti>wln|i  tlw  illllvrvav  (wru  u[  ilia  Iiuwmi 

it  will  liK  ofiwrvvil  tlut  nuM  of  lU  or||«M  m 

()u  >  lin*  being  driwn  b  tlu  uiltMla,  mi  oull 

II  lio  fnunit  luna  vlildi  u*  alxill;  ttniihr  tv 


-nspunilUis  aid*.  Tliii 

u  ■  doubt*  pTKin.  liaviiiE  tvo  (sr 

ling  <nrt  (ram  auiii  oidp  ol  it  (u  go  i 


lU)  Ihr  bnJu, 
aoT  n 
<tli«n 


•I  the  body.  TliBM  Mr  ("d  vjtt  bImi,  null 
nf;  K  distmct  image  on  tbri  rioitni ;  ;<Tt  ihe  nrr<«* 
uu«at«  M  tlut  Diil}>  (iiH>  iinii|Ta'iii<n  ■•  mofncd 
nnn-  l^a  wiait  axr  dnnfaiCa  tu  (nit  <lnt  wwna 
n  fnr  triiiab  Uwy  *r*  CDiplajrwl,  awl  en  sra  Ae 
imbK,  an  «w(nituil  twiuiriln  (nr  tlia  mn**^  *'' 
ly,  mnd  /»r  pr<iKnMf<iv«  nwliiin.  1'h»  lufi|pi,  (oi^ 
•  NtU  tn  bo  diiub)*,  InviuK  l«n  diiitliKd  lnhii( 
MuMiinM  tupiioui  llial  ima  nf  tllMU  h  aitln|i' 
nr  iKmuhxI,  uul  }^l  the  imporlaiil  oUIm  ut 
Jion  b  Mill  c&rrird  on.  Tile  unmtdi,  tlix  KtPt, 
na  at  the  olhrr  vlMcra  d(  IIm  abilimrui,  am, 
tr,  tingit,  tbrit  uvcrnl  oflla.-*  bring  omunuin  bi 


',  iIdbIc,  tl 
laWf. 


hur  ([rawii  out  fnm  Uia  akin  1111110111  li»l  tn  tb" 
T  n(  •  tvgittahln  (iroilnciian.  ilun  un  h%M  iiy 
a  tliB  ikiii,  {nan  whuno*,  by  a  aeriiM  of  raiiiiila 
,  Ihey  dniT  nnuriahinai,  &Dd  n-ntrntiaJlj'  In' 
ln)enj[lh.  Tbaypnaai»iDo  inlaiHFll!',  hiianrnir. 
iliLr  liii  otlinr  part*  nf  itia  ftwnv,  itujr  bn  rnl  i)t 
t  prndndng  tli*  liaM  [*iD.  llur  !•  ••(  ilil^wil 
■  ia  iliffriiTiil  inillTt,4oal*— taUiriwIbrMotfiT^ 
•xinn,»iiddMpUMkteVMBva«^lln^k  %%iM»^ — 


CHAMBERS'S  INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOP] 


liie  iikiii,  lliis  colour  eh«iij[;iu  to  gny  and  while.  The 
{lolimring  matter  al  the  Ii&ir  ts  contLuned  la  the  centre, 
which  it  of  a  hollo*  form,  uid  coDaists  oF  an  oily  sub- 
(tanee,  iu  nlilch  carbon  or  charcml,  in  minute  par- 

wimt  like  hair  {n  their  production  anil  c^ompodtton ; 
tliej  an,  like  hairs,  iDEeDniblo  to  the  touch,  uid  mn; 
he  sat  or  pared  without  producing  pain.  They  receito 
•marJEh nil-lit  from  the  blond-veesels  of  the  extremities, 
tnd  iwru  D  eonittuil  growth  or  renewal  or  their  sub- 
•tanee.  Naile  serre  an  a  dcrcncc  to  the  tender  parts  of 
tlic  fin^i^rs  :  in  animals  they  fomi  formidable  weapons 
III  attack.  The  horns  at  csUle  are  euclly  of  the  same 
nature  oh  naila,  anil  are  chiefly  composed  of  animal 
geUtine. 

The  manner  in  which  Uie  vnnous  aecreliona  tnte 

C'  ae  in  tlie  syntem,  that  aro  to  form  lioir,  nails,  wan 
fto  eara,  bluod,  iHTspirnlion,  &o.,  cannot  but  e»cil« 
Dor  admiration ;  tor  the  vrhola  is  a  chemical  proems  of 
th*  moHt  perfect  kind,  aud  such  oa  art 
power  to  imilttte. 


periodical  rcvolottou  of  tba  d»,    Tonrilh 
day  of  exertion,  the  miumhu'  p>wn  «k 

eet,  begin  tu  Butfer  jiarlicuUiljt ;  the  «]« 
duii  and  heavy,  and  the  eyelid*  eloaa  imoiiiDt 
lower  jaw  filla  down ;  the  circalation  of  1 
tlirough  the  lunn  is  Aiuggisli,  bence  Em|Be 
int:  In  caused ;  the  bead  node  liwwBida ;  lA 
objects  affect  ua  leae  and  leaa;  the  thix^ 
onfiued ;  and  at  hut  the  pnituan,!  oUiiiaa 
DBues.  We  ore  unconuninw  of  llw  nact 
.bou  we 


the  jnlma  oF  the  hand  and 
y  olticr  parts  of  the  body. 


An  ^Ktc^^a1  oompoct  membrane  or  skin  covers  Ihv 
wliolu  bodv.  The  outer  skin,  or  cuticle,  is  unprorlded 
with  uiv>blood-vewelB  or  nerves,  and  consec|Ui.-iitiy  is 
inienslble;  In  this  manner  ii  ia  well  en i ted  fur  a  pro- 
tection to  the  paMa  Leneatb  [  it  is  pierced  by  innumer- 
able niiniile  pores,  which  are  the  moulhi  '  '' 
Uiil  viWHils :  it  ia  thicker  in  Ihi 
mIm  of  the  feel  than  in  any 
Bahiw  III*  outer  skin  is  a  tnia  membrane,  called 
frtt  MucMun,  which,  asmiming  different  hues  in  dif- 
fannl  DuUniis,  |{lfes  rioe  to  the  variety  of  colour  iu  the 
hntnon  ni«e.  Some  have  held  this  membrane  to  be 
diiuble,  but  tliia  is  not  eMabliibtd.  In  EnropCMU  it  ia 
white,  pa*»ing  into  yellomth  brown  j  in  native  Ameri- 
rail-,  ijf  a  c'lppir  colour;  in  Negroes,  of  a  deep  black. 

'I'l,,'  ,; io,Mi  L,-li<-r  n,  tlml  ^'llin^le  hna  the  eir<.'Ct  of  mo- 

dirylni;  IIji^  tol.iur  of  the  eUn,  as  the  black  skin  only  oc- 
■  ■■  lsf,.undlh        ■ 


sgamt 


iifluen 


of  the  I 


.  ,  .  Negroes  vrill  remain  cool  niid  comfortable 
posed  to  a  sun  which  would  be  intolerable  to  a  wl 
Kkinned  person.  Their  Free  pervpiration  seeuis  to  b 
great  Bcrv ice.     Immediately  below  th" 


isible  I 


lis  and  brand 


thickly  studded 

uf  nerves,  that  the  smallest-pointed  needle  cannoE  pnc^ 
it  without  touciiing  many  of  tliem>  On  the  poinla  of  the 
fingers,  lijis,  and  other  parts  of  the  body,  these  vesiiels 
aro  very  numerous  ;  and  hence  these  parts  are  endowed 
with  etqainite  feelinga  of  touch.  Delow  the  ekin  is 
wluated  the  cellnlar  membrane,  whicli  ia  a  network, 
whose  interstices  are  filled  with  Fat,  and  it  thus  serves 
to  fill  up  the  spaces  between, the  muscles,  and  to  ranlie 
up  the  aliape,  and  preserve  the  Bynnoetrj,  plumpiicis, 
and  bfauty  of  the  whole  frame.  In  cases  of  emaciation, 
this  lally  matter  is  aoineliincB  entirely  Inken  up  by  the 
absot'bcnC  TcEBels>>jis  aTler  a  tedious  fever  or  n  " 
liugf  ring  disease — when  the  rou^li  outlines  and  indi 
'■ '  ■'-- '"    -~''  ''■e  projections  of  the  boaes. 


e  boily  are  divided 


'^o  Znlmal  Frame,  tut  alee) 
eelis«4«id  soDSalion,  and 


isa  into  aieep^  but 
iiately  aAerwards  w«  a: 


otthepow 


■a  of  volition,  wl 


...jlence.     Deprive  a  , ,. 

inks  under  the  privation  more  mpidly  Ai 
unine.  Indeed,  no  circumitanos,  huwv>« 
'ill  prevent  the  approacbca  of  sleep  fur  wf 
ime;  and  undo' the  severcatoaluniiia^sndi 
II  the  hour  of  battle,  or  wtien  sDflerisgbvn 
fatigue,  or  cold,  or  hunger,  sleep  (teals  ppM< 
tlie  tenses  in  oblivion,  ileajthy  sl(«p  ii  so|« 
to  resemble,  b  all  that  raipuds  Mlf-«oiiacioaai 
itwlf.  Sometimes,  howiver,  tiM  Blind  ndl 
vily,  though  It  is  but  a  partial  rxenion ;  s 
dreams,  or  thoDghts  of  sleep,  atv  made  op  ef 
gnious  asBOciatiuiis,  such  aa  thoughts  at  Uib 
tnd  incidenta  of  long  bygone  years ;  scena 
Mpcrience,  and  others  totally  iniagiuaij, 
mixed  up  and  jnmhied  together.  Iu  *l((f  ' 
continues  to  heal  willi  regularity,  andthaa 
oFthe  Uood  is  csuried  an  tlirou^mt  the  )iaiji 
lierform  their  functiouH,  the  ahiutoch  i'\^tn 
howela,  and  all  the  gUods  for  aeereliui,  asq 
"leealiiiiia ;  in  short,  evarv  thing  im  oaniciliKi 
ilh  tho  suslenonoQ  of  the  body  and  die  M 
;  but  for  the  nio't  part  all  oA< 


luch  I 


however,  aa  walking  during  s 
is  a  peculiarity  to  ■hicb  sonu 
Dreams  ar '" 


This  is  II.H 


inued,  and  Ihna  they  oecn  i 
ir  through  tlie  nighl,  if  A 


is  loadedaadopp 
and  deeply  impressed  with  cares  and  rolisiM 
statu  of  li^lh  and  serenity  of  apirils,  the  ibi4 
aud  most  refreidiing  sleep  is  during  the  fiol 
the  night.  When  asleep,  the  circralatioaa^ 
are  both  somewhat  slower  than  when  anks, 
animal  beat  becaniee  dimi  nisi  led  ;  and  thiaial 
why  more  clolliiiig  is  required  in  bed  IhaaJ 
day.  This  is  the  reason,  too,  why  a  peraw  I 
to  sleep  out  of  doors,  or  on  a  sofa,  with  the  •■ 
ance  of  cliithos,  feels  chill  and  uncomfottalli 
ing.  Digestion,  loo,  would  appear  to  go  n 
rously  during  sleep ;  and  hence  the  improprw 
to  bed  with  a  full  ■loniach.  Daring  (be 
darknesB  is  the  most  natDnl  and  obviooa  Iki 

fashion  that  luivc  well  nigh  turned  day  (nt>  ■ 

going  cai'ly  to  bed,  tlie  damps  and  colds  </ 

avoided,  which  in  of  cscential  c 

for  the  delicate.     There  is  a: 

the  (uuetioua  of  the  body  w 

night,  which  makes  sleep  tal 

night   peculiarly  refreshing. 

Irriioti it  the  head  and  other  jiaru  of  Ih* 

liirfeet  ntit  of  the  mind  and  citcnial  aaiM*. 
iiriat  iiiltuenee  in  proinntine  idevp.  Ataia,* 
nauH>B  which  weaken  and  debilitau  tbe  bud^ 


such  OS  opium  and  tobacco,  drinking  bifl^i 
spirituous  liquors,  by  htvl  canaiDC  pwl.M 
and  afterwards  a  curreeponding  daiflM]!  (f  4 
abo  predispose  to  profound  Mid  Mta|Mrf| 


nlheMi 


rtliiw  rhMiuU  lu  wnitixu  lU  M  tl»  ililUfWiI 


i^cr, 


•pIMJTp.liireCtivR,  BDiiimallerii 

MnEulim  ttqnpentmaiit  is  t'l' 


"''bffii.o."u-u.i.<-....i......   .>   .-,.■ 

jack  hur,  vtUunuii  uc  bii<nu  ' '.' 

Kfullliulflnninui«l(*,>adliu[  1 
UN  ciiilDWed  with  tiiia  run''i<: 
tiinrkMl  aiiJ  diuidvil  exiinwi'm 
iiry  muiifot  gnM  gVDtml  kOIrvii^  ^>ti<I  luur- 

cxtiinul  ^iis  i>f  Qm  iirrvnaii  tempmuDHil 
Ilia  li&>r,  uflvu  inclininx  (o  curl,  dvUcaU  licftlllt, 
nuieiBdoii,  aiiJ  mnallnuM  ut  the  niuitdei,  n|il* 
la  miiuDlu  aclinim,  iliAclty  lu  iJiv  acutatlatau 
■Diu  ajtUDi  uf  Indlvliluoli  no  nobstitiricil  pn- 
c*  cuiroiicljr,  uid  they  exhibit  grot  n^rtaiu 

ir<»lfn|iluitialc 

mMo^GKioa,  •aHoI 

Kricq,  th«  puUe  wMk  *nil  low ; 

Iruitumn  of  pant  IfmuliMie  tciapiuwnviiC 
I  ttto  tk»n  ef  Bllhsr  uf  the  othem.  nnJ  ptr- 
navcrin  b*  found,  exofiit  •mnngHt  r-xTinl't  mirl 
[nvjtiiila,  nhon  juhI  inlifillo  tgr,  nlm.  frijiu  lli" 
uM«ia«,  hav*  l»t  all  trace  nf  n»iun  I'tliir 
DODt  which  they  may  ]i>'*  fwtp^r-xl  in  •'i^iiii. 
ital  aluimitKrwtIm  uf  the  lymi  '< 
n  n*o:i  tnld  ;  au  iniiiiriuniEnU]i!i 

ID  the  ha|icEul  Iraila.  It  ti,  tlt^'T ' 
'oatralnlniE  faimlttaa,  Caatlaiiano ' 
iifeatAtliKu)  SBc/*OTon~,ar<-iln-"iilv  .irjjii.^ 
opemllon  of  which  Itvill  oi>rT«i|>And ;  white 
her  proMnaltieSi  and  iha  intd)«clu>l  fuuliias, 
a*r*>)ad  and  reaU'niued  hr  iL 

bocd  gMwnlly  Mippaaoa  that  the  Hnifitine 
iiwt  in  prodnnMl  by  Mm  {■■tfiKllun  <ic  ««ln»- 

Mij^taWwi,  tli>»>. «  «  tafliccflx.^  ■»  ^  !**■* 


u<i4ii>kuti<'ii  iif  V A,it;i ii.tt  \,ii t.  iiiii~i.iiii(. t. n,  lVlll»I••^lrlt-•  %,tj  Ill- 
white  haros  and  uthcr  aiiiiiiaU  ot'  n-.irtlicrii  ri'ifimi't ; 
but,  if  tiiis  is  tliu  caM>,  it  is  liitHiruIt  to  iiiia;;Ine  how  it 
is  that  La])!andi>rs  bhduM  continue  tawny,  while  tlie 
I'ins,  sitnateil  f;irtlier  H<iuth,  are  fuir.  The  most  strik- 
iii«;  moral  fi>ature  of  the  sani;uine  temperament  ajipears 
to  be  a  tendency  to  enjoyment  of  the  present  time,  witli 
little  inch'iiatiou  to  re<j;ret  tlie  past  or  to  dread  the 
futui-L* ;  an<l,  in  general,  to  look  at  either  past  or  future 
no  m(»re  than  is  acce^S4>ry  to  iiappiness.  Tiic  liiiious 
temperament  iH  charaeterised  by  a  d«'cided  cast  of  fea- 
tures, cumpiexiou  inclining  to  brown,  dark  eyes,  and 
black  or  dark  brown  hair,  with  tlic  muscles  tirm  anil 
well  marked,  and  the  Hj:ure,  in  giMieral,  expressive 
of  vig(»ur,  with  every  inorinn  sii^nitieant  and  decided. 
In  combinatiiin,  it  is  frciiin'ntiy  traced  in  a  slight 
vellownc>s  of  the  i-kin,  whicli  can  oiilv  be  detected  bv 
comparison,  or  an  extraordinary  acute  pL-rception  of 
culourd  ;  for  example,  yi)U  may  frequently  tind  two  pi'r- 
sons,  particularly  ladies,  tiie  one  with  dark  hair  and 
eves,  the  otiier  with  flaxen  hair  and  blue  eves.  The  com- 
])lexions  of  both  would  be  denominated  fair ;  on  observ- 
ing them  near  each  other,  however,  it  will  be  si'en  that 
the  fairness  of  tlie  dark-haired  one  diflers  considerably 
fl'om  the  dear  unowy  whiteness  of  the  sanguine. 

With  respi'Ct  to  the  nervous  temperament,  it  mani- 
festH  it.si'if  in  a  reniarkabli*  •ptiekne?'^  to  learn  and  rea- 
diness of  compreheUMon,  but  little  tendency  to  sensual 
f;ratitiuation,  and  un  extraonlinary  power  of  pa'ssin^ 
11*001  one  subject  to  another.*' 

M  W  AP.VlTt.Ii  TO  1.1  vr,  IX  ALL  CLIMATES. 

Man  has  this  superinrity  ovrr  all  other  animals,  that 
he  can  inhabit  every  dillerent  n*i;ion  of  the  jjlobe,  how- 
ever extreme  the  dej;ree  of  temperature.  He  is  fiumd 
under  the  seorchin;;  sun  and  amid  tlie  arid  plains  of 
Africa,  as  well  as  in  the  fro^t-bound  regions  of  Spitz- 
bt'r;;en ;  and  he  is  found  to  live  and  thrive  under  these 
different  extremes,  not  itiily  after  a  gnulual  naturalisa- 
tion of  a^es,  but  can  even  move  fn^m  one  country  to 
another,  and  under:;o  a  viei^Nitude  of  climate  with  c«)m- 
juirative  impunity.  Thus  we  stv,  even  from  our  own 
emititrv.  i'i'ii-»r;iiit"*  •niii"»  furth.  :niil  ii:.'nr:i!isiti"  tluMii- 


iii<      «  \.  1  V     i/i  nt   IL'I     Vii4»i«iilii 


^tiVIIl    lO   AltC    UilU 


extreme  depression  of  temperature.  The 
of  hot  countries,  a|;ain,  will  be  found  livii 
fruits,  and  other  ve;;etable  substances,  nhii.'; 
and  genial  soil  produces  in  abuudauce,  and  « 
their  nature,  are  less  heating  and  btiiuulati 
animal  diet.  I  n  the  intermediate  and  temper 
a  mixed  diet  of  animal  and  vegetable  foohl  u 
Much  discussion  has  arisen  whether  man 
fle.sh-feeding  or  herb-eating  animal ;  cxperie 
strates  that  he  is  equally  adapted  tu  become 
he  will  live  on  an  almost  purely  animal  diet 
on  one  i»urely  vegetiible;  althoui;h,  were  »< 
compare  the  form  of  his  jaws  and  icwth,  and 
structure  (if  his  intestines,  with  those  animi 
on  nuts  and  other  fruits,  and  fariuaceuiv 
substances,  as,  for  instance,  the  monkeys,  iJ 
I)roach  of  these  to  the  human  structure  woi 
to  us  that  at  all  events  a  furinaceoua  dirt  : 
suitable  to  his  natural  organisation.  We 
among  all  civilised  nations  that  bread,  ar.d 
and  mealy  roots,  in  some  shape  or  otlier,  I 
a  preponderance  in  every  meal.  But  the  art 
which  man  resorts  to  even  in  the  lir«t  d 
civilisation,  enables  him  to  change  the  na 
various  food,  and  to  render  it  more  suitaL 
digestion  and  the  pur{H»sos  of  nourishmenl 
gives  him  a  wonderful  superiority  over  all 
the  aiiiiiuited  world.  Indit'd,  it  is  by  thii 
mode  of  preparing  his  foo*!,  perhaps,  aa  t 
oriL'inal  strength  and  perfection  of  frame,  j- 
other  comforts  of  civilisation,  that  he  is  enal! 
the  vicis*<itudes  of  climate,  and  t<»  prolong  ! 
linger  i)eriod  than  the  grt^at  majority  of  \U\ 
Man  has  been  formed  with  a  nakird  »k'.i 
evident  intention  that  he  should  clothe  liin 
own  labour  and  ingenuity.  Almost  all  the 
more  ])erfect  animals  have  a  covering  of  hair, 
or  of  down,  which  is  at  htatcd  periods  rene' 
some  animals  in  greater  lengtii  and  abunda 
ticular  seas<ms,  to  suit  the  vuriationii  of  tc 
Ihit  man  can  always  adajit  his  clothing  to 

III'  iul!:»l»itvi.  or  tn  tli»»  virvin*  'i!f*ti»it  i.  .n..  .  '? 


Hmt^^t^  Uu>u  El 
v  tnJJ  stuwti  M  HUff  m   , 
jtcMT ;  in  mare  lempnMo  irfioiuv  liliMJ 

bora  to  tint  of  tuiiulu,  1*  ■>  31  tu  ?d]  . 
K  »D3>JJ  iu[isrilnintUaDc  uf  in«lai ;  but,  hum 
c&mni,  il  u  kapixn*  ttmt  Ihom  u  gniRnll; 
I  (DpinbundJUiM  d  fvmalM  ■otunUj  vtuiiiie 
I;.  Anu>D((  tlnH  osk*  diB;  be  mntiuini^ 
ktcr  lurdiliiiii  ftod  labvon  lq  nlilcli  nim  h« 
,  the  nfleeu  af  wm-,  muI,  ua  th*  wM«,  ih>  Inngw 
ijfi)  bf  Ainiilw.  Tlii»  n^nlur  jmiawtlnu  if 
a  fettml*  lurdia  Uirougbncit  manUnd  In  •!!  >(••■ 
il  jurto  of  tha  wurf^  •huw*  ili*  adounH*  di^ 

ptvoliian  of  tw  unocriiiB  DaLura. 


im  u,  witlii. 

Iij  Bliteh  a 


I  of  pporatluoi,    . 

noat  m  iJFirltn]  to  Bui*  up  fw  iliR  dni)}  ■  vs 
ttj.  Mill  that  »vflr5  jiirt  b  wiuiAntiT  u»i(i^ 
iiUiFvnxl.  To  rigw  »  nuin  in  tti»  riill  titant 
Ihm,  wo  miolit  uitiww  that,  xrN'vi.r'L-  jri'i- 
ic  wu  aai<nil>(«<l  to  pn  ou,  m 
*(  fur  ui  iDiUfiull*  pn'iiM].     I  i 

vbioh  it  Uiit  1A  kiH>[>  in  b>vir' 

but  (i>  bat  fnl  ■  sorlaiD  Unm. 

I,  ai»l  lliniltal  llaina  liurii*  lu 

Hi  It  Kiibi  la  tbe  undul,  ami  i 
lUnioecuicnl  of  diroav  u  pci<'' , 
Mit-  Th*  diild  at  &rrt  gcnwn  .)iiulii,v.  i>.,.ii 
and  jlaldlng  *tUa  »(  ail  Iti  rtiuis  ;  liul  ^a- 
tt»a  be^  to  Uu«biFn  uid  gtt  h&Mcr— ■  Knalee 
>fln  til  Ejtrtlij  Diitl«r  ia  xJiIIds  tn  tb*  lumu. 
traniliM  ^i<T  large,  irliilii  tiin  IibM  [iMdf 
t  bivaun  in  on  r-iaal  iegn*  ;  bvsm  llin  «i^ 
bceoniBa  In**  uui  loB  ijuiofci  till  tlia  pa^ad 
^wth.  WImh  tlin  gmwth  of  tba  bojjr  nil 
DO  fiu'tlin',  a  Hsgna  of  htnBM  nia  an6a- 

ocoure.  Thia  (iroMsil*  frmn  ttla  aniulrBluM- 
uwhnuuit  ;>Tnddoiid  from  tlia  load,  whiati.  from 
-otua  or  nn*  of  tho  ciraulaliun  btinj;  mat^ 
by  th*  Enwl«T  •xiHmJoii  &nd  naiabuKit  of 
t,  aooumuliitaa  in  tlio  cvllular  tsMiiriH  and  liy 
■  of  iha  lutrwa*  vuuvln.  In  avor;  part  A 
J,  Iha  indonlJau  uraduced  hj  »]i|iniBdilnK 
nmia  MOKpiciiuiu — In  tti*  biiiiui  nuw  wllullir 
in  tht  akin,  in  tha  Mndona,  In  thu  (['uidi,  lu 
tit*,  and  lu  itaa  bfaiu  lUcJiV  which  |[eti  flrniar 
*r.     Horeoier,   Uie   ftrtcriea  etailiuDa   to   |H 

itaminer,  and  oirn  aliui  up  in  ihoir  niinuta 
».  Al  tho  aamo  time,  the  iiorvw  bccooM  mw 
■•  ealtoiu  and  Inuuible  to  iha  iayta^aat  id 
■■.ftnd  ihemuuiei  toiiriwtkni;  tlim^tiiaKn>' 
lorv  of  the  heart,  and  tlin  fioquonnjrnf  ilapol- 

u«  diiniiashed,  and,  of  uunwHjniioor,  otnj 
■ioll  iniwla  tho  bh>od  Inla  tli*  ullimaln  r«Mlk, 
alitf  of  humoun  ia  ifiuiinuhrd  In  tha  dnwr 
liD  iDoialur*   wliirh  labricaln  Ui«  V>M  paita 

tm  pnlr  dinniiabnl  ;  liurj  tlmiuailTro  Iiliirwif 
iiUttHl.  Tbry  Wdrv  niiid  and  hiaad  In  (dril- 
b>;  ar*  aow  ht4<I,  aUi,  and  (nUd,  aikd  liadad 


in  uiiiereni  consuiutions,  iiie  marus  oi  uia  age  cegin  to 
make  their  appearance.  Tlic  Hkiii  becomes  more  lean 
and  shrivelled  ;  the  hair  changes  to  a  grey  colour,  or 
baldness  oecurs  ;  the  teeth  drop  out,  and,  in  couse- 
(|uenee  of  this,  the  lower  parts  of  the  face,  about  the 
mouth  and  jaws,  incline  inwards  ;  the  muscular  motions 
of  the  body  become  less  free  and  elastic — this  is  espe- 
cially seen  in  walking,  old  people  generally  treading  on 
the  whole  biise  of  the  feet,  and  hence  having  a  shuttling 
gait ;  the  blood  circulates  slowly  ;  the  animal  heat  is 
diminished  ;  the  pulse  occasionally  intennits,  and  the 
whole  energies  of  the  animal  frame  become  lessened  ; 
the  eyesight  begins  to  fail,  and  dullness  giitdually  comes 
oyer  all  the  senses  ;  the  memory  undergoes  a  remark- 
able change — while  recent  events  pass  through  the 
mind  and  make  no  impression,  the  occurrences  of  early 
life  eontinually  suggest  themselves,  and  arc  minutely 
called  tn  remembrance. 

Although  usually  seventy  years  is  tlie  extreme  period 
of  human  life,  yet  a  small  proportion  of  those  born  ever 
reach  even  this ;  a  few  rare  instances  occur  >»  here 
one  htmdred  years  or  upwards  are  attained.  The  fa- 
mous Parr  lived  to  the  age  of  1  .'>0  years ;  he  married 
at  the  age  of  120,  and,  when  l.tO,  was  able  to  thrash, 
and  to  do  every  description  of  farmers*  work.  He  was 
at  last  brought  fn)ra  the  pure  air  and  the  homely  diet 
of  the  cimnliy,  into  tlie  family  of  the  Earl  of  Arundel, 
in  London,  where  he  drank  wine  and  lived  luxuriously. 
The  fiudden  clmngt;  of  diet  and  circumstances,  how- 
erer,  proved  quickly  fatal  to  him.  Henry  Jenkins,  an- 
other poor  man,  lived  to  the  asttmishing  age  of  Hid 
years,  ami  retained  his  faculties  entii*e.  Some  time  ago, 
a  statement  appeurrd  of  the  ages  of  the  resident  pen- 
sioners of  Greenwich  Hospital,  which  contained  at  the 
time  2410  inmates.  Of  this  number,  9{y  had  attained 
to  or  passed  the  age  of  HO  ;  one  only  was  above  100  ; 
15  were  UO  or  more  ;  and  80  were  00  or  upwards. 
About  42  of  the  f)(j  wei*e  of  aged  families,  and  in  some 
of  this  number  both  part;nts  had  boon  aged.  Longevity 
lias  in  a  great  numlwr  of  cases  been  found  to  be  here- 
ditary. Kighty  of  the  06  had  1>een  married  ;  70  were 
in  the  habit  of  using  tobacco  in  some  form  or  other, 
anil  -l"  hn«l  ilriink  frcfly ;  *Jn  wim-i*  entirely  without 
ti'i-tli  ;  .*)•-*  I.:t'l  l':n!,  ;m.l  I'l  ;:..'.l  li-i.tl'.  Ihit  tlio  uMi-^t  j 
mail  III  till'  liiii.'f,  ul'.ii  \\a«^  Inj.  iiM-l  fmir  in'w  front 
ti'.tli  uitlim  tli»'  l!v-'  ]i''i<'- i!i:i'^  \i\'ir.-.  'Vhv  >;iLiht  \va«»  ' 
iiM|i;iiri--i  in  alm'.t  •  iii-  hilt",  ainl  li»;;vi:i:;  only  in  about 
a  liuli  part  of  'h.-  iniiiil'.r.  <>!  I  j  •  .mN»  arj-  not  i;»mi«'- 
i"ail_\  ini*ii:i«'l  fi>r  iio'.rli  rxcrci-i-.  ni  r  is  it  "^uit'.'!!  tu  tln-ir 
Htill"  i'>int>'  anil  iT!|'aip-'!  >  ii:i»'.ir  ;  J- r  tin*  -aiiic  n  as<in 
tlh'V  ciniint  i-r'.'JiM'f  ni'n'li  oii.-i.  ('hi-ci-ful  cuinj^any, 
i«.|ii;"iiiiv  i'i»'  I' ■■i:!]':iiiy  K'i'  ll:«-  vdiiiiL:.  \.<  ]ii'i*nliar:y 
«:iMT' !'i;  til  I'll]  j'liolf.  Innin'i-iit  ar.in-iini'n!-i  aiiil 
r-'iT*  .ifi'  n^:  an'  a!-"  o{  i:i'""at  **i''i-«'i|n»  nco,  anil  tlio  niiml 
*;)i"nl.l  !ji-  «'\itci*.'  il  in  *•■■:. !■•  iisilnl  m-  aniiMJn^  jmr-nit.  . 
<";ti«-,  '  r  at  all  »■%•  nt.-^  r  .i.^'ant  aii<l  ai;r«  raldr  so»":"ty. 
art-  tav..nral'l'  ;■•  i\->'  rnr-'iltion  of  cM  ai^'".  In  li'in-iy  , 
•  ilioi  iI   i*i.iintr\  1  i.K"' • .  til-   iiilinl  ••ink'   on  luatnrrlv 

>  1  •       I 

ii.tii  a  l<*al  i;l<'i.!:j  :  i  >|  1  lani«,  f<ir  want  of  MifliiMtiit  sti-  j 
niulii'«  .-iii'l  \:ni«*\  t<i  l%i  •  ji  ii]i  tlir  vi<;iiur  of  thou^ht  ami  j 
I'j.iy  of  j'ir,i  .   ]"■.  A  ik.iti. .  i>i"»'iir  fi..in  \*lial  io  conmioniy  | 


o 


1  ne  aamirariie  siruciure  oi  me  douv  oi  u 
being — its  superiority  in  every  respect  to  tl 
lower  animals — afford  a  most  perfect  proof 
in  the  all-wise  Creator,  and  is  one  of  the  mni 
instances  of  the  impossibility  of  our  formation 
result  of  blind  chance.  Palcy,  after  going  ovi 
number  of  examples  of  this  kind  of  design  ia  j 
proceeds  to  state  that,  in  all  **  instances  whexeii 
feels  itself  in  danger  of  being  confounded  by 
is  sure  to  rest  upon  a  few  strong  points,  oi 
upon  a  single  instance.  Amongst  a  multitodt 
it  is  one  that  does  the  business.  If  we  obsar 
argument  (he  continues)  that  hardly  two  mind 
the  same  instance,  tho  diversity  of  cboies  i 
strength  of  the  argument,  because  it  shows  tb 
and  competition  of  the  examples.  >.  There  iii 
in  which  the  tendency  to  dwell  upon  select 
topics  is  so  usual,  because  there  is  no  snbjeci 
in  its  full  extent,  the  latitude  is  so  greaS»  i 
natural  history  applied  to  the  proof  of  an  n 
Creator.  Perhaps  the  most  remarkable  iii 
mechanism  in  tho  human  frame  arfr-^ths  ft 
which  the  head  turns,  the  ligament  witliin  ri 
of  tho  hip-joint,  the  pulley  or  trochlear  ■ 
the  eye,  the  epiglottis,  the  bandages  wlaA 
the  tendons  of  the  wrist  and  instep,  the  dl 
forated  muscles  at  the  hands  and  feet,  tka 
of  the  intestines  to  the  mesentery,  the  eon 
chyle  into  the  blood,  and  tho  constitutioa  d ' 
as  extended  throughout  the  whole  of  the  sh 
tion.  To  these  instances,  the  reader's  nM 
go  back,  as  they  are  severally  set  forth  in  tfad 
there  is  not  one  of  the  number  which  1  dsi 
decisive  ;  not  one  which  is  not  strictly  nicchM 
have  I  read  or  heard  of  any  solution  of  tea 
ances,  which  in  the  smallest  degree  shalus  A 
sion  that  we  build  upon  them. 

The  works  of  nature  require  only  to  be  i 
When  contemplated,  thoy  must  ever 
greatness  ;  for,  of  the  vast  scale  of  nperstaoi 
which  our  discoveries  carry  us,  at  one  end  ^ 
intelligent  Power  arranging  planetary  iTSli 
at  the  other,  conofrtint;  and  pn-tvidioi;  an  ^ 
nu'cliani''ni  for  tin'  claspin:'  .'inii  r»'i'i.i'*j':ri:  i 
niont^of  tli»'  fratJM'r  nf  tho  hinnnnr^)  \ri. 
pnM^f,  iidt  only  <.f  li.itli  thov,.  \% ,  :;.^  j.|.  .^-^-^ 
an  inti'lliu'i'nt  .iiji.'nt,  but  «»t  tlii  ir  }ir- -.••.■  u.i »; 
s.niM'  aijcnt  :  tor,  m  tin*  tir>:  ji.u*  •,  «■*  caii 
iMontitv  of  1)1. m.  a  oniinrvi'm  «if  ;-\«'f«-ui.  fi*ri: 
our  ••wn  1,'Ii'Im'  ;  ami,  wlu-ii  arrixt-l  ui  ••!■  fur 
can.  in  tii«*  >«M*i»mi  plnci',  pvir»"Uo  t;.«  i'<m.:i«\.-  ; 
all  till'  or'^ar.i^<*il,  fv,|K»oiaLy  th»'  aiiiin.tt'-  :.  l-"J 
it  •<iiiij»iirif.  W'l'  can  olworvr  in.irk'*  'i?  .i  c  « 
tinn,  as  >>»  Il  t<»  oiu'  another  as  tt»  tli-.-  i-liinrjiL* 
tl:oir  liabitatii>ii  is  citnijx»se«l.  Then  t  -rt-  ■  n»- : 
jilanin'  1,  or  at  l«*ast  hiitli  pivHcribi-^i,  a  stnrri 
all  tlu'sc  productions.  (>iit>  Mctn'.*  has  Li*r'U  i 
in  all." 

Trinttxl  .inl  I'nlili-hi-.l  I>y  W.  -iml  11.  Chambcil-.  i 
'*<ild;ilyi  h\  \V.  .^.  Oiin  JE  Cu.,  l.L4i(li-n 


^  ftiuttitiit  w  I'lUMiieit-H-H 
[.  con  on,  An 


i'Hici:  ll<|. 


jaY^BOTANY. 


•nl  111  gnm  up  kUiiiiiI  ouUurr  In  a  [u>r  aul,  Itaj 
jirntlDs*  (■Unu  auwllj'  rnMml'Uiijf  tlielr  hWnt>ii 

M  Itml  hf  incCUlile  cliiilmiep,  fmm  <l>o  IktwiI  nf 
uliuuioa  till  ibe  Ona)  dnmy  »(  ill*  pLtni,  in  ni- 
j>l]>  nriuiM :  annu  pbnbi  aT*Knniul>,  nr  gtrnn  buf 
iiie  j'lHir  ur  (MUinTi ;  whi[fti>tharit*ru)Hri'miUI,Ht«l 
Inu*  liinir  iJTOwdl  from  jc&r  to  •ftmi;  Irvei  aiv 
DC  the  luugMt  llvnl  |»Ud(>i  xuino  IwiliH  knuKn  M 
1  for  upwrni^  of  tn  thouMud  yeoii-  Tar  nrnit 
lis  iww»M  of  plaiKB  an  likawiw  "rj  otM] 
il  ujijr  t<u  alMvil  m  g«nvRV|  ton»>,  tlial  ia  Midi  on* 
rf   Um  pnitiil"!  rnin'tW    »ir.<ii   lit   {>-':).i:luUw*, 


M  a*  t>M  yulaXo,  v  > 
I  patduii  (ram  llt^ 


7S. 


^f« 


riMidlhunnw^atdrJknMW' 


lidi,  ID  » iwrli- 


CHAMBERS'S  INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOl 


U  thftt  excessive  brat  nnd  eiceBsire  cold,  and  also 
tli»  extremes  of  Jrougbt  aud  of  humiilil^.  are  alu»j' 
nnfuToamble  to  TegaUilion  generall*,  iliougli  nol  to  nl 
kiiub  of  vegetibloa.  Thus  eome  mossea  uid  other  pUnW, 
whoBB  part*  arefew  and  little  developed,  eontinue  to EToi 
in  verj  cold  weather,  and  even  under  the  snew;  oluet- 
nllie^  generolly  contain  mnch  juice  in  their  mbBlanee, 
baV*iii<:li  are  covered  with  an  epidermis  so  eonipai ' 
tintt  it  resists  the  action  of  heat,  and  prevents  any  en 
poration  of  the  juice  of  the  nlanl,  live  in  tituslione  whet 
the  heal  is  extreme,  and  during  that  part  of  the  yea 
when  execHive  draught  renders  the  common  vegetf 
lioD  as  ioactiro  aa  it  is  iu  polar  coontries  during  th 
depth  of  winter. 

The  ODuditiuu  of  the  atmosphere  as  reopeeta  tempi 
rBtar«,  luniatore,  and  other  ijualitiea  aHVctmg  vrgetable 
life,  ta  eompKhended  in  the  term  cHmale.  No  t~ 
places  at  a  distance  from  each  other  can  becaid  to  hi 
the  same  cliisate,  because  each  is  lubjeet  to  patticulnr 
iDfiaeouei)  not  aifecting  the  other  to  the  same  degree. 
That  dialrice  vill  posscH  the  nioet  genial  climate,  and 
bo  beet  adapted  tor  llie  perTectJun  of  vpgelabla  life, 
which  at  once  liee  most  fair  towards  the  -  sun,  and 
I*  ■ipesrd  le  the  actioD  of  rerresliing  rains,  or  ia  mois- 
tened tn  aome  other  way.  A  free  exposure  to  the  sno 
UirnDghout  the  year  is  equal  to  sevec^  degrees  of  lati- 
tudt)  Dsarer  the  equator,  other  circutnstancea  being 
favoni»ble.  The  mure  free  the  eiposure,  (lie  ~ 
rmitily  will  mnsl  plants  bloFisonT,  and  jicld  a 
fruit ;  so  well  is  thla  understood  in  the  grape  eoui 
Oil  the  Ilhine,  that  llie  right  banli  of  that  river,  i 
tkocM  the  sun,  is  reekonixl  to  be  much  more  valuable 
than  th*  left,  and  commands  a  higher  price  for 


la  othtir  only  fiir  a  short  period  during 

the  Inijiiea]  regions  there  is  nlvmyB  nbout  twelve  1 
of  Bunsliioo,  imi  nrarlv  llu!  ■■p.i.u.  lerifilh  of  dark: 
and  when  llie  nirin  <^ltnr,  the  aetioii  <.>£  the  siinis  » 
rally  sufficient  to  oeeasioii  n  suspension  of  the  powe 
many  vegetables,  or  what  is  sometimes  called  a  sleep  qf 
plantt,  during  the  lient  of  the  day.  Hut,  unless  foi 
local  eircumstaocia.  the  chief  of  which  are  alleronU 
■accessions  of  drought  and  rain,  there  is  nolhiog  in  the 
mere  sofer  action  whieh  canatfectvegEtatiun  there  very 
much  more  at  one  time  of  the  year  than  at  another 
and  therefore,  considered  with  reference  lo  the  sui 
alone,  the  vegetation  there  la  not  only  generally  ever- 
green, but  ever-growing,  ever-tlowering,  and  ever-rips 

In  the  extreme  northern  and  Eouthcm  Intiludea,  n 
portion  of  one  half  of  the  year  ia  eonlinusl  day,  and  a 
corresponding  portion  of  the  other  half  continual  night : 
and  when  the  continual  day  approaches,  if  part  of  tlie 
beat  of  the  sun  were  not  occupied  in  melting  anow  anil 

atmosphere  and  mitigatoa  the  ardour  of  the  enlur  lie.it, 


atmospher 
the  Bi  -' 


I  of  ll 
these  limes  be  excessive, 
the  short  period  that  it  aei 
parts  of  the  polar  countrit 
the  cold  produced  by  melii 


As  it  is,  veg 


I,  dui 


he  ranse  of 
than  it  ia  ' 
,ipl:,ud. 


vegetables  placi-d   in    iIium:    ciiutiirits— they  must   bi 

'  rcaialing  ctjunlly  the  arduur  of  summer  ant 

of  winter.     For  tliia   purpose,  such  vege- 

.land  eipoBcd  In  the  air  at  both  seasons 

'  "    '     '  '  "        hyhernaculum,  coni- 


the  rlgoi 
fomi  cor 


I    thin    I 


of  a 


of  dry  air  betwee 
iro  proof  Bgaiont  th 
more   lowly  plants  i 


anch  places  are  defended  by  the  mow  wUd 
giTianit ;  and  tbns,  Ihoogh  the  ac'twa  of  tt 
world  is  limited  in  its  annual  periiid,  and 
number  of  species  in  which  it  t«  displaf 
perfect  in  its  system,  and  aa  see(ir«  Id  il*  e 
aa  in  the  tropical  regiooik  Betwvto  Am 
there  is  a  regular  gradalioit ;  and  taSoBg  tk 
observation  along  with  qb,  we  ore  in  pea 
least  the  elemeuta  ii{wn  whieh  a  geognfi 
may  be  formed. 

While  hoat,  varionely  modified,  aerve*  a* 
citing  cause  of  vegetable  life,  ur  and  tnoin 
are  elements  on  whieh  the  vegetables  (evl 
The  eoil  in  which  the  plants  have  ibeir  rao 
atmosphere  in  which  their  brambles  and  but 
ore  the  great  laboratories  of  nature  whenes 
ments  are  drawn.  To  understand  properly 
derive  noui^shinent  from  these  ■ourea,  it  ■ 
to  appeal  to  c/lemiilry,  or  that  branch  of  «■ 
recognises  the  elementary  properties  ol  at 
following  are  a  few  leading  principles,  bitdl] 

"  The  lubslaneea  which  cooatitnte  tbintl 
of  every  vcgetablcf  are  compounds  cl  m 
oxygen  and  hjdnwen  in  the  proper  rebcio*! 
la  form  water.  Woody  fibre,  fursxaBpbta 
of  auoh  compounds  of  carbon  with  tbs  4 
■other  dasa  of  sulmtaiics*  CB  ' 


I  an  element,  oxygen  and  hydruftcnan 
but  (he  |in>nartiim  nf  ciaygen  is  ^ 
be  rei|uired  for  producing  walcr  l^l 
the  hydrogen.  The  nunieruu  organic  sM 
hi  plants  U'lang,  with  few  moeptiua*,  la  (lai 
third  class  of  vegetable  compouod*  conMli  • 
hydrogen,  but  no  oxygen,  or  lew  of  thai  da 
would  be  required  to  convert  all  bydrage*  ■ 
These  may  b*  regarded  aa  aompeimda  <l  • 
tiia  alsDienu  o(  mMr  aiid  BQ  MMSuf  Mm 
ars  the  rt^MlXh  and  Caed  (rib,  mu.  sailMj 
juice  of  all  vegetables  contains  organie  aoA^ 

Illese  metallic  oxides  exi>:[  iu  every  plaBl,al 
detected  in  its  ashes."  * 

Nitrogen  also  forma  a  porlioa  of  moM^ 
an  important  ingredient  in  the  saMH 
gluten,  or  the  itarehy  material  of  htimm 
Ubles.  It  U  chiefly  drawn  in  the  fors*  rf 
■om  the  anil  to  wiiich  animal  manum  tan 
lied.  In  genertU,  carbon  is  the  fundamoMl 
ipal  element  in  plants,  and  this  is  deliteM 
the  atmosphere.  The  carbon  exists  in  Ike  M 
iu  the  form  of  carbonic  acid,  or  in  a  state  rfi 
oxygen  ;  and  therefore,  before  a]^refaMb| 
ilants  must  necessarily  decompose  tb*  HI 
process  is  actually  performed  byAl 
„  om.  Plants  possess  the  power  of  a^ 
carbon  of  the  earbonie  acid  from  the  oiyts^ 
ing  upon  the  eorboD,  return  the  oxyga  Isl 

The  proepBs  of  decompositino  and  ^fMV 
■rfi.rmed  by  the  I  '      ■  — 

0  performance  of  this : 
from  the  sun's  light  is  neceaaarily  iti^aM 
'getables  are  in  n  eonaiderably  daHtMsJria 
ic  (luv,  and  in  darkness  daring  the  ui|hl,Mt 
lu'cuinulalcd  in  all  parts  of  their  stisrt—1 
..  ..^imiUtiim  of  the  carbon  and  the  rihslstkas 
emiiiiii'noi  from  the  instant  that  the  np  rf 

"' 'face  of  the  groood,  il  begins  to  lutf 

he  top  downwards,  and  the  trva  Ml 

woody  tissue  commence*.  I'lanta  tbss  iBfi* 
the  rcmiival  of  carbonic  acid,  and  by  A*  II 
'gen,  which  is  immediatelyappliedtelkiW 


VEGETABLE  PHYSIOLOGY.—BOTANY. 


be  redded  as  a  protracted  and  TariouB  proeess 
chemistry  of  oature,  proceeding  on  fundamental 

In  order  that  the  process  may  not  be  defeated, 
atmospheric  air,  and  also- the  sun's  light,  must  be 
d  in  their  proper  proportions,  independently  of 
vmter.  The  air  best  adapted  for  robust  vegetable 
li  is  that  of  an  ordinary  density,  near  the  sea's 

Grenerally  speaking,  the  more  elevated  the  sta- 
r  the  plant  is,  its  action  is  the  less,  because  the  air 
dense,  therefore  colder,  and  is  understood  to  have 
tr  evaporative  power ;  but  mountainous  countries 
nerally  much  better  supplied  with  humidity  than 
;  and  therefore  the  dwarfed  growth  of  plants  in 
ituations  must  be  considered  as  resulting  much 
from  their  diminished  action  than  from  any  ex- 
f  evaporation.  Hence,  as  we  ascend  the  slopes  of 
tains  which  are  of  sufficient  elevation  for  havine 
summits  covered  with  perpetual  snow,  we  find 
khem  plants  resembling  those  of  a  succession  of 
les,  gradually  getting  colder  than  the  mean  tem- 
ire  of  that  which  answers  to  the  level  of  the  sea, 
same  latitude  as  the  mountain.  So  that,  upon 
ofty  mountains  near  the  equator,  the  Andes  in 
Peru,  for  example,  we  meet  with  something  re- 
tug  the  succession  of  plants  in  the  whole  quadrant, 
iie  equator  to  the  pole.  But  it  is  a  resemblance 
ind  not  an  identity  ;  because,  although  it  be  pos- 

0  find  upon  the  side  of  such  a  mountain  places 
have  the  same  mean  temperature  for  the  year  as 
id  in  every  parallel  of  latitude,  yet  both  the  daily 
le  seasonal  distribution  of  the  sun's  action  are 
lifferent ;   and  it    necessarily  follows  that  the 

and  even  the  characters,  of  the  vegetables  are 
f  so. 

lid  air  supplies  some  vegetables  with  all  the  nou- 
nt  which,  from  their  situations,  they  can  possibly 
;  and  therefore  we  may  conclude  that  it  is 
B  of  affording  some  nourishment  to  every  vege- 

But  the  air  also  acts  as  a  drain  upon  vegetables, 
oving  out  of  their  structure  a  portion,  and  some- 
k  very  large  portion,  of  that  water  which  is  neces- 
ir  tlie  purposes  of  growth  ;  and  in  proportion  as 

is  more  humid,  it  must  perform  this  function 
rfectly.  We  must  therefore  suppose  that  there 
.^rtain  degree  of  moisture,  and  of  evaporative 
jointly,  in  the  air,  which  is  best  adapted  to  the 
r  action  of  plants  ;  but  what  this  is  must  depend 
he  nature  of  the  plant,  and  must  therefore  be 
ined  by  direct  observation.  Indeed,  this  is  one 
circumstances  which  tends  to  the  local  distribu- 
the  di^erent  kinds  of  plants,  as  we  find  them  in 

of  nature ;  but,  like  the  others,  we  cannot  so 
be  it  from  co-operating  causes  as  to  obtain  the 
its  action.  There  is  one  other  circumstance  con- 
with  the  air  which  is  worthy  of  notice,  and  that 
ither  it  be  more  generally  stagnant  or  in  motion. 
srfecUy  evident  that  the  action  of  stagnant  air 
It  plant  must  be  every  way  less  tlian  that  of 

1  air,  whether  we  suppose  the  action  to  be  of  one 
r  another  ;  and  therefore,  up  to  a  certain  point, 

in  the  air  must  be  favourable  to  the  growth  of 
bles.  Of  this  there  have  been  proofs  by  direct 
ation,  in  the  same  part  of  the  world  ;  and  when 
imine  different  parts  of  the  world,  we  find  proofs 
are  much  more  striking  :  thus,  for  instance,  the 
urind  of  the  Atlantic  sets  constantly  against  the 

of  Brazil  and  Guiana,  and  up  the  valley  of  the 
»n,  until  its  motion  is  gradually  destroyed  by  the 
aoass  of  vegetation  over  which  it  passes. 

Oriental  isles,  and  the  southern  part  of  the 
peninsula,  are  in  like  manner  exposed  to  a  con- 
urrent  of  the  air  ;  and  those  two  regions  are,  in 
t  of  the  number,  the  variety,  the  beauty,  and  the 
Y  of  tlieir  vegetable  productions,  the  very  gardens 
two  hemispheres.  Even  when  the  current  of  air 
Itemating  one,  the  return  of  which  is  actually 
arable  to  vegetation,   such  a  situation   is  still 

favourable  upon  the  whole.  Of  this  we  have 
g  examples  in  the  valley  of  the  Mississippi,  the 

663 


Malabar  coast  of  India,  and  even  in  the  British  island^ 
and,  generally  speaking,  along  the  whole  of  the  west 
coast  of  Europe,  where  the  advantage  is  not  connter- 
acted  by  some  local  cause. 

Winds  are  therefore  to  be  eonndered  as  performing 
an  important  part  in  the  economy  of  nature.  From 
northern  and  southern  latitudes,  where  there  is  a  small 
supply  of  sun's  light  during  winter,  with  weak  vegeta- 
tion, and  consequently  a  superabundance  of  carbonio 
acid  in  the  atmosphere,  the  winds  convey  the  delete- 
rious material  to  tropical  regions,  where,  by  means  of 
the  brilliant  sun's  light  ana  strong  vegetation,  it  is 
readily  and  profitably  consumed.  Streams  of  wind  in 
a  contrary  direction,  or  from  the  equator  to  the  poles, 
in  the  same  manner  bring  to  us  the  superabundance  of 
oxygen  produced  from  tropical  plants.  While  heat, 
moisture,  air,  and  light,  variously  modified  in  the  mul- 
tifarious climates  on  Uie  globe,  produce  the  extraor- 
dinary diversity  of  vegetable  growth,  another  set  of 
circumstances  affect  the  life  of  plants,  and  these  relate 
to  the  nature  of  the  soil  in  which  they  are  placed. 
Although  properly  belonging  to  Geology,  we  shall  pre- 
sent a  short  exposition  oi  what  soils  usually  consist. 

The  soil  is  mainly  composed  of  particles  which  hare 
been  disengaged  by  various  means  in  the  course  of  time 
from  the  rocks  on  which  it  rests.  In  some  instances, 
and  more  particularly  on  hills,  it  is  composed  chiefly  of 

Sulverised  materials  from  the  rocks  immediately  at 
and  or  beneath  ;  but  in  many  others,  the  pulverised 
matter  has  been  washed  down  from  high  into  low 
grounds,  or  transported  by  floods  from  great  distances. 
The  action  of  the  air  and  water  on  rocks  in  dissolving  * 
them,  and  the  power  of  the  latter  element  in  transport- 
ing the  disengaged  particles,  are  the  principal  causes  of 
the  present  arrangement  of  the  soil. 

Notwithstanding  the  different  appearances  which  the 
earthy  covering  of  the  globe  exhibits,  it  is  composed 
almost  entirely  of  four  substances,  formed  by  an  original 
union  of  simple  elementary  matters.  These  four  sub- 
stances, washed  at  a  former  period  from  rocks,  and 
more  or  less  compact  from  influencing  circumstances, 
are  called  primitive  earths,  and  are  named  day.  sand, 
limey  and  ntoffnesia.  Clay  is  variously  named  alumine 
or  argillaceous  earth  ;  sand  is  sometimes  termed  silex, 
silica,  or  silicious  earth  ;  and  lime  is  commonly  called 
calcareous  earth.  The  distinctive  characters  of  all  these 
substances  are  well  kno\j^n.  Besides  these  four  earths, 
which  either  in  a  soft  or  hard  state  constitute  the  soil 
and  subsoil,  the  upper  stratum  or  mould  contains  the 
relics  of  decayed  vegetable  and  animal  substances,  also 
certain  metallic  bases,  generally  oxide  of  iron.  The 
particles  of  decayed  vegetable  matter,  sometimes  termed 
httmusy  and  known  as  food  for  new, vegetation,  are  un- 
derstood to  be  in  reality  a  deposit  of  carbon  gained  by 
plants  from  the  atmosphere.  Ammonia,  as  already 
said,  is  also  an  ingredient  in  fertile  soils. 

The  whole  of  these  circumstances,  modified  in  a 
variety  of  ways,  influence  vegetable  growth,  and  require 
to  be  studied  by  the  cultivator  of  plants.  It  has  long 
been  remarked,  that  plants  have  a  tendency  to  exhaust 
the  soil  in  which  they  grow,  and  to  exchange  their  situa- 
tion for  one  more  suitable  to  their  wants.  The  following 
propositions  on  this  subject  have  been  laid  down  by  two 
eminent  French  chemists,  Yvart  and  Pielet: — 1.  That 
every  plant  has  a  natural  tendency  to  exhaust  the  soil ; 

2.  That  all  plants  do  not  exhaust  the  soil  equallv; 

3.  That  all  plants  of  different  kinds  do  not  exhaust  tho 
soil  in  the  same  manner ;  4.  That  all  plants  do  not 
restore  to  the  soil  the  same  quantity  nor  the  same  qua- 
lity of  manure  ;  5.  That  all  plants  differently  affect  the 
growth  of  weeds.  From  these  fundamental  principles 
the  following  conclusions  are  drawn  : — 1.  However  well 
a  soil  may  l^  prepared,  it  cannot  long  nourish  crops  of 
the  same  kind  in  succession,  without  becoming  ex- 
hausted ;  2.  Every  crop  impoverishes  a  soil,  in  propor- 
tion as  more  or  less  nutritious  matter  is  restored  by 
the  plant  cultivated  ;  3.  Perpendicular  rooting  plant^ 
and  such  as  shoot  horizontally,  ought  to  succeed  each 
other ;  4.  Plants  of  the-  same  kind  should  not  return 


CHAMBERS'S  INFORMATION  FOR  THE  FEOW*.. 


too  frciiiwntly  in  n  circle  of  crojipiDg ;  l>.  Two  plants 
Biliuilj  favourable  W  the  erowlh  iJ  wtcds  ouglU  not  to 
noeuil  n«h  other  '.  S.  Siii-!i  plinta  u  greatl)'  oxiiauat 
th«  ■ol1|  u  gniosi  ibDuld  only  be  town  itticn  llie  iitnd 
U  iu  EUDi]  llnnrt ;  7.  In  propoition  u  tt  anil  U  found  to 
•xiuiuHl  iMelr  by  BUDceasive  crops,  pIuitB  tUut  >ro  ]eiM 
•ibauBliag  *liould  bo  cultivated.  It  mny  be  willed, 
Ibkt  ■  luCTOSBlTe  cliAiige  of  crops  has  a  tondeucy  (o 
ilcitTOy  noxious  insecle,  ob  thoee  which  are  pruduced 
by  one  crop  cuinut  be  supported  by  nnDtlier  of  n  dilTe- 
roiit  dcsonption. 

Nature,  wlwn  unatwisted,  iuvariably  niakn  sn  effort 
to  olwnj^u  th«  crops  of  plant*.  When  n  fomt  in  North 
Amei'iok  Is  burnt  down  by  accidental  fires  in  the  sutq- 
inoriwnsoD,lr«i  of  quite  a  dtflerenl  bind  spring  up  froni 
long  coiMewed  eecds  in  place  of  those  wluoh  bare  beeu 
destroyed.  When,  in  oiilinary  einumslBjieee,  one  kind 
of  plant  ]\aa  cxligusted  the  sou  in  its  neighbourhood,  it 
pushe*  its  roots  lo  is  great  a  dialance  as  passible  in 
■luest  of  food,  and  there  spnds  up  shoots,  while  a  new 
race  ot  pUuts  grows  upon  the  (pot  which  it  liasvaeated. 
Thoaeedi>iifcertiiinplniils,sueli  us  the  dsntlelion,  thistle, 
Ac,  ari'  tiiruiallpd  willi  downy  wings,  by  which  they  are 
vciiduvi'il  hiiiivHiit,  mill  CJuriud  away  from  tlio  parent 
pUia  l<y  llin  slifihtenl  wind.  The  sced-vesaela  ot  other 
pluiii-.  hiii^h  a*  tbu  wliin,  when  ripe,  burst  open  with 
counidui'Hble  foree,  and  senttcr  the  seeds  to  some  dis- 
Mnoa  from  the  pluHi  where  the  old  plant  grows.  Id 
tbsve,  uin  athouBitnd  other  circumatniiees,  we  find  that 

olimiigi — Kn  iltcmtioa  from  one  condition  nnd  > 


and  to  study  what  speeiea  of  plants  he  can 
tageoiuljr  producs  in  sneceaiou  from  hia  lie 
_.  ..-_.  .|.  iIjp  TBlatioa  af  tropa,  as  il  ii 
I  a  matter  of  liret  irapartaiice 
^  cooi'so  oF  experience  and  tcientifio  iO(|uiry 
hkTe  proved  that  all  soils  are  opabie  of  bang  improved 
by  art,  and  supplied  with  reslorativea  auitabls  to  the 
'  'of  the  proponed  vegeUliou.     These  artillcial 


The  lowest  forma  in  which  vefCUklM  ■ 
appearance  are  Ihoaeof  the  arjfpliigaaita,' at 
nn:  iaeluded  the  /unjii.  the  muM  (bw^^ 
[liverworU),  Uehinei  (lichens),  a^  (m»M 
/iici-i  (ferns),  &e.  The  Aingi,  whitA  BSf  It 
the  very  bottom  of  the  vegetable  sMl*t  sMll 
in  a  great  variety  of  forma,  sad,  *miln|  sAl 
rooms,  toadstools,  pulT-baila,  the  fb^CW  A) 
mcntalion,  mildew,  snd  mould.  Wc  atj  lab 
meulioned  as  about  the  lowest  u)  (be  ftesf'  I 
most  persons  are  aware,  makea  its  appsMW 
surface  of  various  familiar  objects —il«i«il 
fniit^preservea,  eheeec,  and  old  (huw.  Ilsn* 
on  nny  tiling  which  is  new  or  fmh,  bet  1>  ils^ 
binger  of  decay,  and  may  be  a>uM<l*nd  )  i 
towards  the  deooniposition  of  the  KilHtue*  <■■ 
Btiluent  elenieols.  Uow  legetatiDn^lunUilf 
sccludeda  situation  as  the  inner  eneb  is  ■* 
a  jnr  of  prewrvta  placed  carefully  ftj  >■  *  * 
or  oD  the  leather  of  an  old  boot  in  iha  noMm 
bed-closet,  is  at  tint  sight  ineeaiprelwwiU'l  k 
eidemtiou  ot  the  reprodndive  puwsaelt^ 
explains  the  cireumstance.  Ilic  ■bale<'1t> 
tribe  posseu  the  most  Hitraordiuan  prodsSl" 
I  nslead  of  propagating  by  the  anlman>  ut  I 
oesa  of  elaborating  and  throwing  off  isaA,  IbQ 
by  the  dispersal  uf  their  entire  safaaUaea  t 


which,  though  smaller 
dust,  snd  generally  so  minute 
to  be  invisible  to  the  naked  e; 
is  the  embryo  of  a  new  plant, 
and  will  develop  its  powers  of 
vegetation  as  soon  a*  placed  id 
au   appropriate  situation   foi 
its  groHlh.     In  this  manner, 
a  tond-Btool  having  perfortni 
ixtuuuted   i 
nen^sb^int 


RUOf  a  lielj  :  tllH  HTUMI  wu  ■... 

Bmu  nvTB  to  IuiIcimI  b  l)ui  null 
^lilf,  till!  nrmt  Ti:!l  vr-im  ih-    ' 
•M>»a  tiU  ■  eolnln   .)..........' 

Uirir  vinUtlivB  T"  1' '  " 

wn  tlmlUnmiH'-ii:  liu. 

Bra  will  lia*«  (Ix.  . ' 
mould.    Themitul'i  <  i  <    u 

J,  we  Wi»TO,  bjl  JJlltliriii;,   lUL^    u.-.i.i:.      I  iiosS 

h  la  ni^i*  avrnt  cUi-i-Wi  net  nodilj  ktbla  M 
ilivald  biohI  injiMing  til*  vuni  lo  ttii  mlam- 


lonrS'"w '"■'''■ '"''"'■'''" 


uiltdiiwDl 


H*  inu*  i-f  nutter  i:  1  :  .uri^ 

'OcUt*  VBe>UUTB  gPJ'Vltl.  '(Tji:  IuIiii'jiJ'  ^■'■l■lll■ 
Bd  IfoB  io™rp«nBed  ra  lh»  nialfi-ml.  Iivijin  Id 
expudi  tauli  txiofin  plitil  wlitL^h  eI'"">  ixi'l 
mi   It.  now   pUntii  of  diB  tJuiio    t|..-,>;.,.      ,\ 

■iiilinnaiM»t*ii»  nf  fiiniiciitaiiiiii  ni   iii..  -lui;.' 

'il  at  Intervsla  irilli  i 
.e  cadi  of  thn  lilTl'-  s 

hkw  vwidM  Ukv  ti 

la  *ai«inlia**dci'>  i<  ;.>»■ 

Bro,  orilx.  'Ito  it  '■  '■,.r. 

I  lliv;imilti|>iyi  F<ir  ■   ■  ■  ■  'iv 

J  In  bur"!,  awl  lu  mi't  "  «Nii<ii-t  i>i  i.'Omio 
<,  which  um  tba  gnriiu  >.(  iii-n  ^iluiU,  unil  wtiiiJi 
rcJop  tlwnunhM  kntil  ailditluliit)  cdU.  By  the 
it  Btr  er  «u  vuidca  arc  fouod  In  cub  jpoiip, 
iMiiaticn  iaauinoicfitljr  faradniiBtil  for  lliii  pur- 
'  til*  hrttna }  bdiI  ha  than  Uiut*  mauiina  M 
,  hj  wliiab  III*  vtijtMkliun  of  th«  jiMt  is  mu- 
Tho  gruDM  or  vMicloa  than  Mporthi  luui 
:>!*  raaembUiie  Uiom  wliich  4nI  raiMlllulcd  Uia 
>iid  tbui,  •  Eroitly  Increaud  amooiil  of  Ibia  mb- 
■  Ui«  iwnlt  of  (ha  proco"."  • 
Ik;  Irani  ^Ynn  th««  obwiTvaliiniJi  lliat  Ihn  g;nmi* 
,  nsaiaHtrj  U  {iTuduDa  ilry  rot,  muuld,  ferman* 
knd  ollisr  hiccIm,  arc  duipcncd  ihrDUgltDUt  all 
muicr.  EVtry  thing  wo  mi,  drink,  uaia,  or 
nin  iiicn  lo  our  want*,  raulniiu  tl>«  |[*TnM  nf 
ml  all  tliat  »  rt'iuind  ui  brinjt  Uiiun  into  vitlblB 
>il  am  Mrtud  cnudiUunii  ut  decay,  lical,  and 

gfntnJljr  alloved  thai  tlia  aign:  rmbfMB  it* 
luDta  form*  of  Tirgrtaiiua  [nut  ^  ■  funRiniaaha- 
Oiu-  of  Uinu  foriiig  is  |liat  which  Iiiw  tulnrlr 
Jlvd  rtd  (BUD,  i»  UtHufy  mis.     A  (Lhowitr  of  rait 

iDTlhnrn  |iaru  nf  Eiirii|>p,  nr  within  Ihe  aretia 
anrl  the  tinging  maUiT,  whinh  llM  Imni  uwur 

1..  .1    :.   ......  -■i,|,„  f^  pfcnai»il  £nim  t'— 


CtiAMBERffB  INFORMATION  FOB  THE  reoPLE. 


Ublt  mftUcr  is  %a  aggrcgatiaii  of  in  infinitude  oT  pUnt« 
atlhcc  ■licked  np  by  a  i>»1er-«pniit  bto  the  ■nnospheie, 
0»  omfrUlwn  while  csrried  tiimg  by  the  winds.  Bud 
bKrastit  do*"!  by  do  lulling  dropfc  On  the  atooe*  hy 
tha  lall  ol  tiTDoki,  we  puj  Kimetimes  obeerre  ■  slmiUr 
t«diU*b  colouring  nutter,  which,  if  not  cautcd  hy  me- 
Ulllc  orw,  will  grnenllj  b*  found  Ifl  bo  »  primiliie  kind 
ofTUetatioD.  WhoD  touched,  it  feeli  Blippeiy,  and  on 
•UloUUtlun  bjr  h  intcroscapo,  it  ie  obs^tved  to  coDitM 
of  myrad*  of  plaala,  ewh  conuiting  o(  b  stniU  tenrlo 
or  gliibiiU,  which,  on  aniviug  at  nialuritjr,  exptndn, 
buntn,  «nd  lihcrat™  plnnln  of  its  own  tpeciea.  This 
eieuMivety  humble  plant  u  claised  with  the  algie,  ih 
being  the  n«ar»t  to  it  in  oharaoter,  itithough  tbtte 
pluila  arc  fur  the  miHt  jiart  of  >  large  size,  and  grow 
prtneipally  on  nwbs  in  the  Ma. 

Th«  objpot  which  nature  his  in  Tiew  by  the  gcmi- 
■Mtiim  ftnd  diaperBBl  of  the  algw,  mnsses,  and  lichoni, 
it  almrly  that  of  prepciTiiig  the  way  for  a  higher  order 
of  ngMMIou.  II  eumut  poHibly  escape  our  obKrva' 
tioa,  thai  the  tendency  to  vegetate  is  a  power  rtgtle4« 
•lid  perpclual.  Wo  hew  a  ilone  from  the  quarry  and 
pbuM  it  in  B  damp  ■iloation,  on  the  ground  or  in  a  wall, 
il  ia  all  the  lame  which,  and  ahortly  a  greeo  hue  begins 
to  cmep  o*er  it.  TliiB  iii  the  cnrnmenoegnent  of  a  TOge- 
tabl*  growtb.  nmdueed  by  germ*  floated  in  the  atmo- 
•phere,  and  being  attached  at  nuirtam  to  the  stone,  bive 
been  bniughl  to  Hra  through  the  agency  of  the  moieluw. 
Other  ataniH  equally  eitpoaed,  bat  in  dry  fitualions,  have 
alju  receired  a  olothing  of  these  germs,  but  circnm- 
»(anc««not  being  miiable,  they  have  not  berodoTclopcd: 

fi*■the  molature,  and  they  will  immediately  appear,  We 
n*  another  Btone  from  the  quarry,  and  build  it  into  the 
^•r  of  a  bridge,  joit  within  the  aurtaee  of  the  wnter. 
Sfaortly,  the  same  idud  of  green  algte  will  appear ; 
bat  tlie  wet  being  in  greater  abundance  and  mo 
tinaoBH,  the  growth  will  become  more  luxuriau 
atead  of  the  eimple  green  hue,  we  have  the  addition  of 
long  filamenla  resembling  green  bain,  wliich  float  nnd 
WBomtnodate  themnlres  to  tha  water  aronnd.  This 
lAid  of  pUnIa,  which  are  known  to  natnmltits  as  the 
MnferriD,  promeale,  like  others  of  the  cryptugnmis,  by 
■  rupture  of  their  tissue,  and  the  liiwmtion  of  gurms, 
which  become  plnnln  of  tlio  Bame  species.      Of  tourse 

ranuing  wnters,  nbnmiil  in  gL-rmii  capiiUlc  cf  i.iruilUcii 


feVui 


thill  n-m>in<.UtiuiaLry»rui, 
our  pinni-t  is  i-rery  ii 
Mountains  are  biuiig  " 


as  immense 

they  Ainiish  food  for 

and  altering  the  channels.     On  being  dMai^ 

■ffbrd  an  alkali  to  loap  manufaelufvn.  aaJ  * 

ingly  neeful  in  fiirntaiiiDg  iodide,  a  tabitlMI 

now  used  in  medicine  for  reducing  ^M 

Lich^na  are  a  numcToni  family  oTplolht 
TarlouB  Bppearaneoa.  Their  usul  wpaci  h  t 
cruit  nf  a  grey  or  yelloir  hue,  and  Ibdr  « 
place  ot  iTvwth  ia  on  old  walln,  panatua  • 
yarda,  and  rocfci ;  they  are  alaa  M«n  Q*al 
ininkB  of  old  tresi.    Their  atroetllM  I  W 


planU  of 
-1  }u'lp  to  bray  duwn  t 
ains  wiih  the  gmai 
they  have  ihe  poim  • 
:liiig  chemically  on  U 


Itotatba 


it  bv  frUKi,  and  ia 

ciiaeiiv  with  whi«B  h 
re  >(  d^ulltoscnp* 


;.  .1  1 1  IicIk'iih,  may  by  tliia  aa^iM 
Ll<-!LU-'a  frum  their  growth.    LoV 


VEGETABLE  PHYSIOLOGY^BOTANY. 


greater  dimension 


;  they  also  n 


ipantively  mild  climiLte,  we  btve  littte 
the  tichenous  family  of  pliiils,  which 
ishbeBt  inthoae  eoldregioaa  of  the  globe 
;ver)'  other  living  thing  would  periah.  In 
irtheni  parts  of  the  American  continent, 
d  on  the  rocks  a  kind  of  lichen  called  by 
igeura  Iripe  de  roche,  from  its  reaem- 
>fliltfd,  to  tripe,  and  in  which  cooked  stnte 


xlieiin: 


IB  food   il 


Ciilk'd  reindeer  moss,  is 
.  nhi'rc  it  grows  to  a  foot  in  depth,  and 
source  of  the  rrindeer.  The  celebrated 
»  also  abundant  in  these  regions,  and  amy 
eooking  to  a  Roe  mucilaginous  substwqce. 
IMS,  however,  is  misapplied  to  these  and 
liens  and  liverworts.    Mosses  are  plants 


Alure.  and  soil 
th.  With  moss 
ce  the  rudimen-  Mom?,') 

of  root,  stem,  branches,  and  leaves, 
bright  green  colour,  a  proof  of  the  ac- 
oaves  or  breatbing  apparatus  ;  and  their 
,  with  minute  feathery  blanches,  are 
it  elegnnt  structures  of  Tegetable  growth, 
y  in  a  peculiar  manner.  On  examiniDg 
lass  of  moss,  we  may  at  certain  seaaons 
"    '  inttalks  raised  consideiably 


ral  te 


-elhoi 


a  lid  0 


h  drops  off 
uffera  it  to 


tifying  matter  m 

:  wind,  means  are  alTorded  of  scaiienng 
the  recumbent  moss,  nnd  for  their  being 
s  nt  a  diaUnce.  The  object  seems  to  be, 
active  fresh  vegetation  on  the  aurface  of 

adding  deposits  of  now  soil.  The  whole 
;  plant  is  beautiful,  and  it  will  be  remem- 
«o  much  affected  the  feelings  of  Mi 


iofde» 


in  the  wilder- 
energy  sufficient  to  carry 


>ire  him  1 
liflicultic! 


ujnble  class  of  crj'ptngamous  plants. 


.  and  k 


ed,  n[)on  being  placed  in  the  ground,  in 
B  forth  two  ebootfl,  one  ascending  and 
m,  nnj  the  other  descending  and  forming 
annexed  figure  gives  a  representation 
linn  of  a  dicotyledon  DUB  or  (HO-lobed 
<ecd  lobcfl,  ti  the  leaf-germ,  e  the  root 
fiiircs.  -     * 


part  of  n  plant  which  attaches  itwLf  to 
grows,  or  tu  the  substance  on  which 
the  principal  organ  of  nutrition.     £x- 


'"Mr"** 


tinn  to  the  stam,  and  is  bnried  !u  the  gmund.  A  root 
consists  of  sevniU  parts,  which  have  been  called  the 
body  or  caiide^,  the  collar  or  life-knot,  the  branches  or 
radicles,  when  inch  exist,  and  the  rootlets  o 
fibres,  which  seem  to  ba 
indispensable  in  all  roots. 
The  body  of  the  root  as- 


may 

bo   globa-s 

haped,   a. 

in  the  turnip  ;  conical,  or 

tape 

lly    from 

ollartolhe 

Itenunted 

&bn 

as  in  the  ca 

rot  ;  fufli- 

ortapering  at  both 

as    in   U> 

radish; 

ihiB 

e  abrupt. 

that 

B.  as  if  the 

owerend 

had  been  cut  off 

fled 

n  the  devil' 

bi"™'!.!; 

of  B^aU  thread. 

ke  fibres. 

whic 

directly 

from 

the  collar. 

as  may  be 

seen  in  most  graases  ;  tuberous,  when  the  fibrea  bsAF 
globe-shaped  bodies  filled  with  atireby  matter,  as  in  the 
potato  ;  fasciculated,  when  the  fibres  awell  slightly  in  the 
middle;  bulbous,  when  the  round  lobeeonsjitsof  coats  or 
layers,  such  as  may  be  seen  on  cntting  an  onion  acroaB. 
A  conn  is  similar  m  form  to  a  bulb,  but  is  not  composed 
of  layers  ;  a  palmaled  root  consists  of  a  number  <a  ob- 
long tubers  proceeding  from  the  collar,-like  the  Gogen 
from  the  body  of  the  hand,  as  in  tbe  dahlia.  Tuberom 
roots,  such  as  the  potato,  are  considered  by  some  modem 
bolaniata  aa  merely  underground  stems,  from  the  cir- 
cumstanco  of  their  having  eyes,  or  buda,  from  which 
branches  will  spring.  The  crown,  collar,  or  life-knot, 
as  It  is  variously  called,  ia  that  part  which  lies  between 
the  stem  and  the  root  It  is  the  most  essential  portion 
of  the  whole  ;  for,  if  it  be  removed  or  seriously  injured, 
the  plant  will  inevitably  die  ;  whilst  the  small  Gbrea  or 
rootlets,  although  an  eascntial  part  of  a  plant,  may  b« 
destroyed  at  pleasure  so  long  as  the  crown  remains,  for 
it  readily  reproduces  them.  When  it  is  of  a  slender 
make,  as  the  seeds  form,  it  dries  up,  and  the  ptantsoon 
dies.  Such  plants  are  termed  annuals,  as  the  poppy, 
mignionette,  and  others.  The  crown,  however,  in  some 
cases,  by  proper  treatment,  may  be  rendered  so  streng 
that  annuals  can  be  breught  to  grow  two  years,  when 
they  are  termed  biennials  ;  or  for  three  years,  when 
they  are  called  perennials.  The  fibroua  root  consists  of 
mtity  of  long  thiu  fibres,  of  different  lengths  and 


and  havini 


ttill  finer 


ipringmg  front 
mem,  as  in  ine  case  oi  wiieat,  naney,  and  most  graasM. 
These  small  fibres  or  rootlets  bear  a  nsemblance  to 
the  brandies  and  leaves  of  the  stem.  Fibrils  consist  of 
a  central  fasciculus  of  vessels,  enclosed  by  a  cellular 
cortex  and  cuticle,  ^ike  the  leaves  of  trees  that  are 
not  evergreen,  they  are  annually  produced  ;  in  some 
cases  d^'ing  and  falling  off  like  leaves,  in  others  becom- 
ing thicker,  bariler,  'and  forming  radicles  or  root- 
brancbcB.  The"  spongelela,  as  they  are  called,  whieh 
take  up  nourishment  jfrom  the  soil,  are  situated  at  tbe  . 
extremity  of  these  rootlets.  They  are  minute  spongy 
bodies,  of  an  oblong  shape.  We  have  an  instance  of 
rootlets  falling  off  like  leaves  in  tlioBe  arising  from  bulbs 
—such  as  the  lily,  the  onion,  the  tulip,  &c.,  which  are 
pushed  off  and  perish  Lke  leaves  by  buds  containing 
the  rudimenIB  of  the  rootlets  to  be  evolved  next  season. 
Roots  have  a  remarkable  tendency  to  grow  down- 
wards, or  in  llio  direction  of  the  earth's  centre,  and, 
from  experiments,  it  is  likely  that  thia  tendency  is  an 

very  much  influenced  by  the  condition  of  the  soil.  Both 
ro<it  and  rootlets  extend  as  if  in  quest  of  food,  and  thla. 
will  penetrate  sideuays  or  obliquely  to  great  distaneea. 
When  plants-are  by  any  meana  prevented  from  frocti-  ' 
fying  by  seeds,  .they  almost  invambly  increasa  by  ex- 
tending their  roots,  from  diatant  point*  of  which  new 
planta  will  spring  np. 


CHAMBSHS^  INFOHMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


n  or  ilalk. — When  ■  plant  abowB  iWelC  kbert 
Iba  nDUnil,  it  evidmllj  muiifcela  ■  ilTung  teoilenc^  to 
tha  light.  Li^l,  in  hot,  is  ensenlULl  ui  briagiiig  it  to 
niftturil)',  mhI  in  giving  tlu  gmo  coloui  lo  IIB  leaves. 
The  U*in,  »Uli  ■>  few  escnplioiiB,  i*  ilwaj^  aboYe 
grounil,  hhI  ia  tlie  ixrpnuliGUlAr  pilUr  frum  whicli 
Turioiu  laart  grDKUin.  >tich  ■«  branclifB,  shoot  off 
UlHnillf.  "  The  iteni,"  iay»  RenDie,  "  in  divided  from 
Ihs  rool  by  tbe  pari  c*Ued  the  erown  or  collar.  Ilie 
>pacc  brtwn  liio  collar  niid  the  first  leiJ  or  bad  is 
teimcd  the  bolp  ;  but  the  grul  body  nf  a  Blcni  is  called 
tho  trunk.  The  stem  of  grapea,  cam,  and  reeda,  ia 
l«rnied  the  itraw  ;  the  Eti^in  uf  palm*,  ferns,  mutli- 
roonw,  and  sea-weeds,  is  termed  the  stalk  ;  th«  *leiu  of 
■uch  flowers  aa  the  primrose,  (he  daisy,  tlie  aDoxdrop, 
Mid  the  lily,  i«  termed  tlic  Bcape,  though  flower-staik  is 
eenainly  belter  ;  the  mnniug  etem,  is  in  Uie  ttmir- 
brrry  noi  eiiiquefoil,  in  termed  a  rnniipr ;  a  diorter 
mnuer  that  doe*  not  rool,8B  in  the  hanse-leek,  is  totmed 
■n  oiFwl :  a  longer  one  tliat  doei  not  root,  aa  it)  the 
cucumber,  ft  viuelel ;  and  a  small  Mem  proceeding  latc- 

.   rally  from  a  root  or  itoul,  a  mcker." 

1  he  ttenj,  it  will  be  nbierved,  KUUtnM  many  farmB 

f  Bud  elianelera  aa  to  bnlk,  (iructure,  position,  place, 

I  (luralinn.     It  appears  aa  a  liiber  (flladitlai,  I), 

k  bulb  (the  oiiion,  S],  a  scape  (Dadtcalhron,  II),  a  enlm 

{Arundo,  Oi  cf  ■•  a  woody  coluRin  (the  oak,  5).     It 

-     '  4  in  Blxefimu  that  pf  a  brietto  to  a  tronk  of  many 

:n  diameter. 


■ay  be 


bulU, 


WIlMlltMM 
a*  in  tin  bulk  it  Om  *^ 
lII  bulbs  am  fnrtnvdufi  tba  odg^af  Ibit 
'  twecn  the  acale*,  ohieh  Kradoallja 
:  of  the  scales,  are  detoofai^  W 
klid  send  up  Icsvea  and  Bowev-M 
respect  to  the  niMiner  in  vhicb  lb*  1b*b 
They  may  be  plail«d,u  in  Ibe  paloi  boJ  Iu 
a>  in  ilie  rose  and  oak  ;  embnciaf ,  ••  ia 
the  aage ;  double  cmbraeinfTi  ••  ul  Vftlcnaa 
double  compound,  as  in  carrot,  fnimraa. 
inHardn.  as  in  grassea  :  tiled,  aa  in  privet 
rolicd  uutHarJs,  as  in  rosemary,  priiorw. 
lenglhwayc,  breadlliivajB,  rolled  fruni  thr 
base,  or  wtappod  round  the  (talk. 

The  bnds  nf  trees,  bemg  ia  a  Btatv  of  ffn 
and  feeling  the  first  irartnth  of  lb*  aon,  Ik 
lh«  coDtiuued  shoot  iaratucd  into  aetUnih 
nioiilure  contained  Iu  tlie  neighbouriuc  ea 
witli  nourishinc  mailer ;  tho  rinin-  ap  abi 
vessels ;  it  gradually  swells,  and  biirvttu  Itt 
scales,  pushes  into  the  light  audair.anMd^ 
auecesaively  as  it  advances,  until  lbs  ■hnls  b< 


Lratei, — Leaves  are  the  grand 
.d  friim  their  numbers,  pneition,  and  delisa 
satiun,  they  are  dongned  to  effeM  aa  imp* 
in  the  vegelablo  economy.  SpringiBj;  Iran  fb 
-~'  itpraied  in  profusion  to  the  atmmplni^ 
tlie  funotions  of  a  brtslhing  appantM 
il  of  the  Inn^orgillaof  aniinala.  Alii 
.  at  li^aat,  is  deaigned,  for  the  citeifali 
plants,  like  the  blood  ri  aiiimnlf,  rH|iumlB  t 
■a  the  atmospheric  influence,  in  oi4tr  dW 
miiable  tar  nulrilion.  This  puriMM  b  Ma 
lytlio  agency  of  the  leavo»,tu*luahtf»M 
rom  tlie  roots  through  tli«  Hieni  and  tUMI 
pelled  or  attracted,  and  there  bulh  alra^  t 
'is^lheir  heuefieiA]  ittdiMBceo.  OasMaaMl 
^vc^,  are  emitted  ai  weU  as  inlutad  bf  lbl| 
ihnt  they  nlUiw  the  escape  of  aqiwtM  Id 
'  II.  Lrnves  are  thus  indispcniaU*  taAi 
Jilr",  Olid  cire  should  be  Iskoii  not  Is  i«)i 


'  i.f  a.  V 


ery  reniBTLahls  duf 

ling  characters  can  dtsoJ 
iL.,.ii.],M.iili<'H- is  the  pitcher  planlp 
••III),  viliich  is  seen  in  theanaeifde 
■i  tliis  plant  ore  sheathing  ai  Ibe  ba> 
cif  llio  pn-ptT  l.'af  ii  a  prttolc  or  Malt 
iiiR.  which  is  lorminaled  by  a  blaiikr 
lislinl  «i(h  a  lid.  This  tcmcI  is  al« 
•  r,  H  liich  appcai-s  to  be  distilled  fioB 

rrg.ird  (n  the  manner  in  whieb  ban 


mrt  on  on*  r'aeptuili^  Tim  in-mi  buttva 
>  Hxpfliwl  wliin  tha  dnwujunHlFianLloirurinni 
1  of  tbu  dauilalioii,  U  ui  [iiiUiiieo  of  III*  eiUiUiina 
dr. 

m/^  a  Uin  eKf^nal  lnofy  rtivFliijiv  turroundtnit 
'•T,  and  tn  whiiA  it  rmU  m  in  ■  •iiip.  Siiin*> 
in  fntir*,  bat  nicir*  rr*iiu««tl]'  it  Sh  divlilHd  iAin 
U)  ((fpab],  vltieli  art  more  or  Iviw  *e]iu>i*d 
ch  Dinar.  It  b  Tn«l  enromiiiilj  grcon,  but  lu 
■won  it  is  Inglily  talooriil. 
•anlla  ia  th«  trut  i|i<R*r  <>r  binwntni  aui]  rB»> 
•nwnl  itivLdiiiut  ni-  \iraty  [wrlx,  i-Bllvd  flnA^ 
.r«  klincuit  all  arUtuUlsit  ut  ihs  bun,  unl  eio- 
J*  Ikll  off  U  tbe  MritM  mtolfoittUoM  n(  mata> 
d«aiy.  Tlia  sMRuhe  vulrtj'  at  ijnu  In  tlw 
ig  pkrt  of  pUnit,  a  a  mnatkulii  eiroatDslaitni 
Mill*  ceimiitny;  niiii  ii>li»t  nur  ba  Ih*  invtiiw 
iioh  Kaioty  of  (ii)limr,  haii  fomiiHl  tho  »u1>jbfi  uf 
ibie   liifjulr;.     JndepuidDiiliy  tit  ttaa  axccnk 


alliwliiie  inwiflii  Out  n 
tally  nvfiiriuine  m  nfltcv  in  iha  riiirudaoliv« 

!,  ami  in  currying  off  taecharin*  vmulaliaH*. 
iwnr  jiarl  nf  llio  atiiglc  petal  of  a  conilla  b 
lio  ela«,  eunrapopdtua  '  "'  "  " 
I  brOBil  rail  it  called  U 
itly  lumKliril  witll  purlttin  ■p{ii>iidapw,nllai<)i»rl 
«  tlni  thrual  or  to  t1i>  buui  iif  lli*  |wUli^  ullvil 
M.  Tlwaa  are  plaocd  In  dUforviit  fiarla  uT  Ilia 
;  In  lb*  comioan  ancicuU  Ui*y  ■uri'ounil  till 
'  tlw  Ibroat  I  in  tli*  nnananlue  (ir  btHtawmji 
leyafjinr  lika  wnlmai  ihf  hutliiin  uf  ihxvia*  i 
tlie  nieiilulinuil,  in  llli>  Furfn  lit  a  ni-ur  twtiiiiA 
■ills.  Tbev  raMiTu  tba  muno  of  stcuriu  Inam 
■iHwitlun  inat  Ihey  apMvte  booey,  and  they  am 
nmnd  to  cnntnin  a  elear,  awMi-taaied  linLC 
«u,  Ap,— Witliiti  tl»  brauUful  eorotla  aiw  nV 
■••■ml  mnjall  liliintniaiu  objaeiK,  nn  miinb  ut 
Kiw  iiirlicla*  of  Itnr  oduarcd  matur  lib  dual, 
inr  lutrta  «l  Uip  rtpnnlucU**  orgaolMlbn,  Mid 
uf  aumelia  and  pudtk.  In  ■■niiral.  •  alaiwm 
tot  l«u  i>arU,  In  cxnt  (■•■•■•if  a  filiiiiiiiit  (fnMl 
.  IliTViul),  Aliiub  it  uauaDji  wl.ilo,  aiid  alaayaoT 


CUAMBERffS  INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPl 


N«d-OTg*n.  It  is  upon  the  namber  nnd  utaa^mcnt 
of  the  aumens  thai  ajiiteiu»tio  buumioai  unDgcmauU 
h»Te  printipillj  been  founded.  Tbe  folloimig  ir*  a  (bw 
eluraclerUtica  of  Ihe  number,  Unglh,  poMtiiin,  direo- 
tion,  &e.,  of  the  ■Umenm.     Tlie  number  of  •Umona  in 


length,  Ihej  are  wjual  o 


'  uneqnal,  imd  Ihia  disproiior- 
aetrial,  lometimH  uot.  In 
D  they  miy  his  opposed  to  tlie  divLuons  of  the 
hey  ma;  altemito  with  them,  Sometimea 
ihey  protrude  beyond  the  corolla,  at  othw  limes  Ihoy 
tic  wholly  iucluded  vritbln  it.  Their  direction  lua^  be 
ercet,  pondaiit,  or  horiiantal,  and  their  Bummil  ii 
Yariou^v  inelioad  to  or  n-flected  from  tlie  oeotre  of  the 
:.  ^be  filament  whicb  HUpporU  (he  anther  is  tnoat 


„  oe  Urge  and  Sat  lilie  a  potal,  and  ita  Bucamit  is  either 
puinled  or  obtUH.  On  the  sumniil  ie  that  eaienttAl  part 
the  anihtr,  which  is  gBoarally  formed  of  twa  emaJI 
membnniiiu  eao,  altaphed  iiumediatoly  to  each  other, 
or  united  by  an  iatermediale  conneetiiig  body.  In  form, 
snthera  are  subject  to  greal  Tariety,  (uid,  like  the  Bla- 
idcdU,  they  eatnetimee  cobere  bo  aa  to  form  a  sort  uf 
labe.  Theircoionr  is  often  yeHow,  orange,  violet,  white, 
ftc,  but  never  green  or  truly  blue. 
The  puUeu  oonlainod  in  tlie  anthers  consists  of 


rcgularly-tx^red  nnall  pwtIele«,»IM| 
dbffercnt  planu  a  ven  diHereiU  llfunv  WBh* 

""      number  of  particles  in  a  eall,  vkitli  bn 

(he  pollen  cundats  of  tran«panalfnlBi|n4 
it  a  white,  purple,  blut^  or  bnvD.  Mil  ■ 
itly  of  a  yellow  colour.  WbMikgiMrfj 
dropped  into  water,  it  Bwclll  and  bvrrt*,  u<  ■ 
quantityof  matter  escaped  whieh  UmppwOi 
fecundatiog  principle  of  Ihe  pollen. 


the   pollen   from    the    anthers,  b*     [^ 
referring    lo    the    anneied    small      VV     a 
engraving,     a    ii    the    Alameat   or     Pu    ^ 
stalk  of  Sw  Mauieo,  i  ts  the  aoUiir  •!  fL^ 
on  iu  nuimit,  and  o  ia  ih*  pnliim     I  ™ 
or  diut  in  the  act  of  being  ulialito      \ 
down  upon  Ihe  atigma  or   uppw      I 
pact  of  a   pistil,  of  which    we   ut>-  i  ' 
■ipTTB  iKriM)  in  a  group. 

figure,  il  may  be  remarkad,  thit  lb 


Id  the  larser  engraring,  figs.  9  and  It,  lb  4 
rU  of  the  flowering  atructura  an  eaiMi^ 


The  pist 

U  n  kiuJ  of  tube  wiih  :.  <'.>>! 

;na,  lliruugh  its  style  or  ^L:i1k  1 

ht-neuth,  and  down  ibis  the  l>. 

milted  to 

xercise   >ts  iuthieriee.     The  sec 

ies  almost  aUaya  the  inferinr 

pi.iif.  nod 

is  [here  tluit  till-  pr.iL-ciw  of  frin 

fully  .■ir«U 

I.     When  cut  open,  it  esbilitfl. 

ell^,  in  whieb  iire  cntained  thi 

of  the  seed 

or  ovula  ;  uii.l  it  ia  in  it  Hut  ih 

the  uvula  i 

til  i<erfecl  needs  is  etfi-cted.  It  i 

forms,  but 

moat  vommiiiity  ovoid^it.     It  i> 

tL-aU-d  upo 

Hie  receptncle  HigelliiT  with  1 

but  freijue 

lly  it  is  placed  Ik  li.»  the  II.^m  ei 

meulurv  wi 

diflivfouud.  n'liuv  l.e  rviiuil. 

pi»lils  s|>ri 

ri  fruma  iitet:iry  .,.■  ili-i;  in  the  l 

ll-wrr,  n.u 

ofanff 

.mi.osed  of  ;n 

outer  sa 

ind  an  inner  m 

embriM^ 

ry  M-ed  deriv. 

«  iUBN 

H  beat 

IhaltB 

l.ri.v.1* 

T"''ln"«me 

specs' 

VEGETABLE  PHYSIOLOGY.— BOTANY. 


for  the  seeds,  and  the  Tarious  fonuB  in  which  they 
r  are  individually  suitable  to  the  purposes  of  their 

L. 

wtural  iirran,^tfmtfn/f.— Vegetable,  like  animal 
iresy  are  composed  of  sohd  and  fluid  parts, 
f  Uie  latter  are  considered  simple  in  their  com- 
n,  as  they  contain  more  or  less  of  a  gelatinous 
',  which  frequently  imparts  to  them  a  consistency 
.ching  to  that  of  a  solid  body.  The  gum  which 
rn  see  exuding  from  treee,  is  an  instance  of  the 
ty  of  veeetable  fluids.  Manv  of  them,  also,  con- 
linute  globules  of  matter,  which  thicken  them  to 
iderable  degree.  It  has  next  been  discovered 
lese  often  cohere  and  form  solid  masses,  or  unite 
a  so  as  to  constitute  fibres.  These,  again,  collect 
er,  and  compose  various  kinds  of  texture.  The 
arts  of  a  vegetable  are  membrane  and  fibre,  which 
Lhe  tissues  referred  to,  and  their  varied  com- 
»ii8  in  the  bark,  wood,  pith,  and  medullary  or 
w  rays.  The  fluid  elements  are  watery  solutions 
soluble  materials  of  the  soil,  which,  by  chemical 
echanical  agenev,  as  well  as  the  influence  of  the 
pie  of  life,  are  decomposed,  and  again  united  in 
nt  proportions,  so  as  to  form  new  substances,  or, 
sr  words,  the  solid  components,  the  textures,  and 
Lons  of  the  vegetable. 

elementary  parts  of  the  veffetable  structure  ap- 
w  consist  of  minute  bags,  bladders,  or  vesicles, 
kats  of  which  are  transparent  membranes  of  ex- 
tenuity.  If  a  very  thm  slice  of  the  stem  of  any 
be  put  into  a  drop  of  pure  water,  and  examined 
i  microscope,  it  will  be  found  to  consist  chiefly  of 
cells.  Their  size  differs  very  considerably,  from 
he  thousandth  part  of  an  inch  to  the  thirtieth, 
ugh  in  their  original  state  thev  possess  an  oval  or 
ar  form,  yet,  by  being  variously  compressed,  they 
ade  to  assume  other  forms,  such  as  twelve-sided 
a,  or  six-sided,  like  a  honey-comb,  and  pass  by 
ible  gradations  into  the  tubular  structure.  These 
IS  modifications  of  the  same  elementary  texture 
received  separate  technical  names,  which,  how- 
it  is  unnecessary  to  specify.  By  the  concurring 
rations  of  modem  botanists,  these  cells  consist  of 
Ue  vesicles  closed  on  all  sides,  and  destitute  of 
>r  pore.  It  seems  to  have  been  satisfactorily  esta- 
d,  that  the  partitions  which  separate  them,  how- 
iiin,  must  consist  of  a  double  membrane,  formed 
t  adhesion  of  the  coats  of  the  two  contiguous  vessels, 
lat  the  fluids  gain  access  not  by  means  of  regular 
jrea,  for  none  can  be  detected,  but  by  exuding 
gh  the  substance  of  the  membrane.  As  from  the 
of  the  cells  tlie  coats  cannot  be  supposed  to  unite 
ary  point,  the  spaces  thus  formed  have  been  called 
leHular  passages,  canals^  &.C.,  and  they  are  supposed 
rform  an  important  port  in  the  function  of  nutri- 
The  nature  of  the  matter  contained  in  the  cells 
he  intercellular  spaces,  differs  according  to  the 
in  which  it  exists,  and  the  peculiar  powers  of  the 
Sometimes  they  are  filled  with  certain  liquids, 
roducts  of  vegetable  secretion  ;  at  other  times  the 
Dts  are  simple  watery  sap,  and  occasionally  they 
nly  filled  with  air.  Air-tubes  and  cells  are  most 
ently  met  with  in  the  centre  of  stems  and  in  leaves, 
r  in  roots,  and  never  in  the  woody  part  of  plants, 
ugh  some  plants  consist  entirely  of  cells,  yet,  as 
ly  observed,  the  greater  number  of  them  have,  in 
on  to  these,  numerous  ducts  or  vessels,  consisting 
embranous  tubes  of  considerable  length,  inter- 
^  throughout  every  part  of  the  system.  With 
i  to  the  origin  of  these,  Dr  Roget  observes : 
re  can  be  little  doubt,  indeed,  that  the  vessels  of 
I  take  their  origin  from  vesicles,  which  become 
ited  by  the  progress  of  development  in  one  parti- 
direction  ;  and  it  is  easy  to  conceive,  that,  where 
Ltremities  of  these  elongated  cells  meet,  the  parti- 
which  separate  their  cavities  may  become  obli- 
d  at  the  points  of  j  miction,  so  as  to  unite  them 
OS  eontinuoua  tube  with  an  uninterrupted  interior 
M.    Thif  view  of  the  formation  of  the  Tesschi  of 

671 


plants  is  confirmed  by  the  gradation  tliat  may  be  traced 
among  these  various  kinds  of  structures.  Elongated 
cells  are  often  met  with  applied  to  each  other  endwise, 
as  if  preparatory  to  their  C(»le8cence  into  tubes.  Some- 
times the  tapering  ends  of  fusiform  cells  are  joined  late- 
rally, BO  that  the  partitions  which  divide  their  cavities 
are  oblique.  At  other  tim^  their  ends  are  broader, 
and  admit  of  their  more  direct  application  to  each  other 
in  the  same  line,  being  separated  only  by  membranes 
passing  transversely  ;  in  which  case  they  present,  under 
the  microscope,  the  appearance  of  a  necklace  of  beads. 
When,  by  the  destruction  of  these  partitions,  their  cavi- 
ties become  continuous,  the  tubes  they  form  exhibit  a 
series  of  contractions  at  certain  intervals,  marking  their 
origin  from  separate  cells.  In  this  state  they  have 
received  the  names  of  monil^form,  Jointed,  or  beaded 
vessels.  Traces  of  the  membranous  partitions  sometimes 
remain  where  their  obliteration  has  been  only  partial, 
leaving  transverse  fibres.  The  conical  terminations 
occasionally  observable  in  the  vessels  of  plants  also 
indicate  their  cellular  origin." 

Those  parts  of  plants  which  do  not  exhibit  the  form 
of  either  membranes  or  cells,  are  comprehended  in  what 
is  called  the  vascular  system,  which  constitutes  alm(»t 
the  entire  bulk  of  the  more  solid  parts  of  trees.  If  a 
branch  be  cut  transversely  early  in  spring,  the  sap  will 
be  found  to  exude,  and  cover  the  whole  o?  the  cut  sur- 
face, which,  if  examined,  will  be  found  to  consist  of  a  vast 
number  of  exceedingly  stnall  fibres,  vessels,  or  pipes, 
through  which  the  liquid  portions  of  the  vegetable  as- 
cend or  descend.  These  are,  as  it  were,  the  veins  and 
arteries  of  the  plant  Indeed,  whilst  the  tissue  of  cells 
above  described  may  be  said  to  constitute  the  flesh  of 
plants,  the  tissue  of  fibres  may  be  said  to  stand  for  the 
bones  and  other  firm  parts  of  the  system.  In  animals, 
the  fluids  are  conveyed  to  and  from  a  central  reservoir 
called  the  heart ;  but  such  an  orean  does  not  exist  in 
the  vegetable  kingdom.  The  fluids  enter  by  innumer- 
able mouths  at  the  root,  and  are  conveyed  by  the  vas- 
cular system  to  all  parts  of  the  plant  fitted  to  receive 
them.  There  is  little  variation  in  the  diameter  of  the 
vessels,  and  their  general  form  is  cylindricaL  Their 
minuteness  is  quite  astonishing.  In  a  piece  of  oak  of 
about  the  size  of  l*19th  of  an  inch,  20,000  vessels  have 
been  reckoned  to  exist.  liedwig  measured  the  largest 
vessel  in  the  stem  of  a  gourd ;  it  appeared  1-1 2th  of  an 
inch  in  diameter  through  his  instrument,  which  magni- 
fied 290  times ;  so  that  its  real  diameter  was  the  3480th 
part  of  an  inch.  The  vessels  of  plants  do  not,  like  those 
of  animals,  exist  single,  but  are  collected  in  bundles,  or 
fasciculi  as  they  are  called,  which  sometimes  contain 
hundreds  of  vessels.  They  occasionally  also  ramify ; 
that  is,  some  vessels  shoot  off  from  one  parcel  to  umte 
with  another,  and  afterwards  return  to  that  which  they 
had  left  By  this  ramification  a  reticulated  appearance 
is  frequently  produced,  especially  in  the  bark  and  leaves 
of  plants.  They  do  not  ramify  like  the  vessels  of  ani- 
mals from  greater  into  less ;  but,  by  the  division  of  a 
greater  fasciculus  into  several  smaller  fasciculi,  they 
at  last  become  single,  and  thus  their  ramification  is 
effected.  It  is  generally  supposed  that  tlicy  do  not  open 
into  one  another ;  that  is,  actually  unite  and  be  lost  in 
each  other,  forming  that  kind  of  connexion  which  ana- 
tomists call  inosculation  or  anastomosing  (from  a  Greek 
word  which  signifies  to  open  the  mouth). 

These  vessels  have  been  named  according  to  the  func- 
tions which  they  perform,  or  the  appearances  which 
they  assume.  There  appear  to  have  been  two  kinds  of 
vessels  discovered  in  plants,  the  straight  and  the  spiraL 
Grew  describes  the  former  as  straight  hollow  thread- 
lets,  fifty  times  finer  than  a  horse  hair,  forming  a  larger 
tube,  as  if  we  should  suppose  a  walking-cane  composed 
of  small  straws.  Leuwenhoeck  describes  them  as  com- 
posed, like  the  quills  of  birds,  of  two  transparent  tissues^ 
one  placed  lengthways  and  the  other  across,  with  no 
latent  eommunieation.  It  is  the  opinion  of  the  highest 
authoritiei  that  both  fibres  and  straight  vesseb  take 
their  origin  fnm  spiral  vessels.  The  first  is  called  the 
Bunple  qiiraL    If  the  fleshy  scale  of  any  bulb,  for  in- 


CHAMBERS'S  INFORMATION  FOB  TUG  PEOPLE. 


■tuiM,  tli>t  of  ihe  lilj,  be  eautioulr  brokeu,  and  the 
parU  leptnted,  the  gpinl  vestela  nill  be  obtened  like 
kcrewB,  piitisli]'  uniulled.  They  eonual  of  opaque 
lilverv  thining  ]ibre«,  iHwted  in  m,  spinl  manner,  bo  u 
to  /oirn  a  hollow  cjlinder,  the  Bfiirei  bcinj;  ^ncrall;  ia 
eoBtaet.  Thij  holluw  tabe  !•  sometiniva  fomiMl  uC  ooe 
ronliniuiuB  fibre,  aDmetimea  or  WTeral  partUel  Bbm 
adhering  together.  The  fibre*  are  tBDaeioDB,  uiil  in 
(Dme  plaols  elastic.  They  differ  mucli  in  size  ia  diffb- 
rent  ]iUnU,  aod  at  diHervnt  alAge?  of  the  growth  of  llie 
■ante  pbuiL  Tliey  dretch  (liiough  the  whole  of  lU 
length,  frcm  the  rtwls  lo  the  leares  and  flowers,  follow- 
iog  the  TBriaas  curTaturea  of  iho  stem.  Grew  found 
lliat  lliey  aJtenuta  with  (lie  Btraighl  vessels  in  every 
iiarl  of  the  wuiid,  and  surrunnd  and  enHheath  Ihem  la 
(he  1eiif.Btalk,  the  leaf,  the  Suwer,  and  the  fruit.  The 
■tmiglit  veuela  ate  said  to  be  formed  in  spring,  tlie 
■piral  veasels  In  sumiDer.  Thece  ipiral  vesscla  uuderga 
various  tranifotmatioDS.  In  many  caaea  the  inner 
Rbrea  of  the  tabs,  inatead  ofronuinga  continuaoB  spiral, 
appettr  in  the  shape  of  rings  succeediag  one  another  al 
regular  Interval*,  and  eonslitutiug  Mliat  sre  called  an- 
nular veeaele  (fruni  onntu,  a  ring).  This  is  couudored 
a  primary  form  of  Teasel,  and,  from  the  two  simple 
vBrietles  of  vesseU  d<?Mribed,  more  complex  forms  are 
elnhorated  09  the  plant  advances  in  age.  In  tha  punc- 
tnated  vessel  Ihc  spires  are  separated  (o  nearly  equal 
distanees  from  each  other,  and  the  intervening  spaces 
are  filled  up  with  a  mEmbrane  sprinkled  aver  iviih 
wnall  obscnre  points  or  iota. 

This  is  the  largest  with  respect  to  the  diameter  of 
the  vegetable  vestwls;  it  ia  at  first  transparent,  but  be- 
comes opaque  by  age.  A  fourth  variety  of  Teasel,  which 
has  the  rame  ongia  as  the  last,  being  formed  of  ring«, 
is  tlut  in  irhieh  Ihe  separations  are  not  Illicit  wilh 


I  present  limited  treatise,  lo  go  ini 
rieties  and  purposes  of  thesa  vesn 

I  lo  say  that  the  spiral  vessels,  i 
■ve  the  office  of  conveying  the  i 
»]e  of  tlir'  plnnt.     Uetiilea  (ho  > 


tsa 


for  erery  year  of  the  crovtlt,  and  ih«  Ittfta 
side.  The  oulermiMt  Uyr-  '--'-—- 
durable  than  the  inner  or) 


from  Ihe  centre  of  the  stum  ti>  id 
arc  called  medullary  nhyi,  or  ail 
~  -^piwed  cfaieRy  of  lar^  celK  i 
-   -'  -   dlreotui      '    -       " 

duUary  (frum 

of  it,  which  tn  not 

to  keep  open  the  i 

the  pith,  which  the  for 

wine  hare  destroyed.     The  \mik  ri 

compauent  pai^  being  made  aprit»il«fili 

cellular  tissue,  intlmatdy  eoDOOOtad  <ri4l  M 

the  wood,  so  a  aiiniiiar  but  much  lliifiacT  l^i 
made  to  the  bark,  to  which  the  nanM  «(  Chr, 
bark,  is  usnally  applied,  the  old  UyirbEiitfl 
vardt.     Between  the  vessels  thus  anausUji 

a  coiuiderable  portion  of  cellular  liswe  ji  a 
Ihe  cells  being  conunonly  filled  with  juina  1 


ni!^  eatiol*,  or  riad, 


d  byai 
Ihe  name  of  skin,  e 

over  ihe  surface  of  every  part  nt  lbs  pbih  < 
the  spongelcta  of  the  Noli,  and  tlie  ■ninn*  •( 
influvere.  Tberiudof  plants  is  Kodwli^ 
animals  in  the  functions  in  which  It  polNBl 
duuhl,  inlnnded  to  protect  the  moiB  tmM 
beneath.  As  the  scarf-skin  of  the  ha^  ti 
durated  by  hard  tabfaur,  ao  the  rind  tt  Ih 
exposeil  lo  a  stormy  climate^  beooQwamvk' 
rind  of  tlie  same  species  of  plant,  if  r«and(*l 
situation,  like  the  handa  of  a  dolicM*  Mf 
sniDolh.  As  the  pUnta  grow,  the  riai  aM 
EotoL-times  lo  a  coniidenble  exM«t:hllll 
"Mc^i  it  i-  Ti<>icaulyetrelel»d,«aJalk>iH 

- ivmble  cracks.  The  bireb,aall 

.-.   mcir  bright  skin  yearly,  tiksi 
.  :i'/iwpnrciil  and  colourleiavbM 

!  11.  .,,i,nuous  uilh'  the 

■        ■   ■      ■  I  .  ..£  its  cell*.    OtiH 

I  ;    I  ■        ■    ■    ■  IMF'*',  conipnsod  of  iff 


mid  eiipnud  in  dry  ai 


:ily  c. 


Jiidctis'iiuif 


-  pl^.g^cs»,  a 
S  v-lj..-reii  (ipcvici 
Uy  cautiiig  the 
le  general  CoumoJ 
hie  accuracy,  and  s 
1  \\^juHna  sobinsM 


■LOtiY^DOTASV. 

bUdS  the  uenuilnff  u(i  ■  and  iJUr  It  IrAti: 


iliioli  il  pi*B>.  1h>  •■mc  ilfcrce  of  m 


i<i»>i,«.i 

ClUabt  tLu  LM)!    Ill    111  il.-!e'<'lll  iVnll.    Ill.i    loVUHilUI 

.btlilbaUoD  to  difltivut  pai  U,  w  woU  u  Clume  pa 
(lilefa  eoDtTiliiiic  to  Its  motloo  from  ihc  roQl*  li 
^vcr,  *rv  EnvolTofl  la  oqnal  abmuiiy.  T )>e  hypiitli'^ 
Iwl  it  mmltinl  ften  o^illu;'  ftttnotinn,  U  or 
bOj'  abandonod. 


-eactnlljrta  the  viul  enc  _ 

OB  k  tBTDinl  KUtTtiini,  Miil  the  orgwi  h 

eadnel*'!.  i:laii<l>>    The  it "    "  ' 

4.'liui«il  in  llio  cfHk,  »ai  wa 
Mh  *a  ui  vxcnitkiii,  tnr  tbe  plant  "liiu 
lirunrinir  ciiit  hy  ifin  rwit  tliUMr  mrpoinainu  4f  M 
[iiLtl«ni  nlildi,  ir  reUiiwd,  wouM  lujura  U.  tl 
lUiu  thn  f*ei  «liy  jiluiu  tvntlcr  Ilia  *MI  ulien  tt 
laib  Wis  biin  eum(M(^d  Icm  Buiiabit  tn  ihciF  e 
ImuneoTu  a  lignrouB  coiulUlan  lliui  it  ar^intny  « 
nd  ■!«)  wliy  pEiDb  of  a  diffunil  cppma  a—  ■ 
umtly  found  to  ttauTuli  yerj  wtll  in  Ilia  unn 
lni>,  where  tllia  *|<iKir*at  dotnioralinn  of  lliv  tinl  hi 
aken  plaoti. 

Th*  vwiwit  io  whidl  the  ftilid  » 
iiiBdJ  &n  of  a  ixculiar  kiud,  aiitt  c&liibil  raroiScallH 
ai  JuactiiMia  rnwiiiMin|t  ihina  ef  lh«  bliiHil- *«■>!■/ 
.ntlual*.    Wd  mar  aUo   "  '     * 

nicroMnpc,  that  the  flat 
.TV  toaruig  ia  cnrrenta  with  oonafdrrablD  nplilily,  ■ 
.ppcan  Itma  ihf  visible  moliona  of  timir  slnbutu ',  or 
hp]'  ptioent,  thrrrfur*.  a  rnnukalilv  aoiUMff  nitli 
irouUtiiin  of  Uiit  bliiod  in  domn  of  llii'  iiifi-riur  ti 
if  aoiiMla.  Thin  curinun  i.lirm.iii-i)..n  yM  (Iml 
Wttd  hr  Schnllz  hi  thu  oliiUdiiuiuni,  iu  tin  ftmi  18! 
-nd  h(  liBnigiutiil  il  tif  till  lurui  i-ycCatft,  lo  «i ' 
UatinKulah  Tt  from  a  real  clrculatfoD,  if,  an  f 
naairy,  li  ihould  lie  foand  CDtltlcd  lo  tJit  UUer  appd 
aUoi). 

TItv  eircukr   moremenUi  which   liave  boa  t 
ibtetTod  in  ihe  milky  joion  ut  ]i1alili>,  liava  U 
illneteil  muah  attmtlan  tinonc  lH>uiiiiu ;  bill  ei 
I'rabU  (tnuhl  Milt  piwnil*  wtisUiar  lltsw  airjiMi 
■flvrd  aiillieirnt  (vldtnec  of  iti*  cxlitvncn  ui  a  i 
^reulalion  of  nuirtoit  Jiilm  in  tlit  vr)[clalilt  iij 
if  tUom  plaoU  vhlih  rxbibit  ihani ',  lot  it  wudM  i 
hal  io  i^aJily  thn  ubwr*<>d  moliaiu  of  tho  fluid 
rvery  «iu  partial,  and  the  nxteot  of  Ih*  p|r;iut  vi  _^ 
iiniited,     The  (bhikb  uf  tlimeinuliunii  Sa  iictyft  kiiawn(^ 
111!  i-rolAlily  limy  tn  ultitirali'ly  rwfanlile  hi  a  i<Ul 
Mntiution  of  llin  temiol*,  t-a  tiifj  nraini  tha  muuwuL 

hat  rt«  fbat  W  i«cin.i«&  »».  \»ilifai.  »k^.  w%  ^ 


CHAMBEBS'S  INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


BOTANY. 

VirlniM  eminent  indivictiials  linve  attempted  the  eloa- 
kiHntian  uii  naming  of  plants,  each  a(  whoso  arrange- 
niBDta  lit  called  a  •yilen,  aud  posseeso  certain  peculiar 
fcaiurea.  The  thr«  aJBleraa  which  hare  been  moat 
HtecniH],  and  wholly  or  partly  adopted,  are  thoae  of 
ToumefDrt  (IGS6~1708),  Liimiciu  (1707—1778),  and 
Ju««u(lfi99-[777). 


Toumefurt  founded  his  syilem  on  tha  nl>BSD(<e  or 
jirewrnce,  the  figure,  Bilualiou,  and  proportioa,  of  tlie 
eeraita.  This  part  otthellovtec  iiUwajB,  wken  present, 
the  most  cotiBpicuouB  and  imposing,  and  attracted  the 
Botice  at  the  earlier  bnlauista,  bb  it  doeg  that  at  children 
now,  more  tlian  it  rtaUy  deaened ;  bocanso,  in  fact,  no 
Mrt  of  tlio  flower  is  more  subject  to  incidsntal  clmnge 
Than  tli«  mraiU.  He  divided  the  vegetable  kingdom 
into  IwD  principal  parts,  namely,  herbs  and  treea  ;  the 
primary  ditisiuns  he  Bubdiiided  into  twenty -two  clanes, 
the  Snt  nevcnteen  of  which  comprise  tile  herbs,  and  the 
Other  lIvB  the  ligneous  Tegelahlea  ;  these  un  again  sepa- 
rated iiitii  one  hundred  and  nineteftQ  sections,  but  with> 
out  names  or  titles  being  applied  to  them,  as  in  thoBe 
of  other  botanists.  The  ctiarMiIerB  of  these  sections 
wen  not  always  >uSicieDtly  denned  ;  and  aoDsequently 
tliB  young  botanist  often  met  dJfSculiies  in  arranging 
plaulB  in  their  proper  pisces. 

Though  now  kiwwn  to  be  imperfect,  the  lyBtem  of 
Tournefnrt  possesses  sreat  merit.  Uis  labonrji,  Don- 
sidering  the  state  of  the  Bcienco  wh«n  he  lived,  were 
indeed  Ereat,  and  far  surpaaaiug  those  of  eilhsr  Linoicns 
or  Jussiuu.  In  tact,  Tournerort  was  pioneer  to  both, 
and  sma«ed,  and  in  many  cases  assorted  to  their  hands, 
the  materials  of  which  both  their  systems  are  formed. 

The  Bexnalily  of  plants  had  been  discovered  long 
before  the  time  of  Linnmni ;  but,  as  far  as  is  now  known, 
liB  was  the  first  who  suggested  the  idea  of  classifying 
plants  according  to  ILe  numbers,  connexion,  and  stations 
of  the  male  and  female  organs.  From  the  moment  the 
idea  occurred  to  liim,  he  was  indrratigable  in  the  toui- 


13.  Folyandria,  twenty  or  SMn»  kpl|l#|i 


U.  Didynamla,  two 

li.  TBtradynamla,foorIoofandi*oA«t— 1 

16.  Monadelphia,  lUamenlsaOinMiiodlnBdis 

1 7.  Diadelphis,  filamenta  nnited  inl«  Iwn  ■» 

18.  Polyadelphio,  lilaments  united  lounMi 

bMb— St  John's  Wort. 

1 9.  Syngenesia,  anthers  unit«d  Into  a  tub 

compound — Tb  ittie. 
ZO.  Gvnandria,  stamens  sitnated  upon  lbs  % 

the  germun — OrcliH. 
31.  Monteeia,  stamens  and  pistil*  In  diAnss 

on  the  same  plant — Sforge. 
22.  Di(fi«ia,  stamens  and  pistils  in  scpsnia  S> 

on  tUlTennt  plants— Willow. 

33.  rulygamia,  sisinens  and  pistils  aaitsjiC' 

on  the  same  or  on  diflercnl  jdiiils  u 

two  different  kinds  of  perianih — Uncha, 

3J,  Cryptogamla,  stamens  and  piitiU  nut  laU 

A  more  minute  analysis  of  the  ^rtan  la  isl 

Flimen  with  ilam4M  if  "firrd  nimirr,^\ 

tmglh. 

Trust  Cuit»,  or  Monandria,  ba>ing  <d*  ■ 

they  have  one  pistil,  they  an  sf  tte  tM  ■ 

UonogyBia;  It  two  pistils,  tbeyarerfltisMi 

Skcond  Clam,  or  Diandria,  haiina  tnOM 
they  have  one  pistil,  they  are  uf  us  iM  I 
Monogynia  ;  if  they  havo  two  pi»tiU,  thiy  H 
second  order,  or  Dwoia  i  and  It  three,  thjt 
third  order,  or  Trin'nia. 

Third  Cutw,  or  Triandrla,  baTbn  fls"w ' 
three  stamens. — If  ihoy  liave  one  pMil,tb^* 
first  order;  if  two,  they  arc  of  the  isaul  tn 
three,  of  the  third  order. 

Foimm  CuLia,  or  Tetrandria,  banM  t^ 
only  four  stamens  equal  in  length>-4(  sw 
pistil,  they  are  of  tlw  first  ordv  ;  if  ta^rfa) 
three,  of  the  third  ;  and  if  four,  uf  tlis  tmm< 


■11  C<..s«, 

or  Pentandrin,  harisg  In 
a— Thi>-J!    Uviiig  (tWB  m 
as  ill   Ihe  prvcediDg  dlM 
U'long  to  tlie  fifth  orM' 
jliav«iuanypiaUl<,tiilks»i 

-    .  -  111 

r  llexandrio,  haiinc  fle>B< 
y  Liive  „ne,  l-o.  or  Uu«  pi 
.b..<^>nJ,  orthirdordosiif 

1.  Mi>BanUri»,  1* 
^.llidliilm,  nill 
a.l'riandriik.  »il 


^ 


l\.  /l-.l.ra,„]ria,   (villi  eleve 
/l,-rr(i,u(i;-. 
i2,  JcoHuxfria,  twenty  or  mo^ 


,  _.|„   ,.„ Jii  1.,..,  ;„.>^  !.„,..  j,«wi. 

I!.   >   I 1  u.:- i.nkr  cuiT^pouJiilg  tothsl 

■.  -.'.r  linncandria,  those  hatiH 

:i.,-\  h:ivi'i.incpiaul,th*y  bcloB(' 

'  i.i<  < .  Ill  ihc  secund  ;  and  d  siK,le 

I I  M  II  I  L ',-'-,  <ir  L>ccanOt>a,  having  uily  tn 
—  II  ilnv  li,i.foii.-,ti«ii,or[hr«pi.UU,thn 
llic  lii>.i:«v.iiid,.'r  third  orders;  iffiTC,(ol) 
..UJ  liliii,  luiiiL-lirihorder. 

/■•'<,"-n!-  u-il'i  UnneMofrathrTmiefHiatum 

III  1.1  i.MFi  Cla^S  or  I)Dd(>auidria,haTin>Bi 
friiin  •.'k-M'iitu  nineteen  sumeos  iasnlsdil 
.■(  i.lui'U'.— if  Ihoy  have  from  one  to  fl*«  p 
bfUiig  vi  the  ordi^rs  corresponJiog  tu  ih^ 
>nd  il  they  have  about  twelvs  piaiii^  Ihty  W 

,  (L\.u&i  n  \c»aiidtla,  having  b 


n^tnArlMx 


111  plMlh  imlf.  tad  NO*  *4ai  Mawna  vol;,  im 
)pluit>   nimwi)iiia*ut4an,t>lr«nfn<Btba 
SM  bnaidliiv  of  tto  ttunmn  u  l«te«. 
n'OaoTD  CLiM,  or   Uimab,  ba?aif  Sna 

f  tin  Mni*  (ptvte.     n«(«  H«  Dino  «ailaii«, 
U  is  (faa  jmotilinp  cUw. 

R>Tiintt  CuML,  iir  fnlrnamiii  binog  flora* 
b  itoiniM  and  ftnia*,  aftd  ai»<i  wllli  onlt  o«n  at 
sth  ea  lbs  iuds  mil  on  »>'(«»l*  fiMiIa  at  tkt 
Mlck.    Tben  us  Uimi  •irdm. 
Hifmrm  ajiparenl  on  At  ftetiU. 


Mnii,  JIfBAij;   LivcrwrirtCi  lltpotiim:  Sn^ 
llgm  I  anl  Mutttroam*!  ftin-ii. 


K\<irm,mdrr  tb«  aid  lami;.  In  btct,  tfa*  avMW 
ia  uf  tU  uthcn  tiia  laut  wMtiaM*  Wb  llW 
1  plan  at  amuiiinniMit ;  bnng  u  i]fci<w<l  ■ 
pliula  iin  llnir  (Iruisliii*,  fimnt^Mnl^HnaxC 
BU  mui  ba  fiiunil  in  Iha  wholn  ■ogatslilrMi*- 
Ijll  tbno  wars  kUlinii*  pmvtlwl  Dn  llWm  n 
lal  whoDO,  Hbon  thsji  lura  lieon  Ji)ii«i  by 
ton;  but,  w  aIrbiIj  aliirrrBil,  Ulay  ^  Ml 
I  wrU  wilh  tin  ginera  aroiinf  whidi  lb«jan 

Tor  initum,  who  vnuU  imogiiit  Uwi  tha 
jolm  (anva  ofiranm)  aad  thi  Xntdi  pbia 
if/itfiMi)  Mnv  any  w»y  iIIImI  tH  taA  aMUH 

Idiiaivui  iH'Iniiiiil  muM  iiniu  Uiani,  liaatua 
w««>  xrs  rc*|icctiTclj'  munowleui,  ami  llieir 
w  united  In  ane  brMburhood. 


Hem  Rf  Dkutj'lailanBiuuul  UttiOeuatlaAnDfln  IIibIk 
''hii  fviikiit  iliflvmign  of  bItucIum  nmd  l« 
lO  Ttc*labt*  kingdnin  titia  iwv  pwlai  tba  flm 
il  Ctlintam  or  ^cuiy/#ii»iM^  thai  i^  fhtMt 
■lully  of  celluXu'  DivtnbniDa,  uiil  rUag  (hm 
-dv,  ni  qKvule^  lionlluia  at  ttttjlcOminirmat- 
AiaoDg  lliiM  AeotylvdoiiHa  an  ambnieMl  Ui* 
■kdt*  of  tb«  rcgvublg  enallon— lb*  VtlSt*p, 
oi,  Uw  [InpatitiK,  thn  Algn.  IIjb  FonRl— Mu( 
«  U  wiirv,  al  Itia  battnui  o<  <J»  UT&a.Ka&ai 


Md  bul  r»rely  lli»l  bnllisney  (tf  wlouriog,  b;  "liich 

I  wmii!  <rf  iho  other  divisions  of  plaota  »re  disliBguWitd. 

TliBy  ««  'ho  first  mod  rudest  tJT>*s  ff  vegeUble  lifo, 

annjr  of  ihrm  oon™(ing_in»relj  of       '  '  -■ 


in'liD 


CHAMBERS'S  INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


uiOies 

of  CalflethMT.  01 
'^ut  u  there  an  gn«t  difl^raaoH  wuh  iw. 
stioiu,  eo^Il(!Iioll^  ■»!  nuiaben  of  lb*  Hon 
r  the  iilniiM  indudrd  in  ihia  (att  diviais, 
f  llie  ).^lein  found  it  •xprdim,  i>  orfart 
Ihc  Btudj  of  lh<  MieiiOE.  to  M-panM  U,M  dm 
into  two  cluwt ;  nanuilj-,  Ititvtjti-dmtit  utt 
iedate^ ;  iha  tormn  bcinx  ttpun  mfiatii 
wbdivbiniH,  uxait\}\  Di<Al<tmtJr,K,  tlM  isitl 
Oowon  buo  loo  oo»M  it  cuTsrnft.  *»  «l] 
roUk  b«ng  duliiiE^ 


•eiup. 


a  Ua,  n 


B,  M  ill  Lbc  •»>< 
itoiloft.     VkI    ih»o  miiiula   and  »ppiirwttly  ii»igiiili- 
mil  irib»  of  regeubltw,  u  almdy  aUtHl,  are  bj  no 
DHiu  u*rl»a  or  tupcHluoai  in  the  Kale  ot  iialure. 

The  plantB  coropaMMl  of  the  second  deKriplion  of 
mcmbnne.  Juwieu  named  VaMrulnrn  or  CBItUdonrir, 
beeanwibe  nrgaoiiatiun  mu  moracnniptieatcd,  consiat- 
Ingof  eelU  of  Tarioiia  bm,  lying  in  variuua  portions, 
in  dMiB-r  IT  looser  UmiiHe  or  partitions,  Uid  being  in- 
TKiablTfilirou*;  and,  moreoier,  rilling  from  their  seeds 
ftaruubeil  with  epljleduns  or.  Kcd-lL-a.e*  Uf  ther" 
eonie  preMnlMl  one  aeed-leaf  only,  but  the  gre»t  maj 
rily  prVMDled  l«o  ;  hence  the  Utter  were  called  Dti 
Ik^DRnF,  wid  the  former  A/onrwD/ifJei/onrir.  This  d 
ftpenco  in  the  deTelopmETit  of  the  seedii   ~"  "'  ''"' 


Pfcnl/toilonoiu.l^iifofthieominon  An'l'' !""■ 
letf  111(0  (!i-»Br«l  branches,  wllic\i  run  in  ncati^  v;Mfc\\e\\ 


ty  other 

i>  juii^L'd  bv  tliat  fricndl;  awl  hMfW 
i:'.'i]rsc  and  inUrefaftnga  nf  aiMidMil, 
in  bi-l<vi-<n  home  and  farain  p 
mill,  wliatever  maf  be  its  mhtt^f 
jirufeHors  will  spmlilj  aapfdy  ■  M 


onler  loittKover  iruiy  trHV*  laitt  u1  liui 
tould  Dirt'  hfl  MOfiiry  thut  ilu']  ^i.nlil  di 


nvundnl  i  And  the  mnra 
,  th»  mori  likrl]r  atitll  w 

I(  ikon  Im  ■uuih  (btpBTtlDMiU  to  wlilch  uur 
r*  k  nauliBr  uocm  Uiui  lo  utiun,  uul  uluuli 
MiMforc  mote  recdily  eiuohie,  tfaa  Uitnw 
ir*  ought  Id  dednan  oar  rMult.  It  may  bv 
ball  fliM  maoy  (liiiw*.  wtiicb,  frOm  tliw  «•)>- 
HIT  iituMrfiujc  lacalll«%  wo  auuuil  uiuluoluul, 
rnr  iliB  UM  or«oiuequBn(  d«*l|is  which  ihey 
Htt  alill,  If,  in  tbs  connHi  ef  our  im^irKtinii, 
\y  of  bodiM  which  wv  ejui  oliwrra  iiii»iiIhI/, 
viry  iKtrl  tLduiniblv  a<l»t>liMl  tar  u  K[>ei-iHi: 


iioy  round  him  ;  that  the  planets  ju*e  |;h)bfs  biniilar  to 
our  own,  revolving  at  once  upon  tlieir  own  axis,  and 
round  the  sun  ;  that  the  moon  is  a  satellite  or  attendant 
Ufion  the  earth,  accoui|)aDying  it  in  its  course,  and  at 
the  same  time  describing  every  mouth  a  circular  orbit 
round  it ;  and  that  to  several  of  the  phuiets  are  attached 
similar  moons  or  satellites,  bearing  to  them  a  corre- 
sponding relation. 

By  turning  to  our  article  Astronomy,  in  which  the 
number  of  the  planets,  and  their  distances  from  the  sun, 
M'ith  other  })articular8,  are  noted,  it  will  be  seen  that 
the  earth  which  wo  inhabit  is  but  a  very  snuiU  point, 
even  in  the  solar  systoiu  (as  the  concourse  of  pLuiurts 
round  the  suu  has  been  called),  and  that  it  forms  but 
a  part  of  one  magnihccnt  and  resplendant  whole.  Jiut 
to  ascertain  the  marks  of  a  designing  mind  in  this 
mighty  maze  of  brilliant  wonders,  let  us  turn  our  atten- 
tion to  some  of  those  particulars  iTgarding  them  with 
which  wc  are  aci^uainted;  and  it  must  be  confessed, 
that,  if  we  are  to  sup})ose  them  mere  masses  of  matter 
unclothed  with  aught  bearing  analogy  to  our  vegetable 
productions,  and  uninhabited  by  beings  either  sentient 
or  rational,  it  will  be  dithcult  to  see  why  any  of  the 
arrangements  connected  with  these  bodies,  so  far  at 
least  as  they  themselves  are  concerned,  and  apart  from 
their  attractive  influence  u]K>n  our  own  world,  should 
be  cither  beneficial  or  the  contrary.  It  is  solely  on  the 
coujccture  that  there  are  organised  beings  on  their  sur- 
face to  be  warmed,  and  nourislicd,  and  upheld,  that  we 
can  argue  regarding  such  arrangements ;  and  making 
this  conjecture,  we  shall  find  that  there  arc  some  very 
remarkable  apparent  contrivances  for  ministering  to 
their  comfort  and  happiness.  It  luis  been  supposed  that 
a  ]ihinet  so  far  distant  as  llerschcl,  or  oven  Jupiter  or 
Saturn,  must  sull'er  from  an  extreme  deficiency  both  of 
light  and  heat ;  and  hence  it  lias  been  argued  that  they 
are  necessarily  unfit  for  the  sustenance  either  of  animal 
or  of  vegetable  life.  But  when  we  consider  tlutt  even 
Ilerschel,  the  most  distant  from  the  sun,  possesses  *248 
times  the  light  al]'orded  by  our  full  moon,  it  will  not  be 
difficult  to  believe,  that,  with  a  somewhat  more  acute 
power  of  vision  than  we  possess,  the  inluibitants  of  that 


and  a  very  little  reflectiou  will  Bh< 
have  in  this  respect.  What  a  i 
spectacle  must  these  rings  present 
Saturn  I  During  ita  more  than  foi 
mer,  the  night  must  be  eoliTeoed 
tion  of  this  brilliant  arch  extendiu, 
from  the  eastern  to  the  western  1 
during  the  day,  the  aun  must  be  n 
in  shedding  light  upon  tlie  world 
"  There  is  no  planet  in  the  solar 
writer,  "  whose  firmament  will  pr 
of  splendid  and  magnificent  objed 
The  various  aspects  of  his  seven  ma 
the  horizon  while  another  is  settinj 
ing  the  meridian;  one  entering  i 
another  emerging  from  it ;  one  app 
and  another  with  a  gibbous  idiase 
whole  of  them  shining  together  in  < 
the  majestic  motions  of  the  rings^  a 
ing  the  sky  with  their  splendour,  an 
at  auotlier,  casting  a  deep  sliade  c 
of  the  planet,  and  unveiling  to  Tiei 
starry  firmament — are  scenes  won 
the  Divine  liciug  to  unfold,  and  t 
to  contemplate."  Of  the  other  plai 
individually  to  speak;  our  knowL 
tremely  limited,  and  we  may  8un| 
most  of  them,  the  same  causes  exit 
produce  the  various  seasons.  Ti 
seasons,  further  tlian  tliat  theya 
influences  of  the  celestial  bodies,  w« 
To  the  arrangement  of  these,  anc 
and  all-pervading  knowledge  and  | 
designed  them,  are  we,  in  a  woi 
opening  beauties  of  sprins — the  fi 
arrayed  in  flowers  and  cloUied  will: 
and  sear  leaves  of  autumn,  with  if 
happy  harvests — and  the  cold  but 
which  even  in  its  frigidity  serves  a 
tlie  scheme  of  the  natunJ  world. 

lu  these  arrangements  we  sco  pi 
power,  and  the  beneficence  of  (hat , 


Ma^.  I 


lii  f^U\*duiJU  LI  ^UTOukd 


!■!■  01  III   c'Mutl.  It  (U'tmui-:.   .  .. 


«uFning-e>WB,  whoi  kirplinl  l«  tin;  t\ 
caUM.     W«  tHi  RWra  »r  In*  th»  f>' 

■n  chMiipr  of  UmiwpllITiB  ptVMIIl'r,  1 
r  oT  llu:  nlr  t*  well  uU|>t«l  M  tht  n 

i  1(  betra  ffraittT,  our  euetfjau  wnul 
'         '  ■  tiiral  load ;  g,nil 


h«r;.,«.n,l.n„H.n, 

4Wti>»>  <.»  ..        ' 

D   OUIlcr 

ira.    U 

uwtiiv 

inuB4Uin.:juh..,r    . 

Mtn.talk.M'iI'L 

u«r«4-d  10  lb«  ... 

lOMBraMiN  Ik  I. 

■  liiWi-''- 

^ 
r 


L«*&«A^M*W*^'A«     *«> 


degree.  All  organic  bodies  are  capable  of  resisting  to 
a  great  extent,  and  of  modifying  the  action  of,  heat 
and  cold;  indeed,  this  principle  of  self-preservation 
is  in  them  eo  striking  as  to  have  been  regarded  from 
a  very  early  period  as  the  most  essential  attribute  of 
life.  The  power  possessed  by  the  higher  classes  of 
animals,  of  preserving  a  more  or  less  uniform  degree 
of  heat,  is  almost  unlimited.  In  very  cold  climates  the 
thermometer  not  unfrequently  sinks  to  50°  or  55**  below 
the  freezing  point,  while  in  very  hot  ones  it  is  some- 
times 120°  or  125°  above  it,  making  a  difference  of  1 70° 
or  180°;  still,  however,  vthe  temperature  of  the  body 
remains  unchanged.  What  unanswerable  evidence  of 
design  is  this,  and  how  limitless  must  be  that  Power  who 
could  create  such  wonderful  adaptations ! 

If  the  atmospheric  pressure  produces  in  some  mea- 
sure the  regulation  of  heat  and  cold,  in  no  less  degree 
does  it  affect  moisture  and  its  concomitants— clouds, 
misty  rain,  snow,  and  hail ;  and  thus  we  are  dependent 
for  many  of  our  comforts,  and  for  most  of  our  necessi- 
ties, upon  the  due  adjustment  of  atmospheric  influences. 
Winds,  too,  arise  from  any  unwonted  atmospheric  pres- 
sure disturbing  the  equilibrium  of  the  atmosphere,  and 
are  the  efforts  of  nature  to  restore  the  balance.  All  the 
<^iange8  of  weather,  the  most  violent  storms  and  tem- 
pests, own  the  same  cause. 

Connected  with  this  subject,  as  evidencing  design, 
is  Uie  composition  of  the  air,  which  is  precisely  that  bist 
adapted  to  support  respiration.  It  consiata,  besides 
small  proportions  of  aqueous  vapour  and  carbon,  of  two 
fluids,  or  gases,  called  oxygen  and  nitrogen.  In  a  se^ 
rate  state  these  gases  are  inimical  to  life.  Lavoisier 
proved  by  experiment  that  pure  air,  or  oxvgen  gas,  if 
respired  for  a  certain  time,  rarifios  the  blood  too  much, 
and  increases  the  rapidity  of  the  circulation,  the  effects 
of  which  are  violent  fever,  inflammation  of  the  lungs, 
and  death.  Nitrogen  is  equally  destructive  to  life,  as 
not  yielding  that  principle  on  which  the  purification  of 
the  blood  (fepends.  It  is  their  combination  that  renders 
them  salutai^  to  the  constitution,  neither  consuming 
life  by  too  much  stimulus  and  excitement,  nor  deaden- 
ing its  ener^es  by  a  languid  circulation  and  depression 


«*  a«^^*« 


The  blue  sky  which  now  snmmiid 
owing  to  the  thin  watery  vapoari  fl 
sphere,  and  reflecting  peculiar  rayi  < 
the  violet,  would  not  have  beeo  tbm 
we  find  such  evidences  of  dmga. 
which  the  sky  exhibito !  Of  aU  hM 
is  there  any  to  surpaa  that  mild  ai 
harmonising  with  all  around  us,  an 
fatigued  wiui  more  brilliant  anddai 
for  relief  and  repose  I  The  nnbel 
this  colour  was  the  remit  of  jdiaoei 
other,  a  bright  yellow,  a  dasidiqg  « 
a  fearful  colour,  how  uneooifortSbli 
it  have  been  for  the  Tiaion  ci  maal 
sphere  is  necessary  to  heariqg;  itf 
vision,  and  contributes  also  to  tlw  i 
not  only  do  the  beings  on  earth  «■ 
means,  but  it  contributes,  to  tlw  ens 
tribes,  enabling  them  not  only  to  m 
the  water,  or  ascend  and  defend  b 
There  are  still  other  relatioai  ci 
and  external  nature,  to  whkh  «•  i 
as  illustrative  of  design ;  and  thajr  i 
out  them  certain  iiypoi^tant  faiietioi 
formed,  and,  consequently,  man  ooi 
relations,  which  may  be  termed  My 
numerous  and  neeeasary  to  Ulk  m 
the  individual  is  the  more  devwipa 
while  they  may  be  all  inolnded  in  i 
nutrition  and  sensation,  tbej  ai«  € 
as  the  operations  of  the  former  «r» 
Uie  extension  of  the  latter  grentar ; 
more  numerous  ii)  man  than  in  uq| 
in  the  phvsical  s^atioDs,  to  aonM 
ahready  alluded,  so  in  the  orguue  ^ 
first  rank  to  tlie  atmosphere^  wo  m 
so  admirablv  adapted  to  snstain  ift. 
also,  through  which  we  roeeivo  hetH 
city,  of  which  we  appear  to  ho  is  i 
that  principle  of  air  whidi  puiMia 
it  for  the  performance  of  its  mvwbI 
matters  are  inherent  in  all  living  hfl 


NATURAL  THEOLOGY 


ind  skill  which  its  eonstrooUon  exhibits.    At 
e  time,  it  most  be  obrious  that  this  construction 
>ye  would  not  answer  its  purposes,  unless  the 
tion  of  light  corresponded  to  it.     Light  is  an 
of  the  most  peculiar  kind  and  properties,  and 
element  can  hai*dly  be  conceived  to  have  been 
n  the  universe  without  some  regard  to  its  ope- 
and  functions.     As  the  eye  is  made  for  light, 
must  have  been  made,  at  least  among  other 
r  the  ^e.   What  we  have  said  of  light  is  equally 
>le  to  heat.     It  is  obvious  that  the  vital  energy 
to  is  much  diminished,  even  suspended,  during 
while  with  the  return  of  summer  they  again 
>rth  their  leaves  and  flowers ;  the  same  altema- 
ains  also  among  hybemating  animals.     Heat  is 
ly  the  cause  of  these  changes ;  so  much  so,  in- 
lat  vegetables  niay  be  forced  to  invert  the  order 
teasons.     The  climates  in  fact  demonstrate  the 
•e  of  heat.     How  stunted  is  both  animal  and 
le  life  in  polar  regions,  and  how  exuberant  do 
ne  individuals  b^orae  under  warmer  skies! 
;ity  undoubtedly  exists  in  the  atmosphere  in  all 
es ;  but  we  know  very  imperfectly  the  laws  of 
tnt,  and  are  still  more  ignorant  of  its  atmospheric 
i>D.     The  present  state  of  science,  while  it  per- 
»  to  hazard  an  opinion,  does  not  enable  us  to 
e  those  adaptations  of  its  laws  to  its  uses,  which 
discover  in  those  cases  where  the  laws  and  the 
e  both  of  them  more  apparent.  <'  It  is  at  any  rate 
t>bable,"  says  Whewell,  ^  that  electricity  has  its 
int  purposes  in  the  economy  of  tlie  atmosphere, 
is  being  so,  we  may  see  a  use  in  the  thunderstorm 
\  stroke  of  the  lightning.     These  violent  events 
th  regard  to  the  electricity  of  the  atmosphere, 
rinds  are  with  regard  to   heat  and  moisture, 
estore  the  equilibrium  where  it  has  been  dis- 
and  carry  Uie  fluid  from  places  where  it  is 
nous,  to  others  where  it  is  deflcient.     We  are 
tituted,  however,  that  these  crises  impress  every 
h  a  feeling  of  awe.     The  deep  lowering  of  the 
»f  the  thunder-clood,  the  overwhelming  burst  of 
ilosion,  the  flash  from  which  the  steadiest  eye 
.  and  the  irresistible  aiTow  of  the  lightning  which 
hly  substance  can  withstand,  speak  of  something 
even  independently  of  the  personal  danger  which 
ay  whisper.    They  convey,  far  more  than  auy 
;>pearance  does,  the  idea  of  a  superior  and  mighty 
manifesting  displeasure  and  threatening  punish- 
Yet  we  find  that  this  is  not  the  language  which 
eak  to  the  physical  inquirer ;  he  sees  these  for- 
i  symptoms  only  as  the  means  or  the  consequences 
.    What  office  the  thunderbolt  and  the  whii'lwind 
,ve  iu  the  morcU  world,  we  cannot  here  discuss ; 
tainly  he  must  speculate  as  far  beyond  the  limits 
Dsophy  as  of  piety,  who  pretends  to  have  learnt 
lese  work  more  of  evil  than  of  good.     In  the 
f  world,  these  apparently  destructive  agents  are, 
other  movements  and  appearances  of  the  atmo- 
parts  of  a  great  scheme,  of  which  every  disco- 
t  purpose  is  marked  with  beneficence  as  well  as 
I. 

think  we  have  now  sufiiciently  shown  the  won- 
idaptations  and  relations  that  exist  between  some 
phenomena  of  external  nature  and  organised 
ces.  It  does  not  accord  with  our  purpose  to 
leeply  or  at  greater  length  into  the  subject,  but 
le  httle  we  have  said,  must,  we  hope,  carry  with 
lonviction,  that  verily  it  is  a  God  who  made  and 
iie  universe. 

DESIGN  IN  THE  STRUCTUKE  OF  THE  EARTH. 

evident,  even  on  a  very  casual  inspection,  that 
fitce  or  crust  of  the  globe  we  inhabit  has  under- 
lany  changes,  and  these  both  great  in  extent  and 
;  duration.  Two  agents,  fire  and  water,  have 
oainly  instrumental  in  their  production.  The 
the  great  source  of  aqueous  influence,  seems, 
ime  immemorial,  to  have  been  engaged  in  a 
e  to  danmde  or  level  the  surface  of  the  earth, 

581 


not  only  by  the  direct  action  of  its  tides  and  currents 
upon  coasts,  but  also  by  means  of  the  clouds  of  vapour 
which  it  sends  up  into  the  atmosphere,  and  which  re- 
descend)  on  the  earth  in  the  shape  of  rain  and  snow, 
giving  rise  to  numberless  springs  and  rivers,  all  of 
which  have  some  effect,  less  or  more,  in  washing  down 
the  dry  land.  This  system  of  detrition,  carried  on  from 
a^  to  age,  would  have  produced  a  state  of  things  vei^ 
different  from  that  which  now  exists,  had  it  not  been 
for  tlie  antagonising  agency  of  fire,  which,  li^orking 
from  the  centre  outwards,  either  by  extensive  convul- 
sions or  byslowupheavements,  has  elevated  and  repaired 
the  earth  s  surface  as  fast  as  the  waters  have  abraded 
it,  and  has  compelled  the  ocean  to  give  back  to  the 
light,  in  the  form  of  continents  and  islands,  the  mate- 
nals  which  it  had  befoi*e  swallowed  up. 

In  this  reciprocal  action  and  counteraction,  and  in 
their  effects  upon  the  earth's  surface,  we  find  abundant 
proofs  of  benevolent  design.  By  these  means  have  been 
produced  those  extensive  irregularities — that  diversity 
of  hill  and  vale,  ridge  and  plam — on  which  depends  the 
fitness  of  the  earth  for  the  maintenance  of  all  organic 
life,  whether  animal  or  vegetable.  If  the  surface  were 
level  and  smooth,  the  vapours  raised  from  the  sea  by 
the  sun  would  find  no  channel  for  their  return,  and  the 
globe  would  necessarily  become  a  stagnant  marsh,  un- 
suited  for  the  residence  of  man  and  the  greater  part  of 
the  creatures  that  now  tenant  it  along  with  him.  But 
even  if  roan  could  have  inhabited  the  earth  without  its 
existing  irregularities,  how  few  comparatively  would 
have  been  the  advantages  of  his  position  !  Had  the 
matters  cai*ried  down  and  deposited  in  the  early  seas, 
in  tlie  form  of  chalk-beds,  limestone-beds,  and  coal-beds, 
with  all  the  treasures  of  minerals  and  metals  accom- 

Eanying  them,  remained  where  they  were  first  accumu- 
ited,  man  would  have  lost  all  the  most  essential  elements 
of  industry  and  civilisation.  The  changes  and  disrup- 
tions which  have  taken  place  in  the  crust,  have  brought 
to  light  a  fund  of  riches,  without  which  he  would' have 
been  poor  in  comforts  and  in  arts.  Looking  to  those 
vast  coal-fields  alone,  which  the  crust  of  our  globe 
contains,  can  we  imagine  for  a  moment  that  the  great 
changes  by  which  these  ruined  forests  of  the  primeval 
world  were  first  spread  out  and  moulded  into  new 
forms,  and  then  upheaved  to  the  reach  of  man,  to  sup- 
ply him  with  endless  stores  of  heat,  light,  and  wealtJi, 
were  produced  by  blind  chance,  or  by  aught  but  a 
creative  designer,  a  beine  equally  great  and  eood  I 

On  examining  further  into  the  condition  of  the  earth's 
crust,  as  established  by  the  changes  it  has  undergone, 
we  find  numerous  other  proofs  of  the  wise  foresight 
which  has  ordered  and  arranged  the  whole.  We  dis- 
cover that  all  the  successive  mutations  of  our  planet, 
extensive  as  they  have  evidently  been,  were  rendered 
compatible  with  the  existence  and  enjoyment  of  count- 
less numbers  of  organised  and  sentient  beings.  All  the 
rocky  strata  of  the  crust,  with  the  exception  of  those 
which  appear  to  be  the  oldest  and  deepest-seated,  are 
mixed  up  abundantly  with  organic  remains,  both  ani- 
mal and  vegetable,  and  indeed  some  of  tlie  great  lime- 
stone-beds are  found  to  be  entirely  composed  of  the 
shells  of  insects.  In  short,  whatever  was  the  stato  of 
the  surface  at  any  given  period  of  the  revolutions  fittine 
it  for  the  ultimate  residence  of  man,  we  find  organised 
beings  to  have  sprung  up  upon  it,  with  such  habits 
and  peculiarities  of  structure  as  enabled  them  to  exist 
and  enjoy  existence  under  the  peculiar  circumstances 
in  which  they  were  placed.  Nothing  can  more  dis- 
tinctly show  that  our  planetary  revolutions  had  a  noble 
scope  and  purpose,  and  were  under  the  guidance  of 
laws  framed  by  a  being  as  benevolent  as  wise. 

DESIGN  IN  ANIMAL  PHTSIOLOGY. 

The  earth,  whose  structure  we  have  just  briefly 
noticed,  serves  as  the  place  of  habitation  for  two  kinos 
of  existences— the  animal  and  vegetable^in  whose  for- 
mation and  functions  we  discover  the  beautiful  dispen- 
lationa  of  Providence,  extending  on  every  side  over  a 
vast  ruige  ^f  beings,  and  demonstrating  the  unity  of 


CHAMBERS'S  WFOnMATION  FOn  THE  PEOPLE. 


pUn  on  wliieh  oreaniaed  cTcation  bM  been  devised. 
AniJ,  finit,  the  whole  eirele  of  oar  knowledge  iota  ool 
aJTopl  g™ierevidenoeo('de«innlhaneoniiiir»li>'e«». 
tomj ;  ill  it  we  find  innametablo  oontrivuieeB  for  ll« 
ooiiifiirt  uiil  happineM  of  the  diffBnmt  tribes  of  beings 
mliptcd  lo  the  ueuuluuitiee  of  llieir  oonditoon  ;  in  each 
ftlliiiuit  we  Me  the  Btne  org»n  repeated,  but  mndilieil  (o 
«  UTilUble  to  the  hubiu  of  it"  puneasnr  ; 


iiig  bII  toe  wondera  of  « 

which  Mr*e  Iha  inquiriug  mind  more  forcibly  tl 
chuiige  or  lu.xlifiwiion  of  fbrinHii^n  for  llw 


the  ilenigim]^  hand  of  nn  iiiicllijiuiit  Creator.  Alihouzh 
errn  theu  the  kTsnninnt  would  bs  tolally  untviubTo, 
■Rill  tbo  demoiintraliaa  which  disprov™  il  rtonid  fuve 
bt*n  lo«  tttJiifsoU'fy  and  perfwt,  lu  the  »urpri»itig 
•LIU  »Dd  bonelicBnt  c«ro  by  wMeh  tbo  elruclute  of  eTnry 
»nimnl  ii  uluptwi  to  lU  inillvidoiil  habit*  uld  liecee- 
thiM,  oonld  iiui  lin<D  been  w  *oll  dieplajed.  A  Mnglo 
tool  in  the  hands  of  the  carpODUr  b  a  proof  of  con- 
trl»juiep,butihat  pt^ufliiniijehniultipltfdiKidreodBrwJ 
more  frirciblo  wheu  wo  tliid  iliB  mnie  fiiHtruinent  modi- 
SikI  inti)  a  tboaund  forme  lo  milt  ihu  dilfercDt  opera- 
llmu  of  tile  worknmn.  I'tw  of  Iho  funotiona  of  uiimatvd 
WinsK  beltvr  illiiHtratu  this  than  that  of  dimenlatiuu, 
whieli  we  thall  now  briully  (raw,  tlmrngb  tho  huniblB 
(Oophjioa  and  wonre  up  to  birdu  and  mammiferous 
aniiuaU.  Nutrition  la  BOiniiion  lo  all  animals  without 
vxeeptlon  !  and  tlio  nuineruus  and  varied  modificationa 
of  the  ineana  uiiijjloyml  tu  eircct  it,  aro  obvious  proofs 
«r  the  d"*it^  and  liilelllgcnce  ft  tho  Creator.  There 
mra  itoniu  aiilnml*  no  nearly  allied  to  pluitaaa  to  be 
tCarcBly  dlatiaguiBhahle  from  them ;  and  in  these,  as 
'     '       nutritive   matter  ia   inlrodnced   by 

Fixed  lika  planU  to  the  >pot  where  Ihey 

ii  would  have  been  saperSuOuii ; 

t  not  as  alticlied,  but  seek  their 
IhrOQgh   their  toconiolivo  powece, 
orgaiia  for  soiling  and  preparing  it  are  neceeaary. 


bencfieent  attention  in  the  pi  wui  imljMi  «Hm 
crc«ture«,  in  whniw  nr^inaliou  and  iMliM 
admirable  indimiona  of  ercallie  wMomta 
By  the  aid  of  the  pilertucopr,  wa  are  miW 
orive  the  Creator  of  the  Dolverae  minuulf  In 
iht  worlda  of  living  ctv«iDrea  to  *hieh  W 
birth  oil  a  blade  of  gmo,  or  in  a  drop  of  *M 
discover  frmti  teriuw  of  wondor,  aad  tntdwi 
dent  deaign,  rnnoiiK  hiaitit  of  antmale^  (ifaM^ 
number  aa  la  intnuMwaa.  Tliew  Utomrmi 
an  able  aoalyela  wa>  lately  riien  by  Dr  Qi 
tbo  Eilinburgh  Nov  rhIloaopEltBl  Juaxtal,  1 
potod  the  oWnrity  in  which  the  *-^*-''' 
plunged,  and  displayed  the  wondvn  of  thaf 
tion.  To  render  iheir  dignMir*  oipUM  Ipa 
uiKiiw,  ho  HUl)Jlli(^d  Iheiii  with  colouiwd  fe 
cuininuulcntcd  iu  ting*  Vi  the  earni«*  Oni 
It  [Muucd.  The  Diuaenl  a  Dilanta  partMh  d 
itteiiuated  aolutlon  ot  pqra  indigo  wH  ml 
drop  of  water  on  the  Held  of  the  nirpHaif^ 
were  noniv  of  the  inftunry  animalnibe^  IM  ■ 
lifiil  ]il;euonii>na  priHiented  tltenwrlres  Pto* 
budiM,  whirh  had  bom  hithvi-tu  4Uitc  tnof* 
came  dotted  with  B  DUtnbcr  of  >p»U  of  a  I 
colour,  evidently  produet4  by  partielcs  of  U 
mutated  in  Iheu  ailuatiooa.  In  Mnw  ipao^ 
larly  tlioM  whieh  had  a  <vnlTM4»d  Mt 
botweeu  the  bwul  and  the  body,  1^•M  |MM 
bo  trucd  in  a  oontiauoiu  linu  in  thate  fM 
the  mouth  to  iheae  intomal  mvlilca.  Is  U 
the  employment  of  poIoarJng  tnallrn,  EhM 
ceeded  in  aMwrtaining  the  euttenta  of  a  Q* 
gealive  eaviiica  in  all  llie  kanwn  Kpivfla  itm 
animals :  one  of  the  UrgeM  a1  •tluA  )■  km 
iHSB  a  highly  conlpliciile>rstrDc(ur«  wUJi  tifU 
ornn* :  with  rcapect  to  the  uutrlUn  hoM* 
a  head  provided  with  a  regular  ^fuMtt  If 
tion,  consisliiig  of  jaw*  having  ma>  tM  W~ 
wUieh  were  aeen  aetivcly  opening  »i  "   "    " 


NATURAL  THEOLOGY. 


ide  with  its  enormotts  voracity  «nd  quick  diges- 
It  has  been  computed  that  caterpillars  some- 
devour  aud  digest  no  less  than  three  times  their 
ireight  of  aliment  in  four-and-twenty  hours.  On 
ther  hand,  daring  the  subsequent  metamorphosis 
1  the  animal  undergoes,  no  food  is  taken;  but 
v,  or  rather  the  God  of  nature,  has  wondeifully, 
rith  beneficent  design,  provided  against  any  ncces- 
6r  this,  by  causing  insects  to  become  yery  fat,  as 
■ved  by  Malpighi,  on  the  approach  of  these  changes ; 
at  this  fat,  being  absorbed  into  the  blood  while 
are  going  on,  serves  all  the  purposes  of  a  supply 
mentary  matters  from  without.  The  insects  now 
r  consideration  exhibit  at  different  periods  of  their 
BDce  the  greatest  contrasts,  not  only  in  external 
,  but  also  in  thoir  habits,  instincts,  and  modes  of 
stence.  The  larva,  as  we  have  seen,  is  remarkable 
a  voracity,  requiring  largo  supplies  of  food,  and 
liming  enormous  quantities  of  vegetable  matter; 
perfect  insect  or  butterfly,  having  attained  its  full 
nsions,  is  sufficiently  supported  by  small  quantities 
more  nutntious  food,  consisting  either  of  animal 
•  or  of  the  fluids  prepared  by  flowers,  which  are 
mUly  of  a  saccluu'ine  quality,  and  contain  nourfsh- 
tin  a  highly  concentrated  form.  It  is  evident  that 
■me  apparatus  which  is  necessary  for  the  digestion 
ha  bulky  food  taken  in  during  the  former  peritn]. 
Id  not  be  suited  for  the  assimilation  of  that  which  is 
bed  during  the  latter ;  and  that,  in  order  to  accom- 
ile  it  to  this  altered  condition  of  its  function,  con- 
ilble  changes  must  be  made  in  iVn  btructuro.  Who 
believe  that  these  changes  are  made  without  wis- 
er pei-suade  themselves  that  all  this  is  to  be  brought 
t  by  causes  divested  of  knowledge  and  uuderstaud- 
Dr  Rogct,  in  his  admirable  Dridgcwater  Treatise, 
teaatifully  illustrated  the  subject,  by  very  clear 
tttrect  drawings  by  Mr  Newport,  of  the  three  diffe- 
itatea  of  the  entire  alimentary  canal  of  the  [>rivet 
moth  (Sphinjf  ligitatri) :  flrst,  when  a  caterpillar ; 
Ui  a  chrysalis;  and,  lastly,  as  the  moth:  and  of 
<  taking  our  text  from  Uoget,  or  rather  from  He- 
^ve  shall  endeavour  to  givo  some  account.  We 
fecen  that  in  the  caterpillar  the  stomach  forms  by 
t«  most  couHiderable  portion  of  the  alimentary 
.  bearing  some  resemblance  in  its  structure  and 
\%y  to  the  stomachs  of  certain  worms.  This  is 
'«d  by  a  large  but  short  and  perfectly  straight  in- 
ei.  In  the  chr^'salis,  these  organs  have  undergone 
Ivrable  modifications ;  the  whole  canal,  but  more 
imlly  the  stomach,  being  contracted  both  in  length 
iridth :  the  shortening  of  the  intestine  not  being 
Ktionate  to  that  of  Uic  whole  body,  obliges  it  to 
<3ed  upon  itself  for  a  certain  length.  In  the  moth, 
contraction  of  the  stomach  has  proceeded  much 
ft 7,  and  an  additional  cavity,  which  may  be  con- 
»<d  as  a  kind  of  craw,  is  developed ;  the  small  in- 
«  takes  a  great  many  turns  during  its  course,  and 
Se  pouch  has  been  formed  at  the  part  where  it 
the  large  intestine.  **  When  we  consider,**  say 
^  and  Sponce,  s^ieaking  of  the  phenomena  which 
^Te  dct-iiled,  **  the  adaptation  of  all  these  changes 
:*m,  the  loss  of  old  organs  and  the  acouisition  of 
Ones,  to  the  functions  and  mode  of  life  of  the 
^y  we  see  evidently  the  all-powerful  hand  of  that 
^kty  }k*ing  who  erected  the  universe,  upholding 
^  providence,  and  the  law  that  ho  has  given  to 
"  creature,  tho  system  that  he  at  flrst  brought  into 
ftnce." 

insects,  all  parts  concerned  in  digestion  are  in 
end  smaller  and  less  complicated  in  the  carnivorous 
in  the  herbivorous  tribes,  apparently  from  the 
^n  on  which  the  former  subsist  being  already 
'^liaed,  aud  requiring,  therefore,  le(»  preparation 
^  they  are  received  into  the  blood ;  and  it  is  no 
^  bdication  of  design,  to  observe  in  them  how 
^Yibly  parts  are  adapted  to  the  animal  necessities. 
%  scorpions,  spiders,  millepedes,  and  otliers  which 
^r  tlie  moat  part  on  hard  animal  substances,  are 
■<bed  with  jaws  of  a  finu  horny  texture,  in  many 

58a 


cases  very  large,  when  compared  with  tho  size  of  tho 
animal ;  dragon-flies  and  beetles,  particularly  the  stag- 
beetle,  are  examples  in  which  the  jaws  are  very  krge 
and  manifest,  often  possessuig  tooth-like  edges;  and 
these,  too,  feed  on  smaller  insects  than  themselves.  In 
another  description,  of  which  the  bee,  wasp,  aud  ant, 
are  examples,  we  And  the  animal  deserting  the  coarser 
kinds  of  food,  living  chiefly  on  juices ;  and  in  them  also 
we  again  flnd  the  same  mode  of  taking  in  nourishment, 
as  in  the  lowest  stages  of  tho  animal  kingdom,  viz.,  by 
means  of  organs  of  suction,  which  here,  however,  aro 
combined  with  organs  for  maatication.  These  organs 
of  suction  are  still  more  developed  in  insects,  such  as 
gnats,  house-flies,  &c. ;  in  them  they  consist  of  a  tube, 
of  which  the  sides  are  strong  and  fleshy,  and  moveable 
in  every  direction,  like  tho  trunk  of  an  elephant,  and 
having  at  its  extremity  a  double  fold,  resembling  lips 
which  are  well  adapted  for  suction.  The  gnat,  and 
other  insects  which  pierce  the  skin  of  animals,  have  for 
this  purpose  instruments  termed  lancets,  from  their 
shapo  and  ofHce.  In  the  gnat  they  are  Ave  or  six  in 
number,  finer  tlian  a  hair,  exceedingly  sliarp,  and  gene- 
rally barbed  on  one  side;  while  in  the  house-fly  they 
are  flat,  like  the  blade  of  a  knife.  In  the  butterflies, 
however,  which  are  almost  wholly  inde{)endent  of  solid 
nutritive  matter,  these  organs  ])resent  themselves  in 
the  greatest  perfection,  and  without  any  addition  of 
teeth.  The  proboscis  of  this  order  of  insects  is  a  double 
tube,  constructed  by  the  two  edges  being  rolled  longi- 
tudinally till  they  meet  in  the  middle  of  the  lower  sur- 
face, thus  forming  a  tube  on  each  side,  but  leaving  also 
another  tube,  intermediate  to  the  two  lateral  ones. 
This  middle  tube  is  formed  by  the  junction  of  two 
grooves,  which,  by  the  aid  of  a  curious  ap|)aratus  of 
hooks,  lock  into  each  other,  and  can  be  either  united 
into  an  air-tight  canal,  or  be  instantly  separatt^d  at  tho 
pleasure  of  the  animal.*  It  would  be  quite  incompa- 
tible with  the  nature  of  this  essay  to  enter  at  greater 
length  into  the  evidences  of  design,  deducible  from  the 
digestive  apparatus  of  insects.  **  This  immense  class," 
says  Cuvier,  "  in  the  structure  of  their  alimentary  canal, 
exhibit  as  many  variations  as  those  of  all  the  vertebral 
animals  together:  there  are  not  only  the  difTerencefl 
that  strike  us  in  going  from  family  to  family,  and  from 
species  to  species,  but  one  and  the  same  individual  has 
often  a  canal  quite  diflcrent,  according  as  we  examine 
it  in  its  larva  or  imago  state  ;t  and  all  these  variations 
have  relations  very  exact,  often  easily  estimable,  with 
the  temporary  or  constant  mode  of  life  of  the  animals 
in  which  it  is  observable."  That  this  statement  is  cor- 
rect, we  have  seen ;  and  no  one  can  be  blind  enough  to 
deny  that  it  evinces  an  origin  of  things  quite  incompa- 
tible with  mere  brute  and  uncertain  chance. 

DRSIQ.N  IN  THE  FORMATIO.'V  OP  FISHRR. 

Still  ascending  in  the  scale  of  creation,  we  come  to 
the  contemplation  of  fishes.  We  ask,  was  it  by  mere 
chance  that  the  respiratory  apparatus  of  fishes  was  so 
formed  that  their  blood  receives  its  vivifying  principle 
from  the  air  which  is  held  in  solution  by  the  water  in 
which  they  move  I  And  who  cannot,  in  this  one  instance, 
but  discern  the  hand  of  a  ruling  Providence,  adapting 
the  structure  of  animals  to  the  habits  which  are  to  cha- 
racterise them  t  Was  it  by  chance  that,  in  the  plaice, 
tho  sole,  the  turbot,  and  other  flat  fishes,  the  eyes  are 
placed  both  on  one  side  of  the  body,  an  isolated  instance 
of  a  want  of  uniformity  in  the  two  sides t  No;  the 
design  is  obvious :  for  as  these  animals  are  destined  to 
continue  always  with  one  side  in  tho  mud  at  the  bottom 
of  the  water,  an  eye  on  this  side  would  have  been  super- 
fluous and  inconvenient  to  them.  The  same  design  and 
evident  adaptation  of  structure  to  circumstances  is 
apparent  in  the  Surinam  sprat.  This  singular  animal 
generally  swims  so  near  the  surface,  that  its  eye  ia 
partly  in  and  partly  out  of  the  water ;  and  all  its  parts 
correspond  with  this  strange  peculiarity,  the  pupil  being 
partially  divided  into  an  upper  and  a  lower  jKnrtion^  ana 


*  Rog«t,  a  114. 


t  Imago  or  perfect  stattb 


cnAMBETlSS  INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


Nlingirf  twngloLni,  nn  upper  mid  slower 

C  atMrllvd  logrthcr.     U  ufippnra  llmt  tho  suixTior 

pirt  ot  [lie  oyo  fa,  llkolhnt  of  tarrOBtrial  aniniftU,  icinptcil 
torrfr»ctray«tr»QBnillteiiby«ir,  nnd  tho  infmiurpiivl, 
likeltuito(»<iu»licMiinud!i,  thoss Irangroiller)  hy  wntep, 
and  (hat  the  rpfracting  power  of  tho  Bsvenil  parts  cf 
the  aye  is  IKconlingly  muuh  leu  above  thnn  below. 
With  regard  lo  t]ie  function  of  bearing,  «h  find  in  fishes 
the  Crmtor  Mill  |irocccJing  on  one  »iibI  plan  ur  unity 
of  rieaifpi;  with  the  exoeptjou  of  ono  speuiea,  all  (ha 
part*  of  tho  ear  are  hurleil  within  (he  skull,  and  Read 
no  procejis  to  the  aurfscs;  auit  this  is  preciMly  vbat 
WB  should  liavB  looked  for  in  beings  deilined  U>  bear 
(liniagh  the  nisdium  of  water,  the  vibration*  of  which 
being  flO  mudh  mare  powerful  thiUt  tboae  of  air,  would 
render  the  complicated  oppamtua  requisite  in  terrestrial 
animals  in  them  superfluaus.  In  the  cLaas  of  fiahen, 
we  HO  Ilic  lowest  conditiou  of  the  alimenlar]'  canal  aa 
it  ifl  foond  in  vertebral  animolB.  Pisbe*,  voracious  to 
a  provorli,  cubsist  almost  entirely  on  animal  food.  The 
(Kwan  tennis  chiefly  with  animal  life.  It  is  a  dense,  and 
rich,  and  moving,  and  lemp«MuDUB  element,  wlicro 
vagetAtion  i*  comparatively  small,  contrasted  with  Hm 
daTclopemcnl  in  tlie  light  and  unronating  element  of 
tlie  atmiMphorc  'I'his  rii-h  and  reaiating  element  of 
»™t-r  -il—nii.l-  in  p.'^rv  Inlilude  and  in  every  dro[>,  with 
nil  lo'-^i-  '.I I'.f  lit'ingfl.    Thus,  fishee  bave  the 

t. -''''''    '     '    "  :    .^' food.     Their  teeth,  more  ii>- 

Mi-iii:.'  n!.  1 1  |.i  I  ii.  .1. than  nuiHtication,  arc  ^arp, 

rrriini-il,  (U'lim-.  iuid  |iointod  conea,  adapted  to  grasp 
atiil  r-^taiii  vvery  living  thing  tliat  movcx  m  the  watera, 
and  placed  in  all  parta  of  the  mouth  of  these  all- 
devouring  animals ;  tlieir  (esophagus  or  gullet  ia  very 
wide  and  sborl,  and  directly  upeniiig  into  tlioir  cn- 
paeimu  stomach.  Tlios,  the  food  uf  lishes  not  bi'ing 
niMtiealed  in  Ijie  moutli,  does  not  dwell  there  ;  and  aa 
their  am  anrrounded  with  an  abundance  of  moisture, 
Uiey  reqnireno  anlivary  glands  for  lubricating  the  food, 
nnd  they  have  n'>ne.  Like  larvoi,  their  atomacliH  are 
very  large;  nnd  liko  Ihcin,  alao,  tbi'y  are  chiefly  intent 
upon  the  (;nililif!iii"ii  of  Ihi-ii'  iippctilea.  All  other 
penses  seem  lo  li<-  hI.hoM.l'.I  In  iIi{h.  Tlieir  bmm  is  vcrv 
pmnll,  and  ili-ir  -.n-.-  ,--.rr...-|"iii.liriL,-ly  ,.Mh-p.*     T\<'r 


aled  aa  sir  received  into  fl»Iiy  lunn,  dwIdc  I 
sixe  of  the  cells,  which  do  nol  iiii«''daMi 
whole  of  it  Id  eirnie  inlo  conlocl  villi  tbisr* 
i»  one  reason  why  replilee  can  ■utioln  ■»  ] 
to  their  respiration  tat  ■  mudi  longer  tim 
and  mammals  ;  but  nnolhcr  and  •  modi  bi 
is  to  be  found  in  the  distribution  of  tJinr  U 
those  going  to  the  lungs  not  {brmiDg  a  an 
of  the  general  circulating  systnn,  but  am 
it  were,  only  an  appendage  to  it,  whieh  MM] 

cease  to  tnuumil  blood  wilhonl  hi — •  — 

was  destined  always  to  be  in  the 
quudrnpod  nil         .    .<.      - 


We  come  now  to  birds ;  and  wtielher  ■ 

wliatever  tight  it  is  powihlo  to  tisw  litB, 
conelaiion  prosenia  itself  to  tho  mind,  tai 
contrivuicc,  vast  and  cvmprehenaln  ialdl 
everywhere  consplsuous.  Beholil,  In  thiltp 
and  gradually  enlarging  bead  and  iMok.  a 
penetrating  the  yieliSng  air ;  then  lb*  pra»l 
the  tloaiblc  rudder  tail,  the  pquiiwiard  aji^ 
lliors  at  once  adapted  for  lightiMo,  far  «M 
tor  tenacity,  and  all  bcMin^  reUlIua^  aM  »t 
other,  but  lu  the  air  in  wbicb  the  anonl  ill 
wise  contrivance  of  tb«u!  could  not  b*  Ml 
chance.  Theinvestingniemhranee  oftlwl 
longcil  from  varions  riarla  ut  I  heir  surfMe  k 
of  tubes,  olid  expanding  into  baipt,  sawl^i 
all  the  ent^aill^  so  ni  to  kefp  tbem  ttmk 
ruunrled  with  air,  and  ximilar  prolaapioMl 
also  into  the  cavity  of  their  bones^  ■*'*^ 

'(  givinx  li^iBi** 

„  ..  to  auppaitmlTM 

jt  tliis  paliiable  EulHerTieiie]>  efll 
re  of  birds  lu  the  rest,  imodtt 
il  oue  niaster-lund  lias  ncitUs'l 


r,««l  ID  mi«l 
illy  llaUiB' 


■f  anHongwi- 
n  in  Urds'iUi* 


I.™,  and  IkuitiuL-   :»»..„-  ll,,.   ,.„tmil«:  an.l  lin  ,    , 
eeive  th.ir  .uppfv  of  air.  in  gen,  r«l,  not  a.  in   I   , 


'sntid  bulterAiw  ia  tl 
I,  posspHsing  BonKH: 
f..riwr«d.  Th*M« 
vver  in  (be  bills  eft 
i>kiudof  foodoawU 


I  ill  lliin^  lo  Ihi-ir  iiiitnirr  «Ut«.  ThU  l»  u>i 
Ml  MiiUiv&nes:  kuiI  iu'w  Cir  lli«  nMnluMilun  b; 

ft  <■  «%ctol.  Tlic  ihr»dii  or  buiilaiw  abnvM 
aui  art  Isfrriuwt  villi  vat  wiotW,  uiil  diu 
witf  i»  iwrformxl  b;  ni ism  <^  k  nut  nanilier  i^ 

dr  tMili,  *luetk  th"  bmiiuD!  dumt  [bnh  on  «i«t 
ml  whidi  l.i-.l.  iiriJ  i;i'.ii.|>|i'  i.ii;itli''i',     A  fritoi 

"        rt'  .     '  '   "'.':rr\ 


•hioli  prenW  fniii:  '■■i;iil- 

riiulllvnU  nClhirfiMi '  '. ,  »iiA 

!W»rdii.     llw  J>n>i-'  r  l-i(U, 

low;— WhuDt-..!.  ilt.'r. 

-  Ibw  loTij  Abra  II  .1  iliB 

inn,  fJMr arookrri  ].<  lurxilv 

(ircfolinilpkrti  lit  III-  '  ii  tdiil 

•taiA  to  ■  dnar  •»I>  i  'iifili 

0  tbe  duor-plnl,  hikI  II.  '  .  .  '  i'  .  '  fnii«iw 
'or:  ftic  It  I*  pni|xu'l.  ...  i...-.  ^.........v-  iiiu  .inb 

ef  a,  fmhrc  <■  fuiciiLd  U>  tl».'  tilli.:!'. 

1  MlminUv  urMctiii*  of  Iho  fcAihor,  vhleh  tl  h 
1  M«  will)  thw  tniiimHcu^  wioi?* nil  pafMiy  Anr 
)  to  nliich  Uftlure  luu  ilvHipfOoil  il ;  wliirh  iiu  WM, 
1I7  tbiit  tha  luniuiv  inl;h4  tir  unltvd,  hut  lIlM, 
unc  tliiMul  or  IwnuM  ht*  bean  (rpanUed  ftum 
ir  bj|  BOin*  axtvro^  violsne*,  it  ini|;h  t  bi-  rwlu|icil 
ilBiBfiil  fuilHr  •lut  nxiM^on. 

ha  mMiA,  Ihbi  «p|>fttBlu>  cif  cmti-hftn  ami  Ebni^ 
let  Kii  KMh,  il  nuilblE ;  and  »■>  iwc  tlio  iniiiHi- 
»  af  ilw  want.  The  tUuiuiit*  hu'g  Ioom  ami 
l«  fmni  one  aiiodier,fonaing  cnly  n  kliul  >if  (li>\tn ; 
nonMitalian  of  tlm  (Viitliatv,  liDirnri'  Ii  msx  At 
Iiir  ttxr  fliiwiuB  banuun  of  a  tnjr'a  liiiml  >lnw, 
:  raehoiusd  *u  impBrteiitlon  in  lit*  binl,  liinaiiiiicb 
gaeiuui>o«dafihiiM  f«at)»M,4Ul>iOD£h  tlicjniMjr 
J  awiat  it  ID  inaniag,  do  not  »rve  for  flight. 

nm  ¥.iUi  f«lS»»  Ik,  ut  lliiij-ar"  tho  rt.n(«iis  "^ 

J.    And  hcnln  ft  liugular  cii-euniKlaoiiR  imnim. 

imallordcr  of  birdawhich  vmlorwtib  ii>,  hum 
D  dawnmRl*,  let  the  extpmal  mlour  ot  tb>  bk- 
br  what  it  will,  Ibn'r  Creator  ItM  qntvnwUjr 
thani  a  bnl  iif  Ulll^l:  iliiwn  nMt  thflr  ImHw. 

wa  kiuv,  ia  tha  Hamicat  nilour:  anil  thi)  jnir- 
ere  U,  to  Awp  Jm  tin.'  lint  aitalna ftniu  Ilia  livart 
ri^ulation  at  tho  btood.  Il  is  rutOi«r  Obcwiw 
luibln,  that  tliin  In  iiul  foHud  ID  lt»*T  binla)  loT 

tliure  i*  aluo  B  rmMU : — Koiall  htnia  aro  nliK>b 
iKpncd  to  ihe  colli  (hao  lam'  oon !  rnrBamiutb 
y  [irimint,  in  proportion  to  llirir  bulk,  a  miub 
durfani-tuthvair.  Ifa  turlKn-wanditlilHl  into 
Ikt  olSiran*  («upt<o*i»|[  iliv  iriaji*  of  Um  titrtitjr 
D  vnnUboalinilar),  IhcaurbCDof  allllu!  wtbui 
«iMwl  t&e  maniQc  of  ilio  lurtrv}-.  In  tin-  pnipiir- 


>n;n  aHW ;  aiiil  till*  mbiko  toha  tba  axppdiint  I17 
tbal  (iilB*ni7  U  ymviitA  tlir. 
oil  with  whieli 


^n  wlitnli  «np|ilim 
■KIkI  cnation.  I)ti  1 
^rrcJ  a  amall  uij'i  . 
■llkFnib*Un(>«.wln' 

K*  'i  Ilab&l: 


haiif-lU-r^H  contrivaiwr's  liv  wljirh  every  difficulty  is  ob- 
viiitid,  anrl  nature  iM'iui<i«(l  to  the  will  of  its  Almighty 
Antlii>r.  How  luauy  obstacles  were  to  be  overcome 
Ijefon;  a  li^avy  b(»ily  likr  that  of  an  eajjlo  or  the  mi;^liry 
condor  could  he  rend«'red  buoyant  in  the  air,  and  made 
to  track  it**  adventurous  courrte  bo  high  above  the  earth 
as  lo  be  almoht  lont  to  liuman  gaze  !  Ilow  many  con- 
ditions were  noccHKary  to  f^'wc  safety  and  enjoyment  to 
tin;  smallest  of  tlic  winged  tribes,  even  after  the  first 
obstaclch  were  overcome  !  Yet  how  wonderfully  simple 
and  efficacious  the  means  by  which  the  whole  has  been 
accomplished  !  That  man  is  indeed  to  be  pitied  who 
can  turn  even  a  transient  glance  on  such  a  subject,  with- 
out lieing  lost  in  ahtonishment  and  admiration. 

TIIK  STRUCTUnP.  OF  MAN  ANO  OTIIIOl  AMIIALS. 

We  now  arrive  at  the  consideration  of  the  mammalia, 
or  those  animals  which  suckle  their  young  ;  and  at  the 
head  of  tluM  great  class  wo  find  man  proudly  pre-emi- 
nent. We  have  already  seen,  that,  as  the  materials  on 
which  the  function  of  ([igestion  is  to  be  perfonned  are 
numerous  and  diversified,  so  a  difTerencc  exists  in  the 
parts  which  are  subservient  to  it.  Without  altering  the 
general  plan  of  the  function,  or  the  essential  parts  of 
the  organs  concerned  in  it,  nature  makes  such  addi- 
tional provisions,  in  the  instincts  by  which  the  recepticm 
of  fo«Kl  is  guided,  and  in  the  organs  by  which  it  is  assi- 
milated, as  are  suited  to  the  circumstances  in  which  the 
animal  is  place<l,  to  the  food  on  which  it  is  to  subsist, 
and  to  the  ulterior  purposes  which  it  is  to  serve  in  tht; 
world.  Such  evidences  of  design  are  very  remarkable 
in  the  mammalia  ;  an<I  in  few  organs  are  they  more 
powerfully  instance<l  than  in  the  teeth,  between  which, 
in  form,  structure,  and  position,  and  the  kind  of  foo<l  on 
which  each  animal  of  this  class  is  iiit(>nded  to  subsist, 
the  most  intimato  connections  present  themselves. 
These  relations — which  indeed  may  be  also  traced  in 
the  shape  of  the  jaw,  in  the  mode  of  its  articulation  with 
the  liead,  in  the  proportional  size  and  distribution  of 
the  muscles  which  move  the  jaw,  in  the  form  of  the 
head  itmdf,  in  the  length  of  the  neck  and  its  position  on 
the  trunk,  and,  in  fact,  in  the  whole  conformation  of 

fitn   uL-«>lj»*<>ti         l«ni>n   linjkrt    tif\fi<.<»<I     ffi\m   v<>t>%'  nq«*l%r   nrrno 


I  eminences,  corresponding  to  deprci 
I  opposed  to  them  in  the  other  jaw, 
direct  pressure  in  breakin;;  down  hi 
pounding  them,  as  they  would  be  in 
The  apparatus  for  givini^  motion 
wine  varied  according  to  the  fMuticu 
quired  to  act  U|)on  the  food  in  the  d 
articulation  of  the  lower  jaw  to  the 
similar  to  a  hinge ;  but  considermbic 
its  motions  by  the  inteqiosition  of  a 
between  the  two  surfaces  of  articali 
admirably  answering  the  intended  p 
addition  to  the  principal  muvemen 
shutting,  which  are  made  in  a  ver 
lower  jaw  has  also  aomc  degree  of  i 
zontal  or  lateral  direction,  and  in 
being  moved  backwards  or  forwards 
In  the  conformation  of  the  teeth  and 
contrast  is  presented  between  cam 
vorous  animals.  In  the  former,  of  « 
be  taken  as  an  example,  the  whole  i 
tication  is  calculated  for  the  dcstrne 
tl^1ring  and  dividing  the  fleshy  fibn 
armed  with  pointed  eniinencen,  whiel 
opposite  jaws,  so  as  exactly  to  lock  it 
wheel  work,  when  the  mouth  is  close 
.which  close  it  are  of  enomions  size 
the  herbivorous  animals,  on  the  e 
antelope,  the  greatest  force  is  beMov 
the  motions  of  opening  and  shutting 
are  necessary'  for  grinding,  and  whn 
direction.  The  surfaces  of  the  tccti 
of  great  extent ;  and  they  are  at  tl 
rough,  like  those  of  millstones,  their 
very  similar  to  that  performed  by  tl 
grinding.  The  Rotlentia^  or  gnawio 
formed  for  subsisting  on  dry  and  ton 
as  the  bark  and  roots,  and  even  the  mx 
and  the  harder  animal  textures ;  ai 
expressly  adapted  for  gnawing,  nibi 
away,  by  continued  attrition,  the 
organised  bodies.  They  are  all  fumii 


NATURAL  THEOLOGY. 


■k  belonging  to  the  clan  mammalia,  we  find  them 
ly  a  plaee  in  the  aeries  intermediate  between  those 
e  purely  eamivoroua  and  excluRirely  herbivorous 
I,  and  in  some  measure  uniting  the  characters  of 
Tho  powers  of  the  human  stomach  do  not  indeed 
id  to  tlie  digestion  of  either  the  tough  woody  fibres 
gvtebles  on  the  one  hand,  or  the  compact  texture 
nn  on  the  other;  but  still  they  are  competent  to 
tct  nourisliment  from  a  wider  range  of  alimentary 
uices  than  tho  digestive  organs  of  almost  any 
r  animal.  This  adaptation  to  a  greater  variety  of 
may  also  be  inferred  from  the  form  and  disposition 
m  teeth,  which  combino  those  of  different  kinds 
ft  completely  than  in  most  mammalia.  In  addition 
Mt  peculiarities,  we  may  also  here  observe,  that 
mte  of  taste  in  the  human  species  appears  to  be 
ttd  1^  a  greater  variety  of  objects  than  in  the 
r  races  of  animals.  All  these  are  concurring  indi- 
w  that  nature,  in  thns  rendering  man  omnivorous, 
ided  to  qualifv  him  for  maintaining  life  wherever 
mid  procure  the  materials  of  subsistence,  whatever 
t  be  their  nature,  whether  animal  or  vegetable, 
■lixture  of  both,  and  in  whatever  soil  or  climate 
may  bo  produced;  and  for  endowing  him  with 
ower  of  spreading  his  race,  and  extending  his 
lion  over  eveiy  accessible  region  of  the  globe. 
then,  from  the  consideration  of  tho  peculiar 
Ure  of  the  organs  of  his  frame,  may  be  derived 
»  of  their  being  constructed  with  reference  to 
Ees  of  a  higher  and  more  extensive  range  than 
>ff  any,even  the  most  favoured,  species  of  the  brute 
on." 

W  M  one  circumstance  connected  with  the  function 
Bvtion,  as  displayed  in  certain  of  tho  mannnalia, 
^ich,  as  evidencing  great  and  wonderful  design 
oeonranodation  in  structure  to  circumstance,  we 
particularly  allude ;  it  is  tho  facility  and  power 
camel  of  abstaining  long  from  drinking^ — a  power 
1w  is  often  necessitated  to  bring  into  effect  during 
■ig  period  of  nine,  ten,  or  even  twelve  days.  In 
^  the  camel  is  the  chief  beast  of  burden ;  and 
fe.ire]ling  through  such  a  country,  it  is  only  at 
^tervals  that  water  can  be  obtained ;  a  country, 
i«ribed  by  Huffon,  without  verdure,  without  water, 
feSDg  a  burning  sun,  an  air  always  parched,  sandy 
I,  moantains  still  more  scorched,  which  the  eye 
Ckrer  without  perceiving  a  single  animated  being ; 
nd  earth  perpetually  tossed  with  the  winds,  and 
Kiting  nothing  but  bones,  scattered  flints,  rocks 
rndicnlar  or  overturned;  a  desert  totally  void, 
a  the  traveller  never  breathes  under  a  shade, 
b  nothing  accompanies  him,  nothing  recalls  the 
kf  animatc^d  nature ;  absolute  solitude,  more  drcad- 
fean  that  of  the  deepest  forests,  more  solitary  and 
9,  more  lost  in  an  unlimited  voiil ;  he  cverywher*' 
1^  space  surrounding  him  as  a  tomb.  The  li^ht 
STt  more  dii^mal  than  the  darkness  of  night,  ser%-os 
Vo  give  him  a  clearer  view  of  his  own  wretchedness 
Knpotence,  and  to  conceal  from  him  the  barriers  of 
'<iid,  by  extending  around  him  that  immense  abyss 
h  separates  him  from  the  habitable  parts  of  the 
ft ;  an  abyss  which  in  vain  he  should  attempt  to 
&rM,  for  hunger,  thirst,  and  scorching  heat,  haunt 
y  moment  that  remains  to  him  between  despair  and 
n«  Frightful  as  is  this  picture,  the  desire  of  lucre, 
■•  gratification  of  curiosity,  and  a  love  of  enter- 
^  no  less  insatiable,  often  tempt  men  to  traverse  the 
^3f  deserts  of  Arabia.  For  their  own  necessities  they 
provide,  but  no  human  means  could  afford  tho 
ioility  of  conveying  water  suificient  to  satisfy  the 
^^SS  of  the  beasts  of  burden  which  accompany  these 
**6ioD8.  It  is  by  the  singuUr  structure  of  the 
^*t  stomach  that  it  is  enabled  to  pass  several  days 
^t  drinking,  and  to  take  at  a  time  a  prodigious 
I^'ty  of  water,  which  remains  in  reservoirs  pure  and 
!*1»  because  these  wells  are  so  contrived  that  neiUier 
'^ids  of  the  body  nor  of  digestion  can  mix  ^-ith  it. 
^  HcHien  is  here  I — and  how  redolent  of  wisdom, 
^^  fafi  of  mercy !    But  let  us  endeavour  to  explain 

6B7 


the  nature  of  this  structure  which  so  evidently  adapts 
the  camel  to  bo  tho  inhabitant  of  tho  sterile  and  arid 
regions  of  the  east : — Ruminating  quadrupeds,  or  thoso 
which  chew  the  cud,  have  two,  tlirce,  or  four  stomachs, 
distinguished,  when  there  are  four,  by  the  names  of 
paunch,  bonnet,  many-plies,  and  caille.  When  the  food 
IS  swallowed  for  the  first  time,  it  passes  directly  from 
the  gullet  into  the  paunch,  where  it  undergoes  somo 
necessary  changes,  and  i|  is  then  transmitted  to  the 
bonnet,  to  be  mixed  with  the  fluids  of  the  cavity.  This 
process  is  going  on  during  the  time  the  animal  is  grazing, 
when  from  the  incesnant  occupation  of  nipping  off  tho 
grass,  for  which  its  teeth  are  so  admirubly  suited,  it 
luis  not  leisure  to  chew  it  sufficiently.  When  afterwnrrls 
reposing  itself,  however,  the  half-chewed  aliment  is 
brought  again  in  successive  little  balls,  from  the  bonnet 
into  the  mouth,  where  it  is  subjected  to  a  perfect  mas- 
tication ;  and  when  again  swallowed,  it  passes  directly 
to  the  many-plies,  thence,  after  some  time,  to  the  caille, 
and  ultinmtely  to  the  intestines.  In  the  camel,  how- 
ever, the  paunch  has  two  deep  cellular  app<^n<lages ; 
and  the  bonn(>t,  or  second  stomach,  has  its  internal 
membrane  hollowed  into  numerous  deep  cells,  serving 
as  reservoirs  of  water,  to  be  used  only  as  oocusioii  re- 
quires ;  while  the  third  stomach  is  alone  appropriated 
t<>  the  immediate  necessities  of  tho  body.  IWtween  the 
end  of  the  gullet,  then,  and  the  orifice  of  this  third 
stomach,  extends,  through  the  two  first,  a  long  muscle 
capable  of  drawing  up  the  third  stomach,  so  as  to  re- 
ceive alimentary  matters  directly  fnmi  the  gullet,  when 
the  immediate  wants  of  the  animal  are  to  be  supplied  ; 
but  when  the  fluid  taken  is  meant  to  he  used  only  in  its 
long  journeys  through  the  deserts,  this  muscle  is  relaxed, 
and  it  is  thus  receive«l  into  the  two  first  stomachs,  and 
transmitted  onwardu  by  these  only  at  the  necessary 
intervals.  The  Arabs  who  traverse  these  exteuHivo 
plains,  accompanied  by  these  useful  animals,  are,  it  is 
said,  sometimes  obliged,  when  faint  and  in  danger  of 
perishing  from  thirst,  to  kill  one  of  their  camels,  for 
the  sake  of  the  water  contained  in  these  reservoirs, 
which  is  always  found  pure  and  wholesome.  It  is  stated 
by  those  who  have  travelled  in  Egypt,  that  camels,  when 
accustomed  to  go  jouniies  during  which  they  aw  ft»r  a 
long  time  deprived  of  water,  acquire  the  power  of  dilat- 
ing the  cells,  so  as  to  make  them  contain  a  more  than 
ordinary  quantity,  as  a  supply  for  their  journey. 

COMPENSATION  OP  PARTS  IN  ANIMATED  NATURK. 

Tlie  evidences  of  design  in  creation  are  beautifully 
developed  in  what  is  called  the  compensatory  structure 
of  animals.  By  this  is  signified  the  supplying  the  defects 
of  one  organ  by  the  structure  of  another  part  or  organ. 
Paley  has  summed  up  a  few  striking  instances  of  this 
nature.  "  The  short  unbending  neck  of  the  elephant 
(sa}'8  he)  is  compenRated  by  the  length  and  flexibility 
of  his  prof/oscis.  1  lo  could  not  have  reached  the  ground 
without  it ;  or,  if  it  be  supposed  that  he  might  have  fed 
upon  the  fruit,  leaves,  or  branches  of  trees,  how  was 
he  to  drink  ?  Should  it  be  asked,  Why  is  the  elephant's 
neck  so  short  ?  it  may  be  answered,  that  the  weight  of 
a  head  so  heavy  could  not  have  been  supported  at  tho 
end  of  a  longer  lever.  To  a  form,  therefore,  in  wnne 
res]>ects  necessary,  but  in  some  respects  also  inudequato 
to  the  occasions  of  the  animal,  a  supplement  is  added, 
which  exactly  makes  up  the  deficiency  under  which  ho 
Ial>oure<l. 

If  it  be  suggested  that  this  proboscis  may  have  been 
produced,  in  a  long  ctmrse  of  generations,  by  the  ciin- 
stant  endeavour  of  the  elephant  to  thrust  out  his  noso 
(which  is  the  general  hypothesis  by  which  it  has  lately 
been  attemptinl  to  account  for  the  forms  of  animattMl 
nature),  I  would  ask.  How  was  the  animal  to  subsist 
in  the  meantime,  during  the  prf>ccss,  untii  this  pro- 
longation of  snout  were  completed!  What  was  to 
become  of  the  individual  whilst  the  species  was  per- 
fecting! 

Our  bneiness  at  present  is  simply  to  point  out  tho 
relation  which  this  organ  bears  to  the  peculiar  figure 
of  the  animal  to  which  it  belongs.    And  herein  all  things 


The  hook  iii  the  wing  of  a  bat  if*  strictly  n  mechanical, 
and  also  a  compensating,  contrivauco.  At  the  angle  of 
its  wing  then*  ia  a  bent  cUiw,  exactly  in  thu  form  of  a 
hook,  by  which  the  bat  attaches  it«)lf  to  the  sides  of 
rocks,  caves,  and  buildings,  Uying  hold  of  crevices,  join- 
ings, chinks,  and  roughnesses.  It  hooks  itself  by  this 
cUw ;  remains  suspended  by  this  hold  ;  takes  its  Hight 
from  this  position :  which  operations  compensate  for  the 
decropitudo  of  its  legs  and  feet.  Witliout  her  hook,  the 
bat  would  be  the  most  Iiclpless  of  all  animals.  She  can 
neither  run  upon  her  feet,  nor  i*aise  herself  from  the 
ground.  Tlieso  inabilities  arc  made  up  to  her  by  the 
contrivance  in  her  wing ;  and  in  placing  a  claw  on  that 
part,  the  Creator  has  deviated  fi*om  the  analogy  ob- 
served in  winged  animals.  A  singular  defect  ro4|uired 
a  singular  substitute. 

The  crane  kind  are  to  live  and  seek  their  food 
amongst  the  waters,  yet,  having  no  web  feet,  are  in- 
capable of  swimming.  To  make  up  for  tliis  defici- 
ency, they  are  furnished  with  long  legs  for  wading, 
or  long  bills  for  groping  ;  or  usually  with  both.  This 
is  compensation.  I3ut  I  think  the  true  reflection  upon 
the  present  instance  is,  how  every  part  of  uatuiv  is 
tenanted  by  appropriate  inliabitants.  Not  only  is  the 
surface  of  deep  waters  peopled  by  numerous  tribes  of 
birds  that  swim,  but  marslies  and  shallow  pools  arc  fur- 
nished with  hardly  less  numerous  tribes  of  birds  that 
wade. 

The  common  parrot  has,  in  the  structure  of  its 
beak,  both  an  inconveniency  and  a  compensation  for  it. 
When  I  speak  of  an  inconveniency,  I  have  a  view  to 
a  dilemma  which  frequently  occurs  in  the  works  of 
nature,  viz.,  that  the  peculiarity  of  structure  by  which 
an  organ  is  made  to  answer  one  purpose,  necessarily 
unfits  it  for  some  other  purpose.  This  is  the  case  bi'forc 
The  upper  bill  of  the  parrot  is  so  nmch  hooked. 


us. 


and  so  nmch  overlaps  the  lower,  that  if,  as  in  other  birds, 
the  lower  cliap  alone  had  motion,  the  bird  could  scarcely 
gape  wide  enough  to  receive  iU  food ;  yet  this  hook  and 
overlapping  of  the  bill  could  not  be  spared,  for  it  forms 
the  very  instrument  by  which  the  bird  climbs ;  to  say 
nothing  of  the  use  which  it  makes  of  it  in  breaking  nuts 
iinH  fhA  lutrd  fiii1mtjiniH>fl  unon  which  it  feeds.      Hnw. 


The  Memoirs  for  the  Natnrml  Hki 
published  by  the  French  Aeademy  ii 
furnish  us  with  some  curious  partienli 
chameleon.  1  nstcad  of  two  eyelidis  ^ 
eyelid  with  a  hole  in  it.  This  singalar  i 
to  be  compensatory,  and  to  aoflwer  to  • 
larities  in  the  shape  of  the  *ti«m^l,  < 
chameleon  is  inflexible.  To  make  up  f\ 
so  prominent,  that  more  thao  ban  < 
out  of  the  head  ;  by  means  of  which  ei 
jection,  the  pupil  of  the  eye  can  Im 
muscles  in  every  direction,  and  is  i 
pointed  towards  every  object.  But,  tin 
exposure  of  the  globe  of  the  eye  reqai 
city  and  defence,  a  more  thaii  ordmi 
eyelid,  as  well  as  a  more  than  ordinar 
turo  ;  yet  tho  motion  of  an  eyelid,  i! 
to  the  common  construction,  woakl  b 
should  seem,  by  the  conrexitv  of  the  o 
ture  in  the  lid  meets  this  difficoltr. 
animal  to  keep  the  principal  part  of  ti 
eye  under  cover,  and  to  preserre  it  i 
humidity  without  shutting  out  the  li 
performing  every  moment  a  nietitali 
probable,  would  be  more  laborious  to 
to  others. 

But  the  works  of  the  Deity  are  kiioi 
Where  we  should  look  for  absolute  d 
we  can  reckon  up  nothing  but  wants,  i 
always  comes  in  to  supply  the  pri%*atio 
out  wings,  feet,  or  thread,  climbs  up  tb 
by  the  sole  aid  of  a  viscid  humour  dis( 
skin.  She  adheres  to  the  stems,  leav 
plants,  by  means  of  a  sticking  plaster. 
might  seem,  by  its  helplessness,  to  Ik 
every  wave  that  went  over  it,  has  tb 
of  spinning  strong  tendiBous  thread 
moors  her  shell  to  rocks  and  timbers. 
contrary,  by  means  of  its  stiff  tODga^ 
a  shelter  in  the  sand.  The  provisaoos 
to  cases  the  most  desperate.  A  kbel 
stitution  a  difficultv  so  great,  that  one  i 

ifH*f.um  hpforphanil  Imw  natnra  AnnM  < 


NATURAL  THEOLOGY. 


lent  t  how  was  he  to  nncase  his  hucklcr,  or  draw 
gB  oot  of  his  boots !  The  process  which  fishermen 
obwrred  to  take  place,  is  as  follows  : — At  certain 
DS,  the  shell  of  the  lobster  grows  soft ;  the  animal 
I  its  body  ;  the  seams  open,  and  the  claws  burst  at 
lints.  When  the  shell  has  thus  become  loose  upon 
ody,  the  animal  makes  a  second  effort,  and  by  a 
■loos  spasmodic  motion,  casts  it  off.  In  this  state, 
beratea  but  defenceless  fish  retires  into  holes  in 
ock.  The  released  body  now  suddenly  pushes  its 
th.  In  about  cight-and-forty  hours,  a  fresh  con- 
m  of  humour  upon  the  surface,  t.  e,  a  new  shell,  is 
ed,  adapted  in  every  part  to  the  increased  dimen- 
of  the  animal.  This  wonderful  mutation  is  repeated 
f  vcar." 

the  changing  of  tho  colour  of  the  chameleon,  we 
me  of  the  beautiful  compensatory  provisions  of 
re.  This  little  animal,  which  is  common  in  the  East 
)■  and  some  other  Asiatic  countries,  lives  upon  flies, 
SB,  or  other  insects,  which  it  catches  by  climbing 
irubs  or  trees,  and  darting  out  its  tongue  ;  but  its 
is  alow,  and  as  insects  have  good  eyes  to  perceive 
pproach  of  an  enemy,  they  would  bo  sure  to  make 
escape  in  the  present  case,  unless  the  chameleon 
■ched  them  in  disguise.  This,  therefore,  it  inva- 
f  does.  As  it  passes  among  green  leaves,  it  is  of 
tn  colour  ;  and  when  it  glides  by  any  of  a  red  or 
V  tinge,  so  does  it  change  its  hue  to  red  or  yellow, 
oaely  does  it  assume  not  only  the  sliades  and 
n^  but  even  the  shapes  of  the  leaves  around,  that 
Etator  might  look  at  the  tree  for  some  minutes 
B  discovering  it.  How  wisely,  therefore,  has  the 
c>r  endowed  this  poor  reptile  with  the  wonderful 
F  altering  the  colour  of  its  skin  ;  for  if  it  were  not 
laed  of  such  a  property,  it  would  inevitably  die  of 

carrying  our  obsen'ation  upward  from  the  mere 
Bal  organisation  of  man,  to  the  mind  which  he 
■ses,  and  is  able  to  exert  in  reference  to  both  sen- 
abjects  and  abstract  subjects,  we  have  still  greater 
31  to  admire  the  proofs  of  design  and  goodness  in 
erruling  Creator ;  for  we  all  feel  that  this  principle 
nd — how  constituted  we  do  not  here  stop  to  in- 
— is  in  harmony  with  the  other  works  of  creation 
ad  us.  For  example,  how  much  are  our  minds 
I  to  the  recognition  of  what  is  beautiful  in  nature 
aX,  This,  however,  admits  of  a  few  separate  ob- 
•tions. 

BEAUTY. 

•  wisdom  of  the  great  origiual  Contriver  is  emi- 
7  manifested  in  that  property  of  inanimate  and 
Ate  objects  which  we  call  beauty.  Here  there  is 
''ident  fitness  between  tlie  taste  and  habits  of  ani- 

•  human  beings  included,  and  what  can  be  seen  by 
ye.  We  feel  pleasure  in  contemplating  tlie  works 
>ture  most  obvious  to  our  senses ;  and  we  cannot 
"^Kiliark,  that  that  wliich  is  loathsome  is  not  ordi- 
'  presented  to  the  eye.  The  splendid  colouring 
'  Vegetable  kingdom,  the  smooth  or  spotted  skins 
^  brute  creation,  and  the  lovely  plumage  of  the 
'^d  tribe,  all  give  us  delight  in  the  contemplation. 
^r,  also,  how  beautiful  is  the  outward  appearance 

liuman  form.  Reflect  on  what  the  i>arts  and 
Utls  arc  of  which  the  fairest  body  is  composed, 
^  further  observation  will  be  necessary  to  show 
^U  these  things  are  wrapped  up,  so  as  to  form  a 
^bich  will  be  capable  of  symmetry  in  its  propor- 
^^d  of  beauty  in  its  aspect ;  how  the  bones  are 
^^] — the  bowels  concealed — the  roughness  of  the 
^   smoothed  and  softened ;  how  over  the  whole  is 

an  integument,  the  skin,  which  converts  the 
^ong  materials  of  a  dissecting-room  into  an  object 
'^^etion  to  the  sight,  or  one  ufton  which  it  rests  at 
^ith  ease  and  satisfaction. 

^  more  minutely  that  we  inspect  the  works  of 
^3  the  greater  cause  have  we  to  wonder  at  the 
kidinary  perfection  and  beauty  every  where  pro- 
>«    Tho  mieroaoope  developea  splendours  in  the 

589 


creation  of  insects  which  wo  can  hardly  comprehend. 
The  back  of  a  diamond-beetle  exliibits  an  assemblage 
of  brilliant  colours  and  glittering  gems  more  splendid 
than  any  artificial  arrangement  of  the  most  precioua 
stones.  The  colours  of  the  feathers  of  birds  in  tropical 
climates,  and  the  skins  of  the  fishes  of  Ceylon,  are  in- 
comparable  for  their  beauty.  And  why  is  all  this  the 
case  t  Because  it  yields  a  pleasure  to  the  sight,  both 
of  men  and  other  living  creatures ;  for  the  Cr^tor  has 
not  denied  the  feeliog  of  delight  to  the  meanest  reptile 
which  crawls.  All  is  beautiful,  it  would  appear,  in  the 
estimation  of  one  or  other  of  living  creatures.  The  most 
insignificant  little  flower,  now  blooming  far  from  the 
haunts  of  men,  in  some  remote  wilderness,  does  not,  as 
has  been  said,  waste  its  sweetness  on  the  desert  air. 
It  furnishes  an  object  of  pleasing  gratification  to  some 
description  of  sentient  creatures,  perhaps  so  smitll  as 
to  be  imperceptible  to  our  naked  eye. 

Placing  agreeableness  of  aspect  entirely  out  of  tho 
question,  there  is  another  purpose  answered  by  the 
skin,  and  that  is  concealment.  Were  it  possible  to  view 
through  this  integument  the  mechanism  of  our  bodies, ' 
the  sight  would  frighten  as  much  as  it  would  disgust 
us.  Durst  we  make  a  single  movement,  or  stir  a  step 
from  the  place  we  were  in,  if  we  saw  oiir  blood  cireu- 
biting,  the  tendons  pulline,  the  lungs  blowing,  the 
humours  filtrating,  and  all  Uie  incomprehensible  assem- 
blage  of  fibres,  tubes,  pumps,  viUves,  currents,  pivots, 
which  sustain  an  existence  at  once  so  frail  and  so  pre- 
sumptuous  I 

In  clothing  the  human  frame  with  a  covering  of  dcin, 
the  Creator  has  not  omitted  to  vary  its  character  accord- 
ing to  local  necessities.  The  ricin  is  most  beautiful  on 
the  face,  because  the  face  is  most  exposed  to  observa- 
tion ;  it  is  softest  where  least  liable  to  injury,  and  hardest 
or  firmest  ia  texture  where  it  is  most  subject  to  be 
pressed  upon.  There  is  not  less  sign  of  contrivance  in 
the  manner  in  which  it  ceases  at  the  extremities  of  the 
toes  and  fingers.  A  nuin  has  only  to  look  at  his  hand, 
to  observe  with  what  nicety  and  precision  that  covei'ing, 
which  extends  over  every  other  part,  is  here  supersede 
by  a  difTcrcnt  substance  and  a  different  texture.  Why 
do  we  find  the  skin  cease  at  our  fingeiV  ends,  or  on  the 
back  part  of  the  fingers,  and  not  the  fore  part  \  Because 
something  hard  or  noniy  was  required  on  these  parts, 
by  which  \\q  could  hold  fast  or  lift  nimbly  objects  which 
we  wished  to  grasp  or  seize  upon.  Nails  therefore  su- 
persede the  skin  on  such  places.  The  same  forethought 
is  visible  in  the  covering  of  our  heads.  What  could 
have  been  a  more  beautiful  or  appropriate  substance 
whcrewitli  to  cover  the  head  and  preserve  the  hard 
bony  skull  from  injury,  than  the  hair,  a  substance  at 
once  light,  warm,  and  graceful  ? 

DESIGN  I.N  VEGETABLE  niTSIOLOGY. 

In  accordance  with  our  intentions  of  glancing  through 
most  of  the  natural  sciences,  and  bringing  home  to  the 
main  object  of  our  labours  treasures  illustrative  of 
design  from  them  all,  let  us  now  turn  our  attention  to 
those  afforded  by  the  vegetable  kingdom  of  nature.  And 
first,  of  the  mutual  relations  tlutt  exist  between  animals 
and  vegetables ;  in  considering  which,  we  shall  find  that 
these  two  great  organised  kingdoms  of  the  creation  are 
made  to  co-operate  in  the  execution  of  the  same  design ; 
each  ministering  to  the  other,  and  preserving  tliat  due 
balance  in  the  constitution  of  the  atmosphere,  which 
adapts  it  to  the  welfare  and  activity  of  every  order  of 
beings,  and  which  would  soon  be  destroyed  were  the 
operations  of  any  one  of  them  to  be  suspended.  *<  It  is 
impossible  to  contemplate  so  special  an  adjustment  of 
opposite  effects,  without  admiring  this  beautiful  dispen- 
sation of  Providence,  extending  over  so  vast  a  scale  of 
being,  and  demonstrating  the  unity  of  phui  on  which 
the  whole  system  of  organised  creation  has  been  de- 
vised.*' \ife  said  in  a  former  part  of  this  essay,  that 
two  principles  of  atmospheric  air  were  oxygen  and 
carbon ;  that  the  former  was  as  essential  to  animal  life 
as  the  latter  was  obnoxious  to  it ;  but  that,  on  the  other 
hand,  carbpii  was  indispensable  to  the  continuance  of 


i 

I 


to  expose  a  large  surface  to  tiie  contact  oi  air.  inis 
object  Ls  accomplished  by  their  division  into  numerous 
cclis  or  leaf-like  processes,  or  by  their  extension  on  the 
walls  of  cavities,  or  the  surface  of  pectinated  ridges. 
The  blood  brought  to  these  organs  is  there  distributed 
by  their  terminating  branches.  Although  still  retained 
iu  vesscLSf  it  can  nevertheless  be  easily  acted  upon  by 
tlie  air  on  the  exterior.  Priestley  found  the  colour  of 
blood  changed  by  the  air  when  euclosed  in  a  moistened 
bladder,  and  the  same  effect  was  observed  by  Hunter 
when  it  was  covered  with  goldbeaters*  skin.  It  is 
scarcely  prissible  to  determine  by  direct  obserration 
what  is  the  exact  nature  of  the  changes  tliat  the  blood 
undergoes  in  its  passage  through  the  lungs ;  the  most 
obvious  is  its  cluinge  of  colour ;  and  the  chemical  dif- 
ferences between  the  dark  purple  blood  in  the  veins  be> 
fure  it  has  reached  the  lungs,  and  the  bright  vermilion 
ciilour  it  exhibits  in  tlie  arteries  after  it  has  circulated 
through  the  lungs,  and  been  exposed  to  the  influence 
of  the  air,  may  be  collected  from  the  changes  made  ui 
the  air  itself.  Atmospheric  air  is  known  to  consist  of 
certain  principles  iu  definite  propoitions ;  when  it  has 
acted  upon  the  blood,  and  is  returned  from  tlie  lungs, 
it  is  found  that  a  certain  proportion  of  oxygen  which 
it  conuiined  has  disappeared,  and  tliat  the  place  of  this 
oxygen  is  almost  wholly  supplied  by  an  addition  of  car- 
bonic acid  gas  and  watery  vapour.  The  exact  quantity 
of  oxygen  which  is  lost  in  natural  respiration,  varies 
in  different  animals,  and  even  in  different  conditions 
of  the  same  animal.  Birds,  for  instance,  consume 
larger  quantities  of  oxygen  by  their  respiration,  and 
hence  require,  for  the  mainteimnce  of  life,  a  purer 
air  than  other  vertebratcd  animals.  Vauquelin,  how- 
v\cVf  found  that  many  species  of  insects  and  worms  pos- 
sess the  power  of  abstracting  oxygen  from  the  atnio- 
hjihero  in  a  nmch  greater  degree  than  the  larger 
animals ;  thus,  snails  are  capable  of  living  for  a  long 
time  in  the  vitiated  air  in  which  a  bird  had  i>eriKhed. 
Some  insects  which  conceal  themselves  in  noles,  or 
burrow  under  ground,  have  been  known  to  deprive  the 
air  of  every  appreciable  portion  of  its  oxygen.  It  is 
obMei*ved  by  Spallanzani,  that  those  animals  whose 
modes  of  life  oblige  them  to  remain  for  a  great  length 


sation ;  m  tbe  latter,  it  is  max  oi  ana 
fluous  quantity  of  earbon  fitHBlbeai 
the  whole,  therefore,  the  atmosphtiffi 
ceiving  from  the  v^etable  Idngdom ; 
of  oxygen,  and  ia  at  the  same  time  fin 
portion  of  carbonic  acid  gaa,  both  of 
to  its  purification,  and  to  ita  remunii 
respii-ation  of  animals." 

We  have  not  much  spttee  to  devo 
plation  of  Tegetables,  but  we  are  unm 
subject  without  alluding  to  aome  ol 
design  which  we  find  displayed  in  thai 
nothing  more  beautifully  demonstnti 
rather  the  Almighty  Craator  of  nsta 
uniformity  of  plan  and  design,  than  tl 
as  well  as  animals  are  poaaesoed  of  tb 
ducing  and  continuing  their  spcfiea 
occupies  the  centre  of  the  flower  is  d 
the  seeds,  while  the  stamens  of  the 
dust  necessary  for  fertilising  them,  i 
the  seeds  would  not  produce  young  pi 
guarded  with  nice  care  this  preeioa 
preservation  depends  the  oontinnaai 
The  apparatus  by  which  in  many  flui 
from  injury,  is  very  curious ;  nor  ar 
are  provided  by  which  it  comes  in 
stignuk  of  tlie  pistil  less  dem«>natratiT« 
and  a  beneficent  Providence.  In  • 
the  organs  are  in  the  same  flower,  thei 
above  the  stigma,  upon  which  the  di 
by  its  own  gravity ;  in  others,  we  fii 
the  case,  the  pistil  being  the  lunge 
flower  is  generally  drooping.  To  ass 
the  pollen,  and  its  contact  with  th( 
plants  the  stamens  possess  a  rerj 
power.  When  ripe,  the  ten  stamens  i 
alternately  to  bend  down  upon  the  sCi 
portion  of  pollen,  and  return  to  thei 
The  stalks  or  filaments  of  the  pelliCo 
possessed  of  a  remarkable  elasAicity, 
scatter  the  pollen.  This  is  very  appa 
tlie  point  of  a  needle ;  immediately  ii 
which  dashes  the  pollen  with  some  lb 


NATURAL  THEOLOGY. 


Q  the  pink  we  observe  numeroua  small  insects 
to  and  fro,  and  thus  depositing  tlie  pollen  on 
na.  In  flowers  where  tlie  stamens  and  pistils 
ifierent  plants,  often  at  a  considerable  distance 
ch  other,  bees,  and  other  flying  insects,  are 
\y  accessory  to  the  ereat  end  of  nature.  These 
it  is  true,  do  not  visit  the  flower  for  the  purpose 
iring  the  pollen  ;  they  only  seek  for  the  sweet 
ich  exudes  from  its  nectary.  Their  hair^  body, 
aturo  did  not  bestow  without  design,  is  seen 
with  pollen,  often  in  such  quantities  as  to  im- 
I  progress  of  the  animal ;  this,  whenever  they 
tlier  flower,  is  rubbed  against  the  stigma ;  and 
ct,  no  less  wonderful  tlian  calculated  to  fill  us 
miratiun  at  the  w  ise  provision  of  nature,  that 
lects  are  peculiar  to  one  flower,  and  that  others, 
ee,  will  only  visit  one  species  in  each  journey 
hive. 

arious  methods  which  nature  emplo}'8  to  dis- 
le  diiferent  vaneties  of  seeds  over  Uie  earth, 
y  wonderful.     Many  plants,  when  the  seed  is 
e,  discharge  it  from  its  covering,  with  a  jerk  or 
pring.    The  common  oat  is  thrown  out  in  this 
id  the  loud  crackling  of  the  pods  of  the  broom 
sunshiny  day,  or,  as  Drummond  has  it,  **  burst- 
-balls  crackling  in  the  sun,"  is  caused  by  their 
;  and  scattering  about  the  contained  seeds,  and 
ive  been  frequently  noticed.     **  Who  has  not 
,"  again  asks  Sir  James  Edward  Smith,  **  in  a 
1  sunny  day,  to  the  crackling  of  the  furze  bushes, 
ly  the  explosion  of  their  elastic  little  pods ;  or 
[  the  down  of  innumerable  seeds  floating  on  a 
•  breeze,  till  they  are  overtaken  by  a  shower, 
noisteniug  their  wings,  stops  their  farther  flight, 
the  same  time  acccomplishes  its  final  purpose, 
ediately  promoting  the  germination  of  each  seed 
moifit  earth !     How  little  are  children  aware, 
ley  blow  away  the  seeds  of  the  dandelion,  or 
irs  ill  Bi>ort  upon  each  other's  clothes,  that  they 
illing  one  of  the  great  ends  of  nature !"     These 
ippondages  to  which  Sir  J.  E.  Smith  alludes, 
>  the  lighter  seeds,  as  the  thistles,  and  carry 
mating  thruugh  the  air  to  great  distances.  Then 
re  the  currents  of  rivers  which  bear  the  seeds 
le  part  of  the  country  to  another ;  and  6ven  seas 
>aus,  whose  tides  and  currents  float  along  the 
>f  vegetation  to  the  various  regions  of  the  globe, 
too,  by  feeding  on  particular  seeds,  carry  them 
.t  distances,  where,  being  often  voided  entii*e, 
^gctate.     There  is  evident  design  in  this.     It 
lot  have  been  by  mere  chance,  that  in  flowers 
(tand  erect,  the  pistil  is  shorter  than  the  stamens, 
tuig  the  i>ollen  as  it  falls  to  descend  upon  the 
;  and  when  the  flower  is  drooping,  that  the  con- 
rranfjement  is  etfected.     And  »ui*ely  no  one  will 
id  or  hardy  enough  to  assert  that  the  mecha- 
leans,  to  which  we  have  alluded,  for  the  disper- 
seeds,  with  all  the  beauty  and  aptitude  of  its 
eineiit,  was  not  the  result  of  divine  wisdom — a 
1  which  will  bo  still  more  apparent  when  we 
our  views  from  the  power  which  called  into  being 
krious  and  beauteous  existences,  and  gave  the 
^f  distributing  them  over  the  globe,  and  consider 
8  that  govern  that  distribution  which  we  so  much 


not  here  out  of  place  to  remark,  that  there  is 
y  a  vegetable  production  on  which  some  species 
nal  does  not  subsist;  and,  generally  speaking, 
^er  tliat  peculiar  production  is  to  be  found,  there 
the  animal  to  which  it  furnishes  wholesome  food, 
lome  striking  examples  of  this  kind,  the  most 
»ted  man  is  acquainted ;  he  knows  that  the  par- 
is  on  the  plain,  the  woodcock  in  the  forests,  the 

on  the  moors,  and  the  ptarmigan  on  the  loftiest 
of  the  mountains.  He  knows,  too,  that  other 
I  migrate  from  country  to  country,  seeking  their 
I  distant  regions,  over  tntekleea  oeeans,  when  it 
1  their  native  hannts;  and  among  the  animal 
•m  80  universal  is  this,  as  to  fbnn  an  eaunple  of 

591 


the  wonderful  adaptations  which  exist  between  it  and 
the  vegetable  world.  Vegetables,  like  animals,  are 
adapted  to  varieties  of  clhuate  and  temperature ;  and 
when  wo  consider  their  distribution  over  the  globe,  we 
shall  find  that  those  which  are  most  essential  to  the 
maintenance  of  man,  bear  a  variety  of  climate  better 
than  most  others.  This  is  the  case  with  greens,  carrots, 
potatoes,  and  many  kinds  of  grain.  Warm  climates 
are  much  more  favourable  to  vegetation  than  cold.  In 
Spitzbei*gen,  the  whole  number  of  plants  with  conspi- 
cuous flowers,  natives  of  the  country,  is  found  by  bota- 
nists scarcely  to  exceed  thirty  species ;  while  in  the 
warmer  regions  of  the  West  Indies,  in  Madagascar  and 
the  coast  of  Coromandel,  Willdenow  enumerates  from 
four  to  five  thousand  difl'ei'ent  species  of  indigenous 
plants.  Now,  observe  how  admirably  this  distribution 
of  plants  corresponds  with  the  wants  and  necessities  of 
man.  A  vegetable  diet  is  most  suitable  both  to  the 
tastes  and  the  actual  needs  of  the  inhabitants  of  warm 
climates,  and  there  we  find  that  kind  of  food  most 
abundant. 

It  is  impossible  for  a  reflecting  individual  to  walk 
beside  a  field  of  growing  barley,  without  being  impressed 
with  the  conviction,  that,  in  the  economy  of  this  descrip- 
tion of  grain,  the  design  of  a  Creator  has  been  wonder- 
fully manifested.  An  car  of  barley  differs  from  one  of 
wheat  or  oats.  Each  of  the  grains  is  furnished  with  a 
long  slender  bristle  oc  beard,  which  is  prickly  to  the 
touch,  and  seems  to  serve  as  a  protection  to  the  ear. 
These  bristles  form  a  roof,  if  we  may  so  call  it,  to  carry 
off  the  rain  from  the  ear,  and  yet,  by  their  elegant  dis- 
position, do  not  prevent  tlie  heat  of  the  sun  and  the 
light  from  influencing  the  grain.  And  why  should  such 
be  the  case  with  barley,  when  the  ears  of  wheat,  oats, 
&c,  do  not  possess  any  such  protective  process  ?  Be- 
cause barley  is  a  grain  easily  injured  by  wet,  which  if 
not  carried  off,  would  cause  the  ear  to  sprout  even  while 
on  the  stalk,  and  consequently  bo  entirely  useless  to 
man. 

In  speaking  of  the  economy  of  vegetable  life,  it  should 
not  pass  unnoticed  that  there  is  a  remarkable  instance 
of  creative  wisdom  in  the  means  which  have  been 
arranged  for  the  growth  of  plants  from  putrescent 
matter.  All  kinds  of  vegetable  and  animal  substancep, 
when  deprived  of  life,  as  well  as  excreineiititious  matter, 
have  a  tendency  to  decomposition — that  is,  to  resolvo 
themselves  into  those  elementary  gases  of  which  they 
have  been  chiefly  composed.  This  process  of  dissolu- 
tion, as  every  one  knows,  produces  a  most  dis;igrceablo 
odour,  which  is  often  inimical  to  animal  life.  But  this 
is  not  an  evil ;  it  displays  a  bountiful  provision  in  nature ; 
for  it  tells  us,  in  a  way  not  to  be  misunderstood,  that 
the  substance  undergoing,  or  about  to  undergo,  the 
putrifactive  process,  should  be  buried  underground; 
and  being  there  deposited,  it  immediately  proceeds  to 
supply  its  no  longer  useful  gases  to  the  infant  j)lant8 
and  crops  of  grain  which  flourish  on  the  surface.  Thus 
do  we  see  another  striking  evi<lence  of  the  harmonious 
design  which  every  where  prevails  between  the  animal 
and  vegetable  creation. 

It  has  been  said  that  a  vegetable  diet  is  preferred 
by  the  inhabitants  of  warm  countries:  to  them  so- 
briety is  an  easy  virtue  and  a  happy  conKe<[ucnce  uf 
the  climate.  The  people  of  northern  regions,  on  the 
contrary,  are  voracious  from  instinct  and  necessity. 
They  swallow  enormous  quantities  of  food,  and  pre- 
fer those  substances  which  in  digestion  produce  the 
most  heat.  Obliged  to  struggle  iucessantly  against  the 
action  of  cold,  their  life  is  but  a  continual  agct  of  resist- 
ance to  external  influences.  Let  us  not  repi*oach  them 
with  voracity,  and  their  avidity  for  ardent  spirits  and 
fermented  liquors.  Those  nations  which  inhabit  the 
confines  of  the  habitable  world,  in  which  man  is  scarcely 
able  to  withstand  the  severity  of  the  climate,  the  inha- 
bitants of  Kamtschatka,  the  Samoiedcs,  &c.,  live  on 
fish,  that,  in  the  heaps  in  which  they  are  piled  up,  have 
alrcKsdy  uhdeigone  a  certain  degree  of  putrifactive  fer- 
mentation. In  them  there  is  a  necessity  for  this'inward 
ezcitementy  wfaieh  in  oiur  dimftto  would  be  inevitably 


CHAMBERS'S  INFORMATIW  FOIl  TUK  PKOl'lJfc' 


nticTulcd  with  dlBBUe,  uid  piobably  dealb.  The  abiMo 
of  npirituoiM  liqnoiB  is  fiiUl  to  Hia  EuropMn  trKOEparled 
ti>  ihr  bim7ii£  cllumtu  of  the  Wwt  Indies,  Ttio  Rub- 
■Ian  drinka  Bpiriluoua  liquora  vrilli  u  sort  of  impuiiity, 
and  iivBK  "il  to  au  ndriutead  Age,  amidat  (xceaseH  uudei 
vrbiab  aii  iidiaUtinit  of  tba  atiuth  nf  Kurope  would  Rink. 

T1h>  influence  of  eliniata  not  ooly  affmMa  alike  tile 
reeiiiMW  of  man  in  iieatth,  but  of  man  in  aiirkness ;  and 
il  hu  been  joBtljr  obwrred  of  medicine,  that  it  ought 
to  var;  Mourdiug  to  the  pbcea  in  whtcb  tl  i*  praclMed. 
A  fevr  suliataDcee,  fur  tlio  moet  |«rt  obtained  from  the 
vegetable  kingdom,  tufliecd  ta  Hippoeratea  in  the  trMt- 
intnt  of  dh«u«B ;  nnd  pbyaiwaiiH  who  pnetbe  <n  «  ^li- 
tnntr  aiich  as  Greece,  niaj'  iniilate  the  Biiu]>licity  of  the 
fallii-'r  nf  niciltaine.  Opium,  barli,  wine,  Rpirita,  annU' 
tiua,  »iiil  the  moat  powerful  cordials,  we,  on  the  oUiar 
Jiftuit,  the  medicines  eaited  to  the  inbabitanta  of  thu 
north  1  and  thue  we  are  eoabied  to  uae  freely  tluMe 
tnedicinr*  vrbidi  elBowherc  would  be  altotided  with  the 
uimoat  dkBger. 

Wf  nnt  iinw  imparcd  le  uuderstuid  the  beautiful 
md  woadurlVil  harraiia)'  liuA  exiite  belween  the  dialri- 
buMoo  uf  man  and  plaula  o>er  the  globe  j  and  no  one, 
w*  thLnk,  Mn  doD}'  dwii-  meed  of  iiraltw  uid  aduiin^n 
C>r  tbs  tare  utd  betietieenoo  which  this  uuivni'wl  adap- 
btlon  exhibits. 

The  frigid  tuiio  ountaina  hut  few  apeciea  of  planta, 
ftlid  lliu  vunlura  of  thaw:  couutriaa  whioh  lie  viiliin  the 
pillar  irircle  la  eiiiiliuw]  clilclljr  to  the  hilla  hnvjog  a 
Miutlivl'M  as|K>ct,  and  the  treca  are  of  very  dirainulivH 
gruwlli.  [Jcetdm  moMoa  and  licheua,  there  exiat  femn, 
eitttplii};  plaolB,  aud  huiiid  alirubs  jii'ldiog  burric*  ut 
nil  ftgi>:i*iible  liarour.  'I'lu?  aretje  repiuiia  of  Europe 
are  jn-ouliuvlj' fa'ourml ;  fur  in  eertniD  jjarta  uf  LapUnd 
llivnt  aru  fins  Ibrtvlit.  aud  even  rye  aiul  luguminoua 
plant-  aru  umdoowL 

tn  tbc  hi|;h  IstJiudea  of  the  nortliera  l«mperale  lone 
ure  the  piue  and  the  Dr,  which  ehiiw  tlicir  adaptation 


Hum  Huutberu  parts,  espeeiully,  bcloug  the  more  deli- 
cate fruits,  such  aa  the  olive,  lliu  lemvu,  the  oiau^u, 
sad  the  6g,  and,  among  tmce,  the  cedar,  tlui  cyprees, 


may  be  con 

mirth  aa  the  Gitib  Oegivo  i  uata  auJ  hurley  a  (e 
farther.     1  n  the  auuthom  pnrla  uf  tbis  zone,  i 


■alL-J. 


The  vegelalion  of  the  tonid  cine  is  eharaclerised  by 
a  wealth,  a  raiiety,  and  a  magnihccoM,  wliicb  aru  uo- 
wbere  to  be  found  in  (he  regions  of  the  globe.  Under 
the  beams  of  a  (ru|iical  auu,  the  niuat  juicy  fruits  arnTe 
at  pcHt^tion  :  and  innunierablu  proUaetiuns  aupply  llie 
wanu  and  administer  to  tho  luxuries  of  man.  There 
the  gliiuilde  yield  the  sugar-cane,  the  cuHee-troe,  the 
juiliu,  l1ii<  bread. trvG,  Ihc  pimng,  (he  iuimenao  baobab, 
llii.'  dalL-,  llic  cucuo,  tlie  vanilla,  the  cinnamon,  the  nut- 
inef!,  tin:  pepper,  the  camiihor,  and  numt-ruuB  other 
fruits  and 


nLlett 


k,  ywlds  abuudancu  of  a  glutinoos  and 


Hut  wi 


•e  miW  btHten  to  cnnoluda  our  mIoresUng  tub- 
,  .  .  IlluKlralionH  of  de«i(in  mi^ht  be  produced  fnim 
the  woriiK  i.f  nature  p'ilhout  end ;  evwy  link  in  the 
chain  uf  cr>.ntlini  (vrma  wilb  jiroofs  uf  il :  in  none  csn 
liny  one  stKnii  with  iTuth  that  it  is  wanlinl!.  Cnraery 
aa  inir  I'einark'  have  been,  they  still  moat  lead  In  the 
general  conrlnriea  that  not  only  deaign,  but  unity  of 
draign  anil  identiljr  of  iiptrtiioo,  jiemd^  the  wirhs  vt 


to  render  tliemaubeervieut  b 

of  (hose  irUeb  are.  Taaoieraluf  theas  mbw 
though  itdid  not  aceordwtthoarplantoalliidi>(> 
we  need  only  furtlier  draw  attentiuo  la  the  tm 
uniformily  in  the  plan  of  creatisD.  The  UDiva 
is  a  system  ;  each  part  depending  upon  other ) 
being  coniieolcd  with  ether  jiuia  by  aonie  csmn 
motion,  or  by  the  presence  of  auiite  e-jmnwa  ■ 
One  priaeiple  of  gravitalioa  causes  a  alMie 
towards  the  ennb,  and  the  moon  to  w^fd  t 
Une  taw  of  attraction  careiei  all  the  diffecnU 
round  the  sun.  New  countries  are  oonuoaai 
vered,  but  the  old  laws  of  naturvarv  alwiyia; 
tham — new  plants,  perhaps,  or  aiumaJs,  but  a 
comi>any  with  plauta  and  animals  whieb  •• 
know,  and  always  poonctaiiug  nany  uf  thv  aasia 
pcopertiea.  We  never  get  aniuRgat  »uch  ar\ 
totally  dlHerent  modes  of  euatonca,  aa  b)  inifaa 
we  are  come  into  the  provinee  of  a  new  Cm 
niider  the  direction  of  a  dUferont  wlU.  tn  ^ 
aame  order  of  things  allrnds  ui  w  hereeer  <n>ft 
ia  every  where  a  perfect  uiiifarmity  in  ills  H 
regulate  the  phenomena  of  oalutv.  And  lllM 
while  forcibly  iUaatratilig  the  unity  of  (MM 
whoae  iastTumenlalily  all  tlint  wi<  tee  waaMil 
originnl«d,  demoostislaa  uitmi  >ii*iiuni:ly,  allk 


saing  w. 


What  agency,  but  (U 


moftl 


luced  rOKullB  aa  mlgb 
uiform  hiwst — ciiuM  hare  ii 
lese  lawa  at  the  Itrat, 


d  with  the  ptii, 

sehemo  of  Ihe  univetwl    1^^ 
round  us  ^1  that  we  can  kais  Jt 


iiig-up  by  tbe  poet  '^'uuag,  uf  the  argumoDM 


IS'S 

fcE  PEOPLE. 

WAL  C«im9E,  hr. 

?B&IBS.  I'niUK  ]j>l. 

DIIBISTUNrrY. 

ithiAe  tenia  of  crmU  rrcanliiil.  Uw  wliula  vT 
Rj>  ii<i|;uuai0iiAl  UMiu  nI  puKiry  wliidi  dariJik 
jB  ••ilnmi',  an>  proeoroKCj  aiul  [miph?Ut  oT  • 
jsDB"  wliicli,  qI  h   luttirn  jirriud,   WM  (u   l« 

'  III  Iiuken)  anl- 

IV  Itaitnimn- 

..;■  ..(l)ir(,,nn. 

tuuen  eftllnl  Un  K'  '  r  ilm 

Swtotun..    "Wr  .1  I   .( 

ni  (mn  sn  ftlile  ^■ .  i   ihu 

■HaUftllD  Uldund  >'  "  '  "Hllf 

»"t  fullt  audjwulici-.  It'll  iih-.i-.  I.  ihi^.ttufu- 
Ihg  Sunul  6uripiurw>,  UiU  wb  do  uiit  Dad  in 
Hi  tnwtiH  on  Uij  him  (if  Uia  intcWMinf  (iib- 
icll  DOfn^OQC  aUrnllnDa*  inor*)  and  rJigWM 
Nooucmptwinadelopnni'G  ibocxiMcimnta 
oh  ■■>  attantpt  would  fanv*  b«rii  MMin-ly  u*bIb«> 
Ihv  bol  h  univanally  >.dniiu*d.  1'ti*  xmr  aT 
MiMnt  not  in  dwDfins  •  Rnd,  but  In  wtariNinii 
7  ;  and  aiw  Kra*i  objvei  of  ttw l{>iu'«  i>  in  ••- 
xa  tbai  Ibtrt  M  Init  nnc  No  iucla|ilijiiasl 
ttli^  howvivr,  nra  eiuplowd  for  tbi*  |>urpa«> 
if  irete  On  hob  rccbrded  Id  Uim  hiMory  nf  lln 
vin  nhjfli  H  af-ptars  Ihitt  lliry  wnra  kloajkno- 
aod  [n-rMii«ri>u>  voluiijc  M  tluy  *Kr*iHJ  Jwanli, 
i«  b;  uliicb  tlla  AlnilKlity  iiixlu  Iiitiuwtr  k^mn 
I ;  uid  nnUiirinlji  utwucccMf ul,  «bea  iba^  n- 
rmn  Urn  lo  wirvi  oibsr  guijn,  Wliat  «rgii>MM 
■  «o  rflwuul  hi  floiivince  tlivrn  tlist  tli«n  *a» 
in  «ll  till Mitli  bill  tli(>  Gad  iirUnwH  TbaaiT»- 
MHl  univ*n*l  woviiloua*  of  (t»  Li>H  J*hn¥>li, 
r«d  liy  prcdlMliiiia  dclltu*d  iij  Um  JkhUIi  gint- 
■ntliUOi  out  lln  bU»  of  tmUaiui  and  of  Boplcai, 
ag  Aauaulljr  tlw  rainc  of  thalr  tiir,  liu-  d«ra> 
.httr  pOKvr,  uiit  lbs  rvuun  uf  (■■■■r  ilmlim; 
,n»n>JBLJD|{  IJial  itnf  Quil  ruJinl  Buii4i|t  ti"  ■■■- 
id  luulii  Ihviii  ibc  uadiinctoo*  lulruiaeul*  ut 
s^  Iha  purpuHi*  nf  hi*  hIIL 
■ntWK,  gmieikll;  ipaJUnff,  do  not  rni*nn,  but 
tod  mnaoMnto  :  ihiy  dii  nil  hIIfoijiI  In  Mint 
pinnt  b;  tbo  aubtlatiu  of  wvoiKol'li  but  to 
)■  focUniit  ij  on  bbjwbI  to  pitlpAlilB  CufU.  Uat 
ibitr*  U  no  ruaulor  uv«Un  in  tin  tcrit>ta><a  bb 

«  rtjj"'"'"  "  "'  '-■■-■   " —      ThM  »(d-d  of  (hid 

«oi  of  II  '"  iiu  nf  pbtritaX 

In  li-  ■  I   ■  il«dii«J(rom 

U(dl   n  [       I  I  El  OB)-  TVfilllur 


■--^-uTiw 


J  at  bDanlmliE  :  and  lu  bi 

3U1  uolj  W  wad*  INK  bl  iMiM6w(L»i&'w<-a 


MTV>^       lfAJ\/«AO«*aJ\A       fr«B«,x^%^        J*  v^asvftA.  w  V* 


■—an  antiquity  considerably  greater  than  that  of  any 
profane  history.  At  whatever  time,  however,  the  dif- 
ferent books  were  written,  they  were  not  collected  from 
the  sacred  depositories  of  the  Jews,  where  they  had 
been  carefully  placed,  till  long  after  their  immediate 
authors  were  deceased  ;  and  their  present  arrange- 
ment, as  wc  shall  afterwards  explain,  is  of  compara- 
tively modem  date. 

From  an  early  period,  it  was  the  custom  of  the  Jews 
to  divide  the  books  of  the  Old  Testament  into  three 
classes,  which  they  respectively  designated  the  Law, 
the  Prophets,  and  the  Haffiographa,  or  Ifoly  Writings, 
which  last  division  includes  more  particularly  the 
poetical  parts  ;  and  some  are  of  opinion  that  Jesus 
Christ  alludes  to  this  division  of  the  scriptures,  when 
he  says  that  ''all  things  must  be  fulfilled  that  were 
wTitten  in  the  Taiw  of  Moses,  and  in  the  Prophets,  and 
in  the  Psalms,  concerning  him.**  For  by  the  book 
of  Psalms  they  understand  all  the  books  of  the  third 
class.  The  Imvo  comprehends  the  Pentateuch,  that  is, 
Genesis,  Exodus,  Leviticus,  Numbers,  and  Deuteronomy 
— such  including  both  an  liistorical  narrative,  and  the 
injunctions  forming  the  legal  code  of  the  Jews.  The  pro- 
phetical books  are  eight :  namely,  I.Joshua;  2.  Judges, 
with  Buth ;  3.  Samuel;  4.  Kings;  5.  Isaiah ;  G.  Jeremiah ; 
7.  Ezekiel ;  and  8.  the  tfeefve  Lesser  Prophets,  The 
iirst  four  books  of  this  division  are  called  the  Former 
Prophets,  and  the  last  four  the  Letter  Prophets,  The 
Ifagiographa,  or  Holy  Writings,  are  nine  ;  namely, 
1.  Job;  2,  the  Psalms;  3.  the  Proverbs;  4.  Ecclesiastes ; 
a.  the  Song  of  Songs ;  G.  Daniel;  7,  Chronicles;  8.  Ezra, 
with  Nehemiah ;  and  9.  Enther, 

According  to  the  order  in  which  the  books  of  the  Old 
Testament  now  stand,  those  of  an  historical  nature  arc 
nppropriately  placed  at  the  beginning.  Tlic  first  five 
books,  having  a  chain  of  connexion  throughout,  are 
Genesis,  Exodus,  Leviticus,  Numbers,  and  Deuteronomy. 
These  are  styled  the  Pentateuch,  such  being  the  Greek 
compound  for  fire  Itooks.  TIm'v  are  likewise  entitled  the 
Books  of  Moses,  from  the  belief  that  that  enlightened 
Jewish  leader  composed  them. 

The  Jews,  or  Hebrews,  take  the  name  of  the  sacred 


.1—  r *i. 


i'.— .4. 


..I 


ferent  sorts  of  sacrifices  ;  of  the  disti 
and  unclean  beasts  ;  of  the  difTerent  U 
the  year  of  jubilee,  or  continued  holidj 
presents  ns  with  an  account  of  what  b 
Jews  during  the  space  of  one  month  an 
from  the  time  the  Tabernacle  was  erec 
the  first  day  of  the  first  month  of  the  ii 
the  Israelites  came  out  of  Egypt^  till  tli 
of  the  same  year,  when  God  eonmandi 
be  numbered.  The  Hebrews  call  lU 
that  is,  And  he  called,  these  being  the  i 
call  it  also  the  Lqw  qftke  Priestt. 

In  the  fourth  book,  which  we  csU  / 
numbers  the  Isrselito,  Mid  thaity  tooi,  i 
of  the  book,  which  shows  whence  it  hsi 
Hebrews  call  it  Va^edavber^  that  is.  An 
book  contains  the  history  of  all  that  | 
second  month  of  the  seoond  year  site 
came  out  of  Egypt,  till  the  beguDBing 
month  of  the  fortieth  year ;  that  is,  H  < 
tory  of  thirty-nine  yean^  or  thereaboofe 
also  the  history  of  the  prophet  Balaam, 
of  the  Midianites  brought  to  cnise  the 
and  who,  on  the  contraiy,  heaped  Ue 
Israelites,  and  foretold  the  commg  of  tl 
particularly  mentions,  also,  the  two-an 
ments  of  the  Israelites  in  the  wildemei 

The  fifth  book  is  called  Devteronam^^ 
which  signifies  The  second  law,  or  ratba 
of  the  law,  because  it  does  not  eontsia 
from  that  which  was  given  on  ]^ount  S 
peats  the  same  law,  for  the  sake  of  the  < 
who  had  received  it  there,  and  were  ■ 
wilderness.  The  Hebrews  call  it  £Mi 
is,  These  are  the  words,  Denteronon 
short  account  of  what  had  passed  in  the 
then  Moses  repeats  what  he  had  before 
Exodus,  Leviticus,  and  Numbers,  and 
people  to  be  faithful  in  keeping  the  eoc 
God.  After  this,  he  relates  what  had 
the  beginning  of  the  eleventh  month  to  ^ 
of  the  twelfth  month  of  the  same  year, 


HISTORY  OF  THE  BIBLE. 


event  an  error  into  which  the  veneration 
lad  for  him  niieht  cause  the  Jews  to  fall, 
ccount  himself ;  without  wliich  the  Jews 
bly  have  supposed  that  God  had  taken  him 
noch. 

leath  of  Moses,  Joshua,  hy  the  order  of  the 
Ij  took  upon  himself  the  conducting  of  the 
pie,  and  succeeded  Moses,  to  whom  he  had 
ul  servant,  and  by  whom  he  had  been  in- 
liat  he  ought  to  do.  It  is  uncertain  whether 
ich  contains  the  history  of  this  successor  of 
lied  Joshyat  from  the  subject  of  it,  or  from 
een  the  writer  of  it.  But  it  is  certain  that 
n  account  of  what  passed  from  the  death  of 
it  of  Joshua.  Nevertheless,  there  are  seve- 
it  which  did  not  come  to  pass  till  after  the 
great  man,  and  which,  consequently,  could 
m  written  by  him.  The  common  opinion 
gth  of  time  it  contains  is,  that  Joshua  dis- 
office  only  for  seventeen  years,  and  that, 
lis  book  contains  no  more  than  the  history 
>€r  of  years. 

death  of  Joshua,  the  Israelites  were  go- 
Dagistrates,  who  ruled  under  the  general 
if  Judges ;  and  the  book  which  contains  the 
tiese  rulers  is  called  the  Book  of  Judges, 
f  begins  with  the  death  of  Jo^ua,  and 
lat  of  Samson.  We  here  see  the  people  of 
islaved  in  punishment  of  their  crimes,  and 
rfuUy  delivered  from  slavery.  Towards  the 
i  have  some  instances  of  this  people's  incli- 
>latry,  and  of  the  corruption  of  their  man- 
lefore  they  had  been  brought  into  slavery, 
t  histories  of  Micah,  and  of  tne  Benjamiuitcs 
the  Lcvite's  wife.  This  book  contains  the 
K>ut  three  hundred  years, 
e  time  of  the  government  of  Judges,  there 
famine  in  the  land  of  Israel,  which  forced 
native  of  Bethlehem,  to  retire  into  the  land 
:h  his  wife  Naomi  and  two  children.  Eli- 
there,  as  also  his  two  sons,  who  had  married 
sh  women,  one  of  whom  was  named  Ruth. 
'  the  death  of  her  husband  and  her  children, 
Bethlehem,  accompanied  by  Ruth,  her 
law,  who  was  there  married  to  Boaz,  Eli- 
IT  relation,  and  the  heir  to  his  estate.  The 
contains  this  history  is  called  the  Book  of 
beginning  of  it  shows  that  it  happened  in 
ho  Judges,  but  under  which  of  them  is  not 
own  :  6o«ie  place  it  in  the  time  of  Shamgar, 
*ah.  As  to  the  writer  of  this  book,  some 
he  books  of  Judges  and  Ruth  were  both 
amuel ;  others  attribute  them  to  Hezekiah, 

0  Ezra.  The  Jews  place  the  book  of  Ruth 
five  books  which  they  usually  read  on  all 

1  in  the  year.  These  five  books  are,  the 
igs,  Ruth,  the  Lamentations  of  Jeremiah, 
,  and  the  book  of  Esther.  In  the  Hebrew 
ire  printed  or  ^Tittcn  apart  by  themselves, 
nd  up  together. 

books  following  Ruth  are  called  by  the 

I  al2«o  in  some  Latin  bibles,  the.  History  of 

Others  call  them  all  the  Books  of  Kings, 

Y  give  an  account  of  the  establishment  of 
ly,  and  of  the  succession  of  the  kings,  who 

V  the  whole  kingdom  at  first,  and  over  the 
r  Judah  and  Israel  after  its  division.  At 
ng  of  these  books  is  the  histoiy  of  the 
Auel,  which  gives  light  to  that  of  the  kings, 
ill  the  furst  two  of  these  books  the  Books  of 
haps  because  they  contain  the  history  of 
^  who  were  both  anointed  by  Samuel,  and 
it  is  said  of  Saul  in  the  first,  and  of  David 
(,  proves  the  truth  of  .^muel's  prophecies, 
le  name  of  the  Books  of  Kings  only  to  the 
which  in  the  Latin  and  French  bibles  are 
itry/  and  fourth  Books  of  Kings, 

Book  nf  Kingly  or  the  first  of  Samuel,  con- 
itoiy  of  the  high-priest  Eli,  of  Samuel,  and 
mo 


of  Saul ;  and  extends  over  a  period  of  nearly  eighty 
years. 

The  second  contains  the  reign  of  David,  which  is  the 
history  of  about  forty  years.  It  is  commonly  believed 
that  Samuel,  Nathan,  and  Gad,  were  the  writers  of 
these  two  books  ;  and  indeed  they  are  called,  in  the 
end  of  the  first  book  of  Chronicles,  I)avid*s  historians. 

The  third,  or,  according  to  the  Hebrews,  the  first 
Book  of  Kings,  begins  with  a  relation  of  the  manner  in 
which  Solomon  came  to  the  throne,  and  contains  the 
whole  of  his  rei^.  After  that,  an  account  follows  of 
the  division  of  the  kingdom,  and  the  history  of  four 
kings  of  Judah  and  eight  kings  of  Israel.  All  these 
reigns,  including  that  of  Solomon,  which  occupies  the 
first  forty  years,  comprise  the  space  of  126  years. 

The  fourth  of  these  books  contains  the  history  of 
sixteen  kings  of  Judah  and  twelve  kings  of  Israel  ;  and 
embraces  a  period  of  three  hundred  years.  It  likewise 
gives  an  account  of  the  prophets  who  lived  during  this 
time.  It  is  quite  uncertain  who  were  the  writers  of 
the  two  last-mentioned  books.  They  are  by  some  at- 
tributed to  Jeremiali  or  Ezra,  but  no  very  convincing 
? roofs  have  been  adduced  in  support  of  this  opinion, 
t  is  evident,  indeed,  that  these  hooks  form  a  varied 
collection  of  several  particular  histories. 

The  name  of  Paralipomena,  which,  in  Greek,  signifies 
the  history  of  things  omitted,  is  given  to  the  two  books 
which  follow  those  of  the  Kings.  These  form,  in  faet, 
a  supplement,  containing  what  had  been  omitted  in  thm 
Pentateuch,  and  the  books  of  Joshua,  Judges,  and  KingSf 
or  rather  they  contain  a  fuller  description  of  some  things 
which  had  been  therein  only  briefly  related.  Some 
give  them  the  name  of  Chronicles,  because  they  are 
very  exact  in  mentioning  the  time  when  every  trans- 
action happened.  We  divide  them  into  two  books,  as 
do  also  the  Jews,  who  call  them  Dibcre  I/ayamim,  that 
is,  an  Historical  Journal,  the  matters  of  which  they 
treat  having  been  taken  from  the  Journals  of  the  Kings. 
In  the  original  language,  however,  the  word  days  often 
signifies  the  year,  and  in  this  sense  we  may  understand 
the  term  to  signify  properly  Annals.  The  generally 
received  opinion  is,  that  Ezra  was  the  compiler  of  these. 
In  the  first  book,  he  begins  with  a  succinct  historical 
abridgment,  from  the  creation  of  Adam  to  the  return 
of  the  Jews  from  their  captivity  ;  and  then  he  resumes 
the  history  of  David,  and  carries  it  on  to  the  consecra- 
tion of  Solomon,  that  is,  dovm  to  the  year  before  Christ 
1015.  The  history  contained  in  the  second  book  reaches 
down  to  the  year  before  Christ  536,  when,  upon  the 
expiration  of  the  seventy  years  of  the  captivity,  Qynui 
gave  the  Jews  leave  to  return  to  their  own  country. 

Ezra  wrote  the  history  of  the  return  of  the  Jews  from 
the  captivity  of  Babylon  into  Judea.  It  is  the  history 
of  about  eighty-two  years,  from  the  vear  of  the  world 
3468,  when  C^rus  became  master  of  tne  eastern  empin^ 
by  the  death  of  his  father  Camb}*ses  in  Persia,  and  his 
father-in-law  Cyaxeres  in  Media,  to  the  year  S550, 
which  was  the  twentieth  year  of  the  reign  of  Artaxerxes, 
sumamed  Longimanus.  This  book  b^ars  the  name  of 
Ezra,  who  was  the  writer  of  it. 

The  next  book  is  a  continuation  of  that  of  Ezra,  and^ 
therefore,  it  is  bv  some  called  the  Second  Bock  ofJSMra. 
It  was  Nchemiah,  however,  whose  name  it  also  bears, 
who  wrote  it,  as  is  said,  by  the  advice  of  Ezra.  It  con- 
tains the  account  of  the  re-establishment  of  JeruMJeni^ 
and  of  the  Temple,  and  the  worship  of  God.  It  is  be- 
lieved by  some  writers  to  be  the  history  of  about  thirty- 
one  years ;  but  its  chronology  is  exceedingly  uncer- 
tain. 

After  this  general  history  of  the  Jews,  follow  two 
histories  of  particular  persons,  namely,  Esther  and  «/o6. 
The  first  contains  the  account  of  a  miraculous  deliver- 
ance of  the  Jews,  which  was  accomplished  by  means  of 
the  heroine  named  Esther.  The  history  of  Job  is 
not  only  a  narration  of  his  actions,  but 'contains  alio 
the  entire  discourses  which  this  pious  roan  bad  with  his 
wife  and  his  friends,  and  is,  indeed,  one  of  the  most 
eloquent  and  poetic  books  in  the  Holy  Scriptures.  It 
is  uncertain  who  was  the  author. 


ClUMBERS-S  INFOaMATlON  FOR  THE  PEOPl 


Kext  to  the  ^iitorical  booka  at  Senptiire,  follow  thoM 
of  a  maml  nature.  Tbn  lirat  ot  Iheee  i*  tlie  book  of 
Ptalmt,  wbicli  ara  litewiac  in  ».imc  mcMura  hifllorical ; 
for  lliey  recila  llie  miracles  which  God  had  wrooebt, 
and  conlsin,  as  it  were,  an  abridgemeot  of  all  that  hod 
been  done  for  the  I»raeIileB,  anif  tb»t  had  happened 
them.  The  Htbraws  oil  them  the  hook  <tf  Fraii,  _ 
by  whiidi  they  ukaii,  of  the  praaei  of  Gad.  The  word 
piaJm  n  Greek,  and  propt^rly  sigiiitics  llie  Bound  of  - 
ktruigfd  inalrumeat  of  niiuic     the  Hebrew!  eung  ill 

Cbn>  wilb  diflerent  inatrumcate.  We  make  but  or 
k  of  tbeiii  all,  but  the  Ilebrevri  divide  them  into 
fiTe  partk,  which  all  end  with  the  words  ^nm,  Amen. 
Though  the  Psalms  bear  tlio  nania  of  Darid,  jet  the/ 

were  not  all  composed  by  him:  some  of  them  are 

ancient,  and  ollicn  are  of  a  Ul«r  dale  than  his 
Mine  ot  llieni  b^ing  ascribed  lo  Moses,  Samuel,  and 
Euu.  Speaking  uf  tlie  dedication  of  the  mooad  lemple, 
PridEBUK  nye,"  In  this  dedicatian,  the  UGlb,  the  U7th, 
and  the  I'lGib  Pulms,  seem  to  have  been  sung;  for,  in 
the  Se^tuaginl  TerEiona,  ihey  are  styled  Uie  Fiatmt  qf 
Baggat  anil  ZrcAorioA,  u  if  the^  1^  been  composed 
by  them  for  this  ocoasion ;  and  tins,  no  doubt,  was  from 
Bome  ancient  tradition ;  but  in  the  original  Hebrew, 
these  psalms  have  DO  such  title  prefixed  to  tliem,  neilhi 
llare  tbey  any  other  to  contradict  it."  It  is  not  pp 
bablo,  however,  thai  all  those  whoso  names  they  bear 
were  the  true  aulliors  of  them  :  it  is  more  like^  tlial 
theai)  ace  only  the  names  of  those  to  whom  tbey  were 
flnt  given  U>  uiig. 

After  Ihc  Puiins  are  the  Fraetrit,  which  ai 
lecliim  of  moral  Kealences,  of  wUiuh  Solomon 
writer.  This  name  is  (jiven  them  by  the  Greeks,  but 
the  Hebrews  call  Ihem  Miale,  that  is,  Farabln  " 
ftaritaiLi  ,•  and  the  word  may  alno  signify  Sen. 
MaxiiKi.  It  is  a  colicclion  of  divine  pFeaupts,  proper 
for  every  ago  and  evei7  condition  of  life. 

1W  boob  whiefa  lidluwa  is  also  a  mcral  ant, 
likewise  composed  by  Salomon,  The  Greek*  call  it 
EcplC'iaelet,  whicli  a.iawera  to  tho  name  of  Kohclo 
which  it  beats  io  the  Hebrew.  Dolh  (hcse  words  fi 
uify,  in  our  langunge,  a  preacher,  or  ono  irfta  ipeaki 
tin  Uitembiy.  fu  this  book  is  given  an  admirable  pi 
ture  of  the  ranity  of  worldly  expee lotions. 

Among  the  mural  hooka  la  also  reckoned  die  Sang  iff 
Sanga  ;  itiat  is  lo  say,  according  [0  the  Hebrew  manner 
of  speaking,  a  mast  fiteHtnl  umg.     It  in  ail  inspin  ' 
production  of  Solomon,  in  the  allegorical  form  of  a 
epitlalamium,  or  nuplial  song  signilicant  of  the  mn 
riage  and  fellowship  between  Christ  and  his  people 
"  III  majestic  style.  Its  power  on  men's  conBoiences  i 
promote  holiness  and  purily,  the  hanuony  of  its  hin- 
guagewilh  tbal  of  Chnst's  parables,  and  o'lhe  book  of 
Bflvshition;  Ihe  sincerity  of  Ilio  bride  in  acknowledging 
her  faults,  and,  in  Rne,  its  general  reception  by  the 
Jewiah   and  Christian    churcli,   sufficiently  prove   its 
authenticity ." — lirown. 

In  regnrd  to  the  I'topliets,  it  may  be  observed,  that 
all  the  Did  Testament  is  considered  to  be  in  anbsUincc 
one  continued  prophecy  of  the  coming  of  a  Messiah ; 
BO  tlial  all  the  books  of  which  it  eoneists  nre  understood 
to  be  in  some  sense  jimphrticai.  But  this  name  is  more 
especially  given  to  those  books  which  were  written  by 
persona  who  had  a  clearer  knowledge  uf  fulnrlly,  who 
forewarned  both  kinga  and  people  of  what  woald  happen 
to  them,  and  who,  at  tho  some  time,  pointed  out  whal 
the  Messiah  was  lo  accomplish,  whom  they  who  are 
acknowledged  to  have  been  pmphcta  had  always  in 
view  ;  ami  this  is  wliat  ought  most  especially  lo  be  taken 
notice  of  in  their  writings. 

The  Prophecies  bear  the  luunea  of  those  lo  whom 
they  belong.  Some  teamed  men  are  of  opinion  that 
the  I'rophels  made  abridgEmenlsoflUe  discnurses  which 
they  had  written,  and  Ricd  them  up  at  the  gates  of  the 
Temple,  that  nil  the  people  miKht  read  theui ;  and  that 
after  this  the  ministers  of  the  Temjile  might  lake  them 
away,  and  place  them  among  the  arcliiTen,  which  is  the 
rewun  why  wc  baie  not  the  Prophecies  in  the  order  in 
which  tliey  were  written.   Hut  tho  inlerprelors  of  Scri]i- 


lure  haTe  long  since  laboured  t« 
cording  to  Ihe  courec  of  their  hlstocj. 

The  works  of  the  Propheta  are  divid«4faet 
the  RrsI  of  which  contains  Oe  Gtnter,  »4« 
llie  LeacT  Propheii.  This  diulnctino.  uf  <0k 
not  apply  at  ali  to  the  persons  of  the  pniplafev 
lo  ihe  bulk  of  tlieir  works.  Tfu  (fmitr  l^ 
Isaiah,  Kaektel,  Daniel,  and  J eretaiah.  TVi 
lioni  of  Jeremiah  make  a  separate  book  by^ 
containing  tliat  prophet's  diacriptiaiu  of  the 
liou  of  the  eiiy  uf  Jerusalem  and  of  the  ta^r 
people.  Tht  LtiKT  Fnypkfl*  ar«  HoMa,  Jw 
Obodiah,  Jonah, Micah,Nahiun,HahBkk«k,Zi 
Hnggni,  Zecbariah,  and  Slalachi.    Ttw;  mm 


a  nM/nt,  or  d*  A 


call  TTitreatrr,  which 

The  dales  of  many  of  (he  prophMiM  ana 
but  Ihe  earlifflt  of  them  was  in  Uie  dajn  (/  tU 
of  Judah,  and  Jeroboam  tho  Second,  UinMa 
Kin^  of  Inrael,  about  two  hundred  jsan  Is 
captivity,  and  not  long  after  Jmah  had  ttabZi 
the  son  of  Jehoiada,  in  ilie  court  of  the  tMsIt 
was  tho  first  of  llie  writing  prephelt,  and  M 
andObadiali,  publiehed  their  iTophtdeasbsBtl 

1  saiah  began  his  remarkable  pmphoriM  S  A 
Afterwards,  buthis  book  is  placed  fint,bffaM 
largest  of  them  all,  and  la  niorr  eiplicil  Mf*! 

advent  of  Christ  than  any  of  the  »ib«r«.  Ibc) 
of  lliig  eminent  writer  it  rKceedlnglyaubUiMa' 
ing;  so  much  so,  that  it  ha*  sever  beeaff{nM 
profane  poet  eiilier  Til  an«ient  or  modeni  tolf 
impossible  to  rwd  some  of  th*  chasten  widMI 
Blruck  by  the  force  of  the  pri>]>hrM  alhriai^ 
characler  and  sufferings  of  the  Jtlisiiah  i  M^ 
Bfiiuencc  of  iheae  prevailing  eharacteiufiav  ttr 

"     -■' '-'  ■'^e  EamfrSaJ  Ff^ltir 

3  r\flh  ranfftliil  1 
ssyuiai  ijif  -i.iMi  .'I  i,n.].!j..rv  c.,iinor.fJ  tnj 
during'  lb,'  »,n>iul  Ten.iilL'  ;  mid  Msbeiii  d-;l 

scriesof  prophets  broke  olf,  and  came  toapsiM 
book  of  Malachi,  therefore,  appropnaldy  «h 
eacred  record  of  the  Old  Teslamenl. 

ByreferrioE  to  our  historical  skeuhetisi 
•  it  will  bo  observed  that  Ihe  glatj  d 
'd  at  Ihe  period  of  tiie  ci'D'inest  and  <^ 
thu  nation,  about  six  hun Jrwl  jean befon Oril 
a  conaequenee,  though  not  an  immediala  a*,' 
spired  writiDga  of  the  Old  Te»t*neat  wrrt  "i 
snan  after  Ihis  event,  or  probably  four  h«M 
before  ihe  coming  of  Ihe  Messiah.  ThiB,a|< 
from  four  lo  five  centuriea  eUpscd  frmn  lb*  Vj 
Malochi  concluded  his  prophetic  ci  '  '  — 
in  which  Ihe  Evangelists  penned  It 
of  Christ's  life  and  miaistrationa. 


people, 


The  second  and  leawr  division  of  tb«  BM 
.ecu  suii,  reUlea  entirelv  to  the  CbrialiaarfV 
the  rulRhneul  of  that  which  waspndicl(-lsa4]M 
in  the  mnro  ancient  department  of  the  wtA 
diviaionof  the  Sacred  Scriptures  is  genrralljiri 
A'rTP  Testament,  or  Ihat  which  has  been  a  hwl 
lion  and  bequest ;  that  portion  of  it  whldl  i^ 
the  history  of  tho  life  ot  Christ  is  calUd  Ibtft* 
by  some  lbs  £>anf ^7,  both  Iheae  wordihavi(|B 
-"ining,  and  implying pgwf  n.-u.,,  orplaAi*^ 
circumatance  MiitI  Ihe  namlivn  coutsiaMl 
of  Ihinn  which  arc  In  benetil  miinkind. 

The  New  Tealament,  like  the  Old,  is  a  tmf* 
booka  wrillcn  by  different  inipirw]  indiiidMl 
put  logctber  in  a  manner  ao  as  to  sahibitll 
account  of  the  binh,  actions,  and  death  of  <M 
doclrinn  ha  promulgaled — ami  the  pi 
ing  the  future  stale  uf  the  chi 


mSTORY  OF  THE  BIBLE. 


liiitorioal  books  are  the  four  Gospels  and  the  Acts 
i€  AposileSf  all  these  being  of  the  character  of  nar- 
^es  of  events ;  the  doctrinal  arc  the  Epistles  of  Paul, 
■ome  others  ;  the  prophetic  book  Is  the  last,  and  is 
d  the  ReveltUwru  or  Apocalypse  of  Si  John,  hav- 
been  written  by  that  apostle  while  he  was  in  the 
id  of  Patmos. 

lie  four  Evangelists,  or  writers,  are  Matthew,  Mark, 
e,  and  John  ;  these  having,  as  is  generally  believed, 

I  companions  of  Chri<%t  during  his  ministrations,  and 
efure  personally  acquainted  with  his  life  and  cha- 
er.    Each  of  the  four  books  is  principally  a  repe- 

II  of  the  history  of  Christ,  yet  they  all  possess  a 
oenoe  of  style,  and  each  mentions  some  circum* 
MS  omitted  by  the  others,  so  tliat  the  whole  is 
Btial  in  making  up  a  complete  lifo  of  the  Messiali. 
■e  distinctions  in  the  touo  of  the  narratives,  and 
NT  peculiarities,  are  always  considered  as  strong  cir- 
ittantial  evidence  in  proof  of  their  autlienticity,  and 
bne  having  been  no  collusion  on  the  part  of  the 
crs.  But,  indeed,  the  events  they  record  are  de- 
id  in  so  exceedingly  simple  and  unaffected  a  man- 
that  it  is  impossible  to  suppose  that  they  were 

Im  with  a  view  to  impose  on  the  credulity  of  man- 
•  The  veracity  and  actual  belief  of  the  Evangelists 
itelves  arc  placed  beyond  a  doubt. 
le  first  book  is  written  by  Matthew,  who  was  by 
*  Jew,  and  exercised  the  profession  of  a  publican 
It  is,  a  collector  of  the  public  tax  or  assessment 
feed  upon  the  Jewish  people  by  their  conquerors, 
RLomans.     Matthew,  who  was  also  called  by  the 

>  of  Levi,  was  one  of  the  twelve  apostles  of  Christ, 
feo  is  said  to  have  written  his  nari*ative  from  thirty 
!^jr  years  after  the  departure  of  his  Master  from 
^rth.  Mnny  of  the  ancients  sav  that  he  wrote  it 
a  Hebrew  or  Syriac  language  ;  but  it  is  more  pro- 

>  that  there  wei'e  two  originals — one  in  Hebrew, 
lie  other  in  Greek,  tlie  former  written  a.d.  37  or 
Qd  the  latter  a.d.  (»1  ;  and  that  these  were  respec- 
^  designetl  for  the  Hebrew  and  Gentile  nations. 
'^th  regard  to  Mark,  the  writer  of  the  second  Gos- 
t  may  be  observed,  that  although  Mark  or  Marcus 
k  eommon  Roman  name,  there  is  reason  to  believe 
tliis  Evangelist  was  a  Jew,  who  had  changed  his 
^aal  appellation  on  being  converted  to  the  faith  of 
IC  Jerome  bu}s,  that,  after  the  writiug  of  this 
d,  he  went  into  Egypt,  and  was  the  first  that 
slied  the  Gospel  at  Alexandria,  where  he  founded  a 
fill,  to  which  he  offered  an  example  of  holy  living. 
«  Gospel  of  St  Mark  is  much  shorter  than  that  of 
bew,  not  giving  so  full  an  account  of  Christ's  ser- 
^  as  that  did,  but  insJHting  chiefly  on  his  miracles  ; 
Kl  regard  to  these  also,  it  is  very  much  a  repetition 
femt  we  have  in  Matthew,  many  remarkable  circum- 
A^s  being  added  to  the  incidents  there  related,  but 
(a«ny  new  mattei-s.  There  is  a  tradition  tliat  it  Was 
^rritten  in  Latin,  because  it  was  written  at  Rome ; 
Kfeis  is  generally  thought  to  be  without  foundation, 
tlut  it  was  written  in  Greek,  as  was  St  Paul's 
^le  to  the  Romans,  the  Greek  being  the  more  uui- 
kl  language.  The  Gospel  of  Mark  was  written  at 
c^ewhat  later  period  than  that  of  Matthew. 

^Ite,  the  name  of  the  third  Evangelist,  is  considered 
^Sne  to  be  a  contraction  of  Luciiius ;  and  he  is  said 
t  Jeiomo  to  have  been  boru  at  Antioch.  Some 
^  that  he  was  the  only  one  of  all  the  penmen  of  the 
^tures  that  wa.s  not  of  the  Ibraelites  ;  that  he  was  a 
^  proselyte,  and  was  converted  to  Christianity  by 
tsinistry  of  St  Paul  at  Antioch  ;  and  that,  after  the 
^g  of  Paul  into  Macedonia,  Luke  was  his  constant 
^nion.  He  had  employed  himself  in  the  study  and 
tice  of  physic  ;  and  hence  Paul  calls  him  Luke  the 
^md  Physicwn.  It  is  deemed  probable  that  Luke 
«  botJi  his  gobpel  and  his  narrative  of  the  Acts  q/* 
apostles  at  Rome,  when  he  was  there  a  prisoner 
Paul,  preaching  in  his  oicn  hired  Aou^c— circum- 
2es  alluded  to  at  tlic  conclusion  of  the  latter  work, 
^is  be  the  ease,  Luke's  Gospel  may  be  dated  about 
•y  years  after  Chru3L*»  departure,  or  a.  d.  63.  Jerome 

59{ 


says  that  St  Luke  died  when  he  was  eighty-four  years 
of  age,  and  that  he  was  never  married.  Dr  Cave  ob- 
serves, that  "  his  way  and  manner  of  writing  are  ac- 
curate and  exact,  his  style  polite  and  elegant,  sublime 
and  lofty,  yet  perspicuous  ;  and  that  he  expresses  him- 
self in  a  vein  of  purer  Greek  than  is  to  be  found  in  the 
other  writers  of  this  holy  history."  Thus  he  relates 
several  things  more  copiously  than  the  other  Evange- 
lists, and  thus  he  especially  treats  of  those  things  which 
relate  to  the  priestly  office  of  Christ. 

The  fourth  Evangelist,  John,  was  one  of  the  sons  of 
Zebedee,  a  fisherman  of  Galilee,  the  brother  of  James, 
one  of  tho  Twelve  Apostles,  and  distinguished  by  the 
honourable  appellation  of  that  disciple  tehom  Jcstts  loved. 
The  ancients  tell  us  that  John  lived  longest  of  all  the 
Apostles,  and  was  the  only  one  of  them  that  died  a 
natural  death,  all  the  rest  sufTering  martvrdom.  It 
is  now  established  that  he  wrote  his  Gospel  about  the 
year  97  or  98,  when  he  was  of  an  extremely  old  age. 

After  the  Gospel,  or  History  of  Jesus  Christ,  follows 
tho  history  of  what  passed  after  his  ascension  and  was 
transacted  by  the  Apostles.  The  book,  therefore,  whieh 
contains  this  history,  is  called  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles, 
It  is  a  history  of  the  rising  church  for  about  the  space 
of  thirty  years.  It  was  written,  as  has  been  already 
obser\'ed,  by  St  Luke  the  Evangelist,  when  he  was  with 
St  Paul  at  Rome,  during  his  imprisonment  there.  In 
the  end  of  the  book  he  mentions  particuUrly  his  being 
with  Paul  in  his  dangerous  voyage  to  Rome,  when  he 
was  earned  thither  a  prisoner ;  and  it  is  evident  that  he 
was  with  him  when,  from  his  prison  there,  Paul  wrote 
his  epistles  to  the  Colossians  and  Philemon,  for  in  both 
of  these  he  is  named  by  him. 

Next  to  this  come  the  Kpistles  of  St  Paul,  which  are 
fourteen  in  number  ;  one  to  the  Romans  ;  two  to  the 
Corintliians ;  one  to  the  Galatians ;  one  to  the  Ephe- 
sians ;  one  to  the  Philippians ;  one  to  the  Colossians ; 
two  to  the  Thessalonians ;  two  to  Timothy ;  one  to  Titus ; 
one  to  Philemon ;  and  one  to  the  Hebrews.  They  con- 
tain that  part  of  ecclesiastical  history  which  immedi- 
ately follows  after  what  is  related  in  the  Acts.  The 
principal  matter  contained  in  them  is  the  establishment 
or  confirmation  of  the  doctrine  which  Jesus  Christ 
taught  his  disciples.  According  as  the  difficulties  which 
raised  disputes  among  the  Christians,  or  the  heresies 
which  sprang  up  in  the  church  from  the  first  age  of  it, 
required,  St  Paul  in  these  epistles  clears  up  and  pi*oves 
all  matters  of  faith,  and  gives  excellent  rules  for  mora- 
lity. His  epistles  may  be  considered  as  a  commentary 
on,  or  an  interpretation  of,  the  four  books  of  the  Gospel. 

The  Epistle  to  the  Romans  is  placed  first,  not  because 
of  the  priority  of  its  date,  but  on  account  of  its  super- 
lative excellence,  it  being  one  of  the  longest  and  fullest 
of  all,  and,  perhaps,  also,  on  account  of  the  dignity  of 
the  place  to  which  it  is  addressed.  It  is  gathered  from 
some  passages  in  the  epistle,  that  it  was  written  in  the 
year  of  Christ  56,  from  Corinth,  while  Paul  made  a 
short  stay  there  in  his  way  to  Troas.  He  was  then 
going  up  to  Jerusalem,  with  the  money  that  was  given 
to  the  poor  saints  there ;  which  is  spoken  of  in  the 
fifteenth  chapter  of  the  epistle. 

The  two  Epistles  to  the  Corinthians  were  written 
about  a  year  after  that  to  the  Romans,  viz.  a.  d.  57 ;  that 
to  the  Galatians,  a.d.  56 ;  to  the  Ephesians,  a.d.  61  ;  to 
the  Philippians,  a.  d.  62 ;  to  the  Colossians,  a.  d.  62 ;  two 
to  the  Thessalonians,  a.  d.  51  and  52  ;  the  first  to 
Timothy,  a.  d.  64  ;  the  second  to  Timothy,  a.  d.  66 ;  to 
Titus,  A.  D.  65  ;  to  Philemon,  a.d.  62  ;  and  that  to  the 
Ilebretrs,  a.  d.  62.  From  which  chronology  it  appears, 
that  the  Epistles  of  St  Paul  are  placed  in  the  New 
Testament  rather  according  to  the  dignity  of  the  cities 
to  which  they  were  sent,  than  according  to  tlie  order  of 
time  in  which  they  were  written ;  for  the  Epistles  to 
the  Thessalonians  were  those  he  wrote  first,  though  that 
to  the  Romans  is  placed  before  tliem.  Interpreters  are 
agreed  that  the  last  epistle  which  he  wi'ote  was  the 
second  to  Timothy. 

St  Paul  wrote  to  the  churches  of  some  particular 
phices,  or  to  some  particular  persons;  but  the  other 


1 

41 


■■    4 


bowever  little  tbey  admit  of  cuntruversy,  it  may,  on  tliu 
other  baud,  be  ob8er\'cd,  that  the  strong  ar^uiuvnt.s  aii«I 
illostratioDB  brought  forward  in  the  Kpibilcs  by  I'aul 
and  others,  were  necessary,  in  order  to  combat  the 
sophistry  of  the  Greeks  and  the  self-sufficient  philoso- 
phies of  other  nations.  Paul,  the  chief  of  tlic  epistle 
writers,  who  became  a  Christian  by  conversion,  after 
Christ  had  dei^arted  from  the  earth,  is  the  great  chani" 
pion  of  the  faith,  and  exposes,  in  strong  and  perHpi- 
enous  language,  tlie  hidden  depravities  of  the  human 
heart ;  so  that,  where  the  affecting  discourses  and  buf- 
ferings of  the  Messiah  fail  to  convert  and  to  convince, 
the  reasoning  of  this  great  writer  is  calculated  to  silence 
and  subdue  those  who  stubbornly  resist  tliu  benignant 
influence  of  the  Christian  faith. 

Such,  then,  were  the  various  books  written  to  convey 
to  posterity  a  faithful  account  of  Christ's  life  and  mis- 
sion, and  consequently  of  the  religion  which  it  was  his 
purpose  to  institute.  It  will  have  been  observed,  that 
the  whole  were  inscribed  within  the  first  centur}',  and 
gradually  accumulated  in  the  hands  of  the  primitive 
church,  as  an  imporisliablu  basis  on  which  tlic  faith  of 
Christians  sliould  be  founded. 

AVTlinNTiaTY  OF  THE  SCRIFTURES. — APOCRYl'HA. 

With  respect  to  the  authenticity  of  both  the  Old  and 
New  Testament  books,  as  generally  received,  we  of 
course  look  to  the  estimation  in  which  they  were 
respectively  held  by  those  with  whom  they  had  lieen 
deposited,  and  who  unquestionably  possessed  the  best 
evidences  of  their  credibility.  The  Jews,  as  is  well 
known,  were  most  scrupulous  in  preserving  entire  the 
works  of  their  inspired  writen,  and  of  preventing  the 
intrusion  of  literal  errors  into  the  copies  which  were 
from  time  to  time  transcribed.  Of  the  fidelity  of  the 
original  text,  there  cannot,  we  think,  be  any  reasonable 
doubt ;  and  although  there  are  what  are  called  various 
rsadings,  these  are  of  an  exceedingly  unimportant  cha- 
racter. Referring  to  this  subject,  it  is  said  by  the 
learned  Dr  Adam  Clarke,  **  tliatall  the  omissions  of  the 
ancient  manuHcripts,  put  together,  would  not  counte- 
nance the  omission  of  any  essential  doctrine  of  the  gos- 
pel, relative  to  faith  or  iiioralH ;  nml  all  thf  :uMitinii8 


wnicii  tnen  prevailed,  and  winch  they  sup^ 
been  tradiiioually  conveyed  down  fnka 
writci*8. 

The  respect  which  the  Jews  have  uniJo 
the  sacred  books,  has  been  almost  allied  to 
They  are  directed  to  be  written  upon  pard 
from  the  skin  of  a  clean  animal,  and  to  be' 
with  strings  of  similar  substance,  or  sewi 
hair  which  has  been  spun  and  prepared  1 
It  must  be  likewise  a  Jew  that  writes  tl 
tlicy  are  extremely  diligent  and  exact  ii 
the  least  fault  profanes  the  book.  Every  i 
ment  is  to  contain  a  certain  number  of  oo] 
are  to  be  of  a  precise  length  and  brci 
contain  a  certain  number  of  words.  Th 
written  with  the  purest  ink,  and  no  word 
ten  from  memory ;  it  must  be  first  oralli 
by  tho  copyist.  The  name  of  God  is  di 
written  with  tho  utmost  attention  and  <i 
the  transcriber  is  to  wash  his  pen  before 
it  on  the  parchment.  If  there  should  cl 
word  with  either  a  deficient  or  a  rednnd 
should  any  of  the  prosaic  part  of  the  Ol 
be  written  as  verse,  or  vice  vcrtti^  the  D 
vitLited.  No  Hebrew  manuscript  with  anj 
irt,  on  any  account,  admitted  into  a  synago] 
private  individuals  are  permitted  to  liar 
mented  for  their  own  use ;  but  in  the  illu 
resemblance  of  any  animal  denounced  bj 
unclean  cannot  be  admitted.  Among  the  i 
the  l^(M)k  of  Esther,  in  i>articular,  is  fiivi 
rated  with  rude  figures  of  various  kinds ; 
t«i>ect  to  this  book,  it  must  be  obHurvtHi,  i 
its  wanting  the  sacred  name  of  Gud,  it  if 
such  repute  for  holiness  as  the  other  boo 
manuscripts  for  private  use  may  be  citbei 
ment,  vellum,  or  paper,  and  of  various  sis 
is,**  sa^-s  i*rideaux,  **  in  the  church  of  :?| 
Dononia,  a  copy  of  the  Hebrew  Scripturei 
great  deal  of  care,  which  tliey  pretend  to  b 
copy,  written  by  Ezra  himself;  and,  th 
there  valued  at  so  high  a  rate,  that  great  si 
Ii.ive  biMMi  borrowed  by  lh«*  ISunDtiiaiiH   ui 


IBLK. 


I  hMtk  ■iii»  to  kituih  mtmnth 
iDlDlotl>«««llu«il(e  bodyaf  sBcicutScnfian^ 
TrMMnml  Iw*  !»«>  rMfamA  i»  •knlUr  tuU- 

Uia  tlur4  ud  fnotdi  maim^  tbon  Bara 
Bf^  lijr  Avim  melt,  tai  {mlilariiNl,  nas  nsd*! 
I  of  .S>  I'Moti  aiDUW  of  Ji>  TboiUH,  •Jintbor 
ilip,  h*.  Bill  ihwy  wRni  ■■nrr'  bwdmI  by  tki 
iHt  <naM>y  tmS*  gtiHi  hi  Uinu,  m  Ui»  Inoari 
It;  J»iiii.  Ami  lu  Kin*  tliat  (twd  ti«u^  wl^. 
iiuUiim  lo>«<mr4iHrl(i«nM  WMMTlfatiMi 
■— *■  llimuir.'*  ntfa  im,  "  *likl9«ar  On  fr»- 

inulilwa  maj  be.  It  ia  unt  ufflckrt  lu  |>t«- 
nt*  wkk  »BS  tBTUJt^,  M  afiMn  by  upui- 
r  i4«au  CiiiM  Mfd  ud  All  mw  tDoDiotnUB 
Uali  INK  n«J  nritlfti,  (iBditinn  tcu  am  |ire> 
Djr  OHO  i>r  UiDio  U>  u,  liut  all  !■  tnal  •nvi.pt 
I  WTitU'D  j  anij  tllkl,  l)i(iTI>(uT^  i»  >>I>BI  *«  lUWl 

luu  k>4Hiii  laid  nf  Uia  l»ti>erilji  ot  Ilia  mt  At 
I'Bdlauuol,  Dwy  bo  aiipUtd  «Im>  tv  ll»  Now,  in 

it  nuji  be  chu-gtd  wuh  crimi|il>uiu  la  niiM»- 
tf  lia,  DHWon)  at  tnmrtrii-cn.    Tbnosli  It 

■ifaditMiT  lli&l  tJia  Kiiw  Tcrtamcnt  UU.  b}r 
in  lTPi{aiTrTtl)'  trsKMrihrd  lluii  the  Obl,  W- 
Ilia  HI  a  jcnalar  pi«|i<>rtlim  af  *bHmu  mul- 


OI 


Limb  uuti^uib^  uauitii^  aAAigiicu  iu  luciiI)  wueic  cttiiii«>b 

be  any  reajBouable  duubt ;  in  other  wnrilH,  the  writers 
wrote  the  books  in  perfect  good  fnith,  believing  that 
wliat  they  penned  was  true,  and  the  very  books  are 
those  now  before  us  in  the  New  Testament.  On  these 
points,  an  able  divine  remarks : — *^  It  must  be  esteemed 
a  strong  circumstance  in  favour  of  tlie  antiquity  of  the 
New  Testament,  that  on  a  subject  in  which  the  chances 
of  detection  are  so  numerous,  and  where  we  can  scarcely 
advance  a  single  step  in  the  narrative  without  the  pos- 
sibility of  betraying  our  time  by  some  mistaken  allusion, 
it  stands  distinguislied  from  every  Uter  composition,  in 
being  able  to  bear  the  most  minute  and  intimate  com- 
parison with  the  contemporary  historians  of  that  period. 
The  argument  derives  great  additional  strength  from 
viewing  the  New  Testament,  not  as  one  single  perform- 
ance, but  as  a  collection  of  several  (>erformances.  It 
is  the  work  of  no  less  than  eight  different  authors,  who 
wrote  without  any  appearance  of  concert,  who  published 
in  different  parts  of  the  world,  and  whose  writings  pos- 
sess every  evidence,  both  internal  and  external,  of  being 
independent  productions.  Had  only  one  author  ex- 
hibited  the  same  minutb  accuracy  of  allusion,  it  would 
have  been  esteemed  a  very  strong  evidence  of  his  anti- 
quity. But  when  we  see  so  many  authors,  exhibiting 
such  a  well-sustained  and  almost  unexpected  accuracy 
thn>ugh  the  whole  of  their  varied  and  distinct  narra- 
tives, It  seems  difficult  to  avoid  the  conclusion,  that  tliey 
were  either  the  eye-witnesses  of  their  own  history,  or 
lived  about  the  period  of  its  accomplisiiment."  * 

A  minor  point  iu  the  history  of  the  Bible  now  re- 
quires to  be  noticed.  In  the  earliest  times  the  writings 
of  the  Old  Testament  were  divided  into  books  and  short 
paragraphs  equivalent  to  verses ;  but  the  division  into 
chapters  and  verses  in  which  they  now  appear  was  of  a 
much  later  date.  The  separation  of  both  the  Old  and 
New  Testament  books  into  chapters  and  verses,  is  by 
some  writers  ascribed  to  Arlott,  a  Tuscan  monk,  or 
rather  to  Hugh  Cardinalis  in  the  thirteenth  century ; 
while  otliers  allege  that,  from  the  comments  of  Theo- 
phylact  on  the  Gospel,  this  must  have  been  effected  two 
centuries  earlier.  The  question  is  not  very  important, 
and  it  is  sufficient  for  the  purposes  of  general  knowledge 


At. ..4.   «!..    .1: 


e  Ai. 


o... 


wiibiiJ^n.        •*  nil  iiic  «rui  iitrsif  vs  ^Afiiva^twu  w< 

tian  church  may  be  said  to  have  commence 
in  tlie  history  of  the  Bible.  The  Old  Testsi 
whether  in  the  form  of  Hebrew,  ChaUaii 
versions,  were  still  cherished  by  the  HdQ 
hood  as  they  are  at  this  day ;  but  ciipiet « 
accessible  to  the  early  Christians,  and  by 
apostles  and  discipira  they  were  trcaanml 
phetic  testimony  of  God's  eternal  design  fc 
tiou  of  mankind,  in  the  grand  event  whn 
actually  occurred — the  coming  of  Jesud  Cli 
When  the  books  of  the  New  Testamsi 
Iccted  and  authenticated  by  the  early  fathfi 
members  of  the  Christian  ohurch,  they  « 
equal  esteem  with  those  of  the  Old,  and  a 
served  along  with  them.  Though  still 
manuscripts,  they  were  generally  in  the  Gi 
but,  during  the  first  three  centuries  of  ooi 
or  the  language  of  the  Uomans,  came  lai| 
iu  literature,  and,  in  the  same  manner  as 
European  languages  in  later  times  inp 
Latin,  so  did  the  Latin  RUi>er8ede  the  Giv 
tine  (born  354 — died  430)  mentions  that.pr 
time,  there  existed  a  great  nunil)fr  of  Li 
of  the  Scriptural  wntingM.  "  We  know 
tran»latcd  the  Scriptures  into  Orefk,*  sa; 
the  number  of  them  is  not  great :  but  tb< 
the  Latin  translators  is  infinite.  When  til 
to  bo  cstabiinhed,  the  first  man  who  ft^t 
copy,  notwitht^tanding  the  little  knowled^ 
two  languages,  boldly  undertook  a  tnuul 
From  another  passage  of  his  writings  it  hi 
rally  concluded  that  there  was  one  |iartic 
called  *'tho  Italian,"  in  higher  estinisti< 
rest,  and  which  was  the  authorised  verviout 
churches.  However  this  may  be,  it  is  cer 
Latin  church  required  a  versiou  uf  \\» 
formed  directly  from  the  Hebrew,  as  all  th« 
lations  in  existence  at  tlwt  time  had  beet 
the  SKVf:.NTV.  Jerome,  who  wju  the  ei*Dt 
Augustine,  was  in  every  respect  best  suili 
the  learned  men  of  that  time,  to  the  ta>k  < 
new  translation,  which  he  accordingly  xxwi 


\ » 


.  U  -     l\1 


HISTORY  OF  THE  BIBLE. 


■  CoQtieil  ot  Trent,  Bince  wUdi  thus  eorreeteii 
■■  havg  been  pnblitbed  under  tin  kutboritj  dF 
ii«BextiuV.u>dClein«itVIlI.  Bjtheitoiiiai 
le  bodj  it  u  held  in  the  higbert  cMmm,  and  u 
led  equiTiJent  io  vklne  to  £e  SeriptDm  in  th( 
iJ  toDgnee. 

I  leciQB  to  ng  tbe  niiAt  proper  place  U  notice — 
in«t  be  elsBT  to  eTcry  ODe*!  comprehennon — thut, 
I  nfe  Biutodj  and  veriflottion  of  the  Seriplures, 
lie  prriod  xt  which  the  New  Testunent  booke 
olleoted,  wg  ore  indebted  to  the  Chnrch,  or,  to 
man  pbinly,  IhM  (erJe*  of  eceleeiutiul  fune- 
ei  whoM  butory  ii  extended  from  the  Bpoatolie 
.ill  the  preunt.  Until  the  Bible,  therefore,  wu 
d  Id  the  people  b;  the  greateal  of  kU  mechuinl 
ttione,  the  ul  of  printing,  knd  in  that  respeet 
liejondthercachofpnrateiDterpolation  or  error, 
rtf,  M  ■  record,  wu  dependent  on  the  owe  knd 
*B  of  the  ehurch,  and  for  the  hithrat  perfonnBDce 
L  important  service,  no  one  nirel;  will  refuse  a 
xoi  priuBo.    Fromn   " 


ed  of  thi 


loo  the  Bibi 


landi  may  conaider  the  Choreh 
ibnt  tfi  ihie  incorporation  are  thejunquettiooably 
ed  for  pieserving  the  Scriptures  throqgh  agoe  of 
Dlion  and  civil  uproar.  From  the  era  of  Augua- 
■d  Jeromo,  when  copies  ot  the  aacred  books  came 
onsiderablj  greater  request  hj  the  scattered 
lei  of  the  Cliureh,  trsDacripla  mere  efTeoted  hy 
I  and  latterly  by  monka,  with  a  diligence  and  ac- 
■  n^ich  demand  our  Dtmoat  esteem  and  appro- 
.  In  the  cells  of  munaateHet,  aurniunded  bj 
I  of  barbarouB  nobles  and  their  serie,  learning 
nfuge  from  oppreuion  ;  and  there,  io  the  darkest 
if  European  history,  were  humble  and  pions 
aatios  engaged,  certaiuly  from  no  worldly  conai- 
m,  in  penning  copy  after  copy  of  the  Saored 
ip,  and  bequeathing  them  hi  memorials  of  their 
rj  to  future  and  more  fortunate  generattooa. 
Ii  before  and  after  the  application  of  printing  to 
ily  copies  of  the  Bible,  translations,  either  direct 
Ihe  original  tongues  or  from  the  Greek  versions, 
ifFected  by  almoat  every  people  to  whom  Chris- 


Lbic,  I'ersiao,  Sclavon 
ted.     One  of  tlie  moi 

t  siitfa  century.*  I'ortiona  of  t 
ilood  to  have  been  translated  ii 
e  in  the  fint  Britiah  churcbet 


.  other  tongues,  w 


t  of  the* 


•mloni.     Kliu 

m.ttCT.  I  GcnoA. 

n.  about  (ba  liileentli 

.  pnUl^ed  Ih 

Kcw  Tailanim 

,  to  Cr«V.  il 

brtw,  STriac.  talln,  luUlm,  Bpanlth, 

mi™.  EnKll.h,  Ih 

mlih,  Pollnh  ;  and  the 

Hbttia  Hebrew 

Chiddalo.  Greek 

BllOO.    Bui  th 

t^awifUmlitBi 

mi  are  csaiotoed,  neb 

il.lc,  by  CmiinMl 

l<>[t>p.in-.BIb 

le.  diicclnl  b/ Moouniu,  be.;  (heParli 

•T  Ulcbad  J« 

a  Fiench  (EinlkaiiaD,  in  lea  larje  folio 

. copiu of  nhle 

h  were  pubLlHhnl 

In  lIvllaDd,  under  lli> 

r  •MMMlun]  o(  P«pc  AlCJUnAr  1 

I. ;  and  that  of  Brian 

inrt  valiublf ;  i 

BwahdGreclioHBlnal.. 

usglDt,  Ihc  Kan 

aatitan  PmtaUuc 

Fcntaltuch  anil 

GMpeta,    Ihe  Elhlopio 

Soni,  «t  Mom 

on,  and  few  Th. 

Ijllln   tmiula 

hms :  toaelher  w 

Ih  11.C  Lalln  VnlpUe. 

ri^  volume  of 

.uiou.  re.dln^, 

to  whtrt  i>  ordtoarily 

iMel't  lleptaglol  Lsximn-a]]  imilud«]  In  dgbt  rulanm 

Bntn-f  Dirim 

ar,,^U«BlM<. 

d  Kbolars  am 

DOW  (reatlr  iHtaM  la  their  Mndln  by 

The  weed  psll-/liilt  dfniAes  man)'  tonjuu 


ainth  or  avrentb  cvntuiiei ;  and  the  whole  Bible  wu 
traneUled  by  Bede,  an  eminent  Romish  eeeleeiaatic,  in 
the  beginning  of  the  eighth  century.  The  first  Eogliah 
Bible  we  read  of  was  Ust  traneUted  by  WicklifTe,  one 
of  tUe  earliest  English  reformers,  about  tbe  year  1360, 
but  never  printed.  The  part  of  the  English  Bible 
flrat  printed  was  Ihe  New  Testament,  traoalated  by 
William  Tindal,  aaaiated  by  Miles  Coverdale ;  it  waa 
printed  abroad  in  1636,  but,  glvingotfence  to  the  chnrcb, 
.  wai  bought  up  and  burnt.  "  In  1 J33,  Tindal  and  his 
associates  finiahed  the  wholeBibleexcept  (he  Apocrypha, 
and  printed  it  abroad:  hat  while  he  waa  afterwarda  pre- 
paring for  a  second  editioo,  be  waa  taken  up  and  burnt 
for  heresy  in  Flanders.  On  Tindal's  death,  his  work 
waa  carried  on  by  Coverdale,  and  John  Kogen,  super- 
intendont  of  an  English  church  in  Germany,  and  the 
flrat  martyr  in  the  reign  of  Queen  Mary,  who  trans- 
lated the  Apocrypha,  and  revised  Tindal's  tranalatioD, 
comparing  it  with  Ihe  Hebrew,  Greek,  Latin,  and  (ler- 
tnan,  and  adding  prefaces  and  notes  from  Lutlier's  Bible. 
He  dedicated  the  whole  to  Henry  VIII.  in  1  £37,  under 
the  borrowed  name  of  Thomas  Mattliews  ;  whence  this 
haa  been  uaually  called  Mallkeai't  Biblt.  It  was  printed 
at  Hamburgh,  and  licence  obtained  for  publishing  it  In 
England  by  the  favour  of  Arclibishop  Cranmer  andUie 
Biahopa  Latimer  and  Shaxton.  The  fii*t  Bible  printed 
by  authority  in  England,  and  publicly  act  up  in  churches, 
waa  Ihe  same  Tindal's  veraiuii,  mvised,  compared  with 
tbe  Hebrew,  and  in  many  places  amended,  by  Milea 
Corerdlale,  aftcrwarda  Biahop  of  Exeter,  and  examine 
after  him  by  Archbiahop  Cranmer,  who  added  a  prtifaea 
to  it ;  whence  thia  was  called  Crantner't  BiUe.  It  waa 
printed  by  Oraflon,  was  of  large  size,  and  pablisbed 
in  \H0  ;  and,  by  a  royal  proclamation,  every  parish  was 
obliged  to  set  one  of  the  copies  in  ita  ohurcli,  under 
the  penalty  of  forty  shillings  a-roouth  ;  yet,  two  yeara 
after,  the  biahops  obtained  its  suppreaaion  by  the 
kin^.  It  was  restored  under  Edward  VI.,  suppressed 
again  under  Queen  Hni-y,  and  restored  again  in  tliu 
first  year  of  Queen  Elizabeth,  and  a  new  edition  of  it 
given  in  1£62.  Some  English  exiles  at  Genera  in  Queen 
Mary's  reign,  namely,  Coverdale,  Goodman,  Cilbie, 
SanipMs,  Colo,  Whittingham,  and  Knox,  cITected  a  new 
translation,  printed  there  in  IfiGO— the  New  Testament 
having  been  printed  in  1557 — hence  called  the  Gtneva 
BiliU ;  containing  the  variations  of  readings,  marginal 
annoialions,&c.,  on  account  of  which  it  was  much  valued 
by  the  Puritan  party  in  that  and  the  following  reigns. 
Archbishop  Parker  resolved  on  a  new  translation  for 
the  public  use  of  the  church,  and  engaged  the  biBho|ia 
and  other  learned  men  to  take  each  a  shore  or  portion. 
These  being  afterwards  joined  together,  and  printed 
with  short  Bunotalions  in  1568,  in  large  folio,  made 
what  was  afterwarda  called  the  Grtat  Englith  Bihie, 
and  commonly,  ihe  Biihop't  Bitle.  In  1689,  it  was  also 
published  in  octavo,  in  a  smaU  bat  fine  black  letter:  and 
ban  the  chaplera  were  divided  into  verses ;  but  without 
any  breaka  for  them,  in  which  the  method  of  the  Geneva 
Bible  waa  followed,  which  was  the  first  Engliah  Bible 
whei«  any  distinction  of  verses  was  made.  It  was  after- 
wards printed  in  larve  folio,  with  corrections,  andseveral 
prolegomena,  in  1572  :  this  is  called  Matlheu  Partet'i 
Biblt.  The  initial  letters  of  each  tranalalor's  name 
were  put  at  the  end  of  liia  pait.  The  archbiahop  over- 
law,  directed,  examined,  and  finished  the  whole.  Thia 
Iranslalion  was  used  in  Ihe  churches  for  forty  years, 
though  the  Geaeva  Bible  was  more  read  in  private 
bouses  being  printed  above  twenty  times  in  as  mauy 

Various  editions  of  the  Bishop's  Bible  were  printed 
It  London  in  black  letter  at  the  beginning  of  the  seven- 
leenth  century  ;  but  notwithstanding  the  care  that  had 
been  expended  on  il,  the  version  waa  not  very  correct, 
and  iia  langua^  was  often  far  from  elesanl.  To  amend 
these  deficienciea,  and  to  obtain  a  realty  excellent  ver- 
•ion,  James  I.  ordered  an  entirely  new  translation, 
which  is  that  now  in  common  nae  throughout  Great 
Britain.  To  effect  this  very  important  undertaking, 
forty-aevui  diMJnguiilMd  wbolan  were  (f>poinlHl,  aud 


writer,  whether  tJie  translation  was  effected  from  Hebrew 
copies  of  the  Old  Testament  or  the  Greek  Septuagint, 
or  whether  any  transcriptions  of  the  original  manu- 
scripts were  consulted  ;*  but  it  is  allowed  by  all  persons 
competent  to  judge,  that  the  version  possesses  extra- 
ordinary merit,  and  is  the  most  perfect  ever  produced. 

COBISTIAKITT. — HISTORY  OF  THE  CUURCU. 
Early  lUstory. 
At  the  period  of  Christ's  appearance  on  earthyf  the 
land  of  Judea  had  sunk  to  the  condition  of  a  Roman 
province,  and  its  people,  the  Jews,  were  in  a  condition 
not  only  of  civil  but  great  moral  degradation.     Their 
religion,  as  appears  from  all  history,  had  de|;enerated 
from  its  ancient  and  lofty  character,  and  existed  only 
as  a  system  of  empty  external  observances  in  the  hands 
of  a  priesthood  to  the  last  degree  corrupt.   The  leaders 
of  the  people,  and  the  chief  priests,  according  to  the 
account  of  Josephus,  were  persons  of  profligate  manners, 
who  had  purchased  their  places  by  bribes  or  by  acts  of 
iniquity,  and  who  maintained  their  authority,  in  subor- 
dination to  the  Roman  civil  power,  by  flagitious  crimes. 
The  multitude,  affected  by  the  example  of  their  supe- 
riors, were  not  less  corrupted  in  morals ;  and  in  a  general 
sense  it  may  be  understood  that  the  entire  nation  was 
in  a  state  of  lamentable  disorder.    To  aggravate  the 
distractions  of  the  people,  they  were  divided  into  a 
variety  of  sects,  who,  in  proportion  as  they  neglected 
the  essentials  of  religious  faitli  and  practice,  occupied 
themselves  in  disputes  respecting  matters  of  inferior 
concern.     Of  these  sects,  three  in  a  great  measure 
eclipsed  the  rest,  both  by  the  number  of  their  adherents, 
and  also  by  the   weight  and  authority  which  they 
acquired :  these  were  the  Pharisees,  the  Sadducees,  and 
the  Esscnes.     The  chief  difference  of  opinion  among 
these  leading  sects  regarded  the  interpretation  to  be 
put  on  the  tcords  in  the  Holy  Scriptures  ;  and  none  of 
them  seemed  to  have  the  interests  of  true  piety  at  heart 
The  best  of  the  three  was  the  Essenes,  who  discoun- 
tenanced ostentation  in  religious  ofiBces,  and  inclined  to 
lives  of  secluded  meditation.     While  the  Jews,  then, 
were  thus  broken  up  into  contending  sects,  and  were  I 


suitable  to  the  daily  and  <t»^t^n^  infln 
climate ;  Hindooism  enjoins  coiwUat 
Ganges,  besides  other  local  obaervs 
mark  these  religions  as  but  rdermhia  fe 
and  countries,  and  not  compatible  wkl 
ence  in  all  parts  of  the  eari^  Settia 
present,  all  other  consideration^  Chi 
eluding  no  obligation  which  could  not 
formed  in  one  part  of  the  globe  m  am 
in  one  age  as  another,  is  aomething  rm 
religions  either  temporary  or  loau  in 
In  this  universal  and  etenial  appUaJMl 
find  one  of  the  grandest  feature!  of 
Christ. 

The  promulgation  of  the  prineipk  ol 
volence  and  love— the  antagoninn  of  t^ 
lent  emotion— \t'a8y  whatever  OMy  be  ■ 
the  Jewish  people.  Tme,  they  beliei 
the  Creator  of  all  things^  and  oo  fitf  hi 
the  Source  of  religion ;  they  aleo  pofl 
mandments  of  the  Mosaic  Uw ;  but  wh 
sion,  did  thev  view  the  Gentile  natiDai 
iu  any  otlier  light  than  as  an  inteior  v 
to  whom  their  laws  and  usages  had  no 
bility }  Practically,  their  religion  nan 
tions,  while  Christianity  was  all  for ' 
*^  The  Greeks,  besides  developing  tlM 
beautiful  in  tlieir  works  of  art,  had  Ittd 
of  valuable  sciences  applicable  to  the 
The  Romans  had  established  the  priM 
political  administration,  and  proved  th 
perience^  These  scattered  elements  d 
tellectual  cultivation,  insnffieienty  in 
state,  to  bring  about  the  true  >»«^p|Hiw 
fection  of  man,  in  his  social  andindf 
were  refined,  perfected*  and  frmnhint^ 
through  the  law  of  a  pure  beneroleoe^ 
of  which  is  that  of  renderiiu  man  good 
God,  and  which  finds,  in  the  idea  of  «  kii 
upon  earth,  announced  and  nnUsid  hg 
means  of  executing  its  design.  His  v 
what  was  wanting  in  these  nstiiwi    s  fil 


CHRISTIANITY— HISTO&t  OF  THE  CHURCa 


I,  arisen,  and  glorified  Mediator  between 
3arth,  it  taught  them  to  discern  the  bene- 
xion  of  the  future  life  with  the  present."* 
f  chronology  differ  with  regard  to  tlie  year 
fixiou  of  we  Saviour,  some  placing  it  in 
tthers  iuAJ).  S3.  In  either  case,  as  is  known 
rs  of  the  evangelical  history,  the  apostles 

8  who  had  foDowed  him  while  on  earth 
ly  after  his  departure,  those  ministrations 
vcrc  commissioned  to  execute  by  their  di- 
,  and  which  had  for  their  object  the  disse- 
the  Grospel  in  all  parts  of  the  world.  It  will 
ecoUectcd,  that,  in  consequence  of  the  de- 
leath  of  the  traitor  Judas,  the  apostles  were 
leven  in  numbers-Peter,  and  Andrew  his 
unes  the  son  of  Zebedee,  and  John  his 
dlip  and  Bartliolomew  ;  Thomas  and  Mat- 

9  the  son  of  Alpheus,  and  Jude  his  brother ; 
I  the  Canaauitc.  Afterwards,  they  elected 
place  of  Judas.  The  number,  however,  was 
;d  to  eleven,  by  the  murder  of  James,  the 
ohn,  by  Herod  (a.d.  44). 

iociety  or  church  established  by  the  apostles 
$alem ;  and,  from  all  that  can  be  learned,  it 
nost  simple  and  unpretending  scale,  corres- 
be  nature  of  the  religion  which  they  pro- 
of Christ's  most  empluitic  declarations  had 
his  kingdom  was  not  of  this  world,*'  by 
ignified  that  the  Christian  doctrines  and 
rred  exclusively  to  the  mental  affections, 
less  of  the  heart,  not  of  outward  show  or 
3n,  and  had  in  other  respects  no  alliance 
•minion.  The  bumble  but  intrepid  apostles, 
1  the  course  of  their  preaching  and  teaching 
id  afterwards  in  other  countries,  took  no 
design  to  subvert  temporal  governments, 
I  them  into  contempt;  neither  did  they 
themselves  with  civil  rulers,  but  confined 
in  all  places  to  tlieir  proper  functions  of 
ers  to  be  converted  to  the  faith  of  Jesus, 
those  who  mourned,  animating  the  piety 
ted,  and,  in  particular,  assisting  the  poor 

Of  the  forniR  of  Christian  worship  in 
state  of  the  Church,  little  is  known ;  and, 
>pear8  that  some  time  elapsed  before  the 
r  at  least  the  pupils  to  the  apostolic  teachers, 
forms  enjoined  in  the  old  Judaic  mode  of 
.ccording  to  Mosheim,  they  **  held  separate 
n  which  they  were  instructed  by  the  apostles 
3rayed  together,  celebrated  the  holy  supper 
ancc  of  Christ,  of  his  death  and  sufferings, 
ation  offered  to  mankind  through  him ;  and 
iision  of  these  meetings,  they  testified  their 
,  partly  by  their  liberality  to  the  poor,  and 
ber  and  friendly  repasts,  which  thence  were 
of  charity.  Among  the  -virtues  which  dis- 
he  rising  church  in  this  its  infancy,  that  of 
to  the  poor  and  needy  shone  in  the  first 
h  the  brightest  lustre.  Having  finished  their 
rusalem,  the  apostles  proceeded  to  other 

travelled  over  a  great  part  of  the  known 
.  short  time  planting  a  vast  number  of 
nong  the  Gentiles.  Several  of  these  are 
,n  the  sacred  writings,  particularly  in  the 
Apostles f  though  these  are  undoubtedly  but 
of  the  churches  which  were  founded,  either 
:les  themselves  or  by  their  disciples  under 
liate  direction." 

onr  design  to  enter  into  a  formal  detail  of 
;nted  the  various  points  of  belief  and  reli- 
ce  in  this  early  age  of  the  Church.  It  will 
od  that  there  was  at  first  no  body  of  written 
swering  as  a  fountain  of  doctrine  and  pre- 
&8  we  now  possess  in  the  collected  books 

Testament  ;  and  that  apostles,  and  those 
used  up  to  assist  them  in  their  holy  cause, 
ingly  thrown  much  more  on  their  own  re- 

dopcdia  Americana,  article  CiinrsTiANiTV. 


sources,  and  more  dependent  on  God'a  inspiring  power 
to  teach  and  direct,  than  required  to  be  the  case  in 
more  advanced  times.  To  use  the  words  of  Mosheim— 
"  Among  the  first  professors  of  Christianity  there  were 
but  few  men  of  learning ;  few  who  had  capacity  enough 
to  insinuate  into  the  minds  of  a  eross  and  ignorant 
multitude  the  knowledge  of  divine  uiings.  God,  there- 
fore, in  his  infinite  wisdom,  judged  it  necessary  to  raise 
up,  in  many  churches,  extraordinary  teachers^  who  were 
to  discourse  in  the  public  assemblies  upon  the  various 
points  of  the  Christian  doctrine,  and  to  treat  with  the 
people,  in  the  name  of  God,  as  guided  by  his  direction, 
and  clothed  with  his  authority.  Such  were  the  propheU 
of  the  New  Testament." — (Rom.  xiiL  6 ;  1st  Cor.  xii. 
28 ;  xiv.  3-29 ;  and  £ph.  iv.  11.) 

Much  as  we  desire  to  do  so,  it  is  impossible  for  us  to 
pass  over  a  circumstance  in  the  history  of  these  early 
times,  which  has  led  to  centuries  of  discord ;  we  allude 
to  the  early  form  of  church  government.  We  shall 
allow  a  pla<^  to  Mosheim's  explanations  on  this  subject. 
^  Neither  Christ  himself,  nor  his  holy  apostles,  have 
commanded  any  thing  clearly  or  expiwly  concerning 
the  external  form  of  the  Church,  and  the  precise  method 
according  to  which  it  should  be  governed.  From  this 
we  may  infer,  that  the  regulation  of  this  was,  in  some 
measure,  to  be  accommodated  to  the  time,  and  left  to  the 
wisdom  and  prudence  of  the  chief  rulers,  both  of  the 
state  and  of  the  Church.  If,  however,  it  is  true  that 
the  apostles  acted  by  divine  inspiration,  and  in  confor- 
mity with  the  commands  of  their  blessed  Master  (and 
this  no  Christian  can  call  in  question),  then  it  follows, 
that  that  form  of  government  which  the  primitive 
churches  borrowed  m>m  that  of  Jerusalem,  the  first 
Christian  assembly  established  by  the  apostles  them- 
selves, must  be  esteemed  as  of  divine  institution.  But 
frova.  this  it  would  be  wrong  to  conclude  that  such  a 
form  is  immutable,  and  ought  to  be  invariably  observed ; 
for  this  a  great  variety  of  events  may  render  impossible. 
In  those  early  times,  every  Christian  church  consisted 
of  the  people^  their  leaders,  and  the  ministers^  or  deo' 
cona ;  and  these,  indeed,  belong  essentially  to  every 
religious  society.  The  people  were,  undoubtedly,  the 
first  in  authority  ;  for  the  apostles  showed,  by  their  own 
example,  that  nothing  of  moment  was  to  be  carried  on 
or  determined  without  the  consent  of  the  assembly,  and 
such  a  method  of  proceeding  was  both  prudent  and 
necessary  in  those  critical  times. 

It  was,  therefore,  the  assembly  of  the  people  which 
chose  their  own  rulers  and  teachers,  or  received  them 
by  a  free  and  authoritative  consent,  when  recommended 
by  others.  The  same  people  rejected  or  confirmed  by 
their  suffrages  the  laws  that  were  proposed  by  their 
rulers  to  the  assembly,  excommunicated  profligate  and 
unworthy  members  of  the  church,  restored  the  i>enitent 
to  their  forfeited  privileges,  passed  judgment  upon  the 
different  subjects  of  controversy  and  dissension  that 
arose  in  theur  community,  examined  and  decided  the 
disputes  which  happened  between  the  elders  and  dea- 
cons, and,  in  a  word,  exercised  all  that  authority  which 
belongs  to  such  as  are  invested  with  the  sovereign 
power.  The  people,  indeed,  had  in  some  measure 
purchased  these  privileges,  by  administering  to  the  sup- 
port of  their  rulers,  ministers,  and  poor,  and  by  offering 
large  and  generous  contributions,  when  the  safety  or 
interests  of  the  community  rendered  them  necessary. 
In  these  supplies,  each  one  bore  a  part  proportioned  to 
his  circumstances,  and  the  various  gifts  which  were 
thus  brought  into  the  public  assemblies  were  called 
oblatimu. 

The  rulers  of  the  church  were  called  either  presbyters 
or  bishops,  which  two  titles  are,  in  the  New  Testament, 
undoubtedly  applied  to  the  same  order  of  men.  These 
were  persons  of  eminent  gravity,  and  such  as  had  dis- 
tinguuhed  themselves  by  their  superior  sanctity  and 
merit.  Their  particular  functions  were  not  always  the 
same ;  for  while  some  of  them  confined  their  labours  to 
the  instruction  of  the  people,  others  contributed  in  dif- 
ferent ways  to  the  edification  of  the  church.  Hence 
the  distinction  between  ieachinff  and  ruling  presbyters 


nor  splendid.  Three  or  four  presbyters,  men  of  re- 
markable piety  and  wisdom,  ruled  these  small  congre- 
gations in  perfect  harmony,  nor  did  they  stand  in  need 
of  any  president  or  superior  to  maintain  concord  and 
order  where  no  dissensions  were  known.  But  the 
number  of  the  presbyters  and  deacons  increasing  with 
that  of  the  churches,  and  the  sacred  work  of  the  minis- 
try erowing  more  painful  and  weighty  by  a  number 
of  additionaJ  duties,  these  new  circumstances  required 
new  regulations.  It  was  then  judged  necessary  tliat 
one  man  of  distinguished  gravity  and  wisdom  should 
preside  in  the  council  of  presbyters,  in  order  to  distri- 
bute among  his  colleagues  their  several  tasks,  and  to  be 
a  centre  of  union  to  the  whole  society.  This  person 
was  at  first  styled  the  angel  of  the  church  to  which  he 
belonged,  but  was  afterwards  distinguished  by  tlie  name 
of  bishop,  or  inspector;  a  name  boiTOwed  from  the 
Greek  language,  and  expressing  the  principal  part  of 
the  episcopal  function,  which  was  to  inspect  and  su- 
perintend the  affairs  of  the  church.  It  is  highly 
probable  that  the  Church  of  Jerusalem,  grown  consi- 
derably numerous,  and  deprived  of  the  ministry  of  the 
apo8tle8,  who  were  gone  to  instruct  the  other  nations, 
was  the  first  which  chose  a  president  or  bishop.  And 
it  is  no  less  probable  that  the  other  churches  followed 
by  degrees  such  a  respectable  example.  *  *  *  A 
bishop,  during  the  first  and  second  century,  was  a  per- 
son who  had  the  care  of  one  Christian  assembly,  which 
at  that  time  was,  generally  speaking,  small  enough  to 
be  contained  in  a  private  house.  In  this  assembly  he 
acted,  not  so  much  with  the  authority  of  a  master,  as 
with  the  zeal  and  diligence  of  a  faithful  servant.  He 
instructed  the  people,  performed  the  several  parts  of 
divine  worship,  attended  the  sick,  and  inquired  into 
the  circumstances  and  supplies  of  the  poor.  He  charged, 
indeed,  the  presbytern  with  the  performance  of  those 
duties  and  services  which  the  multiplicity  of  his  en- 

gagements  rendered  it  impossible  for  him  to  fulfil  ;  but 
ad  not  the  power  to  decide  or  enact  any  thing  without 
the  consent  of  the  presbyters  and  people.  And  though 
the  episcopal  office  was  both  laborious  and  singularly 
dangerous,  yet  its  revenues  were  extremely  small,  since 


that  the  custom  of  holding  eouna 
Greece,  from  whence  it  soon  spread  ' 
provinces," 

According  to  these  explanatioDS, 
that  the  earliest  constitution  of  the  cl 
ingly  simple,  being  in  a  great  mcasnr* 
separate  and  independent  religions  in 
gradually  assumed  the  external  feati 
rianism  (equality  of  rank,  bat  mutual , 
that,  finally,  as  Christianity  spread,  i 
societies  of  believers  required  tiie 
counsel  of  superiors,  there  arose  a  ^ 
pacy  or  superintendence  by  apostol 
cording  to  others,  the  bishops  exerd 
dencc  from  the  first,  the  earliest  bei 
and  it  is  reasonable  to  suppose  that 
rior  directors,  exerci^ing  an  anthori 
perfect  love,  must  have  been  neecwai 
order  and  uuifurmity  of  doctrine ;  i 
time  certain  that,  whether  in  the  capi 
superiors,  the  apostles  and  early  biihu 
office  of  ordinary  teachers  of  religioi 
sioning  of  ministers  of  the  gospel  by  c 
symbol  of  laying  on  of  hands,  appeal 
from  tlie  earliest  ages  of  ChHstianity 
of  the  church  at  Antiocli,  founded  by 
bas,  were  the  first  who  received  the  oi 
having  been  previously  called  Naxai 
derision. 

From  about  the  conclusion  of  the  1 
century,  there  flourished  a  body  of 
connexion  with  the  Church,  whose  J 
said  to  have  generally  united  those  < 
divinity  and  eUiics  wiUi  tlie  pastoral  c 
known  in  Church  History  fa^the  title 
were  of  two  chief  classes — ^Greek  am 
and  were  alike  distinguished  fur  theu 
most  celebrated  among  the  Greek  lad 
of  Alexandria  (beginning  of  the  seeo 
was  the  first  who  philosophised  on  Chr 
at  one  time  a  pupil  of  Clement,  ei 
homilies  and  writings  illustrative  of 


V I.:.. 


x.  -    - 


I-  *i. _ 


».;_* 


CHRISTIANITY.— HISTORY  OF  THE  CHURCH. 


'  into  subordinate  ranka  and  offices ;  the 
treinoDul  obscrvanccB,  fasts,  and  rfstivaU; 
I,  diSercncei  of  opinion  among  ChriatinnB  | 
f  belief.  One  nmin  cause  of  the  T.riely  of  I 
It  be  tnced  to  the  collaterai  influence  of 
philosophies,  particnlarly  that  of  Pinto.  | 
ta  had  been  educated  in  these  philosophies,  ' 
^liriatianised,  they  atill  retained  the  eubtle  j 
.niions  implanted  in  their  roinda,  aa  well  as 
I  usages.  From  disputing  in  the  schools 
n  questiuns  in   metaphysics,  they  betook 

0  controversies  on  the  moU  abstruse  paints 
From  controveray,  the  disputants  oatu.  , 

d  iiitu  heresy  and  schism  ;  and  hencs  we 
tie  the  Oiristian  Church  was  on  all  udes 
•alnst  barbarous  powers,  it  was  itself  torn  ] 
division.     In  this  general  sketch,  we  can  I 

1  that  the  leading  sectaries  at  this  period  ' 


latter 

rrnent  an  entire  change, 
r  three  hundred  years  after  the  death  of 
hurch,  tiiouih  gradually  altering  in  internal 
,  doctrinal  beRef,  and  ritual  obaeryance, 
independent  spiritual  commuuit^,  reposing 
e  but  glorious  basis  on  which  it  had  bf  en 


lobavcb 

ne  the  Roman  Emperor,  in  St>l,*  nt  once 

primitii 

stale  of  the  Church.     "  Before 

nt  period 

some  churches  had  been  liberally 

,t£e  de 

otion  and  leal  of  wealthy  indiri- 

-et  the  ii 

uation  of  the  clergy  was  insecure 

ptible   in 

the  eyes   ot    the    Pagan    worid 

they  Itv 

d  in  princely  splendour,  honoured 

d  as  the 

first  rank  of  men  in  the  empire 

ley  had  been  sunk  in  the  gloom  ot  obscurity 

y  basked 

in  the  brood  sunshine  of  honour 

To  ■ 


who  M 


le  aspect  of  the  Komin  empire  in  that  age, 
I  seems  lo  appear.  The  system  ot  poly- 
dol  worship,  which,  from  time  immemorial, 
lompous  ceremonies  and  splendid  festivals, 

the  veneration  of  mankind,  fell  into  disre- 
Christianily,  which  had  so  lon|;  been  the 
liversal  contempt,  and  frequently  of  cruel 

at  last  triumphed  over  all  opposition,  and  ' 
established  religion  of  the  masters  of  the  | 
i  Roman  empire  saw  magnificent  churehes 

the  worship  of  the  crucified  God,  whose  ' 
been  long  despised,  and  the  rites  of  the 
ligion  celebrated  with  a  pomp  and  solemnitj  i 
.  superior,  to  what  had  been  displayed  in  the  I 
lies.  A  total  revolution  was  taking  place  j 
re  of  religions  opinions  and  the  oombina- 
nan  ideas.     What  ■  scene  would  this  have 

a  Cliristisn  of  the  apostolic  age,  or  ot  that 
■dialely  succeeded  it !  What  would  a  Chris- ' 
nind  had  been  formed,  whose  religions  ideas 
noddled,  by  Iha  simple  and  disinterested 
primitive  Clmstianity.  think,  on  seeing  the 
f  tlie  humble  and  lowly  Jeens  display  thi- 
wotsovereignprinees!  Andwhatrousthavi- 

nenl,  set  up  by  Iha  professed  followers  of 
•lir.1i>  life  was  a  aontinned  scene  of  poverty 
le  preaching  and  pradia 


liegan  to  display  a  not  less  disgusting  view  of  the  per- 
ifcatiouof  Chi-istians  by  the  band  of  Christians,  carried 
•m  with  B  cruelty  little  short,  in  soma  instances,  of  that 
which  Pagans  had  before  exercised  against  them."  • 

To  extinguish,  as  far  as  possible,  the  heresy  of  Anus, 
and  allay  oDier  c.iuses  ot  schism,  Constantine  convoked 
the  celebrated  Council  of  Nice  (3-25),  which  consisted  of 
3]K  bishops,  and  other  ecclesiastics  to  the  number  of 
'20JS.  After  a  session  of  two  months,  in  which  the 
i^mperor  frequently  assisted  in  person,  the  opinions  of 
Arius,  which  went  to  a  denial  of  the  divinity  of  Christ, 
wero  condemned,  Iha  cqu.-ility  of  the  three  Persons  of 
the  Hoty.and  Undivided  Tiinitv  was  declared  the  true 
doctrine,  and,  being  comprised  in  a  form  of  belief 
oalled  the  Nicene  Creed,  was  published  as  the  obligatory 
ind  only  orthodox  creed  of  the  Cliristian  Church.t 

ThedetiljeratiDns  of  the  Council  of  Nice  failed  in  their 
main  design,  and  the  Arians,  persecuted  by  the  Church, 
dispersed  themselves  in  distant  nations,  and  there  found 
a  safe  retreat.  This  may  be  viewed  as  the  first  great 
schism  iu  the  Church,  which  henceforth  consisted,  not 
in  one,  but  in  several  distinct  societies  of  believers.  To 
trace  minutely  the  progress  of  the  respective  branching- 
off  communions,  would  lead  us  consicferably  beyond  our 
limits ;  let  it  suffice  to  say,  that  in  the  fourth  and  fifth 
centuries,  there  were  founded  several  important  eastern 
churches.  The  Armenian  Church  dates  its  commence- 
ment from  about  the  year  312.  The  Egyptian  or  Cop- 
tic Church  originated  in  n  heresy  in  the  fourlh  century  ; 
snd  the  Abyssinian  Church  shortly  after  branched  off 
from  it.  The  Syrian  Church,  in  a  similar  manner,  gave 
origin  to  the  .Syro-lndian  Church,  which  still  exists  in 
Travancore  and  Cochin,  and  acknowledges  as  its  head 
the  Patriarch  ot  Antiocb.  It  is  likewise  to  the  fourth 
century  that  we  must  trace  the  origin  of  that  great 
schism  which  afterwards  divided  the  Church  into  the 
Western  or  Roman  Church,  and  the  Eastern  or  Greek 
Church.  At  this  period,  the  Dishop  of  Rome  occupied 
the  first  rank  in  the  episcopal  order,  and  on  that  ac- 
count exerted  a  certain  authority  over  all  other  bishop* 
within  the  pale  of  the  orthodox  Church.  "  Constantine, 
by  removing  the  seat  of  empire  to  Byzantium  (Constan- 
tinople), raised  up  in  the  bishop  of  uiis  new  metropolis 
a  formidable  rival  Co  the  Roman  pontilT.  Accordingly, 
in  a  council  held  at  Constantinople,  tn  the  year  3B),  by 
the  aothority  ot  Theodosios  the  Great,  the  bishop  of 
that  city  was,  during  the  absence  of  the  Bishop  of  Alex- 
andria, and  against  the  consent  of  the  Roman  prelate, 
placed  in  (he  first  rank  after  the  Bishop  of  Rome,  and 


*  ninluut^  Leitgn  DD  Ilbtorr. 

t  ThBNI{?C]]eCT«ed.arterreoelvlngBDmflmbflpqnBitaddflfonB, 

Hmlce:— "I  Iwlleve  In  cms  and,  Uie  FUlicr  Almlciity.  MaksTot 
bnvea  and  earlti.  snd  of  all  thinxi  vbible  and  Inttdblei  and  In 
oiu  Idid  J«us  Chriil,  the  Dulj  bnnu™  KonofOiid,  tafU'™*' 


^  «ntempt  fo. 
d  1  In  the  reign  of  Constantino  me 
>d ;  but  it  evidently  ^pears  that  tl 
Christianity  was  in  a  great  meai 
Ecclesiastical  history,  which  had 
horrible  and  sanguinary  scene  of  tbs  suffe 
1  Church  under  Pagan  peraeeuton,  thi 


le  thiol 


lOniMd  to  bsvflbsnprivmte1jdxawbl]pa]»dt 
hnrth  cenluij;  and  b  njecUd  t>r  all  the  Pro- 
sicept  (tw  Anfllcvi.'— Cgndir'f  rlrv  if  on 


conferred  on  cliurclimen  naturally  introduced  evils 
gross  in  their  nature  ;  and  in  many  resipects  the  alliance 
with  the  civil  government  did  infinitely  more  harm  than 
good.  Some  writers  aver  that  Christianity  could 
scarcely  have  survived  the  dismemberment  of  the 
Roman  empire  and  the  barbarism  that  ensued  through- 
out the  middle  ages,  unless  fortiHcd  by  cini  power ; 
but  this,  we  humbly  submit,  is  but  a  timid  view  of  the 
Giristian  dispensation,  which  surely  required  no  such 
extraneous  means  of  support.  It  is  a  lamentable  truth, 
confirmed  by  every  respectable  historian,  that  the  pro- 
ceedings of  Constantine  (3*21),  and  afterwards  of  Theo- 
dosius  (390),  in  establishing  Christianity  as  the  religion 
of  the  empire,  laid  the  foundation  of  every  species  of 
ecclesiastical  abuse,  and  directly  caused  the  decay  of 
that  sublime  but  simple  piety  which  \v-as  the  ornament 
of  the  apostolic  times.  It  is  to  the  arrangements  conse- 
quent on  the  alliance  of  the  Church  with  the  civil  power, 
that  we  have  also  to  trace  the  origin  of  that  new  feature 
in  ecclesiastical  polity,  the  endowment  of  churches, 
cathedrals,  abbeys,  monasteries,  and  other  institutions, 
with  the  functionaries  belonging  to  them.  But  the  most 
extraordinary  change,  both  in  the  internal  and  external 
character  of  the  Church,  was  the  excess  of  power  which, 
by  the  sanction  of  temporal  princes,  was  accorded  to 
the  bishops  of  Home.  From  early  times,  the  occupant 
of  the  Roman  primacy  had  been  knoiivn  under  the  title 
of  papas,  a  Greek  word  signifying  father,  and  hence  the 
well-known  terms,  papal  and  pone.  The  pope,  aided  by 
his  council,  formed  the  head  of  the  hierarchy,  and  acted 
as  a  supreme  magistrate  in  all  religious  matters  what- 
soever. From  the  possession  of  the  spiritual  supre- 
macy, a  plea  was  easily  found  to  assame  the  right  of 
interfering  in  temporal  concerns  ;  and,  as  is  known  to 
the  readers  of  history,  the  pope  was  allowed  to  exercise 
an  almost  unquestioned  authority  over  the  affairs  of 
Christian  princes  for  several  centuries.  It  is  at  the 
same  time  proper  to  remark,  that  the  lay  and  clerical 
members  of  the  Church  did  not  always  agree  in  conced- 
ing this  excessive  power  to  the  popes  ;  the  right  of  spi- 
ritual jurisdiction  was  not  (denied,  but  how  far,  and  in 
what  manner,  that  of  a  temporal  nature,  without  the 


.d»ai»      «».•       a—oapfc  ^^aai.   1       «»^v  ■«  W*  4«s  I ««  ««^«  ^««  I  «]      •%  ^     ««ll^»«w«^^ 


a  *  ' 

to  go,  unhesitatingly  and  without  rceoi 
soever  the  pope  would  send  theniy  ai 
the  conversion  of  pagans  and  beirtieBi  < 
of  the  Church  in  any  other  w&y.  This 
formidable  corps  of  spiritual  eombaiai 
a  powerful  influence  thronriioiit  Chrii 
as  in  heathen  countries;  out  as  gem 
advanced,  they  failed  in  their  efforts  ;iB 
was  abolished  by  Clement  XIV. ;  and 
restored  in  1814)  they  sunk  intoeompai 

The  many  flagrant  cormptions  of  ill 
to  excite  the  attention  of  reflecting  n 
teenth  century,  and  efforts  were  <m  i 
made  by  them  to  produce  a  reform,  M 
The  abuses  chiefly  complained  of  wot 
lives  of  many  of  the  clergy,  particiilari} 
and  mendicant  orders,  the  gross  sopent 
generally  paid  to  relics,  the  extravafly 
pope,  and  the  sale  of  indulgences.  x1 
religious  relics,  with  the  view  of  csett 
believers,  had  degenerated  into  a  ^il 
posture.  **  The  poor  fragments  of  mar 
bone,  or  the  fragment  of  a  bone^  a  tool 
were  either  mounted  or  set,  aeeorJiai 
gold  and  silver,  deposited  in  costliest  dhr 
workmanship,  and  enriched  with  tfao 
gems.  Churches  soon  began  to  Tie  wH 
the  number  and  variety  of  these  imf 
which  were  sources  of  real  wealUi  to  tl 
The  instruments  of  our  Lord's  cmeifls 
(the  spear  and  the  cross  having,  so  it 
been  miraculously  discorered),  the  dol 
was  MTapt  in  in&ncv,  the  manger  in  wfc 
the  vessels  in  whicK  be  converted  «al 
the  marriage  feast,  the  bread  which  1 
last  supper,  his  vestnre  for  which  tha  si 
Such  was  the  impudence  of  Romish  frai 
were  produced  of  the  homing  bosh,  of  i 
fell  in  the  wilderness,  of  MoseaV  ni 
honeycomb,  of  Tobit's  fish,  of  the  bIcHi 
and  of  our  Saviour's  blood  I"— (SNlli^| 

The  ludicrous  extent  to  whieh  theaal 


CmttSTIANITY.— HISTORY  OF  THE  CHUHCH. 


wn  the  pulpit  he  ileclnred  indulgencM  to  be  the  raort 
ilime  of  God'B  faronra  ;  they  hid  UTed  more  boqU 

0  the  efloTta  of  ftll  the  ApmtleB  ;  thej  weald  ktone 
BTBTy  BJD,  howBTBr  heiuoaB  ;  Ihey  were  efTeetmil  in 

krd  to  fkiture,  no  Imb  than  put  tnuugresdaiu  ;  they 
Ded  for  the  dead  no  \a»  thkn  the  living  ;  and  whu- 
r  BnffBred  his  reUliTe*  to  remain  in  pnrgstory, 
tn  a  little  nioney  would  rele«e  them,  WM  guilty  of 
wont  crime,  llenee  a  blow  wm  struck  at  alt  re- 
ituice  ;  contrition  of  heart  was  out  of  the  questioD, 
en  pardon  could  be  obtained  on  temu  bo  luach  euier. 
t  pmeut  recital  would  perhaps  be  diabeUeted,  if  ita 
th  were  not  Tirtually  admitted  by  couteniporaTy 
num  Catholice.     But  good  is  often  educed  fromeril ; 

1  Ihia  preaching  of  iudulgonesB  waa  one  of  the  ebief 
IMI  of  the  RefonnatioD.  There  ia  reaaon  to  belicTe 
M  the  whole  aystem  atmok  Luther  with  horror 
m  tlie  Tcry  first ;  and  that,  coapled  with  the  im- 
W  which  he  had  witnessed  ia  the  capital  of  Chria- 
dom,  it  proToked  hia  doubts  as  to  the  infallibility 
Un  papal  authority.     The  eifects  of  the  indulgenoea 


re  erery  day  before  his  eyes  ;  and,  as  ono  of  tht 
"  '  *  confBSaors  of  the  people  of  Wittembeiv,  hs 
Itrired  Ihem  more  clearly  thaa  other  men.     nliile 


e  tribunal  of  penance,  he  was  amazed  Ui 
IT  what  crimes  hud  been  oomiuitted,  and  still  more. 
It  no  contrition  was  felt  for  them.  Ilerefuaed  to 
Hire,  nulcsa  the  criminals  forsook  their  evil  ways. 
«y  showed  him  their  Iclteraof  impunity:  no  matter  ( 
tMiraated  these  at  their  just  value,  namely,  ua  so  many 
aei  of  waste  paper.  Being  dismissed  without  abso- 
D&,  and  without  admittaion  to  the  sacraments,  the 
■ded  purcbaaera  complained  to  Tetzel,  who  bellowed 

threatened ;  but  Luuier  was  nndaunted  :  be  openly 
Mdied  against  the  pemiciouB  traffic ;  he  atlackeil 
Wry  tbundation  on  which  it  rested  ;  he  denied  the 
•r  of  pope  or  Church  to  remit  the  guilt  of  sin  ;  and 
lis  famous  propoBitionH,  as  every  body  knows, rapidly 
Iveed  Che  most  gigantic  change  effected  in  this  world 
« the  origin  of  Chrlatianlty."  * 

lie  preaching  of  Luther,  in  eiposing  the  error  of 
tlgencea,  and  calling  in  qnestion  various  traditional 
rto  and  practices,  speedily  ronsed  a  Urge  part  of 
Uauy  i  and  as  do  symptom  of  relenting  was  shown 
Xu  i«rt  of  those  in  power,  an  extensive  secession 
lathe  Romish  Chorch  became  unavoidable,  Tbeyear 
I,  ia  to  be  regarded  aa  the  epoch  of  the  Reformation 
Ivnnany  ;  and  from  this  period  it  became  a  political 
»ell  as  religions  movement — in  a  word,  amo»emenl 
hvonr  of  civil  and  religious  freedom.  In  conse- 
■Me  of  a  general  proteit  being  signed  by  the  reform- 
^•rtj  against  a  decree  of  the  Diet  of  Spires,  in  1529, 
rreeeived,in  1541,(honan>eof /'roMXanfa.  Eleven 
ri  earlier,  in  l.'iSO,  a  declaration  of  the  principles  of 

reformers,  drawn  up  by  Melancthon,  was  presented 
fc«  Emperor  of  Germany  at  a  diet  held  at  Augs- 
K  and  there  soleninly  read  before  the  assembly ; 
k  lunoas  declaration  is  known  in  history  as  the  Con- 
ion  of  Augsburg.  The  Reformation  spread  from 
■>ti7  lo  country  with  singular  rapidity  :  the  ancient 
*eh  was  deposed,  and  one  of  a  reformed  character 
liliBhed  in  ita  place — in  Switzerland  and  Geneia  in 
>1  in  Sweden  and  Denmark  in  1536  1  in  EngUmd  in 
^i  and  in  Scotland  in  15G0.  In  Austria,  Italy, 
"K  Portugal,  and  France,  the  efforts  of  the  reformers 
'  loas  SQCceasful,  and  in  cheae  countries  the  Roman 
'^lle  Church  bas  been  established,  or  at  least  popu- 
'il)  the  present  day. 


it  prevails  only  to  a  small  eilent  in  these  cl , 

and  ia  principally  conliDed  to  Europe  and  the  countries 
which  have  been  peopled  by  Kuropean  emigrants 
Every  where,  it  is  the  religion  of  cieiiited  man,  no 
other  creed  or  form  of  belief  being  at  all  suitable  to  an 
advanced  intelligence,  or  so  directly  calculated  to  in- 
spire senlimenla  of  refined  piety,  humanity,  and  justice. 
In  the  hands  of  uniostmcted,  ambitious,  and  intolerant 
men,  its  history  abounds  in  the  most  odious  crimes ; 
but  latterly,  aa  its  professors  have  fallen  under  the 
influence  of  a  civilisation  to  which  it  has  itself  largely 
contributed,  and  as  the  tme  principles  of  the  Gospel 
have  been  belter  understood,  our  religion  has  not  been 
outraged  by  mdeeent  encesees  either  at  home  or  abroad  ; 
while,  by  the  earnest  bat  unoatentatious  efforts  of  ill 
supporters,  of  varions  denominations,  it  has  been  made 
favourably  known  in  the  most  remote  parts  of  the 

The  forms  in  which  Christianity  is  professed  are 
very  nnmerous,  bat  the  whole  are  comprehended  ia 
three  leading  systems — tho  Roman  Catholio  Chnrch, 
the  Eaatera  Churches,  and  the  Protestant  or  Reformed 
Churches.*  With  a  small  exception,  all  acknowledge 
*  Roman  CoClgUe  ChareS.  —  The  doctrines  and  rtlusl  of  this 
body,  sa  now  professed,  pmxEnatDlj  rest  In  a  irnHt  mAtaie  mi 


togWhor-ct 


nf,  proper,  and  prDpltlatnryHicrlflcefoTtba  llTLbf 
;  imd  that  in  the  hair  aiifmmnit  of  tbs  eqcbarlst, 
r,  truly,  and  ■ulHtanttaUy,  the  tmdy  and  the  h1t«d, 

A  plan  of  pntBatloD,  or  piir^tor7,  I1 


il,  o(  the  Virjiii  Mttj,  ai 


thatfhonolyOitt 


'^istianily  now  exists,  in  one  or  other  of  its  various 
*>  in  all  civilised  countries,  and  nnmbers,  as  is 
"^  260,000,000,  out  of  900,000,000,  the  entire 
Uwlail  of  die  glob&  Altliangb  originating  In  Asia, 
*«BiWdiii  tor  soma  lime  in  the  adjacent  regions 
^tbwn  AJnat(Charch  of  Alexandria,  tbr  example]. 


a  hierarchy  of  btahnrs.  T 


pricfttB,  uid  deacoiu;  oil  olhcrs,  inch  sa  cordlnalH  ipopM  erpeo- 
laot] .  archblBh[>pB,  dcnns.  vIkitb.  Acs,  ,  bplotijing  to  ono  or  other 
or  tbiw  p1/w».  The  church  claims  the  mark  or  (ni*  ajmiMlrily, 
tlial  la,  on  uEbrokra  linF  of  dnnnl  from  <ho  ApoHlea  and  thdr 
divine  Mmlcr.  The  ordination  of  prifsln  lj  tho  engi»(Hng  of  Ihem 
IntolhlamportoUoUooofnuswolon.  HlahopsilnneortslnDrroni- 

■0  highly  [uloracd,  nr  rendrml  mo™  lini«»ilng,  by  Ih*  dresaos  of 
the  DfHdnlinft  prists,  tho  mTing  01 


AMDEHS'S  QTORMATION  FOR  THE 


Ihn  iloetrino  of  tbe  Tnnil;,  the  fall  of  mui,  Mji-k- 
tiuo  hj  the  eipimtor}'  denlli  of  Chrbl,  thfl  rvsurnc- 
tioD,  and  a  Htate  nf  final  revarda  and  puniihiDGiita. 
Differeima  OD  olticr  nutltcn  niaj  be  Irawd  to  lao 
diKtinct  CWit»  of  cunirovcnj^ — 1,  WJie^cr  tlie  rule 
ot  failh  and  practice  ia  ab*ilutety  conliDed  to  the 
Holy  Soriplurea,  or  eiTibraces  n  Inditional  revvlatitm, 
(anoliened  by  coDocili  and  eheruhrd  by  the  Cliurch  I 
9.  And  oho  lia«  the  ri|ibt  to  interpret  Hw  role  of  bilh 


InhslilUsU  at 


actamaiaat  Peter  ihrOral.  in  ITW.  w«*  osnUitntcd  (hr  nitlaaal 
obBrtB.hiiTlniifotlto  head  the  Bmsiui i-ini«« ;  ItitBnmnBi 
I»  a  nmneU  It  SI  Prtewbrns-  3.  The  Anti-Byianlliwor  Monin- 
l*»WChui ■      --—  -  -- 


vtTndltlo&.ai 

■USHlL  Tl>«  1 

aauf  (b*  Ot«rk  Church  an  Di<wl>ii«lr  n 


n.  iinym  and  ■durullcn 


laouiolnlxidlie 


mptelBil  iUiuonibPB^j 


— lh«cfaurchorlikdWUnBlil  Da  iba 
lion  pf  tliHB  pnul*,  tnia  •  aWDpla*  ■ 
which  al  prcacnl  afipeartn  W  >■  brfa 
the  luatual  Hliiiaetinn  of  p>r*j>«,  ~~ 
EJxItenlh  oenlur}  i  and  wa  inajr 
that,  hanwnlv  Kpoikinl,  liltia  or  B»  — ■■■ 
ciliation  can  Is  clfwUil,lUI  (Jmliaa  iMiU 
roisla  of  prejodle*,  anil  twiMeJ  nm  li  fa 
judge  of  »lwli»ct  nut'  -  >  ■- 


ihE  acMfic*  r>t  th>  nUH.    U  Mate*  «<ai»«iM«<l|; 
«nm«>Ul,  ■^iIIutM.  to  tk*  (*tB4lT  aBia^  tt»4iH 

Is  ta>|>t1«n.  burtal  Knln.  ImMlWI  uaMM^^C 


RS'S 

I  THE  PEOPLE. 


URitHtf  of  btauai  nttura ;  lint  on  uiulwr«Uiut  thi|^ 
...  _..  1  ......    i_  -,,,,um,ii  ihai  ijij, 

I  I".  iittfcM(t>  b  to 

"Uxl  tllklDMeUllll 


Tootal  WaoLli)^  ■>  iu  ma.     If  ilib  ninuiiilo  bt 
(Ml,  (Ite  Mln  Ui>|Uin  U — »lml  l<  giiijl  mid  aiiHl 


■All  lllo  mnrU  nJUi  plu. 

I.  iLm^iFtuiUM,  taSafXi- 


'ii,.Ltv 

.   ...IftI 
■'■   ruor. 

'  .1.  n!r- 

d  <|<ikUtl».     ThU  iumVm.-  i-i 

r^- 

.  >"niir 

ll^^d^i^u^'^' 

CHAMBERS'S  INFORMATION  FOR  'lUE  PEOPLE. 


of  eight  JPMS  who  lirre  >  "(ry  cleir  aenae  of  mora] 
pcoprialy ;  aud  voty  nun;  wlm,  between  that  age  Bild 
twelie,  cut  disHi-n  arnJ  n-DHrin  on  riglit  uid  wrong, 
and  arrive  at  a  'cry  suund  jud^ciuent.  We  shall  pre- 
sume that  all  into  wboee  hands  [hb  oheot  muy  (all,  will 
be  fnliy  capahU  ot  Mmprehanding  its  purpo»e,  ailil  of 
judging  nf  ita  litaeaa  lo  be  uBerul  lo  tliein.  We  niust 
BsBuine,  then,  IhM  we  are  iiwiihiiie  to  llione  who  are 
williug  lo  be  Itwlrueted  id  serloua  Uiiiis>,  and  tiiaC  ihcy 
will  not  reject  iiuitmctiou  from  iiiiy  lOtircc,  however 

which  Uiey  can  reconciie  with  iheiT  own  reawin,  and 
with  iJioir  own  duly  to  tbimuelvea.  Young  penona 
tliiok  that  tlicy  can  Me  Tor  tliemujves,  and  that  thry 
need  not  lo  be  told  what  others  havo  aeea.  But  let  us 
reduce  Ihis  Ui  eaiDtnou  senae.  Suppose  a  person  lo  be 
Duder  the  neccMtiy  of  {^>ing  from  ibe  place  ia  which 
hu  liaa  lived,  and  which  is  lamillar  lo  him,  lo  a  far  dia- 
tant  place.  Let  it  be  supposed  llial  the  road  hs  oiiut 
travel  ia  crosHd  by  nuuy  roaJs,  and  that  be  is  fre- 
quently to  find  himself  at  puiuta  where  several  roads 
■re  seen,  either  one  of  wbidi,  so  far  xi  lie  eau  dlecern, 
nay  be  the  right  one.  Wdl  il  bo  of  use  to  hlin  to  have 
teen  told,  before  he  departs,  which  of  these  many  roads 
to  take  I  Will  it  belt)  him  onward  to  bis  desunation, 
when  he  U  bewildered,  aud  uiiahlu  to  decide  for  himself, 
to  Anil  soins  one  who  can  aaaure  him  of  the  right  course  I 
Life  ks  ■  Jouruey.  Every  step  we  take  in  it  hriugg  oa 
lo  suiuct]ii«g  new,  something  unexpected,  and  perhaps 
eutiri'l)'  different  from  that  which  was  looked  for.  Those 
who  have  gone  through  it  before  as,  have  left  us  their 
iastruGttoDH  in  what  manner  it  is  to  be  undertaken  and 
Bocompliahed.  They  tell  ua  of  Ihoir  own  Uouhiea  and 
difGculties ;  they  warn  as  how  to  avoid  the  like  in  our 

weigh  the  worth  of  their  warning  or  to  push  oa 


I  Welsh  tne  wo 


of,c. ,.,.., -  — 

of  thmi  lisYestii!brtd,mu™or  lew,  by  Ihii  thue.  Thuv 

life  lias  been  giwu  to  tbem.  Tbey  then  feel  tliiC  the 
purpose  is  to  be  pleaiied  and  gratihed ;  lo  want  and  Lo 
have ;  and  that  ret.ti'uint  is  disiigreeablc.  But  let  tliem 
reuiember  thai  life  ia  a  whole ;  tlml  tliough  all  of  them 

ration,  and  that  it  is  wbolly  uooenain  to  whom  that  lot 
will  fall.  Long  life  may  dB[>piid,  and  often  does  depeni 
on  whsE  children  i' 
Lbe  first  gratiRcai 


arlyag 
1  which   are  looked  for 


is  llieindulgeoCB  of  the  appetite  fur  fwd.  Here 
comoa  m  a  rigid  law  of  the  Creator,  licaniiul  be  broken 
wiilioul  Gonwijueat  tiuffenug,  nor  repeatedly  broken 
without  impairiug,  and  perlmps  destroying,  [he  maivrial 
frame  which  has  been  described  as  so  fearfully  and 
wonderTully  made.  To  require  of  ihaC  delicate  niaclii- 
□ery,  on  which  the  action  of  life  depends,  that  which 
it  IS  out  qualified  to  du,  and  which  it  caanoldg — lo  force 
it  to  du  lUat  which  is  atfenaive  to  ii — and  lo  niake  this 
requuition  habitually — ia  a  siu  against  natural  law.  Ita 

tuuishments  are  well  known,  'i'he  restless  sleep,  tlie 
euvy  liiud,  Ihu  null}'  Heiisations  of  uneasiness,  llie 
puSLliv..  |.  m:-,  (!„■■'.- .■■!  I'.nn  remedies,  ije  the  puiiinli- 


^  labou 


1,  duties  becoiii 


with  dinplea- 

sun-.  'I  h-:-:  iir..'  ilii^  frmia  of  nionicntary  gniiiticaiiua 
of  the  anpi'llteo.  L)n  the  other  baud,  thtre  is  a  law  of 
Iiftture  tlial  fuud  shall  he  graicfuL  It  is  required  to 
supply  the  daily  vaate — to  continue  life.  If  [here  were 
niK  B  craving  waul,  wo  should  take  food  as  a  mere  ne- 
eouary  duty.  It  i*  kindly  made  lo  be  a  gileaiurv,  and, 
llliB  every  other  ploasuni,  |[  is  in  b«  uwd,  and  nut 
•buatd.  Thus,  by  Ignorant  or  wilful  pursuit  of  plea- 
aore,  we  viotowala*  wbieli  brings  withitajiui  puniab- 
menl  oot  only  thv  iota  of  the  like  [ilcuuro  lor  a  lime  tn 


some,  but  alia  pain  and  lufTeriDt  firata  la|| 
remedies.  IVben  ohildroD  ar*  aiek,  iIm  mt 
if  Icndcmesa  and  pity  [  but  ID  most  nW 
ralher  deserve  to  be  punished,  for  they  ha 


■  law  wilfully,  sinca  die}  hat*  uj 
experience.     As  to  kind*  of  food, 

qiunlity, 


w  about  Ihia :  that  wUi^i  U  a 


This  is  not  a  mere  matlcr  of  deoeney.  lli 
the  poei^ve  comnlanda  arising  tram  ll»  a 
order  of  Ihinga.  He  U  rumeiDharwt,  ilui  mi 
thai  hvee,  vegetable  or  animal,  is  waaUog  «U 
Lnuoe  1  and  that  all  which  U  wot  foi^Ai 
millions  of  openings  by  the  tlua,  haa  nu  bsii 
ulifeleas;  and  that  more  ihao  half  </ all  lb*l 
coniCB  forth  in  thu  manner.  If  parepnaliM, 
and  inseusible,  bo  pettniil«d  to  rcat  ob  iIm  i 
uup  thownyoi' thai  which  ianomli^.iiaiurtk 
and  will  show  that  she  is  so.  SocfaDt^aetBI 
causes  of  diEeaao.  This  fact  wM  pruhiLh  m 
lo  eastern  nations,  since  il  waa  pan  id  thv 

of  Uie  modero  comfort  of  wearing  a  p/m^ 
skin  wliich  can  bo  freijucnlly  ehaiigal.  tis 
of  tliii  conifort  was  one  of  lbe  cauta  of  th^ 
dieeoaes  ot  which  we  rea4,«iid  which  i«aa*i 
among diristuu) nations.  TbercarcdaBaiffl 
and  meoboDies,  whose  liealth  would  be  piti«< 
their  livcaproloQged,  if  tbey  knew  bomoBAi 
on  periodical  cleaDsing.  It  may  be  maS  Ikl 
a  cunneKun  betwoen  olcouliiuaa  tad  BD^ 
Perhaps  it  may  be  going  loo  far  to  say.  Chat  d 
hsbitually  disregard  elnuilineaa,  aikd  prctevi 
no  moral  peroaption  i  bal  M  may  ba  M<4fi 
wbi»«M  nsnU/MMrtiTOMiktaM 
,  sting  thU  TirtoB.  TlwM  ia  ft  dmm 
rocn  moral  depravity  and  physical  drgndiiia 
viCLoua  poor  are  always  shockingly  iilLhy:  Ite  A 
rich  are  visited   by  norea   penalll-.'^:  ibr;  ni 

lies  which  vice  has  madepartof  themiHli(sl  1 
fur  one'a  self  only  that  llie  virtue  of  diwlta 
mfiid)  iutilf.  Every  one  comes  wiifain  ikeitM 
of  others,  llrinever  uncleanly  one  may  it  bil 
is  nut  the  le>>a  olfetided  at  lbe  like  negEleclialba 
he  obHcrves.  Now,  il  is  every  one's  July  tstl 
recommend  himself  to  others,  so  far  a*  btki 
and  reawmbiycBU,  and  to  obtain  thiur  "f^, 
and  cosily  garmeiila  may  tall  very  (hart  of  M 
if  il  be  seen  thai  they  are  aooveung  fiw  IlitP 
this  important  iuti.  If  there  be  a  lutelj  etja 
human  eye,  it  is  aclean,  clea^f&ced.  hailhj,i 
neatly-chid,  happy  ehild.  There  an  feO  iMfe 
may  not,  if  they  will,  be  neatly  drewed,  fgt  * 

look,  if  Ihcy  are  properly  fed,  and  sleef  !■  ( 
There  are  none  who  may  ool  have  a  eleaa  dit 
speak  to  those  who  are  old  enough  to  jodft  fel 
selves.  And  let  it  beadded,  for  their  uidiiM 
in  obeying  the  command  to  be  clean,  tbejMI 
iog  ■  moral  duty  j  in  neglecting  il,  they  ai*  im 

their  own  comfort;  second,  m  loaing  th*  ■ 


Among  (he  generally  unknown  cause*  of  ls«l 
in  the  reapiraiiou  of  impure  air.  The  tnagrq 
many  persona  in  one  aparuiicnl.  nfinBally  wk 
licial  hgbl,  in  great  quaniKy.  i»penmtl*d,i*a 
mure  maladies  than  is  oummouly  (appaatl 
causes,  in  such  case,  combine  lo  deauigj  Iha  I 
for  respirsiion — thoaiuinal  iMMallkaa 


the  hghta,  a 
again.  Th, 
m  propiT  rcQliLUiao.     The  m. 


3P  LWK. 


Ttira  thcworMUu-Ti 

tu  mlglit  tiav^  ai»i  " 

hiirh  joo  wnuld  hovr-,  ■ 
natFd  wnrld,  and  tliui 

id  (ikepd  hi 

tlinse  Un,  llt&l  un  diitla  lo  ycun'-ll 
acUUp,  li"r  Vi   iIk-  Liii-.iii'f).   n.n    .i.],iLni^ 
Ul     H,.^.  ..-.Ill 

oTjInir  .  .    im 

lltliw";..:.  .  .    ,  ..  ..r.-i.jl- 

Itwrninjj,  iluu   iliirr  Mill-.   Uvii   |.rp.-;nl'Ki  W 

iiur  tnni,  »nd  tltM  ftnoMmtni  of  jmuwrn  mi- 
ld Im  uMxnl  Erum  ynu  b/  a  Jadg*  wbo  euuwl 


Willi  wl 


nit  ti<n,jt  eontarTQ  In  iIjh  tuit»ral  ioiiniM  of 


Uhv  laun  from  thii  diHupiinH  whiah  « 

U  UIUU,  lilBl    ' 

lenutruMitMiMtumlinipulMi.    llirj  Jv«rn,ftriKr 


iC  hnvx  iliiHrnwa 

■  lunirinK,  Un  dn*d 


t)u4  til*  fnuar  (nwl  lira  tn  cIvitik  up  what 
U  In  do,  and  dulii)t  wIiM  b  n<riuimV  iif  Uiain, 
dum  10  mm  liH  c«liin  cion*niu«iic.'m.  Wa 
ul  the  Khulo  kIuum  uf  uionla  mil  l»  luund  ui 
lalplu  cuMtalnnl  Ui  \ba  Inlth  ktxin  niAteJ. 
ove  ia  JiBt  H  nnuii  Ibnraghuul  \ite  m  II  b  in 
•xt.  It  1*  Ui*t  ifaiixj  lit  uta  lutiw*  D  vlikJt 
aca  Dw  b*  (vrmwl :  l>at  it  ii  •!»  thai  tu 
unnmliiiiaM  ma)'  Iw  rrfcrrtd.  Ai  Ui>  ilnwl 
I  nnBilliiiipnwa  to  di(pl«i*i  tliuaa 


f  ulh«»,  «U1  rMUsIn  it  impri 
ubnaa  wiiul>  Ijavn  bmq  jtrriprtF 
I  tiaia  iHuuail  til  aniiguvliHiTl  itiMr 
B  CtiAlac,  iboni  1*  a  tai'  highrr  mnttTiv 
^^^JU  Id  a  •uhinlai'ia  tu  tlis  Cnwtnr'*  lawk 
>|«MiaIa  Mic,  bBDiajrorinajrDiiiBti'ialnsm 
int  dear  Wid  jut  ptTcepUnii*  id  whai  bOI  W  tlM 
It  good  to  hinuilt  •■>•)  hiiw  bacao  nhMai  iu  U 
I-<fi|hM  tinipD4li<iii,  that  U  V  ^f*TK«L  «(«Mk  «B- 
kMni^^L  ^ '■-(Mm  \«(A  W  Wn.  Vk  4us,-M  «*. 


CHAMBERS'S  INFORMATION  FOll  THE  PEOPUL 


knnwledfB,  he  would  best  tibey  Ibe  impulse  of  stlMnvi-, 
»nd  inoBt  esictly  confomi  lo  the  lawa  prescriboil  fur 

II  Mniiot  be  too  often  iiRi>n»Md  upon  the  youtliful 
mind,  that  H/e  U  to  he  (often  at  a  uhola:  tor  if  tliis 
exunded  view  bo  not  taken,  U  niDSt  firequi-iitly  hnppcn 
lliat  it  will  BOBia  right  in  wrtoin  cirtmoiilaJieeB,  and 
when  the  view  is  limited  Id  ifaese  eircuuuitiuiceii,  Ihnt 
Mrtiua  icls  may  be  done  or  avoided  na  llie  gmUtnl 
t-ood.  YBl,irilie«inseqQeni!i?aoi™!dbeforcBEen,  Ihey 
wrmld  disclose  thnl  this  seoniing  good  would  turn  out 
to  do  a  podlive  eril.  It  ofteu  seema  good  to  the  yuune 
to  iiviiid  tlio  p»rfoi-mniiie  uf  litionri  wliitb  are  asMpJcd 
m  ili.-m.  uiid  to  spend  in  amusemenl  (ha  tlnio  which 
i.liu<ild  bo  dpvoted  to  fit  them  for  duties  which  will  be 
incident  to  thcii-  foture  oondition.  This  misapprehen- 
sion "f  gnod  is  to  be  bunented ;  but  Willi  some  thin  is 
nut  all.  Their  own  self-love  prompts  them  to  eitgnpt 
III  a  cminit)  af  fblly,  eu  that  not  only  do  they  &kil  la 
nbuin  tbit  which  is  real  ROod,  but  they  find,  under  the 
mask  of  plenaure,  (hat  which  proves  lo  them  lo  be  the 
most  giievotis  suflering. 

The  akme  tTOih  runs,  in  an  endless  variety  of  forms, 
ipta  manhood,  and  througU  all  the  stages  of  life.  We 
u-e  impelled  by  self-lovi;  nut  only  to  provide  for  the 
enving  wants  of  our  nature,  but  to  seek  plenHiTO, 
riehn,  power,  distinction,  imd  Inxaries.  Thc^e  pro- 
pansities  are  given  for  wise  and  beneficent  purposes. 

whioli  constituUs  human  misery.  Ho  is  catled  bravo 
and  hinounbla  who  defends  biniaclf,  even  at  the  risk 
uf  life,  agkinst  ihOM  who  vtould  do  to  him  lliat  uijnstiee 
and  wrong  which  would  make  tl)o  gift  of  life  of  no 
value.  But  the  brave,  who  invade  the  rights  of  olhera, 
aud  Eubjeet  tliem,  by  vinlcnoe,  to  losses  and  to  snflbr- 
ings,  wilhoot  cause,  misapply  this  principle  of  action. 
To  gel  viehes  by  honest  industry,  or  the  reasonable 
exemise  of  one's  talents,  is  n  comnieiHlable  Uie  of  uelf- 
luvfl.  To  get  riches  by  uiihiir  nnd  dishonest  mnuiB, 
to  hoard  them  up.  mid  Ici  brool  over  Iham  in  secret,  is 

;i  )-;-:ii!l  r,.i  !:-■■  i.f  i;/ iri...  I'ii.iljlp  impulse.  To  have 

|...',  '    I     .  >      '..;[»  USB  it  faithfully, 

';',.     '    ,     ,   ,  ■    .  .,-i  reasonable  ev- 


desire,  and  wliat  hv  alnnilJ  arasj  sod  f4M> 
the  time  may  rania  whvn  **U-lin*  ira  W 
misapplied  u  tc 


ofturtio 

for  every  hm 

BBD  being,  ia  ■«*»*■ 

on  of  human 

t>w 

emed  that  it  was 

IRT 

ltd  difltrenlly 
ether  ono  did 

wl 

or  did  nw  an, 

l«Ih> 

ercolci 
If  Uie« 


',  thai  his  n 


*  bU 


>tC9t  good  of  which  that  ca»f  WKsujMt 
things  cannot  be  denied,  then  lb  p 
me  »  so  [o  regulate  self-love  as  tbu  jl  a^i 
greatest  good.  Let  ns  mtmoae  that  smf 
society  knew  wlut  it  iroold^  tart  fivltelt 
10  do,  iio  that  his  pl'vidcaj,  intnlliwUllsrtl 
dition,  should  be  ss  good  aa  be  onH  nab  % 
lovo  would  never  be  directed  tu  as;  «d4  41 
impair  his  bodily  powers,  or  kerplmnindtai 
or  laisinformed,  or  make  bim  a  sibj*c((f  nj 
contempt  in  lits  own  view,  or  in  tint  qf  sAn 
it  will  be  nid,  is  an  impoHihle  •tala  d  \U» 
was  esid  that  it  wimid  be  impoaiUeleiMia 
or  ontenl  ipiriU,  Tbis  great  diaogalsM* 
complished;  but  does  any  oiwdaablthalpM 
has  been  toodR  lowank  its  colf(«afcaUlkll 
on,  then,  in  the  work  of  improreiDrsil.  Uli 
try  to  show  the  proper  iii«  of  tdf-lm.  fli 
come  when  evety  one  will  admit  tlal  ■!  fc< 
which  may  visit  the  human  boillydrs  rfl 
nuking,  tliose  only  eiovptod  which  MiwbM 
ral  laws  of  Uie  Cr»ator.  As  to  tkai,^ 
greatly  miiigaUNl  by  inlelligmt  tnovd  ^09 
these  comi',  they  can  aud  will  bo  mMM 
and  resignation,  if  the  snOare 
the  certainty  that  he  has  d 
negleeted  any  proper  o 
suireriiigs  may  be  re  ' 


!  has  done  D*  *(4m 
one,  to  ktiKk  tt>«l 


.'d  thii  labcnr  ia  i 
-.nsc^uenceDfAil 
is  foreign  to  wtp 


ornamentllaa 
:o  eiiltivsieaala 
these  an  ^ 


li:!i;:,j:iiodore\il,profilslile 

vinct-d  that  this  a  so.  Thi 
i'|it  in  any  one  posilioo  tn 
time,  unltRi  they  liaie  b(W 
1'.  If  it  were  painfol  U  > 
.iiiuil  to  uwful  labmr,  lal 


THE  PRIVATE  DUTIES  OF  LIFE. 


ose,  and  especially  those  who  have  disci- 
liiid  to  an  accustomed  service,  find  that  tlie 
•inployment  is  an  affliction.  We  cannot  see 
3uld  be  otherwise,  if  we  rightly  comprehend 
on  to  the  universe,  of  which  he  constitutes 
part. 

lily  action,  it  is  seen  that  children  in  their 
liruugh  a  series  of  exertions,  often  excecd- 
t  too,  from  mere  pleasure.  Men  frequently 
e  body  much  more  severely  in  nuitters  of 
than  they  have  any  occasion  to  do  in  neces- 
.  This  action  seems  to  be  a  dictate  of  nature, 
ases  of  indisposition,  bodily  motion  is  tlie 
remedy,  and  is  commonly  a  successful  one. 
(ound  reasons  why  this  should  be  so.  There 
r»al  action  of  the  material  system  to  which 
p4,  and  a  continual  waste  and  demand  for 
xcepting  only  in  the  involuntary  movements 
ructure,  which  are  not  confided  to  his  care, 
<ed  to  aid  nature  in  her  operations.  If  he 
himself  in  the  best  condition  to  receive  and 
sure  from  his  daily  food,  he  must  keep  him- 
n.  Those  wlio  have  the  least  pleasure  in 
vfttR  given  to  be  used  as  the  means  of  plea- 
genses,  arc  those  who  keep  the  body  inactive. 
}  of  those  who  labour  with  the  mind  only ; 
ingly  true  of  those  whom  aftluence  excuses 
r  of  body  and  niind.  They  seek  happiness 
e  and  in  luxury.  They  find  it  not,  because 
^  a  law  of  nature.  No  product  of  the  vine- 
cld,  or  the  sea,  however  aided  by  inventive 
uish  a  welcome  repast  to  one  who  sits  in  list- 
8,  on  a  downy  cushion,  from  breakfast  time 
The  day-labourer  who  sits  down  to  his  coarse 
,  pleasure  to  which  the  luxurious  idler  is  a 
The  one  receives  a  rational  benefit  from  tlie 
ist  bounty  of  nature ;  tlie  other  seeks  it  where 
decreed  that  it  shall  not  be  found, 
•ur  of  muscular  action  is  not  only  in  itself  a 
tut  it  is  the  means  prescribed  to  us  for  the 
It  of  subsistence  ;  for  the  gradual  improve- 
Doiety ;  fur  applying  natural  and  artificial 
>  our  comforts,  to  our  convenience,  and  to 
luxuries.  Nor  only  so :  this  is  the  ground- 
the  beautiful  and  imitative  arts ;  of  the  dis- 
application  of  the  chemical  power  of  matter ; 
idei-ful  contrivances  by  which  man  securely 
he  face  of  the  ocean ;  by  which  he  cultivates 
itance  w  ith  the  stars,  and  raises  his  thoughts 
hor  of  all  being.  Let  us  not,  then,  regard 
.  curse,  but  a  blessing,  and  rank  it  among  the 
es  for  thankfulness.  It  is  obvious  that  mus- 
n  would  have  been  given  to  us  in  vain,  if  it 
irectcd  by  intelliecnce.  There  must,  then, 
of  the  mind.  This  is  nowhere  said  to  be  a 
there  be  any  thing  for  which  we  should  be 
lankful,  certainly  it  is  tliat  we  are  blessed 
jwcr  of  mental  exertion.  This  labour  is  in 
rcc  of  happiness ;  and  in  its  fruits  has  made, 
age  man,  a  rational  and  improving  social 
le  most  restless  and  comfortless  of  all  crea-. 
who  has  no  occupation  for  his  mind.  If  one 
nt  the  most  miserable  condition  fur  a  human 
T  than  mere  physical  suffering  of  the  most 
ig  kind  that  can  be  witliout  extinguishing  life, 
.'  to  deprive  him  of  all  employment  of  body 
d. 

-e  be  a  doubt  that,  in  man's  present  condi- 
>ility  to  labour  is  las  exalted  privilege?  And 
ccountabie  fur  this  privilege?  Is  not  reason 
reel  him  in  the  use  of  it?  It  is  well  known 
lo  have  compared  the  conditiou  of  mankind 
t  ages,  how  much  the  labour  of  body  and 
been  able  to  accomplish.  Even  witliin  the 
;ntury,  the  most  surprising  changes  for  the 
s  taken  place,  from  the  riglit  use  of  this  pro- 
ber. On  this  depends  the  condition  of  the 
lily.  From  the  joint  labours  of  all  who  wish 
ir  fellow-men,  there  will  be  obtained,  eventu- 
613 


ally,  the  knowledge  of  the  best  manner  of  using  the 
products  of  the  earth,  the  best  mode  of  ruling  men  in 
their  social  relations,  the  just  homage  due  to  the  Cre- 
ator, and  the  true  purpose  for  which  human  life  has 
been  given. 

To  some  descriptions  of  persons,  labour  is  irksome. 
They  are  obliged,  in  their  vocations,  to  use  certain 
muscles,  and  those  only.  They  repeat  the  same  act 
throughout  the  day.  Their  labour  becomes  tedious, 
because  it  requires  little  or  no  action  of  the  mind.  To 
this  numerous  class  we  venture  to  offer  a  rehef  which 
is  within  the  easy  reach  of  many  of  them.  It  is  well 
known  that  the  nature  of  habit  is  such,  that  the  hands 
will  do  what  they  have  been  accustomed  to  do,  without 
any  obvious  attention,  and  the  mind  is  left  to  do  wliat 
it  will.  The  mind  might  be  employed,  while  the  hands 
are  busy,  in  pursuing  some  connected  train  of  thought. 
Muscular  action,  so  far  from  being  an  interruption  to 
the  action  of  the  mind,  may  be  made  to  assist  it.  Per- 
sons who  think  intently  are  often  seen  to  have  some 
habitual  movement ;  and  we  have  heard  several  persons 
acknowledge  that  their  best  ideas  had  come  to  them 
when  they  were  engaged  in  some  simple  occasional  duty, 
such  as  the  folding  of  paper,  or  the  cutting  of  the  leaves 
of  a  book.  The  stir  of  body  seems  to  produce  a  cor- 
respondine  stir  of  mind.  The  relief  which  we  suggest 
is,  that  sedentary  labourers  should  provide  themselves 
with  subjeetA  for  reflection,  and  exact  of  their  minds  to 
attend  to  these  subjects.  By  such  simple  means,  the 
memory  may  be  strengthened,  the  stock  of  knowledge 
may  be  greatly  increased,  and  the  mind  surprisingly 
invigorated.  One  might  begin  this  exercise  by  attempt- 
ing to  remember,  with  the  utmost  precision,  every  act 
done  during  the  preceding  day,  and  so  go  back  from 
day  to  day.  Better  still  would  it  be,  if  the  purpose  were 
to  see  wherein  one  had  not  done  as  well  as  he  might, 
and  as  he  may  wisli  he  had  done.  This  exercise  may 
be  applied,  also,  to  the  contemplation  of  subjects  sug* 
gested  by  reading;  and  this  contemplation  will  raise 
questions  which  will  lead  to  the  examination  of  books. 
There  may  be  hundreds  of  poets,  philosophers,  and 
moralists,  at  the  work-benches  in  this  country,  who  have 
no  thought,  of  themselves,  that  they  are  such.  It  is  in 
the  power  of  any  person  who  can  read  and  understand 
the  English  language,  to  strengthen  his  memory,  give 
himself  an  interesting  employment,  and  furnish  himself 
with  a  rich  fund  of  the  truest  philosophy,  in  this  manner. 
He  may  commit  to  memory  six  lines,  each  successive 
day,  of  I^ope's  Essay  on  Man,  and  on  each  day  repeat 
all  he  had  learned  on  preceding  days.  On  the  2]  8th 
day  he  would  be  able  to  repeat  the  whole  essay.  This 
might  be  done  without  losing  one  moment  of  time, 
and  without  making  the  slightest  error  in  one's  work. 
When  accomplished,  it  would  bean  intellectual  trea- 
sure for  which  any  man  might  be  thankful,  and  of  which 
he  might  be  justly  proud.  The  first  efforts  may  be 
discouraging,  but  perseverance  will  ensure  success. 
Every  one  who  is  accustomed  to  thinking  can  attest 
that  most  new  subjects  are  at  first  confused  and  unde- 
fined ;  but  they  gradually  disclose  themselves,  and  fall 
into  shape  and  order,  just  as  material  substances,  used 
on  the  work-bench  and  the  anvil,  take  that  form,  smooth- 
ness, and  polish,  by  successive  operations,  which  the 
workman  requires. 

IIADIT. 

This  quality  of  our  nature  has  engaged  the  attention 
of  many  ]ihilosophic  minds.  It  has  been  considered  an 
uliimate  factj  as  it  is  called ;  that  is,  one  of  those  qua- 
lities, whicl;,  like  respiration,  digestion,  and  many  others, 
are  found  to  exist ;  and  beyond  which  fact  no  investi- 
^tion  can  be  made.  Its  laws,  rather  than  its  nature, 
have  l>t'en  the  subject  of  remark.  It  may  be,  that  habit 
is  to  be  referred  to  the  law  of  action,  which  appears  to 
)>ervade  all  material  and  intellectual  being.  £ife  is 
divided  into  parts ;  in  one  wo  are  awake,  and  active ; 
in  tlie  other,  wrapped  in  sleep,  and  quiet.  Eachi  suc- 
cessive day  is  a  sort  of  new  existence,  in  which  we  are 
to  repeat  many  of  the  acta  of  the  preceding  day.     We 


cannot  go,  that  those  acts  ai^  most  easily  and  well  done 
"which  are  oftenest  done.     One  who  uses  a  Hail,  an  axe, 
a  scythe,  a  sword,  or  a  pen,  can  use  either  the  better 
the  oftener  it  is  used,  until  he  arrives  at  a  point  of 
excellence  at  which  his  power  of  improvement  stops. 
This  may  |>erhaps  be  accounted  for  by  supposing  that 
the  first  effort  which  the  mind  makes  to  direct  muscular 
action,  is  the  most  difficult  one.    After  repeated  efforts, 
the  mind  seems  to  understand  better  and  better  how  to 
direct,  and  the  muscles  how  to  obey,  till  at  length  a  very 
slight  effort  of  the  mind  seems  to  be  all  that  is  required, 
and. even  an  effort  so  inconsiderable  and  rapid  as  not  to 
be  the  subject  of  notice.   On  this  truth  seems  to  depend 
the  astonishing  facility  of  actiou  to  which  (among  many 
other  instances)  jugglers  and  musicians  attain.     This 
is  called  halnl^  which  word  is  derived  from  a  Latin  word 
which  signifies  custom  or  use.     There  are  customs  or 
habits  of  the  mind  as  well  as  of  the  muscles.     Persons 
who  accustom  themselves  to  extemporaneous  speaking, 
acquire  a  surprising  ease  and  readiness  in  the  compli- 
cated action  of  conceiving,  uttering,  and  expressing,  by 
sounds,  by  looks,  and  gestures,  whatsoever  they  would 
impress  upon  an  audience.      The  mind  has  its  own 
habits  also,  in  the  quiet  of  contemplation,  and  in  exer- 
cising its  various  powers.     It  has  its  own  associations, 
too,  with  external  objects,  of  which  many  curious  in- 
stances are  stated  in  philosophical  works. 

The  moral  deduction  which  we  make  from  these 
general  principles  is  this,  that  there  is  a  continual 
craving  to  do  some  act,  to  obtain  some  object ;  or  a  con- 
tinually recurring  necessity  to  do  some  act,  to  prevent 
an  evil  or  inconvenience.  The  frequency  of  this  call 
upon  us  to  do  something,  whether  it  be  for  eventual 
goo4  t>r  evil,  leads  to  the  practice,  custom,  or  habit  of 
doing ;  and  in  some  cases  the  impulse  to  act  becomes 
so  powerful,  that  reason,  self-refipect,  the  laws  of  society, 
and  even  those  of  the  Lawgiver  of  the  universe  (if  these 
are  heeded),  present  no  sufticient  barrier  to  the  impulse. 
It  is  to  this  ail-important  truth  in  the  nature  of  man, 
that  we  earnestly  invite  the  attention  of  the  young. 
The  capacity  to  create  habits  is  the  consequence  of  the 
power  given  to  us  to  promote  our  own  welfare,  indivi- 


1 


.*_i  1. 


i._: 


ft^U*. 


and  character,  from  abusing  tlia  ft 
nourishment,  is  oniverBally  eondnu 
motive,  and  the  acts  done  in  oh>di«i 
are  irrational  and  disgraeeful. 

There  are  two  kinds  of  intempenii 
the  young  should  be  warned.  Tbe  on 
for  nourisliment,  but  for  pleasore ;  tb 
tobacco.  It  has  been  already  dewoma 
requires  a  certain  quantity  of  proper  \ 
a  healthy  and  happy  condition  of  hodj 
that  excess  of  any  kind  will  be  fdwi 
This  is  just  as  certain  as  that  a  fnll  n 
off  just  as  much  as  is  added  to  ita  eaol 
natural  that  young  persons  ahooM  I 
sake  of  society ;  being  assembled,  they 
employment  for  the  muscles  of  the  hoA^ 
of  the  mind.  We  have  shown  that  0 
spring  from  natural  constitntiony  and 
be  satisfied.  There  most  be  a  coobm 
in  the  meeting.  That  may  be  Himnd  i 
action  in  which  all  can  join,  and  whid 
nite  object,  as  athletic  games;  or  it  1 
some  intellectual  employment  whidi  ii 
present.  Unhappily,  the  most  freqaa 
meetings  is  to  drink,  for  in  this  all  can  j 
by  this  common  attraction,  tbe  min 
action ;  but  for  what  purposes  t  Tha 
places  of  public  entertamment  can  aass 
Some  who  are  sent  to  public  seminaiMi 
it;  and  some  can  answer  it  who  Idm 
maintained  Uiere  by  pinching  eeoDonqr 
others  could  answer  it,  who  never  had  I 
why  such  places  were  futabliihfflt^  Da 
they  were  intended. 

We  refer  asain  to  the  demooikn 
made,  that  the  law  of  nature,  which  ei 
with  impunity,  inexorablj  admits  to 
more.  Let  us,  then,  look  in  upoo  a 
young  persons,  around  a  table,  and  b 
toba<^  smoke.  What  sort  of  air  are 
what  sort  of  substances  are  tbey  m 
physical  system,  already  bnnrtinc  wit 


•_    *t-     •_ 


MM  mi 


Dni  tkd  aeadi  TM IM  iww  wvleCMIM  g* 
-'  ---I     W.1]  u.-.  o  «.-  >.,.  .=.  .1...  lam 


»Dfhe  .!_, 


MoltMlnrt  V/%j 
IvbiebTinieuiilii:'. 
.riw««yMj..ylii. 

4  Ul»r  !i—   '  - 

ljilll.ll.. 


Il  ibto   r.: 


■  two  lobjpou  nlatc  U  iwn  jArtixi;  I,  Hut 
m  imln  troUl  or  tUprhoadj  'J.  Tlial  iiiui  l» 
il  M  •pokn.  Vd  pmp(<u  t-i  enn*I>l<rr  Uiis 
tnl;  In  iclallm  la  tbt  Hnt  purl;,  uid  u  !■■  Iibn 

Vitm.  I.  WliPthcr  thcr*  l.s  nhy,  uiil  Mini 
lirll  TiuiiiiTM  that  llm  trulh  kboDtillw  ^^vn; 

Whkt  pitiil  or  Btii  OHO  may  da  tu  tuaoatT  1^ 


n  |<<nnD  cuu  tut*  frVB 
>  (if  )ii*  Hffii  irmm.  In  niui}'  ihiajft  abldk  it 
uKU-Ully  ei»iiwrui  tilm  ui  knuw,  1<  vw  Umllnt 
M  dif rrinr*  uftoii  drpnvl  for  hii  bniwlnip  « 
ttiart  utf  bi  bill) ;  aint  whrni  iho  Oii^  ajuikM 
xelualvvl;  kiidVH  to  Uik  piirtj'  tpoaklB^.  tlu 
nuM  nly  mtiivty  an  nhai  lia  mj&     If,  ibcM- 

bo  cna4dor*d  how  uml  i>  put  of  tne  mngt 
ooitecmi  In  llfr  proceed  on  dwliiratiniu  mub  bj* 
nca  U  Muilhsr,  w«  nay  rMulUy  mnnlrn,  Lhal, 
9  Gwold  noi  b«  nlled  mi,  tli«  olhii*  of  manlrinit 
be  m^f  tmbtirmBad,  wtd  ounfidnniM  in  ituj) 
raoU  be  •bXra^cd.  At  UiE*  inattw  «f  ipnUrini; 
Ih  u  ono  Khicb  nmeoiu  all  fnon»,  in  ^1  |Mfv 
^v  ia  holding  rinn  in  cguuiiipi.  Km  ll» 
vhC  pcnon*  vtmiidsr  thcni*aliv»  tuliodwi^arj 
^hor^  vitb  Um  s,vi'>  ot  lying.  Thvv  can  unikmi 
Rwbish  would  >ut>j«>tUiemUipQblii;'{-uiiial>iiii>iit, 
or"  «anipu>aru  tlian  thry  out  eiidam  Uti*.  A  IIh 
yi  undutitmKi  ta  bv  rnorwd  la  to  Kccur*  tuiiu 
»ipt  iv  I'roTBiil  noun  evil  to  the  Dcrwn  •!» 

to  il;  or  til  ocwiinii  igiiia  dtudTaiiiur  ur 
to  ttw  jwraoii  to  "biin,  or  of  wboui,  thn  lia  W 
woMtiiiim  IkiiIi  Itirat  (lurpinu  concur.  Tbt 
So  vt«w  Ualway*4ii  iniraunl  at»,»Dd  UirmMo* 
ra  alvayii  raRiu'dnil  «i>  diiipiimrul.  It  U  U  ohm 
»  thai  wUful  talMlund  t»  lurbiddHn  \iy  natund 
iilch  la  Intended  la  nfuiuv  uur  nucol  laUunnat 
ouprcnly  forbidden  br  divitw  biw,  wliiili  nuih. 
nil  acta  ef  bmd  and  deecit,  and  ciniitnuuda  «■ 
D  olbm  as  s«  vould  have  ihcm  tii  i]<>  i»  un. 
.  b  tt  nro  a«i:iini]Dc«  llui  inji  <>uu  wh.i  dii«iiada 
tbood  iucoihIi  in  tba  objgcl  vliieti  ho  nn;  li»u 
V.    Ub  il  oommanl]'  deiodod,  and.  1/  ui>i,  li  ru»- 


pa*  upon  lilni  U  Qitif  wvn  m  moII  iotuniwd  w 
A  li&r  ••  lliiTvrMw  obliged  to  r>^cl  lUub^^ten 
,  and  a  Iiab<>tiu!l  Vlh  itt^i  «hcA\  ocymoK  \n  \ii^ 


CHAMBERS'S  INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPU 


wbtm  be 


t  bflUfTbd 


a  prnou  unwurlbj  of  oonfli 

la  not  the  ticncliC  iif  beiug  creniMu  evfd 
a  he  B|iealui  ihn  iruUi ;  Im  raluatarily  'Ivpriven 
Iiiiiihrir  (it  Uie  atlviiaing«  uf  mcai  UTc :  hi*  •Merijans 
•MUM  Ut  him  UD  credit ;  hi^  pr£>miBH  At6  00Dl«m[iei1 ; 
he  nukes  himself  to  be  aloue  iu  th«  vpr;  boBoni  nf 
Koclcly,  for  every  one  aliuns  him.  In  the  ^dniniiMFntiiin 
ofjiutiw  iucouru,  operaunianatTegardcd 
«hwe  oomiuon  ivpaUlHta  ia  thai  be  is  n 
whon  h«  gpeaks.  Tho  nbJEelion  to  him  is  not  thai  he 
nu^bt  nut  (oil  tliB  truth  in  Ihi;  matter  wbich  ia  on  trial, 
hut  that  BUch  B  prnon  ou^ht  nut  U>  liB  rscvifed  as  a 
witnoaa,  IwCiiuso  lie  Ciumat  be  credited  in  any  tiling  thai 
be  Baji.     Wb«n  such  a  penon  hu  been  called  nnct 

witaeiscs  to  prov«  his  clutraiiter ;  and  if  it  be  proved 
that  he  ia  uaxnrtlu-  uf  credit,  vbal  he  has  ewnm  to  is 
dJerBBardadi  tliao^  he  may  bare  declared  the  tmlb. 
Tbia  i*  tbewiDiiMa  bteof  nil  HBElinnftvtunalapi-TMiu 
Id  aucrietj't  aa  wdl  an  in  enui-ta.  Indepeadently  of  the 
irimiiMlitj',  lying  ia  vary  pour  policy.  If  tlw  object  be 
to  obtain  a  «up)ioeiiit  good,  il  rarely  ia  obtained  by  anch 
I ;  and  if  it  be,  tbe  prim  so  paid  miiM  altnya  be 


m  rarely  mteeaafai;  and  if 


conceal  a  wrong 

not, it lca»« tlio offpndor  _.   .. 

and  addv  aoother  vming.  If  the  object  be  to  charge 
an  iunocent  percou  with  a  wruagful  act,  at  to  deprive 
one  of  hia  gnud  name,  or  of  aiime  UwFo]  ponnsiim,  or 
•ubjacthim  taaome  evil  whioh  be  oaght  not  to  ondure, 
the  offence  is  of  Ibat  caat  whioh  llie  law  of  ibe  load 
hulda  to  be  taalidout,  and  it  deals  with  auch  offeuue 
■ceordiogly.  In  aiion,  it  ia  very  dtlKealt  to  vintalo  any 
law  of  natniAl  jlutise  nr  diTtao  pnihibiliim  wilboDl 
enconntering  an  adequate  punishment ;  and  it  may  be 
uanmed  thai  the  pnniahuient  which  follows  lying  is  as 
certAio  and  juat  as  in  any  iiiatsuee  of  criminaliiy.     If 


i'^'i  to  Ibe 


'I  wliul 


lib  and  fiilscboo'l.  The 
called  the  "  impiTft'c 

All  nab) 


Such  ubligatious, 
tiiiL  piiforccU  by  the  law  of  tiie  land, 
duiiea  urisiiiR  as  well  frnm  natural  law  (i 
expounded]  aa  from  divine  law.     Sinctirilyia 

every  one  has  an  indiriilual  eepanili'  phyaieal  being,  no 
every  one  lias  a  irparait  eirde  within  which  hi^  csiits, 
and  into  which  no  one  lias  a  right  to  intrude.  Ilia 
ihoughtB,  motives,  opinions,  nnil  pali 
What  be  will  or  will  u.'t  du  (so  that  n 
to  others,  and  no  act  of  dnty  bu  withheld  froni  tliem) 
U  fur  him  to  decide  upon.  Within  lliis  circle,  ho  mates 
up  his  judgmeota  on  all  persima  :iii.l  ti:iiij;'.  In  lii^ 
outwird   deportment,    he    niur    :r     iivly    ■-■t    hi    .1 

esample;  line  has  made  ujp.  Hi  >        ■- 

able  judgment  of  his  [|UAlii>'- .       '    i. 
to  diaclotte  what  tiiD  juil^'[^i 
obliged,  I     '-    ■    ■ 


but  it  fin^ds  lb*  « 
pabliestinu  or  niuiifestatioD  of  itiem.  Thur 
keen  obeervera  of  (heir  ttUow-nien,  ■■  iaifc 
ir  luiidn  uf  aftsliat 
iDUrnvnta  wUch  AfJ 

bation ;  or  they  may  aev  cauam  far  dkiia^MLi 
MToDg  lUsapTiTabatmn,  luiit  di^iut.  Bntalllfcl 
belong  in  the  indirMuil  nVtfr.  It  ■  Ml  U 
keep  them  there.  Ou  the  oii»tn>7,  SediCr ' 
inti.lerable  if  they  were  not  Lapt  th««;  H 
hazardona  to  the  obnerver  to  Itsl  them  oat  aam 
He  may  be  misUJien  boA  as  ta  the  fatsn 
anfnvoamble  judgmeM*  whidi  Im  (<«Ml 
ubaerTBliuu,  new  eireiunataueea,  nacxpwMf . 
may  ettientiatly  cnrreet  hia  jadgnMiit;  wit 
pradeiK  man  will  keep  them  ta  binuttf ;  4^ 
,1 ...  — k1  »Bre  obtaiqsj  1p« 


v:s 


tery — a  word  which  Ik  daived  troD  Ibr  laO^ 
njfiea  wmd,  bnath,  pDtr.  nisiaahiBdafibal 
perverted  self-love  find*  to  ba  exosoUm^j 
Although  il  is  in  truth  precudy  wtel  IM  m 

not  ilispoaed  tn  pulake  of  it,  }f  it  beaidlfflyl 
Hill,  ou  the  other  hand,  all  sennble  pcnBa*,<fl 

Bgi-  ur  n'S,  who  see  what  it  h,  soil  whyoOita^ 
the  flaltvFiT  the  aontrmgit  wh->b  lie  J— I'l 


in  the  SaDcRr,  ■ 
B  in  the  tlatlercd,  to  be  aabdiMl  led 
The  llattcter'a  poipuse  niaj  W  to 


it  tnu  Ik^  ibruigit  lii^l 
t  »hm  nay  be  tvfj«il 


TW  nell-beinE  of 
if  llR-iiami'oandnse 
generally  ki 


ihiaChR- 


'bservance  i>f  the  commaiH^  bt  I 
■a  yrni  would  that  nthen  abonid  do  to  yea.  1 
ra]>id  glance  at  any  community  shows  this-A 
of  Its  ramibers  arc  brwughl  into  contact,  to  ■ 
bufiiiuui,  necCEearily ;  olhen  meet.  iaeUetf 
liave  no  partieulsr  ounnexion  ;  others  tniM  I 
purposes,  in  variona  forms;  and  thai  lhn»i 
pro[iariion  who  know  of  each  other  very  link 
ihE  fact  that  they  are  of  the  aame  country,  aM 
not  even  thac  There  must  be  a  bat  rJr  « 
inent  for  ail  these  elawies ;  and  no  one  wiH  ' 
if  lliia  rule  were  delined,  and  faithfully  ffit 
would  be  much  more  of  eTerrdaY  corofi«1  s 


world  1 1 


ithcp 


rightly  undcntand  tl 

"   '  uf  kind  behngs.  andof  a  Aa 

re  la  be  done  uudrr  the  arf 


will.     There  ia  no  iintineerity  in  Ihia.     Thnugli  no 
can  p'Msiblv  avoid  forming  judqmentH  nf  otber^i, 

fripndi  ami  relalives,  vol  there  may  be  n  ]""iiin'  vi 
tion  of  duly  in  publiiiiTis  these  jnd[prii-ih;,  •!■  ii> 

v"  b»  n.'-.  jiiplged,"   does  uot,  it  ia  bvl 

Ihmt  juil^puunta,  because  they  cauri'^T    ]i::l    i..-  nb 


THE  PRIVATE  DUTIES  OF  LIFE. 


>urer,  mechanic,  trader^  merchant,  farmer,  lawyer, 
lacian,  cIerg}'TOan,  or  public  officer,  or  if  it  be  a 
tale,  or  child  of  either  sex,  tliere  may  be  very  various 
des  of  receiving  these  diflcrent  persons — ^}'et,  eer- 
ily, by  every  one  of  the  hiws  which  we  are  endea- 
iring  to  illustrate,  these  several  persons  are  entitled 
ivility.  Ev^n  the  bcg^r — perhaps  one  should  rather 
»the  beggar  in  particular — if  not  deformed  by  volun- 
y  transgression,  should  be  received  with  civility ;  that 
gentleness,  kindness,  decorum,  are  to  be  observed 
■tively  to  each  one.  Why?  because  no  man  can 
vd  to  be  deemed  insensible  to  the  cause  of  reasou- 
•  hunumity ;  nor  a  stranger  to  the  decencies  of  life ; 
'  ignorant  of  what  is  due  from  him,  nor  to  hiiu,  in 
'  of  his  proper  relations.-  I 

lierc  is  ouu  other  consideration  which  operates  on  ! 
men  who  have  had  much  experience  in  the  world.  ; 
I  and  things  change,  and  take  new  and  unexpected 
tions.     Persons  wlio  have  been  long,  and  even  inti- 
ily  connected,  suddenly  or  gradually  sever ;  persons 

have  known  little  of  each  otlier,  and  that  little 
teresting  or  unfavourable,  are  brought  in  contact 
onie  unexpected  turn  of  affairs.  Sometimes  one 
s  favours,  or  at  least  good  will,  from  those  he  never 
^ht  to  be  of  the  least  importance  to  him.  In  such, 
111  a  multitude  of  other  circumstances,  one  may 
tlie  advantages  of  having  been  acquainted  with  the 
.e  of  civility,  which  implies  that  one  has  given  no 
'oessary  offence.  There  are  other  cases  in  which 
ia  called  on  by  duty  to  do  things  disagreeable  to 
df,  and  exceedingly  so  to  others.    But  there  is  no 

sense  in  performing  such  duty  morosely,  and  with 
manity. 

POLITENESS — GOOD  MANNERS. 

xeiined  species  of  civility  is  sometimes  expressed 
%e  term  pnHtrncusj  which  is  an  exterior  indication 
M>d  breedin;;  or  ^ood  manners,  and  may  be  defined 
l^at  mode  of  behaviour,  which  not  only  gives  no 
ice,  but  which  affords  agreeable  sensations  to  our 
W-crcatures.     In  our  intercourse  with  the  world, 

species  of  civility  is  imperative.  We  possess  no 
L  to  give  offence,  by  language  or  actions,  to  others ; 
^^tre  are  bound  to  conduct  ourselves  agreeable  to 
ftvasonable  and  set  rules  of  society.  Some  severe 
era  on  morals  have  confounded  poiUeness  with  ta- 
^n'/y.  They  seem  to  imagine  that  the  act  of  speak- 
gracefully  to  another,  is  necessarily  mere  grimace, 
Ki  empty  flourish  signifying  notliing.  In  many  in- 
Qesy  with  insincere  people,  this  may  be  the  case, 
&t  is  not  so  with  those  of  well-regulated  minds.  It 
^rays  better  to  speak  i)olitely,  that  is,  with  extreme 
^riety  and  delicacy,  than  coarsely,  sulkily,  or  iin- 
•anently.  We  say,  cultivate  politeness  of  manner 
hJI  means,  for  it  is  refined  cioi/t/y,  and  will  spare 
a  ourselves  and  others  nmch  unnecessary  pain, 
ftvilised  society  has  in  the  course  of  time  instituted 
^n  rules  in  the  code  of  politeness,  which,  though  of 
0  actual  value,  it  is  every  one's  duty  to  learn,  be- 
Me,  by  knowing  and  acting  upon  them,  we  can  make 
^Ude  on  much  more  smoothly  and  pleasantly  than 
^  remained  in  iipiorance  of  them.  These  rules  are 
kri«limes  called  the  rules  of  etiquette.  We  shall  here 
^tion  a  few  of  the  more  important  of  these  social 
KaUtions : — 

"•  Honour  to  the  female  sex. — Women  are  physically 
fcJter  than  men.  They  are  unable  to  defend  them- 
^«8  from  inhult  or  injury,  and  it  would  bo  considered 
^icaite  for  them  to  do  so,  even  if  they  possessed  the 
I'^r.  For  these  and  other  reasons,  it  is  only  simple 
***ness  and  a  sign  of  good  sense  to  render  any  little 
^Cq  to  wrimeu — to  assist  them  when  they  appear  in 

<fifficulty,  to  speak  respectfully  of  them  and  to 
^*  and  to  give  them  honour  whenever  it  can  be 
•oiiably  required.  It  will  be  observed,  therefore,  in 
"^  is  called  good  society,  that  women  are  treated 
'  exceeding  delicacy  and  deference:  they  are  of- 
^  the  best  seat,  or  the  only  seat  if  there  be  no  other; 
*^«?-<l  to  walk  ucjtt  the  wall,  or  at  the  farthest  point 

(il7 


from  danger,  in  the  street ;  never  rudely  jostled  against 
in  a  crowded  thoroughfare ;  and  are  always  parted  from 
with  a  respectful  bow.  All  this  is  considered  essential 
in  good  manners,  and  attention  to  it  will  not  in  the 
smallest  degree  degrade  any  man  in  the  opinion  of  the 
world.  At  the  same  time,  as  respects  the  women  who 
receive  these  attentions,  it  is  expected  that  they  will 
not  "give  themselves  foolish  airs,"  or  presume  on  the 
forbearance  and  kindness  of  the  stix>nger  sex.  In  fact, 
no  female  will  do  so  who  is  acquainted  with  good  man- 
ners, or  wishes  to  avoid  bein;;  despised. 

2.  General  courtesy  and  respect. — it  is  incumbent  on 
every  one  to  be  courteous  or  respectful  in  his  inter- 
course with  neighbours,  acqnaint:mces,  or  with  the 
public  generally.  To  inferiors,  speak  kindly  and  con- 
siderately, so  as  to  relieve  them  from  any  feeling  of 
being  beneath  you  in  circumstances ;  to  equals  l>e  plain 
and  uimffected  ih  manner ;  an«l  to  su{>eriors,  show  be- 
coming respect,  without,  however,  descending  to  sub- 
servieucy  or  meanness.  In  short,  act  a  manly,  cour- 
teous, and  inoffensive  part  in  all  the  situations  in  life 
in  which  you  may  be  placed.  Society,  for  good  and 
sufficient  reason.^,  which  it  is  uikmUcss  here  to  explain, 
has  ordained  certain  modes  of  address,  and  certain  ex- 
terior signs  of  respectfulness,  which  it  behoves  us  to 
support  and  persoiuUly  attend  to.  In  eastern  coun- 
tries, as  of  old,  it  is  the  custom  to  uncover  the  feet  and 
to  sit  down,  in  token  of  respect,  on  going  into  the  pre- 
sence  of  kings,  or  on  entering  any  religious  edifice  or 
private  dwelling.  In  our  countrv,  the  custom  is  entirely 
the  reverse.  It  is  an  t»tahiisfied  mark  of  respect  to 
uncover  the  head  and  to  stand,  in  the  situations  which 
we  have  mentioned,  and  to  this  point  of  etiquette  we 
are  bound  to  adhere.  Wc  must  not,  fnmi  any  crotchet 
of  our  own,  violate  the  rules  or  customs  which  society 
sanctions  and  enjoins,  as  long  as  these  rules  and  cus- 
toms are  not  opposed  to  reason  and  sound  morals,  and 
only  refer  to  such  trivial  arrangements  as  taking  off 
our  hat,  making  a  bow,  shaking  hands,  or  other  matters 
equally  unworthy  of  deliberate  consideration.  None 
but  persons  of  a  silly,  eccentric  turn  of  mind,  think  of 
disputing  about  these  trifles.  On  the  same  principle, 
give  e\  cry  one  the  title,  which,  by  law  or  courtesy,  he 
usual  Iv  receives. 

3.  Personal  behaviour, — A  well-bred  man  is  always 
known  by  the  perfect  ease  and  trauquilliry  of  his  man- 
ner. These  are  points  to  be  carefully  cultivated.  Ac- 
quire, if  possible,  an  easy  confldence  in  speaking,  so  as 
never  to  appear  abashed  or  confused,  takuig  care,  how- 
ever, not  to  fall  into  the  opposite  error  of  forwardness 
or  presumption.  Persons  moving  in  the  highest  circles 
of  society  never  allow  themselves  to  appear  disturbed 
or  vexed,  whatever  occurs  to  annoy  them.  Perhaps 
there  may  be  an  affectation  of  indifference  in  this ;  still 
their  conduct  is  worth  admiring,  for  every  thing  like 
fidgetiness  or  boisterousncss  of  manner  is  disagreeable 
to  all  who  witness  it. 

Carefully  avoid  the  following  things  in  personal  be- 
haviour:— I^oosc  and  hai*sh  speakin*; ;  making  noises  in 
eating  or  di*inking ;  leaning  awkwardly  when  sitting ; 
rattling  with  knives  and  forks  at  table ;  starting  up 
suddenly,  and  going  unceremoniously  out  of  the  room ; 
tossing  any  thing  from  you  with  aflected  conU^mpt  or 
indifference ;  taking  any  thing  without  thanking  the 
giver ;  standing  in  tlie  way  w  hen  there  is  scarcely  room 
to  pass ;  going  before  any  one  who  is  looking  at  a  pic- 
ture or  any  other  object ;  pushing  against  any  one  with- 
out begging  pardon  for  the  unintentional  rudeness ; 
taking  possession  of  a  seat  in  a  coach,  theati-e,  or  place 
of  public  meeting,  which  yon  ar<.>  informed  belongs  to 
anotlicr;  intruding  your  opinions  where  they  ai'e  not 
wanted,  or  where  they  would  give  oflence ;  leaving  ac- 
quaintances in  the  street,  or  a  private  company,  with- 
out bidding  them  good-bye,  or  at  least  making  a  bow  to 
express  a  kindly  farewell ;  slapping  any  one  familiarly 
on  the  shoulder  or  arm  ;  interrupting  any  one  who  is 
conversing  with  yon  ;  telling  long  and  tiresome  stories ; 
whispering  in  company ;  nmking  remarks  on  the  dress 
of  those  about  you,  or  upon  things  in  the  room ;  flatly 


j/r.f.«:.p.«t  '^f  ;y  ..>r.<rt*.  ir.^  x/  tl'ji:  t#t  u^i*r^v.->-.  th»T*  fcc:.-z.  il  that  be  is prrpftriiiff  for 
tMJ*  iA:  r*'/  <:.ff;<ri;.:v  ::<  k:.o«iT.z  how  t/>  &?-.  %;i&  drli*  rr^r  irh  ml  r*H'Tfiiiiw  Udoi 
OMirv  ftr  'J  ':  ^rr*:*..'^u  irj  ft  .  *.:.^  c--r,c^r::4  of  ,.i*:.  iLx*.  Le  was  r::,l«Dt.*T  »nzrr  ^i"'— ^ 

4.  Ortitiify  ond  rw  ^<in:y. — iiv  a!":^r.'.Ion  'jj  the  n:!I*s  in  ttftizj^  ethers  fto,  h  most  be  ; 
fA  /'«'/':  f#r«r*:':.r.i'.  ►.-'rri  ^-^  »':  hav*:  ju-t  i.iLd^i  V/,  ::.e  k£:z^r  ift  C'Dtr^rrto  mUarmi  Uw,  i 
jyy/i*--*.  rr.^r.  V...  r><-  «-fi'.. -..*'!  v.  t:.«:  c:^r»<r>rcf  a  ffniU-  t/>  <::Ti::ie  i^v.  I:  is  an  abase  d 
w/n,  arA  i>y  jiiatt/rMi'/fi  to  :}.« r;i  :;.«:  L-i'/*tt  «feau;:-v  is-  [  us  JO  procy.-ie  oar  own  • 
di^.-'JijiiI  »iJl  i>;  #4vrjtiA..v  rvlyar.  Vuizuitv  unifies  It  u  c:  =.»u;«ni  vith  re 
C/ftr>';r,<-M  or  iLfirJicarv  '.f  v..xXir,*zTt  ar.d  u  bot  cfctfr-  ■  the  u^fiuexiOfr  of  scfftrr,  to 
thiily  a^wy:;if.-'l  »j:i.  }y,^«:rtv  r.r  io'wiir.ess  '  f  c^cdition.  j  tbe<^u««tioix,«L«^.ersfae 
'Jfjii^,  Ml  cp'.-nii.v**  ftn:«an  rr;av  be  at  ee^ntl^'man,  scd  i  scd  «betkerhe  is  hxmfielf  free  fro 
wortn/  lA  f,ur  (/articuiar  evteem ;  vhi.e  sn  opulent  |  of  having  occwioocd,  br  hb  own 
riiTCiinrit  rr.iky  \m:  hTi.y  at  Tu'T^r  ci'^«n,  «itb  «hom  it  is  |  rezard^  a«  a  mT«'C^.  If  the  offen 
iiti]'*^*'iii\ji':  Vt  be  ofj  ienr.«i  of  fri«;rj'ily  int'-rcourM.  Vul-  i  tioi^  ari^  of  this  cAtnre :  Whatr 
garity  ttf  UAi,UTr  L^  of:eri  exbib;Ur<i,  in  its  m'^t  ofiVn-  !  tomy&elf  bysttemptlni^  togciair 
fti^<:  f<;rrn,  by  \.*'r\'.t.s  ori^fina.iy  of  hunible  birth  and  '  re«pect  shaii  I  advance  my  own  i 

to  pucish  the  offender ! 


May  I  I 

attempts,  invoWe  myself,  by  wc 


br«<"J.ii;',  »bo  bav«?  risen  to  wealth  bv  the  force  of  for- 

tuit«ifjii  circuri>taiif:'.-f(.     It  U  uot  uncommon  to  hear 

y'r*>''tu*i  of  tiiii  r.a>'*,  purticulariy  ^  ladi'.i*,"  ojieaking  of    wronz,  and  give  my  adTersary  tb< 

•*niy  r«rti«'h,"    **iny  l.ouMr,"    "my  jryvern'.-si*,"  **  my  j  me  an  offender,  in  trying  to  Tindic 

fatiuiy,**  **"  u\y  w-rvanti'/'  **  my  furnsture,"  and  so  forth; '  succeed  in  my  attempt,  what  will 


ail  whirh  iH  pure  tuftjarittf,  and  indicaten  a  low  tone  of 
brewjiii^,  and  w.-ak  und*:rhtandjn9^  on  the  part  of  the 
sp'^aker.  A  man  or  uotiian  of  refined  tafcte  never 
alliid<'ii  t'l  inatt^r»»  of  drc»-«<,  domeiitic  convenience,  or 
XUtiin^H  Mtrictly  fM*n>onal,  and  ratlier  endeavours  to  di- 
r«-ct  onven-Ation  into  tiiobv  ciianncls  iu  vihicli  aJl  may 
liaruiouiouhly  join.* 

(}uf  of  the  moHt  import-mt  of  our  private  duties  is  the 
diif;  r<-;(ui&tion  of  tli<;  passions.  \Ve  naturally  possess 
c.tTtniu  nKMiial  afft'CtionH  eall<-d  properuitieM,  which,  when 
prdpi'rly  n-st rained,  (mtvo  a  j^ood  purpose,  both  indivi- 
dually and  MM'ialiy,  but  whon  let  loose,  or  badly  regu- 
lat<-(i  by  the  undcit^tandin;;,  load  to  the  comini»Hion  of 
many  vici'MiHund  aboniinubU;  nctionn,  which  in  moments 
of  f'alin  n-fl<-ciion,  and  when  our  conHcience  is  anmsed, 
wi;  dci-ply  lanii-ni  and  n-;;n't.  Irritability  of  temper, 
an  diTUioiihtrated  in  the  pansion  of  anger,  is  one  of  the 
most  unhappy  of  thi'M*  diTungements  of  our  intellect. 

'I'hf  eauMttof  an^er  are  hUppoHi*d  U)  be  thcHC : — Firtft, 
by  til*'  law  of  iiatun*  and  of  Miciety,  ever}' one  haK  rights 


not  make  the  wrong  done  to  mc 
^ub^ect  m\'seir  to  the  pity  and  c 
Is  It  not  better  to  be  silent,  and 
offender  to  time  and  his  own  com 
myself  in  a  controversy  which  is 
and  in  which  I  shall  run  the  risi 
in  which  I  shall  not  be  likely  to 
succeed  in  hamblingmyadvenai 
him  my  enemy  for  ever ;  for,  in  i 
is  slow  to  forgive  the  woonda  iaf 
love.  When  this  matter  is  orcr, 
ted  the  mists  which  now  prevent 
when  other  feelings  and  sentirae 
I  like  myself  the  better  for  ha 
quiet,  than  if  I  shall  have  atiem 
tice  and  to  inflict  punishment  t 
young  and  ardent  minds,  and  tl 
back  by  the  light  of  experience,  ^ 
tions  very  differently.  But  the  ej 
young,  with  sorrowful  truth,  thai 
ful  sufferings  of  life  are  to  be  n 
have  arisen  from  sudden  impulsi 


tUM  10  mtMruin  a  nt^«ei  (or  IiomcIL 

■  !•  •  Idnil  of  prids  which  h  aOoi  Bfct»1ii  ii  tor 
peel.  We  h«r  of  boni-nimhln  uid  of  tiniUliln 
W*  teks  pHria  lo  Im  tliit  icit-nlKtaa  In  ibjA 
hnldi  hrniHir.    li  may  t«  fomdrd  ia  Ui  aaak 


lut  il  i*  nul  aJwap  a  aeHUuienl  olilidi  MtUlka 

Tiap«El  liintHlf,  A  niau  vouU  h«  UiudrIk  m 
7  DnwiM   Hlin  ■hauM  npraly  dcolatv  IhM  b* 

liimxrlC,  in  cuitiptrisua  *itb  oihnr  Divn,  ra  ae- 
f  lli«  itwltli,  hix  tnoHitj',  or  hi*  fiunK}'  oinumlflii ) 

uuwUHi,  If  hu  uluutlil  4ntl*ra  hi*  opinini  at  hint- 
Iw,  llikt  hiiwakaUioRnr  tiinUiKTiiivD  itt  Iho  aO 
ml  InMLlccl,  to  (lui  cultivitlioii  af  il,  or  la  th* 
■  of  iha  vitrlaD*  vlrMt*.  The  oumDHin  (mw  at 
id,  faundrd  in  UtDinl  reoun,  due*  iwl  uftrnva 

KU-gntulMion  whjeh  mtj  on  th*  lu^irni  id 
)f  (iilioriCaner,  ar  nm  on  thr  D«(|Ui>ltlfiD  of  fnr- 
(ono'i  own  induitr]' ;  nnrdoa  iiappniTn  nf  (liat 
,  whsa  foiindad  oa  quiUltits  ttliicli  tixlunj  Ut  iba 
Dnr  iTWi  ill  thu  jirMlJM  nf  tJio  virtiiM,  iintMa 
iiaiiifiHtDd  III  •  wnaiii  imuinvr.    Tlivn  niuot  b*, 

vaij  iiMuro  at  thing*,  Mmn  iwrioriii  in  ii>4>ry 
luii;.  laiK'  '"  m'^'i  wl'U  »«  auiwrl'ir  in  uUurn 
n  wureva  of  ■aU'-CBitHm.  lu  tyt-rj  lily,  tHnn, 
hi||«.  In  Ibia  natitu,  Ihun  ar>  Miuia  prcwn*  «Iib 
IKHMMloa  of  uaao  ul  than  tmuiu  uC  »it-cal*iHn 
a  «)mpaimti>«  dcgnw,  and  mSirr  pucuiu  oho 
»  fcwot  or  th«  Iflul  uf  Iheoi.  ThDHObiiauiiw 
idnuita^n  u  to  entiiJ*  tbirmiwIiM  to  thv  iviiwin 
n,  uul  tthu  Un  Miknowhiilj^  iv  h*  »*pMiUtil* 
.t  una,  nu)'  wall  tia  aiitttlHt  In  rwpivt  th>^uiHilnw 
inch  caUHn.  Thnna  nthu  iiM  thuiu  la  aucti  a 
J  ai  til  aiiDauncw  tlin  funliaf  of  tuperiorlt*  writr 
,  uid  habltmil!]'  lo  ulfrad  liio  ntchfui  tmUa$  at 
IB,  ws  pniperJj'  oaliid  lA<  ;iroiW.  U  ia  tHliarnl 
ikU  *ln*  ooDform  to  mUiirkl  Lktr,  and  M  Ihk 
U7  etnulimtiiiii  of  human  ■oeio;}'. 


ill  );ml<4r  niiitaliii  I*  nivli'  III  auWituIlnft  *iin)lf 
t-rmOHct.  TIra  onril  vuiliv  ti  loiul"  um  ut  twu 
-watda  vhkh  MigaiSj  ttoreUing  tm/Mifi.  It  ia 
inljr  onilenlaod  to  mnui  a  airoug  daini  to  ha 
t,  ccuuidend,  ami  mlrnicd  bj>  olliris,  but  iia 
it  of  thing*  nrrl;  norlli]'  nf  a  ntiDnal  Bundi 
■nnn*  oorat  pmiH.  Thaji  thruat  thanualtn^  aal 
wUii:))  tiny  value  thvcoaultw,  upou  ilw  nuueu  I 
m,  Thiiy  dcllnht  in  Roooudus  tima  acUar>«> 
,  Mid  MOmUuic*  wiilu  Vtic  a&W»u<Jw  «^  vr*)'^™^ 


CHAMBERS'S  INFORMATION  FOB  TUE  PEOPUE.' ' 


admitly  on  their  oi 
Vt  deacuit  ufian  ( 
v»ionB  of  *eIf-oa 


a" 


n  eKcellencKi.  and  [imvaki 
cm.      They  hnv«   tuch  dolighlTul 
iililMeiioy,  tliat  it  iie«iiis  criiol  to  <Ilit- 
1  pontHU  kra  »«r)r  nsidy  lu  liecQow 
imiK  in  tho  hanik  uf.more  Lnocuit;  imnians.  In  gciicnJ. 
tli>  diwlny  i>(  tbis  poor  pusiaii  u  ouula  by  poi-un*  of 
™r¥  light  >nd  frirolaua  minds.     11  b  ««n  »l  uU  *jm 
bni  Btnlrinf  ly  iu  yootli.    Tu  •->!  a  jou'ig  perwin 
ting  or  miiiBiBg  »Ioi>b  in  n  m*  gu'inont,  er  iil 
porM)n«l  aruunent,  bimI  vriU«hing  to  »0»  if  liu  ii  n( 
and  by  wliinn,  exoitia  a  feeling  of  (tily  iinU  con) 
Thu  MU18  fMliiig  ari«m  wlieii  yoilli(t  liBtwnw  ore 
who  any  in  tb«r  monmunU,  ■•  inwIliKibly  W  tlwiigll 
tliey  Bp<ike  in  pluu  EngU^ih,  ■■  Do  tlioy  no!  Lliiuk  " 
rery  handsoni*— »l«giio3j  drewwl-*  olanuipg  figi 
—  inml   escoediuBly  gmcoftil  I"      la   tomu   inuUu 
looki^n-on  do  ihiiik  XD,  nod  unilx  uuuMiUptUoudy  M 
the  umc  tints.    But,  in  geuenil,  liHikDrs^n  toe  no  iw*- 

;  (hoakiug  to  liioiits  Tularit*  of  vuiily  to  kdc 

..  ThBj  do  BO-  t»l«nia  wMod.  ti' 

r>..li-h  lioprB,  and  *B'ti  >l«>iv<i.    Tluiy  do  Bee  ttuii 
liiir]i»ii>w  nf  ilh  uri-  tiii«iioili'ra(oad  ur  ptiFrtirted, 
thorn  Mj.wmedy  fi>i'  IIiwib  foUiw!     Koou,  pmbi 
unlun  one  would  bring  Iwine  to  Uie  mjnda  .i(  Ihs  ■ 
thai  tliey  vinlBln  Ibo  alruiigeil  (irecept  laid  ^o""  >( 
Borfo  nt  naturtl  la*  for  ihe  govBrmnoiit  <if  perauii 
dividiiBlly  Mill  doeiftlly.    Thm  pnHTHpt  iHHUiiuuida  t 
m  to  cunduol  iIu-iiihIviw  in  bII  tilings,  u  to  tr 
thBnnwIvc*  lo  ecir-rrupcol,  Mid,  cnnwqueutly,  tu 
rnfK'Ct  oT  othen.   If  tlie  viua  mold  coiicuiv*  how  ndoII 
U  iMFtioii  (liay  msJiv  ut  onMlsd  being,  how  iaBiguiflcitnt 
B  |iiin  thuy  mulie  of  oitiliwit  BOeioly,  hfW  idbiij  tlloiw 
■ro  intli>iBac!wty,whuw|>nilBDBk>iul,if  UMrted,nuulil 
be  traiiao'iiilrniiy  BiiiHTiur  U>  their  uwn,  ih«y  might, 
porhapt,  diwiiw  ttaeii  bllla  lanitiM,  and  dsvMe  Ilisn 
■nl»M  rn  [rTilianltnnnrTirtiy  nf  r^-i-  rlrrl-j  ~"— 


Iha  pBtnni  of  ti 


,1.11,, » 

hinueitvherc  lie  ia.     Sii)i||'ihi  tins  . 
quent  aGknowliHlgDiflDt  ul  iiin  buuiity, 
iwlf  uur^uBlilied  praise  for  liis 
Ihiii  tho  uUip'd  pnrly  finil:>  I 
and  alinnnC  wialim  tlmi  Ix'  ii: 


l«ilr.> 


at  iiioialy  aro  undar  no  ohl^galiaDa  to  wrii 
and  that,  if  they  do  confer  Uwin,  IIm  MMfd 
maiwtor  If  he  .ia  iMt~-KhaH  W*  ba** 
inteiidnj,  Uur  tliiU  there  is  ant  lul*  bf  <l>k< 
IB  to  be  manifoaUHl.  Wo  ibink  that  VMIf » 
•OcielyU  tads  what  cfB-HailnicwiiaaillBrti 
Mands  in  need  df  iL  lleiaimt  tnrfc^toaM 
oateutate  how  h*  ta  tu  Im  |ud  far  (t.  H*  h 
paid  by  the  puly  IfMllwd  dtnaly,  boi  ^aa 
BOd  In  anuie  otber  wid  wwipiKIrd  W~  Wl 
eoHrBTB  favours,  opnn  Ml  aeeouni  nib  ikB  da 
ebauooa  and  MeiduiU  «f  Ufa:.  liwcnrfit«^ 
wdl  la  tiifl  rluM.  If  he  «eirfN'  a  Earau,k 
buuiuMi  hn  thiiika  )»  wa  and  <m|Ebt  M  *i  k 
Ifau  pitamtti  <if  doing  il.  If  he  whba  !•■ 
OttllctiunufiiiKmttludi^hehaauljrtaaiiaih 
party  oUieDd  kuow,  nniiinm— nil).  whMid 
MiDfs.  Wheu  ■.bvuur  i*  dou^  ^fwlyai 
it  ukea  on  lilnudlf  tlia  duly  «f  inp  i  ri^  *t 
•if  IliD  humau  htMl  nliiali  wfuuidnl  in  no* 
late,  and  v  bioh  U  •utitlMl  IB  rvifiHt— Ibat  iiV  t 
muvrholuu  had Uf  mi^furtvH* to  U  kfi^^t 
ilimk  thtn  for  Iht grtl\fit»titim^ himvktpt. 


ed  by  tlio  itiiutiM  m% 
!t  uf  Uiit  pari;  wlw  WM  aoltlM  I*  ^i 

I  occur,  uuuauBail,  th*  daappointaljl 
I  llnd  .1  lieltvr  i>ub)«!t  in  hu  ntU  ^mf 


l-hi>  ia  a  iwuToU  urirnai  1.  ItiB  a  biwAd 
kw,  otdiviKu  Uw,  aud  uT  Ibn  implied  Ik*  da 
mlation  to  (bv  parly  apokMi  ul|  3.  ll  s  •  I 
IliOBaDie  law,  iu  rtluiun  b     ' 

been  conummly  Innted  o: 


lice.)  il 


the 


icLts  of  life,  and  fur  i 
you  tiappcn  to  be  il 

able  tp  your  tiiniily  oonnexiuiH  ano  awoaaa 
nuki'  haity  nnd  tniuhluome  judt^vnla,  ■Uik) 
la  rescind  or  n.-runn ;  if  you  hajiprn  to  be^fi 
your  deporlniDiii,  and  rsmarkablufor  itliiriirt 
I'illiug  to  haVL'  Uieae  things  <vt  uA  lit 
'  conipuny,  l)y  any  one  vriio  koamfl 
Suppo&D  (liure  to  be  only  tome  Blight  Wmt 
one  or  more  of  Iheaa  things,  Hinch,tffi 
an  opportunity  Iu  oIpLuI^  nusM  k*i 
.'d  up,  are  you  willing  to  hai'i;  tlial  (lifhta 
nuule  Ihe  bkain  of  a  Btnictun:  of  ropnadh.  ■ 
iiirt  rt-al,  ciujthl  to  expel  yon  froio  daMMi 
.-.    tli...   :.>  Iju  nofuundauon  aialllicM 


uUtiug,  iba^ 
<  In  yni  I    nk 

lake  amv  iM 


'ulLvlil'     Dm1»M«* 

Ih.'  undanundl    Al 


iv.i  yon  bn.ki'nany  l»»bylb"* 
■■'■'/ '■""""■a- fur  *ou. 
'uIk.'ii  I'Vc'ir   Uw  which  u  a^ 
11,   aud  a   rational    iDdi>iilaL  i 


Tbcuieauijr;(  ijthin 


Ki  l«,  ilini  the  mrmbin:*    i 


THE  PRIVATE  DUTIES  OF  LII^E. 


is,  And  havo  forfeited  your  own,  if  3rou  ever  had 
You  have  shown  that  you  are  a  stranger  to  self- 
«t ;  that  you  have  probably  every  one  of  the  fauhs, 
•^  and  errors,  which  you  impute  to  others ;  and 
a  to  bring  them  down  to  your  own  level.  Thus 
kaive  broken  that  law  which  commands  you  to  do 
H  to  yourself.  2.  You  have  violated  that  principle 
ifcural  law  which  commands  you  to  do  no  injustice 
Lar  fellow-nicn.  You  know  not  what  opinions  you 
antertain  of  the  party  you  have  slandered,  if  cir- 
K.ances  (as  they  may)  should  bring  you  into  con- 
si  with  him.  You  may  find  him  to  be,  on  a  better 
Sedge  of  him,  an  amiable  and  worthy  person.  You 
Snd  all  that  you  have  said,  and  helped  to  circulate, 
iy  groundless.  If  he  bo  one  whom  you  occasionally 
»  and  even  ask  to  partake  of  your  hospitality,  how 
irou  meet  him,  and  manifest  towards  him  every 
Dnent  of  respect  and  esteem,  when  you  have  so 
sm  of  him  I     One  of  two  things  must  bo  true : 

V  you  act  a  /i>,  when  you  meet  him  in  such  a  man- 
or you  spoke  a  lie,  when  you  represented  him  as 

ltd  to  others.  3.  You  have  broken  the  law  of  God. 
ais  law,  perhaps,  you  are  a 'stranger,  and  know  not 
>  wrong  you  have  done.  If  so,  the  kindest  thing 
amy  one  can  do  you  is,  to  urge  you  to  find  out  what 

and  to  learn  there  the  sentence  of  the  nhinderer. 

may  be  asked,  whether  one  is  to  be  entirely  silent 
LI  times,  and  on  all  occasions,  as  to  the  character 

conduct  of  otliera  I  Certainly  not.  There  are 
gr  occasions  for  speaking  of  others,  and  for  speak- 
Jie  iruih  of  them,  whatever  that  may  be.  All  the 
ibers  of  any  community  are  interested  in  knowing 
»ae  character  of  each  other.  The  knowledge  that 
character  may  be  known,  is  one  of  the  most  salu- 

eorrectives  of  erroneous  conduct,  and  one  of  the 
Dgest  inducements  to  pursue  that  which  is  com- 
wl>le.  It  is  probably  the  case,  that  the  members 
^sry  community  are  pretty  well  understood  by  all 

have  an  interest  in  knowing  them.  We  know  not 
Ay  law  which  holds  it  to  be  immoral  to  speak  the 
h  q/"  any  one^  from  good  motives,  and  for  justijiabie 
r.  It  is  all-important  that  this  principle  should  prc- 

in  our  country,  where  so  much  depends  on  public 
lioD.  Surely  one's  arms  are  not  to  be  folded,  and 
lipt  closed,  when  he  sees  one  bent  on  mischief,  pub- 
3r  private.  It  may  be  one  of  the  highest  moral 
■M  to  declare  what  men  are,  and  what  they  are 
iog  at,  in  many  HU])posablc  cases.    There  can  be  no 

V  suide  than  the  motive  and  the  end.  Inquiries  are 
Himes  made,  in  matters  of  greater  or  less  interest, 
lining  others,  confidentially,  and  where  the  in- 
fir  needs  to  be  truly  informed.  The  party  inquired 
^  a  right  to  be  silent,  if  he  thinks  he  has  good 
^11  to  be  so  ;  but  if  he  answer,  he  is  bound  to  state 
Ktith.  If  he  choose  to  speak,  and  wilfully  conceal 
t^th,  so  that  the  inquirer  is  deceived,  he  subjects 
elf  to  the  imputation  of  an  intentional  deceiver. 
'€»re  may  be  also,  and  there  frequently  are,  con- 
tial  discussions  of  character,  especially  concerning 
c  men,  and  where  pcrha])s  there  is  no  particular 
ti  view.  This  does  not  seem  to  bo  wrong ;  such 
Course  is  not  founded  in  malicious  or  unworthy 
''OS.  It  is  even  sometimes  instructive  and  philo- 
^^.     TluH,  perhaps,  is  the  extreme  limit.     In  all 

*  imaginable  coses,  it  is  probably  most  consistent 
one's  own  sclf-i'espcet,  and  all  truly  respectable 

i^vs,  to  let  other  persons  alone,  and  leave  to  them 
^rc  of  their  own  characters. 

PROFASin'. 

^cepting  the  high  crimes  which  are  punishable  by 

*  Ublic  laws,  there  is  no  one  so  shocking  as  profanity, 
^ny  one  which  there  is  so  llttlu  inducement  to  com- 

Profanu  swearing  is  of  two  kinds :  1.  That  in 
li  the  Deity  is  called  on  to  do  the  pleasure  of  a 
^Yig  mortal ;  2.  That  in  which  the  Deity  is  called  on 
It&eas  the  truth  of  such  a  being's  thoughtless  or 
«d  declarations.  This  common  practice  can  be 
^ntod  for  chiefly  on  two  grounds :  I.  Pitiable  igno- 

G21 


ranee ;  2.  Abominable  wickedness.  On  the  first  ground, 
surely  the  profane  swearer  must  bo  ignorant  of  the 
import  of  the  terms  w^ich  he  uses.  If  ho  did  under- 
stand his  own  words,  he  would  be  struck  with  horror. 
Surely,  if  there  be  any  escape  for  the  i>rofane  from  that 
condemnation  which  they  imprecate  on  others,  it  roust 
be,  that  mercy  will  be  extended  to  them  in  compassion 
for  their  ignorance.  On  the  otlier  hand,  iC  they  are  not 
ignorant,  but  do  knowingly  and  wilfully  so  misuse  tho 
gift  of  an  immortal  mind,  and  that  unqucstiouublo  proof 
of  Divine  power  and  goodness,  the  adiiity  to  speak,  they 
cannot  be  subjects  of  moral  instructiou.  They  should 
be  left,  like  the  consumers  of  alcohol  and  tobacco,  to 
shock  and  to  warn  otliers. 

Swearing,  which  formerly  pervaded  every  rank  of 
society,  is  now  to  be  chiefly  found  in  a  very  low  and 
uninstructed  class:  it  is,  in  fact,  a  vulgar  and  pro- 
scribed mode  of  speech.  Nevertheless,  it  is  still  used 
occasionally  by  persons  of  no  humble  rank,  especially 
by  the  young,  though  chiefly  for  the  purpose  of  giving 
an  emphasis  to  speech,  or  perhaps  simply  to  give  token 
of  a  redundancy  of  spirits,  and  a  high  state  of  excite- 
ment. To  those  who  are  guilty  of  it  for  these  rt'as<ms, 
it  is  only  necessary  to  point  out,  that  no  well-iuformeil 
person  can  be  at  the  least  loss,  with  the  genuine  words 
of  the  English  language,  to  express  all  legitimate  ideas 
and  feelings,  and  that  to  use  either  profane  or  slang 
words,  is,  at  tho  very  least,  the  indication  of  a  low  taste 
and  an  inferior  understanding.  A  direct,  pure,  manly 
use  of  our  native  language,  is  an  object  which  all  may 
cultivate  in  a  greater  or  less  degree;  and  we  have 
invariably  observed,  through  life,  that  tho  most  vir- 
tuous persons  are  tho  mo8t  exempt  from  the  use  of 
mean  and  ridiculous  phraseology,  and  monkey  tricks  of 
all  kinds. 

Does  not  one  who  is  habitually  profane,  necessarily 
entertain  a  low  ojiinion  of  himself  {  Would  any  respec- 
table merchant,  or  mechanic,  or  farmer,  receive  into  hiti 
service  a  youth  whom  he  knew  to  be  a  profane  swearer ! 
Could  any  one  who  is  known  to  be  such,  find  admission 
into  any  school,  academy,  seminary,  or  college !  Would 
any  rcHpcctable  parent  admit  such  an  one  to  be  a  com- 
panion of  his  children,  or  a  visitant  in  his  family! 
Would  not  every  reasoning  person  say,  that  a  youth 
who  is  so  ignorant  as  not  to  know  that  swearing  is  a  vio- 
lation of  natural  and  divine  law,  mustybe  ignorant  enough 
not  to  know  that  there  are  many  other  laws  for  tho 
proper  government  of  society,  and  consequently  tliat  ho 
is  an  unsafe  person  to  bo  trusted  t  If  the  profanity  be 
the  consecjuence  of  voluntary  wickedness,  then  surely 
all  reflecting  persons  would  say,  that  he  who  is  wicked 
in  this  respect,  is  indeed  wicked ;  but  then  he  will  be 
wicked  in  others  also.  For,  as  there  is  one  chain  which 
runs  through  all  the  virtues,  and  binds  them  in  a  sym- 
pathetic union,  so  also  Is  there  a  chain  which  unites  all 
the  vices.  He  who  swears,  may  be  justly  suspected  of 
drinking ;  he  who  swears  and  drinks,  may  be  justly  sus- 
pected of  gaming ;  he  who  swears,  and  drinks,  and 
games,  must  keep  very  bud  company  by  day  and  by 
night.  He  who  keeps  such  company  from  such  motives, 
must  squander  his  own  property,  or  steal  tlmt  of  some- 
body else  to  expend.  He  who  robs  another  will  commit 
forger}',  and  he  who  is  so  desperate  as  to  commit  these 
two  latter  crimes,  will  not  hesitate  long  to  put  a  human 
being  out  of  the  way  of  his  pressing  wants,  if  he  is 
tempted  to  do  it.  It  is  probable  that  habitual  lying 
and  swearing  are  the  first  ste])s  in  that  mournful  series 
of  crimes,  and  the  first  beginnings  in  the  course  of  de- 

Elorable  wretchedness,  which  deform  and  disgrace 
uman  society.  Will  any  one  maintain  that  these  are 
necessary  evils,  and  that  God  has  so  made  man  that  they 
cannot  be  prevented?  Surely  these  are  evils  wholly  of 
human  origin;  and  where  Uiey  begin,  there  lies  the 
power  to  extirpate  them. 

F.NVV. 

It  is  to  be  kept  in  view,  tliat  the  main  object  is  to 
show  that  this  is  a  good  sort  of  existence,  if  man  knew 
how  to  use  it,  and  that  bo  is  the  author  of  his  own  af- 


o|*«Tativ«-  rraii^!  of  thft  iiiivry  which  iii**n  iiiflict  UfKjQ 
tli<'rii-#'lv«'H  an'I  itu  t-sir.U  oth#rr.  If  one  lian  not  lime  to 
r«"a'l  hi»iory,an'l  w;tti;li  liin  f-1  low-men,  ho  may  pwrhaps 
Jnarn  rinifrli  of  what  )io  would  find  in  tiicso  authorities, 
hy  rra'iintf  hi.i  otrn  henrt. 

']  lift  wi*ifl  riivy  v.ituuH  from  two  Latin  words,  in  and 
aulio^  and  M^\\iYi*-\i  ItHfkmy  ar/aifmt,  1:  ariH*.*s  from  per- 
C'Tiviii^f  ill  oflirr  [ifrmmH,  r|naiiti«'.<f  which  one*»  own  frclf- 
Ifivi'  |<  iid<«  hirii  to  wiixh  to  liavf — an  beauty,  Btnmi^th, 
jfra«!»',  ]«-ariim^,  <'lo<jii«-ncp,  power,  Ac.  It  extends  to 
rich'-M,  to  officf',  to  diHtiiictioii,  to  the  respect  and  esteem 
in  wliirh  ori<;  in  h«-ld  hy  his  fellow-men,  and  even  to 
hirth  iind  anccKlry.  it  rnakf.ii  one  iorrp  that  he  has 
not  tli<-N4?  giH>d  thin;;'',  and  makes  him  angry  that  others 
havf  tlicrn.  One  eanily  piTHuades  hiniM'If  that  great 
injiMtire  iH  done  to  him,  in  that  he  has  tliem  not.  The 
next  Hti'p  iM  to  hate  him  who  hafl  them.  Then  comes  the 
deMire  Ut  di-prive  the  huppoHfMl  fortunate  iwssessor  of 
tlie  Ix-nefit  of  them.  Uut  to  admit  that  one  han  these 
nnili|;naiit  iiromi>tinf;«i,  in  contrary  to  another  principle 
of  fu'jf-lovr ;  aiitl  tluTrfore  no  man  tellit  another  of  his 
own  envy, and  he  iricHto  wrap  it  up  from  his  own  view. 
An  he  cannot  and  dare  iKit  openly  manifest  that  he  is 
cnviouN,  he  nnrnt  ohey  the  NU^^f^eHtions  of  malice  in  the 
dfirk.  IIc>  therefore  intri«;ueH,  inHinuat<M,  and  becomes 
adroit  in  jtnttin;;  one  tiling  for  anoth<>r  ;  he  secretly  and 
by  covert  means  und('rniin(*H  the  object  of  his  hatred, 
lie  whiMpepH  hiHdoubtM,  KiiHpic.ions,  opinionH,  and  belii.'f. 
If  the  ti-niire  of  the  hated  object  is  too  strong  to  bo 
Hhuken,  then  the  l».id  use  which  he  makes  of  hisadvan- 
tn;;eH  are  Hiu;{ht  out.  The  buHO  accompaniments  of  his 
fine  (jualiiieH  are  brouj;lit  forth,  and  placed  in  the 
Mroiii;i*Nt  li^ht.  "She  ih  beautiful;  but  she  is  vain, 
linn^lity,  and  hilly.  lie  is  rich  ;  but  he  got  his  wealth  by 
fniiidH,  iind  hoanU  it  like  a  miser.  He  is  able,  eloquent, 
and  popiilur ;  but  he  is  KeltiHh  and  inhincere,  and  would 
put  a  yoke  on  every  neck  in  the  c(»untry  if  ho  could. 
Ill*  in  nnikiuK  a  ^r(>at  flourish  in  the  world;  but  it  ix  all 
fulM*  and  hollow — he  camo  from  nothing,  and  will  go 
Imck  to  nothinj;/*  It  nuiy  In;  easily  inferred  that  one 
who  liHM  Hurrendered  liimHclf  to  the  dominion  of  envy, 
not  only  deprives  hiniHclf  of  tlio  profitaldu  uso  of  what 
he  hsN  or  miKJit  have,  but  makes  himself  wretched  in 
ciinteniplatini;  mIuU  he  muHt  know  he  cannot  have:  he 


place  for  even  enry  to  find  tomethiaj 
Is  not  this  a  fair  example  of  wtat 
in  all  grades  and  classes  <tf  loeial  lifS 
pa.«^fli<in  of  enrr,  earth-bom,  miaeliM 
What  u  the  remedy!  Common  seni 
point  out  the  remedy.  GeoeraUj 
member  in  society  is  just  as  much  ii 
he  is  in  his  own  skin.  No  one  cai 
place.  Kvery  one  has  his  place  orij 
him,  and  his  natural  condition  in  i 
which  he  bad  no  control,  and  in  mal 
no  agency.  What  he  will  make  oirt 
the  circumstances  in  which  he  fin 
depend  (after  the  irresponsible  state  o: 
on  his  own  thoughts,  motires,  and  i 
his  greatest  good,  not  in  repining  at 
(which  he  can  never  make  lo  be  his  i 
cannot  destroy  without  expecting  ret 
to  himself),  but  in  making  his  own  ec 
he  can,  consistently  with  self- respect  i 
That  which  is  given  to  others,  and 
lawfully  acquire,  is  righteously  their 
given  to  one's  self,  and  all  that  he  i 
like  manner  his  own.  If  he  wonld 
done  to  him  by  those  who  are  below 
no  injustice  to  those  who  are  above  hi 
no  doubt  that  the  day  will  come  whe 
iiiHtructed,  and  men  so  self-discipline 
the  laws  of  nature,  and  the  laws  of  i 
fonnable  to  these,  permit  to  erery 
place,  enjoin  duties  in  that  place,  and 
from  the  performance  of  those  duties 
comes,  envy  will  die. 

EMULAnOX. 

This  has  been  sometimes  classed  w 
have  nothing  in  common.  One  woiil< 
in  1>eing  known  to  be  envious,  but  % 
praise  to  himself  in  being  emulous, 
action  was  given  to  man  for  the  best  ] 
and  upon  the  application  of  it,  with 
and  to  commendable  ends,  the  ad  van 
welfare  mainly  depends.  We  undei 
the  desire  to  obtain  excellence  in  1 


fur.  If  the  lam  dl  uunrii,  uiil  itiw  UbcIiibk 
tUUon,  «elB  itnipKrlf  linuan,  rnkpoclfal,  imil 

\h»  eianaxaD  mua  <^  IiiijiiIciihI*  wniiii  Ciu'dly 
irn.  For  «x«ii|i1b,  nhatn  man  Mmuutu  Ihaa 
km*  ol  thn  wratlinr  1  il  i>  tna  bcC  i«  rold,  ••! 
It  b  eM  (ulure  ihM  tnialollii*  tiuaa  Uin  ni*- 
jt  iranKlveii.  Tba  moviDuniB  nl  iliv*'"'''  u^ 
'Una,  utd  Ihi  bimpnnnii'i'i  <>!  l.iili.  in.  ..'t-jI  m 
raatuiil  anivnrul  liiv.  ,    irf 


il  >'i  •ilnlil  OUT" 
uiiy,    Wh»i  «i  I 


HKUli,  U  *acli  I)     ^ 

jvii  of  wbtt  U  lic*I  I     \Vh>'ii  <iii»  In  •.■cntinn 

a  UM  >  bmuil  ur  Mick  al  unilnr,  wbkta  lut*  iMim 

Mt  wlih  tbn  grvuiul  for  •  coitoin  luifUi  irf  line 

irte  kttd  fUM  lo  flight  lamilin,  dumumiUi**,  uui 

uiiotu  of  liTing  tnings.    Mao  may  bit  moob  la 

w  NUtiua  wM  ^nnnU  bi«*{ual  maant  NvbiM 

prehonilV  fs  whiib  tlram  iniiwta  at«  aa  ilw  t«- 

or  limr  ravrrini:. 

3  &[|  esuii**  (J  io<)uirtuc(*  irwine  frimh  (!"•  npc^- 

dT  ii»lurt>'»  Uw^  ill  whioh  Imniirr. 

u,  tliwj  tuiul  bi  riitbl,  ii!ibi"^Ji 
iirilciiEA  tu  (nillvlilaalL  A*  to  1 1 1  ' 
rolliWDwbkh  affcn  DK,  Hunn  i^u 
ud  ana»eT«d  bcfani  cna  eon   t  i 

|lMUljh~WlulbUianalOBIIWQl»iir>:iili<)iUi'>I| 

<t  the  Bist  (*a)t  arias  tnnn  loms  kot  iv  oin»Mo> 
own  I  Dn  WE  jndpi  rnMn&bly  sf  ttiv  intipiiiwd 
I  Da  wa  nulla  choriMbls  oUowucv  for  iba  ini» 
«iuii>ti  wbiuh  mn'  nAWl  tb*  ptny  numiibMnMl 
liwi  Ibn  iiutuiatuil*  HriiM*  frum  our  own  •tv/mt^ 
■arul)  db>|K»iti(ui,  tfuui  ciur  D<*n  inliaHiMtuM, 
me*,  or  brtacb  of  Uw*,  vbidi  «u  could  Iuum  ff 
lid,  the  rsinedf  Uri  tn  bcMuniiig  tnacr  utd  biUitr, 
3i«  WKHiahle  ta  Inuiiing  buw  no  nmj  oiitkc  wf 
U  vluDh  it  wu  intirndpd  lo  be.  (rhmi  n*  lue  it  aa 
■uld.  Lit  any  naaaioblu  bwiog  Innli  basli  uii  hi* 
(t,  wid  calnilj'  i-inuiidvr  lli*  tvwM  of  bit  oim 
tioin,  iU-wtU,  and  uilbhniiF,  In  budy  and  mbidl 
lanj-  of  Ihcao  can  ha  (airl;  laf  to  thu  blain*  at  Hm 
ir"*  tatn,  of  natiin'i  lavri,  or  tliiwa  of  mcnrl]^ 
w  poallive  o(  iiKpIii^l  it  lo  ibna  bo  can  ebt>ao 
rj  fb«,  y/bm  but  biniMlf  la  tluie  Id  Uk»  tba  raal- 

Wo  bare  ki 

■dad.  It  <Dtnaa  tram  anticr  cxnilMMn  Uiat  lbs 
ir  baa  inula  hia  nwu  Ian  for  hit  ouu  uiiiitnv ; 
■  ni|td»a  miiforni)!;  to  ih-^aa  lawn ;  liiat  bo  fsi^ 
■       '  '       -"^  <-.-..       j^j  ^i^j  iwt\ 


Uld  eniidna  iha  OHt  ri(  what  ia  ( 
la  intiuihM  all  tbiU  ■•  ««•»■  t 


oinbii^aisVi'WU. 


J 


would  learn  that  no  woalth  will  exempt  any  man  fi*om 
earning;  an  appetite  for  his  pleasures  by  physical  motion ; 
that,  ii'he  is  tired  of  being  rich  and  happy,  Jie  must  work 
to  accomplirh  some  reasonable  purpose.  His  distinction 
Ib,  that  he  may  choose  the  means  in  which  he  will  expend 
to  be  bu»y,  while  others  can  only  work  in  some  prescribed 
mode  to  live. 

The  middle  clusscp,  and  all  who  are  not  dcpendently 
poor,  hav<i  as  many  and  :i8  valuable  sources  of  enjoy- 
ment as  those  have  whom  they  think  to  be  better  off 
tlian  thcmselvcH.     They  can  love  and  be  loved ;  they 
can  be  respected  and  esteemed  ;  they  can  have  the  con- 
sciousness of  behaving  well,  where  their  lot  has  been 
cast ;  they  haveja  far  keener  zest  for  natural  and  reason- 
able pleasure  than  those  who  misuse  the  bounties  of 
accidental  condition  ;  they  can  have  peace  of  mind  when 
it  is  denied  to  those  whom  they  deem  more  fortunate. 
If  these  natural  laws,  which  seem  to  be  to  plain  and 
obvious,  were  understood  and  respected,  the  labourers 
in  mind,  in  all  their  varied  employments,  would  do 
diligently,  and  in  the  best  nianner  in  their  power,  that 
which  tliey  have  undertaken.     Men  of  public   trust 
would  do  honestly,  and  with  a  single  view  to  their  trust, 
that  which  they  have  undta'taken.     Suppose  it  were  all 
so,  and  yet  troubles  and  disappointments  come.     This 
may  be,  and  yet  there  would  be  peace  of  mind.    If  every 
one  were  assured  that  no  act,  no  omission  of  his  own, 
makes  him  sutfer,  that  ho  has  acted  faithfully  and 
honestly,  and  to  the  best  of  his  ability,  in  the  eireum- 
Btauces  in  which  he  was  placed,  he  would  be  entitled  to 
have,  and  by  the  law  of  imnmtable  justice,  he  would 
have,  p€ac€  of  mind, 

iiArriNFSs. 

'i'here  is  no  word  in  our  language  more  commonly 
used,  nor  any  one  less  defined  or  less  understood.  It 
is  mimetimes  taken  to  mean  pleasurable  sensations 
derived  through  the  senses;  sometimes  it  means  a 
peculiar  state  of  mind.  It  may  be  said  that  a  pirate 
who  has  been  brought  to  the  most  perfect  penitence, 
and  who  is  sensible  that  he  has  forfeited  his  life  to  the 
demands  of  justice,  and  that  he  is  about  to  bo  trans- 
ferre<l  from  tlic  perplexities  and  sufferings  of  this  state 
of  being  to  endless  felicity,  is  happy  that  lie  is  going  to 


causes  of  mortification  and  sorrow. 

hend,  do  not  seriously  disturb  any  w< 

when  there  is  a  consciousness  that  i 

sight  or  prudence  would  have  diacer 

the  cause.     Perfect  happinGi*s  in  U 

ever  bo  remember^,  is  not  to  be  ( 

happiness  that  we  can  really  attain  oi 

contented  tranquillity  of  mind  und 

and   changes  of  this  mortal  life. 

called  the  happy  medium ;  aiid  tliis 

in  all  Imman  arrangements.    Ue  moc 

For  example,  to  take  no  amusemen 

prives  the  mind  of  needful  rest  a 

likewise  it  is  bad  to  be  altogether  gt 

ment,  for  tlien  all  serious  objects  are 

true  plan  is  to  tiike  amusement  in  n 

minds  have  never  awakened  to  a  taste 

the  imitative  arts,  and  music,  and  th< 

pleasure  which  others  enjoy :  again, 

whom  nature  has  implanted,  and  \ 

strong  a  predilection  for  these  thtngi 

a  vice.     To  be  very  much  in  societ, 

riorate  the  human  chiiraeter,  making 

incapacitating  it  for  taking  abstract  ai 

on  the  other  hand,  a  perfectly  aolitar 

mind,  lays  it  oi)en  to  odd  fancies  an« 

not  to  hypochrondia,  and  ends  in  a 

altogether  throwing  it  from  its  balan 

is  hei*o  also  found  alone  salutary.    ' 

gay,  in  a  world  when.^  so  nuuiy  evils 

every  step,  and  so  many  onerous  tl 

attention,  is  wrong :  so  is  it  to  be  alwa 

that  the  world  also  contains  the  ni 

happiness.     What  is  proper  is,  that  m 

to  rejoice  and  mourn  in  moderation  o 

occasions.     Finally,  one  may  feel  ai 

abide  by  these  moderate  desires,  and 

to  be  reasonably  busy  to  some  good 

conduct  himself  as  to  be  justly  entitled 

bation,  and  if  he  live  in  the  habitus 

there  is  an  omnipresent,  omniscient,  ai 

of  moral,  accountable,  and  immortal 

tainly  be  happy.        

NoTK.— The  mnttor of  this  ^Ilc^•t  has  hofti  < 


fLTDcediUB.    la  thb  Met  lii*  lui|ioituit  •■•ral 
r  aauiiniil  8rcatii««i,  Ciuir  «ronltlii  Uiolr  ^lilla 


ouig  retpitttolhc  ].:  '  i£mu* 

•ut  obvdittiic"  IkiUi  tu  lliw  It'tWi'  anii  lit*  tpiril  of 
4,  diiM  But,  hnWtitDr,  Uoplf  Itai  w*  ■Imuld  nol 
c  whelhw  ibey  oib  Id  aTCTj  mpcct  ka*imtliia 
fnnnt  ooodiiion  of  utflety,  nor  keep  otttma 
}g  to  1^1  taeva  K  luvu  Ihvni  coTTFciod,  or 
1IT  ratomdod.  Dm  ooiutitution  poinU  ml  linw 
:o  Ihi  daiit.  ll  in  Ul*)c»l  lo  ciinapir*  wwrvlly  in 
■ow  tli»  Uw.  All  nrnurtk  nlniLilL-it  lf>  Imprtitu 
a*!  cundltion  moot  1m  caniJaMFd  opi-iil;  xai 
My.  TIiD  iDMiiB  pill  into  our  buidx  by  Iha 
lltuii  ftir  ii«pn)Vliig  Uii-  luw  KM  rtry  {WWvrBiI, 
lull  irilh  dtocrslioli.  TliD  froflB  bkVF  tho  Blt- 
BDt  ol  ibe  men  wbo  eoiuiltute  lJi>  miot  indiiRtiUAl 
of  ilw  Irgulntur* ;  if  Ihry  in  not  uppi'lni  inili- 
wbn  will  ni«!(  tbcir  \lnr*  villi  ragird  CO  DOT- 
or  ilxituliiiiit  laiTH,  lliry  tmta  tJu-uiirltn  In 
'"  c'lifiav  apon  Ifacm  o  tllnm;  af 

line.-'        ■■    ■--'■ -        ■     - 

•  the  Irelalnti      . 

<u  of  anv  law  which  U  ileemril  i>ppT«Ml*a  Bt 
JaL     TtiU  tight  givca  »  MH  •dilition  ta  lb* 

jt  il,L'  |.<w.p(f       It  I-  <.(  mu-li  Krrfllcr  naim  lh»ti 


CHAMBERS'S  INFOEMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


II  tile  bxtt  Ttmk  uf  llidi 


men's  minds  arc  eii1i);hUDed  snil  wnrmad,  nnd  tlic 
public  opinion  nwioirBS  a  dtgree  of  moral  force,  any 
resistance  to  which  would  be  useleafl.  II  is  not  without 
reuOD,  IbeKforc,  that  tho  pi?u|>Ie  at  this  country  Bet  bo 

high  a  vnlueou  the  right  to  BBsemhlB  ft"  ■'•*  '■ ■  ■" 

of  public  oflkin,  wid  place  it  "    *'■ "  "- 
cotwlitntiaul  prerogatives. 

BeadcB  jiridiug  uliedicncc  to  the  esisling  lawa,  we 
uo  under  a  collateml  obligation  to  be  loyal  lo  tho  sove- 
reign who  rules  over  ua.  Loynltjr  is  hence  ■□othei'  of 
ouv  chief  public  diiliea.  There  is  Eomo  differBnce  of 
opinion  with  regard  to  what  extent  loyaltpr  ought  lo  be 
carried.  It  appeals  to  oh  tliat  this  is  a  aimido  matter. 
A  power  to  proteot  ihe  nitiuu  from  foreign  insult,  and 
to  preserve  the  internal  peace  o(  tho  country,  mini  be 
lodged  tQnuttthere.  tt  is  found  to  be  nioet  convenient 
to  lodge  it  in  iho  liands  of  oao  person,  under  proper 
rcctHclione.  In  Great  Btitaiu,  as  will  be  Been  in  our 
history  of  tliat  country,  it  has  beea  placed  in  tlie  pos- 
session of  a  hereditary  prtnca  oc  lung.  Thifl  person  is 
entitled  our  ruler  or  soveieign;  wo  are  termed  his 
subjects.  Loyally  aignxlies  a  lidolily  and  willingnecs  iu 
serving  the  king,  so  that  he  m»y  bo  enabled  both  to 
protect  the  nolioB  froni  outward  harm,  anJ  to  preserve 
order  in  society,  through  the  agency  ot  the  laws,  or, 
failing  them,  lliiongli  the  ap|ilic»lJon  of  force.  Seeing 
that  Uie  sovereign  is  prevented  by  the  conatitnlion  from 
infringing  upon  the  rights  of  tho  subject,  through  Ihe 
exercise  ef  his  power,  it  ia  diseovered  that  lojTilly  is 
rswarded  in  the  comfort  we  eujoy ;  or,  to  use  another 
exprcaaion,  Belf-inteceat  alone,  if  no  nobler  seiitimei 
interfere,  would  lead  us  to  afford  assistance  to  Ibo  king 
in  the  execution  of  his  high  and  imparunt  trust.  This 
>e  ia  demonstrated,  net  only  by  penonal  servioe, 
ut  by  respect.  Loyally  nuiy  be  greatly 
teem  for  the  privMe  virtues  and  conduct 
•oTsraisn.  -  When  so  inBaenewli  It  is  eerlaialy 
in  amiable  and  eovnaendable  ieelin^,  and 
but  in  ill-regulated  niinde,  degeneralu  iiilo  eei 


ive  ia  liidgp'l  in  nn  elective  jiresident,  (ha  people  call 
loy.ilty  to  the  sovereign,  tliey  term  duly  lo  111 


and  msgtsliales,  ud  supp>rl  tlinr  dw  CMI 
personal  influence.    n<rverlh<dc«,  it  ■  ii 

Jower,  when  they  fed  tlienuelvn  i^M 
ecisiuns,  to  appeal  to  higher  aiilbsDBBl 
drees ;  such  hciDg  the  only  mewu  aibinUi  I 
constitution,  iu  oppouag  the  logal  ponr  tf  k 
blialied  courts  of  Civil  ao4  criminal  jarispiahM 
A  becoming  obedience  tD  the  Ian,  lodi  p 
respect  for  the  suprvma  and  inferiei  CBurtBfct 
rities,  produooH  tlie  agreuiUe  ronlt  rf  pstal 


Hsioty,    £vei7  one  is  not 
"    tiuns  uf  the  eomn 
r  impoesible  (or  ui 
w  ibings  onlesa  i 


France,  who  disclaim  the  e 

»L-:i.l  u 

.ii,.,..i,j. 

,.,.^   V. 

1. 

be»i.re  how  we  vex  ourse 

ml 

sounds,     (.liir  duly  elcnrty 

-iating 

ho 

numerous  llessinpi  we  enjoy  in  ou 

erelitio" 

relations,  hy  whatever  na 

me  thes 

a  maj 

be 

called.     Wo  aro  each  indi 

idually  fractional 

part?  n 

fa 

great  nation,  whose  lionuu 

calleil  on 

through  good  nnd  had  rcji 
indivlduaT  virtue  can  alon 

M.     Lr 

ua  rem 

mbep  timt 

and  Ihat  bocibI  happinc3« 

nd  pcni. 

c  form  t 

ebn^i 

good 

resiiMlable  subject  or  citi 

en  ivho 

s  a  had 

hu-bnnil,  a  bad  father,  or  a 

bad  „M 

ler.    Tl 

tmlnc;m,ml,i.,nof^gr. 

fnmilio*.. 

knit  t' 

dilfert 

indeed  it  would  tx 
Imovledge  of  these  ti  ^ 
lo  the  study.  This  diilieally  in  aeqairing  ■  tat 
of  the  laws,  hassumetimee  given  rise  loabn 
jeering  aC  our  excellent  conalitn^an,  sadkk 
represented  as  cruel  to  compel  an  ohediasn' 
which  few  can  have  an  opportunity  of  Ubm^ 
this  L9  a  fallaoy  into  which  we  hopo  our  JtM^ 
will  not  fail.  The  admiDistration  of  the  CMN 
such  ns  that  which  applies  to  lubvitBDet,  Ui 
crcdilor,  and  civil  rights  generally,  rcilsnA 
of  educated  men,  or  hiwyen,  whoae  SMTltai  ■ 
times  be  commanded.  BeaidsB,  w«  mij,  ff  *■ 
purchase  digests  of  these  laws  for  our  pa** 
ment  and  instruction.  The  other  •iainpfm 
which  is  mads  applicable  to  the  pmemiia 
peaco  of  society,  an*  ona  Call  un^lstuiil,  I  < 
tho  abilily  to  Lnow  tight  leom  wrong.  TV»« 
know  that  it  'a  ill^raod  eriminal  m  ttaJ,  k 
murder,  to  break  mto  onr  neighboun'  Waa 
attack  ihelt  persona  hy  violence.  It  oa  ni 
rendbg  of  acia  of  Parliament  to  nndmlsal  ■ 
mon  acme  here  sarres  us  instead  of  irn^  ksi 
Onr  duly  in  this  matWr  ia  very  tostly  diM 
nust  aver  bear  in  niad  IhM  ona  of  tM  mW 
of  duty  whioh  the  BonBmndon  eiifi»w»>  mtt\ 
inr;  from  meddling  violently  with  ilio  ptaita  ■ 

inviolable  from  private  attack.  '  It  ia  s  am 
punishable  with  the  highest  penalty  oF  the  kSt^ 
Luy  ot;e,  either  from  an  idea  that  they  hawWij 
ir  thi'<mL;h  llie  inilueoce  of  paesion  aodplijM 
■  ■  n  iojurcd.*  ^ 
1  auihoritiis 
n  physical  ft 
■..,.f  lojing  our  lives  otfni|«g 
I  IU..  1  ,  !■.-  1  in;  then  no  lime  to  apply  taS 
imiiviU'iM.  1l  nuuld  he  gntifyini;  if  tb*a>  1^ 
noro  niiirc  generally  attended  ia  than  the;  M 
There  are  many  young  men,  it  ho,  fromwlM' 
pleased  to  term  a  love  of  fun,  but  which  OBki 
sentiment  than  a  love  uf  mischief,  orgnail 
assail  the  pemma  of  individuala  of  hoUi  «M% 
^reat  discomfort,  aud  mmetimes  bgdoub  mjK 
it  ia  clearly  illegal  to  do  so,  and  ia  geOK^j 
hy  llio  inlllclion  of  severe  peoallie*  hy  (be  O 
Irnle,  though  s'ldcim  marked  «<ith  llial  igos^ 
k  •i,-ifv-H.     liiaanmeh  as  il  is  held  that  ipi 

^m  iii%.i!i>l  ii|<iili>~y  fur  ilio  cominitblun  of  sk 
tii;a  ji'ii  V-KI-:  uiidL-r  the  inllueucc of  inloiigri 
limit.  Druiiiii-'iiiiess  ia  very  properly  eatMBlil 
t,>lion,  nulapalliation,  of  the  oOencv. 


'uiitlii  Diaries,  ulandju  ili,;  lisLt  urtuprescnl 
]  siivureigH.  'J'iio  king  cannot  be  every  »h 
Slid  ha  deputes  thece  individuals  lo  atlend 
I  ot  hiSsUb}«clB,andl<ihetp); I  unkr  in  9< 


right  of  meeting  togellicr  pnbUdjr  * 
1  connected  nilh  our  social  Cundihubi 

is  right  aod  ts»if 


ud  oliu  luM  tliB  unnfth  nf  lolnil  Id  iMkl  nit 


Iluun  at  Coounnns  (or  on  viunpie  tri  bit  loUaitA. 


CHAMBERS'S  INFOHMATIOK  FOR  THE  fBOnX. 


imble  condition,  1 


lt« 


and  thadren,  prnoni  ii  .  .      ,  . 

■lid  the  belpleta.     These  took  lo  ui  foe  pratectiou  rnnii  i  of  a  juror.     It  nqnirta  Dtf  munt  Ubb  ■  ■ 

wroojc,  uid  It  w  dor  dutj  to  afford  it  to  tfaem.     If  we, '  thinking;,  and  a  mimi   that*  liii«i    ■!■■< 

Ilicnfoiv,  Ml  with  lerity  and  UDprndeoM  in  >ppotn(iDg  '  prejudicM  or  &^i<ig«.     Tbe  JDPsr  w  »•  i^ 

mEii,  vbo,  fnHii  ihtir  eoaduct  and  chancier,  are  DiiGlted  ^  il  i>  the  jarj  nldcfa  is  (be  jmlc"  >■  1^  ^ 

to  eaerciae  tbe  imporlaal  function  of  pnblic  repraeo-    JDdgeawtio  si         -■     -        •      —  --      ' 

lalives,  *e  in  mnro  ways  lliao  one  eomn 

agaiujt  societv,  and  are  nno-orttiy  of  pof 

valuable  prerogatiiea  with  which  the  cons 

iutealed  UB. 

In  our  capacity  as  citiiens,  «e  are  frequently  called    < 
represeutatives   in  different  muo'-'— ' 


nagers  of  the  city  in  wl 


'liich  ■ 


bodiei 

rcaide,  maiugen  of  local  lrUBt« — gew  , , 
religioiu.  'rhore  is  often  much  heat  at  aoch  elFCiicnui ; 
a  petty  ^tiout  npirit  fretineiilly  governs  the  choice 
whidi  if  made :  somelimca  the  meanest  paacions  of  one 
nature  are  eiUiibited  dniing  t!>e  cunteel.  The  Dbserra- 
tions  we  have  made  on  our  duties  u  electors  gvuerally, 
apply  here  with  pteuliar  force.  As  those  who  prostnl 
ihemsclvcB  a* candidates  liifeamon^'t  un,  we  can  nevci 
find  any  ditScnlty 
qnalitications.    Bat  we 

away  by  prirale  feolinga;  we  must  not  give  ou 
■imply  because  the  candidate  is  an  aoqoaiutan 
oonaideration  for  tchal  ii  bal  for  the  public  i 
^Quld  in  every  eaee  govern  ua;  and  ue  should 
afraid  lo  let  Iheae  our  sentimcnls  be  known,  fo 
EL>c  DO  honourable  man  offence. 


«of 

.  and  such 

deelor«,  after  that  of 

is  soundneH  of  judg- 


eleetiom  of  members  of  i 
like  bodies,  the  chief  mei 
good  and  reapeclable  cbai 
ment,  and  after  that,  acti' 
tine  speaking,  or  eloquent  , 

fnactionary,  and  ahould  he  esteemed  very  lightly.  That 
which  ia  required  is  a  pnwcr  of  tfatnking  coolly,  an 
integrity  of  )itirpose,  aod  a  willingnesa  aud  ability  in 
takiug  a  share  of  the  burdenMimo  duties  to  bo  per- 
fonned.  Our  qualiScationt  as  electors,  perhaps,  render 
W  liable  lo  be  ounelvea  eleel*^  In  the  ereo^  Ihve- 
foTe,  of  being  called  forward  by  our  fellow-oiliaetii  to 

is  our  duty  to  sacriHce  perhaps  our  own  feeliaga  and  a 
porliou  of  our  time  in  the  public  service,  provided  »e 


of  the  chief  q< 

1  proper  dignity  m 

itli  all  oourlety,  and  lo  aei 

jn  of  its  important  func 
dispataioaaleiy  on  the  evi 
duly  of  tiw  juror  to  be  totally  reeanU>a  at  i 


party,    la  a 

equality.  It  i 


ireCd 


I  alao  the  daty  ot  lb*  JHnr.  ifa 
■us  opinion,  aoK  to  be  wirrsJi  m 
)  a  different  opaokB,   Ue  is  hn 


a  soieina  irusi,  ant 
Bcmpulona  catv,  as 


Benides  the  dnlies  which  ««  hara  la  |M 
mcnibeis  of  a  great  nation,  wo  lars  dalaaill 
nature  to  perform  aa  inhabitanU  of  s  Ma^' 
or  neighbourhood,  and  in  ivlatiOB  ta  <AU  ■ 
times  rveeive  ih<?  appeJIalion  of  citi»cia  E**] 
belongs  lo  a  neighbourhood,  which  ii  boA  h 
social.  Even  thrse  wbo  have  reniinnl(«»«I 
tries,  and  who  dwell  in  solitary  abodoi,  4i  H: 
sentiment  of  neighhouriiood.  The  mmi^  f 
tbem  is  a  neip^boor,  though  separat*d  hj  bafi 
And  when  thia  teolinienl  cannot  be  prBVV 
il  may  be  in  tliought,  and  by  that  uMan  it  a 
■o.     Perhaps  the  Tasi  impr«a«un>  thai  hani 


who  h 


o  fardi 


e  around  hun,  by  otmervmg  «  taM| 
t.     He  ha*  a  right  to  enjoy  life,  ad  ■ 


at  end;  hut  be  IwM 
uec-Barily  diilw* 

>'l>-'*e  ol  lif.^.  'Sm 


liicli  liiey  are  pcrniitlL^d 


1  i  t.i  1-1  T"se,  and  fnHjueoIiy* 
]  by  Bickni-ss,  aud  wh™  —J 
n^,  whatever  the  rigid  law  gf 
1  i'3-".  llip  law  of  miHiIiqi 


.  ..linty-  hJich  one  of  a  Mi^tt* 
.  ■;,.■  lu,n^.n  do-cllin^-plaw  aaapa 
'  ■'.■-■  nnund  him  ai>  be  mmM 
'  iij.>r;illy  held  to  uphold  aud  <•* 
-  n.„  liliie  community.  He  M  I 
liljL-i-nl  .lud  loaaly  leeJine,  i«a 

II    11   1  he  J- occasion    uma  espniS 


PUBLIC  AND  SOCIAL  DUTIES  OF  LIFE. 


>noiirable  pride  in  hearing  his  street,  his  vilUge, 
3wn,  or  city,  commended  by  obserTers. 
:«re  is  another  sort  of  neighbourhood  which  is 
led  in  social  intercourse,  and  in  the  interchange  of 
Bg  and  hospitality.  As  t)ie  world  now  is,  this  is 
nonly  regulated  by  artificial  and  somewhat  unna- 

rules.  It  is  often  ostentatious,  luxurious,  and  de- 
.<m  of  all  feelings  and  thoughts  in  which  well-trained 
J  minds  can  take  pleasure.  A  profuse  and  volup* 
a  entertainment,  comprising  food  little  adapted  to 
i.«ote  health  and  vigour,  and  in  Quantity  sufficient 
•«n  times  the  number,  that  rather  look  at  than 
a  we  it,  is  an  unsatisfyiug  way  of  being  happy  in 
I.  intercourse.  There  are  modes  of  maintaining  such 
course,  which  are  innocent,  pleasing,  and  dutiful, 
kcind  are  fitted  for  such.  The  interchange  of  friendly 
is  for  conversation,  music,  and  rationalamusement, 

such  thiues  as  may  be  used  without  suffering  or 
.firing  health,  b  that  kind  of  neighbourhood  (in  such 
Kons)  which  is  permitted  and  enjoined.  We  have, 
tirer,  little  reason  to  think  that  intimacies  of  this 
Ai-e  likely  to  meet  with  such  cousideitition  as  would 
E9e  the  further  extension  of  them, 
rery  person,  in  general,  is  a  member  of  some  kind 
^ety  or  association.  Some  persons  belong  to  many, 
fee  are  intended  for  some  useful  purpose.  Every  one 
ii  such  member  has  some  duties  to  perform.  He 
i  tome  proper  part  of  his  time,  some  proper  contri- 
Mtt,  to  the  cunimon  object,  and  has  an  interest  in 
^ftwperity  of  tho  design.  All  these  institutions  do 
»  good,  and  some  of  them  eminent  good,  in  helping 
:%•  gr^  purpose  of  social  life,  which  is  general  im- 
««meut.  Of  this  nature  are  public  charities,  edn- 
tmmX  in8titutions,1ibrai*ies,  agricultural  societies,  and 
l»  for  suppressing  intemperance  aud  immorality.  No 
^disposed  citizen  cau  conscientiously  abstain  from 
mg  liis  aid  and  8U])port  to  such  objects.  It  is  each 
■  duty  to  try  to  leave  the  world  a  little  better  than 
aond  it.  No  one  cau  say  these  ai*e  matters  which 
w^  concern  him.  Suppose  every  one  should  say  so, 
Ittd  said  so  from  the  beginning,  society  would  still 
aade  up  of  barbarians.  Every  good  that  is  done 
KIT  community  affects,  directly  or  indirectly,  every 
aber  of  it.  The  law  of  examplu,  of  imitation,  of  doing 
do,  has  a  most  pervading  and  astouishing  in- 
Every  community  is  like  a  full  vessel  of  water ; 
drop  in  it  can  be  moved  without  affecting  every 
or  drop. 

DCTIES  IN  OUR  DOMESTIC  RELATIONS. 

Wmriage. — Tills  institution  is  agreeable  to  a  law  of 
■ore,  and  is  an  ordinance  of  the  Creator.  There  are 
Iftpiti*!  who  have  doubted  this ;  but  they  have  ex- 
4iid  no  reasou  on  their  side.  It  is  obvious  that  man 
Ml  only  a  gregarious,  but  a  pairing  animal.  Marriage 
hOBsistent  with  the  finest  of  his  feelings— tho  most 
Ke  of  his  faculties.  It  began  when  man  began.  It 
Miered  to  perpetuate  the  succession  of  the  human 
>JI|y.  It  is  oi*dered  for  the  whole  duration  of  adult 
^  It  is  man's  peculiar  privilege  in  this ;  it  connects 
li  with  generations  which  are  gone,  with  that  which 
WHiog  away,  and  with  those  which  are  to  come.  The 
itoory  and  the  ashes  of  the  dead  are  precious  to  him, 
L  10  other  animal  has  tliat  sentiment.  He  alone  con- 
■cfUtes  that  his  own  memory  will  be  held  in  honour, 
^  that  the  place  of  his  earthly  quiet  will  be  sacred. 

^iy  Ls  enabled  to  conceive  that  moral  and  physical 
*^g  will  bear  his  own  stamp  in  the  character  and  in 

Viime  of  those  that  follow  him  ;  he  only  knows  that 
^^  name  may  be  an  honourable  inheritance.    These 

^«  sentiments  which  spring  from  the  beneficent 

^  marriage.  However  much  one  may  misunder- 
^  or  abuse  this  gift,  nature,  ever  faithful  to  her 
j^  forces  these  sentiments  on  the  heart. 
'^^^Tiage  is  recognised  as  a  contract  of  a  binding 
^^^  in  idl  civilised  nations.  By  some  it  is  considered, 
^  its  solemnity,  to  be  of  a  sacred  character  ;  by 
it  m  deemed  only  a  civil  bond  of  cttnnexion.  All, 
Ty  agree  in  holding  it  to  be  an  irrevocable  con- 

62i} 


tract.  The  laws  of  the  land,  those  of  nature,  and  the 
divine  law,  disclose  the  sentiments,  the  feelings,  and  the 
awful  sense  of  duty  with  which  this  undertaking  should 
be  regarded.  Yet  it  is  frequently  entered  into  from 
motives  highly  reprehensible,  and  sometimes  with 
shocking  thoughtlessness.  It  is  from  such  causes  that 
we  see  that  this  sacred  union,  which  should  be  the  true 
source  of  tlie  highest  human  happiness,  becomes  Uiat 
inexhaustible  fountain  from  which  both  parties  are 
daily  and  hourly  compelled  to  drink,  and  from  the  same 
cup,  the  bitterest  waters. 

In  a  gi*eat  number  of  instances,  marriage  is  con- 
tracted with  exceedingly  little  regard  to  the  qualities  of 
the  mind  on  either  side,  particularly  on  the  side  of  the 
man.  If  one  could  penetrate  the  ear  of  an  enamoured 
youth,  some  good  might  come  from  such  suggestions  as 
these : — Do  you  know  what  will  come  of  tliat  engage- 
ment which  you  are  about  to  make  ?  Are  you  about 
to  tie  yourself  by  bands,  absolutely  indissoluble  while 
YOU  live,  to  a  mortal  who  has  feelings,  wishes,  wants, 
hopes,  and  fears,  which  must  become  yours,  and  a  part 
of  your  very  self;  or  which  you  must  i*esist,  control, 
or  contend  with  1  Do  you  know  that  pain,  suffering, 
and  sorrow,  originating  in  either,  must  be  borne  by 
both  f  Are  you  aware  that  whatsoever  of  error,  folly, 
or  crime,  may  be  chargeable  to  either  of  you,  or  to  any 
who  may  spring  from  your  contract,  will  be  your  com- 
mon burden  and  sliame ;  and  that  from  these  you  can 
relieve  yourself  nowhere  but  in  tlie  grave  f  Or,  do  you 
know  that  this  attractive  being  will  be  your  kind  friend ; 
your  counsellor;  the  welcome  soother  of  your  cares 
and  anxieties ;  the  generous  and  charitable  judge  of 
your  infirmities ;  the  iuspirer  of  honourable  ambition ; 
your  fellow-labourer  in  joint  interests ;  the  ornament 
of  your  life  ;  the  gracious,  considerate,  faithful,  gentle 
companion,  who  will  make  your  own  virtuous  home  the 
place  to  which  you  i*efer  all  earthly  happiness!  Who 
that  is  *'  in  love"  has  leisure  or  inchnatiun  to  think  of 
such  iri/les  as  these  I 

There  is  no  reason  why  the  passion  of  love  should 
be  ift*rapped  up  in  mystery,  nor  any  why  the  mind 
should  be  stained  in  considering  its  nature.     It  would 
prevent  much  and  complicated  misery  in  the  world,  if 
all  young  persons  understood  it  truly.     There  are  in 
every  human  being  seeds,  each  one  of  which  may  be 
made  to  germinate,  and  may  be  so  cultivated  as  to  pro- 
duce the  most  odious  vices  or  the  most  serene  and 
heavenly  virtues.     There  is  in  every  human  heart  a 
fund  of  kindness,  tenderness,  and  affection,  which  makes 
itself  known  to  be  theve  in  due  time.     It  demands  to 
be  applied.     This  is  the  trying  and  perilous  moment  in 
youthful  life.    There  is  some  one,  some  where,  who  will 
take  that  fund,  and  give  back  its  full  equivalent.     The 
external  senses  and  the  heart  are  in  search  of  that  one. 
Happy  will  it  be  for  the  searcher,  if  he  will  take  reason 
as  a  monitor  to  keep  the  senses  and  heart  in  order. 
But  reason  is  commonly  regarded,  not  as  a  kind  and 
faithful  friend,  whose  duty  it  is  to  whisper,  "  begin 
nothing  of  which  you  have  not  well  considered  the  end," 
but  as  a  withered  scowling  matron,  who,  being  utterly 
dead  to  the  impulses  of  youth,  denies  that  there  ought 
to  be  any.     If  there  has  been  no  preparation  for  tnis 
eventful  period ;  if  the  mind  has  not  been  enriched  with 
the  teachings  of  rational  prudence ;  if  the  eye  has  not 
been  taught  to  distinguish  between  the  real  and  the 
fictitious ;  if  the  ear  has  not  learned  to  discriminate  the 
meaning  of  sounds;  if  life  as  a  whole,  if  the  conse- 
quences of  irrevocable  deeds  be  not  thought  of,  tliere 
is  peril ;  and  the  pure  drop  from  the  fountain  may 
flow  into  any  sea  but  that  of  happiness.     In  seeking  for 
that  being  who  is  to  be  a  companion  during  life,  one 
grievous  failing  must  bo  avoided.     Young  men  fre- 
quently amuse  themselves  by  playing  with  the  feelings 
of  young  women.     They  visit  them  often,  they  walk 
with  them,  they  pay  tliem  divers  attentions,  and  after 
giving  them  an  idea  that  they  are  attached  to  them, 
they  either  leave  them,  or,  what  is  worse,  never  come 
to  an  explanation  of  their  sentiments.    This  is  to  act 
;  the  character  of  a  dangler^  a  character  truly  infamous. 


CIL\MBEIIS'S  raFOailATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLK. 


pftTl  ahoulil  be  eqiuUly  ([Uarckd  in  not  encoufnging  iho 
■Utcwm  of  •ny  individiuii)  whom  Ihpy  would  not 


of  knowiedKG  of  which  von 
■     ■  f  i.»    tlia    ■         -       - 


M  10  marry. 

iBonliiitl  to  tb«  pTcient  state  of  society,  onB  of  the 

il  euuntoracllng  olnnvi>l»  Ui  matriago  a,  or 

vagtit  to  b«,  a  high  degree  of  prudence.  No  one  ought 
to  marry  wUn  nnnnt  fonwn  tlint  he  «itl  be  able  to  aup- 
imrt  the  additional  cxyrrate  ot  a  wife  »nd  family,  n»d 
nl  the  aame  timi!  fulflf  \\m  uther  aMeowry  oliligationH. 
By  giiod  maoagmnont,  tbwe  wlditienal  chargeo  are  not 
fiimI,  bul  Ifafv  amoiiHl  to  aninething,  and  ho  ia  wotvn 
than  an  inflduf  *]|»  iloea  nnl  provido  a/ptinet  them.  W* 
are  of  buiivf  that  atery  iiidiutrioiu,  adivp, 
mail,  will  find  no  Borium  obstaolo  in  thi>  n  . 
ia  from  iillt<dc«,  loTe  of  company,  and  intempfnince, 
not  from  ainiple  ospendituro  on  family  netesaarieo  an' 
eumforta.  •'"'  ""'"i  """^  povarty  in  the  marncd  lit*  at 
nruiluoei}.  Th«  drondof  moounteringlhe  eapetueanf 
faniiiy,  though  acting  as  a  «»lutary  aheok  on  unpntdcnt 
snarriagM,  i*  frequently  produolive  of  many  nro8»  ticm, 
twilling  Id  the  imnry  both  of  individuals  and  of  swieti^. 
Ohbacy,  capceially  when  Dircumnlancra  would  permit 
marriage,  ii  not  reipoclabl* ;  it  is  coiiBTdcTod  Rkiu  to 
vagrauey.  He  who  marciiis  and  Hllles  don'n  aa  a 
Iinuwhalil*r,  meets  with  the  approbation  of  the  world. 
Why  is  tlibil  il  may  be  aaked.  Becauae  in  min^iiif; 
v«  give  a  fuarantoc  to  B«ciety  for  our  good  beliavinur. 
Itia  not  l«  bo  doubted  that  a  young,  wel1-edu«al«d,  in- 
daslrlous  covpl^  wbo  wo  wncerely  and  affiiciiooai«ly 
Mtachcd,  on  a  eober  eKamination  and  eDnvietion  of  uach 
oUicr'a  worth  and  suitability  to  each  otiier,  may  bo 
happy  with  meami  far  bhort  of  the  fashionable  Etanilard. 
PrHlinilng  that  kucIi  a  i^aple  are  niao  enough  to  lake 
lifv  for  the  real  anil  subalantial  good  thai  it  can  produce 
— and  as  a  whole   it  would  do  them  great  injiutice  to 


can  6«n  IhM 


:pcrienee — If  yon  talk  I 
mtionai  being  shoutd  with  anolKn^  i 
remind  them  lliul  yuii  are  eandtdatw  tvl 
— you  will  enjoy  far  mora  than  yon  «n  ^ 
them  under  iliac  on*  aapaet  of  p«MMlife  Mar 
und  loTera.  When  that  la  the  nlinf  aaJ 
tbonght,  you  have  not  ttic  proper  na*  a  yoa 
your  manners  are  conatralned  and  aniw 
eiLsily  embarraMcd,  and  made  to  ay  ■rbM  a 
■illy,  arid  oot  of  ptaoe  :  and  you  dnini  ym 
by  appearing  to  a  gmt  diaadnuaigr. 

MowcTor  secret  *oti  ma^  b«  in  ih^  ■ 
If  you  ere  eouUniTBlly  IhlnUng  of  tb«a,  m 
tinduD  hnportaflce  to  the  a^oalnlaiiM  of  i 
it  will  iTioiC  certunly  show  itself  in  yoarta 
conTcrsation,  and  will  betray  a  wakii^  Aa 
eapccial  contempt  by  the  stnmgcr  ■■ 


■oietyhi 


the  privUrge  of  making  (he  linl  i4nM 
malriinony,  it  is  th«  safist  and  banaM  ■«} 
to  leutu  the  matter  entirely  in  bv  haoil.  1 
be  HO  educated  as  to  consider  tint  Ibf  fl 
exUtence — preparation  for  elvmiiy — Mf 
att;unc'd  in  married  or  single  lifW^  aaid  Ail 
but  tliD  most  perfect  one  ia  at  all  iatoM 
many  Ehould  be  eonsidcred  as  au  iatjAn*  h ! 
if  it  conw  at  all,  must  coma  idtliani  Mf  ( 
of  yours  ;  and  tboiefurv  yiio  may  mUj  p 
Ihoughia  of  it  tHI  aoroe  one  forcea  tb*  ^ 
ymir  notice  by  pi«fo«ians  oT  a  |ia>tialtfi 
you.  ,  I 

Lively,  ingentiona,  eouvnaBbk,  aniw 
eirli,  are  ofien  spoiled  into  doll,  buMil.  i 
ladiea,  and  all  b««atiae  thdr  bc«ala  an  fM 
about  beaux  and  lovers.  Ulicy  lu<r««  it«H 

d  K  h        y  o    lid  beafhmal 


bUglitlu  be  a  pttfeot  freudam  i>f  the  ivill  inbotli  p.irlii9. 
To  inipo6C  nny  speoies  ot  eoiwrtniinl  on  eilhcp  parly  is 
tn'mt  iniBuhievDus;  it  Would  be  a  gross  violation  ot  uiir 
mutt  Hacred  priYileeeg.  llulh  parties,  tbercfore,  miiilit 
frwely  to  think  for  iberaselna,  however  much  ilicy  moy 
Mi.'k  tliK  advice  of  thstw  who  nvc  inclined  tuaft'tird  tljeni 

In  treating  of  this  sulgect,  il  may  bo  of  Borvicc  lo 
r-ffi-r  a  fi'iv  KpMinl  sdvici'S  to  yunn^  niimen.     Our  Ursl 

to  accept  a  L.vrr.  Let  Ibem  know  liim  a  suffii'ient  lime 


dara>g  tliu  remainder  ot  thoir  llv«i. 
tliia  re>pc«C.     Tht  follawin!;  obsert 


vogug  w 
Mm  fill 


w  b      were  d  sjgaed    o  be 

I.  g  u  0  al  sorts  f  jrapM  ij  I 
pre  u  u  o  of  nd  bey  muci  oins 
ulonent  attentions  inio  inarLs  of  parliLUiitn 
tlius  nourish  u  fiiucy  for  a  person  wh«  !■>  < 
LliDuglil  of  Iheni  bul  M  an  agmsbi:  ft 
Tbcy  lose  the  enjoyment  of  a  p»rij,  if  sri 
nn.'  uot  ihecu  wliuin  they  eipii'U-d  la  ■ 
become  j^alxus  of  their  best  friends,  it  As 
there,  and  du  nut  talk  tu  them  a*  mock  Ml 

— n  frnitfal  source  of  miMTj- — and  tliisgii 
portanco  ase  neglected  for  chiraerss.  AMI 
'    '  ma  juiiis- taking  defeats  its  own  enJ>'.  ^ 


all  in 


li  girls  a 


t4have  thoac;hlsbM> 

nt  all,  aro  Bougl"  «nd  preferred  "befiCT  • 
niny  tiAd  ilje  U'lvicE,  that  j*oiing  nniiM  ' 
ci^iiKidcr  it  n  BcriuuH  niisforlune  i-icn  If  ot^ 
there  in  iiolhinK  dinreputable,  while  ttM?« 
lii.p|.iiLc>«,  ill  the  condition  of  an  old  mH 


i>  sgmwiilc  and  proKtablo  will  be  yuur   a>  hiving  u^riaiitu,  M. 

h  itunllemsn.     II  you  rogard  men  M         III.  Aluayn  keep  bcr  priipr: 


^^rli>i;  uf  ■■lUiiiH 


'U,  wall  EKhsulAlinl  U  rielM  imMMmm,  duoliW, 
■luuiMii*,  til  111*  Imrl  «f  *li"  buibani]  or  «ilg  of 
■ty  «hu  lii4uljt«  in  lliiKn,  tutil  Hi  giva  iiiwrii  ii 
tuiMiHaui  in  in»ke  wiilatar  lilnkmtlnnkt  Mid  it 
riuimulj'  Uhi  uvu,  tliM  tlia  nudpinlnii  o(  mlwoD* 
liu  piviluEM  (Ullj-  u  axicli  aDuiJiil  sud  vril  h 
III)-. 

a  oiKiJ  1-  '      "  ■    ■    Ititt 

Jl/l...^  I     ■  :M,4y 


:)|^  touiul  loamsii . -•sa 

tuifittr  Cisspur  J  I  Liiiil 

'4  QuiiUti  lUMnan  (I  U 

Lunw  tamos*,  '"''■' '-  -  'J"> 

Into  tiamilktiaD'  i*  a  vin  pnjtr ;  Md  aUI*  mi 
't  to  bs  'led  into  tomptaijon,'  irc  mnt  unxMdIf 
iDl  to  1«id  oanrJvn  bu  Ll.  I  kimw  tliim  to- 
nill  be  ciiargf  d  bi  tbc  neratuut  of  pnidwj ;  bnt, 
•ilk  of  Hint  i^iiU'g?!  1  CKIinot  oithiLcM  Uinu. 
\vo'\i  nil  nfnrriies  to  put  dilTeruiMs  of  n)UiiI»i>, 
u«t*  nf  KlUTciti-in,  tliKl  ha>B  >t  ■  fonuirr  day 
iin-;i-iFr.-.-.  ii.nipmbn-  tho  tAA  rtory  ef  tb* 
'  I  inusi  it  *ai  a  budbiid.' 


'  I II "  Kill  of  0C17  Iini  n>ivi«n 
riclil;  paid  for  tliuir  cflnpoo- 

ly  iMritrs  Hum  Vj 
••  iif  Juila  d«  Bull* 
)  liirl  lUneliliir,  i/lutMf  pruvumi  hi  tiCT  Jmlll  !•_> 
AlniMi  u(  l«iiip*r,  KliWlu'ii  li>  u  biutiuiKl,  and 
in  %a  hii  IntPTuaU,  eiuuilliult  ili<  dutia  ofaalTn, 
in  tba  bwb  id'  malrimniluil  fuljclly.     Then  >re, 

"■■■."■■■■         ...1  -.Ua 


KWr  UlwiB  nt  AM7  V»  «VX  « 


CHAMBERS'S  INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 

lie  tvill  mark  u  favours  ;  and, 

£perieni!iid  it,  thero  ia  no  feelmg 
1  ieir,  tbAD  tiiM  it  laming  these 


Tut  tlio  iMBCr 
ti'iut  mr,  for  I 
ninre  ilul>){lilf<i 
litllu  (liiiii;a  to  BO  ]i™;iuu«  a.  iiar. 

AboTe  nil,  lot  »  wife  bP'vare  of  aotninuiiitiating  to 
others  «li)r  want  of  duty  or  temlerueM  nho  may  think 
■he  hu  perceived  in  her  husband.     This  untwiBla  at 

'^  IXI. 

»  or  ite  fail- 
irmnpireaof  it«  diBputti.'"* 


pngsgenivnl.     Its 


Tho  marringe  Btnte  ia  thi  rnundatiau  of  ono  of  tha 
most  sBcrcil  and  important  inslitutionn  in  eociuly — that 
of  a  family.  A  family  ia  a  littLo  amninonKeBlih,  jointly 
garemni  Ly  the  inu-cnta,  but  under  the  mare  iqieoisi 
gaardiaijahip  and  direction  of  the  hiubaDd  and  father, 
who  ia  morally  uid  legally  the  head  of  the  houfe.  Tu 
the  falliL-r  tiie  cliildrea  naturally  look  fur  pmteetion, 
■Ubuilence,  advice,  sMmplc,  and  encouragement.  The 
father,  therefore,  luu  a  seriouB  obligation  to  perform 
in  the  proper  Tearing  of  hia  children.  He  ia  bound  to 
educate  Ihonl  aecording  to  hia  meaoH,  tu  auppart  thern 
till  they  are  able  to  depend  on  themwlveB,  and  to  have 
them  taught  a  businosa,  or  put  in  aome  other  fair  way 
of  gaining  an  hooeat  livelihood.  The  children,  on  tliu 
other  hand,  are  botuid  to  obvy  tiieir  pareota,  and  to 

Parenia  are  sometimes  grievoualy  diatreaaed  in  enu- 
eeqiieocc  of  Ilia  bad  behaviour  of  tlieir  children.  Their 
roaaonable  hopea  are  disappointed,  llieir  beel  feoiioga 
aro  tortured.  An  idle,  ungrateful,  dl(BOlul«  son,  la  auch 
a  eoiniilieated  cauas  of  auHering,  oa  may,  If  nny  thing 
may,  lead  onelo  murmur  at  the  order  of  thinga.  It  may 
bo  admitted  that  auch  a  parent  ia  very  liluly  tn  break 
Mil  with  camplauita  againat  tlie  world.  Thb  saffering, 
kHMTU!  kaen  aod  bftingit  m^ba,  ii  nola  nabnal, 
bitt  ■  moral  e*U.    ^lere  ia  a  moral  wrong  •amevhere. 


lild  t,ir  froi 


Ukes  ubice betnetu  these  parlies  ouglit ta  lia ij 
frieodV  kind.  They  should  •Irive,  by  ubIb 
anco  and  ndvico,  to  make  eaeli  other  luppy. 
inatancee,  Ibeae  rclaliuiis  niaJu  a  TC17  gnu  ■ 
to  the  real  good  of  life,  In  nut  eultiratiog  a  «■ 
affectionate  frirndiiiip  with  caeii  cnlicr.  Id  i 
tliey  are  apt  to  be  in  eooh  other's  way,  and  tob 
coucihible  wanla  1  tliua  tl>ey  rcry  anno  fall  iM 
tioDB.     They  cannot,  however,  ahaiie  e^T  ■!■ 

whelhrr  they  wilt  or  not,  and  It  viil  owMially 
their  mutual  wvlfate  to  liavo  »  kind  and  graa 
The  comraon  nun's  of  tfacir  -"^ — 


preeaes  hard  upon  them  when  iJicy  will  oaad 
anpport,  and  some  one  to  car«  fur  them  la  a 
which  none  but  biuthers  and  aiaiers  oao  Jo.  II 
has  cone  on  well  from  tho  cradle  opvarda,  ■»> 
relatives,  they  beeoiiie  to  eooli  other  not  oalv  I 
iiBcful  friends,  but  the  most  agrmble  CBai| 
Tliey  are  the  iialural  confidant*,  when  it  naU 
to  truat  any  one  nbose  a^npalhy  aiid  iiiliiilw 
change.  Urotben  and  lulen,  who  are  Ibi 
together  by  afTuciion,  somelima  haBardtlvMl 
by  volunteering  friendly,  but  vnyuowvimOBiSi 
lariBB  and  advice.  This  is  a  wtj  dtJi<M>  I 
Uiviog  unasked  advice  on  auy  onca'ina  1 1  jiiii 
neat  diacretion.  if  one  aeea  thai  liia  bretln-a 
uerini,  there  are  nianv  modes  of  au  appnadaj 
astoTeadhim  tofind  that  henci..<laadi>(r>a4« 
ting  biui  in  aearch  uf  it.  If  there  he  a  rigltl 
standing,  he  will  go  where  he  is  aiitv  of  bn^A 
and  the  unceresc  Tu  aasume  a  dietalemJ  Ml 
orer  a  brother  or  aUtev,  is  to  inllioi  a  naal  ■ 
love  iriuirii  if  not  rcadito  fingiTaa.    Wi  twijt 

noticed  the  vbIus  of  avilily  and  polt "  ' ' 

near  conntiiooB  ;  and  we  add,  tlinl 
art-  noivh.Te  mori.'  profilablu  and 


llieir  duty,  li 
I  In,  nmy  hi-  1 


>i  find  ail  appliealien  of  its  truth  nol^B 
f  lirutheca  and  sialcn,  bulialbMN 
inure  dislsnC  rcUtigns.  U'e  beg  to  warn  tH  am 
reUitiOHB  who  frequently  meet  togeilier.  tpi^* 

..:>.i>-i    <...>!>-   I.Ltrtiea  with   eadi  ether.    Uil 

.  .1  tliey  wiih  to  avoid  falltBf  i«l 

"   <     -      i. 1.1  reiiit'ubpr  tliai  tbequarnliA 

U' !i,-.  .ii:'  ...u...  1  irrecoueilabl*,  and  tfaal,  HN> 
fur^jidii  mill  111  a  i;rcat  nieaaurE  f„rguiini|  llqk 
vci'y  disagrveablv  tei-lings  among  all  i>ania. 


a  the  earlieit  ages  down  ti 


ahlislini  snJ  Tf 


0  ibepM^f 

-    MiMy.  Hi 

'strMflX 

:.r'o,Bud  the  ability  which  mOsmI 
1..  acquire,  and  which  othoi  iMI 
in,  and  other  otinMfll 

i-a 


in,-,t<-i-a  „r  r..ipl..j*rfc  !■■ 
.  onc.-rth.mu;r«J»iJ 

«J.        if    tl.C    OUBBrtJ«._rt 

iMierr^ir  aoineahua-    "'" 
■eiif  maticn,  inwkidi"'*' 

IvaulWa) 


idi'r  theui.     ServauU  b«ve  |br  mamfUl'^ 


iw  hn  ttan*  uid  iliipnnib  upin  '  ' 
rcnc   BudWc  amnaninil'K  ^ 

iriDtipJc,  Th"?  i«ui  nnly  wr!  i . 
d  uw  alwnv*  puking  about  itlei'  L 
-  *       •■'    "  -*  "    -  mU<«  l™ 


■  lu  In  •unljr  ftir  thitni,  atkiita  aA)B>I.D> 

*Tf»™  til  But  jU»n«»  (««■  ituim.    Ift"       -  ■- 
i|t  dMi,  tliiiy  Kitrudcupitn  diHir  rririiil* 


inurfuv  tii  ffnt  pltoM  fur  tlum.  If  tlivy  w 
'  lynitrudcupitn diHir rririiil* tn> 
hfiiaMj/  nur  nuimll]'  ile  tli«y  m 

■tria  fop  Ibutr  non  huliiiaf.      Thi 


itrw  for  tluilr  own  buliHiif.  Thta  bl 
plible  (I  moilo  of  n*lDg,  thai  It  cnuuol  bi  tim 
vptelmaird.  Thoao  "lia  dopcod  do  othiin  mn 
iMd  io  nir.  Id  whUcrcr  nanner  thiy  niajr  ba 
1li>y  ami  iwrt-r  brcomu  fnut-nnk  bifii  In 
Ws  wniild  raniWttl;  iniiimB  U|f0ii  thn  ytniUA 
■ititir  <rf  duiwindliig  an  litclo  M  pi>wil>|ii  u|i<ni 
uf  iidi'U>M(ca  trum  othnn,  all  orwiiinii  tiHtg 
do  with  tbenuKlia.  Il  U  vbrbiiwlf  il<n  Jul^ 
lOD  to  tbintt  and  ul  lor  liiiDuU!,  u  mmii  u  hn 
lulivail,  ■nd  Q«ithiir  be  LurduiwuiDa  an  iwla- 
Irouliiaulni*  to  u!>|uiunUiKD>.  Tbo  uwp- 
t  Irifling  farnur  from  bii  aci|iuinui>eti  ulwaji 
,4*r  m  obliKaiioii,  wliu-li  u  Kuinriiniei  diffloolt 
c  aci]uaini4nni  oviir  n»>d  ■itniUr 
ind  to  gnuit  tliaiu,  and  [h  ' 
„  al  hTour  n  hl^lv,  ihat 
)da  ouancb  to»Drv*  ttim.    Id  tbit 

men  arn  ruiufd.    W«  would  n--    — • ■■■■ 

inhw*  ti]Kiii  a  prii>(>{d*  of  oiitiii 

jilnji  olhoni  lu  oiKuta  a  pi«r<  < 

ivthein  (UlliruU/aiid  pratupilj,  . 

Ji>ululb«m,i>tbonrlM>iMiniii;  i» 

least c-qnet  it,MniBki>p(q!iii«ii.'.^  mjlkii.'J- 

libwtl,  aHikble,  and  kind ;  lut.  ktiuuuijj  Uui 

at  da  mon  injur;  to  aouotj  tban  by  gii^iJy 

■ououtlf,  aKTreiM  a  ^>KI  tutuiion  in  ^ivinu  laay 


liUraM  among  (lUniUw  bi  afl«n  ptixlunod  hj 
Ik  who  bavo  property  Io  boquealh,  uotuiokUig 
«UaiMDt.  Wb/  lueb  bidi*iduala  da  not  tnaku 
■,  it  a  difficult  (o  •iplain.  Pvrliajn  it  vita 
^••^■(ti  aed  a  npiTil  of  praenutinaiiun,  nr  n 
Huluiiun  ill  lUMi  M  luako  op  Outtr  niliub  witli 
I  how  Uw;  would  dlArlbute  tlwlr  prawrqr  at 
Mac.  Soiiio  ma;  indKil  be  ao  fmrliiji  ai  to 
liat  the  mailing  of  iheir  will  woabl  liMtM  ilia 

of  daatli.  Ftnin  wlialMvr  camm  i(  pivonih, 
Jilj-blaiuvalit*  fkllxBit.  \t  •■<  il»'  Jiii.^  »r  ..t.  1^ 
Tivrmltlg  pTOpfflJ,    v.:,  i.,i.i- 

linrirliai,  Io  iiutke  n  >'  < 

C  dti«iDniiifit  bow h-  ■  I.I 


Ik  pumiml  in  ._. _ 

Ui»ir  pc»p«rtT  uid  iioti««i«».  "Vw  ^»  T*** 
idd  .flii  i™  a  grr«  Ac<a -*  X»«*i»™>-«« 
ana  U*  prerimUva  ol  VViVw*** »»«»*' 


vviU'*'.\\\  for  th(;ii*  linshaiid.-',  to  make  th-ir  wills:  that  is, 
I»ut  in  writiii;;  21  siinplo  expres-sion  of  tlioir  dt".inj  that 
tliirir  hu-'ImiKls  may  inherit  the  prop«;rty  wliich  hcloiif^s 
to  the  \vlf<'  in  virtue  of  their  maiTinge.  Jiy  an  inatten- 
tion to  this  canily  performed  duty,  there  are  many 
litigations — many  widowers  ruined. 

M  ISI'ORTUN  us — EVI I-S. 

Evil  i:j  a  pnrt  of  the  nysfem  of  thin^jq  in  which  wo 
live,  and,  aH  huch,  must  he  patiently  Hubmitted  to.  Man 
wa.s  intended  to  ho  an  active  creature.  One  of  the 
grand  aims  of  the  Creator  in  his  formation  evidently 
was,  that  lie  nhould  never  wetfle  down  into  a  hluj;gisli 
or  Rtagnant  fitate.  It  would  liavo  been  easy  for  the 
divine  power  which  breathed  into  him  ro  wonderful  a 
thiuf^  as  life,  to  have  Kurrounded  him  with  nothing;  but 
bleMsinj;;^,  as  they  aro  callcjl,  no  that  he  would  liavo 
iir)thin^  to  do  but  (-njoy  )iiiii<:c]f.  ]hit  this  would  not 
have  ]>roduc(Ml  what  tho  Almij;hty  wished,  a  world  in 
which  a  rational  ]»ein;j  was  to  exfTeis<*  his  faculties, 
and  UKo  his  endowments,  with  a  proper  regard  to  a 
certain  end — an  account,  namely,  to  bo  reiuh-red  at  tiie 
cloHi',  of  what  and  how  he  had  done.  We  aro  liere 
]daced  betw<ren  evils  which  wo  are  to  avoid  or  nubdue, 
and  good  which  we  are  to  aim  at  and  enjoy  ;  and  h(>nce, 
instead  of  being  a  pet  of  torpid  maehines,  as  wo  would 
liavo  been  in  any  thing  like  a  world  of  peifect  liappi- 
iH^s,  we  arc  in  a  perpetual  ntatc  of  vigilance  and  acti- 
vity, making  the  fulh'st  us<'  of  those  mental  and  bo<iily 
]>ropertieH  with  which  we  havo  been  gifted. 

Jf  wo  narrowly  inspect  the  evils  or  misfortunes  witli 
wliieh  wo  aro  visited,  we  will  find  them  invariably  to 
be,  either  of  two  kinds.  Some  aro  tho  nimplc  result 
of  an  occasional  or  liabitual  violation  of  the  laws  of 
natun>,  or  an  occasional  or  habitual  failure  in  that 
vigilance  and  activity  which  we  are  bound  to  employ 
for  the  avoiding  of  such  distreases.  These  may  be  ealleil 
moral  evils.  The  sectmd  class  are  tin;  result  of  cir- 
cuniHtiinccs  ov«?r  which  wo  had  no  control,  and  may 
th«*reforo  be  calh-d  natural  evils.  Such  a  division, 
liowever,  is  only  necessary  in  tho  pres<»nt  state  of  our 
nttainmentfl  as  a  race ;  for  there  can  be  no  doubt  that 
means  were  intended  to  bo  discovered  by  tho  ingenuity 
of  man,  for  the  avoidance  and  neutralisation  of  ail  evils 
what<*ver ;  and,  then?fore,  in  tin;  e;w(M)f  what  wo  call 


We  are  charged,  for  instance,  \ 
harassing  ailment,  or  of  an  early  de 
gone  and  perhaps  long  repented  v 
iiutall  this  may  be  accounted  foro 
It  has  been  intended  that  our  tnox 
so  much  improved,  that  cxeii  the 
a  descendant  may  operate  as  a  c 
ness ;  and  what  is  a  contemporary 
consumption  but  a  warning  to  pn 
that  which  may  bring  fatnre  1 
hazard  {  It  is  hard,  in  the  mean  tii 
but  what  can  wo  Kiy  against  the 
Perhaps  the  spectacle  (and  few  a 
of  a  vouth  dving  in  his  vcrv  bloon 
natural  debility  derived  from  weal 
the  iiu'ans  C)f  preventing  two  pe 
themficlves  into  tho  situation  for 
evils.  A  very  high  kind  of  conseic 
not  unatUiinable  even  by  ordinary 
force  by  the  contemplation  of  sue] 
distress.  A  man  who  has  any  rei 
validity  of  his  own  constitution,  wi! 
with  a  sense  of  such  results,  as  lik 
quitting  a  condition  of  celibacy, 
p(^q)etual  Folitude  rather  than  pti 
ment  of  his  own  hap])iuess,  at  tJic 
enable  evil  to  others.  Fortunate 
ning  to  look  moro  narrowly  into  1 
used  to  do ;  and  we  do  not  despair  1 
it  will  be  nearly  as  infamous  to  cor 
certain  circumstances,  as,  under  01 
There  aro  other  evils  which  affc 
do  their  full  part  in  making  this  a 
is  squalid,  miserable  poverty; 
lamentable  vice ;  there  is  horrible 
tion,  and  national  war.  All  these 
inevitable ;  they  spring  from  the 
from  the  laws  which  compel  him  t 
nexion.  Thoso  who  say  se  are  ah 
world  is  naturally  a  beautiful  wo 
lias  made  a  paradise  for  our  dwc 
liavc  often  rendered  a  desert  by  tJ 
and  revelation  alike  proclaim  tliat 
wo  should  be  happy;  but  how  h 
vilo  intemperance,  gross  crime,  t 


jriii?-;!.     FiMMTKina*  H. 
'  :-i4  t7  irJirflt»nw  or  1^ 


innclkiktHl.     Siiolnljr  wniild  La  I'drUKnlti 
•  t".rii-iriiiH.     llir   ogW  (b  •s^lure,  •Dd 

' .  iinil  EiUD  □(  lla  ~ 


Kj  B*a  liOTimUf  oo^oiiv  by  ui>  tuurdM  uT  Unir 
^•trv.     If  ■  fnMalor  ••(  %  ivnmnmU<r  fri-pB  n). 


■  tlut  LbiTif  thnuU 


Dl  aunilHuni  winil<l  am'.'  in  n  ■mgli  \v-;ir,  jirr- 
R  linBla  minidii  Kn>l  uthd  miDh  JB^uaJM;  M 
.11  fur  ■  n*ii>  .li>i.k.B.  In  ■  maalrj  wli-MlJm 
•nMrpnu  uid  rpBcnUli'ia  liw  OB  111  -  '  - 
JiaMOHa-ifnvrMiini,  that  Mil  n 
pn^BTIT  dunjpB  linod*  tea  of' 
■  iumiuunu.hl;  liJd  la  tlu  In 


,  Kjn»lily  diaini  In  ha** 

cIlanstLv  tvliu'ti  ui:  wail,  u  In  tlw  o«n«alii|i 
>  rveulituil  lij  (.athaniy  ur  aiwr  t^a  ttiy  •< 


A  iIpiiaM  lit-Hrf.    Than  «•  Hood  ud  U4 
Ilaonrdiily  MnlluMl ''  '~      "     ~"" 


pi*oi)het.  We,  hy  our  superior  intelligence  and  reading, 
know  that  Mahomet  wua  a  vile  impostor.  Tlie  people 
who  lived  in  our  own  country  a  hundred  yeur.4  ago 
wei-e  of  helief  that  certain  old  women,  whom  they 
termed  witches,  could,  hy  supernatural  powers,  ruioc 
tempests  at  sea  and  land,  and  malevolently  interrupt 
the  course  of  human  att'airs.  The  people  who  possessed 
this  belief  were  perfectly  conscientious  in  their  opinion  ; 
yet  tee  know  tliat  this  opinion  was  u  gross  absurdity. 
We  know  that  our  ancestors  believed  in  an  impossibi- 
lity. Opinion  is  therefore,  as  we  see,  a  thing  of  time 
and  place.  The  opinion  that  is  supposed  to  be  ri^ht  in 
cue  century,  is  wrong  in  the  next.  Whut  is  considered 
to  be  a  right  opinion  in  Asia,  is  thought  wrong  in 
Europe.  What  is  deemed  a  correct  and  praiseworthy 
belief  in  Britain,  is  reckoned  an  absurdity  in  France. 
Indeed,  it  is  often  seen  that  the  opinion  which  is  held 
goiul  in  one  district  of  a  country,  is  looked  upon  with 
contempt  in  other  districts — so  that  the  whole  world 
is  found  to  be  covered,  as  it  were,  with  a  vai'iety  of 
opinions  and  shades  of  opinions,  hke  the  diversified 
colours  by  which  countries  are  depicted  in  a  map.  0\n- 
nion,  we  have  said,  is  also  dependent  on  temperament 
of  the  bodv.  Thi.'t  is  a  mclancholv  truth.  A  fat  and 
choleric  man  docs  not  think  in  exactly  the  same  way  as 
a  lean  man.  A  man  who  enjoys  all  the  comfoi'ts  which 
opulence  can  purchase,  lias  a  tendency  to  think  diifer- 
eutiy  in  some  things  fr(»m  a  man  who  is  suffering  under 
misfortunes  or  poverty.  So  strangely  constituted  is  the 
principle  which  governs  opinion,  tliat  most  men  have 
reason  to  alter  tlieir  opinions  on  many  points  in  their 
progress  through  life.  They  form  an  opinion  in  youth, 
fn.m  wlileh  in  manhood  they  depart,  and  form  another ; 
and  this  other  they  modify  into  sometliiug  else  as  old 
age  comes  upon  them. 

What  does  all  this  wonderful  contrariety  of  opinion 
teach  us  I  Since  we  sec  that  opinion  is  dependent  on 
the  locality  of  our  birth,  on  the  age  in  which  we  live, 
on  the  condition  in  which  we  may  chance  to  be  placed, 
and  on  the  physical  qualities  of  our  bodies,  have  wo 
therefore  no  |>ower  over  opinion!  Must  we  be  its 
blavc  i     These  are  questions  of  a  solemn  character,  and 


'  _    — I — ^ .     _ 

language  of  Scripture,  these  men  war  agi 

It  is  our  duty  as  good  membem  of  m. 

'.  a  view  to  self-respect,  to  be  very  cautioi 
tion,  and,  most  of  all,  in  the  display  o 
Many  excellent  men,  on  arriving  at  m 
deeply  regretted  that  they  should  liave 
lished  their  early  and  liastily-furmed  op 
They  had  reasoned,  as  they  thought,  i 
was  without  a  knowledge  of  the  world, 
Speaking  to  the  young,  we  would  say— ^ 
the  trainhig  of  parents,  guardians,  aud 
your  duty  to  receive  witli  confidence  t 
by  which  it  is  attempted  to  enligliten  t« 
to  put  you  in  the  way  of  well-doing.  Bi 
of  your  youth  will  probably  tell  you  thai 
from  under  their  guardianship  into  the  i 
life,  you  become  a  responsible  being — ^n 
to  human  and  divine  laws;  and  that 
think  for  yourself.  At  this  critical  pehi 
tence,  you  liave  every  chance  of  comiug 
the  idle,  tlie  dissipated,  the  friToloua,  ' 
make  you  embrace  erroneous  opiuiooi 
possibly  put  the  most  mischievous  l>ooks  i 
for  ]>erusaL  Do  not  be  led  away  by  sueb 
neither  bo  dismayed  by  the  nnmber  of 
jesters  who  nuiy  assail  you.  Do  yoor 
In  order  that  you  may  attain  a  correct 
great  debateable  subjects  that  you  will 
your  eai*s  tlirough  life,  begin  a  course  o 

I  gooii  and  authoritative  works  which  int 
will  recommend  to  your  notice  Take 
nity  of  cultivating  your  underfttaiidinii 
your  i(h'as,  of  banishing  prejudiceSb  L 
the  diHerent  sides  of  a  question;  for 
member  tluit  there  are  always  many  wa 
story.  In  proportion  as  you  advance  ii 
studies,  and  acquire  a  knowledge  of  tb 
conduct  of  mankind,  you  will  more  and 
to  form  a  correct  opinion.  There  is  oi 
you  will  learn  with  surprise  from  this 
rience,  and  that  is,  tlmt  many,  though  Imi 
oiiiiiions.  are  drivinc  towanls  the  Mime  ei 


PUBLIC  AND  SOCIAL  DUTIES  OF  LIFE. 


isioD,  beg  to  {iay  a  few  words,  in  parti' 
ns  of  a  political  nature,  which  are  tlie 
*  all  to  be  correctly  formed.  Political 
pplied  to  the  theory  and  practice  of 
mcnt.     The  policy  of  national  govern- 

exact  science  to  be  learned,  as  some 
It  is  more  a  fashion  than  a  science, 
pendent  on  time,  place,  and  other  cir- 
he  form  of  government  which  suits  one 
.vould  not  suit  another  age  and  country, 
"e  b^t  governed  by  a  despotism,  others 

monarchy  and  democracy,  othera  by  a 
lisni ;  but,  as  we  say,  what  is  best  at  one 
at  another.  The  genius  and  necessities 
are  subject  to  change,  and  consequently 
>nts  change  with  them.  If  we  feel  the 
cts,  we  will  be  cautious  how  we  assume 
opinion  upon  any  mode  of  administering 
The  young  are  particularly  liable  to  take 
this  subject  which  they  afterwards  feel 

from.  We  would  admonish  them  to 
the  history  of  their  country,  and  reflect 
eniua  of  the  nation,  before  they  come  to 
opinion  in  politics.  They  will  learn,  as 
>  maturity,  that  in  nothing  is  there  such 
ity  and  affectation  as  in  political  matters. 
;fore  called  upon,  by  duty,  to  examine 
i  probe  deeply,  the  grounds  upon  which 
r  opinion.  They  will  And  it  much  the 
IS  already  expressed,  to  think  lightly  in 

they  have  had  some  experience  of  the 
en  convinced  by  the  evidence  of  their 
lal  exigencies  sometimes  call  upon  us  to 
eply  in  politics  at  one  time  than  another. 
it  here  be  our  guide ;  yet  thci*e  is  gene- 
inger  in  our  wasting  much  precious  time 
quisition,  than  in  falling  into  an  apathy 
airs.  He  is  a  wise  man  who  knows  how 
steps  as  to  preserve  himself  from  falling 
treme.  Every  one  who  has  been  for  a 
years  politically  busy,  will  acknowledge, 
thinks  he  was  right  in  the  main  (in  which 
y  be  right  or  wrong),  yet,  that  he  has 
sy  houi-s  and  anxious  thoughts  on  sub- 
ooked  back  upon,  are  seen  to  have  been 
n&ignificant. 

:iIE  PFX)rLE  OF  ONE  COUNTRY  OWE  TO  TUOSE 
OF  ANOTHER, 

at  all  the  people  of  the  earth  belong  to 
e  many  nations  with  which  it  is  covered. 
:hat  nations  are  generally  separated  from 
)t  only  by  language,  manners,  customs, 
forms  of  civil  government,  but  also  by 
oundaries.  The  division  of  mankind  into 
Liral,  and  possesses  obvious  advantages, 
lit  beyond  which  the  government  of  a 
veil  be  administered.  By  being  confined 
limited  bounds,  the  national  institutions 
ived,  security  and  prosperity  promoted, 
?sts  of  the  people  advanced.  We  fi*e- 
at  the  people  of  one  nation  live  at  enmity 
another  nation.  We  find  many  at  open 
'  neighbours — that  is,  they  are  resorting 
ical  force  to  settle  a  dispute.  These  are 
be  deplored.  Nations  have  mutual  wants, 
jal  intercourse  and  trade  will  obviate. 
nilar  intoi'ests  at  stake.  Their  inhabi> 
belong  to  the  great  human  family,  and 

peace  with  each  other.  But  ambition, 
1  passions — strife,  malice,  and  unchari- 
t  continually  in  operation  to  retard  their 
towards  a  universal  philanthropy.  Na- 
lie  heaviest  curse  which  afflicts  humanity, 
rmous  debts  and  taxations,  and  in  reality 
ne  of  all  kinds  of  distresses  among  the 
the  people  have  been  frequently  very 

war.  We  say  have  ffcen,  for  wo  hope 
DeDt  will  in  future  be  otherwise  regulated. 
687 


We  ought  to  impress  upon  our  minds  a  surpassing  hor- 
ror of  war.     Let  us  think  of  it  as  the  scourge  of  the 
human  race,  and  as  one  more  destructive,  physically 
and  morally,  than  the  most  virulent  epidemic.     Were 
the  inhabitants  of  countries  duly  impressed  with  these 
feelings,  did  they  reflect  upon  the  blessings  which  are 
showered  upon  nations  during  a  lasting  peace,  they 
would  henceforth  resolve  to  oppose,  by  every  constitu- 
tional means,  the  commencement  of  wai*s   by  their 
governments.     Besides  the  actual  loss  of  lives  and  of 
property  to  a  nation  during  war,  it  is  incalculable  the 
injury  sustained  by  society  by  such  an  infliction.     A 
war  of  a  few  years'  duration  may  retard  intellectual 
improvement  ior  a  century.     Wo  hold,  therefore,  thiit 
it  is  the  duty  of  every  mau  to  discountenance  such  a 
system  of  folly.     He  cannot  be  a  lover  of  his  country, 
he  cannot  be  the  friend  of  moral  cultivation,  who  would 
countenance  such  an  idiotic  process  of  settling  quarrels 
between  intelligent  nations.     According  to  a  rational 
view  of  men's  condition  in  separate  nations,  war  can  in 
no  case  be  reconcilable  with  social  happiness,  unless  on 
the  obvious  principle  of  self-defence.     So  long  as  there 
remain  such  masses  of  ignorance  over  the  earth,  so 
long,  we  are  afraid,  force  must  be  employed  to  preserve 
the  little  spots  of  civilisation  from  the  flood  of  bar- 
barism which  might  overrun  them.     May  it  be  antici- 
pated, however,  that  this  urgent  necessity  will  not  exist 
much  longer !     How  glorious  would  be  the  prospect,  if 
universal  peace  were  permanently  established !     We 
should  find  one  nation  instructing  another  in  all  the 
arts  and  sciences  of  which  it  was  itself  master:  we 
should  find  an  honourable  spirit  of  emulation  running 
through  the  whole ;  and  all  shaping  their  policy  so  as 
to  promote  the  most  beneficial  intercourse  in  commerce, 
literature,  and  refinements.     In  the  present  state  of 
things,  as  far  as  it  can  be  accomplished,  a  kind  and 
friendly  international  communion  is  a  high  moral  duty. 
It  is  our  duty  to  look  with  an  eye  of  charity  on  national 
peculiarities.     We  have  no  right  to  insult  the  feeling 
of  the  people  of  any  nation,  however  strange  their 
language,  their  fashions,  or  their  customs  may  appear 
to  us.     We  have  likewise  no  right  to  taunt  them  with 
any  apparently  improper  characteristics  in  their  forms 
of  government.     It  is  our  duty  to  consider  them  as 
entitled  to  live  and  act  according  to  their  own  fancy, 
as  independent  responsible  beings.     To  write,  print, 
and  disseminate  any  scurrilous  jests  tending  to  lower 
them  in  general  estimation,  is  not  only  immoral,  but 
inconsistent  with  the  principles  of  honour,  which  do 
not  permit  any  one  to  be  struck  who  cannot  defend 
himself.     When  we  therefore  insult  a  foreign  nation  by 
our  obloquy,  we  commit  the  mean  and  cowardly  action 
of  injuring  a  party  which  has  no  means  of  redressing 
the  grievance. 

RECREATIONS  AND  AMUSEME.VrS. 

We  have  often  had  occasion  to  show,  that  this  state 
of  being  is  one  of  alternate  action  and  repose.  There 
must  be  serious  action,  and  there  must  be  amusements. 
It  was  intended  that  mortals  should  be  pleased  and 
happy,  if  they  deserve  to  be  so.  Those  who  maintain 
that  life  is  to  be  an  uninterrupted  scene  of  labour  and 
gravity,  are,  we  hope  and  believe,  entirely  mistaken. 
We  discern  nothing  in  the  natural  world,  nor  in  man's 
peculiar  constitution  or  relations,  which  gives  the  least 
countenance  to  such  an  opinion.  Amusement,  like  every 
thing  else  in  wjiich  free  agency  is  concerned,  may  be 
innocent  and  grateful,  or  improper,  pernicious,  and  in- 
troductory of  the  worst  of  evils.  Young  persons  must 
have  the  former,  or  they  will  seek  out  the  latter.  It 
is  the  duty  and  the  interest  of  parents  to  lead  children 
to  take  pleasure  in  such  things  as  can  be  approved  of, 
and  to  divert  children  from  such  as  must  bo  injurious 
to  them,  and  afflictive  to  those  who  are  deeply  interested 
in  them.  We  apprehend  that  there  may  be  persons, 
and  classes  of  persons,  who  will  disagree  with  us  on 
this  subject,  as  they  may  have  done  on  some  which 
have  been  alr^y  touched  upon.  We  should  deeply 
1  t'grot  to  dispIcMe  any  one ;  but  on  a  matter  eo  iiupor- 


uiiia  Mt    biiiii;* 


AIIU 


most  captivating  sports  lira  those  which  are  cuiitingcnt ; 
tliat  is,  pports  or  occupations  wherein  tho  result  may 
bo  higlily  favourable  or  otljcrwise.  No  one  engages  in 
them  without  cxpcctin:;  to  come  out  on  tho  successful 
eide.  IlLMicCyhuuthig,  tishing, horse-racing, and  gaming, 
arc  of  this  order.  The  hope  of  success  ia  a  very  high 
excitement,  but  the  mortification  and  distress  of  fziiluro 
ever  far  excecil  the  pleasures  of  success.  There  is  a  ten- 
dency to  discoui-4>ge  out-of-duor  sports.  This  is  certainly 
>vrong.  If  not  carried  to  excess,  they  arc  among  the  modt 
salutary  and  pleasing  amusements)  in  fine  weather. 

Every  one  admits  that  tho  mind  and  moral  faculties 
arc  to  be  developed,  and  strengthened,  and  made  to  do 
tho  best,  by  exercise.  Tiiis  is  equally  truo  of  physical 
power.  Kvery  action  which  it  caii  bo  proper  to  do  at 
all,  ought  to  bo  done  in  the  best  way,  olherwise  we  do 
nut  answer  the  end  of  our  being.  In  tho  vegetable  and 
animal  departments,  all  proper  caro  and  cultivation 
tend  to  u-e  and  beauty.  Is  thcro  any  reason  why  the 
]>hysical  powers  of  man  slnmld  not  have  caro  and  cul- 
tivation to  the  same  ends !  Tho.^e  who  prefer  a  stooping, 
lounging,  awkward,  gmceless  iigure  and  motion,  may 
bo  on  one  side  of  tho  question  ;  those  who  think  that  it 
was  intended  that  man  sli<mld  bo  an  uprigiit,  easy, 
ftank,  comely,  and  convenient  being  to  himself,  and 
pleasant  to  all  within  whof^c  observation  ho  may  come, 
will  bo  on  the  other. 

Although  the  fi*amc  of  man  is  so  mado  as  to  permit 
liim  to  ashumo  an  endless  variety  of  positions,  and  to 
apply  his  s-itrength  in  all  of  them,  he  does,  or  should, 
return  always  to  an  upright  position.  No  essential  de- 
viation from  this  position  can  possibly  bo  a  natural  one, 
but  for  a  temporary  purpose.  This  is  proved  by  tho 
framing  of  ti:o  human  bones.  This  framing  shows, 
that,  when  one  walks,  it  was  intended  that  ho  should  be 
perpendicular;  if  he  walk  in  an  inclined  ])osition,  ho 
nas  not  only  to  move  himself,  but  to  resist  the  power  <»f 
gravitation  at  tho  same  time.  The  muscles,  in  such 
case,  havo  a  f^tniined  and  unnatural  duty  to  perform. 
It  seems  to  havo  been  intendetl,  by  tho  siune  sort  of 
pro>»f,  that  human  being?  hhould  walk  with  tho  lower 

liTiili*:     tlnf  iJ     fi-iiin  tli«»   Iii:w  I'liwuwnril    nu-l  tuit  u'itli  •»»» 


as  one  mode  of  praise  antl  tlianksgiving ; 
innocent  plea5ui*e.     Music  is  action;  i\ 
some  end;  the  end  is  innocent  and  del 
enjoyment  has  the  doublo  advantage  (rf 
and  social.     Music  may  be  made  to  prod 
high  moral  feeling,  and  it  may  bo  made 
feeling  of  very  opiHisito  character.    Tfa 
mu.-t  be  applied  to  this  subject  as  to  al 
every  thing  was  created,  and  for  some  | 
purpoi*e  ;  and  that  every  thing  must  aei, 
to  tuynxQ  useful  end,  if  human  ignorance  on 
interfeL*o.     Wo  therefore  contend  tlias 
make  mu.-)ic  is  to  bo  culti\'atody  and  iti 
thankfully  enjoyed. 

It  is  consistent  that  roan,  aa  he  is  so  I 
other  animalif,  should  be  alike  superior  : 
and  enjoying  of  musical  sounda.  He  n 
so.  1  lis  voice  (it  would  bo  more  proper  t 
voice)  includes  all  tho  sweet  sounds  whici 
by  all  otlier  animals.  Ho  han,  by  cultirati 
by  applying  tho  atmosphere  tlirough  the 
and  by  delicacy  of  touch,  and  by  brin^i 
in  contact  with  each  other,  and  by  wcw 
thrtmgli  that  wonderful  work  of  nis  o« 
organ,  fouud  the  means  of  rendering  triba 
High,  and  of  softening  and  purifying  hi 
No  doubt,  music  was  given  to  nmrtali  for 
nient,  ami  that  it  ia  their  duty  to  take  it 
and  be  thankful  for  it. 

Games. — Games  at  cards  are  a  very  eoi 
ment.  They  may  be  innocent,  but  there  is 
commend  them.  They  give  no  action  to  U 
are  a  very  humble  occupation  for  an  int 
^Vhethcr  the  ciiances  in  distributing  fifir 
spottc<l  pasteboard  fifty  succcssItc  timei 
four  hours,  shall  possess  some  of  the  enga 
tunato  pieces,  and  others  with  nnfortuii 
hardly  be  said  to  be  doing  ahv  thing  to  ai 
When  the  sport  is  over,  the  thing  proved 
is  that  in  this  w^^  of  four  huurs  of  a  short  li 
so  much,  and  H  so  much.     This  howevi 


♦•n 


<1 


IIVII'I 


\U 


>\'t\r\   »»ii.l    \r\    T>^ifi»«v     **f^A^ 


.roMhl.    T«t«k«IAil 
~     liUwmu>nr 

"  a  7ii4-HUnfnt 

--'■),    ThvnAink 
rluw*  it  u  nu)«h  domfil 


r  tha  ymilig  tiai  r(ir|ii'ir*'l  of  tho  prcM  Ua  a<Uan       J 
ir  hemltti  tint  •■  lo  lioota  of  vuily  snljr,  lnu       I 

■""""^ ■  1 


I  T  dcstii.    iott 


L'l'fn-t  cj-I.'iii  Lif  morol  cliilj'  c.i  r  [i.-niu.iljJpUili. 

11  nrUifi  urlJiBt  dilirnrBd  niMnil  tnv  ti  niiUjiM- 

!n  ttiH  Im  Cnrnnuii'litieiiU,  wlueb  am  «>  fbl- 

■1.  TTi.in  p.lirtll  tiiiirn.)  nlhrr  jpab  baton)  mc 

■  -'-'■  ■   '  -"■'  ■■  '-ititii  Uim  Bii]>stBTBa  bMfo^ 

'   II-  llmt  !■  in  IcaTea  thnci^ 

mil,  i>r  ttiM  li  in  tlin  wUw 

' .  'i [  iitil  biw  Auvn  tliyalf  W 


■■..  J 

1  ,„.I. 

1    .11    i-nir.-!..,-    !■ 

''t:'m 

•  that  tabrlb  hlx  M 

t>>.U>.<Li;,  hi  k«:,.  " 

-llOO 

snil  .!.,  all  111/  '.  ■ 

','  «• 

:.  ,»k 

-:  11.5 

->r 

ii.ya 

111* 

r  !','.''- 

CUAMBEBS'S  INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


tllalt  D< 


at  kill.— 7.  Thou  tball  not  coinmit  adultor)'. — 
B.  Thou  shnll  ufit  Hlenl.— 9.  Thou  shall  not  boBr  fiilse 
witn«s  ugainst  thy  neighbour. — 10.  Thou  shall  not 
soTel  th;  neighbour's  houBO,  ihou  ihnlt  not  covet  lliy 
nBifbbour'*  vrife,  nor  his  roan-serranl,  nor  his  maicl- 
servuB,  nor  bis  ox,  dot  lils  iu»,  aat  aay  tiling  that  » 
thy  nrfghbour'u." 

Such  WAS  the  cum  of  tho  moral  law,  until  Christ 
■ddfld  to  it  a  number  of  the  most  traDsetndonllj  es- 
callenl  adntouitious,  and  which  are  found  solttered 
tbroughnut  the  hititory  of  his  niiniatrationa  iu  the  four 

rpfls  in  tho  New  Teslamenl.  The  chief  morn.!  wbicli 
inculcated  vraa,  "  WbatBOOver  ye  would  that  men 
should  do  uDlo  you,  even  ao  do  nnto  them ;  ibr  thil  it 
the  law  aud  the  prophets."  Butthe  wlioleof  liiBBiyingn 
brtatbe  a  similar  Epirit  of  benevolence  and  eentleoesfc 
Ho  preached,  fur  Ihe  first  time  Ibat  it  had  been  dooe 
on  earth,  the  doctrine  of  **  peace  and  good-will  towirds 
men  ;"  thai  is,  uaiversal  lore  and  peace  omona  nil  nmn- 
kiud.  "  Ye  have  heard,"  said  ho,  "  that  it  faalh  been 
Mid,  Thou  AhaSt  lore  thy  neighbour,  and  hate  Ihine 
enemy;  but  I  say  unto  you,  Love  vour  eueniiea ;  blesa 
theiti  that  Gurso  you :  do  Eood  to  them  that  hate  you : 
and  pray  for  them  which  despltafully  use  you  and  per- 
Bceute  you."  Again,  he  said,  *■  Blessed  are  the  poor  in 
spirit,  for  Ihcira  ia  the  kingdom  of  heaven :  ble«ed  arc 
Ihey  tliat  mourn,  tor  (hey  sliall  be  comforted:  blessed 
are  die  meek,  for  they  shnll  inhei-it  the  earth :  blened 
are  they  which  du  hunger  and  Ihint  alter  rigbteouuieHe, 
for  they  shall  be  filled:  blessed  are  the  mercifnl,  (or 
they  shall  obtain  mercy;  blessed  are  the  pure  in  heart, 
for  tbey  shall  see  Ood ;  blessed  are  tlie  penfenmkers, 
for  tbeyahall  be  called  the  children  of  God;  blessed 
are  they  wliioh  are  persecuted  for  righteiiusnesfi'  sake, 
for  theirs  is  the  kingdom  of  heaven:  ble«sed  arc  ye 
when  men  shall  revile  you,  and  persecute  yon,  and  shRll 
say  all  manner  of  evil  ncainst  yon  falsely  for  mj'sake." 
In  this  msnner  he  taught  the  n'eat  necessity  for  beine 
humble  and  lowly  in  s[unl  as  the  bails  of  all  virtue  and 
sooial  happiness.  Me  likewise  inculcated,  at  different 
tuoes,  the  aeeesally  of  putting  away  every  thing  like 
oatcDlaliou  in  doing  good  actions.  Ho  tells  us  n»t  to 
give  our  alms  before  men,  bnt  to  bestow  Ihem  in  secret ; 
not  to  pmy  ostenlaliouftly  in  public,  liiit  in  n  privaie 


of  oar  torgiviug  of  ii 

forgive  an  fnjnry  for __, 

hhn,  "  1  say  not  ud(u  thee.  UotU  nrrim  tilBshl 
seventy  times  seven  ;"  by  whkb  "e  anWHi 
that  tlicru  is  ta  be  np  linrit  to  obT  ftiyilMK 
things,  we  arc  told  by  5t  Hati),  u*  M*aM 
Hope,  and  Charity,  bat  thai  th*  cthImI  at 
Charily,  or  a  disposition  to  think  wiO  olpmt^ 
whatever  may  be  th^  Bctiuna.  It  ts  si*  * 
incnlcatod  that  charity  is  lb«  An*  if  Ha  < 
virtues.  Personifying  it,  it  is  Mid.  '  UmMj  < 
long,  and  ia  kind ;  cliarily  eavieibuat;dwcvly' 
not  itself,  is  not  puflM  up,  <lMh  DM  Mwe  I 
seenily,  seeketh  not  her  own.  »  not  ndyfi 
Ihinkelhno  evil  I  rejoioedi  not  Id  int^nil*,  IM  I 
iu  the  truth;  bcarelh  all  Ihuijn,  bilknH  tt 
bopcth  all  things,  ciidureth  all  llnngk' 


Wa  have  now  given  an  eluddatiaa  afvtal 
aider  to  be  the  principal  duties  ••  wv  alM« 
form  during  life,  both  to  ourerlvtsi  and  l»  sika 
Hubjeat  is  by  no  means  esttanatod,  yU  Mos^l 
said  to  ■ffoi'd  human  beings  •  vurw  at  nkM  1 
ought  to  follow  in  tlie  pursuit  of  ii~  *'  " 
twppinesc  The  object  we  held  in     ' 


and  old,  hiel 


,    Wo  have,  lo  the  brat  a(«^! 


d  low, 


eiecnting  tlirir  irmporal  dulkih 

shown  that  if  iium  ba  not  k  hapii/,  k  k. 

tied  being,  he  must  aocune  hintseU,  tt^  M 
that  tlie  system  nf  being  t<i  whiell  li     '  * 


evolent.      We  havi 

Uvidiuilly  and  bocl 

. ;  tiiat  he  bos  removed 


ooodilion,  and  has  advaaeod  far  L.   

puwere,  and  in  applying  them  ia  ttte  m 
DwnfaappiBeaa.    Uut  it  "--     -  -^ 

still  vai^  lartlwr  to  go 

way  is  kaowu  to  him,  ud  that  Um*  tn  • 
in  It  which  he  may  not  r 
the  pcifeelibilltv  cf  manl 
"liiH>  nrrecli.vvntlic  ni< 
.-  i''<>  jilainlv  Hut  there 


e  least  of  the  eomniandiui 


umr 

■el 

wi 

Leave  Ih 

It 

ly  ;  first  h 

reconciled  In  Ih 

hr<.th 

id  offer  thv  f^fl.  Azree  will 

thiiir 

■i 

lil^t  lliou 

ith  hi 

-.Viup 

rl 

o  nil  who 

ntlond  Iho  pul,li 

1' 

ol 

again^il  hunuui  peiHecov 


lodiiiiK  may  ocTur  to  i 
ual,  and  moral  iuprar 
liappily  in  the  vtay  of  l 


k?  .Mteiinpi.  Makti«  a  ^ 
ofHnnk.  Duties  vhiek  Ik 
ni.ihcr,  ttiuvof  TniMlBllf 


■g  forth  evi 


:  tlicrr.'fore  by  llii-ir  fruits  ye  i 


le  ki»Bd.,m  of  h. 
y  Father  which 


CHAMBERS'S 
^FORMATION  FOB  THE  PEOPLE. 


l.WP.  Mil'  M.VXIS1.S  OF  KHANKLIN. 


New  ABU  Impihtvcp  Sehies. 


—     \ 


•r«a  (will  ill  (ITCtt  VltMin  1)jr  Iti)  t'I»DI 

itoi  Ilia  {iructlcal  p""!  whiw  Tntr»  < 
llm  EdooiitlDn  n(  tii*  vhililrcu  :  iin.l 
Av>ia*  tly  Biinilc   lu  ler 
taOo,  In  tLa  muy  vtnnii 


imm  u  w  tlik  It  vould  be  •  litrd  nu  l«r  or  nn  In 
rrmU  t,  a  f  w  houn  iik*r  t  hail  dinw  whM  n  y 
d  on  B  M  tw  d  ^^  hen  nn  a,  ti*  fwMt 
vnlnHv  i^i'rrit'iKaid  tim  btauM  at  ibu  liurlt :  fw  II  bu 
iiruii  liijmunrJ  lu  inc  Id  be  in  tamputij  wUli  pernor 
tthfi,  hkviiig  a  DION  iIciicKte  i>««Mia«  a  mora  exaro**! 
Uaic,  liars  Miffun-d  in  manjf  nan  eoondaniMv  iiraoa- 
tonlnnim ;  wliU*,  w  (n  lajnwif,  I  faav*  bad  nMliIiijt  m 
drwru,"  Udnjaniin  iviui  at  tint  ic^fii*i  In  bs  ■  clecX}'- 
limn,  nud  at  oiglil  nut*  of  ■«•  «M  pal  l«  iha  gnrnt- 
mar-wlioal  tvfui  uiat  view,  tuivlng  jitvimuij  bMm 
tuight  lo  l-Md.  Hi*  nnela  Dmjanilni  who  \ia4  llk«»iw 
nni^nwl,  •Dmiini|[«)  lliiii  i-raJHil.  Thl*  IndltUual 
■)i]iwin>  to  lui*Bb««nKUMudljiDcaMitrlcaadlfig«alMia 
iiMii.  He  «ullirate4  the  Miu»  with  a  «id«ih  timi  g»** 
rir,  «t  Ipwt,  entiiv  nluftotlvi.  But  nhitl  lin  ww 
prou'l  of  mw  «  uracies  (if  thurt-huid  ii/  ttlii  ews 
iiiiii,  nl.oniwilb  lin  tiBd  ourii"!  ott  trom  the  ea»> 
TMijjUnd  (cviml  ToluniBi  of  lermnKi  wlwhi 
<l  IbeaB  lu  dnigiwl  Tar  bi4  nnplivurS  Miiiik 
.  UiidiouUwt  upMiiMBubiir.  llutyouiiK 
iii><  bMtnftynr  ktMUluol  olieu  Ilia  ri.Uu-r 


f  iMnllj.    lie  >ip*i 
t  •  nan  •(  rtai  uonMnUun  Mid  BiU  J'    ^. 
bMl  •Ml**,  aed  rcv-j^ :  aei  iJ(haD|li  k«pt  la  •>«• 


I 

'i 

I 

-.1 

t? 

-t 


i> 


I 


ii 


ot  nine  years ;  iiiui  is,  uniii  nc  suoum  rcacn  mu  ago  ui 
twenty-one. 

The  choice  of  tliis  profession,  as  it  turned  out,  was 
a  lucky  one ;  and  it  was  made  after  much  careful  and 
correct  observation  on  the  part  of  the  parent.  He  had 
watched  his  son's  incre.iMni;  fondness  for  books,  and 
thirst  for  information,  and  that,  too,  of  a  solid  and  in- 
structive sort ;  and  he  therefore  judiciously  resolved  to 
place  him  in  a  favourable  situation  for  gratifying  thin 
propensity  in  the  youthful  mind ;  while  he  wuuld,  at  the 
same  time,  be  instructed  in  a  profession  by  which  he 
could  always  inde^^endently  maintaiu  himself,  in  wliat- 
ever  quarter  his  fortunes  might  lead  him,  within  the 
bounds  of  the  civilisi'd  world.  Franklin  thus  speaks  of 
his  early  and  insatiable  craving  after  knowledge  :— 

*^  From  my  earliest  years  1  had  been  ]>assionately 
fond  of  rcadiujT,  and  I  laid  out  in  books  all  the  money 
I  could  procuiv.  I  was  particuhirly  pleased  with  ac- 
counts of  voyages.  My  fii*st  acquisition  was  Bunyan*s 
collection,  in  small  separate  volumes.  These  I  after- 
wards sold,  in  order  to  buy  an  historical  collection  by 
li.  Burton,  which  consisted  of  small  cheap  volumes, 
amounting  in  all  to  about  forty  or  fifty.  My  father's 
little  library  was  principally  made  up  of  books  of  prac- 
tical and  polemical  theology.  I  read  the  greatest  ftart 
of  them.  There  was  also  among  my  father's  books 
Plutarch's  Lives,  in  which  I  read  continually,  and  I 
still  regard  as  advantagi*ously  employed  the  time  de- 
voted to  them.  1  found,  U'sides,  a  work  of  De  Foe's, 
entitled  An  Kssay  on  Frojects,  from  which,  perhaps, 
I  derived  im]iressions  that  have  f<inco  influenced  some 
of  the  principal  events  of  my  life."  It  seems  to  have 
been  lucky  for  himself  and  mankind  that  the  last-namtrd 
author's  most  celebrated  wDrk,  Kobiusou  Crusoe,  did 
not  fall  into  his  hands  at  this  i>eriod. 

By  his  assiduity  Franklin  soon  attained  great  pro- 
ficiency in  his  business,  and  became  very  serviceable  to 
liis  brother.  At  the  same  time,  he  formed  acquaintance 
with  various  booksellers'  apprentices,  by  whose  furtive 
assistance  he  was  enabled  to  extend  the  sphere  of  his 
reading.  This  gratification,  however,  was  for  the  most 
]tart  cnjo^-ed  at  the  exjiensc  of  his  natural  rest.  **  How 
often,"  says  he,  **  has  it  lKipp«'ni-d  to  me  to  pa'ts  the 


oi  me  name  oi  ix>iiin8,  wno  wm  iiKe 
ately  fond  of  books,  and  with  wbocn : 
and  long  arguments  on  various  subject 
this  circumstance,  Franklin  commeoti 
the  dangerous  consequences  of  aeqairii 
habit,  as  tending  to  genermtfe  acriiiMU 
society,  and  often  hatred  betwixt  the 
Ho  dismisses  the  subject  with  the  k 
enough  observation : — **  I  hare  anee 
men  of  sense  seldom  fall  into  this  citi 
lows  of  universities^  and  pertomt  9i 
educated  at  Edinburph^  exeeptedP*  '. 
Franklin  and  his  com|Muiion  Laving  ft 
an  argument  one  day,  which  was  mai 
sides  with  equal  pertinacitT,  thejpartt 
ing  it  to  a  termination;  and  aathejwci 
for  some  time,  an  agreement  was  madi 
carry  on  their  dispute  1^  ktter.  Thii 
done ;  when,  after  the  intnrhime  of 
the  whole  corrsspondmiea  haMOMd 
hands  of  Franklin's  lather.  AAtf  | 
nmch  interest^  his  natnnl  ■Mtnni 
enabled  him  to  point  cot  to  Ui  MO  boi 
to  his  adversaiy  in  eleeanee  of  aKpiWM 
and  perspicuity.  Feeling  the  jnsdee  d 
marks,  he  forthwith  studied  most  aaxii 
his  style ;  and  the  phui  he  adopted  lor 
equally  interesting  and  UMtmethre. 

**  Amidst  theee  resolve^"  he  ssyi^ ' 
of  the  Spectator  fell  into  mj  hands.  ' 
lication  1  had  never  seen.  I  bought  t 
read  it  again  and  again.  I  was  enc 
thought  the  style  excellent,  and  wiiJui 
power  to  imitate  it  With  this  view  1 1 
the  papers,  made  short  summaries  of  tl 
period,  and  put  them  for  a  few  days 
without  looking  at  the  book,  endeavoor 
e68a}'8  to  their  due  fdnrn,  and  to  expre 
at  length,  as  it  was  in  the  original,  cmf 
appropriate  words  that  occurred  to  my 
wards  compared  my  Spectator  with  i 
(K*rct*ived  some  faults,  whidb  I  oomcCc 
that  I  chieflv  wanted  a  fund  of  word». 


LIFE  AND  MAXIMS  OF  FRANKLIN. 


mes  the  satisfaction  to  think,  that,  in  certain 
ulars  of  little  importance,  I  had  been  fortunate 
h  to  improve  the  order  of  the  thought  or  style ; 
.is  encoura|;ed  me  tx>  hope  that  I  should  succeed 
■e  in  writing  decently  in  the  English  language, 
was  one  of  the  greatest  objects  of  my  ambition." 

it  was  not  only  by  such  rigorous  self-imposed 
that  this  extraordinary  man,  even  at  so  early  an 
ndeavoured  to  chasten  his  mind,  and  make  every 
J  propensity  subservient  to  his  sense  of  duty. 
10  began  to  exercise  those  acta  of  personal  self- 

which  the  heyday  of  youth,  the  season  for  ani- 
mjuyment,  feels  as  the  most  intolerable  of  all 
ztions.  Having  met  with  a  work  recommending  a 
%h\e  diet,  he  determined  to  adopt  iL  Finding,  after 
days'  trial,  that  he  was  ridiculed  by  his  fellow- 
ers  for  his  singularity,  he  proposed  to  his  brother 
«  the  half  of  what  was  now  paid  by  that  relative 

■  board,  and  therewith  to  maintain  himself.  No 
uon  was,  of  course,  made  to  such  an  arrangement ; 
le  soon  found  that  of  what  he  received  he  was 
U)  save  one-half.  "  This,"  says  he,  **  was  a  new 
for  the  purchase  of  books,  and  other  advantages 
.ed  to  me  from  the  plan.  When  my  brother  and 
orkmen  left  the  pnnting-house  to  go  to  dinner, 
aained  behind ;  and  dispatching  my  frugal  meal, 
I  frequently  consisted  of  a  biscuit  only,  or  a  slice 
ead  and  a  bunch  of  raisins,  or  a  bun  from  the 
jr-cook's,  with  a  glass  of  water,  I  had  the  rest  of 
me  till  their  return  for  study ;  and  my  progress 
in  was  proportioned  to  that  clearness  of  ideas  and 
ness  of  conception  which  are  the  fruits  of  tempo- 
t  in  eating  and  drinking." 

other  remarkable  instance  of  the  resolute  way  in 
1  he  set  about  making  himself  master  of  whatever 
rement  he  found  mure  immediately  necessary  to 
t  the  moment,  is  the  following : — Having  been  put 

■  blush  one  day  for  his  ignorance  in  the  art  of  cal- 
on,  which  he  had  twice  failed  to  learn  while  at 
l»  he  procured  a  copy  of  Cocker's  Arithmetic,  and 
hrough  it  all,  making  himself  completely  master  of 
*r<e  turning  his  mind  to  any  thing  else !  He  soon 
ftlso,  gained  some  little  acquaintance  with  geome- 
y  perusing  a  work  on  navigation.  He  mentions, 
i^e,  his  reading  about  this  time  Locke's  Essay  on 
^derstandine,  and  the  Art  of  Thinking,  by  Messrs 
c*X  Iloyal.  Having  found,  in  some  essay  on  rhe- 
T\d  logic,  a  model  of  disputation  after  the  manner 
tmtes,  which  consists  in  di*awing  on  your  oppo- 
l>y  insidious  questions,  into  making  admissions 

militate  against  himself,  he  became  excessively 
r  it,  he  says,  and  practised  it  for  some  years  with 
&^cce68,  but  ultimately  abandoned  it,  perceiving 

could  be  made  as  available  to  the  cause  of  wrong 
t^  of  right,  while  the  prime  end  of  all  argument 

convince  or  inform. 
Vit  three  years  after  Franklin  went  to  his  appren- 
p,  that  is  to  say,  in  1721,  his  brother  began  to 
^  newspaper,  the  second  that  was  established  in 
x»,  which  he  called  the  New  England  Courant: 
!>«  previously  established  was  the  Boston  News 
'«  The  new  publication  brought  thennost  of  the 
S  of  Boston  about  the  printing-office,  thany  of 
were  contributors;  and  Franklin  frequently 
^ard  them  conversing  about  the  various  articles 
(speared  in  its  columns,  and  the  approbation  with 

particular  ones  were  received.  He  became  am- 
ts  to  participate  in  this  sort  of  fame ;  and  having 
^  out  a  paper,  in  a  disguised  hand,  he  slipped  it 

the  door  of  the  printing-office,  where  it  was  found 
doming,  and  submitted,  as  usual,  to  the  critics 

they  assembled.  **  They  read  it,"  he  says ;  **  coin- 
ed on  it  in  my  hearing;  and  I  had  the  exquisite 
^re  to  find  that  it  met  witli  their  approbation ;  and 
n  the  various  conjectures  tliey  made  respecting 
Athor,  no  one  was  mentioned  who  did  not  enjoy  a 
deputation  in  the  country  for  talent  and  genius. 
^  supposed  myself  fortunate  in  my  judges,  and 
h.  to  lospect  that  they  were  not  buoa  excellent 

643 


writers  as  I  had  hitherto  supposed  them.  Be  this  as 
it  may,  encouraged  by  this  little  adventure,  I  wrote  and 
sent  to  press,  in  the  same  way,  many  other  pieces  which 
were  equally  approved — keeping  the  secret  till  my  slen- 
der stock  of  iufurmation  and  knowledge  for  such  per- 
formances was  pretty  completely  exhausted."  He  then 
discovered  himself,  and  had  the  satisfaction  of  finding 
he  was  treated  with  much  more  respect  by  his  brother 
and  his  friends  than  heretofore. 

The  two  brothers,  however,  lived  together  on  very 
disagreeable  terms,  in  consequence  of  the  hasty  and 
overbearing  tem{>er  of  the  elder ;  and  Benjamin  anxi- 
ously longed  for  an  opportunity  of  separating  from  him. 
This  at  last  occurredL  Ilia  brother  was  apprehended 
and  imprisoned  for  some  political  article  which  offended 
the  local  government,  and  upon  his  liberation  was  pro- 
hibited from  ever  printing  his  newspaper  again.  It  was 
therefore  determined  that  it  should  be  published  in  Ben- 
jamin's name,  who  had  managed  it  during  hi&  brother's 
confinement  with  great  spirit  and  ability.  To  avoid 
having  it  said  that  the  elder  brother  was  only  screen- 
ing himself  behind  one  of  his  apprentices,  Benjamin's 
indenture  was  delivered  up  to  him  discharged,  and  pri- 
vate indentures  entered  into  for  the  remainder  of  his 
time.  This  underhand  arrangement  was  proceeded  in 
for  several  months,  the  paper  continuing  to  be  printed 
in  Benjamin's  name ;  but  his  brother  having  one  day 
again  broken  out  into  one  of  his  violent  fits  of  passion, 
and  struck  him,  he  availed  himself  of  his  discharged 
indentures,  well  knowing  that  the  others  would  never 
be  produced  against  him,  and  gave  up  his  employment. 
Franklin  afterwards  regretted  his  having  taken  so  un- 
fair an  advantage  of  his  brother's  situation,  and  regarded 
it  as  one  of  the  first  errata  of  his  life.  His  brother  felt 
so  exasperated  on  the  occasion,  that  he  went  round  all 
the  printing-houses,  and  represented  Benjamin  in  such 
a  h'ght  that  they  all  refused  his  services. 

PROCEEDS  TO  PHILADELPHIA. 

Finding  he  could  get  no  empIo}'ment  at  Boston,  as 
well  as  that  he  was  regarded  with  dislike  by  the  go- 
vernment, he  resolved  to  proceed  to  New  York,  the 
nearest  town  in  which  there  was  a  printing-office.  To 
raise  sufficient  funds  for  this  purpose,  he  sold  part  of 
his  library;  and  having  eluded  the  vigilance  of  his 
parents,  who  were  opposed  to  his  intention,  he  secretly 
got  on  board  of  a  vessel,  and  landed  at  New  York  on 
the  third  day  after  sailing. 

Thus,  at  the  age  of  seventeen,  Franklin  found  him- 
self three  hundred  miles  from  his  native  place,  from 
which  he  was  in  some  sort  a  rujsaway,  without  a  friend^ 
or  recommendation  to  any  one,  and  with  vety  little 
money  in  his  pocket.  To  complete  his  dilemma,  he 
foundi^  on  applying,  that  the  only  printer  then  in  the 
town  could  give  him  no  emplpyment.  That  person, 
however,  recommended  him  to  go  to  Philadelphia, 
where  he  had  a  son,  who,  he  thought,  would  give  him 
work ;  and  he  accordingly  set  ofi"  for  that  place.  His 
journey  was  a  most  disastrous  ono  both  by  water  and 
land,  and  he  frequently  regretted  leaving  home  so 
rashly,  fie  reached  his  destination  at  last,  however, 
and  in  a  plight  which  certainly  did  not  bode  over-aus- 
piciously  for  his  future  fortud^  His  own  graphic 
description  of  his  condition  and  appearance,  on  his 
first  entrance  into  Philadelphia,  is  at  once  interesting 
and  amusing : — 

**  I  have  entered  into  the  particulars  of  my  voyage, 
and  shall  in  like  manner  describe  my  first  entrance 
into  this  place,  that  you  may  be  able  to  compare  begin- 
nings so  unlikely  with  the  figure  I  have  since  made. 
I  was  in  my  working  dress,  my  best  clothes  being  to 
come  by  sea.  I  ^'as  covered  with  dirt ;  my  pockets  were 
filled  with  shirts  and  stockings ;  I  was  unacquainted 
with  a  single  soul  in  the  place,  and  knew  nut  where 
to  seek  a  lodging.  Fatigued  with  walking,  rowing,  and 
having  passed  the  night  without  sleep,  I  was  extremely 
hungry,  and  all  my  money  consisted  of  a  Dutch  dollar, 
and  about  a  shilling's  worth  of  coppers,  which  I  save 
to  the  boatmen  for  my  paasage.    At  first  they  refused 


«»•-      ■       ■  ■  *      ^      ■#      - 


.Vv#»    '.:i*ni  .    :*.'ifr'V     ».it'.    i:i- l^ir 


,'/'.'I.■'•rf 


|^«•u.■  t  tM.  V  ;it   1  j- 


'■» 


uifte? 


J 


.:* 


—   ..f  ..  .  » 


./  i .:   . .    'rf  ^  ,'.• .  \*  .■^*.■.•  ■■  •-  -  "  J*    i-'.i :  „ . .  ■ ;  i,4r: 


S:r  "(i  li-a-Ti  Hftit  -HOC  Jbt 

lit  jftTLcr   :f 
lit   ifcV.t?.     i! 


«.     is 


M«/JB*,/  tf^^-u^y/:  !■- ..-.  i  ^»  .'  ,•* .  /-,  . .  '  «i  ■  *  '.r-*  '.'.it J  :«!( 


u*  h  t*v/.i.i  *.'-':  ..  ■/ 


i»  •--,  ..^1 


•i-.c-*  -iv*-  t.^ 


u.  za-j'^  :  xzii  I  -uTii  izjt  =*j 


0'tfKf  •.»x,  V*  ,!■.  \'.  •  t^/i^.  i.;y',  v\jt  ii»4..%i/  Vy  v^tiir  ut 
^U*fi*   •»*Jt  ;•»  ••   f  - .     '.-.'   ■• « . .  :.• '  t**:^»   j "■-■  yg>,*i  a. . .  ;; •.  ^i/ 

^fWh  *»*<♦*  ti»«;  /« -',  «-:.'),  k.'v  .•  ;'-'#*-;.^  r^'nA  a,-,  for 

I  iififij|<<|,  «/f  if  I  wlii«:li  I  t:J<::'t^  III  J'liila/l<rl]/Lia,"  i 

Un^iun  MrHh  M/ffM'  'JiffW'Utt)'  itr*Hiurtd  si  \'A'/,\nz  for  I 
tU*t  fi)iilit»  If:  III  xl  itttittnufi;  Miiit<"loii  Mr  i/rAiJfor<l,tlie  ■ 
|ir)iii4 1'  lo  KvlMifii  lit«  liu<l  \t*-vn  <lir<?ctivl,     'J'lial  imlivi-  | 
tUtnl  tuinl  U*'Uiif\  iiowof  li  (or  liiifi  at  prANciit,  but  flircctod 
liMii  lo  M  bi'ollMT  111  ti'b<l<:  of  I  hi!  fittiiKJ  of  KeimeT,  who, 
ii|Hrii  H|f)ii)<>iitioii,iiiM<h;hiiii  thr  »-ttiiiti  aiiMwcr ;  but,  nftcr 
KoituXh  i-iii|{  M  litll**,  M  I  him  to  \tui  nil  old  |irchN  ^l  rightit, 
boifitt  ihu  only  oiiu  iiiflftul  hr  iMihwiiM'd ;  Mid  jii  a  few 
lUyu  (fiivti  liiiM  rfifitUr  work.     I  i|ioii  thiH,  I''ninkliii  took 
K  loilitiitK  ill  lliu  lioiiMi  of  Mr  llt'tnl,  hit  future  f:ither-iii- 
Ifiw. 

I''lllli|illll    IiimI    Im'KII    hoiun    lUiMltllN    fit    I'hi|ildc||lhU, 

wHhoul  t  illit«r  wiiihiK  to  III*  lii-iii-iit^  from  hoiiif,  and, 
urn  liii  Miyn,  Iryliiff  to  t'tivm-'t  Itonlon  UN  iiiuiih  AHiMMiHiblo, 
whtiii  11  lirnllicr  Ml  law  ol  iiia,  a  mitntrr  ofa  voMN«'I,]iaviuj( 


i%  in  i2i 


ha 

r  B 
AU 


NiMi|i|ii|iiiilly  himnt  wIhm'p  Ii"  wa*^,  wroti*  tuliim,  prvviiing 
Ida  ii>hiniliiMuo  ill  tlm  iiio.ii  iiiui-iiltmnN.  Ki*aiiklin*i» 
1 1  |ilvi  ili>iOluln|{  «tMUi|iliiuirii  witli  (lio  rtM|ii(>Nt,  lni|>|ioiiod 


*  -^ 

UiM;  Lift  put.a:«  . 
l..:n  wiiiAtc^eT,  lift 
t'^  LsforLi  liieci  «!icr«  he 
^xcfr^uu  of  luft  trt4ber 
biiii  j  Mid  z»/:  the  less  ao^  peiliaM 
rtriied  in  a  complete  new  Mi^t  of  doll 
wlveriiatch,aad  about  fire  p**^miii  a 
llu  father  «a$  exeeedin^ljr  aiiruai 
of  the  object  of  Ilia  \-uHt,  and  alilla 
of  Governor  Keith'»  episUc.  Aflei 
he  caine  to  tbo  nsolatxon  (>f  refoai 
tlie  request,  on  account  of  hia  won 
undertake  the  management  of  n 
adding,  that  he  thought  the  goYoiuu 
crction  in  proposing  it.  lie  promii 
liiH  son  should  attain  bia  twenty •firal 
supply  him  with  what  money  ho  roq 
in  business,  praising  him  highly,  «| 
his  industry  and  goM  conduct.  Fr 
was  necessitated  to  retoni  to  Ph 
news  of  liis  bad  snccea^  but  left  Boa 
accompanied  bv  the  blcaaiiigs  of  h 
hu  arrived  at  rhiUdelphia,  he  i&unc 
the  goTcrnor,  and  communicmtcd  th 
ney.  Sir  WilUara  obscnrod  that  I 
prudent ;"  but  added,  "  sinoc  he  i« 


OP  FRAmCLIN. 


lA  uij  ilti'  Uili  at  UiiWU-v  17-b.  Pnuiklm  liwl  Jvm 
t*ndliktweut;>flMt  jwkTsl  thiatinu;  tuiU  bvini" 
a*  lisvtn;  drawn  op  tat  Irimtolf  in  niitiag,  dvrl 


rFnllUniia,ltatiK>al]u*l<ia  km c«criuflil<i liy  Kntnliliit 
the  dugnMful  <nip«iitors  tiu  oilier  had  [ii'suiIikI 

I'nokiia'a  imw  «ni|ii('y«i'  liail  only  bmn  m  bndaa* 
r  n  taw  inuntlw,  wliuu  Im>IIi  ww*  uwd  at  lln>  Mnw 
UD  wllii  a  «iuliiul  lUsordvf,  nliiuli  (srrunJ  off  tin 
UCer  lo  B  fciT  dn;«,  wul  irranghl  lliBiiterk  li>  Uia  briuk 

ih--  JTHTr.       On  Mj  IWIIT'TT-,   bc*Tl|I  thu"  Hutu 


•  (n  Ui*  iilin|>— in  nl.riN,  [  *»»,  in  mcj  naqwM,  lliri 
Btutum."  Uul  !la  likuiriMS  Al  Uiii  tiiiw,  ^rv  viaUnC 
markabh)  ItMUmew  uf  tii*  lenatilB  iuKunuil^. 

•  Oar  prvw,"  ■»);>  h»,  <■  iru  ffsqwiiU/  in  wi 
D  mewwry  qianiiljr  o(  lnUcr,  nnd  ibun  wu  in 
kila  M  Uiat  or  l«ti*isfaiind*r  in  America.    I  iiAi 

•  ynotisH  uf  Ihi)  lurt  at  tlia  houm  at  J&aui,  In  Loo- 
-n,  faui  had  M  tbu  tiniH  iiaiil  it  v<rj  [iiiJ*  annnllim. 
IwwBVvr,  euilrivad  to  hbricaM  «  mimlil.  1  nuu*  '  — 
audi  Mum  u>  wt  Itad  for  puashvn,  finindoi 

,Un  of  \mi  in  matrioea  of  da/;  and  ibiu  mj 
a  lolnwlila  manner,  Uw  waiiU  tlmt  m'ni  mnt  , 
lit."  [>mtittiii'«  iurfntivu  initnl  wiiuM  MHnn  liFfo  lit 
.*•  (iMaintil  a  dtatatil  gliiujMa  vl  Ilia  priiii^ihl*  <il  i 
ulgpiuf,  «UiA  luuiidDoe  IwoiAtrriril  to  men  a  hoij 
QaefBlUH  and  MTTvctiaii,  m  oneiuplitlHl  In  (lla  Ti 
A  pulillcatifliu  a)  tlin  editor*  of  thia  mtianllnnT. 
KMitm  lMrint;«nijvead  Knuihlin  Hnlely  with  the  rl 
tuvlUR  libi  M>fnauet»  aa  fur  iirlilkii-d  in  iha  ail 
at  bs  CuuliI  dupeuw  mtli  ttwlr  liwtriict<ii''>  ivrcii 
:ik  tlic  Am  nooMun  to  ouarret  villi  lilm  »limi 
.jQSlitli.i  (lint  .iilR.;nitT_r  mull.,.!  Iil-.  ..iij..Tl.     l.'j 


111:  miamni,  ami  tjpiM.  |rtH>,  «c^  «ti 
ntiniwianeil  (torn  VhuAhu-,  vA  -iAAk 
A  th«it  ^Uti  )M»  vttwaWti^TMiAAi 


CHAMBEBS'S  INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE- 


doring  tbe  Snterv^l,  to  retam  tgala  to  K«inier,  xt  the 
arjfent  BoliciUtion  of  the  Imter.  The  molive  for  [li« 
buuxlilo  enlreaiy  wu  thul  iiidiiidual'a  hitvjng  lab?n  a 
cantnwl  fov  Ilie  priiitinf;  of  same  pnppr-nioncy  fur  the 
■MM  uf  Nffw  Jersey,  rBquiring  ti  vwiely  of  naw  culu 
•nd  UliM)  vhieh  lie  knew  well  uobod;  in  ilial  place  but 
Ifnuiklin  onuld  aupplf.  Tbis  aiso  preaeula  ub  mlh  a 
vary  striliiiig  instaiicii  of  Fnuiklia'B  icmarkable  gitt  of 

*■  To  cxccnte  the  order,"  aiys  he,  "  I  eonHtruetpd  a 
copporplula  priuting-prCH — thefiKMhathid  bwnseen 
In  tbe  oountry.  1  engraved  TBrioui  ornanentB  uid 
yikiivUm  for  tlie  bill),  uid  we  repnired  to  Borltngtiin 
h^iitliHr,  wbere  t  bknuImI  Ui«  wholo  to  the  geiiemt 
uli>fBclion,  and  he  (Keinier)  nceived  a  Bam  of  inonej 
tat  tliu  woik  which  eiiBfali>d  hini  to  karp  hia  bead  aboTc 
watnr  for  m  csnsideralile  time  longer." 

A%  Burlington,  FnuiliIJn  formed  seqaaintanee  with 
■II  tiie  prinoipal  penonagei  of  tlio  pruiinea,  who  were 
attninlnl  by  hi*  HU)>eriar  abiUiii^  and  iiitetligenoe. 
Anum^it  thc§e  Has  the  iiupector-geoeralf  Isaac  Deeon, 
"  who,"  aa^ H  Fnuiklin,  "  waa  a  shrewd  and  aublle  old 
DUia,  IIf  (old  me  tliat  Ilia  finl  emplnj'inent  had  been 
tliiit  of  ciirrjing  cloy  to  the  briekmaters  ;  that  ho  did 
imi  Wrn  I'lnritctillhewBiMinewhat  adrancedin  life; 
thul  \iv  una  sltvrwardu  employed  ae  underling  to  a  imr- 
Tcjur,  »li"  Uioght  him  hia  irade  ;  and  that,  by  industry, 
be  had  at  iMt  jteqiiircd  a  competent  fortune^  '  1  fure- 
—  '  -  'd  be,  '  lliat  you  will  bood  Bupplaul  thii  mDn 


Franklin  had  scarcely  returned  from  Burlington, 
whim  the  lypweoinniaauniMlfiirUiuelfBndMMwditfa, 
from  London,  arrived ;  and  baTing  aettled  maUen  with 


I  have  since  earned."  A  nnmlwr  of  young  men  having, 
during  ihc  preceding  Jesr,  formed  lliemselTCf,  U 
Frxnklin's  BUggt»Iion,  into  a  weekly  dub  for  the  pur- 
pose of  nmiual  improremenl,  they  were  so  well  plcnsed 


ind  in  tlii^  picn  Iclti^,  wiih 

<  prru.  ll  was  frequently 
tini»<  Intor,  befnre  i  bail 
It  day'stask  ;  fur  the 


in  kept  n, 


ptrtnerB 

enable  Ihcm  [o  make  iha  trial ;  b«l 
inoBHliouslj  divulged  their  ioleatimi 
Ihnl  individual  informal  ttii  ~ 


'it^ 


manneTinwhieb  Franklin  m#t&n4(M(tttnltU*a 
is  cxeeedXDgly  charactarimie.  Tberv  wan  UMdai 
published  inPbiladdpfaia  by  Mr  BnJbrd.wU 
been  in  eirslrncc  for  somo  Jrnani|  bM  na  mik 
ruble  alfair,  that  it  onlv  praernd  tt>  vilaMr  I 
no  other  ■loiiv  to  knock  it  on  tliw  h*a^  ■■■ 
keep  down  Keimer'a  pobliemtMin.  howcnr.  f 
saw  the  poliey  of  EnDportiDg  Ifaa  oM  oae  013  |a 
to  start  bin  own.  lie  thewitpoa  apt  abeiM  « 
aeries  uf  amuuns  arliclea  for  rt,  wliiidi  Um  |«I 
Brsdfonl,  wu  of  eontSB  very  j^tiwl  U>  i^iMt,  *i 

means,"  says  r Iiliii  "  llii  nic  fiiiilnii  i  flkipl 

kept  Eied  on  that  paper,  and  If  r  iniri'i  iiii|iiiah 
we  burlesqued  and  ridiculed,   wara  iImi  anii  <» 

began  hiB  paper,  however ;  and,  afl«r liiiaM 

nine  monihs,  having  at  moat  not  mora  tliaaaiM 
seribem,  he  offered  it  to  me  for  >  iBcre  Ixlte, ' 
for  aOlae  time  been  prepared  for  it ;  I  ilmJ 
Btantly  took  it  upon  myself,  and  in  a  frwyiantt| 
very  jirolilable  lo  me."      In  fact,  it  obtained  ■ 

of  Bomo  obsorviliouB  thi^reio  by  Franklia,  Ml 
pnrtant  colonial  qncrtton ;  and  Yarioqa  Mnri 
Assembly  exerted  themselves  ao  nrll  la  k*  I 
that  the  printing  of  the  Home  w^  sawcdUy  iam 
from  Bradford  M  his  twoyoiuigc  rivaM  la  ikH 
meat  of  biB  newspaper,  fWnkltn  |  iiimi  J  >  ■!< 
unllincbiiig  inleBriiy,  He  ModfaoUr  wftasM 
admisnon  into  his  oolamna  of  wij  artida  «Mi 
bbase  of  paMicnlir  fmiividaalib    ^0M 


peraooal  at 


r  was,  that  he  would  pilni  tha 

i»e  lhc>  author  as  manv  copi       *      '  ' 
hIic  »i,(li«i.     ■■  ■  ■ 


expt^ted  him  ti 
le  diBCuniona  w 


,  and  not  with  pLiMiJi 
Ih  which  tbe;  had  mi  M 


aMnwbdi^ 


':Ssffi 


U)  flow  in  Upon  then 
The  nlnlilinhmeni 


Luckily  for  Franklin,  alrooat  M  the  ooiBBaH 
of  the  newspaper,  an  oppominity  oceurred  of  |«fl 
nf  his  partner  Meredith,  who  had  beraoM  m 
dmnken  fellow,  and  had  all  alonic  bevn  of  o(a|M< 
lilllc  u.ic  in  the  concern.  Meredith's  father  U 
Implement  the  bargain  for  Bdvancinji  t 
CB[>ilal  to  pay  the  demands  of  Ll' 
other  expcntea  neetasarily  atter 

(uted  against  the  partners ;  Mb 
declared  hia  inability  lo  pay  the  amount  of  On  I 
upon  them,  the  son  olfered  to  reltnquiab  tbeaM 
cem  into  Franklin^  handri,  on  pondjtioQ  llMtd^ 
would  take  upon  him  the  dehla  of  the  w 
Wis  failicr  what  he  had  already  advaii«i(d. 
lilile  pera.tml  debis,  .ind  give  him  thirty  v 
new  an-idle  •  By  the  bindnesa  of  two  &iei* 
known  lo  rach  other,  can     '  -    -       . 


■UEnlity, 


'n  good  conduct,  t» 

indue  elTcci    on    Ilia  wdWM 

lee  him  to  aatuine  Iboaa  aoiaf 

gnnl  nupprionly  and  pretension.  whicA  ban  ta 

(reqni'nily  blemished  the  ehoractrr  (tf  th  ai  at* 

himself  mm  humbly,  than  aver  j  \ 


LIFE  AND  MAXIMS  OF  FRANKLIN. 


above  his  business,  he  sometimes  wheeled  home 
rrowy  with  his  own  hands,  the  paper  which  he 
«d  at  the  stores. 

after  getting  the  whole  printing  and  newspaper 
>  into  his  hands,  there  was  an  outcry  among  the 
for  a  new  emission  of  paper-money.  Franklin 
the  cau^e,  and  by  his  arguments  in  a  pamph- 
:h  he  published  on  the  subject,  contributed  so 
to  the  success  of  the  proposal,  and  obtained  him- 
much  popularity,  that  upon  its  being  resolved 
t  the  notes,  Franklin  was  selected  to  print  them, 
n  opened  a  stationer's  shop,  and  from  his  suc- 
business,  began  gradually  to  pay  off  his  debts, 
hile,  his  old  master  Keimcr  went  £sst  to  ruin, 
th  the  exception  of  old  Mr  Bradford,  who  was 
id  did  not  care  for  business,  he  was  the  only 

in  the  place.  He  shortly  afterwards  married 
Lead,  the  lady  named  in  a  former  part  of  this 
*.  Franklin's  behaviour  to  this  youne  lady  had 
n  altogether  blameless.  Previous  to  his  sailing 
^land,  he  had  exchanged  pledges  of  affection  with 
et,  all  the  while  he  was  away,  he  only  sent  her 
ter.  Her  friends  and  herself  concluding  that  he 
never  meant  to  return,  or  that  he  wished  to  drop 
ion  with  her,  she  was  induced  to  accept  the  hand 
her  suitor,  and  on  his  return  to  America  Frank- 
nd  her  married — an  event  that  seems  to  have 
lim  extremely  little  uneasiness.  The  lady's  bus- 
(roved  a  great  rogue,  deserted  her,  and  it  was 
uently  ascertained  that  he  had  still  a  former  wife 

After  being  established  in  business,  and  rising 
world,  the  intimacy  between  Franklin  and  her 
was  renewed,  and  it  was  not  long  ere,  despite 
ibious  situation,  they  hazarded  a  fulfilment  of 
arly  vows.  The  lady  was  about  Franklin's  own 
id  proved,  according  to  his  own  testimony,  '*  an 
r  and  a  blessing"  to  him. 

i731,  Franklin  drew  up  proposals  for  a  public 
iption  library  at  Philadelphia,  being  the  first 
t  of  tlie  sort  that  had  been  started  in  America, 
persons  at  first  subscribed  forty  shillings  each. 
Teed  to  pay  ten  shillings  annually ;  and  the  esta^ 
ent  was  put  under  such  judicious  rules  of  ma- 
ent,  that  in  the  course  of  ten  years  it  became 
lable  and  important  as  to  induce  the  proprietors 
themselves  incorporated  by  royal  charter.  This 
r  afforded  its  founder  facilities  of  improvement  of 
he  did  not  fail  to  avail  himself,  setting  apart,  as 
s  us,  an  hour  or  two  every  day  for  study,  which 
le  only  amusement  he  allowed  himself.  Several 
companies  were  formed  in  the  city  in  imitation  of 
i  the  whole  were  finally  united  in  one  institution. 
e  for  reading  was  thus  spread  around,  and  libra- 
ere  formed  throughout  Pennsylvania, 
jiklin  was  much  gratified  by  the  success  of  his 
le,  and  continued  by  his  example  to  encourage 
I  of  industry  in  the  young,  and  to  raise  a  taste  for 
ry  and  other  rational  recreations.  We  now  find 
it  the  early  age  of  twenty-five  or  twenty-six,  fairly 
rked  in  life  as  a  tradesman,  citizen,  and  a  lover 
rary  and  scientific  pursuits.  His  first  considera- 
ras  scrupulous  attention  to  business  and  to  his 
r.  He  took  care,  he  says,  not  only  to  be  really 
irious  and  frugal,  but  also  to  avoid  every  ap- 
nce  to  the  contrary — was  plainly  dressed,  and 
ever  seen  in  any  place  of  amusement :  never  went 
ing  or  hunting ;  his  only  relaxation  being  in  a 
at  chess,  of  which  he  was  very  fond.  He  devoted 
i^ater  paol  of  his  leisure  time  to  self-examination 
nprovement.  On  instituting  a  rigorous  examina- 
Dto  his  conduct  and  character,  he  found  that  he 
ised  many  faults,  which  he  resolved  upon  amend* 
le  even  conceived  the  bold  idea  of  seelung  to  attain 
'  perfection.  With  the  view  of  carrying  this  pro- 
3to  execution,  he  fell  upon  the  device  of  metho- 
;  his  time  during  the  twenty-four  hours  of  every 
and  of  laying  down  certain  rules  by  which  he 
d  regulate  his  conduct  and  sentiments.  He  rose 
n  the  morning;  the  next  three  hours  he  appropri- 

647 


atedto  devotional  exercise,  study,  cleaning  of  the  person, 
and  breakfast.  From  8  till  12  he  was  at  work.  From 
12  till  2  he  read,  did  any  desultory  duties,  and  dined. 
From  2  till  5  he  was  again  at  work.  From  6  till  10, 
he  devoted  to  reading,  conversation,  intercourse  with 
his  family,  and  supper ;  and  from  10  till  4  or  5  in  the 
morning,  to  sleep ;  after  which  he  arose  and  pursued 
the  same  routine  as  before.  We  thus  see  that  early 
rising  was  a  leading  feature  in  his  habits  of  life,  and  to 
this  alone  he  doubtless  owed  much  of  his  success. 

Franklin's  arrangement  of  his  time  was  less  remark- 
able than  his  plan  of  self-exaipination.     We  have  said 
that  he  established  certain  rules  for  the  regulation  of 
his  conduct.    These  were  thirteen  in  number,  and  were 
called  by  him  virtues  or  precepts  to  be  kept  in  remem- 
brance:   they  are  thus  summed  up: — Temperance; 
silence,  or  abstaining  from  frivolous  talking ;   order  ; 
resolution,  or  determination  to  perform  promises  and 
duties ;  frugality  ;  industry ;  sincerity,  or  avoiding  of 
all  deceit ;  tustice,  or  the  wronging  of  no  one ;  modera- 
tion ;  cleanliness ;  tranquillity  of  mind  ;  chastity ;  and 
humility,  in  which  was  included  an  endeavour  to  imi- 
tate Christ,  and  also  Socrates.      It  is  mentioned  by 
Franklin,  that  it  required  a  constant  care  to  avoid  in- 
fringing upon  these  precepts,  and  that  at  length,  to  assist 
himself,  he  prepared  a  book  to  serve  as  a  journal  of  his 
conduct  and  thoughts,  in  which  he  took  pains  to  mark 
every  error  he  committed.     By  this  means  he  was  able 
to  observe  how  he  advanced  in  virtue,  and  how  far  he 
abstained  from  error :  it  was  his  anxious  wish  to  see 
the  tables  in  his  book  free  firom  any  markings  or  indi- 
cations of  imperfection  of  character.      To  this  journal 
of  his  conduct  he  attached  certain  mottoes ;  one  of  which 
was  a  verse  from  the  Proverbs  of  Solomon,  in  which 
wisdom   is  eulogised : — "  Length    of  days   is   in    her 
right  hand,  and  in  her  left  riches  and  honour.     Her 
ways  are  ways  of  pleasantness,  and  all  her  paths  are 
peace."     Another  of  his  mottoes  was  in  the  form  of  a 
pious  aspiration  or  prayer,  in  which  he  implored  the 
divine  blessing  on  his  labours,  and  an  increase  of  that 
wisdom  which  was  most  beneficial  to  him.     One  of  his 
favourite  passages,  which  he  occasionally  repeated,  was 
the  beautiful  address  to  the  Deity  in  Thomson's  poem 
on  the  Seasons : — 

"  Father  of  light  and  life,  thou  Go<l  supremo  I 

Oh  teach  me  what  is  good ;  teach  me  thyaelf  i 

Bare  me  from  folly,  vanity,  and  vice, 

From  every  low  pursuit;  fillmyaoul 

With  knowledge,  conscious  peace,  and  virtno  pore. 

Sacred,  substantial,  nevor-fading  bliss!" 

He  tells  ns  that  the  most  troublesome  part  of  his 
prescribed  task  of  self-regulation,  was  the  obligation 
to  preserve  order  in  his  line  of  duties — being  most 
likely  liable  to  distraction  by  trifling  circumstances 
constantly  interfering  to  mar  his  project.  Neverthe- 
less, he  persevered,  forced  himself  to  be  methodic,  and 
was  thus  able  to  proceed  with  studies  tending  greatly 
to  his  mental  improvement,  and  his  increase  m  useful 
knowledge. 

Of  Franklin's  intercourse  with  his  family  little  has 
been  made  known,  though  it  is  ascertained,  by  a  few 
scattered  hints  in  his  writings,  that  he  was  an  affection- 
ate husband  and  father,  and  placed  much  of  his  happi- 
ness in  home.  In  his  household  affairs  the  most  exact 
economy  prevailed,  and,  for  several  years  after  his  mar- 
riage, his  breakfast  consisted  simply  of  bread  and  milk, 
which  he  ate  from  a  twopenny  earthenware  porringer  , 
with  a  pewter  spoon.  Fortunately,  his  wife  was  as 
much  disposed  to  be  industrious  as  he  was ;  she  assisted 
him  in  his  business,  folded  the  sheets  of  books  which  he 
printed,  kept  his  shop,  and  executed  other  humble  but 
useful  duties.  By  following  this  industrious  and  eco- 
nomical plan  of  living,  they  gradually  accumulated 
wealth,  and  were  enabled  to  possess  coinforts  and  luxu- 
ries which  were  at  first  beyond  their  reach.  Still, 
Franklin  was  not  puffed  up  by  prosperity,  but  continued 
to  live  in  a  style  of  simplicity  agreeable  to  the  notions 
he  had  formed  at  the  outset  of  his  career. 

In  conducting  his  business^  he  happily  united  the  oo- 


mmmm 


cnAMBBBS'a  IMFOraiCAinOl 


eupttJan  □[  a  pritilor  with  Ibc  profoaaiaii  of  ut  kutbcnri 
ntid  tliuB  beanie  the  pnblislier  «[  liie  owu  Hteruy  pro- 
juetionB,  No  Urga  worU,  lioWBVor,  w»»  giTun  Ljr  liiui 
to  the  world.  Ilia  writings  wera  diiefl)'  at  a  lotiior 
character,  such  as  iletaclinl  pauipUlvM  on  •uhjeats  nl 
lucal  itupirt,  and  tboTt  essajB ;  and  h«  did  aot,  as  it 
njijie*™,  wrilB  much  th»l  liM  l«eji  ll^ough^  wortliy  ot 
rcpiiblicatioi]  in  »  sudweding  age.  Iliti  imwi^per  wiw 
the  PentuflTonla  Gazeltc,  wliicli  had  lje«n  startvtl  hs 
IfrnmeT  io  1738,  uid  Mrliit:h,iitlGTBlwulB  twalreuionlh  a 
miimiuinacrneiit,  hud  ccinemto  tlio  posneEsiuu  at  Frank- 
lin and  HuKh  Slcreditli.  _  Ey_I'>wiklia'B  iageiiBily,  Uiu 
pkp«r  T09B  ill  eenbi^l  crtimatiuiu 

Besides  editing  hia  newspaper,  lie  enodueted  and 
pnbtialicd  an  nlmmiack,  which  lie  hegio  iu  1732,  and 
continued  for  a  period  of  Iwentj-five  yoar*.  Thia 
atmanscU  bare  the  feigned  name,  lUchard  Saandaiis, 
and  heniE  nciiuired  Che  lillo  uf  Pour  Kiehard'a  Alma- 
tucli,  b/  nhich  it  bocntne  eiteDsivoJy  known.  Tile 
leading  feslure  of  the  worit  conaaled  in  an  army  of 
concise  niasims  tuid  apothegms  of  an  ccuiiomical  cUs- 
niel«r,  distributed  hei'o  and  thera  tbroughoul  the 
caleniir,  wherever  spnte  waa  lell  bct«i»l  iho  luirar- 
of  Iho  holidays.  When  Poor  ttichard's  Almanack  wi 
brought  to  a  clnse,  a  aonsideralile  number  a!  tlie  muxin 
were  collected  in  in  Addrem  to  the  Keader,  in  the  last 
number,  and  entitled  The  Wsy  to  Wealth.  This  admi- 
rable digeat  baa  been  since  tninsiatcd  into  Tarinue 
guagea,  and  is  now  widely  linowli.  We  here  BObji 
copy:— 

THE  WAV  TO  WliAIiTlt. 
I  slopped  my  hotao  lately  wliare  a  great  number  of 
peoph^wera  culleoted  atan  auction  of  merchants' gDoda. 
Tlio  hour  of  sale  not  being  coine,  they  wero  eouvcraing 
nil  the  laduets  ot  the  times ;  and  one  of  tlw  canipnay 
called  to  a  phuii,  clean  old  man,  with  wbito  loulu, 
"Pray,  Falliur  Abraliam,  what  thinlt  yeottUe  timesf 
Won't  tlieao  heavy  taxes  quite  ruin  the  country  I  IIuiv 
ahall  we  oToi-  In  able  lu  pay  llieral  VVIiat  w«uiil  you 
advise  as  to  V  Father  Abraluiili  stood  up,  and  nfftitd, 
"  If  you  Imve  my  advice,  I'll  givr.  it  to  you  iu  a'  - 
'  for  n  ivord  tn  tiii>  wiei;  la  i.-raiu;;h :  and  many  ' 


le  do  ninro  wilb  le«  pnpl^^ltj.  '9aA  ag 
liiuga  dlOicuIt,  hot  inJoatry  all  ca>y.'  m  far  I 
ays  1  and  '  He  llial  riMlh  ItLe  caait  trrt  A  M 
hall  scarce  overtaU*  hid  biisoea*  al  iU(l>iaM 
less  traydl »  sLiwly,  that  paT««ly  ae^aiMto 
.a  wo  read  in  poor  Richard ;  vln  iUh,  *M 
biuincM,  let  nut  that  drive  the*  ^  and,.  ) 

■  Kwly  u  1»1.  UHl  auV  M  riah 
Miik»  mujui  bialifaT.  wMklij.fM  rka' 
iw  wluUugiufieawicliiiig  ai 
Wu  make  Ifiiw  tiiuai  beMa 
'  Industry  ueeda  not  wish,'  di 
that  lives  upon  hop*  will  di<  _  .  ._ 
gains  without  nuius;  then  lielp,  kaoda,  brl  li 
kinds;  or  if  I  We,  tbeyaro  auaarlly  ksri^l 
poor  Hichard  likewiaa  aUarvca)  '  Ua  Ihrtti*! 
Utb  an  vstaiv,  andhe  that  hatli  a  «alliBt  JaAai 
of  profit  and  booour  ;*  but  Ihen  tfaa  tnd*  tmMmt 
-  ^  the  oalliug  well  fuUowttl,  or  aailta*  Ite 


lapunr  KkliMdiql 


ojajm 


iilmtrioua,  ' 
KJcliard  rays.  *  Al  tlic  wwri^Uig-inan^  tnam  I 
hiaks  iu,  but  dares  not  mtcr.'  Nor  wail  llaU 
tlin  nmnlablo  eater;  fur  ■  Xaduitty  JPf*^ 
despair  iuoreunetli  liuria,'  aaya  iwor  nMlMiA  i 
thuugli  yi)u  hare  fuuid  ua  traworc,  air  ka*  ■ 
relation  left  you  a  lepcv  f  ■  Uiliftaoat  isdaM 
good  luck/  as  poor  Kicbanl  lajiii;  sad  'liBd,J 
things  to  industry:  tliea  jilouglt  dmp  wUtsaj 
sleep,  and  you  will  lukve  coru  tu  ttdl  aiiJMbM 

Cr  Dick.     Work  while  it  is  cjJkJ  loJ^tl 
w  not  how  much  jrou  may  bo  laiiiikni  t*«| 
nhiuii  makes  poor  luduird  say,  'Ono  t»^i 


itiduird  say,  '  Ono  t»^  i 
id,  furU>er,  '  Han  ,n«Vi 
t  to-day.-     ■  ir  joawwcail 


catch  yon  idle)  Are  jun,  then,  yoar  a*aHI| 
astinincd  to  ealcfa  younelf  idiv,'  *•  p«ar  Bfl 
When  thsfo  Is  hi  mueh  to  be  dons  tm  j*bm 
£unily,  and  your  ecaciaos  king,  bo  op  bf  MM 
'Let  not  tIJB  Euu  look  down,  and  Mjr,  nCha| 
he  lies  I'  Handle  your  tools  without  miltcsjilH 
that '  Tba  cat  in  glovaa  cMelies  nu  mien,*  BfMl 
says.     It  is  true,  there  is  muoli  to  fail  iim,  ■ 


-I  will  tell  thee,  nl 
L>i.|.loyll.ylimew4i 


ns,  by  allowing  ;ii 

to  gwdiui.  ;.-.■,... 

helps  lh™i  11, ;l. 


duinc  w.mt'tlibij;  ii^ful ;  iliis  leiant*  llni 
11  will  obtain,  but  the  lazy  man  immt;  •»  t 
r  Riuhard  says,  '  A  life  i.l  leisure  asd  a  U>i 
xnre  iwij  iliinp;i'.'  l>o  you  imagina  ikHrii 
iidiimmLive  e.imf.jn  than  labaurl  Koilm.* 
'' ,-■    npriug    froB  sHmi 

'     Mil  only:  but  ifatyin 

I-    uiiluuttj  giVMWBil 

1    >  i'li.Tiaur*s,  and  tlayH 

i  I  .L-i  a  Iv^e  shiA ;  ni 

■■■  ■    ■  .1.  J  I'v  pour  Hiciiard. 


/ 


yourkntoM4i 


LIFE  AND  MAXIMS  OF  FRANKLIN. 


*  He  that  by  Uie  plough  would  thrive, 
IJimaclf  must  either  hold  or  drive.* 

,  *  Th«  eye  of  the  master  will  do  more  work 
his  hands :'  and  again, '  Want  of  caro  docs 
image  than  want  of  knowledge :'  and  again, 
ersee  workmen  is  to  leave  them  your  purse 
'usting  too  much  to  others'  care  is  the  ruin 
for,  OS  the  Almanac  says,  '  In  the  affairs  of 
men  are  saved  not  by  faith,  but  by  the  want 
a  man's  own  care  is  profitable;  for,*  saith 
t  *  Learning  is  to  the  studious,  and  riches  to 
I,  as  well  as  power  to  the  bold,  and  hcaTOn  to 
IS.'  And,  further,  <  If  you  would  have  a  faith- 
t,  and  one  that  you  like,  serve  yourself.'  And 
adviseth  to  circumspection  and  care,  even  in 
It  matters,  because  sometimes '  A  little  neglect 
I  great  mischief;*  adding,  •  For  want  of  a  nail 
as  lost ;  for  want  of  a  shoe  the  horse  was  lost ; 
int  of  a  horse  the  rider  was  lost :'  being  over- 
slain  by  the  enemy,  all  for  want  of  care  about 
oe  nail. 

h  for  industry,  my  friends,  and  attention  to 
business ;  but  to  these  we  must  add  frugality. 
Id  make  our  industry  more  certainly  success- 
an  may,  if  he  knows  not  how  to  save  as  he 
»p  his  nose  all  his  life  to  the  grindstone,  and 
>rth  a  groat  at  last.'  '  A  fat  kitchen  madces  a 
as  poor  Richard  says ;  and, 

f  etitatcs  are  spent  in  the  getting ; 

)  women  for  tea  forsook  spinning  and  knitting, 

men  for  punch  forsook  hewing  and  splitting.' 

would  be  wealthy  (says  he  in  another  Alma- 
ic  of  saving,  as  well  as  of  getting:  the  Indies 
made  Spain  rich,  because  her  outgoes  are 
lan  her  incomcp.* 

hen,  with  your  expenHivc  follies,  and  you  will 
nuch  cause  to  complain  of  hard  times,  heavy 
.  chargeable  families  ;  for,  as  poor  Dick  says, 

omen  nn<l  wine,  game  imd  deceit. 

ike  the  wealth  tnuaW,  and  the  want  great.* 

her,  *  What  maintains  one  vice  would  bring 
ildrcn.'  You  may  think,  perhaps,  that  a  little 
little  punch  now  and  then,  diet  a  little  more 
itlies  a  little  finer,  and  a  little  entertainment 
then,  can  be  no  great  matter ;  but  remember 
Richard  says — *  Many  a  little  makes  a  micklo :' 
BT,  *  Beware  of  little  expenses ;  a  small  leak 
B  great  ship :'  and  again,  '  Who  dainties  love 
lars  prove :'  and  moreover, '  Fools  make  feasts, 
men  eat  them.' 

ou  .are  all  got  together  at  this  sale  of  fineries 
uacks.  You  call  them  goods;  but  if  you  do  not 
,  they  will  prove  eviU  to  some  of  you.  You 
py  will  be  sold  cheap,  and  perhaps  they  may 
lan  they  cost ;  but  if  you  have  no  occasion  for 
y  must  be  dear  to  you.  Remember  what  poor 
tays — *  Buy  wliat  thou  hast  no  need  of,  and  ere 

ahalt  sell  thy  necessaries.*  And  again,  '  At 
nny  worth  pause  a  while.'  He  means,  tliat  per- 
cheapncKs  is  apparently  only,  or  not  real,  or 
in,  by  straitening  thee  in  thy  business,  may  do 
9  harm  than  good.  For  in  another  place  he 
any  have  been  ruined  by  buying  good  penny- 

Again,  as  poor  Richard  8:\ys,  *  It  is  foolish 
;  money  hi  a  purchase  of  ix'pentance ;'  and  yet 

is  practised  every  day  at  auctions,  for  want 
ag  the  Almanac.  *  Wise  men  (as  poor  Dick 
m  by  others'  harms,  fools  scarcely  by  their 
t  Felir  quern  faciunt  aiiena  pericula  caiUum.* 
ople,  fur  the  sake  of  finery  on  the  back,  have 
1  a  hungry  belly,  and  half  starved  tlieir  fami- 
k  and  satins,  scarlet  and  velvets  (as  poor  Rich- 
^  put  out  the  kitchen  fire.'  These  are  not  the 
les  of  life ;  tliey  can  scarcely  be  called  the  con- 
B :  and  yet,  only  because  they  look  pretty,  how 
iDt  to  have  them !  The  artificial  wants  of  man- 
is  become  more  numerous  than  the  natural ; 
poor  Dick  says,  '  For  one  poor  person  there 

Gi9 


are  a  hundred  indigent.'  By  these  and  other  extrava- 
gances, the  genteel  are  reduced  to  poverty,  and  forced 
to  borrow  of  those  whom  thoy  formerly  despised,  but 
who,  through  industry  and  frugality,  have  maintained 
their  standing;  in  which  case  it  appears  plainly,  'A 
ploughman  on  his  legs  is  higher  than  a  gentleman  on 
Ills  knees,'  as  poor  Richard  says.  Perhaps  they  have 
had  a  small  estate  left  them  which  they  knew  not  the 
getting  of;  they  think  '  It  is  day,  and  will  never  be 
night ;  that  a  little  to  be  spent  out  of  so  much  is  not 
woi*th  minding.*  '  A  child  and  a  fool  (as  poor  Richard 
says)  imagine  twenty  shillings  and  twenty  years  can 
never  be  spent ;  but  always  taking  out  of  the  meal-tub, 
and  never  putting  in,  soon  comes  to  the  bottom  :*  then, 
as  poor  Dick  says,  *  When  the  well  is  dry,  they  know 
the  worth  of  water.'  But  this  they  might  have  known 
before,  if  they  had  taken  his  advice :  *  if  you  would 
know  the  value  of  money,  go  and  try  to  borrow  some ; 
for  he  that  goes  a-borrowing  goes  a-sorrowiag,  and, 
indeed,  so  does  ho  that  Icmis  to  such  people  when  he 
goes  to  get  it  in  again.'  Poor  Dick  further  advises, 
and  says, 

*  Fond  pride  of  dress  is  sure  a  very  curse : 
Ero  fancy  you  coniiult,  consult  your  purse.' 

And  again,  '  Pride  is  as  loud  a  beggar  as  Want,  and 
a  great  deal  more  saucy.*  When  you  have  bought  one 
fine  tiling,  you  must  buy  ten  more,  that  your  appearance 
may  be  all  of  a  piece ;  but  poor  Dick  says,  <  It  is  easier 
to  suppress  the  first  desire  than  to  satisfy  all  that  follow 
it.*  And  it  is  as  truly  folly  for  the  poor  to  ape  the  rich, 
as  the  frog  to  swell  in  order  to  equal  the  ox. 

*  YesseLs  large  may  venture  more, 
But  little  hoata  should  keep  near  shore.* 

'Tis,  however,  a  folly  soon  punished ;  for  *  Pride  tliat 
dines  on  vanity  sups  on  contempt,'  as  poor  Richard 
says.  And  in  another  place,  *  Pride  breakfasted  witli 
Plenty,  dined  with  Poverty,  and  supped  with  Infamy.' 
And,  after  all,  of  what  use  is  this  pride  of  appearance, 
for  which  so  much  is  risked,  so  much  is  suffered !  It 
cannot  promote  health,  or  case  pain  ;  it  makes  no  in- 
crease of  merit  in  the  person  ;  it  hastens  misfortune. 

*  Wliat  is  a  butterfly  ?    At  best 

He's  but  a  caterpillar  drcst ; 

The  gaudy  fop's  his  picture  Just,* 
as  poor  Richard  says. 

But  what  madness  must  it  be  to  run  in  debt  for  these 
superfluities !  We  arc  offered,  bv  the  terms  of  this  sale, 
six  months'  credit,  and  that  perhaps  has  induced  some 
of  us  to  attend  it,  because  we  cannot  spare  the  ready 
money,  and  hope  now  to  be  fine  without  it.  But,  ah  1 
think  what  you  do  when  you  run  in  debt.  You  give 
to  another  power  over  your  liberty.  If  you  cannot  pay 
at  the  time,  you  will  be  ashamed  to  see  your  creditor ; 
you  will  be  in  fear  when  you  speak  to  him :  you  will 
make  poor,  pitiful,  sneaking  excuses,  and  by  degrees 
come  to  lose  your  veracity,  and  sink  into  base  down- 
right lying ;  for,  as  poor  Richard  says, '  The  second  vice 
is  lying ;  the  fii*st  is  running  in  debt.'  And  again,  to  the 
same  purpose,  *  Lying  rides  upon  debt's  back  ;*  whereas, 
a  freeborn  Englishman  ought  not  to  be  ashamed  nor 
afraid  to  speak  to  any  man  living.  But  poverty  ofien 
deprives  a  man  of  all  spirit  and  virtue.  *  It  is  hard 
for  an  empty  bag  to  stand  upright,*  as  poor  Richard 
truly  says.  What  would  you  think  of  that  prince,  or 
that  government,  who  would  issue  an  edict,  forbidding 
you  to  dress  like  a  gentleman  or  gentlewoman,  on  pain 
of  imprisonment  or  servitude  1  Would  you  not  say  that 
you  were  free,  have  a  right  to  dress  as  you  please,  and 
that  such  an  edict  would  be  a  breach  of  your  privileges, 
and  such  a  government  tyrannical!  And  yet  you  are 
about  to  put  yourself  under  that  tyranny  when  you  run 
in  debt  for  such  dress !  Your  creditor  has  authority 
at  his  pleasure  to  deprive  you  of  your  liberty,  by  con- 
fining you  in  jail  for  life,  or  by  selling  you  for  a  servant, 
if  you  should  not  be  able  to  pay  him.  When  you  have 
got  your  bargain,  you  may  perhaps  think  little  of  pay- 
ment ;  but '  Creditors  (poor  Kichard  tells  us)  have  better 
memories  than  debtors  ;*  and  lu  anoUier  place  he  says. 


CHAMBERS'S  INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLC. 


■  CiwriitoM  to*  a  aopentitious  teol.  gnU  nbserren  of 
Ml  day*  ftod  Unet.'  Th*  d*y  camra  miiad  twfor«  j'oa 
>rs  koftre,  uidllia  dnnaud  it  mada  b«(nr«  yaa  uv  pru- 
pmd  to  Mtufji  it  1  or  if  ^ou  b«r  yoar  debt  in  niind, 
tiivtarm  Bbich  atlintaonnedn  ling,  will,  u  U  iFvanw, 
ft^lnw  vxmnictf  than.  TtmBWill  ccem  to  hitv*  tddwl 
wui^  )o  hi>  hnb  M  mil  ka  tt  his  riiauldcn.  ■  Tllnw 
)w*VM>hi>n  Laol  (swili  poor  Riehud)  who  ovemoniy 
to  bo  pkid  M  Euvr'  Thw  *in«e,  m  ho  my*.  '  The 
burramrr  a  ■  ■lair  w  tho  Ivndar,  ud  llip  dobinr  to  the 
Orfiliiari'  diMlain  th««hwa,  prwHrt*  jn<nrfrrodoni,nnd 
maintain  jivur  iadf^fimdanm  1  be  indualriouo  and  rnwi 
bafrugat  audtrnk  ^  I  fimRit,  perhajiH,  yun  may  lliink 
yiHinvliM  in  ihnting  drcumUanMs.  aod  thai  yoa  can 
Inar  >  lilUs  cxlrava^iet  wilhnat  injury ;  but 

u  ponr  Biohard  says.  Gain  nuty  be  l«mprinry  and 
aorarUiai  hutoror,  wliil*  jiiu  lire,  eijwt^K  U  constajit 
■nd  cvrlain  ;  a»4  *  (t  i*  MKitur  bi  build  two  cliimneys, 
than  III  li««p  on*  in  tutJ.'  aa  piwr  Richard  a&ja.  So 
'  Ualhur  go  10  b»d  nl|>p»rlHB  Uiau  rise  ia  dibt.' 
■  (><4  irhU  ;i«n  ran.  aM  whit  fvn  (>l  hoM ; 


in  and  wisdnin  ;  bnt. 


Inuphera  *tone,  niFply  jnu  will  nn  Is 
Iwd  timcB,  or  Ibc  difltciilly  of  paying  t 
Thia  dontrinp,  my  fricDii*,  1>  rsasiin 
•Iter  all,  do  tint  d'jH>nd  ton  niuth  m 
duMry,  anil  fnigality,  and  tirudenoo,  though  ototllent 
Ifcinsiii  for  they  may  1m  blii>t«d  without  iha  bicsaiug 
»f  llnTvii ;  anil  tlifnfure  a>k  that  blcwng  hnmhlr. 
Wit  be  nut  unohariiabi*  to  tlioM  that  at  pmcnt  Hem 
M  wMit  It,  bnt  nnmrort  and  hulp  thvm.  Rompmbcr  Job 
HKntM,  and  wan  an»rwanla  nriHipvroua. 

And  nnur,  tn  cnneludr,  '  Kxpcricnn  koeps  a  dear 
mIhmI;  Inil  fonltt  will  leiu-n  la  no  other,  and  scarce  in 
Him  I  for  tt  i*  trUB  we  may  give  adricc,  but  me  cannot 
icharaeayn.  However,  remom- 
11  not  b«  coDiiBcIled  eaiuiol  be 
I  isrtiandfitrlher.that 'If  yon 
Hiirvly  rap  their  knuckles.'" 
i!ui  pndpd  hia  httninpie.      The 


fic,  vhJeb  toala  iba  «i 
honour  beTnTe  oar  i 
pretty  equally,  «r  ihga  U 
guage,    I  aRerwanlji,  «>tl 
aa  much  of  thn  Spaniah  ■>  )»  n 
hBTB  already  nifinlioi      ' 
BIruetion  in  a  Iritiin  BchmL  and 
after  iihich  I   ni^leelcd  UM  b 
-  hen  I  had  aittunRil  an  * 


It  WM  not  (o  be  anppnWHl  thai  aM  • 
DmiinbeiuiTC  mind,  and  Davfiri  jH^iMll 
e  allowed  1«  n-niajn  lun^  ja  |W  mtoif 
.cEiirdingly.  in  the  y«ar  ITM,  ba  aa*  ■■ 
1  the  Geuaral  / ■-■-  --  " ' — ^ 


ou  tlient 

hia  rBturti  in  a  iong  opeech.     |-nwUk  «, 

rn  Elected,  much  tu  hiinaflrfbw^.tfi 
e  waa  one  of  alismit  ira  4irM(  onriiH 
him  an  opportunity  tif  makinit  Marti  ■ 
member*,  and  uhliuately  to  Mi«ar«  H  ^Mi 
ing  of  UDKt  of  the  public  puwrs.  wWdi  «■ 
sliared  with  his  rinUa.  The  ■!■«  mta^ 
resiated  his  rp-eleetion  was  a  bum  o(  «!■ 
raoter ;  and  FruikJin,  altho^h  |ao  niai 
any  cringing  •errilily  t*  him,  t>*f^ftt 
of  e»mng  hu  good  opinion ;  and  Iha  warn 
npon  for  this  purpmt  affmil*  »ai<hB  M 
(lircndneaB  and  knowledge  ol  biaoaiMM 
learned  tliae  the  gentleman  poiMHaal  a  « 
curioua  book,  lie  wrote  )iim  a  polio  nrtl 


week  was  returned  by  the  boneau,  i 
epistle,  oxpresuve  of  hia  gmtilade  (orAfl 
Tipmber  was  ao  mneh  conciliated  by  iheti 


l.iiy»x1i-,».. 


■,■!.■  p.' dinjp."  Hew 
l">'rt,  trithonl  op 
y.  Intheffdlowi^ 
n  trade,  BradSwi 
r  thP   atat.  ef  P 


k>  spare  for  study,  1  at  length  rtt'u 


.non  of  llK.i.r..viuce.      In  aliort.  everj'   de™ 

u  be  civd  e..ven,i,iei.t,  IB  he  tella  un,  and  aim*. 

1  (line,  iiniiimed  some  duty  upon  him.     ■•  Tl 

iiciH  tlieeiiqiomliniwof  theeiiy  cho»meonea 

inn  conncii ;  ivud  llie  citiiena  at  larxe  electMl 

;iiir  buix'i'rfs  (0  represent  them  in  aaomblj, 

■ery  »ta(i..ii  was  the  more  agreeabta  to  msl'i 

t  nt  ■\e\,^v\\t\tti>rttfiM«lns  there  to  bwr  lb 


LIFE  AND  HAXmS  OF  FRANKLIN. 


I  I  wai  indoesd  to  unnac  |  "PIud  Truth."    In  this  he  ctMrijcipoted  their  help- 

ce«tty  of  co-operaliag  for  their  mutual  dofence.  The 
pamphlet  had  &  suddeu  and  aurpriaing  effccL  A  meet- 
ing of  the  ciiiiene  vita  hold,  at  which  propoeals  of  tha 
intended  union,  proviously  drawn  up  ami  printed  by 
I'ranklin,  were  distributed  about  the  room,  to  bo  signed 
bythtwe  who  approved  of  them  ;  and  when  the  company 
separated,  it  wa*  found  that  above  twelve  hundred 
■ignatureg  had  been  appended  to  tlie  papers.  Uther 
copies  were  dislrihuted  through  the  province,  and  the 
■ubseribers  at  length  amounted  to  upwards  of  ten  thou- 
sand I  AIJ  tliese  individuals  furnished  themsdves,  aa 
eooD  as  they  could,  with  arms  ;  formed  themselves  into 
companies  and  regiments ;  cliose  their  officers,  aud  had 
themselves  regularly  instructed  in  mjliury  exercises. 
The  women  made  subscriptions  amongst  Ihumwlves, 
and  provided  silk  colours,  which  they  presented  to  the 
companies,  embellished  with  devices  and  mottoes  fur- 
nished by  Frauklin.  Such  influence  has  one  master- 
mind  amongst  his  fellows  in  a  time  of  emergency  1 

Franklin's  modesty,  however,  was  more  than  com- 
mensurate with   his  palriolism.      The  oflicers  of  the 
tho  Philadelphia 


M  with  m«liiiTg  magic  sqnarea, 
^  to  avoid  weariaess;  and  1  eDnceive4mybecomi»l^ 
onber  would  enlarge  my  power  of  doing  good,  j 
id  not.  however,  insinuate  that  my  ambition  nasn.t 
at«d  by  all  thene  promotions — it  certainly  was:  f'.i 
lidering  my  low  beginning,  they  were  great  thin-, 
M ;  and  tliey  were  still  more  pleasing  as  being  -,. 
■sspontaneoustestimouiesof  the  public  good  opiuibji, 
By  me  entirely  unsolicited." 
tbgnt  this  period  (1739),  the  celebrated  pieadi.-r 
Afield  arrived  St  Philadelphia  from  Irelaod.  H^ 
tat  first  permitted  to  preach  in  some  of  the  to^iL 
(diss;  but  the  clergy  soon  took  a  dislike  to  faicii, 
I  he  was  compelled  to  eierelse  his  eloqnenoe  in  tlic 
■  streets  or  lielda.  This  circumstance,  however, 
alj  displays  of  persecntion  in  matters  exclusively 
Moled  wiljl  privats  opinion,  only  rendered  him  thV 
*  pDpnlar;  and  the  etTccts  of  faia  oratory  speed! !i 
ifested  themselves. 

[t  was  wonderful,"  says  Franklin,  "to  see  tlit^ 
g9  soon  made  in  the  manners  of  our  inhabitanrn. 
K  baing  thoughtless  or  indifferent  abont  religion, 
mwd  as  if  all  the  world  were  growing  religious,  mi 

mt  henruig  psalms  sung  in  different  families  vl 
r  street;  and  it  being  found  inconvenient  l<> 
i>ble  in  the  openair,subjecttoitsiaclcmeucies,t^iv 
ing  of  a  bousA  to  meet  in  was  no  sooner  proposeil, 
penoos  appointed  to  receive  contributions,  thjui 
i«ntsuniBwere  soon  received  to  procure  thegrouii<i 
erect  the  building,  which  was  one  hundred  feit 
Hnd  seventy  broad  ;  and  the  work  was  carried  on 
■oefa  spirit  as  to  be  finished  in  a  remarkably  sho  i-i 

.  leaving  Fhiladolphia,  Mr  Wliitfteld  went,  preach- 
1]  the  way,  through  tho  colonies  toGeoi^ia.  T1h> 
nment  of  that  province  hod  then  been  recently 
mpted  by  people  entirelyuniU 


expenr 


Thev 


Ektigues  and  hardships  of  their  situation,  ainl 
ked  in  great  numberv,  leaving  many  helpless  chil- 
■with  nothing  to  feed  or  clothe  them.  "  The  siglii 
BIT  miserable  situation,"  says  Franklin,  "  inspired 
■•nevoleut  heart  of  Mr  Whillield  witli  the  idea  if 
Ling  an  orphan  house  there,  in  which  they  might  i<e 
Orted  and  educated.  Ketuming  northwanl,  h<^ 
Bhed  up  this  charity,  and  made  large  collectionfi  : 
tiia  eloquence  had  a  wonderful  power  over  tli- 
tt  and  purses  of  his  hearers,  of  which  I  mysi'M 
Mn  iiutftuoe.  I  did  not  disapprove  of  the  design  . 
«■  Georgia  was  then  destitute  of  materials  aiil 
Unea,  and  it  was  proposed  to  send  them  from  Phi- 
iphia  at  a  great  expense,  I  tliougtlC  it  would  havt> 
.  better  toliavebuilt  the  house  at  rbilade1phia,aii<i 
^t  the  childron  to  it.  This  I  advised ;  but  he  win 
Lute  in  his  (irsl  project,  rejected  my  proposal,  aijii 
Brefore  refused  to  contribute. 

■tappened  soon  after  to  attend  one  of  his  sermon', 
as  course  of  which  I  perceived  he  intended  tofini-li 
a  collection,  and  I  silently  resolved  be  should  g-t 
ing  from  me.  I  liad  in  my  pocket  a  handful  nf 
■er,  three  or  four  silver  doilara,  and  five  pistoles  iu 
-  As  ho  proceeded,  I  begun  to  soften,  and  coil- 
ed to  give  the  co])poi        '      "'       "''    '       ' """"  "~" 


elected.  These  ex 
great  confidence  frt 
consulted  him  on  al. 
sUuiding,  too,  of  the  passive  pri 


companies  composing  tho  Philadelphia  regiment  una- 
nimously chose  hini  for  their  colonel,  but  he  declined 

"      ■  '  ■ '        commendation,  was  immediately 

ions  of  Franklin  procured  him 
the  governor  and  council,  who 
leir  public  measures.  Kotwith- 
iplea  of  the  Quakers, 
iL  vTu  Euuii  accu  luai  uiB  prucamiuus  of  military  defenoa 
were  any  thing  but  disagreeable  to  them.  A  distin- 
guished individual  of  their  number,  Mr  Logan,  pub- 
lished an  address  declaring  his  approlialiun  of  defensive 
war,  and  supporting  his  opinion  by  able  and  eliiborate 
arguments. 

This  gentleman,  who  came  over  from  England  when 
a  young  man,  as  secretary  to  the  famous  William  Penn, 
used  to  relate  an  anecdote  respecting  hie  old  roaster, 
which  is  sufficiently  amusing.  During  their  voyage, 
they  were  chased  by  an  armed  vessel,  supposed  to  be 
an  enemy.  Their  captain  prepared  far  defence,  but 
told  Penn  and  his  company  of  Quakers  that  he  did  not 
expect  their  assistance,  and  that  they  might  retire  into 
the  cabin.  This  notificatian  they  all  complied  with, 
excepting  Logan,  who  remained  on  deck,  and  was  quar- 
tered to  a  gun.  The  supposed  enemy  proved  a  friend, 
BO  that  there  was  no  fighting ;  but  when  the  secretary 
carried  the  joyful  news  for  his  friends  in  the  cabin, 

tending  nis  assistance  in  defence  of  the  vessel,  as  being 
a  breach  of  the  principles  of  their  society.  Logan, 
nettled  at  this  comment  on  his  courageous  conduct, 
which  was  made  before  the  whole  company,  replied,  "  1 
being  thy  servant,  why  did  thee  not  order  me  to  como 
down  I  but  thee  was  willing  enough  that  I  should  stay 
and  help  to  fight  tho  ship,  when  thee  thought  there  was 
danger!" 


of  (hat. 


rrainedm 
nbly,  t 


0  the  collector's  dish, gold 

alU" 

t  this  time  there  was  no  mHitary  defensive  force  in 

t^lvania.     The  inhabitanta  were  mostly  Quaker.'', 

neglected   to   lake   any  measures  of  precaution 
nst  the  dangers  to  which,  from  the  French  posse-- 
1  in  Canada,  they  were  eonlmually  exposed.  ^All 
ixertluns  of  the  govemorof  the  province  to  i 
Quaker  assembly  to  pnss  a  militia  law,  prov 
toal.     Franklin  thought  something  might  b< 

mbserlption  among  the  people  ;  and  to  pare  tb<'  I     •  ThsttnndeotilcUTlsdtriTed&anlhaGrH 
for  tbis,  he  wrote  and  pablidied  a  pamphlet  called  I  ■mbn. 


It  would,  perhaps,  have  been  desirable  to  have  fol- 

lowed  Franklin  through  the  remaindc 

r  of  his  public 

■nd  political  career,  without  pausing  to 

pursuits,  entirely  unconnected  therew 

h,  to  which  he 

devoted  himself.      We  find,  however,  I 

at  the  chrono- 

logical  violence  of  which  we  would  in 

hat  case  neces- 

sarily  be  guilty,  would  only  serve  to  co. 

fuse  our  narra- 

0  introduce  him 

to  our  readers  in  an  entirely  now  character  from  any 

in  which  they  have  yet  seen  himi  for. 

n  the  language 

of  the  poet,  his  truly  was 

•' A  mind  so  vailans  that  be  ssnoed  to  be 

Down  to  the  close  of  the  sixteenth  centu 

ry.  all  that  was 

known  of  the  principle  of  electricity  wa 

the  diseoverj 

of  a  power  inherent  in  amber,*  and  on 

e  or  two  other 

annals  of  electricity  for  the  accidenUl  diDCovery  of  the 
possibility  of  accunmlatiiig  large  quantities  of  the  elec- 
tric fluid,  by  means  of  what  was  called  the  Lcydnn  jar, 
or  phial.  M.  Cuneus,  of  that  city,  happened  one  day, 
while  repealing  some  experiments  which  had  been  ori- 
ginally suggested  by  M.  Von  Kleist,  Dean  of  the  Catlie- 
dral  in  Camin,  to  hold  in  one  hand  a  glass  vessel,  nearly 
full  of  water,  into  which  he  had  been  sending  a  cliarge 
fi*oni  an  electrical  machine,  by  means  of  a  wire  dipped 
into  it,  and  coninmnicating  with  the  prime  conductor, 
or  insulated  nou-olectric,  exposed  in  the  mamier  we 
have  already  mentioned  to  tiie  action  of  tlie  excited 
cylinder,  lie  was  greatly  surprised,  upon  applying  his 
otlier  hand  to  disengage  the  wire  from  the  conductor, 
when  he  thought  that  the  water  Iiad  acquired  as  much 
electricity  as  the  nutchine  could  give  it,  by  receiving  a 
sudden  sliock  in  his  arms  and  breast,  mnch  more  Bovei*e 
than  any  thing  of  the  kind  he  had  previously  encoun- 
tered in  the  course  of  his  experiments.  The  same  thing, 
it  was  found,  took  place  when  the  glass  was  covered, 
both  within  and  without,  witli  any  other  conductors 
than  the  water  and  the  human  hand,  which  liad  been 
used  in  this  instance;  as,  for  example,  when  it  was 
coated  on  both  sides  witli  tuifoil,  in  such  a  manner, 
however,  that  the  two  coatings  were  comuletely  8ei>a- 
ratcd  from  each  other,  by  a  space  around  the  lip  of  the 
vessel  being  left  uncovenkl.  Whenever  a  communica- 
tion was  formed  by  the  interposition  of  a  conducting 
medium  bi^tvvccn  the  iuside  and  outside  coating,  an 
instant  and  loud  explosion  took  place,  accompanied  with 
a  ilasli  of  light,  and  the  sensation  of  a  8hai*p  blow,  if  the 
conductor  emplDved  was  any  part  of  the  human  body. 
The  firat  announcement  of  the  wonders  of  the  Leydeu 
phial  excited  the  curiosity  of  all  Europe.  The  accounts 
given  of  the  electric  shock  by  those  who  first  experi- 
enced it  ai*e  perfectly  ludicrous,  and  well  illustrate  how 
strangely  the  imagination  is  acted  upon  by  surprise  and 
terror,  when  novel  or  unexpected  results  suddenly  come 
upon  it. 

The  extraordinary  phenomena  of  the  Levden  jar, 
soon,  of  eoui*!je,  attracted  the  attention  of  Vraiiklin, 
and  his  inquibitive  mind  set  itself  to  find  out  the  reason 
of  such  strange  effects,  which  astonished  and  perplexed 
the  ablest  philosophers  of  Europe.  Out  of  his  specula- 
tions arose  the  ingenious  and  beautiful  theory  of  the 
action  of  the  flci'tric  inllucnce  which  is  known  bv  hi-s 

• 

name,  and  whirli  lias  vwv  Wvn  ricciviil  as  thf  best, 
bcoaii'^c  tlu'  simj^Ii'-t  and  luo^t  C()nij)lrto,  (innonstration 


f^ing  him,  only  restored  him  to  fa 
prove  this  still  fartlier^  be  insvl 
one  of  whom  he  made  to  mb  Ih 
other  drew  the  electricity  from  it 
were  both  affected ;  the  one  havii 
electricity  to  the  cylinder  in  mbi 
had  drawn  from  it.  In  inroof  of 
touch  one  another,  when  both  wc 
to  their  usual  state.  The  wptAk  pi 
tact  was  also  greater  than  that  wl 
either  of  them  was  touehed  bj  an 
From  these  results,  then,  Frui 
theory,  that  every  body  in  nature  1 
of  electricity,  whieh  may  be  dtraiB 
the  way  we  have  just  dcseribed. 
he  regarded  the  body  as  nepaHv^ij 
tiveltf,  electriried.  In  the  one  em 
other  more,  than  its  natural  quai 
either,  therefore^  supposing  it  to 
tricity  and  common  matter,  the 
balance  between  its  two  eonstitnei 
the  time  upset  or  destroyed. 

But  to  I'etoni  to  the  £eyden  pfa 
contented  with  mereW  aseertafaiu 
lie  made  also  a  ver}'  h&ppy  npplle 
which  afforded  a  still  more  wonder 
Iiad  yet  been  obtained  of  the  pa 
electricity.  Considering  the  wasi 
the  eommon  experiment,  of  the  i 
the  process  of  charging,  from  the 
conceived  the  idea  <if  employing  i 
surface  of  a  second  jar,  which  be  i 
the  simple  expedient  of  drawmr 
metal  rod  communicating  with  ui 
tricity  expelled  from  the  outside  < 
conveyed,  in  like  manner,  into  tlie 
in  this  way,  a  great  number  of  jai 
the  same  facility  as  a  single  one. 
nected  all  tlie  inside  coatinn  wHI 
all  the  outside  coatings  with  anotl 
bring  these  two  general  oondnctoi 
munication,  in  order  to  discharge 
tion  at  once.  This  contriTsnee  b 
Battertf,  The  general  sketch  we 
put  the  reader  in  possession  at  k 
lines  of  the  Franklinian  theory  of 
cmHv  oho  (»f  the  nidst  beautiful 
round  in  the  wholt'  cump.'i'.s  of  sci 


LIFE  AND  MiVXlMS  OF  FBANKLIN. 


set  eoDfioquence  of  the  fandamefntal  principle  of 
rn  theory,  according  to  which  the  repulsive  ten- 

of  the  particles  of  clectricitj  towards  each  other, 
ioniog  tuc  fluid  to  retire,  in  ercry  case,  from  the 
or  to  the  surface  of  bodies,  drives  it  with  especial 
towards  points  and  other  prominences,  and  thus 
n  ita  escape  through  such  outlets ;  while,  on  tlie 

hand,  the  more  concentrated  attraction  which  the 
ir  of  a  pointed  body,  as  compared  with  that  of  a 
'  one,  exerts  upon  the  electricity  to  which  it  is  pre- 
dy  brings  it  down  into  its  new  cliannel  in  a  denser 
IB.  In  possession,  however,  of  the  fact,  we  find 
oncluding  the  paper  we  have  mentioned  as  fol- 
•^**  The  electric  fluid  is  attracted  by  points.  We 
i  know  whetlier  this  property  be  in  lightning; 
loe  Uiey  agree  in  all  the  particulars  in  which  we 
ready  compare  them,  it  is  not  improbable  tluit 
isree  likewise  in  this.    Let  the  experiment  be 

I  of  this  idea,  his  attention  was  one  day  drawn  to 
which  a  boy  was  flying,  and  it  suddenly  occurred 

that  here  was  a  method  of  reaching  the  clouds 
»ble  to  any  other.  Accordingly,  he  immediately 
,  large  silk  handkerchief,  and,  stretching  it  over 
OM  sticks,  formed  in  this  manner  his  simple  appa- 
Cor  drawing  down  the  lightning  from  its  cloud. 
idler,  seeing  a  tliundcr  storm  approaching,  he 
.  walk  into  a  field  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the 
ci  which  there  was  a  shed,  communicating  his 
K«nsL  however,  to  no  one  but  his  son,  whom  he 
ithhim  to  assist  him  in  raising  the  kite :  this  was 
ui  1752. 

kito  being  raised,  he  fastened  a  key  to  the  lower 
Bity  of  the  hempen  string,  and  then  insulating  it 
nchiog  it  to  a  post  by  means  of  silk,  he  phioed 
If  under  the  shed,  and  waited  the  result.  For 
Lime  no  signs  of  electricity  appeared.  A  cloud, 
enth' charged  with  Ughtning,  liad  even  passed  over 
viwout  producing  any  effect.     At  length,  how- 

E'list  as  Franklin  was  beginning  to  despair,  he  ob- 
some  louse  tlu'cads  of  the  hempen  string  rise  and 

erect,  exactly  as  if  they  had  been  repelled  from 
ather  by  beiuu  charged  with  electricity.  He  imme- 
^  presented  his  knuckle  to  the  key,  and,  to  his 
t«taible  delight,  drew  from  it  the  well-known  elec- 

^lark.  He  said  afterwards  that  his. emotion  was 
Bat  at  this  completion  of  a  discovery  which  was 
3m  his  name  immortal,  that  he  heaved  a  deep  sigh, 
alt  that  he  could  that  moment  have  willingly  died. 
•  rain  increased,  the  cord  became  a  better  cuu- 
Wm  and  the  key  gave  out  its  electricity  copiously. 
toe  hemp  been  thoroughly  wet,  the  bold  ex]>cri- 
sr  might,  as  he  was  contented  to  do,  have  paid  fur 
•oovery  with  his  life.  He  afterwards  brought  down 
tghtning  into  his  house,  by  means  of  an  insulated 
eod,  and  performed  with  it,  at  his  lehture,  all  the 
riments  that  could  be  i)crformed  with  electricity, 
be  did  not  stop  here.     His  active  and  pi*aGti(»il 

was  not  satisfied  even  with  the  splendid  discovery, 

ho  had  turned  it  to  a  useful  end.     It  suggested  to 

as  is  well  known,  the  idea  of  a  method  of  pre- 
Dg  buildings  from  lightning,  which  is  extremely 
.e  and  cheap,  as  well  as  effectual,  consisting,  as  it 

in  nothing  more  tliau  attaching  to  the  building  a 
«d  metallic  rod,  rising  higher  than  any  part  of  it, 
sommunicating  at  the  lower  end  with  the  ground. 

rod  the  lightning  is  sure  to  seize  upon,  in  prefe- 
e  to  any  part  of  the  building ;  by  which  means  it 
oducted  to  the  earth,  and  prevented  from  doing 
lojorv.  There  was  always  a  strong  tendency  in 
iluin^  philosopliy  to  these  practical  applications, 
■anklin  s  discoveries  did  not  at  fii-st  attract  much 
ition  in  England  ;  and,  in  fact,  he  had  the  mortifi- 
n  to  hear  that  his  paper  on  the  similarity  between 
ning  and  electricity  had  been  ridiculed  when  read 
e  Itoyal  Society.  Having  fallen,  however,  into  the 
■  of  the  naturalist  Buffon,  that  celebrated  man 
Jaicd  and  published  it  at  Paris,  when  it  speedily 
ed  tho  astonishment  of  all  Eun>pe.     What  gavo 

653 


his  book  the  more  sudden  and  general  celebrity,  was 
the  success  of  one  of  its  proposed  experiments  for  draw- 
ing lightning  from  tlie  clouds,  made  at  Marly.  This 
engaged  the  public  attention  every  where.  The  **  Phi- 
laoelphia  experiments,"  as  they  were  called,  were  per- 
formed before  the  king  and  court,  and  all  the  ciicious 
of  Paris  flocked  to  see  them.  Dr  Wright,  an  English 
ph^'sician,  being  at  Paris  at  the  time,  wrote  to  a  member 
of  the  Royal  Society  of  London,  with  an  account  of 
tliese  wonders,  and  stating  the  surprise  of  all  the  learned 
men  abroad  of  Franklin's  writings  being  so  little  noticed 
in  England.  The  society  were  thus  in  n  manner  com- 
pelled to  pay  more  attention  to  what  they  had  previously 
considered  as  chimerical  speculations,  '*  and  soon,"  says 
Franklin,  **  made  me  more  than  amends  for  the  slight 
with  which  they  had  before  treated  me.  Without  my 
having  made  any  application  for  that  honour,  they  chose 
me  a  member,  and  voted  that  I  should  bo  excused  the 
customary  payments,  which  would  have  amounted  to 
twenty-five  guineas,  and  ever  since  have  given  me  their 
Transactions  gratis.  They  also  presented  me  with  tho 
gold  medal  of  Sir  Godfrey  Copley  for  the  year  1753,  the 
delivery  of  which  was  accompanied  with  a  very  hand- 
some speech  of  the  president.  Lord  Macclesfield,  wherein 
I  was  highly  honoured." 

Although  the  numerous  important  public  duties  which 
Franklin  was  called  upon  latterly  to  discharge,  chiefly 
engrossed  his  time,  he  still  returned  to  his  philosophical 
studies  on  every  occasion  that  offered,  and  made  several 
curious  and  interesting  discoveries. 

Perhaps  no  philosopher  ever  stood  on  a  prouder 
eminence  in  the  world's  eye  than  Franklin  during  the 
latter  half  of  his  life.  The  obscurity  of  his  origin  served 
but  to  make  his  elevation  tho  more  brightly  conspicuous ; 
and  honours  were  showered  on  him  from  all  quarters 
of  the  civilised  world.  In  17>>7  he  visited  England,  and 
before  his  return  made  a  tour  in  Scotland,  where  he 
formed  an  intimacy  with  Lord  Karnes,  and  had  the 
degree  conferred  upon  him  of  Doctor  of  Laws  by  tho 
University  of  St  Andrews.  In  17()4  he  again  visited 
England,  from  which  he  proceeded  to  the  continent  of 
Europe.  In  Holland,  Germany,  and  Fi*ance,  he  was 
received  with  tho  greatest  testimonies  of  respect  fn>m 
all  men  of  science  iind  distinction.  At  Pari.**,  Louis  XV. 
honoured  him  with  the  most  distinguished  marks  of  his 
favour. 

POLITICAL  CAREKR. 

This  part  of  Franklin's  life  need  only  be  very  gene- 
rally touched  on,  the  aecnes  and  transactions  in  which 
he  bore  a  part  having  l«>ng  since  become  matter  of  his- 
tory, with  which  almost  every  individual  is  now  more 
or  less  acquainted.  We  havu  before  mentioned  that 
he  was  elected  a  member  of  the  General  Assembly  of 
Pennsylvania,  as  burgens  for  the  city  of  Philadelphia,  in 
1 747.  Warm  disputes  at  this  time  subsisted  between  the 
assembly  and  the  proprietaries,*  each  contending  for 
what  they  conceived  to  be  their  just  rights.  Franklin, 
-  a  friend  to  the  interests  of  the  many  from  his  infancy, 
speedily  distinguished  himself  as  a  steady  opponent 
of  the  claiinii  of  tho  proprietaries,  and  he  was  soon 
looked  up  to  as  the  head  of  the  opposition.  His  influence 
with  the  assembly  is  said  to  have  been  very  great.  This 
'.  arose  not  fn)m  any  superior  powers  of  elocution ;  he 
'  spoke  but  seldom,  and  he  never  was  known  to  mako 
any  thing  like  an  elaborate  harangue.  *'  His  speeches," 
eays  his  intimate  friend,  the  lato  Dr  Stuber  of  Philadel- 
phia, **  fre<iuently  consisted  of  but  a  single  sentence,  or 
of  a  well-told  story,  the  moral  of  which  was  always 
obviously  to  the  point.  He  never  attempted  the  flowery 
fields  of  oratory.  His  manner  was  plain  and  mild ;  hia 
style  of  speaking  was,  like  that  of  his  writings,  simple, 
unadorned,  and  remarkably  concise.  With  this  phiin 
manner,  and  his  penetrating  and  solid  judgment,  he  was 
able  to  confound  the  most  eloquent  and  subtle  of  his 
adversaries,  to  confirm  the  opinions  of  his  friends,  aud 

*  The  dctioendanta  of  the  orlsbml  settlers  who  bad  received 
grants  of  huid,from  the  British  govsmmentt  who  claimed  excmp- 
tioQ  frran  all  taxes,  aad  other  privflcset. 


preaideiit-general,  appointed  by  the  crown,  and  by  a 
grand  council,  conMRtiu^  of  members  chosen  by  the 
repreftentatives  of  the  different  colonies;  the  whole 
executive  authority  to  be  committed  to  the  president- 
general  ;  the  legislative  to  the  grand  council  and  pre- 
sident jointly ;  and  all  laws  to  be  approved  of  by  the 
king.  This  plan  was  unanimously  approved  of  by  the 
cooimtssionent  for  the  crown  and  the  colonies  appointed 
to  consult  on  the  ({uestion,  but  its  final  fate  was  singu- 
lar. It  was  rejected  by  the  ministry  of  Great  Britain 
as  too  deiuocratical,  and  by  every  local  assembly  as  too 
despotic.  These  verdicts  were,  perhaps,  the  best  proof 
of  its  excellence,  and  of  its  having  steered  exactly  in 
tlie  middle  betwixt  the  interests  of  both. 

The  liritish  government  having  thus  rejected  a  pro- 
posal of  internal  defence  in  the  colonies,  they  were  soon 
obliged  to  adopt  measures  of  another  sort  for  their  pro- 
tection. Aggressive  operations  were  again  threatened 
bv  the  French;  and  in  1754,  General  Braddock  was 
dispatched  from  England  with  two  regiments  of  regular 
English  troops  to  resist  them.  The  troops  were  landed 
at  Alexandria,  and  marched  thence  to  Frcdcricktown 
in  Maryland,  where  they  halted  for  carriages  to  trans- 
port their  baggage,  ammunition,  &c.,  to  the  frontiers. 
Great  reluctance  was  manifested  by  the  country  people 
to  supply  these,  and,  in  fact,  so  few  were  sent  in,  and 
80  many  other  difficulties  occurred,  that  the  general 
was  about  to  abandon  the  expedition  altogether.  In 
this  dilemma  he  was  fortunately  joined  by  Franklin, 
wlio,  aware  of  the  necessity  and  impoiiauce  of  the  ex- 
jiedition,  asked  General  Braddock  what  recompense  he 
Would  aifoi*d  to  the  owners  for  the  use  of  their  waggons 
and  horses.  General  Braddock  referred  the  terms  to 
himself;  they  were  drawn  up  and  accepted ;  and  Frank- 
lin immediately  published  them  in  an  advertisement, 
with  an  animated  appeal  from  himself  to  the  loyalty 
and  patriotism  of  his  countrymen.  The  consequence 
was,  that,  in  two  weeks,  150  waggons  and  2GU  horses 
poured  into  the  camp,  the  owners  of  which,  however, 
declined  the  security  of  the  British  commander  for 
compensation,  and  insisted  on  having  the  personal  bond 
of  Franklin.  This  he  accordingly  gave  them,  au4  even 
advanced  several  hundred  pounds  of  his  own  in  preacut 
payment. 

The  expedition  accordingly  set  forward,  and  its  disas- 


carried  a  bill  through  the  huaoe 
disciplining  a  volontary  militia.  ' 
ciation  necessar}*  to  form  the  milili 
u{K)n  the  subject,  which  was  eaten 
thought  to  have  great  effect.  Wl 
panies  in  the  city  and  country  «er 
ing  their  exercise,  the  governor  prf 
to  take  charge  of  the  north-wester 
infested  by  the  enemy,  and  provi 
the  inhabitants,  by  raising  troopa 
of  forts.  Franklin  did  not  thin 
qualified  for  the  military,  but  wai 
the  ser^nce  in  his  power.  He  re 
from  the  governor,  with  full  antlK 
blank  commissions  for  officers,  to 
thought  fit.  Five  hundred  and  i 
raised  and  placed  under  his  comn 

The  first  place  selected  for  the  i 
Gnadenhutten,  a  small  settlemen 
thither  Franklin  set  out  in  the  mi 
torrents  of  rain,  and  through  aim* 
Upon  arriving  at  the  village,  he  1 
planning  and  uuurking  out  the  fort, 
of  455  feet;  and  the  men  were  i 
with  their  axes  to  cut  down  trees  I 
the  trees  fall  so  fast,  Franklin  had 
at  his  watch  when  two  men  began 
six  minutes  they  had  it  upon  the 
fourteen  inches  in  diameter.     £a 
palisades,  of  eighteen  feet  long. 
While  these  were  preparing,  o£< 
all  round,  of  three  feet  deep,  in 
were  to  be  pUnted.     When  thew 
peuters  built  within  them  a  platfon 
about  six  feet  high,  for  the  men 
through  the  loopholes.  They  had  o 
they  mounted,  and  fired  as  soon 
the  Indians  might  know  they  had 
their  fort,  such  as  it  was,  was  finial 
it  rained  so  hard  every  other  da 
almost  unable  to  work. 

"  This  gave  me  occasion  to  obsc 
**  that  when  men  are  employed  the 
For  on  the  days  they  worked,  the; 
and  chiH.*rful,and,  with  thcconacio' 


■*M^  ImDMtLU'ly  r^^latAai  la  hm  tat  bi 

Mr. 

lid  Ihc  bnahiW  out  i-f  Iba  (»ul  •EilDrlaan*  ir 


d  td   )faij{l.<. 

nalMl,  ttUb  unroio 
uf  Ilia  DOtltu  cuuixi 


„^-<. 


zXt 


■nictsd  ihaai  bwk  to  ibe  uwnub^  M  UuheIiu*- 
•tlu>,  eiinii[KU]illlia  vouilueliittlxenivrnw,  mt 
tlbou  tu  iBeUujt,  |»'<>.^>".^  ''"'  '"-  'l'-"'i-wl.  tud 

lldia  WU  ftppOlnleJ    l:'    :  I     III  lute 

il  iRlirr«|itiuD  irf  i'  >.  '  (iho 
J  of  wliidi  wait  nc> ' :  '  .l:>  ilra- 
nl  tfuu  bu  oIEl'"  unntl. 
UlleonttBueiltn  J'^ni'  >'  ui'iJiMg 
tod  M  elftel  k  iviN'^i'  i>i<p. 

Suidtheoolnuv. ,  ■  -■vmui 

og( ho  letnruKl  lu  .-_ _  — Uic  itajf 

■buuri'kl,  tm  wm  uKitJ  bj  lli..-  l.i;i.likiiu»  irf 
ujWttiua  M  n  dvIuiiBtB  bi  DiD^nwi.  llaatllilin  lud 
couidiuudnI  1  but  it  wiiulil  tia  rupntin^  >  tbruw- 
Ul*  lu  maUif  liiManjracemialof  tli>a{>nii[ikt>lt4  nail 
ij  aUu^Ui  IliU  auued,  ot  thu  DMms  vt  it*  i«r[nt> 
io.  la  177U,  FnuikUn  wa*  i«iit  a*  imitiaaiiailw;  tu 
^Durt  ot  Fnaoc,  wbn-v  lie  hhui  bmvi^t  bUiuI  au 
DW  balwran  lltU  natian  lUid  Ulp  NurUi  Ainetlcui 
•h  Wli«a  tlie  ISriliHh  luiniiitry  at  Ivogtli  ww  ihn 
tutilf  uf  ncuicnikiuj;  llm  iiiilii|>>iii]«iiw  uf  lliB  atuta^ 
inKiiiUve  Uval^  t«  Uul  clfect  wa»  aiKmit  at  Pu4* 
Jio  3<1  of  September  lit)i>,  by  l>r  VranUin,  " 
m,  and  Hi  Jay.  lot  tlw  lUtca,  on  llw  una  hai... . 
by  Mr  David  Ilartloy,  for  (irnt  Ikktaiii,  uu  iba 
«.  I'mLUia  ouudnued  at  rarii  tut  tiw  twa  ftil- 
ng  jran ;  but  ■(  laat,  by  lii*  own  arpul  matal. 
ncJltiiL  Shortly  afliir  )ii*  mturu,  lu>  naelMwii 
iilitut  111  ilna  auprmiti  oMuutivx  miuiidl,  ami  1 
■in  iliU  iwrToct  tuer^t*  li>  couauliilaliue  ilia  lui 
tmmclU.  Ago  and  UifinnltiDa,  hiKvmBr,  ciaji 
r  uauU  awHmdaccy ;  wiil  in  17Ht>  li«  rBlireil  HlutUy 
1  publio  lilo. 


stf,  to  a  nmuarial  p 

...  prayioB;  tl 

^  llwiii  lu  uwoujica  llig  taiii 


CHAHBEaS'S  INFOHMATIQN  FOE  TIW  PEOl 


•tnoiig  n 


1,  uid  mnilc  no  doubt  but  liii  preeenl  sfBie- 
re  kiuiUy  intended  to  wean  faim  bma  >  irarlil  i» 
vLicli  bowM  no  loDgtrfit  to  »cl  the  putucigned  him. 
Me  1*1  Icily  «uak  iDtoa<»lraiBtbkreieaIate;and,onthe 
17th  April  IT90,  about  eleven  o'cIdcL  Mnight,  lie  i{UieU} 
expired,  lie  wu  then  aged  exactly  cigbty-(oar  yean 
and  ttim  inonlha.  Tbd  fbllowing  epilaph,  injnen  by 
hinusU  maity  yEam  prerioos  la  bifi  death,  «as  iuscribed 

"  The  Body  uf  UciJiHtK  Fiu.kkli^,  Pnuter  [hiks  llw 
eovor  of  an  uld  buok,  ita  conleuM  torn  out,  Bud  stript 
vC  ilB  lettering  and  gilding],  lies  here  loud  lur  worms  ; 
yet  the  work  itself  shall  uot  be  lost,  for  it  will  (as  he 
bfhered)  appear  once  more  in  a  new  and  raore  beau- 
tifal  editiou,  corrected  and  amended  by  The  Aptbob." 


In  looking  bock  on  I'rankliii'a  otreer,  it  ia  evident 
that  the  principal  feature  in  lii»  diameter  woa  amrUly 
prmlence — not  in  Ibe  usual  and  aeUish  acoepUtion  of  the 
term,  but  llmt  prudenee,  founded  on  true  wiadotn,  which 
dielatCB  the  practice  of  hoiivsly,  industry,  frug^Uity, 
tempeiBDce,  in  xliort,  alt  Uune  qualities  which  may  bn 
elaasified  under  llie  uame  of"  moral  virtues" — aa  Ming 
the  ouly  certain  means  of  obtainiug  distinetiaD,  respect, 
independence,  and  mental  cbecrrulneEB.  Thec«  is  no 
other  Ki'iter  who  inculcates  l<»eona  of  practical  viadom 
ill  a  mure  agreeable  and  papular  nmiiner,  and  wo  much 
regret  that  the  limits  of  this  sheet  prevent  our  giving 
many  oKlraets  iUnstrntivo  of  this  quality.  Hia  whole 
conduct  and  writings,  indeed,  preaiint  the  EonieAhal 
singular  miion  of  great  genius  with  praetinit  good 
sense,  and  of  singular  worldly  slirewdnoH  with  the 
lufticBt  integrity  of  principle.  The  greatest  worlilly 
honours — nod  few  hsvo  atltuned  higher — could  not  for 

tuples  with  which  he  started  in  life.  Kvcr  keeping 
biJCora  his  mind  his  own  origin  and  rise,  he  justly  cnu- 
sidered  etery  nuui  to  bo  origiiuUly  on  a  inr  in  ta  far 
as  regarded  roal  intrtusic  worth ;  nad,  equally  Ly  pre- 
cept Uld  suinpU,  Dontribuled  auae,  pertasp^  than  any 
individual  who  ever  existed,  to  breaking  down  thussiii' 
vidious  ban  to  eminence  and  Biicceis  in  life  which  tbi 
conteiitionnl  habits  snd  nrtificl.ll  ft^lings  of  sDciutv  hac 
111.  iv1,>f.,iv  int<'l'rr,M'[U.j  Uic  cli^vnliou  of  those  niiblrstii'i 


r  diM  mvinj;,  ■  Tim  ge*4  fiflt* 
■ui's  pulM.'  H*  tint  tokwaili 


turned  bv  i 

Renienil 

□f  another 

tually,aodeuct)j  U>  Iha  Um*  ha  prt«iM^I 
time,  sjid  on  any  ueeanou,  rai«>  ■&  tin  B^aif 
can  spare.  This  la  soawtiniaa  of  0CU  ■•.  Jtl 
try  and  frugality,  nothing  ccmtijdtri  nMII 
iag  of  a  yooug  man  in  the  wmM  thM  fmm 
justice  in  all  his  dealiniti :  ifaerrfa*^  aeKr 
rowed  money  an  hour  bryond  the  I^iyaB 
lest  a  disappoinlmcDt  shul  up  faar  ftwah 

Tlie  niosl  (riJImg  aellotis  that  sAdlM 
are  to  be  Tegardod.  The  aoonil  nf  ynnr  la^ 
in  the  morning,  uc  nine  al  night,  ImH  !;■ 
makes  him  easy  six  months  lon^r;  bol  if  fa 
atn  liilliard-lable,  or  hekcsyour  iruiesitalsH 
you  should  be  at  work,  he  scdJ*  tat  huamtj 
duy ;  demands  it  before  Ira  cmo  rrewntiasi 

It  allows,  besides,  that  500  (Jo  mindbl  rfi 
owe;  it  makes  you  appear  a  Carrlal  «■  «1  Nl 
man,  and  that  still  increasea  your  at4iL 

Bewitre  of  thinkios  all  j  our  own  llal  }■ 
■□d  of  living  accordingly.  It  iskniMAad 
people  who  liuve  credit  fall  into.  To  pmMll 
an  exact  account,  fur  some  tim-,  both  ^^Jm^ 
and  your  income.  If  you  take  IbepaloaHM 
tion  parliculani,  it  will  liavv  this  joeddfahi 
diicnver  hnw  wonderfully  small  irtllii^MifM 
up  to  lurgo  sums,  and  will  dneen  "W^ 
been,  and  nny  for  the  tuturr  be  an^  riti 
sioniiig  any  great  inconvenience. 

In  short,  tlie  wny  (o  wealth,  if  yon  d«^ 
pinhi  as  the  wny  to  market.  1 1  deptmb  diri 
words — indiulrji  and  JhigvHIy;  thai  ii^  ■■■ 
tint  nor  nuuwj',  but  luaku  th«  biM  na  of  M 
out  indnatry  and  frugality  notlriug  «1B  ^il 
Ihcni  every  thiog.  He  that  grt%  all  h*  Mi 
all  he  gels  (nc  ' 

the  world,  1 


doth  not,  hi  ka' 


r  this  Imlo  ium  (wliichma: 
___.    .   jsiHinoc,  unpereoired)  a  m;ii 
ftis  uwn  iccuril} ,  have  the  connlont  1 


■■■SIT.  la 

cr.nfieralonBHfesf* 

mse  that  ><o.dd  be  U 

is  all  the  adTHtaptl 

— F.ir 
huiul 

X  piiundj  a-jear  M 

..-.Hifli 

ennii  hoii»l}.-tl*a 

lly,  sjii 

LhidlvaboutuapoM 

..■e  for 

the  o»  of  one  hondn 

r..3t'8W(,nhoth»iia 

wn^ira  the  pnvUnell 

v.ar.-l!e  thallAy 

,!.,«Cverfalli^ 

shiUingnintotbaM 

miKht 

le  ir,^,.le  by  tarslng  it 

t  a  young  man  bHiai 

msuler 

ible  sum  of  mBDn.— 

eri'ijil,  asks  n  prieo  fer  «k 

!i..-  jiri 

cly.-A  and  iaterotal 

■■  li,-f.t  oatof  it:lhi 

;  .v-iDter«tfor-hi 

>  ,..«>.  might  let  I 

..[...■ 

::i!rofitr^2 

■  rpaJy  money,  bacH 

«ta  to  loM  6t«  pet  0 

Linton  an  haaaU 

■  that 

Mill  inake  op  AM* 

CHAMBERS'S 

NFORMATION   FOR  THE  PEOPLE 

CONDUCTED  BY  AVILUAM  AND  HODERT  CHAMBERS,   EDITORS  OP  C1JAMU£RS*S 
KDINBURGII  JOURNAL,   EDUCATIONAL  COURSE.   &c 


lUKR  42. 


New  AND  l3i PROVED  Series. 


Price  l^d. 


PKESERVATION    OF    HEALTH. 


■iM  beiug,  sapponloe  him  to  be  soundly  constituted 
■li  will  continue  in  health  till  ho  reaches  old  age, 
d«d  that  certain  conditions  are  obsenred,  and  no 
ious  accident  shall  befall.  This  is  a  proposition 
U  supported  by  an  extensive  observation  of  facts, 
t  may  be  regarded  as  established.  It  becomes,  of 
»»  important  to  ascertain  what  are  the  conditions 
iai  to  health,  in  order  that,  by  their  observance, 
ty  preserve  for  ourselves  what  is  justly  esteemed 

greatest  of  earthly  blessings,  and  dwell  for  our 
klTy  appointed  time  upon  the  earth.  A  general 
intanee  with  these  conditions  may  bo  easily  at- 

by  all,  and  to  pay  them  obedience  is  much  more 

the  power  of  individuals  than  is  generally  sup- 
• 

leading  conditions  essential  to  health  may  be 
rnnmerated: — I.  A  constant  supply  of  pure  air; 
■olBciency  of  nourishing  food,  rightly  taken ; 
mnlinesn ;  4.  A  sufficiency  of  exercise  to  the  vari- 
rgans  of  the  system ;  5.  A  right  temperature ; 
•officiency  of  cheerful  and  innocent  enjoj-ments ; 
.  Exemption  from  harassing  cares. 

AIR. 

t  common  air  is  a  fluid  composed  mainly  of  two 
ID  certain  proportions ;  namely,  oxygen  as  20  ahd 
«D  as  80  parts  in  a  hundred,  with  a  very  minute 
Ml  of  carbonic  acid  gas.  Such  is  air  in  its  pure 
Iglit  state,  and  such  is  the  state  in  which  wo  re- 
it  for  respiration.  When  it  is  loaded  with  any 
linre  of  a  different  kind,  or  its  natural  propof- 
iue  in  any  way  deranged,  it  cannot  bo  breathed 
Kit  producing  injurious  results.  We  also  require 
is  apt  to  appear  a  large  quantity  of  this  element 
klth^  existence.  The  lungs  of  a  health v  full-grown 
sill  inhale  the  bulk  of  twenty  cubic  inches  at  every 
•lion,  and  he  will  use  no  less  than  fifty-seven 
«sds  in  twenty-four  hours, 
sr,  there  are  various  circumstances  which  tend  to 
and  OS  at  times  with  vitiated  air,  and  which  must 
dingly  be  guarded  against.  That  first  calling  for 
ion  is  the  miasma  or  noxious  quality  imparted  to 
r  in  certain  districts  by  stagnant  water  and  decay- 
«etable  matter.  1 1  is  no w  generally  acknowledged 
bis  noxious  quality  is  in  reality  a  subtle  poisob, 
I  sets  on  the  human  sptem  through  the  medium 
'  lungs,  producing  fevers  and  other  epidemics.  A 
instance  of  its  acting  on  a  great  scale  is  presented 
9  Campagna  di  Roma,  where  a  laree  surface  is 
led  in  a  marshy  state.  The  air  arism^  from  that 
cry  at  certain  seasons  of  the  year,  obliges  the  in- 
nits  of  the  adjacent  districts  of  the  city  to  desert 
homes,  in  order  to  eecape  its  pernicious  influence. 
Aishes,  and  low  damp  grounds  of  every  kind,  pro- 
OBore  or  lets  miasma,  and  it  is  consequently  dang»> 
o  live  upon  or  near  them.  Slightly  elevated  groiud 

657 


should,  accordingly,  in  all  cases,  be  chosen  for  both 
single  houses  and  towns.  Tanks  and  collections  of  water 
of  every  kind  are  dangerous  beneath  or  near  a  house, 
becanse,  unless  their  contents  be  constantly  in  a  state 
of  change,  which  is  rarely  the  case,  their  tendency  is  to 
send  up  exhalations  of  a  noxious  kind.  A  few  years 
ago,  the  eldest  son  of  an  English  nobleman — a  youth  of 
great  promise,  and  -who  had  recently  become  a  hus- 
band and  father— died  of  a  fever  which  was  traced  to 
the  opening  of.  an  old  reservoir  of  water  underneath 
the  country-house  in  which  ho  dwelt.* 

Putrid  matter  of  all  kinds  is  another  conspicuous 
source  of  noxious  effluvia.  Tlie  filth  collected  in  ill- 
regulated  towns— ill-managed  drains — collections  of 
decaying  animal  substances,  placed  too  near  or  within 
private  dwellings — are  notable  for  their  effects  in  viti- 
ating the  atmosphere,  and  generating  disease  in  those 
exposed  to  them.  In  this  case,  also,  it  is  a  poison  dif- 
fused abroad  through  the  air  wiiich  acts  so  injuriously 
on  the  human  frame.  This  was  probably  the  main 
cause  of  the  plagues  which  visited  European  cities 
during  the  middle  ages.  In  those  days  there  were  no 
adequate  provisions  for  cleaning  cities,  and  the  conse- 
quence was,  that  large  collections  of  filth  were  accu- 
mulated. The  noxious  air  diffused  by  these  means 
through  the  narrow  streets  and  confined  dwellings 
would  tend  to  the  most  fatal  effects.  In  old  drains  there 
is  generated  a  gas  (sulphureted  hydrogen),  which  is 
calculated  to  produce  dreadful  consequences  amongst 
those  exposed  to  it.  It  has  lately  been  discovered,  that 
it  is  the  presence  of  this  gas  in  the  sea  near  the  eastern 
coast  of  tropical  Africa,  which  causes  the  peculiar  un- 
healthiness  of  that  region.  It  is  ascertained  that  small 
animals,  such  as  birds,  die,  when  the  air  they  breatlie 
contains  one  fifteen-hundredth  part  of  sulphureted  hy- 
drogen, and  that  an  infusion  six  times  greater  will  kill 
a  horse.  It  follows,  that  we  can  scarcely  attach  too 
much  importance  to  measures  fur  cleaning  cities  and 
improving  drains.  There  arc  as  yet  no  large  towns  in 
Britain  keut  in  a  state  so  clean  as  is  desirable  for  the 
health  of  their  inhabitants ;  and  the  metropolis  itself 
is  amongst  those  which  are  most  defective  in  this 
respect. 

The  human  subject  tends  to  vitiate  the  atmosphere 
for  itself,  by  the  effect  which  it  produces  on  the  air 
which  it  breathes.  Our  breath,  when  we  draw  it  in, 
consists  of  the  ingredients  formerly  mentioned  ;  but  it 
b  in  a  very  different  state  when  we  part  with  it.  On 
passing  into  our  lungs,  the  oxygen,  forming  the  lesser 
mgredient,  enters  into  combination  with  the  carbon  of 
the  venous  blood  (or  blood  which  has  already  per- 
formed its  round  through  the  body) ;  in  this  process, 
about  two-fifths  of  the  oxygen  is  abstracted  and  sent 
into  the  blood,  only  tho  remaining  three-fifths  being 
expired,  along  with  the  nitrogen  nearly  as  it  was  befors. 

*  Ylsoonnt  MOton,  sgii  of  tlMpraseBt  Esri  FitcwiUlam,  was  the 
penon  here  alluiWd  to. 


CHAMBERS'S  INFORMATION  FOil  THE  PEOPLE. 


In  place  of  tho  oxyf-eti  cousumed,  tbore  ia  expired 
eqiuJ  Yolome  ot  eurbonio  Mid  ga»,  Boob  pa  being  >  re- 
BuUuf  tbe  process  of  cgmbinotioujuBtaJludedKi.  Now, 
enrtonic  acid  gas,  io  »  larger  proportion  lh»n  that  ii; 
whioh  It  a  found  in  llie  aDnosphere,  in  noiigna.  Th. 
volume  of  it  expired  by  lUe  lunga,  if  free  to  miugli 
with  A«  air  at  Urge,  Trill  donoharn  ;  but,  if  bmtbod 
out  inlu  a  cIobb  roooi,  ilwill  rcndor  the  ajr  unfit  for 
lieiiig  aKaiii  breathed.  SuppoM  au  iodiridnal  to  be 
abut  up  iu  an  lur-tiglil  buK :  eacli  tmalh  he  emilii 
IhrawB  a  cectaiii  qunnlity  uf  cariwaia  acid  gaa  into  thu 
air  filling  the  bax  ;  the  air  isthuH  vitiated,  and  every 
■  aucocBaive  inspiratiuu  is  conjpoaed  of  worse  and  worm 
^cstecialB,  till  at  lengtb  the  oxygen  il  so  much  exliauiled, 
tAat  it  is  iumfGcient  for  the  Hupporl  of  life,  lie  would 
then  bu  senaiblo  of  a  gceat  difficult/  in  breathing,  and 
iu  a  liHle  time  longer  lie  would  die. 

Muct  ronuu   in  which  human  bein^  liie  are  not 
Btriclly  oloiH.     The  ehimney  and  tbe  cbinlia  of  thvdDor 
and  windown  generally  allow  ef  a  conunuDication  to  ■ 
certain  extent  with  Ibu  outer  ah',  ao  ttiat  it  rarely  liap- 
pens  (bat  great  immediate  inrouvcnicnoo  ia  exporieaced 
in  ordinary  apartment*  from  wont  if  ItntL  aif.    "  ' 
i(  U  at  the  aauie  time  quite  eeptain  ■'■-'  '"*■  *"■ 
BuartnieDtB  where  huniau  beingii 
air  uuavuidably  beconrea  E0mii4if'i 
euub  a  sitnation  there  cannot  bu  a  euIKrittlllyteatly  i 
eupiouB  uifiply  of  oxygen  tii  luaku  up  tat  Uiat  whi< 
liua  been  eoudumcd,  and  the  carbouc  ulil   gaa  » 
be  cansteolly  aeeumuhiting.     TUia  fjf  Mffticalarly  tl 
<]U0   in   bedrooDU,  and    in    Ihentim  idiurchea,   ui. . 
achooU.     Au  extreme  case  was  tliafoTtba  celebrated 
Ulacli  UoIb  uf  C^outta,  where  a  hundred  and  fony- 
Hvs   persona  were  cooliDed    Tor   a  night  in   a   mom 
eighteen  feel  aquare  with  two  Biuall  wiadowa.     Here 
tliv  uxygeu  licai-cely  aullioieDt  for  tlie  faeultby  aupply  of 
one  penoii,  was  owail  u{ku)  to  auraort  a  lai^  ounibn, 
'Die  nnforiunate  priniiora  ftmnd  uesuolni  in  a  lUta 


Allbim 


of  tbe  I 


toenta  liud  places  of  public  aaaembly  doea  not  generally 
cxcilo  uiuub  nlleutiun,  it  novertheleui  exeruittea  a  cer- 
toiii  uubvuurable  ititlueiice  on  health  iu  all  the  dtgreee 
in  which  it  cxiela.  I'erhups  it  ia  in  bedruoma  that  most 
harm  is  done.  These  are  genorully  smaller  than  DtbeF 
rooins,  and  they  ore  usually  kopt  duao  during  iho  tibole 
night.  The  result  uf  Hleu|ilug  in  such  a  ruuiu  is  very 
injurioua.     A  comrauu  fire,  fmin  the  draught  wliieh  it 

it  is  at  bu^l  a  defective  mean;:  uf  duios  ao.  The  draught 
which  il  orealBB  generally  sweeps  lUong  near  Ilia  fiuor 
between  the  door  and  tlie  lii'e,  leaviai;  all  above  the 
level  of  tbe  chimney-piece  unpnritied.  Yet  scarcely  any 
other  arrangemeat  ia  any  where  made  fur  tbo  purpose 
uf  clmoging  the  air  in  urdinary  rooms.  Tu  open  tbe 
window  ia  a  plan  occaiionaiiy  resorted  to,  but  it  ia  not 
ulwaya  agreeable  in  our  eliuatc,  and  aonii^limca  it  pro- 
ilueva  bad  conaequeucea  of  a  diBureut  kind. 

It  would  oevertbclcsa  be  caay  to  produce  an  effecdvo 
nuHht  from  any  room  in  whicli  a  liro  ia  kept.     It 


*  only 


1  apci 


near  the  ceiliuu  uf  tlie  room,  and 
tube,  with  a  valve  at  tbo  exterior,  cajiable  uf  opening 
iiiqarda,  but  cloaing  when  at  rest  or  wben  a  draught  ia 
sent  tile  contrary  way.     The  draught  pruduced  by  the 


back-amoke,  ihuuld  tlu'ru  be  the 

This  plan  ia  adopted  iu  Buckingliam  Palaco.     li  euuld 

be  apphed  to  any  vxieting  huuao  at  a  mere  trille  of 

A  more  odeotual  phin,  and  oi 


hiek  pMMBl 
pfthelitdn 


tube,  the  extremity  of  wliii 
flue — fur  exainple,  that  of  I 
cutd.     Tbua  there  might  be  ■ 
air  into  and  through  evesy  n 
that  it  would  be  at  all  limea 

aa  the  open  Selda.     At  Ow  «  .__ 

by  meana  of  graduated  valvn,  baMi 
gree  nliich  might  be  deemed  aytiaaK 

POOD. 
The  second  raqniaite  for  tbammll 

Organic  bndtea,  in  wUek  at*  indal 
well  as  aainuila,  are  e<iiuljtiil«d  opua  I 
eomilmal  muU  qf  tuiitaitci  nifpSeH 

The  Nutritive  System  of  —''-■'',  _ 
the  humblest  uf  thcce  ti>  the  tilg^bat,  tmf 
alinifnlaT'i  luii  or  cacitg,  into  vhieli  ImJi 
aud  from  which,  afler  nndergoiiigflerttk  il 
dilfuaed  by  meana  of  stnalla  tnndi  &M 
whole  struEtnre.  In  the  farm  of  thw  lit^ 
other  apparatua  connected  with  IheMkiafJ 
are,  in  different  auimala,  varielia*  gf  am 
which  are  respectively  in  cjoofiinnlli  «Uf 
in  the  quahiy  and  amonoi  of  food  aliUi  tk 
nuinuls  arc  deaigned  K      '         —     ■ 


I  that  (Jrealir*  Dwign  h 


ii  U  Koiaritakh 

>ctnc«diadl 


Souie  aniinaia  are  tonuod  to  live  oua  i^ 
■tauceg  alune ;  others  an  » '-"'"-*  t»  b 
flesh  of  otiier  auimala.  UcrUvora  wk 
fOruwrare  eallad,  bava  gaaenllj*.' 


J,  bava  gaamU7*h«« 
tube,  btaauH  tb*  iMia 
oomparuivcljmaa  lt|| 
roiiuLroa  a  greater  •)>£« 


length  uf  its  body.     For  Dm  iffrii 
r  lleah -devouring  aniroaK* 


lals  are  furnished  with  tFcth,  i  ili  ulna 
broad  and  Hat  surfaces,  aa  well  aa  by  iIm  tM 
luctit  or  the  jawaiu  which  they  an  aet,  W  « 
the  herbage  and  grain  eaten  by  Ihrei.  BM 
voroua  auiniale,  with  wide-upenio£  j»«^  iM< 
sharp  fangs  to  iwiie  and  tear  their  pny.  tl 
liarities  of  stmclure  mark  autGcieoily  d>  < 
nature  with  cespuct  to  the  ktnda  of  feed  nfd 
(wo  diBereut  claaaesofaninula  for  tbtirHf 
Tbe  bunuui  iul«aciual  canal  being  of  aaM 
id  the  human  tenth  being  a  miatars  t<  (t*l 
it  ueceesarily  follows  that  man  waadoaiBill 
'egetableand  animal  food,  i^i  nnnJMiilTT'J 
ibly  ur  healthily  except  in  eoiiliniBity  aihll 
Is  cunatituiiuu,  it  folbws  tiiat  mau  vi£  M I 
less  witli  a  mixture  of  nnimAl  and  vrfstatlit 
fullowors  of  Pythagoroa  argued,  (n«  lb"< 
putting  BuiniaU  to  deAib,  that  it  waa  ptif«t 
V  egetabica  alone ;  and  many  eccsBlne  pa 
times  have  acted  upon  iht*  rate.  Br' ' 
Nature  speak  a  diffeiuil  langua^  ( i 
faith  in  thegv,  wc  cannut  for  a  DcnM 
lure  of  animal  fuod  ia  uecoiaary  liit  aa 
the  other  hand,  we  cannot  dispeuM  wil 

out  injurious eDnsciiuetiaa&  latUMJ' 
medium  alimentary  canal  a  kia4  tt  W< 
calculated  fur  a  short  one,  Ihui  tialWM*| 
jeniof  Ihcniostimpurtant  nalatm  A^?^ 
lie  two  kindaof  food  ia  ohal  wi 
rould  desire  tu  live  a  natural  ai 
'h  operates  when  I  life. 


twaapdf*) 

Btrieyaa— J 

llDllt»a4 


le  general  I      In  order  fnlly 


PRESERVATION  OF  HEALTH. 


>w  to  conduct  oonelveB  after  eating,  it  is  neces- 
lat  we  should  be  acquainted  in  some  measure 
he  process  qf  nuirition — that  curious  series  of 
ions  by  which  food  is  received  and  assimilated 
'  svstem,  in  order  to  make  good  the  deficiency 
;ed  by  waste. 

d  is  first  received  into  ihe  mouth,  and  there  the 
ions  in  question  may  be  said  to  commence.  It  is 
to  bo  chewed  (or  masticated)  and  mixed  with 
preparatorily  to  its  being  swallowed  or  sent  into 
omach.  Even  in  this  introductory  stage,  there 
•rtain  rules  to  be  observed.  Strange  as  it  may 
r,  to  know  how  to  eat  is  a  matter  of  very  consi- 
e  importance. 

ly  persons,  thinking  it  all  a  matter  of  indifference, 
haps  unduly  anxious  to  dispatch  their  meals,  eat 
u>t.  If  we  are  to  believe  the  accounts  of  travellers, 
lole  of  the  mercantile  classes  in  New  England  eat 
•dly,  seldom  taking  more  than  ten  minutes  to 
ast,  and  a  quarter  of  an  hour  to  dinner.    They 

0  their  meat  precipitately  into  their  mouths,  and 
w  it  almost  without  mastication.  This  is  con- 
to  an  express  law  of  nature,  as  may  be  easily 

d,  on  being  received  into  the  mouth,  has  two  pro- 
to  undergo,  botli  very  necessary  to  digestion.   It 

be  masticated,  or  chewed  down,  and  also  to  re- 
an  admixture  of  saliva.  The  saliva  is  a  fluid 
;  from  certain  ghuids  in  and  near  the  mouth,  and 
iusliing  in  character  to  the  gastric  juice  afterwai'ds 
described.  Unless  food' bo  well  broken  down  or 
Sited,  and  al80  well  mixed  up  with  the  salivary 
it  will  be  difficult  of  digestion.  The  stomach  is 
ailed  upon  to  do,  besides  its  own  proper  duty,  that 

properly  belongs  to  the  teeth  and  saliva,  and  it 

1  overburdened  and  embarrassed,  often  in  a  very 
s  nuuiner.  The  pains  of  indigestion  are  the  im- 
te  consequence,  and  more  remote  injuries  follow. 
I  importance  of  the  saliva  has  been  shown  in  a 
ig  manner,  on  several  occasions  when  food  was 
ed  into  the  stomach  otherwise  than  through  the 
I.  A  gentleman,  who,  in  consequence  of  a  stric- 
n  the  gullet,  hud  his  food  introduced  by  an  aper- 
Dto  that  tube,  used  to  suffer  severely  from  indi- 
D.  It  is  recorded  of  a  criminal,  who,  having  cut 
roat  in  prison  without  fatal  consequences,  required 

his  food  introduced  by  means  of  a  tube  inserted 
)  mouth,  that,  every  time  ho  was  fed,  there  was 
usion  of  saliva  to  the  amount  of  from  six  to  eight 
s.  We  cannot  suppose  that  a  fluid  of  a  peculiar 
cter  would  have  been  prepared  in  such  quantity, 
water  would  serve  as  well  merely  to  wet  the  food, 
tad  not  been  designed  to  act  an  important  part  in 
isiness  of  nutrition.  With  regard  to  mastication, 
vidence  of  its  importance  is  still  more  clear.  A 
ears  ago,  a  young  Canadian,  named  Alexis  St 
0,  liad  a  hole  made  by  a  shot  into  his  stomach, 

healed  without  becoming  closed.  It  was  there- 
possible  to  observe  the  whole  operations  of  the 
ch  with  the  eye.  His  medical  attendant,  Dr 
Qout,  by  these  means  ascertained  that,  when  a 
of  solid  food  was  introduced,  the  gastric  juice 
merely  on  its  outside.  It  was  only  when  the  food 
jmiuiuuted,  or  made  small^  that  this  fluid  could 
Perform  its  function.  When  the  stomach  finds 
totally  unable  to  digest  a  solid  piece  of  food,  it 

rejects  it  by  vomiting,  or  passes  it  on  into  the 
here  it  produces  an  irritating  effect,  and  is  apt  to 
jn  an  attack  of  cholic  or  flatulency. 
%  therefore  to  be  concluded  that  a  deliberate  mas- 
n  qf  our  food  it  amducive  to  healthy  and  that  fast 

u  injurioui,  and  sometimes  even  dangerous. 
'  food,  haviqg  been  properly  masticated,  is,  by  the 

of  the  tOQgae,  tlirown  into  the  gullet.  It  then 
^ds  into  the  stomach,  not  so  much  by  its  own 
>>  as  by  its  beine  urged  along  by  the  contrac- 
^nd  motions  of  the  gullet  itself.  Th»  stomach 
^  considered  as  an  expansion  of  the  gullet^  and 
Jef  part  of  the  alimentary  canal.    It  is.  in  fact^ 

G59 


a  membranous  pouch  or  bag,  very  similar  in  shape  to 
a  bagpipe,  having  two  openings,  the  one  by  which  the 
food  enters,  the  other  that  by  which  it  passes  out.  It 
is  into  the  greater  curvature  of  the  bag  that  the  gullet 
enters ;  it  is  at  its  lesser  that  it  opens  into  that  adjoin* 
ing  portion  of  the  canal  into  which  the  half-digestod 
mass  is  next  propelled. 

When  food  has  been  introduced,  the  two  orifices  close, 
and  that  which  we  may  term  the  second  stage  in  the 
process  of  digestion  commences.  The  mass,  already 
saturated  with  saliva,  and  so  broken  down  as  to  expose 
all  its  particles  to  the  afition  of  the  gastric  juice,  is  now 
submitted  to  the  action  of  that  fluid,  which,  during  di- 
gestion, is  freely  secreted  by  the  vessels  of  the  stonutcb. 
The  most  remarkable  quality  of  this  juice  is  its  solvent 
power,  which  is  prodigious. 

The  food  exposed  to  this  dissolving  agency,  is  con- 
verted into  a  soft,  grey,  pulpy  mass,  called  chyme,  which, 
by  |he  muscular  contraction  of  tlie  stomach,  is  urged  on 
into  the  adjoining  part  of  tlie  alimentary  canal,  called 
the  duodenum.  This  is  generally  completed  in  the 
space  of  from  half  an  hour  to  two  or  three  hours ; 
the  period  varying  according  to  the  nature  and  volume 
of  the  food  taken,  and  the  mastication  and  insalivatioa 
it  has  undergone. 

In  the  duodenum,  the  chyme  becomes  intimately 
mixed  and  incorporated  with  the  bile  and  pancreatic 
juices  ;  also  with  a  fluid  secreted  by  the  mucous  follicles 
of  the  intestine  itself.  The  bile  is  a  greenish,  bitter,  and 
somewhat  viscid  fluid,  secreted  by  the  liver,  which  oc- 
cupies a  considerable  space  on  the  right  side  of  the  body 
immediately  under  the  ribs.  From  this  organ  the  bile, 
after  a  portion  of  it  has  passed  up  into  tne  adjacent 
gall-bladder,  descends  through  a  small  duct,  about  the 
size  of  a  goose-quill,  into  the  duodenum.  The  chyme, 
when  mixed  with  these  fluids,  undergoes  a  change  in 
its  appearance  ;  it  assumes  a  yellow  colour  and  bitter 
taste,  owing  to  the  pi*edoniinance  of  the  bile  in  the  mass ; 
but  its  character  varies  according  to  the  nature  of  the 
food  that  has  been  taken.  Fatty  matters,  tendons,  car- 
tilages, white  of  eggs,  &c.,  are  not  so  readily  converted 
into  chyme  as  fibrous  or  fleshy,  cheesy,  and  glutinous 
substances.  The  chyme,  having  undergone  the  changes 
adverted  to,  is  urged  by  the  peristaltic  motion  of  the 
intestines  onwards  through  the  alimentary  canal.  This 
curious  motion  of  the  intestines  is  caused  by  the  con- 
traction of  the  muscular  coat  which  enters  into  their 
structure,  and  one  of  the  principal  uses  ascribed  to  the 
bile  is  that  of  stimulating  them  to  tliis  motion.  If  the 
peristaltic  motion  be  diminished,  owing  to  a  deficiency 
of  bile,  then  the  progress  of  digestion  is  retarded,  and 
Uie  body  becomes  constii>ated.  In  such  cases,  calomel, 
tlie  blue  pill,  and  q|^er  medicines,  are  administered  for 
the  purpose  of  stimulating  the  liver  to  secrete  the  biliary 
fluid,  that  it  may  quicken  by  its  stimulating  properties 
the  peristaltic  action.  But  this  is  not  the  only  use  of 
the  bile  :  it  also  assists  in  separating  the  nutritious  from 
the  non-nutritious  portion  of  the  alimentary  mass,  for 
the  chyme  now  presents  a  mixture  of  a  fluid  termed 
chyle^  which  is  in  reality  the  nutritious  portion  elimi- 
nated from  the  food.  The  chyme  thus  mixed  with  chyle 
arrives  in  the  small  intestines  ;  on  the  walls  of  whicli 
a  series  of  exquisitely  delicate  vessels  ramify  in  evci*y 
direction.  These  vessels  absorb  or  tako  up  the  chyle, 
leaving  the  rest  of  the  mass  to  be  ejected  from  the 
body.  The  chyle,  thus  taken  up,  is  carried  mto  little 
bodies  or  glands,  where  it  is  still  further  elaborated, 
acquiring  additional  nutritious  properties  ;  after  which, 
corresponding  vessels,  emerging  from  these  glands,  carry 
along  the  fluid  to  a  comparativelv  large  vessel,  called 
the  uioracic  duct,  which  ascends  m  the  abdomen  along 
the  side  of  the  back-bone,  and  pours  it  into  that  side  of 
the  heart  to  which  the  blood  that  hasahready  circulated 
throdgh  the  body  returns.  Here  the  chyle  is  intimately 
mixed  with  the  blood,  which  fluid  is  now  propelled  into 
the  lungs,  where  it  undergoes,  from  being  exposed  to 
the  action  of  the  air  we  breathe,  the  changes  necessary 
to  render  it  again  fit  for  circulation.  It  is  in  the  lunn, 
therefbrcy  that  the  process  of  digestion  is  completed ; 


CHAMBERS'S  INFORMATION  FOR  TUE  PEOl 
now  Mqnired  thiwe  nntrilienl  properti 
inpply  thi  wute  of  tlio  dif&rent  le«lnr« 


n  the 


li,  tlic  SI 


It  gulric  joiee  immedately  conimmees  ;  and 

when  n  full  nienl  biu  beon  taLeo,  thii  secirlion  gene. 

nils  l"*^  ''^  ■'"'"  ""  *"'"''■  "  '*  *  *"■  "^  "**'  "' 
lion,  thkt  when  mny  liiing  organ  »  called  into  pUy, 
ther*  b  immpdiately  a.n  incnns^  flow  t<f  blood  and 
urrmit  uncraj  towards  it.  The  stomach,  while  »eeret- 
ing  the  bile,  oiiplayB  tha  phenomenon,  aud  the  coaat- 
qneocc  i>  tliat  the  blood  and  nervous  cnergj  are  called 
BMV  liiini  other  organs.  Thil  is  the  cause  of  that 
efailfneu  >l  the  enlrMIlilies  which  we  often  feel  after 
eating  heartily.  So  great  h  the  demand  which  th* 
■(omaeh  thus  makes  upon  the  rest  of  the  syatcm,  th»t, 
during  and  for  some  time  after  a  meal,  we  are  not 
In  a  condition  (o  take  strong  rxeidse  of  any  kind. 
Both  bedy  and  mind  arc  inactive  and  Languid.  Thej 
are  so,  umply  berauee  that  which  supports  muscular 
and  mental  aotivily  is  ooneenlnilBd  fur  the  time  upon 
tin  organs  of  digestion,  'fhis  is  an  arrangemeoc  of 
nkturc  which  a  regard  to  health  requires  tlutweriiould 
nol  interfere  with.  HV  ibould  iadulgt  in  (A*  mtucular 
and  mtnbil  rrpeii  vhich  a  demandid;  and  thii  thould 
lail  far  net  much  ten  Ihaa  on  Anur  nfler  ertr^  mtal. 
In  that  lime,  the  secretion  uf  bile  is  oearlj  fiiushEd ; 
the  new  □□trimeot  Ijegios  to  tell  npon  the  gmera!  cir- 
culation :  and  we  are  again  lit  for  aotivs  exGrtton.  Th* 
consequence  of  not  obMrving  lhi»  role,  ii  very  hurtful. 
Strong  exercise,  nr  mental  appliraliun,  during  or  Im- 
mediately  after  a  meal,  diverts  the  flow  of  nervous 
energy  and  of  blood  to  the  stoniscli,  »nd  llie  pnxwas  of 
digestion  is  necessarily  retarded  or  slopped.  Drnfu- 
Hon  is  thus  introduced  into  the  system,  and  a  lendtney 
to  tlu)  terrible  calauuty  ut  djrsptpsia  is  perliaps  wt*- 


n  (tut  repose  is  required  after  a 


>]<phcBllon,  the  uei 
1  that  case  direcli 
lice  to  call  another  uid 


For  then 

walk,  the  flow  of  nervous  ,■ 

strongly  directed  to  the  mii:- 

sometime  In  allow  this  fl'<i 

till  this  takes  place,  il  id  u 

mach  into  exercise,  as  the  dr 

filled  would  not  in  Hint  case 

we  be  cngnged  in  cIuec  men 

energy  and  circulBtioii  beir 

the  brain,  it  is  not  right  all 

dislanl  orgnn  inin  play  ;  Fonic  limo  is  required  to  alli 

of  the  energy  nnd  circubtion  beinf  prepared  to  ta 

the  new  direction.     It  may,  thpn'fure,  be  laid  down 

a  maKim,  that  a  nhotl  periitd  of  rrpojir,  or  of  irast 

ten/  light  occupalinii,  ahtiald  lie  alloitcd  brfiwe  eve 

It  is  remarkable  that  th«e  rulw,  nllboufth  the  nal 
rsl  reaions  for  them  were  not,   perhapn,  well  knon 


and  abdomioal  miuelea  dur 
tion ;  and  the  diminution  of  an  imolf  «!■ 
the  reapiralory  mavctuml  tl^a€k  ai^O*  M 
epondency  and  grief,  is  ooe  asTCe  tlltim 
digestion  wbich  notorioasly  uaeonftma  t^ 
mind.  I^e  tune  cause  sIk  lead*  tmm^ 
ni.tavourable  condition  oJ  th*bf«adMl4fi 

function  ;  but  the  mDf«ular  or  msetrsaical  ^ 
that  which  at  pnseni  chiefly  amotn*  as,  W  4 
hand,  the  active  and  catrgnit  rt^irslBB« 
on  cheerfulness  snd  bnnysscy  of  ipaio,  aM 
power  of  digwtioD,  both  by  auling  th*  aite 
■lomaeli  and  br  iinpaniag  to  it  a  ma*  tiA^ 


.  by  unpaniDg 
If  to  ItaMe  a 


ingw. 


o  AOe^^i 


feasor  □utebuid  of  Dcrlio. ' 

to  digestion  with  which  1  am  acquainM;  ail 

torn  preralent  among  our  (oranum^  rf  rtat 

table  by  jesters  and  buSinns,  wr-  ' — -•-'  — ' 

tally  in  liarmony  with  f]  true  n 

word,  endeavour  lA  have  eh«erfn)  ■! 

ninns  at  your 

■midst  mirth  and  jolUly,  will  cnttinly  pi 

and  light  blood."'* 


li«aln«|i 
a  and  MR) 


Ther«  is,  it  i-<  t'l  b*  rvmarked,  a  poaw  4 
tioo  in  nature,  by  wbtch  indiTUoats  atf  !• 
for  a  onnidderahla  lime  to  IW«  bMhl4r«tt 
ottra  Knd  axelnsivelf,  of  rnmiAj  iol  IfeM 
ncrverthetese,  the  general  role,  towUAftkl 
Biihere.  It  hns  b.-.n  f.jund,  for  imfflot^  d 
LibuureiB,  ircluding  pWRliinen,  will  bit  fc^ 
many  yearn  rm  n  ilifi  cbitjly  firinacniDi — tW 
p06M  of  the  fariua  uf  grain.  Bnl  ii  is  lu  !«Ss 
the  food  in  this  caur,  thnngh  apparently  sA 
hi-iilth,  ii  only  ao  apparently  ;  and  ihal  ibe  Ma 
being  all  the  time  not  supported  as  il  ua{)il  uh 
down  prematurely  in  a  greAt  pri^por^n  «f  I 
Il  lias  been  said,  again,  that  the  tri>ii  IsbcMM 
are  a  rtmarknbly  robust  raei-,  although  tbeirl 
sIhts  fllmoBt  exclusively  of  potat/we.  Thf  fad 
luoked.  that  Ihe  Irish  cat  a  quanlily  of  H 
•,  as  cnutd  nol  (ail  ^l  nuke  up  a  «■ 


■e  f.ir  the  ■ 


itof  ai 


Poor-I. 

tho  peasantry  of  Ireland,  wouieii  as  wdl  ■*  ■ 
at  their  two  daily  meats,  in  genersl,  abonia* 
weight  of  this  food  !  Sneh  a  case  is  TstbsMl 
amniiesl  inatancea  of  extraordinsr^-  adsplsdMI 
kind  of  food,  than  as  a  pnwf  Ihalai 


nto  diet 


Him 


which  l"iiT>  .."  n  v;,1....,  «lii(.-   n~   -■■•  ll.rir   Tr,,li.-ni  i.." 

in  modifving  the  rule  as  lo  a  mitiurrrf  « 

>     -iMo  {■••••i.     Thu  former  has  most  «(  a  Mi 

Ih^l.'-'   ■'                       ■'■■.'                      .     '                      :'■.'.' 

,  ,!.,imdtbisquahlyisgTHleriBbe<aa 
1  il,  than  in  fowl  or  fish.     Now,  tbsi*J 

„1|„H     ■..            ■ 

1  ■!  :■■:■]  countries  are  in  their  onliuarycoaOH 

■,L..>i  of  (timulu, :  henee  they  find  a  simpk  A 

K..I.I...                                                                            ■.:-i,aa 

and  sagu  sufficient  for  them.     Thnse,  m  (ksi 

].,:n  .                                                                  ,        ■    .  ■■  bus 

Ihev  con  devour  vsi.1  quaulitira  of  flrdi  tal 

■  Mil...    ,:l;  -If    r   ;ii..  i,-.,    ,,,,  Ir^.ii-, .■!.-■     -In.ul.l 

with  ecai'cely  any  miMure  ..(  vegetable  fiiili 

Ihi  IV  can  be  no  objecliun  to  the  light  and  lively  dial 

lit,  „1  ,l.tlVn„L   U„.|-  ..r  f.-.,l,  are  perkaf- ' 

which  generally  ii.  indulged  in  where  setersl  arc  mel 

c.mxviu.'iKV  I..  <!..-   II.  "b,mi  faealthhMatat 

to  eat  logrther.     On  the  ennlrary,  it  is  believed  thai 

l-I.      r.j  tlu  ^..iiM.I  .111.1  Inilihy.  itiaenspr 

nulrilion.     Dr  Ciimbe,  in  one  of  his  Invaluable  works. 

litlle  cim'.i.'.uK-uoe  »U»i  kind  of  food  »  lafca. 

tlmt  eomo  variation  is  obserrwl,  and  pe  «n 

ubserret  asfi-Uuns^ — "The  necessary  churning,  or  agi- 

UUon  of  Ihe  food,  is,  from  Ihe  peeuluiT  situation  of  ifip 

•  Thr  n.j^.ilojy  ■il  DlfTMUfl.   Mgi  D*  Aw*n  O" 

bunsh;  Itott, 

imnuit,  ianwun  1 
it  bla  Ti|1i(  »ra  ■ 
irt»  anj  tit^aUo"  n 

MarinDiL    Onnobou  (jnfiaaliu. . 
|!,fiirlhaMi~    ~  " '  "■ 


lwmlii|!,  fur  Ihn  Mta*  run  mi,  elilnS/  ini|inivi* 
■  ni  hi*  Im.    Thn  rigbl  huidj  of  0104  piav 

injttnw-  fc-niuiiilr  rmpl.-vrri  ii,an  tl."  \-i\, 
uUdv  1-1- 


.  ■  i..rl..f  Uwir 

■F,  ihcn,  In  tnalntila  in  ri  Mrnni  ttiln  lliit 
•lileh  nauir*  hu  gttnn  im,  anil,  Ml!t  murn 
\j,  10  inRrflBM  tlifrr  Bmniral,  M  oiiMf  CMnlw 
w*  dra'rti  M  luivw  »  ■tmne  limh,  nc  luiul 
111I  Umb ;  ir  w*  duain  Ibal  tbr  wbnla  nf  nnr 
uU  bw  *BUiul  and  Mrfmr,  w*  nuM  irimalRi 
«r  nnr  fnunv.  Il  U  tniUllly  bj  tbnw  miMM 
1  uid  ttnuiRib  KTB  tu  Im  mwkvrvvil  niiil  'ho- 
then  \ro  rulM,  honirrr,  for  Uic  t|>|il^Um 


BMOiJ  of  a  gnin,  nill  tm  tl'r  rnni-  nr,.  w,- 
tHoi^  In  Ihi  rfflatd«na  vrpn  in  a  hi-nltliT  inb 

bi-  •iritril,  «nttain*(l,  Ani  diirriril  l.'v  tl-  ii 
,iinu)u«  wliirh  jiv**  It*  inn«fJi«  ili"  r.nr>rii«t 
Jir  ntKngUi,  and  onntributu*  ">  iiuii'l-.  i:i  ih* 
of  urt*  in  a  iMto  of  mUvit^.  'I'u  iiiililti 
lut  tic  mnuloned  tint  to  pruduiw  iitniiwn  n> 

ta-aprnxiaa  of  Uie  tniiKalu  Hlii*  w.tli  in*. 

»™,ottPrf»hiciJloon»'cj»tIir-p„riiii I-.(i'.r 

bn  mnxflfl,  uid  mi' 

Ontivmii  birk  to  lii'-  '  " 

nor  in«IlHl>e)*,b,^  V  ' 

i«  ■l<tT>"  of  eiinlrai ' 

minntiltali  tho Hi.l  .i. 

Indl>{<«mbla  phcf  >  '  1 

Jiiu  ernucd,  will  r> 

to  b<»r  >  weiflii  [.f ..  , 

■C,it  wuuM  b*  tiini  »■:  It 

until  mta  in  d.tnii;»i',  i.c  m  tliij.nr-Dii  i,f  *nni" 
airod  objnct,  In  perfumi  nic^  iMtnioTdlMrjr 
nnffh  uti  uitSyitj.  Tu  udar,  Ihon,  to  oblaki 
bu*  oT  thi*  MW^R]]  ■gent,  m  nwf  &*  Mr- 
MM  IH  orr  Mn;.     A  ijion  that  fBlln  Bp  the 

■K^,  a  «alli  tovirdi  ■  f  Imw  wbldi  **  an 
<  rttieb,  OT  wnn  an  tx*rc»ii>  whicib  wr  pcqapt 
ir*  f>f  inrliimtiiis  cm 

■y  Biiwoi*!'  inu^t  bn  ijillj 
tj  iPDQ  :  u,  ii  loeri?  be  uij  dftilcime]'  In  t^Al 
rninlaOB,  the  blood  vtQ  tcOD  omk  la  jgire 
Mratimi  tn  Ilia  pari*  npm  whfdi  tr  ~  ~  ~ ' 
I  -. .«.  J— TOiL 


CIIAMBERS-S  INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


tally  if  an;  fau  been  uik™  >t  brenkfoit.  A  gl^aaaf 
nine  u  ofwo  idcUd  to  b  bi»cuit  lunch,  or  wino  slooe  U 
ttlien ;  but  ncilber  of  these  practices  eaa  be  com- 
mendeil.  While  a  itxaW  quantity  of  bread  or  biMUit 
pvf*  leti  Btronglli,  »nd  is  quite  Baflioieiit  for  the  oeca- 
Son,  wine  only  givea  a  rtiinuliu,  Mrving  for  the  time, 
but  makJDg  the  case  worse  afterwards. 


unpnrliint.     Thei ,    .  ,    .       , 

■aWad,  which  cannot  be  •aried,  and  which  no  one 
itver  wiahn  to  bs  eo.  But  apart  from  one  or  two 
article!^  a  certain  nriation  or  rotation  ia  much  to  he 
desired,  and  will  prove  favoumble  to  Health.  There  is 
1  commou  prepo»semion  reipccting  <mf  iluh,  which  la 
more  Bpoken  of  than  aMed.upon,  In  reality,  there  is 
DO  virtue  in  this  practice,  excepting  that,  if  rigidly 
adheffd  la,  it  makes  exceag  nearly  intpOBsible,  no  one 
belne  able  to  eat  to  satiety  of  one  kind  of  food.  Then 
ivotiU  be  a  beaeflt  from  both  a  daily  Taxation  of  food 
Bud  eating  of  more  U.BU  one  diah  at  a  meal,  ymodn-o- 
(icn  weri  in  io/ft  eatet  io  be  ilrialg  eturPtd,  tar  the 

Slilili  to  be  IhuB  obtained  'a  nBeful  aa  promotive  of  the 
•n  of  nervous  energy  to  the  titomacli,  exactly  in  the 
Mfno  manner  as  ch«rrn1nBBi  is  useful.  The  policy 
which  would  make  food  in  any  way  unplttuant  la  the 
taalB,  is  a  moat  mialahea  one  ;  for  to  eat  with  languor, 
or  ai^nnt  inclinatiiin,  or  with  nny  degree  of  dlngunt,  ia 
ta  lc«c  much  of  the  benefit  of  eating.  On  the  otlier 
hand,  to  cook  disliM  liiglily,  and  provoke  appeiilo  by 
•rtificial  means,  are  equally  reprehenwble.  Propriety 
Un  in  the  mean  betweea  the  two  eitremeo. 


The  body  containing  a  vast  amount  of  fluids,  i 
»re  undergoing  a  perpetual  wsbIb,  thetB  ia  a  neceBtily 
|br  an  occasional  supply  of  Ili^uor  of  aome  kind,  as  well 
M  of  Bolid  food.    It  remaina  to  be  considered  what 
tequired  in  the  charaeler  or  nature  of  this  liqnor, 
make  it  terre  tlio  end  consistently  wilh  tho  prescrva- 


I  ofh 


altfi. 


he  open  air,  or  to  the  itiflucncc  of  aitxioiM  M 
ing  watehrulncm,  n  moderate  qoanlitjr  of  <aU| 
oo3  may  become  the  mtMa  of  wirding  offlj 
'  enabling  him  to  bear  np  uninjvNl 
ho  would  have  given  iray>  Bart llrl 
lime  declares,  in  tha  moat  d*«Ma41 
that,  when  the  digestion  i*  good  and  Ih*  *]»■<■ 
vigour,  the  bodily  enerey  ia  enaily  vwUiaMl 
"-'IS  food,  and  "  artifleial  itintolasi  anif  itm 
tlinff  rtf  Ike  naliTol ilrerigtA.''  NaBrljdll 
indeed,  concur  in  renreaenting  ardott  luiMi 
favourable  to  the  health  of  the  hoallby,  MMM 
their  excess,  highly  injurioaa.  Even  Uw  M 
fcneewhich  has  tieen  act  Up  for  their  DH!,oaS 
that  they  would  not  have  be«n  giwo  ts  loaji  ■ 
tiot  been  designed  for  general  ote,  ha*  bM«1 
be  ill-founded,  (aeing  that  pinuu.  /rrmrmtt^ 
which  they  are  derived,  is  nut  a  hasttltj  fM 
vegetable  matter,  but  a  stage  in  lui  pi  i  ji  aW 
U[)on  the  whole,  there  can  Iw  UiUb  doabtj 
liquors  are  delelerions  in  oar  ordiiiary  haafl 
tion  ;  and  that  simple  water,  toaat  water,  WlB 
beer,  or  lemonade,  would  be  prefi^Tmble  (thftJ 
the  most  natural  and  the  beat  of  all),  if  wa  d 
consent  to  deny  ourselves  furthcT  iudulgenCKl 

To  beep  the  body  in  a  c)<*nly  eondllfan  | 
important  requieile  for  health.  Ttib  ht~ 
aary  io  conseqaciwe  of  a  very  important  pi 
ia  constantly  going  on  near  and  upon  tl^ 

The  process  in  question  is  thxt  of  jx 
matter  here  concerned  is  a  wat«ry  ai 
by   glands   near  the   Burtkc*    of  th«  t 

up  throngh  the  akin    by   chaiinvia  iwaf 

nute  and  wonderfully  numeroua.     PnMl^ 

pounds  nf  this  secretion  ii  bellrvn)  Uifi  ~ 

Iheee  channels  or  pore*  in  the  ootu 

honrs,  being  in  bet  the  chief  form 

called  the  waste  of  the  syslein,  the 

olf  by  the  bowels,  kidneys,  and  lungik     To  p 

frM!  pjrc^a  of  ihfs  fluid  is   of  grrat   Mon^ 

:■■  .  II  ■-  !i  .   -I    \'.'    ■  111.  !■  (irgaus  eoueenml  ia 

■  ■■       ■   ■'-■Ml-  cheeks  whirfi  per 


prejudice. 

"The  primary  eflVrt  of  all  dist 
liquors,"  says  lip  Coiulic,  "  ia  Io  - 
tsslcm  aifl  i/iliekcn  the  ,■■-,■■;.:'■. 


ody,  allofwhkhl 

lyrM 

xnta^i 
ckedpMi 
rtTolar* 

•  fhi'id  aliudi^d  Kf\  is  ronipn«ie4,  b«?uiWi 
n  uike  and  animal  mailers,  which,  lmi% 
i«  swav  in  vapour,  as  dn«  the  watery  fa 
.u.1.1,  Lul  real  nn  the  surfac*  whtf*  U 
.urizfil.     There,  if  not  mnoved  by  • 

-.  ihoy  form  a  layer  of  hari  slit 

,1  -  .ihin-ili-'iho  egrreaof  thoctimnilpanl 
...  iL,  ..  IS  merely  mnuil  the  takti^  fnfS 
..iiL  liiit.  or  any  other  matter  a«aBak 
irfu^i',  Io  the  pruductiun  of  certain  haiiAi 

tulion  or  washing  is  the  best  meiansof  alba 
».ul  nccrdiugly  it  ia  weU  for  iu  Io  wait  S 
U  iiri  rpTiinfiiilj.  Muiy  InareM-farlkai 
r  l."ili.-sui.«.i!ilied,  exoei'I,  ^O^tf,! 
■  -.  Mi.iii.iHg  It  enuugh  if  Uw  pan*  —9 
.\«vwA<.«.ol«lm.    lrth*et}i«<< 


^tnkttt  Mnj  iMTtJoalar  !!ml>  Jiw*  llii>  ImE'lua  im- 
oclef  Ibc  pDioisih  (4  Uut  Uoib;  unt  that,  lo  M**r 
incmv.  nnr  ^.nrn\  Btna(lk,  tbrvbala  (rana  aiiat 
'  ' .-^lA    The.  hiaoknnith,  tjy  <■   ' ' 


-  mw)f.  .if  il.n  r.I.™  b(  Uilt 
It  ii  imninliDjd*  rrauLTliBl, 


•Xf£ 


•m 


I.  Inordor  iluiciPTcliBfosylu  Imlyadwai 
■  fMltnint  I*  in  a  >UtF  nf  *iif)l«>Rnl  hull! 
ire  tha  exertion.  A  xj'iitoni  wmknunf  \iy  Am 
ng  tnaotiim  nint  t>a  vxMiiaH  vn-y  Mring 
■nntlll  cm  to  jtr*****  BirorM  vnry  ftniBkllri'liltlcr- J 

I  own  tiiimt  CMOTitiH  b>  urrivd  iMvoiid  olisi  llin  inn 
«  npftbl*  of  lH*rtu|t  with  c*u  ;  iitlienrUa  a  1m  «U 
l«9j|T,  SnaMid  «f  ■  giun.  will  b«  din  conaoi'iienix. 
S.  KxtTciv,  (e  bi  «IBai.ricmit  chi  lu  ■  IhIOi^  ai 
el.  moat  bv  oxaitvd,  iiubuaFd,  and  liin-mrd  1^  ikail 
TTOU>  ■timuloa  kBcH  ^itm  tins  mmwU-t  llitprintrrpd.l 
iTtof  tb«ir  >trini|;U),  wiiI  wtDlriliiiii-x  wi  iiiiii'li  ti>  iha  J 
■Irition  «(  part*  in  »  alatii  of  adiviir.     Ti  nflaia  I 
i«,  it  mult  liH  rafnliifiiBd  tbat  to  pnniaei-  mntjan  I 
ijna  tha  on-npacatiou  of  th*  milacuk*  filiM  Wilil  H 
<■  of  uervis.  ouo  of  which  Miivey*  tlio  tnnnnuid  nf  A 


•M  of  Til.  .  i.iTji  )ii«>r 

ie>ul  t<i  ,1.  .  !.i:'li  it  nb-' 

niwtyun  >i. :  -     ,        '  .  iiiitivinind  J 

Wjwl«tiiij;  ili«  mov.'iiniiiii  1.1'  ihf  IimIv.   Tlti  nvFTDua  f 
tmiAa*  thu*  cmilnl,  will  •nabU  k  muade  In  Hid  IIt^ 
jE  rnmelo  bark  might  of  ■  hundred  jniniiili^  vbilb.l 

ootucliid,  It  WDiilil  hr  torn  tunndor  bj  oop  tit  l«n.   It  ■ 

wiiat  canim  iotd  in  danj^,  ttr  in  Oii>  inirmtit  erf  khim  f 
■■^ttly  dnuvd  oh}(vt,  lo  inrform  mdi  #««Ktfdin»iy  1 
^  pf  (OvDjeUi  ud  netlrily.  In  order,  Uian,  In  ubte(~ 
I*  ailvuitii^  ol  thU  powgrfDl  ageat,  mi  mu*t  tt  Inl 
utr'f  in  vital  •ef  arc  ioiap.  A  rfort  tbat  alia  np  it 
cnUl  annzf .  a  wslk  tawsrdi  a  pUot  whidb  w>  nr»m 
imlaua  to  rucb,  or  (vcn  an  uffririM  wlijoh  wb  bb|*s» J 
tbroaxb  a  diw'r*  of  inTigontttnf;  onr  health  audi 
Toigtb,  *itl  proYV  Inmafioial,  whrn  tnor*  cf  iMiuttB 
DL'on,  p*Kurni*d  langnidlv,  inaj>  b*  eaarljr  InilTirtiull'a 

S.  Tha  waM*  neouInnBi)  by  vxitcIh  miut  b«  dutra 
>)ilaev'l  by  food :  aa,  if  Iharc  be  any  ilvfidmiy  )■■  tliat  ■ 
npwrtant  rrqultue,  thr  bload  irUI  iood  ckm  to  gtiH 
lat  [ii*i«ratiou  to  lh«  carta  upon  ubidt  ir ■" 

mma  or  wottr  czncan- 


CIlAMBKaS-S  INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PKOI 


.a  Siote  *ith  tlie 
n  ^-miuulie  inslitutioiu. 
(e-tiding,  Hi]iug,  friction. 


I  timw,  when 
d  trunk  free 


leiping,   riJing,  fencinp. 
drnioing,  ■ml  *»rioUB  e«eici» 

filn,  rapa,  ftc^  preseribed 
he  puute  <Hm»i«B  in  ciuTii 

Wallang  ia  perhapi  llw  readiest  modi  of  takiag  ei- 
tmae,  ■nd  the  ont  nuwt  e»lcn«i»elj  rwurfeJ  to.  if  it 
brought  UiB  nppcr  tart  of  the  l*oily  u  tlioroughly  into 
nwnum  u  the  lower,  it  Muld  be  piTfect,  for  il  la 
gentle  »nd  ufe  with  oearlj  »ll  except  the  much  debili- 
lated.  To  render  it  tlic  mere  effeetual 
[«rt  of  the  body,  il  Hire  well  to  walk  at  al 
oon»enienl,  nnj'y,  and  allow  the  arma  an 
play.  Il  U  beet  to  walk  with  a  companioi , 
deb'nile  object,  as  Uie  How  of  uervoiw  energy  wiU  be  by 
ikese  moui*  promoted,  and  ibe  exercise  lie  rvnilned, 
■a  baa  bevii  n!rrady  eipUined, 

Very  long  ur  rapid  ualk«  ehould  not  be  alleuifled 
by  individuali  of  aedi-nury  liabiif ,  nor  by  weakly  p«i~ 
•Ona.  Their  frame*  are  locally  UDprejwreil  for  auch 
violent  exertion.  When  u  person  who  baa  been  long 
MoflOBd  at  still  employ nieiila  finds  huntelf  ul  liberly  la 
jndulgp  1ii«  incliiHLlion  for  a  ramble  of  a  f«w  days  iu  Ibe 
eooutry,  Iw  abuuld  begin  with  alow  and  aliort  marohee, 
and  be  eunteot  therewith  till  bia  body  ia  hardened  for 
gnater  (fl'drU.  Thia  ia  a  rale  followed  iu  Ibe  army 
with  reaped  to  rvgimcnU  which  are  about  lo  under- 
take long  mangbea.  l^rery  mmmer,  minyyaDllia,fruiii 
ignorance,  do  Ibemeelvea  great  injury  by  undenaling 

Edaiitriau  eicanioni  much  beyond  Ilieir  itreuglh. 
ded  lo  the  Ual  degree,  and  incajwble  of  enjoying  any 
tliliil  pre»nled  to  Uivir  obiier«atiun,  tliey  Deverthelewi 
peniat  in  making  out  Eoma  appointed  ui 
per  day,  nerer  once  thinking  of  the  ootrtse  they  are 
ooiniiiiltiug  upon  IhemseWeB,  and  only  liniking  to  llie 
leoBtiDg  their  luk, 
|d' In   ite  Jminiey.    Serious   eonaequencet  - 


Wilh  r 

etpMt  to 

try  Ti 

pid  wnlking,  Dr  Jul 

i«>,i  re 

cords  son 

occurring 

in  bin  OH 

"  In  mv  own  pen. 

n,"  MjB 

he,  "  I  hnJ  w-me  j- 

[..nnina 

iWanee 

t  the  bad 

effce» 

of  bKi  great  muacular  Dotion 

ocouianed  by  a  babil  of  v 

alkiug  verv  fast.    After  ndaj 

Uld  uigl, 

„r  m.uM, 

1  f.lit, 

i.::.i.dn>[<id|„.',1c<i,- 

Won,  li.gi 

■,  1  w.. 

anddtuiy 

mt-e  a 

irregolai- 

f.'lC  the 

hntrt  giv 

i.e  with 

^«at.io 

npecu 

Dartndi 

region 

which  I 

cannot  df 

erib..- 

■     Tluso  sji..plunu 

hceame 

aggnval 

J,  and  laaled  fo 

eight  weck»,  "  duri 

g  xbich 

tim.',"  lie 

"I 

ndke.t 

when  at  home,  in  a  horizontal  posiliun.     At  leni;! 
heart  gradually  Inat  its  nnirbid  trritabilily  ;  and  at  the 
end  of  fourteen  or  tifleeu  weclu  I  could  nalk  a»  well 

Running  ia  an  eierciie  whlcli  ia  intcmiediale  betweet 
walking  and  leaping ;  il  cunsisls,  in  fact,  cf  a  upriia  ii 
laps  [MTfumird  in  progvesaionfrom  onr  Ii>i>[  lo  iinolhei 
and  ibe  digrei-  uf  its  raiiidily  bears  a  cunsloMt  piopur 
lion  to  tliD  length  nf  lhc<  individual  and  FiiceiBtive  le.ipi 
During  ihis  rlpn^i^^e  llie  individual  U  i.MicfJ  \>i  till;. 


oiaea,  eacepl  onde*  the  e«re  irf  aoHMi  «••  w 
with  gymuoalica. 

/■oiriBff  ia  of  *ll  artive  eiereiaea  1^*1 

niofct  eommmdable,  iuaatkiucli  ■*  Vt  thrv* 

chest,  and  at  llw  HUae  iinui  call*  iiMn  aelini  I 

betb  uf  Ibe  upper  vid  lover  evtndiutan.    , 

that  it  iiuprovea  very  niudi  iti*  eamafr  d 

■hich  rc«»on  it  may  be  n    " 

•tion.    The  alanry  er 

ich  arc  laugbt  iii  gyiiui 


ng  Itr  Roland'*  TnmlW  oi 
'  a  uble  thowine  '^ 
h  and  ■Iivngib  oftliR 
nployment  of  IhEse  ei 


■tftka 
growth  and  alrwiglli  o7  tliR  body  is  ■  gluai  ti 

healthfal  ax 
be  almon  tlie  only  aelin  enetvlK  •*•*  4 
Uwa  of  fabhinu  pu^nit  yonttl  )>di«  ta  Mfij. 
scarcely  uuiuider  niodom  aoadriOw,  afapi 
they  be,  as  eierciBe,  areing  thai  dwy  dUbr  I 
lb«  mi.ht  rotnm  ..■...--—      n.^ 

Jk,««.to^«  ...        . 

their  lean  refinement  may  b*  euDHOetca  M 
penMtod  by  the  (Hiperiur  baiadt  which  I^SM 
lienllh. 

Hiding  H  genttally  elaB<ed  aimnig  the  )^ 
ciaet,  Lilt  in  lesMly  it  U  oue  wliieh  ■nriiiTn  ai 
(■(  the  whole  frame,  and  as  such  m  »  riy  dkW  fc 
Tunued  uihlarily,  il  baa  the  drawb^dt  fi  bM 
what  doll ;  but,  when  two  or  tliree  rule  ia  M 
EDflicieot  flew  uf  the  nerrou*  eneny  ma;  tell 

The  amount  nf  bodily  exerciH  which  itxidl 
must  •ary  according  to  the  babjla,  wna^  « 
ral  heallJi  of  the  inditidiuL  It  wa>  as  iffc 
Baerliaji*e,  that  e»erj  person  uliould  laki  il  i 
hourb'  eacmiM  io  the  day,  and  tfaia  tatj  bt  s^ 

■  good  gnicnl  role. 


«  may  bi 


good  respecting  the  mental  (aeoltien.  ThM 
generally  allowed,  howeYer  inuoalentl  ia  m 
are  cunnecled  organically  with  the  braio-ai* 
the  animaj  system  nourished  by  the  fame  ■• 
regiiUted  by  tlio  same  vital  laws,  as  tbr  mMM 
UJU  nerves.  As,  by  dieoac,  moacle  beeoSB  ■■ 
boue  softens,  blood-Tessels  are  oblitenled,  M^ 
Instt  Iheir  natural  slructure,  ao,  by  4i>*K* 
brain  fall  out  of  its  pruper  stale,  and  cnsM  ^ 
its  poBBuasor ;  and  as,  by  over-eiiertitRi,  It*" 
the  animal  system  exrcrda  the  supply,  udU* 

functiuus  of  li 

etreyed.     The  . 

and  the  elfectB  bear  a 

As  with  the  bodily  powers,  the  meulsl  >"  ■! 

orcoani  in  magnitude  and  enerf^  by  a  J"p"  ■ 

cisD  maiBured  witli   ■  josi  regard  U  ibor" 

hi'allh  and  native  or  habitual  enerCHV.  Uc^ 

tn.irmver,  lo  the  influence  which  thr  Rua<lh*4 

the  nervous  stimulus  eu  useful  in  budilyfuV^ 

r|i]i"ndenee  of  tlic  mind  upiin  the  buJj  *"3 

I.   .1 '■:i-,.-iiltmcnUlfacDltyiionl*tole 
.     ■      .  ^    :.■>-:  uf  ilBelf  il  '         ' 

■!n:d  and  mart 

LxiilhesamesiloaliutlwilhUH* 
.    .  -Mi.l  the  lo-er  liDil»  of  the  i>W 


nonljrtolti^^ 
inievUr.  ^"^1 
iturt.  itanfc*" 
l.«l..iihllK»** 

I.  of  lb.  i>ta» 

JS-riUoW** 
<.  .1  til*  PM*!* 
,tr~nswbii»i"» 

aueh  a*  Irapinz,  wrestling, throwingheavy  nrij^Iii-,  A  '        '  :  '  I'l- H>lilarily  eontined,  IBaoyi'**^* 

nMT,  when  judtcinualy  lind  recourse  to,  invi);iiniii.'  il»'  |  in^ain',  or  at  Icaet  weak  In  their  iatdWow' 
liodyi  }'<'ti  from  apprchciuiDn  of  the  evils  and  aevidiiiii  I  I'li^ervaltie  in  ihe  dfsf  and  blind,  anuit*'* 


d,  young  i«nuin«  ought  nul 


IIEAI.TM. 

ii  it  aniElK  lu  Iw.  The  tnfluii  a1  fibt»liiU«  fint- 
n*v  oviJIuuaJ  <h>  tlw  ni»l.  Tlw  Blutiuiu  Iu.-i'  uf 
.  witit  aU  d>  luMluiH  iij>a  Umulilul  oluqutiuw  ( 
llgliti  at  aaEliJ  IiId;  iIio  plnuunv  niiuus  Itvm 
trdma  fit  ilia  Seer  UMiag*  aa<i  tlm  cuUlioijon  uf 
illMt ;  all  iliat  htchir  eloM  uf  (ntUt^tiiiu    '    ' 


pirlupa  dill  uotv  (trlklnj^v  oliui  il  ixMim  bt 
unU  alio  aab.B  Itio  aoviiiiuiiuD  ut  kiiovlMica  tb) 
.in  nl  lifn.     A*  tlia  worM  im  U  rc^iiii  iinui'J, 
^mIUh  111  wninir"  Iwuniag  <!]■'■-•  ■ 
t,  and  an  iumutii  aAiuuiit  nf  ml. 
bsrwlae,  HUhnul  diuu  liy  clium- 
Kl«d|B  of  ifaa  mial  ta>Uii«».> 

try  [or  tha  tirtMtr*»linii  of  a 

hmlj'.  Half  of  lira  multirnmi  kucu^fii.i  .if  ,\.ia 
»  tiunHreil,  wliila  tha  prodlg;  vuo  bnMU  n> 
'•BjcndiiK  Liiow*  not  tliat  m  ril  n  wlmlii  lUf  Hiihla 
U  elca*  aludj'  in  iku-iinvntnl  l<i  hnillli  j  or,  if  ha 
Mt  muoli,  iMtl«nib-ly  vrefi'r*  itto  euun*  wtiinh 
aruip.  Le^ilontkaiintkuitiMl  pr  Ihla  urilar.iraH 
M  Arvtr  und  IItvf  cmnpUiat  M  Uriur*,  an<)  jil 
i*d  (0  wtuc(7  Im  linun  a-daf.  ll«  PiEuHialiji 
II  hia  tbtity-atxlb  yw,  nnilir  (l>a  miw^iniiM* 
.ilUigMina  tiiiHi  b  u  il)-vant>Ut*il  library,  abitli 
I  tcqudntaiiea  vJtli  mm  nf  Ibo  oiual  bmUkr  of 
«D«Ba  ivaald  hii*a  wanxd  Mm  agaiuU  ■uuriog. 
idpT  NIoaU,  a  rMont  nrtAnmiit  nf  Iltliraw  lU 
,  of  Mhrnn  it  waa  mM  tiiat  bo  mjibt  luis  waJk^d 
■rail  of  China  willmut  tli«  aid  of  aa  ln1orpml<ir, 
Uia  MUii*  AM,  psnl;  tlirauKli  lIi*  rffircrla  iff  IbU 
■Indy  vhleh  an  aOvctiuilty  bul  no  iiwlNaly  bod 
hlmtfiitiuollan.  l)r  Alexander  Murray, a  ilinilar 
r,  dteA  in  hia  Uilrly-ushtli  ytnr,  of  otrr^nm 
makuig  tli«  lliird  of  a  wl  of  men  rviiiaritalda 
«ainn  wotidtrful  sUsiinniintiii  and  iinliin  of  tba 
iiuiitcy,  ithn,  wlUils  a  rpace  of  Iwpnly  jvar^  foil 
I  to  tliol^  ficnuraiica  at  tbu  lam  iif  umilal  mwr- 
n  l9(ir,Sb  lluiDpliry  Davy  pniweulod  lib  iafiifa^ 
9  alk^iM  toclali  Willi  aa^  ioorilnato  aigtmiat^ 
■rough  MMritoment  and  fatigue,  li«  eaaumititMr  • 
■  ftvvr,  wiiiiill  his  in  tgiranuica  of  tlia  b 

-    -«.ri!.«'J  to  cin'--^-- ■'■■    -■-  - 

iK  tuiiiiitaliuo  of 

jpb  aa  would  bavo 


"  oonwadod  fat  111*  bouonr  of  hi*  c 
■f,  and  he  did  not  pnaat—  auBclanI  raai>lutlun 
It  tho  frntifloatioD  tliuaKirdm^  though  It  («ii»- 
tpivnnl  that  hia  punulta  io  ilw  laboralor;  wir* 
■jnodrd  until  tlia  appointed  dinoor  hour  had 
On  hia  rotum  iii  lli*  ^vvninf:,  ha  rvaumad  111* 
al  laboar*.  anil  ouninuiBly  euiiiiuaid  tbnit  UtI 
■t  four  in  the  morning,  and  yet  tlio  Mrvanla  if 
abliihiDvnt  not  aofmiuciitly  found  tliat  hr  had 
wfor*  Llirm."*  Ovar-buliw]  nalui^  at  tgn||;tb 
undvr  hi>H«Tt>oiw,  audilwaH  kiiIi  ilir  jiirivti'tt 
ly  tlial  )i*  van  naloivd  M  IimIiIi.  Etiwuwi* 
UMi  t«  known  to  haiD  lii  lUio  luaiincc  Ifaantn 
g^llli  ft  i|>t>cln  of  daUriom  tar  ali  «aija^  ami 
^■MM  «e«anoa  giten  a  aovinc  thoitti  tn  lli« 
^HmtIoii-  It  uniiuMtianab'- 
nVlr«l*»r  Srnti,  and  abm  i 
fn/ltam  lufluraful  oxolaiuatiuti  In  iha  niliM  af 
lunwn  KuggfciovDU  cui  aevrr  be  lUrnllan  t — 
d  ihal  I  WEtu  a  lailur,  lur  li»u  I  aliuuU  ban  a 
■■.bulldnj'!'' 

pranialon  ntiorlinn  of  early  jmnlie'i*  af  avniM 
nllylAnaUalailiBaamveuin.  W•^ui(ha^ 
11  ulbor  ohildiWD  (dayod,  tkty  iwnaiuAil  at  tuima 
f  i  aod  Ibca  wo  Icorn  that  i^  pi-ji^ol  In  «X». 
•  F*rti'<l.lti<rt<ii  llHiniihr/  liaiv-  r-  ■•o 


ciety. 

It  ought  to  be  universally  known,  that  the  uses  of 
our  intellectual  nature  are  not  to  be  properly  realised 
without  a  just  regard  to  the  laws  of  that  perishable 
frame  with  which  it  is  connected ;  that,  in  cultivating 
the  mind,  we  must  neither  overtask  nor  undertask  the 
body,  neither  push  it  to  too  great  a  speed,  nor  leave  it 
neglected ;  and  that,  notwithstanding  this  intimate  con- 
nexion and  mutual  dependence,  the  highest  merits  on 
the  part  of  the  mind  will  not  compensate  for  muscles 
mistreated,  or  soothe  a  nervous  system  which  severe 
Btudy  has  tortured  into  insanity.  To  come  to  detail,  it 
ought  to  bo  impressed  on  all,  that  to  spend  more  than 
a  moderate  number  of  hours  in  mental  exercise  dimi- 
nishes insensibly  the  powers  of  future  application,  and 
tends  to  abbreviate  life ;  that  no  mental  exercise  should 
be  attempted  immediately  after  meals,  as  the  processes 
of  thought  and  of  digestion  cannot  be  safely  prosecuted 
together ;  and  that,  without  a  due  share  of  exercise  to 
the  whole  of  the  mental  faculties,  there  can  be  no  sound- 
ness in  any,  while  the  whole  corporeal  system  will  give 
way  beneath  a  severe  pressure  upon  any  one  in  parti- 
cular. These  are  truths  completely  established  with 
physiologists,  and  upon  whicli  it  is  undeniable  that  a 
great  portion  of  human  happiness  depends. 

BEPOSE  A  coxmnox  demanded  by  exercise. 

Exercise  demands  occasional  periods  of  repose,  and, 
in  particular,  that  a  certain  part  of  every  twenty-four 
hours  be  spent  in  sleep.  After  having  been  engaged 
in  daily  occupations  for  fourteen  or  sixteen  hours,  a 
general  feeling  of  fatigue  and  weakness  is  induced  ;  the 
motions  of  the  body  become  difficult,  the  senses  con- 
fused, the  power  of  volition  or  tcifl  suspended,  and  the 
rest  of  the  mental  faculties,  becoming  more  and  more 
inactive,  sink  at  length  into  a  state  of  unconsciousness. 
The  sense  of  sight  hrst  ceases  to  act  by  the  closing  of 
the  eyelids  ;  then  the  senses  of  taste  and  smell  become 
dormant ;  and  then  those  of  hearing  and  touch.  The 
muscles,  also,  dispose  themselves  with  a  certain  refe- 
rence to  ease  of  position,  those  of  the  limbs  having  grown 
indolent  before  those  that  support  the  head,  and  those 
that  support  the  head  before  those  of  the  trunk.  In 
proportion  as  these  phenomena  proceed,  the  respiration 
D€^comes  slower  and  more  deep,  the  circulation  dimi- 


indigestion  ;  for  which  reason  th 
Haller  considered  dreaming  to  be  i 
It  is  certain  that  the  dreams  of  bei 
lightest  and  most  evanescent. 

The  kind  of  bed  on  which  we  T\ 
tion.  Some  are  advocates  for  • 
beds  ;  hence  some  accustom  thema 
others  to  mattresses.  The  only  < 
soft  and  a  hard  bed  is  this— that  t) 
in  a  soft  bed  presses  on  a  larger  n 
bed,  and  thereby  a  greater  degree  ( 
Parents  err  in  fancying  that  a  Terj 
to  harden  the  constitution  of  their 
re<ison  they  lay  them  down  on  mai 
boarded  bottoms.  A  bed  for  yoi 
be  too  soft,  provided  the  child  do 
such  a  manner  that  the  nirromi^ 
bend  over  and  cover  the  body.  Tl 
of  beds,  says  Dr  Darwin,  freriaentl 
the  shape  of  infants,  by  caoaing 
few  parts  at  a  time  ;  it  also  can 
uneasy  and  unrefreshing.  The  v 
rived  from  other  animals  evincea 
trine,  both  in  respect  to  the  aoftni 
warmth  of  their  beds.  Birds  lii 
young  with  feathers  ;  the  eider 
pluck  the  down  from  their  own  bi 
softness  of  the  beds  of  their  tendei 
over  them  with  their  wings,  or 
bosoms,  for  the  sake  of  wannth. 
better  that  weak  children  should  i 
than  alone ;  for,  in  this  cane,  if  i 
becomes  cold,  the  child  instinctiTt 
contact  with  the  wanner  bodjr  ol 
also,  it  is  better  for  a  new-bom  i; 
mother  in  winter,  or  with  its  nui 
crib  by  the  bedside.  When  in  \h 
always  higher  than  the  feet,  i 
palpitation  of  the  heart  ahould  lie 
high.  Night  clothes  sliould  nerei 
a  chemise  or  shirt  of  cotton  or  lin« 
beneath.  It  is  also  highly  impiti 
overloaded  with  clothes  ;  the  bo 
and  feverishness  and  restleesncM  i 
persons  who  complain  of  aleeplesju 


ybad 

dSduitlf  h^tem 

nman  flrw,  thmix 


..  r  >if  Imtlfd  Jr.  U» 
™g»I  til"  mnfl  rini-.]iiL'iui[ji.  jiUm  tri'-'l  iritlim  thn 
h*  jnn.  Did  nmie  uf  tfaoo  jituii  •Mina  m  Imin> 
nvdrd  in  obtamtfi;  Uie  hmrt;  iitixiitAii'in  nf  l^• 
tB«i  idtlfffly,  w  aiupiKt,  fmn  thi'ir  dhI  Im'ng  ar- 

in  o|inittlon,  >  itiwitn  of  vnnril&ilnit.  Wv  ««n 
tk  IVom  iininv  lupnrivnii*  in  fStroor  nf  ih«  plim  (if 
^  «l«u»-tDtimi,  ■rn»ni|>tini*'l  It  a  iralllaUnii  pf^ 
>  t  u.!  Ian  nrj  iliU"  i].:.jli(.  tii.t,  -inii  \h<-  Umr 
nUlu,  thU  and  fi'  I  ■'  ■ .  ,alf  uir- 

rol  idihIm  iif  biui  ij  1 1  '  [m  tllo 

Wed  eniL     li  [•  mi  ■  ■  ,.  i,,  -,■  timt 

le  pUn   ihnnli]  )ii    .  ..)<rin   f(,c 

■mjng  Iho  krgn  r^'i'n  ir..t  mirt- 

pie  ipdnj  >■>  mocli  tmii'i  in  il-n  i:fi<jliTi>'iu  thsrv  m 
tmWy  ex^ritniecd  u  a  bul  uiutiTmlnnr  uf  tha 


ilolliiiif  kliiinld  be  In  iw-pnTtW 

Ji«  Blinaw  juid  Ui"  »"i-i.n  r  r  ii 
F"  M*  iioah  fclniiii  111. 


itnng  OBI 


■■!■■.  ■     ■■    V«y 

nil  .t,  .luiiii.  in.Tn  iTmntinoilj 
oal  of  bi*U«l  rwoDui  tu  ;ltu  iu>i»i-{»Dt  nlDtliln^ 
cjr  ladipmul;  ttylr  fulMrtii .-  oil  ■ueli  iiijnHM 
rtil  be  kTuidiK]  by  putting  on  *  ■utfipimc]'  of  ■litwit, 
Rlliiiring;tJi«niBel>i<<ii  litilis  ii[>i>'  n,  tin-  \,'hhy  (uscicl. 
I  uuiler-«l<>thiiig  in 'lii  .ia.u!nUy 

Ubo*I,  uliieli  it  n'lii  •  ■:  ut  nrs- 

roantformity  oftiM.  imJiuHi 

Mlth;  briuumi  In  '.  >ilue  of 

jifotublii  ololhlna  i-  '  .  -.-  ih-iuld    ' 

M  Ime^ght  of  ISO  vdluc  n)  c'lii-c'iin  f.ir  kropin;  up     . 
iaily  glow  npoo  Uia  nrfMo,  aiid  fiT  Ihn  tnpptirt  of   ' 
1^  toil*  of  »neral  henlili.    Anv  onn  who,  nugliiot-    I 
tbi*,  ahuulif  live  eonaunll;  In  k  wu-tomI  bpartnnnil, 
m]j  go  ciiil  (if  doon  muffled  iip  b  »  ina>l  nf  clotlin*,     ' 
lid  ipMMlily  aiiffer  from  a  relaxed  ■latn  n(  (hn  tT>> 
1,  Md  bvsuRi*  M  miwvpliblo  of  lUma^  frnni  (he 
Iilat  chMifB  of  lMii{i*r*>nTe  In   lbs  BtTiiiK|rtinre, 
1  the  nuM  dMigaroni  satnriiUTCio"*  miglit  be  ttppre- 

tW  c/dAm  appllnl  ta  U)^  part  nf  tho  Imdv,  «h*n  It 

a  an  inaeli**  itato,  have  ui  imtantuiBiu*  virvrt  in  1 

oeiiw  Uw  IcmpentuN,  tliii  being  an  DiuvDhUMo  ] 

iGt  01  the  proocn  t-f  i^npuntiiin  n)ii>^li  tlmn  tthM  ] 

»,    nmcB  it  in  '-^'r  -it  upon  ' 

ip  gruuml,  or  li  r-  nilnniB 

IWUKrfflWt,  .Willi;   ■  iri.^rtod      I 

I  dllil  cn>dllc*d  hj  111"  i-ia|.ini[ii.b  tniiri  ilr«  willed 
toer,  ebrcki  tba  pmpitBilnn,  and  kd.U  ib«  blnod 
Hd*  la  Ilia  vital  pari>t  wbwa  it  tinda  In  pmiin* 
iOMaJtay  JlmaaiL  Vm  ixnniii  nmrrT  In  Ni  awire 
tiMBtiVUla.     Wn  And  jviine  ni*n  '>-''i — t-  — "l»i- 

j-fnM  vtrt,aiid  eltUnjiattlliii'iii  : 

[tatnlnaurtinglbsmoMd'ailli  i' 

unit  k  uoiB^  laQy,  *W(  ^\.■. 

N  kn « ««t  i»«>Ml  MCI.  ^AV         ■  ■    -  "J 

4,  ta  tf  «m»M«lk»*l  VdUw  w— — . — — -a 


UUl-'/l-uowr    i»ii<'uit:i'ny   *tiiu   aimj    ^«/r     pvrvpic    iii    uaiii|^ 

Iod;;ingff,  than  rheumatisni.  TIiIh  is  an  afTectioii  \»n>' 
duccd  wilciy  by  a  vicilation  of  the  natural  law  which 
ilcmamlM  that  the  biidy  ahould  not  be  chilled.  Rhtu- 
inatifini  in  produced  alike  from  exposure  to  a  Bliower 
or  to  a  draught  of  cold  air  when  the  body  Ls  wanii, 
and  from  kitting  with  the  feet  on  a  cold  i<tone  or  clay 
ihM)r;  the  only  diflVrence,  perhapfl,  being  that  the 
rheumatism  i»  in  one  ca&o  in  the  Rnoulders  and  in  the 
other  in  the  legs.  Let  us  therefore  imprefs  on  all 
the  propriety  of  avoiding  chills,  the  effects  of  which 
may  be  nmch  more  fatal  than  a  simple  attack  of  rheu- 
maUsm.  When  rheumatism  has  been  contracted,  the 
best  remedy  for  its  expulsion,  if  adopte<l  in  time,  is 
friction  of  the  part ;  if  well  rubbed  before  a  fire  with 
flour  of  mustard,  so  aH  to  cause  a  counter  irritation  on 
the  surface,  the  internal  complaint  may  be  expelled. 

KKRORS  IS  DRESS. 

This  is  perhaps  the  most  appro])riate  place  in  Which 
to  introduce  some  remarks  upon  errors  in  dress.  The 
integuments  which  nature  culls  upon  us  to  put  on  for 
the  sake  of  warmth,  are  too  often  made  the  means  of 
inflicting  serioux  injury,  either  through  ignorance  or 
caprice.  It  is  therefore  necesKiry,  in  a  ti^eatise  on  the 
prcHcrvation  of  health,  to  advert  in  emphatic  terms  to 
this  subject. 

It  is  scarcely  too  much  to  say,  that  there  is  no  part 
of  the  human  frame,  from  the  Hole  of  the  foot  to  the 
crown  of  the  head,  which  has  not  been,  and  is  not  at 
this  moment,  miHtreated  bv  fashion.  We  laugh  at  the 
Chinese  ladi(^s,  who  have  tneir  feet  constrained  by  iron 
mouldH  into  mere  bulbous  appendages  to  the  limbs  ;  but 
wo  never  reflect  that,  amongst  oui*selve8,  errors  only 
inferior  in  degree  ai*e  couHtantly  committed.  The  foot 
naturally  spreads  out,  fnn-like,  from  the  heel  to  the 
toes.  Hut,  instead  of  having  our  shoes  formed  in  the 
aame  triangular  shape,  tliey  are  made  in  a  lozenge 
form,  truncated  at  the  front,  the  toes  being  Uius  per- 
verted from  their  radiating  arrangement  into  one  ex- 
actly the  opposite  ;  so  tliat  they  become  crushed  under 
one  another,  and  deprived  of  a  great  part  of  that  mus- 
cular i>owcr  by  whicti  they  were  designed  to  propel  our 
bodies  in  walkmg.  In  the  greater  height  usually  given 
to  the  lieels  of  slioes,  another  im]>ortant  deviation  from 


mute    luiiiK,   i«^-c»««  uitu   at^fc) 

guishing  looks  witlmut  ejrca,  or  E 
witching  minstrelsy  without  a  tongi 
the  natural  state,  the  external  figu 
pers  gently  downwards.  The  wai 
Medici  is  of  that  form,  and  its  p« 
never  cliallenged.  But  the  vonn 
world  have  set  up  for  thcmsblve«  i 
of  beauty.  A  fine  waist,  in  theii 
which  tapers  rapidly  below  the  am 
two-thirds  of  the  natural  girth, 
strictly  round,  aitliongh  the  waist  of 
the  oval.  In  order  to  rcduee  tin 
hired  shape  and  space,  almost  all  t 
not  a  few  of  those  who  are  otherwia 
in  a  greater  or  less  degree  with  eon 
produce  the  requisite  roandneM  ai 
at  the  expense  of  all  the  internal 
health  depends.  The  falae  ribs  ar 
the  respiratory  and  circulatory  systc 
thrust  out  of  their  proper  place;  thi 
is  deranged ;  and  even  upon  the  exi 
deformities  of  the  most  glaring  kin 
shoulders  and  curved  spines,  are  pr 
a  certain  extent  enables  the  victmi 
convenience  ;  there  are  even  aonu 
trouble  from  it,  as  to  deny  that  any 
tight-lacing.  But  a  violation  so  grc 
wise  than  mischievous.  We  have  i 
sash  which  measured  exactly  twent 
ing  that  the  chest  to  which  it  wm  a; 
duced  to  a  diameter  (allowing  for  dt 
than  seven  inches.  All  who  are  a« 
organs  at  that  part,  know  Tery  well ' 
for  them  to  exist  in  their  natoral  < 
small  a  space.  Bruised,  impeded^  m 
must  of  course  be,  and  aocordinglj 
come  a  source  of  dreadful  suflerii 
bein^  who  outrages  them.  Palpitati 
pepsia,  determination  of  blood  to  1 
sumption,  are  among  the  evib  wh» 
merate  as  flowing  from  this  saerifi 
other  of  a  moral  kind  is  aeknowlcd 
means  infrequent  occorrenee :  in  c 
painful  sensations  produced  1^  tin 


tiimia    liniim 


m/l 


\«*<4>al«i       mt 


PRESERVATION  OF  HEALTH. 


)  for  our  happineas,  and  might  have  been  avoided 
fferent  course  of  conduct 
fashion  of  tight-lacing  obviously  owes  its  origin 
sire  on  the  part  of  the  ladies  to  attract  admira- 
It  is  of  little  importance  to  point  out  that  they 
ite  wrong  in  their  calculations  as  to  the  effect ; 
B  would  press  upon  the  guilty  parties,  and 
ercKted  in  their  welfare,  that  tight-lacing  is  a 
e  which  cannot  be  long  -persisted  in  without  the 
isastrous  consequences.  It  is  painful  to  reflect, 
srents,  so  far  from  discouraging  the  practice, 
ignorant  as  often  to  force  it  upon  their  children, 
.ve  heard  of  a  younff  lady  whose  mother  stood 
er  every  morning,  with  the  engine  of  torture  in 
ind,  and,  not^i^iihstanding  many  remonstrative 
dbliged  her  to  submit  to  be  laced  so  tightly  as 
to  stop  the  power  of  breathing.  The  result  is, 
le  unfortunate  victim  is  now  severely  afflicted 
•thma,  and  has  fallen  into  a  state  of  low  health, 
eneral  rule,  it  cannot  be  too  strongly  impressed 
hose  who  have  the  care  of  young  persons,  that 
thing  should  sit  lightly  upon  the  figure,  so  as  to 
if  the  full  play  of  every  part  of  the  system. 

INNOCENT  ENJOYMENTS. 


afficieney  of  innocent  enjoyments  has  been  set 
as  the  sixth  requisite  towards  the  preservation  of 
t.  It  may  seem  almost  superfluous  to  treat  this 
if  the  subject,  since  the  disposition  to  take  amuse- 
b  one  by  no  means  generally  wanting.  A  regard, 
^r,  for  the  completeness  of  our  little  treatise  en- 

•  us  to  make  a  few  remarks  on  it ;  and  we  are  not 
sd  that  there  is  not  a  considerable  number  of 
IS  to  whom  an  injunction  to  take  innocent  enjoy- 

is  needful.  There  may  be  a  general  advantage 
ag  the  matter  placed  on  something  like  a  philo- 
fd  basis. 

physiological  doctrine  seems  more  entitled  to  faith 
gard,  than  that  a  harmonious  exercise,  in  mode- 
of  all  parts  of  the  system,  including  the  organs 
naental  faculties,  is  necessary  for  health.     It  is 

bjr  the  very  craving  which  we  experience,  after 
t^aak,  or  a  long  perseverance  in  some  particular 
for  something  which  will  engage  a  different  set 
I  ties.    There  is  nothing  which  will  pleasingly 

our  th(mghts  for  any  considerable  length  of 
Something  inferior  will  invariably  be  preferred, 
Ijr  be  new.     Now,  the  duties  by  which  men  in 

«am  their  subsistence,  are  in  lul  cases  of  such 
X^  as  only  to  call  into  exercise  a  part  of  their 

^nd  bodily  system.     Something  b  required,  at 

*  Qoothe  and  compensate  us  for  the  drudgery  of 
le^ent  labours,  and  to  bring  into  exercise  those 
f^  our  muscular  frame  and  intellect,  which  pro- 
^  duty  has  left  unoccupied.  To  begin  with  an 
^  illustration:  how  delightful  to  a  tailor,  after 
^^rcising  his  Angers  and  arms  alone  at  his  busi- 
^  enter  into  some  athletic  sport  upon  the  village- 
t^y  which  his  limbs  also  will  be  exercised !  After 
^v  has  fagged  for  a  day  at  a  brief,  how  delightful 
^itf  by  the  reading  of  a  new  novel  or  play,  to  call 
^^ther  set  of  the  intellectual  powers!  In  these 
^  firom  grave  to  light  occupation,  there  is  at  once 
'  siren  to  the  tasked  faculty,  and  the  gratification 
i^Ioyment  given  to  others  which  have  oeen  pining 
^t  of  something  to  do.  It  so  happens  that,  from 
(tticnt  nerves  being  mixed  with  those  which  direct 
novations  of  all  our  organs,  each  organ  has  a  sense 
loyment  in  being  rightly  exercised.  Even  the 
^  has,  from  this  cause,  a  gratification  when  its 
^His  are  going  on  well,  and  this  altogether  inde- 
*it  of  any  pleasure  we  may  have  had  in  eating  the 
^pon  which  it  is  now  employed.  An  organ  left 
^BoccQpied  is  thus  somewhat  like  a  child  in  a 
f  which  its  parents  have  been  overlooking.*  It 
^  to  be  noticed  like  the  rest,  and,  when  the  desired 
^  at  ]«iglh  eomes,  it  experiences  a  hi^h  degree  of 
*"'"        In  aborty  variation  of  occupation  and  pur- 

669 


suit,  for  the  purpose  of  keeping  all  the  parts  of  the 
system  in  har^iionious  exercise  and  in  healthy  tone,  is 
one  of  the  most  important  principles  concerned  in  the 
preservation  of  health. 

There  are  several  powers  of  the  mind  which  must 
have  been  designed  for  the  express  purpose  of  creating 
and  receiving  amusement,  and  the  existence  of  which, 
therefore,  shows  that  amusement  has  a  place  in  the 
right  economy  of  human  life.  The  imitative  arts  in 
genera],  music,  fiction,  drollery  of  all  kinds,  spring  di* 
rectly  from  primitive  faculties  of  the  mind  ;  and,  when 
we  see  the  pleasure  they  give  in  society,  we  cannot  doubt 
that  they  are  things  naturally  requix^  by  man,  and  in 
which  it  is  quite  legitimate  for  him  to  indulge  within 
moderate  bounds  and  in  circumstances  compatible  with 
innocence.  These  things  are  doubtless  designed  to  alle- 
viate the  burdens  of  life  and  beguile  us  of  its  cares.  They 
furnish  something  like  a  different  sphere  of  existence, 
into  which  we  may  enter  and  temporarily  lose  the  sense 
of  all  that  harasses  us  in  the  ordinary  one.  The  joculator 
— under  which  name  our  ancestors  associated  the  poet, 
talc-teller,  and  mimic,  and  which  we  may  appiv  equally 
extensively  to  the  poet,  novelist,  artist,  and  player — is 
therefore  a  most  useful  functionary  in  society.  We  say 
nothing  on  the  present  occasion  of  the  refinement  to  hd 
derived,  in  addition,  from  communion  with  the  produc- 
tions of  the  higher  class  of  such  minds. 

Amongst  amusements,  reading  takes  a  most  distin- 
guished place,  for  there  is  none  which  may  be  more 
readily  or  more  innocently  indulged  in,  and  fortunately, 
in  our  own  country,  it  is  one  which  may  now  be  enjoyed 
by  all.  It  is  unquestionably  the  chief  of  in-door  amuse- 
ments ;  and  few  scenes  are  calculated  to  awaken  more 
agreeable  feelings  in  a  well-constituted  mind,  than  a 
family  group  assembled  in  their  parlour,  to  hear  some 
one  of  their  number  reading  a  pleasant  book.  Ever 
honoured  be  the  great  masters  of  fiction,  who  have 
allowed  us,  by  these  means,  to  pass  from  common  life, 
for  a  time,  into  "  the  tale  of  Troy  divine,"  the  story  of 
"  the  gentle  lady  married  to  the  Moor,**  the  tear-^om- 
pelling  fate  of  Ravenswood,  and  all  the  other  number- 
less suppositions  of  things  done,  and  persons  who  spoke 
and  acted,  which  we  feel  to  be  more  real  than  much  of 
even  the  life  that  is  passing  around  us  ! 

Next  to  reading  stands  music,  a  means  of  enjoyment 
of  which  only  a  few  comparatively,  in  our  country,  take 
advantage,  but  which  might  easily  be  made  much  more 
extensively  available,  and  probably  will  be  so  in  the 
course  of  a  few  years.  Connected  intimately  with 
music  is  dancing,  which  is  not  only  a  cheerful  amuse- 
ment, but  a  positive  and  direct  means  of  bodily  exer- 
cise. A  family  musical  or  dancing  scene,  like  a  family 
reading  scene,  is  a  thing  beauUful  to  look  upon.  There 
is  a  prejudice  against  both  in  some  minds,  on  account 
of  their  being  liable  to  abuse ;  but  the  abuses  of  both 
arise  very  much  from  their  not  being  extensively  or 
freely  indulged  in.  Were  music  the  general  accom- 
plishment which  it  might  easily  be  made,  it  would  not 
only  be  indulged  in  on  all  occasions  with  simplicity  and 
innocence,  but  it  would  supplant  coarser  and  more 
clandestine  amusements.   Dancing  is  the  nightly  amuse- 


ment of  the  French  peasantry,  and  it  has  never  been 
pi*etended  that  these  people  are  less  virtuous  than  the 
corresponding  class  in  our  own  country.  Theatricai 
representations  it  might  be  more  difficult  to  place  on 
such  a  footine  as  to  secure  the  unhesitating  approbation 
of  the  eood ;  but  certainly,  if  this  were  done,  they  might 
prove  highly  serviceable  in  furnishing  amusement. 

I  n  the  class  of  amusements  we  must  reckon  meetings 
or  promenades  in  ornamental  grounds,  excursions  into 
the  country,  and  little  tours,  all  of  which  are  highly 
commendable  in  those  who  are  able  to  indulee  in  them. 
The  entertainment  of  little  parties  of  friends,  and  the 
going  out  to  entertainments  given  by  them  in  return, 
are  other  means  of  amusement  common  in  society,  ai^ 
which  may  be  moderately  indulged  in  with  much  ad- 
vantage. In  short,  whatever  nres  a  pleasant  varia- 
tion to  the  monotony  of  life,  without  leading  the  mind 
away  from  dnty  or  corrupting  the  manners,  ought  to 


CUAMBERS'S  Us'FORilATION  FOtt  THE  PEOPLE. 


b*  indulged  in  iu>  freely  ■•  rareo 

Thu  Duud  rWuruii  rroni  atub  div 

Uinc  411J  |K>vtBr,  uid  ueiltiur  tlia 

is  loM  ill  tbo  long  ritn.    It  U  the  1 

preu  thoM  nuuiin*,  w  uutty  well-iDMniiig  permit, 

^mul  p«Th>pB  ■!  tliH  uecukuuJ  abiue  ot  sucti  enjiy- 

amiiU,  repudiate  Uiiiia  nearly  illogethcc,  fcnd  tbereLy 

luwcrlbaionvot  llieubcullli,  Iwlh  u  rcs|>ecU  Uie  Iwdv 

auiIUiFniiiid.     it  is  pu-IWuUrJy  ilWlreuiog  W  see  audi 

Eiruu  tiKiToiwiig  >  oonlrol  over  iha  young,  and  dtiiy- 
g  to  tlwlr  untartaiiatB  prutcg^  ui  elenient  ur  lift 
not  munll  law  fCeiaiiigly  m^eanazy  than  tlie  ajc  llicy 
bnutliv. 

Dr  HauUiWDoU  Smitli.  iu  liis  exoelleat  work  "The 
riiil<uapby  of  Ilntltli,"  hu  puiiited  out  llial  |)leaaure  is 
tlia  iirduuiry,  aiid  puu  in  all  cues  an  cutruardinarjr, 
runull  of  lliH  aetian  of  our  orgaiia.  "  There  are,"  lie 
juyi,  "  many  auH  in  which  pluasure  in  nunifeslly  given 


Pain  ii 


of  life.    Tbiira  in  a  cIom  cuiuuxioo  laetwcva  happiueu 
ktld  luapvity.     Enjoymsat  i*  not  only  the  and  af  life, 
but  it  b  tho  only  Gundition  of  life  which  is  compatiltlB 
with  a  pralracted  tvrm  of  aiislence.    The  happier  - 
liuuiaii  baing  i>i  UialnngiirhBtiieiii  tbemurebetuifei   . 
Uie  loallpr  lie  dim:  to  add  (u  enjoyment  is  to  leiigtlieu 
life ;  tu  iDtliel  pain  in  to  ahiirten  (lie  duration  o(  t  '  ' 
oaaa."     J I  may  fairly  be  prc»aiued,  tlien,  thai  a  cei 
uiiounl  utenjoyiDeut  in  life  UDeccMary  forheaJth, 
that  wboD  llic  quantity  actually  aeoured  ia  much  below 
thai  point,  unhealthy  ooiidittons  muiit  ensue.    If,  foe 
Munplc^  poierly  or  embarrmcd  circuniBiancea  prea* 
ail  wvorely  npoii  a  oauliuus  aud  ouimcieniioiu  man 
lo  leave  nim  learoetir  a  ivmneni's  otmifatt  from 
year  to  auutber,  he  Mmuot  (ail  to  aiak  in  health. 
iiinrrwvl   In  a  female  of  bad  temper,  or  wlio  afflicts 


us  cuii.-<Utiile  u  Lur  nguioet  uearly  all  cnjnymeiite,  Diusl 
priivu  iiijui'iuus,  anil  (etui  to  diu  sliurteiiiiig  of  life. 

I'liijaynivDta  nre  uf  mauy  kiDds.  i<uuu)  are  Hensual, 
a«  lliD  hiking  of  Bgceeabte  fuud  )  others  lire  uitcllec[ual, 
lit  ii);r<M>uble  music,  reading,  &e. ;  others  ari!  mural,  aa 
I  III'  I'Hcri'iH-'of  phJiinthnipy,  the  religious  feelings,  &c. ; 
uiiil  "uniB  nrc  nynipalhelic,  and  CDnsist  in  the  exercise 
nF  lUu  ndri-liona  and  tlie  reflection  of  tliat  gratificaliou 
wliirli  nu  liavc  Buileavourud  to  impart  to  others.  We 
may  v<iusidcT  as  such  all  tilings  over  and  above  the 
plainest  uuruli'lird  fare,  and  lUu  supply  of  water,  air, 
and  a  bavuly  nuffiuieiit  (eoiporulure.  Thtse  are  usually 
CDQBidered  aa  Btriclly  tlie  iireei^arirs  of  lifi),  the  utfaurs 
being  tiie  cuiiif'ir^H  .>i-  lii\uneB.     'I'i^<:  distinctiua  is  not 

quite  ourretl.    'i'li.  i.j-.       l  i  iinlyimioedistuty 

iipccssary  to  ilii.>  'i'    ■  ■■  1-  [u  say,  they  are 

hourly,  daily  II''"'  "T  l.'da  ofwhat  are 

Ciilk'ddieeoml'.ii-'' ■  ,.  ■' --«ry,  if  we  would 

preetrve  hffliUb.     Jli^  i.^^.j  J.jLh  :ii^c  i^,  tliat  (he  want 

••!  1I1U  su-.:;.lli'd  ui.'cesgarics.  If  a  liuman  buliig  be  sbm 
up  in  iL  I't'll.  mill  nllowed  only  a  sutticieucy  uf  uureliiibed 
Hud  unvarii:d  fuud.  With  air  and  water,  the  want  of  all 
the  i-iijuyniciitii  uf  life,  aenlual,  intellectual,  moral,  and 
sympntbelic,  will  in  a  certain  time  nmke  him  utterly 
iniiwrulila ;  tlie  heulth  uf  body  uud  mind  will  give  way ; 
and  if  the  uxpcrimtut  be  sufficiently  prutracti'd,  he  will 

tcrisll.  Thu  iguur«nce  which  prevails  on  this  point 
■■  I1.1l  tu  (lie  trial  uf  what  ia  ualled  the  ailciit  tyttem  in 
prison*,  which  iii  now  about  to  bo  abandoned 
irreeoueileablu  with  humanity, 
kflnwledge  prevailed  uu  the  subject,  1  or,  it 
liluau  of  what  ia  nfiVHOrn  fur  Imaltliyhre, 
themnlvcs  or  others  of  thii 


ere  woU  it  mori 


t,  aru  an  caivntial  to  health 
lis  tliB  aui'ihly  uf  ma  air  wo  brealhe.  There  is,  in  eorae 
uu(huaia*tic  mindly  a  spirit  of  aiGetiuiaui  luid  Bolf-apr- 


tifleatieu  vhicli  wotild  giv*  np  kit  A*  aq*)* 
togc-ther.  Sudi  p*r*iRu  rarely  bil  >e  wdaai 
hvaith,  if  tltey  du  not  alao  aiMviM  uso*  ail 
trol  tu  tlie  same  afftet  ov*r  (knr  Ma*< 
While  »lf-deDial  for  monl  punui—  ia  ■)« 
able,  and  over-indolgecee  of  every  kindeifsi 
and  fiirlilude  of  the  human  cliarat^cr.  it  ■Inl 
kept  in  view  that  there  ia  grcM  iaMfiT  ia  iM 
allowance  of  combma  aud  indnl^nees  teal* 
rigid  >iew»  of  what  ia  neeeaiAiy  (or  (iM  nffi 
usually  prevail,  wbwerer  the  afflnau  hsni 
a  style  of  liring  tor  the  poer.  The  litw; 
to  reduce  ailowaaoe*  as  nearly  aapoaibbMi 
be  called  theinmeJuMncMMdnM;  (Iwil4i« 
just  OF  right  iliat  pBBpen,  ailulH  or  chiUn 
Hujoy  auy  cpecjea  of  graliBsalioo.  But  thosi 
sighted  views.  The  health  of  Ihiaa  uaJDttB 
■Dua  requires  aoniathiag  motv,  and  ihia  • 
wuuld  be  granted  by  an  cnUshlaml  him« 
have  a  Hi[uD|t  manifi^atftiion  of  tUa  nctd  m  t 
DUB  with  which  paupen  genatnUy  dtail*  ai 
of  te»  or  lobaeoo,  or  indeed  the  kut  wiaA* 
diet.  The  craving  for  then  lunrias  ii  M.i 
whnt  it  is  gcDenlly  thought  eolvly  to  ba,ll> 
bad  habits  long  indulged  in,  as  i(  u  ilia  owa 
want  in  the  personal  economy — a  vast  *W 
means  or  another,  mnat  be  supplied,  ur  il|ta 


It  is  little  iDoiv  tliui  a  repatitioB  tf  dactM 
laid  down,  that,  fur  healtli,  ■  baaun  baiif  M 
eaemption  fcura  acute  diatna*  of  mindaMl 

Mental  distress  and  anaiety  opatsta  Ikn 
bmio  upon  tho  oundiliuu  uf  the  whole  Mb| 
lonX  proUaWed,  efleottuJIy  iuid«nxu«e  tliaM 
ia  iraposKble,"  say*  Dc  S.  Smith,  ■■  to  naiM 
eioal  procnsea  in  a  nahiral  and  vigoroaseMtt 
mind  bi-  in  a  stiitu  of  aulfi-riiiK.  Ewry  aa  i 
ubservi^d  liiealietud  appmruito»  ul  pcruiBi 

heart,  liappenod  lo  a  person  a  ynn  i 
some  lime  af(erwards~ha  is  wasted, 
rable  shadow  of  himself;  iuquiro  a 
distanee  uf  a  few  mun(lia~Jie  is  00  nun- 
Smith's  opiniou  that  the  neuvst  cause  *{  ul] 
is  uut  strietly  a  desire  tocscapeffkimsctiterfi 
but  some  disease,  probably  inHaminatios  id  Ii 
brought  on  by  distress  of  mind.  *■  By  a  aM* 
""  " '" ity  of  misery,  lif  ~"      ■-■■->-  J- 


Imllii 


iiilenuiy,  it  nay  I 


and  eihausled.  Tbes 
(he  physical  condition  ;  thscoDtinuauoeiif  tSt 
dependent  on  the  pbysical  couditioa  1  itfaUse 
Ilie  degree  iu  which  (he  state  ot  the  miaditn 
afFectuig  the  physical  ooadition,  it  is  capaUtrf 
ing  (he  dunUion  of  life." 

l>i-j>raaion  of  mind,  beaides  its  immnliils' 
tlie  nervous  system,  derange*  the  re^iimiax 
the  proper  oaygeiiation  and  cireulaliLa  «f  d 
A  diminislied  vitality  is  the  consetjuenee,  dM 
lo  pulmoiutry  ootiHuniption.  Au  ncsMV* 
and  alarm  of  the  solliiib  tecling«,  such  as  taka 

phrase  uf  Ur  Cumbe— "  pUces  ii  on  the  bnBk«'< 
and  hence  the  iiotoiiously  great  ltabili(y  rf  p 
tills  stalo  uf  alurio  and  appreheiuion  10  bSvi 
tlie  malady  when  it  come<.  It  bos  bmX 
that  an  army  in  a  high  »tata  of  confidaw  ■• 
■  ■  >ry,  bai  a  much  mai\att 


of  Hck  (lian  iL 


o  oppoj 


rilinury  cuiiditiou.     The  usual  pi 
I  garrihuu  quartered,  during  pta 
:ry,  is  Hve  per  cent.  ;  duriugaca 
nore  onuiety  of  mind,  it  is  ten  1 
ilthooah  (be  clrcomstancea  bs  utbvwlM  «■  <■■ 
ibl^  the proporttito  ns«»  Wmm 


PRESERVATION  OF  IIEALTU. 


'•xy  instructiye  fact,  that  in  a  large  detachment  of 
French  army  cantoned  in  Bavaria  immediately 
th^  battle  of  Austerlitz,  the  proportion  of  sick 
ittle  more  than  one  per  cent. 

GENERAL   OBSERVATIONS. 

e  fundamental  principle  of  all  efforts  to  improve 
sreserve  health  has  been  thus  stated : — *^  Man,  as 
■gajnised  being,  is  subject  to  organic  laws,  as  much 
le  inanimate  bodies  which  surround  him  are  to 
mechanical  and  chemical ;  and  we  can  as  Uttle 
Ml  the  consequences  of  neglect  or  violation  of  those 
ral  laws,  which  affect  organic  life  through  the  air 
reathe,  the  food  we  eat,  and  the  exercise  we  take, 
Btone  projected  from  the  hand,  or  a  shot  from  the 
.h  of  a  cannon,  can  place  itself  beyond  the  bounds 
ravitatiou.'*  It  may  be  added,  that  **  all  human 
ce,  all  the  arts  of  civilised  man,  consist  of  disco- 
m  made  by  us  of  the  laws  impressed  upon  nature 
M  Author  of  the  universe,  and  the  applications  of 
»  laws  to  the  conditions — which  are  laws  also^in 
h  man  and  the  particular  bodies  and  substances 
Dd  him,  are  placed ;  nor,  it  is  manifest,  should  any 
toe  concern  us  more  than  tliat  which  relates  to  the 
itioua  on  which  organic  life  is  held  by  each  indi- 

ae  preceding  sections  are  but  explanations,  such 
e  have  been  able  to  afford,  of  the  conditions  under 
li  the  organic  frame  of  man  exists,  and  the  agen^ 

internal  and  external,  which  operate  upon  it,  for 
naintenance  of  health  or  the  introduction  of  dis- 
.  It  must  be  evident,  where  there  is  a  conviction 
M  truth  of  the  fundiuuental  doctrine,  that  indivi- 
■  and  societies  have  their  health  very  much  at  their 

disposal ;  that  a  careful  avoidance,  on  the  one 
ly  ox  what  is  noxious,  and  a  judicious  attention  to 
tt  is  beneficial,  are  what  are  chiefly  necessary  for  the 
erration  of  the  human  frame  in  health  to  old  age ; 
that  premature  deaths,  over  and  above  those  which 
Ik  from  unforeseen  casualties,  instead  of  being,  as 
loaed  by  the  untutored  mind,  a  mysterious  and 
Ptnible  decree  of  Providence,  are  simply  the  na- 
1  effect  of  our  own  violation  of  laws  which  Provi- 
M  has  appointed  for  our  welfare.  It  might  still 
objected  that  hunutn  nature  is  such,  that  the  due 
linice  And  observance  of  those  natural  ordinances 
not  to  be  expected  ;  so  that  the  vast  quantity  of  di»> 
^  and  the  great  number  of  premature  deaths,  which 
at  our  present  state  of  being,  are  equally  to  be  re- 
led  as  things  immutable,  and  tlierefore  to  be  tran- 
ly  Bubmitted  to.  But  this  view  would  be  not  less 
istaken  one ;  for  there  is  no  fact  more  clearly  ascer- 
«d,  than  that  disease  and  premature  death  are  not, 

never  have  been,  fixed  at  any  given  amount,  but 
d  constantly  to  the  power  of  any  new  conditions 
eh  man  may  be  able  to  introduce.  Regarding  clear 
«t  on  this  subject  as  of  great  importance,  we  shall 
tt  enter  a  little  into  detail. 
*hb  object  is,  wo  apprehend,  to  show  that  sickness 

mortality  vary  both  in  place  and  in  time,  according 
id^yiMal  and  organic  conditions. 
JB^oiriee  into  these  subjects  were  not  made  in 
Bent  times ;  but,  during  the  last  two  hundred  years, 
b  &et8  have  been  recorded  as  enable  us  to  ascertain 
^  in  thai  space  of  time,  with  regard  to  nearly  the 
^  of  Europe,  there  has  been  a  gradual  improve- 
^  iQ  health  and  life,  in  proportion  to  improved  con- 
B^  In  Sweden,  for  instance,  between  1756  and 
^  the  annual  mortality  was,  for  mal^  1  in  33| ; 
'eixiales,  1  in  35}  ;  whereas,  in  the  year  1800,  it  had 
iuiahed  to  1  in  34}  for  males,  and  1  in  37i  for 
i^l««.  Ytovoi  mortuary  tables  preserved  with  con- 
^^ble  aecuracy  at  Geneva,  it  appears  that,  at  the 
^  off  the  Reformation,  one-half  of  the  children  bom 
i  Within  the  sixth  year ;  in  the  seventeenth  century, 
^Until  the  twelfth  year ;  in  the  eighteenth  century, 
^lUil  the  twenty-aerenth  year ;  consequently,  in  the 
^  of  about  thm  centuries,  the  probability  that  a 

671 


child  born  in  Geneva  would  arrive  at  maturity  has  in- 
creased fivefold.  In  London,  lA  the  year  160(),  the  annual 
deaths  were  1  in  14^,  or  7  per  cent  of  the  pojmlation  ; 
and  in  plague  yean  during  that  century,  it  reached  25 
in  100,  or  every  fourth  man,  woman,  and  child  1  In 
1838,  it  was  only  1  tVi  354.  Knowing  that,  at  the  for- 
mer period,  the  city  was  dense  and  ill- cleaned,  and 
that  the  habits  of  the  people  were  not  then  what  they 
are  now,  we  cannot  doubt  that  this  diminution  of  mor- 
tality to  less  than  one-half  is  owing  to  the  improved 
conditions  in  which  human  beings  now  live  in  the 
metn>poIis.  Between  tlie  years  1730  and  1750,  74  of 
every  100  children  born  in  London,  died  before  they 
were  six  years  of  age  ;  but  in  more  recent  times,  only 
31  and  a  fraction  out  of  every  100  die  under  the  same 
age  ;  that  is  to  say,  the  deaths  of  children  in  London 
were  then  more  than  twice  as  numerous  as  they  are 
now.  About  a  century  ago,  the  mortality  of  the  chil- 
dren received  into  the  London  hospitals  was  of  asto- 
nishing amount.  Though  the  fact  seems  scarcely 
credible,  we  believe  there  is  no  good  reason  to  doubt, 
that,  of  the  2800  annually  received,  2690,  or  ttcenty- 
three  in  every  ttcenty-fonr,  died  before  they  were  a 
year  old.  It  was  at  length  seen  that  this  mortality  was 
the  effect  of  over-crowding,  impure  air,  and  imperfect 
aliment ;  and,  after  an  act  of  parliament  had  been  pro- 
cured to  compel  the  officers  to  send  the  infants  to  nurse 
in  the  country,  only  450  out  of  2800  died  in  the  first 
year.  It  has  been  ascertained  that,  during  the  last 
century,  about  a  third  has  been  added  to  the  average 
expectation  of  life ;  that  is  to  say,  an  individual  now 
has  as  good  a  chance  of  living  forty  years,  as  he  had  a 
hundred  years  ago  of  living  Uiirty.  To  what  can  such 
a  fact  be  owing  but  to  the  diminution  of  the  causes  of 
disease  in  the  improved  conditions  of  the  people  ? 

The  facts  ascertained  with  regard  to  differences  <A 
mortality  in  different  places  are  equally  striking.     A 
remarkable  instance  of  the  effect  of  marshes  upon 
health  is  cited  by  M.  Villerm^.     Formerly  the  district 
of  Vareggio  in  Tuscany  was  in  this  condition,  and  its 
few  miserable  inhabitants  were  every  year  visited  by 
severe  agues.     In  1741,  floodgates  were  erected  to  keep 
out  the  sea,  the  marsh  was  dried  up,  and  ague  api>eared 
no  more.     Vareggio  subsequently  became  a  populous 
and  healthy  district.    The  Isle  of  Ely  is  a  marshy  dis- 
trict in  the  east  of  England,  and  it  was  ascertained 
that,  of  10,000  deaths  which  occurred  in  it  between  the 
years  1813  and  1830,  no  fewer  than  4732  were  of 
children  under  ten  years  of  age  ;  the  proportion  of 
deaths  of  children  under  ten  in  all  the  other  agricul- 
tural districts  of  England  being  only  3505,  or  as  about 
3  to  4  of  the  former  number.    Of  1 0,000  deaths  between 
ten  years  and  extreme  old  age,  in  the  same  period,  thei'e 
were,  of  persons  between  ten  and  forty,  3712  in  the  Isle 
of  Ely,  and  only  3142  in  drier  districts.    There  are  some 
remarkable  discrepancies  of  mortality  in  different  coun- 
ties of  England.  'While  the  proportion  of  annual  deaths 
in  every  hundred  persons  under  six  years  of  age  is,  for 
the  whole  of  England  and  Wales,  about  five  and  a  tliird, 
the  proportion  in  Suffolk  is  three  and  a  half,  in  War- 
wick six,  in  Middlesex  eight  and  a  third.    Suffolk 
is  an  agricultural  county ;  Warwick  contains  Birming- 
ham and  some  other  large  towns ;  and  the  nietro]>olia 
is  situated  in  Middlesex  :  can  we  resist  concluding  that 
the  pure  air  and  constant  exercise  which  children  ob- 
tain in  the  country  are  the  immediate  means  of  pro- 
longing their  lives ;  while  the  narrow  accommodations, 
impure  air,  and  limited  exercise,  to  be  had  in  largo 
towns,  have  exactly  the  contrary  effect !  In  the  general 
population  of  Eneland,  443  in  1000  die  under  ten  years 
of  age ;  but  in  MLichester  and  Salford  the  number  ia 
a  third  larger,  or  602.    Here,  the  miserable  circum- 
stances of  many  of  the  humbler  classes  in  Manchester 
— abore  eighteen  thousand  of  them,  for  one  thing,  living 
in  cr/Z^rs— most  be  considered  as  the  inmiediate  cause 
of  the  diq>roportioned  mortality.    While  the  ^neral 
mortality  of  London  is,  as  stated,  1  annually  in  35}, 
there  are  great  differences  with  respect  to  different  dis- 
tricts.   In  Ounberwell,  an  open  saburban  district,  it  is 


I  rum   lilt?   riHMiiK'M   i<>  iiii* 


w;m,  ri'spc'ciivfiy,  oa  w«  go 
clortc&t,  liil,  1«>1»  a"d  341'.  The  proportion  of  sickiie»H 
and  mortality  which  tlie  poor  suffer  in  coniparisou 
vith  the  rich,  in  thus  placed  in  a  striking  pouit  of  viow. 
Prccibt'ly  .similar  rcsulth  liavc  been  discov«'red  in  Paris. 
M.  Villeruie  has  there  ascertained,  that  the  dt>atliR  in 
some  p<H»r  arrondissements  are  just  double  wliat  they 
are  in  th(>  rich.  lie  states  that,  taking  the  whole  of 
the  French  population,  human  life  is  protracted  twelve 
and  a  half  years  among  the  wealthy  beyond  its  duratifm 
among  the  poor ;  consccjuently,  in  the  one  class,  a  child, 
newly  born,  has  a  probability  of  living  forty-two  and  a 
half  years;  in  the  other,  only  thirty  years. 

Taking  the  whole  of  the  above  facts  into  account,  we 
must  wc  that  not  only  do  health  and  longevity  depend 
expressly  on  laws,  the  operation  of  which  we  can  un- 
derstand, but  man  has  it  in  his  power  to  modify  to  a 
great  extent  the  circumstances  in  which  he  lives,  with 
a  view  to  tlio  promotion  of  his  organic  well-lK*ing  and 
preservation.  We  see  that  the  draining  of  a  marsh 
banishes  the  ague,  that  a  change  from  city  to  country 
air  diminishes  mortality,  and  that  the  greater  comforts 
IKiesessed  by  the  attlucnt  secure  them  longer  life  than 
the  poor.  It  may  not  immediately  be  in  the  power  of 
every  one  to  change  liis  circumstances  from  the  un- 
healthy to  the  healthy  ;  )>ut  it  is  a  great  matter  to  know- 
that  the  object  is  within  human  power,  for  then  at  least 
an  encouragement  is  held  out  to  induce  each  individual 
to  make  every  possible  eH*(»rt  to  put  himself,  and  to 
contribute  to  putting  society,  into  more  salubrious  con- 
ditions. 

The  object  may  be  said  to  depend  partly  upon  indi- 
vidual and  partly  upon  social  eftoi*t».  Kvery  person 
has  some  control  over  the  quantity  and  qualitv  of  the 
food  he  eats,  the  condition  of  the  air  he  breaines,  and 
the  exercise,  rep<»se,  and  recreation  which  arc  dts 
manded  by  his  muscular  and  nervinis  system,  accord- 
ing to  the  principles  laid  down  in  this  and  similar 
treatises  ;  as  also  some  power  to  refrain  from  injurious 
excesses,  and  to  avoid  the  various  external  agencies  of 
n  detrimental  kind,  which  constantly  beset  him.  Let 
him  act  as  he  ought  to  do  iu  the.<e  respects,  and  he 
will  reap  an  immediate  reward  in  that  pleasurable  state 
of  consciousness  which  attends  a  healthy  conditi<in.  But 
some  of  the  must  important  requisites  for  health  depend 
on  public  measures.      The  amount  of  the  neei'ssaries 


was  siagnani  ;  large  open  aiicnes 
liquid  filth  ;  houses  dirty  beyond  ik 
washed  or  swept,  and  extremely 
bit.ints  ;  heaps  of  refuse  and  ml 
animal  remains,  at  the  bottom  of 
corners."  [The  amount  of  noxie 
hoarded  or  allowed  to  re^t  in  Lo 
what  most  of  its  inhabitants  hav4 
as  is  the  case  with  most  other  c 
H4)loly  affecting  the  i>oor.]  In  Mai 
sons,  or  one-twelfth  of  the  whole 
live  beneath  the  level  of  the  ground, 
of  both  light  and  air.  In  that  Co' 
labourers  are  <iften  built  in  close 
l>ack  to  back,  so  as  to  prevent  vei 
are  far  from  sufficient,  and  tliere  k 
free  space  in  wliieh  t)ie  people  cai 
recreation.  In  Liverpool,  31^,000  pi 
dark,  damp,  confined,  ill-ventilatcd, 
next  above,  to  the  number  of  80 
built  around  small  ccmrtft,  closely  p 
with  oidy  one  entrance  to  each,  and 
for  refuse  in  the  centre  ;  an  arr 
pears  as  if  it  had  been  exprra?! 
health  low  and  mortality  high.  J 
style  of  buildinq;  obtains,  with  a  sin: 
stances,  "no  effective  drainage,  i: 
of  paving  or  cleansing."  The  grea 
was  described  in  1839  n«  **  in  a  n 
demanding  an  immediate  remedy." 
that  in  a  certain  dirty  yard,  then 
for  many  years  had  bt*en  the  seat 
malignant  character :  three  yean 
the  commissioners  of  p<ilice  waa 
tremely  imperfect  drainage  of  tl 
that  time  a  better  escape  for  the  r 
vided;  and  since  that  period,  aa; 
iM'Iievo,  ire  hare  not  hail  a  »inplc  M 
jtarticuiar  /ocality.**  Narrow  allej 
with  wet  filth  constantly  exhaling  « 
ttining  a  close  huddled  populataoi 
persons,  exist  in  Edinburgh,  whe; 
post! re  to  high  winds  makes  the  « 
in  Glasgow,  a  comparatively  lercl 
liarity  exists  to  perhaps  a  greatei 
other  Hriiish  pit%'.     Thi«.  nrli)***!  to 


CHAMBERS-S 
FORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


CUAMDmif-? 


Kmw  AJtD  Iktitowd  Saniia. 


Pnics  l)d. 


COMMERCE— MONEV— BANKS. 


oMUlurit 

fil  b;  «nna  mtunliiU  na  ut  rr- 
.  aniiiul  vho  buy«  and  kUi,  iIib( 
i  by  ail  uLbcr  liring  creaturu, 
w  >  ifn^etioa  in  chanctitr, 
^  naivlt  tniirv  b%>I<uiI,  might  rwlllj^  be 
fl  vt  notiknuine  <iii*  ouitunodjt^  for 
K  ciwiftl  oilh  UM  finl  har'liiig  vt 
Sa  imui,  evnii  id  Uio  ni4isl  iciv»g« 
^  ,a  Urci  (n  llin  ncclet]'  nf  nerjillUiurH,  oui 
li^ntlh  aDcb  olijMl*  0*  lie  etii  (imcuro  nr 
•  awa  bboui'-  Ua  nuM  ■lepaiul  uo  olLun 
k  *Wli)  faa  oHiiEi  tliom  ID  tvlum.    The 


id  without  B  *n 

products  dT  tbfir  oonnuy  (or  tlic 

1  bj  (ha  tnkvidkiri  ta  ox  or  aheop 

•  wg^)'  ollvrvil  Ijr  Ihom  fur  u  mnglD 

.vr>.Miult  lay  lunlunfCSEUaH. 

A  tAnacm  iu  Uinlc  imiUI  dnJlliani  llif 

tbuigibg  ImvtiiiHM :  diD  dmurwi  and  neom- 

nn  urpoi  ;  raob  |i>mni  Hiuta  ll  moni 

^nnltln  to  bdupl  uid  bald  b;  one  Axel 

K  tttd  la  (dl  thn  prnWa  a(  hia  labour  fbr 

~"  '■•  Bndn  by  othm,  IhBn  to  aUaiif)!  to 

[.to  blnudft  audi  tlnall^i  far  Ui« 

~  I  ■  -' — t  of  panHnia  art  ciicat^d  to 

etM  fniin  ana  liand  io  HnuUwr.     la 

Hon,  ih*  tinxluetiaii  i>r  artialc*  uf 

11  It  ailmi  muHv/arltiriiiji;  wkllo 
iinJuitnTn  wlllidi  tlla  utaluoiinB 
t-^1  IH^  or  evimtnt.  Fur  ■liiJ 
.  Ill"  boainaaa  oF  exobaaging  i* 
r'iuta  uf  mdal>— the  mhuloaali' 
<  poTduiaa  lavgD 

Ill*  ratail 

.  .  .  r  iiiuuiUlln 
oil  iiidifiiliul  artlnlea  i-r 
*  IU  uHi  pui-iio:  uid  Id  Ouai 
^  a  dualtr  It  aiial.  Id  thlk 
p  iba  aurfaJiop  of  th*  niaiuSlMliiTiir  hi  Ibr 
"  ~  •!  tniuunwr  li  lntiirru|>tnl  by  Rirtal 
■  nf  udunfC,  in  whieb  rnch  wlirr 
n  prnflt  »1  Iba  npoiM  o(  iha  pansti 
Im  oktaulaly  U  bay  aad  <■*•  iha  uriidr..  ll  it  ■ 
■tehirf  mda,  thai  tha  tmr  bud)  tl[rni>)[<i  Hh^ab 


•  hi^ge  rarialjr 


any  atUfla  ia  Riads  to  yw,  the  bMtio'  (ta-  tba  mu- 
■iimer,  iH'tBuaii  ilie  arudc  can  b?  brought  vrilli  tha 
loUii  burilm  of  |imfit>,  or  at  tlio  towmt  prio*,  into 
gmiiTtil  ii».  Jlut  thi*  principla,  ai^uiul  a*  it  ia  in  tli* 
alMirast,  ia  coiinfrutad  by  wioiliKr  whiab  iduat  on 
nil  seuHunt  Iw  Imi  aijfitt  n^  'fhi*  ia  tlia  t^nei^  «f 
twiuniieuK  A  iBa4iufbetur<ir  Diipj"^  duajitj'  in  hIa 
Dwu  iiunaltt  flud*  11  mora  prolbahla  tiud  a^raiaablB  M 
luU  bii  knlda  In  lal'ge  lliui  anail  quantltlca.  Tbo 
maker  of  tuilllani  nf  jarda  of  clolh  bw  no  IUdb  M  apcad 
in  Mlling  liagtr  yuda.  U  ho  vm  comptrllod  to  Ml  by 
(vtnil,  liii  wuiild  iMve  no  timu  i«  oondiiot  luaBlikini  ha 
Dimld  nianulBctuTV  only  ■  amall  ijUBnlJIy,  and,  IfatrafoiVi 
b«io|;  limllvil  in  bja  ainvuDi  of  pmducu  and  akbia,  ha 
inual  tako  Ur|{vr  iiruTita.  Tbu*,  ujwiit  ihv  wliobi,  U  Ca 
niacb  hnttcr  lor  ill  oflnifMiiiid  In  allow  lb«  manvbo- 
Inrts  ■•!  (luraua  Ilia  own  mjr  in  aalliusoaly  very  k(|o 

anuitiUea  to  wbiilaaabi  mofifhaatih  To  ifiaaa  Indan 
lo  anma  rnla  May  ba  appUod.  They  a 
anta  of  mannlbturo  i  And,  pi  "  '  "  ' 
of  gDoda,  thoy  antil  thant  U  ur 
tbvy  aro  DMiuirrd  by  thv  public,  and  tlitn>  Iha  ai^iolea 
ma  baliuliiiiUvidualiyfrniiiavhor.  It  iaavidant  (luM 
if  any  itiau  winli  t'l  buy  •  liAiidkaruliiaf,  liii  may  t>roiiuro 
it  inucli  uioro  ehmiJy  from  auy  abup  in  «h>eh  audi 
thiUK"  are  *uld  at  an  advauiw  upon  llio  arl^oal  eoalf 
than  If  hu  wore  to  tranil  perhapa  buiulreda  m  ntQea  to 
Ihv  bouaa  of  tbo  muiu/ii^tontt,  and  IhcTo  inafca  the 
purehaao.  Tha  n>e-i<f  an  inlinnisliatpdBaata  oondum 
rxidiaiij^  is  ^u>  irrj  fiintplimoiu  ;  and  any  attempt 
(u  roTart,  {[Miorally,  lo  thn  uciginal  ptaatioK  nf  acDnjOQ 
thx  niaknr  lo  deal  witb  llicfiiwiimiT,  vi>u[d  banntiKrlj 
inctuupaliblu  will)  an  OnlarE'i]  nyaLKui  iil  Iradn  botux'u 
dlSbnct  cauatrif»)  or  c*ea  t<alwwii  ditUmit  plana  in 
tha  HUDQ  001UII17.  We  aay  gonaiuUy,  bcnuue  tbaM 
oiw  inaianea  in  which  makets  may.  wlui  advauage  u 
thamaaWn  and  Iho  mmmanily.  anil  UiHir  jiroduea  In 
■mall  quantitiM  or  ainxtm  arlirJaa  lo  tha  piililio ;  but 
lliMM  aro  anooptiona  tu  a  Mnnnmn  ruin. 
( 'mveaittitt,  it  ia  nvidriit,  toni*  a  KUidliig  iirinciah 

uf  tnulir.  Mid  rc'luii'Mi  tlw  aaRiv  Booaub-nilliw  aa  UM 
aelaal  nlua  of  aa  artid*.  Tlika,  liomTU',  haa  Ikmi 
rooDgnlaHl  only  In  vcty  niiant  tlnni.  At  odb  porbiil 
tfaora  irci<e  la**  to  ptctrat  fiunwn  from  arlling  Ibdr 
grain  la  a  brgv  <|aantit]>  or  by  ttw  Jnm|i,  wittaosl  «(- 
poaina  it  in  au  upau  Dianai.  Sunk  law*  irvrvmanifiMlj 
ucju-l,  Tl"7  ii,l..rr..i-.^l  *.lh  thaltbartj  of  Iba  Omnar, 
»!'<-  :-  '  I  -  '  '  i-i?.iiiibeluTCT  lud  Mimlya  rigltl 
'i>    '  I'choTcr  way  Im  fvll  ll  lo  bs 

h  wonid  hn  Iba  aanin  klodnf 
LiM  ..  iM  pnrrcai  a  maiiutiuitiuw  (i< 

II'".  I  It  tbaui  al  hia  own  woTbahop 

Kiaiiiiic  in)--  iii»i<  rr,  miii  eaiiatngblni  totaketbinn  many 
mliaa  vi  a  oanaiii  lafwil  ia  a  aaitaia  tmm,  anA  <tua^ 


of  Ilia  gnaleA  \Btf<i^aa 


<A  XKaA>a«>A«« 


which  was  so  diiMemlnatcd  was  afterwards  obliterated 
by  the  overruling  powers  of  barbarous  and  warlike 
nations ;  but  the  efficacy  of  commerce  in  modem  times 
is  likely  to  be  permanent  wherever  its  influence  is  ex- 
tended, seeing  that  the  greatest  manufacturing  and 
mercantile  people  are  at  the  same  time  the  most  power- 
ful and  most  capable  of  offering  protection  to  those  who 
sustain  a  commercial  intercourse  with  them.  It  is  ex- 
ceedingly pleasing  thus  to  reflect  on  what  commerce  is 
capable  of  efl*ecting,  independent  of  the  actual  comfort 
which  it  produces,  wherever  it  is  fairly  introduced.  By 
its  appeals  to  the  selflshness,  the  vanity,  and  other  pas- 
sions, good  and  bad,  of  mankind,  it  appears  to  be  the 
best  of  all  forerunners  to  the  efforts  of  the  schoolmaster 
and  tlie  missionary.  Its  influence  in  this  respect  has 
been  remarkably  exemplified  in  the  boundless  regions  of 
Hindoetan,  which,  by  the  efforts  of  a  company  of  mer- 
chants, have  been  laid  open  to  the  settlement  of  enlight- 
ened men  from  Europe,  who,  though  by  slow  degi-ees, 
will  ultimately  spread  the  blessings  of  education,  and  the 
decencies  of  social  life,  among  many-  millions  of  human 
beings.  In  the  remote  islands  in  the  Pacific  Ocean,  the 
influence  of  commerce  has  been  recently  of  marked 
utility,  llie  introduction  of  articles  of  a  fanciful 
nature,  both  for  the  ornamenting  and  covering  of  the 
person,  has  induced  a  desire  of  following  European 
manners  and  customs;  and  as  these  commodities 
cannot  be  procured  but  by  the  exchange  of  native  com- 
modities, a  spirit  of  industry  has  consequently  been 
produced,  which  cannot  fail  to  bo  of  both  moral  and 
physical  advantage  to  the  natives.  It  is  always  thus 
with  the  intercourse  which  commerce  necessarily  in- 
Tolves.  New  tastes  are  created,  and  to  bo  gratified, 
industry  must  be  exerted.  But  to  witness  the  extraor- 
dinary influence  of  commerce  in  producing  civilised  and 
reflued  habits,  we  need  not  look  beyond  our  own  coun- 
try. Commerce,  in  this  its  chosen  seat,  has  caused 
roads  every  whore  to  be  cut,  canals  to  be  opened,  rail- 
ways to  be  formed,  expeditious  modes  of  travelling  by 
sea  and  land  to  be  effected ;  all  of  which  great  accesso- 
ries to  our  comfort  have  tended  in  the  most  wonderful 
manner  to  introduce  not  only  useful  commodities  and 
personal  luxuries,  but  highly  cultivated  sentiments, 
literature,  and  the  arts,  into  districts  which  at  no  dis- 


* i.  . 


.1  I ;_  -   »:.... I.. : :*: ir 


any  knowledge  of  social  life,  they 
ranee  or  some  other  eaoae,  beei 
by  governments  in  all  ages  of  tlM 
been  contrived  to  regulate  tha 
would  have  much  better  regola 
extent  have  regulating  and  restri 
in  some  countries,  tnat  they  h 
both  manufactures  and  legitime 
duced  masses  of  the  people  to  tb 
besides  encouraging  tlio  pemic 
pursuits  of  the  smuggler.  Tho : 
tions  which  governments  warn 
merce,  do  not  pertuips  oxigina) 
that  manu£actu%x8  and  nwrebi 
tion  of  children,  and  require  tt 
they  should  hurt  themsuvei,  ai 
exigencies  under  which  the  goi 
placed.  They  hare  all  leas  or 
which  have  been  conducted  at  i 
their  respective  countries.  In  < 
expenses,  all  kinds  of  taxes  a 
indirectly ;  but  as  the  levying  oi 
content,  large  bodies  €»f  military 
up,  to  act  as  an  armed  natib 
people  of  these  countries  have  I 
not  only  the  price  of  the  wan^ 
sums  borrowed  and  laid  oat  npoi 
more  for  the  military  force  aft 
them.  What  is  more  disfiiMJii 
bably  to  give  a  deal  of  money, 
spective  governments  may  be  tl 
the  attachment  of  men  of  oo 
allaying  the  general  clamours  foi 
This  is  a  very  roorh  view  of  the 
to  show  the  drea&il  exigenoes 
by  their  engaging  in  wars  or  ^ 
In  whatever  manner,  ho  wen 
originate,  the  plan  pnrsoed  fSor : 
the  imposition  of  duties  on  oerl 
in  demand,  and  at  various  stsp 
transmission,  and  sale.  It  is 
impose  duties  on  goods  imporl 
tries,  with  the  view  of  protoeCu 
such  articles  in  this  country ;  1 


_i 


COMMERCE. 


B  Mid,  that  *  wlicu  wo  drink  beer  and  porter  we 
mne  the  produce  of  English  industry,  whereas, 
B  we  drink  port  or  claret  we  consume  the  produce 
he  industry  of  the  Portuguese  and  French,  to  the 
ions  advantage  of  the  latter,  and  the  prejudice  of 
oountrymen ! '  But  how  paradoxical  soever  the  as- 
bn  may  at  first  sight  appear,  there  is  not  at  bottom 
real  distinction  between  the  two  cases.  What  is 
lAt  induces  foreigners  to  supplv  us  with  port  and 
vt%  The  answer  is  obvious: — We  eitherisend  di- 
y  to  Portugal  and  France  an  equivalent  in  British 
taee^  or  wo  send  such  equivalent,  in  the  first  place, 
Mith  America  for  bullion,  and  then  send  that  bullion 
m  Continent  to  pay  for  the  wine.  And  hence  it  is  as 
f  as  the  sun  at  noonday,  that  the  Englishman  who 
ka  only  French  wine,  who  eats  only  bread  made 
aliah  wncat,  and  who  wears  only  Saxon  cloth,  gives, 
^ceasioning  the  exportation  of  a  corresponding 
juit  id  British  cotton,  hardware,  leather,  or  other 
laee,  the  same  encouragement  to  the  industry  of  his 
toymen,  that  ho  would  were  he  to  consume  nothing 
immediately  produced  at  home.  A  quantity  of 
•''^vine  and  a  quantity  of  Birmingham  goods  are 
MtiTely  of  the  same  value ;  so  that,  whether  we 
rtly  consume  the  hardware,  or  having  exchanged  it 
lie  wine,  consume  the  latter,  in  so  far  as  the  em- 
sient  of  British  labour  is  concerned,  it  is  altogether 
Rnent"* 

^om  these  explanations,  it  will  bo  observed  that  it 
^material  what  is  given  in  exchange  for  imported 
»— whether  money  or  native  prodnce.  At  the  same 
^  it  must  be  understood  that  if  money  is  given, 
m  must  exist  some  active  industry  in  the  country 
i^liich  the  money  is  realised.  As  a  general  question 
BOBunerce,  it  is  of  no  consequence  what  is  the  nature 
a«  industry  by  which  the  money  is  produced.  It 
consist  in  the  raising  of  superabundant  crops,  or 
r  law  produce  for  exportation,  or  of  manufacturing 
Bud  comparatively  valueless  materials  into  articles 
aloe  and  demand,  or  of  carrying  goods  from  one 
itoj  to  another.  Unless  a  country  possess  one  or 
b  id  these  branches  of  industry,  it  is  without  the 
tm  of  paying  for  imported  articles,  and  must  retire 
a  the  neld  of  general  commerce.  £Ingland  is  not  of 
Gently  large  dimensions  to  export  superabundant 
V  of  grain,  but  it  possesses  in  an  extraordinary 
■^e  the  means  of  manufacturing  mineral  and  other 
itaaees  into  articles  for  exchange,  and  it  derives  no 
Vaiderable  profit  from  the  carrying  of  commodities. 
laianuiactured  goods,  therefore,  pav  for  imports  of 
t^  articles,  including  bullion  or  the  raw  material 
Mmey,  and  these  again,  in  a  manufactured  state,  are 
Kid  for  the  payment  of  still  further  imports.  Thus 
^realth  of  our  country  has  increased. 

raiNaPLEs  of  commerce. 

Bie  practice  of  commerce  is  in  a  great  measure  de- 
Sent  on  mutual  good  faith,  and  the  integrity  of  seller 
buyer,  and  can  in  no  case  permanently  flourish 
9e  these  fundamental  qualities  are  wantmg.  The 
^  or  great  leading  quality,  therefore,  in  the  cliarac- 
Of  a  merchant,  ought  to  be  scrupulous  honesty  both 
Vmrd  and  deed.  Tho  article  which  ho  proposes  to 
a«ie  of  must  be  exactly  what  he  declares  it  to  be, 

inferior  or  in  any  respect  unsound  in  its  nature.  If 
NMM8B  any  blemishes,  these  must  be  announced  to 

IniTer  before  the  bargain  is  concluded,  and,  if  neces- 
^,  mough  at  a  considerable  loss,  an  allowance  made 

them.  The  merchant  is  not  less  called  on  to  be 
%ttd  in  the  fulfilment  of  all  promises  which  ho  may 
htg  whether  with  respect  to  goods  or  their  payment ; 
^aae  thoee  to  whom  the  promises  have  been  made 
y  on  that  account  have  made  similar  promises  to 
i^n^  andy  therefore,  the  breaking  of  a  single  pro- 
!•  may  prove  injurious  in  every  link  of  a  whole  train 
tnnmetions.  Perfect  honesty  or  integrity  is  a  fun- 
mcntel  prineiple  of  trade ;  and  the  next  most  import- 

#  DSctioiDary  of  Commerce. 
675 


ant  aro,  strict  regularity  in  all  proceedings,  according 
to  established  usage,  and  also  st^wly  perseverance.  The 
merchant  must  give  regularattendance  during  the  hours 
of  business,  be  regular  in  executing  all  ordera  and  an- 
swering all  letters ;  regular  in  the  keeping  of  his  books, 
and  in  the  reckoning  of  his  stock  and  moneys ;  in  short, 
he  must  be  methodic  and  careful  in  all  branches  of  hia 
concerns,  for  without  this  species  of  attention,  the  best 
business  is  apt  to  become  confused,  and  to  be  ultimately 
ruined.  What  is  true  of  individuals  is  true  when  ap- 
plied to  a  whole  nation.  No  people  have  ever  attained 
opulence  and  high  mercantile  consideration,  who  have 
not  possessed  a  character  for  integrity  and  regularity  iu 
all  their  dealings. 

Besides  these  indispensable  qualities  in  the  individual 
character  of  a  merchant  or  tradesman,  there  is  required 
a  happy  combination  of  enterprise  and  prudence  with 
the  utmost  coolness — enterprise  to  embrace  favourable 
opportunities  of  buying  and  selling,  and  prudence  and 
coolness  to  restrain  from  engaging  in  over-liazardous 
and  ruinous  speculations.  In  all  his  transactions,  the 
man  of  business  is  understood  to  proceed  upon  a  cool 
inflexible  principle  of  doing  that  w-hich  is  most  advan- 
tageous for  himself,  without  fear  or  favour ;  because  in 
commerce  each  party  is  supposed  to  be  governed  by 
motives  of  self-interest  (always  within  tho  rules  of 
honesty  and  propriety),  and  is  under  no  obligation  to 
deal  from  mere  personal  regard,  or  any  kind  of  friendly 
consideration.  In  commerce  there  is,  strictly  speaking, 
no  friendship.  If  there  be  fricndsliip  among  the  parties 
concerned,  it  is  a  thing  aloof  from  busuiess  transac- 
tions— a  matter  of  private  arrangement— and  is  only 
to  be  regarded  as  such.  On  this  account,  even  among 
tho  most  intimate  friends,  there  must  be  an  exact  mode 
of  dealing,  and  the  most  accurate  counting  and  I'cckon- 
ing. 

The  British,  for  several  centuries,  seem  to  have  been 
endowed,  above  all  other  nations,  with  those  qualities 
of  mind  which  are  suitable  for  the  conducting  of  com- 
merce on  an  enlarged  and  liberal  scale.   Their  integrity, 
fterseverinc  industry,  enterprise,  prudence,  and  libera- 
ity  of  seutmient,  have  never  been  excelled.    In  patient 
industry  they  have  been  rivalled  by  the  Dutch  ;  but  iu 
point  of  enterprise  and  liberality,  that  people  liave  fal- 
len far  short  of  them,  and  their  trade  has  languished 
accordingly.     Tho  British  aro  pre-eminently  a  com- 
mercial as  well  as  a  manufacturing  people.     Taking 
them  generally,  they  possess  a  spirit  of  restless  industry, 
which  renders  tlieni  actually  unhappy  unless  when 
busily  engaged  in  some  pursuit  calculated  to  enrich 
them,  or  at  least  to  produce  for  theu*  families  the  means 
of  a  respectable  sul^istence.    The  Americans,  who  are 
but  a  branch  of  the  same  British  stock,  are  e^^ually,  if 
not  more,  remarkable  for  this  fervent  spirit  of  industry ; 
and,  though  only  set  up  as  a  separate  nation  within  a 
period  of  sixty  years,  and  less  distinguished  for  their 
mtegrity  and  prudence  than  the  Knglish,  liavo  already 
distanced  many  of  those  dignified  European  principa- 
lities and  powers  which  first  discovered  and  colonised 
their  country.  The  French,  tho  Germans,  the  Spaniards, 
the  Portuguese,  the  Italians,  and  others,  though  each 
possessing  a  larger  or  smaller  extent  of  manufactiu'es 
and  commerce,  are  obviously  deficient,  in  a  natiMial 
sense,  of  the  eager  spirit  of  industry  wliich  is  so'i^- 
racteristic  of  the  peo[>le  of  Great  Britain.    Taken  in 
the  gross,  they  aro  too  apt  to  addict  themselves  to 
amusement  in  preference  to  business.    They  delight 
in  holidays,  and  will  at  any  time  leave  their  work  to 
mingle  in  a  dance  or  some  kind  of  buffoonery,  in  which 
an  Englishman  would  be  ashamed  to  appear.     Scarcely 
one  of  the  continental  nations,  moreover,  has  yet  settled 
down  under  a  well-conducted  government  appointed  by 
tho  people.     There  indeed  seems  to  be  little  whioh  is 
settled  amongst  them.    Some  of  the  principal  are  yet 
at  that  stage  of  social  life  which  was  common  in  Eng- 
land about  the  reign  of  Henry  VII.;  others  are  not 
farther  advanced  l^n  a  period  considerably  earlier ; 
and  all  have  yet  a  great  deal  to  suffer  and  to  learn 
before  they  attain  that  state  of  quietude  and  security  to 


ueau.       XII  sucu  a  unocy  luc  uuoiucoa  iios  ptaoacnA  iiibu  Lite 

hands  of  new  proprietors,  who,  though  legally  respon- 
sible for  its  obligations,  are  not  for  some  private  reason 
inclined  to  change  the  old  and  well-known  title  of  their 
firm.  A  particular  firm  or  business-concern  is  some- 
times personified  in  the  term  ho^sc — as,  Such  a  house 
does  a  great  deal  of  business,  &c. 

Company. — Two  or  more  individuals  engaged  in  one 
business  constitute  a  company  or  copartnery,  each  in- 
dividual being  called  a  partner.  Companies  are  of  two 
kinds,  private  and  public.  A  private  company  is  organ- 
ised by  a  private  arrangement  among  the  parties,  each 
having  certain  duties  to  perform  and  a  certain  share 
in  the  concern.  In  companies  of  the  private  and  com- 
mon description,  no  individual  can  leave  the  concern 
at  his  own  pleasure,  for  by  doing  so  he  might  seriously 
injure  or  embarrass  his  partners,  lie  can  withdraw  only 
after  giving  a  reasonable  warning,  by  which  time  is 
allowed  to  wind  up  the  concern,  or  place  it  in  a  condition 
to  pay  him  back  the  capital  which  he  has  risked,  or  the 
profits  which  are  his  due.  No  partner,  however,  can 
transfer  his  share  to  another  person,  by  which  a  new 
member  would  be  introduced  into  the  firm,  without  the 
consent  of  the  partners. 

The  profits  of  partnerships  are  divided  according  to 
a  specified  agreement  or  deed  of  copartnery.  Generally, 
in  the  case  of  partnerships  of  two  or  three  persons, 
each  receives  the  same  share  on  the  occasion  of  an 
annual  division,  but  in  other  cases,  a  partner  may  not 
be  entitled  to  more  than  a  fourth  or  sixth  part  of  what 
another  receives.  The  amount  of  capital  which  a 
partner  invests  in  the  concern,  the  service  he  can  be  to 
the  business,  and  other  circumstances,  regulate  the 
amount  of  his  share.  When  each  of  two  persons  sinks 
the  same  capital,  but  one  takes  the  whole  of  the  trouble, 
then  he  on  whom  the  trouble  falls,  who  is  called  the 
active  partner,  is  entitled  to  receive  a  stated  sum  in  the 
form  of  salary  over  and  above  his  share  of  profits. 
Whatever  be  the  share  which  individual  partners  have 
in  a  concern,  the  whole  are  equally  liable  for  the  debts 
incurred  by  the  company,  because  the  public  give 
credit  only  on  the  faith  that  the  company  generally  is 
responsible.  He  who  draws  the  smallest  fraction  of 
profit,  failing  the  others,  may  be  compelled  to  pay  the 
whole  debts.    On  this  account,  every  partner  on  leaving 


when  due. 


oa    1/1.    wx  Ti 


When  trading  with 
capital,  business  is  done  upon  a  m 
he  proceed  beyond  these,  m  any  i 
said  to  be  over-trtuimgy  and  is  ex| 
ruin  or  very  serious  eml^rrassnu 
the  amount  of  available  capital,  is 
vailing  error,  and  causes  innom 
With  a  comparatively  small  eapit 
carry  on  a  large  business,  by  reoeii 
after  making  nia  outlays.  Bj  tli 
rapid  tummg  over  of  money,  an 
the  various  transactions  speedily 
revenue.  For  example,  if  a  tnu 
capital  twelve  times  in  the  year,  i 
money  for  what  he  sells,  he  can  al 
a  twelve  times  less  profit  than  if  b 
same  capital  only  once  in  a  year. 
consideration  of  credit. 

Credit. — Credit  in  business  is  ol 
and  is  founded  on  a  confidence  ii 
person  credited,  or  the  borrower, 
to  buy  an  article  from  a  tradeai 
money  to  pay  for  it,  and  requires 
giving  either  a  special  or  implic 
value  at  a  future  time.  This  is  g 
is  clear  that  the  seller  is  a  lender 
such  cases,  the  seller  must  be  reo 
his  loan,  lie  cannot  aflTord  to  sell 
favourable  terms  as  for  ready  m 
were  to  receive  the  money  when  1 
could  lay  it  out  to  some  advantagi 
other  portions  of  his  capitaL  By  ti 
deprives  the  seller  of  the  opporl 
profit,  and  accordingly  he  must  pi 
the  article,  the  price  being  inerei 
the  length  of  credit.  It  very  or 
the  seller  himself  has  purchased  \ 
but  this  only  serves  to  increase  its ; 
and  does  not  prevent  the  last  sell 
the  credit  which  he  gives  and  ths 
ment  which  he  runs.  Credit  for  a 
essential  in  allgreattransaotions ;  1 
fair  and  reasonable  limits,  it  actai 
trade,  by  inducing  heedless  speetul 


««  %\^ 


%■%  fx   %m\f\w^r\w%^^%   «v» 


*\> 


<»•%■«  wm% 


¥««%«•  ^»  ^ 


Morj-  |..  ..    , 
nllftl.i!.. 

itbiyiki- 

■  |l»y.lJ.rL>h.l  ..... 
fionvntlin-  Ijuofci,  a*  f cr.nKii-d.iinr.j.  i„»i,-li«l4|.ir,  . 
TfAfAgwijkB,  ThnUtnlbMk-tcopUi  Usimjila^ 
lUitW  m\i<f  •  ocnnpalant  knowlrdgs  nf  nnlhiuiUe, 
<ill  bi  )nauiAn*tii|<,  nriih  &  lltUn  tTiuning  in  Uto 
nl  of  naUrlDit  bii4  itoMIuk  unomut*.  Ttia  urieud 
tnd  aoeurftcj'  an  doilrftulv.  It  in  bu  undnMoBil 
tlut  BD  book  *htiald  kboK  a  Uui  or  nwnin ;  « 
kW,  ■honJd  Derar  on  wij  oocount  ba  loni  out, 
nvr  blatflli  or  tnvT  it  cuiituiw,  Tht>  r«aM>ii  linr 
anipoioui  mi*  in,  Uul  a  muroluuit'*  baubi  ulinuU 
ilvar  urI  fiiiUi/al  mtrror  at  iii*  ImuHinlDiu,  and 
iilaiie*  of  lin  iuUucilf-  In  Utv  ewii  uf  iiuadRv- 
-B  iradp,  01  ittliur  iuniuai«la»M,  t]i«  bwiKi  tna;  bn 
ilrd  to  a  l:4|ild]adiEiiU  inutiilniiUuii,  and  lk«  14)' 
. 1. . otUatraaylnadtecnii- 


a  lar);;v  n-Miira  or  to  out  out  die  to 

im  Hio  UrKika  kwt  byn  mtrchaiit,  _  .___ 

3f  hi*  affiiin  oufihi  to  b«  aniiiuJIir  muds  np.  Tlri* 
iiecl  eonlriia*  an  inMnMry  or  lint  ut  ([uihU  IBumjr 
owing  lo  the  inaivliaiU,  or  oUior  avaibilil*  iirs- 
1  aUo  a  aantm  li*t  of  all  dvbU  aud  oUwr  obUaa- 
4uo  by  Lhe  ini3«lnuib  BoHi  baas  baUoiwU,  vm 
■*,  •ii«Ui*r  (or  or  agaiiiBl  the  merchant,  i*  ai  unw 
vabltt.  Evary  nian  in  iradr.  tnv  at  l«a«t  Ida  CMi 
10(11)11  and  (•iviTBnunt,  ithuiild  aiakp  up  •  lahiiiMr- 
nf  iluB  iiattuv  aiinu^j', 

(  ^J'arB/lt. — Auaosnint  urlM  nf  itonw  of  giud^ 
to  tlii-ir  piuriiaaer  b;  iho  wllor,  at  dallTOTM 


wan. — A  bill  or  auciiuiit  of  KOodit,  which  1«  tat- 
sd  OBtianttolyi  aruiouiudiig  tlio  ifatu  of  tbiir  ilk|ialvh  ' 
ha  nartloBlar  conveyance  by  wliidi  Uioy  an  aaol.* 
I  Mllct  Cul  to  forward  an  invoteo  b;  pom,  uid  Uu 
be  bMt  at  HB  vhil>  aa  thcit  way,  too  purohaam- 
■luwarablo.  for  ha  ia  not  mpuvvd  tu  kuu*  liuw 
lEii  Uio  gowi*  wr*  Bonl,  and  llionrforo  I'liild  nul 
a  agunat  ihair  Iuhr.  Tim  can<(uf  wiidlDf  ■•(  lo- 
t  (urma  a»  itnporlaul  duly  uf  a  inercbant'a  olelk. 
rrirri.—V*tmm*  nba  imilortakc  to  mnny  gMila 
on*  plaoe  to  another,  whoUior  by  knil  nr  waur, 
urlon:  kiul  lbs  oarrying  u«di',  aa  it  la  vallwl, 
I  now  alariiii  aiul  varUri  dfpartuwiit  uf  bwiuta 
Uy,  "Carritra  art  hiuBit  10  rcoeii'a  and  earrjr 
w(b  of  all  txtvoB*,  for  a  rvMooablo  biro  or  r»- 
i  to  btk«  iiropur  uarc  ul  them  la  tbilr  luungoi 
lifVT  IboRi  ui>rcly,  and  in  Uih  lamii  onijdlijini  at 
«*ra  iwuivnl  (cxoepting  auif  auob  lowm  a*  toaj 
fruni  Ottat)^  Onanr  thrking't  rnmairt)'.  or  in 
it  Ibsrtof,  (V  nulonnnpcnuliua  to  the  owiiar  Im 

'inih.ir.i.      .    "  .......nlBL 


CBAMBBaSS  ISFOUUI105  FOB  THE  I 


■fat  #•«  w  aaac  aMM- fa  »Mfc  m  M  ta 

gi>i  iii,«ihrn*iiiii^ii»*a»r*— 


til  ^^^--  |--  ' — T-   ' ••    AaiWMa 

Mb«<hfa^Wiwifa*».fa«fc^f  *Ifap»a^ 


dM>  tmimionsrieR,  for  Ibe  itnpoBlMD  aad  ealleclioa  i 
the  diiiia.  A  coatomhooM  if  oQtblUhed  at  em; 
prinR|aI  port.     Ncarlj  all  <TU!loms  and  eici™  dntic 

in  lliu  timl  ii:  ■'  -  ■  ■  "■  I  ■■  ;  ■■'■■iTan'J  ramufacliin-t 
liiBV,  hnwrv. ,.  ;:"■    i.f  ihp  commoditin 


iwinl"r [.iriij.s.     rrililriMi...vp,).  there 

mn'MlcH  111  Unnil  can  Imnlly  )ie  >i;>U  !o  U 
II  tlin  eaiintr)',  buiiig  iii  tlie  caDfUtinti  o: 


'  '      p«^fabA^^fa«fa3l 


nil  ta  fa  idnK  M^  tf  aMiiMU;^ 

o^t  Will,  Mil  *fHMi>HMifcMlW| 
■fciA  it »  — ih  !■  fa  «»iinHi  itttm^ 


<WMfaL  nib.>fak«ifaB«it««M 

ami  i^  WM  maSm^mal  ifa  Afc  MH  J 
me*  to  fa  tlliiiidiB  •<  BifaMdMiia 
Kyhn  fa  torf  afafcJ  |»fa>  —  ■yij 

fc»ptiifa  MWiwh  Mi  If] 
Mfafriet  MMi—wHytf 


which  ii  nearij  *i]iuTaIcnt  lolwaig  he ^-,- 

butkmpt,  boweTer,  ii  nnie  oooudoMf  Mk 
who  it  l«g*ll;  annoaBced  or  !»«rU^  w  1^1 
Tlip  leriii  bankru[i|  is  <Ipri>H  (trHB  l««n> 
and  rupint  broken,  ia  BUu^ian  to  the  bcoika 
a»il  li^the  iDoni'V-di^len  in  lul*,  irhidlMI 
ineaMor  theiFfailimlapaylhcirdcbti.  Tm 
tn'ihn  ■  certain  rorni  of  procedure  in  fa  as 
mercial  iiiBolrenc)'.  wliich  hua  tlic  *ffectad 
inTwligating  the  causp  of  the  misftvtinM,  ■a' 
the  bankiu]il  Troni  all  obligaiiono,  on  jvM 
Bnlire  [.roperlv-.  Only  perwma  in  tndtux 
lllc  IwDtfit  of  this  bankrupt  law,  all  otfai 
clurii.-d  ;  so  that,  in  tho  erect  of  llipir  faatn 
miurt  sutmiit  to  Iho  common  Uws  HftWhi 
wliioh  are  in  some  mpectH  verv  rigDRnw.  I 
nho  lial  receiTei!  nditchargt  or  certiflaMb' 
pptcnl  authority,  being  released  bna  all 
claiina.  may  again  Miier  boaiaea  for  Ua  • 
n-ilhflut  any  fi'nr  or  molestation  ;  bol  a  ditai 
luorely  taki-n  the  benefit  Df  the  iunivnt  A 
land,  or  pnirpB  of  r^-irio  i/oni>rus>  in  SeMlu 
iramedintely  relieved  from  prison  and  IcA  ■ 
prirsiiu  any  tinp  Bf  inaQBtry,  the  proMitvh* 
rmilMc  ii  at  nil  (imea  liable  to  Wi^  by ' 

A  ^unimis'ion  of  bankniplcf  ia  Seolluri 
■  .- '/>if  ./i-,i/;"n,  meaning  that  ilic  propenjrof 
:'l-i  iirillieialrysrquwtfred,  or  taken  ponw 


l.iKiu-inLr'^-  i^.i.nriltr  !^<\iw<\  I7  'iii'Ki  l)i:iii  one  un-  ,' or  Ibat  »hich  takes  place  w 

<^ter,  m  m  U\  d!vi'l«  lliii  rli-h.      LInyil'i  i'l  ilflt  Duly  I  nlid  imparl,  or  Ihil  whicb 

W  joiiiit  ii]  III!,'  iii<'lr<4inliri  Ut  nil  hph  iniiiranee    lions.    Tlio  inland  trade  a 

0,  Lilt  \t  till'  place  tn  vUiuU  every  H\'ci;icji  of   lian  it  nt  Icwl  (en  tirMa,UM 

ioec  mijK'rliiiji  ihiiipiDg  ia  lovwuicA  Ktstss\,  t^\\\V\B  taMwueA  fat 


'odistiaci! 
ilhiotbci 


ES 


a>lt;  to  the  value  of /m  hundred  mil- 1 
fuUj  nine-unthe  of  which  are  told  from 
>r  mccDinalBte  u  capitsJ,  while  the  re- 
ii]j  oue-leath,  is  exported.     All  thia  ia 

s&le  of  imported  foreign  productiona. 
y  aniall  as  ia  the  foreign  trade  of  the 
,  it  emptoya  a  larger  commercial  mariDe 
ly  other  nation.  In  1836,  the  united 
a  poaaenaionH  in  Europe  owned  20,383 
irden  of  2,348,749  (oca;  tiie  coloniei  at 

owned  5432  ship*,  with  112,697  tons; 
lipti,  with  2,792,646  tona.  All  thia  ia 
pe  of  foreign  proprietorahip  carrying  on 
mi  led  kin^om. 

Ent  period,  the  manuiacturea  and  com- 
and  have  wonderfully  increased.  Tbe 
res  of  Carteu,  and  ihe  oollon  and  silk 
if  Glaegow  and  Paialey,  are  known  all 
The  sailcloth  and  coarae  linen  mann- 
ndea,  now  one  of  the  most  flouiishing 
lire,  bsTe  greatly  tended  to  the  adTance- 
ottish  export  trade.  The  annual  ralua 
nanofacturea  waa  recently  calculated  to 
},000.    The  tonnage  of  vesaela  on  Ihe 

as  great  aa  that  of  all  Ireland,  the  ton- 

in  1B28,  only  amounted  to  97,379  tona 
1  of  die  total  tonnage  of  Scotland ;  the 
^rdeen  ia  an  great  aa  that  of  Dublin  and 
I  principal  Irish  porta,putlogether.  The 
wevcr,  is  increaaing,  chiefly  by  m ' 

ipoftant  eomtnercial  <Htiea  of  England, 
I,  are  LiTcrpool,  BriBtol.'ond  Hulf;  the 
t  manafacturing  towua  are  Haocheeter, 
Leeds,  Notlinghain,  Halifax,  Rochdale, 
nd,  the  principal  commerci^j  places 
lock,  Leitb,  Dundee,  and  Aberdeen.  ' 
f  GlaagDW  and  Greenock  extends 
he  United  States,  the  Briliah  Am 
ii,  and  the  whole  continent  of  Europe, 
iide  of  Leith,  Dundee,  and  Aberdeen, 

West  Indies,  Ameiica,  the  Meditena- 
Baltic.  The  greatest  commercial  cities 
Dublin,  Cork,  Wexford,  Waterford,  and 
ly  two-thirds  of  the  tisffic  uf  Great  Bri- 

on  in  London,  and  about  one-eixth  of 
ping  of  the  empire  belongs  to  that  port, 
wise  the  centra  point  for  the  negolistion 
'  al  and  peeuniaiy  timnsactionf 


1BSS. 

1839. 

Coala  and  culm,        .        . 

£485,950 

£513,156 

Cotton  manu&ctarea,    - 

16,716,857 

17,691,303 

Cotton  yam,      - 

7,431,869 

6,857,826 

651,341 

768,498 

Chua,         .... 

377,283 

871,270 

1,498,327 

1,819,000 

2,730,270 

3,422,188 

JncnyarD, 

836,163 

814,607 

Uetala,  tiz.  Iran  and  steel, 

2,635,692 

2,702,738 

copper  and  bnua, 

1,221,732 

1,293,977 

164,126 

196,640 

tin,  in  haw,  Ac., 

101,818 

112,620 

tin  plalet. 

186,677 

S1S,142 

Salt,        -        -        -        - 

-    32S,4iS 

219,069 

777,280 

866,768 

Sugar,  nfined,  -         -         - 

663,247 

313,788 

Wool,  sheep  or  lamba'. 

1S4,0D6 

361,829 

Woollen  yam. 

384,535 

101,188 

6,795,069 

6,278,099 

Total,  £13,311,631   £15,281,251 

ThegTOsaamoontofonatonu*  dntiea  Inwarda  in  1838 
waa  £22,966,211,  and  in  1839,  £23,278,089.  The  groat 
amount  of  excise  duties  for  the  yeai  ending  Oclobec 
1833  was  £11,827,788,  and  for  the  year  ending  October 
1839,  it  waa  £12,162,171 ;  thus  the  customa  and  excise 
duliea  produce  annually  npwarda  of  UtiTlf-Jaur  tnUiant 
qfponntU  to  the  national  revenne. 


(port  and  import  trade  of  the  united 

been  Bteadily  increasing  for  a  number 
iportion  aa  restrictiODs  luve  become  lest 
lutiea  have  heen  remitted,  and  aa  popa 
iDced.  Not  cDunting  odd  thousands,  thi 
snts  a  Tiew  of  this  mcrean:— In  !8DD, 
le  of  the  exports  from  Great  Britain,  of 
ictures  and  Irish  produce, 
in  1810,  thirty  tDillioni;  in  1821,  thirty- 
;in  1828,  fifty-one  millions;  and  in  1B30 
ita.  This  is  not  eetimating  the  export  of 
lonial  produce,  op  exports  from  Irehuid 

imports  into  Great  Britain  rose  in  i 
r,  from  twcnty-fonr  milliona  in  180O,  to 
ona  in  1830. 
eriod,  tho  foreign  trade  of  the  country 

some  changes.  A  return  tn  parllameni 
arch  1840,  shows  the  state  of  our  foreign 

interests  in  the  years   1S38  and    1839. 

year,  the  declared  value  of  British  and 
and  manafBctnrea  exported  amonnled  ti' 
Uld  in  1839  to  £45,281,251-     There  bat 


and  a  falhng  off  in  coal.  Bait,  cotton  yam. 
ol,  and  refined  Bugara.  The  following  ii. 
the  annual  accoupta,  showing  tbe  official 
exported  in  j836  and  1839. 


Origin  and  Nalare  qf  Mmef. — In  ft  nde  slate  of 
society,  exchanges  are  made  by  bartering  one  articla 
for  another,  according  to  some  kind  t»  understood 
value.  **  But  when  the  division  of  labour  fiiat  began 
to  take  phioe  {Bays  Smith],  this  power  of  exchanging 
most  fbrequeutly  have  been  very  much  clogged  and 
embarrassed  in  its  operatioiuk  One  man,  we  aoall  sup- 
pose, has  more  of  a  certain  commodity  tlun  h^  himaelf 
has  occasion  for,  while  another  haa  leas.  The  former, 
consequently,  would  be  glad  to  dispose  of,  and  tbe  latter 
to  purchase,  a  part  of  this  anperfluity.  But,  if  thi* 
latter  should  chance  to  have  nothing  that  the  former 
stands  in  need  of,  no  exchange  can  be  made  between 
them.  The  butcher  has  more  meat  in  his  shop  than 
ho  himself  ean  consume,  and  the  brewer  and  the  baker 
would  each  of  them  be  wilUng  to  purchase  a  part  of  it ; 
but  Ihey  have  nothing  to  oiTer  in  exchange,  except  the 
different  prodnctionB  of  their  respective  trades,  and  the 
butcher  ia  already  provided  with  all  the  bread  and  beer 
which  he  has  Imniediate  occaaion  for.  No  exchange 
can,  in  this  caae,  be  made  between  them.  He  cannot 
he  their  merchant,  nor  they  his  customers ;  and  they 
are  all  of  them  thus  mutually  leas  serviceable  to  ona 
another.  In  order  to  avoid  the.inconveniency  of  snch 
situations,  every  prudent  man,  in  cveir  period  of  society, 
after  the  first  cstabliabment  of  the  diviaion  of  labour, 
must  naturally  have  endeavoured  to  manage  his  afiaira 
in  BUch  a  manner  as  to  have  at  all  times  by  him,  be- 
aides  the  peculiar  produce  of  his  own  industry,  a  certain 
qnanlily  of  some  one  commodity  or  other,  such  aa  ha 
imagined  few  people  would  be  likely  to  refuse  in  ex- 
change for  the  produce  of  their  industry. 

Many  different  commodities,  it  is  probable,  wereiae- 
cesaively  both  tliought  of  and  employed  for  this  pur- 
pose. In  the  rudo  agee  of  eociety,  cattle  are  Bid  to 
have  been  the  eommon  instrument  of  commerce ;  and 
though  they  must  have  been  a  moat  ineonTenient  oni^ 
yet  in  old  tmies  we  find  tbinga  were  frequently  Tolnad 
according  to  tbe  number  of  <^le  which  bad  been  pvra 
in  exchange  for  them.  The  armoor  of  Diomed^  aaya 
Homer,  cost  only  nine  oxen ;  but  that  of  Glancua  cost 
a  hundred  oxen.  Salt  ia  said  to  be  the  common  in- 
strument of  commerce  and  eaehangea  in  Abysnia ;  > 
species  of  ahella  in  •onm  puU  of  the  coaat  of  India; 


CHAMBERS'S  INFORMATION  FOR  TIIE  PEOPLE. 
Newfonndluiil ; 


itied  cad 

in  Bome  of  our  West  India  colonies ;  llifleB  or  nrewen 
leatlicr  Ln  some  other  couutrioi ;  and  there  is  U  this 
da)'  a  village  in  ScuUuid  where  it  is  not  unnoauaoD,  1 
km  told,fora  wurkmau  to  tarry  nails,  ioBiBid  of  money, 
to  the  InUcct'b  ahop  or  tbo  ■Ii>-'Uou80. 

In  &U  oountrlee,  however,  men  ecem  at  iMt  to  have 
been  determined  by  irreeisIJblereiiMuetogivotho  pre- 
fui-Bnee,forthisBmployDieat,tomelal»Bbov[]  every  other 
caminodity.  MeUis  ean  not  only  be  kept  with  u  little 
loBs  as  any  other  eonimodity,  scnrse  any  thing  being 
Ieh  pcrisJiable  than  ther  are,  but  they  can  likewise, 
without  any  loss,  be  divided  into  any  number  ot  parts, 
as  by  fusion  thoso  parts  can  eaaily  be  re-unilod  agvn  ', 

quality  whioh  no  otlier  equally  durabic 
^     '-■-'- '    -    nyotberqi 

a  buy  salt,  for  example, 
and  naa  noLnmg  nut  cauje  10  give  jn  exchange  for  it, 
must  hate  been  obliged  tn  buy  salt 
wbule  ox  or  a  whole  sheep 
buy  leas  than  this,  becauw  what  be  wu 
cuuld  aoldom  be  divided  witbout  loaa  -  — 
nxiad  to  buy  more,  he  muat,ror  the  si 
been  obliged  to  buy  doable  or  triple  the  quitntity,  tlie 
value,  to  wit,  ot  two  or  three  oien,  or  of  two 
■beep.  If,  on  the  oontrary,  instead  of  sheep 
ho  had  tOeUls  to  gi«  in  exehauge  for  it,  hecoi 
pFoporlion  the  quantity  of  the  metal  lo  thi 
quiuitily  of  tho  commodit — '~  ~ 
Duion  for. 

DifTorcut  metals  hsvo  beon  made  use  of  by  different 

nations  fur  this  purpose.   Iron  was  the  common  iuatru- 

niutit  of  oonunerce  among  the  ancient  Spartans;  copper 

»ng  the  ancient  Romans ;  and  gold  aud  silver  among 


.    He  could  BBldos 
give  for  i 

tity,  til 

ideauly 
Hiity  which  lie  had  immediate  oc- 


allrl 


Those  melals  t 


ITcfTinKt 


iipiirpoaa 


originally  to  have  been  made  use 


originally  t 


we  are  told  by  Flinyi  upon  the  AUtho 


■:  llun 


,  till  til 
,iii^J  II 


the  ralnafsrs  and  atampm— tm  of 

cloth.      All  of  ibem  u«  e^nally  ~ 

by  moans  of  a  public  stamp,  the  - 

goodnesf  of  lb<*»  diff» 

It  will  be  undentoo 
money  is  only  an  article  wbiob  oa  ba  m 
in  exohanging.  In  itself,  or  a*  tvUtss  Is  ll 
Crinaic  qmilitics,  it  la  a  tUng  bol  <d  somII  srii 
and  silier,  or  the  predous  wMaii^  of  vdpdtl 
usually  mode,  arc  ^iefly  brought  ftma  1kn 
South  America,  ai  '  .  ~       .     . . 


H  an  over-abundanoe  of  any  of  tl 
obtained,  and  the  dEHiand  be  ooi  lacrasaL  Ihi 
immediately  lowered  i  andif  lb«ni|iplyi»stlil 
difficulty,  while  the  demand  nsnams  amilji 
creased,  the  value  is  heigbtened.  ll  ■MB 
strongly  impressed  on  the  mind  of  tbsfHdtt,*! 

been  given  lor  it.  To  a  miaandenmtdin  r 
tliia  apparently  very  simple  eireumsliaw^  mti 
misery  may  be  attributed.  It  baa  too  elte  I 
feeling  of  eouuuuniticH,  that  il  ttvy  ytmm 
they  possessed  riches,  and  not  a  i&vr*  tftidii  I 


Spain.  Before  the  working  of  the  gM  BN 
American  possessious,  the  Spuiiarjt  w«*  ( 
prosperous  commercial  people;  Imi'  --'---  -^ 


poor  iuduitrinus  man  wbo  lus  iiiw  ijisslidlj  ■ 
to  au  estate,  they  neeij  now  work  no  loaHTi 
vent  dieirriBhea  from  diaappcanii^  Ibe  M* 
tba  axpoTtatiao  of  tbe  prario—  insisls.  Mil 
lually  «hut  the  door  against  the  only  wirta«l 
■uuld  be  made  souroLii  of  woallli — eiponsli 


wlinteverthey  lud  occasion  for.  These  rude  bocH,  there- 
fore, performed  at  this  time  the  function  of  money. 

The  use  of  metals  in  this  rude  stale  was  attendee!  with 
two  very  conaidenJile  inconveniencca  ;  first,  with  tlie 
trouble  of  weighing,  and  secondly,  with  that  of  assaying 
them.  Jnlho  precious  metals,  wlieroasmalldiflcrcnce 
in  the  qunutity  makes  a  great  difference  in  the  value, 
even  the  business  of  weighing,  with  proper  exactness, 
requires  at  leaal  lory  noi-urale  welghtaand  scales.  The 
weighmg  of  gold,  in  ]-nrni-:'-;-.  i-  in  "j 


:e  of  CI 


In 

SQUgL.  il, 


«.•(* 


cety. 


nnall 


velytr 


bhould  find  i 


.  or  ^eil..  l^Lfthing's  worth  of 
(ooda,  he  was  obliged  to  weigh  tlie  farthing.  The  optTa- 
jou  of  aesB)  ing  is  still  more  dittieult,  elill  more  tedious, 
kiiil,  unless  a  part  of  the  melol  is  fairly  melted  in  (he 
:rucible,  with  proper  diBaolvenCij,  any  concluEiou  lliat 
sin  ho  drawn  from  it  is  oitromely  uncertain.  Before 
:he  iiuttitution  of  coined  mouer,  however,  unless  ihey 
vent  through  Ibis  tcdiuunanddiflieulIopiTalion, people 
nust  iilHSys  have  been  liable  10  the  grosscul  frauds  and 
mpaslIioDai  and,  instead  of  a  pound  weight  of  pure 
lilver,  orpure  copiior,  might  receive  in  eschange  for 
huir  goods  an  aduiteralFd  composiliun  of  the  eoarsent 


iippen 


even  luid  it  been  employed 
manner,  it  would  nut  liave  been  so  prvliAbii 
other  mesns  ot  omploying  capital  and  l*l«f 
already  remarked,  the  pecuUiuity  which  :alti 
useful  aa  a  measutv  of  viJue,  is,  that  the  la 
pended  in  producing  it  bean  «o  ooustaol  a  m 
quantity  re.-diseJ,  that  but  small  profits  an  ■ 

Tho   manner  in  which   the   Spaniarda  ka 

quainted  with  (he  treasures  of  South  Amok 
(o  nourish  the  hatlncinatiou.  They  founda' 
able  quantily  of  gold  in  the  ponseesian  <d  ik 
which  thoyspeedityseiieU.  Thoy  found abo ■ 
in  the  slreoms.  Thus,  by  an  accideiibl  dfB 
such  as  that  of  Ruding  a  hidden  Irfasira,  Ibf 
poasessed  of  money  wiihuut  working  lor  H. 
not  reflect  that,  if  tliia  lasted,  ruld  woajd  M 
the  representative  of  value  which  it  was,  tat 

beautiful  nmierial  for  inauuhclurca,  ■rhieb* 
luate  in  value  with  llic  tide  of  bahioB.  Wi 
ei)uM  procure  the  mineral  only  by  th«  rail 
labour,  Ihey  still  had  the  aune  ptirpeaurowl* 
they  were  uussessed,  nut  of  the  means  of  odii 
hut  of  wealth  itself,  and  dearly  did  ibey  pajlh 
VhUe  starvation  desolated  the  land,  and  lb 
gnuideca  could  not  command  u>  much  of  iki 

every  vretclied  dwelling  gUuen-J  with  bb* 
plulc. 

(lold,  it  IS  necessary  to  repeal,  i*  simply  a  n 
— a  eunimojiivwhicli  we  import :  and  if  ■•■ 
il  pr..filahlr,  why  not  do  w  I  If  tb(  coanUy 
tiuu  w.Uiuie  nothing  from  uabol  gold,  tbeail 
worth  our  while  to  boy  gold  for  tin  psipoMa 


ie)[(hM«,wlacll  til  < 
htfiTB*  It  froin  till*  n 
>h  uiptkni  KboQl 


ibird  a 
III,  it  i>  aOtd.  Man. 


liar  la  i-ofi»i 

» it  »u.  >  - 


■y-  J'*  «nii  •■^'hne  «  11.11.  Ji-,i...,l  n.  |-..,fl. 
kll  onliuary  tmnMctiDna,  but  ii  siiU  iubJ  In 
lu  diRtin^iuisti  mnui  from  tb*  aosiont  mnua]'  uf 
Iry,  M  rvrircwcl  in  in  old  ilMd«  «ad  nouooi  of 
V  inUMaeliaiUv  Tlia  olil  Soiil*  manvy,  (iriiTiiiii* 
'aioa  al  1707,  «m  lu  ixuixli,  iilii'lliiii^,  luid 
in  that  m^re  only  a  iwrlfiii  at  tliu  >alii>  <>( 
wmay  ol  t^«  ■OHM  ienaauoMian ;  tliux,  n  luxiud 
K  osl;  twsnlf  poiM  (tutiog.  The  mrd  *ivr- 
1m  in  <u«  in  Uio  (olonia,  to  duvinBuuli  tlw 
iiitord  of  Onai  Uriujn  from  tbe  uurreiicy 
I  tiiMD  pUrM. 

Iliin-iiill  i«  B  Hlinrt  f>|>lanatioii  of  tliu  urigin  of 
rljial  Ulriu  umJ  in  rolsmivi-  la  eoiurd  niunrj'. 

~^ r  '■  '"'>"  *^*  l'ani[il<>  lit  Juno  Atanvln, 

«■•  Bnl  co^Bil  by  Uia  HDi'iTiita.  /'r- 
IWnw,  »  flack— flodui  and  livr.t>  iil  lui- 
iiy,  ..r  lliitig. 
iguJIcii  rittdy 
•vnui  tmm  fva  on  ido  jnmunt  vij  ii»  from 
ill  wMil  Miur,  a  cnR«r  or  ebsrt  in  wbUh 
kepL  Pasmi  Uiiv«r  wu  a  coin  i  the  tenn  was 

BllilltllflilVV, 

rant}  >liillin|t> 
ET  D7  cunnung.  uutivii  iwii,  lU  luunii  frani 
t  of  asfuw  in  AIn«B,  wlitncc  tlie  guld  flir  II 
Dimllt  brto^'i^  i  Bt  ^'i  tlie  pUcB  «mii  aamot 
t  •liiiliiin,  «ft«r<r>rdt  It  »n  <^-mi  \e  3U  Dd., 
It  leUUii kl 2K  Initio  iiTOHUiltUjUw^MM 
Mocd,  and  tltn  term  lUily  rom&itii  la  India*!* 
tucuy  fcM  Mul  )[U[U  w  itiU  unuJIi  ractoiwd 
u^  Ihoii^Ii  paid  ID  othiir  moucj.  StUHa^  and 
•  both  Irv.iii  SiLii.Ti  u-i.r.I.i ;  llio  ponn;  vm  Bnl 


niui;  I'l  iMtii-iil  covl  i*  Uw  uhhi  mi^iu  sna 
ulllitpknvaararaMi)*]  fiir  Ibtir  |ni)H^ 
coujulT^iA,     UdI  DotvilhaCandiu  ibi^ 


m,  a  tMUUiA  mrwHjr  tJaac  li  oiuin  muidi 
liAl/  Mmnunial  lawniiHlim.  !!«*«  ■■  a 
'  inifQt^itiMi  iir  Ui>  prMioM  naMfe^ia.'AM  mAo. 


a  certAin  sum  which  U  specitied  upon  it.  Whether 
paaaing  by  the  name  of  a  bank-note,  a  promissory-note, 
or  bill  of  exchange,  the  principle  on  which  it  is  issned 
is  the  same — an  express  obligation  on  the  issuer  to  pay 
the  specified  sum  in  coined  money  on  demand,  or  at  a 
certain  date  which  is  mentioned.  The  notes  of  this 
kind  issued  by  a  bimk  pass  from  hand  to  hand,  any 
holder  having  it  in  his  power  at  any  time  to  demand 
fulfilment  of  the  obligation  from  the  bank ;  but  in  the 
case  of  a  bill  of  exchange,  which  is  a  promise  by  a  pri- 
vate party,  it  is  presentable  for  pa}'ment  only  at  a  speci- 
fied period. 

Bank-notes  and  bills  together  constitute  the  paper 
currency  of  the  country,  and  are  of  prodigious  use  in 
carrying  on  commercial  transactions.  It  is  ealcuUted 
that  while  the  metallic  currency  seldom  exceeds  three 
millions,  the  paper  currency,  or  amount  of  negotiable 
paper  in  circulation,  is  perhaps  two  hundred  millions : 
of  bank-notes  alone,  tlie  circulation  in  the  united  king- 
dom may  be  reckoned  to  be  sixty  millions. 

Biilt  of  Exchange  were  first  used  for  the  purpose  of 
settling  pecuniary  transactions  between  individuals  at 
a  distance  from  each  other,  and  were  therefore  conve- 
nient expedients  to  avoid  the  risk  of  sending  actual 
money  to  a  cr^itor.  This  may  be  explained  as  follows : 
—If  A,  a  merchant  in  London,  have  a  debtor  B  and  a 
creditor  C,  both  in  Paris,  instead  of  sending  money  to 
C,  and  getting  money  sent  to  him  by  B,  he  may  give  C 
an  order  on  B  to  pay  the  debt  over  at  once  to  him.  This 
is  a  bill  of  exchange  in  its  simplest  form.  Suppose, 
however,  that  A  has  a  creditor  in  Paris,  but  no  debtor, 
while  his  neighbour  £  has  a  debtor,  but  no  creditor : 
A  may  pay  the  money  to  £  which  Uie  French  debtor 
oweH  him,  and  obtain  from  him  an  order  on  his  debtor 
to  pay  A's  French  creditor.  This  order  he  will  be 
said  to  purchase.  It  will  be  an  accommodation  to  him 
or  to  the  other  party,  according  to  circumstances.  In 
the  complicated  arrangements  of  modem  commerce, 
the  individual  debtors  and  creditors  are  lost  sight  of. 
If  a  person  has  a  sum  to  transmit  to  another  countnr 
by  such  an  order,  the  rate  at  which  he  will  obtain  it  wiU 
depend  on  the  pecuniary  relations  of  the  two  places 
taken  in  the  mam.  If  there  is  more  money  pavable 
at  the  moment  by  people  in  London  to  people  in  Paris, 

tlinti  tlinro  iu  r^nvnlilo  hv  tlintiA  in  Pftri«i  tft  thnao  in  T,nn- 


land. 

The  multifarious  tnumetions  t 
merchants  in  Britain  and  a«— Am 
process  of  payment  by  the  intsnn 
change,  many  tbooaands  of  pool 
daily  in  their  aoeonnls  with  cnsh  < 
of  any  metallie  money,  esespCnfip 


The  following  is  %  **«i»"»*«"  tatm 
exchange : — 

£100.  London, 

Three  months  after  data^  p 

the  sum  of  one  hundred  poandi^  v 

To  Mr  Thomis  SrruB,  Metcfaul^ 

Gripplegate,  London. 

The  bill  being  drawn  in  this  Ibn 
it,  by  writing  Ilia  name  either  beio 
or  across  the  faoe  of  the  writing, 
called  the  drawer^  now  endones  tl 
name  on  the  back  of  it,  and  thai  ti 
UabU  paper.  It  may  be  paid  ae 
and  he  endorsing  it  below  Nok« 
away  to  a  fourth ;  and  he  endoxmnj 
ner,  may  pay  it  away  to  a  fifth ;  i 
bill  may  pass  from  hand  to  hax 
liquidating  a  debt  of  £100,  till  tb 
the  oridiuJ  acceptor  arrives,  wha 
by  the  Mst  holder.  Instead  of  mi 
bill  may  at  any  jperiod  be  diseoiml 
banker.  The  dneoonting  of  a  li 
the  money  for  it,  less  a  certain  «a 
rest  is  a  eiiarge  for  the  loan  of  mc 
reckoned  by  per  cent.  Thus  five 
per  annum,  signifies  a  charge  of  i 
one  year,  which  is  equal  to  a  ah 
This  is  legally  the  higheet  intewt 
When,  ^refore,  a  bill  for  iClOO 
fourth  part  of  a  year)  is  dieeoantei 
rest,  a  eharge  equal  to  the  fbnrtl 
by  the  discounter,  and  this  \m  \m 
the  money  for  that  period.  Int 
on  any  sum  may  be  eaailj  ealealal 
metic ;  but  merehanta  and  faaakv 


.*M. 


■  ditMOit,  lb*  dahnr  !*  loft  moviMol  liU 
jatj^jmaA  S.ALiIli>a«noTrDlanlivpra- 
I  nuiMjri  oUA  my  )w  hoc  frnia  pt^  u 
iBlMh  wd  if  MfiimaUr  hM.  ik  iMjpnuDi 
ppel  ndft  tinrbiU  fcrwardod  iqiu  iImLu- 


uu  Uin  ItAltan  w»rJ 


SB' 


khuliTo  piupEnj>  had  b«ai  ■bJj{ikiI  fat  wfe 
>(tan  la  enreix  tbs  prnfniDn  of  buikiits  iu 
■nil  till  B  much  later  pHiml  tliarn  wnrn  ■*¥•• 
I  boalnn  io  Uuidoti  wlia  iltU  k«f  ( goldMnhbi^ 


nirea  tneuo  in  ItiK'.  u 

[IrguJuliuikiitfm'' 

I  and  ScoUinid alxiii  <  n. 

«r  Eutliwil  Lwi^  iiJ  .   -T.  ' —  vl' 

1  IfiM,  ainw  "Woh  yLn,»l  Ui,!.-  1lj>.-  Wu 
ji  ftU  Ilia  ptlocip&l  biWD*  111  tlie  uiuimI  bioj- 


■uid  iHutk*  at  tliHC.  tij  dtfuuit  II  la  maut 
ink  UkuM  eluMve  ot  dcpoaUi  of  oah,  wtiltli  U 
D  restnr*  on  dumuid.  Somv  banhi  nf  iliii 
I*  inlanait  uo  (Jia  mmB  rMtivw),  nti't  i>tlii<n 
1 ;  mil,  howtwiir,  of  nnOHwnl}',  nukn  iwn  ot  lb* 
iU])<Mitnl,  by  laniiinit  it  <i>it  xt  u  u^rUin  MP 
,  njiJ  llin*  Bomiwniutbi  UtuDiiilvM  for  liuur 
Ito  iMDi  u«  BUM  eninnuial]'  In  tiia  luim  of 
»f  hlUi,  MiU  ocmuIdiuUt  adrkuaa  im  hddaliU 
It  allior  wonriinB.  uuiiu  of  iini*  traniMt 
Sntxj  boainnt  of  kinki  uf  dft'Miti,  im)  la 
mie  uutM  of  tlioir  nwn  imtiuJ  of  letu^  auh 
MoTottien.  AluuMlatltHuilaliiilikianiDlTj 
Iwrlli  of  d^Kidt  and  iimc ;  tlnj-  ai  lou  im* 
r  w  tba  Uw  allom  Umiu,  wbldl  ia  to  iIm  n> 
tmCjEiinvalnuuidupwar^.  The  only  bauli* 
to  uuu  b*li)»T  fA  uv  thoM  la  SaaUmd,  lur 
■culimr  kw  axilla. 

Ii  fauikm  ua  tlioa  at  liberty  tn  Imre  ootea  tn 
I,  ll  U  not  Ui  b<  miqnBDd  thai  Ibey  da  «n 
ccruin  dopiw  of  nvIrsiiiL  Tlis  pipio^  of 
irif<{(  nnioa,  BiRwiOutandiiiK  ihu  rKh  n- 
kUmp,  i<  B  RiBipanllvaty  Miiall  ckuk  ;  (ha 
■kini  an  urar-limilBi  oniM*  In  tba  obUfUiin 
nun  wbioh  iIhi  turt  ~    ' 

mrfor*,  •  bst^ar  d 
oat  ton  bnodfvd  ii'Jtai  of  m 
■  Ihvrukot  bkiincllinMibO    _     .  . 

(  a  day  <«  t*o  AnMBis.    nto  rUk  I*  la- 


uctuttiivto  ivrx  \.^w:<ii» 


A.\J    UWUt4Jti•\/^A*kW>   !>«• 


capital  to  the  probable  necessities  of  the  case,  is  the 
point  in  banlcing  for  which  the  greatest  skill  is  required, 
because  if  much  capital  is  kept  lying  useless  in  the 
coffers  of  the  bank,  there  is  a  loss  of  interest  which 
maybe  ruinous,  whereas,  if  too  little  is  retained,  a  sudden 
run  might  utterly  destroy  the  credit  of  the  concern. 
When  banking  is  managed  with  prudence,  there  is  a 
certain  amount  of  money  kept  at  interest  in  the  funds 
or  government  securities,  upon  which,  if  need  be,  an 
order  is  given.  Thus  a  safety  fund  ig  established, 
whereon  to  fall  back  in  case  of  emergency.  A  share  of 
the  subscribed  and  paid-in  capital  of  the  shareholders 
of  the  bank  forms  this  safety  fund  ;  and  it  may  be  taken 
as  a  general  rule,  that  where  a  bank  is  pix)vided  with 
no  such  security,  but  issues  notes  on  the  faith  of  the 
fund  it  may  chance  to  have  in  hand,  then  that  bank  is 
trading  on  a  principle  alike  dangerous  to  itself  and  the 
public.  A  banker  who  unites  enterprise  with  prudence 
takes  every  available  means  to  extend  the  circulation  of 
his  notes  in  as  minute  and  distant  channels  as  possible ; 
for  as  long  as  a  note  is  out,  an  interest  is  being  received 
for  the  capital  which  it  represents.  In  other  words, 
when  a  pound  note  is  out,  it  represents  a  sovereign 
which  has  been  deposited  or  given  for  it,  and  which 
sovereign  is  employed  in  a  fund  in  some  manner  of  way 
at  interest,  for  the  advantage  of  the  banker. 

On  considering  the  various  operations  connected  with 
banking,  it  will  be  found,  that,  independently  of  the 
impulse  and  elasticity  created  by  the  facilities  given  to 
commerce,  the  direct  and  primary  effect  of  them  is  the 
employment  of  waste  money.  A  bank  gathers,  as  it 
were,  the  money  of  a  district  into  its  hands,  and,  allow- 
ing each  man  to  use  as  much  of  his  own  share  as  he 
requires  at  the  time,  keeps  the  remainder  likewise  in 
employment,  which  it  would  not  have  been  had  it  re- 
mained in  its  owner's  hands. 

The  rapidity  with  which  all  kinds  of  payments  are 
made,  and  therefore  the  frequency  with  which  money 
can  be  used,  through  the  instrumentality  of  banks,  form 
their  most  striking  feature.  In  a  bank  office  the  same 
sum  of  money  will  have  been  made  the  means  of  paying 
its  amount  a  dozen  of  times  over  in  a  day  without  being 
once  uplifted.  A,  who  is  due  B  L.lOO,-  gives  a  cheque 
for  the  sum,  which  will  make  it  stand  in  his  name  m- 
stead  of  A*s.     B  gives  a  similar  cheque  to  C ;  C  to  D  ; 


common  resort,  odled  the  dearii 
from  each  bank  attends  and  es 
understood  that  the  aoocmnta  hal 
clearing-honse  amount  to  eight 
settlement  being  effected  bv  th( 
about  L.250,000  in  notes  snd  oai 

Bank  qf  EnglaruL^—ThiM  ins 
largest  and  most  important  bsi 
the  world,  was  projected  by  Willi 
man,  and  received  its  charter  of 
1094.  It  was  constituted  as  a  J 
with  a  capital  of  L.  1,200,000,  « 
interest  to  the  government  of  1 
the  time  in  a  state  of  embamsn 
set,  therefore,  the  Bank  of  Engli 
of  government ;  and  in  a  lesKi 
has  enjoyed  this  character  thzou 
subsequent  history.  Accordini 
management  is  committed  to  a 
governor,  and  twenty-four  direc 
holders  who  have  held  L.500  ol 
previous  to  the  election.  A  direi 
L.^000,  a  deputy-governor  L.S0I 
of  the  capital  Bto&.  At  firrt  th 
was  for  only  eleven  years ;  but 
great  services  of  the  institutio 
charter  has  been  at  various  times 
stock  of  L.1,200,000  has  been  a 
times,  till,  in  1816,  it  reached  L. 
the  stockholders  drew  dividends. 
arise  from  traffic  in  bullion,  disi 
rest  on  mortgages,  aliowanee  fo 
debt,  &C. 

The  net  profit  of  the  bank  in 
terest  was  paid  on  the  capitail  i 
The  interest  paid  to  stocJdioUlc 
five  to  ten  per  cent,  per  annum, 
been  about  eight  per  cent,    Th 
different  times,  made  dividend 
bonutes.    A  bonus  is  a  sum  of 
the  division  of  a  fund,  which  ha 
cumulate  or  remain  for  use,  in 
The  emergency  being  past,  the 
bonuses  of  the  Bank  oi  Englaik 
to  five  per  cent. 


BANKS. 


I  Bank  of  England  tnules  not  onlpr  on  its  paid-up 
1,  but  on  the  capital  confided  to  it  in  the  form  of 
itoy  and  usually  called  its  liabilities.  This  is  per- 
le^timate,  and  consistent  with  tlie  true  principles 
iking,  it  being  only  necessary  to  take  care  that 
itatution  always  leaves  itself  a  sufficient  fund  from 

to  satisfy  all  demands.  The  issue  of  notes  by 
ok  is  understood  to  be  somewhat  in  accordance 
le  amount  of  its  deposits ;  but  this  is  necessarily 
lent  on  various  contingencies  in  public  affiurs. 
ading  feature  in  the  character  of  the  institution 
eircumstance  of  its  acting  as  the  banking-house 

government.  All  the  money  drawn  in  the  form 
s  or  otherwise  for  the  public  service  is  consigned 
l3ank,  while  all  di*afts  for  the  public  service  are 
s  made  from  it.  In  carrying  on  this  branch  of 
Jiesa,  the  bank  allows  the  government  to  over- 
m  account,  that  is,  to  take  a  loan  of  cash  to  a 
amount.  The  money  so  lent  was  some  time 
^nr«rds  of  L.1 4,000,000,  which  parliament  msude 
.oion  to  reduce  and  finally  pay  off.  The  impor- 
rnrices  rendered  to  the  government,  have  in  past 
»«cured  to  the  bank  most  valuable  privileges, 
tinf  almost  to  a  monopoly  of  the  business  in 
In  ]  797,  when  the  bank  found  itself  unable 
k»  a  run  made  upon  it  for  gold  for  its  notes,  the 
ment  of  that  day  summarily  protected  it  from 
tptcy  by  issuing  an  order  that  Dank  of  England 
kaould  be  considered  a  legal  tender ;  consequently, 
.^lera  of  notes  at  the  time  were,  by  force  of  law, 
I  their  value  in  cash.  This  extraordinary  state 
ijs,  with  various  modifications,  lasted  till  1821, 
mah  payments  were  resumed.  Meanwhile,  the 
>f  the  bank,  from  not  being  representatives  of 

were  considerably  depreciated  in  nominal  value ; 
%X  was  the  depreciation  at  one  time,  that  four 

notes  would  have  been  given  in  exchange  for 
puneas.  It  has  been  frequently  represented  as 
nis  hardship,  that  debts  contracted  during  this 
fence  of  a  depreciated  currency,  have  had  to  be 
i  a  currency  of  full  value ;  for  by  this  means  the 
»3:  receives  perhaps  a  third  more  money  than  the 
^alue  of  the  original  sum  owing. 
>M'Stock  Banks  in  England.  —  A  parliamentary 

was  published  early  in  1840,  relative  to  these 
ohments,  from  which  it  appeared  that  the  number 
a.t-fltocks  iu  England,  at  1st  January  1840,  was 
considerable  proportion  of  which  had  been  insti- 
■vithiii  the  preceding  ten  years. 

number  of  partners  in  these  banks  varies  from 
1200,  and  may  average  about  300.  There  are 
-^ozen  with  less  than  fifty  partners,  the  smallest 
>r  beinz  seven.  Fifty-eight  of  the  banks  have 
Sies,  and  fifty  have  none.  The  branches,  includ- 
i«  parent  bank,  are  from  two  to  sixty-seven  in 
ar.  There  arc  eight  banks  which  have  more  than 
If  branches.  The  whole  number  of  parent  banks 
ranches  is  658. 

»3e  are  besides  about  550  privcUe  banks  in  Eng- 
that  is,  banks  having  not  more  than  six  partners. 

{these  to  the  joint-stock  banks  and  their  branches, 
ole  number  of  banking  establishments  will  be 
1200. 

ft  issues  of  the  joint-stock  banks,  when  contrasted 
lie  magnitude  of  the  establishments,  seem  to  us  ex- 
ftglv  small.  According  to  the  last  return  (August  2, 
,  the  notes  in  circulation  of  all  the  joint-stock 
I  were  in  value  L.4,665,110.  This,  divided  by 
unber  of  banks  (108),  sives  an  average  circu- 
i  of  only  L.43,200  for  each ;  or,  if  we  include  the 
dies,  the  average  for  each  office  or  establishment 
y  L.7000.  Supposing  the  money  to  be  employed 
leounting  at  five  per  cent.,  the  annual  profit  on 
55,000  would  be  only  L.230,000,  or  no  more  than 
I  to  each  establishment.  It  is  evident  that  their 
a  must  be  chiefly  derived  from  deposits,  which 
Bsn  employ  at  five  per  cent,  while,  we  believe, 
|i¥e  onfy  two. 

s  isaucs  of  the  private  banks,  by  the  same  return, 

685 


wore  L.7,6 10,700,  which  gives  an  average  of  about 
L.  14,000  for  each  establishment.  It  appears  that  the 
ioint-stock  banks,  so  far  from  superseding  the  private 
banks,  have  had  but  a  very  slight  effect  in  narrowing 
their  issues. 

The  chief  advantage  conferred  on  the  Bank  of  Eng- 
land, and  constituting  its  charted  of  monopoly,  is  the 
privilege  of  being  the  onlv  bank  in  London,  or  within 
sixty-five  miles  of  it,  havme  more  than  six  partners, 
which  can  issue  notes  payable  to  the  bearer  on  demand. 
The  bank  has  also  the  privilege  of  its  notes  being  a  legal 
tender  by  other  banks  for  any  sum  above  L.5,  so  long  as 
it  pays  its  notes  in  cash  on  demand.  This  provision  is  a 
security  to  all  other  banks  gainst  the  effects  of  sudden 
runs  upon  them  for  gold.  It  is  ordained  by  act  of  par- 
liament, that  ^  upon  one  year's  notice,  given  six  mouths 
after  the  expiry  of  ten  years  from  the  1st  of  August  1 834, 
and  upon  repayment  by  parliament  of  all  sums  that 
may  be  due  from  the  public  to  the  bank  at  the  time  of 
the  expiration  of  such  notice,  the  exclusive  privileges 
of  banking  granted  by  this  act  shall  cease  and  deter- 
mine at  the  expiration  of  such  year's  notice."  Hence, 
in  1844-5,  there  will  necessarily  be  a  renfwal  or  modi- 
ficiy^ion  of  the  peculiar  privileges  of  the  Bank  of  Eng- 
land. 

Stocks — Stock  Exehanae, — There  are  various  kinds 
of  stocks.  Shares  in  a  joint-stock  company  are  called 
stock,  and  so  are  shares  of  debts  due  by  government. 
It  is  the  last-mentioned  stock,  which  b  variously  termed 
public  securities,  or  the  funds,  that  requires  to  be  ex- 
plained, and  in  doing  so  we  take  the  liberty  of  using 
the  definition  of  a  popular  writer.* 

**  In  every  war  in  which  this  country  has  been  engaged 
since  the  Revolution,  the  amount  of  the  annual  taxes 
has  been  found  inadequate  to  defray  the  expenses  of 
government.     To  supply,  the  deficiency,  our  rulers  have 

generally  had  recourse  to  loans— that  is  to  say,  they  have 
orrowed  money  from  such  individuals  as  were  able  and 
willing  to  lend  it,  givinz  these  individuals  a  security  for 
the  payment  of  a  certam  annual  interest.     To  explain 
the  nature  of  this  transaction,  I  shall  take  a  very  simple 
case.    Suppose,  then,  that  L.lOO  is  the  sum   which 
government  wishes  to  borrow,  and  that  an  individual 
offers  to  lend  that  sum  at  an  interest  of  5  per  cent.   On 
paying  down  the  money,  the  lender  receives  a  bill,  bond, 
or  acknowledgment,  for  the  amount ;  by  which  acknow- 
ledgment he  IS  entitled  to  draw  yearly  from  the  public 
revenue  L.5  of  interest,  but  on  the  express  condition 
that  he  is  not  to  demand  repayment  of  the  principal,  or 
sum  lent,  unless  government  is  willing  to  repay  it. .  The 
person  who  thus  possesses  the  bill  or  acknowledgment 
IS  said  to  be  a  holder  qf  L.lOO  of  5  per  cent,  stock,  and 
the  money  lent  upon  that  bill  constitutes  a  part  of  what 
is  called  the  national  debt,  because  it  is  in  fact  borrowed 
by  the  nation,  and  the  interest  is  paid  out  of  the  taxes. 
It  is  obvious,  however,  that  few  persons  would  be  dis- 
posed to  lend  money  on  the  condition  of  never  being 
allowed  to  demand  repayment,  even  though  they  were 
quite  certain  of  receiving  annual  interest,  and  of  trans- 
mitting the  right  to  that  interest  to  their  posterity.   To 
remedy  this  inconvenience,  therefore,  the  lender  who 
wishes  to  employ  the  sum  which  he  lent  to  govern- 
ment In  any  other  way,  though  he  cannot  directly  de- 
mand repayment,  is  at  liberty  to  sell  his  bill  to  any  body 
who  will  purchase  it,  and  for  any  sum  that  another  may 
be  willing  to  pay  for  it.     In  doing  so,  he  merely  sells 
to  a  second  person  the  right  which  he  himself  possessed 
to  the  annual  interest  of  L.5,  and  that  second  person  is 
of  course  at  liberty  to  dispose  of  his  right  to  another  in 
the  same  way.    This  transaction,  in  general,  is  called  a 
tranter  qf  stock;  and  in  the  particular  case  which  I  have 
supposed,  the  one  is  said  to  sell,  and  the  other  to  bify, 
L.lOO  of  5  per  cent,  stock.   If  5  per  cent,  bo  considered 
as  a  fair  and  equitable  interest  tor  money  lent,  it  is  oh* 
vious  that  such  a  biU  as  I  have  now  been  speaking  of, 
or,  in  other  words,  that  L.lOO  of  5  per  cent  stock,  is 
just  worth  L.lOO  sterling.    It  is  possible,  however,  that 

*  BUckwood's  Ifi^iasine :  1818. 


is  at  the  iate  of  Bomething  more  than  5^  per  eent.  For 
Bimplicity  of  illustration,  1  have  supposed  that  L.lOO  is 
the  sum  borrowed  by  government,  and  that  of  course 
there  is  just  one  bill  to  be  disposed  of,  or  transferred  by 
the  lender.  If  it  be  supposed,  however,  as  is  really-the 
fact,  that  the  loans  generally  amount  to  several  millions, 
the  necessity  which  the  lenders  are  undur  of  selling 
their  bills,  or,  in  other  words,  transferring  their  stock, 
will  be  more  apparent  The  transaction  between 
government  and  the  lenders  is  precisely  the  same  in 
the  case  of  millions  as  in  that  of  a  hundred ;  and  it  is 
unnecessary,  therefore,  a^in  to  illustrate  the  general 
principle  of  that  transaction.  It  is  evident,  however, 
that  even  the  most  opulent  merchants,  who  are  generally 
the  lenders,  cannot  be  supposed  to  have  such  a  com- 
mand of  money  as  to  be  aole  to  advance  ten  or  twelve 
millions  to  government  at  once.  When  they  contract 
for  a  loan,  therefore — ^that  is,  when  they  agree  to  lend 
to  government  the  sum  required — ^they  generally  pay 
the  money  by  instalments,  or  partial  pa}*ments  at  cer- 
tain intervals,  say  one  million  a-montn,  till  the  whole 
is  advanced.  In  the  mean  time,  they  sell  or  transfer 
the  bills  or  securities  which  they  receive  from  govern- 
ment to  those  who  may  have  money  to  lay  out  at  in- 
terest, and  who  of  course  will  be  disposed  to  purchase 
such  bills,  so  that  the  sale  of  the  bills  of  the  first  in- 
stalment may  enable  them  to  pay  the  second.  In  this 
way,  government  securities  or  bills  become  articles  of 
cuiiimercc,  and  their  price  is  regulated,  like  that  of  any 
other  article,  according  to  the  supply  and  demand. 

It  is  easy  to  see  how  the  price  of  stock  is  liable  to 
fluctuation  from  accidental  circumstances.  I  shall  not 
attempt  to  enumerate  these :  but  it  may  be  worth  while 
to  i>oint  out  how  it  is  affected  by  peace  and  war,  as 
these  two  conditions  of  the  country  are  generally  found 
to  have  the  greatest  influence  in  raising  or  depressing 
the  value  of  stock.  In  the  time  of  war,  then,  tne  price 
of  stock  is  comparatively  low,  because,  in  such  a  state 
of  things,  it  is  likely  that  government  will  be  under  the 
necessity  of  borrowing ;  and  as  every  loan  produces  new 
bills,  the  quantity  of  those  to  be  disposed  of,  or,  in 
other  words,  the  supply  of  the  market,  will  be  increased. 


ractcr,  who  subsist  by  a  species  of  g 
the  finance  system  ot  thia  conntry  E 
and  extensive  field.  I  allude  to  tho« 
practice  of  buying  and  selling  stock 
possessing  any,  and  whose  traDiactk 
nothing  more  than  wagers  about  the 
a  ccrtam  day.  To  explain  the  nature 
by  an  example :  I  shall  suppose  that 
vcrnment  bill  of  L.  1 00,  or  L.  100  of 
to  be  delivered  on  a  certain  future  c 
price  is  fixed  at  L.102.  If,  when  th< 
price  of  stock  shall  have  fallen  to  L 
able  to  purchase  the  bill  in  question 
in  consequence  of  his  barnin^  B  wo 
pay  him  L.102  for  it,  so  that  A  wou 
however,  stock  liad  risen  to  L.104, 
obliged  to  give  only  L.102,  so  that  A 
but  instead  of  actually  buying  and  i 
the  bargain  b  generally  implemented 
B,  or  receiving  from  him,  the  L.2,  o 
be  the  sum  of  loss  or  gain.  In  such  a 
obviously  A's  interest  that  the  price 
fall,  and  as  obviously  B's  interest  thi 
between  the  day  of  the  bargain  and 
and  hence  the  temptation  held  out  to 
reports  favourable  to  their  own  partiei 
the  buyer,  is  usually  denominate  a  Bi 
of  his  desire  to  tott  up  ;  and  A,  or  seU 
his  wish  to  trample  upon  or  iread  da 
course,  does  not  recognise  a  transactioi 
on  a  principle  of  gambling ;  but  a  sen 
what  18  perhaps  nearer  the  truth,  self-h 
secures  the  pavmentof  the  dxfferenee,  i 
refuses  to  pay  his  loss  is  exhibited  in  tbi 
under  the  designation  of  a  lame  duek^ 
is  considered  as  the  sentence  of  baniai 
scene  of  bustle  and  business.*' 

In  the  preceding  remarks,  the  loan 
have  been  suppowd  to  be  negotiated 
five  per  cent,  interest ;  practically  snd 
The  stocks,  from  a  Tsrietj  of  circoi 
different  denominations,  some  having 


BANKS. 


of  ineorporailon  from  the  Scots  parliament 
e  original  capital  was  L.l, 200,000  Scots,  or 
?rliiig.  The  amount  was  raised  by  shures 
xtent,  from  L.1000  Seots^  or  L.83,  Gs.  8d. 
L.20,000  Scots.  In  1774,  the  amoant  of 
itended  to  L.200,000  sterling ;  and  now  it 
and  a  half  sterling.  The  ehticeB  are  now 
ig  each. 

lishiiient  of  the  Bank  of  Scotland  was  of 
i  to  the  nation  ;  the  landholders  borrowing 
'inffing  the  country  into  cultivation,  and  a 
y  Uiat  means  given  to  various  branches  of 
8.  The  Bank  of  Scotland  continned  to  be 
k  in  the  country  till  the  year  1727)  when 
milar  establishment  was  constituted  under 
the  Royal  Bank  of  Scotland.  These  two 
its  engrossed  all  the  respectable  banking 
he  country  till  the  year  1746,  when  a  new 
was  formed,  and  incorporated  by  royal 
li  the  title  of  the  British  Linen  Company, 
f  this  association  was  at  first  to  encourage 
nufacture  of  Scotland,  but  gradually  it  fell 
rse  of  common  banking  busmess,  and  now 
gh  station  among  these  institutions.  From 
he  capital  of  this  bank  has  been  raised  to 
rhere  it  has  long  remained  stationary.  By 
geraent,  it  carries  on  an  immense  deal  of 
d  possesses  as  high  credit  as  any  bank  in 

9  allowed  to  tako  precedence  of  others 
le  subsequent  part  of  last,  and  in  the  pre- 
',  either  in  Edinburgh  or  in  the  provinces ; 
hareholders  enjoy  the  privilege  of  being 
only  for  their  individual  stock, 
anks,  with  few  exceptions,  are  joint-stock 
and  are  banks  both  of  deposit  and  issue, 
few  private  houses,  all  issue  notes  of  one 
ip wards,  which  are  payable  on  demand  at 
tience  they  are  issued.  It  was  at  one  time 
at  Scottish  bank-notes  should  not  be  re- 
they  were  three  years  old ;  but  such  a  regu- 
(tgated,  and  they  are  now  sent  out  as  long 
in  good  condition.  Almost  all  the  modem 
oduced  from  plates  o£  hardened  steel,  and 
iliar  and  intricate  devices,  that  forgery  can- 
npted  with  success,  or  remain  long  nnde- 

lical  returns  of  their  issues  are  made  by 
banks.  But  on  turning  to  the  evidence 
)  the  parliamentary  committees  of  1826,  we 
lal  value  of  the  small  notes  in  circulation 
y  Mr  Paul  of  the  Commercial  Bank,  and 
the  British  Linen  Company,  at  L.  1,800,000, 
reased  by  a  third  at  particular  seasons,  and 
is  brisk.  The  committee  estimate  the  paper 
1  kinds  in  circulation  in  1826  at  L.3,309,082. 
ear  of  great  speculation,  1825,  they  estimate 
miount  of  notes  in  circulation  at  L.4,683,000^ 
t  L.3,434,000. 

ving  is  a  return  of  the  joint-stock  banks 
ScotUnd  at  5th  January  1839,  with  the 
ir  establishment  :— 

{  of  Scotland,  Edinburgh,  1 695 ;  the  Royal 
•tland,  Edinburgh,  1727  ;  the  British  Linen 
'Minburgh,  1746  ;  thiKommercial  Bank  of 
iinburgh,  1810 ;  th«  National  Bank  of  Scot- 
urgh,  1825 ;  the  Aberdeen  Bank,  Aberdeen, 
\yr  Bank,  Ayr,  1825;  the  Dundee  Bank- 
y,  Dundee,  1 825  ;  the  Dundee  Union  Bank, 
25 ;  the  Dundee  New  Bank,  Dundee,  1825 ; 
w  Bank  Company,  Glasgow,  1825;  the 
3ank,  Greenock,  1825;  the  Leith  Bank, 
;  the  Paisley  Bank,  Paisley,  1825;  the 
:ing  Company,  Perth,  1825;  Uie  Renfrew- 
Dg  Company,  Greenock,  1825 ;  the  Paisley 
if  Paisley,  1809 ;  the  Aberdeen  Town  and 
tk,  Aberdeen,  1825;  the  Arbroath  Bank, 
825 ;  the  Dundee  Commercial  Bank,  Dun- 
the  Glasgow  Union  Banking  Company, 
687 


GUsgow,  1830;  the  Ayrshire  Banking  Company,  Ayr, 
1831 ;  the  Western  Bank  of  Scotland,  Glasgow,  1832  ; 
the  Central  Bank  of  Scotland,  Perth,  1834 ;  the  North 
of  Scotland  Banking  Company,  Aberdeen,  1836 ;  the 
Clydesdale  Banking  Company,  Ghugow,  1837;  the 
Southern  Bank  of  ScoUand,  Dumfries,  1837 ;  the  East- 
em  Bank  of  Scotland,  Dundee,  1838;  Edinburgh  and 
Leith  Bank,  Edinburgh,  1838:  being  29  in  all. 

The  business  done  by  the  Scottuh  banking-housea 
is  prodigiously  increased  by  the  institution  of  their 
branches  in  the  provincial  and  country  towns.  From 
those  banks  already  noticed,  which  are  situated  in  Edin* 
burgh,  and  from  two  or  three  of  the  chief  provincial 
banks,  there  were  altogether  deputed,  not  long  since, 
about  one  hundred  and  forty  branches,  and  this  number 
is  undergoing  a  regular  increase.  These  subsidiary 
establishments  are  to  be  found  in  every  town  of  any 
note,  from  the  borders  to  the  most  northern  point  of 
Scotland.  They  are  conducted  by  resident  wealthy  or 
responsible  merchants  and  others,  who  give  secuntiea 
for  intromissions,  and  are  subjected  to  a  very  rigorous 
supervision  by  inspectors,  who  are  continually  travelling 
about  for  this  purpose. 

The  prudent  and  enterprising  manner  in  which  the 
business  of  banking  is  conducted  in  Scotland,  has  often 
been  the  subject  of  remark  and  commendation.  Several 
reasons  may  be  assigned  for  the  remarkable  stability 
of  the  Scotch  banks.  E^ach  bank,  before  gaining  credit 
with  its  neighbours,  must  show  that  it  possesses  a  suffi- 
cient paid-up  capital,  with  a  reserve  fund  in  London, 
on  which  orders  for  balances  may  be  given.  It  is  also 
the  custom  of  the  banks  to  exchange  uie  notes  of  each 
other  once  or  twice  a-week,  by  which  means  the  notes 
are  sent  very  speedily  back  to  the  issuers,  and  thus  an 
over-issue  on  the  part  of  any  single  establishment  is 
prevented.  There  can  only  be  an  over-issue  by  all  the 
banks  in  the  country  becoming  equally  reckless,  a  thing 
not  likely  to  occur  to  any  serious  extent.  A  third  cause 
of  the  stability  of  the  institutions,  is  the  liability  of 
shareholders  for  the  debto  of  the  establishment.  Ex- 
cepting in  the  case  of  the  three  old-established  banks 
above  specified,  all  the  shareholders  in  the  various  banks 
are  liable  not  only  for  the  amount  of  their  own  shares, 
but  for  the  shares  of  all  the  others ;  and  the  whole  of 
their  property  may  be  seized  to  make  up  deficiencies. 
Although  many  of  the  shareholders  are  certainly  not 
men  of  opulence,  a  number  are  so ;  and  as  their  for- 
tunes are  good  for  the  paper  issued,  the  public  runs  no 
risk  of  injury.  To  strengthen  this  liability  of  share- 
holders, by  the  law  of  Scotland  all  heritable  property, 
lands  and  houses,  may  be  seized  in  satisfaction  for  their 
debts.  As  this  is  not  the  case  in  England,  where  per- 
sonal or  moveable  property  can  alone  be  taken  by  cre- 
ditors, it  would  not  be  possible  to  establish  banks  in 
the  south  part  of  the  island  on  the  principle  of  the 
Scottish  banks,  till  the  law  touching  heritable  property 
be  altered. 

Other  causes,  not  of  a  legal  nature,  conspire  to  render 
the  system  of  Scottish  banking  perfect.  By  reason  of 
the  circumscribed  limits  of  Scotland,  and  the  character 
of  the  people,  a  ramification  of  intelligence  is  created 
and  preserved  throughout  the  whole  of  society,  alto- 
gether unknown  in  England,  whereby  the  character, 
the  wealthinees,  and  the  conduct  of  the  partners  or 
directors  of  each  bank,  are  made  fully  known  to  the 
rest.  All  seek,  and  all  find,  a  knowledge  of  the  manage- 
ment of  each  other.  All  are  mutually  on  the  wat^ ; 
and  symptoms  of  over-issues  or  other  improprieties 
are  spread  with  an  amazing  celerity,  and  have  their 
immediate  effect. 

In  comparing  Scottish  banking  institutions  with 
those  in  England,  and  considering  the  different  manner 
in  which  paper  money  has  been  guided  by  the  two 
nations,  the  uniform  security  of  the  former  appears 
almost  miraculous.  From  the  first  issue  of  the  bank- 
notes in  1 704,  till  the  year  1 830,  a  single  panic  or  general 
run  did  not  occur  in  Sootland,  although,  during  at  least 
two-thirds  of  the  intervening  period,  paper  money  had 
been  used  to  the  almost  total  exclusion  of  a  gold  cor- 


tish  banks  grant  loans  of  fluctuating  amount,  called 
caih  accounts.  By  a  cai«h  account  is  signified  a  pro- 
cess, whereby  an  individual,  on  entering  into  an  ar- 
rangement with  a  bank,  is  entitled  to  draw  out  sums 
as  required,  to  a  stipulated  amount,  and  by  an  implied 
condition  to  make  deposits  at  his  convenience  towards 
the  liquidation  of  the  same. 

Cash  accounts  are  said  to  have  originated  from  the 
following  circumstance : — A  shopkeeper  in  Edinburgh, 
in  the  year  1729,  found  himself  at  times  in  the  posses- 
sion of  more  than  a  sufficient  supply  of  ready  money  to 
carry  on  his  trade,  the  overplus  of  which  he  consigned 
to  the  care  of  the  neighbouring  bank.  Hut  on  other  oc- 
casions, by  reason  of  the  length  of  the  credits  given  to 
his  customers,  his  money  became  so  scarce,  that,  after 
exhausting  his  bank  deposits,  he  still  felt  himself  in 
difficulties.  Several  dilemmas  of  this  kind  having  oc- 
curred, he  was  prompted  to  make  a  proposal  of  a  novel 
nature  to  the  bank,  to  the  effect  that,  if  it  would  accom- 
modate him  in  straits  with  small  loans,  he  would  always 
shortly  afterwards  make  up  such  debit<<,  and  that  the 
parties  should  come  to  a  balancing  of  accounts  at  peri- 
odical intervals.  It  seems  this  proposal  was  acceded  to. 
A  cash  credit,  or  liberty  to  draw  to  a  certain  extent, 
was  instituted  under  securities ;  and  thus  originated  a 
system  which  has  been  of  immense  benefit  to  bankers 
and  traders,  and  is  now  followed  over  the  whole  of 
Scotland. 

Cash  credits  are  guaranteed  by  two  sufficient  securi- 
ties, or  the  applicants  give  infeftment  to  heritable  pro- 
perty in  caution  of  the  contingent  debt,  and  when  any 
such  debt  is  liquidated,  the  deed  is  cancelled.  The  ex- 
pense of  expoding  a  cash  credit  varies  according  to 
the  amount  of  the  desired  loan.  One  for  L.5U0  may  be 
stated  at  about  L.15.  The  deed  requires  no  renewal. 
At  the  end  of  every  six,  and  in  some  cases  twelve 
months,  calculations  are  made  of  entries  and  debits; 
the  interest  for  and  against  the  bank — the  one  being  a 
per  cent,  higher  tlian  the  other — is  added  and  balanced, 
and  an  account  being  then  rendered,  the  balance,  if  in 
favour  of  the  bank,  is  either  paid  up,  or  remains  against 
the  debtor  at  interest  to  his  new  account.     Tn  these 


1.  ». 


i:*_    4i.-.  I 


.  1 


.£     aU 


of  savings'  banks  in  England;  and 
mentioned,  the  whole  of  these  wen 
one  statute  (9  Geo.  IV.  chap.  9*2).  T 
with  another  passed  in  1833,  conferri 
important  privileges  on  savings*  bai 
chap.  14),  constitutes  the  existing  law 
useful  establishments:  in  1835,  the  a 
to  Scotland.  Savings*  banks  establisl 
the  provisions  of  these  acts  are  entitle 
rity  Savings'  Banks,  because  the  mo 
them  is  paid  into  the  Bank  of  Englai 
government,  whereby  the  nation  faMioc 
the  amount  of  deposits — a  security  r 
of  all  that  could  be  given  to  deposi 
rest  given  by  government  on  the  sum 
L.3,  IGs.  04d.  per  cent,  per  annum,  i 
the  fluctuations  in  the  value  of  the  pnl 
the  term  of  investment.  This  rate  < 
higher  than  what  government  could  a 
money  for,  it  happens  that  the  public 
money  annually  by  their  generosity, 
rest  pa\'able  to  the  depositors  is  llS,  8 
per  annum. 

Deposits  of  from  one  thitiinff  to  Mri 
received  by  these  banks ;  but  no  indivt 
allowed  to  lodge  mor&  than  thirty  pom 
or  than  L.150  in  whole.  CharitabU  a 
stitutions  may  lodge  funds  to  the  amon 
single  year,  or  L.SOO  in  all ;  and  friem 
permitted  to  deposit  the  whole  of  their 
may  be  their  amount.  Compound  inti 
the  sums  lodged,  the  interest  being  ad 
cipal  at  the  end  of  each  year  in  some  b 
end  of  each  half-vear  in  others,  and  int 
allowed  on  the  whole.  Any  dcpoaitor 
demand,  the  money  lodged  by  him,  if  ii 
to  a  considerable  sum ;  and  even  in  thi 
returned  on  a  few  dajV,  or  at  most  twtj 
notice.  Practically,  payment  ia  alwaj 
mand.  The  wisest  ajid  most  efTeetoal 
made  for  ensuring  the  proper  mauageuM 
of  the  banks,  so  tliat  those  who  intrust 


-«• 


jp  CHAMBERS'S 

^FORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE., 


y 


New  A^o  IxpnoTKD  Sniiit?. 


lUSrOBY  AND  NATURK  OK  LWVU. 


Wtfbm  dribml  10  n  •nl'sn  uf  ca«nlktunu  iila)itcd 


wall-  kinnrn 
tlioir  i)i>«- 


from  llie  Mixnw.  !□  Prkiu-i-.  iirovioaul}  (ci  tlii>  n*t«- 
lutUin,  IfiL'  citil  BUl  tbe  hiuilal  law  vi-iv  siiitMl,  •»  In 
mint  othnr  BBItiini  ot  Barope :  uiil  Lii  tlii  Caie  Haf*- 
Ivon,  ttladi  wi>  sli^iU  IhTralicr  lnu-  u.i'i-  ■,'->iii<--i>li>rt]r 

t.1    IllltlOH,    Ul.if .       Hirl*- 

prudrini*  iJ  li    .  ■.  (lilp 

nuo/  iif  tlii>  I.  iv   «■ 

|>roiBliiRlil  oi'   ...      .  .    I  i.>  r- 

hK  b-niu  Uk:  >Ai.^:  — ,     ...  ^  , .i!.i  ibit 

mil  htw  u  ■nlbonij,  tmi  niaiiv  oi'  ti.'j  mniiiutujuii 
warn  ilcritol  frem  111  tpirlt  bnil  nntitfiN.  ■*  Willi  all 
iu  Imperriwliinn,''  taj»  &t  VVIIKam  Joan^  "  It  la  > 
mtwt  vslwbl*  in'ina  lit  jmliclkl  hi»iwl»iti» ;  M  );It« 
Uw  at  ihi*  Itiior  l«  iha  griwMM  iNirt  *f  Kaiii)Ki  xid, 
' •  lUiv  ui*Ju  lueli  an  ae- 


I  ileDbr  tftw  III 


^^^B|i>  lB(n  b*ci>  BiDuuit  ths  lint  In  uta 

^^HlfdUlnhulBd  khrnd.     Tn  llbiMle*,  wliicb  '  idtt  fulijval  on      .  Ui-m: 

PH^I*  Molilninl  ■  pcnvipet  of  (jn-riw,  ws  '  vxauiinsil  iH'Ar  ,         .  'M 

^SmuIm  ri^laUam  uniliwbla  to  H)ii|i]>iiijc.  ci)iu|ilola  tliu  guii'i-jl  omljn'  rJ  I1i>'  iitiUii'iii'ii  iil'  tjlill 

iM>a(B*«t>CR(  orlhuttn  whleli  ttio  loM  aeuuiunKl  lyiiWni  iii  fnodera  Kiiropc,  It  niii*(  to  auuiUuiiodu  tW 

pMbs  ^mfi  HTCrlunnl  bi  rdivn  aalilf  lu  ill*-  wunc  of  (lie  esnnn  Us,  uLleh  wu  iu««leil  iulu  k 

ItlM  fnw^ofilunally  «a  Uid  whole  [iropcrl.r  nvcd  ^ateni  by  ll»  Cbnnh  uf  Moan,  noil  itill  exiata  nun* 

H  iMMrtani  bnuKti  ut  Iba  sanuDcickl  mda  of  or  Ihb,  dUicr  Hpaniivljr  ne  inunrponlcil  wiUi  otlinr 

iti  nUniN).  liail  Iw  origin  in  thai  itfcW,  and  m  atill  Hjvtpuut,  iu  ail  cuuntrjn*  « Imrv  tlxi  |«iwi  anttiorilt  wu 

t-lh*  llhinlkB  law.  neloiuwInlKt-J.      Tl:w  law  i-f  nstiuii,  <ir  lulcnuUiiual 

iiKluiiy  iiil'i  lh«  (uiJa,ba«bvAn,kiytliocuinmi>Daaaeiit<!^itlviliai'iJiistiiuuv 

allaw  wliWIi  am-  ilO'I'Sil  Qmoi  the  Uw  of  Itnmr 
■I  EBftiie,  luu  cuDu>        Wrilen  liav*  diriilinl  ''"  firmi 

Eily,  din  Itotnun  Uw.  wliioh  Ui«  law*  of  Ronin  'i  -  -  i1i» 


M  I*  UtB  IMS  impnUui*- 


iliialni>d  tba  buia 


- : ™-.i.- :.-.: .M,.4S? 

[■n'teoluil  the  («axA«  U<Mk  **  Viwatt"!  •*  "a" "  — '■— ^ 
ilcn*«d    |Hi«»»a.ajpiw»ltaeniwH«<*W»>'*»*V-«*'^'* 


and  paternal  assutanc*:  io  legislation,  gradually  extended  of  the  pra-ton  was  some  vhat  s Imil: 
itM:lf  to  that  of  making  Iaw<}.  It  was  not  till  tlie  da\s  rence,  that  as  thejr  had  no  judges  to 
of  Tiberius  that  the^ie  decrees  were  publicly  promul-  pursued  a  system  of  strict  int«rpr«b 
gated  a.*^  laws  ;  but  tlie  <senate  had  by  that  time  lust  its  had  rather  a  tendency  to  m'>iify  the 
independent  authority,  and  become  merely  an  instru-  to  raise  a  rival  structore.  *^  The  i 
ment  in  the  bands  of  the  emperor.  The  proceedings  wish  of  the  dead,"  says  Gibbon,  whc 
of  the  senate  were  generally  suiigested  by  s'^me  public  pnetorian  system,  *  was  soflered  to 
officer,  tLH  a  iiiinister  of  the  crown  now  introduces  a  bill  order  of  succession  and  the  fonos  ol 
into  parliament,  and  a  majority  decided  for  passins:  or  the  claimant,  who  was  excluded  in 
rojcctin:^.  In  later  times  it  became  the  practice  for  the  heir,  accepted  with  er|aal  pleaaare  J 
cmiieror  to  propose  a  new  law  either  by  a  message  or  pnutor  the  posscasioo  of  the  goods  o 
letter  laid  before  the  senate,  or  by  an  oration  deliTered ;  or  benefactor.  In  the  redress  of  pri 
and  as  there  was  no  oppobition  intended  or  permitted,  pensations  and  fines  were  sobsutuu 
the  legislative  body  became  the  mere  registrars  of  the  [  rigour  of  the  Twel^-e  Tables ;  time  an 
monarch's  will.  ■  hilated  by  fanciful  suppositions  ;  and 

Another  source  of  the  civil  law  is  the  constitutions  or  fraud,  or  violence,  annnlled  the 
and  rescripts  of  the  emperors.  At  what  time  they  com-  cused  the  performance  of  an  incow 
inenced  the  practice  of  making  laws  without  the  nominal ;  With  the  expiry  of  his  year  of  office 
concurrence  cither  of  the  senate  or  the  people,  is  not  pnetor  ceased  to  be  imperstiTe ;  bi 
very  distinctly  known.  A  paAsage  in  the  randects,  the  .  looked  up  to  as  precedents ;  and  « 
authenticity  of  which,  long  doubted,  lias  been  contirmed  j  venerable  by  long  use,  they  were  eoi 
by  late  discoveries,  states  that  the  will  of  the  emperor  the  fixed  law  of  the  land.  By  an 
Is  law,  and  that  by  a  particular  act,  the  people  had  con-  .  Emperor  Hadrian,  called  the  **  Pet] 
fcrred  upon  him  all  their  own  power,  which  was  thence-  doubtful  and  fiuetnating  branch  of  tk 
forth  absolutely  to  remain  in  his  liands— one  of  those  mach  of  it  as  the  emperor  chose  to  s 
transactions  under  the  guise  of  which  rulers  are  so  fond  j  what  might  be  called  the  royal 


of  concealing  their  lust  of  power,  by  representing  as  a 
free  gift  that  which  no  one  can  venture  to  refuse.  Ha- 
drian is  believed  to  be  the  first  emperor  who  exercised 
the  authority  of  a  supreme  legislator.  The  imperial 
laws  were  issued  in  a  variety  of  forms.     Sometimes 


porated  with  the  other  ptmioiis  of  t 
distinct  branch  of  the  system. 

In  almost  everv  nation  which  has 
from  barbarism  to  civilisation,  many 
to  have  come  into  existence  withoai 


there  was  a  new  constitution  springing  from  the  mo- 1  ference  of  any  legislature,  and  fhrn 
iiarch's  own  creative  mind^-on  another  occasion  he  ;  origin  than  a  habit  on  the  part  of  t 
would  give  his  imperial  judgment  on  some  nice  specu-  j  mitting  to  certain  mles,  or  obeying 
lativc  question  of  law  dutifully  submitted  to  his  wisdom,  j  certain  individuals:  it  is,  indMd,  j 
Many  of  the  imperial  laws,  however,  were  the  decisions  '  manner  that  legislatarcs  have  origini 
of  the  monarch  in  particular  cases,  the  spirit  of  which  J  able  portion  of  the  Roman  law  wai 
was  piously  preserved  by  the  lawyers  of  the  age,  as  the  arose  in  custom,  was  handed  down  by  t 
best  criterion  for  a  general  rule  of  action.  In  modem  i  tice,  and  called  consuetndinary  Uv. 
times  we  associate  with  despotism  a  horror  of  inno- 
vation, and  a  desire  to  leave  all  institutions,  whether 
expedient  or  hurtful,  untouched.     It  was  different  in 


«|uestion,  how  far  h  was  incfwaiy  i 
tent  authority  should  certify  that  the 
was  an  established  portion  %A  the  ai 


HISTORY  OF  LAWS. 


iieh  tho  judge,  if  he  be  the  first  to  interpret  the 
will  be  at  least  suspected  I  Even  in  England, 
e  interfurence  with  the  doctrines  of  the  common 
b  to  jealously  opposed,  the  early  commentators 
he  only  authority  for  its  provisions ;  and  there  is 
rabt  that  they  gave  the  hue  of  their  own  opinions 
«  doctrines  they  laid  down.     In  Rome,  however, 

0  the  profession  of  tho  law,  instead  of  being  a 
•^  conferred  a  high  rank  in  society,  the  opinions  of 
□g  counsel  had  a  much  more  extensive  range. 

not  only  interpreted,  but  they  could  create  law, 
■ggesting  how  the  decisions  should  proceed  in 
nary  cases.  At  an  early  period,  tho  relation  of 
ir  and  client  was  that  of  jMitron  and  dependant, 
eians  alone  could  act  as  lawyers,  and  the  science 
nvolved  in  riddles  to  which  thev  only  possessed 
»v.     The  poor  client  was  dependent  on  the  good 

1  his  lordly  patron  for  such  protection  from  op- 
on,  whether  through  the  law  or  otherwise,  as  the 
loe   of  the  latter  might  enable  him  to  afford. 

population  and  transactions  increased,  and  the 
instead  of  a  mystery,  became  a  serious  study, 

<lepended  more  on  laborious  application  than 
!  initiation,  the  profession  was  opened  to  plebeians. 
tkMne  not  an  unusual  case,  at  a  still  more  advanced 
»  for  the  patron  and  lawyer  to  be  separated ;  the 
c*  beine  chosen  fur  his  influence,  the  latter  for 
ill.  The  fonns  which  regulated  the  intercourse 
9fxi  patron  and  client,  however,  still  retained  some 
o£  their  origin ;  and  it  is  a  striking  illustration  of 
fluence  which  Iloman  jurisprudence  has  exer- 
^ver  the  human  race,  to  find  these  still  existing. 
Ls  day,  it  is  againt>t  all  etiquette  to  bargain  with 
later  for  his  work.  The  law  gives  him  no  claim 
■kiuneration,  which  it  kindly  views  as  unworthy 

cUgnity  of  his  profession ;  and  it  is  usual  to  pay 
B^rehand  for  his  legal  assistance.  On  the  other 
4>lioagh  he  has  been  paid  beforehand,  he  cannot 
Kipelled  to  perform  any  duty  in  return,  for  he  is 
k&«d  to  assist  the  client  from  his  own  free  good 
In  most  other  professions,  it  is  the  custom  for 
ftvson  employed  to  feel  under  a  sort  of  obligation 
ft  employer  who  has  preferred  him  to  others, 
[kvinciple  is  reversed  at  the  bar ;  for  the  per- 
amployed  is  tho  patron,  and  the  employer  the 

^o  return  to  the  legislation  of  the  sages  of  the  law. 
^  the  commonwealth,  whoever,  by  his  superior 
^y  or  knowledge,  could  obtain  deference  for  his 
XM,  might  be  said  to  be  a  manufacturer  of  laws. 
?  the  earlier  emperors,  the  privilege  of  promul- 
r  aothoritative  opinions  was  confined  to  a  limited 
»p  of  lawyers,  of  equestrian  rank,  licensed  by  the 
iftment ;  but  the  profession  was  again  thrown  open 
»  public  by  Hadrian.  The  most  brilliant  era  of 
^nadnm  commences  within  a  short  period  of  the 
^  of  the  republic,  and  terminates  with  the  reign 
■^zander  Severus.  Mucins  Scicvola,  tho  tutor  of 
^  was  one  of  its  earliest  ornaments  ;  and  it  in- 
^  the  celebrated  jurisconsults  Paul,  Ulpian,  Papi- 
Clkpito,  and  Labeo.  Tho  two  last  of  these,  who 
Ba  the  age  of  Augustus,  were  the  founders  of  the 
^eta — the  Proculians  and  Sabinians — into  which 
h^mian  lawyers  were  divided.     The  former  advo- 

the  doctrine  that  the  laws  ahould  bo  amended  at 
fetion,  to  meet  circumstanees  as  they  occurred ; 
fcier  maintained  the  theory  of  their  strict  interpre- 
L,  be  its  inexpediency  in  the  particular  instance 

it  may.  Capito,  applying  his  doctrines  to  the 
db  which  the  emperors  were  gradually  making  in 
fc^eedoni  of  the  republic,  was  a  supporter  of  this 
ft«  of  innovation,  and  his  followers  were  enrolled 
^  the  ready  tools  of  despotism.  Labeo  sought  to 
^rt  Uie  ancient  freedom  of  the  republic  by  an 
Kmce  to  tlie  letter  of  the  old  laws,  and  his  sect 
^le  the  champions  of  what  may  be  termed  consti- 
c^al  freedooL  The  conflict  is  not  unlike  that  which 
^  eaiated  in  Britain  between  Lord  Mansfield  and 
Gumdenj  the  former  supporting,  to  a  certain 

GUI 


degree,  an  e<£uitable,  tho  latter,  in  all  cases,  a  strict 
interpretation  of  the  law. 

Having  now  enumerated  the  principal  sources  of  the 
Roman  law,  we  may  notice  its  remarkable  epochs.  The 
laws  enacted  during  the  reigns  of  the  kings,  althongh  a 
curious  subject  of  inquiry  among  antiquaries,  exercised 
too  little  influence  on  tho  civil  law,  as  handed  down  to 
modem  Europe,  to  be  of  much  practical  importance. 
During  the  administration  of  the  decemvirs,  the  cele- 
brated laws  of  the  Twelve  Tables  were  adopted.  The 
traditionary  history  connected  with  this  code  is,  that  the 
Roman  government,  conscious  of  the  want  of  a  proper 
legal  system,  sent  commissioners  to  Greece,  who,  after 
studying  the  laws  of  that  comparatively  civilised  nation, 
produced  the  Twelve  Tables  for  the  acceptance  of  the 
Komans.  Tho  tradition,  like  many  others  connected 
with  the  Roman  history  of  the  period,  has  not  sufli> 
cient  liistorical  evidence  to  support  it  against  its  na- 
tural improbability.  These  laws,  of  which  specimens 
are  professed  to  be  preserved,  are  written  in  a  language 
so  different  from  that  of  the  classical  writers  of  Rome, 
that  they  were  to  Cicero  an  object  of  much  tho  same 
curiosity  as  the  old  Scottish  acts  were  to  Bacon.  Like 
the  first  laws  of  other  rude  states,  they  are  simple  and 
brief  in  their  enactments.  Tho  bankruptcy  system, 
which  has  so  sadly  shocked  several  benevolent  scholars, 
that  they  have  endeavoured  to  exphiin  it  as  a  merely 
symbolical  provision,  is  peculiarly  sharp  and  effective. 
It  enacts  that  the  insolvent  debtor  shall  be  cut  in  pieces, 
and  that  his  body  shall  be  distributed  among  his  credi- 
tors. When  law  became  a  science  openly  studied,  the 
Twelve  Tables  became  the  subject  of  many  commen- 
taries. It  was  not,  however,  till  the  Romans  had  been 
for  some  time  degenerating,  that  those  great  collections 
of  legislative  wisdom  which  have  come  down  to  modem 
times  were  commenced.  The  flrst  attempt  to  construct 
a  code,  seems  to  have  been  the  Perpetual  Edict  of 
Hadrian,  already  alluded  to.  Two  private  individuals, 
Gregorius  and  Hermogenes,  appear  to  have  collected 
the  imperial  constitutions  into  a  system,  or  code,  of 
which  some  fragments  are  still  preserved.  Nothing 
whatever  is  known  of  the  biography  of  these  compilers : 
it  has  not  even  been  discovered  in  what  reigns  they  re- 
spectively lived,  though  their  labours  received  high  com- 
mendation at  the  hands  of  Theodosius  tho  Younger. 
Under  this  emperor,  the  celebrated  Theodosian  Code  was 
promulgated,  in  the  year  438.  The  compilation  of  this 
body  of  bws  was  committed  to  eight  individuals,  who  were 
allowed  considerable  latitude  in  explaining  and  abridg- 
ing, and  even  in  supplying  deficiencies.  It  contains  the 
legislative  acts  of  sixteen  emperors,  from  the  year  312 
to  438.  Fragments  of  this  code  have  been  rescued 
from  oblivion  inch  by  inch,  by  modem  scholars,  whose 
labours,  it  may  safely  be  calculated,  have  amounted  to 
some  twenty  or  thirty  times  more  than  those  of  the 
original  compilers.  The  celebrated  Godefroy  of  (leneva 
spent  thirty  years  in  the  task;  and  within  the  last 
twenty  years,  the  discovery  of  some  further  fragments 
induced  the  celebrated  Angelo  Mai  to  study  the  Roman 
law  for  the  purpose  of  editing  them. 

It  is  now  our  turn  to  notice  those  great  collections 
of  the  legal  wisdom  of  the  Romans,  to  which  the  above 
may  be  considered  only  preparatory.  In  529,  ten  com- 
missioners, appointed  by  Justinian,  prepared  The  Code^ 
or  CodeXf  as  it  is  termed,  from  the  collections  previously 
made,  and  the  intermediate  enactments.  Soon  after 
its  promulgation,  tlie  emperor  issued  several  new  con- 
stitutions, and  tho  wnole  were  consolidated  and  re-issued 
in  534.  This  great  task  was  superintended  by  the  cele- 
brated Tribonian,  whose  eminent  learning  and  discri- 
mination, allied  with  untiring  industry,  but  stained  by 
the  vices  of  corruption  and  partiality,  have  afforded  a 
fruitful  theme  of  praise  and  obloquy.  This  was  by  no 
means  Tribonian's  only  labour.  In  the  year  530,  he 
was  appointed  the  chief  of  a  commission  of  sixteen, 
whose  duty  it  waa  to  cull  the  choice  and  useful  paBsases 
from  the  authors  of  comments  and  opinions.  Ihe 
various  authorities,  which,  we  are  told,  would  have 
made  several  camels'  loads,  were  thus  reduced  within 


carpus  juris"  or  bod}'  of  the  civil  law. 

With  JiiBtinian  we  reach  the  climax  of  the  Roman 
law ;  and  to  trace  its  farther  progrcsa  in  the  empire 
has  been  more  a  subject  of  curiosity  to  the  antiquary 
than  of  importance  to  the  lawyer.  Some  fragments  by 
Uter  commentators,  chiefly  in  the  Greek  Unguagc,  have 
been  disentombed  by  zealous  searchers.  The  l<oman 
law  was  nominally  respected  by  the  northern  conquerors 
of  Rome.  Alaric,  King  of  the  Visigoths,  indeed,  caused 
a  compendium  to  be  pre])ared  for  the  use  of  his  domi- 
nions, consisting  chiefly  of  an  abridgment  of  the  codes 
of  Grcgorius,  Ilermogenes,  and  Theodosius.  Towards 
the  end  of  the  ninth  ccntur}*,  Basilius,  Emperor  of  the 
Elast,  issued  a  new  code,  intended  to  supersede  the 
labours  of  Tribonian,  termed  the  "  ISasiHca.** 

In  the  dark  agt?s,  however  much  of  the  Roman  law 
may  have  remained  in  practice,  it  had  died  away  in  lite- 
rature, and  was  neither  studied  nor  commented  on.  At 
the  taking  of  Constantinople  in  the  fifteenth  century, 
only  one  copy  of  one  of  the  Justinian  labours,  the  Xovchy 
seems  to  have  been  discovered.  It  was  long  believed, 
indeed,  in  the  learned  world,  that  from  the  period  of 
the  Basilica  to  the  twelfth  centur}*,  the  very  existence 
of  the  Roman  law  was  among  the  things  forgotten. 
The  circumstances  of  its  resuscitation  were  found  in  a 
traditional  anecdote,  that  at  the  siege  of  Amalphi  in 
1137,  some  Pisan  peasants  discovered  a  complete  copy 
of  the  I'andects  among  the  plunder,  the  melodious  lan- 
guage, comprehensive  philosophy,  and  clear  definitions 
of  which,  so  charmed  the  readera  of  that  barbarous 
age,  that  its  contents  were  immediately  devoured  with 
avidity  and  propagated  with  zeal.  In  Florence,  a  ma- 
nuscript is  still  preserved,  said  to  be  the  identical  book 
with  which  this  anecdote  is  connected,  taken  at  the 
siege  of  Pisa  in  ]4U().  The  essence  of  the  tradition  has 
been  disproved  by  late  discoveries,  which  show  that  tho 
civil  law  was  known  previously  to  the  siege  of  Amalphi. 

The  real  revival  of  the  civil  law  is  to  be  traced  in  the 
history  of  the  universities.  Of  these,  Paris,  Bologna, 
and  Leyden,  took  the  lead  in  the  department  of  juris- 
prudence. Contemporary  with,  or  immediately  after 
the  siege  of  Amalphi,  lectures  were  given  on  the  Pan- 
dects in  tho  University  of  Oxford,  by  a  teacher  of  tho 
name  of  Vacarius.     For  reasons  which  we  shall  have 


lUVUtTA  IM    AU^  «rakt|^«*VA9  AAA 

taken  the  lead. 

To  give  a  general  oatline  of 
be  to  describe  the  eommon  prii 
of  the  codes  of  ciTilised  maiikin 
grcss  of  commerce  and  tnaniifaf 
(quantity  of  transaetioos— «iicliy 
exchange — which  the  Roman  law, 
contemplated,  yet  their  system  i 
the  commercial  laws  of  barope, 
has  probably  facilitated  the  ni 
in  transactions  which  iuTolre  ii 
countries.  From  the  same  son 
greater  part  of  continental  Ei 
marriage  law  so  diflerent  from  t] 
that  prevails  in  England.  Its  le 
the  consent  of  the  parties  alone 
marriage,  and  that  w*hen  that  is 
is  necessary;  and  that  a  child 
who  are  sub8e<|uently  married, 
that  act.  The  law  of  trusts  am 
and  obligations  of  guardian  and 
way,  more  or  less,  into  every  mc 
into  the  stalute-law  of  England. 

firinciplc  that  claims  are  limitei 
las  come  down  to  us  from  the 
testaments  and  the  descent  of 
mainly  derived  from  the  same 
case  of  the  tenure  and  transm: 
that  the  person  versed  in  moc 
himself  least  at  home  in  the  Ri 
which  the  feudal  institutions  of 
Europe  have  produced  on  thut  li 
subjection  in  which  children  wen 
is  apt  to  create  surprise,  even  w] 
strict  filial  etiquette  of  our  own  i 
feature  of  the  carptu  Juritt  is  tin 
devoted  to  the  subject  of  slarei 
slaves. 

The  Roman  law  has  already 
source  of  tho  law  of  nations,  01 
called,  the  international  law,  in  1 
quite  natural  that  a  system  Tola 
nations  for  regulating  their  mat 
be  founded,  to  as  great  an  extcni 


HISTORY  OF  LAWS. 


te  irmr,  Great  Britain  maintained  that  she  had  a 
to  searcli  all  neutral  vessels,  for  the  purpose  of 
aining  if  they  contained  contraband  goods  or 
red  deserters.  The  smaller  states  were  bound  to 
il;  but  America  resisted,  and  the  dispute  occa- 
t  a  bloody  war.  So  it  probably  will  be  again,  when 
ime  claim  is  urged.  Instead  of  being  a  fixed  law 
»ble  to  all,  the  weak  will  have  to  obey,  and  the 
I  will  resist.  For  the  enforcement  of  any  rules 
may  be  called  the  law  of  nations,  then,  it  is  clear 
tber^  is  no  better  sanction  than  this,  that  the 
n  which  openly  outrage  them  will  call  forth  a 
m  of  indignation  on  the  part  of  the  rest  of  the 
i  which  may  prove  dangerous.  The  partition  of 
lAf  for  instance,  called  forth  the  indignation  of  the 
rf  Europe  ;  and  it  may  be  still  a  question  whether 
ioqiiisition  was  a  prudent  one  to  the  nations  con- 
id.  It  is  not  to  be  supposed,  however,  that  there 
Aa  courts  where  the  law  of  nations  is  enforced. 
i  aountry  in  Europe  has  generally  a  court  where 
■a  Tiews  on  tlie  subject  are  laid  down.  England 
far  instance,  the  prize  jurisdiction  of  the  Court  of 
Miy,  which  is  thus  called  a  civil  law  court.  Dur- 
he  hue  war,  when  Napoleon  by  his  Berlin  decrees 
lad  Great  Britain  and  her  colonies  in  a  state  of 
ade^  and  Britain  retaliated  by  the  orders  in  coun- 
I  the  rest  of  Europe,  a  multitude  of  cases  where 
ips  of  neutral  powers  had  been  seized  for  breach 
atfality  were  adjudged.      And  here  a  circum- 

oocurred  which  could  not  take  place  probably 
*  ether  country,  that  the  view  taken  of  the  law 
ions  by  the  judge  was  different  from  that  taken 
A>Temment ;  for  Lord  Stowell  declared  that  a 
^te  could  not  be  held  to  exist  by  mere  proclama- 
VKti  that  there  must  be  present  on  the  spot  an 
a^Dt  sufficient  to  enforce  it. 

of  the  principal  defects  of  the  writings  in  the 
kXTy  and  one  that  renders  the  subject  in  a  great 
V>e  unpopular  at  the  present  day,  is  the  spirit  of 
iia4iou  with  which  they  are  imbued,  and  the  extent 
Bfch  they  carry  divisions  and  arrangements  which 

no  service  in  practice,  and  provide  for  wants 
'  liypothetical.  The  civilian  in  his  study,  shut  out 
"^  lie  world  and  ignorant  of  its  pursuits,  set  his 

t  work  to  create  the  various  exigencies  of  prac- 

e  to  which  the  maxims  of  the  institute  were  ap- 
^mtf  and  to  devise  how  they  could  be  applied  ;  but 
laii  labours  were  brought  to  the  light  of  day,  it 
k^ind  that  the  world  in  its  practice  and  he  in  his 
t^tt  had  taken  totally  different  routes,  and  that 
k^  could  not  bo  the  companion  of  the  other.  If 
><Vmake  clothes  with  another  man's  cloth,  to  which 
ift  two  shall  they  belong  ?  If  an  artist  paint  on 
^r  man's  canvass,  who  shall  be  the  proprietor  of 
^9ture  ?  Such  were  among  the  subtleties  discussed 
^  tlie  Roman  jurists.  In  later  days,  when  legisla- 
^m,re  too  much  to  do  in  keeping  up  with  the  prac- 
^emands  of  society  to  indulge  in  hypothetical  law 
^1^  such  subjects  would  not  be  taken  up  until  cases 
lenity  actually  occurred ;  and  then,  before  deciding 
kiatract  questions,  it  would  probably  bo  asked  under 
circumstances  tailors  are  likely  to  make  garments 
r*  eloth  which  does  not  belong  to  them,  or  artists 
Unt  on  other  people's  canvass ! 


THE  CANON   LAW. 


^  Canon  Law  is,  properly  speaking,  the  ecclesias- 
\mm  of  the  Iloman  Catholic  Church.  In  its  more 
^d  acceptation,  it  may  be  called  the  by-laws  of  the 
~ '  a  a  separate  corporation ;  but  its  field  widened 
influence  of  the  liicrarchy.  It  embraced  many 
of  purely  civil  and  municipal  law,  such  as  the 
^hation  of  property  between  married  persons,  suc- 
v^  iic,  by  linking  them  with  ecclesiastical  matters ; 
^Ina  the  clerical  tribunals  came  to  rival,  if  not  to 
^  in  importance,  tliose  of  the  state.  The  canons 
■*a  Greek  Church,  a  portion  of  which  were  said  to 
^e  Work  of  the  apostles,  added  to  and  explained  by 
^■llcooneiJsy  were  sanctioned  by  the  Novels  of  Jus- 


tinian,  and  have  so  been  viewed  as  a  portion  of  the 
body  of  civil  law.  A  collection  of  canons  was  made  in 
the  year  520  ;  and  this  work,  with  the  papal  decrees, 
and  the  privileges  conceded  to  the  church  by  Charle- 
magne, formed  the  chief  subject-matter  of  the  canon 
law  down  to  the  twelfth  century.  It  was  tlien  that 
this  law  ceased  to  be  the  mere  regulations  of  a  peculiar 
body,  and  became  a  general  system  of  jurisprudence. 
About  the  year  1114,  a  collection  q{  the  decrees  of 
popes  and  cardinals  was  commenced  by  Ivo,  Bishop  of 
Chartres,  and  was  revised  and  completed  in  1149  by 
Gratian,  a  Benedictine  monk.  Another  element  in  the 
system  consisted  of  the  Decretals,  which  were  rescripts 
or  epistles  by  the  pope,  or  by  the  pope  and  cardinals, 
deciding  how  the  law  of  the  church  stood  concerning 
disputed  matters  referred  to  them.  These  were  first 
collected  and  edited  in  1234  by  Kaimond  de  Renafort, 
chaplain  to  Gregory  IX.  This  work  was  divided  into 
five  books,  to  which  a  sixth  was  added  under  the 
auspices  of  Boniface  VIII.  in  1298.  These  two  great 
works,  with  some  additions  made  to  them  by  succeed- 
ing popes,  formed  what,  in  imitation  of  the  collected 
works  in  the  law  of  Rome,  was  called  the  Corpus  Jurit 
Canonioi,  or  Body  of  the  Canon  Law.  Besides  these 
general  statutes,  there  were  local  canon  laws  i)a8eed  by 
the  clergy  of  various  countries,  at  national  or  provincial 
assemblies,  held  under  the  auspices  of  papal  legates 
or  archbishops.  In  the  reign  of  Henry  III.  there 
were  assemblies  of  the  former  kind ;  and  under  the  re- 
spective archbishops  of  England,  there  were  frequent 
provincial  synods.  In  Scotland,  two  provincial  synods, 
held  at  Peith  in  1242  and  1269,  passed  some  important 
laws  i*egarding  tithes. 

The  great  aim  of  ecclesiastical  legislation  was  to  bring 
civil  questions  within  its  pale.  Disputes  as  to  tithe  and 
the  privileges  of  the  clergy  came  very  naturally  to  its 
hand.  The  priesthood  were  in  a  great  measure  in 
trusted  with  the  administration  of  legacies,  especially 
where  they  were  destined  to  pious  uses ;  and  they  thus 
acquired  a  jurisdiction  in  questions  of  succession,  of 
which  we  see  vestiges  in  this  country,  in  the  Court  of 
Arches  and  the  other  ecclesiastical  courts  of  England, 
and  the  commissary  system  in  Scotland.  Marriage  being 
constituted  a  sacrament,  the  canon  law  not  only  took  into 
its  hands  all  questions  regarding  the  union  and  separa- 
tion of  the  parties,  but  adjudged  in  the  criminal  act  out 
of  which  the  latter  circumstance  might  arise,  and  took 
under  its  cognisance  questions  as  to  dower.  The  church 
obtained  a  powerful  hold  over  the  proceedings  of  ordi- 
nary courts  of  law,  by  the  introduction  of  the  practice 
of  witnesses  and  parties  calling  God  to  attest  tlie  truth 
of  their  statements — the  origin  of  the  present  system 
of  administering  an  oath.  Over  this  ceremony,  and  all 
matters  connected  with  the  truth  or  falsehood  of  the 
statement  it  sanctioned,  the  clergy  took  a  particular 
charge.  Notaries,  who  in  tlie  days  of  ignorance  were 
inti*usted  with  the  execution  and  registration  of  con- 
tracts— who,  in  fact,  were  the  living  registers  of  almost 
all  transactions  of  importance,  were  necessarily  taken 
from  the  only  class  who  could  write— the  churchmen, 
and  their  appointment  and  removal  naturally  fell  into 
ecclesiastical  hands. 

A  great  rivalry  thus  existed  between  the  civil  and  the 
canon  law ;  but  it  was  a  friendly  rivalry.  The  clergy 
were  the  repositaries  of  both  systems,  and  they  had  to 
decide  how  much  should  be  assigned  to  the  one  and 
how  much  to  the  other.  The  canon  law  borrowed 
largely  from  the  civil,  of  which  it  is  sometimes  con- 
sidered a  mere  branch ;  it  was  naturally,  indeed,  the 
object  of  the  clergy  not  so  much  to  change  the  law 
itself,  as  to  take  the  administration  of  it  into  their  own 
hands.  To  be  juris  utriusque  doctorf  or  doctor  of 
either  law,  civil  and  canon,  was  a  common  distinction. 
During  Henry  YIII.'s  reign,  lectures  on  the  canon  law 
were  abolislied  in  England,  and  with  them  the  corre- 
sponding degree.  Jealous  as  the  English  were  of  the 
encroachments  of  the  civil  law,  they  still  more  deter- 
minedly opposed  that  of  tlie  canon.  Wluit  the  power- 
ful court  of  Rome  liad  set  its  heart  upon,  however^ 


$ 


tbUB  ttio  ostensible  origin  oi  tne  j^ritisii  pariiameni. 
Trial  by  jury  has  been  traced  to  a  similar  source.  The 
constitution  of  the  German  empire  is  essentially  feudal, 
and  the  customs,  or  peculiar  local  laws  of  the  various 
provinces  of  France,  previously  to  the  revolution,  were 
models  from  which  the  system  was  studied.  The  Eng- 
lish law,  especially  that  of  real  or  landed  property,  is  full 
of  feudal  usages,  though  their  operation  has  often  been 
chocked.  In  Scotland,  the  forms  of  the  feudal  system 
may  be  found  existing  in  almost  original  purity,  though, 
as  we  shall  hereafter  sec,  they  have  been  adapted,  per- 
haps as  far  as  they  are  capable  of  being  so,  to  the  wants 
of  civilised  times. 

An  account  of  the  rise  and  progress  of  the  Roman 
law  must,  for  obvious  reasons,  be  far  more  satisfactory 
than  any  that  can  be  given  of  the  feudal  s^-stem.  The 
former  was  (at  least  the  greater  part  of  it)  the  con- 
struction of  ingenious  individuals,  possessed  of  authority 
to  enforce  their  mandates  on  their  fellow-beings.  The 
latter  gradually  rose  out  of  circumstances,  and  the 
state  of  society.  It  was  not  devised  by  a  powerful 
legislator,  to  be  promulgated  to  a  willing  people ;  but  it 
rose  out  of  habits  and  events  which  took  place  in  an 
age  when  there  were  no  historians  to  record  their  pro- 
gress. Hence,  the  origin  of  the  feudal  system  has  been 
a  fruitful  subject  of  debate  and  theory ;  and  in  the  ab- 
sence of  facts,  it  has  often  been  necessary  to  resort  to 
moral  deductions.  It  has  been  maintained  by  some, 
that  nothing  can  be  more  simple  than  the  feudal  sys- 
tem ;  that  it  was  a  mere  arrangement  by  which  military 
service  was  given  in  exchange  for  land,  and  that  many 
Iialf-civilised  nations  present  instances  of  a  similar  con- 
tract. Ingenious  speculators  have  found  tho  resem- 
blance of  ttic  system  in  particular  stages  of  the  history 
of  Greece  and  Rome,  in  Turkey,  Persia,  Ilindostan, 
and  tho  Highlands  of  Scotland,  among  the  aborigines 
of  North  America,  and  hi  the  Loo-choo  Islands.  But, 
however  important  may  be  tho  investigation  of  such 
analogies  between  the  practice  of  mankind  under  diffe- 
rent circumstances,  as  a  part  of  tho  history  of  the  human 
mind,  they  throw  but  little  light  on  the  feudal  system, 
the  chief  interest  of  which  is  to  bo  found  in  the  vastness 
of  the  field  which  it  covered,  and  the  influence  which 
it  has  exercised  for  so  many  centuries  over  the  legal 
institutions  of  Europe. 


ii._i.  ii. 


miuiary  auiiea  oi  uie  nei,  uie  i 
became  his  guardiAD,  drawio|f  1 
and  compelling  him  to  marry 
out,  under  a  penalty,  which,  it 
amnnnt  to  the  sum  which  the 
could  receive  by  selling  the  all 
claim  upon  the  estate  during 
became,  like  most  other  feudal  es 
and  seems  in  general  to  have  a 
rent  of  the  land.  In  some  cuan 
succeed.  In  others,  where  th 
lodged,  the  superior  claimed  th< 
husbands  to  them ;  and  exacte 
admitting  the  husband  as  a  ne 
the  price  for  permitting  him  tc 
feudal  s^'stem,  like  every  other, 
ness  and  badness.  Where  we  i 
of  the  feudal  law,  the  right  of  t 
vassals,  or  the  wives  and  childr 
a  mere  tax ;  but  where  the  d 
system  were  at  work,  it  gave  leg 
potism,  which  is  frequently  a 
memorial  of  tho  barbarism  of 
tions  of  despotism,  indeed,  th< 
Independently  of  its  own  pecn 
been  impossible  for  any  legal 
through  the  scenes  of  rapine 
which  cliaraeterised  the  middle 
being  the  instrument  of  many 
break  of  tho  French  revolution 
more  than  an  attack  on  the  i 
feudalism  in  France,  some  of  th< 
from  their  dingy  retreat  in  ] 
black-letter  chronicles,  to  adc 
times.  Among  other  instance 
a  feudal  lord,  on  his  retnm  ft 
disembowelling  a  vassal,  that 
warm  in  the  reeking  trunk  dui 
The  proper  return  of  the  vas 
protection  of  his  lord,  was,  as 
service.  Where  this  system  w 
law,  the  quantity  of  service  to  b 
A  knight's  fee  imposed  on  the  '. 
forty  da^'s  in  the  field  for  his  a 
quarter  of  a  knight's  fee  invo 


HISTORY  OF  LAWS. 


admit  it  called  for  those  legal  sabtlettes 

lade  the  coininerce  in  land,  to  this  day,  so 

It  behoved  that  there  should  be  posses- 

vho  were  not  of  necessity  soldiers,  and  it 

Y  to  the  monarch,  or  feudal  superior,  to 

>  in  various  other  capacities.  All,  how- 
le  impression  and  stamp,  as  it  were,  of 
»,  taxes,  honours,  and  dignities,  even  board 
were  feued  out ;  the  person  who  had  en- 
tow  them  acted  the  part  of  superior,  and 
ived  them  that  of  vassal.  The  church 
3  which  were  not  exempt  from  the  ordi- 
ervices.  In  the  earlier  ages,  churchmen 
(es  themselves  assumed  the  spear  and 
hen   it  was  considered  inconsistent  for 

>  fight,  it  was  held  as  by  no  means  nnsuit- 
church  to  employ  soldiers.     A  clerical 

;  would  sometimes  appoint  a  patron,  or 
(sistant,  in  the  person  of  a  neighbouring 
ould  be  called  the  ^  advocate'*  of  the  esta- 
iie  use,  by  the  way,  to  which  that  word, 
esignates  a  class  of  peaceful  lawyers,  was 
It  is  not  unfrequent  to  find  in  old  tenures 
lar  monastery  is  to  supply  so  many  archers 
1  fur  so  many  days. 

ommunitics  were  another  class  to  whom 
ice  seems  inapplicable,  but  who,  never- 
3t  universally  held  by  that  tenure.  They 
tain  privileges,  and  in  return  they  had 
keep  watch  and  ward  in  their  respective 
vice  in  which  their  own  safety  might  not 
>sted  than  the  ambition  of  their  lord.  As 
9  conceded  to  these  communities  were  large 
it,  they  did  not,  in  general,  escape  taxation 
heir  military  duties;  and  in  later  times 
tis  became  generally  commuted  for  a  money 
he  privileges  usually  conceded  to  these 
communities  consisted  of  an  exemption 
re  vexatious  of  the  feudal  exactions,  to  be 
^d.  These  were  generally  conceded  to  them 
chs,  as  a  counterpoise  to  the  growing  power 
aristocracy ;  and  within  these  sanctuaries 
id  civilisation  created  a  power,  by  which 
id  nobility  were  effectually  held  in  check, 
ose  who  were  placed  in  the  position  of 
s  to  the  seignior,  or  lord,  were  his  own 
vants,  whose  power  and  influence  would 
in  extent,  measured  by  that  of  their  master, 
he  menial  duties  of  his  household,  a  Roman 
)loyed  a  slave,  just  as  a  senator  or  a  pro- 
do.  The  barbarian  conquerors,  however, 
» those  who  performed  these  functions;  and 
ho  performed  for  Charlemagne  the  office  of 
huntsman,  or  groom,  got  for  his  services  the 
lost  readily  at  his  master's  hands— portions 
1  territory.  The  services  were  thus  per- 
e  consideration  for  feudal  benefices.  The 
nt  of  the  monarch  might  have  tenants  and 
ler  him  ;  and  thus  the  wages  ennobled  the 
rience  we  have  had  in  modem  Europe, 
tic  robes,  grooms  of  the  stole,  masters  of 
nds,  masters  of  the  horse,  &c.,  held  by  the 
ity  of  the  realm.  The  grqfy  or  land-steward 
was  an  important  personage.  Instead  of 
the  letting  of  paddocks,  and  the  rotation 
was  intrusted  with  the  power  of  life  and 
he  inhabitants.  The  humble  grieve,  who 
agement  of  a  small  landed  estate  in  Scot- 
5  shire-rieve,  or  sheriff,  who  performs  high 
tions  in  the  same  part  of  the  empire,  have 
t  were,  between  them  the  original  duties 
officer  from  whom  their  names  are  derived, 
adal  origin  may  be  as  distinctly  traced,  on 
e,  in  the  relation  of  master  and  servant  in 
•8.  Servitude,  however  menial,  when  allied 
lependence,  did  not  carry  the  same  degra- 
re  slavery ;  and  in  the  opinion  of  some,  the 
the  feudal  attendant  was  higher  than  that 
1  servant  of  modem  days,  who  freely  gives 
GD5 


his  labonr  and  attendance  for  a  price,  tn  Scotland, 
where  feudal  usages  hare  lingered  so  long,  it  has  been 
remarked,  that  the  relation  between  master  and  servant 
is  of  a  more  confidential  nature  than  it  is  found  to  be 
in  other  parts  of  the  country.  While  the  line  drawn 
between  their  positions  is  as  clear  as  it  can  well  be  in 
a  free  country,  the  situation  of  the  servant  has  a  more 
than  ordinary  share  of  respectability  attached  to  it, 
because,  instead  of  being  the  individual  servant  of  an 
individual  master,  he  and  bis  race  are  looked  upon,  to 
a  certain  extent,  as  the  retainers  of  the  house  which  he 
serves.  On  thb  point,  indeed,  an  adherence  to  feudal 
usages  in  situations  to  which  they  are  not  applicable,  has 
been  productive  of  one  of  the  greatest  evUs  of  modem 
society — the  extent  to  which  servants  are  kept,  not  for 
use,  but  as  an  ornamental  evidence  of  weiUtb.  Our 
lineal  aristocracy  continue  to  follow,  so  far  as  the  usages 
of  the  day  permit,  the  practice  of  their  ancestors ;  and 
the  gentlemen  of  plush  and  shoulder-knots  are  the 
representatives  of  those  who  wore  buff  jerkins,  and 
handled  the  pike.  The  rich  merchant  and  manufacturer 
must  not  be  without  the  usual  insignia  of  wealth ;  and 
thus  a  race,  whom  idleness  and  constant  association 
with  each  other  must  deprave,  are  kept  up  among  a 
bustling  and  active  community,  as  if  we  lived  in  the 
days  when  the  majority  must  either  serve  or  starve. 
It  has  been  remarked,  that  in  republics  such  as  Hol- 
land, the  wealth  of  rich  individuals  generally  took  the 
more  ennobling  direction  of  patronising  the  arts  and 
literature. 

In  the  earlier  ages  of  the  feudal  s}'stem,  when  there 
was  much  land  to  distribute,  the  natural  features  and 
boundaries  were  sometimes  little  known  to  those  who 
gave  it  away.  The  persons  who  received  it  were  aggran- 
dising and  ambitious,  and  not  likely  to  yield  to  each 
other  disputed  portions.  Above  all,  tho  conquerors 
were  uneducated,  and  had  little  means  of  giving  per- 
petuity to  their  bounty  by  written  deeds.  From  all  these 
circumstances,  the  investiture  of  the  vassal  became  a 
very  important  and  solemn  affair.  Investiture  was 
divided  into  proper  and  improper.  By  the  former,  the 
superior  went  in  person  to  the  land,  assembled  all  his 
other  vassals  upon  it,  and  showed  them  the  portion  he 
had  assigned  to  his  new  follower.  The  vassal,  upon 
this,  did  homage,  accepting  the  grant,  and  promising 
to  perform  the  usual  services  in  return.  By  the  im- 
proper investiture,  of  the  full  practice  of  which  in  our 
own  day  we  shall  give  an  instance,  the  superior  gave 
authority  to  his  bailiff,  or  some  other  person,  to  give 
investiture,  which  was  done  by  the  symbolical  delivery 
of  a  portion  of  the  property — some  earth  and  a  piece  of 
stone  generally — to  the  vassal,  or  some  person  autho- 
rised by  him  to  accept  the  grant  and  perform  his  homage. 
Writing  was  probably  in  use  before  this  latter  usage  was 
commenced,  and  the  authority  was  generally  a  written 
one.  The  solemn  investiture  m  presence  of  the  co-vas- 
sals finally  descended  to  a  mummery  between  an  attor- 
ney and  his  clerks.  The  necessity  to  have  acts  regarding 
the  fiefs  of  a  superior  witnessed  by  his  vassals,  can  be 
traced  to  a  connexion  with  two  of  the  most  important 
institutions  of  modem  times.  The  great  vassals  of  a 
king,  met  together  in  public  assembly  to  discuss  what 
aids  they  might  afford  for  their  fiefs,  how  they  were  to 
defend  them,  &c.,  merged  into  a  great  council  or  legis- 
lature ;  and  it  is  to  such  a  body  that  the  British  Parlia- 
ment at  least  partly  owes  its  origin.  At  this  moment, 
the  Bishops  of  England  sit  in  the  House  of  Lords  in 
virtue  of  the  feudal  baronies  which  they  hold  of  the 
crown.  Vassals  of  the  lower  grade  were  often  summoned 
to  attend  at  the  hall  of  their  lord  as  assessors,  or  as- 
sizers, to  give,  partly  opinion,  partly  evidence,  concern- 
ing some  matter  connected  with  the  fief,  or  the  conduct 
or  rights  of  a  fellow- vassal.  With  this  institution,  the 
system  of  trial  by  jury  Is  intimately  connected.  A  jury 
of  perambulation,  for  the  purpose  of  ascertaining  boun- 
daries— a  sort  of  body  lineally  descended  from  the 
assemblage  of  eo-vassals  who  were  present  at  the  inves- 
titure, and  witnessed  the  extent  of  the  gift— has  been 
known  in  modem  times. 


such  an  alienation,  however,  the  vassal  dared  not  in 
any  way  interfere  with  his  superior's  rights ;  the  latter, 
indeed,  was  not  presumed  to  be  conscious  of  the  sub- 
infeudation, unless  he  had  specially  sanctioned  it,  and 
by  doing  so,  he  acknowledged  the  sub-vassal  as  his  own 
immediate  retainer.     When  a  vassal,  therefore,  sub- 
feued  without  his  superior's  consent,  he  gave  only  a 
portion  of  the  estate  he  himself  possessed,  his  sub- 
vassal  being  liable  to  meet  all  the  exactions  that  might 
fall  upon  him.     So,  if  he  rebelled  against  his  lord,  or 
withheld  the  feudal  exactions,  the  superior  could  seize 
upon  the  fief  without  reference  to  the  claims  of  the 
sub-vassal.  The  highest  feudal  noble  was  the  Ileretoch, 
who,  from  the  Latin  dujr,  a  leader,  received  the  desig- 
nation of  duke :  this  class  was  intrusted  with  the  admi- 
nistration of  large  provinces.     The  graf,  who  had  a 
smaller  charge,  was  called  comedy  or  count ;  and  one 
class  of  graf,  who  was  intrusted  with  the  marches,  was 
called  the  mar-grave^  march-graff  or  marquis.     These 
nobles  generally  held  lands  of  their  sovereign,  while 
they  were  authorised  to  represent  his  person  over  the 
districts  to  which  they  were  assigned,  administering 
justice  in  his  name,  levying  his  feudal  exactions  on  his 
vassals,  and  receiving  their  homage.     These  powerful 
feudatories  wore  held  in  check  by  Charlemagne ;  but 
under  his  successors,  and  the  other   European  mo- 
narchs,  it  became  their  aim  to  be  the  independent  sove- 
i-eigns  of  the  territories  conmiitted  to  their  charge — 
an  object  in  which  they  were  more  or  less  successful 
according  to  circumstances,  some  throwing  off  their 
mast<*r's  yoke,  while  others  made  themselves  interme- 
diate superiors  between  the  king  and  his  vassals.     The 
various  states  of  Italy  and  Germany  are  illustrations 
of  the  working  of  these  events.     The  feudatories  of 
France  made  a  very  near  approach  to  independent 
sovereignties.     They  possessed  within  their  own  domi- 
nions the  right  of  coming  money,  that  of  waging  private 
¥rar,  exemption  from  all  tributes,,  except  the  limited 
feudal  duties  by  which  they  acknowledged  the  superi- 
ority of  the  crown,  and  finally,  freedom  from  legislative 
and  judicial  control  on  the  part  of  the  sovereign  and 
hb  courts.    The  vassal,  too,  in  looking  after  his  own 
concerns,  sometimes  conquered  territories  not  inferior 
to  those  of  his  lord;  and  under  such  circumstances 
there  wan  little  chance  of  his  being  an  obedient  retainer. 


I    M«ft        lli«l*.«      /\T       AJrk«*r»'«o  »«/l  ir        4m«& 


vrn  <j*c<n 


I     ^f    ♦!,. 


and  were  demanded  by  Uie  lord 
caused  him  outlay.  If  he  had 
neighbour,  or  to  pcnrtion  off  a  re 
to  ransom  a  son,  he  demaiided  m 
fuscly  exacted  by  tlic  knighta  w 
sades.  In  England,  the  aids  il 
were  restricted  by  Magna  Chari 
for  the  purpose  of  making  the  lor 
for  marr^'ing  his  eldest  daughtc 
his  person  from  prison.  By  es 
form,  the  more  servile  raanls  \ 
in  subjection.  The  superior,  if  he 
all  his  vassals  to  grind  their  grain 
to  pay  a  tax  for  tlte  8er\-ice  they  % 
He  compelled  them  to  assist  j 
building  bridges,  and  he  exacted 
degree  of  freeholders  who  eroi 
which  placed  impediments  in  the  « 
from  pUce  to  pUce.  He  ohtaine* 
on  the  export  and  import  of  coi 
found  a  clever  artisan  on  his  prei 
him  and  his  services  for  his  own 
The  revival  of  literature  was  n 
feudalism.  It  brought  with  it  t 
and  canon  laws,  and  it  was  throngfa 
that  the  feudal  customs  were  inte 
of  the  spirit  of  the  feudal  law  is  d 
a  view  of  it  would  lead  to  too  loi 
only  its  effects  upon  society,  but 
linger  amongst  us ;  even  in  repn 
is  pride  of  birth,  and  a  Imowledgf 
is  sometimes  requisite  in  aacertai 
perty.  Perhaps  in  no  coontry  1 
feudal  law  been  so  furiously  adji 
modem  society  as  in  Scotland.  * 
tion  of  the  system,  we  hare  drai 
of  a  professional  friend  the  folk 
manner  in  which  land  is  oonveyed 
of  Britain.  All  the  land  in  SeetUn 
and  the  greater  portion  of  it  ia  pc 
the  freeholders.  Let  us  suppoae 
selling  a  portion  of  his  property, 
down,  or  an  annual  pavmeat.  T 
to  the  contract — that  of  the  aeUer 
act  the  part  of  a  feudal  lord  giTin 


HISTORY  OF  LAWS. 


it.  The  other  two  parties  are  the  wltneesefl. 
kes  the  buver  the  vannal  of  the  seller ;  but  it  is 
Y  preferable  to  be  in  exactly  the  Karae  position 
I  the  seller  was.  To  accomplish  this,  the  con- 
tie  seller's  superior  must  be  had,  and  according 
1  usage,  it  is  tlius  signified.  In  virtue  of  an 
jr,  or  "  procuratory,**  a  i^epresentative  of  the 
yes  to  the  superior,  or  his  representative,  and 
ymbol  of  a  "  staff  and  baton,"  as  the  law-books 
;  practically  of  a  pen,  the  lands  are  delivered 
hands  of  the  superior,  who  transfers  them  over 
irchaser  by  handing  the  pen  to  him  or  his  agent, 
lows  an  investiture  by  the  superior  in  the  above 
lich  is  conducted  in  virtue  of  a  charter  granted 
o  his  new  vassal.  To  the  superior  this  is  not 
a  barren  ceremony,  for  he  receives  a  year's 
he  property  to  reconcile  him  to  the  change  of 

THE  LAW  OF  ENGLAND. 

id  has  already  been  mentioned  as  an  exception 
^uCral  prevalence  in  Europe  of  the  civil  and 
ws ;  not  that  these  systems  were  totally  re- 
ut  that  they  met  with  a  countervailing  resist- 
ich  prevented  them  from  obtaining  the  iuflu- 
f  possessed  in  other  countries.  This  resistance 
'ound  in  the  existence  of  a  different,  and,  it 
Laps  be  said,  hostile  system,  called  the  common 

to  the  power  of  parliament  to  make  laws  or 

The  three  great  elements  of  the  jurisprudence 
cid  arc  the  common  law,  the  law  of  equity,  and 
ate  law.  To  these  may  be  added,  as  codes 
«  particular  sphei'es,  the  admiralty  law  and 
siastical  law. 

ng  of  the  common  law.  Sir  Matthew  Hale,  its 
,  says :  "  This  is  that  law  by  which  proceedings 
»rminations  in  the  king's  ordinary  courts  of 
re  directed  and  guided.  This  directs  the  course 
tits  of  lands,  and  the  kinds,  the  natures,  and 
nts  and  qualifications  of  estates ;  therein,  also, 
mcr,  forms,  ceremonies,  and  solemnities  of 
ring  estates  from  oiiu  to  another ;  the  rules  of 
acquiring,  and  transferrin^^  of  properties ;  the 
olemiiities,  and  obligations  of  contracts  ;  the 
:1  directions  for  the  exposition  of  wills,  deeds, 

of  parliament ;  the  process,  proceedings,  judg- 
ed executions  of  the  king's  ordinary  courts  of 
the  limits,  bounds,  and  extent  of  courts,  and 
isdictions ;  the  several  kind  of  temporal  offences 
ishments  at  common  law,  and  the  manner  of 
ication  of  the  several  kinds  of  punishments ; 
lite  more  particulars,  which  extend  themselves 

as  the  many  exigencies  in  the  distribution  of 
•s  ordinary  justice  require." 

cm  Late The  origin  of  this  system,  one  of  the 

cresting  subjects  of  modem  investigation,  is  in- 
n  deep  obscurity.  Its  progress,  subsequently  to 
nof  Edward  I.,  who  has  been  called  the  English 
D,  is  pretty  accurately  noticed ;  but  when  an  un- 
^nal  inquirer  reads  those  portions  of  English  law- 
liich  attempt  to  carry  the  history  to  an  earlier 
le  cannot  help  feeling  disappointed  at  theunsatis- 
result.  The  more  marked  features  of  the  system 
feubtless,  the  customs  of  the  Anglo-Saxons.  A 
n  of  the  laws  of  England  during  the  heptarchy, 
of  the  Anglo-Saxons,  was  published  by  an  enii- 
^iquary,  at  the  commencement  of  the  eighteenth 
;  but  there  is  great  reason  to  believe  that  they 
"itten  some  centuries  after  the  Conquest,  while 
(ments  of  Anglo-Saxon  legislation  wliich  they 
vefer  chiefly  to  the  arrangement  of  the  military 
ke  clergy,  and  other  matters  of  general  or  police 
on,  which,  in  the  present  instance,  are  less  in- 
S  than  a  little  insight  into  the  laws  relating^  to 
Hghts  would  be.  Alfred  and  Edgar  have  ac- 
^Qch  fame  for  having  collected  and  arranged 
*  of  their  predecessors,  reformed  them  where 
''^  impolitic,  and  completed  them  where  deficient ; 
*atd  be  difllicuU  to  determine  their  exact  merits. 


Edward  the  Confessor  enjoys  a  similar  repntation.  To 
him,  indeed,  history  supplies  us  with  good  ground  for 
referring  equitable  laws,  for  wo  find  that  when  the 
people  complained  against  the  oppression  of  the  Norman 
kings,  they  demanded  *'  the  good  old  laws  of  Edward  the 
Confessor."  It  is  probable,  however,  that  the  compli- 
ment did  not  apply  to  him  so  much  in  the  capacity  of 
a  legislator  as  tliat  of  the  last  of  the  Saxon  kings. 

Whatever  may  have  been  the  exact  nature  of  the 
laws  of  the  Anglo-Saxons,  the  Conquest  effectually  in- 
corporated them  witli  the  feudal  system,  and  the  con- 
nexion between  vassal  and  superior  became  one  of  the 
most  important  features  of  the  common  law.  It  is  not 
to  be  supposed,  however,  that  this  was  the  earliest  visit 
of  feudal  institutions  to  Britain.  The  Saxons  could  not 
well  escape  the  influence  of  a  system  which  had  deeply 
rooted  itself  among  the  kindred  nations  of  the  continent ; 
and  many  feudal  institutions  are  to  be  found  existing 
under  the  Saxon  kings.  The  increase  of  the  spint  of 
feudalism  under  the  swav  of  Wilham  the  Conqueror 
was,  however,  so  great,  that  many  authors  have  attri- 
buted its  origin  in  England  to  the  ei*a  of  the  Conquest. 
It  was  then,  indeed,  that  it  became  oppressive.  The 
conqueror  brought  with  him  the  system  of  his  own  pro- 
vince, for  which  he  was  a  vassal  to  the  King  of  France, 
and  could  not  admit  the  possession  of  landed  property 
in  England,  except  as  held  from  himself  in  the  capacity 
of  lord  paramount.  The  greater  nobles — chiefly  the 
conqueror's  companions  in  arms — naturally  held  the 
lands  he  liberally  bestowed  on  them  of  him  as  superior, 
and  they  compelled  all  who  lived  upon  their  lands,  or 
even  in  their  neighbourhood,  to  acknowledge  them  as 
liege  lords.  The  forcible  increase  of  such  a  system  as 
the  feudal  law,  could  not  but  be  attended  with  acts  of 
great  oppression.  These  were  added  to  by  the  selfish 
magnificence  of  the  princes,  who  cleared  large  tracts 
of  counti'y  of  inhabitants,  that  they  might  enjoy  the 
regal  pleasures  of  the  chase  in  undisturbed  tranquillity. 
The  Saxons  had  their  own  county  courts,  but  the 
greater  part  of  the  causes  were,  after  the  Conquest, 
removed  from  them  to  be  pleaded  in  the  court  of  the 
monarch,  which  attended  on  his  own  person.  Legal 
proceedings  were  conducted  in  the  Norman  dialect  of 
the  French,  which  was  afterwards  changed  into  Latiu. 
The  use  of  a  tongue  unknown  to  the  people  at  large, 
continued  down  to  the  days  of  Oliver  Cromwell,  and 
at  the  Restoration  was  restored,  with  other  equally 
useful  practices.  It  was  abolished  in  as  far  as  respects 
the  proceedings  of  the  courts  in  1730.*  If  we  knew 
nothing  of  the  veneration  with  which  the  Saxons  looked 
back  upon  **  the  good  old  laws  of  Edward  the  Confessor," 
the  obstinacy  with  which  they  preserved  theii*  language 
would  have  led  to  the  presumption  that  they  had  been 
equally  tenacious  of  their  ancient  customs.  The  former 
outlived  every  attempt,  moral,  intellectual,  or  physical, 
by  reprobation,  sarcasm,  or  force,  to  extinguish  it,  and 
so,  to  a  certain  extent,  did  the  latter.  The  judicial 
system,  and  the  tenure  of  land,  might  both  be  altered ; 
but  to  their  original  customs  the  people  adhered  so 
resolutely,  that  these  wore  at  length  blended  with  the 
opinions  and  feelings  of  their  Norman  tyrants,  and 
became  to  a  certain  extent  the  system  of  law  which 
they  administered.  There  was  a  further  leaning  on  the 
part  of  the  barons  to  the  popular  customs,  from  this 
circumstance,  that  the  priests,  whom  they  viewed  as 

*  For  many  purposes  connected  with  legal  practice,  Norman 
continued  to  be  employed— law-boolcs  were  Mrritten,  and  coties 
reported  in  it  The  following  specimen  of  a  formal  document  of 
the  end  of  the  sixteenth  oentiiry,  gives  a  grotesque  picture  of  the 
manner  in  which  languages  were  twisted  to  suit  the  convenience 
of  thoso  who  used  them  :— 

"  Fult  resolve  per  le  pluispart  de  les  Justices  et  le  counseU  del 
Roigne.  oest  terme  k  Sergeants  Inne,  in  pnesentia  comitis  Sussex 
Justic.  Forcstarcitra  Trentram,  que  le  building  dun  novel  Muase 
in  le  severall  soylo  on  wast«  dascim  home  deins  un  Forest,  est  un 
purpresture  et  noyance  al  Forest  et  Game,  et  finable  on  arren. 
table,  pour  le  tollcration  ou  permission  de  ceo  destroyer  al  arbi* 
terment  ct  distcretion  del  Justice,  ou  raoeablc  et  destrue  al  pica* 
sure.**  &c. 


Iff^frn  arff  in  a  g^nzt  rneaflure,  conatitational,  and  is  Las 
oft^n  ^^^.-Ti  Mid  Uiat  it  waA  procured  for  the  adrantaze 
(tt  the  sunAt/>craAv',  and  not  of  the  people  :  but  it  is  not 
without  htipulationt  in  favour  of  the  Latter,  protecting 
th':rn  Ufih  fr^^rn  the  crown  and  the  nobility.  It  restricts 
the  tyrannical  forest  law.s,  and  the  exactions  by  feadal 
lordft  from  their  vzKHSkU.  The  clause  which  has  attracted 
chi#jf  iiit*!rf!Mt,  hr>wever,  in  that  wliich  says  that  no  free- 
man Ahall  }i*:  affect/rd  in  hi*t  perA^^n  or  prr^perty,  save 
by  the  I^^al  judgment  of  his  peeru,  or  by  the  law  of  the 
land.  I^rgal  writen  have  found  a  stately  tree  of  liberty 
grriwing  out  of  tho  M;«:d  planted  by  this  simple  sentence. 
'J  hi'y  Me  in  it  th«;  orit^in  of  that  judicial  strictness  which 
haM  kept  tho  Knglinh  judges  hfj  close  to  the  rules  laid 
down  for  them  iu  th<;  IkkjIcs  and  decisions  of  their  pre- 
d«"C'*«M»rH.  The  judgment  by  peers  is  said  to  refer  to 
jury  trial,  and  it  is  urged  that  the  whole  clause  strikes 
againnt  arbitrary  imprisonmcntit,  and  involves  the  prin- 
ciplf:  of  the  habeas  corpuM,  by  which  every  man,  whose 
lilierty  is  restricted,  may  demand  to  be  brought  before 
r.omf;  competent  court,  that  he  may  be  either  convicted 
or  lilxrated.  The  gix>at  charter  has  always  been  a 
favourite  object  of  veneration,  both  with  the  aristocracy 
and  the  i>eople,  and  Sir  P^dward  Coke  reckons  thirty 
(lifTcrent  occasions  on  which  it  was  ratified. 

Civil  liberty  may  be  defined  as  the  permission  of  such 
nn  amount  of  free  action  as  it  is  most  conducive  to  the 
Wflfare  of  all  that  each  individual  should  possess.  This 
Is  one  of  tlie  most  im^iortant  objects  of  the  laws,  and  the 
rircuniHtanccH  which  conduce  to  its  existence  arc  among 
the  most  interesting  in  legal  liistory.  In  England,  the 
progruHH  of  libertv  has  been  in  a  great  measure  attri- 
butr'd  to  the  division  of  interests  in  the  country.  The 
crown  hu<l  an  int4;rest  in  checking  the  power  of  the  great 
nobility.  Tlmt  the  exercise  of  this  power  was  essential 
to  the  liberty  that  has  existed  in  England,  is  apparent 
in  contemjtlating  the  state  of  France  and  Germany, 
wh(*ro  the  aristocracy  made  themselves  cither  quite 
or  n(>arly  inde|>eiident  of  the  crown,  and  revelled  in 
the  tyranny  of  their  despotic  wills  unchecked.  A  very 
im}K)rtant  blow  to  the  power  of  the  aristocracy  was 
accomplished  by  Edward  I.  in  12.00,  by  the  abolition  of 
the  Hystem  of  sub-feuing.  From  that  day,  no  vassal  of 
the  crown  c<iuld  grant  lands  to  be  held  of  himself,  as 
he  may  to  thih  day  in  Scotland— ho  could  only  put  a 


Kinrs  Bench*  Commoa  Pleu^  aD 
th<?y  mizht  not  interfere  wish  enefa 
ne»s ;  to  do  which  thej  most  now 
fiction,  very  n«cesBarr  and  bmeC 
enlan^  state  of  propertr.  He  ic 
'  of  the  inferior  coorts  in  eocinties,  hi 
'  confining  them  to  caoses  of  no  grct 
I  to  their  primitire  inatimtioa,  tbo 
;  greater  than  by  the  iJteration  of 
'  they  arc  now  permitted  to  determi 
propertv  of  the  sabject,  bv  aboliahii 
and  talliages  levied  witkoat  eou 
conncil.  He  guarded  the  eommon  j 
from  abuses,  by  giving  np  the  : 
sending  mandates  to  interfere  in 
instituted  a  speedier  way  for  the  i 
granting  execution,  not  only  apoi 
but  also  upon  lands,  by  writ  of 
signal  benefit  to  a  trading  people 
commercial  ideas,  he  ako  allowed 
in  a  statute  merchant,  to  pay  debt 
contrary  to  all  feudal  principles.** 
reform  refers  to  measures  for  ens 
possession  of  his  debtor's  land  in 
IIow  opposed  such  a  remedy  woi 
ciples  may  easily  be  conceived,  a 
which  Edward  made  his  reforms 
considered  that  what  he  had  thus 
completed  in  1833.  If  the  debt  o 
were  not  substantiated  by  some 
ment,  his  land  could  not  be  app 
on  his  decease,  and  it  was  only  m 
property  was  made  fully  available 
debts."  The  sUtement  that  £d 
on  ecclesiastical  jurisdictions,  n 
which  the  clergy  arretted  regazt 
under  the  he^  of  tne  canon  la 
them  the  charge  of  the  deceased's 
them  to  employ  the  money  in  pay 
From  the  period  when  we  disco 
common  law  in  existence,  we  fin 
rously  enforced  by  the  judges. 
Tory  frequently,  as  society  progrvi 
wants  of  an  age  vexy  different  £ 
was  invented ;  but,  in  doinir  so.  ins 


HISTORY  OF  LAWS. 


■opriety  of  the  form  of  action  being  applied  to 
>08e,  would  not  allow  the  party  to  show  that 
a  no  finding  in  the  case.  Hence  the  well-known 

trover,  from  the  French  trouver,  to  find.  Some 
illustrations  of  fictions  of  law  will  be  given  when 
ribo  the  method  iu  which  the  courts  acquired 
'isdiction. 

ns  were  not,  however,  the  only  means  by  which 
;e8,  while  adhering  apparently  to  the  letter  of 
could  adjust  it  to  their  own  views  of  the  wants 
y.  A  far-seeing  judge  who  looked  forward  to 
able  rise  of  a  new  system  of  transactions,  could, 
ying  of  the  principles  of  the  law  that  might  be 
perceptible  at  the  moment,  adapt  them  to  the 
encies.  It  was  thus  that  Lord  Mansfield,  with- 
aid  of  statute,  created  the  law  of  insurance. 
re  frequently  many  underwriters,  or  insurers 
sy,  and  had  the  practice  been  as  it  was,  each 
we  had  to  be  prosecuted  separately  on  the 

of  a  loss ;  but  Mansfield,  by  a  very  slight 
ec  from  previous  practice,  brought  all  the 
.  a  policy  into  one  action — an  expedient  with- 
h  the  system  as  it  at  present  stands  could 
!  existed.  This  was  accomplished  by  a  rule 
known  by  the  name  of  the  consolidation  rule, 
I  all  the  actions  except  one  is  stayed,  on  the 
defendants  becoming  bound  to  abide  by  the 
that  action.     In  their  covert  efforts  to  change 

the  judges  did  not  spare  even  acts  of  parlia> 
hey  managed  to  hit  a  blow  at  the  power  of  the 
cy,  by  limiting  the  operation  of  tne  statute  of 
When  the  holder  of  the  entailed  estate  wished 

he  let  the  buyer  bring  an  action  against  him, 
that  he  had  no  title.  He  said  he  had  bought 
■erty  fn>m  some  one — usually  the  crier  of  the 
rhose  duty  it  was  to  support  his  title.  The 
ng  called  in,  made  default,  and  was  nominally 
I  to  give  the  holder  under  the  entail  an  equi- 
rith  whom  there  was  no  effectual  competitor, 
»  estate  was  adjudged  to  the  purchaser. 
»po8itorie8  of  the  common  law  are  the  treatises 
^nt  lawyers  and  the  reports  of  decisions.  Of 
ler,  there  are  several  of  the  thirteenth  and 
Ui  centuries — Glanvil,  Bracton,  Hcngham,  and 

called  Fleta,  the  authorship  of  which  is  un- 

Lyttleton's  treatise  on  Tenures,  the  work  of  a 
itured  system,  was  long  the  text-book  in  the 
of  the  feudal  law.  It  was  in  the  humble  form 
ment  on  this  work,  that  the  great  Chief- Justice 
aed  the  vast  treasury  of  legal  learning  so  fanii- 
own  as  ^  Coke  upon  Lyttleton,''  a  book. which 
»lf  an  almost  inexhaustible  subject  of  study  to 
er.  The  next  great  name  is  Blackstone,  a  man 
ught  elegant  accomplishments  to  bear  on  the 
Irudgcry  of  the  law,  and  wrote  a  book,  the  clear 
ity  of  which  has  made  many  men  acquainted 

laws  of  their  country  who  would  have  other- 
lained  profoundly  ignorant  of  them.  The  book 
great  defect,  that,  professing  to  be  not  merely 
ation  of  the  laws  but  an  estimate  of  their  worth, 
rs  indiscriminate  eulogy  on  all  the  vices  of  the 
IS  well  as  its  advantages.  The  reverential  eye 
ich  English  lawyers  look  upon  whatever  is 
in  the  common  law,  is  singularly  apparent  in 
»rity  of  law-books.  If  any  great  authority,  such 
or  Blackstone,  has  treated  of  a  particular  sub- 
oever  afterwards  writes  upon  it  seems  to  be 
ind  to  incorporate  all  that  he  has  said,  not  only 
but  in  words.  As  the  passages  are  not  marked 
^9  the  effect  is  a  very  peculiar  one ;  for  the 
after  perusing  a  few  sentences  in  the  easy  flow 
bieteenth  century,  finds  himself  unexpectedly 
d  in  the  quaint  language  of  the  reign  of  James 
nt  the  slightest  hint  that  he  is  going  to  get,  not 
ment  of  the  author  himself,  but  something  taken 
ke  or  Spelman.     Of  the  reports  of  cases  there 

Tiflt  collection.  From  the  time  of  Edward  I. 
of  Henxy  VIII.,  they  were  annually  collected 
n  Appointed  for  the  purpose,  and  were  called 

699 


year-books.  They  have  latterly  been  published  by  pri- 
vate reporters.  As  they  are  all  precedents  for  guidance 
in  succeeding  cases,  and  therefore  the  source  to  which 
the  public  look  for  the  interpretation  of  the  laws  they 
must  obey,  it  may  be  questioned  whether  they  should 
not  be  officially  recorded  by  persons  responsible  for  the 
accuracy  of  their  reports.  This  plan  luis,  to  a  certain 
extent,  been  adopted  in  America. 

Law  of  Equity. — The  peculiar  strictness  with  which 
the  common  law  was  administered,  gave  rise  to  the  other 
great  division  of  English  jurisprudence — the  law  of 
equity.  This  was  originally  a  system  by  which  relief  was 
given  in  cases  where  a  strict  interpretation  of  the  com- 
mon law  would  have  produced  injustice.  It  could  look 
to  the  influence  of  accidents  and  frauds  when  common 
law  could  not.  A  deed,  for  instance,  was  lost.  The 
common  law  courts  could  hear  nothing  about  what 
might  have  been  its  contents.  They  could  see  nothing, 
know  nothing,  act  on  nothing,  but  the  express  words  of 
the  deed  as  set  before  them,  and  as  that  could  not  be 
found,  the  party  must  suffer.  Here  the  court  of  equity 
came  to  his  relief,  by  compelling  a  '*  discovery"  of  the 
contents  of  the  document.  When  a  trustee  was  put  in 
possession,  common  law  could  not  look  at  him  in  any 
other  light  but  as  holding  for  his  own  behoof;  but  equity 
compelled  him  to  do  his  duty  to  his  employers.  Where 
an  obligation  was  to  pay,  common  law  could  comprehend 
its  nature  and  exact  performance,  but  if  it  was  to  per- 
for  many  other  act,  tne  assistance  of  equity  was  gene- 
rally necessary.  Again,  the  courts  of  law  might  give  a 
remedy  for  a  mischief  after  it  had  been  perpetrated, 
but  they  could  not  interfere  to  prevent  it.  This  neces- 
sary branch  of  legal  administration  came  likewise  within 
the  jurisdiction  of  the  judge  in  equity,  who,  on  cause 
shown,  could  issue  his  '*  injunction." 

The  origin  of  this  system  is  as  obscure  as  that  of  the 
common  law,  though  it  is  evidently  of  a  more  modem 
date,  having  been  introduced  as  a  remedy  to  the  evils 
of  the  latter.  The  earlier  law-books  do  not  mention  it, 
and  it  was  probably  long  in  operation  as  a  sort  of  ex- 
ception to  the  ordinary  course  of  law,  before  lawyers 
would  acknowledge  it  as  a  system.  Its  most  plausible 
origin  is  simply  this — that  when  a  person  suffered  a 
manifest  injury,  w^hich  the  ordinary  courts  could  not 
remedy,  he  applied  for  redress  to  the  sovereign  in  per- 
son. The  king^s  conscience-keeper,  or  chaplain,  became 
the  referee  on  these  occasions,  and  what  he  did  he 
sealed,  by  way  of  testimony  of  the  royal  authority,  with 
the  king's  seaL  Hence  the  origin  of  the  lord  chancellor 
with  his  great  seal,  whose  office,  iu  this  form,  has  been 
traced,  or  imagined  to  be  traced,  so  far  back  as  the 
days  of  Edward  the  Confessor.  In  early  times,  the 
chancellors  w^ere  ecclesiastics,  and  they  thus  were  in 
the  habit  of  adjusting  their  equity,  and  the  form  in 
which  they  admmistered  it,  to  tlie  civil  law.  This  occa- 
sioned great  feuds  with  the  common  law  courts,  which 
at  the  commencement  of  the  seventeenth  century  raged 
so  fierce,  that  in  a  case  where  a  remedy  was  sought 
in  equity  from  the  proceedings  of  the  Court  of  King's 
Bench,  the  lawyers  who  conducted  the  proceeding,  and 
a  master  in  Chancer}',  were  indicted  for  an  offence.  With 
the  assistance  of  King  James,  whose  legal  notions  were 
derived  from  the  civilians,  the  courts  of  equity  triumphed. 
The  great  Sir  Edward  Coke  was  then  at  the  head  of  the 
King's  Bench — a  man  who,  notwithstanding  his  harsh 
and  tyrannical  acts,  must  still  be  admired  for  the  bravery 
with  which  he  supported  the  strict  administration  of  the 
law,  however  high  might  be  the  personage  who  wished 
to  evade  it.  Whatever  may  have  been  the  origin  of 
equity,  it  became  at  last  a  fixed  system  of  law.  1 1  b  a 
popular  mistake  that  a  judge  in  equity  gives  his  deci- 
sion according  to  what  is  called  ^the  general  prin- 
ciples of  equity  and  justice,'*  without  reference  to  strict 
rules.  He  is  bound  down  by  precedents  and  rules,  and 
there  are  many  acts  of  parliament  which  regulate  hia 
proceedings ;  so  that,  in  reality,  equity  is  but  a  depart- 
ment of  the  general  system  of  law. 

Statute  Law, — We  have  now  to  speak  of  the  third 
branch  of  the  law— statutes,  or  acts  of  parliament.  The 


> 


tute  tlio  act.  Singularly  enough,  the  bill  is  still  in  the 
form  of  a  petition,  and  when  it  is  made  an  act,  all  the 
alteration  that  tiikcs  place  is,  that  the  words  **  May  it 
therefore  please  your  IVIajesty,"  are  taken  out.  A  bill 
may  be  introduced  either  in  the  House  of  Commons  or 
in  the  House  of  Lords.  It  is  a  rule,  that  all  bills  affect- 
ing personal  station — such  as  bills  of  attainder  for  trea- 
son, bills  for  naturalising  foreigners,  &c. — shall  make 
their  first  appearance  in  the  House  of  Lords.  The 
commons  possess  the  nioi*o  substantial  privilege  of  ori- 
ginating all  bills  of  supply,  or  for  the  levying  and  ap- 
propriation of  taxes.  The  privilege  is  jealously  guarded, 
and  it  is  usual,  should  the  House  of  Lords  amend  such  a 
measure,  for  the  llou^e  of  Commons  to  refuse  to  take  it 
into  eoni4idei*ation  n^ain,  and  to  authorise  their  speaker 
to  throw  it  over  the  table.  About  seventy  years  ago,  in 
the  case  of  a  bill  for  the  protection  of  game,  the  House 
of  Lords  thought  fit  to  raise  the  penalties  higher  than 
those  sanctioned  by  the  lower  house,  and  as  the  money 
wont  to  the  cxcheiiuer,  the  commons  considered  this  an 
infringement  of  thoir  privileges,  and  acted  accordingly. 
All  measures  involving  fixation  originate  in  what  is 
called  "  a  committee  of  supply,"  in  which  the  house  is 
I)resumcd  to  be  sitting,  not  to  debate  great  questions, 
but  simply  to  transact  pecuniary  business.  In  the  case 
of  the  introduction  of  any  ordinary  bill,  amending  the 
law,  into  the  House  of  Commons,  the  first  stage  is,  to 
nbiain  leave  from  the  house  to  "  bring  it  in.''  In  the 
House  of  Lords,  a  member  may  move  a  bill  without 
previously  obtaining  leave.  On  a  bill  1>oing  brought 
in,  the  next  step  is  the  firat  reading.  A  member  moves 
that  it  bo  read  a  first  time.  If  there  be  a  party  in 
the  house  bitterly  opposed  to  the  principle  of  the  mea- 
sure, it  n)ay  be  opposed  in  this  stage,  and  a  debate 
and  division  will  of  course  ensue.  If  the  objections  be 
meri'ly  to  the  details,  they  are  reserved  for  a  future 
opiK>rtunity.  On  its  passing  this  ordeal,  the  bill  is 
ordereil  to  be  printed.  The  next  oi^ieal  is  the  second 
reading,  after  which  the  bill  is  referred  to  a  committee 
of  the  whole  house,  to  be  examined,  in  this  committee, 
as  in  a  connnittee  of  supply,  the  body  is  tlic  same  in 
every  respect  afl  that  which  constitutes  the  House  of 


the  printed  edition  of  the  statutes,  ea 
vided  into  sections.  This  arrangement 
by  the  printers  for  convenience  of  refe 
original  copy  of  the  act  there  is  uo  r 
whole  is  a  continuous  manuscript  withe 
the  division  into  chapters  even  authorit 
qucnce  is,  that  when  a  new  act  ia  pasea 
tion  on  some  part  of  a  previous  cue,  ii 
ing  the  chapter  and  section  that  is  aU< 
the  act  vaguely,  as  an  act  passed  in  &i 
such  a  pui'posc.  Thus,  in  1830,  an  a 
alter  a  section  of  the  Patents  Act,  paa 
any  ordinary  purpose,  this  would  hav 
act  to  amend  the  seventh  section  of 
William  IV.  chapter  83;  this  would 
exact  point  at  once :  but  as  there  an 
as  chapters  and  sections  known  in  lav 
could  only  give  a  roundabout  dcscripl 
act  to  amend  an  act  of  tlic  fifth  anti  ri 
reign  of  his  late  Majesty  William  IV.,  i 
amend  the  law  touching  letters-patent 
Sometimes,  there  is  a  series  of  acts 
amending  those  that  liavc  preceded  tl 
titles  arc  involved  in  almost  inextri 
Even  where  the  acts  are  divided  uito  i 
are  by  the  printers,  it  is  found  ven-  difl 
to  unravel  their  meaning,  and  to  unpn 
they  arc  often  a  scaled  book.  A  sectia 
sists  of  but  one  sentence,  and  as  it  hai 
long  narrative  of  things  tbat  must  b< 
dently  of  circumstances,  and  others  th 
in  particular  cases,  and  others  that  n 
arc  not  imperative,  and  others  that  mi 
&c.,  the  comprehension  of  tlie  full  mca 
tenco  requires  a  strong  mental  cfToi 
statutes,  there  are  individual  scutoDCCs^ 
in  the  form  of  an  ordinary  novel,  woul 
pages. 

There  arc  some  acts  which  arc  pa» 
in  the  same  terms,  such  as  the  Mutiny 
nity  for  neglecting  to  take  tlic  oaths,  &e 
of  these,  the  statutes  now  pa$^<cd  in  a  s 


HISTORY  OF  LAWS. 


tnpy  a  twentieth  pai*t  of  its  present  bulk,  spoke 
iariu  of  its  overgrown  size,  and  recommended 
le  whole  ought  to  be  abridged  before  it  should 
i  unmanageable.  Already  something  has  been 
The  revenue  acts,  which  occupy  a  large  por- 
'  tlio  statute-book,  were  partially  consolidated 
i.    About  400  acts  relating  to  the  customs,  and 

matters,  the  prevention   of  smuggling,  regis- 

of  vessels,  &c.,  were  repealed,  and  the  new 
ions  on  the  various  heads  were  consolidated 
:  acts.  To  these  acts,  each  subsequent  session 
nerally  made  some  addition ;  but  to  prevent 
>ii  from  this  source,  a  very  simple  remedy 
*n  devised.  When  there  have  been  several 
is  made  to  an  act,  a  new  one  is  framed,  embody- 

wholo  contents  of  the  old  act,  as  altered  by 
»8equent  ones,  and  then  all  previous  legisla- 
thc  subject  is  repealed.  Thus,  in  1833,  all  the 
louse  acts  were  a  second  time  consolidated  ; 
o  say,  the  acts  of  1826,  with  the  additions  and 
»ii8  made  to  them  by  later  acts,  were  embodied 
r  in  a  set  of  new  acts,  so  that  no  one,  in  consult- 
customhouse  laws,  can  have  to  go  farther  back 
33.  Measures  are  no  doubt  in  preparation  to 
tills  principle  to  other  departments.  At  this 
:^  there  are  upwards  of  120  stamp-acts  in  ope- 
>ne  of  them  as  old  as  the  reign  of  William  III. 
istence  of  these  confused  masses  of  legislation 
lly  prevents  people  from  being  able  to  act  up 
.aws,  however  willing  they  may  be,  and  their 
on  is  frequently  in  other  people  being  equally 
t  of  the  laws  tluit  are  broken.  Invidious  inves- 
s  into  antiquated  laws,  are  thus  occasionally  the 
»f  subiectiug  individuals  to  great  hardships,  by 
^  punishment  upon  them  which  no  foresight 
tAve  averted.  Hence  the  trade  of  what  ore 
ommon  informers,  whose  vindication  of  the  law 

often  the  effect  of  merely  heaping  calamities 
iriduals,  instead  of  producing  a  uniform  obser- 
<^  the  laws.  The  pursuit  is  a  very  unpopular 
^  when  laws  are  in  every  respect  just  and  good, 
Scult  to  see  how  the  enforcement  of  them  can 
c*  than  an  advantage ;  and  it  would  appear  to  an 
diced  stranger  to  be  a  somewhat  contradictory 
'y  first  to  make  laws,  and  then  teach  society  to 
><1  punish  those  who  put  them  in  force.  As 
advances  in  intelligence,  the  necessity  for  the 
of  the  whole  system  of  law,  and  its  simpli- 

ioto  one  comprehensive  code,  will  become 
pparent,  while  the  mode  of  administering  the 
courts  will  also  be  seen  to  require  revision. 
€hing  at  present  indicates  that  we  are  ap- 
ng  the  |K)int  when  these  important  steps  must 
a. 

iah  Courts. — We  have  now  to  notice  the  various 
»f  Uw  in  England.  The  House  of  Lords  must  be 
ked  as  a  general  court  of  appeal  from  the  whole 
a.  There  is  only  one  set  of  superior  judicatures 
iftich  a  reference  may  not  come  before  it  in  some 
'  other — the  criminal  courts  of  Scotland.  The 
f  parliament  is  connected  with  the  great  council 
feudal  kins;8,  which  gave  them  advice  both  in 
Lve  and  jumcial  matters.  When  parliament  was 
ed  into  two  houses,  the  judicial  business  adhered 
rral  to  the  upper,  and,  probably  at  the  insti- 
of  the  bishops,  the  Lords  adopted  the  power 
linistering  oaths,  which  was  not  possessed  by 
lunons — a  circumstance  which  more  distinctly 
L  their  judicial  character.  To  bring  causes  which 
lAsed  through  the  hands  of  learned  judges  under 
dot  cognisance  of  a  body  consisting  of  clergymen, 
t,  and  young  men  of  fashion,  would  be  too  prepos- 
U  be  practically  adopted ;  and  though  the  appeal 
inally  taken  to  the  House  of  Lords,  it  is  heard 
^ded  on  by  one  of  the  eminent  lawyers,  of  whom 
ire  always  several  in  the  house,  and  generally 
Lord  Chancellor.  Independently  of  their  powers 
ges  of  appeal,  the  Peers  act  as  a  criminal  court 
where  a  peer  of  the  realm  is  tried  for  a 
701 


capital  crime.  They  are  formed  into  a  temporary 
tribunal  for  the  occasion,  presided  over  by  a  judge 
called  the  lord  high  steward.  This  official  is  properly 
the  judge,  the  peers  acting  as  a  jury,  and  giving  their 
verdict  on  the  question  of  guilt.  The  directly  feudal 
origin  of  this  relic  of  ancient  practice  will  be  at  onco 
recognised. 

The  principal  courts  of  first  resort,  are  naturally 
divided  into  courts  of  common  law  and  courts  of  equity. 
The  former  are  three  in  number ;  the  King's  or  Queen's 
Bench,  the  Common  Pleas,andthe  Exchequer.  Each  has 
a  chief,  and  four  assistant  judges,  called  puisne  or  junior 
judges.  These  courts  date  their  oi-igin  to  the  Conquest. 
On  feudal  principles,  the  Norman  kings  called  all  the 
principal  causes  which  had,  under  the  Saxons,  proceeded 
before  the  county  courts,  to  be  decided  in  their  own  hall, 
or  court,  by  their  own  great  council,  which  was  presided 
over  by  an  officer  called  the  j  usticiar.  This  court,  called 
the  Aula  HegU,  or  King*s  Court,  at  first  followed  the 
king's  person,  a  great  inconvenience,  removed  by  Magna 
Charta,  which  fixed  it  permanently  in  Westminster. 
Under  Edward  I.,  the  system  was  adopted  of  sending 
deputations  from  the  court  twice  a-year,  to  try  cases 
in  various  parts  of  the  country.  Under  the  same  mo- 
narch, the  jurisdiction  of  the  court  was  split  into  three 
parts.  To  the  justiciar,  afterwards  called  chief-justice, 
were  assigned  the  pleas  of  the  crown,  as  they  were 
termed,  involving  all  ofi'ences ;  and  being  the  highest 
judicial  officer  iu  point  of  rank,  his  court  was  appointed 
to  have  cognisance  over  the  two  others.  The  matters 
connected  with  the  exchequer,  viz.  the  regulation  of 
the  royal  domains,  the  collection  of  duties  and  other 
taxes,  were  committed  to  judges  called  barons,  pro- 
sided  over  by  a  chief-baron.  All  questions  about  tho 
possession  of  land,  and  other  litigations  between  one 
citizen  and  another  regarding  mattei*s  of  property,  were 
called  ^common  pleas,"  and  were  committed  to  cer- 
tain justices,  presided  over  by  a  chief- justice. 

The  King's  or  Queen's  Bench  is  thus  the  chief  cri- 
minal court,  and  the  Exchequer  is  the  principal  tribu- 
nal for  revenue  matters ;  but  these  courts  are  by  no 
means  restricted  to  the  departments  to  which  they  are 
so  assigned — they  possess,  concurrently  with  the  com- 
mon pleas,  a  jurisdiction  in  all  ordinary  questions  of 
common  law.  The  manner  in  which  they  obtained  this 
power  is  one  of  the  most  extraordinary  circumstances 
in  the  hbtory  of  the  laws  of  any  country.  The  instru- 
ments made  use  of  were,  as  has  been  hinted,  the  fictions, 
described  as  a  peculiarity  of  the  English  law.  To  get  at 
the  real  motives  which  wero  at  work,  it  is  necessary  to 
recollect,  that  formerly  not  only  the  judges,  but  all  tho 
officials  connected  with  the  several  courts,  were  paid  by 
fees,  the  amount  of  which  depended  on  the  extent  of  busi- 
ness transacted.  They  were  thus  like  so  many  trades- 
men keeping  shops  for  the  sale  of  justice,  each  anxious 
to  keep  a  large  supply  of  whatever  was  most  wanted, 
and  to  serve  the  public  on  the  most  tempting  terms. 
In  this  manner,  the  courts  of  law  undersold  the  courts 
of  equity  by  not  demanding  any  sanction,  such  as  an 
oath,  for  tho  truth  of  what  litigants  declared  in  their 
pleadings.  An  arduous  run  for  business  was  carried 
on  between  the  three  common  law  courts,  the  accounts 
of  which,  as  given  in  the  legal  histories  and  law-books, 
are  infinitely  grotesque.  l%e  extent  to  which  a  court 
could  carry  its  jurisdiction  by  these  means,  depended 
less  upon  reason  than  upon  the  muscuUir  power  of  thoso 
officers  of  the  court  who  enforced  its  decrees.  The 
Exchequer,  when  it  attempted  to  levy  taxes,  was  told 
occasionally  that  the  person  cliarged  with  them  could 
not  pay,  by  reason  that  his  debtors  had  not  paid  what 
they  owed  him ;  while  he  hinted,  that  if  the  Exchequer 
wished  his  money,  they  had  better  assist  him  iu  reco- 
vering it.  On  this,  it  became  the  practice  of  the  Ex- 
chequer to  assist  those  who  were  in  debt  to  tho  crown 
to  get  payment  of  the  money  due  to  them.  It  occurred 
to  some  ingenious  lawyers,  employed  to  recover  debts, 
that  if  they  stated  to  the  Court  of  Exchequer  that  cer- 
tain clients  were  debtors  of  the  crown,  and  could  not 
pay  by  reason  of  their  own  debtors  not  satisfying  their 


CHAMBERS'S  INFOIlM.\TION  FOR  THE  PEOfl 


lemands,  the  court  wonM  m»ke  vary  little  inqnirj  into 
hr  truth  of  tlie  nlilnmeiit,  but  would  adjudicate  in  the 
9ue,  and  levj  the  money  forthwith.     The  conrt  made 

la  little  mquiryaa  to  the  truth  of  the 

tot  allu*  --  - 


~..e  hrou)iht  an  ftctiaii  in  the  Cai 
WM  &  matter  of  furm  tliat  he  ehonld  uy  ho  wu  a  debtor 
tu  the  kiug,  and  that  he  eonld  not  pay  bin  debt,  unlwe 
Ml  obligation,  incurred  id  hi«  favour  liy  the  dcfendaot, 
were  fnlfilied.  The  juriidietiou  of  the  King's  Bench 
was  limiud  10  cues  that  were  either  pon-ly  criminal, 
OT  had  some  connexion  wi<h  otTelicca,  When  any  iiue, 
however,  hspponod  to  te  in  tJia  priaon  of  the  King's 
Bench  for  lui  offenCH,  there  was  no  iDcaas  uf  getting  U 
him  but  through  that  court;  and  bo  the  plan  was  dc- 
TiHed,  o(  stating  that  a  inan  was  in  the  King's  Beiwh 
priwn  whan  lie  was  not.  "  And  in  proceaa  at  lime," 
eayg  Blackslonif, "  it  [the  Court  of  King's  Bencii]  hoean, 
bj  ■  llution,  to  huld  ploa  of  all  penonal  actions  whal- 
■oever,  and  liai  continued  to  do  so  for  acea :  it  being 
mrmiUd,  that  the  defendant  is  arrested  fur  a  mip- 
poaed  trejpaw,  which  he  never  haa,  in  reality,  com- 
mitted i  and,  being  thua  in  custody  of  the  nutrahal  of 
the  court,  lbs  nlamtiff  is  at  liberty  to  proooed  B^[aiiut 
liim  (or  any  otber  pCTBOnal  injury,  which  BOmuse  of 
beuig  in  the  manhal'*  euilDdy  the  defendant  is  not  at 
liberlf  to  dispute."  These  fictions  were  not  abolishad 
until  the  year  IHSa,  when,  by  act  of  parliament,  aa 
uiufonu  process  was  osliibliBhod  Lu  the  three  common 
law  courts.  An  appeal  lies  from  the  deuiaion  of  any 
oue  of  these  courts  to  the  judges  of  the  other  two,  who, 
when  met  to  decide  on  aucli  appeals,  constitute  a  Court 
called  the  Excherjuer  Chamber,  Fourtoen  of  the  fifteen 
judges  who  form  these  common  law  coarts  bold  the 
BHsiBes  in  the  various  county  towns — in  some  of  lh«m 
twice,  and  in  olhera  thrice  H-year.  Hero  they  net  both 
as  civil  and  criniioal  judges.  Ofrcn(>es  cotniuiLled  in 
London  and  its  ricinily  are  tried  by  a  tribunal  lately 
created,  called  the  Central  Criniinnl  Court. 


bary  and  Vurk.    In  tli* 

of  Arclies,lhv  Treriigiiiii 

the  Court  ot  Peoullan ;  in  the  lalKr,  tta'ft 

Court  and  the  Clutneerj'  Court.     'Omtmt 

inferiur  ecclesiastical  oHirta.  The  Aid  ft 
exereixed  by  theee  tribanalB,  bawla  ifteaam 
siastical  disalpline,  is  ia  matlur*  mlauqMa 
to  moveable  goodi.  If  wo  wen  ta  eanyf  I 
English  tribunal^  it  would  be  DSOiaH}ttki 
juBliaes  of  pescD,  who,  lissiia  SBBf  a^ 
in  revenne  and  other  tnaUera  flfftwl  ^« 
liameat,  ait,  at  the  gaiieni  asd  ipKIM^m 
judgeBinminorothiioat  Then tli«sw*nni 
of  gnauteror  less  jurlsdielton,  conn*nri  will « 
boroughs ;  and,  in  aomo  pUets,  atakUaal 
courts  of  requeets,  for  adjndiatii^  id  bm  i 

°  "*  .      .    ■*' 

describe  ttl. .  , 

all  rospecta  a  model  at  ic  Itaki 
■VBIem  of  Kngland  was  lately  injrnfM  aiAl 
the  cmpiro,  and  th«  principle*  of  tlis  in|MBd  I 
Debtors'  Act  were  extended  Id  it  In  AnfotflM 
chief  distinction  in  the  natnn  of  lb*  (MM 
coobIsIs  in  this,  that  in  Ireland  a  DSBdlmHl 
of  the  judicial  busiDeaa  is  Irauxactad  il  csvik 
rat  seBBinn,held  quarterly  by  the  jti^isea 4 ■ 
who  act  under  the  advice  of  profeauenil  la>T* 


PtTim  what  has  been  already  said.  itwlDt*] 
that  the  law  of  ^icollaad  waa  chiefly  Wf^ 
feudal  system  and  the  Rmuan  law.  ^  I* 
in  proclicc  according  M  the  furm  in  sbet  llW 
iiKlf  to  tiio  particular  cnstomj  of  tlie«B«Bii]|< 
was  taheu  (rom  the  dootrinea  of  tl>*  dvifiSK  V 
ami  progm  of  feodalisui  in  Scotland  ai*  *0| 
Tlie  ohroniclers  attribute  the  foiuidalin  rf  ■ 
to  Mulcolm  II.,  in  the  eleventh  twntoiy,*»« 


anaoftliciataal' 
iiany  eheda,  wU 


■I,  I  iii;mUj  drtw  the  legal 

■  ,',M-,\nua'iM.n  to'  d  derived*! 
Mv  liLW  in  .^otlaihl  previouB 
Inward  I.  probably  destr 
h  tthich  its  bistory  might 
Minns  to  liave  been  chane 
.  .he  a«lruc.ion  of  morf 
probably,  by  fabric 


:i  the  SI 


illeged  collection  « 


.  .lf..> 


e  lUighah  voHi.  of  Glanv 
callysuppoeedtohavebaa 
s  were,  but  of  what  the 
The  earliest  SctKtU  la| 
luoted,  is  Balfoor,  who 


HISTORY  OF  LAWS. 


le  Utter  end  of  the  sixteenth  century,  a  com- 
I,  chiefly  derived  from  the  Regiam  Majestatem, 

of  parliament,  and  the  decisions  of  the  court, 
eign  <^  James  VI.,  a  commission  to  make  inquiry 
laws,  of  which  the  celebrated  Sir  John  Skene — 
lir  James  Melville  chose  as  his  legal  adviser  on 
assy  to  Denmark,  because  he  was  **  a  stout  man 
Dutchman*' — was  a  member.  They  collected 
blished  many  acts  of  parliament,  the  Regiam 
item,  and  other  consuetudinary  laws,  such  as 
toms  of  the  royal  burghs ;  and  Sir  John  Skene 

curious  work  on  the  meaning  of  technical  legal 
ioDS.  But  the  first  really  scientific  writer  on 
r  of  Scotland  was  Sir  Thomas  Craig,  whose 
I  the  feudal  law  was  published  in  1655.     It  is 

of  great  learning  and  thought,  in  which  the 
is  somewhat  surprised  to  find  that,  though  the 
cofesscs  to  be  a  Scottish  law-book,  it  should 
BO  much  of  its  learning  from  the  practice  of 
Dtal  nations.  The  next  great  authority  is  Lord 
wequivocal  statesman  of  the  reign  of  James  Y II., 
Institute,  on  the  model  of  that  of  Justinian,  is 
able  for  the  breadth  of  its  legal  principles,  and 
teness  with  which  they  are  practically  applied. 
fter  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century,  a 
Institute  was  prepared  by  Mr  Erskine,  professor 
tish  law,  more  suited  to  the  knowledge  of  the  age 
it  of  Stair,  but  more  dry  and  formal.  Sir  Walter 
as  justly  denominated  Erskine's  Institute  the 
I  **  Coke  upon  Lyttleton.*'  There  were  formerly 
ortunities  of  acquiring  a  legal  education  in  Scot- 
ul  it  was  the  practice  for  the  youth  studying  the 
I  law  to  repair  to  one  of  the  continental  nniver- 
imong  which  Leyden  and  Paris  were  preferred. 

occasion  of  tlie  appointment  to  a  chair  of  law 
rdeen,  in  the  seventeenth  century,  Spalding  the 
oler  says,  it  was  *'  strange  to  see  ane  man  ad- 
to  teach  the  lawes,  who  was  never  out  of  the 
6  studieing  and  learning  the  lawes  f*  thus  ex- 
g  his  astonishment  that  any  man  could  be  pre- 
to  become  acquainted  with  a  system  of  law  on 
t  where  it  is  administered.  The  civil  law  is  still 
edly  studied  in  Scotland,  but  its  ancient  influence 
Ak  beneath  the  progress  of  commerce,  and  the 
e  of  statutory  regulations,  which  compel  the 

to  spend  mudi  of  his  time  with  acts  of  parlia- 
iid  reports  of  decisions. 

lud  has  a  considerable  quantity  of  early  statute 
t  not  nearly  so  much  as  England.  Down  to  the 
I  ttw  Revolution,  the  genentl  principles  only  of 
■  had  the  assent  of  the  assembled  parliament — 
tub  were  all  prepared  by  a  committee  called  the 
of  the  Articles.  The  older  acts  are  remarkable 
tr  Spartan  brevity — a  dozen  of  them  could  be 
•  the  title  of  an  act  of  the  reign  of  George  III. ; 
lAodem  malt  or  glass  duties'  act  would  occupy 
A  Scottish  statute-book  down  to  the  reign  of 
III.  It  was  a  practice  derived  from  the  civil 
It  acts  of  parliament  became  repealed  by  disuse, 
imry  practice.  Since  the  union  with  England, 
liftment  of  the  united  kingdom  has  legislated  for 
i,  and  to  the  acts  so  passed  the  above  doctrine 
*t  apply.  The  description  of  the  passing  of  an 
«&  above,  applies  to  acts  relating  to  Scotland  as 
O  those  which  apply  to  England.  It  has  been  felt 
r«et  in  Scotland,  that  in  manv  cases  acts  appli- 
fe  the  whole  kingdom  are  drawn  by  English 
k  who  do  not  apply  their  provisions  to  meet  the 
'itifis  of  Scottish  practice. 
IBwriiest  superior  tribunals  in  Scotland,  were 
be  parliament,  as  the  king's  great  council,  or  a 
k«e  of  it,  acting  with  the  delegated  powers  of  the 
hodr.  There  was  likewise,  as  in  England,  a 
ttrtidar,  whose  authority  was  vast,  and  not  very 
fcned,  espedally  in  criminal  matters.  Committees 
^ment  were,  in  the  fifteenth  and  the  beginning 
Iztaeoth  centorv,  sometimes  formed  into  reguUu: 
i€  jwtioey  in  wiucb,  however,  a  certaui  degree 
eoidd  not  be  ^voided.  In  1532,  the  pre- 
708 


sent  Court  of  Session  was  constituted,  on  the  model,  it 
is  believed,  of  the  parliament  of  Paris.  The  chancellor, 
whoso  principal  duties  disappeared  at  the  Union,  was 
chairman  of  this  body.  It  consisted  of  fifteen  judges,  in- 
cluding a  president,  who  was  chairman  in  absence  of  the 
chancellor.  In  1830,  the  number  of  judges  was  reduced 
to  thirteen ;  and  about  the  same  time,  the  authority  of 
some  other  tribunals,  the  chief  of  which  were  the  Courts 
of  Admiralty  and  Exchequer,  was  transferred  to  the 
Court  of  Session.  It  consists  of  two  divisions,  which 
are  separate  tribunals.  Some  of  the  judges  also  act  as 
individual  judges  in  courts  of  their  own,  in  which  capa- 
city they  are  termed  "  lords  ordinary."  An  ordinary 
case,  on  coming  into  court,  is  discussed  before  a  lord 
ordinar}',  from  whose  decision  there  is  a  reference  to 
one  of  the  divisions  of  the  **  Inner  House,"  as  it  is 
termed,  where  the  remaining  judges  sit  collectively. 
From  them  there  is  an  appeal  to  the  House  of  Lords. 
There  is  no  such  conventional  distinction  as  that  between 
law  and  equity  known  in  Scotland,  and  hence  English 
lawyers,  who  are  apt  to  measure  all  other  systems  by 
their  own,  absurdly  enough  speak  of  the  Court  of  Ses- 
sion as  a  court  **  both  of  law  and  equity."  Brides  the 
usual  adjud)  cation  of  litigated  cases,  there  are  two  very 
useful  desci'iptions  of  action  peculiar  to  this  court.  The 
one  is  called  an  action  of  *'  declarator,"  which  a  person 
who  is  puzzled  about  any  difiiculty,  and  is  afraid  of 
committing  an  illegal  act,  may  bring,  to  have  the  law 
as  to  the  point  declared,  and  his  course  of  action  made 
plain ;  another  is  called  a  **  multiplepoindlng,"  which 
may  be  raised  by  a  man  having  money  in  his  hands 
which  more  than  one  person  is  claiming,  that  he  may 
know  to  whom  he  can  legal! v  pay  it.  Trial  by  jury  was 
not,  until  very  lately,  added  to  the  jurisdiction  of  this 
court.  It  is  limited  to  certain  descriptions  of  cases, 
and  is  far  from  popular. 

The  principal  criminal  court  is  the  Court  of  Justiciary, 
consisting  of  seven  of  the  judges  of  the  Court  of  Session, 
who  sit  m  Edinburgh,  and  commission  some  of  their 
number  to  hold  circuits  in  the  country.  Almost  all 
offences  in  Scotland  are  prosecuted  by  a  public  prose- 
cutor ;  there  is  no  grand  jury,  and  the  ordinary  jur}', 
consisting  of  fifteen,  give  their  verdict  by  a  majority. 
The  criminal  law  is  partly  statute,  partly  founded  on 
long  usage.  There  are  many  offences  which,  by  this 
latter  portion  of  the  law,  are  punishable  with  death,  if 
the  prosecutor  do  not  restrict  the  extent  of  punishment 
to  be  awarded,  which  ho  now  docs  in  almost  every  case 
except  murder.  The  sheriffs,  or  local  judges  of  coun- 
ties, have  important  judicial  powers,  both  civil  and 
criminal.  The  former  extends  to  every  description  of 
dispute  regarding  property,  except  what  refers  to  land. 
The  powers  of  these  judges  have  lately  received  exten- 
sive additions,  especially  in  matters  of  insolvency  and 
bankruptcy.  They  do  not  employ  a  jury,  except  in 
criminal  cases,  in  which  their  power  of  inflicting  punish- 
ment does  not  exceed  imprisonment.  They  hold  small- 
debt  courts,  where  questions  of  debt  to  the  amount  of 
£8,  6s.  8d.  are  summarily  decided.  The  magistrates 
of  royal  burghs  enjoy  powers  somewhat  analogous  to 
those  of  sheriffs.  The  authority  of  the  justices  of  peace 
in  Scotland  is  not  so  extensive  as  it  is  in  England. 

There  has  latterly  been  some  indications  of  the  assi- 
milation of  the  legal  usages  of  Scotland  to  those  of 
England,  and  it  is  nighly  desirable  that  an  end  should 
speedily  be  put  to  all  existing  diversities. 

THE  FRENCH  CODES. 

The  ancient  laws  of  France  were  a  mixture  of  the 
civil,  feudal,  and  canon  law.  Partly  they  were  the 
doctrines  of  the  authorities  on  the  civil  law,  and  partly 
they  were  the  ordinances  issued  by  the  various  mo- 
narchs.  By  far  the  greatest  portion,  however,  in  bulk, 
consisted  of  the  peculiar  feudal  customs  of  the  various 
provinces.  In  these  the  feudal  system  was  sometimes 
retained  m  so  high  a  state  of  puritv,  that  the  collections 
of  provincial  customs  are  esteemed  excellent  authorities 
on  the  subject.  But  it  was  not  merely  in  each  province 
that  there  was  a  local  custom.  The  power  of  the  crown. 


great  families,  who  thus  coustitutcU  a  species  of  pro- 
fessional iiobihty.  The  decrees  of  these  bodies  were 
often  battled  or  reversed  by  the  royal  authority,  exer- 
cised in  the  well-known  form  of  Icttres  de  cachet.  These 
alterations  of  the  decisions  of  the  courts,  however,  were 
performed  not  as  a  judicial  i*evi$ion,  but  by  the  simple 
authority  of  the  king ;  and  thus  the  parliaments,  beine 
subject  to  no  judicial  control  or  rcsponsibiUty,  adhered 
but  slightly  to  fixed  rules  of  law,  and  often  acted  accord- 
ing to  their  own  will  and  discretion.  The  jury,  even 
so  much  of  it  as  may  liave  existed  under  the  old  feudal 
form,  had  entirely  disappeared,  and  proceedings  were 
conducted  in  seci*et.  Criminal  investigations,  instead 
of  terminating  in  a  conclusive  trial  as  in  England,  were 
protracted  through  a  lingering  succession  of  wTitten 
pleadings  and  secret  investigations,  from  which  the 
accused  could  never  calculate  on  being  free.  The  tor- 
ture was  extensively  employed ;  but  in  the  general  catsc, 
only  when  there  was  as  much  circumstantial  evidence 
as  would  justify  a  conviction  in  this  countrv. 

The  whole  of  this  system  was  swept  suddenly  away 
)>efoi*e  the  tide  of  the  revolution,  but  amid  the  troubled 
times  that  succeeded,  it  was  long  ere  rulers  could  iiud 
peace  and  leisure  for  the  erection  of  a  substitute.  In 
1800,  Napoleon  appointed  a  commission  to  draw  up  a 
project  of  a  civil  code.  The  project  when  prepared 
was  circulated  for  comment  and  suggestion,  and  was 
afterwards,  along  with  the  observations  made  on  it  by 
the  different  courts  of  law,  discussed  in  the  council  of 
state  and  the  tribunate.  Thus  was  formed  the  Code 
Civil,  or  civil  code  of  France,  more  generally  known 
by  the  term  Code  Xapolcotty  which  was  applied  to  it 
under  the  empire.  Nearly  at  the  same  time,  and  in  the 
same  manner,  was  framed  the  Code  de  Procedure  CivUe, 
or  code  for  regulating  the  form  of  process  in  civil 
actions,,  and  specifying  the  jurisdictions  of  the  various 
courts.  Being  a  subject  more  connected  with  technical 
detail,  and  involving  less  of  general  principle  than  the 
civil  code,  its  provisions  were  left  almost  entirely  to  the 
arrangement  of  the  lawyers.  Besides  the  techniad 
directions  in  which  lawyers  are  almost  wholly  interested, 
there  are  in  this  manual  many  whidi  concern  the  ordi- 
nary procedings  of  citizens  at  Urge,  such  as  directions 
for  the  order  to  be  taken  regarding  the  effects  of  a  de- 
ceased ]>cr8on,  fee.    This  code  is  generally  accompanied 


I...  _ 


r  r 


-  j:-  ..  . 


into  books  and  sections,  the  pi 
arc  numbered  straight  on  from 
arrangement  which  gives  peeulia 
Thus  there  are  in  the  civil  cc 
numbered  paragraphs.  In  a  con 
of  the  law  is  so  gigantic  as  it  is 
highest  interest  to  mark  the  pi 
grand  effort  at  simplification.  ' 
in  this  country,  it  is  a  much  a 
law  of  France  on  any  pArtieulai 
is  living  under.  If  an  Eiiglibh 
tion,  his  answer  involves  rdert 
dedsions,  and  statutes  innumcn 
case,  the  answer  of  a  French  k 
ference  to  such  a  pamgnph  of  i 
Tho  French  codes  adopt  tl 
Roman  law  and  many  of  its 
striking  deviation  from  the  prei 
the  present  ^'stems  of  other  cos 
rules  respecting  succession.  T 
equal  shares  of  the  parents*  imto] 
of  land  or  moveables ;  and  if 
children,  illegitimate  children  m 
is  limited  in  the  disposal  of  hii 
can  only  benucatli  the  half  if 
child,  and  the  third  if  he  h 
somewhat  similar  are  to  be  fa 
with  respect  to  moveable  propc 
The  effect  which  the  cxtensi 
occasioned  by  this  law,  has  cf 
in  France,  is  a  subject  of  sr 
economists.  In  the  mereantiU 
provisions  unknown  in  this  coi 
for  hypothecs  or  securities  hel 
or  merchandise,  and  societies 
partnerships  in  which  certain 
responsible  for  the  obligations 
extent  of  their  whole  property, 
ners  who  advanoe  money  ats 
the  amount  of  their  shares.  ' 
in  the  criminal  law  effected  dm 
sanctioned  by  the  code  of  inst 
to  which  Napoleon  was  mnch  < 
finallv  settled,  bore  more  rei 
tish  than  to  tlie  EngUsh  form,  : 


.y  \: 


RS'S 

I,  THE  PEOPLE. 


m  pid  than  Jt  dcM  la  ptwmra  lilrer.  Tbay  giri 
;li  Iw^ruuMini  iif  iron  ill  »«hiin»ili*niir*iI)'SFi 
IM  th*  labour  of  pmeufiiiK  •Hvrt  a  inurh  KrnMxr 
iha  Iftbaur  at  pnicurlug  Iron. 

4  henoe  W«  k«  tJiM  wtieo  mi-n  «).«huijj;«  will) 
oUier,  the  cxelauinabiD  ralnn  of  uuf  Uniic  wili 
I  gvDDTd,  n«  Uw  luonr  wbicli  it  cosu  tu  (uucuo 
iriiis*  th*  «•>!  of  BDjr  thinfc  or  iU  nofursJ  prict, 
<  labvur  wMcb  i*  iwcwury  to  frudom  !{. 
bi,  liiiWBV  nr,  la  liabl*  In  bcokIsiiIaI  Mid  Vimponrj 
Uiliiin.  SdnelimM  s  taurb  laTgrP  41UUIIII}  kT  n 
-prodaet  i>  oreiucd  ihui  i«  wuiii'il.  Id  lU*  eua, 
tnur,  in  ordiv  to  induise  potMiiui  to  buy,  oiU  nSbr 
B  IcM  pries  thiULtbe  roti,  limuw  b*  Iwil  nltier 
I  *l  a  tnn  thso  loM  H  kllcKcUxr.  Wbail,  ba 
AW,  ibi  nupply  ia  idij  sbiiiiduii,  ttn  riich>n||uUa 
*ill  foil.  Oil  tlio  cthar  hioU.  wbcn  nut  euouKb  nf 
IvED  iitodiict  hu  bcw  oMtod  to  •upplt  UlK  mtDtt 
I  coniDainli;,  Uio  bnfus,  ratfacr  dou  (■  d*firif»il 
win  otMbid  *«6h  Mbrr,  and  thus  wiD  f»)  moi* 
(liH  mUural  prior:  llurt  ia,  »b*D  ihwdnukcd  )• 
wIIt  crMl,  tba  «xrbui|trs)>W  Vklue  «l!l  riw.  Tl>e»« 
>  III  lluctuallun  cnii,  ItaActar,  eliil  bat  bo-  ibnrl 
la,  Olid  Ibeoiiiutant  Icndcnqy  of  llic  cmLurnbla 
of  ODJ'  thing  will  be  towudi  tile  eiwt  of  tbs  iaVmir 
jsry  to  cnf»w  il. 

^"mrfMifinn '—I'mduviinn  i«  (ha  aee  by  *blali  wii 
« luijr  ubjc«i  it*  iinriUmlAr  vkluo,  or  iU  |i«rtieuliir 
ily  lo  imUiy  bumui  dulre.  Mnd  qiii  utOliiiir 
9  net  kmiilulate  uij'  ili&ig ;  he  can  mly  olisnge  dia 
of  that  wbicli  il  erralad.  W*  nonot  on«U  Irao, 
u  mn  nlrurt  il  frum  tii<>  an> ;  «*  mui  ihwt  dunni 
J  M>wl ;  Ht  can  ebugo  ■  bimp  (if  mmI  Into  Icnib- 
■.  I^udi  of  IhcM  actit,  bj  wlileh  ■  pariioulcr  value 
en  lo  llie  Iron,  ia  sited  no  itM  a(  prodaetifm. 
p  nibataoaa  M  whiidi  iitiy  vilua  bM  ibiw  bom 
,  ia  call*il  %  prndurL 

ni/u/.— Th*  unii  okflUi  ia  apfilii'il  tu  Iha  material 
-  It  baa  bnn  irhaUEad  bj  Jabiiur  into  a  pnrrltHi  i  In 
utrunflili  *ilii  wliieb  lliia  nliiuifii  ia  affKird ;  It 
■una  iif  <ub*BrtniQ»  by  wliieli  llui  latworar  la  alu- 
J :  and  alM  tii  Itia  proiluot  ttbieh  reaulu  flmm  tna 
jitlnD  of  Uluiur  Ui  tlin  nv  tnaterial. 
Hrrknifff. — KTarf  man  Amla  il  tiix  hit  inlarMltii 
r  aiteluaitaly  at  ana  hlud  of  |inidiictluii.  Tliu*,  wh 
Ui  iTcr}  oain  liu  bla  oxii  mda  ur  l>>vkH>un. 
,  mau  wanta  a  gmt  main-  otlirr  Ibin^  baaidn 
lioh  bn  tTri<dain«  biinMilf.  Tli«  duwaik*;  jiiu- 
i.-K  :  I'ul  1>"  <:±iiiuA  ul,  nt  drliili,  i>r  dotba  lum- 


dita 


CUAMBERS-S  IKFORMATION  FOtt  THE  PI 


pnrtiettlu-  prodott.  Erery  ppninife,  nay,  errrj  pin, 
Borsllii-ougliihoh»iidiiof»e»er»l  workmen,  and  rrwiYM 
It  iKJTtion  lit  ila  value  trnra  every  <nte  of  tlwm.  Wlrm 
tlio  pTodurt  ha>  be«a  crested,  eTcry  one  in  endlled  te 
hi*  Miftre  nT  il.  The  pnncl|)l»  by  wbicb  thia  diviaion 
of  tb»  jirufita  ia  made,  it  csUfil  by  political  MoDonuata 
ttutribulion. 

I^onrumptim, — Every  pwdact,  aft«r  it  Iiilb  brm 
CtcaIa),  la  pul  to  Aome  piirpfwe>  Sometimes  it  ia  xiwd 
for  Ilia  CTFaiion  of  aome  other  product ;  as  irfa«»t,  vhen 
it  haa  been  raited,  ia  aK4  for  the  purpose  of  innliing 
flanr  ;  or,  atain,  it  mny  be  nsed  for  the  simple  pnrpoaB 
of  satiKfjitig  human  deaire,  aa  bread,  when  it  is  eaten, 
ill  uawi  to  appeue  our  hungGT.  The  itoMructioD  of 
valim  In  this  manner  b  called  onuun/i/iaii. 

Tlic  whole  snlijeel  of  Political  Eeoiiomy  may  there- 
fors  be  eomprehended  under  thetefour  divialans — Pro- 
duotion,  Excbsnge,  Diitribalion,  Coninrnptinn. 


it  by  which  wo  wnfei  upon  any 
nl^sct  a  value  whioh  it  4id  not  pA«io»  before  1  Of  it  ia 
ttw  appUcBtian  of  laiour  to  papilal  for  the  enwtiun  of  a 
]iroduet. 

Cajiilal  In  the  maltrlat  which  ia  lo  bo  nnil«d  wilJi 
io^mlry  for  (ho  Riratlon  of  a  prodnet,  ta  Ihe  iiulni- 
nUiiIf  wlileh  ar«  uaed  ia  the  act  at  rrrajuciion,  or  tha 
nfei-MnrlM  mul  caniwnfeneF)  bjr  whieh  the  health  of 
the  labourer  la  auatalneil,  Sonielimea  the  Inboiirer 
llndi  llin  malaria  tn  its  native  titat«,  aa  the  miner flnda 
thn  ore  or  the  coal  in  ita  native  bed  ;  most  cumThonly, 
however,  be  reoeivM  it  fmni  aome  one  who  has  already 
oonfFTred  tipon  it  aome  valuo,  and  it  b  hia  occopation 
to  oonfer  upon  it  another. 

Th*  forms  of  capital  arc  as  various  an  the  different 
oocupationa  of  men.  The  maltriol  at  the  farmer  ia  seed, 
manure,  tolmat^  fto. ;  that  of  thn  manufaetuier,  eotton, 
trool.  Iron,  leather,  &e. ;  and  that  of  the  inerehnnt,  the 
vnriouB  snbMiuicM  in  wliich  he  trafflca. 

The  inilrumenls  with  which  tlieEn  prn<!iimrii  bbnur 


enable  as  Hie  ra(*«  •■aalyto  (Dale  **lik<V 
(.tbar.  Tbal  it  lumw  bat  m  BBaO  ^fl  •f] 
■  EODntiT,  ia  evident  from  th«  £m^  UMI'i 
part  of  the  weatlli  ntaaj  iadiv>daal  cairfH 
\Vhal  is  true  «f  all  tba  avpival*  inli'iihri 

Or'  firrd  and  arrtdiatimg  CafitaL  TMl 
n-M(h  the  owner  denVBi  wvb  bv  dMaHf 
piaee,  ia  called  dnnthtinc  e^rildi^iial 
iniiruRienta  which  ha  nam  M  mvAmcAvi 
from  the  uw  of  wMeh  h»  Atti-wm  fHt, 
capita.  Thua,  the  tihmt  and  ttw  mbtoW i 
the  wool  anil  raw  cotton  of  On  naBafciHta 
cirenlatini;  capital ;  tha  jAoa^im,  hai*M% 
land  of  til*  one,  the  (iMchtnaaj  aal  bdM 
other,  are  their  tlxed  otpitaL 

There  ia  a  oonatant  ^BDOenrf  in  a  fn^W 
tloQ  of  Eociely,  to  cbanee  ctrCuhllnt  vm  ■• 
The  fanner  eeJli  hia  wheat,  aad  with  ihspi 

"'  Ln&etnTwr,  with  Jm  pwlfcJl 


manufactahea,  and  vi 


The  beneficial  reanlt  of  tlda  (anA 
rixed  capital  k  but  alowly  am^M 
wealth  of  each  geuaratinB  ia  vtmmt 
and,  year  after  year,  a  eauartry  h 
better  provided  with  the  dm«W  fa 

rmiencaa  which  vre  enjcy  ia  thia  <■ 
mjoyed  by  the  aborigian  «be  k 
owing  enurely  to  "' 
-    the  soil.     I 


f„„.l,, 

;,i„  ■;;,„„.','.;, 

■  -•'y  may  be  employed  in  tbm 
V  ,-       M.,it..r  may  bo  changed  mi«(*a«ll 

:i«  i,  i.  l,y  t(,e  finner  when  he  pi.ela  miit 

1  l)ie'l«  DlSE^r^. 

an  incn-Hse  ;  or  in  ila  agpr/ga'r  fvrw,,  m  * 

»ri^mucha^tlicla!,ODVofinen 

penler  fnRhi"in  a  piece  of  fnrniluit  eul  rf»l 

■  1  In  tlian|;iii8  canrlal  bavinE 

it»  plaef,  as  when  a  sailor  carries  il  froB  «i 

|.iir.i  l.^.Mhi:  an..(]ur  fonn  uf 

employed  in  pmdiiction  is  lo  tffee*  <ill«4 

■■--,. fits 

ulher  of  tliew    resultn.     Thev    are   tm^ 

''}:.:tir 

■...■■         1    lo  ,>ay 

minated  agricultnral,  manufactortng.  anlW 
II  i-^ ■.■.i,l™t  that  every  o.»  of  thiwHrfi 

rharig'.hy"!,..-.    ■ 

,          ■   ■  Y  ■'-  ■■■;■ 

1-  :;1-.  ■..[.'>   rl-cl-SMirV,  in  order  to  pKMHti 
i'i[l"i"«ofman;Mu)  jHittal 

r..nnerandii-| 

i  ■  [■  "  nhout  the   aid  of  ih.  tfki 

r™r,.._baefltjs.-,  ■ 

■Mrnllurallnbour,  (.TCTy  boJy -. 
■     ■           i..Mn,,nurannrin^Ubon»,»v«»7 

fXonlyJ>""'r!  '      ■ 

...        .  M     .I...,ih.     Were  there  ,«.labo«' 
'■.■nimndities  from  plaee  to  •d 

it.     ThUP,  itir.  1  .       . 

.1 II 'f ;  llinli»,lliDugh.  wiihfTwrt* 

r,.'|"'.'  1    '.""           '..' 

■     .1  ^.vw«vul,i^^llii.n 

sLitf..r,i.f.nie«-  persona  might  liv»,yM  An* 

■''y               ■ 

■         'inca  by  -nhlch  lis 

see  how  un»-iBa  it  is  for  any  Italogay  K> « 
the  farmer,  tlio  mrebanie,  aod  tlw  ioimIm 

ciiually  DHcesaaiT,-  to  each  oof,  and  Mdt  a 

l'lu.t  whi.^1.  is  lying 

Pary  lo  both  Ihe  olheriu 

idl.   ,     ■              ,                .    .      ; 

i|«>rlnTit  pavt  oflhe 

lavrjere,  or  pbyaioiana,  or   doTvytnea.     X 

ii: . 

_.            ....   -. ..,  u(  i».nws  a  to 

men,  however,  are  neo^oiy  to  aodX;,  li 

POLITICAL  ECONOMY. 


be  fpenerally  obviouii,  and  are  as  well  entitled  to 
rewards  as  any  otlter  useful  class. 

die  Incream  of  the  ProductironeM  of  ITuman  IndiLstry 
by  the  mcaiu  of  Natural  Agent*!. 

the  productiveness  of  human  industry,  we  mean 
nount  of  product  which  a  human  being,  in  a  gi^cn 
Ban  create.  Thus,  if  a  farmer  by  one  day's  labour 
Jbe  one  bushel  of  wheat,  the  productiveness  of  his 

*  ia  equal  to  one  bushel ;  if  he  can,  with  the  same 
%  raise  two  bushels,  the  productiveness  of  his 

*  is  equal  to  two  bushels.  If  a  cotton-spinner  can 
Be  pound  of  cotton  in  a  day,  this  is  the  amount  of 
poductiveness  of  his  labour ;  if  he  can  spin  ten 
Mf  this  is  the  amount  of  it. 

Vy  it  is  evident  that  the  greater  the  productive- 
f  labour,  the  better  ia  it  for  the  industrious  person 
or  all  his  neighbours.  Every  one  knows  that 
Biter  for  a  farmer  to  own  rich  than  to  own  poor 
"because,  with  a  year's  labour  on  the  one,  he  can 
k  %  much  larger  crop  than  on  the  other.  It  is, 
tver,  better  for  him  that  his  neighbours  also 
1  have  rich  than  poor  land,  becAuse  the  richer 
land,  the  larger  quantity  of  their  products  will 
■•  able  to  give  him  in  exchange  for  hU  products, 
la  only  difference  between  rich  and  poor  land  is, 
leh  land  renders  industry  more  productive  than 
«Dd. 

I  ease  is  the  same  with  the  other  modes  of  industry. 
ho  spins  with  his  fingers,  without  any  machine, 
n  Tery  unprodnctively  ;  that  is,  in  a  day  he  can 
I  bat  a  very  small  product.  He  who  labours  with 
ning-wheel,  labours  much  more  productively ;  that 
kh  a  day's  labour  he  can  create  a  much  larger 
nt  of  product.  And  he  who  uses  a  still  better 
faie,  called  a  npinning-jenny,  labours  yet  more  pro- 
rriy  ;  that  is,  in  a  day  he  can  create  twenty  or  a 
PM  times  as  much  product  as  he  could  with  a 
nf-wheel.  In  every  case,  as  the  productiveness 
4Mir  increases,  both  the  labourer  and  the  commu- 
ore  benefited,  just  as  a  farmer  would  be  benefited 
dmnging  a  poor  soil  for  a  rich  one.  In  both  cases 
nefit  is  the  same  ;  that  is,  with  a  given  amount 
MMr  he  creates  a  larger  amount  of  product,  he 
m  better  wages  for  his  labour,  and  at  the  same 
the  eommumty  obtains  his  product  at  a  cheaper 

1  hence  it  is  that  mankind  have  been,  from  the 
M  ages,  endeavouring  to  invent  means  by  which 
ttductiveness  of  human  labour  may  be  increased. 
^  condition  of  mankind  is  improved,  from  time 
e^  just  in  proportion  as  these  endeavours  have 
k%ae  successfully.  Every  one  knows  how  much 
l^forta  of  an  industrious  mechanic  in  this  coun- 
B«ed  those  of  an  uncivilised  Indian.  And  the 
^«e  ia  owing  to  the  fact,  that  the  labour  of  the 
N>  mueh  more  productive  than  that  of  the  other. 
»  there  are  two  ways  in  which  the  productiveness 
^mn  industry  may  be  increased  :  these  are,  first, 
»  <\f  natural  agents;  and,  secondly,  division  of 

^ural  agent  is,  as  its  name  imports,  an  agent  of 
I  or  any  quality  of  things  which  we.are  able  to  use 
IF  to  accomplish  our  purposes.     Thus,  it  is  of  the 
«f  wood,  when  set  on  fire,  to  give  off  heat,  and 
the  natural  agent  which  we  use  for  the  purpose 
ling  our  food.    It  is  of  the  nature  of  steam,  when 
»   to  expand,  and,  when  suddenly  cooled,  to  eon- 
and  hence  steam  is  the  natural  agent  bv  whoee 
kl«  expansion  and  contraction  we  create  the  force 
^re  need  to  propel  boats  or  machinery.    So  it  ia 
Siatore  of  water,  when  falling  down  from  an  cle- 
ft to  acquire  a  very  considerable  force  ;  this  force 
Kastural  agent  which  we  use  to  tnm  the  wheel  of 
So,  the  peculiar  quality  of  the  magnet  is  a 
•^  agent.     The  various  qualities  of  medicinal 
^rs  also  natural  agents,  though  used  for  a  diffe- 
*vpoee  from  those  mentioned  above. 
^^  or  a  machine  is  any  histrument  by  which  wc 

707 


are  enabled  to  avail  ourselves  of  the  qualities  of  natural 
agents.  Thus,  an  axe  is  an  instrument  by  means  of 
which  we  make  use  of  the  cutting  power  of  iron.  A 
steam-engine  is  an  instrument  by  which  we  make  uso 
of  the  expansive  and  contractile  quality  of  steam. 

In  political  economy,  the  .principal  uso  of  natural 
agents  is  either  to  create  or  to  use  power  or  force,  or, 
as  we  sometimes  call  it,  momentum.  Thus,  if  a  man 
wishes  to  row  a  boat,  or  chop  wood  with  an  axe,  he 
must  have  strength  or  power  with  which  to  do  it.  The 
more  strength  or  power  he  has,  the  more  work  he  can 
do.  Thus,  a  man  can  do  more  work  than  a  boy,  because 
he  has  more  strength,  or  power,  or  force,  to  do  it  with. 
Now,  natural  agents  are  capable  of  exerting  this  power, 
and,  by  means  of  machinery,  we  can  direct  the  manner 
in  which  it  shall  be  exerted. 

The  natural  agents  which  we  use  for  this  purpose  are 
of  two  kinds,  animate  and  inanimate. 

Animate  natural  agents  are  beasts  of  burden  and 
draught,  as  the  ox,  the  horse,  the  ass,  the  camel,  the 
elephant,  &c. 

That  these  very  greatly  increase  the  productiveness 
of  human  labour  is  evident.  Every  one  knows  how 
much  more  land  a  farmer  can  cultivate  by  means  of  a 
pair  of  horses,  than  he  could  by  his  own  unassisted 
strength,  and  how  much  more  wheat  a  man  can  trans- 
port from  one  place  to  another  with  a  waggon  and 
horse,  than  he  could  carry  on  his  back. 

The  inanimate  natural  agents  are,  as  we  have  said, 
the  various  qualities  and  powers  of  things  by  which  we 
are  enabled  to  accomplish  our  purposes.  The  moat 
important  of  these  are  gunpowder,  wmd,  falling  water, 
and  steam. 

Gunpowder  is  used  in  war,  in  hunting,  and  in  the 
blasting  of  rocks.  For  the  latter  purpose  it  is  very 
valuable  in  the  construction  of  canals,  railroads,  &c. 

Wind  is  used  as  a  stationary  agent  in  the  conmion 
windmill ;  and  as  a  locomotive  agent  in  the  propelling 
of  vessels  on  the  water.  It  is  cheap,  and  for  some  pur- 
poses very  valuable. 

Falling  water  is  used  very  extensively  as  a  stationary 
agent  in  almost  all  works  where  great  power  is  required. 
Almost  all  our  nails  are  made,  our  wheat  is  ground, 
and  much  of  uur  cotton  is  spun  and  woven  by  water. 

SteatHf  however,  is  now  used  the  most  extensively  for 
the  various  purposes  of  the  arts,  as  it  possesses  nuiuy 
advantages  over  every  other  agent.  It  is  capable  of 
exerting  any  degree  of  force,  from  the  least  to  the 
greatest ;  it  may  be  used  as  a  stationary  or  a  locomotive 
power ;  it  may  be  used  on  land  or  on  water,  and  it  may 
be  placed  perfectly  under  human  control.  Its  only  dis- 
advantage is  its  expensiveness.  Steam  is  now  used  to 
spin  the  finest  thread  and  the  stoutest  cable,  to  weave 
muslins  and  to  hammer  anchors,  to  propel  f^ie  largest 
vessels  on  our  rivers  and  on  the  ocean,  to  draw  our 
carriages,  to  saw  and  plane  our  boards,  and,  in  fact,  to 
accomplish  almost  all  the  purposes  which  require  either 
great  or  unremitted  force. 

Inanimate  agents  are  in  general  preferable  to  ani- 
mate agents,  in  most  of  the  purposes  for  which  power 
is  required.  The  reason  of  this  will  be  easily  seen. 
For  instance — 

1.  Theg  are  cheaper.  A  steam-engine  of  a  hundred 
horse  power  will  cost  less  than  the  horses  necessary  to 
do  the  labour  which  it  performs,  and  will  cost  much 
less  to  keep  it  at  work. 

2.  They  labour  without  cessation^  while  animala  re- 
quire much  time  for  rest  and  refreshment. 

3.  Theif  are  safer.  They  have  no  passions,  and  henee 
may  be  governed  by  fixed  and  certain  laws.  A  steam 
locomotive  is  neither  liable  to  run  away  nor  be  fright- 
ened. 

4.  We  can  itse  them  without  the  injliction  of  pain, 
while  animals  frequently,  of  necessity,  suffer  in  conse- 
quence of  hard  labour  or  rapid  driving. 

5.  They  are  capable  of  much  more  rapid  action,  henee 
there  is  a  great  economy  of  human  time. 

But  this  is  not  all.  Men  are  able  not  only  by  the 
above  means  to  create  furoe,  they  are  also  able  to  de« 


Ill  this  manner  mucn  human  labour  is  saved,  or  a  given 
amount  of  labour  is  rendered  much  more  productive. 
Were  it  not  for  this  quality  of  type-metal,  every  type 
moBt  be  cut  by  tlie  hand.  This  would  render  types  and 
books  very  expensive.  But  now  we  have  only  to  cut  a 
mould  into  the  form  that  we  wish,  and,  if  the  melted 
metal  be  poured  into  it,  the  type  is  foiTned,  by  cooling, 
into  the  precisely  corresponding  figure.  In  tliis  manner 
a  single  workman  can  make  several  hundred  types  in 
an  hour. 

There  are  various  other  qualities  of  things  which  we 
use  in  like  manner,  but  their  number  is  so  great,  that 
wo  have  no  room  here  to  describe  them.  By  reflection, 
every  person  may  easily  furnish  himself  with  as  many 
examples  as  he  pleases. 

Of  DiviAiun  of  Labour. 

In  the  preceding  sections,  we  have  seen  that  the  pro- 
ductiveness of  human  labour  may  be  greatly  increased, 
firtt,  by  discovering  the  various  qualities  oi  things,  or, 
specially,  those  qualities  by  which  we  are  capable  of 
creating  force ;  and,  necondly,  by  those  various  contri- 
vances by  which  the  force  thus  created  may  be  directed 
and  applied.  We  have  one  other  source  of  inereaaed 
productiveness  yet  to  consider — it  is  division  of  labour 
— and  its  results  are,  in  many  cases,  as  striking  as  any 
that  have  been  noticed. 

Division  of  labour,  in  general,  means  employing  one 
individual  upon  one  kind  of  labour,  instead  of  employ* 
ing  the  same  individual  upon  several  kinds  of  labour. 
If  wo  reflect,  we  shall  see  that  tliis  circumstance  forms 
one  of  the  great  differences  between  savage  and  civi- 
lised nations.  A  savage  does  for  himself  whatever  ho 
requires  to  have  done.  He  is  his  own  philosopher,  in- 
ventor, and  operative ;  his  own  farmer,  butcher,  baker, 
shoemaker,  tailor,  carpenter,  &c.  And  the  result  is, 
that  ho  is  ignorant,  hungry,  shelterless,  almost  naked ; 
and  that  he  continues,  age  after  age,  without  making 
any  improvement.  On  the  contrary,  civilised  men  divide 
these  various  occupations,  so  that  one  man  labours 
wholly  in  one,  and  another  man  labours  wholly  in  an* 
other  employment ;  and  the  result  is,  tliat  civilised 
men,  without  labouring  more  than  savages,  easily  ob- 
tain convenient  shelter,  clothing,  food,  and  all  the  ne- 
of  life. 


J\nt  ftfill  m<»r<».     Kvprv  nn«  wlin  olwprvnB  nnv  Tn<»#»V>j»- 


by  the  same  indiTidoal,  fto  m 
tools,  or  pass  from  the  use  of  < 
use  cHf  another.  Thisocoaakmsa 
performing  the  aama  opemtioa 
tools  with  tlie  same  adiosimani 
purpose  perpetually.  This  is  a 
the  adjustment  of  to<^  rnuj 
expense,  as,  for  iosUnee,  in  Um 
furnace.  If  the  smith  beat  it,  i 
pose  of  doing  some  other  work, 
after  he  leaves  it,  as  well  m  tin 
again  to  its  proper  temperainri 
:t.  When  men  oooiiBe  tbaa» 
Uon,  they  acquire  a  degree  of  d 
acquired  in  no  other  wanner. 
sioiially  makes  nails,  will  make 
thousand  in  a  daj ;  while  a  fat 
any  thing  else,  will  make  npi 
three  hundred  in  a  dajr. 

4.  Division  of  laboor  soggesl 
and  machines,  by  whieh  luoui 
more  producti\*e.  As  soon  aa  i 
into  its  simple  procenea,  'A  i 
contrive  some  way  in  which  to 
all  of  these  processes  by  a  m 
required  great  akiU  to  eonetmc 
nails  before  the  proeesa  waa  i 
divided  into  rolling,  euttiag,  an« 
paratively  easy  to  oonstmoi  ibsj 
of  these  processes  may  be  aoooi 

5.  There  is  great  diversity  in 
performing  the  various  parta  of 
of  the  operation  require  great 
course  of  edueatioa ;  othcra 
women,  and  even  by  children^  ^ 
Some  ivquire  labour  worth  lou 
others  ean  be  executed  by  laba 
a  few  pence  per  day.  Mow,  wii 
all  the  processes  must  be  parfc 
highest  price.  By  divisioa  of  la 
can  employ  just  the  amonnt  ani 
that  he  needs.  This  greatly  red 
tion. 

The  efTcct  of  all  this  is  aeei 
at  whieh  almost  all  the  artielea 


POLITICAL  ECONOMY. 


igftin,  the  praetieabiliiy  of  divisinii  of  labour 
lu  upon  the  capital  of  an  individiial  or  of  a  ooun- 
A.  man  niubt  have  accumulated  some  oonsiderable 
It  of  capital  before  he  ciu  carry  on  division  of 
'  in  any  occupation.  For  instance,  suppose  that 
vision  requires  the  labour  of  ten  men,  he  must 
materiala  and  tools  sufiiciuat  to  employ  them 
^ur  is  this  all :  suppose  that  it  take  ten  days  to 
his  product,  he  must  have  material  suffideut  to 
y  them  durinj^  all  this  time,  before  he  receives 
iin{(  in  return  for  that  product.  Aud  if  it  take 
night  moro  before  he  is  able  to  sell  his  goods 
btain  a  fresh  stock  of  material,  he  must  have  a 
I  sufficient  to  employ  them  during  this  time  also. 
finr  this  reason  that  manufactures  do  not  com- 
)  with  the  first  settlement  of  a  country,  but  they 
always  be  delayed  until  capital  accumulates,  be- 
bey  can  be  suecessfully  established. 
Kvision  of  labour  can  only  be  carried  on  where 
is  sufficient  demand  for  a  product  to  consume  it 
'  as  it  is  manufactured.  If  it  woukl  take  ten  men 
infaoture  pins  by  division  of  labour,  but  only  so 
puis  could  be  sold  as  could  be  made  by  one  man, 
lour  could  not  be  divided.  This,  however,  de- 
upon  several  other  circumstances.  For  instance, 
nand  depends  upon  the  number  and  the  wealth 
mmunity.  There  is  a  larger  demand  for  hats 
wn  of  ten  thousand  inhabitants  than  in  a  village 
hundred  inhabitants.  There  is  a  greater  demand 
ts  among  a  thousand  rich  men  than  among  a 
id  beggars.  This  is  another  reason  why  division 
BT  and  manufactures  naturally  increase  with  the 
,  and  age,  and  wealth  of  any  country. 
hence  we  see  why  roads,  canals,  and  railroads 
beneficial  to  the  industry  of  a  country.  By  re* 
the  cost  of  tran8j>ortation,  tlioy  render  the  price 
Commodity  as  low  at  one  handi%>d  miles  distance, 
»quently  was  before  at  ten  miles  distance,  from 
Be  of  its  manufacture.  Hence  they  increase  the 
*  of  consumers,  and,  by  thus  incasing  the  de- 
render  practicable  the  division  of  labour  in  cases 
before  it  was  impracticable. 
Ki,  it  is  evident  that  demand  must  be  greatly  af- 
>y  the  cost  of  the  article  manufactured.  Costlv 
sure  purchased  onlv  by  the  rich.  But  tlie  rich 
r  a  small  part  of  ue  community.  Hence  the 
L  for  such  articles  is  but  small.  It  is  those 
that  every  one  wants,  and  that  every  one  can 
^t  create  buch  a  demand  as  will  enable  them 
&mde  at  the  cheapest  possible  rate.  Hence  we 
t  division  of  labour,  and  the  reduction  of  price 
1  occasions,  benefits  the  poor  much  moro  than  it 
^  rich.  I  do  not  suppose  that  jewellery,  trinkets, 
i«s,  are  much,  if  at  all,  cheaper  than  they  were 
or  thirty  years  ago  ;  while  cotton  cloth,  hard- 
woollen  goods,  and  all  the  manufactured  necessa- 
Ufe,  have  fallen  in  price  from  onc*haIf  to  three- 
.  This  is  an  immense  benefit  to  those  of  us  who 
iged  to  spend  our  money  for  necessaries  and 
tiSy  and  have  none  to  spend  for  trinkets. 

tlie  ncacfitii  of  Increaaed  Productivcnes  of  Labour. 

Ckbject  of  labour,  as  every  one  knows,  is  to  pro- 
Q  means  of  happiness.  A  farmer  labours  to  pro- 
heat,  rye,  fruits,  &c. ;  a  cotton  manufacturer  to 
B  clothine,  and  a  shoemaker  to  produce  shoes, 
of  any  other  ease. 

k  the  greater  the  productiveness  of  labour,  the 
'  are  the  means  of  happiness  which  the  Individual, 
Ven  amount  of  labour,  produces.  If  a  farmer 
a  year's  labour  upon  a  rich  soil,  his  labour  is 
Productive  than  if  he  expended  it  upon  a  poor 
^at  is,  with  the  same  labour,  he  produces  in  one 
kre  hundred  bushels  of  wheat,  and  in  the  other 
^ly  two  liundred  bushels.  Every  one  sees  tliat 
^n  advantage  ;  and  every  one  would  rather  own 
asdred  acres  of  good  soil  than  one  hundred  acres 
'  soil. 

a  if  a  poor  soil  can,  by  means  of  manure,  or  in 

709 


any  other  manner,  be  changed  into  a  good  one,  the 
result  is  the  same  as  if,  by  means  of  improved  tools,  n 
fiurmsr  were  able,  by  ono  day's  labour,  to  produce  twice 
as  much  as  he  could  produce  before. 

Now,  this  principle  applies  just  as  much  to  a  manu- 
facturer, or  any  otlier  labourer,  as  to  a  farmer.  Sup- 
pose a  carpenter,  when  he  first  commences  learning  his 
trade,  could  not  make  more  than  one  table  in  a  week, 
his  labour  would  be  very  unproductive.  As  he  becomes 
more  and  more  skilful,  he  can  make  a  table  in  less 
time ;  and  at  last,  when  he  can  make  a  table  in  a  day, 
hb  labour  is  six  times  as  productive  as  it  was  before, 
and  he  has  the  means  of  procuring  for  himself  six  times 
as  many  comforts  with  the  same  amount  of  labour.  If 
he  be  able,  by  means  of  a  turning-lathe,  or  a  steam- 
engine,  or  by  division  of  labour,  to  make  two  tjibles 
a-day,  his  labour  will  be  still  more  productive,  and  he 
will  be  able  to  procure  for  himself  a  greater  amount  of 
eonveniences. 

So,  if  men  spun  by  hand  and  wove  by  hand,  were  this 
possible,  a  man  could  produce  but  very  little  thread 
and  very  little  cloth.  His  labour  would  be  in  the  lowest 
degree  unproductive.  But  if  he  invent  a  spinning-wheel 
and  a  loom,  his  labour  becomes  at  once  va&tly  more 
valuable,  and  he  can  produce  ten  or  twenty  times  as 
much  as  he  could  before,  and  he  is  able  to  provide  him- 
self with  a  much  greater  portion  of  the  necessaries  and 
comforts  of  life.  If,  now,  we  furnish  him  with  a  spin- 
ning-jenny and  a  power-loom,  his  labour  will  be  still 
more  productive ;  and  as  he  creates,  with  a  given  amount 
of  labour,  a  greater  amount  of  the  means  of  hapiuness, 
a  larger  portion  will  fall  to  his  own  share,  that  is,  he 
will  be  both  richer  and  happier.  And  the  facts  show 
that  such  has  always  been  the  result.  The  labour  of 
the  Western  Indian  or  the  Eastern  Hindoo  is  without 
machinery  and  without  division,  and  it  is  of  course  very 
unproductive.  Hence  he  is  very  poor.  The  whole 
wealth  of  the  Indian  is  a  blanket  aud  a  bow  and  arrows, 
and  the  whole  wealth  of  a  Hindoo  is  a  pot  of  rice  and 
a  cotton  cloth.  How  dificrent  is  the  condition  of  the 
labourer  in  this  country  ! 

And  we  also  see  that  it  is  not  beneficial  merely  for 
one  individual  to  increase  the  productiveness  of  his 
labour  ;  it  is  beneficial  to  the  whole  community  that 
the  sum-total  of  industry  should  be  as  productive  as 
possible.  Would  it  not  be  a  benefit  if  the  crops  of  corn, 
and  wheat,  and  cotton,  and  rice,  the  products  of  the 
fisheries,  of  the  mines,  and  of  the  manufactories,  during 
the  next  year,  should,  with  the  same  labour,  be  doubled, 
so  tliat  we  might,  by  a  day's  labour,  procure  twioe  as 
much  bread-stuffs,  fuel,  clothing,  and  every  necessary 
and  comfort  of  life,  as  we  are  able  to  procure  at  present  t 
Now,  the  whole  eflvctof  the  increased  productiveness  of 
labour,  by  means  of  machinery  and  of  divibion  of  labour, 
is  to  bring  about  precisely  such  a  result. 

And  yet  more — the  benefit  of  this  change  is  specially 
realised  by  the  labouring  classes.  A  nobleman  in  Groat 
Britain  is  by  no  means  as  much  better  off*  tlian  his 
ancestor,  as  a  common  labourer  in  P^ngland  now  is 
better  off  tlian  a  serf  at  the  period  of  the  feudal  oppres- 
sion and  ignorance.  The  rich  and  powerful  in  all  coun- 
tries always  have  an  abundance  of  comforts  and  luxuries. 
They  are  but  slightly  benefited  by  improvement  in  the 
productiveness  of  labour.  It  is  the  labourer  who  is 
chiefly  benefited,  because  every  improvement  brings 
within  his  power  some  convenience  which  was  before 
out  of  his  reach.  What  difference  does  it  make  t<i  a 
man  worth  a  hundred  tliousand  a-ycar  whether  coal 
costs  one  or  five  pounds  a-ton,  and  cotton  cloth  four- 
pence  or  two  shillings  a-yard.  At  either  price  he  would 
be  able  to  procui*e  an  abundance.  But  to  the  man  who 
is  worth  but  fifty  or  a  hundred  pounds  a-year,  the  dif- 
ference of  price  is  a  matter  of  immeubc  consequence  ; 
inasnmch  as  at  one  price  he  would  be  able  to  supply 
himself  abundantly,  and,  at  the  other  price,  he  would 
be  able  to  supply  himself  but  very  scantily,  if  he  were 
able,  indeed,  to  supply  himself  at  all.  Hence  we  say 
that  improvements  m  machinerY»  by  which  tlie  pro- 
ductiveness of  labour  is  hicreased,  are  specially  for  the 


I>eiui8t  of  UioEQ  (if  us  who  are  obliged 
Uvlug. 

The  only  objectioa  to  alt  iJiis  U,  thU,  bj  incmEiar 
ilia  jitvducliTcneM  of  Ubour,  v«  dimtoUb  Ihr  denuird 
fw  Ubiiur,  and  Ibat  hence  labonrera  &tg  dirowo  out  of 
■muIuyiDeDt.  Tbis  deaervca  a  brief  ociiiEidenlHni,  llia»- 
Duch  as  It  has  Ie4  DOt  onl}  to  erroneona  Ticmi  iu  tJioarjr, 
bnt  to  pnctical  wickednea  in  Bclioa. 

To  »Ml]e  this  qawiiqn,  let  di  (uamiM  the  beta. 
WbU  al-o  the  tsanuCaeturca  whicli  aow  rmp^•JJ  tbe 
er*al«*t  Dumber  uf  workmen,  and  iu  which  the  num- 
ber of  worbmea  has,  within  the  Inst  Ineiity  fear*,  the 
moM  npiiU;  increaaeiL  I  think  thai  ao;  <ia»  ttjll 
anawnr,  th*  ciittuu  and  (he  iron  nuDufaeturca.  Bill  vf 
«■  were  asked  in  n>hich  brauehos  of  maaufactunu  liax 
lalmur-aaTing  niachioorj  Iwen  moBl  eiteuaivcljr  inlrii. 
duocd,  we  miut  alu  ajuwer,  the  csotloa  and  the  irou 
•naauracturen.  Or  we  may  come  to  the  saoii;  resalt.  If 
(m  compare  the  linen  with  the  cullon  inanufaFtiire. 
Macliiiinry  has  been  intnidoced  only  in  a  Imall  -degrH 
into  the  iiinnu^lare  of  the  one,  and  very  exteniriicl}' 
inlnKluci.-J  ioto  that  of  theothot.  The  eonsequenoe  U, 
that  Uw  Ubouren  il^  linen  are  very  poorly  paid,  anil 
are  dlminiahiae  in  Dumber,  wliUe  the  labourere  iu  ROI- 
too  uv  well  paid,  and  ar«  every  year  rapidly  iacmasing. 
Thwe  futs  are  abundantly  auflicirnl  to  teach  an*  [wr. 
Km  wliHt  U  the  natural  rveuti  uf  the  use  of  macMiierv. 

The  ruaaon  of  this  it  canily  «een.  Suppose  th&i  only 
IO,l)<)U  )'ati»  of  cotton  oouAf  tt  UMif  ui  a  giTen  diktrlet, 
aBdll  nijUiredlUO  meata  make  (hem.  If  tl^cHt  10,000 
jpuda  cuiild  b«  made  by  fifty  meu,  it  in  evident  ttut  fifty 
vuai  would  be  thiuwn  out  of  work.  Bnt  suppose  tliat, 
by  tliis  cliaoge  in  the  mode  oF  labour,  the  ootlon  cliilli 
vtileh  was  sold  at  two  Bhiliiugs  could  he  sold  at  onv, 
M  that  (loice  1A«  goanlily  could  be  used,  and  2U,0(1U 
Jrard*  were  waiiteil,  tbere  would  b«  a  demand  for  just 
the  aame  number  of  workiaen  as  before,  eo  that  the 
norkniaa  would  be  jiul  ac  well  off  aa  he  wu  before. 
But  suppose  lliat,  when  cotton  was  at  two  ellilliiigs 


ahilliug,  those  worth  only  one  hundred  pound 
nunl  can  become  purchaaem.  The  number  o: 
in  a  ciimmniiily  wurth  one  hundred  pounds ; 


tinjU 
_  b«  allWod  w  telMW  ■■  lllg<»l 
nn  an  thrt  iM  tea  t/Jail,  yiiirttJ* 

it  innoOTDtlr.  ' 

FortheM  pnipoiM  It  f>  vnmtaaytttid 
rer^  in  a  eamuuiliy  IM  iliTi^A  li^Wl* 
ilial  ncry  thing  behmr  KuhManty  *b  a^ 
the  linl  pliee.  the  lud  moat  MmwH  pMI 
sni»,  DtherwtH  it  wilt  not  Im  Uttd  M  A 
ihu  prinoicle  strikingly  OIintrMcJ  la  tWa*! 
country  inhabited  tty  ovmn.  M»i  kha  H  Ml 
most  eommoit,  whervrar  thwe  asla^  Ha  ri 
any  partknUr  Intereat  In  Ilia  cnilimlMS  i<M 
a  eoantry  "nujiiad  bf  mn^f  Uibm,  ■•  fM 
Tited.  Wirre  auy  one  to  cnlunW  k  pMk  «(4I 
he  tiiieht  ba>*  hU  ngfal  la  Iha  OTop  diwtf>4| 
the  LeoeKI  at  his  Ubuur.      It  i*  myaftH* 

IndtuM  him  tn  kevp  the  nnaad  is  oi^ri  U 
lod  gowraUf  Iwbbwi  biM^I 

....  ,^^  ^  im  ^^ 

lurry  u«a  ptM^lt 

Bny  pithiB  us'pntert  tfaa  ymaf  frdiM 
rn>m  the  bird*  by  mnnn  »f  nrtievrfc  i  aitl  mf 
which  Tho  hirdi  -par*  will  )»•  takrn  WbOTKI 
I'lle  ehlldnii.  There  wilt  be  nu  pttblia  lart 
kind  from  «uch  a  chrrry  tnw.  liat  aaMal 
become  xmiebodv'a  proprrtr.      tl  o^  liMt 

fnr  

ripe,. 

WlllgD. 

It  is  act  enongh 

property,  we  mean  the  right  wkii 
whalisWown.     Tfauf-,  if  a  man  niaaaan 
his  oun  mslc^rblKL.  he  hu  a  richi  lo  ktcf  lU 

)o  fell  il,  or  I»  Uhe  it  ss  h<^  »ill.  und  t>o  <aeh 

Ixiii^lit  the  tahle,  or  procured  it  in  au*  bMB 

Niiiv.  It  i^  Ihe  buEineeB  of  vrery  nun  ia  A 

I  :'.-.  I     -     iliiii  no  man  intcrferea  with  ujet 

I  liii  ia  what  we  ckU  the  p        "" 


plpoes  of  emu 
iweleM.    Thv 

llluatratM.  Snn<<»w 


uBtry,  the  greatw 
t  Ihe  more  cutei 
iit1rudui:i'd,   llic   u 


S roller  the  pruduoliveti 
be  the  wages  of  livbonr 


iolAiiou  of  the  right  of  pmpe^rty. 
right  of  properly  may  be  tiolaiod^b 
lie  cases  of  robbing,  Btealiac,  )im>b4M 


■Irf 


r,Btealing.l 
e  would  ^1 

Id  labour  for  the  aakeofi 

iind  vm-iled  by  lhiev<w  i 

Biinie  when  property  ■■ 

im:\-^.     If  a  iiian  w.mld  bm  h>«i 

11^  ills  property  (Jesiivyvd  bjioal 

'..  :e  fliiv  ihQ  more  for  the  Mk* 
.  .iv-iroyed  by  five  huodrell  taMl 

1^  ilejr  thai  Iho  industry  rf  aal 
;niitly  upon  the  gnodniB  of )» lal 
L-ul>un  of  them.      If  Ian  alhivtf 


,1?a 


POUTICAL  BCOHOMY, 


;i.^a'    r..<T.[,T,««J 


iatimn  Vjr  *  tjr-iA 

mdl     Tliuwei'-   II  ■    _         ■ 

litm*d  1  IliB  tnlukttwMi  in  hw|  «n^  Uiatn  frn 
I  imfiirliiicc  nf  a  good 

liua  tx  ■Um'h)  <"  Iptiri  all 

iM  Klbnr*!  Ill  1UI  il  «•  Ar  ifM 

iiinn  will  U>  ioiluurlini*  tn 

tf  KiiliaB  Iw  ln>  klliiwol  lu  um  It  tnr  lli" 

it  HOB  lujrjiliwai  lU  tiull  w>}  tta  liv  Uk« 


n  ladUJitnciKti 
mIu**0,  prvriilffd  liiii;  du  il  tiuDntlj',  to 
IMi  M  Uii^  nliuucr. 

Ktb«I&biiaivr*ijuuM  bo  i^lan'i'll  to  wurk 

B  aa  tHtyy  Irailn  iw  ho  [ihiUM,  ID  n-jrk 

''  U  b(t  cliit<i*'«,  4ifil  ti^  eb«u^  l*t>  ocuii^- 

■Di>iiMt>  It  ui[i  In)  iliinc  Ciir  hi*  rul- 

d  WM  Dot  Lb   f>bli||nd  ta  rJUDge  It 

will  U  ror  hi*  huiclU.    Il 

Dnn  iiuiJanlamla  hu  a-xn 

ri—  i:aa  usrlmtuiil  il  far 

....  I..-.,  In  nuikii  an;  ^'luuigii 
I.   i.iiiiiLU  injury,  asil 

Liary  ihilii  tlinl 
a  ..  Iiu  iilMiiai.  ^.i 
.  iie  u  ;;iiTU'iuiu>al,  luu  kny 
•luwr  141  nliluh  liH  dmil  uu- 
rislit  111  nlw  just  Hiah  n 
nurrohutt  tu  buy  tai  hII 


„t:S: 


■  Mkn  al  (niuiabuig  du  lu 

"Hun  mulitinn  of  ■oei"ty  d 

1b  tltx  inwlli|[roi'ii  of  tli 
l)i>y  niriihrr  hn  auuiL 
'  y,  uur  liauw  linw  to  unui  UieiiikaKa  ultiui- 
ll  thna  liiMfDe*  vf  Knat  nniwciomce  tilU 
*  fe*!  Ui  a  ncrMD  oxbtti  al  Jnut,  vnligbtciied 


I  iiF  liiliuor,  piM- 
But  wan  tbii  all,  tl><<  ltti(>' 
m  auioil  dt^ir  iiu^majitJ- 
*  tean  Id  nulw  vnry  tlua|;  fiic  kiiiiuHilf,  or,  »  bal 

1  II-    ii^Ta  n'ltJiIni;  bol  whal  ba  cwilil 

'I-  laliuur  warn  mvc  in  pTiiJa«- 
II  vcrr  bw  eumTDrU.  Tbaii|h  a 
iiii;  a  boDilroil  buabcla  of  whsit, 

^  ,i>...^>'<ilbu>hr1>i,  jvl  If  tiKitlil  H'li 

lur  Ilia  bnc  cnuauiuptioo  mor*  than  a  linniliwil, 
nbl  not  (irwim  aoy  thin);  *Ua  with  tiia  ailili- 
imi  hvaJnil,  bn  wniiJi]  bi  on  brtlv  iilT  iliaJi 
I,  bat  niiiU  as  wall  auSM-  lhl>  aildlduiial  pniJact 
■■m  ifaa  mand.  Ilia  ailtliUniuC  labour  tmali 
Miblional  adtanUt;),  anJ  Iimwu  Uurv 
BonurMKiiMit  111  laliour.  Uui  u  xwa 
to  aaMiaii);!  Il>>*  iwu  Inmdml  Imaliil* 

_    — _    .. —    L-_....i*  ■  .^ . —    "^^MT    lluilS* 

_  j»  wia  « 


iu  III  intetKi ;  auil  ihat  iia  ailmita|^  utr  gnsily  fa- 
nrnuiMl  wtioi  it  ■■  Ki  fadunaiM  u  lii  be  i^ncirai^d  in 
iiiau7  AniKiona  by  navigabln  rlreiVi  Vf*  «h«ll  or* 
linioml  ta  auou'iUv  ill*  ii4Um  naii  jirtnciial  lawa  at 


I.  It  Jo  a  wuU'liiiuwD  A>c4  Ihiu  bkiur  1«  iiaoMatf, 
In  urdvr  in  i-cndet  uir  ttUnf  *>JiibUi.  Krary  UiiHK 
vaiuablK  aruunil  ua  vIlC  if  *<>  kAeMi  b*  «e«ii  tu  In  1h« 

nitiiti  uC  ibr  lubuuT  lit  *aau!  ono.    And  ii  Inri!  aba 

a^«i.  ilmt  1i.-  >v1m  11.]"  'il-nrHl  Ina,  bj  iDauu  uf  liU 
liilii':i'  II'    I'l  ih«  *>Ia<>  Kltich  fin  Iiaa 

<i  II   IbiU  hn  bu  a  lifUt  to  in 

.  Li  .ivary  innn  aei-ini  iliit|»»*j 
111  )M.'  J  III  .luL-unaiiiiu  In  prefBTimu  to 

ftiiiiiluir.  Mtii'  luai.  (.-hiuuicii  lu  be  0  laUft,  inoliiira 
fkrmDT,  anatlier  a  ncdiaiuc,  ouoibir  a  tnannCaetuTmr. 
and  aiuithar  a  mcrcliani.  And  *f  alao  nw.  iliat  ibmi 
dilTernil  iBi-n  Mora  pii.-h  rar  tn  lip  ili^  Wt.t  sil.iptnl  la 

UuM  kind  uf 'I'i'-i .-i-ii-i.  .-  -Il   ,^,.  ii™.  ,.t -,.     ^nj 

*Bki«».ilui   I     .         ..  i.kinr. 

UiBr*  will  L><  I  -    ulitt 

whm  UTi;ry  m    .  '.  iluui 


':!!'"V 


!•  Lilua  ii>Itu<1<4  u>  labour 
■■ni,  and  to  jutHneo  noa  par' 
•-■li  f-ff  hi*  OMiituat  and  om* 


I,  by 


Khni 

■  hi 

K  (fciL  ..    ..  _ 

h  I*  wiMa,  U«  addlliiiiial  la 


Uiat  W  wishm.' '  til  lliia  manaar  mni  an  rwrnlnwl 
liajiitiir,  inatiniiuh  aa  avar*  iinH  ta  pitahlvd  iii  punua 

tn  ffasum  wtialtter  he  uacda  fur  Ilia  ba[r]iiuaa.  And, 
iiioreutcr,  aa  by  ihlt  laudi:  Ubuur  ia  oturli  muc*  pi^K 
dueUtr,  vtcry  one  prvcuns  ■  lundi  Urzirr  ^mwiUj  of 
nbat  b*  doina  by  the  ume  amount  of  lalntir. 
W*  tliiu  twr.  Uml  in  ipnlrr  lo  amur*  our  flijttMd 
lily  w  e^at  a  iii<f>«*lty  ^r  »- 
tlier*  IS  fiT  pn»iiic(ion.  Thi»  ml"  a]-|>lina 
icin*  ■•  li>  iiulitiduala.  Nn  uallnn 
in  ilwilf  ous-batf  <it  tlin  l-Toduedna 


'.y'Sly  "..1 


(ircyluir  adisnlaitr*  fur   |    ' 
artiHea  of  gw™!  n^'"'  i-^Uy 

ailHl  il*  ■tai.la.     Ni>»  ,1  if  a 

uaUon,  aawtill  u  nf  nii   ...  i  IT  tn 

tlio  pro-Iuolinn  -1  tlini  v.  I  n   lIl^. 

invathM  abunilanoa  alul    vmUi   i)j<.' 
llitiitu  |irnciin>by  nidiaiiiiu  villi  o<ii 
aniulaa  wliicll  U  llcvOa,  but  vblch    .' 

KVHtar  taai  uid  in  unralrr  abnoddri. 
tkia  taw  an  of  UiD  ™iT)e  natur.'   i-    .. 
Rush  nation  laboan  in  Uiat  dnpsmnmii  nf  iir..ilueiti.u 
Uuil  il  cbDoarB,  and  at  di"  WTun  tino,  by  ao  Auatf.  It  1* 
vuablnl,  in  grvalai  tibundaKca,   In  avail  tIMU  of  iba 
pnductiuna  uf  mirry  iitluir  w^airj. 

Siatn  thara  la  »u  fnal  an  ainuunl  ittexiiiaoft  vUch 
niiul  uf  Dtaiially  bg  mada,  Il  la  arlAiol,  trim  akal  <•• 
bato  aald  uu  iha  aubjiM  nf  dlnabin  af  lalmw,  tku 
itiarn  will  I*  a  mat  attint  b(  laboar,  iIml  ■*,^jt 
l^iiiT  irf  lb"  ihiSt  aaelaiy  will  ba  niidi  mate*'?™"" 
tl>e.  If  aoow  {ortko  of  Um  AoniBnoaly  <hr«(i«*'>S*^ 
Ula  Mnliiaa*  nf  enniliwtiug  rvdanj^    """^""^  • 


sale  merchants. 

Jletail  merchanU  purchase  iu  large  qoaDtities  of  im- 
porters or  wholesale  merchants,  and  sell  again  to  con- 
sumers in  such  quantities  as  tliey  may  desire.  In  doing 
tliis,  they  greatly  benefit  all  parties.  The  wholesale 
dealer  could  not  afford  to  break  open  a  barrel  of  sugar 
to  sell  a  pouad^  unless  he  charged  a  very  higii  price 
for  his  trouble.  The  couBumei*  could  aot  atlord  to 
purchase  a  bag  of  coffee,  or  a  barrel  of  sugar,  or  a 
whole  piece  of  broadcloth.  And,  besides,  a  man  is 
rarely  a  judge  of  the  goods  he  wishes  to  purchase,  and 
it  is  much  better  for  him  to  use  the  skill  of  a  good  judge, 
than  to  attempt  to  judge  for  himself. 

The  tctiolesale  mercJmnt  imports  in  largo  quantities 
from  abroad,  or  purchases  in  large  quautitii's  from  the 
manufacturer  at  home,  and  sells  to  the  retail  merchant, 
who,  as  we  liave  said,  sells  to  the  consumer.  The  im- 
portance of  this  kind  of  labour  in  exchange  is  as  evi- 
dent as  the  other.  The  retail  merchant  could  not  import 
from  abroad,  in  so  small  quantities  as  he  wishes  to 
)>urchase,  unless  with  much  additional  expense.  One 
wholesale  mercliaut  could  import  as  much  as  would 
supply  a  large  number  of  retail  merchants,  aad  with 
but  very  little  more  labour  than  would  be  demanded 
of  evcrv  individual  who  only  imported  the  small  quan- 
tity which  he  needed  for  his  own  bales. 

The  interest  of  tho  merchant  recjuires  tliat  he  sliould 
buy  as  cheap  as  possible,  tliat  he  may  sell  as  cheap  as 
p<»8sible ;  for  the  cheaper  he  sells,  the  more  numerous 
will  be  his  customers.  Hence  tlie  wholesale  mercliant 
will  export  what  he  can  export  cheapest,  will  exchange 
his  export  where  he  can  do  it  the  most  to  his  ad\'an- 
tage ;  that  is,  where  he  can  procure  what  is  most  wanted 
at  home,  and  where  he  can  do  it  at  the  lowest  rates. 
So,  the  retail  mercluint  knows  that  the  better  his  goods 
are,  and  the  cheaper  the  rate  at  which  he  sells  them, 
the  greater  will  be  the  number  of  his  customers,  and 
the  greater  the  number  of  exchanges  which  he  will  be 
able  to  make  in  a  year. 

Hence  we  see  that  the  real  interest  of  the  merchant^ 
and  that  of  the  whole  community,  are  the  same.  The 
retail  mercliant  can  become  rich  in  no  otlier  way  than 
by  purchasing  as  cheap  as  ho  can,  that  he  may  be 
able  to  sell  as  cheap  as  he  can ;  for  if  he  sell  dearer 
than  his  neighbours,  no  one  will  buy  of  him.     And  so 


laJlMiur  will,  by  ooropetitwiiii  be 
every  oUier  capitalj  no  moiv  tl 
recompense. 

Willie  thisi  liowever,  ia  tme 
true  that  the  exchaogbaUa  value 
to  sudden  and  limited  variation 
of  supply  and  demand.  In  Bodi 
article  will  bring  more^  and  at  i 
the  cost  of  the  labour  neonmy  i 
however,  never  can  eontinae  Iub| 
I  equaliM  and  compensate  for  cac 
'  do  not  at  all  invalidate  the  gcnen 
men  cxcbangej  they  exchange  on  i 
for  labour. 

2.  The exchangeri ornsevebant, 
on  a  product,  lie  onlv  aavee  lab 
producer.  The  artkle  which  a 
clianged  in  any  manner  by  hia  1 
penknives,  or  calicoee,  or  aiiAr, 
articles  just  at  be  reeeivea  taem 
tides  wliich  he  purehaeea  to  m 
them.  Nevertheless,  he  ia  ^ill 
of  great  advantage  to  the  eommi 
mer,  who  wanted  a  scj-the,  ohUc 
to  the  tepUu  imaHt^aetunrg  and 
liis  scythe  would  eoet  ten  timn  wl 
The  case  is  still  stronger,  if  he 
Sheffield  or  Manchester  to  proem 
he  wanted.  Henee,  although  tl 
himself  add  any  new  value  to  his  i 
the  coat  at  which  they  must  otl 
procured,  he  does  at  great  aerv 
as  those  who  actually  produccL 
sons  to  produce  twice  as  mueh  ^ 
to  produce  otherwise,  and  Uiia  w 
community  as  though  he  were  Ih 

3.  Hence,  it  will  be  seen  that 
changes  are  made,  the  better  it  wi 
and  for  the  community.  It  will 
merehanl,  beeanee  he  tbua,  with  tl 
a  greater  number  of  exehaagae 
thus  makes  a  greater  annnal  pro 
smaller  advance  upon  each  exd 
is  better  for  the  eenaiiiiiifif,  bee 
vanee  which  ho  ebargee,  the  le 


POLITICAL  ECONOMY. 


great  effeet  in  incretaing  the  desire  of  men  to 
i  their  condition  by  means  of  exchange ;  and 
>y  are  thus  induced  to  labour  more  industriously, 
r  to  procure  something  to  offer  in  exchange  for 
tey  want. 

riducHveneu  <^  indutiry, — ^It  is  not  enough  that 
be  desiroUD  to  exchange  ;  he  cannot  gratify  that 
miess  he  be  able  to  offer  something  to  the  other 
rhich  will  be  accepted  in  barter.  If  I  desire  a 
>f  flour  ever  bo  much,  I  can  never  obtain  it,  unless 
)le  to  offer  to  the  flour  merchant  something  which 
accept  in  exchange  for  his  flour.  Thus,  every 
iws  that  a  rich  nuin  is  able  to  make  a  great  many 
[changes  in  a  year  than  a  poor  man.  A  lal)ourer 
'ns  high  wages  can  make  many  more  exchanges 
X  than  a  labourer  who  cams  but  low  wages.  A 
buys  many  more  articles  of  comfort,  that  is, 
nany  more  exchanges,  in  a  productive  than  in 
oductive  season.  And  thus,  in  general,  every 
t  see  that  a  rich  country  makes  more  exchanges, 
:erual  and  external,  than  a  poor  country ;  a 
MIS,  than  a  declining  country;  and  the  same 

in  a  period  of  succmsfui  thaia  in  a  period  of 
Bsful  industry. 

frai  cfiaracier. — Men  do  not  always  exchange 
Dductfl  at  the  same  instant,  but  one  or  the  other 
tly  waits  some  time  for  the  return  which  he  is 
re  in  exchange  for  his  product.  This  gives  rise 
ility  to  dishonesty.  And,  besidesy  where  men 
onest,  they  will  frequently  cheat  each  other  in 
nttty  or  the  quality  of  the  article  which  they 

exchange.     Now,  where  these  liabilities  exist, 
I  greatly  lessen  the  number  of  exchanges.    No 

0  can  help  it,  will  have  any  dealings  with  a 
Hence,  when  men  are  disposed  to  be  romes, 

■ce  will  diminish.  Laws  are  made  to  oblige' 
to  act  like  honest  men ;  hence,  when  laws  are 

1  are  well  administered,  exchanges  will  be  more 
t  than  when  they  are  unjust,  partial,  and  unfairly 
tered.  But  every  one  must  see  that  on  the 
haracter  of  a  people,  not  only  their  personal 
,  but  also  the  goodness  of  their  Uws,  depends. 
H-e  ubeen'e  that  morality,  using  this  word  in  its 
tended  sense,  is  of  the  greatest  importance,  not 

suocess  in  production  but  also  to  sueoeta  in 


tueeees  in  exchange,  as  well  as  suecesa  in  production, 
dei»ends  much  upon  the  intellectual  and  moral  cha- 
racter of  a  people. 

From  what  has  been  said,  it  will  be  easy  to  perceive 
in  what  manner  a  government  can  best  jtromote  the 
business  of  exchange.  It  is  by  promoting  tlie  intelli- 
gence and  virtue  of  a  people — by  giving  every  facility  for 

the  increase  of  the  productiveness  of  industry by  en- 

couraeing,  in  every  suitable  manner,  the  establishment 
of  roads,  canals,  railroads,  and  means  of  internal  com- 
munication— by  rendering  its  harbcturs  and  coasts  as 
easy  of  access  as  possible — and  by  giving  to  foreigners 
evep'  reasonable  facility  for  the  transaction  of  their 
business  when  they  come  amongst  us. 

And  we  see,  also,  what  measures  are,  in  their  nature, 
most  likely  to  diminish  the  number  of  exchanges.  Such 
are  duties  on  imports,  or,  in  other  words,  sdding  to  the 
price  of  every  foreign  commodity  offered  in  exchange, 
obstructing  the  means  of  intelligence,  refusing  the  neces- 
sary facilities  for  constructing  means  of  internal  com- 
munication, imposing  unnecessary  disabilities  upon 
foreigners,  neglecting  tlie  condition  of  harbours  and 
coasts,  and,  in  general,  any  course  of  measures  by  which 
the  article  offered  in  exchange  is  rendered  more  expen- 
sive, or  by  which  the  person  who  comes  among  us  for 
the  purposes  of  exchange,  is  denied  any  reasonable 
means  for  seeking  his  own  interest  or  happiness. 

[Of  exchange  by  means  of  money,  metalHc  and  paper, 
a  full  exposition  is  presented  in  the  sheet  entitled, 
Coinisac£—&loNBr— Banks,  to  which  we  refer.] 


;he  same  principles  apply  to  ouroxchanges  with 
T8.  If  we  treat  them  justly  and  kindly,  and 
icm  all  reasonable  means  for  enforcing  their 
hey  will  come  and  exchange  their  products  for 

preference  to  going  to  another  country  where 
old  be  leas  favourably  treated.  Thus  we  shall  be 
procure,  on  the  most  favourable  terms,  whatever 
1  from  other  nations,  and  in  tliis  manner  reap 
eat  reward  for  our  industry  and  moral  character. 
ly  exclusive  policy,  is  as  self-destructive  a  policy 
»s  as  it  is  for  individuals. 

if  this  be  the  case,  we  shall  easily  determine 
e  the  causes  which  naturally  diminish  the  fre- 
of  exchanges,  or  produce  a  atagnation  of  busi- 

I  tUtire  for  any  particular  product  diminish,  the 
for  it  will  diminish ;  hence,  those  who  produce 
iioae  who  keep  it  for  sale,  will  be  unable  to  sell 
la  the  chaugea  in  fashion  frequently  destroy,  in 
time,  the  entire  demand  for  an  article,  which, 
sgo,  was  in  vogue.  Or  the  diminution  of  the 
noe  of  a  country  will,  in  due  time,  produce  the 
Tect  on  exchanges  generally, 
iiminution  of  production  during  a  single  year 
dace  the  same  effect  for  that^eor ;  and  oppres- 
avy  taxation,  or  any  thing  which  interferes  with 
ion,  or  diminishes  the  pnnluctiveness  of  human 
fy  will   accompliah   the   same   result   perma- 

benee  it  is  that,  as  a  nation  beoomea  vieioiis, 
or  ppproBsive,  such  moral  doterioraiion  must 
I  a  duninntion  of  exchanges,  in  the  same  manner 
flmplB  all  other  kinds  of  iuduatry.     And  thus  | 

713 


DISTRIBUTION. 

We  have  thus  far  considered  the  mode  in  which  wealth 
is,  in  the  first  instance,  produced,  and  in  which,  in  the 
second  instance,  the  producers  are  enabled  to  exchange 
it  with  each  other. 

It  is,  however,  commonly  the  case  that  an  article  of 
production  is  not  the  result  of  the  labour  of  one  man 
alone,  but  of  several  men  united.  Thus,  several  men 
successively  unite  in  producing  a  barrel  of  flour.  One 
owns  the  land,  another  sows  the  seed,  another  reaps  the 
harvest,  another  owns  the  mill  in  which  it  is  ground, 
another  manages  the  mill  for  the  owner,  another  makes 
the  barrel  in  which  it  is  contained,  another  tnmsporta 
it  to  market,  and  another  sells  it  to  the  oonaiimer. 
Now,  everv  one  of  these  must  be  paid  out  of  the  barrel 
of  flour  when  it  is  purchased  by  the  consumer ;  that 
is,  the  price  of  the  flour  must  be  so  distributed  among 
tliem  all,  that  each  one  has  his  just  shai*e  of  the  pro- 
ceeds. The  principles  on  which  this  is  to  be  done  are 
considered  by  political  economists  under  the  head  of 
DisnuDunoN. 

As  all  value  is  the  result  of  capital  and  industry,  it 
is  manifest  that  we  shall  comprehend  the  whole  sub- 
ject, if  we  treat  of  Wa^es,  or  the  price  of  labour,  and 
Interest f  or  the  price  of  capital.  Inasmuch,  however, 
as  Capital  in  Land  is  in  some  respects  peculiar,  we  shall 
consider  it  separately,  under  the  head  of  Bent,  or  the 
price  of  land. 

OP  WAQB8,  OR  THE  PRICK  OP  LADOl'R. 

Of  the  Qoiwial  Principles  by  which  Wagca,  or  the  Exchangeable 
Value  of  Labour,  ia  regulated. 

We  have  already  seen  that  exchangeable  value  is  the 
cost  of  anv  tiling,  influenced  moreover  by  the  effect  of 
supply  and  demand.  We  shall  therefore  consider,  1st, 
The  cost  of  labour ;  2dly,  The  effect  of  supply  and 
demand  upon  it. 

I.  Of  the  cost  of  labour. 

O/simnle  labour. — By  simple  labour  we  mean  that 
labmir  wnich  may  be  performed  by  any  healthy  person 
without  any,  or  with  very  trifling,  previous  education. 

1.  But  it  ia  evident  that  no  person  can  continue  in 
health  without  food,  clothing^  and  ahelter.  We  cannot, 
therefore,  procure  the  labour  of  any  living  thing  with- 
out fUmiahing  thooe  necessaries  whiieh  are  required  fur 


ditt'erent  climates.  lu  warm  climates,  where  vegetable 
food  is  principally  used,  and  where  very  little  expendi- 
ture is  re(|uii*ed  either  for  fuel,  clothing,  or  shelter, 
wages  would  naturally  be  lower  than  in  cold  climates, 
where  the  expenditures  must  of  necessity  be  so  much 
greater.  This  is,  liowever,  equaliiied  by  the  fact,  that 
warm  climates  enervate  the  system  and  relax  the  phy- 
sical energies,  so  that,  while  you  pay  a  very  small  sum 
for  a  day's  work,  you  receive  a  very  small  amount  of 
labour  in  return. 

Such  is  the  natural  cost  of  simple  labour,  and  it  will 
be  genei-ally  found  that  by  this  rule  that  cost  is  practi- 
cally adjusted.  Whatever  may  be  the  condition  of  the 
country,  the  lowest  class  of  labourers  earns  but  simply 
Eufficient  to  procure  the  ordinary  necessaries  of  life  for 
the  parents  and  the  children. 

Of  educated  labour. — But  for  most  of  the  occupations 
of  life  some  sort  of  education  is  required.  No  man  can 
be  a  carpenter,  or  a  blacksmith,  or  a  jeweller,  or  a 
physician,  or  a  lawyer,  or  a  clergyman,  without  being 
educated  for  tlie  particular  calling  which  he  intends  to 
pursue.  Now,  this  education  is  expensive.  It  costs 
both  time  and  money.  ]f  a  man  wish  to  practise  a 
trade  or  a  profession,  he  must  spend  several  years  in 
preparation  or  apprenticeship.  During  the  whole  of 
this  time  he  receives  no  wages,  and  frequently  is  obliged 
to  pay  for  tuition.  When  he  has  acquired  the  neces- 
sary skill,  he  is  able  to  perform  more  valuable  labour 
than  before,  and  he  is  entitled  to  a  higher  compensation. 
This  compensation  would  naturally  reasonably  be  ad- 
iubted  by  a  consideration  of  the  time  and  capital  which 
he  has  expended  in  his  education.  The  longer  the  time 
and  the  greater  the  expense  of  his  training,  the  higher 
ought  to  be  his  wages.  It  is  evident  that  tlie  wages  of 
such  labour  must  Im  always  greater  than  those  of  simple 
labour,  otherwise  it  will  not  be  produced.  No  man  will 
spend  money  in  educating  his  son  for  a  calling  which 
will  yield  him  no  higher  wages  thau  he  could  earn  with- 
out any  education. 

Such  are  the  principles  by  which  tho  cost  of  labour 
i:4  adjusted.  Wages  umst  always  be  sufheient  to  sup- 
]iort  the  labourer,  and  to  remunerate    him  for  the 


raised  one  grade.  Ttie  pnoe  of  li 
raised  througtiout  the  whole  eommu 
of  the  people  will  be  meliorated,  a  bb 
children  will  die,  and  a  larger  nni 
will  be  reared.  If  this  addition  ( 
deficiency,  lab<iurer8  will  immigrate 
countries,  where  the  proportion  of  t 
less. 

And,  on  the  contrary,  where  the  p: 
to  labour  is  small,  there  will  be  a  lai; 
sons  desirous  of  labour  that  can  fim 
this  case  there  will  be  a  compethioi 
for  work.  They  will  underbid  each  c 
price  of  labour  will  fall.  The  case  m 
paragraph  will  then  be  rererscd ;  tl 
the  labourers  will  be  rendered  wor 
either  emigrate  or  starre.  Many  c 
and  sickly  persons,  will  die  of  the  d 
upon  haniuiip  and  exposure.  In 
number  of  human  beings  will  be  : 
supply  of  labour  is  adjusted  to  the  i 
and  then  the  price  of  labour,  oi 
again. 

Hence  we  see  that,  iu  order  to  sec 
of  a  countrv,  it  is  necessary  that 
increase  with  its  population.  No  nu 
the  present  condition  of  a  people,  if  pi 
faster  than  capital,  or  if  capital  be  i 
cially,  if  it  be  diminishing,  theie  n 
season  of  great  distress  among  the 
There  will  be  more  labourers  than  eai 

Hence  we  see  the  great  importance 
and  national  frugality.  He  who  aqi 
perty  in  useless  expenditure^  is  ani 
means  by  which  the  honest  laboor 
subsistence.  Thus,  also,  ot  nfltiimt 
that  wastes  property  in  wars,  or  ia  i 
unprofitable  consumption,  is  diminiM 
the  country,  and  scattering  the  ra 
toils  of  the  people  have  aocnmnlalei 
thus  spent,  is  the  destruction  of  so  a 
by  which  the  labourers  of  the  couni 


iMfim  BUM^  (li«  npclr  ur  lalaiurm  b  at  tlia  tu- 


II  i*.  nwA  Hill  lora 
'  Md  lalcnu  Ui  Uiut  dinmlun.  Uvi  Ik*  mmtimtf, 
n  Um  nauaDDIMian  itf  •ndl  Uriur  w  t—dyi^Wi 
trill  nut  lu*!'*'"  LtiimiMl*!*  1u  riffono  U,  oarf 
K  klnwi}  •iiDislml  oill  dinoW  lliinDMi>^  l*  ainiui 

I  aurmquBii  wUb  Uih  ikawkA 


'■  !■**«  MH9)  tint  ■  pVEti  unuunt  of  reLfilUl  M  —dm- 
'  In  order  lu  Iiumali  mipliij'iiniai  (nr  an  indirMul 
llnr.  ilvuc*  uij  e^'-n  nmii»tii.  'if  I'iriMl  'Imnlail 
nf  on*  bunni'M,  V<  1 1  'nnKitlor 

rraiiiiiin<l#i>t  muni'  '  li"iiw,  if 

punino  vf  Ui><.iB|»i.> '  III!  Liu>l 


i>  wiUiitnwu  <nl>  IbU  i  Uumt  la 
,iil^  ii  dinnldl  will  riH>.  Soeb 
i.ilirn  ciuountnM  vhiiih  UlrA 


■or  in  din  MVi>n1  |in)r««iea>  ■•  mffKiiiil  tij  nnVuu 

1l]i  til*  Mw  iir  dilHeulty,  Uh  pluwim  ur  guln.  ii( 
■nipliifmiHit,  ftlld  by  tlin  cMitimllua  la  •blcU  it  la 
I  hy  thu  ciniuiiunln. 

riun  uiy  UDila  a  In  lit  luituri'  unplcuani,  nren  du 

lilu?  tu  [tfuctiM  It     Huiuv,  vhru  »«  KuAi  lu  miplnf 

11,  uL>  ujv  kjlilv;i-(l  In  ijivn.'.m"  ll,«"r  rolnctMin  t/ 

■   riu  inro  irf  Uu"  Uliwr 

''liT'G    111  VlffJBtfV    bill, 

I  r*<|ulfH],  itiD  tmillliic  will  b*  the  uoniiiEr  thSc  li< 
Fomi  111*  ii|Uieul<m.  Tbiu  Ike  ■upplj'  aill  tu  sninlh 
1,  •riiiiitUi',  titn  limgnr  will  bi  lltn  tinm  pjinit  iu 
-.iiriir  I.,  ii.tti.nji  ii,  and  tiMiti  tlir  gruler  wagu 

,  I  )<'»*d.    In  duiojr  iii>i>ti7nmM, 

{ilaonl  in  iha  man)  nhaMCWr, 

,ntiitrnE»lllOilKUtnrillK  •)!■»(. 

.  uuL '  '  — ■iiiinMBiiulftwijiienUy 

ail  luiii'  '  '  'ii"lt  !!'■  nuiubcr  u 

«blt>  ^>  .  )  liijnawita  U  «aall. 

niy,  tit'.  :'-■!> Uuo  the dMmwJ, 

v,.,L-    -  ■>■-  li%l>.    An.1,  io». 

'   ..  Idr^r  uDUUiil  of  «|ilUl  -' 


if  .■niployni'Mit. 

. ,  uuu  eni|>lMyini!iii ; 

.  .  .1,  illiiklnn  iif  latMiir 
.  _.  .  ^  lu3  uliolit  tlov  In  Ilia 
Litiij-  duF,  it  i*  toMnulila 

-  Clf  •  tUTtifllbir  UIMTklMB,  b« 


iR  uJconuiLOt.  A  (atz*  furtiKi  iil 
wr  •(  « IwcliBrir-cnMh  ti  anwniiu 
Mnnn.    for  lU*  tkiin  w«  aaM' 


CHAMBERS'S  IXFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE.  ■ 

ttKWv  MITK  OP  -«.«, «.  iSTSElBr.  HUlcflri^Jj,  the  cr^  of  «  t^^mh* 

Vl^nimbllCrKiralllieuHaSIWc]-.  JMSl)M«i0U  of  111* pi»*<»t  «*»«•»*>«■  "fJH 

Tlj»  fir»t  quwitiiai  wliidj  atraUa  i>ur  lUcntMHi  in  tlw  I  m"!  o'  cuursc  Ihpir  remniiasniin  i>  ps 
owudenUan  nf  tbia  Mibject,  U  Iho  (ulluwiue;~Wli)'  j  sM^rdlug  lo  the  buomh  oflb*  rDfiV^  ■ 
ehoulil  Ihc  use  »f  numey  have  any  price  oi  aUI  As  1  '  'i'lis  Mooml  tmam  it  thU  in  •hista  ibtk 
vabirtt  U>  a  nui  iIie  Mme  v«.1ue  whidi  I  burrow  at  bJui,  utiiiM  ^la  risk,  (vohve*  all  Uni  (vaft  li 
vLr  diiiuld  1  pay  him  any  Ihiog  fur  liaiiiig  kfpt  il  ,  burniwa  hk  Bi|<il«l  froai  Qm  aitnv  ■Vi' 
iiitlwiiitenall  T|i>squ«tioQ<>i:£ha]LfintatlC«i|4  liiin  at  s  (laLcHl  nU  foC  tk*  >w  of  U.  B 
(ii<H.i)-il»  tuM  in  Um  borrasl^aod iMdii 
[f  1   parriuiMi  >  ahop  wid  M«ak    '  ~"  ' 


who  lalnun  al  an;  regalal'  euf  lament, 

, nualilLea  whiali  leader  bii  wrvirwi  ii( 

taliw— llM»e  ara  'Irtngl/t  and  lAifJ.  The  Br*t  esablw 
him  M  Hiecute  tioiple  labour,  or  Utwuruf  ibeebni[>eM 
kinil  i  ilia  teroni,  wlien  uuiled  ititb  it,  enablea  biiii  to 
«xoeu(a  oduoaled  or  Itigbrr  priced  labaur.  But,  io 
order  to  prrTurm  thelaller,  lierequirt*  tool*  and  iiiat»- 
riala,  tiMt  isi  Eapitai.  Witluinl  lliCK,  Iw  ooulJ  prrforin 
only  i<>tD{i1»  labour.  u[  »bat  um  oould  be  tlie  skill  of 
tlw  bUekmaitli,  wliluiu  a  lor^  aiul  iroal  or  Uibl  of 
th*  carpenler,  wilhout  tooli  and  wood  (  or  tliat  of  the 
apiancr,  wiiliout  a  *)iii]ning.jeiiny  and  raw  vnttuol 
M'illiout  tlieac,  Uicy  wootd  l»  all  ndueed  to  lite  ukm- 
■ily  of  Ibal  labour  vrliieb  cuuld  be  perfurmed  n  itli  ibvir 
usktd  haiida. 

^uplKiGii  now  that  I  Mil  a  bladuaniili,  and  awn  a 
furn,  tui'la,  and  troa,  with  u  hicli  i  ani  daJy  oniplovsd, 
nnJ  thus  earn  the  irngee  both  of  labijur  and  akiU. 
Were  1  Io  lend  tlieiD  to  aDolht 


^inpli^  anothn- to  keep  ii  tiient,rtpaflm 
tamarjr  wagr^  1  act  in  the  ftm-tn  j«iiwl» 
I  tend  liim  the  aumpr  by  whiHa  fa*  pntan 
and  stock,  and  he  I  nde*  t>n  liia  ova  iM^  | 
inlert«l  on  tba  aBinaul  Ixirmwul,  1  aS  ■! 

It  ia  lb«  laUec  cue  that  ia  to  la  tmUm 
ulace.  lloro  tho  homwet  umb  Ike  ^h 
lender  for  liia  own  sdtanlage,  aad  llolalll 

'  le  differmop  bewi  '   '' 


uuited  wilh  akiil.    IM  he  n 


carrja 


Jariug  ll 


□■lead  of  Horktng    that 


my  trade,  and  tliua  Iobv  the  unifitaf  mj  ikUl,  he  wtii 
miu  harrows  thcin  nf  me  sbonld  aurul)'  remunerate  " 
fat  tiM  uaa  of  tbeni.    Suppoie  he  borrow  then  fi>] 

Car,  be  should  pay  me  for  the  name  reaion.     And  it  1 
ve  the  money  wiih  which  he  can  purchase  them  fi 
himself,  and  1  load  it  to  him,  be  should  pay  lue  just  i 


T  forge,  whidl  1 

id  here  we  may  ; 


hebi 


>s  locked  up  io 
It  . 


jiemi,  that  wlieii  we 
'  for  which  we  pay 

when 


cbaogcd  for  aonielliing  elie,  which,  being  united  wilh 
labour,  will  yield  a  ptofll.  The  fact  is,  that  cierr  one, 
ua  soon  as  he  procures  money,  citehangi'S  it  for  touls, 
or  lualeriali,  or  mcrcliandiw.  Every  one  sees  tbal 
these  ought  to  pay  interest,  because  they  are  the  means 
uf  aocumulalioti.  Just  aa  maeh  ahoold  the  money  pay 
iut^eat  whishiseiclianged  for  l>ieTn,and  for  which  the 
owner  of  the  muni'j  would  Imie  cxcliaiigcd  them,  if  he 
had  not  lent  it  tn  another 

Now,  it  vary  frequently  happens  that  tbu  ability  to 
labour  ie  possessed  by  men  who  hare  no  eapital  upon 
ubich  to  employ  il.  Ami,  on  the  other  hand,  capital  a 
freijuently  posscased  by  men  who  hate  neither  the  ekilt 
nor  llio  ability  to  labour.  In  such  a  case,  it  ia  niaui- 
feaily  for  the  iiiliTeit  of  both  parlies  to  form  a  cojinri- 
nenliip,  the  one  party  funiishioK  Ibe  laboor  and  skill, 
and  t)is  other  fnrnishinj;  the  cnpilal.  liy  this  meani 
holh  parties  arc  benefited.  Tbe  labourer  earns  tho 
wages  of  labour  and  ekill,  iuatcad  of  those  of  Mmple 
labinir;  ttie  capitaliet  deriies  an  inoonK  from  his  pro- 
perty without  diminishing  it,  iiii^iead  of  beingobliged  to 

Now 


K  the  niH  of  wages.  Here  there  ii  •irln- 
emliip  furmej  between  the  capilalipl  and 
r.  The  one  furnishea  the  tools  and  the 
d  lak.'B  all  lite  ri>k«  nf  tliu  opemtion,  and 
the  labuurrr  the  profits,  which  be  nayi  in 
wagen.  These  are  generally  agreed  upon 
lencenieut  between  the  partiei,  and  :ire  Ihe 
rr  the  i^ration  be  profitable  or  uniii-ofit- 


giv*  rile  to  these  diAieneca  let  aa  ■••  alMI 
1.  TIm  rate  of  iuwreat  will  t«  aAaded  kj* 

Iitanesa  of  npMsL 

Whm  ■  capllalist,  b>  the  uw  .^flji.- rirci 

d.srgea  bifiliLT  luU-i-ist  iifon  ii  v.^a  •*• 
scarcely  maku  live  pur  o»iit.  pi-r  biaiua.  . 
evident,  on  the  other  haul,  that  the  (msmN 
willing  to  pay  a  higi.er  int«reat  i.  Ik.  t«^ 
the  latter  caw,  boeauso  he  will  baabtataMli 
profit  by  the  nee  of  it.  llenee,  uli*n  kiribk 
and  productiTe,  iulereal  wiU  be  h>2b.kaMI 
vestment  of  capital  oitd  labaur  !■  I*ii4  ltd* 
will  be  exceedingly  profltabU.     Ths  mm»  m 

Whether  the  prodDeliTea««*  nf  npist  t* 
small,  aupply  will  affect  the  raiu  nf  lauotf 
the  sujiply  is  nnail,  tlKi«  will  b>  a  euiB|iitfs 


the   lendei 

Itolb  of 


r    the    I 


Kt  tend  In  pndM**4 

ji  interest  so  commonly  obH.TTe4  laaM* 
[.and  is  cheap.  It  is  in  its  higheat  aiJitf 
All  labour  bean  a  tery  high  priee,  tut  ik*  i 
labour  aro  imperatively  deman>]f4  I  an^  m 
lime,  cni'ital  is  tcarce,  while  the  deoud  ftrt 
«int.  As  »  country  grows  older,  Uieae  MM 
change,  nnd  Ihe  interest  of  money  eratelltl 
II.  S.'Condlv,an>>lh.'reircti<»la»alMN 
if  intiTfi't  is  Ihe  ruiofilie 


lopowe 


r,  Iher 


lie  shall  never  Hce  It  again.     This  rt^  <M 
bendded  to  the  priee  which  is  paid  lorlbv**' 

1'hu^  suppow  that  the  fair  |iiai«liia  I 

of  capital  in  one  ca.s«  wne  Hts  per  tMl.< 
"  jn  chat  it  wu  perfectly  nnvje^teH 
were  a  risk  equal  to  I'  *  ' — ' 
„  totally  Inst,  this  ~ 
be  added  lu  the  fire  n 


t,  this  two  per  eeM.  iirttill 
fire  pei-MsLbrWka" 


mjTB  Mgti  JUldend,  butyMi*  lUltlfiBita 
nnt  bf  DuDkhici^  ii  aill  aelt  (nr  1m>  thu  aMiliiir 
g  lnw«r  iKlriwel,  hue  of  wbiuli  tha  |inim|«t  l< 
.  'Hin*  bnutwiBfiEnl  *ir«ii4hiitl  alniila,  tbnuf^ 
Ky  latS*  lUvtitellib,  Drill'  l'rm<i  i>  m'l-rH^uinilinll 
tecaMW  u!  llio  kun" U'  ■■  li.  i ■.  ,ij-.  ■m.'.'.  .■,il»Wy 

.t  U5*)Mtt>ltl«,  }r>  riian 

«  M  MVy  ■ftlmUv,  >1     .■.  -I     .rin.,.l« 

■««fllu>u>Uti|BIi<i»-iii"><,  -■.    „■■.,..■'  ,:.Hom- 

II  ta  kf  mcb  •Ucuuut.i.if  n  Uiu  ihi.  runi  and 

itMbi  o*  dttcuMiinl.    I'lity  m  owAiudiT  far 

'  lufB  citiia,  asd  tliair  prirc*  mili  riw  uid  fail 


,  -OF  tkUj  aChtr  iuvcBMniitB,  irill  linng  a  fvio*  in 
■tkal  tu  sntniition  lu  111*  anmal  iuUnat  Kliiali 
F  dnrirvJ  rrum  Uieiii.  A  xluvk,  let  it  litvo  o^ 
(  mty,  wUtah  jmdiuia  ili  ponodi  a-y^ir.  It  tli 
nL  Iw  ^a  n{[DUr  nlo  a(  Mool,  pay*  llM  iMfc 

almadrfd  tniiniii,aBdit*ill«DUl(ii-ali«adrttl 
I.  ir  it  yuM  (wain*  iwaiiiU,  k  will  tall  fur  t«« 
»]  Mimda,  aiul  mi  iii  nay  allm'  proportion. 
■,  til*  MOW  tauirk  applica  In  the  puit  uf  UluL 
■urn  uf  liuid,  alMV  paywi;  Ihe  Dnlinsry  «ip>DiU' 
ii-  lillaga  uid  canyiiig  Uid  pTDduw  lu  aiackvl, 
!lil  tla-w  pmuula  pruAl,  il  wiU  wli  fur  tttl^  |>iiiidi1ji, 
inK  tliM  rata  oT  Iiit«4til  l<i  li>  at  *ix  fr  oaat.  JI 
ifii  lii&t  nut}  In  dciivcd  Initn  it  be  man.  It  •"IS 
*  tjjom  ;  If  li9B|  U  Hiii  aell  faf  Wia,  And  tiw  vcia 
il«  anpliai  to  laud,  itlicilier  it  In  uanl  (or  lilU)^ 
davlii(u;-buDMi. 

t  ia  Itia  Kcncnl  priiiniiii*  un  wluult  tlia  r*ul  ul 
r|HinJa.  It  ta,  liuwiiEr,  tu  Iw  nuiivuitHnyil,  IliK 
iduMltuieu  ut  Uod  ibimidt  u|ioa  tiro  uroum- 
sMHlitti  and  ttniaima. 

ttMitt.—£-Kirr  vat  kuum  llial  tliara  a^tiata  (real 
■IM  In  Uw  tsrlSilf  iiTlaDtl.  Wiiii  tlia  biiio  «ui- 
u,  ail  sen.  In  aiiuia  alDutuioa,  mil  yialii  Inia  ac 
iatm  M  larga  ■  liafol  at  an  acn  in  illxr  altl*- 
Soiia  landi  rniuini  aiuiiul  iiianiviiiit.  nttian 
twari  to  ba  mMiflml  al  all.  Nnw,  Inaauiueli  aa 
m  Biifa  la  thi  »u«  place,  }<ni  can  detlia  tlirH 
M  much  lucHiaa  aa  bum  an  acir  in  lliv  oHipr,  it  ii 
atili  to  aappiae  tlwl  tin  funoar  vouU  «U  liir 
,Uuu  aa  mush  i>  tlw  lalt>r. 
4litall«n.— Tl'a  prixiucla  u(  laud,  tiiiweni',  an 

nnil  >i  cuala  a  tnry  KiDiuilFrabln  |«niao  ul  tbali 
■^aalile  valoi _    .     ..      _-.   . 


■  pruciplM  m  aaini^  ii 


.J|j 


'OBMATION  FOa  THE  PEOl 


p«reeive  in  what  manner  renta  will  ha  adjuelfd  in  »ny 
girsn  country.  When  »  territnty  ia  at  first  aeiti^d,  the 
Ikod  may  be  Iiail  for  nothing  Every  one  being  at  liberty 
to  ahooee  for  hiinseif,  ttau  mont  prodacliie  Isoch,  that 
i>,  tho  moirt  fertile  and  Ihoae  moat  favonmbly  ailnsled. 
will  ha  at  first  i^ecl«d.  Theau  will  hear  do  price  and 
will  yield  nil  rent,  beniiae  they  may  bo  hod  for  nothing. 

Wh«n,  hiiwever,  these  are  all  occupied,  nnd  oUiera 
are  ucnlrd,  the  land  of  the  next  inferior  fertility  will 
t>u  put  under  tillage.  Aa  soon  ae  tliis  is  done,  tbe  first 
olaae  of  lands  will  yield  rent,  and  will  coinntaDd  b  price. 
Supp'vo  landa  ol  the  first  class  to  have  produced  fifty 
huahele  to  the  acre,  and  landa  of  the  sei-ond  class  bal 
fiirty  liuahels.  It  will  be  an  cheap  for  the  neeileT'  to 
hire  ft  farm  of  the  flnt  cIuh,  at  a  rent  nf  ten  buahela 
to  the  aara,  as  to  ha^e  a  farm  of  forty  bushels  to  the 
acru  for  nothing.  When  the  lands  of  tlieseeondolaMani 
all  occupied,  thoBo  of  the  thiinl  class  will  come  into  re- 
qucit  :and  na  Boon  oa  these  ikrelille<l,tlio«Bof  the  secaod 
class  will  al>o  command  a  price  and  will  produce  a 
rent.  At  the  eaine  lime,  the  price  and  the  rent  of  lands 
of  the  lirat  e^aas  will  be  doubled.  In  this  manner,  the 
ri*e  of  prlc*  and  of  rent  in  landa  nt  variona  grade*  of 
|!»Ftlllty  Kill  gn  nn  ntereaaing,  until  all  the  land  worthy 
of  eultiTstion  is  cocupied. 

Aa  the  eommoD  market  for  agricultural  prodnels  ]s 
on  the  eea-eoaat,  it  might  he  supposed  that  ihe  pries  of 
land  would  gradually  dimmish  u  yon  remove  into  the 
inlMHar,  until  its  disadvantafcea  uF  situation  reduced 
valne  to  nothing.     This  would  be  the  ease  were  it  t 
(tor  vaHona nonnteracling  cireumstancei.   Amongibi 
are  the  fallowing : — 

1.  Th<4  fer^lity  of  land,  in  many  inatangas,  incrcaaoa 
aa  we  ratirv  from  the  coast  This  fertility  raonteiv 
balancea  the  diAadvantageB  of  lituation. 

2.  Aa  a  (munlry  advances  in  civilisatii 
internal  cnmmunication  improve,  and  th< 
of  situation  is  more  and  more  removed. 

jl.  As  a  eonntrjF  becomes  settled,  towns  anil  cities 
grow  up  in  the  iaterior,  and  thus  bring  a  market  to  the 
■•    ■-      -     -b  benefited  by  the  brmging  of  the 


land 


Id  be  by  the  ^ 


the  arta  tranrforma 

T 

vontion  opened  this 

d  ptve  to  the  towns  on 

ndvantnges  of  a  po- 

land n 

m    aneeft,  nn  which  Iho 

m        hcrsmay  bemanUnned 

Alan  ia  endowed 

,  aa     ell  aa  with  an  intel- 

aud  1  a  very  commonly  takes 

cho  t  ng  for  h  niBclf  a  place 

helher  n  a  i  llage  or  n  the 
i;her  pnco  Iban  that  wh  ch 

1    11 

st    i  n    glb.rhooi 

Lnd,  h 

wB*er 

»  not  alwa 

IB  used  fo 

the  purpoaea 

SET  cult 

re      1 

c  t  as  and 

owns,  merely 

It  rd  H 

l-ace  f 

r  the  ercc 

on  of  ato 

rehouse,    and 

Inth 

case  of  c 

ut»  >ta  fe 

a  d 

la  ni  ly  vnl 

e  depends 

pnoe  will  h 

ed  merely  hy 

s  cir<7uri 

Thow  1. 

nttioHS  i.fe 

greatest  facilities  far  bnaJmiM,  will  •€■■• 
ei<,t  rent ;  and  lli'>sr  whieh  t-MVtW  (not  ill 
maud  a  lower  aoH  lower  mtt,  aatil  flMy  t 

far  from  the  centre  of  bnamwH,  tkM  A» 
valuable  tor  dwelling-honaab  ThcntoiMl 
gradually  diminisliea,  until  ■Hi»atfc»  to  kM' 
of  the  price,  and  the  Ikud  DUjr  pmAMMjr  k 
gardmiog.  Here  the  elemeM  of  hatiliyi 
into  the  eompuUttan.  Tha  land  banaJW 
large  dty,  is  tbu*  eomiiuinly  awufiad  tfl 
supply  the  market  wjlb  rveent  TLgutaWii 
B  small  diatanca  bcToadl,  it  ia  dimnxJ  *•  i 
purpoaee  of  agriCQltiire,  ami  tiui«MUUi  «la(l 
ptrly  denomiuated  the  condtrj. 

Having  thai  onnaidered  tbr  K?aisral  p4ti 
whiflh  the  diatributioa  vf  tha  jvoBa  «f  aaf « 
is  eflVcl«d,  we  shall  close  thn  asrlioa  I7  * 
illustrating  tbe  manner  in  which  Ibas  ffM 
rate  in  an  iodividual  instaDcv, 

Wc  wUI  take,  for  tha  sake  of  tl.b  illasM 
of  bread.  A  farmer  In  thu  Waal  IUdii«  <f 
devotes  his  land  It  "'"      -    ■  ■-        .    -t.   .     • 


ea  his  land  lo  the  rataiu  of  wbial.    t 

raiaea  bia  crof,  and  meUa  it  to  lbs  td 

whieh  he  recf-ivaa  for  ha  ovpin^l 

labour,  th«  ««•  aari  Mp 

irM,^tMcrB 


workmen,  th"  onal 

interest  on  all  the  capital  wlucii  haa  ta 

he  own  the  land,  he  Tccalvn  ilta  ml  imm 

hire  it,  he  f*y»  it  10  Ihe  tandlorit    Iht  ^h 

the  grain,  manafaclurfa  it  iota  llavr,  tnaf 

Hull,  and  sells  It  to  the  Honr^aerehaal.   Ik 

which  he  sells  it,  repajv  him  wfaatvTwWfeil 


Mie  flour.     This  must 

pay  hia  rariona  workmen,  lo  r*matHrti>  H 
own  labour  and  akill,  Uw  uce  of  bM  MfWl 
and  tear  o(  his  mill,  and  the  cuM  trf  ■'Mif 
■lull.  What  he  has  paid  the  tranafvrtalisaii 
be  sufficient  to  remunerate  himfor  thauaa 
boats,  llio  men  and  horses  that  faatw  fan*  m 
navigating  them,  the  expenae  of  Mll^  hMI 
on  all  the  capital  whioh  is  emplojed  (»  A*^ 
The  flunr-niercbant  bnys  the  Roar,  asd  M 


supply 


[o  repay 


nerali'm  for  hia  Ubour  and  skill,  and  tile  cMI 
room.  1'he  baker  purchases  the  Am  it  I 
merchant,  and  makn  it  into  br^ad.  II*  ik 
hia  bread  auUicient  tu  repay  him  for  whU  b 
Honr-merchant,  and  for  all  h<a  labour  tail  « 
lamhigthH  flour  into  bread.  Thua,  whegss 
a  loaf  of  bread,  we  pay  our  proportion  <4^i 
ral  expenses.  And  these  several  amodxH  ^ 
instances,  are  diatribnlsd  according  to  ll*  n 
wc  have  laid  down.  All  Ihe  Ubour  «ki* 
employed  is  paid  according  to  its  value  tat  < 
all  the  capital  nccurding  to  the  nae  andnA* 
had  been  subjected.  Tlie  various  ilsn«  rfff 
production  of  any  article  of  uw,  majbSwA 


QxscMPTwy:    . 


Wb  have  Ihua  far  endeavoored  la  shewias 


are  pralucnl,  in  what  maaoer  they  « 
among  Iho  producera,  and  to  what  maaBcrAl 
whieh  each  one  of  the  producer*  is  ontilM,  k^ 
to  each  of  them. 

But  we  know  that  all  this  is  ilotM  w«k  tJ 
another  object.  £ver;^  thing  that  ii  al  Si; 
dasigued  tu  ha  osed,  and  after  il  ia  Ao(ii*^4) 
in  familiar  language,  ujiftt  up,  at  ia  w^tlda* 
previous  opentious  only  prepare  lb*  wqlff 
(ion,  and  it  la  coiuumption  thai  (aoHa  A* 
lat  thei  r  being  ineessaotlj  n 


'-..iTd 


I  p*^ra  Tide. 


ll   tU  VXIUO.       If.  D<l» 

"ttkU-  ti"-  "ilor  of  T 

;:-^IX 

■tU» 

-  1.-™. 

i.l    n--iiii;   .1  riu-  Mo 

'     a.   hi* 

"?«!S"^"1"::: 

'  >'  01  M 

.■,:■ 

...:     HlU 

U^yn-r,  .1 

i:H 

nlao.U  u  at 

•  E»d 

"  ,  or, 

^    .11  •to* 

tbnmapUim  /nr  tit  i*li*  i^  As  i 
liiii  tiMnnar  tlni  hniwr  funnumu  wvii,  inaBurn*, 
r,  *i>il  uiuti,  tliM  h*  RIB)'  lliiu  In  diiiiIjLkI  tu  )>rH- 
a  liu-iMl.     Thn  Ruuiubi- 
u,  IklMur,  mucliiiHiry,  &o.. 


TliB  n 


^i.'^iii 


in  order  tii  ytuia^ 

larii-uo  cwDUpnIinn*  ti  m«u,  OUtfa- 

Liul  tatuiur,  arii  ni>Q>Miu»il  Iw  >b< 


Miki  <if  tht  fTiHt/isarion  4/ 
unnfl  III  bUr  dalm  lisn  rMprrt  in  mi)'  111*, 
h.  ami  aomfnTt.  ^osh  ara  tin  ilnirf  tor  Ouiil, 
ne,  aluilwr,  anil  t)ia  oiriuiM  ennrvnirnvst  lij> 
iha  bui  of  (Uflmuir  anil  Uia  coM  vt  oiatnr  nu^ 
uiUliwI.  Uthm  u«  niirclji  h>P  Ui*  qTMiBntMui  ^ 
EiiH*,  wUbout  auj  r-ci^nl  w  Um  tanulU  >ltioli  ■• 
r  bojxaui  lliit  <>1  •iiii[>l>  HMuai  tlffluum.  Sooli 
1*  iluunw  tit  Ilia  liMuri**  uf  ilia  laliie,  uf  Itiaa, 
iBn,and  fur  Umaa  mudiv  "1  liiltij  wlildi  ara  (W 
M  hy  babiua.  snnie  i>t  am  doiraa  ani  gnliBad 
lallMaml  plraour^  anil  oliiara  by  tha  plaanu*  rf 
..  ,  _._    ^  that  1  ■h.^ld  Miui^ 


1"^.' 


EWIll.      It  i 

tH  Iha  tarlni 
ill  rvnuiii*  ta  U 


Humntillna  ta  «f  tirv  kuida,  uvMaHlaaf  and  nMfooa/. 

iaual«.n»"'i'i'!i-iiM-"fi-"l='n.K(ir»l.fn»lfc»i»lia 
jiw/fu'N'.'"  '     .  ■         '  .jH,i(ai/i.iH. 


CHAMBERS'S  INPORUATKUt  FOR  THE  VBOOM. 


Dutta 


» 


I 


if  t<ra  kinds — or 


la  wlileh  th«  capital  is  consumed. 

noJuco  wlUMUt  consnmplioD,  wen 

do  w  U  eoMnty  to  the  Uw  of  his  being.     Couin 

b  DMcaMrji ;  bul  if  ■  nun  be  wise,  he  wDl 

lUIlt  ■*  puaaible.     Production  ia  bit  remunenition,  *ad 

if  ha  b«  wiBC,  he  will  render  tliU  ns  great  u  poeai' ' 

Hill  wliuin  gain  i«  Ihe  wnounl  b;  wljich  his  produci 

txentiis  hi«  eoiisuinplinn.     The  greitertluB  excess, 

•ruiter  will  be  his  profit.    The  rule  by  which  heahuutd 

ner^fore  be  governed,  is  (»  f --  ' -"- -' 

a*  pomiile,  by  Ihfi  eoniumplion 

Tlin  mnminiption  of  a  prodi 
ospitil  and  of  Ubour. 

0/  CuntuoipliaH  i/f  OipitaL—Tiw!  principle*  which 
(houlil  eovcru  UB  hore,  are,  1  auppoae,  the  fallowing 

1.   The  coniumpliou  of  capiul  should  be  u   im 
In  amonnt  u  is  conBialent  with  the  creation  of  the 
airrd  produoL.     A  ahoemskcr.  who  habitually  cute  u 
tide  of  leather  ao  carelesaly  Ihnt  leather  sulScient 
OUa   pair  of  ahoes  is  wasted,    will   never  grow  ri 
The  fanner  who  eow*  Iwa  builioU  of  seed  when  i 
trould  have  aoiwered  na  well,  Icnes  the  half  of  bis  se 
In  China,  aowing  ia  always  done  by  drilling  instead  of 
broadoant.     It  ha*  boon  (Himputfld  tliat,  lly  this  method, 
H  mueh  gr^n  ia  savrd  as  would  feed  the  wliole  popu- 
lation of  Clmat  Britaia.     The  Uielese  expenditnre  of 
fu«]  in  Uritain  la  cnomioas.     It  is  auppoeed,  and  with 
good  reason,  that  not  mora  than  one-tenth  of  the  heat 
uf  the  fuel  employed  ie  rendered  avaihible  in  a  eommon 

3.  (^uital  of  DoprFdffr  vahte  than  M  nrc^Mfry  should 
b*  employed  to  create  the  desired  prodncL  Thus,  it  is 
fuT  Iho  inlKrest  of  every  prodacer  to  ascertain  in  wlml 
nuulnor  he  may  be  able  to  accompliah  hia  purpose,  by 
impiioo  of  the  least  valuable  materials.  The 
:  inquires  before  he  imports  a  produci  from  a 
i/fbreicn  country,  with  what  export  be  can  pmeare  it  at 
-the  cheapest  rate.  So  tlie  mannfactareri  If  be  bewisf, 
keep  himself  inlonned  of  the  jwogras*  of  eeieace 
_^  of  Uia  »xtM,  (hat  ha  may  learn  in  what  manner  a 
dieaper  article  may  be  substituted  for  a  dearer  in  the 
orealion  of  hia  product.  A  fortune  has  frequenily  been 
realised  by  (he  discovery  of  a  cheaper  dye-sIufT,  or  the 
Bub«li1ulion  of  B  single  cheaper  nmterial  in  the  place  of 
that  onlinnrily  in  use. 

3.  Kiirry  utility  posaessed  by  the  material  cnoaumed 
allDUld  be  rendered  in  the  beat  mmiacr  atailablr.  Tims 
in  an  oil-mill  the  flax-seed  front  which  linsoed  nil  lias 
bed)  expressed  is  a  valuable  food  fur  cattle.  After  Ihc 
brewer  hna  extracted  the  Hoccliarine  matlpr  froi 
barley,  iLu  grains,  as  iJiey  are  called,  are  valuable  fii 
the  annie  purpose.  The  tan  bark,  after  the  tanuin 
matter  has  bemi  t-.tracU-d,  ia  valualile  for  fuel.  Thi 
economy  uf  iwiiiriiili  ii^  n>ry  noil  iJluslraiod  in  th 
maimfiictur>' III  1.  :  lii.<  u. 'I^^imdueted  cstnbli.ili 

body,  the  li|i,  i.ii,  aud  the  mucilage,    and  not  in 


^V  merchant 
^V-fbreicn  m 
^^L  Uw  cheap 


1.  We  should  aapiey  pa  aurg  hit 
•ary.  Too  many  Ikbanran  •rill  ala^aa 
olhel  in  [dlenoa.  WbMi  tbM*  te  aw  ^ 
tell  stories,  thelimo  ofaanaalaAstHH 
in  lialening  to  tbem. 

2.  We  should  aaflaj  no  bm  UkomOm 

one  Ubourer  ia  obliged  t»  pevfbrH  n« 
work,  we  looe  tbe  artranfarn  td  dmrnm  « 
aleo  expose  onraelves  la  all  (Im  iBSaDiwi 
fusion  and  disorder. 

S.  We  ahonld  emploj  Uboor  of  ae  %fc 
is  necessary. 

In  any  extensive  operation  il  vdt  be  ■ 
Section  ^t  somo  parts  of  Um  pcaen»  f 
skill  and  attention  than  oibos.  Sane  ' 
labour  worth  five  or  tcu  ehilLuga  »Ay< 
labour  worth  not  more  tban  «^l|iefkc«  tr 
a-day.  It  is  of  great  iDtpartaaoe  ia  any  bq 
ment  w  to  arrange  tbe  laboonn  >M  a 
■hall  be  employed  at  a  higbtr  prie*  Ikaa 
which  he  performs  is  actually  wuMh.  It  a 
to  berrmarkad,  that  an  erTorniayaaUlfl 
kind.  It  is  as  bad  e<<onomy  to  empkiyia** 
dear  labonr.  In  the- one  cue,  wv  Ha*lr 
high  a  price  for  labour,  in  (he  othw,  IfSl 
tion  of  materials,  nfaich  alway*  rataltalM 
of  skill  in  a  labourer. 

4.  The  labour  which  wc  have  paid  (or  A 
per/ornmil.  Time  is  money,  to  hun  at  ImM 
money  for  it.  If  it  be  wasted,  his  aiea>T 
away  ;  and  by  throwing  away  money  a*  s* 

lu  order  to  aecure  t)ii>  rwull,  amnl  M 
however,  be  atteiiditd  to.  T)»  iiksI  hafani 
is,  that  he  who  employs  laboiuata  SBarfl 
aupeiintend  hia  own  atfain.     No  oaeMUl* 


cannot  be  done,  the  establtshiuettt  sboaUhtli 
as  to  ensure  toll  whI  vifilaait  aafMiaMrt 
every  part,  and   undsr  Bash  rayaniliMI 

bring  a  knowledge  of  any  delinquency  U  Aa 
the  competent  authority. 

Besides  Ibis,  much  time  is  saved  t^ijM^ 

larily.     When  one  is  ubli^td  to  »ali  forasa*! 

'      '        I'lwiiy  wa«Ii>d.     Tools  sbiiBldi 

wibic  cuudiciun.     This  ssiai 

of  the  most  common  exeMS 

gence. 

Toiuuinpluin  lur  RntUcatiOK 
Consumption  may  be    conducted  up*  al 
iirinciples,  or  Ilia  reverse.     It  is  elcariylkfit 

ipenditurc  upon  objei^  wliich  an  ■•}<<' 
"    of  any  kind;  that  evindi^ 

respect  wasted.  Id  tUaa^l 
the  Fame  with  na,Iiana]  oaaM 
When  the  pubhc  mmwyi'  T 

ivnrU  which  is  not  to  b*  ti*« 
^■■!al,  the  labonr  whtA  f^ 
i-r  has  gi>ne  in  vain.  Il  is  B 
lylh.t--         '       ■         -■— ^ 


ir  profit  of  any  ki 
liould  I 


sajp 


.Tks  in  nrent  Uritain.  Th 
L-rly  wasted,  i»  used  to  heat  th 
ihe  furnace.  Dy  this cxpcdiei 
ii'l  is  seeoinpliithed. 


ca,  and  so  fortk. 
ptworkm, 
le  consumer  of  othi 

I'e  been  ipplied  otherwiHi,  aad  •* 

b<-  wktnncr  PoUtkua  Efomy  taa  U 

(isi,  Willi  •  frwtliKtal  s 


.M  ill,.*,-,  il-r  i~-«i.  v*»»l 

I J 


dilficult  to  obtain  the  means  ot  subswtence  lor  increas- 
ing numbers.  Ho  concluded  that,  at  the  utmost,  the 
means  of  subsistence  would  be  found,  at  the  end  of  each 
successive  quarter  of  a  century,  to  have  increased  only 
at  the  rate  of  double  for  the  first,  triple  for  the  second, 
quadruple  for  the  third,  and  so  on.  Thus  (said  ho)  while 
population  would  go  on  increasing  in  a  geometrical  ratio, 
that  is,  as  1,  2,  4,  8, 16,  32,  G4, 123,  &c.,  food  would  in- 
crease only  in  an  arithmetical  ratio,  that  is,  as  1,  2,  3, 
4,  5,  C,  7,  8,  &c. ;  and  the  consequence  of  an  unchecked 
increase  of  the  one,  with  the  utmost  possible  increase  of 
the  other,  would  be  that,  when  the  population  of  the 
globe  had  advanced  to  .500,000  millions,  there  would 
only  be  food  for  10,000  millions,  or  a  fiftieth  part  of  the 
number ! 

Considering,  then,  that  there  is  a  power  and  a  ten- 
dency in  human  beings  to  increase  so  rapidly,  and  that, 
in  point  of  fact,  it  is  only  in  a  few  favoured  spots  that 
they  do  increase  at  such  a  rate,  Mr  Malthus  concluded 
that  there  must  be  some  counteracting  agencies,  or 
checks,  in  constant  operation,  in  almost  all  communities, 
to  restrain  population  at  a  lower  rate  of  increase,  or 
keep  it  stationary.  In  looking  about  to  discover  these 
checks,  lie  satisfied  himself  that  they  were  of  two 
orders  :  first,  there  was  the  mortality  produced  by  the 
effects  of  deficient  food  and  of  wicked  passions  ;  these 
he  called  positive  checks:  then  there  was  the  check 
produced  by  a  prudent  forethought  in  human  beings, 
leading  them  to  avoid  marriage,  on  account  of  tlic  little 
prospect  of  being  able  to  rear  a  family  in  comfort ;  this 
he  called  tlie  preventive  check. 

Arriving  at  this  ])oint,  Mr  Malthus  and  his  followers 
proceeded  to  show  how  their  doctrines  were  applicable 
for  the  benefit  of  communities.  It  was  held  that  there 
could  bo  no  choice  between  the  two  kinds  of  checks  :  it 
was  clearly  preferable  that  population  should  be  re- 
strained by  the  preventive  check. 

"It  is  observed,"  says  the  Edinburgh  Heview^  " in 
xnost  countries,  that  in  years  of  scarcity  and  dearness, 
the  marriages  are  fewer  than  usual ;  and  if,  under  all 
the  great  variations  to  which  the  increase  of  the  means 
of  subsistence  is  necessarily  exposed  from  a  vauiety  of 
causes — from  a  plenty  or  scarcity  of  land,  from  a  good 
or  a  bad  government,  from  the  general  prevalence  of 
intelligence  and  industry  or  of  ignorance  and  indolence, 


ana  pruaence,  seem  to  be  gc 
education,  and  every  cireanu 
crease  their  independence  and 
ever  the  registers  of  a  conn 
disadvantages  of  situation,  in 
and  the  general  prevalence  o 
disease  and  death  over  the  < 
dcntial  habits,  there  we  aln 
people  debased  by  oppreeaioi 
and  indolence.  Wherever,  oi 
try  without  peculiar  advantag 
liar  capability  of  increase,  the 
mortality,  and  the  preralenei 
dential  habits  above  that  fra 
there  we  as  constantly  find  i 
blished,  and  some  degree  of  in 
with  a  taste  for  clesjolineas  ai 
rally  difibsed. 

Nor  does  experience  seem  U. 
who  think,  that  one  vice  at  I 
portion  to  the  increase  of  the  i 
lation.  Norway,  Switzerland 
which  arc  most  distingnjshed 
mortality,  and  the  operation  o 
on  marriage,  may  be  compare* 
countries,  not  only  with  rega 
worth  and  respectability  of  tfa 
regard  to  the  virtues  which  re 
the  sexes.  We  cannot,  as  Mi 
mate  with  tolerable  aocuracj  I 
tity  in  the  single  state  prevai 
sions  must  be  founded  on  gene 
clearly  in  our  favour. 

We  appear,  therefore,  to  b 
experience  and  observation,  b 
conclusions.  From  what  we  s 
cannot  rationally  expect  that  1 
ever  be  so  completely  subjee 
enable  him  to  avoid  all  the  i 
which  depend  upon  his  own  coi 
saying,  that  perfect  virtue  is  nol 
an  assertion  by  no  means  new, 
to  the  present  discussion.  The 
different  nations,  in  the  pressi 
from  the  tendency  of  the  humi 


n  bmuu  being*  And  nilwltlmo.,  bi  Mr  malum 
on,  tbero  wnnlil  ajipou  lo  I*  ■  iiiavfknBjf ' 
tba  evBtmj  in»  ;  ihat  h  tn  nv,  mC  ' 

I  la  be  ea^U*  of  •  wiirIi  nan  iafU 

man  bmnn. 

■llB  hl4llillMilU11  ci1>i*M-~*^«»  l^e 


•0  u  tu  idilIhs  {mrlnpi,  ■  UiinUntu  iiuU  miAbia        ' 
Dirbg  aa  muiJi,  1i;  a  mrlain  anumot  uf  laliuaf , 
niid-ntc  ri'H  nun  f"*  '"■trr  Ir'fiiri'.  aiul  «u  tin 


U  tin  beat  villa  iM  i 
ii  !na  aaiiataeiur}  oi 


rv*r  anald  toic  t<lMc.  Prom  Uiu  oirltDil  uinlcca 
B  or  tba  tiumiui  MmQf,  U  appacr*  ui  haia  U«n 


liiii'-liunilriiiiii  isut  □[  tiin  isrtli'a  rariim  la 
oil,  u><i  ui>f  QiU'Lnsilr^h  {inn  of  tliat  CMltl> 
n  a  tHaatJHf  nr  advaniagRmia  mann«i  wUe, 
tint  haa  lakcD  iitaot,  wa  mar  roiaenaMj  ralea- 
-on  Uia  [irDdiicii>0eu  of  tae  b«al  millWilkl 
dngyetgraatlfineraaed.  Willi  Mrll  an  alnuM 
te  fl«li  Mill  Man  oi,  U  ammi  alnilH  la  bt 
any  anxrrty  aa  to  tbv  nippoard  trn()i>n(7  of  tha 
£uniljr  tn  a  too  nipid  HirtMfM.  Ttw  •u|w»tiaa- 
nr  oiia  dialHne  haa  enlj  la  gn  to  auuiic  }vt  an> 
I  apot,  or  la  aaorl  binitulty  luid  Indnaln  to  niaa 
Dod  (rem  Uial  irhl^  Ihry  do  cHup},  In  ««)ct 
lUb  UusiMltea  in  ecTufirt,    TT..n-  ii  anniliar 

wherebjr  ll  maj  flo— v  -'i — >:>itnlsM 

joQ  can  toppori  i^-'  ■  i-jIiIj, 

flio  proJoCTivmi'f ,  lijirt' 

dniiand  For  foDd.     i '  f't 


jQ,  atidoilT«li- 
'i  hi*  Dntlnn  of 


Mtinc  10  nitaM  in  If.a  InAh'i^r*  *  a^«!^«3 


thuj»,  the  tendency  to  increase  would  appear  as  a  means, 
in  Providence,  to  stimulate  men  and  nations  to  the 
utmofit  {KWttible  exertions  for  the  improvement  of  the 
materials  placed  at  their  command,  60  that  no  faculty 
of  their  being  might  lie  waste,  and  wo  power  of  physical 
nature  remain  useless.  Supposing  this  to  be  one  of  the 
final  causes  of  the  population  principle,  the  preventive 
check  of  the  Malthusians  must,  of  course,  appear  as  an 
impious  attempt  to  control  one  of  the  Creator's  moat 
inifKirtant  designs. 

OBSERVATIONS. 

Such  is  an  outline  of  the  arguments  which  have  been 
u>>cd  on  this  famous  question.  It  must,  we  think,  be 
gi'ncrally  evident  to  new  and  dispassionate  inquirers, 
that  there  i»  cnnie  truth  in  the  views  of  both  parties, 
but  that  the  full  and  exact  truth  has  not  been  stated  by 
cither.  For  arriving  at  this  the  means  do  not  perhaps 
exist  in  the  present  imperfect  state  of  statistical  science ; 
but  in  the  mean  time  we  may  present  a  few  conside- 
rations which  have  occurred  to  ourselves  on  tliis  sub- 
ject. 

It  appears  to  us  to  bo  only  an  assumption  that  there 
is  every  where  a  tendency  to  double  the  population 
«;vtTy  twcnty-fivc  years.  We  certainly  see  that  such 
is  the  case  in  North  America  ;  but  possibly  this  is  eon- 
eiderably  owing  to  temptations  which  are  presented  by 
the  state  of  the  country,  labour  being  so  expensive  in 
all  such  regions,  that  a  bounty  may  be  said  to  be  put 
ui>nn  the  possession  of  a  family.  Perhaps  the  natural 
tendency  is  there  drawn  into  something  approaching  to 
an  unnatural  state  of  activity. 

Allowing  that  the  increase  is  no  more  than  what  the 
iialui'al  inclinations  of  that  people  dictate,  it  is  by  no 
nif^'inH  clear  th:it  all  nations  possess  natural  inclinations 
ill  the  name  degree.  We  know  that  many  features  of  hu- 
uiaii  rharacter  are  manifested  in  very  different  degrees 
in  different  nations ;  and  it  is  therefore  not  unreason- 
able to  suppose  that  there  are  also  national  diflferences 
in  those  feelings  which  lead  to  the  increase  of  the 
liunian  family.  Individuals,  it  is  well  known,  are  cha- 
racterised very  differently  in  this  respect.  There  are 
also  obvious  differences  in  families,  the  peculiarity  being 
a])pareutly  hereditary.     Why,  then,  may  there  not  be 


t^MX,    1»MH»».     \f*      SM^p     •• 


contrary  is,  no  donbty  often  tm 
progeny  of  the  abovc-mcntiiMM 
great  number?,  in  all  conditioi 
is  the  lot  of  some  to  be  tlius  n 
is  not  less  true  that  nuuiT  lemv 
selves,  and  that  even  whole  clai 
will  ultimately  shrink,  like  an 
appear  from  the  land,  and  all 
apparent  sufficiency  of  what  is 
existence.  An  illustration  occ 
believe,  many  of  our  remden  i 
within  their  own  knowledge, 
who  died  about  thirty  yean  age 
daughters,  most  of  whom  ra 
members  of  this  second  genera 
in  comfortable  circumstances : 
rest  have  passed  on  to  snch  pe 
to  be  expected  that  children  i 
anv  of  them.  And  what  is  1 
generation  of  this  family  1  Oi 
two  marriages.  Thus  showin 
single  pair  may  look  large  a 
shrink  at  the  second.  N\  c  n 
appears  decidedly  marked  by 
rage  of  a  tendency  to  raatrim 
what  is  here  wanted,  the  wri 
mentioning  a  circumstance  ii 
He  can  trace  its  course  with  tc 
hundred  years,  and  is  pretty  \ 
the  whole  of  that  time,  tall  tb* 
preceding  himself,  no  repreaei 
more  than  one  son  to  transmit 
Local  antiquaries  are  fainilia: 
lies  once  numeroos  in  a  eertai 
tinct.  The  present  writer  ha 
his  own  family  existed  for  m 
of  time  above  mentioned,  in  < 
the  county  in  which  that  pli 
now  contain  one  person  of  tnc 
Were  it  even  admitted  tha 
rally  equal  in  respect  of  the 
still  remains  to  be  aliown,  thai 
manifested  in  all  social  circun 
with  which  the  Malthusiana  I 


#l^«\    ^%9%o^%       04 


ks    ^r\    v«c»    r««^i«  1  •*   *• 


POOR-LAWS. 


«mmon  people,  reduced  to  a  degree  of  poverty 
L  admits  of  no  hope,  and  exposed  to  a  constant 
kion  of  all  the  ordinary  solaces  of  life,  are  driven 
ftrimony  as  the  only  comfort  in  their  power,  just 
h«ra  in  their  condition  are  driven  to  the  use  of  in- 
J&ag  liquors.  The  consequences  lead  to  greater 
■j,  and  greater  poverty  tends  to  increase  the  evil ; 
moB  will  such  a  system  of  things  go  on  until 
■raeting  agencies  are  brought  into  operation. 
■^^eacies  are  now  at  work  in  Ireland  ;  wealth  and 
Jojments  are  increasing  ;  and  we  may  therefore 
■peedily  to  see  the  advance  of  population  in  that 
■y  less  of  a  wonder  than  it  has  been, 
■ttting  the  above  arguments  to  be  sound,  it  follows 
Aa  stationary  condition  of  the  population  of  old 
■its  is  not  necessarily  to  be  supposed  to  be  attended 
■Itlier  the  hardship  of  restraint  or  an  extraordt- 
BMirtality.  If  the  wealth  and  ordiimry  solacements 
■M^ple  in  such  circumstances  are  not  in  the  way 

S^  lessened,  they  may  fairly  be  presumed  to  be 
off  in  all  respects  as  the  rapidly  increasing  mul- 
■a  of  America. 

tare  we  see  the  inhabitants  of  an  old  country 
Igf  increasing,  we  must  come  to  one  of  two  conclu- 
.  -  iitiMnr  that  that  country  is  in  a  flourishing  state, 
iJI  tiiere  if  a  kind  of  bounty  put  upon  children,  or 
■i  la  in  a  state  of  such  wretchedness  that  the  inter* 
•  ef  the  sexes  is  the  only  attainable  enjoyment. 
-Placard  to  Ireland,  we  presume  there  can  be  no 
S^iCff  its  liability  to  pass  into  the  latter  category. 
Kt  rapid  increase  of  the  English  people  in  the  last 
Man  will  probably  be  the  subject  of  a  doubt.  To 
Srina  this  question,  it  might  be  inquired  if  the  in- 
Vaf  the  agricultural  products  and  of  the  manufac- 
M  faidiiatry  of  the  country  has  been  in  an  equal 
^ind  if  labouring  men,  skilled  and  unskilled,  can 
for  their  wages  as  large  a  sliare  of  the  corn- 
life  as  formerly.  Notwithstanding  popular 
_  >iia  to  the  contrary,  we  suspect  this  to  be  the 
jjjAikl  consequently  believe  the  increase  of  popula- 
K^  Englana  to  be,  upon  the  whole,  of  a  healthy 
%laoD. 


iiteges 


POOR-LAWS. 


of  society  there  has  existed  a  class,  em- 
|MiIhr~tenned  the  Poor,  composed  of  persons  who, 
Itoue  charity  of  their  neighbours,  would  bo  nearly 
mStj  destitute,  being  tliemselves  unable,  or  all  but 
pb^to  aopply  their  own  wants.  It  is  easy  to  see  how 
been  and  must  be  ;  for,  from  accidents  in  the 
of  the  natural  laws  presiding  over  the  birth  of 
some  come  into  the  world  without  the  usual 
^^  body  and  mind  required  for  obtaining  a  suffi- 
i^bttslenoe  ;  the  accidents  of  life  deprive  others 
Jm  ate  of  their  full  powers  ;  many  reach  an  infirm 
without  having  laid  up  a  store  to  help  them 
i;  Uie  consequences  of  vice  and  error— of  lUl  tlioso 
temptations  which  beset  human  nature,  and 
[vbiefa  no  one  is  altogether  safe — leave  many  in  a 
Jpttate;  finally,  in  the  imperfection  of  all  politi- 
ilatitations,  there  are  circumstances  which  press 
upon  classes  and  persons,  tending  to  make 
i  efforts  for  their  subsistence  insufficient.  The 
of  accidents  upon  one  class  of  parents,  and 
and  neglect  of  others,  likewise  leave  many 
[and  helpless  children  in  a  state  in  which  thev 
be  destitute  but  for  the  aid  of  neighbours.  All 
causes  being  inherent  in  human  nature  and 
IHMTy  we  may  be  assured  that  **  the  poor  we  sliall 
)imh  us  always,"  however  it  may  be  possible,  by 
■Doa  and  humane  efforts,  to  keep  their  numbers 
b  aomparatively  moderate  bounds. 
k  Ml  early  state  of  society,  the  relief  of  the  ptoor  is 
^  tbe  operation  of  benevolence  amonsst  indivi- 
il|  and  the  destitute  are  either  succoured  by  those 
||f  war  them^  or  go  forth  to  beg  relief  in  a  wider 
Ift    Generally,  th^  efficacy  of  benevolence  for  this 

725 


end  is  made  the  greater,  in  consequence  of  the  succour 
of  the  poor  being  set  forth  as  a  duty  in  almost  all  reli- 
gions. In  addition  to  occasional  and  particular  acts  of 
charity,  donations  are  made  and  legacies  left,  for  the 
purpose  of  affording  a  more  or  less  regular  and  syste- 
matic relief  within  certain  bounds.  As  society,  how- 
ever, advances,  it  is  found  that  the  charity  of  indivi- 
duals is  either  an  insufficient  means  of  succouring  the 
poor,  or  is  attended  with  certain  inconveniences.  The 
classes  of  societv  becoming  more  detached  from  each 
other,  cases  of  destitution  make  appeal,  almost  exclu- 
sively, to  the  parties  nearest  in  poverty ;  while  the  rich, 
and  the  comparatively  rich,  are  saved  from  all  concern 
in  the  matter,  merely  because  local  and  social  cii-cum- 
stances  spare  them  a  personal  connexion  with  it.  A 
relief  by  benevolence  is  found  to  be  oppressive  to  those 
who  have  kind  feelings,  while  the  niggardly  and  un- 
generous escape.  A  dense  and  highly  artificial  state 
of  society  rendering  it  impossible  to  keep  watch  over 
particular  cases  of  destitution,  the  relief  afforded  is 
unavoidably  partial  and  unequal — no  one  knowing  tho 
real  needs  of  a  petitioner,  or  how  far  he  is  relieved  by 
others;  so  that  a  door  is  opened  for  the  practice  of 
gross  imposture,  while  the  more  modest  poor  are  pro- 
bably the  least  liberally  treated.  It  is  also  generally 
found,  that  tliis  state  of  society  is  attended  with  an  in- 
crease of  the  numbers  of  the  poor,  rendering  individual 
efforts  insufficient,  and  tending  to  such  disorders,  that 
a  public  provision  becomes  necessary  as  a  matter  of 
police.  A  new  principle  is  then  evolved  from  the  natural 
fact  of  the  existence  of  a  poor  class,  namely,  that  th«' 
community  cannot  be  safe  from  imposture,  spoliation, 
the  propagation  of  diseaj^e,  and  other  evils,  unless  it 
combine  to  assure  itself  that  no  person  in  the  country 
shall  want  the  necessaries  of  life. 

It  is  then  that  states  begin  to  make  arrangerocnln 
for  the  regular  relief  of  the  poor ;  and,  generally,  these 
arrangements  are  of  a  more  or  less  advanced  and 
efficient  nature,  in  pi*oportion  to  tho  advanced  social 
condition  of  the  respective  countries.  lu  the  most  of 
the  Catholic  states  of  Europe,  the  system  adopted  con- 
sists simply  in  the  ministers  of  reUgion  taking  charge 
of  the  voluntary  contributions  of  the  people,  and  admi- 
nistering them  to  the  best  of  their  ability.  In  Portugal, 
Sardinia,  Venice,  France,  Belgium,  Holland,  and  some 
other  countries,  the  same  svstem  exists,  excepting  only 
that  the  ministers  of  religion  are  superseded  in  their 
charge  by  officers  appointed  by  the  state.  We  need 
scarcely  remark,  that  the  single  fact  of  the  funds  being 
voluntary  renders  it  impossible,  as  to  any  of  these 
countries,  to  be  certain  that  the  provision  for  the  poor 
is  sufficient  in  amount.  In  England,  Ireland,  Prussia, 
Bavaria,  Wurtemberg,  Mecklenbcrg,  Berne,  Russia, 
Denmark,  Sweden,  and  Norway,  the  principle  is  recog- 
nised that  a  compulsorv  provision  ought  to  be  made  to 
ensure  that  all  the  members  of  the  communitv  shall  have 
the  means  of  subsistence.  In  England,  this  has  been  in 
operation  for  nearly  three  centuries  ;  but,  in  the  most 
of  the  other  countries  enumerated,  it  is  of  compara- 
tively recent  adoption.  In  America,  all  the  states  of 
the  Union  which  are  of  English  origin  have,  from  their 
commencement  as  colonies,  adopted  this  principle.  In 
Scotland,  laws  for  a  compulsory  provision  have  existed 
neai'ly  as  long  as  in  P^ngland,  but  have  never  been  car- 
ried out  into  full  operation.  lu  that  country,  a  volun- 
tary system  is  followed  in  more  than  one-half  of  tho 
parishes,  and  a  compulsory  system  in  the  rest,  the  clergy 
being,  in  almost  all  instances,  the  administrators ;  but 
nowhere  is  tho  principle  of  a  legal  right  in  the  poor  to 
relief,  or,  what  is  identical  therewith,  of  its  being  the 
interest  of  the  community  that  relief  be  granted,  prac- 
tically recognised. 

ARRAIVOEMENTS  FOR  THE  POOR  IN  ENGLAND. 

Acts  respecting  the  poor  in  England  only  made 
arrangements  as  to  the  places  in  which  they  should 
beg,  until,  in  1536,  immediately  after  the  dissolution  of 
the  religious  houses,  by  which  the  poor  had  previously 
been  in  a  great  measure  8upiH>rted,  it  was  found  necee- 


una  law   weittj  "  bU  &Cb  mo    puui    lu   wuaai  tvr    i.i.iic«w  mc 

lame,  impotent,  old,  and  blind,  and  to  put  out  their 
children  as  apprentices."  To  attain  these  objects,  the 
inhabitants  of  every  parish  in  the  country  wcro  re- 
quired to  raise  a  fund  sufficient  to  maintain  their  o^itu 
poor  ;  and  the  administration  of  this  fund  was  placed 
in  the  hands  of  parish  overseers,  under  the  control  of 
justices  of  the  peace.  The  leading  merit  of  this  act 
was,  its  requiring  that  the  claims  of  the  able-bodied  for 
relief  should  be  subjected  to  a  test,  to  prove  that  the 
alleged  want  was  not  the  result  of  an  indolent  disposi- 
tion :  such  persons  were  to  receive  relief  only  on  condi- 
tion that  they  should  work  for  it.  To  make  this  rule 
certain  of  operation,  an  act  passed  eight  years  after 
(7  Jac.  I.  c.  4)  ordered  the  building  of  hotises  of  cor- 
rection, to  be  provided  with  cards,  mills,  and  other 
implements,  and  where  the  vagrant  able-bodied  poor 
should  be  set  to  work.  This  may  bo  considered  as  the 
origin  of  the  workhouse  system  in  England. 

It  is  clear  from  the  statutes  of  this  period,  that  the 
chief  evil  which  the  legislature  found  itself  called  upon 
to  consider  and  provide  for,  was  the  indolent  and  va- 
grant disposition  of  a  largo  section  of  the  people.  It 
was  not,  as  now,  that  many  men  occasionally  find  a 
difficulty  in  getting  work,  but  that  many  were  unwilling 
to  work,  preferring  to  wander  about  tho  country  in 
idleness.  It  appears  that  these  vagrants  were  accus- 
tomed to  stay  only  for  a  short  period  in  one  pUce,  and 
to  ffit  about  to  wherever  they  thought  they  would  bo 
best  supported ;  nor  can  it  be  doubted  that,  in  lonely 
places,  they  would  not  be  backward  to  use  means  for 
terrifying  the  lieges  into  contributions  for  their  benefit. 
That,  in  such  circumstances,  these  people  would  want 
all  moral  culture,  and  be  a  source  of  danger  to  the 
community,  is  of  course  evident.  It  required  many 
Years*  operation  of  the  law  to  reduce  this  evil ;  but  at 
lengtli,  about  the  end  of  the  seventeenth  century,  it 
seems  to  have  been  considerably  lessened.  The  same 
class  of  persons  then  began  to  prefer  tho  benefits  to  be 
obtained  through  tho  claim  which  the  law  gavo  them 
upon  their  native  parishes,  and  the  evil  of  vagrancy 
was  gradually  exchanged  for  one  of  another  but  less 
grievous  kind — an  inclmation  to  a  timid  and  slothful  de- 
pendence on  the  relief  to  be  obtained  at  one  fixed  place. 

The  houses  of  correction  were  mainly  penal  esta- 

WiRhinonftj  •  nnd   it  wns   ni>t  till   1 7^^'^   tliut  \vnrlrlioii<;i»a 


V*  CA  OVCAi 


the  poor,  to  regulate  their  allfl 

minimum  weekly  wages  of  an  i 

posing  the  gallon  loaf  to  sell 

down  at  3s.;   when  married 

wages  were  to  be  at  least  6s. ; 

they  were  to  be  at  least  12s. ; 

they  were  to  be  15s.     In  the  < 

gallon  loaf  rising  to  1 9.  6d.,  th 

man  were  not  to  be  less  than  \ 

wages  of  a  married  man,  with 

be  Toss  than  8s.  3d. ;  and  thoM 

seven  children,  not  less  than  2C 

which  remind  one  of  the  igr 

fourteenth  century,  were  mad* 

permanent,  by  an  act  passed 

Geo.  III.  c.  23).     It  cannot  fi 

a  mean  opinion  of  the  charaete 

of  England  must  have  been  < 

more  enlightened  men  of  thai 

thoucht  necessary  to  undertak 

simplest  duties  which  they  o« 

make  them  every  where  pensi* 

for  a  considerable  part  of  theii 

tempt  to  secure  to  a  portion  of 

supply  of  food  in  scarce  as  in  pi 

quently  to  relieve  them  from  t 

trcnchments  by  which  a  defici 

over  the  whole  year,  and  absolol 

was  further  liable  to  be  conside 

The  evils  of  the  regulations  thi 

by  peculiarities  in  the  admio 

labouring  classes  became  a  me 

of  rate-payers  to  carry  on  a  < 

tho  pockets  of  another.    The  g 

la^'s  were  much  aggravated  bj 

respect  to  settlement;  Tirtuall; 

were  imprisoned  in  the  parisl 

where  some  subsequent  circui 

ship,  marriage,  and  inheritai 

claim.    Thus,  the  population 

required  by  the  demand  for 

accidental  circumstances  migl 

^glyi  there  were  often  horde 

at  one  place,  and  a  great  an 


<n     •knfi 


POOR-LAWS. 


»r  part  of  its  domestic  polity,  a  wonder  to  noigh- 
uag  nations.  The  sum  raised  for  poor-rates 
WHf  while  the  workhouse  system  of  17*23  was 
LM  operation,  was  only  £1,720,316;  in  the  three 
a  after  the  passing  of  Gilbert's  Act  (1783-4-5)  it 
ued  £2,167,749.  But  the  average  of  1801-2-3 
BM^8,205  ;  in  1818,  a  year  of  scarcity,  it  reached 
mous  sum  of  £9,320,440 ;  and  even  in  the  fair 
of  1830,  31,  32,  and  33,  it  was  above  eight 
This  was  an  increase  far  exceeding  that  of 
,tion,  and  the  more  alarming  as  it  took  place 
_  a  period  of  progressive  national  prosperity.  Al- 
wmry  where  it  pressed  very  severely  upon  the 
of  the  country,  and  in  some  places  had  even 
property  to  be  abandoned,  the  rates  exceeding 
eoold  be  derived  from  tho  land. 
OTil  being  ^nerally  felt  and  acknowledged,  a  royal 
■■ion  was  issued  in  1 832  for  inquiring  into  it,  in 
that  parliament  might  apply  a  remedy.  The 
*4bc  is  a  condensed  summary  of  the  report  which 
bochr  drew  np,  after  a  careful  investigation  con- 
^  throughout  every  part  of  £ngland  and  Wales  : 
it  wherever  the  expenditure  had  most  increased, 
ftbo,  the  industry  of  the  labourer  had  propor- 
p  degenerated,  because  in  such  places  subsistence 
•^im  poor-rates  was  more  easily  obtained  than  by 
That  under  such  influences  his  prudence  and 
discarded,  because  they  could,  with  the  ut- 
is,  only  secure  for  him,  by  present  sacrifice 
peiiuen^  the  same  future  advantages  of  which  the 
B  Bald  out  a  prospect  without  the  necessity  of  any 
^  ^ve  tliat  of  independence.  That  his  sobriety 
ranee  were  thus  left  without  encouragement, 
tho  other  hand,  exposed  to  the  temptations  of 
Itive  idleness,  and  the  facilities  for  the  indnl- 
in  idleness  and  intemperance  which  always  ac- 
J  the  growth  of  pauperism  :  his  respectability 
lOur  was  now  useless,  as  respectability  of 
ceased  to  be  relied  on  as  a  means  of  securing 
Bjment,  itself  no  longer  an  object  of  desire.  That 
^  aame  proportion  as  he  became  independent  of 
industry,  did  he  also  become  independent  or 
of  the  comforts  of  his  home,  which  are  in- 
!e  to  the  labourer  after  a  day  of  toil,  but  are 
■ooght  or  valued  as  a  change  after  a  day  spent 
MMi  or  dissipation.  It  was  also  observed  that, 
fea  habit  of  pauperism  increased,  the  standard  of 
■iltDce  of  the  labourers  in  the  district  was  lowered, 
eiliif  never  being  sufficient  of  itself  to  maintain 
iraper  independent  of  all  work  ;  and  yet,  by  ren- 
9g  nim  partially  so,  constantly  tempting  him  to 
BD  that  further  portion  of  comfort  which  was  at- 
^hle  only  on  the  comparatively  hard  terms  of  eam- 
A  by  the  sweat  of  his  bi*ow.  Tho  standard  of  the 
san*  subsistence  being  once  lowered,  that  of  the 
■trious  labourers  amongst  whom  they  lived,  and 
•couionally  felt  tho  effects  of  their  competition, 
iIkk  Where  the  system  prevailed  of  allowing  ro- 
ll aid  of  wages,  there  the  operation  was  immediate, 
X  the  labourers  were  at  once  pauperised,  being 
Jl|y  exposed  to  the  effects  of  a  system  which  left  all 
■trjy  beyond  a  certain  point,  without  its  reward, 
therefore  without  a  visible  object.  While  these 
Mnees  were  destroying  the  industry  and  morality 
Im  able-bodied  labourers,  the  bastardy-law  was 
hat  out  encouragement  to  female  unchastity,  in  the 
ai  a  money  allowance  for  each  bastard,  which,  by 
aount,  of  itself  elcA'ated  her  condition  in  propor- 
Id  the  number  of  her  spurious  offspring,  rendering 
llher  of  several  bastards  better  off  than  she  would 
I  been  as  a  mother  of  as  manv  lawful  children,  and 
■ing  her  a  dower  which  usually  tempted  some  man 
mnj  her  ;  while  the  same  law,  by  subjecting  the 
Maed  father  to  punishment,  often  subjected  him,  at 
woinan's  discretion,  to  the  alternative  of  marriage 
Jail— the  former  of  which  was  generally  chosen  as 
least  present  evil.  Under  these  influences  female 
ftity  bady  in  many  districts,  so  far  ceased  to  be 
ed  as  a  Tirtue.  that  not  only  the  woman  herself, 

727 


but  her  parents  and  her  husband,  seemed,  where  the 
law  had  had  its  full  effect,  to  have  become  indifferent 
to  it. 

The  evib  of  the  system  were  not  confined  to  the 
(laupers,  but  extended  to  all  who  liad  to  administer  the 
law.    So  large  a  fund  as  between  seven  and  eight  mil- 
lions, administered  without  any  practical  responsibility, 
naturally  tempted  the  cupidity  of  the  officers  through 
whose  hands  it  passed.     Tho  office  of  overseer  was, 
therefore,  generally  sought  by  a  class  of  small  farmers 
and  tradesmen,  to  whom  the  office  must  have  been 
most  burdensome  had  it  been  discharged  gratuitously 
as  the  law  provided.     It  was  found  that  the  overseers 
were  usually  appointed,  in  places  where  tho  evil  had 
reached  a  great  height,  not  from  the  class  of  the  sub- 
stantial householders  of  the  parish,  as  the  statute  of 
Elizabeth  requires,  but  were  usually  needy  persons,  to 
whom  the  indirect  advantages  of  the  office  were  impor- 
tant, and  who  were  helped  into  the  office  by  the  efforts 
of  persons  similarly  interested,  either  as  tradesmen  of 
the  parish,  or  as  owners  of  the  dwellings  which  the 
paupers  inhabited,  or  in  other  ways,  more  as  receivers, 
directly  or  indirectly,  of  the  rates,  than  as  rate-payers. 
The  spirit  of  the  enactment  in  the  45  Geo.  II  I.  c.  54,  §  I, 
which  provides  that  no  contract  for  the  lodging,  keep- 
ing, or  maintaining  the  poor,  or  for  taking  the  benefit 
of  their  work  for  their  better  maintenance,  shall  be 
valid,  unless  the  person  with  whom  it  is  made  shall  be 
resident  within  tbe  parish,  was  fully  carried  out  in 
practice  in  nearly  the  whole  of  the  15,000  parishes  and 
places  separately  maintaining  their  own  poor— every 
tradesman  of  the  parish,  and  every  employer  of  la- 
bourers, being  bribed  to  maintain  wliatever  system  the 
vestry  adopted,  by  a  share  in  the  profitable  supply  of 
the  parish  poor,  or  by  the  payment  of  a  part  of  the 
wages  of  his  labourers  in  tne  shape  of  relief  to  them 
out  of  the  rates.     The  refractory  parishioners  were 
constrained  to  acquiesce,  on  pain  of  losing  these  and 
similar  advantages,  which,  being  withdrawn  or  denied, 
left  to  them  only  the  obligation  of  paying  those  rates. 
To  secure  the  full  operation  of  this  s}'Stem,  the  parish 
was  not  permitted  to  deal  elsewhere  for  any  commodity 
with  which  any  parisliioner  could  supply  it,  and  was 
thus  usually  confined  to  the  worst  market  for  the  goods 
it  purchased,  in  the  same  manner  as,  by  the  settlement 
laws,  it  had  been  cut  off  from  the  supply  of  other  la- 
bourers while  any  belonging  to  the  parish  remained 
unemployed. 

The  evidelice  seems  also  to  prove  that  the  functions 
of  the  magistracy  had  almost  invariably  ceased  to  be 
applied  to  the  objects  for  which  they  had  been  created. 
The  magistrates  of  counties  were  usually  too  dispersed, 
and  too  little  immersed  in  the  actual  business  of  the 
several  parishes,  to  avail  themselves  of  the  advantages 
which  the  overseers  and  the  other  more  immediate  ad- 
ministrators of  the  system  derived  from  it.  The  magis* 
trates  of  corporate  boroughs,  towns,  and  cities,  were, 
however,  in  many  instances,  found  to  be  not  leas  rapa- 
cious or  ready  to  apply  the  administration  of  the  law 
to  their  pecuniary  profit  or  direct  advantage  than  the 
parochial  officers.  But  although  the  magistracy  must 
generally  be  acquitted  of  having  sought  to  derive  an 
immediate  pecuniary  advantage  from  the  administration 
of  the  poor-laws,  they  were  none  the  less  ready  to  per- 
vert the  law  to  purposes  utterly  at  variance  with  its 
original  purposes  and  with  the  prosperity  of  the  com- 
munity. Very  many  of  the  magistrates,  influenced  by 
benevolent  intentions,  were  ready  on  all  occasions  to 
admit  the  claim  of  the  pauper,  and  to  compel  overseers 
to  administer  relief  when  thev  incluied  to  refuse  it : 
such  magistrates  were  constantly  resorted  to  by  paupers 
in  preference  to  others  who  more  vigilantly  exammed 
the  grounds  of  their  chiims ;  and  a  reputation  for  being 
the  poor  man's  friend  was  easily  earned  by  the  lavish 
and  immoderate  expenditure  of  the  fund  of  the  general 
rate-payers.  This  reputation  was  found  to  be  useful 
in  many  ways,  and  was  thus  sought  for  political  pur- 
poses, or  for  the  attainment  of  local  power,  or  for  tha 
mere  gratification  of  vanity,  by  many  magistsatesi 


tliC  l*oor'La\e  Amendment  Act,  by  which  llicfse  mon- 
strous evib  were  for  the  most  part  extinguinlieil,  aud  a 
return  made  tu  the  just  principlt-s  and  practices  dic- 
tated by  the  acts  of  IGOl  aud  17'2S.  Both  parties  iu 
tlie  state  supported  this  meaf.ure  in  almost  all  of  its  pro- 
vixiimsytaud  it  was  only  opposed  by  a  few  individuals. 
With  regard  to  the  impotent  poor,  this  act  rather  m-  , 
creased  than  diminished  the  liberality  of  the  arrange-  ^ 
me«ts,  while  it  made  several  other  considerable  im- 
provements. The  great  class  of  adult  persons  who, 
from  old  age  or  infirmity  of  body,  are  wholly  unable  to 
work,  were  to  remain,  as  l>efore,  entitled  to  a  support 
by  means  of  out-door  allowances.  Of  destitute  children, 
those  unlikely  from  natural  defects  to  be  able  to  win 
tlieir  own  bread,  were  provided  for  by  out-door  relief: 
those,  on  the  other  hand,  who  were  likely  to  prove  useful 
members  of  society,  were  taken  in  charge  and  reared 
in  separate  establishments,  where  their  education  and 
training  for  industrious  callings  were  [particularly  cared 
for.  Judicious  provisions  were  also  made  for  their 
being  ultimately  set  aHoat  in  the  world,  as  apprentices. 
With  regard  to  illegitimate  children,  several  former 
provisions  of  evil  tendency  were  annulled,  and  it  was 
provided  that  no  regard  should  be  paid  to  them  till 
they  became  actually  chargeable  upon  the  parish,  wheu 
relief  should  bo  extended  through  the  mother,  she 
being  in  this  re8)>ect  treated  as  a  widow.  Persons 
uimble  to  support  themselves  through  accident  or  from 
eudden  and  dangerous  illness,  were  to  receive  tempo- 
rary relief,  and  to  have  all  necessary  medical  attend- 
ance. Insane  paupers  were  to  be  placed  iu  proper 
asylums  at  the  expense  of  the  public. 

The  provisions  for  able-bodied  claimants  formed  the 
most  important  part  of  this  act,  as  indeed  it  was  iu  this 
department  that  the  abuses  of  the  old  system  were  the 
most  glaring.  The  main  feature  of  the  new  arrange- 
ments was  the  erection  of  workhouses  by  uni<iii8  of 
parishes,  whore  relief  should  be  offered  to  able-bodied 

*  M'CuUocU'b  Statbtical  Account  of  the  r.rltiiai  Emplro.  vul.  ii. 
pp.  G15-16. 

t  To  provo  what  U  here  btated,  all  who  know  any  thinp;  of 
parties,  and  their  connexions  In  thu  ccmntry,  vkill  be  ready  to 
own  that  no  better  nicnns  conld  be  fiiUon  upon,  than  to  nmke 
such  extracts  aA  the  following  from  the  two  leading  RcfUnrs:— 


..^  Xt  ......I-.     llrOI       a>  r>.   ••  .■<>..< 


»!...»    .1..> 


to  exerei&e  a  humane  discret 
regulations. 

.Some  material  changes  vcr 
for  the  administratiou  of  th 
payers  elect  fur  each  unioo 
guartitaus,  each  rate-pa}-er  hi 
to  his  property,  and  the  proeec 
under  the  control  of  a  central 
coiniuissioners  appointed  by 
chief  commissioners,  there  ai 
each  of  whom  inspects  a  partii 
upon  whatever  he  sees  amiss, 
amended. 

Gradually,  under  the  ope 
Amendment  Act,  the  greater  ; 
formed  into  unions,  each  un^ 
and  each  provided  with  a  woi 
there  were  588  unions  formed, 
excepting  about  eight  hundred 
census  of  1831,  of  1*2,182,031  | 
of  the  new  system,  the  cummi 
order,  prohibiting  relief  in  mc 
the  employment  of  individu; 
entire  support  upon  tlieir  mas 
they  began,  in  a  cautious  nuu 
spirit  of  the  act,  t.>  put  a  stop 
able-bodied — meaning  labour* 
lies,  are  in  health,  but  cxce] 
children.  This  order  was  issi 
unions,  and  afterwards  it  waa 
the  total  number  to  which  it  ^ 
1841,  437,  comprising  a  popu 
census  of  1831,  of  7,372,0*21  p 
the  expenditure  upon  the 
Jb7,511,219  in  1834  to  4:4,044, 
one  half.  Since  1 837,  the  cx] 
ou  the  rise,  and  in  1840  it  waj 

The  first  efiects  of  the  stop 
tem  were  most  surprising.  Tl 
lation — the  hordes  of  uneniplo; 
to  be  partially  or  entirely  sust 
who  had  been  condemned  to  i 
fur  days,  and  spend  half  the 
nesfl'iu  the  pansli  gravel-pii 
niaLMC.  It  was  found  that,  left 


POOR-LAWS. 


the  application  of  more  efiioient  labour  increased 
iploycr's  returns,  and  at  the  same  time  ix^duction 
•  diminished  his  out-goings,  he  had  a  larger  fund 
B  purchase  of  those  services.  The  redundancy 
ed  with  its  causes.  The  able-bodied  pauper  is 
■uU  of  art.  He  is  not  the  natural  offspring  of 
xon  race.  Unless  hb  pauperism  is  carefully  fos- 
by 'those  who  think  it  their  interest  to  preserve 
rapidly  reverts  to  the  normal  type — the  indcpen- 
ibourer.*'  * 

union  workhouses  are  in  general  remarkably 
rrmnged  establishments.  The  food,  both  in  qua- 
id  quantity — the  accommodations  of  ail  kinds — 
ml  discipline  and  order,  arc  in  genci-al  all  that 
mane  and  the  enlightened  could  wish.  The  ar- 
iients  for  the  education  of  the  young  are  parti- 
tf  worthy  of  commendation.  Workhouses  are  for 
nt  part  occupied  only  by  some  portion  of  the 
■Kir,and  by  young  children.  Thougli  held  open  for 
Beption  of  the  able-bodied  under  any  exigency  to 

they  may  be  presumedly  liable,  they  are  iiirely 
■d  to  by  such  persons,  partly  because,  the  labour- 
%  being  freed,  there  is  in  general  no  lack  of  means 
i;  independent  subsistence,  and  partly  from  the 
tl  dislike  to  a  hfe  of  restraint.  One  regulation  of 
iMNises  may  bo  supposed  to  have  operated  power- 
■i  keeping  idle  married  men  at  a  distance  from 
In  most  instances,  they  are  not  allowed  to  live 

game  part  of  the  house  with  their  wives.  Partly 
as  needful  for  the  sake  of  order,  and  to  avoid 
vgross  evils  which  nourished  under  the  old  sys- 

Artly  it  is  owing  to  a  principle  laid  down  by  the 
iauoners,  that  a  pauper  is  not  entitled  to  be  in 
aspect  on  a  level  with  the  man  who  works  for 
If  and  his  family.     The  regulation  has  attracted 

(Hmsure,  and  perl)a]>s  it  would  have  been  better, 
M  in  point  of  expediency,  not  to  have  had  it  in- 
Md. 

■  new  law  was  enacted  for  only  five  years.  It  has 
oftener  than  once  renewed  for  a  brief  period ;  and 

ii  at  this  time  (Autumn  1841)  a  general  oxpecta- 
bat,  before  being  renewed  permanently,  it  will  be 
Inably  altered.  Excellent  as  the  measure  has 
In  its  main  features,  and  though  it  has  redeemed 
IngUsh  labouring  classes  from  a  kind  of  slavery,  it 
•en  the  subject  of  an  outcry  of  the  most  violent 
Nter.  This  is  partly  traceable  to  those  who  pro- 
hj  the  abuses  of  the  old  system,  partly  to  an  igno- 
Itntimentalism,  and  partly  to  the  arts  of  politicians. 
I  im  too  much  probability  that  this  outcry  will  pre- 

0  a  eonsiderable  extent,  and  that  England  is  about 
9  aome  of  the  worst  abuses  of  her  old  poor-laws 
rad. 

ULAXQEMEMTS  RESPECTIXG  THE  POOR  IN  8C0TL.VND. 

a  poor  are  provided  for  in  a  much  more  sparing 
■r  in  Scotland  than  in  England;  and  the  able- 
d|  ao  lar  from  having  even  the  offer  of  mainte- 

1  hi  a  workhouse,  are  totally  overlooked. 

a  eariy  acts  of  tin*  Scottish  parliament  respecting 
oor^  contain,  like  those  of  the  Engli::ih  parliament, 
IVOTbions  for  the  repression  of  Legging.  At  length, 
t79y  an  act,  apparently  suggested  by  one  of  the 
bh  parliament  Msven  years  earlier,  introduced  the 
jple  of  a  compulsory  assessment  fur  the  impotent 
,  providing  at  the  same  time  that  able-bodied 
m  sliould  be  punished  as  vagrants.  The  admini- 
ioD  of  this  law  was  conmiitted  to  justices  of  peace, 
il  eUas  of  functionaries  did  not  then  exist,  but  were 
oiplated,  though  no  such  appointments  in  reality 
■lace  at  that  period.  Acts  uf  1.502  and  1663  ulti- 
Ijr  committed  the  managcinout  of  tlie  poor,  in  coun- 
ariahes,  to  the  heritors  (proprietors)  jointly  with 
Irk-sessions — the  latter  being  parochial  ecclcsias- 
eourts,  composed  of  the  minister  and  a  small  body 
f  elders — and  to  tho  magistrates  in  royal  burghs. 
I  thcae  administrators  there  is  no  appeal  except  to 
qirenie  civil  eoart  of  tho  country  (Court  of  See- 

72.0 


sion),  an  an*angement  of  course  equivalent  to  there 
being  no  appeal  at  alL  Three  years*  residence  confer 
a  settlement. 

In  236  parishes,  containing  1,137,646  persons  (nearly 
the  half  of  the  popuLition  of  the  country),  a  legal  assess- 
ment has  been  resorted  to.  In  1 26  parishes,  with  a  popu- 
lation of  305,654,  there  is  wliat  is  called  a  **  voluntary 
assessment,"  which  may  be  considered  as  only  a  regu- 
lated and  equitable  mode  of  voluntary  contribution.  In 
the  remaining  517  parishes,  containing  a  population  of 
872,626,  there  is  no  assessment  whatever,  and  tlie  funds 
for  the  poor  arise  from  voluntary  contribution,  chiefly 
in  the  form  of  offerings  at  the  church  doors.  The  ave- 
rage annual  sums  collected  under  this  system  during 
the  years  1835,  6,  and  7,  were — by  collections  at  the 
church  doors,  £38,300,  10s.  2d. ;  by  other  voluntary 
contributions,  £18,976,  10s.  2d. ;  from  sessional  fees, 
&c.,  £20,604, 12s.  lOd. ;  from  assessment,  £77,239, 19s. 
The  aggregate  is  £155,121,  I2s.  2d.  It  is  remarkable 
that  tlio  whole  sum  here  described  as  raised  by  assess- 
ment, being  for  236  parishes,  including  Edinburgh, 
Glasgow,  and  all  the  other  considerable  towna  in  Scot- 
land, was  just  about  a  seventh  more  than  the  sum 
raised  for  the  poor  in  one  London  parish  in  1833  (St 
George's,  Hanover  Square).*  In  Scotland,  the  expendi- 
ture for  the  poor  is  equal,  on  the  average  of  the  above 
three  years,  to  Is.  3]d.  a-head  on  the  population  ;  in 
England,  during  the  same  period,  tho  expenditure  was 
equal  to  6s.  10|d.  a-head  on  the  population. 

As  might  be  expected,  the  provision  for  individual 
paupers,  is,  in  Scotland,  extremely  slender,  and  almost 
every  where  a  vast  number  of  claimants  are  altogether 
rejected.  I  n  the  two  workhouses  of  Edinburgh,  for  ex- 
ample, the  average  annual  expense  for  each  inmate  ia 
from  £6  to  £8.  Excepting  in  these  instances,  the  provi- 
sion for  the  poor  in  Scotland  may  be  said  to  consist  in  a 
small  weekly  dole  of  money,  considered  as  a  loan  or  aid, 
for  which  the  relations  of  the  parties,  or  the  parties 
themselves,  might  afterwards  be  held  chargeable,  sup- 
posing that  theur  curcumstances  allowed  of  its  being  re- 
funded. In  the  case  of  persons  who,  from  infirmity, 
fatuity,  or  infancy,  can  do  nothing  for  themselves,  and 
who  at  the  same  time  have  no  relations  able  to  aid 
them,  the  dole  is  considered  as  a  full  provision  for 
maintenance  :  from  2s.  to  4s.  are  given  in  such  cases. 
Where  any  remains  of  health  and  strength  exist,  the 
allowance  is  usually  less  in  proportion,  and  may  be  said 
to  range  from  6d.  to  2s.  a- week.  It  is  in  these  cases 
considered  btrictly  as  an  aid,  in  addition  to  what  the 
individual  can  gain  by  personal  exertions.  In  the  un- 
assessed  parishes,  the  average  allowance  was,  a  few 
years  ago,  £1,  Os.  4}d.  per  annum.  The  administra- 
tors of  the  funds  (uuually  the  kirk-session)  subject 
every  application  for  relief  to  a  rigid  scrutiny,  and 
never  continue  any  relief  when  they  think  it  ceases  to 
be  strictly  necessar}*.  Generally,  it  may  be  said,  tlie 
provUiion  is  more  Uberal  in  towns  than  in  the  country, 
and  in  the  Lowlands  than  in  the  Highlands.  In  the 
last  districts  the  funds  for  the  poor  are  extremely  small. 
**  There  is  something,"  bays  a  Ute  writer,  **  approaching 
to  the  ludicrous  in  finding  the  minister  of  Alness,  in 
Ross-bhire,  saying,  in  his  statistical  account,  that  people 
come  to  his  parish  for  the  benefit  of  its  poor  allowance : 
the  fund  is  £58,  IS^,  4d.,  divided  among  110  paupers,  the 
highest  annual  allowance  being  £1,  and  the  lowest  6s.  If 
we  make  allowance  for  a  resident  and  humane  landlord, 
and  take  a  glance  at  the  provisions  in  the  neighbouring 
parishes,  we  shall  find,  however,  that  this  choice  is  not 
made  without  reason.  In  the  very  useful  report  of  the 
General  Assembly  in  1839,  we  find  that  Dingwall,  the 
immediate  neighbouring  purisli,  gives  an  annual  uni- 
form allowance  of  5s. ;  Foilerty  gives  a  maximum  of 
12s.  and  a  minimum  of  23.  6d. ;  Caimach  a  maximum 
of  128.  and  a  minimum  of  4  s. ;  Eddertoun  a  maximum 
of  8=9. 6d.  and  a  minimum  of  58.  6d. ;  Knockbaiu  a  maxi- 
mum of  lOs.  and  a  minimum  of  5s. ;  and  Kirkmichael 
a  maximum  of  lOs.  and  a  minimum  of  3s.  6d.    These 

*  The  iom  xmiaed  for  the  poor  in  that  pariiih  In  1833  was 
JCHufSiK,    The  new  Liw  retluced  it  in  IfCU  to  £27.901. 


*  The  parish  of  Kilmuir,  in  the  I»Iaiid  uf  Skyc  (cut- 
ting off  the  district  attached  to  the  parliamentary 
church  of  StcinschoH),  contains  a  population  of  2:375 ; 
the  average  amount  of  funds,  distributable  among  the 
poor,  is  about  £3  annually,  and  a  distribution  is  made 
only  once  in  two  years.  The  last  distribution,  prior  to 
the  date  of  the  return  (21st  August  1838),  took  place 
on  the  3d  March  183G,  when  the  sum  of  jC6,  38.  6d.  was 
divided  among  68  paupers.'  The  minister  states,  *  As 
the  amount  of  church  collections  has  varied  little  for 
several  years  back,  it  has  been  found  necessary  to  re- 
strict the  number  of  paupers  to  about  60  or  70  at  each 
distribution  ;  but,  were  tlie  funds  of  greater  amount,  it 
would  be  necessary  to  admit  no  fewer  than  2U0  paupers 
on  the  roll.'" — jycstminaier  Jievietr,  xxxvi.  394. 

The  smallness  of  the  provision  for  the  poor  in  Scot- 
land, is  not  to  be  rashly  attributed  to  want  of  feeling 
on  the  part  of  the  nation.  There  is  in  Scotland  a  strong 
prejudice  against  all  but  self-dependent  modes  of  exist- 
ence. It  is  a  general  opinion  that  all  8}*stematic  suc- 
cour held  out  to  the  poor,  is  productive  of  evil  instead 
of  good,  even  to  the  ]H>or  themselves.  This  succour 
is  thought  to  be  particularly  detrimental,  when  it  is 
the  result  of  a  fixed  assessment  or  rate,  for  then  it 
is  supposed  tliat  the  poor  arc  led  more  particularly  to 
depend  on  the  public  charity  instead  of  their  own  ex- 
ertions or  the  kindness  of  relatives.  The  smallness  of 
the  sums  given  to  the  helpless,  can  only  be  attributed 
to  this  general  prejudice  against  pauper  relief;  for  it 
may  be  presumeid,  that,  if  there  w^ere  another  feeling 
in  the  case,  the  ordinary  slender  funds  would  be  aug- 
mented by  a  sufficient  assessment.  What  proves  very 
strikingly  that  opinion,  and  not  want  of  benevolent  feel- 
ing, is  the  main  cause  of  the  small  provision,  is,  that 
the  humbler  classes  in  Scotland  have,  in  general,  as 
great  a  disinclination  to  ask  public  charity,  as  the 
wealthier  classes  to  give  it.  They  are  generally  anxious 
to  avoid  resorting  to  the  kirk-session  as  long  as  pos- 
sible, and  only  do  so  when  all  other  resources  fail. 
This,  wo  say,  is  generally  the  case,  for  of  late  years 
there  have  been  strong  symptoms  of  a  change  of  feel- 
ing on  this  subject  amongst  the  Scottish  people. 


gether  overlouking  the  fact,  tliat  tl 
denying  or  stinting  relief  in  their  < 
the  great  causes  of  the  undue  burd< 
neighbours.  It  was  at  that  time  ' 
propounded  his  scheme  for  an  impa 
of  the  poor,  the  main  features  of  wk 
luutary  contributions  at  the  chure 
the  sole  fund  looked  to  for  public  re 
tax  being  considered  as  tending  to 
out  of  action^ — that  elders  should  tal 
poor — that  they  should,  in  the  first  | 
was  made,  endeavour  to  make  the  ] 
selves  by  their  labour ;  if  totally  uo 
throw  the  burden  upon  rehitivea ;  i 
such  with  any  means,  then  upon  neij 
how  poor ;  and  only  when  aJl  such 
any  public  relief  to  be  given ; — a  pi 
equitable,  as  tending  to  save  the  n 
of  the  poor,  that  it  has  never,  to  oi 
with  a  single  advocate  besides  ita  an 
A  considerable  change  in  public 
subject  has  been  wrought  by  the  pul 
phlet  by  Dr  Alison  of  Eldinburgh.* 
essay  is  to  prove  that  the  svstem  of 
tion  pursued  in  Scotland  is  attend 
ought  to  make  it  a  subject  of  shame 
to  the  community.  He  contends  tb 
more  especially,  it  is  productive  < 
misery,  shocking  to  all  benevolent  fee 
dangerous  in  some  respects  to  the  ] 
tants.  He  shows,  that  m  Edinburgh 
and  other  large  cities,  where  tliere  a 
tern  of  relief  for  the  poor,  fever  has 
prevalent  to  a  degree  quite  unknov 
town — a  fact  which  must  in  the  main 
wretched  condition  of  great  hordes  < 
in  the  meaner  parts  of  those  cities. 
thaty  in  two  late  years,  ont•^irieen^h 
of  Edinburgh,  and  ont-sixth  of  the  p 
gow,  were  affected  by  dangerous  ^rt 
number  of  cases  treated  in  the  hoi 
during  the  last  seven  years,  has  bt 


POOR-LAWS. 


lutre  kept  them  above  public  cbarity.    Thua,  so 
4B  restxietive  Bystem  seems  to  spread,  instead  of 
1^,  the  evil  of  pauperism.  When  a  fatal  epidemic 
ft  out  in  one  of  the  towns  in  question,  subscrip- 
wun  generally  raised  by  the  wealthy  classes  to 
ue  the  suffering  poor ;  and  the  evil  is  thereby 
ps  alleviated  in  some,  but  only  in  a  slight  degree. 
,«tims  of  the  pestilence  have  been  prepared  for  it 
kxs  of  unrelieved  suffering,  and  that  generosity 
once  might  have  prevented  disease,  is  now  unable 
its  e^amitous  progress, 
popular  doctrine  in  Scotland  is  that  advanced  by 
litical  economists,  that  systematic  relief  for  the 
ds  to  habits  of  improvidence,  and  encourages 
amongst  persons  unable  to  support  their 
■sg,  thus  tending  to  increase,  instead  of  diminish- 
k.mperi8m.   Dr  Alison,  on  the  contrary,  maintains 
ipoor-laws,  such  as  exist  in  England,  do  not  in- 
to with  moral  restraint,  but  support  and  strengthen 
d  that  moral  restraint  is  nowhere  so  feeble, 
^pulation  (in  a  long-inhabited  country)  nowhere 
soeh  rapid  progress,  as  where  there  is  no  legal 
~  tm  for  the  destitute,  and  where  tliereforc  the  pro- 
f  destitution  is  always  clear,  obvious,  and  immc- 
A  pauper  population  is  increased  by  the  continu- 
t  a  state  of  abject  poverty  and  a  want  of  the  ne- 
of  life.     He  says— **  Below  a  certain  grade  of 
'9  the  preventive  check  of  moral  restraint  has 
Twenty-five  years  of  observation  of  the  habits 
'yoor  have  shown  me,  that  there  are  none  among 
jKipiilation  makes  so  rapid  progress  as  those  who 
-  "       "    around  them  examples  of  utter  destitu- 
misery.    In  such  circumstances,  men  hardly 
~  to  the  future  more  than  animals.  It  is  easy 
to  say,  that  by  cutting  off  from  a  poor  family 
of  relief,  in  case  of  destitution,  we  can 
careful  and  prudent.    The  practical  result 
[J  different.    Another  alternative  is  uniformly 
T^ey  lower  their  habits;  and  those  who 
been  accustomed  to  observe  them,  are  not 
»  bow  much  reduction  of  comfort  the  family  of  a 
^iiig  man,  disabled  or  deprived  of  employment, 
ttsoargo,  and  not  only  life  be  preserved,  but  the 
K^  lor  occasional  irregular  and  precarious  em- 
CRmtinue.    On  the  other  hand,  when  men  are 
from  this  state  of  hopeless  and  abject  des- 
they  all  (or  with  few  and  trifling  exceptions) 
^tStj  faWy  more  or  less,  under  the  dominion  of  ar- 
W  wsa/f,  and  form  to  themselves  a  standard  of 
firom  which  tliey  will  never  willingly  descend, 
nmtptain  which  they  will  keep  themselves  uu- 
;rte  of  restraint  unknown  to  fflbse  of  the  poor 
continually  struggling  to  obtain  the  first  ue- 
of  life." 
object  of  Dr  Alison's  pamphlet  has  been  opposed 
writers ;  but  the  views  upon  which  he  pro- 
t  bftTO  not  been  satisfactorily  replied  to,  and  they 
YDqaestionably  made  a  considerable  impression 
ktt  public  mind  in  Scotland.     The  conviction  is 
■ihg  that  the  present  system  is  inequitable  with 
^[fc  to  districts,  and  nowhere  so  liberal  as  a  true 
^  Bot  to  speak  of  humanity,  requires. 

BESPECriNO  TUE  POOR  LN  IRELAND. 

there  was  till  a  recent  period  no  syste- 

piwision  for  the  poor,  but  the  country  was  by 

destitute  of  institutions  designed  for  their 


enactments  had  progressively,  during  the 

jy  established  county  infinnaries,  dispensaries, 

lavflimis,  houses  of  industry,  and  receptacles  for 

'  )  infimta  and  old^>eople ;  and  similar  institutions, 

with  schools,  lying-in  hospitals,  houses  of  re- 

b  and  mendicity  houses,  had  been  set  on  foot  in 
hv  pbicea  by  private  benevolence.  But,  while 
kwMtbos  done  mr  the  alleviation  of  temporary  and 
^  4fatraty  there  was  a  mass  of  mendican^,  and 
of  general  sufferine  from  occasional  mmine 
'  L  which  made  Irebmdibigular 
731 


among  the  countries  of  Europe.  It  was  calculated  tfaat| 
out  of  a  population  of  between  seven  and  eight  millions, 
upwards  of  two  millions  were  in  a  state  not  much  short 
of  permanent  mendicancy.  The  great  bulk  of  the  people 
being  an  agricultural  peasantry,  living  on  small  patches 
of  laiad,  and  depending  mainly  on  the  potato  crop,  a 
failure  of  that  product  was  attended  with  wide-spread 
misery,  invariably  followed  up  by  destructive  fevers. 
The  epidemic  of  1817,  which  was  the  effect  of  the  failure 
of  the  crop  of  181G,  affected  a  million  and  a  half  of  per- 
sons, and  carried  off  65,000.  The  people,  moreover, 
having  no  resource  when  they  lost  possession  of  their 
little  pieces  of  ground,  landlords  found  that  tliey  were 
rapidly  losing  all  power  over  their  property.  Despe- 
ration made  the  tenants  cling  to  their  ground  with  a 
pertinacity  which  nothing  could  overcome.  A  conmion 
danger  having  united  them  in  one  common  cause,  the 
forcible  extrusion  of  a  tenant  was  resisted  by  one  and 
all,  or,  if  effected,  it  was  sure  to  be  savagely  avenged. 
Practically,  the  tenant  was  able  to  remain  on  the  ground 
as  long  as  he  chose,  without  much  regard  to  the  pay- 
ment of  rent,  unless  his  good-will  was  purchased  either 
by  the  new  tenant  or  by  the  landlord.  The  incon- 
veniences experienced  in  consequence  of  the  bulk  of  the 
people  being  thus  always  on  the  verge  of  destitution, 
and  without  any  resource  when  they  reached  that  point, 
had  become,  in  addition  to  those  of  actual  mendicancy, 
so  grievous,  that  a  poor-law  began  to  be  contemplated 
as  necessary  for  Ireland ;  and  in  1833  a  royal  commis- 
sion was  issued  for  an  inquiry  into  the  subject. 

In  consequence  of  the  report  of  this  body,  an  act  was 
passed  (1  and  2  Victoria,  c  56),  for  tlie  introduction  of 
a  modified  poor-law  into  Ireland.  In  the  principal  ar- 
rangements, those  adopted  in  England  under  the  Poor- 
Law  Amendment  Act  were  followed ;  and  the  general 
superintendence  was  confided  to  the  same  commission- 
ers. The  system  is  still  in  its  infancy ;  but  it  has  so 
far  worked  well.  In  March  1841,  127  unions  had  been 
formed  and  declared,  and  60  workhouses  were  in  pro- 
gress, or  in  operation.  It  is  anticipated  that  three 
more  unions  will  be  all  that  are  necessary. 

GENERAL  OBSERVATIONS. 

Poor-laws  are,  after  all,  only  an  expedient  for  meet- 
ing an  evil  partly  inherent  in  human  nature,  and  partly 
the  consequence  of  its  erroneous  moral  and  political  con- 
dition. Were  all  bom  equally  sound,  and  were  all  so  in- 
structed and  so  placed  socially  that  each  man  realised  a 
reasonable  sum  for  his  labour,  and  was  disposed  to  make 
a  proper  use  of  his  gains,  there  would  be  no  need  for  poor- 
laws.  Such  conditions  not  existing,  this  expedient  is  un- 
avoidably called  into  use,  and  wo  must  not  be  surprised 
that,  as  one  designed  to  meet  great  evils,  its  own  opera- 
tion is  attended  by  less  ones.  By  fur  the  worst  effect  of 
poor-laws  is  the  moral  deeradation  which  they  produce  in 
those  for  whose  benefit  tney  are  established.  The  man 
who  has  to  ask  for  public  relief  to  his  necessities,  loses 
from  that  moment  the  self-respect  on  which  much  of 
his  virtue  depends.  A  fatal  lesson  is  taught  him — that 
his  wants  may  be  supplied  without  his  own  exertions-^* 
and  the  motive  to  an  independent  and  industrious 
course  of  life  is  greatly  shaken,  perhaps  destroyed. 
This  is  itself  an  evil  of  such  serious  magnitude,  that  it 
forms  with  many  an  insuperable  objection  to  all  regular 
provision  for  paupers.  Such  may  be  said  to  have  been, 
till  a  recent  period,  the  public  feeling  of  Scotland  on 
this  question,  and  it  still  is  the  predominating  senti- 
ment of  a  large  portion  of  society  in  that  country.  It 
is  an  objection  which  we,  for  our  own  part,  would  have 
difiiculty  in  overcoming,  if  we  did  not  see  around  ua 
the  awful  effects  which  an  inadequate  provision  for  the 
poor  works,  in  the  present  condition  of  society.  Un- 
questionably, nothing  but  a  consideration  of  the  horrible 
inhumanity,  and  the  extreme  dangers  to  the  common 
weal,  whicn  are  inseparable  from  tne  neglect  or  repulse 
of  pauper  chums,  could  excuse  the  deterioration  which 
we  unavoidably  effect  in  a  man's  nature,  by  giving  him 
that  for  which  he  has  not  laboured. 

Another  great  evil  of  poor-Uws  is,  that  they  take 


CHAMBERS'S  INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLt. 


f  Vkvnnit  (■(  tlie  fruiU  of  indiutry  from  thow  who  have 
L  kgiticDMel/  oaquii'ed  tlieiii,  and  bestow  them  uiKia  ibe 
KUe.  Indiutry  Ib  by  tliU  Dieuis  diaeoaivged.  aud  >loIh 
Bod  improTidunee  um  iu  >  proportiaiwle  dcgico  foa- 
lered.  iu  Eiigluid,  this  hud  r««ched  to  »n  cnomiDaB 
heigbt,  Bud  even  now  tlie  tbttrMLion  of  live  miUictus 
from  tlie  gmioB  of  the  indiulriouB,  tiiuM  operate  very 
■eriously  in  reUi-diiig  the  progreae  of  the  eountry.  It 
U,  liowaver,  aa  »lre«dy  uid,  >  lai  nuavoidshlo  in  pr. 


evili. 


would  eECBpe  man  M 


_  a  reiisoaable  doabt  can  Bcsroely  be  entertained 

u  to  the  propi'iiMy  of  both  succouring  the  lielplees  and 
offering  u  inodiiiBd  proiiiion  to  tlio  nhle-budied  in  • 
needful  stale,  it  must  be  equally  ctenr  thM  the  more 
that  habits  of  foresight  and  self-depeodeace  are  pro- 
pagaled  in  the  eoantry — the  more  Ibat  Kll-Biutainiag 
moral  influences  are  diffosed  through  it — we  may  expect 
to  see  the  less  Deed  for  poor-laws.  Although  there 
axe  upwards  of  twenty  niiltioas  in  saiioga'  hanks,  and 
lieiicfll  eocietiea  are  widely  spread,  still  tlia  great  hulk 
of  the  labouring  clnssei  of  this  niuutry  live  (rum  hnud 
to  mouth,  without  any  store  whatever  on  which  (o  fill 
back  in  the  event  of  sicliaess  or  ao  occasional  laok  of 
•mploymcDt.  This  is  a  preposleroua  stale  of  things. 
What  is  to  be  expected  of  a  people,  the  great  bulk  of 
whom  are  contented  to  live  with  only  a  little  accident 
between  them  and  a  stats  of  depeodeuee  on  private  oi 
public  bounty)  SickncM  ia  wbst  nil  are  liable  to  at  al 
limeg;  failures  of  empluynivut  tuke  place  nt  frequent  in 
tervBls  every  where.  There  surely  might  be  some  bettei 
provision  againat  each  contingencies  than  a  public  pro- 
*iuon,  whioii  niakca  the  recipient  a  degraded  man  foi 
aver.  Individuals  might  be  induced,  by  au  irapi-ove- 
meDt  of  the  moral  ageueiea  of  the  country,  to  du  modi 
tar  the  securing  of  their  own  indiipcndencc ;  and  th( 
remainder  of  tlie  required  jwovision  might  perhaps  be 
-  l4>tftined  byEyeteiiialiccooiribntionstrom  the  labuuriug 
I  riuaea  towards  a  oommon  fund,  from  which  succour 
f  BPuld  Dsver  he  a  degradation,  seeing  that  they  hod 
^"^emselves  created  it.  Proposals  of  this  kind  are  apt 
'to  ilrike  tfas  mind  nnfavoarably,  from  their  being  new ; 
but  the  position  at  vihicli  this  couuti'y  has  ari '  "  '  ' 
■ome  degree  nevt,  and  accordingly  cslU  fur 


pendent  feeling  wltli'h  h  llicilistimrnble  ossoi:i: 
the  other  virtues,  and  the  great  dislinctiuu  bLi- 
freeiuan  and  the  slave. 


:-ASSL'RANCi;. 

iL4  ocdiiiai-y  cliometer, 
tsentpajiiienliii  fL.ll,  i 
1 1o  he  realised  uflcr  llii 


in  the  form  of  debt,  esa  i—ns  apM«ai 
persuu  such  a  eaRi  aa  weald  fcw  ■«•  k  ad 
in  the  event  of  that  |iiw^  auMia  diriL  ^ 
many  aliier  nirTunWanim  la  akkfe  M»^M 
become  biglily  bcn<>ciBl;  fa«t  Ita  ^mt  ^ 

seenringacETlaJn 'n  hril|i^  »i—i.M 

of  the  deeeace  of  those  on  wboa  t^  ^^ 
The  prioeiple  on  wbiffa  'ifr  a  ■"in 


1^ 

for  lb*  ■ 


a  single  person  u  of  all  ■'■■-g-  tha  nsl  «■■ 
pMtible lo ascertain. ~—---r      ...    ■  ^  ^| 

of  a  mullilu^  of  DersaiM  of  a  (MflisBbv^ 
within  neat  year,  liow  mtjij  in  tka  wa^| 
manyin  the  third,  aadaaoo.  TIm  Bi^MI  j 
gives  wbM  is  ealted  the  nptimlttm  V%^Bn 
aou  of  the  set  A  certainty,  is  Aon.  k  m 
this  proverbially  uncertain  Mit>>(M.  «W  ■ 
great  nomber  uf  perMi^  and  taatidK  aJ 
gu-d  to  the  circumalancvs  ia  wIm*  Aij  Ii 
found,  for  instance,  titat,  of  lOajMO  san^C 
reaidiiig  in  this  country,  the  wmber  kW^I 
another  year  has  elaiLsei),  wUl  b«  atant 
more  than  one  and  a  half  I 
10(1,000  persona  were  to 
making  anre  that  the  widowa  or  other  Mail 
who  died  wiihia  a  year  should  har*  OMi.  , 
only  be  neoesaary,  in  that  eaa^  fsv  laah  ■«■ 
tribute  oa  much  to  a  commoii  f«4  as  nMl 
£ifi21fi(U),  or  a  thotoand  liiuM  1531 ;  ^*J 
each  would  have  to  pay  in  £15,  4a.  31  M 
that  those  who  died,  or  tlieir  Iwba,  a^lM 
extent  of  £934,  ISa.  lOd. ;  bntwitbiiat  b)mJ 
survived,  for  these  alxo  liad  their  cIhMiiS 
which  il  was  hat  fair  that  ihejr  slHiali  f^.  S 

to  convey  an  elemeotary  idea  of  wtet3b3 

though,  in  practice,  the  Trai liim  *•« 

somewhat  more  eompUeatad  kind.  J 

Anassaraneeis  nrely  IratisaelnllWaa 

The  object  of  most  ie,  to  pay  a  eertaia  ivai 
ill  order  that  a  asm  aNfl 


LlfE-AsBURANCe,   I 

of  securing,  by  ii  ] 
nual  p.ijDient,  a  si 


jR-QII-ir  ' 
ta  chiidrv: 


-Iiiiin  at  ijimmonii,  afpiIsM  t. 


■  )u  tktnut  u(  din  uw  i# 
•iiitUts  bljtlwrlhMiiliB 


■it  I  jtflktc.    Tim  I 
l*}>liaiu,  and  thi-  ''ji< 
■.  hy  Mr  J 


wkllv,  tlu  r;iiiMrfniAit  MUn  wm  MmptUul  frnm 
■vsoon*  im  tlic  iirflErrxiiTt  mortality  oscurrinK 


Tt7  rxtncirdiow;^  iitulaa- 

u  liBt  Inqiurio*  vxtomliil— •(>  gr'nt "  iluit  tit*  dnn* 
>t  «]UBl«iirO  now,  aa  erxiiimml  wilh  wltat  it  «>«  • 
In  tfpt,  b  •»  4  lo  n  ill  niuiid  iniuilisnt.'' 
«rdM  ihrw  Uirvr,  k  UblG  0  u  biuDvil  Ly  Ml  OriT- 
Jiiiira  friiiu  tb«  deaths  rcporlcd  truat  luna  ii>  iJaM 
ig  ihf  mcmbm  Incimdiii  tiiegmt  B^ullabte  Sa> 
of  Louden,  (tvta  lu  eonumDecmEni  in  )7ii3  ibiwn 

29,  which  bMNnoB  bcrn  rHaloal&teil  aai  cnuthiari 
toaUlw  nvriwl  by  Mr  Murttan,  llit  nonary  tii 
nitidty.  Thi*  tabl*  ix  vvry  vaJualilv,  u  DDnllniibx 
lubatniilul  «eein«ey  ot  olhei-  oliM-'i'tiiiiuiiii,  viiifi 
a  it  vary  iiuuly  currupcmda.  The  ftkllou  kIiIbIi 
UMm  umi  lu  euU  otjicr  Din?  br  kto  ui  >  gbuus 
Ibi^  (oilomiiS  ubtv,  nboiriDg  thv  mrun  r^^ratalum 
r  »l  vsriooi  agoi  Mcordiag  to  eank. 


IflrHoMl- 


JfpmnlDnUy  of  (ho  Mkiiitwlti1g«d  d^Rcvmi'y  of  tlia 
on  nbieb  ItMi  firnl-iiiviiliouwl  tiiblv  it  niuiidr;!,  l]i« 


by  [larlly  t^  miaoninz,  ti 
-■  atTurdi  ■Irnng  pn»Dii 
ir,  and  imTuirli  a  liiah  i 


mieliuivc  UCIUIU.I  It] 
J,  tli«  clOK  njtrtnnFPl  of  Qio 

(in»Din|>tiTo  eviiltncr  In  thdr 
ligh  dwr*  nt  (fttAiniy  tii  al- 
iniMbuKl'npoii  tl>«^n.  'Ill*  ('jirllKln  tab)*  snoi- 
t  inc*n  ytaem  b*t<mii  iba  niaJ¥  uid  tmiial*  i^tinr- 
nil  of  jtnTtnunanli  ihairlog  a  (umrwlial  ■liurWr 
;luD  thau  Iha  niran  at  tlioHt.  It  uku  cioIiiuiIb* 
DfMTly  wMi  th*  axporiiOM  ot  the  E-ii)llaU>  Sa> 
CooBidtiriDg  that  it  i>  thoi  *ii]<|k>ti«i1  by  (•• 
■Mrta  nfoburratiiniii  aad  that  lb*  wbolo  tlnr*  tv 
Dnr  a  jtiHw)  during  >*hjch  lib  wiiii  not  wipiAd 
1...  -<--,  t>aeiiln»,  Ih*  gaiwnl  uplimiu  la  fal'Mil' 
'  -V  CmWf  tablM  for  l:ifB-a«uiiim><> 

■bnratifiti  from  tbci  (.cprrimM   irf   iIm  ^ 


(elT  of 


iin*  Fanil.  which  falsndu  nviw  tha  .     .        __, 
-lam.  Ill  IBM,  iW  auditur  c-f  that  mr'Mf  ri-^ntwiL, 

A  w*n»Vr  -Ji  ftwftva  Vt  **  lS.«*i!iM.>«*»«s  ■»» 

■    -• ^-        1     1  I    liai    iffftlfl    I    "■■^^.■^» 


CUAHBBRS^  lXF0RM.%TiOS  FOB  THE  PEOn 


tthmuij  in  RCMdns  ike  prcpca  of  <*•  roMtrj.  It 
m,  b*i»>cr,  H  atradi  awd,  m  tax  wia'Didabb  ia  pn- 
MM  li Miiiim.  if  •«  «aatd  cMSf*  more  ■»»■» 


, Bi—toli  till     ■■■■■■^b 

oftlwiiw— .aflh— aB»h— *^*tii< 


|MMII»<fdilMap  ft«ll  III  MB 

MliiHliili,wi«fc*JW«hlitl.MWi^l 

wHm  Bon  jimt,  fear  Mnaj  ia  tlM  n«al  t 

„    DwriatlwiUt^uriMiaa.    Tbandiaafl 

nnjeipeei  I  |f '—  ir  rillf  llhi  tipntilln  g'ltft  fcfl 


M«  Dpmwdi  of  tacntj 


.oreUunOMaad^lMlfivcaaL  S^fM^I 
00,000  pcnona  mva  m  ■■aelah  ftr  tk  |i 
uUdug  inr*  tlut  lh«  vidna  «  oAk  h^rf 


of  thio^  I  another  jivr  hM 
■    ■■     '  '  laore  Ihi 
IQO.MM 
nuking 

•bo  dMa  WllBHI 

oolj  bfiummr; 
UUiale  u  Dtodi 
£1^1,U00,  or  ■ 
Bteh  *culi|  bai 


tkal,rfl*MMp«M« 
-      ttaauaila  Aaaai 


■iDE  a  modibd  pMnMon  to  tba  alto-bodied  in 
OMidfaT  (tUe,  ii  nuM  be  aaoall;  dear  Uiat  Uw  luu 
Uiat  InbiU  cj  fnev^  and  (  " 
l^ipUd  io  ihe  coBBUr* — tbe 
aural  inflnwicmj*  diwla««d  thtoiigli  .      .         „  — 

MdiaBgh  Uierc  '  con  of  tlr*  art.'    _,, _,  _  . 

riug^  banks,  uJ  j  thia  pronfMad*  uai  illahi  ^tLject,  afaa 
P(B*iu  BoemKa  an  -lux]  Bpm<i,  •■ill  llu  grtai  Uiik    grval  number  d  iiMWfc  aail  oMaate  Ai 
nf  lb*  tabiKiniig  dueae  ol  Ihia  cobdIt}  lire  from  hand    nri  to  tba  djca 
U  HMOth,  withoat  anj  ator«  vbalcnEr  on  yhieh  to  (all  |  iiiaad,  for  toNua 
liaetl  in  Um  ereat  of  niekn^di  ar  an  occaatooal  lack  of 
Kmptoymrat.     Thia  it  >  prepoaleroiu  aUle  of  thio^ 
What  i»  to  be  eapected  uf  a  ptople,  the  greftt  bulk  of 
i>hiHU  are  eUDlej^led  to  lire  wiEh  only  &  Litle  accident 

psbUe  bonntj  1  Sickneiu  ia  »hal  all  an  liable  (o  al  all 
llmea ;  failum  of  emplajroieut  lake  place  >t  frequent  in- 
larnla  "erj  wbere.  Tliere  uuvl  j  miglii  be  tame  belter 
proviaiaB  a^ioM  web  cauiiugeneiea  tban  a  poblie  pro- 
litiiio,  whidi  nialwa  the  reeif  icnt  a  dt^raiW  man  for 
eter.  Indiiiduali  might  bo  induced,  Gf  an  *iu>pru>e- 
Bient  of  the  moral  ageueie*  lit  the  eouoirv,  to  du  mncli 
for  tbe  accuring  of  their  owa  io Jepcnilcnee ;  and  the 
Mnftlade)'  of  tba  required  proviaioD  iniglit  perhaps  be 

ntfclMmifijri'  -'" """ —  * —  ""  '*'• — '"" 

'-  -    n  fund,  from  vliieU 


lilMta^HH. 


r  he  » 


d  ban  ta  ftj  It,  tXi,  U.SL  U 
•ho  died,  or  (heir  Mn^  wmMf* 
.atentof£j)M.lBa.lOd.;ba»a<»t— t^ulM 
eurvived,  lur  111  mm  aiao  bad  Htdr  i  liim  iM 
oUeh  it  na  bat  &irtkat  tbaf  ahoeU  fif.  V 
be  a  niple  Uaiuaeliaa  in  lifc-«MUMWb  Mb 
Io  Miiny  an  demenlarf  idea  of  »bat  lifeaM 


to  slnke  Iht  mill.!  uiifavcmr^iLly,  from  tlu-lr  b.iiig  nei.  : 

AiiaAiur-j[i«  ii  n.r-ly  Iraiiia^t.lf.f  i«1 

but  the  position  ai  "liich  iliis  coonli-j  has  arrived  ia  in 

The  object  of  nioel  i»  lu  pay  a  wrliiii  uaa 

Mine  degree  new.  and  accordiirgl)'  calk  fur  meaaart* 

aa  l.ng  aa  they  live,  in  order  that  a  ho  najk 

of  a  different  kind  from  what  we  are  accuatoined  to 

at  tlieir  death.     Auurers  are  als»  <.t  n»M1 

young  have  the  eipecuiion  of  lunger  IA  ite 

poor-laws  i«  adupled,  Ilie  rommuBity  oau  never  be  iu- 
spired,  in  all  iU  depart ineilW,  wilb  tlist  manly  and  iudc- 

U  thercfure  becoint*  pix^per  thai  thnshoatl 
than  those  more  ndvaund  in  life.    Indeed,  ite 

pendeiil  feeling  wliii'h  i»  ihe  iuaejarable  nsHOCiaU  of  all 

to  be  a  payment  BpprjpHaie  to  eaei  paw* 

and  this,  aeeordiugly.  ii  ihe  case.     .XueUirp 

freeman  and  the  slave. 

not  tu  clear  uSMine  jcar*!  cUiios  'but  ■>  ad 

a  sum  many  yean  heuce,  lar^  funds  bnawl 

Inlid,  and  uuoo  thu  improvement  of  Ihaea 
peiiils.    Ifaiiiglirateiif  interct  iifAniiM** 

L 1  F  E  -  A  s  s  r  R  A  X  c  r:. 

csjK-ricnce  a  rapid    increase,   and  Un  ka  r^ 

are  rt-quirid  to  effect  insorancet.     If,  eaitaa 

of  treariug,  hy  a  pn-wiil  pajnreol  in  full,  or  of  an  an- 

UiG interest  realised  be  uoall,  tbe  amma  m. 

nual  payoient,  a  sum  Io  be  realised  after  the  dt^ceiue  of 

make  their  original  paymcnta  so  uid^  ikt  ti^ 

Life-Bssarauue  is  vfleeled  in  thu  caanll^d 

"iti.ubvioualhal,  to  many  i.n™i-,  li.'  Iin>iiiir  thia 

to  mnkiiig  a  pn.fit  by  their  buiiurts  » If  • 

as-uriug  societies.    The  former  are  »iiwtl/«* 
p.iflary,ani  the  latter  mtfna/ office*    Wa 

lif-,  ivlii),  for  the  preaenf.  ;ii                                  ..i  .Kitnin 

tlifir  famil..-i  111  cmfoi-..  I.ui  ;.    .,_  ..,: ,-.-gMiu- 

lir.t  kind  nre  usu^vllv  lielJ  by  a  jouiMl«i«^ 

erenl  of  tlieir  d.'Sltl,  t],w  .l.-ii.'ji.lnii  -ii  t|k,„  .,il|  not 

»ilh  a  krL-.>  M.l:.,Tru.l  --.plixl ;  an4  lb.  «W 

laKc->.l.i,-,   ii.>  1,..:;   ■     ■],    i,  iheanrbaM 

be  ilivDwn  iiito  poverty.    T<i  nucti  pui'Euut,  lli^-asaur- 

nil  c;..  ,                  ■,..,,.    ^,pfl,l,MJlbtB 

nncc  uFMt'nta  it»lf  a.  a  re;idy  ui.J  it<,.iveni,^ut  iiieaii» 

of  pr«vidii.g  f.v  lIloFie  In  *li.,m  th^y  iiru  i»t.;r^«ted. 

nlKl.'.',    I'l    1.      ,                             l:.,t   IwoiJ,  tuwM 

.H.-Ul,..:-.      \ni,.^c^..U.*..,r,^«n»m 

^lL-u,i  „f  cumj;  n,i.,  the  land,  of  a  Mdog" 

»i,|..w„n.i   dt„l.ir...i,   nill   haVL'  ^..TiL.■Ih[„^.   lu   ln-,k   I,., 

c;;:::;, 


..  ,  '.:g-.t   tlicu,.  .    _       , 

\ui  mcani,  riciia  wn*  ciiidufltd  almuM  eMlusin^kjMi 
eau  make  hut  it  was  at  Itngili  socn  Ilut  all  dainUsM* 
jngerand  to  bu  obtained  un  ilie  uaoeiaLion  fiiiie^-, 
mee  I.,  be  I  Bomi-  vain  Ihis  svikiii  liaa  beevediaaditSi 


LIFE-ASSURANCE. 


r  tlutn  the  other.     In  various   instances,  com- 
hare  scales  of  charges  allowing  of  a  participa- 
•urplusages ;  and  these  are  usually  called  mixed 
etary  and  mutual  offices. 

existing  British  offices  are  about  eighty  in  nuro- 
loat  of  them  of  recent  origin.  The  oldest  is  the 
ble,  of  London,  established  on  the  mutual  prin- 
In  170(5.  At  the  time  when  it  was  set  up,  no 
itions  as  to  life  existed ;  and  the  conductors  were 
ingly  obliged  for  many  yeai*s  to  proceed  in  a 
ncasure  at  random,  charging  the  same  premiums 
[Oal  payments  for  all  ages  under  foHy-five !  The 
offices,  dating  from  the  lost  century,  are  the  fol- 
;: — The  Sun,  1710, proprietary;  the  Union,  1714, 
;  the  London,  1721,  mixed  ;  the  Royal  Ex- 
9f  172*2,  proprietary;  the  Equitable,  1762,  mu- 
he  Westminster,  1792,  proprietjiry ;  the  Pelican, 
proprietary;  and  the  Palladium,  1797,  mixed. 
are  established  during  the  first  ten  years  of  the 
it  century: — The  Globe,  1803,  proprietary;  the 
I,  1805,  proprietary;  tlio  Loudon  Life-Associa- 
1806,  mutual;  the  Provident,  1806,  mixed;  the 
1806,  mix^ ;  the  West  of  England,  1807,  mixed  ; 
ipe,  1807,  mixed ;  the  Eagle,  1807,  mixed ;  the  At- 
$8,  mixed ;  and  the  Norwich  Union,  1 808,  mutual, 
ates  charged  by  these  offices  arc  very  various, 
all  cases  they  have  been  found  sufficient  for  the 
In  most  instances,  the  companies  divide  large 
I,  while  the  mutual  offices  have  realised  equally 
•nrplusages,  which  they  have  divided  amongst 
lorers,  in  proportions  according  to  the  sum  as- 
and  the  duration  of  the  insurance,  or  upon 
Other  principle  which  may  be  thought  prefe* 

^•aasurance  grew  up  in  the  last  and  present  cen- 
amidst  such  an  imperfect  knowledge  of  the  data 
icfa  it  dependfl,  that  there  is  little  to  be  wondered 
he  great  variety  of  rates  charged  by  the  different 
•  These  data  are  now  much  better  understood, 
has  become  possible  to  arrive  at  a  comparatively 
siimate  of  what  charges  are  really  required  from 
ividual,  in  order  to  make  good  a  sum  at  his  death 
benefit  of  his  survivors.  There  might  be  greater 
ifta  still,  if  the  laws  of  mortality,  now  so  well  ascer- 
were  alone  concerned  ;  but  the  rate  of  interest 
loney  also  enters  into  the  calculation,  and  this, 
ejl  known,  is  liable  to  fluctuation.  Loose  as  the 
thus  remains  in  some  measure,  enough  is  ascer- 
to  admit  of  an  approximation  being  made  to 
lug  like  a  standard  for  the  conducting  of  this 
&nt  branch  of  business. 

Xmte  of  mortality  and  the  rate^  interest  upon 
»  are  the  two  principal  data  on  which  life-assur- 
naetically  depends.     Wo  shall  first  consider 

niE  RATE  OF  MORTALITY. 

«•  of  mortality  are  founded  on  the  assumption 
iman  life  is  of  a  certain  average  endurance ;  and 
ma  of  them  we  estimate  the  number  of  deaths 
my  be  expected  among  a  given  number  of  indi- 
te from  tne  proportion  that  has  been  observed  to 
among  another  class  similarly  circumstanced. 

tables  of  mortality  adopted  in  this  country  as 
aia  of  calculation  for  insurance  companies,  are 
n  number.  That  known  by  the  name  of  the 
unpion  table,  is  the  oldest  now  in  use.  It  is 
d  upon  observations  made  by  the  celebrated  Dr 

of  the  deaths  registered  for  the  population  of 
the  parishes  of  the  town  of  Northampton,  during 
srs  between  1735  and  1780.  This  table,  it  is  now 
riedged,  shows  far  too  high  (or  rapid)  a  rate  of 
ity,  owing  partly  to  no  effect  having  been  given 
luctuations  in  the  population  of  that  parish,  from 
ration  and  other  sucii  causes,  and  partly  to  the 
improvement  which  has  taken  place  in  the  value 
lince  the  middle  of  last  century,  consequent  upon 
rodoetion  of  vaccination  and  otlier  improvements 
ieal  acienee,  as  well  as  in  the  habits  and  modes 
\g  of  the  people.    In  1827,  a  select  committee  of 

788 


the  House  of  Commons,  appointed  to  investigate  this 
subject,  reported — *^  The  evidence  appears  to  your  com- 
mittee to  be  strong  and  decisive  in  favour  of  the  use  of 
tables  which  give  an  expectation  of  life  higher  than  the 
Northampton.  In  trutn,  there  b  not  even  a  prima 
facie  case  in  their  favour." 

The  Carlitie  table  was  formed,  not  from  the  register 
of  burials  among  a  floating  population,  but  from  obser- 
vations of  the  deaths  which  occurred,  at  each  year  of 
life,  among  a  certain  stated  number  of  persons  in  the 
town  of  Carlisle.  The  observations  were  conducted  by 
Dr  Heysham,  and  the  calculations  made,  in  the  most 
scientific  manner,  by  Mr  Joshua  Milne,  author  of  a 
valuable  work  on  annuities. 

Finally,  the  Government  tablet  were  compiled  from 
observations  on  the  progressive  mortality  occurring 
among  the  government  annuitants  and  other  selected 
classes,  distinguishing  the  sexes.  Thcv  were  prepared, 
under  the  directions  of  government,  oy  Mr  Finlaison, 
actuary  to  the  National  Debt ;  and  in  1829  were  adopted 
by  parliament  as  the  basis  upon  which  their  future 
calculations  should  proceed.  Mr  Finlaison's  researches 
establbhed  the  fact  of  the  longer  duration  of  female 
life.  He  also  observed  ^  a  very  extraordinary  prolon- 
gation of  human  life"  in  the  course  of  the  time  over 
which  his  inquiries  extended — so  great ''  that  the  dura- 
tion of  existence  now,  as  compared  with  what  it  was  a 
century  ago,  is  as  4  to  3  in  round  numbers." 

Besides  these  three,  a  table  was  framed  by  Mr  Grif- 
fith Davies  from  the  deaths  reported  from  time  to  time 
among  the  members  insured  in  the  great  Equitable  So- 
ciety of  London,  from  its  commencement  in  1762  down 
to  1829,  which  has  since  been  recalculated  and  continued 
down  to  a  later  period  by  Mr  Morgan,  the  actuary  to 
that  society.  This  table  is  very  valuable,  as  conftrniins 
the  substantial  accuracy  of  other  observations,  with 
which  it  very  nearly  corresponds.  The  relation  which 
these  tables  bear  to  each  otlier  may  be  seen  at  a  glance 
from  the  following  table,  showing  the  mean  expectation 
qf  l\fe  at  various  ages  according  to  each. 


At 

Age. 

By  North- 
ampton. 

By 

Carlisle. 

By  GoTenunent 

By  the  expe- 
rience of  the 

London 
EquiUble. 

Males. 

Females. 

Mean. 

20 
25 
30 
35 
40 
45 
50 
55 
•GO 

33-43 
30« 
28*27 
25-68 
23-08 
20-52 
1799 
15-58 
13-21 

41-46 
37-86 
31-34 
31 -to 
27«1 
24-46 
2M1 
17-58 
14-34 

3839 
35  IH) 
3317 
3017 
27^tt 
2375 
20-30 
1715 
14-39 

43-99 
40-81 

37-57 
34-31 
31-12 
27-81 
24-35 
20  79 
17-38 

41-19 
38-3r> 
35-37 
32-24 
29Hr7 
2578 
22-33 
18-97 
1586 

41«7 
38-12 
34-33 
30« 
27-40 
8387 
20-36 
16-99 
13-91 

Independently  of  the  acknowledged  deficiency  of  the 
data  on  which  the  first-mentioned  table  is  founded,  the 
mere  fact  of  its  differing  so  much  from  any  other  au- 
thentic observation,  is  of  itself  conclusive  against  it; 
and,  by  parity  of  reasoning,  the  close  agreement  of  the 
others  affords  strong  presumptive  evidence  in  their 
favour,  and  imparts  a  high  degree  of  certainty  to  cal- 
culations based  upon  them,  liie  Carlisle  table  oeca- 
pies  a  mean  place  between  the  male  and  female  obser- 
vations of  government,  showing  a  somewhiU  shorter 
duration  than  the  mean  of  these.  It  also  coincides 
very  nearly  with  the  experience  of  the  Equitable  So- 
ciety. Considering  that  it  is  thus  supported  by  two 
other  sets  of  observations,  and  that  the  whole  three  ex- 
tend over  a  period  during  which  life  was  not  so  good 
as  it  has  since  become,  the  general  opinion  in  favour 
of  the  safety  of  the  Carlisle  tables  for  life-assurance 
may  be  held  as  well  founded.  This  opinion  receives 
corroboration  from  the  experience  of  the  Scottish 
Widows'  Fund,  which  extends  over  the  Inst  twenty- 
five  years.  In  1 834,  the  auditor  of  that  society  reported, 
as  the  result  of  a  careful  investigation,  '*  that  the  ex- 
pected number  of  deaths  by  the  Northampton  table, 
which  is  the  table  of  the  society,  is  to  the  actual  num- 
ber during  the  whole  progress  of  the  rociety,  as  100  to 


CHAMBERSS  INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


AT ;  ftnd  the  proportinn  of  the  expected  number  by  the 
K<|Uil>bie  experience  is  to  the  autnal  numhor  u  lUD  to 
B7,"  Wr  have  understood  thxt  Iho  eipcrioace  of  the 
6^>tliih  Widowa'  Fund  since  1834  U  even  moN  favour- 
•Ue  to  life.  If,  Ilien,  we  were  to  take  Ihe  whola  twent;- 
flve  yean'  oipEricnce  of  this  sociotj  M  ft  criterion,  we 
abonld  come  to  ihe  concluaion  that  tlie  Equitable  ex- 
porience,  the  Carlisle  table*,  &nd  llie  tiOTerniuenl  in«*ti, 
•IS  eonrtidowbly  within  tfie  verge  of  Bafet)-,  while  Ule 
Nortluunrlon  tables  are  so  far  from  the  etandftnl  of 
tnodem  life  as  to  be,  pnrlicularly  viilh  regard  to  the 
jroung^er  class  of  lives,  ijaite  unfll  for  — 


Wehnreni 


kC  which  the  yearly  pretnbms  may 
it  of  the 


meaning  the  r, 

be  expected  to  ue  iinprovcfi. 

Thia  nibject  is  onewhich  doe* 
certainty  as  the  other,  and  on  wliich,  aec;nr<lini:ly, 
there  may  bo  great  diflermees  uf  i>pininn.  In  IRUS, 
Mr  Finlauon  writes—"  I  take  it  for  granted  that  it 
will  be  eanaidered  avfe  enough  to  aunme  that  mon^y. 
In  a  long  Murse  of  years,  will  eo  aecumoUle,  through 
ftll  flaotnatiauH,  ae  to  eqnal  n  constant  rale  of  «  per 
0*Dl.;  becaQBo,  in  pnlnl  of  fact,  raoDcy  hiu  hitherto 
MmuQiulatMl  at  i\  per  cent,  whether  wo  reckon  from 
1808  or  from  UflS-"  Other  writers,  again,  and  among 
them  Mr  De  Morgan,  looking  chiefly  tu  Ihe  high  price 
of  the  3  pot  cents,  of  late  years,  say  lliil  not  mnro  tluui 
S[  per  ccmt.  shoald  be  counted  on.  Practically,  tlie  in- 
veotmenla  of  anuranee  offieca  are  made  on  terms  inush 
jnom  favourable.     It  appears,  tram  the  puhliaheil  re- 

Col  the  Edinburgh  Lit^-ABsunince  Company,  dated 
inbHr  IB3B,  thai  for  Ihe  three  preceiliog  yenrs 
(IRnG,  IS37,  and  1B33,  nliea  iiiteroM  wna  imuoually 
luw),  the  average  rale  realised  on  their  funds  was 
£t,  I611.  Si.  per  cent.— about  I J  per  ecul.  higher  than 


liisoaBtUwdBtf  nut,  II  fiutsJ 
lis  mmIcUf  niiul  btl      v"  osU'i  <M 
...     ..dnlUi  t      yvat, 

(HI.  a(llieadatN;iBr,       '""  *~-  *■ 


-I 


Tills,  diridod  by  tC,  gives  t9i,  17*.  2d.  ks  II 


«  fnuBilatioci  uf  t)w 
;..f  .ei>l,l7a.ad. 

a  of  £100,  at  the  ago  of 


£432.S  10*.  Bd-lo  bo  paid  Id  by  the  <(!  niMnbe 
see  how  It*  baiin«s  would  pi>D(<e«l  aniil,  a 
of  seven  yean,  death  pat  a  period  Id  the  ■«■ 

Tlie  (irl(ln*l  « 


a  per  cent.  linlcriL,  u  la  n"l  .■.mnnnlilc'  Hint 
offices  could  make  bucIi  larRC  relums  lo  pnipriKlors 
meniben*,  in  the  nlispe  of  dividemUand  bonuses,  if ' 
did  not  generally  improve  money  at  about  the  rale 
mentioned.  From  all  of  these  eireum'Inncn,  it 
not  sppear  likely  that  ealeulalions  for  life-iu«urnnei 
which  the  interest  of  moOByi.HnsBUtni'd  at/oHrprrr 

dilion,  prove  unbound. 

Aeeording  to  llie  Norlh:(i:ii'  !   1 

ll,G5(l  persons  bum  alii-e,  III .1  ■   ■   .- ;,'. 

age  Bf  30.     From  these  lal.li  -   ■  i' 

uuravaurable  to  life,  Ilii"  iiii- 
strictly  llle  case,  but  it  m:,\  |.       ■       .      ■    .   : 
illuwmli'in.  TliBsainetnM.: ■ 


pajLiig  all  ih.nl  J*  re.[uired  in  onu 
formiiic  a  Tind  which  is  to  an.w< 
which  arp  l.>  b.^  made  nj'nn  i(.      In 

The  object  is  1.1 .1-- !  i  mi    m.-h  -h^. 
payment,  each  i-  ■ 
may  itischarge  il  :■'  ■  'h 
.^BtHI  the  third,  .'..L.i  - 1       I.  '.  :■■ 


Piwcllcaliy,  lire-assurance  is  not  cRerted  Bpoag<« 
Ml  nilvaiioed  as  niuety  years,  ll  is  eoiumon  la  tmtm 
kusineie  to  tgm  under  GD ;  and  the  areat  bulk  tf  b 
surer*  are  between  27  and  40,  the  nioe  ■bool  slit 
mi'U  in  thui  oimiry  begin  U>  feel  the  respnmaHii 
,>f  :<    r.i.iilv.      ]M   (he  cnleulslions  f<.Ilowed  C«  * 


:l,  null  K<  im  ;  nnd  tnint  ea'h  Ihe  ^iciMy  Ml 
;  conirihuiifln,  present  nr  pn>»pfCti- ' 

]ioniid  inlermt,  to  pay  the  mm  *■" 
n  thM  Cf"?'     't  *  quite  "" 


ti<  the  i^'n'ra!  ialvt^ 
:»  piy  ihe  ■&..!»■  rn|aM 
<  lice,  or  in  a  seriot  of  annual  nayi 


*  u[  Moiru  «s«laiit 
, '  ?al  U)  ml Ju  lu  nwtUt,  koil 

II .  It  iiiro^ii  '  I  <"aBwntiuu  uiil  llw  pwrfcrlB- 
ul  H-Wn  lofnerin.  In  him  of  *&•  wJ>n-l«  uT 
'■^Ai'.  it  wij  r*nm>  ^    '    -----■-•-'-—■ 


company  niakiiig  liigh  charges,  and  consetjuently  ;;ooii 
profitH,  may  be  8U])po»eil  to  iiavo  nioru  stability  tiian 
one  making  moderate  charges  ;  while,  of  a  society  pur- 
suing business  ou  the  same  plan,  it  may  be  said  tliat 
the  overplus  becomes  a  kind  of  bank  deposit,  to  be 
ultimately  realised  by  the  depositor.  With  regard  to 
companies,  the  defence  may  or  may  not  be  sound,  ac- 
cording as  business  is  manaj^ed  discreetly  or  otherwise 
— and  there  certainly  are  olKces  of  that  nature,  entitled 
to  the  most  implicit  confidence,  although  th(>y  present 
moderate  scales.  The  defence  u  of  greater  force  with 
regard  to  societies  ;  btit  even  there  it  is  not  free  from 


possible  to  tmnsact  perfectly  safe  b 
dium  of  that  scale.  Those  who,  f<i 
prefer  the  next  scale,  must  be  said  I 
if  they  resort  to  a  com]>aDy  wiiich 
profits  to  the  assured :  if  they  bcct 
society,  large  periodic  additious  tu 
moix*  Uian  their  due. 

]  n  order  to  convey  still  more  distil 
ing  rates  of  life-assurance,  we  subj<J 
which  are  required,  exclusive  of  ex| 
mcnt,  upon  the  Carlisle  tables,  takiu 
at  4  and  3^  per  cent. :— 


1       25        I       30 

35 

40 

45 

50 

55 

4  Iter  cent., 
34  jKT  wnt., 

L.1  10    4 
1  12    1 

1.1  \i    1 
1  HI  11 

L.2    0    .'• 
i    3    .'. 

J-:>    7    C 
2    U    7 

1^9  ]:>   (• 
2  17  10 

L.3    7    3 
3    9    9 

L.4    5 
4    4 

The  itites  actually  charged  by  the  offices  which  we  have 
cited,  may  easily  be  compared  with  these.  It  will  be 
found  that  the  additions  made  for  man.'igcinent  and  the 
security  of  tiic  concern,  c%-en  to  the  3^  per  cent,  rate, 
are  very  considerable.  The  aggregate  (if  the  above 
ugea  at  3}  per  cent.,  is  <£U(,  IGs.  !^d. ;  that  of  the  same 
ages  by  the  actual  rate  of  the  Aberdeen  Company,  is 
£21,48.  lid.,  or  nearly  12^  per  cent,  higher ;  that  of  the 
same  ages  by  the  Scottish  widows'  Fund,  is  x'24,  Th.  1 1  d., 
or  29^  \wr  cent,  higher ;  while  that  of  the  Londtm  Amic- 
able, is  i,'2o,  lis.,  or  above  35.^  per  cent,  higher. 

MOIUI.  DITV  OF  I.Iiil-ASSlRANCK. 

On  this  subject  we  add  Fonie  remarks  from  a  ]>a]tt<r 
in  Chamber*^  Edinburgh  Journal,  No.  373.  Tln-y  arc 
conveyed  in  language  which  is  apt  to  appear  unmea- 
sured to  one  wlio  has  not  given  the  {subject  mucli  con- 
bideration — but,  we  believe,  only  to  him. 

*<  Such  being  the  equitable  and  beneficiiil  principles 
on  which  mutual-assurance  societies  are  estiiblishc^d,  it 
is  clear  that  they  present,  to  men  in  the  enjoyment  of 
incomf",  but  possessing  little  proi>erty,  a  most  suitAblc 
and  favourable  means  of  providing,  in  a  greater  or  ler<s 
measure,  for  the  endean-tl  and  helpless  r<*!atives  who 

In;«v  siirvivi»  llu>ni.       'I'lint  nulv  nliont  \\\\  flOJ*  i>i>«*ft<'knc:  i>i 


I  vide,  while  he  yet  lives, for  his  own  : 
it  is  not  more  liis  duty  to  provide  foj 
during  his  life,  than  it  is  to  provide, 
against  their  being  Ivft  jteunileas  in 
death.  Indeed,  between  these  two 
esmMitiM  distinction,  for  Ufe-assuranci 
nmch  a  matter  of  current  expenditure 
{>art  of  his  income  can  be  devoted  by 
to  the  necessities  of  tlie  present ;  aiiol 
u}i,  by  means  of  life-assurance,  to  pi 
future.  And  thus  he  may  be  said  I 
his  dutv  towr.rds  his  faniilv,  instead  < 
tilt!  case,  only  doing  the  lialf  of  it. 

It  mav  be  fuit  by  many,  that,  ad 
in  full,  mcomc  is  neverthelefa  insu 
them  to  spare  even  the  small  sum 
annual  preniimn  for  life-assurance, 
of  the  pi-escnt  are  in  their  ease  bo  gi 
not  sec  how  they  can  afford  it.  We 
bo  no  obstacle  which  b  apt  to  appeal 
til  is,  where  an  income  is  at  all  hmit 
easy  to  hliiiw  that  no  obstacle  could  fa 
will  ri'adily  be  acknowledged  by  ctc 
an  incoinc  at  all,  that  there  must  b 


uitt-<  I  !i*i*   iii(>^ti*ir<>i 


v;. 


fi  k^  inattVK 


iin:i^''s«)i  till*  n<'(is  Who  coji.'niiiti'Ji  iiic  i^iiardKins  ni  iiie 
tahiiixvl  iiluiv's  oF  sr|iultniv,  arc  il»'-cribeil  as  fi:;ur«'S 
oddlv  i-ii'vcil  ill  |iifC(.-s  «if  wuoj  ;  llu-st;  wt-ro  stui'k  «'ii 
llic  fmoi-.s  and  tivt-s  <.f  the  fiK'Inr.iiiv,  and  with  th».'ir 
h(>i'r'id  a''i>t'ct  and  ra;;4«.'d  ixiiniieuis,  "M'tMncil  no  injprojHT 
c-nihl«Miis  tit  the  hvsii'in  lh«"_v  wi-rt-  do«ii^iuHl  to  sn)>pi>rt. 
Adj»»i:iinir  thi*  saciv'l  rnclo<*uri',  th«  author  was  shown 
a  J'lihu  I'tihu,  oi-  city  of  ivlu^o,  wliich  was  open  for  (lit; 
rect-piiou  and  .«'ecnrity  i^f  all  eia>^es  of  delini|uents,  and 
re'*e'.uhlini(  in  its  ri-i;-ii!aiions  tlu*  >.inetuaries  of  anti- 
qnity.  Tli-.'-e,  and  some  other  eireuin'^tanci-s  mentioned 
by  Mr  Ilili^,  open  an  intt're-^tnii^  field  lor  speculation  on 
the  probable  connexion  of  anejent  and  moilern  snper- 
stitions,  or  at  lea-<l  i-n  tin.'  .similarity  of  tlu^  dehisinns 
!iv  whici)  th.>  untutored  human  hflw'  has  in  u!l  a<:es 
L^-en  alfectrd. 

roti^lii-^ni  ha?'  loni;;  befii  praelir»ed  amiini;  the  Xi';jroes 
uf  till'  \Ve^l  Indies,  uudi'i'  th«*  name  of  (H>cnlt  iir  OA< — 
a  ti  I'm  nios;  iikciy  originating  in  lJ::ypr  and  tlie  adjareiit 
p.iris  of  Af-'iea,  wi.ere  aneii-iuly  liiere  was  a  deity  of  a 
iii'm>inia«.Mi  eh.iiueicr,  with  the  name  Oh,  or  Oiih,  an<l 
from  vvliieii  Mo>c«.  eoinmanded  tlie  Nraeliles  to  abstain 
from  malvi.Jir  in-juir.es.  Obi  is  therefore  one  of  the  ex- 
ploded oracles  of  th"  anci''i)t  Wdrid,  whicii  has  been 
carrietl  by  captured  Xe^jroos  ti»  tiie  Wi-.t  Imhes,  and 
tlu^re  i-y'i  ii]>as  an  oraeir  ,iiid  the  ]iatriin  nf  ine.intaiions, 
charms,  and  ail  othir  .-.uper>«titnHi-i  di.'hi-iuns.  'rhi.- 
^i-lcp!-*  \\\\>i  practice  tiiis  kiiiil  of  fi'ti-jiism  are  cailed 
Obt-.ih-r.ien,  or  Obeah-\Vi):iieM,  fir  botli  sex»'s  en^a;ie  in 
the  mys[..rii'-i  of  tiii.s  ;-prci«s  of  jii-^i'lt-ry  and  imposture. 
We  belii-\e,lliat  since  :i)e  aho]itii>n<if  .slavervin  the  West 
Indies,  anil  tiie  spread  of  eihication  and  Christianity, 
tlie  pracliee  of  Obi  iia-^  i;oni.'  out  of  rejHite  and  notice. 

At  one  perioil  tlie  reiijitiu  of  the  I'arsees  or  l'ir«f- 
^^or:^hip|"eis  exisinl  throii^^hou:  [Vr«*ia  and  otlier  parts 
tif  .Vsla,  lint  i-i  now  coniined  chiefly  t»»  tlie  deserts  of 
Caramaiila,  tnwanU  th*.*  IN-r.-ian  (inif,  wlu-re  it  ii  fol- 
lowed by  the  (jiuil)re«  tir  •llanurs  (intideU),  a.>  they  are 
caib'ii  bv  the  .^Iahom(■tan  <.  Tin*  L'reat  t>rotihct  or  im- 
prover  of  the  i'arsoo  re!i;:Iiiii  was  /oroasti-r,  who 
:lonri>h»'d  abi»ut  two  tl:o:;sand  years  am>,  and  tauijhl 
tiu'  d.icfrinesiif  there  heiiiiian  eternal  s|»irit  of  (j'ood  or 
Ui'b?  I '  M  :!!U/.iV  :iiid  an  1 1«  r:i.il  yojrit  <if  ^,^  ■■  "r  I  >ark- 


lirainna  is  repn'heiit«-il  as  :i  i;«>]iloii-c 
with  lour  heads  and  f>)nr  amis  :  but  ai 
name  to  tlic  f^reat  caste  of  tho  Iti-uhiiur 
.sects  derive  their  appellation  friini  li 
little  attention  or  woi>)iip.  and  he  has 
erected,  nor  sacrifices  idlerotl  t»j  hiiii^  n 
braied  in  his  honour. 

Vi>hnu  makes  a  very  con>|iieuou^  fii»u 
annuls  of  India,  and  the  fuinlaiiientai  i. 
doo  reli;(ioii,  that  of  inetaiiinrphose**  <ir  1 
is  exemplified  in  llie  avtiturs  tirapyKMra 
of  this  deity,  in  his  ch.aracter  ol'  pit-!*., 
»leliverer,  ho  ha>*,  say  the  Vi-iJa!?,  inter 
any  jjreat  calamity  tiireateiie<l  ilu*  ur-rl 
ijrt'at  ends  of  hi?;,  provideiicu  are  lirni.':: 
various  incarnations  of  tiie  Iliinino  « 
traiKsfiirmations  there  are  ten,  an>l  tlit.; 
dian  //'///.«,  which  coinpi>?-e  a  oertniii  s^ 
intendt'd  to  effect  a  junctii<ii  with  (■••]. 
4,:J'Jn,t)<n»  years.  The  yui:s  have  h*  t-n  i 
allegorical  descrijUiou  of  the  yoar,  di* 
stices  and  cijuiiioxe-J,  and  «.'f  tin*  jTeC'-f*.- 
nnxcs.  Nine  avatai-shave  alreaJv  take 
ten  til  IS  Vet  to  conie. 

It  is  unncc«'ss;iry  to  dwell  at  any  !•.  n. 
derfnl  and  riiliculuus  avatars  i<f  Vi-l:nv 
peared  in  the  character  of  a  ti-h,  fur 
i*ecoveriiii»  the  sacred  writin;;s  qivon  \>\ 
had  been  swallowed  by  a  uiaiit  (typica 
lii>ns  human  >oul), and  buried  ab'ns;  witi 
dt  pths  of  the  ocean.  lie  l>tICcvs^ively 
tortoiso,  a  boar,  a  man-lion,  ^hat  iscallc' 
or  lin^ini  dwarf,  and  iMj  on.  The  traii- 
of  the  most  ridiculous  nature;  au'I  wti 
them,  they  should  only  excite  pity  f'.ir  ll 
the  wrctclictl  believers  in  ftuch  absunhli 

In  his  subsequent  avatars  under  dt 
Vishnu  delivered  the  world  from  Mirt'i^ 
antl  giants  whicii  threatened  tt!«  tran'^u 
ninth  avatar,  whicii  is  Rupp<)»i*d  to  hai 
in  the  year  1014  hefore  the  C'iiristian  ei 
sumcd  the  form  of  1)<Hidh,  tlie  authi-r  of 
distinct  frn-ii  that  of  Hrahina.    It  .nin-enrs 


TAGAN  AND  MAHOMETAN  RELIGIONS. 


JUS  of  time — past,  present,  and  future.  A  crescent 
ton-hi'ad  refers  tt>  tht.'  mcasuriug  of  time  by  the 
rcvoIutiimH,  hm  a  serpent  dciiutes  it  by  years  ;  and 
.'i'kluce  (if  hkuUs  wiiich  he  wears,  the  extiucliou  of 
iiul  in  successive  gvneruoions. 
3  tiiird  member  of  the  llindiM)  triad  is  Siva  the 
over.  It  mav  be  here  reiUHrkc-d,  that  tlie  distin- 
in;;  appellations  applied  to  these  deities  are  not 
'ilier  characteristic  of  their  functions — Vishnu 
'rt>f<erver  fre()uently  employing  himself  in  acts  of 
iction,  and  ^iiva  on  the  other  hand  in  acts  of  he- 
nce. But  much  vagueness,  inaccuracy,  and  con- 
I,  prevuil  throughout  the  whole  of  the  Hindoo 
:  and  this  no  doubt  arisen  from  the  love  of  the 
L'llouH  and  indescribable,  by  which  they  are  led  to 

at  phantoms  of  thought  as  undetiiuiblo  as  they 
:iipalpable.  Siva,  it  apiK>ars  lias  Imd  an  equal 
of  personal  adventure  with  Vishnu,  although  the 
cterK  which  he  assumed  were  not  so  various,  nor 
xploits  so  ini{N>rtaut  or  striking.  His  female 
er  is  called  Doorga,  and  to  her  the  appellation  of 
tyer  i»  more  applicable  tlian  to  him.  She  is  the 
ainoiigst  the  female  deities;  in  sliort,  the  most 
dable  and  warlike  personage  of  the  Hindoo  pan- 
.  She  has  rivalled  Vishnu  in  the  number  of 
I  vihidi  she  has  assumed,  and  the  conflicts  in 
I  slie  has  borne  the  moMt  conspicuous  part ;  and 
iiints  and  others  who  have  fallen  victims  to  the 
•-•vs  of  her  arm,  occupy  a  prominent  placo  in 
kild  it'cords  of  Himloo  mythology.  As  an  ob- 
■f  adtiratioii,  the  appt*araiice  which  she  is  made 
tiume  shows  a  I'cmarkablc  obliquity  of  moral 
I  in  those  who  framed  at  first,  and  those  who 
lip  still,  this  horrible  personage.  Under  tlie 
of  K:)l<?e,  she  is  black,  with  four  arms,  wearing 
e:id  bullies  as  ear-riii;^,  a  necklace  of  skulls,  and 
anils  of  several   hlau;j;l)tered  giants  circling   her 

likr  a  zone.  I ler  eyebrows  stream  with  blood; 
lot  CDiitent,  as  the  male  divinities  generally  are, 
tlie  simple  productions  of  nature,  her  altars  are 

to  tiow  with  tlie  bltMid  of  animal  oblations.  Uld 
ds  fwn  give  directions  lu»w  human  sacrifices  are 
ofteHNl  to  thisrrui^l  goddess.  India  has  no  deity 
{Mipulai*,  not  only  aniongnt  banditti,  who  hold  her 
pecial  veneration,  but  with  the  more  reputabfc 
■s  of  the  community,  who  offer  lavi.^h  gifts  on  her 
?.  The  disgrace  of  her  religion  consists  in  the 
lip  of  impure  imagery,  which  it  is  impossible  to 
(III. 

is  unnece^ssary  to  enumerate  even  the  more  im- 
tit  of  the  minor  deities ;  as  for  the  whole,  they  are 
•ther  imiuiiu-i-Hlile.  Some  have  taken  the  trouble 
kon  up  three  hundred  and  thirty  millions  of  them, 
r  are  gods  of  the  elements,  of  war,  of  the  sun,  of 
inds,  of  fire,  of  water,  and  so  on.  Every  river, 
lin,  and  stream,  is  either  a  deity  itself,  or  has  one 
ling  over  it.  The  worhhip  or  deification  of  the 
ra  forms  a  distinguisliing  element  in  the  belief  of 
iindoos.  Into  this  large  river,  all  who  dwell 
1  a  certain  distance  of  its  banks  crowd  morn- 
id  evening  to  bathe  ;  and  the  water  of  this  sacred 
n  is  carried  to  all  pails  of  India,  and  is  sworn 

courts  of  justice.  At  Allahabad,  where  the 
ns  of  the  Ganges  and  Jumna  unite,  the  country 
lany  miles  round  is  considered  sacred  ground; 
o  great  is  the  nunihtT  of  pilgrims  who  resort 
T  for  bathing,  that  the  vizier  has  received  in 
par  half  a  lac  of  rupees  for  {>ermis5ion  to  enjoy 
enefit  of  immersion  in  the  sacred  flood.  Often- 
may  l»e  witnessed  children  hurrying  their  parents 
;  river  side,  fearful  lest  they  should  die  before 
able  to  reach  its  banks.  Nothing  can  be  more 
ssiug  to  the  feelings  than  to  behold  these  poor 
ng  creatures,  some  calling  upon  Rliam,  some 
Dne  of  their  false  gods,  others  u{>on  another^  with 
bodiea  half  in  the  water  and  half  out,  the  rising 
oon  to  overwhelm  them.  Many  are  laid  where 
le  cannot  reach  them,  and  their  case  is  more  piti- 
till.  Beneath  a  bnminit  sun,  tliey  are  left  without 

730 


food,  and  many  of  them,  who  would  no  doubt  recover 
from  their  diseases  if  proper  attention  were  paid  to 
them,  are  literally  starved  to  death,  or  devoured  by 
jackals  at  night. 

Amongst  the  degrading  doctrines  of  the  IlindcH)  faith, 
a  veueration  fur  and  even  a  worship  of  members  of  the 
brute  creation,  is  nut  the  least  remarkable.  The  cow, 
in  particular,  commands  the  most  exalted  reverence  ; 
and  this  venerable  <]iiadruped  may  be  seen  in  cities 
sauntering  up  and  down  in  the  most  public  places,  per* 
fectly  at  lier  case,  and  calling  forth  expressions  of  pro- 
found respect.  The  monkey  likewi^e  ranks  amongst 
the  higher  gnidc  of  animals,  and  is  allowed  to  mam  at 
large  wherever  he  lists — a  chartered  thief,  now  laying 
the  confectioner's  sweetmeats  under  tribute,  and  anoa 
taxing  the  fruiterer  for  a  |Mirlion  of  his  juicy  store. 
But  this  superstition  reaches  its  climax  in  the  hospitals 
which  are  erected  for  affording  shelter  and  succour  to 
sick  and  infirm  brutes,  including  lice,  fleas,  and  other 
insects.  It  muAt  I>e  an  exceeilingly  nice  investigation 
for  those  who  preside  as  medical  attendants  over  such 
institutions,  to  determine  the  state  of  health  of  such 
patients.  Other  animals  besides  these  are  held  sacred, 
but  some  quadrupeds  are  treated  with  great  cruelty. 
The  draught  horhes,  in  particular,  Hishop  Heber  in- 
forms us,  are  barbarously  abused ;  nor  is  there  much 
sympathy  shown  to  human  beings,  who  are  allowed  to 
perish  from  disease  or  hunger  under  the  canopy  of 
heaven,  without  awakening  a  sigh  in  the  bosoms  of  the 
onlookers.  Lepers  are  regarded  as  objects  of  diviue 
wrath,  and  are  treated  accordingly,  sometimes  being 
burned  or  buried  alive. 

The  peculiar  character  of  the  Hindoo  creed  is  derived 
from  their  tenet  rt^specting  the  transmigration  of  souls. 
The  spirits  of  the  dead  are  said  to  enter  a  receptacle 
corres|ionding  to  the  previous  character  of  the  indi- 
vidual. Tin;  immortal  part  of  the  just  and  good,  how- 
ever insignificant  the  person  may  liave  been,  migrates 
into  a  hermit,  a  Brahmin,  a  dttmigod,  and  so  forth, 
rising  in  dignity  according  to  the  tlegree  of  merit.  Tiio 
wicked,  on  the  other  hand,  not  only  are  degraded  as 
human  beingn,  but  are  compeHed  to  lodge  in  the  bixlies 
of  animals.  The  Hindoo  oracles  endeavimr  to  establish 
a  degree  of  conformity  between  the  punishment  awarded 
and  offences  committed.  The  pilferer  of  grain  is  meta- 
morphosed into  a  rat,  and  he  who  stole  fruits  or  roots 
becomes  an  ape.  ( Khers  are  degraded  into  worms,  in- 
sects, and  so  on.  The  person  thus  lowered  in  the  scale 
of  creation,  must  pass  through  a  long  succession  of  de- 
graded births  bi;fore  he  can  re-ossume  the  human  form. 
This  system  of  rewards  and  jiunisliments,  although  con- 
fined to  the  earth,  di>es  not  exclude  the  belief  of  a 
heaven  and  a  hell  hereafter.  The  celestial  mansions, 
like  those  of  the  Mahometan,  are  replete  with  objects 
of  voluptuous  enjoyment ;  but  only  lirahmins  and  |)cr- 
sons  of  high  attainments  or  great  sanctity  are  pennitted 
t<i  enter  thi^se  blissful  abodes.  S«>me  ardent  devotees 
aspire  to  a  higher  destiny,  and  hope  to  be  absorbed  into 
the  (essence  of  the  supreme  being,  where  they  shall  repose 
for  ever  on  an  unruffled  sea  of  bliss.  The  place  of  final 
punishment,  in  like  manner,  consists  of  different  com- 
}>artnients,  the  penalties  inflicted  in  which  correspond 
to  the  iniquities  of  those  who  ore  doomed  to  enter  their 
dismal  precincts. 

The  devotion  of  the  Hindoos  consists  in  a  system 
of  ceremonious  observances,  not  only  troublesome  in 
themselves,  but  encroaching  on  the  moral  duties,  nay, 
the  whole  business  of  life.  Such  a  stock  of  atoning 
merit  is  by  this  means  conferred,  that  the  weightier 
matters  of  the  law  seem  to  be  superseded ;  at  all  events, 
this  external  devotion  is  not  inconsistent  with  the  most 
scandalous  crimes.  The  observances  commence  in  the 
morning  with  ablutions  and  prayers,  the  worship  of  the 
rising  sun,  in  the  inaudible  recitation  of  their  holy 
writings,  in  meditation,  and  the  like.  The  five  sacra- 
ments are  then  performed,  which  are,  teaching  and 
studying  the  sacred  books,  offering  cakes  and  water,  an 
oblation  of  fire,  in  giving  rice  and  other  food  to  living 
creatures,  and  in  receiving  guests  with  honour.    The 


kiUini^  a  frie;id,  ami  diiokiiif;  furui4dou  li«|uor  with 
killiug  a  Braliiiiin.  A  particular  clasd  of  dovottL-cs, 
called  yoguei  ov/akirSy  signaluie  their  j>iot  v  bv  citduriii;; 
the  severest  tortuies  with  a  finuiicss  and  pei-^evcraucc 
wurthy  of  the  holiest  cause.  Thcf^c  cr.tisibt  in  hurviuj; 
thcmeelvett  in  tlie  depths  of  forchtjf,  either  in  a  state  ut 
perfect  nakedness,  or  having  their  bodies  coated  with 
ashes  and  cow-dung  ;  in  allowing  tlie  iiailsof  their  handj> 
and  feet  to  grow  till  they  assume  the  diiiiensioati  and 
appearance  of  bird's  claws ;  roasting  tiiemselvcs  before 
huge  tires ;  immuring  themselves  in  the  gi'ound,  and 
leaving  only  a  small  breathing-hole  ;  going  abtut  with 
small  spears  or  rings  pierced  through  the  most  tender 
parts  of  the  body,  and  hot  iroiLs  applied  to  the  side  ; 
holding  their  hands  above  their  head  till  they  have  lo-^t 
the  power  of  bringing  them  down  again,  and  become 
withered  like  that  of  tho  individual  nu-ntioned  in  the 
Kvangelists;  clcnchini(  the  fists  till  the  nails  penetr;'.te 
the  palms  ;  turning  their  faces  to  the  sun  till  they  can- 
not regain  their  natural  p<isition,  or  gazing  on  his  in- 
tense blaze  till  their  eyesiight  is  extinguisthed  ;  lying  on 
iron  spikes ;  tearing  the  flesh  with  whips  ;  chaining 
themselves  for  lite  to  the  foot  of  a  tree;  and  perform- 
ing other  such- like  acts  of  slow  suicide.  Some  of  their 
attitudes  are  exceedingly  fanta&tic<d ;  for  instance, 
Jtishop  Hcber  saw  a  devotee  hopping  about  on  one  foot, 
having  made  a  vow  never  to  put  the  other  to  the 
ground,  which  was  now  shrivelled  up,  contracted,  and 
useless.  Begging  holds  a  conspicuous  place  among  the 
religious  duties  of  the  Hindcios.  Mr  Ward  affirms  tliftt 
an  eighth  part  of  the  inhabitants  <if  Bengal  and  J)al:ar 
hul)sist  in  this  manner  ;  thus  constituting  a  mendicant 
population  of  upwards  of  two  millions.  Religious  pil- 
grmiages  are  held  in  high  esteem,  and  the  lioly  places 
)mve  generally  been  established  near  the  sea,  the 
sources  and  junctions  of  rivers,  tiie  tops  of  remarUahlo 
hills,  hot  s]>riugs,  caves,  waterfalls,  and  places  oH  diffi- 
cult or  dangerous  access.  All  the  principal  roads  are 
crowded  witli  people  hastening  to  tlioijc  holy  places. 
Some  arc  held  in  higher  veneration  than  others,  and  it 
is  no  uncommon  occurrence,  in  the  crush  and  tumult 
of  the  multitude  to  reach  these  Bethesdas,  for  numbers 


the  t(  niple,  evvry  miage  iia«  a 
perfnriUi-J  licfuro  it,  and  is  fui 
allowance  of  food,  wliicb,  after  ] 
time,  is  served  out  amonp't  tlie  a 
in;;s  are  prot'iiNtiy  lavished  I'li 
whilst  tlie  multitudes  Hiihuut  su 
throw  themselves  iuto  the  mo=t  i< 
motions.  The  various  articles  k*( 
up- in  the  goddi.'S!*  K  a  lee,  in  her 
are  eonsidere<l  bv  Mr  Witrd  asi 

There  is  uo  doubt  that,  at  noi 
bloody  deities  of  the  Hindoos  we 
man  saei-it;ee«,  and,  in  oimtinnat 
rites  still  remaiu.  Children  wt 
tiirown  into  the  River  Ciatsgi-i^, 
put  a  stop  to  by  the  Brii&bli  gny 
are  still  occasiiinallv  burned,  m  i 
uiny  haunt  the  siki*.  where  they  i 
tail  a  cur^e  u^on  it.  The  ttuttff 
liurning  lu-rsclf  on  the  funeral 
Is  a  wellknnwu  rite  of  thi.^  llii; 
festival  of  tlu:;;;eriukut  is  ce!ebn 
numerous  victims.  This  idol-eai 
structure,  in  which  arc  roprcseii 
of  Bala  liama  and  2^oobhad^a, 
and  sister.  This  infernal  macfa 
better  name,  is  dragged  ali»ng  n 
by  the  infatuated  niiiltitutle,  its 
the  bodies  of  mangled  victims, 
themselves  bel'oiv  the  wheels,  an 
Tl'.c  most  indecent  figures  are  pov 
used  at  the  temples.  With  sucl 
is  not  a  matter  of  surprise  that 
vcrv  low  in  India. 

From  tinif'  to  time  during  the 
seetaries  have  arisen  amongst  i 
peculiar  objects  of  adoration  a 
Brahma,  as  ali'eady  observed,  is 
nr.d  Vishnu  and  2>iva,  the  two 
divide  in  a  grc>at  measure' the 
votees,  Ami:ng  forty-three  lea<i 
Ward  i*eckons  twenty  to  attach 


[*i  din  niixiHi  BnhmiB 

■•T  frrp*n^  by  ■  SwJm, 


lia(  III  aT^rf  lo  nnk*  %u}  rnn<n< 
'f  the  inaaam,  U  nil  In  bbiM-lcA 


OBu  will)  iha  iintri»itii>ik  •'T  ih*  vuDu  in  *£■ 
idm  nf  uwiTuI  )UH><il«dp,  la  nbdi  lOfrpUjr 
"  r  iin  nliJnUnci,  wlilte  nidi  loMraMMn 


I'UNvr  |iur«  piixiiiiian  or 
it«r>«l)nc  from  !•■«•(  )h" 


H  U  iJi.J.--.«i  iij  1.J.L/  ul  III. 
nO.Cuohjii-a'iim,  *nJl>jifin  ; 
(romli. 'rhil*t,Tarlii>7,»oJ  I  >» 
ft  uf  JarHO,  Bid  "i'J»l  nf  (I'D  ,.r 


ImliKit  UU» 


•Am  boil  *>i|n*a  that  UealLiHa  naiailili 
il<ni  Bf  llindai4H>.  oKltli  I*  a  mal  wbuki 
i)Mtsii»  MB  bt  morr  Dppnlir  pr^Mc  Vm  w 


WIKMlOe  11  L'XKMKtt'll   llllll  v^iiiiia. 

The  most  extraonliiiary  p»*culiarity  of  13<»o(lliism  i«* 
the  want  of  any  oxistiug  G«»d.  Adoration  or  ri'spcct 
in  niervly  paid  to  the  image  of  Gandama,  who  wa**  a  god 
at  a  former  prriiKl,  but  w  now  annihilated,  or  entered 
into  annihilation.  Gauilama  was  the  son  of  a  king, 
and  born  about  O-fi  years  before  the  commeiieen)ent  of 
our  era.  Me  ha<i  previou*«ly  lived  in  four  hundred 
millions  of  worlds,  and  passed  tlirough  innumerable 
(MuiditiouH  in  each.  In  this  world  he  had  been  almost 
every  sort  of  worm,  fly,  fowl,  tisb,  or  animal,  and  in 
almost  every  grade  and  condition  oi  hunian  life.  Having 
in  the  course  of  these  transitions  attaineil  immense 
merit,  he  at  length  was  born  son  of  the  abovit-named 
king.  The  moment  he  was  born,  he  jumped  upon  his 
feet,  and,  spreading  out  l)is  amis  exclaimed,  *  Now  am 
I  the  noblfKi  of  men  !  This  is  the  last  time  I  shall  ever 
be  born  !'  His  height,  when  grown  up,  was  ninecubits. 
His  ears  were  so  beautifully  long,  as  to  hang  uj)on  hia 
phouldeiii;  his  hands  reached  to  his  knees;  his  tiiigers 
wereof  ef[ual  length  ;  and  with  his  tongue  he  could  touch 
the  end  of  his  nose!  All  which  are  considered  irre- 
fragable pr(N)fH  of  hia  divinity. 

When  in  this  state  his  mind  was  enlarged,  ro  that  lio 
remembered  his  former  conditions  and  existences.  Of 
these  he  rehearsed  numy  to  his  followers.  Five  hun* 
dred  and  fifty  of  these  narrativeshave  been  preserved — 
one  relating  his  life  and  adventures  aa  a  deer,  another 
as  a  monkey,  elephant,  fowl,  i&c.  ice.  The  collection  fn 
called  JJzutf  and  forms  a  very  considerable  part  of  the 
aacred  books.  These  legends  arc  a  fruitful  source  of 
designs  for  Diinnan  paintings.  Of  tlic*se  I  purcha.sed 
peveral,  which  do  but  bring  out  into  vi»iblo  absurdity 
the  system  they  wtuild  illustrate. 

He  became  lifiodh  in  the  thirty-fifth  year  of  his  age, 
and  remained  so  forty-tivc  years,  at  the  end  of  which 
time,  having  performed  all  .sorts  of  meritorious  deeds, 
and  promulgated  excellent  laws,  far  and  wide,  he  ob- 
tained '  nic-ban,'  that  is,  entered  into  annihilation,  to- 
getlier  with  five  hundred  priests,  by  whom  he  had  been 
long  attended.  This  occurred  in  lIindo8tun,about  *23U0 
years  ago,  or  d. c.  5-16*.     At  his  death  he  advised  that, 

ht'uifloa  <ili**viiti7  lim  Iawq    hi«  PMlii^v  niiil  iiitnt***  wbi>iilil  Ha 


suience  mere  is  an  eiepiiant  » 
animal  is  of  immense  height,  a 
head  has  seven  tusks,  and  cac 
each  of  these  tanka  prow  Rcven 
blossoms ;  each  blossom  han 
bears  up  seven  palaces,  ami  i 
nymphs,  or  wives  of  the  king, 
attendants.  Another  elephant 
uzenas  long,  on  which  tlie  kin 
thirty-two  smaller  hcnda,  f. 
princes.  Of  the  pritici{ial  hell 
by  heat,  and  the  other  four  bj 
Not  only  has  the  univci'se  a 
from  eteniitv,  but  also  the  foi 
whether  animals,  men,  or  celt 
from  eternity  Iwen  transmipra 
other,risingor  falling  in  the  sci 
ment,  according  to  the  riegre* 
This  rise  or  fall  in  not  oitlei'vt 
but  is  decided  by  immutable  f 

• 

these  various  forms  of  existeii 
endured  bv  each  soul  is  inraic 
dares  that  the  tears  shed  bv  n 
changes  from  eternity,  are  g»> 
ia  but  a  drop  in  companion  I 
are  declared  to  be  necevsarv  c 
fore  '  the  chief  end  of  man' 
round  of  changes,  and  be  anni 
The  great  doctriiiea  of  thi: 

1.  The  eternal  existence  of  thi 

2.  Metempsychosis.  3.  Nic-l)ai 
apfK^arance,  at  distant  period 
deification  and  subsequent  ami 
ing  of  merit.  Of  the  fir^t  foar 
already  said.  The  last  ia  dk 
embracing  as  it  does  the  wholi 

Merit  consists  in  avoiding  i 
tues,  and  the  degree  of  it  is  th 
hist.  The  sina  which  are  to  I 
in  a  moral  code,  conaiating  of  i 
lawn: — 1.  Thou  alialt  not  kilL 
X  Thou  ahalt  not  commit  adul 


iw 


K    TU. 


>K»I*  ■«<«*    Jl— I..I. 


PAGAN  AND  MAHOMETAN  BELIGIONS. 


nft  lud  enmpanr,  anrl  idlcnrss.    Tli 

4<e  whn 

nie-bau  kra  eautiont^d  tu  nlilior  eorc 

rj,  not 

reeled 

rijvwi,  wit  to  flntler  benef.clor«,  nor  to 

indxlj.'o 

ir  biting  jcslv,  and  diohI  canrully  to  B 

Old  ell- 

il»  uT  the  mind  ircrowilved  into  three  clanei: 
I'll  «e  are  plemwrl  in  thn  pnBseiiiiiun  of  agrce- 
S3.  2.  Vl'hrii  wo  nre  f;ricved  aiid  diH(rn»ed  by 
if,  3,  When  neither  dn  fjoad  thinjpi  gmlil/ 
vil  thingx  diHtre**.    Tlie  laM  is  ibe  bt-M  Mate, 

a  man  is  rapidly  [nvpnring  fur  nic-bnn.  Iii 
e  ii  iH>  kuiall  Tcaeniblance  to  Iho  doctrina  of 
4.  nnd  Home  approach  to  the  Clirixlian  doctrine 
ilness  Tram  tile  world.  Some  of  their  buoka 
II  j;iicid  cnmpaHRonn.  Bueh  as,  that  hnwho  runx 
ul  oiijoynienta  is  like  n  bulterHy  who  fltittem 
eantlle  till  it  falla  in  ;  or  one  who,  by  licking 
uni  ■  knife,  cuts  hiH  tiingue  with  tiio  edf^e. 

Marccty  >  pruliibitiim  of  the  IledoKal  which 
iclioned  by  our  l[<>ly  Script  ures,  and  the  argti- 
iiii'tidiil  to  tliein  are  often  jiut  and  ftircible. 


m  of  tlirr«  kinds: — 1.  Thrtia,  or  the  ohaer- 
all  the  prohibitions  and  prcceiil*,  and  all  duties 
lucibk  frnin  tliem  ;  auch  as  bcnelicento,  gvnlle- 
-tjriiy,  lenity,  forboaranee,  cnnik-rceusion,  vene- 
r  parent!',  lute  to  mankind,  &c.  &c.     2.  Daua, 


patience,  frujcalily,  modpsty,  tito  literal  observance  of 
the  law,  keeping  before  our  eyes  the  four  bIuIcb  into 
which  lit-ing  ereaturm  pass  after  death,  and  meditation 
on  the  liappy  repose  of  uic-ban — these  are  distinguiahed 
rules  for  preaerving  mail  fi-um  wickudnec.' 

I'agfldas  are  innuineralilc.  Jii  the  iiilial>ilr<I  parts 
there  ia  scarcely  a  nioiintniii  peak,  blutT  bank,  or  swrlJ- 
iiig  hill,  without  one  of  thenc  strncliireH  upon  it.  Thoso 
of  I'ecn  and  Sinm  are  all  rurmeil  upon  ono  model, 
Iliongh  the  cornices  and  dceurntiuUK  are  according  to 
the  builder's  ta*te.  In  general  they  are  entirely  wdid, 
having  neither  duor  nc>r  window,  and  ct^ntain  a  deiriiMt 
of  money,  or  Home  sujipOHed  relic  of  Caudnma.  tnim 
the  baae  they  narrow  rnpjdly  to  about  niid-wny,  and 
llien  riw  with  a  long  spire  siirniounied  with  the  oacred 
tee.  Some  of  Ihiwe  ariiund  Ava,  and  especially  thoso 
Pagban,  ore  less  tapering,   and  more  resembling 

.luvely  religioua  bnildinjta.  Some 

inded  to  rnntain  idols,  and  s»m<>  aro  [fir  Ihs 

accommodation  of  worshippers  and  Irsvellens  and  fur 


n-halls. 


g  alms  and  nifcrings.    TbL „    .. 

building  kyoungs,  pagodas,  andzayals  ;  placing    a 
lajpidaH;  making  public  roads,  tanks,  and  wells;    the  chulti 
in-es  for  shade  or  fruit ;  keeping  pota  of  cool  I 
'  tlieway-ahlefnr  theiu-e  of  travellen;f(    '' 
K,  lui'di,  aniiiiuli',  6.e.     3.  Haicana,  or  n  , 
erH,  and  reading  religioua  books, 
dveiln  are  ineritoriuiu  aecurUing  to  the  objects 
1  they  are  bestowed,  and  pro[«K*' — ^  ■    ■"-- 


II  lab 


intended  only  to  alliiril  shelter  for  worxhippers  and  tra- 
veller*.    Some  of  these  are  nitre  aheds,  open  on  alt 
sidrii ;  but  Id  almost  nil  rases  they  are  built  in  a  far 
luorc  durable  and  coktly  innnner  tlian  dweliing-houiiea. 
Every  TillHgi-  has  a  zayal,  where  the  simiiKer  nuiT 
repose  or  »tay  for  iiiany  days,  if  he  please ;  and  iDanf 
-  '"      I  found  them  a  eomfbrtable  lodging-plaee.  Lik* 
>f  HinihicUn,  the^  aru  of  uiiiLpealiaUe 
ilily  in  a  country  destitute  nf  iims,  and  where  every 
ig  I  house  liaa  its  full  complcnient  of  inmates.  Many  ziiyats, 
especially  near  great  ciiies,  are  truly  beaulilul,  and  very 
ly.  Tlie  ceilings  and  pillars  arc  not  only  elHlwrati-ly 
ed,  butomipU'lely  gilded,  and  the  stucco  fluvrH  rival 


11,  &r.  5.  Merehanta  and  the  upper  elaBwa, 
iieccKKlty.  4.  I'riests.  For  alms  of  tho  tim 
!  rewards  are  long  life,  beauty,  strength,  know- 
id  prosperity,  during  a  hundred  transmigrn- 
r  those  of  the  second  claHi,  the  same  during  a' 
IransmigralioiiH ;  for  the  third,  the  same 
en  tliouHuid  1  for  the  fourth,  a  vastly  greater 
but  indetinite,  being  graduated  according  to 
ee  of  sanctity  the  laicticulai-  priests  may  poB- 

lifconrscs  said  to  Iiave  been  delivered  liy  Gau- 
■  given  in  tlie  IJedagnt.  In  these,  the  duties 
a.  children,  hosbaiids,  wives,  teachers,  schoUirs, 
I'es,  ftC/,  arc  drown  out  and  urged  in  a 


In  hoi 


'  of  Ihei 


addnssed  to 


sla< 
whic 

.llowing      . 

slied  pvnsonage,  who  eought 
evil :-, 

w  Ihun,  that  to  keep  from  the  company  of  the 
,  and  ehiKMe  that  of  learned  men ;  to  give  honour 
,  it  is  due  :  to  choose  a  rcNdcnce  proper  to  our 
and  adapted  for  procuring  the  common  wonts 
and  to  maintain  a  prudent  carriage,  are  means 
rvc  a  man  from  evil  doings.  The  eomprehen- 
II  things  that  are  not  evil,  the  exact  knowledge 
■ties  ol  our  station,  and  the  observance  of  niu- 
d  piety  in  out  speech,  are  four  excellent  modes 

nistiTlngR  proper  support  to  p.irenls,  wife,  and 
ly  purity  and  honesty  ni  everj-  action,  by  aling- 
»  observing  the  divine  preccpw,  and  by  auccour- 
:ions,  we  may  be  preserved  from  evil,  liy  hucIi 
m  from  bulls,  that  not  even  the  inferii 


'  affection  for  Ihoi 


,  bya 


tling  drink,  by  th 
of  works  of  piety,  by  showing  reapectfulness, 
',  and  sobriety  before  all,  and  gntitade  to  our 
OTs;  and,  finally,  by  listeniug  oftaa  to  the 
ig  of  the  word  of  God,  we  overcome  evil  ineli- 
and  keep  ounelves  far  from  ain.  Docility  in 
g  the  admonition*  of  good  men,  frequent  visits 
lbs  ■ptritqal  oanfereners  on  the  divine  Uws, 


marble  in  hardness  ai 

Worshii 
assemble  D 


collocti 


v.lhoi 


bia 


bis  offerings  and  recilea  his  prayers  alone.  No  prii 
oliicialc ;  no  union  of  voice  Is  attempted.  On  arrin 
at  the  pagoda,  or  image,  the  worshipper  walks  n 
rently  to  within  a  convenient  distance,  and  laying 
offeringon  the  ground,  sits  down  behind  it,  on  liiski 
and  heels,  and  placing  the  palm*  of  hlK  liaiid*  togMbrr. 
raises  them  to  his  forehead,  and  perhaps  leans  forward 
till  hi*  head  tc^iches  the  ground.  This  U  Called  the 
riirko.  Ho  then  utters  his  piayer*  in  it  low  lune,  occa- 
sionally howing  as  before ;  and  having  tiuial led,  rises  and 
carries  forward  hli'  gift,  laying  it  somewhere  in-ar  tho 
idol  or  jiagoda.  Some  proceed  firvt  to  one  of  the  great 
bells  which  hang  near,  and  strike  several  limes  with 
one  of  the  deer's  horns  which  always  lie  beneath.  When 
one  goes  alone,  this  is  aelJoni  oinitlcd.  There  are  four 
set  days  in  every  lanor  month  on  which  the  piniple 
assemble  in  greater  nimibcrs  at  the  pagodas  to  offer 
their  individual  prayers.  These  daj-a  are  at  the  new 
and  full  moon,  and  seven  days  after  each  i  so  that  some- 
times their  Sabbath  occura  after  seven  days,  and  soma- 


■s  after 


light. 


icreditary  race. 


Hood  hist  priests 
Any onomay beeomeaprioHt,  and 
any  priest  may  return  to  n  secular 
life  at  pleasure.    Thousands,  in 

the  least  rrproai'li.  tin  becom- 
ing a  priest,  a  yellow-  robe  ie  as- 
sume<l,  and  celibacy,  with  nume- 
rous moniheations,  is  enjoined. 
Tlieir  ofHce  may  be  colled  a  sine- 
cure,  as  they  seldom  preach  or 
perform  any  service,  except  teach- 
ing and  giving  speeial  religious 
advice.  They  are  of  different  de- 
grees of  rank,  and  subiiisl  entirely  <^ 
on  the  contributions  of  Iho  people.  ~ 
Their  number  is  very  great.  Ava, 
with  a  population  of  -2UU,0UO,  haa  -20,1100  prieats. 

lu  point  of  moral  obligation,  and  the  iuctdcation  of 
[mrity  of  life,  }toodlii>ni  ia  inlinilely  anperior  to  Hin- 


CIlAMnKRS-S  INFORMATION  FOn  THE  PKOPLK- 


cliinlni.  Il  lm»  no  myUwlogy  o(  «l»ceii«  and  forooi'niB 
diilids  nu  BMiaiiinajfy  or  impurp  abBcrvanem,  a»  mK- 
iulUeted  tartum,  no  IvramiiiivK  prwalhood,  no  «iin- 
fMuidinil  uf  t'vM  WkI  wrong,  by  lUHking  crrtiuo  inl- 
nmliim  Uudftbfc  in  wonsliip.  In  iu  moral  o»|l'^  iM 
ilMerliMioiW  of  the  puritfanU  |k*co  at  tUo  firrt  iLgvii,  uf 
UlB  tbnrlmuig  o(  nmn'B  life  boraune  "f  din  oui",  &C-.  il 
iwcms  to  hate  fallowed  ({cnutiie  Iradilifimi. 

At  tlie  Mune  Uiiw.  we  oiuit  reguii  Bwiilbiuii  with 
unnuwaurw)  repmbMion,  it  wu  g-iDqsrn  it,  nol  witli 
OCLer  f»liu>  rel'gioni,  but  with  trutti.  ]U  aiUn  baw 
il  tttlw.  1 1  in  kuiJt.  not  on  lovo  tn  Ood.  nor  «e 
[o  mkii,  bol  on  pciwukl  jmrit.  It  rIIuwk  «vil 
balwtwul  "Wl  gond.  W  •  "^  *'■'=''  '^»*"  ■>" 
h1«i1uw  at  A  tnflr.  tt>  bIimIco  to  S  pagoda,  or  . 
Ilixrcr  lo  tho  iiM,  or  feed  tba  pilosts,  or  cet  a 
004^  WKtnr  by  iIm  ■oynl'lo.  U  uip|iuwd  to  ounwl 
iLludr  of  vilw-  'Fhc  buUdins  of  «  kyoong  or  (ogw^  *i" 
oulHiwgli  lioormoui  erimiw,  »iid.  Been™  prwpBrily  d" 


■gVt  I 


M terroTB,  for 


In  TliiWl,  iMUry,  unj  oilier  (i»i-U  of  craiti»l  Aaln, 

inliiUiited  by  tbe  Mniig»li»o  ""»,  Uoodl.tion  unit 

diffuruul  form  and  ujuii»,  b<-iii(|  luorc  t,  roligiuii  of  , 

hW  in  iJio  ciuKiiiual  ncraooal  prrwncfl  uf  a  ■iii>rgiiiu 
QpET  fbla  brancli  ol  Jjeodhinn,  as  it  U  bolieved  tu  Iw, 
ia  oMialJy  calltJ  LunmiiBi,  the  word  Lama  liwrally 
wEuifyiiig  priiit.  l>ik«  Roudliiam,  tliia  religioa  acknoW' 
X<iiff»  no  Ditrnali  KK-oxintant  beiag.  The  idala,  to  tbi 
number  o(  a  hitn>li'«il  aud  eight,  ace  ivpreaeiitaUvca  ol 
crcatwl  \i»\ag»,  wlio  MMndttl  into  the  rank  of  gai'. 
btfore  the  prukont  wucid  wu  created,  ou  account  o: 
tiwir  Lnliiimw.  Tho  chief  god  ii  Sbigemooui,  who  ap- 
jieaired  !u  tUv  world  fur  tlic  last  time  ■  Uiouniid  ynn 
httoTt  Uie  ChrutinD  era,  and  tJieu  imtitntwl  Xjiouiim, 
with  a  visiblo  living  r»pi-«»a"Uli»e  or  appearai 


UM  of  (lia  kenri,  knd 

reoard  to  any  ihinK.    If  he 

ibelteiem  au4  i^r  irril-«rt*«Ml 

r  oemplninl.     Mv-  kunntitiH 

tic  baU>  ol 

TQany  superalilkjua  praartnrw  ;  but  It  b 

Jl(  inaili!  rr«a  liia  cxenuBuit  *rv  dHtnnaa 

rTfd  in  Eiddon  boxaa,  aod  vicu  miied  nU>  i 
of  Tunil.  Uu  lumur  «aa  ooim  errsin-  itam  iti 
ant)  Iw  appointed  and  depoaad  Um  khansi  \jml, 
wnthaltdcpiindentonlli*  Hinpervr  of  Onah d 
Ilie  llUer,  In  a  rclli^iu  l«*pr«i.  «•  wahfff»t4  i 
Two  UkinMc  mandarini^  wiih  a,  K^rriaua  al  l» 
nom,  aro  mainiaiinid  iu  bio  oapitial,  sod,  ha  th> 
at  IVkin.  tin  Cliinrw  EmpDTor  aap^Nrta  a  mim 
Lama,  who  U  wut  w  a  uiuieiu  fro«u  'I'hilMi. 

V/bm  tba  UaUi-Jjtma  ilinv  to  ta  Ibm  ■■« 
diiMitor  wbf»  bia  npint  liiu  ehnacn  Ut  bra  had 
la  tiiin  cow  all  Diaat  aubnli  to  U>a  opiaiooif  ' 
111*  l,aiiuus  yt"!  alone  an  acqaalntrd  villi  the  ■ 
whivh  he  luay  be  known,  or,  nilicr,  wlw  kM 
nhild  tlto  dconaed  boa  appmitlMl  fur  hia  aa 
'L'lio  nerahippen  of  Ihr  Lauta  ara  ili*idr4,  ■■  i 
into  two  BMU,  known  by  Ui*  littaa  «f  iba  yrJ 
mi  oapi,  Uaeb  awl  in  iimUr  thr«w  I,  a—i  -,  • 
nior  ia  undn-  tha  Ilalai,  Tmhoo  iir  Buna's  «a 
iiaut  Lanuta ;  LUe  btltvr,  under  tho  Ibn*  aha 
Tb»  Dalai-Lama  ia  the  moat  dl«iiitHialM<l  «<  i 
iiaxt  to  liiiu  i*  the  Tevaluw-l^aai^  nbo  riwaMa  i 
aliuii'l.uuuibau.  tm  daya'  )iHinicy  fmsi  I 

time  ahamniara  dwell  tn  fvpM**'~ ' 

diallngutahcd  of  wliicb  u  al  Taa 
Ouoiao.  buburilinak-  to  Ihnn  aiw  u<unD»|a 
dilfeivnt  rauka,  wile  an  tipld  (■  grmU  rwtpn 
supeciiKvod  inatfiMliiHi,  mm!  fona  of  leliMB  li 
alalfl  uf  «nliba«y,  aceiiiilLOi  to  cerlara  raiaB.  M 
ibuHof  the  Chrisliau  luouka.     At   Ijaaaa  akai 


LaiiiB  ex 
diately  li 


J.:nilo,id  and  in 


te  of  d: 


lc.,l,lhat> 
lure,  I 


I  spirit  i 


IS  otlier  body  in  a  super- 

piouato  oiquiroiuta,  and 

id  ouly  cumprcheuded  by  ll>u  atleodaut  prie^l«.  In 
point  of  fact,  the  religion  which  iticulcaleu  IbisaliBurdily 
ia  idol  worship  under  a  diiTorBnt  aame,  the  idut  being  a 
livinB  creature  inntead  uf  an  iuuiiiaaM  objeol,  as  in 
ordinary  psgiiDiiini;  and  the  whole  ayateni  seeina  to 
liavo  been  devised  in  order  to  support  a  numerous  boat 
cif  pricHlB  and  rtligioua  eelablitilimeiiU. 

Dalai-Lnma,  or  llio  Grand  Luina,  is  nt  the  head  of 
botli  eccleaiaxtical  and  aeuular  affairx  iu  'I'liibet,  which 
may  be  conaidered  a  theocratical  alAtc.  TLie  uaual  r^^ 
aidenoe  of  the  Dalai-Lunw  la  in  two  monasteries  aitualcd 
in  the  vicinity  of  the  capital,  Lasu,  in  each  of  which 
he  dwells  alternately.  He  ia  aurrouuded  in  every  di- 
trcclon  by  a  "vaat  number  of  pvieata ;  but  no  woman  ia 
pinnittt-d  to  pass  the  nighl  in  the  butldm;j  when  he 
lodges.  ThiBOrisva,  undoubtedly,  from  tho  purity  which 
is  attributed  la  him,  fur  he  Ucalled  the  imniiculalt.  'J'he 
native«,a.wellMagreaterowdofroreigner»(rorallthe 
Mongol  tribes  in  Russia  acknowledge  Tiim).  uuderti.Iie 

'  ■■  ''-  " -    irder  to  pay  their  homage  to 

ng.  He  Tcecivoi  then t  Billing 
I  a  largo  and  Bplcndid  6cal, 
B  Tartars,  next  Iu  the  inlui- 
liegrcaUmtrevBreaee,  They 


.  a  kind  of  altar,  u| 
with  his  legs  eroned. 
hilants  of  Thibet,  pay  hii 


1  fro] 


n-gione 


and  till 


n^pevt  than 
aa  their  people. 


otlier^Mbmit  to  me  aotue  eervi 

He  BalultB  im  one,  narer  qnoovi 

liefon  no  one,  and  ia  aatiafied 

upon  the  brad  of  liia  warshipper, 

haa  Ihrrehy  obtained  the  pardon  of  hia  dI 

ahippera  ^llcve  llial  the  auprBmc  divinity  livsa  in  him, 

(IWI  h«  tnnn*  and  kts  i-fery  thing  in  (he  decpoet  rc- 


o  beliavuB  that  he 


raady  adverlal  It 


a  belief  m  tbe  o: 


•  God. 


roligi"! . 

Muuriiih  atatn,  Torkey,  Perua,  uid  U  ti 

lltU.OUU.OUU  of  fallewsta,  originated  in  Anl^ 
brpnning  of  the  acrenth  eentury  uf  lite  Cbnrtia 
Al  lhi»  period,  eaatern  eountriM  were  in  a  caaA 
receive  u  new  and  ligoroualy  oondaeied  tuiwafdti 
belief.     The  scatlared  bnuicbea  ol  the  ChriaaiMii 

and  had  adopted  the  wildest  liereaies  and  eapatB 
They  were  engaged  in  perpetual  rrntrriTiriiaa.  ■ 
Iu  pieoea  by  tha  diBpute*  uf  tlie  Ariui^  SkMUbs 
loriana,  and  Kutychiam  ;  whilat  tba  bidwiij,  th> 
lincncc,  and  generiLl  barbariara  and  ij|,i  i  n  i  lira 
wen  to  be  found  nmongil  the  riergy,  eaaaed 
Bcaudal  la  the  Cbriatiaii  religion,  and  inlrad— 
vereolprafligaoy  of  manner*  anongia  tbepaayla, 
CliriBtianity,  in  tha  mauner  it  was  abuavd  In' 
lightenud  fulloweni,  waa  of  lliUa  a*wl  in  omlU 
Aaiatica,  while  llie  religion  of  the  Jewa  wiaa  Mi 
cuniparaiive  inaiguilicancc,  and  whila   { 


that  the  An^cl  Oubriel  liad  ajtpcareil  to  him  in  ghiry, 
nml  Heclaro'l  that  God  liad  conimJKsioneil  liim  as  an 
ap(»sti'j  to  r«?forin  tlie  world ;  that  he  then  drlivrred  to 
him  the  Koran  /or  a  dirhic  iaif,  which    F<huiild  cnm- 

{'thtf  all  antccodciit  ri'velatiuns.  Khadijah  gained  for 
)cr  hu>haiid  nil  ini]>ortnnt  prosrlyto  in  her  uncle 
AV.inikri,  a  Chrisiian,  who  was  well  road  in  tho  Old 
and  Now  TestamontM.  lie  pronounred  Maiiomet  " /o 
bv  the  preat  prophet  foretold  by  Moses  the  f^fni  of 
Amrnm.'*  It  iK  much  more  probablf^  tliat  Waraka  was 
t\w  assistant  of  Mahomet  in  oomptisini;  the  Koran  than 
Sfraius  the  monk,  <»r  any  other  j»orson. 

'J'he  next  proselyte  was  Ahubekor,  a  rich  and  re- 
spectable inhabitant  of  Mecca;  and  his  example  bein;; 
followed  bv  inanv  otherp,  Mahomet  ventured  un  a 
bolder  demonstration  uf  his  misnion.  At  a  numerous 
n"scmblHf;e  of  the  Koreishites  at  a  public  entertain- 
ment to  which  he  Iiad  invited  them,  he  demanded  who 
would  be<»ome  hi!4  viziej',  or  ]u-inm  minister,  assuring 
them  that  both  happin(>ss  in  this  world  and  in  that  to 
com(*  would  accrue  to  his  folhiwers.  The  j^uests  re- 
inaini-d   silent    in  surprise,  when  Ali,  the  sfin  of  Abu 


tr 


Taleb,  a  \nt\  about  fourteen  years  of  age,  started  up 
c-nthuhiastieally,  and  said,  *'  I  will  be  thy  vizier,  oil 
l^ntphcr  lit  trod  !  I  will  break  the  teeth,  pluck  out  the 
eyes,  rip  up  the  belly,  cut  ott  the  le«;s  of  thine  enemies." 
^'he  jiiy  and  appnival  testified  by  Alahomet  to  the  zeal 
of  bis  youthful  disciple,  was  an  apt  and  early  specimen 
what  manner  of  spirit  he  and  his  deputy  were  of.  The 
hostile  procee<1in;;s  and  denunciations  of  tlie  prophet 
npiinst  their  iddatry,  at  len(rth  anmscd  the  enmity  of 
tlie  Koreishitt^  ;  but  their  threats  were  despised  by  him, 
and,  in  reply  to  the  prudent  remonstrances  of  his  uncle 
Abu  Talidi,  he  exclaimed,  "  Though  the  Koreishites 
fihould  arm  against  me  the  sun  and  the  moon  (alhidinj; 
to  till?  divinities  whom  they  i^norantly  worshipped),  the 
one  on  my  ripht  hand,  and  the  <»ther(m  my  left,  I  would 
not  bo  shaken  from  my  rest)hjtion."  He,'  however,  re- 
tii*ed  for  a  while  to  a  castle  in  Mount  .Sjifa,  and  his  fol- 
lowers wei*e  banished  from  the  city  of  Mecca.  After 
this  persi>cution,  which  lasted  five  years,  in  tho  tenth 
year  of  his  missiun  (a.o.  uni),  he  sustained  a  serious 

1  ;..   .1.        I    ...1. 


to  the  throne  of  God,  which  was  in  thi 
Gabriel  loft  him  at  the  entrance  of  if,  ai 
returned  from  cimvcrsinj;  with  Gi>d,  wl 
otter  to  be  next  himself;  but  he  rather  < 
aj;;ain  to  the  earth  to  pnipagate  hisrcliKi- 
were  all  500  years'  journey  distant  f  re 
One  was  of  siU'er,  another  uf  C'dii,  aniTtl 
&c.,  and  tlio  labt  of  light,  lie  met  b 
patriarchs  or  prophets  in  each  of  the 
lie  met  and  diecoursed  with  Adam  ;  in  < 
John  the  Daptiht  and  Jesus;  in  the 
patriarch  Joseph  ;  in  the  fonrtii,  with  J 
in  the  fifth,  with  Aaron  ;  in  the  sixtli, 
the  seventh,  with  Abraham.  Tht'iire 
up  to  Serirat^  the  lotus  tree,  whence  w 
of  the  four  rivers  of  Paradise.  He  aa 
likenesses  of  all  creatures  in  these  ]w: 
a  ^eat  bull  bearing  the  earth  on  hi**  h 
he  shook  his  head  thero  was  an  eartl 
was  also  a  cock,  which  stood  on  on«'  1 
head  reached  another  ;  his  voice  wa« 
heaven  and  earth,  and  set  all  the  coc 
crowing.  He  saw  an  angel  of  such  t^ta 
was  70,000  days'  journey  between  h\»  * 
portion  of  a  man's  height  to  the  di^tai 
eyes  is  as  seventy-two  to  one  ;  t«n  thai  1 
then  have  been  14,000  years*  jnuniey, 
height  of  all  his  heavens  together,  ii 
quite  out  of  his  mathematics.  In  the  i 
where  God  and  Chri-tt  were,  was  an  ar 
heads ;  and  in  each  head  70,0iiu  ton:n' 
he  praised  God.  Gabriel  acconipanietl 
heav^en  to  Jerusalem,  and  from  thence 
with  the  beast  Alborak,  to  Mecca;  ai 
done  in  the  tenth  part  of  a  night.  In 
of  this  extraordinary  fabrication,  he  ski 
when  he  was  enjoined  to  n*peat  fifty  pr 
ho  entreat'Hl  for  his  nation,  and  they  ^ 
duced  at  his  intercession  to  five.  To  tin 
he  was  returned  back  to  the  C'aaha  erp 
him  to  prayers ;  and  **  thus,"  concluded 
1  bring  with  me  the  prescrilied  number 


X  tliB  )-rvpl>*(,  "  ^  'I 


tialm,  iliii  fitil  /i  KUtionirt'a  lutilnh  mm 
rBtlw*Mi»ul)rkre(<l»llrj<n,inr*r4kaM*li»- 


jiliif  lUUU  utiUicU,  lldlll  Ullall,  li'-UI  0)11*1  anil 
iirdnl  turn  lIliiaifliMul(«n>ikii4bith4lvaPi% 
titin)(  tliuu  to  lurtlicr  ajmiM  I13  ills  kUnw 
jf  »nllh  and  th«  I«')t  nf  ;i|"ir<1-T. 


Mpi«atBlil*(b'--.i  .HI'S 

iknl  l>r  U*  ar4w>.    <  .     ^uU 

mm  h*  nnlnWrnm  [  '  '  .     .  1  u-  iif 

nmnlnv  tfaia  iniTi>iM.  xlnvli  >j  I'^llr-j  \,j  tht 
t  aatml,  ar  klma,  aail  iW  paying  of  akck  fca 
•dWIir  lU'la  «•  mala  artMln  at  hi*  nlntai }  and 
itij  atifivif,  a  fiflh  |«rt  irf  tha  tiluaJir  l»  taa 
t  tfiM  iti*  tmhliB  liwaaiin  far  IM  pBtpiii^.  in 
mattar  ha  UkawUi  |ml*aJnl  lu  ad  lij  llia4wM> 

Aiw  TMm,  l>7  tha  Riecoa  rf  Ilia  ann^  be  »■»■ 
'If  raUnl  111*  )'iapWtla  tliancor  aait  puvar. 
■laUi  *nar  W  Uiu  llrltra,  liv  wl  nt  •nUi  14^4 
(lidl  Uiv  Uiujilf^  of  tlsTVa,  •>«  vhtt  Uft  !!■(*•• 
aannuttiaa  hnvtUiUn,  bnl  bi  a  p<«<;i«Wf  ■■•■• 
:l«*itMr,  *lini  In  «mi«  to  AI  Hixl«k«ta,  vhlnli 
lad  parth  siUiin  u«  pMIjr  >Uh"ul  liw  luiMl 
7,  U>*  hisMtb  nart  Mi  (H  bim  kw*  Uul  tb>7 
M  pemh  Iwni  (n  •nlav  M«Rfk  uilns  ho  ftiml 
r  r  ■fci— 1^11  li"  nXiti  hi*  Irwp*  •^.■■i  lu™. 
1;  aU  Mwh  a  anlim  wtb  of  Wl^  v 
Bd  ha  xtwivnl  Id  ainatli  iba  «U(  ; 
— *■>«  ira*  Eta  M»»--^   — - 


nnci>  nf  Ins  luitli,  wrre  ratineu  Huusi>qiientiy  on  cue 
hiil  El  Siifa.  llnviiij;  vi^itvd  tlie  lioiy  liiiiliiinf?  of  the 
Cnnl>a,  and  bn>k<»ii  in  pii'Cfj*  the  idois  ulien.'\viili  it  was 
or.circied,  Mahnnu't  wi-nt  in  procession  i^fven  tinn'S 
round  the  building,  niul  touched  respectfully  thi>  black 
Btono  which  wns  held  mered  by  the  AiTibs ;  then  ««nter- 
inp  the  editice,  he  repeated  the  fonnuiary,  **  d'od  is 
grettt.^*  Aftrrwards  he  \»-ent  to  the  woll  /onizom — 
which  is  belifved  by  them  to  be  the  same  that  thv  unf^ol 
Khowed  to  Il:igar— drank  of  the  w^ter,  an<l  pt^rfurnied 
the  required  ablution.  Artfully  blending  attention  to 
exterior  observances  with  zeal,  and  purKuin<;  a  mixed 
svKteni  of  mercy  and  rifi^our,  he  subdued  the  hearts  of 
his  hii;h-niinded  countrymen,  and  soon  bUficradded  to 
his  claims  fif  power  the  more  imposing  and  indissoluble 
bonds  of  KupertftitiouH  reverence  and  awe.  Tliecajiture 
of  Mecca,  and  the  submission  of  the  powerful  race  of 
the  Koreish,  was  K(»on  followed  by  the  conversion  to 
Islamism  of  most  of  the  remoter  pagan  tribes,  until  all 
Arabia  bowed  the  neck  beneath  his  yoke. 

Mahomet,  having  thus  biHrome  master  of  all  Arabia, 
made  great  preparations  for  the  conquest  of  Syria  ; 
but  this  vast  enterprise  was  resert'ed  for  his  successors, 
lie  gradually,  however,  paved  the  way  for  their  suc- 
cesses, and  brought  tho  celebrated  region  of  Arabia 
into  one  complete  and  powerful  union.  Ilee^tablifrhed 
tlie  law  which  still  obtains  in  all  the  Mussulman  states, 
of  imposing  a  personal  tax  on  bueh  subjects  as  do  not 
embrace  Islaniism.  liy  this  custom,  still  sulisisting 
anioi.,r;  nil  the  sovereigns  who  acknowledge  the  Koran, 
every  rt- puted  infidel  juys  a  kharaj,  or  capitation- tax, 
over  and  above  the  imposts  which  he  supports  equally 
with  the  rest  of  the  subjects.  ]  le  absolutely  prohibited 
all  idolators  from  making  the  pilgrimage  to  Mecca,  or 
any  foreigner  from  entering  the  Caaba,  under  ]>aiii  of 
death.  These  wero  strokes  of  profound  policy.  He 
retained  the  pilgrimago  to  Mecca,  which  nad  been  of 
ancient  standing  among  the  descendants  of  Abraham 
and  Ishmael.  Though  he  destroyed  the  images  used 
at  Mecca  as  objects  of  idolatrous  worship,  he  csirefully 
retained  the  holy  relics  of  the  black  stone  and  the  s-up- 
fiofled  impression  of  Abraham's  foot.  The  black  ^tone 
had  bi'en  inimemoriaily  venerated  then* ;  ti:e  ang«>!>-, 


tiie  close  of  ins  extraordinarv  and  fur 
I  lis  health  had  been  for  thrvc  ▼earn  o 
but  he  had  neither  relaxed  his  duiie*  ti< 
lleing  at  length  affected  with  a  mortal  n 
couvevcd  to  the  houiH.'  of  his  favourite 
where  he  expired,  in  the  olevontli  year 
(a.i>.  (J.3*J),  in  the  sixty-lirst  year  of  hi 
his  wives,  the  first  alone  bore  luni  any  chi 
only  Ilia  daughter  Fatinia,  wife  ot  Aii,  m 

Having  Uius  presented  a  }>k' tvh  of  t 
remarkable  man,  we  proceed  to  n  notice 
which  he  founded.     As  alreadv  men  tic 
must  be  viewed  chieHv  iu  the  li;:l.t  of  a 
the  old  modes  of  belief  and  pr:tctiet*  nf 
and  his  merit  (if  we  may  so  call  it)  in  i 
}>ears  to  liavo  been  the  eombiniiij;  of  a 
gious  opinions  into  one  form  of  faitli,  s 
implicit  belief  in  his  own  prophetical 
enunciating  the  whole  uf  his  code   in  1 
the  Koran.     At  the  {loriod  of  his  deati 
character  both  of  a  divinely  apfioin ted 
of  a  secular  prince,  the  latter  being  cain 
quests  ;  and  his  succehM)rs  eluiined  ihi 
<iualificatif>n.     After  the  )>ruphet*»  di-ei 
tion  of  a  succesEor  occasioned  cons  id  era  I 
his  father-in-law  Abubeker,  and    hU   t 
c<»usin  AH,  carh  claiming  the  ctiicc  of 
beker  was  finally  successful  in  the  ciiinpi 
as  is  known  to  the  readers  of  hibtury,  wa< 
the  ferocious  Umar.     Ali   bi-canio'the 
but  he  was  summarily  cut  off  by  poison  : 
long  contests  which  aftt-rwards  uecurrci 
to  say  in  what  line  tlie  caliphate  waa  ulcii 

The  Koran,  or  pi-escrilxMl  record  of  ti 
faith,  consists  of  114  chnpters,  each  « 
title,  but  varying  in  length  frum  a  : 
to  se%'eral  pages.  No  mntinuous  tubjei 
to  run  through  the  work,  each  eliapiei 
form  either  of  a  separate  revelation,  or 
peculiar  matter  in  faith,  muraU,  tr  law, 
titles  to  the  various  chapters,  uc  find  tin 
The  Cow  :  the  Family  of  Imran  ;  Wome! 
•Jonas:  «)<>j:e|>h  ;  Abraham;  Ti:f  Nisht  . 


a  unfrannlrii  jir  *uuA  n  tciiuns,  mial 
iMn  *li*U  la.nr  laii  iluvn  tiieir  kiiiu.  tVa 
du."— 4-'IUD.  sl*ii  Prum  Kumaraiu  iuh^b 
i-ia-i,  tl>«  Maln'OivUna  tiii*e  fni>1>*d  Ul«  ItfIeI 
liun  d(  llnte  bi'Utit— "  Tlisn  i*  n«  liod  Init  Gud. 
J  wl'iiili  b  mar 


bg  bto  rulh  in  tlx' 


i..r.«-i,-Jri. 


-,  *ilbifiij;li  II  _ 
:  ind  it  H  klln»>a  (hit  Uin 
•■i-'a  ti»fm  (u  BiMta  thai 


;;riH's  of  hiiiin'rs.  TIk'  fii-st  i.s  (U-htiiu'tl  ti»  n-rrivo  liit* 
wicki'il  Malioii]ctuns,  tho  .soeoiul  for  tin'  «)ews,  tlie  thinl 
f(»r  tlio  Christians,  and  I  Ik*  rt-st  for  oilier  st'cta  uiul  nii- 
bclii»viTs.  (.)vcr  ihose  will  ha  \Ain.'vd  nin«-tocri  ang<"is, 
ti>  wliDin  tlu>  c(»iiilt.'iinii:il  will  coiifi'ss  l\\vt  justnt:ss  iif 
(IimI's  si-ntrncr,  and  bt-jj  thi'iii  tn  iiitrroc-do  with  liiiu 
in  tht.-ir  lu-haif.  The  pimir'hnu'Mt  uf  iiiliiifls  will  Ik^ 
cuntintii'd  for  ever,  hut  wicked  Mahonietun!!)  will  be  re- 
le.i.M'il  aftrr  a  cenaiii  jK-riud  of  MiMerinj;. 

IJefiTe  enti'i-in;;  jiara<lis«',  the  rflJhleuUM  will  drink  at 
the  piind  i>f  Mahomet,  whieli  isMipplied  witli  water  from 
the  rivrrs  {>{  para'iise.  It  is  dew ri bed  as  a  montli's 
j.nirnrv  in  eomiiafv*,  and  wli(»ever  dritdcs  o\'  tlu*  water 
will  tliir.st  no  more.  It  is  a  matter  of  keiMi  dispute 
whether  paradise  is  aln-ady  eri^ated,  many  snpposini: 
that  it  will  be  dill'erent  from  the  ])anulise  in  whieh 
Adam  was  jdaeed.  The  more  orthodox  opinion,  how- 
ever, i^,  that  il  la  the  same,  and  that  it  was  ereaied 
before  tho  world.  It  is  huppii»<i-il  to  In;  situati'd  above 
the  se\en  hravrns,  immediately  under  the  thri'ine  of 
tiod,  and  is  ile>erihed  as  a  jilaee  of  j^reat  beauty.  The 
trunk**  "f  the  trees  are  of  /i^olil,  one  at'  which,  the  tree 
of  iiappiness,  will  yii-ld  all  boris  of  fruit  fur  the  con- 
^sumpti•ln  of  true  believui-s. 

<tod*s  ab.-olute  decree  and  predestinatimi  of  bi-th 
:;ot>d  and  e>il,  is  a  doctrine  whidi  Mahonu-t  alwavs 
took  occasion  to  impress  upon  his  followers,  lie  said 
that  <'od  had  not  only  predet<-rmin(>d  the  adver^e  or 
]lro^perou^  t\»rtune  of  every  pi'Vson  in  tho  worhl,  but 
:il.»o  his  faith  or  infulelity,  which  fate  it  is  impo^.^ible 
by  any  fi»re-i:;ht  to  avoid.  Hy  this  iloctrine,  Maluimet 
taught  his  followers  to  have  the  greatest  contempt  for 
dani^or,  \\hich  \ias  of  niateriul  bcrvice  to  him  in  the 
propagation  of  his  creed. 

Uf  the  four  points  of  relijjions  praclice  require«l  by 
the  Koran,  prayer  is  the  tir>i.  Mahomet  included  under 
this  act  puritieations  of  the  body,  by  total  immersion 
at  certain  periods,  an<l  by  wa>hin;^  tho  face,  hands,  and 
fi'et,  at  4ither-i.  To  make  his  followers  punctual  in  the 
observance  of  these  purit'icatiims,  .Mabonii't  declared 
that  the  practice  of  r(-li;;ion  is  founded  on  cleanliness, 
witliiiut  uhicii  pravcr  wnuld  nut  bt*  hcarti  bv  t.!."!.     A 


tice  of  Mahometans.  Those  consist  o 
corn,  fruits,  and  wares  which  can  be  t^t: 
of  the  fast  of  the  Kamadan.  every  Mabd 
to  j|;ive  in  alms,  for  himself  and  U'T  k 
family,  a  measure  of  wheat,  barley,  liai 
or  other  jirt»vihion*.  **  Tho  leijal  aim*;, 
*•  were  at  Jii*st  collectetl  bv  .Mahiiiuet  )i 
ployed  then]  afl  he  thought  fit  in  t)io  n 
relations  and  t'ollower^,  but  cbieHy  app 
maintenance  of  those  who  >erved  in  his  \ 
as  he  termed  it,  in  the  way  of  Ciod. 
continued  to  do  tho  same,  till,  in  proof: 
taxes  and  tributes  bein;^  imptiscd  fur  th 
j;overnnient,  they  seem  to  iiave  be«.ii 
as  almoners  to  their  subj--et>,  anil  t<.i  Ii: 
I  inu  of  them  to  their  consciences.'' 
!  Fast  in;»  is  the  third  puint  ol  relijii  lU^  j. 
tlhr  Mahometans.  It  con>ists  in  iibst.ii: 
fyinj;  the  appetites  ;  in  ifstrainin;;  the  ea 
hands,  feet,  and  <ither  nicnil>ers,  from  s 
inj»  of  the  heart  from  worldly  carts,  ; 
ni'ihin;;  but  (iiui.  Purin;;  tho  ni"iilli  .< 
.Mahomet:ins  ai*o  oblii^ed  to  fast  Iroiii  tl 
moon  first  appears  till  the  appearunce  i 
mo(«n.  In  tiiis  month  they  abstain  fi 
drirdving  from  daybreak  till  »unset  ;  i\u> 
they  observe  sosirictlv,  that  whiif  tbev 
nothing;  tti  enter  their  nuuiths  or  tho  ot 
body,  esteemin;;  the  fast  broki  n  if  they 
bathe,  «»r  even  j)Uri»osely  swailnw  ihei 
(■Id  and  the  sick  are  exempted  fruin  li 
the  case  of  the  l.ittcr,  when  they  rec- 
fast  the  same  number  of  davx.  .VtUM'  su 
are  allowed  to  refre**h  themselves — to 
enjoy  tho  company  «>f  their  wives  liil  c 
more  ri^Id,  however,  commence  the  fa? 
night. 

Accord  in «;  to  tlio  injunctions  «f  t!." 
man  is  to  perfurni  a    pi I;;r intake    to    ) 
his  life,  except   prevented  by  poverty 
It  is  clear  that  such  an  ob-ervanee  i?*  ai 
plicabN'   to  the  condition  and    i-iriin:;!  : 


L«=:viticai  law,  and  also  acqiiumted  witli  the  arrange- 
nicntH  (if  tlie  Clirisiian  cliurcli,  it  is  remarkable  tiiat 
he  instituted  no  order  of  clergy,  but,  on  the  contrary, 
left  his  religion  to  be  professed  by  the  peoi>le  at  large, 
%\ithout  any  di^tinction  as  to  rank  or  qualiiieali<iii.  On 
tlii<i  account,  Maiionietanism  has  no  priesthood,  and 
cannot  bo  naid  to  constitute  in  any  country  what  we 
understand  bv  the  term  church.  Wherever  it  is  esta- 
biished  as  the  religion  of  tiic  comnmnity,  mosfjucs  or 
chapels  have  bi^en  erected,  geneniliy  by  endownients 
front  wcahhy  individuals;  and  these  are  individually 
under  the  charge  of  a  warden,  who  is  custodier  of  the 
revenues,  and  appoints  the  ministers  of  religion  and 
inferior  servants.  *'  Two  imams  are  employed  to  otti- 
ciate  in  each  of  the  larger  mf>sques :  one  of  them,  called 
the  k'haleeb,  preaches  and  \)rays  before  the  congrega- 
tion on  the  Friday ;  the  other  is  an  imam  ratih,  or  ordi- 
nary imam,  who  i-eciles  the  five  prayers  of  every  day 
in  the  mostjue,  at  the  head  of  thoi<e  persons  who  may 
be  there  at  the  exact  times  of  tlu»90  prayers:  but  in 
most  of  the  smaller  moscpies  both  these  offices  are  per- 
formed by  one  imam,  'i'here  are  also  to  each  mopquc 
one  or  more  muezzin*  (to  chant  the  call  to  prayer) 
and  boirwalfg  (or  doorkeepers) ;  and  several  other  ser- 
vants are  employed  to  sweep  the  mosque,  spread  the 
mats,  light  the  lamps,  and  attend  the  water-wheel  by 
which  the  tank  or  fountain,  and  other  receptacles  for 
water,  nccessarv  to  the  performance  of  ablutions,  arc 
supplied.  The  mmms,  and  those  persons  who  perfonn 
the  lower  oflices,  are  all  paid  from  the  funds  of  the 
mosque,  and  not  by  any  contributions  exacted  from  the 
people.  The  condition  of  the  imams  is  very  diJl'erent, 
in  most  resitects,  from  that  of  Christian  |>riebts.  They 
have  no  authority  above  other  persons,  and  do  not  enjoy 
any  respect  but  what  their  reputed  ]iiety  and  learnmg 
may  obtain  them  :  nor  are  thev  a  distinct  order  of  men 
set  apart  for  religious  otliccs,  like  our  clergy,  and  com- 
posing an  indissoluble  fraternity ;  ft)r  a  man  who  has 
acted  as  imam  to  a  mosque  may  be  displaced  by  the 
warden  of  that  mos^jue,  and,  with  his  employment  and 
salary,  Ios«*sthe  title  of  imam,  and  has  no  better  chance 
of  being  again  chosen  for  a  religious  minister  than  any 


titlittr    iii'i-c.iii     nriinni>tt>iit     tn    iiiti-riii'iii     tli<>    i.f1im> 


Tf 


)(• 


ot  the  Almighty,  and  is  suppo«cri  to  I 
natural  powers.  Almost  every  ce 
ct^osed,  is  honoui'cd  by  an  annivei*Mii 
and  on  occasion  of  these  festivals,, 
the  tomb  of  the  saint,  both  as  a  dut; 
means  of  obtaining  a  special  lilti 
various  classes  of  Kiints,  there  arc 
fifiriree*fw*,  or  dervises,  s(»nie  v(  wl 
ging,  and  others  by  performing  at 
a  few  devote  themselves  to  religious 
a  character  for  exalted  piety. 

Mahometanisin,  from  shortly  aft 
founder,  has  been  divided  into  two  gi 
who  split  upon  the  disputes  concer 
or  s))i ritual  and  civil  supremacy,  un< 
of  Sunniti'i  and  Shiiles.  The  Sunnii 
lation  from  the  Sunna,  or  collectit.> 
latiiig  to  Islamism,  which  they  bell 
importance  with  the  Koran.  The  t 
heretics,  which  they  are  c.iUeil  by 
from  their  misbelief.  The  adlierei 
that  Ali,  son-in-law  of  Mahonu-t.  wi 
cesRor,  reject  llie  Sunna.  The  Turl 
the  Persians  are  Shiites,  and  each  I 
implacable  animosity.  The  Sunnit 
reckoned  the  orthodox  sect,  and  aek 
ing  sultan  as  the  true  siicci-ssor  f>f  } 
besides  difVoring  as  to  the  credit 
and  the  sucet'ssorsliip  of  the  pn»ph 
world  is  divided  into  four  minor  sci 
I  ifhaf er;iy  Maliker.\\  and  //hamLe/vct, 
the  rcs'|K*ctive  doctui*s  whiwe  tenets 
*•  The  Turks,"  mys  .Mr  Lane,  **  ai 
;  which  is  the  most  reasosiaMe."'  .\ 
I  last  century  a  great  sciiihin,  or  attei 
'  bntke  ent  in  .\rabia,  headod  bv  Moli 
Wahab,  a  pious  and  learned  sheikh, 
claimed  divine  inspiratinn,  and  tau^ 
(the  doctrines  of  which  he  but  |»ari 
existence  of  an  only  Ciud,  the  Create 
rewarder  of  the  good  and  the  punis 
he  rejected  bH  the  stories  Cfintained 

/•••till-     tllf>^i>    J>a>lt/*J    t'llltlrV     \l  ■!  II.  ■I1<  jif        u 


CHAMBERS'S 

FORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 

CONDUCTED  BY  WILLIAM  AND  ROBERT  CHAMBERS,   EDITORS  OF  CHAMBERS'S 
EDINBURGH  JOURNAL,  EDUCATIONAL  COURSE,   6co 


4a 


New  and  Improved  Series. 


Price  ]^d. 


SUPERSTITIONa 


have  in  all  ages  been  prone  to  the  roost 
BuperstitionB.  The  enlightened  nations  of 
rere  no  more  exempted  from  them  than  the 
•ant.  The  Jews,  as  wo  are  repeatedly  in- 
dcripture,  could  with  difficulty  be  restrained 
trous  and  superatitiotis  practices,  and  con- 
!  worship  and  service  of  the  only  true  God. 
rkable  tendency  of  the  Hebrew  nation  was 
hu()d  caused  by  their  sojourn  for  the  space 
mdred  years  among  the  E^ptians,  whose 
>m  of  religion  was  a  mass  ^  idolatrous  ob- 
They  had  a  number  of  ideal  gods  to  whom 
d  temples  of  prodigious  size  and  architectural 
,  the  principal  of  these  deities  were  Osiris 
hich  are  thought  to  have  been  typical  of  the 
3on.  But  they  also  offered  worship  to  various 
I  the  ox  or  bull  (hence  the  golden  calf  of  the 
to  which  they  gave  the  name  of  Apis ;  tho 
>1f,  the  hawk,  the  ibis  or  stork,  the  cat,  and 
tures;  they  likewise  paid  adoration  to  the 
nifying  it  in  the  crocodile,  to  which  temples 
ed,  and  priests  set  apart  for  its  service.  The 
notwithstandins;  their  learning,  also  believed 
,  lucky  and  unlucky  days,  omens,  charms. 
In  a  word,  they  were  grossly  superstitious, 
/}  have  had  but  a  feeble  conception,  if  any, ' 
I  which  regulate  the  ordinary  phenomena  of 

urdities  of  Egyptian  superstition  formed  a 
hat  followed  among  the  Greeks  and  Romans, 
>  idea  of  an  omnipresent  and  omnipotent  God, 
*  and  ruler  of  the  universe.  Their  notions  of 
le  those  of  other  pagans,  were  grovelling  and 
lie.  The  gods  whom  they  adored  were  ima- 
ive  been  at  one  period  rulers  or  heroes  on 
still  had  their  habitation  somewhere  within 
Q  territory,  or  at  no  great  distance  from  it. 
»r  belief  in  this  vain  mythology,  both  Greeks 
OS  put  faith  in  divination,  oracles,  the  magical 
mulets,  and  dreams.  Bees,  ants,  and  various 
d  beasts,  were  imagined  to  have  the  power  of 
tns  of  good  or  bad  fortune.  The  phenomena 
wphere  and  planetary  bodies  were  likewise  a 
xe  of  miperstitiotts  delusions.  The  appear- 
nets,  and  also  eclipses,  were  ominous  of  great 
sters,  it  being  the  general  belief  that  they 
il  signs  made  by  the  sods  to  warn  mankind 
hing  troubles ;  in  all  which  we  see  a  lament- 
of  the  follies  to  which  even  a  refined  people 
posed,  if  ignorant  of  tlfbUws  of  nature, 
erstitious  delusions  oruie  Greeks  and  Ro- 
be said  to  have  died  out  at  the  final  dismem- 
r  the  Roman  empire,  and  the  overrunning  of 
irope  by  the  Gothic  nations.  The  introduc- 
istaanity  also  tended  powerfully  to  root  out 
wrstHiooi  Oiftgesy  though  a  few  torvived  to 
ft.  For  these  rsMong  the  lopentitioiis  and 
753 


matters  of  credulous  belief  which  afterwards  affected 
the  people  of  northern  and  western  Europe,  including 
the  British  islands,  were  in  a  ereat  measure  of  Scandi- 
navian and  Grothic  origin.  The  only  superstitions  of 
eastern  growth  worth  mentioning,  which  were  perpe- 
tuated in  Europe  generally,  was  uiat  of  astrology,  or  a 
belief  that  the  stars  exercised  an  influence  over  the 
destiny  of  mortals  ;  and  alchemy,  or  the  pretended  art 
of  transmuting  the  baser  metals  into  gold ;  both  of 
which  delusions  finally  vanished  before  the  light  of 
knowledge  that  spread  abroad  in  the  seventeenth  and 
eighteenth  centuries. 

SCANDIMAVIAK  SUPERSTITIONS. 

The  superstitions  of  the  European  Northmen,  or 
Scandinavians — under  which  term  are  included  the  early 
inhabitants  of  Denmark,  Norway,  Sweden,  and  Iceland 
— were  of  a  kind  remarkably  accordant  with  the  cold 
and  stern  character  of  the  regions  which  they  occupied. 
Like  the  ancient  Greeks,  the  Scandinavians  had  seats 
of  the  gods  and  of  the  blest,  which  they  called  Asgard 
and  Walballa  (or  Valhalla),  and  these  bore  the  same 
relation  in  their  character  to  the  Olympus  and  Ely- 
sium of  the  Greeks,  that  the  countries  of  the  north,  with 
their  stormy  climes,  their  icy  mountains,  and  perilous 
waters,  bore  to  the  peHiimed  and  verdant  plains  of 
Hellas,  and  the  fair  blue  skies  overhanging  the  smooth 
Ionian  Sea.  Notliing  could  afford  better  proof  of  the 
utterly  fanciful  nature  of  all  these  mythologies,  tlian 
the  fact  that  thev  were  thus  modelled  and  modified  in 
every  case  by  the  earthly  habits,  likings,  territorial 
position,  and  ignorance  of  geography  and  astronomy, 
of  the  individual  tribes  among  whom  they  respectively 
originated. 

The  deification  of  one  or  more  great  princes  or  rulers 
seems  to  have  constituted  the  basis  of  the  Scandinavian 
as  well  as  of  every  other  pagan  mythology.  Odin,  the 
supreme  deity  of  the  Scandinavians,  and  the  ruler  of 
heaven  and  earth,  appears,  like  the  Hellenic  Jupiter, 
to  have  been  a  distinguished  chief  and  warrior  of  early 
times.  Although  it  is  asserted  by  some  that  a  divinity 
of  the  name  of  Odin  was  worshipped  from  the  most 
remote  ages,  there  is  reason  to  believe  that  the  woi-ship 
of  this  personage,  in  the  north  at  least,  liad  its  real 
origin  a  few  centuries  before  the  commencement  of  the 
Christian  era,  when  a  powerful  chieftain  of  the  name 
was  driven  by  the  Romans  from  his  dominions  between 
the  Euxine  and  Caspian,  and  took  refuse  in  Scandina- 
via, the  whole  of  which  he  subjected  to  nis  sway.  Like 
Mahomet,  this  chief  appears  to  have  established  a  new 
religion,  of  which  he  himself  assumed  to  be  the  earthly 
head,  as  the  servant  or  minister  of  a  divine  being  of  the 
same  name.  In  the  course  of  time,  however,  this  dis- 
tinction was  entirely  lost,  and  the  persons  and  acts  of 
the  divine  and  earthly  Odin  became  inextricably  blended 
in  the  mythology  and  traditiona  of  the  north.  ilie  great 
reoords  of  the  religiouA  and  legendary  knowledge  uf  Uie 


CliAJIB^S'S  INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


Scftndiuavuns,  ora  the  Eddu  and  Sagai  of  Iceland, 
pBrtiy  H-rillen  Lu  poetrj  and  p&rtly  in  prime-  The  oldiut 
of  tlie  KilJiui,  a  aerita  of  ].ioetical  frugmeats,  fa»  eol- 
lecl«a  rrum  oral  Iroditioii  m  the  eleventh  century,  and 
the  olliers  art  of  later  dute.  The  acts  of  Ihe  deitiea 
and  heroes  of  the  notth,  the  creaUou  at  the  wucld,  auil 
prophetic  revcUtiona,  tona  the  general  eubject  of  these 

The  Scandinavinns,  like  the  GreEks,  beheved  that  the 
uuivoTSB  was  orieinall]'  a  chnuH,  or  mass  of  confeacd 
vapours,  penplBd  by  a  race  of  Rimtharaar,  or  evii  epirita 
of  gigantic  bulk.  A  being  of  nobler  nature  aprang  up 
unong  these,  named  Buro,  from  nhom  n-ere  descended 
Odin  and  hiB  tiro  brothera  Vile  and  Ve.  Tliese  yoon^r 
divinitie*  followed  exactly  tlie  same  coune  with  the 
BDCthem  giants,  tiint  was  pursued  by  Jupiter  and  hia 
btvtheiB  with  regard  to  the  Titana,  or  oUit  and  gigantic 
deities  of  GrceEe.  Odin  began  la  war  with  tlie  Kim- 
thursar,  and  bavins  at  last  OTcrcome  their  great  chief 
Ynier,  lie  creat«l  Uie  world  out  of  that  giant's  body. 
Ilia  fiesb  bi^came  the  mould,  hia  bones  the  rocks,  his 
hair  the  vegetabls  tribes,  hia  blood  the  ocean,  and  hie 
ekuU  the  heavens,  at  the  four  oarnera  of  which  were 
nlseed  cerlain  dwarfa,  called  North,  South,  East,  and 
Weal,  whoae  duty  it  was  to  sustain  the  celestial  dome. 
Afler  this,  the  liimiuariea  of  the  aky  were  set  xa  their 
places,  and  Ibo  order  of  the  seasons  appointed.  Nalt 
(night)  wedded  one  of  tho  Aaer,  or  ceteslial  family  of 
UdiD,  and  gave  birth  to  Dag  (day).  Theso  deities  travel 
alliiruately  round  the  world  in  cars,  drawn  by  single 
horses.  Every  great  body,  as  in  the  Greciaii  mytlio- 
logy,  was  reiireseiited  by  a  divinity.  Frigga,  or  the 
earth,  wae  the  daughter  of  Odin,  and  also  became  his 
wife.  The  inhahitanta  of  the  earth,  or  mankind,  were 
created  by  Udin  and  hia  brothers.  Two  pieces  of  wood, 
tho  one  of  ash  and  the  other  of  elm,  formed  the  roate- 
riala  of  dui  Got  pair  of  moit«ls,  who  were  dntingiuahed 


favpenraiui' 

The  race 


>r  deil 


dintdtoD 


lilj. 

%ngard,  a  place  SDp- 


wax  supposed  to  wield.  Bread  and  meat  wtte  ■ 
daily  to  the  god  by  his  WDrahip|>cra,  and  at  sBMi 
lihatious  were  poured  out  in  Iiu  honour. 

Balder,  the  second  son  of  Odin,  was  the  mstf 
ful  and  Bioiable  of  tbe  Aeer  or  goda.  iJulibt  ( 
of  his  brethren,  be  was  fond  of  peace,  and  had  tb 
of  alUyiog  leoipeats,  and  aoliug  as  »  medialAT,! 
divine  wrath.  Ilia  decrees  were  irrevocable.  I 
points  he  resembled  the  Apoilo  of  the  Greelu,  I 
gensral  guahties  of  that  perwmaee  found  a  cid 
presentstive  in  Brsga  or  Brogi,  Uie  ^>d  of  ei< 
and  poetry.  Mlunl,  (he  god  of  the  sea,  and 
Froys,  the  god  of  rain,  were  also  importacl  d< 
tho  north.  Every  element,  or  important  nouu 
nomcDon,  was  under  (he  guidance,  in  lik«  mal 
some  celestial  personage.  Fri^rga,  (he  Sa«d 
Juno,  was  the  bcatower  of  fertility  and  plenty. 
or  Freya,  the  daughter  of  Niord,  was  the  Vsou 
gard  and  the  patroness  of  matrimony.  Fr«a 
sisted  in  her  duties  by  Sioua  and  So&ia,  Ihs 
whom  made  lovers  foithRil,  white  the  other  rc4 
them  when  they  quarrellol.  Eyra  was  the  pi 
of  the  gods.  There  were  varioui  other  misur  dl 
Id  the  Scaadinavian  mytholof^,  though  not  m 
many  ai  in  (he  Qreciau  roll.  The  defideney  «l 
up  among  the  northerns  by  the  aiugnmcM  ■ 
multitudinousdutiee  to  tlie  greater  deilieo.  Tin 
from  tlie  extent  of  his  government,  metred  •■ 
as  one  hundred  and  Iwenlv  distinct  nuna,  mt 
eating  some  iodividual  quality  ateribed  to  hint 

The  great  lull  appointed  f<ir  (he  rvA-ptiai 
spirits  of  Ihe  brave,  when  thfy  InFi  «mnh  teri 
of  the  guda,  was  calhnl  Valhalin.  Twtlve  Waal 
terrible  nyniphti,  named  Valkyries  (iJkaoMrrtfdk 
were  the  guides  of  (he  good  iplrila  b>  (Jm  haO  < 
balia,  ana  Bupplied  them  with  mead.  Ths  tm 
of  drinkina  1U5  northern  nectar,  and  of  oita 
of  the  wQd  hMT  Sminmer,  which,  alter  a^H| 
daily  food  of  IbouBandn,  became  whole  aEihi 
uixM,  fillnd  up  ail  i)i"ae  interval"  rf  iinie.nl 
tli.il  M.-iv  .LL.1  p,,as,il  in  tlJiliMK-      Ni'ne  bol  th( 


V  "'    ;■■,■;,,  l.':;:';'\. !: 

^' 

■■  ■'    .,t...li-*bBl 

■lillv  T«« 

■   iMTbaw. 

-    -iri-.  toOiri 

mil..-  ..f  Thor,  1 

.   '.     '                    1    ..|lL'll.al  il 

e'n 

■-  broken  in  pin 
cut  which  had  W 

1                       !     ,     ■          .l-r,.f  theg 

d» 

=s  not  .-.ten  bv  b 
rmin  th.,  fa»l  b 
n  -f  th.-  cviosB) 
'it.I1u^^i,c.^orthc 

n.-.uin.  il  diMi 

tl,ec....«.™irfl 

'rkney  ami  iikMta 

1    .  ■    .    1       i  1  i  .1   Ijy  the  progrena  of  a  mm*  ( 

.■■;■...    ........       Ih.,  dread 

tea  of  Odia,  Tte 

■..:    1,  i..  ,.:i,.r.l.ii,.-  i.l  Ihe  norli 

« 

0  for  wntHiN* 

SUPERSTITIONS. 


^owD  tho  huHian  faculties,  and  kept  up  the  reign  of 
•aperstition,  are  now  only  perpetuated  in  the  appella- 
'Ciona  affixed  to  some  of  the  days  of  the  week.  Thus 
our  temi  Wednesday  is  derived  from  Odin's  or  Wodin's 
^ajr,  that  being  the  day  of  the  week  in  which  the 
Xkorthem  Jupiter  or  supreme  ruler  of  the  gods  was 
anoBt  honoured  and  worshipped.  Thursday  is  from 
Thor,  the  second  in  dignity  among  these  fabulous 
deities :  as  this  day  was  called  Dies  Jovis  by  the  Ro- 
SEUuiSy  we  have  here  a  confirmation  that  Tlior  the 
dinnderer  was  eouivalent  either  to  Mars,  or  the  thun- 
dering Jove  of  the  Grecian  mythology.  Friday  takes 
~"~  appellation  from  Freya,  the  daughter  of  Niord,  and 
iponds  with  the  Dies  Veneris,  or  Venus  day  of 
the  Greeks  and  Romans.  Saturday  is  derived  in  the 
e  manner  from  the  god  Saeter  of  the  Scandinavians, 
Saturn  of  the  Greeks.  Tuesday,  or  anciently  Ties- 
j  (a  pronunciation  still  preserved  in  Scotland),  is 
pposed  to  be  from  Tisa,  tho  wife  of  Thor,  and  the 
awpated  goddess  of  Justice.  Sunday  and  Monday  were 
ively  named  from  the  Sun  and  Moon,  both  by 
northern  and  southern  nations  of  Europe,  from  a 
lOte  period  of  time.  The  circumstance  of  there 
each  a  marked  resemblance  between  tho  cha- 
rs of  the  deities  whose  names  were  employed  to 
dietingoish  the  same  days  of  the  week  both  by  Greeks 
~  Scandinavians,  is  not  a  little  remarkable,  and  has 
',  as  far  as  we  know,  been  the  subject  of  explana- 
by  philologists  or  antiquaries.  The  fact  is  only  cer- 
ly  that  the  names  of  the  days  of  the  week  now  used 
erery  civilised  people,  are  based  upon  the  mytho- 
~  observances  of  either  the  Grecian  or  Scandina- 


AXOLO-SAXOX  SUrERSnTIONS. 

At  a  comparatively  early  ex^  the  mythology  and 
superstitions  of  the  Scandinavians,  as  well  as  the 
of  Druidism,  disappeared  in  Britain  as  tho  fa- 
saperstitlons  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  race  became 
-yvedominant.  Like  the  Scandinavians  of  tho  north,  the 
AMgio-Saxons  deduced  their  descent  from  Odin,  whom 
worshipped  along  with  Thor,  Freya,  and  other 
deities  of  the  Gothic  people.  They  also 
tipped  idols  emblematic  of  the  sun,  moon,  earth, 
▼mnous  seasons  and  circumstances.  In  particular, 
HMSrificed  to  one  goddess  called  Eostre,  in  the 
ith'of  April,  and  her  name  still  expresses  the  festi- 
val of  Easter  in  tho  Christian  church.  In  token  of 
darcrtional  feelings  towards  the  sun,  they  solemnised  a 
IbBtival  to  that  luminary  on  the  day  of  December  in 
which  the  days  began  to  lengthen,  a  log  of  wood  being 
on  the  occasion  as  an  emblem  of  returning  light 
heat.  From  this  ancient  practice,  therefore,  may 
need  the  custom  of  burning  the  Yule  log  at  Christ- 
whieh  is  still  continued  in  many  parts  of  England. 
Anong  the  Anglo-Saxon  superstitions  was  included  a 
Relief  in  giants,  dwarfs,  and  elves,  all  of  a  spiritual 
%  but  partaking  in  some  degree  of  human  attri- 
and  feelings.  In  the  term  clji  or  ehesy  we  have 
of  the  earliest  traces  on  record  of  those  ideal  fairy 
who  afterwards  figured  in  the  familiar  supersti- 
of  the  British  islands.  The  Gothic  nations,  of 
the  Anglo-Saxons  were  a  branch,  had  various 
of  elves,  who  were  understood  to  haunt  the 
Baldij  the  woods,  mountains,  and  waters,  and  received 
Jennminations  accordingly,  as  field-elfin,  dun-elfin,  &c. 
Whether  this  varied  race  of  spirits  originated  in  the 
whence  so  many  superstitions  spread  into  ancient 
is  not  satisfactorily  known,  although  it  is  pro- 
that  they  did,  and  were  of  the  same  genus  as  the 
of  the  Persians^  a  being  not  dissimilar .  in  cha- 
to  our  fay  or  fairy.  Both  in  the  Scandinavian 
Anglo-Saxon  superstitions,  elves  formed  an  impor- 
oraer  of  bein^  not  unlike  in  character  to  the 
daaugiodL  na'iads,  (uriads,  and  other  imaginary  spirits  of 
tfM  weak  and  Roman  mythologies,  and  like  tiiem  ex- 
avfed  a  eertain  influence  over  hunuin  affairs. 

Beades  a  belief  in  these  mvsterious  elfin  tribes,  the 
Aoglo-Saxona  brought  with  them  to  England  the  still 

755 


darker  and  more  dangerous  doctrines  of  witchcraft  and 
divination,  before  which  the  reasoning  powers  of  the 
people  quailed,  and  all  intellectual  advancement  was 
impeded.  The  general  introduction  of  Christianity  about 
the  year  GOO,  abolished,  as  a  matter  of  course,  the  moro 
gross  pagan  observances,  but  failed  to  extirpate  the 
familiar  and  less  obvious  superstitions  of  the  people. 
Witchcraft,  wizardry',  magic,  divination,  preparationa 
of  charms,  and  other  mystic  follies  imving  no  founda- 
tion in  truth,  continued  to  flourish,  although  opposed 
both  by  the  more  intelligent  clergy  and  the  kings.  It 
is  from  the  statutes,  indeed,  whicTi  Alfred,  Canute,  and 
other  monarchs,  passed  for  the  prevention  of  magical 
practices,  that  we  chiefly  know  their  nature  and  extent. 
}Viglaery  a  wizard,  and  uncca,  a  witch,  are  persons 
severely  denounced.  Penalties  are  enjoined  if  any  one 
should  destroy  another  by  wiccecraeft.  They  appear 
to  have  used  philtres,  for  it  is  declared  a  crime  in  any 
one  to  use  witchcraft,  or  potions  to  produce  another's 
love.  Canute  enjoins  his  people  not  to  worship  fire  or 
floods,  wells  or  stones,  or  any  sort  of  tree ;  not  to  frame 
death-spells,  either  by  lot  or  otherwise;  and  not  to 
effect  any  thing  by  phantoms.  Wizards,  we  also  learn, 
pretended  to  the  power  of  letting  loose  tempests,  and 
controlling  the  visible  operations  of  nature. 

The  introduction  of  Christianity,  as  has  been  men- 
tioned, failed  to  dissipate  the  famUiar  superstitions  of 
the  English ;  a  circumstance  which  can  excite  no  sur- 
prise, as  no  pains  were  taken  to  enlighten  the  under- 
standings of  the  people,  or  make  them  acquainted  with 
the  true  causes  of  natural  phenomena.  We  accord- 
ingly find,  that  from  the  seventh  to  tlie  sixteenth  cen- 
tury, the  belief  in  demons,  spirits,  lubber  fiends,  and 
elves,  of  every  shade  and  character,  prevailed  without 
intermission,  and  with  no  further  challenge  from  the 
clergy  than  as  being  individually  manifestations  of  the 
devil,  on  whom  now  the  whole  load  of  superstition  was 
based.  One  goblin,  in  particular,  formed  the  theme  of 
innumerable  legends.  What  was  his  name  originally 
in  continental  Europe,  whence  ho  emigrated  with  the 
Anglo-Saxons,  is  of  little  consequence ;  in  England  he 
became  known  by  the  title  of  Fatlier  Rush,  from  a  be- 
lief that  he  had  on  one  occasion  personated  a  monk  or 
friar,  and,  to  serve  his  own  malignant  purposes,  hod  in 
that  capacity  long  imposed  on  a  religious  brotherhood ; 
afterwards,  this  appellation  went  out  of  repute,  and  he 
was  popularly  known  and  feared  by  the  familiar  name 
of  Ilobin  Goodfellow,  and  }>erformed  many  useful  ser- 
vices in  the  rural  districts  of  England.  It  is  not  a  littlo 
strange  tlmt  both  monks  and  clergy  sanctioned  these 
fancies,  and  increased  their  number  by  the  propagation 
of  legends,  which  we  venture  to  say  could  not  now  re- 
ceive the  approbation  of  a  single  individual,  lay  or 
clerical,  in  England.  Of  these  it  is  only  necessary  to 
mention  tho  absurd  stories  which  were  fabricated  and 
circulated  respecting  Dunstaft,  Abbot  of  Glastonbury, 
and  afterwards  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  who  died  m 
tho  year  988.  W^hen  a  boy,  he  is  stated  to  have  studied 
theology  so  sedulously  as  to  reduce  him  to  the  point  of 
death,  when  he  was  suddenly  restored  by  some  divino 
medicine  sent  to  him  by  an  angel  in  a  stoi*m.  So  ex- 
traordinary a  circumstance  could  not  but  demand 
grateful  thanksgivings,  and  Dunstan  started  from  his 
bed  and  ran  with  full  speed  towards  the  church.  Satan 
met  him  in  the  way,  surrounded  with  numerous  black 
dogs,  and  endeavoured  to  defeat  hb  pious  intention.  But 
Dunstan  was  not  to  be  overcome ;  he  instantly  prayed 
for  ability,  and  was  enabled  to  cudgel  the  devil  and 
his  black  dogs  so  effectually,  that  they  left  him  and  tho 
angel  together ;  the  latter  of  whom,  finding  the  church 
door  fastened,  took  up  the  pious  youth  in  his  arms,  and 
conveyed  him  to  his  devotions  through  the  roof.  An- 
other time  the  devil  attempted  to  intrude  himself  upon 
St  Dunstan's  studies  in  his  laboratory,  but  the  saint 
speedily  punished  his  impertinence,  by  taking  from  the 
fire  his  tongs,  which  were  red  hot,  and  with  them  seized 
the  nose  of  tlie  fiend,  who  was  thereupon  glad  to  make 
his  escape.  It  is  hunentable  to  think  how  such  vain 
imaginations  should  havo  so  long  weighed  upon  the 


CHAMBERS'S  INFORMATION  FOR  THE   PE( 


undcn-UnilliigB  of  Iho  people,  nnd  pogtafled  »  hahiluo 
icriA  of  the  aupenialurnl,  v/h'idi  till  (biadiiii  exeru  >: 
initaence  o'or  we  uutuuirwi  mind. 


iinor 
pniiry 


ami  boinga  to  whom  Ihe 
kind  have  givBti  an  Jnii- 
a  prominent  place, 


Tlio 


of  diflTerent  clsBsea  of  Hpirita  ^ 

nod  confounded  to^tlicr  in  ths  la|ne  of  time,  that  |[  is 
difficult  to  deflne  individiu]  spocieB  with  correctneu 
■ud  preciaioo ;  but  th«re  i>  ons  cturacteristto  which 
■ppenrs  tt>  distinguiBli  tlia  fiiry  from  every  olhor  being 
oT  ft  similBr  anter.  Most  Bpicils  could  contract  and 
diminish  their  bulk  at  will,  but  Iha  fuiry  alone  seems 
to  hove  been  regarded  n>  eBsintially  small  in  size.  The 
mujoril)'  of  otlier  apicilB,  nleo,  nuch  as  dwarfB,  brownioa, 
and  the  like,  are  represented  u  deformed  creatures, 
wlierca»  the  fairy  bas  almost  uniformly  been  described 
as  a  boutiful  miuialurs  of  the  human  being,  perfect 
in  face  and  form.  These  points  of  distinolion,  with  a 
dress  of  pure  green,  are  the  priiieijiiil  ones  which  mark 
tlie  persomJ  iudividaality  of  the  WicB  as  a  superoa- 
tunit  race. 

The  origin  of  the  fairy  Buperaliliou  is  ascribed  by 
most  vrritei's  to  the  Celtic  people,  bat  llie  blending  of 
the  Gothic  tribes  with  the  Cells  led  to  the  admixture 
of  many  attributes  «r  the  DOrthem  apirita  with  those 
proper  la  the  fairiesL  Thus,  the  laUcr  race,  wliich  ap- 
,t  pears  to  hnve  been  intriniucally  good  aud  benevolent, 
hu  beeu  giCled  with  attribuloa  of  ths 
kind,  borrowed  from  the  trulls  luid  elre 
In  Scotland,  and  other  counlries  where  the  Celtic  tra- 
ditions predominated,  llie  fairies  retained,  in  part,  thi 
original  and  better  fealarcs  of  their  chnracter,  anc 
wore  usually  Galled  the  Good  NciEhboam,  or  the  Men 
of  Peace;  but  even  there,  their  uhnrauter  wsb  deteri- 
amted  by  a  conHidemble  leaven  of  ollin  or  tlwarlisli 
inalignancy.  This  evil  part  of  llieir  nature  caused  mucb 
annoynnci'  In  in»riUi^i<),  nnd,  more  eapenally,  their  pro 
|.iTi-iii  liiili  Lii.'i  ■[■|ii»5  of  human  beings.  L'tioIil- 
I'  i.<   '  '   .:<  Ily  liable  to  this  calninii^ . 


Their  sMtnin;;  t 

and  tliey  themse 

humnn    beauty,  , 

ugliness.     In  ahatl,  tl>«  fairj  E4b«  «W 

thing  of  show  sriihout  nibalMieK. 
This  is  the  genera)  aoooiurt  ptes  «f  Ifat 
L  few  of  Iho  legends  oo  Uic  nibject  fim  • 
om  a  very  early  period,  harrtrr,wt*rjb 
icuired  in  giviag  to  t)i*  Lin;  sad  fOssa  • 
I  names  of  Oberoii  and  Titain-  Obma  i 
h  or  Hich  Elf  of  tlia  U ermaas,  sod  ■■•  a 
.  modem  name,  as  well  n  witit  at*  «n 
!  old  French  r 


my  CI 


I  of  Burp 


a  lore 


jewels  on  his  head,  and  A  horn  in  bis  taal  i 
who  heard  it  to  the  dancing. 

It  wis  the  belief  tJial  unobHsteiMd  dd 
peculiarly  liable  to  be  carried  aff  bv  lU  fc 
somEliroes  left  little  changelinn,  of  I»T  •« 
place  of  llie  infauts  uf  inorlal  Lind.  tha  • 
his  Sad  Shepherd,  mmkes  the  Uadiny  sal  I 
hutiun  changelings  to  be  one  of  the  fatMM 
pluytncnts. 

And  ipiu-lanf  eins.  tliu  daw*  A^B^ 


VarionB  charms  were  used  in  ScuthUHi  ttt  b 
tlun  of  stolen  children.  Thv  mod  eSeuiM 
lieved  to  be  the  rcxu'inp  of  the  suppaaiiit>M>d 
live  embers,  when  it  was  underttood  that  CWk 
would  disBOpeir.  and  the  true  one  bvIiAk 
It  11  to  be  hoped,  thai  this  cmol  and  tiMM 
lice  was  seldom  folluwtK).  Th<  tijai  — rf 
called  loarblonM  was  al-m  lirld  Ii>  bcu  dUH 
vatlve  against  Uie  abiluction  ol  childnntfll 
In  Waldron's  Account  of  the  Isle  of  Ui^V 
rioUB  stories  of  children  kidnapped  1^  taU 
line  cose,  where  a  woman  had  givsn  hjAl 
lior  atleodiTita  were  enlico.]  h'^m  ll»  t^. 


Tlie 
the  fail 


my  of  mankind. 
>nWarson,inlhf 


SUPERSTITIONS. 


qucntly  to  her  in  the  likenesii  of  an  elderly  man,  grey- 
coated  aud  grey-bearded,  wished  her  to  go  with  him  to 
the  fairy  country,  and  gave  her  herbs  to  cure  various 
dweaaes.  He  even  once  jDrousht  to  her  the  queen  of 
Ihe  fairies,  who,  to  the  confusion  of  poetrv,  was  a  fat 
wonian,  fond  of  ale,  and,  in  short,  must  unlike  the  Tita- 
aia  of  romance.  Alison  Pearson  also  admitted  her 
'familiarity  with  the  fairies,  from  whom  she  frequently 
Teceived  herbs  for  the  cure  of  disease.  It  is  remark- 
Able  that  l*atrick  Adamson,  an  able  scholar  and  divine, 
who  was  created  Archbishop  of  St  Andrews  by  James 
VI.,  actually  took  the  medicines  prescribed  by  this  poor 
woman,  in  the  hope  that  they  would  transfer  an  illness 
with  which  he  was  seized  to  the  body  of  one  of  his 
hcMves.  This  feat,  it  was  believed,  was  accomplished 
bj  the  prescription.  The  unfortunate  women  who  con- 
leaaed  these  things,  wei'e  deceived  in  the  expectation 
which  led  to  the  act.  They  could  not  so  save  them- 
iWes.     They  were  both  convicted,  and  perished  at  the 


It  may  not  be  improper  in  this  place  to  allude  to  the 
fi^Dciea  uf  the  poets  on  the  subject  of  the  fairies.  Shak- 
wpemit  stands  pre-eminent  in  this  department.  His  Mid- 
■Dmmer  Night's  Dream  is  a  poem  of  exquisite  beauty, 
and  one  corresponding  in  every  respect  with  the  dcli> 
•ately  fanciful  nature  of  the  subject.  In  Romeo  aud 
Juliet,  he  has  also  described  an  important  fairy.  Queen 
Jlab,  who  has  almost  dethroned  Titania  of  late  yeara. 
Mr  Tennant's  Anster  Fair  has  been  of  great  avail  to 
tune  of  Mab.  Whoever  chooses  to  consult  Dray- 
and  the  poets  mentioned,  will  have  the  pleasure  of 
and  enjoying  the  exercise  of  poetical  fancy 
]if  the  highest  order  on  the  subject  of  fairies. 

The  superstitions  now  described  are  not  yet  extinct 
fa  the  British  Islands.  In  Ireland,  the  Scottish  High- 
llMda,  and  Wales,  in  particular,  the  fairies  aro  yet  ob- 
JmIs  of  general  belief.  Education  has  not  yet  shed  its 
IBliffateuing  influence  there,  and  by  education  alone 
VUl  the  darkness  of  superstition  be  dispelled.  This  is 
.dnost  a  truism,  for  superstition  aud  ignorance  are 
'faothing  else  than  equivalent  terms.  The  spirit  is 
*  *  however,  which  will  extinguish  this  remnant  of 
I,  and  it  is  consoling  to  think  so,  for  the  ills 
have  flowed  from  this  source  are  numberless. 

wrrcHciuFT. 

A  belief  that  certain  individuals  possessed  magical 
powers,  and  could  exercise  a  supernatural  influence 
theirfellow-creatures,  existed  in  ancient  Rome,  and 
who  practised,  or  rather  pretended  to  exercise, 

arte,  were  punishable  by  the  civil  macisti'ate.     It 

li  to  be  observed,  that  neither  among  the  Konians  nor 
0M  Paean  nations  of  northern  Europe,  was  witchcraft 
^mmatS  an  offence  against  religion ;  in  some  instances, 
indeed,  the  witch  was  supposed  to  derive  her  powers 
ftom  spirits  friendly  to  mankind,  and  her  profession, 
tfKWgli  feared,  was  held  in  honour  by  her  infatuated 
4iBpe«.  Upon  the  introduction  of  Christianity,  witchcraft 
MBomed  a  new  form,  though  retaining  all  its  old  attri- 
bafpi  Instead  of  ascribing  tlie  supern.itural  powers  of 
the  practitioner  to  the  godi*,  to  Odin,  to  spirits  of  good  or 
0vU  qualities,  or  to  supposed  mysteries  in  nature,  the 
.  paoplc  imputed  them  to  the  great  fallen  spirit  men- 
lioBc8  in  Scripture.  This  potent  being,  fn^n  a  wicked 
desire  to  destroy  all  that  was  good  and  hopeful  in 
HU^  destiny,  was  believed  to  enter  into  a  compact 
with  tlie  aspirant  witch,  m  which,  for  an  irrevocable 
Msignment  of  her  soul  at  death,  he  waste  grant  all  her 
wishes,  and  assist  in  all  her  malevolent  projects.  These 
Bcw  fixtures  in  witchcraft,  as  we  sliall  speedily  i>er- 
•thre,  thoroughly  changed  and  prodigiously  extended 
the  supemtition  throughout  Europe.  From  being  rather 
ft  sportive  kind  of  juggler}',  or  trick  in  practical  magic, 
IM  at  most  only  a  civil  offence,  it  was  recognised  as  a 
Vime  of  the  deepest  dye,  meriting  tlie  most  severe 
ihastisfimfnt  which  the  ecclesiastical  and  civil  power 
•ould  iafliet. 

We  luust  here  notice,  however,  that  the  demon  or 
ii:jkBter-fiend  of  tlie  witchoraft  legends  was  a  very  difie- 

757 


rent  being  from  that  great  fallen  spirit,  held,  in  a 
graver  view  of  things,  so  deeply  to  influence  the  best 
interests  of  humanity.  As  this  superstition  gained  force 
in  the  Christian  world,  which  it  did  by  slow  and  succes- 
sive steps  through  the  whole  of  the  middle  ages,  or  from 
the  fifth  century  till  about  the  fifteenth,  the  devil — for 
it  is  imuossible  to  avoid  the  mention  of  this  emphatic 
name,  disagreeable  as  it  is  commonly  said  tp  be  to  ears 
polite — ^gradually  lost  many  of  the  former  features  of  his 
character ;  or,  rather,  a  different  being  was  substituted 
for  him,  cunibining  the  characteristics  of  the  Scandina- 
vian Lukke  with  tlmsc  of  a  Satyr  of  the  heathen  mytho- 
logy— a  personage  equally  wicked  and  malicious  as  the 
sterner  spirit  of  evil,  but  rendered  ludicrous  by  a  pro- 
pensity for  petty  trickery,  and  by  such  persoiuil  endow- 
ments as  a  pair  of  horns,  a  cow's  tail,  and  cloven  feet. 
There  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  demon  of  the  middle 
ages  borrowed  these  attributes  from  hb  human  repre- 
sentatives in  the  old  mysteries  and  plays,  where  a  laud- 
able endeavour  was  made  to  make  the  evil  one  as  ugly 
as  p<tssible.  Wo  are  told,  it  is  true,  that  he  could  at 
will  assume  any  specious  disguise  that  suited  him,  but 
the  eye  of  the  initiated  observer  could  readily  detect  the 
"  cloven  foot'* — or,  in  other  words,  penetrate  his  true 
character.  Such  as  he  was,  he  played  an  important 
part  in  the  annals  of  modern  witchci*aft,  which  was  sup- 
posed to  rest  entirely  on  the  direct  and  personal  agency 
of  himself  and  the  imps  commissioned  by  him.  Nor  was 
this  supposition  conflned  to  the  illiterate,  or  to  per- 
sons of  i>eculiarly  credulous  temperament.  Authors, 
distinguished  for  sense  and  talent,  record  with  great 
seriousness,  that  the  devil  once  delivered  a  course  of 
lectures  on  magic  at  Salamanca,  liabited  in  a  professor's 

f[own  and  wig  ;  and  tliat  at  another  time  he  took  up 
louso  in  Milan,  lived  therein  great  style,  and  assumed, 
ratlier  imprudently  one  would  say,  t)ie  suspicious  yet 
appropriate  title  of  tlie  "  Duke  of  Mammon."  Even 
Luther  entertained  similar  notions  about  the  fiend,  and, 
in  fact,  thought  so  meanly  of  him  as  to  believe  that  he 
cuuld  ci>me  by  night  and  steal  nuts,  and  that  he  cracked 
tliem  against  the  bedposts,  for  the  solacement  of  his 
monkey-like  api>etite. 

The  powers  ascribed  to  this  debased  demon  wei*c  ex- 
ceedingly great.  The  general  belief  was,  that  through 
his  agency  storms  at  sea  and  land  could  at  all  seasons 
be  raised ;  that  crops  could  be  blighted  and  cattle  in- 
jured ;  tliat  bodily  illnesses  could  be  inflicted  on  any 
person  who  was  the  object  of  secret  malice ;  that  the 
dead  could  be  raised  to  life ;  that  witches  could  ride 
throuj^h  the  air  on  broomsticks,  and  transform  them- 
selves into  the  shapes  of  cats,  hares,  or  other  animalsy 
at  pleasure.  An  old  writer,  speaking  of  the  powers  of 
witches,  says — ^**  1.  Some  work  their  bewitchines  only 
by  way  of  invocation  or  imprecation.  They  wish  it,  or 
will  it ;  and  so  it  falls  out.  2.  Some,  by  way  of  emis- 
sary, sending  out  their  imps,  or  familiars,  to  crosse  tlie 
way,  justlc,  affront,  flash  in  the  face,  barke,  howlc,  bite, 
scratch,  or  otherwise  infest.  3.  Some  by  inspecting,  or 
looking  on,  or  to  glare,  or  peep  at  with  an  envious  and 
evil  eye.  4.  Some  by  a  hollow  muttering  or  mumbling. 
5.  Some  by  breathing  and  blowing  on.  G.  Somo  by 
cursing  and  banning.  7.  Some  by  blessing  and  praising. 
8.  Some  revengefully,  by  occasion  of  ill  turnes.  9.  Some 
ingratefuUy,  and  by  occasion  of  good  turnes.  10.  Some 
by  leaving  something  of  theirs  in  your  house.  1 1.  Somo 
by  getting  something  of  yours  into  their  house.  12.  Some 
have  a  more  speciall  way  of  working  by  severall  ele- 
ments— earth,  water,  ayre,  or  fire.  But  who  can  tell 
all  the  manner  of  waves  of  a  witch's  working;  that 
works  not  only  dnrUly  and  closely,  but  variously  and 
versatilly,  as  Cod  will  ]>ermit,  the  devil  can  suggest,  or 
the  malicious  hag  devise  to  put  in  pi-actice  V* 

In  the  present  age  of  comparative  intelligence,  it  is 
difficult  to  understand  how  human  beings  could  be  so 
deplorablv  ignorant  as  to  entertain  such  a  gross  super- 
stition. We  nmst,  however,  recollect  that  the  belief 
was  greatly  fostered  by  religious  impressions,  and  that 
it  was  long  considered  a  mark  of  impiety  to  doubt  the 
existence  of  witches.    Various   other  clrcumstanees 


CHAMBERS'S  INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPI.E. 


kdped  to  oliariali  and  magnify  the  arrm.  The  true 
uuw*  of  Uie  nKJority  of  natural  pbenomeo*  were 
unknown.  The  imture  of  the  atinospliere,  and  of  eor- 
Uin  moteorlE  appeanmces — ot  the  lawn  whioli  reaulsle 
■lonnB  at  so»,  and  tides— of  human  nialadiea  md  their 
remedie*— wemeinolupodinobBCuril)'.  Natural  aiiiaea 
beiug  unknown,  and  the  TBrj  doctrine  of  tbeui  nnnc- 
knowledgc^  the  wnak  and  eauly  leraiiled  mind  flew  to 
the  cODcliuion  that  all  evil  proceeded  from  a  power 
maligniint  to  man,  and  that  by  certain  impiuuB  dealings 
it  via  po»ible  f<]r  man  liimself  to  direct  that  power 
uainut  bis  neiglibour. 

The  wipentition  Beems  to  haTe  approached  ita  height 
about  the  end  of  the  flftecDih  nontury.  In  hia  bull  of 
U84,  Pope  Innocent  charged  inqoiwtora  and  others  to 
discover  and  deattoy  all  such  u  were  guilt)'  ot  witch- 
cruft.  This  commiMioo  wan  put  into  tJie  hands  of  a 
wretch  called  Sprongor,  with  directiona  that  it  should 
be  put  in  force  to  iti  fulle«t  eitant.  Immedialelr  there 
followed  a  regular  fono  of  procena  and  trial  for  bqb- 

tecled  witches,  onlitled  Statlna  JUaltJiearuia,  or  a 
lammer  for  Witches,  upon  which  all  judges  were 
called  ■cmpulonulT  to  act.  The  edict  of  Uti4  waa  nib- 
Bcnnenlly  enforced  by  a  bitll  of  Alexander  VI.  in  1494, 
of  Leo  X.  in  15-21,  and  of  Adrian  VI.  in  1522,  each 
adding  strength  to  its  predeceaHir,  and  the  whole  serv- 
ing to  inoreaae  the  agitation  of  the  pubhe  mind  upon 
the  subject.  The  neulte  were  dreadful.  A  panic  tear 
of  wilchcrsit  took  poaaesaion  of  society.  Every  one  was 
at  the  mercy  of  his  neighbour,  If  any  one  felt  an  un- 
accountable illness,  or  a  pccnUar  pain  in  any  part  of 
liis  body,  or  soffered  any  misfartaiie  in  his  filinily  or 
affairs,  or  if  a  elonn  aroAO  and  committed  any  dama^ 
by  sea  or  laud,  or  if  any  catUe  died  suddenly,  or,  m 
ahort,  if  any  event,  circumalalue,  or  thing  occurred  out 
of  the  ordinary  -routine  of  daily  experioucc,  the  cause 
qf  it  was  itiiehcraft.  Tobfraconaed  waato  be  doomed, 
fbt  it  ramlT  liapp«iMd  dut  proof  wm  maitiDA  ar  that 
cMidemnation  was  not  foHoved  bj  cKeeatjon.  Armed 
wilh  the  Mnlleun  Maleficiiruni,  tlio  judge  hsd  nn  diffi- 
cully  i..  finding  ri-iMms  fnr  »endi,ig    '  ■'        -- 


•Uni  to 


did  mil 


e  funli 


Willi  U  :  ■  '.:.<  I' witches,  as  has  hcen    

Brr-iJi'  i    ■  ■  i.irily,  bcutg  proljaUy  either 

inHMiii'  1"  I  -'  ..-.        lied  lieingn,  whose  reason 

had  bfi'ii  disU.rifd  by  l)rn"ding  overlhc  piipular  wileh- 
craft  code.  A  few  cxlrncla  from  the  work  of  Dr 
Iliilctiiiiiton  will  shuH'  llio   exlcDt  of  these  proceed- 


^lliT  burnt  n  hiindreil  in 

iMior,  mid  cimied  liim  nut 

|.i-<.i  nf  (hnndtmnJ  llclit- 
ihc  ci'rn  fui*  f-iuf  Ipngucii 
.  "lie  Anne  Mindelin,  ntid 
I'V  iif  ir.    Tliey  confpssed, 


tain  woman,  buried  not  loos  before,  wm  mi^  If  I 
winding-sheet,  and  that  the  ptaeae  would  bM  en 
she  had  miulc  an  end  of  it  This  mailer  beiig 
into  consideration,  ScultetiUt  with  the  chief  mui 
of  the  city,  opened  the  grart^  and  fband  that  ^  M 
indeed  awaHowed  and  devuujed  one-ball  at  hs  Bat 
iog-shcel.  SculletUB,  moved  with  horror  at  iki  *m 
di«wout  bis  sword,  and  cut  olT  ber  bead,  and  Ili*M*i 
into  a  dilch,  and  immediately  tlie  plagaa  eeajiiJl 
the  inquiiition  sitting  upon  the  ca*      '  '       ' 

she  bad  long  been  n  reputed  wilch. 

a.Q.  1524.— About  this  time  a  tho 
in  one  ^'f^i",  in  the  diocese  of  Como,  and  a  hozaln^] 
annum  for  several  yean  togethi 

From  otiier  anthorilSeB  it  is  lean**]  that  the  iim» 
talion  waa  as  great  in  Spain,  France, and  northcnii* 
many,  as  it  was  in  the  Italian  atslea.  About  iIk  jat 
lilA,  five  liundred  witches  wera  burned  in  G<3)*«a 
three  mouths,  and  in  France  nia^  thoiwanda.  Aadk 
writer  in  the  Foreign  Quarterly  ReTicw,*  mnm  ^fc 
'  ig  particulars  raspeclio^lh*  axocoMi 
"  '     ome  of  the  Gernuui  staua  i — 

"  In  Germany,  to  vbieh  indeed  the  boll  of  Ita 
bore  particular  icfercnce,  this  plague  laged  to  t< 
almost  inconceivable.  Bainberg.  radcrlKim,WiiTt 
and  Treves,  were  its  cliief  seala,  thcmgh  (or  a  «■ 
and  a  halt  after  the  introduction  of  the  triata  ante  •■ 
commiMion,  no  quarter  of  that  great  ompin  n  ' 
from  its  baneful  influence.  A  mtalog^a  of  t^  <■ 
tions  at  Wurtibnrg  for  the  pmiod  from  1C17  W  M- 
ruary  I  S2£>,  about  two  ycara  aod  tuo  months,  is  ptti 
by  Hanber  in  the  oouelnaion  of  liis  third  rntiam  rffe 
Aota  ot  Soript*  Hapca.  It  is  reKnlarly  dntM  iM 
twenty-nine  burnings,  and  aontatoa  tli*  naw  rf  W 
persons,  Ilaober  stating  at  th>  ■■ 
logueis  notmmpletSk  Ilia  ^ 
list  without  dmddBring  with  boiTor.  ThaanMrnk 
erihte«MdarMCMi«attofaUw«»««i«rlN>^af 
Tellen,  seixeo,  aa  it  ironld  appoar,  aa  forgifaas  aM 
nt  Paris  during  Die  days  of  Maral  and  Ri.lmpifm .  i 
r-,niain."cliil(lr,ii(if  t«tl 
,.|  nL-r'T  t..,„-.....>T  vicars  i.fllic  c:iltiedral ;  two  l^rf 
I.  I  .■  I  ,■■■.■■-,  llholwolillle  Bonsof  theBenalorSfci* 
.  '  I  '  _'-r  boy;  a  blind  eirl;  Gobel  BttiA 
■■■-1  L-irl  in  Wurliburg,  ic.  Art  ii 
||  i.'i.iiir  .1-  III]-  li.-vt  of  157  persons  execut*d  ■  na 
y.iii  s|i(nar5,  ilic  number  is  not  (taking  the 
iHio  of  Wurliiburg  into  view)  k  ■     ■■ 

process  from  IfiGU  to  IUG4  ;  for  ii 
consisting  at  the  vpry  utmost  of  GOO  iuliabiia 
persons  were  coudenmed  and  put  to  death,  m 
twentieth  part  of  the  nbole  population   c 

the  renilu  to  which  ik 

italogoe  iMelf  tl 
.uplcte),   d,.  a, 


o  witL-li  InaJi,S'>" 


!  :,i  ■    '    .  ■■■  I  I'.t;  Biiii  IlinURh  in  Ibe  mMival  to- 

,  ifint  date,  it  is  to  be  hoped 
■  horrors  had  diminished,  ihti 
I  :::.'< I..:.:. r   'ii  lL  hi'venJ  thousands  fail  lo  be 
<ii.' .inunini  ni ready  slated.     If  IUiub.-r^.  l-aljtafc 
Ttvit'9,  and  the  [>Ilipr  Cnlholie  biiJiopncs  whoia  M 

woki 


1  iIk-  d> 


iihcr  of  v 


leltie* 


IS  from  the  dale  i 


Tlic  nmnia  rcspeeling 
ilu  vigiiiir  ihrougliuol  w 


SUPERSTITIONS. 


^  the  edicts  of  Innocent  and  Leo,  spread  in  time  to 
Seotland,  and  acquired  atrong  poesession  of  the  public 
anind  daring  the  reign  of  Queen  Mary.  At  that  period, 
act  was  passed  by  the  Scottish  Parliament  for  the 

J^firession  and  punishment  of  witchcraft;  but  this 
J  aerred,  as  the  papal  bulls  had  done,  to  confirm  the 
^people  in  their  maniacal  credulity,  and  to  countenance 
And  propagate  the  general  delusion.    In  terms  of  these 
^-indgMl  statutes,  great  numbers  of  persons,  male  as 
'^pell  as  female,  were  charged  with  having  intercourse 
"^ritli  the  devil,  convicted,  and  burned  on  the  Castlehill 
^f  Edinburgh  and  elsewhere.    This  continued  during 
•Hh^  earlier  part  of  the  reign  of  James  YI.,  whose  mind, 
imlbrtunately  for  the  more  aged  of  the  female  part  of 
3iis  subjects,  was  deeply  impressed  with  the  flagrant 
afttore  of  the  crime  of  witchcraft.    In  1590,  James,  it 
is  well  known,  made  a  voyage  to  Denmark  to  see,  marry, 
■ad  conduct  home  in  person,  his  appointed  bride,  the 
Princess  Anne.    Soon  after  his  arrival,  a  tremendous 
witch  conspiracy  against  the  happy  conclusion  of  his 
iMMIieward  voyage  was  discovered,  in  which  tlie  principal 
fli|{«nta  appeared  to  be  persons  considerably  above  the 
TVlgar.     One  was  Mrs  Agnes  Sampson,  commonly 
Mllcd  the  Wise  Wife  of  Keith  (Keith  being  a  village  in 
Xnat-Lothian),  who  is  described  as  "  grave,  matron-like, 
■nd  settled  in  her  answers."   On  this  occasion,  the  king 
wwm  induced  by  his  peculiar  tastes  to  engage  personally 
in  the  business  of  judicial  investigation.     He  had  all 
the  accused  persons  brought  before  himself  for  exami- 
nation, and  even  superintended  the  tortures  applied  to 
to  induce  confession.     The  statements  made  by 
poor  wretches  form  a  singular  tissue  of  the  ludi- 
and  horrible  in  intinuite  union. 
The  said  Agnis  Sampson  was  after  brought  again 
the  king's  majestie  and  his  council,  and  being 
caounined  of  the  meetings  and  detestable  dealings  of 
Aeae  witches,  she  confessed,  that  upon  the  night  of  AU- 
HBllow-even  she  was  accompanied,  as  well  with  the  per- 
■om  aforesaid,  as  also  with  a  great  many  other  witches, 
to  the  number  of  two  hundred,  and  that  all  they  togc- 
went  to  sea,  each  one  in  a  riddle,  or  sieve,  and 
in  the  same  very  substantially,  with  flaggons  of 
ry  making  raerrie  and  drinking  by  the  way  in  the 
riddles,  or  sieves,  to  the  Kirk  of  North-Berwick, 
fa  Lothian,  and  that  after  they  had  landed,  took  hands 
CB  the  land,  and  danced  this  reil^  or  short  daunce,  sing- 
fa|f  all  with  one  voice, 

« Cummer,  goe  70  before,  cummer,  goe  yo ; 
Gif  ye  will  not  goe  before,  cummer,  let  mc.' 

Aft  which  she  confessed  that  Geillis  Duncan  did  goo 
fedbre  them,  playing  this  reil  or  daunce  upon  a  small 
innnp,  called  a  Jew's  harp,  until  they  entered  into  the 
Kirli  of  North-Berwick.  These  made  the  king  in  a 
wondoibl  admiration,  and  he  sent  for  the  said  Geillis 
IXinean,  who  upon  the  like  trump  did  play  the  said 
dHince  before  the  king's  majestie,  who,  in  respect  of 
tfie  strangeness  of  these  matters,  took  great  delight  to 
Represent  at  tiieir  examinations." 

In  the  sequel  of  Agnes  Sampson's  confession  we  find 
some  special  reasons  for  the  king's  passionate  liking 
fiir  these  exhibitions,  in  addition  to  the  mere  love  of  tlie 
BHurvellous.  The  witches  pandered  to  his  vanity  on 
•n  occasions,  probably  in  uie  vain  hope  of -mitigating 
their  own  doom.  Agnes  Sampson  declared  that  one 
»eat  object  with  Satan  and  his  agents  was  to  destroy 
&e  king ;  that  they  had  held  the  great  North  Berwick 
eonrention  for  no  other  end ;  and  that  they  had  endea- 
soared  to  effect  their  aim  on  many  occasions,  and  par- 
tienlarly  by  raising  a  storm  at  sea  when  James  came 
««roasi!rom  Denmark.  **  The  witches  demanded  of  the 
direll  why  he  did  beare  mch  hatred  to  the  king !  who 
answered,  by  reason  the  king  is  the  greatest  enemie 
hee  hath  in  the  world."  Such  an  eulogy,  from  such  a 
quarter,  could  not  Ikit  pamper  the  conceit  of  "the 
Seottish  Soknnon." 

The  following  further  points  in  the  deposition  of 
AfDSB  Sampson  are  worthy  of  notice.  ^  Item.  She  went 
mh  the  wttdi  of  Carriebum,  and  othsr  witches,  to  the 

76d 


Kirk  of  Newton,  and  taking  up  dead  folks  and  jointing 
them  [cutting  off  fingers,  &c.],  made  enchanted  powders 
for  witchcraft,  //em.  She  went  with  other  witches  in 
a  boat,  the  devil  going  before  them  like  a  rock  of  hay. 
Itenif  The  devil,  in  the  shape  of  a  dog,  gave  her  re- 
sponses concerning  her  laird's  recovery,  and  endea- 
voured to  put  awa  ane  of  the  ladies'  daughters.  //«m, 
she  raised  a  universal  great  storm  in  the  sea  when  the 
queen  was  coming  to  Scotland,  and  wrote  a  letter  to 
that  effect  to  a  witch  in  Lcith.  //em.  She  used  this 
prayer  in  the  healing  of  sickness : — 

An  kinds  of  111  tlint  ever  may  be,"  dto. 

The  repetition  of  these  and  such  like  verses  by  the  con- 
fessing witches,  has  been  matter  of  frequent  surprise. 
But  it  must  be  remembered  that  a  code  of  witchcraft, 
extensively  known  and  accredited,  existed  at  that  day, 
regular  forms  and  rules  for  its  exercise  having  been 
laid  down  in  the  course  of  time.  It  must  be  recollected, 
also,  that  these  poor  creatures,  though  guiltless  of  all 
supernatural  intercourse,  had  really  pretended  to  the 
gift  of  healing  by  charms  and  incantations  in  many 
cases,  and  had  to  invent  or  learn  formulas  for  the  pur- 
pose. Besides,  wo  find  these  doggrel  scraps  chiefly  in 
the  revelations  of  Agnes  Sampson.  She,  it  is  stated, 
could  write,  and  of  course  could  read  also ;  and  hence 
she  is  to  be  regarded  as  a  person  who  had  had  supe- 
rior opportunities  for  acquiring  a  knowledge  of  the 
witchcraft  code,  as  well  as  superior  capabilities  for 
filling  up  deficiencies  on  the  spur  of  the  moment.  In 
her  confession  she  implicated  one  Doctor  Fian,  other- 
wise called  John  Cunningham,  master  of  the  school 
at  Saltpans,  in  Lothian,  a  man  whoso  story  may  bo 
noticed  at  some  length,  as  one  of  the  most  curious  and 
instructive  in  the  wliole  annals  of  Scottish  witchcraft. 

Mrs  Sampson  deposed  that  Dr  Fian  was  always  a 
prominent  person  at  the  witch-meetings,  and  Geillia 
Duncan,  the  marvellous  trump-player,  confirmed  this 
assertion.  Whether  made  through  heedlessness  or 
malice,  these  averments  decided  Fian's  fate.  Ho  was 
seized,  and  after  being  "used  with  the  accustomed paine 
provided  for  those  offences  inflicted  upon  the  rest,  first, 
by  thrawing  of  his  head  with  a  rope,  whereat  he  would 
confess  nothing ;"  and,  secondly,  being  urged  "  by  fair 
meanes  to  confesse  his  follies,"  which  had  as  little 
effect ;  ^  lastly,  hee  was  put  to  the  most  severe  and 
cruell  paine  in  the  world,  called  the  bootes,  when,  after 
he  had  received  three  strokes,  being  inquired  if  he 
would  confesse  his  actes  and  wicked  life,  his  tongue 
would  not  serve  him  to  speakc ;  in  respect  whereof,  the 
rest  of  the  witches  willed  to  search  his  tongue,  under 
which  was  foundo  two  pinnes  thrust  up  into  the  heade, 
whereupon  the  witches  did  say,  now  is  the  charme 
stinted,  and  showed  that  those  charmed  pins  were  the 
cause  he  could  not  confesse  any  thing ;  then  was  he 
immediately  released  of  the  bootes,  brought  before  the 
king,  and  his  confession  was  taken.''  Appalled  by  the 
cruel  tortures  he  had  undergone,  Fian  seems  now  only 
to  have  thought  how  he  could  best  get  up  a  story  that 
should  bring  him  to  a  speedy  death.  He  admitted 
himself  to  be  the  deviPs  "  register,"  or  clerk,  who  took 
the  oaths  from  all  witches  at  their  initiation,  and  avowed 
his  having  bewitched  various  persons.  1  n  proof  of  the 
latter  statement  he  instanced  the  case  of  a  gentleman 
near  Saltpans,  whom  he  had  so  practised  upon,  he  said, 
that  the  victim  fell  into  fits  at  intervals.  This  person, 
who  seems  to  have  been  either  a  lunatic  or  afflicted 
with  St  Vitus's  dance,  was  sent  for,  and  *^  being  in  his 
majestie's  chamber,  suddenly  hee  gave  a  great  scritch, 
and  fell  into  madnesse,  sometimes  bending  himself,  and 
sometimes  capring  so  directly  up,  that  his  heade  did 
touch  the  seeling  of  the  chamber,  to  the  great  admira- 
tion of  his  majestie."  On  these  and  other  accounts  Dr 
Fian  was  sent  to  prison,  but  he  contrived  soon  after  to 
escape  from  it.  *'  By  means  of  a  hot  and  harde  pur- 
suite,"  he  was  retaken,  and  brought  before  the  king,  to 
be  examined  anew.  But  the  unfortunate  man  had  had 
time  to  think,  and  like  Cranmer  under  somewhat 
similar  circumstances,  resolved  to  retract  tlie  adniia- 


CHAMBERS'S  INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


(Man  wliich  the  weaknHS  or  tlia  baily  bul  drawu  from 
libo,  KuJ  to  suHer  oiiy  tiling  rather  lli&n  renew  Uieiii. 
Ilfl  boldly  told  thi.  lo  the  ting;  aad  Jamu*,  whom 
tlii'K*  viroords  make  ua  reg&rd  uith  equal  contempt  unci 
iiidiguitioii,  ordered  llie  unforluaMe  man  to  be  Bub- 
jeeled  lo  thv  (oUowing  inoiil  horriUa  torlurea.  "  H» 
iiailei  upon  all  his  liogets  were  rWen  bad  pulled  off 
with  an  ii^truraODt  called  in  SootUili  a  (iiririu,  which 
In  KngUnd  are  called  a  payre  of  piuoere,  and  under 
everie  iiayle  there  wa»  thrust  in  two  needles  over,  btbd 
up  to  tliu  liEodo ;  stall  wliioh  tomiunlca,  nulwithstand- 
ing,  the  diwlOT  never  shrunk  a  whit,  neither  wunid  be 
then  eonfesH  it  the  soouer  for  all  the  tortures  io- 
Hioted  on  him.  Then  wai  hee,  with  all  conreoienl 
■liocit,  by  oommaQdameDt,  convitied  again  to  the  tor- 
intut  a(  the  baotes,  wherein  he  cantiooed  a  long  lime, 
Hild  did  nbide  bo  many  hinwos  in  tliem,  that  his  leg^cs 
wpnr  criulil  and  beati^u  tngetbor  aa  Bninll  as  inl|^l  bee, 
whercbjr  they  were  make  uiiBorvic«able  for  ever."  Nol- 
willialBuding  all  this,  aueh  was  the  ativngth  of  mind  of 
tha  ijctim,  or,  as  King  Jwnea  Ifirmed  it,  "  bo  deeply 
bad  the  deril  entered  into  hie  hoort,"  liiat  he  still 
ilotiied  all,  and  resolutely  declared  tliat  "all  he  had 
dons  and  said  berore  was  only  dune  and  taid  for  fur 
of  the  |«ytiBB  which  he  hod  endured."  As,  according 
lo  tills  faaliion  of  jUBliee,  to  coutess  or  not  to  confess 
was  quiW  the  same  thing,  the  pDortehool mailer  of  Salt- 
piuiB  was  soon  nftarwanlB  strangled,  aud  tlien  burned 
on  the  Ciullohill  of  Edinburgh  (January  1&91). 

Much  about  the  Kune  lime  that  Agnes  SnnipBon  made 
ber  cunfessionB,  sume  cases  occurred,  showing  tbat 
witchcraft  WBB  an  art  not  coniiued  to  tlio  vulgar.  A 
woman  of  high  rank  and  family,  Calheriuc  Ruts,  Lady 
Fowlis,  was  indicted  at  the  ioBlanoe  of  the  king's  ad«a- 
culc  fur  the  practiee  of  witchcraft.  On  inquiry  it  was 
cleariy  ptored  thai  this  lady  bad  endeavoured,  by  ths 
aid  01  witchcraft  and  puisous,  to  taJn  away  the  Uvea  of 
Ahm  or  muTs  DoaDna  alia  atood  betwaan  bar  and  an 


and  another  individuAL  Tbef  %Ua  taaml  ha 
having  betin  at  tile  Wiao  V/ota^a  of  Kcidi'agr 
conTenlion  of  North  Berwick  I  but  avMj  ■« 
day  was  compeiled  W  admit  liaving  b*«B  tb« 
compliment  to  the  king,  lo  wboni  it  was  a 
agreeable  terror  lo  think  hiauelfof  so  math  a 
ae  to  call  for  a  solemn  ODnvoeMioti  of  tfae  powi 
to  overthrow  him.  Eupheoiia  Mac»lz«>n  wis* 
asaii,  juicil:,  to  the  dmih."  This  wu  a  doaa 
signed  lulliolesa  guilty.  Alluding  to  cases  of  I 
class,  a  writer  (already  qnoled)  in  the  Foragnt 
Review  remarks,"  In  the  triala  of  Bcaue  EUy,i 
Reid,  of  Patrick  Curiie,  of  Isobel  GrircM, 
Grizel  Gardiner,  ths  ehajgea  are  prtaapaUy  e 
oS  aud  laying  on  disease*  either  on  inca  « 
meetings  with  the  devil  in  varioua  abapeaaat 
misinz  and  dismeiubering  dead  bodtei  ti»  A* 
of  eiichantmenla ;  destroying  arops ;  somag  ka 
sous  in  the  Bliape  of  eau ;  takiog  awn  woOM 
oonimitting  housabrealung  and  uivft  bf  ouaa 
chanlmenlB,  and  so  on.  Soatli-miuriog  ma 
rowan-tree,  cnebanted  Hinla  (probably  elf-ams 
and  duggrel  verses,  generally  a  ' 


ud  duggt 
r  Lord^s 


Prayer,  were  the  means  empiajaJ  hi 

."     DiBesBee,  again,  were  laid  oa  tf  I 

'  clay  or  wax ;  by  pUeiog  a  iiai  k 

lied  roerober,  in  tite  J    "      -'-^-^ 


irti 


ires  of  clay  i 

I  mutilated  member,  in  tfte  boose  el  ti»k 
;  or  by  throwing  eoclukuled  ortielea  Mk 
pur^ine  did  n  " 


any  shape,  being  the  erimb 
Of  course,  lu  tlie  revelations  of  Ilie  larioai  i 
ineuiisiBteneica  wars  abuadaiit,  and  even  jitmt 
dent  impoBBibilities  were  frequently  among  tk> 
averred.  The  sapient  Jamra,  liowswr,  la  f 
being  led  by  these  things  to  dunbl  Ilie  wWs^  ■ 
BlreuEthened  iu  bis  opinions,  it  Iwinj;  a  mada 
Chat  Uiewilchn  were  "all  exinnwiyan."  M 
MM  Mme  to  diSnent  oooduaioaa  from  tt*^ 
inisGB,  and  before  the  close  of  Jaraea'a  rago,  M 


k  rh<- 


!..lrinl 
■■  id  lit 
■,^nd.    T 


Itlialllu- phrase-on  UieF 


SUPERSTITIONS. 


ren  by  the  priYy-eouneil  to  resident  gentlemen  and 
irgymen  to  try  ftnd  bum  witches  in  their  respective 
Urieta.  These  commissions  executed  people  over 
«  whole  country  in  multitudes.  Wodrow,  Lamont, 
Isrcer,  and  Whitelocke,  prove  this  but  too  satisfac- 
vily. 

The  clersy  continued,  after  the  Restoration,  to  pur- 
ls these  imaginary  criminals  with  a  zeal  altogether 
qnlorable.  The  Justiciary  Court  condemned  twenty 
r*ons  in  the  first  year  of  Charles  IPs  reign  (I CGI), 
id  in  one  day  of  the  same  year  the  council  issued 
nrteen  new  provincial  commissions,  the  aggregate 
I'ngs  of  which  one  shudders  to  guess  at.  To  compute 
»ar  condemnations  would  be  impossible,  for  victim 
0r  victim  perished  at  the  stake,  unnamed  and  un- 
a^  of.  Morayshire  became  at  this  particular  period 
»  scene  of  a  violent  fit  of  the  great  moral  frenzy,  and 
■ae  of  the  most  remarluible  examinations  signalising 
»  whole  course  of  Scottish  witchcraft  took  place  in 
lA  euunty.  The  detailH,  though  occasionally  ludicrous 
KU  their  absurdity,  are  too  horrible  for  narration  in 
»   present  pages. 

■Tlie  popular  frenzy  seems  to  have  exhausted  itself 
Sis  own  virulence  in  1661-62,  for  an  interval  of  six 
kza  subsequently  elapsed  without  a  single  justiciary 
ml  for  the  crime  of  witchcraft,  and  one  fellow  was 
Vially  whipped  for  charging  some  person  with  it. 
"       this  period,  the  dying  enu>ers  of  the  delusion  only 
out  on  occasions,  here  and  there,  into  a  niomen- 
flame.     In  1678,  several  women  were  condemned, 
their  own  confession,*'  says  tlie  Register ;  but  we 
this  only  means,  in  reality,  that  one  malicious 
made  voluntary  admissions  involving  others,  as 
■■t  often  have  been  the  case,  we  fear,  in  these  pro- 
fe^ngs.    Scattered  cases  took  nlace  near  tlie  beginning 
^he  eighteenth  century,  such  as  those  at  Paisley  in 
My  at  Pittenweem  in  1704,  and  at  Spott  about  the 
VM  iime.    It  is  curious,  that,  as  something  like  di- 
evidence  became  necessary  for  condemnation,  that 
ice  presented  itself,  and  in  tlic  shape  of  possessed 
tnehanted  young  persons,  who  were  brought  into 
t  to  phty  oif  their  tricks.     The  most  striking  case 
'tthis  nature  was  that  of  Christian  Shaw,  a  girl  about 
years  old,  and  the  daughter  of  Mr  Sliaw  of  Bar- 
,  in  Renfrewshire.     This  wretched  girl,  who 
to  have  been  an  accomplished  hypocrite,  young 
was,  quarrelled  with  a  maid-servant,  and,  to  be 
V^coged,  fell  into  convulsions,  saw  spirits,  and,  in  short, 
herself  bewitched.     To  sustain  her  story,  she 
one  person  after  another,  till  not  less  than 
;j  were  hupHcated,  some  of  them  children  of  the 
oi  twelve  and  fourteen  I     They  were  tried  on  the 
of  the  girl,  and  five  human  beings  perished 
ftwich  her  malicious  impostures.     It  is  i*emarkable 
IK[(  this  very  girl  afterwards  founded  the  thread  manu- 
■fare  in  Reurewshire.     From  a  friend  who  had  been 
Bolbnd,  she  learnt  some  secrets  in  spinning,  and, 
iMtiBig  them  skilfully  in  practice,  she  led  the  way  to 
l^  catenaive  operations  carried  on  in  that  de|>artment 
'  Ittte  yeftrs.    She  became  tlie  wife  of  the  minister  of 
fifaBMiri,  and,  it  is  to  be  hoped,  had  leisure  and  grace 
'    repeat  of  the  wicked  misapplication,  in  her  youth, 
*  IboM  talents  which  she  undoubtedly  possessed. 
«  Vm  last  justiciary  trial  for  witchcraft  in  Scotland 
^B  m  the  case  of  Eupeth  Rule,  who  was  convicted  in 
TM,  and — banisheti.     The  last  reguUur  execution  for 
l«  Clime  is  said  to  have  taken  pUuse  at  Dornoch  in 
r32,  when  an  old  woman  was  condemned  by  David 
«Hy  sheriff  of  Caithness.     But  we  fear  tlie  provincial 
l«ord8  of  the  north,  if  .inquired  into,  would  show  later 
■Mths  on  this  score.     However,  here  may  be  held  to 
ifeii  the  tragical  part  of  the  annals  of  Scottish  witchcraft. 
Ihe   numl^r  of  its  victims,  for  reasons  previouhly 
iated,  it  would  be  difficult  accurately  to  compute,  but 
i«  blaek  scroll  would  include,  accoi^ng  to  tliose  who 
ftve  moat  attentively  inquured  into  the  subject,  upwards 
r  FOOB  THOva^KD  persous !     And  by  what  a  fate  they 
erMbed !   Cruelly  tortured  while  livins,  and  dismissed 
-om  life  by  a  livmg  death  amid  the  £mea  I   And  for 

7<;i 


what  f  For  an  impossible  crime !  And  who  were  the 
victims,  and  who  the  executioners!  The  victims,  in 
by  far  the  majority  of  cases,  were  the  aged,  the  weak, 
the  deformed,  the  lame,  and  the  blind ;  those  to  whom 
nature  had  \)een  ungentle  in  her  outward  gifts,  or  whom 
years  and  infirmities  had  doomed  to  poverty  and  wretch- 
edness ;  exactly  that  class  of  miserable  beings,  in  short, 
for  whom  more  enlightened  times  provide  houses  of 
refuge,  and  endow  charitable  institutions,  aiming,  in 
the  spirit  of  true  benevolence,  to  supply  to  them  that 
attention  and  support  which  nature  or  circumstances 
have  denied  them  the  power  of  pi*ocuring  for  them- 
selves. Often,  too,  was  the  victim  a  person  distin- 
guished by  particular  gifts  and  endowments;  gifts 
bestowed  by  the  Creator  in  kindness,  but  rendered  fatal 
to  the  possessor  by  man.  These  were  the  victims  of 
witchcnift.  The  executioners  were  the  wisest  and 
greatest  of  their  time.  Men  distinguished  above  their 
fellows  for  knowledge  and  intelligence,  ministers  of 
religion  and  of  the  laws,  kings,  princes,  and  nobles — 
these,  and  such  as  these,  judged  of  the  crime,  pro- 
nounced the  doom,  and  sent  the  poor  victims  of  delu- 
sion to  the  torture,  the  stake,  and  the  scaffold. 

WITCHCRAFT  IN  ENGLAND. 

Witchcraft  was  first  denounced  in  England,  by  formal 
and  explicit  statutes,  in  the  year  1541,  in  the  reign  of 
Henry  VIII.  Previously  to  thai  time,  many  witch- 
trials  had  taken  place,  and  severe  punisliments  had  even 
been  inflicted  on  the  parties  concerned ;  but  this  was 
occasioned  by  the  direction  of  the  arts  of  sorcery,  in  these 
particular  instances,  against  the  lives  and  well-being  of 
others,  and  not  from  the  legal  criminality  of  such  arts 
themselves.  Shakspeare  has  made  some  early  cases  of 
this  nature  familiar  to  us,  and  in  particular  that  of  the 
Duchess  of  Gloucester,  who,  for  conspiring  with  witches 
against  the  life  of  the  reigning  sovereign,  Henry  VI., 
was  compelled  to  do  public  penance,  and  imprisoned 
for  life.  But,  as  has  been  said,  tlie  mode  of  prosecut- 
ing the  guilty  purpose  was  here  altogether  a  subsidiary 
matter.  If  a  person  waved  his  hat  three  times  in  the 
air,  and  three  times  cried  ^  Buzz!"  under  the  impres- 
sion that  by  that  formula  the  life  of  another  might  be 
taken  away,  the  old  law  and  law-makers  (as,  for  ex- 
ample, Seiden,  who  states  this  very  case)  considered 
the  formulist  worthy  of  death  as  a  murderer  in  intent ; 
and  upon  this  ])riticiple  the  traflicking  with  witches 
was  punished  in  early  times. 

Witchcraft,  however,  by  and  bye  assumed  greater 
statutory  importance,  in  England  as  elsewhere.  Henry 
Vlll.'stwo  acts  were  levelled  against  conjuration,  witch- 
craft, false  prophecies,  and  pulling  down  of  crosses.  Here 
the  charge  was  still  something  beyond  mere  sorcery, 
and  it  was  left  for  Elizabeth,  in  1562,  to  direct  a  statute 
exclusively  against  that  imaginary  crime.  At  the  same 
time,  that  princess  extenuated  her  conduct  in  part,  by 
limiting  the  penalty  of  the  crime,  when  stripped  of  its 
customary  accessories,  to  the  pillory.  The  first  trans- 
gression, at  least,  received  no  heavier  punishment.  The 
cases  of  Elizabeth's  reign  were  chiefly  cases  of  pre- 
tended possession,  sometimes,  however,  involving  capital 
charges  against  tliose  said  to  have  caused  the  possession. 
In  one  famous  case,  of  which  the  main  features  were 
as  ludicrous  as  the  issue  was  deplorable,  three  poor 
pei'bons,  an  old  man  named  Samuel,  with  his  wife  and 
daughter,  were  tried  at  Huntingdon,  for  having  be- 
witclied  the  children  of  a  Mr  Throgmorton.  Joan 
Throgmorton,  a  girl  of  fifteen,  and  the  eldest  of  the 
children,  was  the  main  witness  fur  the  prosecution. 
She  related  many  scenes,  in  which  the  actors  were  her- 
self and  a  number  of  spirits  sent  by  Dame  Samuel  to 
torment  her,  and  to  throw  her  into  fits.  These  spirits, 
she  said,  were  on  familiar  terms  with  her,  and  were 
named  Pluck,  Hardname,  Catch,  Blue,  and  three 
Smacks,  who  were  cousins.  Among  other  things,  she 
said  that  one  of  the  Smacks  professed  himself  an  ad- 
mirer of  hers,  and  beat  the  rest  for  her  sake,  aa  in  the 
following  instance  reUted  by  her.  One  day  Smack 
appeai'eu  bcfoi*e  her.  *^  Whence  come  you,  Mr  Smack  V 


CIIAMBEftSS  INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


^  Pluck  and  tl\e  rest, 
Ji-vard,"  replied 
Snrnok;  and  sooa  tlicreDfter,  aeconliogly,  Pluck  aod 
Blue  walked  in,  the  oue  nrith  hia  bead  broken,  and  the 
olber  limping-  "  How  do  you  manage  to  beat  thom  I" 
Baid  the  young  ladj  to  the  Tielorioua  Smaek ;  "  you  ace 
liltie,  Kod  Ihoy  ore  hig."  "  Oh,"  et,ya  Smack,  «  I  cau 
take  up  any  two  of  them,  and  my  couaine  beat  the  reet." 
Of  auch  sluir  were  these  charges  made.  It  would  ap- 
pear that  they  were  either  tlie  offspring  of  iaumlty  on 
the  part  of  the  youthful  Thro^orlona,  or  that,  having 
begun  liie  farce  in  sport  or  apite,  the  acouaers  found  at 
length  thai  tliey  could  not  retreat  without  a  disgrBceful 
confeaion  of  imposture.  In  part,  the  conduct  of  the 
poor  Samuela  was  affeoting,  and  even  high-minded. 
After  lengthened  worrying,  the  accuaera  got  Dame 
Sunuelindireclly  to  confess  her  guilt,  by  making  her 
repeat  a  prescribed  charm,  wliioh  had  the  effect  of  at 
once  bringing  tlie  ohildren  out  of  their  flla.  But  tbe 
old  man  and  tlie  dauglilet  steadily  maintained  llieir 
innocence.  The  unfortunate  family  were  condemned 
on  the  4th  April  15&3,  and  soon  after  eiecated. 

When  Jaoiea  1,  aaeeoded  the  Eogliih  tlironc,  he  un- 
fiirtunalaly  conceited  i I  to  be  his  duty  immediately  lo 
iltuminato  the  wuthems  on  the  aubjecl  of  witchcraft. 
Aa  act  of  the  first  year  of  hie  reign  dehnea  the  crime 
vith  a  degree  of  minulenesa  worthy  of  the  adept  from 
whose  peo  it  nndonbledly  proceeded.     "  Any  one  that 


naultoi 


__    .'roploy,  feed  or  reward,  any  evil  or  wicked 

■[nrit,  (0  or/orilii;)nrpoM;or  take  up  any  dead  tnwi, 
ita,  &c  &c. ;  BUoh  ofTenderB,  duly  and  lairfully  con- 
vtotnl  and  alt^ted,  shall  suHer  death."  We  have  here 
witchcraft  <irat  distinctly  made,  of  itself,  a  capital  crime. 
Many  yean  had  not  passed  away  after  the  passing  nf 
thia  statute,  erethedelnsion,  which  had  heretofore  com- 


epidemical  frenzy,  deraatating  every  comer  of  England. 

Leavinfi  out  of  Biglit  single  cxccmiuii.t,  we  find  suck 

'    '       ■  ■  -      '■(illr,.viTie  in  !il>i.n-J.ir.c"  nn 


.  "-••Mine  tongue, 
|.«.llcinTierhand, 

■L  i-sr-ciili'd  by  all  the  neiKti- 

,'l  pretended  10  spit  needles 


the 

record.     In  1 

once  at  Lsiu-,> 

the 

whole  kiiii^l.! 

sli 
t.-e 

ce  wilch.-s  ;■'  " 

n!n  Lonr:,-!..; 

discover  the  witch's  mark ;  he  1 
sheets,  with  tlie  groat  toes  aod  t' 
and  dragged  them  ihroagh  pond 
they  sunk,  it  was  held  as  ■  aen  that  H 
ment  did  not  reject  them,  and  Ihcy  wa 
if  they  floated  (as  they  usually  would  do  (ae  a 
they  were  then  set  down  as  goilly,  and  dMM 
kept  them  fasting  and  awake,  and  imrtli— 
santly  walking,  for  twenty-tour  or  forty-c^^bl 
an  inducement  to  eanreSBioii ;  and,  in  aluM,  m 
on  tha  accused  such  abomin&blv  cmeltii^  M 
vere  glad  to  escape  from  life  by  cionftaiioB.  If] 
could  not  shed  tears  al  eommuid  (laid  the  telhi 
of  this  wretch's  creed),  or  if  ahe  beiitated  M  • 
word  in  repeating  the  Lord's  Prayn-,  abewMal 
with  the  evil  one.  The  resalts  of  theocandH 
tests  were  actually  and  uniTeraallymdmittedMSii 
by  the  odmiulstralors  of  the  law,  who,  aMJaf 
tbem,  condemned  all  such  aa  had  tbe  amaiiBf  coi 
to  hold  out  against  the  tortnreaiDflieted.  Frvjai 
courts  tfaat  troublo.  Butler  baa  described  Bafia 
his  Hudibnis,  as  one 


After  he  had  mnrdercd  hundreds,  and  pcnaiJ 
trade  Tor  many  yean  (from  1G44  downwaidt)^  lb 
of  popular  opinion  finally  turned  agaioM  Uofta^ 
be  was  subjected,  by  a  party  of  indif;iunl  npoiaa 
to  his  own  favourite  teal  of  swimiaiDg.  li  i*  al 
he  cMSped  with  life,  but,  from  that  tmi«  [>«4  ti 
never  beard  of  again. 

The  era  of  the  Long  ParlianMnt  wu  lhtl,wl 
wbieii  iriluMwd  Bi«  Ei««tart  tnimbtraf  anaNi 
witchcraft  TTirrr  noHMnirf  permu  are  oUMI 
perished  during  the  cnntinuanee  nf  Ihe  ;itIiD^'' 
h(.<iy.  liv  ]-?-^\  ^lecutions,  indepen,I-nllv  n("imB 
,l..,,ii.  ;..  0-  Imnds  of  tho  raob,  Wucb-cw^ 
li">-.i'  ■!■  !■■■  I'liiilioucd  with  nearly  eqlul  &«^ 
'       ■  '-.     One  noted  ens*  ttenmi  ■  t 

'      '  l<t<>i]edaud  just  Sir  MatihisHdil 

.     :    ■■      1..      ..i   .>vo  women.   Amy  Uannj  ui] 

.■  :i'U'r,  ai  .'^;iint  Edmondsbury,  for  biwivtbif' 

■.      ili.irge  may  be  mentioned.     HHn;  eapnaad) 

■  I  =nineherrinj^  which  tbey  desiretHo  pan*" 

■  II  iiM  H-iimen  exprewed  thpniwltcs  in  imfalii* 

;:unge.  and  a  cliild  of  the  berring-dealcrsooasta* 

"  "    ill— in  consequence,     A  carter  droie  h««| 

ist  the  cottage  of  Amy  Dunny,  and  dm  tiw 

I  not  «niiatiirsl   nbj>irEWion.« ;  imDwdklcIyi 

<s  t^l."l-  I  '  iii_'n..i.  !-!  bv  either  nf  the  ^M 
Jii!   I    .      ■  .T'^lit-d  with  then* 


nrtilii 


.,rt,ar.l.ool^.r«« 

It...       |l;il.   ,>n  tW 


r'lc.f  ih.-if  iLcchiiina 
rted  tbi"  poAibUi^  9i 
m»l  aFcumroIh  ibcall 
r  Matthew  Hale  *■< 
his  time,  and  Sir  n 


pcottd  persrin'J,  1]riii>;i[ig  then 
alake  in  the  fullowiii);  manne 
Jiaki.>d,  shaved  them,  nod  llirun 


SUPERSTITIONS. 


I  aoeh  cases 


bSef-JasiiMS  North  and  Holt^  to  their  lasting  credit, 
ore  the  first  individuals  occupying  the  high  places  of 
ke  law,  who  had  at  once  the  good  sense  and  the  cou- 
igo  to  set  their  faces  against  the  continuance  of  this 
SBtmctive  delusion.  In  one  case,  by  detecting  a  piece 
t  gross  imposture,  Chief-Justice  North  threw  into  dis- 

?fate,  once  and  for  all,  the  trick  of  pin-vomiting,  one 
the  most  striking  and  convincing  practices  of  the 
iQiKSsed.  A  male  sorcerer  stood  at  the  bar,  and  his 
apposed  Tietim  was  in  court,  vomiting  pins  in  profu- 
ioa.  These  pins  were  straight,  a  circumstance  which 
the  greater  impression,  as  those  commonly  eiected 
were  bent,  engendering  frequently  the 
ion  of  their  having  been  previously  and  purposely 
in  the  mouth.  The  chief-justice  was  led  to  sus- 
flomething  in  this  case  by  certain  movements  of 
•  bewitched  woman,  and,  by  closely  cross-questioning 
m  of  her  own  witnesses,  he  brought  it  fully  out  that 
9  womaii  placed  pins  in  her  stomacher,  and,  by  a 
dropping  of  her  head  in  her  simulated  fits, 
up  the  articles  for  each  successive  ejection.  The 
as  found  guiltless.  The  acquittal  called  forth 
pointed  benedictions  on  the  judge  from  a  very  old 
present,  that  he  was  induced  to  ask  the  cause. 
»Si,  my  lord,"  said  she,  **  twenty  yearn  ago  they  would 
rm  banged  me  for  a  witch  if  they  could,  and  now,  but 
3onr  lordship,  they  would  have  murdered  my  inno- 
a-ft  son.*' 

File  detected  imposture  in  this  case  saved  the  accused. 
WW  under  Hol^s  justiceship,  however,  that  the  first 
i;«iittal  is  supposed  to  have  taken  place,  in  despite  of 
^nridenoe.  and  upon  the  fair  ground  of  the  general 
of  such  a  charge.  In  the  case  of  Mother 
gs,  tried  in  1694,  Sie  unfortunate  pannel  would 
have  perished,  had  not  Chief-Justice  Holt 
up  in  a  tone  so  decidedly  adverse  to  the  pro- 
that  the  verdict  of  Not  Guilty  was  called  forth 
the  jury.  In  about  ten  other  trials  before  Holt, 
n  the  years  1694  and  1701,  the  result  was  the 
through  the  same  influences.  It  must  be  re- 
,  however,  that  these  were  merely  noted 
in  which  the  parties  withstood  all  preliminary 
to  confession,  and  came  to  the  bar  with 
hvlea  of  not  guilty.  About  the  same  period,  that  is, 
■Hnig  the  latter  years  of  the  seventeenth  century, 
executions  were  still  common,  in  consequence 
us  extracted  after  the  Hopkins  fashion,  yet 
moeh  in  favour  with  the  lower  classes.  The  ac- 
mentioned  only  prove  that  the  regular  mini- 
of  the  law  were  growing  too  enlightened  to  coun- 
00  such  barbarities.  Cases  of  possession,  too, 
kttferly  overlooked  by  the  law,  which  would  have 
the  parties  concerned  to  a  speedy  end  in  earlier 
even  though  they  had  done  no  injury  to  other 
^9ic^  aud  were  simply  unfortunate  enougn  to  have 
^W  compacts  with  the  demon  for  the  attainment  of 
purely  personal  advantages.  For  example,  in 
there  occurred  the  famous  case  of  a  youth,  named 
Dogdale,  who  sacrificed  himself  to  the  devil, 
ition  of  being  made  the  best  dancer  in  Lanca- 
The  dissenting  clergy  took  this  youth  under 
diarge,  and  a  committee  of  them  fasted  and 
^jsd,  publicly  and  almost  incessantly,  fur  a  whole 
^^1  in  order  to  expel  the  dancing  demon.  The  idea 
_yris  impostor  leaping  for  a  twelvemonth,  and  playing 
2^'**ti0  tricks  before  uiese  grave  divines,  is  extremely 
^iflrons.  But  the  divines  played  tricks  not  less  fan- 
They  became  so  contemptuously  intimate  with 
demon,  as  to  mock  him  on  account  of  saltatory  de- 
""ites.  A  portion  of  their  addresses  to  him  on  this 
has  been  preserved,  but  of  too  ridiculous  a  na- 
for  quotation  in  these  pages.  If  any  thing  else 
a  mere  impostor,  it  is  probable  that  Dugdale  was 
ted  with  St  Vitus's  Dance;  and  this  is  the  more 
^^fyt  *•  *  regular  physician  brought  his  dancing  to  a 
^90  after  alL  But  the  divines  took  care  to  cUim  the 
^lit  of  the  cure. 

-^iUat  the  timo  of  Holt,  the  ministers  of  the  law  went 
^tep  farthor  in  their  course  of  improvement,  and  I 

763 


spared  the  accused  in  spite  of  condemnatory  fferdicts. 
In  1711,  Chief-Justice  Powell  presided  at  a  trial  where 
an  old  woman  was  pronounced  guilty.  The  judge,  who 
had  sneered  openly  at  the  whole  proceedings,  asked  the 
jury  if  they  found  the  woman  **  guilty  upon  the  indict- 
ment of  conversing  with  the  devil  in  the  shape  of  a 
cat  !*'  The  reply  was, "  We  do  find  her  guilty  of  that  f* 
but  the  question  of  the  judge  produced  its  intended 
effect  in  casting  ridicule  on  the  whole  charge,  and  the 
woman  was  pardoned.  An  able  writer  in  the  Foreign 
Quarterly  Review  remarks,  after  noticing  this  case, 
<'yet,  frightful  to  think,  after  all  this,  in  1716,  Mrs 
Hicks,  and  her  daughter,  aged  nine,  were  hanged  at 
Huntingdon  for  selling  their  souls  to  the  devil,  and 
raising  a  storm  by  pulling  off  their  stockings,  and  mak- 
ing a  hther  of  soap !  With  thb  crowning  atrocity,  the 
catalogue  of  murders  in  England  closes.'  And  a  long 
catalogue,  and  a  black  catalogue  it  was.  "  Barrington, 
in  his  observations  on  the  statute  of  Henry  VI.,  does 
not  hesitate  to  estimate  the  numbers  of  those  put  to 
death  in  England,  on  this  charge,  at  Thirty  Thousand  1" 

We  have  now  glanced  at  Uie  chief  features  in  the 
history  of  witchcraft  in  England,  from  the  enactment 
of  the  penal  statutes  against  it  These  statutes  were 
not  finally  abolished  till  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth 
century,  and  unhappy  consequences  followed,  in  various 
instances,  fromHheir  being  left  unrepealed.  Though 
among  the  enlightened  claraes  the  belief  in  witchcraft 
no  longer  existed,  the  populace,  in  town  and  country, 
still  held  by  the  superstitions  of  their  forefathers,  and, 
having  the  countenance  of  the  statute-book,  persecuted 
the  unfortunate  beings  whose  position  and  circumstances 
laid  them  open  to  the  suspicion  of  sorcery.  The  ban  of 
pubUc  opinion  told  severely  enough  upon  the  comforts 
of  such  poor  creatures,  but  the  rabble  occasionally 
carried  their  cruel  and  ignorant  oppressions  to  a  greater 
length.  On  the  30th  of  July  1751,  an  aged  pauper 
named  Osborne,  and  his  wife,  were  seized  by  a  mob  in 
Staffordshire,  dragged  through  pools,  and  otherwise  so 
vilely  misused,  that  the  woman  died  under  the  hands 
of  her  assailants.  The  attention  of  the  law,  and  the 
indignation  of  the  humane,  were  aroused.  One  man, 
who  had  taken  a  prominent  share  in  the  brutal  outrage, 
was  condemned  on  trial,  and  executed.  Immediately 
afterwards,  the  penal  statutes  against  witchcraft  were 
abrogated  by  the  legislature,  and  the  remembrance  of 
them  only  remains,  as  a  wonder  and  warning  to  the 
posterity  of  those  who  practised  and  suffered  from  them, 
as  well  as  to  mankind  at  large. 

It  must  not  be  imagined,  we  may  observe  in  conclu- 
sion, that  the  present  generation  has  no  need  of  such  a 
warning,  or  is  relieved  by  its  increased  enlightenment 
from  all  chance  of  falling  into  similar  errors.  The 
nineteenth  century  has  witnessed  such  impostors  as 
Johanna  Southcote,  Matthews,  and  Thorn,  and  has  seen 
a  degree  of  enthusiastic  and  unhesitating  credence  given 
to  their  pretensions  by  many  persons  moving  in  a  most 
respectable  rank  in  society,  which  shows  that  the  cre- 
dulous spirit  that  created  and  supported  witchcraft  is 
not  by  any  means  extinguished.  It  is  indeed  a  spirit 
only  to  be  fully  eradicated  by  such  a  universality  of 
education  and  intelligence  as  can  scarcely  be  expected 
to  exist,  excepting  after  the  lapse  of  long-coming  cen- 
turies of  improvement.  The  subject  which  has  been 
treated  of  hero,  has  therefore  a  moral.  In  brief  words, 
the  world  may  learn  from  it  the  peril  of  encouraging 
the  idea  of  the  possibility  of  direct  spiritual  influences 
and  communications  in  these  latter  days — a  thing  dis- 
countenanced alike  by  the  lights  of  reason  and  scripture. 

BPfiCnUL  ILLUSIONS. 

The  subject  of  spectral  illusions,  or,  to  use  the  common 
phraseology,  apparitions  or  spectres,  is  now,  in  the  esti- 
mation of  scientific  and  properly  informed  men,  one  €i 
the  simplest  and  most  intelligible  to  which  the  mind  can 
be  directed ;  while,  to  the  ignorant,  it  still  appears  full 
of  doubt  and  mystery.  An  apparition,  spectre,  gho0l9 
or  whatever  it  may  be  called,  is  vulgarly  supposed  to  bo 
a  supernatural  appearance — a  thing  occurring  out  of  the 


e  hy  disease.  Disease  uf  tlie  Lrain,  which 
involves  organic  menial  diaorder,  is  properly  disease  of 
llie  body,  but  euduriug  lunacy  or  faluity,  cxiating  (if 
they  can  da  ao)  wiUiout  disease  in  tlie  stmclure  of  the 
brain,  may  also  be  oKlted  organic  disorder  of  the  mind. 
These  enijlanaliona  will  show  what  is  meant  by  that 
epithet,  as  applied  either  to  afTectioDB  of  tlie  mind  or 
body.  Functional  disorder,  again,  of  the  niiiid  or  body, 
ia  that  condition  of  things  where  the  healthy  action  of 
the  organ  or  organs,  iu  part  or  whole,  is  impeded, 
without  the  existence  of  any  diuase  of  structure.  It 
may  be  said  that  violent  excitement  of  the  imagination 
or  paaaiooB  constitutes  futictional  mental  disorder; 
"auger  is  a  temporary  madness,"  said  the  Romans 
wisely.  As  for  functional  bodily  disorder,  temporary 
Sflections  of  the  digestive  organs  may  be  pointed  to  as 
CommoncaaesofBuch  a  species  of  physical  derangement. 
All  tfacae  disorders,  and  kinds  of  disorders,  may  appear 
in  B  complicated  form,  and,  what  is  of  most  impoiiaaco 
to  our  present  argument,  the  nervoiu  lytltm,  on  whicli 
depends  the  action  of  the  ttmet,  the  power  of  volition. 
Bod  the  operation  uf  all  the  involuntary  fuuetions  (audi 
aa  the  eiretilative  and  digestive  functions),  is,  and  must 
Decessarily  be,  involved  more  or  less  deeply  in  all  ciutes 
of  conatitulioiuU  disorder,  organic  or  functional.  These 
pnwers  of  Ilie  nerves,  which  form  the  sole  medium  by 
which  mind  and  body  act  and  react  on  eacli  other,  give 
us  a  clue  to  the  comprehension  of  those  strange  phciio- 
mcna  called  spectral  illusions,  which  depend  on  a  com- 
binatioD  of  mental  and  physical  impreseions. 

Organic  mental  disorder  generatea  spectral  illusions. 
Almost  every  lunatic  tells  you  that  he  sees  them,  and 
with  truth  ;  they  are  aeemingly  present  to  his  diseased 
percepliuiis.    The  same  cause,  simple  insanity,  partial 

tural  brain  disease,  liaa  been,  we  truly  believe,  at  the 
foundation  ofmanyDioreapparilion-caseslhanany  other 
cause.  By  far  tlie  greatest  number  of  luch  eases  ever 
put  on  record,  have  l>ecn  connected  with  fanaticism  in 
rrligioua  matters;  and  ran  there  be  a  doubt  that  the 
majority  of  the  poor  creatures,  men  and  women,  who 
hiLilually  subjected  tliemeelves,  in  the  enXj  centuries 


the  disease,  hut  when  his  stomach  reje 
ishment,  and  he  persiats  in  taking  stia 
are  for  the  most  part  speedily  visible, 
liarly  nervous  conatitutiona.  The  fir* 
monlv  a  slight  impainucnt  of  the  hea! 


icarme  an< 


probably  takes  place ;  then  any  comm 
the  rattle  of  a  cart  on  the  street,  aasoi 
a  particular  sound,  and  ariugea  it< 
tune  peHispa,or  certain  worda,  wbiehl 
and  are  byandbyorung  into  his  cart 
of  every  noise.  The  proverb,  "  aa  th 
the  bell  tiuks,"  becomes  very  applieab 
sense  of  seeing,  in  the  mean  while,  beg 
disorder  ;  figures  float  before  him  per 
eyes  are  clu6cd  at  night  By  day,  alai 
move  before  him  that  are  rMllyatalii 
of  touch,  taate,  and  suicU,  are  also  invd 
Id  this  way  the  diaturbanoa  of  the 
increasing  always  with  tfae  disorder! 
function,  until  the  anliappr  driuka' 
moat  probably  in  the  twilight,  by 
distinct  in  outline  as  living  being*,  ai 
bim  with  the  voice  of  life.  Ai 
realiliea,  but,  soon  diaooTei 
lurown  mto  tfae  deepest  alarm.  If  b 
to  approach  and  examine  any  one  of  th 
he  probably  finds  that  some  told  of  i 
shadow,  lisa  been  the  object  cunfcM 
sense  into  the  apparition,  and  he  may 
voice  was  but  some  simple  houaehoU 
by  his  disordered  ear  into  straogaapeci 
at  least  in  the  milder  coaea  of  Uiia  ■«■ 


idely  from  the  teal  si 
iRerings  of  the  party  may  go  ou  ii 
kes  courage  to  speak  tn  Vba  phjraid 
ire,  r«stoieahia  sjimeutaiy  oi^gaos  t< 
id,  in  ooDsequence,  the  Tiaions  alowl 


SUPERSTITIONS. 


I  him  to  go  away ;  but  receiving  no  answer,  he 
-  forward  to  seize  the  intruder,  and  to  Iiis  horror 
the  shape  to  be  but  a  phantom !  The  visitations 
led  by  night  and  by  day,  till  he  could  not  distin- 
real  customers  from  imaginary  ones,  so  definite 
itinet  were  the  latter  in  outline  Sometimes  they 
e  forms  of  living  friends,  and  sometimes  of  people 
sad.  Dr  Alderson  resorted  to  a  course  of  treat- 
rhich  restored  the  strength  of  the  digestive  or- 
Jid  gradually  banished  the  spectres.  At  the  close 
account,  it  is  said  that  the  man  emphatically 
eed  himself  to  have  now  received  **  a  perfect 
lion  of  the  nature  of  ghosts." 
ly  additional  cases  from  Hibbert,  Abereromby, 
ber  writers,  might  be  quoted,  in  which  the  visual 
■ions  and  perceptions  were  in  a  similar  way 
d  by  the  influence  of  digestive  derangement.  But 
loubt  can  rationally  exist  on  the  pomt,  from  the 
rative  commonness  of  the  disease,  no  more  proof 
be  brought  forward.  However,  the  inference 
Jly  deducible  from  these  facts  is  too  important 
overlooked.  Here  we  find,  by  unquestionable 
il  evidence,  that  a  man  walking  about  in  apparent 
health,  and  mentally  sane,  may  nevertheless  be 
t  to  most  distinct  vifiitations  of  spectral  figures, 
if  them  in  the  semblance  of  dead  persons.  We 
lis,  we  repeat,  to  be  within  the  range  of  natural 
mena.  Now,  is  it  not  more  likely,  in  those  cases 
wonderful  apparitions  are  reported  to  have  been 
that  the  whole  was  refei'able  to  such  natural 
\f  than  that  the  grave  gave  up  its  dead,  or  that 
fs  of  the  universe  were  specially  broken  in  upon 
'  other  way !  Even  with  only  one  such  admitted 
I  of  spectral  illusions  as  the  malady  alluded  to, 
ouM  certainly  err  in  passing  it  by  to  seek  fur 
lations  in  supernatural  quarters.  But  in  reality 
V6  many  causes  or  sources  of  them,  and  to  these 
ill  now  look,  in  continuation  of  our  argument. 
Mig  the  other  varieties  of  bodilv  ailments  affecting 
t^cture  or  function,  which  have  been  found  to 
es  spectral  illusions,  fevers,  inflammatory  affec- 
epUeptic  attacks,  hysteria,  and  disorders  of  the 

I  generally,  are  the  most  prominent.  As  re- 
fevers  and  inflammatory  affections,  particularly 
of  the  brain,  it  is  well  known  to  almost  every 
v  or  member  of  a  large  family,  that  scarcely  any 
>  ease  can  occur  without  illusions  of  the  sight  to  a 
■r  or  less  extent.  In  hysteric  and  epileptic  cases, 
Hiere  fits  or  partial  trances  occur,  Uie  same  phe- 
la  are  frequently  observed.  But  we  shall  not  en- 
an  the  effects  produced  by  the  influence  of  severe 
irioiiBly  existing  maladies,  as  it  is  in  those  cases 
^here  the  spectre-seer  has  exhibited  apparent 
of  mind  and  body,  that  special  wonder  has  been 
i.  It  is  so  far  of  great  importance,  however,  to 
that  these  diseases  do  produce  the  illusions,  as 

II  cases  it  will  be  found  on  inquiry  that  the  party 
t  to  them,  however  sound  to  appearance  at  the 
\fierteards  displayed  some  of  these  complaints  in 
ret;  and  we  may  then  rationally  explain  the 
natter  by  supposing  the  seeds  of  the  ailments  to 
«r]y  existed  in  a  latent  state.  A  German  lady,  of 
snt  talents  and  high  character,  published  an  ac- 
•ome  years  back  of  successive  visions  with  which 
d  been  honoured,  as  she  believed,  by  Divine  fa- 

Dr  Crichton,  however,  author  of  an  able  work 
sanity,  found  that  the  lady  was  always  affected 
Im  mtra  epUepiiea  during  the  prevalence  of  the 
Bs ;  or,  in  other  words,  that  she  was  labouring 

slight  attacks  of  epilepsy.  Thus  simply  was  ex- 
d  a  series  of  phenomena  which,  from  the  high 
Ster  for  veracity  of  the  subject  of  them,  astonished 
it  part  of  Germany.    Another  case,  where  func- 

bodily  disorder  of  a  different  and  very  simple 
vas  present  in  an  unrecognisable  state,  andi>ro- 

•xtraordinarr  illusions,  was  the  famous  one  of 
Of  the  Beiiin  bookseller.  This  individual,  when 
aifsctly  fit  state  to  attend  to  his  ordinary  busi- 
was  ioddeii)/  visit^  one  day,  when  casuaUj  ex- 

765 


cited  by  some  annoying  circumstance,  by  the  figure  of 
a  person  long  dead.  He  asked  his  wife,  who  was  pre- 
sent, if  she  saw  it ;  she  did  not  The  bookseller  was 
at  first  much  alarmed,  but,  being  a  man  of  sense  and 
intelligence,  he  soon  became  convinced  of  the  illusory 
yet  natural  character  of  the  spectra,  which  subse- 
quently, for  a  period  of  two  whole  years,  appeared  to 
him  in  great  numbers,  and  with  daily  frequency.  "  I 
generally  saw  (says  he)  human  forms  of  both  sexes, 
but  they  took  not  the  smallest  notice  of  each  other, 
moving  as  in  a  market-place,  where  all  are  eager  to 
press  through  the  crowd;  at  times,  however,  they 
seemed  to  be  transacting  business  with  one  another.  1 
also  saw  several  times  people  on  horseback,  dogs,  and 
birds.  All  these  phantasms  appeared  to  me  m  their 
natural  size,  and  as  distinct  as  if  alive;  none  of  the 
figures  appeared  particularly  terrible,  comical,  or  dis- 
gusting, most  of  them  being  of  an  uidifferent  shape,  and 
some  presenting  a  pleasing  aspect.  The  longer  these 
phantoms  continued  to  visit  me,  the  more  frequently 
did  they  return.*'     They  also  spoke  to  him  repeatedly. 

These  phantasms  lasted,  as  we  have  said,  two  years. 
The  issue  is  peculiarly  worthy  of  note.  Nicolai  had  in 
former  years  fallen  into  the  habit  of  periodical  blood- 
letting by  leeches,  but  had  ventured  to  stop  the  practice 
previous  to  the  accession  of  the  phantasms,  and  during 
their  prevalence  he  had  only  been  advised  to  attend  to 
the  state  of  his  digestive  organs.  After  they  had  en- 
dured for  the  time  mentioned,  it  was  thought  fit  to 
renew  the  blood-letting.  At  eleven  in  the  morning, 
while  the  room  was  crowded  with  the  spectral  figures, 
the  leeches  were  applied.  As  the  bleeding  slowly  pro- 
ceeded, the  figures  grew  dimmer  and  dimmer,  and 
finally,  by  eight  o'clock  in  the  evening,  they  had  all 
melted  into  uiln  air,  never  to  re-appear !  This  most 
remarkable  case,  the  first  in  which  any  individual  dared 
calmly  to  come  forward  and  avow  such  an  affection,  at 
the  risk  of  incurring  the  charge  of  insanity,  was  founded, 
we  thus  see,  simply  on  a  plethoric  or  surcharged  state 
of  the  blood-vessels.  Nicolai  deserves  great  credit  for 
the  philosophic  composure  with  which  he  recorded  the 
phenomena  presented  to  him ;  but  his  statement,  which 
has  often  been  republished  in  this  country,  seems  defec- 
tive in  some  points,  and,  from  the  interest  of  the  sub- 
ject, we  may  be  pardoned  for  presuming  to  notice  these. 
Generally  speaking,  he  represents  his  spectral  visitants 
as  things  which  came  and  went,  and  assumed  various 
shapes,  and  appeared  in  certain  numbers,  uninfluenced 
directly  by  himself.  The  total  dependence  which  they 
had  upon  his  own  fancy  of  the  moment,  is  not  put  clearly 
before  us,  though,  by  the  truthful  accuracy  of  bis  nar- 
rative, he  unconsciously  makes  that  fact  apparent  every 
instant.  The  surcharged  state  of  the  vessels  was  the 
fundamental  cause  of  the  phantasms,  but  his  own  pass- 
ing fancies  moulded  them  for  the  passing  moment  into, 
shape,  regulated  their  numbers,  and  gave  them  words. 
How  could  it  be  otherwise  t  The  whole  panorama  waa 
exhibited  on  his  own  retina,  and  the  working  brain 
behind  was  the  manager  and  scene-shifter  of  the  show. 

Second-Sight. — Second-sight,  taking  the  word  in  its 
common  acceptation  of  supernatural  sight-seeing,  is  one 
of  the  varieties  of  spectral  illusion.  Certain  mental 
functions  becoming  diseased,  the  sense  of  sight  is  im- 
posed upon  by  the  appearance  of  things  which  are  purely 
imaginary,  but  nevertheless  supposed  to  be  prophetic  of 
future  events.  Idleness,  solitude,  insufficient  diet,  and 
an  imagination  led  astray  by  ruminating  too  intensely 
on  the  causes  of  human  weal  and  wo,  may  be  assigned 
as  the  prevailing  causes  of  the  disease.  The  Lowland 
Scotch  used  occasionally  to  see  wraiths,  or  spectral 
appearances  of  persons  who  were  soon  to  quit  this 
mortal  scene ;  the  Irish  were  also  accustomed  to  the 
spectacle  of  fetches ;  and  the  Highlanders  had  their 
second-sight — the  whole,  be  it  observed,  being  but  a 
variety  of  the  same  mental  disease  and  delusion. 

Secondrsight,  however,  has  formed  the  subject  of  a 
more  regular  profession  than  any  other  species  of  spec- 
tral frenzy.  Tnere  were  persons,  who,  poesesaing  from 
iuianey  a'  defective  mental  constttution,  or  having  « 


less  rules  atlectmg  its  exercise,  ana  me  interpretation 
of  its  visions.  If  a  vision  occur  by  day,  for  example, 
the  accomplishment  of  what  it  is  supposed  to  predict 
will  be  speedy ;  if  by  night,  less  so.  An  exact  propor- 
tion, indeed,  is  maintained  in  this  respect — the  morn- 
ing vision  being  sooner  fulfilled  than  that  of  noon ;  the 
latter  more  quickly  than  that  of  the  afternoon ;  and  so 
on.  If  the  seer  beholds  a  figure  in  a  shroud,  it  is  con- 
sidered a  sure  sign  of  death  to  the  party  represented 
by  the  figure ;  and,  according  to  the  extent  to  which 
the  shroud  covers  the  body,  the  end  will  be  quicker  or 
slower.  If  a  woman  be  seen  at  a  man's  left  hand,  it 
is  a  presage  that  she  will  be  his  wife,  and  this  will  be 
the  case  (say  the  true  believers)  though  even  both 
should  then  be  married.  If  more  than  one  woman  be 
seen  standing  at  a  man's  left  hand,  they  will  be  married 
to  him  in  rotation,  as  they  stand  nearer  or  farther  from 
his  arm.  A  seer  often  announces  that  such  and  such 
a  gutet  will  arrive  at  a  certain  hour,  and,  though  a 
hundred  miles  away,  the  guest,  it  is  said,  will  appear  at 
the  stated  time.  If  a  seer  observe  a  vision  of  trees  and 
crops  in  some  spot  or  another,  though  perfectly  barren 
and  bare  at  the  moment,  wood  and  grain  will,  it  is  be- 
lieved, there  be  seen  in  due  time.  A  visionary  house 
is  beheld  by  the  gifted  eye,  in  a  place  where  stone  and 
lime  were  never  kid,  or  expected  to  be  laid.  Yet  there 
will  the  real  house  forthwith  be  seen.  To  see  a  seat 
as  if  vacant  when  one  is  sitting  in  it,  is  a  presaee  of  the 
party's  death.  The  seer  may  behold  crowds  of  people, 
or  single  individuals,  and  very  frequently  he  meets 
imaginary  funeral  parties,  and  determines  the  coming 
decease  by  the  apparent  mourners. 

These  rules  of  vaticination  are  said  to  he  unvarying. 
No  ordinary  person  sees  the  vbion  while  it  is  present 
to  the  seer,  but  the  same  vision  often  appears  to  two 
or  more  of  the  gifted,  either  while  they  are  together 
or  apart  The  Highlanders  believe  that  children  and 
the  lower  animals,  such  as  cows  and  horses,  behold  the 
appearances  while  they  are  before  the  seer.  This  is 
inade  plain,  thev  say,  in  the  case  of  the  animals,  by  the 
trembling  which  seizes  them  at  the  moment ;  and  fre- 
quently the  childwn  will  cry,  and,  if  asked  the  reason, 
will  tell  what  unusual  thing  they  behold  or  have  beheld. 
It  is  almost  needless  to  say,  that  the  stories  told  to  prove 
the  truth  of  these  notions,  rest  on  no  sure  foundation. 


mospnene  retracuon, 
natural  phenomena,  haringi 
event,  good  or  eriL 

Dreams. — It  has  now  been  • 
modes  in  which  the  syston  m 
produce  spectral  illanoni^  ai 
of  these  cases,  the  parties  sol 
to  be  not  only  of  aonncl  min 
health.  Another  mode  of  ex] 
scription  may  now  be  pointed 
ritions  which  have  been  voaefa 
to  them,  have  certainly  been  n 
vivid  dreams.  A  dream  is  a 
action  of  the  thinking  £acaltie 
sleep  ;  in  other  words,  when 
thinking  in  a  partially  wmken 
the  thought  is  m  all  cases  but 
perfectly  natural  in  its  open 
which  causes  it  being  pn>dn 
tional  derangement :  the  sto: 
more  out  of  order.  No  dreami 
sleep.  In  the  ereater  numbe 
awakened  mind  embarrasses 
collections  of  things  formerly 
dressing  these  up  in  a  new  ai 
of  drama  is  performed,  having 
A  servant  girl  living  in  a  £amu 
phrenological  busts,  and,  amo 
one  of  Curran,  awoke  her  bed 
with  the  alarming  information 
stood  at  the  foot  of  the  bed  dr 
and  having  on  his  pale  £ace  tl 
like  ornament  of  an  immense 
The  other  servant  could  see  n 
rition  seemed  to  her  compani 
some  minutes.  On  the  tale  b 
light  was  thrown  on  the  mati 
house  had  a  yacht,  and  its  sal 
frequently  aoout  the  premisi 
fatigued,  and  having  ner  drc 
between  her  household  duties 
beau  of  the  yacht,  the  girl'i 
Curran's  bust,  an  object  most 
the  way  mentioned,  giving  bin 
whiskers  as  a  fitting  appendage 


n,  atm  the  rtnikv  < 


ZfiTl 


n.  *S«*  nn  thai 

not  aij  hkinl,  it  ■■*  mT  Fithnr** ;  my  luaiil  i* 

t  in  tna  huit  ([lafaii).    WmiM  j-oo  kv  tub,'  m^*  ibB 

Ihliif;  •  pal  out  tha  imadia,  and  t  tlull  cunot  buU 
iDOw  [Itito  Ihn  (riilitc  ruom]  (mong  jfia  like  Qc«> 
,'**  Ac  Tho  oUt  uf  Ibn  miDbtttr  n-na  umruliaf. 
«ul  tllla  Umo  tha  diivll  bwan  nilli  nnw  ■Hkoltot 
UUog  Uiii  naAj  tniat  oliidj  wax  ro  Lh«  honw.ifld 
Ainm  hida  It  la  bole*  tij  Uiv  ilnDr-[Mi*L>i,  kdJ  it 
r  tinua  hid  It  nuiUir  iho  bud*,  aud  t/mnUmia 
3f  ths  bad-elotliE*  and  diuIdt  tn<  lliu<ii«,  uid  at 
did  VMxrj  it  iinils  ami,  till  nbthlog  wiu  Irft  Uht* 

hnod  uiit  wbKt.  Ho  gwidirire,  on*  tnoruhig 
\ng  pocrld^  for  Ibo  ebililren'B  bmkbiit,  lud  Ilis 


na  tttae  imivenatK;  :  ilJ  Tito 

■onauy.  A  modvni  ,■.  ,i,  rSft- 

y  r«llcied''ilia«llli<-:'  •  ::iiiy  dj»- 

ring  thv  poHbrmfr  t^^  m^'  int^H,  :utu  mkjng  b'uxt 
e\utadr. 

adira  ue  bcUnf  iu  aEriul  and  Iflrrntrial  ■plrllK,  our 
uloiu  aocDiton  pul  fnlch  lu  all  kSiuli  at  rimtuiiiuix 
«  or  riTor  uid  tea  ilsmout.  Tht  iiiotw  jiravalMit 
ine  lapcriticlaua  nntiaua  was  a  beCInt  In  marrnaida 
manuen,  «  olaa  d[  eiHtima  wbo  liwd  In  ilia  ih, 
iULd)>n<I|«li&ir'hoinaDh*lf-Rih.  Mcniulda a^aatr 
ivii  lia#u  muali  noro  oonmiDii  dian  nunuioi.  Ilta 
nald,  vra  ar<  tuM,  poeainwnl  Uio  bodj,  (Irafii  tba 
llo  Dpsanla,  nf  a  hmutiful  fomale,  with  a  bad  Oorr- 
illfa  long  nltow  liair,  vhioh  iti*  iniwiiiiuitlf  oaiabai 
ODo  hand,  whila  *ha  hdd  a  «Tnall  mirror  vitb  fha 
r.  Thli  htnala  nuioalar  or  Iba  drvji  b  dnaribad 
iving  been  a  oonaunl  •ehtmur  af  diMiniMian  to 
ding  DBTlgalom,  ur  tbwo  wba  bauntMl  uoCro^imM 

■  of  Ibe  MlH-lllOTE*. 

lother  af  tba  vulgar  fopcnlitloiui  ul  oor  aaewbtn 
a  twliaf  oannnDii  in  oatloiui  ot  Gennutls  ariau^ 
a  nurdcrod  poraon  vaald  iiami^a 


.  10  B^nilled  Ul  tbo  Scolllib  crimiiial 
■3L  Tbv  rnllottiR)!  iuctrrdibia  biUncie  vu  naoiiDU. 
cd  to  Sir  Walltfr  Kroll,  and  ia  gilm  tn  bia  Hin< 
>y  of  tbo  Scotiiib  ISotiet  (vol.  iu  |).  114.)    "  " — 


I,  going  a  HahluK  iu  tho  Hivor  Yamni,  fell 
Mia  loliigh         -'  .-.--. 

un,  Elabbrd  Lb  . 

w>h  aoi,  bv  boaiutcd  wbeilior  to  tly,  bI«o  Iiln»i>ir 


n  lb«  qniUTcl,  tbal  tha  UIii^  ill  a 

d  Llw  QtlioT  to  lbs  heart.    AMoubWal 

«  boaitatcd  wbeilior  in  tly,  b^*  Iilnwrii 

>  JoMic,  or  oonooal  the  oriino ;  and  Ui  ilm  ciid, 

III)  Iho  latlor  •ncduoC  bnfjing  tho  hodj  ot  Ua 
d  ■on'  dwp  in  tlio  laiidB.     At  the  morluig  lud 

BOCHMulal,  lilt  wsB  novpr  loiipoclcd,  althDocli  a 
la  ehaagB  iru  (ibairrTad  (n  fiii  bobaviaur,  wmb 
}t  to  a  ■enlud  inotanoholjr.  Tim*  Duwd  un  for  tlui 
i  at  BO,J  Jtatn,  wbi-n  a  uuith,  Miinit  n«ai  Ilia  ntua 
I,  dlMonrcd  an  uneiunluoa  and  ruriuD*  buni^  irtiitib 
It  in  hii  pooiut,  and  afiorwardii  *liuwnl  Iu  miiim 
to  in  hia  muthy.  Tbo  murderer  being  j^rmrM, 
an  old  *hile-h«dod  man.  Inuiing  nn  bi*  •tul^  da- 

■  ai^t  of  tho  Ultl*  bono;  but  boir  harrlbla  waa 
•uo  \—no  toonuT  bad  liv  uiuehrd  it,  than  ii  aiivaiMil 
purpt*  bliiod.  Boing  lold  where  it  >n«  fnniu^  ht 
laMd  lliv  orfnu^  iraa  ooiidainncd,  hut  htm  praronbd 
*alh  from  aulTaHug  tha  imniahiiwnt  due  In  bla 
t."  W*  need  only  add,  that  ou  widKum  b  ghcn 
c  trotb  d  tbia  linpNbabIa  tal«L  and  Jl  la  aiudy 
•rthf  of  beliaf. 

noraace  baa  orieatcon  JuAtf  Mrniad  lb*  motliar 
iparatitiau ;  vhrrorer  manldnd  arK  inijirt  ignonuiT. 
oat  aiMnutomod  to  tnea  cvoabi  i<i  lliair  iialuni 
iruainaM  ouias,  Ibvra  do  all  hind*  ot  ■uimiMr* 

DOIiviia  Inauriantljr  flmiriah.    Whan  Uia  tulal 

ailawa  llul  Matton  id  tttfenart  <ia«iaT  vmm  ""tt 
lAaea  Vr  *^  ^nurtocMK  «t  WVIAb  »MWra,<wi 


to  this  woman,  who,  for  threepence,  cute  through  the 
lobe  of  the  ear  with  a  pair  of  scissors,  then  makes  a 
cross  with  the  bh>od  upon  the  forehead  and  breast  of 
the  child.  On  the  following  Monday,  the  same  barba- 
rous ceremony  is  performed  upon  the  left  car  ;  and  on 
the  succeeding  Monday  the  right  ear  is  again  doomed 
to  undergo  the  same  ceremony.  In  some  cases  it  is 
deemed  necessary  to  perform  the  operation  nine  time^." 

The  occurrence  in  1840  of  a  fatal  disease  in  cattle, 
called  the  murraini  and  which  was  susceptible  of  remedy 
by  proper  surgical  means,  led  to  the  exposure  of  varions 
superstitious  obserTauces  among  a  respectable  class  of 
the  rural  population  of  England.  In  Northumberland, 
a  fire  kiudled  by  rubbing  together  two  pieces  of  hard 
wood,  was  carried  about  in  an  old  shoe  from  one  house 
to  another,  and  thus  passed  through  the  country  ;  with 
this  a  bonfire  was  lighted,  and  the  cattle  were  made  to 
pass  through  its  smoke,  which  was  supposed  to  render 
them  invulnerable  to  the  attacks  of  the  disease. 

In  Scotland,  cattle  are  the  subject  of  scarcely  less 
superstitious  maxims.  In  many  districts,  if  a  cow  has 
been  seized  witli  phthitis  pulmonalis,  or  any  inflamma- 
tory disorder,  or  if  she  has  become  hide-bound,  or 
rumination  has  been  accidentally  stopped,  tho  wise 
people  called  in  to  minister  know  but  ono  explication 
of  the  mystery  :  the  beast  has  got  the  tail-iU,  This 
is  an  imaginary  disorder  supposed  to  reside  in  the  tail, 
and  to  show  itself  by  eating  away  the  bone  of  that 
organ.  To  prove  its  presence,  the  CQw-doetor  will  ask 
the  owner  of  the  animal  to  feel  the  tail  near  ita  extre- 
mity, and  satisfv  himself  that  the  bone  is  **  clean  awa," 
tho  fact  being  that  in  that  region  there  is  only  a  (u^ft 
cartilage.  I  nder  this  miserable  delusion,  the  pet>plc 
make  incisions  in  the  tails  of  cattle,  into  which  they 
rub  salt,  soot,  or  homo  turpentine,  thus  adding  to  the 
pains  of  the  animal,  witliout  doing  the  least  for  the 
relief  of  the  real  malady.  Often  a  considerable  portion 
of  tho  tail  is  cut  olT,  by  way  of  making  the  euro  more 
certain.  An  educated  veterinary  surgeon  of  our  ac- 
quaintance informs  us  tliat,  in  some  cow-housea  in  liis 
neighbourhood,  thcro  is  not  a  cow  with  a  tail  above 
sixteen  inches  long. 


iKix.    WHICH     uj 


puaiicu     lu    a    guiu 

Theresa  presented  to  the  father  < 
Lockhart. 

The  Lee  Penny  did  not  loae  ita  U 
on  being  transferred  to  a  country*  < 
the  coiitrarv,  it  has  been  all  along,  e 
day,  remarkable  for  medical  virtue 
sovereign  in  tho  diseases  of  hoi*hed 
of  administering  it  is  this : — Holding 
is  three  times  plumped  down  into  a 
and  once  drawn  round — three  dips  t 
country  people  express  it — and,  th 
affected  drinking  this  water,  the  ci 
effectual.  Even  at  this  day,  rife  as 
said  or  supposed  to  be,  people  som 
great  distances  with  vessels,  which  tl 
charmed  in  the  manner  described,  ai 
home  in  order  to  administer  it  to  the 
rei^  of  Charles  I.,  the  people  of 
afflicted  with  the  plague,  sent  for  an 
of  the  Lee  Penny,  loavine  the  sum  i 
in  its  place  as  a  pledge.  Tliey  found 
were  impressed  with  so  high  an  opu 
tluit  thev  proposed  to  keep  it,  ana  I 
but  the  Laird  of  Lee  would  not  const 
venerable  and  so  gifted  an  hcir-ItM 
that  time  was  a  high  Cavalier,  and  c 
brought  against  him  by  the  party  wl 
pose,  was,  that  ho  effected  enrca  b] 
mancy.  One  other  remarkable  insti 
is  recorded.  About  the  beginning  d 
liSdy  Baird  of  SaughtonhaU  having 
dog,  and  exhibiting  all  the  nyinpton 
her  husband  obtained  a  loan  of  the  t 
having  drnnk  and  bathed  in  water  wl 
fled,  got  conipUitely  better.  That  this 
took  placo,  seems  indubitable,  fur  i 
member  of  the  Lee  family,  who  died  li 
hearing  the  laird  who  lent  the  Peni 
describe  how  he  and  his  dame  had 
SaughtonhaU,  and  splendidly  enterta 
for  the  use  of  the  tMisman.  Being  i 
incredible   number  of  persons,  win 


^Slla  tluui  otlm*!  1<  ... 

■iUlrA  luug  M  llMlf.  A  sovtl  aO"k  m  ^ 
Id  liar  vUU*  la  tlw  Dec,  li>  ■«>  buw  tliogi 
rewinjt  U  ^\o3  uu,  kdiI 
III  giviu  bcr  udalBtue. 
linn  ill  urn  art  uf  crwLei?  !■  nnljr  tiuiiikliln  bj 
nl  o|>cri«n«,  uii|  «  auvTUl  ■InJ)  o(  lb* 
(if  mtalii.  Mill  ll>»  applta&IJDD  at  muh*  uid 
I*.  It  is  alil*!);^  in  hnnwing  Imw  In  aukfuii 
leutliiiaiiHilialMiwibff  ■liU.  Wr  ili'nltan 
■lid  t)iu  ImtiuJi  vT  lluui-thi  f*T]'WnifillkUBi- 


iQg  Klul  UitilUJjr  ibptwd  limunfl'iA:  will,  if 
p«vn.t<I  M  nmrlrt  huntU,  in  unkr  lu  Uj  In 
nwal  ami  ntlwr  tinb  pnidMnM  lor  1»*  ai«K;r- 
sbn  •)■■>  "Tit  jMiw.  1.  ti.IT  i1v»iiujj»— tlui  »( 


->  p;lUr  d  ,   ^:L1U'{JI1JA  IrUlcbvtsOnlf  Mill  ■nilU> 

li :  nnd  M  oD,  aocoriiag  >o  laMn  bihI  Mfair  dr- 
m*.  II  don  iiul  onMBfilf  Mluv,  Ikit,  bi 
rinpUitflrill  of  fatra,  p«kWr  •ijimhc  m  hiiMHit 
liiT  Mm*  klti'I  ul  arllcln  irm  otOliMauJif  pu<> 

laliucAlU'UislnUcIl  l>  uuuliiuUiir  UL  If  K 
nr  >fuu«  (m  of  bt,  ii  u  u  lodiMlLo  tbal  ll« 
ut  lium  id  1>^  «Dd  lliBi  lb*  irttl  will  fmra 
4l»>irlsK  .MvMlnabinf— ilftvmwt«kt«d 
1  •ill  U  llMr  M  kiij  |)rk«.  n*  t>l  sf  pnl 
tellll]  tillitnull  tlliDDuut  BMl  DiUtl>«  ii  nun 
'Ab  Ml  W  Inflk  W*f  anrmiKiM  hJinuU  U 


The  age  of  f^anie  is  of  little  coiis<.M[iience,  as  it  is  hung 
for  a  c(mMderablo  length  of  time  before  (Ire^iiin*^. 

All  kinds  of  fish,  except  salmon,  should  be  purchasetl 
as  fresh  as  possible.  Freshness  in  cod,  haddock,  and 
generally  all  fish,  is  indicated  by  stiftne«s  in  all  parts  ' 
of  the  b(»dy,  and  a  clear  glittering  appearance  in  tlie 
scales.  Freshness  is  likewise  known  by  the  nniell.  If 
there  >>e  the  least  staleiiess,  the  fish  has  an  offensive 
odour.  As  tricks  are  sometimes  performed  with  the 
eyes  and  gills,  fresliness  of  appearance  in  these  is  not 
to  bo  tru}*ted. 

It  is  very  difficult  to  ascertain  when  eggs  are  per- 
fectly fresh.  There  arc  different  rules  on  the  subject, 
but  they  are  all  liable  to  failure.  One  mode  of  jud<^ing, 
is  to  hold  the  egg  between  the  eye  and  the  light  of  a 
candle,  shadowing  the  eye  with  the  hand ;  if  the  appear- 
ance is  universallv  luminous  without  anv  cloudiness, 
the  egg  is  fresh  ;  if  cloudy  or  not  unifonnly  luminous, 
it  is  pnibable  that  the  egg  is  unfit  for  use. 

liutter  may  bo  easily  selected  by  the  taste  and  the 
pmell ;  but  in  buying  both  eggs  and  butter,  it  is  In'st  to 
deal  with  a  p<>rson  on  whom  you  can  rely,  as  it  is 
lrniiblos4>mo  to  be  continually  6ei>king  out  and  exa- 
mining these  articles  to  detennine  their  freshness. 

Good  ham  and  bacon  have  a  fresli  savoury  smell ; 
the  fat  is  white,  and  free  from  any  yellowness.  If  it  be 
yellow,  reject  it,  as  it  will  soon  become  rank  and  rusty. 
Flour  for  culinary  purposes  should  be  new  and  fresh. 
Old  flour  is  liable  to  spoil  and  become  full  of  animal 
life,  in  which  condition  it  is  unfit  for  pastrv  and  other 
dishes.  The  best  kind  of  salt  for  the  kitelien  is  that 
which  is  purchased  in  lumps  and  cut  down. 

Krepintj  Afrat. — A  larder  is  a  place  where  fresh 
meat  is  kept  till  it  is  in  a  fit  state  for  being  cooked,  and 
where  cold  meat  or  any  other  kind  of  UhhI  may  be  S4't 
aside.  The  larder  should  be  cool  and  dry,  with  the 
outer  air  playing  freely  through  it.  It  should  also  be 
iniporviousto  vermin  or  insects,  particularly  flies.  Two 
or  three  shelves,  and  a  few  strong  iron  hooks  for 
hanging  the  meat,  are  the  only  furniture. 

Beef  and  mutton  are  always  improved  by  hanging 
some  time  after  being  killed  before  they  are  cooked. 
The  length  of  time  which  they  may  be  kept  depends  on 
the  btate  of  the  weather.  The  best  wtnither  for  the 
purpose  is  when  the  atmosphere  is  civ^I,  clear,  and  dry ; 
in  -iicli  rir«Mni!'»l;iii('Os  h»i  i  Ji"'l  riiitt«n  inuy  li.iii.;  tV<Mn 
iiiiir  ti)  *'U  '\:i\-  :  imittoii,  if  \\«-ii  I'lMiiai,"*  i.  iiia\  Iian-' a 


warm,  as  in  that  case  the  jui< 
remain  to  enrich  the  meat. 

Keeping  VrgrtaUes. — Vfijel 
be  used  as  soon  after  gnihc 
begin  to  ferment,  and  to  Ioh 
their  wholesomeness,  very  sJ 
from  the  ground.  When  th< 
kept  for  a  day  or  twi»,  place 
and  cool  situation,  but  notexf 
Keep  aL«o  each  kind  of  vegetal 
to  prevent  cimtaiitinaticm  of  fla 
be  washed  oT  placed  in  wate: 
being  used. 

Kitchen  Ranpr. — The  mo* 

cooking  apparatus  is  the  nny 

too  little  care  is  bestowed  bv  \« 
I  *  * 

I  up  housekeeping,  in  making 

I  article.     A  common  ern»r  e 

'  which  are  too  large,  and  wh; 

.  nn»re  fuel  than  is  neinwi^ar*-,  ei 

I  * 

foith  heat.     One  of  the  chief 

to  rr>ok  victuals  with  tlie  sm: 

coal.     To  effect  this  desirabh 

of  a  small  size,  consisting  of  \ 

large  enough  for  only  one  v 

j  the  one  side  and  a  boiler  on  ' 

!  going  round  the  bnek  of  the 

'  whole  to  be  flat.     The  fin.»  in 

I  the  water  in  the  boiler  wiihnii 

!  a  great  measure  render  the  i 

■  necessary.     The  fire  will  al«« 

\  the  oven,  w*hich  at  leniit  will 

plates ;  and  if  requirtnlfor  bal 

of  live  coal  put  into  the  fum 

cient.    A  range  of  this  descrif 

X4,  lOs.,  will  at  once  mast  r 

bake  a  die>h  in  the  oven,  th* 

'  separate  or  large  oven,  and  I 

!  at  least  three  vessels  on  the 

'  and  oven.     Care  should  be  ta 

:  in  such  a  manner  that  the  si 

I  pass  upwards  behind  to  the  ( 

;  get  her  of  iron,  this  kind  of  i 

I  building. 

The  main  advanfai^»  of  src 

«!•;  •   »'\',i,-r;t  i;.-'-  I    \'.\     i  f."      \"   ;ir 


1  IvUi  Ui*]i|iBB(rvi|DMltf 

•tHiTD.    Tbu  ilwb  m»j  \i0 

ilw  r*i|«I(M  I*  b«  mfl 
■i  la  riimnvrai  all  pcrti. 


-I»  rarnr.  lu  rmwiiiii;,  luul<',  u  aJnaJjr  ■!•- 
willi  iu  owu  dritivuij!-     "i'i"  (nt']'  (id-  ludJi 

aliK  lama  u  fi^  buti  uc  lauUun,  uuiieljr,  hot 

ul  uJt  paanul  arti  il  i  ii  t<  aim  i-iialitiBUy  l» 
Dp  i>liki»Uilmui>toa«RaU  lurnnii. 

oif  I'd. — rnck  rni«lm  t  Iniif^rr  limn  {■ 
liiui   an)'  nf  llin   prwnliDj;  mrai^      Wtwn 


iinuiin>uivt'<'it)'>|'p>f«.  Tim 

■•r  >i  nil  till!  •mil.  li  k  sm- 
Ih  k»a  •pple-wiKn  mfvbI  la 
u  In  nii-jvonilDX  tl>r  n«lum 
ii,  •a4  imparu  •  •ll^lu  msIu- 

— Tl'n  animal  I"4thI  r******? 


CHAMHEitSS  INPOUMATIOS  K(Ml  11!E  t'BOPU 


iprww.  l'h«  Ekjii  should  bK  frl*p,  (tiiJ  nlCnly-liWiWlTPiI. 
Olrfore  bruidHg  lu  laljle,  split  dnwii  ll.o  biic!i  flora  he*d 
fo  ^,  nua  lay  it  dat  iii  ih«  itlBb  »iili  the  ^kia  side 

i^^niost.  Tho  iiekd  U  cut  ufT^AIicI,  being  9[>li(  In 
two,  t,  iaif  h  bid  si  each  end.  The  bn^tu  are  Ukm 
eU%f  and.  Willi  the  liyef,  which  hw  been  previniisly 
boiied  tati  Hncly  cliopped,  U  niJxpd  either  with  beef  uf 
v«l  gravy  ill  n  Email  turMu.  A|iple-«tOee  is  »l«ii  Deed. 
This  i>  lliu  most  approved  oiode  uf  Ecrviiig  up  sucking- 

To  rofl«(  Bulloeii'  Iftan — Wadi  flic  he«rt  wM, 

'  ceifis  it  CDSi^lGielj'  rrom  blood.    Thra  fill  all  the 

''^liiiM  fit  the  ti'p  ur  broad  ond  villi  n  utuSiDg  coni- 

Sj'ol  crumbs  of  brend,  ehoppMl  (uet,  pBralri-,  p«>- 

■  tiid  eall,  DivUtcncd  with  «n  egg  and  ■  liitle  milk. 

end  ivitli  the  poiuted  end  downwaFds.     An  liuur 

ft  half  or  two  houn,  oucurding  to  tbe  de;e:n>a  uf 

.  t  will  f'ool'  llie  *»'■-    I'  rfiould,  however,  be  well 

ioiip.     S«nd  lo  Isble  with  beef  grnvf. 

n  matt  Piffe^ru—Vick  and  divw  llieni  •rell,  ai<d 
trau,  keeping  oii  the  f«t.  Make  a  Blufflog  of  the  liver 
ct)apped,  ciiinilts  ufbread,  minced  pareley,  pepper,  nit, 
iihd  a  Illtle  bnlUT ;  put  tliia  ituide.  Make  a  slit  in  one 
of  ihe  leg»,  and  snp  the  other  leg  thmngli  it.  Skewer 
knd  roMt  thcDi  for  half  an  hour,  baating  them  well  with 
butter.  Serve  with  brown  gravy  in  a  mmTI  tureen. 
Sumo  aerve  roost  pigeoiit,  or  game,  will)  loost  Li-ead 
heneath  them,  and  brud  salice. 

To  Toatl  Fmeh, — I'ick,dntw,uida!ngotheni.  A  fowl 
ullnald  be  ea  clennly  or  well  druwn  ai  to  rvquire  no 
wuhing.  Talre  oarc  not  to  break  the  gsll-b«g  in  dniw- 
hig ;  ifthe  gall  be  spilled,  it  will  eoinmuQieile  a  hitler 
lasla  to  even  part  it  t«uehp9.  Press  dowu  the  breu-st- 
hono.  Ureak  tbe  legs  bj'  the  middle  of  the  (iivt  joint, 
drawing  nut  the  einewe,  vod  culling  of  the  parts  at  the 
break.  It  being  proper  that  rooat  towle  should  have 
a  neat  appearance  kt  table,  it  ia  customary  to  truss 
jh«in,  llial  is,  to  flx  their  lepjs  and  ninjpi  in  a  particiilnr 


Ihe  hvcr  being  placed  aa  an  ornament  iu  one  niug  and 
the  giiaird  in  the  other.  Cut  the  head  off  elogo  to  tlic 
body,  leaving  a  infficiency  of  the  akin  to  be  tied  or 
skewered  on  the  back,  lioste  welt  with  hatter  for 
some  time  after  putting  to  the  tire.  Suspend  ni^k 
downwards.  The  lime  of  roasting  will  vary  from  half 
an  hour  to  an  hour,  according  totheBizoof  Ihc  chicken 
Di  fowl  When  fowls  are  large,  they  itre  freqaenlly 
stuffed  like  turkey. 

Before  sending  In  tahtr,  roinovu  all  skewers  and  strings 
which  may  have  been  used  in  trnsEting.  This,  which 
should  be  dnue  in  all  cnsos  of  serving  dishes  lo  t»blr, 

cnoli'i  N .       I  ■•.■:-.  :•.'  I  .i'.  nilier  fcalhcred  animals  are 


the  side  of  Uin  brouit.  Ti'O  kp  »ai  *« 
tmssed  in  mueli  the  bbiuk  mAaasx  ai  baW 
are' left  en,  anitetnesedofiiFetM  t*Mit««l 
In  ilie  imm«x«t  ffjjuFe.  UaatDardodbM 
i^lmr  fire.  When  atnmi  hdU  ««■■,««<• 
over  th«tt  10  be  brouraeil.  A  i*nnd|«  eil 
twenty  minain  to  hn)f  an  boor,  and  a  [*• 
quarters  of  an  hoar.  Ssrw  an  l~i—  '  I 
gravy  ud  bread  ••«««  |  the  tawttd  '.an 
dipped  in  ilie  gmvy. 

Oronse  and  lifaiOirodi  nhmiM  h*  dna^i 
in  Ihe  same  numm-;  ilie  b«ai  habf  tm 
the  w^iij;.    Snipes  and  wn>.de««At  are  iia(4 

Tbrwuf  OmM.— Pieli,  dnw,  u>d  nafetil 
Cut  Oirits  head  Hnd  neck.  Takrolfltiel^a 
l^ie  tint  joint.  Theponiuns  iif  U<*  ■•«<  *•! 
are  left  are  skewered  td  the  sidn,    .Swffal 

3e  itnd  onion,  and  eniiubs  of  bwil.  Mki 
,  The  skin  of  the  nuixk  luiul  bo  (U« 
prevent  tlie  gravy  frain  running  QUI.  Pif* 
for  a  abort  time.  A  gooae  doea  nsi  fiaV 
basting  as  fowl  or  lurker,  for  il  isnatan^) 
witi  require  tVom  loo  lioora  Mlwo  honnM 
routing.  It  ought  («  be  thorouihlr  diot. 
gravy  saaec  Slid  apple  sanee^  Tl»ti<«r,<ta 
neck,  feel,  and  the  pinians  of  Ihe  ^o«•^  w 
termed  ihesMfU,  and  eonmHa  a  gt^  «!•• 
To  man  Oudts.— Pick,  draw,  aad  iiisn 
Takeoff  the  bead.  Dtji  the  IWl  In  b4a<^« 
off  Ihe  outer  yrllow  ^ia.  IVoas  thma  mM 
tile  feet  ftjit  npoii  rile  b 
~  ~  ~  id  serve  with  the  lai 
hour  in  mialiiig. 


m  roait  //nrr.— A  hare  will  keep  «tt 
on  it,  nnd  paunehed,  for  about  tbne  wui 
weallicr.  II  is  then  Gt  for  HMstiug.  Ik 
iho  feet,  and  commence  dnwin;  off  lb*  d 
hind  legs,  proceeding  along  the  tA>dj  to  ibsl 
careful  nut  lo  tear  the  tars  in  ahiDniiig  Iki 
and  wash  well  in  wt^ral  waters,  and  iba  • 
dry.  Stuff  alth  crumbs  of  bread,  ehupfal' 
bit  of  beef  or  veal  suet  chopped  tincly,  all 


pepp 

rand 

lausage 

the  or 

lice  or 

e  piiTiMiK  lo  thv  nre,  ™v,^r  Ihe  breast  with 

ting-paptr  well  bullered. 

0   J,!*, 

B,  and  which  may  be  rem 

uved  a 

i*ort 

king  from  tl.c  hre,  to  allow 

Ilia  bre 

asl  1" 

IkiBlewell  with  bouer.     A  torke 

y  will 

hour  and  a  half  10  two  houn.    Serv 

ewilh 

nd  breail  sauce. 

To   rxntt   I'nrlr 

dgt'.- 

Pick, 

p              draw,   singe,    ajii! 

clean 

thrive 

owls. 

LeavL. 

^o       Ihelieridon.     Mak 

ea^lil 

nlhe 

Ij™          inTjk,  ond  draw  c 

SL-    'I'wift  llie  nevk  ro 

nd  the 

^^         and  bring   the   he 

nd    In 

-  tnalad  first  nth  ■ 

viirds  with  1iuii»,  Mooring  it  ligltfjy.  It  •! 
rum  an  hnur  and  a  half  to  twit  boara  D 
lielied  back  upward',  aa  r*pr»— uted  abaHi* 
viih  II  disk  of  rich  lieef  gmtv,  andadBhirf^ 


•yitli  a*  dith,  (nil  iWii 
ill  th'-j-  mi)  rtlt,    n^ 


1 1  tlcU  (linn  a  drlloUD  ititJi, 
■■■V.  Tbe  bui  cHllcliat* 
■  I.-  (I'l?  frnii  bffliu;;  (he 


.    v.uidkliauU 


niuji  It  MuJo  IW  cuiliU  |1<*  iMu*  u  far  tiM 

iL  bdil  a  hula  Juloa  iiT  ■  lp<n"u,  and  tkic*  Ibr 
i>r»  piinriiii  U  oiia-  liie  euiicto. 
mbA  (.  Avfuo— I«ml>  duqn  iiikj  be  clUiia'wm|Jj 
!■  iklna  BiauDBr  u  muium  chini*,  ur  <ru^«J 
•ad  cninbi  rf  LmiuI  (liut  niih  tui  I«n1i<)r), 
•MM  n'  nitl»la  flnty  nrailr  in  Ik*  |«ii,  n 
rtrakk 

btilHraBalklji  iln-'  r 

■4tOll»MIIWDH^ti 


Latter  so  fmiiu'tl,  ai'tri*  which  fry  in  larrl  ov  p»od  frrsh 
<lrilil>in^,  uf  which  there  imi»t  he  a  suniciciicy  in  tin» 
pail  ahuuht  to  covor  thctrii»e.  Ij«?t  it  he  *Unw  t"  a  light 
Lrowii.     ljari)i>^ii  with  fried  i»arslcy. 

To/ri/  I'aralri/. — rai*sloy  i.«,  fried  tmly  fi»r  Raniishin;;. 
It  iiiu»»t  be  tlioroiij^hly  drii'd,  and  fried  in  hni  hutter  i»r 
dri|i|iin^.  After  frying,  lay  it  on  a  Kievo  hef»>i*u  the 
Arc  i(»r  the  fat  to  drain  from  il ;  aflL-r  whu'h,  [>lace  it 
round  the  I'd'^a  of  the  disli. 

To  fry  liftcony  or  Ham  uud  TS/ji/s. — The  bactm  should 
be  cut  Very  thinly  in  bliees  not  nmre  than  a  quarter  oi 
an  inch  in  thickness.  The  best  bacon  is  that  which  i^ 
alti'rnatcly  streaked  with  fat  and  lean.  No  butter  or 
dripping  is  re<iuireil  in  the  pan  in  frying  bacon,  which 
do08  not  need  much  drejisin;;,  and  ia  soon  ]>repared. 
AVhen  dune,  take  the  slices  from  the  ]ian,  and  place 
tliem  in  u  hot  di.sh  before  the  lire.  Have  the  number 
of  egijH  re<[uire»l  pre\iously  broken,  each  in  a  separate 
cup,  and  place  them  gently  iu  the  pan,  ko  as  to  pretierve 
them  in  a  round  liat  bhapo.  Let  them  remain  in  the 
pan  till  the  whitu  iH  set,  and  taku  them  out  eanfully 
with  a  Alice,  and  place  them  on  the  bacon.  Tlie  taste- 
ful appearance  of  this  dish  is  s])oiled,  if  th«^  cj^i^h  lie 
cither  broken  or  ra<;;;ed,  which  is  very  apt  to  be  the 
case  if  they  are  not  previously  put  intf»  cups. 

Tufryi'oUopa. — The ditference  betwixt  this  dish  and 
fried  steaks,  is,  that  the  collops  or  pit^cea  of  meat  are 
partially  stewcil,  as  well  as  fried.  Cut  tjio  meat  thinner 
than  f(»r  broiling,  and  put  the  blici.'e  in  a  pan  alon^  with 
a  lar^e  piece  of  butter  and  sliced  onions.  Cover  it  clo^e, 
and  when  the  meat  is  autticiently  dressed,  add  a  little 
hot  water  and  ketchup  to  the  liquor  already  iii  the  ]an. 

1K>IIJ.NU. 

Boiling  is  tin'  preparation  of  meat  in  water,  and  it 


boiled.  In  all  cases  of  boiling,  there  must  be  a  sulli- 
cieiiey  of  water  ti>  cover  the  meat.  In  boiling  meat 
theix*  is  less  waste  than  in  rtusting ;  and,  in  some  cases, 
houp  may  be  made  (if  the  liquor.     It  is  a  genenil  di- 

.•  »  I '  .1.11  •  .  "  * 


at  the  juint  if  ncces>ary,  so  as  ii» 
hours  of  slow  eijual  briilini*  will  b 
sized  h'g  of  mutton.  Some  per* 
li>ok  white  and  tasteful,  wrap  it 
boiling;  but  this  spoils  the  li'|Uni 
Bafi'  to  boil  vii;<'tabl*'s  with  a  l»g 
apt  to  flavour  the  meat.  I>isl]  il 
the  litpior,  ]>lacin:;  the  luwer  si» 
niently  for  carving.  A  giu'd  l-'jj 
yield  sutticient  gra>y. 

The  ^auee  nseil  is  f*:iiflv  e!i«'ii: 
butler.  Turnii»s  ina«<hed  or  u  h-ii 
vegetable  to  be  cati'ii  with  tlil**  lii' 

To  fft/il  a  J.vtj  nf  l.nmh.  —  A  li-; 
boiird,  is  a  delicate  and  e\eeliei 
about  an  liourand  a  hall'.  When  ^ 
it  is  wrapt  in  cloth,  the  same  as  n 
garnish  with  the  loin  cut  into  ehi 
round  it.  The  »>auce  uaco  i.><  \  \. 
parsley  and  l)Utter. 

'To  hoi/  VrnK — ^'eal  is  seldi»nibi 
bv  that  mode  of  dn.'ssin;'.  The  e 
knuckle,  \%hieli  retiuinj^nmcli  bnii 
the  sinews.  It  is  eaten  with  boiU 
Niuce  u>ed  is  parsley  and  butte 
boilt*d  veal  is  the  best  of  any  for  \ 

To  hoil  n  Turkri/. — lk>iled  turk 
delicate  and  excellent  disilie^*  wiii 
table,  and  should  be  dresM-d  w 
possilde.  Clean  the  turkey  from  a 
the  hair  with  burning  pa{H'r,  I 
blacken  the  skin.  Clean  it  well  ii 
wiping.  Cutotfthe  leg-*  at  the  1 
ont  the  RinuwH;  then  pull  down  tl 
legs  inside.  Cut  olf  the  head  cIom 
the  Bkin  long,  and  draw  out  the  ri 
of  chopped  suet,  eruiubs  of  bre. 
pe]iper,  suit,  and  a  little  nutmeg,  i 
and  milk.  I*ut  this  stutiiug  intc 
room  for  the  stuHing  to  sxtell;  i 
skin  of  the  breubt  over  the  openi 
acriiss  the  back  ;  by  which  niean.^ 


DOilBSTlC  KCONOMV-COOKEBY- 


I'arb  niiulm  t»  be  nanJca- 
il  la  tbc  |iol  Htlii  tW  ikln  ud* 
kvliiiT  li,  for  Durk  u  vvrj  a^t 
1  Uu>  Vot.     I'eaa  {ludUlug  u 

pintrtj  «ilL  thii  dU'i. 

—If  lurtli  Katk  Ihu  tihDSU*  in  walar 

5kiu  it  befviii  ifinliuitf-     Uanu- : 

'ip*  b  (loivliaM-l  Tcum  i" 


(»w  .<Mui(a  twJ  CiHfit — Cai  Ihu  War  in  lijna 
tbliinu- iluii  (ur  kfuilUiit  w  fcjlutf,  fui  ib*i» 
ni-pan,*illiuiicrriutilu>ciitti]  iiwU- [;i*t|.  Adil 
lanvt,  tanilp  vut  iuuji."  .^v 

li.    Si"*  (or  ui  liuur,  i( 

Wbnt  ikiat,  till  '  '  • 

iKit  or  Sinn*.  '■!'  !  I'. 

M  i.aj  n.  Iiuiv  ii.i'  .  I.I. 


fe-lB  Iw  lamil  pUin,  oirr;  i"  tabla  tir* 
IKdI  iba  n-atar  wiUi  ithioh  it  b>«  been 

1  it.     A  Ualanil  */^j  iif  mcrv. 

4Ui]r  ftflET  huiliUK.  uixi  oUn 
iminutaaiiiaaauMiMri  wtth  milk,  wlileii 
»  Itlthr  ArruwMwi,  ur  tloar  utd  buttrr, 
rb  papparuid  utlt.    TLunuki'  kti^lv 

■hml—i:i>f>'Un\  iliimM  ba  buiM  fiw  li" 
rr  uU  til*  bums  viU  aCii  out.  Ntiv  wiili 
^nl  pindrj-  uiJ  batter. 


butter,  W  [u  the  veat,  tai  brvwu  tt  uu  tmdi  ilda*. 
Wlim  •offloianll;  browu,  pui  la  *  |il<il  u>  mU  >alar, 


(«eu...       .-.  ■ 

7a  ilrw  A'l(/n«y<,— Cm  t)>i 
ibiFia,  Biiil  liry  tliani  n^lh  a  i  ■ 

flNiir,  smf  fry  tlmm  w-I'li  l.^.f 


C£ 


bamv.    Ii  ak-i  j 

■fan;  b;  "li'.-^  t.^-^i  u^j  i-^  jp-u.-i  .■■! 

■  IK)  a(  il..iir^  l>  UKViulib     A  .t*«=i| 

uum.  will  ^rry  <mriu  uiil  In  fuj4  wiuii- 

li'nir,  Ui<  ■  >'»lled  or  Chnl  itok  wnniil 

'k  ImalMt  or  TOImp,  : 

*■     •  -     Tirt  a  III- 

ftkllntKr.     Til.;. 


given  to  the  fullowing  excellent  prcpai-ation  of  cold 
meat.  Cut  the  meat  in  BliceD ;  peppvr,  Bait,  and  ilour 
them,  and  lay  them  in  a  dish.  Take  a  few  pickles  of 
any  kind,  or  a  small  quantity  of  jiicklod  cabbage,  and 
sprinkle  tliem  uver  the  meat.  Then  tiikou  tea-cup  lialf 
full  of  water ;  add  to  it  a  small  quantity  (»f  the  vinegar 
belonging  to  the  pickles,  a  small  quantity  of  ketehup, 
if  approved  of,  and  any  gravy  that  may  be  set  by  fur 
use.  Stir  all  together,  and  pour  it  over  the  meat.  Set 
the  meat  before  the  fire  with  a  tin  behind  it,  or  put  it 
in  a  dispatch,  or  in  the  ovon  of  the  kitchen  rauj|;e,  as 
may  be  most  convenient,  fdr  about  half  an  hour  before 
dinner-time.  This  is  a  cluap  and  Kiinple  way  tif  drotsn- 
ing  cold  meat,  whioh  is  well  deserving  of  attention. 

To  ha*h  Cold  Ucr/or  MuUon. — Cold  roost  beef,  or  colli 
roast  or  boiled  nmtton,  may  be  dressed  as  a  hash  in 
the  following  manner.  Cut  the  meat  from  the  bones 
into  small  pieces,  and  lay  them  a^idc  Then  put  the 
bones  in  a  6tew-])an,  with  a  little  water  and  sliced  onion. 
After  btcwing  for  a  short  time,  take  out  the  bones  and 
put  in  tlie  meat.  When  the  meat  is  perfectly  hot, 
thicken  with  a  little  Ilour  and  butter,  and  season  with 
pepper  and  salt,  and  a  little  ketchup.  Dish  the  hash, 
and  stick  small  triangular  pieces  of  dry  toasted  bread 
round  the  inn(*r  edge  of  the  disli. 

To  dreui  Cold  FSoilcd  fi^ff,  or  make  liuWe  and  Stjueak. 
— Cut  the  beef  in  slices  of  about  the  third  of  an  inch 
in  thiekue^H.  Fry  the  slices  till  lightly  brown<.'d,  and 
heated  through.     Then  take  them  from  the  i)an,  and 

flace  them  on  a  warm  plate  before  the  fire,  to  keep  hot. 
'ry  some  cabbage  which  has  been  previoufly  boiled 
and  chopped ;  stir  this  about  a  short  time  in  tiie  pan, 
and  scastm  with  i>epper  and  salt.  Spread  the  eabbuge 
in  a  dish,  and  place  the  slices  of  meat  upon  it ;  ov  heap 
the  cabbage  in  the  dish,  and  place  the  meat  around  it. 
To  mince  ColdVeal. — Cut  the  veal  from  the  bones,  and 
mince  it  in  small  square  bits,  and  lay  them  attide.  Then 
put  the  bones  in  a  stew-^iau  with  a  little  warm  water, 
to  make  a  gravy.  After  stewing  for  a  short  thne,  take 
out  the  bones  and  put  in  the  bits  of  voal,  with  a  small 
piece  of  lemon-peel,  chopped  very  fine.  When  per- 
fectly heated,  thicken  with  a  little  ilour  and  butter,  and 
season  with  pepper  and  salt,  and  a  little  lemon-juice. 
Dish  with  small  pieces  of  toastc.1  bread,  a 4  in  hashed 
mutton. 

To  tire  >A  It   Ln-nf/.^    Ihntl  aul   I'-n.k — Lunili.sMii -ads 


uro  I'l"  .."111  1     Liiiii  ■li. 
.».,.  I  .    ,  1; ♦;...  r 


» ». 


.l|^    •     I. 
,!..     ..1 


I     T  -1  '      '  .       kl  1  •      *  1  I     .1     f     .  ■  •  . 


I  as  a  jelly.  /lake  the  half  of  \ 
I  soak  it  in  warm  water,  wit! 
;  hount.     Tiieu  bfiil  it  with  < 
I  done,  cut  tliem  in  uniail  ] 
j  after  which,  atraia  the  Jiqu 
I  boiled,  and  let  it  stand  till 
'  be  enMiy  skimmed.      Put 
:.nd  l>nil  for  half  an  hour,  s 
sfilt  according  to  taste.     Pc 
'  earthenware  shapes,  wliich 
;  quite  cold,   it  funua  a  jel 
!  turned  out  on  a  disJi  for  iii 
'  easily,  dip  Uie  baun  or  bha] 
I  will  immediately  loobcn  iL 
''  i»areley. 

sons  xs\ 

'  Soups  ai'e  the  substance  1 
boiling,  and  are  of  many  d 
divided  into  two  cliiSMM,  ija< 

i  basis  of  bi*owu  soups  is  alwj 
white  soups  is  generally  vei 

I  of  6(>up,  but  more  biiUjile  iu 
containing  some  kiiul  of 
thickening,  as  rice,  barley, 
script  ion  should  bo  nKule  s4 
water.  It  is  a  general  rulol 
every  pound  of  meat ;  also 
make  ihe  scum  riM.*,  which  i 
salt ;  and  afit  r  f  kliuming,  ti 
To  Jiitike  Ur.'::rH  orUrary  i 
of  the  rump  of  beef,  and  bi> 
the  b^'ef  from  the  b.rnos ;  ta 
aiid  lay  it  on  the  butt<ini  o 
marrow,  use  butter.  Then 
to  brown.  Turn  tho  whol 
side,  and  tai.e  cure  that  it  li 
thoroughly  browned,  add  a  p 
juice  fiHini  the  meat,  aUi>  a  1 
of  an  hour  after,  hll  in  theqi 
may  Im>  re<|uisite.  Nuw  ad 
stance,  two  carrots,  a  turnip, ; 
sliced ;  also  a  stalk  (»f  eelor 
sf»me  whole  black  and  Jamaii 
slowlv  for  from  four  to  five 
«iir,  au'.l  loi  it  stanil  a  i:i(it.-t> 
I'.it,  :ui(l  )>ut  it   liii'i'ii^i:  .i  ii. 


:i" 


^m 

■ 

BT^TT. 

Ibar  N.I 

'^^1 

'_''""" 

'-^1 

'9 

knun.' 

pol  In  ..t  ■  ■ 

„.«'i^ 

n»  ftr  inock'turUv  muj-  lire  nuils  u  i 
jr  fnit  •en*  lili  thvy  aro  'inlm  linri 

ill.     Wn  j^v«  ll.»  foUu^JLt  lw»  tmiifm  Ur 

<«ii,  utn  Lba  •unn  off,  atiil  put  a  tli 

.iiTcd  in'ih  tiiM  ,..,11).  ,i,ii<.it[„.  Il  I., 

b«  1  \.<a  ilu  n<-l  iml  111  lt»  ttifi*i|(^|.i<.  uiita  UlV 
mp  b  til  Im  Uk>L     Uy  tlil>  nliui  llio  «uin>  Jav 

r»  ..r»l.,l„e. 

'"''"'" 

r^lu..-. 

lU  Ut*  blLch.ri'  Mcillu:.    1- 
)■>— Tat>  k  iiijiuul  t4  Ivui  Ik  i . 

Ul  It  tltmnn  e-oUr  l-n  linm^M 

■ 

1te:its5rt:^S 

V 

about  a  ijiwruv 
Wklnr  iiitu  a  >»u«paQ,  auu 
BUMS.     Skim,  &Dd  scunn  wi 
diJJute  «■}■  ot  making  beef 


CllAMHERSS  INFORM-VTION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE 

at  uid  a  lialt  nt  boiling  vater  d 
fri!<)UFDIly  Willi  a  fork  or  Bpuoi 
~  Dpon  all  sidca  of  the  mea 


nr,  afWr  -which  poor  (ha 
boil  it  fur  about  trn  mi- 
ith  talu    This  la  the  rauat 


lHufp't  Hajfffij.— ThtreaT«  dilfertni  ways  of  tnstliij; 

•  haggra,  aabraalhe  mavtcomposiliaa  of  the  materials 

ia  annrarDed.    Banw  pat  tnin«d  tripe  in  it,  olhen  pot 

tw  tripe.    Tbe*ullo*ing  ia  llie  more  oonironn,  aod,  «e 

ticliavv,  the  bait  nnuiiKr  of  m^ung  it:  Procure  ilw 

lai^  sUiinii«l>  Log  of  a  alierp,  also  one  of  the  smsDor 

bailii  called  tlie  kind's  hond,  togi^ther  willi  the  pliicii, 

'  *  :h  i*  tbe  lighu,  the  liver,  and  the  heart.     ThcbagB 

t  lie  well  waabcd  Ural  in  mid  water,  then  plungol 

CT,  and  scraped.     Great  care  inunt  be 

takiin  n(  the  large  bag  ;  lei  it  lie  and  aoik  in  etAJ  water, 

ght.     Wash  aign  the  pluck.  You 

will  now  bou  tne  unnll  bag  along  wiili  the  pluirb  ;  in 

boiliiig,  lesTe  the  windpipe  Kltasliud,  and  let  ibe  ead  of 

it  hanc  over  tJia  odge  of  the  pat,  so  iliat  imporitiei 

laie  [reely  out.     Itoil  far  ail  hoar  and  a  halt,  and 

llie  nhole  from  tlie  pot.     When  eold,  cut  awa; 

wliidjiiiie,  and  any  lula  of  i^in  or  grietle  tliat  aeci 

Craio  the  quarter  of  the  liver  (not  utine  the 

hageiiaj,  and  tniiico  the  liuiit,  lights, 
^  J  ainall,  alonf  with  half  a  pouoJ  of 
beef  auet.  MixaUUii«niin<"  wiiji  twosmiUI  tea'VOprulii 
t>f  oatitiea),  previaanly  dried  before  (Joyfira,  block  aod 
Jamaica  pepper,  and  salt ;  alan  add  half  a  pint  of  the 
liqvor  in  which  Uw  plook  waa  biilled,  or  bwif  E 
SUr  all  blether  into  a  wliaisleTii:}'.  Thuo  laki 
larfe  bag,  which  bu  bc^eii  Il<iiri'ii<:li1y  t'li'j^iM.'d,  ui 


The  meal,  wUA  ia  nut  s 

atrred  ia  ■  aeparate  UU..  ^.-.  _  . 

pie«e«  of  tnraip  a«d  omot.      B;  4iia  pi 
the  broili  and  mnU  an  lU^,  avth 
of  meM  prnduna  luod  for  ■  larc*  *" 

Holrh-Pol'* TIi'h  ia  a  diidi  val, 

perivniun  in  aomairr,  wiMa  grvrm  pww  al 
Pat  on  two  qiiartA  of  walrr,  and  wbaa  ilj 
three  [Hmods  at  tlir  baoV  tAt  tj  wM 
off  tlie  tax  11  there  be  loo  ina«h.    Pi 
two  or  Uiree  orrut*  trtil  istii  •■|iiai' 

youug  tonin  i»T 
eul  diwn,  a  »•  W" 


..in  el 


Shrrp'i  Ktad — Protiii«  aa  nod  a  i^mi 
poniblc.  The  iint  tiling  done  D  Is  tiagl  il 
iron,  sii  an  to  free  it  cnmDleEal;  frva  «nn| 
wool.  Thi*  pnMMW  ia  atwaya  fntitmi  t 
hy  a  hlwkeaiitli,  or  aoiiia  otbn  (aim  al] 


.nd  rradj  fur  the  cin>lL,  toak  tlia  ktad  Cor 
~anu  wiUcr,  eud  tlicii  tvn^  it  I'll  it  i 
1.  and  as  nearly  white  m  puwiblh  TW 
be  Mill,  and  ilie  bnio*  remom^    *^ 


oyea,  and  Krapo  and  el 


itibeiuai 


and  prick  it  ucetuflonally  with  a  Inrge  needle,  aa  it  awelU, 
fo  allnw  IliB  ail'  to  escape-  If  Ihobag  appears  thin,  tic 
a  vliitli  oulaide  the  Bkin.  Them  sbuuld  be  a  plate 
jilHeed  beneath  it,  to  prevent  its  sticking  to  tlie  boltoui 
tit  llie  ]HiI.  Uiiil  it  (or  tlinte  liaurs.  It  in  «erved  <id  a 
di*1l  wiihiiut  garniuh,  nnJ  reqoirea  no  gvAvy,  an  it  is 
aulti<!i<iitly  ricli  in  itbdf.      This  is  a  jjeiiuine  Scotch 

iomft'i  Usg!iu.—This,  is  a  much  mure  delicate  diali, 
■nil  iesH  rreijui-iill}'  made  tliun  n  sheep's  llngjpa.  I'ru- 
oiim  tliu  lj>rgE  ba^.  plui^k,  and  try  of  a  Incnb.  The  fry 
ia  cnnipiised  of  the  snmll  lioweln,  BWeetbreada,  and  ki;t^ 
ncla.  Prepare  tlia  bai;,  aa  in  a  sheep's  haggis.  Clean 
thniuuglily  the  small  bowela  and  olher  puru;  parboil 
(heni,  and  diop  them  lliii>1y  along  willi  a  ijuirter  of  a 
pound  of  Huvt.  Mix  with  dried  onlineal,  sail,  and  pep- 
per, nnd  Buw  tlio  mixture  in  thu  bag.  Boil  it,  and  attend 


1  in  iliL- 


"  Kail."- 


plo/ii'd.     Tlie    hint  h 


luig^iB. 

of  biief  or  n 

ia  generally 


■ual  to  proeur*  < 
■ith  the  lieu],  and  lu  mbjerl  (Ikks  to  a  i 
ireeardatiiyrig&elf^iilhW*'! 


ith  bailed  ci 
«uii^  serve  nirli  poraley  and  butle: 
Miaced  ColhjK-.—Tike  a  poun. 
and  B  proparlibnate  quanlilyuf  >u 

if  fur  aautdigts,  taking  aa^4 


Polalo  .^'uu^.— Take  any  boon  of  c«U  «mU 
1  lUBCrow-bDnp,  or,  failing  thew,  apicatll 
vbioh  put  into  a  pot  with  cold  waiec,  Bce^B 


quantity  required.     Let  it  boilasb 
ily  of  potaliWB  well  peeled  or  Ml 


any  diaogreeabla  flavo 
all  boU  for 


nl.on  a  peri.io  Ii*  i^mdaadlMf 
it  it  with.  The  cluef  nkcail  «■■■ 
ue  flavour  from  '''^■^*^"i'*  fltf4 
:,  giving  a  rich  flavanr  of  1^41 


Lnsbwu  employed.  Tbia OM  oalj ba i 
the  quniitiee  uf  various  ilfinU^-f 
these,  by  means  of  cooksiy,  n^  t>  I 
the  juioca  of  auimal  food.    TIm  — 


DOMESTIC  ECONOMY— COOKERY. 


■ch  Ly  fur  the  most  can  be  made  by  a  skilful  cook, 

*  onions,  mushrooms,  and  carrotH.  Onions  and 
ifthrooms,  alone,  fumiuh  the  most  effectual  substi- 
«•  for  auimal  juices,  and  may  be  dressed  so  exqui- 
ftly  as  hardly  to  bo  distinguished  from  the  gravy  of 

Onion  F/arour. — Onion  flavour  is  made  by  Btcwing. 
dto  several  large  onions,  and  remove  the  thin  outer 
Bl  from  them.  Put  them  in  a  saucepan  with  a  little 
b  and  flour,  and  a  small  piece  of  butter  or  dripping, 
prevent  their  burning.  Cover  them  quite  close,  and 
I  hj  the  fire  to  brown  and  stew  gently.  Two  hours 
1  dress  them,  and  at  the  end  of  this  time  they  will 
quite  soft,  and,  with  the  addition  of  a  little  water, 
Y  will  yield  a  rich  gravy.  This  mav  be  usvd  to  fry 
L^oes  with,  or  to  flavour  any  other  Jish. 
W^uhroom  Stitice, — Pick  out  the  stems,  and  skin  the 
ilarooms  and  the  stems.  Cut  them  in  small  pieces, 
^mwh  them.  Then  put  them  in  a  saucepan,  with 
^r  more  water  than  will  cover  them.     Let  them 

*  gently  for  about  half  an  honr,  i >r  till  they  are  soft. 
^  will  now  Iiavo  yielded  a  fine  rich  sauce.  Stir  in 
'^Itla  flour  and  butter  kneaded  together,  and  season 
r    pepper  and  salt.     This  preparation  may  be  eaten 

potatoes,  the  same  as  meat;  it  also  fonns  an  ex- 
^■lt  aance  to  many  dishes. 

f^ied  Buttrr.-^'Tlm  must  be  made  of  fresh  butter. 
«iown  the  butter  into  small  pieces,  and  put  them 
m  small  saucepan  with  cold  water,  in  the  ]>ropor- 
«f  an  ounce  of  butter  to  a  tablespoonful  of  water. 
^w  in  flour  from  a  dredger  with  the  one  hand,  while 
i  tlia  other  you  turn  the  saucepan  rapidly  round,  so 
^  esuse  the  flour  to  mix  without  lumpinj;.  A  small 
cm.tUy  of  flour  is  sulKcient.  Yi>u  now  for  the  fii*st 
»  take  the  saucepan  to  the  fire,  and  continue  turning 
leaking  it  till  the  butter  is  thoroughly  melted.  When 
»ilfiy  it  is  ready  ;  it  should  then  have  the  consistency 
£«h  cream.  If  it  bliould  oil  in  making,  it  may  be 
.Sally  recovered  by  putting  a  little  cohl  water  into 
vid  pouring  it  several  tinics  into  and  out  of  a  basin. 
^  sauce  is  the  foundation  of  a  number  of  other 
various  additions  Ix'ing  made  to  it  for  the  wikc 
ety. 

^»iion  tSaucL\ — Skin  the  onions,  and  boil  them  in 
a<y  of  water.  When  they  ai*e  H>ft,  take  them  from 
"prater,  and  chop  them  very  tine.  Melt  butter  as 
»,  and  stir  them  in,  seasoning  with  a  little  pepi>er 
«alL 

Sauce. — Boil  three  or  four  ep;»s  till  they  are 
1^  hard.  Peel  and  chop  them  down,  and  then  stir 
^Mb  into  melted  butter.     Sea?M)n  with  a  little  popper 

^Ksudle  Sauce  for  plum-puddiny. — Melt  butter,  as 
^tre  directed,  and  stir  into  it  a  glass  of  hherry,  half  a 
*■  of  brandy  or  rum,  a  little  sugar,  grated  lemon- 
i^  and  nutmeg.  Do  not  let  it  boil  after  the  spirits 
^added. 

and  Crab  Sauce. — Melt  the  butter,  as  above 
Pick  out  the  meat  of  a  boiled  lobister  or 
^;  chop  it  down  very  fine,  and  put  it  amongst  the 
^cr.  Season  with  Cayenne  pepper,  and  salt.  If  the 
^ter  be  procured  raw,  with  berries  or  spawn  on  the 
i^ide,  these  should  be  taken  off  previous  to  boiling, 
L  being  mashed  in  a  little  cold  water,  may  be  added 
^Sie  sauce  after  tho  lobster  is  put  in.  By  boiling  a 
t«,  the  wholo  will  become  a  brir;ht  red.  Tliis  foiius 
&jnprovfmeut  on  common  lobster  sauce. 
lii  tad  Sauce. — Cirate  down  crumbs  of  bread.  Put  it 
^laucepan  on  the  fire,  with  as  much  sweet  milk  as 
^  allow  it  to  be  thick.  Add  a  piece  ol%liced  onion, 
^  itir  it  till  the  bread  is  soaked  and  the  sauce  is  quite 
■C^oth.  Season  with  pepper  and  salt. 
^■a/  Sauce. — Take  the  leaves  of  fresh  green  mint. 
them,  and  after  drying  them,  chop  them  very 
Mix  them  with  vinegar,  and  add  a  little  sugar. 
^  Gravy, — A  pound  and  a  half  of  beef  will  make 
^t  of  good  gravy.  Cut  tho  beef  in  slices,  or  score 
*'*l^  dei'ply.  Place  it  in  a  saucepan,  with  a  bit  of 
^^t>  to  prevent  it  from  Kticking,  and  a  sliced  onion. 


B^< 


Brown  the  meat  gently,  being  careful  not  to  let  it  bum. 
Cover  it  closely,  and  let  it  stand  beside  the  Are  for  about 
half  an  hour,  to  allow  the  gravy  to  run  from  the  meat. 
Then  put  in  about  a  ))int  of  hot  water,  and  let  it  boil 
slowly  for  an  hour  and  a  half,  with  some  whole  pepper. 
Some  persons  put  in  to  boil  along  with  it,  a  piece  of 
bread  toasted  hard  and  brown,  which  thickens  the 
gravy  a  little  and  adds  to  its  richness.  Season  with 
salt,  and  strain  it  through  a  hair  sieve. 

n.sH, 

Fish  are  dressed  in  a  variety  of  waj-s,  according  to 
the  taste  of  individuals.  They  are  boiled,  broiled, 
baked,  stewed,  and  fried  ;  but  the  most  conmion  modes 
of  preparation  are  boiling  and  frying — boiling  when 
required  to  be  done  in  a  plain  way,  and  frying  when  a 
high  relish  or  flavour  is  to  be  given  to  them.  In  all 
modes  of  preparing  fish,  nmeh  care  is  required  to  pre- 
vent  them  from  being  broken  or  disfigured. 

To  boil  Salmon. — Clean  out,  scale,  and  rinse  the  fish 
in  wat(.>r.  Then  put  it  in  a  good  roomy  fish-kettle,  with 
plenty  of  cold  water,  and  a  handful  of  salt.  The  usual 
time  allowed  for  boiling  salmon  is  twelve  minutes  to 
each  ])Ound,  but  this  nmst  in  a  great  measure  depend 
on  the  thickness  of  the  fish.  The  way  to  ascertain 
when  it  is  ready,  is  to  raise  one  end  from  the  water, 
and  try  if  a  knife  will  pass  easily  betwixt  the  flsh  and 
the  bone.  If  it  pass  easily,  it  is  di*ess»ed  sufKciently. 
When  done,  lift  it  immediately  from  the  water,  and 
place  the  fish  drainer  across  the  kettle,  to  allow  tho 
water  to  drip  from  the  fish.  Ser\'e  on  a  dish  with  a  fish 
plate  and  white  napkin  under  it,  the  napkin  being  next 
it.  Garnish  with  green  jtarsley.  Sauce — plain  melted 
butter,  parsley  sauce,  or  lobster  sauce  in  a  tureen. 

To  broil  Sulmoiif  or  Salmon  Sltuiks. — Cut  slices  from 
the  thick  part  of  the  fish,  and  having  cleaned  and 
scaled  them,  i\ry  them,  and  dust  them  with  Hour.  Broil 
them  on  a  gi'idiron  over  a  clear  fire.  When  ready,  rub 
them  over  with  butter,  and  serve  hot,  with  any  of  the 
sauce«  used  for  boiled  salmon.  Slices  of  hung  or  kip' 
pcred  salmon  aw  bi*oiled  in  the  <<anie  manner. 

To  fry  TrouUy  or  similar  /'I'j. A. — Trouts  of  a  moderate 
size  are  di*es5ed  whole,  and  frying  is  the  be^t  mode  of 
preparation.  Take  the  trouts,  and  clean  out  and  scale 
them.  Dust  them  with  flour,  and  put  them  in  a 
frying-pan  with  hot  dripping  or  lard.  Turn  them,  so 
as  to  brown  them  on  bnth  sides.  Lift  tliein  out  and 
serve  them  on  a  dish ;  they  will  be  improved  by  laying 
a  napkin  under  them  to  absorb  the  grease. 

In  the  country  parts  of  .Scotlan<l,  trouts  are  rubbed 
with  oatmeal  instead  of  flour,  and  some  reckon  tlu*t  this 
imi)roves  the  flavour. 

To  boil  Turbol. — Select  a  thick  fls?h  of  a  white  creamy 
colour.  After  cleaning,  but  not  cutting  any  ])art  ex- 
cept in  gutting  it,  lay  it  in  salt  and  water,  with  the 
addition  of  a  little  vinegar,  and  let  it  soak  a  short  time 
l>eforc  boiling,  I'ut  it  with  the  white  side  or  belly  up- 
wards in  a  flsh-kettle  on  the  Are,  with  plenty  of  cold 
water,  a  handful  of  salt,  and  a  cupful  of  vinegar.  Let 
it  heat  slowly,  and  boil  for  half  an  hour  after  it  lias 
come  to  the  boil.  When  done,  serve  with  belly  upwards, 
and  garnish  with  any  small  fish  fried,  or  with  parsley 
and  sera{)ed  horse-radish.  Sauce — lobbtcr,  oyster,  or 
plain  butter. 

To  bah:  Ttirbot. — Cut  a  small  turbot  into  slices,  which 
clean  and  free  from  bones.  Dip  the  slices  in  beat  egg, 
and  roll  them  in  a  mixture  of  crumbs  of  bread,  minced 
parsley,  pep{>er  and  salt.  Place  them  in  a  dish  well 
buttered  all  round,  and  bake  them  in  an  oven  not  very 
hot,  or  in  a  bachelor's  or  Dutch  oven  before  the  fire. 
They  must  bo  basted  frequently  with  butter.  When 
done,  lay  the  pieces  in  a  dish,  and  |)our  round  them  lobster 
or  oyster  sauce,  highly  seasoned  with  Cayenne  pepper, 
salt,  and  ketchup.  Instead  of  being  baked,  slices  of 
turbot  may  be  fried  after  being  prepared  as  above^  and 
served  with  plain  butter  sauce. 

To  boil  Cod, — Wasli  and  clean  it,  and  boil  as  directed 
for  turbot.  Serve  it  on  a  napkin,  garnished  with 
l»arslcy  and  scrapcil  Uorbe-j^adish.  Sauce— oyster  sauce. 


IQ  UTtst  a  ill  tame  f.nr  oj  c  cm. — ^ivan  inc  piece  oi 
cod,  and  make  a  stuffing  of  bn>ad  crurob%  parsley 
and  onions  chopped  e^inaii,  pepper  and  silt,  a  bit  of 
butter,  moistened  witli  e^g.  Put  tliia  stuffing  into  the 
open  part  of  the  fish,  and  fix  it  in  with  skewers.  Tlien 
rub  the  fisli  over  with  beat  egg.  and  6ti*cw  crumba  of 
bread,  pepper  and  salt,  over  it.  Stick  also  somo  bit«  of 
butter  on  it.  Set  it  in  a  bachelor's  or  Dutch  oven  be- 
fore the  fire  to  bake.  Serve  witli  melted  butter  or 
03'stcr  sauce. 

To  boil  Haddock:/.— liWiB  is  tho  simplest  of  all  opera- 
tions. Select  haddocks  of  a  middle  size.  Clean  them 
well,  and  wash  tlieni,  and  boil  with  a  little  salt  in  the 
water.  Twenty  minutes  or  lialf  an  hour's  1>oiliiig  will 
be  sufficient.     Serve  with  oyster  sauce. 

To  drexs  Haddocks, — Thin  is  a  mobt  delicious  dish 
wlien  well  prepared.  Take  pretty  large  haddocks, 
which  clean  and  wash  well.  They  will  be  firmer  and 
better  if  they  lie  for  a  night  in  salt.  When  to  be 
dritssed,  wash  them  and  dry  tlicni.  Cut  off  the  head, 
tail,  and  fins  ;  then  skin  them,  being  carc'ful  not  to  ttavr 
the  (lesh.  Cut  the  fiesh  neatly  from  tiie  boiie,  nnd  divide 
each  side  into  two  piecos.  Uust  tiiuin  witli  fiuur,  dip 
them  into  be.it  egg,  and  strew  bread  crumbs  over  tiicni. 
Fry  them  in  a  frying-pan,  witli  a  sufficiency  of  hot  drip- 
ping or  lard  to  cover  them.  ])e  careful  that  the  drip- 
ping is  not  hot  enough  to  scorch  the  fish.  Thit  way  to 
ascertain  the  proper  degree  of  heat  of  tlie  fat,  is  to' dip 
a  thin  slico  01  bread  into  it,  and  when  it  makes  the 
bread  of  a  light  brown  tinge,  put  in  the  fish.  If  the  fat 
))e  too  hot,  it  will  make  the  bread  of  a  deep  brown. 
Turn  the  pieces  carefully,  so  as  to  brown  both  sides, 
and  when  done,  lay  them  before  the  fire  on  a  drainer 
for  a  few  minutes.  Servo  in  a  dish,  garni*>hed  with 
parsley.     Sauce — oyster  sauce,  or  plain  molted  butter. 

The  fat  in  which  haddocks  are  fried  will  answer  the 
same  purpose  again,  if  ])ut  thi-ough  a  huir  sieve,  and 
poured  in  a  jar,  and  kept  in  a  cool  place. 

To  fry  Skate y  Soles,  Flounders^  iVhitinff*,  and  Eeli,  \ 
and  any  other  ifAi/e^A.— Skate  and  soles  arc  skinned  i 
and  dressed  in  the  same  manner  as  haddocks,  bat  poles* 
aro  fried  whole,  not  cut  in  pieces.     Floundcn  are  like- 


WieA  ti>i/mI    in 


*\y 


«&    e«\m«#%   «%■«  A  atiitf^** 


Vft'lliftli^  ■««•#        /l/k     Vk^v^ 


t'l  navour.     luey  suouiu   aiiw 
dressed,  and  not  permitted  to  lie 
Mfti'r  they  are  re::dy  for  di>Iuag. 
and  grtcns  ai*e  the  better  for  be 
carbonate  of  soda  in  the  watei 
their  green  appearance     The 
nukterial  rosemLling  Hour  in  ap 
obtained  from  any  drug;;isc.     C 
require  great  care  in  boiling,  for  1 
and  their  appearance  i^  spoik'<L 
vegetables  depends  so  much  01 
and  size,  that  no  directions  ran 
The  best  way  to  ascertain  whez 
iwss  a  fork  through  the  stem. 

To  hoil  O'reen  Peat. — Peas  sh 
just  before  they  are  to  be  nse< 
them  into  boiling  water,  just  «•. 
with  a  little  salt ;  and  when  the; 
put  a  little  sugar  in  tho  water.  'J 
twentv  minutes  to  boil.  Wh« 
through  a  cuUiuder,  nnd  put  the 
with  a  few  bits  of  butter;  stij 
butter  is  mixed  with  thrm. 

To  lu'il  Carrots  and  Ihirsnips.- 
Bcraped,  and  to  boil  till  th«*y  an 
time  for  them  boiling  dt-pcnds  1 
Small  carrots  are  served  wliole, 
be  cut  in  foor  pieces  lengthwise, 
be  scraped  and  propareil  in  the  1 

To  boil  Turnips. — Old  tumipi 
much  deeper  than  young  one.4. 
small,  peel  off  tlie  skins,  but  d^ 
after  boiling,  aewe  them  whoU 
butter  in  the  dish.     Large  tun 
before  being  put  iu  the  pot,  and 
in  these  pieces,  or  maslied  with 
and  salt. 

To  IhmI  French  liean*  and  San 
the  to|is  and  tails,  and  strip  the  1 
of  the  pods.    Then  cut  the  po<i 
across,  or  split  them  from  one 
then  cut  them  across.     Lay  tlien 


. •«•>       S^k  ■ 


■  #■%»' 


A  «  »  «]      m%  ##  .  •■•     ■     ^  *«««  •  ■  «  ft  « 


4n  wilb  wpfifr  aa4  mtl,  iiiil  .  .  . 

all  iHinm,  nr  Uj  ikau  lUi  lii  t]i»  ibli.  ^1 
ipaiy  nr  nld  wUi-r,  aatl  >  tinl>  Oair  IW 
:.  C*n#  •■  abuta  Olm'Ui],wul  lake  lu  an 
Innil  w>  bMc 

r— -'(Ue  Glla]>*  rimn  UlE  tiwll  rll»  ut  IuId, 
Dl  fli»  Innw.  Laj  tliH  flKipi  fiat  in  Ik*  dUb, 
Mar  full  lafnriiiuUlnni  at  iDinoeJ  [<KnlD7, 


bis  atrib*  ftnL,  t 


i6«  1.-1 


.<   >viiof«  hnnl. 


1  cinaamnn,  nr  nolrd  ]«niinK|w*).     A  UoU 

■tw,  kBiTonrvr  wMh  puff  putt,  a*  kWra 
(lakahrknAiHir 
■ry  /v.— n«k   Uui  bnda  mhI  ■!■)»•  (Mh 


r.    Sna\a  pmoat  i>t*  i 
.rv  pattiDB  Ilii4»  In  tin'  < 

I  dui  laf,  and  »ri;  i 


^  amJI  frviia,  «■■]'  b*  ni 


id  awl  vlpul,  twi  tn  kkic 


AUn 


.  uui  tn  MIC  'ii>ri-in  taesr  ru 
I'he  Juh  •liiwld  »La  ke  aiU  OUorl  anil 
ti!r  is  IIiF  mliUIr  ilian  iIm  alfra,  tio-  Uia  fruJU 
imaiilmlil)'  in  biiJt  tn  Inkini^ 
'u'_HinM  fl*  n  a  nmpvMMt  *f  nMt<  frail. 


H  •  piwtlf  piVTHrtlwHil  inlxtiii*: — Tata 
«  pouM  u(  bnil  MMta  auil  a  p«uai  nf  nMM 


«(«4  wnA  «■«&,  V 


with  iiarrnw  liara  of  paste  cnisjiod  all  over,  or  HUiiniK'd 
Icavi^H.     iitiko  fur  lialf  an  hour. 

I'UDDINGS  AND  IH'Ml»LlXr,S. 

Care  shoulil  ho  takon  in  makiii<;  pu«hlin;^  to  have  the 
miet  and  the  c^i^n  which  arc  put  into  them  perfoi*tly 
frcMh.  If  there  bo  any  doiiht  of  the  freshness  <»f  the 
ep^,  brenk  each  individually  iu  a  t<>a-cu)»,  for  one  bad 
e;;g  will  spciil  all  the  e^s^  in  the  dish.  'I'iio  clotlis  usod 
for  puddings  shnuld  be  of  tolerably  tine  linen.  Let 
them  be  carefully  washed  after  usinrr^  nnd  laid  nNidt>  in 
a  dry  state,  ready  for  the  next  occasion.  IJefore  putting 
the  pudding  into  the  cloth,  dip  the  cloth  in  bnilint;  wnter, 
and  after  the  wnter  Iras  run  fnun  it,  spread  it  over  a 
basin,  and  dn.Hl<;e  it  with  tlour.  Kvery  pudding  should 
be  boiled  in  plenty  of  water,  fu>  as  to  allow  it  room  to 
move  fiiHrly ;  anil  >t  must  be  kept  «M)nHtantly  Ivulini;.  It 
is  a  f;eneral  saytiif;  amon<j^  cooks,  that  a  ])uddin;;  cannot 
be  Uto  well  ffiiih'ii,  and  it  is  certain  that  th«>re  is  much 
more  dan<;er  of  boiling  it  t(K)  short  than  too  lonp^  a  time. 
When  YOU  take  the  ])uddin^  fnmi  the  pot,  ]dunp>  it  for 
a  few  second H  into  a  jar  of  c<dd  water.  This  will  chill 
tlie  outside,  and  allow  the  cloth  to  be  t.ikeu  away  with- 
out ii)jurinf|;  the  surface*.  The  best  way  ti>  ilish  a  pud- 
dinp:,  is  to  )ilaeeit  with  the  clotli  iu  a  Imsin,  then  open 
the  cloth,  an<l  lay  tlie  face  of  the  dish  upon  the  ]iuddini; : 
turn  the  whole  upside  down,  lift  oil*  the  basin,  and  i-c* 
move  the  cloth. 

/Vf/in  Ptuldinfi. — A  ])him  pudding  may  be  made  either 
ri(*h  or  plain,  aecfiiiliu;;  to  the  qnnntity  of  fruit  and 
siiices  put  into  it.  The  following  is  the  d inaction  for 
making;  what  would  bv  eonsidenit  in  Kn{;land  a  flfioti 
Clirhtmas  piifMuit/  ; — Take  a  {s^und  of  pood  raisins  au«l 
stone  them  ;  .a  p«)und«)f  curr.-itits,  which  wnsh,  pick,  and 
dry  ;  a  pouiid  of  rich  b«*ef  snet  ininivii,  and  a  ]iound  nf 
hUih*  bn'ad  crumbs,  and  half  a  puunil  of  fhmr.  .Mix 
the  bread,  flour,  ami  suet  in  a  p'ln.  Heat  six  e;;;^  hi  a 
lKi*iin,  and  add  to  them  aI)out  half  a  ]>int  of  sweet  milk. 
Four  thia  e^^  and  milk  into  the  ]tan  ^\ith  the  suet  ainl 
flour,  and  beat  it  well  with  a  flat  wooden  sporm  for  s<nne 
time.  Then  stir  in  the  currants  and  rai-in**,  mixing 
well  an  yi>n  pn>eeed ;  mix  in  alsri  a  rpiart^r  of  a  ponnd 


bread  to  swell.  Then  U-at 
tine  pulp,  stirring  in  a  smi 
thiTo  or  four  eg^,  a  teaipo* 
a  little  prated  lomon-peel,  ai 
Stir  this  anions;  the  ]>uddm^ 
mav  be  added ;  Also  a  few  ci 
pudding  may  )>o  eitlier  boile 
put  it  in  a  well-buttered  pud 
buttere<l  paper  ovor  it,  and 
for  an  hour.  If  to  be  baked,  ] 
dirih,  and  bake  in  an  oven  fti 

JHi'c  Pudding. — Tak^  a  \ 
pick  it,  and  wa>h  it  welt  in  c 
for  about  five  minutes.  J)r 
it  on  as:ain  with  a.s  nmch  mi 
boil  till  the  rice  is  i[uite  Rof( 
prevent  it  from  burniuE?. 
ba^in,  and  btir  in  a  piece 
mineeil  very  fine.  Wlu-n 
beaten,  with  a  little  prouml 
and  h*mon,  and  Hweeten  wit  I 
well  together.  It  may  bo  i 
directetl  for  bread  puddinc;. 
may  Ite  enriched  liy  u«iing  ni 
by  adding  currants,  s))iril** 
lemon  peel. 

( 'u.\tttrd  I*nniihiij.-^Vii\iv 
Well  with  two  tabies]io<inful: 
milk.  >eao<>n  this  with  su^a: 
li>mon-pei-l,  au<1  pour  on  a  p 
all  the  ti'ue.  It  may  b'.«  oil 
nsinp  nioru  ept.'s,  the  flour  n 

lireud  and  ii titter  Pwidi 
bread  rather  thin  ;  butter 
layer  (if  them  in  a  pudiliii«r  | 
curranta  alxn-e;  il-.en  anotli 
on  till  the  dihh  is  full.  De; 
gi*onnd  cinnamon  and  nntmi 
milk  to  this  till  there  in  Aif 
Then  )>our  it  over  the  bivad 
A  time  to  saik.  It  will  now 
or  l>oiling,  as  direct<*il  for  br 


iiiwrutt  loM  m    iM  a 


half  >a  b-nrr,  knd  bHti  Mlniiie  1(  aU  Uh  lan)^ 
nl  it IrBOi  bornuu.  DiinnKlMliniUv,  nmua 
PIK*''.*'"!  <>*<— wrMnrlUn»llll>lu«m,«c«l>rthM 
.  ri>..-  .\iili..t>d..rtlia1ulF.)H«r%Uli^ 
I  itilrdy  ilinutTVil,   Uavkf 

■■inii«rl.L     Whilln^U 

.4  -nc  ul  lh«  (tM>|i(«l  Id' 


k  •  ft««    »■ 


■tfO 


Set  the  iiaii  on  the  lire  again,  and  boil  for  three  minutes  put  on  about  two  tablespoonfuls 
or  more,  if  the  v^i*  be  quite  fresh,  or  two  minutes  and  pint  nf  water ;  let  it  boil  for  »t  le 
a  half,  if  the  egg  has  been  kept  any  time.  |  t>oiK-d,  strain  it  thi*ough  a  hair  si 

To  Poach  Eyga."  Take  a  phallow  saucepan  i»r  frjing-  me::l,  Bueh  as  is  si»ld  in  Englau 
pan,  and  fill  it  about  half  full  of  water,  l^ot  the  water  ;  spounful  and  a  half,  and  mix  wii 
l)e  perfectly  clean,  not  a  particle  nf  dust  or  dirt  upon  it.  '  pint  of  cold  water,  bra^'inj;  it  as  ; 
Put  some  }*alt  into  the  water.  Break  each  egg  into  a  i  half  an  hour.  It  is  now  ilon(>,  i 
ftciuirate  tea-enp,  and  slip  it  gently  fnmi  the  cup  into  I  ing.  If  the  oatmeal  l>ecoiir*»e,  ^ 
the  water.  Tiiei*e  is  a  knack  in  doing  this,  w  ithfiut  -  land,  take  a  tea-cupful  and  put  i 
cauftng  the  egg  to  spivad  or  become  ragged.  A  good  '  well  with  a  small  quantity  of  wj 
way  consists  in  allowing  a  little  water  to  enter  the  cup  .  of)',  then  take  another  water  frc 
and  get  below  the  egg,  which  sets  the  egg  to  a  certain  J  about  a  quart  should  be  taken,  t 
extent,  befoi-e  it  is  allowed  to  lie  frtrely  in  the  water,  the  meal  Keing  rejected.  Put 
If  thc^^uter  be  about  boiling  point,  one  minute  is  sufti-  |  saucepan,  and  bxil  for  twenty  min 
cient  to  dress  the  igg;  but  the  eye  is  the  best  guide:  ;  time.  It  is  now  ready,  and,  lik 
the  yolk  must  retain  its  lii|uid  state,  lying  in  the  centre  j  may  be  seasoned  according  to  ta 
of  tie  white.  Have  bnttored  toasted  bread  prepared  ,  Lemonade. — Take  a  quart  of 
on  a  dish,  and  cut  in  pieces  rather  larger  tlnui  the  (>g:{ ;  to  it  five  ounces  of  lump  sugar 
then  take  up  the  eggs  carefully  with  a  small  slice,  yikve  lemou  rubbed  off  with  a  bit  of  k 
i)T  any  ragged  parts  from  the  edges,  and  lav  them  on  ,  three  lemons.  Stir  all  togetliei 
the  bread.  They  may  be  laid  on  slices  of  fried  bacon,  cool.  Two  ounces  of  cream  of 
when  preferred. 

nuttered  Egtjs. — Pnt  a  piece  of  butter  in  a  saucepan, 
and  melt  it.  adding  .'i  little  milk.  Hreak  tlic  eggs  mto 
a  basin,  and  ]u>ur  them  into  the  saucepan.  ^*ason  with  <ir  stewed  with  curry.  When  ri 
stdt  and  p('p]i<'v,  and  contiiiue  stirring  the  eggs  till  they  [>ur|>ose,  it  should  not  be  soft  or 
are  sufliei:.'ntly  dn-ssed.  Serve  on  pieces  of  toasted  bread,     puddings  ;  each  grain  should  reta 

Omflette*. — Omelettes  are  comiwised  of  eggs  and  any    form,  though  swelled  to  nearly 
thing  that  the  fancy  may  direct  to  flavour  and  enrich    picking  and  washing  the  rice,  pi 
them.  For  a  common  omelette,  take  six  eggs,  and  beat  j  and  let  it  boil  smartly  for  about 
them  well  with  a  fork  in  a  basin  ;  add  a  little  salt.  Next,  j  before  taking  it  out,  ])ut  in  a  tabic 
take  a  little  finely  eho]q)ed  parsley,  finely  chopped  es-  :  the  rice  in  a  cullinder ;  then  bha 


stead  of  the  lemons,  Ixiilin;^  w  atei 

To  hoil  Rice  f*^r  Ctirry It  i 

boiled  rice  alon:;  with  disrhea  whi 


d(»ubled  cloth,  and  lay  it  before  thi 

with  a  fold  of  cloth  over  it.     Ily 

will  ho  absorbi-d  from  it,  and  it 


chalot  or  onion,  and  two  ounces  of  butter  cut  into  small 
]>ieces,  Mid  mix  all  tluK  with  the  egi;.  Set  a  frying-pan 
('U  the  fire  with  a  piece  of  butter  in  it ;  as  soon  as  the 

butter  is  melted,  pour  in  tin?  omelette;,  and  continue  to  :  ing.  Pour  it  lightly  intf*  the  di> 
stir  it  till  it  a.^sunie  the  a]q>earance  of  a  firm  cako.  To  make  a  StujHttg. — Roast  ve 
When  dresst-d  on  <ine  side,  turn  it  carefully,  and  dress  some  other  things,  recfuirc  a  stu 
it  on  tlie  other.  It  will  bo  dressed  s*it!icient1y  when  it  have  been  alluded  to  in  various 
is  lightly  browned.  Serve  it  on  a  ili.«h.  The  flavour  !  ing  page;*,  and  may  here  be  expr 
may  be  varied,  by  lea>iiig  out  the  parsley  and  onion,  quarter  of  a  iK>un<l  of  the  crumb 
and  putting  in  finely  chopped  tnnirue  or  liam,  o\-sters,    a  quarter  of  a  pound  of  choi  jm-.J 


4b  Bunrlti  nmiuiKivu. 


"■■'   -■■■!  '>i':>iily  (■  va^;  Inith 

I'limmuiiiliiical*^  tw  ll 
■  ■  1 .  o  jjlorj  '  «  not  glnr)', 
na  kiin  yvranvx  "(  a   touUiill    lni>n.  wlini  Uum 

■^ntit  uni  In  Idm  ihn  1j|vt  nf  Iinuw)«ij|jir. 

ibii  Btit,  tliun  (Jut^^n]  I  cgiwlil«r  tivr  way*  Bad  h* 


>r  ihiii  •Ir&liHh  nith  a  lUcti  Jmai  (  hut 

'  dill.'>'iil  nuiliEtll  Hull. 

n-<  dull  IIUl  uw,  mkI  k«  tiMt 


rnldk  Ck  wpiril  duui  Iin  tbu  Uictk  a 


CHAMBERS'S  INFORMATION  FOR  TIIE  PEOPl 


i    BOD    tb>t    OlMCtll 


i  for  It ; 


tlmt  rieepeth   in   Iwirresl 

Me  tliM  wMftb  uprigblly  wJlcetU  mreljr ;  but  ho  th«t 

pnTDrteth  liii  vkjai  ttoM  be  knavii. 
Ho  th*t  k  »arolyftif  »Mpiuikw,  «h«JI 

uad  he  that  Itatetli  mrPlyi'hlp  i«  tan. 
Ho  lh»t  kwpeHi  [iiilent]  liU  moutix,  ki>«t»th  his  lifc ; 

but  h»  tlial  opmelh  wida  his  li[w  Khali  nave  deatruo- 

lis  titst  Imiiblolh  hb  own  tioniui  ihnll  inherit  the 
witi'l  J  aiul  Uie  fool  shall  fan  mfviuit  of  iho'wtw  of 

IliarinMii  in  the  bewt  of  a  nun  intluth  it  alnop  ;  but 

H  gmul  word  miikcth  it  gM. 
tlitll  Biul  deslruction  iin<  liar»  fall:  bo  tlie  ryn  of 

iniui  arc  Dover  mtii'Iiwl. 
Hisnwn  iiuiiuitimaludltakethawieknl  hime^lf,  luid  he 

dull  bo  holiien  witll  tha  corda  of  his  own  sIiih. 
Hope  (Icfvnw)  nuiketh  the  honrt  tiek. 

If  Biuumi  f atioK  tliao,  eoiuyint  thou  not. 

If  Ihu   iron   ho  bloni,  and  h*  Uo  not  what  tlm  edge, 

thdii  TDuat  he  pat  U  mow  vtnn^^i ;  but  vrindoin  is 

jirofltalilB  to  direct.* 
Ifililneentinybohiinsrir,  giwhiinbrn^dloi?*!!  imd  if 

b*  be  thinty,  ^vn  him  iralnr  tu  driitk  :   for  thou 

■hiji  h«p  enkU  of  Itr*  upon  hb  haw},  uni  tho  Lard 

ahftll  rcwini  tinw. 
If  tbon  fiiiut  in  tliu  day  of  aJvonUj',  thy  atroDglh 

If  y*  cnat  purl*  btforo  awb?,  thoy  nil!  turn  nfptin 

suiA  ronil  yi<. 
In  all  UlMiur  thwe  la  profit ;  but  th«  tnlk  of  thn  lips 

t*nd"lh  only  to  ponury. 
Iron  aharpKiMth  iroo  ;  bo  &  man  thnrpninth  thi 

IMtmne*  of  111*  frjnid. 
Ili*noliftkt,it  ia  nouelit, 'nitii  lliotiiiyer;  but  whcnhs 

b  iWte  hia  way,  ihen  be  biKiipih. 
It  IB  beller  In  rt-Vi'll  jil  .1  curn-r  <if  l'-  Inini-tfip,  ibd 


,  an.!  nui  tliiiiu  .,>vu  Iip». 
lion  comoto  poverty:  cpo 
t  bs  miiified  with  brud. 


idineH«rol>MlttJ 


nime  canaelsm  ahnl] 
1^4  drunkard  and  tin  glutton  shiJl 
id  ilruwstneda  aholl  vloiha  K  man 
TliD  huid  of  the  ililig«at  Bh*!!  bof , 

ilalhful  ahall  h*  under  nibait. 
Tha  labour  nt  th*  lighteOM 

of  the  wicked  tu  iln. 

he  memory  of  the  jniit  la 

the  wjek*d  thall  rot. 
_  he  race  bnottothovwift,  t 
The  noli  man  i>  iriao  b  hia 

lint  hatli  niidentandin^  H«rol>Mlt  I 
The  rich  man'a  wcaiUi 

The  rich  ruleth  nrcr  tlie  pow;  aail 

Bcrrnnl  to  tfa»  l*nd«r. 
Tho  Bimplo  beiiereth   *rBty  wcrJi 

nuui  lookclh  well  »  hio  Roinir 
Tho  sleep  of  a  kbouriiiB  loaii  1*  m 

oat  litcla  nr  muph ;  but  the  ttimit 

will  not  •utfer  him  to  Jeep. 
Tho  aloiigard  will  iml  plwjgh  hyra 

tlierefure  shall  lie  b«e  in  iiarro*.  * 
The  slothtui  man  ni£,   Thm  is  a 

nhall  be  alaiD  in  the  BlreelB. 
The  poor  is  hatH  even  of  hia 

bath  nuLQV  frionda. 
The  profit  of  the  earth  L*  for  all :  Ita 

aerrod  by  the  field. 
ThB  upHglii  Bh&ll  dwell  in  ilin  htML^ 

ahnl!  PcraBin  iu  iL     Hut  th»  -ickJ  i 

from  the  oartli,  and  thi>  tr»n^nwni 

The  wicked  flw  when  nn  iiuB  pos 

righlroH  nn  bold  ai  n  liuo. 
The  wian  idwll  inhwii  glory  ;  bat  *b 

promotion  of  fnoh. 
Then  !•  OialBiakelh  tiioMdr  1Mb,  }i«  W 

there  ia  that  maketh  hlmwlf  ponr,  jXl 


befor' 


t  full. 


n  reproach 


Removo  nnt  the  nM   l.inilrnirk ;  nnd  em 

tile  fields  of  the  fatlierlc»*. 
Iteprove  not  a  scomer  lest  he  hate  thei 

wine  man  xnd  lie  will  love  thee. 
RlKhlcousneaa  exalteth  a  nation  ;  but  sin  i 

to  any  puoj'le. 

Say  not  iititri  Ihy  neigljjjonr,  fio,  and  rome  nK»in,  an< 
(u-iuomiw  I  will  K>vr,  whi'H  thou  lust  it  hy  (heo. 

Srail  ihuu  a  miui  diliKont  in  Ins  businew:  hu  dial 
stand  bePiroking*;  lie  shall  nof  Binnd  berara  niiaF 


The  bl-~iln5  of  ihc  r,"i 


TI1.-1 


reth. 


i"««* 


lendeth  to  piirerly. 
To  all  tho  livinathere  is  ho;*:  » 

than  ft  dead  Ifl^ 
Train  up  a  child  in  the  w»jr  he  ahnoU  n 

he  i>  old  he  will  not  depart  from  <t. 
TroAAuroB  of  wickedneAs  pro^l  uothlBf:  I 

□UBnoM  dulivereth  from  detlh. 

WMllh  maketh  manv  friends  1  lint  th*  |)| 
rated  from  his  nefehbnur, 

WhatBoorer  thy  baud  findeth  Ik  do.  dtl 
miKhl ;  for  there  is  no  work,  nor  d*A% 
kdge,  nnr  wisdnni  in  the  gnre,  wInlWl 

When  goods  increiuo,  they  are  inanWi 
Ihem  ;  and  what  guoJ  i>  thens  10  lb»«« 
«aviDg  tbo  beholding  of  them  with  Ihrirt 

Wlifre  no  fwuntel  11,  the  people  Ul;  Ml 
titude  of  counsellor*  llisre  n  alMf, 

Where  no  wood  in,  then  the  fire  ipjelh  rt' 

When  pride   comelli,  thun  niinKh  thta*. 

the  liiwlv  la  wisdom. 
Who  ran  Hnd  a  rirtuona  wnmnal  tsrbaf 

nbo^e  mbips. 
Whom  findpth  a  ^Kf-  Hndelli  a  gaoi  &k 

lainrth  favour  of  iho  Lorr.l. 
Wine  in  a  mockpr,  stronc  drink  H  twfl 

foot  from  thy  npi^hbeor't 


hob. 


yotO 


lllo  t.ieep.  a  litlle  ■tnmbM',  a  lUI*i> 
I  III  ■.li'''[>:  aa  ahall  thy  poM^  • 
nivt'll'.'th,  and  ihy  <nuiiaa^«n^ 
:'»i...  i.T.ie  MMfcaat— aWtaf  aa^i  ■> 


PROVERBS  AND  OLD  SAYINGS. 


ENQLISn   PROVERBS. 

man  quarrels  with  his  tools. 

le  hand  is  worth  two  in  the  bush.     * 

•art  makes  a  blooming  visage. 

ols  moderate  passions,  and  inflames  violent 

hich  one  chooses  is  not  felt, 
iook  at  a  kingw 
h  are  ill  tenants. 
le  old  block. 

science  fears  no  accusation. 
1  mind  is  a  continual  feast, 
door  hangs  long  on  the  binges, 
the  feast. 

man  will  catch  at  a  straw, 
attercth  no  man. 
n  makes  a  lean  will, 
'ef^sed  is  half  redressed, 
lis  money  are  soon  parted, 
make  money;  it  requires  a  wise  man  to 

give  a  wise  man  counsel. 

i  is  soon  shot. 

,  the  doctor. 

p  sit  a  while,  after  supper  walk  a  mile. 

mustard. 

need  is  a  friend  indeed. 

»  never  lacks  friends. 

1  without  a  living  is  like  a  pudding  without 

r-up  IS  a  good  layer-out. 
im  is  never  out  of  sea^n. 
c  keeps  its  lustre  in  the  dark, 
ant  makes  a  good  master, 
i  is  as  soon  said  as  an  ill  one. 
not  graze  after  him, 
Ty  is  a  bed  full  of  troubles, 
on  horseback,  but  go  away  on  foot, 
iscience  needs  no  accuser, 
e  dog  that  bit  him. 
f  good  life  is  better  than  a  bushel  of  leam- 

lan's  an  angry  man. 

our  is  no  inheritance. 

I  life  is  not  a  life  of  liberty.  ' 

legs,  but  scandal  has  wines, 
ed  mother  makes  a  heavy-heeled  daughter. 
10  is  a  heavy  curse. 
r  doth  often  harbour  a  great  soul, 
will  sink  a  great  ship. 
is  soon  hot. 

friends  that  speak  us  fair, 
hunters  that  blow  the  horn, 
thieves  that  dogs  bark  at. 
d  not  in  one  shoe. 

i^ixcs  and  sevens  [confusion  and  ruin], 
lat  comes  to  the  net. 
in  that  is  got  into  the  purse. 
•Id  that  glitters, 
on  the  willing  horse. 
>sty  is  in  the  parting. 

in  the  fire. 

•e  soon  prepared  in  a  well-ordered  house, 
d  no  play,  makes  Jack  a  dull  boy. 
very  nigh,  save  many  a  lie, 
the  saddle  on  the  right  horse, 
vamed  is  forearmed, 
buy  gold  too  dear, 
cause  his  own  dog  to  bite  him. 
hold  his  tongue  in  an  ill  time, 
lose  his  goods  for  want  of  demanding  them. 
.  ask  his  wife  leave  to  thrive, 
r  surfeits  of  too  much  honesty, 
9ut  reason  is  a  beast  in  season, 
good  as  a  will. 

I  egg,  and  a  nut,  you  may  eat  after  a  slat, 
irse  fills  the  face  with  wrinkles. 
787 


An  evil  lesson  is  soon  learned. 

Anger  dieth  quickly  with  a  good  man. 

An  honest  man's  word  is  as  good  as  his  bond. 

An  hour  in  the  morning  is  worth  two  in  the  afternoon. 

A  nice  wife  and  a  backdoor  often  make  a  rich  man 

poor. 
An  idle  brain  is  the  devil's  workshop. 
An  oak  is  not  felled  with  one  blow. 
An  obedient  wife  commands  her  husband. 
A  nod  from  a  lord  is  a  breakfast  for  a  fooL 
An  old  knave  is  no  babe. 
An  old  sack  asketh  much  patching. 
An  ounce  of  mother-wit  is  worth  a  pound  of  clergy. 
Antiquity  is  not  always  a  mark  of  verity. 
An  unlawful  oath  is  better  broke  than  kept. 
Any  thing  for  a  quiet  life. 
A  penny  saved  is  a  penny  earned. 
A  pin  a-day  is  a  groat  a-year. 

A  pitcher  goes  often  to  the  well,  but  is  broken  at  last. 
A  quiet  conscience  sleeps  in  thunder. 
A  quiet  tongue  shows  a  wise  head. 
A  rolling  stone  gathers  no  moss. 
A  rotten  apple  injures  its  companions. 
A  rotten  sheep  inftttts  the  whole  flock. 
A  single  fact  is  worth  a  ship-load  of  argument. 
A  small  pack  becomes  a  small  pedlar. 
A  small  spark  makes  a  great  fire. 
A  smart  reproof  is  better  than  smooth  deceit. 
A  spur  in  the  head  is  worth  two  in  the  hecL 
As  the  bell  is,  so  is  the  clapper. 
As  the  crow  is,  the  egg  will  be. 
As  the  fool  thinks,  the  bell  clinks. 
As  the  old  cock  crows,  the  young  cock  learns. 
A  stitch  in  time  saves  nine. 
As  welcome  as  flowers  in  May. . 
As  you  make  your  bed,  so  must  you  lie  on  it. 
As  you  sow,  80  you  shall  reap. 
A  tree  is  known  by  its  fruit. 
A  wager  is  a  fool's  argument. 
A  wilful  man  will  have  his  way. 
A  willing  mind  makes  a  light  foot. 
A  word  before  is  worth  two  behind. 
Aye  be  as  merry  as  you  can. 

Bachelors'  wives  and  maids*  children  are  always  well 

taught. 
Beauty  is  a  blossom. 
Beauty  is  no  inheritance. 
Before  thou  marry,  be  sure  of  a  house  wherein  to 

tarry. 
Beggars  have  no  right  to  bo  choosers. 
Be  it  for  better,  or  be  it  for  worse,  be  ruled  by  him 

that  beareth  the  purse. 
Be  not  too  hasty  to  outbid  another. 
Be  slow  to  promise,  and  quick  to  perform. 
Better  do  it  than  wish  it  done. 
Better  go  about  than  fall  into  the  ditch. 
Better  known  than  trusted. 
Better  late  than  never. 
Better  ride  on  an  ass  that  carries  me,  than  a  horse 

that  throws  me. 
Better  to  be  alone  than  in  bad  confpany. 
Better  to  be  beaten  than  to  be  in  bad  company. 
Better  to  bend  than  to  break. 
Better  to  go  to  bed  supperless4han  to  rise  in  debt. 
Between  two  stools  we  come  to  the  ground. 
Birds  of  a  feather  flock  together. 
Birth  is  much,  but  breeding  is  more. 
Borrowed  garments  never  fit  welL 
Brag  is  a  good  dog,  but  Holdfast  is  better. 
Bread  at  pleasure,  drink  by  measure. 
Brevity  is  the  soul  of  wit. 

Building  and  marrying  of  children  are  great  wasters. 
Burning  the  candle  at  both  ends. 
Business  is  the  salt  of  life. 
Buy  at  a  market,  but  sell  at  home. 
By  others'  faults  wise  men  correct  their  own. 

*'  Can  do"  is  easily  carried. 


CUAMBEllSS  IHFOIOLiTION  TOR  TllK  TKOI'LK.  ^H 

KntorUan  hoaour  witb   hnmilitj,  »ttd  f«"ai 


r«ra  killed  >  ml. 

Carrving  coola  to  NiMtoullrj, 

CaMh  not  ai  tho  sUadov,  iuu\  lose  tlic  Bubstanc^e. 

Cktob  ItiC  bokr  bvfure  jnu  dcU  hii  akin. 

Cb>ii^  of  furluiiH  is  the  lot  of  IJE^ 

Choril)'  Wr'"-* 


Choril)'  Iwjciiiii  M  Ijuiiii.', 
Clmliiig  plBV  iiivcr  thi-i 
Cliildreii  taa  clilckciu  n 


but  does  not  end  thei' 
be  iilw>)'8  piokiug 


CliiUrau  ftra  unccrtua  mmfo 

Children  auck  ike  mother  whea  the;  ore  juang,  aud 

tbe  fkilwr  whvii  tlie]'  ore  old- 
Climb  not  too  tiicb,  IvBt  (he  fuJl  be  the  grotrr. 
Confuaion  of  >  i*.M  mtkm  hklf  uueiids  fui-  it. 
ConSno  your  luiigoo,  IvM  it  eanfluo  you. 
Coiudeneo  la  nsvel  dllatai^  Id  bw  wkrnLiigi, 
Coaa^uec  i>  tlio  dumber  otjaitiae. 
ConaUiil  oc«upAtion  nrevunta  teiniitAtJi'ii, 
Content  » lb«  trua  pniloBopben"  nlooi". 
CMUcDtnient  to  tbv  iniiid  i>  ns  ligbt  to  ihe  eye. 
Conviviality'  aJiould  Bvar  ha  fr««  froiii  lnlem['ci»nce. 
CuartMy  on  one  tifda  narer  luta  toug. 
Covut  not  that  whlcb  belong*  to  others. 
Cntft  brlugeth  nolliiog  home. 
Custom  is  n  sceund  naluro. 

Cut  jDur  coat  aooM^ling  to  j-tiiir  c'lcilii. 

t)>nb  yuorwir  vtitli  htmvj,  and  you  will  Iuvb  ^leiiiy 

otHiea. 
botth  Is  deoT,  nud  lieUs  no  denial. 
Doatli  keeps  ni 


wtib  silonl  nuijeai]',  •hnlluw  bruoki 
ig  what  thx  inumiug  xiuy  an- 


Ovep  rivers 

IMtr  nut  till  Ihp  «vi 
e(mi)ilwfa. 

Delays  are  dangoruui 


Deserve  success,  s 


Ud  OB  iho  most  do,  and  fewest  will  s^ohk  evil  <•!  you. 

Do  as  jou  would  be  done  by. 

Dogs  wag  ihdr  tails  not  so  much  iu  love  to  you  ns 

Duiofr  notliinf;  is  doing  ill. 

Do  not  bum  jsyliglit  u|iDn  it. 

Da  not  balloD  lill  you  are  out  nf  llie  fl-<»>d. 

Do  not  mskr  Hiili  of  i>ne  nai  flesh  of  niixiixr. 

Do  not  rip  up  old  soreti, 

Do  not  spur  a  free  bclr^c. 

Do  not  throiT  your  opinions  in  every  bndy'^i  leetb. 

Don't  be  all  your  days  truttiog  ou  a  eubbngo  leiir. 


DruukuiiiiL-HS  is  n  I'liir  uf  Hpectnclct  to  t 

and  nil  Ilia  w.trki,. 
Urunkenooss  reduces  a  man  bt'luw  t)iu  »l 

Esgica  lly  alone,  Lul  bltcvji  flock  tii^thrr. 
Early  Iu  bed,  and  enrJy  lo  riM', 
Makes  n  man  heallhy,  weallliy,  and  m 


[lUy,  and 
lolhing. 


Eranbg  oala  are  eood  luorBiog**  I 
Eror  4runk  itver  dry. 
Ever  spare  and  war  hav*. 
Every  bean  l»lh  itit  black. 
Every  body's  busioiMi  lo  nubodj'a 
Every  couple  U  uut      ""'" 


Eveiy  Jack  bu  liis  GilL 

Every  man  is  the  archUcel  of  lib  own  hhUM, 

Every  one  for  himarlf,  uut  God  for  ua  alL 

Every  oaa  puts  hia  fault  on  tbe  tiaus. 

Every  oue  to  their  liking,  aa  tbe  uld  iroaaa  ail 

she  kissed  her  cow. 
Every  palh  batb  a  puddle. 
Every  shoe  fits  nut  every  foot. 
Every  tiling  halli  an  end,  and  a  pudding  hsIbW 
Every  tiling  is  nod  in  ilii  scsaon.    ~ 
Every  thing  is  Uid  worse  for  weario- 
Eumplo  Icaohea  more  tlian  prwepi. 
Experience  is  the  uutlher  of  toiene*. 
Extwrieneo  loaehea  tool*. 
Evil  ounimuuicaliuns  oorrnpt  good  manncn. 
Evil  giittMi  «vil  apmil.  | 

Eaint  heart  nHvor  won  fair  Udy. 

Koir  and  softly  gii  far  in  a  day. 

Fair  trordi  make  toiila  Uia.  I 

Kail  not  out  wilfa  a  friund  for  a  uiOe. 

False  frlenda  are  wone  than  open  mrtBiMi       | 

Fancy  may  bolt  brou  and  think  it  floni.  . 

ror-nilehed  and  dev-bouglit  w  nond  ftt  Ub  | 

Pal  pauaebee  lualialvali  paw>.  , 

Fat  sorrow  is  better  tluui  Isaii  sum*. 

Few  take  care  lo  live  well,  but  nuuiy  to  liteli^ 

Fiddler's  fare — ineM,  drink,  and  mooey. 


e  f,Mi 


will  fullo* 


Fly  pt. 

Fouls  malio  feasts,  and  »inc  mmi  eat  ^MB. 

Fools  should  never  ^^ee  liulf-duiie  hi 

Fools  lie  knots,  and  wise  men  loose 

Fools  will  be  meddling. 

Forbeimnee  is  no  ac'juiltance. 

ForKivo  and  forget. 

Forgive  any  soonrr  than  tlij-wlf. 

Fortune  favours  the  brtive. 

discristinn. 


le  knocks  01 


Fram  TaniG  to  infnmy  i^ 


It  ka 


every 


•^ 


Gather  thistlec,  expect  ptiekles. 

Gentry  Hcnl  to  market  will  not  buy  onv  bnMj 

Get  thy  qiiudle  and  diataS  r*ady,  and  (Mn 

ftax. 
(!ive  n  ilii;  nu  111  nnmc  and  hang  him. 
Give  n  ii^^ue  ropi-  enough,  and  he  will  bang  Hi 
Give  it  phnty  ut  i-lbow  gnase  (hard  rabbiag} 


Good  winr  needs  no  bush. 
GiHid  HUtd>  eoat  nothing,  but  nrv  wonb  n 
Goods  are  nut  llirirs  who  enfoy  then. 
GiMgipiiig  and  lymg  go  band  u 


.a 


mBiK  iliniiirli  il  ba  rm  m  hoiniiljr. 
ItsKil  lirmkfiut,  bill  »  twi  Hljijor. 

in  (hv  CuiniUtiun  or  rU  rirlUH. 

I  thd  liMt  Huier. 

0^  exl  dm;  iiaililuit;>. 

Bi  Eiir  iutu  >  luillituiie  M  ilie  piduir. 

luve  Ult  luon  Inbnur. 

bail!  th<;  lunt  loitui'i-. 
*  Uio  gfcula*!  ni'udig^ility. 
■  ttiv  tinront  of  uuut  >oil  ahaDiD. 

» lb«  o'p'Jvtirii  uf  a  tltinj;  Rmn. 
inu  ■ould  nmiiil  oiuv,  aII  wwultl  be  nmei 
iu  ■OH*  nul  aura,  it  pbinlH  tbntlm. 
lit,  van  IL 

tuauiu  Kill  aiil  onmo  la  MAlionirt,  Mi 

t  U  tlm  mounlabl. 

wDCe  U>  lib  iliiio  ivlof,  all  miuy  be  wIm 

du«  Dot  nlir  pualum,  thry  vUl  (ubdlli 

wcra  hoiwa,  bfuon  wauii  tIiU. 

«  an  tnab,  Iu  will  Ulig  an  nlL 

■>■  tdu  tnanj  JraiM  in  tlm  firr,  nrmr  I 

uld  Mujuy  tlis  fruli,  )ilnpl  mil  tliit  iliiu 

1 1*  l)ii>  {inrwit  nf  liiali^  bijutrJt. 

:iTi«  (•>  pluck  Kllb  hkc». 

-Til  loo  nnu  »  Hand  (u  tnrfri^iT-nwit  b;  ■"M 

Iilm  DO  IWMhur  tlian  1  cnn  IUiib  lilio. 

lea  an  liix  tinttaginna  ilifHw, 

jtnnla  ■ridnm  i>ri>«iwr. 

mveli  apaM. 

ng  nniJ  ttl  vliit^riug  Uin<-   brtb  oiai*  \ 


ilntiil  10  bmra  I 


l|r;ini  111  yuulb  than  In  fa*  fl 
»(»■ 

r  lus  lata  to  Icam. 
iiall  cuuiiimn  U  otKTMiinD  tuBm4r. 
.tir  owl  that  maMb  iha  Iriar- 


dbor. 

TUpiTtl    li,. 

bnari  il. 

...If. 

.         .    •.Ll."tll.tll«Ol 

1. 

<  i.nri.wKCril- 
il.r.iranmUkUlaUdu.r. 

CUAMBERS'S  INFORMATION  FOE  TUE  PEOPLE. 

MauEf  wUI  do  morv  Ib^  mj  lofA  htta 
Mare  kfrud  thui  hurt. 
Mucii  U  eipeciotl  wiiFre  iDiuh  b  ^na. 
Mudi||iim  eo«lj}'lJie  mill  thcuinfftoi 

Mucli  ocutd  hiv  more  utd  liM  tU. 

Muffled  cnU  aru  baJ  111 

Mnrdci'  will  ouU 

Mf  wn  in  my  win  Uil  lie  geta  Uai  i  rifi, 
Bui  my  diun'iwr'ii  my  di     -■■'      "  ■' 

m. 


Jud^  uot  otnieu  tir  iliiiigi  at  ftrol  vglii. 

Keep  a  tiling  seven  ygkrs,  and  ygu  will  fiud  ansa  iuT  il. 

Keep  GOUDBeL  thj'Bolf  fLrst- 

Kcep   goad  uea   ouupMiJ',  sod  }'uu  sliull  be   ur  tbc 

. a  than  will  eatcli  mim. 

I   the  boirela   opeu,  tlio   hend  atwl,   ujd  tliu  font 

trm,  and  ■  flg  for  pjinicijuu. 
Km]i  Uiy  ahapi  and  t)iy  wiu|i  will  ieeg  than. 
Ketp  year  toDguv  iriimu  your  kwUi. 
Kill  two  birdi  wilh  ouc  BtDac. 
KindiHsa  it  loot  Ujwu  an  uugratetul  man. 
KinduwiBW,  like  unuii,  incruasB  by  sowiug. 
Kiniug  giiiM  by  bviiur. 
Knavery  Inay  wirvu  u  turn,  bat  bODCet}  ia  bust  iti  tliv 

Laud  wa«  never  luat  for  waut  iif  an  hair. 

Laxy  fulkit  t&ka  lliu  moat  mius. 

Leaft  said  ja  tuunest  incudod. 

l.Gud  iliy  boTK,  aad  Chun  anycn  have  bacli  bis  M"- 

Let  every  pcdliur  oury  bii  onu  Imrdaii. 

Lei  every  tub  aUtuil  on  ila  owu  bollom. 

Let  Dflt  your  tuogue  out  your  Lhroai. 

Let  ilprpiiiK  <iogt  lie. 

Let  ^iB  TObbier  ■livli  Ui  bit  taut. 

Let  tliHiu  laugil  llial  win. 

Life  in  h«lf  tpeiit  b«ruro  we  biiuvr  obal  it  is. 

Life  wilhnut  a  flieiid  U  dcalll  witliuut  a  witncu. 

Light  oume,  light  go. 

Lipa  huwcvor  rwy  niut  ba  fwl, 

LitUe  kod  ofteu  fUk  Ibe  puns. 

Lillle  IhaIs  must  Veep  iiraF  Bhore. 

Livu  uut  tu  cut,  but  i-.it  lu  liri'. 

Lowly  Ml,  richly  worn. 

Luck  the  slvble  dour  wheo  the  bteed  la  slolcu, 

Loag  luoked-for  Fomes  at  ht9t. 

Look  before  you  leap. 

Look  twice  vre  you  delsrmiDB  once. 

Lnvkers-un  ecu  luoru  tllan  pUyera. 

Loser*  are  alway*  id  the  wrung. 

I.ove  axks  faltli,  and  faith  uka  linniicsa. 

Love  iiip,  love  my  dog. 

Lovers  live  by  luvo  as  larks  by  kelij..     [Irouicul,] 

Lucky  iiieu  ueud  little  counsel. 


Make  a  virtue 

ofnecB. 

ity. 

Mate  hay  wb 

e  UiB  su 

/l,iue«. 

Bail  too 

:■!■>■«  f.ir  JO 

ursl 

P- 

Make  the  best 
Making  n  tuil 

ofalad 
fapka 

!«rfaiH. 

Man  doth  wba 

and  Cod  wl;al  h 

will 

Man  propos..3 

Uod  Ji» 

Slanoera  ofle. 

u.ake  (m 

Many  a  slip  bPlwM  lb 

pup  and  tl 

e% 

0  by   the  pouud,  and  go  awny    ly    llit 


Mi<r<>rtunea  Hldoni  coniu  stone. 
Ktisreckoniiig  in  no  payinffiit. 
Sludeny  i.lhehauduiaiJ(,f  lirlu.'. 
_^  llojwy  nulcB  tllfttuare  lu  f- 


N«cinalty  la  tlio  lootber  of  ini 

Nelilxor  proiso  nor  dispnuM  UiyMUj  tUnil 

the  turn. 
Norcr  carry  two  faces  nodn'  ms  Itfal 
Nover  (all  out  with  your  brMul  and  bM 
Never  find  any  tiling  Iirfur*  it  it  luaL 
Never  flsh  in  troubM  walln. 
ror  light  your  oatidlo  at  bulib  fa 


Never 


Never  make  a  mountain  of  a  uiuk-kilL 

Never  quit  oerlaiuty  for  hop*. 

Never  nde  a  free  bars*  to  death. 

Nerrr  Bound  Ihe  trumpet  of  your  o*Vip\ 

Never  split  a^^aiuat  tlie  gntiu. 

Never  tread  on  a  tiare  tuc 

Nnvcr  trust  to  a  broken  staff. 

N*ver  venlun!  out  of  your  depth  tiD  jvtit 

Nnver  wado  lu  uiikmivn  iraun. 

Now  bronnw  *wcep  claiO.  . 

New  ll|[hu  otiou  oomc  UuiMigb  nuil  li  i 

New  lordu,  new  laws. 

Next  to  love^qniclntio. 

No  alchoDiy  is  eijnai  lo  urias. 


k  liul  wlui  n^l 


'eight  d1 
i  Ihoae  who  will  not  ns.     . 
y  as  out  tu  fiuJ  a  cuver. 

thief. 
No  loee  without  a  Ihnrn. 
Nothing  ranios  out  of  the  sic 
Nulliing  dries  sooner  than  Its 
Nothing  down,  DOlhiug  up. 
Nolliing  is  impoKsiblB  Tu  a  willing  mil 
Nulhing  tealiirc,  nolbitig  »iu. 

rtfsll  Mudies,  study  j-our  present  con 
Of  all  tlic  crafts,  tu  bo  an  houMl  D 

erafl. 
Of  all  prodigality,  tlist  of  lime  is  the 
Of  two  evils  choose  the  leaaU 
Old  beCB  yield  nu  buney. 
Old  birds  are  nut  lu  be  caught  with  d 
Old  friends  and  old  wine  are  beaL 
Old  friends  lo  meet,  old  » 

Uid  reekoiiinija  lii-eej  new  disputes. 
One  bud  exumple  B[>oils  muiy  guod  p 
One  barljer  shaved  nut  so  closo  bataaf 
<  )iiu  cyc-wilocss  is  belter  tbau  tea  In 
Cni.-  Hon^-r  inakea  nu  garland. 
Oiig  i;,m:l  mm  df*^nva  aoollier. 


( iiie  UL'ver  luaiv*  ly  duinjj  a  good  tun 
One  cunce  of  dlMTi'tioii  i^  nurUi  ape 
One  crabbed  slice!'  will  mar  a  flu^ 
Oiiv  KUiiltow  tiukes  uui  a  •prin^  n 

One  Uk'  is  good  till  anolher  i»  kU. 

OiiDD  rcbuku  is  Wtior  tiiao  mcmI  hm 


\StHG&. 

N^  M  ilifl  lu«  will « Wh«  anuIdiM*!) 


U*  Lhii  iruD  19  liuL 
>v  furtiiy  v!  }our  jiarviiu, 
?lcvBU.  audi  A  tuvmlt. 
uc  timi  ia,  nob  i*  Ilia  b-%iL 

I  of  tbr  |iuii9(.  Mill  Uw  |>-j(uu1b  «1U  t«)ii  fl 

I  lit  Ml  ox  Iictun,  aa  an  buLlaJ,  loJ  a  ha* 

JdiB. 

J  wlD  watvij  aiwuL 

win  Ibr  UiD  ilonl. 

9  by  til*  Ibrcloik. 

le  drril  uid  Iiu'U  appor. 

tw  canipani'  juu  hMp,  aftd  111  t«D  jm  v 

in'n  in  till  tout  ('[iTDO. 
-.'It  t|<'<l.mi  ItiM  U  ><il  lkL.-i>. 
■uf  !■  »<'[|  »)»iil  tlikt  HiTi*  B  enaU 
ktrliu;  Uli>  cut  bLfun  Um  liio*. 
.  ImIA  on  wltb  ft  irvBvL 
nt  i&rty  !•  itlU  (ualu. 
juit  bnn  mual  mU  li^aaL 
rli7TJp.nn.-i  ai-c  Ur  Irtti,  Dt  QuIsI,  a 


L- Lsbvu  1b  (lie  lalli^ 

iti-it  liiirikiL-  uc  uil  (ba  ptnfnl^rM 
iteM  atlvba  KuIm  nnl  llw  bol  rniiak. 
mat  webJiIi  I»  twntciiiiuuK  inth  buU 
u  Ik  ill  uvpd  lli»l  AaauB  tlu  iiuatar. 
Ilf  nliid  narila  nu  •cvnicr. 
.dwnivM  H<iiin>r  ia  ubi  ihaMrwM*. 
iv  luu»l  ulolii*  tKca  fur  1IA. 
lliiat  uyu  ibbt  !•  uuM  wait  vUIe  lii*  ill 


fOrt  da;  oiiwl  ha>*  ta  anL 

AK  » lfc«  bMl  priMi. 

ittM  nan  ncl  inm  li<i  WklTlktii  a  M 


M'Clkm)^ 


F  CHAMBEHSS  INFOIIMAT 

The  rat  which  has  but  one  hole  is  Hiau  caught. 

The  recairor  U  u  b*d  u  the  thief. 

The  slill  K)w  Huckfl  the  lUcwt  wHab. 

The  BweMeet  wine  (lukEs  thu  sliarpect  vinegu-. 

There  is  a  tide  in  the  aEfun  ot  meii,  which  t»k*n  at 

the  flood  le«4s  on  to  (ortuOD. 
There  is  hick  iii  leisure. 
There  a  reastiii  in  routing  egg*. 
There's  K  ulre  for  every  sure. 
Tha«*a  no  compiusioii  tike  tha  pcnuy. 
There's  no  Cool  like  an  old  Tonl. 
Thel«'a  no  general  rule  wilhaut  an  exception. 
There's  no  joy  vilhout  altoy. 
Tha  tablo  rob*  more  than  tJio  thief. 
The  truest  josW  sound  worst  in  guilty  ears. 
Tiie  Uroth  nuiy  bo  blameil  but  nut  tliiuiieiL 
The  weakmt  must  gu  tv  the  wall. 
Tha  irBaTeT  beat  knows  whrni  the  shiw  piachea  tiim. 
Thvm  would  be  DO  ill   language  it  it  wore  nut   ill 


There  would  not  be  Breat  ones  if  there  we( 

D  no  little. 

llmli, 

Tbcy  love  too  much  that  die  for  lero. 

What  is  got  over  the  denl's 

They  muil  hunger  in  frost,  tliat  will 

01  work   ill 

belly. 

h^ 

What  Ibe  eye  sees  not  Iho  he» 

Tliey  need  muuh  whom  nothing  wil]  ooiitui 

Think  of  case,  but  work  on, 

Those  who  IJTB  lonitest  will  eee  niOHt. 

Those  who  [iUy  Willi  edge  tool*  must  eapcel  to  be  cut. 

Threatened  folks  live  long. 

Time  and  tid*  stay  fw  no  man. 

Tim*  is  ■  Hie  that  wears  uid  niakes  no  nolne. 

Tinuly  blaawm,  timslv  fniit. 

Tis  the  oceond  blow  that  tnihea  tli«  fray. 

To  a  child  all  wcMher  in  cold. 

To  a  crazy  ibtp  all  wlndi  are  coutrary. 

To  be  hail  (ellow  well  met  with  one.     [lo  B"^  rdlow- 

ahip]. 
To  be  in  a  merry  pfai. 
To  dine  with  Duke  Humphry.     [To  go  without  dinner]. 


To. 


■  U'' 


nuthiii 


'  but  01 


To  lutve  the  law  in  one's  own  hand. 

To  have  two  e 

To  kill  two  bu 

To  laugh  in  01 

To  leave  a  nioreel  for  the  Duke  of  Rutland.  [That  is 

the  family  Bumamc  of  tht.-  Dii^r  of  Kutlmd.j 
■"  oooks  spoil  thn  broth. 


Tool 

in*  the  dog  ill  XI 
r  let  any  twdy  el 
To  put  one's  nose  out  of  joint. 
To  rob  Peter  to  pay  Paul. 
To  aeek  a  needle  in  a  bottle  of  hay. 
To  send  one  away  witli  n  tlca  in  liia  e.tr  [in 

tcepidaliou  and  .■isloniMlimtut.] 
To  set  up  one's  atafi'  of  rest  [lo  pro|K>9c  to 

place.] 
To  sUnd  in  ane'»  own  ligliL. 
To  alarvo  in  a  cook-shop. 
To  Etrain  at  a  gnat  and  awnltow  a  e.-inii'l. 
Til  Uke  a  wrong  »>»  by  the  i-ai-. 
'"    telltaleaoulofRcllool. 


ION  FOR  THE  PnOl 


tliikuown,  unmiised. 
tlnmindcd,  unmoved. 
Uac  the  mcanii,  and  God  will  gin  til*  l| 

Valoar  U  worth  little  without  dl  _ 
Valour  that  parlen  ia  Dear  vieldin^. 
Viuiture  a  small  hah  Id  Ctitou<  a  gnat ' 
Vvuturv  uol  all  in  onv  bottom. 

War  is  death'*  toMt. 

Waato  not,  want  nut. 

Wealth  ntakee  wotbIup. 

Welcome  Is  the  best  elicer. 

We  must  cat  a  peck  of  salt  wilfa  a 

know  him, 
W«  never  know  the  worth  of  wat«i'  IB 
What  eannnt  be  oured  muil  be  sndund. 
Wliat  is  bred  iu  the  bone  will  not  sm 


's  baA  is  ifM  wt 


the  goodwife  spares,  (he  cat 
..  ..^.i  a  dog  is  drowning,  every  oni 
Whou  all  is  conaumod,  repeiitaiKV'  muw 
Whni  fortune  smiles  on  thee,  take  ibe  si 
When  many  strike  on  au  aavil,  tbo;  Miil 
Whoii  povarty  eome*  in  at  tlM  ioar,  l> 

thu  window. 
When  roguca  tall  out,  honaat  nMn  (■*  lb 
When  sorrow  is  ulecp,  wait*  U  not. 
Whoa  the  cat's  awoy.  the  micD  [Jay. 
When  the  goodmau'M  from  btnne,  ik  g 

ii  soon  Hpruad. 
When  wins's  in  wit'a  nut. 


'^1 


Writ 


. injur 


bero  Li  always  a  ^ir- 


it  your 


griuH  grows  the  sow  starvea.  i 

While  there's  life  thcvo's  hope.  ( 

Who  daiiitiea  luve  sliall  beg^iv  piui*. 
Who  loselh  liia  due  getlctb  uo  tliauk*.  t 

Who  lH^ri-1h^lll  in  nL'e.llcas  danger  is  ibe  ddU 
Who  apend<>  more  lli.-in  bo  hliould.  shall  ■*! 
spend  when  he  would.  i 

Who  ipiu  against  Iho  wind  spits  iu  hi*  onfti 
Wide  will  wear,  but  narrow  will  tsar.  < 

Wilful  waste  makes  wuful  want. 

Wispinnd"™"  ■"  ''■"?  "  tumble^he  m  hU 
Wool  scllfta  know  wool  buyer*.  -1 

Words  may  )«»,  but  blutiri  &t|  liMvy.      ^J 
Wrauglfin  never  want  words.  |f# 

>.. .._.         -!* 


I  York — every 
I  You  are  busy 


To  thro 


Ihr 


lay  hit  shalv. 
I  a  hen  with  onit  chiel. 
1  godliitlier  after  111*  et._ 
.  teeth  and  ii'>t  be  butoi. 


True  praise  lakes  n 
Two  heads  are  bclt« 


|>urBc  out  ot«M«%« 


havt  ajr  iiiLii'l  of  IiliId  »iUIW. 
nUh,  tund  rnasli. 
HUl  III  l>>«ut. 
JU  iu  H  ilviro  ImUi, 
K  elmii  till  Mb;  bn  imt. 
tt  tl»  ibiiwil  wUki'  mi  7r  ipl  Ilia  Ttoli.  ' 
3l*llir  lH«e  tlu»  kliiilUi«  own- W. 
'OUT  tiisnd  lire  y<JU  lu*  uaiiil. 

M  i>  Dne  pride,  lUrf  ■  n**  lioDHty- 

ea'il  alln  unwrml. 

'  th«  widJ  ui4  paj[  •!'  itir  water. 

mi  Ii*  luinenL 

l*W  uid  cnvM  Jaji. 

1  »»(J,  hv'll  wuri  tli>  batter. 


1,1  Miitit  I.'  irii  mnh..iin(J  wirM dniiArt. 

.:ii'i  whaW}tM)'iUUML'J 

o^fuiiiu.  ■ 

iinii  ktcjiliig  wan 

»,„_,„■,.,,    „„-.,„.;l,  ■,';,„•   l.«U.- 

1(1  nuutlBBe  tirvitb  tri'iii.iiat. 

.  >c  iluiT  BUiJ  lunUiltr  ftl  iE«  Mltrr. 

ntlie  hiMa*  llmt  jeVlwipuIeiliH. 

k  priJn,  fiir  m;  dcig  dipij  u'l. 

wn  till  ami.  Bn>l  Uia  tvvlta  miD  Dm  an^,^ 

uit  awa'  iliii  oiiir  wlidn  ili*  raw  flbfik 


■  tiua  nni,  u'  Dune  vill  •jarr  fUai 

pnij>1il,  but  drink  tru  hU  prrkiui. 
1  Uiu  invll  HUmi  y»  (uvu  tiinUd  Oin  ■] 
i'  ilrbHlIi  clani'  iiiw  ajii  I hiffillRr. 
Ul«  that  }v  luaj  drink  Unp. 
una  to  tfu  ha',  ilio'll  run  tu  Itn  bjm 

nla  cBtrJi  tba  WDina. 

iialir,  tnan  Lnnrc 

•Hrtt,  liaiiin  ia  Int. 

jiiM,  MMK  fnrjpinm. 

niin-  tltt'  ™l  it."  pmil  U  llm  Ifm. 

u.aiiJ,v.,„WMi-i*illiu 


CHAMBERS'S  INFORMATION  FOR  TUE  I'EOPLE. 


Ell  ifi  tell  ia  gude  niercliandiBe. 

Envy  is  the  dlcIc  of  the  BOol  and  torture  of  the  body. 

Envy  nt'cr  iloci  >  gude  turn  but  wbea  it  lueaua  nu  ill 

£veD  u  you  won  it  wy  may  j'ou  wear'C 

Eyer  busy  ever  bare. 

Every  ano  loups  Uie  dike  whcr«  it'u  Inighmt. 

Efory  ane  to  luB  trade,  ^uoth  the  brovstcr  to  (he 

bishop. 
Every  bird  thinbg  its  asa  nest  Iteat. 
Every  cock  craws  emiuest  on  liiit  kin  midden  hvitd. 
Evi^ry  day's  nu  Yule^dity— cast  tbe  cat  n  coitook- 
Evnry  fnult  Ima  iu  for«. 
Ercry  flow  haa  its  ebb. 
Ev«ry  iudi  of  jay  bu  na  ell  ofMiuoy. 
Every  tua  bows  to  llie  boab  lie  geU  bieLd  fne. 
Every  mui  buekles  his  brlt  hi*  uu  gate. 
EvgrynatL  «tii  guids  aa  ill  hUc  wevi  but  hidi  Uut  bu 

Every  laan  cna  t"ut  bust  on  his  aiu  hum. 

Ervry  miui  liu  hia  ud  draff  pook. 

EvDi7  loan's  tsJe'a  gude  lili  anither*s  be  lauld. 

Every  May  be  hath  a  May  not  be. 

Every  miller  wad  weise  the  water  to  hia  ain  mill. 

Every  [ilay  mauu  be   played,  an'  eoaui  maun  le  the 

Fair  woi-ila  break  nae  liAoes,  fuul  words  many. 

Fancy  tUea  before  tile  wind. 

Far-awn  ruwls  liae  fuir  feathers. 

I^inhcr  (*it  the  shorter  west. 

Fause  folk  should  bae  moiiy  wiCoosses. 

Fftusehuod  makes  ne'er  a  fair  hiuder-eiid. 

Favour  unnsed  is  favour  abused. 

I''ill  fu'  Ml'  baud  tu',  that  niakis  a  man  stark. 

Fkm  an'  »  giming  wife  are  waokriiu  kwd.-fidlo<v>. 

• "^  -  -    u,|KUitta  wil)  be  at  youx  taU. 

., „ l**»ytogripiL 

^ng'at'the-gOM  wnl  ne'er  a  gude  <,\. 
Flitung  o'  farms  mak  maikus  J..;.r. 
Fools  are  aye  fond  a'  fljttiii'. 
Fools  are  aye  soeing  ferliiai 


Fouls  lauj;h 
Fools  set  fai 
FouU  shouldi 


trjab 


■happiu'-Eticks. 
'  Cuhioo'e  sake,  as  doga  gang  to  the  luai 
'  want  o'  a  Btuuk  a  shoe  may  be  tinu 
bid  a  foal  a  tiling,  an'  tliat  lie  will  do. 
«  ^vlug  eomea  having. 
kIi  tlsh  an'  poor  frienda  grow  soon  ill-fat 
cods  are  liku  tiddlu-stringH,  they  maunna 
wer  tight, 
ends  gre    '      ■  "  ' 


CnlhcHng  gear  is  a  pleauiit  pai 
Gaily  wad  be  better. 
Geur  is  euaier  golien  than  guide 
Ueiille  pnrlaus  hae  laog  taea. 
Ijciitle  tenants  are  poor  men's 


a  bairo  its  will  ai 


wbelp  its  fill,  and  ueiiliei 


Gic  ynur  Inngue  mair  holidays  than  your  head. 

C  iff-gaff  tiink-H  gude  friends. 

Gla&aes  ai:'  lasBes  are  briiilo  wure. 

Glowering'B  nao  gainsaying, 

Gud  ne'er  sent  tlie  mouth,  lyit  he  sent  tlie  meat  i 

Godsend  untur  to  that  wtU  llul  (ulk  tliink  vlli 

Cud  shapes  the  back  fur  tlio  burden. 

Good  wine  makes  a  bad  head  Bud  a  laug  sluiv, 

Graliludo  ia  a  heavy  burden. 

Gn'ut  eomlurl  is  like  ready  gald  in  uCL-d. 

Greedy  folks  bae  ' 


79* 


J 


Gude  advice  is  ne'er  out  o*  i 

Gude  ale  needs  oae  «i^. 

Gude  bairns  are  eldi  to  leu 

Gude  breeding  aud  •oiler  lui 

Gude  elaes  ujien  a'  doera. 

Gude  eompany  oa  a  jonnuj  it  •otih  a  tmdL 

Gude  gears  not  to  be  gapped. 

Gude  fishiog  in  drumly  water. 

Gude  folk  are  soareo,  tak  ekf«  o*  auc 

Gude  forecast  Eutliei-s  the  WMfc. 

Gude  healtli  ia  brtler  dua  wwllb. 

Gude  kail  is  half  meac 

Gude  wateh  prevents  harm. 

Gude  irili  ne'er  wanta  time  to  show  it 

Gude  will  should  be  ta'eu  ui  part  paf 

Gudely  cow,  gansy  calf. 


I 


i,  gars  a  deaf  man  bear. 
id-in-use  is  fiuher  o'  lear. 
tc  a  tliicf  when  he's  j'ODDgi  ii 


■Is 

Ha 

Ha 

I 

Hankering  an'  binging^n  is  a  )ii>or  trail. 

Happy  the  wife  that's  manisd  tu  a  iikjIMnii 

He  can  bide  his  mcM  and  neck  mair. 

Ue  can  »y  Jo^  and  think  it  ao. 

II<  eon  »u  an  inch  bcliire  bis  nuir. 

He  earca  nn  wha's  bairos  greet  If  bis  lutli. 

He  cornel  oftener  wi'  the  loke  than  the  oA  i 

He  complains  early  that  ceopUioi  o'  bis  bL 

He  doeaua  ken  what  end  o'  Uun*!  upfomK  . 

He  doesna  aye  ride  when  he  aaddle^ 

He  doesna  hkc  his  wark  that  saya  kMe  ita^i 

He  eats  the  calf  i'  the  eow's  wama. 

He  gangs  awa  in  an  ill  time  tliat  ur'er  tomUM 

He  gangs  kng  boreCiHit  thai  w«m  itsJtmSi 

Ue  ginia  like  a  aban^Mail  in  s  i'^'"    ' '"^ 

He  Ea*  a  caup  for  a'eDm. 

Ho  has  a   guJo  judgiufui    ' 

Hohnsahearty  hiinj  fort;:.  I     ■- 

He  has  been  rowed  in  hia  uitber's  sari:  Bit 

He  has  brgu^jlit  his  pock  to  a  braw  niarid. 

He  baa  couie  to  gudo  by  mie^uidmg. 

Ue  has  cooaten  his  cluak  on  lis  iiher  ibnll* 

He  has  cuupit  tlie  meikle  put  into  the  bt(K 

Ho  has  faut  o'  a  wife  that  uiarrieB  atan'tpiL 

He  boa  feathered  his  neat,  he  may  &tu»teli 

Hu  has  gotten  the  nhip  hand  of  bini. 

He  has  bun  on  bis  wrang  side. 

He  has  Ucked  the  butler  aff  niy  brud. 

He  bas  moir  nit  iu  hia  little  fiogei  Ihaa  |il 

yonr  bouk. 
He  bas  mucklo  prayer  but  little  devotion. 
He  has  some  wit,  but  a  fool  has  the  gnodilfri 
He  has  the  beat  end  of  Uie  string. 
Ho  h^  wit  at  will  that  wi*  an  tupj  kfld 

He  haa't  a\  kind,  Ue  coft  it  nut. 
He  hears  wi'  his  heel,  as  geci^  du  in  hamil 
He  kens  his  aiu  groats  anung  liber  latiftkA. 
He  kens  whilk  side  his  cake  is  bunendiBi 
He'll  gie  you  the  nhistla  o'  your  gioaL 
tie'll  have  eueugh  some  day,  when  bk  aeril 

He'll  mak  an  ill  rtmner  that  cann*  glM 
He'll   mend   when  he   gruws  beuer,  bis  ■■ 

He'll  uailher  danee  nor  baud  the  candK, 
He'll  nogieaninchu'liiswiUfora^HVM 


PROVERBS  AND  OLD  SAYINGS. 


)  leave  to  speak  that  canna  hand  hb 

fault  that  canna  mend. 

ng  spoon  that  sups  wi'  the  deil. 

&  gude  darg  that  gaed  grumbling  about  it. 

sin  in  his  punishment. 

sr  that  never  fa's. 

at  forgets  himsel. 

at  marries  at  Yule ;  for  when  the  baim*s 

)  corn's  to  shear. 

of  a  right  nest. 

f  a  wise  mind,  that  of  a  foe  can  mak  a 

cook  that  maunna  lick  his  aiu  fingers, 
fox  that  winna  scrape  his  ain  hole, 
iiiel  that  can  neither  do  nor  say. 
ess  guidman  that's  no  miss'd. 
me  as  water  in  a  riven  ship, 
if  on  that  side  o'  the  head, 
close  that  has  riven  breeks. 
iogs  do  when  wives  sift  meal. 
te  in  a  blanket. 

siuget  cat,  better  than  he's  likely, 
test  Wright  that  casts  maist  spails. 
oft  as  he  lets  on. 
)n  up  that's  hanged  e'er  noon. 
;ugh  that's  ill  lo'ed. 
lung  that's  paid  wi'  his  ain  wand, 
•traes,  and  lets  wiudlins  gae. 
that  winna  traik. 

in  his  aiu  house  that  canna  pick  a  bane  in 
tur's. 

rthy  o'  sorrow  that  buys  it. 
den  there  ben,  that  will  neither  borrow 

t's  timely  wasy. 

ae  wcel  that  can  bide  nae  wae. 

3  best  let  him  beat  the  horn. 

i  nuts  buys  shells,  but  he  that  buys  gude 

lething  else. 

a  mak  sport  should  mar  nauc. 

kt3  me  auce,  sliame  fa'  him ;  if  ho  cheat 

hame  fa'  me. 

its  a'  costs  will  ne'er  put  plough  i'  the 

>  in  dirt  has  aye  foul  fingers. 

you  ail  ill  turn  will  ne'er  forgie  ^ou. 

asts  a'  perils  will  win  nae  worship. 

n  a  gutter,  the  lauger  he  lies  the  dirtier 

3  before  the  net,  fishes  laug  or  he  fish  get. 
forgets,  but  he  that  wants  thinks  on. 
gear  befoi*c  he  gets  wit,  will  die  e'er  be 

i  mickle  nose  thinks  ilk  ane  speaks  o't. 

>ut  ae  e'e  mauu  tent  that  weel. 

nicklo  wad  aye  hue  mair. 

lae  gear  to  tine  may  bae  shins  to  pine.   ' 

,wa  hoards  will  get  a  third. 

LS  through  a  hole  may  see  what  will  vex 

i  his  pot  may  seethe  iiis  kail  in  his  loof. 

i  to  freets,  freets  will  follow  him. 

s  or  he  be  ready,  wants  aye  some  o'  his 

;ht  the  cow  gangs  nearest  the  tail. 

Lo  himsel  will  be  gude  to  nacbody. 

3  motes  gets  motes. 

rs  his  purse  bribes  the  thief. 

rs  all  opinions  comes  ill  speed. 

a  can  lude  too* 

!s  overcomes. 

11    che*t   in    play  winna   be   honest  iu 

not  thole  maun  flit  mony  a  hole, 
to  Cupar  maun  to  Cupar, 
ta  when  be  may,  shanna  when  he  wad. 
Id  eat  the  kimel  maun  crack  the  nut. 
;  a  mile  to  flit  a  sow. 
7&U 


He  wad  gar  you  trow  that  the  moon's  made  o'  green 

cheese. 
He  wad  tine  his  lugs  if  they  wer«  not  tacked  to  him. 
He  was  mair  fleyed  than  hurt. 
He  was   scant  o'  news   that  tauld  his    father  was 

hanged. 
He  was  the  bee  that  made  the  honey. 
He  winna  send  you  awa'  wi'  a  sair  heart. 
Highlanders — shoulder  to  shoulder. 

I  canna  sell  the  coW  an'  sup  the  milk. 

I  hae  mair  to  do  than  a  di^  to  wash. 

I  ken  by  my  cog  my  cow's  milked. 

If  ae  sheep  loup  the  dyke,  a'  the  rest  will  follow. 

If  the  deil  be  laird,  ye'll  be  tenant. 

If  the  deil  find  you  idle,  he'll  set  you  to  wark. 

If  the  lift  fa',  the  laverocks  will  be  smoored. 

If  you  win  at  that,  you'll  lose  at  naething. 

If  ye  sell  your  pui*se  to  your  wife,  gie  her  your  breeks  to 
Uie  bargain. 

Ill  bairns  are  aye  best  heard  at  hame. 

Ill  bairns  aye  get  broken  brows. 

Ill  beef  ne'er  made  ^ude  broe. 

Ill  comes  upon  wauPs  back. 

Ill  counsel  will  gar  a  man  stick  his  ain  mare. 

Ill  doers  are  aye  ill  dreaders. 

Ill  getting  bet  water  frae  'neath  cauld  ice. 

Ill  hearing  maks  wrang  rehearsing. 

Ill  herds  mak  fat  foxes. 

Ill  laying  up  maks  mony  thieves. 

Ill  payers  ai*e  aye  gude  cravers. 

Ill  will  ne'er  spak  weel. 

Ill-won  gear  winna  enrich  the  third  heir. 

Ill  workers  are  aye  gude  onlookers. 

I'll  ne'er  brew  drink  to  treat  drunkards. 

I'll  ne'er  keep  a  cow  when  I  can  get  milk  sac  cheap. 

I'll  ne'er  keep  a  dog  and  bark  mysel. 

I'll  ne'er  lout  sae  laigh  and  lift  sae  little. 

I'll  ne'er  put  the  rogue  aboon  the  gentleman. 

I'll  rather  strive  wi'  tlie  lang  rigg  than  the  ill  neigh- 
bour. 

I'll  serve  ye  when  ye  hae  least  to  do. 

I'll  tak  the  best  first,  as  the  priest  did  o'  the  plums. 

I  might  bring  a  better  speaker  frae  hame  than  you. 

I'm  no  every  man's  dog  that  whbtles  on  me. 

I'm  no  obliged  to  summer  an'  winter  it  wi'  you. 

I'm  no  sae  blind  as  I'm  bleer-eyed. 

I'm  no  sae  scant  o'  clean  pipes  as  to  blaw  wi'  a  brunt 
cutty. 

I'm  o'er  auld  a  cat  to  draw  a  strae  before. 

I'm  speaking  o'  hay  and  you  o'  horse  corn. 

I  ne'«r  sat  on  your  coat-tail. 

I  think  mair  o'  your  kindness  than  its  a*  worth. 

It  maun  be  true  what  a'  folk  says. 

It's  a  far  cry  to  Locliaw. 

It's  a  hard  task  to  be  poor  and  leal. 

It's  a  mean  mouse  that  has  but  ae  hole. 

It's  a  nasty  bird  that  files  its  ain  nest. 

It's  a  silly  hen  that  canna  scrape  for  ae  bird. 

It's  an  ill  pack  that's  no  worth  the  custom. 

It's  better  to  sup  wi'  a  cutty  than  want  a  spoon. 

It's  by  the  head  that  the  cow  gies  milk. 

It's  far  to  seek  an'  ill  to  find. 

It's  gude  baking  beside  the  meal. 

It's  gude  sleeping  iu  a  hale  skin. 

It's  gude  to  be  sib  to  siller. 

It's  gude  geai'  that  pleases  the  merchant. 

It's  gude  to  be  in  your  time,  ye  keuna  how  lang  it 
may  last. 

It's  gude  to  dread  the  warst,  the  best  will  be  the  wel- 
cumer. 

It's  hard  both  to  have  and  want. 

It'9  hard  for  a  gi'eedy  e'e  to  hae  a  leal  heart. 

It's  hard  to  sit  iu  Rome  an'  strive  wi'  the  pope. 

It's  ill  bringing  butt  what's  no  ben. 

It's  ill  speaking  between  a  fu'  man  and  a  fasting. 

It's  ill  wared  that  wasters  want. 

It^s  kittle  for  the  cheeks  when  the  hurlbanrow  gacs 
o'er  the  brig  o'  th«  note. 


CIIAMDERSS  INFORMATION  l-OH  THE  PEfiPLE. 
Lt  dil  your  ninuUi. 


il'i  lug  bcTore  the  detl  lie  found  dead  at  e)i»  d^kt- 

Ii'h  iBDg  ere  llie  deil  <]«e. 
It'll  DM  laughing  to  gini  in  ■  iriddy. 
ItVnu  pb;  whtii  aaa  Uuglu  micI  knilliei  grwCa. 
It'i  noedlea  to  pnur  waWr  on  ■  drowiitd  mauie. 
Il'i  na  lost  wtiAt  a  rrieod  nu- 
ll'* not  what  U  »he  but  whit  hM  die. 
Ibi  ower  br  betwccD  tiie  kitchen  od'  tlio  ha'. 
It'»  ower  late  to  Bparz  when  Ilio  back'i  bare. 
It')  paM  jnnking  when  tile  hoad'a  aff. 
It'*  Miuking  praika  comM  out  o'  ww'b  ain  luutUh. 
!('■  the  beat  spoke  in  j'oar  hIimI. 
It'i  <T«II  that  OUT  fkolts  am  ool  wriilpn  io  oar  Uto. 
It  WM  never  for  tuwlhiDg  tiwl  tha  gleg  vhUtled. 
It  wUI  be  fenUiered  out  o'  your  wing. 
It  will  be  Ltng  ere  ye  wflu  In  the  kuM  llda. 
I  wad  be  scaot  a'  claith  lo  ba1«  mj  hose  wl'  dockvna. 
1  wonid  rather  sc«'t  tiiao  bear  t«LI  o't. 
I  wadna  bo  dcDTPd  wi'  yo'ro  koeklins  for  a'  ynur  «fig«. 
[  wadna  ea'  the  king  my  rounin. 
I  wiili  you  vcndier  meat  than  n  rmiiLii  hiire. 


Kwp  out  o'  hii  company  that  Mncks  o'  hja  oUrBti'ry. 

K«p  unncibing  Tar  a  sow  foot. 

K<Kt>  the  feaet  till  t1ie  feaM  day. 

Kwrp  the  gtaffiu  voar  aUi  hand. 

Keep  yoar  ain  fiitii  gull  lo  your  ain  aua-niawi. 

K*cp  your  breiUi  to  cool  yuMr  nwu  piirridga. 

Kvmp  your  mouth  shut  and  yoor  M'on  open. 

Ken  when  to  apt^d  and  when  In  *parv,  aud  yo  nccdiii 

be  biuy,  and  ye'll  ne'er  be  bare. 
■-■■"^ '        1  ynnr  neighbour  winnaniisteti  you. 


Lrtyoar  m 
Liglit  Lurdi 

Like  a  co*  on  an  unr<>  K-ia. 
Like  a  »<■  |i  laying  un  a  tiTimp. 
Like  butler  ia  the  bUck  dug's  tiaBM. 
Like  heiu,  yr  rin  a}-e  lo  llw  b«i|i. 
Like  the  bairm  o'  Falkirk,  jv  Iiuad  i 

Like  (bK  Cat,  Tain  tub  wad  js  eat,  bat  fttii 

Like  the  wife  that  aye  took  whal  ibi  hi^  ■ 

Like  the  viTo  ihat  ne'er  erln  for  ih)  Uki 

Like  tb*  wife  «i'  the  mony  dauftitms  ^  ^ 


Lifci'i  an  ill  mark. 

Li|ip«n  to  me,  but  li>nk  to  y>ititiM4. 

Llal  tv  lueal's  gude  kilclwii.* 

LitUa  don  liaa  Ian;  tail*. 

Little  folk  am  saou  anny. 

Little  Jook  geu  the  litUe  dtsb,  and  thai  IM 

littk. 
Little  kenned,  the  loa  cared  for. 
Little  meddling  maka  fair  (Bttinc. 
Little  wata  the  ill-wJUy  wife  wluiaJiiiiiiTi 
Little  wit  in  tin  head  tnaka  laiMt  Innl  ( 
LitUamenoe  tu  thf  ahmlu  tubiuafflkai 
Living  al  bwk  and  Riangvr. 
Lock  yuur  dour,  tlial  yoa  inay  kaiy  jtm 


le  little, 


re>a[a< 


LoTc  b  as  warm  amtrui  cott* 

Love  owerlooki  mony  raulta. 

Maideni  ahoald  be  mUd  and  nnek,  alibi  I 
alow  to  apeak.  ' 

ha    gud    gu 


Kindnesi  will  creep  where  it  canua  giin;. 

Kiw  a  earle  and  clap  a  carle,  that's  llie  nay  to  lino 

Kythe  in  your  ain  colours,  that  fulk  may  ken  you. 


Laith  lo  bed  and  Uith  lo  ria 
Lang  fasting  gathers  wind. 
Lang  fasliiig  liains  nac  maai 
Lang  tiULiidiiig  and  little  oUt 
Lang  alracB  are  nao  motes. 
Laugh  at  leisure,  ya  may  greet  nre  ri 
Law  B  costly,  tak  a  pint  and  grte. 
Law  maken  aliouldna  be  law  brcakc 
Ijiy  the  head  a'  the  son  to  the  tail  o 
Lay  your  name  IP  your  winning. 
Leal  heart  never  lied, 
Leam  the  cat  the  road  lo  the  kirn, 

liekin. 
Learn  vou  to  an  ill  habit,  and  ye'il  <■: 
Learn  young,  learn  fair. 
Let  a'  trades  live,  quoth  the  wltv,  wl 

Let  ntane,  moka  mnny  n  loon. 
I.i'I  hyganca  be  bveaiie.". 


eeds,   lai         eads  b        lanBcitlMi 
MicUe  muemg  maralho  memory. 
Mickte  power  maks  mony  fan. 
Miekle  about  anc,  rjuolh  thi-  dnl  la  iIm  n 
Miekle  gifia  mak  beggars  Iwiul'l. 
Michlcliead.  lilllowll. 
.Miekle  maun  a  km.W  heart  t}u.li: 
Miclilemaxt,  .HL-nytiiBlndl^-- 


inn  fpi-'L-  ilka  «li"r". 
man  UL-eiki  hvlp  tlial  hi 


Let  them  euro  Uiit  ei 


y  aue  lacks  what  tbey  wonrd  (ila  W  t 

y  unt'  nervps  a  thanklen  maMiT. 
Miiny  anv  ^jieera  the  gale  ihcy  ken  f«'  ■■A 
Mony  ane'a  gear  ii  mony  ane's  deaitu 
Mony  gudo-nighla  is  laitli  away. 


lUtoTD  iii*l»  Kude  nirirUr 
am  got  wi'  {oin,  ka{it  oT  curv,  and  U 

Ih'ii  viiDtnM — lUi-k  Id 

■Iw  fftii'  <l»y  at  s'm. 

Ill  111; nm  gmw  tahli  in  «■  i^ardiui. 

uukli  wvdI,  fur  ailil  wiU  ruW  iiaat. 


in,  aliEW  tltin. 

II  No.  ludjiH  De'oc  In  nimiad. 
clic-ib*  niak  a  lias  nv*, 
li'^ouB  wvi  •uji  mnir. 

IT  |!iii>l)u  bluiil  li-  thn  nurWt,  itii 

.    IT  tuiinw  ciiinn  iiT  mta. 
It  heut  In  n  alajr  baa. 
b'  tkrra  tluU  think  Audb  tp  d< 

hk  iar  altew  kI  tli*  UA  San. 

Hib  uii  b*r  liMil  liba  a  ban  ilrinlinj;  w 

'k>  H  i(  fauiirr  ws^liia  nidt  in  livr  in-  - 

'k*  liku  a  lai]}  lu  a  landoanl  lUi'k. 

U  Euup  ta  ttk*  BvJl  wl'  ail  ill  irlU,  viihir  tin  tAt 

lo\*itw  w.tar  1.III •pUI. 

uHFji  firr  alii  nidi.'  u'  tu*  liinut%  and  ||a«K  uji  auJ 

-wiior  liku  a   lianW'vhM^  ajo  tlio    [angi 


TIi«  iKwk  n'  m»ylip«  U  lety  bnii. 

Tim  o>i>t  iworgUDga  Ihc  jiraftL 

The  (leil  «jo  driw*  liia  hojp  to  an  ill  nmrkPt 

TUb  ilril  doe«iB  »jo  ■how  his  cIothu  doow. 

ne  dail  ;»«•  ■*»  when  be  finds  Iho  doer 

■gainst  htn). 
The  doll'*  bnina  ban  aye  Ih^ir  datldy'a  look. 
Tlw  ijeir»  *]>o  gode  to  hi«  lin. 
Tho  deU'a  can*  owtr  Joclt  WabBtar.* 
Tho  dcU  wdl  Uk  ItUle  rre  he  want  a'. 
Tho  deil's  av»  biis*  wi'  hig  ojn. 
Tho  flr»l  fill  <■'  »  lit  haggia  U  the  haoldtwt. 
The  root  at  tho  omdle  and  the  linnd  M  Uic  T< 


The  highor  ihe  hill  IIih  laighor  th*  enn*. 

Tho  hurt  man  vtritea  wi'  *tf\  "ti  inatblo  rtane. 

The  krne  may  winio  in  iho  eater's  gaic, 

Tbs  kirk-'a  niickli-,  but  yoo  may  aay  nuaa  io  the  end 

o't, 
Tbe  lainl  niaf  l>»  ]a<rd,  and  ;et  ni-ed  hi*  hind's  help. 
Tli»  niaal*r*g  titot'a  tho  bml  moasoTo. 
Tlia  n'onraiDB  only  fuha  folk  to  k«|i. 
Tb-ra  ia  an  act  io  tbo  Ltixi  o'  Graiit'e  niurt,  (hat  no 

aboon  eleven  tpoak  at  anc«. 
There  «na  a  wife  that  kept  liar  Bapprr  for  har  Urcnk- 

ful,  and  sho  was  rii>ad  era  day- 
There  was  ne*cr  n  gude  (uwn  but  thorc  wa*  a  dub  at 


There  was  n 


Tb( 


a  Btll;  Jocky  but  IhoH  waa  an  sltly 
a  tliriRy  wife  w!*  a  abivt  Itboat  hot 


luh  before  ctepy  door. 
There's  a  Inugh  tinHw  ill  an  auld  wifc'a  Il*el. 
There's  n  whitiip  i'  the  iwip.f 
There's  aye  Mine  water  where  the  Blirkio  Jrowuv 
TheT«'abeiId  auealb  an  nuld  nu>n'a  beard. 
Tlwre'a  alsct  in  ttw  ceedl*  pMot,  Ibough  little  ot. 
TImm'i  the  and  d'  an  auld  lang. 
mple  man's  the  heggar'a  " 


Iter's  wife  a: 


The  Ibir 
shins. 

Tlie  llirl 
braw 


It"  that  lies  na  in  yoliv  i^le  treiik^  im  ym 
and  the  "mo  o'  it  0"3  wnil  nml; 


onh  II 

They'll  gree   better  v 

Thev  that  Imatd  wi'  e.n 
They  lli.it  Iji.nijnu  f" 


■n  for  lovo  bIi'.uM  ri«e  up 

list  fpenk  lean. 

i'  Kiiriia  (hat  lir^t»;lit  yen 


ihvir  dintief. 
Tiii^'  nmy  k'ti  hy  ymir  '"wpI  «iia.i  has  1 

Thvy  ns'dr  tl"'  gmt  dliintii's  lllal  (lirnl 
Thry  sbuiil')  Mm  lliK  CinilwlFe  that  wad  u 


«inna  Ireak  the  timi 


iil  is  a  pide  rere 
le  and  (liinking  la 


Tit  fur  tat'M  Eair  pbsy. 
To  him  that  will*,  way*  an 
TooiQ  Italia  Uiak  bElin|[  bar 
Trulii  will  aye  aland  witfaodt  a  M 
Try  your  friend  ere  you  Wwd  HM 
Twa  wordi  mnun  gtog  M  1^  bl^ 

Virtue  ne'er  RTO^n  auld.  J 

Wies  Ihp  wire  that  wantl  Iha  1^ 


War  maka  thie-r^^  and  Mam  bMi| 
We  an  ays  to  learn  aa  bmi;  ■•  wa 
We  are  bound  to  h«  honaat  aud  m 
Wealth  basmailvtaairniancD*^ 
has  made  rata  wmtlUiy.  '* 

Wealth  maka  wil  waver. 
Weans  maun  or<«t'  *'^  ''"T  vi 
We  canna  hailli  sap  and  blaw.  ^ 
Wedding  aad  ill  wlnttring  1mm 
We«l   kiiDs  tha   tnouM  when 

Wc«l  is  that  «*el  doo. 

We'll  Dtvir  k«i  the  ronb  </' 

We  maun  lire  by  tha  liiiDS  aoi 
Wha  can  hand  wliat  -ill  be  a«^ 
Wba  can  help  niidnei.  t 

Wlia  can  help  aicknesa,  qtioih  A4 
the  gutter,  1 

Wha  comes  oflener  and  brjfigtf  jd 
Wha  daur  bell  Ibo  eat.  ^ 

Wha  invited  you  to  lb*  Umtt-  ^ 
Wtia  wad  Dusca'  -a  Gurdon  ool 

What  belter's  the  bouw  when  i1k 
What  mar  be  done  al  unv  time 


H|JUt 


t  r  youT  h«d,  thai 

lliau  ill  luek. 

f  l--st  ken. 


^'ilai  JT)  do  wheu  your  lirunt  yi 
^'llBl  ytf  nant  up  and  lUiwn  yo  ha 


||^<->^ 


When  friend-,  ni^c 


Wden  Ihe  eo»'s  in 'the  clout 
When  iliO  K^idiuaa  driuks 

Wli'ii  ihe  guidwife  drink*  V. 


11  \h-^  li'il  nms  to  the  wmd,  k 

■n  till' n.'iJ'ifa  it  will  tiaow 
•n  H  ine  »iiks,  wotllB  awiBB. 
■n  vf're  gaun  an'  eoaaa'  tta  | 
UVUen  la  are  wwj.  baad  )— iji 


Miili  [«.>.)    Ta  ih*  jvn*  nf  ill*  «ntU> 
imi.    From  Um  afro  Ui  lli*  laaw. 


lalBf  (el  l»jacitv  {uJiot.    lln 


>.    Sabinil  u  tind. 

^ti^    Utva  my  til  Ui*  pawrrTiil. 

rrm  togs.    t<*t  mdu  ywld  ta  dId^iwikx. 

MM  nnrm.    Aim  «t  it  *arA  and. 

Ik  timprie  dlsfiv.    Tovxptwi  oaDunon  (Una 

n^lla.    In  it  lUto  of  nnn  minil, 

1  fM  puvu  craMuiit.    Sin*]]  Ibtn^  Inn 


Biioii.    -nw  im.fy '■ 

uiImiii  ii|>£lk.    Ln  liin  elrmu&d«d  iTMl 

I    To  Willi  piad  I 
CMluiin.    With  &  Timnlnic  P»"- 
llins*  Kim  nr  |;ruil*>l. 

— .lr>  jnrr.      r:iim  llln  Dw(~-fn)III  Oi     ..  -^ 

mil],  iif  koi^wninj  ■(■ 

I    .!  iinlUmir  tH>  Mid  1^ 


iDm.    A  thinit  dMilml 

In  Imw.    Tn  pb^  III-  f'liil  at  Uia  riRhl  Ui 

vt«n.    Thti  mtuUidor  ii  witniinit. 

IwtoF  nmlar.    OtA  la  inir 
ilDoi.    Lout  «mt  frlondt. 
Ilu|>«ik    DiVlda  ■ml  {(v*!*. 
■ffcnruin  nt  pm  pairin  man. 
w  f"!  ilin  (or  oni>"»  -      - 


lOTiTlmi 


Thaw  i>  A  ini"inint  in  4U  ih 


Hdoa.    [In  uiim  rirrpvtiuM. 

i  tiihrit.    B*  wlai  jau  Mtin  (n  Ik^ 

dra.    I^SKin  ilii>  ctiatr ;  «utbcirlUMlfd;r-     _ 

KflMlk  (K.  B-  Mid  Kx.  gr.)    Of  va;  ■'I 

nlliil  lit.    Nothiug  pTKlOMa  nMhai(. 
^     Itf  *irtun  of  bi*  "lltv*. 

On  Dno  ptrL 
KoniQlinn.    Jadip  frf  tW  til»  at  Ao  atilua  of 
M  by  ilia  (not. 

TTHtn.    Ucllera  an  Fifintuitnl  mui. 
re    Wlllunil  prBtimilitalinn. 
n.    Dii  thii  Ilk* :  wi  «itn*nl  r—miblinir*  •€ 

aptr  *ii«L  A  hieiI  >i*du  will  ulilnn  Ac  •*•». 
AnaM  iiMiK  UntMloo  «mi|tb<a*  boibBh 
I  ab  hiMia  <l»i»n.    Ii  w  aUomUc  l»  dari>« 


CUAMBERS'S  INfOKMATlUN  FOR  VHK  I'KOl'L 


Frio  de  (f.    A  HuScidu. 

Fiat  ju*ll(ia,Tiut  caelum,    Let  jiutice  be  tlunv,  lliongli 

Ihs  hcavcDi  slunild  fall. 
ForiuiA  (■»«  forlibUB.    Fottuna  fivonn  tli"  hoU, 
Vrngei  eoiuumere  nsU.  Mto  tiorn  only  i 


Hixi3  jiaaiifatu  icquia.    With  unoqiial  steps. 
" '  I  laohrjiniH.    F  ........ 

c.)     Thatia. 


m  lachrynuiB-    nenoe  prom^  theeo  tcarti. 


id  genus  omne 

ImpriuuLtur.    Let  it  be  printed. 

ImpFDniptu.     Without  Mud/. 

Ill  torma  pnupecU.     In  the  farm  of  a  poor  i 

111  propria  peraona.     In  pt'rBun. 

Id  re.     In  the  mntler  of. 

paaaing. 

Ipac  d!xitr     Hb  himsouBaid  it:  dopmatidin. 
judox  danmatDrcnmupeeiuabHitntur.  liuilt  altaelm 
^  to  a  jad^  nilicii  the  gi^9  itre  EuSered  M  BHcapu. 
Tore  dirino — hamano.    By  divine — b/  bunuui  law. 
Labor  nmnia  riueit.    Ijibour  cooquotv  cmtj  tiling. 
Lat^ua  lingiUD.    A  fliip  of  tli<  longue. 
Lex  taJionu.    The  Inti  of  rotalialioni 
Locum  icocnB.    A  iepoty  or  aubititnt*. 
Magna  rat  verila«,atpnvraleUil.  Tliu  truth  ispowcrFuI, 

and  wi)!  utlimately  prevail. 
Maleriom  nip«rsbat  opua.  Ilie  worlcmansliip  surptsaed 

tha  niaterials. 
Medio  tutisaimut  ibis.    A  niedlmn  cDurao  will  Ik  the 

Memento  m«ri.     Hcmcmbcr  death. 

HcM  situ  conaiun  recti.    AmindcoaKiousafrcelitude. 

Mintbiie  diMu.     Woiiderrul  |4|  tell. 

Multum  in  parva     liluch  id  liitle. 

Mntatia mutandis,  ACturmakiagthencciBiiaryiiljaagm. 

Neceuilas  nuu  liobet  Irgct.     NeDcsdly  bu  na  law. 

Htm.  con.     An  BbbrevuUiiii  of  nemhur  contraiiiceme. 


JmBmi 


Panim.    Kvery  wbvft. 

P«r  flu  et  ntba.    TiuemA  t^bt  tmi  wittL 

V*T<K.    ByiiMdf. 

Povls  naicitur  nou  fit.    NUui«,  iuh  «■!;,  m 

Prima  l%eie.     On  Uw  flnt  rin 
Primw  viK.    The  firvl  p 

inteatiiial  canal. 
Pninum  inobite,    Th*  mmb  •Vri^  i  th*  Ib*  ■ 
Principiis  obata.     ~ 
Pro  aria  el  focii. 
Pro  bono  nublicn. 
Pro  ct  con.    Fort 
Pro  w  nau.     For 

I  tompoj*,     For  llii  liuM. 
(iuidounal    Wb>t  now(-.ApT>)i«I  to  a  af^4 
Quid  pro  ijuo.    What  far  what ;  til  Iv  tai. 
QuuaJ  hoc.    To  titia  •atauL 
Q«<id  eral  dcinonatnadBBi.     Ittikfc  •>  mm 

lUraa' 


Kcinfectn.    Wltb«ut«l .. 

Ruquieseat  in  pwe.    V»J  b«  loM  Im  p 

Rn  ingusta  domi-    Hmtqw  nrcmmit*     ,   _  • 

R(»piee  finem.     Lwff  ta  Iho  cad. 

Samtim.     In  order. 

Sto  icur  ad  ulm.     Sueli  u  til*  wajr  u  iBawBl 

Ste  paifllTn.     So  cvny  wlwre. 

Sc  iraiuit  gloria  mnndl.     Tbtu  tha  glair  •/  A 

paioM  away ■ 
Sino  dip.    To  an  indeflnito  lime. 
Sine  qua  uon.     An  indiipona 


The, 


Suavil 


«  ImTot*  the  irwr. 

ji  modo,  foriiter  m  i 

irons  in  tho  dwd. 


'<i«lM^ 


,»  lout. 


Unless  Die  Lord  lusist  yoo, 

Moscitur  ei  fociis.     He  is  knoivn  by  his  irompiuiiaii 
NnUi  Bene  (N.  13.)     Mu-lc  well. 
Obilcr  dicluin.  A  thing  anid  by  the  wny,  or  in  paasi 
OoiiB  probandL    Tlio  woiglit  of  proof;  tlio  burden 

proving. 
O   ei   tie  omnia  I     Oh  tbat  he  had  alnoya  done, 

Bpolien  thus ! 
0  tempora,  O  luurea  !     Oh  the  llniee,  ob  the  manne 
Otium  eum  dignilate.     Ease  with  digutty. 
pAlmam  qui  meruit  feral.    Let  him  who  hai  won  b< 

the  palm. 
Pari  passu.     By  a  similar  gmdaliun. 
Par  nobile  fniti-uin.     A  noble  puir  vC  hruiiicro. 
Particepa  criminLs.    *a  nceunipiice. 


langc,  and  ne  change  uitli 
Tutiea  i]uutie8.     As  ufiea  lu. 
Ubi  supra.     Where  abuve  men 


a  speculum.     Aa  if 
Veni,  vidi,  viol     1  came,  I 
inortiie.     Force 
..(■0    A,.i„, 


.    Vieo  vetSK.'     TlTo  terms  or  cases  being  el 
Vi  et  armis.     Uy  nuun  fore*. 
"  la  voce.     By  or  wiUi  tho  living  or  l»kl  n« 
i.  (videlicet.)     N,.mel». 

X  et  pnelorea  nihil.     A  vuice  and  guitiatsa 
Vox  populi,  vox  Dei.     Tho  voice  of  Uw  m« 
■  ™  of  God. 


END  OF  Tlii:  FIRST  VULUMIi 


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