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327 

C7 

1911 

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uC.  BERKELEY  LIBR 


p 


10535=1 


LR  IN  THE  "MATTER  OF 
LAND"  ROMANCES 


BY 


/       UC-NRLF 


lEEK 
105 


$B    lis    SE^ 


PART  OF  A  THESIS  ENTITLED 

'A  Study  of  the  Narrative  Art  of  Four  Metrical  Romances* 

SUBMITTED  IN  PARTIAL  FULFILLMENT  OF  THE 

REQUIREMENTS  FOR  THE  DEGREE  OF 

DOCTOR  OF  PHILOSOPHY 

IN  ENGLISH  IN  THE  GRADUATE  SCHOOL 

OF  THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  ILLINOIS 


REPRINTED  FROM 

The  Journal  of  English  and  Germanic  Philology 

Vol.  X,  pp.  429-452,  585-609 
1911 


CHARACTER  IN  THE  '^MATTER  OF 
ENGLAND''  ROMANCES 


BY 


HERBERT   LE SOURD   CREEK 
A.  M.,  Butler  College,  1905 


PART  OF  A  THESIS  ENTITLED 

*A  Study  of  the  Narrative  Art  of  Four  Metrical  Romances" 

SUBMITTED  IN  PARTIAL  FULFILLMENT  OF  THE 

REQUIREMENTS  FOR  THE  DEGREE  OF 

DOCTOR  OF  PHILOSOPHY 

IN  ENGLISH  IN  THE  GRADUATE  SCHOOL 

OF  THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  ILLINOIS 


REPRINTED  FROM 

The  Journal  of  English  and  Germanic  Philology 

Vol.  X,  pp.  429-452,  585-609 

1911 


CHARACTEE  IN  THE  "MATTER  OF  ENGLAND"      (^^ 
ROMANCES. 

For  the  student  of  medieval  life  and  literature  the  dramatis      /  /^/ 
personcB  of  the  romances — conventional  as  they  are,  and  con-  * 

ventional  as  the  romancers'  treatment  of  them  often  is — are  /  */ /T/'^ 
of  no  little  interest.  Professor  Comfort's  studies  in  the  chansons 
de  geste  have  shown  the  importance  of  a  knowledge  of  the 
character  types  of  the  French  epic  for  an  appreciation  of  the 
ideals  and  culture  of  medieval  France.  In  this  paper  an  attempt 
will  be  made  to  investigate,  on  a  somewhat  broader  plan,"  the 
four  most  important  of  the  "matter  of  England"  romances — 
King  Horn,  Havelok  the  Dane,  Bevis  of  Eamtoun,  and  Guy  of 
Warwick.^ 

Character  stands  in  a  peculiar  relation  to  the  other  narrative 
elements  of  the  metrical  romance.  It  is,  of  course,  never  em- 
phasized. Yet  w^hen  romance  after  romance  has  been  read,  and 
a  host  of  incidents  have  been  forgotten,  characteristic  personali- 
ties stand  out,  which,  modern  English  literature  proves,  have 
been  of  abiding  interest.  The  more  distinguished  names — 
Gawain,  Kay,  Lancelot,  Tristram,  Iseult — were  the  fruit  of  a 
romance-activity  which  stands  in  strong  contrast  with  the  more 
popular  art  of  Horn  and  Ilavelok.  Yet  the  heroes  of  this  seem- 
ingly more  primitive  group  typify,  I  think,  ideals  of  permanent 
interest.     Appearing,  as  they    do,    in   situations    and    relations 

^"The  Character  Types  in  the  Old  French  Chansons  de  Geste," 
Puh.  Mod.  Lang.  Asso.,  vol.  xxi,  pp.  279  ff. ;  "The  Heroic  Ideal  in  the 
French  Epic,"  Quarterly  Revietv,  April,  1908. 

^any   suggestions   as   to   method   have  been    obtained    from    the  ; 

studies  in  narrative  of  Professor  W.  M.  Hart,  especially  Ballad   and 
Epic,  Harvard  Studies  and  Notes,  vol.  xi,  Boston,  1907. 

^References  are  made  to  the  following  editions:  King  Horn,  ed. 
by  Joseph  Hall,  Oxford,  1901 ;  Havelok  the  Dane,  ed.  by  W.  W.  Skeat, 
Oxford,  1902;  Bevis  of  Hamtown,  ed.  by  E.  Kolbing,  E.  E.  Text  Soc,  Ex. 
Ser.  xlvi,  xlviii,  Ixv,  London,  1885-1894;  Guy  of  Wa/rvyick,  Auchinleck 
and  Caius  Mss.,  ed.  by  J.  Zupitza,  E.E.T.S.  Bx,  Ser.  xlii,  xlix,  lix, 
London,  1883-1891. 


251762 


Creek 


thoroughly  stereotyped,  they  are  perhaps  more  interesting  for 
that  reason,  have  more  of  the  medieval  flavor,  gain  in  represen- 
tative quality.  If  they  are  deficient  in  subtlety,  they  are  not 
deficient  in  a  crude  strength  of  character  and  will,  perennially 
attractive. 

For  these  reasons  it  will  be  seen  that  characterization,  to  an 
unusual  degree,  perhaps,  is  bound  up  with  plot  on  the  one  hand, 
and  with  the  broad  background  of  medieval  life  on  the  other, 
and  it  will  be  necessary,  in  discussing  it,  to  trespass  somewhat 
upon  these  other  fields. 
The  Group. 

The  well-known  tendency  of  the  dramatis  personce  of  medi- 
eval romance  to  fall  into  certain  conventional  relations  is  well 
illustrated  by  a  group  of  characters  which  appears,  with  certain 
variations,  in  Horn,  in  Bevis,  and  in  Guy.  This  group  seems 
to  belong  naturally  to  stories  of  the  exile-and-retum  type,  but 
it  is  not  restricted  to  them,  as  it  appears  very  clearly  in  the 
Guy.     Nor  is  it  essential  to  the  exile-and-return  type,  since  it 


does  not  appear, 

unless    faintly,  in 

HaveloTc. 

The  followin 

table  shows  the  correspondence: 

Eorn 

Bevis 

Guy 

The  father 

Murri 

Guy 

[Syward] 

The  hero 

Horn 

Bevis 

Guy 

The  old  friend 

A>elbrus 

Saber 

Herhaud 

The  young  friend 

AI)ulf 

Terri 

Tirri 

The  foreign  king 

Aylmar 

Erniin 

Ernis 

The  foreign  king's 

daughter 

Ryinenhild 

Josian 

Clarice 

The  defamer 

Fikenhild 

Two  nights 

Morgadour 

The  second  lady 

Reynild 

King  of  Aum-     [Oisel] 

beforce's 

daujjrhter 

These  lists  might  be  paralleled,  in  part,  with  another  from 
Havelok,  as  well  as  from  romances  far  removed  from  this  group, 
but  as  the  relations  of  the  dramatis  persona!  are  not  so  clearly 
the  same  in  these  other  cases,  I  have  not  thought  it  worth 
while  to  insist  on  the  parallel.  However,  the  possibility  of 
making  the  table  which  here  appears  is  not  without  significance. 


Matter  of  England  Romances  3 

and  a  very  fundamental  resemblance  will,  1  think,  appear  on 
closer  investigation/ 

In  respect  to  the  hero's  father  the  resemblance  is  incom- 
plete. Guy  of  Warwich  is  not  a  story  of  the  exile-and-retnrn 
type,  and  Guy's  father  plays  a  comparatively  unimportant  part 
in  the  story.  In  Horn  and  in  Bevis  the  resemblance  is  clear. 
In  both  cases  the  father  is  of  very'  high  rank,  Murri  being  King 
of  Suddenne  and  Guy  the  Earl  of  South  Hampton,  of  noble 
character  and  approved  prowess.  Both  are  slain  at  the  opening 
of  the  story,  being  overpowered  by  numbers,  and  their  posses- 
sions, in  both  cases,  are  seized  by  those  who  have  slain  them — in 
the  one  case  by  the  Saracens,  and  in  the  other  by  Devoun, 
Emperor  of  Almaine.  Both  leave  young  heirs  who  are  helpless 
to  protect  their  dominions.  Birkabein,  father  of  Havelok  and 
King  of  Denmark,  occupies  an  analogous  position.  He  dies  leav- 
ing his  young  heir  in  the  power  of  a  traitor,  who  seizes  the 
kingdom.  This  situation  is  repeated  in  the  same  poem  in  the 
death  of  A]?elwold,  leaving  his  daughter  and  the  Kingdom  of 
England  in  tlie  care  of  a  traitor.  Thus  in  each  of  the  three 
romances  of  the  exile-and-return  type  there  is  a  king  who  dies, 
leaving  a  young  son  in  the  hands  of  enemies. 

The  children  of  these  three  fathers"  too  early  dead  experience 
a  similar  fortune.  Horn,  sent  out  in  a  boat  to  find  a  grave  in 
the  sea,  luckily  reaches  the  coast  of  Wevsternesse.  Bevis,  nar- 
rowly escaping  death  at  the  hands  of  his  OAvn  mother,  is  sold  into 
slavery  and  borne  across  the  seas  to  Armenia,  Havelok,  after 
heart-breaking  sufferings,  likewise  crosses  the  sea  in  a  boat  to 
find  a  home  at  Grimsby.  Guy  had  no  such  experiences  in  his 
earlier  days,  but  gained  manhood  at  his  own  home.     It   is   his 

*Leo  Jordan,  Uber  Boeve  de  Bcmstone,  Beihefte  zur  Zeitschrift  fiir 
rom  Phil,  (xiv,  Halle,  1908),  pp.  41  f.,  gives  a  list  of  dramatis  per- 
sonoe  in  French  exile  stories  which  is  not  quite  the  same  as  the  one 
above.  However,  it  is  interesting  as  showing  that  practically  this  same 
group  of  characters  appears  in  a  number  of  chansons  de  f/este.  xVraong 
the  English  romances,  Generydes  furnishes  the  list  of  dramatis  personam 
most  nearly  parallel. 

'Not  counting  Al)elwold,  the  father  of  a  heroine. 


4  Creeh 

later  career  which  hrings  him  into  the  company  of  Horn  and 
Bevis,  as  will  appear  in  the  discussion  of  the  other  typical 
characters. 

Curiously  enough,  Horn,  Bevis,  and  Guy  each  have  for 
teacher  a  kind,  brave  man,  who  remains  a  steadfast  friend. 
AJ?elbrus  taught  Horn  the  craft  of  wood  and  river,  as  well  as 
harping,  carving,  and  serving  the  cup  (vv.  229  ff.).  Later  he 
assists  in  the  love  affair  of  Horn  and  Kymenhild;  and  finally 
he  is  rewarded  with  a  kingdom  (vv.  1507  f.).  However,  the 
resemblance  between  Guy  and  Bevis,  here  as  elsewhere,  is  much 
stronger.  Saber  is  the  ^^meister '  of  Bevis.  After  keeping  Bevis 
concealed  as  long  as  he  can,  he  is  obliged  to  see  him  banished, 
but  later  sends  his  son  to  seek  the  lad ;  and  he  himself  accom- 
panies Bevis  in  some  of  his  adventures.  Almost  the  same  thing 
happens  in  the  case  of  Herhaud. 

Gij  a  forster  fader  hadde, 

)?atte  him  lerd  &  him  radde 

Of  wodes  &  riuer  &  o)?er  game; 

Herhaud  of  Ardern  was  his  name  (vv.  169  ff.). 
Herhaud,  too,  is  a  fellow-soldier  of  his  friend,  and  himself 
seeks  Guy  when  lost.  Herhaud  is  also  tutor  to  Guy's  son  Eein- 
brun,  seeks  him  through  many  lands  when  he  is  stolen  away, 
and  in  general  stands  in  the  same  relation  to  the  son  that  he 
did  to  the  father.  Like  Saber,  Herhaud  has  a  warlike  son  who 
plays  a  part  in  the  romance.  Like  him,  too,  he  is  warned  in 
dreams  when  the  hero  is  in  need  of  assistance.  Grim  has  certain 
points  of  contact  with  these  characters,  particularly  with  Saber. 
Both  Grim  and  Saber  are  instructed  to  slay  their  charges,  and 
both  represent  that  they  have  done  so.  Thus  in  each  of  these 
romances  there  is  an  old  friend  who  guards  the  early  years  of 
the  hero;  in  three  cases  he  is  the  tutor;  and  in  the  fourth  case 
he  stands  in  the  general  relation  of  guide  and  instructor,  teach- 
ing, however,  not  knightly  accomplishments,  but  the  meaner 
duties  of  labor. 

In  three  of  the  romances  there  is  a  young  friend  who  is  the 
faithful  helper  of  his  superior ;    In  the  fourth  romance^  Havdoh, 


Matter  of  England  Romances  5 

there  is  only  the  semblance  of  an  equivalent  in  the  three  sons 
of  Grim.  But  A>»ulf  in  Horn,  Terri  in  Bevis,  and  Tirri  in 
Guy,  occupy  corresponding  positions.  In  two  of  the  cases  the 
friend  is  presented  with  a  bride  and  territory  by  the  hero.  Thus 
Eeynild  is  given  to  x4]7ulf,  and  the  daughter  of  the  King  of 
Aumbeforce  agree  to  become  the  wife  of  Terri  when  she  learns 
that  Bevis  is  beyond  her  reach.  Guy  also  plays  an  important, 
though  not  similar,  part  in  securing  Oisel  for  Tirri.  In  the 
case  of  Terri  and  Bevis  and  of  Tirri  and  Guy  the  friendship 
lasts  through  many  battles  in  which  the  comrades  fight  side  by 
side. 

The  term  foreign  king  refers  in  Horn  and  in  Bevis  to  the 
father  of  the  heroine.  The  Emperor  of  Constantinople,  in  Guy 
occupies  a  somewhat  analogous  position.  Bevis  and  Horn  are 
welcomed  at  the  courts  of  the  foreign  kings.  Each  is  granted 
honors,  but  later  is  the  victim  of  a  false  friend  (two  in  Bevis), 
who  misrepresents  the  relations  existing  between  the  hero  and 
the  king's  daughter.  This,  so  far,  is  true  of  Guy  at  Constanti- 
nople also.  But  the  Emperor  of  Constantinope  is  not  misled, 
while  both  the  King  of  Westernesse  and  the  King  of  Armenia 
trust  the  informers,  and  as  a  consequence  the  hero  in  one  case 
is  banished  {Bevis,  w.  1229  ff.)  and  in  the  other  is  sent  on  a 
mission  which  is  intended  to  result  in  his  death  {Guy,  w.  3727 
ff.).  Thus  in  the  portions  of  the  stories  connected  respectively 
with  the  foreign  kings  tlie  three  romances  show  strikingly  similar 
characteristics. 

The  term  defamer  indicates  sufficiently  well  the  chaj-acteristio 
quality  of  one  of  the  conventional  enemies  of  the  hero  in  these 
romances.     Thus  Fikenhild  tells  Ailmar  that  Horn 
"lij?  in  bure 

Vnder  couerture 

By  Eymenhild  ]>i  dojter"  (w.  695ff.). 
Similarly,  the  false  knights  whom  Bevis  had  preserved  in  battle 
said  of  Bevis  to  the  Emperor  that 

"}?e  doubter  he  ha)?  now  for-lain"  (v.  1209). 


6  Creek 

In  G-uy  it  is  the  steward  Morgadour  who  accuses  the  hero    of 
having  dishonored  the  Emperor's  daughter. 
'^Into  liis  bour  wi|?  streng]?  he  ^ede 
&  bi  Yi  douhter  his  wiile  he  dede"  (vv.  3227  f.  ). 
In  these  cases  the  resemblance  between  the  villains  lies  chiefly 
in  the  identity  of  the  charges  which  they  make. 

It  is  to  be  noted  that  the  hero  in  each  case  has  a  love  affair 
with  the  king's  daughter.  Clarice,  it  is  true,  does  not  become 
the  wife  of  Gruy;  but  the  account  of  her  relations  with  him 
has  the  characteristics  of  a  romantic  story,  leading  up  almost 
to  the  marriage  altar,  when  the  hero  recollects  Felice  in  time. 
In  the  other  cases  the  love  results  in  marriage,  and  both  Rymen- 
hild  and  Josian  take  the  initiative  in  the  wooing.  In  both  cases 
separation  occurs  as  the  result  of  the  treachery  of  defamers, 
but  the  later  fortunes  of  the  heroines  show  wide  divergence. 
However,  so  far  as  the  general  relations  go,  we  again  find  strong 
similarity. 

The  last  character  of  the  group,  the  one  I  have  called  the 
second  lady,  is  of  slighter  importance,  and  its  presence  here 
may  be  questioned.  I  mean  by  this  Reynild  in  Horn  and  the 
King  of  Aumbeforce's  daughter  in  Bevis,  each  of  whom  loves' 
the  hero,  but  later  becomes  the  wife  of  the  hero's  friend.  Oisel, 
whose  name  I  have  placed  in  brackets  in  the  table,  can  scarcely 
be  included,  except  that  it  is  through  Guy's  victories  over  Tirri's 
enemies  that  she  becomes  the  wife  of  the  hero's  friend. 

Of  course  I  do  not  mean  to  say  that  the  reappearance  of 
this  group  of  characters  is  sufficient  ground  for  thinking  that 
any  one  of  this  group  of  romances  is  derived  directly  or  indi- 
rectly from  any  other.'  But  it  does  seem  to  me  that  there  was 
a  common  narrative  fund  which  every  one  felt  at  liberty  to 

"In  King  Horn  it  is  not  actually  stated  that  Reynild  loves  Horn, 
though  marriage  is  suggested  to  Horn  by  her  father.  However,  in  Horn 
et  Rimel  and  Horn  Ghilde,  the  love  of  Lemburc  and  Acula  (correspond- 
ing to  Reynild)    is  a  prominent  feature. 

^Nevertheless,  cf.  P.  C.  Hoyt,  "the  Home  of  the  Beves  Saga," 
P.M.L.A.,  1902,  pp.  237  ff.,  who  thinks  the  resemblance  between  Bevis 
and  Horn  sufficient  to  indicate  that  the  former  is  derived  from  the 
latter. 


Matter  of  England  Romances  7 

draw  upon,  which  indeed  was  common  property,  since  no  one 
knew  precisely  whence  it  came.  If  we  wish  to  know  where  it 
existed,  it  is  not  too  vague  to  say  that  it  existed  in  the  stories 
already  familiar,  in  the  conventional  incidents  and  characters 
which  were  found  there,  and  which  were  being  more  and  more 
conventionalized  as  they  appeared  again  and  again.  Perhaps 
some  elements  were  conventionalized  out  of  existence;  but  one 
must  think,  from  the  state  of  the  romantic  literature  which  has 
been  preserved,  that  the  number  of  such  was  small. 

It  has  been  noted,  no  doubt,  that  in  discussing  this  group  of 
dramatis  personce  nothing  has  actually  been  said  about  character 
Eather  has  it  not  been  plot,  and  are  not  the  dramatis  personob 
(so  viewed)  merely  the  pegs  to  which  the  plot  is  tied?  This 
question  must  be  answered  with  a  modified  affirmative.  What 
has  been  indicated  thus  far  is  that  when  a  situation  is  used  for 
a  second  or  hundredth  time  in  a  romance,  there  is  a  strong  tend- 
ency to  place  the  new  pegs  about  where  the  old  ones  were. 
Character,  in  the  stricter  sense,  is  then  indicated  only  by  the 
general  relations  of  dramatis  persons  to  the  plot.  This,  of 
course,  does  not  sum  up  character ;  and  a  study  of  the  characters 
as  such  will,  I  believe,  add  some  confirming  evidence  of  the 
existence  of  this  recurring  group. 
Stocl:  dramatis  personce. 

Before  going  on  to  discuss  characters  as  distinguished  from 
dramatis  personce,  it  is  worth  pointing  out  that  there  are  in  the 
romances,  as  indeed  in  fiction  of  a  later  date,  stock  figures  who 
are  of  little  or  no  value  as  characters,  but  who  do  mean  some- 
thing to  the  plot.  Thus  in  Horn  and  in  Bevis  there  is  the  con-, 
ventional  porter.  The  only  function  which  he  serves  is  to  delay 
the  action  by  supplying  occasion  for  an  altercation  at  the 
entrance  to  the  castle.    Thus  in  Horn : 

He  com  to  J?e  gateward, 

)7at  him  answerede  hard. 

Horn  bad  undo  softe, 

Mani  tyme  and  ofte. 

Ne  mi^te  he  awynne 


8  Creeh 

]?at  he  come  )?eriniie. 

Horn  gan  to  )?e  ^ate  tume 

And  )?at  wiket  vnspurne. 

pe  boye  hit  scholde  abngge; 

Horn  )?reu  him  oner  Ipe  brigge, 

)?at  his  ribbes  him  to  brake;' 

And  su]?J?e  com  in  atte  gate"  (vv.  1067  ff.) 
In  Bevis  the  account  is  still  more  detailed.  The  hero,  seven 
years  of  age,  after  getting  the  better  of  the  porter  in  a  word 
encounter,  cleaves  his  head  (vv.  394  ff.)  The  porter,  it  seems, 
nearly  always  stands  at  the  gate  to  refuse  admittance  and  to 
suffer  for  his  refusal.' 

The  suggestion  sometimes  made  that  the  minstrel  is  taking 
revenge  for  rebuffs  suffered  by  his  class  is  perhaps  not  altogether 
without  foundation.  The  aim  seems  to  be  to  make  the  porter 
a  ridiculous  figure.  The  humorous  intention  is  sometimes 
marked."  Perhaps  the  porter  in  Macbeth  is  distantly  akin  to 
the  porter  of  romance. 

More  intimately  connected  with  the  plot,  and  more  impor- 
tant for  the  revelation  of  character  in  others,  is  the  maid  of  the 
heroine.  The  fact  that  she  does  not  appear  in  Horn,  Haveloh^ 
or  Bevis  is  a  slight  indication  of  the  fact  that  they  are  not  true 
*In  Horn  Childe  the  porter's  shoulder  bone  was  broken  (HCh  vv. 
958  ff.). 

"In  John  de  Reeue   (Percy  Folio,  vol.  II),  vv.  719  ff.,  is  a  similar 
dispute  between  hero  and  porter,  with  the  result  that  John 
"hitt  the  porter  vpon  the  crowne, 
With  that  stroke  hee  ffel  downe, 
fforsooth  as  I  you  tell." 
In  Sir  Cleges  the  hero  gains  admission  to  the  king  by  agreeing  to  give 
the  porter  one-third  of  the  gift  he  shall  receive,  and  asks  that  the  gift 
be  twelve  strokes,  of  which  the  porter  gets  his  share  in  due  tim«   (vv. 
247  ff.).    Cf.  Kolbing's  note  to  Bevis,  A  1.  419.    Also  see  Hall's  note 
to  Horn,  vv.    1067,  8;    Tristram,  vv.   619  ff. ;    Gautier,   Chivalry,  Eng. 
transl.  by  Henry  Frith,  London,  1891,  pp.  369  ff.;   C.  Boje,  TJher  den 
Altfranzosischen   Roman  von   Beuve   de   Hamtone,   Beihefte    zur   Zeif- 
schrifht  filr  rom.  Phil.,  xix,  Halle,   1909,  pp.  71   f.    The  porter  some- 
times plays  a  different  part;    cf.  Gawayn  and  the  Grene  Knyght,  vv. 
91  ff.,  and  Floris  and  Blancheflor,  vv.  749  ff. 
"As  in  Sir  Cleges;    cf.  note  preceding. 


Matter  of  England  Romances  9 

romances  of  cliivalry.  Eymenhild  may  have  sent  a  maid  for 
AJ?elbrus  to  summon  him  for  tlie  fii*st  interview,  but.  if  so,  there 
is  no  indication  of  the  fact.  When  Josian  desires  to  oouimuni- 
cate  with  Bovis,  she  sends  a  man.  The  absence  of  the  romantic 
element  in  Haveloh,  of  course,  almost  precludes  the  possibility 
of  such  a  character  appearing.  In  Guy  there  is  a  hint  of  this 
personage.  Guy  has  just  made  a  declaration  to  Felice,  and 
swoons  from  the  violence  of  his  emotions.  Felice  bids  a  maid 
to  lift  him,  which  she  does,  weeping. 

''Bi  god  of  heuen,'*  sche  seyd, 

"&  ich  wer  as  feir  a  mayd, 

&  as  riche  king's  doubter  were 

As  ani  in  J?is  warld  here, 

&  he  of  mi  lone  vnder-nome  were 

As  he  is  of  )?ine  in  strong  manere, 

&  he  wald  me  so  o  lou  jerne. 

Me  )?enke  y  no  myjt  it  him  noujt  werne"  (vv.  609  ff.)." 
But  Felice  rebukes  her  for  commiserating  Guy.  One  need  only 
glance  at  the  French  Horfi  et  BimeV'  to  note  a  marked  contrast 
with  the  maid  of  Guy.  Here  Herselote  is  the  natural  messenger 
of  Rimel ;  she  tells  in  the  bower  of  what  is  going  on  in  the  hall ; 
she  receives  her  mistress's  confidences,  comforts  her  when  dis- 
tressed, praises  the  lover,  and  is  on  hand  to  assist  in  emergen- 
cies. This  is  the  conventional  part  of  the  maid.  It  is  to  be 
found  repeatedly.  Lnnete  plays  the  part  in  Chretien's  Jvain 
In  William,  of  Palerne,  Alexandrine  is  not  only  a  confidante ; 
she  plays  almost  the  part  of  a  fairy  in  bringing  William  and 
Melior  together,  having  power  to  cause  dreams.  Iseult's  maid 
is  perhaps  the  most  distinguished  of  all,  performing  more  than 
one  important  service  for  her  mistress."    Playing  a  part  of  far 

^Vf.  Generydea.  vv.  4630  ff.,  where  the  maid  takes  the  ])art  of 
the  knight  against  the  reproaches  of  her  mistress. 

^'Edited  by  Brede  and  St<Migel,  Dn/i  Anglo-Nornionnische  Lied  vom 
Wackern  Ritter  Horn,  Ausgaben  und  Abhandlungen,  vol.  viii. 

"From  these  instances  it  is  evident  that  the  maid  plays  in  medieval 
romantic  literature  the  same  part  which  maid  or  attendant  so  often 
plays  in  the  later  dramatic  literature. 


10  Creelc 

greater  importance  than  the  porter,  the  maid  of  romance  has 
a  more  developed  personality.  She  is  faithful  as  a  matter  of 
course,  loyal  to  lover  as  well  as  to  mistress,  resourceful,  self- 
sacrificing,  brave.  But  she  belongs  essentially  to  the  chivalrous 
romance;  she  has  no  place  in  the  very  different  type  of  romance 
to  which  the  exile-and -return  group  belongs. 

If  the  maid  is  a  kind  of  good  fairy  in  the  romances,  the 
steward  is  almost  always  a  malevolent  agency.  Unlike  the  maid, 
he  is  well  represented  in  our  group.  It  is  he  frequently  who 
envies  the  hero  because  of  the  favor  bestowed  upon  him  by  the 
king,  or  because  of  his  superior  knightly  qualities. 

A  steward  was  wi]?  King  Ermin 

)?at  hadde  tijt  to  sle  J^at  swin; 

To  Beues  a  bar  gret  envie 

For  )?at  he  hadde  ]?e  meistrie  {Bevis,  vv.  837  ff.). 
The  steward  of  the  King  of  England  also  hates  the  hero,    Bevis 
visits  the  king: 

And  alle  }?e  barouns,  ]?at  )?er  were. 

On  Beues  made  glade  chere, 

Boute  )?e  steward  of  )?e  halle 

He  was  )?e  worste  frend  of  alle  (vv.  4303  ff.). 
He  later  tries  to  slay  Bevis  and,  like  the  steward  of  Armenia, 
pays  for  his  treachery  with  his  life.     In  Guy  there  are  several 
stewards.     The  most  typical,  Morgadour,  did  his  best  to  dis- 
credit Guy  with  the  Emperor. 

Traytour  he  was,  and  full  of  envy  (v.  2962). 
He,  too,  lost  his  life  at  the  hands  of  the  object  of  his  envy.  The 
steward  of  Duke  Otous  (vv.  4753  ff.)  is  slain  by  Guy  while  try- 
ing to  lead  away  the  wounded  Tirri.  After  the  death  of  Otous, 
his  kinsman  Berard  becomes  the  Emperor's  steward  (v.  6497)  ; 
persecutes  Guy's  friend  Tirri;  shows  his  lack  of  honor  by  wear- 
ing two  coats  of  mail  in  his  combat  with  Guy  (st.  187)  and  by 
trying  to  rid  himself  of  his  dangerous  antagonist  by  casting  him 
in  the  sea  with  the  bed  on  which  he  is  sleeping:  but  finally  he, 
too,  succumbs  to  the  hero's  valor  (sts.  208  ff.).  Again,  the 
steward  of  Earl  Florentin  attacks  Guy  while  a  guest  in  his 


J    ^    or 

f  MWIVEi^f  ' .  V    . 

Matter  of  England  Romances  11 

master's  castle,  and  his  head  is  cleaved  with  an  axe  (vv.  6899  ff.). 
Thus  in  the  romances  of  Bevis  and  Guy  alone  the  appearance 
again  and  again  of  a  treacherous,  envious  steward  is  striking. 
He  appears  ver}^  frequently  elsewhere.  The  chief  villian  of 
Generydes,  Amalok,  is  the  steward  of  Auferius,  King  of  India. 
He  adds  adultery  with  the  Queen  to  treason  against  his  lord. 
In  Sir  Cleges  the  steward  commits  the  same  offense  and  suffers 
the  same  punishment  as  did  the  porter."  The  envious  character 
of  "Klay  the  seneschal,"  while  not  quite  so  offensive  as  that  of 
most  stewards,  is  perhaps  due  to  the  association  of  his  position. "" 
The  typical  steward,  however,  is  treacherous  as  well  as  envious ;" 
not  a  coward  (for  cowards  are  rare  in  medieval  romance),  yet 
with  the  manners,  the  sneakingness,  so  often  associated  with 
cowardice." 

Other  lay  figures  are  palmer,  merchant,  beggar.  The  palmer 
or  beggar  is  frequently  the  hero  disguised.  But  he  may  be 
merely  the  bearer  of  news.  A  palmer  tells  Guy  of  the  war 
between  the  Emperor  of  Almaine  and  Duke  Segyn  (w.  1803  ff.). 
It  is  from  a  palmer  that  Horn  hears  of  the  wedding  preparations 
when  he  lands  in  Westernesse  with  his  Irish  force  (vv.  1027  ff.). 
No  doubt  the  palmer  was  a  natural  bearer  of  news.  Thus  the 
false  news  which  Bevis,  disguised  as  a  palmer,  tells  Yvor,  is 
instantly  accepted  and  acted  upon.     Bevis  asks  a  palmer  where 

"Referred  to  above,  p.  436. 

*For  Kay  at  his  worst,  of.  the  French  romance  Ider,  in  which  he 
is  guilty  of  the  use  of  poison.  See,  too,  G.  Paris,  in  Hist.  Litt..  XXXI, 
p.  160,  apropos  of  Kay  in  the  Esoanor  of  Grirard's  d' Amiens:  "11  parait 
avoir  pris  surtout  le  type  du  senechal  dans  les  romans  de  Chretien  ofi, 
oomme  iei,  sa  raauvaise  langue  est  le  plus  grave  de  ses  defauts." 

"Cf  Arthur  and  Merlin,  vv.  80  ff. ;  Squire  of  Loio  Degree,  vv.  283 
fF.,  etc.:  Sir  Triamore,  w.  61  ff.,  etc.;  Merline,  vv,  47  ff.  ;  Amis  and 
Amiloun,  vv.  205  ff. :  Sir  Degreva/nt,  w.  1633  ff. ;  also  "ffalse  steioard" 
in  "Sir  Aldingar"    (Child,  No.  59). 

"Of  course  there  are  good  stewards  now  and  then,  as  in  the  case 
with  Guy's  father.  However,  the  association  of  steward  with  self-seek- 
ing and  an  ugly  disposition  seems  widespread.  In  this  connection  it  is 
interesting  to  compare  No.  LXII  of  the  Fables  of  Marie  de  France  (ed. 
by  Warnke,  Bibliotheca  Normannica,  vol.  VT),  "De  Aquila  et  Accipitre 
et  Columbis", 


12  Creeh 

to  find  King  Yvor  and  his  Queen,  Josian,  when  he  approaches 
Mombrannt  (w,  2049  ff.).''^  Beggars  are  necessary  to  show 
the  hospitality  of  lord  or  lady  and  to  furnish  an  opportunity 
for  the  disguised  hero  to  slip  in  with  the  crowd.  The  number 
thirteen,  so  frequently  mentioned,  springs  from  the  custom  of 
inviting  thirteen  beggars  to  appear  at  wedding  and  other  feasts 
in  honor  of  Christ  and  the  Apostles.  Thus  Guy  is  one  of  thir- 
teen beggars  fed  by  Felice  when  he  finally  returns  home  after 
his  long  pilgrimage  (sts.  378  if.).  In  Ponthiis  and  Sidone  the 
mother  of  Ponthus  is  discovered  by  him  among  the  thirteen 
beggars  at  the  feast  celebrating  the  regaining  of  his  kingdom 
(pp.  119  f.).  In  Horn  et  Rimel  it  is  a  beggar  instead  of  a 
palmer  whom  Horn  meets  on  his  return  to  his  beloved.  Mer- 
chants, too,  may  be  messengers.  Guy  learns  from  Greek  mer- 
chants of  the  war  between  the  Emperor  of  Constantinople  and 
the  Sultan  (w.  2801  ff.).  Merchants  are  also  used  for  taking 
away  children.  Bevis  is  sold  to  merchants  (vv.  505  ff.),  and 
Reinbrun  is  stolen  by  merchants  who  pass  through  the  country 
(Guy,  C.  vv.  8680  ff.)."  A  large  number  of  subordinate  drama- 
tis personce  of  various  sorts  is  naturally  characteristic  of  the 
roman  d'aventure,  in  which  the  social  life  is  more  complicated 
than  in  the  chanson  de  geste.^ 
Typical   Characters  and  Medieval  Life. 

"For  cases  in  French  medieval  narrative  where  there  is  an  ex- 
change of  clothing  with  a  palmer;  cf.  B6je,  p.  70. 

^*Cf.  Prologue  to  "Man  of  Law's  Tale"  Ccmt.  Tales,  B,  vv.  127 
ff.),  where  merchants  are  apostrophized: 

Ye  seken  lond  and  see  for  yowre  \vynnynges : 

As  wise  folk  ye  knowen  al  thestaat 

Of  regnes;    ye  been  fadres  of  tidynges 

And  tales,  bothe  of  pees  and  of  debaat. 

I  were  right  now  of  tales  desolaat, 

Nere  that  a  marchant — goon  is  many  a  yeere — 

Me  taughte  a  tale,  which  that  ye  shal  heere. 

^Two  giants,  brothers,  whom  the  hero  meets  at  different  times  and 
slays,  seem  a  convention;  cf.  in  Bevis  Grander  and  his  brother  (vv. 
1721  ff.;  1859  ff.)  ;  Eglamore,  vv.  300  ff.,  513  ff. ;  Daurel  {Hist.  Litt., 
XXX,  p.    137). 


Matter  of  England  Romances  13 

Looking  again  at  this  list  of  dramatis  persons,  not  this  time 
as  elements  of  the  story,  but  as  figures  typical  of  medieval  life, 
one  sees  at  least  four  stand  out  as  significant:  (1)  the  king; 
(2)  the  knight;  (3)  the  lady;  (4)  the  vassal.  These  are  not 
entirely  exclusive  of  each  other,  as  the  knight  may  be  king, 
and  the  vassal  is,  of  course,  usually  a  knight.  However,  the 
characteristic  king  is  usually  the  father  of  the  hero,  or  some 
lord  under  whom  the  hero  takes  service;  the  hero  is  nearly 
always  an  ideal  knight;  the  hero's  beloved  is  invariably  repre- 
sented as  an  ideal  lady ;  and  it  is  usually  in  a  friend  of  the  hero 
that  faithful  service  to  one's  lord  is  best  exemplified.  So,  for 
practical  purposes,  there  is  little  or  no  confusion,  and  some  light 
may  be  thrown,  too,  on  the  phase  or  phases  of  society  for  which 
the  romances  were  produced,  and  also  perhaps  on  the  society  in 
which  they  have  enacted  their  subsequent  history. 

Ffom  the  tremendous  host  of  kings  in  medieval  literature 
two  great  figures  stand  out — 'Charlemagne  and  Arthur — the 
one,  at  his  best,  the  king  of  the  chanson  de  geste,  and  the  other, 
at  his  best,  the  king  of  chivalric  romance;  the  one  leading 
his  hosts  against  the  enemies  of  his  country  and  fighting  at  their 
head;  the  other,  for  the  most  part  at  least,  loosely  controlling  a 
band  of  knights  errant,  who  are  incessantly  engaged  in  adven- 
tures for  the  sake  of  honor  or  for  the  sake  of  the  ^^fair  lady." 
In  the  so-called  romance  of  Germanic  origin,  there  is,  of  course, 
nothing  to  approach  the  splendor  of  either  of  these  figures. 
But  in  these  romances  the  kings  are  certainly  more  nearly 
related  to  Charlemagne  than  to  Arthur.  They  are  kings  of 
national  war.  Murri,  father  of  Horn,  was  such  a  man,  although 
the  primitive  conditions  which  seem  to  underlie  the  story  would 
make  him  little  more  than  a  tribal  chief.  With  two  knights  he 
awaits  the  onset  of  the  Saracens,  and  loses  his  life  defending  his 
territories.  Nothing  is  said  in  the  way  of  characterization,  save 
that  he  was  "gode  king"  (v.  33),  as  were  also  Ailmar  of  Wester- 
nesse  (v.  219)  and  purston  of  Ireland  (v.  782)."*  A)?elwold, 
the  father  of  Goldborough,  was  also  a  bold  warrior. 

^This  suggests  the  "se  waes  god  cyning"  of  Beowulf,  although 
the  term  "good"  is  perhaps  even  more  conventional  in  the  romances. 


14  Greek 

He  was  )?e  beste  kniht  at  nede 

)?at  euere  mihte  riden  on  stede, 

Or  wepne  wagge,  or  folc  vt  lede; 

Of  kniht  ne  hauede  he  neuere  drede, 

)?at  he  ne  sprong  forth  so  sparke  of  glede, 

And  lete  him  knawe  of  hise  hand-dede  (vv.  87  ff.). 
In  Horn  Childe  King  Ha]7eolf  is  a  bold  warrior,  fighting  against 
the  enemies  of  his  country — the  Danes  and  the  Irish.  In  Guy 
A]?elstaii  is  represented  as  leading  the  English  forces  in  their 
struggle  with  the  Danes.  In  other  words,  the  kings  in  this 
group  of  romances  are  fighters,  usually  defending  their  country 
against  invaders.  The  king  who,  like  Arthur  and  Alexander, 
conquers  the  world,  belongs  to  a  diiferent  type  of  romance. 

Of  exceptional  interest  is  the  account  of  King  Aj?elwold  in 
Havelok,  because  there  is  nothing  precisely  comparable  to  it 
elsewhere  in  the  romances.  Here  is  a  king  who  is  not  merely 
a  leader  of  warriors,  but  a  lawgiver  and  a  strong  executive. 
We  certainly  have  a  picture  of  an  ideal  king  as  seen  by  the  eyes 
of  the  middle  and  lower  classes,  by  those  who  desired,  not  glory, 
but  comfort  and  peace.''''  He  loved  God  and  holy  church;  he 
hated  robbers  and  hanged  outlaws.  Chapmen  might  go  through 
England  with  their  wares  fearlessly. 

J?anne  was  Engelond  at  ayse  (v.  59). 
Moreover,  he  was  friendly  to  the  fatherless  (vv.  75  if.)  and 

Hauede  he  neure  so  god  brede, 

Ne  on  his  bord  non  so  god  shrede, 

)?at  he  ne  wolde  J?orwith  fede 

Poure  J?at  on  fote  yede"  (w.  98  ff.). 

^The  very  enumeration  of  the  classes  who  loved  him  is  suggestive. 
It  was  a  king  bi  are  dawes, 
J>at  in  his  time  were  gode  lawes 
He  dede  maken,  an  ful  wel  holden; 
Hym  louede  yung,  him  louede  holde, 
Erl  and  barun,  dreng  and  kayn, 
Knict,  bondeman,  and  swain, 
Wydues,  maydnes,  prestes  and  elerkes, 
And  al  for  hise  gode  werkes    (vv.  27  ff. ) 


Matter  of  England  Romances  15 

Here,  surely,  if  anywhere,  we  get  the  ideal  king  of  merchant  and 
laborer.^' 

The  heroes  are  more  likely  to  be  individualized  than  other 
characters.  Nevertheless,  the  greater  part  of  their  traits  are 
thoroughly  typical.  The  ideal  knight  of  this  group  is  one  of 
great  personal  beauty  and  strength,  who  hates  infidels,  enjoys 
battle,  is  a  faithful  lover  of  one  woman.  He  is  often  rude, 
sometimes  cruel,  always  pure.  He  stands  opposed  to  the  chival- 
rous, gentle,  often  immoral  knight  typified  in  Lancelot. 

In  these  romances  little  is  said,  for  the  most  part,  regarding 

the  personal  appearance  of  the  dramatis  personce.     This  is  not 

-'^W.  W.  Comfort,  "The  Character  Types  in  the  old  French  Chan- 
sons de  Geste",  P.M.L.A.,  XXI,  pp.  279  ff.,  distinguishes  three  treat- 
ments of  the  king  in  the  chanson  de  geste .  He  is  represented  ( 1 )  as 
grandiose  and  epic,  less  only  than  God;  (2)  as  weak,  old,  sometimes 
cowardly ;  ( 3 )  as  a  mere  political  necessity — this  last  under  the  in- 
fluence of  the  Breton  cycle  where  the  king  is  only  "a  fixed  point  of 
support,  on  which  the  leading  characters  in  the  story  are  made  to  lean" 
The  noble  king  of  Havelok  seems  English.  However,  the  weakness  of 
the  kings  in  Horn,  Bevis  and  Guy  seems  to  relate  them  to  class  ( 2 ) . 
The  Emperor  of  Almaine  (in  Guy)  is  clearly  of  this  class;  his  capture 
while  on  the  chase  is  an  incident  connecting  him  with  stories  of  Charle- 
magne. 

It  may  be  worth  while  to  note  here  that  both  Bevis  and  Guy  had 
fathers  who  were  good  stewards.  They  furnish  the  nearest  parallels  to 
the  account  of  A>elwold.  Bevis's  father  Guy  "kept  well  Englond  in 
his  days". 

He  set  peas  and  stabelud  the  laws, 

J?at  no  man     was  so  hardye, 

To   do  another  velanye    (M.  MS.  vv.   43  ff . ;   passage 
missing  from  one  set  of  Bevis  MSS.). 
In  Guy,  Syward  was  a  steward  of  similar  virtues. 

pei  a  man  bar  an  hundred  pounde, 

Opon  him,  of  gold  y-grounde 

J?er  nas  man  in  al  J)is  londe 

))at  durst  him  do  schame  no  schonde 

J)at  bireft  him  wor]?  of  a  slo, 

So  gode  pais  Jjer  was  J>o   (vv.  137  ff  ). 
In  AJ>elwold's  time  one  could  carry  red  gold  upon  his  back  and  find 
none  to  trouble  him   ( Havelok,  vv.  45  fif . ) . 

If  one  thinks  of  Chretien's  romances,  one  recognizes  how  incongru- 
ous similar  lines  would  appear  if  found  in  them.  The  same  is  equally 
true  of  nearly  all  of  the  super-refined  chivalric  romances.  Compare, 
too,  the  Alexander  romances.  Generosity,  not  justice,  is  the  chief 
virtue  of  the  chivalric  king. 


16  Creeh 

so  likely  to  be  the  case  with  the  hero.    Thus  of  Horn  the  author 
says  at  the  beginning: 

Fairer  ne  miste  none  beo  born 

'Ne  no  rein  vpon  birine, 

Ne  sunne  vpon  bischine: 

Fairer  nis  non  )?an  he  was. 

He  was  bri^t  so  ]>e  glas, 

He  was  whit  so  )?e  flur. 

Rose  red  was  his  colur. 

In  none  kinge  riche 

Nas  non  his  iliche  (vy.  10  ff.)."^ 
His  physical  beauty  continues  to  receive  attention.  He  is  the 
"faireste"  (v.  173) ;  Ailmar  admires  his  "fairnesse"  (v.  213)  ; 
Aj7ulf  says  ^Tie  is  fairere  by  one  rib  )?an  eny  man  J?at  libbe'' 
(w.  315  ff.)  ;  when  he  visits  Rymenhild  the  bower  is  lighted  ^'of 
his  feire  si^te"  (v.  385)  f  Berild  has  never  seen  so  fair  a  knight 
come  to  Ireland  (v.  778)  ;  King  purston  speaks  of  his  "fairhede" 
(v.  798)  ;  and  at  the  close  the  author  says: 

Her  endej?  ]?e  tale  of  horn, 

)?at  fair  was  &  no^t  vnorn  (vv.  1525  f.). 
Havelok  likewise  is  very  beautiful   (v.  2133)    and  well-shaped 
(v.  1647).    Bevis  was  a  ^^feire  child,"  and  King  Ermin  said  of 
him: 

"Be  Mahoun,  )?at  sit  an  hij, 

A  fairer  child  neuer  i  ne  s'i^, 

Nei)?er  a  lenglpe  ne  on  brade, 

Ke  non,  so  faire  limes  hadde!"   (vv.  535  ff.). 
In  Guy,  too,  not  much  is  said  of  the  personal  appearance  of  the 
hero,  not  nearly  so  much  as  in  Horn.     There  is  nothing  espe- 
cially distinctive  about  the  traces  of  description  one  finds,  as 
they  are  the  commonplaces. 

"For  numerous  parallels,  see  Hall's  notes.  Medieval  romancers 
were  inclined  to  insist,  as  here,  that  their  heroes  were  the  most  beauti- 
ful in  the  world:   cf.  Willia-m  of  Palerne  vv.  4437  f. 

*The  shining  face  is  common,  but  more  frequently  belongs  to 
women.  In  Chretien's  Cliges  the  hero  and  Fenice  are  so  beautiful  that 
they  make  the  palace  shine   (vv.  2755  ff.) 


Matter  of  England  Romances  17 

The  hero's  strength  and  valor  are  of  great  prominence  in  all 
romances,  but  there  are  certain  variations  of  greater  interest 
than  are  found  in  descriptions  of  personal  appearance.  In 
Horn  the  hero's  strength  is  frequently  the  object  of  direct  praise 
from  the  dramatis  personce.  The  Admirad  says  to  him,  "J?u  art 
gret  &  strong"  (v.  93),  and  adds  that  if  he  lived,  in  time  he 
"scholde  slen  us  alle'^  (v.  100)  ;  Ailmar  says  the  strength  of  his 
hand  shall  become  famous  (w.  215  if.).  The  author  of  Havclok 
also  takes  great  delight  in  his  hero's  physical  prowess,  and 
speaks  directly  to  the  audience: 

For  Jeanne  he  weren  alle  samen 

At  Lincolne,  at  )?e  gamen. 

And  )?e  erles  men  woren  alle  )?ore. 

Was  Hauelok  bi  )?e  shuldren  more 

J?an  J?e  meste  )?at  ]?er  kam: 

In  armes  him  noman  ne  nam 

)?at  he  doune  son  ne  caste; 

Hauelok  stod  ouer  hem  als  a  mast. 

Als  he  was  heie,  so  he  was  strong. 

He  was  holpe  stark  and  long; 

In  Engelond  was  non  hise  per 

Of  streng]?e  ]?at  euere  kam  him  nere  (w.  979  if.). 

Again  and  again  this  brute  strength  is  brought  out.  Havel  ok 
eats  more  than  Grim  and  his  five  children  (w.  793  f.)  ;  at 
Lincoln  he  upsets  "sixtene  laddes  god.e"  and  carries  'Vel  a  cart 
lode"  of  fish;  his  strength  is  admired  by  Ubbe,  who  thinks  he 
should  be  a  knight  (v.  1650)  ;  he  slays  three  men  with  one  blow 
of  a  "dore-tre"  (v.  1806)  ;  he  puts  the  stone  at  the  first  throw 
so  far  that  all  competitors  depart  (vv.  1052  if.).  There  is  on 
the  part  of  the  author  a  certain  simplicity  of  delight  in  the 
overwhelming  strength  of  his  hero  that  is  almost  unique.  In 
the  rapid  succession  of  incidents  in  Bevis  there  is  little  time  for 
commenting  on  the  hero.  However,  there  is  a  word  at  the 
beginning  of  his  fighting  career. 


K, 


18  Creek 

Be  ]?at  he  was  fiftene  ^er  olde, 

Eni^t  ne  swain  ]?ar  nas  so  bolde, 

^pQ.i  him  dorste  arenas  ride 

Ne  wi)?  wrej?]?e  him  abide  (vv.  581  ff.). 
In  Guy  we  have  gone  so  far  toward  the  romance  of  chivalry 
that  the  emphasis,  so  far  as  direct  description  goes,  is  on  some- 
thing else  than  strength,  which  is  left  to  be  inferred  from  many 
a  deed  of  valor." 

On  the  other  hand,  the  mental  character  and  accomplish- 
ments of  the  hero  are  emphasized  in  Guy,  especially  on  the 
knightly  side,  and  in  Haveloh  on  the  homely  side,  while  in  Bevis 
and  in  Horn  they  are  neglected.  Indeed,  scarcely  anything  is 
said  of  Horn's  mental  or  moral  characteristics.  He  was  "of  wit 
)>e  beste"  (v.  174),  "wel  kene"  (v.  91).  His  teachableness  and 
good  nature  are  indicated. 

Horn  in  his  herte  la^te 

Al  )?at  he  him  ta^te. 

In  \>e  cnrt  &  nte 

&  eUes  al  abnte 

Luuede  men  horn  child  (w.  243  ff.). 
In  Haveloh  again  there  is  the  nniqne  quality  which  was  noted 
in  the  account  of  the  physical  characteristics,  but  even  more 
marked.  The  author  probably  had  in  mind  that  Havelok  would 
make  a  good  king  like  AJ?elwold,  but  he  has  made  him  seem  more 
like  a  strong,  rather  slow-witted,  but  happy  peasant.  His  life 
at  Winchester,  which  is  described  most  fully,  mak:es  him  seem 
to  be  a  powerful,  mild-tempered  boy. 

Of  alle  men  was  he  mest  meke, 

Lauhwinde  ay,  and  blij?e  of  speke; 

Euere  he  was  glad  and  bli)?e, 

His  sorwe  he  couJ?e  ful  wel  mij^e. 

It  ne  was  non  so  litel  knaue,     .     .     . 

^It  is  worth  noticing  here  that  something  is  said  in  regard  to 
Guy's  dress  apart  from  armour;  when  he  first  calls  on  Felice  he  was 
arrayed  in  a  "silken  kirtell"  that  was  so  "well  setting"  that  there 
was  no  need  to  amend  it  (vv.  211  fF.). 


Matter  of  England  Romances  19 

For  to  leyken,  ne  forto  plawe, 

J?at  he  ne  wolde  with  him  pleye : 

]?e  children  that  yeden  in  )?e  weie 

Of  him  he  deden  al  her  wille, 

And  with  him  leykeden  here  fille  (vv.  945  ff.).  ^\^ 

N^ot  only  is  his  kindness  shown  by  his  playing  with  the  chil-  j 

dren;     it  is  shown  in   the  care   he   later   takes   of    his   foster  / 

brothers  and  sisters  and  in  the  mercy  offered  to  Godrich.     He        / 
is  as  observant  of  law  as  Aj^elwold.     Only  after  due  trial  may 
Godard  and  Godrich  be  executed. 

Thus   does  the  author  intend  for  us  to   see  him — strong, 
cheerful,  merciful,  fearless,  law-abiding.     It  may  be  questioned        ' 
whether  he  intended  that  Havelok  should  so  appear,  but  he 
surely  was  lacking  in  initiative.^  It  is  Goldborough  who  arouses       ,       ^y 
in  him  the  ambition,  or  at  least  stirs  it  to  the  acting  point,  -? 

to  regain  his  kingdom.  It  is  Ubbe  who  collects  the  friends  of  / 
Havelok  in  Denmark."^  Havelok  would  have  been  a  happy  peas- 
ant. He  is  a  true  member  of  the  lowly  classes — strong  in  body 
and  in  mind,  whole-hearted,  loving  peace  better  than  war,  but 
fearless  when  called  upon  to  fight,  rather  than  a  fiery  king,  full 
of  aggressive  ambition,  or  a  luxurious,  generous  monarch  such 
as  the  nobility  admired. 

But  Guy  is  a  hero  of  chivalry — not  of  the  Lancelot  type,  nor 
of  the  Galahad  type,  although  approaching  the  latter  in  the 
religious  devotion  of  his  later  years.  He  stands  somewhere  be- 
tween Horn  and  Bevis,  on  the  one  hand,  and  Lancelot  and 
Galahad  on  the  other.  He  has  the  kinightly  education  which 
Horn  had.     He  knows  the  craft 

Of  wode,  of  Eyuer,  of  all  game  (C.  v.  171). 
He  is  generous.    He  gives  rich  gifts  to  parsons  and  poor  knights, 

And  to  other  oft  ^eue  he  wolde 

Palfrey  or  stede,  siluer  and  golde, 

Euery  man  after  his  good  dede 

Of  Guy  vnderfangeth  his  mede  (C.  vv.  181  ff.). 
Moreover  he  became  ill  from  loving  too  well,  and  fought  long 
years  merely  for  the  sake  of  a  woman.     Guy  stands  in  fairly 


20  Creeh 

strong  contrast  with  the  heroes  of  King  Horn,  of  Bevis,  and 
of  Haveloh,  and  approaches  the  heroes  of  another  type  of 
romance."" 

Somewhat  less  need  be  said  about  the  heroine  in  these  ro- 
mances. The  part  played  by  Goldborough  is  so  small  that  she 
may  be  dismissed  almost  with  a  word.  She  is  seen  as  a  great 
lady,  resenting  her  forced  marriage  to  one  apparently  far  be- 
neath her  in  rank,  and  later  urging  her  husband  to  regain  his 
crown — a  figure  of  strength,  described  as  "swi)?e  fayr"  (v.  Ill), 
the  "faireste  woman  on  Hue"  (v.  281),  as  bright  (v.  2131),  as 
chaste  (v.  288),  and 

Of  alle  )?ewes  was  she  wis 
}?at  gode  weren,  and  of  pris  (vv.  282  f.). 
The  absence  of  a  love  element  prevents  the  development  of  her 
character.     She  is  queen  rather  than  woman. 

The  character  of  Kymenhild,  on  the  other  hand,  is  that  of 
a  woman,  individual  in  some  respects,  yet  typical  of  a  class,  of 
which  Josian,  in  Bevis  of  Hamtoun,  is  a  member.  Her  individ- 
uality may  be  said  to  lie  largely  in  the  very  prominence  of 
certain  typical  characteristics.  Her  appearance  is  passed  almost 
without  comment.  She  is  "Kymenhild  )?e  bri3te"  (vv.  382,  390) 
or  "Eymenhild  ]?e  ^onge"  (v.  566).  It  is  decidedly  by  her 
actions  that  she  is  interesting.     It  is  a  primitive,  undisciplined 

"Cf.  W.  W.  Comfort,  P.M.L.A.,  XXI,  pp.  307.  ff.  on  the  Hero  in 
the  chansons  de  geste.  See  p.  325  for  distinction  .between  hero  of  earlier 
and  later  chansons  de  geste:  "If  any  differentiation  were  at- 
tempted between  the  heroes  of  the  earlier  and  those  of  the  later  poems, 
it  would  consist  in  this:  the  heroes  of  the  later  poems  are  less  passion- 
ate, less  fiery,  less  implacable;  they  feel  the  softening  influence  of 
woman  and  of  many  of  the  principles  of  Christian  charity  which  the 
later  Middle  Age  included  in  the  terms  chevalerie  and  courtoisie."  A 
comparison  in  these  respects  of  Bevis  with  Guy  is  suggestive.  But  even 
in  the  latest  chansons  de  geste,  according  to  Comfort,  there  remains  in 
the  hero  "an  unmistakable  trace  of  his  genealogical  connection  with 
the  paladins  of  Charlemagne.  In  spite  of  his  love  adventures,  and  the 
lorn  maidens,  and  the  kind  fairies,  his  mind  harks  back  to  his  old-time 
foe,  the  Saracens,  and  to  his  duty  to  God.  If  we  are  not  mistaken, 
this  undercurrent  of  sturdy  faith,  this  seriousness  of  purpose,  was  just 
the  quality  which  was  sought  by  a  portion  of  the  public  as  contracted  to 
the  more  imaginative,  fantastic,  and  vain  heroes  of  the  Breton  cycle." 


Matter  of  England  Romances  21 

nature.  In  love  and  in  hate  she  is  uncontrolled.  She  loved 
Horn  "pat  ne^  heo  gan  wexe  wild"  (v.  252).  There  is  no 
reserve  in.  her  wooing.  When  A)?ulf  enters  her  bower  she  at 
once  takes  him  in  her  arms.  When  she  finds  she  has  been  de- 
ceived by  A]7elbrus  she  is  as  unrestrained  in  her  rage. 
"Schame  mote  ]?u  fonge 

&  on  hi^e  rode  anhonge.     .     . 

Wip  muchel  schame  mote  ]>u  deie"   (vv.  327  ff.). 
When  Horn  refuses  to  plight  his  troth  to  Eymenhild,  she  swoons. 
She  is  all  in  tears  over  her  dream  of  the  net  (v.  654).    When 
she  thinks  Horn  last  forever,  she  is  ready  to  slay  herself. 

Heo  feol  on  hir  bedde, 

J?er  heo  knif  hudde 

To  sle  wip  king  \ope 

&  hure  selue  bo)?e, 

In  )?at  vlke  nijte, 

If  horn  come  ne  mi^te 

To  herte  knif  heo  sette, 

Ac  horn  anone  hire  kepte  (vv.  1195  ff.). 
She  is  as  faithful  as  passionate.  When  she  knows  that  she 
is  about  to  be  forced  into  a  hateful  marriage,  she  sends  a  mes- 
senger to  seek  Horn  (vv.  933  if.).  She  watches  the  sea  for  her 
absent  lover  (vv.  975  ff.).  Even  to  the  last  she  has  A)7ulf  on 
the  tower  with  his  eyes  searching  the  great  expanse  of  water. 
Altogetlier  she  is  a  wilful,  passionate  creature  of  uncontrolled 
impulses,  yet  constant  in  love.  The  author  does  not  think  her 
worthy  of  direct  description.  Yet  he  has  created  a  striking 
figure.** 

^As  an  instructive  contrast,  an  examination  of  this  same  character 
elsewhere  is  valuable.  In  Horn  Childe  (the  later  English  version)  and 
Horn  et  Riwel  she  has  lost  her  primitive  traits.  She  is  not  wholly 
passionate;     she  devises  plans.     In  HCh 

J>e  miri  maiden  hir  bithoujt 

In  what  maner  Jjat  sche  moujt 

Trewe  love  for  to  ginne  ( vv.  364  ff . ) . 
She  wins  Horn's  favor  first  by  costly  gifts.  Even  more  striking  is  the 
equanimity  with  which  she  learns  of  the  deceit  which  the  steward 
has  practised  in  substituting  HaJ>erof  for  Horn  (vv.  349  ff.).  The 
heroine  of  HR  is  also  a  highly  developed  character,  eager,  it  is  true, 
but  not  merely  impulsive. 


22  Creek 

As  stated,  Josian  belongs  to  the  same  type.  The  account 
of  her  beauty  is  made  somewhat  more  striking  by  the  use  of  a 
figure  of  speech. 

So  fair  jhe  was  &  brijt  of  mod, 
Ase  snow  opon  ]?e  rede  blod  (vv.  521  f.). 
She  was  also  "hende"  and  "  wel  itau^t,"  although  she  knew 
nothing  of  Christian  law  (vv.  525  f.).  Like  Rymenhild  she 
loves  passionately,  and  it  is  her  persistence  and  her  willingness 
to  change  her  faith  which  win  her  lover.  Perhaps  it  is  the 
same  persistent  courage  which  gives  her  the  strength  to  slay 
her  undesired  husband.  A  strong  woman,  equal  to  emergencies, 
faithful  to  lover  and  husband — less  attractive  than  Eymenhild, 
but  by  no  means  unworthy — is  the  heroine  of  Bevis  of  Ham- 
toun.^ 

But  in  Felice  we  have  a  lady  of  tlie  romance  of  chivalry. 
Fifteen  lines  at  the  outset  and  more  elsewhere  are  devoted  to 
her  beauty,  although  the  author  remarks  that  it  is  so  great 
that  he  cannot  describe  it  (v.  60).**  Her  accomplishments  are 
equally  remarkable. 

"Apparently  of  the  same  type,  .but  interesting  as  tending  away 
from  it,  is  Melior,  the  heroine  of  William  of  Palerne.  After  falling  in 
love  with  William,  who  apparently  is  somewhat  mildly  attached  to  her, 
she  analyzes  her  feelings  in  a  fashion  which  Josian  and  Rymenhild 
would  never  dream  of.  Yet  she  is  the  really  active  one  of  the  pair;  is 
the  pursuer  rather  than  the  pursued  indeed,  acting,  however,  through 
her  maid  Alexandrine.  William's  love,  it  seems,  becomes  really  passi- 
onate as  the  result  of  a  dream  which  Alexandrine,  by  some  magic 
power,  introduces  into  his  mind  while  he  sleeps.  Even  then  he  merely 
stops  eating,  makes  no  effort  to  win  the  beloved;  who  comes  to  him 
while  he  is  asleep  in  a  garden.  This  figure  is  so  much  sophisticated  as 
to  seem  considerably  removed  from  Rymenhild  and  Josian.  Yet  she  is 
not  much  farther  removed  from  the  type  than  is  Rimel  of  Horn  et 
Rimel. 

^In  the  Celtic  romances  elaborate  descriptions  of  dress  as  well  as 
personal  beauty  are  found.  Cf.  Liheaus  Desconus,  vv.  868  ff. ;  Lauwfal, 
vv.  926  ff.  The  brightness  of  the  woman's  face  is  characteristic.  In 
Richard  Goer  de  Lion  a  lady  is  "bryght  as  the  sunne  thorugh  the  glas" 
(v.  76)  ;  Cf.  Legend  of  Good  Women,  Prologue  B,  w.  232  f.,  Le  Bone 
Florence  of  Rome,  w.  184  ff.;  also  the  ballad  "Lamkin"  (Child  No.  93), 
in  which  the  head  of  a  murdered  woman,  hung  in  the  kitchen,  makes 
the  hall  shine.  On  the  personal  appearance  of  women  of  chansons  de 
geste,  cf.  Gautier,  Chivalry,  pp.  306  f. 


Matter  of  England  Romances  23 

All  the  vii  artis  she  kouthe  well, 

Noon  better  that  euere  man  herde  tell. 

His  maisters  were  thider  come 

Out  of  Tholonse  all  and  some; 

White  and  hoore  all  they  were, 

Bisy  they  were  that  mayden  to  lere  (c.  w.  81  ff.).*° 
In  love  she  is  as  reserved  and  cruel  as  Rymenhild  is  unre- 
strained and  generous,  promising  her  lover  favor  repeatedly, 
only  to  withdraw  it,  until  he  has  become  the  most  famous  knight 
in  the  world.  After  that  her  conduct  shows  a  marked  change. 
She  seems  a  very  mild  and  dutiful  wife.  When  Guy  becomes 
a  pilgrim,  she  feeds  the  poor  and  prays  for  her  absent  lord, 
so  that  there  is  no  better  woman  in  the  world  (st.  279).  As 
with  Guy,  there  is  in  her  traces  of  the  ascetic  ideal.  The  best 
woman,  as  well  as  the  best  man,  is  one  withdrawn  from  the 
common  life. 

Here  again  we  find  the  Chiy  far  removed  from  the  other 
romances.  Josian  and  Eymenhild  are  passionate,  primitive 
creatures,  willing  to  do  all  and  suffer  all  for  their  lovers.  Felice 
is  a  woman  more  cultivated,  more  self-contained,  more  selfish, 
more  of  a  "lady,"  and  her  later  piety  and  devotion  but  empha- 
size the  fact  that  she  is  a  member  of  a  class.  Yet  she  in  turn 
is  far  removed  from  the  Guinevere  type,  and  farther  still  from 
the  heroine  of  so  many  of  the  later  French  romances — a  mar- 
ried woman  who  devotes  her  life  to  intrigues  with  a  lover."" 

""Josian  was  educated  in  "fysik  and  sirgerie"  and  "knew  erbes 
mani  and  fale",  by  the  use  of  one  of  which  she  was  able  to  make  her- 
self undesirable.  This  accomplishment  is  hardly  comparable  to  the 
learning  of  Felice.  The  manner  of  its  introduction  is  also  significant, 
as  it  is  told  merely  to  account  for  Josian's  ability  to  pick  out  the  right 
herb.  Knowledge  of  herbs,  however,  was  not  an  unusual  accomplish- 
ment and  seems  connected  with  skill  in  leechcraft.  Acula,  in  HCh  (w. 
790  ff.)  and  Gouernail  in  Tristrem  (vv.  1200  ff.)  are  instances.  This 
accomplishment  is  in  no  sense  characteristic  of  the  romance  of  chivalry, 
but  is  rather  a  popular  element  which  survives  in  the  romances. 

^^On  frankness  of  speech  and  other  characteristics  of  women  of 
the  chansons  de  geste,  cf.  Gautier,  Chivalry,  pp.  308  ff.,  and  Comfort, 
op.  cit.,  pp.  359  ff.     See  discussion  of  love,  pp.  36  ff. 


24  Creeh 

While  the  type  which  I  have  called  the  vassal  shows  less 
variety,  it  is  extremely  interesting.  In  A)?ulf,  in  Grim,  in 
Saber,  in  Herhaud,  as  well  as  in  other  characters,  one  sees  the 
relation  of  lord  and  follower  at  its  best.  A)?nlf,  appearing  only 
for  an  instant  now  and  then  in  the  story  of  Horn,  leaves  a  vivid 
impression.  There  is  never  a  hint  of  self-seeking.  Not  for  an 
instant  will  he  take  advantage  of  A)?elbrus*s  deception,  when 
Eymenhild,  thinking  him  Horn,  declares  her  love.  During 
Horn's  long  absence,  he  remains  in  Westernesse  to  guard  the 
mistress  for  her  lover.  Herhaud,  Grim,  and  Saber,  likewise, 
are  always  willing  to  sacrifice  all  for  their  respective  lords. 
Here  is  a  glimpse  of  the  more  beautiful  side  of  chivalry.  How- 
ever, it  needs  no  emphasis  here,  as  it  is  one  of  the  most  evident 
of  the  attractive  features  common  to  the  whole  range  of  medie- 
val romance." 

Minor  characters. 

There  are  in  the  romances,  as  in  all  narratives,  figures  which 
flash  for  an  instant  before  us,  then  pass  away ;  perhaps  to  return, 
and  appear  and  disappear  as  before;  perhaps  to  be  seen  no 
more.  Some  of  these  we  have  already  noted  as  stock  figures. 
Others  do  not  seem  to  be  of  that  character.  Whatever  they  are, 
it  is  interesting  to  know  who  they  are,  what  value  they  have  for 
the  stories  in  which  they  are  introduced,  and  what  interest  the 
author  has  succeeded  in  attaching  to  them.  Most  are  beyond 
the  pale  of  characterization.  Some  of  them  are  merely  speaking 
persons,  who  appear  unexpectedly,  tell  their  stories,  and  disap- 
pear. In  Horn  there  are  two  of  these — A)?ulf s  father,  who 
greets  Horn  and  his  companions  when  they  land  in  Denmark, 
and  tells  them  what  has  been  going  on  in  their  absence  (vv. 
1301  ff.),  and  Arnoldin,  who  appears  to  tell  Horn  where 
Eymenhild  has  been  taken  by  Fikenhild  (vv.  1443  ff.).  Again, 
there  may  be  characters  who  are  never  named.  Of  this  class 
are  nine  of  the  twelve  companions  of  Horn — ornamental  figures, 
who  are  dropped  without  remark.     Other  characters  may  be 

^'Cf.  Comfort,  op.  cit.,  pp.  307  ff.,  on  the  relations  of  vassal  and 
lord  in  the  chansons  de  geste. 


Matter  of  England  Romances  25 

talked  about  and  never  actually  get  on  the  stage.  Eeynild  is 
the  sole  niember  of  this  class  in  Horn.  Others  still  may  merely 
add  a  touch  of  pathos,  as  does  Horn's  mother.  Lastly  may  be 
mentioned  Harild  and  Berild  who,  after  performing  one  or 
two  insignificant  acts,  perish  almost  without  rippling  the  sur- 
face of  the  narrative. 

Thus  Horn,  considering  the  brevity  of  the  story,  has  a  fairly 
full  background  of  dramatis  personce.  If  the  English  version 
represents  the  earlier  form  of  the  story,  it  is  worth  while  to 
notice,  in  passing,  how  the  minor  characters  appear  in  such  a 
developed,  sophisticated  romance  as  Horn  et  Rimel.  A  number 
of  the  parts  so  insignificant  have  become  really  important. 
Lemburc,  who  plays  the  part  of  Eeynild,  and  her  brothers, 
Egfer  and  Guffer,  appear  repeatedly  in  a  series  of  highly  elabo- 
rated incidents.  The  account  of  Horn's  father,  told  in  epic 
fashion  by  the  son  in  the  body  of  the  romance,  is  fairly  full.  A 
considerable  addition  to  the  stock  of  characters  is  made  to  fill 
up  the  enlarged  stage.  Herselote  has  already  been  mentioned. 
A  nurse  is  introduced  by  means  of  whom  Rimel  discovers  that 
she  is  making  love  to  another  than  Horn.  Rimel  has  attend- 
ants, unnamed,  ready  to  amuse  the  one  who  might  disturb  a 
tete-a-tete.  In  the  Irish  part  of  the  story,  Gudburc  and  Sud- 
burc,  mother  and  sister  of  Lemburc,  and  Eglaf,  the  chess- 
player and  athlete,  are  additions.  Even  the  Irish  kings  are 
named. *^  The  divergence  is  extremely  interesting,  for  this  elab- 
orate treatment  of  so  many  minor  dramatis  personae  marks  as 
well  as  anything  else  the  long  distance  which  must  have  been 
traveled  by  one  or  both  of  these  romances  from  the  source 
common  to  both. 

In  Horn  the  lesser  characters  seem  to  spring,  for  the  most 
part,  from  a  natural  development  of  the  plot.  This,  I  think, 
is  less  true  of  Havelok,  Guy,  and  Bevis.     There  may  be,  how- 

33  However,  the  companions  of  Horn  are  not  named.  In  HCh, 
where  less  is  made  of  minor  characters  than  in  HR,  the  companions  are 
named  and  carefully  disposed  of.  The  twelve  companions  may  be  faintly 
reminiscent  of  the  twelve  peers  of  Cliarlemagne,  who,  in  turn,  go  baclj 
to  the  twelve  apostles;  cf.  Gautier,  Les  Epopees  (1st  ed.),  I,  pp.  173  fit 


26  Creek 

ever,  other  sources  of  interest.  In  Havelok  the  two  sisters  of  the 
hero  are  essentially  pathetic  characters.  Grim's  wife,  after 
playing  an  important  part  in  the  realistic  scene  in  Grim's 
"cleue,^'  is  never  referred  to  again.  Her  brutality  to  the  un- 
known boy,  like  that  of  Grim,  leaves  a  blot  on  the  family,  if 
not  on  the  story. 

Vp  she  stirte,  and  nouht  ne  sat. 

And  caste  J?e  knaue  so  harde  adoune, 

J?at  he  crakede  )?er  his  croune 

Ageyn  a  gret  ston,  fer  it  lay  (vv.  566  ff.). 

Grim's  children  and  Ubbe  play  conventional  parts.  Bernard 
Brun  is  an  innkeeper  with  a  name.  His  chief  part  is  a  repe- 
tition of  the  story  of  the  fight  between  Havelok  and  the  sixty 
lads,  which  might  very  well  have  been  dispensed  with.  The 
cook,  Bertram,  is  merely  a  friendly  helper.  The  Earl  of  Ches- 
ter and  the  Earl  of  Lincoln  furnish  historical  background,  and 
the  former,  in  addition,  becomes  husband  of  Gunnild,  Grimes 
daughter.  It  is  interesting  to  note  that  every  one  of  these 
persons  has  a  name,  from  Leue,  the  wife  of  Grim,  to  Bernard 
Brun,  the  innkeeper,  and  Bertram,  the  cook.  Most  of  the 
minor  characters,  too,  it  will  be  noted,  are  of  humble  rank,  and 
are  an  item  in  the  popular  character  of  the  story.  The  prom- 
inence given  to  the  family  of  Grim  is  probably  due  to  the 
fact  that  the  romance  celebrates  a  particular  place.  If  the 
minor  dramatis  personae  of  Havelok  are  less  intimately  con- 
nected with  plot  than  those  of  Horn,  they  sliow  greater  realism 
and  broader  range. 

In  Bevis  and  GiJ/y  the  greater  part  of  the  minor  charac- 
ters are  principals  in  the  incidents  in  which  they  appear.  In 
these  romances  the  story  is  a  succession  of  adventures,  each 
with  its  little  plot.  In  Bevis  these  are  usually  brief  and  very 
slightly  elaborated,  three  or  four  dramatis  personae  being  suffi- 
cient for  each  incident.  Many  persons  appear,  only  to  be  slain 
by  the  hero.  Most  of  these  are  too  colorless  to  be  character- 
ized. In  general,  it  may  be  said  that  there  is  an  absence  of 
pathetic  and  ornamental  figures.     There  is  a  fairly  large  num- 


Matter  of  England  Romances  27 

ber — including  two  messengers,  two  porters,  two  stewards,  a 
palmer,  and  a  giant — bearing  no  names.  There  is  a  concentra- 
tion upon  incidents.  One  figure,  Ascopard,  stands  out  some- 
what, being  intended,  it  seems,  to  produce  a  comic  effect.^* 

Much  of  what  was  said  about  Bevis  at  the  beginning  of  the 
preceding  paragraph  applies  to  Guy  as  well.  The  latter  ro- 
mance is  much  longer  than  the  former;  the  incidents  are  told 
with  greater  detail;  but  there  is  the  same  succession  of  life- 
less figures,  among  whom  the  hero  displays  his  prowess.  There 
is,  moreover,  no  comic  person  to  be  placed  beside  Ascopard. 
The    reference    to    the    various    ladies    surrounding    Felice    is 

»*  Ab  comedy  is  rather  rare  in  the  romances,  it  seems  worth  while  to 
enter  into  this  feature  in  somewhat  greater  detail.  Perhaps  the  chief 
comic  scene  in  the  romance  is  the  one  of  the  baptism  of  Ascopard. 

For  Ascopard  was  mad  a  koue; 

When  J?e  beschop  him  scholde  in  schoue, 

A  lep  anon  vpon  he  benche 

And  seide :  * '  Prest,  wiltow  me  drenche  ? 

J?e  deuil   jeue  me  helle  pine, 

Icham  to  meche  te  be  Christine!''  (vv.  2591  ff.). 
The  incident  of  the  dragon  fight  has  also  its  comic  opportunity.     Bevis 
and  Ascopard  arrive  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  dragon,  when 

Ascopard  swore,  be  sein  Ion 

A  fote  ne  dorste  he  forther  gon. 

Beues  answerde  and  seide  J>o: 

*' Ascopard,  whi  seistow  so? 

Whi  schelt  Jjow  afered  be 

Of   }>ing   J>at  J?ow   rai^t   nou^t  sen?" 

A  swor,  alse  he  moste  J)en, 

He  nolde   him  neij>er  hire  ne   sen; 

"Icham  weri,  ich  mot  haue  reste; 

Go  now  for>  and  do  J?e  beste!"  (w.  2747  ff.). 
The  "Icham  weri,  ich  mot  haue  reste",  coming  from  the  mouth  of  the 
giaut  who  carried  the  horse  Arondel  in  his  arm  (v.  2564),  in  itself  no 
doubt  amusing  to  the  medieval  audience,  must  surely  have  raised  a  laugh. 
Thus,  slightly  as  the  character  of  Ascopard  is  developed  on  the  humorous 
side,  and  dangerous  as  he  proved  to  be,  here  is  a  clear  case  of  the  in- 
troduction of  a  character  with  whom  amusing  incidents  may  naturally 
he  cnmiected. 

Comic  characters  like  Ascopard  are  foimd  in  a  highly  developed 
state  in  certain  cMnsons  de  geste.  Cf.  W.  W.  Comfort,  op.  cit.,  section 
entitled  "Bourgeois  and  Vilain",  pp.  279  ff.  For  other  comic  baptis- 
mal scenes  see  Ferumbras,  vv.  5715  ff.,  and  the  chanson  de  geste  Aliscans, 
vv.  7885  ff. 


28  Creek 

another  element  associating  it  with  the  courtly  type  of  romance. 
There  is,  too,  the  account  of  the  gathering  of  people  at  Warwick 
at  Pentecost — 

There  were  Erles,  barons,  and  knyghtes, 

And  many  a  man  of  grete  myghtes; 

Ladies  and  maydens  of  grete  renown, 

The  grettest  desired  ther  to  bee  bown  (C.  vv.  189  ff.) — 
which  furnishes  a  courtly  setting.  With  the  twelve  compan- 
ions of  Horn  may  be  compared  the  twenty  sons  of  good  barons 
who  were  dubbed  knights  with  Guy.  The  list  of  dramatis 
personae  is  very  great.  Limiting  the  number  to  those  intro- 
duced as  individuals,  there  are  almost  a  hundred,  of  whom 
about  seventy  are  named.^  In  Bevis  there  are  forty,  of  whom 
about  twenty-five  are  named.  In  Havelok  there  are  twenty- 
two,  all  named;  in  Horn  twenty,  of  whom  fifteen  are  narae^d. 

Dialogue  and  Soliloquy. 

Dialogue  plays  an  interesting  and  important  part  in  dis- 
playing character,  and  the  manner  of  the  dialogue  goes  far 
toward  being  the  manner  of  the  romance. 

In  Horn  the  vigorous  dialogue  serves  to  advance  the  narra- 
tive rather  than  to  portray  character.  It  is  significant,  too, 
that  real  soliloquy,  to  reveal  intention  or  mood,  is  absent.  In 
Haveloh,  on  the  contrary,  in  which  dramatic  situation  is  not  ^ 
emphasized,  dialogue  is  of  comparatively  slight  importance, 
while  numerous  soliloquies  reveal  mood  and  purpose.^^  In 
Bevis  there  is  gain  in  dialogue  with  the  author's  superior  sense 

35  That  the  scribes  did  not  keep  the  dramatis  personw  clearly  in 
mind  is  evidenced  by  curious  blunders.  Thus  Clarice,  the  daughter  of 
the  Emperor  of  Constantinople,  is  called  ^ '  Blauncheflour '  *  in  both  the 
Auchinleck  and  Caius  MSS.  at  one  point  (v.  4497).  Again,  in  a  battle 
with  the  Saracens,  the  King  of  Nubia,  after  being  struck  down  by  Guy, 
immediately  afterward  is  summoned  by  the  Sultan  to  attack  the  Chris- 
tians (v.  3506  ff.).  This  is  only  in  the  Auchinleck  MS.;  in  the  Caius 
MS.  it  is  the  King  of  Armenia  whom  the  Sultan  sends  against  the 
Christians,  which,  no  doubt,  is  the  correct  reading. 

36  There  are  137  lines  in  the  poem,  including  the  prayer  of  Havelok 
at  Grimsby  (vv.  1359  ff.),  which  possess  the  nature  of  soliloquy.  An  ex- 
cellent example  is  the  soliloquy  in  which  Havelok  determines  that  he 
must  ''swinken"  for  his  ''mete"  (vv.  790  ff.). 


Matter  of  England  Romances  29 

of  situation.  However,  it  is  a  matter  of  plot  priniarily,  al- 
though, with  its  brevity  and  passion,  it  is  valuable  for  charac- 
ter too.^^  The  seven  soliloquies  are  brief  and  of  slight  impor- 
tance. Both  dialogue  and  soliloquy  are  of  great  importance  in 
Guy.  Dialogue  is  sustained,  and  emotions  are  presented  fuUy.^^ 
The  soliloquies  are  long  and  important.  The  one  which  shows 
Guy  struck  with  remorse  for  his  sins  is  both  moving  and  true 
(sts.  21  f.).  In  dialogue  and  soliloquy  Guy  shows  the  charac- 
teristics of  the  chivalric  romance. 

Interest  in  mental  states. 

In  reading  this  section  much  that  has  already  been  said 
should  be  kept  in  mind.  The  discussion  of  the  individual 
characters,  of  dialogue,  and  of  soliloquy  includes  much  which 
might  be  treated  here.  But  to  avoid  needless  repetition,  the 
attempt  will  be  made  to  view  the  material  already  familiar 
from  another  angle,  something  being  added  to  make  the  out- 
look sufficiently  broad.  The  term  "interest  in  mental  states"  is 
employed  here  loosely.  The  manner  in  which  emotion  is  mani- 
fested by  the  dramatis  personae,  the  degree  to  which  the  author 
delights  in  analyzing  mental  states,  even  the  extent  of  the 
emotional  appeal  to  the  auditor,  and  the  way  in  which  it  is 
produced,  will  come  under  review. 

King  Horn,  which  is  the  most  ballad-like  of  all  genuine 
English  romances,^^  has,  like  the  ballad,  emotional  value  apart 
from  any  overt  interest  on  the  part  of  the  author  in  character 
or  mental  states.  The  dialogue  has  frequently  this  emotional 
appeal.  But  of  real  interest  in  states  of  mind  as  such  there  is 
none.  In  the  most  dramatic  scenes  the  auditor  may  be  left 
without  a  hint  of  the  emotions  of  the  dramatis  personae  (e.  g., 
the  banishment  of  Horn,  vv.  705  ff.).***    In  Havelok  the  situa- 

37  Cf.  vv.  73  ff.,  283  ff.,  394  ff.,  421  ff.,  etc. 

38  The  second  interview  of  Guy  and  Felice  fills  one  hundred  lines, 
and  there  is  real  progression,  giving  a  clear  view  of  the  characters  of  the 
principal  actors. 

3»  Cf .  Hart,  Ballad  and  Epic,  p.  56. 

*o  With  King  Horn  should  be  compared  Horn  et  Bimel,  the  author 
of  which  shows  decided  interest  in  mental  states.     As  has  been  stated, 


80  Creek 

tion  is  almost  reversed.  There  is  a  certain  amount  of  interest 
in  mental  states  as  such,  but  none  of  the  ballad-like  appeal  to 
feelings  by  poignant  situations  such  as  we  found  in  Horn,  The 
author  takes  pleasure  in  reminding  the  hearers  that  Godrich  is 
deceived  and  plotting  his  own  ruin  when  he  plans  to  marry 
Goldborough  and  Havelok. 

For  he  wende,  >at  Hauelok  wore 

Sum  cherles  sone,  and  no  more; 

Ne  shulde  he  hauen  of  Engellona 

Onlepi  forw  in  his  hond 

With  hire,  }?at  was  ]?er-of  \>e  eyr, 

J7at  bo]?e  was  god  and  swi}?e  fair. 

He  wende,  )?at  Hauelok  wer  a  J?rai, 

)?er-]?oru  he  wende  hauen  al 

In  Engelond,  J?at  hire  riht  was  (w.  1091  ff.). 

We  are  told  in  some  detail  how  the  characters  thought  over 

situations.     Thus  A]?elwold  considers  at  length  what^^^esTTo^ 

do  to  protect  his  daughter's  interests  after  his  death.    Havelok 

considers  carefully  before  returning  to  Grimsby  with  his  bride. 

In  fact  there  is  a  good  deal  of  downright  thinking  going  on. 

To  Bevis  what  was  said  about  Horn  in  large  measure  applies. 

The  situations  in  themselves  are  often  moving,  but  the  author 

does  not  dwell  on  the  emotions  of  his  characters,  nor  does  he 

seem  to  insist  on  the  emotional  appeal  to  the  reader.    He  is  in 

too  much  of  a  hurry  to  get  on.    However,  the  dialogue  is  often 

characteristic  enough  to  reveal  the  feelings  of  the  characters. 

Herselote^s  importance  lies  in  her  part  as  RimePs  confidante.  Rodmnnd 
can  hardly  decide  on  the  fate  of  Horn  and  his  companions.  Eimel's 
impatience  and  anxiety  to  obtain  an  interview  with  Horn  appear  when 
she  sends  for  the  seneschal. 

Ele  demaunde  sonvent  dan  Herlant  quant  vendra  (v.  529). 
She  gazes  in  her  mirror  and  inquires  anxiously  as  to  her  appearance 
(vv.  526  ff.).  Herlant 's  mental  distress  at  Rimel's  request  to  see  Horn, 
his  sleeplessness,  his  arguments  with  himself,  are  related  in  detail  (vv, 
662  flf. ).  The  scene  in  Rimel's  chamber  when  HaJ>erof  is  trying  to 
convince  Rimel  that  he  is  not  Horn  but  is  unable  to  do  so,  presents  an 
interesting  psychological  situation.  This  interest  in  emotional  states  is 
prominent  throughout  the  romance,  and  the  length  of  this  redaction  is 
largely  due  to  this  characteristic. 


Matter  of  England  Romances  31 

But  the  reader  is  left  in  doubt  as  to  Bevis's  feelings  for  Josian 
up  to  the  time  when  she  became  a  Christian.  In  the  love  affair 
it  is  only  the  heroine's  feelings  which  are  revealed.  Scarcely 
anything  is  made  of  the  loss  of  wife  and  children,  when  Asco- 
pard  carries  Josian  away  and  the  two  boys  are  left  in  the  care 
of  strangers.  Whatever  emotional  appeal  there  is  springs  en- 
tirely from  the  imaginative  sympathy  of  the  audience  with  the 
situation.  It  need  scarcely  be  said  that  there  is  far  greater 
interest  in  emotional  states  of  mind  in  Guy.  So  far  as  the 
hero's  love  and  repentance  are  concerned,  this  was  made  clear 
in  discussing  the  soliloquies.  One  may  note,  also,  the  accounts 
of  the  reunion  of  comrades  after  long  separation  (vv.  1749  ff. ; 
sts.  142  ff.) ;  the  story  of  Guy^s  parting  from  father  and  mother 
(w.  1217  ff.)  ;  the  story  of  Oisel  and  Tirri;  the  story  of  Jonas. 
There  is  not  so  much  analysis  as  in  many  French  romances, 
but  there  is  a  decided  interest  in  emotional  states,  a  too-marked 
insistence  on  them  often,  which  sets  Guy  far  apart  from  Horn, 
Havelok,  and  Bevis.*'^ 

When  one  looks  at  the  actual  manner  of  manifesting  emo- 
tion in  the  romances,  he  is  at  once  in  the  midst  of  stock  ma- 
terial. However,  I  believe  that  differences  in  the  treatment  of 
this  stock  material  will  appear.  The  expression  of  grief  is 
most  important.  Wringing  of  the  hands  is,  of  course,  a  com- 
monplace, and  is  not  limited  by  age  or  sex. 

]>e  children  hi  bro^te  to  stronde 

Wringende  here  honde  (Horn,  vv.  Ill  ff.). 
When  Eymenhild  found  her  messenger  drowned, 

Hire  fingres  he  gan  wringe  (ihid.,  v.  980). 
Likewise  of  the  child  Bevis: 

jeme  a  wep,  is  hondes  wrong  (Bevis,  v.  298). 

Swooning  is  even  more  common.    Eymenhild  falls  (presumably 

in  a  faint)  three  times:  on  Horn's  refusal  of  her  love  "adun 

he  feol  iswo^e"  (v.  428) ;  at  Horn's  departure  for  Ireland  she 

*i  It  may  be  noted  that  little  is  said  about  the  heroine's  feelings,  as 
contrasted  with  Horn  et  Bimel,  for  instance,  where  there  is  a  pretty 
thorough  study  made  of  the  feelings  of  Eimel,  much  more  subtle  in- 
deed than  the  study  of  the  lover's  feelings  in  Guy. 


32  Creek 

"feol  to  grunde"  (v.  740) ;  and  again  she  "feol  iswoje"  when 
Horn  approached  Fikenhild's  castle  singing  (v.  1479).  Swoon- 
ing does  not  occur  in  Haveloh,  and  in  Bevis  occurs  but  twice — 
curiously  enough  a  man  being  the  victim  in  each  case.  Thus 
Terri,  when  he  was  told  that  Guy  was  dead, 

fel  J?er  doun  and  swou^, 

His  her,  his  cloJ?es  he  al  to-drouj  (w.  1309  f.). 
And  Bevis,  when  he  finds  his  two  newborn  children,  but  no 
mother, 

fel  )>ar  doun  and  swou^  (v.  3717). 
Lovers  were  of  course  expected  to  faint,  and  Guy  is  a  perfect 
lover.    At  the  end  of  a  confession  of  love, 

Adoune  he  felle  swoune  with  that  (v.  598). 
Later  in  the  story,  what  with  bleeding  wounds  and  sorrow 
for  his  slain  friends,  "adoun  he  fel  aswon."  Herhaud  swoons 
from  the  shock  of  surprise  and  joy  in  meeting  Guy  (v.  1762), 
and  again  he  "fel  in  swowe  vpon  his  bedde'""  because  of  anxiety 
for  Guy,  who  was  absent  on  a  dangerous  mission  (v.  3999). 
Oisel  faints  over  her  wounded  lover  (v.  4896),  and  again  when 
she  sees  him  in  bonds  (v.  5903).  Both  Guy  and  Felice  swoon 
when  he  announces  his  intention  to  become  a  pilgrim  (st.  32,  v. 
11).  Tirri  swoons  when  he  learns  that  the  unknown  pilgrim 
who  had  slain  his  enemy  Berard  is  in  truth  his  old  comrade  Guy 
(st.  226,  V.  3).  Lastly,  Felice  swoons  when  she  comes  to  the 
hermitage  where  her  husband  lies  dead. 

Weeping  is  too  common  an  occurrence  for  anything  like  a 
full  list  here.  While  more  often  it  is  the  manifestation  of  a 
woman's  grief,  it  is  not  at  all  regarded  as  unworthy  of  heroes. 
In  Horn  there  are  the  following  examples: 

Heo  sat  on  )?e  sunne 

WiJ?  tires  al  birunne  (vv.  653  if.). 

Alf  weop  wi)?  i^e 

&  al  J7at  him  isi3e  (vv.  755  if.). 

Horn  iherd  with  his  ires 

A  spak  with  bidere  teres  (vv.  887  ff.). 

*2  Caius  MS.  only,  v.  4013. 


Matter  of  England  Romances  S8 

Ne  miste  heo  adri^e 

J?at  heo  (Rymenhild)  ne  weop  wi}?  ije  (w.  1035  f.). 

J?e  bride  wepej?  sore   (v.  1049). 

She  was  "sore  wepinge  &  jerne"  when  Horn  entered  the  hall 
where  the  wedding  feast  was  being  prepared;  she  wept  "teres 
of  blode"  when  imprisoned  by  Fikenhild  (v.  1406).  A)?ulf, 
watching  for  Horn,  says  "for  soreje  nu  y  wepe"  (v.  1104).  In 
Havelok  there  are  only  two  or  three  examples.  The  lords  whom 
A)?elwold  summoned  when  he  was  at  the  point  of  death 

Greten,  and  gouleden,  and  gouen  hem  ille  (v.  164). 
Havelok  and  his  sisters,  shut  up  in  a  castle,  wept  for  hunger 
and  cold  (v.  416).  Likewise,  there  is  little  weeping  in  Bevis. 
When  the  boy  hero  learned  of  his  father's  death,  "/erne  a 
wep"  (v.  298).  Josian  weeps  right  sorely  (vv.  1111,  1190)  and 
Bevis  hears  her  weeping  and  crying  in  the  castle  of  Yvor  (v. 
2101).  Guy,  true  lover  that  he  is,  weeps  as  well  as  faints 
from  the  violence  of  his  passion  (vv.  247,  261,  568).  He  weeps 
too  over  his  fallen  comrades  (v.  1554).  The  kissing  of  men 
is  associated  with  weeping  sometimes,  either  for  joy  or  for  sor- 
row. Once  when  Herhaud  and  his  fellows  rescue  Guy  pursued 
by  Saracens, 

j?e  most  hepe  wepen  for  blis; 

)?ai  kisten  Gij  alle  for  blis  (vv.  4072  f.). 
When  Guy  and  Tirri  part. 

To  gider  J?ai  kisten  )?o, 

At  her  departing  J?ai  wepen  bo  (vv.  7111  f.). 
And  at  another  parting  they 

kist  hem  wij?  eije  wepeing  (st.  232). 
Weeping  with  both  eyes  seems  intended  to  imply  violent  ween- 
ing (v.  4455,  sts.  138,  226,  294). 

The  more  violent  tearing  of  hair  and  clothes  is  also  a  con- 
vention of  romances.  There  are  no  cases  in  Horn  or  in  Have- 
lok. In  Bevis  there  is  the  instance  quoted  above  when  Terri 
swooned  and,  apparently  at  the  same  time. 

His  her,  his  clo)?es  he  al  todrouj  (v.  1310), 


34  Creek 

In  Guy  the  expression  is  common.    Of  Guy  in  love  it  is  said 
His  clothes  he  rende,  his  heer  he  drough  (v.  420). 

The  Sultan,  enraged  at  his  defeat,  rends  his  clothes  (Caius  v. 

3692).    Earl  Jonas,  when  Guy  meets  him,  is  rending  his  clothes 

and  tearing  his  hair  (st.  46). 

Other  ways  of  expressing  grief  may  be  mentioned.     "Hise 

heorte  began  to  childe'^  {Horn,  v.  1148)  has  numerous  paral- 
lels. *^    In  Bevis  there  is 

)?e  childes  herte  was  wel  colde  (v.  511). 

and 

J?e  kinges  herte  wex  wel  cold  (v.  553). 

Less   conventional  is   the   account   of  Josian's   woe   when   she 

thinks  Bevis  is  leaving  her: 

"Hire  pou^te,  ]?e  tour  wolde  on  Mr  falle  (v.  1140.).** 

Guy  complains  that,  because  of  love,  he  cannot  sit  nor  stand, 

rest  nor  sleep,  eat  nor  drink  (w.  315  ff.).     There  is  also  in 

Guy  an  abundance  of  making  "mone"  and  sighing  "sore." 

The  expression  of  Joy  is  also  unrestrained.    Kissing  is  often 

a  token  of  joy. 

Hi  custe  hem  mid  ywisse 

&  makeden  muchel  blisse   {Horn,  vv.  1209  f.). 

When  Terri  discovered  his  father  Saber  in  the  palmer,  he  took 

him  in  his  armes 

&  gonne  cleppen  and  to  kisse 

And  made  meche  ioie  &  blisse  (vv.  3944  f.). 

Almost  the  identical  lines  occur  at  another  place  (vv.  3057  f.). 

In  Guy  the  meeting  of  old  friends  is  accompanied  by  kissing. 
To  kissen  Herhaud  )7ai  hem  do, 
Wel  gret  ioie  )?ai  maden  J?o  (vv.  6655  f.).*^ 

Swooning  or  falling  down  for  joy  is  restricted  to  Guy.     Her- 

haud's  swooning  (v.  1762)  has  been  mentioned.     When  Oisel, 

forcibly  held  by  Otous,  saw  Guy  unexpectedly, 

*3  See  Hall's  note  to  this  line,  Breul's  note  to  Gowther,  v.  546,  and 
Schmirgers  list  of  stereotyped  phrases  in  Bevis  (in  the  Introduction 
to  Kolbing's  edition),  p.  XL VI. 

*4  Kolbing  says  no  parallels  found. 

*6  See  Schmirgel  for  additional  parallels,  p.  XLV. 


Matter  of  England  Romances  35 

For  blisse  sche  fel  aswon  adoun  (v.  6297). 
She  swoons  again  when  she  meets  Tirri: 

For  ioie  sche  swoned  omong  hem  (v.  6533). 
Unrestrained  expression  of  emotion  on  the  part  of  dramatis 
personce  is  a  characteristic  pretty  general  in  metrical  romance.** 
In  the  group  here  studied,  Haveloh,  which  is  the  least  romantic, 
is  least  emotional,  and  Guy,  which  is  most  romantic,  is  most 
emotional.  The  means  of  expressing  feeling  are  thoroughly  con- 
ventional, as  the  brief  review  here  made  clearly  shows.*^  Horn, 
Bevis,  and  Guy  represent  types  of  literature  which  originally 
stood  far  apart.  Yet  we  find  them  side  by  side  on  English 
soil,  drawing  from  the  same  stock  of  literary  material.  The 
sentimentalism  of  Guy  brings  with  it  a  freer  use  of  the  ex- 
treme forms  of  expressing  emotion.*^     In  Bevis,  where  senti- 

46  Sir  Cleges  (v.  90  of  the  romance  so  named)  swoons  from  think- 
ing of  his  misfortunes.  In  William  of  Paleme  the  Emperor  swoons  six 
times  ''for  sorwe  &  for  schame"  when  William  elopes  with  Melior  (v. 
2098);  in  Chaucer's  Legend  of  Good  Women  (v.  1342)  Dido  swoons 
twenty  times  (but  this  is  hardly  meant  to  be  exact),  Charlemagne  and 
his  hundred  thousand  followers  faint  for  grief  at  the  death  of  Eoland 
(Chanson  de  Eoland,  v.  2916) ;  in  Eenaud  de  Montauban  the  four  sons  of 
Aymon  faint  on  seeing  their  paternal  castle  after  an  absence  (Gautier, 
1st  ed.,  IT,  p.  192). 

47  Additional  proof  of  conventionality  of  these  and  many  other  ex- 
pressions may  be  obtained  by  consulting  Schmirgel's  list  of  typical 
phrases  in  the  introduction  to  Kolbing's  Bevis,  the  introduction  to 
Zielke  's  edition  of  Sir  Orfeo,  as  well  as  the  notes  to  Kolbing  's  Bevis, 
Zupitza  's  Guy  of  Warwick,  Hall 's  Horn,  etc. 

48  Fainting,  weeping,  and  tearing  of  the  hair  apparently  run  through 
medieval  narrative  literature.  In  the  roman  d'aventure  the  most  violent 
grief  is  for  unsuccessful  love,  in  the  chanson  de  geste  for  loss  of  com- 
rades, although  exceptions  to  this  rule  may  be  found.  Sickness  result- 
ing from  love  is  of  course  a  strictly  romantic  feature.  With  Guy's 
illness  may  be  compared  the  "fever"  of  Troilus  in  Troilus  and  Criseyde, 
v.  491.  Fainting  seems  to  have  been  almost  a  necessary  part  of  romantic 
courtship.  In  the  French  Amados  4"  Ydoine  (cf.  Hist.  Litt.,  XXII,  p. 
761)  the  scornful  lady  is  won  by  the  hero's  fainting  in  her  presence. 
In  the  chanson  the  fainting  is  more  likely  to  be  on  the  lady's  side.  In 
Enfances  Guillaume  when  Orable,  the  Saracen  maiden,  is  hearing  from 
her  brother  an  account  of  the  beauty  of  Guillaume,  whom  she  has  never 
seen,  she  says  she  will  faint  if  he  says  another  word  (Gautier,  2nd  ed., 
IV,  p.  297). 


36  Creeh 

ment  plays  a  small  part,  we  find  these  stock  expressions  here 
and  there,  almost  unexpectedly.  In  Horn,  which  is  more  truly 
romantic,  the  expression  of  joy,  less  unrestrained  than  in  Guy, 
is  more  appropriate  than  in  Bevis.  But  the  strong  resemblance 
of  these  metrical  stories  is  due,  largely  at  least,  to  the  recasting 
at  the  hands  of  Englishmen  who  did  not  distinguish  types ;  who 
were  familiar  with  stock  romantic  material,  the  well-known 
poses,  rhyme  phrases,  etc.,  and  in  translating  threw  them  in 
where  convenient.*® 

In  the  English  romances  the  expressions  representing  emo- 
tion are  for  the  most  part  stock  material,  English  material 
indeed,  although  no  doubt  French  romance  assisted  in  its  crea- 
tion. Perhaps  there  was  a  tendency  in  this  respect  to  confuse 
tvpes  of  narrative — that  is,  in  the  use  of  these  stock  emotional 
expressions — which  brings  the  English  romances  nearer  to- 
gether than  their  sources. 
The  human  relations. 

It  is  perfectly  clear,  even  to  him  who  reads  running,  that 
the  medieval  romances  by  no  means  deal  in  anything  like  a 
complete  way  with  the  various  relations  which  make  up  human 
life.  The  name  romance  perhaps  cuts  out  a  certain  portion 
of  these;  but  modern  romance  has  looked  upon  and  cultivated 
great  areas  of  life  which  medieval  romance  never  dreamed 
about.  To  determine  a  little  more  clearly  what  are  the  human 
limits  of  the  metrical  romances,  particularly  the  four  now  under 
examination,  is  the  purpose  of  this  section. 
J  Love,  as  in  all  romance,  is,  next  to  war,  the  greatest  interest. 
This  means,  of  course,  the  love  of  the  sexes.  Other  forms  of 
love — of  parent  and  child,  of  brother  and  sister,  of  brother  and 
brother — are  almost  crowded  out.  War,  of  course,  means  com- 
radeship, and  the  love  of  comrades  for  each  other — sometimes 
of  follower  for  lord — plays  its  expected  part.  But  affections 
other  than  the  love  of  man  and  woman,  of  warrior  and  warrior, 
are  of  insignificant  interest. 

*®A  comparison  of  Bevis  with  the  Old  French  Boeve  de  Haumtone 
(ed.  by  Stimming,  Bib.  Normannica,  Halle,  1899),  which  represents 
pretty  closely  the  version  which  the  English  translator  had  before  him. 
shows  very  few  cases  of  parallelism  of  emotional  expression. 


Matter  of  England  Romances  37 

In  these  four  romances  there  are  two  types  of  love  repre- 
sented, the  passionate  and  the  chivalrous.  The  latter  is,  of 
course,  the  type  at  once  associated  with  medieval  romance — 
with  Lancelot  and  with  Tristram.  In  greater  refinement  it  is 
represented  by  the  love  stories  of  Dante  and  Pertrach.  It  is 
the  love  of  Arthurs  court  and  of  the  court  of  love,  of  Chretien 
at  the  beginning  and  Malory  at  the  end  of  a  literary  period. 
This  type  of  love  is  represented  in  Guy,  imperfectly  perhaps,  yet 
not  unattractively.  The  passionate  type  is  represented  in  Horn 
and  Bevis. 

Curiously  enough,  in  the  passionate  type  it  is  the  woman  who 
woos.  This  is  a  situation  appearing  in  William  of  Palerne,  in 
Amis  and  Amiloun,^^  as  well  as  in  Horn  and  in  Bevis.  There 
seems  to  be  a  greater  popularity  in  the  kind  of  love  here  repre- 
sented. It  is  attractive  by  its  simplicity,  its  frankness,  its 
faithfulness,  its  healthy,  unspoiled,  primitive  human  nature. 
Sometimes  there  seems  to  be  a  certain  disregard  of  the  legal  bond 
of  marriage.  Apparently  Kymenhild  cared  little  for  it  (vv. 
531  ff.)  ;  we  are  not  sure  that  Josian  did  (vv.  1093  if.).  Will- 
iam of  Palerne's  love  for  Melior  had,  at  first,  no  legal  sanction. 
Yet  there  is  always  the  faithfulness  which  we  associate  with  the 
marriage  tie.    It  is  the  unmoral  attitude  of  the  ballads.      \ 

This  passionate  type  of  love  is  characteristic  of  the  chanson 
de  geste  (cf.  Gautier,  I,  p.  207).  It  is  the  lady  who  makes  the 
advances,  sometimes  in  a  disgustingly  bold  manner.^^  Fre- 
quently it  is  a  Saracen  girl  who  shows  this  frank,  sometimes 
brutal  passion,  which  may  not  scruple  at  parricide  to  attain  its 
end.^2     However,  the  general  traits  of  female  character  seem 

^0  The  love  in  William  of  Palerne  is  not  quite  of  the  chanson  de 
geste  type.  But  in  Amis  and  Amiloun  it  very  clearly  is.  Beliiaunt 
threatens  Amis  with  death  if  he  does  not  accept  her  love  (Am,  and  Ami- 
loun, vv,  625  ff.).  Ociavian  (S.  Eng.  version),  vv.  1201  ft.,  tells  of  a 
Saracen  maid  loving  a  Christian  knight,  who  makes  advances  to  him 
and  finally  becomes  a  Christian. 

51  More  than  twenty  girls  go  to  the  beds  of  knights  in  chansons  de 
geste,  according  to  Gautier.  1st  ed.,  T,  p.  478. 

52  Cf.  the  English  Sir  Ferumhras,  vv.  5763  ff.  In  this  case  Floripas, 
who  has  been  converted,  seems  fired  with  religious  zeal. 


38  Creeh 

much  the  same  in  Christian  as  in  Saracen.^^  Prejudice  against 
Saracen  women  who  become  Christians  is  not  a  trait  of  the 
chansons  de  geste.^^  Orable,  the  wife  of  Guillaume  de  Orange, 
is  perhaps  the  most  attractive  of  the  heroines  of  the  chansons 
de  geste.  This  typical  woman  was  never  a  person  common  in 
real  life;  but  she  probably  does  represent  an  earlier  stage  when 
women  were  of  less  importance  socially,  and  when  distinctively 
feminine  traits  were  not  held  in  the  esteem  which  was  felt  by 
the  society  implied  by  the  roman  d'aventure. 

In  Guy  it  is  the  man  who  woos.  The  lady  is  unsusceptible, 
disdainful  even.  The  hero  must  remain  afar  off,  must  wait 
for  many  years;  and  when  he  wins  his  love  he  is  scarcely  per- 
mitted to  enjoy  it.  There  is  a  strong  undercurrent  of  asceti- 
cism. The  love  of  woman  leads  to  strife;  many  men  have  been 
and  will  be  '^to  gronde  y-brou^f  by  women  (vv.  1503  ff.) ;  it 
is  after  renunciation  that  the  noblest  character  is  developed 
both  in  Guy  and  in  Felice  (st.  279).  Even  pure  and  chival- 
rous love  is  unworthy  in  the  presence  of  religious  asceticism. 

It  is  well  to  bear  in  mind  that  there  was  an  ideal  of  love 
in  medieval  literature,  and  life,  too,  perhaps,  which  insisted 
that  the  perfect  relation  was  betw^een  a  married  woman  and  an 
unmarried  man.  At  its  best  this  ideal  is  beautiful,  if  unprac- 
tical and  ultimately  immoral.  It  sprang  from  a  desire  to  pre- 
'  serve  the  first  bright  glow  of  young  love  before  desire  had  dark- 
ened it.  To  do  this  meant  to  love  the  unattainable  and  unap- 
proachable— a  married  woman.  This  of  course  is  the  love  of 
Dante  for  Beatrice.  It  is  the  love  which  dictated  the  rules  of 
the  court  of  love.  But  in  many  of  the  French  romances,  as 
well  as  in  their  English  analogues,  we  see  the  ideal  breaking 

53  Cf .  the  conduct  of  Charlemagne 's  queen  Galienne  in  Garin  de 
Monglane  (Gautier,  2nd  ed.,  IV,  pp.  138  ff.).  Three  maidens  seek  Garin 's 
love  in  Enfances  de  Garin  (Gautier,  IV,  pp.  115  ff.).  Even  the  chanson 
de  geste  hero  vrearies  of  the  boldnesB  of  the  women;  cf.  complaint  of 
Girars  de  Viane,  mentioned  by  Gautier,  ]st  ed.,  II,  p.  90. 

64  Usually  sexual  relations  with  an  unconverted  Saracen  woman  were 
strongly  condemned.     Cf.  Merlins  (Percy  Folio,  I,  vv.  410  ff.)  : 

King  Anguis  had  verament 

a  daughter  that  was  faire  &  gent, 

that  was  heathen  Saracen; 

&  Vortiger  for  loue  fine 

vndertooke  her  for  his  wiffe, 

&  liued  in  cursing  all  his  liffe. 


Matter  of  England  Romances  39 

down,  and  another  taking  its  place.  The  beloved  is  still  a  mar- 
ried woman,  but  not  quite  unapproachable,  not  quite  unattain- 
able. Here  of  course  stand  Lancelot  and  Guinevere,  Tristram 
and  Iseult,  human  and  attractive,  but  sinners  who  must  suffer. 
Later  still  come  the  romances  in  which  illicit  love  is  represented 
not  as  sin,  perhaps  not  involving  evil  consequences,  or,  if  so,  only 
accidentally  as  any  pure  love  might.  Under  a  slight  varnish 
there  is  often  all  the  grossness  of  fabliau.  Yet  the  author  will 
say  that  these  were  perfect  lovers.^^  It  is  interesting  to  note  that 
these  grosser  romances  had  no  vogue  in  English.  No  doubt  they 
were  repugnant  to  medieval  English  moral  standards,  at  least 
of  the  public  which  read  the  English  romances,  low  as  they 
often  are.  Contemporary  with  these  immoral  romances,  with 
their  ideal  of  courtly,  illicit  love,  were  romances  in  which  love 
seems  so  primitive  as  in  Horn  and  Bevis,  and  so  pure  as  in  Ouy. 
The  English  were  using  the  less  fashionable  of  contemporary 
literary  material. 

More  important  is  war — involving  the  emotions  of  hatred 
and  envy,  as  well  as  hope  of  glory  and  joy  of  victory.  Here  we 
are  concerned  primarily  with  the  human  side — with  the  emo- 
tions concerned.  These  are  implied  rather  than  expressed.  In 
Horn  and  in  Bevis  there  is  the  opposition  of  Christian  and 
Saracen;  in  Haveloh,  of  the  loyal  and  the  traitorous;  in  Gva/  of 
Warwick,  of  national  and  foreign.  In  addition,  we  find  in  our 
romances  hostility  because  of  the  appearance  of  an  undesired 
suitor  for  the  heroine's  hand,  or  because  some  one  has  been 
dispossessed  of  his  property,  or  because  some  one  has  been 
worsted  in  a  tournament.  On  the  whole  it  may  be  said  that 
these  hostile  relations  are  dwelt  upon  only  sufficiently  to  bring 
about  the  fascinating  scenes  when  lances  break  and  swords 
clash.  To  see  more  clearly  how  the  human  elements  enter  into 
war  it  will  be  sufficient  to  discuss  vengeance,  cruelty,  and  the 
emotions  of  the  fight. 

55  Good  summaries  of  several  romances  of  this  type  may  be  found 
in  Langlois,  Soci4tS  Frangaise  au  Xllle  lSik,de  D\ipr^s  dix  Bomans 
cVAventure  (Paris,  1904);  cf.  Le  Chatelaine  de  Couci,  for  example. 


40  Creeh 

The  emotions  of  the  fight  are  anger  and  fear.  In  Horn  and 
Havelok  these  scarcely  appear.  In  the  fight  with  his  father's 
slayer 

Horn  him  gan  agrise, 

&  his  blod  arise  (vv.  868  ff.). 
And  Godard  when  captured  "rorede  als  a  bole"  (Hav.  v.  2438). 
In  BeviSj  however,  there  are  numerous  expressions  to  indicate 
the  state  of  mind  of  combatants,  especially  of  the  hero.    These 
are  chiefly  about  physical  sufferings.     He  is  injured 

}>at  he  mi^te  sofre  namore   (Bevis,  v.  630). 
When  he  got  to  his  chamber,  he 

leide  him  deueling  on  J?e  grounde 
To  kolen  is  hertte  in  ]?at  stounde  (vv.  649  f.). 
He  became  weary  in  his  fight  with  the  boar  (v.  799).  In  the 
fight  with  the  dragon  "him  J^oujte  his  herte  to-brast"  (v.  1792), 
and  in  his  fight  with  the  London  crowd  he  was  "wo  be-gon" 
because  of  his  wounds.  In  Guy  combatants  suffer  for  water 
(sts.  113,  120).  When  wounded,  Amoraunt's  "hert  was  full  of 
ire  and  care"  (v.  8541).  Colbrond,  when  wounded,  "was  sore 
aschame"  (st.  262).  Guy  in  the  same  fight  was  sore  dismayed 
and  sore  aghast  when  his  sword  broke.  These  are  but  a  few 
of  the  cases  in  Bevis  and  Guy  in  which  something  is  said  about 
the  emotions  and  physical  sufferings  of  combatants.  The 
simpler  romances  of  Horn  and  Havelok  have  less  fighting  and 
therefore  less  material  of  this  kind.  Perhaps  the  most  striking 
feature  to  be  observed  is  the  absence  of  fear. 

Vengeance  has  an  important  part  to  play  in  many  ro- 
mances— and  in  three  of  this  group,  Horn,  Haveloh,  Bevis.  But 
the  feeling  of  bitterness  from  which  deeds  of  vengeance  spring 
is  almost  absent.  It  is  true  that  vengeance  is  secured.  The 
Saracen  enemies  of  Horn  are  slain;  Godard  and  Godrich  pay  for 
their  treachery  with  their  lives;  and  the  mother  and  stepfather 
of  Bevis-  likewise  perish.  But  of  real  hatred  there  is  none 
except  in  the  case  of  Bevis.  Even  in  his  case  there  is  nothing 
to  compare  with  the  vengeance  of  Elizabethan  drama.  It  is  in 
the  background  of  the  story. 


Matter  of  England  Romances  41 

Of  cruelty  there  is  probably  no  more  than  medieval  life 
.would  justify.  In  Horn  there  is  mutual  slaughter  of  Saracens 
and  Christians,  non-combatants  as  well  as  combatants  (vv.  63 
ff.,  1377  ff.).  But  mortal  enmity  between  Christians  and  in- 
fidels is  merely  part  of  the  setting  of  much  of  medieval  litera- 
ture.^* Even  the  Saracens  did  not  have  the  cruelty  to  slay  Horn 
and  his  companions  outright.  Fikenhild,  after  his  death  at 
Horn's  hands,  was  drawn/^  but  that  was  the  customary  fate  of 
traitors.  The  same  remark  applies  to  the  tortures  undergone 
by  Godrich  and  Godard.  They  are  condemned  by  their  peers, 
and  no  one  might  do  Godrich  shame  before  trial  {Haveloh,  vv. 
1762  if.).  But  there  is  no  shrinking  from  legal  cruelty.  When 
Godard  had  been  sentenced  and  shriven, 

Sket  came  a  ladde  with  a  knif. 

And  bigan  riht  at  )7e  to 

For  to  ritte,  and  for  to  flo 

So  it  were  grim  or  gore  (vv.  2493  ff.). 
With  like  severity  Godrich  was  bound  to  a  stake  and  burned 
(vv.  2831  ff.).    The  cruelty  of  Bevis  is  of  a  much  fiercer  quality. 
When  Bevis  was  told  that  his  half-brother^^  had  been  uninten- 
tionally slain  by  his  father  he 

lou3  and  hadde  gode  game  (v.  3116). 
When  his  stepfather  was  captured,  he  had  him  put  to  death  by 
being  thrown  into  a  kettle  of  lead,  and  when  his  mother,  be- 
holding her  husband  thus  perish,  falls  from  the  castle  and 
breaks  her  neck, 

Alse  glad  he  was  of  hire, 

Of  his  damme,  ase  of  is  stepsire  (vv.  3463  f.). 
Such  brutality  as  this  is  entirely  absent  from  Ouy.     Here  is 
another  instance  of  the  distance  by  which  this  romance  is  re- 
moved from  the  others,  particularly  from  Bevis,  which  in  struc- 
ture it  so  much  resembles. 

56  Even  in  war  there  was  less  consideration  for  Saracens  than  for 
Christian  enemies;  a  twelfth  century  church  council  forbade  the  use  of 
the  crossbow  against  Christian  enemies. 

"Fikenhild  hi  dude  todra^e    {Horn,  v.   1492). 

58  Possibly  stepbrother! 


42  -    Creeh 

As  has  been  said,  not  much  is  made  of  the  family  relations. 
The  relation  of  husband  and  wife  seems  to  be  an  exception,  as 
it  is  a  source  of  interest  in  Havelok,  Bevis,  and  Guy.  Yet  not 
ver}'  much  is  made  of  it.  In  Bevis  it  is  only  the  wife  who  seems 
much  affected  by  the  long  separation.  In  Guy  there  is  the  tacit 
approval  of  the  departure  of  the  husband  at  a  time  when  he  is 
aware  that  he  is  to  be  a  father.  Scarcely  anything  is  made  of 
the  relationship  of  mother  and  son.  The  meeting  of  Horn  and 
Godhild,  furnishing  such  a  splendid  chance  for  pathos,  is  barely 
mentioned  (v.  1383).^^  In  Bevis  the  mother's  attitude  is  en- 
tirely unnatural.  The  mother  of  Havelok  is  not  mentioned; 
and  the  mother  of  Guy  is  neglected  after  the  beginning  of  the 
romance.  The  relation  of  father  and  son  is  of  greater  impor- 
tance. It  is  necessary  that  the  hero's  father  should  be  a  man 
of  rank  and  might  as  an  assurance  of  the  hero's  qualifications. 
The  death  of  the  father  may  introduce  the  motive  of  quest  for 
vengeance  {Horn,  Bevis) ;  the  hero  may  take  pride  in  his  father 
{Bevis,  vv.  613  ff.).  But  scarcely  anything  is  made  of  filial 
affection.^^  Much  less  is  made  of  fraternal  affection.  As  a  rule 
the  hero  of  romance  is  an  only  child,  at  least  of  both  father 
and  mother ;  so  Guy,  Horn,  Bevis.  The  sisters  of  Havelok  perish 
too  early  to  play  a  significant  part.  It  is  true  of  romance  litera- 
ture in  general  that  the  fraternal  relation  is  unimportant.®^  The 
relation  of  subject  and  lord  is,  as  has  already  been  indicated, 
one  of  importance.  But  when  the  most  is  made  of  all  this,  one 
need  only  think  of  Chaucer  to  realize  that  the  appeal  of  these 
early  metrical  romances  is  to  a  limited  range  of  emotion. 
Summary. 

In  order  to  see  clearly  what  eacli  of  these  romances  has  con- 
tributed to  medieval  character-writing,  it  is  necessary  to  con- 

59  It  is  interesting  to  note  that  in  Ponthus  and  Sidone  the  reunion 
of  mother  and  son  is  elaborated  and  made  the  basis  of  pathetic  appeal. 

60  The  relation  of  father  and  son  is  more  important  in  some  ro- 
mances; cf.  Generydea,  Perceval,  Libeaus  Desconus. 

61  Numerous  references  to  the  relationship  are  of  course  found ; 
cf.  Oliver  and  Aude,  Percevale  and  his  sister.  But  it  is  not  made  the 
basis  of  emotional  appeal  to  any  great  extent. 


Matter  of  England  Romances  43 

sider  them  separately,  summarizing,  for  the  most  part,  the 
conclusions  already  stated. 

King  Horn. — In  this  romance  the  characterization  seems  to 
harmonize  perfectly  with  the  rough,  uncouth  background  of  life 
and  nature.  Horn  is  a  fighter  first  and  a  lover  second.  Indeed, 
as  a  lover,  while  faithful,  he  is  not  ardent.  His  long  sojourn 
in  Ireland  does  not  seem  sufficiently  motivated  if  he  is  greatly 
in  love.  He  does  not  absolutely  refuse  the  Irish  princess.  He 
hesitates  to  accept  Eymenhild's  love  when  ojffered.  His  caution 
and  self-command  are  almost  too  great.  He  is  more  anxious  to 
receive  knighthood  and  to  become  a  warrior  than  to  be  the 
accepted  lover  of  the  ro3'al  princess.  Yet  he  is  a  simple,  manly, 
engaging  figure.  Eymenhild  is  equally  simple,  but  her  sim- 
plicity is  that  of  primitive  passion.  Passionate  love  and  pas- 
sionate anger  seem  to  bound  her  emotional  range.  The  minor 
characters  are  barely  sketched.  Perhaps  there  is  a  touch  of 
character  contrast  in  the  presentation  of  Fikenhild  and  A]?ulf, 
both  Horn^s  companions  and  subjects,  both  bound  to  him  by  ties 
of  friendship,  both  receiving  knighthood  at  his  hands,  but  Fiken- 
hild is  throughout  the  type  of  the  unfaithful  as  A]7ulf  is  the 
type  of  the  faithful  vassal.  Other  characters  are  merely  con- 
ventional figures — the  porter,  the  palmer,  Arnoldin,  King  Modi. 

In  presenting  character,  emotion,  states  of  mind,  use  has 
been  made  of  dialogue  and  action.  A  little  is  said  of  personal 
appearance,  there  is  a  hint  here  and  there  as  to  the  feelings  of 
the  dramatis  personw,  but  these  are  comparatively  unimportant. 
The  dialogue  reveals  the  progress  of  the  love  affair.  The  abun- 
dant action,  of  course,  often  reveals  mood  and  attitude.  Else- 
where all  is  left  to  the  imagination  of  reader  or  hearer — the 
intention,  the  state  of  mind,  even  the  character.  The  sim- 
plicity of  character  and  emotion  is  emphasized  by  the  sketchy 
presentation. 

Of  the  human  relations  involved,  only  one  is  treated  elabo- 
rately— namely,  love.  This  is  a  human,  popular,  primitive  pas- 
sion, careless  of  fashion,  free  from  coquetry,  faithful,  but  with- 
out adoration.    The  woman  woos,  the  man  somewhat  passively 


44  Creeh 

accepts  the  offered  love.  The  love  of  comrades,  manifested  in 
Horn  and  A]7ulf,  while  not  developed,  furnishes  an  additional 
interest,  opposing  the  "envy"  of  Fikenhild,  that  scarcely  under- 
stood hatred  of  the  hero  which  apparently  arouses  very  little 
resentment  on  the  part  of  the  one  who  suffers  from  it.  The 
Saracens,  however,  arouse  fiercer  passions,  although  these  are 
barely   suggested.     The   darker  passions   remain    iinelaborated. 

Havelolc. — In  HaveloJc  the  atmosphere  has  changed.  Not 
knights,  but  the  folk  fill  the  stage.  Havelok  is  a  good  servant, 
can  put  the  stone  beyond  the  farthest,  and  can  break  heads  with 
a  door-tree.  He  is  good-natured,  cautious,  simple.  There  is  no 
hint  of  passionate  love  or  keen  thirst  for  glory.  Grim  is  a 
sturdy,  loyal  fisherman.  The  more  vivid  minor  characters  are 
fishermen  (Grim's  children),  a  cook,  an  innkeeper.  Gold- 
borough  is  scarcely  the  sketch  of  a  queenly  figure.  Aj^elwold,  a 
character  of  some  importance,  is  an  ideal  king  from  the  point  of 
view  of  the  peaceful,  law-abiding  middle  class.  Godrich  and 
Godard,  almost  indistinguishable,  are  typical  traitors.  There 
is  greater  interest  in  states  of  mind  than  in  Horn.  There  is 
greater  individuality  of  character.  This  seems  to  be  due  to  a 
changed  point  of  view,  as  if  the  writer  were  not  a  minstrel  seeing 
life  through  the  spectacles  of  a  courtly  nobility,  or  even  a  crude, 
rough  nobility,  but  some  one — a  priest,  perhaps — who  sees  life 
with  the  eyes  of  the  laborers  or  tradespeople  of  provincial 
England. 

Here  the  author  has  more  to  say  about  his  characters — A]?el- 
wold,  Havelok,  Godard,  and  others.  The  soliloquies  reveal  both 
character  and  intention.  With  less  dramatic  situation,  the  dia- 
logue is  comparatively  unimportant.  Action,  of  course,  is  im- 
portant for  revealing  character,  especially  as  purpose  and  mood, 
out  of  which  action  arises,  are  made  clear.  On  the  other  hand, 
there  is  far  less  passion  than  in  Horn,  since  the  situations  are  so 
much  less  vivid  and  emotionally  significant.  Character  appar- 
ently is  more  consciously  in  the  mind  of  the  author,  and  is 
emphasized  by  the  more  obvious  means — soliloquy,  general  nar- 
rative, and  direct  statement — ^but  the  emotions  springing  from, 
dramatic  situation  are  neglected. 


Matter  of  England  Romances  45 

The  field  of  human  relations  is  again  comparatively  narrow. 
Love  is  almost  absent.  The  relation  of  subject  and  king  is  per- 
haps most  important,  exemplified  by  Grim,  Ubbe,  and  Grim's 
children,  and,  negativeh',  by  Godard  and  Godrich.  There  is  a 
national  outlook  absent  from  Horn,  not  present  to  an  equal 
degree  in  Bevis  and  Gui/.  The  relation  of  parent  and  child  is 
intimately  connected  with  the  deaths  of  A]?elwold  and  Birkabein. 
There  is  a  glimpse,  too,  of  the  relation  of  servant  and  master. 
However,  there  is  not  the  dramatic  tension  of  strong  passions 
which  makes  human  relations  of  great  significance  for  the  story. 
The  interest  centers  largely  in  the  interaction  of  the  hero  and 
his  environment — his  conduct  when  famine  reduces  Grim  to 
poverty,  his  conduct  as  the  cook's  servant,  his  success  in  the 
game  of  putting  the  stone,  or  of  breaking  heads.  The  chief 
emotion  of  the  poem  is  the  sense  of  triumph  felt  by  the  audience 
as  it  sympathetically  followed  the  progress  of  the  hero. 

Bevis. — In  Bevis,  as  in  Horn,  character  has  little  interest  for 
the  author.  He  does  not  stop  to  describe  character,  and  seldom 
to  indicate  mental  states.  Yet  the  main  dramatis  personce  are 
not  unimpressive.  We  seem  somehow  to  be  again  in  the  presence 
of  fierce,  primitive  people  and  emotions.  Bevis  is  a  fighter, 
who  joys  in  battle  more  than  in  love.  He  is  fierce  and  even  cruel 
— a  stern,  irresistible,  brutal  warrior,  whose  claim  to  admiration 
is  unmeasured  valor.  Josian  loves  as  Eymenhild  loved — vio- 
lently. She  does  not  shrink  from  inflicting  death  on  a  perse- 
cutor. Other  characters  have  an  equal  fierceness,  without  the 
redeeming  faithfulness.  Bevis's  mother,  the  Emperor  of  Al- 
maine,  Ascopard,  and  most  of  the  Saracens  are  people  to  inspire 
terror.  There  is  not  much  said  of  states  of  mind,  but  so  far  as 
they  are  not  purely  conventional  romantic  material,  due  to  the 
translator,  they  have  the  same  fierceness  and  primitive  quality 
that  mark  the  entire  romance. 

Character  is  presented  by  means  of  situation  and  dialogue. 
N"ot  much  is  made  of  soliloquy.  Scarcely  anything  is  said  in  the 
way  of  direct  characterization,  and  not  much  in  regard  to  emo- 
tions.    However,  the  dialogue  is  sharp  and  characteristic,  and 


46  CreeTe 

the  situations  swiftly  succeeding  one  another  have  a  cumulative 
effect,  especially  in  connection  with  the  impression  made  by  the 
hero.  It  may  be  noted  that  there  is  a  slightly  humorous  char- 
acter in  Ascopard. 

What  was  said  about  human  relations  in  Horn  may  almost 
be  repeated  here.  There  is  the  unrestrained  love  of  the  heroine, 
faithful  and  heroic;  and  there  is,  too,  the  lukewarmness  of  the 
hero.  There  is  the  development  of  the  friendship  of  fellows-in- 
arms. There  is  the  same  background  of  Saracens  versus  Chris- 
tians, as  a  basis  for  hatred  and  war.  There  is,  however,  greater 
fierceness  and  cruelty  than  in  Horn.  We  are  moving  in  the 
atmosphere  of  unrefined  knighthood,  of  untempered  fanaticism, 
and  unbridled  brutality,  relieved  somewhat  by  faithful  love  in 
wife  and  comrade. 

Guy  of  Warwick. — Guy  is  a  long  step  from  Bevis.  Here 
chivalry  has  softened  warrior  and  war.  Guy  is  an  irresistible 
warrior  like  Bevis,  but  he  is  an  adoring  lover,  and  becomes  a 
devoted  palmer,  doing  penance  for  his  sins.  His  character  is 
less  simple;  he  feels  the  conflict  of  love  and  religion;  he  suffers 
as  well  as  triumphs.  Felice  is  no  Kymenhild,  who  invites  her 
favorite  to  her  bower  that  she  may  throw  herself  into  his  arms ; 
she  is  to  be  won  only  after  years  of  ardent  seeking  and  repeated 
rebuffs.  The  stage  is  full  of  dramatis  personce.  There  is  the 
maiden  who  plays  the  foil  to  Felice.  Father  and  mother  of  Guy 
appear,  playing  natural,  human  parts.  In  addition,  there  is 
almost  a  host  of  dramatis  personce  who  are  the  conventional 
knights  and  kings  and  giants  of  romance.  A  greater  elaboration 
distinguishes  the  character-material  of  Guy  from  that  of  Bevis, 
Horn,  and  HaveloJc. 

Likewise  more  care  and  more  time  are  devoted  to  the  expo- 
sition of  character  and  mental  states.  There  are  long  soliloquies. 
Dialogue  is  sustained.  There  are  definite  statements  from  the 
author  in  regard  to  states  of  mind.  At  least  one  character — the 
maiden  of  Felice — is  introduced  to  make  feeling  and  attitude 
vivid  by  contrast.  The  action  is  very  often  significant  of  char- 
acter. In  the  attention  to  character  this  romance  is  allied  to 
HaveloJc. 


Matter  of  England  Romances  47 

But  Guy  differs  very  wMely  from  Havelok  in  the  field  of 
human  life  from  which  character  and  emotion  spring.  Love  is 
again  of  great  interest — the  love  of  knight  for  lady — an  adoring, 
chivalrous  love.  This  love  conflicts  with  the  relation  of  man  and 
the  church,  or  of  man  and  God,  and  succumhs  to  the  exalted 
desire  for  penitential  sacrifice.  Thus  there  is  an  elevation  above 
the  normal  emotions  of  Horn,  Bevis  and  Haveloh.  There  is  here, 
again,  the  same  or  greater  emphasis  on  love  of  comrades.  There 
is  a  new  touch  of  filial  affection.  There  is  a  current  of  patriotism 
found  in  Havelok,  but  not  in  Horn  and  Bevis.  Thus  there  is 
in  Guy  a  broadening  and  heightening  of  character  and  feeling. 

What  remains  to  be  said  is  merely  this.  In  these  four 
romances  there  are  striking  differences  and  striking  resemblances 
in  the  treatment  of  character  and  emotion.  The  differences  seem 
to  indicate  great  variation  of  type.  Horn  is  the  representative 
of  an  undeveloped,  unsophisticated,  warlike  society,  and  might 
well  be  at  base  a  metrical  version  of  a  popular  tale  which  had 
absorbed  romantic  motives.  Havelok  is  written  for  and  about 
provincial,  lowly  or  middle  class  Englishmen.  Bevis  is  essen- 
tially a  chanson  de  geste.  Guy  is  a  chanson  de  geste  made  over 
into  a  romance  of  chivalry.  Yet  in  the  very  structure  of  three 
of  these  metrical  stories  is  the  exile-and-return  motive,  with  the 
dramatis  personoe  which  it  implies.  Corresponding^  dramatis 
personam  appear  in  Guy,  but  belong  less  closely  to  the  main 
structure  of  the  romance.  Nevertheless,  this  resemblance  of  the 
four  romances  in  respect  to  dramatis  personw  and  the  structure 
which  they  imply  should  not  be  made  too  much  of  in  searching 
for  the  conditions  from  which  the  tales  originally  sprang.  If 
they  once  were  very  similar,  they  became  dissimilar.  At  least 
Bevis  and  Guy  were  worked  over  if  not  created  by  Frenchmen 
and  developed  into  metrical  tales  of  widely  different  type.  But 
in  the  English  dress  in  which  we  are  examining  them  there  is 
no  evidence  that  the  English  redactors  felt  very  keenly  the  dis- 
tinction of  types.  Stock  romantic  material  is  found  throughout, 
especially  in  Horn,  in  Bevis,  and  in  Guy.  There  are  the  same 
stock  dramatis  personoe;  there  are  the  same  stereot3rped  ways  of 


48  Greek 

expressing  emotion;  there  are  the* same  stereotyped  phrases  in 
the  mouths  of  dramatis  personce,  and  in  the  mouths  of  the 
authors  talking  about  the  dramatis  personam.  At  least  the  stereo- 
typed phrases  are  in  a  large  measure  the  property  of  Englisli 
romance,  and  the  freedom  with  which  they  are  employed  every- 
where seems  to  indicate  that  they  were  regarded  as  appropriate 
for  any  kind  of  story,  that  there  was  no  distinction  made  between 
romantic  and  epic  tale.  What  in  France  was  intended  for 
diverse  audiences  came  in  England  into  the  hands  of  one  set 
of  minstrels  reciting  to  one  popular  and  undiscriminating 
audience,  which  welcomed  a  hodge-podge  of  narrative  material 
that  must  have  been  very  foreign  to  their  natural  interests.  I 
must  modify  this  statement  by  saying  that  in  Haveloh  we  seem 
to  have  a  truly  popular  hero,  not  entirely  created  in  the  image  of 
crude  or  chivalrous  knighthood.  But  he  is  the  exception  that 
proves  the  rule.  It  is  certainly  not  in  the  dramatis  persona:  of 
English  metrical  romances  that  we  are  to  look  for  a  clear  image 
of  medieval  English  life. 

Herbert  L.  Creek. 
University  of  Illinois. 


The  writer  of  this  thesis  was  born  at  Yeoman,  Indiana, 
January  21,  1879.  ^^  attended  the  public  schools  of  Car- 
roll county,  Indiana,  graduating  from  the  Delphi  High 
School  in  1894.  His  college  work  was  done  in  DePauw 
University  and  Butler  College.  From  the  latter  insti- 
tution he  was  graduated  in  1905,  and  he  received  the  de- 
gree of  Master  of  Arts  in  the  same  year.  During  the 
years  1907- 1908  he  attended  the  University  of  Chicago; 
and  during  the  years  1908- 19 10  he  was  a  student  at  the 
University  of  Illinois.  During  the  two  years  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Illinois  he  held  a  fellowship  in  English.  His 
work  in  English  at  Butler  College  was  taken  under  Pro- 
fessor W.  D.  How^e.  At  Chicago,  he  took  courses  with 
Professors  Manly,  Blackburn,  Carpenter,  and  Wood;  at 
Illinois,  with  Professors  Greenough  and  Oliver,  and  Dr. 
H.  S.  V.  Jones.  This  thesis  was  prepared  under  the  direc- 
tion of  Dr.  Jones.