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FOUNDER AND PRINCIPAL OF THE LIVERPOOL COI HEMISTRY.
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George F. Mutvany: RILA.
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PRESIDENT OF THE QUEEN'S COLLEGE, Ci
LATE PROFESSOR Of CHEMISTRY IN THE UNIVERSITY OF STOCKHOLM,
LIAM MACKENZIE, GLASGOW. EDINBURGH. LONDON* NEW-YORK
OU^ ffi) A (LIT (0) NU-JMBnio
LATF PRESIDENT OF THE LITERARY AND PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF MANCHESTER
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PI-' HER 'MAJESTY'S MINT.
WILLIAM MACKENZIE. GLASGOW. EDINBURGH. LONDON * NEYI-YOR
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AUTHOR OF DICTIONARY OF ARTS. MANUFACTURES & MINES. Xc.ic
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MASTER OF HER MAJESTY'S M INT.
MEMBRE DE L' INSTITUT. PROFESSOR AT THE UNIVERSITY OF PARIS &c.
re re
if ic,
UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE. UNITED STATES.
CHEMISTRY,
THEOBETICAL, PKACTICAL, AND ANALYTICAL,
AS APPLIED AND RELATING TO TUB
AETS AND MANUFACTURES.
BY
DR. SHERIDAN MUSPEATT, F.R.S.E., M.K.I.A.,
Founder and Principal of the College of Chemistry, Liverpool;
Honorary Fellow of the New York College of Pharmacy : Fellow of the Koyal Agricultural Society of England i
Membre de la Society D'Encouragement ; Membre de 1'Acadeinie Nationale do France :
Author of Outlines of Analysis j Chemistry of Vegetation ; Influence of Chemistry i and Editor of Muspratt's Planner on the Blowpipe ;
ie. &c. &c.
VOL. I.
ACE
ETH
WILLIAM MACKENZIE:
LONDON,
I'ATEKNOSTER KOW.
GLASGOW,
45 & 47 HOWAED STREET.
EDINBURGH
39 SOUTH BKIDOK.
LIVERPOOL, 64 8EKL STREET.
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BRISTOL, 18 PRITCHARD STREET.
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HEW YORK, 280 BROADWAY.
GLASGOW:
PRINTED BY WILLIAM MACKENZIE, 45 & 47 HOWARD BTBKET.
PBEFACE.
THE Editor, in congratulating himself and his readers that his arduous but not
unpleasant labors are at length brought to a close, begs to acknowledge most
gratefully the cordial support which he has received from the conductors of the
periodical press, and the numerous favorable testimonies, not only from the most
eminent scientific men and manufacturing chemists, but also from non-professional
readers and subscribers generally, by which he has been sustained and encouraged.
It is only those who have been actually engaged in a work of this kind, that are
able to conceive the vast amount of labor which it involves, and the difficulty of
realizing in detail the ideal standard which an author usually proposes to himself
in commencing such an undertaking ; especially one that has to extend over a
period of several years.
With reference to the present Work, the Editor is well aware that it labors
under many imperfections, but he is conscious also that he has spared no pains to
render it as extensively useful as possible ; and he thinks he may say with entire
confidence and without presumption, that in no other work hitherto published
will be found so complete an exposition of the state of the chemical manufactures,
with the latest and most improved processes. He regrets exceedingly that in
aiming to embrace the whole of these, so far as they appeared to him of any
practical value, and in wishing to avail himself of the numerous details, articles,
et cetera, so kindly furnished to him by his valuable and talented assistant, Mr.
MURPHY, Mr. GEORGE BLAIR of Glasgow, and other scientific friends, and in
many instances by gentlemen immediately engaged in or connected with the
different manufactures, he has found it necessary to extend the Work somewhat
beyond the limits originally assigned. It may even appear to the general reader
that in some cases he has described particular processes with too much murate-
ness ; but those who are really desirous of useful practical information on any of
the subjects discussed, will find in this very minuteness of detail the most valu-
able feature of the Work. Many of the articles might have been considerably
extended, but few of them, if any, could have been much abridged, without
omitting facts the importance of which the reader will be best able to appreciate
when he consults the book for his practical guidance.
SHEKIDAN MUSPBATT, M.D., &c.,
THE HOLLIES, PROFESSOR OF CHEMISTRY.
West Derby, near Liverpool, 1860.
DEDICATED TO
BARON J. B. DUMAS, M.D., F.R.S.,
MEMBRE DE L'!NSTITUTE; MEMBER OF THE IMPERIAL SENATE;
PROFESSEtIR A LA FACULTK DK MEDICINE ET A L'ECOLE CfiNTRALE DBS ARTS ET MANUFACTURES;
&C. &C. &C.
AND
SIR ROBERT KANE, M.D., F.R.S., M.R.I.A.,
PRESIDENT OF THE QUEEN'S COLLEGE, CORK; DIRECTOR OF THE MUSEUM OF IRISH INDUSTRY;
&c. &c. &c.
To whom could I with greater propriety inscribe this Work than to my distin-
guished friends and colleagues ; both of whom have contributed the most valuable
assistance to the Arts and Manufactures of their respective countries, as well as
to the world in general.
Baron DUMAS' Traite* de Chimie Applique" e aux Arts, and Sir ROBERT KANE'S
Industrial Resources of Ireland, are treatises which, in their completeness as
volumes of reference, are unquestionably mines whence much has already been
extracted, and through which great advances must still be made in Technology.
These works, per se, entitle their authors to the most prominent rank.
For repeated acts of disinterested kindness and attention, I shall ever hold
myself their debtor ; and I rejoice in availing myself of the first opportunity which
enables me to record the grateful and sincere acknowledgment.
ROYAL COLLEGE OF CHEMISTRY,
LIVERPOOL.
SHERIDAN MUSPRATT.
INDEX TO AETICLES,
ACETIC ACID 1-48.
acetate of alumina, 36.
a ammonia, 38.
i copper, 38.
iron, 41-43.
lead, 43-45.
/ lime, 28, 45, 46.
a manganese, 46.
>/ oxide of ethyle, 41.
a protoxide of tin, 4?.
a zinc, 48.
acetic ether, 41.
acetone, 32.
acetous fermentation, 4-3.
acid, aldehydic, 14.
it lam pic, 14.
n pyroligneous, 16-25.
adulterations, 33-35.
aldehyde, 4, 14.
alkalimeter, 32.
alumina, sesquiacetate of, 36-33.
ammonia, acetate of, 38.
applications of, 35, 36.
aromatic vinegar, 31, 32.
AZULAY and SOLOMONS' patent carboniz-
ing process, by steam, 24.
beer vinegar, 16.
beet-root vinegar, 15, 16.
bibasic acetate of copper, 39-41.
BRANDE'S method of testing vinegar, 32.
brandy vinegar, acetic acid from, 31.
carbonizer, M. SCHWARTZ'S, 18.
carbonizing furnace, REICHENBACH'S, 19.
n process by steam, 24.
copper, acetate of, 38-41.
dyewoods, wood-vinegar from, 23.
ether, acetic, 41.
ethyle, acetate of the oxide of, 41.
excise duty on vinegar, 32.
fermentation, acetous, 4-6.
a saccharine, 9.
fielding, 11.
formation and properties of, 2.
fruit vinegar, 16.
HALLIDAY'S patent process for manufac-
turing pyroligneous acid, 23.
HAM'S patent vinegar process, 15.
iron, acetates of, 41-43.
lead, brown acetate of, 43.
u white acetate of, 44.
lime, acetate of, 28, 45, 46.
liquor ammonice acetatis, 38.
malt vinegar, 8-12.
manganese, acetate of, 46.
Mindererus, spirit of, 38.
mordant, red liquor, 37.
mother of vinegar, 5.
MULDER'S account of Mycoderma aceti, 7.
naphtha, wood, 25-27.
NEALE and DUYCK'S process for manu-
facturing vinegarfrom beet-root, 15, 16.
PAUR'S process, 24, 25.
production of, from alcohol, 3, 4.
pure acetic acid from brandy vinegar, 31.
pyroligneous acid or wood-vinegar, 16-25.
H u purification of, 27-31.
pyroxilic spirit, or wood-naphtha, 25-27.
a > purification of, 26.
quick vinegar process, 12-15.
RANDALL'S account of the wood vinegar
manufacture, 24.
red liquor, 37.
REICHENBACH'S carbonizing furnace, 19.
saccharine fermentation, 9.
safety-tube, WELTER'S, 31.
salt of Saturn, 43.
saw-dust, wood-vinegar from, 23.
SCHWARTZ'S carbonizer, 18.
sea-weed, a source of vinegar, 16.
sesquiacetate of alumina, 36-38.
soda, acetate of, 28, 47, 48.
SOLOMONS and AZULAY'S patent carbon-
izing process, by steam, 24.
ACETIC ACID, continued.
spirit of Mindererus, 38.
u pyroxilic, 25-27.
statistics of the vinegar manufacture, 36.
steam, patent carbonizing process, 24.
sugar, vinegar from, 12.
of lead, 43-45.
testing vinegar, methods of, 32, 33.
tin, acetate of the protoxide of, 48.
uses and applications, 36.
verdigris, 39-41.
vessels in which vinegar should be
kept, 36.
vinegar, aromatic, 31, 32.
" from beer, 16.
" from beet-root, 15, 16.
concentration of, 35.
ii duty on, 32.
fruit, 16.
" malt, 8-12.
K manufacture of, 6, 7.
a sea- weed, 16.
" manufacture, statistics of, 36.
testing, methods of, 32, 33.
vessels for keeping, 33.
wood, 16-25.
" mother of, 5.
a uses of, 35.
u warehouse, 12.
VOLCKEL'S process for preparing pure
acetic acid from brandy vinegar, 31.
WELTER'S safety-tube, 31.
wood, composition of, 17, 18.
n distillation of, 17.
a naphtha, 25-27.
u products of, by distillation, 22.
a vinegar, or pyrolig. acid, 16-25.
n n HALLIDAY'S process, 23.
n it purification of, 27-31,
zinc, acetate of, 48.
ALCOHOL 48-149.
absolute, specific gravity of, 52.
action on acids, 55.
H with metallic salts, 55.
ADAM'S still, 78, 79.
adulterations, 145, 146.
alcoholometer, FIELD'S, 136, 137.
alcoholometry, 117-145.
H FOWNES' tables, 139.
GAY-LUSSAC'S, 123-1
u LOWITZ'S- table, 131.
u SILBERMANN'S dilatome-
ter, 140-142.
H table of comparison, 131.
a TRALLES' tables, 118-122.
URE'S table, 135.
ALEGRE'S still, 89-92.
almond cake, 102.
amyle, 49.
analysis of, 54.
angelica root, 102.
aqua vitse, 57.
arrack, 106, 114, 115.
attenuation of worts, f 5, 66.
beer from potatoes, 113.
BERARD'S still, 82.
boiling points of, by URB, 136.
brandy, 103-106.
n artificial formation of, 105.
" cherry, 106.
n flavor, receipt for, 106.
i from marcs, 104.
-/ raspberry, 105.
a in Switzerland, 103.
British spirit, 98.
bubs, 66.
Bushmills distilleries, 94.
calamus root, 102.
Canada, distillery in, 97, 98.
carbonic acid, in fermentation, 65.
cardamom, 102.
carrot spirit, 115, 116.
ALCOHOL, continued.
cassia, 103.
ceryle, 49.
charcoal, a deodorizer of spirits. C9.
cherry brandy, 106.
" tincture, 106.
chloroform, 55.
a quality of, injured by high
duty on alcohol, 66.
Cingalese still, 115.
cognac, 104.
coolers, 64.
cooling the wort, 63, 64.
concentration of, 50-62.
coriander, 103.
definition of, general, 50.
dehydration of, 50-52.
DEROSNE'S still, 82-84.
diastase, 62, 70, 71.
DICAS' hydrometer, 142.
dilatometer, SILBEKMANN'B, 140-142.
distillation, 71-94.
a acceleration of, 74.
" fuel consumed, 78.
a general description of, 72.
i illicit, MOHEWOOD'S account
of, 95-97.
" improvements in, checked
by excise system, 73.
principle of, 71.
distilleries, Bushmills, 94.
n excise rules, 58, 72, 73.
size of, 78.
distillery in Canada, 97, 98.
w in London, general description
of, 57.
distilling and brewing, points of differ-
ence, 59.
DORN'S still, 87.
DUBRUNFAUT'S improvement in rum dis-
tillation, 112.
dunder, 107.
duty on, evils of, 55, 56.
elastic force of alcohol vapor, 54.
enanthic ether in brandy, 105.
ethyle, 49.
excise laws, 63.
/ n alteration of, 74.
u u supervision of distilleries, 58.
expansion of, by heat, 54.
faints, 72.
fermentation, 64-71.
u cause of, 69.
-/ precautions necessary, 66.
./ principles of, 66, 67.
a spontaneous, 70.
H time and temperature, 65.
FIELD'S alcoholometer, by URE, 136, 137.
/ tables adapted to, 138.
foreshot, 99.
FOWNES' alcoholometric table, 139.
freezing point of, 52, 53.
gases absorbed by, 54.
GAY-LUSSAC'S tables, 123-131.
./ table for procuring a weaker
alcohol of a certain strength
from a stronger, 143, 144.
u Do., abridged, 145.
Geneva spirit, 100-102.
GILL'S platinum wire lamp, 55.
gin, 101, 102.
a British, 101.
gin, cordial, 101.
n substances used in preparing, 102-3.
grain, raw and malted, 58.
grains of paradise, 102.
grinding, 59, 60.
grist, proportions of, in mashing, 60, 61.
HASSAL'S observations on the yeast
plant, 68.
history of alcoholic liquors, 56, 57.
hollands, or geneva, 100, 102.
hydrometer, UICAS', 142.
INDEX TO ARTICLES.
ALCOHOL, continued.
hydrometer, SYKES', 132-134.
Indian stills, 114, 115.
iodoform, 55.
Ireland, revenue police of, 97.
iuniper berries, 103.
lamp, 55.
LAUGIER'S rum still, 110, 111.
lemon peel, 103.
liquorice, 103.
low wines, or singlings, 72, 99.
LSwiTz' alcoholometric table, 131.
madder spirit, 116.
malt, proportion used, 63.
mash tun, CO.
mashing, 60-C3.
methyle, 49.
milk spirit, 116.
MILLER'S still, 92, 94.
.molasses, 106.
" fermentation of, 110.
MOREWOOD'S account of illicit diftilla-
tion, 95, 97.
a account of the distillation
of rum, 107.
must, 66.
mycoderma cerevisics, GS.
nectar, 57.
orange peel, 103.
orris root, 103.
PEREIRA'S observationson yeast plant, 68.
PERRIEH'S still, 75.
piment, 67.
PISTORIUS' still, 87-89.
platinum wire lamp, 55.
POISONNIER'S modification of common
still, 78.
potato beer, 113.
ii spirit, 112, 113.
potteen distillery, account of, 94, 95.
properties of, 52-55.
characteristic, 49.
propyle, 49.
prune tincture, 106.
raspberry brandy, 105.
tincture, 106. ,
rectification of spirit, 98-103.
RICHTER'S scale, 131.
rum, 106-112.
n distillation of, in France, 109.
i' distillery, profits of, 109.
stills, 107-108, 111.
rye, used instead of malt, 63.
saccharometer, 137.
SHARPE'S still safe, 86.
SlLBERMANJj'S dilatonirtcT, 140-142.
singlings, or low wines, 72, 99.
smuggled whisky, 62, 63.
smuggling, anecdotes of, 96, 97.
soap in distillation, 72.
SOEMMERING'S method of concentrating
alcohol, 50.
SOLIMANI'S still, 80-82.
solvent properties of, 55.
sorbus aucuparia, spirit from, 117.
specific gravity of absolute alcohol, 52, 53.
spirits, British, 98.
from carrots, 115, 116.
" geneva, 100-102.
a from Jerusalem artichoke, 114.
from madder, 116.
from milk, 116.
n new source of, 117.
from potatoes, 112, 113.
from potato-apples, 113.
n proof, 142.
a rectification of, 98-103.
n from rice, 114.
yield of, from malt, 72.
n of wine, 50.
spiritous liquors, adulterations, 145, 146.
a a identity of, 99.
starch, conversion of into sugar, 62.
transformation into dextrin, 71.
statistics of the spirit trade, 146-149.
still, ADAM'S, 78, 79.
a ALEORB'S 89-92.
n BERARD'S, 82.
i Canadian, 97, 98.
n Cingalese, 115.
a COFFEY'S, 75-77.
" common, 73.
a n improvement of, 74.
n DEROSNE'S, 82-84.
> DORN'S, 87.
n Indian, 114, 115.
n MILLER'S, 92-94.
n PERRIER'S adaptation of, 75.
-/ PISTORIUS', 87-89.
u POISONNIER'S, 78.
> rum, LAUGHER'S, 110, 111.
ALCOHOL, continued.
still, Scotch, 72, 74,75.
SOLIMANI'S, 80-82.
ST. MARC'S, 85, 86.
safe, SHARPE'S, 86.
sugar, products of, by fermentation, 67.
SYKES' hydrometer, 132-134.
TRALLES alcoholometric tables. 118-122.
TURPIN'S observations on the yeast
plant, 67, 68.
URE'S alcoholometric table, 135.
u improvement of FIELD'S alcoholo-
meter, 136, 137.
u table of boiling points, 136.
usquebaugh, 57.
vapour of alcohol, its elastic force, 54.
wash, specific gravity of. 62.
water, affinity of alcohol for, 53.
West Indies, rum stills used in, 107, 108.
whisky, 56, 57.
n excise laws, 63.
old mode of levying duty, 74.
a potteen, 94, 95.
a smuggled, 62, 63.
in Unit. States and Canada, 97.
wine alcohol, 49.
H spirit of, 50.
wood-spirit in alcohol, 146.
worts, 61.
a specific gravity of, after attenua-
tion, 65.
n strength, regulated by excise, 62.
t temperature of, in fermentation, 65.
WOULFE'S apparatus, 73.
yeast, artificial production of, 69, 70.
n composition of, 69.
n its mode of action, 67.
u plant, stages of growth, and mi-
croscopic appearance, 67-69.
i proportion used, 64.
AITTM 149-176.
alumina, 176.
alum-rock, 154.
aluuite, 154.
ammonia alum, 153, 175.
boiling the lie, 162.
CASTBO (John Di), 149, 152.
CHAPTAL and ALDAN'S process for pre-
paring alum from clay, 169, 170.
Civita Vecchia alum works, 152.
commercial sulphate of alumina, 175.
composition of different alums, 150, 173.
crystallization of, 167.
cubic and octahedral, 173, 174.
evaporating basins, 162-164.
feather-alum, 157.
felspar, alum from, 170, 171.
from aluminous rocks, 169.
from clay, 169, 170.
hair-salt, 157.
history of, 149-152.
Hurlet and Campsie alum works, 163-
166.
impurities in, 173.
isomorphism, 150.
liquors, 161.
lixiviation of the ores, 159-161.
as manure, 176
manufacture of, 153-169.
natural alums, 150, 151.
neutral, 175.
old method of making, 153,
ores, lixiviation of, 159-161.
potassa alum, 153.
powder, preparation of, 164.
precipitation of, 164, 165.
produce of, 172.
production of, from the ore, 155.
n from clay, 169, 170.
a from alum stone, 154, 155.
from felspar, 170, 171.
properties of, 153, 173.
Prussian blue, 175.
RICHARDSON'S patent process, 172.
roch alum, 149.
roching, 167, 168.
Roman, 155.
Scotch alum works, 158.
shales, 155-157.
slate, 152.
" ustulation of, 153, 159.
SPENCE'S calcining process, 159.
TURNER'S process for preparing alum
from felspar, 170, 171.
uses and applications, 176.
ustulation of alum-slate, 158, 159.
wavelite, 176.
Whitby alum works, 158.
WIESMANN'S commercial alum, 175.
WILSON'S patent process, 172.
AMMONIA 1 77-200.
amidogen, 183.
ammonium, 182.
a chloride of, 183-192.
from bituminous schist, 180.
from bones, 184-188.
SREWER'S process for purifying sal-am-
moniac, 193.
carbonate, 195-197.
chloride of ammonium, 183-192.
constitution of, 182, 183.
CRANE and JULIEN'S method of prepar-
ing carbonate of ammonia, 190.
CKOLL'S patent process for the prepara-
tion of ammoniacal salts, 193.
D ALTON'S table of the strength of liquid
ammonia, 181.
DAVY'S do., 181.
estimation of, 197-200.
furnace for distilling bones, 181, 185.
gaseous, 177, 178.
from guano, 180.
hartshorn, spirit of, 178.
HOMPESCH'S patent for preparing ammo-
nia from bituminous schist, 180.
impurities in, 182.
KURTZ, CROPPER, & Co.'s sal-ammoniac
manufactory, 188-192.
liquid, 178-183.
a how prepared in laboratory, 178.
n manufacture of, 179, 180.
u LAMING' s process, 181.
ii NEWTON'S process, 180, 181.
in nature, 177.
sal-ammoniac, 183-192.
its preparation in Egypt,
184.
from bones, 184-188.
" crystallization of, 190.
v its preparation from gas-
liquor, 188-192.
purification of, 193.
n its sublimation, 191, 192.
salts, nmmoniacal, CROLL'S patent pro-
cess for preparing, 193.
i a LAMINO'S patent, 194, 195.
n a SPENCE'S patent, 194.
" n from guano, 194.
" a from peat and urine, 194.
n u value of, 197.
sesquicarbonate of, 195-197.
sulphate of, 194, 195.
tables of strength of, from its specific
gravity, 181, 182.
WATSON'S patent process for procuring
ammoniacal liquorfrom gas-water, 180.
Airrraoirr 200-213.
its action with acids, 201, 202.
alcohol, 200.
applications of, 205.
assay of its ores, 212, 213.
Britannia-metal, 205.
bronzing salt, 209.
butter of antimony, 209.
compounds with negative elements, 205.
copper, antimonial, 201.
eliquation of the sulphide, 203-5.
estimation of, quantitative, 209-211.
flowers of, 208.
furnace for reducing the ores at one
operation, 202.
golden sulphide of, 207.
importation of, 213.
kermes mineral, 206, 207.
manufacture of, 202-205.
oxysulphide, 207, 208.
preparation in the laboratory, 201.
properties of, 201.
ROSE'S process for separating antimony
from tin, 211.
separation of, from arsenic, 212.
sources of, 201.
stereotype metal, 205.
sulphides, 205-208.
eliqnation of, 203-205.
a reduction of, 211, 212.
terchloride, 209.
teroxide, 208, 209.
type metal, 205.
uses of, 205.
ARSENIC 213-222.
arsenic acid, 218.
arsenious acid, 214-218.
u composition of, 214.
" manufacture of, 216-218.
" properties, 214, 215.
H tests, 215.
a uses, 218.
arsenites, 219.
INDEX TO ARTICLES.
ARSENIC, continued.
compounds, native, 213.
estimation of, quantitative, 220-222.
green, SCHEELE'S, 219.
if Schweinfurth, 220,
LEVOL'S method of estimating, in alloy
with copper and tin, 222.
manufacture of, 214.
MARSH'S apparatus, 215, 216.
UEE'S modification of, 216.
orplment, red, 218, 219.
poison tower, 217.
potassa, arsenite of, 219.
preparation in the laboratory, 213.
properties of, 214.
realgar, 218, 219.
ROSE'S process for separating antimony
from arsenic, 221, 222.
SCHEELE'S green, 219.
schliech or arsenical iron, 216.
Schweinfurth green, 220.
separation of from lead, tin, mercury,
et cetera, 221, 222.
BALSAMS-222-235.
Balm of Gilead, 224.
balsamic ethers, 234, 235.
benzoin, 225, 226.
n analyses of, 226.
n Bombay, 226.
n Siam, 225.
n Sumatra, 225, 226.
Canada, 223.
copaiba, 223, 224.
divisions of, French and German, 222.
dragon's-blood, 227.
ethers, balsamic, 234, 235.
gum Benjamin, or benzoin, 225, 226.
HERNANDEZ' account of Peru balsam,
228, 229.
liqnidambar, 227.
Mecca, or opobalsam, 224.
MONARDES' account of Peru balsam, 228.
Myrospennum of Sonsonate, 230, 231.
Myroxilon peruiferum, 229.
opobalsam, 224.
paracopaiba oil, 224.
Peru, 228-234.
properties of, 222.
statistics, 235.
storax, 226, 227.
styracon, 234.
Tolu, 227, 228.
BEER 236-284.
adulteration of, 281.
ales, pale, 277-279.
a Scotch, 279.
alum, used in fining beer, 277.
analysis of, 281-284.
analysis of the water used in Messrs.
TENNENT'S brewery, 278.
attemperator, 253-254, 274.
H Archimedean, 281.
barley, composition of, 242, 243.
a selection of, for brewing, 236.
BATE'S saccharometer, 257, 258.
Bavarian beers, 273.
boiling the worts, 260-269.
boiling-copper, 264.
brewer's grains, composition of, 241.
brewing, 247-277.
Burton ales, 277, 278.
a water, 244, 245.
CASARTELLI'S saccharometer, 2GO.
chemistry, importance of a knowledge
of, in brewing, 236.
cleanliness essential in a brewery, 251.
cleansing, 275-277.
cocculus Indicus, 281.
n test for its detection, 283.
coolers, 270.
cooling the worts, 269, 270.
COOK, BROTHERS' bitter ale, 278.
couch, malting, 237, 238.
CROCKFORD'S Archimedean attempera-
tor, 280, 281.
DRINO & PAGE'S saccharometer, 257,258.
fermentation, 271-275.
n Bavarian method, 273, 274.
n chemicalnatureof,273,274.
HARVIE'S apparatus, 274.
fermenting square, double, 274.
a n WALKER & SON'S, 274, 275.
fining liquor, 277.
flooring, 239.
gas-drying of malt, 240, 241.
grinding do. 247, 248.
hops, 245-247.
action of boiling on, 263.
analysis of, 215.
BEER, continued.
hops, bitter principle of, 246.
n NEWTON'S mode of preparing the
extract from, 263.
n oil of, 245, 246.
" proportion used for pale ales, 278.
if qualities of, 240, 247.
selection of, 217.
i statistics, 247.
n table showing the quantity of hops
per quarter of malt, 2S6-2C8.
u table showing the increase of hops
for every degree from 50 to 75
Fahr., 269.
hop-converter, TIZARD'S, 263.
hordein, 243.
humulin, 263, 264.
isinglass, its use in fining beer, 277.
kiln-drying of malt, 239, 240.
LKVESQUE'S table of time, temperature,
et cetera, in mashing, 254.
LONG'S saccharometer, 258.
lupulin, or bitter principle of hops, 246.
malt and malting, 236-242.
malt, exhaustion of, 249, 250.
i gas-drying, 240, 241.
malt-kiln, 240.
malt-mill, 248.
malting in Munich, 241.
malting apparatus, TIZABD'S, 241, 242.
malting-couch, 237, 238.
mash-tun, 252.
mashing, 248-257.
attemperator, 253, 254.
a difference between vinegar-
making, distilling, and
brewing, 250.
M general imperfection of the
methods followed, 250, 253.
u inexpediency of repeated
mashings, 256, 257.
K LEVESQUE'S table of time and
temperature, 254.
a principles of, 248-251.
n process of, 251, 252.
n setting the tap, 255.
n sparging, 257.
n temperature of, 254, 255.
a use of thermometer, 255, 256.
NEWTON'S method of preparing the ex-
tract from the hop, 263.
oil of hops, 245, 246.
pale ales, 277-279.
picric acid, 282.
porter, 279, 280.
refrigerators, 270, 271.
saccharometer, BATE'S, 257, 258.
H CASARTELLI'S 260.
H DRiNG&FAO!E's,257,25S.
n LONG'S, 258.
saccharometers, comparison of, 258.
saccharometrical tables, 258-260.
saccharometry, 257-260.
Scotch ales, 279.
sparging, 257.
spring beer, 236.
statistics, 284, 285.
steeping the grain, 237.
table showing the quantity of hops per
quarter of malt, 266-268.
table showing the increase of hops for
every degree from 50" to 75" Fahr., 2G9.
table of gravity of wort, 269.
TENNENT'S ale, 277, 278.
thermometer, use of in mashing, 255, 256
TIZARD'S hop-converter, 263.
TIZARD'S malting apparatus, 241, 242.
H mashing attemperator, 253, 254.
it saccharometrical table, 258, 260.
WAGNER on oil of hops, 245, 246.
WALKER & SON'S fermenting square, 274.
water for brewing, 244.
H expansion of, by heat, 259.
wort, boiling of, 260-269.
n cooling, 269, 270.
H qualities of, 256.
table of gravity of, 269.
n volume of, imbibed by hops, 269.
BENZOL 285-286
properties and preparation of, 285.
uses, 286.
B1SMTJTH 286-291.
analysis of its combinations, 290, 291.
basic nitrate, or pearl white, 289, 290.
eliquation of, 287, 288.
fusible metal, 288.
native combinations, 286.
nitrates, 289.
BISMUTH, continued.
oxides, 288, 289.
pearl white, or pearl powder, 2G9, 290.
rondelles, safety, 2s3.
ternitrate, 289.
BITUMEN 291-299.
of Abruzzi, 293.
of Cuba, 293.
from Dead Sea, 203T
applications of, 293-298.
artificial asphalt, 295, 296.
asphalt pavements, 294, 295.
asphaltene, 292.
asphalting, 296, 297.
in France, 297, 298.
Barbadoes tar, 298.
bechelbronn, 292.
composition of, 292.
deposits of, 291.
mastic, uses of, 296.
mineral fat, 292.
' tar, 298.
naphtha, 298.
oil, rock, 298.
pavements, asphalt, 294, 295.
petrolene, 292.
petroleum, 291-92, 298.
purification of, 291, 292.
rock oil, 298.
tar, Barbadoes, 298.
n lake of Trinidad, 293.
mineral, 298.
BLEACHING 299-327.
American process, 313.
antiquity of, and manner of bleaching
previous to use of chlorine, 299, 300.
BOUCHARD'S continuous system, 321.
BRIDSON'S washing machine, 308, 309.
bucking, 304-306.
bucking-kier, 305, 306.
calendering, 318.
china-grass, 322.
chloride of lime, 300.
chlorine, 299-301.
chlorine gas, bleaching with, 310.
CLATTSSEN'S bleaching process, 314.
H for bleaching linen, 320.
n flax-retting process, 319.
/ for silk, 326.
continuous process, 321.
cotton, 300.
n fibres, 302.
n goods, impurities in, 302, 303.
H pod and flower, 300.
dash-wheel, 304.
flax, fibres of, 302.
ii plant, 319.
a retting, 318, 319.
GRAHAM'S improved bucking-kier, 306.
GREAN'S bleaching process, 312, 313.
HIOGINS' do. do. 314.
hydro-extractor, centrifugal, 315.
immersion in the bleaching liquor, 311.
jute, bleaching of, 322.
LAWRIE'S improved bucking-kier, 305.
linen, 318-320.
liquor, 300.
madder work, bleaching for, 303.
machine for scouring woollen goods, 323.
mangling. 316.
METZ'S pressure apparatus, 306, 307.
MORE & SON'S water mangle, 316.
muslins, 314, 315.
paper,materialsformanufacture,326,327.
powder, 300, 301.
H action of, 309, 310.
u liquefaction of, 311.
pressing apparatus, MKTZ'S, 306, 307.
rags for paper, 327.
retting, flax, 318, 319.
second stage, 309.
silk, 325, 326.
souring, 309.
starching and drying, 317, 318.
straw, 326.
sulphuring silk goods, 325.
n woollen goods, 323-325
washing machines, 307-309.
water mangle, 316.
woollen goods, 322-325.
BLEACB3NG-POWDER 327-335.
calcium, oxychloride of, 328.
characteristics of, 332.
chloride of lime or bleaching powder,327.
chlorine, combination of, with hydrate o>
lime, 331.
n from common salt, 331, 332.
preparation of, 328.
INDEX TO ARTICLES.
J2LEACHING-POWDER, continued.
chlorine still, 330.
chlorometry, 333-335.
composition of, Editor's experiments to
elucidate, 327, 328.
DUNLOP'S method of liberating chlorine
from common salt, 331, 332.
FRESENIUS and WILL'S method of test-
ing manganese ore, 329.
lime, chloride of) 327.
n combination of, with chlorine, 331.
u preparation of, for bleaching-pow-
der, 328.
liquor, apparatus for making, at Mtil-
house, 332.
manganese, peroxide of, 329.
manufacture, 330-332.
oxychloride of calcium, 328.
preparation of the chlorine, 328.
n of the lime, 328.
WELTER'S test, 333.
BONE -335.
BONE-BLACK 333-342.
its absorption of lime, 338.
action on salts, 337.
animal charcoal, 335.
black, ivory, 339.
bones, calcination of, 338, 339.
charcoal, animal, 335
a its decolorizing power, 336.
decoloration of sirups, new agent for, 312.
ivory black, 339.
kilns for calcining bones, 338.
lime, absorbed by animal charcoal, 338.
as manure, 341, 342.
PARKER'S charcoal reburner, "40.
PONTIFEX and WOOD'S do., 340, 341.
preparation of, 338, 339.
properties, 335-337.
purification of, 341.
revivification of, 339-341.
n SCHATTEN'S process, 339.
n PARKER'S reburner, 840.
POXTIPEX & WOOD'S, 340.
HOMANET'S investigations on animal
black as a manure, 341, 342.
sirups, new decoloring agent for, 342.
substitutes for, 342.
BOBACIC ACID 342-346.
analysis of the crude acid, 848.
BOWRINQ on the Ingoons of Tuscany, 343.
composition of, 343.
evaporation, 345.
formation, theory of, 341.
manufacture of, in Tuscany, 343-346.
PAYER'S account of do., 343, 344.
preparation of, 842.
properties of, 342, 343.
statistics, 346.
test of, 343.
WITTSTEIN'S analysis, 346.
BORAX 346-353.
adulterations of, 351.
biborate of soda, 34S.
composition of, 346, 347.
estimation of, 350-352.
as a flux, 350.
granular, SAUTTER'S patent, 350.
manufacture of, KOEHNKE'S improved
method, 349.
native, 347.
octahedral, 349.
oxides, metallic, dissolved by, 350.
preparation of, 347, 348.
properties, 346, 347.
refining of, 348, 349.
ROSE on estimation of boracic acid, 351.
SAUTTER'S patent granular, 350.
soda, biborate of, 346.
statistics, 353.
tiucal, or native borax, 347.
BREAD 353-392.
adulteration of, 385-392.
agriculture, importance of, 358.
alum in, 387-389.
a tests of, 388, 389.
American flour, 366.
ammonia, sesquicarbonate of, 391.
analyses of grain, 354, 355.
apparatus, baking, 368, 369.
ash of Indian corn, 360.
n of oats, analyses, 359.
n of rice, 360.
/ of rye, 358.
n of wheat, 356.
u yielded by ground wheat, S54.
BREAD, continued.
assamar, 379.
assimilation in the body, 355, 356.
bakehouse, 374-376.
baking apparatus, 368, 3C9.
ii oven, 373, 374.
a powder, 330.
a process of, 369, 370.
barley, analysis of, 358.
n and oats, analyses of, 359.
b;inn, German, 370, 371.
bean flour in, 387.
biscuit-baking, 381-384.
./ fancy, 383.
n oven, SLATER'S, 382.
BOLAND'S method of testing flonr, 385.
carbonate of ammonia in, 379, 380.
u magnesia, 390.
n soda, 380.
CLAYTON'S kneading machine, 371.
cleaning and winnowing the grain, 361.
composition of fancy breads, 384.
copper, sulphate of, in bread, 390, 391.
corn, Indian, 359, 360.
crust, brown color of, 379.
DISDIER'S kneading machine, 373.
PI-MAS on bread adulterations, 391.
ergot of rye, 357.
fabrication of, 367.
fancy biscuit baking, 383.
n biscuits, composition of, 384.
fermentation, 367, 368.
flour, American, 366.
n BOLAND'S method of testing, 385.
ROBINE'S do. do. 386.
yield of, in bread, 377, 378.
flours, analyses of, 377.
food, its assimilation in the body, 355.
German barm, 370.
gluten, amount of, in wheat, 355.
n crude, 354.
a test of, in flour, 385, 386.
grain, composition of, 353, 354.
n cleaning and winnowing, 361.
i> mills, 3GO-365.
GRANT'S biscuit-baking apparatus, 381.
grinding, 362.
groats, 358.
gypsum in flour, 387.
hopper and bolter, 363.
UORSFORD'S table of quantity of nitrogen
in different kinds of wheat, 334.
hydrochloric acid in, 380.
Indian corn, 359, 360.
JOHNSTON'S table of ash yielded by dif-
ferent samples of wheat, 354.
kneading machines, 371-373.
trough, 369.
leaven, 367, 368.
legislative regulations, 392.
lime-water in, 392.
machines for kneading, 371-373.
magnesia, carbonate of, in bread, 390.
maize, analyses, 360.
mills, 360, 365.
moistening of the grain, 365.
MOUCHOT'S model bakehouse, 374-377.
nitrogen, per centage of, in different
kinds of wheat, 354.
n its use in food, 353.
nitrogenous bodies, 356.
oats, analyses of, 358, 359.
" analyses of the ash of, 359.
oil of wheat, 354.
oven, baking. 373, 374.
n biscuit, SLATER'S, 382.
panary fermentation, 367, 368.
patent yeast, 370, 371.
piled, 370, 381.
plaster of Paris in, 387.
potatoes, use of, 370.
powder, baking, 380.
preparation of the corn, 360.
process of baking, 369, 370.
products of grinding, 366.
proportion of water in, 378.
rice, analyses of, 360.
RomvE's method of testing flour, 386.
rye-flour, composition of, 357, 358.
a starch, characteristics of, 386.
sesqnicarbonatc of ammonia, 390, 391.
SEWELL'S patent for making bread with
carbonate of soda, 380.
SLATKR'S biscuit oven, 382.
soda, carbonate of, In bread, 380.
starch, 355.
substitutes for yeast, !5SO.
sii'-, r ar in flonr, 355.
sulphate of copper in, 390, 391,
unfermeuted, 307, 379.
water, proportion used, 378.
BREAD, continued.
Weevil biscuit-baking factory, 382, 383.
weight of bread as delivered, 389.
a loss of, when kept, 389.
wheat, analyses of, 357.
" ash, analyses of, 356.
" bran, analysis of, 355.
u composition of, 354.
oil, per cent., 354.
per centage of ash. 354.
per centage of nitrogen in dif-
ferent kinds, 354.
> superiority to other cereals, 378.
a yield of, when ground, 366.
winnowing the grain, 361.
yeast, pater.t, 370, 371.
n substitutes for, 380.
n used in bread-making, 370.
yield of flour, 377, 378.
BROMINE 392-394.
analysis, 393, 394.
bittern, 392.
preparation of, 392, 393.
properties, 393.
BT/TTER 394-404.
acid, butyric, 395.
i lactic, 395.
adulterations, 404.
American butter- worker, 401.
analysis of milk, 395, 396.
butyric acid, 395.
churning, process of, 400.
churns, 897-400.
n diagonal, TINDALL'S, 398, 399.
" double, RENNES', 399.
disadvantages of zinc vessels, 403.
fluorine in milk, 395.
historical notice, 397.
lactic acid, 395.
lactometer, 396.
milk, 394-397.
manufacturing uses, 896, 397
" method of testing, 396.
packing, 401, 402.
preparation of, 397-403.
KKNNES' double churn, 399.
salting, 401.
Scotch method of making, 402, 403.
sweet cream and milk, butter from, 402.
TINDALL'S diagonal churn, 398, 399.
vegetals, butter from, 394.
yield of, from milk, et cetera, 402.
zinc vessels, disadvantages of, 403.
CANDLE 404-141.
acid, margaric, 408.
a oleic, 409.'
n palmatic, 410, 411.
stearic, 407.
antiquity of wax candles, 4C5.
attraction, capillary, 417, 418.
bleaching of palmatic acid, 434, 435.
n of stearic acid, 433.
i of wax, 411, 412.
capillary attraction, 417, 418.
cerin, 412.
cerptin, 412.
cetin, 410.
coccus ceriferus, 411.
cocinin, 410.
coco-stearin, 410.
n candles, 435.
composites, 435, 437.
dipped candles, 420-425.
dipping, 422-425.
fats, 405, 406.
n of different animals, 413.
it pressing machines, 431, 432.
n purification of, 413-417.
" saponification of, 430.
FONTAINEMOREAU'S process for refining
vegetal tallow, 435, 436.
glycerin, 406.
n removal of, from fats, 430.
HEMPBELL and BLUNDELL'S proce.-s for
refining palmatic acid, 435.
hircin, 413.
historical notice, 404, 405.
KEMPTON'S patent wicks, 418.
lard, hogs', 413.
machines, improved dipping, 423, 424.
n moulding, 426-42a
n pressing, 431, 432.
manufacture, of, 420.
margaric acid, 408.
margarin, 4< 1 .
materials used in the manufacture, 405-
413.
melon, 412.
INDEX TO ARTICLES.
CANDLE, continued.
MORGAN'S moulding machine, 427, 428.
mould candles, 420, 425-429.
myricin, 412.
oleic acid, 409.
olein, 408, 409.
palm oil, 434.
palmatic acid, 410, 411.
H bleaching of, 434, 435.
i >i refining, 435, 436.
palmatin, 410,
lights, 434.
PALMER'S patent dipped candles, 425.
n patent wicks, 419.
paraffin, 412, 413.
n candles, 440, 441.
PRICE'S process, 436-438.
purification of the tallow, 420, 421.
refining of palmatic acid, 435, 436.
saponification of fats, 430.
spermaceti, 409, 410.
a candles, 439, 440.
statistics, 441.
stearic acid, 407.
H a pressing, 431, 432.
stearin, 406, 407.
a and stearic acid candles, 429-434.
suet, mutton, 413.
SVKES' patent wick-making machine,419.
tallow, 413.
n machine for chopping, 414.
a purification of, 413-417, 420, 421.
tapers, wax, 439.
TI'LGHMANN'S patent process, 433, 434.
wax, 411, 412.
a bleaching of, 411.
a from vegetals, 411.
candles, 438, 439.
whiteness and hardness, receipts for
producing, 429.
wicks, 417-420.
u machine for cutting, 421, 422.
n machine for making, 419, 420.
YOUNG'S paraffin process, 440.
CAOTJTCHOTTG-441-452.
applications of, 443.
BUBKE'S improved method of vulcaniz-
ing, 449.
caoutchoucin, 451.
combination of, new, 450.
composition of, 442, 443.
condensation, 443, 444.
cutting into sheets, 444.
deodorizing caoutchouc fabrics, 448.
distillation of, 450, 451.
DUMAS' suggestion for dissolving caout-
chouc in ether, 446.
fabrics, waterproof, 446, 447.
GERARD'S caoutchouc solution, 447.
glue, marine, 452.
GOODYEAR'S vulcanizing process, 448.
n new combination of, 450.
HANCOCK'S vulcanizing apparatus, 449.
heveen, 451.
juice, 442, 443.
a NORRIS' method of importing, 44 1 .
LORIMER'S process for purifying and con-
densing caoutchouc, 444.
Mackintosh cloth, 446.
manufacture of, 443.
a of caoutchouc thread, 444.
H of roun-1 thread, AUBERT
and GERARD'S, 445, 446.
marine glue, 452.
MOOT/TON'S improved vulcanizing pro-
cess, 450.
NICKEL'S do., 449.
NORRIS' method of importing caoutchouc
juice, 447.
preparation of, 442.
products of, by distillation, 451.
properties, 442.
purification and condensation, 443, 444.
solvents of, 446, 447.
source of, 441.
statistics, 452.
still, 451.
sulphuration of, 448.
tar, its combination with, 450.
thread, caoutchouc, 444-446.
tree, 441.
VARRAC'S method of deodorizing caout
chouc fabrics, 448.
vulcanizing, 448, 449.
n improvements in, 449, 450.
waterproof fabrics, 446, 447.
CEMENT 452-463.
acid, silicic, 459.
alkalies in, 459, 460.
CEMENT, continued.
alumina, 459.
beton, 461.
BOOKER'S lime-kiln, 454.
building. 453-456.
clays, 459.
concretes, 453, 461.
diamond, 452.
estimation of, 460.
gypsum, or plaster of Paris, 462.
hydraulic, 450.
limestones, 457, 459.
iron-pipes, cement for connecting, 453.
KEENE'S, 462.
lime, 453.
a burning, 453-455.
limestones, hydraulic, 457-459.
magnesia, 459.
MARTIN'S, 462.
miscellaneous, 452.
mortar, 455.
Turkish, 462, 463.
mosaics, 462.
Mulgrave, 460, 461.
Parian, 462.
PARKER'S, or Roman cement, 4GO, 461.
plaster of Paris, 462.
Portland, 460, 461.
puzzolana, 460, 461
resinous, 452.
Roman, 460, 461.
RUDERSDORF'S lime-kiln, 451, 455.
sand for mortar, 455, 453.
silicic acid, 459.
SINGER'S 453.
stucco, 462.
trass, 461.
VARLEY'S, 453.
CHEESE-^63-470.
adulteration of, 470.
analysis of, 469.
casein, 468.
cheddar, 467.
chessart, or cheese-vat, 464.
coloring of, 468.
composition of, 468, 469.
cream cheese, 468.
curd breaker, 464.
n cutter, 464.
Gruyere, 467.
Neufchatel, 468.
Parmesan, 467.
potato cheese, 468.
preparation of, 463.
press, 464, 465.
properties, 469, 470.
runnet, 463.
skimmed milk cheese, 465, 466.
statistics, 470
Stilton, 467.
sweet milk cheese, 468.
turner, 466, 467.
utensils used in making, 464.
CHLOROFORM-470-473.
adulterations, of, 471-473.
alcohol, detection of, 472.
aldehyde, 472.
anaesthetic effects of, 471.
composition of, 471.
densimeter, 472, 473.
manufacture of, 471.
methyl, compounds of, 472.
properties, 470, 471.
OLDER 473-477.
adulteration of, 476, 477.
apples, 473, 474.
a composition of, 4* 3.
n crushing, 474.
pressing, 474, 475,
bottling, 475, 476.
fermentation, 475.
lead in cider, 476, 477.
pears, analysis of, 476.
perry, 476.
preparation of, 474.
properties, 476.
CITRIC ACID 477-481.
action of heat on, 478.
adulteration of, 480, 481.
composition of, 477.
FIRMIN & SON'S manufactory, 479,
heat, its action on citric acid, 4<8.
lemon juice, analysis of, 478.
manufacture of, 478-480.
sources of, 477.
statistics, 481.
uses of, 480.
COBALT 481^93.
adulteration of, 492, 493.
antiquity of, doubtful, 481.
arsenical cobalt, 482, 483.
azure, 484.
blue, cobalt, improved processes, 489.
" TniiNARD's, 482.
crucibles for melting the smalt, 486.
cschel, 484, 487, 489.
estimation of, quantitative, 491, 492.
farbe, 484, 487.
fluxes for the ores, 485.
furnace for melting cobalt glass, 486-
fusion of the smalt, 486, 487.
glance, 483.
glass, 486.
grinding and washing the smalt, 487, 488.
inks, sympathetic, 482.
manufacture of, 483.
ores, 482, 483.
oxides of, 483.
poison gallery, 484.
preparation of, 481, 482.
properties, 482.
pyrites, 483.
roasting, 484, 485.
schliech, 484.
separation of cobalt from copper ores by
VIVIAN'S patent, 490, 491.
smalt, 483-489.
a adulteration of, 492, 493.
u analysis of, 492.
uses, 488, 489.
speiss, 485.
statistics, 493.
streublau, 484. 487.
test, infallible, of its presence, 482.
THENARD'S blue, 482.
ultramarine, 484.
VIVIAN'S improvements in obtaining
nickel and cobalt, 490, 491.
zaffre, 489.
COPPER 493-532.
assaying of copper ores, 498-500.
n furnace, 498.
azurite, 495.
BIRKMYRE'S smelting process, 516, 517.
black oxide of, 495.
blistered copper, 513.
BRANKART'S smelting process, 516.
carbonates of, 495.
combinations of, native, 494.
DAVIES' smelting process, 516.
DK SUSSEX'S do. do. 517.
dressing of the ores, 497, 498.
estimation of, 525-528.
fourneau & manche, 519.
furnace for assaying, 498.
furnaces, smelting, 501, 504, 508.
a it foreign, 521-524
gahrrost, 522.
grey, 495.
historical notice, 493, 494.
Low's smelting process, 517.
malachite, 495.
manufacture of, 497-524.
mine, copper in the, 495, 496.
NAPIER'S smelting process, 616.
native combinations of, 494.
ores, smelting of, 501, 524.
oxides of, 495. >;'
PARKES' smeltfng process, 517.
preparation of pure copper, 496.
properties of, 497.
purple copper, 494.
pyrites, 494, 495.
red oxide, 495.
RIVOT & PHILLIPS' smelting process, 515.
rolling, 524, 525.
smelting, 501-524.
it foreign methods of, 519-524.
a patented improvements, 615,
518.
statistics, 528-632.
sulphide, 494.
TRUEMAN and CAMERON'S smelting pro-
cess, 517, 518.
COPPER AIiOYS-533-553.
alloys in general, nature of, 633, 5d4.
analysis of, 553.
arcot, 537.
argentan, 640, 641.
bell-metal, 550.
brass, 634-540.
n antiquity of, 634, 535.
,/ foundry, furnaces used, 537, 5d8.
varieties of, 635, 536, 539.
n wire, 536.
British plate, 540, 541.
INDEX TO ARTICLES.
COPPER, ALLOYS, continued,
bronze, 541.
" antique, 545.
a gravity of, 541.
tempering, 542.
varieties, 543.
calamine, analysis of, 537.
cannon mfital, 545-550.
u furnaces for casting, 537, 538.
coins and medals, 543-545.
copper coins, standard weights, legai
tender, et cetera, 545.
cymbal and tam-tam metal, 551.
electrum, 540.
furnaces used in brass-founding, 537, 538.
H a cannon-founding, 547-550,
German silver, 540, 541.
gilding-metal, 535.
Mannheim gold, 535.
medals in bronze, 543-545.
moulds for cannon, 546, 547.
nature of alloys in general, 633, 534.
ordnance or cannon metal, 645-550.
pakfong, 540.
pinchbeck, 535.
PROUST'S experiments on tinned vessels,
552.
Rupert's metal, 535.
silver, German, 540, 541.
telescope or speculum metal, 551.
tinning of vessels, 551-553.
tutenag, 540.
wire-brass, 536.
COFFEE SALTS 553-556.
blue vitriol, 555.
carbonate, 551.
cupreous poisons, antidotes for, 551.
oxide, 554.
sulphate, or Roman vitriol, 555, 553.
verditer, 554, 555.
DISINFECTANTS 556-565
antiseptics, 556, 559, SCO.
aromatic substances, 5C4.
artificial, 562-565.
bleaching powder, 664.
causes of infection, 553, 559.
charcoal, 563.
chlorine, 564.
chloroxide of calcium, 634.
cold, 562.
DAVY'S method of ventilation, 561.
definition of, 556.
deodorizers, 556.
embalming, 556, 557.
gases absorbed by charcoal, 5G3.
heat, 562.
historical notices, 556-558.
infection, causes of, 558, 553.
light, its sanitary effect, 562.
magnesia and lime, mixed sulphate of, 66G.
manganese, chloride of, 564.
natural, 531, 562.
od and odyl, 562.
quarantine, 561.
REID'S methods of ventilation, 561.
respirator, STENHOUSE'S, 503.
soil, 562.
sulphurous acid, 565.
tannic acid, 563.
vampires, 558.
ventilation, 500,561.
water, 662.
DYEING & CALICO-PRINTING-565-781
acacia catechu, 574.
acid, alizaric, 608, 609.
" anchusic, 569.
u anilic, 596.
>/ anthranilic, 697, 598.
arsenious, 643.
carminic, 577.
u carthamic, 625.
u carthamous, 625.
" chlorisatinic, 595.
/ chrysanilic, 597.
ellagic, 582.
/ gallic, 681, 582, 629-C3J.
a hyposulphoindigutic, 633.
u Indigotic, 596.
a isatinic, 595.
u melanogallic, 583.
" melanotannic, 583, 5fc4.
metagallic, 583.
nitrococcusic, 577.
>' nitropicric, 596, 597.
nitrosalicylic, 596.
paraellagic, 583.
pectic, 721, 728.
pyroalizaric, 608, 610.
DYEING & CALICO-PRINTING, continued
acid, pyrogallic, 582, 683.
" sulphindigotic, 593.
it sulphindylic, 593.
" sulphopurpuric, 594.
n tannic, 5S1, 624-632.
a valerianic, 598.
adulteration of madder, 618-621.
affinity, elective, amongcoloring matters
622.
alizaric acid, 608, 609.
alizarin, 606-608, 613-615.
alkalies, action of, on indigo, 597,598.
alkanet, 569.
alkermes, 599.
aloes, 569,570.
aloetin, 569.
Alsatian madder, 604.
alum, 642.
'/ plumb tub, 642.
aluminous mordants, 769-773.
American dye-stuffs, 668.
anchusa tinctaria, 569.
anchusin or anchusic acid, 5G9.
anilic acid, 596.
anilin, 698, 599.
annotta, 570.
anthranilic acid, 597,693.
archil, 570,671.
argol, 649.
army cloth, 638.
arsenic, 642, 643.
arsenious acid, 613.
arscno-stannate of soda, 655, 656.
aryana, 575.
attraction of organic fibres for coloring
matters, 626.
Avignon madder, 604, 605.
barberry root, 571.
barwood, 572, 673.
a spirit, 653.
bastard saffron, 624.
benzidam, 599.
benzidin, 599.
berberin, 572.
berberis vulgaris, 571
berries, French, 679.
bibromisatin, 596.
bichlorisatin, 695.
bignonia chica, 575.
bixa orellana, 570.
bleaching powder, tests of, 643.
blue, prussian, 648,649.
BOLLEY'B indigo test, 683.
Brazil wood, 573,674.
brazil<5in, 573.
brazilin, 673.
bromisatin, 596.
buccinum, 666.
busquets, 585.
cactus cocciniliferc, 575.
C(csalpinia criata, 573.
CALICO-PRINTING, 679-757.
acid, chromic, as a discharger. 748.
ageing, 710.
apparatus, 683-700.
steaming, 739-742.
bandana printing, 746.
bleaching, 706.
block-printing by hand, 683-685.
by machinery, 688-692.
blue, China, 749-751.
bran, clearing with, 733-735.
/ fixing, 716.
bubulin, 715.
calendering, 706, 707.
chalis, 754-767.
chalk, its action on dye-baths, 727, 728.
chemical resists, 743, 744.
China-blue style, 749-751.
chlorine, as a discharger, 745, 746.
chromic acid, as a discharger, 748.
cleansing liquor, 711, 716.
clearing, 729-735.
cloth, preparation of, 705-707.
color-holders, improved, 686-688.
colors, preparation of, 700-705.
copperplate-printing, 692, 693.
cotton and wool, mixed, 753, 754.
cow-dung, analysis of, 711.
cylinder machines, 694-698.
cylinder-printing, 568, 693-699.
cylinders, mode of engraving, 693, 694.
damping, 707.
delaines, 753, 754.
discharge style, 745-749.
drying arrangements, 699.
u and ageing, 710.
dung, substitutes for, 711, 712, 716-718.
dunging, 710-71&
dyeing, in madder style, 718-739.
DYEING AND CALICO-PRINTING.
CALICO-FKINTINO, continued.
enlevnge style, 748.
gas singeing, 706.
GRAHAM'S patent fixing processes, 742.
historical notice, 680-683.
hot-flue, 699, 700.
hot-plate singeing, 705.
introduced into Europe, 568.
lapis or lazulite style, 744.
machine, padding, 736.
madder, 720, 721.
madder-bath, temperature of, 724, 725.
u influence of foreign bodies on,
725-728.
madder-style, 709-735.
maddering, 718.
mandarining style, 755-757.
mechanical resists, 743.
mineral colors, dischargers for, 749.
MONTEITII & Co.'s discharging ma-
chine, 747.
mordants, dischargers for, 748.
n preparation of, 70J-705.
printing of, 709.
mule machine, 568
neutral style, 744.
organic coloring matters, dischargers
for, 745, 746.
padding machine, 736.
style, 735-737.
perrotine, 690-692.
plate-printing, (592, 693.
press-printing, 689, 690.
printing of woollens, silks, and mixed
stuffs, 752-757.
printing-rooms, 707, 703.
processes, 708.
n amaranth, for delaines, 754.
a blacks, steam, 743.
" blue, for delaines, 754.
>/ u for silks, 755.
n u for woollens, 753.
n prussian, 737.
u u steam, 742.
chrome-green, 737.
a yellow, 737.
i- greens, steam, 742.
n lemon, light, 737.
H reds, steam, 742
./ for silks, 755.
u n for woollen stuffs, 753.
violet, steam, 742.
yellows, steam, 742.
n " for silks, 756.
for woollens, 753.
a H Turkey, for delaines,
754.
resist or reserve style, 743-745.
rpngeant style, 748.
sightenings, 705.
silk stuffs, printing of, 754-757.
singeing, 705, 706.
soap, its action in clearing, 730 731.
" stannic, 731.
spirit colors, 738.
statistics, 780, 781.
steam-colors, 738-743.
style, china-blue, 743-751.
n discharge, 745-749.
enlevage, 748.
" lapis or lazulite, 744.
n madder, 709-735.
n H for silks, 76.5.
" mandarining, 765-757.
" neutral, 744.
n padding, 735-737.
u resist or reserve, 743-745.
n ron^eant, 748.
topical, 737-743.
styles, principal, enumerated, 708.
n combination of, 751, 752.
substitutes for dung, 711, 712, 716-718.
surface-printing, 568, 689.
tearers, mechanical, 637.
temperature of madder-bath, 724, 725.
thickenings, 700-705.
topical style, 737-743.
union machine, 568.
viscosimeters, 704, 703.
water, 721, 722.
wool and cotton, mixed, 753, 754.
woollen stuffs, printing of, 752, 753.
camwood, 574.
carajuru, 575.
canndin, 576, 577.
carmin, 676, 678.
carminic acid, 577.
carthamic acid, 625.
carthamous acid, 625.
carthamus, 624.
INDEX TO ARTICLES.
DYEING & CALICO-PRINTING, continue
catechu, 574,575.
catechuic acid, 575.
chica, 675.
chlorisatin, 595.
culorisatinase, 595.
chlorisatinese, 595.
chlorisatinic acid, 595.
chrome, 643.
dyeing recipes for, 644, 645.
chromium, 643-645.
chrysanilic acid, 597.
chrysorhainnin, 579.
clearing, see Turkey-red and Madde
style.
cocci granum, 599.
coccinellin, 576.
coccus cacti, 576.
" ficus, 600.
a ilicis, 599.
cochineal, 575-579.
colorimeter, 588.
colorin, 606, 616.
coloring matters, attraction of organic
fibres for, 626.
n mineral, 642-656.
" organic, 569-636.
" " theoryof fixation of, 757-
768.
copper salts, 645, 646.
copperas, selection of, 646.
copperas, white, 656.
cotton vat, 641.
CRUM'S theory of fixation of colors, 760
crystallin, 598.
crystals of tin, 651.
cudbear, 570.
curcuma longa, 632
curcumin, 633.
catch, Malabar, 574.
cyanol, 598.
D' APLIGNY on the fixation of colors, 758.
degraissage, see Turksy-red.
divi divi, 632.
dripping-vat, 586.
DUNN'S patent for utilizing waste acetate
of copper, 646.
dyebecks, 719, 720.
DYEING RECEIPTS for 10 Ibs. cotton, 5 Ibs.
silk, and 10 Ibs. woollen.
" adelaide, or light purple, on cotton,
661, Nos. 32, 33.
n black on silk, 662, No. 1.
black on woollen, 665, No. 1.
" black for 5 Ibs. woollen, 645.
" black on cotton and woollen, 667.
black on cotton and woollen, by one
process, 667.
n black on silk and woollen, by one
process, 667.
H black on cotton, silk, and woollen,
by one process, 637.
a black, blue, on cotton, 659, No. 3.
a black, blue, on silk, 662, No. 4.
" black, common, on cotton, 639, No. 1 .
" black, deep hat, on silk, 662, No. 5.
n black, French, on silk, 662, No. 3.
n black, full deep, on silk, 662, No. 2.
a black, jet, on cotton, 659, No. 2.
a blue, logwood, on cotton, 660, No. 21 .
" blue, Napoleon, on cotton, 648.
" blue, pigeon, on cotton, 666, No. 13.
blue, royal, on cotton, 648.
n blue, royal, on silk, 648.
" blue, royal, on woollen, 648.
a blue, sky, on cotton, 647.
" blue, sky, on silk, 648-663, No. 20.
a blue, sky, on woollen, 666, No. 12.
Hue and orange, on cotton and wool-
len, 667.
a brown, on silk, 662, Nos. 6, 7.
" brown, on woollen, 665, Nos. 2, 3.
" brown, for 5 Ibs. woollen, 645.
" brown, bronze, on silk, 663, No. 11.
" brown, catechu, on cotton, 659, No. 9.
" brown, chocolate, do., 659, No. 11.
" brown, chocolate, on silk, 663, No. 10.
brown, cinn., on cotton, 659, No. 6.
n brown, fawn, do., 659, No. 8.
" brown, mordant, do., 659, No. 5.
" brown, red, on silk, 663, Nos. 8, 9.
brown, spirit, on cotton, 659, No. 4.
a brown, uvanterin, do., 659, No. 7.
" brown, yellow, rich, on 5 Ibs. wool-
len, 645.
" buff, on cotton, 648.
a buff, on silk, 664, No. 28.
" chocolates, catechu, 659, No. 10.
" crimson, on cotton, 660, No. 17.
" crimson, on silk, 663, No. 17.
" crimson, on woollen, 665, No. 4.
DYEING AND CALICO-PRINTING.
DYEING RECEIPTS, continued.
i> crimson, on silk, 663, No. 13.
drab, on cotton, 661, Nos. 40 42
ii drab, on silk, 664, No. 31.
" drab, on woollen, 666, No. 22.
" drab, on 5 Ibs. woollen, 645.
" drab, on cotton, silk, and woollen
by one process, 637.
" drab, brown, on woollen, 666, No. 21.
drab, catechu, on cotton, 662, No. 45.
" drab, green, on 5 Ibs. woollen, 645.
" drab, olive, on cotton, 661, No. 41.
" drab, stone, on woollen, 666, No. 22.
" drab, yellotv, on silk, 664, No. 30.
" fawns, catechu, on cotton, 659 No.
12, 660, Nos. 13, 14.
" flesh color, on silk, 664, No. 28.
" gold color, on silk, 664, No. 27.
" green, on silk, 665, Nos. 33, 34.
" green, on woollen, 666, No. 15.
a green, on cotton-yarn, silk, and
woollen, 580.
" green, apple, on woollen, 666, No. 14.
" green, bottle, on cotton, 660, No. 27.
green, do., on silk, 665, Nos. 36, 37.
" green, do., on 5 Ibs. woollen, 615.
a green, chrome, on cotton, 644.
" green, fast, on woollen, 666, No. 16
" green, invis., on 5 Ibs. woollen, 645.
n green, pea, on silk, 665, No. 35.
green, sage, on cotton, 660, No. 26.
green, with bark, 624.
" green, with bark, on cotton cloth
660, No. 23.
" green, with fustic, on cotton cloth
660, No. 24.
i green, with fustic, on cotton yarn
660, No. 22.
" green, with prussian blue, on cotton
660, No. 25.
" green and pink, on cotton and wool-
len, 667.
" green and crimson, on cotton and
woollen, 667.
" iron-buff, on cotton, 647, 684,
lavender, on cotton, 661, No. 35.
" lavender, on cotton, with safflower,
661, Nos. 38, 39.
a lavender, on silk, 664, Nos. 21, 22.
" leghorn, on cotton, 660, No. 19.
lemon color, on cotton, 644.
lilac, on cotton, 661, Nos. 30, 31.
" lilac, on cotton, with logwood, 661,
Nos. 36, 37.
a lilac, on silk, 664, No. 23.
n maroons, on silk, 663, No. 19.
" nankeen, or iron buff, 647, 648.
n nankeen, on silk, 664, No. 28.
" olive, or bottle green, on cotton, 660,
No. 27, 661, Nos. 28, 29.
a olive, on silk, 665, No. 38, 39.
" olive, on woollen, 666, No. 17.
" olive, on 5 Ibs. woollen, 645.
" orange, on cotton, 660, No. 20.
orange, on silk, 664, No. 29.
a orange, on woollen, 666, No. 11.
a peach, or lavender, on cotton, 661,
Nos. 35, 38, 39.
a peach, on silk, 664, Nos. 21, 22.
a pink on silk, with safflower, 626, 632,
No. 12., with coch., 663, No. 15.
n pink, on woollen, 666, No. 9.
" puce, on cotton, 661, Nos. 30, 31.
" puce, with logwood, 661, Nos. 38, 37.
a puce, on woollen, 666, No. 20.
n purple, on cott., 661, Nos. 32, 33, 34.
n purple, on 5 Ibs. woollen, 645.
red, on cotton, 660, No. 15.
a red, on silk, 663, No. 14.
a red, on woollen, 600-665, No. 6.
" red, claret, on woollen, 665, No. 7.
red, with barw., on cott., 660, No. 16.
n red, with sumach, on cotton, 629.
// rose-color, with safH., on cotton, 626.
n rubys, on silk, 663, No. 19.
u salmon-color, on silk, 564, No. 28.
n scarlet, on cotton, 626.
// scarlet, on silk, 663, No. 18.
" scarlet, on woollen, 665, No. 5.
n scarlet, with coch., ou silk, 663,
No. 16.
n scarlet, with lace, on wool, 606,
No. 8.
a scarlet, on wool and silk, 579.
n slate-color, on silk, 664, No. 32.
n slate-color, on woollen, 666, No. 23.
u stone-color, on cotton, 661, No. 43.
n stone-color, on silk, 6l>4, No. 32.
stone-drab, on cotton, 662, No.44.
./ straw-color, on silk, 664, No.27.
DYEING AND CALICO-PRINTING.
DYEING RECEIPTS, continued.
i straw, light, on cot., 644, 660, No. 18
H violet, on silk, 664, No. 23.
violet, light, on woollen, 663, No. 19.
" white, French and pearl, on silk
664, Nos. 24, 25.
n wine-color, on silk, 664, No. 23.
a wine-color, on woollen, 666, No. 18
yeilow, on cotton, 623, 644.
yellow, on silk, 633, 664, No. 26.
a yellow, on woollen, 666, No. 10.
yellow, on 5 Ibs. woollen, 615.
" yellow, on cott., silk, and wool., 635
dyestuffs, imported and exported 779
eilagic acid, 682.
erythrin, 571.
erythrizlin, 571.
ferruginous mordants, 773-777,
fixation of coloring mutters, 757-768.
flavin, 623.
French berries, 579.
fustet, 579.
fustic, 579, 580.
a young, 579, 629.
fustin, 579.
gallic acid, 581, 582, C29-632.
galling, see Turkeu-rcd.
galls, 580-582.
garancin, 606, 616, 617, 721
German vat, 639, 640.
grain colors, 600.
hffimate'in, 602.
htematin, 601.
hsematoxylin, 601, 602.
haimatoxylum campechiunu:n, 601.
HELLOT'S theory of fixation of colors, 758.
historical notice, general, 565-588.
hyposulphoindigotic acid, 593.
Indian madder, 621.
Indian vat, 639.
indigo, 536, 567, 584-599.
" action of alkalies on, 597, 598.
ii blue, 586, 591-593.
" composition of, 592.
tests of, 588-591.
" varieties of, 587.
vats, 636-642.
n white, 586, 592, 593.
indigofera, 584.
indigotic acid, 596.
iron mordants, 773-777.
H salts, 616.
u ii dyeing recipes with, 647, 648.
isatin, 594-596.
isatinate of silver, 595.
isatinic acid, 595.
isatis saliva, 633.
isatis tinctoria, 584.
isatyd, 595.
JULIAN'S patent process for extracting
the coloring properties of madder, 617,
618.
Johannisblut, 599.
kermes, 599, 600.
khair-tree, 574.
kinching, 658.
KUHLMANN'S experiments on pyroxilized
tissues, 766-768.
KUBTY'S patent for the preparation of
madders and munjeet, 618.
kyanol, 598.
lac, 600.
H spirit, 600.
lead salts, 643.
lecanora, 570.
lecanorin, 571.
LEEBHING'S patent for quercitron, 623.
lemon color, 614.
lichens, 571.
Lima wood, 573.
liquor, red, 642.
litmus, 570.
lizari, 603.
logwood, 566. 601-603.
luteoldiii, G33.
luteolin, 623.
MACQUEU on the fixation of colors, 759.
madder, 603-620,720, 721.
n adulteration of, 618-621.
" Alsatian, 604.
H Avignon, 604, 605.
n colorin, 606.
</ coloring principles of, 608-614.
-/ composition of, 605.
flowers of, 618.
Indian, 621.
lizari, 603.
mulle, 603-605.
Falun, 604.
INDEX TO AETICLES.
DYEING AND CALICO-PRINTING.
DYEINU RECEIPTS, continued.
madder, preparation of, 603.
n purple, red, orange, yellow,
and brown, 605, 6Uu.
u spirit, 617, 618.
Malabar cutch, 574.
manganese, 648.
melanogallic acid, 583.
melanotannic acid, 583, 584.
metagallic acid, 583.
mimosa catechu, 574.
mineral colors, application of, 568, 669.
H dyes and mordants, 642-666.
mordant, red, 771, 772.
mordants, aluminous, 769-773.
u ferruginous, 773-777.
H principles of the action of
the most important, 768.
u stanniferous, 650-C56, 770-
779.
/ tartar, 619, 650.
n white copperas, 606.
mordin, 580.
inorin, 580.
morinda citrifolia, 627.
moriudin, 627, 628.
morus tinctnria, 579, 580.
mulle madder, 603-605.
munjeet, 621.
myrobalans, 632.
nerium tinctorimn, 584.
nitrococcusic acid, 577.
nitropicric acid, 59j, 597.
nitrosalicylic acid, 596.
oiling, see Turkej-rtd.
orciHn, 571.
orciu, 571.
organic coloring matters, 5G9-C36.
pallampoors, 5G7.
Piilus madder, G04.
paraellagic acid, 583.
pastel, 634.
a vat, 636-639.
peach-wood, 573.
pectase and pectose, 582.
pectic acid, 612, 721, 728.
pectin, 582.
PENNY'S indigo test, 589.
Pernambuco, 573.
Persian berries, 579.
PEHSOZ'S views on the fixation of co-
lors, 760-765.
phenicin, 594.
pittacal, 621.
PLICHTHO'S art of dyeing, 566.
PLINY'S account of topical dyeing in
ancient Egypt, 567.
plumb spirit, 654.
potassa, bichromate of, 643-645.
>i bitartrate of, 649.
u vat, 639.
PRACTICAL OPERATIONS, 656-659.
to prepare annotta, 656.
to prepare catechu, 656.
to make sulphate of indigo, 656.
to make red liquor, 656.
to make caustic potassa, 657.
to make caustic soda, 657.
to make lime-water, 657.
to make bleaching liquor, 657.
to make a sour, 657.
to make cochineal liquor or paste, 657.
to make iron liquor, 657.
to make up a blue vat, 657.
to make spirits or tin preparations, 657.
to make copperas solution, 607.
to make solutions of blue-stone or sul-
phate of copper, 657.
to remove oil stains, 657.
to remove iron stains, 657.
to remove mildew from cotton, 657.
to remove indelible ink-marks, 657.
to detect animal and vegetal fibres,658.
to detect mixed fabrics of cotton and
wool, 658.
to detect cotton in linen, 658.
to detect do., another method, 658.
to detect cotton and wool, 658.
to detect cotton with silk and wool, 658.
to detect do., another method, 608.
to prepare 1 cotton yarn for dyeing, 658.
to prepare cotton cloth for dye-ing, 658.
See also Dyeing Receipts.
Prussian blue, 648, 649.
prussiate, red, 642.
" yellow, 642.
pterocarpus santalinus, 626.
purple, Tyrian, 566.
pyroalizaric acid, 608, 610.
pyrogallic acid, 582, 583.
DYEING & CALICO-PRINTING, continued.
pyroxilized tissues, 763-7GS.
queen- wood, 573.
quercitron, 622.
quercitrin, 621, 622.
quercitron, 621-624.
quercus infecwria, 560.
qunrcus nigra, 621.
receipts, 659-667.
red liquor, 642.
mordant, 771, 772.
a spirits, 653.
Turkey, 567, 668-G7D.
redoul, 579.
reseda luteola, 633.
resiu, alpha. 612.
./ beta, 61 2.
rhamne'in and rhamnin, 579.
r/iamnus, 579.
rhtts coriaria, 629.
u cotinus, 579.
u myrti/olia, 579
roccella, 570.
rodou, 579.
rot steep, 658.
rulia munjista, 621.
H tinctorum, 603.
rubiacic acid, 611, 612.
rubiacin, 606, 610, 611, 613-C15.
rubian, 612.
saddening, 646.
safflower, 624-626.
saffron, bastard, 624.
sages, arsenic, 642.
salts, copper, 645, 646.
u iron, 646, 647.
a lead, 648.
sandal or santal wood, 628.
Santa Martha wood, 573.
santalin, 626.
sapan-wood, 573.
saunders-wood, 626.
SAUSSURE'S experiments on porous
bodies, 764.
seed-lac, 600.
shell-lac, 600.
silk, preparing and dyeing of, 662-605.
soda, arseno-stannate of, 655, 656.
" stannate of. 654, 655.
sooranjee, 627-629.
spirit, barwood, 653.
n madder, 617, 618.
n plumb, 654.
spirits, red, 653.
/ yellow, 653.
stannate of soda, 654, 655.
stanniferous mordants, 777-779.
statistics, 779-781.
stick-lac, 600.
straw color, light, 644.
sulphindigotic acid, 593.
sulphindylic acid, 593.
sulphopurpuric acid, 594.
sumach, 629-632.
a Venetian, 579.
tannic acid, 581, 629-632.
tannin, 580, 581.
tartar, 649, 650.
terra Japonica,574.
tin, 650-656.
H crystals of, 651.
u mordants, 777-779.
protochloride of, 650, 651.
u salt of, introduced, 566.
n single and double muriate of, 650, 653.
topical dyeing, ancient, 567, 568.
Turkey-red, 567, 668-679.
a French processes, 670-672.
n Glasgow process, 669, 670.
" process with nitric acid, 674
ii rationale of, 676-679.
n Swiss process, 672, 673.
u violets, 674, 676.
turmeric, 632, 633.
Tyrian purple, 566.
tyrosin, 578.
valerianic acid, 598.
variolaria, 570.
vat, cotton, 641.
a dripping, 586.
German, 639, 640.
n Indian, 639.
u pastel, 636-339.
n potassa, 639.
n woad, 639.
u vats, construction and management
of, 636, 640-642.
Venetian sumach, 579.
verniilliou, 599.
violets, on Turkey-red system, 674, 675.
vitriol, white. 656.
DYEING & CALICO-PRINTING, continued.
volonia nuts, 632.
water, for madder-dyeing, 721, 722.
weld, or wold, 633.
WELTER'S bitter principle, 503.
white morin, 680.
xanthin, 612-315.
xanthorhamnin, 579.
yellow inorin, 580.
n spirits, 653.
H wood, 680.
young fustic, 679, 629.
zinc, 656.
ELECTRO-METALLURGY, 782-816.
amalgamation of zinc, 787, 78S.
anode, 792.
applications, 808.
argento-cyanide of potassium, 801.
auro-cyauide of potassium, 804.
batteries, voltaic, 784-790.
battery, BABINOTON'S, 785.
" BUNSEN'S, 787.
/ CALLAN'S or MAYNOOTH, 789.
a CBUICKSHANKS', 786.
u DANIELL'S constant, 786,788,789.
n magneto-electric, 790-792.
n now used, 785, 786.
n SMEE'S, 789, 790.
n WOLLASTON'S, 785.
blacklead, 796.
IJKADBURY on Nature-printing, 811.
bright deposit, 802.
cathode, 792.
conducting power of metals, 787.
copper, deposition of, 805.
" patent for extracting from its
ores, 808.
coppering cloth, 808.
copper-plates prepared by electro-de-
posit, 809, 810.
couroraie de lasses, 784, 785.
daguerreotypes, copying of, 814.
DANIELL'S battery, cells for, by electro-
deposition, 809.
definitions of terms, 792.
deposit, laws of, 807.
deposited moulds, 794.
deposition of alloys, 807.
a antimony, 806.
n bismuth, 807.
bi ass, 807.
a cadmium, 806.
copper, 805, 803.
gold, 804, 805.
iron, 806.
n lead, 806.
a nickel, 806.
palladium, 805.
u platinum, 805.
u silver, SQIH304.
n tin, 806.
n zinc, 806.
dies, copper, 809.
discovery of, 792, 793.
elastic moulds, 795, 796.
electricity, quantity and intensity of, 784.
electro-coppering, 805.
n gilding, 804.
u palladiating, 805.
n platinizing, 805.
ii silvering, 800-804.
u zincing, 806.
electrode, 792.
electrolysis and electrolyte, 792.
electrotype, its original meaning, 809.
u process of, 793, 794.
ELKINOTON, Messrs., electrotype factory
of, 815.
fusible-metal moulds, 794, 795.
galvanism, 782-784.
gilding vat, 804, 805.
glass, patent process for silvering, 797.
glyphography, 810, 811.
gold solution, 804.
graphite, 796.
gutta-percha moulds, 795.
intensity of electricity, 784.
KYHL'S method of Nature-printing, 812.
laws of deposit, 807.
magneto-electric machine, 790-792.
MAYNOOTH battery, 789.
metals, conducting power of, 787.
u positive and negative relations
of, 786, 787.
motion, modes of communicating. 803.
moulds, 794-796.
MURRAY'S application of plumbago, 795
NAPIER'S patent for coppering cloth, 808.
Nature-printing, 811-814.
non-metallic moulds, 795, 796.
PALMER'S glyphographic prccess, 810, 81 1 .
INDEX TO ARTICLES.
ELECTRO-METALLURGY, continue/I.
PARKES' patent processes, 796, 797.
pile, YOI/TA'S, 781.
plaster of Paris moulds, 795.
plumbago or graphite, 796.
poles, 792.
practical instructions, 807, 803.
precautions, 808.
preparation of non-metallic objects to re-
ceive deposit, 796, 797.
quantity and intensity of electricity,
784.
RITCHIE'S patent for extracting copper
from its ores, 808.
SCHOTTLAENDEB'S patent for coppering
cloth, 808.
separate battery, 793-800.
silver solution, 801.
silvering vat, 803.
single-cell process, 797, 798.
statistics, 815, 816.
stereotype plates, patent mode of prepar-
ing, 809.
terms, definitions of, 792.
utility of the art, 815.
vats, management of, 803.
VOLT A' s pile, 784.
voltaic batteries, 784-790.
wax moulds, 795.
woodcuts, multiplication of, 810.
zinc, amalgamation of, 787, 783.
ENAMELS, 816-8-20.
ancient, 816.
black, 821.
blue, -281.
characteristic of good enamel, 819.
cobalt, 821.
colored, 819.
firing, 823.
furnace for enamelling, 817.
gold in enamels, 816, 817.
green, 821.
iron and other metals, enamelling on, 824.
lamp, enamelling at the, 825, 826.
painting on, 819.
purple, 819.
purples and blues, mixtures for, 817.
red, 820, 821.
sand, choice of, 819.
violet, 821.
watch-dials, enamelling of, 822-824.
white, 818, 819.
dead, 817.
yellow, 8'20.
ETHER, 826-836.
acetic, 832.
acid, sulphovinic. 829, 830.
adulteration ot^ 832.
butyric, 832.
capric, 832.
caproic, 832.
colophen, 833.
ETHER, continued.
composition of, 829.
condensing apparatus, 828, 82f>.
enanthic, 832.
ethcrincation, 829, 830.
ethers, different formula! of, 836.
ethyl, chloride of, 832, 833.
u oxide of, 826.
formulre of different ethers, S3f>.
G ADDA'S condenser, 828.
hydrochloric, H'!2.
Monu's condenser, 829.
naphtha, applied to ether, 826.
nitric, 833.
/ spirit of, 838.
nitrous, 833-836.
oxide of ethyl, 826.
u butyrate of, 832.
caprate of, 832.
u nitrate of, 833.
u nitrite of, 833.
pelargonic, 836.
preparation of, 826, 827.
properties of, 830, 831.
rectification of, 827-829.
spirit of nitric ether, 833.
n of salt, sweet, or dnlci&od, 832.
sulphovinic acid, 829, 83).
sulphuric, 826-832.
tereben, KM),
uses of, 831, 832.
CHEMISTRY,
THEORETICAL, PRACTICAL, AND ANALYTICAL,
AS APPUED AND RELATING TO
THE AETS AND MANUFACTUEES.
There ore qualities In the products of Nature yet undiscovered, and combinations in the powers of Art yet untried. It is the duty of every
man to endeavor that something may be added, by hu industry, to the hereditary aggregate of knowledge and happiness. Da. Jounsos.
ACETIC ACID.
ACETIC ACID Atide Acetique, French ; Essigsaure,
German; Acidum Aceticum, Latin; Eisel, Saxon is
the name of the acerb principle existing in vinegar.
It has been known from time beyond memory, that
the expressed juice of fruit, after becoming vinous by
a species of fermentation, was, under particular circum-
stances, found to undergo another change ; that is, it
became acrid to the taste a conversion we now call
the acetous fermentation, and the acid produced, acetic
acid. Under the name vinegar, this acid was known
many ages before the discovery of any other, those only
excepted which exist ready-formed in the vegetal king-
dom. It appears, from the writings of MOSES, that it
was in very general use among the Israelites, and other
Eastern nations, at a very remote period; there ex-
isted, however, no definite knowledge with regard to the
nature of its formation, and even in the commence-
ment of the eighteenth century, great ignorance was
manifested as to the cause of its production. At this
early date, when comparatively very little was under-
stood of chemical science, it was impossible to investi-
gate the theory of these changes, owing to the number
of substances contained in the liquids, and the great
variety of circumstances producing such metamorphoses.
With all the advantages which chemistry holds forth,
there are many points still remaining to be cleared up in
some of the practical details of the acetous fermentation ;
however, we are enabled to lay down one principle as
its cause, in all the processes for making acetic acid,
with the exception of its formation in the distillation of
wood. The alchemists were acquainted with this acid
in a concentrated state, as radical vinegar, or vinegar
of Venus ; and the product of the rectification of this
liquid they named distilled vinegar, or acetous acid.
BERTHOLLET, in 1785, published a paper wherein he
endeavored to demonstrate that the acid obtained from
the distillation of verdigris acetate of copper was
VOL. I.
different from acetous acid, as then known, both in
physical characteristics, as well as in its affinity for
other bodies, in forming neutral compounds with them.
The phlogiston theory being at this time in the ascen-
dant, BERTHOLLET concluded that, during distillation,
the acetous acid gave out phlogiston to the copper,
and received oxygen in return ; hence it was assumed
that the new "liquid was acetous acid united with oxy-
gen, and was accordingly named acetic acid. After
the phlogiston theory had exploded, the views of BER-
TIIOLLET were not materially altered on that account,
for, the residue in the retort being metallic copper, it
was supposed that the acetous acid deprived the oxide
of copper of its oxygen. STAHL and WESTENDORP
were the first to prepare the acid in a pure state, but
LOWITZ was the first to obtain it as a pure hydrate
of acetic acid in 1793. Afterwards, it was observed
by Dr. J. DAVY, that spongy platinum, in contact
with the vapor of alcohol, became incandescent, and
generated this acid. DOBEREINER further studied the
nature of the acid, and proved that the alcohol was
oxidized at the expense of tile atmospheric air, producing
acetic acid and water, and that no carbonic acid was
formed thus pointing out the fallacy of the opinion
held by the chemists of his time, that carbonic acid
was one of the products of the acetous fermentation.
Further, he showed that, for the complete oxidation of
one atom of alcohol, four atoms of oxygen were required.
This acid is produced under various circumstances, and
in a variety of ways, some of which are, in a theoretical
point of view, extremely important. When alcohol is
treated with hot potassa-lime, hydrogen gas is evolved,
and acetate of potassa is formed. Cane sugar, on being
boiled with a concentrated solution of potassa, elimi-
nates hydrogen, and gives rise to a series of acids, the
principal of which are acetic and oxalic. The pure
acid is obtained by distilling acetate of soda or potassa
ACETIC ACID ITS FORMATION.
with sulphuric acid. Fig. 1 is an apparatus well adapted
for this purpose. A is a flask, closed by a cork, which
receives two tubes ; one of these is a funnel tube, a,
through which the liquid bodies are introduced, and
the other conducts the vapors to the condenser. This
consists of an outer case, D, through which the tube, c c,
connected with the bent tube from the flask, A, passes.
The condenser is cooled by keeping a stream of water
running constantly from the reservoir, B ; c is a flask to
receive the condensed vapors ; d the gas lamp which
Fig. 1.
heats the liquid in A ; b the gas pipe, and E the vessel into
which the heated water flows from the condenser. A
convenient quantity, say half a pound, of pure acetate of
soda, is introduced into the flask, and about five ounces
of strong sulphuric acid, sp. gr. 1*80, poured in through
the funnel, a, and the whole well agitated. Sufficient
heat is developed to cause one-eighth of the acid to
distil over without fire, and the heat of the sandbath is
sufficient to expel the rest. A colorless liquid is ob-
tained, which has a specific gravity of about 1*061, and
contains forty to forty-two per cent, of real acid.
By rectifying this product, after agitation with a
little peroxide of lead, the acid is obtained perfectly
pure. This acid is a monohydrate, boils at 248
Fahr., and possesses a specific gravity of 1*063 to
1*OG5. In Professor LEHMANN'S Chemistry, trans-
lated for the Cavendish Society by Dr. DAY, is the
following : In its most concentrated state, as first
hydrate, it forms a crystalline mass below plus 16
C. 60*8 Fahr. ; above this temperature it is fluid,
has a spec. grav. 1*080, and boils at 117*3 C.
243*14 Fahr.; its second hydrate, containing two
atoms of water, has a spec. grav. of 1*078, and boils
at 140 C. 284 Fahr. The Editor questions the
accuracy of the above. In all other chemical works,
the specific gravity of the monohydrated acid is given
as 1*063. It is strange that Dr. DAY should not, in a
note, have alluded to this apparent error. The acid
with one equivalent of water has the composition
Atomic
Weight.
4 Eqs. of carbon, 24
3 Eqs. of hydrogen, 3
3 Eqs. of oxygen, 24
1 Eq. of water, 9
Formula, HO, C 4 H 3 3 .
Centesim.il
Quantiti *
Oi each.
= 40
5
= 40
= 15
100
For a long time it baffled the labors of the chemist
to obtain the acid free from water, every available
means applied proving unsuccessful. Lately, however,
GEUHARDT has produced the anhydrous acid, by mixing
chloride of benzoyle and fused acetate of potassa in a
flask, and allowing them to heat on a sandbath. Chlo-
ride of potassium is first formed, and a substance which
is probably acetate of benzoyle ; but the action does not
stop here, since, on heating the mixture above this tem-
perature, with an excess of acetate of potassa, the first-
mentioned bodies react upon each other, and there
distils a perfectly colorless iridescent liquid, having
the unmistakeable odor of acetic acid. This liquid is
anhydrous, boils at 279'5 Fahr., is heavier than water,
in which it sinks as an oil, and at the temperature of
58 or 60 they are immiscible. Hot water changes
it into ordinary acetic acid. The odor of acetic acid
is most peculiar suffocating, but when mixed with air
agreeable ; it is nearly as acrimonious as sulphuric acid ;
when dropped on the skin it acts like an escharotic,
producing much heat and rapid inflammation of the part
with which it is in contact. Cold acetic acid is not
inflammable, but when boiled its vapor ignites, burning
with a blue flame. It distils without change even
a red heat only slightly decomposes it. When its
vapor is passed through tubes containing red-hot char-
coal, it suffers decomposition rapidly, giving rise to
carbonic acid, carbonic oxide, carbide of hydrogen, and
water.
Acetic acid, with most bases, gives salta soluble in
water and in alcohol ; even acetate of lead is soluble
in the latter a few neutral acetates only are sparingly
soluble. A solution of nitrate of silver is not clouded
ACETIC ACID ITS PRODUCTION FKOM ALCOHOL.
by free acetic acid ; but it is troubled by saturating th
free acid with ammonia.
Subnitrate of mercury determines at once, in acetii
acid, a crystalline precipitate. Acetic acid does no
reduce the terchloride of gold, even in the heat ; but L
an excess of potassa be added, metallic gold is imme-
diately deposited.
Acetates tinge the sesquisalts of iron blood-red
Free acids, except acetic acid, destroy this color. Or
all the volatile organic acids, acetic acid is the only
one having the property of dissolving protoxide of lead
in the state of a basic acetate, which solution, when the
oxide of lead is in excess, has an alkaline reaction on
reddened litmus paper a characteristic test.
The specific gravity of the acid is variable, the mono-
hydrate being 1-063, while the same acid diluted with
five atoms of water, or fifty-one and a half per cent.,
possesses the like specific gravity. Hence, in determin-
ing the strength of acetic acid, the density is no criterion
of the amount of acetic acid present, as is shown in the
subjoined table, drawn up by THOMSON :
Equivnlents of Equivalents of
Acid.
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
Water.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
10
Sp. Gr. at 60.
1-06296
1-07060
1-07084
1-07132
1-06820
1-06708
1-06349
1-05974
1-05794
1-05439
From the following table it will be seen, that when
it is required to determine the amount of dry acid in
rather dilute solutions, the specific gravity test answers
pretty well within certain limits; but when the acid
increases in strength, it is evident from the preceding
that this test is fallacious, as the acid containing only
one atom of water, and that with six atoms of water to
one of acetic acid, are of the same density.
Ilvclrated
Acid in
1UO parts.
Sp. Gr.
Hydra ted
Acid in
100 parts.
Sp. Gr.
Hyd rated
Acid in
1 00 parts.
Sp. Gr.
100
1-0335
67
1-0690
34
1-0450
97
1-0680
64
1-0680
31
1-0410
94
1-0706
61
1-0670
28
1-0380
91
1-0721
58
1-0660
25
1-0340
88
1-0730
55
1-0640
22
1-0310
85
1-0730
52
1-0620
19
1-0260
82
1-0730
49
1-0590
16
1-0230
79
1.0735
4(5
1-0550
13
1-0180
76
1-0730
43
1-0530
10
1-0150
73
1-0720
40
1-0513
7
1-0107
70
1-0700
37
1-0480
4
1-0050
The method for testing the strength of acetic acid,
et ccttra, is fully described under VINEGAR, page 32.
This acid is without doubt the most interesting of all
the organic acids, as it enters more than any other into
the industrial arts, and occurs the most frequently in
nature, ready formed in several products of the vegetal
kingdom. Acetic acid exists in the sap of nearly all
plants, and probably in divers liquids dependent on
the animal economy ; but is never found in any large
quantity. Several organic matters give birth to this
acid during their decomposition. It is also produced
by the putrefaction of animal and vegetal substances;
the action of the alkalies, at an elevated temperature,
Fig. 2.
converts some vegetal acids into acetic and oxalic acids
in fact, nearly all the bodies of an organic nature
produce acetic acid when submitted to distillation.
Besides the processes already glanced at for the pro-
duction cf acetic acid, a variety of others arc resorted
to for its formation. An interesting method, on account
of its beauty and perfection, is the oxidation of alcohol,
through the agency of spongy platinum. It is a well-
known fact, that spongy platinum platinum black
from its minute state of division, condenses within its
pores several hundred times its volume of atmospheric
air; consequently, when the vapor of alcohol comes in
contact with this body, a supply of oxygen in a concen-
trated state is presented to it, and the platinum, with-
out losing any of its inherent properties, effects chemical
combination ; the alcohol undergoing slow combustion,
and being converted into acetic acid. This can be
illustrated by an apparatus similar to Fig. 2, A is a
bell glass, through the mouth of which a long funnel, a,
passes; the lower end of this funnel terminates in a
fine point, so that the alcohol poured in may percolate
very slowly. The vessel is placed
upon supports, b, within a dish, B, in
which is a saucer or small flat basin,
containing the spongy platinum. The
interstice from the bottom of the
dish, B, and the bell, A, serves for the
circulation of air in the jar. On
pouring the alcohol through a, in the
course of a short time the odor of
acetic acid is perceived at the mouth,
from the acetic acid vapors which are
generated. These condense on the
sides of the jar, and trickle to the bottom, where they
collect in B. It is advantageous, for the success of the
experiment, to have the alcohol heated to about 90
Fahr. when it is poured in. In Germany, and other
continental countries, where the duty on alcoholic
liquors is not so high as in England, this method was
once successfully followed, and for excellence and sim-
plicity it can scarcely be surpassed. For operations
on a large scale, a glass case, or one of wood, is con-
structed, the roof of which is of glass to admit the
heat of the sun. In the interior of this case shelves
are contrived, twelve inches apart, on which a series of
hallow glazed earthenware or porcelain dishes are
placed. The alcohol is poured into these vessels, and
in each is a porcelain or stoneware tripod, bearing a
watch-glass or small dish, containing the spongy metal.
No more than an inch and a half, or two inches, should
ntervene between the platinum in the watch-glasses
and the surface of the alcohol in the flat dishes. If
here be no arrangement to supply an influx of air, in
;he place of that which becomes deoxidized, no more
alcohol should be operated upon than the volume of air
n the apparatus will be capable of converting into acetic
xcid. This quantity may be inferred from the fact, that
one hundred and ten grains of alcohol require for their
complete oxidation one thousand cubic inches of air,
producing one hundred and twenty grains of anhydrous
,cetic acid, and about sixty-five grains of water. If a
draught be instituted, by which the vitiated or nitrogen-
us portion of the deoxidized air is withdrawn, and
ACETIC ACID ACETOUS FERMENTATION.
fresh quantities supplied by means of air-passages in the
lower part of the chamber, the necessity of observing,
with the accuracy mentioned previously, the amount
of alcohol submitted to oxidation, is obviated. This
Fig. 3.
arrangement is shown in Fig. 3. The temperature of
the air in the case is raised by means of steam pipes
or flues, from a fire adjacent to the apparatus, simi-
lar to those in vineries in this country, to about 90
Fahr. ; oxidation of the alcohol commences, which
is ascertained by the pungent odor of the acid. The
elevated temperature converts a portion of the alcohol
into vapor, which, on coming into contact with the
moistened platinum, undergoes incipient combustion,
giving rise to the acid. These vapors condense, and
are collected, for the most part, in the dishes; the
remaining quantity trickles down into a receiver at the
bottom of the case. In this manner, the whole of the
alcohol, in a comparatively short time, is converted into
acetic acid ; and as long as a supply of fresh air is kept
up in the chamber, the spongy platinum retains its ac-
tivity by inducing the oxidation of the liquid. With a
case of twelve cubic feet capacity, and seven or eight
ounces of platinum black, one pound of absolute alcohol
may be acetified daily ; and with a provision of twenty-
four or thirty pounds of spongy platinum, and a propor-
tionate sized case, three hundred pounds of alcohol may
be oxidized in the same time, producing an acid of the
purest kind. Hence this method claims pre-eminence
over any other for the formation of acetic acid. The
theory of this conversion of alcohol into acetic acid
may be understood from the following representation.
In the first stage of oxidation, the alcohol loses two
atoms of hydrogen, which, by uniting with the oxygen
of the air, give rise to water ; there remains a peculiar
volatile compound aldehyde which is the oxide of
the supposed radical of acetic acid. The symbolical
formula expresses this change :
C 4 H S 0, HO-f 2 =C 4 H 3 0, H0 + 2aq.
Alcohol. Aldehyde.
The aldehyde takes up, in addition to the oxygen which
it constitutionally contains, two atoms more, and thus
passes into acetic acid, as is shown in the annexed
equation :
HO, C 4 H 3 0,-f 2aq.-J-0 2 = IIO, C 4 H 3 3 -f 2aq.
Aldehyde.
The following also represents the transformation :
1 atom of alcohol
Minus 2 atoms of hydrogen .
Numeri-
cally.
= C 4 H 5 0, HO = 46
= H, =2
Equal 1 atom of aldehyde ......... C 4
Plus 2 atoms of oxygen ......... =
0, HO = 44
2 =16
Equal 1 atom of hydrated acetic acid C 4 II S 3 , HO = 60
Aldehyde is an exceedingly volatile body, a very
slight heat being sufficient to dissipate it ; and if this
be not prevented by having a copious supply of fiesh
air hi the case to oxidize it, a loss is suffered by the
manufacturer. Every hundred parts by weight of
alcohol require for oxidation sixty-nine parts of oxy-
gen, producing one hundred and ten parts of acetic
acid and sixty parts of water.
In every instance where alcohol or fermented alco-
holic liquors are acetified, the principle of the conver-
sion is the combustion of the alcohol of those liquors,
by combining with oxygen. It has been stated that
spongy platinum induces this change in regard to
alcohol, but the same result is attained when other
alcoholic liquids are exposed to the air at a slightly
elevated temperature, in contact with a body hi the
state of fermentation, and in several other ways
which change has been called the acetow fermentation.
In this manner, wine, brandy, beer, and, in fact, all
liquids which undergo the vinous fermentation, are con-
verted into solutions of acetic acid ; and many liquids
apparently pass at once into the acetous fermentation,
especially those eviscerating a quantity of mucilage,
and very little sugar. Alcohol in a pure state does not
suffer the acetous fermentation, but if it contain vegetal
matter, a metamorphosis occurs on its exposure to the
air ; hence the cause of the souring of wines, and the
reason why weak ones do so sooner than strong, the
former containing little spirit and much vegetal matter,
while with the latter the case is contrariwise. If the
vinous fermentation has completely ceased in those
liquids, subsequently clarified, when exposed to the air
at an elevated temperature they do not acetify ; but if a
ferment, hi the shape of yeast, honey, or strong vinegar,
should be added to such liquors ; then, on the applica-
tion of slight heat with access of atmospheric air, the
intestine motion commences.
In all cases of acetous fermentation, where a quantity
of liquid is exposed to the air, oxidation takes place
at the surface only, and this occasions the conversion
of their alcohol into acetic acid to extend over several
weeks, or even months. Heat very much accelerates
the change, inasmuch as a portion of the alcohol is
converted into vapor, and this, carrying with it some
of the ferment, hi a state of eremacausis, communicates
the same property to the vapor likewise, and acetic
acid results; besides, imperceptible currents form hi
the liquids, by which fresh surfaces are always exposed
till the work is completed. Spiritous liquors, on being
exposed to the air hi a state of fermentation, or with
a ferment added to them, though ever so clear at
the first, speedily become turbid, and slimy filaments
ACETIC ACID ACETOUS FERMENTATION.
appear through the solutions, which gradually adhere
and rise as a spume to the surface. When this spume
incrassates, it precipitates to the bottom of the vessel,
and is called mother of vinegar. During the formation
of this body an elevation of temperature is observed, a
peculiar aromatic odor is evolved, and an acid reaction
acquired ; and towards the end of the operation, the
temperature falls to about that of the surrounding air,
the liquor clarifies, and, when it is siphoned off, consti-
tutes the well-known liquid, Vinegar.
Before entering upon the manufacture of vinegar, it is
deemed advisable to introduce the remarks of Dr. URE
relative to the acetous fermentation. They are clear
and erudite, and may at some time or other prove ser-
viceable to the consulter of these volumes.
Hitherto it has been generally imagined, that the
formation of vinegar is accomplished by a peculiar
fermentation, which has been called the acetous, in
contradistinction to the vinous, the panary, the putre-
factive, et cetera. But this doctrine is doubtful. The
experiments serving as its basis, and which should
reveal the nature of its peculiar ferment, as also the
chemical reactions taking place in its progress, all
seem to place this phenomenon somewhat out of the
sphere of fermentation, properly so called. Every fer-
mentation operates by resolving a body into compounds
less complex than itself. But the so-called acetic fer-
mentation serves to combine, on the contrary, two
bodies, namely, alcohol and aldehyde, with the oxygen
of the ah- ; and this is the only case where fermentation
produces such an action, which is a true combustion.
Yet it must be confessed, that the acetic seems to
possess all the characters of the other fermentations ;
videlicet, the union of an organized body, or ferment,
with a fermentable organic matter. The former is found
iu that spumous substance called mother of vinegar,
and which is seen floating on the surface of vinegar in
the act of its generation. With the acid fermentation
it begins to appear, and it continues to be formed
during its whole progress. It is at first a pellicle, com-
posed of globules much more minute than those which
constitute yeast ; and they are often irregularly grouped.
The pellicle becomes afterwards thicker in body and
consistence, exhibits more distinct granular forms, and
acquires a tendency to be distributed in strips or narrow
bands. Of the reproduction of these globules the mode
is quite unknown, but they seem somewhat akin to
the slimy deposit of sulphurous mineral waters, called
baregine.
If the study of the acetic ferment be mysterious, it is,
nevertheless, clear that the conversion of alcohol into
vinegar never takes place, in the common process, with-
out the presence of an albuminous substance, and of
the conditions favorable to all fermentations, besides the
necessary access of air, not only at the commencement
as suffices for the vinous but during all its course.
Hence every weak spirituous liquor, which contains an
albuminous matter or any ferment, may, with contact
of air, and a temperature of from 60 to 90 Fahr., give
birth to vinegar. If the mixture be too rich in alcohol,
or if the nitrogenized matter be absent, or if the tem-
perature be much above or below these two points,
the phenomenon of acetification ceases. There are,
therefore, several indications of the existence of a pecu-
liar vinegar fermentation ; though it should be observed,
that the production of lactic acid as from fermenting
cabbage, starch, et cetera has sometimes misled che-
mists into the belief of an acetic fermentation. The
Kditor will, on this account, point out briefly the dis-
tinction between the two processes.
The acetic fermentation requires the presence of
ready -formed alcohol and the air; the lactic, on the
contrary, proceeds with starchy or saccharine mixtures,
without the intervention of alcohol or of atmospheric
oxygen ; and, when once begun, it will go on of itself.
Acetification presents, moreover, a striking analogy
with the phenomenon of nitrification, in the necessity
of an elevated temperature, and the influence of porous
bodies to divide the particles of the liquids and the
air. Gaseous ammonia, for example, mixed with oxy-
gen, when passed through a tube containing spongy
platinum slightly heated, becomes nitric acid; when
sulphurous acid gas and oxygen are passed through hot
pumice stone, they become sulphuric acid ; and when
lime or potassa, diffused through porous matter, is
placed in contact with ammoniacal emanations in the
artificial nitre beds or nitrifiable soils, nitrate of lime or
potassa is formed. In like manner, under the influence
of spongy platinum, alcohol and air may, by a true
oxidizement of the etherous part of the alcohol, produce
aldehyde, which passes afterwards into acetic acid and
water ; as is, hereinafter, represented :
Thus alcohol, C 4 H S 0, HO=C 4 H 4 0, -f H 2
Plus two of oxygen, .....
Equal aldehyde,
Plus two of oxygen,
Equal acetic acid, .,,.
C 4 H 4 2 ,
0,
H 2 2 = 2 HO,
+ 2HO=C 4 H f O,-f
DONOVAN gives some interesting details upon the
phenomena of the acetous fermentation, and as they
differ in the main point from those of other chemists,
extracts from them are appended, with a few observa-
tions by the Editor, showing how far they may be relied
upon.
With regard to the theory of the acetous fermenta-
tion, and the formation of vinegar, little is certainly
known. It may be admitted as a fact, that it is almost
exclusively the alcohol of the fermented liquor which is
changed into acetic acid ; and the query is, What is
the nature of the transformations ? LAVOISIER, finding
that oxygen is absorbed during acetification, concluded
that its presence and absorption are indispensably
necessary ; that the oxygen enters into the composition
of acetic acid ; that acetic acid is alcohol plus oxygen ;
and that the change effected by the acetous fermenta-
tion is the oxidation of the alcohol. But the facts
stated by SAUSSURE tend to prove, that the oxygen
absorbed during the acetous fermentation does not enter
into combination with the alcohol; but acts the very
different part of abstracting some of its carbon, combm-
in" with it, and thus forming carbonic acid, which then
remains a separate compound, either exhaling or re-
maining mechanically mixed with the resulting liquor.
VAUQUELIN conceived that the ferment takes both hy-
drogen and carbon from the alcohol, leaving therefore an
ACETIC ACID WINE VINEGAR.
increased ratio of oxygen, and thus converting it into
acetic acid, while ammonia and an oily substance are
formed; but the production of these two compounds
seems not to have been ascertained.
Theories have also been brought forward to account
for the formation of vinegar during the acetous fermen-
tation, founded on the belief that the agency of the
oxygen absorbed is to remove carbon and hydrogen
from the alcohol, by the formation of carbonic acid and
water ; for it is known that acetic acid contains less
carbon and hydrogen than alcohol. A theory of this
kind, however, has to contend with the fact, that al-
though oxygen is sometimes absorbed during the
acetous fermentation, and carbonic acid formed, this
absorption seems to be effected by some other carbona-
ceous matter present in the liquor, and not by the
carbon of the alcohol : for, were this the case, the
absorption of oxygen would be indispensable ; yd
vinegar may be formed perfectly and with ease, even
though the access of air be totally prevented. This
fact is proved by many instances. BECCHER included
wine in a glass bottle, which it filled, and hermetically
sealing the mouth, he exposed it to a digesting heat ;
after some time the wine was converted into very strong
vinegar.
FOURCROY and VAUQUELIN obtained vinegar from
a solution of sugar contained in close vessels. HOMBERG
included good wine in a bottle, and, having closed
it accurately, he fastened it to the sail of a wind-mill :
in three days it was very good vinegar. It is a fact
well known to every one, that a bottle filled with
weak beer, and closely corked, will in some time be
converted into vinegar. It may be said that air was
absorbed through the cork ; but this could scarcely
happen, for after a cubic inch or two of oxygen would
thus be absorbed, the neck of the bottle would be filled
with nitrogen, and there being now no longer the aid
of a partial vacuum, it is hard to conceive how air could
enter. But the experiment of BECCHER seems to me
irrefragable ; and I think we are bound to admit, that
the absorption of oxygen during the formation of vine-
gar is incidental, not necessary. Donovan.
BECCHER states that the bottled wine was converted
into very strong vinegar merely by exposing it to a
digesting heat. The strength of the vinegar is not
stated. It is well known that wine and other liquors
include several cubic inches of atmospheric air, and it
was no doubt the oxygen of this, aided by the heat, that
produced the acetic acid. The wine must have con-
tained upwards of twelve per cent, of alcohol; now
vinegar containing two or three per cent, of acetic acid
is considered good, and the Editor has no hesitation in
saying, that there was sufficient oxygen in the wine used
by BECCHER to produce vinegar of the above strength ;
therefore, this experiment does not at all do away with
the opinion, that air or oxygen is necessary for the
conversion of alcohol into acetic acid. The same
reasoning will apply to HOMBERG'S experiment. The
agitation his wine received on the sail of the windmill,
would induce the combination of the alcohol with the
oxygen contained in the liquid and that absorbed
through the cork. Did not the wine in BECCHER and
HOMBERG'S experiments contain a large quantity of|
spirit after being submitted to the agitation and digest-
ing ? If so, the deductions drawn by the Editor infal-
libly prove, that oxygen is necessary for the conversion
of alcohol into acetic acid.
Vinegar is, according to the nature of the sources
whence it is obtained, classed into several varieties. Of
these the chief kinds are wine vinegar, sugar vinegar,
malt vinegar, wood vinegar, and fruit vinegar, depen-
dent, however, upon the presence of acetic acid as
the first active principle, although they each possess a
flavor and aroma peculiar to themselves ; and on this
account preference is given to some kinds of vinegars.
All are produced by the acetous fermentation, except
wood vinegar.
WINE VINEGAR. Weineasig, German; Vinaiyre,
French. This species of vinegar is chiefly fabricated
in wine- growing localities, or where grapes are abundant,
the principal factories being at Orleans in France. The
building where the work is carried on is called a vinai-
grerie, and has always a southern aspect. The casks,
called mothers, which are employed, hold from fifty to
one hundred gallons, and rest upon strong wooden
frames, supported by pillars of wood or stone of
eighteen inches in height. Several such casks are
placed in rows, and when acetification is carried on
in the open air, eight, ten, fifteen, or twenty such
ranks constitute what is termed a vinegar-field. Two
holes are bored in the upper surface of the front end
of each cask; the larger serves to charge the cask
with wine, as also to draw off the vinegar when formed,
and the smaller allows an influx or efflux of air as the
cask is emptied or charged. The chief aim of the per-
son who wishes to carry on a vinegar factory, is to have
a good fermenting-room, where the wines are exposed
to an even temperature, having a copious supply of
atmospheric air and moderate ventilation the air-holes
for this purpose being constructed so as to admit of
being closed in windy weather, or when the tempera-
ture of the room is depressed. The walls of the apart-
ments are of brick, or such non-conducting material,
and lined with lath and plaster.
Low-roofed apartments are the most suitable ; when
there is a high ceiling it is necessary to elevate the
mothers, in order that they may occupy the higher
strata of warm air this trouble is dispensed with
when the roofs are low. Experience has pointed out,
that in high-roofed apartments, where the tuns are
placed at different levels, the uppermost work off
quicker and better than the others. In the event of
new mothers or vessels being used, it is needful to fill
them one-third full with the strongest vinegar at
a boiling temperature. This forms the stock, or true
mother ; the charges of wine added each time are two
and a half gallons to every cask, and an interval of
eight days is allowed for the acetification of each charge,
before adding another of fresh wine. This treatment
is continued of charging, and allowing eight days to
work it off till the casks are more than half full. One-
third of the contents of each mother is then siphoned
off in some factories only ten gallons and run into
the store tuns, and the process repeated anew of charg-
ing every eight days till the mothers are refilled, as
before. Some manufacturers do not suffer the vine-
ACETIC ACID WINE VINEGAR.
gar to remain in the mothers till they are two-thirds
full, but siphon off, at the end of every sixth or eighth
charge, twelve or fifteen gallons of vinegar. The mothers
should never be charged with more than the above
quantity, in order to carry on a steady and efficient
mode of acetification. Occasionally it happens that
eight days are not sufficient to finish every charge ; this
is more unaccountable from the fact, that the backward
casks receive the same amount of care, and have the
same temperature, as those which work well. It often
occurs that the casks in the warmest part of the room
are those which are backward, or lazy, as. they are
termed. In this event, nothing remains but to empty
such mothers of then 1 contents and fill them with hot
strong vinegar, when, on adding fresh charges, the
acetous fermentation recommences, and goes on as
briskly as in the rest. Sometimes fresh quantities
of a stronger wine, and an increase of temperature,
are supplied, to quicken the fermentation in such
casks which mode is often successful : the laziness
of the mothers is attributed to very vague and unsatis-
factory causes, some regarding it as the effect of the
electrical state of the casks and liquid.
It has been recommended to isolate the mothers as
much as possible, and to use little or no iron in the
construction of the casks. To ascertain if the liquor has
fermented, the following experiment is resorted to. A
white rod, bent at one end, is plunged into the mothers,
and drawn out in a horizontal direction ; if the rod be
covered with a thick white froth flowers of vinegar
the operation is said to be terminated ; if the froth be
reddish-brown more wine is added, and the temperature
increased till the whole is acetified. In summer the
natural heat is sufficient, but in winter the mothers are
heated, by means of a stove, to about 80 Fahr. The
prevailing temperature should range between 75 and 80
Fahr. When proper attention has been paid to the manu-
facture, the mothers usually work off double their contents
of vinegar annually. The precipitation of the insoluble
matters of ferment, the accumulation of mother of vine-
gar, and the deposit of tartar from the wine, fill the casks
to such an extent that it is indispensable to empty the
whole of them, and free them from these deposits every
six or eight years and often the entire factory needs
renovation, as was the case with a malt vinegar one in
Liverpool, which the Editor recently inspected ; but
good casks will last for a period of twenty-five years.
The wine, if it be ropy, is introduced into a large tun
filled with beechwood shavings, through a funnel open-
ing in the cover, and allowed to repose for some time,
whence it is afterwards drawn off by a tap in the lower
part of the tun, and supplied to the mothers as required.
Frequently, when weak wines are employed, from the
proportionably large amount of vegetal matter they
contain, it happens that the resulting vinegar is ropy
and turbid ; in these instances, it is necessary to pass
it through the clarifying or fining tun, and the advantage
of having an average vinegar is gained.
The old method, introduced by BOERHAAVE, is still
practised in Holland, in France, and on the Khine. Two
large tuns or vats, about nine feet high and four feet in
diameter, are supported on stands, about twelve inches
from the floor. Within one foot from the bottom of each
vat is a perforated bottom or wooden grate, resembling
that of a riddle ; on this a quantity of fresh cuttings from
the vine, willow twigs, ct cetera, is placed, and pressed
closely together, the remainder of the vats being filled
with rapes the footstalks of the grapes and other light
branches. Both vats are left open for the admission of
the extrinsic air. They are then charged with wine ;
one is completely filled, the other only half. The two
are left at rest for twenty-four hours at 75 Fahr., after
which the half-filled vat is replenished from that already
full, till the latter contains only half its contents of
liquor; twenty -four hours elapse before the liquid is
retransferred from the filled to the half-filled vat.
The process of transferring the liquid into the vatfi
alternately, is repeated every twenty-four hours until
the vinegar is made. Towards the third or fourth day
an internal effervescence is observed in the half-filled
vat, which is accompanied by a sensible elevation of
temperature, increasing gradually each successive day.
On the other hand, the temperature and fermenting
action of the filled vat are but sluggishly progressing,
so that the intestine motion takes place only on alter-
nate days in each vat. The completion of the process
is known by the decreased temperature and abated
action even in the half-filled vat. The vinegar is then
drawn off into casks, and left in a cool situation till it
clarifies. During summer, the time occupied is fifteen
days ; but in winter the acetification extends over a
longer period. The temperature of the half-empty vat
should never exceed 80 Fahr. ; if it rises to 84, the
liquor is to be transferred every twelve hours, and an
oaken cover placed on the half-filled vat in order to
check the fermentation, otherwise the aldehyde, or half-
made vinegar, will be dissipated, and only a vapid fluid
remains, sour, but effete. If the whole be kept at 83,
and the menstruum transferred every twelve hours, the
acetification will be effected in eight or ten days. Ac-
cording to DUMAS, the best French vinegar is made of
good wine, which is put into a cask already containing
vinegar, and to which atmospheric air has constant
access. As acetification proceeds, more wine is added
at intervals, and when the whole has become vinegar,
it is drawn off to the amount of the wine used, and the
process is repeated. Its strength, flavor, and color,
depend upon the characters of the wine employed.
The temperature of the factory is maintained at 86.
MULDER, the celebrated chemist of Utrecht, has
given a very interesting account of the vinegar mother
or ferment Mycoderma aceti which the Editor
appends: It is self-evident, says MULDER, that the
origin of organized beings from non-organized sub-
stances, must depend upon a transmutation. Re
searches for the purpose of explaining this point must
evidently proceed from the most simple case : such a
case is the formation of the so-called vinegar mother,
a plant originating in the vinegar, and, in fact, at the
expense of its constituents. This cryptogamous veg
tal may justly be regarded as one of the most simple
vegetal formations, and belongs rather to the Fungi
than to the Alg*. Fruit-bearing organs, with globular
sporidia, could never be detected in this species which
grows in the vinegar Mycoderma vini and Mycoderma
cerevisice, which probably constitute one species.
ACETIC ACID MALT VINEGAR.
does not originate in wood vinegar, but always in wine
and beer vinegars, causing whole vats of it to pass into
water. The vinegar mother is also often found in
vinegar in which organic substances have been pre-
served ; however, these substances contribute nothing
to the development of the mould plant, they only
further the origin of a germ, a cell, which separates from
the mass, and now, as a germ, forms a plant from the
elements of the acetic acid.
From wine vinegar, hi which totally different sub-
stances have been preserved, the very same species of
Mycoderma was developed, the same organized struc-
ture, the same mould plant, identical in form and in
chemical composition.
The principal constituents of the wine vinegars are,
acetic acid, C 4 H 8 8 , and water, H 0. They contain
also some salts, a small quantity of sugar, gum, and
extractive substance, and, above all, some protein,
derived from the albumen of the grapes, dissolved in
the acetic acid. In vinegar in which vegetal substances
for instance, gherkins, cherries, et cetera have been
preserved, the quantity of the protein may be increased
from these vegetals ; but that this is not requisite, is
evident from the formation of the vinegar mother in
pure wine or beer vinegar. The aliments of this vege-
tal mould are, therefore, C 4 H 3 3 , H 0, and C^ H 31 N 8
12 .
Now, these constituents are found to be grouped hi
a very simple manner in the plant, while both protein
and acetic acid disappear from the liquid ; moreover,
the plant contains nothing else, and we are, therefore,
able to follow chemically the transformation of acetic
acid and protein into a plant.
It is not less remarkable, that the plant has always
the same chemical composition; and the organization,
consequently, requires a definite proportion of acetic acid
and protein, the latter of which remains unaltered, while
the former yields a cellular substance under ' absorp-
tion of water. The new product of the acetic acid
combines in atomic proportions, just as well as the for-
mation of gypsum from carbonate of lime and sulphuric
acid.
The vegetal mould examined by MULDER was taken
from vinegar in which some substances had been kept.
Although always wine vinegar, the samples were of
various origin, and had preserved the following :
No. I., Currants.
No. II., Cucumbers.
No. III., Gherkins.
In the last it formed very rapidly. The first traces
of it were observed five days after placing the sub-
stances in the vinegar ; on removing the first crust, the
second formed in the course of a week, and so on for
the five subsequent weeks, always a new one, although
the vessel was well closed. The strength of the acetic
acid decreased more and more, until, at last, only water
remained : all these crusts had the same properties.
The species of Mycoderma examined, always formed
a coriaceous membrane, more or less elastic, saturated
with vinegar, and of a white color, except that from the
vinegar of the currants, which was reddish. By knead-
ing and pressing, the membrane becomes void of taste
and smell. Neither water nor alcohol dissolves any-
thing from it by boiling. On incineration, it does not
leave the slightest trace of ash ; submitted to destruc-
tive distillation it affords much carbon, and an acid
liquid distils over, from which potassa liberates ammo-
nia. It is not altered by cold strong sulphuric acid ;
but hi the heat it becomes first red, then, under decom-
position of the sulphuric acid, brown, and lastly, black.
Concentrated nitric acid colors it yellow, and on the
application of heat it dissolves very slowly in it ; hydro-
chloric acid has no sensible action upon it; strong
acetic acid takes up, when boiled with it, some protein,
the presence of which can be demonstrated by ferro-
cyanide of potassium.
When well purified with water and alcohol, it ceases
to lose any more weight at from 248 to 275 Fahr.
The analysis of the three kinds gave :
I. H. III. Theory.
Carbon, 46-75 . . 46-89 . . 46-89 . . 46-60
Hydrogen, 6-51 .. 6-52 .. 6-50 .. 6-40
Nitrogen, .. .. 3-87 .. 3-96
Oxygen, .. .. 42-74 .. 43-04
100-00 100-00
By long digestion with potassa, and continued boiling
with acetic acid, the whole of the protein may be
extracted, leaving pure cellulose, which is not com-
bined with any other body. This cellulose, which was
examined by PAYEN and others, has the formula,
C 24 H 21 21 , or that of the solid modification of inulin,
which ROSE" obtained as a white precipitate during
the cooling of a strong decoction of elecampane root.
PAYEN procured it from the grated root of the
dahlia.
By following the mode of formation of the plant from
the vinegar, the first thing observed is, that the pro-
tein which was present hi the vinegar as albumen
from the grape, passes from the dissolved state into a
solid, synchronously, assuming an organic form. On
employing wood vinegar, the protein must be furnished
by the vegetal substances which had been preserved in
it ; but, as above stated, pure wine vinegar also pro-
duces vinegar mother ; the cellulose, therefore, can have
originated solely from the acetic acid.
C 4 H s 3 X 6 -f 3 H = C 24 H 2l 21 .
MALT VINEGAR. Malz- Getreide-oder-Bieressig,
German. In this country, the chief part of the vine-
gar is made from malt wash, or gyle, prepared by
operating upon the materials hi the annexed propor-
tions: Six bushels of good barley malt, properly
ground, are mashed with forty gallons of water at 160
Fahr., permitted to repose till the solid matter settles
down, the solution drawn off, and the residue affused
with a fresh quantity of water, say forty gallons, at
180, well agitated for a short tune, allowed to settle,
then siphoned off as before ; and to take up all the
soluble matters, the third washings may be performed
with boiling water. On the whole, not more than
one hundred gallons of wash is to be used in extracting
the soluble matters. When the solution has cooled
to about 75, it is well agitated with four gallons of
yeast of beer ; and after thirty-six or forty hours, raked
off into casks, and placed hi the vinegar stoves or
ACETIC ACID MALT VINEGAR.
9
apartments, the temperature of which should range
from 70 to 77 Fahr. The casks should be placed
on their sides, the bungholes opened, and a circulation
of air kept up in each cask by means of an orifice
bored at each end of the cask, near its upper edge. Since
the temperature of the liquid is somewhat less than the
surrounding atmosphere, in consequence of the eva-
poration at the surface, an efflux of cold air takes place
at the holes while the warm air enters at the bung, and
thus a constant current is kept up. Frequently this
manufacture is effected by fielding : the casks rest on
strong frames, one foot and a half high, being supported
by firm pillars of brickwork or wood. Six or eight
rows of these are arranged parallel to each other, with
a narrow walk between each pair of rows ; a sluice is
placed along the casks into which the vinegar is si-
phoned, whence it flows into the store tuns in the
magazine; and a flexible tube, or hose, supplies the
wash from the great tun in the brcwhouse. The bung-
holes are left open in dry, and are loosely covered with
a tile in rainy weather. One-third of each mother is left
empty for the circulation of air, so as to oxidize the
alcohol as it generates in the wort. Three months are
required to complete the process, and render the vinegar
marketable.
What constitutes malt is generally known, but it may
be stated here, that the process of malting changes the
character of the grain, by converting some of the starch
contained in the barley into sugar, and facilitating the
similar conversion of a further portion. This conver-
sion into sugar, called the saccharine fermentation, is
one of the important steps in the preparation of beer,
whisky, and malt vinegar : in all of these it is requisite
that the starch of the grain be converted into a kind of
sugar, for it is from this that the vinous fermenta-
tion produces alcohol, the parent of vinegar. Hence
the early processes in an ale brewery, a malt distillery,
and a malt vinegar works, are similar.
In the factory about to be described, the malt is
hauled up out of the waggons into the upper floors of
the brewhouse. Here openings, placed in different
directions, permit of the malt being poured down into
large bins, whence it is removed when a brewing is
going to commence. Vinegar-makers and distillers, as
well as beer-brewers, give the name of brewing to the
extraction of a saccharine liquor from malt. The quan-
tity required for one brewing being measured out, and
taken from the bins in sacks, it is poured through hop-
pers, or funnels, at the top of the grinding apparatus,
whereby the malt is reduced to meal. The apparatus
consists of both the kinds used for such purposes, vide-
licet, millstones and crushing-rollers, either or both of
which can be employed as may be deemed advisable.
In the one case, a flat circular stone rotates and crushes
beneath it the malt, which flows between it and a
lower fixed stone : in the other, the malt, after flowing
through a shoot or trunk from the hopper, falls on a
wire grating, where it becomes depurated. It then
passes between two cast-iron rollers, rotating nearly in
contact, by which means it is crushed into fragments.
An ingenious contrivance, says DODD, invented by
Captain HUDDART, is adopted for yielding to any hard
substance which may enter between the rollers and
VOL. I.
the malt, without injury to the apparatus ; it acts on
the principle of stopping the circular motion of the
rollers altogether, until the cause of hindrance is re-
moved.
When the malt is crushed or ground, it falls through
a hose or trunk into the mash-tuns in the floor beneath.
These mash-tuns are similar to those used at large
breweries and distilleries, but smaller in size. They
are circular vessels, with a central stirrcr, or instrument
for keeping in constant agitation the ingredients con-
tained in the tuns the stirrer being worked by a steam-
engine. It is in these vessels that the saccharine fer-
mentation proceeds, or the extraction, by the action of
hot water, of a, sweet or mawkish substance from the
malt. This is the sweet principle which subsequently
yields to the brewer, his beer; to the distiller, his
spirit ; and to the vinegar-maker, his acetic acid : and
it may well be supposed, that every precaution is taken,
and every investigation made, as to the extraction of
the greatest quantity, and the most fitting quality, of
this important agent. The quantity of water required
for a given quantity of malt, and the temperature at
which the water is used, vary in each particular branch
of manufacture, according to the strength of the wort
required. The arrangements for settling these are very
exact and ingenious. Hot water is let down upon the
malt in the mash-tun, when at the proper tempera-
ture ; and in order to adjust this, the foreman of the
brewhouse ascertains, by the aid of a thermometer, the
temperature of the water through a temporary opening
in the upper part of the boiler. This is shown in
Fig. 4, where is also represented a balance-weight and
graduated scale, which, aided by a float on the surface
of the liquid in the copper, indicates the depth o:
water.
10
ACETIC ACID MALT VINEGAR.
When the water has acted on the malt for a certain
period, and been constantly stirred with it, the liquor
receives the name of wort, and is allowed to ilow
through pipes out of the mash-tuns into a large cast-iron
tank, or underbade, measuring twenty -four feet or up-
wards in length, by eight in width. This is merely a
general receptacle for the wort, into which the latter is
collected when the mashing is completed. Then ensues
the process of cooling, one which exhibits many remark-
able differences, as effected in different establishments.
Large, open, shallow, airy rooms, called coolers, or
cooling -floors, whereon the wort was poured in a thin
layer, to be cooled by the access of air on ah 1 sides, was
formerly the mode adopted at the vinegar works now
under description ; a surface of nearly twenty-three
hundred square feet having been appropriated to this
purpose. This mode has, however, been superseded by
another, in which one hundred square feet of surface
is made to yield the effects formerly wrought by more
than twenty times that extent. There is a vessel now
employed for this purpose, called a refrigerator, which
acts on the following principle : The hot wort is al-
lowed to flow out of the underback into an oblong ves-
sel, and out of this into another receptacle in the same
part of the building. A continuous pipe, between three
and four hundred feet in length, passes backwards
and forwards through the oblong vessel, and through
this pipe cold water flows incessantly, from an Artesian
well two hundred feet in depth. Constant currents
of wort run in one direction through the apparatus,
while a current of water in an opposite direction flows
through the pipe which cools the wort.
The temperature of the wort may be cooled even to
that of the water were it required, either by increas-
ing its influx and retarding its efflux, or by permitting a
Fig. 5.
larger quantity of water to flow through the pipe. The
heat of the wort is abstracted by the colder medium
with which it is in contact, so that the liquid becomes
colder as it passes to the exit pipe till the proper tem-
perature ia attained the flow of wort and water being
regulated by suitably adjusted -valves, which admit of
the proper quantity of each liquid. Fig. 5 represents
the refrigerator at the end where the wort enters, and
where the water leaves the pipe, after having performed
its office ; collateral with the refrigerator is the under-
back. Not only does this method require much less
room than that of the cooling-floor, but the refrigera-
tion is greatly accelerated, and the manufacturer is
rendered independent of the fluctuations of the weather;
for his refrigerating agent being brought from a source
two hundred feet below the level of the ground, has,
summer and winter, nearly the same temperature.
The reader must bear in mind, that the wort pro-
duced is precisely the same as that made by the beer-
brewer and the distiller, differing solely in saccharine
strength. It suffers likewise the same process of fer-
mentation, subject, of course, to any limitations that
may be required by its nature. From the refrigerator,
the cooled wort flows into the jack-back, a large circular
receptacle sunk in the ground, whence it is pumped up
into fermenting tuns. A valuable system of combina-
tion or centralization is observable in the arrangement
of the conducting pipes.
Large vessels are clustered, serving as a kind of
common centre, from each of which openings lead to
several other vessels, each orifice being regulated by
a particular valve ; for example, the liquid which, in
various processes, is contained in the jack-back, has
sometimes to be transferred to the fermenting tuns, at
one time or other to a large back or cistern at the. top
of the building, and oftentimes to the copper ; still there
are not three openings from the jack-back for these
several purposes, but one, which leads to a three-bar-
reled pump, the barrels of which are respectively
marked tuns, back, copper ; so that, by turning one of
three handles, the liquid can be conveyed to either one
of these. Again, the back just alluded to is placed in
connection with several other large tuns or backs, in
different parts of the premises, to any one of which its
contents can be transferred by simply turning a handle.
An hexagonal table is in one of the buildings, under the
surface of which are six valves, all opened and shut by
one key. On each tap the name of some particular
vessel or building is inscribed, with which it is in adu-
nation by an extensive series of subjacent pipes ; and
the overseer of this small piece of apparatus can control,
in almost any direction, the flow of the liquid under
manufacture. Such a system of classification is ex-
cellent.
The gyle is transferred from the fermenting tuns to
other large casks, where it deposits, in course, a kind of
acetous yeast mother of vinegar; and being thence
permitted to flow into the jack-back, it is drawn up
one of the branches of the three-barreled pump into
the large vat at the top; from this, as a centre,
the gyle is allowed to flow into casks, where, after
a longer or shorter period, it assumes the form of
vinegar.
Transformation of the fermented wort into vinegar
is effected at the factory in two ways, which are en-
tirely opposite in their manner of operation. In the
one case, the casks containing the gyle are placed in
ACETIC ACID MALT VINEGAR.
II
close rooms, heated to a high temperature ; in the other,
they arc ranged in rows in an open field, where they
remain many months. Different as these methods
seem to be, yet the effect produced is precisely the
same ; videlicet, the conversion of the gyle into vinegar,
by the process of acetification. As regards the conve 1
nience and interests of the manufacturer, both methods
seem to have their several advantages; for at the
vinegar works under consideration, both are followed,
although one occupies a very much longer period of
time than the other.
When fielding is resorted to, it must be made during
the spring months, and then left to finish during several
months in the warmth of the season. Technically, the
other process is called slaving, and in this case the
casks containing the gyle are arranged conveniently in
three stove-rooms, which are closed and locked, and
then exposed to a certain temperature till the acetifica-
tion is concluded. A cursory visit to one of these
apartments readily convinces us of the progress of the
fabrication, by the pungent acetous odor of its atmo-
sphere.
The fielding method requires a much larger extent of
space, and other utensils, than the stoving, from the
peculiarities always attendant upon it.
The casks, as already described, are placed in several
lengthy parallel tiers, with their bung-side upwards, and
left open. Beneath some of the paths which separate
the rows of casks, are pipes, communicating with the
back at the top of the brewhouse ; and in the centre
of each of these paths is a valve, or opening into the
concealed pipe. When the casks are about to be
filled, a flexible hose is screwed on to this valvular
opening, the other end of the hose being inserted into
the bung-hole of the cask, and the liquor in the gyle-
back at the brewhouse, by its hydrostatic pressure, flows
Fig. G.
through the underlying pipe and hose into the cask.
The hose is so long as to admit of reaching to afl the
casks in the samo row, from the valve, and is guided
by a workman, as is seen in Fig. 6. After due time
the vinegar is made, and is drawn off by the follow-
ing ingenious operation. A long trough or sluice is
laid by the side of one of the rows of casks, into
which the vinegar is transferred by means of a si-
phon, whose shorter limb is inserted in the bung-hole
of the cask. The trough inclines a little from one end
to the other, and its lower end rests on a kind of travel-
ing tank or cistern, wherein the vinegar from several
casks is collected. A hose descends from the tank to
the open valve of an underground pipe, that terminates
in one of the buildings or stores ; and by the agency of
a steam-boiler and machinery in the adjacent buildings,
the pipe is exhausted of its air, and this causes the vine-
gar to flow through the hos.e into the valve of the pipe,
and thence into the factory buildings. By this arrange-
ment the whole of the vinegar is drawn off, and, as if
it were, invisibly. This arrangement is partly seen in
the engraving. From the storehouse where the vine
gar is received, it is pumped into the refining or rope
vessels, and filtered, to separate mucilaginous matter.
These vessels are often filled with wood shavings, straw,
or spent tanners' wood, but none of them acts as a sub-
stitute for the stalks and skins of the grapes rapes
in producing by filtration a bright vinegar.
It is a matter of difficulty to collect a proper stock of
rapes, to supply a filtering medium for a large vinegar
work, when several huge refiners are in operation ; and,
when once collected, no part of the materials relating
to the factory are treasured with so much care.
DODD describes each rape or filtering vessel as being
fitted with a false bottom, on which the grape stalks
are placed. Beneath this false bottom, and above the
true one, a tap is inserted, whfch allows the vinegar
to flow into a back or cistern. From this cistern a
pump elevates the liquid to the top of the vessel, and
hence ensues a very curious circuit: the vessel is
filled with vinegar, which filters through the raisin-
refuse into the space beneath, from there into the
tank, thence through the pump to the top of the vessel,
to recommence its circuit. Over and over does this
circuit proceed, the pump being kept constantly at
work, and the vinegar incessantly in motion. If such
a comparison might be permitted, we would liken the
pump to a heart, which propels the liquid to the enor-
mous lung the rape where it is depurated, and then
again returned to the heart. The filtering substance
gradually, but very slowly, wastes away, but is renewed
from time to time.
Vinegar, by this process, becomes transparent, or
bright, as it is technically termed, and is then pumped
from the rapes into store-vats, where it is kept till re-
quired to be put into casks for sale ; and the rapes are
immediately filled up with an equivalent portion of
fresh vinegar, so as never to leave the raisin-refuse idle.
The vinegar casks hold one hundred and sixteen, fifty,
and twenty-five gallons, respectively. Each cask is
examined and gaged before being brought into the
sending-out warehouse, to see that it is sound and of
proper dimensions. The warehouse is a large room,
lined on all sides by store-vats, from which the casks
are filled ; and on the days when these casks are to
be despatched, a very busy scene is presented with
coopers, porters, et cetera, ranging the casks, mark-
ACKTIC ACID QUICK VINEGAR PROCKSS.
ing them, and consigning them to the waggons. See
Fig. 7.
Vinegar for household purposes is made in the fol-
lowing manner : The malt being prepared in the usual
way, a quantity of argol winestone is added, and
afterwards introduced into the casks. The casks have
a perforated bottom, about a foot above the true one,
and are placed on their end. A quantity of refuse of
Fig. 7
raisins, from wine factories, is placed on the false
bottom, and the wash at the temperature of 70 a
proper addition of yeast being previously made is
poured upon the rapes in the casks. After twenty-
four hours the wash is racked off into another cask of
the same description, and allowed to remain in this for
a day or two, when it is drawn off into a third and
fourth cask. The liquid, after spending twenty-four
hours in the last cask, is raked off and supplied to the
mothers; then allowed to ferment quietly, as in the
preceding instances, at a temperature of 70 Fahr.
Argol communicates to it the appearance of wine
vinegar. It is clarified by leaving it in the casks, for
some time, with a little isinglass.
SUGAR AND CIDER VINEGAR. In many factories,
instead of a sweet wort of malt, a solution of sugar is
often employed to produce vinegar. Several receipts
are given for this department of the manufacture, the
principal being the annexed : Dissolve ten pounds of
sugar and six pounds of winestone in forty gallons of
boiling water ; put the solution into the fermenting tun,
and when cooled down to 80, add four quarts of beer
yeast, and agitate the whole thoroughly. Grant the
liquid repose for six or eight days, at a temperature of
75, till the vinous fermentation is ended ; after which
rake it off, and submit the liquor to the acetous fer-
mentation, either by one or other of the modes already
mentioned, or by the graduator process, which will
presently described. Another prescription is
100 parts of water,
13 parts of brandy,
4 parts of honey,
1 part of tartar,
1120 parts of water,
12 parts of brandy,
3 parts of brown sugar, and
1 part of tartar,
surrendered to the usual processes till the acetous
fermentation is fulfilled.
QUICK VINEGAR PROCESS. Schnellessigbereitung,
German. From the length of time necessarily occu-
pied in making vinegar, as hitherto described, the name
of slow vinegar process has been given to the manu-
facture since the application of a quicker method for
accomplishing the same end. Of the older methods,
the only approximation to the process now considered,
was that of BOERHAAVE, described under Wine Vine-
gar, at page 7. Mr. HAM of Bristol patented, some
thirty years ago, a process very closely resembling the
graduator, but much inferior, inasmuch as the sur
face exposed to active oxidation was Tar less in the
former than in the latter. Good vinegar is at present
made from alcoholic liquors, in the course of thirty-six
to forty-eight hours. The slow and quick processes
are conducted upon the same principle, namely, the
oxidation of the alcohol ; but the manner in which it
is oxidized is different the surface exposed in the
quick method being many thousand times more exten-
ACETIC ACID QUICK VINEGAR PROCESS.
13
sive than in any former one. Before entering minutely
into the arrangement of the vessels employed, it will be
as well to state curtly, that an extreme division of the
liquor is effected, as when it comes into play it can
only percolate very slowly, and thus diffusing itself
over shavings, forms a very thin liquid layer, the surface
of which is exceedingly large, and is therefore better
adapted for the chemical appropriation of the oxygen in
the current of air which is transmitted over it. A gallon
of liquor, when subjected to the quick method of aceti-
fication, if allowed to percolate slowly, offers a surface
of about one hundred square yards to the action of the
air during its descent.
Fig. a.
The graduator, which Fig. 8 represents, is a large
tub or tun, A, of oak, eight feet high, three and a half
feet diameter at bottom, and four feet at the top, and
rests upon a stage, d d, of wood or brickwork, one foot
and a half high. A stout hoop of beechwood is fas-
tened in the interior of the tub at B, eighteen inches
from the bottom, and a perforated shelf placed thereon ;
and two inches above this, eight or ten holes, c c, one
to one and a half inch diameter, are bored, equidistant
round the cask, and inclining downwards from the out-
side. Another strong beechwood hoop, D* is fixed a
foot from the top of the tub, on which is placed a second
perforated cover, fitting the interior of the vessel tightly
the holes being one inch apart, and one-fourth of an
inch in diameter. These apertures are loosely filled
with cotton wick or packthread, a knot being made at
the top end to keep them from falling through the
cover ; they pass down to the shavings, and serve the
purpose of conducting the liquor equally llirough the
body of the tub, as likewise to arrest it from passing
too rapidly through the tun. The space between the
bottom and top shelves is filled with shavings of
beechwood, and a thermometer is introduced a little
below the top cover, the bulb of which reaches the
middle of the apparatus, to indicate the rise or fall of
temperature, as the subsequent oxidation of the alcohol
is greater or less. Six larger holes are bored in the
upper cover, one and a half inch in diameter, into which
wooden or glass tubes, opening below it, and about
nine inches long, are adjusted ; these serve as chim-
neys to carry off the deoxidized air from the vessel.
A loose oaken cover, c, with a funnel opening in the
centre, through which the liquids for charging the gra-
duator are supplied, protects the whole from dust, et
cetera. At one and a half or two inches from the bot-
tom of the graduator, a pipe or glass tube, E, is inserted ;
t bends upwards nearly as high as the lower perforated
shelf, and then curves extrinsically, so as to discharge
the liquid into an appropriate vessel, H, placed beneath
it, when it rises so high as the shelf in the interior of
the vessel. A wooden pipe, twelve or fifteen inches
iong, is fixed in the lower part of the vessel see Fig. 9
having a plug or wooden screw fitting the bore of
the pipe, that acts as a tap, by which the dregs and
other albuminous matters that accumulate are run off.
Everything being thus arranged, hot strong vinegar is
poured through the funnel opening in the outer cover,
and passed through the graduator for one or two days,
to induce an eremacausis or slow combustion of the
shavings and sides of the graduator, before passing the
fresh spirituous liquors through for acetification. To
fill the tun, a standard liquor is taken, consisting of
fifty gallons of brandy or whisky, of sixty per cent, by
volume, and thirty-seven gallons of beer or malt wort.
Acetification -takes place slowly in the beginning; but
when the shavings become gradually impregnated with
mother of vinegar, the oxidation is accelerated, and the
larger the amount of this body the quicker the oxida-
tion ; so that the process goes on improving. Some-
times five gallons of the above liquor are mixed with
forty to fifty gallons of weak vinegar, and passed
through the vessel at a temperature of 80 Fahr., and
by this means the alcohol is more readily oxidized.
It is well known that essential oils, or a mere trace
of wood vinegar, arrest acetifying ; consequently, the
vinegar used must be free from pyroligneous acid.
The tun, or graduator, being thus brought into a proper
state of working, fifteen to twenty gallons of the stan-
dard liquor previouslv mentioned, are diluted with sixty
gallons of soft water, and poured into the tun through
the funnel in the outer cover, and permitted to pass
through; it is again returned to it, unless there bo
several graduators in the factory, and in that case the
liquor, after passing through the first, is allowed to
percolate the second tub. Every succeeding hour
two and a half gallons are drawn off from the second
tub that of the first being kept as vinegar, while the
14
ACETIC ACID QUICK VINEGAR PROCESS.
product of the second is always returned to the first
vat or graduator; thus, in twenty-four hours, thirty
gallons of vinegar are ready for sale. One hundred
and fifty gallons of superior vinegar can be manufac-
tured daily in ten tuns, which one man can super-
intend. From the purity and clearness of the pro-
duct, it resembles distilled vinegar; but to make it
more marketable, one pound of cream of tartar, and two
pounds of brown sugar or molasses, may be added to
every fifty gallons, to suit the palate of the buyers.
If honey or molasses be previously added to the spi-
rituous liquor, a vinegar of a good color is at once
obtained : this addition is often made for the sake of
economy. The temperature of the rooms should be at
100 Fahr., and that of the standard liquor 125 to
130 when poured in. After the working tuns have
acquired a proper state for the acetification of the liquid,
a temperature of 70 should be kept up in the apart-
ments, and the charging liquid at 78 or 80. During
the tune the solution is percolating, the temperature of
the graduator rises to 100 108, from the rapid oxi-
dation of the alcohol, as will be indicated by the ther-
mometer as long as the operation goes on favorably.
If a stronger acid be required than the product of the
first and second vessels, the mode adopted is to mix
the vinegar made in the first and second tuns, with a
stronger alcoholic liquor, and pass the mixture through
a third tub ; and if, when transmitted, it should be re-
quired still stronger, a fresh quantity of alcohol is added,
and submitted to a fourth tub, to obtain acid of the
strength required. The vinegar procured in this way,
from the first and second tuns, will require thirty to
thirty -six grains of pure carbonate of potassa to neu-
tralize every fluid ounce ; that from the third tub, after
being mixed with twenty gallons of the standard liquor,
instead of sixteen or eighteen, will neutralize forty-five
grains, and that from the fourth graduator may be
made of that strength, that an ounce will saturate fifty
to sixty grains of the pure alkaline carbonate.
When thick muddy liquors, or those containing much
organic substance, as beers, or other mucilaginous mat-
ters, are filtered through the tuns, their dregs deposit
on the chips, the accumulation of which prevents the
liquid from percolating, and consequently the further
oxidation of the alcohol is arrested. Should this
happen, the chips are withdrawn from the graduator,
washed with hot water, then steeped in hot strong vine
gar, as in the forementioned instance, and returned to
the tub ; or a stream of hot water may be made to
pass through without taking out the shavings, and after-
wards hot strong vinegar, as before stated. It is better,
however, always to use liquors free from sedimentary
or slimy matters to charge the tuns ; and if there should
be any such, they ought to remain for some time in the
clarifying vessel before submitting them to acetifica-
tion : when these precautions are observed, the tuns
will not so soon require cleansing, and the products will
be purer and better. Many employ pieces of charcoal,
about the size of a walnut, which have been deprived
of their saline ingredients by dilute hydrochloric acid,
and afterwards, of the acid, by water. The charcoal
effects the oxidation of the spirit much quicker than
the shavings, and it does not become so quickly choked
with mother of vinegar. All those liquors spoken of in
describing the slow processes, and indeed all alcoholic
liquors free from empyreumatic products, are converted
into vinegar by this method. The wine malt for charg-
ing the graduators is made from wheat and barley malt,
mixed in the proportion of forty pounds of the former
to eighty pounds of the latter ; the whole well ground
and saturated with forty gallons of water at 120 Fahr.
After the subsidence of the solid parts, the clear super-
natant liquor is drawn off, and the residuary matter
washed with water at 100, agitated, and drawn off as
before ; and a third affusion, in order to extract all
soluble matters, is made at 200 212 Fahr. : the
whole of the washings should not exceed one hundred
and ten gallons^ The solution is cooled to 75, and
fifteen pounds of yeast are well comminuted with it, thft
whole left at rest in an atmosphere of 80 for five 01
six days, to undergo the vinous fermentation, after the
termination of which it is ready for the graduators.
Although this method is seemingly the perfection of
rapid acetification in the vinegar manufacture, yet,
without proper care, it is subject to its losses. In the
slow methods, from the lengthy exposure to the atmo-
sphere, a vast quantity of vinegar is evaporated and
lost, even at a low temperature ; much more will the
elevated temperature of the graduators expel the half-
converted alcohol aldehyde and it may happen that
not a trace of acetic acid remains after the termination
of the process. In the first application of the quick
modification, this loss was very much felt, owing to the
escape of aldehyde, then unknown ; but on its being
discovered, the chemist at once saw that the cause of
the deficiency was the imperfect oxidation of this com-
pound ; and to remedy the evil, he advised an increase
in the holes in the graduator, so as to admit a larger
supply of atmospheric air, which proved successful.
This is one of the thousands of instances of the ad-
vantages to be derived by the manufacturer having a
knowledge of chemistry ; and, moreover, is a happy illus-
tration of the value of theoretic knowledge, when pro-
perly applied ; for every apparently useless discovery
of the theorist may, at some time or other, be made
available to the perfection of the arts. The fonnula
at page 4, expresses the change that takes place in the
graduator. The formation of aldehyde may be shown
by closing some of the openings which serve to sup-
ply air to the tun, and when the alcoholic liquor has
passed through, by applying a solution of strong po-
tassa to a portion of the clear liquid, we invariably
obtain a brownish precipitate aldehyde resin which
is characteristic of this body ; and further, if the solu-
tion be boiled in a test tube with a little oxide of
silver, decomposition ensues ; part of the oxide of silver
is reduced to metal, which forms a coating on the glass,
and the aldehyde is converted, by uniting with the
oxygen of the reduced silver, into ahhlydic or lampic
acid, which unites with the remaining oxide of silver,
forming a soluble salt. Aldehyde boils at 70, and at
65 its spec. grav. is 0'79 ; it has a peculiar ethereal
odor, and is inflammable. These facts will serve to
guide the manufacturer in regulating the proper circu-
lation of air in the tuns, taking care, however^ that there
is not a superabundant supply, by which alcohol would
ACETIC ACID BEET-ROOT VINEGAR.
15
be lost, from the increased temperature 110 to 120
Fahr., consequent on the too rapid oxidation of the
spiritous liquids. Theoretically, every per cent, of al-
cohol by weight in a liquid should yield one and one-
tenth per cent, of anhydrous acetic acid, or as much
acetic acid per ounce as will neutralize five to six grains
of pure carbonate of potassa. In good practice, it is
found that two hundred gallons of spirit of fifty per
cent, yield one thousand six hundred and sixty-seven
gallons of vinegar, neutralizing thirty-two grains of the
alkaline carbonate per ounce, or one thousand seven
hundred and seventy-five gallons, of thirty grains neu-
tralizing power: according to theoretical calculations,
one thousand nine hundred gallons of thirty grain vine-
gar should be obtained, which shows a loss in practice
of about six per cent. In many factories this loss is
obviated, by causing the vapors from the acetifying
tuns to pass over a surface of cold water, which absorbs
any alcohol or aldehyde that may be evolved, and this
water is afterwards used in extracting the soluble mat-
ters from fresh quantities of malt.
In some of the metropolitan establishments, a very
large slightly conical tub or tun, fourteen feet wide at
bottom, fifteen at top, and thirteen high, turns out as
much vinegar as is in Germany obtained from six
tubs, eight feet high and four feet wide. The larger
mass of materials generates and maintains so much
heat in the oxidation of the spirit, as to require no stove-
heating in a properly constructed chamber. Two and a
half feet above the bottom of this tun a false one is
laid ; the space over this bottom is filled with coopers'
wood shavings and chips, and the room beneath is
destined to receive the liquor as it trickles down on the
true bottom, in order to be pumped up in continual
circulation. At a moderate elevation the reservoir of
the wash is placed, which discharges itself through a
regulating stopcock or valve into a pipe at the bottom,
which passes down through a pretty large hole in the
middle of the lid of the graduator, and terminates a
few inches under it in a cross pipe shut at the ends,
which is made to revolve slowly by mechanical power,
in a horizontal direction, round the end of the vertical
pipe. This cross pipe is long enough to reach nearly
to the sides of the- tun, and being pierced with small
holes in its under side, delivers the fermented liquor, in
minute streams, equally all over the surface of the chips
of wood. It thence falls into the lower part of the tun,
through holes round the circumference of the false
bottom, Avhence it is pumped up again, under certain
modifications to be presently described. The air for
oxygenating the alcohol into vinegar is supplied from
two floating gasometers, which are made to rise and
fall alternately by steam power. The ascending one
draws its air from a pipe which passes into the centre
of the tun, immediately under the false bottom, and,
as it redescends, it discharges the air through a pipe
into a cistern of water, which condenses and retains the
alcohol vapor drawn off with the air. This water is used
in making the next acetifying mixture. Fresh air is ad-
mitted into the top of the tun, by the sides of the verti-
cal liquor pipe, which is somewhat smaller than the hole
through which it passes. Proper valves are placed upon
the pipes connected with the gasometer pump, whereby
the air drawn off from the bottom compartment is pre-
vented returning thither. A small forcing pump is
employed to raise the liquor continually from the bottom
of the tun to the cistern overhead. By this arrange-
ment, good vinegar may be made in a few days without
any perceptible loss of materials. The progress of the
acetification in this apparatus is ascertained by testing
the air for oxygen, as it is^ slowly drawn into the gas-
ometers, or expelled from them. For this purpose a
bundle of twine, which has been impregnated with a
solution of acetate of lead, and dried, is set fire to, and
plunged into a bottle filled with the air. In general, it
is so well disoxygenated and carbonated that the igni-
tion is immediately extinguished.
By regulating the warmth of the apartment, the
motion of the gasometer, and the admission of air, the
due progress of the acetification may be secured. The
vinegar has an average strength of five and a half per
cent, of hydrated acetic acid, and is immediately ready
for market. Ure.
Another process, not very unlike the preceding, pa-
tented by Mr. HAM of Bristol, is in operation at several
works. The apparatus consists of a large vat, in the
centre of which is placed a revolving pump, having
two or more shoots pierced with holes, so as to cause a
constant shower of wash fermented wort to descend
from the top when they are set working. The lower
part of the vat is charged with wash, the upper part
with birch twigs, piled as high as possible, but without
interfering with the revolution of the shoots. Between
the surface of the wash and the joist which supports the
birch twigs, a space of three or four inches is unoccupied,
and one or more holes perforated therein, in order to
admit a current of air, either direct from the atmo-
sphere, or by means of a blowing apparatus. If the
wash be maintained at a temperature between 90 or
100 Fahr., and the pump kept in continual motion,
a charge may be acetified in a period of two, fifteen,
twenty, thirty, or forty days, according to the quantity
of liquid, and the mass of twigs through which it has
to pass ; but, generally, the birch twigs and liquid are
so proportioned as to obtain the acid in fifteen or
twenty days. The advantages offered by this modifi-
cation are, that a wash made from raw grain with one-
sixth of an admixture of malt, will yield a vinegar equal
to that from malt alone; besides, any other liquor
capable of fermentation, and producing alcohol, can be
acetified as in the German process. The acetification
can be arrested at any moment, and the current of air
increased or diminished at will.
Messrs. NEALE AND DUYCK, of London, patented a
process for the manufacture of vinegar from beet-root,
in 1841. The method given by them is the following :
The tops and shoots of the beet are cut off, and
the roots, after being thoroughly washed, are rasped
into a fine pulp, with which a number of strong cloth
bags are filled. These bags are placed in a power-
ful press, with a board or hurdle between every two,
and subjected to pressure till the whole of the saccha-
rine juice is extracted from the pulp. The strength
of this juice will vary from 7 to 9 of the hydrometer,
and must be reduced by the addition of water to 5,
and then boiled for a short time. The liquid, or
1C
ACETIC ACID WOOD VINEGAR.
wort, is now removed to the coolers, in which it re-
mains until the temperature falls to 60 Fahr. It is
then conveyed to the fermenting vat, adding half a gal-
lon of yeast to every hundred gallons of the wort.
When the fermentation is ended, the fermented wash
is pumped into the acidifying vessel, and is there con-
verted into vinegar. The acidifying vessel consists of
a strong vat, capable of containing twenty-four thou-
sand gallons, in the centre of which, a short distance
above the bottom, a rose, or small inverted dome, is
fixed, pierced with numerous small holes, and commu-
nicating by a pipe with a blowing apparatus. Upon
the bottom of the vat a steam worm lies, one end of
which is connected with a steam boiler, and furnished
with a steam-cock, the other end being open to the
atmosphere.
The interior of the vat is divided into several com-
partments by means of diaphragms or perforated false
bottoms, and the cover of the vat is provided with a
valve which opens outwards upon a very slight pressure
from within. The vat is likewise furnished with a
thermometer, the bulb of which is immersed in the
liquid contained in it, by which the temperature of the
liquid is known.
Annexed is the mode pursued for converting the fer-
mented wash into vinegar, by means of this apparatus :
Two thousand gallons of vinegar are first let into the
vat, to serve as mother to an equal quantity of fer-
mented wash, which is introduced at the same time ;
and a little yeast being added, the whole enters quickly
into the acetous fermentation. After the action com-
mences, air is forced into the apparatus by the blowing
machine, which air, in its passage through the small
holes in the false bottoms, is brought into intimate
contact with the liquid, imparting to it a portion of its
oxygen ; the deoxidized air, and carbonic acid evolved
from the vinous fermentation, being expelled through
the valve in the cover, by the force of the current which
is instituted through the vat. When the temperature,
as indicated by the thermometer, falls below 70, a cur-
rent of steam is admitted into the worm by turning the
cock, so as to maintain the heat of the vat between 70
and 80 Fahr. By this means the liquid will, in a few
days, be converted into vinegar ; and when that is
effected, four thousand gallons more of the fermented
wash are introduced, and the preceding process con-
tinued, the whole eight thousand gallons will, in a
few days, be converted into vinegar. Fresh charges
fire added and acetified, as just mentioned, till the vat
contains twenty -four thousand gallons of vinegar ; and
when the acetous fermentation of the last charge has
ceased, eight thousand gallons of vinegar are drawn off,
and fresh wort added, and drawn off alternately, always
keeping about sixteen thousand gallons of made vinegar
in the vat.
FRUIT VINEGAR. AppM^grapes, and other saccha-
rine fruits, are expressed, the jiW^ with the addition of
a little yeast, set aside in casks hi a warm place 75
to 80 Fahr. until the vinous fermentation has ceased,
and then acetified by either of the preceding methods.
A very superior vinegar is made in Germany, and
other continental states, from grape -sugar and the spi-
rits produced from potatoes, beets, and molasses. The
Excise laws of England, however, prevent the adoption
of those materials in her manufactures, except under
heavy duties.
In some factories, large quantities of sour ale and
beer are converted into vinegar; but the product is
much inferior to the vinegar made from wine or malt
wort. The large amount of nitrogenous and other ex-
tractive matters which those liquids contain, undergoes
a second or putrid fermentation after their alcohol is
oxidized into acetic acid, and this quickly destroys the
last traces of acid, leaving a liquid of a disagreeable
odor, slightly resembling very stale beer. Sulphuric
acid prevents the second fermentation for some time ;
still the vinegar has a nauseous odor, which renders it
most objectionable.
Mr. J. C. KENT, of Upton-on-Severn, kindly informs
the Editor, that when he first undertook the supervision
of the manufactory of Messrs. KENT and SONS, the firm
was in the habit of- buying beer, ale, and porter, that
had gone hard and sour, for conversion into vinegar ;
and on one occasion the bankrupt stock of a large brew-
ery at Cavendish Bridge, in Derbyshire, was bought.
Murmurs had reached them on several occasions that
the vinegar, on being kept, lost its acidity; but when
the above large quantity of beer came to be sent out
as vinegar, the complaints became loud and frequent.
It was found that the beer was the cause, and since
that not one gallon of sour ale has been purchased
by this firm. Some of the vinegar that was returned
became exactly like vapid beer ; it was not so putres-
cent as to smell, still it was a phase of the putrid fer-
mentation. The same gentleman states, that it is im-
possible to make good vinegar from beer ; and further, i
that although one or two manufacturers claim to be
able to dispense with the addition of sulphuric acid to
malt and gram vinegar, as mentioned further on, he
has never been able to obtain a sample free from this
acid.
Dr. STENHOUSE, in an investigation on sea-weed,
showed that when such bodies are subjected to a fer-
mentative action, at a temperature of 96 Fahr. with
lime, acetic acid is generated in large quantities, and
is found, united with the alkaline earth, in the form of
acetate of lime. In three experiments with different
varieties of sea- weed, he obtained as a result an average
quantity of one and four-fifths per cent, of anhydrous
acetic acid. He employed a temperature of 96,
and added hydrate of lime, gradually, with the view of
keeping the mass slightly alkaline, till the fermentation
had subsided ; after which the liquid was filtered off,
evaporated to dryness, and the residue heated, to de-
compose the mucilaginous matters, when crude acetate
of lime remained. No attention has yet been paid to
this fact, in the production of vinegar, on a manufac-
turing scale, although in some of the northern countries
of Europe, as well as on some of the Scottish and Irish
coasts, where sea-weed is plentiful, it might prove pro-
ductive. The sea-weed seems to lose nothing of its
fertilizing influence on account of the fermentation.
WOOD VINEGAR, or PyroligneousAdd. Holzcssig,
German ; Vinaigre de Bois, French. This species of
Vinegar, to which much attention has been lately given,
is, as the name implies, obtained from wood by destruc-
ACETIC ACID WOOD VINEGAR.
17
live distillation, and it is the only one of the series up-n
whose formation no positive data can be elicited
Caloric is the moving cause which developes the acid,
when wood is subjected to its influence in close vessels.
The elementary components of the wood, after a cer-
tain amount of heat is applied, arrange themselves into
combinations quite distinct from those in which they
were originally ; some of these are gaseous, while more
are liquid ; but the quantity of the latter depends upon
the greater or less degree of heat applied in the distil-
lation. The uncondensed products are carbonic acid,
carbonic oxide, defiant gas, and light carbide of hydro-
gen; and the condensed liquids acetic acid, tarry and
other oleaginous substances, while a residuary charcoal
remains in the retort. Hypothetically, the formation
of acetic acid during distillation, may be demonstrated
in various ways. The composition of wood may be re-
presented as C 6 H 5 6 , two eqs. equal C 12 H 10 0,,
Minus ; H
Equal three eqs. of anhydrous acetic acid, C 12 H 9 O g
consequently, it is only necessary to abstract a little
oxygen and hydrogen water from the wood, in order
to transform it into acetic acid. It may likewise be
assumed that the olefiant gas evolved during the distil-
lation, by combining with oxygen, generates the acid
2 (C 2 HJ =C 4 H 4 + 4 -C 4 II 4 4 =:C 4 H 3 3 , HO
Olefiant gas. .
11} drated acetic acid.
It is known that when these two gases are mixed in
equal volumes, and the mixture enclosed over mercury
in a bell glass, acetic acid is formed ; the production of
the acid, however, from the combination, requires con-
siderable time. The facts which are observed in the
actual distillation of wood are : First, water passes off,
being that which is extraneous to the wood ; then, the
decomposition of the wood itself gives rise to water and
the acid, which is next eliminated ; subsequently, con-
densable matters containing an excess of carbon, form-
ing the tar and oily substance, and towards the close
of the distillation, carbonic oxide and carbide of hydro-
gen are evolved, leaving a charcoal similar in form to
the wood introduced. The distillation of wood is car-
ried on in large cast-iron cylinders, or in square ovens
made of stout sheet-iron, riveted firmly together, the
heat being applied to them directly.
A convenient apparatus, for the distillation of wood,
is annexed, of which Fig. 10 is a plan, and Fig. 11 an
Fig. 10.
elevation. In these figures, A is a box made of cast-iron
plates, bolted firmly, of one hundred cubic feet capa-
VOL. I.
city, and imbedded in brickwork ; B is a cover on the
upper end of the box, through which the charge of
wood te introduced, another such opening being at the
opposite side not shown in the figures made air-tight
by a cover such as B ( from which the charcoal is drawn
off; c, the firebars ; D, the firedoor, through which the
fuel is introduced ; e e, the spiral course of the flame
round the box, and //, the flue passing into the cliim-
ney.
The iron pipe, G, conducts the gases, and other vo-
latile matters evolved by the heat, to the condenser,
consisting of a series of pipes, I, i, i, of a large calibre,
through which the pipe, G, passes, leaving a surround-
ing space for cold water. The pipes rest one above
the other on a wooden framework, H. Through L, a
Fig. 11.
stream of water from the tank, K, enters the lower con-
densing pipe, and thence into the others by the con-
necting pipes, o o, till discharged by P, at a tempe-
rature reaching ebullition. The distilled vapors and
gases, in their progress downwards, are partly condensed
into a liquid, which falls into the air-tight tank, s, and
thence by the connecting pipe, T, into another, colla-
terally placed, but at a lower level : v is a tube from
the pipe G, projecting into the furnace, through which
the uncondensed carbonaceous gases flow into the fire,
where they are consumed. At first the fire is increased,
and when the distillation has commenced, the gases
discharged almost serve to maintain the heat sufficient
to effect the decomposition of the charge.
The usual time allowed for carbonizing each charge
is twenty-four hours. After the wood is exhausted, the
fire is withdrawn from the oven for six hours, so that
the apparatus may cool, to allow the charcoal to be ab-
stracted through the opening at the back, air-tight sheet-
iron boxes being placed beneath the door to receive it.
One hundred cubic feet of beechwood produce sixty
per cent, of charcoal, as much brushwood being used to
raise the heat required to carbonize the wood.
The apparatus in use at Nuits, and Rouen, in France,
is the following : In Fig. 12, A is a large sheet-iron
:ylinder, with an opening in the upper part of one of
the sides, into which an adapter, B, is introduced ; c is
the cover of the cylinder, fitted tightly to it with bolts
and screws. The cylinder being charged with wood, the
:over, c, is fixed tightly in its place, and the cylinder
hoisted by means of a crane, D, fixed adjacent to the
18
ACETIC ACID WOOD VINEGAR.
furnace, and deposited in an upright cylinder of brick-
work, which may be covered, at will, by means of a
dome, E, made of' brickwork. The cylinder being
charged and deposited in its receptacle, the fire is
lighted, and the tube, c, through which the distilled
products pass off to the condenser, connected, and well
luted to the adapter, B. The condenser is similar to
that attached to the oven at Fig. 11, consisting of a
series of pipes, i, i, i, through which c passes. Water
from the pipe, L, enters the pipes, I, I, I, by means of P
and the connecting-pipes, t, near the curvature, the
heated water being discharged by the pipe, o. The con-
densed products pass off into the covered receiver, and
a pipe, P, conducts the uncondensed gases back to the
furnace, where they are consumed. The pipe, P, ter-
minates a few inches above the ground in the ashpit,
in the form of a rose, N, similar to a watering-can, in
order that the flow of gases may be distributed through
the fire ; M is a stopcock, to regulate the quantity of
gas entering the furnace.
In some factories there are different methods of con-
densing the products; air, in a few instances, is the
medium by which the vapors are condensed. The
evolved products of the distillation are made to traverse
an extensive range of piping of large diameter, and in
some cases the vapors are conducted through a series
of casks, connected together by pipes. The most effec-
tual mode of condensation is water, and, wherever at
hand, is generally adopted. About twenty-four hours
are usually allowed to work off each batch of wood.
Fig. 12.
The carbonizer of M. SCHWARTZ is shown in Figs. 13,
14, and 15. Fig. 13 is a bird-eye view of the furnace;
Fig. 14 a section of the elevation, following the lines,
dd\ and Fig. 15 another section, following the lines,
c c. In the ensemble of these figures, the annexed
objects are distinguished: A A, the space where the
wooV. is carbonized ; bbbb, apertures through which
the wood is introduced, and whence the charcoal is
withdrawn ; c c, the fires which heat the furnace ; d d,
openings through which the smoke, carbonic acid,
acetic acid, oleaginous and tarry matters, pass off,
through the pipes, g g, and thence through the con-
Fig. 13.
'f
denser into the chimney ; e e are crooked pipes, de-
scending from g g, which convey the tar condensed in
Fig. 14.
Fig. 15.
g into the vessels, ff- Fig. 14 the bend in the pipes,
e e, prevents the access of air into the apparatus ;
H H H H are wooden canals, wherein the acid and olea-
ginous matters con-
dense ; i is the chim-
ney, and Tc a small
opening in the chim-
ney, where a fire is
lighted to establish a
draught. The furnace
walls are of fire -
brick, or they
may be doubly
lined with brick, and the intervening space filled with
aluminous earth and sand. At first the furnace is
charged with the heaviest blocks of wood, and between
these smaller wood is introduced, for the purpose of
making the interior more permeable to the action of
the fire. All the orifices of the furnace are then closed,
and the fires at C c lighted, the current of air being
instituted in i, as above said. The blaze of the fire
traverses the funiace and carbonizes the charge of
wood, and the smoke and other vapors from the fur-
nace pass by the exit pipes, d d, into g g, whence they
escape to the condensers, H H, and thence to the chim-
ney, I. The charge is known to be completely carbon-
ized when the smoke issuing at I, which is at first black
and heavy, becomes bluish and light. The chimney
passage is then closed, and the opening of the pipes,
d d, stopped up with wooden plugs, and then well luted
with some plastic clay ; the firedoors are closed, and
the furnace left to cool. At the end of the second day,
two holes in the top of the furnace, which hitherto had
been closed air-tight, are opened, and water introduced
to extinguish the red-hot charcoal; the openings are
ACETIC ACID WOOD VINEGAR.
19
again closed for a longer period, and when the furnace
gets a little colder, more water is added. If any red
sparks are observed, the opening and pipes must be
carefully stopped up, so as to prevent the formation
of a current of air, as this would occasion the com-
bustion of the charcoal, and consequently lessen its
produce. After complete cooling, the charcoal is
raked out by the apertures, b b, and another charge
introduced. The principle of carbonization in these
kinds of furnaces is different from the others already
mentioned, inasmuch as the blaze from the fire never
comes in contact with the wood in the latter, while
in SCHWARTZ'S furnace the blaze permeates the fur-
nace entirely ; but so long as a competent supply of
fuel is kept on the fire, c c, no oxygen passes into
the interior to consume the charcoal, and the wood is
carbonized quicker. Another advantage which this
furnace possesses is, that small wood may be employed
to burn inc c, and the acid and other valuable products
of this likewise are collected in the condensers, H H.
What more particularly distinguishes SCHWARTZ'S fur-
nace above LACHABEAUSSIE'RE'S is, that no ah* can
enter it but through the fires, c c, and that there is no
loss from the combustion of charcoal. The cost of tliis
furnace is about 120, the capacity being nearly six
thousand cubic feet.
REICHENBACH'S carbonizing furnace consists of a
square oven, made partly of firebrick and partly of
ordinary bricks ; the interior lining, represented in Fig.
16, is composed of the firebrick, and the outer case is
of the ordinary material. The oven is heated by means
of tubes, which traverse from one end of the case to
the other, and are seen in a b c d, m n o p, in the figure ;
these tubes are from one to two feet in diameter. Heat
is applied by lighting a fire in the tubes at p and a,
which raises the temperature so high as to cause them
to glow. The wood in the surrounding spaces of the
oven abstracts the heat, and is thereby carbonized, the
Fig. 17.
volatile products of which pass off at the bottom of the
oven, through the openings at x, into the canal, fgh, and
through y, at the opposite side, into a similar canal :
both products intermix in the canal, k i, where the tar
is partly deposited. From the tube, Jc *, the acetic acid
vapors are carried off to the condenser, as in the
ordinary process of the manufacture.
The chief pyroligneous acid factories in England are
Fig.l
S9EBB
In the counties of Gloucester, Northumberland, Lan-
caster, and Monmouth; and one in Glamorganshire
Wales. Cylinders of varied length, from six to ten
feet, and two and a half to four feet in breadth, are
20
ACETIC ACID WOOD VINEGAR.
employed. These are placed horizontally in brickwork
domes, the front and back ends being closed by doors
which swing on stout hinges, or by plates screwed
firmly to these openings. A pipe issuing near the con-
vex extremity of the further end of the retort, carries
off the gases and condensable products to the refrige-
Fig. 10.
rator. A general view of the retorts and condenser
is seen in Figs. 17 to 22. Fig. 18 presents a section
of cylinders, A, B, and C; and in Fig. 17 is seen their
position enclosed in brickwork, with the doors, K,
closed. The fire is at D, Fig. 18; and the space,
e e, shows the course of the flue round the cylinders,
Fig. 20.
till it reaches the chimney, E. The passage of this
flue is more clearly seen in the plan, Fig. 20, where
the dotted lines, d d, et cetera, are the circuits it
makes. The space, A, B and C, indicates the cylin-
ders and the pipes attached to them for conducting
the distilled products to the tank, D, where most of
the tar is deposited, and the partly depurated product
issues through a small pipe into a condensing tube.
Fig. 21.
This is more perspicuously seen in the elevation of
the cylinder and tank, as shown in Fig. 21. Fig.
22 is a section of the tank where the tar is deposited ;
the tank is protected by a cover, which fits into
the enlarged part or groove at the top of the sides
of the tank, acting as a water lute, as is seen at h.
The pipe, i, carries off the acetic acid vapors to the
serpentine pipe in the large tub, c, which it enters at Jc,
in the figure. Beneath the tank, A, a tub, n, is placed ;
both are connected by m, that enters at the bottom
of the tank. The tarry matter, as it accumulates
hi the tank, falls through the pipe, m, into the tub,
n. P is a tub placed below the condenser, c, where
the acid is collected, and the uncondensed gases pass
off through the pipe, D, and are consumed at I, so as
not to coiTupt the air in the factory. The arc, B, Fig.
22, shows the position of the condensing vessel with
regard to the cylinders, it being the same as P in
Fig. 18. The space at H may be used as a torrefying
chamber when preparing the acetates, described at
page 46. Sometimes two of these cylinders, placed in
the same dome of brickwork, are heated by one fire,
the flue playing round each, as in Fig. 23, where a a
are the cylinders ; /// the fires ; c c c, ash-pits, and
ooo the course of the flue to the chimney. Even five
such carbonizers, placed in one arch, are heated by
ACETIC ACID WOOD VINEGAR.
21
two fires. Such is the arrangement at Pitchcombe
Chemical Works, near Stroud, Gloucestershire, where
the cylinders are nine feet by two feet ten inches;
thirteen of which are capable of holding five and a half
cords of wood, each cord being sixteen feet eight inches
in length, and two feet two inches in breadth, and the
same in depth, the weight of which, according to the
state of freshness or otherwise of the wood, is between
twenty-three and twenty-five hundreds. One ton and
a half of coal serve to carbonize the whole. The usual
time allowed to carbonize each charge is twenty-four
hours. Factories which are carried on at Risca and
Abercarn, in Monmouthshire, by the same proprietor,
form conjointly the largest in the kingdom. In the
Risca Works, cast-iron cylinders, six feet long by four
feet in diameter, are used, each being capable of hold-
ing about two tons of wood, or three-fourths of a cord.
Wrought-iron chests are likewise serviceable, having an
iron pipe six inches diameter passing up through the
centre of the chest, in order to convey the heat to the
interior. Each chest is capable of holding a cord and a
quarter of wood one hundred and sixty cubic feet, a
cord of wood being one hundred and twenty-eight cubic
feet which weighs about three tons and a half. At
Abercarn, eight square ovens, with boxes, are the variety
of carbonizers, each oven being capable of holding one
cord of wood one hundred and twenty-eight cubic
feet. Twenty -four hours is the time usually allowed
to work off each charge, but if the demand for the dis-
tilled products be urgent, the charge may be exhausted
in sixteen to eighteen hours. In this case, the products
are not so much as when the distillation is carried on
slowly.
At Cornbrook Works, near Manchester, the cast-iron
cylinders are six feet long by three feet diameter, with
square doors, which hang on stout hinges. Generally,
six tons of wood are carbonized by one and a half ton
of coal ; one fire being made to heat two such cylinders,
placed adjacent to each other in the same arch.
At Breeme, near Lidney, in the forest of Dean, there
are eight large square ovens, each capable of containing
two sheet-iron boxes, four feet six inches by two feet
nine inches in interior measurement. In each of these
boxes about half a cord of wood is placed, and as the
wood is piled up above the top of the sheet-iron box,
the ovens are required to be of a size proportioned to
this height. The doors of the ovens are on hinges,
fastened and luted, when the charges are enclosed in
the usual manner. These ovens are charged once a
day ; but as the wood is light, twenty-four hours are
more than sufficient to effect its carbonization. Tho
boxes, when charged, are run along a railroad into the
ovens, and withdrawn in a similar manner, whereby
much labor is saved.
At Lougher, near Swansea, they use a peculiar sort
of apparatus a large sheet-iron carbonizer, divided
internally into six compartments, into which six sheet-
iron vessels, of four feet in height and two feet broad,
fit; the whole forming a cylindrical shape similar
to the outer case. There is only one opening in the
top of the carbonizer, through which the vessels con-
taining the wood are introduced ; but there is a movable
framework in the bottom of the outer vessel, by means
of which each receptacle is brought directly under the
orifice, and the charged box lowered into it by a crane.
When charged, this aperture is closed by a sheet-iron
door and firmly bolted, then luted in the ordinary way,
and heat applied. The sheet-iron case is imbedded in
brickwork, and the fire directly under it, the flue rising
spirally about the carbonizer. A similar apparatus to
this is in use at Deptford.
Upon a comparison of all the modifications of carbon-
izing retorts sketched, it will be evident that the cylin-
ders are more adapted for the distillation of the large
billets, or heavy cord wood of Gloucestershire, and the
refuse ship-timber of Glasgow, Newcastle, and Liver-
pool.
The most economical are cylinders between eight
and ten feet in length, and from two and a half to three
feet in diameter. On the contrary, where light wood
is used, such as that generally carbonized in the Welsh
factories, the square ovens suit better ; however, as the
supply of wood is always subject to variation as to its
bulk, it is more satisfactory to have both forms of ap-
paratus on the premises. From the cylinders, the char-
coal is generally raked out at the door at the opposite
end, into sheet-iron boxes, or square pits sunk in the
floor, and lined with firebrick ; the chests and pits are
capable of being perfectly closed.
In many factories, the charcoal is abstracted from
the carbonizing cylinders by means of the following
apparatus : An iron shield, almost the size of the inte-
rior of the cylinder, is placed near the mouth of the
retort, to which a chain is attached, that runs througli
the whole length of the carbonizer. The workman, by
seizing this chain with a suitable implement, draws out
the whole of the charcoal nearly all at once, and with
less risk of breaking it than when the rakes are em-
ployed.
The relative amount of charcoal, as well as the
gaseous and liquid products, depends on the species of
wood subjected to distillation, as also upon the regula-
tion of the proper heat to effect the same. The tem-
perature should at first be gentle, gradually increasing
in proportion to the time, till towards the end it ap-
proaches an incipient red heat, in order to dissipate all
the volatile products from the wood. The strongest
acid is generally obtained from timber of slow growth
on dry soils ; next from timber grown on moist ground ;
and lastly, from pines and resinous trees. The produc-
tions of the latter variety are not, however, so inferior
as generally stated, when proper attention has been
paid to the regulation of temperature, and complete
22
ACETIC ACID WOOD VINEGAR.
carbonization of the charges. This will be seen under
the distillation of spent dyewoods, sawdust, et cetera, as
carried on with success by Mr. A. P. HALLIDAY, of
Salford, whose apparatus is there represented.
The following tabular view of the amount and
strength of the products obtained from the distillation
of several varieties of wood, is taken from the work of
STOLZE. The quantity of the varieties of wood sub-
mitted to destructive distillation was one pound, a
quantity which will, in the generality of cases, form a
precedent for the manufacturer on the large scale :
One Pound of Wood.
Wcifrht of
Acid.
One ounce of
Aci.l nentra-
lized of pure
Carboiiuti' of
I'..!:! Id.
Weight of
i:ini'J-r..-mmitic
Oil.
Weight of
Charcoal.
White Birch
Botanical Names.
Betula Alba
Ounces.
71
Grains.
55
Ounces.
1|
Ounces.
3J
7
54
iS
3*
Tilia Plataphylla
6
52
ll
3g
Oak
Quercus Robur ._
e|
7?
50
44
1$
if
4 k
3
Esculus Hippqcastanum
7|
41
Ig
3i
74
40
ll
3'.i
Populus Alba abelc
7
39
ll
3$
7
37
1}
3i
Basket Willow
73
35
H
3i
7^
34
1|
8J
Logwood
Alder
Hematoxylon Campecliianum
Alnus
7J
7 I
35
30
!
2
3.i
Juniperus Comnmnis
7i
'29
ia
38
White Fir .
. Pinus Abies
6*
29
33
el
28
l|
Common Savinc
Red Fir
Juniperus Sabina
. . Abies Pectinata
7
6|
27
25
l|
2 I
33
3
Eighty-four Pounds
of Wood.
Charcoal.
Clmrconl per
cwt. of Wood.
Acid liquor.
1
3!3
Jt
*
3
31 j
o" J
&gl
f*
Measures of
Soda to neutral-
ize Acid liquor.
3
||
1*
i
3
M
1-86
2-26
0-77
3-06
2-40
2-00
2-45
1-86
3-73
306
Birch,
23i
2U
18"
24
20
20
23
20
20
28
31-33
28-66
24-00
32-00
26-64
26-64
30-68
26-64
26-64
37-33
45
45J
49
46
47
46
48
48
27
39
1-046
1-036
1-029 !
1-039
1-034
1-030
1-035
1-030
1-040
1-038
1-080
1-075
1-045
1-090
1-067
1-055
1-078
1-065
1 100
1-085
70
83
29
115
90
75
92
70
140
115
15
17*
17
14
17
18
13
16
37
14
Elm,
Willow,
Beech, low temp.
Do. high temp.
Laburnum,
Ash,
Alder,
Hawthorn,
Young Oak,
Three hundred (ind thirty-six
Pounds of Wood.
1
u
K|
u
Si
CJ y
.?
<
%, .
It
A
w
1
:
||,
||
CM ^
~.2
8 f
H
Beech,
84
72
70
91
90
70
70
77
28-00
24-00
23-33
30-33
30-00
23-33
23-33
25-66
180
150
120
190
190
200
180
145
1-029
1-018
1-031
1-022
1-024
1-017
1-018
1018
?
11
8
8
6
8
6
25
14$
13
24
22
18
16
20
Walnut . .
Birch, cut three years
Oak,
Ash,
Apple,
Wych Elui,
Maple,
The eiisemble of t
Paris showed the fol
pounds of wood be
Charcoal,. . 1
iree works in the neighbc
lowing products from four
ech and oak :
014 Ibs.
335 " sp. gr. 1-027 = 416
330 " Faceta
>rhood of
thousand
bs. of dry
te of lime, i
Acid Liquor, 2
Tar. . .
In a well-conducted establishment in England, the
annexed were the quantities of crude acid liquor ob-
tained by the distillation of 1,634 cords of wood ; each
cord of wood weighing 512 cwt., according to the longer
or shorter time allowed to intervene between the cut-
ting and the using of the wood :
174 cords produced 23,923 gallons of about 10 Ibs. each.
160 .. .. 27,720
252 . .. 30,424
318 .. .. 40,584
330 .. .. 55,900
400 .. .. 50,700
The subjoined is one of the monthly statements of
works in the vicinity of Paris, in which the wood is car-
bonized by heat from the coke ovens :
The following products were obtained at the works
of M. MOLLERAT, at Nuits, from 1,000 steres of wood,
weighing 5,120 cwt. :
Charcoal, 1,280 cwt,
Pyroligneous aciil, 850 "
Acetic acid, 54 "
Acetate of lead, 152 "
DR.
1,000 Hectolitres of
coal, at 50 frs. the
15 hecto., 3,333 33
500 Steres, half cordte,
of wood, at 9 fr. 20 c. 4,600 00
Wages of coke-oven
man, 120 00
Wages of six work-
men, 450 00
Wages and lodging of
two carmen, 200 00
Keep of two horses, 180 00
Salary of director of
works, 200 00
Wear and tear, calcu-
lated at ten per cent,
on the value of the
plant 60,000 frs. 500 00
Five percent, interest
on capital, 416 00
Rent of ground and
cellars for charcoal, 100 00
Cit.
1,520 Hectolitres of
coke, at 49 IV. the
hecto., 4,312 00
30 Hectolitres small
coke, at 32 fr. 50 c. 975 00
750 Loads of charcoal,
at 6 fr., 4,500 00
150 do., second qua-
lity, 5 fr., 750 00
50 do., third quality,
4 fr 200 00
20 do., powder, 2 fr.
50 c 62 50
200 Casks pyrolig-
neous acid, at 15 fr. 3,000 00
Tar, 165 00
Frs. 10,099 33 Frs. 13,964 50
One franc equals ten pence English ; one hundred centimes
are equivalent to a franc. The French hectolitre is a measure
of capacity, containing one hundred litres, equal 22-009668 im-
perial gallons ; 4-5434579 litres equal an imperial gallon.
ACETIC ACID WOOD VINEGAR.
23
Mr. A. P. HALLIDAY, of Salford, has obtained a pa-
tent for the manufacture of pyroligneous acid, etcetera,
from sawdust, spent bark from tanyards, and dyewoods
exhausted of their coloring matters, which is in opera-
tion at the works of Messrs. HERVEY, PEAK, and HER-
VEY, the largest and most eminent manufacturers of
decoctions in this kingdom ; at the works of Messrs.
HADFIELD and RENNEY ; and at Messrs. HALLIDAY,
POCHIN, and Co. For a long time the distillation of
sawdust was unsuccessfully attempted, the apparatus
used being applicable to the decomposition of the ma-
terial ; for on being introduced into either the ovens or
cylinders, a layer of carbonized sawdust coated the re-
tort so effectually, when the temperature was raised,
that the further progress of the decomposition was
arrested by the non-conducting property of this hard
layer of minutely divided charcoal.
Fig. 24 is a drawing of the apparatus patented by
Mr. HALLIDAY, by which the preceding obstacle is
overcome. The sawdust, spent dyewood, et cetera, are
introduced into a hopper, H, placed above the front end
of an ordinary cylinder, A A, in which a vertical screw
or worm, c, revolves, conveying the material, and in
the proper quantities, to the cylinder, placed in a hori-
zontal position, and heated by means of a furnace, F.
Another revolving screw or worm, B B, keeps the
material introduced into the retort by c in constant
agitation, and at the same time, moves it forward to
the end. During its progress through the retort, the
materials are completely carbonized, and all the vola-
tile products disengaged. Two pipes branch off from
the ulterior part of the retort, one, D, passing downwards
and dipping into an air-tight vessel of cast-iron, or a
cistern of water, E, into which the carbonized substance
falls; the other ascending pipe, K, carries off the vola-
tile products of the distillation into the condenser, con-
sisting of pipes of copper or iron, immersed in or sur-
rounded by water. Messrs. HERVEY and Co. convert
ah 1 the spent dyewoods of their manufactory into pyro-
ligneous acid, and the charcoal obtained, when ground
finely, answers well for steel manufacturers and iron
founders.
The quantity of acid obtained from spent dyewoods,
equals the amount usually derived in the ordinary dis-
tillation of wood. Messrs. HADFIELD and Co., and
Messrs. HALLIDAY and Co., use sawdust, the produce
from which is found greatly at variance with the state-
ments set forth in chemical and manufacturing works
that pine and such resinous woods yield comparatively
very little acid. Practically, eight retorts of the above
description, fourteen niches diameter, produce as much
pyroligneous acid in twenty-four hours, as sixteen re-
torts, three feet in diameter, during the same time, yield
when worked on the old system. The charcoal from
sawdust is extensively used as an ingredient of artificial
manure, and many printers use it as an absorbent in
the urinals attached to their factories. Charcoal being
an excellent disinfectant, the nuisance that would arise
from such cisterns is completely abated. Moreover, the
Messrs. HARGREAVES, of Accrington, state, that when
the charcoal is saturated, the effluvia is taken away,
and the ammonia, et cetera, arising from the decom-
position of the nitrogenous compounds of the urine, are
retained, so that it offers a ready and economical means
of transferring these fertilizers to the soil.
The average produce from eight retorts, taken for
24
ACETIC ACID WOOD VINEGAR.
many weeks, carbonizing twenty-two tons of sawdust
weekly, is the following :
Pyroligneous acid 10 Twaddle = 1-05,. .2484 gallons.
Tar, 240 "
to which, by way of comparison, is subjoined the average
yield per ton of oak, when carbonized in the ordinary
cylinders.
Weight of wood, 2240 Ibs.
" pyroligneous acid, 1277 Ibs.
" charcoal, 600 "
1877
Loss uncondensable gases, 363 "
According to the state of dryness of the wood when
submitted to the retorts, the products are a little more
or less ; but generally the range of produce is between
one hundred and twenty-four and one hundred and
twenty-seven gallons of 6 Twaddle, or 1'03 spec, grav.,
and six hundred pounds of charcoal. From the pre-
ceding, it is evident that the same quantity is obtained
from the sawdust, and of a far higher specific gravity.
The average price of oak wood is eighteen to twenty
shillings per ton, and for cutting this in convenient bil-
lets for the retorts, et cetera, the cost is usually about two
shillings to two and sixpence. About seven hundred-
weight of coals are found sufficient to carbjonize one ton
of wood. The tar obtained in distilling pine wood saw-
dust is of equal quality to that imported.
In the vicinity of Manchester, where exhausted dye-
woods and sawdust are plentiful, a decided advantage in
the yield and quality of the products is to be gained by
operating .upon those material*
Messrs. SOLOMONS and AZULAY patented a process,
the main feature in which was the transmission of
steam heated to a high temperature tlirough the mass
of material. By this method, every particle is exposed
to the superheated steam, and completely carbonized.
The charcoal left is well adapted for manuring pur-
poses; besides, we have all the products ordinarily
obtained in the ligneous distillation. The steam ac-
companying the other products renders them dilute ;
these vapors are, however, made subservient in concen-
trating the condensed products as they pass to the con-
denser ; for they are made to traverse a coil of piping
placed in a pan of the distillates. If this had not
been suggested by a chemist, the patent could never be
advantageously worked. The heated steam prevents
the deposit of tarry and other resinous matters ; conse-
qiiently, no choking of the pipe need be apprehended.
The following brief sketch of the pyroligneous acid
manufacture, has been transmitted to the Editor by
Mr. JOHN RANDALL, the manager of the Pitchcoombe
Works at Stroud, and who has been there since their
commencement in 1842.
Mr. RANDALL states : It remains still a disputed point
whether small or large retorts are preferable. After a
trial of different sizes, and some years' experience, he
considers a retort of moderate dimensions the most con-
venient and serviceable. Those in use here are nine
feet and a half in length, and two feet and a hah in
diameter, enclosed in brickwork, and placed horizon-
tally, three or five in a set.
They are secured in front by lids, fastened by means
of a cross bar. At the back there is an exit pipe, eight
inches in diameter, connected with a main pipe. From
this the liquor is conducted by a series of pipes, im-
mersed in water, into a large tank. Retorts set in the
method described are heated more economically, and
the charcoal is good.
Each retort holds about half a cord of wood, which,
when of beech, of the average dryness, weighs about
twelve hundred-weight. These retorts are charged once
in twenty -four hours. As to the quantity of liquor
produced from a given weight of wood, of course much
depends on the condition of the wood, whether green
or dry that which has been cut down about six months
is the best for practical purposes, the liquor being
stronger in acid. A cord of wood in this state yields
from one hundred and twenty to one hundred and thirty
gallons of liquor, id est, acid, water, naphtha, and tar,
leaving in the retort, charcoal, about one-fifth of the
weight of the wood originally employed. The next pro-
cess is to separate these various products, and for this
purpose the liquor is pumped up into copper stills,
and, for safety, steam heat is applied. Naphtha, in a
weak and impure state, comes over first, then the pyro-
ligneous acid, leaving a tarry residuum in the retort.
Some manufacturers prefer adding lime to the liquor
in the tank, before it is transferred to the stills : this,
perhaps, is best for the production of naphtha, but it
involves the necessity of making black or brown acetate
of h'me, which, from its inferior quality, is often difficult
of sale, unless at a low price.
After distillation, the acid is removed to large
tubs or vats, and neutralized with lime. It is then
allowed to stand for a few hours, and the clear
solution siphoned off into evaporating pans. The
vessels used here for this purpose are made of wrought-
iron, of an oblong shape, about nine feet in length,
four feet in width, and two feet in depth ; they con-
tain about four hundred and fifty gallons. The solu-
tion is boiled down to a proper consistency, put into
draining buckets, and then removed to a drying stove.
This is the ordinary process; but when the acetate
is required of superior quality, the solution should be
properly evaporated, then allowed to stand for eight
or ten hours, carefully drained off from its sediment,
and boiled to its crystallizing point. Simple distillation,
though it separates a large portion of tarry matter,
never renders the pyroligneous acid pure ; this can only
be effected by neutrah'zing the acid with carbonate of
soda, evaporating the solution to dryness, and then sub-
jecting the exsiccated mass to fusion. The black cake,
as it is termed, is redissolved, boiled to the crystallizing
point, and drawn out into large shallow vessels to de-
posit the salt.
The trade has been in a depressed state for the last
few years ; and, indeed, it is liable to such fluctuations
that there is not sufficient inducement for a capitalist
to embark in it. Randall.
M. PAUR has recently published a method which
he follows in the preparation of acetic acid, and the
acetates from the product of the distillation of wood,
by which he dispenses with the labor of distillation,
evaporation, and for the most part the torrefaction
attendant upon the processes generally pursued in this
branch of the manufacture.
ACETIC ACID PYROXYLIC SPIRIT.
25
His method consists in presenting to the vapor of
acetic acid, during the operation of the carbonization, a
substance which seizes exclusively upon it, and thereby
concentrates it.
The bodies which will the most readily satisfy this
condition, are those bases whose 'acetates are not de-
composable at the temperature of the operation ; such
as potassa, soda, baryta, lime, magnesia, etcetera; and
the carbonates of these same bases, or any other salt
whose acid can be displaced by the acetic acid. The
author gives the preierence, according to locality, to
lime, a calcareous carbonate, magnesian carbonate, or
carbonate of soda ; the first three, because of their low
price i the last, because it will yield directly the acetate
of soda, a product prepared at a future stage for the
entire purification of the acid.
This process may be applied, whatever be the mode
of the carbonization. The manner in which it is
adapted to carbonization en mettles piles or masses
of rough wood covered with earth will now be de-
scribed.
It is well known that carbonization en meules if
effected by the heat produced by means of the com-
bustion of a certain quantity of the wood of the pile,
when ignited. Orifices left at the foot of the pile give
access to the air necessary for combustion; others
pierced at different heights and in different positions, by
the workman charged with directing the progress of the
carbonization, serve for the escape of the products of
combustion and distillation. In these last orifices, at
the point where the workman has judged it necessary
to carry the draught, M. PAUR introduces tubes into
the earth of about an inch interior diameter, and half
an inch in thickness, which, dividing over ah 1 the pile,
terminate in bundles, in numerous recipients distributed
quite round the mass. These pipes may be composed
of several ends or short pieces, connected by jointings,
so that, when the progress of the carbonization requires
the displacement of the orifices for the emission of
the smoke, the extremity only of the tubes may be
removed, without the necessity of deranging the re-
ceivers.
The latter are simple casks, of fourteen inches dia-
meter, and three feet and a quarter hi height, into
which the tubes lead by one extremity, and which are
filled, in whole or in part, with pieces of lime, carbonate
of lime, or carbonate of soda! divided into fragmentf-
varying in size according to the state of porosity of the
matter, and leaving between them interstices, which
permit the passage of the vapors.
Acetic acid and the other products which escape
from the wood, are conducted by the pipes to one of
the extremities of the cask, and traverse the different
layers of carbonates or of lime, which fix the acetic
acid, whilst the other products escape at the other
extremity of the receiver.
It is proper to remark, that this process presents
one advantage over that by refrigeration ; namely,
that considering the temperature maintained in the
interior of the casks, much less tar is condensed, which
renders more easy the subsequent purification of the
acid.
The acetate of lime obtained in this manner, may be
VOL. I.
submitted to the same operations as in the processes at
present in use.
It would be possible, under certain circumstances, in
place of particular receivers, to introduce into the midst
of the pile, in the intervals left between the logs, the
substance intended to unite with the acetic acid.
There are some factories which expressly distil the
wood in close vessels to obtain the acetic acid. For
these, the method described would still have great ad-
vantages. In fact, there would be nothing to prevent
so regulating the temperature of carbonization, that the
acetate of soda produced in the apparatus should not
itself be decomposed, while leaving this temperature
sufficiently high to destroy or expel the tar, in such a
manner that the torrefaction would be combined with
the carbonization, BO as to obtain, at one operation, a
Concentrated and purified body.
PYROXYLIC SPIRIT, or WOOD NAPHTHA.
PURIFICATION OF THE PRODUCTS OF DISTILLATION.
The distillates of wood are received in a tank or some
suitable vessel, and on allowing the whole to rest for
some tune, the excess of tarry and other resinous and oily
matters precipitates, the spirit and acid liquor form-
ing a supernatant layer, which may be drawn off into
another tank by means of an overflow pipe or siphon.
If the liquids, in their passage from the first tank, be
made to percolate a filter of coarse gravel, a large
quantity of the matters held in suspension by the acid
liquor is separated. The purification of the spiritous
and acid products is effected hi two ways : first, where
the spirit is distilled directly from the crude liquor,
and secondly, where the acid is neutralized with milk
of lime, and then submitted to distillation to obtain
the spirit. In the first instance, copper stills of about
five hundred gallons capacity are used, into which
the liquor is pumped, and heat applied by means of
coils of copper pipe placed in the interior of the stills,
through which steam from an adjacent steam-boiler is
forced ; in other cases the heat is applied externally,
either by steam-pipes coiling round the still, or by
the direct application of fire. The distillation is con-
tinued till all the spirit has passed over, which is known
by throwing a portion of the distillate on a bright fire
the spirit inflames, giving a whitish light.
In most instances, the whole of the naphtha is ex-
pelled when about one hundred gallons are condensed
in the receiver. When there are no more vapors elimi-
nated, the receiver is changed, and the distillation of the
acid liquor proceeded with till all the liquid has nearly
passed over, the tarry and oleaginous products remain-
ing being run off through a stopcock in the bottom of
the still into a tank. Should the acid be not directly
wanted, after the expulsion of the spirit, the remaining
four hundred gallons may be drawn off into the tank,
and allowed to rest, so as to deposit the excess of
impurities, and afterwards pumped up to other vessels
when required. Some manufacturers first neutralize
the acid liquor by means of hydrate of lime, and after-
wards distil the spiritous and crude acetate of lime
liquors in sheet-iron stills or boilers to obtain the
naphtha. Fire is applied directly to the under part of
the boiler. The remaining acetate of lime liquor is
drawn off, and allowed to remain in tanks or reservoirs
ACETIC ACID PYROXYLIC SPIRIT.
till required for use. The deposit of tarry matters
which accumulates in the first receiver of the condens-
ing apparatus, attached to the wood carbonizers, is
also submitted to distillation, and the crude spirit
therefrom added to former portions.
The further purification of the crude spirit obtained
in the preceding distillation, is effected by repeated
rectifications, over caustic lime at first, and then over a
mixture of lime and caustic potassa ; and, in order to
detach the small quantity of ammonia that is formed,
the final distillation of the product is carried on with a
little sulphuric acid. In some factories they rectify the
distillates over chalk, and in some others over chalk and
bicarbonate of soda. Copper stills are those which are
used, and the heat applied, either by steam pipes,
coiled in the interior of the still, or the lower half of
the retort may be incased in an iron jacket, to which
the fire is directly applied.
The spirit thus obtained is colorless, and varies in
specific gravity from -870 to '832. A few years ago,
Mr. WILDSMITII obtained a patent for the februation
of the spiritous and acid products of the distillation of
wood. The principle of his invention is the applica-
tion of an oxidizing agent, together with the influence
of light, by which treatment he purposes to oxidize the
carbides of hydrogen, which are unessential to the spirit
and acid, but whose presence communicates a disagree-
able odor to the products. Bichromate and hyperman-
ganate of potassa are the salts generally employed, in the
following manner : The liquors are placed in a tank
secluded from the air or the accidental admixture
with dirt, or other impurities, by means of a cover, in
which a part is glass, or some other transparent body
mica, so as to admit the light, which is necessary for
the. success of this application. Four ounces, avoirdu-
pojs,, of the forementioned compounds, in fine powder,
are used to every imperial gallon of the liquid ; this
may be thrown into the tank with the liquid, or
the salt may be dropped into the solution gradually,
and the whole well agitated. The time required to
effect the purification of the spirit depends upon the
quantity of tarry matters present; but, in ordinary
cases, from fourteen to twenty-one days will suffice.
Sunny weather favors the purification of the spirit and
acid from the foreign compounds, as it brings about the
combination of the oxygen of the oxidizing agent with
the carbonaceous impurities in a very considerable
measure. Other compounds, such as peroxide of man-
ganese, or a properly regulated stream of chlorine gas
passed through the solution, might answer the purpose,
but the hypermanganate and bichromate of potassa or
soda offer the greatest facilities in then* use ; besides,
they are, by effecting the intended purpose, converted
into bodies which exert no diminishing action upon the
substances sought, arid which may be easily separated
from the spiritous and acid liquor by distillation. Chlo-
rate of potassa might be successfully employed in the
purification ; it is, however, a much dearer salt than
those mentioned by WILDSMITH, and perhaps for that
reason it is not used. When the purifying reagents
have been added, the fluid should be agitated once or
twice daily, in order to bring the solution of the salts
into immediate contact with the impure liquor : during
the intervals the cover should be kept on. Frames of
glass or mica hi the cover are made to slide backwards
and forwards, in order to allow the liquid to be exa-
mined, and learn how far the purification has advanced.
If it be desired to hasten the februation, sulphuric or
hydrochloric acid is added, in the proportion of one
pound of acid to fifty gallons of spirit. The object of
such additions is to liberate more freely the acid in
combination with the potassa, and thus bring the whole
of the oxygen within reach of the carbides of hydrogen,
and the other analogous impurities ;
3 Eqs. of bichromate of potassa, when decomposed by
3 Eqs. of hydrochloric acid, give
3 Eqs. of chloride of potassium, while
6 Eqs. of chromic acid are liberated ; thus,
^3 K Cl.
G Cr O s liberated.
3 110
The chromic acid, coming hi contact with the carbide
of hydrogen, gives off oxygen freely, being itself re-
duced to the state of sesquioxide of chromium Cr 2 8
thus :
3 Cr s 3 .
6 Eqs. of
chromic acid.
3 Eqs. of carbide! G^
of hydrogen. ] H
C-
LH
HO.
3CO a
When the oxidation of the impurities in the spiritous
liquor is completed, it is submitted to distillation in the
usual way, and a clear colorless product, without smell,
and capable of being burned in lamps, or for any other
required purpose, is obtained. The general yield of
spirit is from one gallon and a quarter to two and a
half gallons, and rarely three gallons, per the ton of
wood. This variation in quantity is due often to the
kind of wood carbonized, but more frequently to in-
attentions in regulating the proper degree of heat.
The subjoined is a tabular view of the per centage
amounts of spirit in naphthas of different specific gra-
vities, drawn up by Dr. URE. The spirit operated
upon in these experiments was purified by distilla-
tion over quicklime, at the heat of a water-bath, the
temperature being so regulated that the liquid had a
density of -8136 at 60 Fahr.
ACETIC i
\.CTD
-PURIFICATION OF PYROLIGNEOUS ACID. 27
Their existence is to be attributed to the various me-
Sp.gr.
Real Spirit,
percent.
Over Excise
proof.
Sp. gr.
Real Spirit,
per cent.
Over Excise
proof.
thods^ of preparing the spirit, also to the want of proper
8136
100-00
9032
68*50
1 q, i A
care in managing the operations to which it is sub-
8216
98-00
64-'lO
9060
67*56
lo 1U
11*40
jected. Pure pyroxylic spirit will not answer every
8256
8320
8384
96-11
94-34
92-22
61*10
58*00
55*50
9070
9116
9154
66-66
65-00
63-30
9*30
7*10
4-20
purpose for which it is required in the arts. The purest,
and that possessing the lowest specific gravity, is pre-
8418
90-90
52*50
9184
61-73
2-10
ferable ^for lamps as a source of heat; but for dissolv-
8470
8514
89-30
87-72
49-70
4.7-lfl
UndcrprooE
ing resins, and especially gum sandarac and mastic,
8564
86-20
^t i *\j
46*60
9242
60-24
58-82
0-60
2-50
painters and French polishers choose spirit holding
8596
84*75
42*20
9266
57-73
4*00
some of the impurities in solution. Wood spirit of a
8642
8674
8712
8742
83-33
82-00
80-64
79-36
39*90
37-10
35*00
32-70
9296
9344
9386
9414
56-18
53-70
51*54
50-00
7-00
11*00
15-30
17-80
low specific gravity, and devoid of acetone, et cetera, is
procured by liming the raw liquor and distilling, whilst
that obtained by distilling off the refined portion of the
8784
8820
78-13
77-00
30-00
27-90
9448
9484
47-62
46-00
20*80
25-10
crude liquor, without saturating with the caustic earth,
8842
75-76
26-00
9518
43-48
28-80
is an excellent menstruum for the solution of certain
8876
8918
8930
74-63
73-53
72-46
24-30
22-20
20-60
9540
9564
9584
41-66
40-00
38-46
31-90
34*20
35*60
resins. The spirit in the former case has an incipient
gravity, and is miscible with water, while in the latter
8950
71*43
18*30
9600
37-11
38*10
it is weaker, and water renders it milky.
8984
70-42
16*16
9620
35-71
40-60
Pure pyroxylic spirit is sometimes used medicinally
9008
69-44
15-30
in pulmonary affections. It is readily distinguished
from pj-roacetic spirit by a concentrated solution
M. DEVILLE has likewise completed a table, showing
of chloride of calcium, which is miscible with the
the quantity of real spirit in naphtha of different specific
wood spirit, and not with the pyroacetic spirit or ace-
gravities, at 48-5
J^anr.
tone.
Qu<u
itity of water.
Specific gravity.
PURIFICATION OF PYROLIGNEOUS ACID, OR WOOD
00 per ce
.
0-8070
VINEGAR. The purification of the acid is effected by
10
20
0-8371
saturating the crude liquor remaining after the spirit
0-8649
30
0-8873
has been separated, with a base, evaporating to dryness
40
0-9072
and calcining the dry salt, so as to decompose the olea-
0*9232
60
0*9429
ginous and tarry matters present, and afterwards dis-
70
0*9576
tilling this body with an acid sulphuric or hydro-
80
90
0-9709
chloric acid and rectifying the distillate repeatedly
0-9751
95
0*9857
over chloride of calcium or carbonate of soda. Lime or
soda is generally employed for this purpose. The acid
The same authority says, if the
above results are
liquor is run off from the still into the tanks, after the
brought to a temperature of 60 Fahr., it will
be found
naphtha has been expelled, to deposit a portion of its'
there is
an almost complete correspondence
between
impurities ; it is next pumped into another pan, and milk
alcohol and wood spirit, and that the latter, equally with
of lime, or burned lime, made into a thick paste with
the former, exhibits a maximum of contraction, which
water, added slightly in excess, and the mixture boiled
always occurs on the combination of one part of wood
for a short time, and then run off into a vessel to rest
spirit with three parts of water, id
est, in a
mixture
for ten or twelve hours. During this time the excess
containing 45*75
per cent.
of water. URE
has also
of lime and part of the impurities combined with it
constructed a table of the specific gravities of mixtures
precipitate, when the supernatant liquid is ready to be
of wood spirit and water; hut he has given 0'8136 as
pumped into the evaporating pans. If the crude acid
the specific gravity of anhydro'us wood spirit, at a tem-
liquor is distilled before neutralising with lime, the dis-
perature
of GO Fahr. The lowest specific gravity to
tillate is saturated with lime in an appropriate cistern
which pyroxylic spirit has been brought in this country,
or vat, and when the solid matters have subsided, the
is 0-812.
DUMAS
however, states that its density at
clear fluid is pumped into the evaporating pans. In
the temperature of 68 is 0-798, and
that of its vapor
some works the evaporators are wooden vessels, lined
1-120, and that its point of ebullition is 152, at a pres-
with lead, in which is a coil of iron piping, through
sure of thirty inches. MITSCHERLICH gives
0-798 as
which steam passes, while in others they use shallow
its specific gravity,
and 180
Fahr. as the boiling point.
mns of sheet-iron, having a fire beneath them. In either
SCANLAN gives 0-828 as the
specific
gravity, and 150
case the liquid is frequently stirred with a large wooden
as the boiling point. The specific gravity 0'798, ap-
spatula, and the matters which rise to the top during
pears to
bo the correct one, as found by DUMAS and
evaporation are carefully skimmed off.
MITSCHERLICH, and from
several
experiments the
As the evaporation of the liquor advances, the ace-
Editor performed in Germany, its boiling point ranges
ate of lime crystallizes, forming a layer on the sur-
between 150 and
160 Falir.
ace ; this is collected with large scoops or ladles, and
Acetone, anesite, eupion, et cetera,
in variable pro-
leposited in baskets, supported on a frame, which are
portion in wood naphtha, cause the density
to alter
lirectly over the pans, and thus the cooling of the
considerably : likewise its solvent power, as
regards
Irainings is prevented. The whole of the acetate of
shell-lac,
sandarac.
and other resins,
is materially af-
ime is thus removed, and if the crude acid be distilled
fected by the presence or
absence
of such
bodies.
jrevious to saturation with lime, the acetate of lime
28
ACETIC ACID PURIFICATION OF FYROLIGNEOUS ACID.
which it produces is called grey acetate, if the acid be
neutralized without distillation, the lime salt is called
brown acetate. The acetate is then heated in a drying
furnace at a temperature of 450 3 Fahr., to carbonize
the resinous and other impurities. To obtain the pure
acid, the grey acetate of lime is dissolved in water till
the solution has a specific gravity of 1'200; filtered to
separate the carbon which results from the decompo-
sition of the tar, et cetera; sulphate of soda, in pow-
der, is added, and the whole menstruum briskly agi-
tated, to insure the complete decomposition of the lime
salt. Sulphate of soda is to be added until a small
portion of the liquor shows no precipitate on the
addition of a concentrated solution of this salt. The
quantity of crystallized sulphate of soda required to
effect a complete decomposition, is about four times
the weight of acetate of lime operated upon ; this large
amount of the decomposing body needed, is owing to
the formation of a double salt, as expressed below.
Ca 0, C 4 H 8 O s + 2 (Na 0, S OJ = Na 0, C 4 H s 3
Acetate of lima. Acetate of sodn
+ CaO, S0 8 , NaO, SO..
The solution of acetate of soda, after the subsidence
of the sulphate of soda and lime, is drawn off to evapo-
rate, and the precipitate washed with water till the
liquor is nearly tasteless ; the washings may be retained
to dissolve fresh quantities of acetate of lime. The
acetate of soda liquor is concentrated in pots six feet
diameter, and three feet deep, taking care to separate
any impurities that may rise to the top, till it acquires
a density of ,1'300. If it happened that an excess of
sulphate of soda had been used in the decomposition of
the lime salt, it will now crystallize ; it is removed by
the scoops or ladles, and thrown into a wicker basket
above the evaporating pans, so that the drainings may
flow back to the remaining liquor without cooling.
After separating the crystallized sulphate of soda, the
liquor is allowed to rest for eight or ten hours, to de-
posit impurities tar, et cetera that are liberated
during the boiling, and afterwards drawn off to the
crystallizing pans, where it remains for three to five
days. The crystals are then removed, and the mother
liquor again concentrated to 1'300, the tarry matters
removed as before, and run off to recrystallize ; and so on,
till the mother liquor no longer yields crystals. This
liquor is evaporated to dryness, and the residue calcined ;
at a red heat, carbonate of soda is formed, and may be
extracted by solution in water, or the brownish residue
is calcined at 450 Fahr., and acetate of soda dissolved
out by water. The crystals of soda salt above obtained
are dissolved in fresh quantities of water, and re-evapo-
rated till the solution is 1'SOO; left to repose for ten
hours, the resinous bodies separated, and recrystallized
at a density of 1'50: the mother liquor is treated as
above detailed.
Next, the crystals are allowed to undergo the aque-
ous fusion at a temperature of 400, in an iron pot,
and the mass kept constantly stirred till the whole of
their water of crystallization is eliminated. During
this part of the operation, the greatest precautions are
to be observed as to the maintaining of an even tem-
perature 450 Fahr. and guarding against any sparks
coming into contact with the torrefying mass ; this
would destroy the whole of the compound, as it burns
like tinder in contact with ike. A white fume rising
from the liquefied salt is an indication that a part
is suffering decomposition from the too elevated tem-
perature, which should be immediately checked by
throwing open the fire doors, or removing the fire
altogether, if the pot be too hot. The termination of
the drying is known by the subsidence of frothing,
and by the fused mass presenting the appearance of
an oily liquid, at which stage it is drawn off by a
pipe issuing from the bottom of the pot, or it may be
ladled out, allowed to cool on iron plates, and, when
solidified, broken up into fragments. On dissolving
this compound in twice its weight of water, filtering
through bags similar to Fig. 25, and crystallizing, a
Fig. 25.
very pure acetate of soda
is obtained. For the pro-
duction of acetic acid from
acetate of soda, a quantity
of this salt is put into a
stout copper still, and a
deep cavity made in the
centre of the mass, into
which sulphuric acid, of
sp. grav. 1-84, is poured,
in the proportion of thirty-
five per cent, of the weight
of the salt; the walls of
the cavity are thrown in
upon the acid, and the
whole briskly agitated
with a wooden spatula.
The head of the still is
then luted, and connect-
ed with the condensing
worm, and the distillation carried on at a very gentle
heat. The worm should be of silver or porcelain, as
also the still head, and even silver solder should be used
to connect the joinings in the body of the still.
In some factories it is usual to have the lower half
of the still encased in an iron jacket, which receives
high pressure steam, or holds oil, tallow, or fusible
metal : when steam is used, the under part of the iron
jacket should be furnished with a stopcock, which
is turned on at intervals, to allow the condensed water
to flow off; and where oil or tallow is the medium
that gives heat to the boiler, a safety tube should rise,
by which any oleaginous vapors are carried off if the
temperature should happen to be too high. The iron
jacket is placed directly over the fire in case of the
oils or fusible metal being employed, and the heat
given off by those substances is sufficient to distil the
acid. Towards the end of the distillation, the acid
ACETIC ACID PURIFICATION OF PYROLIGNEOUS ACID.
29
passing over acquires an empyreumatic odor : as soon
as this is observed the receiver must be changed, and
the last portions collected in a separate vessel. An
almost colorless acid, of spec. grav. T05, containing
about forty-five per cent, of anhydrous acetic acid,
passes over. The slight coloration of the acid, or any
empyreuma, may be almost immediately removed by
infusing with it a very small quantity of well-burnt, well-
washed bone-black ; or by running it off into barrels
which are replenished with chips of beechwood ; it will
be found, in about a fortnight, to be clarified and ready
for sale. Strong acid is procured by distilling the
preceding acid, of spec. grav. 1'05, with fused chloride
of calcium, receiving the distillate in a refrigerator ;
part of the acid which passes over crystallizes; the
crystals are removed and dissolved in their own water,
and subjected to a second rectification, as before, and
this continued till the whole of the acid crystallizes at
55 Fahr. : these crystals deliquesce at the ordinary
temperature, giving the acid of spec. grav. 1'063,
which is a monohydrate. If the acid, spec. grav. I'Oo,
be required for culinary purposes, pickling, et cetera, it
is diluted with about five times its weight of water, to
render it of the same strength as revenue proof vine-
gar; a little caramel burned sugar dissolved in
water, and occasionally a little acetic ether, are added,
to confer a deep color, and aroma.
When the acid is required for the fabrication of the
other compounds used in the arts and manufactures,
where great purity is not essential, it is prepared
direct from the crude lime salt by distillation with sul-
phuric acid. In some of the Welsh factories, the fol-
lowing is the mode of working : A cast-iron cylinder,
four feet long and two feet in diameter, having one end
closed tightly by a stout iron door, the front end being
secured by a door firmly screwed on, which may be re-
moved at pleasure, is provided ; this door is divided
into two parts, the upper part being two-thirds, and the
lower, one-third of the whole. In the upper division
a stout iron rod passes, and runs along the length of
the cylinder to the opposite end, where it is fixed in a
groove. From that portion of the rod which is within
the cylinder, numerous bars project at right angles, and
extend through the whole concavity of the cylinder. A
movable door occupies the lower division of the front
of the apparatus, through which the contents of the
interior are withdrawn, and the convex part of the
cylinder is furnished with an opening, to which a door
is screwed: the apparatus, thus completed, is termed
an agitater. The cylinder is placed horizontally in
brickwork, and the opening in the upper part affords the
means by which the proper quantity of acetate of lime
and sulphuric acid is introduced, in the proportion of
100 of the former to 60 of the latter. After charging
the cylinder, motion is communicated to the axis
passing through the upper part of the door, either by
machinery or manual labor. When the contents of
the agitator are completely comminuted, it is then drawn
off by means of the movable door in the lower part of
the front end, into a vessel placed below to receive it,
out of which the half-liquid or pulpy mass is ladled into
strong cast-iron trays, of three to four feet in length, two
feet wide, and about two niches in depth : these trays
are afterwards deposited in an oven five feet long, three
wide, and the same in height, being separated from one
another by iron rods laid between them, and on which
they rest. A pipe passes off from the far end of this
case, wherein the gaseous acetic acid flows to the con-
denser, which is generally a stout leaden pipe, placed
in a stream of cold water. Fire is directly applied to
the bottom of the oven, and continued till the whole of
the acid is expelled. The crude acid that is thus pro-
cured in large quantities, is, for the most part, forwarded
to London for purification from foreign bodies, such as
sulphurous acid, sulphur, and traces of sulphide of
hydrogen, arising from the action of the carbonaceous
matters in the salt upon the sulphuric acid; resinous
and tarry bodies, with a large quantity of coloring
matters, also accompany the acid, and from which it
is freed by redistilling with a little bichromate of po-
tassa, or bicarbonate of soda. This second distillation
is effected in leaden vessels, which are encased by a
cast-iron cylinder.
The ordinary yield of acetic acid from one ton of the
crude acetate of lime, when treated with twelve hun-
dredweight of rectified sulphuric acid, spec. grav. 1-84,
or fifteen hundredweight of acid of 1'77, and one ton of
water, is one ton and a half of rough acid, of spec. grav.
T05. Copper stills, or cast-iron stills with flat earthen-
ware or tin heads, often serve for the second distillation.
To obtain acetate of lime in a sufficient state of purity,
VOLCKEL saturates the crude acid with lime, without
previous distillation, whereupon a part of the resinous
impurities separates in combination with lime, while
the rest remains in the liquid, imparting to it a dark-
brown color ; the liquid is clarified by filtration, or by
simply leaving the impurities to settle down, and after-
wards evaporated in an iron pot to about one half its
bulk. Hydrochloric acid is then added, which causes
the dissolved resin to separate, and also the decompo-
sition of the lime-compounds of creasote and other
volatile substances ; the former collects together in the
boiling liquor, so that it can be easily skimmed, and the
latter are expelled during the evaporation. The quantity
of hydrochloric acid required for this purpose, varies, of
course, with the constitution of the wood vinegar, which
again varies with the degree of moisture of the wood
from which the acid is obtained; but the weight is
from four to six pounds for a hundred and fifty litres
thirty-three gallons of the wood vinegar, or as much
as will communicate a slightly acid reaction to the
liquor. The solution of acetate of lime is then further
evaporated, and ultimately dried at a high tempera-
ture, to expel all volatile substances. Evaporation and
drying may generally be performed in the same iron
vessel"; but in operating on a very large scale, it is best
to dry the salt on cast-iron plates: the exsiccation
requires the greatest care. The volatile empyreumatic
substances adhere very tenaciously to the acetate c
lime, and to the resin contained in it, and unless driven
off by heat they pass over in the subsequent distillation,
together with the acetic acid, and impart to it a bad
smeU; the desiccation must, therefore, be continue
till the acetate of lime becomes inodorous, or nearly
so : when thoroughly dried, it has a dirty-brown color.
To procure the acetic acid, the purified lime-compound
30
ACETIC ACID PURIFICATION OF PYROLIGXF.OUS ACID.
is distilled with hydrochloric acid. The distillation
may be performed in a still, with copper head and
leaden condensing tube. If the operation be conducted
with proper care, neither copper nor lead is found in the
distillate. The quantity of hydrochloric acid required
cannot be exactly given, because the acetate of lime
contains variable proportions of foreign matters, vide-
licet, resin, and chloride of calcium already formed. In
general, however, from ninety to ninety-five parts of
hydrochloric acid of spec. grav. 1-16, will completely
decompose a hundred parts of acetate of lime, without
causing the distillate to be much contaminated with
hydrochloric acid. In any given case, the quantity of
hydrochloric acid required is easily determined by an
experiment on a small scale. The apparatus may
likewise be so arranged as to allow of the subsequent
addition of hydrochloric acid, if the quantity first used
be found insufficient. Whether the amount introduced
is enough, may be known by testing the distillate with
nitrate of silver ; so long as mere turbidity is pro-
duced, one may be sure that the hydrochloric acid is
not in excess.
Distillation of the acetic acid proceeds with ease and
regularity. The acetate of lime dissolves in the hydro-
chloric acid, forming a dark-colored liquid, while a
quantity of dark resin separates. As the whole mass
is liquid, the heat diffuses through it easily ; and as the
acetic acid passes over between 212 and 248 Fahr.,
and the 'acetate of lime has been already exposed in
drying to a higher temperature, the distilled acid is
but very slightly contaminated with empyreumatic
products, resulting from decomposition of the resin :
moreover, the resinous matters, being lighter than the
chloride of calcium solution, float on the top, and do
not form hard incrustations in the still.
The distilled acetic acid has but a very slight empy-
reumatic odor, which is also very different from that of
crude wood vinegar. It is perfectly colorless, and if
the hydrochloric acid has not been added in excess,
gives but a slight cloud with nitrate of silver. Any
yellow tint that it may exhibit, arises from particles of
resin mechanically carried over ; for the resin, separated
from the acetate of lime by the hydrochloric acid,
melts as the temperature rises, and forms a fluid layer
on the surface of the chloride of calcium solution, which
is very apt to cause spirting ; the resin should, there-
fore, be removed as far as possible before distillation,
either by skimming it with a spoon, or by filtration
through a linen cloth. The specific gravity of the
acetic acid obtained by this process, varies from 1-058
to 1-061, and it contains more than forty per cent, of
anhydrous acetic acid. As, however, acetic acid of
this degree of concentration is rarely used, and a some-
what weaker acid is more easily separated by distilla-
tion from the solution of chloride of calcium, it is better
to add a certain quantity of water, either before or
towards the end of the distillation. A good proportion
is one hundred parts acetate of h'me, from ninety to
ninety-five of hydrochloric acid, and twenty-five of
water ; this gives from ninety-five to a hundred parts of
acetic acid, of spec. grav. 1-015. In this manner, thirty-
three gallons of wood vinegar will yield sixty pounds
of acetic acid of the above strength. Acetic acid thus
obtained, may be still further purified by mixing it with
a small quantity of carbonate of soda, and redistilling.
The acid which passes over is free from hydro-
chloric acid and perfectly colorless, but still retains a
slight empyreumatic odor ; but this may be removed
by distilling it with two or three per cent, of bichro-
mate of potassa instead of carbonate of soda. Acetic
acid purified with bichromate of potassa is, in fact,
undistinguishable from that which is obtained from
pure acetate of soda by distillation with sulphuric acid,
or from pure acetate of lime with hydrochloric acid.
It does not exhibit the slightest color when heated with
strong sulphuric acid, nor does it reduce the merest
trace of silver when boiled with nitrate of silver and
ammonia. When saturated with oxide of lead, it
yields a white salt, the analysis of which agrees per-
fectly with that of pure acetate of lead. Peroxide of
manganese may also be used for the februation, instead
of bichromate of potassa ; but the acid thus purified,
gives, after a while, a slight turbidity with nitrate of
silver. Any empyreumatic odor that it may retain,
may be removed by digestion with pure animal char
coal. As the acetic acid can be easily freed from
hydrochloric acid, a slight excess of the latter during
distillation is not injurious ; on the contrary, the pre
sence of a small quantity of hydrochloric acid is very
useful for the purification of the acetic acid, with per-
oxide of manganese or bichromate of potassa.
Rectification of acetic acid with bichromate of
potassa, or with the peroxide of manganese, may be
very well conducted in a copper still, with leaden con-
densing tube. The acid thus prepared can only be
contaminated with a small quantity of acetate of lead.
If, however, access of air be prevented during the dis-
tillation, this impurity will be confined to the first and
last portions of the distillate ; and by collecting these
apart, to be used for the preparation of acetate of lead,
the most part of the acid may be obtained free from
lead. By observing these precautions, the operator
may dispense with the use of glass or silver heads and
condensing tubes. The entrance of air into the con-
densing tube may be prevented by closing the end of
the tube with a cork, through which is inserted a glass
tube, bent in the form (/>.
The preparation of acetic acid by the method just
described, may be rendered simpler by subjecting the
wood vinegar to a previous distillation, and thereby
removing the greater part of the resin before forming
the lime salt. But this distillation obviously entails
increased expense for labor and fuel, because the same
liquid must be twice evaporated ; moreover, part of the
acetic acid remains with the tar in the retort. On the
small scale, the loss thus occasioned is unimportant,
but in a large manufactory it would amount to some-
thing considerable in the course of a year.
By previous distillation of the wood vinegar, the
expense may be avoided by the use of a compound
still. The vapor of the wood vinegar, instead of being
condensed immediately, is made to pass into a copper
receiver, containing the quantity of lime required to
saturate the acid, which is thereby completely absorbed.
If the copper receiver be surrounded by some substance
which is a slow conductor of heat, very little aqueous
ACETIC ACID AROMATIC VINEGAR.
81
vapor condenses, so that it may be advantageously
used to concentrate a solution of lime, resulting from a
previous operation. This process is, however, more
complicated, and does not yield more acetic acid than
the simpler one first described.
The method here recommended is much cheaper,
and yields a much purer product, than the ordinary
method of distilling impure acetate of lime with sul-
phuric acid ; further, by the addition of hydrochloric
acid during the evaporation of impure acetate, the
volatile slightly acid bodies contained in the wood vine-
gar are removed, according to SCIINEDERMANN, more
easily than by the use of a solution of chloride of cal-
cium, or by roasting the impure acetate of lime, either
per se, or with hydrate of lime. In the latter process,
even if it attains the desired end, a considerable loss is
incurred from decomposition of the acetate of lime, in-
asmuch as that substance, from its infusibility, does not
admit of any exact regulation of the heat.
Hydrochloric, instead of sulphuric acid, being used
in the decomposition of the acetate of lime, has this
great advantage, that the presence of resin, coloring
matter, et cetera, in the acetate of lime, is harmless,
providing the salt has been sufficiently heated to
drive off these free volatile substances. When, on the
contrary, sulphuric acid is used, the acetic acid pro-
duced always has a bad odor, is saturated with sulphur-
ous acid, and contaminated by a variety of products
arising from the deportment of the resins at an elevated
temperature. Besides, the sulphate of lime forms a
hard crust at the bottom of the retort, and in distilling
on the large scale, the under part of the alembic must
be heated red-hot to drive out all the acetic acid. The
last portions of acid that pass over are often turbid from
sulphur, and the odor of sulphide of hydrogen becomes
perceptible, that gas arising from reduction of the sul-
phate of lime to sulphide of calcium at the bottom of
the vessel ; from this cause cast-iron retorts soon be-
come corroded.
The low price at which pure acetic acid may be ob-
tained by the method above described, will probably
lead to its more extended use in dyeing and calico print-
ing, and it may also be advantageously used in the
preparation of acetates, especially of acetate of lead.
PURE ACETIC ACID FROM BRANDY VINEGAR.
VOLCKEL commends a similar process for the prepara-
tion of pure acetic acid from brandy vinegar ; the pro-
cess, however, is simpler, inasmuch as brandy vinegar
is much less impure than wood vinegar.
He proceeds : Strong brandy vinegar the best
for this purpose is that which contains frcm twelve to
fifteen parts of anhydrous acid, a proportion which is
obtained in some manufactories is saturated with lime,
and the turbid and colored solution is strained through
a linen cloth, and evaporated to dryness in an iron
vessel. The dried salt is perfectly white, the coloring
matters previously contained in the solution having been,
for the most part, destroyed by the action of the air.
The decomposition of the acetate of lime is effected
by hydrochloric acid, in the manner already described,
excepting that the acetate of lime being less feculent
than that obtained from wood vinegar, a larger propor-
tion of hydrochloric acid is required for its decomposi-
tion, videlicet, about one hundred and thirty parts of
acid to one hundred parts of the lime salt.
Final purification of the acid may be accomplished
by either of the preceding methods.
AROMATIC VINEGAR. Crystallized acetate of copper
is the salt most usually employed for the preparation
of this compound. Twenty pounds of the powdered
acetate of copper are introduced into an earthen retort
of about two gallons capacity ; the retort is luted and
carefully dried before applying heat for distilling off
the acid, and by this precaution it lasts much longer.
The elongated neck of the retort is connected with a
tubulated receiver, this is joined to several others,
of which the last is furnished with a curved safety-
tube, dipped into a vessel of water. The retort is in-
serted into a furnace, and a gentle heat applied at^first,
which is afterwards gradually increased ; the rapid or
slow development of vapor serves as a guide to direct
the proper application of the heat. Fig. 26 shows the
Fig. 26.
apparatus on a small scale; F is the furnace which
heats the retort, A ; B B B are tubulated receivers, im-
mersed in cold water in the coolers, CCC; the last
receiver, B, has a WELTER'S safety tube, b, the long arm
of which dips into the water in E, where any uncon-
densed vapors from the receivers are absorbed. The fire
in F is lighted, and the heat gradually raised as long as
any vapors pass over; if, on increasing the heat towards
the end, no more vapors are given off, the distillation is
terminated, the fire is withdrawn, and the apparatus
allowed to cool. Twenty pounds of the copper salt pro-
duce by distillation, about ten pounds of rough acid, of
a greenish color, and 1-061 spec. grav. ; the residuum in
the retort consists of six and a half pounds of copper in
a metallic state, mixed with a small quantity of char-
coal The crude acid is then rectified in a glass retort
32
ACETIC ACID METHODS OF TESTING VINEGAR.
of the capacity of about one gallon and a half, to which
is adapted a tubulated receiver, and heat applied by
means of a sand-bath. A weak acid comes over first,
which is collected separately until it acquires a density
of 1*072; the receiver is then changed, and the distil-
lation continued till the condensed products begin to
acquire an empyreuma, when a third receiver is sup-
plied to collect the last portions. An acid, of spec,
grav. 1-080 to 1-088, is found in the second vessel;
the first and last portions are redistilled, and mixed
with the stronger acid in the second receiver. The acid
from twenty pounds of acetate of copper, upon a second
rectification, yields six pounds of acid, spec. grav. 1-085;
three pounds, spec. grav. 1-042; and half a pound of
acid, spec. grav. 1-023. Other metallic acetates may
be used instead of the copper salt, but with variable
results as to the amount of acid which they yield. Ace-
tates which have easily reducible oxides, as those of
copper, silver, mercury, lead, et cetera, afford a larger
proportion of acetic acid; acetone, carbonic oxide,
carbonic acid, and carbide of hydrogen, are likewise
evolved in greater or less proportions, and reduced
metal is invariably left in the retort. The acetate of
silver gives no acetone when submitted to destructive
distillation. Acetates, the bases of which retain car-
bonic acid at a red heat, produce chiefly the carbonate
of the base and acetome, but very little acetic acid :
such are the acetates of potassa, soda, and baryta ; and
when the oxide cannot retain carbonic acid at a red heat,
as is the case with the acetates of magnesia, zinc, and
manganese, the acetone is accompanied by carbonic
acid, and the oxides of such metals remain in the
retort.
The small amount of acetone which passes over with
the acetic acid, in the distillation of acetate of copper,
imparts an agreeable aroma ; and by the addition of a
little camphor or essential oils, the aromatic vinegar of
commerce is produced.
EXCISE DUTY ON VINEGAR. The proof vinegar of
the revenue has a spec. grav. of 1*0085, and contains
about five per cent, of acetic acid. In commerce, this
vinegar is represented by No. 24, from the fact that
twenty-four grains of pure dry carbonate of soda are
required to neutralize a fluid ounce. Weaker vinegars
are represented by the Nos. 18, 20, 22, according to
their strength ; and, as in the foregoing instance, these
figures equal the number of grains of carbonate of soda
that will saturate a fluid ounce. Formerly, a duty of
twopence was paid on every gallon of vinegar imported
of the strength above mentioned, and if the vinegar had
been double proof, a duty of fourpence was exacted.
Now, however, this duty is repealed as regards the
home-made vinegar, but a license of five guineas is paid
by every manufacturer. The foreign vinegar imported
is still subject to a duty of threepence per gallon of the
revenue strength.
In the United Kingdom, in the year 1848, there were
about fifty vinegar factories ; five of these were in Lon-
don, which made nearly half the whole quantity pro-
duced.
The specific gravity of vinegar is sometimes ascer-
tained by a species of hydrometer, termed an acetometer.
By dipping it into the vinegar under examination, and
observing the depth to which it sinks, the number of
the scale marking the level of the liquid indicates the
density of the solution, from which, by means of a table,
the per centage of real acid is ascertained.
Vinegar made from dilute alcohol, or ripe wines, in
which no great excess of albuminous and other matters
is present, can, to a certain limit, be tested with suffi-
cient accuracy by the acetomer ; but other vinegar,
made from malt, poor wines, and such liquids as
contain an excess of organic matters, do not admit of
being tested with the required degree of accuracy by
tliis method, since the foreign matters increase the
density of the liquid without adding to its quantity
of real acetic acid. As was shown at page 3, the
specific gravity test is not to be relied on beyond
a certain extent, even when an acid is produced
from pure alcohol. In some cases the vinegar is satu-
rated with chalk or milk of lime, the solution filtered,
and the specific gravity of the acetate of lime liquor
ascertained, by which a nearer approximation is ar-
rived at than by the direct testing of the vinegar ; yet
on neither of these two methods can implicit reliance
be placed. BRANDE recommends the following: A
clean dry piece of marble is weighed, and suspended
by a silk thread in a known quantity of the vinegar
under examination, the solution being occasionally
stirred with a glass rod, without detaching any splinters
from the weighed marble, till the whole of the acid is
saturated, and no further action on the marble is ob-
served. The marble is then taken out, washed with
distilled water, dried, and weighed the loss, in weight,
which it has sustained, is equal to the quantity of acetic
acid present, the atomic weight of carbonate of lime
and dry acetic acid being nearly equal, or as 50 to 51.
The best method of ascertaining the per centage of
acetic acid in vinegar, is to neutralize it with pure
carbonate of potassa or soda, noting the quantity
of these salts required to saturate the acid, and by
finding this, the amount of real acid in a sample
is ascertained by a simple calculation ; for every
fifty-three grains of the pure carbonate of soda, or
sixty -nine grains of the carbonate of potassa one
equivalent indicate fifty-one grains, or one equiva-
lent, of anhydrous acetic acid. The examination
is made in the following manner: Five hundred
and thirty grains of pure dry car-
bonate of soda are dissolved in ten
thousand grams of distilled water ten
alkalimetrical measures and this test
solution kept in a stoppered bottle for
use. An ounce of the vinegar is either
weighed or measured, and put into a
beaker or porcelain dish, and one thou-
sand grains of the test solution one
alkalimetrical measure, equal one hun-
dred divisions of the alkahmeter, Fig.
27 are taken and poured, in successive
small portions, into the vinegar, agitat-
ing the solution well with a glass or
porcelain rod after each addition. The
solution is tested at intervals with blue
litmus-paper, and while its color is reddened when
dropped into the liquid, and the effervescing continues,
Fig. 27.
ACETIC ACII
-ADULTERATIOK8,
five acid is still in the menstruum, and a few drops
more of test solution must be added. When the
saturation of the vinegar is nearly terminated, heat is
applied to expel the carbonic acid, which is absorbed,
and would, if not driven off, communicate a faint rose
tint to the test paper, and thus cause an error in the
results. If the paper still becomes red after heating,
a few drops more of the alkaline liquor are poured in,
till the paper is only feebly reddened.
Sometimes a few drops of tincture of litmus are added
in the beginning, and when the operation draws to a
close the litmus regains in part its blue color. This,
however, offers no advantage, for the acid may be
completely saturated long before the color of the blue lit-
mus makes its appearance. The number of divisions
of the test liquor required to saturate the acid is read off,
and by a rule of three calculation the amount of acid
in the sample is found for example, since five hun-
dred and thirty grains of the alkaline carbonate, equal
to ten equivalents, are contained in ten thousand grains
of distilled water, one thousand grains of this solution
a hundred divisions of the alkalimeter contain fifty-
three grains, or one equivalent, of carbonate of soda,
which are capable of neutralizing fifty-one grams of dry
acetic acid. Now, if fifty divisions of the soda solution
be added to saturate the ounce of vinegar, we find the
amount of acid by the annexed proportion :
As 100 : 51 : : 50 : 25-5,
which is the quantity of acid present in the fluid ounce
of vinegar operated upon. An ounce measure contains
four hundred and thirty-seven grains, which, by the
above calculation, give twenty-five and a half grains of
dry acetic acid, and from this the per centage of acid is
estimated :
As 437: 25-5:: 100: 5-83,
the real amount of acetic acid in a hundred parts
of the vinegar examined. The trouble of this calcu-
lation is dispensed with by taking five hundred grains
of the vinegar, instead of a fluid ounce, and adding
to it the test solution as before, observing the same
precautions till the acid is neutralized. A hundred
divisions of the alkalimeter equal fifty-one grains of
dry acetic acid; consequently, every division of the
solution will neutrah'ze 0*51 of a grain of dry acetic
acid, and by multiplying the number of measures added
by the factor 0'51, and dividing the product by 5, the
amount is thereby obtained. Thus, if sixty measures
are taken, the calculation is
60 X 0-51 = 30-60 4- 5 = 6-12,
the per centage of acid in the vinegar.
Instead of a soda test liquor, a solution of ammonia
is used to saturate the acid. This solution is prepared
by adding water to concentrated ammonia till the spec,
grav. is 0'992. One thousand grains of this dilute ammo-
nia contain seventeen grains one equivalent of pure
ammonia, which is capable of saturating fifty-one grains
one equivalent of acetic acid The application of
this test is similar to that already described. Five
hundred grains of vinegar are weighed out, and the
burette filled up to zero with the ammoniacal solu-
VOL. I.
tion, which is added to the vinegar till neutralized; the
calculation is the same as the preceding, that is, multi-
plying the number of divisions by 0'51, and dividing by
5. There is some difficulty in preserving the dilute
ammonia of the same strength, which is an objection to
its use ; but a uniformity of concentration is insured by
introducing into the bottle two glass drops, so adjusted
that one remains at the bottom and the other floats just
under the surface of the liquid,- as long as the test liquor
maintains the proper strength. If, by exposure, a part
of the ammonia escapes, the specific gravity of the
liquor will become proportionably greater, and the glass
drops rise the lower one higher from the bottom, and
the upper one partly above the surface. When this
happens, more strong ammonia is added, till the hydro-
static drops are properly readjusted.
In each of the preceding modes of testing, it is evi-
dent that, should the vinegar contain any admixture
of other acids such as sulphuric acid, hydrochloric acid,
or the like these will increase the quantity of the
alkaline solution required to neutrah'ze the weight of
vinegar taken for the test ; and the amount of acetic
acid that results from the preceding calculation is too
high hi proportion to the quantity of those foreign acids.
Preliminary examinations should be made to ascertain
if these impurities be present, and, if so, their amount
determined.
SULPHURIC ACID IN VINEGAR. After the conver-
sion of malt, beer, weak wines, et cetera, into vinegar,
a putrid fermentation often takes place, which decom-
poses the whole of their acetic acid. It was generally
considered necessary that a portion of sulphuric acid
should be added, to counteract this tendency of the
liquid to decomposition, and to preserve it from tur-
bidity. This addition was permitted to the extent of
one gallon of sulphuric acid to one thousand gallons of
vinegar, by an Excise regulation, and had, therefore, a
legal sanction ; but sulphuric acid is now known to be
unnecessary in properly prepared vinegais, although
still added by some manufacturers for the purpose of
increasing the strength of their vinegars, or, in some
instances, merely from habit and the indisposition to
disturb the routine of an old-established practice.
Sulphuric acid in vinegar should be looked upon as
a mark of inferior quality; for it is only where the
mode of manufacture is defective, th^t the addition
appears to be at all necessary. The peemingly small
admixture of one part of sulphuric acid in a thousand
of vinegar, cannot be viewed directly as a source of
internal injury to the consumer ; nevertheless, it does
not hi the least favor digestion, and it is known that, in
larger quantities, it affects the coats of the stomach.
Besides the addition of the one-thousandth part of sul-
phuric acid, many persons makers or venders add a
far greater proportion, in order to confer that acidity
which ought only to be produced by the acetic acid.
Some of these admixtures are most dangerous to the
community, as often the commonest oil of vitriol is
used as the adulterant. The Editor had, not long since,
an opportunity of examining a sample of vinegar, and
found it contained arsenic, a fact which he attributes
to the use of common pyrites vitriol.
Several methods have been given in chemical books
34
ACETIC ACID ADULTERATIONS.
for the detection of sulphuric acid in vinegar or acetic
acid, some of which cannot be applied unless the sul-
phuric acid be present in such proportion as would
make the most reckless shrink from sending the fabrica-
tion into the market. Here will be enumerated a few of
the more trustworthy for the qualitative and quantita-
tive estimation of sulphuric acid in vinegars. It should,
however, be borne in mind, that vinegar made from
wine, malt, et cetera, contains some soluble neutral
sulphates, these being natural constituents of the grain
or grapes from which the wine or fermented wort
is obtained; and that, by the more delicate tests, this
quantity of sulphuric acid in combination will be indi-
cated.
The most fastidious against adulterations cannot ob-
ject to the presence of these minute portions of soluble
sulphates, since the small amount of acid in the salts is
chemically united with a base, and therefore cannot in-
juriously affect the animal organism. If the vinegar be
suspected to contain a greater quantity of sulphuric acid
than authorized, it may be ascertained pretty accurately
by making a solution of sugar in thirty parts of water,
bringing the liquid to a temperature of 190 or 200
Fahr., by means of steam heat; if a drop of the sus-
pected vinegar be added, it will carbonize the sugar,
causing a blackish spot to appear at the point where the
vinegar came in contact with the saccharine solution.
This happens when the vinegar contains the one three-
hundredth of its weight of the adulterant ; and when
the amount ranges between the one six-hundredth and
one eight-hundredth of the impurity, a greenish spot
appears.
The next and principal test is the precipitation of the
sulphuric acid by oeans of a soluble salt of baryta, in the
form of insoluble svlphate of baryta, which falls down as
a heavy white powder. Judging from the bulk of the
precipitate obtained from a certain quantity of the vine-
gar, a tolei able inference may be drawn as to the fact
of the vinegur containing more than the ordinary amount
of sulphuric acid. When only about the eight-hun-
dredth or one-thousandth of the adulterant is present,
an immediate white precipitate indicates the presence
of sulphuric acid; but this precipitate does not so
quickly subside as when larger quantities are present.
For the quantitative determination of sulphuric acid,
the best way to proceed is the following : Half a
pound of the vinegar is weighed and evaporated in a
porcelain or platinum basin, on a water-bath or by
steam heat, till the eight ounces are reduced to one
ounce; the basin is then removed from the heat and
allowed to cool, and five or six times its bulk of strong
spirit of wine or alcohol added, in which the earthy
and alkaline sulphates naturally present in the vinegar
are insoluble, and consequently fall down. After the
precipitate has subsided, the solution is filtered off,
and the residue edulcorated twice with dilute spirit.
The most part of the alcohol is expelled by evapora-
tion in the water-bath, and the remaining liquid diluted
with ten or twelve times the volume of water, and
afterwards a solution of chloride of barium poured
in as long as a precipitate is formed. The preci-
pitate, after subsidence and filtration of the superna-
tant liquid, is digested with moderately dilute warm
hydrochloric acid, then thrown upon a filter, washed
with boiling water till a portion of the washings gives
no white precipitate upon addition of sulphuric acid,
dried in a water or air bath, and, when dry, burned
in a platinum crucible. When accurate results are
desired, the precipitate should be detached as much
as possible from the filter-paper, and the latter burned
in the crucible until the whole of the carbonaceous
matter of the paper is destroyed, and the precipitate
then introduced, heated to redness, and Aveighed. Every
hundred and sixteen and a half parts of this precipitate
indicate forty-nine parts of monohydrated sulphuric
acid.
When great accuracy is not required, a solution of
chloride of barium is made, of standard strength, by
dissolving one hundred and twenty-two grains of the
crystallized salt in two thousand grains of distilled water ;
five hundred grains of vinegar, diluted with twice its
weight of water, are poured into a tall and not very wide
beaker glass, or precipitating jar; one hundred alkali-
metrical divisions are taken and poured gradually from
the burette, in small portions at a time, into the vinegar,
stirring well after each addition with a glass rod, and
then leaving the whole to rest in a warm situation till
the precipitate collects at the bottom, after which an-
other addition of the test solution is made, observing
the same rule as above given, as long as any precipitate
forms. When the last drop causes no precipitate, or, at
least, only a very slight one, the number of measures of
test solution added are read off, and from this the amount
of sulphuric acid is calculated. Since the one hundred
and twenty-two grains of the salt one equivalent cor-
respond with forty-nine grains of rectified sulphuric acid.
and that this quantity is contained in the two thousand
grains of liquid, half tliis solution will contain sixty-one
grains of the baryta salt, which quantity equals twenty-
four and a half grains of monohydrated sulphuric acid.
If fifty measures of the test solution be added to the
five hundred grains of vinegar, the per centage of acid
is found by multiplying the number of measures, or
fifty, by twenty-four and a half, and dividing this pro-
duct by five hundred ; thus
50 X 24-5 = 1225-0 -H 500 = 2-45 per cent. ;
from which O'l per cent, should be deducted for the
addition allowed by government. Some waters con-
tain a large quantity of sulphates, by which a greater
amount of the test solution is required to throw down
the entire sulphuric acid, free and combined; but if
it be suspected that this is the case, the examina-
tion of the water employed should precede the test-
ing of the vinegar, or the analysis should be con-
ducted as indicated in the foregoing, namely, evapo-
ration of the vinegar, and treatment with alcohol, et
cetera.
HYDROCHLORIC ACID IN VINEGAR. This acid is
not so frequently met with in vinegar as sulphuric
acid ; indeed, the sophisticator rarely has recourse
to it. Its presence may be ascertained by distilling a
quantity of the vinegar from a glass retort, to which
a condenser is attached, and adding a few drops of a
solution of nitrate of silver to the distillate. A white
precipitate indicates the presence of hydrochloric acid.
ACETIC ACID ADULTERATIONS.
35
To determine, quantitatively, the amount of the acid
eight or sixteen ounces of the vinegar are distilled
as just mentioned, care being taken not to lose any
either in its introduction into the retort or otherwise,
tin the whole of the liquid has passed over into the
receiver. A solution of nitrate of silver is poured into
the distillate as long as a precipitate occurs. The solu-
tion is left at rest till the white curdy precipitate of
chloride of silver falls to the bottom, which is filtered
off, washed with a little dilute nitric acid first, and
afterwards with distilled water; dried at 212 in a
water-bath, ignited in a porcelain crucible, and weighed.
From the weight of the chloride of silver, that of the
hydrochloric acid is calculated.
_ A hundred and forty-three and a half parts of chlo-
ride of silver are equal to thirty-six and a half parts of
dry hydrochloric acid, or one hundred parts of liquid
hydrochloric acid of spec. grav. 1-180. If the weight
of chloride of silver, from the eight ounces, be sixty
grains, the per cent age is found as follows :
143-5 : 30-5 : : 60 : 20-34,
the amount of acid in the eight ounces of liquid taken ;
and by multiplying these ounces by four hundred and
thirty-seven and a half, the number of grains in a fluid
ounce, the number of grains weight operated upon are
obtained; thus
437-5 X 8 = 35000 : 20-34 : : 100 : 0-581
per cent, of dry hydrochloric acid.
NITRIC ACID IN VINEGAR. This acid is rarely em-
ployed to adulterate vinegar. If it be suspected, the
application of the following test will corroborate or
remove the suspicion : About eight ounces are neu-
tralized with carbonate of soda, the liquid evaporated
to dryness, and the residue distilled with a few drops
of strong sulphuric acid. The distillate is received
in an ice-cold receiver, neutralized with pot^ssa, and a
solution of starch paste and iodide of potassium added.
If a blue compound iodide of starch forms, it is an
infallible proof of the presence of nitric acid : a sim-
pler test is to boil a portion of the residue from the
preceding with hydrochloric acid and copper turnings ;
if nitric acid be present, red fumes of nitrous acid, pos-
sessing a very characteristic odor, are evolved.
TARTARIC ACID IN VINEGAR. By evaporating a
portion of the vinegar in a water bath, if tartaric acid be
present, a viscid mass of the consistence of treacle, and
highly acid, remains. On adding alcohol to this sub-
stance, and agitating for a short time, the tartaric acid
is dissolved; the spiritous extract filtered off, mixed
with chloride of potassium, and well agitated, yields
a crystalline precipitate of bitartrate of potassa cream
of tartar in the presence of tartaric acid. It must be
remarked that wine vinegar naturally contains some
tartaric acid in the form of cream of tartar this
compound being one of the solid constituents of the
grapes.
METALLIC SALTS IN VINEGAR. The salts which
are formed in vinegar arise from the action of the acid
on the metallic vessels employed. Vinegar made by
the quick process, or in vinegar fields, never contains
any of these compounds, except the vinegar is after-
wards distilled in metallic vessels ; the acid at a high
temperature, with an excess of air, acts on the me-
tallic substances of the still or condensing worm. As
copper, lead, tin, and zinc, are generally the mate-
rials used in the construction of the still or worm, these
are the only bodies that have to be looked for in the
vinegar. A portion of the vinegar is submitted to a
stream of sulphide of hydrogen gas; if a black color
or precipitate be produced, copper or lead is present.
Another portion, ten ounces, of the vinegar is eva-
porated to dryness in a basin, and the residue heated
to redness in a porcelain crucible, and the whitish
ash remaining treated with a few drops of nitric acid,
heated, and filtered; if, on treating the solution with
ammonia, a more or less blue color is given to the
liquid, copper is present. Tin gives a yellow colora-
tion with sulphide of hydrogen. The latter has
no action upon zinc; but on the addition of ammo-
nia, or sulphide of ammonium, a white precipitate is
formed a small proportion of iron is sufficient to give
a greyish or blackish color to the precipitate. The
quantity of salts found in vinegar is generally so very
small as not to be detected by the tyro unless a large
quantity of the vinegar is evaporated, and the residue
submitted to a thorough chemical examination.
Should pepper, chillies, et cetera, be added to vinegar
for the purpose of conferring more pungency, they may
be detected by neutralizing the acid with carbonate of
soda, and tasting the liquid ; if these bodies be pre-
sent, the solution will still retain the sharpness peculiar
to such spices.
Flies musca cellaris and eels vibrio aceti are
often found in vinegar; they may be destroyed by
passing the vinegar through tubes immersed in boiling
water.
The average per centage of fixed matter which re-
mains after evaporating the different vinegars to dry-
ness, is as follows:
Wine Vinegar, 2-05 to 2-10
Beer Vinegar, 5-00 to 6-00
Cider Vinegar, 1-40 to 1-50
Vinegar, as a condiment, serves admirably for pro-
moting digestion. It exerts a solvent action on the
albuminous and proteine compounds of the food ; hence
the reason of its being constantly served with salads,
fish, veal, and other substances rich in such matters.
Its free use, however, should be avoided.
Acetic acid is also extensively employed to preserve
animal and vegetal substances liable to decay or putrefac-
tion. Wood vinegar is preferable to other varieties, on
account of the small quantities of essential oils which
it contains, and which render its antiseptic properties
more active. The creasote of this acid confers a
smoky taste on meats. Vinegar is sometimes concen-
trated by exposing it to cold, and separating the layers
of ice ; although the greater part of the water is by
this treatment removed, yet a large quantity of acetic
acid is likewise abstracted, and where the vinegar is very
dilute, the process is not at all economical. Another
method is, to keep the vinegar heated at a temperature
between 212 and 220 Fahr. ; for, while water boils at
212, the hydrated acetic acid boils at 248, so that at
212 a large proportion of water is driven off and very
ACETIC ACID ACETATES.
little acid; every disadvantage is removed when the
boiling point of the vinegar is elevated. STEIN recom-
mends for this purpose the addition of chloride of so-
dium, in the proportion of thirty pounds for every
hundred pounds of vinegar. The acid then distils over
without loss, and is obtained much stronger than in the
ordinary mode of distillation.
Some cautions may here be given with reference
to the vessels in which vinegar is kept, as these often
consist of metals. A painted vessel should never be
used, the basis of nearly all pigments being white
lead, which readily dissolves in acetic acid, forming
sugar of lead acetate of lead ; and many paints con-
tain copper and other metallic substances, soluble in
acetic acid, all of which may prove poisonous. Copper
vessels may be employed with safety, provided the
inner surface be kept bright, and the acid be not suf-
fered to remain in them after cooling. Iron is too
easily attacked by the acetic acid to be used ; and al-
though the salt which is formed in the liquid the
acetate of iron is not injurious in small quantity, yet
it communicates to food a disagreeable styptic taste.
Common earthen vessels, glazed with oxide of lead
litharge, red lead part of which is frequently un-
combined with the body of the ware, should not be
employed ; for the acid would undoubtedly dissolve that
portion of the oxide, and might even attack the well-
burned porcelain itself the more so if the acid be
heated in the vessel. Salt-glazed stoneware, good
English pottery, porcelain, glazed or enamelled iron,
silver, and copper under the above precautions may
all be employed for boiling acetic acid or its prepara-
tions with safety.
Acetic acid is employed to a large extent in the arts,
chiefly in calico-printing and dyeing. When required
for these uses, it is united to bases, with which it forms
acetates, principally used as mordants. It is likewise
used in the preparation of varnishes; for dissolving
gums and albuminous bodies. Aromatic vinegar is
medicinally applied as a stimulant against fainting,
and externally as a rubefacient.
STATISTICS OP THE VINEGAR MANUFACTURE.
The total number of vinegar makers not including
pyroligneous acid in the United Kingdom, in 1844,
was forty-four. The quantity of vinegar made be-
tween the fifth of July, 1843, and the fourth of July,
1844, was 2,828,043 gallons, on which a duty of
24,745. 7s. 6d. had been paid. At present there are
about fifty manufacturers who make over 3,000,000
gallons annually ; of these the five principal ones are
in London, and they make nearly half the entire
quantity.
The following table exhibits, under the respective
years, the number of vinegar factories in the United
Kingdom, during the six years ending with 1846 :
1841. 1842.
58 .... 59 .
1843. 1844.
. 54 ... 44 .
1845. 1846.
. 60 .... 56
which paid, at the rate of five guineas license fee, the
undermentioned sums, namely :
1841. 1842. 1843. 1844. 1845. 1846.
304. 10s. . . 309. 15s. . . 283. 10s. . . 231 . . 315 . . 294
The number of gallons produced by the home fac-
tories during the period previous to the repeal of the
vinegar duty, was, in
1841. 1842. 1843.
Gallons, 3,102,098 .. 3,175,722 .. 2,993,001
Duty, 27,143. 7s. Id. . . 27,787. 11s. 3|d. . . 26,189. 5s. 7Ad.
1844. 1845. 184G.
Gallons, 2,828,043 ..
Duty, 24,745. 5s. 7d. ..
From the year 1844, tne duty on the home-made \vas
repealed, but a levy of fourpence-halfpenny per gallon
of proof strength is paid by that which is imported from
foreign countries, of which more or less is received every
year. The annexed tables show the number of gallons
of foreign vinegar imported into Great Britain during
the foregoing period, and chargeable with duty :
Number of gallons chargeable with duty imported in
1841. 1842. 1843. 1844. 1845. 1846.
53,695 . . 41,311 . . 21,784 . . 88,722 . . 95,907 . . 63,821 ;
and the quantity retained for home consumption, and
chargeable with duty, was, in
1841. 1842. 1843. 1844. 1845. 1846.
Gls. Gls. Gls. Gls. Gls. GU.
22,205 .. 18,139 .. 14,143 .. 63,029 .. 74,236 .. 73,079
During the corresponding four months, ending the
4th of May, of
1844. 1845. 1846. 1847.
There were entered at) oi. GU. cu. Gis.
the port of London [-6,360 .. 2,378 .. 6,012 .. 2,677
chargeable with duty, )
Of which there were re- )
tained for home con- V 3,465 .. 1,563 .. 4,326 .. 1,966
sumption under duty, )
The number of gallons imported during the three
years ending the 5th of January, 1852, was
Year.
Quantities imported into
the United Kingdom.
Quantities a
Home Cons
Imitted for
umptlon.
Amountof
duty
received
thereon.
1850
1851
1852
63,929 proof gallons.
87,911 "
109,168 "
52,697 proof gallons.
69,667 "
69,897 "
927
1,240
1,221
SESQUIACETATE OF ALUMINA. Red Liquor.
This salt is extensively used by calico-printers, as a
mordant of a very superior quality. It may' be pre-
pared for laboratory purposes by decomposing a solu-
tion of sulphate of alumina by acetate of baryta.
Sulphate of baryta and acetate of alumina are formed;
the former falls down as a heavy white insoluble pow-
der, and the supernatant liquid contains the acetate of
alumina. The decomposition which takes place is
represented in the following equation :
A1 2 8 , 3 S 3 + 3 (Ba 0, C 4 H 8 OJ = A1 2 8 , 3 C 4 H 3 3
Sesquisulphate of alumina. Acetate of baryta. Sesqui&cetute of alumina.
-f 3 (BaO, SOg).
Sulphate of baryta.
On evaporating the liquor filtered from the sulphate of
baryta to dryness on the water-bath, the salt is obtained
in the form of a gummy mass, which is very soluble
in water and deliquescent, and parts with its acid at
a slightly elevated temperature, leaving a subacetate,
ACETIC ACII
-ACETATES.
37
and at a red heat pure alumina. The dry mass has
the following composition :
At.wc S ht *zs$r
1 Eq. of alumina, 52 = 25-366
3 Eqs. of acetic acid, 153 = 74-634
1 Eq. of sesquiacetate of alumina, . . 205 = 100-000
Formula : A1 2 3 , 3 C 4 H 3 3 .
Commercial sesquiacetate of alumina red liquor, from
its being colored with lichens is always met with in
the liquid state. It is manufactured for the use of calico-
printers, by adding to every gallon of acetate of lime
liquor, 2f pounds of alum, agitating the mixture briskly,
and then leaving it to rest, in order that the sulphate of
lime may settle down. The decomposition of the ace-
tate of lime is known by testing a small portion of the
filtered liquid in a tube with a concentrated solution
of alum ; if a precipitate of sulphate of lime falls, more
alum must be added, till the acetate of lime is com-
pletely decomposed. The liquor is now filtered off,
and the solution concentrated by evaporation till it
acquires a spec. grav. of 1/087 to 1-100; allowed to
repose for some time to deposit any sulphate of lime,
and then drawn off for use or for market. The quality
of this liquid as a mordant is inferior, on account of the
partly imperfect decomposition of the lime salt, and of
the presence of a small portion of lime still retained in
the red liquor, which impairs very much the beauty
and gloss of the color given to the cloth.
A better mordant is made by decomposing alum by
acetate of lead. Since the sulphate of lead is insoluble,
the decomposition of the alum solution is more perfect
than when acted upon by acetate of lime ; still, the red
liquor is not a true acetate, but a mixture of acetate
and subsulphate of alumina with hydrate of alumina
and sulphate of potassa, as will be seen from the recipes
in general use for its manufacture. Were an equivalent
of sulphate of alumina decomposed by corresponding
three equivalents of acetate of lead, a sesquiacetate
of alumina would result; in practice, however, it is
found more advantageous to employ equal parts o
alum and sugar of lead, or rather a less quantity o:
die latter. The alum is dissolved in boiling water, and
the powdered acetate of lead added to the solution
About one-tenth of crystallized carbonate of soda, or i
little carbonate of lime, is added to the alum, to com-
bine with the free acid. The three following recipes
serve to indicate the proportions employed :
No. 1. Dissolve 100 Ibs. of alum in 50 galls, of boiling water
and add 100 Ibs. of acetate of lead in fine powder, stirring th/
mixture well at first, and likewise several times during th
cooling.
The clear supernatant liquid consists of an acetate
of alumina, sulphate of potassa, and a little subsulphate
of alumina.
No. 2. Dissolve 100 Ibs. of alum in 50 galls, of water; to thi
solution add slowly 10 Ibs. of crystallized carbonate of soda
and then stir hi 100 Ibs. of acetate of lead in powder.
No. 3. Dissolve 100 Ibs. of alum in 50 galls, of boiling water
and add in small portions 6 Ibs. of crystallized carbonate o
soda, and then stir hi 50 Ibs. of acetate of lead in powder, a
before.
Nos. 2 and 3 contain acid acetate of alumina, basi
.sulphate of alumina dissolved in acetic acid, and sul
hates of potassa and soda. No. 2 becomes cloudy
it 15-i Fahr., and gelatinizes at 1C5; No. 3 clouds
it 176, and gelatinizes at 192; the cloudiness dis-
appears on cooling, and is entirely prevented by an
xcess of alumina in the solutions. According to ccr-
;ain experiments, it appears that the activity of the red
iquor is not wholly dependent upon the amount of
acetate of alumina which it contains, as a portion of the
salt is converted into a basic sulphate which combines
with sesquiacetate of alumina ; on basing the goods in
this solution and drying, a portion of the basic acetate
combines with the basic sulphate of alumina ; and on
subsequently submitting the goods to the drying-bath,
acetic acid is partly volatilized, and the aluminous basic
compound remains perfectly combined with the cloth.
Further, it is shown that it is immaterial, as to the
effect on the texture, and the beauty of color produced
on the cloth, whether one hundred pounds of alum be
decomposed by one hundred and twenty-five, or seventy-
five pounds of acetate of lead, since the acetate of alu-
mina acts by giving up its base to the fibre of the
cloth, and that this is effected as well when a basic
sulphate of the earth is present as when it is wholly
in the form of a sesquiacetate. RUNGE has made
some experiments, by which he shows that the quan-
tity of acetate of lead should be always one hundred and
twenty pounds to every hundred pounds of alum, and
that even the amount of water employed affects the
quality of the product. He based equal weights of
cotton fabric in each of the following solutions, made
by adding
100 Ibs. of alum,
75 Ibs. of acetate of lead, and
280 Ibs. of water together, agitating the mixture, and
filtering :
Secondly, by dissolving
100 Ibs. of alum in
448 Ibs. of water, and adding
120 Ibs. of acetate of lead in powder, agitating the mixture,
and filtering off the clear liquor, as above.
The fabrics being allowed to remain in an equal mea-
sure of these solutions for the same time, and dried at
the same temperature, were washed with equal quan-
tities of hot water ; the washings from the cloth mor-
danted in the first solution contained much alumina,
while only very slight traces were indicated by the
washings from the cloth steeped in the second solution.
The usual addition of carbonate of soda, to the extent
of about one-tenth of the alum employed, acts advan-
tageously hi the manufacture of red liquor, where a low
proportion of sugar of lead is used, by uniting partly
with the sulphuric acid, and producing a basic sul-
phate, as well as acetate of alumina, as mentioned
above.
However, it appears, from practical observations, th
a sulphoacetate of alumina is to be preferred, as giving
the most satisfactory results. Mr. CALVEKT states,
that a mordant of the composition
is the best adapted for fixing the colors, on account of
the excess of alumina in such a solution above those
which contain, besides the aluminous salts, salts of the
38
ACETIC ACID ACETATES.
alkalies, which are inert in the uses for which red liquor
is manufactured.
The preceding he prepares by mixing together
453 Ibs. of ammonia alum,
379 Ibs. of acetate of lead, and
1132 Ibs. of water ;
383 Ibs. of sulphate of alumina,
379 Ibs. of acetate of lead, and
1132 Ibs. of water;
or,
453 Ibs. of alum, and a quantity of solution of acetate of
lime, amounting to one hundred and fifty-eight
pounds ;
333 Ibs. of sulphate of alumina, with the same amount of
acetate of lime solution.
On agitating the foregoing mixtures, decomposition
takes place ; sulphate" of lead or of lime is thrown
down, and a sulphoacetate remains, with an equivalent
of sulphate of ammonia from the ammonia alum. In-
stead of alum, many printers now use sesquisulphate of
alumina in the fabrication of this mordant, which is
much more economical, as the solution of this salt,
brought to the standard strength, or 1-085 spec, grav.,
contains more alumina than the ordinary red liquor of
that strength, as the following analyses show :
COMPOSITION OP FOUR MORDANTS PER GALLON.
Formula.
A1 2 3 , S 0,, 2 C 4 IT 3 B +
NI1 4 0, S0 3 .
Formula.
il,0.,80b,0H,0 8 +
NH 4 O, S0 8 .
Formula,
A1 2 3 , S O s> 2 C 4 II 3 3 .
Alumina,
Mordant A.
Mordant IS.
Mordant C.
Mordant I).
On. Oz. (Irs.
1680-0 = 3 308
3369-8 = 7 307
2642-5 = 617
674-1 = 1 236
Gra. Oz. Gru.
1830-0 = 4 80
3570-0 = 8 170
2800-0 = 6 175
910-0 = 2 35
Grs. Oz. Grs.
1239-0 = 2 365
1281-7 = 2 406
3017-0 = 6 3'J2
653-1 = 1 215
Grs. Oz. Grs.
2164-4 = 4 414
3679-2 = 8 179
1664-6 = 3 352
Acetic acid,
Sulphuric acid,
Ammonia and water,
ACETATE OF AMMONIA Spirit of Mindererus
in solution, is obtained by saturating distilled vinegar
with carbonate of ammonia; this salt constitutes the
liquor ammonice acetatis of the Pharmacopeia, which
has long been used in medicine as a diaphoretic. When
equal weights of chloride of ammonium and acetate of
potassa are distilled together, at an incipient tempera-
ture ammonia is at first eliminated, and afterwards bin-
acetate of ammonia distils over, in the form of an oily
2 (N H 4 Cl) -f 2 (K 0, C 4 H 3 Og) = N H 4 +
Ammonia*
liquid
Chloride of ammonium.
(NH 4 0, 2C 4 H 3 Cg
cetate of potaasa.
which concretes into acicular
Binacctate.
crystals, deliquescent, and dissolved in all proportions
by water and alcohol. Dry ammonia, transmitted into
the fused binacetate, converts it into the solid neutral
acetate ; a white inodorous salt, easily soluble in water
and alcohol, and converted by heat into ammonia and
the binacetate of ammonia
N H 4 0, C 4 H 3 3 , HO, C 4 H 3 8 + N H 4 =
Neutral acetate.
Binacetate of ammonia forms striated prisms, fusible at
168, and subliming unchanged at 248.
The neutral acetate of ammonia has the composi-
tion :
Atomic weight. Centesimally represented.
1 Eq. of acetic acid, ........ 51-00 ........ 38-93
1 Eq. of oxide of ammonium, 26-00 ........ 19-84
6 Eqs. of water, ........... 54-00 ........ 41-23
131-00 100-00
Formula : N H 4 0, C 4 H 3 0, + 6 aq.
ACETATE OF COPPER. There are several ace-
tates of copper, one of which is of the suboxide, the
others being of the protoxide of copper. Of the latter,
the most important in the arts are the neutral acetate
of copper, the bibasic acetate verdigris and the tri-
basic acetate of copper. The neutral acetate of coppei
is formed by dissolving the hydrated oxide of copper in
acetic acid, or by precipitating a solu-
tion of sulphate of copper by acetate Fl e- 28 -
of lead or baryta, filtering off the pre-
cipitated sulphate of lead or baryta,
and evaporating the filtered liquid,
and crystallizing. The crystals are
in oblique rhombic prisms Fig. 28
of a dark-green color, and possess
a disagreeable metallic taste ; soluble
in about thirteen and a half parts of
cold, and five of boiling water. The composition of
the neutral acetate is :
Atomic weight. Per centage quantity.
1 Eq. of oxide of copper, 40
1 Eq. of acetic acid, 51
1 Eq. of water, 9
40-00
51-00
9-00
100 100-00
Formula: Cu 0, C 4 H 3 3 + H 0,
Acetate of copper was formerly employed in the
manufacture of acetic acid. The suboxKie of copper is
obtained in red octahedral crystals when the neutral
salt is heated with organic substanpes, such as sugar,
honey, starch, et cetera.
When the commercial verdigris is dissolved in dilute
acetic acid, and the salt crystallized at 40 to 45 Fahr.,
an acetate with five atoms of water is obtained, in beau-
tiful blue oblique four-sided prisms. On raising the
temperature to about 86, the crystals almost instan-
taneously lose their blue color, and acquire a greenish
hue; four atoms of water are expelled, and neutral
acetate remains, with one atom of water.
Its chief use in the arts is in making pigments, and
for resisting the blue color which the indigo would
communicate in the indigo-bath of the calico-printer.
ACETIC ACID ACETATES.
39
In the latter case, its mode of action depends on the
readiness with which it parts with oxygen, whereby
the indigo is oxidized before it can exert any action
on the cloth, being itself reduced to the state of acetate
of suboxide of copper. Verdigris is occasionally em-
ployed as a transparent green water-color or wash for
tinting maps.
BIBASIC ACETATE OF COPPEE. Verdigris; ^Erugo.
This salt is formed by exposing thin copper plates,
in a confined space, to the combined action of air and
moisture, or by submitting copper plates to the action
of fermenting marcs refuse from the wine factories ; in
the course of a few days, a coating of subacetate forms
on the plates, which may be scraped off, and the remain-
ing part of the plate submitted to a fresh operation,
till all the copper is converted into verdigris.
The manufacture of verdigris on the large scale is
conducted as follows : In France, the chief seats of this
manufacture are at Grenoble and Montpellier, where
the operations are conducted in a rude but effective
way, and usually by women. Husks and refuse of
grapes from the wine factories, not entirely exhausted
of their juice, are spread loosely in casks until the ace-
tous fermentation takes place. The casks or vessels
are covered with matting, to protect them from dirt.
The limit to which fermentation of the marcs should
be carried, is known by introducing a test sheet of
copper into the mass for twenty-four hours ; if, on with-
drawing it at the end of that time, it is found covered
with a uniform green coating, the proper degree of fer-
mentation is reached, otherwise the mass is allowed to
remain a day or two longer. Alternate layers of sheets
of copper of one twenty-fourth of an inch thick, and
the fermented marcs, are introduced into large casks,
observing that the top and bottom layers are of the
fetter.
Sheets of copper are prepared by hammering bars
of the metal to the above thickness the more com-
pact the copper sheets, the better and they arc then
cut out into pieces of six or eight inches long by
three to four broad. These plates are immersed in a
concentrated solution of the verdigris, and dried over a
charcoal fire ; then heated to about 200 Fahr., being
held by a cloth in the hand, and packed in the vessels
with layers of the fermented husks, as above-mentioned.
If the plates be not immersed in the solution of the
acetate before packing in the casks with the fermented
stalks and skins of the grape, they are liable to be
covered with a black coating, instead of the green ace-
tate. The quantity of metal required to fill each vessel
is between thirty and forty pounds. Twenty days are
sufficient to complete the corrosion of the copper sheets,
and induce their combination with the acetic acid pre-
sent in the marcs, but often sixteen or twelve days
perfect the work. After this period, the upper layer
of marcs will appear whitish, and if the whole has
worked favorably, the plates will be covered with
silky crystals of a green color. The plates are then
taken from the casks, and dried in the air for two
or three days, after which they are moistened with
water and again placed to dry, by laying them upright
against each other for a week. This process of mois-
tening with water is continued at regular intervals of a
week, for six or eight times. By this mode of opera-
tion, the plates swell and become encrusted with in-
creasing coatings of the copper salt, which are detached
from the remainder of the plates by a copper knife.
The scraped plates are submitted to a fresh treatment,
till the whole of the copper is converted into verdigris.
After scraping off the salt, it is made into a thick con-
sistent mass by kneading it with a little water, and in
this state it is packed into leathern bags, which are
placed in the sun to dry, until the mass hardens and
forms a tough substance like the commercial article.
At Grenoble the process is nearly the same as above,
excepting, that instead of moistening the plates with a
solution of subacetate of copper, they employ acetic
acid. In Germany, Sweden, and England, the manufac-
ture is somewhat different from the preceding, inasmuch
as, instead of the fermented marcs of the grapes, woollen
cloths steeped in pyroligneous acid are used, which are
placed alternately with the copper plates in a square
wooden box. The cloths are moistened with acetic
acid every three days for twelve or fifteen days, till
small crystals begin to form on the plates. When this
happens the cloths are partly withdrawn, and a space
allowed for the circulation of the ah-, the whole being
moistened weekly with water. Generally, five or six
weeks elapse before the completion of the work.
Acetate of copper is likewise made by acting upon
thin sheets of copper, in small vessels, with acetic acid.
The copper is not immersed in the acid, but nearly
touches its surface; a temperature of about 150 to
180 Fahr. is maintained during the operation. The
plates become, in time, coated with acetate, as in the
forementioried processes, which is scraped off and dried
for the market.
The composition of pure verdigris is :
Atomic weight. $S&,
2 Eqs. of oxide of copper, 80 43-24
1 Eq. of acetic acid, 51 27-57
6 Eqs. of water, 54 29-19
1 Eq. of bibasic acetate of copper, 185 100-00
which, on comparison with the analysis of the best French
and English manufacture, tells in favor of the latter.
Oxide of copper,
Acetic acid,
Water,
Impurities,
French Verdigris, English Verdigris,
Theory. ceutcsimally centesiniolly
represented. represented.
43-24 43-50 44-25
27-54 29-30 29-62
29-19 25-20 25-51
_ . . 2-00 0-62
100-00 100-00 100-00
Formula: 2 Cu 0, C 4 H 3 O s + OH 0.
This salt is often employed in painting, and likewise
in calico-printing, for precisely the same purpose as
the neutral acetate ; namely, as a resist paste in the
indigo dye-bath.
Good verdigris should be dry, have a fine bluish-
green color, and be soluble in dilute acetic and sulphuric
acids, and also in ammonia.
Verdigris is often adulterated, generally with finely
ground pumice, chalk, and sulphate of copper. The
purchasers acquainted with this article judge of the
relative purity of the sample from its bright color and
by kneading it on the palm of the hand with a little
40
ACETIC ACID ACETATES.
water ; by the latter test the presence of sand is de-
tected, as the subacetate alone should form a paste free
from any grittiness.
For the detection of chalk carbonate of lime a
weighed portion of the verdigris, in powder, is intro-
duced into a flask, and hydrochloric acid poured upon
it ; if effervescence takes place, it indicates the presence
of carbonates; should, however, no effervescence oc-
cur, and, at the same time, a residue of silica remains
undissolved, it shows that pumice, or some analogous
body, is the adulterant ; the residue is greater or less
in proportion to the extent of adulteration.
If the hydrochloric acid solution of the above be fil-
tered off, and the residue, being well washed, dried in a
water-bath at 212, and afterwards burned in a weighed
platinum crucible till the whole of the charcoal of the
paper is consumed, and weighed the increase of weight
will give the amount of insoluble impurities in the
sample. On adding chloride of barium to the filtered
liquid and washings, a white insoluble precipitate of
sulphate of baryta will fall down, if sulphates of copper
or iron be present. By placing the beaker on the hot
sand-bath the precipitate quickly settles down, after
which it is filtered off, washed with boiling-hot water
as long as any chloride of barium is extracted, and then
placed in the water or air-bath to dry : the precipitate
is now to be detached from the filter, upon a sheet of
clean dry glazed paper; the filter is burned alone in
the platinum crucible till the ashes contain no charcoal
from the paper; the precipitate is then introduced,
heated to redness, and weighed. One hundred and seven-
teen grains of the precipitate corresponding with forty
grains, or one equivalent of anhydrous sulphuric acid
equal eighty grams of anhydrous sulphate of copper,
or one hundred and twenty -five grains of that salt in
crystals.
The amount of the lime compound may be ascer-
tained by weighing out one hundred grains, and dis-
solving them in a beaker-glass with hydrochloric acid,
the clear solution filtered off from the residue, and a
current of sulphide of hydrogen gas passed through
the liquid, till the whole of the copper is thrown
down in the form of a brownish-black precipitate.
The sulphide of hydrogen hydrosulphuric acid is
generated in an apparatus like the annexed Fig. 29 :
Fig. 29.
A is a bottle containing pieces of sulphide of iron, and
a few ounces of water ; through the cork two tubes
pass, the funnelled one, B, reaches to the bottom, and
the other, c, opens at a quarter of an inch below the
cork, which should fit the bottle air-tight. The sulphide
of hydrogen is generated by pouring, through the funnel
tube, B, some strong sulphuric acid, which reacts on the
sulphide of iron, giving rise to the gas, which passes off
by the tube, C, bent at right angles, the longer limb
passing through the cork of the bottle, d, which con-
tains some distilled water, for the purpose of washing
the gas. A second tube, e, bent at right angles, conveys
the gas to the beaker-glass, g, containing the solution,
from which the substance is to be precipitated.
The subjoined equation exhibits the decomposition of
the sulphide of iron by the sulphuric acid :
Fe S + H 0, S 3 = Fe 0, S 3 + H S
Sulphide of Iron. Sulphuric acid.
Sulphate of iron. Sulphide or hydrogen.
When the whole of the copper has been precipitated
as sulphide, and the menstruum evolves a strong odor
of the precipitant, it is filtered off, edulcorated with
water, and the washings added to the filtrate. Am-
monia, in slight excess, is now poured into the solu-
tion, then oxalate of ammonia, and the beaker-glass
placed on the sand-bath. When the oxalate of
lime has subsided, it is collected, washed with water,
dried as the preceding precipitates, and burned in a
platinum crucible. The ignition should be gentle, and
at a heat little above dull redness, so as not to expel
carbonic acid from the carbonate of lime, which is
formed by the action of the heat on the oxalate of lime,
as is shown in the annexed decomposition :
Ca 0, C 2 8 = Ca 0, C 2 -f C 0, expelled.
Oxalate of lime.
Carbonate of lime.
Carbonic oxide.
The weight of the carbonate of lime obtained is
equal to the amount of that adulterant added to the
verdigris. Verdigris generally contains about three per
cent, of impurities, and sometimes the insoluble matter
in it is six per cent. ; in such a case, however, the ar-
ticle is of inferior quality.
Formerly, the manufacture of verdigris was one of
the most lucrative in Belgium, and it was also car-
ried on profitably in France ; but in later times the
production of this substance is not so much confined to
those countries. France still produces considerable
quantities of the article, and nearly the whole of the
salt imported into this kingdom is from that country.
Until the 19th of March, 1845, the duty on verdigris
imported into this kingdom from France, was IsV^-
per pound weight; it was then subjected to an ad
valorem duty of ten per cent., which was repealed in
1853.
The following table shows the quantity of verdi-
gris chargeable with duty, imported into the United
Kingdom during the six years ending the 5th May,
1846 :
1841 1842. 1843. 1844. 1845. 1846.
Cwt., 1,340 .. 1,702 .. 1,810 .. 1,218 .. 897 .. 454
Of which there were retained for home consumption,
and chargeable with duty, hi
Cwt., . .
1841.
1842.
1,576
1843.
1,575
1844.
1,129
1845.
. 791
1846.
677
ACETIC ACID ACETATES.
41
During the years 1845, 1846, and 1847, there were
imported from France alone, in
1845, ..
1846,.
1847,..
Quantity imported
chargeable with duty.
. 100,679 Ibs. .
. 49,180 " .
76,200 " .
Declared value. , Duty received
for home consumption.
. 6,640 227
3,102 110
. 4,971 170
The quantities of verdigris which entered the port o
London during the corresponding four months, termi
nating the 5th of May, were, in
1845.
Cwt...... 256
1846.
123 .
1847.
216 ,
1848.
2
And the quantities retained for home consumption, anc
chargeable with duty, during the corresponding months
above-mentioned, were, in
1845. 1846. 1847. 1848.
Cwt...... 176 136 19 76
In 1852, the last year of the existence of the ten per
cent, ad valorem duty, the imports of verdigris were
four hundred and sixty-seven, and the exports seventy
two hundredweight. In 1853, the duty, as already
stated, was entirely repealed; still, the imports are small
as large quantities of verdigris are prepared in Englam
with pyroligneous acid and cider refuse. The foreign
salt sells at a shilling per pound, and the English variety
made from cider refuse, at ninepence, as it has a greenisl
color, and is in every respect inferior to the former.
ACETATE OF THE OXIDE OF ETHYLE.
Acetic Ether. This compound is prepared by distilling
ten parts of anhydrous acetate of soda with seven parts
of sulphuric acid and eight of absolute alcohol. The
fluid which passes over is mixed with carbonate of soda
till neutralized, the supernatant layer of aqueous acetic
ether drawn off and agitated repeatedly with dry chlo-
ride of calcium, until that salt is no longer moistenec
with it; the solution is then distilled to procure the
pure ether. It is a colorless mobile liquid, having
an agreeable refreshing odor, and a pleasant taste ; it
burns with a yellowish flame, producing acid vapors.
Its spec. grav. is 0'89 at 60 Fahr.; it boils at 165,
and is converted into vapor of spec. grav. 3-0634.
The liquid is soluble in seven parts of water, and in
alcohol and ether in all proportions. Its composition is
appended :
Atomic weight Per centage weight
8 Eqs. of carbon, 48 54-55
8 Eqs. of hydrogen, 8 9-09
4 Eqs. of oxygen, 32 36-36
1 Eq. acetic ether, 88 100-00
Formula: C 4 H 5 0, C 4 H 8 3 , or C 8 H 8 4 .
Fig. 30 is a convenient form of apparatus for making
acetic ether. A is a large flask, furnished with an
air-tight cork, perforated with two holes, through one of
which a safety or funnel tube, d, passes, and the other
receives the tube, c c, bent at right angles as seen in
the figure, through which the vapors pass to the con-
denser. The condenser, g, is a wide cylinder, having
an aperture at the bottom, through which the bent end
of the tube passes into a flask, k, placed beneath the
cylinder to receive the distilled products. A cistern,
E, supplies the cylinder, g, by the stopcock, j, with
cold water, which is conducted to the bottom by the
funnel pipe, o, and the partly-heated water passes off
VOL. 1.
by the overflow pipe, m, into the vessel, N. Heat is
applied to the flask by means of the spirit lamp, L.
Acetate of lead is a salt occasionally employed on
the large scale, when making acetic ether; the pro-
portions taken ( are, sixteen parts of dry acetate of
lead to four and a half of absolute alcohol, and six
parts of sulphuric acid, specific gravity 1'84. The
sulphuric acid and alcohol are mixed in a vessel
surrounded by ice, and the mixture, when cooled,
is poured upon the finely-divided lead salt in the
Fig. 30.
flask ; the apparatus is adjusted, and a gentle heat
applied at first, which is gradually increased towards
the end of the distillation. The condenser is well
cooled, and the receiver may be advantageously im-
mersed in ice-cold water. The acetic ether obtained
is rectified as before-mentioned.
When this ether is poured upon chloride of cal-
cium, combination takes place, and a crystalline mass
results, from which, by the addition of a small quantity
of water, acetic ether again separates. By digestion
in a solution of potassa, acetic ether suffers complete
decomposition ; acetic acid unites with the alkali, and
ether passes off: the same ellect is produced when the
ether, is distilled with lime. Hydrochloric, sulphuric,
and nitric acids decompose it, the ether uniting with
these acids and liberating acetic acid. Pure acetic
ther does not react on blue litmus paper, nor should it
be colored by sulphide of hydrogen. It dissolves resins,
sulphur, phosphorus, et cetera, like ether.
This compound is used as a constituent of several of
the pharmaceutical preparations employed in medicine,
from its power of dissolving resins and essential oils,
t may be advantageously applied in the preparation of
tarnishes. The vinegar sold contains a small quantity
of acetic ether, with the view, no doubt, of improving
ts taste and odor.
ACETATES OF IRON. There are two acetates of
iron : the protoacetate and the sesquiaceiate.
PROTOACETATE OF IRON may easily be prepared by
dissolving sulphide of iron, or iron turnings, in acetic
acid. In the former case, sulphide of hydrogen, and in
42
ACETIC ACII
-ACETATES.
the latter, gaseous hydrogen is evolved. This compound
may likewise be obtained by decomposing a solution of
the protosulphate of iron by acetate of baryta ; but in
this method there is formed a greater or less amount of
sesquisalt, which can, however, be reduced to the state
of protosalt by passing a stream of sulphide of hydrogen
gas through the liquid. The protoacetate of iron crys-
tallizes in prismatic crystals of a greenish color, which
are very soluble in water, and readily pass into the
state of basic acetate when exposed to the air. The
composition of the dry salt is
Atomic weight Centesimal quantities.
1 Eq. of protoxide of.iron, ... 36 41-379
1 Eq. of acetic acid, 51 58-621
87
Formula : Fe 0, C 4 H 3 O s .
100-000
For commercial purposes, this compound is manu-
factured as follows : Into a large cast-iron boiler or
pot, a quantity of iron turnings, hoops, or nails, are
introduced, and acetic acid the crude pyroligneous acid
from the distillation of wood is poured in upon them.
The strength of the acid is generally of 7 Twaddle,
or spec. grav. 1'035. A temperature of 150 Fahr. is
maintained till the solution of protoacetate of iron is
obtained, of a spec. grav. 1-00, or 18 T., at 60 Fahr.
During the solution of the iron much tarry matter sepa-
rates, which is skimmed off, and the solution frequently
agitated, to free it, as much as possible, from the tar.
As soon as the above strength is gained, the solution is
allowed to cool, for a further quantity of impurities to
separate. When clean turnings are operated upon, the
process of solution is completed in five to seven days.
The hydrogen that is eliminated during the solution
of the iron prevents the oxidation of the iron salt, as
is seen in the subjoined equation :
Fe + II 0, C 4 II S 3 = Fe 0, C 4 II 3 3 + H.
Acetic in-ill. Protoacetate ol iron.
Were any sesquisalt formed, the hydrogen, by combin-
ing with part of its oxygen, would again reconvert it to
a protosalt.
Some printers dissolve the iron without the aid of
heat, but this method is slow and unsatisfactory, for
the deposit of tarry bodies on the iron prevents the
action of the acetic acid ; besides, from the long expo-
sure to the air, some sesquisalt of iron is generated.
The usual produce from one hundred gallons of acetic
acid, and a proportionate quantity of iron turnings, is
sixty to seventy gallons of acetate of iron, spec. grav.
1-090, or 18 T., and when this solution is reduced by
the addition of water to a spec. grav. 1-OGO, it produces
with madder a deep black.
The mordant is likewise made by decomposing a
solution of sulphate of iron by acetate of lime ; the
proportions employed are the foDowing :
400 Ibs. of protosulphate of iron copperas dissolved in
100 gallons of hot water, and the solution decomposed by
75 gallons of acetate of lime liquor, spec. grav. 1-08.
On agitating the menstruum, the decomposition is ren-
dered complete ; the clear liquor, which is siphoned off
after subsidence of the sulphate of lime, possesses a
density of 1-110.
When the liquor is not immediately required for use,
it is apt to become oxidized, and deposits a basic salt,
to prevent which some metallic iron is left in contact
with the solution this will combine with the oxygen of
the sesquioxide. Sometimes, when a large quantity of
pyroligneous matters deposits in the solution, the iron is
prevented from acting by the coating of those matters
which fall upon it ; in such instances, a quantity of fine
iron wire may be suspended in the liquid, and thus the
formation of the basic acetate is prevented.
In some of the continental factories, the protoacetate
of iron is manufactured by decomposing the protocar-
bonate of iron with acetate of lead : carbonate of lead
precipitates, and the blackish supernatant liquor is the
protoacetate of iron in a very pure state. It is kept
from oxidizing by immersing in it some bright iron
filings. The lead-salt formed repays the cost of the
manufacture of the acetate. This method is, however,
as yet limited.
SESQTJIACETATE PERACETATE OF IRON. This
salt is made by dissolving pure hydrated sesqui-
oxide of iron in acetic acid, or by mixing solutions
of sesquisulphate of iron and acetate of baryta in an
iron pot, and agitating the liquid. Sulphate of baryta
precipitates, and the clear liquid contains the sesqui-
acetate. It is an uncrystallizable, dark, brownish-red
liquor, which, on evaporation, yields a deliquescent gela-
tinous paste. Like the acetate of alumina, it deposits
an insoluble basic salt when heated, and hence its utility
in dyeing operations. Ba&ic acetate of the sesquioxide
of iron is an insoluble yellow powder, precipitating out
of the protoacetate which has oxidized in the air, and
even out of the neutral sesquiacetate when kept for
some time, especially if an alkaline salt be present.
When pure, the composition of the sesquiacetate of
iron is
Atomic weight. Per cent
1 Eq. of sesquioxide of iron, .... 80 34-344
3 Eqs. of acetic acid, 133 65-656
1 Eq. sesquiacetate of iron, 213 100-000
Formula : Fe a 8 , 3 C 4 E 8 3 .
Sesquiacetate of iron is manufactured chiefly for the
use of dyers, the salt being rarely employed by the
calico -printer.
Where the dyer requires uniform grounds, he cannot
as well employ the protosalts of iron, for when cotton
is impregnated with such a solution as copperas or
the protoacetate of iron, while drying it attracts
oxygen from the air, and the sesquioxide of iron, or a
basic salt, collects more in those parts not yet dry, and
will, of course, produce darker spots in the dye-bath.
It is, therefore, better to prepare an acetate of the ses-
quioxide of iron at once, either by pouring acetic acid
repeatedly over iron turnings for several weeks, in ves-
sels exposed freely to the air, or, still better, by double
decomposition with acetate of lead or acetate of lime.
For this purpose, dissolve one pound iron-alum in half
a gallon of water, add one pound acetate of lead, stir
the liquor well, let it settle, and decant or filter. The
solution made from iron-alum will not keep long, as it
gradually deposits an insoluble basic salt from the
presence of sulphate of potassa, while that made from
ACETIC ACID ACETATES.
43
sesquisulphate of iron will retain its properties " for a
great length of time; on the other hand, iron-alum
is more convenient in use, from its containing known
quantities of sesquioxide, and the difficulty above-
mentioned may be obviated by preparing only the
quantity required for immediate use.
The sesquiacetate of iron may also be made from
sesquisulphate of iron and acetate of lead. As the
sesquisulphate of iron is not so uniform in composition
as the iron-alum, it may be well to ascertain how much
oxide of iron and sulphuric acid it contains, in order to
know what quantity of acetate of lead to employ in its
decomposition. For this purpose, weigh out one hun-
dred grains, which is about half an equivalent of dry
and pure sesquisulphate ; dissolve in water, and filter ;
add two hundred and eighty-five grains crystallized
acetate of lead half of three equivalents dissolved in
water, filter and weigh the precipitate, which is sul-
phate of lead : every seventy-six grains of this sulphate
of lead require ninety-five or more safely, ninety
grains of acetate of lead to insure sufficient decomposi-
tion. Calling grains, pounds, the operation may then
be conducted on a large scale, The excess of acetate of
lead in the acetate of iron mordant, may be ascertained
by diluting a little of the cle.ar liquor with water, and
adding a few drops of sulphuric acid ; if it becomes
cloudy, there is an excess of acetate of lead, which
may prove injurious to colors, but this is easily obviated
by adding a little more sesquisulphate of iron, until the
clear liquor is no longer affected by sulphuric acid. For
the ordinary operations of the dyer, it may not be neces-
sary to decompose all the sesquisulphate of iron ; but for
printing, and particularly for full russets, the whole salt
should be sesquiacetate of iron, otherwise some of the
sulphate would disappear in washing the goods, while
they may be fully charged with basic acetate of iron,
which cannot be removed by water.
The acetates of iron are employed in woollen dye-
ing, to produce blue with ferrocyanide of potassium
yellow prussiate ; in cotton dyeing and printing, and in
silk dyeing, for blacks, russets, et cetera ; the protoace-
tate with madder, for violet ; the same, together with
red liquor, for brown ; in dyeing hats and furs black ;
for blackening leather, wood, et cetera. Some prefer the
protoacetate, because, by the oxidation of the iron sub-
sequent to dyeing, the colors are more resistent ; but
greater uniformity of the ground is insured by the use
of sesquiacetate.
The sesquiacetate of iron, containing protoacetate,
may also be conveniently made by pouring pyroligne-
ous acid on iron turnings in a series of vessels placed
obliquely one above the other as wih 1 be more parti-
cularly described under acetate of lead suffering the
acid to remain the same length of time in contact with
the metal, and repeating the operation twice, or until
the acid is saturated.
Pyroligneous acid crude wood vinegar is now al-
most universally employed for the manufacture of the
protoacetate and sesquiacetate of iron.
ACETATE OF LEAD. Sugar of Lead; Salt of
Saturn, of the old chemists. Oxide of lead unites with
acetic acid in various proportions, the most important
of those combinations being the neutral acetate, known
Fig. 31
in commerce under the above names. It is used to a
great extent in the calico-printing business, and likewise
in dyeing, for the preparation of other compounds
employed in those trades, and occasionally as a medici-
nal agent, and in pharmaceutical preparations.
It may be prepared by digesting pure oxide of lead
in dilute acetic acid, or by exposing thin sheets of lead
in a confined chamber to the action of the vapor of
acetic acid ; they become corroded, and there is formed
a mixture of carbonate and acetate of lead on the sur-
face of the sheets, which is scraped off, and dissolved
in a slight excess of acetic acid. On evaporating this
solution, the acetate of lead crystallizes in acicular
masses, if the hot solution be set aside to cool rapidly ;
but if the evaporation be conducted slowly, the crys-
tals are truncated and flattened quadrangular and hexa-
hedral prisms Fig. 31
derived from a right rhom-
bic prism. The crystals are
permanent in the air, but
are apt to effloresce and be-
come anhydrous if the tem-
perature ranges between 70
and 100 Fahr. Anhydrous
acetate of lead is soluble in
boiling absolute alcohol, and
is deposited again in hexagonal plates on the slow
cooling of the spiritous solution. Acetate of lead has
a sweet astringent taste, is soluble in less than three
and a half times its weight of boiling water, and in
nearly the same quantity of cold water. PA YEN states,
that a hundred parts of water at 60 Fahr., dissolve
fifty-nine parts of the crystallized acetate of lead. The
crystallized salt is fusible in its water of crystallization
at 130, boils at 212, and after elimination of the
water solidifies into a lamellar mass.
On raising the temperature higher, the substance
fuses, and evolves all the compounds usually obtained
in the destructive distillation of the acetates of the
heavy metals, leaving a residue of highly pyrophoric
metallic lead, in a very minute state of division, with
some charcoal.
A slight decomposition occurs when the neutral salt
is exposed to an atmosphere of carbonic acid carbo-
nate of lead being formed ; the portion of acetic acid
thus h'berated protects the remainder from further
change.
The anhydrous acetate is composed of
Atomic weight. P< ^ %$**
lEq. of oxide of lead, 112 08-71
1 Eq. of acetic acid, 51 31-29
lEq. of acetate of lead, 163 100-00
and the composition of the crystallized salt is
lEq. of oxide of lead, 112 58-95
1 Eii. of acetic acid, 51 26-8
3Eqs.ofwater, 27 J
1 Eq. of crystallized acetate of lead, . . 190 100-00
Formula : Pb 0, C 4 H 8 8 + 3 H 0.
BROWN ACETATE OF LEAD. The distilled pyrolig-
neous acid is saturated with litharge in a tub, and the
muddy solution ladled out into a large tun to settle ; the
44
ACETIC ACID ACETATES.
solid matter readily subsides, and the clear solution is
transferred into a pan of malleable-iron, but which may
be made of cast-iron, and six feet long by four feet broad.
The solution is brought to the boiling point in this pan,
then allowed to settle ; it is next transferred into a large
hemispherical pan, capable of holding about three hun-
dred or four hundred gallons, where it is evaporated down
to about crystallizing strength. When the solution has
become dense enough to crystallize, about three times
its bulk of water is run in upon it whilst boiling, the
solution being constantly stirred. By this treatment
a considerable quantity of impurities is disengaged,
which may be skimmed off as fast as they rise to the
surface ; after they are removed, the evaporation goes
on as before. If the solution be still too much colored,
another dose of water must be given. A little practice
soon enables the operator to know when the evaporation
should be checked. The ordinary method is, to rinse a
ladle which is used to skim off tar from the solution
through the liquid, and observe how many drops fall
from it before the solution takes a stringy appearance ;
if only ten or twelve fall, then it is sufficiently strong.
The liquid is now ladled out into malleable-iron pans
to crystallize ; the pans are five feet long by three
feet broad, and about six inches deep, the sides being
bevelled or sloping outwards from the bottom. After
the crystals have become sufficiently firm, the sugar of
lead is taken out, by inverting the pan on a cloth. The
pots used in the above process are heated only at the
bottom. A. P. Halliday.
WHITE ACETATE OF LEAD. This is prepared by
dissolving litharge in acetic acid. The acetic acid is
introduced into a vessel, the litharge added by degrees,
and the menstruum kept in brisk commotion after each
addition, until the solution only slightly reddens litmus
paper ; a quantity of water, equal to about one-half of
the acid employed, is then run into the lead solution ;
heat is applied, and the mixture slowly evaporated for
about twelve hours, or until it has acquired a density
of about 1'500. During evaporation, any impurities
which rise to the surface are skimmed off, and when the
solution has acquired its proper gravity, it is drawn into
the crystallizing pans. When the crystals have become
sufficiently hard to allow of their being taken en masse
from the crystallizers, they are drained and placed on
wooden racks in the drying-house, and, when dry,
cleaned and broken up into fragments for the market.
The mother liquor, which contains neutral and basic
acetates of lead and other metallic salts, may either be
treated with vinegar, evaporated, recrystallized, and the
residue employed as washings in subsequent operations ;
or it may be decomposed by carbonate of soda or lime,
and used as carbonate of lead ; or dissolved in acetic
acid, and the supernatant acetate of soda or lime re-
covered.
Vessels used in this manufacture are, in most cases,
of lead. In Wales, the mixing pans are of lead,
three quarters of an inch thick, seven feet long by four
and a half feet wide, and one foot deep. These pans
are set on iron plates over arches, and the fireplaces are
outside the building, in order that the acetate may not
be darkened by the sulphurous vapors from the coal.
The crystallizing pans are of wood, lined with thin cop-
per, and are about four feet long by two feet wide, and
from six to eight inches deep, sloping inwards at the
edges. At Pitchcombe, the mixing and crystallizing
vessels are both of copper, having a strip of lead sol-
dered down the sides and across the bottom of the vessel,
to render the metals more electro-negative, whereby
the acetic acid is prevented acting on the copper.
Very great care is requisite in the drying of the sugar
of lead ; the temperature of the desiccating-house should
not exceed 90 Fahr. In Wales, the heated air of a
stove, placed outside the drying-house, is conveyed
through pipes passing round the interior; at other
places, steam heat is the agent for this purpose, which
is much to be preferred on account of its being more
easily regulated.
That the manufacturer may the better judge of the
success of his operations from the amount of the product
obtained, the following will serve as a precedent : One
hundred and twelve pounds of good Newcastle litharge
should produce a hundred and eighty-seven pounds of
sugar of lead, when treated with a hundred and twenty-
seven pounds of acetic aicid of spec. grav. 1'057, but not
more than a hundred and eighty pounds are obtained
in practice. The quantity produced, given in UKE'S
Dictionary of Arts and Manufactures, and in other
works, is evidently a misprint, being almost three times
the weight of the litharge employed. A manufacturer
of sugar of lead would indeed be fortunate who could
obtain such a return. In a factory in Wales, a ton of
Welsh litharge produces, with the acid obtained from
one ton of acetate of lime, from twenty-eight to thirty
hundred weight of sugar of lead ; and in another ma-
nufactory, one ton of best Newcastle litharge, with the
acid from one ton and a half of acetate of lime, produces
thirty-three hundred weight of the lead salt.
The following process with metallic lead, recom-
mended first by BERARD, is easily executed, and is said
by RUNGE to yield a good product with great economy.
Granulated lead, the tailings in the white lead manu-
facture, et cetera, are put in several vessels say eight
one above the other, upon steps, so that the liquid may
be run from one to the other. The upper one is filled
with acetic acid, and after half an hour let off into the
second, after another half hour into the third, and so on
to the last or eighth vessel. The acid causes the lead
to absorb oxygen rapidly from the air, evolving heat,
so that, when the acid runs off from the lowest, it is
thrown on the uppermost vessel a second time, car-
ries off the acetate of lead formed, and after passing
through the whole series, the solution is so strong that
it may be evaporated at once to crystallize. There are
two points of importance in this manufacture. What-
ever method may be pursued, a strong acid is to be
employed, that less of it may be lost in concentrating
the liquid, and, likewise, to economize time, and retain
an acid reaction in the liquid, by which the formation
of a basic salt is prevented.
It may not be amiss to call attention here to a pro-
cess, patented about ten years since, for preparing
acetate of lead and other acetates. It consists in
employing the acid in the state of vapor, to act upon
the bases, instead of using it in the liquid form. A
vessel is provided of adequate capacity for the quantity
ACETIC ACID ACETATES.
of acetate required, and constructed of such material
as will not be readily destroyed by the acid. The top
of this vessel is closed hermetically by a cover, fastened
down by any convenient means, and in the lower part
of the vessel is placed either a minutely-perforated false
bottom, or a coiled tube of several convolutions, mi-
nutely perforated, to permit vapor to permeate freely.
To prevent the loss of acid, there is also placed, at differ-
ent degrees of elevation, several perforated diaphragms,
similar to the false bottom just mentioned, on each of
which is spread a layer of litharge, after which the
cover of the vessel is to be accurately closed. By
means of an ordinary distillatory apparatus, liquid acetic
acid strong or weak, pure or impure is converted into
vapor, which is then conducted by means of a pipe into
the convoluted and perforated one before mentioned, or
between the real bottom of the vessel and the perforated
false bottom ; hence the vapor, passing through the
numerous perforations of the false bottom and dia-
phragms, diffuses itself throughout every part of the
vessel, its acid entering into combination with the base
employed, and forming the acetate, which falls to the
bottom of the vessel, and in its descent meets with the
ascending streams of vapor, the acid of which renders
it perfectly neutral ; meanwhile the more aqueous parts
of the vapor become liberated, and maintaining their
temperature ascend, and in their passage through the
successive layers of the base are deprived of their
remaining acid. The vapor, thus reduced to sim-
ple steam, is allowed to escape through one or more
pipes at the top of the vessel, and as this still
maintains a boiling temperature, it is conducted
through a worm to evaporate the acetate or mother
liquor. Distillation of the acid is continued until the
acetate in the vessel has acquired the proper degree
of concentration for crystallization, which is easily as-
certained by examining a small quantity drawn off by
a tap at the bottom of the vessel, through which the
whole contents are discharged when the operation is
completed. As the work draws to its close, nearly
all the base having combined with the acid, the vapor
issues out of the vessel charged with a certain por-
tion of acid; and that no loss may be sustained by
its escape into the atmosphere, it is conducted into
another vessel prepared like the first-mentioned, but
charged superabundantly with the base, to take up
every particle of the acid issuing from the first vessel,
until the contents of the latter are converted into ace-
tate of lead. As the temperature of the solution of the
acetate can never exceed-that of the vapor, the crystal-
line product is of fine quality.
ACETATE OF LIME. This salt is formed when
pure carbonate of lime is dissolved in acetic acid. The
action is as follows :
CaO, C0 2 + C 4 H 3 3 , HO = CaO, C 4 H 3 S +
Carbonate of lima. Hydrated acetic acid. Acetate of lime.
H + C 2 .
According to PELOUZE, the carbonate of lime does
not dissolve in the monohydrated acid. The pure salt
crystallizes in silky, acicular prisms, of a bitterish saline
taste, which effloresce when heated to 212. It is solu-
ble in water and alcohol. The dry salt has the property
of being phosphorescent in the dark, when triturated at
22G Fahr. Its composition is
Atomic weight. Per rr-ntnpre wciglit
1 Eq. of lime, 28 35-4
1 Eq. of acetic acid, 51 C4-6
1 Eq. of acetate of lime, 70 100-0
When speaking of the preparation of pure acetic acid
from wood acid page 28 a curtailed account of the
production of this compound was given, as likewise
for the acetate of soda. A modification of the method
there mentioned, for the production of a purer article
for the market, will be here considered. The following
is the mode of working in large factories : The crude
acid liquor from the distillation of wood, after separat-
ing the pyroxylic spirit, is either distilled or run off
into other convenient vessels, according as the grey or
brown acetate is to be procured. In either case, the
subsequent procedure is the same. Five hundred or
one thousand gallons of the liquid are run off into
wooden or iron vessels, of suitable capacity, and pow-
dered chalk or slacked lime added, till a slight excess
remains undissolved, and the whole agitated briskly for
some time, in order to insure complete combination.
The menstruum is then allowed to rest at a temperature
of 150, till the excess of lime and tarry compounds
subsides, when the clear supernatant liquid is siphoned
off into the evaporating pans, which, in most factories,
are wooden vessels lined with lead, and heated by coils
of iron pipes placed within them, through which steam
passes ; in some factories they are shallow, and made
of sheet-iron, and placed together directly over the fire*.
The solution of the lime salt is kept simmering, and
briskly agitated during the evaporation, and the scum
of tarry impurities that agglomerates at the surface
must be skimmed off. Acetate of lime, as soon as
it begins to form, is separated from the liquor by the
skimmers, and thrown into wicker baskets suspended
over the pans, so that the solution draining from the
salt may not be allowed to cool. The subjoined prac-
tical results were obtained by the use of three sheet-iron
pans of about eighteen inches in depth, each capable
of containing fo'ir hundred and fifty gallons of the
solution.
Number
of gallons of liquor '^^ H,^
Produoinfr ot <\n
In the first six days, of twenty- 1
four hours each, I
In the second six days, of twenty-
four hours each,
In the third week of six days, of)
twenty-four hours each, . . .
8,060 92
7,000 78
Two of the pans contained In-own acetate of "lime
liquor.
The yield of acetate here mentioned is of course
dependent upon the variety of wood submitted to dis-
tillation, as also upon its state of dryness and the pro-
per regulation of temperature. That part of the process
which demands the greatest attention is the drying t as
on the proper execution of it the success of the opera-
tion in a great measure depends. Several methods are
in use for drying the lime salt, some of which cannot
prove efficient to the manufacturer. In some factories,
ACETIC ACID ACETATES.
the salt is dried by spreading it in thick layers on the
top of the brickwork surrounding the carbonizing retorts
and steam-boilers; but in large works, where ten,
twelve, or fifteen thousand gallons of liquor are eva-
porated weekly, the products could not be dried in
this way. In well-regulated factories, it is custom-
ary to have a drying-house apart for the purpose,
and where lime is burned on the premises the heat
from the kilns is advantageously applied to drying the
lime salt, by conducting it through flues in the floor of
the drying-house. As a rule, there should be a drying-
house attached to every factory, for exsiccating the
acetates, as the want of it may entail the loss of the
whole product of the distillation of the wood, so far as
the acetic acid is concerned. The following description
of a drying-furnace is taken from an article on wood
vinegar, and the manufacture of some of the acetates,
in the Pharmaceutical Journal :
The drying apparatus is a simple wind furnace, seven
or eight feet long, and four and a half feet broad, built
of brick. At six inches above the ground is the ash-
pit, eight inches broad and twelve inches high, which is
covered with a grate of bricks. The fireplace is twenty
inches high, and ten inches broad, at the grate ; over it
is an arch of bricks, so that the fire cannot play on, and
heat very highly, the iron drying-plate lying on the side
of the hearth. The space below the drying-plate is
separated from the hearth by a partition of bricks, three
or four inches high ; twelve inches above the outlet of
the hearth is a layer of iron bars, one and a half to two
inches from each other, and upon these is deposited the
drying-plate. This consists of cast-iron, a quarter of an
inch thick, and is formed according to the size of the
furnace. Round the plate the furnace is built up to the
height of ten inches on the side of the front wall, leav-
ing room for doors, which may be calculated at two and
a half feet. These doors are two, one above the other,
through which the whole interior of the furnace can be
inspected. They are formed of plate-iron, and have in
their middle a sliding door, to admit of the exit of the
vapor of the acetate of lime, and of some ventilation.
A wall built at the end of the plate, or a clay partition,
separates the whole of the drying-plate from the chim-
ney. In the walls of the furnace, iron bars are fixed,
and upon these a second drying-plate covers the drying
space. This plate, as it does not come in contact with
the fire, may consist of good iron, or of clay. Above
this drying space another is formed by means of the
chimney. The heat passes as well under as above the
drying space, thence into the chimney, which is situ-
ated at the side of the furnace, and can be shut by a
valve. The prevailing temperature in the drying-room
is 167 to 235 Fahr. Turf forms the best material for
fuel, as it does not burn rapidly, and produces a steady
and equal temperature.
When the furnace is equally heated to the proper
temperature, the fire is slackened. If wood be em-
ployed for fuel, the sliding door should be opened at
the commencement, in order to allow the moisture
to escape. The salt is transferred from the baskets
over the evaporating pans to the drying-plate, and
spread out to the depth of two inches, and after the
first portion has become somewhat dry, the depth
is increased to four or five inches ; the heat, as already
mentioned, is kept up for twenty-four hours, during
which the salt is repeatedly turned. Subsequently,
when the mass appears to be becoming diy, the
temperature is raised to 257 Fahr., in order to expel
every trace of water ; in doing so, however, care must
be taken that it is gradually applied, and that no fume
is expelled from the acetate of lime, for then decompo-
sition of the salt would be taking place; neither should
any spark of fire be suffered to come in contact with
the dried salt, since it possesses the characteristic pro-
perty of igniting and burning like sugar of lead. Dur-
ing the drying by this means, the tarry and oleaginous
matters with which the acetate is impregnated are
decomposed, a black charcoal remaining, which appears
in streaks through the dry mass. On dissolving the
desiccated acetate of lime in three parts of hot water,
and filtering through coarse animal charcoal or gravel,
the charcoal and decomposed carbonaceous matters of
the salt are retained; and the solution, upon evapora-
tion and subsequent torrefaction of the residuary mat-
ter, affords a very pure and nearly colorless product
The average yield of this salt from one ton of wood, is
one hundred and forty pounds.
ACETATE OF MANGANESE. This compound
is prepared by dissolving pure carbonate of manganese
in acetic acid, evaporating the solution, and crystal-
lizing. The crystals are of the rhombic prism, and
occasionally in plates of an amethystine color ; they
are permanent in the air, soluble in alcohol, and in
about three and a half times their weight of cold water.
The composition of the* dry salt is
Atomic weight Per centage composition.
1 Eq. of protoxide of manganese, 28 41-38
1 Eq. of acetic acid, 51 58-62
79 100-00
Formula: Mn 0, C 4 H 3 3 .
On the large scale, this salt is manufactured by pre-
cipitating a solution of the sulphate of manganese by
one of acetate of lime, and agitating the liquor to de-
compose the whole of the sulphate of manganese.
It happens that a portion of the manganese salt is
not acted upon by the acetate of lime, and to effect
the complete decomposition a concentrated solution of
acetate of lead is employed towards the end. The
mixed precipitate of sulphate of lime and lead is filtered
off, and the nitrate evaporated and crystallized, or used
directly, if deemed necessary. The best acetate of
manganese is made by adding to four parts of sulphate
of manganese in three parts of water, seven parts of
crystallized acetate of lead dissolved in three parts of
water, agitating the solution, and drawing off the clear
liquor for use.
Acetate of manganese is used in dyeing and calico-
printing, to give a brown color to fabrics. Its principle
of action depends upon the oxidation of the protoxide.
The cloth is well steeped in a concentrated solution of
the acetate of manganese, and printed ; it is then passed
through a bath of hypochlorite of lime bleaching
powder which converts the protoxide of manganese
into a higher oxide, producing a brown color on that
which, previous to the immersion in the bleaching or
chloride of lime solution, was colorless.
ACETIC ACID ACETATES.
47
Fix. 32.
ACETATE OF SODA. This suit is formed by
dissolving carbonate of soda in acetic acid, evaporat-
ing the solution, and setting the
liquor aside to crystallize. The
crystals are oblique rhombic
prisms Fig. 32 soluble in three
parts of cold, in a less quantity
of boiling water, and in five of
alcohol.
The composition of the dry salt is appended :
Atomic weight Per centage weight
I Eq. of soda, 31 37.3
1 Eq. of acetic acid, 51 G2-2
1 Eq. of acetate of soda, 82 100-0
Formula: NaO, C 4 H 3 O s .
On the large scale, the manufacture is carried out in
the following way : A filtered solution of the common
acetate of lime is precipitated by one of sulphate of
soda, at 98 or 100 Fahr., till the whole of the lime
is thrown down as sulphate. The strength of the solu-
tion of the lime-salt is 1'llG, and of the soda solution
T250; or the sulphate of soda may be added in
powder, and the whole well agitated until no further
precipitation of sulphate of lime takes place, using the
precaution, however, of adding the sulphate of soda
sparingly, so as to prevent its excess. The mixture,
after thorough agitation, is drawn off into a deep ves-
sel and allowed to repose, and when the precipitated
sulphate of lime has completely settled, the clear
liquor is siphoned off and conducted to the evapo-
rating pans for crystallization, the lime-salt remaining
being washed with successive portions of water, till the
whole of the acetate of soda is separated. The first
washings may be added to the strong -solutions in the
evaporating pans, and the others retained for dissolv-
ing fresh portions of acetate of lime for subsequent
decomposition. Occasionally, the solution from the
decomposing vessel is filtered, and the precipitate
washed in the following manner : One or two backs
are provided, according to the size of the factory;
these are placed over two cisterns, each cistern being
connected with both the backs by pipes, branching
from the latter to both cisterns ; by means of a stop-
cock in those connecting pipes, the communication
with either back may be cut off at will when required,
as seen in Fig. 33. The backs are either square or
circular, having false bottoms, in which are niters of
stout twilled flannel. The charge from the decompos-
ing pan is run on to one of the backs and filtered, till
the whole of the strong liquor has passed into one of the
cisterns ; the connection with this cistern is then cut
off, and when the washing of the residue commences,
the pipe communicating with the other cistern is open,
which conducts the washings into it. A fresh charge
may be introduced into the second back, and the pipe
reaching to the cistern holding the strong liquor opened,
and thus the strong liquor is always obtained by itself
ready for evaporation. Another advantage is, that
while the residue in one back is in the course of being
washed, the other may be filtering off strong liquor.
The washing is continued till the percolations are nearly
tasteless, and the residuary sulphate of lime dug out of
the filters with wooden spades iron spades cannot be
used, as they are apt to cut the filters. Dilute solu-
tions from the washing may be employed to dissolve
fresh quantities of the acetate of lime for decomposition,
by means of the soda-salt. The acetate of soda liquor
is then pumped from the cisterns into the evaporating
Fig. 33.
pans, which should be so constructed as to offer as
much heated surface as possible, so that one man can
keep their contents in brisk agitation. As the eva-
poration draws to a termination, much care and skill are
required in keeping the liquefied salt well stirred, so
as to have every part equally under the influence of
the heat, and to prevent decomposition of the whole
mass. The temperature should never rise higher than
500 Fahr., and in drying the acetate of soda, 450 to
470 is the temperature that should be applied. White
fumes passing off from the fused mass are indicative of
the decomposition of the salt, and if the fire be not
checked immediately, nothing will be left but carbonate
of soda and charcoal. If the purified acetate of lime
be employed, the acetate of soda, obtained by dissolving
the above product in water, evaporating and crystal-
lizing, will be quite pure. For this purpose, the fused
salt is dissolved in twice its weight of water, the solu-
tion filtered through filter-bags, and the liquor evapo-
rated till it acquires a spec. grav. of 1*50, when it is
drawn off to the crystallizing pans. These may be of
boards lined with four-pound lead, lour feet long, two
feet wide, and nine inches deep. The concentrated
solution of the salt is left in the pans for two, three, or
four days, according to the temperature of the room, till
a crop of crystals are produced ; the crystals are sepa-
rated and deposited in baskets, where they are allowed
to drain, and the mother liquor remaining is returned to
the evaporating pan, or it is employed to dissolve fresh
quantities of the crude salt. The crystals are washed
with cold water, to separate any adhering mother liquor,
and placed on shelves to dry, when they are ready to be
packed. The washings may be added to the mother
liquor, and used as above.
The Pharmaceutical Journal gives the following mode
for the purification of this salt : The acetate of soda is
dissolved in a large cylindrical lead vessel, heated by
shooting steam into it. When the solution is completed,
it may be run through a flannel filter into the top of a
course of steamers, furnished with coils of three-quar-
ter inch lead pipe. These vessels are made of four-
ALCOHOL.
pound sheet-lead, "cased in boards; the best size is
about twenty -four feet long, four feet wide, and nine
inches deep. The pipe should be coiled from one end
of the pan to the other, and should go up and down
two or three times. Too much pipe cannot be used, as
the rapidity of the evaporation depends upon the quan-
tity employed. As the evaporation proceeds, the liquor
ought to be siphoned from the top to the second, and
afterwards to the third steamer, and thus room made
for more bulky weak liquor from the dissolving lead :
when a pellicle appears on its surface, it should be si-
phoned off into the crystallizers, and allowed to rest for
two or three days, when beautiful crystals in oblique
rhombic prisms are obtained. If very large crystals
are required, the coolers are immersed in sawdust, or
some other non-conducting material, and a longer time is
allowed for them to form. In general cases, the amount
of acetate of soda obtained from one ton of the lime-
salt, ranges from twenty to twenty-two hundred-weight,
but frequently a less quantity results. The impurities
present in acetate of soda, are sulphate of soda and
acetate of lime ; the presence of the latter is caused
by the imperfect decomposition of the acetate of lime
by sulphate of soda, and of the former by a too abundant
use of that salt in decomposing the acetate of lime.
The sulphate of soda is separated by skimming off the
crystals of this salt, which form before those of the ace-
tate of soda ; but the acetate of lime cannot afterwards
be got rid of, and is injurious in running the crystals, as
the workmen term it ; that is, it prevents crystallization.
The most economical method for manufacturing the
acetate of soda, would be to neutralize the crude acid
from the distillation of wood with sulphide of sodium ;
but the sulphide of hydrogen, given off in such enor-
mous volumes, is a paramount objection to this method.
In other factories, instead of evaporating the acetate
of soda to dryness, and subsequently torrefying the
dry mass, the purification is effected by repeated crys-
tallizations and mirations of the solution through animal
charcoal, previously washed with hydrochloric acid.
The solutions recommended by MITSCHERLICH for
this purpose, should have a density of 1-116 for the
acetate of lime, and 1-24 for the sulphate of soda;
when they are stronger, the impurities do not so readily
subside.
ACETATE OF THE PROTOXIDE OF TIN.
This salt is also employed in calico-printing, to give
light spirit colors to cloth. The process of manufacture
is nearly the same as for the preceding. The pro-
portions taken are, one hundred and three parts of
crystallized protochloride of tin, dissolved in water, and
one hundred and ninety parts of crystallized acetate
of lead. It may likewise be prepared by dissolv-
ing protoxide of tin, or metallic tin, in acetic acid.
In technical operations, the first method is usually fol-
lowed. On evaporating the filtered solution to a syrupy
consistence, and adding alcohol, the salt crystallizes in
colorless transparent needles, which have a great ten-
dency to oxidize, if at all exposed to the air.
Another recipe is to dissolve thirty pounds of acetate
of lead in forty gallons of boiling water, and add 18f
pounds of crystals of the tin salt ; the mixture is well
stirred, allowed to settle, and the liquor filtered or
siphoned off for use into casks or vessels, protected aa
much as possible from contact with the air. Some
makers prefer to prepare the salt when immediately
wanted for use.
ACETATE OF ZINC. This salt may be prepared
by dissolving metallic zinc, or oxide of zinc, in acetic
acid, or by the decomposition of its sulphate by acetates
of lime or lead, similar to the acetate of manganese
the decompositions, in these instances, being represented
in the annexed equations :
Zn + C 4 H 3 3 , H = Zn 0, C 4 H 3 8 + H.
Zn + C 4 II S 8 , H = Zn 0, C 4 1I 3 3 -f HO.
Zu 0, S 8 -f Pb 0, C 4 H 3 3 = Zn 0, C 4 H 8 8 + Pb 0, S 3 .
Fig. 35.
Per centage weight
. . . 44-27
. 55-73
The acetate is obtained, in the first
two instances, simply by evaporation,
and in the latter, after agitating the
mixture, filtering and evaporating
the menstruum, the salt crystallizes
in flexible, opalescent, six-sided
tables Fig. 35 which effloresce
slightly in the air. The composition
of the dry salt is
Atomic weight
1 Eq. of oxide of zinc, 40-5
1 Eq. of acetic acid, 51-0
1 Eq. of acetate of zinc, 91-5 100-00
Formula: Zn 0, C 4 H 8 3 .
According to SCIIINDLER, the crystals contain three
atoms of water when deposited from cold solutions, and
only one atom when they are formed-from concentrated
hot ones. Technically, the best recipe is to dissolve
four parts of the sulphate of zinc, and seven and a half
parts of acetate of lead, each in three parts of hot water,
mixing the solutions, agitating, and, after the sulphate
of lead has deposited, drawing the clear liquid off to
crystallize.
ALCOHOL. Alcool, French; Allcohol or Wdngeist,
German; Siriritus Vmi Alcoholisat., Latin. A prepara-
tion of antimony used to be designated by tlu's name
the oriental females still use it for painting their eye-
brows. The appellation was afterwards given to other
fine powders, and to highly-rectified spirits.
There is no evidence of the ancients being acquainted
with alcohol or ardent spirits ; in fact, there is every
reason to believe the contrary, and that distillation was
quite unknown to them. This fact is more apparent
from the method followed by DIOSCORIDES to obtain
quicksilver from cinnabar sulphide of mercury : he
mixed the cinnabar with iron filings, put the mixture
into a pot, to the top of which a cover of stoneware
was luted; heat was applied, and when the process
was terminated, the mercury was found adhering to the
side of the cover. The children of the nineteenth cen-
tury might well laugh at the docimastic notions of the
old philosopher. DIOSCORIDES, however, was not with-
out penetration and judgment, but he was unacquainted
with the method of adapting a receiver to his pot,
otherwise he never would have proceeded as above
recounted. Another strong corroboration of the fact,
that alcohol was unknown in former times is, that nei-
ther the poets, historians, naturalists, nor medical men,
ALCOHOL.
make the slightest allusion to ardent spirits a circum-
stance which would not have happened had these
liquids been applied to even a hundredth part of the
uses made of them by the moderns.
In the strict chemical sense, the term alcohol is em-
ployed as a generic word for a class of bodies belonging
to the same type, or framed upon the same principle.
Just as salt, originally applied to chloride of sodium, or
the condiment with which we season our food, is now
extended to a class of bodies often destitute of savor ;
as metal designates several substances which do not pos-
sess either the malleability, the specific gravity, or the
power of resisting heat, which characterized those from
which the term was borrowed ; or as acid appertains to
many compounds having neither a sour taste nor any
caustic properties; so alcohol indicates a class, some
members of which, far from being volatile, are not even
liquid, and, instead of igniting easily, require a pretty
elevated temperature for kindling. The following are
three properties by which the genus alcohol may be
recognized :
1. When subjected to the action of oxidizing bodies,
it loses two atoms of hydrogen, sometimes replaced by
two of oxygen, when it is converted into an acid, and in
other casesveliminates the 'same without acquiring oxy-
gen in its stead, when it produces an aldehyde.
2. Under the influence of substances having a strong
affinity for water, such as sulphuric acid, chloride of
zinc, and phosphoric acid, it has a strong tendency to
lose two equivalents of water, and to be transformed
into carbide of hydrogen, or else to split into water
and ether.
3. Exposed to the action of chlorine, aldehydes are
formed from it, owing to the abstraction of two atoms
of hydrogen.
In the case of the alcohol produced from vinous fer-
mentation, which one may call wine-alcohol, there is a
body consisting of the oxide of a carbide of hydrogen,
having the proportion of four equivalents of carbon to
five of hydrogen, and united to an atom of water.
This compound may be converted into acetic acid by
the abstraction of two equivalents of hydrogen, and the
addition of two of oxygen, through the agency of po-
tassa, and also by a variety of other bodies.
The effect of the decomposition would be as under :
Alcohol, C 4 n 6 2
Minus, H 2
Equal, . , C 4 H 4 2
Plus, 2
Acetic acid, C 4 H 4 4
and which, by the continuation of the action of the
potassa, is broken up into
Carbonic acid, C 2 4 \ p TT Q
And light carbide of hydrogen, C 2 H 4 j ~ t * * J
_ Acetic acid.
According to DUMAS, this decomposition is occasioned
by the affinity of hydrate of potassa for carbonic acid,
inducing, in the first instance, the resolution of the
alcohol into that compound through the decomposition
of the water of the alkali ; hydrogen is evolved, whilst
its oxygen carries off the hydrogen of the alcohol, thus
VOL. I.
2(C 4 H 6 2 ) + 16 (KO, HO) = (KO, C 4 H 3 Cg -f
AlcohoL Fotassa. Acetate of potassa.
4(KO, CCy + 11 KO + 9 HO -f- 16 II.
Carbonate of potassa. Potassa. Water. Evolved.
The Editor finds, that when alcohol and potassa
are left at rest in a stoppled bottle for some weeks, the
menstruum acquires a pinkish color; and when this
mixture is distilled, acetate of potassa is found in the
residue. Is the change owing to the decomposition of
the water, as stated by DUMAS, or to the absorption, of
oxygen from the air?
2 (C 4 H 6 OB) + 5 K -f 7 = K 0, C 4 H 3 3 -f 4 (K 0, C O.J
Other carbides of hydrogen, known or supposed to
exist, give rise to similar combinations with oxygen and
water, each of which would be regarded as the hydrated
oxide of the particular compound radical ; and hence
they, in like manner, are called, by analogy, the alco-
hols of the bases to which they are allied, since they
possess the properties just mentioned as characteristic
of the class.
Alcohol is one of a numerous class of homologous
bodies derived from carbide of hydrogen radicals, each
differing in their composition by a definite number of
elements of carbon and hydrogen. In giving rise to
those bodies, it is found that the same number of equi-
valents of oxygen is appropriated by their respective
radicals ; and from this relation and their similarity in
properties and composition, alcohol, as a general term,
has been applied to the series: the propriety of the
term will be seen on comparing the formulae of a few of
them :
Methyle, C 2 H 3
Ethyle, C 4 H 5
Amyle, C 10 H u
Propyle, C 6 H 7
Ceryle, C^ H 55
C 2 H 3
C 4 H 5
C 10 H n
C 6 H 7
Ilydratcd
oxides of radicals,
or alcohols.
C 2 H 3 0, HO
C 4 H 5 0, HO
10 H U 0, HO
VJ 6 H 7 0, HO
C M H M 0, HO
Various other bodies are of a similar nature, differing
only in the ratio of one or more equivalents of carbide
of hydrogen C 2 H 2 . Each of these alcohols may be
converted into an acid by the substitution of two atoms
of oxygen for two of hydrogen. Thus, there can be
obtained from hydrated oxide
Of Methyle, C H s 0, H 0, formic acid, C 2 H 3 , H ;
Ethyle, C 4 E 5 0, H 0, acetic acid, C 4 H 3 3 , H ;
Amyle, C 10 H u 0, H 0, valerianic acid, C 10 H 9 3 , II ;
Propile, C 6 H 7 0, HO, propylic acid, C 6 H 5 O s , HO;
Ceryle, C^ H^ 0, H 0, cerotic acid, C^ H^ 3 , H ;
but the contrary process has never yet been effected,
for we know of no method of converting acetic acid
into wine-alcohol by replacing two equivalents of
oxygen by two of hydrogen, and the same remark is
applicable to the alcohols related to other carbides of
hydrogen.
As art can unite carbon with oxygen, but has no
means of effecting the disunion of the two ^when
copulated, which nature is constantly doing, so it can
replace hydrogen by oxygen in the alcohols, but is, as
yet, incapable of achieving the converse process, by
50
ALCOHOL DEHYDRATION OF.
replacing the oxygen of the acid by an equivalent of
hydrogen.
In a general and practical sense, by alcohol is un-
derstood the pure spirit obtained by distillation from
all liquids which have suffered the vinous fermentation.
It is the intoxicating principle of ah 1 vinous and spiritous
liquors, as wine, brandy, whisky, et cetera. Distilled
from wine, it bears the name spirit of wine.
Alcohol is never produced except by the vinous or
alcoholic fermentation of particular substances; and
after the completion of such action, distillation of the
fermented body affords it either in a concentrated
or in a diluted state. By repeated rectifications the
volatile spirit is procured, deprived of most of its
accompanying water; but mere distillation, however
long continued or often repeated, will not yield pure
alcohol, that is, alcohol free from water -absolute alco-
hol. The reason is twofold : alcohol has a great affinity
for water, and the distillation is insufficient to overcome
this affinity ; for, at the lowest temperature at which
the distillate is drawn off, some aqueous vapors rise
with the alcohol, and both are condensed simultaneously
in the receiver ; therefore, whatever the heat may be,
the resulting alcohol is not anhydrous.
To procure absolute alcohol is a difficult and tedious
operation : spirit of wine is to be distilled at a moderate
heat from some hygrometric substance, such as anhy-
drous sulphate of copper, chloride of calcium, or quick-
lime. The best adapted for the purpose is quicklime :
it is reduced to coarse powder, and put into a retort
with the alcohol, and the whole mixed by agitation;
the neck of the retort is then securely corked, and the
mixture left for several days, during which period the
water unites with the desiccating body, leaving the
spirit anhydrous, and which may be distilled by the
heat of a water-bath.
Fig. 35 is a convenient apparatus for this .purpose.
A is a glass retort ; heat is applied by the lamp, c ; D
Fig. 35.
is the condenser, through which the tube receiving
the beak of the retort passes to the flask, F. Cold
water from the tank, E, enters the condenser, D,
by the funnel tube, jfj and the heated water is dis-
charged by b into the vessel, c. The mouth of the
receiver is closed by a perforated cork, to prevent the
access of air, and the absorption of aqueous vapors.
The dilute alcohol and coarsely-powdered desiccating
compound, are introduced*^ rough the stoppered open-
ing, d, the stopper replaced, and the distillation carried
on at as low a temperature as possible 173 to 176
Fahr. Repeated distillations with fresh portions of
lime or other hygroscopic substance are requisite, in
order to free the alcohol from the last trace of water.
A singular but ingenious mode of concentrating
alcohol is founded on the fact, that it does not moisten
the animal tissues, but corrugates and abstracts water
from them. This method was first employed by SOEM-
MERING to advantage. He used an ox or a calf-bladder,
which was soaked for some time in water, and both
freed from the fat and the attached vessels. After it is
again inflated and dried, it is to be smeared over, the
outside twice, and the inside four times, with a solu-
tion of isinglass, and then charged with diluted spirit,
leaving a small space vacant. On exposing it to the
heat of the sun in summer, or the heat of a stove,
the water evaporates, while the alcohol remains. The
air-bladders of fish answer the purpose equally as
well as the bladders of oxen, and may, like them, be
repeatedly used without injury. It is stated that, by
placing the bladders filled with spirits to be concen-
trated over a sand-bath, with a proper degree of heat
applied, absolute alcohol may be obtained in from six
to twelve hours. SOEMMERING states he placed two
bladders of the same size, having eight ounces of water
in one and eight ounces of absolute alcohol in the other,
over a sand-bath, where equal heat was communicated
to both ; after the lapse of four days, all the water was
evaporated, and only one ounce of the alcohol.
SOEMMERING'S process, although an interesting illus-
tration of exosmose, is not practically applicable to the
production of anhydrous alcohol ; it is, however, an
economical method, and particularly applicable in
obtaining alcohol for the preparation of varnishes.
Smugglers who bring spirits into France in bladders hid
about their persons, have long known that although the
liquor decreased in bulk, yet it increased in strength ;
hence the people prefer the article conveyed clandes-
tinely.
Treating of the above, DONOVAN says he has never
been able to obtain these results to the extent specified,
nor, indeed, at all. He made the experiment on alcohol
of varied strengths, with small and large bladders, with
thick ones and thin ones ; a diminution of strength was
the invariable result, unless the spirit was very weak ;
whenever an increase of strength did happen, it was
extremely trivial.
GRAHAM has ingeniously proposed to concentrate
alcohol as follows : A large shallow basin is covered,
to a small depth, with recently-burned lime, in coarse
powder, and a smaller basin, containing three or four
ounces of commercial alcohol, is made to rest upon the
lime ; the whole is placed under the low receiver of
an air-pump, and the exhaustion continued till the
alcohol evinces signs of ebullition. Of the mingled
vapors of alcohol and water which now fill the receiver,
the quicklime is capable of uniting with the aqueous
only, which are, therefore, rapidly withdrawn, while
the alcohol vapor is unaffected ; and as water cannot
remain in the alcohol as long as the superincumbent
atmosphere is devoid of moisture, more aqueous vapor
rises, which is likewise abstracted by the lime, and
ALCOH01
-DEHYDRATION OF.
thus the process goes on till the whole of the \vate
in the alcohol is removed. Several days are alway
required for this purpose, and in winter a longer tim
than in summer. On submitting alcohol of spec, grav
0-827 to dehydration by this method, the Mowing an
the notes of the decreasing specific gravity after ever}
twenty -four hours :
When the liquid was introduced, the density was 0-827
Density after twenty-four hours' exposure to the
action of the caustic lime, 0-817
Do. after second twenty-four hours, 0-808
Do. after third do. 0-802
Do. after fourth do 0-798
Do. after fifth do. 0-796
The longer time required for the concentration of the
spirit in the winter seasOn is seen from the following
table, where the liquid, before enclosing it under the
air-pump with the lime, had a spec. grav. 0*825 :
On determining the specific gravity after twenty-
four hours, the result was 0-
Do. after the second twenty-four hours,
Do. after the third do.
Do. after the fourth do.
Do. after the fifth do.
Do. after the sixth do.
0-817
0-809
0-804
0-799
0-797
0-796
Quicklime possesses the property of uniting with a
portion of alcohol vapor, and for this reason should not
be used in great excess. GRAHAM found, that when
four ounces of ordinary alcohol were exposed to the
action of the lime, under the bell-jar of the air-pump,
one-sixth of the alcohol was lost, on account of the
absorption by the quicklime. Hence the quantity of
lime used should never exceed three times the weight
of the alcohol, otherwise the loss of alcohol will be-
come appreciable ; the lime should be spread to as
great an extent within the receiver as possible, that a
larger absorbing surface may be presented to the vapor.
This process could be advantageously employed in con-
centrating alcohol on the large scale, by taking an air-
tight box, of any suitable size, provided with a number
of shelves, on which powdered quicklime might be
strewn, and the alcohol, contained in a number of
basins, placed upon it. The apparatus might be suffi-
ciently exhausted by a syringe, as a complete vacuum
is not required. Besides these little attentions, nothing
further would be requisite than to open the box at the
termination of a week or ten days, and examine whether
the alcohol had attained the proper density.
Alcohol may be concentrated by exposing it with
lime in a close vessel, but it requires a considerably
longer time; it cannot be concentrated over strong
sulphuric acid, for this acid absorbs alcohol vapor
with the same affinity with which it unites with water,
and the heat produced is very great: a temperature
of 500 to 600 Fahr. is not capable of eliminating the
whole of the spirit from the mixture. Sulphuric acid
diluted with water loses its property of absorbing alco-
hol vapor. Chloride of calcium is not well adapted for
concentrating alcohol, on account of the affinity exist-
ing between these two bodies : when they are submitted
to distillation, the aqueous vapor absorbed by the
chloride of calcium goes over with the last portions of
the alcohol; it can, however, be advantageously em-
ployed, if the process be arrested when half the quantity
of spirit has accumulated in the receiver.
DRINKWATER, in his investigation on the preparation
of ^ absolute alcohol and the composition of proof
spirit, procured alcohol of the lowest specific gravity
hitherto obtained. The mode of procedure was as fol-
lows : Carbonate of potassa was exposed to a red heat,
to deprive it of water, and, when sufficiently cool, was
pulverized and added to ordinary alcohol, of spec,
grav. -850, at 60 Fahr., till it ceased to dissolve any
more ; the menstruum was then allowed to digest twenty-
four hours, being frequently agitated, and the alcohol
carefully separated by decantation. As much fresh-
burned quicklime as was considered sufficient, when
powdered, to absorb the whole of the alcohol, was
introduced into a retort, and the alcohol added to it ;
after digesting forty-eight hours, it was slowly dis-
tilled in a water-bath at a temperature of about 180
Fahr.
The alcohol thus obtained was carefully redistilled,
and its specific gravity, at 60 Fahr., was found, in
two experiments, to be -7946 and -7947 ; agreeing very
nearly with the determination of KUDBERG, which has
been adopted by GAY-LUSSAC and others, videlicet,
'7947, at 59 Fahr. With a view, however, to discover
whether it was possible, by means of lime, to abstract
any more water from the alcohol, the retort was again
filled with fresh-burned and pulverized quicklime, and
the same alcohol mixed with it ; the mixture was then
allowed to digest a whole week, at the ordinary tem-
perature of the laboratory about 60 Fahr.
After this lapse of time, the alcohol was distilled off
as before, and the distillate submitted to a second
operation, which was conducted very slowly at first
at the rate' of about one drop in ten seconds, the heat
of the water-bath being 165 Fahr. Distillation was
continued till about the one-twentieth of the whole had
passed over, the object being to allow any minute
quantity of water which the alcohol might still retain,
to evaporate or diffuse itself into the atmosphere of
absolute alcohol above it ; the process was then con-
tinued rapidly, the heat of the bath being increased to
180 Fahr., till about one-twentieth more had passed
over; the receiver was then changed, and the latter
portions slowly eliminated. The specific gravity of
lie alcohol, taken twice, was -7944, at 60 Fahr. As
a further test of its purity, it was divided into two
equal parts; one part was again digested on quick-
ime, and the other on sulphate of copper deprived of
water by heat, the method of operation being as fol-
ws:
Firstly: Some lumps of freshly-burned quicklime were
heated to a red heat, and quickly pulverized and intro-
duced into the tin boiler of a small still, which was
)artly immersed in water, to prevent the melting of the
older. This vessel was completely filled with quick-
ime, and kept corked till sufficiently cool, when the
alcohol was added ; but it being comparatively small in
[uantity, the lime appeared perfectly dry : the vessel
was then closely corked.
Secondly: A quantity of sulphate of copper was ex-
posed to a red heat, to deprive it of all water ; it was
lien very quickly ground and thrown into a small tin
52
ALCOH01
-Ixs PROPERTIES.
cucurbit, and when cold, the alcohol insufficient to
cover it was added, and the vessel tightly corked.
These vessels, with their contents, were kept at the
ordinary temperature of the laboratory for four days ;
they were then partially immersed in a water-bath, and
kept at a temperature of about 150 Fahr., for forty-
eight hours, after which the alcohol was distilled and
redistilled with all the precautions before mentioned ;
the temperature of the water-bath, on the redistillation,
never exceeded IT2 Fahr., and the first tenth part was
put aside in each case as possibly impure. Subjoined
are the specific gravities of the alcohol thus obtained :
Alcohol distilled from Alcohol distilled from
the dry cuprosulphate. the quicklime.
I., 0-79470 0-79409
II 0-79472 0-79412
These experiments prove that anhydrous sulphate of
copper is not so effective as quicklime for removing
the last traces of water from alcohol. It was, however,
generally observed, that the specific gravity of the
alcohol gradually increased, probably from its hygro-
metric property, by which it absorbed a minute quan-
tity of moisture from the air on being transferred from
one bottle to another ; and thinking, consequently, that
a small quantity of moisture might have been abstracted
from the atmosphere during the distillation which was
conducted in the usual way and the specific gravity
thus slightly increased, the operator considered it desir-
able to make another experiment, in which this source
of error should be guarded against, by conducting the
distillation, as much as possible, out of contact with the
external air, and, with that view, proceeded as follows :
The different portions of alcohol before obtained were
mixed together, when the specific gravity was found to
be 0-7947 ; this alcohol was again digested at a tem-
perature of about 150 Fahr. for fourteen days with
quicklime previously heated to redness, as in the former
experiment ; it was then slowly distilled, out of contact
with the external atmosphere, by means of a tube which
passed from the condenser through a cork into the bottle
in which it was to remain the temperature at which
it was distilled being 175 and the first tenth part was
put aside as possibly containing a minute quantity of
water ; the remainder was then distilled off at 178 to
180 Fahr. This alcohol was quickly transferred to a
dry retort, and redistilled in a similar way, at a water-
bath heat of 172 ; the first tenth part was set aside,
and the remainder kept as pure anhydrous alcohol, or
as free from water as it is possible to obtain it by this
process. The specific gravity was taken the next day
with all the precautions before mentioned, the alcohol
being also kept, during the time of transference, as
much as possible out of contact with the air, when the
results of four trials were as annexed :
Temp, of room, 60 Fahr.
Barometer, 29-810 inches.
I., -793836
IL, 793806
III., -793798
IV., -793804
Mean, -793811
A portion of this alcohol was subsequently digested
with quicklime for three months, it was then distilled,
and its specific gravity was found to be exactly the
same as before. Hence one may conclude, with toler-
able certainty, that 0*79381 expresses the specific gra-
vity of absolute alcohol at 60 Fahr.
A very excellent method for the preparation of pure
alcohol is recommended by POGGENDORFF. Dis-
solve as much potassa in alcohol as it will take up,
then add half its volume of water, and distil at a low
temperature; a perfectly pure product is the result.
On account of the high price of caustic potassa, this
method cannot be applied on the large scale ; but
when a small quantity only is required for laboratory
purposes, it is the surest way to obtain a perfectly pure
product.
PROPERTIES OP ALCOHOL. Pure anhydrous, or
absolute alcohol, is a limpid cdfcrless liquid, of a greater
fluidity than water, having a penetrating but agreeable
odor, and a hot pungent taste, owing to its abstracting
water from the tissue of the tongue. The great affinity
of alcohol for water is the cause of its poisonous action
on the system, since it destroys the vital functions of the
tissues by abstracting their constitutional moisture with
avidity; these violent effects are not produced when
alcohol, in a diluted state, is taken in small quantities
only a pleasant hilarity follows, though larger draughts
are succeeded by stupor and intoxication. It is a
powerful stimulant and antiseptic. At moderate tem-
peratures, neither atmospheric air nor oxygen gas has
the slightest action upon alcohol, whether in the liquid
or gaseous form ; but at elevated temperatures the case
is different. Alcohol, when anhydrous, burns with a
whitish flame, which deposits carbon on a cold surface
held in it; the flame is quite blue when it is mixed
with water, and no deposit of carbon is formed. In
the combustion of alcohol, very little light is emitted,
but intense heat is given off: BOERHAAVE first showed,
that when the vapor which escapes during the com-
bustion is collected in proper vessels, it is no other than
water. If alcohol be burned by a wick surrounded by
a spiral of platinum wire, and the flame be suddenly
extinguished, the platinum wire continues to incandesce
a phenomenon caused by the imperfect combustion of
the alcoholic vapors ; aldehydic acid is formed, a body
possessing a pungent and disagreeable smell. Platinum
black moistened with alcohol, becomes incandescent,
but if much alcohol is added, so as to prevent the ele-
vation of the temperature, oxygen is absorbed, and
the alcohol is converted into aldehyde, et cetera.
Alcohol is exceedingly volatile: if a few drops be
introduced into a jar of oxygen gas, it is readily con-
verted into vapor, and a very explosive mixture is
produced. When one volume of alcoholic vapor and
three of oxygen are mixed, and ignited by the electric
spark, a violent explosion ensues, and two volumes of
carbonic acid and three volumes of aqueous vapor are
formed.
Alcohol requires an intense cold to effect its freezing.
Dr. MITCHELL, of Philadelphia, who, by evaporation
of solid carbonic acid and ether, in vacua, has produced
very great cold, found that alcohol of spec. grav. 0'798
became oily and adhesive at 130 ; by a greater cold
it became still thicker, and at 146 it flowed like
melted wax. Alcohol of spec. grav. 0'820 froze easily.
ALCOHOl
-!TS PROPERTIES.
Fig. 36.
FARADAY exposed alcohol to a temperature of 166
Falir. below zero ; it thickened, but did not congeal.
Hence the great use of spirit thermometers when a
very low temperature is required to be noted. LOWIG,
however, recently stated, that anhydrous alcohol con-
geals at a temperature of 144-5 Fahr. below zero, in
opposition to the above statement of FARADAY. The
specific gravity of absolute alcohol is given in most che-
mical works as 0-7949 ; but from DRINKWATER'S ex-
periments, before alluded to, and which were conducted
with every precaution, the spec. grav. is 0-793811 ; it
boils at 173, at a barometric pressure of 29'5 inches.
It has a powerful affinity for water ; hence the neces-
sity of keeping it in ground stoppled bottles to pre-
serve it anhydrous. When mixed with water, much
heat is produced, and a diminution in volume takes
place. This is illustrated by the annexed woodcut
Fig. 36 which consists of a long tube of glass, fur-
nished with two bulbs on the upper part, and having
the elongated neck of the higher bulb closed perfectly
with a ground glass stopple. The tube and
lower bulb are filled with distilled water;
when this is effected, alcohol is poured in till
the tipper bulb is filled ; the stopper is next
replaced, and the tube gently inverted. The
two liquids now combine, and an empty space
is visible, which, before combination, was com-
pletely filled. The space unoccupied shows
the amount of contraction in bulk which
has arisen from the combination of the alco-
hol and water ; an elevation of temperature
also takes place, in consequence of the che-
mical combination and the diminished spe-
cific gravity of the mixture. Thus, equal
measures of alcohol, of spec. grav. 0-825,
and water, each at 50 Fahr., afford, when
suddenly mixed, a temperature of 70 ; and
a mixture of equal parts of proof spirit and
water, at 50, give, under the like circum-
stances, a mixture having a temperature of
60 Fahr. If alcohol and ice are mixed, the
temperature is considerably lowered. Abso-
lute alcohol, with a little more ice than it will
dissolve, reduces the temperature as low as
35 Fahr. Spirit of wine, of spec. grav. 0'86, and
61 temperature, mixed with snow at 32, is cooled
down to 14 Fahr. The contraction arising from the
admixture of alcohol and water, increases regularly till
the liquid consists of one atom of alcohol and three
atoms of water, or, by weight, of 100 parts of alcohol
to 116-24 parts of water. One hundred volumes of
this mixture, at 59 Fahr., is composed of 53-94 vol-
umes of anhydrous alcohol, and 49'84 volumes of water ;
hence the contraction is 3'78 volumes, and the specific
gravity of the mixture is 0-927 at 59.
THILLAYE shows that the mixture, when water is
present in excess, or beyond a certain limit, expands
sensibly; besides, his experiments prove, that when
three volumes of alcohol, of spec. grav. 0'954, are
mixed with seven of water, the mixed solution has a
spec. grav. of 0-9850, whereas the calculated specific
gravity should be 0'9863, thus indicating a decrease
of gravity and a corresponding increase of volume,
amounting to -0013. This expansion, however, is only
apparent, on account of the heat which is generated ;
but if the mixture were made of absolute alcohol and
water till the specific gravity became 0-985, instead
of an expansion, a contraction of 0'007 would be
observed.
The following table, from the calculation of GAY-
LUSSAC'S experiments by RUDBERG, shows the con-
traction of every decreasing five per cent, in the content
of alcohol :
Per cent,
absolute alcohol
in 1(10 volumes
of mixture at W.
Contraction, in per
rent, of the volume
of the mixture.
Per cent,
in volume, of
Absolute nlcohol
in KKJ volumes
of mixture at V.
Contraction, In per
cent, of the volume
of the mixture.
100
0-00
50
3-74
95
1-18
45
3-64
90
1-94
40
3-44
85
2-47
35
3-14
80
2-87
30
2-72
75
3-19
25
2-24
70
3-44
20
1-72
65
3-61
15
1-20
60
3-73
10
0-72
55
3-77
5
0-31
From this table it will be observed, that the con-
traction is the same with mixtures containing different
amounts of alcohol ; for example, with the mixture con-
taining seventy per cent, of alcohol and that contain-
ing forty per cent, the contraction is 3-44. The reason
is evident : the contraction increases to a certain point,
and then decreases as the proportion of absolute alcohol
lessens, giving to the intermediate mixtures, between
the maximum and minimum points, a corresponding
degree.
The volatility of alcohol is generally affected by
admixture with water, as well as its specific gravity
and expansive force. TRALLES found, that small
quantities of water mixed with alcohol do not sensibly
raise the boiling point of the liquor beyond that of pure
alcohol, and SOEMMERING has shown that a mixture of
alcohol with about three per cent, of water has greater
volatility than absolute alcohol, and that a spiritous
liquor compounded of ninety-four per cent, of absolute
alcohol and six of water, possesses the same volatility
as alcohol of 0*7947. Further, according to SOEM-
MERING, when alcohol of 0-7947 density is mixed
with water till the specific gravity becomes 0'8, and
distilled, those portions which first pass off are satu-
rated with water, and the alcoholic solution in the retort
becomes richer, till, in the end, absolute alcohol passes
over ; on the contrary, when the mixture contains over
six per cent, of water, the first portions of the distillate
are richest in alcohol, and afterwards they become
weaker to the end of the operation the temperature
also rises as the alcohol is expelled, gradually ap-
proaching to that of boiling water, and actually attain-
ng that point at the close of the process, when all the
spirit is driven over.
Taking advantage of this property, an attempt has
been made to give the strength of various mixtures of
alcohol and water, by ascertaining the temperature of
the vapor, for which purpose GROENING has constructed
the following table. It consists of three columns : the
irst shows the temperature ; the second, the quantity ol
54 ALCOHOL ITS PROPERTIES.
alcohol in the boiling solution ; and the third, the quan-
tity of alcohol in the vapor evolved :
One volume of alcohol yields 488 -3 volumes of vapor
at 212 Fahr. ; compared with water at the same tem-
perature, the volume of alcoholic vapor is greater in the
ratio of 3' 14 to I'OO. The specific gravity of the vapor
of absolute alcohol, taking air as unity, was found by
GAY-LUSSAC to be 1-6133. On the assumption that
it is composed of one volume of aqueous vapor and one
volume of olefiant gas condensed into one volume of
vapor of alcohol, the density by calculation would be
1-6070; BERZELIUS, however, gives the density at
1-6004. According to DESPRETZ, the latent heat of
the vapor, on being compared with that of water, is as
332 to 351.
Alcohol vapor, when transmitted through a red-hot
tube, is decomposed : SAUSSURE found that, on passing
it slowly through a porcelain tube heated to redness,
a little carbon was deposited on the interior of the
tube, together with a volatile crystalline substance
naphthaline and a brown empyreumatic oil; the
gaseous products were carbide of hydrogen, carbonic
oxide, and hydrogen. M. BERTHELOT passed alcohol
vapor through a porcelain tube rilled with pumice, and
heated to redness. He obtained carbon, carbides of
hydrogen, aldehyde, naphthaline, benzine, phenic acid,
et cetera.
The analysis of alcohol by SAUSSURE, DUMAS, and
others, shows that it consists of
Atomic weight Per cent
4 Eqs. of carbon, 24 52-18
Temp.
Per cent of
alcohol in th<
boiling liquid
ID the retort
Per cent
of alcohol in
the
distillate.
Temp.
Per cent of
alcohol in th
boiling liqui
In the retort
Per cent
a of alcohol In
1 the
distillate.
171
158-9
172
172-7
173-8
175-1
176
178-3
180-5
182-8
185
187-3
92
90
85
80
75
70
65
50
40
35
30
25
93
92
91-5
90-5
90
89
87
85
82
80
78
76
189-5
191-8
194
196-3
198-5
200-8
203
205-3
207-5
209-8
212
20
18
15
12
10
7
5
3
2
1
71
68
66
61
55
50
42
36
28
13
The elastic force of alcohol-vapor is very great ; the
following table, showing the elastic force from 32 Fahr.
to 264, is given in the Philosophical Transactions for
1818. The specific gravity of the alcohol was 0'813.
Temp.
Force
of vapor.
Temp. '
Force
of vapor.
! Temp.
Force
ol vapor.
32
40
45
60
55
60
65
70
75
80
85
90
95
100
105
110
115
120
125
130
0-40
0-56
0-70
0-86
1-00
1-23
1-49
1-76
2-10
2-45
2-93
3-40
3-90
4-50
5-20
6-00
7-10
8-10
9-25
10-60
135
140
145
150
155
160
165
170
173
178-3
180
182-3
185-3
190
193-3
196-3
200
206
210
214
12-15
13-90
15-95
18-00
20-30
22-60
25-40
28-30
30-00
33-50
34-73
36-40
39-90
43-20
46-60
50-10
53-00
60-10
65-00
69-30
216
220
225
230
232
236
238
240
244
247
248
249-7
250
252
254-3
258-6
260
262
264
72-20
78-50
87-50
94-10
97-10
103-60
109-90
111-24
118-20
122-10
126-10
131-40
132-30
138-60
143-70
151-60
155-20
162-40
166-10
2 Eqs. of oxygen, 16 34-78
46 100-00
Formula : C 4 H 6 2 = C 4 H 5 0, H 0.
This formula of alcohol is confirmed by the composi-
tion and density of its vapor, as calculated from the
densit/'of the above constituents, videlicet
Density.
8 Volumes of carbon vapor, 3-372
The expansion of alcohol by heat is not uniform ; a
thousand measures, spec. grav. 0-817, become one thou-
sand and seventy -nine when heated from 50 to 170
Fahr. At a medium temperature the expansion is a little
below the true mean ; but with the state of dilution of
the alcohol this difference between both ends of the
scale becomes more marked. The greatest uniformity
of expansion is between 14 and -J- 98, being about
0-00047 of its volume for every degree. The contrac-
tion of alcohol from its boiling point, 173 Fahr., has
been investigated by GAY-LUSSAC, who gives the con-
densation of one thousand volumes in every 9 Fahr., or
5 C., from the boiling point of the liquid.
Equal four volumes of alcohol vapor,. . . 4) 6-402
Density of vapor of alcohol, 1-6005
Alcohol possesses the property of absorbing gases
even in a higher degree than water. Considerable
experiments had been instituted by SAUSSURE on this
subject, from whose results the following table has been
formed :
nil .., By 1 volume
There U absorbed at 64-l, of air-free alcohol,
air-free water. , p ^ ^
Volumes. Volume*.
Sulphurous acid gas, 43-78 115-77
Sulphide of hydrogen, 2-53 6-06
Temperature.
Volume of
alcohol.
Temperature.
Volume of
alcohol.
Carbonic acid, 1*06 1-86
Centigrade.
Fahrenheit
Centigrade.
Fahrenheit
Olefiant gas, 0-155 1-27
74-14"
73-4
68-4
63-4
68-4
53-4
48-4
43-4
173
164
155
146
137
128
119
110
1000-0
994-4
988-6
982-5
975-7
970-8
965-3
969-7
38-4
33-4
28-4
23-4
18-4
13-4
8-4
3-4
101
92
83
74
65
56
47
38
954-3
949-1
944-0
939-0
934-0
929-3
924-5
919-9
Oxygen, 0-065 0-1625
Carbonic oxide, 0-062 0-145
Hydrogen, 046 0-051
Nitrogen, 0-042 0-042
About sixty-eight volumes of hydrochloric acid gas
are absorbed by alcohol, as also binoxide of nitrogen,
nitric oxide, and cyanogen in considerable quantities.
ALCOHOL ITS PROPERTIES.
55
Most of these gases are evolved when the saturated
spirit is boiled or exposed to the air, while others, such
as hydrochloric acid gas, nitrous acid, et cetera, decom-
pose the liquid.
Alcohol is one of the best solvents which the chemist
possesses, but by dilution with water this property is
much diminished. Sulphur is dissolved by it in the
heat ; but is deposited again in small crystals as the so-
lution cools. An alcoholic solution of sulphur becomes
turbid when diluted with water, and evolves a peculiar
hepatic odor; and, like all soluble sulphides, precipi-
tates metals from the solution of their oxides in acids,
as sulphides. Phosphorus is also dissolved by alco-
hol, for which BUCHNER states that three hundred and
twenty parts of cold, and two hundred and forty parts
of hot alcohol are required. From the latter solution,
one-fourth of the quantity of phosphorus deposits as
it cools.
Chlorine and bromine decompose alcohol, giving rise
to chloral and bromal, and hydrochloric and hydro-
bromic acid. Iodine is dissolved by alcohol, and forms
a brown colored solution ; if hot alcohol be employed,
the iodine is deposited in crystals after some time, and
hydriodic acid is formed in the liquid. If to a solution
of iodine in alcohol, potassa-alcohol be added till the
menstruum becomes colorless, iodide of potassium and
iodof&rm are synchronously produced, as expressed in
the subjoined equation :
C 4 H 6 2 + 41
KO
Equal
Iodide of potassium.
By a corresponding decomposition, when distilled
with hypochlorite of lime, or bleaching powder, it gives
cJdoroform. Concentrated chloric, bromic, and nitric
acids react violently upon alcohol, giving rise to acetic
acid and a number of other bodies. This reaction is
sometimes so energetic as to cause combustion. A
mixture of very weak sulphuric acid and peroxide of
manganese, when distilled with spirit of wine, affords
principally aldehyde ; acetic and formic ether are also
formed, and towards the end of the distillation a weak
solution, containing acetic and formic acids, passes over.
Pure chromic acid acts upon alcohol, giving rise to
aldehyde and sesquiacetate of chromium. Sulphuric
acid, with moderately dilute alcohol, gives rise to ether,
as also do phosphoric and arsenic acids ; even seleni-
ous acid, on being distilled with that liquid, causes the
formation of ether. On distilling a mixture of selenious
acid, sulphuric acid, and alcohol, the distillate emits
a most horrible odor hydroselenic acid and selenium
deposits in the retort. Acetic, oxalic, formic, hydro-
chloric, hydrobromic, and hydriodic acids, decompose
alcohol, giving rise to ethers. Fluoride of borium acts
upon alcohol in the heat, forming hydrofluoboric acid,
boracic acid, and ether. Chloride of antimony, sesqui-
chloride of iron, bichloride of tin, et cetera, decompose
alcohol, forming oxides and hydrochloric ethers. Po-
tassium behaves with alcohol as with water.
GRAHAM has shown that alcohol combines with most
salts, forming with them peculiar compounds alcoates
analogous to hydrates. A great many of the neutral
salts are soluble in alcohol ; in general, all deliquescent
salts, excepting the carbonate of potassa, are soluble
in alcohol, and those inorganic compounds which are
only sparingly soluble in water, also prove insoluble in
that liquid.
Alcohol is peculiarly adapted for dissolving copal,
mastic, and a great number of resins which are em-
ployed in the preparation of the finest varnishes. The
fats and volatile essential oils are likewise dissolved by
it, and are employed with balsams in the composition
of an extensive class of elixirs, tinctures, and quint-
essences.
Sir HUMPHREY DAVY discovered that a fine platinum
wire, heated to redness, and held in the vapor of ether,
continued ignited for some time. Mr. GILL has prac-
tically applied this discovery, in the formation of an
alcohol lamp lamp without flame of the following
construction. A cylindrical coil of thin platinum wire
is placed, part round the cotton wick of a spirit lamp,
and part above the wick, and the lamp lighted to heat
the wire to redness ; on the flame being extinguished,
the alcoholic vapor keeps the wire red-hot for any
length of time, according to the supply of the spirit,
and with a very small expenditure thereof, so as to be
in constant readiness to ignite tinder or a lucifer match.
The proper size of the platinum wire is the hundredth
part of an inch, which may be easily ascertained by
coiling ten turns of the wire on a cylinder, and if they
measure the tenth of an inch it will be right. A larger size
only yields a dull red light, and a smaller one is difficult
to use ; about twelve turns of the wire will be sufficient,
wrapped round any cylindrical body suited to the size
of the wick of the lamp and four or five coils should
be placed on the wick, and the remainder of the wire
above it.
A lamp constituted as above will require about half
an ounce of alcohol to keep it in readiness for eight
hours. This lamp affords sufficient luminousness to
show the hour of the night by a watch, and to perform
other useful services. As the Literary Journal remarks,
its constantly keeping a uniform heat, and not requiring
snuffing like other lamps, might make it a valuable
acquisition to the chemist for experiments on a small
scale, where a long continuance of a feeble heat is
desirable. This suggestion may be acted upon where
gas is not to be had. It would do well in Germany,
where alcohol is very cheap ; but the enormous price of
alcohol in this country is an effectual bar to its exten-
sive employment.
The following apposite remarks, showing the im-
portance of having this valuable spirit exempted from
duty for manufacturing purposes, the Editor deems
worthy a place here. It would be impossible to
name an article, says the Chemist, the duty on which
is productive of so much injury to science and in-
dustry. Alcohol is the menstruum by means
which the various proximate principles of the vege-
tal kingdom are separated ; and by which the Phar-
macopolist furnishes the medical profession with those
active principles on which the properties of vegetal
medicines depend. On the present occasion, however,
56
ALCOHO]
-WHISKY.
it is not the Editor's intention to dwell on this por-
tion of the subject, but to consider those bodies which
owe their origin to alcohol, commencing with chloro-
form.
It is calculated by manufacturers, that one gallon of
alcohol, of spec. grav. -830 to "840, will produce two and
a half pounds of chloroform some obtain a little more.
This gallon of spirit costs about seventeen shillings and
sixpence, of which about ten shillings are for duty. The
two and a half pounds will not sell for more than seven-
teen shillings less than the cost of the spirit, and
allowing nothing for the expense of hypochlorite of
lime and labor. The reason that chloroform is sold in
England at a lower price than the cost of its production
there, is, that in Scotland the duty on alcohol is very
considerably lower than in England, and that there is
no duty on chloroform brought from the former coun-
try to the latter. The Scottish manufacturer is thus
enabled to undersell the English in his own market.
The duty charged on alcohol amounts to about four
shillings per pound on the chloroform produced from
it, or nearly two-thirds of its value ; the effect of this
state of things is, that the manufacturer has endeavored
to employ substitutes for alcohol in the manufacture ;
and chloroform so produced is occasionally met with in
the market. Every one acquainted with the subject
must admit, that chloroform, made from such a substi-
tute as pyroxylic spirit, is less safe for employment in
medical practice, and is, at any rate, far more disagree-
able than that prepared from alcohol. It has been
alleged, that the injurious effects that have followed the
use of chloroform as an anaesthetic agent, have been
traced to the fact of its having been prepared from
pyroxilic spirit.
From the peculiar qualities of chloroform its power-
ful solvent properties on certain gums, and the ease
with which it volatilizes there is no doubt that, if it
could be produced at a moderate price, it would soon
be applied to a variety of useful purposes in the arts ;
but, under existing circumstances, the honor and profit
of such .application are left to other nations, where
genius is less fettered by fiscal restrictions. It is neces-
sary to impress on the public mind, that the duty on
alcohol acts as a prohibition to its use in industrial
pursuits; that it would be a matter of policy in the
Government to place the English manufacturer on an
equality with the Scotch and the foreigner, and that the
imperial coffers are not enriched by the enforcement of
this tax, which inflicts such severe injury on the in-
dustrious classes. It is very true, that, in the instance
of chloroform, England is supplied from Scotland ; but
there are many cases in which Great Britain sends to
foreign countries for those articles in which alcohol
performs an important part, and in which she might
enjoy a considerable trade of her own.
The Chemist concludes the article as follows:
A gallon of ordinary rectified spirit produces about
four pounds of commercial ether, and upon this foun-
dation is based the extra amount of duty which is to be
paid upon it when brought to England from those parts
of the United Kingdom in which the duty is lower ;
still, it is a well-known fact, that ether may be obtained
in the English market at the bare cost of the duty,
namely, two shillings and sixpence per pound. There
can be no doubt that, if Government does not relieve
from the present duty that portion of spirit, at least,
which is used for manufacturing purposes, an attempt
will be made to charge upon chloroform the extra
amount of duty, as in the case of ether, et cetera, chloro-
form having become an article of commercial impor-
tance.
The English manufacturer wants to be permitted to
use alcohol, duty free, for manufacturing purposes ; and
there is no sufficient reason why he should not have this
opportunity, nor why he should be compelled to seek
substitutes. It cannot be expected that any manufac-
ture in which alcohol is so important an element as in
chloroform and ether, can thrive when so excessive and
exorbitant a duty is charged on it. The application of
these compounds to many useful purposes, is retarded
or prevented by it.
ALCOHOLIC LIQUORS WHISKY. The sub-
joined historical remarks form an appropriate introduc-
tion to the manufacture of whisky : Spiritous liquors
have been noticed in some of our earliest songs and
writings; and the English, shortly after the invasion,
in the time of HENRY II., found the Irish people in-
dulging in potations of this liquor. History informs us
that the knowledge of aqua vitcs was first acquired in
Europe in the reign of that monarch ; but it is more than
probable that the Irish were acquainted with it before
the English. The strong similarity between the Irish lan-
guage and the primitive languages of Asia, as stated by
eminent etymologists, and the intercourse the Irish had
with that quarter of'the world, lead to the supposition
that the art of distillation was introduced directly from
India ; but it is more likely that it was received from
Spain or Italy, where it was early known under the
epithet of acqua vite, or acqua di vite water of the
vine as the spirit was originally extracted in those
countries from the grape. The monasteries being the
archives of science, and the original dispensaries of
medicine, it is a natural surmise that the term acqua
vite was there corrupted into the Latin and universal
appellation, aqua vitce water of life from its salutary
and beneficial effects as a medicine ; and from the Latin
tongue being the general conveyancer of scientific dis
covery, as well as of familiar correspondence, the term
aqua vitce may have crept into common use to signify
an indefinite distilled spirit, in contradistinction to acqua
vite, the mere extract of the grape. The dissolution of
the monasteries gave the secret of this invention to the
public, and the elixir of the alembic soon attained the
summit of popular regard.
CAMPION relates, that when the new settlers were
attacked by any of the diseases common to the country,
they used aqua vitce, or usquebaugh, the ordinary
beverage of the inhabitants, as the best restorative of
health, and chief preventive of contagion. Speaking of
a famine which happened in 1316, he says it was caused
by the soldiers eating flesh and drinking aqua vitce in
Lent. It would seem that aqua vitce was employed in
Ireland, at one time, as opium has been amongst the
Turks, to inspire heroism ; and this is exemplified in
the case of a knight, named SAVAGE, who lived in 1350,
and, previously to entering the field of battle, ordered
to eacli soldier a mighty draught of aqua vita. One
learns from WARE and ZEDWICK, that the aqua vitce or
usquebaugh of the Irish was of a less inflammatory
nature than that made in England, because the latter
is supposed to be of more recent invention. Its virtues,
and the directions for making it, both simple and com-
pound, are recorded in the Red Book of OSSORY, a work
compiled about five hundred years since, and which,
likewise, contains a receipt for making another liquor
termed nectar, composed of a mixture of honey and wine,
having ginger, pepper, cinnamon, and other ingredients,
incorporated. This mixture was called piment, from
its pungency and spicy nature, and on account of its
delicious quality it was much celebrated by the early
French poets, who considered the perfuming of wine
with foreign aromatics, then so dear and difficult of
procuring, as the very acme of taste and ingenuity. In
Ireland, it was an early practice to imitate foreign
liqueurs, which, from the praise of the poets alluded to,
must have even excelled those of Italy and France.
Aqua vitce was first used in the country as a medicine,
and was considered as a panacea for all disorders ; the
pl^sicians recommended it to patients indiscriminately,
for preserving health, dissipating humors, strengthening
the heart, curing colic, dropsy, palsy, et cetera, and even
prolonging existence itself beyond the common limits !
Hence it was eagerly sought, and the taste, thus formed,
has been transmitted from generation to generation,
and to which many adhere with an attachment rather
strengthened than diminished by long custom.
The Latin epithet, aqua vitce, the Irish term, usque-
baugh, and the modern word, whisky, are, in point of
fact, synonymous ; aqua vitce, signifying the water of
life, and usquebaugh, which should be written iske-
bayhah or isquebeoh, the former implying water of life,
and the latter living water. As isque, or iske, in the
Irish dialect, means water, it must appear evident that
the term whisky is only a slight alteration in the pro-
nunciation of this term. O'BRIEN and VALLENCEY
both admit that ai, ay, or ey, are old terms for water,
and isque, or iske, implying water, the compound word
literally means water of waters; the word whisky,
therefore, is of very comprehensive import, and fully
expressive of this sense-subduing beverage.
It is not easy to determine the origin of the term
aqua vitce, as applied to exhilarating liquors, unless by
an admission of the reasoning already advanced.
Having thus far entered into the history of the
subject under review, the manufacturing processes
will be prefaced, by an intelligent visitor, with the
routine, arrangements, et cetera, of an extensive Lon-
don distillery. He writes: The first objects that met
the eye were large granaries, or magazines, in which
the grain was stored; beyond these appeared various
buildings, connected with the still-room, containing a
huge cylindrical worm-tub, water-tanks, and refrigerat-
ing tanks, et cetera. Near the entrance were the mill
and the brewhouse, for conducting all those preliminary
operations preceding the actual distillation. The open
court presented a bustling scene waggons bringing in
yeast from the great London breweries, others laden
with casks destined for different parts of the metropolis ;
a number of carts were conveying grain to the dairies,
VOL. I.
and at another part of the premises men were em-
ployed filling barrels with spent wash, to be sent to the
fattencrs of cattle and swine.
^ The operations of a distillery relate to the extrac-
tion of the alcohol from various sorts of grain. Wheat,
oats, barley, rye, Indian corn, rice, and other of the
graminece, whether in the raw or in the malted state,
as well as the juices of fruits, sugar-cane, beet-root,
potatoes, carrots, and even some of the grasses, and
many other vegetal and natural substances, eviscer--
ate certain elements, which, by peculiar processes,
yield alcohol. Distillation is invariably one of these
operations, but it is preceded by others which differ
according to the nature of the ingredients employed.
Those liquors universally known and abused, such
as whisky, hollands, gin, brandy, rum, spirits of
wine, and cordials of various kinds, all contain alcohol,
which passes over in the process of distillation. British
brandy, British gin, whisky, or rum, are produced from
corn ; French brandy, from wine ; West Indian rum,
from sugar or molasses. The different qualities of
these various liquids depend partly on the centesimal
amount of alcohol, partly on the berries, herbs, and
seeds with which they are flavored, partly on their
mode of manufacture, and lastly, on the substances
whence they are derived. In every case, however, the
substance suffering the process of distillation is a sweet
liquid, but the means whereby the saccharine material is
instituted, vary with circumstances. The extract pro-
duced from grain is converted into a kind of beer before
being distilled. The fermented liquor, modified in a
particular way, forms beer at the brewery ; whilst, in
the distillery, it is known under the name of wash, and
is that liquid which undergoes, subsequently, the pro-
cess of distillation.
All the grain goes through the granary, and, when
required in meal, passes into the mill-room, which con-
tains several pair of millstones, ranged in a circle, and
worked by a large steam-engine. The meal next goes
to the brewhouse, in which are large coppers for heat-
ing water, and prodigious mash-tuns, capable of holding
many thousand gallons. Here it is mashed, and its
residue sold to the cattle-feeders.
The coolers, or cooling floors, occupy the upper por-
tion of a building adjoining the brewhouse. These
floors are covered with iron plates, three or four feet
square, and are joined edge to edge. Raised ledges
are placed across the floors, at certain distances, to
divide them into compartments ; and into the shallow
cells or trays thus formed, the hot wort is introduced.
The whole of the immense floor, one hundred and fifty
feet in length, becomes covered with a stratum of hot
liquor, six inches deep, which is rapidly cooled.
From the coolers the wort descends into what are
termed the fermenting backs, a series of square vessels
of enormous proportions, where it is exposed to the
action of the yeast. The alcoholic fermentation here
commences, with great energy, which ceases when the
sugar of the sweet wort has been transformed into
alcohol ; and by subsequent distillation from the large
copper wash stills, this alcohol is obtained in a more
concentrated state, forming the sinylings, or low wines,
of the distiller.
H
58
ALCOHOL WHISKY.
The system of supervision whereby the revenue in
spirits is collected, is rightly, as DODD states, a remark-
able instance of Excise machinery a supervision ren-
dered important by the great revenue yearly collected,
and by the comparatively small number of distilleries
from which the payments are made. The Messrs.
SMITH'S establishment alone pays three hundred thou-
sand pounds annually to Government on the spirit
manufactured; and as the duty per gallon is esti-
mated on spirit of one particular degree of strength,
the greatest caution is necessary in testing all the
liquors produced, as a guarantee that every sample is
charged exactly in proportion to its quantity and to its
strength. There are Excise officers, as agents for the
Government, almost constantly present at every dis-
tillery, day and night. They succeed each other, one
or more at a time, as may be necessary, after intervals
of eight hours ; the periods being from six in the morn-
ing till two, thence to ten at night, thence to six the
following morning. The act of Parliament to regulate
distilleries was passed in 1825, and by its provisions no
distiller was permitted to work till he had procured a
license, which was to be renewed yearly; moreover, he
was not allowed to have on his premises a still below a
certain capacity. The number of stills, charges, re-
ceivers, et cetera, continues subject to certain restric-
tions ; and the exact routine is given as to the mode the
liquid shall run from one vessel to another in the pro-
cess of distillation. The openings in the principal vessels
are expressly stated ; and the most scrupulous care is
taken that nothing shall pass from one vessel to another
without traversing a pipe having a lock or valve, which
is provided and kept in repair by the distiller, to the
satisfaction of the Excise officer who has charge of the
key under a penalty of two hundred pounds. This
functionary also keeps the keys to lock up the furnace
doors and stills ; in fact, he exercises a perfect control
over every operation and process ; and with the view
of facilitating his superintendence, the brewing and the
distilling take place at different periods, one portion of
time being set apart for the preparation of the wash,
and another for its distillation.
In order that the intentions of the law may be fully
carried out, prohibiting the synchronous brewing and
distilling, the buildings are detached, or conveniently
divided, and the pipes, a large number of which is visi-
ble, are of various colors. The legislature requires that
the conduit pipes shall be painted black ; those for the
conveyance of wash, red; those for the first distillate,
blue; and those for the finished spirit, white: this is
done in order that the officer may conveniently trace the
routine of the processes ; further, ladders and all other
conveniences must be furnished for the easy access of
the supervisor to all the vessels in the establishment.
The new act specifies that no spirit receiver shall be
used in any distillery, which shall not be made, placed,
and fixed, to the satisfaction of the Commissioners of
Inland Revenue, and be sufficiently deep to admit of
the gage being taken of the depth of fifteen inches in
the centre ; and every such receiver shall be so filled,
that &{ the time of gaging the same, for the purpose of
charging the duty thereon, the depin of spirit shall not be
less than fifteen inches, under a penalty of fifty pounds.
The fabrication of ardent spirits is a very extensive
branch of home trade. Whisky is the staple produce
in this kingdom ; gin, rum, et cetera, are made in other
countries by operations analogous to those followed in
the manufacture of whisky. Gin and rum are ficti-
tiously made by several parties in this country ; but
they require an alcoholic liquor to operate upon, and
for this purpose whisky, more or less pure, is univer-
sally used. Since whisky, then, is the principal pro-
duct of the spirit manufacture of this country, preference
of description will be given to it.
For its production, barley is the most abundantly
employed of all the cereals, and either in the raw or
malted state. Malting is a preliminary operation to
which the barley is submitted by those who employ
malt ; but since it is not solely used by the distiller,
the detailed description of the operations of malting
will be reserved to come under BEER, as only malt is
employed to yield this beverage. To show, however,
the influence the malting has on the workings of the
distiller, it will be necessary to notice one particular
change that takes place in the constituents of the
grain, namely, the metamorphosis of starch and gluten
into sugar and diastase.
The change of starch into sugar is partly effected in
the grain during the time it is permitted to sprout, but
principally after the amylaceous and glutinous mat-
ters, or diastase, have been extracted by the water,
as the latter body possesses the property of readily
transmuting the remainder of the starch into sugar.
The conversion of the nutritive parts of the grain
here alluded to, disintegrates its natural texture in
such a manner, that water will readily permeate
the entire substance, and take up every particle that
is of any interest to the brewer or distiller. For
this reason malted grain is preferred by many dis-
tillers : firstly, because the extract is obtained more
perfectly and with greater facility; and secondly,
because it is supposed that the yield of spirit is larger
than would be produced were the grain unmalted.
But, as additional labor always involves greater ex-
pense, the cost of the malted substance is necessarily
higher ; besides, a Government duty is imposed upon
the article, which further raises its value. To avoid,
then, the expenditure which the purchase of malt ex-
clusively would occasion, many distillers use, instead
of it, a mixture of malted with raw or unmalted
grain, in various proportions ; and though the subse-
quent extraction and management of the worts from
such mixtures do not offer equal facilities as when malt
has been employed, yet the inconveniences are, for
the most part, overcome by care and foresight; and
should any slight difficulty appear, the distiller consoles
himself with the assurance, that the difference in the
cost of the original material will fully compensate any
of the minor casualties.
By guarding against the difficulties to be encountered,
when a mixture of raw and malted grain is operated
upon, as will be pointed out in the succeeding pages,
the yield of spirit will be as large as if malt was wholly
taken; a fact proved by CLEMENT and others who
have investigated the subject, and also by several
intelligent manufacturers.
ALCOHOL GRINDING.
59
Whether malt is exclusively used, or a mixture, the
substance must be either ground or crushed, in order to
destroy the adhesiveness of the valuable principle of
the grain, and to expose an extensive surface to the
solvent action of the water in the preparation of the
extract. As said before, the malting effects the disin-
tegration to a considerable extent; hence the reason
why malt is not required to be in a very minute state
of division when subjecting it to the action of solvents.
On the contrary, mixtures, into the composition of which
large quantities of raw grain enter, must be finely
ground, for the cause just assigned.
Ground or crushed malt always yields a wort that
is comparatively clear; mixtures, on the other hand,
never give a bright wort, but dense solutions, on account
of the large quantities of starch and plastic matter
which are earned off mechanically in the water.
This behavior of the malt and mixtures, constitutes
one of the principal differences between the brewer's and
distiller's mode of making the worts ; the former must
have a clear extract, as the liquid, after being submitted
to the slow fermentation, remains to give body to his
beverage. Such an extract cannot be otherwise ob-
tained than by using malt entirely. It is optional with
the distiller whether he uses malt or mixtures to pre-
pare his worts, as he can run the starchy liquor into the
fermenting tun, there to undergo the alcoholic fermen-
tation, partly by catalysis, or the action of contact,
and partly by the preliminary alteration of the starch,
owing to the activity of the fermentation, into sugar
before the alcohol is formed.
In other respects, the operations of the brewer and
of the distiller are closely allied, excepting, that the
distiller's object is to urge fermentation to its utmost, and
finally, to separate by distillation the spirit thus formed
from the wash, after which the residuary liquor is ac-
counted of little value ; but the brewer's aim is to prevent
the fermentation going beyond a certain point, and the
alcohol produced is left in conjunction with the wash.
Considerable attention is required of both parties, and
especially of the distiller who employs raw grain, in pre-
paring the worts, owing to the tendency of the matter
Fig. 37.
to set, which prevents him from extracting the valu-
able portions. The main point, however, in the distil-
ler's business, demanding particular care, is the proper
management of the fermentative action succeeding the
making of the worts, to insure the conversion of the
whole of the saccharine matter into alcohol : he must
also guard against the acetous fermentation, and various
other difficulties, which, if overlooked, would be ex-
tremely detrimental.
The several stages in the manufacture will now b
fully treated of under the heads GRINDING, MASHING,
FERMENTING, and DISTILLING.
GRINDING. The granary is a large building of brick
or stone, having three spacious stories, on which the
malt or raw grain is hoarded. One of the granary floors
is appropriated to the kiln-dried barley, which lies
spread in a stratum five feet thick, ready to be con-
veyed to the mill. When it is to be ground into meal,
the grain is taken to a room immediately over the null-
chamber, and discharged tlirough trap-doors into cloth
sleeves, which conduct it to the hoppers. In the n
room several pair of stones are seen ranged in a circle,
and are set in motion by a shaft from the steam-engine.
Fig 37 shows the nature of the operations.
60
ALCOH01
-MASHING.
stones grind all the raw grain ; while the malt is passed
through a crushing-mill, consisting of two rollers placed
nearly in contact. In the lower room is a vertical cylin-
drical partition, enclosing the mechanism whereby the
millstones are rotated in the room above, and around it
are pipes or openings for conducting the meal from the
grinders into sacks fastened to them. The meal, as it
issues from these pipes, has a temperature of about 100
Fahr., from the mechanical friction of the stones.
MASHING. The mash tun is the most important
vessel employed in this department. It is made of cast-
iron plates, firmly bolted together, and circular in shape.
FiR.
Fig. 38 represents, the mash tun at a large Scotch
distillery : a a is the mash tun, twenty-eight feet in
diameter, and eight feet deep. From the middle of the
tun rises a vertical shaft, m, set in motion by machinery,
and thus revolving the mechanism, dec. This appa-
ratus, by rotating horizontally and vertically, effectually
rummages the whole liquor in the tun : d is a rod
extending from the pillar, m, to the edge of the tun,
round which its outer extremity is carried on a toothed
wheel, gearing into the teeth round the tun ; it is driven
by the bevel wheels, n. Connected with this rod, d, are
two parallel rods, c c, which it carries round with it :
33.
to thes3 rods are fixcJ bent cross bars or leathers,
which also revolve in consequence of the double motion
of the rods, c c, rotating on their axes at the same time
that they turn round the shaft in the centre of the
tun. In their action they much resemble the paddles
of a steamer, mashing and churning the menstruum.
The one rod is exactly over the other; the paddles
attached to the lowest, pass within two inches of the
bottom. When the tun is only half filled, the lower
rod, per se, mashes the contents, k is a platform, so
that the men may have easy access to the tun; /is a
door leading to the mill, where the grain is ground into
grist; bb, two channels or sluices, for conducting the
grist from the granary into the mash tun ; e e, wash-
backs, resting on rafters, el cetera, which project from
the wall. The wash-backs are used for containing the
weak worts drawn from the last two sperges, or mash-
ings of the grist, after the principal extracts have been
drawn off; they are pumped up into ee, and kept to
macerate fresh grist in the next operation ; h, the en-
trance to the long rooms, in which are twenty or thirty
L'nuei!tin r tuns. Several large copp?r vessels, be-
sides the tuns, are in use, for the purpose of heating
the water for mashing the grist; they hold several
thousand gallons, and are heated by a furnace.
Having described the mash tun, the operations and
materials employed for the preparation of the worts
will be now considered.
It has already been stated that the grist may be
barley meal, oats, or malt in variable proportions,
according to circumstances. Large quantities of oats,
on being mixed with the grist, confer a peculiar
flavor, which is easily recognized by those who have
experience in the taste of spirit. When barley mult
and raw barley meal form the grist, one part of malt
to two or three parts of the raw ground grain are
considered the best proportions, though one part of
malt to five, six, eight, nine, or even fifteen parts
of the raw grain are often used. When oats are em-
ployed, the best proportion is three parts of barley
malt to one of oats; but satisfactory results are ob-
tained when the malt and oats are used in the ratio o:
ALCOHOL MASHING.
61
two of the former to one of the latter. If the propor-
tion of raw grain be large when compared with that of
the malt, it is a general custom to add a quantity of
chaff, in order that, when the mashing water has ex-
tracted the saccharine and starchy portions, it may be
more easily filtered or drawn off.
The quantity of malt and grain used at each mash-
ing, depends on the size of the distillery ; hence no
fixed rule can be laid down. In the distilleries in
Dublin, the quantity of grist at each brewing varies
with circumstances, from eight hundred bushels, the
lowest, to two thousand bushels, the largest quantity.
In nearly all cases, it is composed of seven eighth-
parts of raw or unmalted, and one eighth-part of malted
grain.
Previous to introducing the malt, a quantity of water,
at a temperature between 140 and 150 Fahr., is run
into the mash tun, and the ground malt and meal are
then added. A number of workmen, with stout wooden
spatulas or oars, keeps the mixture in brisk agitation,
until the grist is thoroughly moistened, and neither
clots nor lumps remain. In the larger establishments,
this part of the operation is effected by machinery,
and is much more efficiently performed than by
manual labor. The perforated false bottom allows the
wort to percolate 'nto the space between it and the
true bottom of the tun, from which it is drawn off more
easily into the under-backs, large vessels placed be-
neath the mash tun, wherein the worts are collected
till pumped into the cooling-backs. Distillers and
brewers are more variable in their mode of working
than any class of manufacturers who carry on business
extensively. In no one operation do they seemingly
follow a common rule, each having some favorite plan
of a supposed greater merit than others ; hence the
difficulty of giving a true and comprehensive detail
of these branches. This assertion has been partly
demonstrated already, when speaking of the grist ; and
in the next operation, the mashing, it becomes more
manifest.
The whole of the saccharine and fermentable matters
of the grist introduced into the mash tun, is generally
extracted in three, always in four mashings at most;
but the manner of doing so is different, according to the
notions of the manager. At one time, the first, second,
and third mashings were evaporated till the mixture ac-
quired a density of about T05, when it was ready for the
fermenting tun, the fourth wash being reserved for
extracting fresh quantities of grist. Some employ the
water in the first and second extract in such quantities
as that the wort will be of a strength fit for fermenting,
and the third and fourth wash may be concentrated by
evaporation to the proper density, and then added to
the preceding ; or these dilute solutions may be made
of the proper strength by running them on fresh quan-
tities of ground malt and grain. Others, again, manage
the quantity of water in such a manner that the pro-
duct of the first extract will have the density necessary
for submitting it to the fermenting vessels. The re-
maining three washings are rendered stronger either
by evaporation, or mashing with fresh portions of malt
or grist. In the latter case, the quantity of water is
larger in the first mashing than in the preceding in-
stance, where the first two extracts are made of the
strength 1-050, which together amouut to about twice
the volume of grist
In MACFAULANE and Co.'s distillery at Glasgow, two
hundred and sixty hundred-weight of grist, including
a sixth or a fourth of malt, are taken for an ordinary
mash, and these are put into the mash tun, and about
seven hundred and eighty-eight barrels of water
nearly twenty-eight thousand three hundred and sixty-
eight gallons are poured upon them at two stages of
the operation.
In the Dublin distilleries, about seven-eighths of raw
grain are employed. Like the preceding, the first mash
is the only one let into the fermenting tun, the succeed-
ing small worts being kept for the next day's brewing ;
and in preparing this wort about five barrels of water
are taken to the quarter of grist, but more if small worts
are used; to completely exhaust the grist, about the
same amount of water is required for the subsequent
mashing.
The temperature of the water varies with the quan-
tity of malt present; when the malt and raw grain
are mixed in the proportion of one of malt to two
of grain, the first mashing may be made at a tem-
perature of 150 to 160 Fahr., but if the malt and
grain be as one to four, six, or nine, then the water
should not exceed 145 for the first mashing, in order
to prevent the setting of the mass. A longer time is
likewise required for the first mashing with a large
quantity of raw grain than if it were entirely malt, as
the starchy matter of the grain is more difficultly ex-
tracted than the saccharine principle which replaces it
in the malted grain. From one hour and a half to
two hours generally suffice for this operation, where
the contents of the mash tub are kept in agitation by
machinery, and the proper heat of the water has been
attended to; but very often the time occupied may
extend to three or more hours.
In successful cases, the time required for the wort to
clarify, is about one to two hours. As the temperature
of the solution becomes lower from contact with the
grist, and from the agitation, it is customary not to add
the whole of the water employed in the first mash at
once, but to retain from half to a quarter of the
liquid, which is added, at short intervals, towards the
middle of the operation. This serves to keep the
heat more uniform, and the work is more effectually
accomplished.
In the Scotch distillery above mentioned, when the
first water at 140 permeates the whole of the grist,
the remainder of the seven hundred and eighty-eight
barrels is poured in, at a temperature ranging between
175 and 180, so as to heat the whole contents of the
tun to 150.
After the wort has been drawn off into the under-
back, and pumped into the coolers, the second sperge
is then let in upon the grist remaining in the mash
tun, and a similar treatment to the foregoing given to
ihe mash ; the time occupied is one hour and u half,
and the density of the weak wort is from fifteen to six-
teen pounds per barrel.
Since the greater part of the saccharine and starchy
matters of the grist ie extracted in the first affusion,
62
ALCOHOI
-MASHING.
there is but little danger of the setting of the mash in
the second washing, so the water is of a higher tem-
perature than that employed in the first case, generally
180 Fahr.
After this wort has been let into the under-back,
the third and last sperge is made, and in about an hour
and a half the wort is drawn off; its density is from
three to five pounds per barrel. Both these mashings
are pumped into wash-backs, and .ire let down to form
the first mashings in the next day's brewing, and thus
the work succeeds by three sperges or waterings of the
grist ; the first being drawn off at the proper density
for fermentation, while the remaining two are re-
tained to be further strengthened by additional extrac-
tive matter.
On tasting the solution during the infusion of the
first wort, a very peculiar difference is observed. At
first nothing particularly striking is apparent, but in
a very short time the solution begins to acquire a
sweetish taste, which becomes more perceptible till
in the end the liquor possesses the lusciousness of
malt worts. Hence it is evident, that the starchy
matter of the grist, as it is extracted, is resolved into
glucose, or grape sugar. Two causes serve to effect
this change : the first and chief agent is the peculiar
body diastase, wnich is generated in the malt during the
germination of the grain. This body possesses the
property of converting much more starchy matter into
sugar than is present in the malt. It reacts on the
starch of the raw grain, and produces the same action
as if the grain itself was malted. The gluten of the
grain is capable of producing the same change, but it
requires a considerably longer time than the active
body in malt. When only one part of malted barley
is used to five of the ground raw grain, the excess of
the vegetal principle, diastase, is sufficient to effect the
ready transformation; but when nine parts of the raw
material are used to one of malt, the quantity of the
active principle in the malt is inadequate to saccharify
the whole of the starch, and a portion is consequently
left to the slower action of the gluten : this accounts for
the longer time and greater trouble which the wort
takes in preparing for the still when a large quantity of
the raw grain is proportioned to the malt. When
a wort is being made, considerable time elapses be-
fore the starch is wholly transformed into sugar, and
in the ordinary period allowed by the distillers in the
fabrication of the worts, this conversion is never com-
plete, a large portion of starchy matter remaining
unaffected. Thus, if it be attempted to make a wort of
two hundred pounds of saccharine matter per barrel in
the ordinary way, the process fails, in consequence of the
starchy matters assuming a jelly-like appearance long
before the above strength is attained. In order to
obtain the strongest wort possible from raw grain, the
extract, diluted, should by left to repose for a longer
period, during which the gluten reacts like the diastase
of the malted grain, and when the whole of the starchy
matter becomes soluble, the solution is drawn off and
concentrated by evaporation at a low temperature.
The specific gravity of the first wash is generally
about 1-050; the second wash has a specific gravity
of about 1-010 to 1-015; the third, 1-008; and the fourth
is little higher than water. The strongest wort pro-
curable from grist, containing over four parts of un-
malted grain, is obtained by evaporating the first mash-
ing. The strength, even by this treatment, never
exceeds one hundred and fifty pounds of saccharine
matter per barrel, while the wort of malt, treated
similarly, may be obtained of two hundred pounds to
the barrel.
In consequence of restrictions once imposed upon
the distiller by the Excise, he was precluded from
attempting to manage the worts by any decided im-
provement in method or principle, and had to submit
to the dictates of a Board, whose judgment in such
matters was often inferior to his own. When these
regulations were first drawn up, the Scotch distillers
were compelled to produce, from one hundred gallons
of wort, nineteen gallons of spirits, of one-to-ten over
hydrometer proof, or of a specific gravity equal to
0-90917. At a later period, the quantity of spirits was
reduced to fourteen gallons, and, still later, to thirteen
gallons, from the hundred gallons of wort. The strength
of the wort was regulated at this period, and specified
at seventy pounds of saccharine matter per barrel. The
English distillers were exempted from these changes
in the regulations, so that they continued, as usual, to
make their worts of whatever strength they thought
proper to yield the nineteen gallons of one-to-tcn over
proof.
On the supposition that the whole weight indicated
by the saccharometer had been decomposable matter,
capable of yielding alcohol in the fermenting tun,
thirteen gallons of the forementioned strength would be
produced according to theoretical calculations ; but this
is never obtained in practice, for, from repeated experi-
ments, conducted on a large scale with every requisite
care, it has been found that not less than fifteen pounds
of saccharine matter remain undecomposed, so that
only fifty-five pounds of the seventy prescribed by the
Excise regulation came into active operation. When
the quantity of spirits was nineteen gallons to the
hundred gallons of wort, it was made of the requisite
strength by producing a concentrated extract of sac-
charine matter from malt, raw grain, et cckra, and add-
ing it to the wort till the proper density was obtained.
From the supposition that this infusion was made up
of sugar, treacle, and other similar articles, the parlia-
ment prohibited its addition to the wort in the Scotch
distilleries; and its strength was limited to seventy
pounds of saccharine matter per barrel, in order to
prevent the secreting of the excess of spirits which a
strong wort would yield above the standard quantity
thirteen gallons.
It has been said that a wort of sixty-two pounds per
barrel, which would yield twelve per cent, of spirit of
one-to-ten strength, or 0'90917 spec, grav., is preferable
to the proportion adopted by the Excise. The original
Dutch hollands are obtained from a wort considerably
weaker than the above, and it is generally admitted
that the Dutch spirits are superior to the Scotch.
The whisky made by smugglers in Scotland was
long preferred by the inhabitants, and was purchased
at a higher price, under the name of Highland whisky.
This was partly owing to its being made entirely from
ALCOHOL COOLING.
63
malt ; but the chief reason was, that, from the unfavor-
able circumstances under which they operated, their
wort was necessarily much weaker than the wort of the
legal distillers, and, on an average, was not much
stronger, probably, than the wort of the Dutch hoi-
lands.
For a long period, the illicit production of spirits
in the highlands of Scotland was a great source of
annoyance to the Excise, and of trouble to the parties
illegally distilling, to such an extent that several of
them had been ruined thereby. The public, too,
helped to maintain this contraband trade, for the
smuggled goods were, generally, preferred to those
of the legal distiller, on account of the improved taste
and bouquet which the former were supposed to pos-
sess. While this feeling remained, it was impossible
to put an end to the production of smuggled whisky
in Scotland. To overcome the preference of the in-
habitants for the highland spirit, Government removed
the restrictions which bound the manufacturers, so far,
that they were able to distil from malt at almost the
same rate as they before did from grain. Hence the
high reputation of smuggled whisky has gradually fallen
off, arid the business of those engaged in it has almost
discontinued.
The chief reason, it is asserted, that influenced the
Government to retain the limitation under which the
distillers were placed, was to insure the payment of
the duty on the spirit actually distilled; yet it was a
matter which required elucidation, how the duty could
be levied with greater accuracy though all the restric-
tions on the strength of the wort were removed. Ex-
periments have pointed out, that in the best-conducted
distilleries not more than four-fifths of the saccharine
extract in the wort undergo the alcoholic fermentation,
and that, for every pound of such extract that suffers
decomposition by the fermentative process, half a pound
of alcohol, spec. grav. 0*825, is produced ; since a gal-
lon of the spirits, one-to-ten over proof, or spec. grav.
0-90917, contains four and three-fifth pounds of alcohol
of spec. grav. 0'825, from which it is evident, that
for the production of a gallon of spirits of 0.90917, the
decomposition of nine and one-fifth pounds of sugar
are required; but as only four-fifths of the quantity
of sugar present suffers the alcoholic fermentation
eleven and a half pounds will be required in the wort
for production of the above quantity of spirits. The
regulation of the Excise laws might be based upon these
facts, and the duty levied on the wort proportionably to
the quantity of saccharine matter, allowing eleven and
a half pounds for every gallon of spirits.
At present the distiller can bring his wort to any
degree of strength he may think proper or advantageous;
but he must give a written notice of this to the Excise
officer in attendance four hours before running the
wort into the fermenting tun, or he will incur a penalty.
The duty imposed is regulated by the strength of the
worts, and the subsequent gravities and measurements
which are repeatedly taken.
In the employment of malt, the proportion, in
moderate-sized factories, stated by URE, is five hun-
dred bushels, coarsely ground. This quantity is
introduced into the mash tun, which is of a size pro-
portionate to this supply of malt, and nine thousand
;allons of water, at a temperature-of 160 Falir., are
run in upon it. The whole is kept in brisk agitation,
by machinery, for an hour, then allowed to rest, and,
after the grains have subsided, about six thousand gal-
lons of wort are drawn off into the coolers. From four
thousand five hundred to five thousand gallons of water,
at 180 Fahr., are run in upon the residuary grains in
the tun, and the mashing continued for about three
quarters of an hour; the mixture is then allowed to rest,
and the weak worts drawn off. A third treatment of
the grain, with the same amount of water as the pre-
ceding, takes place, in order to take up all the soluble
matters of the grain ; and when this has been drawn
off, and the grains have been drained of all the solution,
both the second and third mashings are mixed, which
constitute nine thousand gallons ; the mixture is em-
ployed next day, at a temperature of 160, to mash five
hundred bushels of fresh malt, and is drawn off into the
coolers, when it has become saturated with saccharine
matter, as before shown, and the residuary grain sub-
jected to the same operation as the grains of the pre-
ceding day.
Sometimes rye is used instead of malt. Ninety
bushels of it are mixed with one hundred and ninety
bushels of raw grain, thus constituting two hundred and
eighty bushels in the whole, for the mashing of which
five thousand two hundred gallons of water are required.
The temperature of this water, as is pointed out in the
beginning of the remarks on this part of the subject,
should not be so high as when all malt has been used,
and as was also stated above, the time allowed for
mashing is greater; the subsequent washings are re-
served for exhausting fresh portions of grist.
THE COOLING. Wort of grain has a much greater
tendency to form acetic and saccharic acids than the
malt worts. Saccharic acid contains the same number
of equivalents of carbon as sugar, and seems to be pro-
duced from sugar in the same way that the acetic acid
is from alcohol.
Seven atoms of anhydrous sugar contain the elements
of one equivalent of saccharic acid, three equivalents of
melassic acid, and seventeen equivalents of water ; and
this is at once shown by the annexed formulae :
Seven equivalents of sugar,
equal C M Hgg O^.
1 Saccharic acid, . . C I2 H 10 Oj 6
3 Melassic acid, . . C 72 Hse Ogo
17 Water, H 17 17
On account of the liability to acetification above
alluded to, it becomes the important business of the dis-
tiller to oppose it, which is done by bringing the solution
as speedily as possible to that temperature at which the
fermentation proceeds. Various methods are pursued
by different distiller*, according to the extent of the
factory.
In several of the factories the coolers are 8
rectangular vessels, into which the first wort is pumped
as soon as it has passed the under-back, to the depth of
two, three, four, or more inches. The coolers in Messrs.
MACFARLANE'S distillery are two in number, each being
one hundred and twenty-four feet in length, by thirty-
two in breadth, and nearly a foot deep. Fig. 39 repre-
C4
ALCOHOL FERMENTATION.
sents one of these coolers. They are placed at the
upper part of the building, one over the other, and are
open on all sides to the winds. Over each cooler is
fixed three flighters, or machines like horizontal wind-
mills, which, as they are made to revolve rapidly by
means of an engine, sweep a powerful air-current over
the worts, producing also a circular current in the liquid,
which makes it traverse the coolers equally. As the
wort is introduced into these coolers, it stands at 135
to 140 Fahr., and is cooled here to 70 or 80, the
temperature at which it stands when run into the
fermenting tuns ; this cooling is effected in about five
hours in the winter-time, but requires eight or nine hours
in the summer season'.
An improved method of cooling the wort has lately
been followed, videlicet, by conveying the hot liquid
through a course of tin piping placed in a stream of
cold water. By this means, and the use of the proper
extent of piping, the wort may be cooled down to the
temperature of the surrounding water, or any other
intermediate degree that may prove most advantageous.
Worts cooled down by this means lose none of the
water by evaporation, as they otherwise would do if
cooled in the flat shallow wooden coolers, and conse-
quently, with the exception of the little alteration in
gravity the difference of temperature occasions, the
worts remain of the same density that they indicated
when drawn from the under-back.
FERMENTATION is the most important stage through
which the materials in the hands of the distiller have
to pass, and one which not only demands considerable
skill and attention for its proper management, but also
requires extensive knowledge, both of the principles of
chemistry, and of practical results. Indeed, the success
of the operation almost entirely depends on the fer-
mentation of the wort ; and, unless governed with due
care and dexterity, a failure will be the consequence.
If the distiller possesses superior knowledge, and is
acquainted with scientific data, a favorable field for
practice is offered to him, to bring those acquirements
to bear upon this part of his business. The proper fer-
mentation of worts oftentimes baffles the most skilful,
the process being so changeable in its nature. Formerly,
the Scotch distillers used to add three and a half per
cent, of fresh yeast, or four to four and a half, and some-
times five per cent, by measure of stale yeast, to the
wort in the fermenting tun. The whole of the yeast
was not added at once, but in two, three, four, or more
quantities. Usually one and a quarter to one and a half
per cent, of yeast was added the first day, and the re-
mainder on the second and third days; though some
managed by introducing the whole of the remaining
yeast, after the first addition, on the third day, and, if
requisite, a further quantity to complete the fermenta-
tion. Fresh yeast, if it could be obtained, was taken
at first, and the succeeding quantity put in might be
stale yeast; in which case a larger measure was em-
ployed than if the ferment were fresh.
The large amount of yeast formerly employed was in
consequence of the great density of the worts. Dis-
tillers now generally use from one to one and a half
per cent, of fresh yeast, very rarely two per cent. Of
this about three-fourths per cent, are added when Lhe
wort is let into the tun, and the remainder after the
second day sometimes when the attenuation reaches
1'030 or 1'035. The quantity subsequently added may
be stale yeast, taking, however, a little excess over the
usual allowance of the fresh ferment.
This yeast is invariably obtained from the large
London porter breweries, the quantity produced in the
provincial ones being insufficient. The portion of
yeast which is thrown off the porter during its fermen-
tation, is the best; but often that sold is the slimy
dregs which remain in the bottom of casks when the
clear porter is racked off. A great deal of the success
of the fermentation depends upon the goodness of the
yeast, and the quantity used is regulated by its fresh-
ness.
In the course of fermentation, the liquid incalesces
about 20 Fahr. above its ordinary temperature.
DONOVAN gives the following as a fair statement of
the specific gravity and temperature of the wort of a
ALCOilUI
-FERMENTATION.
65
five days' fermentation, the original specific gravity
being 1-050:
First morning
" evening,
Second morning,
" evening,
Third' morning,
" evening,
Fourth morning,
" evening,
Fifth morning,
" evening,.
temp., 70
70
72
76*
80
84
88
88
spec
80
grav. of wort, 1-050
1-050
1-046
1-032
1022
1-012
1-007
1-005
1-003
1-001
The time occupied by the fermentation varies, ex-
tending over a period of between three and six days,
and, on some occasions, seven or nine days. Difference
of season has a, great influence on the celerity or
slowness of the fermentation. During the first few
days the tuns are exposed as much as possible to the
atmosphere, and after this time they are covered over
tightly to exclude the air. Two reasons have been
alleged for this arrangement. : first, to prevent the escape
of the carbonic acid, which, it is supposed, forwards the
action; and, secondly, if suffered to diffuse itself into
the atmosphere, it would carry off portions of the alco-
hol. For the first supposition, some explanation may
be offered. It seems that the carbonic acid, when
confined, causes the greater attenuation of the liquid.
It is known that the carbonic acid from fermenting tuns,
when conducted through fresh worts, causes fermenta-
tion ; but this is not so complete as when yeast is added.
It may, however, happen, that a portion of the active
principle of the ferment is carried over mechanically,
and that by this the fermentation is caused, it being
doubtful whether carbonic acid generated from any
other source would have the same effect. With regard
to the second reason, it is scarcely admissible, as the
fermentation is nearly terminated before shutting down
the tuns.
Distillers never take yeast from the fermenting tuns,
but beat it into the liquid, being of opinion that any
euch abstraction would render the fermentation less
complete, and consequently dimmish the proportion of
spirit.
The best temperature for the wort, when let into the
fermenting tuns, is about 70 to 75 Fahr. in winter, but
often it stands about 57 ;. during the fermentation the
temperature rises 20 or 25 Fahr., being at the maxi-
mum elevation between 82 and 90. When the heat
of the liquid, at the commencement of the fermenta-
tion, is about 70 P , the acquired caloric will be apt to
raise the liquid to a degree which is favorable to its
acetification; hence great care must be exercised to
prevent the temperature exceeding 95.
Difference in the time of the fermentation of worts is
nearly always observed, owing to the variation of the
quality of the yeast. As. the fermentation proceeds, the
specific gravity of the wort diminishes, in consequence of
the decomposition of the saccharine matter into carbonic
acid and alcohol, which is expressed by the distillers as
attenuation, and is the standard by which they judge of
the success of the operation. The amount ot spirit
which the wash or wort will yield, may be known
from the determination of the specific gravity, or degree
of attenuation, which has taken place.
VOL. I
Two reasons may be offered for the diminished spe-
cific gravity after fermentation.
1. The disappearance of the saccharine matter in
the fluid, which, were it not for other fixed bodies pre-
sent, would lower the density to that of distilled water.
The whole of the sugar, however, is not decomposed,
and, consequently, tfce specific gravity of the fermented
wort, apart from the consideration of the alcohol gene-
rated, would be proportionally greater than the water
in its ordinary state,, as the quantity of undecomposed
matter is more or less.
2. The results of the fermentation are carbonic acid,
which escapes, and alpohol, which remains ; the alcohol,
having a less specific gravity than water, diminishes the
density of the latter. The aim. of the distiller is to have
the attenuation of the wort to correspond with water,
which may be readily done, provided his yeast is toler-
ably good, and that his worts are dilute. When this
object is gained, it does not, however, follow, as many of
them suppose, that the whole of the saccharine matter
has been decomposed. The weight of a volume of
alcohol being much less than that of a corresponding
volume of water, it is evident, if both be comminuted,
that the resulting liquid will have a specific gravity less
than the latter ; and to make up the strength, so as to
equal the density of water, a greater or Jess amount
of saccharine matter is requisite, or, in other words,
a quantity of saccharine matter remains undecom-
posed, which raises the density considerably higher than
that of water at ordinary temperatures. Generally,
this quantity of undecomposed sugar increases with the
original strength of the worts, as the alcohol generated
in the proportionate bulk of those extracts is larger ;
and with it the decomposition of the saccharine matter
is partially arrested, in consequence of the property which
alcohol has of preventing eremacausis, or fermentation.
This fact is easily proved by adding some alcohol to a
portion of the wort in active fermentation, so that the
liquid will indicate a specific gravity equal to, or a little
below water; the action of the ferment is arrested, and
the sugar, necessarily, remains in the liquid intact.
If the solution be introduced into a retort, or small
common copper still, and about one-third of the liquid
drawn off at the temperature of the water-bath, the
spent wash in the still run once more into a vessel, and
a little yeast added, active decomposition of the sugar
sets in, and a corresponding quantity of alcohol and
carbonic acid is produced. The case is similar in the
fermentation on a large scale: and the annexed table,
which is taken from the Encyclopedia Britannica, shows
this in a clear manner. The density of the nine worts
examined ranged about t'045, and the degrees of atten-
uation to which they were reduced were as follows :
1. Specific gravity after attenuation.
2.
3. "
4.
5.
6. "
7.
9.
1-0012
1-0045
1-0018
1-0000
1-0012
1-0045
1-0047
1-0007
10007
Upon examining the wash after the termination of
the fermenting action, it was found that 4'34
6G
ALCOHOL FERMENTATION.
the sugar had been decomposed, and that one part
remained intact; thus showing, that when worts are
even purposely diluted, nearly a fifth part of the sac-
charine matter will escape decomposition ; and, where
worts are much stronger, or more concentrated, of
course the loss will be much greater. On the large scale,
the attenuation cannot often be carried below 1-0012.
Some rare instances may occur, in which the specific
gravity may be reduced to I'OOO, or even 0'998 ; but
in these instances, the worts must be in a proper
state of dilution, and the ferment, or yeast, of the first
quality.
URE mentions the works of a Scotch distiller, where
the wash, when let into the tun, had a specific gravity
of 1-065 to 1-060. The contents of the fermenting
tun are stated at three thousand gallons of wash, and the
temperature, at the time of its introduction, 64 to 74
Fahr. Two gallons per cent, of barm were added, and
the h'quid agitated. When the attenuation had reached
1-04, another gallon per cent, of barm was added. He
further remarks, that if the fermenting tuns are small,
the temperature of the worts should be higher than
when the reverse is the case. Fermentation is known
to proceed favorably when the bubbles of carbonic acid
mount in rapid succession. Should the fermentation
flag, it is almost a hopeless task to restore vigorous
action. Some try the addition of bubs wort brought
into a rapid state of fermentation in a tub by a large
proportion of yeast but this plan is seldom successful ;
besides, the law prohibits the addition of any wort
after the expiration of twenty-four hours from the time
the fermenting tun is charged, and if it be known that
after that time any has been added, the distiller incurs
a penalty.
With concentrated worts the fermentation goes on
briskly for a short time, and then, after the alcohol has
accumulated, the fermentation lags, and no further ad-
dition of yeast will revive it. DONOVAN found that the
saccharine matter in such fermented worts possessed a
highly disagreeable taste and smell. Hence the neces-
sity of having the worts properly diluted, to avoid too
great a waste of saccharine matter; yet the worts must
not be too dilute, for then the fermentation will sooner
cease, and the diluted alcohol will be more apt to
run into the acetous fermentation. The attenuation is
urged no longer than the time that the head of yeast
falls, the distiller thinking it more advantageous to
overlook the matter remaining undecomposed, than
risk the loss which he would expose himself to from
the formation of vinegar. Indeed, unless immediate
distillation of the fermented wort is resorted to, a
heavy loss is often incurred from this source, and more
so if the alcoholic liquor be exposed to the ah- for any
considerable time. This is noticed by the increasing
specific gravity of the worts, and the peculiar aroma of
acetic acid. It is, however, easily guarded against ;
generally, distillation is resorted to ; but if atmosphe-
ric air be excluded from the fermented liquor, no in-
jury is sustained. For this purpose the tuns are ren-
dered air-tight by means of a well-fitting cover, through
which a large tube passes, and enters the bottom of an
open tub placed over the fermenting tun, which, in
this instance, is filled quite full ; the barm and froth
rising are forced through the pipe into the open tub,
and when the fermentation slackens, these matters re-
turn into the tun. Many distillers use butter to keep
the wash from overflowing the tun. In general, the
fermenting tuns are conical vessels of larger capacity
than is required to hold the wash when first introduced,
which serves the double purpose of containing the froth,
and preventing the escape of the heat generated during
the process.
At present, in the larger distilleries, the fermenting
tuns are of iron, and have an outer casing of wood.
These are found to be much more easily managed than
the wooden ones, the iron having a greater conducting
power. Should the heat of the wort get too high,
cold water is introduced into the space between the
envelope and tun ; and if it be too cold, it is readily
brought to the proper temperature by supplying hot
water.
As a good attenuation is the great desideratum, to
the attainment of which the distiller's attention is
particularly directed, it may be advisable, before clos-
ing this part of. the subject, to enter more fully into
its nature, and inquire into the causes which affect
it, alluding, at the same time, to the alcoholic fermen-
tation.
Fermentation may be regarded as the putrefaction
of a substance void of nitrogen. A change of proper-
ties is produced hi the substances fermented, arising
from new combinations of their principles. Sugar, for
example, is converted into alcohol and carbonic acid,
by the process of alcoholic or vinous fermentation.
This process, viewed under its simplest conditions, con-
sists in adding a certain quantity of yeast, or other fer-
ment, to an aqueous solution of sugar. Carbonic acid
shortly begins to be eliminated, and the alcohol, simul-
taneously produced, unites with the water.
In addition to the alcohol and carbonic acid formed
by the decomposition of the juice, there is also produced
a yellow or grey insoluble substance, containing a large
quantity of nitrogen. It is this body which possesses
the power of inducing fermentation in a new solution of
sugar, and which has, in consequence, received the name
of ferment.
Yeast from beer, and that from wine, examined under
the microscope, present the same form and general
appearance. They are both acted on in the same
manner by alkalies and by acids, and possess the power
of inducing fermentation anew in a solution of sugar :
in short, they are considered identical. The alcohol
and carbonic acid are produced from the elements of
the sugar, and the ferment from those nitrogenized
constituents of the juice, termed gluten, or vegetal
albumen.
The fermentation of pure sugar in contact with yeast,
is evidently a very different process from "the fermen-
tation of wort, or of must the liquid expressed from
grapes when fully ripe.
In the former case, the yeast disappears during the
decomposition of sugar ; but hi the latter, a transfor-
mation of gluten is effected simultaneously, by which
ferment is generated. Thus yeast is destroyed in the
one case, but is formed in the ether.
The experiment may be most conveniently exhi-
ALCOH01
-FERMENTATION,
67
bited and conducted upon a small scale in an appa-
ratus like the annexed Fig. 40. The syrup and yeast
are introduced into the bottle, A, from which a bent
tube issues, passing under the inverted jar placed in
the water-trough, B. It will now be found, that all
Fie. 40.
that is requisite to induce fermentation, and the conse-
quent production of alcohol from the above materials,
is to subject them to a due temperature say between
70 and 80 ; they then soon begin to act upon each
other, and the principal points to be noticed are
Firstly, that carbonic acid is evolved ;
Secondly, that the sugar slowly disappears ;
Thirdly, that alcohol is gradually formed.
It will be further observed, that the contact of air, or
oxygen, is unnecessary. It is, indeed, in many in-
stances injurious.
As respects the quantitative results of this experi-
ment, it has been ascertained by DUBRUNFAUT, BOUL-
LAY, and DUMAS, that by commencing with cane
sugar, it is, in the first instance, converted into glu-
cose, or grape sugar, and that the grape sugar is then
resolved into carbonic acid and alcohol.
Now, grape sugar, which, in its ordinary hydrated or
crystalline state, is C 12 H M 14 , loses, when carefully
dried at a little above 212, two atoms of water, and
becomes C 12 H 12 12 ; and assuming such to be its com-
position, one atom of the anhydrous grape sugar would
be resolved exactly into four atoms of carbonic acid
and two-atoms of alcohol ; or, in other words, one hun-
dred and eighty parts of the dry grape sugar would
yield eighty-eight parts of carbonic acid, and ninety-
two of alcohol ; the results of experiment confirm this
theoretical deduction :
f 4 atoms of carbonic acid, C 4 8
1 atom of dry grape J 2 atoms of alcohol, C 8 H 12 4
sugar, C 12 H 12 12 =
1. 1 atom of sugar, C 12 H 12 12
If the starting point be cane sugar C 12 H u O n , it
yields somewhat more than its weight of carbonic acid
and alcohol, inasmuch as it, in the first instance,
assumes an atom of water to form grape sugar ; but
if, on the other hand, common grape sugar C 12 H M 14
be taken, it affords less than its weight of carbonic
acid and alcohol, because it contains two atoms of
water in excess. Hence it is seen that one hundred
and seventy-one parts of cane sugar, produce one
hundred and eighty parts of carbonic acid and alcohol,
while one hundred and ninety-eight parts of common
grape sugar give the same results. It is also found
that a very small quantity of yeast is required to
excite the fermentation of grape sugar or glucose,
whereas cane sugar requires a much larger propor-
tion.
In the production of beer and wine, and in the case
of the fermentation of a solution of sugar, as just de-
scribed, the results, as relate to the production of alco-
hol, are the same ; the sugar is decomposed in conse-
quence of the presence of a ferment. When yeast is
used, its particles are seen to become covered with
small bubbles of carbonic acid, which cause them to
rise to the surface of the liquor, where they discharge
them, and as they again sink, they gradually acquire
a fresh coating of bubbles, which they carry up as
before; in this way, that intestine motion of the
whole menstruum is produced, so characteristic of
active fermentation. The process is also attended by a
considerable elevation of temperature, and when com-
plete, the liquor clarifies, the yeast precipitates, the
sugar has disappeared, and in its stead is found alcohol.
A trace of ammonia also makes its appearance.
These extraordinary changes can only be induced by
the action of yeast, or some analogous ferment. Its
modus operandi has been the subject of much experi-
ment and discussion, and involves some very curious
considerations.
MITSCHERLICH has proved that actual contact of the
particles of the yeast with the dissolved sugar is essen-
tial. He suspended a wide glass tube, the bottom of
which was made of bibulous paper, in a jar of a solu-
tion of sugar, the tube being itself filled with the same
solution. Some yeast was then put into the syrup
contained in the tube, where it soon induced fermenta-
tion, and the alcohol there formed passed through the
pervious bottom, and, together with carbonic acid,
diffused itself in the surrounding liquor ; but the real
phenomena of fermentation, namely, the destruction of
the sugar and the formation of alcohol and of carbonic
acid, were limited to the syrup in the tube containing
the ferment, and the sugar in the outer vessel remained
unchanged. Yeast which has been deprived of all
matter soluble in water, still retains its power of excit-
ing fermentation. The active part of yeast, or barm,
is composed of minute vesicles, containing globules,
and these germinate in the saccharine liquor, and pro-
duce a microscopic plant.
Few productions have created more interest, or excited
greater discussion among chemical philosophers, than
yeast, and its nature and mode of operation have been
the source of many an anxious and keen inquiry. These
points are now, however, to- a very great extent set at
rest ; its fungoid character is generally admitted, and
its action in inducing fermentation pretty well under-
stood.
Tn one part, however, the history of the yeast plant
is still incomplete, and this relates to its development.
Most observers admit that the yeast fungus, in the dif-
ferent forms of yeast in use, is in an incomplete state
of development, and many, influenced by this conviction,
have made attempts to discover the plant in its perfect
condition. Such was the motive which induced TURPIN,
in the ardour of scientific zeal, to spend a whole night in
a brewery, in order to trace out the successive steps in
the germination of the yeast plant; and although he
68
ALCOH01
-FERMENTATION.
has stated that he made out distinctly that the cells of
sporules became multiplied by budding, and that they
adhered in couples, and even in rows, according to the
time which had elapsed after the commencement of the
germination, yet, as will be presently seen, he failed to
discover the fungus in its .perfect form. Animated with
the like desire of discovering the true development of
this curious production, PEREIRA bestowed much time
and attention In its examination. He examined yeast
at Messrs. HANBURY and BUXTON'S brewery in London,
at various stages of the fermentation of both porter and
ale, from a few hours to many. In the more advanced
stages of fermentation, he observed that globules of yeast
were frequently in strings or TOWS, apparently forming
moniliform, often branched plants ; but as the cells were
very readily separable, he could not satisfy himself that
the adhesion was otherwise than mechanical, such as is
observed in the blood-discs, when they arrange them-
selves in series like money-rolls, and such as we some-
times perceive even in organic amorphous precipitates.
His experience agrees with SCHLOSSBERGER, who states
that he never could perceive a budding or bursting of
the yeast cells, accompanied by a discharge of their
contents, nor could he ever produce this by com-
pression.
These curious brachial and other adjustments of the
cells of yeast to each other, appeared to be the work of
chance ; it is, however, proper to add, that the artificial
rupture of the cells has been effected by MITSCHERLICH,
who also confirms TURPIN'S observation of the budding
of the yeast cells.
M. ROBIN, after describing the development of the
sporules by budding, remarks: Only this mode of
propagation of the vegetal is known : its fructification
in the air has not been seen, nor can it be seen, be-
cause it perishes at the part at which it is in contact
with the atmosphere, so that it cannot yet *be classed
amongst the fungi which fructify only in the air, nor
even among the algae, from which it is separated by
very many particulars, and which bear fruit under the
water.
Dr. HASSALL, another zealot in the same cause,
performed many diligent examinations of the yeast
plant, and succeeded in tracing it through all the stages
of its growth to its perfection. He classes the growth
into distinct stages, as follows :
First stage, or that of sporules. In this, the ordinary
state in which the yeast plant is met with, it consists
entirely of sporules; these are for the most part separate,
but sometimes feebly united in twos, threes, and even
in greater numbers; they vary in size and form, some
are several times smaller than others, and nearly all
contain one or two nuclei, which are the germs of future
sporules. Fig. 41 represents the yeast fungus in the
first stage of its growth.
Second stage, qr that of thallus. After the lapse of
some days, and \under favorable circumstances, the
sporules become much elongated ; a division or a parti-
tion appears in each, on which account it is formed
into two distinct cells; the extension still continuing,
other septa appear, until at length, jointed threads at
first simple and undivided, and afterwards jointed are
formed, and the plant now exists in the form of root-
like threads, or thallus. The yeast plant, in the state of
Fig. 41.
thallus, constitutes Mycoderma cerevisice of DESMA-
GIERES. See Fig. 42.
Third stage, or that of aerial fructification. After
Fig. 42.
the lapse of a further time, vertical threads spring up
from the thallus, Fig. 43 ; these, when the plant has
reached its complete development, become branched,
each branch bearing, at its extremity, a row of rounded
and beaded corpuscles, which are about the size of the
sporules, but differ from those bodies in then- darker
color and firmer texture. Occasionally, in the rows of
beaded corpuscles, one cell several times larger than
the rest is seen.
Such is a brief description of the development of the
yeast plant in its several stages.
From a consideration of the structure of the sporules
of the yeast plant, their evident fungoidal character
their rapid growth, et cetera, HASSALL concludes that
the reason why the true or aerial reproduction had
never been discovered, was to be found in the fact, that
ALCOH01
-FERMENTATION.
69
the yeast being used always in the state of sporules,
sufficient time was not allowed to it, under ordinary
circumstances, to attain its full development, for which
Fis. 43.
purpose, probably, many days would be required. To
prove the validity of this inference, he placed, in an
eight ounce bottle, a table-spoonful of malt, poured
over this about four ounces of hot water, and partially
closing the mouth with a perforated cork, set it aside
for a fortnight. At this time he found that the aerial
production had taken place, which other observers
failed to detect. Hence the German algologist, KURT-
ZING, is in error, in regarding it as a confervoid pro-
duction.
The plant, it appears, grows at the expense of the
sugar, giving out carbonic acid, and leaving alcohol.
The active part of yeast remaining after it has been
well washed with water, consists of
Mitscherlicb.
Carbon, 47-00
Hydrogen, 6-60
Oxygen, 35-80
Nitrogen, , 10-00
Sulphur, 0-60
100-00
It also contains a trace of phosphorus, and of fixed
bases. Of this yeast, from two to three parts are re-
quired for the decomposition of one hundred parts of
sugar ; and if there be an excess of sugar, it remains
unaltered after the fermentation.
That portion of the yeast which remains in the form
of a deposit, after fermentation is over, is inefficient as
a ferment. It appears, when examined under the
microscope, to consist of the ruptured cells, and is un-
susceptible of vegetation ; so that, during the fermenta-
tion of sugar, a certain portion of the yeast plant dies,
and is decomposed, the living plant being required to
sustain the fermentative process. If more yeast be
present than is required for the decomposition of a cer-
tain quantity of sugar, the deposit which is in that case
formed consists partly of broken and partly of entire
cells, and the latter retain their power of inducing fer-
mentation. It would further appear, that the portion
of the yeast which has become inert as a ferment, has
lost the greater part, if not the whole, of its nitrogen ;
and certainly, one of the results of the changes which
ensue during saccharine fermentation, appears to be the
formation of ammonia, which, though so small in quan-
tity as generally to elude observation, may be detected
amongst the gaseous products.
For the formation of yeast or ferment, the requisites
appear to be, the presence of sugar and of a nitrogenized
principle in aqueous solution, and the contact of air.
A solution of pure sugar undergoes no change, but the
addition to it of any proteiniferous compound, with the
access of air, induces fungous vegetation, and, with it,
fermentation. Grape sugar, and some form of protein,
are present in all sweet fruits, and their juices are
accordingly susceptible of fermentation, although, as
GAY-LUSSAC'S experiments have shown, they also
require the presence of oxygen. Grape juice carefully
preserved from the contact of air, as when expressed
in an atmosphere of hydrogen, or of carbonic acid,
may be kept for months without change ; yet, upon
the admission of a few bubbles of air, or of oxygen,
it presently begins to ferment, and when the process
has once commenced, it continues. It has, however,
been shown by SCHWANN, that a fermentable liquor,
namely, one containing sugar and a nitrogenized prin-
ciple, undergoes no change when the air which has
access to it has been previously passed through a red-
hot tube; URE and HELMHOLTZ have repeated the
experiments with similar results. Hence it has been
assumed that the germs or seeds of the fungi are pre-
sent in the atmosphere, and only await the requisite
conditions and food for their vegetation, which they
find in saccharine and other liquors; and that the
vitality of these germs is destroyed by a certain eleva-
tion of temperature. Yet in GAY-LUSSAC'S experiments,
a few bubbles of pure oxygen gas in which, from the
mode of its preparation, organic germs could not be
supposed to exist induced fermentation ; and he fur-
ther states, that on decomposing a portion of must
excluded from air, by the voltaic current, fermentation
ensued, apparently in consequence of the evolved oxy-
gen; but HELMHOLTZ could not obtain this result.
According to MITSCHERLICH, animalcules are also
concerned in the phenomena of fermentation. Thus, if
a little sugar be added to a liquor containing infusoria,
the animalcules increase rapidly, and ferment is at the
same time formed ; on adding more sugar the multipli-
cation of the animalcules ceases, but there is an increase
in the production of the ferment.
FOWNES remarks, It often becomes a matter of great
practical importance to have it in our power to excite
the vinous fermentation, under circumstances in which
ordinary yeast cannot be obtained. In making bread,
for example, although the use of yeast may be avoided
by employing what is called leaven, or dough which
has already become sour, and partly putrefied by spon-
taneous change a practice which has been followed
from the most remote antiquity, and is still occasionally
in use the bread so made is always to be distinguished
by a peculiar sour and nauseous taste and smell, and
can never bear comparison with that fermented by
yeast According to the above-cited chemist, yeast of
70
ALCOH01
-FERMENTATION.
the most unexceptionable quality can be artificially pro-
duced at will.
BERZELIUS states, that although the reproduction, as
it were, of yeast the conversion of a small into a large
quantity is a very easy thing, yet to produce that sub-
stance from the beginning is very difficult. He de-
scribes a process for this purpose, on the authority of
Dr. HENKY, and which consists in taking a strong
infusion of malt, saturating it with carbonic acid, and
then exposing it for some days to the proper fermenting
temperature ; when a small quantity of yeast is gradu-
ally formed and deposited, which may, by various con-
trivances, be made to give origin to a larger. Pre-
sently, the behavior of a malt infusion when left to
itself, at a temperature of 70 or 80 Fahr., for some
time, will be considered, from which it will be seen that
the addition of carbonic acid is wholly unnecessary.
Diastase, for instance, according to its peculiar condi-
tion, whether fresh from the germinated grain, slightly
putrefied, or in a still more advanced state of that
change, possesses the singular power, in the first case,
of changing starch into dextrin, and ultimately into
grape sugar ; in the second, of causing the conversion
of sugar into lactic acid ; and in the third and last, of
exciting the vinous fermentation.
Now, if common wheaten flour be mixed with water
to a thick paste, and exposed, slightly covered, to spon-
taneous change in a moderately warm place, it will be
observed to run through a series of metamorphoses
which seem very closely to resemble those in the case
of diastase.
About the third day of such exposure it begins to
emit a little gas, and to exhale an exceedingly disagree-
able sour odor, much like that of stale milk. After the
lapse of some time this smell disappears, or changes in
character, the gas evolved is greatly increased, and is
accompanied by a very distinct and somewhat agreeable
vinous odor ; this will happen about the sixth or seventh
day, and the substance is then hi a state to excite the
alcoholic fermentation.
A quantity of brewer's wort is next to be prepared in
the usual manner, by boiling extract of malt with hops,
and, when cooled to 90 or 100, the decomposed dough
before described, after being thoroughly mixed with a
little tepid water, is added to it, and the temperature
kept up by placing the vessel in a warm situation ;
after the lapse of a few hours, active fermentation com-
mences, abundance of carbonic acid, having its usual
agreeable pungent smell, is disengaged, and when the
action is complete and the liquid clear, a large quantity
of excellent yeast is found at the bottom, well adapted
for all purposes to which that substance is applied.
In one experiment the following materials were used :
A small handful of ordinary wheat flour was made into
thick paste with cold water, covered with paper, and
left seven days on the mantel-shelf of a room where a
fire was kept all day, being occasionally stirred. At
the end of that period three quarts of malt were mashed
with about two gallons of water, the infusion boiled
with the proper quantity of hops, and, when sufficiently
cooled, the ferment added. The results of the experiment
were, a quantity of beer not very strong, it is true,
but quite free from any unpleasant taste and at least
a pint of thick barm, which proved perfectly good for
making bread. When the yeast alone is the object to
which attention is directed, the hops may be omitted.
A moderately strong infusion of malt which has not
been boiled, when suffered to stand in a warm place
for some days, speedily becomes sour and turbid, and
begins to evolve gas ; this change rapidly progresses,
carbonic acid is given out plentifully, and a deposit of
thick, insoluble, whitish matter formed, which readily
excites fermentation in a dilute solution of sugar : the
supernatant liquid contains alcohol and traces of acetic
acid.
When wort which has been boiled and hopped is set
aside to decompose spontaneously, the change it under-
goes appears to depend very much upon its strength :
if weak, three or four days elapse before any action
is noticed ; a scum then collects upon the surface, and
a brown flocculent substance precipitates, which is
incapable of exciting fermentation in a solution of sugar,
while the liquid gives off a flat offensive smell. Should
the infusion experimented on be stronger, then the
action is different ; the liquid becomes turbid from the
separation of a yellowish adhesive substance, a good
deal of gas is very slowly emitted, alcohol is formed, and
the deposit at the bottom of the vessel proves a pretty
active ferment to sugar. The acidity of the liquid is
trifling, and its smell is somewhat disagreeable. These
differences in the behavior of boiled wort may also
depend upon the quantity of hops auded, which act as
an antacid, and upon the length of time during which
the ebullition had been continued.
The effect produced in a spontaneously fermentable
liquid by vegetal acids, or acid salts, such as cream
of tartar, is a curious subject of inquiry. From an
experiment made upon some wort, it appeared that
the result of such addition tends to the formation of
lactic acid. We know that when the juices of grapes,
currants, and gooseberries, are exposed to the air, the
vinous fermentation commences apparently at once ;
whereas, in an unboiled infusion of malt, which is des-
titute of these substances, lactic acid seems to be first
formed, although ultimately the two fermentations pro-
ceed collaterally. It has been stated, when speaking
of the spontaneous decomposition of wheaten dough,
that an acid state preceded that hi which it became
an alcoholic ferment ; if, in this condition, it be mixed
with a dilute solution of common sugar, and the whole
be kept warm for several days, it furnishes a sour liquid
which is rich in lactic acid, and which gives with zinc
a white crystallized lactate of this metal. There is a
tendency in the liquid to run into the alcoholic fermen-
tation, and to produce vinegar by a subsequent change ;
but still the Quantity of lactic acid so formed is very
considerable.
Common wheat-gluten, then, in its mode of de-
composition strikingly resembles diastase ; . like that
substance it runs through two different dynamic con-
ditions. It is successively a lactic acid and an alco-
hol ferment. Is it too much to expect that it might,
by proper means, be detected in a third condition,
namely, as a sugar ferment, like diastase itself in the
state in which it exists in malt ? Is it not possible that
diastase, as a definite proximate principle, has no more
ALCOHOL DISTILLATION.
71
existence than yeast ; that its powers are purely dyna-
mic, and that it is, in short, nothing more than the
gluten of the seed in one of its earliest stages of decom-
position ? This is an interesting inquiry, but its prose-
cution will be somewhat difficult, owing to the rapidity
with which these changes follow each other. It must
be remembered that no one has yet succeeded in getting
diastase in a state fit for analysis. Having several times
alluded to this substance, the Editor appends the fol-
lowing particulars with regard to it.
PAYEN and PERSOZ were the first to obtain diastase
from barley malt. It may be procured from brewers'
malt, but in greater quantity from germinated bar-
ley, carefully prepared for the purpose, in which the
germ has been allowed to attain about the length of the
seed. The malt is pulverized, and macerated in, or
triturated for a few minutes with water, at the tem-
perature of 70 or 80. The pasty mixture is then
strongly pressed, and the turbid liquor, which runs from
it, filtered : the filtrate is then heated in a water-bath
to about 170, at which temperature the greater part of
the foreign nitrogenized matter coagulates, and may be
separated by filtration ; the clear filtrate retains the dias-
tase, and may be used for many purposes. Other bodies
besides the diastase are also contained in the liquor,
but they may, to a great extent, be separated by the
addition of anhydrous alcohol, which forms a flocculent
precipitate of diastase insoluble in that liquid. It should
be collected and carefully dried at a low temperature ;
for, when heated in a moist state above 190, its pro-
perties are materially altered. It may be further puri-
fied by a second solution in water, and precipitation by
alcohol ; if the solutions are brown, animal charcoal will
decolor them.
Diastase may also be obtained without the aid of
heat, but the process requires caution. The operation
consists in triturating the finely-ground malt as before
with a little water, pressing out the liquor, and carefully
adding a little alcohol, so as to coagulate its albumi-
nous contents without precipitating the diastase; the
solution is then filtered, and the diastase separated by
the further addition of strong alcohol. It may be purified
by a second aqueous solution and alcoholic precipita-
tion, and should be dried at a temperature not exceed-
ing 100, or in vacuo over sulphuric acid. Diastase is
white, soluble in water and in dilute alcohol, but insol-
iible in strong alcohol. Its aqueous solution is taste-
less, and soon becomes sour and decomposed. Its effect
upon starch is entirely destroyed by boiling. It con-
tains nitrogen ; its ultimate composition, however, has
not been accurately determined. "
Although diastase thus prepared cannot be regarded
as a perfectly pure substance, it nevertheless possesses
a remarkable power of converting starch into dextrin
and glucose to such an extent, indeed, that one part
of it is capable of modifying two thousand parts of
starch.
The conversion of starch into glucose is slow ; but
its transformation into dextrin takes place rapidly, and
becomes*at once perceptible. If the reader will intro-
duce a tepid infusion of malt diastase into a vessel
filled with starch paste, the temperature of which is
kept, as nearly as possible, at 160, he will find that in
a few minutes the change becomes manifest by the
liquefaction of the mass. Now, if portions of the liquid
be tested from time to time with iodine solution, which
produces a blue coloration as long as any starch is pre-
sent, it will be found that the intensity of the hue is
quickly diminished, and that soon a point is reached
when the complete cessation of any tinge indicates the
total transmutation of the starch into dextrin; the
transition of the latter into glucose is not accomplished
under several hours. The mode in which diastase
operates upon the starch is not known. We are at
present only cognizant of the fact ; but this fact is of
great importance in a practical as well as a theoretical
point of view. As science progresses, these recondite
processes will have more light thrown upon them.
DISTILLATION. The chief object of importance in
this stage is the still ; and no other article of manufactur-
ing apparatus has undergone so much alteration. What-
ever form or construction may be given to it, the philo-
sophy of distilling rests upon the different degrees of
volatility of the bodies subjected to the operation. By
attention to this principle, several bodies of varied den-
sities may be separated, if suitable means are adopted.
It was known to the earliest alchemists that the more
volatile a body, the less heat is required to convert it
into vapor ; and vice versd, the temperature at which
that body is liquefied is lower than what is required
to effect the resolution of a liquid which boils at a
higher temperature. By transmitting the vapor of
these liquids simultaneously through a good condensing
medium, the temperature of which is lower than the
boiling point of the heavier, but not so low as the point
at which the lighter boils, it becomes evident that the
vapor of the heavier liquid will be condensed, while the
other loses nothing of its acquired expansion. This is
beautifully illustrated by the subject under considera-
tion. The temperature at which water boils is uni-
versally known to be 212 ; alcohol boils at 176 Falir.
If a mixture of these two liquids be introduced into
a retort or still, the mixture will boil at an interme-
diate temperature, proportionate to the quantity of
each liquid present ; but the alcohol being the lighter
is driven over in larger quantity at first, carrying with
it some aqueous vapor : as the boiling continues more
water is given off, until, at the end of the operation,
nothing passes over but steam. When the mixed vapors
are conducted through a tube placed in water below
212, and not so low as the boiling point of the mixed
liquid, the water is condensed, and the alcoholic vapor
remains unaffected, till the temperature of the refrigera-
tor is lower than 176. The same thing happens in
distillation with the ordinary apparatus. In the first and
second volutions of the worm in the condensing tube,
the aqueous portion is more or less condensed, and the
spirit retains its acquired elasticity, till it traverses the
worm to where the temperature is below its boiling
point; then it becomes liquid. It was a great desidera-
tum in the days of the early distillers to obtain a con-
centrated spirit, as at those times only the common
still and worm were in operation, and the whole of
the water eliminated with the alcoholic vapors was
found iu the receiver. By repeated distillations of
the first products, a pretty concentrated spirit could be
72
ALCOHOL DISTILLATION.
obtained ; but this was effected at a loss of time, fuel,
and alcohol.
To arrest the formation of acetic acid, as soon as
the attenuation of the wort has reached its lowest
point it is run into the still with as little delay as
possible. According to the old methods, the wash is
distilled in two large retorts or stills, each of about
six to twelve hundred gallons capacity, suited to the
size of the factory. The retorts are provided with a
rotatory chain apparatus for preventing the lies from
adhering to the bottom of the still, which, unless pre-
vented, would deposit and become charred from the
heat, and communicate a disagreeable taste to the
spirit.
Previous to distillation, about one pound of soap is
added to every hundred gallons of the wash. When
the charge of wash is eight thousand gallons, the dis-
tillation is carried on as speedily as possible, without
risk of it running foul till about two thousand four hun-
dred gallons are drawn off. These constitute the low
wines, or singlings, and are very weak, not averaging
above 63 below proof on Dicas' hydrometer. The
remainder of the spiritous product of the eight thousand
gallons is received in another vessel for a further dis-
tillation. The singlings are redistilled, or doubled, in
the second still, and the spirit drawn off till it begins to
acquire a disagreeable taste and smell these are what
constitute the faints, and owe their peculiarity to an
essential oil which is held in solution. The faints are
collected in the faints-back, and mixed with the muddy
part of the first distillation, water is added, and the
whole redistilled. Very weak singlings are obtained,
which, upon a second distillation, afford finished spirit.
Some distillers continue the first distillation as long
as any alcohol comes over, and then subject the low
wines to a second distillation in the spirit still. The
first portions are more or less blue or muddy, and con-
sequently are run into the faints-back. As soon as
the spirit becomes clear, and devoid of a disagreeable
odor, it is run into the spirit-back. The quantity of the
spirit obtained in well-regulated distilleries, amounts to
about three-fourths or even four-fifths of the low wines
operated upon ; faints are drawn over at the end of the
distillation, and are turned into the faints-back, to-
gether with the first portions. These faints are mixed,
as before stated, with a considerable quantity of water,
and distilled, in order to free them from the disagree-
able oil eviscerated by the husks of the grain.
A self-regulating bath is, in some distilleries, put in
the capital of the still. The common Scotch stills have
the capital fifteen to twenty feet high, to prevent the
wash from boiling over into the worm ; it is customary
to strike the capital from time to time with a rod, and
from the sound emitted, it is inferred whether it be
empty, partially filled, or in danger of an overflow ; in
the latter case the fire is withdrawn, or damped by
means of a spout near the furnace-door, and which is
supplied with water from a cistern in the upper part of
the building. When a very pure spirit is required, it is
customary to dilute the liquor with water and submit it
to a third distillation, in order that the distillate may
not have the harsh taste of strong alcoholic; liquids. In
the Improved stills, a liquid sixty per cent, pver proof is
obtained, even in the first distillation, and at a con-
siderable saving of fuel, time, and labor, while the use
of soap, et cetera, is unnecessary.
The usual yield of proof spirit from malt is between
two and two and a half gallons per bushel. The
largest amount of spirit procured from one quarter
of corn is twenty gallons. As a general rule, the lower
the heat at which the distillation is carried on, the
purer will be the spirit. When an excess of soap has
been used, and the distillation urged too rapidly, the
distillate often possesses a saponaceous flavor, which
ia occasioned by its fatty particles being carried
over mechanically in the vapor, and dissolved in the
alcoholic liquid. The manner in which the soap acts
to prevent the charge running foul, is as follows:
During fermentation, and subsequent transference of
the wort into the still, small portions of acetic acid are
generated, which decompose part of the soap, setting
free the oily compound which rises to the surface of the
liquor, and breaks the bubbles of vapor as they ascend
through it from the bottom of the retort; hence the
liquid cannot pass over unless the boiling be violently
urged.
The average quantity of spirit obtained by the Irish
distillers from a barrel of malt twelve stones is eight
and a half gallons, Irish measure, or six gallons five
pints and one and a half noggins, imperial measure,
of twenty-four per cent, over proof by Dicas' scale.
Donovan.
Dr. URE performed several experiments, at the re-
quest of the Board Of Excise, for the purpose of decid-
ing a discussion which had taken place in Ireland,
relative to the extent to which raw grain could be fer-
mented ; the most decisive of his results is the following :
Three bushels of mixed grains were taken, consisting
of two of barley, one-half of oats, and one-half of malt,
which, being coarsely ground by a handmill, were
mashed in a new tun with twenty-four gallons of water
at 155. The mash liquor drawn off amounted to
eighteen gallons, at the density of T0465; temperature
of 82 Fahr. Being set in a new tun, it began to fer-
ment in the course of twelve hours, and in four days it
was attenuated down to gravity 1*012. This yielded,
upon distillation, in low wines, 3'22 gallons, and by
rectification, in spirits, 3'05, while the quantity equi-
valent to the attenuation by the tables was 3'31 ; being
an excellent accordance in such circumstances.
The inquisitorial system imposed by law upon out 1
distilleries might lead a stranger to imagine that our
legislators were desirous of repressing, by every species
of annoyance, the fabrication of the fiery liquid which
infuriates and demoralizes the lower population of these
islands. But, alas ! credit can be given them for no
such moral or philanthropic motive. The necessity of
the Exchequer to raise a great revenue, created by the
wasteful expenditure of the state, on the one hand, and
the efforts of fraudulent ingenuity, on the other, to
evade the payment of the high duties imposed, are the
true origin of that system. Ure,
Examinations in distilleries are constantly being made
by the officers of Excise. The first survey is at six
o'clock in the morning, when the officers take their
accounts and gag'as, and make calculations which occupy
several hours ; the second is at ten o'clock, when they
inspect the whole premises, occupying a considerable
time, frequently staying till the succeeding officer comes
on duty ; the third takes place at two in the afternoon ;
and the fourth, at six in the evening. At ten, an officer
who has not been engaged in any of the previous ex-
aminations, makes his appearance, and prolongs his visit
till six the next morning. In addition to these regular
inspections, the distilleries are subject to frequent and
uncertain visits of the surveyor and his general.
Before the fermented wort goes into the still, a cal-
culation is made of the quantity of wash drawn from the
wash-back, and which is first pumped into what is called
the wash-charger. If the liquor in the charger exceeds
the quantity in the hack, the distiller has to pay on
the higher amount ; if it contain less, he must pay ac-
cording to the wash-back, as being the larger quantity.
When all the wash is transferred to the charger, its
exit tap is unlocked, and the wash is allowed to be
drawn off into the still ; the charging and discharging
tap of the still being fastened by the officers, there
can be no transfer of wash but through the pumps.
The first distillation from the wash is worked into the
low-wine receiver, and the strength and quantity are
ascertained by the Excise officer. The account of the
low-wine affords a comparison with the quantity which
the contents of the wash-back had been estimated to
produce. This is then pumped from the receiver into
the low- wine charger, and after the officer has per-
formed his duty, it is permitted to be drawn off into
the low-wine still, which is a distillation of the second
extraction ; the low-wine still then works into another
cask, called the spirit-receiver ; when that distillation
is finished, the officer, reattending on regular notice for
that purpose, takes the quantity and strength of the
spirit therein, and upon the quantity so ascertained
he charges the duty. If it happens that the actual
quantity of spirit, after the distillation, differs from
the hypothetical quantity ascertained by previous
calculations, he gives to the Government the benefit
of the doubt, and levies duty on the higher quantity,
whichsoever that may be. The mode in which this
double system of computation is likely to check im-
provements, forms a delicate subject, and there-
fore will not be further discussed. In distilling low
wines, one portion of them goes into the spirit, and
another into the faints-receiver; these faints are, in
the next distillation, united with the low- wjnes from
the succeeding wash-back, and are worked together;
the united produce goes partly into the spirit-cask,
and partly back into the faints-cask. The operation
is thus continued till all the backs are emptied. All
these backs, chargers, receivers, el cetera, are secured
by locks, the keys of which are kept by the Excise
officer.
The still has been in use from a very remote period;
but those in operation at present are quite different
from the ones of former days. Changes in the construc-
tion of the still are chiefly the result of the onward
course of science, and the increased requirements of
the age.
Fig. 44 is a drawing of the common still : A is the
body incased in brickwork, D, and directly over the fire ;
VOL. I.
c, the head attached to the condensing-worm, E, placed
in the water-tub, F, where the vapor is condensed to
a liquid which flows into a receiver at K. The still is
Fig. 44
of variable dimensions, from ten to five hundred gallons.
This form of apparatus had been in use for a consider-
able period. WOULFE, having the principle of GLAU-
BER'S apparatus in view, was the first to apply the facts
already cited, for obtaining strong spirit, and various
other products of distillation.
This apparatus bears the name of the inventor to the
present day. It is shown in Fig. 45, and consists ot
a series of bottles, placed in range. Each of these
Fig.45.
bottles has three openings or necks; the first bottle
is connected with the beak of the still by a pipe or
tube, which passes through the neck, a, to within an
inch or two of the bottom. A safety-tube is intro-
duced through the neck, b, and dips into the liquid
in the oottle. The bottle, A, communicates with the
bottle, B, by means of a pipe or tube, c, bent at right
angles ; in the first it opens a little below the cork, but
in the second it passes nearly to the bottom. The
second is joined in a similar way to a tliird and fourth
bottle, if required. This apparatus is in daily request
in the laboratory, for the purpose of obtaining aqueous
solutions of gaseous bodies. It was from it that M.
EDOUARD ADAM conceived the idea of his complex
still ; and the same principle is to be observed in all
the various modifications of stills constructed in the
beginning of the present century, the most important
of which will be described.
In this kingdom, the modifications in the construction
74
ALCOH01
-DISTILLATION.
of stills have been various. Previous to the year 1788,
the old form of still was in general use. From the slow-
ness of the distillation, a week elapsed before a charge
was completely worked off, and even then the pro-
ducts were very dilute. At this period the Excise duty
levied was according to the size of the still, and no fur-
ther trouble was taken by the officers as to how the
worts were made, except that they visited the distilleries
occasionally, to observe if any other stills were in opera-
tion, or if larger ones were substituted for those which
had been already gaged. About the above period an
important revolution took place in the construction of
this apparatus by a firm in Leith, by which the distil-
lation was very much expedited. They lessened the
height and increased the width of the still, to expose
a larger surface to the action of the fire than could
be done in the old form; the head of the still was
enlarged in proportion to the quantity of vapor gener-
ated, and occasionally several outlets or pipes were
inserted around the horizontal upper part, to facilitate
the escape of the steam and alcoholic vapor into the
condensing worm. This still could be charged, distilled
off, and be ready for another operation, in the course of
a few hours, instead of a week as before with the com-
mon still. Though the inventors preserved to them-
selves its exclusive use for about twelve months, yet
such an important discovery could not escape the vigi-
lance of competing neighbors, and hence it shortly after-
wards became general in Scotland. The Excise, until
they became apprised of the fact, were outwitted, the
distillers, as might be expected, pocketing the duty
which they otherwise should have paid for the excess
of spirits distilled above the ordinary allowance to which
the former method of gaging subjected them. The
Excise duty, however, was soon altered, and year after
year it increased; but the distillers, constantly upon
the alert, were enabled to hoodwink the overseers
appointed by Parliament, which was driven to the
Fig. 46.
necessity of nominating 1 a committee, in 1799, to in-
vestigate this branch of the Excise laws, and which
furnished a lengthy report of the facts concerning
the modes of distillation in Scotland. In consequence
of this report the distillers were subjected to an Ex-
cise duty according to the capacity of the still, and
on the supposition that it would be worked off and
charged every eight successive minutes during the dis-
tilling season. Even this time was considerably short-
ened by the distiller ; still, the amount of fuel consumed,
and the consequent wear and tear, left it a matter of
doubt whether they were gainers by it. The rapidity
of this method was carried so far, that, in 1815, the
last year of the license duty, a still of eighty gallons
capacity could be distilled off, emptied, and be ready for
a successive operation in three and a half minutes,
sometimes in three minutes ! A still of forty gal-
lons could be drawn off in two and a half minutes.
An alteration in the Excise laws at this time did away
with the license duty, and the law became the same
as in England, of levying duty upon the wash and spirits
procured therefrom, which dispensed with the rapid
mode.
In the meantime, the stills were constructed on the
plan of those in use during the period of rapid distil-
lation, namely, by having the bottoms wider than the
English stills, in proportion to their size.
From the interest which, at one time, was attached
to the Scotch still, on account of the ingenuity displayed
by the inventors, and its being a source of much inves-
tigation to the Government committees, it may not be
out of place to gratify the curiosity of the reader by
introducing to his notice a drawing and brief description
of the apparatus. As the general principles of the
nature of the still have been already given, a recurrence
to them is unnecessary.
The subjoined Figs., 46 and 46 a , represent a sectional
and front view of the Scotch still, at the period when
Fig. 46a.
rapid distillation was popular amongst spirit manufac-
turers. E E is the body of the still, the bottom of
which is about sixteen feet in diameter, and convex
towards the middle ; the depth of the still at the centre
is about eleven feet, and the sides and bottom meet at
an acute angle at the verge. The hollow bottom of
the still is connected with the shoulder, B, by solder,
or rivets, but in so firm a manner that the connec-
tion is air-tight ; c, a rim, which serves to support the
still, as likewise to protect it from the action of the
ALCOHOl
-DISTILLATION.
75
fire. D is the discharging pipe, seen in the front view
of the apparatus, but concealed in the section. In
the shoulder of the still are several elliptical open-
ings, to which are attached oblique conical tubes,
that enter a cylinder which rises from the centre of
the boiler ; G is a vertical section of one of the pipes,
which are soldered or connected at the bottom to the
opening in the shoulder of the still ; and F, a section
of the central column ; H is an exterior view of another
of the side pipes ; 1 1 1 1 are lower openings of four others
of these, and KK the top openings in the central
column ; L, an agitator within the still, to keep the bot-
tom free from sedimentary matters, a chain agitator
was sometimes substituted, which, with a little altera-
tion, was found to work much better; M, a vertical axis
of the agitator, to which a horizontal toothed wheel, N,
is attached; o is another such cogged wheel, but verti-
cal, gearing into the wheel, N, so as to communicate its
motion to the latter when required ; P, a handle fixed
upon the axis of the wheel, o, by which it is turned ; w,
support of handle and axis ; R, a fan to break the froth
formed by boiling ; its axis rests upon the cross-bar, S.
Motion is given to the fan by the vertical axis, T ; this
axis enters the large pipe that carries off the vapors,
through a packed box, x, which is impervious to the
escape of any steam or vapor ; a similar box surrounds
the axis of the wheel, O ; v is the pipe communicating
with the condensing- worm, and through which the vapors
escape to be condensed. The funnel pipe, o, shown in
the perspective view, serves to charge the still, and Y
is the cover of the central column, which is held in its
proper position by chains, as seen at z.
An adaptation of this still, by Sir ANTHONY PERKIER
of Cork, is shown in Fig. 47, in which the liquid to be
Fig. 47.
distilled is made to flow gradually and continuously over
the heated surface of the boiler, while it parts with its
alcohol. The bottom of the boiler is divided by con-
centric partitions, which stand up sufficiently high to
prevent the liquid from boiling over ; these partitions
have openings from one to another at opposite sides, so
as to make the course a sort of labyrinth, a is the
reservoir of liquor prepared for operation ; 6, a pipe
descending from this reservoir, which conducts the
liquor into the boiler at c, the commencement of the
labyrinth, in flowing through which it progressively
traverses the whole surface of the bottom, so that
the full effect of the fire is exerted upon small portions
of the liquid. This causes the evaporation to proceed
with great celerity, and when the liquid has reached
the discharge-pipe at the opposite side, it retains no
spirit. The series of chains suspended from the bars, e e,
which are supported by the central shaft, prevent the
deposit of mucus and albuminous matters on the bot-
tom of the still. A toothed wheel and pinion com-
municate motion to the bars, ee, through the shaft,
and the chains sweep the compartments between the
partitions as they turn round.
The first step towards obtaining the products of dis-
tillation in a concentrated state by a novel arrangement
of the still, or rather condensing apparatus, was taken
by Mr. COFFEY of Dublin. In all the preceding stills,
although the rapidity of distillation had reached the
acme" of perfection, yet the great disadvantage of having
the aqueous and alcoholic portions of the distillate
mixed up, remained ; and only by great trouble and re-
peated distillations and changing of receivers, a strong
spirit could be obtained. COFFEY'S method was to
insert two pipes in the first and second rounds of the
condensing worm, wlu'ch pipes were in communication
with the body of the still. This simple contrivance
insured considerable advantage, as a great portion of
the aqueous vapors eliminated from the boiling liquid
in the still, was removed from the alcoholic portion by
being condensed in the first convolutions, and returned
to the still instead of flowing into the receiver with the
spirit.
Subsequently, Mr. COFFEY patented another still,
which has proved most serviceable to the distiller, as
it gives, in continuous distillation, the strongest spirit
that can be obtained on the large scale. Fig. 48 is a
section of this still. The body of the apparatus consists
of an oblong vessel, B, and two columns erected there-
on, C D E F and G H i K. The first of these columns is
called the analyzer, the second the rectifier. The
whole is made of wood, lined with copper, and the
wood being five or six inches thick, little or no heat is
lost by radiation. The oblong vessel has a copper plate
or diaphragm, c d, across the middle of it, which divides
it into two chambers, B'B". This diaphragm is perfo-
rated with a great number of small holes, for the passage
of the vapor upwards during the process, and it is also
furnished with several valves, which open upwards, as
shown at eeee, whenever the vapor is in such quantity
as not to find a free passage through the perforations.
A pipe, v v, descends from this diaphragm nearly to the
bottom of the lower chamber, into a pan forming a
steam trap ; and there is a valve on the top of this pipe,
which can be opened or shut at pleasure, by means of
a rod, t, passing through a stuffing-box on the top of the
vessel. Glass tubes, at x x, show at ah 1 times the level
of the liquor in the chambers, B' v". The column,
C D E F, which is called the analyzer, consists of twelve
chambers, ffff, formed by the interposition of eleven
copper diaphragms, h, gh, et cetera, similar to the large
diaphragm, cd ; that is to say, these eleven diaphragms
are perforated with very numerous holes, and furnished
with valves, oooo, opening upwards. To each of
them is also attached a dropping pipe, p, by which the
liquor is allowed to flow from plate to plate ; the upper
end of each of those pipes projects an inch or two above
the plate in which it is inserted, so as to retain, at all
76
ALCOHOI
-DISTILLATION.
times, during the distillation, a stratum of wash of that
depth at each diaphragm The lower end of each pipe
dips a little way into a shallow pan lying on the dia-
phragm underneath, forming thus a steam trap, by
Fig. 48.
which the escape of vapor through the pipe is pre-
vented. The pipes are inserted at alternate ends of the
diaphragm, as shown in the figure.
The column, G H I K, is divided, in a similar manner
to that just described, into chambers, by interposed
copper plates or diaphragms. There are fifteen cham-
bers in this column ; the lowermost ten, Ickk, et cetera,
constitute the rectifier, and its diaphragms are perfo-
rated, and furnished with valves and dropping pipes,
precisely similar to those of the analyzer. The upper-
most five of these frames form the finished spirit con-
denser, and are separated from the other ten by a copper
sheet or diaphragm, without small perforations, but
having a large opening at w, for the passage of spirit-
ous vapor, and a dropping pipe at *. There is a neck
about the opening, w, rising an inch or so above the
surface of the diaphragm, which prevents the return of
any finished spirit by that opening. Under the drop-
ping pipe, *, is a pan much deeper than those of the
other dropping pipes, and from this pan a brancli pipe,
y, passes out of the apparatus, and carries the con-
densed, but still very hot spirits, to a worm, or other
refrigerator, wherein they are cooled. The chambers,
v v v v v, of this finished spirit condenser, are formed
of plain unperforated diaphragms of copper, with alter-
nate openings at the ends, large enough both for the
passage of the vapor upwards, and of the condensed
spirit downwards ; the use of these diaphragms being
merely to cause the vapor to pass along the pipe, m m,
in a zig-zag direction, and to be thus more perfectly
exposed to its condensing surface.
In every chamber, both of the finished spirit con-
denser and of the rectifier, thers is a set of zig-zag pipes,
placed as shown in the plan, Fig. 49. Each set of
these pipes is connected with the others by the bends,
1 1 II, thus forming one continued pipe, m m, leading
from the wash pump, Q, to the bottom of the rectifier,
whence it finally passes out, and rising up, enters
the top chamber of the analyzer, where it discharges
itself at '. M is the wash
charger; L, a smaller wash Fig. 49.
vessel connected with it, and
with the wash pump. This 5 !
vessel is called the wash re-
servoir, and is not, strictly
speaking, a necessary part of
the apparatus ; its use is to
retain a sufficient reserve of
wash, to prevent the appara-
tus being idle during the delay,
which the Excise regulations
render unavoidable, between the emptying of the wash
charger and the refilling it from a new back.
The pump, Q, is worked continuously during the dis-
tillation, so as to supply the apparatus with a regular
stream of wash. It is so constructed as to be capable
of furnishing somewhat more than is necessary, and
there is a pipe, , with stopcock, by which part of
what is pumped up may be allowed to run back, and
the supply sent into the apparatus regulated.
A is a steam-boiler, having nothing peculiar in its
construction. The steam from it is conveyed into the
bottom of the spent wash receiver by the pipe, bb, which,
after entering the receiver, branches into a number of
smaller pipes, perforated with holes, by which the steam
is dispersed through every part of the wash in which
they are immersed. These perforated pipes are not
shown in the drawing.
Mode of Action. When commencing an operation,
the wash pump is set in motion, to charge all the zig-
zag pipes, mmm, until the wash passes over into the
analyzers at '. The pump is then stopped, and the
steam let into the bottom of the apparatus by the pipe,
b b. The steam passes up through the chambers, B" B',
ALCOHOJ
-DISTILLATION.
77
and by the pipe, z, into the analyzers, whence it de-
scends, through i, to- the bottom of the rectifier at N.
It then rises through the chambers, Ic Jc, enveloping the
zig-zag pipes, and rapidly heating the wash contained in
them. When the attendant perceives, by feeling the
bends, III, that the wash has been heated in several
layers of these pipes, perhaps eight or ten layers but
the number is not of much moment he again sets the
pump to work, and the wash, now boiling hot, or nearly
so and always in rapid motion flows from the pipe
m at n', and passes down from chamber to chamber
through the dropping pipes, in the direction shown by
the arrows in a few of the upper chambers. It may be
here observed that no portion of the wash passes through
the small holes perforated in the diaphragms which
separate the chambers. These holes are regulated, both
in number and size, so as not to be more than sufficient
to afford a passage for the vapors upwards, under some
pressure. The holes, therefore, afford no outlet for the
liquor, which can only find its way down in the zig-zag
course indicated-by the arrows. It is therefore obvious,
that the wash, as it passes down, is spread into strata as
many times as there are diaphragms, and is thus exposed
to the most searching action of the steam constantly
blowing up through it. As it falls from chamber to
chamber, its alcohol is volatilized by the steam passing
upwards ; and by the time the wash has reached the
large chamber, B, no trace of the spirit remains. The
wash, as it descends from the analyzer, accumulates in
the large chamber, B', until it becomes nearly filled,
which, when perceived to be the case, by the inspec-
tion of the glass tube, the attendant opens the valve
of the pipe, v, and discharges the contents of B' into
the lower compartment; then shutting the valve, the
wash from the analyzer again accumulates in B', and,
when it is nearly full, the contents of the lower chamber
are discharged from the apparatus altogether, through
the cock, N', and the charge in B' let down by opening
the valve, v, as before ; thus the process goes on so
long as there is any wash to supply the pump.
When all the wash is gone, a quantity of water is let
into the reservoir, L, and pumped through the pipes,
m m, to finish the process, and obtain the last portions
of alcohol. This winding up of the operation by send-
ing water through the pipes, takes place on the distilla-
tion of every back of wash, in consequence of the Excise
regulation, which requires the distiller to keep the pro-
duce of each back separate from that of any other.
Were it not for this regulation, the distillation would go
on uninterruptedly, so long as there was any wash in
stock ; the addition of water for winding up would be
necessary but once during the distilling period, and the
manufacturer would save much time and fuel at present
wasted by these interruptions.
It has been already said, that in the ordinary course
of the operation, the wash is stripped of all its alcohol
by the time ft has reached the bottom of the analyzer ;
but, as a precautionary measure, the chambers, B' B",
have been superadded, in each of which the spent wash
is exposed for about half an hour to the action of the
steam blowing through it. There is a small apparatus
not shown hi the engraving by which a portion of
the steam in the chamber, B", is condensed, cooled, and
made to flow constantly through a sample jar, in which
is an hydrometer, or, what is better, two glass bulbs,
one of the spec. grav. 1-00, and the other, 998. The
attendant knows all is right when the lighter of these
bulbs floats hi the sample ; hence the chamber, B, may
be emptied without any risk of loss.
The course of the wash being understood, that of
the steam will require very little description.
The steam, as it rises, is first blown through the
charges of spent wash in the lower chamber of B, thence
it passes up through the layers of wash on the eleven
diaphragms of the analyzer. In its course it abstracts
from these layers of wash, their alcohol, depositing in
its place an equivalent of water. After traversing
the whole of the analyzer, the vapor, now containing
much alcohol, passes, by the pipe, i, into the bottom
of the rectifier, and, as it ascends, it envelopes the pipes
m m, heating the wash, and simultaneously parting with
its more watery portion, which is condensed, and falls,
in a state of ebullition, on the several diaphragms of the
rectifier. By the time the vapor reaches the passage,
w, in the bottom of the finished spirit condenser, it is
nearly pure alcohol ; and as it is condensed by the wash
in the pipes, and falls on the diaphragm, it is conveyed
away by the pipe, y, to a refrigerator. At the top of
the spirit condenser is a large pipe, R, which serves as
a vent for the incondensable gas which is disengaged in
the process, and this pipe also communicates with the
refrigerator, so that, should vapor at any time be suffi-
cient to pass out of the apparatus, no loss is sustained
beyond the waste of fuel caused by condensing that
vapor by the water of the refrigerator, instead of the
wash of the condenser.
The liquor formed on the several diaphragms of the
rectifier, after the vapor, passing up from plate to plate,
has blown through it, descends to the bottom in the
same manner as the wash falls from chamber to cham-
ber in the analyzer : but this condensed liquor still con-
tains a portion of alcohol, and it is conveyed by the
pipe, s, to the pump, Q, by which it is raised up with
the wash, to be again distilled.
A thermometer at m' shows the attendant the tem-
perature of the wash as it issues from the pipe, m m,
into the analyzer, which is the only guide he requires
for managing the operation ; for, when the temperature
is what it should be, nothing can go wrong in the work.
Whenever the thermometer indicates too high a tem-
perature, more wash should be let into the apparatus,
and vice versd the quantity being regulated by the
tap and the pipe, n. It would seem, however, that
very little nicety is requisite on this point. Experience
has proved, that the fluctuation of a few degrees above
or below the proper heat is of little consequence, and
that it is very seldom found necessary to alter the sup-
ply of wash.
The water for supplying the boiler passes through a
long coil of pipe immersed in boiling-hot spent wash, by
which means it is raised to a high temperature before it
reaches the boiler. It will be seen that the vapor
passing through this apparatus is all condensed by the
wash, not water ; and, therefore, no heat is wasted, as
in the common process. The consequence of this is,
that about three-fourths of the fuel used with the com-
78
ALCOH01
-DISTILLATION.
mon stills are saved, a matter of very important consi-
deration in a national point of view.
According to the common process, it requires twelve
pounds of coal to distil a gallon of proof spirits when
coals of a superior quality are employed, and the stills are
scientifically constructed, less will suffice of which, as
has been said, nine pounds are saved by the new system ;
and assuming the whole quantity of spirits distilled in
the empire to be thirty-six million gallons, which
colonies included is not over the mark, the saving of
fuel arising from the new methods of distilling, which,
no doubt, will be soon universally adopted, will amount
to one hundred and forty thousand tons of coal per
annum.
Very few persons have any idea of the enormous
size of some of the distilleries in the United Kingdom.
One of Mr. COFFEY'S stills, at Inverkeithing, works off
two thousand gallons of wash per hour, and one which
the inventor has subsequently erected at Leith, for the
same proprietors, upwards of three thousand gallons.
There are several of equal magnitude, and it is stated
that those now at work, or being erected, are capable
of distilling half a million gallons of wash per day this
wash yielding, on an average, from eleven to twelve
per cent, of proof spirit.
The great difficulties distillers in general had formerly
to contend with, are no longer encountered, as the
advancement of science necessarily improves every
branch of industry. No one can observe the difference
of the condensation of aqueous and alcoholic vapors,
and look at the various apparatus of the present time,
without coming to the conclusion, that chemistry, in
particular, has conferred very great improvements in
distillation.
The continental savans were the first to offer im-
proved forms of stills. Relative to the distillation
or production of ardent spirits, the improvements
are principally of two kinds : firstly, relating to the
construction of proper apparatus, by the use of which
spirit of a superior strength is obtained from the first
distillation, without the trouble of repeated distillations,
as in the older methods ; and secondly, the knowledge
acquired in employing the most economical quantities
of materials from which spirits are obtained in this
country, as well as in the proper fermenting operations
to which such materials are subjected previous to dis-
tillation.
M. POISSONIER, in the year 1779, proposed a modifi-
cation of the common still, and deemed his plan to be the
ultimate pitch of perfection of which the still was sus-
ceptible. His modification would most likely have
come into general use, had it not been for the better
and more ingenious invention of M. ADAM, an obscure
person of Nimes, who was devoid of scientific know-
ledge, and, though a distiller, was ignorant of the art
which he improved. Being an auditor of a course of
chemical lectures at Montpelier, during which the merits
of a WOULFE'S apparatus as a condenser were discussed,
he conceived the idea of constmcting a still in which the
principles of the apparatus of GLAUBER and WOULFE
should be applied in the condensation of the vapor.
Accordingly, he diligently applied himself to the con-
struction of an apparatus on these principles, and, after
repeated additions and alterations, it was found to an-
swer the intended purpose. He took a ten years' brevet,
or patent, in 1801, for his invention, and since that
time a complete revolution has been effected in the
art of distillation. About the same time, M. SOLIMANI
obtained a patent for another form of distillatory appa-
ratus. This gentleman was a physician at Nimes, and
formerly lecturer on chemistry and experimental philo-
sophy, and disputed the priority of his invention with
M. ADAM ; but his patent is dated a few days later hi
July, 1801, than ADAM'S. Various other modifications
of the still and condensing apparatus were introduced,
the most important being that of M. BERARD, which
he patented on the 16th of August, 1805.
ADAM'S still, however, continued to be most in use,
not so much on account of its merits for it was
considerably inferior to SOLIMANI and BERARD'S
but owing to the quarrelsome disposition of the paten-
tee, whose cupidity led him to suppose, as his brevet
specified that the whole of the alcohol could be obtained
from wines when distilled in his apparatus, that the
other inventions were an infringement on his rights;
and the lawsuits to which he exposed those using any
new invention, prevented the general use of any
other than his own. This litigiousness of M. ADAM,
however, became afterwards his just corrector; for,
after realizing a handsome fortune by his own distillery
and the proceeds of his patent, he became so immersed
in lawsuits, which ultimately proved unfavorable, that,
with the expenses and costs of these heavy cases, he
was completely reduced.
Fig. 50 is a drawing of ADAM'S still : B is the body
of the still, incased in brickwork, and is heated by the
furnace, A, The head, I, of the still carries off the
vapor to a series of egg-shaped vessels of copper, H, n, H,
the first of which it enters at the top, and terminates at
the bottom in a perforated rose, like that of a watering-
pot, the holes being about an eighth of an inch in dia-
meter. The first vessel is connected with the second,
and the second with the third, by the pipes, K, M, pro-
ceeding from the top of each, and terminating at the
bottom of the next, in the form of a rose, similar to the
pipe, I, the tubes fitting air-tight into them. They are
supported on a framework, Q P, the wider end being
uppermost. D, D, D are cocks, to show when they are
half -full. The last vessel here the third is furnished
with a bucket, N, soldered to its upper end, and filled
with water, to condense the vapor; the hot water is
drawn off by the stopcock, O. When the still is furnished
with four or more oval-shaped vessels, the last two
have refrigerators attached to them ; if strong spirit be
not required, the third may be dispensed with. The
pipes, s, R, furnished with stopcocks, connect the second
and third vessel with the globe, T, from which the worm
in the covered vessel, u, proceeds, v is a large tub,
which contains the second worm, being a continua-
tion of the one in the vessel, u, and is filled with cold
water by means of a water-pipe, entering at the bot-
tom, though not shown in the figure ; and as the water
gets warm, it is discharged by the pipe, c. Another pipe,
a b, issues from the head of the vessel, u, and is inserted
in the globe, T, a continuation of which, though not ex-
pressed in the figure, connects this globe with the body
ALCOHOI
-DISTILLATION.
79
of the still, or with either of the egg-shaped vessels, at
pleasure ; ggg connects the vessel u with the body of
the still, as also with H, H, H, by means of the branch-
ing pipes from their bottoms, which are furnished with
stopcocks, h,i, k; the stopcocks, l,l,m,n, in the pipe
ggg, serve to regulate the connection with either of these
vessels, as occasion requires it. The pipe and stop-
cock in the shoulder of the boiler regulate the proper
quantity of wine to be introduced ; and C, another pipe
and stopcock, serves to run off the vinasse, or spent wine,
from the still, when all the spirit has been eliminated.
Another pipe, x x x, connects the three vessels, as
well as the capital of the still, with a small worm placed
in the vessel, F, the connecting branch pipes being fur-
nished with stopcocks, to open or close a connection with
any of the vessels, o o is a funnel pipe, which serves to
charge the apparatus with repasse, or weak brandy, and
is joined with the first, H, and the frame, Q p, by iron
stays. The whole of the still and condensing apparatus
is constructed of tinned copper, and the pipes connected
by solder.
Operations are begun by opening the stopcocks.
Fig. 50.
I, I, m, n ; also, the pipe in the shoulder of the boiler,
and closing the cocks, h, i, k; the vessel, u, is then
filled with wine from the storehouse, through the sup-
ply pipe inserted in the cover, by means of a forc-
ing pump, till the wine flows out by the pipe in the
shoulder of B ; this is then closed, and the cocks, k, i, h,
opened in succession, till the wine flows out at ODD,
the stopcocks, n, m, I, being closed as the still and
first and second vessels are filled in succession. The
pumping of the wine is continued until the vessel, U, is
nearly filled ; afterwards the refrigerators, N and v, are
replenished with cold water. Everything being thus
prepared, all the lower cocks are closed, and the upper
stopcocks, M, M, R, s, opened, in order to allow a free
passage for the vapor ; the fire is then urged on till the
liquor in the still begins to boil. The first portion
of vapor is richer in spirit, and this passing into the
first H, by the capital I, is condensed. The wine in
this vessel which is heated by the vapor rising from
the boiler contains a greater proportion of alcohol, on
which account it boils quicker, and cannot reach as
high a temperature as the liquid in B. The eliminated
vapor from the first H, in consequence of the low tem-
perature at which it is generated, contains less water,
and this being condensed in the second, renders the
wine which it contains much stronger than that in the
first, and boils at a still lower heat. The more aqueous
portion of the vapor from .the second H, passing oft'
by the connecting pipe, K M, is partly condensed in the
third, while the surcharged alcoholic vapor enters the
condensing worm in the vessel, u, through the pipe,
s, where it is condensed, and flows out into the
receiver, w. This is tightly covered over to pre-
vent evaporation of the alcohol ; and in order that the
stream of liquid condensed may be seen, a glass pipe
connects the lower end of the worm and the receiver.
As soon as the distilled product, when examined by
the hydrometer, shows a diminution of strength, the
receiver is changed, and the weaker liquor, or repasse, is
collected by itself, and submitted to a second distilla-
tion. The strength of the liquor in the boiler, B, or in
any of the condensers, may likewise be ascertained by
means of the pipe, x x x, which proceeds from the last,
and communicates with the small worm, F, beside
the body of the still ; from each of the others, as also
from the capital, pipes open into it, and as these are
each furnished with stopcocks, the vapors from any
particular condenser, or the still, may be liquefied in
the small worm, F, the other communications being cut
off. The spirit as it flows out at the end of this worm
is received in a testing glass, and examined by the
hydrometer, or by other means. When the liquor in
the body of the still is exhausted, the fire is withdrawn,
the other communications with the oval-shaped vessels
and great worm are cut off, and the cock, c, opened to
draw off the vinasse, or residue. If it also appears that
the liquid in any of the condensers is exhausted, it is
run off to the body of the still by turning the stopcocks
appended to it. The still is next charged by allowing
the unexhausted liquor inii,H,H, to flow in tlirough the
80
ALCOHOI
-DISTILLATION.
pipe, ggg, and the remainder, sufficient to fill the boiler
as before, is supplied from the vessel, u. H, H, H may
be half filled with brandy, or repasse, through the
funnel pipe, O o; after which the lower taps are closed,
and the upper ones opened as before, and the distil-
lation continued. During the transmission of the alco-
holic vapor through the wine vessel, u, the contents
become heated, and some spiritous vapor is given off,
which may be conducted into the body of the still, or
any of the condeasers, as deemed desirable, by the
pipe b, the continuation of which is not expressed in
the drawing.
"When weak spirit is required, the communication
with the third H is cut off by closing the stopcocks, M, s,
and opening R, arid when an extra strong liquor is re-
quired, a fourth condenser is supplied ; for, according to
the statements of the patentee, the more condensers that
are furnished, the better and more completely will the
rectification be effected. The body of this kind of still
is stronger than ordinary, in consequence of the pres-
sure from the egg-shaped vessels, which, of course, ren-
ders the expansive force of the vapor greater.
An elevation of the apparatus of SOLIMANI is repre-
sented in Fig. 51, of which Fig. 52 is a section. The
distillation is effected by the heat of boiling water.
Four stills constitute the set; these are A, A, B, B, in the
Fig. 51.
section, placed two at each side of the chimney, T.
Each pair of stills is connected at the bottom by the
pipes, E, E' ; the body of each still is about four feet
square and eighteen inches deep, and rests upon stout
iron bars, c c c, firmly fixed in the walls of the furnace.
ddd'd' are the necks of the stills; they measure about
three feet in breadth, and are long enough to rise above
the stone vault,/, which protects the still? from view in
Fig. 51. The heads are rather low, and the curvature,
ggg' g', rather wide ; they are soldered to a large
pipe, H H', which conducts the alcoholic vapor to the
copper vessels, K K', forming a part of the condensing
apparatus. Some of the vapor is condensed in these
vessels, and forms a liquid layer on the bottom, through
which the remaining vapor has to force a passage.
F F' are large pipes for carrying off the uncondent>ed
gas into the vessels, 1 1', wherein is contained the con-
densing apparatus, or dephlegmator. Another small
pipe, not shown in the figure, carries off the vapor from
1 1' into the condensing medium, immersed in water
contained in the stone cistern, M ; and the small pipes,
a a', supply the cold water to the vessels 1 1' from M.
The stills are charged with wine through the main
pipe P, which branches into them. By turning the stop-
cocks of this pipe, either pair of stills may be charged
with wine, as the pipe, e, and the termination of P, reach
nearly to the bottom of the body of the stills. The
pipe, x x, supplies the large cistern, M, with cold water.
The condenser in each of the vessels, I i', is kept
cool by a self-acting apparatus, that admits the water
from the cistern, M, in the requisite proportion to cool
the parallelogram condenser.
ALCOHOI
-DISTILLATION.
81
The stills are heated by two boilers, about ten feet
long and four and a half wide, which contain about
eight to twelve inches of water in depth. bbb' b'
show a portion of the flue, which, at the fire, is about
eight inches square, and gradually gets narrower as it
approaches the chimney. The length of the flue from
the fire to the chimney is about thirty-six feet, being
brought several times back and forth under the boilers,
that no heat may be lost, z yf are pipes for carrying
off the steam into the chimney.
During the time the stills are in the course of being
charged, the water in the boilers is raised to a tempe-
rature of 212, and the steam which is generated, cir-
culating around the stills, heats them so as to bring their
contents to a boiling temperature in a very short time.
The alcoholic vapor that rises flows down through H H'
into the vessels, K. K.' ; part of it is here condensed, and
the remainder which continues rarefied enters the first
condenser through the large pipe, F F'. All the con-
Fig. 53.
deused liquid that is formed in this refrigerator flows
back through the pipes, F F', into K K', where it collects
till it rises as high as the bend of the attached siphons,
when it flows into the large covered tanks, N N'.
After the condensed weak and impure spirit has accu-
mulated in N, it is pumped into the stills by means of
the pumps, n n n'n', through the pipes, v V', to undergo
a second distillation, ii' are doors, by which to enter
when any repairs are required by the boilers, etcetera;
k k', the doors of the furnaces for heating the boilers,
and o o', the ashpits. The pipes which discharge the
spent wine from the stills are seen at r r f , and the
gage, or glass tube, 8 *', shows what height of liquid
they contain. The funnel pipes, tt', serve to introduce
water into the boilers, which are furnished, like the
stills, with glass gages, v v', to show the height of water
inside.
A, Fig. 53, is a section of one of the vessels, i, on
one side of the condensing apparatus. B is a box fixed
on the bottom, having a valve, C, in its upper part, of
sufficient weight to resist the force of the stream of
water entering the box by the pipe, Z, from the large
condensing trough. E F is a floating ball, bearing on
its upper stem, o F, a basin, G, for the reception oi
weights. The lower stem of the float has a ring at the
VOL. I.
end, H, through which a sliding rod, K L, passes ; this
rod has a weight at the end, K, and a hook at L, which
passes through the ring in the upper end of the rod, M,
attached to the valve, c ; K L is supported in the centre
by the upright, P ; R is a horizontal rod, which retains
the valve, c, in its proper position, by means of the stem
of the latter passing through a ring at the end of R.
A sliding rod, s T, is inserted in the side of the vessel ;
this rod has a ring, i, at its end, through which the upper
stem of the float, E F, passes, and is supported by the
arm, Q. The principle of the working depends on the
rarefaction of the water when heated, and on the pro-
portionate decrease of specific gravity. Weights are
placed on the basin, G, to counterpoise the float at the
exact temperature at which it is desirable to have the
water. When the water gets hotter than this, the
float descends, and pressing on the lever rod, K L, at H,
raises the valve, c, when the water from the pipe, I,
enters ; when sufficient water has entered to cool down
the vessel to the proper degree, as regulated by the
float, the valve closes.
In case the float is found not to act properly, or that
the water rises considerably above the temperature to
which the weights on the basin correspond, the rod,
s T, is to be pushed further into the vessel, which moves
the lower end of the float towards K, and by this
means greater force is applied to raise the valve C, in
order that cold water may enter.
The condensing apparatus, or dephlegmator, in the
vessels 1 1' and M, in Fig. 51, consists of two broad
sheets of tinned copper soldered together, so as to leave
only one-sixth of an inch between them. In the ves-
sels 1 l', the dephlegmator forms four inclined planes,
and in M M' it is composed of six. These are the more
advantageous on account of the extent of surface which
is exposed to the condensing action of the strata of
water. Figs. 54 and 55 show the position of these
condensers.
Having described the still and condensing apparatus,
the manner of working will now be shown. The
boilers being replenished with water to the depth of
about eight inches, the fire is urged under them ; during
Fig. 54.
Fig. 55.
the time this is being done, wine runs into the still through
p and e Fig. 51 till it reaches the proper height, as
82
ALCOHOJ
-DISTILLATION.
indicated by the gage s, when the taps of the supply
pipe are turned off. As soon as the water begins to
boil, the contents of the still are likewise heated, and
the vapor produced is forced to descend by the pipe,
H, into the vessel, K, where some of the aqueous por-
tions are condensed. The remaining portion of the
vapor traverses the layer of liquid in its passage
into the condensing vessel, I. Here the excess of
steam is condensed, and flows back into the vessel, K,
Fis.56.
through the pipe, F ; and when the weak and impure
spirit collects in this to that extent that it rises as
high as the bent siphon tube, it is discharged into
the tank, N, whence it is again returned to the still
by the pump, n n. But very little spirit is condensed
in 1 i', when the apparatus in this vessel for the regu-
lation of the supply of cold water is properly attended
to, and the strong alcoholic vapors pass off into the
condensing vessel, M, where they are liquefied, and flow
out into the receiver, s. When the liquor in the tank,
N, appears exhausted, it is no longer returned into the
still, but is rejected as useless, and fresh quantities of
wine are run in by turning the stopcocks of the pipe,
P, and the distillation continued, till the accumulation
of tartar and coloring matters renders it necessary to
discharge the whole contents, so as to guard against
the stills becoming furred.
The vinasse is drawn off by turning the taps, r r', and
the stills washed by pumping water into them till it
comes through clear. This apparatus was found to
answer well ; but it, in common with ADAM'S and the
various stills of the period, retained the great evil
of not being continuous in its operations, and hence
much time, labor, and fuel were lost, by allowing the
stills to cool, for the purpose of discharging the spent
liquor, recharging, and again raising the temperature
sufficiently to effect distillation.
Subsequently to the introduction of ADAM'S and
SOLIMANI'S stills, improved ones were announced by
BEKARD and others. BERARD'S still was not so com-
plex as either of those mentioned, and it was more
easily managed ; but the loss in fuel was considerably
greater, as the operation had to be arrested several
times for the purpose of discharging and replenishing
the still.
The first to conceive the idea of constructing an
apparatus by which continuous distillation might be
carried out, was M. BAGLIONI. His attempt, however,
was not very successful ; but the subject was taken up
by M. CELLIER BLUMENTHAL, who constructed an
apparatus which was found to possess, in an eminent
degree, all the requirements.
The still constructed by BLUMENTHAL afterwards
became the property of M. DEROSNE, who very much
improved it with respect to continuous distillation ; so
much so, that it in a great measure superseded ah 1 the
preceding distilling apparatus. The following is an
account of the improved still of DEROSNE, on the
principle of the inventor.
Fig. 56 is a general view of the continuous distilla-
tion apparatus. It is composed of seven principal parts
namely, the boilers, the
distilling column, the rectify-
ing column, the condenser
and wine-warmer, the refri-
gerator, the vat where the
wine is contained, and the
vessel which determines the
flow of wine into the appara-
tus. Of these, A and B are
the boilers, encased in ma-
sonry or brickwork. The fire
is applied under A, and the
extra heat is communicated to B by the flue passing
under it in its way to the chimney ; C is the column
of distillation; D the column of rectification; EE the
condenser and wine-heating vessel; F the refrigerator;
ALCOHOJ
G is a vessel that furnishes the wine to the refri-
geratorthis vessel supplies itself, by means of a
stopcock, from the store-vat, H, where the wine to
be distilled is kept. The cock of this part is re-
gulated by a floating ball, which closes it when the
liquid rises in G. i is a tube of communication, con-
ducting the alcoholic vapors of the rectifying column
D, to the worm in the condenser, or wine-heating
vessel.
a is a stopcock, which carries off the spent wine of
the boiler, A. When the operation is in progress, this
cock is always open, and the exhausted wine flows off
continually, b is a gage-pipe, which indicates the
height of the liquid in the boiler, A ; c, a safety valve or
pipe, to show the pressure on the boiler, A ; d, a stop-
cock, which allows the liquid from the boiler, B, to flow
into the bottom of the boiler, A ; e e is a tube that con-
ducts the alcoholic vapors formed in the boiler, A, to
the bottom of the boiler, B; the vapor, in passing
through B, heats the liquid and condenses in part, /is
a gage, to show the level of the liquid in the boiler B ;
g, g, level gages, indicating the height of the liquid in
the compartments of the rectifying column, r; h, a
tube, conducting the wine of the lower part of the
condenser, E, to the topmost beveled plates in the in-
terior of the distilling column ; i is a stopcock, by which
all the heated wine in the wine-heating vessel, or con-
denser, E, flows into the column, c, when a distilla-
tion is coming to a termination ; II are tubes, adjusted
to the wine-warmer the one descends as far as the
lower compartment of the rectifying column, whence it
rises again to the fifth; the other tube descends as far
as the third compartment, and rises again above the
second compartment. At the point of curvature of
each, stopcocks j and Tc are fixed, intended to draw
off, at will, the small portion of the condensed liquid
brought back into the rectifier, m, n, and o, are tubes
connected with the inclined pipe, pp, at one end, and
the pipes, I, I, at the other. The three communications
serve to produce a brandy of more or less strength. If
it be required to obtain a stronger spirit, the alcoholic
vapor that is condensed in the worm, s, is entirely re-
conducted to the rectifier, D ; and, that this may be
attained, it is only required to open the stopcocks, n
and o ; a spirit less strong is obtained on closing the
stopcock, o, and a still weaker product on closing the
stopcock, n- for the liquid formed in the worm of this
cylinder flows off to the refrigerator, F, together with
the stronger alcoholic vapor, pp is a pipe for receiving
the whole of the alcoholic liquid condensed in each of the
revolutions of this worm, qqq are closed openings in
the upper part of the wine-warmer, which admit a per-
son for the purpose of cleaning it. R is a tube con-
ducting the alcoholic vapors not condensed in the
wine-warmer to the worm of the refrigerator, F, where
they are wholly liquefied ; s, a tube which supplies the
wine from the reservoir, G, to the lower part of the
refrigerator, F. t is a tube which conducts the wine
from the upper part of the refrigerator, F, to the upper
part of the wine-warmer, E. u is the funnel-opening of
the pipe, s, conducting the wine from G to the refri-
gerator; v, a stopcock, regulating the flow into the tube,
t ; x, a tube conducting the finished spirit from the re-
frigerator it is so constructed, as appears in the figure
that an areometer adjusted to it always indicates the
strength of the brandy. Having described the appara-
tus, it will be necessary to say a few words in explana-
tion of the complex parts.
The interior arrangement of the distilling column is
represented in Fig. 57. The 8 urface of the liquid
Fig. 57.
descending through this column is greatly increased by
flowing in a thin stratum over the several plates suc-
cessively, and the alcohol it contains eliminated with
great facility by the ascending hot vapor. There are
three openings, o P Q Fig. 56 for cleaning the inside.
Ten pair of copper plates are enclosed in this cylinder,
and placed in such a zig-zag way as to recline down-
wards alternately, as seen in the section; the liquid,
entering at the top, falls over each of the plates in suc-
cession, thus making a longer course, and becoming
more exposed to the hot vapor.
Fig 58 is a sectional, and Fig. 59 an exterior view of
the rectifying column. Six inverted vessels occupy the
interior, and are so arranged that the alcoholic vapor is
forced to traverse a thin layer of liquid in each. The
condensed liquid returns to the column, c, and the un-
condensed vapor passes onwards to the worm in the
first condenser by the pipe, I.
In these figures the position of the pipes, L L, will
be better understood ; in the front view one is repre-
sented descending to the lower and rising again to the
third vessel, and the other coming to the third and
mounting again to the second, and the sectional figure
shows the communication of those pipes with the
interior of the cylinder, o G are cases for the glass
gages ; and the sketches at foot are bird-eye views of
84
ALCOH01
-DISTILLATION.
the position of the respective tubes, here indicated by
the dark spots, and the letters, H, M, K, J, and L.
Figr.58. r>~ ' n
Figs. 60, 61, and 62 are details of the condenser, E,
the first being an end view, the second a longitudinal,
and the third a transverse section at x', Fig. 61.
At each revolution of the worm, in Fig. 61, it com-
municates with the canal, pp, by a short connecting
pipe. The wine enters from the pipe, t, shewn in the
upper part of Fig. 56, and percolates small holes, as seen
at y y in Fig. 61, over the worm, which it thereby cools
Fig. 63.
sufficiently to condense most of the aqueous part of the
vapor passing through it. Fig. 63 shows the arrange-
ment in the refrigerator, s;
and the cut appended, a bird-
eye view of the top of this
column. In these figures, the
same letters indicate the same
parts as in the general view,
Fig. 56.
Referring, therefore, to Fig.
56, in connection with the
parts shown in detail, when
operations are to commence,
the boiler, A, is filled with
wine through K,till within two
or three inches of the top, as
indicated by the gage, b] the
fire is lighted, and the stop-
cock, v, opened, and the wine
allowed to flow into the re-
frigerator, F, thence into the
condenser, E; and when this
vessel is filled, the liquid flows
through the overflow pipe, h,
into the distilling column, C,
and ultimately to the boiler,
B, until it rises to within five
or six niches of the top o(
the gage pipe, /, when the
cock, v, is closed. As soon
as the liquid in A boils, alco-
holic vapor escapes by the
pipe, e, into the bottom of
the boiler, B, where it is at
first condensed, and there-
by the liquor in this vessel
becomes richer in spirit.
Shortly, the liquor in B, in
consequence of heat it derives from the traversing
vapor, and its being richer in alcohol, begins to boil ;
Fig. 60.
Fig. 61.
Fig. 62.
part of the vapor rising through the distilling column
and rectifier is condensed, while the uncondensed por-
tion passes into the condenser through the pipe, r.
When the liquid in the condenser becomes so hot
that the hand cannot rest in -contact with the outer
case, the stopcocks, a, d, and v, are opened, and the
wine allowed to flow till it reaches the boilers, B and A.
As it descends through the distilling column, it is
divested of the greater part of its alcohol by the as-
cending vapor ; during its stay in the boiler, B, almost
all the remaining quantity is removed, and the very
last traces are separated in the first boiler, so tliat
ALCOII01
-DISTILLATION.
85
it is completely exhausted as it flows off by the waste
stopcock, a.
It is found, however, that the charge entering into
the first boiler from B, if allowed to run off at the full
bore of the discharge-cock attached to boiler A, would
retain small quantities of alcohol. If the alcoholic
liquid remained always in a higher stratum in the boiler,
then the tap, d, might be left open ; but, in consequence
of the boiling of the liquid, no such division can be
expected. On this account, therefore, it is absolutely
necessary to shut the discharge-cock of boiler A, for a
longer or shorter time, while the liquid is in a state of
ebullition, and to slacken the fire while the spent
liquor is drawn off from the boiler.
Another still was contrived to carry out the principle
of uninterrupted distillation by M. ST. MARC, a veteri-
nary surgeon attached to the personal staff of Bona-
parte. After the battle of Waterloo, ST. MARC turned
distiller in France, and, about the year 1823, he re-
moved to England. Here he, and a few others, formed
a company for the fabrication of brandy from potatoes,
and erected large works near London; the project failed,
after three years' operation on a very extensive scale,
leaving the speculators minus some forty or fifty thou-
sand pounds.
ST. MARC, however, was not idle during the time
Fig. 64.
the works were extant, for, by attention to his views
on continuous distillation, he effected many valuable
improvements in the form of his still. He completed
this article in 1827, and obtained a patent for the
United Kingdom ; he then disposed of it to some Lon-
don gentlemen, and returned with the proceeds to his
native country.
This still came into great request among the prin-
cipal distillers of London, Bristol, and other chief towns,
where it had been reputed to work with great satisfac-
tion. For the distillation of wash, however, it ranks
far behind COFFEY'S. It is said, that at the establish-
ment of Messrs. NICHOLSON at Clerkenwell, one of these
stills produced one thousand gallons of gin hourly, the
cleansing and flavoring processes proceeding at the
same time. It was in great demand, also, for the dis-
tillation of rum in the West Indies, and several other
English colonies, as, by its use, considerable outlay in
fuel, puncheons, freight, and shipping charges were
dispensed with.
Figs. 64 and 65 are sectional and front engravings of
the still. It consists of seven coppers, placed one above
the other, and numbered in the section, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7,-
of which six contain the wash or liquor to be distilled,
and the seventh or upper one, water. The coppers,
which are held together by flanges and bolts, corn-
Fig. 65.
municate with each other by the double tubes, A A,
through which the vapor ascends, and also by the pipes,
B B, by means of which the wash descends from one
copper to another in succession, beginning with the
uppermost but one, N 6, into which it is introduced by
a pipe and tap, C, from the wash-charger, D. The
lowest or first copper, which constitutes the body o
the still, and receives the heat of the fire, does
differ from the ordinary boilers, but the second and
third coppers each contain four of the double tubes, A,
86
ALCOHOI
-DISTILLATION.
and two of the pipes, B. The fourth, fifth, and sixth
coppers have likewise the pipes, B, but have only one
double pipe, A, in each, placed under hemispherical
domes, E E E, constructed upon, and tightly flanged
and bolted to the coppers that have just been men-
tioned. Six spiral tubes, or vertical worms, F, of which
only one appears in the engraving, conduct the vapor
from the upper dome through the water in the top
division; these communicate with the chamber, G,
capped by a small dome and pan, which is kept replen-
ished with cold water, and the portion of vapor remain-
ing uncondensed passes out to the common condensing
worm, by the large pipe, n. I shows a pipe and stop-
cocks for conveying water to the top copper, No. 7,
and chamber, G, and any waste water that may be
used for scalding or cleaning the backs is carried off by
the pipe, K, which is furnished with a branch pipe and
stopcock. Water is conducted from the upper copper
through the pipe and stopcock, L, to the several lower
compartments into which it is introduced by means of
the stopcock, M, appended to each; the water is used
for bringing down the wash at the close of a back, as
well as for cleaning the coppers. A man-hole, N, is fur-
nished opposite to the pipe and stopcocks, M, to admit of
their being thoroughly cleansed, and also to make repairs.
Having described the apparatus, it only remains to
give a brief account of the operation. In the words
of MOREWOOD :
The first three coppers of which the second and
third only are intersected with double pipes distil
almost at the same time ; the lowest, being that sub-
mitted to the action of the fire, operates on the others
by the discharge of its vapor, which, ascending by
means of the pipes, passes into the wash, and is there
condensed, infusing its caloric into that liquid, which is
thereby quickly brought to the boiling point. The
uncondensed portion of vapor from the second compart-
ment passes into the third with similar effect. The new
vapor, necessarily stronger than the first, ascends into
the fourth section, where it is received under a semi-
spherical dome, which prevents it communicating
directly with the cold wash contained in that copper.
In this place the more aqueous portion of the vapor is
condensed, and during this transition it yields its latent
heat to the wash which surrounds the dome, bringing
it to a higher temperature. The most volatile or spiri-
tous portion, which passes into the fifth section, ex-
periences the same change as the vapor in the fourth
dome, and so on to the uppermost the alcoholic
vapor becoming stronger as it traverses every succeed-
ing dome. The condensed portion in each dome returns
through the coppers to the third chamber, and meeting
with the ascending hotter vapors, they are partially re-
distilled in their progress. In the third copper a second
distillation commences, giving off anew its alcohol.
To explain why the watery vapor is forced to return
to the third copper, and is there found totally separated
from the alcohol, it is sufficient to state, that wafer does
riot boil under a heat of 212 Fahr., while alcohol boils
at 173. When, therefore, the watery and alcoholic
vapors rise, and are successively received in one or
more atmospheres of from 200 or 190 to 174, the
aqueous vapor becomes separated from the alcoholic,
and is condensed, and the latter alone passes out to
the worm, and thence to the receiver at the desired
strength.
From the foregoing particulars, it is evident that a
large portion of the spirit is distilled by vapor or steam,
and is, consequently, more pure than that obtained by
the ordinary apparatus. If, therefore, all the bad flavor
arises from long and violent exposure of the wash to the
action of the fire, this process, as well as those already
described, is calculated to obviate entirely that injurious
effect, and to yield a spirit wholly divested of any em-
pyreuma. One distillation only is effected by the fire ;
this is immediately succeeded by two vapor or steam
distillations, and, subsequently, by four purifying con-
secutive processes, which divest the spirit of all im-
purities, and it comes over, at one operation, of the
strength of 35 or 40 per cent, over proof, by SYK.ES'
hydrometer.
A still of seven compartments, such as described, will
produce spirit no stronger than 35 or 40 per cent, above
proof; but, by increasing the number of coppers or
sections, a much stronger liquor might be obtained by a
single operation.
To ascertain the precise time for charging, after
the exhaustion of the wash in the lower copper, it is
only necessary to open what is called the proof tap
placed in its side ; and if the vapor issuing from it will
not ignite on the application of a candle, it is evident
a fresh charge is wanting. The discharge of the spent
wash from the lowest vessel, the supply from the next
copper to replace it, and the opening of the tap in
the pipe, communicating between the charger and the
top of the still to admit more wash, are all the work of
about a minute, during which distillation never ceases.
The advantages of this apparatus are numerous, but
may be briefly stated to consist in the saving of about
two-thirds of the fuel usually consumed ; an increased
produce, by economizing what is lost by evaporation in
the three compartments, with their pumpings, et cetera,
in the ordinary system ; a considerable saving of labor,
there being but one furnace, and one tail-pipe, instead
of three or sometimes four ; to which may be added,
the advantage of dispensing with low wines and faints'
receivers and chargers, together with their connections
and pumps, and the power required to put them in
operation.
A safe of a superior nature has been constructed by
Mr. SHARPE, one of the patentees. It is attached to
the end of the worm, and holds a large glass cylinder,
in which a thermometer is suspended ; at each side of
this cylinder are two smaller ones, in which are placed
hydrometers, one for ascertaining the strength when
above, and the other when below proof. The safe is
so ingeniously contrived, as to enable the distiller to see
the strength and color of the spirits, and also to take a
sample, which, however, is registered against him upon
a dial, and no spirit can be surreptitiously obtained,
while it serves to prevent fraud both on the proprietor
and the revenue.
The Germans employed, and still use on a small
scale, an apparatus for the distillation of the fermented
extract of malt, similar to Fig. 66, and which bears the
name of DORN'S still.
The principal parts are the body of the still, A, the
wort- warming vessel, c, and the condenser, D. The still
is furnished with a discharging-cock, a, and a small pipe
with stopcock, r, is inserted in the head, which pipe is
connected with the end of a small worm in the tub, p.
c is an iron or copper vessel, furnished with a double
bottom, the one twelve inches above the other. In
the upper part of this vessel are contained a few coils of
worm, gg, the lower end of which passes downwards
through the first bottom to within one or two inches of
the ^ other. An opening at the top of the preparer
receives an agitator, H, which may be turned by the
hand ; a cross bar, d, at the end of this upright rod,
Bkims the interior bottom of any sedimentary matter
which may deposit on it. The opening, G, serves to
charge the vessel with liquor; E and F are communica-
tions between both compartments of the vessel, c, and
the body of the still, for the purpose of supplying it
with the liquor contained in both these parts for dis-
tillation ; b is an overflow-pipe and stopcock, by which
it is ascertained when c is replenished. A pipe, I,
issues from the far end of the lower part of the vessel,
c, and is connected with the second worm, c c, in the
large worm-tub, D. Another pipe, e, enters the pre-
parer for the purpose of cleaning it with water at the
termination of the distillation; the water is run into the
boiler of the still, and drawn off at the discharge-cock,
a. A pipe from an adjacent cistern, or reservoir, sup-
plies the large tub, D, with cold water, and from this tub
water is supplied to the pipe, e, through the stopcock,/
An apparatus is furnished at the end of the worm, as
it issues from the tub, in order that the flow of the
liquor may be observed, and its strength noted at the
same time. It consists of a tube, bent at right angles,
as at s t, the upper part of which terminates in a curve,
x, through which the air of the worm is expelled. The
arm, t, is terminated in a basin, holding an inverted
glass jar, w, in which a hydrometer, u, is placed, and
floating in the spirit, in order to tell the proper strength.
The pipe, v, carries off the finished spirit into the tank,
where it is collected.
Operations are commenced by filling the preparer,
c, with liquor, through the pipe, G, till it flows out at
Uie stopcock", b, after which the cock, E, is opened till
the still is filled to the overflow-pipe, which regulates
the amount of liquor to be introduced, but which is
not seen in the section. When this happens, the cock,
E, is closed, and the vessel, c, filled to the proper height,
then G is closed by a screwed cap or plug, and the
furnace lighted under A. As the alcoholic vapor rises,
it is partly condensed in the few coils of worm in
the vessel, c, the liquid falling down to the bottom
compartment ; and the liquor in the vessel is heated by
the latent heat of the vapor. As the liquor collects
in the bottom part of the vessel, the remainder of
the uncondensed portion of vapor gurgles through this
Hquid, which further deprives it of aqueous vapor ; the
portion uncondensed issues through the connecting-
pipe, I, to the large worm in the condenser, where it
becomes wholly liquefied ; the excess of liquid in the
lower part is allowed to flow into the still by the pipe,
F. The charge in the still, when the whole of the
alcohol has been expelled, is emptied through the dis-
charging-cock, a, a fresh supply of the heated liquor
hi c introduced as before, and a second operation com-
menced taking the precaution to slacken the fire while
this part of the work is going on. The small condenser
attached to the boiler or still, is to test whether the
charge is wholly exhausted, and the small pipe, n, per-
mits the escape of the air in the worm and lower part
of the compartment in c.
Since the introduction of a better apparatus, DORN'S
is seldom used by the large distillers ; it is, however,
met with in small establishments, and where brandy is
rectified.
The apparatus generally employed throughout Ger-
many for the distillation of fermented worts, et cetera,
is that represented in section in Fig. 67, and known
as PISTORIUS', from his improvements and additions.
In this figure, A and B are two boilers, connected
by the pipe, G, which conducts the vapors formed in
A into B. These boilers are each furnished with an
88
ALCOHOL DISTILLATION.
agitating chain apparatus, F, F'. c is the fire-grate under
the boiler, A, and the excess of heat is rendered
available towards heating the other boiler by the flue
winding under it before entering the chimney, x. D is a
kind of safety-valve attached to the first boiler, and is
furnished with a stcpcocked pipe, d, that communicates
with a small worm in the condensing tub, K ; this con-
trivance is intended to test when the charge in the
boiler is divested of the whole of the alcohol. The
boiler, A, is charged from the contents of the second
boiler, B, by means of a connecting-pipe, E, having a
valve appended, the handle of which is seen at e. A
large pipe, L, issues from the head of the boiler, B, and
is connected with another pipe, N, of a larger calibre,
having another smaller pipe, s, connected with the other
end. The alcoholic vapor from the two boilers, A and
B, passes through these tubes into the rectifying vessel,
M, supplied with a second bottom, from which descends
a vertical cylinder over the pipe, s, nearly to the ex-
terior bottom, rrrr indicate the course of the vapor
through the vessel, M ; this passage is made of sheets
of copper of nearly the same breadth as the vessel,
soldered to an end plate of a few inches in breadth.
The remaining parts of the vessel, noted by T T T, are
charged with wash for the purpose of heating it before
distillation. The spiritous vapor, on passing through
this rectifying vessel, loses a great portion of water by
condensation ; but the chief quantity is separated in the
double conical space, R, which is surmounted by a vessel
of the same form, b b, filled with cold water from the
Fig.cr.
large condensing tub. The pipe, P, conducts the un-
condensed alcoholic vapor to the large condensing
worm in the tub, v. The liquid formed in the passage
r r r and R, collects at the bottom of the vessel, M, so
that the vapor entering by the pipe, s, has to pass
through it. When it accumulates, it is run into the
boiler, B, by a connecting-pipe, ', which is closed
and opened at pleasure by means of the valve, y.
s is the valve attached to the pipe which conveys
the fermented wash from the compartments, T T T, in
the vessel, M, to the boiler, B. The pipe, c, supplies
the conical condensing vessel, b b, with cold water, and
the pump, a, raises the fermented wash from the tank,
Q, beneath, and discharges it into the vessel, M, by the
pipe, h. When the space in the interior of M requires
cleaning, water from the condensing tun is run in
through the pipe, m, by turning the stopcock, o is a
siphon tube, through which the air of the apparatus
is expelled, when the fire is lighted under the boiler, A ;
it is closed by the stopcock when the alcoholic vapor
reaches thus far.
The waste caloric from the furnace is made to warm
the water employed in mashing the gram, by a pipe,?/'?/',
leading from the fire, that carries off the heated vapor
for that purpose. The spirit is received in a peculiar
manner from the lower end of the worm, as will be ex-
plained after describing the mode of operation.
The fermented liquor to be distilled is pumped up
into compartments, T T T, in the case, M ; the valve,
*, of the pipe connecting the space, T, with the boiler,
H, is then opened, and the wash introduced into this
boiler, whence it is allowed to flow into the first boiler
by opening the valve, e, of the connecting-pipe, E.
This valve is left open till the liquid rises to the proper
indication, as shown by a gage in front, but not seen
in the figure ; e is then closed, and ah 1 the other taps,
leaving a free course for the vapors to flow off to the
condenser. When this is done the fire is lighted. After
a short interval, the liquor in A begins to boil, and the
vapor passes over into B, whose contents are also raised
to ebullition, which takes place at a lower degree in
consequence of the quantity of alcohol it receives from
the preceding.
The alcoholic vapor from B passes over by L through
the pipe, N, into the rectifying spaces, rrrr, where
the excess of the watery vapor is condensed, and
falls to the bottom of M. This liquid being the product
of the former two distillations is very rich in alcohol ;
ALCOHOI
-DISTILLATION.
89
and when it accumulates sufficiently to cover the end
of the pipe, s, the hot steam from the boilers bubbling
through it disengages a vapor surcharged with alco-
hol ; thus a third distillation is effected. When the
liquor is present in too large a quantity, the valve, y, is
occasionally opened to run it into B. The uncon-
densed portions rise and pass from the conical-shaped
condenser, R, into the large condensing worm in the
vessel, v, where they are completely condensed, and
flow out at the lower end of the worm into the vessel,
or receiver.
If, on turning the vapor into the small worm in the
vessel, K, and collecting the condensed portion, it be
found that in the contents of this boiler no more alcohol
is retained, the spent liquid is drawn off by the dis-
charge-pipe, a fresh charge admitted from the boiler,
B, and this in turn refilled from the compartment in
the rectifying vessel, M. During the discharging of the
liquid in boiler, A, and its refilling, the fire is slackened,
by inserting the damper- plate, w, into the flue to cut off
the draught.
The three distillations which here take place give a
very strong spiritous liquor, and of a very good quality.
At the end of the great worm is a water-tap, or a similar
apparatus to that shown in Fig. 68. In this diagram,
the end of the worm issuing from the great condensing
tub is seen at a. c c is a zig-zag pipe, one end of
which is immersed in a bucket of water. In the
upright part of the discharging-pipe is an alcoholo-
meter, /, by which the strength of the distilled product
is ascertained, and d is a watch-glass covering the
Fig. 68.
funnel-opening in the larger end of the tube, used for
the purpose of seeing the bulk of the stream of liquid
which flows through the worm. By this contrivance
the air is prevented entering the worm, and therefore no
acetic acid is produced.
The distillatory apparatus of ALEGRE is described
in the succeeding Figs. 69 and 70. The operation in
this, as will be seen, is carried on by means of the steam
generated in a boiler which forms one part of the
whole ; and this steam, traversing the liquid to be dis-
tilled, causes the heat of the latter to rise to the boil-
ing point, by which the spiritous vapor is expelled,
and subsequently, in its route through the apparatus,
rectified and condensed, as will be demonstrated after
explaining the figures, to which the reader's attention is
now invited.
Fig. 69 is an elevation of this distilling apparatus
on the furnace side, and Fig. 70 a section made parallel
to the visible part of Fig. 69. In these figures are the
following parts ; namely, A, the brickwork enclosing the
fire, and part of the lower boiler, B, the door of the
furnace; E, the lower boiler, part of which is encased
in the brickwork. F is a pipe issuing from the bottom
of boiler, E, furnished with a stopcock, and serving
to discharge the liquid that remains after distillation,
or whenever required, g is a pipe and stopcock, by
which the proper height of liquid to be introduced into
the boiler is regulated, as shown by the dotted line, h h,
in the section, I is a tubular opening, which facilitates
the cleaning of the boiler when necessary ; this opening
is closed by a slide plate firmly fixed in its place by
bolts, or it may be secured by a screw-cap. Jc is a pipe
and stopcock for ascertaining when all the alcohol has
been eliminated from the liquid in the boiler, E. L is
another boiler placed upon E, and which is emptied
when requisite by the discharging-pipe and stopcock,
M. Both these boilers are connected by the pipe, n,
to which a stopcock is affixed, o is an overflow-pipe
and stopcock, serving to regulate the height to which
the liquor should rise in the boiler, L, as is shown in
the sectional figure by the dotted line, p. Q is the stout
plate or division between the boilers, E and L; in the
middle of this bottom is an opening, on which is fixed
the pipe, r; this pipe is open at both ends, and passes
up through the liquid in the boiler, L, towards its neck ;
s is a hollow cylinder, which is inverted upon the pipe,
r, and having its closed end uppermost. The open
end rests on three small supports, fixed equidistant
from the pipe, r, and elevated one inch above the
bottom of the boiler, L ; t is a third hollow cylinder,
issuing from the bottom of the boiler, L, and rising
perpendicularly till it terminates in an open end, about
one inch above the closed end of the hollow cylinder,
s, which it surrounds ; u is a fourth hollow cylinder,
placed in exactly the same position as the cylinder, t,
and enveloping all the foregoing; the closed end being
topmost, and the lower open extremity resting upon
three elevations of one inch in height, and equidistant
from the cylinder, t. A distance of half an inch is left
free between its closed end and the orifice of the cylin-
der, t. visa fifth hollow cylinder, which encloses the
whole of the others. Its lower extremity is fixed in the
bottom, Q, of the boiler, L, and its. upper extremity is
attached to the closed end of the cylinder, u. In the
arrangement of these cylinders, they open alternately
at the top and bottom, and by this means a passage is
made for the vapor over each cylinder in succession.
x x are tubes issuing from the top of the cylinder, ,
at an angle of about 45, and descending to within two
inches of the bottom of the boiler, L; these tubes arc
open at both ends, and serve as valves to close the
cylinders, v and u. Three of these tubes are provided,
and are fixed at the angular points of an equilateral
triangle, supposed to be inscribed in the circular plane
of the closed end of the cylinder, v; but of these only
two appear, the third being in the segment of the figure
which is removed.
90
ALCOHOJ
-DISTILLATION.
y is a safety tube for the purpose of preventing the
influx of the liquid in the boiler, L, through the open
pipes, x x, into the cylindrical spaces in the interior of
the enveloping cylinder, v. The upper extremity, which
is funnel-shaped, is in contact with the atmosphere,
and the other is in communication with the spaces in
the interior of the cylinders, v and , by passing through
the closed end of the cylinder, v. This tube is curved,
so that, at or near its middle, it dips into the liquid in
the boiler. In the part ascending from this curvature
to the top of the cylinder, t>, is a bulb or enlarged
portion, z, capable of holding about a gallon of water
introduced at the funnel-opening, y; a is a stopcock,
which enables the operator to know the state of the dis-
tillation in the boiler, L, and is similar to k in boiler, E.
c is a large tubular opening in the shoulder of the
boiler, L, similar to I in the lower boiler, and affording
a means by which any accumulated dirt or other matters
Fig,
on the bottom of the boiler is withdrawn. It is closed
in the same way as I.
C ia a circular basin placed upon the neck of the
boiler, L, forming a refrigerator ; d, a pipe and stopcock,
which conveys heated water from the basin, c, into the
lower boiler ; e is a vase of an elliptical form, joined to
the neck of the upper boiler by a bracket and rivets, as
seen aty/ gg are two tubes descending from the hollow
cylindrical vessels enclosed in v, into two small vases,
or circular vessels. By these pipes the phlegm con-
densed in the passage of the vapor over the cylinders,
is returned to the lower boiler, E; the small vessels
prevent any vapor passing up by these tubes they act
as a water stopcock; A' is a tube having two stopcocks,
and branching a little below the upper stopcock; by
this tube the phlegm condensed in the oval vase, e,
is conducted at will into either of the boilers by
opening the proper stopcock, t is a tube, rising ver-
Fig. 70.
I *
p
=a=
X
8
^
H
c
tically through the vase, e, to within one inch of the
upper part of the vessel. It is closed at the top by a
plate and a hollow cylinder, k', whose closed end
is uppermost, and rests upon i. The open end of the
cylinder, k', terminates about one inch above the bot-
tom of the vase, e. The upper part of the pipe, i, is
pierced with a number of small holes, through which
the vapor passes into the vase ; I is a tubular opening
in the elliptical vase, e, by which it. is cleaned; this
opening is closed by a wooden plug; TO is a circular
basin, containing cold water, placed upon the vase, e,
and acting as a refrigerator, and which discharges its
hot water by the pipe and stopcock, '.
op qrso' are six compartments, or diaphragm recti-
fiers, placed one above the other, forming by their union
one cylindrical column ; these diaphragms communicate
with one another by means of six small tubes, I' I' I' V V I',
placed in their centres. The tubes are arranged simi-
larly to the tube, *, in the vase, e, the upper part of
each tube being closed, and enveloped by an inverted
cylinder in the form of a hat, descending to within an
inch of the bottom of each diaphragm. The I' tubes are
ALCOHOI
-DISTILLATION.
91
perforated in the upper part, to allow the vapor to pass
off, and a small pipe descends alternately at either side
of the column from each compartment into a small
trough or dish, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, similar to those seen at
g g, in the lower boiler, E. By these pipes the phlegm
condensed in each compartment descends into that
which is immediately beneath it, until it finally comes
into the elliptical vase, e, and thence, by the double-
stopcocked pipe, h', it is conducted into either of the
boilers, at the pleasure of the operator. Hence the
condensed phlegm descending, offers no obstruction to
the ascending alcoholic vapor. A long vertical hollow
cylinder, u, envelopes the six compartments, opqra o',
but a space of six inches intervenes. Water is intro-
duced into this space, and thus the cylinder, u, acts as
a refrigerator to the interior column.
The hot water is discharged from the refrigerator by
the large pipe and stopcock, v, into the upper boiler,
whenever required, x is a cylinder reposing upon a
projecting edge attached to the cylinder, u, and which
serves as its base ; it is made to open and shut by the
latchkeys, y'y'y'. The space between this envelope and
the cylinder, u, is destined to receive the grain which
has germinated malt in order to torrefy it previous
to grinding. The cover of this envelope is perforated
with small holes, which give passage to the vapor evolved
from the torrefying grain. ^ z' are two apertures made
in the base of the envelope, x, by which the grain is
withdrawn when properly dried, a' is a tube communi-
cating with the interior of the refrigerating cylinder,
u, bent upwards at right angles ; at a short distance
above this angle the tube is enlarged, forming a recep-
tacle for the glass tube, 6, serving as a gage to show
the height of water in the refrigerator, c', a tube with
stopcock, by which the fermented liquid is conveyed into
the refrigerator when one wishes to carry on the dis-
tillation by the assistance of the cylinder, u, in conjunc-
tion with the boilers ; however, whether the liquid to be
distilled be wine or wash, it is invariably heated here,
so that it may be afterwards let down at nearly a boil-
ing temperature into the boilers by the large tube and
stopcock, v, and the smaller one, h'. df is a pipe and
stopcock, by which wine may be introduced in the same
way as the wash from grain by the pipe, c', when that
liquid has been employed in the course of operation,
e' is a tube by which water is allowed to enter the
rectifier, composed of the six compartments, opqrs o',
containing the cylindrical enclosures, I' I' V I' I' i' , for the
purpose of cleaning it. f is a tube, which conducts
the rectified spiritous vapor from the summit of the
column to the condensing worm in the superior con-
denser, s. g' is a small tube, conducting the spiritous
vapor arising from the liquid in the refrigerator, u, into
a small worm placed in the largo condensing tun, R,
collaterally with the large one. The chimney has a
damper to regulate the draught from the furnace, B,
which must be diminished during the charging of the
apparatus.
Manner of conducting tJie Distillation. When the
apparatus is prepared, as seen in the figure, all the
stopcocks are shut, excepting the overflow-pipes, o and
<7, which are left open.
The commencement of the operation is the filling of
the large condensing vessel, R, with water, after which,
the superior large tub, s, is filled with wash liquor, or
wine, as the case may be. This tub contains a condens-
ing worm, wherein the vapor arising through/' is partly
condensed, and which is connected to the large worm
in the principal condenser, R, as seen in Fig. 69, by the
pipe, k'. After s has been replenished with liquor, the
lower boiler, E, is filled through the tubular opening, r,
with water, then the fire lighted, and the distillation of
the water proceeded with, till the liquor in the vessel,
s, acquires a temperature of about 100 Fahr. As soon
as the steam from the boiling water ascends to the
upper boiler, the stopcock of the tube, c', connecting
the vessel, s, and the refrigerating space inside the
cylinder, u, is opened, and the liquid allowed to flow
in until the forementioned temperature is communi-
cated to the remaining liquor in the vessel. When
this happens, the cock of c' is closed, and the vessel,
s, replenished with more of the liquid. Both the
stopcocks of the pipe, h', are next opened, in order
that the water condensed in the diaphragms of the
rectifying column, as well as in the elliptical vase, e,
may pass into the boilers ; the stopcocks, , &", are
at this time likewise opened to fill the refrigerat-
ing circular basins, c and m, attached to the upper
boiler and vase, e. When these are full the cocks are
closed, and the fire slackened by throwing on some
moist small coal or wood, and inserting the damper.
The object of the distillation of the water is to wash
the interior of the apparatus, as well as to heat the
liquor in the cylinder, u, and in the vessel, s. The
stopcocks of the pipes, F, g, n, are opened in order
that the water contained in both boilers, as well
as hi the elliptical vase, may flow out by F. During
the escape of the watery the plate closing the tubular
pipe, I, is withdrawn, and a besom, or mop, introduced
to clean the bottom of the boiler, and force out the
sedimentary matter. When the apparatus is newly
erected, this distillation of water is necessary to purify
the interior from rosin and other matters proceed-
ing from the soldering, et cetera; but in other cases
it is not requisite, unless when impurities collect in
the boilers or rectifying diaphragms, or when the
distillation has been suspended for some days, or after
repairs ; for when the distillation is carried on unin-
terruptedly, there is no occasion for such washing of the
boilers. It is customary to fill the whole apparatus
with water when not required for use, to prevent the
formation of any acid which would act on the various
boilers and other parts of the whole still; the water is
drawn off when operations are on the point of recom-
mencing.
The boilers being empty, the stopcocks F and n are
closed, and the lower boiler filled with water, until it
flows out by the pipe, g, which is at this time closed, as
well as the opening, I, and the stopcocks in tube, h'.
The fire is then hastened by withdrawing the damper;
and during the time the liquid in the lower boiler is
rising to 212, the stopcocks of the pipe, v, and of the
overflow pipe, o, are opened, and the heated alcoholic
liquid in the refrigerating cylinder, U, admitted, until
the boiler, L, is filled, as is indicated by the liquor flow-
in" out through o. These tubes are then closed, and
ALCOH01
-DISTILLATION.
the tube, c', opened to refill the cylinder, u, with the
spiritous liquor from the vessel, s, to the proper height,
as indicated by the glass gage pipe, &', after which
the cock of the pipe, c', is shut. It is particularly neces-
sary that the water in the large condensing vessel, R,
should be thoroughly cold. This is effected by opening
the stopcocks, I" and n". By turning the stopcock, n", the
cold water from the reservoir, which should be erected
at an elevation, and convenient to the place for the use
of the apparatus, flows into the lower part of R, and the
hot water is discharged through the pipe, I'", at the same
time, by the influx of cold water beneath. Matters
being thus in readiness, the vessels are charged, and
while doing so the fire is briskly urged ; the water of
the lower boiler soon reaches ebullition, and the
liberated steam, coming in contact with the bottom, Q,
of the upper boiler, heats the spiritous liquor which it
contains. As the steam is generated in greater abun-
dance, it rises through the cylindrical pipe, r, and thence
descends and ascends alternately in its course over the
other successive cylinders, till it escapes by the open
ends of the three diverging pipes, x x x, immersed
in the liquid contained in the upper boiler. During
this complicated course of the steam, it imparts its
caloric to the surrounding liquid in the boiler, L,
the content of which is readily raised to ebullition.
By this means alcoholic vapor is evolved through
the pipe, t, and after traversing the elliptical vase,
the uncondensed portions ascend into the six dia-
phragms, o p q r s 0', in the rectifying column, by
means of the communications, Z' I' I' V I' I'. Here
the rectification is principally carried on; the more
aqueous portion of the vapor is condensed in each
ascending compartment till it reaches the iop of
the column ; from which it- is carried off by the
pipe, /', into the coiled portion of the large worm,
deposited in the vessel, s, where it is perfectly
condensed in its course through this and the other
worm in the large condenser, R, and flows in a fine
stream into the appropriate backs, or spirit vats, placed
below the protruding end of the worm at mf. The
phlegm in each compartment of the steam rectifier
returns by the small pipes, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, till it de-
scends into the elliptical vase, e, and thence through
the pipe, h', into the boiler, L. As the distillation
advances, larger quantities of vapor rise from the
heated liquor, both in the boiler and oval vessel, e, as
well as in the lower compartments of the rectifying
column, and the condensed water from it is always
descending while the distillation of the alcoholic liquor
continues to afford alcoholic vapor. This is known
by opening the test-cock, a, and applying a light to the
vapor ; if it inflames, it is a proof that there is still
some alcohol in the liquid in the boiler, and if it does
not ignite, the whole of the spirit has been eliminated ;
then the firing is finished, and another charge begun.
The distillation of the first charge requires a period of
three hours, on account of the boiler being filled with
cold water; but in each succeeding operation, only two
hours are required, as all the parts of the apparatus,
with the water in the lower boiler, are hot.
After the whole of the alcohol has been expelled, the
boiler, L, is emptied and thoroughly cleansed. This is
effected by opening the tubular pipe, c, and the stop-
cocks, M and o, to allow the spent liquor to flow out ;
during this time a broom, or mop, is introduced through
c, to detach all impurities, and force them out with
the liquid through the discharging-cock, M. After
the interior of the boiler has been thoroughly puri-
fied, the opening, c, and the stopcock, M, are shut,
and the cock, v, opened, in order to allow the heated
liquor from the refrigerating compartment in u, to
flow in to refill the boiler. When the liquid has
risen to the level of the pipe, o, the cock, v, is shut,
and the communication between the refrigerating cylin-
der and the vessel, s, containing the liquid to be dis-
tilled, is opened by turning the stopcock, c', and the
cylinder refilled to the proper height, as indicated by
the gage pipe, &'. The connecting-pipe between the
vase, e, and the under boiler, is opened by turning the
cock, h', and closing the lower one with which this pipe
is supplied, in order that the phlegm collected in the
vase during the distillation of the preceding charge may
flow into the lower boiler, whose overflow pipe, g,
should be opened to indicate when it is full. If
this phlegm be not sufficient to fill the lower boiler,
the remaining quantity of liquid is allowed to flow
in from the refrigerating basin, c, attached to the
upper boiler, by opening the stopcock, d. As soon as
the liquid flows out through the pipe, g, the stopcock of
this, as well as the cock of the pipe, d, is closed, and
the fire stirred. Shortly afterwards, when the steam
from the lower boiler rises through the apparatus, the
stopcock of the pipe, n', is opened, that the hot
water contained in the refrigerator, m, may descend
to that attached to the boiler, L. After the whole of
the water is run down, the tap, n', is shut, and i and
k" opened, to replenish both the refrigerating basins
with cold water from the large condensing vessel, R.
The second firing is about this time in progress, the
liquid in the boiler is deprived of its alcohol in the
manner as before explained, and the distillation of the
charge, is completed in about two hours. A similar
mode 'of- operation to that described takes place at each
charge, irrespective of the alcoholic liquor submitted to
distillation.
It will not be out of place here to offer a few words
explanatory of the mode of torrefying the malt in the
space between the cylinder, u, and the outer envelope,
or casing, x.
The sprouted grain is introduced through the circular
opening in the top, between the envelope, x, and the
cylinder, u. The heat from the cylinder, u, is by this
means rendered available for torrefying the grain ; and
this is a matter of great economy in a distillery, as by
it the erection of a kiln, and the consumption of fuel
required to heat it, are dispensed with. When the
grain has dried to the proper degree, it is removed
through the openings, z'z', and replaced by more moist
malted grain, to undergo the same process.
Mr. MILLER, of Glasgow, secured a patent for a new
still for the distillation of spiritous liquors, and the fer-
mented wash of malt and grain. The novelty of this
still lies in the employment of evaporating cones, having
open spiral channels winding round their exterior. In
other respects the still embodies the mam features of
ALCOIIO]
-DISTILLATION.
93
all the principal distilling arrangements of the time,
already described ; namely, that of returning the pro-
ducts of the first condensation, which contain an excess
of water, to the body of the apparatus for a further
rectification.
Fig. 71 shows the principal parts of the still and
worm; Fig. 72, a sectional view of the cone, which em-
bodies the improvements. A is the body of the still
or boiler, which is of ordinary construction. The head
of the still, A' A' A', consists of three cones, placed
concentrically, B, c, D, but a small distance apart.
Both surfaces of the cones, B and D, are plain, but
round the exterior of the cone, C, an open spiral
channel, x, winds from the top to the base. The
position which this part occupies may be better under-
stood from the detached view of the cones in Fig. 72,
where xx shows the channel, and C the cone. A
pipe, E, leads from the annular space between c and i>
to the wash-heater, F, which consists of a vessel filled
with a number of small parallel pipes, and communicat-
ing with a low-wine condenser, G, which is placed in
the upper part of the worm tub. The wash is supplied
to the vessel, F, by a wash-charger reaching from the
backs, and communicating with the vessel, F, at M ;
this, however, is not shown in the figure. I is a pipe
which leads from the top of the outer cone, B, to the
spirit condenser, K, which consists of a cylindrical case,
inclined towards the still, and containing a number of
pipes laid longitudinally, through which the gaseous
products pass , it is filled with water supplied by a
pipe not seen in the figure; the heated water is
discharged through the pipe, Q. The pipe, K', issues
from the end of the spirit condenser, and enters the
refrigerator, where it is united to the worm, L, place,
in the bottom of the tub, w. o and connect
condensing pipes in the vessels, K, F, and low-wine c
densing worm, G, with the outer part of the cone, c
and the pipe, H, serves as a communication between
the top of the wash-heater, F, and the body of the still,
for the purpose of charging the latter.
94
ALCOHOL WHIS&Y.
The following is the mode of working : A quantity
of wash is run into the still, A which is supposed
to be placed over an ordinary furnace from the wash-
heater, F, through the pipe, H, to the height of say
three or four mches. As the wash boils, the vapor
arising from it ascends the space in the still head, A'A'A',
between the cones, C and D, and through the pipe, E,
into the wash-heater, F ; part of the vapor is here con-
densed, and the remainder passes off into the low- wine
condenser, G. The latent heat of the vapor is evolved
in its passage through the vessel, F, and serves to raise
the temperature of the liquid contained in it, after a
while, to the boiling point ; the condensed liquor in F,
as also that which is formed in G, returns through the
pipes, t, J, into the top of the space, B and c, in the still
head, and flows into the channel, x,' where it is reheated
in its descent through this compartment to the base of
the cone, by the simultaneous ascending vapor between
c and D, and the portion thus evaporated flows off
through the pipe, I, to the spirit condenser, K. That
portion of the liquid which is not converted into vapor,
is ejected from the cone, and received into the boiler
through a pipe, P, to undergo another distillation.
In the spirit condenser, K, a further rectification takes
place ; all the finer parts of the spirit passing off through
the pipe, K', into the worm, L, where they are condensed
and discharged through R into the spirit-back, while
the coarser products that are condensed return through
the pipe, O, into the canal, x, for a further purifica-
tion. Whatever be the quantity of wash which is
introduced at first into the still, no more should be
allowed to enter till the whole of its alcohol is ex-
pelled. For this end the supply pipe, H, is furnished
with a stopcock, N, and a branching pipe, s, for the
purpose of drawing off any excess of wash into a tank
appropriated to that purpose. Towards the end of the
distillation, the weak faints may be run off from J, by
means of a branch pipe, v, that enters the large con-
densing worm.
The Bushmills. Before concluding the article on
malt whisky, a short account of the Bushmills may
prove interesting, as this spirit is said by many to claim
pre-eminence over all others, in the same manner that
genuine hollands is considered superior to any gins made
in this country.
Bushmills is a small but very thriving market town
in Ireland, situated upon the river Busk, or Bush, and
about a mile and a half from the Giant's Causeway.
The town has long been celebrated for its superior
malt whisky, there being two distilleries, one of which
has been established about thirty, the other twenty,
years.
In the oldest of these distilleries the spirit is made
exclusively from malt, which is prepared in the ordinary
way, excepting that peat is used in drying it. The
quantity of malt wetted for each brewing is eighty
bushels, from which only one mash is prepared for fer-
mentation, the after-washings being retained, as usual,
for exhausting fresh quantities of malt. In preparing
the first mash, about eighteen to twenty gallons of
water are used to each bushel of malt. Only as much
water or small worts is let on as will wet throughout
the whole of the malt; the temperature is 146 Fahr.,
and in fifteen minutes afterwards, the remaining quantity
is run on at a heat of 155 to 160.
After drawing off the first mash, nine hundred gallons
of water are let down into the grist at a temperature
of 170 to 175, and after mashing from three-quarters
to one hour and a quarter, the wort is let into the
under-back, and pumped into the coppers. Nine hun-
dred gallons more are used in the third mash, the tem-
perature being 180 Fahr. ; both these liquors are used
in making the first mash on the next day's brewing, and
on account of the density of the small worts, the malt
used is from sixty -five to seventy bushels.
The density of the first mash, when let into the fer-
menting tun, is fifty pounds to the barrel as usual.
None but the best of barm is employed in the fermen-
tation ; the quantity is one per cent, of the wort, one-
half of which is added at the commencement, and
the other when attenuation has reached 30 or 35.
Attenuation is completed usually in forty-eight hours,
though in variable weather a longer time is required ;
the quality of the malt also affects the quickness of the
decomposition, but the chief cause of a good or bad
fermentation is the yeast ; the fermented worts are re-
duced in gravity to that of water, and frequently below
this. The mash stills at the Bushmills factory are
of the old description, and the manager states they are
the best for making fine spirit, an assertion with which
many will coincide.
The average yield in this establishment is from four-
teen to sixteen gallons per quarter of eight bushels, but
there is always a variation above or under these figures,
according to the quality of the grist. The best spirit is
made always in dry weather.
Potteen Whisky. This far-famed spirit was some
time ago more extensively manufactured throughout
the kingdom than at present. It seems to be more
than ever prized on account of its scarcity, and it bears
a high price, particularly the Scotch and Irish. The
singular flavor of the Irish produce is supposed to be
caused by using turf for the exsiccation of the malt.
DONOVAN relates that a few years back, being on a
journey amongst the mountains in the most Northern
parts of Ireland, he learned there was a potteen dis-
tillery at work; he despatched an emissary well known
to the distiller, to procure him admission, which was
granted. It was a place renowned for producing good
whisky. The distillery was a small thatched cabin ; there
was a large turf fire kindled at one end, and confined
by a semicircle of large stones, upon which a forty
gallon tin vessel, serving the twofold purpose of a
water-heater and a still body, was resting. An orifice
in the roof, immediately over the fire, served as a chim-
ney for the escape of the smoke after it had tra-
versed the apartment. The fumes of the burning turf
were so acrimonious as to produce a smarting of the
eyes, which annoyance was got rid of by sitting down,
owing to the fumes occupying the upper stratum only
of the air; they consisted principally of pyroligneous
acid.
The mash tun was a cask hooped with wood, at the
under part ot which, next the chimb, was an opening
plugged with tow. This vessel had no false bottom ;
in place of it young heath was strewn, and over this
ALCOHOI
-WHISKY.
a stratum of oat-husks. Here the mash of hot water
and ground malt was occasionally mixed up for two
hours; after which time the vent at the bottom was
opened, and the worts were allowed to filter through
the layers of oat-husks and heath. Mashing with hot
water on the same grains was then repeated, and the
worts were again withdrawn. The two worts being
mixed in another cask, some yeast was added, and the
fermentation allowed to proceed until it fell spontane-
ously, which happened in about three days. It was
now ready for distillation, and was transferred into the
tin boiler, which was capable of distilling a charge of
forty gallons. A piece of soap, weighing about two
ounces, was then thrown in to prevent its running foul;
and the head, apparently a large tin pot with a tube in
its side, was inverted upon the rim of the body, and luted
with a paste made of oatmeal and water. The lateral
tube was then luted into the worm, which was of copper
of an inch and a half bore, coiled in a barrel for a
flake-stand. The tail of the worm, where it emerged
from the barrel, was calked with tow. The wash speedily
came to a boil, and then water was thrown on the fire ;
for at this period is the chief danger of boiling over.
The spirit almost immediately distilled; it Was per-
fectly clear ; and by its bead, this first running was in-
ferred to be proof. Its flavor was really excellent ; and it
might well have passed for a spirit three months old.
As soon as the upper stratum of water in the flake-stand
became warm, a large pailful of cold water from an ad-
joining stream was dashed in with sufficient force to
make the hot water run over, it being lighter; and this
cooling process was continually resorted to. In this way,
the singlings were drawn off in about two hours, and
those from four distillations made one charge of the still
to produce the potteen.
The malt was prepared by enclosing the barley in a
sack, and soaking it for some time in bog water, which
is deemed the best; then withdrawing and draining
it for some time, after which it is made to germinate
in the ordinary way. When it had grown sufficiently,
it was conveyed in a sack to the kiln, along with some
sacks of raw corn, for the purpose of concealment
The raw corn was spread out on the kiln, but during
the night, when the kiln-owner had retired, the raw
corn was removed, the malt spread, desiccated, and
replaced by the raw grain before day. The owner
of the corn drying on a kiln, sits up all night to watch
it. In this way discovery was eluded, and the malt-
ing terminated. Besides the much-valued flavor of
potteen, it had derived a part of its character owing to
its being distilled entirely from malt. Now, however,
about one-fourth of raw corn is generally added. From
a bushel of this mixed grist, the potteen-maker obtains
a gallon of spirit, of what is called three-to-one ; or three
glasses of spirit mixed with one glass of water afford
proof spirit. This is, according to calculation, much
below the produce that ought to be obtained.
The body of the still cost one pound, its head four
shillings, the worm cost twenty -five shillings, the mash
tun and flake-stand, twelve shillings; three pounds
was, therefore, the value of the whole distillery. It is
purposely conducted in this economical plan, as it holds
out no inducement to informers or Excisemen. Some-
imes they have been constructed on an extensive
scale. It is very doubtful whether the aroma depends
on the turf smoke, for it is stated that the spirit has
the same taste and odor when coal is burned under
the kiln. It is possible that the turf smoke may
be absorbed by the spirit, for it is well known that there
is a period of the alcoholic fermentation at which odors
are apt to be retained. The peculiar flavor must
certainly arise either from the turf or the bog water in
which the malt is steeped. When dried in the kiln
after steeping, the heat is often sufficient to char the
bog extract remaining in the malt; consequently, this
would communicate an agreeable smoky aroma to the
spirit.
MOUEWOOD gives the annexed interesting details on
the subjectof illicit distillation : The spirit distilled from
pure malt is considered superior to that made from a mix-
ture of malt and raw grain. To assign a reason for this,
would require an analysis and report of particulars of the
process of malting ; but it may be sufficient to observe,
that the effects of the malting process are similar to
those the grain undergoes in the course of vegetation,
when sown in the earth. Illicit distillers, as if aware of
the value of this metamorphosis, almost invariably use
malted grain. From a want of scientific knowledge
and proper utensils, they conduct their business hi a
different manner from that pursued by licensed traders.
In preparing the malt, the sacks of barley are generally
steeped in bog-holes or other places, where they re-
main forty-eight hours, or until completely saturated
with the water. They are then drawn out and drained
for ten or twelve hours. After this the grain is spread
out upon the floor in a thick layer, and remains so till
it begins to chip or germinate ; it is turned occasion-
ally, until all appears alike sprouted. It is afterwards
spread by degrees, till such tune as the buds show
three points, and when these points have grown half
way down the grains, by means of a regular heat,
the particles are semi-transparent. At this stage it is
spread thicker on the floor, and brought to a heat easily
perceptible to the hand, then thrown into a round heap,
and suffered to remain in that state for twenty-four hours,
or longer; the latter is termed the rot or withering
heap. It is then carried to the kiln and dried by turf;
the kiln-head on which it is dried is covered with de-
cayed straw, over which, if convenient, is placed hair-
cloth or matting. The period of drying a kiln-head or
crop, as it is termed, is commonly twenty-four hours,
when directed by a person of experience. The grain,
while on the kiln, is carefully turned by the hand, to ex-
pose every particle to the same heat, and to prepare it
for coarse grinding. It is next taken to the still-house,
which is usually a hovel or excavation near a running
stream, or where there is a full supply of water. ^ The
quantity of malt to be brewed is commonly from sixteen
to seventeen stones; after being bruised or mashed in
the ordinary way, it is covered in the kiln with a lid
or sacks, and suffered to repose for three or four hours.
The worts are then drawn off, and cooled to a tempera-
ture regulated by the finger, no instrument being used
for that purpose, and commonly to the same degree
as that which is observed in regular distilleries; they
are next put into a pipe or puncheon, with about a
9G
ALCOHOL WHISKY.
gallon of yeast ; in an hour or two after the barm is
added, fermentation begins, and in twenty-four hours
afterwards, the attenuation is considered complete.
Sometimes two brewings, after undergoing the fer-
menting process for about eighteen hours, are con-
sidered fit for the still; and in the ordinary course
of working, a brewing is made every morning. The
quantity of pure spirit drawn from these two brewings,
is usually two hundred and twenty-three gallons, of
one-to-two, or two-to-five ; or, in other words, the spirit
is of such a strength that it will bear one gallon of
water to about two gallons of spirit, or two gallons of
water to five of spirit, to bring it to proof. The usual
strength at which illicit spirit is made, is from four to
six over proof on Sykes' hydrometer; but sometimes
it is as much as eight per cent., and in many cases it
has been sold at a strength of thirty over proof.
In making the malt, and in the mode of distilling, the
flavor is altogether formed; no machinery is employed
in the still to keep the liquid from empyreuma.
In distilling the wash, the strong low-wines are sepa-
rated from the weak, the latter being thrown back into
the still with the succeeding charge of wash ; a similar
practice is observed in making spirit, the faints being
put into the still with the next charge of low-wines.
Thus the spirit is preserved pure and clear, nothing
whatever being used in the distillation but a small
quantity of soap thrown into the still with the pot-ale or
refuse, to neutralize or keep down the yeast, as they
term it, which would otherwise cause the run of the
low-wines to become colored like the wash, or to get
foul. It is a mistaken notion to suppose that soap is
used only by the larger distillers, since it is considered
an indispensable article by every person who under-
stands the mode of working a still on the old system.
The spirit of these illicit stills has been long a favorite
beverage in Ireland, being from malt without adultera-
tion, and possessing a flavor which habit has rendered
most agreeable. This, combined with the high duties
on legally-distilled spirit, and the want of a ready
market for the disposal of the gram of remote and
mountainous districts, induced the people to embark in
this contraband traffic to an extent which was not only
injurious to the agriculture and revenue of the country,
but to the morals and peaceful habits of the community.
To such an extent was it carried, that in 1806, out of
eleven million four hundred thousand and thirty gallons,
the computed consumption of spirit in Ireland in that
year, three million eight hundred thousand gallons were
allowed to be the produce of illicit manufacturers, and
in 1811, 1812, and 1813, there were no less than nine-
teen thousand and sixty-seven illicit distilleries destroyed
by the revenue and military.
To put down this unlawful trade, various enactments
were passed by the legislature, among which that of
fining the townlands on which any portion of a still,
wash, low-wines, or other materials for distillation were
found, was not the least oppressive. The annual aver-
age of fines levied for seven years under the act for the
suppression of this evil, amounted to fifty thousand nine
hundred and eighty-nine pounds for all Ireland, while
in one county alone, the sum paid in 1806, was two
thousand six hundred and twenty pounds; in 1807,
two thousand seven hundred and fifty; and in 1814,
eighteen thousand one hundred and twenty-five. How
could it be expected to be otherwise, when it was proved
before the parliamentary commissioners, that many men
were found to declare they had never done a day's
work in their lives except at illicit distillation, and that
they knew nothing else by which they could gain a
livelihood ?
Many interesting and curious facts might be re-
lated of the extraordinary contrivances of the people
to evade the law and prevent detection, such as the
artful construction of distilleries on the boundaries of
townlands, in the caverns of mountains, on islands in
lakes, on boats in rivers ; of carrying away and secret-
ing revenue officers for weeks together to prevent their
giving testimony, the romantic manner of their treat-
ment while in confinement, and the various other
schemes and devices to defeat the intentions of the
government.
Among these, MOREWOOD narrates the instance of a
person who had constructed a distillery so artfully, that
it eluded the vigilance of the most expert officers of
Excise, though they knew of its existence in the neigh-
borhood. A determined functionary of this staff re-
solved to find it out at all hazards, and on one moon-
light night, alone, he followed a horse led by a peasant,
having a sack across the back of the animal, which, he
suspected, contained materials for this mysterious manu-
factory. When the horse had arrived at a certain
place, the sack was removed from his back, and sud-
denly disappeared. The officer made his observations,
returned to his residence, and having procured military
assistance, repaired to the place where the horse had
been unloaded. All was silent, the moon shone bright,
the ground was unmarked by any peculiar appearance,
and he was almost inclined, as well as those who accom-
panied him, to think that he had labored under a
delusion. Perceiving, however, some brambles loosely
scattered about the place, he proceeded to examine
more minutely, and, on then: removal, discovered some
loose sods, under which was found a trap-door leading
to a small cavern, at the bottom of which was a com-
plete distillery at full work, supplied by a subterraneous
stream, and the smoke conveyed from it through the
windings of a tube that was made to communicate with
the funnel of the chimney of the distiller's dwelling-
house, situated at a considerable distance.
Another distillery has been known to be worked on
the site of, and in conjunction with, a lime-kiln, which,
from the kiln being continually in operation, kept the
other for years without detection. So cunningly were
some of those still-houses situated, and so artfully con-
structed, that the smoke proceeding from them was
made to issue as if from burning heath or sods of peat
ignited for manure. Their position was, for the most
part, either on a commanding eminence, in the centre
of a bog, or in a well-secured stronghold, but always
calculated to prevent the identity of townland or pro-
prietorship ; while the portability and easy removal of
the apparatus rendered the discovery and seizure of
those stills difficult and hazardous. On the approach of
a stranger, an alarm was given, either by deputing a
messenger or sounding a horn, while the machinery
ALCOHOL DISTILLATION.
97
was removed and the pot-ale always destroyed, or con-
veyed into receptacles under ground, prepared for such
exigencies. Thus the still-hunter was often disappointed
of his expected prize, the poor distiller put to the loss
of many a brewing, and the Excise officer rendered the
object of the hatred and vindictive feeling of the unre-
flecting peasantry.
The fines on townlands having been abolished, it was
found necessary to adopt some other measure to put
down illicit distillation. Recourse was therefore had
to a revenue police, the Excise officers having too much
other business to attend to, and the difficulty and ex-
pense of procuring regular military assistance being
almost insurmountable. Accordingly, a revenue police
was established in 1822, and was gradually augmented,
in proportion to the exigency of the service. In 1826
this force amounted to thirty-two parties ; in January,
1833, to fifty-seven parties ; and in 1838, to seventy
parties, amounting, including officers and men, to up-
wards of twelve hundred persons. They were distributed
through those parts of the country in which prohibited
distillation most prevailed ; and though their exertions
have been very great, yet they have but partially sup-
pressed the evil. Their services will be best appre-
ciated by an enumeration of the detections made ~by
them in four successive years .
1830, .... 804
1831, .... 123
1832, .... 974
1833, ....1537
Malt
Bushels.
25,131)
24,901
47,683
71,782
1,788
1,47:)
2,299
3,300
Worts. Spirits seized.
Gallons. Gallons.
122,203 .. 624
106,908 .. 353
203,472 ..1150
320,813 ..6944
Of the many plans which have been laid to obstruct
the revenue officers in the discharge of their duty, the
following is not the least deserving of notice : On the
approach of the assizes of 1803, when many were about
to be prosecuted for illicitly distilling, an officer, stationed
at Dunfanaghy, in the county of Donegal, who was to
support the informations, was suddenly seized, blind-
folded, and carried away by a body of men in disguise,
and brought to the island of Arran, on the Western
coast. Thence he was conveyed to the islands of Goal,
Innismay, et cetera, where he was closely confined, often
threatened with the loss of life, and was even obliged,
by way of humiliation for his active services, to assist
in the working of an illicit still ; while, like another
Tantalus, the cup of pleasure was held to his parched
lips, without the liberty of gratifying his thirsty desires
At the end of thirteen days, when the necessity for his
confinement had ceased, he was again blindfolded, taken
from the island, and sent a considerable distance into
the interior of the country, where the mask was -re-
moved from his face, and he was allowed, in the soli-
tude of night, to make his way to his disconsolate
family, who, all the time, had looked upon his restora-
tion as hopeless.
Another officer, on a similar occasion, was hurried
from his bed, put into a sack, thrown across the back
of a horse, and in this manner was conducted to the
margin of a lake, where, in his own hearing, a consulta-
tion was held as to whether he should be drowned, bj
tying a stone to the sack and committing it to the deep
or be put to a more lingering and torturing death. In
this awful state of suspense he was removed to a moun-
VOL. I.
tainous part of the country, where he was subjected to
every kind of insult and privation, continually menaced
with death in every shape of barbarity, led out at night
as if about to be executed, and reconducted to his
solitary habitation, anticipating a renewal of further
cruelties. In this state he was retained for a consider-
able time, till the judge who presided at the assizes,
during the trial of some persons for illicitly distilling,
uspecting the parties as being accessary to this outrage-,
told them, that if the officer who had been taken away
was not immediately liberated, he would pass such a
sentence on them as would for ever put it out of their
power to commit such another offence, and gave them
but twenty-four hours for his restoration. This had
the desired effect : the unfortunate man was again put
into a sack, and restored to his family in the same
manner as that in which he had been carried away.
Morewood.
Whisky is generally made in the United States from
Indian corn; and in Cincinnati, where this grain
abounds, there is so large a quantity of alcohol and
whisky manufactured as to supply the Western and
Southern markets.
The opposition given of late by the temperance socie-
ties to intoxication, has diminished the consumption of
spiritous liquors very much in the United States. Some
States are prohibited by law from either manufacturing
or vending ardent spirit of any kind, and they are
using their utmost endeavors to have the same law
passed by the legislatures of other States.
Numbers of distilleries are now at work in Canada ;
like those of their neighbors, they are mostly of wood,
and worked by steam. In Pittsburg, and other parts
of the United States, the whisky is purified by filtering
it through charcoal coarsely ground. Seven miles from
the city of Toronto is a large distillery, the annexed
drawing and description of which Fig. 73 are taken
from MOREWOOD.
A is the brickwork, in which the iron boiler, with a
cylindrical flue running through the centre, is partly en-
closed. B and c are the first ar.d second wooden stills, of
the same size, being four feet eight inches at bottom, and
four feet six inches at top, with an altitude of six feet ;
D is the doubling or low-wines' still, two feet ten inches
at bottom, and two feet four inches at top, the height
being three feet nine inches : E is the worm-tub, six
feet at bottom, five feet at top, and nine feet high,
supplied by a copious stream of water ; F the low-wines'
and faints' receiver : (J is the recipient for the spirit pre-
vious to passing through the rectifiers or filtering ves-
sels, H, I, and is two feet at bottom, two feet four inches
at top, by two feet in height. The top diameter of 11
and I is three feet, and the bottom two feet, the alti-
tude being five feet; they are filled with charcoal
and other material, through which the liquor grad-
ually descends in a limpid, gently-flowing current
into J, the final receiver, or store cask. K is a tank
or large vessel for holding warm water for distilling
purposes, supplied from the top of the worm tub, the
heat of which is supported by steam from the tube, c,
connected with the boiler, and having a stopcock for
regulation at e. The tank is a reservoir for supplying
the mash tubs with water, of which, in the establishment,
N
98
ALCOHO]
-RECTIFICATION.
there are fourteen, each measuring three feet four inches
by three feet six inches in diameter, ranged on a loft
above the stills, in such a manner that, after the worts
have undergone fermentation hi these tubs, they are
let down by a leader or trough into the second still, c,
at g. When the first charge is worked off, the remain-
der is let into the first still, and the second still is
charged from the mash-keeve. To facilitate the opera-
tion, there are pipes with proper stopcocks from still to
still, such as that at/; and it will be perceived that the
whole process of distillation is effected by means of
steam admitted through the tube, d, projecting from
the main upright pipe of the boiler into the first still, B,
and so proceeding by other pipes through the other
stills. The tubes which convey the steam into the
stills descend to nearly three or four inches from the
bottom.
All the vessels and pipes, as well as the stills, are
made of pine ; the pipes are nine inches square, with a
bore of two and a half inches in. diameter. The steam-
boiler is seven feet deep, the height of which, at the
fire place, is eight feet, and it is supplied by water from
the worm-tub by the pipe, a, regulated by a stopcock
or ball of lead which is worked by the cord, b. It is not
necessary to describe the other vessels of this arrange-
ment, as they are similar to those employed in the dis-
tilleries of Scotland and Ireland. The greatest disad-
vantage attending it, is the liability of the timber
becoming soon unserviceable when the operations
are discontinued for any time; but in a country like
Canada, where wood is so plentiful, this inconvenience
is readily repaired.
The wash is usually made from rye, wheat, or Indian
corn, with a mixture of one-twentieth part of barley
malt, or one pound to the bushel of mixed gram ; many
use a larger quantity. This is ground or crushed in
a mill, and then mashed with water, at a heat ranging
between 158 and 162; others work at a temperature
so high as 180 and 190 Fahr., but this is uncommon.
When mashed, a cover is immediately put on the tubs, or
keeves, in order to preserve the heat as much as possible.
The mash is then permitted to remain, with an occa-
sional agitation by the rakes for about two hours, until
the menstruum acquires its proper sweetness ; at this
stage, cold water is added to reduce the heat to 60 or
64, but mostly to 70 or 74, when yeast is added.
This yeast is home made, in country places in particu-
lar, but in the towns it is usually procured from brewers.
The tubs or keeves are again covered and allowed to
repose until completely fermented, when the distilling
commences. The grains and all are put into the still.
Brewing and distilling are generally carried on in the
Canadas from October till May.
No duty is charged on malt in the Canadas, and the
distillers have, therefore, every encouragement to make
use of it in what proportion they may deem necessary
for the production of a good and palatable spirit; the ale
made from it is celebrated in the West Indies.
RECTIFICATION OF SPIRIT. On recapitulating
the steps through which the production of spirit has
been traced, it will be seen that at first the grain
sometimes mixed with malt is crushed in order to
allow hot water to act more readily upon its mealy
ingredients ; next, the mashing takes place and worts
result ; then the fermentation of the worts commences,
whereby the saccharine principle is resolved into alco-
hol ; finally, this alcohol is, by successive distillations,
separated from its greater portion of water, and plain
British spirit is obtained. Alcohol, so highly prized by
chemists, the various forms of spiritous liquors known as
hollands, whisky, gin, British brandy, and rum, and the
cordials under the name of peppermint, cloves, aniseed,
et cetera, are produced by the rectifier, from plain spirit
purchased from the distiller; consequently, the two
branches are perfectly distinct. British spirit is but
little known in the form in which it. leaves the distillery,
ALCOHOI
-RECTIFICATION.
because it receives from the rectifier the exclusive pro-
perty by which it is rendered a household word. One
of the most extensive and elegant rectifying distilleries
is that of Messrs. CHILD and SON, in London, and from
all accounts the resources of modern science are there
brought to bear on this particular branch of manufac-
ture with tact and discrimination.
The manufacturer of whisky, or any of the other
alcoholic liquors, rarely purifies the products, but
disposes of them to the rectifying distiller, whose
business it is to remove from them any contamina-
tions which render them disagreeable or highly in-
jurious. If, however, the fabricator conducts this opera-
tion as well as the original preparation from the grain,
a distinct part of his premises is allotted to the work,
according to legal enactments, and a peculiar process
followed, which will be here considered.
All spiritous liquors are identical, when the ex-
traneous bodies from which such liquors are obtained
have been removed, with this exception, that a vari-
able amount of water is present in them ; they are
more or less concentrated solutions of alcohol, whose
properties have been fully given; thus, the alcohol
from wine, rum, malt, potatoes, carrots, beets, grasses,
and various other sources, is the same in quality, pro-
vided all the other solid and liquid impurities be re-
moved. A single distillation of the spiritous portions
of those liquids will not effect their purification, and
where volatile oils are present, distillation merely,
how often soever repeated, will not separate them,
for these volatile impurities pass over during dis-
tillation ; hence, the spirit procured from wines by
simple distillation will have their peculiar flavor;
beer, when distilled, will, for the same reason, yield
alcohol possessing the abominable taste of the yeast;
malt spirit will have the disagreeable qualities of faints
from the presence of an oil of an acrid bad taste; and
potato spirit the physical characteristics of fusel oil,
or oil of potatoes. Thus, the disagreeableness or fra-
grancy of distilled products is, as in the case of malt
and potato spirit, due to the presence of an essential
oil, derived from the source of the alcoholic liquid.
The chief object of the distiller in rectifying, spirit
is the removal of these oily bodies in order to pro-
cure a pure alcohol, from which, by the aid of other
ingredients, he can fabricate liquors imitating those
more costly products which are formed naturally, such
as the better varieties of brandy, gin, whisky, and all
the other kinds of liquors and cordials which are in
daily request as favorite beverages with the commu-
nity.
Caustic potassa under the name of grey salts or
soda, Is added to unite with the oil ; pearl-ash white
salts is employed with the view of combining with the
water, as was mentioned under the formation of abso-
lute alcohol in the commencement of this article, as
well as to take up the fatty or oily impurities. The
alkali combines with the oil, giving a soap which re-
mains in the still, while the spirit passes off divested of
its impurities. It has been ascertained, that when car-
bonated alkali is used, the distillate contains some of
the salt, as it affects litmus and turmeric papers hence
this method cannot always be followed. Every rectily-
ing distiller in the kingdom fabricates cognacs, genevas,
usquebaughs, et cetera, from the disagreeable low-wines
of the malt distiller, or from the foul potato or carrot
spirit of foreign manufacturers.
All of these spirits, as they come from the first
distillation of the respective mashes, are called low
wines or singlings, and are charged with oils, and unfit
for any use while in that state. When they are redis-
tilled, the first portion which comes over is much purer,
and contains less water than the singlings ; this is called
theforeshot. So much of this spirit as can be produced
without the smell of faints, is retained as whisky, and
the remaining portion is diluted and submitted to fur-
ther distillation.
The strength of whisky, as sent out from the manu-
factory, is generally about twenty-five per cent, over
hydrometer proof, on Dicas' scale. On a further distil-
lation of this whisky, a spirit is obtained which marks
about forty-six per cent, over proof, and is about the
strength of spirit of wine in general; of this, about
eighty gallons are obtained from one hundred gallons
of ordinary whisky, of twenty-five per cent, over proof.
A further distillation affords a liquid of spec. grav.
0-820, which is the strongest spirit that can be obtained
by mere distillation.
When various compounds, such as chloride of cal-
cium, caustic lime, sulphate of soda, or acetate of
potassa, have been employed, either for the purpose of
uniting with water or oily matter in the liquors, por-
tions of these bodies are, according to the statements of
DUBUE, invariably found in the distillate. The same
authority states, that when spirit was distilled over cal-
cined alum, the condensed liquid reddened litmus paper,
but when sulphuric acid was added in small quantity
to the spirit, not exceeding thirty-eight degrees of the
areometer, the product which came over was found to be
quite pure. Alumina, or aluminous clay, well washed
and dried, was found capable of abstracting small quan-
tities of water from spirit, and no portion of it passed
over into the receiver.
Charcoal is a means by which the disagreeable flavor
of spiritous liquors is removed. It has been made the
subject of investigation by several chemists, among
whom, LbwiTZ ascertained that, by distilling common
malt spirit over charcoal, its peculiar bad smell was
removed ; this is also effected by merely agitating the
two together. He performed ten experiments, with one
pound of common spirit for each operation, and a vari-
able quantity of charcoal, from half a drachm to five
ounces, with the following results :
Half a drachm of charcoal scarcely altered the smell,
and the liquor did not clear for six months.
One drachm of the charcoal had no better effect in
removing the bad flavor and odor ; but cleared it in
four months.
Two drachms cleared the spirit in one month.
Four drachms removed the smell in a very sensible
degree, and the spirit became clear in one month.
One ounce of the charcoal completely freed the spirit
from the bad smell, and clarified it in a fortnight.
An ounce and a half cleared it in eight days ; three
ounces in five days; four ounces in twenty-four hours ;
and five ounces in two hours.
100
ALCOH01
-GENEVA.
From the experiments of HAHNEMAN and KELS,
it would appear that the Tise of charcoal in purifying
spirit confers a peculiar fiery taste, whether the alco-
holic liquor be drawn off by distillation, or by agitating
the mixture, then allowing the charcoal to subside, and
afterwards decanting the clear liquid; its use is there-
fore objectionable.
KUNKEL was the first chemist who made the essen-
tial oils, contained in spirit, the object of research. His
method of rectification was to dilute largely with water
and distil, by which the product was much improved
in flavor.
Wood-ashes had, for a long time, been almost in
general use in the rectification of spiritous liquors ;
their beneficial effects are due to the amount of al-
kali they contain, which enters into combination with
the small quantity of acid formed in the spirit, as well
as with the oily matters. It would appear that filtra-
tion through hydrate of lime has the effect of removing
some of the essential oils from spirit ; the practice had
been followed in France, particularly among those who
carried on an illicit trade by adding an odoriferous oil
to their brandies, and then entering them at the Cus-
toms as perfumes.
The fragrant principle was removed, subsequently, by
diluting with water, and filtering through lime, slaked
in the air, which had the effect of separating the oil,
provided it had not been present in great excess.
ZEIZE affirms that agitation with a small quantity
of hypochlorite of lime has the effect of destroying
the essential oil, and that the spirit, after distillation
from the lime compound, resembles brandy in flavor;
most likely a small quantity of chloroform imparts the
bouquet. Milk, according to the views of M. CADKT
DE VAUX, has the peculiar property of removing the
bad flavor from the spirit obtained from the wines of
various mellow and sweet fruits. This is effected by
one or two distillations with milk, and the spirits ob-
tained are almost identical, and much improved, not-
withstanding that they were procured from quite differ-
ent sources.
The rectifying distiller now only considers the re-
moval of the oil, since the improved apparatus affords
an alcohol of any strength which is required in all ordi-
nary cases. The proportion of salts employed for re-
moving the oil from the crude proof spirit of the large
wash distillers, is about
4 Ibs. grey salts, and
4 Ibs. white salts,
to every seven hundred gallons of the ordinary product.
Where the distiller infers that an unusual quantity of the
foul oil is present, the proportion of salt is increased, and
sulphuric acid is also added in order to ameliorate the
flavor of the spirit by giving rise to an ether. The
salts are dissolved in about two gallons of liquid, and
if the commercial article be used, it is found necessary
to remove the sedimentary impurities by filtration.
This alkaline solution is mixed with the liquid, and the
distillation commenced. If the ordinary common still
be employed, great attention must be paid to the fire ;
for if it be not timely slackened when the liquid first
boils, there is much risk of the still running foul, that
is, boiling over through the neck of the still, which
occurrence would of course spoil the operation; when,
on the contrary, the improved stills, such as COFFEY'S
and others, which have been already described, arc
used, no danger is to be apprehended from this evil. In
rectifying faints, 80 under proof, the following method
is used : The spirit is mixed with the proper quantity
of alkali, and the stills charged with this ; the first por-
tions that come over after the still is brought down,
are collected separately, till the spirit runs at about
proof, when it is turned off into another receiver ; the
result of this rectification the common still being em-
ployed will be about ten per cent, over proof. On rec-
tifying a second time, the distillate at first marks forty-
three per cent., and is collected till it indicates thirty ;
it is then conducted into another back until reduced to
ten per cent, over proof, and the residual portion, after
this strength, is received in the faints-back. A third
rectification will afford a spirit of fifty-three per cent,
over proof, or spirit of wine. In the second rectifica-
tion, only one half the quantity of salts employed in the
first operation is made use of; and in the third, it is
customary to add about four pounds of animal charcoal,
and ten pounds of coarse grained common salt, to every
hundred gallons, to cleanse the still. At the distillery of
Messrs. JAMES MULLENEUX and SONS, in Liverpool,
where M. ST. MARC'S stills are erected, they can rectify
twelve hundred gallons of proof ordinary wash spirit in
ten hours, and obtain a product, if required, of sixty per
cent, over proof, and stronger ; but in that case a longer
time is required to distil the whole contents, but the
trouble of repeated distillations as when the ordinary
still is worked is dispensed with, besides a consider-
able saving in labor and fuel is effected.
GENEVA. This far-famed liquor has been long the
subject of study among distillers. Many trials have
been made to produce a spirit equal in quality to that
imported, but with very indifferent success.
The subjoined particulars were communicated to the
late Dr. THOMSON, by a gentleman who sojourned in
Holland for several years, solely for the purpose of
learning the process followed in the manufacture of the
Dutch hollands or geneva. One hundred and twelve
pounds of barley malt, and two hundred and twenty-
eight pounds of rycmeal, are mashed with four hundred
and sixty gallons of water, at 162 Fahr. ; after infusion
has taken place, cold water is added to bring the
strength to forty -five pounds per barrel, or spec. grav.
1'047, at which strength, after it has cooled to 80 Fahr.,
it is run into the fermenting tun. To the contents of
the fermenting back, which is about five hundred gal-
lons, half a gallon of good yeast is added, fermentation
speedily sets in, the temperature rises to about 90, and
the attenuation is complete in forty-eight hours. After
attenuation of the wash, from twelve to fifteen pounds
per ban-el of saccharine matter remain undecomposed in
the fermented liquor. The wash and grains are then
introduced into the still, and the whole of the low-wines
distilled over ; these are subjected to a second distilla-
tion, and the distillate after rectification is the famous
geneva. A few juniper-berries and sometimes hops are
added in the rectification, to impart to the spirit a
peculiar terebinthine flavor.
ALCOHOL GINS.
101
Some peculiarities are seen in this concise account
of the process followed in Holland, namely, the im-
perfect attenuation of the wort, and the small amount
of yeast employed in bringing it about. Double the
quantity of spirits are obtained from the worts of the
distillers in this kingdom, as is produced from those
of Holland, according to the example just given. It
is very probable that the large amount of yeast used
by British and Irish distillers, and the last efforts
tried to effect an attenuation as low as possible, are
the very means which communicate a flavor to the
spirit so different from the Dutch. The only liquor
in this country which can bear any comparison with
that of Holland, is perhaps the illicit product. A
manufactory for the production of hollands was insti-
tuted some few years since at Maidstone, in Kent. It
never became popular, and after languishing a few
years, ended in bankruptcy. It lias never since been
revived. Indeed, according to the present state of the
Excise regulations, it would be preposterous to attempt
it, and this is only one of the numerous instances of the
many obstacles in the way of private industry and enter-
prise, inflicted by the laws of this country.
BRITISH GIN is, for the most part, manufactured by
the rectifiers of the low-wines of the Scotch and English
spirit or whisky fabricators. The mode of procedure
is to rectify the spirit from the faints by one or more
distillations, and then to flavor it with berries and
various other bodies. These processes are carried on
generally in a most absurd and uncouth fashion, as
appears by the following few receipts from the note-
book of one of the most extensive and respectable dis-
tillery rectifiers in the kingdom.
The still is charged with three hundred gallons of
liquor, and six hundred and fifty gallons of spirit from
a previous rectification, to which are added
95 Ibs. German juniper berries,
95 Ibs. coriander seeds,
47 Ibs. crushed almond cake,
2 Ibs. angelica root, and
6 Ibs. liquorice powder.
The whole is well rummaged, distillation commenced,
and after the worm is cleansed by the first portions drawn
over into the faints-back, about one hundred and sixty
ga Ions are run into forcing-back No. 4, then turned
off into back No. 3, till it runs one-to-nine, or eleven
per cent, over proof, when it is turned into faints-back
No. 8.
About four hundred gallons are found in back No.
3. Liquor is run into back No. 4, to reduce it to fifty
per cent, under proof; it is fined by throwing into it two
pounds of alum dissolved in boiling water, and leaving
it to rest for about eight hours, after which this low
gin is pumped into back No. 3, containing the re-
mainder of the charge to bring it to twenty-two per
cent, under proof; then the whole is pumped into store
casks for use ; the result being one thousand one hundred
gallons.
Another standard receipt for Cordial Gin: Take
seven hundred gallons of the product of the second
rectification if the improved stills are used, the pro-
duct of the first distillation answers and mix with it
tlie following ingredients:
70 Ibs. German juniper berries,
56 Ibs. coriander seeds,
5 Ibs. almond cake, crushed or broken,
1A Ib. orris root, broken,
2i Iba. angelica root, cut,
Ib. cardamom, or, instead of this,
6 Ibs. liquorice powder are sometimes added.
Force the first running of the working, or about two
hundred gallons, by reducing it to fifty under proof,
adding three quarters of a pound of alum, boiled in two
quarts of water. In adopting this receipt, make a double
working of it, with twice the quantity of the ingredients.
Work in the flavoring in the first charge of rectified
spirits, having in the back two or three inches of the
usual charge, to make up with liquor, and prevent the
bottom of the still from injury by the charring of the
large amount of ingredients depositing upon it. Turn
the distillate into another back, and reduce to fifty per
cent, underproof; force with a pound and a half of alum,
and pump into fining cask; then charge with rectified
spirits, and work into back containing goods from pre-
ceding charge. Run down gin from store cask, and
make up to strength required seventeen to twenty-two
under proof.
Another receipt for the manufacture of Cordial Gin,
the charge being nine hundred and fifty gallons, is the
folio whig ;
100 Ibs. juniper berries,
70 Ibs. coriander seeds,
2 Ibs. orris root,
1 Ib. angelica root,
2 Ibs. calamus root,
Ib. cardamom seeds.
The operations being the same as noted in the pre-
ceding.
For a Fine Gin. the distillation of which is carried
on, for the most part, in the same manner as the above,
take
9GO gallons of spirit, hydrometer proof,
96 Ibs. German juniper berries,
6 Ibs. coriander seeds,
4 Ibs. grains of paradise,
4 Ibs. angelica root,
2 Ibs. orris root,
2 Ibs. calamus root,
2 Ibs. orange peel,
80 or 90 Ibs. of liquorice powder are occasionally added, to
impart color and sweetness.
Plain or London Gin is made in the following pro-
portions :
700 gallons of the second rectification,
70 Ibs. German juniper berries,
70 Ibs. coriander seeds,
3i Ibs. almond cake,
ij Ib. angelica root,
6 Ibs. liquorice powder.
For the manufacture of West Country Gin, the an-
nexed is the process: Introduce into the still seven
hundred gallons of the second rectification, and flavor
with
14 Ibs. German berries,
1 Ib. calamus root, cut, and
8 Ibs. sulphuric acid.
This gin is much used in Cornwall, and particularly in
the Western counties of England; it is also used in
making British hollands, and in that case is mixed with
102
ALCOH01
-FlAYOBINGS.
about five per cent of fine gin, reduced to twenty-two
under proof with liquor.
For Geneva. Charge of still being nine hundred and
fifty gallons of second rectification, the proportions are :
84 Ibs. juniper berries,
112 Ibs. coriander seeds,
6 Ibs. cassia buds,
4 Ibs. angelica root,
6 Ibs. calamus root,
6 Ibs. almond cake,
Ib. cardamom.
Plain Geneva. For nine hundred and fifty gallons
of spirit of second rectification, take
84 Ibs. juniper berries.,
81 Ibs. coriander seeds,
2 Ibs. almond cake,
2 Ibs. orris root,
2 Ibs. calamus.
Another prescription for making Geneva and one
which is much esteemed is the following: Add to
nine hundred and fifty gallons
14 Ibs. grey salts, and
4 Ibs. white salts.
The rectification to be conducted with the usual care.
At the second operation, add
168 Ibs. juniper berries,
74 Ibs. coriander seeds,
12 Ibs. almond cake,
8 Ibs. grains of paradise,
8 Ibs. angelica root,
1 Ib. cardamom,
2 Ibs. calamus.
It is of importance, and deserves attention, to con-
sider, that in making gin with a high degree of flavor,
the distillate, or flavored liquor drawn over, is very apt
to turn blue on being diluted, to prevent which is very
often a difficult task. In preparing such liquors, how-
ever, it would be the most advantageous and satisfactory
way to have two stills, and to divide the charge between
them. To one-half the amount, the whole of the spices
and flavoring matters are added, and the liquid drawn off
into two backs till it runs at eleven over proof. One of
the backs is reduced as low as one in two, or fifty per
cent, under proof, which ought always to be observed,
as in making gin it should on no account exceed this
strength, but may be two or three per cent, under,
without being disadvantageous. About two to four
pounds of alum are dissolved in hot water, and this
solution is thrown into the back with the flavored
spirit or goods, the whole briskly stirred, then pumped
into a store vat, and left to fine over night; in the
morning it will be clear, and is run into the back con-
taining the second portion of the rectified spirit, with-
out flavoring, and diluted to twenty-two or seventeen
per cent, under proof.
In making gin of a less flavor, or where two stills can-
not be employed, it is necessary to have a forcing-back
to fine. To this forcing-back a small cask is attached,
to enable the operator to pump off the low gin to the
portion of strong in the back. The process followed
in order to prevent the bluing, is to flavor and charge
the still, and to run off into the forcing-back, till it
is ascertained at the worm end that the spirit will not
change color on being diluted with water, and when
this happens, it is turned off into the working-back to the
usual strengili. The gin is then reduced in the forcing-
back to fifty per cent, under proof, and the aluminous
solution poured in , on the following day, when the
liquor has clarified, it is pumped to the making vat to
the remainder of the charge, and brought down to the
strength required. If too weak, it may be raised by
adding the best spirit of wine in the required quantity.
In France, an exceedingly fine gin is produced by
fermenting a portion of juniper berries uruised with
four parts of barley meal, or ground malt, proceeding
throughout the succeeding part of the operation in the
same way as when making grain spirit.
Another method practised is the following: Boil
during half an hour two gallons of bruised juniper
berries in four gallons of water ; put this into a barrel
capable of containing six gallons; add to it at first
four pounds of rye bread that has been dried and re-
duced to powcler, then some aromatic, according to the
fancy of the manufacturer, and two pounds of brown
sugar. At the end of a month the liquor is converted
into an agreeable wine, which, when distilled, affords
a spirit much esteemed, and commanding a high price.
Having given the several incongruous mixtures used
by the rectifiers in preparing their gins, the Editor now
introduces a particular notice of each substance men-
tioned, with a description of the oil derived from it, and
its properties, to enable the manufacturer to become
better acquainted with the nature of the roots, seeds,
and essences, that give to his liquors their peculiar fra-
grancy, astringency, et cetera; moreover, the information
thus laid before him, may induce him to make use of
those only that are serviceable in imparting the desired
aroma. If spirits are at all wholesome (?), they must
be more so in a pure than in a degraded state ; conse-
quently, it should be the aim of the fabricator to ele-
vate rather than to deprave the taste of the consumer.
Cardamom. The oil obtained from this seed is
colorless, of an agreeable odor, and strong aromatic
burning taste; the seeds are used in Abyssinia as a
condiment, and in medicine ; they are stimulant, tonic,
stomachic, and carminative, and yield nearly five per
cent, of essential oil, the composition of which is C, II g .
Grains of Paradise. The volatile oil has a light
yellow color, a camphoraceous smell, and a hot, pene-
trating taste ; the seeds are esteemed in Africa as the
most wholesome of spices, and are generally used by
the natives to season their food ; they are also used for
medicinal and other purposes, as stomachic and cordial
stimulants. Gins possessing a very peppery flavor,
acquire it from grains of paradise, which yield half a
per cent, of oil.
Almond Cake. This is the residual cake of bitter
almonds, after expressing the fixed oil. When distilled,
it affords a volatile oil, which has a golden yellow color,
an agreeable odor, and an acrid bitter taste. Sub-
stances or liquids flavored with bitter almonds may act
injuriously, owing to the presence of hydrocyanic acid.
Angelica Root. This root grows most abundantly
in Northern Europe ; its taste is at first sweet, then hot,
aromatic, and bitter.
Calamus Root. The taste of this root is due to the
oil, which is sharp and sweetish ; the yield of oil is
ALCOHOI
-BRANDY.
about one-hundredth per cent. It is obtained by dis-
tilling with water, and is used for flavoring aromatic
vinegar.
Orange Peel. The peel of the orange yields the oil
proper, which has the strong odor of the rind.
Lemon Peel. The oil is obtained both by expression
and by distillation. It is chiefly imported from Portu-
gal, Italy, and the South of France. Pure lemon oil is
very fluid, of an agreeable odor, and colorless. Its
taste is pleasant but pungent, and it is, therefore, often
used in culinary purposes as a substitute for the peel ;
the flavor, however, which it imparts, frequently savors
of turpentine, and is never so agreeable as that com-
municated by the fresh rind of the fruit. Oil of lemon
and oil of turpentine are isomeric.
Juniper Berries. What the distiller prizes in this
berry is its volatile essence, which is an oily liquid,
isomeric with the preceding, and with oil of turpentine ;
their smell is also very similar, hence the origin of the
supposition that London gin is sometimes mixed with
the latter. Oil of juniper is the most powerful of ah 1
diuretics, and gives to the urine the smell of violets.
It promotes perspiration and relieves flatulency ; conse-
quently, gin is recommended in many diseases of the
urinary organs.
Coriander. The seeds have a strong smell, and
medicinally are considered as stomachic and carmina-
tive ; they are used in sweetmeats, in certain stomachic
liqueurs, and, in some countries, in cooking. They con-
tain about half a per cent, of volatile oil, to which they
owe their fragrancy, and on this account the seeds are
used in rectifying operations.
Orris Root is the root of Iris Florentines, a white
flowering species of iris found in the South of Europe.
It has an agreeable odor resembling .violets, and is
sometimes used in perfumed powders. In its dried
state it is employed as a pectoral and expectorant, and
is sometimes made into little balls for issues, called orris
peas.
Liquorice. A plant of the genus Glycyrrhiza. The
root abounds with a sweet juice, much used in demul-
cent compositions.
Cassia. This plant furnishes buds which consist of
the calyx surrounding and nearly encircling the young
ovary. They bear some resemblance to a clove, but
are smaller, and when fresh have a rich cinnamon
flavor. They are used for the same purposes as cinna-
mon and cloves. The bark and oil are powerful stimu-
lants. Oils of cassia and cinnamon, when quite fresh,
have the formula C^ H u 2 . On exposure to_ the air
they rapidly absorb oxygen, yielding a considerable
quantity of cinnnmic acid.
It occurs to the Editor that most of the roots or seeds
have, so far as their oils or essences are concerned, very
analogous properties ; and since their virtue in distilla-
tion with the spirit is to communicate their oily or
fragrant principle, why not add a few drops of each of
the oils at once to the pure spirit, to procure the desired
liquor, and by this means obviate the necessity of dis-
tilling, and the risk of injury to the stills by the mixtures
mentioned, which appear to have no atomic rule for
their basis?
BHANJDY. This alcoholic liquor forms an extensive
trade in the South of Europe, and it is generally ob-
tained from the high-colored, white, or pale-red wines of
those countries, but is often manufactured from inferior
articles, such as the refuse wine and the marcs of the
wine press.
Distillation of the wines is the only thing necessary
to procure this spirit; hence, the richer the wine in
alcohol, the greater will be the yield of brandy. A
simple test with an alcoholometer will determine for the
distiller the value of the wine as to the yield of brandy ;
but many other circumstances, independent of the manu-
facture, enhance the quality of the product.
Thus, the white wines do not always afford more
alcohol than the red, but the spirit is of a much finer
quality from the former. The reason of this is, that they
contain more of the essential oil of the grapes. It is
also a singular fact, that those wines which carry with
them a certain taste of the soil, communicate it to the
brandy derived from them by distillation ; thus, the
wines of Selluel, in Dauphine*, give a certain brandy
which has the flavor and the taste of Florentine iris ;
those of St. Pierre, in Vivarais, give a spirit which
smells of the violet, and so of many other varieties.
Wines of the countries nearest the Mediterranean
furnish the largest proportion of brandy, which dimin-
ishes as the grapes grow in more Northern countries.
The wines of the South of France yield one-fourth
of brandy, some even one-third, while in the North of
France, only about one-eighth, or even one-tenth of
brandy is afforded.
The fabricator of the better qualities of brandy in-
variably distils the. white wines; first, as was before
stated, because often a greater yield of brandy is obtained,
and this of a better quality than from the red wines ;
and, secondly, because those wines fine sooner, so that
they may be distilled into brandy before the red wines
are ready for this operation.
The stills employed on the Continent are those of
DEROSNE and LAUGIER, in France ; of PISTORIUS, in
Germany; ST. MARC'S is also used in the distillation
of wine. With these stills, the spirit comes over of any
requisite strength, up to the strongest spirit of wine;
but when the ordinary still is employed, the receiver is
changed when the vapor arising from the boiler only
feebly ignites, and the eau-de-vie-seconde, or repasse, is
collected by itself, till the whole of the alcohol in 'the
wine has been exhausted. The liquid remaining in the
still is called vinasse.
The campaign, or distilling season, in France, is from
the beginning of October to the end of May.
The following is an average of the yield of brandy
which some of the wines afford by distillation :
1000 Litres of wine of St. Gilles, in the environs of
Montpellier, afford of 3/6 brandy, 1!
" of good wine of calcareous soils, 1'.
" of wines of fertile soils near Montpellier, 1C
" " of wines of soils producing much grapes, 1C
The brandy, as sold in France, is generally of two
degrees of gravity; these strengths are thus designatt
-a preuve de Holland, and a preuve dhmle; the
former varies from 18 to 20 of Beaumd. The stronger
liquids are valued according to ilio quantity of eau de
vie or brandy a preuve de Holland, that a given quau-
104
ALCOHOl
-BRANDY.
tity will furnish on the addition of the proper proportion
of water. These strengths are usually twelve, namely,
five-six, four-five, three-four, two-three, three-five, four-
seven, five-nine, six-eleven, three-six, three-seven, three-
eight, and three-nine, but the last is rarely made. The
meaning of these strengths is understood in the follow-
ing sense : if a spirit be five-six, five parts of the spirit
will give a liquor d preuve de Holland, when added to
six measures of water; if three-six, three measures
when added to six of water will yield a spirit of the
same standard, and so of the remainder.
The spirit five-six strength is of a specific gravity
0'9237, or 22 Beaume"; but all the other strengths are
subject to variation on account of the uncertainty of
the strength a preuve de Holland, as before shown.
Wines, when distilled carefully from a clean apparatus,
yield a distillate which is colorless or nearly so, and when
it is wished to retain it in this state, vessels of glass
or stoneware are employed. After being put in casks
and left in them, the clear liquor acquires a little color
by extracting the soluble matters of the wood; the flavor,
however, is not materially affected if the casks be not
newly made ; when new casks are used, the tannic
acid of the wood, which is generally oak, communicates
a deep color and astringency of taste which is quite
foreign to the brandy.
The brandy from different localities, and even from
a different variety of grape grown on the same place,
possesses, as already remarked, an aroma characteristic
of the wine whence it is obtained, and which is readily
perceptible to those well versed in the trade. An ex-
perienced taster will readily distinguish the brandies
of Languedoc, Bordeaux, Armagnac, Cognac, Aunis,
Rochelle, Orleans, Barcelona, Naples, et cetera; further,
he can say from what species of fruit it is derived;
and he will also discern minute shades of difference in
the qualities of various brandies from the same source.
Real cognac is obtained from the distillation of the
choicest wines, every regard being paid to the proper
degree of cleanliness which should be observed in the
various utensils through which it has to pass. In the
improved forms of still a very superior article is obtained
from inferior wines, but the proportion of essential oils
in such wines divests the brandy of that aromatic flavor
which is an inherent property in the better sort of wine,
and which is observable in a very distinct degree in
the brandies procured from them.
An inferior variety of brandy, or eau de vie de Marcs,
is obtained by distilling the dark-red wines of Portugal,
Spain, and other wine-growing countries, the lies de-
posited by wines on keeping, the marcs or refuse of
the grapes from the vine-press, the scrapings of wine
casks, et cetera.
Distillation is carried oil in the ordinary way, but as
the flavor is not so much regarded, the spirit is drawn
off rapidly, and at a high temperature. The marcs
from the vine-press are prepared for the purpose of
distillation by breaking the cakes up into pieces, and
throwing them into water. A temperature of 70 to
80 Fahr. is kept up, and in the course of a short
time fermentation sets in; when this has ceased, the
solution is racked off and distilled. The first distillate
has a whitish color, and is called blanquette, but this
on redistillation yields a spirit of 22 or 24 Beaume.
One pound of brandy is produced from eighty-five to
ninety pounds of cake.
The fermentation of the cakes is sometimes effected
in large pits, where they are covered with earth. The
progress of fermentation is known by thrusting the hand
into the heap. When the temperature decreases, the
fermentation is said to be finished; the contents are then
taken out, water in proper quantity added, and distilled.
By this process a hundred pounds of marcs yield one
pound of brandy. When such liquors are distilled, the
sedimentary matter subsides, and is apt to carbonize on
the bottom of the copper still, and thus communicates
a smoky flavor to the distilled liquor, in addition to a
hot fiery taste proceeding from the essential oil fusel
oil or amylic alcohol of the skin of the fruit. AUBEH-
GIER has proved that a few drops of this energetic com-
pound are sufficient to taint a pipe of one hundred and
thirty-three gallons of pure spirit. In some distilleries
the apparatus is furnished with agitators to keep the con-
tents in motion. Other manufacturers insert into the
body of the still a basket to retain the sediment accom-
panying the fermented liquor, and thus contact with
the lower part of the still is prevented. M. HEBOUL'S
process is to inject steam from a boiler into the still by
means of a coil of piping. The stills in this case are
large wooden boxes, to which worms are adapted in the
usual way, and the whole of the alcohol is driven over
by steam heat. M. CURANDAU'S apparatus consists of
a still, the neck of which is as wide as the body, and
three feet in height; brackets are placed at the distance
of nine inches in the neck of the still, which support
several partitions; these are provided with short pipes,
pierced with holes, to allow the vapors to circulate freely
from the body of the still. The neck being affixed,
and the first partition introduced, wine lies are poured
in, which are filtered by the perforated partition ; then
the second, and a further quantity of lies, and so on
till all the partitions are inserted and the lies are about
six inches thick on each.
If the liquid drained from the marcs or lies be not
sufficient to fill the still, water is added to make up the
proper quantity. Heat is then applied, and the steam,
as it passes off, expels the last portions of spirit from
the solid particles retained by the partitions in the neck
of the still. Most of the inferior kinds of brandy con-
tain an acid which partly unites with the oil from the
grapes, rendering the taste of the spirit unpleasant;
agitation with a little quicklime has been recommended,
which not only removes the acid, but also the oil in a
great degree. The matter left in the still when dried
and burned, yields an alkaline carbonate, which is often
preferred to potassa, or the commercial article, in dye-
ing operations.
Spirits of this class are used by the lower order of
people in France, but on account of their hot fiery taste,
they are often preferred in England and other Nor-
thern countries to a more genial produce. Cognac and
Armagnac brandies contain about half their weight of
water, and owe their fragrancy to the smaller amount
and less disagreeable nature of their fusel oil, so that
the aroma, indigenous to the wine, is readily perceptible
in their odor and taste.
ALCOH01
Enanthic ether is another constituent which imparts
a nice aroma to wines, and passes into the brandy.
PELOUZE first proved this odorous principle of wine to
be a compound ether. MULDER detected the same in
the oil of grain-spirit, and in other fermented liquors,
and it is from this that quinces derive their distinctive
perfume. The specific gravity of this ether is 0-8G217,
and its composition the following :
-BRANDY.
105
Atomic
weight
Centesimallj represented.
Theory. Pelouze. Muspratt.
$ Eqs. Carbon, 108 .. 72 .. 72-020 . . 72-OOG
18 Eqs. Hydrogen, . . 18 .. 12 .. 12-050 . . 12-103
3 Eqs. Oxygen, 24 . 16 .. 15-930 .. 15-891
1 Eq. Enanthic ether, 150 . . 100 . . 100-000 . . 100-000
Or
Atomic weight Per cent
1 Eq. Ether, 37 24-66
1 Eq. Acid, 113 75-34
150
100-00
In cognac, et cetera, it is probable that the aromatic
portion condenses sooner than a strong spiritous fluid,
for the first sorts are only distilled to the spec. grav.
0-922 ; and by redistilling to obtain a stronger alcoholic
liquid, much of the aroma remains in the residuary
matter of the alembic.
The effect of heat on several of the substances con-
tained in wines, merits the attention of the distiller.
A little too high a temperature might destroy a whole
distillate, as empyreumatic and other products would
be generated. When, to save expense in carriage,
the spirit is rectified to a much higher degree than
the above, the dealer, on receiving it at Paris, re-
duces it to the market proof strength by the addi-
tion of water or of a little fragrant weak brandy; but
in this manner the brandy produced is not equal to
that derived from the distillation of Cognac wine, at
an incipient heat. This may be readily proved by
submitting to distillation, with every precaution, brandy
of a superior quality ; if the resulting spirit be then
brought down to the ordinary strength with water, it
will be plainly perceived that the liquid has been
considerably deteriorated by the operation. Genuine
French brandy evinces a red reaction with litmus
paper, owing to a minute portion of acid ; it also con-
tains an ether, and, when kept for a considerable period
in casks, it acquires an astringency which impairs its
quality.
The brandy sold in England is, for the most part, arti-
ficial the fabrication of the rectifying distiller. The
following receipt is given by Dr. URE : Dilute the pure
alcohol to the proof pitch, and add to every hundred
pounds weight of it from half a pound to a pound of argol
crude winestone dissolved in water, some bruised
French plums, and a quart of good cognac. Distil this
mixture over a gentle fire, in an alembic provided with
an agitator. The addition of brandy and argol introduces
enanthic ether, and if a little acetic ether be added to the
distillate, the whole imparts the peculiar taste of genuine
cognac brandy ; color with burned sugar, if necessary,
and add a little tannic acid to impart astringency.
An example is here given, on the small scale, for the
artificial formation of this beverage; but the course
VOL. I.
followed by the rectifier is somewhat different, as wiJl
be seen from the subsequent few examples, which are
transcribed from the private work-book of a very ex-
tensive rectifying distiller. The source is generally the
common low wines of the grain distillers, which are
rectified in the usual way, by distillation with caustic
salts, as has been already described.
To every five hundred gallons of this spirit, about
twenty-five gallons of the best French wine-vinegar
are added, and the whole well rummaged in the
mixing-back; the mixture is then pumped into the
still, and a further quantity of a weaker spirit run
into the back, in order to clear it of the last traces of
vinegar this liquor is also pumped into the still to
make up. From fifty-six to sixty pounds of coarse-
grained common salt are now mixed with the liquid in
the still, together with from eight to ten pounds of con-
centrated sulphuric acid, keeping the whole in brisk
motion during the addition of the latter, to protect
the still from the action of the acid. The fire is then
lighted, and the still brought down and worked till
the spirit shows a strength of, fourteen over proof, or
one-to-seven. It is customary to turn off into the
faints-back at a lower degree of strength, and collect
the remaining quantity of faints ; in such a case, how-
ever, the quality of the spirit is not so good. From
every five hundred gallons of the charging, live hundred
to five hundred and ten gallons of spirit, marking forty-
two per cent, over proof, are obtained. This is mixed
with from four hundred to four hundred and fifty gallons
of liquor, and pumped into the British brandy store-vat.
Twenty to twenty-five gallons of fruit tincture, fifteen
gallons of brandy flavor, and eight to ten gallons of
good coloring, are then introduced into the piece, the
whole well rummaged, and left to fine. It is considered
an improvement to fine with skimmed milk. Some
distillers prefer to introduce distilled vinegar in the pro-
portion of fifteen to twenty gallons to a thousand gallons
of the compounded liquor in the store cask, instead of
adding it previous to distillation, as before mentioned.
Another receipt, which is followed for the most part
in the distillery from which these details were obtained,
using a multiple of the numbers, is next given.
Three hundred gallons of proof spirit are distilled
with the proper addition of caustic salts, taking all the
precautions mentioned in the preceding, under RECTIFI-
CATION OF SPIRITS, and the distillate is received into the
spirit-back till it runs at ten over proof. The remaining
spirit is turned into the faints-back, and is then made
up with four hundred and fifty gallons of spirit, twenty-
two under proof, twenty gallons of prune tincture, twenty
gallons of distilled vinegar, and eight gallons of good
coloring matter.
When flavored faints are cleansed, charcoal is em-
ployed in the rectification with sulphuric acid.
Raspberry Brandy. In manufacturing raspberry
brandy, the subjoined is the process : For one thousand
allons of the brandy, take
460 gallons of raspberry tincture,
115 gallons of cherry tincture,
240 gallons of sweets,
96 gallons of British brandy, 22 U.P.
89 gallons of liquor ;
rummage the whole well, and force or fine with isinglass.
10G
ALCOHOL RUM.
Cherry Brandy. For the fabrication of one thousand
gallons, take
575 gallons of cherry tincture,
253 gallons of sweets,
92 gallons of British brandy 22 U.P., and
80 gallons of liquor ;
the whole to be well agitated in brandy-piece, and
forced with isinglass.
Raspberry tincture is made as follows: Take a
brandy -piece with head out, and screen over the cock ;
put in fifty gallons of clean rectified spirit of twenty-
two under proof, then fill the cask with raspberries. In
three weeks or a month, draw off the whole of the tinc-
ture into a clean cask, and add to the fruit, a second
time, twenty-five gallons of spirit of twenty-two under
proof; let this remain upon the raspberries a month
longer, and then draw this off, and add it to 'the first
tincture ; after which the whole of the tincture remain-
ing in the fruit is to be pressed out and added to that
already obtained. The cake is then broken up and
steeped in a rum puncheon with the head out, forty
gallons of spirits are added, the whole contents briskly
agitated from time to time for three or four days, and
pressed well after drawing off the solution. This liquor
is employed in making up the raspberry brandy instead
of water.
Cherry tincture is made in the same manner as the
raspberry, by substituting the one fruit for the other.
For prune tincture cover fifty-six pounds of prunes,
thoroughly broken up, with twenty gallons of clean
spirit of wine, and after being allowed to stand for eight
or ten days, rack off; the refuse fruit is washed twice
with liquor, and the residue is then thrown away.
Many rectifiers prepare a brandy flavor as follows :
To one hundred gallons spirit clean faints, fifty-four
over proof add
100 gallons of good strong vinegar,
4 gallons of spirit of nitre,
in a back, and mix the whole thoroughly ; cover closely,
and the next day run it into the still with
8 Ibs of nitric acid,
10 Ibs. of almond cake,
5 Ibs. of orris root, and
2 Ibs. of lemon peel ;
work the still slowly, and turn off at proof strength.
In making up brandy, ten per cent, of the above
flavoring is employed, but more or less may be used to
suit the taste of the consitmer.
Brandy is distilled in Switzerland from the refuse of
the grapes after the juice is pressed out, as follows :
Large casks are filled with the skins, which are squeezed
as compactly as possible, and are covered closely to
prevent the access of air; fermentation usually com-
mences in about three days, and when it has finished,
which requires a considerable time, it is deemed ready
for the still. When the distillation is to take place,
the fermented mass is mixed with a due proportion of
water, to reduce it to a proper consistence for the
action of the fire, which is moderately applied to pre-
vent empyreuma. It is said that a vessel containing
thirty-two cubic feet of this material will yield ten
gallons of pure brandy.
RUM. Molasses is the name given to the sirup which
remains after the crystallization of sugar ; it is, in fact,
the mother liquor of sugar. This sirup, diluted with a
sufficient quantity of water, undergoes the vinous fer-
mentation, and by distillation yields a spirit, called in
the colonies rum, or iaffia; the name given to it, in
the Isle of France and Madagascar, is guildive. This
spirit is of excellent quality, very recherche when pre-
pared with proper precaution, and particularly relished
when it is very old. The best rum is that which is
made solely from molasses ; but that, in the fermenta-
tion of which is left the debris of the sugar-cane, froth,
et cetera, always retains a sharp disagreeable acid, and
frequently acquires an empyreuma, on which account it is
given to the negroes who work in the sugar-houses, and
is consequently called negro rum. In the fermented
liquor from which the rum is distilled, acetic acid some-
times exists in large quantities, accompanying the
ardent spirit, without forming ether; but it is the nature
of this acid to produce, in the heat and vapor of distil-
lation, a certain portion of strong spirit containing acetic
ether, which, from its extreme volatility, rises in the
first process of distillation, giving to the vapor a most
disagreeable taste and smell ; hence the colonial saying,
that the rum becomes too hot if rectified like the Euro-
pean spirits. The cause of this is easily explained : the
rectified spirit only forms a part of the charge of the
still, and contains, nevertheless, all the acetic ether.
The skilful fabricators, who pride themselves on making
these strong spirits most agreeable to the taste, take
great care in cleaning the keeves from all kinds of
vegetal matter or refuse incapable of producing vinous
fermentation, or such substances as have a tendency
to putrefy, because the putrcscent matter retards the
action, and gives a savor which is communicated to
the distilled spirit. The Chinese, who prepare the
famous arrack of Batavia, which, without contradic-
tion, is the best of all rums, take much care in rectify-
ing it, mixing with it during distillation a composition
called ragie, in which is cinnamon and anise-seed, in
such proportion as not to be perceived either by smell 01
taste, being only sufficient to do away with the other-
wise nauseous odor of the liquor. The Madagascars
throw in leaves of trefoil. The Asiatics mix with it the
bark of a kind of thorny acacia, called pattay. Some
persons put into the still, with the grape, the leaves
of a tree named attier in the East Indies, and pommier
cannelle at St. Domingo cenona squammosa which
have a light agreeable odor. Others have tried, with
success, the mixture of peach leaves. All these sub-
stances impart to strong liquors a pleasant bouquet and
taste, which prove that they are used to disguise the
smell of the spirit, and to give it unctuousness.
The chief seats of the distillation of this spirit are
the East and West Indies, America, and France. It is
strange that the Chinese, who produce so much sugar
annually, and who, consequently, might manufacture
large quantities of rum from molasses, have not hitherto
attempted to distil this article.
The Editor transcribes the following account of the
fabrication of this spirit in the West Indies, from MORE-
WOOD:
From the liquor of the cane, which runs warm from
the coppers through a trough to a receiver prepared for
ALCOHOI
that purpose, the skimmings are taken, and, with some
of the liquor itself, are pumped from a cistern contain-
ing from three hundred to eight hundred gallons, when
the fluid is mixed with water and molasses in the pro-
portion of twenty-five gallons to one hundred. If this
mixture be sufficiently blended together in the vats,
which in some plantations amount to thirty, it is covered
over with boards or mats of plantain leaves, and allowed
to ferment for three or four days, or longer, should
there be a want of yeast or other ferment to make it
work, which often occurs at the commencement of the
season. When reduced to a due degree of acidity,
which is ascertained by the subsidence of the fermenta-
tion, it is run into a still proportioned to the vat, and
wrought off as low-wines., in which state it is put into
the still again. The first run, or discharge, after it is
thus returned to the still, is taken off for high-wines, as
they are termed, or strong rum, in the proportion of 25
to 300 gallons, the strength of which, when tried by a
glass-bead instrument, is from 18 to 22. The second
run of the still, which is drawn off in cans, and carried
by negroes to another vessel, is of a strength from 23
to 26. From these two runnings of the still, the rum
exported from the colony of Demerara is made up. Any
deficiency in the strength of the second distillation is
compensated by an addition from the first, which is
always stronger than that exported, and of too ardent
a nature to be used by itself, 25 being colony proof.
In the Windward Islands, one-third of the skimmings
is mixed with one-third of the lies, and one-third of
water. When these begin to ferment, which they usually
do in twenty -four hours, the first mixture of molasses
takes place in the proportion of six gallons for every
hundred gallons of the fermenting liquor, and a day or
two afterwards an additional quantity of molasses is
added. The fermentation is tempered by the addition
of cold or warm water. Dunder, a term unfamiliar to
the ear of a European distiller, is the lies or feculericies
of former distillations, serving all the purposes of yeast
in the fermentation. It is derived from a Spanish word,
redunder, the same as redundans in Latin, and is well
known among the planters in the West Indies. The
attenuating properties of this ferment are such, that
the materials with which it is mixed are said to yield
a much greater proportion of spirit than could be ob-
tained if they were fermented without it : it serves the
same purpose as jalap mixed with molasses, which has
been sometimes employed in Great Britain for cutting
down the frothy head at the close of fermentation ;
and it is usually preserved from one year to another
for this purpose, in such large quantities as to fill most
of the backs or fermenting tuns. Dunder soon becomes
covered with so thick a film as to exclude the air, and
the sediment leaves the intermediate fluid pure, of a
blight amber color, which, when carefully drawn off,
is employed as already described, in proportions suited
to the nature of the fermentation ; to this dunder may
be attributed the best flavor of the rum. Besides this
very essential ingredient, various mixtures are used
in the fermenting process, such as tartar, nitre, sea-
water, or common salt.
In well-conducted distilleries, much attention is paid
to the management of the proper quantity of water em-
107
ployed in the preparation of the liquor. Before com-
mencing, the various boilers and kceves are thoroughly
washed and freed from saline matter, by hot or cold
water.
In the beginning of the distilling season, more sugar
is employed than is afterwards found requisite; the
reason of this is, that the distiller has no good lies, and
very little molasses to add to the mass ; besides, the
scum or froth from the sugar is not so rich from the
first boiling of the season as in the months of March,
April, and May, which is the most favorable time. The
following proportions succeed well at starting: For
every one hundred and thirty-six gallons content of the
vat, pour in sixty-one gallons of scum, seven of mo-
lasses, and sixty-eight of water. When the lies or
dunder are good, equal quantities of skimmings, lies,
and water are employed, and for every hundred gallons
of this mixture, ten of molasses are added. Should the
pressing-mill be not in operation, and skimmings cannot
be obtained, it is found advantageous to employ equal
parts of lies and water, and with every one hundred
and thirty-six gallons of the compound, twenty-seven
of molasses are mixed. With mixtures such as these,
the distiller can obtain from ten to fifteen per cent, of
rum, and other products; but this quantity depends very
much upon the quality of the ingredients operated upon,
as also upon the state of the weather and time of dis-
tillation; hence, an intelligent distiller varies the pro-
portion of the bodies submitted to fermentation.
Rum differs from what is termed sugar spirit, for it
contains more of the natural aroma, or essential oil of
the sugar-cane. When the West India distillers have
enough of matter, they mix the water with it, and allow
it to ferment in the ordinary way; the fermentation
proceeds slowly at first, on account of the scarcity of
the yeast, but as soon as sufficient ferment has been
produced, it operates quickly on the whole mass till the
attenuation is finished. This liquid is then distilled,
and produces a spirit of great strength, nearly equal to
alcohol, which they name double-distilled rum, or double
rum. The spirit is more easily concentrated if much
liquid be submitted to distillation, but in the course of
this operation it yields such a large amount of oily
matter, that it cannot be used for a considerable time.
For preserving the rum, either for exportation or other
purposes, it is found useful to make the double rum so
as to form alcohol, or ardent spirit. In this state it
occupies only half the volume of the ordinary liquid,
and can be diluted with water to suit the taste of the
consumer, or to the common strength.
The still for the most part used in those islands, and
by which a great saving of fuel is effected, ib repre-
sented in the annexed engraving Fig. 74. It consists
of two distinct parts : A is the boiler, and B the vessel
which contains the fermented wash, to be heated pre-
vious to its introduction into the still. The boiler and
preparer are placed in such relative positions, that the
heat of the fire, after doing the required service to
A, passes under the vessel, B, and thus communicates
heat to the liquid. The plan of the construction is seen
in Fig. 75, where the arrows show the course of the flue
under both these vessels. The waste heat enters the
chimney by a damper-opening at the back, a is the
108
ALCOHOJ
-RUM.
passage from the fire under the preparer; b, a lid
screwed firmly on the vessel, B, which resists the pres-
sure of any vapor generated
in this vessel ; c, a safety
valve ; j, the chimney ; h,
the fire-door; K, the tube
which carries off the vapors
to the condenser attached to
the alembic,which communi-
cates by a pipe not shown,
with the preparer, B.
When operations com-
mence, the preparer is filled
with the fermented liquor,
and likewise the still, to a
proper height ; the fire is
then lighted, and the liquid
in the alembic very soon
boils, and that contained in
the preparer at the same
time acquires a temperature
approaching ebullition, by the waste heat communicated
from the flue beneath this vessel. As soon as the matter
in the boiler becomes exhausted of its alcohol, the fire
is slackened, the residuary liquid drawn off by the dis-
charge-cock, and the boiler replenished by opening the
stopcock of the pipe which connects the alembic and
preparer. The fire is again urged, the vessel, B, refilled
with fresh liquor, and the distillation proceeded with,
as in the previous instance.
Fig. 75.
Another form of apparatus used by the West Indians
is seen in the engravings, Figs. 76 and 77. This still,
and preparer, differ only
slightly from the preceding. Fi e- 76.
A is the boiler, B the pre-
parer ; and the mode of com-
municating heat to the lattci
is seen in the plan Fig.
77 where the course of the
heat from the fire is indi-
cated by the arrows, till it
enters the circular space of
brickwork called the bonnet;
from this it traverses the
perpendicular pipe, c, pass-
ing through the middle of
the preparer, and thence
into the chimney, D. 6 is
the lid of the preparer, and
d a pipe that connects this Fig. 77.
vessel with the boiler. This
arrangement has an advantage over the common fur-
nace, by the larger proportion of heat it communicates
to the boiler on account of the winding course of the
flue, and any extra caloric is made useful in heating the
liquor in the vessel, B.
The annexed form of still Fig. 78 is frequently
exported to the West Indies. It consists of the boiler,
A, with an elongated conical head, D ; the preparer, B,
into which the wash is introduced by the funnel- basin,
c ; and the condenser, E, where the spmtous vapor is
liquefied in passing through the numerous convolutions
of the worm, a. The peculiarity of this form of still
consists in the communication of the pipe, D, with the
preparer, B, by which means the vapor from A is par-
tially condensed in the preparer. The vapor is carried
to within a few inches of the bottom of the vessel, B,
as shown in the figure by the dotted continuation of D ;
the liquor in B is heated by the aqueous vapor con-
densed in it, as well as by the spiritous vapor which
passes through it uncondensed to the worm, a. By
this arrangement fuel is economized, and a stronger
spirit is procured at one distillation.
In some of the islands, a still makes about two hun-
dred and twenty gallons of rum daily; these are pro-
duced from about five hundred and thirty gallons of low
wines, or a hundred and thirteen of rum may be pro-
cured from twelve hundred gallons of wash. This liquor
is so strong that olive oil will sink in it, and by one rec-
tification it is made to approach the strength of alcohol.
The process of distillation is in general slow, and much -
caution is observed in the condensation of the spirit. To
provide against a scarcity of water, which often occurs in
the islands, they preserve in large tanks a sufficiency of
rain-water to enable them to mix the molasses, et cetera,
and to cool the worm of the still. As the water becomes
heated in the worm-tub, it is carried to coolers or
cisterns, and when cold it serves again for refrigeration.
In most of the islands, the curing-houses for sugar, and
the distilleries for rum, are constructed on the sides of
canals, and the canes carried to them from the planta-
tion, either in boats or by negroes. Five or six im-
ALCOHOI
mense copper boilers are kept in each of these houses,
and the greatest cleanliness is observed in the distillery ;
a precaution of immense importance, which must con-
tribute largely to the strength and purity of the rum.
In Jamaica, the operations go on without intermission ;
the negroes being formed into divisions or relays, who
relieve each other at regular intervals. The richness of
flavor peculiar to this spirit, and which has rendered it
famous in all parts of the world, is undoubtedly derived
from the raw juice and the fragments of the sugar-
cane, which are mashed and fermented with the other
materials in the tun. The essential oil of the cane is
thus imparted to the wash, and carried over in the dis-
tillation; for sugar, when fermented and distilled by
itself, yields a spirit possessing no peculiar flavor dif-
ferent from other ordinary alcoholic liquors. Time adds
much to the mildness and value of rum ; but the plan-
ters, by the addition of pine-apple juice, impart to it
the virtue which is conferred by age.
A superior quality of rum is manufactured in the
colony of Deme'rara, where, according to the account
of BOLINGBROKE, distillation has been carried to a high
state of perfection by the perseverance and skill of
several scientific men, who have caused the rum of this
district, and that of Essequibo, to be as much prized
in the American market as Jamaica rum is relished
in England. In Brazil, large quantities of rum are
manufactured, which are exported to America and
to most European nations. The process followed is
rude and simple. The wash is generally fermented
in large earthen jars, but no fixed rules, to regulate
the quantity of molasses which should be operated
upon, are observed. A strong lie is said to be poured
on the sirup, in order to thicken and purify it. The
lie is obtained by burning a plant of the polygonum
species, called by the Indians cataya, and infusing
the ashes in water. This plant has a bitter pungent
taste, and is considered of use in making rum. The
stills are mere earthen jars, with a long narrow neck,
on the top of which is placed a head or cap, having at
one side a pipe of about six inches long; to this adapter
a copper tube, four feet in length, is connected, which
passes through an earthen vessel sufficiently large to
hold a quantity of water for the condensation of the
spirit, and this contrivance is made to answer the pur-
pose of both worm and worm-tub.
Until lately, it was a custom with the planters to dis-
pose of their molasses to small distillers, who, possessing
one or two ot these stills, procured a living by making
rum; but the introduction of copper stills from Europe
has produced such a reformation in distillation, that at
present the whole quantity of molasses resulting from
the sugar-houses of the plantations is manufactured
into rum by the proprietor.
To calculate the cost of rum to the sugar planter is
difficult : in general, it is estimated that one-fourth of
the entire produce of a plantation may, in point of value,
consist of rum, and, accordingly, one-fourth of the ex-
penditure may be taken as the first cost of the rum,
and the remaining three-fourths as that of the sugar.
Some say that the charge of making rum bears a similar
proportion to that of home-made spirits, but this is an
erroneous assumption. Rum is made from the molasses,
-RUM.
109
or that part of the cane-juice which will not crystallize
into sugar, as also from the scum which is taken off
during the saccharific process, and which in sweetness
is equal to one-fifth of molasses. Take, as a stan-
dard, a distillery on a plantation producing 250 hogs-
heads of sugar, yielding 15,000 gallons of molasses,
and scum equal to 5,000 gallons, netting in all 20,000
gallons of molasses. These wo uld produce about 1 5,000
gallons of proof rum, which, when brought to the
British market, would be reduced by the voyage tr
about 13,500 gallons, the average loss being ten pei
cent. These would cost the manufacturer throughout
the islands from Is. Id. to Is. 4d. per gallon, independent
of all charges for puncheons, freight, commission, and
other unavoidable expenses.
From this statement, it must appear that the distiller
of rum has little or no profit, but being the grower of
the material, and having his capital embarked in the
trade, he is compelled to manufacture it from necessity,
and the sooner he can turn the article to account the
better he is enabled to bear loss and meet his engage-
ments.
In France, a large quantity of spirit is annually
manufactured from the molasses of the beet-root sugar
factories, of which a great many exist in that country.
The better sort of molasses remaining after the refining
of the sugar of the colonies, is too valuable to be con-
verted into rum, but sometimes the inferior article is
disposed of in this way. On the arrival of the molasses
at the distillery, they are emptied into large cisterns
perfectly free from any dampness which would cause
them to ferment, and here they remain till required for
use. The fermentation of molasses presents some diffi-
culties; they must be properly mixed with water, in
such proportion that the resulting liquid will not ex-
ceed 8 of Beaume's areometer, at a temperature of
20 C. = 68 Fahr., which should always be the heat
of the mixture. When too little water is used, the
fermentation sets in too rapidly, the temperature be-
comes higher, and the acetous fermentation speedily
ensues; on the contrary, when too much water is em-
ployed, the fermentation is inactive ; in consequence of
the low temperature a longer time is required, and
generally bad results follow. These inconveniences can
be overcome by attention to the directions about to be
given.
It sometimes happens that the fermentation of the sac-
charine solution suddenly ceases, and cannot be revived
by an increase of temperature, or addition of a stronger
solution of molasses. This phenomenon is owing to the
presence of lime and potassa, which are contained in
almost all the molasses of beet-root sugar, and, in conse-
quence of the alkaline reaction imparted by these sub-
stances to the liquid, the conversion of the sugar into
alcohol is interrupted. This antifermenting property
of alkaline bodies is very easily removed; it suffices to
add a certain quantity of sulphuric acid to neutralize
them and form sulphates, in which state they are inert.
A slight excess of acid might be employed, without pre-
judice to the proper degree of attenuation, or to the
taste of the product; for the molasses always contain
salts of organic acids, with potassa, et cetera, which are
decomposed by the sulphuric acid, and the organic
110
ALCOHOI
-RUM.
acids are liberated. The sulphuric acid is to be added
when the water is mixed with the molasses, and may
vary in amount from half a per cent, of the weight
of the latter, as a minimum, to one and a half per cent,
as the maximum quantity. The molasses being com-
minuted with the water and acid, so that the solution
stands at 8 of the areometer, about two per cent, of
their weight of fresh barm, pressed and previously
diluted with water, is added ; the liquid is then strongly
agitated, and left to ferment. The fermentation is made
in a number of tuns whose size corresponds with that
of the distilling apparatus, and by this arrangement the
distiller is enabled, when the fermentation in one tun is
finished, to distil the contents directly.
The fermented wash should never remain longer
than twenty-four hours until it is distilled. From this
it is manifest, that the distiller should be furnished
with as many fermenting vessels as will permit him to
have the contents of one tun daily ready for distillation,
and one ready for charging each day; the intermediate
tuns being in a higher state of fermentation, as their turn
brings them nearer the proper time of their being dis-
tilled. All the tuns should be well covered, to prevent
the contact of the atmosphere, and the acid fermenta-
tion taking place.
If molasses be fermented and distilled merely for the
alcohol which they yield, the preceding directions relative
to the proper dilution and strength upon the areometer
answer best; some distillers, however, in addition to the
alcohol, extract the alkaline salts, chiefly potassa, and
in this case the preceding strength of 8 on the areo-
meter would offer an inconvenience, inasmuch as a
large amount of fuel would be consumed in evaporating
the residuary liquid after the alcohol was expelled. To
prevent such expenses for combustibles, an investiga-
tion was instituted to find out a means for ferment-
ing the saccharine wash at a greater density than 8,
and the endeavor turned out successful. The high
density is 14 of the areometer, and, in order to ferment
such a solution without its passing to the acid fermenta-
'jtion, the following mode is adopted: When a sweet
jwash of 14B. is set to ferment, the temperature of the
liquid rises to 30 C. = 86 Fahr. in twenty-four hours,
at which degree the alcohol is readily transformed into
acetic acid. To oppose the formation of acetic acid,
from the high temperature already mentioned, it is
necessary, as soon as the liquid marks 27 C. or 76' 6
Fahr., to divide it into two equal portions, and add to
each half as much molasses of 14 strength as it
already contains. Previous to mixing the second por-
tion of molasses with the fermenting liquor, they should
be well agitated with two per cent, of their weight of
barm. Fermentation is now allowed to proceed without
apprehension of the temperature rising so high as to
favor the acetous fermentation in the liquor.
M. LAUGIER'S apparatus, which will be subse-
quently described, is expressly adapted for the distilla-
tion of fermented saccharine liquors, but wine or malt
wash may also be distilled in it. It works upon the
same principle as DEROSNES' still, under a simpler con-
struction. In France, where considerable quantities of
molasses are converted into rum, and this apparatus is
in operation, the distillery is divided into the store-room,
where the stock of molasses is retained until required
for use; the fermentation-room, which occupies another
compartment; the stills a third; and the store-room for
the finished spirit a fourth.
Several fermenting tuns are furnished of a size to
correspond with the quantity of wash which the still is
capable of working daily, and these tuns are worked in
rotation, so that one may be worked off and ready for
distillation each day ; by this means the fermented
liquor is prevented from being exposed to the air, and
the formation of acetic acid wholly prevented.
A side view of the apparatus, as it appears set in
brickwork, is seen in Fig. 79 ; A and c are sec-
tional views of the boilers heated by the fire, c, under
A, round which the flue passes ; thence in the direc-
tion of the arrows round the second boiler, c, in
a similar way, and afterwards into the chimney ; G
is the rectifying cylindrical vessel, and E the refri-
gerator where the spirit is condensed. The boiler, A,
is furnished with two pipes; one of these is for dis-
charging the contents when all the alcohol is expelled,
and is furnished with a stopcock, /; the other pipe, Hi,
carries off the generated vapors to the next boiler, c,
where it terminates in a perforated rose, within a short
distance of the bottom of the vessel.
A pipe issuing from the bottom of c, and furnished
with a stopcock, j, enters the first boiler, and terminates
like the pipe, i, in a perforated rose, as seen at k. From
c, the pipes, m, n and I, rise ; m and n are connected
with the rectifying apparatus in the cylindrical vessel,
G ; the former carries off the vapors generated in c, and
the latter returns the liquid condensed in this vessel
into the boiler. The pipe, I, serves to charge the
boiler, c, from the rectifying apparatus. Two pipes, o o
and L, unite the rectifier and the condenser ; the former
conducts the uncondensed vapors from the rectifier to
the worm in the refrigerator, and the latter serves to
replenish the vessel, G, with liquor from the refrigerator.
The pipe, L, descends to within a short distance of the
bottom of G, so as to have the colder liquid issuing in
contact with the pipes which contain the warmer vapors.
Another pipe, p, emerging from the cover of the rectify-
ing vessel, conducts any vapor generated by the con-
densation in part of the distilled products of the boilers,
A and c, to the condenser. The refrigerator is filled
through the funnel tube, t, from the tank, v, by means of
the pipe and stopcock, u. The manner of working the
still is simple : Liquor is allowed to enter the funnel
tube, t, until it begins to flow down the pipe, 1 1, into the
boiler, c ; and as soon as this is observed, the stopcock,^',
is opened, and the liquor admitted into the first boiler,
until it rises a few niches above the rose, &, as shown
by the glass gage, g g; the stopcock, _/, is shut, and the
liquor allowed to flow into c, until it rises above the
end of the pipe, 1 1, which emerges into the liquor ; this
is shown by another gage pipe, g' g', attached to c.
The stopcock, u, is now closed, and the fire urged under
the first boiler, the contents of which very soon boil,
and are partly converted into vapor, which is emitted
to the next boiler through the pipe, i i. By means
of the caloric abstracted from the vapor in passing
through the liquid, and the heat communicated to the
boiler by the flue which circulates round c, the contents
ALCOHOI
-RUM.
Ill
of this vessel are also made to boil, and, like those of A,
are partly vaporized; the vapor is forced through the
pipe, m, into the rectifying vessel, where, by means of a
peculiar arrangement of pipesto be explained further
on the greater part of the watery vapor which is forced
along from A and c is condensed, and falls back into the
Fi;r. 79.
Fig. 80.
boilers through the pipe, n, to undergo a second distil-
lation. The first portions of the vapor that enter this
vessel are entirely condensed, in consequence ot the
liquid contained in it being as yet cold ; but when, after
a short time, the latent heat of the condensing vapor
raises the temperature of this liquid so high that it will
not condense any longer the richer alcoholic vapor, the
latter rises through the pipe, o o, and enters the worm
in the vessel, E, where complete resolution takes place,
and the spirit produced flows out by the pipe, q. As
soon as the liquor in the first boiler becomes exhausted,
the fire is slackened for a short time, the contents
discharged through the pipe and stopcock, /, and a
further quantity admitted by the pipe and stopcock, ,;',
from the boiler, c, and this again replenished by open-
ing the stopcock, u, of the tank, v. The fire is again
urged briskly, and thus the distillation proceeds suc-
cessively, so as not to lose alcohol.
Fig. 80 is a section of the rectifier and refrigerator :
in the first there are seven compartments formed of large
circular pipes, as seen at / /' /" f'"f* ff, each
one of which terminates in a smaller pipe that meets the
others in a ball at the end of the pipe, n. oo shows the
connection of this apparatus with the refrigerating worm
in the vessel, G ; p, the pipe connected with o o, and
emerging from the cover of the vessel, E, for the pur-
pose of carrying off any vapors generating in the liquid
surrounding the apparatus in this vessel, t is the funnel
pipe, reaching to the bottom of the refrigerator; and q
the termination of the worm, by which the finished
spirit is discharged into a small covered vessel, r, which
contains an alcoholometer, s, to indicate the strength
of the spirit.
The fermenting molasses are so viscous, when they
are treated in such a way as to mark only 8 of the
areometer, that at some periods the mixture intumesces,
so as to overflow the .fermenting tuns, unless the latter
be very large. To obviate this, some soft soap is
added, which being partly decomposed by the little excess
of acid contained in the liquid, the oily portion forms a
layer which destroys the homogeneousness of the sirupy
effervescence, and disposes the bubbles of carbonic acid
to burst and pass off without much rising in the liquid.
Fermentation is known to be finished when the action,
after having been regularly increasing, ceases suddenly,
and the temperature subsides ; another sign by which
a good fermentation is distinguished, is the falling in of
the head, and the diminution of specific gravity, from
8 to 1.
If the liquid, after'attenuation, be not immediately
112
ALCOIIOI
-POTATO SPIRIT.
distilled, it is necessary to cool it down rapidly, to
prevent its being converted into acetic acid. This
is done either by passing cold water through a coiled
pipe in the fermenting tun, or by emptying the whole
into sulphured tubs, which resist the further action
of any fermentation. Of these two, the worm is pre-
ferable, as in a slow fermentation the transmission
of hot water through this pipe would revive it; and
when the temperature of the liquid becomes higher
than what it should be, from a too rapid fermentation,
it is equally opposed by pouring cold water through
the worm. LAUGIER'S apparatus is best adapted for
the distillation of the fermented liquor of molasses.
The quantity of spirit obtained from molasses when
fermented at 14, is less than when the mash is made
to mark 8 ; but considering the advantage of obtaining
the alkaline matter there is less evaporation, and, con-
sequently, less fuel consumed. A method has been
lately introduced by DUBRUNFAUT, by which the atten-
uation is made at 8, and the saline matter obtained
without much extra fuel. 'One part of this process is to
employ the spent liquor after distillation, for bringing a
second portion of molasses to 8 of the areometer ; this
liquor has no injurious effect upon the fermentation,
and offers the advantage of having double the quantity
of salts in the same bulk of liquid.
This liquid he introduced into a steam boiler instead
of water, for the purpose of generating steam to heat
the liquid for distillation, and the apparatus. Finally,
the evaporation is finished in three pans or boilers,
which are partly heated by the waste caloric from a re-
verberatory furnace at the end, wherein the saline mass
is torrefied. The degree of strength which the liquid
has, before it is run into the furnace, is 32. One thou-
sand kilogrammes of molasses afford from one hundred
to one hundred and forty kilogrammes of saline matter,
marking 50 to 55 on the alkalimeter.
POTATO SPIRIT. Potatoes afford a considerable
quantity of alcohol; and of late years the manufacture
has been extensively conducted in France. There
are two methods practised: in the first, the starch
of the potato is fermented without any previous pre-
paration, and in the second, the starch is converted
into sugar by sulphuric acid. If a quantity of starch,
no matter whether obtained from wheat or potatoes,
be boiled with water acidulated with sulphuric acid,
incessantly, during a few hours, occasionally adding
water as it evaporates, to preserve perfect fluidity;
then saturating with lime continuing the boiling, after
separating the sulphate of lime, until the solution be
concentrated a dark sirupy liquid is obtained, which,
on cooling, affords abundance of sugar in crystals. This
sugar certainly differs, in some respects, from common
sugar; it is not quite so sweet, nor so soluble in
water; it crystallizes differently, fuses at a much lower
heat, and its solution ferments without the addition of
yeast. It has been found that, during the whole
process of its formation, not a bubble of gas is dis-
charged ; that the sulphuric acid remains unchanged,
and that the contact of air is unnecessary. These facts
afford additional proof that starch and sugar are the
same in composition, and that the conversion is effected
by some unknown agency of the sulphuric acid in
altering the mode of combination in which the carbon,
oxygen, and hydrogen are held together. One hun-
dred parts of starch produce about one hundred and
ten parts of sugar, which is converted by fermentation
into alcohol. The advantages afforded by converting
potatoes to this use, are, that they are cheap, and afford
a good spirit, while the residuum of the distillation is
good food for cattle ; grain is economized, and less yeast
is consumed.
To obtain spirit according to the first process, the
potatoes are to be well steamed for an hour, and then
bruised between two cylinders of wood or sandstone
Ground malt is to be mixed in a keeve with warm
water, in quantity sufficient to give the consistence ot
thin pap, and the potato paste is then added, the whole
well stirred with a proper quantity of water until
no lumps remain. The stirring is to be renewed at
intervals, until the mixture is cold. Natural yeast of
beer, or that made artificially from rye, is introduced,
but in less quantity than would be required for corn,
since potatoes ferment more easily. Experience has
proved that the addition of red beetroot or carrots to
the potatoes and malt, affords spirit of a better flavor,
and in larger quantity. When the fermentation has
been pushed to its utmost, the whole matter, both liquor
and sediment, is to be introduced into the still, and dis-
tilled as in any other case, taking proper precautions to
prevent burning.
The process recommended by M. SIEMEN, and now
applied in Denmark, is to heat three or four tons of
potatoes in steam, a little above 212, then to mash
them well by the rotatory motion of an iron cross in
the same vessel wherein they are steamed, and to add
hot water, alkalized with a pound and a quarter of
caustic potassa. All the mucilage which, in the boiled
potatoes, commonly remains insoluble, is by the addition
of the alkali converted into a starch, which easily passes
through the sieve, leaving the thin skin of the potato.
The water is to be in such quantity as to form a
thin paste ; this being quickly cooled, yeast is added,
and the process conducted in the usual manner. It
is said, that by this method the quantity of spirit from
a given weight of potatoes is greatly increased. Fifty
hectolitres, thirty litres 137-64 imperial bushels of
potatoes, along with eight hectolitres 22'12 imperial
bushels of ground malt, yield nine hectolitres 198
imperial gallons of spirit. CADET states that eight
hundred pounds of potatoes will afford thirty pounds of
spirit, which at that time he calculated to cost the dis-
tiller thirty-six francs, and to sell for forty-eight.
The process for procuring alcohol from potato sugar
needs not be particularly described. The sugar being
once obtained from potato starch, it is easy to conduct
the fermentation. During the conversion of the starch
into sugar, a few drops of a solution of iodine in alcohol
is frequently added to a small portion of the liquor, to
see if the blue iodide of starch is formed ; this reaction
manifests itself as long as any undecomposed starch
remains. From fifty kilogrammes 110-31 pounds
avoirdupois of potato starch, converted into sugar
by sulphuric acid, are obtained from twenty to twenty-
five litres 4-4 to 5'5 imperial gallons of alcohol, at
0-935.
ALCOH01
-POTATO SPIRIT.
113
VAUQUELIN, who examined forty-seven kinds of pota-
toes, says that the quantity of starch in one hundred
parts varies from twelve to twenty-four parts the
average result was found to be from seventeen to nine-
teen per cent. According to WUNRICH, starch re-
quires but one or two per cent, of sulphuric acid to
convert it into sugar, if the heat applied be a few
degrees above 212; and two or three hours are then
sufficient to crystallize it. He applies steam heat in
wooden vessels.
During the last runnings of the fermented starch of
potato, when under distillation, an oil is obtained, which
was examined by PELLETAN, and which he supposed
to resemble the oil procurable from corn spirit. The
two oils are, however, materially different.
The yeast thrown up by potatoes during fermentation,
even with one-fifth of their weight of barley, possesses
but little energy, and is, therefore, not used in attenu-
ating the potato wash.
In the experiments made under the personal inspec-
tion of Professor OERSTED at Copenhagen, from sixteen
and a half to seventeen quarts of spirit, at 50 of Tralles'
alcoholometer, were obtained from a ton of potatoes,
making a fair allowance for that portion of the product
due to the malt used in the maceration. This spirit is
stated to have had a good flavor, though the produce
was inferior to that obtained by the French chemists.
MULLER asserts that an apparatus on SIEMEN'S princi-
ple, the expense of which is about two hundred and fifty
Prussian dollars, is capable of producing fifty per cent,
more spirit from potatoes than the apparatus gene-
rally used in Germany, calculating from the price and
produce of potatoes and rye in 1820. He further adds,
that a hundred-weight of the former converted into
spirit produces a profit of from five hundred to six hun-
dred rix-dollars, while the same space of ground that
produced it, if sown with rye, would not give more
than from ten to twelve rix-dollars.
About the year 1832, a gentleman visited the distil-
lery of Messrs. CALDER at Eyemouth, in Berwickshire,
and found that they had worked for some short time
from potatoes. He considered the spirit which had
the flavor of hollands to be pure and good ; and al-
though it was affirmed that no gram or malt had been
used, he strongly suspected the contrary. The fermen-
tation was described as beautiful, the head rising seven
or eight feet like clouds of cotton; and when beaten
down to the surface of the worts, it rose again in the
same majestic manner. The gravity worked at was
40, and the attenuation was good. The potatoes were
ground in a mill, like a common pepper-mill in shape,
but made of sheet-iron perforated like a grater. The
pulp, thus produced, was mashed in the keeve with
boiling water, and the extract ran off quite pure, and,
freely. A sperge, or small worts of about 20 gravity,
was obliged to be used, otherwise the worts at the
noticed gravity of 40 could not be got off; the produce
was good, as there was no deficiency. The spirit sent
to the London market, when called gram spirit in the
permits, was highly prized ; when this error was cor-
rected, and the product was denominated spirit distilled
from potatoes, the price fell, and it was not so much hi
vogue. About the same time, Mr. JAMIESON of Fairfield,
VOL. I.
near Enniscorthy, commenced distilling from potatoes.
They were sliced, dried on a com-kiln, ground to flour,
mixed in certain proportions with grain, and mashed in
the ordinary manner. But the manufacture was aban-
doned, in consequence of the opposition of the peasantry,
through fear of a scarcity in the article of food.
From some late experiments, DUBRUNFAUT pro-
posed to brew from the starch of potatoes an excellent
beverage resembling French beer, the starch being macer-
ated and fermented with hops. By fermenting the sac-
charized starch with honey instead of hops, a palatable
liquor was made, having all the qualities of Louvaine beer.
Potato starch, being free from any peculiar taste, seems
capable of receiving flavor in its fermentation from
any substance that gives repute to beer, or home-made
wines. Dr. HARE, having observed a strong analogy
between the saccharine matter of the sweet potato and
molasses, or the saccharum of malt, boiled a wort made
from the potatoes, of 1060 specific gravity, with a pro-
portionate quantity of hops for the space of two hours.
It was then cooled to about 56, and yeast added. As
far as could be judged, the phenomena of the fermenta-
tion and the liquor produced, were precisely the same
as if malt had been used. The wort was kept in a warm
place until the temperature was 85 Fahrenheit, and
the fall of the head showed the attenuation to be
sufficient ; yeast subsequently rose, which was removed
by skimming. A further quantity of yeast was preci-
pitated by refrigeration, from which the liquor being
decanted, became tolerably fine for new beer, and re-
sembled in flavor ale made from malt. It has been
computed that five bushels of potatoes would produce
as much wort as three bushels of malt, while the residue,
as food for cattle, would be worth half as much as the
potatoes.
In the opinion of some particularly those who
have not employed sulphuric acid in saccharifying the
starch the best time to use potatoes in distillation is
in spring, when they begin to vegetate. The growth
of the buds must be checked, as in the process of malt-
ing ; and this is easily done by spreading them on a
floor, and by subsequent turning, so as to deprive them
of as much of their water as possible. When reduced
to a pulpy consistence, diluted with boiling water, and
drawn off and cooled to a proper temperature, the
liquid is then fermented in the same manner as grain
worts ; and such has been the treatment observed by
many who have tried the distillation of potatoes in this
country. Sprouted potatoes produce as perfect farina
in July as in December, and equal in quantity to what
they would have yielded earlier in the season, being,
according to Sir JOHN SINCLAIR, about fourteen pounds
per hundred- weight.
It has been stated that potato apples give, by proper
treatment, as much alcohol as an equal quantity of
grapes, when bruised and fermented with one-eighteenth
or one-twentieth of their weight of yeast.
From these details on the application of potatoes in
the manufacture of spirit, persons may be induced to
try experiments that might ultimately prove advan-
tageous. If they proceed by reduction of the farina to
a pulpy substance, the operation is simply by boiling ;
if by the production of starch, it may be mechanically
114
ALCOH01
-ARRACK.
effected at little expense and labor, either by pounding
or grating, and elutriation with cold water. In some
parts of France, the tuber of the Jerusalem artichoke
Helianthus tuberosus has been used for the purpose
of distillation. The wash extracted from this vegetal,
when fermented in the ordinary way, is found to yield
a very pure and strong spirit, which is said to resemble
that obtained from the grape, more than any other sub-
stitute that has hitherto been tried.
The root grows luxuriantly almost in every climate,
but it does not appear that it has been cultivated much
in England, either for the production of spirit or other
uses; it might be remunerative in this particular, in
producing a medium beverage between genuine French
brandy, and the fiery spirit extracted from grain, and
sold under the denomination of gin and whisky.
ARRACK, contracted into RACK, is a spiritous liquor
from the East Indies. The name is said to signify, in
the East, any alcoholic liquor ; but that usua^y bearing
this name is toddy, a liquid distilled from the juice of
the cocoa-nut tree cocos nucifera procured by inci-
sion. In all countries where rice is abundant, an alco-
hol is drawn from it, called arrack or racJc. Goa and
Columbo arrack are always made from toddy ; Data via
and Jamaica arrack from molasses and rice, with a
little toddy. The Pariah arrack contains cannabis
saliva and a species of Datura, which render it more
inebriating and hurtful; it is not, however, certain,
whether the Pariah arrack is used generally to imply
a sophisticated spirit, or is only applicable to that
liquor with which the above ingredients have been
compounded.
The process is nearly the same as for making grain
spirit. Rice is put into a vat, covered with water, and
agitated to cause it to pullulate. A handful is, from
time to time, taken from different parts of the vat, and
if the half at least has not pullulated the germina-
tion is allowed to proceed, or the fermentation may be
hastened by adding lukewarm water, and drawing a
certain quantity from the top, heating and returning it
to the vat, the contents of which are well stirred.
Great caution is necessary in the operation, for, if rum-
maged too quickly, much risk is run of breaking the seed,
which would make the rice decay, and thus hinder the
fermentation of the rest. If such a thing occurs, the
injured grain might be extracted, but this would be
attended with so much labor, as compared to the
value of the rice, that the whole is rejected by distillers,
and sold for the use of cattle. To avoid these mishaps,
a man accustomed to the work is employed. He intro-
duces the rake just below the surface of the rice,
agitates the water in turning, and stirs gently till he
reaches the bottom ; the same caution is observed in
bringing the rake again to the surface. When the
rice is nearly or half germinated, the plug at the under
part of the vat is withdrawn to let out the water;
the rice is then removed to a room, and heated like
the barley in the distillation of the grain spirit. It
is submitted to a heat of 59 Fahr., which finishes the
germination.
The subsequent operations are the same as those
pursued by the brewer. When the rice has suffi-
ciently acquired the vinous fermentation, it is intro-
duced into the alembic or still, like the other substances
discussed.
MOREWOOD was favored, by a gentleman many
years resident in India, with several curious remarks
upon the kind of stills employed, and the methods pur-
sued. When the material for distilling whether rice,
or the simple iermented juice of the cocos nucifera is
ready, a hole is dug in the earth, suited to the size of
the still to be used ; and, on a level with the bottom of
this hole, there is an underground communication made
for the purpose of feeding the fire with atmospheric
air; near the edge of this orifice is a chimney, serving
two purposes for the supply of the fuel, and for the
escape of the smoke ; a fire of dry wood is first lit,
and, when the ground is completely heated, the still is
fixed in it, and so bound round with earth, as to pre-
vent the escape of any caloric. When ebullition com-
mences, and the steam begins to ascend, an Indian
pours a gentle stream of water upon the head of the
still, or on the broad and thin surface of a plate of tin
or copper, with a gutter for the water to run off, which
is fixed on a pan, with a hole in the bottom, luted to
the neck of the still, and serving as a condenser. The
extreme cold produced by the evaporation of the water
on so broad a surface, occasions the vapor from the
still to be immediately condensed, and to flow in a
trickling stream into the receiver.
A lady who resided in India thus describes the work-
ing of a native still which she had an opportunity of
seeing: The still was simply constructed: round a
hole in the earth, a ledge of clay, four inches high, was
raised, with an opening half a foot in width, for the pur-
pose of supplying fuel. Upon the clay a large earthen
pot was luted ; to its mouth was closed with lute the
mouth of a second pot; and where they joined, an
earthen spout, a few inches long, was inserted, which
served to let off the spirit condensed in the upper jar,
the latter being kept cool by a person pouring water
constantly upon it. In the cottage, or still-house, was
a woman employed in cooling the still by pouring
water on it from a cocoa-nut shell ladle. The woman
said that she sat at her occupation from sunrise to sun-
set, without scarcely a change of position, while her
husband constantly brought toddy for distillation.
Arrack is drunk in Siam ; but its consumption, as
well as its facture, is confined to the Chinese resident
in that country. It is stated that the privilege for its
distillation brings to the government fifty-eight thou-
sand pounds per annum, for the whole kingdom. The
greater portion of arrack is distilled at Bankok, the
capital ; and the remainder at thirteen of the principal
towns.
A strong kind of arrack, possessing an unpleasant
smell, is distilled from palm wine, et cetera ; this spirit
is called vellipatty; another sort is known under the
name of talwagen. The revenue arising from arrack,
in Ceylon, is very large ; in the land-rents are included
the duties on cocoa-nut trees, which exceed those on
rice by nearly fifteen thousand pounds annually.
Arrack, from time immemorial, has been a common
beverage among the Cingalese, but as yet their method
of manufacturing it is rude, indicating a great want of
chemical skill.
ALCOHOI
CARROT SPIRIT.
115
^ The still they employ is of earthenware, and of the
simplest construction ; the subjoined is, on the authority
of MOREWOOD, a true representation of the one in
general use :
o, 6, are the capital and alembic luted together; d,e, a
receiver and refrigerator, of one piece, the former con-
nected with the head by a bamboo, c.
Ardent spirit is manufactured in much larger quan-
tities in Java than in any other island in the Indian
ocean, which may, no doubt, be accounted for by the
great industry of the Dutch, and the celebrity which the
Batavian arrack so early acquired under their patronage.
According to Sir THOMAS RAFFLES, the annexed is the
manner of making it: About seventy pounds oi fcetan,
or glutinous rice, are filled up in a small vat; round this
heap one hundred cans of water are poured, and on the
top, twenty cans of molasses ; after remaining two days
in this vat, the ingredients are removed to a larger vat
adjoining, when they receive the addition of- four hun-
dred cans of water and a hundred of molasses. Thus
far the process is carried on in the open air. In a
separate vat within doors, forty measures of palm wine,
or toddy, are immediately mixed with nine hundred of
water, and one hundred and fifty of molasses, both
preparations being allowed to remain in this state dur-
ing two days. The first of these preparations is car :
ried to a still larger vat within doors; and the latter,
being contained in one placed above, is poured upon
it through a hole bored for the purpose near the bottom.
In this state, the entire preparation is allowed to fer-
ment for two days, when it is poured into small earthen
jars, containing about twenty cans each, in which it
remains for the further period of two days, and is then
distilled. The proof of a sufficient fermentation is
obtained by placing a lighted candle or taper about six
inches above the surface of the liquor in the fermenting
vat ; if the process be properly advanced, the carbonic
acid rises and extinguishes the light. Another mode of
apportioning the materials for the making of arrack is,
62 parts molasses,
3 do. toddy,
35 do. rice,
which yield, on distillation, twenty-three and a half
parts of proof arrack. The stills are made of copper,
and are much like those used in the West Indies ; the
worms consist of about nine turns of Banca tin. The
spirit runs into a vessel under ground, whence it is
poured into proper receivers, and is called the third,
or common sort of arrack, which by a second distil-
lation in a smaller still, with the addition of some
water, becomes the second sort ; and by a third opera-
tion, is what is called the first sort. To ascertain the
strength of the spirit, a small quantity of it is burned in
a saucer, and the residuum measured; the difference
between the original quantity and the residuum gives
the measure of the alcohol lost. The
completion of the first sort does not
require more than ten days, six
hours being sufficient for the original
preparation to pass through the first
still. The Chinese residents, who
conduct the whole of this process,
call the third, or common sort,
sichew; the second, tanpo; and the
first, Iciji. The latter two are dis-
tinguished as arrack api. When
cooled, it is poured into large vats
in the storehouses, where it remains until put into
casks. The making of arrack is distinct from that of
sugar, which is manufactured to a great extent in Java.
The arrack distillers purchase the molasses from (he
sugar manufacturers.
A very large quantity of arrack is consumed in the
East; seven hundred thousand gallons are annually
exported from Ceylon, of which upwards of thirty thou-
sand come to England.
CARROT SPIRIT. In the Transactions of the Royal
Society of Edinburgh, is a paper by Dr. HUNTER and
Mr. HORNBY, in which they give the details of the
process lor the production of the above spirit. With
the paper was sent a sample of the spirit, and the
Society appointed Dr. BLACK, Dr. HUTTON, and Mr.
JAMES RUSSELL, to investigate this account, together
with the specimen of the spirit, and to report upon the
same, which they did as follows :
The sample of spirit which was sent by Dr. Hux-
TER, of York, to the Royal Society, has been ex-
amined, and also the account of the experiment on
the fermentation and distillation of carrots, by which
the spirit was produced. The experiment was made
by Mr. THOMAS HORNBY, druggist in York, with one
ton and eight stones of carrots, which, after being ex-
posed to the air a few days to desiccate, weighed one
hundred and sixty stones, and measured forty-two
bushels; they were affused with water, topped, and
tailed, by which they lost in weight eleven stones, and
in measure seven bushels; and being then cut, were
boiled with the proportion of twenty-four gallons of
water to one-third of the above-mentioned quantity of
carrots, until the whole was reduced to a tender pulp,
which was done by three hours' boiling. From this
pulp the juice was readily extracted by means of a
press, and two hundred gallons of juice were produced
from the whole quantity.
The juice was reboiled with one pound of hops for
five hours, and then cooled to 66 Fahrenheit, and six
quarts of yeast being added, it was set to ferment. The
strong fermentation lasted forty-eight hours, during
which time the heat abated to 58; twelve gallons of
unfermented juice, which had been reserved, were then
lieated, and added to the liquor, the heat of which was
thus raised again to 66, and the fermentation was re-
newed for twenty-four hours more, the air of the brew-
house being all this time at 44 and 46. The liquor
116
ALCOHOL MADDER SPIRIT.
was now turned, and continued to work three days
from the bung ; lastly, it was distilled, and the first
distillation was rectified next day without any addition.
The produce was twelve gallons of spirit. It resembled
the best corn-spirit in flavor, and was proof. The
refuse of the carrots weighed forty-eight stones, which,
added to the tops and tails, made provision for hogs,
besides the wash from the still, which measured one
hundred and fourteen gallons.
From the above, Dr. HUNTER draws the annexed
comparison between the distillation of carrots and
grain :
Twenty tons of carrots, which will make two hundred
gallons of proof spirit, may be bought for 16. Eight
quarters of malt, or rather materials for distillation,
consisting of malt, wheat, and rye, may be hought for
16, and will also yield two hundred gallons of proof
spirit. The refuse from the carrots will be nine
hundred and sixty stones, which, at one penny per
stone, will sell for 4. The refuse or grains from the
malt, et cetera, will be sixty -four bushels, each bushel
about three stones, which, at one penny per stone,
will sell for sixteen shillings. The Doctor, however,
supposes that the manufacture of the spirit from carrots
may be attended with more expense than that from
malt, but imagines that the greater value of the refuse
may compensate for that expense, and that the saving
of corn for other purposes is an object worthy of atten-
tion and of encouragement.
MILK SPIRIT. The Tartars and Kalmouks prepare
a spirit from the milk of mares or cows, which they
greatly relish. Twenty-one" pounds of milk yield an
ounce and a half of an insipid distillate, and forty ounces
of spiritous liquor; the latter, when rectified, gives six
ounces of alcohol. OSERETSKOWSKY says that skimmed
milk, when deprived of its butyraceous portions, neither
produces spirit, per se, nor by the addition of a ferment.
Secondly, milk retaining a portion of its cream, agitated
until it commences fermentation, produces alcohol, but
in small quantity. Thirdly, the entire milk kept in a
close vessel, which by agitation commences fermenting,
furnishes more spirit. Nearly the same amount of spirit
is procured from the same milk, when a ferment is
added to it. Fourthly, milk deprived of the most part
of its caseous matter furnishes very little spirit. Fifthly,
when the serous part only of the milk is distilled, it
affords little spirit. - Sixthly, milk which is fermented
in a close vessel, and left for some time, loses its acid,
and furnishes much more spirit than it would do if dis-
tilled immediately. Seventhly, if the heat of the fer-
mented milk be sustained, the alcoholic portion passes
into vinegar.
MADDER SPIRIT. Within the last few years a patent
has been taken out in France by M. JULLIEN, for dis-
tilling a spirit from the washings of madder, which were
previously allowed to run waste. Several madder dis-
tilleries are now established in France, and one has
been lately erected in Glasgow, by Mr. J. HINSHAW,
of the firm of Messrs. ARTHUR and HINSHAW.
To explain the economy of this remarkable process,
it may be stated that the madder is imported into this
country in the form of a root, which somewhat resem-
bles liquorice, or the stems of heather. To prepare it
for the dyer, and especially for dyeing the celebrated
turkey red which has long been a staple business in
Glasgow the root is first roasted, or kiln-dried; it is
then ground into a coarse powder by two large cylinders
of stone, revolving in a vertical position, like those used
for crushing linseed-cake; in this state it is washed and
subjected to hydrostatic pressure, to free it from the
saccharine and other matters which would injure it?
dyeing qualities. When properly washed, it is again
dried, and submitted to the action of another pair of
stone cylinders, until it is reduced to an impalpable
powder.
The washings of the madder at the dye-stuff factory
of Messrs. ARTHUR and HINSHAW were formerly per-
mitted, as in other establishments, to flow into the
nearest canal, or other reservoir of refuse ; but now it
is carefully preserved, and distilled into a strong spirit,
which, although more volatile and less agreeable to the
taste than that distilled from malt or raw grain, may
perhaps be found equally useful for various manufactur-
ing purposes.
The process of the fabrication is exceedingly simple :
mere washing of the madder supersedes the mash-
ing of the grain or malt in common distilleries. The
root being dried and ground, as already stated, is mixed
in a series of vats with the requisite proportion of cold
water, or water at the ordinary temperature. These
vats are three feet deep by five or six in diameter. The
mixture is effectually rummaged by the workmen with
instruments resembling large hoes, the madder being
kept in a state of diffusion in the liquid until it is con-
ceived that the saccharine matter is entirely extracted.
The liquor is then drawn off by sluices, and the vats
being lined, with coarse cloth, it percolates through that
medium as a filter, leaving the madder behind, to be
again carefully collected, dried, and finally ground for
the use of the dyer.
When the madder liquor, or worts, is drawn off, it is
let into a kind of under-back, from which it is imme-
diately pumped up into a large fermenting tun. Two
tons of madder are found in practice to yield two thou-
sand five hundred gallons of liquor, or madder worts, of
a density equivalent to 30 by Allan's saccharometer.
The fermenting tun being filled by the produce of
several washings, has usually begun to ferment before
it receives the liquor from the last washings. It is not
a little remarkable, that this fermentation of the madder
liquor commences and proceeds spontaneously, without
the addition of yeast, or the application of heat. No
ferment of any description is added, and the water
used throughout the entire process, up to the point of
distillation, is at the ordinary temperature. The addi-
tion of yeast has been tried, but without any sensible
advantage, either in promoting the fermentation, or in-
creasing the ultimate yield of spirits. In consequence,
however, of this spontaneous character of the process,
the fermentation is slower than usual, averaging from
six to eight days to bring the worts to a proper attenua-
tion. This is conceived to be accomplished when the
gravity of the worts is reduced from 24 to 12.
From the fermenting tun the wash is immediately
run into the still, and the rest of the operation proceeds
as in the distillation of malt or raw grain whisky. The
ALCOHOI
-ALCOHOLO \IETRY.
117
still used is STEIN'S patent, and is somewhat similar
to CUFFEY'S, but rather more complex in its arrange-
ments, and possessing the undoubted advantage that
it may be applied, with equal efficiency, either to the
distillation of malt or raw grain whisky. From thi
still the madder spirit is drawn off at one operation
it may be run weaker or stronger, but is generally
taken from the still about 60 to 64 over proof
SYKES' hydrometer.
The produce from two tons of madder, yielding, as
has been stated, two thousand five hundred gallons oi
liquor at 30, is about sixty gallons of spirit.
The madder distillery at Glasgow, to which the pre-
ceding details more especially refer, has only been a
few months in operation, and, therefore, the ultimate
success of the experiment cannot yet be decided. The
high duty on spirit in this country places it under
great disadvantage, compared with the French distil-
leries of the same kind. It turns to account, however,
for manufacturing purposes at least, an otherwise use-
less substance, hitherto lost to the community, and, as
a remarkable illustration of manufacturing economy, it
certainly ought to succeed.
Anotlier New Source of Spirit. It is stated that the
berries of the Sorbus Aucuparia are now used in the
North of France for the production of spirit, and the re-
sult is said to be equal to the purest .distillation from
grapes for brandy. The berries, when perfectly ripe, are
first exposed to the action of cold in the open air, then put
into a wooden vessel, bruised, and boiling water poured
on, the menstruum being stirred until it has sunk in tem-
perature to 82 Fahr. A proper quantity of yeast is then
added, the whole covered and left to ferment. When
the action has terminated, the liquor is put into the
still, and draAvn over in the usual way. The first run-
ning is weak and disagreeable in flavor, but being dis-
tilled from very fresh finely-powdered charcoal, in the
proportion of eight or nine pounds to forty gallons of
weak spirit, a very fine product is obtained. The char-
coal should remain in the liquid two or three days before
the second distillation.
Having given a full account of the different kinds of
spirit, the reader must have perceived how much has
still to be accomplished for the guidance of those con-
nected in any way with alcoholic liquors. It is to the
resources of Chemistry that one must look for such
improvements. The chemist first lighted the distiller's
path by his researches on the essential oils which com-
municate to wines, grain spirit, potato spirit, et cetera,
their peculiar bouquet, and by a prosecution of his labors
he procured these compounds in greater abundance.
Such discoveries led to the artificial imitation or forma-
tion of the rarer and more costly liquors, as cognacs,
genevas, and other beverages which, on account of
their high price, are attainable only by the affluent.
It is to be regretted, however, that those engaged in
manufactures, for the proper management of which there
is hourly required an intimate acquaintance with the
several reactions of bodies, and the various changes
to which they are subject, are so far ignorant of the
general properties of even those very substances which
are daily passing through their hands, that it is not un-
common to find many who know nothing of the nature
of their products beyond the mere name. The conse-
quence of this want of scientific knowledge in the scats
of art, and with the owners or conductors of factories,
is, that in many instances the most palpable incohe-
rency is shown in the methods adopted; a fact mani-
fested in the inferiority of some of the industrial pro-
ducts of this nation at the Great Exhibition. Successful
competition or results, in any fabrication, can only be
attained by attentive study ; indeed, by making manu-
facturers students of science. Without chemistry, a pro-
cess connected therewith, how trivial soever it may be,
cannot prosper ; and this being admitted, it is surprising
and even deplorable that the archives of science are not
oftener consulted by persons daily witnessing the triumplis
that emanate from this prolific source ; instead of doing
so, many assert that chemistry is of no use to them that
they look to practice for improvements and advantages
in fact, they are ready to reject it in toto, as being nothing
better than a visionary speculation of some few dream-
ing theorists. No one will, it is presumed, impugn the
fact, that what is often attributed to practice is really
the result of a long investigation; and further, that the
advances made at a considerable, or rather incredible
sacrifice of capital and labor, in the course of centuries,
may be superseded by purely theoretical studies in a
single day. In truth, most of those who speak dispar-
agingly of scientific and theoretical research are, though
strangely inconsistent, ready to acknowledge the bene-
fits conferred upon many branches of industry by
chemical discoveries.
From scientific inquiries, even the distillers and rec-
tifiers of spiritous liquors have gathered a rich harvest
of experience, inasmuch as they have been made better
acquainted with the nature of their operations, and more
qualified to procure artificially any beverage almost in-
stantaneously. But many of this class, much to the det-
riment of their business character, pass by chemistry
entirely ; the consequence of which is, that in the fabri-
cation of artificial liquors a most absurd course is often
adopted, and mixtures used, in favor of which there is
neither the evidence of reason nor of common sense.
ALCOHOLOMETRY. This is the process for ascertain-
ing the centesimal quantity of anhydrous alcohol in a
spiritous liquid. It is invariably accomplished by de-
termining the specific gravity of the liquid, but then it
is absolutely necessary that only alcohol and water
should be present. The quantity of alcohol in spirit
containing much volatile oil or saccharine matter, et
cetera, cannot, therefore, be at once found by their
pecific gravity.
With the view of being able to calculate the absolute
alcohol, included in a spiritous liquid from its specific
gravity, it was deemed advisable to mix anhydrous
alcohol and water in the different proportions, and by
ixperiments, to establish, with certainty, the specific
gravity of these mixtures. Such experiments have
aeen gone through at distinct periods; the most accurate
and complete were those performed by GILPIN. From
ILPIN'S conclusions, aided by results of his own,
TRALLES constructed the tables appended.
The per centage of absolute alcohol may be stated
3y one of two methods; namely, by weight or volume.
Liquors being vended by measure and not by weight,
118 ALCOHOL ALCOHOLOMETRY.
the centesimal amount by volume is usually preferred.
difference in the densities, as given
in the third column,
But as the bulk of liquids generally, and particularly
becoming the
denominator
of the fraction, and the
that of alcohol, increases by heat, it is necessary that
variation between the next
and greatest specific gra-
their reputed richness should have reference to some
vity in
the table and that
of the liquid in question
normal temperature; this standard, as fixed by TRALLES
forming the numerator. To illustrate this method of
in the construction of his tables, is 60 Fahr.
calculation by an example, let it be supposed that the
By weight the per cent, remains the same at all tem-
specific
gravity
of a
liquid
was found to be '92GO at
peratures, while the per cent, by volume varies with the
60 Fahr., which numbers, according to the table
, would
temperature of the liquid ; and this entails the necessity
indicate a per
centage of alcohol
between fifty-three
of having the sample, in the course of being tested,
and fifty-four,
or fifty- three and a fraction
whose
reduced to the standard degree of the table by calcu-
numerator is the difference between -9275, the specific
lation or otherwise. In the subjoined, water at its
gravity of an alcohol
fifty-three per cent., and
9260,
maximum density is taken as the standard for specific
which
difference equals 15
; this
number forms the
gravity, and is put as I'OOO, which, at 60 Fahr., equals
numerator of the fraction, whose
denominator
is the
9991.
difference between the specific gravities of the
liquids
containing fifty-three and fifty-four per cent, of alcohol,
TABLE I.
and which hi the foregoing table is 21; hence the
Tor cent
Spec. grnv.
Difference
Per cent
Spec, frrav.
Difference
value of the liquid, specific gravity -92GO, is 5,
J2t, or
of alcohol,
01' the liquid
of the
of alcohol,
ot the liquid
ol the
53-71 p
er cent.
by volume.
at w)".
spec, gravs.
by volume
at 00".
spec, gravs.
The
content,
by weight, of alcohol in
a liquid, the
1
0-9991
9976
15
51
52
0-9315
9295
20
20
centesimal value of which per volume has been
found,
2
9961
15
53
9275
20
is ascertained by a simple calculation. This operation
3
9947
14
54
9254
21
is done by multiplying the content per volume of
4
5
9933
9919
14
14
55
56
9234
9213
20
21
alcohol
into the specific gravity of absolute alcohol,
6
9905
13
57
9192
21
and dividing the product by the specific gravity
of the
7
9893
13
58
9170
22
liquid.
An example will aid the reader in comprehend-
8
9
9881
9869
12
12
59
60
9148
9126
22
22
ing the
manner
of performing the
work : Suppose an
10
9857
12
61
9104
22
alcohol
of fifty
per cent, by volume, whose density,
11
9845
12
62
9082
22
according to the preceding table, is -9335. Absolute
12
13
9834
9823
11
11
63
64
9059
9036
23
23
alcohol in the table is
7939,
and this multiplied by 50,
14
9812
11
65
9013
23
and the product divided by '9335, gives the per centage
15
9802
10
66
8989
24
by weight, thus :
16
9791
11
67
8965
24
17
9781
10
68
8941
24
18
9771
10
69
8917
24
7939 X 50 =
r 39-6950 -f- -9335 =
425227 percent.
19
9761
10
70
8892
25
20
9751
10
71
8807
25
It necessarily happens that alcoholic liquors are seldom
21
9741
10
72
8842
25
at the verv deeree of the thermometer
at which the
22
9731
10
73
8817
25
23
9720
11
74
8791
26
preceding table
has been drawn up,
and as it is difficult
24
9710
10
75
8765
26
to bring the sample to mark 60 Fahr., TRALLES, for
25
26
9700
9689
10
11
76
77
8739
8712
26
27
the purpose of surmounting
this obstacle, constructed
27
9679
10
78
8685
27
another table, wherein the volume
of alcohol is given
28
9668
11
79
8658
27
corresponding with the temperature of the liquid at the
29
30
9657
9646
11
11
80
81
8631
8603
27
28
time of the experiment.
31
9634
12
82
8575
28
32
9622
12
83
8547
28
TABLE II.
33
9609
13
84
8518
29
34
9596
13
85
8488
30
Increase of spec. grav. at the indicated temperature
35
9583
13
86
8458
30
byTohmie',
Spec. grav.
of the liquid
bete*
eo.
36
9570
13
87
8428
30
of absolute
at 60".
37
9555
14
88
8397
31
alcohol.
+ fiS
><
45
40
35
SO"
38
9541
15
89
8365
32
o
0-9991
4
7
9
9
9
7
39
9526
15
90
8332
33
5
9919
4
7
9
10
10
9
40
9510
16
91
8299
33
10
9857
5
9
12
14
15
15
41
9494
16
92
8265
34
15
9802
6
12
17
21
23
25
42
9478
16
93
8230
35
20
9751
8
16
23
29
35
39
43
9461
17
94
8194
36
25
9700
10
21
31
39
48
56
44
9444
17
95
8157
37
30
9646
13
26
39
51
62
73
45
9427
17
96
8118
39
35
9583
16
31
46
61
75
89
40
9309
18
97
8077
41
40
9510
18
35
52
70
87
103
47
9391
18
98
8034
43
45
9427
19
39
57
76
94
112
48
9373
18
99
7988
46
50
9355
20
40
60
80
99
118
49
9354
19
100
7939
49
55
9234
21
42
63
84
104
124
50
9335
19
60
9126
22
43
65
86
107
127
65
9013
22
45
67
88
109
130
70
8892
22
45
68
90
112
133
The third column of this table exhibits the differences
75
8765
23
46
68
91
113
135
of the specific gravities, in order to facilitate the calcu-
80
QK
8631
fij.88
23
23
47
47
70
70
92
93
115
116
137
139
lation of fractions of per centage for specific gravities
OO
90
OrrOO
8332
24
48
71
94
117
140
intermediate between those stated in the table the
ALCOHOL A LCOIIOLOMETRY.
119
TABLE II. Concluded.
PIT i-cnt.,
Decrease of spec, grav. t the Indicated tcmi>eratur<
al/ovt W.
OtahsolilK.
ali-oliuL
lit UU".
65"
70
7
80
85
90"
9i
100
0-9991
1
11
17
24
32
40
50
60
5
9919
1
11
18
25
33
42
51
62
10
9857
6
13
20
29
37
47
57
68
15
9802
7
15
25
34
44
55
67
79
20
9751
9
19
30
41
53
66
79
93
25
9700
11
24
36
50
63
78
93
109
30
35
9646
9583
14
17
28
33
43
50
59
68
75
86
91
104
108
122
125
141
40
45
9510
9427
18
20
37
40
56
60
75
80
94
101
114
122
136
143
154
154
50
9335
21
42
63
84
106
128
150
173
55
9234
22
43
65
87
109
132
155
178
60
9126
22
44
67
90
113
136
159
183
65
9013
22
45
68
92
115
138
162
187
70
8892
23
46
69
93
117
141
165
190
75
8765
23
46
70
94
119
143
167
192
80
8631
23
47
71
96
120
144
169
194
85
8488
24
48
72
96
121
145
170
195
90
8332
24
48
72
97
121
146
171
196
A further objection to these tables is, that the specific
gravity of the mixtures of alcohol and water at elevated
or reduced temperatures is not the real but the apparent
density. The cause of this discrepancy is, that the
vessels of glass or copper in which the liquids are
weighed are liable to expand or contract with change
of temperature, so that the specific gravity of the liquid
obtained in this way is only what results from the
difference of the expansion of the liquid and of the
vessel.
TKALLES constructed a third table, in order that the
per centage by volume in an alcoholic liquid might be
ascertained from the more uniform arrangement of the
numbers denoting the specific gravities.
In Table III. the densities are given of the several
mixtures from 30 to 85, as ascertained by a glass
instrument ; but these numbers, by the aid of the allow-
ance, as seen in Table IV., can be made to correspond
with the indications of a brass alcoholometer.
TABLE III.
Per cent
of alcohol,
Ly volume.
Specific gravity of the liquid, ascertained by glass Instruments, at the indicated temperature..
30
3.5
40"
45
o
65'
60
65"
70"
75
80
es*
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
65
70
75
80
9994
9924
9868
9823
9786
9752
9715
96G8
9609
9535
9449
9354
9249
9140
9021
8896
8764
9997
9926
9869
9822
9782
9745
9705
9655
9594
9518
9431
9335
9230
9120
9001
8875
8743
9997
9926
9868
9820
9777
9737
9694
9641
9577
9500
9413
9316
9210
9099
8980
8854
8721
9998
9925
9867
9817
9772
9729
9683
9627
9560
9482
9393
9295
9189
9078
8958
8832
8699
9997
9925
9865
9813
9766
9720
9671
"9612
9544
9464
9374
9275
9168
9056
8'J36
8810
8676
9994
9922
9861
9807
9759
9709
9658
9598
9527
9445
9354
9254
9147
9034
8913
8787
8853
9991
9919
9857
9802
9751
9700
9646
9583
9510
9427
9335
9234
9126
9013
8892
8765
8631
9987
9915
9852
9796
9743
9690
9633
9567
9493
9408
9315
9213
9105
8992
8870
8743
8609
9981
9909
9845
9788
9733
9678
9619
9551
9474
9388
9294
9192
9083
8969
8847
8720
8585
9976
9903
9839
9779
9723
9666
9605
9535
9456
9369
9274
9171
90G1
8947
8825
8697
8562
9970
9897
9831
9771
9713
9653
9590
9518
9438
9359
9253
9250
9039
8924
8801
8673
8538
9962
9S89
9823
9761
9701
9640
9574
9500
9419
9329
9232
9128
9016
8901
8778
8649
8514
85
8623
8601
8579
8556
8533
8510
8488
8465
8441
8418
8394
8370
90
8469
8446
8423
8401
8379
8355
8332
8309
8285
8262
8238
8214
TABLE IV.
To be subtracted.
To be added.
S0
So"
4f)
4fl
sn
65
60'
65"
7(V>
7.'.
80
8S
0005
0004
0003
0002
0002
0001
0001
0002
0002
0003
0004
^ The necessity for using Table IV. arises from the
discrepancy in the contraction or expansion of glass or
brass at different temperatures, occasioning variation
in the density ; hence these numbers must be added
or subtracted, as directed, according to the temperature,
when a brass instrument is employed.
It occurs that liquids are tested whose temperature
and specific gravity are intermediate between those
instanced in the preceding table, and in this case the
corresponding content of alcohol must be found by an
inconvenient method of calculation. To give an ex-
ample : Let it be supposed that the specific gravity of
an alcoholic solution has been found by experiment to
be -9320 at a temperature of 72 Fahr. In the column
under 70', the specific gravity '9388 is that which is
next over the above number, and in the column
under 75 the gravity nearest to it is '9369, both of
which exceed -9320 the former by -0068, and the latter
by '0049. The difference between these two numbers is
0019, which is the variation for 5, or between 70 3 and
0019
75, and by dividing by 5, the quotient is ^- , the dif-
ference for each degree. As the temperature of the
liquid under examination is 72, or 2 over 70, it is
necessary to reduce the specific gravity to what it would
indicate were the liquid at 70, by adding a multiple of
0019 '0038
= by 2, or = = -00074 to the specific gravity
o o
obtained -9320 which would make it '9327|, or,
omitting fractions, '9327. By referring to the table,
will be seen in the horizontal column opposite 45 per
cent, of alcohol, and under 70, the specific gravity
120
ALCOHO]
-ALCOHOLOMETEY.
9388, and in the same column, in a line with 50 per
cent, of spirit, '9294, whose difference from the fore-
going is -0094 ; thus the variation in gravity at the
same temperature, for 5 per cent, of alcohol, is -0094.
In like manner, the difference of '9388 and '9327, the
reduced gravity for the liquid specified, is '0061 ; and
since 5 per cent, of spirit has been shown to corre-
spond with -0094, it is found, by simple proportion, that
0061 will be equivalent to 3'24 per cent., and this,
added to 45 per cent., the spirit in the liquid of gravity
next preceding that which is supposed to be ascer-
tained, gives 48-24 as the per centage by volume of
alcohol. Numerically
9388 -9320 = '0068, and
9369 -9320 = -0049.
By subtracting the lesser of these from the greater,
videlicet, -0068 '0049 = '0019, the difference for the
5 between 70 and 75 Fahr., giving for each degree
- ; and to reduce the corresponding gravity of the
5
liquid at 72 to that of 70, there must be added to it
X 2 (= 72 -70) = = '0007f ; and thus
one obtains -9320 + -0007f = -9327f, or, omitting frac-
tions, -9327. Again,
9388 -9294 = -0094, and
9388 -9327 = '0061.
And since the former indicates a difference of 5 per
cent, in the amount of alcohol, at the same temperature,
the equivalent for '0061 under similar circumstances
is obtained by simple proportion, exempli gratia :
As 94 : 5 : : 61 : 3*24, which, when added to 45, gives
48'24, the content per cent, by volume of alcohol in
the liquid. From all the tables in the foregoing for
the determination of the volume of alcohol in a liquid,
at whatever temperature it may stand, it is seen that
reference is always had to the per centage at the normal
temperature of 60 Fahr. Hence, in examining an
alcoholic liquid for its true content of pure alcohol, the
heat must be diminished to 60, or else the temperature
rioted at the time of experiment, and then by calcula-
tion reduced to 60; or the content of alcohol at 60
may be found as in Table II., where the specific gravity
at the different temperatures is in inverse proportion to
the volume of alcohol.
To avoid this calculation, TRALLES calculated an-
other table, which gives the content in volume of
absolute alcohol in a liquid, reference being had to
the bulk of the liquid at the temperature at which it is
measured.
For the prevention of error, it is absolutely necessary
to determine the specific gravity of the liquid at the
same degree at which it stands when measured; a glass
instrument should be employed.
TABLE V.
To ascertain at any temperature, from the specific gravity, the quantity of absolute alcohol in a liquid expressed in volume
centesimally, at the indicated temperature.
Per cent of nb-
tolule alcohol
In the liquid us
Specific gravity of the liquid, ascertained by glass Instruments, at the Indicated temperatures.
30 55
40
<
fiU
5
oo
65
70
IS"
80
84
0-9994
9997
9997
9998
9997
9994
9991
9987
9981
9976
9970
9962
5
9924
9926
9926
9926
9925
9922
9919
9915
9909
9903
9897
9889
10
9868
9869
9868
9867
9865
9861
9857
9852
9845
9839
9831
9823
15
9823
9822
9820
9817
9813
9807
9802
9796
9788
9779
9771
9761
20
9786
9782
9777
9772
9766
9759
9751
9743
9733
9722
9711
9700
25
9753
9746
9738
9729
9720
9709
9700
9690
9678
9665
9652
9638
30
9717
9707
9695
9684
9672
9659
9646
9632
9618
9603
9588
9572
35
9671
9658
9644
9629
9614
9599
9583
9566
9549
9532
9514
9495
40
9615
9598
9581
9563
9.i46
9528
9510
9491
9472
9452
9433
9412
45
9544
9525
9506
9486
9467
9447
9427
9406
9385
9364
9342
9320
50
9460
9440
9420
9399
9378
9356
9335
9313
9290
9267
9244
9221
55
9368
9347
9325
9302
9279
9256
9234
9211
9187
9163
9139
9114
60
9267
9245
9222
9198
9174
9150
9126
9102
9076
9051
9026
9000
65
9162
9138
9113
9088
9063
9038
9013
8988
8962
8936
8909
8882
70
9046
9021
8996
8970
8944
8917
8892
8866
8839
8812
8784
8756
75
8',)25
8890
8873
8847
8820
8792
8765
8738
8710
8681
8652
8622
80
8798
8771
8744
8716
8688
8659
8631
8602
8573
8544
8514
8483
85
8663
8635
8608
8577
8547
8517
8488
8458
8427
8396
8365
8333
90
8517
8486
8455
8425
8395
8363
8332
8300
8268
8236
8204
8171
TABLE VI.
To be added.
To be subtracted.
30
Si
40
45
50
M
60
6S
70
75
80 | 85
0005
0004
0003
0002
0002
0001
0001
0002
0002
0003
0004
For the reasons assigned under Tables III. and IV.,
the numbers in Table VI. must be added or subtracted,
as may be deemed necessary, to or from the specific
gravities given in Table V., according to the tem-
perature.
From the above tables, the true content of alcohol
in a liquor, or its richness, may be ascertained by the
specific gravity.
It will be as well to consider here the plan pursued
for ascertaining with accuracy the specific gravity of
the various liquids. Invariably, the density is found
by one of two methods either by actually weighing
ALCOHOL ALCOIIOLOMETRY. 121
a portion of the liquor in an accurate specific gravity
In the practical application of the preceding table,
bottle, or by hydrometer.
when graduating the alcoholometer, it is requisite to
The latter is better adapted, as it affords a more
have two liquids of a standard strength and temperature.
expeditious means of finding the density in practice.
Distilled water may be one of these, and the other
Various hydrometers are employed, the principal ones
any alcoholic liquor, the per centage of which has
being Beaume's, Sykes 1 , and Uicas', all of which have
been precisely determined, but it is necessary that
corresponding tables to indicate the quantities of alco-
both should be at 60. The level at which the instru-
hol according to the gravity. It being thought more
ment stands in each should be scratched on the stem,
convenient and simple to have an instrument which
and the intermediate space accurately divided ac-
would indicate at once the content of alcohol, one was
cording to the strength of the liquid. If the alcoholic
formed, partly on the plan of the hydrometer, to which
liquor be forty-nine per cent., and the distance be-
the term alcoholometer has been applied; it may be
tween the point to which the instrument immerses in
made either of glass or brass. TRALLES, in construct-
this liquid and water be divided into 690 9 = G81
ing one of these instruments, has drawn up the annexed
equal parts, the addition of twenty-two such parts will
alcoholometric table for guidance, which shows, from
indicate the point for fifty per cent., and twenty- three
the portion of the stem immersed in the liquor, the
more for fifty-one per cent., and so on, as is seen in
content of alcohol at 60 Fahr.
the third column in the table. By adding nine such
divisions below zero, or the water-level mark, the point
TABLE VII.
is attained from which the numbers in the second
column in the table are calculated for each succeeding
,-r
Is
IS
I 5?
Id
*!
! |
|*S ,
per cent, of spirit.
li
|la
jj "* K **
M |=
2 a
frfi
ZZZ-a
* $'3 8
In graduating the scale, it would perhaps be more
I?
*j|
C l^'o "
U'o
i;
IP
5 v P.
convenient to have two instruments ; one to have indi-
I*
*"* &
I 1
Z&
OH
" e
S
S^-3
a s
cations denoting a per centage, say, from one to eighty,
Q
and the other from the latter up to pure alcohol. For
9
51
735
23
this end it would, however, be absolutely necessary to
1
24
M
15
1 "i
52
53
758
782
23
24
adjust the instrument having the higher indications,
3
o*/
54
j. \j
15
54
806
24
with two liquids at the normal degree of temperature of
4
68
14
55
830
24
the preceding, whose per centage of alcohol should be
5
g
82
95
14
13
56
57
854
879
24
25
eighty and a hundred ; then, to observe the points to which
7
108
13
58
905 '
26
it sinks in these, and divide the intermediate space into
8
121
13
59
931
26
measures corresponding with those in the table.
9
10
133
145
12
12
60
61
957
984
26
27
In constructing one of these alcoholometers, it is
11
157
12
62
1011
27
necessary to have the stem as uniform as possible, but
12
169
12
63
1039
28
tubes varying between one-thirtieth or one-twentieth
13
14
180
191
11
11
64
65
1067
1096
28
29
/ O
of the diameter may be used. When this alcoholo-
15
202
11
66
1125
29
meter is employed, the temperature of the liquid must
16
213
11
67
1154
29
be at 60, else the results will be incorrect ; for if the
17
18
224
235
11
11
68
69
1184
1215
30
31
degree should differ from the above, the centesimal
19
245
10
70
1246
31
amount of alcohol cannot be ascertained by taking the
20
91
256
266
10
10
71
72
1278
1310
32
32
specific gravity corresponding with the spirit indicated
a
22
277
11
73
1342
32
by the alcoholometer, and, therefore, the true per
23
288
11
74
1375
33
centage is calculated from this gravity in the usual
24
OK
299
310
11
11
75
76
1409
1443
34
34
way, by Tables III. or IV., as in the foregoing.
Zv
26
321
11
77
1478
35
To dispense with the trouble of such a calculation,
27
332
11
78
1514
36
TRALLES devised another table, by which the real
28
29
344
355
12
H
79
80
1550
1587
36
37
per centage of alcohol is found in liquids of different
30
367
12
81
1624
37
temperatures, from the results exhibited by the instru-
31
380
13
82
1662
38
on
ment. This table is given below, Table VIII., and cor-
32
33
393
407
13
14
83
84
1701
1740
OS
39
responds with Table III. in the preceding.
34
420
13
85
1781
41
The numbers in the vertical columns under the tem-
35
434
14
86
1823
42
A Q
peratures, are the observed degrees of the alcoholo-
36
37
449
465
15
16
87
88
1866
1910
4o
44
meter, and indicate the per centage of the absolute
38
481
16
89
1955
45
alcohol by volume. If an alcoholic liquid at a tempera-
39
498
17
90
2002
47
AQ
ture of 75 be found to contain 62'9 per cent, by volume,
40
41
515
533
17
18
91
92
2050
2099
4o
49
by reference to the table its true per centage at 60 is 60.
42
551
18
93
2150
51
Tables IX. and X. following, give the richness per
43
569
18
94
2203
53
t^R
cent, by volume of the liquid at the temperature it
44
45
588
608
19
20
95
96
2259
2318
OO
59
possesses when tested. They correspond with Table
46
628
20
97
2380
62
V. in the preceding, and, like that, it is necessary that
47
648
20
98
2447
OK I Q
67
72
the solution should be tested at exactly the same tem-
48
49
669
690
21
21
99
100
ZOJ.V
2597
78
perature at which it is measured. Table IX. is for a
50
712
22
glass, and Table X. for a brass alcoholometer.
VOL. I. - W
1 _ '
122
ALCOHOL-
ALCOHOLOMETRY.
TABLE VIII.
To find the true per centage of absolute alcohol by volume, in a 1 quid at 60 P , from the observed per centage indicated by a glass
alcoholometer at any other temperature.
30
03
40=
45
fiO*
5
ea
60
65
70
75*
80
85
0-2
0-4
0-4
0-5
0-4
0-2
4 0-2
4 O-G
4- i-o
+ 1-4
4 1-9
4 4-6
4 4-5
4 4-5
4 4-o
4 4-6
4 4-8
5
5
5-3
5-8
C-2
6-7
7-3
9-1
9-0
9-1
9-2
9-3
9-7
10
10
10-4
11-0
11-6
12-3
13-0
13-0
13-1
13-3
13-5
13-9
14-5
15
15
15-6
16-3
17-1
18 :
19-0
16-5
16-9
17-4
17-8
18-5
19-2
20
20
20-8
21-8
22-8
23-8
24-9
19-9
20-6
21-4
22.2
23-0
24-1
25
25
25-9
27-0
28-2
29-4
30-5
23-5
24-5
25-7
26-6
27-7
28-8
30
30
31-1
32-2
33-4
34-5
35-7
28-0
29-2
30-4
31-6
32-7
33-8
35
35
36-2
37-3
38-4
39-5
40-6
33-0
34-2
35-4
36-7
37-8
39-0
40
40
41-1
42-2
43-3
44-3
45-4
38-4
39-6
40-7
41-8
42-9
43-9
45
45
46-1
47-1
48-2
49-2
50-3
43-7
44-7
45-8
46-9
47-9
49-0
50
50
51-0
52-0
53-0
54-0
55-1
49-0
50-0
51-0
52-0
53-0
54-0
55
55
549
56-9
57-9
58-9
59-9
54-2
55-2
56-2
57-1
58-1
59-0
60
60
60-9
61-9
62-9
63-8
64-9
59-4
60-3
61-2
62-2
63-1
64-0
65
65
65-9
66-8
67-7
68-6
C9-6
C4-6
65-5
66-4
67-3
68-2
69-1
70
70
70-8
71-7
72-6
73-5
74-5
69-8
70-7
71-5
72-4
73-3
74-2
75
75
75-8
76-7
77-6
78-4
79-3
75-0
75-8
76-6
77-5
78-4
79-2
80
80
80-8
81-7
82-4
83-2
84-1
80-3
81-1
81-8
82-6
83-5
84-3
85
85
85-7
86-5
87-3
88-0
88-8
85-6
86-4
87-1
87-9
88-6
89-3
90
90
90-7
91-4
92-0
92-7
93-4
TABLE IX.
To find the true per centage of absolute alcohol by volume, in a liquid of any temperature, from the observed per centage indicated
by the glass alcoholometer at the same temperature.
True per cent
of alcohol
Observed per cent indicated by the glass alcoholometer.
by volume,
at tXi l-'alir.
Sd
35
40
45
60"
n*
65
70
75
80
85
0-2
0-4
0-4
0-5
0-4
0-2
4 0-2
4 0-6
4 1-0
4 1-4
4 1-9
5
4 4-6
4 4-5
4 4-5
4 4-5
4
4-6
4
4-8
5-3
5-8
6-2
6-7
7-3
10
9-1
9-0
9
1
9-2
9-3
9-7
10-4
11-0
11-6
12-3
13-0
15
13-0
13-
L
13-3
13-6
14-1
14-5
15-6
16-3
17-1
18-0
19-0
20
16-5
16-9
17-4
17-9
18-5
19-2
20-8
21-8
22-9
23-9
25-0
25
19-8
20-5
21
8
22-2
23-0
24-1
25-9
27-1
28-3
29-5
307
30
23-3
24-3
25-5
26-5
27-6
28-8
31-2
32-3
33-5
34-6
35-9
35
27-7
28-9
30-2
31-4
32-6
33-8
36-3
37-5
38-6
39-7
40-9
40
32-5
33-8
35-1
36-5
37-7
38-9
41-2
42-4
43-5
44-6
45-8
45
37-8
39-
L
40-3
41-5
42-7
43-8
46-2
47-3
48-5
49-6
50-8
50
43-1
44-2
45-4
46-6
47-7
48-9
51-1
52-2
53-4
54-5
55-6
55
48-3
49-4
50-5
51-6
52-8
53-9
56-1
57-2
58-3
59-4
60-5
60
53-4
54-5
55-6
56-7
57-8
58-9
61-1
62-2
63-3
64-4
65-5
65
58-4
59-5
60-6
61-7
62-3
63-9
66-0
67-1
68-2
69-3
70-4
70
63-5
64-6
65-7
66-8
67-9
69-0
71-0
72-1
73-2
74-3
75-4
75
68-6
69-7
70-7
71-8
72-9
74-0
76-0
77-1
78-2
79-2
803
80
73-7
71-8
75-8
76-9
78-0
79-0
81-0
82-1
83-1
84-1
85-2
85
78-8
79-8
80-9
81-9
83-0
84-0
86-0
87-0
88-0
89-0
90-0
90
84-0
85-1
86-1
87-1
88-1
89.1
91-0
91-9
92-8
93-7
94-6
Thus, if the alcoholometer indicated 59'4
per cent, in
richness to 55 per cent., that is, 100 volumes of the
a liquid at 80, the table would give its true per centage
liquid, at 80, contain 55 volumes of anhydrous alcohol.
v
TABLE X
To find the true per centage of absolute alcohol in a liquid of any temperature, from the observed per centage indicated by a
brass alcoholometer at the same temperature.
Observed per cent indicated by the brass alcoholometer.
True per cent.
of nlcohol
30
35.
40
45
so-
1
70
by volume.
l
65
76
80
85
0-1
0-1
0-2
0-3
0-3
0-2
4- 0-2
4 0-5
4 0-9
4 1-2
4 1-7
5
4 5-0
4 4-8
4 4-7
4 4-8
+ 4-7
4
4-8
5-2
5-6
6-1
6-5
7-0
10
9-5
9-4
9-4
9-4
9-5
9-7
10-3
10-8
11-4
12-0
12-6
15
13-5
13-5
13-6
13-7
14-0
14-6
15-5
16-2
17-0
17-7
18-6
20
17-0
17-3
17-7
18-1
18-7
19-3
20-7
21-6
22-7
23-7
24-0
25
20-3
20-9
21-6
22-4
23-3
24-2
25-8
26-9
28-1
29-2
30-3
30
23-8
24-7
25-8
26-8
27-8
28-9
31-1
32-2
33-3
34-4
35-5
35
28-2
29-3
30-4
31
6
32-8
33-9
36-2
37-3
38-4
39-5
40-7
40
32-9
34-1
35-4
36-7
37-9
39-0
41-1
42-2
43-4
44-5
45-6
45
38-1
39-3
40-4
41
6
42-7
43-9
46-1
47-2
48-3
49-4
50-5
50
43-4
44-5
45-
6
46-7
47-8
48-9
51-1
52-2
53-3
54-4
55-5
55
48-5
49-6
50-7
51-8
52-9
54-0
56-0
57-1
58-2
59-3
60-4
60
53-6
54-6
55-7
56-8
57-8
58-9
61-0
62-1
63-2
64-3
65-3
65
58-6
59-7
\ "0-7
61
8
62-8
63-9
66-0
67-1
68-1
69-2
70-2
70
63-7
64-8
\ac-8
66-9
67-9
69-0
71-0
72-1
73-1
74-2
75-2
75
68-8
69-8
V
J
71
9
72-9
74-0
76-0
77-0
78-1
79-1
801
80
73-9
74-9
75-
9
76-9
78-0
79-0
81-0
82-0
83-0
84-0
85-0
85
79-0
80-0
81-0
82-0
83-0
84-0
86-0
87-0
88-0
88-9
89-9
90
84-2
85-2
86-2
87-2
88-1
89.1
90-9
91-9
92-8
93-7
94-5
ALCOHOL ALCOIIOLOMETRY. 123
The preceding ten tables of TRALLES contain all that
vertical column. The numbers in small figures beneath
is requisite
for the determination of the volume of
the real per centages denote the bulk at 59 of a thou-
alcohol in a liquid ; they have been constructed on the
sand measures of liquid ; this number, multiplied by
principle of the tables of GILPIN. Since their con-
the real per centage under which it stands, gives the
struction, however, further
extensive researches have
richness, or absolute quantity of alcohol at the tem-
been instituted by various
eminent chemists, among
perature at which the experiment is performed. To
whom was- the famous GAY-LUSSAC, whose investiga-
read the table, suppose an alcoholic liquid of 50 strength
tions had been made in 1824. The tables drawn up
indicated by the alcoholometer at a temperature of
by tliat chemist are much
more extensive, requiring
68 Fahr., the observed per centage 50 is sought
scarcely any interpolation.
in the horizontal column at the top; in the vertical
GAY-LUSSAC'S instrument, called an
alcoometre, is
column beneath this and on a line with 68, in the
like a glass hydrometer, the stem of which is divided
temperature column at the left hand, will be found the
into degrees like that of TRALLES, to indicate the per
number 48'2, which is the quantity of real spirit at 59.
centage of alcohol by volume, but the temperature at
The number 996, in small figures below the indicated
which the gradation was made was 15 C. or 59 Fahr.,
strength at 59, is the bulk or volume which a thousand
instead of 60 Fahr., as the normal temperature of
volumes would occupy at the standard temperature;
TRALLES' tables.
and by multiplying this number by the proper strength,
At this temperature, water is supposed to be at its
and dividing the product by a thousand, the strength or
maximum density or unity, although
this actually
true volume of spirit in a thousand of the liquid is
happens when the temperature is reduced to 39 '83
ascertained; thus
Fahr. The
the point at
stem of the instrument is divided, from
which it stands in water, into one hun-
996 X 48-2 = 48007-2 -7- 1000 = 48-00, the per centage;
f
dred divisions, so that each
on the scale is equal to a
hence, a hundred volumes of the liquor at 68, contain
per cent, of alcohol ; the hundredth division indicates
48 volumes of absolute alcohol at 59.
pure or absolute alcohol, while or zero equals pure
M. MORAZEAU constructed a table somewhat more
water.
in detail than the foregoing, with one of GAY-LussAC's
The instrument, if immersed in an alcoholic liquor
alcoholometers, which differs slightly from the preceding
at 59, marks the strength
by the number of degrees
in the figures denoting the density, although they have
below the surface; thus, if the alcoholometer stands at
reference to the same temperature.
57 in a liquid at 59, such
a solution contains 57 per
When, however, the liquors to be tested stand at a
cent, by volume of alcohol.
In consequence of the
assumed density of water,
higher degree than 59, no provision is made to afford
the true content of spirit, which must be sought, in this
taken by GAY-LussAC at
59, the fundamental num-
case, either by other tables, or by the tedious calcula-
bers for determining the relation, the per centage of
tion exemplified on a former occasion.
alcohol and the specific gravities, are in a slight degree
different from those of TRALLES, but the variation is so
Per cent
of alcohol
Specific
Per cent,
of alcohol
Specific
gravity.
Per cent,
of ulcohol
Specific
gravity.
minute that in practice it may be overlooked.
by volume.
gravity.
by volume.
by volume.
In the annexed table the fundamental numbers of
1-000
34
0-962
68
0-896
the centesimal content per
volume, together with the
1
0-999
n.OG7
35
36
0-960
0-959
69
70
0-893
0-891
specific gravities of the different alcoholic mixtures
2
3
o yj<
0-996
37
0-957
71
0-888
f\.QO 1
at 59, are given :
4
5
0-994
0-993
38
39
0-956
0-954
72
73
oo4
0-881
6
0-992
40
0-953
74
0-879
; - ~, "
Per cent,
of alcohol
by volume.
Speciflc gravity
of the liquid
at oS).
percent,
of alcohol
by volume.
Specific gravity
of the liquid
at Sti.
7
8
9
0-990
0-989
0-988
41
42
43
0-951
0-949
0-948
M.( 1 1 ('
75
76
77
78
U off)
0-874
0-871
0-868
100
0-7947
60
0-9141
10
0-987
0-986
44
45
U-y4o
0-945
79
0-865
95
0-8168
55
0-9248
19
0-984
46
0-943
80
0-863
90
0-8346
50
0-9348
\.t
13
0-983
47
0-941
81
0-860
85
0-8502
45
0-9440
13
0-982
48
0-940
82
0-857
80
75
70
65
0-8645
0-8799
0-8907
0-9027
40
35
10
0-9523
0-9595
0-9656
1-0000
15
16
17
18
0-981
0-980
0-979
0-978
49
50
51
52
0-938
0-936
0-934
0-932
/"l.O'-lfl
83
84
85
86
87
0-854
0-851
0-848
0-845
0-842
The first
table bv GAY-LUSSAC is denominated
19
20
01
0-977
0-976
0-975
53
54
55
u y*>u
0-928
0-926
88
89
0-838
0-835
Table for the REAL strength of spirits, and corresponds
with Table VIII. of TRALLES. This table gives the
u
22
23
0-974
0-973
56
57
Kft
0-ii24
0-922
0-920
90
91
92
0-832
0-829
0-826
true per centage by volume at 59 from the observed
per centage of the alcoholometer at any other tem-
perature. Two numbers are placed in the same hori-
24
25
26
27
Oft
0*972
0-971
0-970
0-969
0-968
0O
59
60
61
62
0-918
0-915
0-913
0-911
93
94
95
96
0-822
0-818
0-814
0-810
zontal column, and vertical to each other: those m
s/o
29
0-967
63
0-909
97
M
0-805
0-800
the top are
the observed centesimal quantities ot tne
30
0-966
64
fii
0-906
0-904
yo
99
0-795
alcoholometer, while the large figures in the vertical
column below them, give the real per centages at >J ,
31
32
33
0-965
0-964
0-963
Q0
66
67
0-J02
0-899
100
0-747
when tested at the temperature found in the left-nj
=
==.
.
]24 ALCOHOL ALCOHOLOMETHY.
TABLE I.
ALCOHOLOMETRIC TABLE BY GAY-LUSSAC,
To find the per cent., by volume, in a liquid at 59 strength from the observed per cent, at any other Temperature.
The temperature by Centigrade is below that of Fahrenheit.
Observed per centage of tho Alcoholometer.
T ...,,,,
Observed ]icr centage of the Alcoholometer.
Temp.
Falir.
1
2
3
4 s
6
7
8
9 10
em p.
Fulir.
11 | 12
13
H
15
16
17
18
19
20
.cent
MVllt.
[>.cent
p.ccnt p.cent
p.cent.
p.cent
p.cent
p.cent p.cent
p.cent
p. cent
p.cent
p.cent
p.cent p.cent
p.cent
p.cent
p.ccnt
p.ccnt.
32-0
1-3
2-4
3-4
4-4
5-4
6-5
7-5
8-6
9-7 10-9
32-0
12-2
13-4
14-7
16-1
17-5
18-9
20-3
'21-0
22-9
24-2
0C.
1000
1000
1000
1000
1000
1001
1001
1001
1001
1001
oc.
1001
1002
1002
1002
1002
1003
1003
1004
1004
1004
33-8
33-8
13-4
14-7
16
17-3
18-7
20
21-3
22-6
23-9
1C.
1C.
1002
1002
1002
1002
1003
1003
1003
1004
1004
350
35-6
13-4
14-7
16
17-2
18-5
19-8
21-1
22-3
23-6
2C.
2C.
1002
1002
1002
1002
1003
1003
1003
1004*
1004
37-4
37-4
13-3
14-6
15-9
17-1
18-3
19-6
20-8
22 ,
23-3
3C.
3C.
1001
1002
1002
1002
1002
1003
1003
1003
1004
39-2
39-2
13-3
14-5
15-8
16-9
18-1
19-4
20-6
21-8
23
4C.
4C.
1001
1002
1002
1002
1002
1002
1003
1003
1003
41-0
1-4
2-5
3-5
4-5
5-5
6-G
7-7
8-7
9-8
10-9
41-0
12-1
13-2
14-4
15-7
16-8
18
19-2
20-4
21-5
22-7
50.
1001
1001
1001
1001
1001
1001
1001
1001
1001
1001
5C.
1001
1001
1001
1002
1002
1002
1002
1003
1003
1003
42-8
42-8
13-1
14-3
15-6
16-7
17-8
19
20-2
21-3
22-4
6C.
6C.
1001
1001
1002
1002
1002
1002
1003
1003
1003
44-6
44-6
13
14-2
15-4
16-6
17-7
18-8
20
21
22-1
1C.
7C.
1001
1001
1001
1002
1002
1002
1002
1002
1002
46-4
46-4
13
14-1
15-3
16-4
17-5
18-6
19-7
20-7
21-8
8C.
8C.
1001
1001
1001
1001
1001
1002
1002
1002
1002
48-2
48-2
12-9
14
15-1
16-2
17-3
18-4
19-5
205
21-6
9C.
90.
1001
1001
1001
1001
1001
1001
1001
1002
1002
50-0
1-4
2-4
3-4
4-5
5-5
6-5
7-5
8-5
9-5
10-6
50-0
11-7
12-7
13-8
14-9
16
17
18-1
19-2
20-2
21-3
IOC.
1000
1000
1001
1001
1001
1001
1001
1001
1001 1001
100.
1001
1001
1001
1001
1001
1001
1001
1001
1001
1001
51-8
1-3
2-4
3-4
4-4
5-4
6-4
7-4
8-4
9-4 10-5
518
11-6
12-6
13-6
14-7
15-8
16-8
17-9
19
20
21
11C.
1000
1000
1000
1001
1001
1001
1001
1001
1001
1001
110.
1001
1001
1001
1001
1001
1001
1001
1001
1001
1001
53-6
1-2
2-3
3-3
4-3
5-3
6-3
7-3
8-3
9-3
10-4
53-6
11-5
12-5
13-5
14-6
15-6
1G-6
17-6
18-7
19-7
20-7
12 C.
1000
1000
1000
1000
1000
1000
1000
1000
1000
luoo
12 C.
1000
1001
1001
1001
1001
1001
1001
1001
1001
1001
55-4
1-2
2-2
3-2
4-2
5-2
6-2
7-2
8-2
9-2
10-3
55-4
11-4
12-4
13-4
14-4
15-4
16-4
17-4
18-5
19-5
20-5
13 C.
1000
1000
1000
1000
1000
1000
1000
1000
1000
1000
13 C.
1000
1000
1000
1000
1000
1000
1000
1000
1000
1000
57-2
1-1
2-1
3-1
4.1
5-1
6-1
7-1
8-1
9-1
10-2
57-2
11-2
12-2
13-2
14-2
15-2
16-2
17-2
18-2
19-2
20-2
140.
1000
1000
1000
1000
1000
1000
1000
1000
1000
1000
140.
1000
1000
1000
1000
1000
1000
1000
1000
1000
1000
59-0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
59-0
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
15 C.
1000
1000
1000
1000
1000
1000
1000
1000
1000
1000
150.
1000
1000
1000
1000
1000
1000
1000
1000
1000
1000
60-8
0-9
1-9
2-9
3-9
4-9
5-9
6-9
7-9
8-9
9-9
60-8
10-9
11-9
12-9
13-9
14-9
15-9
16-9
17-8
18-7
19-7
16 C.
1000
1000
1000
1000
1000
1000
1000
1000
1000
1000
16 C.
1000
1000
1000
1000
1000
1000
1000
1000
1000
1000
f>2-6
0-8
1-8
2-8
3-8
4-8
5-8
6-8
7-8
8-8
9-8
62-6
10-8
11-7
12-7
13-7
14-7
15-6
16-6
17-5
18-4
19-4
17 C.
1000
1000
1000
1000
1000
1000
1000
1000
1000
1000
17 C.
1000
1000
1000
1000
1000
1000
1000
1000
999
999
64-4
0-7
1-7
2-7
3-7
4-7
5-7
6-7
7-7
8-7
9-7
64-4
10-7
11-6
12-5
13-5
14-5
15-4
16-3
17-3
18-2
19-1
18 C.
1000
1000
1000
1000
1000
1000
1000
1000
1000
1000
180.
1000
1000
999
999
999
999
999
999
999
999
66-2
0-6
1-6
2-6
3-1
4-5
5-5
6-5
7-5
8-5
9-5
66-2
10-5
11-4
12-4
13-3
14-3
15-2
16-1
17
17-9
18-8
19 C.
999
999
999
999
999
999
999
999
999
999
19 C.
999
999
999
999
999
999
999
999
999
999
68-0
0-5
1-5
2-4
3-4
4-4
5-4
6-4
7-3
8-3
9-3
68-0
10-3
11-2
12-2
13-1
14
14-9
15-8
16-7
17-6
18-5
20 C.
999
999
999
999
999
999
699
999
999
999
200.
999
999
999
999
999
999
999
999
999
999
69-8
0-4
1-4
2-3
3-3
4-3
5-2
6-2
7-1
8-1
9-1
69-8
10-1
11
11-9
12-8
13-7
14-6
15-5
16-4
17-3
18-2
21 C.
999
999
999
999
999
999
999
999
999
999
210.
999
999
999
999
999
999
998
998
998
998
71-6
0-3
1-3
2-2
3-2
4-1
5-1
6-1
7
7-9
8-9
71-6
9-9
10-8
11-7
12-6
13-5
14-4
15-3
16-2
17
17-9
22 C.
999
999
999
999
999
999
999
999
999
999
220.
999
999
999
998
998
993
998
998
998
998
73-4
0-1
1-1
2-1
3-1
4
4-9
5-9
6-8
7-8
8-7
73-4
9-7
10-6
11-5
12-4
13-3
14-1
15
15-9
16-7
17-6
23 C.
999
999
999
999
999
599
999
998
998
998
230.
998
998
998
998
998
998
998
998
998
998
75-2
1
1-9
2-9
3-8
4-8
5-8
6-7
7-6
8-5
75-2
9-5
10-4
11-3
12-2
13-1
13-9
14-8
15-7
16-5
17-4
24 C.
998
998
998
998
998
998
m
998
998
240.
998
998
998
998
998
998
998
998
997
997
77-0
0-8
1-7
2-7
3-6
4-6
5-5
6-5
7-4
8-3
77-0
9-3
10-2
11-1
12
12-8
13-6
14-5
15-4
16-2
17-1
25 C.
998
998
998
998
998
998
998
998
998
250.
998
998
998
998
993
998
997
997
997
997
78-8
0-7
1-6
2-6
3-5
4-4
5-4
6-3
7-2
8-1
78-8
9
9-9
10-8
11-7
12-6
13-4
14-2
15-1
15-9
16-8
26 C.
998
998
998
998
998
998
998
993
998
26 C.
998
997
997
997
997
997
997
997
997
997
80-6
0-5
1-5
2-4
3-3
4-3
5-2
6-1
7
7-9
80-6
8-8
9-7
10-6
11-5
12-3
13-1
14
14-8
15-6
1G-5
27 C.
i 998
998
998
998
998
998
998
998
998
27 C.
997
997
997
997
997
997
997
997
997
997
82-4
0-3
1-3
2-2
3-1
4-1
5
5-9
6-8
7-7
82-4
8-6
9-5
10-3
11-2
12
12-8
13-7
14-5
15-3
16-1
280.
997
997
997
997
997
997
497
997
997
280.
997
997
997
997
967
996
996
996
996
996
84-2
0-1
1-1
2
2-9
3-9
4-8
5-7
6-6
7-5
84-2
8-4
9-2
10-1
11
11-8
12-6
13-4
11-2
15
15-8
29 C.
997
997
997
997
997
997
997
997
697
290.
997
997
997
997
996
996
996
996
996
996
86-0
0-0
0-9
1-9
2-8
3-7
4-6
5-5
6-4
7-3
86-0
8-1
9
9-8
10-7
11-5
12-3
13-1
13-9
14-7
15-5
80 C.
997
997
997
997
997
997
997
997
997
300.
997
996
996
996
996
996
996
996
996
996
ALCOHOL ALCOIIOLOMETBY. j . , -
!
TABLE I. Continued.
Observed per centage of tho Alcoholometer.
' ' . .
Temp.
*
T
Observed per centage of the Alcoholometer.
21
p.cen
22
. p.cen
23
. p.cen
. p. ceu
25
t. p.cen
26
t p.cen
t. p.cen
28 ! 2
p.cent. P.CL
30
p.cenl
FBhr - 3, 3-2 33
p.cont p. cent, p.cen
34
t p.cen
:
t Ji.cn
3
t p.con
37
f. p.cci
38
t. p.cci
S9 | 40
t, p.CcnL l.ci nL
32-0
0C
33-8
1C.
25.
100
25-
too
27
100
26-
100
28-
100
28
100
29-'
100C
29-5
100C
' 30-!
100'
30-^
iooe
) 32-]
1007
I 31-6
1006
33-
1007
32-7
1007
34-;
100
33-8
1007
35
100
34
100
36-3
1008
35-8
1008
, 32-0
oc
33-8
1 0.
100
36-8
IOCS
! 38-3
1009
37-8
1008
39
100S
38
100
40-5
100S
39-8
1008
' 41
100<
40
42
10
41
100<
43-
10K
42-'
100
I 44
) 10K
' 43-'
100
45
) 101
r 44.
10K
4.V9
3 1011
5 455
i 1010
35-6
20.
24-
100
26-
100
27-
100
28-8
1005
30
1006
31-2
1006
32-3
1006
33-3
1006
34-
100
35-4
1007
35-6
20.
36-4
1007
37-4
1007
38
100
39-4
1008
40
10O.
41
1006
42-J
IOCS
43-;
100
t 44-i
100J
J 45-1
1009
37-4
30.
24-
100
25-
lOOj
27-
100
28-4
1005
29-6
1005
30-8
1006
31-9
1006
32-9
1006
33-
100
34-9
1007
37-4
30.
36
1007
37
1007
38
100
39
1007
40
100
41
100
42
1008
42-
lOOi
43-<
lOOi
) 44-8
1008
39-2
40.
24-
100
25-6
1004
26-
100
28
1005
29-2 1 30-4
1005 1005
31-4
1005
32-5
1005
33-
100
34-5
1006
39-2
40.
35-5
1006
36-5
1006
37-
100
38-5
1007
39
100
40
100
41-
1007
42-!
1007
43-;
100]
) 44-4
1008
41-0
50.
24
100
25-2
1003
26-
1004
27-6
1004
28-8 30
1004 1004
31
1005
32-1
1005
33-
100
34-1
1005
41-0
50.
35-1
1005
36-1
1006
37-
100
38-1
1006
39
100
40
1006
41-1
1007
42-1
1007
43-1
1C07
44
1007
42-8
60.
23-
1003
24-9
1003
26
1004
27-2
1004
28-4
1004
29-6
1004
30-6
1003
31-6
1005
32-
100
33-6
1005
42-8
60.
34-7
1005
35-7
1005
36-
100
37-7
1005
38
100
39
100
40-7
1006
41
1006
42-(
1CO
43-6
1006
44-6
70.
23-3
1002
24-6
1003
25-7
1003
26-9
1003
28
1003
29-2
1003
30-2
1004
31.2
1004
32-
100
33-2
1004
44-6
70.
34-2
1004
35-2
100-4
36-
100
37-2
1005
38
100
39
100
40-2
1005
41-2
1005
42-2
1005
43-2
1005
46-4
80.
23
1002
24-2
1002
25-3
1003
26-5
1003
27-6
1003
28-8
1003
29-8
1003
30-8
1003
31-
100
32-8
1003
46-4
80.
33-8
1004
34-8
1004
35-
1004
36-8
1004
37
1004
38
1004
39-8
1004
40-8
1004
41-8
1004
42-8
1005
48-2
90.
22-7
1002
23-9
1002
25
1002
26-1
1002
27-2
1002
28-4
1003
29-4
1003
30-4
1003
31-
100
32-4
1003
48-2
90.
33-4
1003
34-4
1003
35-
1003
36-4
1003
37
1004
38
1004
39-4
1004
404
1004
41-4
1004
42-4
1004
50-0
100.
22-4
1001
23-5
1002
24-6
1002
25-7
1002
26-8
1002
27-9
1002
29
1002
30
1002
31
100
32
1002
50-0
100.
33
1002
34
1002
35
100
36
1003
37
100
38
100
39
1003
40
1003
41
1003
42
1003
51-8
110.
22-1
001
23-2
1001
24-3
1001
25-4
1001
26-5
1002
27-6
1002
28-6
1002
29-6
1002
30-
1002
31-6
1002
51-8
110.
32-6
1002
33-6
1002
34-
100
35-6
1002
36-
100
37-
100
38-6
1002
39-6
1002
40-6
1003
41-6
1003
53-6
120.
21-8
001
22-9
1001
24
1001
25-1
1001
26-1
1001
27-2
1001
28-2
1001
29-2
1001
30-2
1001
31-2
1001
53-6
120.
32-2
1001
33-2
1001
34-
1002
35-2
1002
36-
100
37-
100
38-2
1002
39-2
1002
40-2
1002
41-2
1002
55-4
130.
21-5
001
22-6
1001
23-6
1001
24-7
1001
25-7
1001
26-8
1001
27-8
1001
28-8
1001
-29-8
1001
30-8
1001
55-4
130.
31-8
1001
32-8
1001
33-8
1001
34-8
1001
35-
100
36-
100
37-8
1001
38-8
1001
39-8
1001
40-8
1001
57-2
140.
1-2
000
22-3
1000
23-3
1000
24-3
1000
25-3
1000
26-4
1000
27-4
1000
28-4
1000
29-4
1000
30-4
1000
57-2
140.
31-4
1000
32-4
1000
33-4
1001
34-4
001
35-4
1001
36-4
1001
37-4
1001
38-4
1001
39-4
1001
40-4
1001
59-0
150.
1
001
22
000
23
1000
24
000
25
1000
26
1000
27
1000
28
1000
29
1000
30
000
59-0
150.
31
1000
32
1000
33
1000
34
000
35
1000
36
000
37
000
38
1000
39
1000
40
1000
60-8
160.
0-7
000
21-7
000
22-7
1000
23-7
000
24-7 25-7
1000 1000
26-6
1000
27-6
000
28-6
1000
29-6
000
60-8
160.
30-6
1000
31-6
1000
32.5
999
33-5
999
34-5
999
35-5
999
36-5
999
37-5
999
38-5
999
39-5
999
G2-6
170.
0-4
999
21-4
999
22-4
999
23-4
999
24-4
999
25-4
999
26-3
999
27-3
999
28-2
999
29-2
999
62-6
17 C.
30-2
999
31-2
999
32-1
999
33-1
999
34-1
999
35-1
999
36-1
999
371
999
38-1
999
39-1
999
G4-4
18'C.
0-1
999
21-1
999
22
999
3
999
24
999
25
999
25-9
999
26-9
999
27-8
999
28-8
999
64-4
180.
29-8
999
30-8
999
31-7
998
2-7
998
33-7
998
34-7
998
357
998
36-7
998
37-7
998
38-7
998
CG-2
9-8
0-8
1-7
2-7
23-6 24-6
25-5
6-5
27-4
8-4
66-2
29-4
30-4
31-3
2-3
33-3
4-3
5-3
36-3
37-3
38-3
19 C.
999
999
999
999
993
998
998
998
998
998
190.
998
998
993
998
998
998
998
998
997
997
68-0
9-5
0-5
1-4
2-4
23-3
24-3
25-2
6-1
27-1
8
68-0
29
30
30-9
1-9
32-9
3-9
4-9
35-9
36-9
37-9
20 C.
999
998
998
998
998
998
998
998
998
998
200.
998
998
997
997
997
997
997
997
997
997
69-8
9-1
0-1
1.1
2-1
23
23-9
24-8
5-7
26-7
7-6
69-8
8-6
29-6
30-5
1-5
32-5
3-5
4-5
35-5
36-5
37-5
21 C.
98
998
998
998
998
998
998
998
997
997
210.
997
997
997
997
997
997
997
996
996
996
71-6
8-8
9-8
0-7
1-7
22-6
23-6
24-4
25-3
26-3
7-2
71-6
8-2
29-2
30-1
1-1
32-1
3-1
4-1
35-1
36-1
37-1
22 C.
98
993
998
997
997
997
997
997
997
997
220.
997
997
996
96
996
996
96
996
996
996
73-4
8-5
9-5
0-4
14
22-3
232
24-1
25
25-9
6-8
73-4
7-8
28-8
29-7
0-7
31-7
2-7
3-7
34-7
35-7
36-7
23 C.
98
997
997
997
997
997
997
997
997
897
23 C.
996
990
996
96
996
96
996
995
995
995
75-2
8-3
9-2
0-1
1-1
21-9
22-8
23-7
24-6 25-5
6-4
75-2
7-4
28-4
29-3
0-3
31-3
2-3
3-3
34-3
35-3
36-3
240.
97
997
997
997
997
997
997
996
996
996
240.
996
996
995
95
995
95
995
995
995
994
77-0
8
8-9
19-8
0-7
21-6
22-5
23-3
24-3
25-2
6-1
77-0
7
28
28-9
9-9
30-9
1-9
2-9
33-9
34-9
35-9
25 C.
97
997
997
997
996
996
996
996
996
96
250.
995
995
995
995
995
94
94
994
994
994
78-8
7-7
8-6
19-5
0-4
21-3
22-2
23
23-9
24-8
5-7
78-8
6-6 27-6 28-5
9-5
30-5
1-5
2-5
33-5
J4-5
35-5
260.
97
996
996
996
996
996
996
996
995
95
260.
995
995
995
94
994
994
94
994
993
993
80-6
7-4
8-3
19-2
0-1
20-9
21-8
22-7
23-6
24-4
5-3
80-6
6-2
27-2 28-1
9-1
30-1
1-1
2-1 .
33-1 ;
14-1 .
}. r )-l
270.
96
996
996
96
996
996
996
996
995
95
270.
95
994 894
994
994
93
993
993
993
993
82-4
p
8
18-9
9-7
20-6
21-5
22-3
23-2
24
4-9
82-4
5-8
26-8 27-7
8-7 :
>9-7
0-7
1-7 ;
!2-7 :
3-7 :
!4-7
280.
96
96
996
95
995
995
995
995
995
994
280
94
994 994
993
993
93
993
993
992
992
84-2
6-7
7-6
18-5
9-4
20-3
21-1
21-9
22-8
23-7
4-5
84-2
5-4
26-4 27-3
3 5
!9-3
0-3
3 :
2-3 2
3-3 J
1-3
29 C.
90
96
995
995
995
995
995
994
994
94
290.
994
993 993
93
993
992
92
992
992
9ii2
86-0
6-4
7-3
18-2
9-1
19-9 20-8
21-6
22-5
23-3
4-2
86-0
5-1
26 26-9
9 5
8-9
9
9 c
1-9 2
2-9 i
:5-9
300.
95
95
995
95
995 994
994
994
934
94
300.
93 993 993
93
992
92
92
991
991
991
126 ALCOHOL ALCOIIOLOMETRY.
TABLE I. Continued.
Temp
Falir.
Observed per centage of the Alcoholometer.
Temp.
Fulir.
Observed per centnge of the Alcoholometer.
41
p.cenL
42
p.ecnt
43
p.cent
44
p.ccut
45
p.cent
46
p.cent
47
p. cent
p.cent
49
p.cent
so
p.cent.
61
p.cent
56
p.cint
57
p.cent
68
p.cent
S3
p. cent
CO
p.ccnt
p.c nt. p.o nt p 3 nt. p.o iit
32-0
0C.
46-9
1011
47-9
1011
48-8
1011
49-8
1011
50-7
1011
51-7
1011
52-6
1012
53-5
1012
54-5
1012
55-4
1012
32-0
0C.
56-4
1012
57-3
1012
58-3
1012
59-2
1012
60-2
1012
61-2
1012
62-1
1012
63.1
1013
64-1
1013
65
1013
33-8
1 0.
46-5
1010
47-5
1010
48.4
1010
49-4
1010
50-3
1010
51-3
1011
52-2
1011
53-2
1011
54-2
1011
55-1
1011
33-8
1C.
56
1011
57
1011
57-9
1011
58-9
1011
59-9
1011
60-9
1011
61-8
1011
62-8
1012
63-8
1012
64-7
1012
35-6
20.
46-1
1009
47-1
1009
48-1
1009
49
1009
49-9
1010
50-9
1010
51-8
1010
52-8
1010
53-8
1010
54-7
1010
35-6
20.
55-7
1010
56-6
1010
57-6
1010
58-5
1010
59-5
1010
60-5
1011
61-5
1011
624
1011
63-4
1011
64-4
1011
37-4
3C.
45-8
1008
46-7
1009
47-7
1009
48-6
1009
49-6
1009
50-5
1009
51-5
1009
52-4
1009
53-4
1009
54-3
1009
37-4
30.
55-3
1009
56-3
1009
57-2
1009
58-2
1010
59-2
1010
60-2
1010
61-1
1010
62-1
1010
63-1
1010
64-1
1010
39-2
4C.
45-4
1008
46-4
1008
47-4
1008
48-3
1008
49-2
1008
50-2
1008
51-1
1008
52-1
1008
53
1008
54
1009
39-2
40.
55
1009
56
1009
56-9
1009
57-9
1009
58-9
1009
59-8
1009
60-8
1009
61-7
1009
62-7
1009
G3-7
1009
41-0
50.
45
1007
45-9
1007
46-9
1007
47-9
1007
48-8
1007
49-8
1007
50-7
1007
51-7
1008
52-7
1008
53-6
1008
41-0
50.
54-6
1008
55-6
1008
56-6
1008
57-5
1008
58-5
1008
59-5
1008
60-4
1008
61-4
1008
62-4
1008
63-4
1008
42-8
6C.
44-6
1006
45-5
1006
46-5
1006
47-5
1007
48-4
1007
49-4
1007
50-4
1007
51-4
1007
52-4
1007
53-3
1007
42-8
60.
54-3
1007
55-2
1007
56-2
1007
57-1
1007
58-1
1007
59-1
1007
GO-1
1007
61
IOCS
62
1008
63
1008
44-6
7C.
44-2
1005
45-1
1006
46-1
1006
47-1
1006
48-1
1006
49-1
1006
50-1
1006
51
1006
52
1006
52-9
1006
44-6
70.
53-9
1006
54-9
1006
55-9
1006
56-8
1006
57-8
1006
58-8
1006
59-8
1007
GO-7
1007
61-7
1007
62-7
1007
46-4
80.
43-8
1005
44-8
1005
45-8
1005
46-8
1005
47-7
1005
48-7
1005
49-7
1005
50-6
1005
51-6
1005
52-6
1005
46-4
80.
53-6
1005
54-6
1005
55-5
1006
56-5
1006
57-5
1006
58-5
1006
59-5
1006
GO-4
1006
61-4
1006
62-4
1006
48-2
90.
43-4
1004
44-4
1004
45-4
1004
46-4
1004
47-3
1004
48-3
1004
49-3
1005
50-2
1005
51-2
1005
52-2
1005
48-2
90.
53-2
1005
54-2
1005
55-1
1005
56-1
1005
57-1
1005
58-1
1005
59-1
1005
60
1005
61
1005
62
1005
50-0
100.
43
1003
44
1004
45
1004
46
1004
46-9
1004
47-9
1004
48-9
1004
49-9
1004
50-9
1004
51-8
1004
50-0
100.
52-8
1004
53-8
1004
54-8
1004
55-8
1004
56-8
1004
57-8
1004
58-8
1004
59-7
1004
60-7
1004
61-7
1004
51-8
110.
42-6
1003
43-6
1003
44-6
1003
45-6
1003
46-6
1003
47-6
1003
48-6
1003
49-5
1003
50-5
1003
51-5
1003
51-8
110.
52-5
1003
53-5
1003
54-4
1003
55-4
1003
56-4
1003
57-4
1003
58-4
1003
59-4
1003
60-4
1003
61-4
1003
53-6
12 C.
42-2
1002
43-2
1002
44-2
1002
45-2
1002
46-2
1002
47-2
1002
48-2
1002
49-2
1002
50-2
1002
51-1
1002
53-6
120.
52-1
1002
53-1
1002
54-1
1002
55
1002
56
1002
57
1002
58
1002
59
1002
60
1002
61
1002
55-4
13 C.
41-8
1001
42-8
1001
43-8
1001
44-8
1002
45-8
1002
46-8
1002
47-8
1002
48-8
1002
49-8
1002
50-8
1002
55-4
130.
51-8
1002
52-7
1002
53-7
1002
54-7
1002
55-7
1002
56-7
1002
57-7
1002
58-7
1002
59-7
1002
60-7
1002
57-2
140.
41-4
1001
42-4
1001
43-4
1001
44-4
1001
45-4
1001
46-4
1001
47-4
1001
48-4
1001
49-4
1001
50-4
1001
57-2
140.
51-4
1001
52-3
1001
53-3
1001
54-3
1001
55-3
1001
56-3
1001
57-3
1001
58-3
1001
59-3
1001
60-3
1001
59-0
150.
41
1000
42
1000
43
1000
44
1000
45
1000
46
1000
47
1000
48
1000
49
1000
50
1000
59-0
150.
51
1000
52
1000
53
1000
54
1000
55
1000
56
1000
57
1000
58
1000
59
1000
GO
1000
60-8
160.
40-6
999
41-6
999
42-6
999
43-6
999
44-6
999
45-6
999
46-6
999
47-6
999
48-6
999
49-6
999
60-8
160.
50-6
999
51-6
999
52.6
999
53-6
999
54-6
999
55-6
999
56-6
999
57-6
999
5S-6
909
59-6
999
G2-6
17 O.
40-2
999
41-2
999
42-2
999
43-2
998
44-2
998
45-2
998
46-2
998
47-2
998
48-3
998
49-3
998
62-6
170.
50-3
998
51-3
998
52-3
998
53-3
998
54-3
998
55-3
998
56-3
998
57-3
998
58-3
998
59-3
998
64-4
180.
39-8
998
40-8
998
41-8
998
42-8
998
43-8
998
44-9
998
45-9
998
46-9
998
47-9
998
48-9
998
64-4
180.
49-9
998
50-9
998
51-9
998
52-9
998
53-9
998
54-9
998
55-9
908
56-9
997
57-9
997
58-9
997
6G-2
190.
39-4
997
40-4
997
41-4
997
42-5
997
43-5
997
44-5
997
45-5
997
46-5
997
47-5
997
48-5
997
66-2
19 C.
49-5
997
50-6
997
51-6
997
52-6
997
53-6
997
54-6
997
55-6
997
56-6
997
57-6
997
58-6
997
68-0
20 C.
39
997
40
997
41
997
42-1
997
43-1
996
44-1
996
45-1
996
46-1
996
47-2
996
48-2
996
68-0
200.
49-2
996
50-2
996
51-2
996
52-2
996
53-2
996
54-2
9'J6
55-2
996
56-2
996
57-2
996
58-2
996
69-8
210.
38-6
996
39-6
996
40.6
996
41-7
996
42-7
996
43-7
996
44-8
996
45-8
996
4G.-8
995
47-8
995
69-8
21 C.
48-8
995
49-8
995
50-8
995
51-8
995
52-9
995
53-9
995
54-9
995
55-9
995
56-9
995
57-9
995
71-6
220.
38-2
996
39-2
995
40-2
995
41-3
995
42-3
995
43-3
995
44-3
995
45-3
995
46-4
995
47-4
995
71-6
220.
48-4
995
49-4
995
50-4
995
51-4
994
52-5
994
53-5
994
54-5
994
55-5
994
56-5
994
57-5
994
73-4
230.
37-8
995
38-8
995
39-8
995
40-9
994
41-9
994
42-9
994
43-9
994
44-9
994
46
994
47
994
73-4
230.
48
994
49-1
994
501
994
51-1
994
52-1
994
53-1
994
54-1
993
55-1
993
56-1
993
57-1
993
75-2
240.
37-4
994
38-4
994
39-4
994
40-5
994
41-5
994
42-5
994
43-6
994
44-6
994
45-6
993
46-6
993
75-2
240.
47-6
993
48-7
993
49-7
993
50-7
993
51-8
993
52-8
993
53-8
993
04-8
993
55-8
993
56-8
992
77-0
250.
37
994
38
994
39
993
40-1
993
41-1
993
42-2
993
43-2
993
44-2
993
45-2
993
46-3
993
77-0
250.
47-3
993
48-3
993
49-3
993
50-3
992
51-4
992
52-4
992
53-4
992
54-4
992
55-5
992
5G-5
992
78-8
260.
36-5
993
37-6
993
38-6
993
39-7
993
40-7
992
41-8
992
42-8
992
43-8
992
44-9
992
45-9
992
78-8
260.
46-9
992
47-9 49
992 992
50
991
51
991
52
991
53
991
54
991
55-1
991
56-1
991
80-6
270.
36-1
992
37-2
992
38-2
992
39-3
992
40-3
992
41-4
992
42-4
992
43-4
991
44-5
991
45-5
991
80-6
270.
46-5
991
47-6 48-6
991 991
49-6
991
50-7
990
51-7
900
52-7
990
53-7
990
54-8
990
55-8
990
82-4
280.
35-7
992
36-8
992
37-8
992
38-9
991
39-9
991
41
991
42
991
43
991
44-1
991
45-1
990
82-4
280.
46-1
990
47-2 48-2
990 990
49-2
990
50-3
990
51-3
990
52-3
990
53-3
989
54-4
989
55-4
989
84-2
290.
35-3
991
36-3
991
37-4
991
38-5
991
39-5
991
40-6
990
41-6
990
42-6
990
43-7
990
44-7
990
84-2
290.
45-7
990
46-8 47-8
989 9S9
48-9
989
49-9
989
51
989
52
9S9
53
989
54
989
55
988
8G-0
300.
34-9
991
35-9
991
37
990
38-1
990
39-1
990
40-2
990
41-2
990
42-3
989
43-3
989
44-3
989
86-0
300.
45-4
989
46-4 47-5
989 989
48-5
988
49-6
988
50-6
988
51-6
988
52-6
988
53-6
988
54-7
988
1
ALCOIIOL ALCOHOLOMETRY. 127
TABLE I. Continued.
Temp
Observed per centago of the Alcoholometer.
Observed per ccntnge of the Alcoholometer.
Fulir.
61
62
63
64 65
66
67
63 69
70
rlTm
71 73 73
7J
..
78 77 78
79
80
p.ccnt
p.ccnt. p.cent.
p.cent p.ccnt. p.cent. p.cont
p.ccnt. p.c 'nt. p.cent.
p.c 'lit p.c nt. p.c nt. p.c nt. p.c nt. p.c nt. p.c nt p.c nt p.cent p.ccnt
32-0
66
67
68
08-9
69-9
70-8
71-8
72-7
73-7
74-7
32-0
75-6
76-6 77-6
78-6
79-5
80-5 81-5
82-4
83-3 84-3
oc.
1013
1013
1013
1013
1013
1013
1013
1013
1014
1014
0"C.
1014
1014
1014
1014
1014
1014
1014
1014
1014
1014
33-8
65-7
66*7
67-7
68-6
69-6
70-5
71-5
72-4
73-4
74-3
33-8
75-3
76-3
77-3
78-3
79-2
80-2
81-2
82-1
83-1
84
1C.
1012
1012
1012
1012
1012
1012
1012
1012
1013
1013
1C.
1013
1013
1013
1013
1013
1013
1013
1013
1013
1013
35-6
65-3
66-3
67-3
68-3
69-3
70-2
71-2
72-1
73-1
74
35-6
75
76
77
78
78-9
79-9
80-9
81-9
82-8
83-7
20.
1011
1011
1011
1011
1011
1011
1011
1012
1012
1012
2C.
1012
1012
1012
1012
1012
1012
1012
1012
1012
1012
37-4
65
66
67
63
68-9
69-9
70-8
71-8
72-8
73-7
37-4
74-7
75-7
76-7
77-7
78-6
79-6
80-6
81-6
82-5
83-5
3C.
1010
1010
1010
1010
1010
1011
1011
1011
1011
1011
30.
1011
1011
1011
1011
1011
1011
1011
1011
1011
1011
39-2
64-7
65-7
66-6
67-6
68-6
69-5
70-5
71-5
72-5
73-4
39-2
74-4
75-3
76-3
77*3
78-3
79-3
80-3
81-3
82-2
83-2
40.
1009
1009
1009
1010
1010
1010
1010
1010
1010
1010
40.
1010
1010
1010
1010
1010
1010
1010
1010
1010
1010
41-0
64-3
65-3
66-3
67-3
68-3
69-2
70-2
71-2
72-2
73-1
41-0
74-1
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
81-9
82-9
5 C.
1009
1009
1009
1009
1009
1009
1009
1009
1009
1009
50.
1009
1009
1009
1009
1009
1009
1009
1009
1010
1010
42-8
64
65
66
67
68
68-9
69-9
70-9
71-9
72-8
42-8
73-8
74-7
75-7
76-7
77-7
78-7
79-7
80-7
81-6
82-6
60.
1008
1008
1008
1008
1008
1008
1003
1008
1008
1008
6C.
1008
1008
1008
1008
1008
1003
1008
1008
1008
1009
44-6
63-7
64-7
65-7
66-7
67-6
68-6
69-6
70-6
71-5
72-5
44-6
73-5
74-4
75-4
76-4
77-4
78-4
79-4
80-4
81-4
82-3
70.
1007
1007
1007
1007
1007
1007
1007
1007
1007
1007
70.
1007
1007
1007
1007
1007
1007
1007
1007
1007
1008
46-4
63-4
64-4
65-4
66-4
67-3
68-3
69-3
70-2
71-2
72-2
46-4
73-2
74-1
75-1
76-1
77-1
78-1
79-1
80-1
81-1
82
80.
1006
1008
1006
1006
1006
1006
1006
1006
1006
1006
8C.
1006
1006
1006
1006
1006
1006
1007
1007
1007
1007
48-2
63
64
65
66
67
67-9
68-9
69-9
70-9
71-9
48-2
72-9
73-8
74-8
75-8
76-8
77-8
78-8
79-8
80-8
81-7
90.
1005
1005
1005
1005
1005
1005
1005
1005
1005
1005
90.
1005
1005
1005
1005
1005
1005
1006
1006
1006
1006
50-0
62-7
63-7
64-7
65-7
66-7
67-6
68-6
69-6
70-6
71-6
50-0
72-6
73-5
74-5
75-5
76-5
77-5
78-5
79-5
80-5
81-5
IOC.
1004
1004
1004
1004
1004
1004
1004
1004
1004
1004
IOC.
1004
1004
1005
1005
1005
1005
1005
1005
1005
1005
51-8
62-4
63-4
64-4
65-4
66-4
67-3
68-3
69-3
70-3
71-3
51-8
72-3
73-2
74-2
75-2
76-2
77-2
78-2
79-2
80-2
81-2
110.
1003
1003
1003
1003
1003
1003
1003
1004
1004
1004
11 C.
1004
1004
1004
1004
1004
1004
1004
1004
1004
1004
53-6
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
53-6
72
72-9
73-9
74-9
75-9
76-9
77-9
78-9
79-9
80-9
120.
1002
1002
1002
1002
1002
1002
1003
1003
1003
1003
12 C.
1003
1003
1003
1003
1003
1003
1003
1003
1003
1003
55-4
61-7
62-7
63-7
64-7
65-7
66-7
67-7
68-7
69-6
70-6
55-4
71-6
72-6
73-6
74-6
75-6
76-6
77-6
78-6
79-6
80-6
130.
1002
1002
1002
1002
1002
1002
1002
1002
1002
1002
130.
1002
1002
1002
1002
1002
1002
1002
1002
1002
1002
57-2
61-3
62-3
63-3
64-3
65-3
66-3
67-3
68-3
69-3
70-3
57-2
71-3
72-3
73-3
74-3
75-3
76-3
77-3
78-3
79-3
80-3
140.
1001
1001
1001
1001
1001
1001
1001
1001
1001
1001
140.
1001
1001
1001
1001
1001
1001
1001
1001
1001
1001
59-0
61
62
63
64
05
66
67
68
69
70
59-0
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
150.
1000
1000
1000
1000
1000
1000
1000
1000
1000
1000
150.
1000
1000
1000
1000
1000
1000
1000
1000
1000
1000
60-8
606
61-7
62-7
63-7
64-7
65-7
66-7
67-7
68-7
69-7
60-8
70-7
71-7
72.7
73-7
74-7
75-7
76-7
77-7
78-7
79-7
16 C.
999
999
999
999
999
999
999
999
999
999
16 C.
999
999
999
999
999
999
999
999
999
999
G2-6
60-3
61'3
62-3
63-3
64-3
65-3
66-3
67-3
68-3
69-3
62-6
70-3
71-3
72-3
73-3
74-3
75-4
76-4
77-4
78-4
79-4
170.
998
993
998
998
998
998
998
998
998
998
170.
998
998
998
998
998
998
998
998
998
998
64-4
59-9
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
64-4
70
71
72
73
74
75-1
76-1
77-1
78-1
79-1
180.
997
997
997
997
997
997
997
997
997
997
18 C.
997
997
997
997
997
997
997
997
997
997
66-2
59-6
60-6
61-6
62-7
63-7
64-7
65-7
66-7
67-7
68-7
66-2
69-7
70-7
71-7
72-7
73-7
74-7
75-8
76-8
77-8
78-8
190.
97
997
997
997
9ST
997
997
997
993
996
190.
996
996
996
996
996
996
996
996
996
996
68-0
59-2
603
61-3
62-3
63-3
64-3
65-4
66-4
67-4
68-4
68-0
69-4
70-4
71-4
72-4
73-4
74-4
75-5
76-5
77-5
78-5
200.
996
936
996
996
996
996
996
996
996
996
20 C.
996
996
995
995
995
995
995
995
995
995
69-8
210.
58-9
995
59-9
995
61
995
62
995
63
995
64
9 1 J5
65
995
66
995
67
995
68-1
995
69-8
210.
69-1
995
70-1
995
7M
995
72-1
994
73-1
994
74-1
994
75-2
994
76-2
994
77-2
994
78-2
994
71-6
220.
58-5
994
59-5
994
60-6
9D4
61-6
994
62-7
994
63-7
994
64-7
994
65-7
994
66-7
994
67-8
994
71'6
220.
68-8
994
69-8
994
70-8
994
71-8
994
72-8
993
73-8
993
74-8
993
75-9
993
76-9
993
77-9
73-4
23 C.
58-1
933
59-2
993
60-2
993
61-3
993
62-3
993
63-3
993
64-3
993
65-4
993
66-4
993
67-4
993
73-4
230.
68-4
993
69-4
993
70-5
993
71-5
993
72-5
992
73-5
992
74-5
992
75-5
992
76-6
992
77-6
992
75-2
240.
57-8
992
58-9
992
59-9
9^2
61
992
62
992
63
992
64
992
65
992
66
992
67-1
992
75-2
240.
68-1
992
69-1
992
70-1
992
71-2
992
72-2
992
73-2
992
74-2
992
75-2
991
76-3
991
77-3
991
77-0
250.
57-5
9^2
58-5
932
59-5
992
60-6
931
61-6
991
62-6
991
63-7
991
64-7
991
65-7
991
66-7
991
77-0
25 C.
67-8
991
68-8
991
69-8
991
70-8
991
71-8
991
72-8
991
73-9
991
74-9
991
76
991
77
991
78-8
260.
57-1
991
58-1
991
59-2
991
60-2
9J1
61-3
990
62-3
990
63-3
990
64-3
990
65-3
990
66-4
990
78-8
260.
67-4
990
68-4 69-5
990 990
70-5
990
71.5
990
72-5
990
73-6
990
74-6
990
75-6
990
76-7
990
80-6
270.
56-8
990
57-8
990
58-9
990
59-9
990
60-9
990
61-9
990
63
989
64
989
65
989
66
989
80-6
270.
67-1
989
68-1 69-2
989 989
VO-2
989
71-2
989
72-2
73-3
989
74-3
989
75-3
989
76-3
989
82-4
28 C.
56-4
983
57-5
989
58-5
989
59-5
989
606
989
61-6
989
62-6
989
63-7
989
64-7
989
65-7
938
82-4
28 C.
66-8
988
67-8 68-8
988 983
69-9
988
70-9
988
71-9
73
9S8
74
988
75
988
76
988
84-2
290.
56
988
57-1
983
58-1
83
59-2
988
60-2
988
61-2
9S8
62-3
988
63-3
988
64-3
983
65-4
988
84-2
290.
66-4
983
67-4 68-5
987 987
69-5
987
70-6
987
71-6
987
72-6
987
737
987
74-7
987
75-7
987
86-0
800.
55-7
56-7
987
57-8
987
58-8
987
59-9
987
60-9
987
61-9
987
63
987
64
987
65
987
86-0
300.
66-1
987
67-1 68-2
987 986
69-2
986
70-3
986
71-3
986
72-3
986
73-3
986
74-4
986
75-4
986
I
128 ALCOII01
-ALCOIIOLOMI:TRY.
TABLE I. Concluded.
Temp
Fanr.
Observed per centage of tho Alcoholometer.
Tnp.
lolir.
Observed per centnge of the Alcoholometer.
81
p.cent
82
p.cent.
83
p.cent
84
p.cent.
85
p.cent
86
p.cent.
87
p.cent
83 8D
p.cent. p.ccnt
90
p.cent
91 91
p.cent p.ccnt
93
p.ccnt
94
p.ci'nt
PS
p.cent
90
p.cent
97
p.cent
98
p.cent
99
p. cent
1IX)
p.ccnt
32-0
0C.
85-2
1014
8G-2
1014
871
1014
88
1014
88-9
1014
89-9
1015
90-8
1015
91-7
1015
92-6
1015
93-6
1015
32-0
0C.
94-5
1015
95-3
1015
96-2
1015
97-1
1015
98
1015
98-3
1015
9D-7
1016
33-8
1C.
85
1013
85-9
1013
86-8
1013
87-8
1013
88-7
1013
89-6
1014
90-5
1014
91-5
1014
92-4
1014
93-3
1014
33-8
1C.
94-3
1014
95-1
1014
96
1014
9G-9
1014
97-8
1014
98-6
1014
99-5
1014
35-6
2C.
84-7
1012
85-6
1012
8G-6
1012
87-5
1012
88-5
1012
89-4
1013
90-3
1013
91-2
1013
92-2
1013
93-1
1013
35-6
20.
94
1013
94-9
1013
95-8
1013
96-7
1013
97-6
1013
98-5
1013
99-3
1014
37-4
3C.
84-4
1011
85-4
1011
86-3
1011
87-3
1011
88-2
1011
89-2
1012
90-1
1012
91
1012
91-9
1012
92-9
1012
37-4
3C.
93-8
1012
94-7
1012
95-6
1012
96-5
1012
97-4
1012
98-3
1012
99-2
1012
1012
39-2
4C.
84-2
1011
85-1
ion
8G-1
1011
87
1011
87-9
1011
88-9
1011
80-8
1011
90-8
1011
91-7
1011
92-7
1011
39-2
40.
93-6
1011
94-5
1011
95-4
1011
96-3
1011
97-2
1011
98-1
1011
99
1011
99-9
1011
41-0
50.
83-9
1010
84-8
1010
85-8
1010
86-7
1010
87-7
1010
88-6
1010
89-6
1010
90-5
1010
91-5
1010
92-4
1010
41-0
60.
93-4
1010
94-3
1010
95-2
1010
96-1
1010
97
1010
97-9
1010
98-8
1010
99-7
1010
42-8
GC.
83-6
1009
84-5
1009
85-5
1009
86-5
1009
87-4
1009
88-4
1009
89-3
1009
90-2
1009
91-2
1009
92-2
1009
42-8
60.
93-1
1009
94-1
1009
95
1009
95-9
1009
96-8
1009
97-8
1009
98-7
1009
99-6
1009
44-6
70.
83-3
1008
84-2
1008
85-2
1008
86-2
1008
87-2
1008
88-1
1008
89-1
1008
90
1008
91
1008
91-9
1008
44-6
70.
92-9
1008
93-9
1008
94-8
1008
95-7
1008
96-6
1008
97-6
1008
98-5
1008
99-4
1008
46-4
80.
83
1007
84
1007
85
1007
85-9
1007
86-9
1007
87-9
1007
88-8
1007
89-8
1007
90-7
1007
91-7
1007
46-4
8C.
92-7
1007
93-6
1007
94-6
1007
95-5
1007
96-4
1007
97-4
1007
98-3
1007
99-2
1007
1007
48-2
9C.
82-7
1006
83-7
1006
84-7
1006
85-7
1006
8G-G
1006
87-6
1006
88-6
1006
89-5
1006
90-5
1006
91-5
1006
48-2
9C.
92-5
1006
93-4
1006
94-4
1006
95-3
1006
96-2
1006
97-2
1006
98-1
1006
99-1
1006
100
1006
50-0
IOC.
82-4
1005
83-4
1005
84-4
1005
85-4
1005
86-4
1005
87-4
1005
88-3
1005
89-3
1005
90-2
1005
91-2
1005
50-0
100.
92-2
1005
93-2
1005
94-2
1005
95-1
1005
96
1005
97
1005
98
1005
98-9
1005
99-9
1005
51-8
110.
82-2
1004
83-1
1004
84-1
1004
85-1
1004
86-1
1004
87-1
1004
88
1004
89
1004
90
1004
91
1004
51-8
11C.
92
1004
92-9
1004
93-9
1004
94-9
1004
95-8
1004
96-8
1004
97-8
1004
98-7
1004
99-7
1004
53-6
120.
81-9
1003
82-9
1003
83-9
1003
81-8
10J3
85-8
1003
86-8
1003
87-8
1003
88-7
1003
89-7
1003
90-7
1003
53-6
12 C.
91-7
1003
92-7
1003
93-7
1003
94-7
1003
95-6
1003
96-6
1003
97-6
1003
98-5
1003
99-5
1003
55-4
13 C.
81-6
1002
82-6
1002
83-6
1002
84-6
1002
85-5
1002
86-5
1002
87-5
1002
88-5
1002
89-5
1002
90-5
1002
55-4
13 e.
91-5
1002
92-5
1002
93-5
1002
94-4
1002
95-4
1002
96-4
1002
97-4
1002
98-4
1002
99-3
1002
57-2
14 C.
81-3
1001
82-3
1001
83-3
1001
84-3
1001
85-3
1001
86-3
1001
87-3
1001
88-2
1001
89-2
1001
90-2
1001
57-2
14 C.
91-2
1001
92-2
1001
93-2
1001
94-2
1001
95-2
1001
96-2
1001
97-2
1001
98-2
1001
99-2
1001
59-0
15 C.
81
1000
82
1000
83
1000
84
1000
85
1000
86
1000
87
1000
88
1000
89
1000
90
1000
59-0
150.
91
1000
92
1000
93
1000
94
1000
95
1000
96
1000
97
1000
98
1000
99
1000
100
1000
60-8
16 C.
80-7
999
81-7
999
82-7
999
83-7
999
84-7
999
85-7
999
86-7
999
87-7
999
88-7
999
89-7
999
60-8
160.
90-8
999
91-8
999
92.8
999
93-8
999
94-8
999
95-8
999
96-8
999
97-8
999
98-8
999
99-8
999
02-6
170.
80-4
998
81-4
993
82-4
998
83-4
998
84-4
998
85-4
998
86-4
998
87-4
998
88-4
998
89-5
998
62-6
17 C.
90-5
998
91-5
998
92-6
998
93-6
998
94-6
998
95-6
998
96-6
998
97-6
998
98-7
998
99-7
998
64-4
180.
80-1
997
81-1
997
82-1
997
83-1
997
84-1
997
85-2
997
86-2
997
87-2
997
88-2
997
89-2
997
64-4
18 C.
90-2
997
91-3
997
92-3
997
93-3
997
94-3
997
95-4
997
96-4
997
97-4
997
98-5
997
99-5
997
66-2
19 C.
79-8
936
80-8
996
81-9
996
82-9
996
83-9
996
84-9
996
85-9
996
86-9
996
87-9
996
88-9
996
66-2
19 C.
90
996
91-1
996
92-1
996
93-1
996
94-1
996
95-2
996
96-2
996
97-3
996
98-3
996
99-3
996
68-0
20 C.
79-5
995
80-5
995
81-6
995
82-6
995
83-6
995
84-6
995
85-6
995
86-6
995
87-7
995
88-7
995
68-0
20 C.
89-7
995
90-8
995
91-8
995
92-9
995
93-9
995
95
995
96
995
97-1
995
98-1
995
99-1
995
69-8
21 C.
79-2
994
80-2
994
81-3
994
82-3
994
83-3
994
84-3
994
85-3
994
86-4
994
87-4
994
88-4
994
69-8
21 C.
89-5
994
90-5
994
91-6
994
926
994
93-7
994
94-7
994
95-8
994
96-9
994
97-9
994
99
994
71-6
22 C.
78-9
993
79-9
993
81
993
82
993
83
993
84
993
85
993
86-1
993
87-1
993
88-2
993
71-6
220.
89-2
993
90-2
993
91-3
993
92-4
993
93-4
993
94-5
993
95-6
993
96-7
993
97-7
993
98-8
993
73-4
23 C.
78-6
992
79-6
992
80-7
992
81-7
992
82-7
992
83-8
992
84-8
992
85-8
992
86-8
992
87-9
992
73-4
230.
89
992
90
992
91-1
992
92-1
992
93-2
992
94-3
992
95-4
992
96-5
992
97-5
992
98-6
992
75-2
24 C.
77-0
250.
78-3
991
78
991
79-3
991
79
991
80-4
9J1
80-1
990
81-4
991
81-1
990
82-4
991
82-1
990
83-5
991
83-2
990
84-5
991
84-2
990
85-5
991
85-2
990
86-5
991
86-3
990
87-6
991
87-4
990
75-2
240.
77-0
250.
88-7
991
88-4
990
89-7
991
89-5
990
90-8
991
90-6
990
91-9
991
91-6
990
93
991
92-7
990
94-1
991
93-8
990
95-2
991
94-9
990
96-2
991
96
990
97-3
991
97-1
990
98-4
991
98-2
990
78-8
260.
77-7
990
78-7
989
79-8
989
80-8
989
81-8
989
82-9
989
83-9
939
84-9
989
86
989
87-1
989
78-8
26 C.
88-2
989
89-2
989
90-3
989
91-4
989
92.5
989
93-6
989
94-7
989
95-8
989
96-9
989
98-1
989
80-6
270.
77-4
989
78-4
988
79-5
988
80-5
988
81-5
BBS
82-6
988
83-6
988
84-7
988
85-7
988
868
988
80-6
270.
87-9
988
89
988
90-1
988
91-1
988
92-2
988
93-4
988
94-5
988
95-6
987
96-7
987
97-9
987
82-4
280.
77-1
988
78-1
988
79-2
987
80-2
987
81-2
937
82-3
987
83-3
987
84-4
987
85-4
987
86-5
987
82-4
28 C.
87-6
987
88-7
987
89-8
987
90-9
987
92
987
93-1
987
94-3
987
95-4
986
96-5
986
97-7
986
84-2
290.
76-7
987
77-8
987
78-9
987
79-9
986
80-9
986
82
986
83
986
84-1
936
85-1
986
86-2
986
84-2
290.
87-3
986
88-4 89-5
986 986
90-6
986
91-7
966
92-9
986
94-1
986
95-2
986
96-3
985
97-5
985
86-0
30 C.
76-4
9S6
77-7
9WJ
78-6
986
79-6
986
80-6
985
81-7
985
82-7
985
83-8
985
84-9
985
86
985
86-0
300.
87-1
985
88-2
985
89-3
985
90-4
985
91-5
985
92-7
985
93-8
985
95
985
96-1
984
97-3
<J8i
i
ALCOHOL ALCOHOLOMETRY. 129
The second of GAY-LUSSAC'S tables corresponds to
cent, in the liquid at 77, the observed per cent., 59, is
Table VII. of TRALLES, and gives directly, but less
sought for in the upper horizontal column, and in the
accurately, that which by the former table is only ob-
vertical column below it that number is then taken
tained by a calculation, na?nely, the per centage by
which is in the same horizontal column with the ob-
volume of the liquid at any temperature at which it is
served temperature, 77, in the left-hand column, which
tested, from the observed per cent. ' Thus, if, as in the
former example, the alcoholometer indicated 59 per
in this case is 55, or the liquid at the observed tempera-
ture of 77 contains 55 volumes of anhydrous alcohol.
TABLE II.
ALCOIIOLOMETKIC TABLE OF GAY-LUSSAO,
To find directly the per centage of absolute alcohol of a liquid at any temperature its richness from the observed per centage
at the same temperature.
Observed per centage of the Alcoholometer.
Temp.
1
2
3
4
5 6
7
8
>
10 || 11
12
13
14
is
16
17
18
19
20
Fahr. Cent
p. cent
;).cent.
p.cent.
p.cent
p.cent p.cent.
p.cent
p.cent
p.cent
p. cent ;p.ccnt
p.cent
p.cent p.cent
p.cent
p.cenl
p. cent
p.cent
p.cent
32-0
1-3
2.4
3-4
4-4
5-4
6-5
75
8-6
9-7
10-9
12-2
13-4
14-7
16-1
17-5
19
20-4
21-7
23
24-3
33-8 1
13-4
14-7
16
17-3
18-7
20-1
21-4
22-7
24
35-6 2
13-4
14-7
16
17-2
18-6
19-S
21-2
22-4
23-7
37-4 3
13-3
14-6
15-9
17-1
18-3
19-7
20-S
22-1
23-4
39-2 4
13-3
14-5
15-8
16-9
18-1
19-4
20-7
21-8
23-1
41-0 5
1-4
2-5
3-5
4-5
5-5
6-6
7-7
8-7
9-8
10-9
12-1
13-2
14-4
15-7
16-8
18
19-2
20-5
21-6
22-8
42-8 6
13-1
14-3
15-6
16-7
17-8
19
20-3
21-4
22-5
44-6 7
13
14-2
15-4
16-6
17-7
1B-8
20
21
22-1
46-4 8
13
14-1
15-3
16-4
17-5
18-6
19-7
20-7
21-8
48-2 9
12-9
14
15-1
16-2
17-3
18-4
19-5
20-5
21-6
500 10
1-4
2-4
3-4
4-5
5-5
6-5
7-5
8-5
9-5
10-6
11-7
12-7
13-8
14-9
16
17
18-1
19-2
20-2
21-3
518 11
1-3
2-4
3-4
4-4
5-4
6-4
7-4
8-4
9-4
10-5
11-6
12-6
13-6
14-7
15-8
16-8
17-9
19
20
21
53-6 12
1-2
2-3
3-3
4-3
5-3
6-3
7-3
8-3
9-3
10-4
11-5
12-5
13-5
14-6
15-6
16-6
17-6
18-7
19-7
20-7
55-4 13
1-2
2-2
3-2
4-2
5-2
6-2
7-2
8-2
9-2
10-3
11-4
12-4
13-4
14-4
15-4 16-4
17-4
18-5 i 19-5
20-5
57-2 14
1-1
2-1
3-1
4-1
5-1
6-1
7-1
8-1
9
1
10-2
11-2
12-2
13-2
14-2
15-2
16-2
17-2
18-2 19-2
20-2
59-0 15
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
60-8 16
0-9
1-9
2-9
3-9
4-9
5-9
69
7-9
8-9
9-9
10-9
11-9
12-9
13-9
14-9
15-9
16-9
17-8 18-7
19-7
62-6 17
0-8
1-8
2-8
3-8
4-8
5-8
6-8
7-8
8-8
9-8
10-8
11-7
12-7
13-7
14-7
15-6
16-6
17-5:18-4
19-4
64-4 18
0-7
1-7
2-7
3-7
4-7
5-7
"6-7
7-7
8-7
&-7
10-7
11-6
12-5
13-5
14-5
15-4
16-3
17-3 18-2
19-1
66-2 19
0-6
1-6
2-6
3-6
4-5
5-5
6-5
7-5
8-5
9-5
10-5
11-4
12-4
13-3
14-3
15-2
16-1
17
17-9
18-8
68-0 20
0-5
1-5
2-4
3-4
4-4
5-4
6-4
7-3
8-3
9-3
10-3
11-2
12-2
13-1
14
14-9
15-8
16-7
17-6
18-5
69-8 21
0-4
1-4
2-3
3-3
4-3
5-2
6-2
7-1
8-1
9-1
10-1
11
11-9
12-8
13-7
14-6
15-5
16-4
17-3
18-2
71-6 22
0-3
1-3
2-2
3-2
4-1
5-1
6-1
7
7-9
8-9
9-9
10-8
11-7
12-6
13-5
14-4
15-3
16-2
17
17-9
73-4 23
0-1
1-1
2-1
3-1
4
4-9
5-9
6-8
7-8
8-7
9-7
10-6
11-5
12-4
13-3
14-1
15
15-9
16-7
17-6
75-2 24
0-0
1
1-9
2-9
3-8
4-8
5-8
6-7
7-6
8-5
9-5
10-4
11-3
12-2
13-1
13-9
14-8
15-7
16-5
17-4
77-0 25
0-8
1-7
2-7
3-6
4-6
5-5
6-5
7-4
8-3
9-3
10-2
11-1
12
12-8
13-6
14-5
15-4
16-2
17-1
78-8 26
0-7
1-6
2-6
3-5
4-4
5-4
6-3
72
8-1
9
9-9
10-8
11-7
12-6
13-4
14-2
15-1
15-9
16-7
80-6 27
0-5
1-5
2-4
3-3
4-3
5-2
6-1
7
7-9
8-8
9-7
10-6
11-5
12-3
13-1
13-9
14-8
15-6
16-4
82-4 28
0-3
1-3
2-2
3-1
4-1
5
5-9
6-8
7-7
8-6
9-5
10-3
11-2
12
12-8
13-6
14-4
15-2
16
84-2 29
0-1
1-1
2
2-9
3-9
4-8
5-7
6-6
7-5
8-4
9-2
10-1
11
11-7
12-5
13-3
14-1
14-9
157
86-0 30
o-o
0-9
1-9
2-8
3-7
4-6
5-5
6-4
7-3
8-1
9
9-8
10-7
11-5
12-3
13
13-8
14-6
15-4
Temp
21 22
23
24 25
26 27
28
29 30
31
32 33 34 M
36 37
38
39 40
Fahr. Cent.
p.cent p.cent
p.cent
p.cent p.cent
p.cent p.cent jp.cent
p.cent. p.cent
p.cent
p.cent. p.cent'p.cent p.cent
p.cent p.cent
p.cent
p.cent p.cent
32-0
25-7 27-1
28-5
29-9
31-1
32-3
33-4
34-5
35-6 36-6
37-6
38-5
39-6
40-6
41-5
42-5
43-5
44-4
45-4
46-4
33-8 1
35-6 2
37-4 3
39-2 4
25-4 26-8
25 1 26-4
24-7 26
24-4 25-7
28-1
27-6
27-3
26-9
29-4
28-9
28-6
28-1
30-6
30-2
29-8
29-3
31-8
31-4
31
30-6
32-9
32-5
32-1
31-6
34
33-5
33-1
32-7
35-1 36-1
34-6 35-6
34-1 35-2
33-7 34-7
37-1
36-7
36-2
35-7
38-1
37-7
37-3
36-7
39-1
38-7
38-3
37-7
40-1
39-7
39-3
38-8
41-2
40-7
40-3
39-8
42-2
41-7
41-3
40-8
43-1
42-7
42-3
41-8
44-1
43-7
43-2
42-8
45
44-6
44-2
43-8
46
45-5
45-2
44-8
41-0 5
42-8 6
44-6 7
46-4 8
48-2 9
24-1 25-3
23-7 25
23-4 24-7
23 i 24-2
22-7 23-9
26-5
26-1
25-8
25-4
25
27-7
27-3
27
26-6
26-2
28-9
28-5
28-1
27-7
27-3
30-1
29-7
29-3
28-9
28-5
31-2
30-8
30-3
29-9
29-5
32-3
31-8
31-3
30-9
30-5
33-3 34-3
32-8 33-8
32-3 33-3
31-9 32-9
31-5 32-5
35-3
34-9
34-3
33-9
33-5
36-3 37-3
35-9 i 36-9
35-4 36-4
34-9 J 35-9
34-5 35-5
38-3
37-9
37-4
36-9
36-5
39-3
38-9
38-4
38
37-5
40-3
39-9
39-4
39
38-6
41-4
40-9
40-4
40
39-6
42-4
41-9
41-4
41
40-6
43-4
42-9
42-4
42
41-6
44-4
43-9
43-4
43
42-6
50-0 10
51-8 11
53-6 12
55-4 13
57-2 14
22-4
22-1
21-8
215
21-2
23-5
23-2
22-9
22-6
22-3
24-6
24-3
24
23-7
23-3
25-8
25-4
25-1
24-7
24-3
26-9
26-5
26-1
25-7
25-3
28
27-7
27-2
26-8
26-4
29-1
28-7
28-2
27-8
27-4
30-1
29-7
29-2
28-8
28-4
31-1
30-7
30-2
29-8
29-4
32-1
31-7
31-2
30-8
30-4
33-1
32-7
32-2
31-8
31-4
34-1
33-7 1
33-2
32-8
32-4
35-1
34-7
34-3
33-8
33-4
36-1
35-7
35-3
34-8
34-4
37-1
36-7
36-3
35-8
35-4
38-1
37-7
37-3
36-8
36-4
39-1
38-7
38-3
37-8
37-4
40-1
39-7
39-3
38-8
38-4
41-1
40-7
40-3
39-8
39-4
42-1
41-7
41-3
40-9
40-4
59-0 15
60-8 16
62-6 17
64-4 18
66-2 19
21
20-7
20-4
20-1
19-8
22
21-7
21-4
21-1
20-8
23
22-7
22-4
22
21-7
24
23-7
23-4
23
22-7
25
24-7
24-4
24
23-6
26
25-7
25-4
25
24-6
27
26-6
26-3
25-9
25-5
28
27-6
27-3
26-9
26-4
29
28-6
28-2
27-8
27-3
30
29-6
29-2
28-8
28-3
31
30-6
30-2
29-8
29-3
32
31-6
31-2
30-8
30-3
33
32-5
32-1
31-7
31-2
34
33-5
33-1
32-6
32-2
35
34-5
34-1
33.6
33-2
36
35-5
35-1
34-6
34-2
37
36-5
36-1
35-6
35-2
38
37-5
37-1
36-6
36-2
39
38-5
38-1
37-6
37-2
40
39-5
39-1
38-6
38-2
68-0 20
69-8 21
71-6 22
73-4 23
75-2 24
19-5
19-1
18-8
18-5
18-2
20-5
20-1
19-8
19-4
19-1
21-4
21-1
20-7
20-3
20
22-4
22-1
21-6
21-3
21
23-3
22-9
22-5
22-2
21-8
24-3
23-9
23-5
23-1
22-7
25-2
24-8
24-3
24
23-6
26-1
25-6
25-2
24-9
24-5
27
26-6
26-2
25-8
25-4 i
27-9
27-5
27-1
26-7
26-3
28-9
28-5
28-1
27-7
27-3
29-9
29-5
29-1
28-7
28-3
30-8
30-4
30
29-6
29-2
31-8
31-4
31
30-6
30-2
32-8
32-4
32
31-6
31-1
33-8
33-4
33
32-6
32-1
34-8
34-4
34
33-5
33-1
35-8
35-4
35
34-5
34-1
36-8
36-4
36
35-5
35-1
T
37-8
37-4
36-9
36-5
36-1
VOL. I.
130 ALCOHOL ALCOHOLOMETRY.
TABLE II. Continued.
Observed per ccntage of the Alcoholometer.
Temp.
21
22
23
34
25
26
27
28
29
so
31
32
S3
34
S5 | 36
37
38
39 I 40
Fnhr. Cent
p.cent
p.cent
p. cent
p.cent
p. cent,
p.cent
p.cent
p.cent
p.cent
p.cent
p. cent
p. cent.
p.cent
p.cent
p.cent
p.cent
p.cent
p. cent
p. cent
p. cent
77-0 25
17-9
18-8
19-7
20-6
21-5
22-4
23-2
24-2
25-1
26
26-9
27-9
28-8
29-7
30-7
31-7
32-7
33-7
34-7
35-7
78-8 26
17-6
18-5
19-4
20-3
21-2
22-1
22-9
23-8
24-7
25-6
26-5
27-5
28-4
29-3
30-3
31-3
32-3
33-3
34-3
35-3
80-6 27
17-3
18-2
19-1
20
20-8
21-7
22-6
23-5
24-3
25-2
26-1
27-1
27-9
28-9
29-9
30-9
31-9
32-9
33-9
34-8
82-4 28
16-9
17-9
18-8
19-6
20-5
21-4
22-2
23-1
23-9
24-8
25-7
26-6
27-5
28-5
29-5
30-5
31-5
32-5
33-5
34-4
84-2 29
16-6
17-5
18-4
19-3
20-2
21
21-8
22-7
23-6
24-4
25-2
26-2
27-1
28-1
29-1
30-1
31-1
32-1
33-1
34
86-0 30
16-3
172
18-1
19
19-8
20-7
21-5
22-4
23-2
24
24-9
25-8
26-7
27-7
28-7
29-7
30-7
31-6
32-6
33-6
Temp.
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
so
61
62
M
M
SB
60
67
58
69
60
Fnhr. Cent.
p. cent
p. cent
p.cent.
p. cent
p.cent
p.cent
p.cent
p.cent
p.cent p.cent
p. cent
p. cent
p.cent
p. cent
p. cent
p. cent
p.ccnt
p.cent
p.cent
p. cent.
32-0
47-4
48-4
49-3
50-3
51-3
52-3
53-2
54-1
55-1
56-1
57-1
58
59
59-9
60-9
61-9
62-9
63-9
64-9
65-8
33-8 1
47
48
48-9
49-9
50-8
51-8
52-8
53-7
54-7
55-7
56-7
57-6
58-6
59-6
60-6
61-6
62-5
63-5
64-5
65-5
35-6 2
46-5
47-5
48-5
49-5
50-4
51-4
52-3
53-3
54-3
55-3
56-3
57-2
58-2
59-2
60-2
61-2
62-1
63-1
64-1
65-1
37-4 3
46-2
47-1
48-1
49
50
51
52
52-9
53-9
54-8
55-8
56-8
57-8
58-8
f.9-8
60-8
61-7
62-7
63-7
64-7
39-2 4
45-8
46-7
47-7
48-7
49-6
50-6
51-5
52-5
53-5
54-5
55-5
56-5
57-4
58-4
59-1
60-3
61-3
62-3
63-3
64-3
41-0 5
45-3
46-2
47-2
48-2
49-2
50-2
51-1
52-1
53-1
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
60-9
61-9
62-9
63-9
42-8 6
44-9
45-8
46-8
47-8
48-8
49-8
50-8
51-7
52-7
53-7
54-7
55-6
56-6
57-5
58-5
59-5
60-5
61-5
62-5
63-5
44-6 7
44-4
45-4
46-4
47-4
48-4
49-4
50-4
51-3
52-3
53-2
54-2
55-2
56-2
57-1
58-1
59-1
60-1
61-1
62-1
63-1
46-4 8
44
45
46
47
47-9
48-9
49-9
50-9
51-9
52-9
53-9
54-9
55-8
56-8
57-8
f.8-8
59-8
60-8
61-8
62-8
48-2 9
43-6
44-6
45-6
46-6
47-5
48-5
49-5
50-5
51-5
52-5
53-5
54-5
55-4
56-4
57-4
58-4
59-4
60-4
61-4
62-4
500 10
43-1
44-1
45-1
46-1
47-1
48-1
49-1
50-1
51-1
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
51-8 11
42-7
43-7
44-7
45-7
46-7
47-7
48-7
49-7
50-7
51-7
52-7
53-7
54-6
55-6
56-6
57-6
58-6
59-6
60-6
61-6
53-6 12
42-3
43-3
44-3
45-3
46-3
47-3
48-3
49-3
50-3
51-2
52-2
53-2
54-2
55-2
f.6-2
57-2
58-2
59-2
60-2
61-2
55-4 13
41-9
42-9
43-9
44-9
45-9
46-9
47-9
48-9
49-9
50-9
51-9
52-8
53-8
54-8
55-8
56-8
57-8
58-8
59-8
60-8
57-2 14
41-4
42-4
43-4
44-4
45-4
46-4
47-4
48-4
49-4
50-4
51-4
52-4
53-4
54-4
55-4
56-4
57-4
58-4
59-4
60-4
59-0 15
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
60-8 16
40-6
41-6
42-6
43-6
44-6
45-6
46-6
47-6
48-6
49-6
50-6
51-6
52-6
53-6
54-G
55-6
56-6
57-6
58-6
59-6
62-6 17
40-1
41-1
42-1
43-1
44-1
45-2
46-2
47-2
48-2
49-2
50-2
51-2
52-2
53-2
54-2
55-2
56-2
57-2
58-2
59-2
64-4 18
39-7
40-7
41-7
42-7
43-7
44-8
45-8
46-8
47-8
48-8
49-8
50-8
51-8
52-8
53-8
54-8
55-8
56-8
57-8
58-8
66-2 19
39-3
40-3
41-3
42-4
43-4
44-4
45-4
46-4
47-4
48-4
49-4
50-4
51-4
52-4
53-4
54-4
55-4
56-4
57-4
58-4
68-0 20
38-9
39-9
40-9
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
69-8 21
38-4
39-4
40-4
41-5
42-5
43-5
44-6
45-6
46-6
47-6
48-6
49-6
50-6
51-6
52-6
53-6
54-6
55-6
56-6
57-6
71-6 22
38
39
40
41-1
42-1
43-1
44-1
45-1
46-1
47-1
48-1
49-1
50-1
51-1
52-2
53-2
54-2
55-2
56-2
57-2
73-4 23
37-6
38-6
39-6
40-6
41-6
426
43-6
44-6
45-7
46-7
47-7
48-8
49-8
50-8
51-8
52-8
53-8
54-8
55-8
56-8
75-2 24
37-2
38-2
39-2
40-2
41-2
42-2
43-3
44-3
45-3
46-3
47-3
48-4
49-4
50-4
51-4
52-4
53-4
54-4
55-4
56-4
77-0 25
36-7
37-7
38-7
39-8
40-8
41-9
42-9
43-9
44-9
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
78-8 26
36-3
37-3
38-3
39-4
40-4
41-5
42-5
43-5
44-5
45-5
46-5
47-5
48-5
49-5
50-5
51-5
52-5
53-5
54-5
55-6
80-6 27
35-9
36-9
37-9
39
40
41-1
42-1
43-1
44-1
45-1
46-1
47-1
48-1
49-1
50-2
51-2
52-2
53-2
54-2
55-2
82-4 28
35-4
36-5
37-5
38-6
39-6
40-6
41-6
42-6
43-7
44-7
45-7
46-7
47-7
48-7
49-8
50-8
51-8
52-8
53-8
54-8
84-2 29
35
36
37-1
38-1
39-1
40-2
41-2
42-2
43-3
44-3
45-3
46-3
47-3
48-4
49-4
50-4
51-4
52-4
53-4
54-4
86-0 30
34-6
35-6
36-6
37-7
38-7
39-8
40-8
41-8
42-8
43.8
44-9
45-9
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
Temp.
61
61!
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
Fahr. Cent
p. cent
p.cent
p.cent
p.cent
p.cent
p.cent
p.cent
p. cent
p.cent
p.cent
p. cent
p.cent
p. cent
p.cent
p.cent
p.cent
p.ccnt
p.ccnt
p.cent
p.cent
32-0
66-8
67-8
68-8
69-8
70-8
71-7
72-7
73-7
74-7
75-7
76-6
77-6
78-6
79-6
80-6
81-6
82-6
83-6
84-5
85-5
33-8 1
66-5
67-5
68-5
69-4
70-4
71-3
72-3
73-3
74-3
75-3
76-2
77-2
78-2
79-2
80-2
81-2
82-2
83-2
84-2
85-1
35-6 2
66-1
67-1
68-1
69-1
70-1
71
71-9
72-9
73-9
74-9
75-9
76-9
77-9
78-9
79-9
80-9
81-9
82-9
83-8
84-7
37-4 3
65-6
66-6
67-6
68-6
69-6
70-6
71-6
72-6
73-6
74-5
75-5
76-5
77-5
78-5
79-5
80-5
81-5
82-5
83-4
84-4
39-2 4
65-3
66-3
67-3
68-3
69-3
70-2
71-2
72-2
73-2
74-1
75-1
76-1
77-1
78-1
79-1
80-1
81-1
82-1
83
84
41-0 5
64-9
65-9
66-9
67-9
68-9
69-8
70-8
71-8
72-8
73-8
74-8
75-7
76-7
77.7
78-7
79-7
80-7
81-7
82-7
83-7
42-0 6
64-5
65-5
66-5
67-5
68-5
69-5
70-5
71-5
72-5
73-4
74-4
75-3
76-3
77-3
78-3
79-3
80-3
81-3
82-3
83-3
44-6 7
64-1
65-1
66-1
67-1
68-1
69-1
70-1
71-1
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
82-9
46-4 8
63-8
64-8
65-8
66-8
67-7
68-7
69-7
70-6
71-6
72-6
73-6
74-6
75-6
76-6
77-6
78-6
79-6
80-6
81-6
82-6
48-2 9
63-4
64-4
65-4
66-4
67-3
68-3
69-3
70-3
71-3
72-3
73-3
74-2
75-2
76-2
77-2
78-2
79-2
80-2
81-2
82-2
50-0 10
63
64
65
66
67
67-9
68-9
69-9
70-9
71-9
72-9
73-9
74-9
75-9
76-9
77-9
78-9
79-9
80-9
81-9
51-8 11
62-6
63-6
64-6
65-6
66-6
67-6
68-6
69-6
70-6
71-6
72-6
73-5
74-5
75-5
76-5
77-5
78-5
79-5
80-5
81-5
53-6 12
62-2
63-2
64-2
65-2
66-2
67-2
68-2
69-2
70-2
71-2
72-2
73-1
74-1
75-1
76-1
77-1
78-1
79-1
80-1
81-1
55-4 13
61-8
62-8
63-8
64-8
65-8
G6-8
67-8
68-8
69-8
70-8
71-8
72-8
738
74-8
75-8
76-8
77-8
78-8
79-8
80-8
57-2 14
614
62-4
63-4
64-4
65-4
66-4
67-4
68-4
69-4
70-4
71-4
72-4
73-4
74-4
75-4
76-4
77-4
78-4
79-4
80-4
59-0 15
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
60-8 16
60-6
61-6
62-6
63-6
64-6
65-6
66-6
67-6
68-6
69-6
70-6
71-6
72-6
73-6
74-6
75-6
76-6
77-6
78-6
79-6
62-6 17
60-2
61-2
62-2
63-2
64-2
65-2
66-3
67-2
68-2
69-2
70-2
71-2
72-2
73-2
74-2
75-2
76-2
77-2
78-2
79-2
04-4 18
59-8
60-8
61-8
62-8
63-8
64-8
65-8
66-8
67-8
68-8
69-8
70-8
71-8
72-8
73-8
74-9
75-9
76-9
77-9
78-9
66-2 19
59-4
60-4
61-4
62-5
63-5
64-5
65-5
66-5
67-5
68-5
69-5
70-5
71-5
72-5
73-5
74-5
75-5
76-5
77-5
78-5
68-0 20
59
60
61
62
63
64
65-1
66-1
67-1
68-1
69-1
70-1
71-1
72-1
73-1
74-1
75-1
76-1
77-1
78-1
69-8 21
58-6
59-6
60-7
61-7
62-7
63-7
C4-7
65-7
66-7
67-7
68-7
69-7
70-7
71-7
72-7
73-7
74-7
75-8
76-8
77-8
71-6 22
58-2
59-2
60-3
61-3
62-3
63-3
64-3
65-3
66-3
67-3
68-3
69-3
70-3
71-3
72-3
73-3
74-3
75-4
76-4
77-4
73-4 23
57-8
58-8
59-8
60-9
61-9
62-9 j 63-9
64-9
65-9
66-9
67-9
68-9
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
75-2 24
57-4
58-4
59-4
60-5
61-5
62-5 63-5
64-5
65-5
66-5
67-5
68-5
69-6
70-6
71-6
72-6
73-6
74-6
75-6
76-6
77-0 25
57
58
59
60-1
61-1
62-1 63-i.
64-1
65-1
66-1
67-1
68-1
692
70-2
71-2
72-2
73-2
74-2
75-3
76-3
78-8 26
56-6
57-6
58-6
59-6
60-7
61-7 62-7
63-7
64-7
657
66-7
67-7
68-8
69-8
70-8
71-8
72-8
73-8
74-8
75-9
80-6 27
56-2
57-2
58-3
59-3
60-3
61-3 ! 62-3
63-3
64-3
65-3
66-3
67-3
68-4
69-4
70-4
71-4
72-4
73-4
74-4
75-5
82-4 28
55-8
56-8
57-8
58-8
59-9
60-9 61-9
62-9
63-9
64-9
66
67
68
69-1
70-1
71-1
72-1
73-1
74-1
75-1
84-2 29
55-4
56-4
57-4
58-5
59-5
60-5 61-5
62-5
63-5
64-5
65-6
66-6
67-7
68-7
69-7
70-7
71-7
72-7
73-7
74-7
86-0 30
55
56
57-1
58-1
59-1
60-1 61-1
62-1
63-1
64-1
65-2
66-2
67-3
68-3
69-3
70-3
71-3
72-3
73-3
74-3
ALCOHOL ALCOHOLOMETRY.
131
TABLE
II. Concluded.
Observed per centage of the Alcoholometer.
Temp.
81
82
83
81
85 1 86
87
88
89
90 || 91
92
93
94 1 95
96
97
93
99
100
Fahr. Cent
p.cent
p.cent p.cent. ]
>.cent p.cent 'p.cent
p.cent
p.cent.
p. cent
%ccnt p.cent
p. cent
p. cent
p.crnt. p.cent
p. cent
p. cent
3. cent.
p. cent
p. cent.
32-0
86-4
87-4
88-3
89-2
90-2
91-2
92-2
93-1
94
95
95-9
96-8
97-7
98-6
99-5
100-3
101-2
33-8 1
86-
1
87
88
89
89-9
90-8
91-8
92-8
93-7
94-6
95-6
96-5
97-4
98-3
99-2
100
100-9
35-6 2
85-7
86-6
87-6
88-6
89-6
90-5
91-5
92-4
93-4
94-3
95-2
96-1
97
97-9
98-9
99-8
100-7
37-4 3
85-3
86-3
87-3
88-3
89-2
90-2
91-2
92-1
93
94
94-9
95-8
96-7
97-7
98-6
99-5
100-4
39-2 4
85
86
87
88
88-9
89-9
90-8
91-8
92-7
93-7
94-6
95-5
96-4
97-4
98-3
99-2
100-1 1
01
41-0 5
84-7
85-6
86-6
87-6
88-5
89-5
90-5
91-4
92-4
93-3
94-3
95-2
96-2
97
1
98
98-9
99-8 1
00-7
42-8 6
84-3
85-3
86-3
87-3
88-2
89-2
90-1
91
92
93
93-9
94-9
95-9
96-8
97-7
98-7
99-6 1
00-5
44-6 7
83-9
84-9
85-9
86-9
87-9
88-8
89-8
90-7
91-7
92-6
93-6
94-6
95-6
96-5
97-4
98-4
99-3 I
00-2
46-4 8
83-6
84-6
85-6
86-5
87-5
88-5
89-4
90-4
91-3
92-3
93-3
94-3
95-3
96-2
97-1
98-1
99
99-9
48-2 9
83-2
84-2
85-2
86-2
87-1
88-1
89-1
90
91
92
93
94
95
95-9
96-8
97-8
98-7
99-7
100
50-0 10
82-8
83-8
84-8
85-8
86-8
87-8
88-7
89-7
90-7
91-7
92-7
93-7
94-7
95-6
96-5
97-5
98-5
99-4
100-4
51-8 11
82-5
83-4
84-4
85-4
86-4
87-4
88-4
89-4
90-4
91-4
92-4
93-3
94-3
95-3
96-2
97-2
98-2
99-1
100-1
53-6 12
82-1
83-1
84-1
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
95-9
96-9
97-9
98-8
99-8
55-4 13
81-8
82-8
83-8
84-8
85-7
86-7
87-7
88-7
89-7
90-7
91-7
92-7
93-7
94-6
95-6
96-6
97-6
98-6
99-5
57-2 14
81-4
82-4
83-4
84-4
85-4
86-4
87-4
88-3
89-3
90-3
91-3
92-3
93-3
94-3
95-3
96-3
97-3
98-3
99-3
59-0 15
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
100
60-8 16
80-6
81-6
826
83-6
84-6
85-6
86-6
87-6
88-6
89-6
90-7
91-7
92-7
93-7
94-7
95-7
96-7
97-7
98-7
99-7
62-6 17
80-2
81-2
82-2
83-2
84-2
85-2
86-2
87-2
88-2
89-3
90-3
91-3
92-4
93-4
94-4
95-4
96-4
97-4
98-5
99-5
04-4 18
79-9
80-9
81-9
82-9
83-9
84-9
85-9
86-9
87-9
88-9
89-9
91
92
93
94
95-1
96-1
97-1
98-2
99-2
66-2 19
79-5
80-5
81-6
82-6
83-6
84-6
85-6
86-6
87-6
88-6
89-6
90-7
91-7
92-7
93-7
94-8
95-8
96-9
97-9
98-9
68-0 20
79'
I
80-1
81-2
82-2
83-2
84-2
85-2
86-2
87-2
88-2
89-2
90-3
91-3
92-4
93-4
94-5
95-5
96-6
97-6
98-6
69-8 21
78-7
79-7
80-8
81-8
82-8
83-8
84-8
85-9
86-9
87-9
88-9
90
91
92
93-1
94-1
95-2
96-3
97-3
98-4
71-6 22
78-4
79-4
80-4
81-4
82-4
83-4
84-4
85-5
86-5
87-6
88-G
89-6
90-7
91-8
928
93-9
94-9
96
97
98-1
73-4 23
78
79
80-1
81-1
82-1
83-1
84-1
85-1
86-1
87-2
88-3
89-3
90-4
91-4
92-4
93-5
94-6
95-7
96-7
97-8
75-2 24
77-6
78-6
79-7
80-7
81-7
82-7
83-7
84-7
85-7
86-8
87-9
88-9
90
91-1
92-1
93-2
94-3
95-3
96-4
97-5
77-0 25
77-3
78-3
79-3
80-3
81-3
82-3
83-4
84-4
85-4
86-5
87-5
88-6
89-7
90-7
91-8
92-9
93-9
95
96-1
97-2
78-8 26
76-9
77-9
78-9
79-9
80-9
81-9
82-9
84
85
86-1
87-2
88-2
89-3
90-4
91-5
92-5
93-6
94-7
95-8
97
80-6 27
76-5
77-5
78-5
79-5
80-5
81-6
82-6
83-6
84-7
85-7
86-S
87-9
89
90
91-1
92-2
93-3
94'4
95-5
96-7
82-4 28
76
1
77-1
78-2
79-2
80-2
81-3
82-3
83-3
84-3
85-4
86-f
87-5
88-6
89-7
90'8
91-9
93
94-1
95-2
96-4'
84-2 29
75-7
76-8
77-8
78-8
79-8
80-9
81-6
83
84
85
86-1
87-2
88-2
89-3
90-4
91-6
92-7
93-8
94-9
96-1
86-0 30
75-3
76-4
77-4
78-4
79-4
80-5
81-5
82-6
83-6
84-7
85-8
86-9
87-9
89
90-1
91-2
92-4
93-5
94-6
95-8
TRALLES' and GAY-LUSSAC'S alcoholometers have
degree 0-7939 in TRALLES' tables, and 0-7947 in GAY-
been adopted in different countries; the first in Prussia,
LUSSAC'S and dividing this product by the density of
the latter in France and Sweden. They both give the
the liquid at the observed temperature. Subjoined is a
per cent, of alcohol in volume. If it be desired to know
TABLE BY LOWITZ,
the per cent, by weight, it may be ascertained from the
per cent, in volume of the liquid at 60, by the following
Giving the per cent, of absolute alcohol by weight, from the
specific gravity at 68.
TABLE OF COMPARISON
Per cent
Per cent
Per cent
Percent
Between the per cent, of alcohol by volume at 60 TRALLES'
of I Specific
alcohol gravity
alcohol
Specific
gravity
of
alcohol
Specifl
gravitj
of
alcohol
Specific
gravity
and per cent, by weight.
by
weight
at 68.
by
weight
at 08.
by
weight.
atOt".
by
weight
at 68.
Percent
Percent
100
791
74
859
48
919
23
968
r\rjf\
By volume.
By weight
By weight.
By volume.
99
98
794
797
73
72
861
863
47
46
921
923
22
21
970
971
97
800
71
866
45
925
20
973
0-
/ rtC
96
803
70
868
44
927
19
974
5
4-00
5
o K>
95
805
69
870
43
930
18
976
10
8-05
10
12-42
94
808
68
872
42
932
17
977
15
12-15
15
18-52
93
811
67
875
41
934
16
978
20
16-28
20
24-57
92
813
66
877
40
936
15
980
25
20-46
25
30-55
91
816
65
880
39
938
14
981
30
24-69
30
36-45
90
818
64
882
38
940
13
983
35
28-99
35
42-25
89
821
63
885
37
942
12
985
40
33-39
40
47-92
88
823
62
887
36
944
11
986
45
37-90
45
53-43
87
826
61
889
35
946
10
987
50
42-52
50
58-79
86
828
60
892
34
948
9
988
55
47-29
55
63-97
85
831
59
894
33
950
8
989
60
52-20
60
68-97
84
834
58
896
32
952
7
991
65
57-25
65
73-79
83
836
57
899
31
954
6
992
70
62-51
70
78-40
82
839
56
901
30
956
5
994
75
67-93
75
82-80
81
842
55
903
29
957
4
995
80
73-59
80
86-97
80
844
54
905
28
959
3
997
85
79-50
85
90-88
79
847
53
907
27
961
2
998
90
85-75
90
94-46
78
849
52
909
26
963
1
999
95
92-46
95
97-61
77
851
51
912
25
965
1000
100
100-00
100
100-00
76
71
853
50
49
914
917
24
966
Knowing the per centage volume of alcohol in a liquid
at any temperature, the same results are arrived at when
such per centage is multiplied by the specific gravity of
the pure anhydrous spirit at the normal thermometric
id
When a scale of per cent, by weight is added to
TRALLES' alcoholometer, it sometimes bears the name
of RICIITER'S scale, in which, as in other cases, is often
132
ALCOHOI
-ALCOHOLOMETKY.
meant only per cent, by weight, without reference to
his original alcoholometer, and which is less accurate.
In England, the amount of revenue which flows into
the Treasury annually, from the trade in spiritous
liquors, venders it a matter of some importance to
ascertain the real strength or per centage of alcohol
with expedition and accuracy. To attain this ob-
ject, various forms of alcoholometers have been con-
structed, some of which, as Sykes' hydrometer, have
been sanctioned by the Excise board. This instru-
ment does not at once note the specific gravity of the
liquid, but the excess or deficiency of alcohol above
or below a standard liquor called proof spirit a term
which originated in a rude method of ascertaining the
strength of spirit, by pouring it upon some gunpowder
in a dish, and igniting it. This was called the proof.
If the gunpowder took fire at the end of the com-
bustion, the alcoholic liquor was said to be above or
over proof; but, on the other hand, if the powder did
not take fire, the liquor was reputed to be below or
under proof. The gunpowder test, however, is quite
uncertain as to the quantity of spirit present in the
liquid ; for though the powder is ignited when a small
portion is inflamed, yet, on employing a larger quantity,
so much water is formed as to prevent the ignition.
By parliamentary enactments, the strength of proof
spirit has been fixed at such a density that thirteen
volumes, at 51 Fahr., should equal in weight twelve
volumes of water at the same temperature. Accord-
ing to this standard, proof spirit has a gravity of "9186
at 60 Fahr., and contains 57*27 per cent, by volume,
or 49-50 per cent, by weight, of absolute alcohol. The
liquors are estimated at the quantity of spirit above or
below this standard, as the case may be ; and when a
numeral is prefixed, it means the number of volumes
that are to be added to or subtracted from a hundred
volumes of the liquid, to bring it to standard or proof
strength; thus, twenty-over-proof means that a hun-
dred volumes of liquor reqiiire the addition of twenty
of water to bring them to proof strength, and when a
liquid is twenty-under-proof, it is understood that twenty
parts of water are to be abstracted.
Sykes' hydrometer, a description of which follows,
is constructed on this principle. This is selected for
special illustration, partly on account of its being almost
exclusively employed by the Revenue in this country,
and partly from its simplicity.
It consists of a flat stem, A B Fig. 82 3'4 inches
long, which is divided on both sides into ten or some-
times eleven equal parts, and each of these subdivided
into five, the scale being numbered from zero to
11. The stem, AB, is soldered to a brass ball, 1*6 in.
in diameter, into which is fixed a small conical stem,
c D, 1-13 in. long; at the end of this is a pear-shaped
loaded bulb, D, half an inch in diameter. The whole
instrument is made of brass, and is 6'7 inches long.
Nine circular weights accompany it, numbered 10, 20,
30, 40, et cetera, up to 90, and there is another weight
in the form of a parallelepiped. Each of the circular
weights is cut into the centre, so that they can be
placed on the conical stem at C, and slid down to D ; in
consequence of the enlargement of the cone, they cannot
slip off at D, but must be brought up to C for that pur-
pose. The weight in the form of a parallelepiped has
a square notch in one of its sides, by which it can be
placed on the summit, A, of the stem. In using this
instrument, it is immersed in the spirit, and pressed
with the finger till sunk to zero, or ; from the resist-
ance felt, it will be easy to judge which weight will be
required to append to it. After slipping on the weight
at c, the instrument is again immersed into the liquid,
and pressed with the hand
till it has descended to
on the scale ; the pressure
of the hand is then with-
drawn, and the apparatus
is allowed to emerge and
settle at the proper point
of the density of the
liquid, as indicated by the
scale and weights. The
figure on the scale to
which the hydrometer
sinks is now carefully
observed, and the weight
placed upon the conical
stem added thereto ; this
sum, on referring to the
tables which accompany
the instrument, where the
same number is found
under the column indica-
tion, and to the tempera-
ture which corresponds
with that of the liquid
under examination, will
give the per centage
of alcohol. The strength
is expressed in numbers,
denoting the excess or de-
ficiency per cent, of spirit
in any sample. Three
sliding rules, which are
used instead of the tables,
likewise accompany the
hydrometer. The exact
temperature of the liquid
should be taken previous
to ascertaining the gra-
vity, as the difference in
temperature, if not cor-
rected, would give, as the
result, a weaker or strong-
er liquor than if the ther-
mometer stood at 60.
When Excise officers use this instrument, they are
instructed to take the nearest degree above the mer-
cury, when it stands between any two degrees of the
thermometer, as also the next division below the sur-
face of the liquid, when it marks the instrument between
any two lines, thereby giving whatever advantage the
difference would occasion, in favor of the trader or
manufacturer. The square weight or cap shows the
difference between the weight of proof spirit and that
of water, as described in the first clause of the hydro-
meter act, being one-twelfth part of the weight of the
A
ALCOHOL ALCOHOLOMETRY. 133
hydrometer when loaded with the weight 60. If thi
weight be placed on the top of the stem at A, and th<
hydrometer be loaded with the weight 60, it will sin!
in distilled water, at the temperature of 51, to th<
proof point, P, marked on the narrow edge of th
stem.
The following will serve as examples to show hov
the strength of the spiritous liquid is ascertained :
Example 1. Suppose the temperature of the solu
tion to be 47, and that the weight, 60, is required t<
sink the stem of the hydrometer to 8, which, whei
added to the weight 60, will give 68 ; then, under th
40 TO 50 TEMPEKATUKE.
3 temperature 47, and hi a line with the marginal indi-
j cation, section 60, 68 is observed, which shows that the
i liquor is ten and a half under proof.
3 Example 2. If the stem of the instrument, when
3 loaded with 50, sinks to 5, and the temperature, as
shown by the thermometer, is 45 Fahr., then, in the
j marginal section headed 50, 55 equal to the weight
50, and the indication on the divided stem is found ;
- and under the temperature 45, the noted strength is
) 10 g 6 per cent, over proof,
i The following are two out of fifty pages in a book
i given with the instrument :
WEIGHT 50.
Temperature of the spirits by Fahrenheit's thermometer.
Indication.
Indication. -Q O
41
42
43
44
450
16"
470
48
49
60
50 II 19-2
2 18-9
4 18-7
6 18-4
8 18-2
8-9
8-6
8-3
8-1
7-8
8-6
8-3
8-0
7-8
7-5
8-3
8-0
7-7
7-5
17-2
18-0
17-7
17-4
17-2
16-9
7-7
7-4
7-1
6-9
6-6
17-3
17-0
16-8
16-5
16-3
17*0
16-7
16-4
16-2
15-9
16-7
16-4
16-1
15-9
15-6
16-4
16-1
15-8
15-6
15-3
16-1
15-8
15-5
15-3
15-0
50
2
4
6
8
51
2
4
6
8
52
2
4
6
8
53
2
4
6
8
54
2
4
6
8
55
2
4
6
8
56
2
4
6
8
57
2
4
6
8
58
2
4
6
8
59
2
4
6
8
60
51
2
:J
8
52
2
4
6
8
17-9
17-6
17-3
17-1
16-8
7-5
7-2
6-9
16-7
16-4
7-2
6-9
6-6
16-4
16-1
16-9
16-6
16-3
16-1
158
16-6
16-3
16-0
15-8
15-5
16-3
16-0
15-7
15-5
15-2
16-0
15-7
15-4
15-2
14-9
15-6
15-3
15-1
14-8
14-6
15-3
15-0
14-7
14-5
14-2
15-0
14-7
14-4
14-2
13-9
14-7
14-4
14-1
13-9
136
16-5
16-2
15-9
15-6
15-3
16-1
15-8
15-5
15-3
15-0
15-8
15-5
15-2
15-0
14-7
15-5
15-2
14-9
14-7
14-4
15-2
14-9
14-6
14-4
14-1
14-9
14-6
14-3
14-1
13-8
14-6
14-3
14-0
13-7
13-4
14-3
14-0
13-7
13-4
13-1
13-9
13-6
13-3
13-1
12-8
13-6
13-3
13-0
12-8
12-5
13-3
13-0
12-7
12-5
12-2
53
2
4
6
8
54
2
4
6
8
55
2
4
6
8
56
2
4
6
8
57
58
59
2
4
6
8
60
15-0
14-7
14-4
14-2
13-9
14-7
14-4
14-1
13-9
13-6
14-4
14-1
13-8
13-6
13.3
14-1
13-8
13-5
13-3
13-0
13-8
13-5
13-2
13-0
12-7
13-5
13-2
12-9
12-7
12-4
13-1
12-8
12-5
12-3
12-0
12-8
12-5
12-2
12-0
11-7
12-5
12-2
11-9
11-7
11-4
12-2
11-9
11-6
11-4
11-1
11-9
11-6
113
111
10-8
13-6
13-3
13-0
12-8
12-5
13-3
13-0
12-7
12-5
12-2
13'0
12-7
12-4
12-2
11-9
12-7
12-4
12-1
11-8
11-5
12-4
12-1
11-8
11-5
11-2
12-1
11-8
11-5
11-2
10-9
11-7
11-4
11-1
10-9
10-6
11-4
11-1
10-8
10-6
10-3
11-1
10-8
10-5
10-2
9-9
10-8
10-5
10-2
9-9
9-6
10-5
10-2
9-9
9-6
9-3
12-2
11-9
11-6
11-3
11-0
11-9
11-6
11-3
11-0
10-7
11-6
11-3
11-0
10-7
10-4
11-2
10-9
10-6
10-4
10-1
10-9
10-6
10-3
10-1
9-8
10-6
10-3
10-0
9-7
9-4
10-3
10-0
9-7
9-4
9-1
10-0
9-7
9-4
9-1
8-8
9-6
9-3
9-0
8-8
8-5
9-3
9-0
8-7
8-5
8-2
9-0
8-7
8-4
8-1
7-8
10-7
10-4
10-1
9-9
9-6
10-4
10-1
9-8
9-6
9-3
10-1
9-8
9-5
9-3
9-0
9-8
9-5
9-2
9-0
8-7
9-5
9-2
8-9
8-6
8-3
9-1
8-8
8-5
8-3
8-0
8-8
8-5
8-2
7-9
7-6
8-5
8-2
7-9
7-6
7-3
8-2
7-9
7-6
7-3
7-0
7-9
7-6
7-3
7-0
6-7
7-5
7-2
6-9
6-7
6-4
9-3
9-0
8-7
IS
9-0
8-7
8-4
8-1
7-8
8-7
8-4
8-1
7-8
7-5
8-4
8-1
7-8
7-5
7.2
8-0
7-7
7-4
7-2
6-9
7-7
7-4
7-1
6-8
6-5
7-3
7-0
6-7
6-5
6-2
7-0
6-7
6-4
6-1
5-8
6-7
6-4
6-1
5-8
5-5
6-4
6-1
5-8
5-5
5-2
6-1
5-8
5-5
5-2
4-9
7-8
7-5
7-2
6-9
6-6
7-5
7-2
6-9
6-6
6-3
7-2
6-9
6-6
6-3
6-0
6-9
6-6
6-3
5-9
5-6
6-6
6-3
6-0
5-7
5-4
6-2
5-9
5-6
5-3
5-0
5-9
5-6
5-3
5-0
4-7
5-5
5-2
4-9
4-7
4-4
5-2
4-9
4-6
4-3
4-0
4-9
4-6
4-3
4-0
3-7
4-6
4-3
4-0
3-7
3-4
6-3
6-0
5-7
5-4
5-1
6-0
5-7
5-4
5-1
4-8
5-7
5-4
5-1
4-8
4-5
5-3
5-0
4-7
4-4
4-1
5-1
4-8
4-5
4-1
3-8
4-8
4-4
4-1
3-8
3-5
4-4
4-1
3-8
3-5
3-2
4-1
3-8
3-5
3-2
2-9
3-7
3-4
3-1
2-8
2-5
3-4
3-1
2-8
2-5
2-2
3-1
2-8
2-5
2-1
1-8
4-8
4-5
4-2
3-8
.-
43
3-5
~
44
3-2
2-9
2-6
2-2
-
1-9
~
48
1-5
Indication.
40
41
42
4i,
48
47
48
60
Indication.
~~
1
Temperature of the spirits by Fahrenhe.f thermometer.
================
134 ALCOHOL ALCOHOLOMETRY.
At
cently
is cons
nary I
from 1
meter
referei
HEIT'S
mensti
the ca
WEIGHT 60. TEMPERATURE 40 TO 50.
Indication.
Temperature of the spirit by Fahrenheit's thermometer.
Indication.
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
60
GO
2
4
6
8
61
2
4
6
8
62
2
4
6
8
63
2
4
6
8
64
2
4
6
8
65
2
4
6
8
66
2
4
6
8
67
2
4
6
8
68
2
4
6
8
69
2
4
6
8
70
4-8
4-5
4-2
3-9
3-6
4-5
4-2
3-9
3-6
3-3
4-2
3-9
3-6
3-3
3-0
3-8
3-5
3-2
2-9
2-6
3-5
3-2
2-9
2-6
2-3
3-2
2-9
2-6
2-3
2-0
2-9
2-6
2-3
2-0
1-7
2-6
2-3
2-0
1-7
1-4
2-2
1-9
1-6
1'3
1-0
1-9
1-6
1-3
1-0
7
1-5
1-2
9
6
3
60
2
4
6
8
61
2
4
6
8
62
2
4
6
8
63
2
4
6
8
64
2
4
6
8
65
2
4
6
8
66
2
4
6
8
67
2
4
6
8
68
2
4
6
8
69
2
4
6
8
70
3-3
3-0
2-7
2-4
2-1
3-0
2-7
2-4
2-1
1-8
2-7
2-4
2-1
1-8
1-5
2-3
2-0
1-7
1-4
1-1
2-0
1-7
14
1-1
8
1-7
1-4
1-1
8
5
1-4
1-1
8
4
1
1-1
8
5
1
7
4
1
.4
1
3
6
9
1-2
2
6
9
3
6
2
1-8
1-5
1-2
8
5
1-5
1-2
9
5
2
1-2
9
6
2
8
5
2
5
2
2
2
5
8
1-1
1-4
5
8
1-1
1-5
1-8
9
1-2
1-5
1-8
2-1
1-2
1-5
1-8
22
2-5
1-5
1-8
2-1
2-5
2-8
1
4
8
1-1
1
5
8
2
5
1
2
1
4
7
1-1
1-4
4
7
1-0
1-4
1-7
8
1-1
1-4
1-8
2-1
1-1
1-4
1-7
2-1
2-4
1-4
1-7
2-1
2-4
2-8
1-7
2-0
2-4
2-7
3-1
2-1
2-4
2-7
3-1
3-4
2-4
2-7
3-0
3-4
3-7
2-8
3-1
3-4
3-8
4-1
3-1
3-4
3-7
4-1
4-4
1
4
8
1-1
1-4
1-7
2-0
2-4
2-7
1-7
2-0
2-3
2-7
3-0
2-0
2-3
2-6
3-0
3-3
2-4
2-7
3-0
3-4
3-7
2-7
3-0
3-3
3-7
4-0
3-1
3-4
3-7
4-1
4-4
3-4
3-7
4-1
4-4
4-8
3-7
4-0
4-4
4-7
5-1
4-0
4-3
4-7
5-0
5-4
4-4
4-7
5-1
5-4
5-8
4-1
5-6
5-4
5-7
6-1
3-0
3-3
3-6
4-0
4-3
3-3
3-6
4-0
4-3
4-7
3-6
3-9
4-3
4-6
5-0
4-0
4-3
4-7
5-0
5-4
4-3
4-6
5-0
5-3
5-7
4-7
5-0
5-4
5-7
6-1
5-1
5-4
5-7
6-1
6-4
5-4
5-7
6-1
6-4
6-8
5-7
6-0
6-4
6-7
7-1
6-1
6-4
6-8
7-1
7-5
6-4
6-7
7-1
7-4
7-8
4-6
5-0
5-3
5-7
6-0
5-0
5-3
5-7
6-0
6-4
5-3
6-7
6-0
6-4
6-7
5-7
6-0
6-4
6-7
7-1
6-0
6-3
6-7
7-0
7-4
6-4
6-7
7-1
7-4
7-8
6-7
7-0
7-4
7-7
8-1
7-1
7-4
7-8
8-1
8-5
7-4
7-7
8-1
8-4
8-8
7-8
8-1
8-5
8-8
9-2
8-1
8-4
8-8
9-1
9-5
6-4
6-7
7-1
7-4
7-8
6-7
7-0
7-4
7.7
8-1
7-1
7-4
7-8
8-1
8-5
7-4
7.7
8-1
8-4
8-8
7-7
8-0
8-4
8-7
9-1
8-1
8-4
8-8
9-1
9-5
8-4
8-7
9-1
9-4
9-8
8-8
9-1
9-5
9-8
10-2
9-1
9-4
9-8
10-1
10-5
9-5
9-8
10-2
10-5
10-9
9-8
10-1
10-5
10-8
11-2
8-1
8-5
8-8
9-2
9-5
8-4
8-8
9-1
9-5
9-8
8-8
9-1
9-5
9-8
10-2
9-1
9-4
9-8
10-1
10-5
9-4
9-8
10-1
10-5
10-8
9-8
10-2
10-5
10-9
11-2
10-1
10-5
10-8
11-2
11-5
10-5
10-9
11-2
11-6
11-9
10-8
11-2
11-5
11-9
12-2
11-2
11-6
11-9
12-3
12-6
11-5
11-9
12-2
12-6
12-9
9-9
10-3
10-6
11-0
11-3
10-2
10-6
10-9
11-3
11-6
10-5
10-9
11-2
11-6
11-9
10-8
11-2
11-5
11-9
12-2
11-2
11-6
11-9
12-3
12-6
11-6
12-0
12-3
12-7
13-0
11-9
12-3
12-6
13-0
13-3
12-3
12-7
13-0
13-4
13-7
12-6
13-0
13-3
13-7
14-0
13-0
13-4
13-7
14-1
14-4
13-3
13-7
14-0
14-4
14.7
11-7
12-0
12-3
12-6
13-0
13-4
13-7
14-1
14-4
14-8
15-1
60
Indication.
40
41
42
43*
44
46*
46
47*
48
49
Indication.
Temperature of the spirit by Fahrenheit's thermometer.
nodification of Sykes' hydrometer has been re- ment are made to accord with these numbers. There
adapted for the testing of alcoholic liquors. It are tables supplied with the hydrometer, which are
.tructed of glass, and is in the shape of an ordi- headed by the degrees and half degrees of the thermo-
ydrometer, the stem being divided into degrees metric scale ; and the corresponding content of spirit
to 100 : it carries a small delicate spirit thermo- over or under proof at the respective degree of the
in the bulb, to which a scale is affixed, having table is placed opposite each degree of the hydro-
ices from to 12, corresponding to FAHREN- meter,
scale from 32 to 80. The temperature of the When the instrument is used to ascertain the value
ua is indicated by the small thermometer ; and of a liquid, the degree of immersion, and also that of
dilations in the tables accompanying the instru- the thermometer are noted ; on referring to the table
. 1
ALCOHOL ALCOHOLOMETRY. 135
headed by the observed temperature, the per centage
spirit indicating proof strength is '9200. URE has con-
of spirit over or under proof is found opposite the de-
structed a table, appended below, wherein the specific
gree to which the hydrometer sunk in the liquid.
gravity corresponds to the strength noted by the hydro-
By SYKES' hydrometer, the specific gravity of the
meter, whether over or under proof strength.
CORRESPONDENCE BETWEEN THE SPECIFIC GRAVITIES AND PER CENTS. OF ALCOHOL
OVER PROOF AT 60 FAHRENHEIT.
Specific
*er cent.
Specific
Per cent
Specific
Per cent.
Specific
Per cent
Specific
Per cent.
Specific
Percent
Specific
Percent
gravity.
proof.
gravity.
proof.
gravity.
proot
gravity.
prwf.
gravity.
proof.
gravity.
proof.
gravity.
proot
0-8156
67-0
0-8410
54-2
0-8657
39-3
0-8912
21-9
0-9178
1-9
0-9445
21-9
0-9722
58-3
8160
66-8
8413
54-1
8660
39-1
8915
21-7
9182
1-6
9448
22-2
9726
59-0
8163
66-6
8417
53-9
8664
38-9
8919
21-4
9185
1-3
9452
22-7
9730
59-7
8167
66-5
8420
53-7
8667
38-7
8922
21-2
9189
1-0
9456
23-1
9734
60-4
8170
66-3
8424
53-5
8671
38-4
8926
20-9
9192
0-7
9460
23-5
9738
61-1
8174
66-1
8427
53-3
8674
38-2
8930
20-6
9196
0-3
9464
23-9
9742
61-8
8178
65-6
8431
53-1
8678
38-0
8933
20-4
9200
Proof.
9468
24-3
9746
62-5
8181
65-8
8434
52-9
8681
37-8
8937
20-1
Under proof.
9472
24-7
9750
63-2
8185
65-6
8438
52-7
8685
37-6
8940
19-9
9204
0-3
9476
25-1
9754
63-9
8188
65-5
8441
52-5
8688
37-3
8944
19-6
9207
06
9480
25-5
9758
64-6
8192
65-3
8445
52-3
8692
37-1
8948
19-3
9210
0-9
9484
25-9
9762
65-3
8196
65-1
8448
52-1
8695
36-9
8951
19-1
9214
1-3
9488
26-3
9766
66-0
8199
65-0
8452
51-9
8699
36-7
8955
18-8
9218
16
9492
26-7
9770
66-7
8203
64-8
8455
51-7
8702
36-4
8959
18-6
9222
1-9
9496
27-1
9774
67-4
8206
64-7
8459
51-5
8706
36-2
8962
18-3
9226
2-2
9499
27-5
9778
68-0
8210
64-5
8462
51-3
8709
35-9
8966
18-0
9229
2-5
9503
28-0
9782
68-7
8214
64-3
8465
51-1
8713
35-7
8970
17-7
9233
2-8
9507
28-4
9786
69-4
8218
64-1
8469
50-9
8716
35-5
8974
17-5
9237
3-1
9511
28-8
9790
70-1
8221
64-0
8472
50-7
8720
35-2
8977
17-2
9241
3-4
9515
29-2
9794
70-8
8224
63-8
8476
50-5
8723
35-0
8981
16-9
9244
3-7
9519
29-7
9798
71-4
8227
63-6
8480
50-3
8727
34-7
8985
16-6
9248
4-0
9522
30-1
9802
72-1
8231
63-4
8482
50-1
8730
34-5
8989
16-4
9252
4-4
9526
30-6
9806
72-8
8234
63-2
8486
49-9
8734
34-3
8992
16-1
9255
4-7
9530
31-0
9810
73-5
8238
63-1
8490
49-7
8737
34-1
8996
15-9
9259
5-0
9534
31-4
9814
74-1
8242
62.9
8493
49-5
8741
33-8
9000
15-6
9263
5-3
9539
31-1
9818
74-8
8245
62-7
8496
49-3
8744
33-6
9004
15-3
9267
5-7
9542
32-3
9822
75-4
8249
62-5
8499
49-1
8748
33-4
9008
15-0
9270
6-0
9546
32-8
9826
76-1
8252
62-3
8503
48-9
8751
33-2
9011
14-8
9274
6-4
9550
33-2
9830
76-7
8256
62-2
8506
48-7
8755
32-9
9015
14-5
9278
6-7
9553
33-7
9834
77-3
8259
62-0
8510
48-5
8758
32-7
9019
14-2
9282
7-0
9557
34-2
9838
78-0
8263
61-8
8513
48.3
8762
32-4
9023
13-9
9286
7-3
9561
34-7
9842
78-6
8266
61-6
8516
48-0
8765
32-2
9026
13-6
9291
7-7
9565
35-1
9846
79-2
8270
61-4
8520
47-8
8769
32-0
9030
13-4
9295
8-0
9569
35-6
9850
79-8
8273
61-3
8523
47-6
8772
31-7
9034
13-1
9299
8-3
9573
36-1
9854
80-4
8277
61-1
8527
47-4
8776
31-5
9038
12-8
9302
8-6
9577
36-6
9858
81-1
8280
60-9
8530
47-2
8779
31-2
9041
12-5
9306
9-0
9580
37-1
9862
81-7
8284
60-7
8533
47-0
8783
31-0
9045
12-2
9310
9-3
9584
37-6
9866
82-3
8287
60-5
8537
46-8
8786
30-8
9049
12-0
9314
9-7
9588
38-1
9870
82-9
8291
60-4
8540
46-6
8790
30-5
9052
11-7
9318
10-0
9592
38-6
9874
83-5
8294
60-2
8543
46-4
8793
30-3
9056
11-4
9322
10-3
9596
39-1
9878
84-0
8298
60-0
8547
46-2
8797
30-0
9060
11-1
9326
10-7
9599
39-6
9882
84-6
8301
59-8
8550
46-0
8800
29-8
9064
10-8
9329
11-0
9603
40-1
9886
85-2
8305
59-6
8553
45-8
8804
29-5
9067
10-6
9332
11-4
9607
40-6
9890
85-8
8308
8312
8315
8319
8322
8326
8329
8333
8336
8340
8344
8347
8351
8354
8358
8362
8365
8369
8372
8376
8379
8383
8386
8390
8393
8396
8400
8403
59-5
59-3
59-1
58-9
58-7
58-6
58-4
58-2
58-0
57-8
57-7
57-5
57-3
57-1
56-9
56-8
56-6
56-4
56-2
56-0
55-9
55-7
55-5
55-3
55-1
55-0
54-8
54-6
8556
8560
8563
8566
8570
8573
8577
8581
8583
8587
8590
8594
8597
8601
8604
8608
8611
8615
8618
8622
8625
8629
8632
8636
8639
8643
8646
8650
45-6
45-4
45-2
45-0
44-8
44-6
44-4
44-2
43-9
43-7
43-5
43-3
43-1
42-8
42-6
42-4
42-2
42-0
41-7
41-5
41-3
41-1
40-9
40-6
40-4
40-2
40-0
39-8
8807
8811
8814
8818
8822
8825
8829
8832
8836
8840
8843
8847
8850
8854
8858
8861
8865
8869
8872
8876
8879
8883
8886
8890
8894
8897
8901
8904
29-3
29-0
28-8
28-5
28-3
28-0
27-8
27-5
27-3
27-0
26-8
26-5
26-3
26-0
25'8
25-5
25-3
25-0
24-8
24-5
24-3
24-0
23-8
23-5
23-2
23-0
22-7
22-5
9071
9075
9079
9082
9085
9089
9093
9097
9100
9104
9107
9111
9115
9118
9122
9126
9130
9134
9137
9141
9145
9148
9152
9156
9159
9163
9167
9170
10-3
10-0
9-7
9-4
9-2
8-9
8-6
8-3
8-0
7-7
7-4
7-1
6-8
6-5
6-2
5-9
5-6
5-3
5-0
4-8
4-5
4-2
3-9
3-6
3-3
3-0
2-7
2-4
9337
9341
9345
9349
9353
9357
9360
9364
9368
9372
9376
9380
9384
9388
9392
9396
9399
9403
9407
9411
9415
9419
9422
9426
9430
9434
9437
9441
11-7
12-1
12-4
12-8
13-1
13-5
13-9
14-2
14-6
14-9
15-3
15-7
13-0
16-4
16-7
17-1
17-5
17-8
18-2
18-5
18-9
19-3
19-7
20-0
20-4
20-8
21-2
21-6
9611
9615
9619
9623
9627
9631
9635
9638
9642
9646
9650
9654
9657
9661
9665
9669
9674
9677
9681
9685
9689
9693
9697
9701
9705
9709
9713
9718
41-1
41-7
42-2
42-8
43-3
43-9
44-4
45-0
45-5
46-1
46-7
47-3
47-9
48-5
49-1
49-7
50-3
51-0
51-6
52-2
52-9
53-3
54-2
54-8
55-5
56-2
56-9
57-6
9894
9898
9902
9906
9910
9914
9918
9922
9926
9930
9934
9938
9942
9946
9950
9954
9958
9962
9966
9970
9974
9978
9982
9986
9990
9993
9997
1-0000
86-3
86-9
87-4
88-0
88-5
89-1
89-6
90-2
90-7
91-2
91-7
92-3
92-8
93-3
93-8
94-3
94-9
95-4
95-9
96-4
96-8
97-3
97-7
98-2
98-7
99-1
99-6
100-0
8407
54-4
8653
39-6
8908
22-2
9174
2-1
136
ALCOHOI
-ALCOHOLOMETRY.
Although it had long been known that the boiling
point of water was raised by holding in solution neutral
salts and other bodies, and although many experiments
were instituted with the view of ascertaining the pro-
portion of salts or sugar present in liquids, still the
application of this fact to the determination of the
quantity of alcohol in spiritous liquors was reserved for
the ABBS' BROSSARD-VIDAL, of Toulon, who ascer-
tained that the boiling point of such liquors was in
direct proportion to the quantity of alcohol they con-
tained, irrespective of any amount of saline ingredients
present in them. When certain salts are added to
dilute alcohol, such as carbonate of potassa or chloride
of calcium, which are capable of abstracting a portion
of the water, the boiling point of the solution is lowered,
instead of the reverse being the case. On these prin-
ciples the ABBS' con-
structed his apparatus,
whereby the Revenue
Boards of France might
furnish themselves with
ready proof if the wines
entered were genuine,
as it was frequently
found that brandy had
been passed under the
name of wine, and a
fraud thus committed,
the duty on alcoholic
and strong spiritous
liquors being much
greater than on wine.
These principles also
formed the basis of Mr.
FIELD'S alcoholometer
for the determination
of the quantity of spirit
in liquors, and for
which he obtained a
patent in 1847. It con-
sisted originally of a
spiritlamp, surmounted
by a boiler containing
the liquid to be exa-
mined, and a large
cylindrical glass bulb
containing mercury,
and having an upright
stem, whose calibre
was such as to allow
the expansion of the
=-__ mercury to elevate a
sj small glass float which
s rested on its surface.
This float was con-
nected by a thread
with a similar bead,
which hung in the
open air; the thread
passed over a pulley
which, turning with the motion of the beads, caused
the index to move along the circular graduated scale.
This instrument was much improved by Dr. URE, who
introduced, instead of the cylindrical bulb and beads, a
thermometer attached to a graduated scale. Fig. 83
shows the improved instrument.
A is the spirit lamp, surrounded by an outer coating
containing cold water for keeping the lamp cool, should
many experiments be required to be made in succes-
sion ; B the boiler, which fits into the cage, c, in the
case of the lamp; a damper, d, modifies or extin-
guishes the. heat of the lamp when required; E is
the thermometer with a very small bore, after the
manner of WOLLASTON'S instrument for determin-
ing the height of mountains by the boiling point of
water on their summit. The bottom of the scale on the
ebullition thermometer is marked P, for proof, on the
left side, and 100 proof spirit on the right side. It
corresponds with 178'6 Fahr., nearly, or the boiling
point of alcohol, spec. grav. -920.
From the mean of a great number of experiments,
URE drew up the following table, which shows the
boiling point of alcohol of various specific gravities :
Temperature Falir. Specific gravity.
178-5 0-9200 Proof.
179-75 0-9321 10 Under proof.
180-4 0-9420 20
182-01 0-9516 30
183-40 0-960 40
185-6 0-9665 50
189-0 0-9729 60
191-8 0-9786 ...... 70
196-4 0-9850 80
202-0 0-992 90
When spirit is over proof, the variation of the boil-
ing point is so small that a strictly accurate result
cannot conveniently be obtained, and, in fact, proof
spirit, or spirit approaching to that strength, is more
accurately tested by diluting it with its own bulk of
water, before ascertaining the strength, and then doub-
ling the result. Another source of error pointed out by
URE, is the elevation of the boiling point, when the liquor
is kept heated for any length of time ; it is, however,
nearly obviated by the addition of common salt to the
solution in the boiler of the apparatus, in the propor-
tion of thirty-five or forty grains. This substance has
the curious property of arresting the mercury in the
thermometer at the boiling point of the wine, spirit, or
beer, submitted to examination, and thus offers a means
by which a proper reading can be made. In order to
correct the difference arising from a higher or lower
pressure of the atmosphere, distilled water should be
boiled in the apparatus, and the temperature noted ; for
the boiling point of the alcoholic solutions will vary as
that of the water, when the pressure of the atmosphere
is greater or less. In order to correct this source of
error, a subsidiary barometrical scale, H, is attached to
the thermometer, E. The method of using the alco-
holometer is as follows :
The lamp, A, is lighted; B is filled to about one inch
from the top with the liquid to be examined, to which a
paper of common salt is added, and the whole is then
placed on the lamp, A ; and lastly, the thermometer, E,
is fixed to the scale, with its bulb immersed in the
liquid. Before commencing general operations for the
day, the boiler, B, is filled with water, and boiled ; if the
column of ^ mercury remains at 29 '5, which is placed
opposite to 100 on the scale at the left hand the mean
ALCOH01
-ALCOHOLOMETRY.
137
boiling point of water no correction is required to
be made; but if it stands higher or lower than this
figure, the various boiling points of the samples bear
reference to this. In testing the solutions, when the
mercury begins to rise out of the bulb of the thermo-
meter, the damper is to be pushed in midway into the
groove to lower the heat. As the liquid boils freely,
the mercury in the tube will become stationary, and
the figure on the left indicates the per centage under
proof, while that on the right shows the per centage
over proof. FIELD'S alcoholometer only tells the quan-
tity of alcohol, but an auxiliary experiment with the
hydrometer will readily give the specific gravity, and
upon reference to Table L, the amount of saccharine
and extractive matter is ascertained. In testing wines,
the specific gravity of the liquid is first taken, then
the boiling point ascertained by the alcoholometer, and
the corresponding specific gravity deducted from that
previously found by the hydrometer; the difference
will, upon referring to Table II., show the quantity of
extractive and saccharine matter in a hundred gallons
of the liquid. For example, if the specific gravity by
the hydrometer be '989, and that by the alcoholometer
shows the presence of alcohol of sixty-nine and six-
tenths, whose specific gravity is '979 by the tables,
deduct the latter gravity from the gravity of the bulk,
or '989, and a difference of ten remains, which number,
upon reference to Table II., will give twenty-five pounds
of saccharine and extractive matter in a hundred gal-
lons, combined with thirty gallons and four-tenths of
proof spirit. Should the barometer of the day mark
any other indication above or below the standard 29-5,
the thermometer scale will then only show the apparent
strength, and reference must be had to the small ivory
indicator, it being the counterpart of the barometrical
scale of the thermometer ; thus, if the barometer indi-
cate 30, place 30 of the indicator against the boiling
point of the liquid, and opposite the line of 29-5 will be
found the true strength.
Example 1. Barometer at 30. Suppose the mer-
cury to stop at the same point, 72 u.p. ; place 30 of
the indicator against 72 on the thermometer, and the
line 28'5 will cut 69'6 U.P., the true per centage.
Example 2. Barometer at 29. Suppose the mer-
cury to stop at the same point, 72 U.P. ; place 29 of the
indicator against 72 on the thermometer, and the line
29'5 will cut 74*3 U.P., the true strength.
To ascertain the strength of malt liquors and their
respective values, the instrument has been furnished
with" a glass saccharometer, testing glass, and slide rule.
Commence by charging the test glass with the liquid,
then insert the saccharometer to ascertain the present
gravity or density per ban-el, and at whatever number
it floats, that will indicate the number of pounds per
barrel the liquor is heavier than water:
Example 1. Suppose the saccharometer to float at
the figure 8, which would indicate eight pounds per
barrel ; then submit the liquid to the boiling test, with an
addition of salt to arrest the mercury at the proper boil-
ing point of the liquid, as before mentioned ; now, sup-
pose it should show the barometrical difference being
accounted for 90 U.P., that would be equivalent to ten
per cent, of proof alcohol. Eefer to the slide scale, and
VOL. I.
place A on the slide against 10 on the upper line of
figures, and facing B on the lower line will be 18, show-
ing that eighteen pounds per barrel have been decom-
posed to constitute that per centage of spirit ; then, by
adding eighteen pounds to the present eight pounds
per barrel, the result will be twenty-six pounds, the
original weight of the wort after leaving the copper.
Example 2. The saccharometer marks ten pounds
per barrel, and at the boiling point it indicates 88 U.P.,
equivalent to 12 gallons of proof spirit per cent. ; place
A against 12, and opposite B will be 21, the number of
pounds per barrel, which, when added to the ten pounds
present, will give a total of thirty-one and a half pounds.
To ascertain the relative value. Suppose the price
of the twenty-six pounds beer to be thirty-six shillings
per barrel, and the thirty-one pounds beer to be forty
shillings to ascertain which beer will be the cheaper,
place 26 on the opposite side of the rule against 36, and
opposite 31 J pounds will be forty-three shillings and seven
pence, showing that the latter beer is cheaper by three
shillings and seven pence per barrel. By this instrument
the quantity of spirit per cent, in distiller's wort, whether
it be in progress of fermentation or ready for the still,
is indicated, the only difference being in the allowances
in the sliding rule. Saccharometers applicable to the
foregoing rules for beer, ale, et cetera, have been ad-
justed at the temperature of 60 Fahr., and will be
found correct for general purposes; but where extreme
minuteness is required, the variation of temperature
must be taken into account, and for every ten degrees
of temperature above 60, three-tenths of a pound must
be added to the gross amount found by the slide rule ;
on the contrary, for every ten degrees below 60, three-
tenths of a pound must be deducted.
For CordMized Spirits. The operation hi this
instance is different from that applied to the testing of
beers, which have the alcohol generated in the worts;
for in cordialized spirits of every kind, the alcohol
is the original, and the saccharine matter, or sugar, is
an addendum. If a hundred gallons of spirit are re-
quired of a given strength say fifty per cent, under
p roo f_fifty gallons of proof spirit to which fifty gallons
of water are added, will be of this strength, and upon
testing it by the alcoholometer, it will be found as cor-
rect as by the hydrometer. But in cordializing spirit,
the reverse is the case ; for to the fifty gallons of spirit,
proof strength, fifty gallons of sugar and water would
be added, thereby rendering the hydrometer useless,
excepting for taking the specific gravity of the bulk, and,
according to the quantity of sugar present, so a relative
quantity of water must have been displaced ; and as
the sugar has no reducing properties, the alcoholometer
will only show the strength of the cordial in relation to
the quantity of water contained in it, as the principle
indicates, irrespective of the saccharine or extractive
matter. Suppose, in making one hundred gallons of
cordial at 50 U.P., three pounds of sugar are put to the
gallon, or three hundred pounds to the hundred gallons,
these three hundred pounds displacing 18-67 gallons of
water, only 31'33 gallons of the water, instead of
fifty, have been applied; the sugar, without reducing
properties, making up the bulk of one hundred gallons,
which is meant to represent fifty per cent. U.P.
133
ALCOHOL ALCOIIOLOMETRY.
The alcoholometer will only show at the full point of thirty-five U.P. the specific gravity of alcohol at that
ebullition the alcoholic strength in relation to the water strength will be found to be 0-956 ; deduct 0'956 from
in one
hundred gallons of the mixture, or thirty-five the specific gravity of the bulk,
or 1-076,
and
120 will
per cent, u
.p., leaving fifteen per cent, to be accounted remain; refer that to its amount in the head line of
for in the bulk.
As the quantity of sugar present must Table II., namely, 120, under which will be
found 3,
be determined before that
per centage can
be arrived representing three pounds of sugar to the gallon ; and
at, a double object will be effected by so doing, namely, by running the eye down its column to opposite the
eliciting in
all
instances the quantity of sugar present, alcoholic strength indicated thirty-five
U.P. will be
as well as the per centa
ge of spirit to be accounted for; found 14*9, representing the water displaced by the
as an example, suppose
the
specific gravity of a cordial sugar, and which amount added to 35 per cent, ascer-
is 1 - 076, then submit the
liquid to the boiling point, tained, makes
the total upon the bulk 49 '9 per cent.
and having ascertained the per centage of alcohol U.P., with three pounds of sugar to the gallon.
TABLE I.
Table of specific gravities by Sykes 1 hydrometer, adapted to Field's patent alcoholometer for cordialized spirits.
Temperature, 80". Specific gravity of water, 1-000.
60
70
80
00
100
110 120
ISO
110 150
ICO
170
180
Wt
3.G.
Wt.
S.O.
Wt
8. G.
Wt,
8. O.
Wt
8. G. ^
Vt.
8. G. Wt
8. G.
Wt.
8. G. 1
Vt.
8. G. Wt
8. G.
\Vt.
8. O.
Wt
8. G.
Wt.
8. G.
60
J22
70
942
*
961
90
981
100
1000 1
10
1020 120
1041
130 ]
063 1
-10
1085 150
1107
100
1129
170
1152
180
1175
1
J24
1
943
l
963
1
983
1
1002
1
1022 1
1044
1 ]
065
1
1087 1
1109
1
1131
1
1155
1
1178
2
320
2
945
9
965
8
985
2
L004
2
1024 2
1046
2 ]
067
2
1089 2
1111
s
1134
2
1157
2
1180
3
J28
1
947
a
967
8
987
3
L006
3
1026 3
1048
3 ]
069
8
1091 3
1113
8
1136
3
1159
3
1182
4
J30
4
949
4
969
4
989
4
1008
4
1029 4
1050
4 ]
071
4
1093 4
1116
4
1139
4
1162
4
1185
5
J32
5
951
6
971
5
991
5
L010
5
1031 5
1052
5 ]
074
6
1096 5
1118
5
1141
5
1164
5
1187
6
J31
6
953
6
973
6
993
6
L012
(>
1033 6
1054
6 1
076
G
1098 6
1120
6
1143
6
1166
6
1189
7
J3G
7
955
7
975
7
995
7
1014
7
1035 7
1056
7 1
078
7
1100 7
1123
7
1145
7
1168
7
1191
8
J38
8
957
&
977
8
997
8
1016
8
1037 8
1058
8 ]
080
8
1102 8
1125
8
1148
8
1171
8
1194
9
J40
B
959
9
979
9
999
9
L018
9
1039 9
1061
9 ]
082
9
1104 9
1127
9
1150
9
1173
9 1196
70
J42
80
961
'JO
981
100
1000
110
L020 1
20
1041 130
1063
140 ]
.085 1
50
1107 160
1129
170
1152
180
1175
190 1199
TABLE II.
Table showing the Ibs. of sugar per gallon in cordialized spirits, with the per centages to be added to the indicated
strength,
per the alcoholometer.
Difference of gravity.
10
4 oz.
15
r, oz.
20
Soz.
25
in,,/,.
30
12 oz.
35
H oz
40
45
60
Difference of gravity.
Lbs. of sugar per gallon.
or 26
to UW
87 fr
toluO
50
to UK)
02*
to 100.
7
to 100
87*
to 100
1-0
oz.
El
oz.
1-i
Lbs. of sugar per gallon.
8p. Krav.
of spirit
Per cent of
spirit
Farce
nt ofspiri
8p. grav. of spirit
920
Proof."
1-6
2-5
3-4
4-4
5-3
6-2
7-1
8-1
9-0
Proof."
920
923
2-5
1-6
2-5
3-3
4-3
5-2
6-1
6-9
7-8
8-8
2-5
923
926
6-
1-5
2-4
3-2
4-2
5-0
5-9
6-8
7-7
8-6
5-
926
929
7-5
1-5
2-3
3-2
4-1
4-9
5-8
6-6
7-5
8-4
7-5
929
932
10-
1-4
2-2
3-1
4-0
4-8
5-7
6-5
7-4
8-2
10-
932
935
12-5
1-4
2-2
3-1
3-9
4-7
5-5
6-3
7-2
8-0
12-5
935
938
15-
1-4
2-1
3-0
3-8
4-6
5-4
6-2
7-0
7-8
15-
938
940
17-5
1-3
2-1
2-9
3-7
4-5
5-3
6-0
6-8
7-6
17-5
940
943
20-
1-3
2-0
2-8
3-6
4-4
5-2
5-9
6-7
7-5
20-
943
945
22-5
1-3
2-0
2-7
3-5
4-3
5-0
5-7
6-5
7-3
22-5
945
948
25-
1-2
1-9
2-6
3-4
4-1
4-8
5-5
6-3
7-0
25-
948
950
27-5
1-2
1-9
2-5
3-3
4-0
4-7
5-3
6-1
6-8
27-5
950
952
30-
1-1
1-8
2-4
3-1
3-8
4-5
5-1
5-8
6-5
30-
952
954
32-5
1-1
1-7
2-3
3-0
3-6
4-3
4-8
5-5
6-2
32-5
954
956
35-
1-0
1-6
2-2
2-9
3-5
4-1
4-6
5-3
6-0
35-
956
958
37-5
1-0
1-6
2-1
2-8
3-4
3-9
4-4
5-1
5-8
37-5
958
960
40-
9
1-5
2-0
2-7
3-2
3-8
4-3
4-9
5-5
40-
960
962
42-5
9
1-5
2-0
2-6
3-1
3-6
4-1
4-7
5-3
42-5
962
964
45-
9
1-4
1
9
2-5
3-0
3-5
4-0
4-6
5-1
45-
964
965
47-5
8
1-4
1-9
2-4
2-9
3-4
3-9
4-4
4-9
47-5
965
967
50-
8
1-3
1-8
2-3
2-8
3-3
3-8
4-3
4-8
50-
967
969
52-5
7
1-2
1-7
2-2
2-6
3-1
3-6
4-1
4-5
52-5
969
970
55-
7
1-2
1-6
2-0
2-4
2-9
3-4
3-8
4-2
55-
970
972
57-5
6
1-1
1-5
1-9
2-2
2-7
3-1
3-5
3-9
57-5
972
973
60-
6
1-0
1-4
1-8
2-1
2-5
2-9
3-3
3-6
60'
973
974
62-5
6
1-0
1-3
1-7
2-0
2-4
2-7
3-1
3-5
62-5
974
976
65-
5
9
1-2
1-5
1-8
2-2
2-5
2-8
3-1
65-
976
977
67-5
5
8
1
1
1-4
1-7
2-0
2-3
2-6
2-9
67-5
977
979
70-
4
7
1
1-3
1-5
1-8
2-1
2-4
2-6
70-
979
980
72-5
4
7
9
1-1
1-3
1-6
1-9
2-1
2-3
72-5
980
982
75-
3
6
8
1-0
1-2
1-4
1-6
1-8
2-0
75-
982
983
77-5
3
5
7
9
1-0
1-2
1-4
1
6
1-8
77-5
983
984
80-
2
4
6
8
9
1-0
1-2
1-4
1-6
80-
984
986
82-5
2
3
5
7
8
9
1-0
1-2
1-4
82-5
986
9
8
85-
2
2
4
6
7
8
9
1-0
1-2
85-
988
990
87-5
1
2
3
5
6
7
8
9
1-0
87-5
990
992
90-
1
1
2
4
5
6
7
8
9
90-
992
994
92-5
. .
1
2
-3
4
5
6
7
8
92-5
994
996
95-
, .
B ^
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
95-
996
998
97-5
..
.
1
2
3
4
5
6
97-5
998
ALCOHOL ALCOHOLOMETRY. 139
Table I., which shows the specific gravity on the bulk
bath. By this treatment the specific gravity of the alco-
of the mixture, bears reference to the table following it
hol was reduced to 0'796, or even below, and by a repeti-
Table II. of the alcoholometer.
tion of the process of digestion with powdered lime, and
In estimating the density of various gins and cordials,
redistillation, the last traces of water were removed. In
suppose the specific gravity of the liquid is found to be
this manner, without difficulty, the very considerable
957, and by the boiling point it proves to be 14 U.P.,
quantity of absolute alcohol required for the experiments
whose specific gravity is '937 ; when this is deducted
was procured. Absolute alcohol thus obtained, has
from the former -957 the remainder is 20, under
the specific gravity '7938 at 60 Fahr. ; it is extremely
which, in Table II. will be found J, or one-half pound
expansible by heat, which renders the determination of
of sugar to the gallon ; and, on observing the opposite
its exact specific gravity difficult and troublesome when
14 U.P., 3 g O will be found, which, added to 14, makes
the temperature of the room is either above or below
the total on the bulk 17 per cent. U.P., with fifty pounds
60. The same remark applies to the mixtures of
of sugar to the hundred gallons.
alcohol and water extending over more than half the
Care must be taken that the mercury is entirely in
table, the most minute precautions regarding tempera-
the bulb of the thermometer before it is fixed to the
ture being necessary to avoid serious errors. In a glass
stem for operation ; and the salt must be added in ah 1
retort containing pieces of copper foil, absolute alcohol
cases when determining the boiling point, except for
boils at 177 Fahr., the barometer standing at 29'75
water.
inches. Lastly, when analyzed by combustion with
The instrument is highly advantageous by proving
oxide of copper, it yields numbers representing the pro-
the relative quantity of fruit or saccharum, and alcohol,
portion of carbon and hydrogen present, so closely
requisite to constitute the normal wine of each species.
agreeing with those required by theory as to leave no
Some beers possess the remarkable power of causing
doubt of its purity and freedom from ah 1 admixture.
drowsiness and stupor, without a corresponding previous
exhilaration, and on this account may be justly sus-
TABLE OF THE PROPORTION BY WEIGHT
pected of having been sophisticated with cocculus indicus,
opium, or some analogous drug; and this suspicion may
Of real or absolute alcohol contained in 100 parts of spirits of
different specific gravities, at the temperature of 60 Fahr.
become certainty if they be shown by the alcoholometer
Specific
Per centage
Specific
Per centage
Specific
Per centage
to contain only a few per cent, of fermented spirit.
gravity.
ot alcohol.
gravity.
of alcohol.
gravity.
ofolco ol.
Ure.
9991
0-5
9511
34
8769
68
FOWNES'S paper on the value, in absolute alcohol, of
9981
9965
1
2
9490
9470
35
36
8745
8721
69
70
spirits of different specific gravities, is ingenious and
9947
3
9452
37
8696
71
valuable ; the leading features of it are therefore quoted.
9930
.QQ14.
4
K
9434
9416
38
39
8672 -
8649
72
73
The table was formed synthetically; absolute alcohol
99&V
9898
if
6
9396
40
8625
74
and distilled water were weighed out in the required
9884
7
9376
41
8603
75
proportions, mixed in small closely-stopped bottles, and
9869
9855
8
9
9356
9335
42
43
8581
8557
76
77
well shaken together. After standing three or four
9841
10
9314
44
8533
78
days, the mixtures were brought to the temperature of
9828
11
9292
45
An
8508
,O J OO
79
ftft
60 Fahr. exactly, and their specific gravities deter-
9815
9802
12
13
9270
9249
46
47
o^loO
8459
oU
81
mined with great care. When two or three days more
9789
14
9228
48
8434
82
had elapsed, this last-named operation was repeated,
9778
Q7ftfi
15
1fi
9206
9184
49
50
8408
8382
83
84
but in no case was it observed that any further con-
*/ * DO
9753
u
17
9160
51
8357
85
traction had occurred. Neither was the specific gravity
9741
18
9135
52
8331
86
0*7
of a mixture, containing nearly equal parts alcohol and
9728
Q71fl
19
on
9113
9090
53
54
8305
8279
87
88
water, which had been so examined, changed by being
. M M>
9704
V
21
9069
55
8254
89
enclosed in a strong accurately-stoppered bottle, and
9691
22
9047
56
fn
8228
Q1 QQ
90
01
heated for some time to a temperature above its boiling
9678
9665
23
24
9025
9001
07
58
oiuu
8172
Ml
92
point.
9652
25
8979
59
8145
93
In this manner, every alternate number in the table
9638
9623
26
27
8956
8932
60
61
8118
8089
94
95
every even number was obtained by direct experi-
9609
28
8908
62
8061
96
ment; the others were then incorporated. When com-
9593
29
8886
63
8031
97
QQ
pleted, the table was examined by various methods
9578
AfCA/l
30
Q1
8863
S840
64
65
8001
7969
yo
99
calculated to test its accuracy, but no error of sufficient
yoou
9544
Ol
32
OCVtv
8816
66
7938
100
magnitude to limit its usefulness was detected.
9528
33
8793
67
The absolute alcohol employed in these experiments,
was prepared in the following manner: The strongest
rectified spirit was agitated with half its weight of car-
bonate of potassa, deprived of water of crystallization,
and left in contact with it for some days. It was then
decanted upon half its weight of powdered quicklime,
made from black marble, contained in a metal still,
which could be perfectly closed. The mixture of spirit
and lime was retained in a warm situation for a week
or thereabouts, and then distilled by means of a water-
The contraction of volume suffered by various mix-
tures of alcohol and water, may be rendered obvious by
comparing the actual specific gravities of such mixtures,
with their calculated mean densities. In the accom-
panying engraving, in which the vertical lines represent
the per centage of alcohol by weight, and the hori-
zontal lines the specific gravities, the calculated mean
specific gravities of the mixtures are seen to form a
straight diagonal line from corner to corner, while tho
140
ALCOHO]
-ALCOHOLOMETRY.
actual densities form an irregular curve with upward
convexity, rising quickly to near its maximum devia-
tion at 30 per cent., running almost parallel with the
other line to 50 per cent., and thence declining until it
reaches the extremity of the scale.
SILBERMANN'S observations on a new instrument
Fig. 84.
COMPARISON OF MEAN AND ACTUAL SPECIFIC GRAVITIES OF VARIOUS MIXTURES OF ALCOHOL AND WATER.
1000-
10
100
for ascertaining, by the amount of dilatation, the re-
lative quantities of two liquids when mixed, and par-
ticularly mixtures of alcohol and water, are well worth
transcribing. He states that various means have been
suggested and employed for ascertaining the respective
quantities of alcohol and water in mixtures of those
liquids; but these are all found to possess many dis-
advantages. The distillation process is rarely em-
ployed on account of the great skill required in its
application, and the length of time the operation de-
mands before the results are arrived at. This method,
at best, is only applied where accurate and scientific
truth is required, irrespective of delay and toil. The
density test is open to error on account of sirupy and
other extractive matters being present, which would
render the specific gravity of the impregnated liquid
higher than that of alcohol, and thus prevent the true
amount of spirit from being determined with strict
accuracy ; hence the Excise duty is, in consequence,
evaded. Wines, tested by the density process, only
indicate about one-half their strong; and for this
reason GAY-LUSSAC combines, with tie use of his
alcoholometric areometer, the distillation test.
The boiling test of Field's hydrometer is likewise
open to objections ; for it is a known fact that steam, or
vapor, may be heated beyond its point of generation,
and that the thermometer, even when immersed in the
liquid, may, under certain circumstances, stand several
degrees above the real temperature, which would give
rise to a difference in result of four alcoholometric
degrees for every such extra indication. Besides,
it is necessary to take the barometric variations into
account in some better way than has hitherto been
done. SILBERMANN'S arrangement is said to obviate
the evils attendant on those methods hitherto em-
ployed, and is based upon the dilatation of the alco-
holic liquid. It is well known that between zero and
100 C. 212 Fahr. of temperature, the dilatation of
alcohol is triple that of water. This is much greater
between 25 and 50 C. 45 and 90 Fahr. and may
thus be demonstrated: Pour water at 45 Fahr. into
a thermometer tube, so as to fill the reservoir, and a
small portion of the tube up to a certain mark ; then,
on heating the thermometer to 90 Fahr. the water
will rise a certain distance above the mark, and let this
point be scratched on the tube ; now, if the same quan-
tity of pure alcohol, also at 45 Fahr., be substituted
for the water, and heated to the temperature of 90,
it will be found to have risen three and a half times
higher than the water. Any mixture of alcohol and
water, on being treated in the same way, will be found
to have a mean point of dilatation between these two,
and will be nearer the one or the other, according as
either liquid preponderates in the mixture. If, there-
ALCOH01
-ALCOHOLOMETRY.
141
fore, a series of mixtures of alcohol and water be made,
beginning with
Water 100 parts, Alcohol parts j
do. 99 " do. 1 "
do. 98 " do. 2 "
and so on up to pure alcohol; and their several points
of elevation at the respective temperatures, 45 and
90 Fahr., be carefully marked on the tube, a com-
plete centesimal alcoholometric scale will be produced,
which will indicate the quantity of alcohol contained
in any mixture of alcohol and water, by introducing it
at 45 and heating it to 90 Fahr.
The same process may be employed with regard to
any other two liquids having points of dilatation differ-
ing between those of alcohol and water ; but it will be
understood that the same scale will not serve for more
than one mixture. To adapt this principle to the ordi-
nary purposes of alcoholometric measurement, SILBER-
MANN constructed a thermometer in a peculiar manner,
thereby forming an instrument which he named a dila-
tometer, a view of which is presented to the reader in
Fig. 85. The instrument is made by Messrs. CASAR-
TELLJ, of Liverpool and Manchester, who kindly fur-
nished the drawing.
The form and arrangement of this apparatus are as
follow: A large bulb tube, A, of the form of a hydro-
meter, but tapering at the bottom and open at the top,
is fixed to a metal plate, to which a thermometer, c, is
also attached. The thermometer is graduated from
25 to 50 C. 45 to 90 F. this being the working
temperature of the dilatometer. Both the thermometer,
and bulb of the apparatus, A, are immersed in the
liquor to be tested ; the former, to show the tempera-
ture, and the latter, to ascertain the expansion of the
liquid when it is heated from 25 to 50 C. The ex-
pansion of distilled water between the extreme degrees
of the thermometer, is marked on the stem of A by the
figures 25 and 50 ; from the latter, the scale of degrees
from 1 to 100 appended to the stem of the apparatus
commences, and by it, the expansion of the alcoholic
liquors is ascertained, when such liquors are heated
from 25 to 50. A valve of cork, or india-rubber, closes
the tapering end of A; this valve is attached to a rod,
6 6, fastened to the supporting plate and connected to
a spring, B. To cause the liquid under examination to
flow, the spring valve is depressed by turning a screw
of four threads, for the purpose of giving a quick
motion, fitting in the upper part of the rod, and by
reversing the motion of the screw the thermometer
is closed; sometimes the rod may be made to termi-
nate in a flattened end or cap, as the figure repre-
sents, and is moved by pressing it with the finger. ^ As
the liquids are often impregnated with air or gas, it is
found necessary, before testing, to drive it off; the
best method of effecting this is by means of a vacuum
which may be produced by the use of a small leather
piston, E, working in the tube of the thermometer
This piston serves first, by suction, to fill the thermo-
meter from below ; and then, the lower part bein~
closed, and the piston driven down, on raising it the
air will be seen to separate from the liquid at all points -
and after two or three more strokes of the piston th<
liquid may be completely purified, so that no more
iubbles will rise during the operation to disturb the
)roper level of the column. To effect the withdrawal
of the piston without any shock, so as not to divide the
column abruptly, the piston-rod is made hollow through-
iut; the operator, having wetted his finger, applies it to
the top of the piston-rod, in order to create a vacuum
\s he draws up the piston ; he then withdraws it to re-
admit the air, and the piston is thus removed without
a shock.
In order to form the vacuum properly, the liquic
must be pumped in, until it rises to the piston-rod; on
depressing the piston there is no air left underneath it.
142
ALCOHOI
-ALCOHOLOMETRY.
The tube is now full of liquid, and by depressing the
spring valve the liquid is run off, until it is as high as
the lowest mark on the tube, when the temperature has
been for two or three minutes at the lowest degree of
the mercury thermometer. The inventor proposed this
method to overcome the inconveniences to which those
in general use are liable, and also as admitting of being
applied to test wines as well as alcoholic liquors of any
strength.
The method is based upon the principle of dilatation,
and any salts or vegetal substances entering into the
composition of, or otherwise present in wines or alcoholic
liquors, do not materially affect the result, as ah 1 solu-
tions expand in the same degree as water within the
range of temperature which has been chosen. There
is no occasion to fear the presence of any liquid more
dilatable than alcohol, as liquids of such a nature are
more expensive, and may, besides, be detected by their
peculiar taste and smell. The same reasoning is also
applicable to liquids less dilatable than water. The
initial temperature, 25 C. 45 F. was selected, be-
cause water may always be found below that tempera-
ture in summer. The final degree, 50 C. 90 F.
was chosen to avoid the effect of evaporation, which
might diminish the actual degree if it approached too
near the boiling point; and the range between this and
25 C. 45 F. -was found sufficient. Besides, these
two points offer great facilities for the experiment, as,
if it be conducted in a vessel containing about a quart
of water, a small spirit lamp underneath it will be suffi-
cient to maintain either the one or the other. The
plate carrying the thermometers serves to agitate the
water, that its temperature may be uniform throughout.
In Pennsylvania, Dicas 1 Liverpool patent hydro-
meter is adopted by Act, 15th of April, 1835, for the
inspection of domestic distilled liquors. It is made of
copper, with a stem pointed on the summit to receive
brass poises, and is accompanied by a graduated ivory
scale, with a sliding rule and thermometer to make
corrections for temperature. By this instrument the
strength of the spirit is indicated, as with Sykes' hy-
drometer, by a certain number above or below proof.
The Act determines .the standard of proof spirits to
be as follows: If the liquor be hydrometer proof, or
one hundred parts of spirit and one hundred parts of
water, it shall be marked as liquor of the fourth proof;
if it should be 5 below hydrometer proof, it shall be
marked as of the third proof ; if the liquor shall be 10
below hydrometer proof, it shall be marked as of the
second proof; if the liquor shall be 15 below hydro-
meter proof, it shall be marked a of the first proof.
Booth.
The proof spirit, which is, according to the preceding,
composed of equal parts of alcohol and water, possesses
a specific gravity, according to URE, of 0-9218 at 60
Fahr., and is centesimally composed of 55'76 of alcohol,
and 44-24 of water by volume, or, by weight, of 48*03
of alcohol, and 51 '97 of water.
The alcoholometer of TRALLES is used in Russia,
those of CARTIERS and GAY-LUSSAC in France all
of which determine the per centage by volume of alco-
hol in a liquid, and by means of the calculation which
is given in the foregoing, the per centage by weight is
obtained. Having the per centage of alcohol by weight
in a liquid, the quantity of water is likewise found by
deducting the amount of alcohol from a hundred ; but
if the content of alcohol be determined per volume,
this rule will not answer, since, on mixing alcohol and
water, a contraction in volume takes place. Thus, if
to fifty volumes of alcohol, fifty of water be added, the
mixture will not make up a hundred volumes. In the
distillation of spirit it is often necessary to reduce
stronger alcoholic liquors to lower degrees of strength ;
and unless the amount of contraction be known, con-
siderable labour will be attendant on bringing the mix-
ture to the desired quality. The following table shows
the relative volumes of alcohol and water which, when
mixed, make up a hundred.
100 Volumes of spirit contain nt 69.
UK) Volumes of spirit contain at 59".
Volume of alcohol.
Volume of water.
Volume of nlcohol.
Volume ot water.
100
o-oo
45
58-64
95
6-18
40
63-44
90
11-94
35
68-14
85
17-47
30
72-72
80
22-87
25
77-24
75
28-19
20
81-72
70
33-14
15
86-20
65
38-615
10
90-72
60
43-73
5
95-31
55
48-77
100-00
50
53-745
The annexed table of GAY-LussAC is more extensive
on the subject, and shows the volume of water per cent,
which is to be added to a liquor, of whatever strength,
to bring it to any degree of dilution.
In this table the top horizontal column indicates the
per centage by volume of the spirit which is required
to be produced. The vertical columns under the top
line specify the number of volumes of water which are
to be added to a thousand volumes of alcohol, the
richness of which is pointed out in the vertical column
at the left-hand side of the table, in order to obtain the
spirit properly diluted.
As illustrations facilitate the comprehension of the
student in every problem, it may be well to follow the
rule in this instance, and give a few examples taken
from the table, in order that its application throughout
may be more effectually understood. If it be required
to prepare an alcohol of fifty per cent, from a liquor
which is eighty per cent., the number, fifty, is sought
in the top horizontal line of strengths, and in the verti-
cal line under this figure the number six hundred and
thirty-one is found in a horizontal line with eighty in
the left hand vertical column ; this figure indicates the
number of volumes of water which are to be added to
a thousand volumes of alcohol of eighty per cent, to
bring it to the required degree of dilution.
Again, if it be requisite to bring a spirit of sixty per
cent, to thirty per cent., the latter figure is found in the
horizontal column at the top, and in the vertical column
under it, in a line with sixty on the left hand, one
thousand and seventeen is seen, which is the number of
measures of water indispensable to reduce a thousand
volumes of the strong liquor to the strength of thirty
per cent.
ALCOHOL ALCOIIOLOMETRY. - 143
TABLE OF GAY-LUSSAO FOR PROCURING A WEAKER ALCOHOL OF A CERTAIN STRENGTH
FROM A STRONGER.
1000
Desired strength of the spirit
vola. of
alcohol
Per cent by volume.
cent by
vol.
SO
31
32
33
31
ss
36
37
38
39
40
11
13
is
11
u
M
17
18
10
31
33
32
67
32
33
100
65
31
34
134
97
63
30
35
167
129
94
61
30
36
201
162
126
91
59
29
37
234
194
157
122
89
58
28
38
268
227
189
153
119
86
56
27
39
302
260
220
183
148
115
84
55
27
40
335
292
252
214
178
144
112
82
53
26
41
369
325
284
245
208
173
140
109
80
52
25
42
403
358
315
275
238
202
169
137
107
78
51
25
43
437
390
347
306
268
231
197
134
134
104
76
50
24
44
471
423
379
337
298
261
225
192
160
130
102
75
49
24
45
505
456
411
368
328
290
254
220
187
157
127
99
73
47
23
46
539
489
443
399
358
319
282
247
214
183
153
124
97
71
46
23
47
573
522
474
430
388
348
310
275
241
209
179
149
122
95
70
46
22
48
607
555
506
461
418
377
339
303
268
235
204
174
146
119
93
68
45
22
49
641
588
538
492
448
407
367
330
295
262
230
200
171
143
116
91
67
44
21
50
675
621
570
523
478
436
396
358
322
288
256
225
195
167
140
114
89
66
43
21
51
709
654
602
554
508
465
424
386
349
314
281
250
220
191
163
137
112
87
64
42
52
743
687
634
585
539
495
453
414
376
341
307
275
244
215
187
160
134
110
86
63
53
777
720
666
616
569
524
482
. 442
403
367
333
300
269
239
210
183
157
132
107
84
54
55
811
846
753
786
699
731
647
679
599
629
553
583
510
539
469
497
431
458
394
420
359
385
325
350
293
318
263
287
234
257
206
229
179
202
153
176
129
151
105
127
56
57
58
59
60
880
914
949
983
1017
820
853
886
919
953
763
795
827
860
892
700
741
772
804
835
660
690
721
751
781
613
642
672
701
731
568
596
625
654
683
525
553
581
609
637
485
512
540
567
594
447
473
500
527
553
411
436
462
488
514
376
401
426
452
477
343
367
392
417
442
311
335
359
384
408
281
305
328
352
375
252
275
298
321
345
224
247
269
292
315
198
220
242
264
286
172
194
216
237
259
148
169
190
212
233
61
62
63
64
65
1052
1086
1121
1155
1190
986
1019
1053
1086
1120
924
957
989
1022
1054
867
898
929
961
992
812
842
873
904
934
760
790
820
850
879
711
740
769
798
827
665
694
722
750
778
622
649
676
704
731
580
607
633
660
687
540
566
593
619
645
503
528
554
579
605
467
491
516
541
566
432
456
481
505
529
399
423
447
471
494
368
391
414
438
461
338
360
383
406
429
309
331
353
376
398
281
303
325
346
368
254
276
297
318
340
66
67
68
69
70
1224
1259
1293
1328
1363
1153
1187
1220
1254
1287
1086
1119
1151
1184
1216
1024
1055
1087
1118
1150
965
995
1026
1056
1087
909
939
969
998
1028
856
885
914
943
972
806
834
863
891
919
759
786
814
841
869
714
741
767
794
821
671
697
723
750
776
630
656
681
707
732
591
616
641
666
691
554
578
603
627
652
518
542
566
590
614
484
508
531
554
578
451
474
497
520
543
420
443
465
487
510
390
412
434
456
478
361
383
404
426
447
71
72
73
74
75
1397
1432
1467
1502
1536
1321
1354
1388
1422
1456
1249
1282
1314
1347
1380
1182
1213
1245
1277
1309
1118
1149
1180
1211
1241
1058
1088
1118
1148
1178
1001
1030
1060
1089
1118
948
977
1005
1033
1061
897
924
952
980
1008
848
875
902
929
956
802
828
855
881
908
758
784
810
835
861
716
741
767
792
817
676
701
725
750
775
638
662
686
710
734
601
625
648
672
695
566
589
612
635
658
532
555
578
600
623
500
522
544
567
589
469
491
512
534
556
76
77
78
79
80
1571
1606
1641
1676
1711
1489
1523
1557
1591
1625
1413
1445
1478
1511
1544
1340
1372
1404
1436
1468
1272
1303
1334
1365
1396
1208
1238
1268
1299
1329
1147
1177
1206
1235
1265
1089
1118
1147
1175
1204
1035
1063
1091
1119
1147
983
1011
1038
1065
1092
934
961
987
1014
1040
887
913
939
965
991
842
867
893
918
943
799
824
849
873
898
758
782
807
831
855
719
743
766
790
813
681
705
728
751
774
645
668
691
713
736
611
633
655
678
700
578
599
621
643
665
81
82
83
84
85
1746
1781
1816
1851
1886
1658
1692
1726
1760
1794
1577
1610
1643
1676
1709
1500
1532
1564
1596
1628
1427
1458
1489
1521
1552
1359
1389
1419
1450
1480
1294
1323
1353
1382
1412
1233
1261
1290
1319
1348
1175
1203
1231
1259
1287
1119
1147
1174
1201
1229
1067
1093
1120
1147
1173
1017
1043
1069
1095
1121
969
994
1020
1045
1071
923
948
973
998
1023
879
904
928
952
977
837
861
885
909
933
797
821
844
867
891
759
782
805
828
851
722
745
767
789
812
687
709
731
753
775
86
87
88
89
90
1921
1956
1992
2027
2062
1828
1863
1897
1931
1966
1742
1775
1808
1841
1875
1660
1692
1724
1757
1789
1583
1614
1645
1677
1708
1510
1541
1571
1602
1633
1442
1471
1501
1531
1561
1376
1405
1434
1463
1492
1315
1343
1371
1400
1428
1256
1284
1311
1339
1367
1200
1227
1254
1281
1308
1147
1173
1200
1226
1252
1096
1122
1147
1173
1199
1048
1073
1098
1123
1148
1001
1026
1050
1075
1100
957
981
1005
1029
1053
914
938
961
985
1009
874
897
920
943
966
834
857
880
902
925
797
819
841
863
886
144
ALCOHOL ALCOHOLOMETRY.
Table of Gay-Lussac for procuring a weaker alcohol of a certain strength from a stronger. Continued.
1000
Desired strength of the spirit
alcohol
of per
Percen
t by volume.
cent
by vol.
1
62
63
64
66
6
67
68
9
60
61
62
63
64
G5
66
07
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
51
21
52
41
20
53
62
41
20
54
83
61
40
19
55
103
81
60
39
19
56
124
102
80
59
38
19
57
145
122
100
78
58
38
19
58
166
142
120
99
77
57
37
18
59
187
163
140
118
96
76
56
37
13
60
208
183
160
137
116
95
74
55
36
18
61
229
204
180
157
135
114
93
73
54
35
17
62
250
225
200
177
155
133
112
92
72
53
35
17
63
271
245
221
197
174
152
131
110
90
71
52
34
17
64
292
266
241
217
194
171
150
128
109
89
70
52
34
17
65
313
286
261
237
213
190
Io8
147
127
107
88
69
51
33
16
66
334
307
281
256
233
209
187
166
145
125
105
86
68
50
33
16
67
355
328
301
276
252
229
206
184
163
143
123
104
85
67
49
32
16
68
376
348
322
296
272
248
225
203
181
160
140
121
102
84
66
49
32
16
69
397
369
342
316
291
267
244
221
200
178
158
138
119
101
82
65
48
32
16
70
418
390
362
336
311
286
263
240
218
196
176
156
136
117
99
81
64
47
31
15
71
439
411
383
356
331
306
282
259
236
214
193
173
153
134
116
98
80
63
47
31
15
72
460
431
403
376
350
325
301
277
255
232
211
191
171
151
132
114
97
79
63
46
30
15
73
482
452
424
396
370
344
320
296
273
251
229
208
188
168
149
131
113
95
78
62
46
30
15
74
503
473
444
416
390
364
339
315
291
269
247
226
205
185
166
147
129
111
94
77
61
45
30
15
75
524
494
465
437
409
383
358
333
310
287
265
243
222
202
183
164
145
127
110
93
76
60
45
29
14
76
546
515
485
457
429
403
377
352
328
305
283
261
240
219
199
180
162
143
126
109
92
75
60
44
29
77
567
536
506
477
449 422
396
371
347
323
300
278
257
236
216
197
178
159
142
124
107
91
75
59
44
78
588
557
527
497
469 442
415
390
365
341
318
296
274
253
233
213
194
176
157
140
123
106
90
74
58
79
610
578
547
517
489 461
434
409
384
360
336
314
292
271
250
230
211
192
173
155
138
121
105
88
73
80
631
599
568
538
509
481
454
428
402
378
354
331
309
288
267
247
227
208
189
171
153
136
120
103
87
81
653
620
588
558
529
500
473
447
421
396
372
349
327
305
284
263
243
224
205
187
169
152
135
118
102
82
074
641
609
578
549
520
492
465
440
415
390
367
344
322
301
280
260
240
221
203
184
167
150
133
117
83
696
662
630
599
569
540
512
485
458
433
409
385
362
339
318
297
276
256
237
218
200
182
165
148
131
84
717
683
651
619
589
559
531
504
477
451
427
403
379
357
335
313
293
273
253
234
216
198
180
163
146
85
739
705
671
640
609
579
550
523
496
470
445
421
397
374
352
330
309
289
269
250
231
213
195
178
161
86
761
726
692
660
629
599
570
542
515
488
463
438
415
391
369
347
326
305
285
266
247
229
211
193
176
87
782
747
713
681
649
619
589
561
534
507
481
456
432
409
386
364
343
322
302
282
263
244
226
208
191
88
804
769
734
701
669
639
609
580
553
526
500
474
450
426
403
381
359
338
318
298
279
260
241
223
206
89
826
790
755
722
690
659
629
600
572
544
518
493
468
444
421
398
376
355
334
314
295
275
257
239
221
90
848
812
777
743
710
679
648
619
591
563
537
511
486
462
438
415
393
372
351
331
311
291
273
254
236
Table of Gay-Lussac for procuring a weaker alcohol of a certain
strength from a stronger. Concluded.
The tables for determining the per centage of alcohol,
as given in the preceding pages, cannot all be con-
1000
Desired strength of the spirit
sulted when ascertaining the quantity of spirit in a
vols. of
alcohol
Per cent by volume.
liquid, and from this fact they might be looked upon
oi' per
cent
as unnecessary; they serve, however, to give a clear
by vol.
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83 6
4 85
H
a
88
B'J
view of the composition of alcoholic liquors of different
76
14
states of dilution, and under the influence of various
77
29
14
degrees of temperature and pressure, enabling the dili-
78
79
43
57
28
43
14
28
14
gent student to draw up tables of great accuracy and
80
72
57
42
28
14
of less extent, for reference on all ordinary occasions.
This arrangement has been already effected, as in
81
82
86
101
71
85
56
70
42
56
27
41
14
27
1<
i
Sykes' and many other tables. From what has been
83
116
100
85
70
55
41
SK
' 13
said upon the properties of alcohol at the beginning of
84
85
130
145
114
129
99
113
84
98
69
83
55
68
4i
fc
) 27
t 40
13
26 1
3
the subject, in relation to its real specific gravity, as
determined by DRINKWATER, it will be observed that
86
159
143
127
L12
97
82
6!
! 54
402
6 13
none of the enumerated tables are strictly correct,
87
88
89
174
189
204
158
172
187
142
156
171
L26 3
L40 3
L55 3
11
25
39
96
110
124
81
9,
105
67
i 81
) 94
533
66 E
806
9 26
339
6 52
13
21;
39
K
2(
13
since the density of absolute alcohol to which all the
other densities bear a proportionate analogy stated in
90
219
202
185
L69 3
53
138
12!
! 108
947
9 66
[>'2
31
26
13
them, is considerally higher than that assigned to it by
the forementioned chemist.
ALCOHOl
-ADULTERATIONS.
145
Hence the necessity of constructing new tables, cor-
responding to the density of absolute alcohol, as found
by recent experiments, becomes urgent.
The annexed is a contraction of the foregoing table
of GAY LUSSAC, showing the dilution per cent, in re-
ducing liquors to a lower strength. The upper horizon-
tal column contains the per cent, of the stronger alcohol,
and the vertical columns below, the bulk of water which
is to be added to 100 volumes of it, to produce spirit
of the quality indicated in the left-hand column.
Desired strength iu
percent
100 vols. of alcohol of per cent by vol.
90
85
a>
75
70
tt
00
H
85
6-56
80
13-79
6-83
75
21-89
14-48
7-20
70
31-05
23-14
15-35
7-64
65
41-53
33-03
24-66
16-37
8-15
60
53-65
44-48
35-44
26-47
17-58
8-76
55
67-87
57-90
48-07
38-32
28-63
19-02
9-47
50
84-71
73-90
63-04
52-43
41-73
31-25
20-47
1035
45
105-34
93-30
81-38
69-54
57-78
46-09
34-46
22-90
11-41
40
130-80
117-34
104-01
90-76
77-58
64-48
51-43
38-46
25-55
35
163-28
148-01
132-88
117-82
102-84
87-93
73-08
58-31
43-59
30
206-22
188-57
171-05
153-61
136-04
118-94
101-71
84-54
67-45
25
266-12
245-15
224-30
203-53
182-83
162-21
141-65
121-16
100-73
20
355-80
329-84
304-01
278-26
252-58
226-98
201-43
175-96
150-55
15
505-27
471-00
436-85
402-81
368-83
334-91
301-07
267-29
233-64
10
804-54
753-65
702-89
652-21
601-60
551-06
500-59
450-19
399-85
Adulterations ofSpiritous Liquors and their detection.
The sophistication of alcoholic liquors has been prac-
tised to give to many solutions containing very little
spirit, the appearance and some of the physical pro-
perties which would be conferred by alcohol ; and adul-
terations have also been practised with a view, as it
were, of veiling the quantity of spirit.
Such proceedings are invariably the result of dishonest
trade ; though, of the two evils, the former is the viler
in its tendency. The counterfeiting of strong alcoholic
liquors apparently as weaker spirit, or passing them
off as quite a different liquid, was fostered in the wine-
growing countries of the continent, where large quanti-
ties of brandy were manufactured; and before the pro-
per means of detection were at command, the strongest
brandy was often sold to the merchants disguised as ordi-
nary wine, or a much weaker spirit, and by this means the
Octroi duties were eluded. The imposition had long been
practised after the introduction of various hydrometric
or alcoholometric scales for the determination of the
amount of alcohol in spiritous liquors ; for, as most of
these were on the principle of the gravity test, advan-
tage was taken by adding various substances which
would heighten the density, and make it appear that
the spirit was much more aqueous than it really was.
In other instances the spirit was passed upon the Excise
as quite a different article, sometimes as a deodorising
agent, while at other times it was made to assume the
character of wood naphtha. Expedients such as these
have been countenanced in this country; and in the large
towns where much alcoholic liquor is consumed, the
contrary vice of vending drinks to the public which
are said to be alcoholic, but in reality contain little or
no spirit, is frequently practised among some of the
liqueur fabricators, who add supervacaneous substances,
making an olla podrida. To defraud the Excise, sugar,
or other extractive matter is added to the spirit, to in-
crease the specific gravity, and sometimes wood-spirit,
turpentine, pyroligneous acid, chlorine water, or other
bodies possessing a strong odor, are added to the liquor,
and in this case it is represented as not being alcoholic.
VOL. I.
The detection of these frauds is, for the most part,
easy and expeditious. In case sugar, extractive matter,
pyroligneous acid, turpentine, et cetera, are suspected,
it is only necessary to distil a portion of the liquid,
and determine the density of the distillate by the
hydrometer, or specific gravity bottle, and on referring
to the corresponding gravity in either of the tables
already given, under alcoholometry, the corresponding
value of alcohol is found. When a liquor is disguised
as wood naphtha, it is more difficult to determine the
amount of alcohol ; distillation, as in the forementioned
instance, is ineffectual, for the naphtha passes over at
even a lower degree of heat than the alcohol. The
following is the method recommended by Dr. URE for
the detection of alcohol in wood or coal naphtha, or
pyroligneous acid :
A small quantity of nitric acid of specific gravity
1-45, is first to be added to the spirit under examination,
and if alcohol be present, it will immediately produce
an effervescence of nitrous ether gas, which may be
recognized as such by its odor. The mixture is then
treated with a solution of mercury in nitric acid
which is prepared by dissolving one hundred grains
of mercury in one fluid ounce of this acid, wilh
the help of heat. Soon after this addition, and espe-
cially on raising the temperature, the mixture be-
gins to effervesce and to evolve thick ethereal vapors ;
should the effervescence become too violent, it must be
quelled by immediately withdrawing the fire, and cool-
ing the vessel. A yellowish grey precipitate falls down,
which is fulminate of mercury, and which should be
immediately separated by decanting or filtering the
liquor from it, washing the precipitate on the filter
with a little distilled water, and carefully drying it
at a heat which must not exceed 100 Fahr. ; after
which it is weighed. The quantity of fulminate of
mercury obtained is nearly equal to that of the alcohol
contained in the wood-spirit ; and at any rate, the
formation of the detonating salt is quite characteristic
of the presence of alcohol, since wood-spirit treated
by nitric acid in the presence of mercury or silver,
T
146
ALCOH01
-ADULTERATIONS.
produces neither fulminate of silver nor fulminate of
mercury.
In applying this test, the greatest care should be
exercised, and every precaution taken to prevent con-
tact of any hard body with the precipitate, since the
fulminates of silver and mercury, and especially the
former, are so very explosive; the fulminate of silver
has been known to explode by contact with a glass rod,
even under water ; the fulminate of mercury is less ex-
plosive, and on that account is preferred. For the
purpose of collecting these compounds, the feather of a
quill should be used; and if the quantity is at all con-
siderable, that is, if it exceeds a few grams, it should
be collected in several filters so as to handle only small
portions at a time. During the evolution of the ethereal
vapors before alluded to, all approach of flame should
be carefully avoided.
The same chemist gives the following as the principal
tests whereby to discern alcohol from wood naphtha,
and also whether the latter is genuine or mixed with
alcohol :
1st. The boiling point of pure wood naphtha spirit
is at least 20 Fahr. below that of alcohol of the same
density, and it exhales the characteristic, pungent, and
offensive odor of aldehyde. In the course of his ex-
periments he found the boiling point of
Wood-spirit, of specific gravity, *870, to be 144 Falir.
Alcohol, of like gravity, 180
Wood-spirit, of specific gravity, -832, 140 ,,
Alcohol, of the same density, 171-1
If ten per cent, of naphtha be mixed with alcohol, the
boiling point is lowered at least 6 Fahr.
2nd. When rectified naphtha is distilled at the tem-
perature of boiling water from a large quantity of lime,
the distillate is unchanged in its gravity, whilst if alco-
hol, or a mixture of alcohol and naphtha, be subjected to
the same treatment, the first portions that come over
are nearly absolute, and stand at a density below -800,
and contain, at 60 Fahr., about seventy per cent, over
proof. The reason of this characteristic difference
seems to be that naphtha possesses a stronger affinity
for water than alcohol.
3rd. When water is added to alcohol, the specific
gravity of the liquor becomes reduced in a less pro-
portion than when wood-spirit of the same gravity as
the alcohol is diluted with the same quantity of water.
Thus, for example, if alcohol of a given density is
diluted with a certain quantity of water, so as to bring
it to specific gravity 0'920, wood-spirit of the same
original gravity, and diluted with the same quantity of
water, will become of specific gravity 0'926 or 0'927.
Dr. URE says that caustic potassa in powder is the
most delicate test for the detection of wood-spirit in
alcohol; for if wood-spirit is present the liquor assumes
then a brown color, whilst pulverized potassa does not
alter the color of pure alcohol, even after several hours,
and it is only after a whole day's contact that a feeble
yellowish tinge is then developed. But if the alcohol
contains only two per cent., or even one per cent, of
wood-spirit, it turns yellowish in the course of ten
minutes, and brown in half an hour.
On the other hand, where brandies, gins, and other
alcoholic liquors are artificially made by admixture
of various ingredients with alcohol, as is directed under
these heads, it is not uncommon to find that the alco-
hol, in such compounded articles, is attenuated as low
as possible, and that the agreeableness of taste, and the
pungency of flavor peculiar to the genuine beverages,
are conferred by means of pepper, cayenne, or other
acrid substances. These sophistications are discovered
by evaporating a known quantity of the liquid to dry-
ness at a gentle heat ; the impure matters remain, and
may be recognised by their flavor.
Various alcoholometers have been lately constructed
for the purpose of ascertaining the content of alcohol,
irrespective of the density. The first instrument of this
description was constructed, as already stated, by M.
BROSSARD-VIDAL, and was improved by CONATY.
URE'S modification of this instrument, which is given
at page 136, determines the amount of alcohol from
the boiling point ; and more recently, SILBERMANN, to
obviate the discrepancies attendant upon other methods,
constructed his dilatometer, which has been likewise
described. These instruments .determine the amount
of alcohol, without referring to the foreign bodies which
may have been present in the liquor.
Acetates of copper and lead are rarely detected in
brandies, owing to the repeated distillations to which
the spirit is subjected, but where the old stills are em-
ployed, the solder connecting the seams of the still is
dissolved by the small quantity of acetic acid present
in the liquors ; it has h'kewise been known that acetate
of lead sugar of lead has been added to facilitate
the clarifying process. Liquors thus treated may prove
extremely pernicious, since acetate of lead is highly
poisonous. By filtering the brandy through animal
charcoal, and adding sulphuric acid to the clear liquor,
if the lead has been present in excess, a white preci-
pitate appears ; if there is no precipitate,, a stream of
sulphide of hydrogen is to be transmitted through the
liquid, and if any lead is present, a black precipitate, or
coloration is produced. Should a white precipitate
be obtained by the action of sulphuric acid, or sulphate
of soda, on the brandy, it is turned black by the addi-
tion of sulphide of ammonium, and if the precipitate
should be bulky it may be mixed with a little car-
bonate of soda, and reduced on charcoal before the
blowpipe to a globule of metal.
Copper may be detected by filtering a portion of
the brandy through animal charcoal, to decolorize it;
ammonia is then to be added to the clear liquor, to
which it will impart a blue tinge, if copper be present,
at least in sufficient quantity. Several hours are some-
times requisite to determine this appearance. The
presence of copper may also be detected by immersing
a blade of perfectly clean iron in the brandy, and leav-
ing it there for a few hours, when it will be found
coated with a film of metallic copper. The brandy,
first decolorized by animal charcoal, may also be tested
for copper by a solution of ferrocyanide of potassium,
which will produce a reddish brown precipitate with
this metal.
STATISTICS OP THE SPIRIT TRADE OP GREAT
BRITAIN AND IRELAND, FROM THE PARLIAMENTARY
REPORTS OP THE INLAND REVENUE. Without re-
curring to the period when the English distiller had
ALCOHOL STATISTICS.
147
to pay a duty of eleven shillings and eightpence farthing
on every gallon of spirits distilled, or to the time that
the Scotch distiller had to contend with a revenue rental
of one hundred and sixty-two pounds sterling upon every
gallon capacity of his still, it may be interesting to give
a brief statement of the extent of the spirit trade, and
the amount of revenue which through this channel flows
into the Exchequer. Every English distiller has now
to pay a licence duty of ten guineas before he can law-
fully conduct operations, and afterwards a duty of eight
shillings per imperial gallon of spirits, proof strength,
which he produces.
The Scotch and Irish distillers have to pay the same
licence fee as the English, and in addition to this the
Scotch distiller, like the English, pays a duty of eight
shillings per imperial gallon of proof strength, being an
increase of four shillings and fourpence per gallon above
what was paid by the Scotch distiller previous to the
1st of April, 1853 ; the Irish manufacturer also pays a
duty of six shillings and twopence per gallon, proof
strength. Eegarding the spirit imported from Guern-
sey, Jersey, Alderney, and Sark, into England, Scot-
land, and Ireland, the Government enjoins that a
countervailing duty of nine shillings be paid upon every
gallon of proof strength, and of the quality of plain
British spirit, that enters England or Scotland ; and of
seven shillings and twopence per proof gallon upon
what is brought into Ireland.
By an Act passed in 1855, the duties on spirits in
England and Scotland are equalized ; and the counter-
vailing duty on spirit imported from Ireland into Eng-
land or Scotland was regulated as follows :
Articles enumerated.
For every gallon thereof removed.
Counten
liom
Englanc
ailing Duties
Ireland
to
or Scotland.
Ether
&
s. d.
4 7
Lavender water, and other perfumes,
being spirits scented with essential
oils, flowers, and other ingredients, . . .
2 9
Tinctures of asafoetida, castor, kino,
Other tinctures and medicated spirits,
1 10
2|
An important feature in the Act of 1853 was the
redress of a grievance under which the distiller labored,
from being required to pay the full amount of duty on
bonded spirit, without any allowance being made^ for
the waste by evaporation. When liquors remained
for a long time in store, this loss amounted to some-
thing considerable, and for which the owner had to
pay the same duty as for the original quantity of
spirit. A drawback of a quarter of a gallon is ^ now
allowed for every hundred gallons of spirit remaining
in bond for seven days ; and for longer periods, as
follows :
For a period over 7 days, and under 14 days, A a gallon.
14
1 month,
2
3 "
6 "
9 "
1 month,
2
3
6
9
12
Above tliis time an additional allowance of three-fourths
of a gallon is made for every six months, or multiple
thereof up to five years, during which the above quan-
tity of spirit may be warehoused.
The number of distillers and rectifiers hi the United
Kingdom, during the series of years, from 1846 to
1854, both inclusive, is shown in the following
table :
Tear ending 8th Jan. England. Scotland. Ireland.
1846
1847
1848
1849
1850
1851
1852
1853
1851
94
93
90
86
86
85
88
89
174
176
169
164
160
159
149
145
100
93
96
87
88
80
72
71
Total.
377
367
355
337
340
324
309
305
The licence duty for these distilleries during the
same period, hi
England.
1846, 987
1847, .976 10
1848,
1849,
1850,
1851,
1852,
1853,
1854,
.945
.892 10
.903
.903
.892 10
.924
.934 10
Scotland.
1921 10
. . 1900 10
. . 1837 10
. . 1827
. . 1753 10
. . 1743
. . 1669 10
. . 1564 10
. . 1522 10
Ireland.
1050
976 10
1008
934 10
913 10
924
840
756
745 10
Total.
3958 10
3853 10
3790 10
3654
3570
3570
3402
3244 10
3202 10
The revenue arising from home-made spirits in the
preceding years :
1846,
1847,
1849J
1850,
1851,
1852,
1853,..
1854,..
England.
3,595,315
3,293,589
3,546,023
3,654,842
3,758,185
3,846,404
. 4,053,870
. 4,265,097
Scotland.
1,278,766
1,135,428
1,200,501
1,271,417
1,305,880
1,252,296
1,314,869
1,433,400
1,806,934
Ireland.
1,060,276
804,984
943,057
929,777
987,744
1,006,735
1,094,434
. 1,273,151
. 1,588,745
5,934,359
.. 5,234,003
.. 5,517,084
.. 5,747,218
.. 5,948,467
.. 6,017,218
.. 6,255,708
.. 6,760,421
.. 7,660,776
In comparing the ndications of the preceding three
tables, it will be observed from the first that the total
number of distillers and rectifiers in the United King-
dom, which, in 1846, amounted to three hundred and
seventy-seven, was only three hundred and five in
1854, exhibiting therefore a decrease of seventy-three
equivalent to nineteen per cent. during nine years.
In Ireland, the decrease was twenty-nine per cent., in
Scotland sixteen per cent., and in England only five
per cent. At the same time it appears from the last
table, that while the number of the rectifiers and dis-
tillers was diminishing to that amount, the total revenue
derived from home-made spirits during the same period
was steadily increasing, showing that while the estab-
lishments were being reduced in number, they were
greatly extending in magnitude.
Exclusive of rectifiers, the number of distillers
licensed in 1855-56, in the three kingdoms, was as
follows : England, 11; Scotland, 134; Ireland, 39.
.
148 ALCOHOL STATISTICS.
The following table exhibits a return of the quantity
1800 to 1854, both inclusive, distinguishing the quanti-
of spirit distilled, and the quantity charged with duty
ties so distilled and consumed in England, Scotland,
for home consumption in the United Kingdom, from
and Ireland respectively :
Number of imperial gallons of spirit distilled In
Number of imperial gallons of spirit charged with duty for
Years.
England.
Scotland.
Ireland.
United Kingdom.
England.
Scotland.
Ireland.
United Kingdom.
1800
4,352,788
1,277,696
f There are no records from which")
J nn account for this period can V
4,352,888
1,277,596
1,330,500
6,960,984
1801
2,478,289
295,931
J be furnished. j
2,555,920
295,931
355,106
3,206,957
1802
3,384,742
1,344,835
4,475,458
9,205,035
3,981,072
1,158,558
4,715,098
9,854,728
1803
4,184,034
2,247,000
4,795,109
11,226,143
5,370,377
2,022,409
4,343,095
11,735,881
1804
2,586,586
2,478,003
4,205,830
9,270,419
3,690,745
1,889,757
3,543,599
9,124,101
1805
2,869,520
2,617,508
4,611,734
10,098,762
4,932,645
1,625,987
3,686,233
10,244,865
1806
2,425,007
2,788,274
4,059,914
9,273,195
4,094,985
1,812,237
3,858,107
9,765,329
1807
3,581,043
3,397,204
5,305,632
12,283,879
4,747,365
2,653,478
5,597,204
12,998,047
1808
3,847,127
3,589,435
4,524,475
11,961,037
5,390,884
2,683,342
3,575,430
11,649,656
1809
3,307,039
2,610,512
1,288,758
7,206,309
4,035,825
1,315,135
1,360,386
6,711,346 *
1810
3,898,966
2,171,513
4,301,026
10,371,505
4,787,555
1,748,140
4,728,522
11,264,217
1811
4,116,833
2,859,861
6,187,779
13,164,473
4,776,330
1,951,092
6,378,479
13,105,901
1812
3,938,793
3,001,677
4,053,600
10,994,070
5,242,470
1,687,905
4,009,301
10,939,676
1813
3,859,095
1,842,817
3,595,030
9,296,942
4,292,477
1,234,291
3,158,693
8,685,461
1814
3,670,714
2,988,323
5,947,658
12,606,695
4,959,965
1,474,187
5,393,713
11,824,865
1815
3,402,489
3,024,430
4,468,106
10,895,025
5,468,987
1,591,148
4,323,844
11,383,979
1816
3,486,478
2,145,366
4,562,286
10,194,130
4,745,484
918,859
3,557,200
9,221,543
J817
2,907,732
3,060,499
2,692,182
8,660,413
4,133,063
1,906,950
3,586,932
9,626,945
1818
3,782,512
3,062,820
4,474,777
11,320,109
5,259,662
2,066,988
4,284,347
11,610,997
1819
2,815,716
3,547,199
3,879,216
10,242,131
4,146,505
2,125,150
3,676,516
9,948,171
1820
2,866,684
3,278,129
4,607,296
10,752,109
4,284,798
1,863,987
3,299,650
9,448,435
1821
2,662,852
3,216,858
3,627,552
9,507,262
4,125,616
2,385,495
3,311,462
9,822,573
1822
3,181,026
3,337,850
4,135,045
10,653,921
4,694,055
2,225,124
2,910,483
9,829,662
1823
2,134,913
3,083,515
2,844,677
8,063,105
3,803,312
2,303,286
3,590,376
9,696,974
1824
2,894,309
5,908,373
6,361,248
15,163,930
4,392,611
4,350,301
6,690,315
15,433,227
1825
2,039,771
8,224,807
8,835,027
19,099,605
3,684,049
5,981,549
9,262,744
18,928,342
1826
3,209,044
8,563,994
9,046,959
20,819,997
7,407,204
3,988,788
6,834,867
18,230,859
1827
3,451,620
7,243,819
7,283,317
17,978,756
6,671,562
4,752,199
8,260,664
19,684,425
1828
3,974,785
10,117,047
9,725,259
23,817,091
7,759,687
5,716,180
9,937,903
23,413,770
1829
3,860,542
9,649,070
9,208,538
22,718,150
7,700,766
5,777,280
9,212,224
22,690,270
1830
4,656,443
9,883,413
8,694,742
23,234,598
7,732,101
6,007,631
9,004,539
22,744,271
1831
3,444,792
9,510,268
8,786,341
21,741,401
7,434,047
5,700,689
8,710,672
21,845,408
1832
3,788,068
7,979,088
9,260,920
21,028,076
7,281,900
5,407,097
8,657,756
21,346,753
1833
4,591,223
9,146,889
9,509,774
23,247,886
7,717,303
5,988,556
8,168,596
21,874,455
1834
4,652,838
9,193,091
9,370,343
23,216,272
7,644,301
6,045,043
9,708,416
23,397,760
1835
4,327,425
9,133,449
11,167,580
24,628,454
7,315,053
6,013,932
11,381,223
24,710,208
1836
5,088,340
10,222,650
11,894,169
27,205,159
7,875,702
6,620,826
12,248,772
26,745,300
1837
4,614,196
9,012,485
10,980,910
24,607,591
7,133,869
6,124,035
11,235,635
24,493,539
1838
5,776,411
9,047,199
11,064,820
25,888,430
'7,930,490
6,259,711
12,296,342
26,486,543
1839
5,685,698
9,871,653
10,254,591
25,811,942
8,186,552
6,188,582
10,815,709
25,190,843
1840
5,918,435
8,821,530
7,281,429
22,021,394
8,278,148
6,180,138
7,401,051
21,859,337
1841
5,919,207
8,504,333
6,359,124
20,782,664
8,166,985
5,989,905
6,485,443
20,642,333
1842
6,008,456
7,658,985
5,315,090
18,982,531
7,956,054
5,595,186
5,290,650
18,841,890
1843
5,800,509
7,650,272
5,550,706
19,001,487
7,724,051
5,593,798
5,546,483
18,864,332
1844
5,433,843
8,321,306
6,878,243
20,633,392
8,234,440
5,922,948
6,451,137
20,608,525
1845
5,866,593
9,418,663
8,397,459
23,682,715
9,076,381
6,441,011
7,605,196
23,122,588
1846
5,624,868
9,735,303
8,658,879
24,019,050
9,179,530
6,975,091
7,952,076
24,106,697
1847
5,356,794
8,542,219
5,737,687
19,636,700
8,409,165
6,193,249
6,037,383
20,639,797
1848
5,503,238
9,600,321
8,126,507
23,230,066
8,581,327
6,548,190
7,072,933
22,202,450
1849
5,573,411
10,846,634
8,355,083
24,775,128
9,053,676
6,935,003
6,973,333
22,962,012
1850
5,913,424
11,638,429
8,293,034
25,844,887
9,331,512
7,122,987
7,408,086
23,862,f.85
1851
6,127,181
10,380,972
8,035,504
24,543,657
9,595,368
6,830,710
7,550,518
23,976,596
1852
6,363,276
9,942,218
8,117,708
24,423,202
9,820,608
7,172,015
8,208,256
25,200,879
1853
7,308,670
10,359,926
8,772,961
26,441,557
10,350,307
6,534,648
8,136,362
25,001,317
1854
6,831,664
9,862,318
8,259,930
25,003,912
10,889,611
6,553,239
8,440,734 25,883,584
It will be observed by consulting the foregoing table,
the business was at that time chiefly conducted by
based upon parliamentary returns, that the spirit dis-
smugglers or illicit distillers.
tilled in England in the early part of this century, was
Selecting, as an average example, the year 1852, the
equal to that of Ireland, and greater than the total pro-
following are the relative proportions of spirit extracted
duce of Scotland. Coming down to later years, how-
from the different ingredients used:
ever, a very remarkable difference is apparent between
the quantities afforded by the three nations, particularly
England. Scotland. Ireland.
gallons. gallons. gallons.
as regards Scotland and England, for in 1850 there
From malt only, .... 5,276,266 .... 10,056
was nearly double the number of gallons distilled in
the former, as in the latter country. It is obvious that
From a mixture of malt ) 5 155 069- . . . 2 363 2 59. . . .7,841,915
with unmalted grain, j '
From a mixture of sugar)
this apparent anomaly is to be attributed to the
and molasses with un- ^ 1,208,207 2,295,901 265,737
i .-I . Cli.1,1 /3T1/1 4-Vrt /i-T/\\fin v/\
lact, unit in ocouanu ano. ireiano. me revenue re-
turns embraced but a small proportion of the spirit
From
actually distilled in 1800, and few succeeding years, as
6,363,276 9,942,218 8,117,708
ALUM. 149
Spirit made in Scotland from malt only is entitled to
)ecially in Ireland, have been subject to great fluctua-
an abatement of sevenpence-halfpenny per gallon, and
ions.
5 per cent, when exported, used as ship stores, or when
It is calculated that, in addition to 24,000,000 gallons
removed to a warehouse in England or Ireland. A
of home-made spirit annually consumed in the United
like drawback is allowed to distillers in England and
Ongdom, there are 4,000,000 gallons of brandy, rum,
Ireland, provided they work under the same regulations
and geneva. In the year ending January 5, 1853, the
as Scotch distillers, and when they warehouse specifi-
[uantity of British spirit exported was 323,719 gallons,
cally for exportation, or for ships' stores.
of which 161,532 were sent to British colonies and pos-
To complete the statistics of the spirit trade, it only
essions, and 162.187 gallons to foreign countries. Of
remains to annex a return of the quantity of foreign
he British possessions, the smallest customer was the
and colonial spirits of all sorts entered for home con-
sland of Mauritius, which only took 5 gallons. The
sumption in the United Kingdom, in each year, from
argest quantity was taken by the Australian settle-
1800 to 1854, both inclusive; distinguishing, in this
ments, videlicet, 125,667 gallons. Of foreign countries,
case also, the quantities consumed in England, Scot-
Russia, Sweden, Denmark, Prussia, Holland, Belgium,
land, and Ireland respectively.
France, Portugal, and Morocco, took each less than
1 OO O"Q 11 t\n Q T 1 Vi A "Frvr AI cm "VAT Ast 1 Tn rl i PS 51 TA tli A Vi Acf
Number of imperial gallons, including over-proof, of foreign and
colonial spirits entered for home consumption in
LW cicLlAUJUQ. J- Ll\j lUlOigll VT CDL ill U. ICQ dlU LUC UCOu
customers, taking 156,360 gallons. It is very probable
j_i j. * j. i *n i_ Ai_ i_ ~i. i A. f
Years.
England.
Scotland.
Ireland.
United Kingdom.
that Australia will soon become the best market for
lome-made spirit.
1800
1801
1802
3,641,684
3,595,063
4,187,687
354,010
634,559
824,320
1,034,823
1,364,261
729,635
5,030,517
5,593,883
5,741,642
In conclusion, the Editor must express his satisfaction
at the equalization of the duties on spirits, as regards
1803
4,677,921
577,703
296,259
5,551,883
England and Scotland a step which was not only wise
1804
1805
1806
2,817,OU
3,283,811
3,789,704
155,296
225,376
289,589
202,879
148,724
183,483
3,175,189
3,657,911
4,262,776
in itself, as tending to assimilate still further the condi-
tion of the two countries, but likewise by removing an
1807
3,704,665
355,354
228,589
4,288,608
inducement to the practice of smuggling, which, although
1808
1809
1810
4,357,886
3,200,917
4,421,249
355,025
325,876
401,408
378,359
1,132,816
358,741
5,091,270
4,659,609
5,181,398
sometimes regarded with leniency, is most demoralizing
in its tendency, and ought to be universally reprobated.
1811
3,766,977
353,163
154,547
4,274,687
ALUM. A lun, French ; Alaun, German; Alumen,
1812
1813
1814
3,380,996
3,278,766
3,948,581
298,451
246,808
313,994
291,415
474,489
104,392
3,970,862
4,000,063
4,366,967
Latin. Alum-works existed many centuries ago at
Eoha, or Koccha, in Mesopotamia, whence the old
1815
3,759,409
322,606
74,439
4,156,454
name of Koch alum is applied to this salt. This is the
1816
1817
1818
2,950,113
2,883,443
3,017,535
218,329
233,682
237,519
28,123
36,734
30,630
3,196,565
3,153,859
3,285,684
opinion of LEIBNITZ, who states that alumen roccce
was that kind first procured from Rocca, and that the
1819
1820
1821
3,242,207
3,241,898
3,135,915
186,886
174,764
172,790
35,939
29,798
29,010
3,465,032
3,446,460
3,337,715
name was subsequently given to every good species of
alum. A few are of opinion that alum obtained from
1822
3,155,465
166,618
25,260
3,347,343
alum-stone has been so called to distinguish it from
1823
1824
1825
3,354,022
3,675,816
3,329,289
142,859
182,696
161,306
43,457
10,805
14,678
3,540,338
3,869,317
3,505,273
the alum from schists schist was employed for making
alum in the time of AGEICOLA which usually contains
1826
5,480,283
337,597
37,210
5,855,090
more iron than the former; and others assert that alum
1827
1828
4,401,373
4,390,007
227,970
233,838
32,419
34,487
4,661,762
4,658,332
acquired the name rocca, from the aluminous rocks of
1829
4,477,214
195,689
31,636
4,704,539
Tolfa.
1830
4,770,541
175,486
29,701
4,975,728
At a later date, alum was manufactured near Smyr-
1831
1832
1833
4,697,882
4,932,337
4,664,785
165,446
181,262
171,053
29,467
57,845
44,150
4,892,795
5,171,444
4,879,988
na, and in the fifteenth century there were alum fac-
tories in the vicinity of Constantinople, where JOHN
1834
4,554,086
155,917
55,346
4,765,349
DI CASTKO learned his art, as will be hereafter noticed.
1835
1836
1837
4,571,580
4,425,543
4,264,146
146,178
146,785
120,940
47,948
44,692
39,379
4,765,706
4,617,020
4,424,465
The inhabitants of Genoa, and other commercial
people of Italy, imported alum from the above places
1838
4,205,742
124,544
37,939
4,368,225
into Western Europe for the use of the dyers of red
1839
1840
1841
3,877,374
3,526,199
3,344,922
115,243
91,358
88,814
32,800
26,853
30,338
4,025,417
3,644,410
3,464,074
cloth. The stypteria of DIOSCORIDES and the alumen
of PLINY included, apparently, a variety of saline mat-
1842
1843
1844
1845
3,099,542
3,061,699
3,134,350
3,431,614
71,927
71,820
78,142
84,478
29,546
28,438
30,114
33,797
3,201,015
3,161,957
3,242,606
3,549,889
ters, of which sulphate of iron green vitriol as well
as alumina, was probably a constituent part. From
the researches of Professor BECKMANN, it appears that
1846
4,087,608
114,678
43,044
4,245,330
A ill r' ft^iQ
alum was discovered by the Asiatics; but at what
1847
1848
1849
4,237,406
4,103,156
4,644,811
455,441
322,543
368,638
210,206
209,664
255,476
4,yuo,uoo
4,635,363
5,268,925
period, or by what means the discovery was made,
is altogether unknown. This salt affords a striking
1850
1851
1852
4,302,513
4,320,946
4,389,414
289,200
260,184
265,447
213,463
202,498
211,397
4,805,176
4,783,628
4,866,258
instance of how readily one may be deceived in giving
names without proper examination. Alum, as now
1853
4,670,051
260,880
211,685
5,142,616
made, adds BECKMANN, was certainly not known t(
1854
4,699,862
255,580
172,701
5,128,143
the Greeks or the Romans ; and what the latter calle
It will be observed that there is little variation
in the total amount for the three kingdoms, but tha
the quantities consumed in Scotland, and more es
alumen, was green vitriol sulphate of iron not, how-
ever, pure, but such as forms in mines. To those who
know how deficient the ancients were in the knowledge
150
ALUM NATURAL.
of salts, and of mineralogy in general, this assertion
will appear highly probable. PEREIRA remarks that
GEBER, who is supposed to have lived in the eighth
century, was conversant with alum, and described the
method of burning it; and it is probable that even
PLINY was acquainted with it. It would seem, how-
ever, that he confounded alum with sulphate of iron,
or a very impure compound, for, when speaking of some
substance resembling plumose alum, he says it gave
with the juice of the pomegranate a black color, at once
a proof that the sulphate of iron was not separated from
it. Alum and green vitriol are salts having some re-
semblance; they contain the same acid sulphuric
have strong styptic properties ; and are not only found
collaterally, but frequently form efflorescences on the
same minerals.
Name.
Potassa alum,
Soda alum,
Lithia alum,
Ammonia alum,
Manganous-magnesia alum, .
Ferrous alum,
Ferric-potassa alum,
Ferric-ammonia alum,
Manganic alum,
Chromic alum,
It thus appears that the term alum is applied scienti-
fically and collectively to a great number of double
salts, composed of very different proximate elements,
arranged, however, in the same manner; that alums are
sometimes formed, in which the acid is sulphuric
SO S ; in other varieties chromic Cr0 8 ; some con-
taining potassa K ; others soda Na 0, and others
again oxide of ammonium N H 4 0; and as the second
base, either sesquioxide of iron Fe 2 8 , sesquioxide of
aluminum A1 2 8 , or sesquioxide of chromium Cr 2 8 .
These different bases and acids possess the power of
replacing each other in variable proportions, or several
of them may take part in the formation of one and the
same crystal of alum, but in every case the alum will
contain twenty-four equivalents of water.
Mangano-magnesian alum, and ferrous alum, are not
of the regular crystalline form of the others, and, there-
fore, are not to be viewed as true alums, though their
analogous composition to the other alums is the reason
why they have been classed here. The name alum is
applied, conformably with the preceding feature of the
class, to all compound salts whose formula is K 0, S 8
-f R 2 8 3 S 8 + 24 aq., the letter K being indicative
of any metal.
Alum, like saltpetre and carbonate of soda, occurs
By alum is universally understood a double sulphate
of alumina and potassa, which was the first known and
used in the arts ; modem science has discovered, how-
ever, that this compound does not exclusively engross the
term, but that the latter is equally applicable to a series
of bodies in which either the sesquisulphate of alumina,
or sulphate of potassa, or both, are replaced by other
sulphates of similar atomic composition. Notwithstand-
ing that the whole mineral portion of the double salt is
changed, yet every one of the class assumes the same
crystalline form, and is associated with the same num-
ber of atoms of crystalline water. To this peculiarity
of different bodies assuming the same external ap-
pearance when their atomic constitution is analogous,
the term isomorphism has been applied. These alums
are
Formula.
K 0, S 3 + A1 2 3 , 3 S 3 -f 24 aq.
Na 0, S 3 + A1 2 3 , 3 S O 8 -}- 24 aq.
LiO, S0 3 -f- A1 2 8 , 3S0 3 -f 24 aq.
N H 4 0, S 8 -f A1 2 8 , 3 S 8 + 24 aq.
-Kg o} HO ' SO * + A1 2 8 , 3 S 3 + 24 aq.
Fe 0, S 8 -f A1 2 3 , 3 S 3 + 24 aq.
K 0, S 0. -f Fe 2 3 , 3 S 8 + 24 aq.
NH 4 0, S0 3 + Fe 2 8 , 3 S 8 + 24 aq.
K 0, S 8 4- Mn 2 3 ,3 S 8 + 24 aq.
K 0, S 8 + Cr 2 8 , 3 S 3 + 24 aq.
native, as an effloresced salt in volcanic districts, in the
form of a white floccular covering, produced by the
action of sulphuric acid vapors upon lava and trachyte
substances containing alumina and potassa in a
similar manner to that by which artificial alum is ob-
tained. In this form it occurs in Auvergne, in the
South of France, in Sicily, and the volcanic islands on
its Northern coast, but more particularly in the neigh-
borhood of Naples, in the Grotta di Alume on Capo
Miseno and in the Solfatara.
The effloresced salt is collected in these localities,
dissolved in water, and allowed to deposit the insoluble
matters by standing. The clear solution affords on
evaporation an impure alum, which is re-crystallized,
and brought into commerce as a very pure product.
No fuel is used for the evaporation but the natural
volcanic heat of the soil, rising to 104 Fahr., in which
the leaden pans are embedded. Native alum forms,
however, a very small portion of that which is con-
sumed in Europe. Dr. DIEFFENBACH, in his account of
a voyage to New Zealand, makes mention of a remark-
able lake, the water of which contained alum in solu-
tion.
The following is the composition of some of these
natural alums :
Constituents.
From Rio
Saldanha, Andes.
Soda alum from South America.
Ammonia alum from Tschennig.
Thomson.
Thornton.
Gruner.
Pfaff.
Lampadius.
Stromeyer.
Sulphuric acid,
35-872
14-645
2-262
0-100
0-500
46-375
37-7
12-4
7-5
42-4
33-682
10-750
3-619
51-000
36-00
12-14
0-20
6-58
45-00
38-58
12-34
4-12
44-96
36-065
11-602
0-115
3-721
48-390
Alumina,
Soda,
Lime,
Sesquioxide of iron,
Ammonia,
Water,
99-754
100-0
99-051
99-92
100-00
99-893
1
ALUM HISTORY.
151
MANGANESE AND MAGNESIA ALUMS.
Sulphuric acid, ,
Alumina, ,
Magnesia,
Protoxide of manganese,
Protoxide of iron,
Lime,
Sulphate of magnesia,. .
Chloride of potassium,..
Hydrochloric acid,....
Water,
Algoa Bay,
South Africa.
Apjohn.
32-79
10-65
7-33
1-08
48-15
100-00
BoBJesnmn's River,
South Africa.
Stromcyer.
36-770
11-515
3-690
2-617
0-205
45-739
100-536
Iqulque,
South America.
Hayes.
36-332
12-130
4-682
- 0-430
0-126
0-604
45-450
99-754
Drs. RICHARDSON and RONALDS consider the alums
analysed by APJOHN and STROMEYEK, identical; they
cannot be looked upon as chemical compounds, as no
two analyses agree, and in situ they are much mixed
with efflorescent salts. The manganese alum is used
by the natives for dressing skins.
In the following table is a number of analyses of various
specimens of iron alum ferrous alum of the formula
FeO SO S , Al a 3 3 S 0,. + 24 aq. above mentioned
found in different localities. These kinds of natural alums
are more abundant in coal mines, where iron pyrites
and shale are superposed on the coals, and are often very
regularly and beautifully crystallized. They are not,
indeed, sufficiently pure to agree exactly with the fore-
going formula, some of them containing potash, soda,
magnesia, sand, or one or more of these substances, but
still it will be seen from the table that then: character-
istic composition is nearly expressed by it:
IRON ALUMS.
Unknown.
Hurlct
Morsfeld.
Iceland.
PUZ!
uoli.
Berthier.
Phillips.
Bammelsberg.
Forchhammer.
Dufuroy.
Alicu.
Horlet
Sulphuric acid,
34-4
30-9
36-025
35-16
45-67
48-32
35-950
Protoxide of iron,
12-0
20-7
9-367
4-57
28-09
11-60
1-23
17-65
. . 18-236
Alumina,
8-8
5-2
10-914
11-22
3-27
2-20
Potash,
0-434
5-47
4-04
Soda,
0-25
Magnesia,
0-8
0-235
2-19
Sand,
0-46
Impurities ... 3-500
Water,
44-0
43-2
43-025
45-63
15-77
15-94
38-661
100-0
100-0
100-000
100-00
99-33
100-00
100-000
From what has already been stated, it will be seen
that alums, of whatever elements they may be composed,
are not merely a combination of sulphuric acid and
alumina A1 2 O 3 3 S 3 but have in addition another
sulphate, either of potassa, soda, or ammonia. The
alum of this country usually contains potassa; that of
France, ammonia, or potassa and ammonia hence
the name potassa-alum, ammonia-alum, soda- alum.
The Greeks or Romans mention no other than natural
alum ; but alum is rarely produced spontaneously in the
earth, and many most accurate mineralogists deny even
the existence of native alum. Although it is not found
in abundance, still there can be no question as to its
occasional occurrence as an efflorescence of stones,
and in certain mineral waters. Crystals of real alum
are occasionally formed in minerals abounding in an
eminent degree with aluminous particles, when they
have been exposed a sufficient time to the air and rain;
but even then they are so small, and so much scattered,
that it requires a good lens and an expert observer to
discover them. Basic alum exists native in a stone
near Civita Vecchia, which consists of
Sulphate of potassa, 19-72
Sulphate of alumina-basic, 61-99
Water, 18-29
100-00
This mineral, when treated with a sufficient quantity of
sulphuric acid dissolves, and is converted into the crys-
tallizable alum of commerce.
The true composition of alum has not long been under-
stood. VAUQUELIN and CHAPTAL appear to have been
the first chemists who ascertained, by decisive experi-
ments, that alum was composed of sulphuric acid, alu-
mina, and potassa, ammonia, or soda, united.
The celebrity acquired by alum among the ancients,
as a substance extremely useful in dyeing and medi-
cine, was entirely forgotten at the time the alum of the
moderns became known ; but it was again revived
when it was discovered that real alum could be ex-
tracted from minerals containing sulphur compounds, or
that where the latter are found there are generally
minerals abounding with it. In many of these places,
alum- works have, in the course of time, been erected ;
and, as BECKMANN ingeniously remarks, this circum-
stance has served, in some measure, to strengthen the
opinion that the alum of the ancients and of the mo-
derns is synonymous; because, where the former was
found, the latter has since been procured by a chemical
process. Some historians of the fifteenth century even
speak of the alum-works as if the manufacture of this
salt had only been revived in Europe.
Alum owes its high estimation to its beneficial use
in the art of dyeing, in which it is employed as a
mordant. The Italians procured their first alum from
the Levant, along with other materials; but when
these countries were taken by the Turks, it grieved the
Christians to be compelled to purchase these necessary
materials from the common enemy. In due time the
Italians became acquainted with the art of boiling
alum, and when they at length discovered aluminous
minerals in their own soil, these were soon brought into
use, which caused the Turks to abandon many of their
alum-works. The modern alum was, in the beginning,
distinguished from the ancient by the denomination of
rocca.
152
ALUM HISTORY.
DUCAS describes very minutely the alum-work at
Foya Nova, near Smyrna; but that 'work has been long
since abandoned. Drs. FRANCIS and GRIFFITH state,
that in Phocis, lying close to Ionia, there is a moun-
tain rich in aluminous mineral. The stones found at
the summit are first calcined in the fire, and then
reduced to powder by throwing them into water. The
moist mass is put into a kettle, a little more water
added, and the whole having been made to boil, the
powder is lixiviated, the thick part which falls to the
bottom in a cake is preserved, and the hard and
earthy portions are discarded. The cake is afterwards
allowed to dissolve in vessels for four days, at the end
of which the alum is found in crystals around their
edges, and their bottoms are also covered with the salt;
the remaining liquor is poured into a kettle, diluted
with water, and more powder added, then boiled as
before, and put into proper vessels to crystallize. The
alum obtained in this manner is preserved as an article
very necessary for dyers. Captains of ships bound
from the Levant to Europe, consider alum as a very
convenient and useful cargo for their vessels.
The alum- works near Civita Vecchia are, by Italian
historians, asserted to have been the first in Europe
they are the oldest carried on at present. They were
founded by JOHN DI CASTRO, who has been already
mentioned as learning the process near Constanti-
nople. He was there at the time the superb city fell
into the hands of the Turks, trading in Italian cloths
and dye-stuffs ; after this he returned to his own coun-
try, and having found, in the neighborhood of Tolfa, a
plant which he had observed growing abundantly in
the aluminous districts of Asia, he conjectured that
the virgin soil might also contain the same salt, and the
astringency of its taste proved he was correct. On this
discovery, factories were immediately erected, the pro-
duce of which was vended to the Venetians, the
Florentines, and the Genoese. The stones were first
calcined, a large quantity of water was then thrown
over them, and when they were entirely dissolved, the
lie was boiled in great leaden caldrons ; after which, it
was run into wooden vats and allowed to evaporate spon-
taneously ; the result was alum of the most perfect kind.
Pope Pius the Second employed more than eight hun-
dred persons in preparing it. BECKMANN continues
The plant which first induced CASTRO to search for
alum was the prickly evergreen, Ilex aquifolium, which
in Italy is still considered as an indication that the
regions where it thrives abound with alum. This shrub,
or holly, is, however, frequently found growing where
there is not the slightest trace of this salt.
It appears, from all that can be learned, that the art
of boiling alum was first understood in Italy, but not
previous to 1548. The great revenue which the Apos-
tolic Chamber derived from alum induced many to
seek aluminous minerals, and factories were built
wherever such were found. The Pope, however, un-
derstood his own interest so well, that he never rested
until he had caused all the works erected in the other
territories to be discontinued, by which he alone re-
mained master of the prize. Like all tyrants, he endea-
vored, by every possible means, to prevent foreigners
acquiring any knowledge of the art. His commerce in-
creased more and more, and he instructed his menials to
demand exorbitant prices for the salt, so that foreigners
purchased from the Spaniards and Turks. The ban
of excommunication was threatened in case any one
should be so unchristian as to purchase alum from
the infidels ; while every person was at liberty to
make what bargain he liked with the Bishop of Rome
for this commodity ! But these measures, like all
those founded on the simplicity of others, could not
long be endured; as soon as men became more enlight-
ened, they saw through the duplicity of the head of the
Romish Church, and discovered the selfishness of his
bulls. Alum-works soon appeared in Germany, and,
in 1554, at Oberkaufungen, in Hesse, a factory was in
full operation. In England, the first alum-work was
erected at Gisborough, in Yorkshire, where Sir THOMAS
CHALONER had an estate. The knight engaged work-
men well versed in the Roman alum business, because
there was no one in England who then understood its
facture. It is said that, as soon as the Pontiff heard
this, he endeavored to recall the renegades by threats
and anathemas. These, however, were of no avail, and
did no injury to the heretics; in a short time the manu-
factory was most flourishing, and several more of the
same kind were soon after established. PENNANT, in
his Scotch Tour, has the following: The alum -works
in this country are of some antiquity ; they were first
established in the reign of Queen ELIZABETH, by Sir
THOMAS CHALONER, who, observing the trees tinged
with an unusual color, made him suspicious of its being
owing to some mineral in the neighborhood. He
ascertained that the strata abounded with an aluminous
salt. At that time the English, being strangers to the
method of managing it, there is a tradition that Sir
THOMAS was obliged to seduce some workmen from the
Pope's alum-works, then the greatest in Europe. If
one may judge, from the curse which his Holiness
thundered out against the knight and his fugitives, he
certainly was not a little enraged ; for he cursed with-
out varying a tittle from that most comprehensive of
imprecations left us by ERNULPHUS. The first pits
were near Gisborough, the seat of the CHALONERS,
who still flourish there, notwithstanding the Bishop of
Rome's interdictions.
Before entering minutely into the fabrication of alum,
it will be proper to state how and where the salt is
obtained. The greater portion of the alum in this
country is manufactured from alum-slate a bitumi-
nous schist containing sulphide of iron diffused in
very fine particles throughout its mass; it has a bluish
or greenish-black color, and eliminates sulphurous
acid when burned, acquiring thereby an aluminous
taste. Many of the alum-slates crumble to pieces, or
suffer disintegration, on exposure to the air ; their sul-
phur becomes gradually converted into sulphuric acid,
by absorbing oxygen from the atmosphere, while, simul-
taneously, the iron is sesquioxidized, and having in
this state a very feeble affinity for the sulphuric acid,
parts with the greater portion to the clay, which is
thereby converted into sesquisulphate of alumina, and
this, when combined with sulphate of potassa, con-
stitutes the alum of commerce. Alum may be pre-
pared by decomposing clay with sulphuric acid; the
ALUM MANUFACTURE.
153
decomposition is effected in as complete a manner by
calcining pure clay, grinding the adusted mass to powder,
and mixing it with about half a per cent, of sulphuric
acid. This mixture is then to be heated in a furnace
till the mass becomes very thick; afterwards 'left to re-
pose for a month or more, and then affused with water,
to wash out the sulphate of alumina. The addition of
a potassa salt converts it into alum.
GRAHAM states that the old method of making alum
is still largely practised in this country: A series of
beds occur low in many of the coal measures, which
contain much bisulphide of iron. One of these, known
as alum slate, is a siliceous clay, containing a consider-
able portion of coaly matter, and of the metallic sul-
phide in a state of minute division. When this mineral
is exposed to air and moisture, it soon exfoliates, from
the formation of sulphate of iron, the bisulphide of iron
absorbing oxygen like a pyrophorus. The excess of
sulphuric acid formed, attacks the other bases present,
of which the most considerable is alumina. Aluminous
schists often require to be moderately calcined or
roasted, before they undergo this change in the atmo-
sphere. The mineral being lixiviated, after a sufficient
exposure, affords a solution of sulphate of alumina and
protosulphate of iron, from which the latter salt is sepa-
rated by crystallization. The subsequent addition of
sulphate of potassa to the liquor, causes the formation
of alum; the chloride of potassium answers the same
purpose, and has the advantage over the sulphate, that
it converts the remaining sulphates of iron into chlo-
rides, which are very soluble, and from which the alum
is most easily separated by crystallization.
Alum requires about eighteen parts of cold, and less
than one part of boiling water to dissolve it, and crys-
tallizes very readily in large regular octahedrons, of
which the apices are always more or less cut off. Its
taste is sweetish, and very astringent. It is an acid
salt, reddens vegetal blues, and dissolves metals with
evolution of hydrogen ; it slightly effloresces in the air,
and at a gentle heat suffers the aqueous fusion. Its
water of crystallization amounts to 45 -5 per cent, of
its weight, or twenty-four atoms. The fused salt, in
losing this water, becomes viscid, and intumesces, leav-
ing calcined or burnt alum, which is sometimes used as
a corrosive.
The octahedral crystals of potassa alum consist of
sulphuric acid, alumina, potassa, and water, in the an-
nexed proportions :
Atomic
weight.
Centcsimally
represented.
1 Eq. Sesquisulphate of alumina, 172 36-21
1 Eq. Sulphate of potassa, 87 18-31
24 Eq. Water, 216 .... 45-48
1 Eq. Crystallized potassa alum, 475 100-00
Or of
- 1 Eq. Alumina, 52 .... 10-94
lEq.Potassa,. 47.... 9-89
4 Eq. Sulphuric acid, 160 .... 33-68
24Eq. Water, 216 .... 45-49
1 Eq. Crystallized alum, 475 100-00
Formula, A1 2 O s 3 S 8 , K 0, S 3 + 24 aq.
The solubility of this salt is, according to PoGGlALE,
as follows :
VOL. I.
100 parts of water at 32, dissolve 3-29 parts of alum.
" " 50 ' n *52 "
" " 86 ' 22-00 "
" " 140 3100 "
" " 158 90-00 "
" " 212 357-00 "
At a white heat, all the sulphuric acid in combina-
tion with the alumina, and the water of crystallization,
pass off, leaving a mixture of the earth and sulphate
of potassa. When crystals of alum are heated in a
retort, an acid solution spirit of alum, according to the
old chemists distils over and collects in the receiver.
Potassa alum, on being ignited with charcoal, is con-
verted into a pyrophorus.
Alum, when heated with alkaline chlorides, liberates
hydrochloric acid ; again, if a concentrated solution of
this salt is boiled with chloride of sodium or potassium,
the same acid is given off, and a sparingly soluble basic
alum precipitated. RICHTER states that a solution con-
taining alum, chloride of sodium, and nitrate of soda, is
a solvent for gold.
When alum is dissolved in twenty parts of water,
and ammonia dropped slowly into the solution till
the liquid is nearly saturated, a bulky white precipi-
tate appears, which, when thoroughly edulcorated with
distilled water, is pure alumina. If dried and weighed,
it will be found to be 10*82 per cent, of the weight of
the alum taken. If this earth, while moist, be dissolved
in dilute sulphuric acid, it will constitute, when as neu-
tral as possible, the sulphate of alumina, which requires
only two parts of cold water for solution. If this solu-
tion be now decomposed by pouring into it liquid am-
monia, there appears an insoluble white powder sub-
sulphate of alumina or basic alum. It contains three
times as much earth as the neutral sulphate. How-
ever, by adding a strong solution of sulphate of potassa
to that of the neutral sulphate, a white powder will fall,
which is true alum. When recently-precipitated alu-
mina is boiled in a solution of alum, a portion of the
earth enters into combination with the salt, constituting
the insoluble compound which falls as a white amor-
phous powder: the same combination occurs if a boil-
ing solution of alum be decomposed by potassa.
These experimental facts develop the principles of
the manufacture of alum, which is prosecuted under
various modifications for its important uses in the
chemical arts.
MANUFACTURE OF ALUM. Two alums, only,
are applied in the arts ; these are composed of sesqui-
sulphate of alumina, in combination with sulphate of
potassa, or sulphate of ammonia, or both, as given in
the annexed formulae :
KO,
AmO,
S 3 + A1 2 3 , 3 S 3 4- 24 aq.
S 3 -f A1 2 3 , 3 S 3 -f 24 aq.
S 3 -f A1 2 3 , 3 S 3 + 24 aq.
The first of these, potassa alum, is simply called alum
amongst practical men, whilst the second variety is dis-
tinguished by the name of ammonia alum. The latter
is easily distinguished from the former by its giving out
the odor of ammonia when triturated with quicklime.
The potassa alum is preferred by turkey- red dyers; but
both are used by dyers and calico-printers solely for their
alumina, and in this particular they are accounted nearly
154
ALUM MANUFACTURE.
of equal value ; the other constituents being almost use-
less. The possibility, however, of producing a cheap
and pure salt of alumina in large quantities, is dependent
on the property alum possesses, of separating from its
concentrated solutions in large, well-defined crystals;
the purity of the alumina in this salt, and which is
necessary in the applications of alum, enables the pur-
chaser to pay for the sulphuric acid, water, and alkali,
although they are useless, except for effecting the crys-
tallization. Sulphate of alumina is with great diffi-
culty separated from many other extraneous salts that
accompany it in the manufacture, particularly from sul-
phate of iron, whilst alum, from the ease with which it
dissolves in hot water, and its sparing solubility in cold,
is readily separable from any adventitious substances.
PRODUCTION OF ALUM FROM ALUM STONE. Alum
is obtained in much larger quantity from alum rock, a
formation of volcanic origin, than from any other source.
This is a massive, granular, only partially crystalline,
transparent, and not homogeneous rock, which fre-
quently encloses quartz, sometimes iron pyrites, and
manganese ore. Its color is yellowish, passing into green,
grey, red, or brown. The pure mineral alum stone,
alunite, sometimes occurs in it in distinct crystals, which
have been found to consist of a basic sulphate of alu-
mina, with sulphate of potassa, and is, therefore, a basic
alum, or, more probably, a combination of neutral sul-
phate of alumina and potassa, with hydrate of alumina,
K 0, S 8 + A^ 8 , 3 S 8 + 2 A1 2 O 3 , 3 H 0. Ram-
melsberg. It differs, therefore, from alum, in contain-
ing an excess of alumina. Alum rock is of the same
nature a massive alunite, but of a less pure character;
it is found at Tolfa, near Civita-Veechia, in the Papal
States ; at Montione, in the dukedom of Piombino ; in
and Nipoglio ; but is not of very common occurrence in
other places. The analyses of this rock have yielded
the following results :
From
Tolfc,
by
Klaproth.
From
Beregszaz,
by
Klaproth,
From
Montione,
by
DescotiL
Mont d'Or,
by
CorUicr.
Silica,
56-5
62-3
28-4
Alumina,
19-0
17-5
40-0
31-8
Sulphuric acid,
16-5
12-5
35-6
27-0
Potassa,
4-0
1-0
13-8
5-8
Water, ...
3-0
5-0
10-0
3-7
Sesquioxide of iron, ....
Loss,
1-0
1-7
0-6
1-4
1-9
100-0
100-0
100-0
100-0
the Comitats, Beregh, and Zemplin, in Hungary; at
Mont d'Or, in France ; and in the Greek islands, Milo
It will be seen from these analyses, that, overlooking
the silica, there is chiefly a deficiency of potassa, and
also of sulphuric acid, in the rock, for the formation
of alum ; but, in the mineral from Tolfa, for instance,
there is about three per cent, of sulphuric acid, and four-
teen per cent, of alumina, more than are requisite to
form alum with the four per cent, of potassa. The alum
stone from Beregszaz also contains an excess of nine per
cent, of acid, and sixteen per cent, of earth ; that from
d'Or, six per cent, of acid, and twenty-five per cent, of
alumina. At Tolfa, where the alum stone comes to the
surface, a quantity of alum is produced proportionate
to the amount of potassa in the rock, and the remainder,
particularly the excess of alumina, is separated. This
is effected by burning the stones in heaps, or furnaces,
similar to those used hi preparing gypsum Fig. 86
particular care being taken that the temperature does
not rise too high.
The inner chamber of this Iciln is divided into two
unequal portions by an arch, p P, situated about a foot
from the bottom. The upper part, into which the alum
rock is introduced, partly through the door, o, and
partly through the mouth, H, is provided with eight
draught holes, j j, the ninth hole being formed by the
tube in the covering plate, M. The lower chamber, or
fire-space, is in connection with the fire, E, which is
situated in front of the kiln, and which is replenished
with fuel through the door, D. The draught-channel, c,
terminates in the ash-pit under the grate, A, on which
the fire is made. The flame enters at x, below the
perforated arch, p, where it is uniformly disseminated
over the whole area of the kirn, and passes through the
fissures, e e, and the mass of materials, in an upward
direction, escaping at the apertures, j j. If the heat is
not uniform throughout the kiln, the draught-holes, J J,
are opened on that side where it is least intense, and
where it is desirable to lead the flame,
while those on the other side are closed.
The aperture, L, is used
for clearing the fire-
chamber, and is closed,
as well as G and H, dur-
ing the firing. Particu-
lar attention is given- to
the maintenance of a
proper temperature. OO
represent the exterior walls of the kiln, made of non-
conducting materials to secure the retention of the heat.
ALUM SHALES.
155
At a red heat, sulphate of alumina is decomposed,
yielding, partly anhydrous sulphuric acid, and partly
oxygen and sulphurous acid. As soon as these vapors
appear, the burning is stopped, and the mass is trans-
ferred to walled cisterns, where it is repeatedly mois-
tened with water, which collects below, and is allowed
to disintegrate for three or four months, at the expiration
of which period it is converted into a soft mud, tasting
perceptibly of alum, which may then be dissolved out
with water. If the alum stone contained an excess of
hydrate of alumina, this would infallibly react upon the
alum, and form with it a similar but insoluble com-
pound, containing basic sulphate of alumina the burn-
ing expels the water from the hydrate of alumina, and
thus renders it chemically inactive ; the excess of alu-
mina is thus separated from the compound, which then
yields an alum soluble in water. During the evapora-
tion until the specific gravity is 1-114 at 113 Fahr.
the lie still holds a fine ferruginous rose-red powder in
suspension, which feebly colors the crystals, but is left
when these are redissolved. The crystals contain
potassa, but no ammonia, and are highly prized in
commerce, under the name of Roman alum.
PRODUCTION FROM ALUM ORE. The production of
alum from alum shale and alum earth is systematically
carried out or divided into three distinct operations :
the production of sulphate of alumina ; the addition of
sulphate, or chloride, of the alkali to the concentrated
cold solution of the former, in which operation the
difficultly soluble alum precipitates in the form of
powder, and is thus separated from the foreign salts ;
and, lastly, the purification of the alum flour by re-
crystallization.
Alum shale is a kind of clay slate impregnated with
sulphide of iron and bituminous matters a member,
therefore, of the younger transition series of rocks
allied to real clay slate by its firmness, appearance
slaty structure, and great extent. Although it is not
so abundantly disseminated as other species of rocks
and minerals, it forms, nevertheless, beds of considerable
extent in many localities, particularly in the Scandina-
vian peninsula in Bohemia ; in the Hartz, in Upper
Bavaria ; in Voigtland, in the mountainous districts of
the Lower Rhine; in England, near Whitby; in Scot-
land, at Hurlet and Campsie, near Glasgow; in the
[Jralian Mountains. It may be also met with in many
other districts, but not in sufficient quantity to be avail-
able for practical purposes.
The following analyses show the composition of tho
rocks:
ALUM SHALE FROM SIEHDA, BY LAMI-ADIUS.
Sesquisulphate of alumina, 2-68
Potassa alum, 0-47
Sulphate of iron, 0-95
Sulphate of lime, 1-70
Silica, 10-32
Alumina, 9-21
Magnesia, traces
Sesquioxide of iron, 2-30
Oxide of manganese, 0-31
Sulphur, 7-13
Water, 33-90
Carbon, et cetera, 31-03
100-00
ALUM SHALES, BY G. KERSTEN.
Hermannsschacbte. Glucknufgang. Blucbcrschachte.
Carbonaceous matters,. 41-10 27-92 34-20
Silica, 44-02 51-32 50-21
Sesquioxide of iron, ... 6-23 8-40 0-42
Alumina, 5-60 7-62 5-21
Magnesia, 0-32 0-26 0-53
Oxide of manganese, .. 0-12 traces traces
Sulphur, 1-25 2-89 1-72
Sulphate of lime, traces traces traces
Loss, 1-36 1-59 7-71
100-00 100-00 100-00
ALUM SHALES, BY EKDMAN.V.
Soluble in acid. Garnsdorffi Wezetatein.
Sulphide of iron, .. 7-533 . 10-166
Silica, 0-060 0-100
Sesquioxide of iron, 0-966 2-466
Alumina, 1-833 3-166
Lime, 0-400 I'OOO
Magnesia, trace 1-022
10-792 17-920
Insoluble in add.
Silica, 50-066 52-200
Alumina, 8-900 17-900
Sesquioxide of iron, 1-300 3-366
Magnesia, 1-000 1-133
Lime, trace trace
Coal... 22-833 0-803
84-099 75-402
Loss, 5-109
100-000 100-000
Subjoined is the composition of several shales which
are sometimes used in the manufacture of alum :
Silica, \ ,
Alumina,
Sesquioxide of iron,. ,
Oxide of manganese,
Lime,
Magnesia,
Potash,
Soda,,
Strontia,
Oxide of copper, ....
Fluoride of calcium,.
Phosphoric acid, ....
Sulphur,
Carbon,
Carbonic acid,
Water,
Loss,
48-6
23-5
11-3
0-5
1-6
4-7
0-1
0-3
7-6
1-8
100-0
Stokes.
59-4
17-4
11-6
2-1
2-2
6-4
0-9
100-0
Gajjgenan,
Baden.
Holtzmann.
64-34
23-90
9-70
2-22
100-16
Niedessclten,
Nassau.
Wtoiph.
79-17
10-42
6-27
2-78
1-36
100-00
Goslar,
Hartz.
Frick.
60-03
14-91
8-94
2-08
4-22
3-87
0-28
5-67
Brcnndaff,
N. Coblcntz.
Frick.
62-83
17-11
8-23
0-83
1-90
4-17
0-27
4-66
Lohsten,
Thuringervrald.
Frick.
64-57
17-30
7-46
1-16
2-60
1-99
0-30
4-62
Prague.
FIcrscM.
67-50
15-89
5-85
0-08
2-24
3-67
1-23
2-11
0-30
1-13
100-00
KJO-OO
100-00
100-00
156
ALUM ORES.
The annexed is the composition of some shales from Whitby, in Yorkshire, and Campsie, near Glasgow:
Top rock.
Whitby.
Richardson.
Top rock.
Campsie.
Top rock.
8-50
(Sulphur, 22-36 23-44) D ..
jlron,.... 18-16 15-04 j P >" rlte8 >
15-40
15-10
11-64
2-22
32
Sulphide of iron, 4-20 . .
Silica, 52-25 51-16
Protox. of iron, 8-49 6-11
Alumina, 18-75 18-30 11-35
Lime, 1-25 2-15 1-40
Magnesia, 0-91 0-90 0-50
Oxide of manganese, traces traces 0-15
Sulphuric acid, 1-37 2-50-
Potassa, 0-13 traces 0-90
Soda, / 0-20 traces
Chlorine, traces traces
Coal, 4-97 8-2J Carbon and Loss, 29-78 Carbon, 28-80
Water,. 2-68 2-00
Loss 4-80 8-09 3-13
9-63
0-47
2-18
18-91
0-40
2-17
055
0-05
1-26
0-21
100-00
100-00
The Campsie alum ores, especially the upper, con-
tain a large excess of pyrites, yielding of course more
sulphuric acid than the alumina can take up, while the
lower have a considerable excess of alumina; it is,
therefore, the object of the manufacturers of alum to
mix these ores in such a manner that the different in-
gredients may be made available as far as possible.
The composition of the residue from the Campsie
ores, after calcination and washing out the alum, is:
Silica, .". . . 38-40
Alumina, 12-70
Sesquioxide of iron, 20-80
Oxide of manganese, traces
Lime, 2-07
Magnesia, 2-00
Potassa, 1-00
Sulphuric acid, 10-76
Water, 12-27
100-00
It is well known that alum earth belongs to the more
recent deposits, occurring below the first strata of the
tertiary coal formation, which are of a later period than
the chalk. It is a massive but soft pulverizable mass,
stratified, but not slaty, and of a dark-brown color; it
occupies basins of variable dimensions, according to
the position of the neighboring rocks. Very large
deposits of this formation occur in the valley of the
Oder, and are worked at Freienwalde and Muskau. It
is no uncommon phenomenon, in the coal formations,
for the clay and coal strata to permeate each other
in those localities where they meet. These deposits,
which frequently cover the coal formation, and are,
at other parts, in alternate layers with the coal, play
the part of alum ores, and may be worked for the
production of alum, when they contain a sufficient
quantity of sulphide of iron, which is often the case.
To this class belong the Scotch ores. In Upper Sile-
sia it is even found profitable to make the refuse coal,
or brecs, which cannot well be used as fuel, subordinate
to the production of alum; these coals leave an alumi-
nous ash, and those which are rich in iron pyrites are
only distinguished from a real alum ore by their large
excess of combustible matter, and which, in this case,
cannot be turned to account.
Iron pyrites, or the bisulphide of iron Fe S 2 is
quite as indispensable to the production of alum as
alumina itself. This compound is formed by the de-
composition of protosulphate of iron Fe 0, S 8 held
100-00
99-99
100-00
in solution in water by the fossil coal. Green vitriol,
or protosulphate of iron, is deprived of oxygen by an
organic substance being retained for a length of time
in contact with it, and becomes reduced to sulphide
of iron. The sulphide is disseminated through the
alum ores, partly in the well-known brilliant yellow
crystals, or crystalline deposits, but chiefly in a very
fine state of division, as a dull, black powder, some-
what resembh'ng the mass obtained by precipitating a
salt of iron by sulphide of ammonium. Hence, inas-
much as it was not perceptible to the eye, its presence
has not only been overlooked in the following analy-
ses, but actually denied:
From Freienwalde. From Putzbcrg.
Klaproth. Bergmaan.
Alumina, 16-00 10-90
Silica, 40-00 45-40
Magnesia, 0-25
Sulphur, 2-85 3-94
Carbon, 19-45 5-95
Protoxide of iron, 6-40 5-50
" manganese, .... 0-60
Protosulphate of iron, 1-80 5-73
Sulphate of alumina, 1-20
" lime, 1-50 1-71
" potassa, 0-50 1-75
Chloride of potassium, 0-50 0-35
Sulphuric acid, 0-47
Water, 10-75 1660
100-00
100-00
The sulphur is in combination with the iron, and
not, as was formerly supposed, hi the free state, or
as sulphide of carbon. Although the constituents of
alum earth are nearly the same hi specimens taken
from other localities, the proportions are nevertheless
variable, as might have been expected from the mode
in which the deposits are formed; so great, indeed,
is the difference in this respect, that the examples
given above can hardly be viewed as a fair average
of these compounds. Pyrites and alum ores owe the
property of being rapidly decomposed under the in-
fluence of atmospheric air to the fine state of division
of the bisulphide, and probably, also, to the occasional
presence of the protosulphide of iron. Massive crys-
talline pyrites is very slowly decomposed under the
same circumstances. The decomposition is occasioned
by seven equivalents of oxygen being taken up by the
pyrites Fe S 2 which convert it into protosulphate of
iron and sulphuric acid Fe 0, S 0,, and S 8 . This
ALUM USTULATION.
157
combination of the oxygen with the iron and sulphur, '
is induced by contact of oxygen, and a spontaneous rise
of temperature which results from the chemical union ; |
when the latter becomes more developed, it converts
the sulphide of iron, as by roasting, into protosulphide
and sulphur, which immediately burn, the former being
resolved into protosulphate of iron, and the latter
into sulphurous acid, which is absorbed by the alu-
mina. The sulphite of alumina thus formed is easily
changed, by absorption of atmospheric oxygen, into sul-
phate of alumina ; or, as KICHARDSON justly remarks,
what is more likely, by reducing the sesquisulphate to
the state of sulphate of the protoxide. The alum ore,
when first taken from the ridges calcined heaps and
covered with water, which is removed after a short
interval, will be found to have yielded little sulphate of
alumina to the solution, but a great deal of sesqui-
sulphate of iron ; while, after being allowed to remain
for some time over the ore, the solution will be found
to contain much sulphate of alumina and protosulphate
of iron : alum-makers know that the first washes are
not those which afford the most alum, unless the ore
has been permitted to remain in the steeps for a length
of time ; they are also aware that more alum is pro-
cured by adding to the lie a portion of mothers, which
are very rich in sesquisulphate of iron, than is obtained
by pure water, per se.
The sulphides of iron are, therefore, available to the
production of alum merely by affording the necessary
amount of sulphuric acid to unite with the. alumina;
besides the acid produced by the second portion of sul-
phur in the bisulphide, another portion is combined
with alumina by the decomposition of the green vitriol,
the protoxide of iron in which is speedily converted
into sesquioxide by the oxygen of the air, and is preci-
pitated in the form of a basic salt. Potassa, which is
never altogether wanting in the alum ores, gives rise in
a similar manner to the liberation of sulphuric acid by
the production of basic sulphate of potassa and iron ;
sesquisulphate of iron is also decomposed by hydrate
of alumina, and sulphate of alumina dissolves, but the
greater portion remains insoluble with the basic sulphate
of iron.
Lirne in the ores is most prejudicial, for this base
deprives the sulphate of alumina and sulphate of iron
of their sulphuric acid, and entirely puts a stop to the
production of alum ; ores containing any consider-
able quantity of lime, cannot, consequently, be used in
this manufacture. Gypsum, however, is always found
in the crude lies. Magnesia is no less deleterious to
the formation of alum, but the sulphate of magnesia
Epsom salt thus produced, is not totally valueless.
In some of the English alum-works, the Epsom salt is
a most important object. Fresh alum ores contain no
soluble salts of alumina or iron ; it is only where air
has had access to them, either in the pit or at the sur-
face, that efflorescence in the form of fine needles
feather alum is observed, and this consists partly of
real alum, partly of sulphate of alumina, or of combina-
tions of the latter salt with protoxide of iron, sulphate of
magnesia or other salts.
An aluminous sulphate of iron occurred abundantly
some years ago in the Hurlet and Campsie wrought-
out coal beds, which had the following composition :
Berthier.
Phillips.
R. I'. Thomson.
R. D. Thomson.
Sulphuric acid, . .
Protoxide of iron,
34-40
12-00
8-80
30-90
20-70
5-20
35-600
13-560
7-127
28-635
19-935
2-850
0-80
Water,
44-00
43-20
43-713
48-580
100-00
100-00
100-000
100-000
The composition of this feather alum, or hair-salt, as
it is termed in different localities, is shown by the subse-
quent analyses. The term hair-salt, sometimes given to
these natural effloresced bodies, belongs more properly
to the sulphate of magnesia often accompanying them.
COMPOSITION OF NATURAL SULPHATE OP ALUMINA FEATHER ALUM.
Saldana. Pasto.
Columbia.
Pyromenl,
In
Island Milo.
Coqulmbo,
Chili.
Kolosornk,
Bohemia.
Friersdorff,
near
Bonn.
Fotschappel,
near
Dresden.
Freienwalde.
Ararat
Andes.
Campsle,
Glasgow.
36-400
16-000
0-004
0-002
0-004
46-600
0-990
35-68
14-98
49-34
40-31
14-98
0-26
1-13
0-85
0-40
1-13
40-94
36-97
14-63
2-58
0-14
1-37
44-64
35-82
15-57
48-61
37-380
14-867
2-463
0-215
0-149
45-164
35-710
12-778
0-667
1-018
0-324
0-640
0-273
47-022
1-568
35-637
11-227
718
0-307
0-430
0-449
1-912
Q-430
48-847
043
58-58
38-75
S0 3 \ 0.170
FeO/" 1
35-872
14-645
0-500
2-262
0-100
46-375
0-246
40-425
10-482
8-530
1-172
36-295
3-096
100-000
'
Sesquioxide of iron, ....
Protoxide of manganese,
Hydrochloric acid,
100-000
100-00
100-00
100-33
100-00
100-238
100-000
100-000
100-11
100-000
Boussingault
HartwelL
H-Eose.
GobeU
T. Thomson.
The manufacture of alum from alum schists may be
distributed under the six following heads:
Preparation of the alum slate.
Lixiviation of the ustulated slate.
Evaporation of the lixivium.
Addition of the saline ingredients.
Edulcoration of the aluminous salts.
Crystallization.
158
ALUM USTULATION.
Preparation of the Alum Slate. Roasting or Ustu-
lation. Some alum slates are of such a nature that,
being piled in heaps in the open air, and moistened
from tune to time, they get spontaneously hot, and
by degrees fall into a pulverulent mass, ready to be
lixiviated. The greater part, however, require the
process of ustulation, from which many advantages
are derived. The cohesion of the dense slates is there-
by so much impaired, that their disintegration becomes
more rapid; the decomposition of the pyrites is quick-
ened by the expulsion of a portion of the sulphur ; and
the ready -formed sulphate of iron is partly decomposed
by the heat, with a transference of its sulphuric acid to
the clay, and the production of sulphate of alumina.
Such alum slates as contain too little bitumen, or
coal, for the roasting process, must be interstratified with
layers of small coal or brushwood. The fuel being
kindled, the whole slowly ignites. More rock is piled
upon it, until, in some instances, a vast heap of in-
flamed material, one hundred feet high, and two hun-
dred feet square, is raised, which continues to burn for
months. When the heap is fired with brushwood, its
ash, yielding potassa, gives rise to the formation of small
quantities of alum.
Alum is manufactured at Whitby by the combustion
of the schists of the upper lias, which contain a quantity
of iron pyrites and bituminous or carbonaceous matter.
The temperature being regulated, and water occasionally
supplied, decomposition occurs, producing sulphates of
alumina, iron, and magnesia exempli gratia
4 Fe S 2 + A1 2 3 + Mg + Oas = 4 Fe 0, S 8 + A1 8 Oa,
3S0 3 + MgO,S0 8 .
In Khenish Prussia, especially at Salzweiler, the us-
tulation is effected spontaneously, by the aid of a stra-
tum of brown coal beneath it, which has continued in a
state of incipient and restricted combustion ever since
16GO, when it was accidentally ignited.
A clay bottom is well adapted for the erection of a
heap, to prevent any of the salts being carried by the
moisture into the soil ; the heap is also sometimes con-
structed under a shed. As a general rule, the produce
is better the slower and more uniform the heat during
the calcination.
The Scotch alum-works are those of Hurlet and
Campsie the former six miles South from Glasgow,
the latter about nine miles North of the city, at the
foot of the Campsie Hills. Mr. KING, of the Campsie
works, is also proprietor of one of the establishments
at Hurlet ; the other belonging to Messrs. JOHN WIL-
SON and SONS. The two factories at Hurlet embrace
an area of eighteen to twenty acres, the greater por-
tion of the space being occupied by the calcining fields.
The aluminous shale found in this locality is inter-
stratified between the coal bed and the limestone, and
is nearly as dark-colored as the former ; it is occasion-
ally found mixed with native crystals of sulphate of
iron. After the shale has been exposed to the ah- for
some time, the black color is replaced by a grey, owing
to the action of the air causing it to throw out a white
efflorescence of alum.
A striking appearance is presented by the alum-field,
wliich is covered throughout with ridges or elongated
mounds of the ore for calcination, or already calcined, and
these assume a reddish-brown hue from the eflect of
the heat. The heaps vary in size, being from six thou-
sand to about twenty thousand tons in content. At
one of the works under consideration, there are about
fifteen of the mounds or ridges of shale, each being
one hundred and twenty to one hundred and eighty
feet in length, with a base of about twenty feet, and a
height of fifteen.
Fig. 87 shows the arrangement of the field.
The mounds are commenced by making a few fires of
coal along the intended length, and covering them over
with stones or bricks in any convenient manner, leaving
lateral ducts, or passages, for the air to enter. Next,
the shale is thrown on the fires, the coarsest first; and
according as it ignites, and communicates heat to the
outer portions, more of the mineral is thrown upon it
successively, till the heap is considered large enough, so
as to have the whole at that state of ignition which prac-
tice leads the manager to judge most advantageous.
It is then mantled, as the workmen term it, that is,
covered over with a layer of the already calcined and ex-
hausted ore, in order to protect it from high winds and
excessive rams, as also to moderate the heat and let it
cool gradually, so that the sulphur present may not be
volatilized or sublimed. From three to twelve months,
according to the state of the weather, are generally
required to calcine the heap properly ; and in rough
weather very little progress is made : this time includes
the period of cooling the burned ore, which is done
either by leaving the heap to itself, or checking the
ustulation with a thicker mantling.
By an economical arrangement of the manager, the
several mounds are in various stages of advancement, __
some being cold, others about being finally mantled for
cooling, many in progress, while a further number are
commencing, so that at all times a supply of calcined
shale may be ready for the liquefying vats.
At Whitby, the calcining heaps are raised from eighty
to a hundred feet in height. In consequence of the
greater amount of carbonaceous matters which the
shale at these works contains, the temperature of the
mounds rises too high, and causes a loss on account
of the excess of sulphurous and sulphuric acids sub-
limed; this is partly prevented by mixing the shale
with some of the calcined and exhausted ore, and when
the heap has acquired a larger size, and the heat is
still deemed too high, either the crevices are plastered
up with the small schist, or the whole is mantled over
as at Hurlet. It would appear that the height of the
heap must be disadvantageous to the manufacturer, on
account of the difficulty of properly regulating the heat
in so large a mass of material, and that the method
followed at the Hurlet works effects a better ustulation,
while at the same time it is more under control.
About one hundred and thirty tons of the Whitby
calcined schist yield one ton of alum. In this humid
climate it is found advisable to pile up on the top of
the ridge of brushwood or coal and schist, a pyramidal
heap of the mineral, which, having its surface plastered
smooth, with only a few air-holes, protects the mass
from the rains, and at the same time prevents the com-
bustion from becoming too vehement. Should heavy
ALUM LIXIVIATION.
159
rains supervene, a gutter must be scooped out round
. the pile for receiving the aluminous lixivium, and con-
ducting it into the reservoir.
A continual but very slow heat, with a smothered
fire, is most beneficial for the ustulation of alum slate.
When the fire is too brisk, the sulphide of iron may
run with the earthy matters into a species of slag, or
the sulphur will be dissipated in vapor, both of which
accidents would cause a deficiency in the produce of
alum. Those bituminous schists which have been
used as fuel under steam boilers, have suffered such
a violent combustion, that their ashes scarcely yield
any alum. Even the best regulated calcining piles are
apt to burn too briskly in high winds, and should have
their draught-holes carefully stopped under such cir-
cumstances. It may be laid down as a general rule,
that the slower the combustion the richer will the roasted
ore be in sulphate of alumina. When the calcina-
tion is complete, the heap diminishes to one half its
original bulk; it is covered with a light reddish ash,
and is open and porous in the interior, so that the air
can circulate freely throughout the mass. To favor
this access of air is another reason that the masses
should not be too elevated; and in dry weather a little
water should be occasionally sprinkled on them, which,
by dissolving some of the saline matter, will make the
interior more open to the atmosphere.
When the calcined mineral becomes thoroughly cold,
it may be submitted to the lixiviating vats. As many
weeks, or even months, may elapse, from the first con-
struction of the piles or beds till their complete cal-
culation, care ought to be taken to provide a sufficient
number of them, so as to have an adequate supply of
material for carrying on the lixiviating and crystallizing
processes during the course of the year. The beds
are known to be sufficiently decomposed by the efflo-
rescence of the salt, by the strong aluminous taste
of the ashes, and by the appropriate chemical test of
lixiviating an aliquot average portion of the mass, and
seeing how much alum it will yield with a solution of
sulphate of potassa, or chloride of potassium.
SPENCE, who lately sealed a patent for the manu-
facture of alum, offers the following as his method of
calculation. He forms on the ground a number of air-
channels, by laying parallel lines of common bricks at
the distance of four inches apart, and placing others on
these crosswise ; thus the channel formed is about four
inches square. The transverse bricks are placed on
loosely, so as to allow the ah" to pass freely upwards ;
burning coals are laid on the channels, and a layer of
the shale which is'most bituminous, broken into small
pieces ; and as the combustion proceeds, other layers of
the shale fragments, less bituminous than the preceding,
are put on continuously, but not in too great a quantity.
The thickness of each layer should be regulated by the
briskness of the combustion, which should never go
beyond a low red heat ; but care must be exercised in
maintaining the bed at this point, as a higher tempera-
ture would be apt to glaze or partially flux the ma-
terials, and render the alumina less soluble in acid. An
examination of the following figure, exhibiting the heaps
or mounds in various stages of progress, will show that
a method similar to this is practised at Hurlet.
Shales destitute of bitumen, or prepared clays, may
be calcined in the same way, by mixing with, them
small coals, or saw-dust; the heaps in cither case may
be made of any convenient dimensions, but the height
most appropriate is four to five feet. The mass will
burn out, and be cool enough for use in eight .or ten
days.
Lixiviation of the Roasted Ores. This part of the
operation for dissolving out the sulphate of alumina,
and other soluble components, is one which requires
much attention in regulating the proper amount of
water which is required to extract the whole of the
soluble bodies, without having a superabundance of
unnecessary liquid to eliminate when the solutions arc
to be subsequently concentrated for crystallization, or
precipitation. When an excess of water has been em-
ployed to exhaust the calcined shale, considerable time
and labor are required for the evaporation of such liquors.
If a manufacturer allows too much to be taken, he can-
not compete with his neighbor who uses his best en-
deavors to cheapen the cost of production, especially
in this age of rivalry. Hence, the chief study should
be to employ only as much water as will effectually or
nearly exhaust the ore of its soluble saline ingredients.
Vessels for the lixiviation are either wooden cisterns lined
with sheet-lead, or cisterns made of stone ; the latter
are more durable, but more expensive. The tanks, or
lixiviating vessels, are placed, in England and France
at different levels, for the purpose of facilitating the
exhaustion of the material in them, while in Scotland
they are constructed upon the same plane. The form
usually given to these vessels is that of a square or
oblong.
When the exhaustion of the ustulated shale is effected
by the first of these arrangements, as at Whitby, a
wooden or iron sluice carries the lie from the series of
tanks to a large cistern to be again returned upon the
upper troughs, recharged with fresh portions of the
burned ore, in order to bring it to the proper degree of
strength, when it is drawn off to be concentrated by
heat. Water is let into the upper troughs through
several inlets, till it covers the burned material to
the depth of one or two inches. After six 
