CHIMPANZEE
INTELLIGENCE
AND ITS
VOCAL EXPRESSIONS
Chi]
y
CHIMPANZEE
INTELLIGENCE
AND ITS
VOCAL EXPRESSIONS
BY
ROBERT M. YERKES
AND
BLANCHE W, LEARNED
BALTIMORE
THE WILLIAMS & WILKINS COMPANY
1925
Copyright, 1925
THE WILLIAMS & WILKINS COMPANY
Made in the United States of A merica
Published April, 1925
COMPOSED AND PPINTED AT THE
WAVERLY PRESS
The Williams & Wilkins Company
BALTuio^fi, Md., U. S. a.
PREFACE
This contribution to our knowledge of the traits and vocal
expressions of the young chimpanzee is presented humbly
as the first chapter in a continued story. The division of
responsibility between the authors is clear. The one, a
psychologist, is intent on the description of important traits
and the analysis of ideational behavior in chimpanzees and
other primates. The other, a musician, has carefully
attended to the vocalizations of the chimpanzee and has
given a truthful and vivid account of vocal expressions under
different circumstances.
The facts recorded in this volume should be useful to
musicians, linguists, and psychologists.
The Authors
June, 1924
TABLE OF CONTENTS
I. TRAITS OF YOUNG CHIMPANZEES
BY ROBERT M. YERKES
CHAPTER I
PAGE
Provision for Comparative Study of the Primates 11
CHAPTER II
History and Care of a Pair of Chimpanzees 15
CHAPTER III
Physical Traits 20
CHAPTER IV
Mental Traits 26
Daily routine 26
Temperament 29
Nest building 36
CHAPTER V
Evidences of Insight 38
Observational ability 38
Adaptability 39
Insight and ideation 41
CHAPTER VI
Sounds and Speech 53
7 ^3^-7?
O CONTENTS
II. VOICE AND "LANGUAGE" OF YOUNG CHIMPANZEES
BY BLANCHE W. LEARNED
CHAPTER I
Introductory Remarks 59
CHAPTER II
Sounds Associated with Food 61
Waiting for food 61
Eating 78
CHAPTER III
Sounds Associated with Other Creatures 103
Behavior with people 103
Behavior together 122
CHAPTER IV
Observation of Adults at the New York Zoological Park 144
CHAPTER V
List of Words or Elements of Speech 154
List of References 157
I
TRAITS OF YOUNG CHIMPANZEES
BY
ROBERT M. YERKES
CHAPTER P
Provision for Comparative Study of the Primates
The desirability of adequate provision for the systematic
study of all aspects of the lives of the principal classes of
primates has long been recognized and the scientists of
several nations have at various times made efforts to com-
mand resources. Thus far these efforts have been either
disappointing or only temporarily fruitful.
Aside from hunting and collecting expeditions which have
provided specimens for museums and for morphological
research, a few attempts have been made to establish special
research stations or colonies for the breeding of the infra-
human primates. Notable among these attempts are the
following.
In 1912 German biologists under the leadership of Profs.
Max Rothmann and W. Waldeyer established at Orotava,
Teneriffe, Canary Islands, a station for the study of the
anthropoid apes. It was abandoned in 1923 because of
failure of support. In the meantime important studies of
chimpanzees had been made, first by Dr. E. Teuber and later
by his successor as resident investigator at the station.
Dr. W. Koehler.2
Dr. G. V. Hamilton (5) for some years maintained at
Montecito, California, with the cooperation of the McCor-
mick family, a collection of primates which included several
^ For efficient assistance in caring for the animals I make grateful
acknowledgment to Miss Louise Mumpoting and Miss Geraldine Stowell.
The latter assisted also with the speech experiments.
2 For all references utilized in this book, see list of references at end.
11
12 TRAITS OF YOUNG CHIMPANZEES
varieties of monkey, baboons, and one young orang-utan.
These animals were observed both in their semi- wild and free
condition and in various experimental situations arranged
in the investigator's laboratory. The work terminated and
the station was discontinued with Dr. Hamilton's removal
from California in 1917.
Prior to the war, certain groups of medical investigators
planned the establishment of a breeding station and special
laboratories for medical research on the west coast of Africa
or an adjacent island. The development of the project was
delayed. In 1922 the Pasteur Institute, under the direction
of Dr. A. Calmette, founded a primate station primarily for
medical research at Kindia, French Guinea.
At Havana, Cuba, for more than a decade Madame Rosa-
lia Abreu has kept on her estate a collection of monkeys and
anthropoid apes. At present she has some 75 animals,
including several types of monkey, baboons, mandrills,
gibbons, orang-utans, and chimpanzees. Thus far, apart
from certain anthropological observations (10) and the
studies of daily life made by Madame Abreu, these animals
have not been utilized for scientific purposes. The writer
has been able during the summer of 1924, by the generous
invitation of Madame Abreu, with the support of the Carnegie
Institution of Washington and the cooperation of assistants,
to initiate certain studies of the behavior, mental life and
structural characteristics of animals in this unique collection.
Aside from the scattering specimens of anthropoid ape
found in zoological parks, there are several in the possession
of persons who are both able and eager to advance our
knowledge of the primates. Notable contribution to in-
formation concerning the characteristics of the mountain
gorilla, G. beringeri, which occurs in the Lake Khivu region
PROVISION FOR COMPARATIVE STUDY 13
of the Belgian Congo has been made by Mr. Carl Akeley.
Miss Alyse Cunningham (3) of London has gathered
valuable data on the characteristics of the young gorilla,
three specimens of which she has kept successfully over vary-
ing periods. In addition to gaining unique insight into the
daily life of the young of this anthropoid ape, she has demon-
strated the possibihty of keeping the animals in perfect
health and rearing them in temperate climates.
This brief and incomplete historical summary of what has
been done and is being undertaken or projected for increase
of our knowledge of the primates is offered for the encourage-
ment of those scientists who have come to think of the
anthropoid apes as practically unavailable for research. For
many years the writer has been deeply interested in the
utilization of primate material for the solution of certain
psycho-biological problems. During this time he has worked
diligently for the estabHshment of a primate station which
should provide for the all-around study — anthropological,
physiological, psychological, sociological — of infrahuman
primates, and more particularly of the anthropoid apes.
There is at least reasonable possibihty that such a station
may be established in Cuba. MeantimiC various investiga-
tions are being prosecuted, and there is far more reason for
encouragement and augmentation of effort than ever before.
This report is primarily an account of observations which,
like most of our studies of the infrahuman primates, are
prehminary and preparatory to effective and determined
attack on important problems. One of the tragedies of our
scientific situation with reference to primate material is that
few observers succeed in getting beyond the preliminaries of
general acquaintance with the animals. Not until a per-
manent breeding and observation station for such work exists
14 TRAITS OF YOUNG CHIMPANZEES
will this waste of scientific effort be obviated and the system-
atic and profitable investigation of problems by the use of
primates made possible. For those who are familiar at first
hand with anthropological and psychological research, it is
needless to insist that the infrahuman primates should prove
invaluable. With them it should be possible to make
observations under controlled experimental conditions and
with knowledge of the life history and characteristics of the
subject which is either quite impossible or obviously im-
practicable in case of human subjects. For the layman
and would-be patron of research with the primates, demon-
stration of values is essential.
CHAPTER II
History and Care of a Pair of Chimpanzees
In the summer of 1923, Dr. William T. Hornaday of the
New York Zoological Park kindly brought to the attention
of the writer the availability of a pair of young chimpanzees
which appeared to be in unusually good condition and other-
wise peculiarly suitable for scientific use. At the time the
animals were being cared for at the Park. Subsequently
the pair was purchased by the writer from their owner, Mr.
Noel E. Lewis, who had recently brought them to the United
States by way of England. The animals had been christened
Prince and Mary by Mr. Lewis. Prince, he stated to have
been captured near Lubutu on the eastern border of the
Belgian Congo. He was said to be an unusual type of
"blackface" chimpanzee about fourteen months old (August,
1923) weighing 19 pounds, approximately 2 feet 3 inches
standing height. Mary, Mr. Lewis reported as captured in
British West Africa up the Bonny River beyond Old Calabar.
He described her as a "whiteface" chimpanzee with broad
head, large, protruding hairless ears, aged about sixteen
months (August, 1923) weighing 18 pounds, and 2 feet 1 inch
standing height. The male, Mr. Lewis said he purchased on
shipboard at an English port. The female, he secured in
Africa.
The animals were brought from New York by Mr. Lewis
and delivered to the writer at Concbrd, New Hampshire,
August 6, 1923. Then they were taken to Franklin, where
until late in September they were kept comfortably and to
their evident satisfaction on a New Hampshire farm.
15
16 TEAITS OF YOUNG CHIMPANZEES
Conditions for keeping and observing the chimpanzees
at the writer's country place were very nearly ideal and for
eight weeks work progressed steadily and satisfactorily.
The animals were housed in well ventilated, commodious
quarters and in favorable weather were given their freedom
for some hours each day in an adjoining pasture and birch
lot.
On September 25 it was necessary to transfer them to
Washington, D. C, the winter location of the writer. There
they were necessarily housed more closely, suitable cage being
constructed in dwelling house with adjoining open-air porch,
to which the animals at their desire gained access at any hour
of the day. The indoor cage, measuring approximately 10
feet long, 8 feet wide, and 6 feet high, was equipped with
toilet, sleeping boxes, climbing ropes.
The room temperature, maintained by a hot-water heater,
varied during the winter of 1923-1924 from 50° to 70°F;
60° was the temperature striven for. There was no indica-
tion whatever that a higher temperature, such for example
as ordinarily is maintained for anthropoid apes m zoological
gardens, is necessary or desirable for the young chimpanzee.
The animals spent much of their time on the open porch or
running back and forth between cage and porch. The male
even played in the snow, paying little attention it seemed to
the temperature, but fascinated by the unusual appearance
and feel of the substance. Only once during the period
covered by this report (August, 1923 to June, 1924) did either
of the animals show symptoms of coryza, and in that instance
they simultaneously developed an affection quite evidently
contracted from attendant, with sneezing, running of nose,
etc. This affection was mild and lasted not more than two or
three days. Recovery was complete as well as speedy. My
Chim and Panzee with Mr. Lewis
HISTORY AND CARE OF CHIMPANZEES 17
observations, I believe, justify the inference that young
chimpanzees may be satisfactorily kept in temperate climates
at ordinary temperatures, if shelter boxes or nests are pro-
vided for their protection from inclement or unusually cold
weather. They require fresh air, sunlight, clean quarters,
suitable food in adequate quantity, opportunity for exercise,
and companionship. No highly organized animal, and least
of all the anthropoid apes, can be satisfactorily kept in iso-
lation.
I secured Chim and Panzee, for thus they were rechrist-
ened, as scientific subjects, with the purpose of rearing them
under continuous observation and of becoming thoroughly
familiar with their daily life, needs, and their physical and
mental characteristics.
This is the first chapter of a story whose length is indeter-
minate. It is published at this time because of a radical
change in plans necessitated by the transfer of work from
Washington, D. C, to Havana, Cuba. A second reason for
reporting at oiice the observations of the first few months is
the untimely death of Panzee. Although the animals both
seemed to be in excellent condition when I purchased them,
I shortly thereafter discovered that Panzee was suffering from
some puzzling disorder which affected her appetite and
activity. So long as she was kept in New Hampshire her
condition improved steadily although slowly. We were
therefore hopeful of restoring her to perfect health. In the
somewhat less favorable climate of Washington and with the
closer confinement she gradually lost ground, and on January
19 she died at Havana, whither I had taken her with the hope
that the milder climate might restore her. Autopsy indica-
ted that death was due to tuberculosis affecting primarily
the abdominal organs. Chim was in perfect health and
18 TRAITS OF YOUNG CHIMPANZEES
physique when he came to me and has so continued. Al-
though he had every possible opportunity to contract tuber-
culosis he seemingly escaped. At any rate his physical condi-
tion appears to be excellent. He is extremely active and to
the tuberculin test (intra-cutaneous) his reaction is com-
pletely negative.^
In addition to observmg the varied behavior and environ-
mental relations of the animals in order to familiarize myself
with their characteristics, it was arranged to give special
and systematic attention to evidences of insight in their
adaptive responses, to innate reactive equipment, and to
vocal expressions. Considerable progress has been made
in each of these several directions.
Since this report is merely a chapter from the life history of
a pair of young chimpanzees, it is scarcely appropriate to offer
a historical summary of studies of chimpanzee behavior.
Such a summary is in course of preparation, but it may more
properly find place elsewhere than here. I may mention
certain conspicuously important contributions to our
knowledge of chimpanzee behavior. Most notable of all
are the reports of investigations at the Canary Island anthro-
poid station. In the bibliography which concludes this
report will be found several publications from and about
that station. Of pecuhar interest and value is the monograph
by Koehler entitled " Intelhgenzpruf ungen an Menschen-
affen."
It is pertinent to remark that Koehler (now Professor of
Psychology in the University of Berlin) and the writer, in
touch since 1914, have been able to assist one another
^ For administration of this test I desire to make grateful acknowl-
edgment to Major A. P. Kitchens, Medical Corps, United States Army,
and Captain R. A. Kelser, Veterinary Corps, United States Army.
HISTORY AND CARE OF CHIMPANZEES 19
materially. They were simultaneously engaged in studies of
insight of anthropoid apes, Koehler using chimpanzees at the
Canary Island Station, the writer observing an orang-utan
at the private laboratory of G. V. Hamilton in Cahfornia.
In the present investigation the writer has been able to profit
by the report of Koehler and he herewith gladly acknowledges
his obligations to that able and single-minded investigator.
CHAPTER III
Physical Traits
Inasmuch as the subjects of this study cannot be satis-
factorily described by special designation, it is evidently
desirable to offer brief description of their physical charac-
teristics. This will be attempted for each in turn.
Chim is said by all of the authorities who have seen him
to be either a sport or a representative of a type of chim-
panzee rarely seen in this country. I infer from available
information that he belongs to Pan schweinfurthi marungensis.
He is covered with a thick coat of rather fine black hair.
A few white hairs appear about his Hps. The hair is
abundant on the head, covering the orbital ridges, and as
whiskers along the sides of the face and jaws. His ears
carry also a fringe of black hair. The hair on the head is
directed backward with no sign of part. At the base of the
spine there is a spot which is practically devoid of hair.
Below this is a short anal tuft of black hair. The hair on
the Hmbs is abundant and characteristically directed.
His head is round, the face short and abrupt, the hands,
feet and limbs proportionately large and extraordinarily well
developed, the skin black or very dark brown, the eyes incon-
spicuous because almost the color of the skin and therefore
lacking in expressiveness. They are rather beady, and al-
though indicating keenness and alertness have almost no
value as indicators of emotion ! His nose is unusually prom-
inent for a chimpanzee and suggests that of the gorilla. The
ears are small and set close to the head.
Chim 's teeth when I received him were almost black. Mr.
20
PHYSICAL TRAITS 21
Lewis stated that they were stained by coffee. I surmise,
however, that this was not the case and infer from informa-
tion gleaned from other sources that they had been stained
by some African berry or fruit. In the course of the past
eight months they have become appreciably lighter and the
permanent teeth are now almost white. In August, 1923,
and the same is true at the present writing, June, 1924, Chim
possessed his full quota of milk teeth, twenty, and in addi-
tion his first pre-molars, making a total of twenty-four.
As to the age of this male chimpanzee it may be remarked
that fourteen months in August, 1923, Mr. Lems' statement,
is probably an underestimate. It is not Hkely that the ani-
mal would exhibit permanent teeth before the end of the
third year. I therefore hazard the guess that he is now
(June, 1924) more than three years of age.
The accompanying table (see page 22) presents several
physical measurements for each of the animals made on De-
cember 19, 1923. The same measures were repeated for
Chim on March 25, 1924. Some fifty additional measure-
ments were recorded for future reference.
It may be said in passing that the making of reliable an-
thropometric observations on chimpanzees is not perfectly
simple and easy. In the first place it requires considerable
time and patience to accustom the animals to the instru-
ments, and thereafter to acquire such skill in their use that
reasonably trustworthy observations can be made.
The characters measured and the procedure employed are
described for human subjects by Hrdlicka (8). The meas-
uring devices consisted of Hrdlicka head calipers, small and
large straight calipers, Starrett steel tape, graduated in milli-
meters, scale, and home-made stadiometer. The latter was
constructed with sliding foot-piece so that the animal could
22
TRAITS OF YOUNG CHIMPANZEES
be placed on its back with head against head-rest, legs
stretched, and feet against foot-piece. When sitting height
was desired the animal was seated upright on head-piece and
foot-rest was brought in contact with head.
Certain physiological observations also were made, chiefly
because of the unsatisfactory condition of Panzee. It was
Physical measurements
Weight (before breakfast), pounds
Standing height (taken with animal lying full
length on stadiometer), cm
Sitting height, cm
Arm reach, cm
Head length, cm
Head width, cm
Ear (R) length, cm
Ear (R) width, cm
Decem-
ber 19,
1923
22.6
76.0
48.0
104.0
11.8
10.0
5.6
3.6
March
25, 1924
24.5
79.0
50.0
108.5
12.0
10.3
5.5
3.8
Decem-
ber 19,
1923
18.5
70.0
44.2
99.0
12.6
10.6
6.5
5.0
discovered that the body temperature (rectal) of Chim ranged
normally from about 36° to 37.5°C. The diurnal variation
was surprisingly great. Panzee 's temperature ran some-
what higher, ranging cormnonly from 37.5° to 39°C. At
certain times her temperature was obviously subnormal
Whether or not the usual temperature was above normal for
her species, age, and sex, I do not know.
Panzee in appearance contrasted markedly with Chim.
PHYSICAL TRAITS 23
She was a typical "whiteface" specimen, presumably Pan
chimpanse (Meyer). Her coat was black, but notably coarser
and more sparse than that of Chim. The hair was less abun-
dant and extended less far forward on the head than in his
case. Panzee 's orbital ridges carried only a few hairs, whereas
his are thickly covered. Her ears also were entirely hairless
and unUke his were large and conspicuous because standing
out markedly from the head. At the base of her spine there
was a semi-circular tuft of white hair 2 to 3 inches in length,
thus contrasted with the small black anal tuft in the male.
Nothing peculiar was observed in the limb and trunk pelage
of the female. The sides of Panzee 's face, like Chim 's, were
covered with hair, but more thinly, so that her white skin
showed conspicuously. On her lips and chin the hairs were
sparse, short and entirely white.
Panzee 's eyes were light brown, large, surrounded by a
considerable area of white sclera and extremely expressive.
Whereas his eyes are rendered inconspicuous by the lack of
contrast with his skin, hers were emphasized because her skin
was almost white and her eyes a beautiful brown.
Panzee 's head was larger than Chim 's, decidedly broader,
but with receding forehead and with a much more prolonged
face. Her body was smaller. The most conspicuous differ-
ences in physique, apart from skin color, were in the charac-
teristics of face and head. Hers was a typical chimpanzee
facial angle and expression; his that of the Kooloo kamba as
described by Du Chaillu.
The lips of Panzee differed in appearance as well as use from
those of Chim. Her upper lip was strong and conspicuous.
Her lower lip was still more pronounced, protruding ordina-
rily beyond the upper lip and being used habitually to hold
food while she was eating. Chim 's lips, in addition to being
24 TRAITS OF YOUNG CHIMPANZEES
much less conspicuous, are used differently in that the lower
one is seldom made a temporary repository of food.
Whereas Panzee in both facial appearance and manner
suggested the Irish type, Chim similarly suggested the
Negro.
Panzee 's hands and feet were smaller and more delicate
than those of Chim, and she was considerably less fleshy and
less well developed than he when the animals were received.
Whereas he was conspicuously well developed as to chest,
limbs, etc., and extraordinarily strong and energetic, she was
thin, weakly, and inclined to quiescence. It was at first
supposed that temperamental differences rather than
physical condition were responsible for the contrasting
behavior of the animals.
Panzee in August, 1923, possessed the regulation quota of
twenty milk teeth. With the exception of a broken incisor
in the upper jaw the teeth were in fair condition, and were
white as compared with Chim's. Possibly her bad physical
condition had retarded dental development. In favor of Mr.
Lewis' estimate that her age was slightly greater than that
of Chim are the cranial measurements and the fact that she
was master of the cage when she chose to assert herself. I
am inclined to believe that her age also was somewhat under-
estimated by Mr. Lewis and that when received by me in
August, 1923, she was at least three years of age.
Because of the obvious ill health of Panzee, continuous
effort was made to discover the nature of her complaint and
to improve her condition by out-door life, exercise and care-
ful feeding.
In October, 1923, examination indicated that both animals
PHYSICAL TRAITS 25
were infected with hookworm.' They were given on
November 1, 3 cc. of carbon tetrachloride by stomach tube,
which was followed by 1 ounce of magnesium sulfate in
water.
In view of subsequent developments there is no reason to
suppose that the hookworms importantly influenced Panzee 's
condition. All of her symptoms indicated digestive disorder.
Her appetite was poor, extremely variable, and the condition
of her bowels bad, tending toward diarrhea. Much of the
time she preferred to lie in her nest and it was seldom possible
to experiment with her. Because of the nature of the
symptoms and the writer 's inexperience tuberculosis was not
suspected until too late. Meantime all resources were
exhausted in efforts to discover the nature of the digestive
disorder.
1 1 am indebted to Drs. G. W. McCoy and C. W. Stiles of the Hygienic
Laboratory for examination and advice, and to Drs. Morris C. Hall and
Jacob E. Shillinger of the Bureau of Animal Industry, for treatment of
the animals and valuable advice.
CHAPTER IV
Mental Traits
daily routine
The care of the animals would have been simple enough
except for the illness of Panzee. They were fed regularly
three times a day, the mid-day meal being light, and their
dietary was varied. Meats and eggs they consistently
refused, but they more or less wilhngly and eagerly accepted
oatmeal, corn meal, rice and hominy boiled and served warm
with milk; vegetables — especially carrots, lettuce and, in
Panzee 's case, tomatoes; berries as represented by black-
berries and raspberries; fruits, more particularly apples,
oranges, bananas, peaches and pears. Fruits were preferred
to all other foods. Cereals were used largely because of
availability and convenience. Coarse bread, including corn,
whole wheat, and bran, were taken occasionally but not
eagerly.
They were extremely partial to milk, slightly warmed, and
each was given about a pint a day during the first few
months. Either Klim (milk powder) or pasteurized milk
were used. Chim takes water in considerable quantity,
whereas Panzee usually refused it except when warm.
Usually in the middle of the day each animal was given a cup
of weak tea and in addition Chim often had about a half-
pint of water.
The animals were readily taught to sit at a table especially
designed for them and to feed themselves. They could
handle cups successfully and use spoons. Chim has con-
sistently refused to dip the spoon into the food, although once
26
MENTAL TRAITS 27
it is filled he will carry it to his mouth. There appears to be
a pecuHar inhibition in this case. Panzee on the contrary
fed herself with spoon readily and skilfully, although she
mostly preferred to be fed.
Exceptions to the above statement are due chiefly to
Panzee 's poor health or to occasional over-feeding. Chim 's
appetite seems insatiable. He will not refuse any food which
he likes so long as he can hold it. Similarly he will drink
milk or even water to the limit of his capacity. It is amus-
ing indeed to see him drink directly from a faucet which fur-
nishes an endless supply. He appears to feel under compul-
sion to imbibe all that comes!
Cod liver oil was given occasionally, especially to Panzee.
Chim at no time required medication or tonic for the improve-
ment of his health.
The usual feeding hours were 8.30 to 9 a.m., 12 to 1 p.m.,
and 5.30 to 6.30 p.m. Immediately after the evening meal,
which commonly was a fairly heavy one, the animals of their
own accord went to their bed or beds — for some time they
were kept separate — and settled themselves for the night.
Nothing ordinarily was heard from them until the breakfast
hour and often they would be found in bed at that time.
Throughout the day, however, Chim kept extremely busy
with whatever forms of amusement he could command.
Panzee 's activity varied notably with her physical condi-
tion. Usually she spent several hours of each day resting
quietly in bed or lying in a comfortable corner of the living
room. During the latter part of her sojourn in New Hamp-
shire she was sometimes fairly active, occasionally playing
spontaneously with Chim and even climbing trees when in the
open pasture.
It was Panzee 's habit to cover herself with hay, blanket or
28 TRAITS OF YOUNG CHIMPANZEES
anything else provided for the purpose. This evidently was
partly for warmth, but, as indicated by the use also of any
strip of burlap, strings or ropes which happened to be handy,
it was in a measure adornment. Chim, on the contrary, gave
little attention to articles which might be used to cover or
drape about his person. When in bed he apparently pre-
ferred not to be covered, and when out of bed he was far too
active to keep anything on his person.
Apart from certain exceptional conditions, both chim-
panzees were cleanly in their habits. In the quarters pro-
vided for them in Washington, D. C.,^ a simple toilet arrange-
ment was installed, consisting of a galvanized iron pan about
3 inches deep by 15 by 18 inches. This pan was placed on the
floor of the cage in one corner and held by wooden cleats
which prevented the animal from displacing it. From the
side of the cage it could be withdrawn by the attendant
to be emptied and washed. Extending diagonally across this
pan from one corner of the surrounding frame to another was
a strip of wood 2 inches wide by 1 inch thick, on which the
animal could stand. Chim evidently understood the pur-
pose of this toilet device from the first. He used it
commonly, although not regularly. "Out of sight, out of
mind" perhaps accounts for his lapses. Panzee was less
reliable, but she also seemed to understand our intent in
instaUing the toilet. Altogether the device worked fairly
well, and we experienced no unreasonable difficulties in keep-
ing the quarters tidy.
The nest or bed arrangement consisted of a wooden box
14 inches deep by 32 by 18 and J inches (inside), in the
1 For valuable aid in designing and constructing the quarters I
am indebted to Messrs. Blackburne, Lanham, and Hilt of the Zoological
Park, Washington, D. C.
MENTAL TRAITS 29
bottom of which fitted snugly two galvanized iron pans,
which were of the same dimensions as the toilet pan.
These could readily be removed to be emptied and cleansed.
Covering the pans, and also removable, was a piece of heavy
wire netting, 1 inch mesh, and on this in turn was placed a
burlap bag containing coarse shavings or excelsior. This
served as a mattress. The bed was made up each evening
and in the morning the mattress was taken out to be dried
in the sunlight and the screen and pans removed and cleaned.
Undoubtedly a hammock would have served quite as well
as the mattress. The latter was used chiefly to assure suf-
ficient warmth to Panzee. She was very partial to a woolen
blanket and when given a small white blanket she would
take particular pains not only to cover herself neatly and
effectively, but to keep it clean. Almost certainly her
great care in this respect was due to training before she
came into my hands.
In sex behavior and cleanliness my chimpanzees differed
markedly from those observed in the Canary Island Station.
The latter, because of long periods of confinement in small
cages, were filthy in their habits, whereas my animals were
tidy. On the other hand, Chim, when received by me, had
the habit of masturbating, whereas the reports of the Canary
Island observers indicate the absence of this habit in their
animals.
TEMPERAMENT
I purchased Chim and Panzee with the information that
they differed extremely in temperament. This proved to be
true, but whether the significant differences in behavior
which are in point may be attributed to race, sex, age, or
health differences is uncertain. My conviction, after months
30 TRAITS OF YOUNG CHIMPANZEES
of careful observation, is that expressions of temperament in
Panzee were dependent on her physical condition. I do not
believe such differences in chimpanzee behavior as are
described below can be safely attributed to race, sex, or age.
Although we have been slow to admit the fact, it is clear that
temperament and character are quite as dependent upon
physical constitution as is intelligence.
In brief, Chim is sanguine, venturesome, trustful, friendly,
and energetic, whereas Panzee was distrustful, retiring,
lethargic. His behavior usually suggested unusual intelli-
gence; hers stupidity.
In their relations to people the animals exhibited their
usual diversity. Chim would go willingly to almost anyone
who seemed friendly. Panzee 's reaction was difficult to pre-
dict. Sometimes she would meet advances more than half
way. Occasionally she would seek out a stranger. Both
animals appreciated kindness. Panzee 's mode of expressing
appreciation was a gentle pat on her attendant's shoulder.
This she administered rarely, and only when she was deeply
grateful for friendly consideration. Chim has never been
observed to express his feelings in this manner .^
Chim's preference for persons who were in a measure res-
ponsible for his care and conduct seems to depend chiefly on
their disciplinary attitude. He approves them in the order
of their indulgence. Those who allow him to have his own
way and are pleasant and kindly about it hold first place in
his esteem. Those who demand obedience and enforce
reasonable regulations are respected, but not sought after!
Chim when punished, or threatened with punishment, habitu-
ally strives to escape the discipHnarian. Panzee instead
2 Miss Cunningham's young gorilla, Sultan, pats the shoulder of a
human companion in expression of satisfaction or appreciation.
MENTAL TRAITS 31
would crowd upon the person and strive to get into his
arms. This remarkable difference in response to punish-
ment deserves study. It may prove to be characteristic of
sex.
Chim in a few instances exhibited his friendly spirit towar d
human companions by bringing objects to them. A case in
point is the careful plucking of some blossoms one day in the
New Hampshire pasture and the presentation of them to a
lady attendant.
Both Chim and Panzee when in the great out-of-doors
romped more or less boisterously, he especially so. They
also on occasion threw themselves on the ground with utter
abandon and, relaxing completely, rested in obvious comfort.
Frequently Chim would stretch out on his back in the pas-
ture and with his hands under his head bask in the sunshine.
Panzee never assumed this attitude. It was strikingly
suggestive of a human attitude of relaxation. Opportunity
for play was eagerly sought, especially by Chim, and occa-
sionally by Panzee when she was feeling well. Chim went to
considerable lengths to invent modes of amusement when
alone and games that he could play with human companions
or with Panzee. He is extremely fond of being chased
about, also of chasing things which try to escape him. When
playing with a person he expresses his emotions in two
peculiar ways. The appearance of these expressions depends
on his relation to the person and on his mood at the moment.
With me he frequently stops, and shaking his left hand
vigorously, completely relaxing it at the wrist, stands erect,
and with mouth open and teeth exposed assumes a fighting
pose. That this is play I have repeatedly demonstrated by
putting my hand or finger into his mouth. He has never
bitten me, but he immensely enjoys the mock attack and
32 TRAITS OF YOUNG CHIMPANZEES
defense. Sometimes he will jump up and down swinging his
arms and waving his hands as if they were pivoted at the
wrist.
The other amusingly expressive reaction in connection
with play he has never exhibited in his relations with me, but
several times when romping with a lady attendant or with a
small group of admiring observers at hand. The act consists
in either standing on his head or resting on his hands with
head near the floor and throwing into the air either one or
both legs, at the same time shaking it or them in a manner
which suggests complete relaxation. This leg movement is
similar to the hand movement described above. The whole
performance makes the observer feel that he is trying to give
one the chimpanzee "glad hand. " The peculiar thing about
it is that he should use his leg instead of his arm.
Fondness for music or at least for rhythm was exhibited
by the animals, but more particularly, perhaps because of his
more abundant energy and activity, by Chim. On occasion
he would dance about keeping time to music and showing
appreciation of rhythmic sounds and of the excitement atten-
dant on music and human companionship. Panzee never
danced and, although interested in music, gave no clear indi-
cation of satisfaction in it. It is not improbable that the
dance movement in the young male is related to courtship
behavior.
Although the chimpanzee is incapable of shedding tears, it
exhibits its displeasure or discomfort by facial expression
and by a combination of sounds and facial expression which
may properly be described as weeping. Satisfaction and joy
were expressed by my young animals in varied ways, among
them the patting of shoulder, being peculiar to Panzee, and
pronounced laughter, peculiar to Chim. The smile or laugh
MENTAL TRAITS 33
occurred most commonly in response to favorite foods or
opportunity for much desired companionship and play.
Chim can be made to laugh by tickling him on the ribs.
Panzee more frequently resented this treatment and tried to
bite.
The common modes of expressing resentment, anger and
rage are much like those of the child. In resentment the Hps
are protruded and there is a plaintive whine. In anger the
lips are more likely to be drawn back exposing the teeth.
The mouth may be opened and the whine is replaced by a
scream. In rage these reactions are exaggerated and the
animal is likely to throw itself on the ground and tumble
about or whirl around as though on a pivot. Both Chim and
Panzee, but Chim more frequently, exhibited all of these
reactions. When refused some much-desired food he occa-
sionally would scream loudly and throw himself about
energetically, careless of his bodily comfort or welfare. I have
seen the same sort of behavior in children of two to five years.
As contrasted with anger, the emotion of fear, with its
incipient stage of timidity and its extremity of terror, gains
expression in defense reactions. Vocal response usually is
lacking. Instead of whining or screaming as in anger, the
animal keeps perfectly quiet, as though to avoid attention.
The pulse and respiration increase more or less markedly
and as timidity develops into terror the hair becomes erect
and the animal either holds itself tense and ready for flight,
or, if the opportunity offers, silently steals away.
My best opportunity to observe fear reactions appeared in
connection with brush fires and cows in the New Hampshire
pasture. Chim was fearful of the open fire. Panzee paid
little attention to it. Presumably experience is responsible
for his behavior. His timidity in the face of fire either in the
34 TRAITS OF YOUNG CHIMPANZEES
fireplace or in the pasture expressed itself by silent attention,
alertness, and preparedness for retreat or flight.
When the animals were together approached by a herd of
cows in the pasture they exhibited the fear reaction noted
above, but in addition Chim sought Panzee's side and kept
his hand on her shoulder as though to protect and direct her.
When the cows were near and a person either stood between
them and the chimpanzees or was beside the latter, Chim
frequently would beat the ground with hands, feet, or both,
as though to frighten the strange creatures away. This he
did only when his natural courageousness got the better of his
timidity. I have never seen him do it when his hair was erect
and body tense in preparation for flight. Panzee never
exhibited any of the defense reactions. If terror stricken she
either scurried away from the object of fear or sought human
protector. Both animals had complete confidence in their
human companions and relied implicitly on them for protec-
tion against harm.
The interest of the cows in Chim and Panzee was insistent.
As soon as these little natives of Africa were brought into the
pasture the herd, if the wind were toward it, would head
for them as though drawn by some irresistible force. They
would deliberately approach to within a few feet of the
chimpanzees. Several times I demonstrated to my satis-
faction that the odor of the chimpanzees was the determining
stimulus. The cows never seemed satisfied with what they
could see no matter how close they came to Chim and Pan-
zee. On the other hand the chimpanzees were entirely satis-
fied with what they could see of cows at a hundred yards,
and when they came to within twenty feet of them they
exhibited extreme uneasiness even though in the arms of their
caretaker.
MENTAL TRAITS 35
Incidentally it was observed many times that extreme
anger or fear in Panzee was very promptly followed by
diarrhea.
Expressions of sympathetic emotion, although not lacking,
were sometimes difficult of identification. Panzee, for
example, would occasionally resent liberties which were
taken with Chim and would, as it seemed, come to his defense
by attempting to strike or bite anyone who was playing
roughly with him. I at first thought that this was an expres-
sion of sympathy. Subsequent observations indicate that it
was jealousy instead. Similarly, the interpretation of
Chim's behavior toward Panzee when both were lonesome,
frightened or discouraged by being left behind on a walk, is
difficult. Casually observed, his attendance on her at such
times and his evident efforts to push or pull her along, and
indeed to direct her by placing both hands on her shoulders,
or an arm about her waist, suggest sympathetic companion-
ship, but continued observation indicates that his is far from
unmixed altruism. It is always difficult to decide to what
extent he is directed by selfishness at such times. When
timid or fearful he inevitably seeks companionship. His
presence beside Panzee, who may happen to be unconsciously
sustaining his courage, looks altruistic, and there is no reason
to deny the altruistic element, for when Panzee fell behind
on our rambles because of her relative weakness, Chim often
would respond to her cry of complaint by dropping back to
help her forward. I recall once seeing him stand beside her
in heroic attitude until the cows gradually approaching were
within ten yards of them, when, evidently unable longer to
control himself, he deserted her and made a dash for the
nearest tree. Perhaps many men would have done hkewise.
Expressions by Chim and Panzee of sympathy for persons
36 TRAITS OF YOUNG CHIMPANZEES
were abundant. They readily became attached to those
whom they saw constantly and learned to trust. Of gentle
disposition naturally, they are affectionate and loyal, ap-
preciating kindness and, in case of Chim, at least apparently
understanding reasonable discipline and even punishment.
NEST BUILDING
Nest building is one of the favorite play activities of the
young chimpanzee. Perhaps I should say the young male,
for in this case the female was not observed to construct any
tree nests, although she rarely made incipient moves toward
the construction of nests on the ground. Chim sometimes
built several nests in the birch trees of the New Hampshire
pasture in rapid succession. Again, a week or more would
pass without any move on his part toward nest construction.
The performance suggests innate equipment. The little male
climbs a tree and suddenly begins to pull toward him the
branches and twigs within easy reach. As he draws them in
he tucks them under him. Some of the branches break off
and these stay in place and help to hold those which are
unbroken. If the materials within easy reach are not suffici-
ent to make a good solid nest the animal breaks off adjacent
small branches and carries them to the nest. In the course of
five or ten minutes Chim can thus construct a nest of leaf
covered boughs, usually located 10 or 15 feet from the ground
in case of my observations, which will comfortably and safely
hold him. On completing a nest he commonly would try it
for a short time and then turn to some other form of amuse-
ment. In no case was he seen to construct a cover or roof or
to attempt to cover himself while lying in a tree nest. His
interest was limited to the process of construction; use was
not involved and he was seldom seen to return to old nests.
MENTAL TRAITS 37
He evidently preferred to make a fresh start in a new location
each time.
On the ground or indoors nests may be constructed of
almost any available materials — even a rug serving the
purpose by being pulled together and folded.
Panzee once or twice was seen to climb a tree to look at a
nest which Chim had built or to lie in it. Ordinarily, how-
ever, she paid no particular attention, either to the process of
construction or to the completed nest.
Although in case of these young chimpanzees only the male
built tree nests, it is reported by the observers of the Canary
Island Station that all of their animals exhibited this form of
activity. Presumably under the conditions of observation
both in New Hampshire and in the Canary Islands nest
building was primarily play or exercise. It may also have an
element of practice.
To see the birches of a New Hampshire hill pasture filled
with chimpanzee nests makes one feel queer. Perhaps the
chimpanzees themselves feel at least as much out of place in
this environment as the nests seem to us.
This account of the daily life, habits, and temperamental
characteristics of Chim and Panzee, despite its lack of cer-
tain scientific attributes, is, I believe, justified by the paucity
of our dependable knowledge of the nature of this race of
anthropoids. While regretting the fragmentariness and
obvious incompleteness of the observations which are
reported, I am confident that they are worthy of record
because few persons trained to the careful study of animal
behavior have been intimately associated with young chim-
panzees for months at a time.
CHAPTER V
Evidences of Insight
I have not given special attention to problems of sensi-
bility in Chim and Panzee and the following statements are
only roughly descriptive of the animals' equipment. Un-
doubtedly the sensory equipment of Chim and Panzee was
excellent and in general comparable in usefulness to that
of the normal man. Vision is clearly the dominant sense.
Smell is used frequently and effectively as a guiding sense,
especially in locating and testing foods. Touch, taste, and
kinesthetic sensibility are also important.
OBSERVATIONAL ABILITY
The use of vision, ever impressive, varied greatly from
time to time and with the two individuals. Chim, always
alert and interested in everything within the reach of his
senses, seemed never to tire of watching objects. Panzee,
on the contrary, seemed indifferent to most aspects of her
varied surroundings. When riding in an automobile Chim
would sit up at attention almost continuously, looking at
objects both near and distant and taking keen interest and
satisfaction in appearances and happenings about him.
Panzee was more likely to attend only to unusual appearances
or events and to those which for one reason or another com-
pelled interest or action. Similarly in case of distant vision,
Chim was interested, Panzee was not. He has repeatedly
been seen to gaze intently from the hilltop pasture into the
river valley or to the distant mountains.
38
EVIDENCES OF INSIGHT 39
ADAPTABILITY
Of some value as evidence of the sort of intelligence which
is designated as "insight" is the response of the animals to
such unusual treatment as that of the surgeon and the
anthropometrist. When Chim and Panzee were treated
for hookworm, Chim, although much stronger and therefore
more able to resist the treatment than Panzee, quickly sub-
mitted to having his jaws wedged apart, the stomach tube
placed in his throat, and the drugs administered. He acted
as though he were willing to accept the situation on faith
and relied on our judgment. Panzee, by contrast, struggled
from first to last against the insertion of the jaw wedge, of the
stomach tube, and the administration of the medicines.
She took nothing for granted and exhibited no confidence in
us or willingness to adapt to what evidently struck Chim as
the inevitable. This is typical of the behavior of the animals
in connection with medical and surgical experiences.
Again, when attempt was made to weigh the chimpanzees
Chim permitted himself to be placed in the basket of a scale
and, although obviously puzzled and slightly disturbed by
the unusualness of the situation, he sat quietly until the
reading had been made. When effort was made to put Pan-
zee into the basket she scrambled out unceremoniously and
continued to do so with each repetition of our attempt.
Finally as a means of circumventing her unadaptability, the
idea came to me of placing the animals in the basket together
so that she might be assured by Chim 's presence. The first
time this was tried Panzee scrambled out, but with less show
of alarm and resentment than formerly. The second time
she remained for a few seconds. Subsequently it was pos-
sible to read the combined weight of the animals and by sub-
40 TRAITS OF YOUNG CHIMPANZEES
tracting Chim's to obtain hers. After a few repetitions of
simultaneous weighing of the two animals Panzee became so
accustomed to the basket that she would sit in it alone
quietly. This observation indicates, among other things, the
marked difference in adaptability of the two animals.
Another illustration of adaptability is supplied by the reac-
tion of the animals to a home-made stadiometer which was so
planned that standing and sitting height could be readily
obtain,pd. The apparatus required that the animal be
stretched at full length on its back, with head firmly against
an upright headboard, legs stretched, and feet against a
movable foot-board. Naturally both Chim and Panzee
objected to being so placed. Chim, however, very quickly
learned to accustom himself to the unusual position and pro-
cedure and permitted us to make the readings satisfactorily.
For Panzee it required many more experiences to establish
the same degree of adaptation.
The measurement of head height by the HrdHcka procedure
and with the use of the head caliper and an additional scale
placed on top of the animal 's head offered peculiar difiSculties
and was extremely alarming, if not also uncomfortable, to
the animals. It therefore provided a unique opportunity for
a rough measure of adaptability. What disturbed the
animals most was having the ends of the head calipers in-
serted in the external auditory meatus. Neither Chim nor
Panzee became reconciled to this experience. Each time
the measurement had to be repeated, Chim fought the inser-
tion of the tips of the calipers. In at least three instances,
after repeatedly pushing aside the calipers and preventing
the observer from securing a reading, Chim suddenly became
quiet and let us apply the calipers and make the reading with
entire satisfaction. It was as though after repeatedly ex-
EVIDENCES OF INSIGHT 41
pressing his dislike of the procedure he all at once made up his
mind that it was inevitable and might better be got over with
promptly. Panzee, although disliking the experience, ob-
jected less strenuously than Chim, and on the whole gave
better opportunity for this particular physical measurement.
On the other hand she never showed the sudden change from
resistance to acceptance that appeared in Chim.
These four instances of differences in speed and degree of
adaptation to unusual circumstances are selected from
many which might be described. They will suffice to suggest
at least the order of difference between these two young
chimpanzees.
INSIGHT AND IDEATION
Both Koehler and the writer have concentrated attention,
as research opportunity offered, on the study of ideational
behavior in the anthropoids. The writer has presented in
another connection (12) evidences of insight in a young orang-
utan, while Koehler has presented strikingly similar,
although more numerous and varied, evidences of ideational
behavior in adolescent chimpanzees (9). This report
presents certain evidences for chimpanzees which are much
younger than any observed by Koehler. According to his
estimates the age of his subjects ranged from six or seven
years upward.
Since the results now to be reported are qualitative merely,
it will be unnecessary to describe in detail the situations
which were contrived by the experimenter to test or exhibit
whatever insight the animals might be capable of. This
statement does not imply that the situations were casually
arranged, or the observations carelessly made. Instead,
every attention was given to essential features of the tests,
42 TRAITS OF YOUNG CHIMPANZEES
and the behavior of the animals was accurately noted and
recorded.
Inasmuch as the desire for food is a strong and dependable
motive for effort, food was used as reward in all of the tests
which are now to be described.
To begin with I shall present in some detail, by quotation
from my notebook, the behavior of Chim in the first type of
test situation.
In an observation room approximately 22 feet long, 12 feet
wide and 7 feet from floor to top of beams, with space between
beams and roof, a string was suspended to which a banana
could be attached at any desired height from the floor. This
string could not be reached from any point in the room by the
animals. In fact, the nearest approach by side walls or
overhead beams was approximately four feet.
The first record reads as follows:
At 4.35 a piece of banana was attached to string approximately 150
cm. from floor. Single rope which was attached to middle of outer
beam for animals' play had previously been hghtly fastened around beam
so that it should be out of the way as I supposed Chim would naturally
use it to climb and swing on and might accidentally discover that banana
could be approached by means of it.
He was interested immediately in the banana, watched me intently
while it was being put in place, looked about the room, climbed up to
the outer beam, seemingly measured the distance with his eye, swung on
the looped rope which was fastened to the beam at both ends and at one
point hung about a foot below beam, descended to floor, looked up at
banana, went to outer corner of room and climbed up on Miss
Mumpoting's lap as though seeking help, gazed at her a few seconds,
climbed down, took another look at the banana, climbed up on outer
beam, then down to loop of rope and sat or lay astride the loop swinging
there reflectively for perhaps a minute, climbed down again to the floor.
It was now 4.45. The end of rope had been lightly wrapped around
beam. I noticed it to be loose and when a minute or two later Chim
EVIDENCES OF INSIGHT 43
again climbed to top of beam his first pull on the rope freed it and allowed
it to swing as usual from middle of beam to within a few inches of the
floor. As soon as the rope swung free from the beam he scurried down
to the floor, seized it and began to swing on it some 2 feet from the floor,
looking at the banana constantly. Twice he allowed himself to
swing with the rope. The movement was almost entirely rotary, but
he controlled it perfectly, causing himself either to spin around or to
hang quietly without touching the floor. Having made this swinging
test and observation, he dropped to the floor and holding the rope with
one hand ran back with it for 5 feet toward the outer end of the room.
He then threw his weight on the rope and allowed it to swing him toward
the banana. The first swing brought him within 2 feet of the banana.
The second time he swung still further, and on the third attempt he
grasped it and dropped quickly to the floor to eat it. Time, 4.50.
The whole period of effort was about fifteen minutes and during this
time his attention seemed to be almost continuously directed to obtain-
ing the banana.
I next measured his reach standing on the floor and discovered that
he could easily reach 70 cm. I therefore placed a piece of banana on the
string at 100 cm. from the floor. Almost before I could step back he
was under it and with one spring upward grasped and secured it.
In order to discover what he would do when the banana was placed
so high that it could not be reached from the swinging rope, at 5.10 I
placed a piece on the string 180 cm. from floor with the rope hanging
free as usual in middle of beam. He immediately made a general survey
of the situation, then climbed to rear beam, scrambled along it and with
his hands felt the edge of rafter leading toward banana. The roof
boards fitted so closely that he could get no hold, so he turned back and
dropped to the floor. Almost immediately he ran to the outer beam,
climbed up and resting on it pulled the rope up to him. Stretching him-
self out on the beam he grasped the rope with one hand, looked toward
the swinging banana and jumped for it, one arm outstretched, the other
holding the rope. His aim was perfect. He grasped and held the piece
of banana and with scarcely a jerk because of the skill with which he had
measured distance and rope, he swung back, dropped lightly to the floor
and ate his prize. Less than five minutes elapsed between the beginning
and the end of this observation. Attention and effort were continuous.
Chim was now removed to living room and preparations were made for
box stacking test. The continuity of attention, rapidity of motion,
44 TRAITS OF YOUNG CHIMPANZEES
initiative and versatility of this chimpanzee are remarkable in contrast
with those of Julius (an orang-utan).
A few days later, in summary comment on the behavior of
Chim in this initial type of situation, the following record
appears:
In the banana and string experiment he has thus far used his experi-
ence and skill in climbing with or without rope, in jumping and in swing-
ing from it. His versatility and skill in securing the banana thus are
very great. The methods which he has thus far used with success are
(1) springing from floor and seizing banana; (2) seizing rope, running
back and swinging on same until banana can be reached; (3) seizing rope
while above floor, swinging on same by body contraction and seizing
banana; (4) mounting beam, drawing up rope, holding same with one
hand and grasping banana with other as he jumped toward it; (5)
swinging from under side of beam and trying to grasp it as he hurtled
past. I record this as successful because he evidently could get the
banana in this way if permitted to take the risk. He also examined the
possibihty of climbing along rafter and has given indication of desire to
jump from beam directly toward banana.
The second test of insight was made with the aid of a
bottle about 12 inches long, 4 inches wide at the bottom and
2 inches at the top, the neck of which projected through a
hole just sufficient to allow for it in a box 6 inches deep, 20
inches long by 15 inches wide, the side of which next the floor
had been removed. Into this bottle in the presence of Chim
a banana was dropped. As the neck of the bottle was too
small to admit the haiid of the animal, the easy way to secure
the reward was to turn the box over, pull the bottle out and
inverting it, shake the banana out of it.
With this device Chim was given several opportunities to
experiment. The greater part of his time and effort was
given to trying to force his hand into the bottle or attempting
to haul the bottle, neck first, through the hole in the box, a
EVIDENCES OF INSIGHT 45
feat which was impossible because the bottom of the bottle
was larger than the top. It was only after two or three
hard-won successes in attaining the reward that Chim took
to turning the box up and pulling the bottle out from beneath.
This method, I think, was achieved rather by accident than
by insight. At any rate the animal 's behavior did not sug-
gest the effective use of ideas.
A method which both Koehler and the writer have used
to advantage in testing anthropoid ideation is the so-called
*'box stacking test." A young orang-utan tested with
this method achieved success only on the basis of imitation.
Certain chimpanzees observed by Koehler, on the contrary,
stacked boxes spontaneously and with considerable skill
in order to obtain suspended banana. It must not be for-
gotten, however, that Koehler 's animals were much older
than Chim and Panzee.
The setting of the box stacking experiment may be briefly
described as follows: A light strong cord was attached to the
ceiling of a room approximately 8 feet high.. The nearest
point from which the animal could reach toward this cord
was more than 5 feet distant. To the cord a banana was
attached at distances from the floor ranging from approxi-
mately 150 to 200 cm. Three boxes were provided for the
animal's possible use, each with one open side. The boxes
differed in size in accordance with the following dimensions:
no. 1, 16 by 12 by 11 inches (one 16 by 12 side open); no. 2,
16 by 10 by 9 inches (one 16 by 10 side open); no. 3, 11 by 11
by 10 inches (one 11 by 11 side open). These boxes were
placed on the floor of the room within convenient reach of
the string, but so far from it that the animal could neither
reach from them nor spring from them to the reward without
moving them.
46 TRAITS OF YOUNG CHIMPANZEES
As it was ascertained in advance that Chim could by
springing reach an object approximately 100 cm. from the
floor, the banana in the first instances was placed 150 cm.
from the floor.
In this test the initial use of a box to reach or spring from
came slowly. Chim exhausted all other possibilities of ap-
proaching the reward before finally attempting to move one
of the boxes. Having tried this experiment and discovered
that it worked he very naturally came to drag the boxes
about and place them to suit his purpose. Then came a
period of resourcelessness when the banana was placed at
such a height from the floor that it could not be obtained by
the use of any single box. Under these conditions Chim
wasted one full period (usually about thirty minutes) of
observation.
The utilization of two or more boxes appeared suddenly
and without warning as described below.
At 6.30 p.m. on August 27 and before the evening meal,
the box stacking test was arranged. Chim was in fine work-
ing condition. The string was baited with a large banana
placed about 150 cm. from the floor. The three boxes were
placed about the room at least 2 feet from a point directly
beneath the banana.
Chim made no move to get the banana until I left the room. Then
he turned to his task directly and with extreme energy and evident
determination.
First he sprang a few times from box 1 in its original position, but
it was too far away for him even to touch the banana. Promptly
abandoning this method he seized box 3 and moved it toward the center,
leaving it perhaps 12 inches oflf center. From this box, thus placed, he
jumped in rapid succession twenty or more times, working with utmost
persistency and energy. Stopping he turned suddenly toward the rear
side of the room and pulled a blanket from peg to floor. I supposed be
EVIDENCES OF INSIGHT 47
was going to use it in some way, but instead he immediately dropped it,
left it lying on the floor, and returned to box 3 from which he jumped two
or three times.
Then, with no hesitation, he seized box 3, carried it directly to box 2
and placed it thereon with its open side uppermost. He now tried to
stand on the edge of box 3, but as this proved an unstable point from
which to spring, he immediately abandoned it, having made only one
or two futile efforts to spring from the stacked boxes. He next pulled
box 3 from box 2, carried it to box 1 and placed it thereon insecurely.
Immediately he mounted the boxes and skilfully balancing on box 3
as it rested on box 1, he jumped toward the banana. At the same time
box 3 fell to the floor, but Chim seized the banana as he sped through the
air and eagerly devoured his reward.
This whole performance required less time than it takes to describe
it because he worked with great rapidity, jumping so hard and repeatedly
that at times I was afraid he might injure himself. The total time f-om
"setting of experiment to success was less than five minutes.
Thus with surprising suddenness appeared the perfect
solution of the box stacking test. Subsequent opportunities
to meet the situation adequately resulted merely in the
perfecting of method. It is needless to describe the process.
Chim had gained the necessary insight for the solution of the
problem. That insight came not by suggestion from the
experimenter, as in the case of Julius, the young orang-utan,
but through observation, apparently supplemented by
reflection.
The suddenness of Chim's success in the box stacking
experiment suggests the orang-utan 's solution of a multiple
choice problem (12). The animal, after many days of effort
which seemingly brought the solution no nearer, suddenly
achieved success. Seemingly the problem was solved over-
night. The only reasonable explanation of such sudden and
radical change in behavior is insight. Koehler has described
similar behavior in adolescent chimpanzees. It was, how-
48 TRAITS or YOUNG CHIMPANZEES
ever, farthest from my expectation that Chim, scarcely
beyond his infancy, would stack boxes without suggestion or
tuition.
In the box and stick test Chim failed. A long narrow box,
measuring approximately 5 ft. by 4 by 4 in. was fastened to the
floor of a large room. In the middle of this box was placed
a banana which could be seen through wire screened lid, but
which could not be reached by the animal from either end.
On the floor of the room some feet distant from the box lay
two sticks which were light enough to be used readily by the
little chimpanzee and each sufficiently long to be used to push
the banana out of the box.
Although Chim on four different days was given from
fifteen to thirty minutes to work for the banana, he made no
attempt to use a stick to obtain it. Occasionally he would
pick up a stick to play with it, sometimes dragging it about
the room, but never did he show any sign of appreciation of
the stick as a possible tool or instrument to secure the
banana. This test was not long continued because of the
intention of the writer to present it subsequently when Chim
is somewhat more mature. It is worthy of note that the
young orang-utan several times referred to solved this
problem with relative ease, promptness and effectiveness.
Most surprising and impressive in Chim 's behavior was the
continuity of attention, high degree of concentration on his
task, evident purposefulness of many, if not most, of his acts,
his systematic survey of problematic situations, his rapid
elimination of unsuccessful acts or methods, and his occa-
sional pauses for reflection. I use this term without apology,
even to the behaviorist, for the simple reason that if Chim
were a child instead of a chimpanzee we should apply the
term without hesitation and with assurance that it would
EVIDENCES OF INSIGHT 49
convey to every intelligent reader what is intended. I have
never seen a creature give more convincing signs of reflection
than does this young chimpanzee when spoken to or com-
manded in an unusual way or when some new and strange
object is presented to him. His behavior suggests the
puzzled air and thoughtful attitude of a child who faces a
new situation. That this description of Chim's behavior is
unsatisfactory I admit. Undoubtedly we should seek to
verify our objective data and so to supplement them that we
shall know with reasonable completeness the physiological
counterpart of the attitude which is spoken of as one of
reflection. Nothing is positively proved, beyond the
ability of the animal to meet certain novel problems, but the
unprejudiced observer, no matter how highly trained in
scientific procedure, certainly would grant that Chim seems
to have ideas and to utilize them frequently if not fairly
continuously in his adaptive behavior.
Once more it must be emphasized that these so-called
tests of insight are merely formal examples of situations
which supply opportunity for adaptation. The test situa-
tions which accidentally or unintentionally appeared during
the several months of my study of the young chimpanzees
are too numerous to enumerate, still less to describe. Only
one or two will be mentioned.
Chim's daily life supplies varied evidences of ideation.
Witness the following contrasted behavior of Chim and
Panzee when given the half of a large juicy orange cut at
right angles to the segments. Chim after a little experi-
mentation learned to extract the pulp without losing a drop
of the juice. His method is to hold the orange with one or
both hands and beginning at the edge, without breaking the
skin, with lips and teeth to extract the pulp from one or more
50 TRAITS OF YOUNG CHIMPANZEES
segments. This done he rotates the object slowly and simi-
larly takes the substance of the next segments. Thus he
systematically devours the orange. Having extracted the
juicy portion, he pulls out the remaining membranous parts
and there remains the clean skin, usually turned inside out.
In case the half orange happens to be small and very juicy
he is quite likely to apply it closely to his face and suck it dry
without moving it.
Panzee 's technique in eating a half orange was crude and
imperfect by comparison. Her method varied greatly and
commonly resulted in the loss of more or less of the juice.
She usually managed to so mutilate the skin that it was
difficult to get all of the substance.
Chim's method strikes one as peculiarly clever or intelli-
gent. Her behavior, on the contrary, seemed rather stupid
or careless. Although this description perhaps does some
slight injustice to Panzee 's native endowment it does not
exaggerate the contrast in intelligence of the two animals.
Without complete knowledge of the life history of an ani-
mal it is quite impossible to estimate the contribution of
experience in any given situation. Since the infrahuman
primates are known to be extraordinarily imitative of the
activities of other members of their own race and also of other
types of primate, it is obviously important that students
of primate behavior have complete knowledge of the history
of their subjects. This knowledge in the case of Chim and
Panzee is lacking. Although unfortunate, this is not excep-
tional, for the literature contains no single account of an
experimental study of the behavior of an anthropoid ape
whose life history has been carefully observed and faithfully
recorded from birth.
More important than the presence of imitative tendency
EVIDENCES OF INSIGHT 51
in the infrahuman primates is its specialization, selective-
ness and restriction. In order to be safe I must at once par-
ticularize and limit my statements to the pair of young chim-
panzees which I have observed. Many human acts are
intently watched and eagerly imitated by the chimpanzees.
Panzee, it is true, imitated only rarely even the acts of Chim,
but he always was ready to try things which he saw his human
companions do. Scrubbing and sweeping seem to have
peculiar fascination for him and after seeing a person use
cloth, scrubbing brush or broom he would try to use them.
Doubtless the use of stick, hammer, nails, saw, etc., in his
presence would stimulate imitative effort. He has been
tried many times with a ball and has slight tendency to imi-
tate throwing or rolling it although he is usually ready to try
to catch it as it comes toward him.
Among the most amusing and perhaps also significant
instances of imitation are the following.
A boy of twelve who was playing with Chim in the New
Hampshire pasture one day began to spit to see whether Chim
would imitate him. Chim watched with keen interest and
perfect attention. Almost immediately he tried to spit.
His initial efforts were amusing if not effective. The follow-
ing day in the observation room he was seen off in a corner
practising spitting, having achieved in the meantime a fair
degree of proficiency. As this performance was promptly
discouraged the story stops here.
Panzee after being bitten slightly in the finger by Chim
during one of their rather rough games was seen shortly
thereafter trying to wrap a bit of cloth about the wounded
member. Although this incident is described under imita-
tion I cannot be positive that it was imitatively performed.
52 TRAITS or YOUNG CHIMPANZEES
Certainly Panzee had had previous opportunity to observe
the use of pieces of material as bandages.
Such examples or illustrations of seemingly intelligent
imitation of acts within the species or without it might be
greatly multiplied.
Inasmuch as speech finds its source in imitation it is logical
at this point to introduce a general account of the vocal reac-
tions of Chim and Panzee. This account is merely prefatory
to a special report on the sounds and speech of young
chimpanzees, by Mrs. William S. Learned, which constitutes
the second part of this volume.
CHAPTER VI
Sounds and Speech
Vocal reactions are frequent and varied in the young chim-
panzee, but speech in the human sense is absent. Although
the animals have a sound producing apparatus which pre-
sumably is capable of functioning much as does that of man,
there is sHght, if any, tendency to imitate sounds. Chim
and Panzee would imitate many of my acts, but never have I
heard them imitate a sound and rarely make a sound pecu-
liarly their own in response to mine. As previously stated,
their imitative tendency is as remarkable for its specializa-
tion and limitations as for its strength. It seems to be con-
trolled chiefly by visual stimuli. Things which are seen
tend to be imitated or reproduced. What is heard is not
reproduced. Obviously an animal which lacks the tendency
to reinstate auditory stimuli — in other words to imitate
sounds — cannot reasonably be expected to talk. The human
infant exhibits this tendency to a remarkable degree. So
also does the parrot. If the imitative tendency of the
parrot could be coupled with the quality of intelligence of
the chimpanzee, the latter undoubtedly could speak. For,
as already pointed out, it possesses a vocal mechanism com-
parable with that of man, and also a type and degree of
intelligence which would enable it to utilize sounds effectively
for purposes of speech.
Chim and Panzee, with excellent voices and ability to
produce a wide range and a great variety of sounds, yet
exhibit only a few types of vocal reaction. Certain sounds,
it is true, are characteristic of certain situations, as for ex-
53
54 TRAITS OF YOUNG CHIMPANZEES
ample, situations or objects which are desired or Hked, disliked
or resented, avoided or feared, and so on. Our observations
of the animals ' vocal reactions, our descriptions of them, and
our attempts to interpret them, constitute the materials
for the remainder of this volume. It is my final task to tell
of systematic efforts to teach Chim to speak.
After short acquaintance with the animal I concluded that
he would be an unusually good subject for speech tests.
Plans were therefore formulated for systematic training.
Thus far during the past eight months, four methods of
speech instruction have been tried, and each in turn aban-
doned because of lack of positive results.
In one wall of the observation room at Franklin, New
Hampshire, a small hole was cut to permit pieces of banana
to be delivered through a chute to a small receiving table in
the observation room. My thought was that the experi-
menter by going to this hole from time to time and making
such a sound as " ba, ba " in response to which pieces of ba-
nana would appear on the table, might not only attract the
attention of Chim to the relation of the sound to the much
desired fruit, but stir him to attempt to make the sound on his
own account.
Once or twice a day for a period of some two weeks this
training test was conducted. Chim, at first greatly inter-
ested in the performance and eager to get pieces of banana,
gradually lost interest in everything except the food. He
made no attempt to reproduce the sound and the method was
finally abandoned as unsatisfactory.
Some weeks later a box was constructed in which pieces of
banana codd be held ready for delivery on a little shelf or
table at the base of apparatus. This mechanism was
arranged so that it could be hung on the wall of the animal 's
SOUNDS AND SPEECH 55
cage and operated at will by the experimenter. Each day at
a stated hour the observer would place the apparatus in
position, having loaded it in advance with six pieces of ba-
nana each about an inch in length, and would call Chim to
attention. With him beside the apparatus and watching
intently, the sound "co, co" was made distinctly and em-
phatically a few times, whereupon a piece of banana suddenly
appeared on the table. Sometimes Chim was allowed to
have the banana, and again the experimenter took it in order
to continue his interest and attention, and if possible increase
his eagerness for the reward. Occasionally this procedure
induced certain lip movements seemingly in imitation of
those of the experimenter. Rarely, and as if by accident,
Chim would make a sound. Certain slight and unconvincing
intimations of attempts to make sounds when facing this
apparatus appeared. The training test was continued for
several weeks with regularity but, apart from the above
encouraging signs, with negative results.
Another type of device consisted of a board on which was a
small box hinged on one side and provided with a spring
which when released would raise the box and uncover a
banana. This box had a wire mesh cover through which
Chim could see the banana.
Having placed a banana in the apparatus the experimenter
would take it into the cage and having secured Chim 's atten-
tion, would make the sound "na, na" distinctly and em-
phatically a few times, thereupon releasing the apparatus so
that the banana was uncovered. Usually the observer
seized the banana and began to eat it, thus intensifying the
eagerness of the animal. In the second or third trial Chim
was allowed to get the banana and eat it whether or not he
made a sound. This method also, although tried until
56 TRAITS OF YOUNG CHIMPANZEES
the interest of the animal practically disappeared, yielded
wholly negative results.
The experimenter succeeded in training him to speak for
food as a dog may readily be taught to do. This he did,
however, not in imitation of the trainer but to secure the
food.
Throughout the period of observation effort was con-
tinually made to interest Chim in human speech and in the
production of sounds. He was talked to a great deal and
naturally learned to respond properly to certain sounds or if
not to the sounds alone, to the situations which they accom-
panied. Occasionally he seemed to try to talk when persons
were talking in his presence.
Although superficially considered these speech training
tests are discouraging they have served to throw valuable
light on certain of the characteristics of the chimpanzee and
have made possible the formulation of problems which are
well worth experimental attack.
II
VOICE AND "LANGUAGE" OF YOUNG
CHIMPANZEES
BY
BLANCHE W. LEARNED
CHAPTER I
Introductory Remarks
The records of vocal expressions presented in this volume
were made under pecuHarly advantageous conditions since
the animals, although under control, were given a large degree
of freedom and were subjected to varied conditions of obser-
vation. The study of vocal reactions, although far from
exhaustive, offered such interesting materials that it was
decided to publish immediately. No review or discussion of
other reports on voice or speech in the young chimpanzee is
given because nothing similar to these descriptions in musical
notation has been discovered.
The method used in recording the utterances presupposes
considerable training and experience in aural exercise and
is, perhaps best compared with the taking of dictation. The
element of memory came into the work occasionally. In-
variably the utterances were recorded iminediately after
they were heard. In addition to description of sound, the
situation in which it occurred was carefully recorded. No
attempt was made to discover the significance of sounds until
the observational task had been completed and effort begun
systematically to arrange observations. It then appeared
that classification by type of situation seemed both natural
and useful. The records consequently were arranged in
four principal groups which may be described briefly thus:
Vocalization while waiting for food; while eating; when in
company with persons; and when the two chimpanzees were
together.
To supplement the observation of Chim and Panzee, the
59
60 VOICE AND "language" OF CHIMPANZEES
principal sounds made by the adult chimpanzees at the New
York Zoological Park were noted. These are reported
briefly for comparison with the vocalizations of the young
animals.
The description assumes that the reader is familiar with
simple musical notation, yet one who knows only the most
common signs, such as the dynamic marks, the staccato and
legato symbols, and the rhythmic value of notes and rests,
can appreciate most of what is recorded. Bar-lines indicate
pauses of varying length.
As the observations covered a period of several weeks, a
continuous story was impracticable. The episodes, however,
are in general consecutive, especially those dealing with food,
and they have been selected from an abundance of records as
either typical or significant because of the circumstances.
Various minor difficulties appeared in connection with
descriptive nomenclature. Chim's "whine," for example, is
not necessarily complaining. Yet the term "whine" seemed
best to describe these unvocalized tones.
Although the young chimpanzee uses significant sounds in
considerable number and variety, it does not, in the ordinary
and proper meaning of the term, speak. Consequently there
is no chimpanzee language, although there certainly is a
useful substitute which might readily be developed or trans-
formed into a true language if the animals could be induced to
imitate sounds persistently.
CHAPTER II
Sounds Associated with Food
cmm waiting for food
Early morning. When their room was first opened, Chim
gave an unique call. It was, perhaps, the most remarkable
of his utterances from the vocal standpoint, and consisted of
two tones, widely separated in pitch, but sounding simul-
taneously. This seems a strange phenomenon to one used
to the limitations of the human voice. The presence of two
ventricles, or sacs, in the throat which are much larger and
more flexible in the ape than in man serve to intensify the
voice and increase the volume.
As indicated below, these tones were very loud, the upper
ones piercingly shrill and clear. The lips were drawn well
back showing teeth and gums. With this greeting he^held
out his arms in welcome, eager to be taken up.
2*
8va
i
f#
I
^
f — r
1
//I
ae ae ae ae
Morning. He began his call with the upper tones alone,
increasing the volume until he burst into the double tones.
These calls contain the most dissonant interval in musical
structure, the minor second (f sharp and g). They are three
* 2 over 8 va. signifies two octaves above the notation.
61
62
VOICE AND LANGUAGE" OF CHIMPANZEES
octaves apart in register, however, which somewhat softens
the effect of dissonance.
2
8va.
-f^
:^ ^
I ■ I ",l -=
p
•^-4-^i
l±
W-
¥■-
J(Z.
2 ae ae ae ae ae
Morning. He whined impatiently and screamed his dou-
ble-tones:
Sva. . . .
-^ 1» ^i 1 ^i 1 i
'~^^¥^
4d — 1 - — ^-^—-i-^ —
^ r>p ff
=^
m ae
Again he whined, and screamed repeatedly:
i
2
Sva
i-^ ^
PP
ff
^\ I \ \ r
ae ae ae ae ae
Morning. Greeted us with a soft whine:
2
Sva.
It
i£
P
etc.
SOUNDS ASSOCIATED WITH FOOD
63
and screamed while holding out his arms to be taken up:
2
8va.
ff
Morning. Chim did not offer his usual hearty welcome.
He remembered no doubt, that he had had to work for his
breakfast the day before. (See experiments nos. 34-51).
He uttered but a single tone:
i
w= =f
p
r
And later this shrill cry of disappointment:
8va
//
ae - ae - - ae
Followed by gahk, gahk:
ffi
9 gahk gahk
Gahk seems to be the root word for food in chimpanzee
language. It has several variants (see Boma's records nos.
295-298) one of which is ngahk. The nasal is somewhat
prolonged seemingly to express greater enjoyment, as a child
64
VOICE AND
"language"
OF CHIMPANZEES
often uses the nasal m for the same purpose. This gahk
is significant here since it was the usual time for Chim's
breakfast, and there was no breakfast in sight. He watched
the preparation for the experiment as he moved about rest-
lessly. When Dr. Yerkes went out of the room he whined:
i
10
P
and seeing the writer rise, he pouted his lips saying ooh-ooh-
ooh in a plea not to be left alone. This word is rare with
Chim but very frequent with Panzee.
i
1!s=l!«:
11 ooh, ooh, ooh,
Chim seemed excited and very hungry as he saw his supper
being brought. He barked repeatedly somewhat hke a dog:
i
4
£
w^
12
■jfliah, whah, whah, whah, whah, whah, whah, whah, whah,
A change in procedure. Chim was to have the first
course of his breakfast, a bowl of oatmeal, before the experi-
ment. He saw Dr. Y. approaching with his tray and seemed
to doubt whether it were for him. Very softly:
4
13
8va.
PPP
i
SOUNDS ASSOCIATED WITH FOOD
65
Morning. He uttered this attractive phrase as his oatmeal
was being brought:
14 m-m m-m m-m m-m m-m m-m m-m
Dr. Y. came with guests to the observation room. Chim's
greeting was:
-I- [ ^ ^ -
Pfc;t
i=^r=^
and:
m
ye m m m J5 m in m
He seemed very restless, moving about and whining :
m m-m m-m m-m m m-m m-m-m
He whined looking toward the kitchen door which was
some rods distant:
t
i J i
i
:fc=^
1^::!^
PP-^-
18
m-m m-m
Seeing Dr. Y. leave the house with his tray he uttered an
exaggeration of the motive for fruit, the movement being
downward as before but with the interval extended to a
whole tone over an octave and the accent very sharp.
^
19
66 VOICE AND "language" OF CHIMPANZEES
Evening. He whined as supper was brought:
s
:^=t=t
^
20
m- m m- m m- m
While waiting for breakfast:
8va • • •
1rr-r-
^^^^
P » 1
21
m - m m- m
The next morning:
8va. ..
" k-
$
i^
i
22
m
m- m - - m
m-m - - m
Evening, after a very active afternoon in the open, spent in
playing leap-frog and in riding the birches. He was without
question very hungry and showed unusual emotional stress
in a series of broken octaves. He spoke rhythmically and
with the deliberation of a pronouncement as Miss M. ap-
peared at the door with a tray of supper.
8va
E^
'^ f ff f f.f f ff f if f ff
23 who-ah, who- -ah, who-ah, vvho-ah, who-ah, who-ah
There followed these two examples of his phrase for fruit:
i
24
m
SOUNDS ASSOCIATED WITH FOOD
67
Again, in the evening, as supper was being brought, he
expressed approval:
^^^
i
tn=t
^
25
/
m-m-m--m-m-m-m-m--m-m--m-m — m- - m- m
Morning. No experiment for several days. Chim re-
verted to his exuberant two- toned call;
2
8va
rj> r r T_T_r r r r
-Qr^—^^ ©> '^ 1^ ^ P
t.' ^ 1 1 1 1 1
^^^
///
26 ae ae ae ae ae ae ae ae
and the phrase for fruit:
27
m--m-m m--m- m
Morning. Chim yelled at the sight of food:
8va
i
^»-
!»- z«-
^ ff
28 ae ae ae ae ae ae ae ae ae
and whined:
e=d:
W-
-9 4h
29
m- m m m- -mm m m- -m
68
VOICE AND LANGUAGE" OF CHIMPANZEES
Again he called loudly:
2
8va.
l^
I ^ I ■
30
//
^
■^
-^
ae
ae
ae
and whined, ending with the fruit motive:
31
. f)
P
K
r=-
v
\
p
•
.^
> r
«
[ ,
tJ
m-
--m--
■-m-
-m-
-m —
- -m- -m
Evening. Chim was irritable. It had been a fine day,
but he and Panzee had not been taken for their usual outing
in fair weather, and the time had probably seemed long.
He had treated Panzee very roughly (see no. 73) . He greeted
the approach of their supper with this loud scream followed
by whining, then the food word, another whine, and the fruit
motive:
2
8va
32
&^=
-^-
ii
//
ae
ae
ae
ae
i
1=1:
1 — r
3tzt
S3
P
m — m — m — m gahk m m — m - - m — m- -in- -m
SOUNDS ASSOCIATED WITH FOOD
69
cmM s "remarks in experiments
Occasional mention has been made of certain "experi-
ments" which were made to test and analyze the intelligence
of the chimpanzees. In a few of these, Chim 's vocal behavior
was noted and inasmuch as all of them involved food, either
as inducement or as a reward, they are introduced as a conclu-
sion to the present chapter.
This experiment took place in the morning before Chim
had eaten breakfast:
During his efforts to solve the problem he whined softly,
at first, but grew increasingly impatient raising his voice in
pitch and increasing its volume:
^
U'l^ i ^uii/i^^ ^
u&
Jt-2^
V l^ l^ U*
S:
34
PP
f
~ff,
He finally burst into his loud scream:
2 2
8va 8va.
TT.T
P^P (^
i^
I I ^
=ffi^&
42-
^
-t^-
t
ae
/
35
ae
ae
Continuing his endeavor, he alternated his piercing single
and double-toned scream with whining phrases throughout
the test. The whining varied in loudness from a fine pianis-
simo to a forte. They were beautiful tones and rather piti-
ful in their appealing quahty:
36
70 VOICE AND language'* OF CHIMPANZEES
Pause:
37
Pause:
J) V f r t
W
m
=^
— ^ p ^ — p p p Pa —
4>-
tj
/^p
Became irritated again:
5m
^
t=*
1^
4
-z;h
:i
L-1
A
—P—
m
w
^r-^
±=^
t< \ •v — »sr
1i^
t^
-2:i 25) 25l Z5f-
IK
39
/
//
ae ae ae ae ae ae ae
Complained softly:
8va.
11
40
Called angrily:
PPP
m
8va.
w
^r
1^
///
¥
41
SOUNDS ASSOCIATED WITH FOOD
71
To have a banana in a bottle, and to be obliged to think how
to get it out was annoying:
ip
t=t=t
8va....
-^ — f^
#^
UL^^ ' ^i y l ^ ^
-fe^ k ^
m
rtp=^
42
ae ae m
P
m m m
His friend Miss M. appeared in the yard and these rapid tones
followed:
i
^m^
w
8va.
f Presto.
43 m m
Dr. Y. urged him to get the banana, and his tones increased in
rapidity and intensity, also rising in pitch, until he reached
the climax of his tonal expression again:
Then complained and called:
8va
t=t
^
^
:^
i±.
T
W
45
P
f
A pause, during which he seemed to be working hard on his
problem; then softly:
8va
I I
46 ^
l±
tJ
72
VOICE AND "LANGUAGE" OF CHIMPANZEES
A pause, and very softly:
8va.
m
47
A pause and this:
PP
8va.
-^-»-^
i±
48 ^ p
Another pause and:
^
49 ^ PP
A prolonged pause and:
i^f^^^
50
Then;
51
il:
nghak
when a bowl of oatmeal was brought to him. Nghak is a
sound that Chim used frequently when eating and when
apparently well pleased with his food. (See Eating Nos.
74, 81, and Boma no. 295.)
The next experiment he took more philosophically showing a
SOUNDS ASSOCIATED WITH FOOD
73
disposition to adjust himself to new, though difficult, condi-
tions. Two contrasting utterances were first: Softly:
52
And shrilly:
53
W^'
8va.
m-
Izizzt
m m m
A pause and a variant of the food word:
S:
54
And:
55
gha gha
11
Then fearing that the only person in the room was about to
leave him, he called pleadingly:
[ s | s ^ I . ^
55 ooh ooh ooh m
The procedure was changed somewhat for this experiment.
Chim was given a bowl of oatmeal beforehand, and he worked
with no one in the room.
74 VOICE AND ^'language" OF CHIMPANZEES
He was very subdued, whining but a single tone:
■^
f
57 m
But judging by thumps and other noises that emanated from
the room he was busily working.
When Dr. Y. went in to change the arrangement of the
apparatus Chim uttered a loud bark:
ro
58 '"^^^
(See no. 97-107 for Chim's behavior immediately after this
experiment in which he made up for the long period of quiet.)
Another experiment, after the oatmeal course, in which he
was successful in piHng up boxes to reach a banana that was
suspended above him. He was silent in striking contrast
to the first experiment which seemed to be a long difficult
experience.
Again alone during the experiment he uttered a single
phrase:
in
J^^
m
59
PANZEE WAITING FOR FOOD
The opening of the wooden outer door of the chimpanzees'
sleeping room was the first thing on their day's program.
The inner door was a heavy wire screen which served as pro-
SOUNDS ASSOCIATED WITH FOOD 75
tection as well as to let in air and sunshine. Chim always
appeared at the screen upon hearing footsteps approaching
or before. Panzee, also, sometimes left her nest to watch
their breakfast being brought from the house across the yard.
One morning she said approvingly:
m
ooh - ooh - ooh
60
Another morning, very softly:
it
^
tJ
PPP
61 ooh-ooh-ooh-ooh-ooh
And another, more deliberately:
^
1 P 1
62 ooh - ooh - ooh
Evening. Panzee was much upset. Dr. Y. was absent,
and Panzee, always a stickler for the established order,
greatly disapproved of having any one else perform the
sacred rite of feeding. She stalked from the observation
room to the sleeping room, where they ate, with an indis-
cribable air of offended dignity, stamping her feet gently
and raising her fur — always an evidence of emotional excite-
ment with both animals.
She first whined, then screamed in loud, double-toned,
and truly chimian fashion; then as she saw that the supper
was really to be served by another than Dr. Y. she flew into a
passion, crouched low on the floor, and screamed, showing her
76
VOICE AND ''language" OF CHIMPANZEES
teeth, and whirling about in anger again and again. Her
whine was this:
:F=q=
63 m - - m
and her screams:
2
8va
m - - m - - m - - m
-^2_
-^-
j2.
-f2-
5^P
-P2-
-t^
^-
-^
^ sfsn
64 ae
I
ae
I
ae
ae
I
ae
ae
8va.
-^-
fc&
^
4^-
^-
ffff
^c ae ae ae ae
The following morning she uttered these soft tones while
waiting for breakfast:
:^=t^
66
ooh
ooh
Evening. As we approached with supper, Panzee greeted
us with these unusual sounds, resembling barks:
^
U^-^-^
67
— ^ — V -4 - — * — ^~^
ku6h-ku6h-kuoh-kuoh- et cetera
i— t
«=t
SOUNDS ASSOCIATED WITH FOOD
77
Another phrase uttered softly:
^5^^
ooh - ooh
^^
68 ooh - ooh - ooh - ooh ooh
Morning. Standing close to the screen, waiting for the
outer door to be opened she seemed in a happy mood, and
greeted us with this dainty phrase:
Jt, .^ ^ ' . ...
m
i ^^ 1 U* 1 u» ^
-=1-^
69
PP
ooh
ooh ooh ooh ooh ooh ooh ooh ooh
As we approached with supper she called enthusiastically
to us with gah. As is shown in the vocabulary, the food-
word has several variants of which this is one. In this record
not only are the tones rhythmically symmetrical as to length
but also as to the number in each group:
^=^
70
gall gah gah gah gah gah gah gah gah gah
Morning. As we came with breakfast Panzee called
softly:
W
— J , 1 1 \ —
^^- -0- ~m- -m- -m~
71
ooh
ooh
ooh ooh ooh
And on another morning, very softly:
^
g
72
^ PP
ooh
ooh
ooh
ooh
ooh
ooh
ooh
78 VOICE AND "language" OF CHIMPANZEES
Evening. Panzee had had an unhappy time with Chim
who had treated her very roughly during most of the after-
noon in their playroom. They had been left alone through-
out the afternoon — a rare occurrence and deeply resented.
Chim had vented his irritation upon Panzee by dragging her
around the room and mauling her about for so long that she
was completely exhausted. When taken up her body was
shaken with emotion, and her lips trembled pitifully as she
seemed to be trying to express herself in these sobbing words:
m
■■■V a^^ ^BBf
-1 1
ho - wha - hoho- wha - holio-wha- hoho - wha-ho-wha-ho-wha
73
She continued this until she was put down in her place at the
supper table where the warm food attracted her attention,
and she gradually grew quiet.
CHIM EATIiTG
The term fruit motive is applied to a group of purely
tonal phrases which are thoroughly distinctive in character,
and which were uttered by Chim and Panzee very frequently
in connection with the eating of oranges, apples, and bananas.
This fact appears to warrant the inference that they are
significant, an opinion confirmed by the writer 's observations
of other (adult) chimpanzees at the Zoological Park in New
York. (See Boma's records, nos. 286-290.)
These fruit motives are underscored to facilitate their
recognition, and the food sounds are indicated by the word
gahk or one of its variations.
It may be well at this point to note that Chim and Panzee
made occasional use of this type of phrase in connection with
milk (see no. 148), either when anticipating it or while having
SOUNDS ASSOCIATED WITH FOOD
79
it at their meals. They also used it, on very rare occasions,
while eating in the open — wild strawberry leaves and the
tender bark of young birch twigs.
Morning. Fruit as usual was the last course of their
breakfast. Apples were brought in and China uttered eagerly
the following phrases:
g
■ ^ 1 ^ 1 — ^
^r^q ;§
ngak, ngak, ngak ngak, ngjik, ngak
^
^3
^i-
teS
m m — , m m , m -
74
Shortly after, a group of children appeared at the screen.
Chim went over to see them but soon ran back to his swing-
ing rope, murmuring this variation of his fruit motive.
^^
t=a
k±.
75
He went on swinging with his head down, clutching the
rope with his feet and one hand, and holding what was left
of his apple in the other. The children were rather noisy
in their appreciation of his acrobatic performance, which
may have exdted him. He swung- too close to the floor and
got a hard bump on his head at which he uttered this pro-
longed tone:
76
80
VOICE AND LANGUAGE" OF CHIMPANZEES
A little later D., his friend and playmate who romped and
swung with him, went out, and he still used his fruit phrase
to call to him, at first very slowly:
8va.
k±
77
then very rapidly with a pronounced gliding of the tones
(portamento) :
k±
tj
78
and
79
Afternoon. While playing in the pasture, he ate wild
strawberry vine, grass, and cinquefoil, using his fruit motive
rather broadly:
8va. .
V
80
Chim always gave the impression of taking much satis-
faction in his food when he used his food- word:
SOUNDS ASSOCIATED WITH FOOD
81
II.
81
ngak ngak ngak
Panzee was very deliberate, but Chim ate much like a
hungry little boy. He was trying to get some of Panzee 's
breakfast-food, after having finished his own, when he
whined:
82 ^ -
and when his fruit was brought he first said his food-word,
then the fruit motive several times:
8va.
^±=U
+— ^
«-/
83
ngak, ngak, ngak
m m---
He was in the habit of biting off every scrap of the lining
of the orange rind with his sharp teeth. This morning he
whined very softly as he did so.
8va.
w
^^ ^^ ^lu
84
m m
Morning. At breakfast, with niuch appreciation:
i
i^
i
85
ngak, ngak, ngak, ngak
82
But when Dr. Y. took his bowl of food away, for spilling it,
he apparently thought that it was lost to him forever, and
protested vigorously with his piercing call:
2
8va
i
O- SK h- 1— &* Gf ?5 55-
"i^ p"
■^
//I I I I
g^ ae ae ae ae ae ae ae ae
After having finished his recovered bowl of breakfast-
food, he begged for some of Panzee's, very softly and rapidly:
^=^
^^^?=
l.^ ^ ^ ^'^ r^
87 mmmmmmmmmm
He was not allowed to have it, and flew into a passion.
Jumping to the floor and crouching low he ran back and forth,
the embodiment of fury, with his lips drawn, teeth showing,
and screaming his loudest tones:
z
8va
i
pr — =r — -f — r
88 ae ae ae a"'
It was characteristic of Chim when angry to begin this
scream without other utterance, and to stop as suddenly as
he began. He then would seek immediate comfort by
running to someone with outstretched arms to be taken up
and forgiven, his lips pouting in a-peculiarly appealing way.
It was intolerable to Chim to bear the displeasure of anyone
for whom he cared.
When the oranges were brought in, he expressed himself
thus:
SOUNDS ASSOCIATED WITH FOOD
83
r-& — ! r^
rr-N-M^'^n
1 ,
r ^
^ ^
^
^ * ^ — ^
^J m J^\
W— -
-gj; i —
tZ*L.
\s\J 1
]
\^
m, m — m, m, m-
^
m
ngak, -
m - -
8va^
^
^^
— i
■^
m, m - - m -
89
— ^
h-
m
— t
m
K—
Morning. He alternated, rather steadily, ghak calls with
whining phrases, the latter seeming at times, to express
impatience, and at times, eagerness:
jm- 1ti 8va.
$
S
^ >1^>1#1^
90
ngak, ngak, m m, m--m m - - ngak
Dr. Y went out to get the accustomed fruit course. Both
chimpanzees showed increased animation at once, fruit being
their favorite food, and the type of utterance suddenly
changed from the examples above to the fruit motive.
This is one of the most convincing groups of utterances in
that it shows at least the chief meaning to Chim, of the
fruit motive. When Dr. Y. had gone into the next room
for the fruit, Chim began these sounds, continuing them when
the fruit came:
i
91
m
^^
84
VOICE AND LANGUAGE" OF CHIMPANZEES
Morning. Chim was rather silent, occasionally whining
his impatience for the next bite of breakfast, and following it
by tones of satisfaction, ngak. Then more whining. There
was one example of the fruit motive that may have been in
anticipation:
r-Q .
K
F — h —
1 ^ —
1 s —
^
y t*
/r^ r
J
s
s
t0
1
\\^) Id
fj ^
'
m,
ngak, ngak, ngak,
^k
92
m, m
m,
m,
m, m
Morning. Chim had spent a soHd hour in working on an
experiment before breakfast. (See records nos. 34-51.)
When he finally got his oatmeal he uttered one expressive
ngak and a single example of the fruit motive:
iS
g
93
nghak, m
Then came these rather pathetic whining notes:
i
II.
^ i» -
^^^^
m, m, m
m - - m, m
94
Evening. At supper he was much annoyed because he
could not have Panzee's food. He screamed loudly:
SOUNDS ASSOCIATED WITH FOOD
85
2
8va.
-Cl.
l±
fff
^
- I -
-^-
95
ae, ae
I
ae
r
ae
42-
I
ae
Then he whined, and screamed again vigorously:
2
8va
a ^2 (Z f22 : !
i
I — I W I IM I '^1 I
W=^
u uw — }g
-L I I I
-|2-
/
fff\ I I \ PP_
96 m, m, m, m, m, m, ae ae ae ae m, m, m, m
Morning. Chim was given his oatmeal before his experi-
ment. These are his sounds of enjoyment while eating it:
$
I-^l^
P
97 khak, khak
(Compare with Boma's food-sounds, nos. 29^5-298.)
A long experiment ensued after which he was taken to the
observation room where Panzee was eating the last of her
breakfast, an orange. He apparently wanted it and begged
for it softly:
8va.
¥ ^
PP
98
Panzee up to this time had been willing to give up almost
anything to Chim, even the food which she held in her lower
lip. It seems to be the custom of the jungle for the male
86
VOICE AND language" OF CHIMPANZEES
to have what he wishes. She made an exception of oranges,
however, and Chim had to content himself with a bit of dis-
carded peeHng until his breakfast was brought. He went
to the swing and played around whining again nearly the
same appeal as before:
8va
z^ # « ^
atz^
m
m, m m- -
99
It was soon evident that he was not happy, and presently he
began to scream his protest:
2
8va
i
££
P P
\ — \ — V
±=t
//
100
ae ae
His milk was brought, and he ran to Miss M., uttering in
beautiful tones tliese notes of a perfect scale:
i
IS
101 ooh ooh ooh ooh ooh ooh
He drank some of his milk, but seemed too disturbed or
annoyed to continue. He screamed loudly in double tones:
2
8va
l^
f
P
^^
-^.
102
ae
-15'-
ae
Then he paused a moment, and screamed again while
running back and forth :
SOUNDS ASSOCIATED WITH FOOD
87
103
After another pause and a look around, he screamed more
loudly. He was very angry indeed :
8va.
^
//'
t=t
t^
■^
104
ae
Finally he decided to come back and drink the milk. While
drinking he choked. This was the last straw to his patience:
he became furiously angry:
8va
^ ^ ^ ^ g^ # # #
4^
E
^
105
Then
ae ae
coughing:
2
8va
ae
$
_ -g _
^
- I
106
ae
ae
2
Sva.
^^
ae
and so forth.
107
ae
ae
ae
88 VOICE AND "language" OF CHIMPANZEES
At last he became quiet and pleading to make up he uttered
this phrase very softly:
^ — K — K_
i
M
fs=i:
■3iz=^
108
m, m, m, m, m, m
Then while chewing his orange skin:
^
w
^
m, m m
109
Morning. Chim came through the experiment gallantly.
He piled the boxes one upon the other, until he reached the
banana suspended above him.
As his oatmeal was brought, he said:
^ >— ^ U ]/
W^
no
And a little later:
ooh
i
^ ^
V r <» ): #
m
111
m, m, m, ghak
Morning. After the experiment he made these sounds
while eating: jl^-.^
S^^^js
i
s^^M
y-r
gPg ^ i I i I!
a
3if
nkak, m m in m m m ni- - m m m m m m m
112
SOUNDS ASSOCIATED WITH FOOD
89
After eating his own, he stole Panzee's corn cake, and
revelled in it, thus:
i
t==4
^==t
113
nkak, nkak, nkak
When it was time for the fruit to be brought in, three in-
stances of the fruit motive were noted:
:^:^::^
l^
:;=-^
tE=1^
114
nkak m, m,
m
Morning. Breakfast again following the experiment.
Chim expressed great satisfaction with his food: first it was:
±=i
115
gak, gak, gak, gak
Then, while drinking his milk:
$
^
116
i±
116a
ghak ghak
90 VOICE AND "language" OF CHIMPANZEES
And later while eating his orange and trying to take Panzee*s
as well:
^s
^^
117 ghak ghak m
These are the sounds that he uttered while chewing the
bark of a birch stick. Note the food-word and a fruit
motive:
I
W^
118
ngak m —
Evening. He lost his temper when he was refused Pan-
zee 's supper after having finished his own. First he whined;
i
m.
119 ^"» ^Tfi, m, m,
Then he screamed long and vigorously:
2
8va
//
m
i
^
-t??-
-f5>-
-F--F-
^
f
-&<-
f-
ae
i
ae
8va.
ae
ae
ae
ae
120
ae
^
ae
-(^
ae
^
ae
i
ae
SOUNDS ASSOCIATED WITH FOOD
91
He stopped screaming suddenly, and ran to be taken up,
uttering these pleading tones rapidly and very softly:
i
^
* f -^ -W~W~W
w-
121
ooh
Morning. Chim ate his breakfast with much satisfaction
using his food-word frequently:
.pL. 8va.
k^
l^i
W±f^
^ V
ngakngakngakngak m m — m ngak ngak m
122
ngak
Afternoon. As he returned from his outing, he spied a pear
hanging in a young tree, and sprang to get it. He was told
to come back but persisted in climbing the tree, uttering this
fruit motive:
i
4^=p:
123
And afterward in his cage, while eating the pear, there was
heard this significant ngahk:
m
ngak
124
Morning. Chim and Panzee sat at meal-time at their
little box table upon seats attached at either end. They were
fed alternately a spoonful at a time, being assisted to hold
their spoons straight and to dip their breakfast-food from
their bowls. Each held his own bowl in its place on the
92
VOICE AND LANGUAGE" OF CHIMPANZEES
table with his left hand, and waited his turn, which was not
long in coming. During the first weeks Chim ate more
rapidly than Panzee, and was given more turns; but this
morning he was irritable with no apparent reason, and wanted
all the attention, expressing his impatience in the following
terms:
8va.
byt. >_ >_ >.
i
^ I I :
124a
m m m m
It was not considered good manners at breakfast to stand
on the table; but Chim transgressed several times at Panzee 's
turn, and was firmly admonished, at which he jumped to the
floor, and screaming his loud double tones, ran crouching
back and forth:
2
8va
£
-9 — 1&-
.--U--
^m
=F
ae
r=f
//'
126
ae
ae
ae
ae
Panzee was allowed to go with Miss M. to the observation
room but Chim was still screaming. Dr. Y. went out and
closed the door. At this Chim's face, always expressive,
was a study in incredulity. Here was something new, and
he could scarcely believe that he had been left — and without
breakfast ! He turned his head from side to side, and uttered
in a very small voice:
SOUNDS ASSOCIATED WITH FOOD
93
^trtr^
II-
127
mm mm mm m
Coming in the midst of his screaming double tones, this
furnishes a good example of the extremes of his varied
powers of vocal expression.
He remained quiet and was soon taken to the observation
room and given corn bread and fruit. He said only:
m
128
m m
ghak
And when his master left the room a little later, his behavior
was quite new. He seemed to be deeply impressed by the
ban of displeasure under which he felt himself to be, and
followed in a hesitating manner. When Dr. Y. turned
around at the door, Chim stood up at a respectful distance,
leaned forward, and made an eloquent gesture with his arms
and hands. It seemed as though his mind and body united
in a supreme effort to make himself understood. To all
appearances he was trying hard to speak as he uttered the
following sounds; the first three a pleading whine, the others
his own word ghak, repeated with conversational inflections:
'^=^
>=F=r
i*^
p
129
m m m ghak ghak ghak ghak ghak
Dr. Y. went out, and Chim returned in a very subdued man-
94
VOICE AND LANGUAGE" OF CHIMPANZEES
ner, picked up his corn bread, and repeated again in very
low tones his food-word:
■m=f
u — I — \ — I
^
t
230 ghak ghak - - - -
That evening he uttered in quick succession, his fruit
motive, his loud double-toned yell (in joyous anticipation
of the food that was being placed on the table), and another
fruit motive:
2
8va.
^— ^
4tp=^
-^-
pp
fff
^
131
ae
Then during supper came this beautiful phrase — deliberate
and very legato; from a musical standpoint, a fine expression
of longing:
t^ ^^ V^
-h^
i±
132
And later these tones:
PP
m
^=^
l^
133
PP
m
PP
The next morning Chim's manner was very subdued.
He had an excellent memory for a little fellow but a year
SOUNDS ASSOCIATED WITH FOOD
95
and a half old, beyond that of a human child of that age,
and seemed to be feeling unhappy because of his master's
displeasure the evening before. He had slipped by as we
were leaving him after supper, and had made a dash for the
green apple trees, whose branches overhung a stone wall
near by. There had followed an exciting chase (see no. 184
with text), in which a formidable looking stick had been used
with considerable strategy before he was recovered. At
breakfast, his friend D. was feeding him, but he kept looking
toward Dr. Y. while he ate, saying kah — kah, kah — kah
almost in a whisper:
t^^-^ ^ '^
134
kah -kah,
kah -kah.
Then when waiting for milk:
^
I U ^ I U' i I k :
^
134a m-- m-- m-- m--
And later as D. took him up, he squealed:
$
135
ae
Evening, while eating:
w
ngak
It:
mMi
136
m mmm ngak m
96 VOICE AND language" OF CHIMPANZEES
And another evening:
r ^ - v
$
^3^
I I
¥i=^^=^
137 m m m m m
m m ngak-Agak
Morning. Eating, and drinking milk:
*:
:t^
l±
138 g^ -
138a
— ^ ^
m m — ngak ngak m
m ngak
^
Evening. While eating banana and orange, Chim gave
se'/eral repetitions of the phrase for fruit and juicy foods:
139 m m m m — m, m
Morning. While eating and drinking:
^
m, m
m-
ngak m m
140
This morning Chim talked a great deal about his food:
-^
5^
1 — r-^
^ — i^-"* — * — ^
141 ngak ngak- n^
- ngak - - -
SOUNDS ASSOCIATED WITH FOOD
97
Evening. As they climbed into their nests of hay, eating
the last of their bananas, Chim uttered these attractive
phrases:
l¥
142
m m - -
Morning. Chim was never more interesting at breakfast-
time than on this occasion. While waiting for the orange-
juice to be brought in, he stepped up on the table and waved
his arms and hands in eager anticipation. He looked a veri-
table pickaninny in his liveliest of antics as he danced and
tilted from one foot to the other, flinging his hands and his
free foot in a curious way peculiar to himself and indicative
of wrists and ankles of unusual suppleness.
He uttered but one phrase as he ate:
i
143
In the evening he had more to say while he was eating the
main part of his supper:
7f=
-f
1
8va.
r- f> ■
-V-
_^_
^—
— w —
4'h-
v
1—
—m—
=d=;J^
1
— t
\^—
144
m m m m m ns
And when he was given banana, this: (Note the similarity
98
VOICE AND LANGUAGE" OF CHIMPANZEES
to Boma's utterance when calling for his meal of bananas,
apples, and oranges. Nos. 290, 295.
^•-^
ES5
ij^rtT^ fa^
j^2 ni — ni m-- m-- m-- ngahk m
The next morning he had this to say:
$
t,
F-EJ^-£
3t3t
^
m — m m m
m mm ngak m - -
m
>_*.
g
iMiix:
^=t
1^^ m m m m m ngak
^ mm m m m ngak
Another morning, when food arrived, he whined:
Ei5
147
mmmm
And when a cup of milk was given him, he responded with
two phrases like the fruit motive. This was one of the rare
occasions when Chim used this expression in connection with
food other than fruit. (See also no. 80.)
m-
^^=$j^
148
m - - m m--
m m m ngak
Evening. He was very lively. A child came to the screen
SOUNDS ASSOCIATED WITH FOOD
99
with a large bunch of fresh carrots, and he whined an ani-
mated new motive:
i
rrr f r r
149
Then followed the food-word, many times repeated, and a
variation of the first phrase with the trill, lower in pitch:
1!E=^
g
E15
150
ngak
^
S
r r r I TT
151
ngak
m
m
m
PANZEE EATING
Panzee, a really beautiful vocalist, was usually silent at
the table. She was in rather delicate condition at first and
had not much interest in food. She was in the habit of re-
tiring to her nest, which involved a climb, between courses
or when the feeding was stopped for any reason, even for a
moment.
She, too, uttered a typical phrase of distinctive quality and
use in connection with fruits:
i
O \ Vj ^
P
m--
152
100
VOICE AND "language" OF CHIMPANZEES
Morning. Panzee was silent except when the milk, of
which she was very fond, was brought; then she murmured:
m
153
ooh ooh
And when the oranges came, she ventured these tones, all
of a fine musical quality:
m
t=^
154
ooh
The next day, while eating an apple, she uttered these
tones with kha, which seemed to be a variant of her food-
word. (See no. 9.)
m
155
kha
kha
Morning. She was unusually animated, eating alone
after having had oatmeal with Chim. He was having an
experiment, and she, always keen and sensitive to what
happened to him, may have felt a certain tension in the air
which was often perceptible when Chim's intelligence was
being tested. For the first time, also, he was making some
noise as he piled up boxes in order to reach a banana sus-
pended above him. Occasional thumps could be heard as
the boxes came down, which may have affected her.
She looked as though she were talking, as she said very
rapidly and in an emphatic whisper, when a half-orange was
given to her:
SOUNDS ASSOCIATED WITH FOOD
101
$
ko ko ko ko
156
Then, as she ate, she uttered these tones:
m
? — w
-U U U U ^
157
ooh ooh ooh ooh
And when another half-orange was given her she whispered
again emphatically, changing the vowel to short u:
^
158
ku ku ku ku
Morning. It was quite evident that fine care, good food,
and long hours spent in the sunshine and fresh air were having
their effect on Panzee. She was energetic and talked with
much satisfaction of her breakfast, using her variant of the
food-word, kha. When her milk was brought, also the fruit
motive:
«=*
^
^++d-
utitat
^ ^
^
J. — j^_
m kha kha
- kha
In the evening she was very lively; in fact she climbed on
the table, and tried to get Chim 's supper — an unprecedented
102 VOICE AND "language" OF CHIMPANZEES
act on her part. As she reached for his milk, there came this
new motive:
$■
^ b # ^ ^ b ^ P =P=^
160
ee - ee - eeh,
And later this:
i
*=^^=^
161
ooh, ooh,
ooh, ooh, ooh,
CHAPTER III
Sounds Associated with Other Creatures
chim's behavior with people
As has already been seen Chim was naturally friendly. He
enjoyed being held when not engaged in something more
interesting, and greatly disliked to have his human friends
leave him.
His appeal on one such an occasion was a single ooh as
follows:
162
ooh
Another time, as they were being left for the night, Chim
begged:
^
163
ooh
And tried to slip by, insisting with these persuasive tones
that are distinctive enough to be called a coaxing motive:
i
^
s^
164
He struggled to get through, expressing himself thus:
■m
-8.
^
165
m -
103
104 VOICE AND "language" OF CHIMPANZEES
But was held back, and screamed in anger:
2
i
8va.
-i5>-
«
ff
P
166
ae
ae
ae
After a self-pitying whine, he ran to the screen door, and
screamed shrilly once more; then he whined softly as we
went away:
M=i:
-^^
S
w
167
//
ae
PP ^
m m —
Chim tore his blanket and was scolded. He answered with
these two tones.
^
^
168
PP
m
A garage mechanic, whose face and hands and clothing were
somewhat blackened, appeared at the screen. Chim was
much interested. After looking at him intently for a
moment, he said ga-ha, ga-ha in a rather conversational
manner as though he were being understood:
169 g^ M, g4 ha, gd ha
While playing under the birches he observed some friends
SOUNDS ASSOCIATED WITH OTHER CREATURES 105
of the family approaching in the distance, and uttered the
following with a welcome that was most hospitable:
k ) dmdd I
jyQ ooh ooh -
A little later in the afternoon another friend came, and
received this greeting:
^
w
171 "^---
Both chimpanzees were inquisitive, Chim particularly was
an accompHshed pick-pocket. He seemed to possess an
acute instinctive stealth without being sly. His approach
to one's pocket was merely the intelligent working out of a
definite purpose to find what was hidden behind the fold.
He examined quite as carefully a plait or the turn of a collar
or cuff before he learned that only certain folds held interest-
ing things. When discovered he was not at all discomfited,
but continued his search with a funny little change of expres-
sion in his features that seemed to say "I have your per-
mission? "
His handhng of clothing was so delicate as to be almost
imperceptible to the wearer. He would reach into a pocket
and grasp whatever was there — handkerchief, pencils, or
pitch-pipe — between the fingers held straight. His fingers
are larger and longer in proportion to the hand than those
of a child. Pencils he would split in pieces with his teeth, and
he liked to chew the eraser.
Chim's manner of carrying objects that he found, or that
106
VOICE AND LANGUAGE OF CHIMPANZEES
he purloined from his friends, is noted in the text following
No. 188.
Chim played frequently with rope and swing, and was de-
lighted to have D. join him in a grand romp. If D. 's atten-
tion were occupied, Chim would stamp on the floor, in an
engaging manner difiicult to resist.
Upon one occasion, he uttered the following when thus
encouraging D. to play:
m
:jH=:^
jtiut
172
mm mm
When D. was walking about in the yard and Chim was
indoors, the latter showed his eagerness by alternately looking
intently in D. 's direction and then restlessly moving around,
while he expressed his desire in these pleading phrases:
f^r^
^r ll'.kM
F^=
^
m
^ ^
m m m- - -
m
m- - ''
t^
~m — 1 1
173
m m-
Miss M. appeared in the yard, and he uttered this martial
motive — an amusing reminiscence of the Marseillaise:
174
m m m m
SOUJIDS ASSOCIATED WITH OTHER CREATURES 107
Chim made friends with Mr. E. and took it upon himself
to look through his hair in a very thorough fashion, going
over a considerable portion of the top of his head where there
was no hair, quite as thoroughly. At last he reached his
ears, and no mother ever peered more searchingly behind the
ears of her young son than did Chim; in fact his expressive
face took on a problematic look at this point, which amused
the two or three onlookers very much. He was silent
during the episode with the exception of the following phrase:
^^
175 m - -
Chim was not above being carried, although he was strong
and healthy. This day he preferred it, and when put down,
he pleaded with this beautiful soft phrase:
i
:^^T^-J^!^ :^
pp^ — ^ ^ '
jy^ ooh ooh ooh ooh ooh ooh ooh ooh
Then realizing the full measure of his grievance (Panzee
was being carried) he screamed:
2
8va
_^ a ^2
p -i^^ 'r^ ^-
~ fff ' ^ '
177 ae ae ae
He stopped a moment to cast a sharp look at us, then
screamed again, spun around, tumbled, and somersaulted
in his fury. This behavior he continued for some time, paus-
108
VOICE AND "language"
OF CHIMPANZEES
ing occasionally to look at us. He crouched very close to the
ground during the whole performance.
Chim discovered that there were large green apples just
over the stone wall near the observation room. If he had an
opportunity to run away he usually made his escape in that
direction. His procedure was to cUmb the tree to a point
beyond our reach, take an apple in each hand, and lose no
time in eating both. He seldom failed to manage it before
he was caught.
One morning he got away and cried excitedly as he ran
toward the trees:
8va.
i
£^r
^
^s_=i — s^
178
He was hotly chased by D. and screamed shrilly:
ffi
179
//
m
Then he whined softly as he ran looking for a loop-hole
through which to escape:
^ ^^^ 1!^ If:
^±-
180
He was nearly cornered, and yelled again:
SOUNDS ASSOCIATED WITH OTHER CREATURES
109
i
i8va.
£
WW
//'
P
181
ae
ae
ae
ae
He almost got away:
182
but finally after an exciting race, was caught and taken back:
i
2
8va.
£
-^-
f—^
-©>-
183
ae
ae
ae
On another day he ran away, and was chased with a big
stick, which whacked formidably upon the ground. He
crouched as he ran back and forth, not seeking to escape but
facing the danger, and shrieking in very loud tones this
rhythmic variation of his scream, many times repeated.
2
2 8va
:^-
-^
-^
-(^
it
r
P
f=^
==t
w-
e:
etc.
r
184
ae
ae-
ae
When shaken gently with the hand on his chest Chim
would laugh audibly, sometimes using the word kah hah
with the mouth wide open, and in regular rhythm, the pitch
changing but sUghtly:
110
VOICE AND LANGUAGE" OF CHIMPANZEES
^^
^
ms s g-^
185
kah hah kah hah kah hah
Then leaping a fifth, sixth, and fourth, up and down the
scale, his laughter became heartier:
l±
186
kah hah kah hah kah hah kah hah kah hah kah ha ha
At another time with his mouth slightly open, he laughed
with the word Mh-huh, breaking the rhythm in the last two
phrases, as it became heartier, but without changing the
meter:
jg7 kuh huh, kuh huh,kuh huh, kuh huh, kuh huh huh, kuh huh huh
And again, this very rapid utterance, with a pause at the
bar line where rhythm and meter change:
kuh huh, kuh huh, kuh huh, kuh huh,
m
188
kuh huh huh, kuh huh huh, kuh huh huh
(For records of spontaneous laughter see nos. 239-241.)
Chim enjoyed running away with the small belongings of
those about him. This seemed to be due partly to a desire
SOUNDS ASSOCIATED WITH OTHER CREATURES 111
to satisfy his curiosity undisturbed, and partly to his love
of the chase that invariably ensued.
He particularly liked to tear and chew the leaves of a note
book; and he stole a No. 2 Brownie kodak in an unguarded
moment, placed it in his groin, and climbed a tree with it in
that position! Upon reaching a secure height he examined
it, and discovered the small strap handle; seizing this in his
mouth, he cHmbed further with his treasure, while David,
the owner — who was no mean climber of the birches him-
self — went up after him.
He would carry a tennis ball in his groin for some time with
no apparent effort, while he played and ran about as usual.
His most ambitious attempt to carry things in this fashion,
was with a pile of stones which he found on one of the ledges,
and undertook to remove to the turf. Three or four of these
he could carry in his groin, with the aid of one hand, very
comfortably; but not content with so few, he added to them
a fifth, and a sixth, and even a seventh until, when he moved,
one or more were bound to fall. As these were recovered,
others shpped down; and the persistent little fellow labored
intently for fully thirty minutes over the problem of carrying
all of the stones with which he started. At last, by dint of
losing them always in the right direction, he accomplished
his purpose.
PANZEE's BEHAVIOR WITH PEOPLE
During the early part of Panz.ee 's life at FrankHn she
was very timid. This was due in part to her physical condi-
tion and in part no doubt to the strange people and surround-
ings. She was, however, very friendly and affectionate with
those whom she trusted, and was particularly loyal to her
master and Miss M. She exhibited her affection for people
112 VOICE AND "language" OF CHIMPANZEES
at times by sitting on the floor by one's chair and gently
taking one's hand; rarely, by holding it to her lips for a
moment, as though kissing it.
She and Chim were taken into the open for air and sunshine
every fair day, and were often carried to and from their
play ground where Chim ventured some distance from us
to chmb the young birches. Panzee, however, wished to be
held, or at least to sit quite near to someone, seeming to be
fearful of the out-of-doors.
To encourage her to climb, for she was much in need of
exercise, she was placed on a low branch of a tree, from which
modest height she protested with this charming phrase,
whose structure, as well as the quality of its tones, was very
lovely:
-F^q ^q-^^-^^q *^^ zs^
ESi
tJ
ooh ooh ooh ooh ooh ooh ooh ooh
^^=^
t=:?=^=a^
139 ooh ooh ooh ooh
On another day, when placed on the stone fence, she made
this appeal:
S
-i^
-^
j^pQ ooh ooh ooh ooh ooh ooh -
For the sake of exercise, when going for their outing one
day, she was not taken up as usual. An energetic expression
of disapproval came at once, in a new type of utterance, in
SOUNDS ASSOCIATED WITH OTHER CREATURES
113
which the tones were slurred, although definite and clear, in
contrast to her usual staccato ooh. The vowel sounds were
blended, ah with i and o with u as indicated; and ah-o-ah
was not a sequence of three separate syllables, but rather
one syllable sounding through the changing aperture of her
lips, as she widened and pursed them in this half scream,
followed by a staccato phrase:
8va
191 ooh ooh ooh ooh oo-oohooh ooh oo-oohoo-ooh
She lagged behind, continuing her protest in the emphatic
passage below. Notice the rapid repetition of the staccato
tones, followed by the vigorous, accented phrase of two
slurred notes, repeated twice, and the two very high tones
of her scream — a vivid picture of the state of her mind.
-=. -> 8m.
oo-ooh
oo-ooh
oo-ooh ah
Another day, upon finding that she was not to be carried,
she set out timidly to walk, expressing her feeUngs in these
halting tones:
m
193
ooh ooh ooh ooh ooh
114 VOICE AND ^'language" OF CHIMPANZEES
A pause, and then these:
194
^
-|^ 1 k
^=^-
— » f P -
Another pause, then picking her way cautiously:
^
-^ — ^-^
fcut
195
ooh ooh ooh ooh ooh ooh ooh ooh
She became a little frightened, and looked about appre-
hensively:
P ^ P
=f=^
^
196
ooh
ooh ooh ooh
Becoming more excited she demanded, with this animated
phrase, to be taken up:
i
-i^r~0,—-^—m #
-\ — v^ \
«r=f=F=r
197
ooh
ah ah - o - ah ah
i i u i
She was reasoned with, and went on a little further singing
plaintively:
198
GO - 00 - - oo- ooh
SOUNDS ASSOCIATED WITH OTHER CREATURES
115
Then, seeming to lose her courage completely, she raised her
tones suddenly in pitch, and increased their volume and
rapidity thus:
:f:^>::f:££
199
until she burst into this loud scream, with mouth wide open
and teeth showing:
8va
I
■^ — ^
-^2 (2 ^
■ I - I ^^-i-
-t-^ T^^ - ^- l -^^i^
200 ae
ae ae
ae ae ae ae ae ae ae ae
Our slow procession halted a few moments and she grew quiet.
Then going on she carefully chose her steps over occasional
briars and hummocks, portraying the scene delightfully in
these isolated groups of beautiful tones.
201
Pause:
$
ooh
^
— ^.
— ^ ' L I
N-^-
202
ooh
ooh
ooh
ooh
ooh
aoh
ooh
116 VOICE AND "language" OF CfflMPANZEES
Pause:
ooh
ooh
203 oon ooh ooh
A short pause, and these two similar phrases:
i
-^ 1 N1 hi f^^riv ;
P ^ H \ h
-^ --^ -m- -»- ~o-
ooh ooh ooh ooh ooh ooh ooh ooh ooh ooh ooh
204
Another day, on going for her outing, she expressed her
protest against walking in a display of vocal technic worthy
of a finished colorature singer. The tones were rapid and of
exquisite quality — a delicate staccato. The bar lines indi-
cate pauses, which were short in this record:
ooh ----- - - ooh ooh
5-1
^a
r^f^=fFi^
-jilllMZ-OKZ
205
ooh
Then came a phrase which contrasts completely with the
foregoing highly embelhshed utterance. It was slow and
of fine poetic quality:
^
206 ooh
ooh
ooh
SOUNDS ASSOCIATED WITH OTHER CREATURES 117
But her patience gave out, and there followed this lively
pronouncement :
8va j_^
TO"^rg Tu ^
^^^s
207
ooh ooh ooh
On her way home from her outing, she seemed unusually
apprehensive and begged to be taken up. The slurred
phrases were always the superlative expression of appeal, or
fear — ^which was probably her feehng on this occasion:
8va.
mm
w
ah - o - oh ah - o - ah
i u i u
M-
'U — -?-k-q— >^T~t^
a
208
ooh
Returning home on another morning, Panzee looked about
her fearfully, as though afraid that the great out-of-doors
might catch her, and begged to be carried. When no atten-
tion was paid to her request, she clutched the dress of her
good friend. Miss M., firmly with both hands and feet,
uttering these tones softly as she cUmbed to her arms:
118 VOICE AND ''language" OF CHIMPANZEES
Being put down she protested thus:
m
^imsm-
s t i s d d s -^
s
1^
210
ooh
ooh
Again, after her outing, she wanted to be carried, and
dimbed by way of Miss M.*s dress, uttering these tones:
££zrr U ^£^S
211 ooh
She was promptly put down, and shrieked her despair:
8va
ah o ah etc.
212 i u
But with renewed determination she cUmbed up again,
expressing her feelings in this attractive phrase:
213
ooh - ooh - ooh
Two children came frequently to look at the chimpanzees
at the screened end of their room. They always came as
though fearing to be discovered, and Panzee seemed to dis-
like it. She would stalk by them, the full width of the screen,
some twelve or fifteen feet, with her head in the air and her
steps emphasized in a manner that seemed to say, ** These
are not to my Hking. "
SOUNDS ASSOCIATED WITH OTHER CREATURES 119
A certain reserve and gentle dignity of manner, as well as a
fastidiousness of personality, characteristic of both creatures,
suggests that Panzee is of a patrician race.
This quality is perhaps more scientifically shown in Chim
by the imusually fine lines of his face and head.
Panzee showed her friendliness for people, when they
approached her vicinity, by her facial expression and by ask-
ing to be taken. She sometimes expressed an audible greet-
ing, when especially stimulated.
One morning they had been taken to Dr. Y. 's house for
some special experiments with Chim. Afterwards, in the
presence of a considerable number of people, Chim was danc-
ing with the young people to the music of a victrola. He did
this with evident enjoyment and with perfect rhythm.
Whether or not he was conscious of keeping step with the
music was difiicult to know; he at least kept step with the girl
who held his hands, and moved with apparent ease and
with a distinct grace.
Meanwhile Panzee, because of her nervous condition, sat
safely on Miss M. 's knee by the fire-place, somewhat aloof
from the confusion. She was, however, a most interested
observer of what took place, especially in what concerned
Chim.
In the midst of this merriment a friend, whom she had not
seen since the day before, came in, and she barked loudly
twice in recognition. The two tones of her bark were
sounded simultaneously as indicated on the staff:
^=^
2^A whah whah
120
VOICE AND LANGUAGE ' OF CHIMPANZEES
On another morning, Panzee had been uttering notes of
warning with her word ho, because of a chugging auto that
stood some yards away, and caused her great concern. As
a guest of the house approached the screen from the outside,
Panzee came forward and greeted her, as though trying to
tell her of the fearsome thing, and used the same tones of
warning with the peculiarly aspirated ho. (See nos. 266-
275.)
215
PP PPP
ho
To greet her friends, she used most frequently her word
gko, or one of its variants. The g and k are blended and
have no equivalent in English.
On the same morning she welcomed a visitor with this
tone softly repeated five times:
^
216
:v:j -':j ::j-":j :
pp
gko - - - -
And a little later, when one of her men friends approached
(she was partial to men), she used the same type of phrase
more rapidly:
217
When pleading, at which both she and Chim were adept,
they used ooh. As they were being left for the night, Panzee
SOUNDS ASSOCIATED WITH OTHER CREATURES
121
begged Miss M., with the softest, sweetest possible tones, to
stay:
ZJtZXZJ^
^-^ -\-X
218
ooh
On another evening, as hay was being put in their sleeping
place, she uttered these low tones approvingly:
^): r r Li* r ' r f r r
V-^ ^^J 1 1 1, ij |_ 1
219
She
evident
ooh - ooh - ooh - ooh - ooh -
ly appreciated the hay, and continued:
•- . : ^ ^
-ip^- — f ^j • —
-• ^i \ ^i T
^-A ^ — \
M- — ^ — ^ ^ — > —
220
ooh
ooh ooh
ooh
ooh
Then, as Chim climbed in and both were still eating their
corn-bread — the last of their supper — she uttered her lowest
recorded tones. (This "small" c is the low tone of the com-
mon range for tenor voices.) The tones were very soft —
a mere breath:
^
I ! I J =f
221
ooh
On another evening this was Panzee's *' good-night":
222
122
BEHAVIOR TOGETHER
There seemed to exist a genuine family feeling between
Chim and Panzee which was manifested in his attitude of
protection toward her in times of danger. Then it was his
habit to place himself between her and the danger that
threatened. If this were intangible, or not clearly under-
stood, of if she alone were frightened, he would put his arms
around her and stay with her until the anxiety had passed.
Panzee showed her loyalty and affection for Chim in sev-
eral ways. She was willing to give up things to him, even
the food which she held in her lower lip, with a few reser-
vations such as her orange or banana; she was anxious
when she thought Chim was not well treated; and she forgave
him immediately, when he pulled her fur and mauled her
about, making efforts to concihate him. Her motive at
such times may have been partly to keep peace. She gave
the impression of being an astute little creature, very quiet,
but with a keen discernment of things within her mental
range.
The habit of looking through fur and scrutinizing the skin
for any unevenness was always taken seriously, although
these chimpanzees were wholly clean. The impression came
to the writer that the habit was partially social in its signifi-
cance. Chim went about it in a business-hke fashion, and
made a curious liquid sound with his lower lip against his
teeth, vts, vts, vts, when he found even an infinitesimal rough-
ness. During his search he moved his lower jaw from side
to side, much as an animal that chews its cud.
On one occasion he held Panzee 's head firmly between his
hands, pressing down so hard that she must have been very
uncomfortable, but she seemed to enjoy it and was gratified
by this attention.
SOUNDS ASSOCIATED WITH OTHER CREATURES 123
Chim sat one morning on a small box, with Panzee seated
on the floor beside him. He reached down one of his legs
to be looked over, and she complied with an air of complete
content.
He was quiet for some time, but finally grew tired, and
began to play and tease her with some irritation, as though
bored with her contentment.
There was increase of animation in her utterance with rise
in pitch:
t- ^ ^ r i ^ " (\r
9 ¥ tL
223
ooh . - - - ooh - - ooh
On another occasion he seemed irritated, and came from
the swing to pull her around roughly. She protested softly
with a beautiful quahty of tone:
Mi-^^^n^:Jz£.z^ i ?^J-^t^
ooh ooh ooh ooh ooh ooh ooh ooh ooh ooh ooh ooh
Again he approached her with a menacing look on his face,
and she ran for protection, murmuring:
i
^=- F ."~~^
^ — r-r
TT-if f-f ^=^
ooh - ooh - ooh ooh - ooh - ooh - ooh
225
Chim's superabundant energy overflowed toward Panzee
in an energetic attempt to stir her up. He took a hand-full of
her long fur, and twisted and pulled it, in the meantime swing-
124
VOICE AND
OF CHIMPANZEES
ing his arm from side to side vigorously. She uttered a new
sound, distinctly of pain — short u fused with e, and h. But
Chim had gone too far for even Panzee's patience. She
angrily showed her teeth, and struck and bit at him several
times, but soon fled for protection. This was her cry:
i£
^
226
uh
e
uh
e
-9-
uh
un
e
In the morning before leaving their sleeping room, Panzee
sometimes sat on the edge of the manger in which they slept
in their nest of hay. Chim ran about the room and enjoyed
swinging on his rope or looking out of the screen door. This
morning he disapproved of her aloofness, and ran every few
minutes to pull at her feet, but she refused to come down.
These were her cries of protest, lovely in quality as always:
(f): ;
-^
=^
-3-^1?—?-^
*=*
=*
±*=
c y^-
i^ <
Jjf_^
-1 - y g ^
H P •!
5—5
i — 3- —
227
ooh ooh
ooh
Again these:
^^ ft, .^.-d^.-^
u -J^ ^ — *^— V^
228 ooh
And again, in a very determined manner:
SOUNDS ASSOCIATED WITH OTHER CREATURES
125
As the play continued, Panzee scolded daintily from her perch
on the manger:
-/»):
i»
^v'
#
rJir
•
Hit
• •
•
=^
^^
^
^^
=1 —
^-3
=1^
^
-^^-^
tst=s
=1=^
«•
230 ooh
Again:
^
4-F
l ^ t Jvt
^4 =1^ =i^
:^=Mt
1 '^ 1 1 ^~T
e
V
231 ooh ooh
And again:
ooh
^^
- y i ^
i^
■^=x
232 ooh - - _ - .
Chim enjoyed his cocoanut oil rub greatly, but was less
willing to have his hands and face washed with water. He
usually demurred at first, as any healthy small boy might,
but after giving up he lay in Miss M. 's lap contentedly while
being oiled and brushed; in fact he used the brush on his head
quite skillfully himself.
Panzee usually objected to being disturbed, often going to
the farther end of the room to avoid it. If Miss M. told
Chim to fetch her, he did so promptly and efficiently. He
would drag her until she was well started, then would give
her a little push to urge her along. She would permit the
washing after some persuasion, but was distressed if any
drops of water fell on the hair of her wrists. She would re-
126 VOICE AND "language" OF CHIMPANZEES
move them carefully with her tongue before she allowed the
washing to proceed.
D., a twelve-year-old boy, was Chim's most devoted
playfellow, and Chim seemed especially to enjoy their romps
together. Panzee tolerated their play, but now and then
grew anxious for Chim. One day thinking D. too rough, she
reached out as he came near her, and objected:
^
233
ooh
Then, as the play grew noisier, she uttered these notes of the
scale in tones that were vivid with active, emotional quality:
-m
> 1 [^ 1 P
TV i U* -1 k
^=^
234
ooh ooh ooh ooh ooh ooh ooh ooh ooh ooh ooh ooh
And again a similar phrase, higher in pitch and more intense:
^^^^^^
23S
/
ooh ooh ooh ooh ooh ooh
On another occasion she expressed her displeasure more
mildly with tones that sounded like the soft beat of kettle-
drums:
:^- ^ r ^ f
236
ooh ooh ooh ooh
SOUNDS ASSOCIATED WITH OTHER CREATURES 127
On another day Chim and D. played still more energetic-
ally, swinging on the ropes, jumping on the floor, and chasing
each other about. In all their sport Chim was quick to imi-
tate any new stunts. D. 's bantering seemed to trouble Pan-
zee greatly. She struck at him whenever she could, and
uttered the follomng tones loudly and deliberately as she
tried to reach him:
i
2^y ooh ooh ooh - - ooh ooh ooh ooh ooh ooh ooh ooh
On a morning when the chimpanzees were alone Chim sat
at the opposite end of the room, and Panzee ran to him utter-
ing the phrase below. This is the only instance noted of her
greeting him entirely on her own initiative, without some
evident cause.
238
ooh ooh ooh ooh
Play
The pasture was the scene of the chimpanzees' activities
in the open. Their trips to and fro gave us some of our finest
records.
A good-sized, irregular hill- top spreads out into several
fields, divided by stone walls and rail fences. Dotted over it
are frequent clumps of young birch trees; and here and there
great stone ledges, characteristic of the foot-hills of the
White Mountains, emerge from the turf. A birch bordered
128
VOICE AND LANGUAGE ' OF CHIMPANZEES
lane leads down through the hollow at one side to bars,
beyond which, in the lower pasture, a herd of cows grazes in
summer. This pasture encircles the fields on top of the hill;
consequently the cows in their wanderings frequently came
into full view of the chimpanzees at several points in their
play-grounds.
There was a sand hole on a slope of the hill where Chim
spent many hours amusing himself, while Panzee sat near by.
Above it projected a miniature cliff, from which Chim de-
lighted to jump or tumble to the open sand in as many ways
as he could devise. A favorite plan was to turn heels over
head, over the edge; if the edge fell in with his weight, so
much the better; he would pick himself up and race around
to repeat the proceeding, often with spontaneous laughter.
On one occasion these tones were as follows:
^
■* — f-i* — • — • — «-*-
1£^
2^Q kha-hah,kha-hah,kha-hah,kha-hah,kha-hah,kha-hah,kha -hah
And again:
p i^ — g p ^ ^ jU ^
^
kha-hah kha-hah kha-hah kha-hah - kha-hah kha-hah
240
On another occasion:
w^=rr r r ^ ^ ^ ^^ ' ' "^
241
kha-hah kha-hah kha-hah
kha-hah-kha-hah-hah
SOUNDS ASSOCIATED WITH OTHER CREATURES 129
Panzee sat in the sunshine with a look of benignant calm
on her face; she was usually contented when Chim was
happily engaged. Suddenly he dashed upon her, and drag-
ging her bodily to the edge of the sand, pushed her in. She
uttered this musical protest:
242 oon - - - - - ooh ooh
Chim could be quiet, and often was so; but he was worthy
of close observation at such a time. His face was likely to
take on a sudden look of purpose that was as suddenly put
into action.
On one occasion he had been sitting for a few moments
looking fixedly toward a rise in the ground a few yards away.
It was a familiar spot where grew some isolated bunches of
early golden-rod, three or four tall stalks in each bunch.
Suddenly he dashed toward them, galloping so rapidly with
his peculiarly irregular gait that he almost lost his balance.
On reaching the plants, he broke off a tall bunch with one
quick motion of the hand, placed it in his mouth, and galloped
back, laying it neatly on the ground where we, with Panzee,
sat looking on. This he repeated a number of times, finally
biting the stalks off directly with his teeth and holding them
firmly in the same horizontal position as he returned — an
improvement in technique worthy of^note in so young a pri-
mate.
On another morning we had gone to a more distant field
where the scene was new to the chimpanzees. The ledges
converged in such a way as to form a considerable depression,
and Panzee was lying beside Miss M. enjoying the sunshine.
130 VOICE AND ''language" OF CHIMPANZEES
Miss M. also reclined, and Chim found great sport in running
from behind, some ten or fifteen feet, and jumping over her
to where Panzee lay. He gauged the distance so nicely as
not to touch Miss M. nor quite to jump on Panzee, but so
nearly did he come to doing so that he kept us in suspense
during many repetitions of the performance.
While they were playing in the sand one afternoon, Chim
observed D. disposing of something distasteful that he had
got in his mouth, and tried to imitate him. He was not very
successful, having difficulty in controlling the saliva, which
annoyed him by gathering on his chin. Next morning, after
Chim had been silent for some time in the back of the room,
a soft sound — php, php, php — attracted the attention, and he
was discovered very much engrossed in ejecting, at regular
intervals, the tiniest possible spray of saliva, with an aplomb
indicating that D. would not be able to outdo him with that
stunt again.
Another of his lesser accomplishments was that of catching
flies. He would curve his right hand and fingers, and with a
swift motion from right to left, would almost always succeed
in catching them in his palm. He seemed right handed.
One afternoon three children were playing leap-frog in the
lane, while Chim and Panzee were sitting with older people
some distance away. Chim watched the children intently,
for a few moments, then with a rush joined their game, leap-
ing from back to back to the end of the line and back again
without touching the ground. He liked this so well that he
repeated it several times, while the children obligingly held
their positions.
Chim was a skilled rider of the birches. He would climb a
tree with consummate grace to the highest point at which it
would bear his weight. There he would plunge over, carry-
SOUNDS ASSOCIATED WITH OTHER CREATURES 131
ing the top with him to a comfortable swinging distance from
the ground, and would swing back and forth, or round and
round, with head down, or in any other position that might
please him, finally leaping to the ground. Then he would
choose another tree, gauging the right length of top necessary
to swing him to still another. It was a sight as beautiful in
its freedom of movement, as it was rare to our eyes, but dur-
ing those weeks it occurred almost daily, and often many
times a day.
Chim was in a particularly lively mood and ran to Panzee
in his play to pull her fur. She responded with this appeal:
i^=?5^^^^
243 ooh
Again he came, and she ran for protection:
'$^^^
ir-y-^
244
ooh
ooh
Then he swung down on the branch of a birch, and jumped on
her; at this she uttered very rapidly:
FP=
— w~
— a"~
&
J=
=?=
_vL^*_
-^-
-^-
H^
245 ooh - - ooh
This performance was kept up at brief intervals for some time.
132 VOICE AND ''language" OF CHIMPANZEES
Panzee responding with these short pronouncements:
m
^
V t» i »»-
ooh -
246 ^^^
ooh
^3
^^
247
ooh
ooh
Then he bit her hand, and she screamed in pain:
a
248 -^-^ ie ie ie
As he continued his play, she expressed her emotions in this
very distinctive phrase repeated
^^=^=^E^E^=^hH=i-rf^
ooh -
ooh
249
and this
250 ooh
On another occasion she was furious with him for pulling
her fur, and barked at him:
251
^1^
SOUNDS ASSOCIATED WITH OTHER CREATURES 133
Then she tried to conciliate him:
^
t=^
252 °^^
He persisted still more aggressively, whereat she defended
herself vigorously, swinging her right arm at full length to
strike him. A genuine fist fight developed during which she
barked loudly:
k±
253
ka ka
Chim's most striking activity was his so called "nest build-
ing. " He went at it most industriously, with an assurance
that indicated long practice in his ancestral experience, and
possibly some observation during his own short life.
His procedure was to climb a tree to a certain height,
usually two-thirds of the way to the top, and select a limb
whose branches intersected rather closely, and around which
other branches were numerous. He used little time, appar-
ently, for deliberation; the writer never saw him hesitate in
choosing a site nor abandon one that had been chosen.
Making himself the center of his activity, he would pull
the branches and twigs toward him from all directions,
grasping and shoving them into plaCe with his feet, and sitting
upon the growing mat as he worked. When it was finished
he would lie back for a few minutes to enjoy the fruits of his
labor-
Chim's nests varied in size, sometimes measuring two feet
134
VOICE AND
OF CHIMPANZEES
across. He was usually silent when making them, the follow-
ing being the only utterance taken during nest building.
Two isolated tones:
254
A rapid phrase:
255
j-4 JJ
k±
-t^*^
Panzee showed no inclination to make nests; once or twice
however she manifested some interest in Chim's activity.
They had been at the sand-hole for some time when Chim
went to a group of birch trees, a little distance away, and
made a nest. When it was finished he swung down, and
went back to tease Panzee. She remonstrated:
256
ooh
Then drawing him to her, she began to look through his fur
as though making an affectionate appeal to him to be kind:
Chim ran back to the tree, and climbing higher, made a large
nest, about two feet wide. Then dropping down he filled his
SOUNDS ASSOCIATED WITH OTHER CREATURES
135
mouth with sand, and climbing back to the nest that he had
just finished, he lolled there chewing the sand. This per-
formance he repeated twice.
Panzee, in the meantime, climbed part way up the tree
that grew next to that in which Chim was busy. He went
still higher, and built a third nest. Then mounting to the
top of the tree, he swung down in glee to Panzee, who watched
him apprehensively, saying:
- - ooh - - - ooh - -
And, as he approached her from below:
259 ooh - ooh
Then meditatively:
ooh
ooh
~ i~~w-w
260
ooh
ooh
As he jostled her roughly;
ooh - ooh - ooh - ah oh ah, -
261 i u
ooh
136
VOICE AND ''language" OF CHIMPANZEES
Then he caught her foot and hung with his full weight upon
it. This was evidently very painful:
8va
l±
262
ky - ah ky - ah
The teasing continued intermittently with various expres-
sions of Panzee's emotions. With dehberate remonstrance:
^ =r?~rr-r
263
ooh
Growing anxious as her perch became insecure under Chim 's
treatment:
264
ooh
Frightened — a rapid pronouncement:
^^
:^=t:
3^E
atut
3t3t
ooh
ooh
ooh
ooh - ooh
ooh
i
'-.• 't *v' ' ' .^.■' e a
ooh
- ooh - ooh - ooh - ooh -
265
ooh - ooh - ooh - ooh - - ooh - - ooh -
SOUNDS ASSOCIATED WITH OTHER CREATURES
137
Warnings
While Chim showed a dearly marked instinct of protection
toward Panzee, in times of danger, it was she who gave what
seemed to be a note of warning when any strange creature,
such as a squirrel, a horse, or even an automobile came within
her vision.
Under such circumstances, she uttered a characteristic
musical phrase of two tones with the word ho in a peculiarly
suggestive manner. The first tone, though soft, was clear
and sHghtly accented, then immediately suppressed, the
second tone being barely audible. This gave it a mysterious
quahty that was very distinctive. She also used the first
tone alone.
Below are a few examples^
A red squirrel began to chatter in an apple-tree a few rods
from the observation room where Panzee sat. She became
alert at once, and uttered very slowly:
5=t
! Ka Ks ?i^
m
^
-4 K-
:Mt=J.
fj
266
PP
ho ho ho — oh ho ho — oh ho ho ho -oh
Chim climbed up on the screen, and watched intently as she
continued:
l=F=t
w
-Jg-^^
'm I M.
ho -oh ho ho ho ho -oh ho ho ho ho ho -oh
267
138
VOICE AND 'LANGUAGE ' OF CHIMPANZEES
When the grocer's delivery truck stood chugging near the
house, in the distance:
k±
268
ho - oh ho - oh ho - oh
Chim was silent meanwhile until Miss M. came to the outside
of the screen, when he went to her and, looking toward the
automobile, said:
l±
d2«tz±
269
^ PP
gkoo gkoo gkoo
A pair of red squirrels came to the apple tree on another
day with this result from Panzee:
§i^^f=^=1^
;^
w
270 ho - oh ho ho ho -oh ho - oh ho - oh ho
They became very noisy, and her voice rose in pitch and
increased in volume:
PP
nif
211
ho - oh ho - oh ho - oh
SOUNDS ASSOCIATED WITH OTHER CREATURES
139
A horse with its rider entered the yard some distance away.
She became very alert:
i
Pf>
272
ho - oh
As they came nearer, she retreated to hide behind one of her
human friends; from this position, however, she watched
the approach of the horse intently:
^
273 ho - oh ho
And when it came close to the screen uttered more ani-
matedly:
i^ iJ:
pp
p
274
ho-ho - oh
ho - oh
ho - oh
ho - oh
Dr. Y. 's automobile stood by the house with the motor
running, and she sounded her notes of alarm thus — dragging
the intermediate tones in a genuine portamento :
ho -oh ho -oh ho -oh ho -oh ho -oh ho -oh ho -oh
275
140
VOICE AND 'LANGUAGE" OP CHIMPANZEES
Fear
Both chimpanzees were influenced more or less by appre-
hension when in the open. This was shown, particularly in
Panzee 's case, by their unwillingness to go more than a short
distance from human protection. The feeling in greater or
less degree was revealed by various incidents, some of which
brought out conspicuously Chim's care, of Panzee.
On the way to the pasture, Panzee once stopped at the
brow of the hill, and looking around apprehensively, uttered
this phrase:
"7^ p p
m.
>-v-i^
pp
276
ooh ooh
Chim, who was a little way ahead, turned back instantly.
He put his arms around her protectingly, and looked about as
though he too were afraid. In this position they walked
slowly on, she continuing to utter her fears and he on guard
for danger:
^ ^# =
^ # ^ I l/ ziig
^5^
W l^ l^
PP
277 ooh- -
ooh ooh ooh ooh ooh ooh ooh ooh
A strong wind which made an unusual sound in the grass,
bushes, and trees seemed to be the cause of their anxiety.
Returning after several hours she begged to be carried:
^
I-
H
:^=^
278
ooh ooh ooh ooh ooh ooh ooh
SOUNDS ASSOCIATED WITH OTHER CREATURES
141
She was evidently still afraid, finally shrieking until she was
taken up :
^ £^-^^^^S^ m
ooh ooh ooh
279
ah oh ah ah oh ah, ah oh ah
i u i u i u
On another day in the open there was a large party of
guests, during whose stay Chim had received much adulation
from the younger people. He was loath to leave when it
came time for him and Panzee to go indoors. He avoided
the issue, at first, by climbing a large tree nearly to the top
where he built a nest, and where he seemed inclined to stay.
Miss M. took Panzee and started off without him, in the
hope that he would follow. After they had gone some dis-
tance Panzee looked around, and finding that Chim was not
v/ith her, went back after him. She had gone about half
the distance when she seemed to realize that she was alone,
and began to scream:
Sva
ah oh ah ah oh ah etc.
280 i u i u
When Chim heard this he ran up, and putting his arms around
her, helped her along as gently as possible toward Miss M.,
thus atoning with his tenderness for his many sins of rough
treatment in his play.
142 VOICE AND "language" OF CHIMPANZEES
Chim was playing one day on a high fence, the top rail of
which was loose at one end, furnishing a fine teeter for one of
his ingenuity. Before him there stretched two fields, sep-
arated by a stone wall, in which was an opening used occasion-
ally by cows that grazed some distance away, usually out of
sight. To test his behavior, D. drove a cow toward this gap
which was but a few feet away. Chim discovered her as she
was about to pass through. Standing quiet for a moment,
he watched her intently, and retreated a step or two. Then
seeming to regain his courage, he recovered his original posi-
tion, and as the cow came on, stamped hard and fast with his
feet on the second rail while he slapped the loose top one as
hard as he could with his hands. (See no. 302.) The cow
was fascinated for a moment, but soon turned and hurried
away, leaving the field to Chim — an amusing spectacle, in
the bravado of his diminutive figure.
On another occasion, a large horse with its rider suddenly
galloped over the brow of the hill to where the chimpanzees
were being held for a photograph.
Chim, in a panic, jumped to the ground, and ran away.
Although the horse had gone when he was brought back, he
kept looking anxiously about, and finally made off again,
going some distance to a person whom he knew.
Panzee on the contrary, seemed to feel safe in being held
during this episode. On being put down, she voiced her
protest anxiously:
I pDl^— ^■■^—^l
2gi ooh ----- ooh - - - - -
SOUNDS ASSOCIATED WITH OTHER CREATURES
143
And later, while passing the place where the horse had been,
she was uneasy:
^
■# — --
ooh
m
^ \ ^ \ w
:g=^
1 — ^
282 ooh -_- - _ _--
The causes of fear or apprehension in the chimpanzees
were various, and sometimes difficult to understand. Thus
Panzee stood in dread of a large burlap bag filled with hay,
which she was obliged to pass frequently. She would meet
the situation bravely, however, holding her head high, stamp-
ing her feet, and raising her fur, as she passed with an air of
injured dignity.
Both animals were fearful of noises when their cause was
obscure, and at such times were silent.
At the chatter of squirrels that were hidden from view,
Panzee would run to someone for protection or seek her nest,
but when they could be seen — see nos. 266, 267, and 270 —
both chimpanzees became keenly alert, and Panzee would
call her warning.
The clatter of boards and farm tools in the next room was
inexplicable. Chim would protect Panzee with his arms,
and both would stand huddled together for some time after
the noise ceased.
CHAPTER IV
Observations of Adults at the New York Zoological
Park
The interesting records secured from Chim and Panzee
at once suggested comparison with others of the species, to
determine what similarities might exist. No extensive ob-
servations have as yet been made for this purpose; but the
writer is indebted to Dr. WilHam T. Hornaday, Director
of the New York Zoological Park, for the opportunity of
studying briefly, though under excellent conditions, the three
fine adult chimpanzees in that collection.^
Boma, a splendid male specimen in this group, was highly
articulate, while Suzette was silent for the most part, and
Fanny chiefly tonal in her utterance. Boma's regular food
was oranges, apples, and bananas, and he usually began call-
ing for it about an hour before feeding time, which varied
somewhat. He would move about restlessly or sit with his
eyes fastened on the passage-way through which his keeper
was expected, and would utter certain preliminary phrases
as softly as his full baritone voice allowed. Some of these
were as follows:
283
1 Acknowledgment is also due to Mr. Palmer, Keeper of the Pri-
mate House for much kindly assistance.
144
J . — ■ ■ ■- --
>•
1
f(
^ ! i
V
)
4r
u
^pp^^
^
^
GO -
- W00--
■ - WOO -
■- wo
- - woo -
- - woo
OBSERVATIONS AT NEW YORK ZOOLOGICAL PARK 145
i
■u
ir
»
/
^
oo -
- - woo - - woo - -
- - woo - ■
■ - woo
'/ 1
• , , 1 1
IT
^ 1 ' '
V
) i 1
,
^
m
t)
n
•
" Sf-
woo
There was a non-legato, bounding effect in the production
of these tones indicating a large reserve of vocal power. The
following phrases suggested the rumblings of distant thunder;
i
¥■
m
PP'
00 woo — woo - - woo - - woo - - woo - - woo - woo - - woo
pp
^
>^- IK
285
oo - - woo - - woo 00 — woo - woo 00 — woo — woo
There appeared, as underscored in the latter part of the
first measure below, the downward-moving interval that will
presently be seen to be most characteristic of his call:
i
1^
^^— t Tf^ -^
p
oo — woo - - woo - - woo 00 - - woo woo - woo - woo
li
ff
3
286
00 - - woo - - woo
146
VOICE AND 'LANGUAGE" OF CHIMPANZEES
This is an exact counterpart of Chim's fruit motive (see
nos. 74, 91, 113, 122, and 145). Chim hummed or whined
the motive, but Boma used the expression wdh-hoo, which
occurred more and more frequently as the time for his food
drew nearer:
I
m=^
^
^^=^
p
287
00 — woo - woo — woo - - wah - - boo
^^
287a
287b
oo - - woo - woo
i
wah - hoo
PP P f- ^
287c ^^ " ^^^ " ^^^^ " ^^^ " ^^^^ ^^ ' ^^^ ' ^^ "
-m
T'ur^ j^
287d
wah-hoo
Also the following, which gradually rose in pitch, as the
storm of his reiterated demands gathered:
^3
^
P
^f f
00 - - woo — woo woo - - wah - hoo - wah - hoo
OBSERVATIONS AT NEW YORK ZOOLOGICAL PARK 147
^
fi''^- J^^
wah - hoo - wah - hoo - - wah - hoo
i
^
u
woo woo woo woo woo woo
i^
^
:'?!^S5i
288
wah - hoo - - wah - - hoo — wah - hoo - - wah - - hoo - wah - hoo
Sometimes the wdh-hoo broadened into long emphatic
tones, but the phrase always retained the character of the
fruit motive:
s
4t ^
fcJ^
m
f
00
- woo - woo - woo
00 - - woo - woo
m-
w-
-^
289
///
wah - hoo wah - hoo wah - hoo
148
VOICE AND "LANGUAGE ' OF CHIMPANZEES
His complete call, beginning, as has been seen, with the
soft deep-toned phrases, oo-woo-woo, continued with wah-
hoos that increased in animation and tempo until he reached
his cHmax — a prolonged yell of shrill, deafening quality
difficult to describe:
■^
^
W:
f
oo - - woo - woo - woo - wah
- ff ^
hoo wah
m
¥-
hoo
sjz
wah - hoo wah - hoo {yell)
w.
'¥=^
/
- woo
wah - hoo - wah - - hoo - wah - - hoo
8va.
^=U:
^
// - — :•-• - — 1- -_2^ «/-
290 wah - - hoo - wah - - hoo - wah - hoo iyell)
i
V}
W=^
f-^- ' sfz sfz
291 ^^ — ^^^ — ^^^ — ^^^ ^^^ (yell) (yell)
While yelHng he would frequently jump to the floor, run
about, and stamp a violent rhythmic accompaniment; then,
resting his weight on his hands, would beat a clanging tattoo
OBSERVATIONS AT NEW YORK ZOOLOGICAL PARK 149
with his feet thrown up against an iron door in the wall of his
cage.
Fanny sometimes joined in the call for food with whoo-
woo-woo:
i±
'^^^i^-
n
292 whoo-woo-woo, - - - » - -
And a hoarse bark on a single tone, followed by whoo-woo-
wah:
^^^
I I I -ai i I s ^ H^ etc.
^—^ — -*-i t:
293 iih-uh-uh-uh--uh-uh--uh-whoo-woo-wah, - - -
Suzette uttered occasional tones of approval to Boma's
calls, but was usually silent, although very active in her
cage.
^^^ -
P
294 ^
woo - - woo ooh
After several days of observation with no indication that
Boma made use of a food-word comparable to that which
Chim and Panzee used — gahk, or one of its variants — ^per-
mission was asked to feed the chimpanzees, in the hope of
gaining some response by speaking the word while offering
food. A large juicy apple was given him and gahk repeated
several times. He responded with a broad smile of apprecia-
tion, and retired to his high perch to eat it. Then he was
asked if he liked it, this time responding with gah, gah, ah.
150
VOICE AND LANGUAGE ' OF CHIMPANZEES
ah, gah, gah! (See nos. 9, 97, 70, 138, and 155 for com-
parison.)
^^ 1 IK
^^=^
| v-^i — h- zqsz^iz::^
§==S=
3^=5
295
gah gah ah ah gah gah ack ack ack ack
And later, before he had finished the apple, the keeper
came and talked to him, and he answered with:
i
=h=^==^=4^
1^^
^ \tJ^
296
uck uck
uck
uck uck uck uck
uck
On another day, when the weekly treat of rice with raisins
was given him, he responded:
1^
^
uck uck uck uck uck uck uck uck uck
w
w-
297
wah - hoo-- wah - hoo - wah - hoo
uck uck
Compare wah-hoo with the tones of the fruit motive, and
nos. 145, 89, 91.
On later occasions he made frequent use of ack (ahk);
thus:
OBSERVATIONS AT NEW YORK ZOOLOGICAL PARK 151
^
IE
V V
t;
/
ack - - ack - - ack - ack - - ack - - ack ack - ack ack ack
m
ack ack ack
ack
ack
ack ack ack
m
Br—t::-
it==f:
^"r^n
^^ * > 1 u I '' ^ I 1
ack ack ack ack
PPP
ack ack
ack ack
■4^ J 1 J I ^V^
m
^
1^1
^i
ezi
298
uck uck uck uck uck uck
uck uck uck
Ack seems to be the same word as uck^ pronounced with
the mouth in a more open position. Both of these expres-
sions, as well as gah, appear to be variant forms of gahk, the
food-word.
Boma had an intense dislike of having any other creature
appear on the grass plot or the walk in front of the windows
opposite his cage. In order to test him for a possible fear
reaction, the keeper arranged for a pony with a light con-
spicuous mane to be led by the windows, the full length
of the primate house. He started at the end farthest from
the chimpanzees, and passed, one after another, the various
monkeys, the baboons, the gibbon, and the orang utans.
The first note of alarm from the monkeys aroused Boma. He
climbed high on the front bars of his cage, and strained to see
what was troubling them, uttering at the same time a threat-
ening wah-hoo.
152
VOICE AND
m
^
^^
299
wah
hoo wah hoo
Then when the pony appeared before his windows, he
screamed in prolonged tones of very disagreeable quahty as
follows;
fe:
-P^S>-
^
--^
.^ r P r ^ T-
sffz sffz sffz
3QQ wahiee wahiee -
sffz
He continued this behavior until the pony was removed,
and fifteen minutes later he was still calling intermittently:
ii^
r
^
^^
301
ooh wah hoo
wahiee
wahiee
Throughout this episode, the dominant feeling that pos-
sessed Boma seemed to be rage rather than fear.
Another experiment was made with a toy gun, about two-
thirds the sizie of a real weapon. Keeper P. crouched and
pointed the gun, at which Boma's fur rose, and he retreated
as far as possible — but constantly facing the gun. He then
began to thump the floor with his knuckles, the wrists held
stiff, and his body moving up and down with each thump.
As he became more excited he stamped rapidly:
302
/./, ;/. n^ //. ;/.
OBSERVATIONS AT NEW YORK ZOOLOGICAL PARK 153
Then seeming to feel that noise was his best fighting asset
(see paragraph after no. 280), he added to it considerably by
knocking a tin pan that was left in his cage from supper the
night before, against the iron wall. He kept up the din by
hitting the pan first with one fist, then with the other, contin-
uing this performance as long as the danger threatened.
Others of his stamping rhythms that he used when demand-
ing food:
303
CHAPTER V
Lists of Words or Elements of Speech
Words beginning with gutturals
WithG
1. Gak, Chim — food- word spoken rapidly, Nos. 114-127.
2. Gahk, Chim — food-word with vowel somewhat pro-
longed, Nos. 9, 33.
3. Gah, Panzee — food-word, No. 70.
4. Gha, Chim — spoken under stress during experiment,
No. 54.
5. Ghak, Chim— under excitement, Nos. 115, 116, also when
under great emotional stress — seemed to try to talk,
Nos. 128, 129.
6. Gho, Panzee — rapidly repeated in greeting friends, Nos.
216, 217.
7. GhoOf Chim — excited comment to a friend about a
chugging motor.
8. Ga-ha, Chim — to mechanic with blackened clothing and
face, No. 169.
With K, whispered
9. Kah-kah, Chim — unhappy, penitent. No. S3.
10. Ko-kOj Panzee — emphatic whisper under excitement
and,
11. Ku-ku, the same situation, No. 156.
With K, vocalized
12. Ka-ka, Panzee — sharp bark in fight with Chim, No. 253.
154
LIST or WORDS OR ELEMENTS OF SPEECH 155
13. Ky-ah, Panzee — cry of distress, Chim hurting her, No.
262.
14. Kuohy Panzee — very hungry, supper approaching. No.
67.
15. Kah-hah, kah-ha-ha, Chim — laughter, Nos. 185, 186, 289,
and,
16. Kuh-huh, the same, 187-188.
17. Kha (khah), Panzee — variant of food-word, Nos. 155,
159.
Beginning with aspirate
18. Ho-ohf Panzee — alarm, uttered with prolonged vowel in
first syllable, voice dropping very low in the second,
Nos. 266-275.
19. Ho-wha, Panzee — sobbing and talking. No. 73.
20. Whah, Chim and Panzee — enthusiastic greeting under
stress, Nos. 12, 58, 214.
21. Who-ah, Chim — loud, energetic utterance when hungry
and food is brought. No. 23.
22. HUhj Panzee — very soft utterance, going to her nest, .
No. 222.
Beginning with nasals and labials
23. Ngaky Chim — intensive variant of the food-word gak —
No. 1 in this list— Nos. 81, 82, 85, 89, 117, 121, 138,
140, 141, 146, 148, 150.
24. Nghak, Chim — intensive variant of ghak — No. 5 in this
list— Nos. 51, 93.
25. Nkak, Chim — variant of the food- word; he was irritable,
Nos. 112, 113.
26. Mj Chim and Panzee — sound emitted with lips closed,
often significant, many instances of fruit motive, etc.
156
27. Vts, Chim — unique sound, while looking through Pan-
zee's fur, page 122.
Beginning with vowels
28. Ah-oh-ah, Panzee — half scream, apprehension, Nos. 191,
197, 208, 212, 279, 280.
29. Aiy (ie) Panzee — cry of pain, Chim biting her, No. 248.
30. Ae, Chim — double-toned scream, joy or anger, Nos. 1^,
30, 35, 39, etc.
31. Ooh, Chim — ^pleading, Nos. 11, 56. Panzee — many uses,
greeting, approval, protest, etc., Nos. 60-62, 152, 153,
157, 160, 191-198, etc.
32. Ue, Panzee — cry of pain, Chim pulling and twisting her
fur, No. 226.
LIST OF REFERENCES
(1) Akeley, Carl E.: In brightest Africa. New York, 1923.
(2) Bradley, Mary Hastings : On the gorilla trail. New York, 1922.
(3) Cunningham, Alyse : A gorilla's life in captivity. Zool. Soc. Bull.,
1921, 24, 118-124.
(4) Garner, R. L.: Apes and Monkeys: Their Life and Language.
Boston, 1900.
(5) Hamilton, G. V.: Study of perseverance reactions in primates
and rodents. Behavior Monographs, 1916, 3, no. 2.
(6) Hamilton, G. V.: A study of sexual tendencies in monkeys and
baboons. Jour. Animal Behavior, 1914, 4, 29; 318.
(7) Hornaday, William T. : The Minds and Manners of Wild Animals.
New York, 1922.
(8) Hrdlicka, Ales : Antropometry. Wistar Institute, Philadelphia,
1920, pp. vi + 163.
(9) KoEHLER, Wolfgang: Intelligenzpriifungen an Menschenaffen.
Springer, BerHn, 1921, S. 194.
For publication of results from Canary Island Station see Abh. d.
konig. Preuss. Akad. d. Wissensch., 1915-1918.
(10) MoNTANi;, Louis : A Cuban chimpanzee. (English translation by
Rossy, C. S.) Jour. Animal Behavior, 1916, 6, 330-333.
(11) RoTHMANN, Max: Ueber die Errechtung einer Station zur
psychologischen und hirn-physiologischen Erforschung der
Menschenaffen. Berliner klin. Wochenschr., 1912, 42, 1-13.
(12) Yerkes, Robert M.: The mental life of monkeys and apes:
A study of ideational behavior. Behavior Monographs, 1916,
3,no. 1.
157
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