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31148001421775

CHURCHES

THEIR PLAN and
FURNISHING

BY PETER F. ANSON
Illustrations by the Author

Revised and edited by
THE VERY REV. MSGR. THOMAS F. CROFT-FRASER

CHIEF MASTER OF CEREMONIES OF THE VATICAN BASILICA

(1935-1940)

AND

THE REV. H. A. REINHOLD
ST. JOSEPH'S, SUNNYSIDE, WASH.

"Domine dilexi decorem domus tuae,

et locum habitationis gloriae tuae'

(Ps. 25:8)

THE BRUCE PUBLISHING COMPANY, MILWAUKEE

Niiiil oBstat: Jomsr A. ScKruiLiEM, S.X.IX, Censor Libroinrm
Imprimatur: >J- MOYSES E. KJDCJEY, Archiepiscopus Mil\vaukierisis

February 18, 1948

1948, TMK BatiGE PXJBJLISMDCNG
JEN TKDE XJNIXEJD STAXES o

THE VERY REVEREND MONSIGNOR THOMAS F. CROFT-FRASER

CHOIR SACRISTAN OF ST. PETER ? S, ROME (1929-1931)

CHIEF MASTER OF CEREMONIES

OF THE
VATICAN BASILICA (19351940)

LAIRD

OF
INVERALLOCHY, ABERDEENSHIRE

AND

THE REVEREND HANS A. REINHOLD

ONE-TIME ORGANISER OF THE GERMAN APOSTOLAAT DES MEERES
AND PORT CHAPLAIN AT HAMBURG

PASTOR
OF

ST. JOSEPH'S, SUNNYSIDE, WASHINGTON, U.S.A.

IN GRATEFUL MEMORY OF THEIR
LONG FRIENDSHIP

EDITOR'S NOTE

Peter Anson has asked me to Ameri-
canize his book, and to add such notes
as will make it provocative for the read-
ing public in this country. He insistently
told me not to pull any punches, and
to be my own self as he knows me
from articles and letters.

Peter and I are old friends from the
days when he drifted into our rectory
at Bremerhaven to our last meeting in
Ascot and my visit to his temporary
home near Gravesend, where he had
time to indulge his passion looking at
ships.

His marine background and love for
the sea should not deceive us. As a
former Anglican and then Catholic monk
of Caldey, and as a Tertiary of St.
Francis and addict of quiet little monas-
teries in small Umbrian towns and on
Tuscan hillsides, his architectural train-
ing and ecclesiastical background are
more than sufficient to equip him to
write this book, and to write it well
enough to make it not only interesting,
but also safe and instructive reading
for priests, architects, seminarians, and
sacristans.

It competes with any ordinary book
on matters rubrical and liturgical by its
use of common sense and historical
knowledge, instead of piling up moun-
tains of authors, authorities, and mere
legal decisions.

The outstanding feature is the fact
that Peter Anson represents the liturgical
wing of art, architecture, and rubrics. He
is thoroughly and refreshingly British,
but not to a degree which might make
him appear as foreign on our shores. He
is imbued with what is good in tradition,
and modern with an ingredient of Anglo-
Saxon humor.

I had little to add, and less to change,
and when I did so, the initials H. A. R.
warn the reader of it. In a few places,
as Anson's excursion on rood-screens, I
registered mild disagreement. In a few
places I felt called upon to reinforce the
color of the author's statement, which
seemed too pale to me, in view of the
fact that he had touched on a subject
more burning here than in Britain.

This is a practical book. It will help
any man who feels that he agrees with
the tenets of the liturgical movement, but
cannot find a down-to-earth application
of its lofty principles. Especially the
parish priest and the architect who can-
not go to the expensive places that "make
the right things well" will welcome
this book as a good friend for those who
have to make small means do.

. A. R.

March 1, 1946

FOREWORD

The object of this book is to provide
the clergy and laity with a practical
guide to the building and remodelling
of Catholic churches, and to give a
summary of the laws governing their
planning and furnishing.

When it was being written nearly
four years ago I imagined that in all
the war-stricken countries of Europe,
once peace had been declared, there
would be a revival of church building
on a scale that had never occurred for
many centuries. Many churches needed
to be rebuilt. Others which had been
destroyed by enemy action might not
be required, for everything pointed to
a general decentralization of industry,
and a rapid development of small towns
and villages where there was no pro-
vision for Catholic worship. It was un-
likely that there would be much money
to spend on building or rebuilding. In
most dioceses the ecclesiastical authori-
ties found their resources limited. For
this reason it was important to ensure
that money was not wasted on superflu-
ous ornament but devoted to essentials.
However, subsequent history has proved
that I was wrong, at least so far as Great
Britain is concerned. Government regu-
lations have put a stop to the building
of any new churches, and it is difficult,
if not impossible, to obtain licenses to
rebuild those which were damaged or
destroyed during the war. So the re-

vival of ecclesiastical architecture, which
seemed likely in 1943, grows more and
more distant as I write in the autumn of
1947. The situation is more hopeful in
certain countries on the continent of
Europe. In France and Belgium the
reconstruction of churches is going on
apace. Countless books and pamphlets
have been published during the past
three years, all designed to give practical
advice to priests and architects. Those
issued under the auspices of the Domini-
cans in the Editions du Cerf are more
than enough to prove now that there is
an enthusiastic and wide-spread interest
in the building and remodelling of
churches in France.

During the past forty-five years I
must have visited and examined more
than one thousand Catholic churches
in Great Britain and Ireland, together
with an even greater number of non-
Catholic churches. I have also travelled
extensively in France, Belgium, Holland,
Italy, and can claim to have a superficial
knowledge of many other countries.
Again and again I have realised that a
particular church was a "bad" church
just because it was inconvenient to
worship in. Like so many modern pri-
vate houses these "Houses of God"
looked attractive enough inside and out.
They may have been "devotional," but
they were certainly not 'liturgical/* i.e.,
suitable for public worship, no matter

FOREWORD

how well adapted to stimulate individual
piety. The mistakes in planning and fur-
nishing were due in almost every in-
stance to an obvious ignorance of func-
tional requirements, in other words, the
purposes of a modern church,

Such mistakes, though found in every
part of the world, are due in Great
Britain and Ireland to a history of the
Catholic body in these islands. For
nearly three centuries the public exercise
of religion was prohibited by law. Our
ancestors had to return to the catacombs.
Traditions of public worship were for-
gotten when only the bare minimum
was possible, in danger of fines, im-
prisonment, banishment, or death. Can
it be wondered, then, that Catholic
church architecture in England, Scot-
land, and Ireland leaves much to be
desired when we remember that it had
to be reborn a little more than a hundred
years ago? With regard to the United
States and Canada the problem seems
to be the lack of any strong national
tradition in architecture, at least eccle-
siastical architecture. They have in-
herited many of the worst traditions
of Europe."* Such traditions are hard to
uproot.

Before an architect can design a

*Tlie word "tradition" in such matters as
architectural needs must be used with caution.
In practically all countries o Europe tradi-
tion, that is, historical style, is as dead as in
the United States. Any architect trying to hitch
his wagon to Europe's great styles of the past
is in no better position than his American
colleague who gives building the color of
"Colonial" (American Georgian) or American
version of Spanish Baroque style. Since the
immigrants carried their usages across the
ocean in the barren nineteenth century and
came from "classes'* devoid of higher culture,
no wonder that so much of what they built
is shoddy, imitative, and gaudy. H. A. H.

church he must understand the func-
tional nature of the different parts of
the building. It matters very little in
the long run whether he has "good taste"!
For as the late Eric Gill loved to remind
us: "unless a workman knows what he
is making he cannot make anything.
Whether it be a church or only a tooth-
pick, he must know what it is; he must
have it in his mind before he begins,
before he can even choose his material
or lay his hand on a tool." 1

The trouble with so many churches
erected during the past century is that
architects have been far more concerned
with the superficial "beauty" than with
the nature of the building. Their object,
so it seems, was to create a building that
looked what most people believed a
church ought to look like rather than a
building that fulfiled the practical func-
tions of a place of worship. They often
managed to erect a building that super-
ficially reproduced the plan and details
found in houses of God in past ages,
but which were an anachronism in mod-
ern times. Such architects did not know
what they were making. Very often they
took no trouble to learn. They wanted
to create a "work of art" and ignored the
fact that nothing can be a work of art if
it does not properly fulfil its end.

Before planning or remodelling a
church an architect must study the clear
and definite rules which have been
drawn up by Canon Law during past
centuries, and which have been modified
from time to time as occasion has arisen.
The main object of this book is to pro-
vide such information in a convenient

1 Numbered notes will be found at the end
of the chapters.

FOREWOKD

and compact form. It says little or
nothing about art or "good taste," for the
obvious way to plan an ecclesiastical
building is that which guides domestic
or commercial buildings a strict regard
to structural utility in conformity with
civil and ecclesiastical legislation.

The aim of a church architect should
be, first and foremost, to create a "house"
in which the public worship of the
Church can be carried out according to
canonical requirements. "The aim is not
a "style,' whether past or present, but the
meaning of the Mysteria and the true
purpose for which this House is to be
built, . . . The Church is not a remnant
of the 'Middle Ages* or any other, and
does not in any way force them upon us.
She does not oblige us to erect buildings
which create an 'atmosphere' of bygone
times, thus making it seem that she be-
longs to a romantic or sentimental Past
and shirks the hard task of Christianising
our day and generation. She is an eter-
nally young and a prolific Bride of the
Spirit. Architects are these important
apostles. They must announce the mes-
sage of our times." 2

Nevertheless, it must not be forgotten
that, however important it is that archi-
tects should announce the message of
our times, it is equally important (in the
words of Canon Law) that "care should
be taken in the building and restoration
of churches that the forms handed down
from Christian tradition and the rules of
sacred art are observed." 3

In these pages will be found most of
the "forms" and "rules" that must be
observed in the building and remodelling
of churches, together with the careful
regulations concerning their furnishing.

Canon Law has also laid down that
"with regard to the material and form
of sacred furniture, it is necessary to
keep to liturgical prescriptions, to eccle-
siastical tradition, and to the greatest
extent possible to the laws of sacred
art." 4 Such is the mind of the Church.
If her directions are observed, the result
will be a more beautiful and convenient
place of worship than if the architect
allows his imagination to run riot.

In conclusion, it should be made clear
that the liturgical prescriptions given in
this book only apply to churches where
the Roman rite is followed, i.e., the
greater part of Western Europe and in
all countries colonised from Western
Europe. The Roman rite is used exclu-
sively by the secular clergy and most
religious orders in the Latin patri-
archate,* with the exception of the
dioceses of Milan, Toledo, and Braga,
and in the surviving groups of Byzantine
Catholics in southern Italy, Sicily, or

* The dignity of being the head of the Uni-
versal Church has to a high degree eclipsed the
pope's other lawful titles and rights. We
easily forget that he is the bishop of Rome and
that his cathedral therefore is not St, Peter's,
but the Archbasilica of the Our Saviour in the
Lateran. Few Catholics seem to realize that he
is also the metropolitan of Latium and the
primate of Italy. While these titles do not have
an immediate tearing on our condition, the far
more important fact that the pope is the
patriarch of the West (of the Roman Empire),
as there are patriarchs in Alexandria, Antioch,
etc., is often, if not forgotten, hardly realized in
its importance. On the right understanding of
this cardinal distinction hinges the whole ques-
tion of difference in Canon Law, rite, liturgical
language, married or unmarried clergy, etc.
While the sad rift between Orient and Occident
has now reduced the patriarchates to a shadow
of their tremendous significance, they are a
helpful means to raise ourselves above the
damnable tendency of confusing unity with in-
tolerant uniformity so common among our con-
temporaries. H. A. R,

XII

FOREWORD

Corsica, likewise among the other Uniate
bodies in various parts of the English-
speaking world. A modified form of
the Roman rite is to be found in a few
other dioceses of Europe, e.g., Lyons, as
well as among the older religious orders
Carthusians, Cistercians, Calced Car-
melites, and Dominicans. Each has its
own ceremonial traditions and rules
which have to be followed even when
they differ from those prescribed for the
diocese of Rome and all other dioceses
bound to the Roman rite as revised and
reformed by Pius V in 1570.

I must not omit to acknowledge the
help given me by many friends in writing
this book, particularly the following:
the Rt. Rev. Msgr. William Clapper-
ton, D.D.; the Very Rev. Msgr. T.
Croft-Fraser; the late Very Rev. Fr.
Fabian Dix, O.P.; the Rev. Joseph Heald;
the Rev. Alfred Sandwell; Dom Oswald
Sumner, O.S.B.; Dom Bruno Webb,
O.S.B.; Dom Benedict Steuart, O.S.B.;
Dom Edmund Fatt, O.S.B.; the late
Dom Anselm Moore, O.S.B.; Geoffrey
Webb; and J. N. Comper. Special thanks
are due to the Rev. J. B. O'Connell and
the Rev. Ivor Daniel who revised and
corrected the original manuscript, like-
wise the Rev. H. A. Reinhold who was
responsible for editing it for the Ameri-
can public.

Much help has been derived from

articles in Liturgical Arts and L* Artisan
Liturgique. The editor of The Church
and the People (Prinknash Abbey) must
be thanked for allowing me to include
portions of articles which have appeared
in his magazine. Finally, I must mention
the authors of books often quoted or
referred to, particularly Rt. Rev. Harold
E. Collins (The Church Edifice and Its
Appointments); Dom Rinaldo Pilkington
(La Chiesa e il suo arredamento)-, Rev.
Benedict Williamson (How to Build a
Church); Nevil Truman (The Care of
Churches); J. N. Comper (Further Notes
on the English Altar, or Practical Con-
siderations on the Planning of a Modern
Church); Rev. M. S. MacMahon (Litur-
gical Catechism); Rev, Raraund James
( The Origin and Development of Roman
Liturgical Vestments); Rev, E. J. Forse
(Ceremonial Curiosities); Dom E.
Roulin, O.S.B. (Nos Eglises); the editors
of Directions for the use of Altar Socie-
ties and Architects; The Incorporated
Church Building Society; the Warham
Guild; the Alcuin Club; Cahiers de TArt
Sacre. Acknowledgements must be made
to the editor of The Universe for allow-
ing me to use drawings which appeared
in this paper.

PETER F. ANSON
Harbour Head,
Macduff, Scotland
Michaelmas, 1947

NOTES

1. Gill, Eric, Beauty Looks After Herself, Church Architecture," article in Liturgical Arts,
p. 226. " * ""

2. Reinhold, H. A., "A Revolution

Vol. VI, p. 126.

3. C.J.C. 1164, 1.

4. CJ.C. 1296, 3.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

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I) Reconstruire les eglises : If esprit et les principes
IV ) . . . Le plan de I'&glise et du centre paroissial
V) L'eclairage des Eglises
VII) Tendances actuelles de fart chr&tien
IX) L* Education artistique du clerge

X) Reconstruire les Sgltees : Formes de T architecture religieuse moderne
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Ephemerides Liturgicae (Rome).

L' Artisan Liturgique (Abbaye de Saint-Andre, Bruges).
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Le Programme de Feglise & reconstruire

Sauvegarde, restauration, digne presentation du Patrimonie sacre
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The Clergy Review (London).

CONTENTS

Editor's Note ........ vii

Foreword ........ ix

Bibliography ........ xiii

List of Illustrations ....... xvii

I Ecclesiastical Buildings Places of Worship . . 3

II Building and Dedication of Churches ... 7

Hi-~Sjd^and^Plan . . . . . .11

IV Altars . *~~ ...... 60

V Adjuncts of Altars . . . . .86

VI The Altar Canopy ...... 100

VII The Altar Crucifix, Candlesticks, and Sanctuary Lamps . 104

VIII Altar-cloths and Frontals ..... 115

IX Altar Furniture ...... 124

X The Sanctuary ...... 132

XI The Font and Baptistery ..... 141

XII The Porch and Main Entrance .... 150

XIII The Pulpit . . . . . .154

XIV Confessionals ....... 159

XV Seating Accommodation ..... 167

XVI The Sacristy ....... 172

XVII The Sacred Vessels ...... 178

XVIII Sacred Vestments ...... 184

XIX Other Ceremonial Accessories .... 209

XX The Organ and Choir ..... 219

XXI Bells and Belfries . ..... _J2SL

XXII Lighting, Heating, and Ventilation . . .227

Index 237

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

Plans: Early Christian Basilica, Octagonal Church, Anglo-Saxon, and Ger-
man Romanesque churches ...... 12

Plans: Abbey Church o St. Gall, and English fourteenth-century parish

church ......... 13

Plans: Italian Renaissance, and Baroque churches . . . .14

Plans: St. Antonius Kirche, Basle, and John Keble Church, London . 15

Plans: St. Michael and All Angels, Wythenshawe, and Christ the King,

Cork .......... 16

Plans: parish church, according to St. Charles Borromeo's Instructions . 17
Plans: modern central parish church . . . . .18

Plans: modern parish church, planned on late mediaeval English lines . 19
Plans: two large sacristies, parish church, Ringenberg, Germany . . 20

Audaincourt, Doiibs, France, and St. TMrese, Monttnagny, Paris . . 21

Benedictine Abbey, Nassau, Bahamas . . . . .22

St. Philomena's, Middlesbrough, Yorkshire . . . . .23

St. James', Spanish Place, London, and Jesus Chapel, Ackworth Grange,

Yorkshire ......... 24

Christ the King, Via Merulana, Rome, and St. Anthony the Hermit,

Rotterdam ......... 25

New Cathedral, Ballarat, West Australia, and St. Gerard Majella, Utrecht,

Holland ......... 26

St. Mary's Filey, Yorkshire, and Our Lady's, Chapeltown, Glenlivet,

Scotland ......... 27

Our Lady, Star of the Sea, Wells-on-Sea, Norfolk, England, and All Saints,

Thropton, Northumberland ...... 28

St. Mary's, Lea Town Lancashire, and St. Mary's, Great Eccleston,

Lancashire ......... 29

St. Boniface, Tooting, London, and the Sacred Heart, Wimbledon,

London ......... 30

Sainte Jeanne d'Arc, Nice, France, and Freuensfrieden Kirche, Frankfurt,

Germany ......... 31

Holy Cross Church, Bomheim, Frankfurt-on-Main, Germany . . 32

St. Mary's, Somers Town, London . . . . . .33

St. Mary's, East Hendred, Berkshire, England . . . .34

St. George's Cathedral, Southwark, London, and Corpus Christi, Maiden

Lane, London ........ 35

The Oratory Church, London, and St. Columba's Cathedral, Oban,

Scotland ......... 36

St. Bridget's, Norrkoping, Sweden, and St. Thomas of Canterbury, Fulham,

London ......... 37

Our Lady Immaculate, Limehouse, London, and St. Patrick's, Soho Square,

London ......... 38

xvii

XV111 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

Ste. Therese de L'Enfant Jesus, Elizabeth ville-sur-Seine, France, and the

Guardian Angels, Bow, London ...... 39

St. Saviour and St. John the Baptist, Lewisham, London, and St. Mary's,

Hampstead, London ....... 40

Eisden-Mines, Limbourg, Belgium, and St. Francis, Glasgow, Scotland . 41
Effingham, Surrey, England, and S. Giorgio in Velabro, Rome . . 42

St. Anne's Cathedral, Leeds, England ..... 43

St. Margaret's Oratory, Comrie, Scotland . . . . .44

St. Mary's, Derby, England ....... 45

St. Mary's, Hedon, Yorkshire, England, and St. Mary's, Westport, Co.

Mayo, Ireland ........ 46

St. Peter's, Gorleston, Suffolk, England, and St. Cuthbert's College,

Ushaw, Durham, England ....... 47

St. Alban's, Warrington, England ...... 48

Benedictine Abbey Church, Nassau, Bahamas . . . ,49

Our Lady of Good Council, Beverwijk, Holland, and St. Mary's, Wallsall,

England ......... 50

St. Francis, Gorton, Manchester, England ..... 51

St. John's, Holme Hall, Yorkshire, England, and Our Lady of the

Assumption, Northfleet, Kent, England . . . . .52

The Oratory Church, Birmingham, England . . . .53

St. Birinus', Dorchester, Oxfordshire, England . . . .54

S. Maria in Cosmedin, Rome, and St. John's, Wigan, Lancashire, England 55

The Holy Rood, Watford, England 56

Everingharn Hall Chapel, Yorkshire, England . . . .57

Rood-screen, St. Cyprian's, Dorset Square, London . . .58

Ringenburg, Germany ....... 59

Altar, standing beneath ciborium (Civory) . . . .61

Altar with baldaquin and hanging crucifix . . . . .62

Altar, with low reredos and tester ...... 63

Diagram, showing construction of altar . . . . .64

Contrasts: typical early Christian altar, and nineteenth-century altar

(Sacre Coeur, Montmartre, Paris) . . . . .65

Table altars ......... 66

Various types of altars ....... 67

Eleventh-century altar canopy, and sixth-century altar in Perugia Museum 68
Altar canopies in S. Cecilia, Rome, and St. Mark's, Venice . . .69

Italian Renaissance baldaquin, and English mediaeval altar, with

suspended pyx and tester ...... 70

Two modern altars with civories: Braintree, Essex, and Seaford, Sussex,

England ......... 71

St. Thomas', Claughton, Lancashire, England . . . .72

Two Anglican high altars with civories: St. Mary's, Wellmgborough, and

St. Andrew's Cathedral, Aberdeen . , " . . . 73

St. Mary's Catholic Cathedral, Aberdeen, Scotland, and St. Monica's,

Bootle, Liverpool, England ...... 74

St. Mary's, Fort William, Scotland, and the Church of the First Martyrs,

Bradford, Yorkshire, England ...... 75

Chapel of the Annunciation, Reverie, Belgium , . . .76

LIST OF ILLUSTRATION^ f i"x-

Nordernez, Germany (Chapel of Our Lady, Star of the Sea), and high

altar, Logelbach (Haut-Rhin), France ...... . 77

High altar, Saint-Lepn, Paris ...... 78

Greyfriars, Walsingham, England ( altar with tester and dossal ) . .79

Sarcophagus altar, St. Augustine, Datchet, England, and confession beneath-
high- altar,, S. Prassede, Rome .> ^ .. 8$
Chapel at El-Abiod, Morocco, and the Skipper Chapel, Walsingham,

England .... . ..... Si-

Carpus Qiristi Church, Aachen, Germany, and Mediaeval type 6f altar

with suspended pyx ....... 82

Sarcop&agus-snaped Baroque' altar,- and high altar m Po&tifical Pavilion^

Paris Exhibition (1927) .....,, 8$

Pagan art forms on Christian altar (Java, East Indies), and Modern^

French altar (Sacre Coeur, Petit Colombes, Paris) . . .84

Mediaeval methods of reservation of the Blessed Sacrament . . 87

Aumbries, sacrament towers, and tabernacles . . . .88

Tabernacles in reredos ....... 90

Twelve forms of veiled tabernacles . . . . .92

Alternative shapes for tabernacles ...... 93

Methods of fixing veil over tabernacles . . . , .94

Crucifix fixed in slot on back edge of mensa . . . .95

Tabernacles in St. Mary Major's, Rome, and Siena Cathedral . . 96

Silver tabernacle, N. D. du Leman, Haute-Savoie, France . . .97

Crucifixes ......... 105

Candlesticks and coronae ....... 107

Candlesticks ......... 109

Modern candlesticks . . . . . . .110

The original altar vestment, enveloped the whole of the table, reaching

the ground on all four sides ...... 116

Nine types of fonts ........ 143

Font covers mediaeval and modern ..... 144

Modern fonts ......... 145

Plans and sections of fonts, and plan of baptistery .... 145

Plan and section of small font ...... 146

Section of Communion rails with chancel screen, and two types of holy-
water stoups ........ 147

Seven pre-Reformation pulpits ...... 155

Four modern pulpits ........ 157

Plan, section, and elevation of confessional ..... 160

Two types of confessionals ....... 161

Italian confessional ........ 162

Plan and section of double confessional, with room attached . . 163

Detail of sliding panel in confessional ..... 164

Plan, section, and elevation of double confessional .... 165

Eight types of chalices ....... 179

Four modern chalices .... ISO

Six monstrances ........ 181

Ancient Roman chasuble, showing gradual cutting away at sides . . 188

Modern Roman chasuble back and front ..... 189

X LIST 0# ILLUSTRATIONS

Full-shaped dalmatic, and modern Roman dalmatic . . . 194

Mediaeval vestments . . . . . . . . 196

Modern "full-shaped" vestments (Prinknash Abbey, England) . . 197

Modern Roman dalmatic and chasuble, and contrasts in copes and mitres 198

Fifteen types of vestments of various periods .... 199

Surplices ......... 201

Roman cottas ......... 203

Pontifical vestments ........ 206

Belfries .......... 224

CHURCHES

THEIR PLAN and

FURNISHING

CHAPTER I

ECCLESIASTICAL BUILDINGS PLACES
OF WORSHIP

DEFINITION OF A CHURCH
According to Canon Law, a church is
a "sacred building dedicated to divine
worship for the use of all the faithful
and the public exercise of religion." 1

In other words, the principal object
of a Catholic church is to provide a
suitable building in which the faithful
can meet for the offering up of the
Sacrifice of the Mass or other liturgical
functions and the reception of sacra-
ments and sacramentals.

NECESSITY OF CHURCHES
If we lived on a planet where there is
an equable climate, with neither wind,
rain, snow, sleet, nor extreme sunshine,
there would be no practical reason for
building churches. Public worship could
be performed in the open air. As this
ideal state of things does not exist, some
sort of protection from the weather is
necessary for decency, reverence, and
comfort. Hence the primary object of a
church is to cover the worshippers and
to protect the objects used in worship.
This is the function of a church: a
building erected for a particular kind of
"job" public worship.

HISTORICAL NOTES
In the first ages of Christianity no
special buildings were set apart for

public worship. The assemblies of the
faithful for the celebration of the Eu-
charist, prayers, and preaching took
place in private houses. 2 By the second
century we read of a Domw Ecclesiae
(house of the church), which seems
to have been a building used for all
services of the Christian body in a
town or city, with an apartment dedi-
cated to worship.

During the third century the Domus
Ecclesiae had become the Damns Dei:
a large room or hall, cut off from the
rest of the house. During the first three
centuries Christian churches, with but
few exceptions, appear to have been
situated in towns. Country folk had to
come in to towns to fulfil their religious
duties. Then came mortuary chapels in
cemeteries, where funerals and anniver-
sary services were held. Chapels, built
over the tombs of martyrs, soon became
popular centres where the faithful gath-
ered together, at first on anniversaries,
and then other times. So great did the
crowds become that larger buildings
had to be erected. The Catacombs* at

* The ineradicable notion that Christians
held their synaxis in catacombs obviously
stems from the tales of not very observant pil-
grims and pious fiction. One look at the damp,
poorly ventilated, narrow, and dark tunnels
to which we should add the fact that the cata-
combs were being used as burial grounds and

CHURCHES: THEIR PLAN AND FURNISHING

Rome and elsewhere do not appear to
have been used for regular services
except during times of severe persecu-
tion, or for funerals and on festivals of
the martyrs. Very little is known about
early Christian churches in rural dis-
tricts. They appear to have been served
occasionally by priests from the towns.
It was not until the fourth or fifth
centuries that resident priests were ap-
pointed to country places. Subsequently
we find chapels or oratories attached to
the villas of the nobility. Finally came
the conventual churches of monastic
communities.

MODERN CLASSIFICATION
Ecclesiastical buildings are divided
into two classes: (1) churches and (2)
oratories.

I. CHURCHES

Churches may be: (a) Metropolitan,
(b) Cathedral, (c) Collegiate or con-
ventual, (d] Parochial, (e) Basilica. It
should be noted that, strictly speaking,
a church is a building set apart in
perpetuity for the public exercise of
worship.

a) Metropolitan

A metropolitan church is presided
over by an archbishop. According to
whether it is the seat of a patriarch,

full of decaying remains on three of four tiers
right and left of the passages! should con-
vince any visitor that no crowds could have at-
tended Mass, especially when we remember
that Low Mass and silent, inactive attendance
were unknown to the Christians of the martyr
Church. The celebrant would have been invis-
ible to anyone but the first two or three faithful
standing in "indian file" and spread backwards
for unending distances. H. A. R.

primate, or archbishop, it is called
patriarchal, primatial, or simple.

b) Cathedral

A cathedral church is presided over
by a bishop and contains his throne.
Metropolitan and cathedral churches
should normally be served by a body
of canons or a chapter,* whose primary
duty is the public recitation or chanting
of the Divine Office in choir. In countries
where a lack of clergy makes it im-
possible to maintain resident canons or
chaplains, the Divine Office cannot be
celebrated publicly. Originally, the ca-
thedral church was the only parish
church for a whole diocese. Country
parishes and additional town parishes
came later. A survival of this primitive
discipline survives in certain Italian
cities where only the cathedral church
has a baptismal font, in which children
of all parishes are baptised. It should be
noted that a cathedral is not necessarily
the largest church in a diocese. It is
merely the bishop's church over which
he presides, in which he teaches and
conducts divine worship for the flock
under his charge.

c) Collegiate or Conventual

A conventual church is a public place
of worship served by a community of
regular clergy (canons regular, monks,
or friars), who are bound to the recita-
tion of the Divine Office in choir.

American ecclesiastical legislation of the
Councils of Baltimore in the nineteenth century,
with papal approval, excluded this institution
from our soil, with the exception of New
Orleans and Eastern Canada and, of course, the
formerly Spanish colonies. H. A. B,

ECCLESIASTICAL BUILDINGS-

d) Parochial

A parish church, strictly speaking,
should have a baptismal font, a confes-
sional, and a cemetery, and the normal
liturgical equipment for baptisms, mar-
riages, and funerals. In countries where
canonical parishes have not been set
up, the "mission" or "quasi-parish"
churches have practically the same
privileges.

e] Basilica

A limited number of churches receive
the honorary title of basilica. In pre-
Christian times a "basilica" (Greek
basilike-oikias a royal house ) was a
court of justice and a meeting-place for
assemblies. Usually it consisted of a long
hall with a double row of columns, with
an apse at one end. The name was first
given to early Christian churches built
over the tombs of martyrs. To-day it is
merely a title of honour applicable to
various kinds of churches.

There are two classes "major" and
"minor." There are four major basilicas,
all in Rome. They correspond to the
four great patriarchates: (1) St. John
Lateran is the "Mother and Mistress of
All Churches" and the head of the
patriarchate of the West. It has the
title of archbasilica and is the Cathedral
of Rome. (2) St. Peter's represents the
patriarchate of Constantinople. (3) St.
Paul's Outside the Walls represents the
patriarchate of Alexandria. (4) St. Mary
Major represents the patriarchate of
Antioch. The Basilica of St. Lawrence
Outside the Walls formerly held the
same privileges.

The title of minor basilica is granted

PLACES OF WORSHIP 5

to certain churches by the pope. 3 The
serving clergy, secular or regular, take
precedence over other priests. In pro-
cessions they carry certain" decorative
insignia 4 which indicate their special
dependence on the pope. The papal
arms are displayed on the exterior.

II. OBATOBIES

Oratories are places of worship not
intended for the use of all the faithful
indiscriminately. 5 Three kinds are recog-
nised in Canon Law: (a) public, (6)
semipublic, and (c) private.

a) Public Oratories

A public oratory is primarily used by
a religious community as its chapel, but
the public have access, at least during
times of services, either through the
house or through a separate entrance
leading directly onto the street or road. 6
A public oratory can be consecrated like
a church. 7

b) Semipublic Oratories

A semipublic oratory is intended for
a special community, and is not normally
open to the faithful in general. 8 It can
be erected only with the permission of
the Ordinary. 9

c} Private Oratories

A private or domestic oratory is ger?-
erally a room set apart for worship in
a private house for the use of the family
or an individual. 10 Mass can be offered
in private oratories only by papal indult,
only one Low Mass may be said daily,
even on Sundays, not however on the
more solemn feasts. No other ecclesi-
astical functions are allowed, but the

CHUBCHES: THEIR PLAN AND FURNISHING

local Ordinary can give permission for
Mass on more solemn feasts for special
reasons, 11 Private oratories cannot be
consecrated only blessed.

The same rules affecting the building,
consecration, blessing, desecration, or
reconciliation of a church apply to
public oratories, and all ecclesiastical
functions can be performed in them,
except in certain cases. 12

Private oratories are not "sacred
places** in the strict sense of the word,
and they remain the property of the
owner of the house or land. They can
be used again for secular purposes with-
out technical "desecration." For this
reason the furniture in a private oratory
should be of a character that can easily
be removed; e.g., it would be unsuitable
to erect a stone altar, which could not
be consecrated.

In , the case of semiprivate oratories,
the furniture and fittings should be of a
more permanent nature, for the build-
ing cannot revert to secular use without
the authority of the Ordinary. 13

St. Charles Borromeo has left us some
useful ideas regarding the planning of
"an oratory wherein the Holy Sacrifice
of the Mass is occasionally offered up." 14
He recommends that it should be "of
one nave only"; the length of which
should not be less than 16 ft. 6 in., its
width 13 ft. 9 in-., with a height suitably

proportioned to the site. The sanctuary
should be about 11 ft. wide or more,
with length and height which agree
with the width. There need be only one
step between the nave and the sanctuary,
with fixed rails of the form prescribed
elsewhere in the Instructions. Only two
steps are required for the altar, one of
them being the predella or footpace.
There should be at least 2 ft. 9 in., be-
tween the railings and the lower step
of the altar. He orders that the windows
should be constructed high up "so that
a man standing outside cannot look
within." He suggests that the door should
be opposite the altar, and should be
surmounted by a circular window "to
be like the eye of the church." The
sacristy should be on the south side of
the altar, if possible, and proportioned
to the size of the building. On the north
side of the altar there may be a small
turret "not at all resembling a parish
steeple; or, at any rate, two piers of
stone or brick may be constructed on the
top of the wall, so as to support one
bell only." If more altars are needed in
an oratory where several Masses are
celebrated about the same hour, single
chapels may be erected on both sides
of the nave.*

* This indicates, clearly, that there is no jus-
tification to multiply chapels or altars without
a reason. H . A, R.

NOTES

1. C.J.C. 1161.

2. Acts 2:46; Rom. 16:5; 1 Cor. 16:15;
Col. 4:15; Phil. 2.

3. C.J.C, 1180.

4. The golden patriarchal cross on a short
shaft, a small bell, and a red and white striped
umbrella.

5. C.J.C. 1188, 1.
(5. C.J.C. 1188, | 2,

7. C.J.C. 1181, 2.

8. C.J.C. 1188, 2, 2.

9. C.J.C. 1192, 1.

10. C.J.C. 1188, 3.

11. C.J.C. 1195, 1 and 2.

12. C.J.C. 1191, 2.

13. C.J.C. 1192, ? 2 and 3.

14. Instructions, Chap. XXX.

CHAPTER II

BUILDING AND DEDICATION
OF CHURCHES

A church cannot be built without the
express permission of the diocesan Ordi-
nary. 1 This rule dates from the Council
of Chalcedon, which forbade religious
orders to erect oratories without epis-
copal consent. It was reinforced in many
subsequent councils and synods. The
Ordinary may withhold his consent if
he is not satisfied that means are avail-
able to erect the church, and support the
clergy, etc. 2 This again is a very ancient
law. Another reason may be that a new
church would seriously affect the finan-
cial and spiritual status of an existing
one. Canon 1162 gives additional reasons.
Even religious orders, who have obtained
permission to make a foundation in the
diocese, must obtain the consent of the
bishop before they can erect a church
or public oratory in a particular place. 3

SITE

It is difficult to lay down any rules
regarding the site of a new church,
because in most instances there is not
much choice in the ground available.
St. Charles Borromeo states that the site
must be chosen by the judgement of
the bishop, and from the counsel of the
Architect whom be will have appointed
pr approved. The first point is that the
site should be a prominent one, if pps-
l?i]ble slightly eleyated ? so that there can

be three to five steps up to the main
entrance. St. Charles attaches much im-
portance to steps, for he goes on to say
that the level of the church should be
raised if necessary.

As to site, St. Charles advises that a
church should not be erected near
"stables, vegetable stalls, taverns, smith-
ies, markets, and all" places of sale/'
moreover that it should not be near the
quarter of a town where such places
abound rather difficult it would seem!
He prefers a definitely isolated site, not
connected in any way with secular build-
ings. He lays down the rule that the
"dwellings of the ministers of the church"
should be on one side of the building,
not adhering to its walls but connected
with it by other walls. Very prudently
he warns his clergy against erecting
churches in damp and marshy places, as
well as "near to hills or declivities,
whereby either torrent or any other great
body of water running down swiftly may
occasion any detriment to the edifice,"
He even goes so far as to give practical
advice on building drains so that surface
water may be carried off elsewhere.
Finally, he tells us that the size of the
church should be sufficient to accommo-
date not only the normal congregation,
but also "the quantity of rnen flocking
therein on solemn clays,"*

CHURCHES: THEIR PLAN AND FURNISHING

THE CORNER-STONE
Canons 1156 and 1163 state that the
right to bless and lay the corner-stone
of a new church belongs to the Ordinary
in the case of "secular" churches, and
to the major superior in the case of
religious. 5

The corner-stone should be one large
block, at least one foot in length,
breadth, and depth, with a small cavity
in the top, in which are usually inserted
souvenirs or "memoranda"* of the event.
The position of the corner-stone is not
mentioned in either the Rituale Roman-
urn or the Pontificate, but it is usual for it
to be placed in the foundations near the
high altar. 6

TITLES OF CHURCHES

It is laid down in Canon 1168 that
every blessed or consecrated church
must have its own title which cannot
be changed after dedication. The same
canon also states that churches cannot
be dedicated to a beatus without an
indult from the Holy See. The title* may
be the name of any person or mystery of
the faith that is the object of public

* It is to be regretted that so many of us
seem to be afraid to maintain one of the finest
traditions of our own Catholic Church, namely
to use above all the traditional titles and the
ones that are more focused on the central
truths and mysteries of our faith. Why are
Christ's Church, Most Holy Saviour, the Twelve
Apostles, the Good Shepherd, the Blessed Trin-
ity, the Holy Spirit, so seldom used? Where are
the martyrs now? We have an abundance of
secondary titles of our Lady, innumerable
churches of one and the same saints in an end-
less unimaginative and narrow monotony. Only
in our million-population cities do we find a
rich catalogue of titles. I suspect, however, that
there the reason is the great number of
churches more than conscious effort to break
our monotony. H. A. R.

devotion: e.g., the Holy Trinity or one
of the three divine Persons (but not God
the Father), Jesus Christ or one of His
mysteries, our Lady or any one of her
titles, the holy angels, the canonised
saints, or any mystery connected with
their lives.

DEDICATION OF A CHURCH
Canon 1165 lays down definite rules.
No services may be held in a church
until it has been solemnly consecrated,
or at least blessed.

CONSECRATION

A church cannot be consecrated unless
the following conditions are fulfiled:

1. That it is built of stone or brick.
Churches of other materials e.g., iron
or wood can only be blessed. 7 But
a reinforced concrete church may be
consecrated provided that the places for
the twelve crosses on the walls and door-
posts are of stone. 8

2. That the church stands free on all
sides. Should there be only minor ob-
structions at a few places the church
may still be consecrated. 9 If the exterior
walls cannot be reached, an apostolic
indult must be obtained before the
consecration. 10

3. There must be twelve crosses on
the inside walls of the church six on
each side. The crosses may be painted
directly onto the walls or, if made of
stone or metal, attached to it. They may
not be made of fragile material. They
must be irremovable, 11 as they are the
permanent sign of a consecrated church.
A bracket to hold a candle is placed
above or below each cross.

4. The high altar should be conse-

BUILDING AND DEDICATION OF CHURCHES

crated with the church. If it is already
consecrated, a side altar must take its
place. 12 Should all the altars have been
consecrated, an apostolic indult is neces-
sary before the church can be conse-
crated. 13 One permanent, stone altar is
essential.

5. The property must be free of
debt. 14

BLESSING OF A CHURCH

The ceremony of blessing a church is
far less elaborate than that of consecra-
tion, and consists chiefly in sprinkling
the outer and inner walls with holy
water. The form is given in the Rituale
Romanum. All churches and public
oratories must at least be blessed, even
if they are to be consecrated later on, 16
otherwise they cannot be used for divine
worship. The Ordinary may delegate any
priest to perform the blessing.

Canon 1165, 2, lays down that if it
can be forseen that a church is likely to
be turned to "profane uses" the Ordinary
must withhold his consent to its erection
and refuse to bless or consecrate it when
built Such an instance might occur in
the case of a church or public oratory
erected by an individual layman or
family on private property, which may
be sold or alienated at a future date. 17

LOSS OF CONSECRATION OR
BLESSING OF A CHURCH

Canon 1170 explains that the consecra-
tion or blessing of a church is not lost
unless the building is totally destroyed,
or the greater part of the walls has

collapsed, or if the Ordinary has given
permission for the building to be handed
over for profane uses, which he may do
under certain conditions. 18

DESECRATION OF A CHURCH
Canon 1172 gives the various ways in
which a church can be violated or dese-
crated, i.e., diverted from sacred to pro-
fane use. They consist of:

1. The crime of homicide;

2. Injurious and serious shedding of
blood;

3. Impious and sordid uses, e.g.,
heretical worship, secular meetings, use
as barracks, etc.;

4. The burial of an infidel or one
excommunicated by declaratory or con-
demnatory sentence. 19

CONSEQUENCES OF DESECRATION

The result of a violation or desecration
of a church is a cessation of all services
and the obligation of reconciliation be-
fore Mass can be said again or the
sacraments administered. 20

RECONCILIATION

Canons 1174-1177 deal with the
matter of reconciliation of which the
most important detail is the order that
it must take place as soon as possible
according to the rites laid down in
approved liturgical books. The necessary
conditions are much more complicated
in the case of a "consecrated" church
than of a church which has simply been
blessed.

1. C.J.C. 1162, 1.

2. C.J.C. 1162, 2.

3. C.J.C. 1162, 4.

NOTES

4. Book of Instructions on Church Building,
I, Chap. I.

5. Full details of the nature of a corner-

: THEfE tfLANT ANf?

stone will be found in A. J. Schulte's
Benedicenda (New York, 1907, p. 1), and
in Martinucci-Menghmfs Manuale Sacrarum
eremoniamm 3 L. VII, c. XV, 4 vok. (1911).

6. The two authors mentioned give elabor-
ate instructions concerning the placing of the
(Somer-stone. The rite of blessing, and laying,
will be found in tfie P&ntificale (Pai&. II) ana-
Jb the RiMate (Tit. VIII, c. 26).

7. C.J.C. 1165, 4.

8. S.R.C. 4240.

9. S.R.C. 1321.

10. S.R.C. 2687.

11. S.R.C. 1939.

12. C.J.C. 1165, 5.

13. S.R.C 3907.

14. Other details concerning the ceremonial
requisites needed for consecration will be found

in Schulte's Consecranda. See also Collins, The'
Church Edifice and its Appointments, pp. 915.

15. Tit. VIII, c. 27.

16. S.R.C. 4025.

17. S.R.C. 3546, ad 1.

18. C.J.C. 1187. The definition of "partial!
destruction" is rather complicated; details may
be found in any commentary on Canon Law;
e.g 1 "., Ayrinhac, Administrative Legislation in the
New Code of Canon Law (New York, 1930 >,
Fr. Augustine, O.S.B., Commentary on ihe Nen&
Code of Canon Law (St. Louis, 1931), Vol.
VI, pp. 32, 33.

19. The exact interpretation of these cases
may be found in commentaries on Canon Law
ut supra.

20. C.J.C. 1173, 1.

CHAPTER Iff

STYLE AND PLAN

It is outside the scope of this book
to deal at length with the controversial
subject of "style," which is really so un-
important that it might be better not
to refer to it at all. Yet many in authority,
when faced with the job of building a
new church, make up their minds first
of all that they want it to reproduce
some favourite features of an ancient
building and require the architect to
carry out their wishes. More practical
details are regarded as comparatively
unimportant.

It is not everyone who realises that
"architecture is primarily related to the
science of construction, and that man,
having mastered the fundamental prob-
lem of ensuring stability in his build-
ings, thereafter, and only thereafter,
proceeded to satisfy his instinctive
primal urge to decorate. . . . The re-
versal of an essentially logical sequence
is responsible for the present mass of
dishonest architecture, which, unfortu-
nately, appears to meet with general
public approbation." 1

In no sphere of building is there so
much "dishonest architecture" as in
churches. A large number of churches
erected in the past century can only
be described as "meretricious shams."

A church, like a house, should be
evolved in sequence of design from the
inside outwards, not from the outside
inwards. The building itself is funda-

mentally* just a covered-in space to
protect the worshippers from the ele-
ments. Provided that it fulfils these re-
quirements it does not matter much
whether the covered-in space is left
plain or decorated. A church will "look
like a church" if functional needs of the
building are put first and foremost, just
as in the case of a garage, factory, aero-
drome, or theatre. The primary functions
of a Catholic place of worship have not
changed much in the course of many
centuries, and it does not require any
particular shape of arches, windows, or
columns to emphasize its function. 2 ' * *

* We ought, however, not to forget the in-
trinsically symbolic character of the church
building. If it were only a shelter with a special
purpose, we would never reach any more per-
fection than pure "functionality." From the
basilica down to the Baroque abbey churches
of Austria and Spain through all the different
styles the builders have always seen in their
churches a significant form of symbolical con-
tent: the royal hall, the house of God mirroring
the edifice of the Church, the mystical banquet
hall, the "presence" of heaven. These are im-
plicit notions and it is not necessary that they
ftod the obvious and often crude obtrusiveness
of the later periods! Man, the imitative creator,
has always tried to bring into his churches
something of the totality and comprehensive-
ness of the "kosmos," the adorned universe.
H. A. R.

** The history of ecclesiastical architecture
in the United States is not always pleasant to
read; e.g., that sad fate of the old cathedral in
Boston, built by a great American master like
Bulfinch and superseded by a pseudo-Gothic
misfit as the present structure. Lately we have
been trying hard to do better: our imitations
have more "atmosphere," our "taste" has im-

AI3L

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CHRISTIAN BASILICA

BEL f wy

Early Christian basilica: if the altar faces the people, the two ambones have
to be exchanged as the Gospel side is always the left-hand side from the
celebrant.

POKCH B

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NAV CHA*C1 |

I I

OCTAGONAL PLAN

ANGLO-SAXON PLAN.

Octagonal plan ( e.g., San Vitale in Ravenna, Aix-la-Chapelle, i.e., Aachen ) :
here the true emphases are somehow shifted into the wrong place, from the
sanctuary to the people's space. The same is true about the Hagia Sophia
in Constantinople. H. A. R.

ROMANESQUE PLAN

German Romanesque shows the first traces of accommodation of the Church
to the growing custom of private Masses, here visible in side altars. H. A. R.

STYUE AND PLAN

altars.

Church of St. Gall (A.D. 800): note curious arrangement of nineteen

Typical 14th century English parish church; this plan shows usual position
of font at lower end of nave, chapels with screens, and chancel largely
hidden by rood-screen.

When one reads certain passages in
Pugin's works it is difficult to remember
that his book, cited below, was pub-
proved, above all, better material is being used
and the rubrics are being observed with greater
care. A close observer might even say that, as
imitations go, our neo-Gothic, neo-Colonial, and
neo-Californian is far superior to anything of
this kind attempted in Europe. But neither
taste, nor imitative and recreative skill, nor the
admirable sense of scale and proportion make
for creation and originality. Acquired and
learned skills observed in the old masters are

lished in 1841. He tells us that "the
two great rules for design are these:
(1) that there should be no features

not to be contemned, it is true, but more is yet
required. Ralph Adams Cram's "lovely," virile
and almost atmospheric Gothic is a perfect ex-
ample of its kind, yet still a profound bow in
the direction of the past achievement, despair-
ing of our own future. All the prerequisites for
a great flowering of American church architec-
ture are now given. The masters may enter now
and take over. H. A. R.

ITALIAN RENAISSANCE PLAN

Italian Renaissance: after the liturgical and architectural confusion of the
waning Middle Ages, we find here a clear conception of the first purpose
of the church: to house the altar. The accent is still slightly shifted and
architectural beauty has it over liturgical appropriateness: the dome is a
hollow climax on nothing. This was probably a consequence of the
ambition to imitate Bramante's St. Peter, forgetting that in St. Peter's
the dome is directly above the confessfo and the main altar. H. A. R.

BAROQUE

Baroque: this plan shows the final stage of Baroque,
when all orientation was lost and the charming and
almost musical products of this grand style had com-
pletely lost their sense of purpose. H. A. H.

STANTONIUS K/RCHE, BASLE

(ArcM*ct; Kari MoserJ.

St. Antonius: the plan shows nothing startling, but is rather conventional.
What shook the architectural wocld in the twenties when this edifice
arose, was the complete honesty in the use of modern technical devices as
concrete, glass, and steel. The architect left the imprint of the wooden
shell into which the concrete was poured without paint or plaster, thus
giving it an interesting texture. H. A. R.

'JOHN KEBLE CHURCH, MILL HILL,
(Architect: DJT Mai&i'-Sn&thJ. ij*6.

Mill Hill Church: the only church known to me in the United States which
shows the same arrangement for the choir is St. Aloysius in Chicago. H. A. R.

(RECTORyj

STMiaiAEL& ALL ANGELS, WYTUENSBAVtE. 1Q37.
(Architect N-FCac/iemai'/k-Ikv ) / (

CHURCH OFCHRI5T THE KIM7 , CORK .

s. Barry yrrt o

Cork, Ireland: three altars in the sanctuary, otherwise a dar-
ing attempt to find a shape commensurate with modern archi-
tectural materials and to do away with aisles no longer
required, as we can now bridge any space. The architect has a
tendency to conceive a shell first and then to cast the church
into this newly conceived, however interesting, shape.
H. A. R.

Parish church plan in accordance with St. Charles Borromeo's

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Modern central parish church: In the American editor's opinion a com-
plete misconception of the liturgical purpose of the church. The people
in the back of the church see the priest's back; those on the sides, to whom
he never turns, his profile; and those behind the altar, his face. To
whom will he turn when he sings the Dominus vobiscum? What happens
to the congregation as an entity? Will there be two Masses on the same
altar at the same time? The cruciform shape and the complete novelty of
arrangement have it over good practical sense and liturgical correctness,
H. A. R.

STYLE AND PLAN

Modern parish church planned on late mediaeval English lines.

about a building which are not necessary
for 'convenience, construction, or pro-
priety; (2) that all ornament should
consist of enrichment of the essential
construction of the building." He points
out that "the neglect of these two rules
is the cause of all the bad architecture
of the present time. Architectural fea-
tures are continually tacked on buildings
with which they have no connection.

merely for the sake of which is termed
effect/' 3

Two years later Pugin issued his
Apology for the Revival of Christian
Architecture in England. Here again he
startles us with phrases that are in such
complete agreement with the "modern-
ists" of our own times that it is hard
to believe that they were written a hun-
dred years ago. He deplores the fact

J Si peer

Two plans of large sacristies.

Parish Church, Ringenberg, Germany
(Architect: Hans Herkommer),
Note plan with double altar and
seats facing it on three sides.

STYLE AND PLAN

that in regard to the public buildings
which had been erected during his own
lifetime "in no one instance has the
purpose or destination of the building
formed the ground-work of the compo-
sition." He lays down that "architecture
and art should be a consistent, expression
of the period/* He voices the feelings of
many a later architect when he says that
"we do not wish to produce mere servile
imitators of former excellence of any
kind, but men imbued with the consist-
ent spirit of the ancient architects, who
would work on their principles, and

Ste. ThMse,

Montmagny, Seine-et-Oise, France ( 1935 ) .

Steel and concrete church designed by

A. and C. Ferret.

Audaincourt, Doubs, France.

Typical example of work of Dom Paul Bellot,

monk-architect of Solesmes Abbey,

carry them out as the old men would
have done, had they been placed in
similar circumstances, and with similar
wants to ourselves." 4

It was not only Pugin who was laying
down these fundamental principles a
century ago; the Cambridge Camden
Society, founded in 1841, was preaching
"functionalism" when it laid down in the
first number of the Ecclesialogist that
"the most important requisite in erecting
a church is that it be built in such a way
that the Kubricks and Canons of the ,
Church of England may be consistently

CHURCHES: THEIR PLAN AND FURNISHING

Benedictine Abbey, Nassau, Bahamas (J. C. Hawes, 1945).

observed, and the Sacraments rubrically sistent with reverence"; "pretence, is, and
and decently administered." It pointed must be"; and that "in God's House
out that "plainness need not be incon- everything should be real!'

St. Philomencfs, Middlesbrough, Yorkshire.
German Romanesque in a north of England industrial town.

STYLE AND PLAN

THE GOTHIC REVIVAL
It was not long before the principles
of Pugin and the Camden Society were
almost forgotten in a craze for Christian
symbolism, of which John Mason Neale
was the chief apologist. Symbolism is
always a dangerous hobby and some of
the leaders of the ecclesiological move-
ment, both clergy and laity, Catholic and
Anglican, were swept off their feet by
the fascination of this new field of
thought. Their pious dreams were often
so far-fetched and fantastically improb-

* Since a great deal of this "symbolism" lies
in the realm of the far more arbitrary, it may
be better to catalogue it under Allegorism.
H. A. R.

St. Anthony the Hermit, Rotterdam (1929).
A characteristic brick church designed by the
famous Dutch architect, Professor Kropholler.

Church of Christ the King, Via Massing Rome.
Designed by Piacentini, this new church is a
startling contrast to the older churches in Rome.

able, that they completely lost sight of
the fact that all architecture is based on
construction.

So passed the Gothic Revival in
England in all its phases. It produced
some great architects who have left
memorials in the churches which they
designed. It also produced some very
bad ones. But we need not be ashamed
to admire the genius of such great
men as Sir Gilbert Scott, George Ed-
mund Street, William Butterfield, James
Brooks, J. L. Pearson, G. F. Bodley,
George Gilbert Scott, Jr., or J. D. Sed-
ding to mention but a few of the
better-known nineteenth-century church
architects. No other country in Europe
can show such a number of really out-

B OH"" IB OdT

New Cathedral, Bdllarat, W. Australia (John C. Hawes, 1944).

St. Gerard Majella, Utrecht, Holland. This modern brick church was designed by
Jan Van de Leur, a pupil of the late Dom Bellot, the architect-monk of Solesmes.

St. Mary's Filey (1906). This little church, designed by Dom Augustine Roulin, O.S.B.,
of Ampleforth Abbey, in the style, more or less, of an early Christian basilica, looks
somewhat exotic amid the hotels and lodging houses of a popular English seaside resort.

Our Lady, Chapeltown, Glerilivet, Scotland (1908). A satisfactory treatment
of a country church on traditional lines in a mountainous part of Scotland.

Our Lady, Star of the Sea, Wells-on-Sea, Norfolk, England. An unusual
exterior, inspired by Flemish architecture found in parts of East Anglia.

All Saints, Thropton, Northumberland (1811). A perfect example of an unpretentious,
very early "Gothick" Revival building in a remote village in the north of England.

St. Mary, Lea Town, Lancashire (1801). There is much to be said in favor
of a simple brick Mass house like this erected with no thought of "architecture'"
nearly thirty years before Catholics in England gained their emancipation.

St. Mary, Great Eccleston, Lancashire (1835). The stark simplicity of this
Catholic chapel in rural Lancashire expresses the solid piety of the people who
clung to the "Old Religion" through three centuries of persecution.

STYLE AND FLAN

standing churches erected in the past
century as England, even if to-day some
of us may be inclined to criticise them
unfavourably because their inspiration
is derived more often than not from
mediaeval Gothic, and because they aim
rather at being "period pieces" rather
than what we now term "modern."
Yet, when one considers them seriously,
these nineteenth-century churches are
"modern 7 ' in the sense that they re-
flect the spirit of their age in the
same way as do the churches of the
Renaissance period. Nobody could ever

Freuensfrieden Kirche, Frankfurt ,
Germany (1927). Designed by
Professor Hans Herkommr.

mistake* a nineteenth-century Gothic
Revival church for a genuine mediaeval
example any more than one could sup-
pose that a Renaissance basilica had
been erected during the Roman empire.

Sainte Jeanne d'Arc, Nice, France
(Jacques Droz). Modern church
made up of intersecting ovoids
completely cast in concrete.

* True to the author's directions: to obfect
whenever he disagrees with him, the editor
would like to point out here that he thinks that
the case is very definitely different: the vigor-
ous men of the Renaissance actually created an
entirely new style. Therefore St. Peter's in
Rome and the Pantheon have little in common.
They handled their classical detail with sov-
ereign independence and magnificent creative-
ness. Through their vitruvian facades shone
Gothic dynamism in spite of their serene re-
straint and their willful this-worldhness. The
neo-Gothics of the nineteenth century, however,
were completely enslaved by their effort to
catch about every smallest detail of their model,
viz., the twelve volumes of Viollet-Ie-Duc*s en-
cyclopedia. The result was that their too correct
imitations can be told at a mile from any
mediocre medieval original by their pale
anemia. H. A. R,

CHURCHES: THEIR PLAN AND FURNISHING

Holy Cross Church, Bornhein, Frankfurt-on-the-Main (1929). Architect: Martin
Weber. Characteristic example of post "Global War No. 1" style in Germany,

MODERN METHODS OF
CONSTRUCTION

Times have now changed and, whether
we like it or not, we cannot ignore the
fact that new methods of steel and
ferro-concrete construction are super-
seding "mass wall" building in large
covered-in spaces. Again it has to be
recognised, no matter how desirable it
may be to use local materials for build-
ing, that it is often cheaper to employ
those which can be obtained from a
distance; a serious consideration in the
case of a large building such as a parish
church in a town. Actually there is no
reason why a reinforced concrete church
need look any more out of keeping with
its surroundings than a brick Byzantine

basilica or an imitation mediaeval Gothic
church. In towns it seems more logical
that a church should not look alien in
the midst of domestic and business
architecture. The same principle may be
applied to villages in the heart of the
country. Here, perhaps, a more tradi-
tional use of materials may be better. But
the builders of red brick "Queen Anne*
houses in England never worried about
the half-timbered buildings of an earlier
period. In fact, as Eric Gill reminds us:
"the best works and the best periods
(of art) are those in which the nature
of the thing to be made is best known
and most poignantly expressed. . . . Bad
works are the production of men who
do not know what they are making or
who do not care." 5

STYLE AND PLAN

ST ALOYS! SIS CAtHOLiC CHU

St. Mary's, Somers Town, London ( 1808 ) . In churches of this type, built by
French emigre* priests, English Catholics rediscovered their architecture.

PRESENT-DAY NEEDS

The right planning of a church is
largely dependent on a knowledge of
its functional needs. As these are never
quite the same in any two instances, it
is difficult to lay down any general prin-
ciples. Perhaps the most important tiling
is that there should be a clear view of
the high altar from all the fixed seats,
whether the building has a nave with
or without aisles. Second, the sanctuary
should be large enough for the perform-
ance of the type of functions that are
normally carried out. The larger the
church, the more difficult is the planning,
especially when the site available is
irregular in shape or not level. There
is much to be said in favour of the primi-

tive Basilican plan, with nave, aisles,
and apsidal sanctuary. Cardinal Schuster
reminds us that "the Roman Liturgy
originated and developed in the classical
Latin basilica, hence this type of build-
ing suits its form and peculiar character
better than any other." 6

Then there is the circular or octagonal
style, also adopted by early Christians,
with the altar in the centre of the
rotunda, in the very midst of the
people. Cardinal Schuster thinks that
this "offended too intimately that very
delicate sense of aesthetic mysticism
which everywhere pervaded the Roman
basilica," 7 and the same objection is
made to-day although many would like
to bring the altar into closer relations

CHURCHES: THEIR PLAN AND FURNISHING

S*. Mary's, East Hendred, Berkshire (1865). In some villages of rural
England, Catholic churches were erected during the past century that
are quite in keeping with their environment. Here is a good example.

with the congregation. "There is nothing
whatever in the nature of an altar,"
writes Eric Gill, "that implies that it
should be anywhere else but in the
middle. It began as a table around
which people sat and partook of the
consecrated bread and wine. It remains
that thing." The same writer maintains
"that the Liturgy must be revived: ie.,
made alive again, and to 'revive the
liturgy' it is first necessary to disinter it.
It is buried beneath a load of mediaeval
and post-mediaeval customs. The divorce
between clergy and laity, between the
people and the altar, has become as

wide as the distinction between the
artist and the factory hand, the respon-
sible human worker on the one hand
and the irresponsible tool on the other.
. . . The altar is the centre of the
church; it is indeed the church itself.
The altar is at hand for those who
pray and it assists the hopes of men by
granting what they need." 8

"At the present time it is the custom
to place the altar at the end of the
church, very often in a specially built
apse or chancel, and generally separated
from the people by the seats of the
ministers, and, in Anglican churches,

STYLE AND PLAN

St. George's Cathedral, Southward, London
(1848). The tower and spire of A. W.
Pugin's cathedral were never completed.
Only the walls are left to-day. The build-
ing was destroyed by enemy action in 1941
and may never be rebuilt on the original
plan.

even by those of the choir. There is thus
a monstrous division between the place
of the altar and the rest of the church.
The sanctuary is ruled off as being not
merely a holy place, but a mysterious
place a place in which only profes-
sional feet may tread, and a place in
which the laity can only enter more
or less timidly, when they go up to
receive Communion/' 9

It is worth noting that J. N. Comper,
an ecclesiastical architect who is vio-
lently opposed to what he regards as
"modernism" in art, also shares the views
of Eric Gill as to the need to bring the

altar back into the midst of the people,
*The amazing thing," he writes, "is that
we go on building on the mediaeval
plan, for all the talk about being modern
and expressing the age, and for all the
architectural poverties which suet talk
produces." He goes on to say that "the
need therefore of our larger parish
churches is to bring the altar into direct
contact with the people and place the
choir somewhere where they wiU not
come between the people and the altar
and obstruct the view." 10

Corpus Christi, Maiden Lane, London
(1875). A little, but much frequented
church in a back street, jostling with stage
doors of theatres, restaurants, and offices.
But the bell tower dominates them all!

CHURCHES: THEIR PLAN AND FURNISHING

Our Lady Immaculate, Limehouse.
A factory-like church in the dock
area of London (1934).

The Gothic revivalists of the past
century, as indeed many of the clergy
and laity to-day, held opposite views.
They clung to long chancels, choir-stalls,
and an altar raised on steps in the
mediaeval tradition. High Church Angli-
cans remembered the rubric in the Book
of Common Prayer: "the chancels shall
remain as they have done in times past,"
and when Pugin and the Cambridge
Camden Society started to build new
churches about a century since, they
planned long chancels, preferably with
a rood-screen to divide the congregation

from clergy and choir. No matter hovv
beautiful this typical mediaeval English
parish church plan may be, it is not
suitable for present-day worship. The
space is too broken up with columns and
piers ( erected from purely constructional
limitations and not from aesthetic and
symbolical reasons).

A long, narrow chancel was a func-
tional necessity in the later Middle Ages
when there were choirs of men and boys
occupying the stalls; to-day, except in
special cases, it is not.. Modern materials
and constructional methods have made
it possible to roof large spaces without

St. Patrick's, Soho, London. An 18th
century Georgian house, crushed by
19th century Italian Renaissance cam-
panile and a 20th century "Movietone
News" office!

STYLE AND PLAN

columns or piers, so that there is really
no need to obstruct the covered-in space,
even if the fanciful symbolism of Duran-
dus would have us believe that "the
piers of the church are bishops and
doctors: who specially sustain the
Church of God by their doctrine. . . .
The bases of the columns are the apos-
tolic bishops, who support the frame
of the whole church. . . . The capitals of
the piers are the opinions of the bishops
and doctors. . . , The ornaments of the
capitals are the words of Sacred Scrip-
ture, to the meditation and observance
of which we are bound." 11

The Guardian Angels, London, E. ( 1901 ) .
Modern mediaeval Gothic church in the
Mile End Road. It was designed by F. A.
Waters, the architect of Buckfast Abbey.

Ste, Thfr&se de L'Enfant JSsus, Eliza-
bethvitte-sur-Seine, France ( 1928 ) .
Paul Toumon's famous steel and con-
crete church. Note the great windows.

The solution of the problem lies in
a happy mean between two views. The
altar is, and always has been, the one
essential feature of a Christian church
everything else, apart from the font,
is secondary. A church should be de-
signed in relation to the altar, not the
altar to the church. If the architect bears
in mind the definition given in Canon
Law: "a sacred building, dedicated to
divine worship, chiefly for the purpose
that it may be made use of by all the
faithful for public services" he cannot
go far wrong either in style or planning,

CHURCHES: THEIR PLAN AND FURNISHING

St. Saviour 6- Si. John the Baptist,
Lewisham, London. This red brick
campanile is an even more prominent
landmark today than when it was
built in 1909. Nearly every other
building around the church has been
destroyed by enemy action.

provided that, at the same time, he
observes the laws which are laid down
regarding furniture. 12

He must therefore have a clear under-
standing what is meant by "divine
worship" and the "use" that will be
made of the "sacred building" by the
faithful for "public services/' This knowl-
edge is infinitely more important than
a knowledge of the historical "styles" of
architecture employed in past ages,
and therefore popularly supposed to
be "ecclesiastical" 13

In these days when all sorts of ex-
periments are being made in church

planning it may be worth while to give
the rules laid down by St. Charles re-
garding the form of a church (Instruc-
tions, c. II). He states that "it can be
of great variety," but that "the form of
the cross is preferable." He tells us that
"the form of construction, which re-
sembles an oblong cross, should be
adhered to where it is possible." At the
same time he allows any other form
suited to the site, granted the permission
of the bishop.

St. Charles recommends that an ob-

St. Mary's, Hampstead (1816). Situated in
a quiet backwater of 18th century houses
in north London, this little church is
in perfect harmony with its surroundings.

STYLE AND PLAN

long, cross-shaped church should have
either one nave only, or three or five
naves (i.e., a nave with side aisles).
There should be chapels on either side
of the sanctuary, with slightly projecting
transepts, carried up to the full height
of the building. He seems to consider it
very important that the church should
have an imposing facade, and gives
careful directions as to its sculptured
decoration. Wherever there is space, and
funds permit, an atrium or open court-
yard should be built in front of the
church, surrounded by cloisters with
columns. But if this court-yard is not
possible, then there must be a spacious

St. Francis, Glasgow (1881). Gothic details
employed in typical example of large 19th
century city church (Peter Paul Pugin).

Eisden-Mines, Limbourg, Belgium.
A striking example of modern brick
work (A. van den Nieuwenborg).

portico, or at least a broad vestibule
in small churches.

REMODELLING AND BEFXJBNISHING

OF CHURCHES 1 *

It is again difficult to lay down gen-
eral principles. The work must depend
largely on the funds available and the
character of the building. The essential
is to ensure that the altars and other
furniture conform to liturgical regula-
tions so far as is possible, and that struc-
tural alterations are limited to parts that
are awkward or inconvenient. Churches
erected in the past century may not
appeal to the present generation, but
it is probable that our children will
regard them differently. Gothic Revival

CHURCHES: THEIR PLAN AND FURNISHING

Effingham, Surrey (1913). A small
modern county church with mediaeval
details but completely lacking the
essential spirit of real Gothic work.

churches should not be treated disre-
spectfully because they have gone out
of fashion! We deplore the vandalism of
eighteenth-century restorers who tried
to turn Gothic churches into Classical
temples; we are horrified at the reckless-
ness of nineteenth-century architects who
destroyed so much good Renaissance
church furniture. There is as much
danger to-day that we may feel the urge
to tamper with perfectly good work
erected between 1850 and 1900 just
because it has ceased to be fashionable.
If the structure of a church is still
good, then leave it. Worn parts can be
replaced, cleaned, or repaired. Concen-

trate on essentials, e.g., lighting and
heating, flooring and seating. If elabor-
ate mural decorations are shabby and
need renewing, it may be better to do
away with them altogether rather than
replace them with work done by artists
who no longer possess the spirit which
evolved the originals. It is a great mis-
take to suppose that all the furniture
of a church must conform to a particu-
lar style. Uniformity is often dull and
monotonous. So long as any piece of
furniture is sincere and honest crafts-
manship and not too obtrusive, it will
look well in any setting. Common sense
should indicate what to avoid. New
work should respect its neighbours,
but also express the spirit of its own

A typical Italian portico.

St. Anne's Cathedral, Leeds, England (J. H. Eastwood, 1902).
An interesting church designed in "art-nouveau" Gothic.

CHURCHES: THEIR PLAN AND FURNISHING

St. Margaret's Oratory, Comrie, Scotland. An old barn trans-
formed into a public oratory, with Italian Baroque furniture.

time. A house of God feels much more
homely and less like a public institution
or hotel if the furniture possesses the
variety usually found in a house that
has been lived in by the same family
for several generations. A church should
be homely, otherwise those who worship
in it will never grow to love it. This
quality of homeliness makes churches in
Catholic countries so different from so
many of our own.

We should therefore concentrate on
altering furniture which does not con-
form to liturgical requirements, provided
that the workmanship is of good quality.

Should a church happen to have a good*
example of a nineteenth-century high
altar, backed by a lofty reredos, bristling
with crockets and statues of saints and
angels, it would be a pity to remove it.
It represents the spirit of the period to
which it belongs. All that need be done
is to provide frontals, to remodel the
tabernacle so that it can be completely
covered with a tent-shaped veil, to see
that the crucifix does not stand within
the permanent throne for exposition, and,

* A really good reredos of the nineteenth
century would be such a rare thing that for
that reason it should be preserved. H. A. R.

St. Mary's, Derby (A. W. Pugin, 1839) described by Cardinal as
"without exception the most magnificent thing the Catholics have
yet done in modern times in this country, and quite worthy of ancient
days* . . . On the whole it would not have done dishonor to Rome/*

jsj

a a

N bO

sTW
* 9

8 y

STYLE AND PLAN

St. Peters, Gorleston, Suffolk, England
(Eric GUI). The high altar is in the centre
of the building, with seats on all four sides.

if possible, to erect some kind of canopy
over the altar and footpace. A reredos
of this type can be greatly improved if
well decorated with gold leaf and
colour. In most of them the carving is
cold and machine-like in quality and
will look better when brightened up.

In large town churches it is common
to find far too many shrines some are
dedicated to saints whose popularity
has waned and whose statues can be
moved or can be removed, especially if
they are without merit. In almost every
case the statues, if they are plaster, will
need to be repainted. The work should
be entrusted to capable artists.

If there is doubt as to the colour to
use for distempering walls, it is nearly

always to or cream,

rather than a stronger colour. White is
the best background for furniture,
whether of natural wood or coloured.
If the walls of the sanctuary are dis-
tempered a vivid blue, red, or green,
the result "kills" the colours on and
around the altar, which should be the
central feature.

Should the windows be filled with
tinted glass it is better to remove it
and substitute plain white glass. A pale-
green or yellow light plays havoc with
colours. It is curious that there should

St. Cuthbert's College, Ushaw, England,
(1884). A remarkable example of an altar
being treated as an unimportant base for
the exposition throne. Architect: Peter
Paul Pugin.

CHURCHES: THEIR PLAN AND FURNISHING

St. Albans, Warrington, England. This drawing is reproduced, for it is such a perfect
example of 19th century good intentions to transform a Classic building into a sort of
Romanesque basilica, at the same time breaking almost every rubric concerning altars, etc,!

be such an objection to seeing the sky
through church windows!

In almost every case, the lighting and
heating and ventilation will need atten-

tion, especially in town churches where
there are big congregations and many
services.

NOTES

1. Leathart, Julian, Style in Architecture
(1940), pp. 17, 18.

2, So far as Catholic churches in Great
Britain are concerned, there was a complete
break in ecclesiastical architecture in Britain
for about two and a half centuries. It was not
until the passing of the Catholic Emancipation
Act in 1829 that Catholics were able to resume
church building without the fear of having
their work destroyed by a mob. Once freedom
had been gained there was an epidemic of
building, but both clergy and laity had lost

touch with native traditions, and mostly sought
inspiration from abroad. Augustus Welby Pugin
was the first among Catholic architects of the
past century to point out that there are funda-
mental principles underlying church building. It
is not fair to judge this architect by his
churches, even the few which have been left
unspoilt. Otherwise we may be inclined to look
upon him as nothing more than a romantic
Mediaevalist In fact, he was very much the
opposite, and, unlike most of his contempora-
ries, he fully grasped the fact that the essen-

STYLE AND PLAN

tials of mediaeval architecture lie in its meth-
ods of construction and not in the copying of
merely superficial details.

3. True Principles of Pointed or Christian
Architecture, p. 1.

4. Pugin, Apology -for the Revival of Chris-
tian Architecture in England, pp. 8-22.

5. Gill, Eric, Beauty Looks After Herself,
p. 245.

6. Schuster, Card., The Sacramentan/, Vol.
I, p. 166.

7. Op. cit., p. 166.

8. Pradentius, Perstephanon, c. 2, A.D. 407.

9. Gill, Eric, Sacred and Secular, pp. 140-
150.

10. Comper, J. N., Further Thoughts on the
English Altar, or Practical Considerations on
the Planning of a Modern Church (1933), pp.
59-75.

11. Neale, J. M., and Web, Benjamin, trans-
lation of the Rationale Divinorum Officiorum
by Durandus (1843), quoted by Basil F. L.
Clarke, Church Builders of the 19th century,
p. 93 (1938).

12. When planning a church for one of the
older religious orders, such as the Benedictines,
Cistercians, or Dominicans, the architect would
be well advised to study their ceremonial cus-
toms and traditions, which differ in many ways
from those found in churches following the
normal Roman rite. For instance, a Dominican
church would require a spacious choir, wide
aisles for processions, and broad altar steps, for
the deacon and subdeacon who must move
about and genuflect on them. The Dominican
Caeremoniale lays the same insistence on the
tabernacle being covered with a conopaeum as

do the decrees of the S.R.C. and a frontal is re-
quired on. the altar it must be stretched on
a wooden frame and not hang loosely. Riddel
posts (coronides ligneae circa aitaris angulos)
are forbidden, although curtains of silk or other
rich material are permitted (Caeremoniale
Episcoporum, L.I, c. XII). Above the altar and
footpace there should be a square-shaped tester
(ttmbraculum) , unless there should be a cibo-
rium of stone or marble. The Cistercians have
a definite ceremonial of their own, while the
Benedictines and Franciscans conform to the
Roman rite in nearly all ceremonial details,
though Franciscan tradition logically requires
great simplicity in material and design. The
general principle is that the older religious
orders obey the decrees of the Congregation of
Rites in all things which do not affect their
peculiar rubrics.

13. The only details given in Canon Law
about the plan and construction of a church
are: (1) the prohibition of an opening of
windows from the church into the house of lay
people, (2) that the basement or upper part of
the building may not be used for "profane pur-
poses'* (Canon 1164, 2). All other canonical
legislation refers to furniture.

14. The American magazine, Liturgical Arts,
has given much attention to remodelled
churches. A study of the numerous illustrated
articles, devoted to practical and structural
alterations in churches in the United States,
will show what can be done with buildings
which, at first sight, might appear to be im-
possible of improvement.

Abbey Church, Nassau, Bahamas (J. C. Hawes).

Our Lady of Good Council, Beverwijk, Holland. Typical modern brick church, designed
by Professor Kropholler. Planned to give an unbroken view of high altar from every seat.

St. Mary's> Wallsall, England. This stately church in the Grecian style shows the type of
buildings being erected in England at the date of the "Catholic Emancipation" (1829).

St. Francis,, Gorton, Manchester., England. Designed by Edward Pugin, this
veiy lofty church shows the Gothic Revival at its best. It was begun in 1872.

Oratory Church, Birmingham, England (1909-1920). A striking 20th
century "period piece*' of the Italian Baroque style, designed by Doran Webb.

St. Birinus\ Dorchester, Oxfordshire.
A characteristic example of English Gothic Revival (1849).

" .

Church of the Holy Rood, Watford, England (1889-1900). Char-
acteristic example of work of J. F. Bentiey, the architect of
Westminster Cathedral. Note rood loft without screen beneath it.

The Chapel, Everingham Hall, Yorkshire (1839), The Constable family remained Catholic
after the Reformation. To mark the passing of the Emancipation Act in 1829 this magnificent
chapel in the Corinthian style was erected adjoining their ancestral home near York.

*A. ^y" ^i* r\f \~ryJvl ^ "-n ^ '/

aiisii

Rood-Screen, St. Cyprian, Dorset Square, London (J, N. Comper, 1903). This Anglican
church manages to recapture the atmosphere of a typical late mediaeval building. The
screen is gilded and coloured.

Ringenburg, Germany (1935), Hans Herkommer, architect. Mass
is said facing the people. There is a smaller altar, not visible in
this drawing, with a tabernacle for early Communion Mass, built
against the wall that carries the high altar. The large window
behind the altar is made of very strongly coloured stained glass,
so as to prevent glare.

CHAPTER IV

ALTARS

The Christian altar is a table on
which the Eucharistic Sacrifice is offered.
Of all the accessories of Christian wor-
ship, the altar has always ranked first
in dignity and importance. Indeed,
strictly speaking, the church is built for
the altar, not the altar for the church.
The supreme act of Christian worship
can be performed in the open air when
occasion demands, with no other cover-
ing than the sky, although in ordinary
circumstances the permission of the
Ordinary must be obtained. 1 But the
Holy Sacrifice can never be offered up
without an altar, no matter how small,
simple, and unadorned.* The altar is
the raison d'etre of the church. It should
be made its focal point. In the Latin
rite the essential feature is a stone slab,

* The perfect altar consists of the conse-
crated table without additions of any kind.
Such, for example, is the high altar of the chief
basilicas of Kome, St. Patrick's in New York,
and Westminster Cathedral, London. In paro-
chial and smaller churches, where the Blessed
Sacrament is reserved at the high altar, the
tabernacle is a necessary addition. . . . [Any
addition] may be made only on the condition
that they do not interfere with the essential
structure of the altar. . . . Very large taber-
nacles are not desirable since they detract from
the importance of the altar itself. . . . Thus
Cardinal Vaughan's instructions. Unless they
are heeded the present static attitude of adora-
tion, silent and meditative, will be encouraged
and our hope for active participation of the
faithful in the primary eucharistic worship, the
Mass, will be stifled by the secondary one cen-
tered in the real presence. Architecture can
help one or the other. H. A. R.

containing relics of a martyr, and con-
secrated by a bishop, or by an abbot
having the requisite faculty. In these
days it is common to build a church
and leave the altar or altars to be erected
later on. It would be more logical and
in accordance with the mind of the
Church to erect at least the high altar,
to have it consecrated, and then proceed
with the rest of the building.

HISTORICAL NOTES
During the first centuries of Chris-
tianity, the Holy Eucharist was cele-
brated in private houses on ordinary
domestic tables. The word "altar" was
carefully avoided by the early Chris-
tians because of its pagan associations,
and most historians are of the opinion
that it does not seem to have been
employed before the fifth century. The
wooden tables depicted in the frescoes
of the catacombs are of various shapes:
square, round, and semicircular. Some
have three legs, but four legs are more
common. Two pieces of one of these
primitive wooden tables are preserved
in Rome. The Holy Eucharist was also
celebrated on or near the tombs of the
martyrs in the catacombs from the first
quarter of the second century. In this
case, the stone slab over the tomb served
as the altar, which often occupied a
space hewn out of the rock (arcosolium),
which formed a sort of canopy over it.

ALTABS

Altar f standing beneath ciborium (civory).
For description, see page 82.

More frequently the altar was detached
from the wall and consisted of an oblong
or square slab of stone or marble resting
on one or more columns.
When Christians gained freedom of

worship in the fourth century, permanent
altars of wood or stone were erected
for the first time in Western Europe.
So great was the veneration for the
martyrs, especially in Rome, that in

CHURCHES: THEIR PLAN AND FURNISHING

For description, see page 83.

almost every church the altar stood over
the tomb of a martyr. It seems that the
earliest reference to the obligation of
stone altars is in 517 when the Provincial
Council of Epaume in Gaul laid down
that only stone altars could be conse-
crated. This rule was enforced by many
subsequent councils,

In some of the Eastern Churches
a wooden tablet is laid down on the
top of the stone altar, thus retaining

the idea of the original wooden table.
This is the exact reverse of the Western
or Latin custom, where, even when the
greater part of an altar is made of wood
or other material, a "portable altar" of
stone must be placed on top. 2

Nevertheless, wooden holy tables were
used in Western Europe alongside with
stone altars during the Middle Ages; the
altar was often called "God's Board/' 3

TESTER

PLATFOM

FOR
MONSTRANCE

3'4"

: 10"

1'3"

For description, see page 82,

64 CHURCHES: THEIR PLAN AND FURNISHING

** MEN SA

( J4 ]

-STIPE'S STIPES'
PREDCLLA^

"...

r + i

FRONT

SECTION C-B

3' I0 h

COVER

6' 6"

SINKING

PLAN SEPULCHRE

Diagram showing construction of altar.

FORMS OF ALTARS

Various forms have been used in
Western Europe during the past fifteen
centuries. They include the following
types:

1. Tables, i.e., a stone slab, supported
by one or more columns, either in the
centre or at the corners.

2. Altars over tombs. Owing to the
increasing veneration for the martyrs
after the fourth century, wherever pos-
sible a church was erected over the
grave, with the altar immediately above.
The space below and in front of the
altar generally beneath the level of
the nave or sanctuary was known as

the Confessio. The tomb could be seen
through openings, often protected by
iron gratings for fear of profanation.
Most of the Roman basilicas have high
altars of this type.

3. Tomb-altars. Later on the body
or relics of the saint came to be placed
immediately beneath the altar, or were
built into the space between the sup-
ports. From about the thirteenth century
it became common to use the space
beneath the mensa as a cupboard for
valuable objects, e.g., lesser relics, sacred
vessels, vestments, etc. This practice was
condemned in various decrees from the
sixteenth century.

4 Built-up altars. From the eleventh

ALTARS

century, and all through the later Middle
Ages, the most common form of altar
was a solid structure, with the space
beneath the mensa built up completely
between the supports. The chief reason
for this form was the great length of
mediaeval altars. The early Christian
altars were small, 4 often square shaped,

table form, as corresponding more

closely to the spirit of the Eucharistic
liturgy." 11

Some of the early stone table altars
had a low ledge round the four sides,
the inside surface being concave. Stand-
ing usually on one column they are remi-
niscent of a modern "bird bath. 9 * The

Contrasts. Typical Early Christian altar and 19th century altar (SacrS-Coeur* Montmartre).

but, by the end of the fifteenth century,
twelve feet or more was not uncommon
for the length of an altar. 5

Cardinal Schuster thus qualifies the
appropriateness of two of the above
types: "Each is authorised by liturgical
tradition, but since the idea of the altar
tomb is later in date than that of the
simple and primitive mensa Domini, and
introduces a quite secondary funereal
element, so, if one had to select a type
of altar suitable for the Blessed Sacra-
ment, one would preferably choose the

'ledge" was to prevent the contents of
the chalice from dropping onto the
ground if it were spilt, an accident which
might easily happen when large chalices
were needed to communicate the laity.

About the thirteenth century the cus-
tom arose of marking four crosses on
the upper surface of the mensa where
the anointing with the holy oils was
made at the consecration. Since the pub-
lication of the Roman Pontifical of 1597
five incised or painted crosses on the
mensa are obligatory.

CHURCHES: THEIR PLAN AND FURNISHING

-^W 7 "

TV -V .r-\X"^>v- ix^v .-' ', ' i

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Elne Cathedral ,

Rome: 5S Vincen zo <J Ana$ta.$io, Tr<r

Bolcana, $, dio\ja.nni in Mont? , t

lucent,

Table altars.

NUMBER OF ALTARS

It is doubtful if any church had more
than one altar before the fifth century.
It is still the custom in most Eastern
rites to have but one* altar in a church.

' JLet us remember that even today no side

The multiplication of altars was due
to the following causes:

altar should be in the sanctuary, but in a
chapel sufficiently distinct from the sanctuary
so as not to convey the idea that there is more
than one altar in tne focal center of the church
(see Card. Vaughan's Directions, 4 ed., p. 8).
H, A. H.

ALTABS

Tomb Altar, S-{jovannI In Qleo .

////Itlfl 17/77 /
I

r-'-t

/LI _ rl - J LOCUU

Altar over tomb
5- Ambro<7to, Milan .

To mi Altar. 5".

BLae~k Altar. S-Fna*cfco t Assist

Block Altar, 5- Domenieo , ATCZZO

Altar t S ^loyanm acya Incurabzti r Rome

Altars.

1. The celebration of "private" Masses, on the same day. This practice became

which became the rule from about the such an abuse, that by the thirteenth

eighth century. During the ninth century century the multiplication of private

many priests offered Mass several times Masses was forbidden. At any earlier

not

lo be the

on an

2, The of a for reli-

quaries a of the

to Canon Law are

Sixth cenfatry canopy in museum of Perugia.

Eleventh century canopy over altar,

L Fixed or immovable (immobile sen
fixum ) .

This consists of (a) a table (men$a);
(b) a support or base (stipes). The two
parts are consecrated together as one
whole. 7

2. Portable (mobile sen partatfle).
This consists of a stone, generally of
small size, which alone is consecrated,
or the same stone with its support which
is not consecrated as one whole. 8

A third kind of altar, referred to by
the Sacred Congregation of Rites as
**ad modum foci," 9 is a compromise be-
tween a fixed and a portable altar. The
altar is a solid or permanent structure
of stone or wood or any other suitable
material, into the top of which a conse-
crated stone (a portable altar) is
inserted.

S. Cecilia, Rome.

FIXED OR IMMOVABLE ALTAK
The fixed or immovable altar consists
of three parts: (a) the table (mensa);
(b) the support (stipes); (c) the sepul-
chre (sepulchrum) .

a) The Table

The flat surface on top must be of a
single natural stone in one piece and
unbreakable. 10 By "natural stone*' is
meant marble, granite, sandstone, lime-
stone, slate, etc. All kinds of artificial
stones, no matter how durable, are for-
bidden, also concrete, bride, pumice
stone, and gypsum. 11

It Is the or

the

be to the

Five be on the

one at the

i.e., 6 ni.

one in flu* A

he o the of

the the is

this be in the

of the of the

It is desirable the of

the at 2 in.

beyond the to the

knocking his against the
The of the are

regulated by its ordinary functions. An

S. Marco, Venice.

CHURCHES: THEIR PLAN AMD FURNISHING

Italian Renaissance baldaquin.

altar where Low Mass is the rule need
not be so large as an altar where High
Mass is frequently celebrated.

b) The Support

This may be of any form provided the
following details are observed:

The material must be of natural stone
as ordered for the table, It may consist

of one solid block of stone or marble,
or of at least four stone columns, which
must be directly under the four crosses
at the corners of the top slab. 13 The
space between the columns may be left
open or filled in with stone, brick, or
cement. It may not be used as a cup-
board, even for sacred vessels, although
S.R.C. 3976, ad 1 (1898) allows the cus-
tom at Feltre of keeping books in the
back of the altar not directly beneath
the rnema. 1 * It is permitted to place the
body of a saint beneath the altar. 15 The
support must rest on the actual pavement
of the church so that it cannot be
moved. 16 For the validity of the conse-

English mediaeval altar with suspended pyx
and tester.

CUD

Q3TOCHES: THEIR FLAN ANB FUKNISfUNG

St. Thomas 9 , Claughton, Lancashire (about 1800).

oration of an altar consisting of a single
solid block of marble or stone, shallow
stones at each corner must be provided
by way of supports. 17

c) The Sepulchre

The sepulchre is a small square or
oblong opening or cavity in which are
placed relics of saints, 18 It may be in
one of three positions:

1. In the top surface of the mensa,
in the centre, near the front edge;

2. In the top of the stone base, so
that the mensa itself forms the cover.
This position saves cutting into the solid
block of the mensa;

3. In the front or back of the base,
half-way between the mensa and the
ground.

The cavity or lid covering the sepul-
chre must be of one single stone of the
same material as the mensa if the sepul-
chre is in the altar slab itself. 19 Other-
wise it may be of any stone. It should

CHURCHES: THEIR FLAN AND FURNISHING

Chapel of the Annunciation, HSverU, Belgium (Fl Van Reeth).

fit in easily as it has to be cemented in
during the consecration rite.

FOUNDATION

It has been stated already that the
support of the altar must rest on the
actual pavement. Should the floor surface
of the sanctuary be of wood, rubber
tiling, or any other material not of earth
substance, then the altar itself must rest
on a foundation of stone, brick, concrete,
caly tiles, or terra-cotta.

RELICS

For the valid consecration of a fixed
altar it is necessary to insert the authen-
ticated relics of two canonised martyrs,
even if nameless. 20 The consecration will
be valid if one of the two saints is a
martyr. 21 For a portable altar the relics
of one martyr and another saint are
considered sufficient. The relics are

placed in a reliquary of lead, silver, 01
gold. They are usually tied with a ribboi
and sealed. Three grains of incense anc
a parchment with a certificate of the
consecration are also inserted.

POSITION

As the bishop, vested in cope anc
mitre, and carrying a thurible, is orderec
to go round the altar seven times during
the consecration ceremonies, it is im-
portant that a fixed altar, or at least the
high altar, should stand free of the wall. 2 '
A space of at least 2 ft. 6 in. should be
allowed. This is the only rubric thai
mentions the position of the altar, other-
wise an architect can place the altaa
where he thinks best. 23 Side altars ma}
stand against a wall if there should not
be sufficient room to allow them to stand
free. This usage, as some authorities
point out, is one of those which in certain

ALTARS

18 in. on each side. A good average
length in a small church is 7 ft, 6 in.

3. Breadth. No definite measurement
can be given for the breadth of the
mensa, but a minimum of 20 in. to 24 in.
should be allowed from the front edge
to the tabernacle or to the candlesticks
where there is no tabernacle. Eighteen
inches should be allowed for the taber-
nacle itself, and at least 9 in. for the
crucifix, should it stand immediately be-
hind. Therefore the minimum breadth
of a high altar with a tabernacle should
be 4 ft.

ALTAR STEPS

In the early ages altars were usually
erected on the level of the floor and
not raised up on steps. The following
steps are now ordered by the rubrics.

Nordernez, Chapel of Our Lady
Star of the Sea (D. Bohm).

places possibly have become customs
with the force of law.

MEASUREMENTS

1. Height. The height of an altar from
the footpace to the top of the mensa may
vary from 3 ft. 3 in. to 3 ft. 6 in.

2. Length. This depends on the size
of the sanctuary or side chapel. As stated
above, primitive altars were often cube-
shaped, from about 3 ft 6 in. to 4 ft.
long. Some mediaeval English high altars
were 16 ft. long; those in side chapels
less than 5 ft. The shortest altar should
be not less than the width of the missal
on each side of the corporal, i.e., about

High Altar, Logelbach (Haut-Rhin), 1927.

CHURCHES: THEIR PLAN AND FURNISHING

aa^ii^^Nyaaflsaiiur^

i*a

, Egto? Saint-L6on, Paris (Emile Brunet, 1930).
An outstanding example of disregard of rubrics!

1. The footpace (predella or sup-
pedaneum) is required for all altars. 24
It is the platform on which the priest
stands when he is saying Mass. It should
have a depth of at least 3 ft. 9 in. so
that the celebrant may genuflect without
difficulty. In cathedrals the footpace
should be at least 4 ft. deep, for part of
the ordination ceremonies take place on
it As a general rule it is more conven-
ient that the footpace does not extend
beyond the length of the inensa as the
deacon is supposed to stand on his step

to turn over the pages at the corner of
the altar, and on other occasions. The
servers are also supposed to stand on
the second step when bringing up cruets.
2. Two more steps should be added
for a high altar, not less than 1 ft. 9 in.
wide, preferably 2 ft, and not more than
5 in. high. These steps can extend across
the whole width of the sanctuary, ac-
cording to the usual mediaeval practice,
which in many ways is more convenient
for the sacred ministers and servers,
although this means that the servers,

ALTARS

Greyfriars, Wakingham
England (1935). Altai
with tester and dossa)
in temporary chapel oi
Capuchin friary ( J. & L,
Dagless & P. P. Anson)

etc., stand all the time on the deacon's
step. On the other hand, most modern
churches have the two lower steps going
round the footpace, not only in front,
but at the sides. It has been ordered
that the footpace should be made of
wood, but this rule is not generally ob-
served except in Italy. 35 Nevertheless
wooden footpaces might well be adopted
everywhere. They are much better than
stone.

PORTABLE ALTAR
This must be a single slab of natural
stone, entire and not easily broken. 26 It

is usually square, and although no defi-
nite measurements are prescribed, it
should be large enough to hold the
chalice, the host, and a small ciborium,
if Holy Communion has to be given to a
number of people. Although it is custom-
ary to have five small crosses incised on
the stone, this is not essential for validity.
Portable altars are generally covered
with strong linen or calico, waxed on the
inside. This custom is supposed to pre-
vent the holy oils from staining the
linen cloths, but it is doubtful if the oils
remain for more than a week or so!
Portable altars are inserted into the

ALTARS 81

preferably, but not necessarily the high
altar, 27

CONSECRATION AND LOSS OF
CONSECRATION

It Is outside the scope of this book
to describe the elaborate ceremonies
connected with the consecration of an
altar. It suffices to recall the fact that
a fixed altar loses its consecration if the
table is separated, even for a moment,
from the base to which it has been
permanently joined in the act of conse-
cration. The consecration is not, how-
ever, lost if the entire altar is moved
without the separation of the parts. 28

If there is a considerable break in any
part of the altar fixed or portable

El-Abfod, Morocco, Chapel in monas-
tery of the Brothers of the Sacred
Heart founded by Pere de Foucauld.

wooden tables of temporary altars so
that they are level with the surrounding
surface. It is dangerous to have the
portable altar resting on a wooden table
lest the chalice should upset.

In churches where a fixed altar has
been erected, but not consecrated, the
best plan is to have a wooden top to
fit over the mensa into which a portable
altar can be inserted. This temporary
top should be made as low as possible,
otherwise the extra height of the altar
itself may be inconvenient to a short
priest.

In blessed churches all altars may be
portable. In a consecrated church one
altar must be fixed and consecrated,

The Slipper Chapel,Wd$ingham f England.
Small modern altar in mediaeval style
except for tabernacle (J. E. Dagless).

CHURCHES; THEIR PLAN AND FURNISHING

Corpus Christi Church, Aachen, Germany
(Rudolf Schwarz).

the consecration has to be renewed. 30
This applies, not only to the quantity of
the actual material broken, but more
particularly to the importance of the
part - e.g., one of the corners marked
with the four crosses; the removal of
the reliquary or its contents in the case
of theft; etc. 30

FURTHER NOTES ON THE CONSTRUC-
TION AND ARRANGEMENT OF ALTARS
AND THEIR FITTINGS

The illustration on page 61 shows the
plan and elevation of a high altar in a
parish church, standing beneath a civory
(ciborium). The altar itself is com-
pletely isolated, having no reredos. The
cross and candlesticks stand in a straight
line behind the tabernacle, there being
no gradine. For ordinary exposition it

would suffice to place the monstrance
on the menm in front of the tabernacle.
For more solemn exposition the cross
would be replaced by a movable stand
with its base just above the top of the
tabernacle.

On page 63 is shown another type of
high altar, with a gradine behind the
tabernacle and a low retable above it.
It will be noticed that the retable pro-
jects slightly behind and above the taber-
nacle to provide a base for a temporary
throne for the monstrance during expo-
sition. To reach this base, steps and a
platform are necessary. It is more con-
venient if there are steps at both sides
of the platform. The height from the
platform to the base should not exceed
4 ft. 6 in.

Should this type of altar have a civory,

Mediaeval type of altar with
suspended pyx.

ALTARS

Baroque ( sarcophagus shape ) .

baldaquin, or tester over it, which is not
a matter of choice, but of obligation
insisted upon by many decisions of the
Congregation of Rites (cf. Rev. J. P.
Redmond, The Clergy Review, June,
1932, p. 505), there would be no need
for a temporary throne. The monstrance
could stand on the top of the retable
during exposition.

On page 62 is depicted an altar with
a dossal tester and hanging crucifix. It
stands against the wall.*

* Let us here reprint the directions for altar
societies and architects compiled under Cardinal
Vaughan, 4 ed., p. 7f: "In cathedral, col-
legiate, or conventual churches, where the choir
functions are carried out at the high altar, the
Blessed Sacrament is to be reserved, as a rule,
not at the high altar but in a special chapel.
... In other churches at least one side altar is
necessary, others may be needed if many
Masses are celebrated. Side altars should not
be multiplied unnecessarily in any church. They
are for the celebration of the Mass only. If
places be needed for the cult of images or
relics, they should take the form of shrines,
e.g., a pedestal or a bracket should be used,
not of altars." This is clear language based on

SUMMABY OF ALTAB DIMENSIONS
High Alter. Minimum length: 7 ft. 6
in.; height from footpace to top of
mensa (for all altars): 3 ft 3 in. mini-
mum, to 3 ft. 6 in. maximum; depth
from front of mensa to front of taber-
nacle: 1 ft. 8 in. minimum, to 2 ft, 1 in.
maximum. Should there be no gradine
at least 5 in. should be allowed for the
candlesticks and crucifix. 31

Side Altars, Minimum length: 6 ft.;
depth from front of mensa to back: 1 ft.
9 in. minimum, to 2 ft. 1 in. maximum.

Footpace. The footpace or platform
(predeUa) must have a minimum depth
of 3 ft. 9 in., with a maximum depth of
4 ft. 6 in. (useful in cathedral churches).

clear principles, but how often do we not see
churches with a half dozen altars serving as a
side board for vigil lights, flower pots, and
candlesticks, while Mass is never said on them.
With our hourly and half hourly Mass sched-
ules in parish churches, hardly any parish
church needs more than two side altars.
H. A. R.

Paris Exhibition, 1927.

High Altar in Pontifical Pavilion.

Architect Paul Tournon.

CHURCHES: THEIR PLAN AND FURNISHING

The depth should be measured from a
vertical line taken from the extreme
projection of the mensa to the footpace.

Java, East Indies. Pagan art forms
consecrated to Christian usages.

The footpace may be the same length
as the mensa or about 6 in. to 1 ft. longer.
This is recommended by St. Charles
Borromeo.

Steps. A high altar should stand on
at least three steps, but there may be
five or seven. For some curious reason
an odd number is ordered. The footpace
counts as one. For side altars a footpace
suffices. The same may be done with

the steps of the high altar, except the
footpace. All altar steps should be at
least 14 in. wide, with a rise of not more
than 5 in. In this case the altar will
stand on the back part of the footpace,
the depth of both being about the same.
St. Charles Borromeo lays down the rule
that the bottom steps should be made

Sacr-Coeur, Petit Colombes, Paris.
Modern French altar, designed with
complete disregard for rubrics.

of stone or bricks, but that the third
step ought to be made of wooden
boards. 32

NOTES

1. C.J.C. 822, 4.

2. It is worth mentioning perhaps that, so
far as the Roman rite is concerned, wooden
altars do not exist and have no official recogni-
tion. In Canon Law there is no difference be-
tween a rough packing case and an elaborately
carved oak table made to look like an altar.
Both of them are really nothing more than a
necessary support for a stone portable altar,
which is the only essential in either case.

3. The development of the Christian altar
may be summed up as follows: first, a small
wood or stone table, with the priest standing
behind it, facing the people. Then, relics of
martyrs placed under the table, so that it be-
comes a tomb. The cultus of relics grows, and

the body of the saint is placed behind the altar.
The priest turns round and has his back to the
people, facing the shrine. The shrine itself is
placed longways north to south, and the altar
is lengthened to be in proportion to it, and is
backed by a reredos or low wall The civory
that had hitherto covered the altar is done
away with, often giving place to a reredos that
extends over the entire east wall. The altar
eventually becomes little more than the base of
a sideboard arranged for exposition.

4. The early altars were so small that there
would have been no room on them for books,
candlesticks, or a crucifix.

5. This length was probably due to the
introduction of "Low" Mass at which the altar

ALTARS

had to provide an "Epistle** and "Gospel"* side
in replacement of the ambones.

6. Schuster, Card., The Sacramentan/, Vol.
I, P. 170.

7. C.J.C. 1197, 1, 1.

8. Ibid., 1, 2.

9. S.R.C. 3162, ad. 1.

10. C.J.C. 1198, 1.

11. S.R.C. 3675; 4032, ad 2.

12. C.J.C. 1198, 2.

13. Ibid.; S.R.C. 3364, 3698.

14. With reference to the prohibition of cup-
boards under the altar, Forse informs us in
Ceremonial Curiosities (p. 9) that in the great
cathedral ("La Seo"), at Saragossa, some altars
have frontals of painted wood, adorned with
arabesques, with a keyhole in the middle, the
whole front opening, in hinges, each side, as
two doors.

15. S.R.C. 3282, 3126.

16. Van der Stappen, III, Q. 21.

17. Cf. Directions for Altar Societies, p. 2.

18. C.J.C. 1198, 4.

19. S.R.C. 3567, ad 1.

20. S.R.C. 542.

21. S.R.C. 1906, 4180.

22. Pontificale Romanum, De altaris conse-
crationti.

23. It is worth mentioning that altars facing
the people are provided for by the rubrics of
the Roman Missal. Most authorities maintairi
that for this reason they are permitted, despite
the fact that some bishops, e.g., in Germany,
have prohibited them in recent years. A test
case would be interesting!

24. S.R.C. 1265, ad 4.

25. S.R.C. 3576, ad 1.

26. C.J.C. 1197, 1, 2*.

27. Ibid., 2.

28. C.J.C. 1200, I.

29. Ibid., 2, 1.

30. Ibid., 2, 2.

31. St. Charles' dimensions for a high altar
are worth noting. It should be erected at least

2 ft. I in. from the back wall of the church;
the breadth 3 ft. 5K in. or more; the height
above the predella from 3 ft. 21 in. to 3 ft.

3 in.; the length 6 ft. 103 in. or more. The
predella should be at least 2 ft. 9 in. broad,
5& in. high, and II in. longer than the altar
itself. All steps should be 5& in. high, and from
11 in. to 1 ft. 4& in. wide. He recommends that
the altar-table should be not less than 2 ft.
% in. broad.

32. Instructions, Chap. XI, para. 2.

CHAPTER V

ADJUNCTS OF ALTARS

As we are reminded In the Directions
for Altar Societies and Architects (4
ed., p, 10): *in parochial and smaller
churches where the Blessed Sacrament
is reserved at the High Altar the Taber-
nacle is a necessary addition. Other
permissible additions are:

**1) A Reredos, Retable, or Dossal,
"2) Gradines (Altar-ledges),
"8) a Throne for Exposition of the
Blessed Sacrament. These additions may
be made only on condition that they do
not interfere with the essential structure
of the Altar or of the Tabernacle, as laid
down by the rubrics, nor impede the
correct position of the permanent furni-
ture of the Altar, i.e., the Cross and
Candlesticks."

THE TABERNAQLE 1

Historical Notes

In the early ages of Christianity the
Blessed Sacrament was kept by lay
people as well as by the clergy in their
own houses, especially during times of
persecution. Later on the keeping of
the Sacred Species was reserved to
churches, for the purpose of giving the
Viaticum to the sick and dying. There
was no uniform method for reserving
the Consecrated Species until after the
sixteenth century. All that was required
was that the Host should be kept in a
clean receptacle, of some sort, securely

fastened for fear of profanation. The
history of development is interestingly
given in Dom Gregory Dix's A Detec-
tion of Aumbries (Dacre Press, West-
minster). The chief methods employed
before the sixteenth century were:

1. A cupboard or box in the sacristy;

2. A tower, at first in the sacristy,
later on at the Gospel side of the
sanctuary;

3. A dove-shaped pyx or covered
ciborium, with a veil, suspended by a
chain and pulley from the tester or
"civory" ~ or from the ceiling;

4. A small casket or coffer placed on
the altar;

5. Cupboards (aumbries) in the walls
of the sanctuary;

6. More rarely, tabernacles built into
reredos and forming part of them.

There is little information about the
place or method of reservation before
the eleventh century, but most authori-
ties seem to be agreed that the turris 9
or tower, was the most primitive.
Metal doves (columbae) were also used
from early times. The use of suspended
columbae lingered on in France until
the eighteenth century. At Amiens
Cathedral the custom has survived all
legislation and the eighteenth-century
Baroque reredos was designed as a back-
ground for the suspended pyx. The first
reference to the use of a suspended
vessel so far as is known, is in a passage

spended "P/x , w2tt Triple Crown

il ant Ccunbpy Suspended yjf

Renaissance

Mediaeval methods of reservation of the Blessed Sacrament.

Italian tfcnau*nffAujnbry Rom*

Sacrament* Tower*
Aumbries, sacrament towers, and tabernacles.

ADJUNCTS OF ALTABS

in the life of St. Basil, written by the
pseudo-Amphilochius (probably in the
ninth century) where it is stated that
the saint ordered a golden dove to be
fashioned and, having placed in it a
portion of the body of Christ, hung it
above the altar. 2

Most liturgical writers are of the
opinion that from the twelfth century
onwards the usual fashion was suspen-
sion in a covered pyx. This was certainly
the normal practice in England. The
pyx was invariably veiled. There are
also occasional references to reservation
in the sacristy or in aumbries built into
the sanctuary wall, behind or at the side
of the altar. This later practice may have
arisen during times of strife when a need
was felt for greater security.

In Volume V of Rohault de Fleury's
La Messe, and in Father Braun's Der
Christliche Altar, there are numerous
illustrations of the various forms of
vessels used for reservation during the
Middle Ages and after eucharistic
doves, towers, aumbries, coffers, and
various types of suspended pyxes. The
last stage before the introduction of the
tabernacle can be seen in the chapel
of the Blessed Sacrament at St. Mary
Major's, Rome. There is now a wooden
tabernacle on the same altar. The origi-
nal tabernacle is seldom used, if ever.
It might be described as a suspended
pyx come down to earth.

The modern tabernacle has thus grad-
ually evolved out of the various methods
of reservation employed before the
Reformation. The name tabernaculum
a tent is simply an interchange of
terms, for originally it signified, not the
vessel itself, but the tent-like veil or

canopy which covered it in almost every
instance where the receptacle was sus-
pended. The veiled tabernacle upon the
altar is therefore the mediaeval, tent-
covered, suspended vessel placed on the
altar, for practical reasons mainly more
frequent Communion. 3

When the laity only received Holy
Communion two or three times a year,
or even less often, the mediaeval meth-
ods presented no practical difficulties.
There was no frequent need to raise or
lower the pyx, or to unlock tower or
aumbry, except to renew the Sacred
Species or to take Holy Communion to
the sick. Exposition was confined to the
Octave of Corpus Christi, and then only
during the later Middle Ages. Exposition
in a monstrance did not become general
until after the Reformation. At the
present time, when frequent and daily
Communion are normal, it is obvious
that mediaeval methods would be awk-
ward in a large parish. It will therefore
be understood why it is now ordered
that the tabernacle must stand in the
centre of the altar.

Yet there are still a few places in
Europe where the older methods have
survived e.g., at Amiens, as we have
seen, and at the Benedictine Abbey of
Solesmes, which retains a suspended
pyx; in some Spanish churches aumbries
are still used;* and in Germany and

* At Zamora Cathedral, Spain, it was the
custom as late as 1924, and may still be, to re-
serve the Blessed Sacrament in an aumbry let
into the wall behind the high altar, with a wide
passage between the two (Forse, Ceremonial
Curiosities, p. 76). The same writer mentions
"sacrament houses" still being used for reserva-
tion at Aussee (Austria); Notre Dam, Malines;
St. Pierre and St. Jacques, Louvain; St. John's
in Osnabriick, Germany; and elsewhere.

He also tells us that in Santa Maria la Mayor

: THEIR PLAN AND FURNISHING

14tt*cnary . Germany. J6^* ee*rfujy lal<

Tabernacles in teredos.

Belgium a few "sacrament houses" tall
towers usually built against the north
wall of the sanctuary survive. In 1863
the prefect of the Sacred Congregation
wrote to the Belgian bishops forbidding
further use of aumbries or towers for
reservation, and ordering tabernacles.
This order was not enforced in every
diocese where practices which had pre-
vailed for centuries were cherished.
From this brief survey it will be realised
that although the tabernacle is often
regarded as an essential part of an altar,
especially of the high altar, this is far
from being the case.

RESERVATION OF THE BLESSED
SACRAMENT; GENERAL LEGISLATION
According to Canon Law "the Most
Holy Eucharist is to be preserved in an
immovable Tabernacle placed in the
centre of the Altar."** The same author-
ity states that the Blessed Sacrament
cannot be reserved habitually on more
than one altar in the same church, but
it may be kept on a second altar for a

brief period, e.g., to make it easier to
give Holy Communion. 5 The Blessed
Sacrament should be kept in a place
worthy of it, which is usually on the
high altar in parish churches, unless
there should be a better altar more
conveniently situated and better suited
for the veneration and worship of the
Holy Sacrament. 6

In cathedral, collegiate, and conven-
tual churches where the choir functions
take place at the high altar, the Blessed
Sacrament should never be reserved at
the high altar unless absolutely neces-
sary, so that the services are not inter-
fered with. 7 It should be noted that the
verb used is "opportunum est? which
implies that this is not obligatory. 8
Nevertheless there is at least one
instance where the Sacred Congrega-
tion of Rites has refused to allow the
Blessed Sacrament to be reserved on the
high altar of a cathedral, in spite of the
reasons put forth. 9 The Caeremoniale
Episcoporum orders that the Blessed
Sacrament is to be removed from the

at Ronda, in Spain, the Blessed Sacrament is
reserved at an altar at the west end. An ar-
rangement, somewhat similar to that at Zamora,
has been adopted at Downside Abbey, where
the Blessed Sacrament is reserved in a taber-
nacle on a small altar immediately behind the
high altar. A curtain is drawn between the
altars during conventual Mass and pontifical

functions. A similar arrangement had been
made at St. Hedwig's Cathedral in Berlin, now
destroyed. The difference was in the fact that
the Holy Eucharist was reserved in a mosaic
tower of great beauty in a small chapel behind
the main altar, visible from the church itself.
H. A. R.

ADJUNCTS OF ALTARS

altar at which the bishop is to pontifi-
cate. 10 In North America, Great Britain,
and other English-speaking countries
where "choir functions'* seldom take
place at the high altars of cathedrals,
which are normally used as parish
churches, it is regrettable that the almost
universal custom is to reserve the
Blessed Sacrament on the high altar,
instead of in a chapel.

Rectors of churches are ordered to
take care that the altar on which the
Blessed Sacrament is reserved is more
elaborately decorated than the other
altars, so that by its very appearance
it may inspire the faithful to greater
devotion. 11

Where there is a movable tabernacle
and the altar is not guarded by railings,
benches should be placed round it. 12

It is undesirable to have more than
one permanent tabernacle in a church or
oratory. Should it be necessary to reserve
the Blessed Sacrament for a brief period
at a side altar, a movable tabernacle can
be used. In the case of oratories, a taber-
nacle should not be fixed on the altar
unless permission has been obtained for
reservation. Otherwise a tabernacle is
superfluous.

The Blessed Sacrament must be re-
served in the cathedral church, the main
church of an abbatial or prelatical terri-
tory nuttms, of a vicariate and pre-
fecture apostolic, in every parish and
quasi-parish church, and in the church
of a monastery of exempt religious,
either male or female, 13

It may be reserved, with the permis-
sion of the Ordinary, in collegiate
churches, in the principal public or semi-
public oratories of charitable or religious

houses, also in the chapels of eccle-
siastical colleges under the charge of
secular clergy or religious orders. 11 *

In all other places of worship reserva-
tion is allowed only by papal indult. The
local Ordinary may grant this permission
only for churches and public oratories,
and for a just cause, as long as the reason
exists (per modum actus).

Should the local Ordinary feel there is
sufficient reason he may give permission
for the Blessed Sacrament to be removed
from the church at night, and be kept in
a more secure place, but always with
due reverence. 16

POSITION OF THE TABEBNACUE
According to Canon Law, the taber-
nacle must stand on the altar-table in
the centre and be firmly fixed to it
in such a way that it cannot be un-
screwed or removed from the outside. 11
It should not be embedded in a reredos
or gradine, since it cannot then be veiled
properly (see p. 94). If there is a tall
gradine at the back and round the sides,
a space of at least 2 in. should be left to
allow the veil to hang. The tabernacle
should not be nearer than 20 in. to the
front edge of the mensa, to allow room
for the chalice and ciboria. The distance
should not exceed 24 in., so that the
priest may reach the tabernacle door.
About 22 in. is a practical distance.

MATERIAX.

Canon Law says nothing about the
material of which a tabernacle should
be made, but states that it must be skil-
fully constructed and safely locked. 18
Any durable material, e.g., stone, metal,
or wood, therefore, can be used. It must

Twelve forms of vetted tabernacles.

ADJUNCTS OF ALTARS

however be damp-proof; therefore some
kinds of woods are better than others,
e.g*> maple or linden rather than oak or
walnut. It is forbidden to make taber-
nacles of transparent material such as
glass or crystal. 19 If stone or marble is
used the interior should be lined with
metal or wood. Wooden tabernacles
should be gilded on the outside/
although perhaps the best type is on the
model of a burglar-proof, fire-proof
safe. 21 The doors may swing out on
hinges or slide back on rollers when
the key is turned.

The Friars Minor Capuchin have per-
mission to use wooden tabernacles with-
out exterior decoration. 22

SHAPE

The tabernacle may be of any shape
round, square, hexagonal, or polygonal.

Alternative shapes for tabernacles.

The following points should be noted;

1. As it has to be completely covered
with a tent-shaped veil, 23 it is desirable
that the top should either be domed or
pyramidal in shape.

2. A permanent throne for exposition
may not be built above it. 2 *

Neither relics, pictures, statues, can-
dles, or vases may be placed on the top.
In Directions for it is

stated that, S.R.C. 4136, ad 2

(1904) seems to allow the placing of
the cross on the tabernacle, this Is not its
correct position, for (a) it is contrary to
the directions of the ceremonial book of
.the bishops; 26 (b) the tabernacle should
be covered even on top with the canopy
(conopaeum); and (c) ought not to be
made a stand for anything, not even the
cross. 27 If the placing of the cross on the
tabernacle is tolerated in some dioceses,
it is still strictly forbidden to stand the
monstrance on it. 28

SIZE

This should suit the dimensions of the
altar. Very large tabernacles are imprac-
tical and obtrusive; they detract from
the prime importance of the altar. The
tabernacle should be large enough to
hold at least two ciboria of a size gener-
ally used, also the pyx or lunette for
exposition. A good average measurement
(inside) is 14M in. high, 14 in. wide, and
15 in. deep.

EXTERIOR

This, especially the door, may be orna-
mented in any suitable way. Large taber-
nacles should have a split or revolving
door, so that when opened, the door
will not strike the chalice or ciborium.
For the same reason the hinges of a
single door should be on the right-
hand side. Projecting crockets should be
avoided, for they prevent the veil hang-
ing properly. The top should be sur-
mounted by a small cross or emblem.
If the tabernacle has a flat top this is

CHUBCHES: THEIR PLAN AND' FURNISHING

not practical, although the whole can

and should still be covered all over with
a veil.
The key, gilt or silver-plated, should

be kept in a special small case and care-
fully guarded. 20 There should always be
at least one extra key.

INTEBIOB

'The interior may be gold or silver-
plated or gilded, but if cedar wood or
oak is used it must be lined with a white
silk cloth. 80 The loor is covered with a
corporal, fitted to actual size. It should
be changed as soon as it gets the least
soiled. Inner curtains are inconvenient
and there is no obligation to have them
if the door of the tabernacle is lined in
gold or silk these inconvenient inner
curtains seem often to replace this
lining. 31 It is forbidden to place an elec-
tric light inside. 32

BLESSING

The formula in the Raman Ritual must
be followed before tabernacles are
used. 33 It can be given by priests dele-
gated by the Ordinary. 34

THE TABEBNACUE VEIL

This is absolutely obligatory on any
tabernacle containing the Blessed Sacra-
ment The Sacred Congregation of Rites
has declared that neither custom, nor
the presence of an inner veil, nor the
fact that the tabernacle is of precious
metal or of rich workmanship, dispenses
from the observance of this law. 35

The Latin word used in the Roman
Ritual is conopaeum -literally, a mos-
quito net. It indicates what kind of veil
is intended, i.e., one which completely

envelopes the tabernacle. Little curtains
hung before the door of the tabernacle,
which have not the least resemblance
to a mosquito net, cannot possibly fulfil
the law. However, if any existing taber-
nacle is of such a shape or size that it
cannot possibly be covered all over with
a veil, e.g., in the major basilicas at
Rome, then nothing is gained by spoiling
its architectural character with curtains
in front or at the sides, although certain
liturgical writers maintain that front cur-
tains before the tabernacle are "a gesture
in the right direction." 36 Such tabernacles
are not "tabernacles" i.e., tents in the
strict meaning of the word, but are really
"sacrament houses" erected on the altar:
a survival of an epoch before existing
legislation. They are best regarded as
"period pieces" and treated with the
respect that their age deserves!

MATERIAL OF VEIL
The canopy (conopoeum) may be of
any material; brocade, damask, or silk
poplin are recommended. It may be plain

Methods of fixing veil over tabernacle.

or edged with braid. The shape will de-
pend on the form of the tabernacle. The
veil may fit tightly, but it is better to
allow it to drape loosely. In the former
case the veil can be lined with other
material, but nothing should prevent the
material from falling gracefully. The
most simple form consists of a single
piece of material with a hem on top,

ADJUNCTS OF ALTARS

Crucifix fixed in slot on
back edge of mensa.

through which a ribbon or tape is passed.
This is tied up, allowing enough room to
slip the veil over the small cross or em-
blem on the top. If the small cross or
emblem is removable, the conopaeum
may be neatly fitted and kept in position.
Normally the veil is open all the way
in front, unless it is thought better to
sew the top part. But if not sewn it
is easier to turn back the veil and open
the tabernacle door.

COLOXJB OF VEIL

The veil may be white, or it may con-
form to the liturgical colours. 37 Black
never may be used, so violet is substi-
tuted at requiem Masses. 38 Should a
church possess frontals of liturgical
colours it is more fitting that the cono-
paeum should match them.

GRADINES

These are steps or shelves erected on
the back part of the altar, now generally
used for candlesticks and flower vases.

It is probable that gradines were
evolved from low, wooden shelves for the
display of relics and sacred church plate.
They seem to have first been used in
France, Germany, and the Low Coun-
tries during the latter part of the Middle
Ages. There are references to shelves
on or above altars in several pre-
Reformation inventories of English
parish churches, and a few examples of
permanent stone shelves above late
mediaeval altars have survived in Eng-
land. Most historians are agreed that
gradines did not become general until
the sixteenth century, and even then
were not regarded as essential.

CHURCHES: THEIR PLAN AND FURNISHING

Bronze tabernacle in St. Mary Major's,
Rome (16th century).

Little can be said in favour of
gradines, except perhaps in churches
where there is perpetual exposition of
the Blessed Sacrament, for it is more
convenient to place the extra candles on
gradines than on the mensa. An altar is
first and foremost a table, and should
not look like a dining-room sideboard,
or a flower show! The Roman custom
consists of a single low shelf behind
side altars, for there is never a gradine
on the high altar in the greater basilicas.
The candlesticks and crucifix stand on
the mensa and not on gradines. Some
liturgical purists would wish to abolish
gradines, but as they are not forbidden
and custom tolerates their use, there is
no positive reason against having them,
but the obvious objection is that they
detract from the dignity and function of
the altar.

Gradines must be kept quite clear of
the tabernacle, as we said above. They
may be used for extra candlesticks at
exposition, and for vases, or reliquaries,

BACKGROUND

"The ideal Altar standing well away
from the surrounding walls needs no
background other than the wall of the
apse in which it stands/' 30 In other
words, an altar is a table, not a side-
board, and, as we have already seen, a
table for a Sacrificial Meal the Holy
Eucharist.

If the holy table is placed close to or
against the wall, it may need a special
background. This may consist of:

a] Altar-Piece

An altar-piece may be a painting or
sculpture framed or suspended from the

Tabernacle on high altar > Siena Cathedral
(15th century).

ADJUNCTS OF ALTARS

wall, or a group of sculpture above the
altar. When the painting is divided into
two or three partitions it is called a
diptych or a triptych.

b) Dossal

A hanging of rich material, tapestry, or
brocade, extending the length of the
altar or beyond, is known as a dossal or
dorsal. It may be plain or embroidered
with sacred images or emblems. It can
form the background for a large sus-
pended crucifix. An altar crucifix is not
required if there is a suspended crucifix
or if the crucifix is the chief feature of
the reredos or altar-piece. 40

c) Reredos and Retable

A reredos is a larger form of retable,
which may or may not be of the same
material as the altar. Sometimes it is
built against the altar or, which is better,
entirely separate. It must not interfere
with the essential structure of the altar
as laid down by the rubrics, i.e.:

1. It must not prevent the use of a
ciborium or baldaquin above the altar,
especially where the Blessed Sacrament
is reserved.

2. It must not prevent the cross and
candlesticks from standing in the same
straight line and on the same place.

3. It must allow the tabernacle to
stand free on all sides.

4. There must be space between the
tabernacle and the reredos for the cruci-
fix, and for the seventh candlestick
should the Ordinary sing High Mass.
When there are seven candles, they
should stand in a row with the crucifix
in front of the centre candlestick.

THE EXPOSITION THRONE
The throne of exposition is a small
platform with a canopy ( unless the altar
has one), erected above the altar upon
which the monstrance is placed.

HISTORICAL NOTES
Exposition and Benediction of the

Blessed Sacrament were comparatively

Silver tabernacle, N. D. du L&rnan, Vonge,
Haute-Savoie, France.

infrequent until the sixteenth century,
except during the Octave of Corpus
Christi and other special occasions. After
the Reformation such devotions, as the
Forty Hours' Prayer, Mass before the
Blessed Sacrament exposed, and Per-
petual Exposition, became popular,
probably because of the instinct of pro-
test against unbelief and sacrileges com-
mitted by heretics although the origin
of these devotions seems to be found
in the need for special prayers against
the Turks and to expiate sins com-
mitted during the carnival season be-
fore Lent. The result was that altars
were backed with permanent thrones
tower-like structures rising above the

CHURCHES: THEIR PLAN AND FURNISHING

tabernacle, and provided with a ledge,
either a niche or more often a stone or
wooden canopy in which the crucifix was
placed when not occupied by the mon-
strance. This arrangement was a further
adaptation of the ^sacrament house** (see
page 89). As time went on the throne
of exposition became the chief feature
of many altars, so that in some churches
it is difficult to discern the altar which
is dwarfed by a huge reredos, a big
tabernacle, and an imposing throne.

NECESSITY AND FORM

A throne is not needed for exposition.
The monstrance may stand on the mensa,
which is the place prescribed in the
rubrics dealing with the procession on
the Feast of Corpus Christi.* 1

There is no liturgical authority for the
use of a small portable throne (thabw)
placed on the mensa in front of the
tabernacle. It may increase the visibility
of the monstrance in a large church.
Should there be any civory or canopy
above the altar there is no need for a
second canopy above the throne, either
permanent or temporary.

A throne is required for solemn expo-
sition. It may be placed on or over the
tabernacle. 42 It should have a base on
which the monstrance will stand, and a
back surmounted by a canopy on two
or four posts, unless there is a permanent
canopy above the altar. In this case only
the base is required.

A temporary throne is best made of
wood or metal. It should be as light as
possible, so long as it stands firmly. The
size will depend on the dimensions of
the tabernacle and altar and monstrance.

When the temporary throne is placed
behind the tabernacle, the crucifix will
be removed. 43

PLACE FOR PERMANENT THRONE

The best place for a permanent throne,
which is only necessary in churches
having a perpetual exposition, is a niche
built into or projecting from the reredos.
It must not be placed directly above the
tabernacle. 44 At the same time it must
not be too far from the altar, with which
it ought to form a unit. 43 This may in-
volve steps and platform behind the
altar. Four or five steps, not less than
2 ft. wide, will usually be sufficient from
the same level as the footpace. The steps
may be on the "Epistle" side of the altar
so that the priest or deacon can place the
monstrance on the throne with the right
hand and, if necessary, hold on to a rail
with the left hand. It is better if the
hand-rail continues right round the
platform. If the steps are on both sides
of the altar, it is unnecessary to turn
round on the platform after the mon-
strance has been enthroned.

The base of the throne should be
about 7 ft. above the footpace, and its
depth, breadth, and height should fit
the monstrance in use. If there is a
canopy over the altar, all that is needed
is a shelf projecting from the reredos.
In churches where it is impossible to
have steps behind the altar, the only
expedient is to use movable steps on the
footpace, which are most inconvenient,
ugly, and dangerous/*

On the side of the throne candle-
sticks may be placed, but not behind it. 47
No electric light or mirrors may be fitted

ADJUNCTS OF ALTARS

iaside. 48 A corporal must be spread on
the base to receive the monstrance.
Should the tabernacle have a flat top

on which, despite the rubrics* the cruci-
fix stands, it is still forbidden to place
the monstrance there. 40

NOTES

1. Cf. St. Charles Borromeo, Instructions,
Chap. XIII.

2. ASS, June, Vol. II; c. de Fletuy, La
Uesse, Vol. V, p. 78.

3. When St. Charles Borromeo issued his
Instructions on Ecclesiastical Building in 1599,
he prescribed fixed tabernacles on altars which,
except for a few minor details, conform to those
ordered to-day by Canon Law and the decrees
of the Sacred Congregation of Rites, but he
does not mention veils.

4. C.J.C. 1269, 1.

5. C.J.C. 1268, 1.

6. Ibid., 2.

7. Ibid., 3.

8. In doubtful matters of ceremonial it is
always wiser to follow the Caeremoniale Epis-
coporum than the Codex Juris Canonici, if ex-
plicit directions are given.

9. S.R.C. 3335.

10. Caer. Ep., Tit. I, c. 12, n. 8.

11. C.J.C. 1268, 4.

12. S.R.C. 3525 ad 4.

13. C.J.C 1265, 1, 1.

14. Ibid., 1, 2.

15. Ibid., 2.

16. C.J.C. 1269, 3.

17. Ibid., 1.

18. Ibid., 2.

19. S.R.C. 2564, ad 2.

20. S.R.C. 3697, ad 13.

21. S. Cong. Sac. 1938.

22. S.R.C. 3697.

23. Hit., Tom. IV, c. I, n. 6; S.R.C. 2067, ad
10; 2740, ad 1 and 5; 2906; 3966.

24. S.R.C. 4268, ad 4.

25. Fourth ed., p. 24, n. 5.

26. Caer. Ep., L. I c. XII, n. 11.

27. Cf. S.R.C., Vol. IV, p. 203.

28. S.R.C. 3576, and 4268, ad 4.

29. C.J.C. 1269, 4.

30. S.R.C. 4035; S.R.C. (1941), p. 358, and

(1938), July-Bee., p. 170.

31. S.R.C. 3150.

32. S.R.C. 4275.

33. S.R.C. 4034, ad 4.

34. C.J.C. 1305.

35. S.R.C. 3520; 3150; 4137.

36. Cf. Collins, The Church Edifice, p. 83.

37. S.R.C. 3035, ad 10.

38. S.R.C. 3562.

39. Handbook for Altar Societies, 4 ed.,
p. 14.

40. S.R.C. 1270, ad 2. The Caeremoniale
Episcoporum recommends a dossal for altars
standing close to or up against the wall (L. I,
c. XII, n. 13).

41. Rit. Rom., IX, c. 5, n. 5; Caer. Ep., L. II,
c. XXXIII, nn. 24^-27.

42. S.R.C. 4268, ad 4.

43. An exposition veil is essential in all
churches where sermons are given at the time
of exposition of the Blessed Sacrament. It con-
sists of white material, about 3 ft. square, and
is best hung like a banner from a wooden or
metal stand. It should be high enough to hide
the monstrance when standing on the throne
or on the mensa of the altar.

44. S.R.C. 4268, ad 4.

45. Ibid., ad 5.

46. Portable steps are an unfortunate neces-
sity in those churcnes where the throne for Ex-
position is built high up above the altar. They
can be made so that the upper portion of the
steps folds over the altar. It is important that
the steps should be covered with carpet
fastened on the upper surface. Needless to say
that such steps are not to be regarded as per-
manent furniture of the sanctuary. They should
be kept out of sight when not in use.

47. S.R.C. 3780, ad 4.

48. S.R.C. 2613, ad 5.

49. S.R.C. 3576, ad 3.

CHAPTER VI

THE ALTAR CANOPY

HISTORICAL NOTES
For more than a thousand years the
Christian altar retained its primitive sim-
plicity. Little or no attempt was made
to change its original form or to decorate
it, but, to emphasize its importance as
the chief accessory of worship, it was
invariably surmounted by a civory of
stone > marble, or wood, resting on four
columns.

The earliest forms of civories were
based on those which sheltered statues
of the Roman deities (aedicule) semi-
circular in shape or from the complete
civory on four columns which stood over
pagan altars or tombs (perteterium and
tegurium). In pagan basilicas a civory
over the chief magistrate's seat was a
symbol of his authority derived from the
emperor. The word ciborium (kiborion
the seed-vessel of the lotus, with a
secondary meaning, a cup ) hardly seems
to suggest either of these meanings when
applied to a civory over an altar, and
does not seem to have been employed
until the sixth century. 1 It is not easy to
discover how the civory became known
as a ciborium, for none of the early
examples are cup-shaped unless the
domed ones can be said to resemble
inverted cups.

Altar civories are to be found almost
everywhere in southern Europe in
churches dating from the ninth century.
There are references to their use from

the fourth century, when the Emperor
Constantine had one erected over the
high altar of the Lateran Basilica in
Rome. The oldest surviving example is
probably at S. Apollinare in Classe,
Ravenna (806-816).

During the second half of the Middle
Ages the use of altar civories spread
all over Europe. As Gothic architecture
supplanted early Christian and Roman-
esque, the style of the ciborium changed,
while the structural features remained
unaltered. The disappearance of the
four-columned civory was due: (1) to
the increasing length of altars in propor-
tion to depth in the later Middle Ages;
(2) to the placing of altars against a
shrine of a wall, which resulted in the
erection of reredoses or retables to build
up the shrine or fill up empty wall space.

In some countries the ciborium
civory is mediaeval English survived
as a flat or curved canopy, known as a
tester (old French teste, i.e., t&te a
head). The variously shaped canopy was
suspended from the ceiling or vaulting.
The four columns that once supported
it survived as posts at the corners of the
altar. 2 Upon the posts, candles were
often placed and between them on the
sides and at the back, curtains were
hung (riddels in mediaeval English). It
is generally supposed that riddel curtains
are an adaptation of the curtains that
once hung round the ciborium.

100

THE ALTAR CANOPY

101

During recent years there has been a
wide-spread revival of this mediaeval
type of altar with riddels and posts,
especially in the Church of England,
Numberless Anglican cathedrals and
parish churches have what are called
"English altars" a misnomer, as neither
riddels nor posts were a necessary ad-
junct of the pre-Reformation altar in
England. 3 Some of these modern ex-
amples are dignified and practical, others
are as shut in as a box bed. Should
such an altar have curtains at the side,
they should be made to draw back, and
be placed at least 1 ft, from the sides of
the mensa. Mediaeval pictures show the
riddels and posts at a distance leaving
plenty of room to get at the altar ends.
In some cases too, the curtains are shown
drawn back or looped up.

Even after the sixteenth century and
the remodelling of the Renaissance, the
ciborium, later termed baldaquin* re-
tained its importance in Italy and else-
where in southern Europe. In Spain it
gave place to an immense reredos, or
retablo, often reaching from the floor to
the roof and covering the east wall of the
sanctuary. North of the Alps we find
Renaissance and Baroque altar canopies
in France, Belgium, and Germany. In
recent times they have been frequently
revived, though many have a strong
prejudice against them. It is often ob-
jected that like the rood-screens a
civory over the altar prevents it being
well seen by the congregation.

NECESSITY

The Sacred Congregation of Rites laid
down in 1697 that every altar should be
covered with a civory or canopy. 5 More

recently (in 1846), that at least the altar
of the Blessed Sacrament should be so
respected. However, the editors of the
General Index of the Decrees of the
S.R.C. and certain modem liturgical
writers maintain that, owing to the wide-
spread neglect of this discipline, even in
Rome itself, these decrees no longer
bind. On the other hand, many authori-
ties insist that the decrees are still in
force for the high and Blessed Sacrament
altars.

It is still the mind of the Church
that a civory is the best way to empha-
size the dignity and majesty of the altar
as representing Christ Himself. Geoffrey
Webb reminds us that a canopy "is the
most effective way of expressing honour
due to royalty; and there is nothing
which can replace it as the most expres-
sive manifestation of the Altar's true
dignity and majesty." 7 Van der Stappen
explains this principle: *The mind of
the Church is that over all altars should
be constructed a civory on columns, or
shrine of wood or stone or marble or,
in the absence of a canopy (Le., civory)
on columns, should be hung a canopy
which they call a baldaquin, square in
shape, covering the altar and its foot-
pace. If a (civory) on columns, or a
baldaquin of this kind is fitting over any
altar, it is certainly most of all fitting
over the altar in which the Most Holy
Sacrament is reserved; and not only is
it fitting, but the S.R.C. has established
that a baldaquin should definitely be
placed." 8

FORMS OF ALTAR CANOPIES

1. The ciborium (civwy) consists of a
solid structure of metal, stone, marble,

102

QETOHCHES: THEIR PLAN AND FUBNISHMG

or wood, erected over the altar and foot-
pace, and supported on four or more
columns. It will vary in size, style, and
ornament according to the church. The
roof may be domed, spherical, or flat.

2. The baldaquin is a smaller and
lighter structure in metal or wood, or
merely a light frame covered with silk,
brocade, or some other rich material. It
consists of a canopy projecting over the
footpace as well as the altar, with a
dossal at the back. Any colour may be
used. Its canopy is hung over the altar
by chains, attached to the wall by a
bracket, or supported on two posts like
the canopy over a king's throne, 10

3. The tester, in mediaeval England,
was usually of wood, either with
moulded panels or a flat surface of
boards within a carved cornice. A tester
is suspended from the ceiling, and may
be rectangular, oblong, round, or conical.
The essential point is that it should
cover the footpace as well as the altar.
Like the baldaquin it can be made of
rich fabric, stretched over a metal or

wood frame, with a deep valance on the
lower edges.

In view of the wide-spread neglect
of the rules laid down about canopies
over altars, it cannot be insisted too
strongly that even the most simple
church, where the Blessed Sacrament is
reserved, should not be without some
form of canopy over the altar. Cardinal
Schuster writes: "In the minds of the
early Christians the Altar could never
be without the halo of its sacred nature
that is, the Ciborium or Baldaquin
in marble or in silver. The Altar in its
entirety constituted the true Tabernacle
of the Most High, who assuredly could
not dwell sub diva without a special
roof of His own under the lofty vaulting
of the

* To stun up: the general term ought to be
canopy (from the Latin conopaeum) for any-
thing that roofs the altar. If the canopy rests on
four columns (or more) it is a civory. If it is
fastened to the wall or reredos or dossal behind
the altar, it should be called a baldaquin. If
the canopy is suspended from the vault or
ceiling above the altar it should be called a
tester. H, A. R.

NOTES

1. Braun, Der Christliche Altar, II, p. 190.

2. It is possible to find a link between the
original ciborium and the mediaeval posts
which became separated from the canopy in
some of the Spanish churches, e.g., at Palma,
Majorca, and at Gerona, In the latter church
the curved canopy is supported by four slender
posts of metal, with the aid of tie-rods. Much
the same arrangement is to be seen at Palma,
where there are also four posts holding up a
tester. (Cf. Comper, op. cit., p. 39.)

3. As Comper reminds us (Further
Thoughts on the English Altar, p. 37): "One
of the most notable inferences of this Collec-
tion (English Altars from Illuminated Manu-
scripts, by Sir William St. John Hope, Alcuin
Club Collections), therefore, is that it was un-
able to produce any definitely English examples
of posts round the altar. It also shows more
altars without side curtains than altars with

them. ... I do not for a moment suggest that
there were no examples in England of the four
altar posts; for they were as certainly conti-
nental as they were almost certainly English,
too. But, most definitely, neither riddels, nor
posts are a necessary adjunct of the English
altar, and it is a misnomer to call them 'Eng-
lish* in that sense/'

The same authority points out (p. 38) that
"what matters is not whether the altar should
have posts or not, or whether the posts should
be confined to the high altar, but that the
altar should so fit its surroundings as to look,
but for the newness of its materials, as if it
had always been there and could not be re-
moved without the surrounding architecture
looking the poorer for its absence."

4. From Baldacca, cloth of Babylon or
Bagdad.

5. S.R.C. 1966.

THE ALTAR CANOPY

103

6. S.R.C. 2912.

7. Webb, Geoffrey, The Liturgical Altar,
2 ed., p. 78.

8. Sacra Ltturgia, 2 ed., Vol. IV, q. 155, 4.
The same writer says too ( with reference to the
Nota in the Index of the S.R.C. decrees that
the canopies above altars are no longer obliga-
tory): "according to some this Nota is to be
understood as referring to a baldaquin to be
erected over Altars (in general) but it cannot
be understood to refer to a baldaquin to be
erected over the High Altar, and over an Altar
of the Most Holy Sacrament, where the two
are not identical. And so a baldaquin, or can-
opy, ought to be hung over the High Altar of
a church, and over the Altar in which the
Most Holy Sacrament is reserved, unless a
canopy on columns has already been set up
above the Altars" (ibid., 2 ed., Vol. Ill, q. 69).
See also, "Regulae speciales pro Visitationis
Apostolicae Urbis" etc., 1905, ref. "Balda-
chino"; in Acta Sanctae Sedis, XXXVIII, 1905,
p. 183.

9. The original Italian spelling is **ba!dac-
chino" (with two c*s). Since our spelling is
neither Italian nor English (baldachino), why
not use the accepted spelling of baldaquin?

10. The Caeremonfale Episcoporum, L. I, c.
XII, n. 18, directs that if the baldaquin is
against a wall, it should be square, and should
follow the colour of the vestments, also that it
should be "similar to and more splendid* than
the canopy over the bishop's throne.

11. Card. Schuster, The Secramentan/ 9 Vol.
I, c. 12. Another great liturgical writer, Ed-
mund Bishop, says; 'The canopy served for
honour: the existence of a covering over, and
marking the seat of the ruler, magistrate, pon-
tiff, existed in the general instinct of the
peoples; it was surely fitting to render the same
honour to the seat of Majesty of the King of
kings/' Lastly, as Bishop reminds us: it also
served for "strict use and requirement: the
Altar must be veiled: here was a convenient
means for hanging up veils or curtains" ("On
the History of the Christian Altar" in Liturgia
Historica).

CHAPTER VII

THE ALTAR CRUCIFIX, CANDLESTICKS,
AND SANCTUARY LAMPS

THE ALT.AB CRUCIFIX

Historical Notes

Although it is usually stated in liturgi-
cal books that the crucifix is the principal
ornament of the altar, it is not always
realized that a cross is probably the
least ancient of altar ornaments. There
would seem to have been no universal
obligation to set a cross on the altar
before the Reformation period, although
it had become common before the six-
teenth century in most parts of Europe
where the Roman rite was in use.

In the first centuries of Christian
worship nothing was allowed on the
holy table other than the necessary ob-
jects used in the divine mysteries one
or more cloths, bread and wine, chalice,
and paten. In the ninth century Pope
Leo IV gave permission for relics of
saints to be placed on the altar. The
frontal was a common ornament three
hundred years before that. In the tenth
century candles stood round, if not on
the altar. The cross was suspended above
the altar in some places. In others the
processional cross (not a crucifix), when
not in use, was rested against the holy
table or near it. Most pictures of pre-
Ref ormation altars show nothing on them
except one or perhaps two lighted
candles. In mediaeval England, parish

churches were supposed to have a pro-
cessional cross, but few old inventories
refer to any special altar cross. It was
not until after the sixteenth century that
a crucifix on or above the altar became
obligatory in the Roman rite, and "altar"
crucifixes became an outstanding feature
in the Lutheran churches of Germany
and Scandinavia.

NECESSITY, POSITION, AND SIZE

According to the rubrics of the Roman
Missal a crucifix should be placed in the
midst of the altar on which the most
Holy Sacrifice of the Mass is to be
celebrated. 1 This rule is confirmed in
the rubrics of the Caeremoniale Episco-
porum* and in another part of the
Roman Missal. 8

There are two exceptions to this rule:
(1) the crucifix may be dispensed with
provided that the principal feature of
the altar-piece, painting, or sculpture, is
the Crucifixion; 4 (2) when the Blessed
Sacrament is solemnly exposed the
crucifix should be removed, although if
this is not the local custom, it may
remain. 5

The crucifix should normally stand on
the mensa, if possible, in a line with the
candlesticks, or on the gradine if there
is one.

It may not stand: (1) on the perma-

104

mJ Cross. Jttcenkay

ntury.

14*caitiiry m ;

Crucifixes.

106

CHURCHES: THEIR PLAN AND FURNISHING

neat throne of exposition; 6 (2) in front
of the tabernacle door. T

It may stand on top of the tabernacle
should the latter be built in such a way
as to make this possible, i.e., with a flat
top or with a ledge over it. a However this
is merely the toleration of an abuse, and
is contrary to the normal rulings of the
Sacred Congregation of Rites.

The crucifix may be suspended over
the altar between the candlesticks, 10 a
convenient arrangement when there is a
canopy.

Should the mens& be too narrow to
allow the crucifix to stand behind the
tabernacle on an altar where the Blessed
Sacrament is reserved, the most satisfac-
tory solution of the problem is to use a
cross like a processional one, the shaft
of which rests in a slot, or attachment
on the back edge of the mensa or
gradine. 11

The altar crucifix should be large
enough to be seen easily by the congre-
gation as well as by the celebrant. 12 A
small crucifix above a tabernacle is not
sufficient. 13 The Caeremoniale Epis-
coporum lays down that the base of the
crucifix should be of the same design
and height as that of the largest candle-
stick, and that the figure of the Crucified
must exceed the height of the candle-
sticks, 14 a detail not always observed in
practice.

There is no definite rule as to the
material of the crucifix, but according to
the Caeremoniale Episcoporum it should
be made ordinarily of the same material
as the candlesticks (gold, silver, brass,
etc., for feast days, less precious metal
or wood for penitential seasons and Re-
quiems). 13 It would seem that there is

no prohibition of a wooden crucifix or
candlesticks even on feast days.

The altar crucifix must be covered
with a purple veil from the first vespers
of Passion Sunday until the unveiling of
the cross on Good Friday. During the
Mass on Maundy Thursday it is veiled
in white. It may be covered in purple
or black on Good Friday, according to
local custom. 16 But black is really the
correct colour. Purple only came in be-
cause it was considered superfluous to
provide a special veil for one day in the
year! The veil must cover the whole
crucifix, not merely the figure.

An altar crucifix may be blessed, but
this is not essential, and the blessing can
be given privately (not solemnly) by any
priest without special permission. 17

ALTAB CANDLESTICKS

Historical Notes

There would seem to be no docu-
mentary evidence that lighted candles
were placed on the altar before the
tenth century or even later. In the early
centuries of Christianity, lights were
certainly placed round and near the
holy table, but they were suspended
from the ceiling or from the ciborium
over the altar, or on brackets round
the walls. Sometimes the lights were
arranged in the form of a corona or
cross, even of a tree or animals. The
first altar lights were the processional
candlesticks carried by the acolytes,
which were placed on the steps of the
altar when not in use. This is still the
normal position for altar lights in some
Eastern churches. During the Middle
Ages, as can be seen from pictures and

C ANDLESTI,K5 ANO

WaplfS, 6& century

Candlesticks and coronae.

108

CHURCHES: THEIR PLAN AND FURNISHING

manuscripts, two candle-
sticks were generally placed on the
altar during Mass. Even one candle was
considered sufficient, and it was some-
times held by the server. On greater
festivals the number was increased, and
there appears to have been a wide di-
versity In local customs; odd numbers,
such as five, seven, and nine, being
quite common. But these lights were not
always placed on the altar, more often
than not they stood round it.

How the present six candlesticks came
into vogue is uncertain, but it is more
than probable that when a large stand-
ing crucifix became the rule, the seventh
candlestick (still ordered at a pontifical
High Mass of a bishop in his own
diocese) was removed for reasons of
convenience and effect. There is evi-
dence that when the popes were at
Avignon during the fourteenth century,
as the chapel of the papal palace was so
small, the candles borne by the seven
acolytes before the pope were put on the
altar during Mass, instead of on the
pavement. This seems to be the origin
of the seven or six candles on the altar
at least for Rome. 18

NUMBER OF CANDLESTICKS

The following rules are laid down: 19

1. On every altar, at least during Low
Mass, there must be two candlesticks,
one on each side of the crucifix.

2. On the high altar, or any other altar
where High Mass or solemn functions
occur, there must be six candlesticks,
three on each side of the crucifix. 20 Two
or four smaller candlesticks may be
placed there and used at Low Mass,
instead of the larger ones, but they

should not be left there, as they do not
form part of the regular furniture, 21

3. The general rubrics of the Roman
Missal (Tit. XC), order that a third
candlestick should be placed on the
Epistle side of the altar during Low
Mass, and lighted from the Consecration
until after the priest's Communion. It
should not stand on the altar itself, but
on a bracket on the wall, on the credence
table, or on the floor. This third candle
is no longer obligatory, 22 and has been
given up* in most places. But it is still
used in Dominican churches, and in
those belonging to certain other religious
orders.

4. The seventh candlestick, used at
a bishop's pontifical Mass in his own
diocese, though not at a pontifical Re-
quiem, also at a Low Mass of ordination
(as a substitute for a pontifical Mass)
should be placed behind the crucifix on
the altar or gradine, in line with the
other six candlesticks.

5. On side altars there should be two
or four candlesticks.

6. Extra candlesticks, on branches or
single, are only needed for exposition
and Benediction. Twelve is the minimum
number required. 23 The Instructio Clem-
entina orders that at least twenty candles
should be lit for exposition. When
"simple" exposition with the pyx or
ciborium is given, at least six candles
should be lighted, so there is no need to
provide extra ones.

* There is no reason why in this eucharistic
age this Sanctus candle should not be reintro-
duced, where it has been neglected. Its rein-
troduction has everywhere been accompanied
by a great reverence and closer participation
in the sacred mysteries by the faithful.
H. A. H.

&iormz<>,"FZorai<s?,

lj$*? century (

/ c/

Candlesticks.

CHXJBCHES: THEIR PLAN AND FURNISHXNTG

Modern candlesticks.

SIZE., SHAPE, AND MATERIAL
Candlesticks must be single, each hav-
ing its own base and not part of a
branch. 2 *

An altar candlestick consists of five
parts: the foot, the stem, the knob, the
bowl (this should be large enough to
prevent grease from spilling on the altar-
cloths), and the pricket or socket into
which the candle is fixed or inserted.
The size, shape, and material will de-
pend on the church and the altar. 25 Ac-
cording to the Caeremoniale Epte-
coporum the candlesticks should not ex-
ceed the base of the crucifix in height. 26
The same authority states that the six
candlesticks on the high altar should be
of various heights, the highest nearest
the crucifix. 27 The Sacred Congregation
of Rites has declared that this rule need

not be observed, 28 and it is now usual
to have candlesticks of a uniform height.
None of the Roman basilicas observes
this obsolete rule.

Altar candlesticks may be of any
metal or of wood, and of the same
material as the crucifix, if possible. The
advantage of wooden candlesticks is that
they are easier to keep clean than metal,
especially brass, which tarnishes. Where
economy has to be considered, painted
or gilt wooden candlesticks are strongly
recommended.

The Caeremoniale Episcoporum men-
tions silver for great feasts when pos-
sible, but forbids the use of silver candle-
sticks on Good Friday. 29 On this day,
and at solemn Requiems, when un-
bleached candles are used, the candle-
sticks should be wood, painted black or
dull red; wrought iron is effective.

THE ALTAR CRUCIFIX, CANDLESTICKS, AND SANCTUARY LAMPS 111

CANDLES

Historical Notes

Candles were often used in pagan
worship, and were adopted by the
Church at a very early date, almost from
the apostolic times. Writers, such as
Eusebius and Prudentius, mention the
"pillars of wax" that turned night into
day in the Christian basilicas. St. Jerome
tells us that candles were lit, even during
daytime, when the Gospel was read, as
a sign of joy. Lighted candles were asso-
ciated with baptismal ceremonies on
Easter Eve in Italy, Gaul, Spain, and
elsewhere, certainly from the fifth cen-
tury, probably much earlier. They were
also used at funerals as far back as the
third century, as well as during ordina-
tion functions. The acolytes carried
candles which were placed on the altar
steps from the seventh century. The
practice of burning candles before
shrines can be traced back to the early
Middle Ages. To sum up, it may be
said that the Christian use of candles in
worship is an adaptation of the carrying
of tapers before the highest dignitaries
of the Roman empire. It is certain that
from an early period candles were used
whenever the pope or a bishop went in
procession to the altar, or when the
deacon carried the gospel book to the
ambo or pulpit. The obligation of using
bees-wax goes back to remote times.

SIZE, SHAPE, AND MATERIAL
There is great diversity of opinion as
to the shape, size, material, and aesthetic
value of tall or short candles. The rubrics
have nothing to say on the matter, the
only requirement is that the candles

used at Mass must contain a definite per-
centage of bees-wax, the amount being
left to the discretion of the bishops. Ac-
cording to one authority, the decree of
the Sacred Congregation of Rites, 30 con-
cerning the quantity of bees-wax re-
quired for altar candles, may be inter-
preted as follows: the candles for Mass
and the Paschal Candle should be of
bees-wax to the extent of 67 to 75 per
cent; other candles used on the altar
should contain 51 per cent. 31 ' *

It is better to use real candles and not
"dummies*' (i.e., painted wooden or tin
stocks with small candles on a spring
inside) although the latter are tolerated
by the Sacred Congregation of Rites. 32
Dummies can be made covered with
wax. The use of imitation candles, fitted
with a brass socket hidden behind a
shield, is no better, perhaps worse, for
the shields break up the line of the
candles. But the whole question is diffi-
cult, because candles will burn at differ-
ent levels and make a mess, while dum-
mies or shields avoid this!

The height of candlesticks and candles
should really be decided by the archi-
tect. The cost of large candles, even if
they are not burnt down to about two
or three inches from the socket or
pricket, can be minimized by returning
the ends to the makers who will pay for
them. 33 On tall candlesticks, tapering

* The candles used in the United States per-
mit an admixture of other matter than bees-
wax. However those used at liturgical functions
and for the exposition of the Holy Eucharist
must contain more than 50 per cent beeswax.
All other candles used on the altar must have
a considerable amount of true wax of bees.
( Normally all dealers are anxious to fulfill these
regulations and advertise the fact that they
conform to these rules.) H. A, R.

CHURCHES: THEIE PLAN AND FURNISHING

candles look better than those of uni-
form diameter, although they are more
costly. 34

ELECTRIC LIGHT ON OR BOUND
THE ALTAR

It is strictly forbidden to use electric
light anywhere on or near the altar in
place of or in addition to the prescribed
candles either at Mass, Benediction, or
exposition. 85

In 1932 the Cardinal Vicar of Rome
ordered that electric chandeliers, brack-
ets, or standards must not be placed near
or above the altar, so as to form part
of its decoration or to complete its de-
sign. Both these rulings include the use
of candles fitted with electric bulbs. At
the same time it should be mentioned
that most liturgical authorities permit
portable electric lamps on the altar if
required to read the missal. 36

SANCTUARY LAMPS

Historical Notes

There is little or no evidence that
lamps were lit in honour of the Blessed
Sacrament before the twelfth century,
and it was not until the sixteenth cen-
tury that a perpetual light before the
reserved Sacrament was recognised as
a strict obligation. Lamps were hung
round the ciborium or from great
chandeliers, or burned before relics dur-
ing the early Middle Ages, The first
"apostle of the Sanctuary Lamp" as he
might be called was a certain Eustace,
Abbot of Fleay, who went about preach-
ing in England and France during the
first years of the thirteenth century, that
there should be in every church, where

possible, a burning lamp or some other
perpetual light before the Lord's Body. 37

NUMBER, MATERIAL, AND FORM
OF LAMPS

The Caeremoniale Eptscoporum states
that there should be at least one lamp
burning before the Blessed Sacrament,
but if there are more the number should
be uneven. 38 Canon Law lays down that
"at least one lamp must burn night and
day before the Tabernacle in which the
Blessed Sacrament is kept." For this lamp
olive oil or bees-wax should be used;
if no olive oil is available, other oils may
be used, according to the prudent judge-
ment of the Ordinary, but they should,
if possible, be vegetable oils. 39

Nothing is said about size or shape.
They can be made of any suitable metal.
They may be suspended on chains or
pulleys, for convenience in lighting and
cleaning, or placed in brackets on the
side walls of the sanctuary, so long as
they are in front of the altar and within
the sanctuary itself. 40 Lamps may not be
placed on the mensa, or even directly
above the altar. 41 For obvious reasons
lamps should not hang over the footpace
or altar steps, and, wherever they hang,
should be at least 7 ft. above the floor.

Most liturgical authorities recommend
that the glass vessel in which the oil is
contained should be white; this being
the colour associated with the Blessed
Sacrament, according to Roman usage.
The Sacred Congregation of Rites has
tolerated lamps of coloured glass e.g.,
rd, blue, green. 42 In any case, other
lamps in a church are better if provided
with glass of a different colour from that
used before the Blessed Sacrament.

THE ALTAR CRUCIFIX, CANDLESTICKS, AND SANCTUARY LAMPS 113

The usual Roman form has a glass
vessel to contain the oil that is lowered
into the container so that only the lighted
wick is visible. In the French model the
whole of the glass container is visible
the cuplike base often being used to

hold the burnt-out wicks or matches!
The Caeremoniale Episc&pomm rec-
ommends that lamps should be lit round
other altars in a church on the greater
feasts, and that they should bum all day,
or at least during the times of services. 43

NOTES

1. Rub. Gen. Mm., XX.

2. L. I, c. XII, n. 11.

3. Hit. Celeb. Miss., IV, n. 2.

Even to-day the altar crucifix is sometimes
removed on certain feasts although contrary to
the rubrics. For instance, in Italy and Sicily
one sometimes finds a figure of the Risen Christ
at Easter placed on the altar, or a "Bambino 7 *
in a crib at Christmas both interesting sur-
vivals of a not too ancient tradition, though
quite un-rubrical! On the other hand it is quite
legitimate and legislated for to place a "Bam-
bino" in front of the crucifix.

4. S.R.C. 1270, ad 2.

5. S.R.C. 2365, ad 1.

6. S.R.C. 3575, ad 3; 4136, ad 2.

7. S.R.C. 4136, ad 2.

8. Ibid.

9. St. Charles Borromeo's Instructions allow
the crucifix to be "permanently fixed on the
top of the tabernacle" when there is no other
place for it (Chap. XIII).

10. S.R.C. 4136, ad 2.

11. See Geoffrey Webb, The Liturgical
Altar, 2 ed., p. 52. St. Charles prescribes that
the high-altar cross should be the processional
cross of the church, at least in places where
there is no room for a special cross on account
of the space taken by the tablernacle (op. cit.,
Chap. XIII).

12. S.R.C. 2621, ad 7.

13. S.R.C. 1270, ad 1.

14. Caer. Ep., L. I, c. XII, n. 11.

15. Ibid.

16. Mem. Rit., Tit. V, c. 1.

17. Ibid., Tit. VIII, c. 25.

18. Bishop, Edmund, "Of six candles on the
Altar: an enquiry" in The Downside Review,
Vol. VI (XXV), July, 1906, p. 189 seq.

19. Rub. Gen. Miss., Tit. XX.

20. Caer. Ep., L. I, c. XII, n. 11.

21. Despite the rulings of the Sacred Con-
gregation of Rites and the rubrics of the Missal
and Caeremoniale there still exists a consider-
able diversity in the number of candles on the
high altars, and the number lit for High Mass.
In Spanish cathedrals little attention is paid to

these rubrics. At Seville the number varies from
four to six. In both cathedrals at Saragassa it
is usual to find no more than two small candle-
sticks set on the extreme front edge of the
mensa, where they are chained to the altar,
with a Lavabo towel tied onto the candle at
the Epistle side! (Cf. Forse, Ceremonial Cu-
riosities, p. 3.) On the high altar at Milan
Cathedral (Ambrosian rite) there are only two
large candlesticks; in San, Petronio, Bologna
with a very long high altar four candlesticks.
What is even more interesting is that Chartres
Cathedral still retains the six candlesticks stand-
ing on the steps of the high altar, not upon it.
This, alas, so that the meretricious reredos may
not be obscured!

22. S.R.C. 4029, ad 2.

23. S.R.C. 3480.

24. S.R.C. 3137, ad 1 and 4.

25. As a general principle it may be laid
down that large candlesticks and tall candles
look best when there is no reredos, and when
the altar stands beneath a ciborium or balda-
quin the background being then open. It is
unreasonable to hide a fine reredos or altar-
piece with six tall candlesticks. The tops of the
candles should therefore be below it. On the
other hand, a very long altar with a low dossal
or retable often gains by having large candle-
sticks and tall tapering candles. See Comper,
Further Thoughts on the English Altar, pp. 57-
58.

26. Caer. Ep., L. I, c. XII, n. 11.

27. Ibid.

28. S.R.C. 3035, ad 7.

29. Caer. Ep., c. XXV, n. 2.

30. S.R.C. 4147.

31. Ryan, Edward, Rev,, Candles in the
Roman Rite.

32. S.R.C. 2448, ad 13.

33. It is not very difficult to join on a small
piece of wax candle to the large one if it is
thought better always to have tall tapering
candles on a high altar.

34. Many awkward problems would be
solved if chandlers and candlemakers would
treat prickets as normal. The insistence on

114

CHURCHES: THEIR PLAN AND FURNISHING

sockets In English-speaking countries may be a
survival of the penal days when domestic
candlesticks were used on improvised altars.
Prickets take candles of any thickness without
paring or packing, and save infinite trouble in
cleaning out candle-ends from sockets.

35. S.R.C. 3859, 4097, 4275.

36. C. O'Connell, The Celebration of Mass,
Bk. 1, p. 249.

37. See article "Lamp" by Fr. Herbert Thur-
ston, S.J., in Catholic Encyclopedia, Vol. VIII,
p. 769.

38. Caer. Ep., L. I, c. XII, n. 17.

39. C.J.C. 1271.

40. S.R.C. 3578, ad 4.

41. S.R.C. 4035, ad 6.

42. S.R.C. 3576, ad 5.

43. Caer. Ep., L. I, c. XII, n. 17. On great
feasts large standard candlesticks can be placed
in the sanctuary, fitted with one candle or with
branches. In Carthusian churches four large
candlesticks are always placed on the sanctuary
steps on more solemn feasts. Should there be
a screen or screens, lights can be hung from
them.

CHAPTER VIII

ALTAR-CLOTHS AND FRONTALS

HISTORICAL NOTES
It seems as though it has always been
the custom for the Christian altar to be
clothed or vested during the celebration
of the divine mysteries, at least from a
very early date. We find references to
altar-cloths from the third century on-
wards. For instance, St. Optatus of
Mileve wrote (about 375) that every
Christian knew that during the celebra-
tion of the mysteries the altar is covered
with a cloth. In the Liber Pontificalis
attributed to St. Silvester, it is stated
that the sacrifice of the altar ought not
to be celebrated on a silk veil or a
coloured fabric, but only on a cloth
made of linen.

From early in the fifth century there
are references to "palliums," i.e., "vest-
ments'* for the altar made of silk or
other rich material. From the written
details and from the representations of
altars in mosaics at Ravenna and in
some of the Roman basilicas, it seems
that the pallium either covered the whole
of the altar or was hung round the four
sides from hooks.

The original altar vestment, like the
pallium, enveloped the whole of the
table, reaching to the ground on all four
sides. But as this arrangement involved
awkward folds at the corners, sooner or
later the large cloth was cut into two

pieces, or else into one long piece of
linen that merely covered the mensa and
hung down at the sides, leaving the
front and back showing the pallium
underneath. This is the origin of the
frontal or antependium. Most of the
Eastern Churches have retained the
close-fitting vesture of the altar; the typi-
cal altar covering ( endyton ) being made
of brocade or embroidered silk.

The doctrinal purpose of clothing the
altar is officially recognized in the office
of ordination of subdeacons. Here the
bishop reminds the candidates that "the
cloths and corporals of the altar are the
members of Christ, God's faithful people,
with whom the Lord is girded as with
precious robes." Later on the bishop
states that "St. John in the Apocalypse
saw the son of Man girded with a golden
cincture, that is the multitude of saints."
This obviously refers to the coloured
clothing of the altar.

As early as the seventh century Eng-
lish altars were fully draped. In the life
of St. Wilfrid (634-709) we read that:
"the Altar also with its vases they dedi-
cated to the Lord and vested it in purple
woven with gold." Another interesting
reference to the doctrinal significance of
clothing the altar is given by Amalarius
(d. 859). "The Altar signifies Christ, as
Bede narrates. The robes (vestimenta)
of the Altar are the Saints of Christ."

115

116

CHURCHES: THEIB PLAN AND FURNISHING

At a later date the pallium was re-
duced to a single piece of rich fabric
which hung in front of the altar only.
There is at least one reference to vesture
of this type as early as 800, when Pope
Leo III (795-816) gave a red veil to
hang before the altar, and which had a
cross in the middle.

In the first instance the linen cloth
was used to cover the offerings of bread
and wine that were placed on the altar
at the offertory at Mass. It was found
more convenient as time went on to have
more than one cloth, and from the ninth
century the use of three altar-cloths
became almost universal in Western
Europe, although it was not obligatory.

We find that frontals were not always
made of silk or brocade during the
Middle Ages; metal or painted wood
hangings being quite common, not only
on tibe front, but also on the sides and
back of the altar. 1 These metal frontals
were real antependia, for they could be
removed in penitential seasons. 2 From
the Renaissance period the use of frontals
disappeared in most places, although
they were still retained in the Roman
basilicas and elsewhere in Italy. Else-
where the base of the altar was generally
decorated with sculpture or elaborately
carved. But frontals were retained in the
Church of England after the Reforma-
tion, and a "carpet of silk or other decent
stuff" is mentioned in the Anglican
canons of 1603 as one of the obligatory
ornaments of the holy table during the
administration of the Lord's Supper. The
Lutheran churches of Scandinavia have
also preserved the mediaeval frontal
almost everywhere. They have likewise
retained the primitive custom of re-

moving the linen cloths from the altar
after Mass, leaving only the frontal,
which generally covers the top of the
altar as well as the front and sides.

Although it would appear that the
original purpose of the pallium or frontal

The original altar vestment envel-
oped the whole of the table, reach-
ing the ground on all four sides.

was purely practical i.e., a sort of orna-
mental dust sheet it must be admitted
that a naked altar tends to do away with
all the teaching power of the liturgical
seasons, and the note of colour provided
by a frontal helps to make the altar stand
out from its surroundings. It has always
been the mind of the Church that, in
a mystical sense, the altar is Christ, and
that, like the priest who celebrates Mass,

ALTAR-CLOTHS AND FBONTALS

117

it should be clothed In precious vest-
ments on account of its dignity. What is
even more significant is that the frontal
is one of the most ancient of all the
furniture of the altar. Indeed, it may be
said that of all the ornaments now per-
taining to the altar, only the vertical
draperies are original all the rest ? e.g.,
cross, candlesticks, tabernacle, flower
vases, etc., are later innovations. 3

When one studies the evidences of the
almost universal use of frontals in the
first sixteen centuries of Christian wor-
ship it is difficult to understand why
they should have been partially given
up after the Renaissance period, espe-
cially when the rubrics had prescribed
them with such decisive finality at a time
when this tendency was just beginning.
Various reasons can be found for the
temporary neglect of frontals, the chief
of which was the desire to display the
skill of Renaissance sculptors. "The mag-
nificent marble coating already favoured
by Italy in the seventeenth century for
embellishing altar supports, the effective
reliefs decorating the front elevation, the
brilliant effect of the marble veneer
imposed upon it, made a frontal seem,
not only superfluous, but even inappro-
priate." 4 But the disuse of frontals may
have been due not only to the skill of
carvers, but to the eclipse of frontal
designers, even more probably to the
evolution of a new type of worship that
was not based on the liturgy and which
concentrated more on private devotions:
a withdrawal of emphasis from the doc-
trine of the Mystical Body to other doc-
trines more characteristic of the Renais-
sance. A shifting of doctrine led to a
change of symbolism.

AJLTAB-CLOTHS

Number, Size, and Material

The altar must be covered with three
cloths, which may be made of either
linen or hemp. 5 No other material may
be used.

The top cloth must cover not only
the entire surface of the mensa, but the
two ends must hang down to the ground,
but not on it. 6 The two underdbtbs,
or one large cloth, folded in two, should
only cover the actual surface of the
mensaJ

An extra cloth should be laid on the
altar if candles stand on it during Bene-
diction or exposition of the Blessed
Sacrament. 8

Ornamentation

It is preferable that altar-cloths
should be quite plain, without any
ornamentation, other than a linen-thread
fringe at the bottom edges of the upper
cloth where they hang on the ground. 9
There is no actual prohibition against
lace 10 being tacked onto the front
edges of the top cloth and hanging down
several inches. 11 but there is always the
risk of its getting torn or frayed, for
which reason this is about the most un-
suitable place to use such a delicate
material, especially if it is old and of
valuable quality. A rather better form
of ornamentation is coloured embroi-
dery, provided the patterns are not too
obtrusive.

Position

It is recommended that the top altar-
cloth should not hang down over the
edge of the mensa, but lie along the

118

CHURCHES: THEIR FLAN ANB FUBNISHING

edge. If it hangs over, It gets rubbed,
dirty, and crumpled.

In the case of an altar where the
tabernacle stands directly on the mensa,
without gradines, a certain difficulty
may arise in spreading the cloths.
Geoffrey Webb explains how this can
be overcome: To one of the cloths is
attached the frontlet (see page 120'),
which hangs over the front edge of
the m&nm as an orphrey covering the
frontal rod. It is usually found con-
venient to stitch it to the lowest cloth,
which should be either of coarser linen
or of ordinary linen somewhat starched,
to prevent the frontlet from sagging or
the cloth from slipping. A U-shaped
space may be cut out of its back centre
to fit on either side of the tabernacle;
the whole back edge of the cloth may
hang some few inches over the back of
the mensa, and may be provided with
an ample slot. When the cloth is in
position, a metal rod may be passed
through this slot and across the central
gap. The weight of the rod hanging
over the back keeps in position both
the cloth itself, where it divides round
the tabernacle, and also the frontlet
attached to its front edge. When there
is a Reredos, clips may be attached to
it to keep this rod in position. The two
other cloths may be similarly cut/' 12

It must be admitted that this method
is rather awkward. In Rome a frontal is
always formed of one piece of silk or
other material stretched on a wooden
frame. If necessary the frame can be
fastened to the sides of the altar by
cords or wires, which are hidden by
the cloths. It is also the custom in Rome
to have a long piece of wood or metal

running the whole length of the back
of the altar. This keeps the cloths in
position. The rod can be divided if
necessary should there be a tabernacle
on the altar.

It should also be mentioned that the
Roman Pontifical, Pars II, orders that
a waxed linen cloth (chnsmde) should
be spread beneath the altar-cloths, so
long as any traces of the holy oils re-
main on the surface of the mensa. In
Rome the chrmnale is always kept on
the altar.

FBONTALS

It has already been explained that
the frontal (pallium or antependium)
cannot be dissociated from the altar-
cloth, since it is really nothing more
than a fourth cloth which, in earlier
ages, completely enveloped the four
sides of the holy table.

Obligation

The Church's legislation for the use
of the frontal is quite clear and definite.
The rubrics of the Roman Missal, drawn
up in 1502, direct that (in addition to
the three cloths) the altar "is to be
adorned with a frontal of the colour
appertaining, so far as is possible, to
the feast or office of the day." 13 It is
also stated that "the clothing of the
altar, of the celebrant, and of the min-
isters must be of the colour conforming
to the Office and Mass of the day, ac-
cording to the use of the Roman Church,
which has the custom of using five
colours. . . *"

Gold may be used as a substitute for
white, red, or green, although it is not
a liturgical colour. These remain five
in number only.

ALTAR-CLOTHS AND' FRONTALS

119

The Caeremoniale Episcoporum,
drawn up ninety years after the Missal,
add two more details the number of
colours is increased to six by the addition
of gold; and the back of the altar, if
free of any wall as the ceremony of its
consecration requires, is to have its own
frontal: "the frontals strengthened with
cut and squared lathes called battens
(telaria) so that they do not appear
rucked or puckered, but stretched tight
in a more fitting way.** 15

Most liturgists agree with Van der
Stappen that "a frontal should be placed
on every altar, unless the acutal structure
of the altar, either in stone or wood, is
ornamented with metal decoration, or
precious stone, either with figures, or
formed in the style of a sepulchre.
Nevertheless, on more solemn feasts the
decoration of a more precious frontal
is required, or is at least expedient, even
for this kind of altar." 16

But there are other writers, e.g.,
Wapelhorst, 17 who maintain that the
obligation ceases if the altar is con-
structed like a tomb, or if the front is
ornamented with metal, precious stones,
or figures. The objection to a "precious
altar," as mentioned by this writer, is
that on Good Friday the altar should
be stripped of all its covering and orna-
ments, and such an altar cannot be
stripped of its ornament, at least.

It is difficult to understand why so
many priests who are most punctilious
about veiling tabernacles, or at least
providing them with front curtains (for
which there is no obligation!), ignore
the rubrics concerning the proper cloth-
ing of the altar.

Material and Colours

The rubrics do not require any par-
ticular material for frontals, so any
suitable fabric can be used. Figured
silks or mixtures of sUlc and wool, pro-
vided that they are in bold designs, look
effective. Linen can also be used. It is
safer to avoid embroidery unless the
very best work can be obtained. Even
then strong, bold designs are more satis-
factory. The colour of the frontal should
be the same as that used for the vest-
ments of the feast "so far as possible.** 18
This does not mean that one colour may
be used instead of another, but that
more precious frontals of gold, silver,
or brocade, can be put up on greater
feasts, even if they do not correspond
with the colour of the feast. 10 Or again,
a poor church may not be able to afford
a complete set of frontals.

Precious frontals of silver or silver-gilt,
or of wood, carved, gilded, or coloured,
may also be used on great feasts.

There are several exceptions to the
rule that the frontal must correspond
with the colour proper to the feast or
office of the day:

1. It must be white when the Blessed
Sacrament is exposed, even though the
Mass celebrated requires vestments of
another colour. 20 If, however, exposition
takes place immediately after Mass or
vespers, the frontal need not be changed
if the celebrant does not leave the
sanctuary before exposing the Blessed
Sacrament. 21

2. The frontal must be the same colour
as the vestments at a solemn votive
Mass.

3. Should the Blessed Sacrament be

120

CHURCHES: THEIR PLAN AND FURNISHING

reserved on the altar where a funeral
or solemn requiem Mass is celebrated,
the frontal most be purple, otherwise it
may be black. 22

In St. Peter's, Rome, a black frontal
is often seen on the altar of the Blessed
Sacrament when certain annual Re-
quiems have to be celebrated there.

Position and Shape

The frontal should cover the front
of the altar, and if the back is also
visible, e.g., in churches where the cele-
brant faces the people, it must also be
covered. The frontal ought to hang
well beneath the mensa, otherwise the
priest will touch the lower edge with
his feet and rub the upper part with
his vestments.

As has been mentioned already, the
Roman form of frontal consists of a light
wooden frame, on which is fastened
down the actual material. The upper
part (aurifrigium) about 8 to 10 in.
deep generally has twice as many divi-
sions as the lower, made up of bands of
braid, with a broad band of braid be-
tween the upper and lower divisions.
A band of gilt braid surrounds the entire
frame, running along the bottom, being
wider than the rest. The number of
divisions varies according to the size of
the altar, but it looks better if they are
uneven, otherwise there is a line down
the middle of the altar. A frontal of
this type can be slipped into grooves
made under the mensa, and near the
foot of the altar, or it can be hooked
onto the corners of the altar. The edges
of the wooden frame should be rounded
off lest the frontal material gets torn.

A loose frontal should be made with

a backing of coarse linen or sailcloth
and interlined. This ensures a flat sur-
face. The Caeremoniale Episcoporum
requires that there should be no rude
or folds. 23 It can hang by small rings
about 2 in. apart from hooks screwed
under the altar slab. It does not need
a rod or wooden lath, a frontal looks
better with a 2-in. fringe along the bot-
tom and at the sides about 1 to IK in.
deep. The fringes should be of strongly
contrasted colours, which looks far better
than plain gold the effect of which
is lost when seen from a distance.

The frontlet sometimes called a
superfrontal is a strip of material,
with fringe or without, about 6 to 7K
in. deep, extending along the top of
the altar. It is a practical necessity
when the frontal itself is hung on
rings beneath the altar slab, in order
to hide the hooks or rod, should
these be used. It may be tacked onto
one of the under altar-cloths. It should
be strongly mounted on coarse linen,
and will thus prevent the cloths from
slipping. It has been explained already
(page 118) how the undercloth to which
the frontlet is attached can be kept in
position by means of a rod at the back
of the altar. Should the altar stand close
up to the wall or reredos it is difficult
to say which is the best way to keep
the cloths in position, but should it be
a portable altar, made of wood, thumb-
tacks can be stuck into it. On the other
hand, should there be no gradines, the
weight of the candlesticks and cross
will help to keep the cloths straight. It
is forbidden to fix wooden frames on
the altar to keep the cloths in position. 24

Another method is to hang frontals

ALTAB-CLOTHS AND FRONTALS

121

back to back on rods, giving two to each
rod. They hang on iron pieces, fixed
to the masonry. Superfrontals can also
be fixed by large dress studs to a cloth
under the altar-cloths. This makes them
very easy to change.

It is doubtful if the frontlet need con-
form to the colour of the frontals, and
for the sake of convenience and economy
a plain red frontlet will suffice for or-
dinary occasions red being the colour
that will go best with white, green, and
purple. Roman frontals do not need a
frontlet, for they preserve a relic of it
in the strip of gold lace with a fringe
below it which traverses the width of
the frontal. For this reason they are
much more practical and convenient.
Moreover, Roman frontals usually come
up to the level of the top of the mensa.

THE ALTAR-COVER
A dust cover of coloured linen or other
richer material is needed for every altar.
It should tone with the hangings or
decorations round the altar. The altar-
cover is not a liturgical ornament and
should be as inconspicuous as possible.
It should be made a little longer than
the mensa and should hang down a few
inches at the sides, also in front if the
altar-cloth hangs over the edge. In this
case it is permissible, but not generally
recommended, that the edges are scal-
loped, embroidered, or ornamented with
fringes. A violet cloth is appropriate
for penitential seasons. 25 Some liturgical
writers maintain that green is the
"correct" colour for ordinary occasions.

Small Linen Cloths
Besides the three large linen cloths

covering the mensa there are certain
small linen cloths which are used in
connection with the altar at Mass,

1. The Corporal. The corporal (from
corpus, cofporalis the body, concerning
the body) is the cloth on which the
Sacramental Species lies during the
Mass. It is a linen cloth, about 18 or
20 in. square, upon which are placed
the chalice and the Sacred Host. In the
early ages of Christianity, when altars
were much smaller than they are now,
the corporal covered the entire altar
slab, and was really the only altar-cloth.
The back part was drawn up over the
chalice when it had to be veiled. About
the eleventh or twelfth century, when
very large corporals were still in use,
it became the custom to cut them up
into two pieces of linen, so that there
were actually two corporals. The second
corporal served to cover the Host and
chalice. By degrees this corporal was
reduced to its present size, and even-
tually became nothing more than a small
piece of starched linen which could be
laid on the top of the chalice. It is
interesting to note that the Carthusians
have always retained a single large
corporal which is drawn up at the back
over the chalice, as in early days, and
this is also the custom in the ancient
rite of Lyons, in France. It was only
after the corporal had been reduced
in size that the three altar-cloths, now
prescribed, came into use.

The corporal must be made of pure
linen. It is better that it should be left
quite plain, except for a small, centred
cross embroidered in front, although
even this is not necessary. Decoration
on a corporal makes it difficult to purify

122

CHURCHES: THEIR PLAN AND FURNISHING

if a Host has been standing on that part.
After It has been washed, a corporal Is
folded into three equal parts always
inwards, so that any fragment of the
Host may be enclosed within it.

2. The Pall. The pall (from poBa, a
mantle originally a veil or piece of
stuff) is really a simplified and con-
ventionalized form of the second cor-
poral, which, during the Middle Ages,
was placed on the top of the chalice
instead of using part of the large
corporal of earlier times.

The pall must be about 5 or 6 in.
square, and is best made of a piece of
linen folded twice or three times and
well starched, so that it can support the
chalice veil without being bent. The
custom of putting a piece of cardboard
or celluloid inside a pall to make it
stiff is not recommended. The under-
surface must be left quite plain, but
it is permissible to put embroidery on the
upper side. It is, however, better to
leave both sides plain. Lace, sewn round
the edges of both corporal and pall,
is not actually prohibited, but is a doubt-
ful addition. The same applies to cord
sewn round the edges of the pall, which
is, however, better than lace.

In Rome the pall is merely a square
of single linen, highly starched, and sur-
rounded by a narrow band of lace, also
starched.

3. The Purificator. The purificator is
a small linen cloth used for cleansing
the chalice. It superseded the maniple
which was originally used for this pur-

pose (see page 187). The rubrics do not
lay down any definite size, but a purifi-
cator is usually from 12 to 18 in. long
and from 9 to 10 in. wide. It is folded
in three lengths when not in use. In
churches where the finger towels are
about the same size as the purificators,
it is a good thing to have a small cross
sewn on the latter so that the two can
be easily distinguished.

4. The Finger Towel The finger
towel, or Lavabo cloth (marmtergium) ,
may be of any size, but it is better to
have it rather large than too small. A
small cloth remains wet if in frequent
use, and a real towel about 20 in. by
16 in. is much more convenient. But
there is no reason why it should not be
even larger. Finger towels are sometimes
folded in three, like purificators. Neither
is blessed before use.

5. The Communion Cloth. Since the
obligation of having a metal communion
plate came into force in 1929, it has
been supposed by many persons that
there is no longer any need to retain
the linen cloth which is prescribed in
the rubrics of the Missal, X, n. 6,
and the Caeremoniale Episcoporum, L.
II, c. XXIX, n. 3, to hang over the com-
munion rails, or to be held beneath the
chin of those who kneel to receive Holy
Communion. No definite instructions
having been issued to the contrary, it
seems reasonable to continue to use the
communion cloth as formerly, at least
to cover the rails.

NOTES

1. The papal altar at St. Peter's still has two 2. Metal or carved wooden f rentals are still

frontals, one on each side.

fairly common in Italy, e,g., St. Mark's, Venice.

ALTAK-CLOTHS ANB FBONTALS

123

3. For the history of altar-cloths and Iron- 12.
tals, see Joseph Braun, S.J., Der Christltcke p. 72,
Altor, Vol. II, pp. 9-125. 13.

4. Braun, op. cit., Vol. II, p. 31. 14

5. S.R.C. 2600, 3868. 15.

8. Rub. Gen. Miss., V, XX; S.R.C. 4029, 16.
ad 5 (1899). 17.

7. Rub. Gen. Miss., XX. p, 29.

S. De Herdt, I, n. 179. 18.

9. Roman tradition does not favour a linen- 19.
thread fringe at bottom edges of upper cloth, 20.
although the papal altar at St. Peter's has this 21.
in gold thread. 22

10. S.R.C. 3191. 23.

11. In the Roman basilicas the altar-cloths 24.
do not hang over the front, but are level with ad 1;
the top of the mensa. 25.

Webb, Geoffrey, The Atimr,

Rub. Gen. Mm., Tit. XX.

Ibid., Tit. XVIII, 1.

Caer. Ep., L. I, c, XII, n. 11.

Sacra Ltorgto, 2 cd., VoL III, Q. 44.

Compendium Sacrae L&urgtae (1931),

Rub. Gen. Miss,, Tit. XX.

Van der Stappen, III, O. 43.

S.R.C. 1615, ad 7.

S.R.C. 2673.

S.R.C. 3201, ad 10; 3562.

Caer. Ep., L. I, c. XII, n. II.

Ibid., L. I, c. XHI, n. 11; S.R.C. 4213,

4253, ad 1, 2,

Caer. Ep., L. I, c. XII, nn. 8 16.

CHAPTER IX

ALTAR FURNITURE

I. BEUQXJABIES

Historical Notes

During the Middle Ages the venera-
tion of relics of the saints developed to
such an extent that again and again the
Church had to step in to prevent super-
stitious abuses which had risen. The
cult led to the making of magnificent
vessels for holding relics. Sometimes they
were in the shape of a coffer, in other
instances, one finds triptychs, lanterns,
small castles, or cylinders of crystal. In
the case of a whole body of a saint, it
lay in a great tomb-like structure, very
often placed behind the high altar of a
cathedral or large church, e.g., the still
existent shrine of St. Edward the Con-
fessor in Westminster Abbey. On great
festivals all the relics possessed by a
church would be brought out and dis-
played either on or above the altars.

Authentification and Approbation

of Relics

According to Canon Law 1 documents
of authenticity and approbation must be
obtained before a relic can be venerated.
The former can be issued by cardinals
and local Ordinaries, and a bishop can
delegate this power to the vicar-general
by a special and express mandate. The
latter has to be obtained from the local
Ordinary, and a bishop may reject relics
if he doubts their genuineness. 2

Use of Relics

The presence of relics on altars is
recognised in the rubrics of the Roman
Missal where they deal with the in-
censation of the altar at Mass. 3 Together
with flowers, relics form the "occasional
decoration of an altar." 4 The Caeremonl-
cHe Episcoporum? says that reliquaries
"may be placed between the candle-
sticks so long as the length of the altar
allows it." From this wording it would
appear that there should not be normally
more than four reliquaries on the high
altar, and they should only be used as
ornaments on feast days.

Relics of the cross and passion must
be kept separate from other relics, and
given a special place of honour. 6 When
relics are exposed, at least two lights
must be burning. 7 Reliquaries should
therefore be covered with small cloths
when standing on the altar and the
ordinary candles are not lit. No relics
may be placed on top of the tabernacle
or in front of it. 8 They may not be
exposed on the same altar where the
Blessed Sacrament is exposed, nor ven-
erated during exposition. 9

Reliquaries: Form and Material

Reliquaries may be of any suitable
material metal or wood. The only pre-
scription regarding their form is that
they should not resemble too closely the

124

ALTAR FURNTTUBE

125

monstrance in which the Blessed Sacra- itself/" Flowers cannot be included in

ment is exposed. 10 They can also be this category. 14 Apart from, the author!-

made in the shape of small busts or ties given above there is no mention

statues. Their size should conform with of flowers on the altar in any liturgical

that of the candlesticks on the altar.
H. FLOWERS

Historical Notes

Floral decorations seem to have been
used in Christian churches from an early
period, but they were confined to gar-
lands hung from the walls and columns,
or strewn upon the floor. During the
Middle Ages it was a common custom
to strew sweet-smelling herbs, such as
rosemary or bay leaves, on the pavement.
So far as it is known, the first reference
to flower vases as part of the furniture
of the altar appears in the Caeremomale
Episcoporum (cap. XII), first issued by
Clement VIII in 1600. But all it says is
that "on very great feasts, garlands of
flowers may be used to decorate the
ciborium of the Altar and the doors of
the Church,** and that "vases may be
used on the altar, too, carefully decor-
ated with blossoms, and leaves of sweet
fragrance or artificially made of silk." 11
There is another reference to floral
decorations in the Memoriale Rituum,
drawn up by Benedict XIII in 1725.
Here we are informed that "if customary,
flowers may be used on the altar for
the Mass on the Feast of the Purifica-
tion, on Maundy Thursday 12 and on
Holy Saturday, 13 and for the decoration
of the 'altar of repose* on Maundy
Thursday/* The general rubrics of the
Missal say that "nothing whatsoever is
to be put on the altar which does not
pertain to the sacrifice of the Mass,
or to the ornamentation of the altar

books.

Use

"Flowers should be used in church
and especially on the altar (particularly
the high altar) with the greatest re-
straint. They are an ornament and,
though they may be and are very
beautiful, they are entirely subsidiary
and their use is intended to mark a
special degree of festivity. It is very
unbecoming to make the altar which,
as the hallowed stone of sacrifice and
the dwelling place of God under the
Sacramental Species, should be a place
of awe and dignity a mere stand for
flowers.** 15

The proper pkce for vases of flowers
on the altar is between the candle-
sticks. 16 Should there be a gradine it
is preferable to stand the vases on it
rather than on the mensa. 17 Vases must
not be placed on the top of the taber-
nacle or in front of the door. 18

But it should be remembered that
flowers are offerings, not mere decora-
tions. Their position should indicate this.
They should stand before or round the
altar not on it.

In Roman basilicas there are no
flowers on the altars, but masses of
them adorn the confessto on feast days
of the martyrs buried below the high
altar.

Vases: Shape and Material

It cannot be insisted on too strongly
that there is no special reason to use

126

CHURCHES: THEIB PLAN AND FUKNISHING

brass vases on altars. Plain glass or
earthenware vases are much less ob-
trusive. A flower vase Is not a "sacred
vessel" even when it is used on the
altar, otherwise it would have to be
blessed!

Although they are going out of fashion,
tin holders for flowers are still used
in some churches. They should be
avoided.*

Arrangement of Flowers. Flowers
should be arranged in bold masses, and
with a conservative amount of green.
They look best when they are arranged
naturally and gracefully, not packed
tightly together. Some species of flowers
are quite unsuited for altar decoration
because they are too small or fade
quickly. Their life can be prolonged by
(a) adding a pinch of salt to the water,
(&) clipping the end of the stems each
day, (c) crushing the stems with a
mallet (in the case of flowers or foliage
that need to absorb much water). 19
There is no reason why the flowers
should conform to the liturgical colours
of the feast. As a matter of fact, it looks

* Many liturgical authors, e.g., Van der
Stappen, III, 62, III, maintain that no potted
flowers ought to be used on the altar. (They
all seem to agree that they are permissible on
the floor of the sanctuary near the altar.)
There seem to be valid reasons for this objec-
tion, one practical and one symbolical. A flower
pot may contain more than the plant namely
worms and insects and remnants of fertilizer,
thus for practical reasons a flower pot seems
to be out of place. As to the symbolical value,
may we point to the beautiful symbolism of
the burning candle that consumes itself while
it sheds its warm light, an idea no electric
bulb can render plausible. The cut flower, too,
has more of the self-sacrificing idea than a
growing potted flower. The finality of the gift
of flowers, too, is better expressed in cut flowers
than in the pot which can be taken to the
greenhouse for more production. H. A. R.

much better if red, yellow, or blue
flowers are used when there are white
vestments, tabernacle veil, and frontal.

Other Places for Flowers

The high altar will really look more
dignified if flowers are not placed on the
mensa or gradine, but on either side
of it. A few large earthenware vases, or
jars, standing on the pavement or on
low stools are an effective decoration
on great festivals. Vases may also stand
on the window sills and ledges. They
may be used to decorate round the font
or be placed at the ends of the commun-
ion rails.

Artificial Flowers

The Caeremoniale Episcoporum sanc-
tions the use of artificial flowers on the
altar, 20 but an Instruction of the cardinal
vicar for the churches in Rome dated
June, 1932, definitely forbids the use
of artificial flowers of whatever material,
bronze, cloth, brass, earthenware, and
orders their removal from churches and
oratories. This order applies only to
Rome, so there is no positive reason
against artificial flowers if it is desired
to use them. But they should be well
made the Caeremoniale Episcoporum
implies that the material should be silk, 21
and cheap paper or calico flowers should
be avoided. The best artificial flowers
are of metal or gilded wood. They look
very effective, and last longer than those
made of silk.

Prohibition of Flowers on Altars

Flowers are not allowed on altars
during: 1. solemn requiem Masses and
funeral ceremonies; 22 2. Advent and
Lent, 23 except on:

ALTAR FURNITURE

127

a ) The third Sunday of Advent ( Cau-
date Sunday); 24

b) The fourth Sunday of Lent (Lae-
tare Sunday); 25

c) The Mass on Holy Thursday and
at the altar of repose; 26

d) The Mass on Holy Saturday; 27

e ) The First Communion of children; 28

f ) During the Forty Hours* Prayer.

HI. STATUES

Statues or images of the saints are
recommended in the Caerenwnude Ejns-
coporum as suitable ornaments to be
placed on or above the altar on greater
feasts. But it is stated that they should
be of silver or some other precious
metal, and of suitable size. 29 This would
seem to exclude large plaster figures from
being displayed on or above the altar.
Statues like reliquaries should nor-
mally stand between the six candle-
sticks on the high altar. Statues may
not be placed on top of the tabernacle. 30

With regard to statues and images
in other parts of the church as well as
those which may be placed on or above
the altar, it is worth quoting Canon
Law: "It is never lawful to exhibit in
church, even those of exempt religious,
an unusual (insolitam) image, unless
the approval of the Ordinary has first
been obtained. 31

"The Ordinary shall never allow any
sacred images to be publicly displayed
for the veneration of the faithful, unless
these images are in keeping with the
approved practice of the Church," By
the word "unusual" is meant an image
that represents persons or events in a
manner which has no justification either
in Holy Scripture or Tradition. It refers

more to the details of the composition
rather than to the style of painting or
carving or the medium used by the
craftsman. For instance, it is not allowed
to display publicly pictures of the Sacred
Heart of Jesus alone without the rest
of the body* although such pictures are
tolerated for private devotion. 32 Statues
of our Lady, dressed in priestly vest-
ments, also come under the ban of
"unusual images"; so, too, the Blessed
Trinity depicted as a man with three
hands, or by a man with two heads and
a dove between them; or the Holy Ghost
in human form. 33 On the other hand
statues of our Lady are often vested in
copes, which although n6t a "priestly
vestment,** might appear so to the
uninitiated!

Lastly, the Ordinary must never allow
images to be displayed in church which
may encourage false doctrine or which
offend against decency, or which are
capable of leading the ignorant into
dangerous errors e.g., encouraging the
veneration of someone who has not yet
been declared or acknowledged a saint. 34

Canon 1281 lays down that "images of
great value, either because of their age,
or by reason of their artistic merits, or
by the veneration given to them, and
which have been exposed in churches
and public oratories for the veneration
of the faithful, if in need of repairs,
must not be restored without the written
consent of the Ordinary, who before he
gives his approval, should seek advice
from prudent and competent authorities."

Canon 1281 states that "important
images and relics or those of great value,
as well as any other relics or images
in a church which are honoured by the

128

O3TORCHES: THEIR PLAN AND FUKNISHING

people with special veneration, must not
be alienated or transferred from one
church to another without permission of
the Holy See."

Veiling of Statues and Pictures

According to the rubrics of the Roman
Missal, Breviary, and Caeremanwle
Epi$coporum y all crosses, statues, and
pictures of our Lord and of the saints
on the altars and elsewhere in a church
to which cultus is given with the sole
exception of the crosses and images of
the Stations of the Cross, must be
covered with purple veils, not trans-
parent or ornamented in any way, from
before the first vespers of Passion Sunday
until after the Gloria in the Mass on
Holy Saturday, no matter what feast
may occur. 35

Statues on or above the altar where
the Forty Hours' Prayer takes place,
should be veiled. No special colour for
the veils is prescribed, but it seems more
appropriate that it should be white. 36

Historical Notes

The origin of the custom of veiling
statues and pictures during Passiontide
can be found in the once almost universal
practice of veiling, not only images, but
also the altar during the whole of Lent
as a sign of mourning and penitence.
The colour for Lenten veils was usually
white not purple, and in some parts
of Spain, in southern Italy and the
Cathedral of Freiburg (Baden, Ger-
many), it is still the custom to hang an
enormous veil in front of the sanctuary,
which is a relic of the primitive practice
of concealing the altar with curtains
during the more solemn parts of the

Mass. Mediaeval church inventories
make frequent references to white linen
veils for Lent, although blue was some-
times used.

IV. OTHER ALTAR FUBNTTOBE

0) Altar Cards

It would seem that the human mem-
ory must have become less reliable
during the past three hundred years,
for until the sixteenth century printed
cards, containing certain prayers and
blessings which the priest is supposed
to know by heart, had not become the
almost essential accessory of worship
that they are to-day. When the Roman
Missal was revised by Pius V in 1570,
only one card, the tabella secretarum,
was ordered by the rubrics. 37

During the seventeenth century an-
other card with the Gospel of St. John
which is recited at the end of Mass,
unless another Last Gospel is ordered
by the rubrics, was introduced, and
then, probably for the sake of symmetry,
a third card, containing the prayers said
by the celebrant when blessing the water
at the Offertory and when washing his
hands. This was placed on the Epistle
side of the altar.

During the seventeenth and eighteenth
centuries it became the fashion to in-
sert altar cards in very ornate frames
some of which in the Baroque style are
magnificent pieces of craftsmanship.

There is still no obligation to have
more than the one card mentioned in tihe
rubrics of the Missal. This card should
be placed against the crucifix or taber-
nacle during Mass only. The two other
cards can be supported against the
candlesticks, or against the edge of a

ALTAK FUBNITUBE

129

shelf or reredos, should there be one,
The most important thing about altar
cards is not the frame, but legibility.
The type used should be bold and clear.
Illuminated cards, written in a mediaeval
script, are often quite useless to the
priest. Except in rare cases illuminated
altar cards with elaborate borders,
whether hand-painted or printed, are a
doubtful addition to the dignity of the
altar. As no altar cards were used during
the Middle Ages there can be no logical
reason for' making an imitation medi-
aeval-looking article. The cards, whether
framed or unframed, should be removed
from the altar after Mass.

Altar cards are not used at a bishop's
Mass, or that of any lesser prelate who
has the right of Pontificalia. The prayers
usually printed on the cards are con-
tained in a separate book, known as the
Canon Episcopates,

b) Missal Stand

The general rubrics of the Roman
Missal, 38 as well as those of the Caere-
moniale Episcoporum, state that a cush-
ion is to be used to support the Missal. 39
But a wooden book-rest is now more
common, which is also mentioned as an
alternative in the Caeremoniale, Metal
reading desks can be used, if preferred,
but if they are adorned with projecting
spikes, they are both dangerous and
inconvenient. If a cushion is used, it
should be about 18 in, square, and
stuffed with wool or down, not too
lightly, and made up with cord. Tassels
at the corners add to the dignity. Altar
cushions are still found in Spain and
Austria, as well as in other parts of
Europe where old traditions have sur-

vived. They are also used in Carthusian
churches. During the later Middle Ages
it was very common to have two cush-
ions on the altar, and it would seem that
there is no rubric that forbids this
practice. The advantage of two cushions
is that it lessens the weight to be carried
by the server a serious matter to a
small boy whose arms may not be too
strong. According to the Caeremorriale,
both the cushion and the Missal should
be covered in silk of the colour of the
feast. 40 Cushions are still used for High
Mass at the Lateran and St. Peter's,
Rome. In some places it is the custom
to cover the missal stand with a piece
of silk the same colour as the vestments.
Some priests prefer a missal stand rest-
ing on a pillar, fixed into a fairly broad,
round base, but this is unknown in
Rome. Missal stands should not be too
low, otherwise the marker ribbons get
in the way. In most Roman basilicas the
Missal, Epistle and Gospel books, are
covered in silk, to match the colour of
the vestments worn at High Mass.*

c) Cruets

In primitive times the two cruets or
vessels for holding the wine and water
used at the Holy Eucharist were gen-
erally made of metal, very rarely of
glass or crystal. Some of them were
much larger than those used to-day, and
of the most elaborate workmanship. To
distinguish the contents, the two cruets

*At Amay-sur-Meuse (Belgium) the vener-
able old custom of keeping the Missal (or
rather the Gospel book) lying on the mensa of
the altar, day and night, has been revived,
symbolizing the presence of the Son of God,
sub aliena Specie: in the sacrament and in His
word. H, A. R,

130

CHUECHES: THEIR PLAN AND FUENISHMG

were often marked with the letters V
and A vinum and aqua. It was not
until the period of the Renaissance that
glass cruets became common. Many of
them were mounted in gold or silver,

The rubrics of the Roman Missal
order that the cruets should be made
of crystal or glass, but metal ones are
still tolerated (Tit. XX). Loosely fit-
ting stoppers are important to exclude
dust or insects. A glass saucer should be
provided for the cruets to stand in, as
well as a separate bowl into which the
priest can wash his hands. The rubrics
of the Missal also mention a small wicker
basket (fenestretta), in which the bell,
cruets, basin, and towel are placed; the
basket itself (in accordance with the
practice which still prevails in Rome)
being carried to the altar by the server
when he accompanies the priest from
the sacristy.

d) Bell

The practice of ringing a bell at the
more solemn parts of the Mass seems
to have originated with the introduction
of the mediaeval ceremony of the eleva-
tion of the Host during the twelfth
century a northern custom which did
not spread to Rome until two hundred
years later, at least not officially. Ivo
of Chartres (d. 1115) mentions the ring-
ing of one of the church bells at the
Elevation. Later on it became almost
universal in Northern Europe for the
server to ring a small hand bell at the
Elevation, and in the later Middle Ages
"Sanctus bells" were often hung up
above the roof of the chancel, so that
people outside might know when the
Elevation took place.

All that is stated in the Roman Missal
is that *the server rings the little bell
with his right hand at each elevation,
or continuously until the priest lays the
Host on the corporal, and at the same
way agaiq at the elevation of the
chalice."* 41

The RUus Sewandus orders that the
little bell is to be rung at the Sanctus
as well, but these two ringings are the
only ones prescribed by the rubrics. All
other ringings are merely local customs
which have grown up during the cen-
turies. The only two extra ringings which
are tolerated by the Sacred Congregation
of Rites are as a warning just before the
Consecration, 42 and at the "Domine non
sum dignus" where it is the custom. 43

The rubrics of the Missal (XX), the
Eitus Ser&andus (VII, 8), and the
Memorials Rituum (IV, i, and VI, i) all
speak of a small bell parva campanula
also the Rituale Romanum (IV, 4-13).
The Sacred Congregation of Rites men-
tions a tintinnabuluni, which is merely
another kind of small bell, "such as is
hung round an animal's neck." 44

The only kind of altar bell which is
recognised by the rubrics is a small hand
bell with one tongue, made of silver,
bronze, or other metal, although chiming
bells do not appear to be forbidden.
Indian gongs, or the more common up-
turned, basin-shaped brass instrument,
fixed to a shaft and base, are definitely
prohibited. 45 There is no reason to leave
the bell on the altar steps. When not
actually in use it is better to keep it on
the credence table.

NOTE. In St. Charles' Instructions
(Chap. XV, para. 4) it is laid down that
a small bell should be attached next

AJLTAR FIIRNTUJKE

131

every altar to the side wall on the Gospel
side, and that there should be suspended
from the bell a string sufficiently long to
enable the server to use it to ring there-
with "a certain number of strokes during
the elevation of the Body of OUT Lord."

On the other hand, since it is presumed
that the high altar will be covered by a
canopy and stand some distance from
any wall, it is explained that a portable
bell brought from the sacristy will be
more convenient.

NOTES

1. C.J.C. 1283, 1. 21.

2. C. Dooley, Church Law on Sacred 22.
Relics (1931), pp. 75, 78. 23.

3. Rit. Celeb. Miss., Tit. IV, n. 5. 24.

4. Cf. O'Connell, The Celebration of the 25.
Mass, Blc, I, p. 246. 26.

5. Caer. Ep., L. I, c. XII, n. 12. 27.

6. S.R.C. 2647; 2854; 4186. 28.

7. S.R.C. 2967, ad 9; 3029; 3204. 29.

8. S.R.C. 2740, ad 1; 2613, ad 6. 30.

9. S.R.C. 4059, ad 2. 31.

10. Van der Stappen, Sacra Liturgia, IV, 32.
Q. 365. 33.

11. Caer. Ep., L. I, c. XII, n. 12. 34.

12. Memoriale Rituum, Tit, IV, c. I, para. 35.
4, n. 1. 36.

13. Ibid., Tit. VI, c. I, n. 10. 37.

14. Cf. O'Connell, op. cit., Bk. I, p. 246, 38.
note. 39.

15. Directions for Altar Societies and Archi- 40.
tects, p. 22. 41.

16. Caer. Ep., L. I, c. XII, n. 12. 42.

17. S.R.C. 2613, ad 6. 43.

18. S.R.C. 4000, ad 1; 4136, ad 2. 44.

19. Cf. Directions for Altar Societies* p. 22. p. 25.

20. Caer. Ep., L. I, c. XII, n. 12. 45.

Ibid., L. I, c. XII, n. 12.

Miss. Rom.

Caer. Ep., L. I, c. XII, n. 12.

Caer. Ep., L. II, c. XIII, n. 2.

Mem. Rit., IV, c. 1, 4, n. 1.

Ibid., IV, c. 10.

Caer. Ep., L. II, c. XX, n. 1.

S.R.C. 3448, ad 11.

Caer. Ep., L. I, c. XII, n. 12.

S.R.C. 2613, ad 6; 2740, ad 1.

Canon 1279, 2, 3.

S.O., 26 Aug., 1891; GoiL P. F., n. 1767.

Holy Office, March 16, 1928.

C.J.C. 1279, 3.

S.R.C. 3638, ad 11.

Inst. Clementina.

Rub. Gen. Miss., Tit. XX.

Horn. Miss., I, Tit. XX.

Caer. Ep., L. I, c. XII, n. 15.

Ibid.

Rit. Celeb. Miss., VIII, 6.

S.R.C. 4377.

S.R.C. 5224, ad 9.

Directions for Altar Societies, ed. 1912,

S.R.C. 4000, ad 3 (1898).

CHAPTER X

THE SANCTUARY

The sanctuary is that part of a church
which encloses the high altar and ex-
tends to the communion rails. The por-
tion of the sanctuary reserved for the
clergy, who are assisting at Mass or
taking part in the recitation or chanting
of the Divine Office, or for a choir of
men and boys, is called the choir, or
quire. It may be situated either before
or behind the high altar, or in special
cases, in a transept looking onto the
sanctuary. The word chancel signifies the
space between the high altar and the
nave, and separated from the latter by a
screen (L. cancelli a. screen).

HISTORICAL NOTES
The sanctuary, in early Christian
times, was confined to the apse or
semicircular east end of the church
where the clergy had their seats, and in
front of which the altar stood beneath a
ciborium on four columns. It became too
small to hold the increasing number of
higher and lower clergy, so part of the
nave in front of the altar was enclosed
by screens and became part of the sanc-
tuary. This arrangement can still be seen
in S. Clemente and other Roman basili-
can churches. During the early Middle
Ages, some large churches had two
sanctuaries: one at the east and the other
at the west end or in the middle of the
building. The sanctuary underwent
nany modifications during the later

Middle Ages. In some places it was
pushed outwards into transepts; in others
further down the nave to accommodate
the choir.

In most parish churches in England
before the Reformation the invariable
arrangement was to have the choir, with
returned stalls for the senior clergy
facing the altar (with their backs to
the people), enclosed by screens. The
chancel, as it was called, consisted of
that portion of a church either beyond
the transepts or sometimes occupying the
eastern bays of the nave where there
were no transepts.

The Renaissance architects abandoned
screens and favoured wide short sanctu-
aries with low communion rails, giving
an unbroken view of the high altar.

More often than not, chancels were
raised above the nave, though there are
exceptions to this rule as will be ex-
plained later. Sometimes chancels had
aisles on either side, sometimes not. In
the East one does not find raised chan-
cels. There is usually one step before the
iconastasis, but none to the holy table
itself. In the continental countries of
Northern Europe raised chancels are
very common, sometimes having crypts
beneath them, especially in cathedrals
and large churches. 1

SIZE

In a large number of modern Catholic

132

THE SANCTUARY

133

churches the sanctuary Is far too small
to permit liturgical functions being car-
ried out with ease and dignity. It may be
said with truth that a sanctuary can
never be too large to satisfy a master of
ceremonies! Between the lowest step of
the high altar to the communion rails
there should be a clear unbroken space
of at least 11 ft. in an average-sized
church. Even in a small chapel with
only one altar it is better to allow a
depth of at least 6 ft. between the altar
steps and the communion rails. For a
large church 20 ft. or more should be
the minimum, when there are no choir
stalls in the sanctuary. Should there be a
ritual choir in front of the high altar
much more space will be needed.

Compare any typical late mediaeval
parish church in Europe with the aver-
age modern Catholic church, and it will
be realized how much is lost by pro-
viding too small a sanctuary.

STEPS

Both mediaeval and Renaissance
builders understood that it is by no
means essential that a sanctuary should
be raised above the nave. In many pre-
Reformation churches in England the
nave and chancel are on the same level,
and in some cases there is a descent
of one or more steps into the chancel.
This arrangement has the advantage of
bringing the eye level of those seated
in the nave to the top of the high altar,
should there be the usual three or five
steps leading up to it as are recom-
mended by the rubrics. 2

In many modern churches the congre-
gation have to strain their necks to see
the high altar properly owing to it being

perched up on an over-lofty sanctuary
floor. Indeed there is something to be
said in favour of the ioor of the nave
gradually rising up from the communion
rails, so that the view of the worshippers
at the back is not obstructed by the
heads of those in front of them; in other
words, that the levels of the floor of a
church should be arranged like those in
a theatre or cinema.*

There should be an unbroken space
between the communion rails and the
bottom step of the altar. It is impossible
to carry out any liturgical function
properly if the clergy and acolytes have
to be going up and down steps all the
time. If one breaks up even a large
sanctuary with two or three different
levels, there will be not enough space
left for ceremonies.

If it is desired to raise the sanctuary
above the level of the nave, it will be
sufficient to have two steps: one in front
of the communion rails, the other Just
inside them, with sufficient space for
the priest to move up and down when
giving Communion to the people.

* We are so proud of our discoveries in
modern architecture, but imagine the surprise
of Dom Adalbert Schippers, O.S.B., when after
laborious excavations and restorations he dis-
covered that the famous abbey minster of Maria
Laach (Rhineland) had a floor sloping so grad-
ually down to the steps of the high choir and
sanctuary that one entering the doors of the
church was exactly on the same level as the
sanctuary floor, in spite of its seven or eight
steps up from the floor in the front part of the
minster. The slope was so gradual that it was
unnoticeable when walking toward the altar.
The result was that everybody in that long
Romanesque edifice of the thirteenth century
came away with the feeling of having miracu-
lously been saved from craning his or her neck
and yet of having been able to see every detail
of the liturgy, even in the rear of the church!
H. A. R.

134

CHURCHES: THEIK PLAN AND FURNISHING

FLOOR SURFACE

In no instance should the floor of the
sanctuary be of any highly polished
material. There is always the danger
that a priest may slip when making his
way to give Holy Communion, and a
a similar accident may easily happen
to the deacon or subdeacon at High
Mass, Unlike the acolytes, who in some
places are put into slippers when serving
Mass so that their boots may not scratch
the floor, the clergy are not in the habit
of taking off their outdoor foot-wear be-
fore taking part in a liturgical function. 3
It is recommended that the centre of
the sanctuary should be entirely covered
with a carpet, matting, or other kind of
floor-cloth. Rubber is a useful material
for this purpose and many attractive
kinds can now be obtained. At the same
time there is always the danger of grease
marks from the acolytes* candles, or hot
charcoal being dropped by the thurifer
boys will be boys! So it is better to put
down some kind of floor covering that
can easily be cleaned.

CHOIR-STALLS 4

Not many modern Catholic churches
are provided with choir-stalls in the
sanctuary, and unless a mediaeval type
of chancel is built, they crowd up space
which ought to be left empty. Nothing
looks so bad as to see what might other-
wise be a decent-sized sanctuary filled
with stalls, no matter how good the
actual design may be. Sometimes these
stalls are not used by "singing men and
boys" at all, but are filled with super-
fluous acolytes at High Mass and Bene-
diction, whose only function is to walk

in and out at the beginning and end of
the service. Where a church has a sur-
pliced choir of men and boys, then by
all means let them sit in stalls on either
side of the sanctuary, otherwise it is
advisable to insert no other furniture
than is absolutely necessary.

Perhaps an even better place for the
body of singers is behind the high altar,
but not many modern churches make
provision for this arrangement.

FURNITURE OF THE SANCTUARY
A sanctuary should not be crowded
up with statues, flower pots, cushions,
prie-dieus, gongs, books, and chairs. The
following are the essential articles of
furniture.

1. Bench* for the sacred ministers.
There should be a long bench for the
celebrant, deacon, and subdeacon at
High Mass, placed at the Epistle side of
the sanctuary. It should be long enough
to seat three persons, and, if there
is a back, it should be low enough to
allow the vestments to hang over it, i.e.,
not more than 18 in. in height. On Sun-
days and feast days it may be covered
with a cloth of the appropriate liturgical
colour. 5 On Good Friday and at Re-
quiems it should be left bare. In Rome

* One of the greatest surprises any visitor
of this country experiences in church is to see
ordinary straight chairs as seats in practically
all sanctuaries. Most of our priests and our
faithful have by this time accepted these make-
shift things as the rule. Not only are they
preposterously out of place, ugly, and undigni-
fied, but since it is hard to argue this point
they have been repeatedly and sternly for-
bidden by the Sacred Congregation of Rites,
i.e., AJ>. 1614, 1704, 1822, 1861, and finally in
1893. Since forty years' untrammeled use may
establish a "custom," it may already be too late
for protest. H. A. R.

THE SANCTUABY

135

the bench has no back as a rule. At
Mass it is often covered with green baize,
or when violet vestments are worn, with
a cover of the same colour. The addition
of a canopy or the use of separate chairs
for the sacred ministers has been for-
bidden by the Sacred Congregation of
Rites. The picturesque mediaeval sedilia,
with its three canopied seats built into
the south wall of the sanctuary, is hardly
practical, even if it were allowed, for it
provides no means of preventing the
back of the vestments from getting
crushed when the clergy are sitting
down. Cushions are not permitted un-
less the celebrant has the right to use
"pontificalia" 6

2. Stools or benches for the acolytes
not more than are required for the actual
number who assist at High Mass are
necessary furniture, so that the men or
boys can sit down during the sermon.
However, it is hard to see why we can-
not accept the good old Roman custom
of sitting on the steps of the altar, the
throne, or the sanctuary. In the Sistine
Chapel of the Vatican as well as St.
Peter's not only the altar boys and
lower ministers sit on the steps, but
also the deacons, subdeacons, and assist-
ants of both the pope and the celebrant.

3. Credence table. A table, large
enough to hold everything needed for
certain liturgical functions, also the
chalice covered with the humeral veil
at High Mass, should be placed against
the south wall of the sanctuary. It
should be covered with a white linen
cloth, reaching to the ground, both in
front and at the sides. 7

4. Piscina. It is recommended that
there should be a piscina or sacrarium,

built into the waE on the Epistle side
of the high altar. It consists of a basin
with a pipe running into the ground, and
is intended for the disposal of water
that has been used for any sacred pur-
pose. It can be combined with a shelf
above the basin upon which the cruets
can be placed, and is generally used as
a credence table at Low Masses. The
diameter of the basin should be about
9 in., and 4 in. in depth. The shelf above
should be about I ft. in length and about
6 to 9 in. deep.

AUMBRY

On the Gospel or Epistle side of the
sanctuary 8 there should be a small cup-
board (aumbry) to contain the holy oils,
which must not be kept in the presby-
tery, except for some special reason. It
may be built into the wall or hang
against it. On the door, which must be
kept locked, the words Olea Sacra should
be inscribed. A veil may be hung before
the cupboard door; white or violet if all
three oils are kept there; violet if only
the Oil of the Sick is within. Should the
sacristy be definitely part of the church,
the holy oils may be kept there in a
similar aumbry. 9

CARPETS

A carpet down the middle of the
sanctuary has been mentioned already.
There is no special reason why any
particular colour should be used,
although the Caeremoniale Episcoporum
recommends that the carpet on the pre-
della or footpace of the altar should be
green. 10 There is very little to be said in
favour of carpets supposed to be of
"ecclesiastical design," i.e., covered with

136

CHUHCHES: THEIR FLAN AND FURNISHING

sacred emblems. Carpets are removed

from churches after the stripping of the
altars OB Maundy Thursday and put
back again on Holy Saturday. 11

COMMUNION RAILS
Communion rails, such as are now
almost universal in churches where the
Roman rite is followed, are a compara-
tively modem innovation. They are a
sort of compromise between the medi-
aeval chancel screen and the low wall
which enclosed the chancel in the
Roman basilicas. There is no evidence
that fixed communion rails were found
in pre-Reformation churches. No matter
what material is used for their construc-
tion stone, marble, wood, wrought
iron, stainless steel, or chromium plate
they should not exceed 2 ft. 6 in. in
height, otherwise it is difficult for a
priest to give Holy Communion to small
children. The breadth at the top should
be from 9 to 12 in. A wooden kneeling
bench is more convenient than fixed rails,
for it enables the communicants to kneel
on a slightly higher level than that on
which the priest stands. Should there be
fixed rails, the kneeling step should be
provided with long cushions on either
side of the entrance to the sanctuary.
Even if there should be a structural rail
or low wall between the nave and the
sanctuary, there is much to be said in
favour of separate kneeling benches for
communicants in a large church. They
can be placed outside the sanctuary.
No more than one step should ever be
placed at the communion rail, for more
than this number may lead to accidents,
and extra steps are very awkward for old
people and children.

The entrance to the sanctuary should
always be provided with a gate of some
kind that can be kept locked. A cord is
not sufficient protection.

The episcopal thrane, usually on the
Gospel side of the sanctuary, is a perma-
nent piece of furniture in a cathedral
church. It should be erected on three
steps, and surmounted by a canopy, so
constructed that it can be covered with
hangings of the liturgical colour of the
Sunday or feast day. (Cf. Caer. Ep.)
The chair may also be covered with
hangings of the colour of the day. Space
on either side should be given for stools
for the deacon and subdeacon, with
room for another stool for the assistant
priest, just below the right side of the
deacon, i.e., farthest from the bishop. A
temporary throne of the same type must
be put up in a parish church on the occa-
sion of the visitation of the Ordinary, or
of a cardinal or other higher ecclesiastic
who pontificates at the throne with the
permission of the Ordinary. The return
of the throne to the apse, behind the
altar, is something to hope for.

CHANCEL SCREENS

Practical Necessity

If one considers the matter from a
purely utilitarian point of view, a barrier
or screen between the congregation and
the sacred ministers at the altar is an
obvious necessity. The priest does not
want to be distracted by crowds pressing
round him. In spite of all the mystical
and symbolic meanings attached to rood-
screens by certain devout authors of the
past century, the much more probable
explanation of their origin is to be found
in an attempt to secure privacy for those

THE SANCTUABY

137

who were engaged in the choir office or
In the celebration of the Liturgy,

Historical Notes

In the basilican churches of Southern
Europe and Northern Africa, which were
erected in the first centuries of Chris-
tianity, the clergy sat in the apse behind
the altar. The celebrant faced the people.
The altar was usually shrouded by cur-
tains which were closed during the more
solemn parts of the Mass. Very often
there was an open screen round the
sanctuary or sometimes a low wall
surmounted by a cross-beam. In the
churches of the Eastern rites these
screens came to be filled in, and so
developed into the iconastasis of medi-
aeval and modern times. In those Medi-
terranean countries where the Roman
rite is found, the basilican arrangement
of the chancel has survived to a greater
or lesser degree. In cathedrals and
monastic churches the clergy or monks
still occupy stalls behind the high altar,
but in most parish churches the high
altar is usually placed near the east wall.
Only a low balustrade separates the laity
from what is going on in the sanctuary.
Publicity rather than privacy is the
result.

Christian churches were usually de-
veloped on quite different lines in Great
Britain and certain other Northern
European countries. Most of them owed
little or nothing to the Mediterranean
basilica, except those which were erected
by missionaries from Rome, e.g., at
Canterbury. Our earliest places of
worship were small chapels, some of
which still survive e.g., the Saxon
church at Bradford-on-Avon, Somerset,

the village church on Caldey Island, and
the famous "seven churches" at Glenda-
lough, in Ireland. The invariable feature
in all of them is a narrow chancel ardh,
merely a doorway in a solid" stone wall
between the nave and the sanctuary.
So narrow are those openings that it
would be impossible for more than a
few worshippers to see anything of
what was going on at the altar. Certain
archaeologists are of the opinion that
in the first instance there was no "nave"
to these little chapels, which merely
consisted of what is now the sanctuary,
and that the chancel arch was the west
door on the outside of the building. As
time went on and larger churches were
needed, a nave was added, with the
result that the original door became a
chancel arch.

In later ages the separation of the
laity from the sanctuary was still re-
tained by more-or-less open screens, con-
structed of wood or stone. In the case of
cathedrals and monastic churches there
were usually two solid screens the
"choir-screen," separating the choir from
the transepts, and a "rood-screen,'*
separating the latter from the nave. The
name "rood-screen" is due to the great
crucifix (called "rood" in old English)
which stood on or above this screen.

The monks or canons carried on their
own worship in private, while a "people's
altar" was set up in front of the rood-
screen, sometimes with a light wooden
screen in front of it. So, in cathedrals and
monastic churches there might be two
or more almost distinct places of worship
under the same roof.

No country in Europe can show such
a wealth, of mediaeval screens as Eng-

138

CHURCHES: THEIR PLAN AND FURNISHING

land. In spite of the havoc wrought by
the sixteenth-century Protestants, hun-
dreds of them have been preserved,
although in most cases the rood-lofts
which once surmounted them have been
destroyed. The "rood-loft** was a gallery
which stood above the screen and which,
in parish churches, often served as a
musician's gallery. Sometimes a small
altar was placed in the rood-loft. In
cathedrals and monastic churches there
was a similar gallery over the choir-
screen. Screens have never regained their
popularity among Catholics in Britain,
despite the efforts of Augustus Welby
Pugin and other architects of the Gothic
Revival of the past century. National
traditions of worship had been forgotten
as the result of nearly three hundred
years of persecution. When it was pos-
sible to start building churches again
most of the ecclesiastical authorities pre-
ferred to look to France and Italy for
inspiration, suspecting everything Eng-
lish as being "Protestant." In fact, some
of the best rood-screens erected in Cath-
olic churches during the nineteenth cen-
tury were taken down afterwards, with
the result of completely spoiling the
interior of the buildings. In other places
a compromise was arrived at by retain-
ing the rood-beam and dispensing with
a screen.*

* It is a controversial question, whether or
not rood-screens and iconostaseis were a healthy
or unhealthy development. Certainly the fact
that the Eastern Church developed a screen
does not prove that it should have developed
it, as little as the fact that England and the
Saxon parts of Germany had rood-screens
proves that they were doing the right thing.
This development came in the waning Middle
Ages, a time which was not outstanding for its
liturgical spirit though very notorious for its
individualistic trend in mysticism and its fear

Present-day Problems and

Requirements

As the conditions of present-day Cath-
olic worship differ so greatly from those
which existed in Europe before the
Reformation it is doubtful if it is de-
sirable to have a rood-screen between
the congregation and the sanctuary,
although this is a venerable tradition
which one may regret to abandon. There
is much to be said in favour of a certain
mystery in worship, for it encourages
reverence and devotion. On the other
hand, there are persons who maintain
that what is far more needed to-day is
to emphasize the corporate aspects of
public worship, and that the best way
to achieve this end is to bring the high
altar down into the midst of the people,
so that they can follow every movement
of the Mass without any obstacle being
put in their way. 12

Maybe the solution of this difficult
problem lies in a happy mean, and
what we should aim at is a revival of
the primitive basilican type of sanctu-
ary with the clergy behind the altar,
which should stand beneath a ciborium

of externals. The Roman basilicas which have
preserved their high cancelli, like San Cle-
rnente, Santa Sabina, Maria in Cosmedin, and
many more, indeed hide the chanters, the
schola, and the lower clergy from the eye of
the laity, but by no means the celebrant and
his assistants. The celebrant in all these
churches not only faces the people, but is high
up on the predella and made more conspicuous
by the fact that only he and the deacon are
plainly visible during the sacred action. As the
people bowed deeply during the canon actionis
and raised their head only for the ( old ) eleva-
tion during the great doxology before the Pater
Noster there was no danger of distraction at
this time. Besides, the priest is not supposed to
gaze into the congregation, even when he turns
to them (dismissis oculist). H. A. K.

THE SANCTUABY

139

or baldaquin in accordance with the
rubrics, and a fairly open screen in
front of it. When in doubt, no safer rule
can be found than to follow the example
of Rome itself, and this was the original
Roman practice.

SIDE CHAPELS AND ALTARS
Strictly speaking there is no need to
have more than one altar in a church
unless it is served by several priests who
may be obliged to say Mass at the same
time, e.g., in the case of a religious
community or large town parish. Altars
are not intended for arousing devotion
but for the purely functional purpose of
celebrating the Holy Eucharist. A shrine
is quite a different thing and it is not
essential that the statue or picture which
is the central feature should have a small
altar set up in front of it.

On the other hand, it is useful in large
churches to have at least one side chapel
or side altar. For Mass can be said here
on occasions when only a few wor-
shippers are likely to be present and
when it is not necessary to give Com-
munion from the tabernacle, which ac-
cording to present-day custom, is usually
on the high altar. It is better that a
comparatively small congregation should
not be scattered about over a large
church. To gather them together in a
side chapel enables them to take a more
active part in the liturgy, especially if a
dialogue Mass is celebrated.

No matter where the side chapels or
altars are located the architect should
give them a secondary character lest
they compete with the sanctuary and
high altar. Details of side altars are given
in another chapter (p. 83).

It is 'difficult to lay down any general
principles regarding the provision of
shrines in churches, except that they
should not obtrude themselves too
aggressively so as to detract attention
from the high altar. The purpose of a
shrine is to encourage private devotion
towards a particular saint or Christian
mystery, not to decorate the church with
a work of art. They offer a legitimate
opportunity for the laity to express their
devotion in whatever way that appeals
to them, and as there is practically no
legislation affecting shrines, at least in
their design, it is wiser to allow full
liberty where it is permitted by Canon
Law and the Sacred Congregation of
Rites. The statues or pictures that form
the central feature of a shrine must be
"devotional," i.e., capable of inspiring
devotion in the average worshipper, yet
this does not mean that it is necessary
to purchase the most vulgar type of
machine-made article sold by church
furnishers. Nevertheless it is doubtful*

* The fact that all the older shrines of our
Lady are of the icon type and as austere as a
Rouault (Monserrato in Cataluna, Czestochowa
in Poland, the famous shrine in Sant* Alfonso
in Rome, hundreds of others in Italy, Greece,
Russia, Austria, and France) seems to me to
contradict this doubt. Bernadette Soubirous did
not like the statue in Lourdes, as it lacked that
majesty which she had seen, and our plaster
Lourdes Madonnas are infinitely worse than the
original. The market is filled with statues of the
whole heavenly court, from angels in long
nightshirts to Saviours looking like well-
groomed preachers, all sweetness and common-
ness. A good dose of austerity can only help to
bring us back the reverential attitude required
by the mystery that the liturgy calls "tremen-
aum." At least that is the flavor of all our litur-
gical language. Should not pictorial and sculp-
tural art agree? H. A. R.

140

CHURCHES: THEIB PLAN AND FURNISHING

if the ordinary Catholic is roused to feel-
ings of piety when confronted by what
may be a liturgicaUy correct ikon or an
austerely "modem" sculpture. There are
no regulations about flowers or lights
before shrines they can be as plentiful
as possible. The recent legislation re-
garding votive lights before shrines en-
forced by the cardinal vicar in Rome
has not been made obligatory elsewhere.
Shrines should not be placed in the
sanctuary or anywhere else in the church
where they conflict with the view of

the high altar. The best place for them
is in the aisles or transepts* There is no
definite reason why shrines need be
permanent. Many churches are so over-
crowded with them that they are often
ignored. If they are not used for the
purpose for which they were erected
they might as well be removed. They
merely collect dust. The picture or
statue of a particular saint can be set up
on the feast day or in connection with a
novena as is usual in Catholic countries.

NOTES

1. The typical sanctuary that one finds in
most modern Catholic churches in English-
speaking countries is based on the Renaissance
type broad and shallow even if the style
of architecture of the church is an almost literal
copy of mediaeval work. If one may be allowed
to express a personal opinion, it would have
been better if certain architects had studied
the planning of mediaeval churches more care-
fully rather than the details of the architecture.
It would be a great gain so far as sanctuaries
are concerned.

2. "Care should be taken to keep the levels
as low as the vicissitudes of the site will allow.
True to the custom of the earliest Christian
churches, the first ascent is frequently east-
wards of the choir, and not at the entrance to
the chancel. By this means the steps are con-
centrated upon the altar itself without the sac-
rifice of their real dignity, which is spaciousness
and not height, and the table does not lose the
prominence due to that most important part of
the altar by being raised above the level of the
eye" (J. N. Comper. Further Thoughts on the
English Altar, etc., 1932, p. 31).

3. There are some sacristans, especially
nuns, who seem to think that the surface of a
sanctuary floor should resemble that of a ball-
room or skating rink,

4. See Chap. XX, "The Organ and Choir."

5. Caer. Ep., L. I, c. XII, n. 22.

6. S.R.C. 2621, ad 6.

7. Caer. Ep., L. I, c. XII, n. 19.

8. S.R.C. 1260 (1663).

9. Kit. Rom., II, i, 53; cf. CJ.C. 735.

10. Caer. Ep., L. I, c. XH, n. 16.

11. Cf. Fortescue, Ceremonies of the Roman
Rite (7 ed.), pp. 313, 318, 337.

12. Eric Gill has expressed these views in an
essay entitled "Mass for the Million" reprinted
in his Sacred and Secular (J. M. Dent, 1940).
He reminds us that "Pope Pius XI said that the
greatest scandal of our time is that the church
has lost the masses, and it is obviously true that
the masses of the population in the industrial-
ised countries of Europe and America are not
practising Christians/* He argues that "there is
nothing whatever in the nature of an Altar that
implies that it should be anywhere but in the
middle. It began as a table around which
people sat and partook of the consecrated
bread and wine. It remains that thing." Gill
believes that "the monstrous division between
the place of the Altar and the rest of the
church** must be abolished; the altar placed
in the midst of the people and surrounded by
them. Only in this way can the liturgy be
made alive again, for it "is buried beneath a
load of mediaeval and post-mediaeval customs/*

CHAPTER XI

THE FONT AND BAPTISTERY

HISTORICAL NOTES
The baptistery or font should be
placed near the main entrance of a
church. During the first centuries of
Christianity the sacrament of Bap-
tism was often administered in rivers,
pools, or on the sea shore or at other
times in the bath-chambers of private
houses or in the catacombs** when
there was fear of persecution. The
practice of open-air Baptism continued
until long after Christians had obtained
freedom of worship. We are told that,
even in the sixth and seventh centuries,
St. Augustine of Canterbury and St.
Paulinus of York baptised large numbers
of converts in rivers.

The original form of baptistery was
based on the typical Roman bath-
chamber, with a tank in the middle, to
which a flight of steps led down from
the floor level. The water entered
through pipes. On the edge of the tank
was a platform on which the priest stood
when baptising the catechumens, i.e.,
converts under instruction before Bap-
tism. One of the earliest permanent bap-
tisteries which exists is adjoining St. John
Lateran in Rome. It was erected during
the reign of the Emperor Constantine.

This type of baptistery, built out from
a church or entirely separate from it,
survived until late in the Middle Ages

1 See note on pp. 3-4.

in Italy and Southern European coun-
tries as well as in the Eastern Church,
They are generally round or octagonal
in shape. Fine examples are those at Pisa,
Florence, Parma, and Cremona. The font
was usually surrounded by a railing for
the sake of privacy. Sometimes there
was a baldaquin over it.

About the eighth century infant Bap-
tism had become the normal custom.
The font was moved into the church
itself, or else placed in the narthex, or
inner porch. In many of the earlier bap-
tisteries the font is large enough to hold
several adults, who stood or knelt in the
water during the actual ceremony of
Baptism.

It would appear that separate baptis-
teries were very rare in Northern Europe
during the Middle Ages. There are only
few in existence. The font was invariably
placed at the bottom of the church,
either at the west end of the nave or in
a side aisle. So, just as the high altar
dominated the east end of a church, the
font became the most prominent feature
at the west end. Unlike the primitive
Christian baptismal tank, the mediaeval
font was usually raised on one or more
steps instead of being below the floor
level. To protect the baptismal water
from dust and dirt the basin of the font
was generally surmounted by an elabo-
rately carved wooden cover. The earliest
type of font covers were merely flat lids.

141

142

CHURCHES: THEIR PLAN AND FURNISHING

SAiNTE ACMES O'ALFO^T. PARIS

daL Aul&rdUK et "Puihamme/
%/

$7 CABRJEi , "PRESTWJCH .

("Taylor ^

ST. MARIA'- VIKTOKIA , "BERLIN,
(MttlferW&ati

Modern fonts.

In England a dwarf spire became the
most popular type, usually octagonal
in plan, and in the form of a pyramid
with moulded ribs at the angles, and
finished off with crockets. Sometimes
they were light enough to be lifted off

by hand, more generally it was necessary
to suspend them from the roof by a
chain and pulley. The spire-crowned font
covers in East Anglia are perhaps the
finest of all pre-Reformation ones in
England.

THE FONT AND BAPTISTERY

143

mmmh

Doton, Vvon Sr.MiW.&uito^

CcdeUa. , Spain ,

Fonts.

NECESSITY

According to Canon Law there should
be a baptismal font in every parish
church, unless for some particular
reason. 1

"Public oratories are governed by the
same law as churches . . . all sacred
functions can be held there which are
not forbidden by the rubrics." 2 The Ordi-

nary of the place may give permissioi
or order in certain cases that a font be
erected in non-parochial churches 01
public oratories within the boundaries
of a parish.

POSITION

No definite position is assigned for the
font in the legislation of the church. It
can stand either in a baptistery quite

144

CHURCHES: THEIR PLAN AND FURNISHING

Suso Hemerial Church t Him..

.Suffolk.

Font covers mediaeval and modern.

separate from the church, in a chapel that is insisted on in the Roman Ritual
within the church, or at the back of the is that "the place of Baptism is to be
church, close to the main entrance. All properly situated, of becoming shape

THE FONT AND BAPTISTERY

145

rr. t. 2. 3. *. 3 6. 7. a.
BAPTISTERY

Plans and sections of fonts, and plan of baptistery.

and of solid material, and one which is
well adapted to hold water, becomingly
ornamented, and surrounded by a rail-
ing, closed with lock and key, and so
well covered that dust and dirt will not
enter, and on it, where such decoration
is feasible, there should be a picture or
statue of St. John the Baptist baptising
Christ" 8

The Sacred Congregation of Rites has
declared that the sacristy should not be
used for the administration of Baptism,
except in cases of grave necessity.

Where the church is too small to per-
mit the erection of a separate baptis-
tery, which in any case should be near
the main entrance, the best place for
the font is at the west end of the church.
There are practical reasons for this posi-
tion, for it is sometimes forgotten that
the rubrics order that the preliminary
ceremonies of Baptism are to be per-
formed "ad limen ecclesiae* (the thresh-
old of the church ) , otherwise the port or
narthex. 4 The second part of the rite
takes place in the nave of the church;

146

CHURCHES: THEIR PLAN AND FURNISHING

PL AH

SECTION

Font.

the actual enclosure of the baptistery or
font only being entered when the priest
has changed his purple stole for a white
one. No matter where the font is situated
it is quite wrong to carry out the entire
ceremony in one place.

MATERIAL, SIZE, AND DESIGN

A font may be constructed of im-
permeable stone or marble, or of metal.
Wood may be used, provided that the
actual basins are of some nonporous
material (e.g., silver, bronze, or lead).

A convenient height is about 2 ft.
9 in. from the ground. Many liturgical
authorities recommend that the font, or
at least the baptistery, should be one
step or more below the level of the floor
of the nave or narthex, a requirement
based on an old tradition. Modem fonts
have been evolved from the mediaeval
arrangement of having two distinct re-
ceptacles, one that contained the blessed
water, and was protected by a wooden
or metal cover, the other, much smaller,
which was placed at the side to receive
the water which was poured over the
head of the person baptised. 5 To-day
these two receptacles or basins are gen-
erally fitted into the top level of the
font and both covered when not in use.

In most modern fonts the basin con-
taining the baptismal water is the larger. 6
In a large church it should be about
3 ft. in diameter and about 9 in. in depth.
It is easier to keep clean if it is made
with concave sides, not right-angled at
the bottom. It is difficult to keep any
kind of font clean owing to the mixture
of the holy oils with the water when the
font is blessed at Easter and Pentecost.
It is sometimes recommended that the
oil that gathers round the edge of the
font can be absorbed with cotton wool,
the latter being dried and afterwards
burnt, the ashes being thrown into the
piscina or sacrarium (see p. 135).

The second basin, to receive the water
that flows from the head of the person
baptised, should be not less than 1 ft. 3
in. in diameter, even 1 ft. 9 in. in a large
church. It can be about 9 in. in depth,
with a pipe at the bottom, draining into
the ground or into a movable container
beneath the font, the contents of which

THE FONT AND BAPTISTERY

147

v//////

SECTION OF COMMUNION RAILS WITH CHANCEL SCREEN

TWO TYPES OF HOLY WATER STOUPS

should be emptied into the piscina or
sacrarium after the ceremony. 7

There should be a fairly broad edge
round the top of the font about 4 in.
upon which the holy oils, etc,, can be
placed. 8

It has been stated already that every
font must be fitted with a cover, and
closed with lock and key when not in
use. If the font is small the cover can be
made to lift off, or it can be fitted with

hinges. 9 An even better method is to
have the cover suspended from the ceil-
ing or from the baldaquin over the font,
should there be one. A chain with a
counterweight attached can be used for
this purpose.

OTHER DETAILS OF A BAPTISTERY

1. It is recommended that the oil of
the catechumens and the sacred chrism
which are used in Baptism, should be

148

OTORCHES: THEIR PLAN AND FURNISHING

kept in a cupboard or aumbry, either
fixed to the wall or built into it. The
aumbry should be marked Olea Sacra
or Olea Bapt. It is permissible to hang
a white veil in front of it.

2. A second cupboard (with a good
lock) should be provided to hold all
the other requisites for Baptism: (a) a
shell, or small silver vessel to pour the
water on the person baptised; 10 (6) a
wax candle; 11 (c) salt, blessed according
to the proper form, in the Rituale
which is best kept dry in a small
glass-covered vessel; (d) cotton-wool
also kept in a tin or glass vessel; 13
(e) a white cloth to be placed on the
head of the candidate; 14 (/) two clean
towels; (g) two stoles white and
purple; (h) blank forms on which the
names of the godparents and the bap-
tised person can be written down; (i) a
copy of the Rituale Romanum, or rather
the particular edition authorized for the
country. 15

3. A small table on which the above

articles can be laid out during the
ceremony.

4. One or two chairs or a bench, either
within the enclosure of the baptistery
or just outside.

If the font stands in the nave or any-
where else in the open church, the
railed-in space round it should be suffi-
ciently large to contain the priest and
the godparents. In conclusion, it should
never be forgotten that the baptistery
is the most sacred part of a church next
to the altar, for which reason it must be
kept scrupulously clean and tidy. It
should never be turned into an altar of
repose during Holy Week, or the font
hidden away behind the crib at Christ-
mas as is sometimes done. After all, Bap-
tism is the "doorway to all the other
sacraments" janua ac fundamentum,
the gateway and foundation as it is de-
scribed in Canon Law. In view of the
dignity of this sacrament the Catholic
Church has always insisted on the pro-
vision of fitting surroundings for confer-
ring it. 16

NOTES

1. C.J.C. 774, 1.

2. C.J.C. 1191, 2.

3. Rit. Rom., II, i, 46.

4. Ibid., ii, 17.

5. No matter how beautiful mediaeval fonts
may be, it is unsuitable to reproduce them in a
present-day Catholic church, for they are not
adapted to the existing rite of Baptism as laid
down in the Roman Ritual.

6. The top of a font should project a few
inches over the bottom, otherwise the priest
will knock his feet against the lower edge.

7. Rit. Rom., II, i, 60; Mem. Rit., VI, II,
para. V, 9. It is a convenience to have a small
sacrarium fitted into the wall of the baptistery,
as well as another in the sacristy or sanctuary.

8. St. Charles' dimensions for a baptistery
of the Roman pattern, as opposed to that used
in the Ambrosian rite, are as follows: (a) the
railings to be fixed at a distance of at least 1 ft.

4& in. from the font; (b) the font (shape 1);
lower vase to be a void 4 ft. 1& in. wide, 2 ft.
9 in. deep, and made of stone or marble 5& in.
thick; upper vase (font proper) to be 2 ft. 9 in.
wide, about 8& in. deep, and placed about 11
in. higher than the "lower vase." Shape II:
lower vase about 3 ft. 5& in. in diameter, 5&
in. to 6 in. deep, and placed on a base not
higher than 2 ft. 9 in. from the pavement to
the vase brim. Upper vase to have a diameter
of 1 to 10 in. inclusive of its thickness. Shape
III: to be made of an oval block 3 ft. 3& in.
long by 2 ft. % in. broad, to contain two basins
cut out with about 2 in. between them, and
made of the same depth and diameter. The
accompanying diagrams illustrate these three
forms of fonts.

It is curious that while St. Charles Borromeo
makes no mention of tabernacle veils, he orders
that the font cover (which he calls a ribofium)

THE FONT AND BAPTISTERY

149

should be covered with a canopy of silk, or of

**half-silk of a white colour" so as to correspond
with the ritual colour of this sacrament. A
"decent linen cloth** is also mentioned as
sufficient.

9. A font cover should be constructed in
such a way that it can be easily removed or
raised up. But all that is really needed is some-
thing that will keep out dust and dirt.

10. Rit. Rom., II, i, 59.

11, Ibid., i, 65.

12. Ibid., 2, 6.

13. Ibid., i 01.

14. Ibid., i 64.

15. Ibid., I, 08.

16. If a proof of the honour and respect
which the Church orders to be paid to the
baptismal font is needed, what more can be
asked 'than the injunctioii that the space round
it should be kept locked when not in use? Even
altars are not obliged to be enclosed by rails
and secured from irreverence by locked gates.

CHAPTER XII

THE PORCH AND MAIN ENTRANCE

HISTORICAL NOTES

A porch is primarily a covered ap-
proach to the entrance of a building.
In the first six centuries of Christianity
these covered approaches were put to a
very practical use. More often than not
there was a court-yard with open cloisters
round it. In the centre of the court-yard
(known as an atrium) was a well or
fountain 1 where the worshippers washed
their hands before entering the building
a relic of which still survives in our
holy-water stoups.

Large porches or court-yards were
necessary in primitive times, for there
were classes of people who were not
allowed to enter the church proper.
They were known as penitents. They
stood in the open court-yard or porch
and asked the prayers of the faithful.
Sometimes there was a porch known as
a narthex. This arrangement is merely
the survival of the planning of a typical
Roman house which the first Christians
used as a church. It can be seen at S,
Ambrogio, Milan; S. Clemente, Rome,
and in many other churches in Southern
Europe and the Near East.

When the outer court-yard was done
away with, churches still retained a large
open porch. There are examples of this
in many of the Roman basilicas. By the
time Christianity reached Britain there
was no longer any need for an atrium,

or narthex. The strictly penitential dis-
cipline of the first centuries had been
greatly modified, and Baptism was not
put off so long as was the custom in
earlier ages. So the penitents disap-
peared, also the catechumens. The porch
became smaller and had little liturgical
significance. 2

PRACTICAL NECESSITY

Nowadays, porches are often regarded
as almost a luxury, and in many churches
they are dispensed with from motives of
economy. But they can still serve a
useful purpose during the procession on
Palm Sunday, or for the first part of the
ceremonies on Holy Saturday espe-
cially if the weather happens to be rainy
or windy.*

NARTHEX OR VESTIBULE

When a church does not possess a
porch to the main entrance there is an
even greater need for a narthex or vesti-
bule, i.e., a reasonably large space at
the back of the church, shut off from
the nave by doors, preferably with glass
in the upper panels. If a church cannot
be kept open all day for any good
reason, at least the narthex can remain

* We should therefore strive, not only to
provide porches, but a true and fully developed
atrium, surrounded by colonnades, to offer
shelter for processions and a transition from the
noise of the city to the quiet of the church.
H. A. R.

150

THE PORCH AND MAIN ENTRANCE

151

open, and kneeling desks can be placed
close up to the doors so that visitors
can make a visit to the Blessed Sacra-
ment. 3 "Churches in which the Blessed
Sacrament is reserved, especially parish
churches, should be open at least a few
hours daily for the people." 4 Another
practical reason for having a narthex is
to prevent draughts. Even the side en-
trances to a church ought to be fitted
with inside porches, for the same reason.
Perhaps it is superfluous to mention that
all church doors should be made to open
outwards.

BULLETIN BOABDS

There should be a notice board out-
side every church as well as a bulletin
board inside the porch or narthex* The
list of services should be given in full, at
least on the board inside the church, as
well as the name of the parish priest.
A notice board painted white, with black
lettering broad and simple in character
is much easier to read than gold letter-
ing on brown or black, which are used
so often.

Bulletin boards inside a church should
be covered with serge or baize. A weekly
list of services as well as other parochial
notices should be fixed on with drawing
pins or thumb-tacks. An alternative
position for the chief bulletin board,
especially in large churches, is set right
back from the wall of the narthex or
vestibule, and resting on a movable base.
In this case the notices can be pinned
up on both sides. No matter how or
where the bulletin boards are placed,
care should be taken that they are in a
good light, so that people can read what
is displayed on them.

BOOK RACK

Every church, no matter how small,
should have a case or rack for pamphlets
placed in the porch or narthex. There
should also be a table upon which
Catholic papers can be laid out for sale
on Sunday mornings.

In addition to a rack for pamphlets,
every large church should have an
open box for parish and missionary
magazines and leaflets, with a money-box
underneath or inserted into the wall
above.

ALMS BOXES

There should be several alms boxes
placed near the entrance of a church,
and clearly marked with the objects for
which they are intended. More often
than not these boxes are made of wood
and screwed onto the wall, so that they
can easily be removed by any thief. It
should be obvious that boxes containing
money in a public place should be made
as strongly as possible. It is much better
to have small iron boxes cemented into
the walls, which can be bought from
any manufacturer of safes. Some of the
more recent types are fitted with auto-
matic burglar alarms. Where a church
has a basement, a good plan is to place
the actual receptacle into which the
money drops in the basement.

In large churches it is a good idea to
have all the alms boxes side by side at
the top of a square or hexagonal column,
which can be firmly fixed into the floor
near the main entrance. Eaclrbox should
be clearly marked with the object for
which it is intended, e.g., "Church,"
"Holy Souls," "Poor," "Peter's Pence,"
"Propagation of the Faith," etc.

152

CHURCHES: THEIR PLAN AND FURNISHING

HOLY-WATER STOUPS

Historical Notes

There are three kinds of holy-water
stoups: (1) stationary stoups, placed at
the entrance of a church; (2) portable
stoups, used for sacramental rites and
aspersions; and (3) private stoups, in
which holy water is kept in houses.

Originally the holy-water stoop was
the fountain for ablutions which stood
in the centre of the atrium or court-yard
of the primitive Christian churches.
When the atrium ceased to be an essen-
tial part of a church, the fountain
(cankharus or phiala) was reduced to a
smaller vessel for holding blessed water,
and placed within the church or in the
porch or narthex. It would seem that
there were no stationary holy-water
stoups in Western Europe until the
eleventh century. The existing examples
of early holy-water stoups vary consider-
ably in size and shape, some being as
large as baptismal fonts, but usually
much smaller. At first they were often
placed against a column near the en-
trance of a church, or else stood on a
stone base, either circular or hexagonal
in shape. From about the fourteenth
century holy-water stoups began to be
set in the wall, and surmounted with a
carved canopy. Many of these can still
be seen in English pre-Reformation
churches. Strange as it may appear it
was not uncommon during the Middle
Ages to have special stoups reserved for
certain classes of the faithful. For in-
stance, there might be three holy-water
stoups at the entrance of a church: for
clerics, nobility, and poorer folk. The
niche-shaped holy-water stoup sunk into

the wall gave place after the sixteenth
century to large or small basins, gener-
ally set on a pedestal, and resembling a
baptismal font in shape. Very often these
holy-water "fonts'* are as large as those
used for baptisms, especially in Italy,
where they are richly decorated with
carvings. During the seventeenth cen-
tury large shells became very popular,
and they are still used in some countries.

Size, Shape, and Material

St. Charles Borromeo lays down the
following rules regarding the shape, size,
and material of holy-water stoups: 'The
vessel intended for holy water shall be
of marble or of solid stone, neither
porous nor with cracks. It shall rest upon
a handsomely wrought column and shall
not be placed outside of the church but
within it and, in so far as possible, to the
right of those who enter. There shall be
one at the door which the men enter
and one at the women's door. They shall
not be fastened to the wall but removed
from it as far as convenient. A column
or base will support them and it must
represent nothing profane. A sprinkler
(terminating with bristles and not a
sponge) shall be attached by a chain to
the basin, the latter to be of brass, ivory,
or some other suitable material artisti-
cally wrought." 5

In large churches it is much more
convenient to have the holy-water stoups
set well away from the walls, otherwise
it is awkward for people to get near
them, should there be a crowd. But in
small churches it saves space to have
them projecting from or set back into the
walls. A block of stone can be hollowed
out to contain a porcelain basin, which

THE PORCH AJSTD MAIN ENTRANCE

153

should be cemented into the stone.
Large holy-water stoups, set on ped-
estals, should be about 3 ft. 6 in. from
the ground; 3 ft. in diameter across the
top; the basin about 2 ft. 4 in. diameter
and about 3 in. in depth. Smaller stoups,
jutting out from or set back into the wall,
should be about 2 ft. in width, with a
depth of about 3 in. If there is a niche
it should be about i ft. in height, or
more, according to the width at the base.

The material can be marble, stone, or
concrete, but it must be nonporous. The
shape should always be concave, other-
wise it is difficult to keep the font clean.
Shells are not recommended. They col-
lect dirt and their sharp edges may
scratch the fingers. The water should be
changed at least once a week and the
inside of the stoup cleaned out, other-
wise a sediment will gather at the bot-
tom and round the edges.

Small holy-water stoups, such as are
sold by Catholic repositories, should
never be hung up in a church. They
are only suitable for domestic use. A
holy* -water stoup is an obligatory piece

* A new appreciation of *Tioly" water is
badly needed, lest secondary notions get the

of church furniture^ and for this reason
should form part of the essential fittings,
and not be a merely temporary ornament
which has little or no relation to the rest
of the building.

best of this beautiful sacramental. Its origin
seems to be the canthams, a nanniag-watier
fountain in the atrium of the basilica which
was set up for lustral purposes, i.e., to cleanse
face, hands, and feet before entering the
church. A Greek stone cantharas found in Sicily
contains the admonition, not only to wash our
faces, but to cleanse our souls at the same time.
From the running fountain to the stoup of our
day is a big step in every way. 'The lustral
character seems to have vanished from the
mind of the laity who thinks more of the inci-
dentals than the primary purpose, otherwise
they would sense that it is not exactly logical
to take the sacred lustral water that should re-
new our baptismal spirit (when sprinkling
ourselves we make an act of contrition pro-
nouncing the sacred words also used at bap-
tism: in the name of the Father, etc. (a) before
Sunday High Mass, when it is the priests duty
to sprinkle us (Asperges, Vidi Aquam), (&)
after Mass, when we leave the church (reason:
we need cleansing from the dust of venial sin,
before we participate in the Great Mysteries,
but after participation we are, or at least ought
to be, clean). If it is not a purely mechanical
habit that makes us do so many things, it is
probably the thought of gaining the indulgence
which induces us to repeat a less sensible lite.
We may, however, gain as much of the indul-
gence promised, if we do the rite once in its
right place and with greater devotion.
H . A. R.

NOTES

1. The cantharus.

2. But in some places it afforded sanctuary
to criminals who were fleeing from justice. You
can still see the great sanctuary knocker in a
porch at Durham Cathedral. There are in-
stances of a room over the porch being used
by hermits or anchorites during the Middle
Ages.

3. There should be one or more holy-water

stoups at each door normally used by wor-
shippers. It is useful to have a few benches or
chairs in the narthex of a church. In country
places an open wire door to let in air is useful
in summer, for it prevents birds from flying
into the church.

4. Canon 1266,

5. Instructions, Chap. XXI.

CHAPTER XIII

THE PULPIT

HISTORICAL NOTES
The word pulpit is derived from the
Latin pulpifum, which means a stage or
scaffold. In the earlier ages of Chris-
tianity no special place for preaching
was provided. The homily after the
Lessons in the Mass of the Catechumens,
which was always an essential part of the
Liturgy, was delivered from the ambo,
i.e., a sort of raised desk on the side of
the chancel from which the deacon sang
the Gospel. In some churches there was
a second ambo on the opposite side of
the chancel for the chanting of the
Epistle. Many of these ambones can still
be seen in the older basilicas in Rome
and in other parts of Southern Europe.
ambo did not always stand in the

JR^^

As time went on, pulpits began to be
erected on one or other side of the nave,
or less frequently as part of the rood-loft.
Ambones disappeared with the develop-
ment of Gothic architecture, and the
Epistle and Gospel were usually sung "in
piano" i.e., in the sanctuary below and
away from the altar steps, as is pre-
scribed by the rubrics of the modern
Roman rite. 1

Fine examples of mediaeval pulpits
are to be found all over Europe. Many

of them are constructed of wood, and
as a rule they are much smaller than
those erected to-day. Some are elab-
orately decorated with carving, others
have sounding boards or testers. On the
panels one often finds carved images of
saints or painted figures, although many
of the latter have long since been de-
stroyed. The woodwork of the pulpit
itself was often enriched with gold and
colour. In Continental countries there are
wonderful pulpits in the Renaissance and
Baroque styles. The marble pulpits in
Italy, designed by Donatello and other
sculptors of the early Renaissance period,
are famous; so, too, the riotously ornate
Baroque pulpits in Belgium, or that
unique pulpit at Cracow in Poland, built
in the form of a ship, with sails, masts,
and rigging, held up by sea monsters. At
the present time, especially on the con-
tinent of Europe, there is a tendency to
revive the older type of ambo at the
entrance to the sanctuary in preference
to the usual nave pulpit.

POSITION, MATERIAL, AND DESIGN

No definite rules are laid down as to
the position, material, or design of
pulpits. But it is advisable not to erect a
permanent pulpit in a large church until
its acoustics have been tested. It is
suggested that a temporary wooden pul-
pit should be made, and moved about
until the best position has been found. In

154

1. "Rome. $*10tcnxa

3, Vorf^, S-Ho/ro

-4 Sefion , Lanes.

S, Afctcy Dbre

7 Wttfc,

711 T

Pre-Reformation pulpits.

156

CHURCHES: THEIR FLAN AND FURNISHING

cathedral churches the pulpit should be
on the Epistle side, so that the preacher
can see the bishop seated on his throne
in the sanctuary. In an ordinary parish
church it is more convenient for the
pulpit to be on the Gospel side, so that
the sacred ministers at High Mass can
see and hear the preacher* when they
are sitting down. On the other hand,
since most men are right-handed, the
average preacher will feel more at his
ease if his right arm is not up against a
wall or a column, and able to gesticulate
freely. So for this reason the Epistle side
of a church may be preferred as the
position for a pulpit. It should not be too
far down the nave, otherwise many of
the congregation will be behind it.

If the pulpit stands in the nave, it
should not be pushed too far back under
an arch, or too close to the side wall.
Otherwise the preacher has to strain his
voice to be heard. The ideal spot for a
pulpit is where the voice rings true and
clear; where gesture is easiest and un-
restrained; and where the preacher can
be best seen by the congregation.

In a large church the top of the pulpit
should be about twice as high as the
shoulders of people who are sitting
down; in small churches, about the same
level as the shoulders of the listeners. 2

Pulpits as a general rule, in stone or
marble, are not so satisfactory as those
carried out in wood. It looks wanner and
gives more colour to a church, and at
the same time it is more pleasant to hold
on to than stone or marble which are the
coldest of materials. An open-work metal
pulpit is not to be recommended; it is
distracting to see the preacher's cassock
and feet.

There should be a door at the top
of the pulpit steps. Many an eloquent
preacher would feel far more at his ease
if he knew there was no danger of
falling backwards. Thirty-eight to forty
inches is a convenient height for the
sides of a pulpit. Most modem pulpits
are too low and wide. Where a pulpit is
too low a preacher is often at a loss to
know what to do with his hands. The
ledge at the top should be at least 5 in.
broad to allow books to rest on it. It
should be made quite flat. A small shelf
for books with a little ledge is a conveni-
ence, and also prevents the preacher
from leaning too far over the edge. There
should likewise be a desk, strongly made
with rounded edges that will not cut the
hands. It should be fixed in firmly, but
be readily adjustable, both as to the
slope and the height. Some preachers
object to pulpit desks, therefore it should
be made in such a way that it can be
removed if not wanted. Should a church
happen to possess a metal pulpit-desk,
the best thing to do is to cover it with
a doth of some rich material not
necessarily of the liturgical colour of the
Sunday or feast day. Incidentally it may
be well to point out that the desk should
look diagonally across the church, not
due west. An alternative to a pulpit-desk
is a large cushion, covered with some
rich fabric and adorned with tassels.

It is useful to have a small clock fitted
into the top of the pulpit in case the
preacher has not a watch with him. But
should there be a west gallery a large
dock can be placed thereon on the end
wall. Another alternative is to make a
round hole in the pulpit ledge to hold
a watch.

1. Batschums (Voralburg, Austria), H. C. Baurat and Clemens Holzmeister.

2. Fonteiais (Switzerland), F. Dumas. 3. Bleharies (France), H. Lacoste.
4. $. Jacques, Ypres (Belgium), Ateliers d'Art de Fabbaye de Maredsous.

158

CHUBGHES: THEIR FLAN ANB F0KN1SHING

Some preachers: would welcome a
small fixed seat in a pulpit It can be
made with a hinge so as to be out of
the way when not required. In Italy
preachers often sit down between sec-
tions of their discourses.

The lighting is an important detail
often forgotten. An electric light should
be fixed so that it shines down on the
preacher without casting shadows on his
face. It should be well shaded, and at a
reasonable height above the head. The
switch should be within easy reach of
the preacher - in the pulpit, not below.
A hassock or kneeler should be remem-

bered. A crucifix is not obligatory but is
customary in many countries.

The Caeremoniale Episcoporum 3 states
that on greater feasts the pulpit may be
adorned with silk coverings of the litur-
gical colour a custom which is ob-
served far more by Protestant sects
than by Catholics! At pontifical requiem
Masses the pulpit may be covered with
a black cloth. 4 All draperies must be re-
moved from a pulpit after Mass on
Maundy Thursday and on Good Friday,
also when sermons on the Passion are
preached. 5

NOTES

1. Ritus Servandus in Celeb. Miss., VI, 5.

2. A sounding board is essential in very
large churches, and there is a good deal to be
said in favour of a microphone with loud
speakers.

3. Caer. Ep. 9 L. I, c. XII, n. 18.

4. Ibid., L. H, c. II, n. 18.

5. S.R.C. 2891, ad 3.

CHAPTER XIV

CONFESSIONALS

HISTORICAL NOTES
Confessional boxes are comparatively
recent additions to the accessories of
worship. They were unknown in the
earlier ages of Christianity. It is doubtful
if any special piece of church furniture
for the administration of the sacrament
of Penance made its appearance before
the fifteenth century. During the Middle
Ages, when the majority of lay folk
seldom went to the sacraments more
than two or three times a year, confes-
sions were usually heard by a priest
sitting in the chancel; the penitent kneel-
ing at his side without any sort of
screen between them. Sometimes a choir-
stall may have served as a confessional.
The evolution of the confessional box is
interesting. The primitive idea was that
sacramental confession should be made
in the open church without any attempt
at hiding either the confessor or peni-
tent. The modern idea, at least in
English-speaking countries, is to ensure
the greatest privacy for both parties.

ST. CHARLES BORROMEO ? S
INSTRUCTIONS 1

St. Charles Borromeo, when drawing
up his Instructions on the Fabric of the
Church at the close of the sixteenth cen-
tury, insisted that confessionals should
be placed at the sides of the church in
some open and dear space, partly on the

south side and partly on the north. He
states that **with the bishop's leave** if
is permissable to place them sometimes
also in other parts' of the church, accord-
ing to its size and plan, as, for instance,
within certain chapels which are of
ample size, or at the entrance or thresh-
old, in such a manner that the confessor
be within the enclosure of the railings,
but the penitent outside. "By this ar-
rangement, the chapel railings may be
made to keep off such persons as would
rush up without order to the sacred tri-
bunal and place themselves too close
to the person who is engaged in making
his confession, to the probable disturb-
ance either of the penitent himself or of
the confessor." It is worth noting that
St. Charles orders that the penitent
should always be turned towards the
high altar in the case of confessionals
erected on the sides of churches. He
recommends that every parish church
should have at least two confessionals:
one for women, the other for men.

Regarding the form, it is stated that
it should be entirely made of boards,
either of walnut or other kind of
wood; that it should be enclosed on both
sides and at the back, as well as covered
at the top; but that it should be entirely
open in front, and not in any way closed
in. "Nevertheless, and especially in more
frequented churches, it should have a
door of lattice work, or of wooden bars

159

160

CHURCHES: THEIB PLAN AND FURNISHING

placed about 21 in. apart from each above the pavement of the church, and

other with a lock and bolt, to prevent it should be about 5 ft. 6 in. long by 2

laymen, vagrants, or dirty people from ft. 9 in. broad. The seat for the confessor

sitting and idly sleeping in it, when the should be about 1 ft. 6 in. high above the

confessor does not happen to occupy it, base; about 2 ft. long, and about 1 ft.

to the great irreverence of the sacred 41 in. deep. The total height of the

SCJOE

Confessional.

ministry which is exercised therein" (par.

The base of the confessional, on which
rest the feet of both the confessor and
penitent, should be raised 5& in. at most

confessional should be about 5 ft. 6 in.
St. Charles orders a small wooden rail
for the confessor to rest his arm on, to
be raised or lowered at will.
The penitent's * pew/' i.e,, the kneeling

CONFESSIONALS

181

desk, should be about 9 In. deep at the of absolution, lists of cases, etc.

bottom, rising in a slope to about 2 ft.
6 in. from the base, with a length of 2 ft.
I in., having at the top a slightly inclined

board 2 ft. long by 8 1 A in. broad. A
kneeler is attached at the bottom, 5M in.
high, 11 in. broad, and as long as the
"pew." The opening for confession is to
be boarded in between the confessor and
penitent, to be made at a height of 1 ft.
10 in. from the confessor's seat up to its
lowest side, and to be 11 in. high by 8M
in. wide. "To this opening should be
fixed, on the side of the penitent, an
iron plate full of holes, each as small as
a pea. Moreover, on the confessor's side
should be attached to the opening a
light serge cloth or muslin, such as is
called bunting" (par. 10).

St. Charles orders a crucifix to be
placed on the penitent's side; also two
boards on the confessor's side on which
are printed certain prayers and formulas

He states that no are to be

placed in or near confessionals. No in-
structions are given for double confes-
sionals such its are more common to-day
in town churches.

CANONICAL LEGISLATION
Neither Canon Law nor any other
liturgical authority has much to say
about the design and construction of

Types of confessionals.

confessionals. The only points that are
insisted on are:

1. "The confessional seat where
women's confessions are heard must be
situated in an open and conspicuous
place, normally in a church, or public
or semipublic oratory, set apart for
women." 2

2. "The confessional must be pro-
vided with an immovable screen of

162

CHUBCHES: THEIB PLAN AND FURNISHING

fine mesh between the penitent and
the confessor." 3

Nothing more is necessary for a con-
fessional; merely a seat for the confessor,
situated in a part of the church where
it is visible to the majority of the congre-
gation, and a screen fitted with a small
grating, covered with wire mesh or a
piece of metal, pierced with small holes.

Despite the perfectly clear rules laid
down in Canon Law concerning the posi-
tion of confessionals in churches, public
and semipublic oratories, it is very com-
mon to find them hidden away at the
back of a church or in a chapel, so that
they are as inconspicuous as possible.*
In some churches it is impossible for the
congregation to see the confessionals

* This does not contradict the establishment
of chapels for the purpose of confession and
nothing but confessions away from the eucharis-
tic ''body** of the church building. Our
churches may gain a great deal by a clearer
architectural separation of the various functions
for which they have been built. The law of the
Church already requires a separate baptistery,
close to the gate, as the sacrament of Baptism
is the gate to all other sacraments. A corres-
ponding "Confessional Chapel" the second
gate to the sacraments of the living and a re-
baptism, if I may call it thus built and fur-
nished in the spirit of penance and hope with a
calvary, the Stations of the Cross and a Pieta
would certainly functionalize our present all-
purpose churches. There are many reasons for
doing this, two practical ones: greater privacy
for those who receive the sacrament of Pen-
ance, while services are held in the main body
of the church and the possibility of leaving
the main part unheated, while confessions are
being heard. It should have easy access from
the street and rectory, etc. By bringing the
stations into this chapel we also solve the prob-
lem of the present "clash" in mood and "level"
between the meditated "presence** of the sta-
tions and the sacramental 'presence" of our
Lord's Passio beata on the altar. A purer ver-
sion of the eucharistic banquet hall and the
sacrificial space, as set apart from other rites,
can only help us to enter more profoundly into
the mysteries. H. A. H.

unless they turn right round in their
seats. For they are poked away in the
narfhex or vestibule or in the baptistery.
Should a church be provided with con-
fessionals at the back of the nave where
they are not in "an open and conspicuous
place," the best thing to do is to install
something on the lines of red and green

Types of confessionals.

"traffic lights" on the columns of the nave
or on the walls of the aisles. They can be
made to work automatically when the
penitent kneels down or gets up from
the prie-dieu or bench, thus showing
when it is "all clear" for someone else
to follow, or when the confessional is
occupied.

The best place for confessionals is at
the side of a church, either against the
walls of the nave or in the aisles, with
plenty of space between them, so that
the different "queues" do not get mixed
up in the entrances and exits.

DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION
The plan and construction of confes-
sionals must largely depend on the size
of the church and the number of con-
fessions normally heard there.

1. In a small chapel or semiprivate
oratory a movable wooden screen, stand-
ing on a firm base, will suffice.

188

space, double-boxes should be erected,
i.e., with places for penitents on either
side of the priest. This arrangement saves
time and is physical strain on the
confessor. But it is very important that
the compartments should be soundproof
so that the waiting penitent cannot
hear the other penitent or priest. Here,
again, the confessionals can be movable
wooden structures, standing in the aisles
or transepts, or else built into the outside
walls of the aisles, which is really more
convenient, as it saves space.

Sectional diagram showing arrangement
of elaborate Anglo-American confessionals.

2. In a small parish church, served by
one priest, there is a choice between a
wooden confessional box, with one com-
partment for the penitent, standing
against the wall or a more solid structure
built into the wall and projecting out-
side. It can be provided with two small
windows, one in each compartment.

3. In a large church, served by two
or more priests, there should be a con-
fessional for each of them. The name of
each priest should be clearly marked
above the door. If there is sufficient

Plan of double confessional,
ivith room attached.

4, In a very large church, particularly
one served by a religious community,
where the priests may have to spend
many hours on end in hearing confes-
sions, yet with intervals between peni-
tents, by far the most convenient plan
is to have the confessionals built as
small rooms, opening into a cloister or
passage, leading to the presbytery. In

164

CHUBCHDES: THEIR PLAN AN FURNISHING

this system there is no need to provide
entrances for the priests into the church
merely one or two compartments for
the penitents, with the confessor's seat
fitted in between them, with its back
against the wall of the church (see
plan, p. 163). An electric light over the
penitent's door, where the name of each
confessor should also be shown, indicates

Detail of a sliding panel in confessional.

if the priest is within. Should the light be
switched off, the penitent can summon
the priest by pressing an electric bell.
It is also advisable that there should be
another board outside the box intimating
if a particular priest is "at home" or
"out."

The room inside should be provided
with a table, chairs, book shelf, clock,
and some system for heating, either a
gas stove or an electric heater. Should
there be a passage or cloister outside, a
window can be inserted to give light,
which should be made to open, but for
the sake of privacy a skylight in the roof
is more convenient. Or else glass panels
can be fitted into the upper panels of
the door giving access to the passage.

PRACTICAL . DETAILS

An ordinary confessional should be at
least 5 ft. 9 in. high, preferably over 6 ft.
Both the priest's and penitent's compart-
ments should be at least 2 ft. wide, and
about 3 ft. 6 in. deep, to allow the
penitent to kneel down.

The seat* for the confessor should be
about 18 in. off the ground, and not less
than 2 ft. in length, and about 17 in.
deep. The seat should be made with a
slightly sloping back and arm rests on a
level with the bottom of the screen at
which the penitent leans. There should
be an electric light fitted on the left side
so that the priest can read, should he
wish to do so. The front part of the
confessor's compartment can be filled in
with a door (better fitted with glass
panels), or with a heavy curtain hung
over its entire length. In Italy most con-
fessionals have a low door which only
comes up about half the height of the
box. Some have plain or folding doors
across the upper part of the front which
can be kept open when the priest is
not actually hearing a confession.

Careful attention should be paid to the
ventilation of a confessional, especially
in a town church where priests have to
remain in the boxes for several hours
continuously.

It is important that the priest should
be able to see out of the confessional,

* There seems to be no reason why the seat
of the confessional could not be an armchair
of good and conservative design, of course not
an easy chair, as this would contradict the in-
structions of the Congregation of Rites and also
not convey the idea of the judicial chair the
sacrament is judgment of mercy, the seated
priest the judging Christ, the whole an "anti-
cipated Parousia." H. A. K.

CONFESSIONALS

165

especially when hearing childrens" con-
fessions. They may need keeping in
order. Hence the advantage of having a

should be 8 in. off the ground and at
least 11 in. broad.
The screened window between the

half-door with a curtain in front of the priest and penitent should be about 11

box. Otherwise curtains are not to be
recommended. They collect dust and
are unsanitary.

in. high and not less than 8 in. wide. It
should be inserted into the wall at a
level of about 2 ft. above the confessor's

[ . ti tdp

KA/J

Confessional.

In the penitent's compartment there
should be a projecting board against
which he can lean: about 2 ft. 6 in. long,
about 8 or 9 in. in breadth, with a slight
slope towards the top. The kneeler

seat. Should there be two places for
penitents it is necessary to have a sliding
panel fixed to both gratings which can
be opened or closed by the priest. The
grating can be filled in with fine wire

166

CHURCHES: THEIR PLAN AND FURNISHING

mesh or with a sheet of metal pierced
with small holes. On the other hand it
is often useful to have a small orifice
through which the priest can pass leaflets
or pictures or a note to a deaf penitent.

It is a general custom to hang up a
small crucifix where the penitent can see
it.

The entrance can be closed with an
ordinary wooden door opening outwards
preferably self -closing or with a
heavy curtain suspended on a rod.

In the Rituale Romanum 4 it is stated
that there should be a purple stole and
a surplice, if it be the custom of the
place to wear one, in every confessional.

NOTE. There exists such a great diver-
sity both in the method of administering
the sacrament of Penance and in the type
of confessional that it can be under-
stood why Canon Law only insists on a
minimum of requirements. "In Spain it is
the custom for men to stand up face to
face with the priest sitting down in the
confessional, kneeling down afterwards
to receive absolution. The same practice
may be found in Naples. But in most
country places in Italy the confessions

of men are always heard in the sacristy;
the boxes in the church being reserved
for women. In Milan Cathedral the
confessionals stand all round the back of
the high altar in the apse; in St. Peter's,
Rome, they occupy both transepts. Span-
ish confessionals often look like large
wardrobes when they are not in use.
Sometimes they are placed in a room off
the church. The room-type of confes-
sional is to be found in many of the new
churches in Holland, where in some of
them the penitent's grille is fitted with
a "capacious slit like that of a letter box,
through which books and papers can be
passed from priest to penitent or vice
versa/* 5

Some of the modern churches in
France and Belgium have very solid
confessionals of brick, concrete, or stone,
but unlike those commonly found in
Britain, the penitent's compartments are
nearly always quite open, either with
or without a curtain. It is more usual for
the priest's compartment to be closed
with a low gate or wooden door (with
a curtain inside) than to have a door
completely closing the entrance.

1. Instructions, Chap. XXIII.

2. C.J.C. 909, 1.

3. Ibid., 2.

NOTES

4. Rom. Rit. f III, c. I, n. 10.

5. Forse, E. J. G., Ceremonial Curiosities
(1938), p. 68.

CHAPTER XV

SEATING ACCOMMODATION

PRACTICAL NECESSITY
In Southern Europe, and indeed in
most parts of the world except countries
north of the Alps and in North America,
fixed seating accommodation filling up
the whole or the greater part of a church,
would be regarded as almost superfluous.
But in Anglo-Saxon lands, no church,
whether Catholic or Protestant, is looked
upon as complete until the entire floor
space apart from the sanctuary, has been
filled up with benches, pews, or chairs.

HISTORICAL, NOTES

During the early ages of Christianity
it is highly improbable that permanent
seats were ever contemplated. It was
usual for the men and women to be
separated. 1 Penitents stood in the nar-
thex, catechumens occupied the rear of
the nave, the rest of the faithful, accord-
ing to their social status, stood in the
front part of the nave or in the aisles.
Wooden benches found their way into
English parish churches about the thir-
teenth century, and then were only used
at first by the more wealthy members
of the congregation or by women. Pre-
vious to this date the only permanent
seats were stone benches against the
side walls or around the piers of the
nave. The early wooden benches in
England were very plain and solid

structures, and not in the least luxurious.
Certain antiquarians are of the opinion
that the mediaeval custom of vergers
with wands or staves leading processions,
arose from the difficulty of forcing a way
through the standing or kneeling con-
gregations. In Italy there is still always
someone to clear the way at the head
of a procession.

As time went on pews and benches
became much more ornate. Some of the
surviving examples of mediaeval benches
have elaborately carved ends. But the
Gothic revivalists of the past century
were responsible for the destruction of
thousands of old pews and benches all
over England. The only excuse for this
vandalism is that most of the early
benches and pews did not conform to
modern ideas of comfort. They were far
too narrow and too low in the backs.
In some of the old Catholic chapels in
Scotland, erected in the penal times, one
can still find long, narrow benches with
no backs mere forms, which are more
than penitential during a long sermon!
Even before the Reformation pews be-
gan to be appropriated by families or
individuals, despite the disapproval of
the ecclesiastical authorities. The now
almost universal custom in some coun-
tries of **pew rents" would have scandal-
ized our Catholic forefathers.

167

168

CHUBGHES: THEIK PJLAN AND FURNISHING

CANONICAL REQUIREMENTS
Canon Law has not much to say about
seating accommodation in churches, and
even the few regulations that are laid
down are seldom observed, owing to
the difficulty of changing local customs,
most of which have either been ap-
proved or tolerated by the ecclesiastical
authorities,

Canon 1262 states that "conformable
to ancient discipline it is desirable that
the women should be separated from
the men in church." This custom is still
observed in country places in Italy,
France, and elsewhere on the continent
of Europe, but is seldom if ever
found in English-speaking countries. In
ancient times, as has been mentioned
already, the men used to stand on the
right side of the entrance, the women
on the left. And it is worth mention-
ing that social prestige was not for-
gotten, for widows and virgins, as
well as the nobility of both sexes, were
expected to take their place near the
sanctuary. Fr. Augustine, O.S.B., re-
marks: "In this country (United States)
it will, we fear, be difficult to carry out
this 'desire' of the Church, on account of
our custom of having family pews." 2 And
the same is equally true in Great Britain.
Canon 1263 tells us that "a distin-
guished place or seat in the church may
be reserved for civil magistrates, accord-
ing to their dignity and rank, but the
liturgical laws must be observed." In
the Caeremoniale Episcoporum* it is ex-
plained that the seats reserved for dis-
tinguished laymen princes, magistrates,
etc. should be placed outside the sanc-
tuary. They may occupy an ordinary

bench or a prie-dieu, which may be
covered with some rich fabric, but no
canopy is allowed. 4 Only with a special
papal indult may magistrates occupy a
place within the sanctuary or choir. 5 It
is an abuse for laymen to occupy the
choir-stalls in a collegiate, conventual,
or parish church during services, 6 al-
though the custom is tolerated in some
countries.

Canon 1263, 2, lays down that "no
Catholic may have a seat reserved for
himself and his family in church, with-
out the express permission of the Ordi-
nary, and that the Ordinary shall not
give his consent until he is satisfied that
the rest of the faithful can be conveni-
ently seated.'* According to Canon 1181,
"admission to the church for divine
service must be entirely free, and every
contrary custom is hereby reprobated."
It would therefore appear quite clear
that it is a grave abuse to have men
stand in the porch of a church to collect
money from the faithful who wish to
assist at Mass or any other service. On
the other hand, the wording of Canon
1263 implies that, given the permission
of the bishop, seat rents are permissible
even if not altogether desirable. What
really matters is that there should be
sufficient accommodation in church for
everybody rich and poor.

What is more, the wording of the
whole of Canon 1263 makes it quite
clear that a bishop may revoke any con-
cessions should he feel there is sufficient
reason to do so. The Sacred Congrega-
tion of Rites has laid down that laymen
acquire no personal right to pews and
sittings, even by paying rents for them
for a number of years. 7

SEATING ACCOMMODATION

169

IMPORTANCE OF RIGHT SEATING
IN A CHURCH

Owing to the fact that the seating
accommodation of a modem church
takes up practically all the floor space,
thus distracting the eye from the rest of
the building, even the most beautiful
church can be ruined by the insertion
of the wrong type of pews, benches, or
chairs. Many priests and architects fail
to realize this. A proof that some archi-
tects do realize that a church may be
spoilt by seating accommodation is to be
found in the fact that a perspective
drawing of the interior of a new church
often shows no seats in the nave! After
all, a church is nothing more than a big
furnished room, and no matter how good
its proportions and details of the archi-
tecture may be when empty, the furni-
ture will make or mar it when in place.
The seats are the most conspicuous furni-
ture when one enters a church.

CHAIRS OR PEWS?

Chairs have the advantage of being
cheaper than either benches or pews,
but unless they are of good workmanship
they can be uncomfortable as well as
ugly. Perhaps the most satisfactory type
of modern seatings are the benches
found in some Scandinavian churches.
They are generally made of pine, stained
or painted in bright colours, a pleasing
contrast to the oak or varnished wood of
English churches. Painted pews give a
note of warmth and brightness, and form
a suitable background to the rest of the
colour scheme.

On the other hand, there is much to
be said in favour of the Roman method

of seating chairs which .in-

dividual may place where he When
not in use the chairs can be piled up
against a wall or columns, thus leaving
the nave empty.

In small churches the solid, yet easily
moved type of bench found in .certain
parts of Italy, might well be imitated*
These benches are ideal for kneeling
upright in a reverent position, and yet
equally convenient when sitting. Where
fixed rows of chairs have to be provided,
tip-up kneelers, covered with rubber,
are recommended instead of dust-
collecting hassocks. 8 Lastly, why are so
few modern churches fitted with tip-up
chairs, similar to those found in theatres?
They cost more, it is true, but they are
infinitely practical rather than a long
bench, and allow late-comers to pass
between those who are already in their
places.

LIMITATION OF FIXED SEATS; AISIJES
In conclusion it may be said that far
too many fixed seats are provided in
most churches. The value of open spaces
is forgotten, also the greater ease in
keeping a church clean if not crowded
up with benches and pews. There should
always be wide gangways round the
entrance doors, and plenty of space in
the aisles. In a small church a width of
6 ft. is convenient for the centre aisle, 9
and not less than 3 ft. for side aisles. In
cathedrals and large churches the centre
aisles should be at least 6 ft. wide. Again,
there is a curious psychological effect of
drawing the congregation nearer to-
gether and concentrating them in one
part of the building. But, of course, this
does not apply to the big churches in

170

CHUBCHES: THEIR FLAN AND FURNISHING

large towns, -which are often far too
small for the accommodation of the
crowds that flock to the various Sunday
Masses. However in places where the
congregation fluctuates according to the
seasons of the year, i.e., in holiday re-
sorts there is much to be said in favour
of only providing permanent seating
accommodation in part of the church,
adding chairs when needed, and keeping
them stored away at other times. There
should always be a central aisle in the
nave, not only for practical reasons, but
also because nothing looks so bad* as
an unbroken mass of pews extending
right across the centre of a church.

SIZE AND SPACING OF PEWS

AND CHAIRS

The space between the back of one
pew or row of chairs and another should
be not less than 3 ft.; and the seating
space in each pew or chair not less than
20 in. Thus a pew 6 ft. 8 in. long will
accommodate four persons. Pews should

**To add an "impractical" idea: pews in
themselves are a necessary evil. How would St.
Peter's in Rome or Santa Sabina look, if their
beautiful space were cluttered with pews?
Aren't pews one of the main reasons why our
congregations have been immobilized, refuse to
take part in processions, feel like an "audience,"
stay put in "their places," are lined up in a sort
of schoolroom or drill fashion? Take your pews
out of your church and you will experience a
new architectural beauty; the columns and pil-
lars will "rise," the sanctuary will assume new
and more majestic proportions, the light will
diffuse in a different way, and the shrines will
stand out in new significance. Such a space
clamors for processions and close participation
of the "con-gregation" in the liturgy. Alas!
There is little hope that we will be able to
relegate the pews to the side aisles for the
aged, the infirm, and the mothers with children,
while the strong and healthy stand and kneel
in the open space of the center. If a modern
designer turned out lightweight, backless stools
at a low price we might find a solution in the
middle of the two extremesl H. A. R.

not be made too high: 2 ft. 8 in. is a
convenient height. The backs should not
slope more than 1 in. from the seat to
the top of the rail. The kneeling bench,
if there is one attached to the back of a
pew, should be 6 to 7 in. off the ground,
and a depth of 9 in. will provide comfort
for the worshipper. It should be noted
that this distance is measured, not from
the base of the front pew, but from a
perpendicular dropped from the back
edge of this pew to the floor. A space
should be left beneath the seats so that
a brush may be passed under. If fixed
kneelers are not provided, thick kneeling
pads should be hung on hooks opposite
each seat.

If benches or chairs are put too close
together, it is impossible to kneel up-
right. Should a church be fitted with
chairs the line of each row may be
marked on the floor by brass-headed
nails at either end of the row. A con-
venient spacing for chairs is 2 ft. 10 in,
by 1 ft. 8 in. No bench or pew should
be more than 15 ft. long, and if over
10 ft, should be open at both ends.

There should not be more than one
ledge for books.

MATEBIAL FOR FLOORS

It is always a problem to decide which
is the best material for the floor of a
church, above all that part of the build-
ing which is given up to the congrega-
tion. In cold countries it is wiser to have
wooden flooring for the space which is
occupied by seats, preferably wood
blocks, set on a solid concrete founda-
tion. The blocks should be of oak or
pine. Boards nailed to joists are not so
satisfactory though cheaper.

SEATING ACCOMMODATION

171

The aisles or alleys can be paved with
stone or marble if expense is no object,
but there is much to be said in favour
of rubber, which is easier to keep clean
and is silent.

Terrazzo mosaic, i.e., small bits erf
crushed marble set in cement and
polished, is warmer than marble slabs.
It makes a good surface for aisles, and
is easily washed.

Stone paving looks well in the sanc-
tuary, but it shows up spots of grease
and wax from the acolytes' candles.
Highly polished marble has the disad-
vantage of being easily scratched, and
there is always the danger of slipping on
it. So in most cases it is better to avoid
it in any part of a church, certainly in
northern countries.

NOTES

1. St. Charles' Instructions indicate that men
and women were still separated during the six-
teenth century. He allows "predette" or kneeling
desks for women, but strange to say, states that
"there should be no benches for men to kneel
upon" (Chap. XXVI).

2. Commentary on the New Code of Canon
Law, Vol. VI, p. 205.

3. Caer. Ep., c. XIII, n. 13.

4. S.C.R. 680, 726.

5. S.C.R. 959 f.

6. S.C.R. 157.

7. S.R.C., Nov. 22, 1642, n. 816.

8. It is a good method to have six chairs
joined together by a wooden bar, fixed below
the seats. This prevents them slipping about.

An alternative is to have the row of seats

joined together, and the two outside legs of
those at the end o the row fixed into slots on
the floor. In this way the chairs are bound to
remain in position, no matter how much people
may lean on them.

9. The benches nearest the communion
rails should be movable, so as to allow free
passage for priest and servers during the absolu-
tions after a requiem Mass. It is often difficult
to get around the catafalque or coffin. Care
should also be given to leave sufficient space at
corners during the carrying of coffins in and out
of a church, especially where there is no central
passage. Most of our American churches pro-
vide for sufficient space for the coffin, by
shortening the first three or four pews.

CHAPTER XVI

THE SACRISTY

HISTORICAL NOTES
Until the later Middle Ages, parish
churches seldom possessed sacristies or
vestries. It seems to have been an almost
universal custom to keep vestments and
sacred vessels in aumbries or cupboards
in the church. In cathedrals and large
churches each altar had its lockers or
aumbries. Copes were kept in large semi-
circular chests, some o which still sur-
vive in English cathedrals. There are
exceptions to this general rule, especially
in France, where many mediaeval cathe-
drals have large sacristies. In England a
general place for the vestry was between
the high altar and the east wall. There
are some fine sacristies in Italy of the
early Renaissance period. The modern
type of sacristy is largely based on these
Italian examples, where everything is
arranged for convenience and efficiency.
St. Charles Borromeo laid down de-
tailed instructions for sacristy construc-
tion which may well be studied by
present-day priests and architects. 1 He
insists that it must be an adjunct of all
churches, according to the dignity of the
church and its practical needs, with
ample room for the storing of vestments
and vessels.

POSITION AND PLAN
It is difficult to determine the best
position for a sacristy or sacristies with-

out reference to the nature of the site
and available space. It may be at the
side of the sanctuary or behind it. It is
practical to have the priest's sacristy on
one side of the high altar and the work-
ing sacristy on the other, connected by a
passage behind the east wall. The two
can also be joined under one roof, be-
hind, or at the side of, the church. There
should, if possible, be two doors, one
opening onto the sanctuary, the other
into the body of the church. The latter
should be wide enough to allow three
persons to walk side by side. Width
should range from 3 ft. 4 in. to 3 ft. 6 in.,
with sufficient height to clear the pro-
cessional crucifix when held aloft. It is
wise to have iron bars across the sacristy
windows.

One rule should never be forgotten:
a sacristy should be too large rather than
too small! If practical, a rectangular
shape is more convenient than square.
Light, ventilation, and heating must be
remembered. Roof lighting is convenient
in a large sacristy. St. Charles wisely
recommends that there should be two
or more windows, if possible opposite to
each other in the same relative position,
"so that, with this provision for a current
of air, the place may not be damp or
moist." 2 In fact, as much care should be
put into its planning and arrangement
as in any other part of a church.

172

THE SACRISTY

173

SACBISTY REQUIREMENTS FOR A

SMALL CHURCH, SERVED BY

ONE PRIEST

Even In a small church or mission
chapel served by one priest* it is recom-
mended that the sacristy should not be
less than 15 ft. in length and about the
same width, preferably larger. Where
there is only one sacristy more has to be
kept in it

1. Vestment Chest

This, the chief article of furniture, can
be made of any hardwood. It should
stand on a low base, about 4 in, off the
ground, and measure 3 ft. 3 in. to not
more than 3 ft. 6 in. in height, 4 ft. 9 in.
long, and 2 ft. 9 in. deep. It is better to
have six narrow drawers on one side,
and twelve or more long shallow drawers
on the other, the latter having double
doors,* or roll panels (like the cover of
a roll-topped desk), in front. The length
of these drawers should not be less than
3 ft. 8 in., so as to give sufficient room
for a normal-sized chasuble to be placed
on it lengthways. It is more convenient
to have shallow drawers, about 2 or 3
in. deep, so that only one set of vest-
ments can be kept in each drawer. To
preserve vestments the trays are covered
with soft woolen material. The front
edges, which should not be more than

* Doors or roll panels can be dispensed with
if the individual drawer is well sealed against
dust. Very shallow drawers accommodating
only one set of vestments have the advantage
of cutting down the labor and inconvenience o
removing several sets of vestments to get to the
desired one. This will be appreciated by the
country pastor who is his own sacristan. Instead
of a wool bottom a smooth and glazed fiber
board bottom will be preferable in dusty
climates. H. A. R.

1H in. high, are better rounded off. Cedar
wood, if it can be afforded, is an ideal
lining, for it keeps out moths. Heavily
embroidered vestments require cotton-
wool under the folds, and a piece of
white linen or calico should be laid over
the vestments to keep out dust. Chasu-
bles can also be kept hanging each on
its own yoke, with a small piece of wood
sticking out (under chasuble) on which
to hang the stole and maniple.

Side drawers can hold amices, purifi-
cators, corporals, cinctures, palls, towels,
tabernacle veils, altar breads, etc. Laven-
der bags may be put among linen.

When vestments are laid out it is con-
venient to spread a baize or woolen mat
over the top of the chest, kept in place
by hooks affixed to the back, to avoid
slipping. It may be attached to a roller,
and turned back when not in use.

2. Cope Chest

Copes should be kept in a closet on a
stand. The latter can be made with a
wooden upright, about 5 ft. 6 in. high,
with a firm base, and a round yoke at the
top. Copes should be hung on separate
yokes, and covered with a dust cloth.

3. Cupboard for Candlesticks,
Vases, Etc.

A special cupboard with two deep
drawers should hold candle-ends, dust-
ers, polishing cloths, etc., and storing
candles; and another drawer for cruets,
etc.

Shelves should be provided for Bene-
diction candlesticks, holy-water vessel,
bottle of altar wine, reliquaries, etc.

The censer can be hung from an iron
bracket, about 6 in. long, fixed into a

174

CHURCHES: THEIR PLAN AND FURNISHING

wall, or from a shelf on which the in-
cense tin and charcoal jar may be placed,
together with the incense boat.

Tongs and wire spoons for heating
charcoal can hang on pegs or screw-
hooks. Incense and charcoal can be kept
at the bottom of a cupboard; the former
in tins, the latter in an earthenware jar
rather than in boxes.

Charcoal is conveniently heated over
a gas jet, or electric heater, but a candle
will suffice.

4. Cupboard for Albs, Surplices, and
Cottas

It is convenient to have a cupboard
where albs, surplices, and cottas can
be hung rather than folded in draw-
ers, where they get crushed. But the
hanging of albs and cottas is a somewhat
controversial matter; with the Roman
"crimped" variety hanging is out of the
question!

5. Safe

A steel, fire-proof safe, should hold the
sacred vessels, monstrance, and parish
registers.

6. Lavabo

A tap and basin should be provided
in a convenient place, 3 with a towel
hanging from a wooden roller at hand.

To save space it is a good plan to

recess the basin into a wall. There should

*&.*

be a rack to dry purificators and to drain
cruets. It is convenient to have running
water. Over the Lavabo a card should
give the prayer said by the priest when
washing his hands before vesting.

7. Prie-Dieu

Provision should be made for a prie-

dieu where the priest can make his
preparation for Mass and thanksgiving
afterwards. A large framed copy of the
prescribed prayers should be hung facing
the prie-dieu.

8. Sink

A washing-up sink and drainer cov-
ered with a board is useful, even in a
small sacristy, to arrange flowers, etc.

9. Crucifix

A crucifix or picture of the crucifixion
should hang over the vestment chest.

10. Holy-Water Stoup and Vessel
There should be a holy-water stoup on

the right-hand side of the door leading
into the sanctuary or church. Holy water
should be kept in a special vessel, pro-
vided with a tap, in a position where it
is accessible to the faithful.

11. Bell

It is the custom in Italy and other
Catholic countries to have a bell, just
inside the church, near the door leading
into the sanctuary, which is sounded
when the priest enters for Mass or other
functions. This is not obligatory.

12. Chairs and Other Furniture
Provision should be made for a bench

or one or two chairs, a reliable clock,
one or two full-sized mirrors. (If only
some celebrants could see themselves
fully before appearing in public! ) Cork-
carpet, rubber, or linoleum are the best
materials for floor covering. An electric
radiator or gas fire is essential.

The switchboard for electric light in
the church should be handy in the
sacristy.

THE SACRISTY

17;

13. Other Requirements

a) Two wood or preferably metal boxes
for altar breads. The cover should fit
tightly, to prevent dampness.

b) Cards giving the following titles and
proper names:

(1) Nomen Pontificis

(2) Nomen Ordinarii

(3) Titulus Ecclesiae

(4) Oratio Imperata.

c) A copy of the Ordo in a frame, with
two pages open.

d) Books. Even a small church will
require the following books which
should be kept in a cupboard when
not in use:

( 1 ) Missale Romanum, with Masses
proper to the province and
diocese

(2) Missale Defunctorum

(3) Liber Eptetolamm et Evange-
liorum. This is only used where
there is High Mass.

(4) Rituale Romanum

(5) Register for Visiting Priests

(6) Epistles and Gospels in English

(7) Notice Book

(8) Ritus Servandus

( 9 ) Anniversaries of Departed Mem-
bers of the congregation and
benefactors.

e) Official Documents. It is the custom
in many places to have certain docu-
ments framed and hung up, e.g.:

(1) List of days on which Benedic-
tion and solemn exposition is
allowed by the Ordinary;

(2) The testimony of the valid erec-
tion of the Stations of the Cross;

(3) Relics that may be exposed on
certain days.

f ) The vesting prayers for Mass.

14. Racks for Torches Proces-

Cross

There should be two or more torches
for Benediction and processions and, if
possible, glass lanterns for use out of
doors. Torches and the processional cross
may be kept in a rack with slots, lined
with rubber.

SACRISTY REQUIREMENTS FOR A
IARGE CHUBCH

In a church, i.e., served by three or
more priests, the following additional
requirements will be needed.

Vestment Chest

This should be long enough to allow
three priests to vest side by side, i.e.,
about 9 ft. in length, 3 ft. 3 in. high, and
at least 2 ft. 9 in. deep. There should be
two sets of twelve shallow drawers, with
double doors in front, or roll shutters,
which are more practical and convenient.
At one side there can be a set of
narrow drawers for corporals, purifi-
cators, veils, amices, etc. Above the top
of the chest there can be another row
of six cupboards, about 18 in. high, in
which the priests keep their own birettas,
amices, purificators, etc. in one of them
the altar-bread boxes can be placed.

At either end of the chest or elsewhere
should be two cupboards for copes and
albs. On each cupboard door a card
should indicate its contents. To prevent
vestments, particularly lace albs, etc.,
from getting torn, it is prudent to have
handles with ball catches.

Many prefer to hang chasubles and
dalmatics as well as copes from yokes
on extending rods in large cupboards.
St. Charles recommends this method

176

CHURCHES: THEIR PLAN AND FURNISHING

for "more precious vestments." 4 There
should be a separate cupboard for cas-
socks, surplices, and cottas.

Frontals will need a special case. If
of the "Roman*" type, i.e., stretched on a
wooden frame, the best plan is to have
a chest open at the top. It should be
wide enough to contain twice the num-
ber of frontals generally used. If frontals
can be folded, they should be kept in a
cupboard with shallow shelves, wide
enough to allow each one to be folded
in four, with frontlets or superfrontals
if they are used.

Work Sacristy

Every church, if possible, should have
a separate work sacristy. The servers'
cassocks, surplices, etc., should be kept
there, with thuribles, incense, candles,
candlesticks, torches, flower vases
everything not directly connected with
the celebration of Mass.

There should be a cupboard for ban-
ners, and another for the altar wine and
cruets. A sink with a board, covered with
lead is useful for cleaning brasswork and
arranging flower vases. There should
be cupboards for brooms, mops, polish-
ers, and pails. There can hardly be too
many cupboards and drawers in a work
sacristy.

Here, or in a store-room adjacent,
space must be provided for keeping
the following ceremonial accessories:

(1) holy-water vessel and sprinkler;

(2) processional crucifixes; (3) proces-
sional canopy; (4) ombrellino; (5) pas-
chal candlestick; (6) triple candlestick
and candle; (10) Tenebrae candlestick;

(11) funeral candlesticks four or six;

(12) catafalque; (13) crib figures; (14)

carpets; (15) processional statues; (16)
banner poles.

In a well-appointed church there
should be a lavatory.

Sacristy Confessional

It may be useful to have a confessional
screen in the priest's sacristy for the
convenience of deaf persons.

On the other hand, it is not advisable
to have a confessional in the doorway
leading from the church to the sacristy
as is sometimes done in small churches
for the sake of saving space. Should any-
one wish to go to confession before Mass,
the servers have to be turned out of the
sacristy! Should confessions be heard at
any other time it is impossible for any-
one else to work in the sacristy. There
may, however, be churches where this is
the only way that a confessional can be
inserted.

In large town parishes it is convenient
to have a confessional bell fitted outside
the sacristy door so that a priest can be
called without ringing the presbytery
bell.

Business Sacristy

An almost essential feature of a large
church is an office where parish business
is done. In big towns there are innumer-
able calls upon the clergy. Parish regis-
ters have to be consulted frequently for
records of baptisms and marriages, cer-
tificates of all kinds have to be provided
and attested, stipends for Masses re-
ceived, and the distribution of monies
collected for the various needs of a large
parish. It is often inconvenient for priests
not to mention his housekeepers to
receive callers at the presbytery, espe-

THE SACRISTY

177

daily if it does not adjoin the church.
It is more convenient both for priests
and people if business can be transacted
at church. 5

The room should have a knee-hole
desk, chairs, cupboards, shelves, and be
well heated. There should be a steel
safe for registers and notice books and
where the collection monies can be de-
posited. A cupboard for objects left in
church, such as handbags, prayer-books,
handkerchiefs, and rosaries, should not
be forgotten!

Old registers may thus be consulted
at any moment. A shelf with standard
reference books, Catholic and local di-
rectories, is useful. On the wall there
may be a framed large-scale map of the
parish, and photographs of parochial
interest.

Should a town church not have Its
parish hall or schools adjacent, then it is
essential that there should be a large
room, well lighted and heated, for meet-
ings of guilds and confraternities, e.g.,
Children of Mary, St. Vincent de Paul,
Altar Society, etc. Such a room will pro-
vide a meeting-place for all parochial
organizations, and as their meetings usu-
ally take place before or after services,
it is far more convenient if such meetings
can be held at the church. The room
should be furnished with rows of chairs
with a gangway in the centre, possibly
with a low platform with a table and
chairs at one end. Cupboards for books,
etc., should be provided. A piano to ac-
company singing is useful. A few good
pictures on the walls will make the room
homelike.

1. Instructions, Chap. XXVIII.

2. Op. cit., Chap. XVIII, par. 2.

3. Rit. Cel Miss., Tit. I, n. 1.

4. Op. cit., Chap. XXVIII, par. 12.

NOTES

5. In Rome the "business sacristy" invar-
iably consists of a large writing table in the
ordinary sacristy, A separate room is not pro-
vided.

CHAPTER XVII

THE SACRED VESSELS

"Sacred vessels'* are those used for
the celebration of Mass, or to contain
the Blessed Sacrament. They comprise:
chalice and paten, ciborium, pyx., and
lunette. "Non-sacred vessels" include the
monstrance and communion plate.

Chalices and patens must be conse-
crated by a bishop or dignitary author-
ized to perform this function. 1 The
ciborium, pyx, and lunette must be
blessed by a priest having faculties
other sacred vessels may be blessed.
All sacred vessels lose blessing or
consecration if:

1. They have been so badly damaged
or changed in form that they are unfit
for their purpose;

2. They have been used for unsuitable
purposes or exposed for public sale. 2

Chalices and patens do not lose their
consecration by regilding. There is a
grave obligation to have them regilt if
the surface gold has worn away. 3

THE CHALICE AND PATEN

Historical Notes

The chalice is the most important of
all sacred vessels. It is not known what
type of cup was used at the Last
Supper, and none of the legendary cups
can be regarded as authentic. The ear-
liest chalices were often made of glass,
although metal was also used, and even
wood. Some of these primitive chalices
were large and had two handles, for the

laity were communicated under both
kinds until the fourteenth and fifteenth
century. A small pipe, or reed, was used
in some places for communicating clergy
and people. This practice has survived
in a papal High Mass, when the pope
and the deacon receive the Precious
Blood through separate gold tubes. The
subdeacon drinks directly from the
chalice. It is doubtful if there are any
chalices in existence which date from
before the eighth century. They are usu-
ally two-handled cups, with large bowls
and low bases. After the twelfth century
the chalice became smaller as it was no
longer needed to communicate the laity.
The typical mediaeval chalice has a
shallow cup, a broad base, and a round
knob. As time went on the chalice grew
taller, until by the end of the eighteenth
century, it had become almost top heavy,
the cup often being larger than the base,
and the tapering stem very narrow.

Material, Size, and Style

According to modern present legisla-
tion, the chalice cup must be of gold
or silver if of the latter, the inside
surface must be gilt. 4 The base and stem
may be of any metal.

No definite shape is prescribed by the
rubrics, but a good chalice should not be
too large, and should be evenly balanced,
with a heavy base. The knob or ball
beneath the cup, which has to be held

178

S f .

AnUoc

Typical chalices.

180

CHURCHES; THEIR PLAN AND FURNISHING

Modern chalices.

1. Abbaye de Saint-Wandrille, France. 3. Abbaye de Saint- Wandrille, France.

2. Abbaye de Mont-Gsar, Louvain, Belgium. 4. M. Fabbe Jadot ("La Croix Latine").

between the first and second fingers at
certain places in the Canon of the Mass,
ought to be easy to grip, and without
sharp projections. There should be no
projecting ornamentation round the edge
of the cup, making it difficult to drink
out of. The bowl should be neither too
narrow nor too deep, nor yet too saucer
shaped. If the base is encrusted with
large jewels there is a danger that the
edge of a lace alb may catch in it.
According to instructions issued during
a visitation of the churches of Rome in
1904, it is recommended that chalices
should not be more than 28 centimetres
high (just over 11 in.) and not less than
16 centimetres broad (about 6M in.).
Most authorities give 8 in. as a mini-
mum height, though some modern ex-
amples are a good deal less than this.

The Paten

This should be slightly larger in cir-
cumference than the top of the chalice
bowl. It must be concave, so that it rests
securely on the chalice, and not too
heavily. The edges must be thin so that
fragments of the Sacred Host may be

gathered up from the corporal. The
underneath part may be engraved, but
the top must be quite plain. A small
incised cross near the edge of the outer
surface is often inserted, although this
is not usual in Rome. Like the chalice,
the paten must be made of gold or silver,
with at least the upper surface silver
gilt. Patens with a depressed centre, and
a surrounding flat edge like a plate
are generally regarded as inconvenient,
but some priests like them.

THE PYX AND CIBORIUM

In these days of frequent Communion
with the reserved Sacrament, a large
vessel, in shape not unlike a covered
chalice, known as a ciborium, is used to
Bold the Sacred Particles consecrated at
Mass and reserved in the tabernacle. In
mediaeval times, as has already been
explained, the pyx was often suspended
above the altar and covered with a
white veil. A survival of this custom
is to be found in the white silk veil
which must cover the ciborium when
it contains the Blessed Sacrament. 5 No
rules are laid down as to the material

THE SACRED VESSELS

181

LA CKOI* LATIN

JEAN HSSSE. (FRANCE)

Monstrances.

PR/NX NASH

of the ciborium, other than that it must
be solid and suitable, and well closed. 6
The inside of the cup must be gilt, as the
Blessed Sacrament must rest only on
gold or linen. Usually the shape is
broader than a chalice, and the curved
sides are not so round. Sometimes the
bottom of the cup is made convex, with
a slight elevation which makes it easier
to lift out the small Hosts. The lid is
surmounted by a small cross or emblem.
The size of a ciborium is determined

by the number of particles needed for
Communion. In a large parish the
ciboria may be as wide as 7 in.; the
normal diameter is about 4 in,

The Pyx

When the Blessed Sacrament is taken
to the sick it is put into a small, round
box, usually of silver, about 1M to 2 in.
in diameter, and less than 1 in, deep. In
parishes where sick calls are numerous
there should be a pyx large enough to

182

CHXJBCHES: THEIB PLAN AND FUKNISHING

hold ten or twelve small Hosts. The bot-
tom is generally slightly convex. It is
convenient for the cover to be hinged,
with a spring catch. The inside should
be gilt. The priest carrying the Blessed
Sacrament in the pyx places it in a small
silk bag, hong round his neck by a silk
cord.

THE MONSTBANCE
The monstrance, or ostensoriwm, is a
special vessel for "showing" the Sacred
Host to the people, i.e., a shrine for
public exposition of the Blessed Sacra-
ment.

Historical Notes

Vessels for carrying the Blessed Sacra-
ment in processions seem to have been
introduced as early as the eleventh cen-
tury, but they were more like portable
shrines or closed-in reliquaries. It is
doubtful if the Sacred Host was exposed
to view before the thirteenth century,
and this practice did not become general
until about two hundred years later,
except on the feast and during the
Octave of Corpus Christ! The earliest
monstrances preserved are in the form
of a cylindrical tower, made of crystal,
and covered with a metal spire, sup-
ported by flying buttresses. The Sacred
Host then as now was placed in a
lunette, or lunula, i.e., a crescent-shaped
clip, or a small circle of metal inserted
in the monstrance. By the sixteenth
century the monstrance had assumed the
shape of a sun, surrounded by rays. Since
then this form has been the most usual.

Material and Form
It can be made of any metal. Gold or

silver are usual, though brass or copper
gilt are also used, 7 Although Pope Clem-
ent XI recommended that monstrances
should be made in the form of a sun with
rays, any other reasonable shape is law-
ful The only detail that is obligatory is
a small cross on the top. 8 The monstrance
should not be adorned with small statues
of saints, for it is forbidden to place
these even on the altar during exposition
(seep. 127).

A monstrance can be of any size
there is one at Toledo more than 12 ft.
high! As the monstrance has to be
carried in processions, it is obvious that
it must not be too heavy or that the
central part is separate from the base.

When standing on the altar, and not
in use, the monstrance should be covered
with a silk veil, which may hang loosely
or be shaped to fit over the monstrance. 9

No vessel used in connection with
ecclesiastical functions lends itself so
readily to freedom in design than the
monstrance, as much liberty in shape
and material is allowed by rubrics.

THE LUNETTE

The lunette in its earliest form con-
sisted of two crescents, on either side of
the consecrated Host. It must be of gold
or of silver gilt. 10 It may have two round
glasses, surrounded by a rim, in which
case the Host rests on the bottom of the
rim and is enclosed by the glasses;
though it must not touch them. 11

If the lunette is without glass, it must
be placed in a small metal box called
custodia (silver gilt or gilded inside),
when in the tabernacle. If the Host is
enclosed with glass, the lunette may be
placed in the tabernacle without the

THE SACRED VESSELS

183

custodia. 12 The custodia may hold the
lunette vertically or horizontally. The
lunette is fitted into the monstrance or
custodia with a slot or groove.

THE COMMUNION PLATE
On March 29, 1929, the Congregation
of the Sacraments ordered that a small
metal plate, gilt on the inner surface,
must be held beneath the chin of persons
receiving Holy Communion. No shape
was prescribed, but for convenience it
is better that there are two small handles
at each side. Should it be the custom for
the server to hold the plate, one long
handle is more convenient. The plate
should be about the size of an ordinary
paten used at Mass, and without a rim,
so that it can be purified easily. When
not in use, the communion plate can be

kept in a bag or case on the credence
table. As it is handled by large numbers
of people it should be cleaned and
polished frequently.

NOTE. Chalices and patens (after con-
secration), as well as purificatore, palls,
and corporals which have been used at
Mass, may be handled only by tonsured
clerics,, or lay folk who have charge of
them, e.g., sacristans. 13 Other persons
may touch them only with special per-
mission of the Holy See. 14

Purificators, palls, and corporals,
which have been used may not be
washed by lay folk, until they have been
thoroughly rinsed by a cleric in major
orders. The water after use must be
emptied into the sacrarium, or if there
should not be one in the church or
sacristy, thrown into the fire. 15

NOTES

1. Rit, Cel Miss., I, n. 1.

2. CJ.C. 1305, 1, 1, 2.

3. Ibid., 2.

4. Rit. Cel. Miss., VII, n. 4.

5. Canon 1270; Ri*. Rom., IV, c. 1, n. 5.

6. Canon 1270.

7. S.R.C. 3162, ad 6.

8. S.R.C. 2957.

9. S.R.C 4268, ad 7.

10. S.R.C. 3162, ad 6.

11. S.R.C. 3234, ad 4; 3974.

12. S.R.C. 3947.

13. Canon 1306, 1.

14. S.R.C. 4198, ad 15.

15. Canon 1306, 2.

CHAPTER XVIII

SACRED VESTMENTS

HISTOBICAL NOTES
It is an instinct of humanity to wear
special clothes for ceremonial occa-
sions, especially for religious ceremonies.
Nearly every one of the great world
religions has evolved a uniform to be
worn by its officiating priests. The Chris-
tian Church has been no exception to
this general rule, 1

During the first centuries of Chris-
tianity there was no distinction between
civil and ecclesiastical dress. The first
Christian presbyters and deacons wore
the same garments during the celebra-
tion of the Eucharist as during then-
ordinary avocations. From motives of
respect for the sacredness of the func-
tion, it may be presumed that the clergy
would set aside their best and cleanest
garments. Then came the barbarian in-
vasions of the Huns, Goths, and Vandals,
which led to a change of fashion in men's
clothing as well as in the way of life of
the Mediterranean peoples. The bar-
barian dress, leaving the legs free and
unencumbered with flowing draperies,
may have been more practical and con-
venient, but it was not considered suit-
able for Christian worship, at least so far
as the officiating clergy were concerned.
So, when Sundays and feast days arrived,
old garments which had been carefully
preserved would be brought out, even
though the style and cut were no longer

"up to date." And in this way a special
priestly costume was gradually evolved
the liturgical vestments with which
we are familiar. Few realize that these
strange-looking garments are really
nothing more than a modification of the
ordinary everyday clothes once worn by
Roman citizens.

The Eucharist vestments were not an
"invention" of the Church. They were
not derived from the splendid vestments
worn by Jewish priests. They have only
become "sacrificial" because they were
the clothes worn by priests and laymen
in the days of persecution, and which
have been retained from motives of rev-
erence and conservative instincts. They
are a constant reminder of the sufferings
of the early Christians and the martyrs;
garments hallowed by the traditions of
many centuries and which have become
part and parcel of Catholic worship,
although not necessarily essential to it.
The time may come when a new and
fierce persecution may make it necessary
for priests to say Mass in trousers and
a short jacket! 2

During the Middle Ages, long after
the number of liturgical vestments had
been fixed definitely, there was a tend-
ency to "decorate" them, and to cut down
their size. Some of them ceased to have
any practical or functional purpose, and
became mere ornaments, retained from
conservative instincts. So to-day, except

184

SACRED VESTMENTS

185

in places where there has been a revival
of the earlier types of vestments, it is
almost impossible to detect any relation-
ship between the original secular gar-
ments of the first ages of Christianity
and the purely decorative "Gothic" vest-
ments evolved in the later Middle Ages
and copied by "Gothic" revivalists of the
nineteenth century.

LTTURGICAX, REQUIREMENTS
There are two kinds of vestments used
in the celebration of Mass: (a) the outer
vestments of silk (chasuble, dalmatic,
tunicle, stole, and maniple); (&) the
inner vestments of linen (amice, alb, and
cincture). The rubrics of the Missal lay
down no definite rules concerning the
shape, material, or decoration of vest-
ments, merely that they are to be intact,
clean, and beautiful, also that they must
be blessed. 3 Canon Law lays down that
the liturgical laws and ecclesiastical
tradition, must in the best possible way,
as also the laws of Sacred Art, be ob-
served as to the form and material of
vestments. 4

It should be noted that it is not per-
missible when making vestments to de-
part from the recognised usage of the
Church in Rome and to introduce an-
other style and shape of vestment, even
an old one, without consulting the
Apostolic See. There is a difference of
opinion as to the precise meaning of
this rescript of the Sacred Congregation
of Rites. 5 However, most authorities
seem to be agreed that it rules out all
forms of vestments which are not based
on those actually worn in Rome unless
previous permission has been obtained
to reintroduce vestments of an earlier

shape. On the other hand, as Father
O'Connell points out, "some writers,
however, think that [the primitive or
mediaeval type of vestment, or the
Gothic Revival shape] is permitted., de-
spite the clear terms of decree 4398."
And he adds: Tft seems to be the unani-
mous wish, not only of the lovers of
sacred art, but also of rubricians, that
the Holy See may in the future permit,
or at least tolerate, the restoration of the
more ample mediaeval form of the
chasuble." 6

It may be noted: (1) Exhibitions of
full-shaped vestments have been held in
Rome and not condemned; (2) It may
be presumed that there is permission
to use full vestments in the United
States, Great Britain, Belgium, Hol-
land, Switzerland, Austria, Germany, and
France, since they are found in all these
countries. It is the business of the local
bishop to establish facts and interpret
the law. The Sacred Congregation of
Rites wishes to prevent scandal which
might occur in places where the faithful
are accustomed to a particular shape
of vestment. (3) As St. Charles' vest-
ments have approbation, it can be pre-
sumed that this full shape can be used
in any country where the Roman rite
is followed.

Soft, pliable materials are better than
stiff brocades. Incidentally, a lightweight
vestment is more comfortable! Hard-
woven silk cannot be recommended too
highly. Hard and stiff metal braids are
not desirable. An argument in favour of
full vestments is that their revival might
help to draw East and West together;
their outward forms of vesture would
then be the same at rock bottom.

186

dTORCHES: THEIB PLAJNT AND FUBNXSH2NG

UTUBGICAL COLOUBS

During the early ages of the Christian
Church, secular clothes were usually
white. On occasions of mourning the
toga of the Roman citizen, otherwise
always white, was grey or some dark
colour the emperor alone wore a toga
of purple ie., a rich red, not violet.
Other forms of cloak were usually of a
dark colour, but the prevailing note of
everyday dress was white. Thus the
vestments used in the early Church,
except the chasuble, would also have
been white.

It was not until the Middle Ages that
colour sequences for vestments were
drawn up, and there was a great variety
of practice before the Reformation. Ex-
cept in cathedrals and large churches,
the best vestments, regardless of colour,
were used for the highest feasts. Certain
dioceses, particularly in France and
Spain, evolved colour sequences of great
elaboration. In some of the English
cathedrals, e.g., Lichfield and Exeter,
there were rather vaguely defined se-
quences. As a general rule plain, un-
bleached linen, rather like sackcloth,
marked with crosses and other devices
in red, was used in Lent. White, too,
was often used at Pentecost as well as
during Paschaltide. Red was the usual
colour for Passiontide, and blue was
common for Advent. The Sarum Missal,
on the other hand, orders red for all
Sundays out of Lent, and in some
churches it was used during Advent
and Lent. So great was the diversity
of practice in England alone before
the Reformation!

The modern Roman colour sequence,

now obligatory wherever the Roman rite
is followed, consists of five colours
white, red, green, violet, and black/ Any
shade of these colours is allowed. It is
worth noting that the Roman violet is
the same colour as the reddish purple
used in the ceremonial robes of prelates,
not the blue-violet of the flower, nor the
crude purple so often seen. Yellow vest-
ments are not permitted, even as a sub-
stitute for cloth of gold, which may
replace white, red, or green on great
feasts. 8 Neither is blue allowed except
by special permission, although it is per-
mitted in Spain and in the Spanish
colonies of Latin America on the Feast
of the Immaculate Conception. Real
cloth of silver may be used instead of
white. 9 Mixtures of colours except in
the ornaments and linings is forbid-
den. 10 Rose vestments may be worn on
the fourth Sunday of Lent and the third
Sunday of Advent. 11 The decoration and
lining of vestments may be any suitable
colour. 12

THE STOLE*

The stole was originally a large linen
handkerchief thrown over the left
shoulder by the deacon at Mass rather
in the same manner as a waiter carries
a napkin when serving a meal. It was
used to cleanse the sacred vessels. As
time went on, linen cloths now reduced
in size and known as purificators came
into use, the deacon's stole ceased to
have any practical purpose and became
a mere ornament. It was folded into a

* According to other authorities, especially
the recent research by Joseph Braun, S.J., the
history of this vestment is quite uncertain. The
word stola, from the Greek trr6\*j 9 was first
used in Gaul, whence it migrated to Rome and
superseded the word Orarium* H. A. R.

SACKED VESTMENTS

187

narrow strip and eventually became a
flat band of sUk or other rich stuff and
not of Linen. Yet the deacon still con-
tinued to wear his stole over his left
shoulder, but now under his dalmatic.
When bishops and priests adopted the
stole as a vestment (which at Rome did
not take place till as late as the twelfth
century), it was worn round the neck
with both ends hanging down in front.
About the sixth century, priests in Gaul
crossed the two ends on the breast, keep-
ing them in place by the girdle, and this
custom was adopted everywhere in
Western Europe during the Middle
Ages.

Both the deacon's and the priest's stole
are derived from the linen cloth called
orarium, which name has nothing to do
with the word orare to pray but
comes from os-oris, a mouth. The
orarium was a face-cloth, and could be
used both as a kind of muffler round the
neck or over the head, or as we have
seen, as a napkin. The name stale is de-
rived from the Latin stola which origi-
nally meant the long robe worn by
Roman ladies, but which was later ap-
plied to any garment of state, and even
to mere badges of office, such as the
stole, which ceased to be a garment. The
amice also seems to have been derived
from the orarium, and took its place as
a neckcloth or head covering when the
orarium became the stole. Mediaeval
stoles were very long and narrow. Broad
stoles with spade-shaped ends came into
fashion during the eighteenth century.

For the sake of convenience a stole
should not be less than 9 ft. in length,
exclusive of the fringe. The width should
be about 2& in. at the neck, broadening

to about 3M in, and not more than 5 in.
at the ends. The stole may be quite
straight, or made in two pieces, joined
at the neck. This latter form helps to
make it Me more smoothly on the shoul-
ders under the chasuble. But this is not
needed when the stole is made of very
soft material and kept quite narrow. It
is unnecessary to sew on a piece of
linen (the linen is a relic of the times
when priests wore their- hair long), or
lace in the middle, as the stole should
be worn, not close up to the neck, but
between the shoulders. Only one cross
is required, i.e., in the middle. 14 The ends
may be adorned with a silk fringe or
tassels, not stiff gold braid. Three crosses
on the stole and maniple are invariable
at Rome. Gold fringes are much used.

THE MANIPLE

The maniple, or fanon (this word is
derived from the Latin pannus, meaning
a piece of cloth; the letters p and / being
interchangeable) started by being a nap-
kin or handkerchief, rather like the stole,
and it was also used by deacons and
acolytes to cleanse the sacred vessels,
to wipe the celebrant's mouth or eyes,
etc. It was carried in the left hand, and
lingered on as a practical necessity much
longer than the stole. The maniple did
not become a mere ornament until the
twelfth century. But for more than a
hundred years before this it had been
suspended from the left wrist as it is
to-day.

Many maniples are made far too short
and tend to sweep the altar when the
priest raises his left arm. A maniple
should never be less than 2 ft. in length,
and as much as 3 ft. 6 in. is still more

188

CHURCHES: THEIR PLAN AND FURNISHING

SACK

Ancient Roman chasuble showing
gradual cutting away at sides.

convenient for the wearer. It should not
be stiffened, but hang loose. If it is made
to fit closely round the arm, at both sides,
an elastic band or two tapes are not
necessary to keep it in position. The
usual Roman maniple has wide ends,
and is shorter than those recommended.
Like the stole, only one cross is needed
on the maniple in the centre, although
in Rome three crosses are the rule. An
interesting relic of the practical origin of
the maniple has survived in the custom

of discarding it whenever the priest,
deacon, or subdeacon, are not, actually
fulfilling some function directly con-
nected with the Mass e.g., at solemn
Benediction. The maniple should be re-
tained if a sermon is preached at Mass
by one of the sacred ministers. Bishops,
abbots, and other prelates having die
use of pontificalia, do not put on the
maniple until after the Indulgentiam,
etc., after the Conftteor at the beginning
of a Mass of the living.

SACKED VESTMENTS

189

BACK

THE CHASUBLE

Modern Roman chasuble.

FRONT

Historical Notes

It is not easy to realize when looking
at a typical modern chasuble i.e., the
vestment worn by priests or bishops over
all the other garments when celebrating
Mass that in its original form it was
nothing more than a large semicircular
cloak, covering the whole body, with a
hole in the top for the head to pass
through. The primitive chasuble was not
unlike one of those waterproof capes
now worn by soldiers and cyclists.

Cloaks of this type were worn by the
middle and poorer classes who were not
legally Roman citizens, and who were
not entitled to the toga. It was known
as phenolion in Greek and paenula, or

ptaneta, in Latin. 'The cloak that I left
at Troas," mentioned by St. Paul in the
second Epistle to Timothy (4:13) was
perhaps a primitive chasuble, but the
apostle may have worn it as a rain coat
as well as when celebrating the Divine
Mysteries! Some time or other this gar-
ment was given the nickname of casula
meaning a little house or tent and no
better word could have been chosen,
for the cloak offered a place of refuge
from wind, rain, or storm.

It has been stated already that the
presbyters and bishops of the early
Church wore no distinctive uniform
when celebrating sacred functions. But
when secular fashions changed, the
Church retained clothes of an earlier
period, using them for religious pur-

190

CHURCHES: THEIR PLAN AND FURNISHING

poses only. The paenula, or planeta y had
become a garment of dignity worn by
state officials and even taking the place
of the toga. So it became the sacrificial
vestment of the Christian priesthood.

At one time it was supposed that
the primitive chasuble was completely
round, so that, if laid flat on the ground
it would form a circular disk. Subsequent
research has made it clear that the
original "little house" was invariably
bell-shaped, i.e., rather like a cope with
the front edges joined. In fact, the two
garments were in origin the same. The
open form of (the cope) was found
more convenient as a rain cloak! The
chasuble would have been made out of
a semicircle of cloth with the straight
edge folded over in the middle and the
two borders sewn together. Should the
garment have been made of any heavy
material it would have been awkward
because of the weight on the arms.

During the Middle Ages when heavier
fabrics became more common and em-
broidery more elaborate, it was almost
impossible fof the priest to raise his
hands or arms unless the deacon or
subdeacon were at his side to roll back
the chasuble. So, by degrees the chasuble
was lightened by cutting it away on the
arms; the length in front and behind
remaining practically unaltered for many
centuries. This process of shortening and
cutting away the sides to secure greater
freedom of movement went on from the
thirteenth to the seventeenth century,
until the chasuble lost all trace of its
original cloak form and assumed the
appearance of two stiffened panels
joined by shoulder straps, rather like a
modern "sandwich man's" boards. It is

worth mentioning that the rubrics of the
Roman Missal, which date from 1570,
presume that the priest will be wearing
a full and ample chasuble, such as was
still almost universal at that date. Other-
wise there would be no practical reason
for the directions to the deacon at High
Mass to lift up the edges of the chasuble
at the Elevation: 15 "the minister with his
left hand raises the edge of the hinder
portion of the chasuble lest it should
impede the celebrant in the raising of
his arms. . . ."

There are several types of the post-
Reformation chasubles which were
evolved during the seventeenth and
eighteenth centuries Italian, French,
German, and Spanish. The Italian (usu-
ally called "Roman") is rectangular
shaped at the back, extending just be-
yond the edge of the shoulders and cut
away in front, rather like a fiddle. The
back is ornamented with a broad orphrey
in the shape of a pillar. There is a broad
T-shaped cross in front, while the open-
ing for the neck is long and has a square
end. The opening at the back is slightly
pointed and not nearly so deep. The
typical French chasuble is shorter and
stiffer and has a Latin cross at the back
and a pillar in front. The Italian model
usually hangs quite loosely from the
shoulders, the Spanish type is longer
than either the French or Italian, but is
more cut away on the shoulders, so that,
from behind, the bottom appears to be
wider than the top.

The orphreys were originally nothing
more than strips of material covering the
principal seams back and front. They
served a purely practical purpose of
hiding and strengthening seams, and

SACRED VESTMENTS

191

were for ornament or to rouse pious
thoughts in the worshippers.

The so-called "Gothic" chasuble
should really be called "Gothic Re-
vival," for it has little in common
with any known mediaeval vestment,
being cut out with a front and back
shape complete, joined along the shoul-
ders and decorated with a Y-shaped
cross, leaving the seams uncovered. The
correct way to construct a real conical-
shaped chasuble is to cut out two pieces
of material and have two seams down
the back and front. To ease the set of
the shoulders a narrow yoke can be
inserted, thus making a wider shoulder
angle, and providing scope for an extra
orphrey in conjunction with the upright
pillar on the main seam. What must be
remembered is that the logical frame-
work for decoration on a chasuble is its
constructional seams. Should it be pos-
sible to obtain wide enough material
there is no reason why there should be
any seam down the back of a chasuble
or any orphrey. Conical or semicircular
chasubles look better and are easier to
wear if made without lining, in which
case the edge can be turned inwards
and hidden with a narrow braid.

No particular shape of chasuble is
prescribed by the rubrics of the Missal,
its form being determined by the general
law that governs all vestments (see
page 185 ). 16

The modern division of chasubles, ac-
cording to shape alone, into Gothic,
semi-Gothic, and Roman is both false
and unreal. Renaissance architecture did
not affect the shape of vestments, only
the style of decoration was changed. . . .
"All vestments in lawful use in countries

following the Roman rite are 'Roman/
though they may be decorated in accord-
ance with any national or individual
taste or standards provided these be
worthy." 11 Full and lowing chasubles
were being worn in Rome long after the
Basilica of St. Peter had been built and,
as has already been pointed out, were
envisaged by the compilers of the pres-
ent Roman Missal, Ritm Servandus in
Celebratione Missae and Caeremoni-
ale Episcoporum. 1 After the sixteenth
century the cutting down of vestments
proceeded much more rapidly in coun-
tries north of the Alps than around the
Mediterranean. As a matter of fact the
modern Italian chasuble is, in its decora-
tive elements, much nearer the original
garment than the so-called Gothic one.

Practical Details

The following measurements are sug-
gested for a Roman chasuble of ample
size:

Length: 42 in. (minimum)

Width at back (across shoulders): 30
or 31 in.

Width in front (across chest) : 21 in.

Width in front (at bottom) : 27 in.

Breadth of pillar and cross: 8 to 12 in.
(Including the braid which is gener-
ally about an inch wide). 20

A full, cone-shaped chasuble is made
up semicircular with a radius of 62 in.,
slightly shorter in front, about 2 in. less.
They may be mitigated to taste by cut-
ting away the sides.

The Roman chasubles that were being
worn when the Roman Missal was drawn
up at the close of the sixteenth century
were very long and reached down to the

192

CHURCHES: THEIR PLAN AND FURNISHING

heels. St. Charles Borromeo laid down
that for the province of Milan the
chasuble was never to be less than 54
in. across the widest part Le,, 27 in. at
each side of the neck. St. Charles directs
that the chasuble should be wide enough
"to make a fold at the elbows," i.e., it
should lie on the forearm and so reach
midway between elbow and wrist. What
is more, the Borromean legislation ob-
tained the formal approval of the Holy
See. 21 So, as we are recommended in
Canon Law to bear in mind "ecclesi-
astical tradition" as well as 'liturgical
laws" so far as the form and material of
vestments are concerned, this genuinely
Roman form of chasuble, such as is en-
visaged in the Raman Missal and Caere-
momale might well be revived more
often, provided that no lawful objections
are offered.

The Broad Stole and Folded

Chasuble

The so-called "broad stole," worn by
the deacon over his left shoulder from
the Gospel till after the Communion on
certain days when folded chasubles are
used at High Mass instead of a dalmatic
and tunicle, e.g., in Lent, is really
nothing more than a substitute for a
chasuble folded into a long strip, which
was the primitive practice, and which is
still provided for in the rubrics. To do
this the chasuble must be folded length-
ways before being put over the shoulder
and then fastened under into the girdle
at the right arm. The custom of using a
broad band of violet or black silk came
in during the eighteenth century when
chasubles had become so stiff that they
could not be folded. If a broad stole is

worn it should be made about 42 in.
long and from 10 to 12 in. wide. There
should be no cross on it, and it should be
quite plain. 22

In these days chasubles are folded
about half-way up in front as is ordered
in the rubrics of the Missal. 23 Originally
they were folded up at the sides, leaving
the arms free, thus having much the
same appearance as the ordinary Italian
chasuble.

THE COPE

The Latin word for cope is pluviale,
which might be translated "rain-coat."
The word cope is derived from cappa,
which was the name for this garment in
Gaul. The word cappa, again, is derived
from caput the head and refers to
the hood which was always attached
to the cope. This vestment, as the name
pluviale implies, was originally used for
purely utilitarian purposes, and was not
reserved for clerics. It was merely a
semicircular cloak made of wool and
sewn together on the breast, being
thence open to the feet. Except that it
was open in front, there was little to
distinguish the cope from the chasuble.

During the Middle Ages, the cope de-
veloped into a purely ceremonial gar-
ment and the hood degenerated into a
flat, shield-shaped appendage at the
back. The older utilitarian form, made of
black woolen stuff, was still worn closed
in front like a chasuble for outdoor use
(the closed cope or cappa clawa). The
cappa choralis or choir cope, open in
front, was worn in church over the sur-
plice by canons during cold weather.

The vestment cope is used for services
other than the Mass itself. It is also a

SACRED VESTMENTS

193

kind of **state robe** for bishops and
other prelates, worn with the mitre on
certain occasions. But it is not, like the
chasuble, the special vestment of a priest
and may also be worn by any cleric. In
some countries copes are worn by lay
cantors in choir functions, but this is an
abuse.

Copes being semicircular in form are
usually made with a perfectly straight
upper edge, but they hang far better if
shaped round the shoulders. This pre-
vents the overlapping of the lower edges
in front, and the awkward appearance
of the back of the neck sticking up in a
point. Although a semicircular cope,
made of rich embroidered velvet or
brocade with a stiff lining, does possess
a certain dignity, it must be admitted
that a thm cope with graceful folds,
well shaped on the shoulders, is more
in keeping with the original purpose of
this vestment ie., a cloak. What is
more, such a cope is far more com-
fortable to wear, although it may not
appeal to priests who prefer to follow
Roman fashions! It would seem that it is
obligatory to have a hood or flat shield
on die back of a cope if we conform to
Roman fashions. The hood may be round
or pointed, and a real hood of soft
material looks best of all. As the "ac-
cepted usage of the Church in Rome"
does not include copes of unusual shape,
it is doubtful if any of these alternative
designs is rubrically correct at the pres-
ent time. The orphreys, i.e., bands of
embroidery made of different stuff from
the ground of the vestment, should not
be made too broad. The clasp, or morse
(from morsus, "bite"), can be of the
same material as the cope itself or of

metal. However, metal clasps are not
worn in Rome. Only a prelate may wear

a jewelled morse. 24

THE DALMATIC

The dalmatic is a robe with wide
sleeves, reaching to or below the knees.
It is so called because it was originally
a tunic of Dalmatian wool, introduced
into Rome in the fourth century as an
outer garment for deacons. It was also
worn by the pope beneath his chasuble,
but for a long time bishops did not
adopt it, and then only with special
permission from the pope. It was not
until the ninth century that the dalmatic
became the recognised vestment for
deacons throughout Western Europe,
even in Gaul and Spain, where hitherto
deacons had worn only albs. Gradually
the right to wear dalmatics was extended
to abbots and other priests outside
Rome, but only on special occasions.

From the earliest representations of
dalmatics in frescoes and mosaics at
Rome and Ravenna, one realizes that the
shape of this vestment has undergone
considerable changes since the fourth
century. Originally it was a long, wide
tunic reaching to the feet, with very
wide sleeves. It was made of linen or
wool. Silk dalmatics do not seem to have
become general until about the twelfth
century. Until the tenth century, dal-
matics were white, and it was only in
countries outside Italy that coloured
dalmatics were first introduced. Eventu-
ally they were made to conform to the
colour of the chasuble worn by the priest
at High Mass.

The earliest dalmatics were adorned
with two vertical stripes of purple or

194

CHURCHES: THEIR PLAN AND FURNISHING

red material, known as clavi, and with a

band round the hem of the sleeves. As
far back as the seventh century a fringe
was sometimes added on the sleeves or
along the side slits, which had already
become common so as to make it easier
to put on the vestment. At the close of

times tassels were added to represent the
tufts of wool and fringes which were
originally on the ends of the clavi.

There are no definite rules concerning
the precise shape or size of dalmatics.
Whether the primitive, mediaeval, or
seventeenth-century French style is

Full-shaped dalmatic.

Modern Roman dalmatic.

the Middle Ages the sides of the dal-
matic were often open right up to the
sleeves. In some countries, especially in
France, the sleeves were slit open so
that they hung over the shoulders like
wings or epaulettes. But this fashion did
not appear before the seventh century,
and in Rome dalmatics have nearly
always retained the closed sleeves. There
has always been a great diversity in the
ornamentation of this vestment since the
early part of the Middle Ages." Some-
times the dalmatic was quite plain, with
no decoration. More often than not there
were two narrow strips of richer fabric
(the former clam), running from the
shoulder to the hem and united at the
bottom by two narrow cross strips. Some-

adopted is largely a matter of taste,
though it may be more in accordance
with the prevailing mentality to conform
to the traditional modern Roman form. 25
On the other hand, a long vestment,
reaching well below the knees, with
ample sleeves coming below the elbow
or even to the wrists is in keeping with
ecclesiastical tradition, 26 and is probably
the most satisfactory kind of dalmatic.
In order that it should hang gracefully,
it is better not to have a stiff lining.
There is no reason to have any lining, for
that matter.

The dimensions for a dalmatic of the
Roman shape are: 27
Length: 48 in. (at least)
Breadth under the arms: 24 in.

SACRED VESTMENTS

195

Breadth at the bottom: 38 In.

Width of sleeves: 14 in.

Length of sleeves: 18 in.

A dalmatic of the "primitive" shape
should be at least 50 in. from neck to
bottom hem, with a width of 50 in. at
the bottom. The sleeves should extend to
the wrists, or at least half-way between
the elbow and wrists of a normal-sized
man.

THE TUNICLE

The tunic, or tunicle, is a vestment
worn by the subdeacon at High Mass
and at other functions. Originally the
subdeacon wore an alb, but at one time
or other a simpler form of over-tunic
was adopted which came to be hardly
distinguishable from a dalmatic, except
that the sleeves were generally longer
and narrower, and there was less orna-
mentation. The early history of the sub-
deacon's tunicle is somewhat obscure,
and there was a great diversity of usage
before the ninth century. The tunicle is
worn by bishops under the dalmatic
when celebrating pontifical Mass. In this
instance, both dalmatic and tunicle are
made of very thin, unlined silk for
greater convenience. The tunicles worn
in the Roman basilicas are usually almost
identical with the dalmatics; in fact,
interchangeable. However, in some
churches one finds tunicles with longer
and narrower sleeves and no ornamental
bands between the clam. In pre-
Reformation times it was very common
for the clerk who carried the cross to
wear a tunicle, and this vestment was
also worn by servers and thurifers.

The following are the dimensions for a
tunicle of the traditional Roman shape: 28

Length: 42 in. (at least)
Breadth under arms: 24 in.
Breadth at bottom: 36 in.
Sleeves perhaps 2 in. shorter and
narrower than those in dalmatic.

THE AMICE

The amice is a square or oblong piece
of linen, and is the first vestment to be
put on by the priest when vesting for
Mass. Some litur gists are of the opinion
that the amice used to be a large
handkerchief, worn to protect the richer
vestments from the perspiration which in
hot countries may stream from the face
and neck. Others say that it was a sort
of muffler which could be drawn up over
the head to form a kind of hood, as a
protection either against the cold or
against the sun. The truth seems to
consist in the combination of both
theories. The amice (from amictus&
loose wrap or scarf) could be used for
either purpose as a neckcloth or a
head-covering.

Nowadays the amice merely lies over
the neck and upper part of the shoulders.
But there is a rubric in the Roman Missal
that orders the priest to lay the amice on
his head for a moment, before tucking it
round his neck. This proves that this
vestment was originally, at least in some
cases, a head-covering. Many of the
older religious orders, too, including
most Benedictine congregations, still put
the amice over the hood of their habit,
and in some cases, it is made to fit the
hood. 29

The size of an amice should be about
36 by 24 in., not less, to allow for the
double fold when worn. Tapes should
be attached to the two uppermost cor-

Mediaeval vestments (from A. W. Pugin's Glossary of
Ecclesiastical Ornament and Costume, London, 1846).

Modern "futt-shaped" vestments (Prinknash Abbey, England).

Modern Roman dalmatic and chasuble.

Contrasts in copes and mitres.

Alk

Folded chasuble.

Mediaeval Broad stale,
chasuble.

Surplice*

French chasuble. Dalmatic.

Modern French
dalmatic.

Gothic-Revival Modern Roman
chasuble. chasuble.

Primitive
mitre.

19th century
French mitre.

Cotta.

Mediaeval
mitre.

Primitive
chasuble.

200

CHUBCHES: THEIR PLAN AND FUBNISHING

ners, in order to tie it round the body,
and these tapes should be at least 4
ft. long, even 6 ft. is quite convenient.
The amice may be of plain linen or
embroidered. 30

THE AUB

The alb is a white linen garment with
close-fitting sleeves. It reaches to the
feet. The name "alb" is a contraction of
the Latin name tunica alba a, white
tunic and the garment is derived from
the white tunic (at first made of wool,
later of linen) that was part of the ordi-
nary secular attire among the Greeks
and Romans during the first centuries
of Christianity. Until the middle of the
eleventh century, the alb was worn by
all grades of clerics when taking part in
ecclesiastical functions. It was also worn
by monks in choir on great festivals.
During the Middle Ages albs were fre-
quently made of silk or cloth of gold,
and seem to have been of any colour, in
spite of the name "alb" (white) and
were regarded as a sort of under-tunic.
As time went on the surplice or rochet
took the place of the alb for choir func-
tions, the latter being chiefly worn at
Mass.

There are two shapes of albs in use at
the present time. In the one (the sack
shape), the width is the same at the top
and bottom; in the other, the top part
above the waist is narrower and made
with gussets and the lower part is made
wide. The former is perhaps the most
convenient as it can be worn by any
priest, no matter what may be his build.
An alb is more practical if fastened at
the neck with a button; tapes have a way
of getting into a knot. Again, the alb

may have a round neck opening without
either button or tapes, sufficiently large
for the alb to be passed over the head.
The rubrics of the Roman Missal 31 as
well as those of the Coeremonuile Epfe-
coporum 32 emphasize that the alb should
be made long enough, presuming that
it will be raised up round the waist when
girded.

Albs may be ornamented in three
ways, although the rubrics do not imply
that this is necessary: 33 (1) by lace sewn
onto the cuffs and lower part of the skirt;
(2) by coloured embroidery round the
cuffs and lower part; (3) apparels like
those described in connection with the
amice. The same objection to putting
apparels on amices applies to albs: i.e.,
they are no longer the "accepted usage
of the Church in Rome/' 34 Some authori-
ties maintain that apparelled albs should
not be introduced "without consulting
the Apostolic See/' But here again, this
form of decoration of an alb may be a
matter of individual preference. It is
not specifically mentioned by the Sacred
Congregation of Rites.

If lace is used it is better to have a
foundation of silk or stuff which should
be of the same colour as that of the
cassock of the wearer. 35 A simple priest
ought not to be mistaken for a prelate
by patches of purple showing through
his alb! Still, a coloured foundation is
tolerated. Open-work lace albs are often
dangerous garments, especially if too
long for the wearer, for it is easy for
him to put his foot through the lace.
Moreover, lace on vestments is a sign of
rank, for which reason it is used by
prelates on their rochets. 36 So it is not
really suitable for ordinary priests. At

SACRED VESTMENTS

201

Surplices,

Rome ordinary priests usually have a
very narrow border of lace on their albs.
Embroidery can be made to look very
effective if the right sort of design is
used. It can be of any colour, not neces-
sarily in red or blue thread. Apparels
can be tacked onto the sleeves and on
the front and back of the lower part of
the skirt, immediately along the hem.
They should be about 8 by 10 or 12 in.
in size, or longer, if preferred, and
should be of the same material and
colour as on the apparel of the amice.

THE GIRDLE OR CINCTURE

The alb, like the old Roman tunic, is
girded with a cincture which is now
usually made in the form of a cord with
tassels or fringes at each end. Formerly
it was often a flat band of embroidered
silk, and secured with a clasp or buckle.
A sash is no longer tolerated by the
Sacred Congregation of Rites. 37 The

girdle may be made of any material, but
silk is reserved for prelates. 18 It is usually
white, but it should be of the same
colour as the vestments." The length
may vary from 12 to 14 ft. Tassels of any
size can be worn, according to individual
preference!

THE SURPIICE

The surplice is a form of the alb aad
is a large-sleeved linen garment reaching
to well below the knee. It was worn in
England and France as early as the
eleventh century. The name is derived
from the two Latin words super (above)
and petticea (fur-clothing), since it was
worn over the fur-lined tunics which
were a practical necessity in the days
when churches were not heated in win-
ter. Its loose shape and large sleeves are
probably accounted for by its use, for a
narrow-sleeved, fitted garment would not
have gone over a heavy fur-lined coat.
The surplice does not appear to have
been worn in Rome until the thirteenth
century, and the cotta is now worn in
most Roman churches.

The early surplices came down to the
feet, and up to the time of the Reforma-
tion always reached well below the knee
and hung in very loose folds. By the
end of the eighteenth century this once
flowing garment had shrunk to such an
extent that it hardly reached to the hips.
In some places the sleeves disappeared
altogether; elsewhere they were slit up
the sides. Or again there were sleeveless
surplices, open right up the side, rather
like scapulars. Lastly there was a curious
form without any sleeves, rather like a
very full chasuble, which was worn in
Italy during the sixteenth and seven-

202

CHURCHES: THEIR PLAN AND FURNISHING

teenth centuries. The sudden develop-
ment of the lace industry all over Europe
in the sixteenth century led to the sleeves
and hem of the surplices being adorned
with this new and fashionable material.
In later years it was not uncommon to
find more lace than linen in a surplice.

A well-cut surplice should reach to
about 6 in. above the feet. Even in its
most abbreviated form it looks better if
it extends several inches below the knees.

It should be made very full, having
a circumference of about 4% yd. at the
bottom. The sleeves should be almost the
same length as the hem of the skirt.
Smocking round the opening adds to the
effect, but is not essential. There should
not be any slit in front, but the opening
should be made large enough to come
about half-way down the shoulders of
the wearer.

THE COTTA

The Roman cotta is a later develop-
ment of the mediaeval surplice much
shorter and less ample. The sleeves only
reach to the elbow. Both sleeves and
hem are often decorated with lace.
Roman cottas are usually slightly
starched and then compressed into nar-
row folds, i.e., goffered. Lawn is some-
times used instead of linen and it is
common to have an opening in front
with tapes or ribbons. The reason why
the cotta should be worn in preference
to a surplice is that it happens to be
"the recognised usage of the Church in
Rome/* It certainly costs less than a full
surplice, unless it is adorned with ex-
pensive lace, and there are those who
prefer its abbreviated shape to that of
the full surplice. 40 On the other hand.

Roman cottas.

it is the surplice which is invariably
ordered by the rubrics which do not
mention the cotta. So it would seem that
the former may be the more "correct"
vestment! A Roman cotta is T shaped,
about 24 in. in length, exclusive of lace
about 1 in. wide. The sleeves are 17 in.
long, exclusive of lace, and about 32 in.
in circumference. The shoulder pieces
are about 4M in. square, edged with
narrow lace; the circumference of the
body, about 8 ft. 8 in.

THE ROCHET

The rochet (from the German rock
a tunic or coat), like the surplice, is an
adaptation of the alb, but while shorter
than the latter it has tight-fitting sleeves.
In the Middle Ages these were made
very tight, and so long that they had
to be wrinkled up the arm. The rochet

SACRED VESTMENTS

203

is worn by the pope, cardinals, bishops,
other prelates and canons, and also now
by abbots. Formerly religious bishops
and abbots did not wear the rochet. It is
usually adorned with lace on the cuffs
and the lower edge, the depth of the
lace depending on the dignity of the
wearer. As in the case of the surplice,
a rochet of plain linen is a more digni-
fied garment, especially if it is made
long enough to fall below the knees.
The same rules as to a coloured founda-
tion for lace on the alb apply to the
rochet.

THE BIRETTA

The biretta is a square cap with three
or four ridges or peaks on its upper sur-
face, generally surmounted with a silk
tuft. During earlier ages clerics used to
wear a hood as well as a cap. This hood
was a separate article of dress in itself,
and consisted of the part covering the
head, to which was attached a short
cape covering the shoulders. The head-
piece of the hood was peaked at the
back to make it easier to pull it off the
head. This peak was lengthened during
the fourteenth century and became the
long tail-like appendage called the
"liripipe." In the sixteenth century, the
liripipe was separated from the hood
and was worn round the neck, like a
scarf which, in fact, it became. 41

When the hood ceased to be a head-
covering and became a mark of distinc-
tion, the cap took its place as part of
the choir habit of the secular clergy. In
the twelfth and up to the fifteenth cen-
tury this cap was round, rather like an
old-fashioned "smoking cap." In the
sixteenth century it became square and
was made with two or three folds on

the top, to make it easier to take off. It
also had a small button or tuft for the
same reason. Finally, the square cap
developed into the modern biretta. It is
interesting to note that the "mortar-
board" cap, worn by university students,
is really nothing more than the medi-
aeval form of biretta, flattened out, with
a skull-cap (often worn as well as the
square cap or biretta) sewn onto It.

Cardinals wear red birettas; bishops
violet. Domestic prelates have a violet
tuft on their black birettas. Certain
canons regular, Cistercian abbots, and
the Benedictine abbot of Prinknash,
wear white birettas. The colour for ordi-
nary priests is black.

A four-pointed, crown-like biretta is
used by the Spanish and German clergy
and by some teaching brothers.

NOTE. It might be a good thing if
modern churches were provided with
iron pegs to hang up the birettas, as
prescribed by St. Charles, for every
altar (Instructions, Chap. XV, par. 3).
He says that these pegs should be on
the Epistle side, near the "cruet niche,**
about 2 ft. 9 in. from the pavement, and
recommends that they should be orna-
mented in some way "especially in
brass," at the point where they are fixed
in the wall. Such pegs would prevent the
risk of the servers stepping on them
when they are left on the floor of the
sanctuary!

THE HUMEBAL VEIL

The humeral veil is a long scarf, meas-
uring about 8 to 9 ft. long by 20 to 36
in. wide. It is worn by the priest at
Benediction and by the subdeacon at
High Mass. The ends are used to hold

204

CHUKCHES: THEDR PLAN ANB F0BNISHING

either the paten or monstrance. The
humeral veil also covers the sacred
vessels, etc., which are laid out on the
credence table during the first part of
High Mass. It should be made of silk,
though originally it was linen. 42 Neither
ornamentation nor clasp is necessary,
though both are usually added, A clasp
helps the subdeacon to keep the veil on
his shoulders.

It would seem that the humeral veil
did not make its appearance in the
Roman Ritual before the latter part of
the Middle Ages, although it was used
in other parts of Europe as early as the
eighth century. It was mentioned, under
the name of sindon > in the oldest Roman
Ordo, when it was worn not by the sub-
deacon, but by acolytes who had charge
of the sacred vessels. The vimpa an-
other form of humeral veil, now worn
by clerks of the mitre and crozier at
pontifical ceremonies, is the survival of
the veil worn by acolytes from about the
eighth century. Vimpas are usually made
of silk and should always be white,
although it is fairly common to make
them correspond to the colours of the
vestments. It is believed that the extremi-
ties of the surplice were formerly used to
hold the crozier and mitre, and that the
present vimpa only came into existence
when the surplice was reduced in size.

CHALICE VEIL AND BURSE

The chalice veil and burse did not
become general until the sixteenth cen-
tury. Until that time the chalice was
often brought to the altar in a bag, A
chalice veil should be large enough to
cover an average-sized chalice, i.e., from
22 to 30 in. square. It may be adorned

with a cross, but this is not recom-
mended. It necessitates always folding
the veil in the same direction, hence it
wears out quicker.

The burse, known in mediaeval Eng-
land as a "corporal case/* is a case or
purse in which the folded corporal is
carried to and from the altar. It is not
definitely known when it first came into
use, but it was not until the seventeenth
century that it became obligatory.

A burse of average size should be
about 9 to 12 in. square. It is usually
made of two pieces of cardboard, fixed
together on three sides. The outer sides
are covered with silk of the same ma-
terial and colour of the vestments; the
inner part with linen. It can be made
with or without gussets, and may have
a cross on one of the outer sides. Roman
burses never have gussets.

PONTIFICAL VESTMENTS AND
INSIGNIA

In addition to the ordinary vestments
worn by a priest, a bishop when cele-
brating pontifical High Mass wears
buskins, sandals, pectoral cross, tunicle,
dalmatic, mitre, gloves, and ring. Should
the bishop be the Ordinary of the dio-
cese he also carries a crozier. When
sitting down his knees are covered with
a gremial veil. When entering or leaving
the church the Ordinary wears a mozzet-
ta, a cappa magna, rochet, cassock, and
biretta. Any other bishop wears a man-
telletta and has not the privilege of a
cappa magna.

1. Buskins are really ceremonial stock-
ings reaching to the knees and put on
over the ordinary, violet, silk stockings.
They are made of silk, often richly em-

SACRED VESTMENTS

205

broidered. At one time they were worn
by ordinary priests, but since the eighth
century have been exclusive to bishops
and more recently to certain minor
prelates. The buskins usually conform to
the colour of the vestments worn at
Mass, but they are not worn when black
vestments are used.

2. Sandals, such as are now worn
by bishops, are really low shoes, with
leather soles and upper parts of silk
or velvet, usually embroidered. Like
buskins the colour of the sandals con-
forms to that of the vestments. A bishop
does not wear sandals either at requiem
Masses or on Good Friday. Both sandals
and buskins seem to be very ancient
vestments, and appear in mosaics of the
fifth and sixth centuries. Originally the
footgear were real sandals, i.e., covering
only the tip of the foot and the heel,
being fastened with straps. Sandals be-
came part of the special pontifical vest-
ments about the tenth century, and in
the twelfth century their use was also
granted to abbots. The present shape
dates from the sixteenth century.

3. So far as is known the pectoral cross
did not become an official ornament for
bishops until the seventeenth century.
Crosses were worn by every Christian
man and woman in very early days, but
out of private devotion and hidden under
the upper garments. The original private
character of the pectoral cross is still
shown by the fact that the pope, when
wearing his red mozzetta over the rochet,
never uses the pectoral cross. The latter
is only worn by him over the white cas-
sock of everyday life. Again, bishops,
when pontificating at Mass, wear the
cross under their upper vestments. Be-

sides cardinals, bishops, abbots, and ab-
besses, certain other prelates now wear
this cross. There are definite rales as to
the metal of which the cross is made,
and as to the cord or chain from which
it is hung round the neck. But in prac-
tice these rules are not observed very
carefully. A bishop's pectoral cross usu-
ally contains relics erf martyrs.

4 Special rings seem, to have been
worn by bishops as part of their insignia
from about the seventh century. These
rings have been worn on the fourth
finger of the right hand since the ninth
century. The ring is worn outside the
gloves when a bishop is pontificating,
for which reason a special ring of larger
size than normally worn is sometimes
used. Many other prelates besides
bishops are now permitted to wear a
ring, e.g., cardinals who are not bishops,
abbots, and protonotaries, as well as
canons in some dioceses. Protonotaries
can only wear rings out of Rome. Medi-
aeval bishops often wore other rings in
addition to their episcopal one, and it
is interesting to note that the Caeremo-
niale Episcoporum makes provision for
this practice.

5. Gloves are worn by a bishop when
celebrating pontifical High Mass, up to
the Offertory. They are made of silk,
and are generally embroidered on the
back and on the wrists. The colour of the
gloves must correspond with the liturgi-
cal colour of the vestments. They are
not worn for requiem Masses or on Good
Friday. Episcopal gloves were first worn
at Rome during the tenth century, but
were used earlier in France. The prob-
able reason for their introduction is likely
to have been ceremonial rather than

206

CHURCHES: THEIR PLAN AND FURNISHING

Pontifical vestments.

practical. Until the latter part of the
Middle Ages episcopal gloves were white
in colour and generally knitted. The
privilege of wearing gloves began to be
granted to abbots and other prelates
during the eleventh century.

6. The mitre is a kind of folding cap.
It is made up of two parts of equal
shape, each stiffened by a lining and
rising to a peak. The two parts are sewn
together at the sides, but joined above
by thin material that can fold together.
There are two lappets (infulae) hanging
down from the back, usually with fringed
ends. Much has been written concerning
the history and antiquity of the mitre. It
is enough to say that this episcopal head-
dress is derived from a soft, round cap
with a circular band tied round the base
with pendent ends at the back, worn by
bishops from about the dose of the
eleventh century. This cap was itself
derived from a non-liturgical head-

covering worn by the popes as early as
the eighth century which, later, devel-
oped into the tiara or triple crown. So
great has been the transformation of
the mitre during the past eight hundred
years that it is almost impossible to
realize that there can be any connection
between the original round cap and
the tower-like mitres of the eighteenth
century. First came a dent in the middle
of the soft cap, just like the dent
made in the crown of a modern felt
hat; then the dents and puffs on each
side became permanent features with-
out which no self-respecting bishop
would have dreamed of wearing his
mitre any more than a modern male
would dream of wearing a Trilby hat
without a dent in the crown, unless he
wished to be eccentric. Sometime during
the twelfth century a bishop must have
had a brain wave and turned his mitre
round, so that the puffs came at the

SACKED VESTMENTS

207

front and back, instead of at the sides.
From now onwards the evolution was
rapid, although not consistent in every
part of Western Europe, The puffs be-
came horns, ending in points, stiffened
with parchment, making an ideal surface
to be covered with embroidery and
jewels. Higher and higher grew the
mitres until by the seventeenth century
they arrived at the shape of a bishop"
in a set of chess-men or a British guards-
man's "bearskin" with diagonal sides
and curved horns.

The earliest mitres were always white,
but during the Middle Ages mitres were
made in all colours, the more ornate
being decorated with precious stones
and metal as well as embroidery. The
Caeremoniale distinguishes three grades
of mitres: (1) the precious made of
cloth of gold or white silk, and adorned

with jewels; (2) the gold- made of
plain cloth of gold originally white silk
with gold bands (orphreys); (8) the
simple made of white silk or linen and
with lappets fringed with red. The use
of these three mitres is determined by
the rubrics. Cardinals, bishops, abbots,
and certain other dignitaries e.g., pro-
tonotaries apostolic have the right to
wear mitres, but only out of Rome in
the latter instance.

There is no definite legislation about
the size and shape of mitres. Some
bishops prefer the tall mitre on account
of its imposing appearance; others like a
soft squat one because it is more
comfortable and easier to keep on. Some
say this episcopal head-dress cannot be
too low; others say it can hardly be tall
enough! So there we must leave the
matter.

NOTES

1. At one time it was supposed that there
was a definite connection between the vest-
ments worn by Jewish priests under the Old
Covenant and Christian priestly vestments. But
there is no evidence to prove this theory, which
was only put forth in the Middle Ages by ec-
clesiastical writers. For a short time and only in
certain places, an ornament directly copied from
the Jewish high priest's breast-plate was worn
by bishops, on the chasuble.

2. During the past war, French chaplains
often said Mass in the trenches, wearing their
uniform and only a stole over their shoulders.

3. Rit. Cel Miss., I, n. 2.

4. C.J.C. 1297, 3,

5. S.R.C. 4398. See O'Conndl, The Cele-
bration of Mass, Bk. I, pp. 259, 265, 266.

6. O'Connell, op. cit., p. 268, n. 34.

7. The first Roman colour sequence was
drawn up by Pope Innocent III ( 1198-1216). It
was printed! in Burckard's Ordo Missae in 1502,
and was made obligatory in the General Ru-
brics of the Missal of 1570.

8. S.R.C. 2704, ad 4; 2769, ad 5; 2986, ad
5; 3191, ad 4.

9. Cf. Stercky, Manuel de Liturgie, I, p.
78, note.

10. S.R.C. 3145; 3191, ad 4; 3646, ad 2 and
3.

11. S.R.C. 4084, ad 3.

12. S.R.C. 2675; 2682, ad 50; 2799, ad 5.

13. Which in turn goes back to ffrfaij.

14. Rit Cel Miss., I, 3.

15. Rub. Cel Mis*., c. VIII, 8.

16. C O'Connell, The Celebration of Mass,
Bk. I, p. 265. Nothing could be more foreign
to the mind of the Church than a rigid pinning
down of the whole Catholic world to a national
or "period" style which, even though Roman,
is local, and especially in these days when the
Holy See is so strongly urging, not only a native
clergy, but also a native art in missionary coun-
tries. As Father Martindale, S.J., has pointed
out, a stiff garment without folds is entirely
foreign to the mind of an African native. So it
is more than likely that sooner or later the
present legislation may be modified in favour
of full vestments. The attitude of the authorities
of the Sacred Congregation of Rites towards the
whole matter may be understood from the fol-
lowing incident related by the rector of one of
the national colleges in Rome. He was pre-
sented with a full chasuble, but before he ven-
tured to wear it, went to the S.R.C. to obtain

208

GHUBCHES: THEIR FLAN AND FURNISHING

permission. "'Had you asked permission before
the chasuble had been made, perhaps we
should have refused it/' was the reply, "But as
you have actually been given such a vestment
we cannot very well forbid you to wear it or to
have it altered!"

17. James, Raymond, Origin and Develop-
ment of Roman Liturgical Vestments, p. 19.

18. VIII, 6, 8.

19. L. II, c. VIII, n. 19.

20. Directions for Altar Societies, 4 ed., p.
58.

21. Cf. James, op. cti., p. 20.

22. S.R.C. 3006, ad 7.

23. Rub. Cel Miss., XIX, 6.

24. Caer. Ep.

25. S.R.C. 4398.

26. C.J.C. 1296, 2.

27. Directions for Altar Societies, 4 ed.,
p. 60.

28. Ibid.

29. When this hood-form of the amice is
worn, it takes the place of a biretta.

30. Apparels, i.e., pieces of coloured brocade
or other rich material tacked lightly to the
linen, so that they can be taken off when the
amice is sent to the wash are an effective
decoration. But it is doubtful if apparels can
be made to square with the Decree 4398 which
forbids the revival of an old type of vestment,
without consulting the Apostolic See (see p.
185). They are not "the recognised usage of
the Church in Rome/* although still worn at
Milan, Lyons, and in Spain. On the other hand,
since apparels are a decoration and not a vest-
ment, does this decree affect them?

Apparels were very popular in the Middle
Ages and seem to have originated in France,

but gave way to lace in the sixteenth century.
The dimensions of an amice apparel should be
about 29 in. by 3 in. It should lie close up to
the edge of the amice, equidistant from the
tapes. There should be an interlining of canvas
and a lining of linen, also a cord or braid round
the outside edges. There is no reason why the
apparel should conform to the liturgical
colour of the vestment worn, for it is merely
a decoration. Any colour that looks well with
the particular vestment will serve, and bits of
brocade or gold tissue with a bold pattern are
as good as anything. When the apparelled
amice has been arranged round the neck, it
must be kept on the head until the chasuble
or other upper vestment has been put on. The
apparel forms a collar, hiding the white linen
entirely, except in front. As the amice has to be
kissed before it is put on* a small cross is some-
times embroidered in the middle of the top
between the tapes. Rit. Serv. Miss. } I, 3; Caer.
Ep., L. I, c. IX, n. 1.

31. Rub. Cel. Miss. 9 i, 3.

32. Caer. Ep., c. VIII, n. 13.

33. S.R.C. 3191, ad 5; 3780, ad 5; 3804, ad
12.

34. S.R.C. 4398.

35. S.R.C. 3780, ad 5; 4048, ad 7; 4186,
ad 3.

36. S.R.C. 4154.

37. S.R.C. 4048, ad 6.

38. S.R.C. 2067, ad 7; 3118.

39. S.R.C. 2194, ad 3.

40. S.R.C. 4398.

41. It is still thus worn by the Anglican
clergy.

42. Caer. Ep., L. I, c. X, n. 5; L. II, c. XXIII,
n. 3; c. XXXIII, n. 14.

CHAPTER XIX

OTHER CEREMONIAL ACCESSORIES

The following ceremonial accessories
are required by churches where the
normal functions of the liturgy are
carried out in full: thurible and incense
boat; holy-water vat and sprinkler;
acolytes* candlesticks and torches; pro-
cessional cross; canopy for the Blessed
Sacrament and simple canopy (ombrel-
lina); paschal candle and candlestick;
triple candle and candlestick; funeral
candlesticks; funeral pall or hearse-cloth;
bier or hearse; Tenebrae candlestick; urn
for altar of repose; Gospel lectern; ban-
ners; faldstool. In a small church only
the first four are really essential, unless
the ceremonies of Holy Week are carried
out.

THURDBUE AND INCENSE BOAT

Historical Notes

Although the first Christians used in-
cense for embalming the dead and for
other purposes, it seems that it was not
employed as a ceremonial accessory of
worship until the third or fourth cen-
tury. Incense was first burned at Chris-
tian funerals, and is thus mentioned by
St. John Chrysostom, 1 and St. Hilary of
Aries. 2 But the first reference to incense
being used in connection with the
Eucharist is in Origen 3 (d. c. 254),
although some critics maintain that the
reference is purely metaphorical. "At
first incense was used only in processions.
Incense carried before some great person
as a sign of honour was a familiar idea
in the first centuries. It was carried be-

fore consuls; so Christians, with the
development of the idea of ritual splen-
dour, carried it before their bishop. From
that to incensing persons is but a step.
As it was swung before a bishop in pro-
cession, so it would naturally be waved
before him at his throne. Then, accepted
as a sign of respect like bowing and
kneeling, it would be applied symboli-
cally to things, especially to the altar
throne as type of Christ." 4

By the seventh century we come across
references to incense being burned in
churches on saints* days, of special cen-
sers being made and offered to churches.

The earliest type of censers were
shaped like urns or vases, and often
stood on the ground. Then a handle was
added, next a perforated cover, and
finally chains were introduced about the
eleventh century for obvious reasons of
convenience. Since then there has been
little change in the shape of censers.

Shape, Size., and Material

Neither the rubrics of the Missal and
Caeremoniale Episcoporum nor the de-
crees of the Sacred Congregation of Rites
have anything to say about the form
and material of the censer and incense
boat.

A censer consists of a cup and bowl,
supported on a base. Into the cup is
fitted a hollow, movable pan for holding
the lighted charcoal, onto which the
grains of incense are sprinkled. Fitting
onto the cup is a perforated lid. Rings

209

210

CHURCHES: THEIR PLAN AND FURNISHING

are fixed to both the cup and the lid,
and through them are inserted three
chains, about three feet long, which are
attached to a convex disk, in the top of
which is a large ring which serves as a
handle .for the thurifer by which to hold
it. A fourth chain, with a ring at the
upper end, is attached to the top of the
cover, and made fast to the disk through
a hole, so that the cover can be lifted to
put in the incense.

In the French type of thurible, gener-
ally used in Great Britain, the four
chains are encircled by a movable ring
to keep them together. In the Roman
type there is no ring, and the chains are
loose. Censers can be of any size, but
small ones are much more convenient to
handle, especially for small servers! 5

Incense is usually kept in a small,
boat-shaped metal vessel, fitted with a
lid. If the spoon is like an ordinary
dessert spoon there is less likelihood that
the incense will be spilt than when a flat
spoon is used.

A pair of small tongs, kept in the
sacristy, will prevent the thurifer from
soiling his hands when lighting the char-
coal, which is best heated in a small wire
basket with a handle, held over a candle,
electric stove, or gas jet.

There has always been a great variety
in the material of which censers are
made. Gold, silver, copper, brass, and
even iron have been used.

Incense

Incense is an aromatic gum or sap,
obtained from certain resinous trees.

In Rome nothing else but gum
olibanum pure incense is used in
churches. It has the advantage of being

cheaper than any mixed form, and is less
stuffy and sickly than fancy mixtures.
Other ingredients used are gum benzoin,
myrrh, cascarilla bark, red sandalwood,
Chinese cinnamon, and rosin. Benzoin
should be avoided as its fumes some-
times affect certain people.

For the ceremony of the consecration
of bells, the rubrics of the Pontificate
order "tiniana" and myrrh to be burnt.
A special thurible, without chains and
with a hinged cover, should be used at
this function.

HOLY- WATER VAT AND SPRINKLER

It is ordered in the Roman Missal
(Ordo ad faciendam aquam bene-
dictam) that, on Sunday, salt and water
shall be blessed in the sacristy, and that
the celebrant of the principal Mass shall
sprinkle the congregation with the
blessed water before Mass, according to
the rite in the Missal. A holy- water vessel
and sprinkler are needed for this func-
tion as for many other ceremonies, e.g.,
the blessing of the ashes on Ash Wednes-
day, of candles on the Feast of the Puri-
fication, and for use at funerals and
solemn Requiems.

This ceremony goes back to at least
the tenth century, and should never be
omitted without proper authority, except
before pontifical Mass. 6 When the
Blessed Sacrament is exposed the altar
is not sprinkled.

The vessel for the holy water should
be a small metal pail with a handle
silver, bronze, brass, or copper. The
inside surface should be of material that
will not corrode easily. The Roman form
of vat (secchiello) is generally low and
broad; the French type is deeper.

OTHER CEREMONIAL ACCESSORIES

In earlier ages branches of hyssop,
palm, and boxwood, wisps of straw, and
even the tail of a fox were used as
aspersona. About the thirteenth century
a rod surmounted with bristles was in-
troduced, some of the handles being
richly ornamented. The usual modern
form of sprinkler consists of a short
handle with a round metal knob, pierced
with holes, containing a sponge. It can
be unscrewed. Sometimes a brush on a
metal handle is used.

THE PROCESSIONAL CROSS

Each church should possess at least
one processional crucifix. The inclusive
length of the staff and cross should be
about 6 ft. 8 in. It is more convenient
to have the staff made of wood, metal
being heavier and more costly. There
is no* reason why the whole should not
be made of wood and painted, for a
cheap brass crucifix can look very
shoddy.

The cross should be made to take off
the staff, for it is carried without it at
the burial of an infant ( Rit. Rom. ) . If the
top of the cross is made of metal it
should be kept covered when not in
use, to keep off dust and to prevent
tarnishing.

It is a pity that the combination of
akar and processional cross which was
very common in the Middle Ages is
nowadays rubrically incorrect, for the
crucifix now placed on the altar is de-
rived from the cross carried at the head
of the procession during the singing of
the lotroit at Mass. This cross, on the
arrival of the sacred ministers in the
sanctuary, was placed behind or at one
side of the altar. Even to-day in the

basilicas of Rome the cross carried be-
fore the Chapter going processionally
from the sacristy to the choir is always
placed near the alter (usually by the
credence) during the celebration of
Mass.

THE CANOPY FOB THE BLESSED
SACRAMENT

For processions of the Blessed Sacra-
ment a canopy of sOk or other rich
material, and supported by at least four
poles at each corner (there may be six
or eight if the canopy is very large) is
essential. In Rome it is known as a
baldaquin. The colour should be gold
or white, so far as the groundwork is
concerned, but it can be adorned with
any kind of embroidery or decoration.
In some places in Italy it is customary
to use a purple canopy for the procession
on Good Friday, and a red one for pro-
cessions with a relic of the true cross or
other relics of the Passion. But the use
of a purple canopy is quite incorrect.

Simple Canopy (Ombrettino)

When the Blessed Sacrament is carried
from one part of the church to another
a special kind of umbrella (ombrellino)
made of white silk and ornamented with
a deep gold fringe is used. The handle
is much longer than that of an ordinary
umbrella, and the top is flat, not conical,
for the ribs are not flexible.

ACOLYTES' CANDLESTICKS AND
TORCHES

Acolytes* candlesticks may be of any
size or material so long as they are con-
venient to hold. In Rome it is the custom
for the acolytes at High Mass to carry
candlesticks similar in design to those

212

CHURCHES: THEIR PLAN AND FURNISHING

on the altar, and when not in use they
stand on tibe credence table. This is
historically correct, for, as explained
(page 106), the altar candlesticks are
really acolytes' candlesticks placed on
the altar. Now they are the double of
the latter.

The best material for processional
torches is gilded or painted wood. They
should be about 3 ft. 9 in. high. Bases,
if used, should be made separate and
well weighted. This enables the shafts
of the torches to be dropped into the
bases and lifted out. Strictly speaking,
a torch should not resemble a candle-
stick. In Rome a torch usually consists of
four candles stuck together, with four
wicks making a large flame. They are
carried in before the Consecration at
High Mass, eight being used on great
festivals.

For outdoor processions and funerals,
swinging glass lanterns, fixed to staves
by means of U-shaped brackets, are
useful.

THE PASCHAL CANDLE AND
CANDLESTICK

The paschal candle, blessed at the
solemn service on Easter eve and lighted
at High Mass and vespers until Ascen-
sion Day, is a most ancient accessory of
worship. There is a reference to a form
of blessing of a candle, suggestive of
the Exsultet in the Roman liturgy, in
one of the letters of St. Jerome, 7 and it
is mentioned again and again by the
early Fathers of the Church. The Vener-
able Bede tells us that in 701 it was
the custom in Rome to inscribe the date
and other particulars of the calendar,
either on a parchment affixed to the

candle or painted on the surface of the
wax. This is still done in the Cistercian
rite.

In many churches in Italy the paschal
candlestick is a permanent structure of
marble, erected in the sanctuary. During
the Middle Ages the candlestick in-
creased in size, and was known as the
"paschal post." At Salisbury Cathedral
(1517) it was 36 ft. in height, and at
Westminster Abbey in 1558, during th
reign of Queen Mary, more than three
hundredweight of wax was used for the
candle.

Few churches are able to afford an
elaborate paschal candlestick, and there
is something undignified in the typical
lacquered brass of commerce. The best
plan is to have one made of wood,
painted, and gilded. It should not be
less than 6 ft. in height.

The material of the candle must be
bees-wax, according to the percentage
determined by the bishop of each dio-
cese. 8 It is important to make sure that
grains of incense have been inserted into
the small disks sometimes used. (The
disks are quite unnecessary as small
"blobs" of incense will readily adhere
when heated. ) It is not obligatory to use
a new paschal candle every year. 9 Five
new grains of incense must be inserted
each' Easter eve. At Rome five "pine-
cones" are stuck or screwed into the
paschal candle: the centre one painted
gold, the other four silver. Grains of
incense are stuck onto these.

TRIPLE CANDLE AND CANDLESTICK

A triple candlestick is needed during
the ceremonies on Holy Saturday,
although the wording of the rubrics of

OTHER CEREMONIAL ACCESSORIES

213

the Caeremaniale Episcoporurn and the
Missal imply that all that is needed is
a rod with three candles temporarily
fastened together at the top: "Praepare-
tur arundo cum tribus candelis in sum-
mitate positis.** It is less trouble to use
a special candlestick and the triple
candles obtained from church furnishers.
The triple candle seems to have been
first used about the twelfth century.
Before that date two candles were com-
mon. The use of two or three candles
seems to have been a purely practical
precaution against the light of the newly
blessed fire going out as might easily
happen in a draughty church. Both in
the Ambrosian and Mozarabic rites only
one candle is used, as in the pre-Ref or-
mation Sarum rite.

FUNERAL CANDLESTICKS

Special candlesticks are required for
funerals and solemn requiem Masses.
They are best made of wood or iron,
about 4 ft. high, and painted not neces-
sarily black, although this is traditional,
but any colour that will go with the
decorations on the pall, e.g., red or dark
blue, also with the unbleached wax
candles used on such occasions. Four is
the minimum needed, but it is better to
have eight, i.e., three to stand at each
side, and one at each end of the bier.

TENEBRAE CANDLESTICK OR HEARSE 11

Should the office of Tenebrae be sung
during Holy Week, a triangle, fitted with
fifteen spikes or sockets for candles
seven on each side and one on the top
will be needed. The triangle itself can
be made of wood or iron and rest on a
post or rod, about 4 ft. from the ground,
or higher if preferred.

FUNERAL PALL. OR HEABSE-GLOIH

It is desirable that every parish church
should possess a funeral pall or hearse-
clotk When the coffin rests upon the
bier or hearse during a requiem Mas,
or when it is being carried to and from
the church or through the streets, it is
only decent that it should be covered.
The typical coffin supplied by an under-
taker is not a beautiful object. The com-
paratively modern custom of covering a
coffin with lowers, except in the case
of baptised children/ 2 is probably due
to the instinctive feeling that it ought to
be hidden. It is quite incorrect for adults,
although it is the usual custom in most
English-speaking countries.

The mediaeval palls were often gor-
geous affairs, decorated with badges erf
the deceased person or benefactors, and
not always black. A black pall can have
ornamentation of any other colour
white, red, blue, or purple being appro-
priate. Although such crude allegories of
death, as skulls, cross-bones, tears, or
"gouttes," are forbidden on vestments,
they are permitted on palls. 13 A national
flag may be used for members of the
navy, army, and air force.

Where a church does not possess a
catafalque or bier, the absolutions at a
Requiem where the corpse is not present
may be given over a pall spread on the
floor of the sanctuary. 14

URN FOR THE ALTAR OF REPOSE

It is the custom in Rome to reserve
the Blessed Sacrament on the altar of
repose in a box or a small urn-shaped
vessel. In appearance it resembles a
sarcophagus. It is not covered with a
veil. The tabernacle of a side altar may

214

CHURCHES: THEIR PLAN AND FURNISHING

be used. In this case it should be veiled
in the usual manner. 15

LECTERN

A folding lectern is useful in churches
where High Mass is sung regularly. It
can be made of wood or metal, with the
desk itself of leather so that it can be
folded up easily and not be too heavy
to carry about. When open, the bottom
should be about 5 ft. from the ground.

At Rome the lectern leggio is
either of elaborately carved wood gilded,
or else of plain wood entirely covered
in silk of the colour of the day. St. Peter's
possesses about a dozen carved lecterns.

BANNERS

It is certain that banners in connection
with Christian worship have been car-
ried in processions from the time of
Constantine, and there are constant ref-
erences to their use right through the
Middle Ages a reminder of which can
be seen in the banners of the Knights of
the Garter and of the Bath which hang
above the choir-stalls in St. George's
Chapel, Windsor, and in Henry VIFs
Chapel in Westminster Abbey.

The usual type of banner carried in
processions nowadays is a poor sort of
thing, not so much because it is cheap
rather contrary but because those who
were responsible for the design have not
realized that a strong, bold colour scheme
is essential in a banner, which has to be
seen at a distance, not closely. Some of
the most effective banners are often
made up of odd bits of silk or velvet
that produce the effect of a patchwork
quilt or old-fashioned tea cosy. The use
of expensive materials is to be discour-

aged on banners intended for outdoor
use. A shower of rain can ruin them
forever! Processional banners are viewed
from the back as well as from the front,
so both sides should be ornamented to
some degree. It is not expensive materials
that matter so much in a banner as de-
sign. That is a reason for having recourse
to experts when possible.

FALDSTOOL

It is useful for a church where Con-
firmation is held quite frequently to
possess a wood or metal faldstool, i.e.,
a folding chair without a back, used in
pontifical functions by a bishop. In shape
it is like the letter X. The seat is gener-
ally made of cloth or leather. Cushions
will be needed of the various liturgical
colours. In Rome faldstools are covered
with silk of the colour of the day.

KNEELING DESK

A wooden kneeling desk t (prie-dieu)
is also required for pontifical functions
and for other occasions, e.g., a nuptial
Mass, when two are necessary for the
bride and bridegroom. When a bishop
pontificates the desk is covered with
silk or woolen material and provided
with two cushions red for a cardinal,
green for a bishop, except in penitential
seasons when violet vestments are worn,
or at requiem functions.

THE STATIONS OF THE CROSS

Historical Notes

The origin of the devotion known as
the Stations, or Way of the Cross, may
be traced to the Holy Land. Pilgrims
who returned from Palestine wished to
reproduce the holy places in their own

OTHER CEREMONIAL ACCESSORIES

215

countries in the form of small chapels.
As early as the fifth century a group of
such chapels was built at the Monastery
of S. Stefano, Bologna. They represented
miniature the more famous shrines
in Jerusalem. It was not until the fif-
teenth century that anything like the
modern devotion made its appearance.
The earliest use of the word "stations"
as applied to halting places in the Via
Dolorosa at Jerusalem is found in the
writings of an English pilgrim, William
Wey, who visited the Holy Land in
1458 and 1462. During the fifteenth and
sixteenth centuries many reproductions
of the holy places were erected in
France, Italy, Spain, and Germany. Most
of them were situated outside churches.
A few were on a very ambitious scale,
like the famous Via Crucis on the Sacro
Monte at Milan, erected in 1481 by the
Franciscans, where forty-three chapels
and over nine hundred statues were scat-
tered over the mountainside!

At first there was no uniformity in
number, and it is not definitely known
how it came to be fixed. Some of the
earlier books of devotion used by pil-
grims at Jerusalem give nineteen, twenty-
five, or fifty-seven stations. In the latter
part of the sixteenth century the fourteen
stations first appeared in the Nether-
lands, but, even then, the number was
not adopted everywhere.

Canonical Requirements

To facilitate the erection of Stations
of the Cross, hitherto a somewhat com-
plicated process, the Sacred Penitentiary
decreed in March, 1938, that all that is
now necessary is for a priest to obtain
the faculty of erection which some eccle-

siastics possess by

others by delegation, e.g., all cardinals,
bishops, including titular bishops, the
major and local superiors of the Friars
Minor. Other priests must obtain the
faculty from the Holy See. The rector of
a secular church may therefore seek the
faculty from the Holy See, through the
Ordinary, or permit the act of erection
to be carried out by a Franciscan friar
delegated by his superiors. Nothing more
is required for valid erection, though the
permission of the Ordinary should be
obtained, with a written document re-
cording the permission for and fact of
the erection for the parochial archives.

Apart from this the only essential
feature to gain the indulgences, are four-
teen crosses, which must be of wood.
The crosses may be attached to pictures
or images, or separate. As they are kissed
during the erection they should be re-
movable should the picture or sculpture
of the station be above the head of the
priest officiating.

There is no need to have either pic-
tures or sculpture, and in a small church
it is better to be content with the crosses
alone, and the subject of each station
painted beneath it in good lettering.

Size, Style, and Material

The size, style, and position of a set
of stations is an important matter, and
it is wise to leave the choice or design
to the architect, or at any rate not to
disfigure his building with a set of sta-
tions out of keeping with it. Stations may
be hung on the walls or on the columns
of the nave, but it is better to keep them
out of the line of direct vision of the
sanctuary and high altar.

216

CHURCHES: THEIR PLAN AND FURNISHING

At the present time when a set of
Stations of the Cross is regarded as an
almost essential feature in the furniture
of a church, chapel, or oratory, it is well
to recall the fact that this particular de-
votion is no more than a supplementary
accessory of piety,, and is not obligatory.
There are no Stations of the Cross in
the patriarchal basilicas of Rome.

If lack of means makes it impossible
for a church to buy a good set of stations,
it is much better to be content with the
fourteen wooden crosses, rather than put
up, even temporarily, a set of cheap oleo-
graphs. The crosses themselves can be
of any shape or size or colour. Bright
red crosses look well on a white or cream
wall surface. The lettering of the inscrip-
tions, if done by a capable sign writer,
can be made quite decorative as well as
legible.

As to the material for stations, no
general principles can be given. There
is an immense choice paintings, wood
or stone carvings in low or high relief,
mosaic "opus sectile," enamel, terra cotta,
bronze, or silver. In a small chapel or
oratory framed wood engravings look
well. It should not be forgotten that the
purpose of these representations of in-
cidents in the Passion is to arouse greater
devotion in those who are "making the
Stations." It is therefore important that
in style and treatment they should be
intelligible to simple folk who know
nothing about art. It should be remem-
bered that Canon 1279 forbids exhibiting
an "unusual image" imaginem insoli-
tarn in churches, and that Stations are
not carried out to prove the technical
capabilities of an artist, but for a very
definite function.

MEMORIAL TABLETS
The erection of tablets with inscrip-
tions and the names of the faithful de-
parted whose bodies are not buried in
the church, has been forbidden by sev-
eral decrees of the S.R.C. and Canon
Law. 16 This legislation is principally
directed against an abuse of the rights
claimed by founders and patrons of
churches. However, like every other
ecclesiastical law it may be dispensed
providing that a proper authorization is
obtained. It should be noted that the
latest decree 17 does not enjoin the re-
moval of tablets already in existence,
lest offence should be given to relatives.
The law is a salutary check on a practice
which, if unrestricted, would convert a
parish church into a mausoleum. 18 Brass
or white marble tablets are seldom satis-
factory and generally an eyesore. Painted
wood tablets have the advantage of
costing less, and if the lettering is done
by a capable sign writer, are an effective
decoration. They can be adorned with
gold and colours.

MURAL HANGINGS
In some churches textile hangings add
to the appearance of the sanctuary. In
fact, they are much better than the
marble decoration that is now so popu-
lar; the colours of the marble usually
being far too pale. What is more, marble,
except in rare cases, is urisuited to a
northern climate. It suggests coolness,
and what is needed is warmth. Wooden
panelling round the lower part of the
sanctuary walls is strongly recommended
in preference to marble. Hangings
achieve the same result, i.e., to concen-

OTHER CEREMONIAL ACCESSORIES

217

trate the main attention on the altar. For
this reason it is better to make them of
some fairly simple material without a
strong pattern, unless the altar, reredos,
etc., are of elaborate design, when a
rich tapestry can be used. Casement
cloth or linen are better than serge, for
the latter collects dust. Hangings should
be made very full with deep folds. About
half as much again of the total length
of the wall should be allowed. Hangings
may be suspended from hooks or passed
through iron rods by means of wide
hems. The rods should not be more than
6 ft. long for convenience.

PICTURES 19 ' *

What has already been said about
statues in church applies equally to
pictures. Unless they are appropriate
to the surroundings, a church is better
without pictures. They serve two pur-
poses decoration and devotion. Where
original paintings are beyond the means
of a particular congregation there is no
reason why colour reproductions should
not be used. They are infinitely better
than most commercial plaster statues.

* The very vocabulary of the instructions in
note 19, if not the ideas expressed indicate that
St. Charles, as is to be expected, subscribes to
the art theories of his own time which are
those of Raphael, da Vinci, and, perhaps to a
much lesser degree, of Michaelangelo. For our
days we have to allow certain changes and we
have to make due allowance for the ways of
expression of modern men. What we must pre-
serve from these directions are the warnings
against extremes, subjectivism, secularism, and
profane tendencies. What is beautiful has been
answered differently by the mosaicists of Ra-
venna, the Carolingian and Ottoman painters,
by Duccio, Giotto, and Leonardo, by Poussin
and by Rouault. To harness our church art in
such definitely "period" canons of beauty as
that of the Renaissance has produced sad
results. H. A. R.

In Italy It is common for the picture
of the Madonna to be Btted with branch
candlesticks attached to either side erf
the frame, each branch holding one or
two candles, which are lit during special
devotions to our Lady.

HYMN BOARDS

In most churches it is the custom to
have hymn boards hanging or affixed to
the walls or columns. Usually they are
an eyesore, both as regards design and
figures. Since they have to be displayed
in a prominent place, great care should
be given the design. The cards should
be black with white lettering. The frames
can be decorated with gold and 'Colours.

ALMS BAGS AND PLATES

If alms bags are used, they should be
made of some hard-wearing material,
e.g., leather, not silk, and are best fitted
with metal or wooden handles. Bags are
more convenient and safer than plates,
or baskets lined with green baize, and
are more easily passed along the pews
or benches. Perhaps the ideal form is a
wooden or metal box fitted with a lock
and handle, the top being provided with
a narrow slit into which the coins can
be dropped. The opening should be
made diagonally, in such a way that
the coins will fall into the box at once.

FLAGS FOR OUTDOOR USE*
In Great Britain and its dominions, it
is not permissible for a church to fly the

** We in America have been very liberal in
our use of the national flag inside and outside
of our churches. By this time practically every
church has the star spangled banner in the
sanctuary next to the papal flag. You will never
see a national flag inside a church in Italy,
Austria, Poland, Germany, or any other

218

CHURCHES: THEIR PLAN AND FURNISHING

Union Jack; the only lags that are appro- flag when they possess a flag staff. There

priate being the banners of the patron
saints of the country: e.g., St. George,
St. Andrew, St. David, or St. Patrick.
Most Catholic churches hoist the papal

is no reason why a special flag with the
ecclesiastical emblem of the saint to
whom the church is dedicated should
not be flown if there is room for it.

European country with the possible exception
of France and perhaps Belgium. The reason is
understandable, as on that narrow continent
national flags are symbols of strife and antago-
nism and often the symbol of a state in opposi-
tion to the Church, as, e.g., in Cavour's Italy
or Bismarck's Germany, not to speak of the
ill-famed swastika of Hitler. In countries like

Austria and Switzerland the old tradition of
serene supranationalism stood in the way of a
development as the one we have seen. The
American flag, before becoming a possible
standard of nationalism and aggressiveness is
above all a symbol of freedom, brotherhood,
and equal rights and ought therefore to be
regarded differently. H. A. R.

NOTES

1. Migne, P. L., LXI, 560.

2. Migne, P. L., L, 1269.

3. Migne, P. G., XIII, 965 a.

4. Fortescue, The Mass, p. 228.

5. In convent chapels, where a priest may
have to give benediction with only one server
or with none, a thurible stand, fitted with a
crook on top, is almost essential. It should be
about 4 ft. high, but need not be made of lac-
quered brass.

6. Fortescue-O'Connell, Ceremonies of the
Roman Rite, 7 ed., p. 95.

7. Migne, P. L., XXX, 188.

8. S.R.C. 4147.

9. S.R.C. 3895, ad 1.

10. Caer. Ep., L. II, c. XXVII, n. 1.

11. So called because it resembles a harrow,
i.e., a triangle with spikes.

12. Rit. Horn., Tit. VI, c. VII, par. 1.

13. Caer. Ep., L. I, c. XI, n. 1; S.R.C. 4174,
ad 1.

14. S.R.C. 2525, ad 5.

15. See Fortescue-O'Connell, op. tit., p. 307.

16. 1450 2, ad 1.

17. S.R.C. 4376

18. Cf. The Clergy Review, Vol. Ill, p. 143.

19. It may be of interest to give some of the
directions on holy images and pictures pub-
lished by St. Charles Borromeo (Instructions,
Chap. XVII), although they are hardly likely
to appeal to the more "modern" school of
artists and sculptors! In. general, these instruc-
tions conform to those found in the Code of
Canon Law. "As to the sculptured figures and
paintings of saints, it is decreed by the Council
of Trent that the bishop must watch vigilantly
that these decrees are observed; moreover,
heavy punishment is meted out to those painters
and sculptors who depart from the prescribed

rules (Concil. Trent, sess. 25). ... Whatever
is profane, immodest, or obscene or provocative
of temptation shall be absolutely avoided;
again, what is merely curious and does not
lend itself to devotion, or by which the minds
and eyes of the faithful may be offended, shall
be shunned completely. In such works, the true
likeness of the saint whose image is to be repre-
sented should, as far as possible, be reproduced
and care must be taken that the image of no
other man, whether living or dead, shall be
purposely represented. Moreover, the effigies
of beasts of burden, dogs, fishes, or others of
the brute creation ought not to be made in a
church or other sacred place, unless in the
presentation of scenes from sacred history, or
the custom of holy Mother Church require
otherwise. The whole expression of holy images
should aptly and decorously correspond to the
dignity and sanctity of their prototype, from
the demeanour, the position, and the adorn-
ment of the body."

A practical point is that the names of the
saints should be inscribed under the images
less known. St. Charles strictly forbids "borders,
such as for the sake of ornamentation painters
and sculptors are wont to add to images , . .
for example, they should not contain human
heads portrayed with deformity, such as are
commonly called mascheroni (large masks);
nor little birds, nor the sea, nor verdent
meadows, nor such like things which are repre-
sented for the sake of pleasure or of wanton
prospect and adornment; unless such things
agree truly with the sacred subject which is
represented, or in the case of votive tablets
whereon are painted both heads and such
other things as are mentioned above, in expla-
nation of vows."

CHAPTER XX

THE ORGAN AND CHOIR

HISTORICAL NOTES

An organ of some kind seems to have
been used as a means of accompaniment
to vocal music in churches from a very
remote period. There are references to
organs as far back as the sixth century,
but they appear to have been of a
primitive kind, without stops and a
number of bellows worked by relays of
men. The mediaeval organs which came
into use about the twelfth century varied
considerably in size; some were portable
and could be moved about, others were
"positive/' i.e., stationary. Sometimes a
large church had several organs. Stops
did not come into general use until the
fifteenth century, although they were a
much earlier invention. The mediaeval
organ often referred to as "a pair of
organs/' as we speak of a pair of bellows,
generally seems to have stood in the
rood-loft, which was a very favourite
place^ for the choir. In fact it was the
musicians' gallery. When the rood-lofts
were pulled down in so many English
parish churches at the Reformation, the
singers, too, had to find accommodation
on the floor, unless a gallery was erected
for them at the west end of the church,
which unfortunately in other parts of
Europe, was and still remained, the
normal position for the choir.

Other instruments besides the organ
were used in church services during

the Middle Ages, even more so after
the sixteenth century when small or
large orchestras became very common,
especially in France, Italy, and Ger-
many. Again and again regulations have
been made to control the use of in-
struments in church, beginning with
Benedict XIII, and re-enforced by
later pontiffs. In 1903, Pius X, in his
Motu Proprio on church music, stated
that "although the music proper to
the Church is purely vocal music,
music with the accompaniment of the
organ is also permitted. In some special
cases, within due limits and with
proper regards, other instruments may
be allowed, but never without the spe-
cial license of the Ordinary, according
to the prescription of the Caeremoniale
Episcoporum! 9

This same idea is expressed in Canon
1264 which says: "All kinds of lascivious
music, whether accompanied by the
organ or other instruments, or rendered
vocally, must be entirely eliminated
from churches; and the liturgical laws
concerning sacred music must be
obeyed."

The points to be made clear are:
(1) that an organ is not an essential
piece of furniture in a church, or an
obligatory accessory of worship, despite
the fact that this particular instrument
has been generally used to accompany
vocal music from the twelfth century;

219

220

CHURCHES: THEIR PLAN AND FURNISHING

(2) that "other instruments'* are not
prohibited as an accompaniment to
singing.

The use of the organ is limited to cer-
tain definite occasions. 1

POSITION OF ORGAN

No rules are laid down as to the posi-
tion of the organ in a church. Its position
should be determined by the position of
the choir or main body of singers, should
there be no choir in the liturgical sense.

Mr. F. C. Eden writes that "there is
no liturgical or theological reason why
[the organ] should be in one part of the
church rather than in another, as there is
in the case of the altar, rood-screen, and
font. . . . Convenience alone dictates its
position, and the most convenient place
to one who takes a broad view of all the
conditions, ceremonial, aesthetic, and so
forth, may not necessarily be the best
place in the purely musical sense. A
balance must be struck. Musical con-
siderations will be allowed great weight,
but after all a church is not a concert-
room, where acoustics and accommo-
dation alone govern planning and
arrangements." 2

This same writer goes on to say that
in small churches the only possible
places for the organ are the west gallery,
the rood-loft, and behind the altar. He
sums up his conclusions as follows:

"1 ) In churches of the first magnitude
there should be two organs, a small one
to accompany the singers, in a raised
position about twenty feet away, and a
large one at the west* end, or in what-

* The east-west orientation of churches, one
of the oldest Church traditions, is not always
observed in our large cities where sites have to

ever part of the church musical and
structural considerations may suggest as
the most suitable.

"2) In medium -size churches the
organ and singers should be in a gallery,
raised some twelve feet above the floor,
and preferable at the west end.

"3) In smaller churches it is advisable
to substitute for the organ or harmonium
a small orchestra, the performers being
seated in a gallery and subjected to
proper discipline and control/*

But, as has been stated already, musi-
cal instruments other than the organ may
not be used in Catholic churches without
the special consent of the Ordinary. 3
It is definitely forbidden to use pianos or
what are termed "noisy instruments"
(instrumentorum majorem vel minorem
strepitum edertfium), which include
drums, castanets, cymbals, etc. Violins,
violas, violincellos, and double basses are
allowed: "Propter sinum gravem ac con-
tinuum, quern in similitudinem organ!
edere possunt" but carillons, harps,
xylophones, triangles, and so on, are
prohibited because of "frivolous associa-
tions'* (propter levitatem)* At the same
time it is permitted to employ flutes,
clarinets, oboes, and bassoons, with the
consent of the Ordinary. 5 But trombones
are banned. 6 Lastly, gramophones may
not be used in any public service, not

be taken as they are available. Let us remember
that in Rome the orientation (derived from the
word orient) is in practically all cases, with the
exception of St. Paul-outside-the-Walls, really
an * occidentation," i.e., the altar is in the west
apse and the gate at the east end. However,
the priest looks toward the east, since he faces
the congregation in all these old basilicas. The
"Oremus" of the liturgical prayers at Mass and
vespers were a signal for the faithful to turn
around, eastward. H. A. R.

THE ORGAN AND CHOIR

221

even if strictly liturgical music, e.g.,
plain-chant records, is put oo. 7

ORGAN CASES

A badly designed organ case can be
a great eyesore. F. C. Eden reminds us
that the following points should be ob-
served in their design;

1. That the case should impede the
egress of sound as little as possible;

2. That there must be plenty of speak-
ing room about the mouths of the pipes,
especially the loud ones;

3. That access must be provided for
tuning and repairs.

He reminds us that in old organs the
exposed metal pipes were never treated
decoratively,* but left plain, except when
gilded. Only the wooden pipes were
painted and decorated.

He lays down the following hints for
the design of organ pipes:

1. The pipe ends should be concealed
by carved shades and that no pipes
should stick up above the cornice;

2. The woodwork and not the pipe
should be painted;

3. No ironwork should be used about
tibe case;

4 The feet of the pipes should be tall;

5. Important pipes may be embossed;

6. Shutters and projecting reeds are
both sensible and ornamental;

7. In simpler cases the uprights divid-
ing the different compartments of pipes
should be narrow on the face.

* Great artistic effect has been achieved in
modern European churches, especially in
Switzerland, Germany, and Italy by reducing
all woodwork to a necessary minimum. The
decorative effect can be achieved solely by a
careful visual arrangement of the "speaking"
pipes, eliminating sham mute pipes altogether.
H. A. R.

If many modem organ cases are com-
pared with some of those erected during
the eighteenth century it will soon be
realized how much more beautiful are
the latter than the former.

The dark woodwork and gilt pipes
produce a dignified effect

The console should be placed in such
a position that the organist can observe
clearly the sacred functions.

THE CBDJR

The average modern church choir is
a very differently constituted body to
what it was in the earlier ages of
Christianity, when the choir was always
composed of clerics. During the Middle
Ages many large churches had their own
choir schools, where orphan boys and
others received a general as well as a
musical education. It was not until the
Renaissance period that church choirs
became laicized. But in many places the
laymen and boys continued to occupy
seats in the chancel or sanctuary. They
not only took possession of the seats of
the minor clergy, but also adopted their
special dress the surplice or cotta.

Women were forbidden to take any
part in church music, except in the case
of nuns in their own chapels, or in public
churches where they were at liberty
to join with the rest of the congregation
in the Common of the Mass, where both
the words and the music were so familiar
and often repeated that tihey could be
sung from memory. The idea that a choir
is a picked body of male or female
singers, whose job it is to render ap-
propriate (or inappropriate) pieces of
some kind of sacred music during the
celebration of Mass and Benediction, is

222

CHURCHES: THEIR PLAN AND FURNISHING

utterly foreign to Catholic tradition. The
main purpose of a choir is to chant those
portions of the liturgy that vary with
the seasons and which cannot be sung
by the congregation.

The Motu Proprio of Pius X makes it
quite clear that wherever possible the
liturgical chant should be rendered by
men and boys, who are really taking
the place of the ecclesiastical choir and
a substitute for the once universal chorus
cankorum composed of clerics. Thus, the
presence of women in a strictly liturgical
choir is impossible, for its place must
be in the chancel or sanctuary behind
the altar. But in parish churches where
there is a body of singers composed of
women and girls as well as men and
boys, it is prescribed that they occupy
distinct places, so far as possible. 8

Unless the local Ordinary should
consider it inevitable in certain places,
what is known as a "mixed choir" is no
longer tolerated. 9

As one of the chief aims of the Motu

Proprio of Pius X was to encourage the
laity to take their part in liturgical
music, which belongs to them by right,
perhaps the best way to achieve this
ideal in small parishes, is to do away
with a special place for the choir alto-
gether and scatter a trained group of
singers in the congregation, so that they
can lead the main body of worshippers.
When building a new church or re-
modelling an old one, both priest and
architect should consider this plan, even
if it may seem revolutionary at first.

There should be congregational music
practices the singing of the hymns and
the 'chanting of the Common of the Mass
being led by four or even two cantors
women, if no men are available. Only
in this way will the laity learn to "pray
the Mass," and they must be helped to
do so even by the planning of a church
which will necessitate the abolition of
the favourite choir gallery, and probably
the resignation of the local prima donna!

NOTES

1. Cf. Caer. Ep., L. I, c. 28, nn. 1, 3, 4, 5;
c. 28, n. 2.

2. F. C. Eden, "The Organ," p. 2. (Incor-
porated Church Building Society pamphlet).

3. Motu Proprio of Pius X, 1903, n. 15 b.

4. S.R.C. 4156, ad 1.

5. Ibid.

6. S.R.C. 4226, ad 1.

7. S.R.C. 4247. For further detail governing
the use of musical instruments in Catholic
churches, see Fiorenzo Romita, Jus Musicae
Liturgicae (1936), pp. 238-242.

8. S.R.C. 4216, 4231.

9. S.R.C. 4231.

CHAPTER XXI

BELLS AND BELFRIES

Canon Law declares that "it is proper
for churches to be provided with bells,
to call the faithful to divine service and
other religious functions/* 1

HISTORICAL NOTES
Bells, or more correctly a "signal"
(signum), for calling the faithful to take
.part in worship, are first mentioned in
the sixth century. They served not only
to call the laity to church, but, in the
cases of monasteries, to rouse the com-
munity from their beds to take part in
the night office of Matins. Very little
is known about bells until the seventh
and eighth centuries. The word campana
bells, first appears in the Liber Ponti-
ficate of Pope Stephen II, 752-757.
There are references to church bells
being used by the Celtic monks at lona
and elsewhere, also to belfries being
erected in Italy. Small hand bells were
very popular in Ireland and several of
these early Christian bells have been
preserved. They were regarded with
great veneration. Oaths were taken on
them, and they were carried into battle.
In later times foreign missionaries, such
as St. Francis Xavier, made use of small
bells when preaching to the heathen.

During the Middle Ages every church,
large and small, was almost invariably
provided with one or more bells. In fact,
the idea grew up 'that no religious service
could take place without the ringing

of a bell. One of the earliest examples
of church bells dates from the eleventh
century, Some of the later mediaeval
bells were very large. There was one at
Canterbury that needed twenty-four men
to ring it. Sixty-three men were required
for the whole peal of five bells. Medi-
aeval Canon Law in England laid down
that a cathedral have five or more bells,
a parish church two or three. Churches
of the mendicant orders and public
oratories were restricted to one bell.
In earlier times complaints were often
made by religious orders that bishops
refused to allow them to ring bells
in their churches. This grievance was
settled by Pope Gregory IX (1227-
1241).

After the Reformation and until the
past century it was forbidden to ring
bells in any places of worship in Great
Britain except those belonging to the
Established Churches, so, even to-day,
bells are often regarded as a luxury and
not an almost necessary adjunct of
worship-
Bell towers in Southern Europe, es-
pecially in Italy, are often built separate
from the body of a church, whereas in
Northern Europe they form part of the
building.

CONSECRATION OF BELLS
Canon Law orders that "the bells
of churches must be consecrated or

223

224

CHURCHES: THEIR PLAN AND FURNISHING

Belfries.

blessed according to the traditional rites
found in liturgical books." 2 The con-
secrating prelate must normally be the
bishop of the diocese. 3 The rite is one
of the most elaborate in the Roman
Pontifical, and has much in common with
Baptism. There are exorcisms, together
with intricate ceremonial involving the
use of the holy oils, water, salt, and
incense. Each bell is given a name, and
at one time a godparent was customary.
It should be noted that bells have to be
consecrated before they are fixed into the
belfry.

BLESSING OF BELLS

In churches which have not been
consecrated the bells may be blessed

with a short form found in the Roman
Ritual. The Ordinary or an exempt re-
ligious superior can delegate a priest to
bless bells.

USE OF BELLS

Church bells can be used for other
purposes than for announcing that a
service is to take place. In many places,
especially in Italy, a bell is rung every
evening to remind the faithful to pray
for the departed. Even to-day there are
towns and villages in England and Scot-
land where the pre-Reformation "curfew
bell" is rung every night between eight
and ten o'clock. The ringing of the
Angelus, three times a day, may have
developed from the curfew bell. From

BELLS AND BELFRIES

225

about the thirteenth century it has been
the custom in many Catholic countries
to ring one or more bells at the Eleva-
tion of the Host at High Mass on Sun-
days and feast days.

It is forbidden by Canon Law to use
church bells for purely secular purposes,
but with the permission of the bishop
they may be rung on special occasions
of public rejoicing.

PRACTICAL SUGGESTIONS

Installations of bells may be classified
as follows: carillons, chimes, ringing
bells, and single bells. 4

A carillon is a group of bells com-
prising at least two chromatic octaves
(twenty-five bells), and may extend to
a range of five octaves (sixty-one bells),
or even more. The bells hang stationary
and are played either by the "caril-
lonneur" (bell player) or automatically.

Ringing peals form a scale of five, six,
eight, ten, or twelve bells, rung in full
swing by means of wheels and ropes, one
ringer being required to each bell: thus
a peal of ten bells requires ten bell-
ringers to ring them in "change ringing/'
This method of ringing a peal of bells
is common in Britain, Germany, and
Eastern Europe, where nearly every
village has or had its team of bell-ringers
whose art has been handed down from
generation to generation.

Chimes may be divided into two
groups, i.e.: (a) bells used for dock
chimes, (6) chimes used for tune play-
ing, changes, etc. Clock chimes comprise
five or more bells, according to the tune
played, the largest bell being used for
the hour strike. Chimes for tune playing
are similar in some respects to a carillon,

the chief difference being that a chime
consists of a limited number of bells, for
the playing of single-note melodies,
whereas upon a carillon music in two
or more parts may be played. The
minMum number of bells needed is
eight, ie. a diatonic octave. But in order
to extend the range of tunes it is usual
to add some extra bells and to extend
the scale beyond the octave.

Combination of eleven, thirteen, fifteen,
or eighteen bells are often used for this
type of chimes, and in some places the
number of bells has been increased so
that it forms a carillon-

A chime is played by one person from
a "hand clavier/' the keys of the clavier
being connected to the bell clappers by
a system of wires, rollers, and levers. A
hand clavier is best placed in the cham-
ber immediately underneath the bell-
chamber; too great a length of wire
connections between the clavier and the
bells means lost motion which tends to
reduce the power of blow of the clapper
and to prevent the player from bringing
out the best tone of the bells. In the
case of large chimes with heavy bells,
the clavier is often provided with pedals
like those of an organ, the heavier
bells being operated either by the hand
lever or by the foot pedals. Some large
chimes have keyboards fitted to the
clavier, and even automatic music-roll
players can be installed with electro-
pneumatic mechanism.

Single beHs are installed in gable tur-
rets, or in towers, when lack of funds
oor other circumstances do not permit the
installation of a number of bells. A
separate tolling hammer operated from
the ground floor by a bell-rope is useful

226

CHURCHES: THEIR FLAN AND FURNISHING

for tolling for funerals or for weekday
services when a bell-ringer is not
available.

If a church tower is designed to ac-
commodate a swinging peal of bells, as
distinct from a peal hung stationary, the
walls should, of course, be of strong
and massive construction and the bell-
chamber must be of larger area In the
case of a swinging peal. A bellchamber
whose internal dimensions are, say, 13 ft.
square would accommodate a swinging
peal of bells of average weight, i.e.,
tenor bell about 14 cwts., all the bells
of the peal to be in one tier. If the
peal is to be hung stationary, i.e., a
"chime," this same size of peal could
be put into a bellchamber of about 8
or 9 ft. square. The tower should be
of such a height that the base of the
window openings come not below the
ridge of the church, and the sound

openings, or louvers, should be in the
upper part of the bellchamber, well
above the level at which the bells them-
selves are placed. The idea of this is
that instead of the sound being directed
down to the ground around the church,
it escapes in an upward direction and the
bells are modified in the vicinity of
the church, yet heard at a greater dis-
tance away.

"Soother point is that louvers should
be avoided for use in bellchamber win-
dows as they deflect the sound of the
bells downwards instead of upwards. It
is better for the bellchamber windows to
be left unfilled and a waterproof floor
to be provided to the bellchamber for
rain to drain off. The weather will not
hurt the bells.

Bells are expensive things, so, perhaps,
they must be regarded as a luxury of
worship and not an essential!

NOTES

1. CJ.C. 1169, 1.

2. Ibid., 2.

3. Only the Holy See can delegate powers
for another bishop to consecrate bells.

4. This data has been kindly supplied by

John Taylor & Co., of Loughborough, whose
famous bell foundry has an almost unbroken
history since the fourteenth century, and whose
bells are known all over the world.

CHAPTER XXII

LIGHTING, HEATING, AND VENTILATION

LIGHTING

Windows

The natural lighting of a church is a
very important matter, if only to avoid
needless waste of money on artificial
illumination. But the chief thing to aim
at is the concentration of light on the
high altar which must be the focal
point of the building. The functional
purpose of a window is to admit light
and sometimes air. The openings of the
walls of churches have to be filled with
glass, and as they are necessarily large
openings, a single sheet of plate glass
the size of the opening might seem to
be the most logical way to keep out wind
and rain. But as church windows are
usually fairly high up and not generally
made to look out of, there is no reason
to use plate glass as in the case of a
shop front. Small panes are more con-
venient, either set in wood or lead or
steel, and, if funds permit, the glass can
be decorated, i.e., stained or painted,
provided that the function of the window
is kept in mind to admit light, not
obscure it.

St. Charles Borromeo devoted con-
siderable space to the natural lighting
of churches in his Instructions on Eccle-
siastical Building. What he says applies
just as well to modern churches as
those of the sixteenth century. He rec-
ommends that there should be windows

on both sides of the nave, as high tip
as possible, and also in the side walls
of the aisles. *In order that the church
and its Sanctuary may receive the best
light a circular window proportioned to
the size of the church, and, as it were,
regarded as an eye, should be con-
structed in the western facade above the
great doorway ... in other parts of
the building and in the fa$ade the
windows should be of oblong form in
accordance with the judgement of tbe
architect. Moreover, light may also be
admitted for the illiimination of the
Sanctuary and the rest of the church
through the cupola at the intersection
of the nave and transepts by means of
a lantern. ... In the Sanctuary and
other chapels windows should be placed
upon both sides that light may be ad-
mitted both ways." St. Charles drew
up his instructions for a country where
light is much stronger than in Great
Britain, and so it is not surprising that
he discouraged placing a window low
down immediately above any altar. He
states that windows "should be con-
structed as high up as possible.** He
was doubtless familiar with some of the
very crude pictorial stained glass of the
Renaissance period and so it might be
expected that he would favour plain
glazing, "so that a better light may be
admitted for the benefit of the nave,
sanctuary, and chapels." 1

227

228

CHURCHES: THEIR PLAN AND FURNISHING

Stained Glass*

Historical Nates. Stained glass, which
appeared so complete and fully devel-
oped, as it were suddenly, in the eleventh
or twelfth century, was the North-
European's response to the stimulus of
Mediterranean mosaic. In countries
where for about half the year the light
is not over brilliant, it is obvious that
that light transmitted through glass is
a method of conveying colour on a far
higher scale than by light reflected from
coloured walls and paintings. Coloured
glass, stained but unpainted, had been
used by the Egyptians three thousand
years ago. It was used in the Church
of the Hagia Sophia at Constantinople
and in other Byzantine churches of the
same period. It was also used by the
Romans and was employed by the Per-
sians. But the coloured glass was merely
embedded in cement or alabaster, rather
like a lantern.

When stained-glass windows appeared
in the Middle Ages, the same technique
was employed as for mosaic work, but
the glass was used translucently instead
of by reflection. Translucent glass was
put into the same position as mosaics
in Mediterranean countries, chiefly as a
rainbow setting for the high altar. If one
compares the twelfth- and thirteenth-
century Norman glass in the apse of
Canterbury Cathedral it will be realized
that it has just the same effect as mosaics
in the apse of Byzantine or Basilican
churches and uses the same subjects. So,
it may be stated quite definitely that
the purpose of stained and painted glass
in North-European churches, and in
other countries where there is no violent

sunlight, was to produce intense colour
decoration, which would be impossible
with painting, mosaic, or embroidery
owing to 'the absence of sufficient light
to show them up. Colour was needed
to emphasize whatever in architecture
needed emphasis, and stained glass was
employed just as mosaic had been done,
that is to intensify traditional lines.

Now stained glass was needed above
all to create a coloured lantern setting
for the high altar. This point cannot
be emphasized too strongly; it is the
key to the subsequent development, not
only of all northern glass, especially
English, but even of the planning of the
whole church building. Many late medi-
aeval church builders, especially in East
Anglia, sought to place their high altar
in a lantern, with coloured light playing
round it, as in the midst of a rainbow,
making north and south windows to-
gether take up more wall space 'than the
single east window.

As Geoffrey Webb reminds us: "even
without the stained glass which origi-
nally made the Altar's setting a rainbow
rather than a lantern, the result is to
flood the Altar with daylight of a clarity
and softness that no artificial flood-light-
ing can match for beauty, and yet with
the same absence of glare which the
artificial method provides. And while all
that original jewelled and silver glass still
remained in place, the Altar's setting
must have mirrored the glow of the
fields and flowered hedgerows outside,
which could be seen through the glass
as if through the mist of sunrise."

Stained glass was regarded by medi-
aeval builders as the ideal background
of colour for the suspended pyx above

LIGHTING, HEATING, AND VENTILATION

the high altar. It was used in dose
relationship with painted stone or wood-
work on the walls, ceilings, and columns
a point often ignored in modern
churches where the glass clashes with
the rest of the colour decoration instead
of being part of them.

Practical Consideration. As the pur-
pose of a window, that is a hole in a
wall, is to admit light, stained glass
should not stultify this purpose. Stained
glass is always the highest key of colour
in any building. No reflected colour can
ever compete with it, and it sets the
tone for the interior of the whole build-
ing. It is disastrous to start, as do so
many modern glass firms, on a founda-
tion of a dull greenish white which
immediately sets a standard of smug
respectability and sentimental piety. The
bright silvery white of English mediaeval
gkss at once sets a standard of adven-
ture, gaiety, courage, and even humour.
It has the quality of spring meadows
and hedge flowers. Much of the nine-
teenth-century gkss produced by com-
mercial firms has the smell of the
nineteenth-century conservatory, gas
brackets, and sham antiques. Even worse
is a certain type of modern stained glass,
which is so blatant and noisy in colour
that it kills everything else in the church.
But glass must always be considered
in relation to the quality of the normal
sunlight; for instance, in a city church,
surrounded by tall buildings and where
fogs are prevalent in winter, it would
be stupid to insert dark glass, whereas
in another place -the ideal would be
to create a dim, dark, cool interior as
a contrast to the blinding glare of the
sunlight outside.

The East Window

In the earlier editions of the Directions
for the me of Altar Societies and Archi-
tects, we are told that "in the diocese of
Salford the Bishop does not approve of
windows being placed at the bade of
High Altars in new churches. They are
apt to distract the eye, to interfere with
Exposition, etc.** 3 A similar opinion was
expressed more recently by the editor
of Art "Notes* who informed her readers
that she is "convinced that an East
Window over the high altar can rarely
be used with, success. It puts the altar
in the dark and prevents one assisting
at Mass with comfort."

It is difficult to understand this objec-
tion to east windows in churches, con-
sidering that "the stained glass of the
east window was the English parochial
reredos" for several hundred years. 5 The
late mediaeval builders,* especially in

* It should not be forgotten that the late
medieval architects did not create what might
be called ideally liturgical churches, Le,,
churches primarily for the central mystery of
the Holy Eucharist as action. In cathedrals
like Notre Dame de Paris, Cologne, Milan, and,
to a lesser degree, Canterbury, the main altar
is hardly visible. The building became more of
long, narrow, and tall "tunnel** with the altar
in the dim, faraway distance. Proportionately
the sanctuary was generally too low. The whole
tendency of the late Gothic period discarded
the basilical idea still very much alive in
early Gothic churches and, instead of gently
guiding the eye to the focal point, the altar,
it drew it upward from every point of the floor
with irresistible vehemence. It was, if we may
overstate our problem a little, the church of the
lone mystic, best expressed in the Imitation of
Christ. This does not detract from the greatness
of this architectural period, but warns us that
not always the virtuoso and genius in the arts
is also the right man to shape the vessel for
our liturgy. H. A. R.

230

CHURCHES: THEIR PLAN AND FURNISHING

Northern Europe, felt that there should
be more light round the high altar than
anywhere in the church. Their aesthetic
sense would have revolted against
setting back the altar in a windowless
recess when the main body of the church
was well It. Granted that St. Charles
Borromeo discouraged the erection of
low windows above altars, yet he was
aE for good lighting in the sanctuary.
More than sufficient proof that a "col-
oured-lantern'* sanctuary can be treated
in the most ultra-modern manner can
be found in Cachraaille Day's highly
original star-shaped church at Wythen-
shawe, near Manchester, England; in
Notre-Dame de Raincy, near Paris; and
in the famous "glass and steel" church in
the Ruhr , . , the mediaeval ideal of the
glass-lantern sanctuary treated in twen-
tieth-century forms.

The corrective to glare is not to treat
the east window by itself, but as one
of a set surrounding the high altar which
needs a strong light north and south.
Should a church be orientated, the east
window certainly needs to be filled with
coloured glass. But there is no necessity
to treat the side windows in the same
way. They often look batter and admit
more light if they are filled with clear
white glass, not tinted "cathedral" glass
of a green or pink tone.

It should never be forgotten that
stained glass is essentially a form of
decoration. Owing to the limitations of
technique a stained-glass window should
not try to compete with an oil painting
or frescoe. The tracery of a window is
not a frame to enclose a picture visual-
ized as a pictorial composition on canvas
or other non-transparent material. It

may be a mistake to fill the entire
window with a design. At times, small
painted glass panels, set in clear glass,
always look well, and once again, do
not take away from the light in the
building.

Stained-glass windows must be con-
sidered in relation to each other, not as
separate entities. For instance, the win-
dows in the sanctuary must not dash
with those in other parts of the building.
They should harmonize, to a certain
extent, not only in colour and texture,
but in scale, handling, and the distribu-
tion of parts at least in a new church.
Here the selection of painted glass
should always be entrusted to an expert,
not to the donors of the particular win-
dows. Every window should be designed
for its individual setting and definite
surroundings. It need not be elaborate
to be good. But only an experienced
Craftsman is capable of dealing with the
subtle problems of how colours react in
light, the effect of light from surfaces
and other windows, and much else
besides which may completely neutralize
the effect of what was a good window
until it was set in the particular opening
in the window.

Artificial Lighting

Historical Nates. We are so accus-
tomed to artifical lighting in places of
worship, that few of us realize that it
is only since the invention of gas that
churches were provided with any ade-
quate system of artificial illumination.
In tihe Middle Ages, a few lanterns
would have been hung about on the
choir-stalls for the use of the clergy or
monks who had to take part in the

LIGHTING, HEATING, AND VENTILATION

231

Divine Office, The candles on or round
the altar helped the priest to read the
missal. As for the laity, most of them
sat in darkness, except on the greater
festivals when candles were lit on
brackets on the walls or suspended from
the roof on large candelabra. What a
mediaeval church must have looked like
at night can be realized when assisting
at the office of Matins and Lauds in a
Carthusian church, where the only
source of illumination still consists of
small, shaded oil lanterns hung above
the choir-stalls, with the light thrown
down onto the books. Oil lamps re-
mained the only means of lighting at
night if candles were not used, until
the invention of gas. There are some
of us who can still recall the almost
universal smell of a church in the days
of our youth for there always seemed
to be a leak in the gas burners some-
where or other in the building. Naked
gas jets blazed away from elaborate
Gothic standards of correct ecclesiastical
design, except where incandescent man-
tels were used, spoiling and soiling
everything within range of the flame.
When electricity superseded gas, the
ease with which it could be put any-
where and everywhere resulted in most
churches being over-illuminated. This
danger still exists.

Practical Consideration. Oil lamps, gas,
and electric lighting may be used in
churches for purposes of illumination,
but never in connection with or as a
substitute for the prescribed candles on
or round the altar at Mass or other
ceremonies. The instructions issued by
the cardinal vicar for the churches of
Rome in 1932 state that "by preference,

the ordinary internal of the

church should be effected by means of
electric light from hidden sources; and
the same method may be used with due
caution to light up pictures or images
with a soft and sufficient light. On occa-
sions of greater solemnity an 'extraor-
dinary* illumination may be prepared
with standards, brackets, or chandeliers
lit with electric candles, provided that
their direction and position be deter-
mined in a manner perfectly correspond-
ing to the artistic requirements, the
nobility of sacred edifices, and the
dignity of sacred worship, with scrupu-
lous care not to inflict damage on the
walls, painting, or marble; and provided
that the power of the light be as low
as possible. . . . We condemn and pro-
hibit all illumination with a series of
exposed lamps, fixed to rods of wood or
iron, tracing architectural lines and
motives in the interior of a church or
an Altar; as well as stars or other de-
vices in place of electroliers/' 6 It may
be objected that these instructions tend
to encourage the worst type of flood-
lighting, but concealed flood-lighting,
such as the cardinal vicar recommends,
may be all right when it is carried out
by experts, but it is so easy to abuse it,
that as a general rule a church is
better illuminated by direct lights. In
any case flood-lighting should only be
inserted with great reserve, and the
power of such be kept low.

For a small church bronze or wrought-
iron lanterns, hanging from brackets on
the walls, or suspended from the ceiling,
look well, provided the design is simple
and unobtrusive. What should be re-
membered above all is that half the

232

CHURCHES: THEIR PLAN AND FURNISHING

beauty of a church is lost if there are
no shadows. The ceiling itself is much
better left in darkness. It is often for-
gotten that in all natural lighting the
sun cannot be on two sides at the same
time. Remembering this fact, it is better
that an electric light should not shine
directly from the front and from two
sides at the same time, but only from
one side. Try this experiment in a
sanctuary of a church that is flood-lit and
notice the difference to switching on all
the lights at once.

When there are electric lights pri-
marily for the object of enabling the
congregation to read, it is better that
they should be hung fairly low down,
not high up in the ceiling. The bulbs
can be concealed in electroliers, specially
designed to suit the building. In a
small chapel or oratory electric lights
look very effective if set on wooden
staves in the middle of the pews or
chairs; one stave to every two rows of
seats. There can be a switch to each
light so that they can be used as
required. 7

Brass chandeliers, such as are so com-
mon in churches in Holland, add greatly
to the interior of a church if hung in
the nave and aisles, fitted with a corona
of low-powered pendent electric lights,
not sham candles.* As to the sanctuary,

* By sham candles we mean a small "flame-
shaped" light bulb on top of a "candle" made
of tin, painted or lacquered, with artificial wax
drippings and dust streaks to make them look
more natural a dozen of such candles with
about two versions of drippings! With or with-
out this added feature such silly and dishonest
light fixtures should disappear by now. I know
of a church with a beautiful French crystal
luster which has been completely spoiled by
these tin stalks, in candle shape. As if the
masters who made the wonderful crystal lusters

anything like a "theatrical" effect should
be avoided at all costs. At Benediction,
especially, there is no need to flood-
light the altar, for by so doing, the
effect of the candlelight on the altar is
entirely lost.

On the other hand, it is very important
that the priest should be able to read
the Missal, therefore there should be
two lights on each side of the altar,
about 9 or 10 ft. above the mensa, ar-
ranged in such a way that they will give
a direct light onto the book without
casting shadows. If these lights are
placed too low half the book will be
in darkness and the light will be on the
same level as the priest's eyes.

The function of artificial lighting in
a church is to enable people to read
prayer-books, not to create a picturesque
effect. A church is not like a ballroom or
a theatre both of which are designed
for artificial illumination. Nothing is
gained by trying to turn night into day
so far as a church is concerned.

Lastly, all electric light fittings should
be arranged so that bulbs can be changed
if possible without the need of steps or
ladders.

HEATING

It is hard to realize that no attempt
was ever made to warm churches dur-
ing cold weather until less than a century
ago, except when a fireplace was in-
serted into the squire's pew in some of
the country churches, examples of which
can still be seen, not only in Britain,

made them for the wax and not rather for the
light to be reflected in the delicate facets!
Small, clear light bulbs set right down into the
sockets would have made the chandelier per-
fect H. A. R.

LIGHTING, HEATING,, AND VENTILATION

233

but in other countries of Northern
Europe. In Italy and Mediterranean
countries, where heating is seldom pro-
vided and where the churches can be
far colder than ever is the case in Eng-
land, owing to the marble or stone
pavements, it is the custom to take a
small charcoal brazier to church, and
if one is a woman, place it beneath one's
dress! It is not uncommon to find char-
coal braziers on the altar so that the
priest can warm his hands during Mass.

From about the middle of the eight-
eenth century, churches in Northern
Europe began to be warmed by stoves,
fitted with chimneys that did not im-
prove the looks of the building, no
matter how effective they were in getting
rid of the smoke. Very often the smoke
and fumes blew back into the church,
and the stove did nothing more than
set in motion a mass of air that added
to the cold draughts that filled the
church. The ugliness of these stoves led
to their being hidden away in pits with
gratings in the floor above them, or with
flues to distribute the warmed air
throughout the building.

Then came hot-water pipes, either
laid in trenches under the floor or placed
along the walls. Both arrangements had
the disadvantage of collecting dust, es-
pecially when the pipes were under
gratings, with the result that the heating
power was lessened and the lungs of
the congregation filled with poisonous
gases from the accumulated filth of
years. In recent years many other heat-
ing systems have been devised.

It is not always realized, at least by
the clergy, that no matter how perfect
a heating installation may be installed

in a church, it will always be difficult to
keep the building warm if the roof is
thin. Mediaeval churches are generally
much warmer than modern ones at
least cheap churches just because they
have a covering of lead, whereas in many
churches erected in the Gothic Revival
style during the past century, only thin
boards covered with slates separate the
worshippers from the weather. When a
building like a church has a thick roof
it takes longer to get cold, for it retains
the warmth inside. But when a church is
artificially heated, the warm air rises up,
where it meets the cold air and drives it
down again, thus making draughts on
the heads of the congregation. Open
timber roofs, no matter how picturesque
they may look, are not nearly so warm as
ceilings, whether concave or flat. Roofs
should always have double covering with
an air space within. A well-built ceiling
should be insisted on in a church even
before heating is installed. It can be of
any material wood, plaster, or vaulted
in brick, stone, or concrete. But let it be
solid. "It is as reasonable to ask for the
warming of the open street, as for that
of a church with a roof which gives no
protection." 8

VENTILATION

Until churches began to be artificially
heated there was no need to consider
means of ventilation. It was much
more necessary to keep out draughts
and cold air, so it was not often
that even windows were made to open.
But in these days the problem of how
to ventilate a church is just as important
as how to heat it, and the two cannot be
dissociated.

234

CHURCHES: THEIR PLAN AND FURNISHING

Even a small church should not de-
pend entirely on its windows for venti-
lation. When windows are filled with
painted glass the casements are removed,
and in any case open windows often
result in draughts.

The most simple plan is to insert air
inlets into the window-sills and outlets in
the roof, both of which should be made
so that they can be opened or closed
easily. In a large town church electric
fans help to draw off the stale air.*

CHAPEL FOR ENCLOSED
COMMUNITIES OF NUNS

For architects who have to design
chapels for communities of strictly en-
closed nuns, it may be useful to give the
directions supplied by St. Charles
Borromeo. 9

The church should consist of one nave
only, without aisles. There should not be
any sanctuary at the east end, but a wall
should be erected across the church, so
as to divide it into two parts: an inner
one for the nuns, and an outer one in
which Mass is celebrated. The altar
should stand against this wall, and of the
usual dimensions. "At the level of sight
from the altar, a window should be made
in the cross wall, so that the nuns may
be able to see and hear the Holy Sacri-
fice of the Mass. The width of this win-
dow should be equal to the length of
the altar and it should be made about
2 ft. 9 in. in height. Its sill should stand
in the wall about 2 ft. above the surface

** For our American conditions with its ex-
cessive extremes in temperatures the answer is,
of course, air-conditioning. From here on the
answers will be found in the classified adver-
tisement department of the Catholic Directory
or the clerical magazines. H. A. R.

of the altar. It should be provided with
an iron grating, which should be double
and similar throughout, the two parts
thereof standing about 8 in. from each
other. But the bars of each railing should
be so close together as to leave an inter-
val of only 2 in. between each other;
and they should be so well put together
that it may be no easy matter to pull
them asunder or disjoin them. Inside, it
should have door panels secured by
means of a latch and lock; and these
panels should be made to open either
by the sliding at the sides, or else by
sliding upwards by means of a pulley
and a counterpoised rope.

"The altar may be covered over with
an arch, either by making the wall
thicker at that point ( so as to allow of a
recess), or else by erecting two small
columns or piers at a short distance
from the wall itself, so as to support the
vaulting or arch. [This allows the requi-
site 'canopy* above the altar on which
the Blessed Sacrament is reserved.] The
two columns should stand at a distance
of 2 ft. 9 in. from both corners of the
altar. ... If no vaulting of the kind is
made, the altar may be covered with a
wooden canopy, or such a one as may
be made of silk or of cloth suitably
ornamented, and which is called a
capocielo.

"In the transversal wall intervening
between the outer and the inner church,
on the side which is nearest to the nuns'
sacristy, an opening should be made
suitably provided with a turning box;
and by means of which may be set forth
the vestments used for Mass. This turn-
ing box should be constructed at the
height of about 4 ft. IK in. above the

LIGHTING, HEATING,

floor; and it should be made so that it
may stand nearly altogether placed in
the thickness of the wall, which may be
made thicker, on that account, by means
of additional plastering at that point It
should be secured on both sides with
folding doors, and on each side these
doors should be provided with locks.

"On the other side of the altar, in the
same transversal wall, another opening
should be constructed in a recess
adorned with carving and gilding and
pious emblems; and through which the
nuns can receive Holy Communion. The
sill of the recess should be on the same
level as the opening, and placed at a
height of 3 ft. 8 in. above the floor.
Towards the outer church, this recess
should be 2 ft. wide; 2 ft. 4 in. high; and
from this size on its outer face, it should
go on diminishing to about 1 ft. 4 in.
square towards the inner side. The recess
should be made within the entire thick-
ness of the wall, which should be about
1 ft. 4 in., so that inside, towards the
nuns* part, the remaining thickness of the
wall be not more than 2 in. The sunk
space, so produced within the recess,
should be about 1 ft. 4 in. square, and
in this space should be made a small
opening 5& in. in height, by 4& in. in
width, through which Communion can
be given to the nuns.

"Within this opening should be placed,
inside, small panels of iron or brass, so
as to be closed by means of a lock and
key. On the outer side there should be
panels of a larger size to close the holes
of the recess, and they should also have
lock, key, and latch. Immediately under
this recess should be placed on the
church floor a small platform, about

AND VENTILATION

2S5

51 in. high, on which the may

stand when administering Communion
to the nuns. On the inner side of the
church in the nuns' choir, may be erected
another small platform, about 2 ft. 9 in.
square; so arranged that when the nuns
kneel down their faces may easily reach
the small opening through which they
receive Holy Communion,"

St. Charles also gives directions for the
construction of two more openings: one
for the passing 'through of relics belong-
ing to the convent and which would be
used for the adornment of the altar; and
another for passing through the holy oils.
But such extra openings are not essential
in these times.

With regard to the details and sizes of
the sanctuary and other parts of the
secular church, i.e., where Mass is said,
they would be the same as in any other
building. Only a small sacristy is re-
quired, for vestments are not kept there,
being passed through the "turn" before
Mass. In some convents of enclosed nuns
it is more convenient to have the turning
box for vestments, etc., fitted into the
wall of the sacristy, although it is strictly
forbidden by St. Charles, on the ground
that it may afford a communication with
the nuns' convent, either by sight or
hearing. He also forbids the construction
of any apartment above the sacristy, to
which the nuns may have access. One or
more chapels may be erected in the
outer part of the church should it be
necessary to have several Masses cele-
brated at the same hour.

Further details are given about the
altar window, which must be placed
that there is no possibility of looking
out through it from the nuns' side, above

236

CHURCHES: THEIR PLAN AND FURNISHING

all, not into the public highway, should
there be a door directly in front of the
altar. St. Charles recommends that the
door should be made at the side of the
outer church.

As to the inner church or nuns* choir,
it should consist of an oblong hall, with-
out chapels. Its floor should be on the
same level throughout, and not raised
in any part by means of steps. The
pavement should be on -the level with
the predella of the altar outside the
intervening wall. Windows should not
be built overlooking a public highway.

On the other hand, the windows of the
part of the church open to seculars
should not look towards the convent. If
there is a belfry, it should not in any
way communicate with the outer church.
There should be no windows in the
upper floors; only narrow gratings. But
there can be openings of the usual kind
in the bellchamber, provided that it is
kept locked.

Full details of the planning of a con-
vent for enclosed nuns are also given by
St. Charles in Chapter XXXIII of his
Instructions.

NOTES

1. Instructions, Chap. VIII.

2. I must acknowledge my indebtedness to
Geoffrey Webb, who supplied me with most of
the historical and technical data in these brief
notes on stained glass.

3. Directions for the use of Altar Societies
and Architects, p. 9.

4. Art Notes, winter, 1944.

5. Bond, Francis, The Chancel of English
Churches, p. 53.

6. Osservatore Romano, March 19, 1932.

7. Powys, A. R., "The Care of Churches"
(Traman), p. 77.

8. Micklethwaite, J. T., Occasional Notes
on Church Furniture and Arrangement, p. 15
(article in The Church Builder, reprinted by
the Incorporated Church Building Society,
1908).

9. Op. cit., Chap. XXXII.

INDEX

Aachen (Germany), Corpus Christ! Church,
altar, 82

Abbey Dore (Hereford, England), pulpit, 155

Aberdeen (Scotland): St. Andrew's Episcopal
Cathedral, high altar, 74; St. Mary's Cath-
olic Cathedral, high altar, 74

Ackworth (Yorkshire, England), Jesus Chapel,
24

Aisles, 169

Alb, 200

Alms, boxes, 151; bag and plates, 217

Altar, 60-84; adjuncts of, 80-99; books, 175;
cards, 128; consecration of, 81; construction
of (diagram), 64; construction and arrange-
ments, 82; in convent of enclosed nuns, 234,
235; cover, 121; crucifix, 104, 106; cushion,
129; desk, 129; dossal, 79; facing people, 17,
23, 85; fixed or immovable, 69; forms of, 64;
frontal frame, 118; furniture, 124-131; high,
78; history of, 60; linen, 117; measurements
of, 77, 83, 84; number of in churches, 66;
piece, 96; portable, 62, 68, 79; position of, 76;
present-day legislation of, 68; rails, 132, 136;
relics, 76; sepulchre, 72; steps, 77, 84; table,
64, 66; tomb, 64; with low reredos, 63; with
tester, 63, 79

Altar canopy, 69, 10O-103; forms of, 101;
necessity of, 101; see also, Baldaquin; Cibo-
rium; Tester.

Amay-sur-Meuse (Belgium), missal left on
altar day and night, 129 (n 21)

Ambo, 154

Amice, 195

Amiens ( France ) Cathedral, suspended pyx, 86

Anson, P. F., and Dagless, J. and L., 79, 81.

Antependium, see Frontals

Antioch chalice, 179

Apparels, 208 (n 30)

Ardagh chalice, 179

Arezzo (Italy) Cathedral, altar, 67

Aspersorium or sprinkler, 211

Assisi (Italy), S. Francesco, altar, 66

Atrium, 41

Audaincourt, Doubs (France), 21

Aumbry, 88; in baptistery, 148; for holy oils,
135; for reservation of Blessed Sacrament,
86-89, 98 (n 4)

Avignon (France), Papal chapel, 108

Baldaquin (baldachino), 62, 70, 83, 102, 103

Banners, 214

Baptistery, 141-148, 145; details of, 147; his-
torical notes of, 141; plan of, 145; railings,
148

Barrett, and Byrne, Barry, 16

Baurat, H. C., and Holzmeister, C. 157

Basilican plan, 33

Basilicas, 5

Belfry, 223-226, 224; position of, 223

Belgium, aumbries and towers for reserva-
tion, 89

Bellot, Dom Paul, O.SJ8., 21, 26

Bells, altar, 130; blessing of, 224; church, 223-
225; suggestions for, 225; use of, 224

Bench, for acolytes, 135; for sacred ministers,
134

Benedict XIII, Mem. Rituum, 125

Bentley, J. F., 56

Berlin (Germany), S. Maria Viktoria, font, 140

Berverwijk (Holland), Our Lady of Good
Counsel, 50

Biretta, 203

Birmingham (England), The Oratory Church,
53

Bishop, Edmund, 9, 103 (n 11)

Bishop, pontifical vestments of, 204; throne, 136

Bl6haries (France), pulpit, 157

Blessing, of churches, 9; of church bells, 224

Bodley, C. F., 25

Bodmin (Cornwall, England), font, 143

Bohm, D., 77

Bologna (Italy): S. Giovanni in Monte, altar,
66; S. Petronio, candlesticks, 113 (n21);
S. Stefano, chapels of the Passion, 215; six-
teenth-century reredos with tabernacle, 90

Book rack, 151

Books, altar, 175

Bradford (Yorkshire, England), First Martyrs
Church, high altar, 75

Bradford-on-Avon (England), Saxon Church,
137

Braintree (Essex, England), high altar, 71

Braun, Fr., S.J., 89

Broad stole or folded chasuble, 192

Brooks, James, 25

Brunet, Emile, 78

Bulletin boards, 151

Burnham Norton (Norfolk, England), pulpit,
155

237

238 INDEX

Burse, 204
Buskins, 204
Butter, R. M,, 46
Butterfield, William, 25
Byrne, Barry, and Barrett, 16

Caldey Island (South Wales), village church,
137

Calelk (Spain), font, 143

Cambridge Camden Society, 21

Candle, 111; paschal, 212; triple, 212

Candlesticks, 106-111, 107, 109, 110; funeral,
213; historical notes of, 106; number of on
altars, 108; paschal, 212; size, shape, and
material of, 110

Canopies, for Blessed Sacrament, 211

Cappa magna, 204

Carpets, 135

Catafalque (bier), 213

Censer, 209-210

Central altar, 34-35, 138, 140 (n 12)

Chalice, 179, 180; and patens, 178; veil and
burse, 204

Chancel, 132; screens, 136-159, 147

Chapeltown (Glenlivet, Scotland), 27

Chapels, and side altars, 139

Charles Borromeo, St., on confessionals, 159;
on convent chapels, 234-235; on fonts, 7,
17, 40, 84, 98, 131, 148; on holy-water
stoups, 49, 152; on lighting, 227; on pictures,
218; on sacristies, 172; on vestments, 203

Chasuble, 189-192; ancient Roman, 188;
folded, 192; modern Roman, 189, 198

Chests, for vestments, 173; sacristy, 175

Choir, 132, 134; position of, 132, 134, 221;
screen, 132, 137

Church, cathedral, 4; classification of, 4, 5; col-
legiate or conventual, 4; consecration of, 8;
corner-stone, 8; dedication of, 3, 8; desecra-
tion of, 9; historical notes of, 3; lighting of,
227; reconciliation of, 9; site of, 7; title of, 8

Ciborium (civory), 71, 73, 83, 100-102, 183

Cincture, 201

Civory, see Ciborium

Claughton (Lancashire, England), high altar,
72

Clock, in pulpit, 156

Colour, liturgical, 186; sequences, 186

Communion, cloth, 122; plate, 183; rails, 136,
147

Cornper, J, N,, 35, 58, 73, 102 (n 3), 140
(n 2)

Comrie (Scotland), St. Margaret's Oratory, 44

Confessions, canonical legislation on, 161

Confessional, 159-166, 161, 162; design and
construction of, 163; double, 163; double
(plan), 165; historical notes of, 159; plan
of, 160; practical details of, 164; St. Charles'
Instructions on, 159; sliding panel in, 164

Conopaeum (tabernacle veil), 94

Constantinople, Hagia Sophia, ambo, 154 /
Construction, modem methods of, 32
Cope, 192, 198
Coronae, 107
Corporals, 121
Cotta, 202; Roman, 203
Cracow (Poland), pulpit, 155
Cram, Ralph Adams, 13 n
Credence table, 135

Cremona (Italy) Cathedral, baptistery, 141
"Croix Latine, La," on monstrance, 181
Cross, pectoral, 205; processional, 211
Crozier, 204
Crucifix, 105; altar, 104-106; on back edge

of mensa, 95; processional, 211
Cruets, 129
Cushion, altar, 129
Czestochowa (Poland), shrine of Our Lady,

139 n

Dagless, J. and L., and Anson, P. F., 79, 81

Dalmatic, 193; full-shaped, 194; modern
Roman, 194, 198

Datchet (Bucks, England), St. Augustine's,
high altar, 80

Dedication of church, 8

de Foucauld, Charles, 81

Derby (England), St. Mary's, 45

Desk, altar, 29

Dix, Dom Cregory, 86

Dolton (Devonshire, England), font, 143

Dorchester (Oxford, England), St. Birinius', 54

Dossal, 96

Downside Abbey (England), Blessed Sacra-
ment altar, 98 (n 4)

Droz, Jacques, 31

Dumas, F., 157

East Hendred (Berkshire, England), 34

East window, 229

Eastwood, J. H., 43

EfBngham (Surrey, England), 42

Eisden-Mines (Belgium), 41

El Abiod (Morocco), altar in chapel, 81

Electric light, 231-232

Elizabethville-sur-Seine (France), Ste. Th^rese,

Elne (France) Cathedral, 66
Episcopal throne, 136
Eucharistic dove, 86, 89
Everingham Hall (Yorkshire, England),

chapel, 57
Exposition throne, 97; historical notes of, 97;

necessity and form, 97; position of, 98

Fairlie, R. A., 75

Faldstool, 214

Filey (Yorkshire, England), St. Mary's, 27

Finger towel, 122

Flags, in church, 217-218

INDEX

239

Floors, material, 170

Flora! decorations, 125

Florence (Italy): baptistery, 141; S. Maria
Novella, altar, 66

Flowers and flower vases, 125-127: artificial
126

Font, 141-149, 143, 144, 145; covers of, 141-
142, 145, 147; historical notes of, 141; mate-
rial, size, and design of, 146; minor details
of, 147; necessity of, 143; position of, 143

Fontenais (Switzerland), pulpit, 157

Footpace (predella), 78, 83

Fort William (Scotland), St. Mary's, high altar
75 6

France and Italy, separation of the sexes in
church, 168

Frankfurt (Germany): Freuensfrieden Kirche,
31; Holy Cross Church, 32

Frontals, altar, 115-120; frame for, 118; his-
torical notes of, 115-117; material and
colours of; 119-120; obligation for, 118;
position and shape of, 120

Frontlet, 120

Funeral, candlesticks, 213; pall, 213

Gand (Belgium), Sacrament Tower, 88

Genoa (Italy), S. Ambrogio, altar, 67

Gerona (Spain), wooden canopy over altar,

102 (n 2)

Gill, Eric, 32, 34, 47, 140 (n 12)
Girdle, see Cincture
Glasgow (Scotland), St. Francis, 41
Glendalough (Ireland), Seven Churches, 137
Gloves, episcopal, 205

Gorleston (Suffolk, England), St. Peter's, 47
Gospel lectern, 214
Gothic Revival, 25
Gradines, 95
Great Eccleston (Lancashire, England), St.

Mary's, 29
Gremiale, 204
Gribble, Herbert, 36
Gum olibanum, 210

Hawles, J. C., 22, 26, 49

Hearse, Tenebrae, 213

Heating, 232, 233

Hedon (Yorkshire, England), St. Mary's, 46

Hepworth (Suffolk, England), font covers, 144

Herkommer, Hans, 20, 31, 59

Hesse, Jean, on chalices, 180

Heverle (Brussels, Belgium), Chapel of the

Annunciation, altar, 76
High altar, see Altar, high
Holme Hall (Yorkshire, England), chapel, 52
Holy oils, aumbry for, 135
Holy- water, sprinkler, 211; stoups, 147, 152-

153, 175; vat, 210

Howden (Yorkshire, England), font, 143
Hymn boards, 217

Iconastasis, 137

Images, 127, 128, 139
Incense, 210; boat, 209
Italy, confessionals, 166; seating in churches,

167

Jadot, Abb4 on chalices, 180
Jerusalem, Via Dolorossa, 215

KHkul (Aberdeenshire, Scotland), Sacrament

House, 86

Kneeling desk (prie-dieu), 214
Knopton (Norfolk, England), font cover, 144
Kropholler, 25, 50

Lace, on altar linen, 117, 122; on vestments
200, 201

Lacoste, H., 157

Lamps (sanctuary), 112

La Panne (Belgium), Notre-Dame, font, 140

Lea Town (Lancashire, England), St. Mary's,
29

Lecterns, 214

Leeds (England), St. Anne's Cathedral, 43

Lighting, artificial, 230

Linen cloths, 117, 118

Liturgical colours, 186

Liverpool (England), St. Monica's, high
altar, 74

Logelbach (Haute-Rhin, France), high altar,
77

London (England): Corpus Christi, Maiden
Lane, 35; Guardian Angels, Bow, 39; Oro-
tory Church, 36; Our Lady Immaculate,
Limehouse, 38; Sacred Heart, Wimbledon,
30; St. Boniface, Tooting, 30; St. Cyprian's,
Dorset Square, 58; St. George's Cathedral,
Southwark, 35; St. James, Spanish Place, 24;
St. Mary's, Hampstead, 40; St. Mary's,
Somers Town, 38; St. Patrick's, Soho Square,
38; St. Saviour's, Lewisham, 40; St. Stephen,
Walbrook, font, 143; St. Thomas of Canter-
bury, Fulham, 37; Westminster Abbey, 212,
214; Westminster Cathedral, 60

Lourdes (France), statue of Our Lady, 139 n

Lunette, 182

Manchester (England), St. Francis', Gorton, 51

Maniple, 187

Mantelletta, 204

Mantua (Italy), tabernacle, 88

Maredsous Abbey, Ateliers d'Art Sacre, 157

Martin-Smith, D. F., 15

Memorial tablets, 216

Methods of construction, modern, 32

Middlesbrough (Yorkshire, England), St.
Philomena's, 23

Milan ( Italy ) : Cathedral, number of candle-
sticks on high altar, 113; position of confes-
sionals, 166; Sacro Monte, Via Crucis, 215;

240 INDEX

S. Ambrogio, high altar, 67; St Ambrogio,

northex, 150
Missal stand, 129
Mitre, 198, 206-207
Modem (Italy), tabernacle, 88
Mont Cesar Abbey (Louvain), modem chalice,

180

Montmagny (France), Ste. Therese, 21
Montserrat (Spain), shrine, 139 n
Monstrance, 181, 182-183
Monuments, 216
Morse, 193
Mosaics, 216, 228
Moser, Karl, 15
Mozzetta, 204
Mural decorations, 42
Mural hangings, 216
Music in churches, 219-222

Narthex (vestibule), 150

Nassau (Bahamas), Benedictine Abbey, 22, 49

Neaie, John Mason, 25

New York (U.S.A.), St Patrick's Cathedral, 60

Nice (France), Ste. Jeanne d'Arc, 31

Niche for cruets, 135

Nordemez (Germany), Chapel of Our Lady

Star of the Sea, altar, 77
Norrkoping (Sweden), St Bridget's, 37
Northfleet (Kent, England), Our Lady of the

Assumption, 52
Number of altars, 66
Nuns* choir (planning), 236

Oban (Scotland), St. Columba's Cathedral, 36

OmbreUino (simple canopy), 211

Open churches, 150

Oratories, classification of, 5

Organs, 219-221

Orphreys, 190

PaH, 122; funeral, 213

Palms (Majorca), wooden canopy over altar,
102 (n 2)

Paris (France): Notre-Dame de Ratncy, stained
glass, 230; Sacre-Coeur, Montmartre, high
altar, 65; St. Agnes d'Alfort, font, 142

Parma (Italy) Cathedral, baptistery, 141

Paschal candle and candlestick, 212

Paten, 178

Pavement, material of, 134

Pearson, J. L., 25

Pectoral cross, 205

Perret, A. C.,* 21

Perugia (Italy), altar in museum, 68

Peterborough (England) Cathedral, font, 143

Pews, 169

Piaccentini, 25

Piacenza (Italy), S. Sisto, altar, 66

Pictures, 217, 218 (n 19)

Pisa (Italy) Cathedral, baptistery, 141

Piscina, 135

Plans of churches, 11-59

Porch and main entrance, 150-153; historical

notes of, 150
Portable altar, 62, 68, 79
PredeUa (footpace), 78, 83
Present-day needs of churches, 33
Prestwich (Lancashire, England), St Gabriel's,

font, 142
Prinknash Abbey (England): monstrance, 181;

vestments, 197
Processional crucifix, 211
Processional torches, 211-212
Pugin, A. W., 25, 35, 37, 45, 48
Pugin, Edward, 51
Pugin, Peter Paul, 41, 47
Pulpit, 154-158, 155, 157; historical notes of,

154; position, material, and design of, 156-

158

Purificator, 122
Pyx, 70, 82, 180; suspended, 86, 89

Rails, altar or Communion, 136, 138; baptistery,

148
Ravenna (Italy): ambo, 154; St. Appolinare in

Classe, wooden altar, 100
Reconciliation of churches, 9
Relics and reliquaries, 124; in altar sepulchre,

76
Religious Orders, planning of churches for, 49

(n 12)

Remodelling and refurnishing, 41
Reredos, 90; and retable, 82, 97
Reservation of Blessed Sacrament, methods and

place of, 86-94
Riddels, 100
Ring (episcopal), 205
Ringenburg (Germany), parish church, 59
Rochet, 202
Rohault de Fleury, 89
Rome (Italy): Christ the King Church, 25;

Lateran Basilica, wooden altar, 100; S.

Cecilia, high altar, 69; S. Cesareo, altar, 155;

S. Clemente, 150; S. Giorgio in Velabro, 42;

S. Giovanni degli Incunabili, altar, 57; S.

Giovanni in Olio, altar, 67; S. Lorenzo, altar,

155; S. Maria in Cosmedin, 55, 138 n; St.

Mary Major's, tabernacle, 89, 96; St Paul's

outside the walls, font, 144; St Peter's, 31;

St Peter's, confessionals, 166; S. Prassede,

80; S. Sabina, 138 n, 170 n; SS. Vincenzo e

Anastasio, Tre Fontane, altar, 66
Ronda (Spain), aumbry for reservation, 98

(4)

Rood-screen, 58, 137
Rotterdam (Holland), St. Anthony the Abbot,

24
Roulin, Dom Augustine, O.S.B., 27

INDEX

241

Sacrament tower, 88

Saerarium, 135

Sacred vessels, 178-183; chalice and paten,
178; Communion plate, 183; monstrance,
182; pyx and ciborium, 180

Sacristy, 172-177; business, 176; cupboards,
175; historical notes of, 172; in large
churches, 175; position and plan of, 172;
safe, 174; sink, 174; in small churches, 173;
vestment chests, 173; work, 176

St. Wandrille Abbey, modern chalice, 180

Salisbury (England) Cathedral, paschal candle-
stick, 212

Sanctuary, ,132-140; choir stalls, 134; floor
surface of, 134; historical notes of, 132;
furniture, 135-136; steps, 133

Sandals, 205

Scandinavia, painted woodwork, 169

Schippers, Dom Adalbert, O.S.B., 133 n

Schuster, Cardinal, 33, 65, 102

Schwarz, Rudolph, 82 *

Scotland, benches in penal times* chapels, 167

Scott, Sir George Gilbert, 25

Scott, Sir Giles Gilbert, 36, 52

Screens, chancel, 136-139; historical notes of,
137; present-day needs and requirements of,
138

Seaford (Sussex, England), high altar, 71

Seating accommodation, 167; canonical require-
ments of, 168; chairs or pews, 169; limita-
tions of fixed seats, 169; size and spacing of
pews and chairs, 170

Sedding, G. F., 25

SediHa, 135

Sefton (Lancashire, England), pulpit, 155

Sepulchre (altar), 72

Seventh candle, 108

Shrines, 139-140

Side chapels, 139

Siena (Italy) Cathedral, silver tabernacle, 97

Site of church, 7

Solesmes Abbey (France), suspended pyx, 89

Southampton (England), font, 143

Spain, confessionals,. 166

Sprinkler, holy-water, 210

Stained glass, 47-48, 228-230

Stations of the Cross, 214-215; canonical
legislation of, 215; size, style, and material
of, 215

Statues, 127-128; veiling of, 128

Steps, altar and sanctuary, 133; to exposition
throne, 98, 99 (n 47)

Stole, 186

Stoups, holy-water, 152-153, 175

Street, George E., 25

Style and plan, 11-48

Surplice, 201

Suspended pyx, 86, 89

Tabernacle, 86-94, 88, 96, 97; alternative

shapes of, 93; general legislation of, 90;
historical notes of, 86; material of, 91; posi-
tion of, 91; shape of, 91; size of, 98; veil, 94;
veiled, 92

Tenebrae hearse, 213

Tester, 70, 100, 102

Throne, episcopal, 136; for exposition, tee
Exposition

Thropton (Northumberland, En^and), AH
Saints, 28

Thurible, 209-210

Title of church, 8

Torches, acolytes, 211; processional, 211-212

Tournon, Paul, 39, 83

Towels (lavabo doth), 122

Triple candle, 212

Tunicle, 195

Ufford (Suffolk, England), font cover, 144

U3m (Germany), font cover, 144

Um for altar of repose, 213

Ushaw College (Co. Durham, England), high

altar, 47
Utrecht (Holland), St. Gerard Majella, 26

Van de Leur, Jan, 26

Van de Stappen, 101, 118, 126

Van Reeth, Fi, 76

Vases, flower, 125

Veil, humeral, 203; Lenten, 128; tabernacle, 94

Venice (Italy), S. Marco: high altar, 69;
pulpit, 155

Ventilation, 233-234

Verlarde, F. X., 74

Vestment, 184-208, 196, 197; alb, 200; altar,
116; amice, 195; biretta, 203; broad-stole,
192; chalice veil and burse, 204; chasuble,
189-192; cincture, 201; colours of, 186;
cope, 192; cotta, 202; dalmatic, 193; his-
torical notes of, 184; humeral veil, 203;
liturgical requirements of, 185; maniple, 187;
pontifical, 204, 206; rochet, 202; stole, 186;
surplice, 201; tunicle, 195; types of, 199

Viollet le Due, 31 n

Vorarburg (Austria), pulpit, 157

Walls, colour of, 47

WaUsall (England), St. Mary's, 50

Walsingham (Norfolk, England): Greyfriars,

altar, 79; Slipper Chapel, altar, 81
Walters, F. A., 30, 39
Warrington (Lancashire, England), St.

Alban's, 48
Water, holy, 210
Way of the Cross, see Stations of
Webb, Doran, 53
Webb, Geoffrey, on altars, 71, 118; on stained

glass, 219, 220
Weber, Martin, 32

242

INDEX

Wellingborough { Northampton* England ) ,

Anglican high altar, 73
Wells-on~ea (Norfolk, England), Our Lady

Star of the Sea, 28
Westminster (England): Abbey, Henry VII

Chapel, banners, 214; paschal candlestick,

212

Westport (Ireland), St. Mary's, 46
Wigan (Lancashire, England), Holy Rood Zamora Cathedral (Spain), reservation in

Windows, 227

Windsor (England), St. George's Chapel,

banners, 214
Worle (Somerset, England), pulpit, 155

Youlgrave (Derbyshire, England), font, 143
Ypres (Belgium), pulpit, 157

Church, 55

aumbry, 98 (n 4)

^**

1 16 827