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III  1^1 


CHURCH    HISTORY 


PROFESSOR    KURTZ. 


AUTHORIZED    TRANSLATION  FROM  LATEST  REVISED 

EDITION  BY  THE 

REV.   JOHN    MACPHERSON,    M.A. 


IN   THREE   VOLUMES.     VOL.    IH. 


HODDER    AND     STOUGHTON, 

27,    PATERNOSTER    ROW. 

MDCCCXC. 


b  u  J  <3 


Butler  &  Tanner, 

The  Selwood  Printing  Works, 

Frome,  and  London. 


V.3 


CONTENTS. 

THIRD  DrV^ISIOX.— -S'^CO.VZ)  SECTION. 

CHURCH  HISTORY  OF  THE   SEVENTEENTH  CENTURY. 

I.    BELATIONS  BETWEEN  THE  DIFFERENT  CHURCHES. 

PAGB 

§  1.52.  East  and  West  .........  1 

(1)  Roman  Catholic  Hopes 1 

(2)  Calvinistic  Hopes 1 

(3)  Orthodox  Constancy      .......  2 

g  1.53.  Catholicism  and  Protestantism 3 

(1)  Conversions  of  Protestant  Princes       ....  3 

(2)  The   Restoration   in   Germany    and    Neighbouring 

States         4 

(3)  In  Livonia  and  Hungary 4 

(4)  The  Huguenots  in  France .5 

(5)  The  Waldensians  in  Piedmont 6 

(6)  The  Catholics  in  England  and  Ireland        ...  6 

(7)  Union  Efforts 8 

(8)  The  Lehnin  Prophecy 10 

§    154.    LUTHERANISM    AND    CaLVINISM 10 

(1)  Calvinizing  of  Hesse-Cassel 10 

C-^)            „            „  Lippe 12 

(3)  Elector  of  Brandenburg  becomes  Calvinist.        .        .  12 

(4)  Union  Attempts 13 

§  155.  Anglicanism  and  Puritanism  ......  14 

(1)  The  First  Two  Stuarts 15 

(2)  The  Conunonwealth  and  the  Protector        ...  16 

(3)  The  Restoration  and  Act  of  Toleration       ...  17 


VI 


CONTENTS. 


II.    THE  EOMAN  CATHOLIC  CHUECH. 

§  156.  The  Papacy,  Monkery,  and  Foreign  Missions 

(1)  The  Papacy 

(2)  The  Jesuits  and  the  Eepublic  of  Venice 

(3)  The  Gallican  Liberties 

(4)  Galileo  and  the  Inquisition  . 

(5)  Controversy  on  the  Immaculate  Conception 

(6)  Devotion  of  the  Sacred  Heart 
(7-8)  New  Congregations  and  Orders    . 

(9)  The  Propaganda 

(10-12)  Foreign  Missions 

(13)  Trade  and  Industiy  of  Jesuits 

(14)  An  Apostate  to  Judaism 

§  157.  Quietism  and  Jansenism    .... 

(1)  Francis  de  Sales  and  Madame  Chantal 

(2)  Michael  Molinos 

(3)  Madame  Guyon  and  Fenelon 

(4)  Mysticism  Tinged  with  Pantheism 

(5)  Jansenism :  first  stage  .... 

§  158.  Science  and  Art  in  the  Catholic  Church 
(1-2)  Theological  Science       .... 
(3)  Art  a*d  Poetry 


III.    THE  LUTHEEAN  CHUECH 


§  159.  Orthodoxy  and  its  Battles 

(1)  Christological  Controversies 

(2)  Syncretist  Controversy 

(3)  Pietist  Controversy :  first  stage 
(4-5)  Theological  Literature . 

§  160.  The  Eeligious  Life  . 

(1)  Mysticism  and  Ascetism 

(2)  ,,  „     Theosophy    . 
(3-4)  Sacred  Song   .... 

(5)  Sacred  Music .... 

(6)  The  Christian  Life  of  the  People 

(7)  Missions 


IV.    THE  EEFOEMED  CHUECH 

161.  Theology  and  its  Battles        ... 

(1)  Preliminaries  of  the  Arminian  Controvei'sy 

(2)  The  Arminian  Controversy  . 

(3)  Consequences  of  the  Arminian  Controversy 


CONTENTS.  Vll 

PAGB 

(4-5)  Cocceian  and  Cartesian  Controversies  ....  54 

(6-7)  Theological  Literature 56 

(8)  The  Apocrypha  Controversy        .        .  "      .        .        .  58 
§  162.  The  Religious  Life 59 

(1-3)  England  and  Scotland 59 

(4r-5)  The  Netherlands 64 

(6)  France 65 

(7)  Foreign  Missions 66 

V.    ANTI-  AND  EXTRA-ECCLESIASTICAL  PARTIES. 

§  163.  Sects  and  Fanatics 66 

(1)  Socinians 67 

(2)  Bai^tists  of  the  Continent 68 

(3)  English  Baptists 69 

(4-6)  Quakers 70 

(7-8)  Labadie  and  Labadists 78 

(9)  Fanatical  Sects 75 

(10)  Russian  Sects 76 

§  164.  Philosophers  and  Freethinkers 79 

(1-2)  Philosophy 79 

(3-1)  Freethinkers 82 


THIRD  SECTION. 
CHURCH  HISTOEY  IN  THE  EIGHTEENTH  CENTURY. 

I.    THE  CATHOLIC  CHURCH  IN  EAST  AND  WEST. 

§  165.  The  Roman  Catholic  Church 84 

(1)  The  Popes 85 

(2)  Old  and  New  Orders 86 

(3)  Foreign  Missions 87 

(4)  Counter-Reformation 87 

(5)  ,,  „         in  France 88 

(6)  Conversions 88 

(7)  Jansenism :  second  stage 89 

(8)  Old  Catholic  Church  in  Netherlands   ....  90 

(9)  Suppression  of  Order  of  Jesuits 92 

(10)  Anti-hierarchical  Movements  in  Germany  and  Italy  93 

(11-12)  Theological  Literature 94 

(13)  German  Catholic  Contribution  to  the  Illumination   .  96 

(14-15)  French  Contribution  to  the  Illumination    ...  98 

(16-17)  Pseudo-Catholics 100 


Vlll 


CONTENTS. 


PAGE 

166.  The  Oriental  Churches 102 

(1)  The  Eussian  State  Church 103 

(2)  Eussian  Sects 103 


II.    THE  PEOTESTANT  CHUECHES. 

§  167.  The  Lutheran  Church  before  the  "  Illumination  " 
(1-2)  Pietist  Controversies  after  Founding  of  Halle  Uni 
versity       .... 

(3)  Theology        .... 

(4)  Unionist  Efforts     . 

(5)  Theories  of  Ecclesiastical   Law 

(6)  Church  Song  .... 

(7)  Sacred  Music .... 

(8)  The  Christian  Life  and  Devotional  Literature 

(9)  Missions  to  the  Heathen       .... 

§  168.  The  Church  of  the  Moravian  Brethren 

(1)  Founder  of  the  Moravian  Brotherhood 

(2)  Founding  of  the  Brotherhood 

(3)  Develoi^ment  of  Brotherhood  to  Zinzendorf's  Death 

(4)  Zinzendorf's  Plan  and  Work 

(5)  Extravagances  of  Zinzendorf 

(6)  Zinzendorf's  Greatness 

(7)  Brotherhood  under  Spangenberg . 

(8)  Doctrinal  Peculiarities  of  the  Brotherhood 

(9)  Peculiarities  of  Worship  among  the  Brethren 

(10)  Chi'istian  Life 

( 11)  Missions  to  Heathen 

§  169.  The  Eeformed  Church  before  the  "  Illumination  " 

(1)  The  German  Eeformed  Church    . 

(2)  Eeformed  Church  in  Switzerland 

(3)  The  Dutch  Eeformed  Church 
(4-5)  Methodism 

(6)  Theological  Literature . 

§  170.  New  Sects  and  Fanatics  . 

(1)  Fanatics  and  Separatists  in  Germany 

(2)  Inspired  Societies  in  Wetterau     . 

(3)  Dippel 

(4)  Separatists  of  Immoral  Tendency 

(5)  Swedenborgians     .... 

(6)  New  Baptist  Sects 

(7)  „     Quaker  Sects 

(8)  Predestinarian-Mystical  Sects 


104 


CONTENTS.  IX 

PAGE 

171.  Religion,  Theology,  and  Literature  of  the  "  Illumi- 

nation "..........  139 

(1)  Deism,   Arianism,    and    Unitarianism    in    English 

Church 140 

(2)  Freemasons 143 

(3-5)  German  "  Illumination  " 148 

(6)  Transition  Theology 146 

(7)  Eationalistic  Theology 147 

(8)  Supernaturalism 148 

(9)  Mysticism  and  Theosophy 149 

(10)  The  German  Philosophy 149 

(11)  German  National  Literature 150 

(12)  Pestalozzi 152 

172.  Church  Life  in  the  Period  of  the  "Illumination"   .  152 

(1)  The  Hymnbook  and  Church  Music     ....  '*158 

(2)  Eeligious  Characters 154 

(8)  „         Sects .154 

(4)  Eationalistic  "  Illumination  "  outside  of  Germany     .  155 

(5)  Missionary  Societies  and  Missionary  Enterprise         .  155 


FOURTH  SECTION. 
CHUECH  HISTORY  OF  THE    NINETEENTH  CENTURY. 

I.    GENERAL  AND  INTRODUCTORY. 

§  173.  Survey  of  Religious  Movements   of  Nineteenth  Cen- 
tury          157 

§  l74.  Nineteenth  Century  Culture  in  Relation  to  Chris- 
tianity and  the  Church 158 

(1-2)  The  German  Philosophy 158 

(3)  The  Sciences 160 

"(4)  Jurisprudence 162 

(5-7)  National  Literature 162 

(8)  Popular  Education 165 

(9)  Art 166 

(10)  Music  and  the  Drama 167 

§  175.  Intercourse  and  Negotiations   between  the  Churches  168 

(1)  Romanizing  Tendencies  among  Protestants         .         .  168 

(2)  Attitude  of  Catholicism  toward  Protestantism  .         .  169 

(3)  Romish  Controversy 170 

(4)  Roman  Catholic  Union  Schemes 170 

(o)  Greek  Orthodox  Union  Schemes 171 


CONTENTS. 


(6)  Old  Catholic  Union  Schemes 

(7-9)  Conversions    .        .        .        , 

(10)  Luther  Centenary,  a.d.  1883 . 


PAGE 
171 

172 
173 


II.    PEOTESTANTISM  IN  GENEEAL. 

§  176.  Eationalism  and  Pietism 

(1)  Old  Eationalism    . 

(2)  Pietism  , 

(3)  Konigsberg  Eeligious  Movement,  a.d.  1835-1842 

(4)  The  Bender  Controversy 

§  177.  Evangelical  Union  and  Lutheran  Sei 

(1)  The  Evangelical  Union 

(2)  Lutheran  Separation     . 
^  (3)  Separation  within  the  Separation 

§  178.  Evangelical  Confederation 

(1)  Gustavus  Adolphus  Society  . 

(2)  Eisenach  Conference 

(3)  Evangelical  Alliance     . 

(4)  „  Church  Alliance 

(5)  „  League 

§    179.    LUTHERANISM,    MeLANCHTHONIANISM,    AND    CaLV 

(1)  Lutheranism  within  the  Union     . 

(2)  „  outside  the  Union   . 

(3)  Melanchthonianism  and  Calvinism 

§  180.  The  "  Pkotestantenverein  " 

(1)  Protestant  Assembly     . 

(2)  "  Protestantenverein  "  Propaganda 
(3-5)  Sufferings  Endured 

§  181.  Disputes  about  Forms  of  "Worship 

(1)  TheHymnbook 

(2)  Book  of  Chorales 

(3)  Liturgy  . 

(4)  Holy  Scriptures 

§  182.  Protestant  Theology  in  Germany 

(1)  Schleiermacher 

(2)  Older  Eationalistic  Theology 

(3)  Historico-Critical  Eationalism 

(4)  Supernaturalism    . 

(5)  Eational  Supernaturalism   . 

(6)  Speculative  Theology    . 

(7)  The  Tubingen  School    . 


CONTENTS. 


XI 


PAGE 

(8)  Strauss 198 

(9)  Mediating  Theology      ......  199 

(10)  The  Schleiermacher  School 200 

(11)  Old  Testament  Exegetes 201 

(12)  Beck 202 

(13)  Lutheran  Confessional  Theology          ....  203 

(14)  Hofmann,  Oehler,  etc 204 

(15)  Kahnis,  Frank,  etc 205 

(16)  Reformed  Confessionalism 205 

(17)  Free  Protestant  Theology 206 

(18)  Critical  Old  Testament  School 206 

(19)  Dogmatists — Biedermann 208 

(20)  Ritschl 208 

(21)  Opponents  of  Ritschl 210 

(22)  Writers  on  Constitutional  Law 211 

§  183.  Home  Missions 212 

(1)  Institutions 212 

(2)  Order  of  St.  John 213 

(3)  Gustav  Werner  of  Wiirttemberg  .         .         .        .213 

(4)  Bible  Societies        . 214 

§  184.  Foreign  Missions 214 

(1)  Missionary  Societies 215 

(2)  Europe  and  America 216 

(3)  Africa 216 

(4)  Livingstone 217 

(5)  Asia— India 218 

(6)  China 219 

(7)  Polynesia  and  Australia 220 

(8)  Missions  to  the  Jews 221 

(9)  „        to  Eastern  Churches 221 


III.    CATHOLICISM  IN  GENERAL. 

§  185.  The  Papacy  and  States  op  the  Church 

(1)  The  First  Four  Popes  of  the  Century 

(2)  Pius  IX 

(3)  Overthrow  of  Papal  States   . 

(4)  Prisoner  of  the  Vatican 

(5)  Leo  XIII 

§  186.  Various  Orders  and  Associations  . 

(1)  Society  of  Jesus  and  Related  Ordei'S 

(2)  Other  Orders  and  Congregations  . 

(3)  The  Pius  Verein     .... 


222 

223 
224 
225 

227 
228 

230 
230 
232 
233 


XU  CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

(4)  Variotis  German  Unions 233 

(5)  Capital 234 

(6-7)  Catholic  Missions 234 

§  187.  Liberal  Catholic  Movements 236 

(1)  Mystical  Irenical  Tendencies 236 

(2)  Evangelical-E-evival  Tendencies 237 

(8)  Liberal-Scientific  Tendencies 238 

(4)  E-adical-Liberalistic  Tendencies 238 

(5)  Attempts  at  Reform  in  Church  Government       .        .  239 
(6-8)         „         to  Found  National  Catholic  Churches         .  239 

§  188.  Catholic  Ultramontanism 241 

(1)  Ultramontane  Propaganda 242 

(2)  Miracles 242 

(3-5)  Stigmatizations 243 

(6)  Manifestations  of  Mother  of  God  in  France        .        .  244 

(7)  „                  „                  „         in  Germany     .        .  245 

(8)  Canonizations 245 

(9)  Discoveries  of  Relics 246 

(10)  Blood  of  St.  Januarius 246 

(11)  Procession  at  Echternach 246 

(12)  Devotion  of  the  Sacred  Heart 247 

(13)  Ultramontane  Amulets 247 

(14)  „              Pulpit  Eloquence 248 

§  189.  The  Vatican  Council 249 

(1)  Preliminary  History  of  Council 250 

(2)  Organization  of  Council 251 

(3)  Proceedings  of  Council 252 

(4)  Acceptance  of  Decrees  of  Council         ....  254 

§  190.  The  Old  Catholics 256 

(1-2)  Formation  and  Development  of  Old  Catholic  Church 

in  Germany 256 

(3)  Old  Catholics  in  other  Lands 259 

§  191.  Catholic  Theology,  especially  in  Germany  .        .         .  261 

(1)  Hermes  and  his  School 262 

(2)  Baader  and  his  School 262 

(3)  Gtinther  and  his  School 263 

(4)  J.  A.  Moliler 263 

(5)  Dollinger 264 

(6)  Systematic  Theologians 265 

(7)  Historical  Theology 266 

(8)  Exegetica]  Theology 268 

(9)  Representatives  of  the  New  Scholasticism  .        .        .  269 


CONTENTS.  Xlll 


PAGE 


(10)  Munich  Congress  of  Catholic  Scholars         .         .        .      269 

(11)  Theological  Journals 270 

(12)  The  Pope  and  Theological  Science       ....      270 


lY.    EELATION    OF    CHUECH    TO    THE    EMPIKE    AND  TO 
THE  STATES. 

§  192.  The  German  Confederation      ......  271 

(1)  Imperial  Commission's  Decree 272 

(2)  Prince-Primate  of  Confederation  of  the  Ehine    .         .  272 

(3)  Vienna  Congress  and  the  Concordat     ....  273 

(4)  Frankfort  Parliament  and  "Wiirzhurg  Congress  .        .  274 

§  193.  Prussia 275 

(1)  Catholic  Clmrch  to  Close  of  Cologne  Conflict      .         .  276 

(2)  Golden  Age  of  Prussian  Ultramontanism    .         .        .  278 

(3)  Evangelical  Church  in  Old  Prussia  to  1848         .        .  280 

(4)  „  „  „  „  to  1872  .  .  281 
(5-6)  ,  „  „  „  to  1880  .  .  282 
(7-9)            „                „         „  Annexed  Provinces         .         .  285 

§  194.  North  German  Smaller  States 288 

(1)  Kingdom  of  Saxonj'- 289 

(2)  Saxon  Duchies 290 

(3)  Kingdom  of  Hanover 291 

(4)  Hesse 292 

(5)  Brunswick,  etc 293 

(6)  Mecklenburg 293 

§  195.  Bavaria 294 

(1)  Bavarian  Ecclesiastical  Polity  mider  Maximilian  I.  .  295 

(2)  „  „  „       under  Louis  I.     .        .  296 

(3)  „  „  „      under  Maximilian  II. 

•      and  Louis  II 297 

(4)  Attempts  at  Eeorganization  of  Lutheran  Church       .  298 

(5)  Union  in  Palatine  of  the  Ehine 299 

§  196.  South   German  Smaller  States   and    Ehenish  Alsace 

AND  Lorraine  .....••••  300 

(1)  Upper  Ehenish  Church  Province  ....  300 

(2)  Catholic  Troubles  in  Baden  to  1873      ....  301 

(3)  Protestant  Troubles  in  Baden 303 

(4)  Hesse-Darmstadt  and  Nassau 305 

(5)  Protestant  Wiirttemberg 307 

(6)  Catholic  Church  in  Wiirttemberg        ....  308 

(7)  Imperial  Territory  of  Alsace  and  Lorraine  .        .        .  809 


XIV 


CONTENTS. 


§  197.  The  So-called  Kulturkampf  in  the  German  Empire 

(1)  Aggression  of  Ultramontanism     . 

(2)  Conflicts  over  Protection  of  Old  Catholics 

(3)  Struggles  over  Educational  Questions 

(4)  Ivanzelparagraph  and  Jesuit  Law 
(.5)  Prussian  Ecclesiastical  Laws,  1873-1875 

(6)  Opposition  in  States  to  Prussian  May  Laws 

(7)  Share  in  Conflict  by  Pope     . 

(8)  Encyclical  Quod  tmmquam     . 

(9)  Papal  Overtures  for  Peace    . 

(10)  Prussian  Government  Conciliatory 

(11)  Conciliatory  Negotiations 

(12)  Resumption  on  both  sides  of  Conciliatory  Measures 

(13)  Definitive  Conclusion  of  Peace      .... 
(14-15)  Independent  Procedure  of  other  German  Governments 

§  198.  Austria-Hungary 

(1)  Zillerthal  Emigration    .... 

(2)  The  Concordat 

(3)  Protestant  Church  in  Cisleithan  Austria 

(4)  Clerical  Landtag  Opposition  in  Tyrol . 

(5)  Austrian  Universities    .... 

(6)  „        Ecclesiastical  Laws 

(7)  Protestant  Church  in  Transleithan  Provinces 

§  199,  Switzerland        .... 

(1)  Catholic  Church  in  Switzerland 

(2)  Geneva  Conflict 

(3)  Conflict  in  Basel-Soleure 

(4)  Protestant  Church  in  German  Switzer 

(5)  „  „  „  French 

Holland  and  Belgium 

(1)  United  Netherlands 
(2-4)  Kingdom  of  Holland     . 
(5-7)  „  „  Belgiiim     . 

(8)  Protestant  Church  in  Belgium 

Scandinavian  Countries    . 

(1)  Denmark         .... 

(2)  Sweden 

(3)  Norway 

§  202.  Great  Britain  and  Ireland     . 
(1)  Episcopal  State  Church 
(2-3)  Tractarians  and  Ritualists    . 

(4)  Liberalism  on  Episcopal  Bench 


land 


200. 


§  201. 


CONTENTS. 


XV 


(5)  Protestant  Dissenters  in  England 

(6)  Scotch  Marriages  in  England 

(7)  „      State  Church      . 

(8)  Scottish  Heresy  Cases    . 
(9-10)  Catholic  Church  in  Ireland  . 

(11)  „  „         „  England  and  Scotland 

(12)  German  Lutheran  Congregations  in  Australia 

g  203.  France 

(1)  French  Church  under  Napoleon  I. 

(2)  Restoration  and  Citizen  Kingdom 

(3)  Catholic  Church  under  Napoleon  III.  . 

(4)  Protestant  Churches  under  Napoleon  III. 

(5)  Catholic  Church  in  Third  French  liepublic 
(6-7)  French  "  Kulturkampf "        .        .        .        . 

(8)  Protestant  Churches  under  the  Third  Republic 


§  204.  Italy 

(1)  Kingdom  of  Sardinia     . 

(2)  „  „  Italy  .        . 
(8)  Evangelization  of  Italy 


§  205.  Spain  and  Poetugal  . 

(1)  Spain  under  Ferdinand  VII.  and 

(2)  „  „       Isabella  II. 

(3)  „  „       Alphonso  XII. . 

(4)  Evangelization  of  Spain 

(5)  The  Church  in  Portugal 

§  206.  Russia 

(1)  Orthodox  National  Church   . 

(2)  Catholic  Church     . 

(3)  Evangelical  Church 


§  207.  Greece  and  Turkey  . 

(1)  Orthodox  Church  in  Greece  . 

(2)  Massacre  of  Syrian  Christians 

(3)  Bulgarian  Ecclesiastical  Struggle 

(4)  Armenian  Church . 

(5)  Berlin  Treaty,  1878 


Maria  Christina 


§  208.  United  States  of  America 

(1)  English  Protestant  Denominations 
(2-3)  German  Lutheran  Denominations 

(4)  „      Reformed  „ 

(5)  The  Catholic  Church     . 


370 
371 
371 
872 
874 
876 
377 

378 
378 
380 
381 
381 
382 
384 
387 

389 
389 
390 
392 

394 
395 
395 
396 
397 
399 

400 
400 
402 
404 

406 
406 
407 
407 
408 
409 

410 
411 
412 
414 
415 


XVI  CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

§  209.  EoMAN  Catholic  States  of  South  America    .        .        .  415 

(1)  Mexico 416 

(2)  Republics  of  Central  and  Southern  America       .        .  417 

(3)  Brazil 419 

V.    OPPONENTS  OF  CHUECH  AND   CHRISTIANITY. 

§  210.  Sectaries   and   Enthusiasts    in   Roman    Catholic  and 

Orthodox  Russian  Domains 420 

(1-2)  Sects  and  Fanatics  in  Roman  Catholic  Domain  .        .  421 

(3)  Russian  Sects  and  Fanatics 424 

§  211.  Sectaries  and  Enthusiasts  in  the  Protestant  Domain  426 

(1)  The  Methodist  Propaganda 427 

(2)  The  Salvation  Army 428 

(3)  Baptists  and  Quakers 430 

(4)  Swedenborgians  and  Unitarians 432 

(5)  Extravagantly  Fanatical  Manifestations     .        .        .  432 

(6)  Christian  Communistic  Sects 434 

(7-8)  Millenarian  Communities 436 

(9)  New  Israelites 438 

(10)  Catholic  Apostolic  Church  of  Irvingites      .        .        .  440 

(11)  Darbyites  and  Adventists 442 

(12-14)  Mormons  or  Latter  Day  Saints 443 

(15-16)  Taepings  in  China 446 

(17)  Spii'itualists 449 

(18)  Theosophism  or  Occultism 451 

§  212.  Antichristian  Socialism  and  Communism        .        .        .  452 

(1)  Beginnings  of  Modern  Communism      ....  453 

(2)  St.  Simonism 453 

(3)  Owenists  and  Icarians 453 

(4)  International  Association  of  Workmen       .        .         .  454 

(5)  German  Social  Democracy 455 

(6)  Russian  Nihilism '.  457 

Chronological  Tables 459 

Index 485 


SECOXD    SECTION. 

CHURCH  HISTORY  OF  THE  SEVENTEENTH 
CENTURY. 

I. — Relations  betwean  the  Different  Churches. 

§  152.    East  and  West. 

The  papacy  formed  new  plans  for  conquest  in  the  domain 
of  the  Eastern  church,  but  with  at  most  only  transient 
success.  Still  more  illusory  were  the  hopes  entertained  for 
a  while  in  Geneva  and  London  in  regard  to  the  Calvinizing 
of  the  Greek  church. 

1.  Bomaii  Catholic  Hopes. — The  Jesuit  missions  among  the  Turks 
and  schismatic  Greeks  failed,  but  among  the  Abyssinians  some  pro- 
gress was  made.  By  promising  Spanish  aid,  the  Jesuit  Paez  succeeded, 
111  A.D.  1621,  in  inducing  the  Sultan  Segued  to  abjure  the  Jacobite 
heresy.  Mendez  was  made  Abyssinian  patriarch  by  Urban  VIII.  in 
A.D.  1626,  but  the  clergy  and  people  repeatedly  rebelled  against  sultan 
and  patriarch.  In  a.d.  1642  the  next  sultan  drove  the  Jesuits  out  of 
liis  kingdom,  and  in  it  henceforth  no  traces  of  Catholicism  were  to  be 
found. — -In  Russia  the  false  Demetrius,  in  a.d.  1605,  working  in  Polish 
Catholic  intei-ests,  sovight  to  catholicize  the  emph-e ;  but  this  only 
convinced  the  Eussians  that  he  was  no  true  czar's  son.  When  his 
Catholic  Polish  bride  entered  Moscow  with  200  Poles,  a  riot  ensued, 
in  which  Demetrius  lost  his  life.* 

2.  Calvinistic  Hopes. — Cyril  Lncar,  a  native  of  Crete,  tlien  under 
Venetian  rule,  by  long  residence  in  Geneva  had  come  to  entertain  a 
strong  liking  to  the  Reformed  church.     Expelled  from  his  situation 


1  Merimee,  "  The  Russian  Impostors  :  the  False  Demetrius."     Lon- 
don, 1852. 

VOL.  III.  1  I 


2        CHURCH   HISTOTIY   OF   SEVENTEENTH   CENTURY. 

as  rector  of  a  Greek  seminary  at  Ostrog  by  Jesuit  machinations,  he 
was  made  Patriarch  of  Alexandiia  in  a.d.  1602  and  of  Constantinople 
in  A.D.  1621.  He  maintained  a  regular  correspondence  with  Keformed 
divines  in  Holland,  Switzerland,  and  England.  In  a.d.  1628  he  sent 
the  famous  Codex  Alexandrinns  as  a  present  to  James  I.  He  wrought 
expressly  for  a  union  of  the  Greek  and  Reformed  churches,  and  for 
this  end  sent,  in  a.d.  1629,  to  Geneva  an  almost  purely  Calvinistic 
confession.  But  the  other  Greek  bishops  ojiposed  his  union  schemes, 
and  influential  Jesuits  in  Constantinople  accused  him  of  political 
faults.  Four  times  the  sviltan  deposed  and  banished  him,  and  at 
last,  in  A.D.  1638,  he  was  strangled  as  a  traitor  and  cast  into  the  sea. — 
One  of  his  Alexandrian  clergy,  Metrojihanes  Critopulus,  whom  in 
A.D.  1616  he  had  sent  for  his  education  to  England,  studied  several 
years  at  Oxford,  then  at  German  Protestant  universities,  ending  with 
Helmstadt,  where,  in  a.d.  1625,  he  composed  in  Greek  a  confession  of 
the  faith  of  the  Greek  Orthodox  Church.  It  was  pointedly  antago- 
nistic to  the  Eomish  doctrine,  conciliatory  toward  Protestantism, 
Avhile  abandoning  nothing  essential  in  the  Greek  Orthodox  creed, 
and  showing  signs  of  the  possession  of  independent  speculative  power. 
Afterwards  Metrophanes  became  Patriarch  of  Alexandria,  and  in  the 
synod,  presided  over  by  Lucar\s  successor,  Cyril  of  Berrhoe,  at  Con- 
stantinople in  A.D.  1638,  gave  his  vote  for  the  formal  condemnation 
of  the  man  who  had  been  already  executed.' 

3.  Orthodox  Constancy. — The  Russian  Orthodox  church,  after  its 
emancijiation  from  Constantinoi^le  and  the  erection  of  an  independent 
patriarchate  at  Moscow  in  a.d.  1589  (§  73,  4),  had  decidedly  the  pre- 
eminence over  the  Greek  Orthodox  church,  and  the  Russian  czar 
took  the  place  formerly  occupied  by  the  East  Roman  emperor  as 
protector  of  the  whole  Orthodox  church.  The  dangers  to  the  Orthodox 
faith  threatened  by  schemes  of  union  with  Catholics  and  Protestants 
indviced  the  learned  metropolitan,  Peter  Mogilas  of  Kiev,  to  compose 
a  new  confession  in  catechetical  form,  which,  in  a.d.  1643,  was  for- 
mally atithorized  by  the  Orthodox  j^atriarchs  as  'Op^o'Sofos  oixoXoyia  rijs 
Kado\LKi]s  Kal  anoaToXiKijs  eKKXrjaiai  r-qs  dvaroXiKTjs. — Thirty  years  later  a 
controversy  on  the  eucharist  broke  out  between  the  Jansenists  Nicole 
and  Arnauld,  on  the  one  side,  and  the  Calvinists  Claude  and  Jurieu,  on 
the  other  (§  157,  1),  in  which  both  claimed  to  be  in  agreement  with 
the  Greek  church.  A  sjaiod  was  convened  under  Dositheus  of  Jeru- 
salem in  a.d.  1672,  at  the  instigation  of  French  diplomatists,  where 
the  questions   raised  by  Cyril  were  again  taken  into  consideration. 

>  Neale,  "  History  of  the  Holy  Eastern  Church,"  vol.  ii.,  p.  356  If. 
Cyrillus  Lucaris,  "  Confesdo  Christiame  FideV  Geneva,  1633.  Smith, 
"  Collectanea  de  CijriUo  Lucario."'    London,  1707. 


§  153.    CATHOLICISM   AND    PROTESTANTISM.  3 

Maintaining  a  friendly  attitude  toward  the  Komish  church,  it  directed 
a  violent  polemic  against  Calvinism.  In  order  to  save  the  character 
of  the  Constantinopolitan  chair  for  constant  Orthodoxy,  Cyi'il's  con- 
fession of  A.D.  l(j'29  was  pronounced  a  siiuiious,  heretical  invention, 
and  a  confession  composed  by  Dositheus,  in  which  Cyril's  Calvinistic 
heresies  were  repudiated,  was  incorporated  with  the  s3'nod"s  acts. 


§  153,     Catholicism  axd  Protestantism, 

The  Jesuit  counter-reformation  (§  151)  was  eminently  suc- 
cessful during  the  first  decades  of  the  century  in  Bohemia, 
The  Westphalian  Peace  restrained  its  violence,  but  did  not 
prevent  secret  machinations  and  the  open  exercise  of  all 
conceivable  arts  of  seduction.  Next  to  the  conversion  of 
Bohemia,  the  greatest  triumph  of  the  restoration  was  won 
in  Prance  in  the  Revocation  of  the  Edict  of  Nantes.  Besides 
such  victories  the  Catholics  were  able  to  glory  in  the  con- 
version of  several  Protestant  princes.  New  endeavours  at 
union  were  repeatedly  made,  but  these  in  every  case  proved 
as  fruitless  as  former  attempts  had  done. 

1,  Conversions  of  Protestant  Princes. — The  first  reigning  prince  who 
became  a  convert  to  Eomanism  was  the  Margrave  James  III.  of  Badeu, 
He  went  over  in  a.d.  1590  (§  144,  4),  bvit  as  his  death  occurred  soon  after, 
his  conduct  had  little  inliuence  iipon  his  people.  Of  greater  consequence 
was  the  conversion,  in  a.d.  1614,  of  the  Comit- palatine  Wolfgano- 
William  of  Neuburg,  as  it  prepared  the  way  for  the  catholicizing  of 
the  whole  Palatinate,  which  followed  in  a.d.  1685,  Much  was  made 
of  the  passing  over  to  the  Catholic  church  of  Christina  of  Sweden,  the 
highly  gifted  but  eccentric  daughter  of  Gustavvis  Adolphus.  As  she 
had  resigned  the  crown,  the  pope  gained  no  political  advantage  from 
his  new  member,  and  Alexander  VII,  had  even  to  contribute  to  her 
support.  The  Elector  of  Saxony,  Frederick  Augustus  II.,  passed  over 
to  the  Roman  Catholic  chtu-ch  in  a,d,  1697,  in  order  to  tiualify  himself 
for  the  Polish  crown ;  but  the  rights  of  his  Protestant  subjects  were 
carefully  guarded.  An  awkAvardness  arose  from  the  fact  that  the 
prince  was  pledged  by  the  directory  of  the  Eegensburg  Diet  of  a.d, 
1653  to  care  for  the  interests  of  the  evangelical  church.  Now  that  he 
had  become  a  Catholic,  he  still  formally  promised  to  do  so,  but  had 
his  duties  dlsjharged  by  a  commissioner.     tSubs  •(iuent]3- this  otHcer 


4        CHURCH   HISTORY   OF   SEVENTEENTH   CENTURY. 

was  ordered  to  take  his  directions   from  the  evangelical  council  of 
Dresden. 

2.  The  Restoration  in  Germany  and  the  Neighbouring  States  (§  151, 1). — 
Matthias  having,  in  violation  of  the  royal  letter  of  his  predecessor 
Rudolph  II.  (§  139,  19),  refused  to  allow  the  Pi-otestants  of  Bohemia 
to  build  churches,  was  driven  out ;  the  Jesuits  also  were  expelled,  and 
the  Calvinistic  Elector-palatine  Frederick  V.  was  chosen  as  prince  in 
A.D.  1619.  Ferdinand  II.  (a.u.  1619-1637)  defeated  him,  tore  \ip  the 
royal  letter,  restored  the  Jesuits,  and  expelled  the  Protestant  pastors. 
Efforts  were  made  by  Christian  IV.  of  Denmark  and  other  Protestant 
princes  to  save  Protestantism,  but  without  success.  Ferdinand  now 
issued  his  Restitution  Edict  of  a.d.  1629,  which  deprived  Protestants  of 
their  privileges,  and  gave  to  Catholic  nobles  unrestricted  liberty  to 
suppress  the  evangelical  faith  in  their  dominions.  It  was  then  that 
Gustavus  Adolphus  of  Sweden,  in  religious  not  less  than  political 
interests,  made  his  appearance  as  the  saviour  of  Protestantism.'  The 
unhappy  war  was  brought  to  an  end  in  a.u.  1648  by  the  publication 
at  Minister  and  Osnabriick  of  the  Peace  of  Westphalia,  which  Innocent 
X.  in  his  bull  '■'■  Zelo  ]Joinus  Dei"'  of  a.d.  1(>"j1  pi'onounced  "  null  and 
void,  without  influence  on  past,  present,  and  future.''  Germany  lost 
several  noble  provinces,  but  its  intellectual  and  religious  freedom  was 
saved.  Under  Swedish  and  French  guarantee  the  Augsburg  Religious 
Peace  was  confirmed  and  even  extended  to  the  Reformed,  as  related 
to  the  Avigsburg  Confession.  The  chtu'ch  property  Avas  to  be  restored 
on  January  1st,  a.d.  1624.  The  political  equality  of  Protestants  and 
Catholics  throughout  Germany  was  distinctly  secured.  In  Bohemia, 
however.  Protestantism  was  thoroughly  extirjjated,  and  in  the  other 
Austrian  states  the  oppression  continued  down  to  the  time  of  Joseph 
II.  In  Silesia,  from  the  passing  of  the  Restitution  Edict,  over  a 
thousand  churches  had  been  violently  taken  from  the  evangelicals. 
No  compensation  was  now  thought  of,  but  rather  the  persecution 
continued  throughout  the  whole  century  (§  165,  4),  and  many  thou- 
sands were  compelled  to  migrate,  for  the  most  part  to  Upper  Lusatia. 

3.  Also  in  Livonia,  from  a.d.  1561  under  Polish  rule,  the  Jesuits 
gained  a  footing  and  began  the  restoration,  but  under  Gustavus 
Adolphus  from  a.d.  1621  their  machinations  were  brought  to  an  end. 
— The  ruthless  Valteline  Massacre  of  a.d.  1620  may  be  described  as  a 
Swiss  St.  Bartholomew  on  a  small  scale.  All  Protestants  were  mur- 
dered in  one  day.     The  conspirators  at  a  signal  from  the  clock  tower 

*  Stevens,  "  Life  and  Times  of  Gustavus  Adolphus."'  New  York, 
1884.  Trench,  "  Gustavus  Adolphus  in  Germany,  and  other  Lectures 
on  the  Thirty  Years'  "War."  London.  Gardiner,  "  The  Thirty  Years' 
War  "  in  "Epochs  of  Modern  History."     London,  1881, 


§  153.    CATHOLICISM   AND   PROTESTANTISM.  5 

in  the  early  morning  broke  into  the  houses  of  heretics,  and  put  all  to 
death,  down  to  the  very  babe  in  the  cradle.  Between  four  and  five 
hundred  were  slaughtered.— In  Hungary,  at  the  close  of  the  preceding 
centiu-y  only  thi-ee  noble  families  remained  Catholic,  and  the  Protes- 
tant churches  numbered  2,000  ;  but  the  Jesuits,  who  had  settled  there 
under  the  pi-otection  of  Rudolph  II.  in  1579,  resumed  their  intrigues, 
and  the  Archbishop  of  Gran,  Pazmany,  wrought  hard  for  the  restora- 
tion of  Catholicism.  Eakoczy  of  Transylvania,  in  the  Treaty  of  Linz 
of  A.D.  1645,  concluded  a  league  offensive  and  defensive  wath  Sweden 
and  France,  which  secured  political  and  religious  liberty  for  Hungarj' ; 
but  of  the  400  churches  of  Avhich  the  Protestants  had  been  robbed 
only  ninet3^  were  given  back.  The  bigoted  Leopold  I.,  from  a.d.  1655 
king  of  Hungary,  inaugurated  a  yet  more  severe  persecution,  which 
continued  until  the  publication  of  the  Toleration  Edict  of  Joseph  II. 
in  A.D.  1781.  The  2,000  Protestant  congregations  were  by  this  time 
reduced  to  105. 

4.  The  Huguenots  in  France  (§  139,  17).— Henry  IV.  faithfully  ful- 
filled the  promises  Avhich  he  made  in  the  Edict  of  Nantes  ;  but  under 
Louis  XIIL,  A.u.  1610-1648,  the  oppressions  of  the  Huguenots  were 
renewed,  and  led  to  fresh  outbreaks.  Richelieu  withdrew  their 
political  privileges,  but  granted  them  i-eligious  toleration  in  the  Edict 
of  Nismes,  a.d.  1629.  Louis  XIY.,  a.d.  1648-1715,  at  the  instigation 
of  his  confessors,  sought  to  atone  for  his  sins  by  purging  his  land  of 
heretics.  When  bribery  and  court  favour  had  done  all  that  they 
could  do  in  the  waj^  of  conversions,  the  fi^arful  dragonnades  began, 
A.D.  1681.  The  formal  Revocation  of  the  Edict  of  Nantes  followed  in 
A.D.  1685,  and  pei-secution  raged  with  the  utmost  violence.  Thousands 
of  churches  Avere  torn  down,  vast  numbers  of  confessors  were  tortiu'ed , 
burnt,  or  sent  to  the  galleys.  In  spite  of  the  terrible  penal  laws 
against  emigrating,  in  spite  of  the  watch  kept  over  the  frontiers 
hundreds  of  thousands  escaped,  and  were  received  with  open  arms  as 
refugees  in  Brandenburg,  Holland,  England,  Denmark,  and  Switzer- 
land. Man}-  fled  into  the  wilds  of  the  Cevennes,  where  under  the 
name  of  Camisards  they  maintained  a  heroic  conflict  for  years,  until 
at  last  exterminated  by  an  army  at  least  ten  times  their  strength. 
The  struggle  reached  the  utmost  intensity  of  bitterness  on  both  sides 
in  A.D.  1702,  when  the  fanatical  and  inhumanly  cruel  inquisitor,  the 
Abbe  du  Chaila,  was  slain.  At  the  head  of  the  Camisard  army  was  a 
yomig  peasant,  Jean  Cavalier,  who  by  his  energetic  and  skilful  con- 
duct of  the  campaign  astonished  the  world.  At  last  the  famous  Mar- 
shal Villars,  by  promising  a  general  anxnesty,  release  of  all  prisoners, 
permission  to  emigrate  with  possessions,  and  religious  toleration  to 
those  who  remained,  succeeded  in  persuading  Cavalier  to  lay  down 
his  arms.     The  king  ratified  this  bargain,  only  refusing  the  right  of 


6        CHURCH   HISTOEY   OF   SEVENTEENTH   CENTURY. 

religious  freedom.  Many,  however,  sulomittcd  ;  Avhile  others  emigrated, 
mostly  to  England.  Cavalier  entered  the  king's  service  as  colonel ; 
but  distrusting  the  arrangements  fled  to  Holland,  and  afterwards  to 
England,  Avhere  in  a.d.  1740  he  died  as  governor  of  Jei'sey.  In  a.d, 
1707  a  new  outbreak  took  place,  accompanied  by  jjrophetic  fanaticism, 
in  conseqiience  of  repeated  dragoniiades,  but  it  was  put  do^vai  by  the 
stake,  the  galloAvs,  the  axe,  and  the  wheel.  France  had  lost  half  a 
million  of  her  most  pious,  industrious,  and  capable  inhabitants,  and 
yet  two  millions  of  Huguenots  deprived  of  all  their  rights  remained 
in  the  land.^ 

5.  The  "Waldensians  in  Piedmont  (§  139,  25).— Although  in  a.d.  1654 
the  Duke  of  Savoy  confirmed  to  the  Waldensians  their  privileges,  by 
Easter  of  the  following  year  a  bloody  persecution  broke  out,  in  Avhich 
a  Piedmontese  arniA',  together  with  a  horde  of  released  prisoners  and 
Irish  refugees,  driven  from  their  native  land  by  Cromwell's  severities, 
to  whom  the  duke  had  given  shelter  in  the  valleys,  perpetrated  the 
most  horrible  cruelties.  Yet  in  the  desperate  conflict  the  Waldensians 
held  their  grovmd.  The  intervention  of  the  Protestant  Swiss  cantons 
won  for  them  again  a  measure  of  toleration,  and  liberal  gifts  from 
abroad  compensated  them  for  their  loss  of  property.  Cromwell  too 
sent  to  the  relief  of  the  sufferers  the  celebrated  Lord  Morland  in  a.d, 
1658.  While  in  the  vallej's  he  got  possession  of  a  number  of  MSS. 
(§  108,  11),  which  he  took  home  with  him  and  deposited  in  the  Cam- 
bridge Library.  In  a.d.  1685  the  persecution  and  civil  war  were  again 
renewed  at  the  instigation  of  Louis  XIV.  The  soldiers  besieged  the 
vallej's,  and  more  than  14,000  captives  were  consigned  to  fortresses  and 
prisons.  But  the  rest  of  the  Waldensians  plucked  up  courage,  inflicted 
many  defeats  upon  their  enemy,  and  so  moved  the  government  in 
a.d.  1686  to  release  the  prisoners  and  send  them  out  of  the  country. 
Some  fomid  their  Avay  to  Germany,  others  fled  to  Switzerland.  These 
last,  aided  by  Swiss  troops,  and  led  by  their  oAvn  pastor,  Henry 
Arnaud,  made  an  attack  upon  Piedmont  in  a.d,  1689,  and  conquered 
again  their  own  countrj-.  They  continued  in  possession,  notwith- 
standing all  attempts  to  dislodge  them. 

6.  The  Catholics  in  England  and  Ireland. — When  James  I.,  a.d.  1603- 
1625,  the  son  of  Mary  Stuart,  ascended  the  English  throne  (i?  139,  11), 
the  Catholics  expected  from  him  nothing  short  of  the  complete  restora- 
tion  of  the  old  religion.     But  great  as  James'  inclination  towards 

1  Bray,  "  Revolt  of  the  Protestants  of  the  Cevennes."  London,  1870, 
Poole,  "  History  of  the  Huguenots  of  the  Dispersion.''  London,  1880, 
AgneAv,  "  Protestant  Exiles  from  France  in  the  B,eign  of  Louis  XIV." 
3  vols.  London,  1871.  Weiss,  "History  of  French  Protestant  Refu- 
gees."    London,  1854. 


§  153.  CATHOLICISM  AND  PEOTESTANTISM.      7 

Catholicism  may  liavp  bc^en,  his  love  of  despotic  authority  was  still 
greater.  He  therefore  rigorously  suppressed  the  Jesuits,  who  disputed 
the  royal  siipremac3'  over  the  church;  and  the  bitterness  of  the 
Catholics  now  reached  its  height.  They  organized  the  so-called 
Gunpowder  Plot,  with  the  intention  of  blowing  up  the  royal  family  and 
the  whole  Parliament  at  the  first  meeting  of  the  house.  At  the  head 
of  the  conspiracy  stood  Rob.  Catesby,  Thomas  Percy  of  Northmnber- 
land,  and  Guy  Fawkes,  an  English  officer  in  the  Spanish  service. 
The  plan  Avas  discovered  shortly  before  the  day  appointed  for  its 
execution.  On  November  5th,  a.d.  1605,  Fawkes,  with  lantern  and 
matches,  was  seized  in  the  cellai-.  The  rest  of  the  conspirators  fled, 
but,  after  a  desperate  struggle,  in  which  Catesby  and  Percy  fell,  were 
arrested,  and,  together  with  two  Jesiiit  accomplices,  executed  as  traitors. 
Gi'eat  severities  were  then  exercised  toward  the  Catholics,  not  only  in 
England,  but  also  in  Ireland,  where  the  bulk  of  the  population  Avas 
attached  to  the  Eomish  faith.  James  I.  completed  the  transference 
of  ecclesiastical  property  to  the  Anglican  church,  and  robbed  the 
Irish  nobles  of  almost  all  their  estates,  and  gifted  them  over  to 
Scottish  and  English  favourites.  All  Catholics,  because  they  refused 
to  take  the  oath  of  supremacy,  i.e.  to  recognise  the  king  as  head 
of  the  church,  were  declared  ineligible  for  any  civil  office.  These 
oppressions  at  last  led  to  the  fearful  Irish  massacre.  In  October,  a.d. 
1641,  a  desperate  outbreak  of  the  Cath<ilics  took  place  throughout  the 
country.  It  aimed  at  the  destruction  of  all  Protestants  in  Ireland. 
The  conspirators  rushed  from  all  sides  into  the  houses  of  the  Protes- 
tants, murdered  the  inhabitants,  and  drove  them  naked  and  heljdess 
from  their  homes.  Many  thousands  died  on  the  roadside  of  hunger 
and  cold.  In  other  places  they  were  driven  in  crowds  into  the  rivers 
and  drowned,  or  into  emiJty  houses,  Avhich  were  burnt  over  them. 
The  number  of  those  who  suffei'ed  is  variously  estimated  from  40,000  to 
400,000.  Charles  I.,  a.d.  1625-164!),  was  suspected  as  instigator  of  this 
terrible  deed,  and  it  may  be  regarded  as  his  fii-st  step  toward  the 
scaffold  (!^  155, 1).  After  the  execution  of  Charles,  Oliver  Cromwell,  in 
A.D.  1(549,  at  the  call  of  Parliament,  took  feai'ful  revenge  for  the  Irish 
crime.  In  the  two  cities  which  he  took  by  storm  he  had  all  the 
citizens  cut  down  without  distinction.  Panic-stricken,  the  inhabitants 
of  the  other  cities  fled  to  the  bogs.  Within  nine  months  the  whole 
island  was  reconquered.  Hundreds  of  thousands,  driven  from  their 
native  soil,  wandered  as  homeless  fugitives,  and  their  lands  Avere 
divided  among  English  soldiers  and  settlers.  During  the  time  of  the 
English  Commonwealth,  a.d.  1649-1660,  all  moderate  men,  even  those 
who  had  formerly  demanded  religious  toleration,  not  only  for  all 
Christian  sects,  but  also  for  Jcavs  and  Mohammadans,  and  even 
atheists,  were  now   at  one  in  excluding  Catholics  from  its  benefit, 


8        CHUECH   HISTORY   OF   SEVENTEENTH   CENTUEY. 

because  they  all  saw  in  the  Catholics  a  party  ready  at  any  moment  to 
prove  traitors  to  their  countr3^  at  the  bidding  of  a  foreign  sovereign. 
— The  Restoration  vmder  Charles  II.  could  not  greatly  ameliorate 
the  calamities  of  the  Irish.  Religious  persecution  indeed  ceased,  but 
the  property  taken  from  the  Catholic  church  and  native  owners  still 
remained  in  the  hands  of  the  Anglican  church  and  the  Protestant 
occupiers.  To  counterbalance  the  Catholic  proclivities  of  Charles  II. 
(§  155,  3),  the  English  Parliament  of  a.d.  1678  passed  the  Test  Act, 
which  required  every  civil  and  militaiy  officer  to  take  the  test  oaths, 
condemning  transubstantiation  and  the  worship  of  the  saints,  and  to 
receive  the  communion  according  to  the  Anglican  rite  as  members  of 
the  State  church.  The  statements  of  a  certain  Titus  Gates,  that  the 
Jesuits  had  organized  a  plot  for  murdering  the  king  and  restoring 
the  papacy,  led  to  fearful  riots  in  a.d.  1678  and  many  executions. 
But  the  reports  were  seemingly  unfounded,  and  were  probably  the 
fruit  of  an  intrigue  to  deprive  the  king's  Catholic  brother,  James  II., 
of  the  right  of  succession.  When  James  ascended  the  throne,  in  a.d. 
1685,  he  immediately  entered  into  negotiations  with  Rome,  and  filled 
almost  all  offices  with  Catholics.  At  the  invitation  of  the  Protestants, 
the  king's  son-in-law,  "William  III.  of  Orange,  landed  in  England  in 
A.D.  1688,  and  on  James'  flight  was  declared  king  by  the  Parliament. 
The  Act  of  Toleration,  issued  by  him  in  a.d.  1689,  still  withheld  from 
Papists  the  privileges  now  extended  to  Protestant  dissenters  (§  155,  3).' 
7.  Union  IfEorts. — (1)  Although  Hugo  Grotius  distinctly  took  the 
side  of  the  Remonstrants  (§  160,  2),  his  Avhole  disposition  was  essen- 
tially irenical.  He  attempted,  but  in  vain,  not  only  the  reconciliation 
of  the  Arminians  and  Calvinists,  but  also  the  union  of  all  Protestant 
sects  on  a  common  basis.  Toward  Catholicism  he  long  maintained 
a  decidedly  hostile  attitude.  But  through  intimate  intercourse  with 
distinguished  Catholics,  especially  during  his  exile  in  France,  his 
feelings  Avere  completely  changed.  He  now  invariably  expressed 
himself  more  favourably  in  regard  to  the  faith  and  the  institutions  of 
the  Catholic  church.  Its  semi-Pelagianism  was  acceptable  to  him 
as  a  decided  Arminian.  In  his  "  Votum  pro  Pace^''  he  recommended 
as  the  only  possible  way  to  restore  ecclesiastical  union,  a  return  to 
Catholicism,  on  the  vmderstanding  that  a  thorough  reform  should  be 
made.  But  that  he  was  himself  ready  to  pass  over,  and  was  hindered 
only  by  his   sudden   death   in  a.d.  1645,   is  merely  an  illusion  of 

'  Macaulay,  "  History  of  England  from  the  Accession  of  James  II." 
London,  1846.  Hassencami),  "  History  of  Ireland  from  the  Reforma- 
tion to  the  Union."  London,  1888.  Adair,  "  Rise  and  Progress  of 
the  Presbyterian  Church  of  Ireland  from  1623  to  1670."  Belfast,  1866. 
Hamilton,  "History  of  Presbyterian  Church  in  Ireland."     Edin.,  1887. 


§  153.  CATHOLICISM  AND  PKOTESTANTISM.      9 

Eomish  imagination.' — (2)  King  Wladislaus  lY.  of  Poland  thought 
a  imion  of  Protestants  and  Catholics  in  his  dominions  not  impossible, 
and  with  this  end  in  view  arranged  the  Religious  Conference  of  Thorn 
in  A.D.  1645.  Prussia  und  Brandenburg  were  also  invited  to  take 
part  in  it.  The  elector  sent  his  court  preacher,  John  Berg,  and 
asked  from  the  Duke  of  Brunswick  the  assistance  of  the  Helmstadt 
theologian,  George  Calixt.  The  chief  representatives  of  the  Lutheran 
side  were  Abraham  Calov,  of  Danzig,  and  John  Hiilsemann,  of  Witten- 
berg. That  Calixt,  a  Lutheran,  took  the  part  of  the  Keformed, 
intensified  the  bitterness  of  the  Lutherans  at  the  outset.  The  result 
was  to  increase  the  split  on  all  sides.  The  Reformed  set  forth  their 
opinions  in  the  "JJecla  ratio  Tliorunenfiia"  which  in  Brandenburg  ob- 
tained symbolical  rank. — (H)  J.  B.  Bossuet,  who  died  in  a.d.  1704,  Bishop 
of  Meaux,  used  all  his  eloquence  to  prepare  a  ^\'^.y  for  the  return  of 
Protestants  to  the  church  in  which  alone  is  salvation.  In  several 
treatises  he  gave  an  idealized  exposition  of  the  Catholic  doctrine, 
glossed  over  what  was  most  offensive  to  Protestants,  and  sought  by 
subtlety  and  sophistry  to  represent  the  Protestant  system  as  contradic- 
tory and  untenable.'-'  Diu-ing  the  same  period  the  Spaniard  Spinola, 
Bishop  of  Neustadt,  who  had  come  into  the  country  as  father  confessor 
of  the  empress,  proposed  a  scheme  of  union  at  the  imperial  court. 
The  controverted  ^xiiuts  were  to  be  decided  at  a  free  coimcil,  but  the 
]n-imacy  of  the  pope  and  the  hierarchical  system,  as  fomided  jure 
Iiiimano,  were  to  be  retained.  In  prosecuting  his  scheme,  "with  the 
secret  suppoi't  of  Leopold  I.,  Spinola,  between  a.d.  1670  and  1691, 
travelled  through  all  Protestant  Germany.  He  found  most  success, 
out  of  i-espect  for  the  emperor,  in  Hanover,  where  the  Abbot  of  Loccuni, 
Molanus,  zealously  advocated  the  proposed  luiion,  in  which  on  the 
Catholic  side  Bossuet,  on  the  Protestant  side  the  great  jjhilosopher 
Leibnitz,  took  part.  But  the  negotiations  ended  in  no  practical  result. 
That  Leibnitz  had  himself  been  already  secretly  inclined  to  Catholicism, 
some  think  to  have  i^roved  by  a  manuscript,  found  after  his  death, 
entitled  in  another's  hand,  "  Systema  Theoloijicitni  Lelhnitii."'  Favour- 
abh"  disposed  as  Leibnitz  was  to  investigate  and  recognise  what  was 
profound  and  true  even  in  Catholicism,  so  that  he  reached  the  conviction 
that  neither  of  the  two  churches  had  given  perfect  and  adequate  expres- 
sion to  Christian  truth,  he  has  apparenth'  sought  in  this  work  to  make 


1  Butler,  "Life  of  Hugo  Grotius."  London,  1826.  Motley,  "John 
of  Barneveld,"  vol.  ii.    New  York,  1874. 

'  "  An  Exposition  of  the  Doctrine  of  the  Catholic  Church  in  Matters 
of  Controversj'."  London,  168.5.  "Yariations  of  Protestantism."'  2 
vols.  Dublin,  1836.  Butler,  "  Some  Account  of  the  Life  and  Writings 
of  Bishop  Bossuet."'     London,  1812. 


10     CHUECH   HISTORY   OF   SEVENTEENTH   CENTURY. 

clear  to  himsplf  wliat  and  liow  much  of  specificall3'^  Catholic  doctrines 
were  justifiable,  and  to  sketch  out  a  system  of  doctrine  occtipying  a 
place  superior  to  both  confessions.  In  this  treatise  many  doctrines  are 
expressed  in  a  manner  quite  divergent  from  that  of  the  Tridentine 
creed,  while  several  expressions  show  hoAv  clearly  he  perceived  the 
contradiction  between  his  own  Protestant  faith  and  the  Bomish 
system,  amid  all  his  attempts  to  effect  a  reconciliation. 

S.  The  Lehnin  Prophecy. — The  hope  entertained,  about  the  end  of  the 
seventeenth  century,  by  Catholics  throughout  Germany  of  the  speedy 
restoration  of  the  mother  church  Avas  expressed  in  the  so  called 
Vaticininm  Lehninense.  Professedly  composed  in  the  thirteenth  cen- 
tuiy  by  a  monk  called  Hermann,  of  the  cloister  of  Lehnin  in  Bi-anden- 
burg,  it  characterized  with  historical  accuracy  in  100  Leonine  verses 
the  Brandenburg  princes  do-\vai  to  Frederick  III.,  of  whose  coronation 
in  A.D.  1701  it  is  ignorant,  and  after  this  proceeds  in  a  purely  fanciful 
and  arbitrary  manner.  From  Joachim  II.,  who  openly  joined  the  Ee- 
formation,  it  enumerates  eleven  members,  so  that  the  history  is  just 
brought  down  to  Frederick  "William  III.  With  the  eleventh  the 
HohenzoUern  dynasty  ends,  Germany  is  united,  the  Catholic  church 
restored,  and  Lehnin  raised  again  to  its  ancient  gkny.  Under  Frederick 
William  IV.,  the  Catholics  diligently  sought  to  i)rove  the  genuinenesjs 
of  the  2:»rophecy,  and  by  arbitrary  methods  to  extend  it  so  as  to  include 
this  prince.  Lately  "  the  deadly  sin  of  Israel "  spoken  of  in  it  has  been 
pointed  to  as  a  proi)hecy  of  the  KuJtur-hampf  of  our  own  day  (§  197)- 
The  first  certain  trace  of  the  poem  is  in  a.d.  1693.  Hilgenfeld  thinks 
that  its  author  was  a  fanatical  pervert,  Andr.  Fromm,  who  was  pre- 
\'iousl3'  a  Protestant  pastor  in  Berlin,  and  died  in  a.d.  1()85  as  canon  of 
Leitmeritz,  in  Bfdiemia. 

§  154.    Luther AxisM  axd  Calvinism. 

The  Reformed  churcli  made  its  way  into  the  heart  of 
Lutheran  Grermany  (§  144)  by  the  Calviuizing  of  Hesse- 
Cassel  and  Lippe,  and  by  the  adherence  of  the  electoral 
house  of  Brandenburg.  Renewed  attempts  to  unite  the  two 
churches  were  equall}'  fruitless  with  the  endeavours  after  a 
Catholic-Protestant  x;nion. 

1.  Calvinizing  of  Kesse-Cassel,  A.D.  1605  1646.— Philip  the  Magnani- 
mous, died  ir)(i7,  left  to  his  eldest  son,  William  IV.,  one  half  of  his 
territories,  comprising  Lower  Hesse  and  Schmalcald,  with  residence  at 
Cassel ;  to  Louis  IV.  a  foiu'th  part,  viz.  Upper  Hesse,  with  residence 
at  Marburg ;  while  his  two  j'oungest  sons,  Philip  and  George,  were 


5^  154.    LUTHEEANISM   AND   CALVINISM.  11 

made  counts,  with  tlieir  i-esidence  at  Darmstadt.  Philip  died  in  1588 
and  Louis  in  1H04,  both  childless ;  in  consequence  of  Avhich  the  greater 
part  of  Philip's  territory  and  the  northern  half  of  Upper  Hesse  Avith 
Marburg  fell  to  Hesse-Cassel,  and  the  southern  half  -with  Giessen  to 
Hesse-Dannstadt. — Landgrave  William  IV.  of  Hesse-Cassel  sympa- 
thised with  his  father's  union  and  levelling  tendencies,  and  by  means 
of  general  synods  Avrought  eagerly  to  seciire  acceptance  for  them 
tlu'oughout  Hesse  by  setting  aside  the  ubiquitous  Christologj^  (§  1-12,9) 
and  the  Formula  of  Concord,  while  firmly  maintaining  the  ( 'orpun 
DoclritHV  Pliilippirum  (§  142, 10).  The  fourth  and  last  of  those  general 
synods  was  held  in  1.582.  Further  procedure  was  meanwhile  rendered 
impossible  by  the  increase  of  opposition.  For,  on  the  one  hand,  Louis 
IV.,  luider  the  influence  of  the  acute  and  learned  but  contentious 
J?]gidius  Humiius,  professor  of  theology  at  Marburg,  157(3-1592,  be- 
came more  and  more  decidedly  a  representative  of  exclusive  Luther- 
anism  ;  and,  on  the  other  hand,  William's  Calvinizing  schemes  became 
from  day  to  day  more  reckless.  His  son  and  successor  Maurice  went 
forward  more  energetically  along  the  same  lines  as  his  father,  es- 
peciall}'  after  the  death  of  his  uncle  Louis  in  1(304,  who  bequeathed 
to  him  the  Marburg  part  of  his  territories.  These  had  been  given 
him  on  condition  that  he  should  hold  by  the  confession  and  its 
apolog}'  as  guaranteed  b3-  Cliarles  V.  in  1580.  But  in  1(305  he  forbad 
the  Marburg  theologians  to  set  forth  the  ubiquity  theology;  and  when 
they  protested,  issued  a  foi-mal  prohibition  of  the  dogma  witii  its 
presuppositions  and  consequences,  and  insisted  on  the  introduction  of 
the  Eefomied  niunbering  of  the  commandments  of  the  decalogue,  and 
the  breaking  of  bread  at  the  commimion,  and  the  removal  of  the 
remaining  images  from  the  churches  (§  144,  2).  The  theologians  again 
protested,  and  Avere  deprived  of  their  offices.  The  resiilt  was  the  oiit- 
break  of  a  popiilar  tumult  at  Marburg,  Avhich  Maurice  suppressed  by 
calling  in  the  military.  When  in  several  places  in  L^i^per  and  even  in 
Lower  Hesse  opposition  was  i^ersisted  in,  and  the  resisting  clergy  could 
not  be  won  over  either  by  persuasion  and  threatening  or  by  persecu- 
tion, Maurice  in  1G07  convened  consultative  diocesan  synods  at  Cassel, 
Eschwege,  Marburg,  St.  Goar,  and  soon  after  a  general  synod  at  Cassel, 
which,  giving  exi:)ression  on  all  points  to  the  will  of  the  landgi'Uve, 
drew  up,  besides  a  new  hj-mnbook  and  catechism,  a  new  "  Christian 
and  correct  confession  of  faith,"  by  which  they  openly  and  decidedly 
declared  tlieir  attachment  to  the  Keformed  church.  Soon  Hesse  ac- 
cepted these  conclusions,  but  not  the  rest  of  the  state,  A\here  the 
opposition  of  the  nobles,  clergy,  and  people,  in  spite  of  all  attempts  to 
enforce  this  acceptance  by  military  powei'.  imprisonment,  and  deposi- 
tion, could  not  be  altogether  overcome. — ^Meanwhile  George's  son  and 
successor,  Louis  V.,  1.59(3-162(i,  had  been  eagerlj'  seeking  to  make  capital 


12     CHURCH    HISTORY   OF    SEVENTEENTH   CENTURY. 

of  those  troubles  iu  liis  cousin's  domains  in  favour  of  the  Dannstadt 
dynasty.  He  gave  his  protection  to  the  professors  expelled  from  Mar- 
burg in  1605,  founded  in  1607  a  Lutheran  university  at  Giessen,  and 
made  accusations  against  his  cousin  before  the  imperial  supreme 
court,  which  in  1623,  on  the  basis  of  the  will  of  Louis  IV.  and  the 
Religious  Peace  of  Augsburg  (§  137,  5),  declared  the  inheritance  for- 
feited, and  entrusted  the  electors  of  Cologne  and  Saxony  with  the 
execution  of  the  sentence.  These  in  conjunction  Avith  the  troops  of 
the  league  under  Tilly  attacked  Upper  and  Lower  Hesse  •,  the  Lutheran 
University  of  Giessen  was  transferred  to  Marburg,  and  Upper  Hesse, 
after  the  banishment  of  the  Reformed  pastors,  went  over  wholly  to  the 
Lutheran  confession.  Maiu-ice,  completely  broken  down,  resigned  in 
favour  of  his  son  William  V.,  who  Avas  obliged  to  make  an  agreement, 
according  to  Avhich  he  made  over  Upi^er  Hesse,  Schmalcald,  and 
Katzenelnbogen  to  George  II.  of  Hesse-Darmstadt,  the  successor  of 
Louis  V.  In  consequence  of  his  attachment  to  Clustavus  Adolphus  in 
the  Thirty  Y'ears'  War  the  ban  of  the  empire  was  pronounced  npon 
William.  He  died  in  1637.  His  widow,  Amalie  Elizal)eth,  undertook 
the  government  on  behalf  of  her  young  son  William  VI.,  and  in  1646, 
after  repeated  victories  over  George's  troops,  made  a  new  agreement 
with  him,  by  which  the  territories  taken  away  in  1627  were  restored 
to  Hesse-Cassel,  under  a  guarantee,  however,  that  the  status  quo  in 
matters  of  religion  should  be  pi-eserved,  and  that  they  should  continue 
predominantly  Lutheran.  The  university  property  was  divided ; 
Giessen  obtained  a  Lutheran,  Marburg  a  Reformed  institution,  and 
Lower  Hesse  received  a  moderatelj^  but  yet  essentially  Reformed  eccle- 
siastical constitution. 

2.  Calvinizing  of  Lippe,  A.D.  1602. — Count  Simon  VI.  of  Lippe,  in 
his  eventful  life,  was  broixght  into  close  relations  Avith  the  Reformed 
Netherlands  and  Avith  Maiirice  of  Hesse.  His  dominions  were 
thoroughly  Luthei'an,  but  from  a.d.  1602  Calvinism  was  gradually 
introduced  vinder  the  patronage  of  the  prince.  The  chief  promoter  of 
this  innovation  Avas  Dreckmeyer,  chosen  general  sujjerintendent  in 
A.D.  1599.  At  a  A' isitation  of  churches  in  a.d.  1602,  the  festiA^als  of 
Mary  and  the  apostles,  exorcism,  the  sign  of  the  cross,  the  host, 
burning  candles,  and  Luther's  catechism  Avere  rejected.  Opi^osing 
pastors  Avere  dejjosed,  and  Calvinists  put  in  their  place.  The  city 
Lemgo  stood  out  longest,  and  persevered  in  its  adherence  to  the 
Lutheran  confession  during  an  ele\'en  years'  struggle  Avith  its  prince, 
from  A.D.  1606  to  1617.  After  the  death  of  Simon  VI.,  his  successor, 
Simon  VII.,  alloAved  the  city  the  free  exercise  of  its  Lutheran  religion. 

3.  The  Elector  of  Brandenburg  becomes  Calvinist,  A.D.  1613. — John 
Sigismvmd,  a.d.  1608-1619,  had  promised  his  grandfather,  John  George,  to 
maintain  his  comiexion  Avith  the  Lutheran  church.     But  his  OAvn  incli- 


§  154.   LUTHEKANISM   AND   CALVINISM.  13 

nation,  which  was  strengthened  by  his  son's  marriage  with  a  princess 
of  the  Palatinate,  and  his  connexion  with  the  Netherlands,  made  him 
forget  his  promise.  Also  his  court  preacher,  the  crypto-Calvinist 
Solomon  Fink,  contributed  to  the  same  result.  On  Christmas  Day,  a.d. 
1613,  he  went  over  to  the  Reformed  church.  In  order  to  share  in  the 
Augsburg  Peace,  he  still  retained  the  A\igsbiirg  Confession,  naturally 
in  the  form  known  as  the  Vatiata.  In  a.d.  1624,  he  issued  a  Calvinist 
confession  of  his  own,  the  Coiifessio  Siyi-smundi  or  Ma rch ica ,  which 
sought  to  reconcile  the  universality  of  grace  with  the  particularity  of 
election  (§  168,  1).  His  people,  however,  did  r.ot  follow  the  prince,  not 
even  his  consort,  Anne  of  Prussia.  The  court  preacher,  Gedicke,  who 
would  not  retract  his  invectives  against  the  prince  and  the  Reformed 
confession,  was  obliged  to  flee  from  Berlin,  as  also  another  preacher, 
Mart.  Willich.  But  when  altars,  images,  and  baptismal  fonts  were 
thrown  out  of  the  Berlin  chvirches,  a  tumult  arose,  in  A.n.  1615,  which 
was  not  suppressed  without  bloodshed.  In  the  following  year  the 
elector  forbade  the  teaching  of  the  rommunicaiio  idioinatum  and  the 
libiquitas  corporis  (§  141,  9)  at  the  University  of  Frankfort-on-the- 
Oder.  In  a.d.  1614,  owing  to  the  publication  of  a  keen  controversial 
treatise  of  Hutter  (§  158,  5)  he  forbade  any  of  his  subjects  going  to 
the  University  of  Wittenberg,  and  soon  afterwards  struck  out  the 
Formula  of  Concord  from  the  collection  of  the  symbolical  books  of  the 
Lutheran  church  of  his  realm. — Continuation,  §  169,  1. 

4.  Union  Attempts. — Hoe  von  Hoenegg,  of  an  old  Austrian  family, 
was  frona  a.d.  1612  chief  court  preacher  at  Dresden,  and  as  spiritual 
adviser  of  the  elector,  John  George,  on  the  outbreak  of  the  Thirty 
Years'  War,  got  Lutheran  Saxony  to  take  the  side  of  the  Catholic 
emperor  against  the  Calvinist  Frederick  V.  of  the  Palatinate,  elected 
king  of  Bohemia.  In  a.d.  1621,  he  had  proved  that  "  on  ninety-nine 
points  the  Calvinists  were  in  accord  with  the  Arians  and  the  Tuiks."' 
At  the  Religious  Conference  of  Leipzig  of  a.d.  1631  a  compromise  Avas 
accei^ted  on  both  sides ;  but  no  practical  result  was  secured.  The 
Religious  Conference  of  Cassel,  in  a.d.  1661,  was  a  well  meant  endeavour 
by  some  Marburg  Reformed  theologians  and  Lutherans  of  the  school 
of  Calixt  (§  158,  2) ;  but  owing  to  the  agitation  caused  by  the  Synergist 
controvex'sy,  no  important  advance  toward  union  could  be  accom- 
plished. The  vmion  efforts  of  Duke  William  of  Brandenburg,  a.d.  1640- 
1688,  were  opposed  by  Paul  Gerhardt,  preacher  in  the  church  of  St. 
Nicholas  in  Berlin.  On  refusing  to  abstain  from  attacks  on  the 
Reformed  docti'ine  he  was  deposed  fi'om  his  office.  He  was  soon  aji- 
pointed  pastor  at  Lilbben  in  Lusatia,  where  he  died  in  a.d.  1676. — The 
most  zealous  apostle  of  universal  Protestant  union,  embracing  even 
the  Anglican  church,  was  the  Scottish  Presbyterian  John  Durie.  From 
A.D.  1628  when  he  officiated  as  pastor  of  an  English  colony  at  Elbing, 


14     CHURCH   HISTORY   OP   SEVENTEENTH   CENTURY. 

till  his  death  at  Cassel  in  a.d.  1B40,  he  devoted  his  energies  un- 
weariedly  to  this  one  task.  He  repeatedly  travelled  through  Germany, 
Sweden,  Denmark,  England,  and  the  Netherlands,  formed  acquain- 
tance with  clerical  and  civil  authorities,  had  intercourse  with  them 
by  word  and  letter,  published  a  multitude  of  tracts  on  this  subject ; 
but  at  last  could  only  look  back  with  bitter  complaints  over  the  lost 
labours  of  a  lifetime.' — Continuation,  §  169,  1. 


§  155,    Anglicanism  and  Puritanism.- 

On  the  outbreak  of  the  English.  Revolution,  occasioned  by 
the  despotism  of  the  first  two  Stuarts,  crowds  of  Puritan  exiles 
returned  from  Holland  and  North  America  to  their  old  home. 
They  powerfully  strengthened  their  secret  sympathisers  in 
their  successful  struggle  against  the  episcopacy  of  the  State 
church  (§  131,0);  but,  breaking  up  into  rival  parties,  as 
Presbyterians  and  Independents  (§  143,  3,  4),  gave  way  to 
fanatical  extravagances.  The  victorious  jiarty  of  Indepen- 
dents also  split  into  two  divisions :  the  one,  after  the  old 
Dutch  style,  simple  and  strict  believers  in  Scripture  ;  the 
other,  first  in  Cromwell's  army,  fanatical  enthusiasts  and 
visionary  saints  (§  IGl,  1).  The  Restoration,  under  the  last 
two  Stuarts,  sought  to  re-introduce  Catholicism.  It  was 
William  of  Orange,  by  his  Act  of  Toleration  of  A.D.  1G89, 
who  first  brought  to  a  close  the  Reformation  struggles 
within  the  Anglican  church.     It  guaranteed,  indeed,  all  the 

*  "The  Work  of  John  Durie  in  behalf  of  Christian  Union  in  the 
Seventeenth  Century,"  by  Dr.  Briggs  in  Prenhyterian  Review,  vol. 
viii.,  1887,  pp.  297-30(3.  To  which  is  attached  an  account  by  Durie 
himself,  Jiever  before  published,  of  his  own  union  efforts  from  Juh', 
1631,  till  September,  1633.     See  pp.  301-309. 

2  Clarendon,  "  History  of  the  Eebellion  in  England,  1649-1666."  3 
vols.  Oxford,  1667.  Burnet,  "  History  of  his  Own  Time,  1660-1713." 
2  vols.  London,  1724,  Guizot,  "  History  of  English  Eevolution  of 
1640,"  London,  18.56,  Gardiner,  "History  of  England,  1603-1642." 
10  vols,  London,  1885,  Marsden,  "  History  of  Early  and  Later  Puri- 
tans, down  to  the  Ejection  of  the  Nonconformists  in  1662."  2  vols. 
Loudon,  1853.     Maeson,  "  Life  of  Milton,"'    4  vols.     London,  1859  ff. 


§  155.    ANGLICANISM   AND   PURITANISM.  15 

pre-eminent  privileges  of  an  establishment  to  the  Anglican 
and  Episcopal  church,  but  also  granted  toleration  to  dis- 
senters, while  refusing  it  to  Catholics. 

1.  The  First  Two  Stuarts.  -James  I.,  doininated  by  the  idea  of  tlie 
Yoyal  svipremacy,  and  so  estranged  from  the  Presbyteriaiiism  in  which 
he  was  brouglit  up  (4?  1B9,  11),  as  king  of  England,  a.d.  lt)08-l()25, 
attached  himself  to  the  national  Episcopal  church,  persecuted  the 
English  Puritans,  so  that  many  of  them  again  fled  to  Holland 
(§  148,  4),  and  forced  Episcopacy  upon  the  Scotch,  Charles  I.,  a.d. 
1625-1649,  went  bej'ond  his  father  in  theory  and  practice,  and  thi;s 
incurred  the  hatred  of  his  Protestant  subjects.  William  Laud,  from 
A.D.  1633  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  was  the  recklessly  zealous  pro- 
moter of  his  despotic  ideas,  representing  the  Episcoj)acy,  by  reason  of 
its  Divine  institution  and  apostolic  succession,  as  the  foundation  of 
the  church  and  the  pillar  of  an  absolute  monarchy.  Laud  used  his 
position  as  primate  to  secure  the  introduction  of  his  own  theory  into 
the  public  church  services,  among  other  things  making  the  communion 
office  an  imitation  as  near  as  possible  of  the  Romish  mass.  But  when 
he  attempted  to  force  upon  the  Scotch  such  "  Baal-Avorship  "  by  the 
command  of  the  king,  they  formed  a  league  in  a.d.  1638  for  the  defence 
of  Presbyteriaiiism,  the  so  called  Great  Covenant,  and  emphasised 
their  demand  by  sending  an  army  into  England.  The  king,  who  had 
ruled  for  eleven  j'ears  witliout  a  Parliament,  was  obliged  now  to  call 
together  the  representatives  of  the  people.  Scarcely  had  the  Long 
Parliament,  a.d.  1640-1653,  in  Avhich  the  Puritan  element  was  supreme, 
pacified  the  Scotch,  than  oil  was  anew  poured  on  the  flames  by  the 
Irish  massacx'e  of  a.d.  1641  (§  153,  6).  The  Lower  House,  in  spite  of 
the  persistent  opposition  of  the  court,  resolved  on  excluding  the  bishops 
from  the  LTpper  Housa  and  formally  abolishing  Episcopacy ;  and  in 
A.D.  1643,  summoned  the  Westminster  Assembly  to  remodel  the  organi- 
zation of  the  English  church,  at  which  Scotch  representatives  Avere 
to  have  a  seat.  After  long  and  violent  debates  Avith  an  Independent 
minority,  till  a.d.  1648,  the  Assembly  drew  iip  a  Presbyterian  con- 
stitution Avith  a  Puritan  service,  and  in  the  Westminster  Confession 
a  strictly  Calvinistic  creed.  But  only  in  Scotland  Avere  these  decisions 
heartily  accepted.  In  England,  notAvithstanding  their  confirmation 
by  the  Parliament,  they  I'eceived  only  partial  and  occasional  accep- 
tance, OAving  to  the  prevalence  of  Independent  opinions  among  the 
people. — Since  a.d.  1642,  the  tension  betAveen  court  and  Parliament 
had  brought  about  the  Civil  AVar  betAveen  Cavaliers  and  Roundheads. 
In  A.D.  1645,  the  royal  troojjs  Avere  cut  to  pieces  at  Naseby  by  the 
parliamentary  army  under  Fairfax  and  CromA\'ell.     The  king  lied  to 


16     CHURCH   HISTORY   OF    SEVENTEENTH   CENTURY. 

the  Scotch,  by  whom  he  was  surrendered  to  the  English  Parliament 
in  A.D.  1647.  But  when  now  the  fanatical  Independents,  who  formed 
a  majority  in  the  armj',  liegan  to  terrorise  the  Parliament,  it  opened 
negotiations  for  peace  Avith  the  king.  He  was  now  ready  to  make 
almost  any  sacrifice,  only  on  religious  and  conscientious  grounds  he 
could  not  agree  to  the  unconditional  abandonment  of  Episcopacy. 
Even  the  Scotch,  whose  Presbyterianism  was  now  threatened  by  the 
Independents,  as  before  it  had  been  by  the  Episcopalians,  longed  for 
the  restoration  of  royalty,  and  to  aid  in  this  sent  an  army  into 
England  in  a.d.  1648.  But  they  were  defeated  by  Cromwell,  who  then 
dismissed  the  Parliament  and  had  all  its  Presbyterian  members  either 
imprisoned  or  di'iven  into  retirement.  The  Independent  remnant, 
known  as  the  Rump  Parliament,  a.d.  1648-1653,  tried  the  king  for 
high  treason  and  sentenced  hini  to  death.  On  January  30th,  a.d.  1649, 
he  mounted  the  scaffold,  on  which  Archbishop  Laud  had  preceded  him 
in  A.D.  1645,  and  fell  under  the  executioner's  axe.' 

2.  The  Commonwealth  and  the  Protector. — Ireland  had  never  yet 
atoned  for  its  crime  of  a.d.  1641  (§  153,  6),  and  as  it  refused  to 
acknowledge  the  Commonwealth,  Cromwell  took  terrible  revenge  in 
A.D.  1649.  In  A.D.  1650  at  -Dunbar,  and  in  a.d.  1651  at  Worcester,  he 
completely  destroyed  the  army  of  the  Scots,  who  had  crowned  Charles 
II.,  son  of  the  executed  king,  drove  out,  in  April  a.d.  1653,  the  Rump  of 
the  Long  Parliament,  which  had  come  to  regard  itself  as  a  permanent 
institution,  and  in  July  opened,  with  a  jjowerful  speech,  two  hours  in 
length,  on  God's  ways  and  judgments,  the  Short  or  Barebones'  Parlia- 
ment, composed  of  "  pious  and  God-fearing  men  "  selected  by  himself. 
In  this  new  Parliament  which,  with  prayer  and  psalm-singing, 
wrought  hard  at  the  re-organization  of  the  executive,  the  bench,  and 
the  church,  the  two  parties  of  Independents  were  represented,  the 
fanatical  enthusiasts  indeed  predominating,  and  so  victorious  in  all 
matters  of  debate.  To  this  ]iarty  Cromwell  himself  belonged.  His 
attachment  to  it,  however,  was  considerably  cooled  in  consequence  of 
the  excesses  of  the  Levellers  (§  161,  2),  and  the  fantastic  policj'  of  the 
parliamentarian  Saints  disgusted  him  more  and  more.  When  there- 
fore, on  December  12th,  a.d.  1653,  after  five  months'  fruitless  opposition 
to  the  radical  demands  of  tlie  extravagant  majority,  all  the  most 
moderate  members  of  the  Parliament  had  resigned  their  seats  and 
returned   their  mandates  into  Cromwell's  hands,  he  burst  in  upon 

1  Mitchell,  "  The  Westminster  Assembly."  London,  1882.  Mitchell 
and  Struthers,  "  Minutes  of  Westminster  Assembly."  Edinburgh, 
1874.  Macpherson,  "  Handbook  to  Westminster  Confession."  2nd  ed. 
Edinburgh,  1882.  Hetherington,  "  History  of  Westminster  Assembly'." 
4th  ed,    Edinburgh,  1878. 


§  155.    ANGLICANISM   AND   PURITANISM.  17 

the  psalm-singing  remnant  -with  his  soldiers,  and  entered  upon  his 
life-long  office  of  the  Protector  of  the  Commonwealth  with  a  new  con- 
stitution. He  proclaimed  toleration  of  all  religious  sects,  Catholics 
only  being  excepted  on  political  grounds  (§  153, 6),  giving  equal  rights 
to  Presb^'terians,  and  offering  no  hindrance  to  the  revival  of  Episcopacy. 
He  yet  remained  firmlj^  attached  to  his  early  convictions.  He  believed 
in  a  kingdom  of  the  saints  embracing  the  whole  earth,  and  looked  on 
England  as  destined  for  the  protection  and  spread  of  Protestantism. 
Ziirich  greeted  him  as  the  great  Protestant  champion,  and  he  showed 
himself  in  this  role  in  the  valleys  of  Piedmont  (§  153,  5),  in  France,  in 
Poland,  and  in  Silesia.  He  joined  with  all  Protestant  governments  into 
a  league,  offensive  and  defensive,  against  fanatical  attempts  of  Papists 
to  recover  their  lost  ground.  When  SjDain  and  France  sued  for  his 
alliance,  he  made  it  a  condition  with  the  former  that,  besides  allowing 
free  trade  with  the  West  Indies,  it  should  abolish  the  Inquisition 
and  of  France  he  required  an  assurance  that  the  rights  of  Huguenots 
should  be  respected.  And  Avhen  in  Germany  a  new  election  of 
emperor  Avas  to  take  place,  he  urged  the  great  electors  that  thej' 
should  by  no  means  allow  the  imperial  throne  to  continue  Avith  the 
Catholic  house  of  Austria.  Meanwhile  his  path  at  home  Avas  a  thorny 
one.  He  Avas  obliged  to  suppress  fifteen  open  rebellions  during  fi\-e 
3'ears  of  his  reign,  countless  secret  plots  threatened  his  life  every  day  , 
and  his  bitterest  foes  Avere  his  former  comrades  in  the  camp  of  the 
the  saints.  After  refusing  the  croAvn  offered  him  in  a.d.  1657,  Avithout 
being  able  thereby  to  quell  the  discontents  of  i^arties,  he  died  on 
September  3rd,  a.d.  1658,  the  anniversary  of  his  glorious  victories  of 
Dunbar  and  Worcester.' 

3.  The  Restoration  and  the  Act  of  Toleration.— The  Restoration  of 
ro5'alty  under  Charles  II.,  a.u.  1660-1685,  began  Avith  the  reinstating 
of  the  Episcopal  church  in  all  the  privileges  granted  to  it  under 
Elizabeth.  The  Corporation  Act  of  December,  a.d.  1661,  Avas  the  first 
of  a  series  of  enactments  for  this  purjwse.  It  required  of  all  magis- 
trates and  ci\'il  officers  that  they  should  take  an  oath  acknoAvledging 
the  royal  supremacy  and  communicate  in  the  Episcopal  church.  The 
Act  of  Uniformity  of  May,  a.d.  1662,  Avas  still  more  oppressive.  It 
prohibited  any  clergyman  entering  the  English  pulpit  or  discharging 
any  ministerial  function,  unless  he  had  been  ordained  by  a  bishop, 
had  signed  the  Thirtj'-nine  Articles,  and  undertook  to  conduct  Avorship 

^  Carlyle,  "  CroniAvell's  Letters  and  Speeches.''  2a-o1s.  London,  1845. 
Guizot,  "  Life  of  CromAvell."'  London,  1877.  Paxton  Hood,  '•  OliA-er 
CromAvell."  London.  1882.  Picton,  "  OliA'er  Cromwell."'  London,  1878. 
Harrison,  "  OliA^er  CroniAvell."  London,  1888,  Barclay,  '•  The  Inner 
Life  of  the  Religious  Societies  of  the  Common Avea  1th. "'     London,  1877. 

VOL.   III.  2 


18     CHURCH   HISTORY   OF   SEVENTEENTH   CENTURY. 

exactU^  ill  accorilance  with  tlip  newly  revised  Book  of  Common  Prayer. 
More  than  2,000  Puritan  ministers,  who  couhl  not  conscientiously  sub- 
mit to  those  terms,  were  driven  out  of  their  churches.  Then  in  June, 
A.D.  1664,  the  Conventicle  Act  was  renewed,  enforcing  attendance  at  the 
Episcopal  church,  and  threatening  with  imprisonment  or  exile  all 
found  in  any  private  religious  meeting  of  more  than  five  persons. 
In  the  following  year  the  Five  Mile  Act  inflicted  heavy  fines  on  all 
nonconformist  ministers  who  should  approach  within  five  miles  of 
their  former  congregation  or  indeed  of  any  city.  All  these  laws, 
although  primarily  directed  against  all  Protestant  dissenters,  told 
equally  against  the  Catholics,  whom  the  king's  Catholic  sympathies 
would  willingly  have  sijared.  When  now  his  league  with  Catholic 
France  against  the  Protestant  Netherlands  made  it  necessary  for  him 
to  appease  his  Protestant  subjects,  he  hoped  to  accomi^lish  this  and 
save  the  Catholics  by  his  "  Declaration  of  Indulgence  "  of  a.d.  1672, 
issued' with  the  consent  of  Parliament,  which  suspended  all  penal 
laws  hitherto  in  force  against  dissenters.  But  the  Protestant  non- 
conformists saAv  through  this  scheme,  and  the  Parliament  of  a.u.  167B 
passed  the  anti-Catholic  Test  Act  (§  153,  6).  Equally  vain  were  all 
later  attempts  to  secure  greater  liberties  and  i)rivileges  to  the  Catho- 
lics. They  only  served  to  develop  the  powers  of  Parliament  and  to 
bring  the  Episcopalians  and  nonconformists  more  closely  together. 
After  spending  his  whole  life  oscillating  between  frivolous  unbelief  and 
Catholic  superstition,  Charles  11. ,  on  his  death-bed,  formally  went  over 
to  the  Eomish  church,  and  had  the  communion  and  extreme  unction 
administered  by  a  Catholic  priest.  His  bx'other  and  successor  James  II., 
A.D.  1685-1688,  Avho  was  from  a.u.  1672  an  avowed  Catholic,  sent  a  decla- 
ration of  obedience  to  Rome,  received  a  papal  nuncio  in  London,  and 
in  the  exercise  of  despotic  power  issued,  in  a.d.  1687,  a  "  Declaration 
of  Freedom  of  Conscience,"  which,  under  the  fair  colour  of  universal 
toleration  and  by  the  setting  aside  of  the  test  oath,  enabled  him  to 
fill  all  civil  and  military  offices  with  Catholics.  This  act  proved 
equally  oppressive  to  the  Episcopalians  and  to  Protestant  dissenters. 
This  intrigue  cost  him  his  throne.  He  had,  as  he  himself  said,  staked 
three  kingdoms  on  a  mass,  and  lost  all  the  three.  William  III.  of  Orange, 
A.D.  1689-1702,  grandson  of  Charles  I.  and  son-in-law  of  James  II., 
gave  a  final  decision  to  the  rights  of  the  national  Episcopal  church 
and  the  position  of  dissenl^ers  in  the  Act  of  Toleration  of  a.d.  1689, 
which  he  passed  with  consent  of  the  Parliament.  All  penal  laws 
against  the  latter  were  abrcigated,  and  religious  liberty  Avas  extended 
to  all  Avith  the  exception  of  Catholics  and  Socinians.  The  retention 
of  the  Corporation  and  Test  Acts,  lioAvever,  still  excluded  them  from 
the  exercise  of  all  political  rights.  They  were  also  still  obliged 
to  pay  tithes  and  other  church  dues  to   the  Episcopal  clergy  of  their 


§156.    PAPACY,   MONKERY,   AND   FOREIGN   MISSIONS.    19 

dioceses,  and  their  marriages  and  baptisms  had  to  he  administM'ed  in 
the  parish  chui'ches.  Their  ministers  were  also  obliged  to  subscribe 
the  Thirty -nine  Articles,  with  reservation  of  those  points  opposed  to 
their  principles.  The  Act  of  Union  of  a.d.  1707,  passed  under  Queen 
Anne,  a  daughter  of  James  II.,  which  miited  England  and  Scotland 
into  the  one  kingdom  of  C4reat  Britain,  gave  legitimate  sanction  to  a 
separate  ecclesiastical  establishment  for  each  countrj'.  In  Scotland  the 
Presbj'terian  churches  continiied  the  established  church,  while  the 
Episcopal  was  tolerated  as  a  dissenting  liody.  Congregationalism,  how- 
ever, has  been  practically  limited  to  England  and  North  America.' — 
Continuation.  §  'iO'i,  5. 


II.— The  Roman  Catholic  Church. 

§  15G.     The  Papacy,  Moxkeky,  and  Foreign  Missions. 

Notwithstanding  the  regeneration  of  papal  Catholicism 
since  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  centurj^,  Hildebrand's  poli- 
tico-theocratic ideal  was  not  realized.  Even  Catholic  princes 
would  not  be  dictated  to  on  political  matters  b}^  the  vicar  of 
Christ.  The  most  powerful  of  them,  France,  Austria,  and 
Spain,  during  the  sixteenth  centmy,  and  subsequently  also 
Portugal,  had  succeeded  in  the  claim  to  the  right  of  excluding 
objectionable  candidates  in  papal  elections.  Ban  and  inter- 
dict had  lost  their  power.  The  popes,  however,  still  clung 
to  the  idea  after  they  had  been  obliged  to  surrender  the 
realit}',  and  issued  from  time  to  time  powerless  protesta- 
tions against  disagreeable  facts  of  history.  Several  new 
monkish  orders  were  instituted  during  this  century,  mostly 
for  teaching  the  young  and  tending  the  sick,  but  some  also 
expressly  for  the  promoting  of  theological  science.  Of  all 
the  orders,  new  and  old,  the  Jesuits  were  by  far  the  most 
powerful.  They  were  regarded  with  jealousy  and  suspicion 
by  the  other  orders.     In  respect  of  doctrine  the  Dominicans 

*  Guizot,  "  Richard  Cromwell  and  the  Restoration  of  Charles  IL" 
2  volsi  London,  185G.  Macphei-son,  "  History  of  Great  Britain  from 
the  Restoration/'     London,  1875. 


20      CHURCH   HISTORY   OF   SEVENTEENTH   CENTURY. 

were  as  far  removed  from  tliem  as  possible  witliin  the  limits 
of  the  Tridentine  Creed.  But  notwithstanding  any  such 
mutual  jealousies,  they  were  all  animated  by  one  yearning 
desire  to  oppose,  restrict,  and,  where  that  was  possible,  to 
uproot  Protestantism.  With  similar  zeal  they  devoted  them- 
selves with  wonderful  success  to  the  work  of  foreign  missions. 

1.  The  Papacy. — Paul  V.,  a.d.  1605-1621,  equally  energetic  in  his 
civil  and  in  his  ecclesiastical  i^olicy,  in  a  struggle  witli  Venice,  was 
obliged  to  behold  the  powerlessness  of  the  papal  interdict.  His  suc- 
cessor, Gregory  XV.,  a.d.  1621-1623,  founded  the  Propaganda,  prescribed 
a  secret  scrutiny  in  papal  elections,  and  canonized  Loyola,  Xavier,  and 
Neri.  He  enriched  the  Vatican  Library  by  the  addition  of  the  vahi- 
able  treasures  of  the  Heidelberg  Library,  which  Maximilian  I.  of 
Bavaria  sent  him  on  his  conquest  of  the  Palatinate.  Urban  VIII.,  a.d. 
1623-1644,  increased  the  Propaganda,  imj^roved  the  Eoman  "Breviary" 
(§  56,  2),  condemned  Jansen's  Augustinus  (§  156,  5),  and  compelled 
Galileo  to  recant.  But  on  the  other  hand,  through  his  onesided 
ecclesiastical  policy  he  was  led  into  sacrificing  the  interests  of  the 
imperial  house  of  Austria.  Not  only  did  he  fail  to  give  support  to 
the  emperor,  but  quite  openly  hailed  Gustavus  Adolphus,  the  saviour 
of  German  Protestantism,  as  the  God-sent  saviour  from  the  Spanish- 
Austrian  tyranny.  For  this  he  was  pronounced  a  heretic  at  the 
imperial  coiirt,  and  threatened  with  a  second  edition  of  the  sack  of 
Eome  (§  132,  2).  At  the  same  time  his  soul  was  so  filled  with  fanati- 
cal hatred  against  Protestantism,  that  in  a  letter  of  1631  he  congratu- 
lated the  Emperor  Ferdinand  II.  on  the  destruction  of  Magdeburg  as 
an  act  most  jDleasing  to  heaven  and  reflecting  the  highest  credit  upon 
Germanj',  and  expressed  the  hoiie  that  the  glory  of  so  great  a  victory 
should  not  be  restricted  to  the  ruins  of  a  single  city.  On  receiving 
the  news  of  the  death  of  Gustavus  Adolphus  in  1632  he  broke  out  into 
loud  jubilation,  saying  that  now  "  the  serpent  was  slain  which  with 
its  iDoison  had  sought  to  destroy  the  Avhole  world."  His  successor, 
Innocent  X.,  a.d.  1644-1655,  though  vigorously  protesting  against  the 
Peace  of  Westphalia  (§  153,  2),  was,  owing  to  his  abject  subserviency 
to  a  woman,  his  own  sister-in-law,  reproached  with  the  title  of  a  new 
Johanna  Paidssa.  Alexander  VII.,  a.d.  1655-1667,  had  the  expensive 
guardianship  of  his  godchild  Christina  of  Sweden  (§  153, 1),  and  fanned 
into  a  flame  the  spark  kindled  by  his  predecessor  in  the  Jansenist  con- 
troversy (§  156,  5),  so  that  his  successor,  Clement  IX.,  a.d.  1667-1670, 
could  only  gradually  extinguish  it.  Clement  X.,  a.d.  1670-1676,  by 
his  preference  for  Spain  roused  the  French  king  Louis  XIV.,  who 
avenged  himself  by  various  encroachments  on  the  ecclesiastical  ad- 


§  156.    PAPACY,    MONKEEY,    AND    FOREIGN    MISSIONS.    21 

ministration  in  his  dominions.  Innocent  XI.,  A.n.  1G76-1(>S9,  was  a 
jjowerful  pope,  zealously  promoting  the  weal  of  the  church  and  the 
Papal  States  by  introducing  discipline  among  the  clergy  and  attack- 
ing the  immorality  that  ^jrevailed  among  all  classes  of  society.  He 
unhesitatingly  condemned  sixty-five  propositions  from  the  lax  Jesuit 
code  of  morals.  Against  the  arrogant  ambassador  of  Louis  XIV.  he 
energetically  maintained  his  sovereign  rights  in  his  own  domains, 
while  he  unreservedly  refused  the  claims  of  the  French  clergy,  urged 
by  the  king  on  the  ground  of  the  exceptional  constitution  of  the 
Galilean  church.  Alexander  VIII.,  a.d.  1689-1691,  continued  the  fight 
against  Gallicanism,  and  condemned  the  Jesuit  distinction  between 
theological  and  philosophical  sin  (§  149, 10).  Innocent  XII.,  a.d.  1691- 
1700,  could  boast  of  having  secured  the  complete  subjugation  of  the 
Galilean  clergy  after  a  hard  struggle.  He  too  wrought  earnestly  for 
the  reform  of  abuses  in  the  curia.  Specially  creditable  to  him  is  the 
stringent  bull  '■'■  Romamim  decet  potitificeyn'''  against  nepotism,  which 
extirpated  the  evil  disease,  so  that  it  was  never  again  openh^  practised 
as  an  acknowledged  right. — Continuation,  §  165,  1. 

2.  The  Jesuits  and  the  Republic  of  Venice. — Venice  was  one  of  the 
first  of  the  Italian  cities  to  receive  the  Jesuits  with  open  arms, 
A.D.  1530.  But  the  influence  obtained  by  them  over  public  affairs 
through  school  and  confessional,  and  their  vast  wealth  accumulated 
from  bequests  and  donations,  led  the  government,  in  a.d.  1605,  to  forbid 
their  receiving  legacies  or  erecting  new  cloisters.  In  vain  did  Paul 
V.  remonstrate.  He  then  put  Venice  under  an  interdict.  The  Jesuits 
sought  to  excite  the  jjeople  against  the  government,  and  for  this  were 
banished  in  a.d.  1606.  The  pious  and  learned  historian  of  the  Council 
of  Trent  and  adviser  of  the  State,  Paiil  Sarpi,  proved  a  vigorous  sup- 
porter of  civil  rights  against  the  assumptions  of  the  curia  and  the 
Jesuits.  When  in  a.d.  1607  he  refused  a  citation  of  Inquisition,  he 
was  dangerously  wounded  by  three  dagger  stabs,  inflicted  by  hired 
bandits,  in  whose  stilettos  he  recognised  the  stilum  curia'.  He  died 
in  A.D.  1628.  After  a  ten  months'  vain  endeavour  to  enforce  the  inter- 
dict, the  pope  at  last,  through  French  mediation,  concluded  a  peace 
with  the  rejjublic,  without,  however,  being  able  to  obtain  either  the 
abolition  of  the  objectionable  ecclesiastico-political  laws  or  i^ermission 
for  the  return  of  the  Jesuits.  Only  after  the  r(^public  had  been  Aveak- 
ened  through  the  tmfortunate  Turkish  war  of  a.d.  1645  was  it  fomid 
willing  to  submit.  Even  in  a.d.  1653  it  refused  the  offer  of  150,000 
ducats  from  the  Jesuit  general  for  the  Turkish  campaign  ;  but  when 
Alexander  VII.  suppressed  several  rich  cloistei's,  their  revenues  were 
thankfully  accepted  for  this  purpose.  In  a.d.  1^57,  on  the  pope's 
V)romise  of  further  pecuniary  aid,  the  decree  of  banishment  was  -with- 
drawn.    The  Jesuit  fathers  now  returned  in  crowds,  and  soon  regained 


22      CHURCH   HISTORY   OF   SEVENTEENTH   CENTURY. 

much  of  tlieir  form"^!-  influence  and  wealth.     No  pope  lias  ever  since 
issued  an  interdict  against  any  countiy.' 

3.  The  Galilean  Liberties. — Although  Louis  XIV.  of  France,  a.d.  1043- 
1715,  as    a    good    Catholic    king,  powerfully    supported    the   claims 
of  papal  dogmatics  against  the  Jansenists  (§§  15(3,  5;  164,7),  he  was 
"by  no  means'  unfaithful    to  the  traditional    ecclesiastical  polity  of 
his  house  (§§  9(),  21 ;  110,  1,  i),  13,  14),  and  was  often  irritated  to  the 
utmost  pitch  by  the  pope's  opposition  to  his  political  interests.     He 
rigorously  insisted  upon  the  old  customary  right  of  the  Crown  to  the 
income  of  certain   vacant  ecclesiastical  offices,  the  jus  regalia',  and 
extended  it  to  all  bishoprics,  burdened  church  revenues  Avith  militaiy 
pensions,  confiscated  ecclesiastical  property,  etc.     Innocent  XI.  ener- 
getically protested  against  such  exactions.     The  king  then  had  an 
assembly  of  the  French  called  together  in  Pai  is  on  March  IHth,  a.i>. 
1682,  Avhicli  issued  the  famous  Four  Propositions  of  the  Galilean  Clergy, 
drawn  up  by  Bishop  Bossuet  of  Meaux.     These  set  forth  the  funda- 
mental rights  of  the  French  church :  (1)  In  secular  affairs  the  jjope 
has  no  jurisdiction  over  princes  and  kings,  and  cannot  release  their 
subjects  from  their  allegiance  ;  (2)  The  spiritual  power  of  the  pope  is 
subject  to  the  higher  authority  of  the  geneiul  councils  ;  (3)  For  France 
it  is  further  limited  by  the  old  French  ecclesiastical  laws  ;  and,  (4)  Even 
in  matters  of  faith  the  judgment  of  the  pope  without  the  approval  of 
a  genei'al  assembly  of  the  ch\irch  is  not  luialterable.     Innocent  conse- 
quently refused  to  institute  any  of  the  newly  appointed  bishops.     He 
was  not  even  appeased  bj-  the  Revocation  of  the  Edict  of  Nantes  in 
A.n.  1685.   He  was  pleased  indeed,  and  praised  the  deed,  and  celebrated 
it  bj'-  a  Te  Deitm,  but  objected  to  the  violent  measures  for  the  conver- 
sion of  Protestants  as  contrary  to  the  teaching  of  Christ.     Then  also 
there  arose  a  keen  striiggle  against  the  naischievous  extension  of  the 
right  of  asylum  on  the  part  of  foreign  embassies  at  Rome.    On  the 
pope's  rei)resentation  all  the  powers  but  France  agreed  to  a  restriction 
of  the  custom.     The  pope  tolerated  the  nuisance  till  the  death  of  the 
French  ambassador  in  a.d.  1687,  but  then  insisted  on  its  abolition 
under  pain  of  the  ban.     In  consequence  of  this  Louis  sent  his  new 
ambassador  into  Rome  Avith  two  companies  of  cavaliers,  threw  the 
papal  nuntio  in  France  into  prison,  and  laid  siege  to  the  papal  state 
of  Avignon  (§  110,4).    But  Innocent  Avas  not  thus  to  be  terrorized,  and 
the  French  ambassador  Avas  obliged,   after  eighteeii  months'  \'ain  de- 
monstrations, to  quit  Rome.     Alexander  VIII.  repeated  the  condemna- 
tion of  the  Four  Propositions,  and  Innocent  XIII.  also  stood  firm.  The 
French  episcopate,  on  the  pope's  jiersistent  refusal  to  install  bishops 

'  Bargraves,  "  Alexander  VII.  and  His  Cardinals,"     Ed.  by  Robert- 
son.    London,  1866, 


§  156.    PAPACY,   MONKERY,    AND   FOREIGN   MISSIONS.    23 

nominated  by  the  king,  Avas  at  last  constrainetl  to  submit.  "  Lj'ing 
at  the  feet  of  his  lioliness,"  the  bishops  declared  that  everything  con- 
cluded in  that  assembly  was  null  and  void  ;  and  even  Louis  XIV., 
under  the  influence  of  Madame  de  Maintenon  (§  157,  8),  -wrote  to  the 
pope  in  A.u.  1093,  saying  that  he  recalled  the  order  that  the  Four 
Propositions  should  be  taught  in  all  the  schools.  There  still,  however, 
survived  among  the  French  clergy  a  firm  conviction  of  the  Gallican 
Liberties,  and  the  droit  de  rec/ale  continued  to  have  the  force  of  law.* 
— Continuation,  §  197,  1. 

.  4.  Galileo  and  the  Inquisition. — Galileo  Galilei,  professor  of  mathe- 
matics at  Pisa  and  Piidua,  who  died  in  a.u.  Kil'i,  among  his  nvany 
distinguished  services  to  the  ph^'sical,  mathematical,  and  astronomical 
sciences,  has  the  honour  of  being  the  pioneer  champion  of  the  Copernican 
system.  On  this  accoiuit  he  A\-as  charged  by  the  monks  A\-ith  contra- 
dicting Scripture.  In  a.d.  161(5  Paul  V.,  tlu-ough  Cardinal  Bellarmine, 
tlu'eatened  lum  with  the  Inquisition  and  prison  unless  he  agreed  to 
cease  from  vintlicating  and  lecturing  upon  his  heretical  doctrine.  Ha 
gave  the  required  i^romis?.  But  in  a.d.  1632  he  published  a  dialogue, 
in  which  three  friends  discussed  the  Ptolemaic  and  Copernican  systems, 
without  any  formal  conclusion,  but  giving  overwhelming  reasons  in 
favour  of  the  latter.  Urban  VIII.,  in  a.u.  163(j,  called  upon  the  In- 
tpiisition  to  institute  a  pi-ocess  against  him.  He  was  forcetl  to  recant, 
was  condemned  to  piison  for  an  indefinite  period,  but  was  soon  liberated 
through  powerful  influence.  How  far  the  old  man  of  seventj'-two 
yeai-s  of  age  was  compelled  by  torture  to  retract  is  still  a  matter  of 
coutrovei-sy.  It  is,  however,  quite  evident  that  it  was  forced  from  him 
hy  threats.  But  that  Galileo  went  out  after  his  recantation,  gnashing 
liis  teeth  and  stamping  his  feet,  muttering,  "  Nevertheless  it  moves !  " 
is  a  legend  of  a  romancing  age.  This,  however,  is  the  fact,  that  the 
Congregation  of  the  Index  declared  the  Copernican  theory  to  be  false, 
irrational,  and  directly'  contrary  to  Scripture ;  and  that  even  in  A.r>. 
16(J0  Alexander  VII.,  with  apostolic  authority,  formally  confirmed 
this  decree  and  pi-onounced  it  ex  catliedrd  {%  149,  4)  irrevocable.  It 
was  only  in  a.d.  1822  that  the  curia  set  it  aside,  and  in  a  new  edition 
of  the  Index  (§149,  14)  in  a.d.  1835  omitted  the  Avorks  of  Galileo  as 
Avell  as  those  of  Copernicus.- 
5.  The  Controversy  on  the  Immaculate  Conception  (tj  112,  4)  received 


*  Cunningham,  "  Discussions  on  Church  Principles."  Edin.,  1868. 
Chap.  V. :  "  The  Liberties  of  the  Gallican  Church,"  pp.  133-1(53. 

2  Von  Gebler,  "  Galileo  Galilei  and  the  Roman  Curia,"  transl.  by 
Sturge,  London,  1879.  Madden,  "Galileo  and  the  Inquisition." 
London,  1863.  Brewster,  "Martyrs  of  Science."  Edin.,  1841.  Von 
Gebler  denies  that  any  condemnation  ex  cathedra  A\-as  given. 


24      CHURCH   HISTORY   OF   SEVENTEENTH   CENTURY. 

a  new  impulse  from  the  nun  Mary  of  Jesus,  died  1665,  of  Agre^a  i^  Old 
Castile,  superior  of  the  cloister  there  of  the  Immaculate  Conception, 
writer  of  the  "  Mystical  City  of  God."  This  book  professed  to  give  an 
inspired  account  of  the  life  of  the  Virgin,  full  of  the  strangest  absur- 
dities aboiit  the  immaculate  conception.  The  Sorbonne  pronounced 
it  offensive  and  silly ;  the  Inquisition  in  Spain,  Portugal,  and  Eome 
forbad  the  reading  of  it ;  but  the  Franciscans  defended  it  as  a  divine 
revelation.  A  violent  controversy  ensued,  which  Alexander  VII. 
silenced  in  a.d.  1661  by  expressing  appi'oval  of  the  doctrine  of  the 
immaculate  conception  set  forth  in  the  book. — Continuation,  §  185,  2. 

6.  The  Devotion  of  the  Sacred  Heart  of  Jesus. —  The  mm  Margaret 
Alacoque,  in  the  Biirgundian  cloister  of  Paraji  le  Monial,  born  a.d.  1647, 
recovering  from  a  painful  illness  when  but  three  years  old,  vowed  to 
the  mother  of  God,  who  frequently  appeared  to  her,  perpetual  chastity, 
and  in  gratitude  for  her  recovery  adopted  the  name  of  Mary,  and 
when  grown  up  resisted  temptations  by  inflicting  on  herself  the 
severest  discipline,  such  as  long  fasts,  sharp  flagellations,  lying  on 
thorns,  etc.  Visions  of  the  Virgin  no  longer  satisfied  her.  She  longed 
to  lavish  her  affections  on  the  Redeemer  himself,  which  she  exj^ressed 
in  the  most  extravagant  terms.  She  took  the  Jesuit  La  Colomhiere  as 
her  spiritual  adviser  in  A.n.  1675.  In  a  new  vision  she  beheld  the  side 
of  her  Beloved  opened,  and  saw  his  heart  glowing  like  a  sun,  into 
which  her  own  was  absorbed.  Down  to  her  death  in  a.u.  1690  she  felt 
the  most  violent  burning  pains  in  her  side.  In  a  second  vision  she 
saw  her  Beloved's  heart  burning  like  a  furnace,  into  which  were  taken 
her  own  heart  and  that  of  her  spiritual  adviser.  In  a  third  vision  he 
enjoined  the  observance  of  a  special  "  Devotion  of  the  Sacred  Heart " 
by  all  Christendom  on  the  Friday  after  the  octave  of  the  Corpus 
Cliristi  festival  and  on  the  first  Friday  of  every  month.  La  Colombi^re, 
being  made  director,  ^mt  forth  every  effoit  to  get  this  celebration 
introduced  throughout  the  church,  and  on  his  death  the  idea  was 
taken  up  by  the  whole  Jesuit  order.  Their  efforts,  however,  for  fully 
a  century  proved  unavailing.  At  this  point,  too,  their  most  bitter 
opponents  were  the  Dominicans.  But  even  without  papal  authority 
the  Jesuits  so  far  succeeded  in  introducing  the  absurdities  of  this  cult, 
and  giving  expression  to  it  in  word  and  by  images,  that  by  the  begin- 
ning of  the  eighteenth  century  there  were  more  than  300  male  and 
female  societies  engaged  in  this  devotion,  and  at  last,  in  a.d.  1765, 
Clement  XIII.,  the  great  friend  of  the  Jesuits,  gave  formal  sanction  to 
this  sjiecial  celebration. — Continuation,  §188,  12. 

7.  New  Congregations  and  Orders. — (1)  At  the  head  of  the  new  orders 
of  this  century  stands  the  Benedictine  Congregation  of  St.  Banne  at 
Verdun,  founded  by  Didier  de  la  Cour.  Elected  Abbot  of  St.  Banne 
in  A.D.  15-'16,  he  gave  his  whole  strength  to  the  reforming  of  this 


§  156.    PAPACY,    MONKEEY,   AND   FOEEIGN   MISSIONS.   25 

cloister,  which  had  fallen  into  luxurious  and  immoral  habits.  By  a 
papal  bull  of  a.d.  1604  all  cloisters  combining  with  St.  Banne  into  a 
congi-egation  were  endowed  with  rich  privileges.  Gradually  all  the 
Benedictine  monasteries  of  Lorraine  and  Alsace  joined  the  union. 
Didier's  reforms  were  mostly  in  the  direction  of  moral  discipline  and 
asceticism ;  but  in  the  new  congregation  scholarship  was  represented 
by  Calmet,  Ceillier,  etc.,  and  many  gave  themselves  to  work  as 
teachers  in  the  schools. — (2)  Much  more  important  for  the  promotion 
of  theological  science,  esjiecially  for  patristics  and  church  history, 
was  another  Benedictine  congregation  founded  in  France  in  a.d.  1618 
by  Laurence  Bernard,  that  of  St.  Maur,  named  after  a  disciple  of  St. 
Benedict.  The  members  of  this  order  devoted  themselves  exclusively 
to  science  and  literary  pursuits.  To  them  belonged  the  distinguished 
names,  Mabillon,  Montfaucon,  Eeinart,  Martene,  D'Achery,  LeNourry, 
Durand,  Surius,  etc.  They  showed  unwearied  diligence  in  research 
and  a  noble  liberality  of  judgment.  The  editions  of  the  most  cele- 
brated Fathers  issued  by  them  are  the  best  of  the  kind,  and  this  may 
also  be  said  of  the  great  historical  collections  which  we  owe  to  their 
diligence. — (3)  The  Fathers  of  the  Oratory  of  Jesus  are  an  imitation  of 
the  Priests  of  the  Oratory  founded  by  Philip  Xeri  (§  149,  7).  Peter 
of  Barylla,  son  of  a  member  of  parliament,  founded  it  in  a.d.  1611 
by  building  an  oratory  at  Paris.  He  was  more  of  a  mystic  than  of 
a  scholar,  but  his  order  sent  out  many  distinguished  and  brilliant 
theologians ;  e.g.  Malebranche,  Morinus,  Thomassinus,  Rich.  Simon, 
Houbigant. — (4)lhe  Piarists,  Patres  scJioIarum  pioj-«7»,  were  founded 
in  Eome  in  a.d.  1607  by  the  Spaniard  Joseph  Calasanza.  The  order 
adopted  as  a  fourth  vow  the  obligation  of  gratuitous  tuition.  They 
were  hated  by  the  Obscxirantist  Jesuits  for  their  successful  labom-s 
for  the  improvement  of  Catholic  education,  especially  in  Poland  and 
Austria,  and  also  because  they  objected  to  all  partici]:iation  in  political 
schemes. — (.5)  The  Order  of  the  Visitation  of  Mary,  or  Salesian  Xuns,  in- 
stituted in  A.D.  1610  by  the  mj'stic  Francis  de  Sales  and  Francisca 
Chantal  (§  157,  1).  They  visited  the  poor  and  sick  in  imitation  of 
Elizabeth's  visit  to  the  Virgin  (Luke  i.  89) ;  but  the  papal  rescript  of 
A.D.  1618  gave  prominence  to  the  education  of  children. 

8. — (6)  The  Priests  of  the  Missions  and  Sisters  of  Charity  were  both 
founded  bj'  Vincent  de  Paul.  Born  of  poor  parents,  he  was,  after 
completing  his  education,  captured  bj^  pirates,  and  as  a  slave  con- 
verted his  renegade  master  to  Christianit3'.  As  domestic  chaplain  to 
the  noble  family  of  Gondy  he  was  characterized  in  a  remarkable  degree 
for  unassuming  humility,  and  he  M-rought  earnesth^  and  successfully 
as  a  home  missionary.  In  a.d.  1618  he  founded  the  order  of  Sisters  of 
Mercy,  who  became  devoted  nurses  of  the  sick  throughout  all  France, 
and  in  a.d.  1627  that  of  the  Priests  of  the  Missions,  or  Lazarists,  who 


26      CHUECH   HISTORY  OF   SEVENTEENTH   CENTURY. 

trcavelled  the  country  attending  to  the  spiritual  and  bodily  wants  of 
men.  After  the  death  of  the  Countess  Gondy  in  a.d.  1625,  he  placed 
at  the  head  of  the  Sistei-s  of  Mercy  the  widow  Louisa  le  Gras,  dis- 
tinguished equally  for  qualities  of  head  and  heart.  Vincent  died 
in  A.u.  1660,  and  was  subsequently  canonized. >  —  (7)  The  Trappists, 
founded  by  De  Ranee,  a  distinguished  canon,  who  in  a.d.  16(i4  passed 
from  the  extreme  of  worldliness  to  the  extreme  of  fanatical  asceti- 
cism. The  order  got  its  name  from  the  Cistercian  abbey  La  Ti'appe 
in  Noi'inandy,  of  which  Eance  was  commendatory  abbot.  Amid 
many  difficulties  he  succeeded,  in  a.u.  1665,  in  thoroughly  reform- 
ing the  wild  monks,  who  were  called  "  the  bandits  of  La  Trappe.' 
His  rule  enjoined  on  the  monks  perpetual  silence,  only  broken  in 
iniblic  prayer  and  singing  and  in  uttering  the  greeting  as  they  met, 
Menietito  mori.  Their  bed  was  a  hard  board  with  some  straw  ;  their 
only  food  Avas  bread  and  water,  roots,  herbs,  some  fruit  and  vegetables, 
Avithout  butter,  fat,  or  oil.  Study  was  forbidden,  and  they  occiipied 
themselves  witli  hai'd  field  labovu'.  Their  clothing  was  a  dark -brown 
cloak  A\'orn  on  the  naked  body,  Avith  wooden  shoes.  Very  few  cloisters 
besides  La  Trappe  submitted  to  such  severities  (§  185,  2). — (8)  The 
English  Nuns,  founded  at  St.  Omer,  in  France,  by  Mary  Ward,  the 
daughter  of  an  English  Catholic  nobleman,  for  the  education  of  girls. 
Originally  composed  of  English  maidens,  it  A\as  afterwards  enlarged 
by  receiving  those  of  other  nationalities,  Avith  establishments  in 
Germany,  Italy,  and  the  Netherlands.  It  did  not  obtain  papal  con- 
firmation, and  in  a.d.  1630  Urban  VIIL,  giving  heed  to  the  calumnies 
of  enemies,  formally  dissolved  it  on  account  of  ari'ogance,  insubordina- 
tion, and  heresy.  All  its  institutions  and  schools  Avere  then  closed, 
Avhile  Mary  herself  Avas  imjji'isoned  and  gi\'en  OA^er  to  the  Inquisition 
in  Home.  Urban  Avas  soon  conA'inced  of  hei'  innocence  and  set  her  free. 
Her  scattered  nunsAvere  noAv  collected  again,  but  succeeded  only  in  a.u. 
1708  in  obtaining  confirmation  from  Clement  XL  Their  chief  tasks 
Avere  the  education  of  youth  and  care  of  the  sick.  They  Avere  arranged 
in  three  classes,  according  to  their  rank  in  life,  and  Avere  bound  by 
their  voavs  for  a  year  or  at  the  most  three  years,  after  Avhich  they 
might  i-eturn  to  the  Avorld  and  marry.  Their  chief  centime  Avas  BaA'aria 
Avith  i\w  mother  cloister  in  Miuiich. — Continuation,  §  165,  2. 

9.  The  Propaganda. — Gregory  XV.  gaA'e  unity  and  sti'ength  to  the 
efforts  for  conA'ersion  of  heretics  and  heathens  by  instituting,  m  a.d. 
1662,  the  C'oii(jre<jafio  de  Propagamla  Fide.  Urban  VIIL  in  a.d.  1627 
attached  to  it  a  missionary  training  school,  recruited  as  far  as  possible 
from  natives  of  the  respective  countries,  like  Loyola's  CoUeijium 
Germanicum  founded  in  a.d.  1552  (§  151,  1).      He  Avas  thus  able  every 

'  Wilson,  "  Life  of  Vincent  de  Paul."     London,  1874. 


§  156.    PAPACY,   MONKERY,   AND   FOREIGN   MISSIONS.    27 

Epiphany  to  astonish  Romans  and  foreignei-s  by  what  seemed  a  repeti- 
tion of  the  Pentecostal  miracle  of  tongues.  At  this  institvite  training 
in  all  languages  was  given,  and  breviaries,  mass  and  devotional  books 
and  handbooks  were  printed  for  the  use  of  the  missions.  It  was  also 
the  centre  from  ^vhich  all  missionary  enterprises  originated. — Con- 
tinuation, §  '204,  2. 

10.  Foreign  Missions. — Even  during  this  centiuy  the  Jesuits  excelled 
all  others  in  missionary  zeal.  In  a.u.  1008  they  sent  out  from  Madrid 
mission  colonies  among  the  wsindering  Indians  of  South  America,  and 
no  Spaniard  could  settle  there  -without  their  permission.  The  most 
thoroughly  organized  of  these  was  that  of  Paraguay,  in  which,  accord- 
ing to  their  own  reports,  over  100,000  converted  savages  lived  happily 
and  contented  under  the  mild,  patriarchal  rule  of  the  Jesuits  for 
140  years,  a.u.  1()10-1750;  but  according  to  another  Avell  informed, 
though  perha^w  not  altogether  impartial,  account,  that  of  Ibagnez,  a 
member  of  the  mission,  expelled  for  advising  submission  to  the  decree 
depriving  it  of  political  independence,  the  paternal  government  was 
flavoured  by  a  liberal  dose  of  slave-driver  despotism.  It  was  at  least 
an  undoubted  fact,  notwithstanding  the  boasted  patriarchal  idyllic 
character  of  the  Jesuit  state,  that  the  order  amassed  great  wealth  from 
the  proceeds  of  the  industry  of  their  prote(je!f. — Continviation,  §  105,  'd. 

11.  In  the  East  Indies  (§  150,  1)  the  Jesuits  had  uninterrupted 
success.  In  a.u.  1600,  in  order  to  make  way  among  the  Brahmans,  the 
Jesuit  Rob.  Nobili  assumed  their  dress,  avoided  all  contact  Avith  even 
tlie  converts  of  low  caste,  giving  them  the  conununion  elements  not. 
directly,  but  by  an  instrument,  or  laying  them  down  for  them  outside 
tlie  door,  and  as  a  Clii'istian  Brahman  made  a  considerable  impression 
u]>on  the  most  exclusive  classes. — In  Japan  the  mission  pi'ospects  were 
dark  (§  1.50,  2).  Mendicants  and  Jesuits  opposed  and  mutually  ex- 
communicated one  another.  The  Catholic  Spaniards  and  Portuguese 
were  at  feud  among  themselves,  and  only  agreed  in  intriguing  against 
Dutch  and  English  Protestants.  When  the  land  was  opened  to  foreign 
trade,  it  became  the  gathering  point  of  the  moral  scum  of  all  European 
countiies,  and  the  traffic  in  Japanese  slaves,  especially  by  the  Portuguese, 
brought  discredit  on  the  Christian  cause.  The  idea  gained  groimd  that 
the  efforts  at  Christianization  Avere  but  a  prelude  to  conquest  by  the 
Spaniai'ds  and  Portuguese.  In  the  new  organization  of  the  country  by 
tlie  .shioijuH  Ijejasu  all  governors  were  to  vow  liostility  to  Christians 
and  foreigners.  In  a.u.  1600  he  forbad  the  obsei'vance  of  tlie  Christian 
religion  anywhere  in  the  land.  When  the  conspiracy  of  a  Christian 
chiimio  was  discovered,  he  caused,  in  a.u.  1614,  Avhole  shiploads  of 
Jesuits,  mendicants,  and  native  2Ji'iests  to  be  sent  out  of  the  country. 
But  as  many  of  the  banished  returned,  death  was  threatened  against 
all  who  might  be  found,  and  in  a.u.  1624  all  foreigners,  with  the  ex- 


28      CHURCH   HISTORY   OF    SEVENTEENTH   CENTURY. 

ception  of  Cliiiiese  and  Dutch,  ^\■e^e  rigorously  driven  out.  And  now 
a  bloody  persecution  of  native  Christians  began.  Many  thousands 
fled  to  China  and  the  neighbouring  islands ;  crowds  of  those  remaining 
were  buried  alive  or  burnt  on  jules  made  up  of  the  wood  of  Christian 
crosses.  The  victims  displayed  a  martyr  spirit  like  those  of  the  earU^ 
days.  Those  who  escaped  organized  in  a.u.  1637  an  armed  resistance, 
and  held  the  fortress  of  Arima  in  face  of  the  shioyiin's  army  sent 
against  them.  After  a  three  months'  siege  the  fortress  was  conquered 
by  the  heli^  of  Dutch  cannon  ;  37,000  were  massacred  in  the  fort,  and 
the  rest  Avere  hurled  down  from  high  I'ocks.  The  most  severe  enact- 
ments were  passed  against  Christians,  and  the  edicts  filled  with  fearful 
curses  against  "  the  wicked  sect  "  and  "  the  vile  God  "  of  the  Christians 
were  posted  on  all  the  bridges,  street  corners,  and  squares.  Christianity 
now  seemed  to  be  completely  stamped  out.  The  recollection  of  this 
work,  however,  was  still  retained  down  to  the  nineteenth  centurj'.  For 
when  French  missionaries  went  in  a.d.  1860  to  Nagasaki,  they  found  to 
their  surprise  in  the  villages  around  thoiisands  (?)  who  greeted  them 
joyfully  as  the  successors  of  the  first  Christian  missionaries. 

12.  In  China,  after  E.icci"s  death  (§  150,  1),  the  success  of  the 
mission  continued  uninterrupted.  In  a.d.  1628  a  German  Jesuit,  Adam 
Schell,  went  out  from  Cologne,  who  gained  great  fame  at  court  for  his 
mathematical  skill.  Louis  XIV.  founded  at  Paris  a  missionary  college, 
which  sent  out  Jesuits  thoroughly  trained  in  mathematics.  But 
Dominicans  and  Franciscans  over  and  over  again  complained  to  Rome 
of  the  Jesuits.  They  never  allowed  missionaries  of  other  orders  to 
come  near  their  own  establishments,  and  actually  drove  them  away 
from  places  where  they  had  begini  to  work.  They  even  opposed  priests, 
bishops,  and  vicars-apostolic  sent  by  the  Proi^agauda,  declared  their 
papal  briefs  forgeries,  forbad  their  congregations  to  have  any  intei'- 
course  with  those  "  heretics,"  and  under  stispicion  of  Jansenism  brought 
them  before  the  Inquisition  of  Goa,  Clement  X.  issued  a  firm-toned 
bull  against  such  proceedings  ;  but  the  Jesuits  gave  no  heed  to  it,  and 
attended  only  to  their  own  general.  The  papal  condemnation  a  cen- 
tury later  of  the  Jesuits'  accommodation  scheme,  and  their  permission 
of  heathen  rites  and  beliefs  to  the  new  converts,  complained  against 
by  the  Dominicans,  was  equally  fruitless.  In  a.d.  1(J45  Innocent  X. 
forbad  this  practice  on  pain  of  excommvmication  ;  but  still  they  con- 
tinued it  till  the  decree  was  modified  bj^  Alexander  VII.  in  a.d.  1656. 
After  persistent  complaints  by  tlie  Dominicans,  Innocent  XII.  ap- 
pointed a  new  congregation  in  Rome  to  investigate  the  question,  but 
their  deliberations  yielded  no  result  for  ten  years.  At  last  Clement 
XI.  confirmed  the  first  decree  of  Innocent  X.,  condemned  anew  the  so 
called  Chinese  rites,  and  sent  the  legate  Thomas  of  Toiirnon  in  a.d. 
1703  to  enforce  his  decision.   Tournon,  received  at  first  by  the  emperor 


§  156.    PAPACY,    MONI^RY,    AND    FOREIGN   MISSIONS.    29 

at  Pekin  with  great  consideration,  fell  into  disfavour  through  Jesuit 
intrigues,  -was  banished  from  the  capital,  and  returned  to  Nankin. 
But  as  he  continued  his  ciforts  from  this  point,  and  an  attempt  to 
jDoison  him  failed  in  a.d.  1707,  he  went  to  Macao,  where  he  was  piit  in 
prison  by  the  Portuguese,  in  which  he  died  in  a.d.  1710.  Clement 
XI.,  in  A.D.  1715,  issued  his  decree  against  the  Chinese  rites  in  a  yet 
severer  foitn;  hut  the  Franciscan  who  proclaimed  the  papal  bull 
was  put  in  prison  as  an  offender  against  the  laws  of  the  country, 
and,  after  being  maltreated  for  seventeen  months,  was  banished.  So 
proudly  confident  had  the  Jesuits  become,  that  in  a.d.  1720  they 
treated  with  scorn  and  contempt  the  papal  legate  Mezzabarba,  Patri- 
arch of  Alexandria,  who  tried  by  certain  concessions  to  move  them  to 
submit.  A  more  severe  decree  of  Clement  XII.  of  a.d.  1735  was  scoffed 
at  by  being  j^roclainied  only  in  the  Latin  original.  Benedict  XIV. 
succeeded  for  the  first  time,  in  a.d.  1742,  in  breaking  down  their  oppo- 
sition, after  the  charges  had  been  renewed  by  the  Capuchin  Norbert. 
All  the  Jesuit  missionaries  were  now  obliged  by  oath  to  exclude  all 
l^agan  customs  and  rites  ;  but  with  this  all  the  glory  and  wonderful 
success  of  their  Asiatic  missions  came  to  an  end. — Continuation, 
§  105,  3. 

13.  Trade  and  Indixstry  of  the  Jesuits. — As  Christian  missions  gene- 
rally deserve  credit,  not  only  for  introducing  civilization  and  culture 
along  with  the  preaching  of  the  gospel  into  far  distant  heathen  lands, 
but  also  for  having  greatly  promoted  the  knowledge  of  countries 
peoples,  and  languages  among  their  fellow  countr3anen  at  home,  open- 
ing up  ncAv  fields  for  colonization  and  trade,  these  ends  Avere  also 
sei-ved  by  the  Avorld-wide  missionary  enterprises  of  the  Jesuits, 
and  were  in  perfect  accordance  with  the  character  and  intention 
of  this  order,  which  aimed  at  univei-sal  dominion.  In  carrying  out 
these  schemes  the  Jesuits  abandoned  the  ascetical  principles  of  their 
founder  and  their  voav  of  poverty,  amassing  enormous  Avealth  by 
securing  in  many  j^arts  a  practical  uionopol3'  of  trade.  Their  fifth 
general,  Aquaviva  (§  149,  8),  secured  from  Gregory  XIII.,  avowedly 
in  favour  of  the  mission,  exclusive  right  to  trade  with  both  Indies. 
They  soon  erected  great  factories  in  all  parts  of  the  world,  and  had 
ships  laden  with  valuable  merchandise  on  all  seas.  They  had  mines, 
farms,  sugar  plantations,  apothecary  shops,  bakeries,  etc.,  founded 
banks,  sold  relics,  miracle-working  amulets,  I'osaries,  healing  Ignatius- 
and  Xavier-water  (§  149,  11),  etc.,  and  in  successful  legacy-hunting 
excelled  all  other  orders.  Urban  VIII.  and  Clement  XI.  issued  severe 
bulls  against  such  abuses,  but  only  succeeded  in  restricting  them  to 
some  extent.— Continuation,  §  165,  9. 

14.  An  Apostate  to  Judaism. — Gabriel,  or  as  he  Avas  called  after  circum- 
cision, Uriel  Acosta,  was  sprung  fi-om  a  noble  Portuguese  family,  origi- 


30     CHURCH   HISTORY   OP   SEVENTEENTH   CENTURY. 

nally  JewLsh.  Doubting  Christianity  in  consequence  of  the  traffic  in 
indulgences,  he  at  last  repudiated  the  New  Testament  in  favour  of  the 
Old.  He  refused  rich  ecclesiastical  appointments,  fled  to  Amsterdam, 
and  there  formally  went  over  to  Judaism.  Instead  of  the  biblical 
Mosaism,  however,  he  was  disappointed  to  find  only  Pharisaic  pride 
and  Talmudic  traditionalism,  against  which  lie  Avrote  a  treatise  in 
A.i).  1623.  The  Jews  now  denounced  him  to  the  civil  authorities  as  a 
denier  of  God  and  immortality.  The  whole  issue  of  his  book  was  burnt. 
Twice  the  synagogue  thundered  its  ban  against  him.  The  first  was 
withdrawn  on  his  recantation,  and  the  second,  seven  years  after,  upon 
his  submitting  to  a  severe  flagellation.  In  spite  of  all  he  held  to  his 
Sadducean  standpoint  to  his  end  in  a.d.  1647,  when  he  died  by  his  own 
hand  froni  a  pistol  shot,  driven  to  despair  by  the  iniceasing  persecu- 
tion of  the  Jews. 


§  157.     Quietism  and  Jansenism. 

Down  to  the  last  quarter  of  the  seventeenth  century  the 
Spanish  Mystics  (§  149,  10),  and  especially  those  attached  to 
Francis  de  Sales,  were  recognised  as  thoroughly  orthodox. 
But  now  the  Jesuits  appeared  as  the  determined  opponents 
of  all  mj^sticism  that  savoured  of  enthusiasm.  By  means  of 
vile  intrigues  they  succeeded  in  getting  Molinos,  Guyon,  and 
Fenelon  condemned,  as  "  Quietist "  heretics,  although  the 
founder  of  their  party  had  been  canonized  and  his  doctrine 
solemnly  sanctioned  by  the  pope.  Yet  more  objectionable 
to  the  Jesuits  was  that  reaction  toward  Augustinianism 
which,  hitherto  limited  to  the  Dominicans  (§  149,  13),  and 
treated  by  them  as  a  theological  theory,  was  now  spread- 
ing among  other  orders  in  the  form  of  French  Jansenism, 
accompanied  by  deep  moral  earnestness  and  a  revival  of  the 
whole  Christian  life. 

1.  Francis  de  Sales  and  Madame  Chantal. — Francis  Count  de  Sales, 
from  Ail).  1602  Bishop  of  Geneva,  i.e.  in  parlihu-s,  with  Annecy  as  his 
residence,  had  shown  himself  a  good  Catholic  by  his  zeal  in  rooting 
out  Protestantism  in  Chablais,  on  the  south  of  the  Genevan  lake.  In 
A.D.  1604  meeting  the  young  widowed  Baroness  de  Chantal,  along  with 
Avhom  at  a  later  period  he  founded  the  Order  of  the  Visitation  of  Mary 
(g  15(5,  7),  he  )n-oved  a  good  ])hysician  to  her  amid  her  sorrow,  doubts, 


§  157.    QUIETISM   AND   JANSENISM.  31 

and  temptations.  He  soup;lit  to  qualify  himself  for  this  task  by  read- 
ing the  Avritings  of  St.  Theresa.  Teacher  and  scholar  so  in'ofited  by 
their  mystical  studies,  that  in  A.n.  l(j()5  Alexander  VII.  deemed  the  one 
worthy  of  canonization  and  the  other  of  beatification.  In  A.n.  1877 
Pius  IX.  raised  Francis  to  the  dignity  of  doctor  ecrlesiiv.  His  "  Intro- 
duction to  the  Devout  Life  "  affords  a  giiide  to  laymen  to  the  life  of 
the  soul,  amid  all  the  disturbances  of  the  world  resting  in  calm  con- 
templation and  iniselfish  love  of  God.  In  the  Catholic  Church,  next 
to  A  Kempis'  "  Imitation  of  Christ,"  it  is  the  most  appreciated  and 
most  widelj-  used  book  of  devotion.  In  his  "  Tlieotime  '^  he  leads  the 
reader  deeper  into  the  j^earnings  of  the  soul  after  fello«-ship  with  God, 
and  describes  the  perfect  peace  which  the  soul  reaches  in  God.' 

2.  Michael  Molinos.— After  Francis  de  Sales  a  great  multitude  of 
male  and  female  apostles  of  the  new  mystical  gospel  sprang  up,  and 
were  favourably  received  bj-  all  the  more  moderate  clmrch  leadei-s. 
The  reactionaries,  headed  by  the  Jesuits,  sought  therefore  all  the  more 
eagerly  to  deal  severely  with  the  Spaniard  Michael  Molinos.  Having 
settled  in  Rome  in  a.d.  1669,  he  soon  became  the  most  popular  of  father 
confessors.  His  "  Spiritual  Guide  "  in  a.d.  1675  received  the  approval 
of  the  Holy  Otfice,  and  Avas  introduced  into  Protestant  Germany  through 
a  Latin  translation  by  Francke  in  a.d.  1687,  and  a  German  translation  in 
A.D.  1699  by  Arnold.  In  it  he  taught  those  ^\•ho  came  to  the  confessional 
that  the  way  to  the  perfection  of  the  Christian  life,  Avhich  consists  in 
peaceful  rest  in  the  most  intimate  communion  with  Gotl,  is  to  be  found 
in  spiritual  conference,  secret  pra^^er,  active  and  passive  contempla- 
tion, in  rigorous  destruction  of  all  self-will,  and  in  disinterested  love 
of  God,  fortified,  wherever  that  is  possible,  by  daily  commiuiion.  The 
success  of  the  book  was  astonishing.  It  promptly  influenced  all  ranks 
and  classes,  both  men  and  women,  lay  and  clerical,  not  only  in  Italy, 
but  also  by  means  of  translations  in  France  and  Spain.  But  soon  a 
reaction  set  in.  As  early  as  a.d.  1681  the  famous  Jesuit  Segneri  issued  a 
treatise,  in  which  he  charged  Molinos'  contemplative  m3'sticism  -with 
ouesidedness  and  exaggei'ation.  He  was  answered  by  the  pious  and 
learned  Oratorian  Petrucci.  A  commission,  appointed  by  the  Inquisi- 
tion to  examine  the  writings  of  \x>t\\  parties,  pronounced  the  views  of 
Molinos  and  Petrucci  to  be  in  accordance  with  church  doctrine  and 
Segneri's  objections  to  be  unfounded.  All  that  Jesuitism  reckoned 
as  foundation,  means,  and  end  of  piety  was  characterized  as  purely 
elementary.  No  hope  could  be  entertained  of  winning  over  Innocent 
XI.,  the  bitter  enemy  of  the  Jesuits.  But  Louis  XIV.  of  France, 
at  the  instigation  of  his  Jesuit  father  confessor,  Lachaise,  expressed 

'  Marsolier,  "  Life  of  Francis  de  Sales,''  translated   by  Coombes. 
London,  1812. 


32      CHURCH   HISTORY   OF   SEVENTEENTH   CENTURY. 

tlirough  his  ambassador  his  surprise  that  his  holiness  should,  not 
only  tolerate,  but  even  encourage  and  support  so  dangerous  a  heretic, 
who  taught  all  Christendom  to  undervalue  the  public  services  of  the 
Church.  In  a.d.  1685  Innocent  referred  the  matter  to  the  tribunal 
of  the  Inquisition.  Throughout  the  two  years  during  which  the 
investigation  proceeded  all  arts  were  used  to  secure  condemnation. 
Extreme  statements  of  fanatical  adherents  of  Molinos  were  not  rarely 
met  Avith, depreciating  the  public  ordinances  and  ceremonies,  confession, 
hearing  of  mass,  church  prayers,  rosaries,  etc.  The  pope,  facile  with 
age,  amid  groans  and  lamentations,  allowed  things  to  take  their  course, 
and  at  last  confirmed  the  decree  of  the  Inquisition  of  August  28th, 
A.D.  1687,  by  which  Molinos  was  found  gviilty  of  spreading  godless 
doctrine,  and  sixty-eight  propositions,  partly  from  his  ovn\  writings, 
partly  from  the  vitterances  of  his  adherents,  were  condemned  as  heretical 
and  blasphemous.  The  heretic  was  to  abjure  his  heresies  publicly,  clad 
in  penitential  garments,  and  was  then  consigned  to  lifelong  solitary 
confinement  in  a  Dominican  cloister,  Avhere  he  died  in  a.d.  1697.* 

3.  Madame  Guyon  and  Fenelon.— After  her  husband's  death,  Madame 
Gnyon,  in  company  with  her  father  confessor,  the  Barnabite  Lacombe, 
who  had  been  initiated  during  a  long  residence  at  Home  into  the 
mysteries  of  Molinist  mysticism,  spent  five  years  travelling  through 
France,  Switzerland,  Savoy,  and  Piedmont.  Though  already  much  sus- 
pected, she  won  the  hearts  of  many  men  and  women  among  the  clergy 
and  laity,  and  enkindled  in  them  by  personal  conference,  correspond- 
ence, and  her  literary  work,  the  ardour  of  mystical  love.  Her  brilliant 
writings  are  indeed  disfigured  by  traces  of  foolish  exaggeration,  fana- 
ticism and  spiritual  jn-ide.  She  calls  herself  the  woman  of  Revelation 
xii.  1,  and  the  mei-e  de  Ja  (jrace  of  her  adherents.  The  following 
are  the  main  distinguishing  characteristics  of  her  mysticism:  The 
necessity  of  turning  away  from  everything  creaturely,  rejecting  all 
earthly  pleasure  and  destroying  every  selfish  interest,  as  Avell  as  of 
turning  to  God  in  passive  contemplation,  silent  devotion,  naked  faith, 
which  dispensed  with  all  intellectual  evidence,  and  pure  disinterested 
love,  which  loves  God  for  Himself  alone,  not  for  the  eternal  salvation 
obtained  through  Him.  On  her  return  to  Paris  with  Lacombe  in 
A.D.  1686  the  proper  martyrdom  of  her  life  began.  Her  chief  per- 
secutor was  her  steja-brother,  the  Parisian  superior  of  the  Barnabites, 
La  Mothe,  who  spread  the  most  scandalous  reports  about  his  half-sister 
and  Lacombe,  and  had  them  both  imprisoned  by  a  royal  decree  in 
A.D.  1688.  Lacombe  never  regained  liis  liberty.  Taken  from  one 
jjrison  to  another,  he  lost  his  reason,  and  died  in  an  asylum  in  a.d. 

1  "  Golden  Thoughts  from  the  '  Spiritual  Guide  '  of  Molinos."  With 
preface  by  J.  H.  Shoithouse.     London,  1883. 


§  157.    QUIETISM   AND   JANSENISM.  33 

WJ9.  Madame  Guyon,  however,  by  the  influent*  of  Madame  de  Main- 
tenon,  was  released  after  ten  months'  confinement.  The  favour  of  tliis 
royal  dame  was  not  of  long  continuance.  Warned  on  all  sides  of  the 
dangerous  heretic,  she  broke  off  all  intercourse  with  her  in  a.d.  1693, 
and  persuaded  the  king  to  appoint  a  new  commission,  in  a.d.  1694,  with 
Bishoi^  Bossuet  of  Meaux  at  its  head,  to  examine  her  suspected  writings. 
Tliis  commission  meeting  at  Issj-,  had  already,  in  February,  a.d.  1695, 
drawn  up  thirty  test  articles,  when  Fenelon,  tutor  of  the  king's  grandson, 
and  now  nominated  to  the  archbishopric  of  Cambray,  Avas  ordered  by 
the  king  to  take  part  in  the  joroceedings.  He  signed  the  articles, 
though  he  objected  to  much  in  them,  and  had  four  articles  of  his  own 
added.  Madame  Guyon  also  did  so,  and  Bossuet  at  last  testified  for 
her  that  he  had  found  her  moral  character  stainless  and  her  doctrine 
free  from  Molinist  heresy.  But  the  bigot  Maintenon  was  not  satisfied 
with  this.  Bossuet  demanded  the  surrender  of  this  certificate  that  he 
might  draw  up  another ;  and  when  Madame  Guyon  refused,  on  the 
basis  of  a  statement  by  the  crazed  Lacombe,  she  was  sent  to  the  Bastile 
in  A.D.  1696.  In  a.d.  1697  Fenelon  had  written  in  her  defence  his 
"  Explication  des  Ma.vimes  des  Saintes  sur  la  Vie  Interieur,^''  showing 
that  the  condemned  doctrines  of  jjassive  contemplation,  secret  prayer, 
naked  faith,  and  disinterested  love,  had  all  been  previously  taught  by 
St.  Theresa,  John  of  the  Cross,  Francis  de  Sales,  and  other  saints.  He 
sent  this  treatise  for  an  opinion  to  Eome.  A  violent  controversy  then 
arose  between  Bossuet  and  Fenelon.  The  pious,  well-meaning  pope. 
Innocent  XII.,  endeavoured  vainly  to  bring  about  a  good  understanding. 
Bossuet  and  the  all-powerful  Maintenon  wished  no  reconciliation,  but 
condemnation,  and  gave  the  king  and  pope  no  rest  till  very  reluctantly 
he  prohibited  the  objectionable  book  by  a  brief  in  a.d.  1699,  and 
condemned  twenty-three  propositions  from  it  as  heretical.  Fenelon, 
strongly  attached  to  the  church,  and  a  bitter  iDersecutor  of  Protestants, 
made  an  unconditional  surrender,  as  guilty  of  a  defective  exposition 
of  the  truth.  But  Madame  Guyon  continvied  in  the  Bastile  till  a.d. 
1701,  when  she  retired  to  Blois,  where  she  died  in  a.d.  1717.  Bossuet 
had  died  in  a.d.  1704,  and  Fenelon  in  a.d.  1715.  She  published  only 
two  of  her  writings :  "  An  Exposition  of  the  Song,"  and  the  "  Moyen 
Court  et  Ires  Facile  defaire  Oraison.''''  Many  others,  including  her  trans- 
lation and  expositions  of  the  Bible,  were  during  her  lifetime  edited  in 
twenty  volumes  by  her  friend,  the  Keformed  preacher  of  the  Palatinate, 
Peter  Poiret.i 


*  Upham,  "  Life,  Eeligious  Opinions,  and  Experience  of  Madame  de 
la  Mothe  Guyon,  Avith  an  account  of  Fenelon."  London,  1854.  Brooke, 
"  Exemplary  Life  of  the  Pious  Lady  Guion."  Bristol,  1806,  Butlerj 
"  Life  of  Fenelon."     London,  1810. 

VOL.  III.  3 


34     CHUECH   HISTOEY   OF   SEVENTEENTH   CENTUEY. 

4.  Mysticism  Tinged  with  Theosophy  and  Pantheism.  —  Antoinette 
Bourignon,  the  daughter  of  a  rich  merchant  of  Lille,  in  Fraiice,  while 
matron  of  a  hospital  in  her  native  city,  had  in  a.d.  1662  gathered 
around  her  a  party  of  believers  in  her  theosophic  and  fantastic  reve- 
lations. She  was  obliged  to  flee  to  the  Netherlands,  and  there,  by 
the  force  of  her  eloquence  in  speech  and  writing,  spread  her  views 
among  the  Protestants.  Among  them  she  attracted  the  great  scien- 
tist Swammerdam.  But  when  she  introduced  politics,  she  escaped 
imprisonment  only  by  flight.  Down  to  her  death  in  a.d.  1680  she 
earnestly  and  successfully  jDrosecuted  her  mission  in  north-west  Ger- 
man3%  Peter  Poiret  collected  her  writings  and  published  them  in 
twenty-one  volumes  at  Amsterdam,  in  a.d.  1679.— Quite  of  another 
sort  was  the  pantheistic  mysticism  of  Angelus  Silesius.  Originally  a 
Protestant  physician  at  Breslau,  he  went  over  to  the  Eomish  church 
in  A.D.  1653,  and  in  consequence  received  from  Vieinia  the  honorary 
title  of  physician  to  the  emperor.  He  was  made  priest  in  a.d.  1661, 
and  till  his  death  in  a.d.  1677  maintained  a  keen  polemic  against  the 
Protestant  church  with  all  a  pei'vert's  zeal.  Most  of  his  hymns  be- 
long to  his  Protestant  period.  As  a  Catholic  he  wrote  his  "  Chcrtihi- 
nischer  Wander smanii,^''  a  collection  of  rhymes  in  Avhich,  with  childish 
■naivete  and  hearty,  gushing  ardour,  he  merges  self  into  the  abyss  of 
the  univtr-rsal  Deity,  and  develops  a  system  of  the  most  pronounced 
pantheism. 

5.  Jansenism  in  its  first  Stage. — Bishop  Cornelius  Jansen,  of  Ypres, 
who  died  in  a.d.  1638,  gave  the  fruits  of  his  lifelong  studies  of 
Augustine  in  his  learned  work,  ^^  Aurjustinus  s.  cloctr.  Aug.  de  humanm 
Naturce.  Sanitate,  .^f/ritudine,  et  Medicina  adc.  Pelafjianos  et  MasifiHenses,''' 
which  was  published  after  his  death  in  three  volumes,  Louvain,  1640. 
The  Jesuits  induced  Urban  VIII.,  in  a.d.  1642,  to  prohibit  it  in  his  bull 
In  eminenti.  Augustine's  numerous  followers  in  France  felt  themselves 
hit  by  this  decree.  Jansen's  pupil  at  Port  Royal  from  a.d.  1635, 
Duvergier  de  Hauranne,  usually  called  St.  Cyran,  from  the  Benedictine 
monastery  of  which  he  Avas  abbot,  was  the  bitter  foe  of  the  Jesuits  and 
Bichelieu,  who  had  him  cast  into  prison  in  a.d.  1688,  from  which  he 
was  liberated  after  the  death  of  the  cardinal  in  a.d.  1643,  and  shortly 
before  his  own.  Another  distinguished  member  of  the  party  was 
Antoine  Arnauld,  doctor  of  the  Sorbonne,  who  died  in  a.d.  1694,  the 
youngest  of  twenty  children  of  a  parliamentary  advocate,  whose 
jjowerful  defence  of  the  University  of  Paris  against  the  Jesuits  called 
forth  their  hatred  and  lifelong  pei-secution.  His  mantle,  as  a  vigorous 
polemist,  had  fallen  upon  his  youngest  son.  Very  important  too  was 
the  influence  of  his  much  older  sister,  Angelica  Arnauld,  Abbess  of 
the  Cistercian  cloister  of  Port  Eoyal  des  Champs,  six  miles  from  Paris, 
which  vmder  her  became  the  centre  of  religious  life  and  effort  for  all 


§  157.    QUIETISM   AND   JANSENISM.  35 

France.  Around  lier  gathered  some  of  the  noblest,  most  pions,  and 
talented  men  of  the  time :  the  poet  Racine,  the  mathematician  and 
apologist  Pascal,  the  Bible  translator  De  Sacj^,  the  church  historian 
Tillemont,  all  ardent  admirers  of  Augustine  and  determined  oppo- 
nents of  the  lax  morality  of  the  Jesuits.  Arnauld's  book,  "Z>e  la 
fre'i/ueufc  Coinminiion."  was  approved  by  the  Sorbonne,  the  Parliament, 
and  the  most  distinguished  of  the  French  clergy ;  but  in  a.u.  1658  Inno- 
cent X.  condemned  five  Jansenist  propositions  in  it  as  hei'etical.  The 
Augustinians  now  maintained  that  these  doctrines  were  not  taught 
in  the  sense  attributed  to  them  by  the  pope.  Arnauld  distinguished 
the  quebtion  du  fait  from  the  question  clit  droit,  maintaining  that  the 
latter  only  were  subject  to  the  judgment  of  the  Holy  See.  The 
Sorbonne,  now  greatly  changed  in  composition  and  character,  expelled 
him  on  account  of  this  jwsition  from  its  cor]ioration  in  a.u.  1656. 
About  this  time,  at  Arnauld's  instigation,  Pascal,  the  profound  and 
brilliant  author  of  '•  Peiite'es  .siir  la  HrJiijiov,"'  began,  under  the  name  of 
Louis  de  Montaltf  to  publish  his  famous  "  Provincial  Letters,"  which  in 
an  admirable  style  exposed  and  lashed  with  deep  earnestness  and  biting 
wit  tlie  base  moral  principles  of  Jesuit  casuistrj-.  The  truly  annihi- 
lating eftect  of  these  letters  upon  the  reputation  of  the  powerful  order 
could  not  be  checked  by  their  being  burnt  by  order  of  Parliament 
by  the  hangman  at  Aix  in  a.d.  1657,  and  at  Paris  in  a.d.  1660.  But 
meanwhile  the  specifically  Jansenist  movement  entered  upon  a  new 
phase  of  its  development.  Alexander  VII.  had  issued  in  a.d.  16o(j  a 
bull  which  denounced  the  application  of  the  distinction  dn  fa  it  and  dit 
droit  to  the  papal  decrees  as  derogatory  to  the  holy  see,  and  affirmed 
that  Jansen  taught  the  five  pi-opositions  in  the  sense  thcA'  had  been 
condemned.  In  order  to  enforce  the  sentence,  Annal,  the  Jesuit  father 
confessor  of  Louis  XIV.,  obtained  in  1661  a  royal  decree  requiring  all 
French  clerg}',  monks,  nuns,  and  teachers  to  sign  a  formula  uncondi- 
tionally accepting  this  bull.  Those  who  refused  were  banished,  and 
fled  jnostly  to  the  Netherlands.  The  sorely  oppressed  nuns  of  Port 
Royal  at  last  reluctantly  agreed  to  sign  it ;  but  they  Avere  still  per- 
secuted, and  in  a.d.  1664  the  new  ai'chbishop,  Pei-efixe,  inaugurated  a 
more  severe  persecution,  placed  this  cloister  under  the  interdict,  and 
removed  some  of  the  nuns  to  other  convents.  In  a.d.  1669,  Alexander's 
successor,  Clement  IX.,  secured  the  submission  of  Arnauld,  De  Sacy, 
Xicole,  and  many  of  the  nuns  by  a  policy  of  mild  connivance.  But 
the  hatred  of  the  Jesuits  was  still  directed  against  their  cloister. 
In  a.d.  1705  Clement  XI.  again  demanded  full  and  unconditioned 
acceptance  of  the  decree  of  Alexander  VII.,  and  when  the  nuns 
refused,  the  pope,  in  a.d.  1708,  declared  this  convent  an  iri-edeemable 
nest  of  heresy,  and  oi'dered  its  suppression,  which  was  carried  oiit 
in  A.D.  1709.    In  a.d.  1710  cloister  and  church  were  levelled  to  the 


36      CHURCH  HISTORY   OF   SEVENTEENTH   CENTURY. 

ground,  and  the  very  corpses  taken  out  of  their  graves.i — Continua- 
tion, §  1(35,  7. 

§  158.     Science  and  Art  in  the  Catholic  Church. 

Catholic  theology  flourished  during  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury as  it  had  never  done  since  the  twelfth  and  thirteenth. 
Especially  in  the  liberal  Galilean  church  there  was  a  vigorous 
scientific  life.  The  Parisian  Sorbonne  and  the  orders  of  the 
Jesuits,  St.  Maur,  and  the  Oratorians,  excelled  in  theological, 
particularly  in  patristic  and  historical,  learning,  and  the 
contemporary  brilliancy  of  Reformed  theology  in  France 
aftorded  a  powerful  stimulus.  But  the  best  days  of  art, 
especially  Italian  painting,  were  now  past.  Sacred  music 
was  diligently  cultivated,  though  in  a  secularized  style,  and 
many  gifted  hymn- writers  made  their  appearance  in  Spain 
and  Germany. 

1.  Theological  Science  (§  149,  14). — Tlie  parliamentary  advocate, 
Mich,  le  Jay,  published  at  his  oAvn  expense  the  Parisian  Polyglott  in 
ten  folio  vols.,  a.d.  1629-1645,  which,  besides  complete  Syriac  and  Arabic 
translations,  included  also  the  Samaritan.  The  chief  contributor  Avas 
the  Oratorian  Morinus,  who  edited  the  LXX.  and  the  Samaritan  texts, 
which  he  regarded  as  incomparably  superior  to  the  Masoretic  text  cor- 
rupted by  the  JeA\-s.  The  Jansenists  produced  a  French  translation  of 
the  Bible  with  practical  notes,  condemned  by  the  pope,  but  much  read 
by  the  people.  It  was  mainly  the  work  of  the  brothers  De  Sacy.  The 
New  Testament  was  issued  in  a.d.  1667  and  the  Old  Testannent  somewhat 
later,  called  the  Bible  of  Mons  from  the  fictitious  name  of  the  place  of 
publication.  Richard  Simon,  the  Oratorian,  who  died  in  a.d.  1712,  treated 
Scripture  with  a  boldness  of  criticism  never  before  heard  of  within 
the  church.  While  oj^posed  by  many  on  the  Catholic  side,  the  curia 
favoured  his  Avork  as  undermining  the  Protestant  doctrine  of  Scripture. 
Cornelius  a  Laplde,  who  died  a.d.  16B7,  exjiounded  Scripture  according 
to  the  fourfold  sense. — In  systematic  theology  the  old  scholastic 
method  still  held  sway.     Moral  theology  was  wrought  out  in  the  form 

1  Beard,  "Port  Eoyal."  2  vols.  London,  1861.  St.  Amour, 
"  Journal  in  France  and  Borne,  containing  Account  of  Five  Points  of 
Controversy  between  Jansenists  and  Molinists."  London,  1664. 
Schimmelpenninck,  "  Select  Memoirs  of  Port  Royal."  Fourth  edition. 
2  vols.     London,  1835, 


§  158.    SCIENCE  AND  AKT  IN  THE  CATHOLIC  CHURCH.    37 

of  casuistiy  with  miexampled  lasciviousness,  especially  by  the  Jesuits 
(§  149,  10).  The  work  of  the  Spaniard  Escobar,  who  died  in  a.d.  1669, 
i-an  through  fifty  editions,  and  that  of  Busembaum,  professor  in  Cologne 
and  afterwards  rector  of  Miinster,  Avho  died  a.d.  1668,  went  througli 
seventj'  editions.  On  account  of  the  attempted  assassination  of  Louis 
XV.  hy  Damiens  in  a.d.  1757,  with  which  the  Jesuits  and  their  doctrine 
of  tyrannicide  were  charged,  the  Parliament  of  Toulouse  in  a.d.  1757, 
and  of  Paris  in  a.d.  1761,  had  Busembaum"s  book  publicly  burnt,  and 
several  popes,  Alexander  VII.,  VIII.,  and  Imiocent  XL,  condemned 
a  number  of  propositions  from  the  moral  writings  of  these  and  other 
Jesuits.  Among  polemical  writers  the  most  distinguished  were 
Becanus,  who  died  in  a.d.  1624,  and  Bossbet  (§  1.53,  7).  Among  the 
Jansenists  the  most  prominent  controversialists  were  Nicole  and 
Arnauld,  who,  in  order  to  escape  the  reproach  of  Calvinism,  sought  to 
prove  the  Catholic  doctrine  of  the  supper  to  be  the  same  as  that  of  the 
apostles,  and  were  answered  by  the  Eeformed  theologians  Claude  and 
.Jurieu.  In  apologetics  the  leading  place  is  occupied  hy  Pascal  with 
his  brilliant  '■'■Pense'es."'  Huetius,  a  French  bishop  and  editor  of  Origeu, 
who  died  in  a.d.  1721,  replied  to  Spinoza's  attacks  on  the  Pentateuch, 
and  applying  to  reason  itself  the  Cartesian  principle,  that  philosophy 
must  begin  with  doubt,  pointed  the  doubter  to  the  supernatural 
revealed  truths  in  the  Catholic  chiirch  as  the  only  anchor  of  salvation. 
The  learned  Jesuit  Dionysius  Petavius,  who  died  in  a.d.  1652,  edited 
Epiphanius  and  "\\-rote  gigantic  chronological  works  and  numerous 
violent  polemics  against  Calvinists  and  .Jansenists.  His  chief  work  is 
the  imiinished  patristic-dogmatic  treatise  in  live  vols,  folio,  a.d.  1680, 
'•  De  theolofjicis  Dofjinatibiis:.''  The  Oratorian  Thomassinus  wrote  an  able 
archseological  work :  "  Vctiis  rt  Xova  E<-<:1.  Dii^fipVina  circa  Beiiejicia  et 
Benefiriariofs.'^ 

2.  In  church  history,  besides  those  named  in  §  5,  2,  we  may  mention 
Pagi,  the  keen  critic  and  corrector  of  Baronius.  The  study  of  sources 
was  vigorously  pursued.  We  have  collections  of  mediaeval  writings 
and  documents  by  Sirmond,  D'Achery,  Mabillon,  Martene,  Baluzius; 
of  acts  of  councils  by  Labbe  and  Cossart,  those  of  France  by  Jac. 
Sirmond,  and  of  Spain  by  Aguirre;  acts  of  the  martyrs  by  Ruinart; 
monastic  rules  by  Holstenias,  a  pervert,  who  became  Vatican  librarian, 
and  died  at  Home  a.d.  16(il.  Dufresne  Ducange,  an  advocate,  who  died 
in  A.D.  1688,  wrote  glossaries  of  tlif  medianal  and  barbarous  Latin 
and  Greek,  indispensable  for  the  study  of  documents  belonging  to 
tliose  times.  The  greatest  prodigy  of  learning  was  Mabillon,  who  died 
in  A.D.  1707,  a  Benedictine  of  St.  Maur,  and  historian  of  his  order. 
Pet.  de  Marca,  who  died  Archbishop  of  Paris  a.d.  1662,  wrote  the  famous 
work  on  the  Galilean  liberties  ^'De  Concordia  Sacerdotii  et  Ivijjerii.''^  The 
Jansenist  doctor  of  the  Sorbonne,  Ellas  du  Pin,  who  died  a.d.  1719,  wrote 


r" 


6392 


38      CHURCH   HISTORY   OF   SEVENTEENTH   CENTURY. 

•'XoiiveNe  £ihliothc(i>(e  des  Aiifciirs  EccJes.^''  in  fort.y-seven  vols.  The 
Jesuit  Maimbourg,  elied  a.d.  1G86,  compiled  several  party  histories  of 
Wiclilism,  Lutheranism,  and  Calvinism ;  but  as  a  Gallican  was  deprived 
of  office  by  the  pope,  and  afterwards  supported  by  a  royal  pension.  The 
Antwerp  Jesuits  Bolland,  Henschen,  Papebroch  started,  in  a.u.  1G4H, 
the  gigantic  work  "  Acta  <S'«Hr/o?"«))i,"  carried  on  by  the  learned  members 
of  their  order  in  Belgium,  known  as  Bollandists.  It  was  stopped  by 
the  French  invasion  of  a.d.  1794,  when  it  had  reached  October  15th 
with  the  fifty-third  folio  vol.  The  Belgian  Jesuits  continued  the  work 
from  A.D,  1845-1867,  reaching  in  six  vols,  the  end  of  October,  but  not 
displaying  the  ability  and  liberality  of  their  predecessors.  In  Venice 
Paul  Sarpi  (§  155,  2)  wrote  a  history  of  the  Tridentine  Council,  one  of 
the  most  brilliant  historical  works  of  any  period.  Leo  AUatius,  a 
Greek  convert  at  Rome,  who  died  in  a.d.  16(i9,  wrote  a  work  to  show 
the  agreement  of  the  Eastern  and  Western  churches.  Cardinal  Bona 
distinguished  himself  as  a  liturgical  writer. — In  France  pulpit  elo- 
quence reached  tlie  highest  pitch  in  such  men  as  Flechier,  Bossuet, 
Bourdaloue,  Fenelon,  Massillon,  and  Bridaine.  In  Vienna  Abraham  a 
St.  Clara  inveighed  in  a  humorous,  grotesque  Avay  against  the  corruption 
of  manners,  with  an  undercurrent  of  deep  moral  earnestness.  Similar 
in  style  and  spirit,  but  much  more  deeply  sunk  in  Catholic  super- 
stition, was  liis  contemijorary  the  Capuchin  Martin  of  Cochem,  who 
missionarized  the  Rhine  Provinces  and  western  Germany  for  forty 
years,  and  issued  a  large  number  of  popular  religious  tracts. — Con- 
tinuation, t?  1()5,  14. 

3.  Art  and  Poetry  (§  149,  15). — The  greatest  master  of  the  musical 
school  founded  by  Palestrina  was  Allefjri,  whose  Miserere  is  performed 
yearly  on  the  Wednesday  afternoon  of  Passion  Week  in  the  Sistme 
Chapel  in  Kome,  The  oratorio  originated  from  the  application  of  the 
lofty  music  of  this  school  to  dramatic  scenes  drawn  from  the  Bible,  for 
purely  musical  and  not  theatrical  performance.  Philip  Neri  patronized 
this  music  freely  in  his  oratory,  from  Avhich  it  took  the  name.  This 
new  church  music  became  gradually  more  and  more  secularized  and 
approximated  to  the  ordinary  opera  style. — In  ecclesiastical  architecture 
the  Renaissance  style  still  prevailed,  but  debased  with  S'^nseless,  taste- 
less ornamentation. — In  the  Italian  school  of  painting  the  decline,  both 
in  creative  power  and  imitative  skill,  was  very  marked  from  the  end 
of  the  sixteenth  century.  In  Spain  during  the  seventeenth  century 
religious  painting  reached  a  high  point  of  excellence  in  Murillo  of 
Seville,  who  died  in  a.d.  1682,  a  master  in  representing  calm  meditation 
and  entranced  felicity. — The  two  greatest  poets  of  Spain,  the  creators 
of  the  Spanish  drama,  Lope  de  Vega  (died  a.d.  I(i85)  and  Pedro  Calderon 
(died  A.D.  1681),  both  at  first  soldiers  and  afterwards  priests,  flourished 
during  this  century.    The  elder  excelled   the  younger,  not  only  in 


§  159.  ORTHODOXY  AND  ITS  BATTLES.      39 

fruitfulness  and  versatility  (1,500  comedies,  320  autos,  §  115,  12,  etc.), 
but  also  in  poetic  genius  and  patriotism.  Calderon,  with  his  122 
dramas,  78  festival  plays,  200  preludes,  etc.,  excelled  De  Vega  in 
artistic  expression  and  Leauty  of  imagery.  Both  alike  glorify  the 
Inquisition,  but  occasionally  subordinate  Mary  and  the  saints  to  the 
great  redemption  of  the  cross. — Specially  deserving  of  notice  is  the 
noble  German  Jesuit  Friedr.  von  Spee,  died  a.d.  1G85.  His  spiritual 
songs  show  deep  love  to  the  Saviour  and  a  profound  feeling  for 
nature,  approaching  in  some  respects  the  style  of  the  evangelical 
hjnnn-writers.  Spee  was  a  keen  but  unsuccessful  opponent  of  witch 
prosecution.  Another  eminent  poetic  genius  of  the  age  was  the 
Jesuit  Jac.  Balde  of  Munich,  who  died  in  a.d.  1G8S.  He  is  at  his  best 
in  l3a-ical  poetry.  A  deep  religious  vein  runs  through  all  his  Latin 
odes,  in  Avhich  he  enthusiastically  appeals  to  the  Virgin  to  raise  him 
above  all  earthly  passions.  To  Herder  belongs  the  merit  of  rescuing 
him  from  oblivion. 

III. — The  Lutheran  Church. 

§  159.     Orthodoxy  and  its  Battles.^ 

The  Formula  of  Concoi-d  commended  itself  to  the  hearts 
and  intelligences  of  Liillierans,  and  secured  a  hundred  years' 
supremacy  of  orthodoxy,  notwithstanding  two  Christological 
controversies.  Clradually,  however,  a  new  dogmatic  scho- 
lasticism arose,  which  had  the  defects  as  well  as  the 
excellences  of  the  mediseval  system.  The  orthodoxy  of  this 
school  deteriorated,  on  the  one  hand,  into  violent  polemic 
on  confessional  differences,  and,  on  the  other,  into  itndue 
depreciation  of  outward  forms  in  favour  of  a  spiritual  life 
and  personal  piety.  These  tendencies  are  represented  by 
the  S3'ncretist  and  Pietist  controversies. 

1.  Christological  Controversies. — (1)  The  Cryptist  and  Kenotist  Contro- 
versy between  theGiess-n  and  Tubingen  theologians,  in  a. u.  1019,  about 
Christ's  state  of  humiliation,  led  to  the  publication  of  many  violent 
treatises  down  to  a.d.  1G26.  The  Kenotists  of  Giessen,  with  Mentzer 
and  Feuerborn  at  their  head,  assigned  the  humiliation  only  to  the 
human  nature,  and  explained  it  as  an  actual  Kevucns,  i.e.  a  complete 
but  voluntary  resigning  of  the  omnipresence  and  omniiMtence  im- 

1  Dorner,  '-History  of  Protestant  Theology,"'  vol.  ii.,  pp.  98-251, 


40      CHURCH   HISTORY   OF   SEVENTEENTH   CENTURY. 

manent  in  His  divinity  (Krijais,  but  not  XP'?''''?),  yt't  so  that  He  could 
have  them  at  His  command  at  any  moment,  c.y.  in  His  miracles.  The 
Cryptists  of  Ttibingen,  with  Luc.  Osiander  and  Thumm  at  their  head, 
ascribed  humiliation  to  both  natures,  and  taught  that  all  the  while 
Christ,  even  secundum  carnein,  was  omnipresent  and  ruled  both  in  heaven 
and  earth,  but  in  a  hidden  way ;  the  humiliation  is  no  Kivua-is,  but  only 
a  Kpv\pi!.  After  rej^eated  unsuccessful  attempts  to  bring  about  a  recon- 
ciliation, John  George,  Elector  of  Saxony,  in  a.d.  1623,  accepted  the 
Kenotic  doctrine.  But  the  two  parties  still  continued  their  strife.' — 
2.  The  Liitkemann  Controversy  on  the  humanity  of  Christ  in  death  was 
of  far  less  iniportance.  Liitkemann,  a  professor  of  philosophy  at 
Rostock,  affirmed  that  in  death,  because  the  unity  of  soul  and  body 
Avas  broken,  Christ  was  not  true  man,  and  that  to  deny  this  was  to 
destroy  the  reality  and  the  saving  power  or  his  death.  He  held  that 
the  incarnation  of  Clxrist  lasted  tlii'ough  death,  because  the  divine 
nature  was  connected,  not  only  with  the  soul,  but  also  with  the  body. 
Liitkemann  was  obliged  to  quit  Rostock,  but  got  an  honourable  call 
to  [Brunswick  as  superintendent  and  court  preacher,  and  there  died 
in  A.D.  1655.  Later  Lutherans  treated  the  controversy  as  a  useless 
logomach}'. 

2.  The  Syncretist  Controversy — Since  the  Hofmann  controversy 
(§  141,  15)  the  University  of  Helmstadt  had  shown  a  decided  huma- 
nistic tendency,  and  gave  even  greater  freedom  in  the  treatment  of 
doctrines  than  the  Formula  of  Concord,  which  it  declined  to  adopt.  To 
this  school  belonged  George  Calixt,  and  from  a.d.  1614  for  forty  years 
he  laboured  in  promoting  its  interests.  He  was  a  man  of  wide  culture 
and  experience,  Avho  had  obtained  a  thorough  knowledge  of  chuix-h 
history,  and  acquaintance  with  the  most  distinguished  theologians  of 
all  churches,  during  his  extensive  foreign  travels,  and  therewith  a 
geniality  and  breadth  of  view  not  by  any  means  common  in  those 
days.  He  did  not  indeed  desire  any  formal  union  between  the  different 
churches,  but  rather  a  mutual  recognition,  love,  and  tolerance.  For 
this  purpose  he  set,  as  a  secondary  principle  of  Christian  theologj^, 
besides  Scripture,  as  the  primary  principle,  the  consensus  of  the  first 
five  centuries  as  the  common  basis  of  all  churches,  and  sought  to 
represent  later  ecclesiastical  differencies  as  unessential  or  of  less  con- 
sequence. This  was  denounced  by  strict  Lutherans  as  S3aicretism  and 
Cryptocatholicism.  In  a.d.  1639  the  Hanoverian  preacher  Buscher 
charged  him  with  being  a  secret  Papist.  After  the  Thorn  Conference 
of  A.D.  1645,  a  violent  controversy  arose,  "which  divided  Lutherans  into 
two  camps.  On  the  one  side  were  the  viniversities  of  Helmstadt  and 
K(3nigsberg ;  on  the  other  hand,  the  theologians  of  the  electorate  of 

1  Bruce,  "  Humiliation  of  Christ,"  p.  131.    Edin.,  1876. 


§159.    ORTHODOXY   AND   ITS   BATTLES.  41 

Saxony,  Huls:?manii  of  Leipzig,  Waller  of  Dresden,  and  Abr.  Calov, 
■who  died  professor  in  Wittenberg  in  a.d.  1686.  Calov  wrote  twenty-six 
controversial  treatises  on  this  subject.  Jena  vainly  sought  to  mediate 
between  the  parties.  In  the  Theolofjoriim  Sax.  Consenms  re  pet  it  us  Fid  ei 
vera  Liifherancr  of  A.u.  I(j55,  for  which  the  Wittenberg  divines  failed 
to  secure  symbolical  authority,  the  following  sentiments  were  branded 
as  Syncretist  errors :  That  in  the  Apostles'  Creed  everything  is  taught 
that  is  necessary  to  salvation ;  that  the  Catholic  and  Eeformed  systems 
i-etaiu  hold  of  fundamental  truths ;  that  original  sin  is  of  a  merely 
privative  nature ;  that  God  iiidirecte,  improjirie,  et  per  accidens  is  the 
cause  of  sin ;  that  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity  was  first  clearly  revealed 
in  the  New  Testament,  etc.  Calixt  died  a.d.  1656  in  the  midst  of  most 
violent  conti-oversies.  His  son  Ulrich  continued  these,  but  had  neither 
the  ability  nor  moderation  of  his  father.  Even  the  peaceably  disposed 
Conference  of  Cassel  of  a.d.  16(il  (§  154,  4)  onh^  poured  oil  on  the 
flames.  The  strife  lost  itself  at  last  in  actions  for  damages  between 
the  younger  Calixt  and  his  bitter  opponent  Strauch  of  Wittenberg. 
Wearied  of  these  fruitless  discussions,  theologians  now  turned  their 
attention  to  the  rising  movement  of  Pietism. ^ 

8.  The  Pietist  Controversy  in  its  First  Stage.— Philip  Jacob  Spener 
born  in  Alsace  in  a.d.  1635,  was  in  his  thirty-first  year,  on  account  of 
liis  spirituality,  distingiiished  gifts,  and  singularly  wide  scholarship, 
made  2)resident  of  a  clerical  seminary  at  Frankfort-on-Main.  In  a.d. 
16H(j  he  became  chief  court  jn-eacher  at  Dresden,  and  provost  of  Berlin 
iu  A.D.  1691,  when,  on  account  of  his  intense  earnestness  in  pastoral 
woi-k,  he  had  been  expelled  from  Dresden.  He  died  in  Berlin  in  a.d. 
1705.  His  3'ear's  attendance  at  Cleneva  after  the  completion  of  his 
currici;lum  at  Strassburg  had  an  important  influence  on  his  Avhole 
future  career.  He  there  learned  to  value  discipline  for  securing  puritj'' 
of  life  as  well  as  of  docti'ine,  and  was  also  powerfully  impressed  by 
the  practical  lectures  of  Labadie  (§  163,  7)  and  the  reading  of  the 
"Practice  of  Piety"  and  other  ascetical  writings  of  the  English 
Puritans  (§  162,  3).  Though  strongly  attached  to  the  Lutheran 
church,  he  believed  that  in  the  restoi'ation  of  evangelical  doctrine  by 
the  Wittenberg  Keformation,  "  not  by  any  means  had  all  been  accom- 
])lished  that  needed  to  be  done,"'  and  that  Lutlieranism  in  the  form  of 
The  orthodoxy  of  the  age  had  lost  the  living  poM^er  of  the  reformers, 
and  was  in  danger  of  burA-ing  its  talent  iu  dead  and  barren  service  of 
the  letter.  There  was  therefore  a  pressing  need  of  a  new  and  ■\\'ider 
reformation.  In  the  Lutheran  church,  as  the  depository  of  sound 
doctrine,   he    recognised    the   fittest   field   for  the  develojiment  of   a 

1  Dowding,  "German  Theology  during  the  Thirty  Years'  War: 
Life  and  Correspondence  of  G.  Calixt."     2  vols.     Oxfoi'd,  1863. 


42      CHURCH   HISTORY   OF   SEVENTEENTH   CENTURY. 

{genuinely  Christian  life  ;  but  he  heartily  apjireciated  any  true  spiri- 
tual movement  in  whatsoever  church  it  aros.^.  He  went  back  from 
scholastic  doi^matics  to  H0I3'  Scripture  as  the  living  s'ource  of  saving 
kno-\\'leclge,  substituted  for  the  external  orthodox  theology  the  theology 
of  the  heart,  demanded  evidence  of  this  in  a  pious  Christian  walk  : 
these  were  the  means  by  which  he  sought  to  promote  his  reformation. 
A  whole  series  of  Lutheran  theologians  of  the  seventeenth  century 
(§  159)  had  indeed  contributed  to  this  same  end  by  their  devotional 
works,  hymns,  and  sermons.  What  Avas  new  in  Spener  was  the  con- 
viction  of  the  insnfiiciency  of  the  hitherto  used  means  and  the  undue 
prominence  given  to  doctrine,  and  his  conseq  uent_  effc>rt  vigorously 
made  to  raise  the  tone  of  the  Christian  life.  In  his  childlike,  pious 
humility  he  regarded  himself  as  by  no  means  called  to  carry  out 
this  work,  but  felt  it  his  duty  to  insist  upon  the  necessity  of  it,  and 
indicate  the  means  that  should  be  used  to  realize  it.  This  he  did  in 
his  work  of  a.d.  1G75,  '■■Pia  UesiderUi."'  As  it  was  his  aim  to  recom- 
mend biblical  practical  Christianity  to  the  heart  of  the  individual 
Christian,  he  revived  the  almost  forgotttm  doctiine  "Of  Spiritual 
Priesthood  "  in  a  separate  treatise.  In  a.d.  1670  he  began  to  have 
meetings  in  his  own  house  for  encouraging  Christian  piety  in  the 
commtmity,  which  soon  were  imitated  in  other  j^laces.  Spener's  in- 
fluence on  the  Liitheran  church  became  greater  and  Avider  through  his 
position  at  Dresden.  Stirred  up  by  li4s  spirit,  three  young  graduates 
of  Leipzig,  A.  H.  Francke,  Paul  Anton,  and  J.  K.  Schade,  formed  in 
A.D.  1686  a  private  Collerjia  PliUobiUira  for  practical  exposition  of 
Scripture  and  the  delivery  of  public  exegetical  lectures  at  the  univer- 
sity in  the  German  language.  But  the  Leipzig  theological  faculty, 
with  J.  B.  Carpzov  II.  at  its  head,  charged  them  with  despising  the 
public  ordinances  as  well  as  theological  science,  and  with  favouring 
the  views  of  separatists.  The  Collefjia  PliilobihUca  was  suppi-essed,  and 
the  three  friends  obliged  to  leave  Leipzig  in  a.i>.  161)0.  This  marked 
the  beginning  of  the  Pietist  controversies.  Soon  afterwards  Spener 
Avas  expelled  from  Dresden ;  but  in  his  new  position  at  Berlin  he  secured 
great  influence  in  the  appointments  to  the  theological  faculty  of  the 
new  iniiversity  founded  at  Halle  by  the  peace-loving  elector  Frederick 
III.  of  Brandenburg,  in  opposition  to  the  contentious  universities  of 
Wittenbei'g  and  Leipzig.  Francke,  Anton,  and  Breithaupt  Avere  made 
professors  of  theology.  Halle  now  Avon  the  position  Avhich  Wittenbei-g 
and  Geneva  had  held  during  the  Reformation  period,  and  the  Pietist 
controversy  thus  entered  upon  a,  second,  more  general,  and  more  critical 
epoch  of  its  history.' — Continuation,  §  166,  1. 

1  Wildenhahn,    "  Life  of  Spener,"  translated    by  Wenzel.    Phila- 
delphia, 1881.    Guericke,  "  Life  of  A,  H.  Francke."'    London,  1847. 


§  159.  OETHODOXY  AND  ITS  BATTLES.      43 

4.  Theological  Literature  (§  142,  6).— The  '•  PliUolofj'm  Sacra  "'  of  Sol. 
Glassius  of  Jeiia,  puLlislicd  in  a.d.  1(328,  lias  ranked  as  a  classical  Avork 
for  almost  two  centuries.  From  a.u.  1G20  till  the  end  of  the  century, 
a  lively  controversy  was  carried  on  about  the  Greek  style  of  the  New 
Testament,  in  which  Lutherans,  and  especially  the  Eeformed,  took  part. 
The  purists  maintained  that  the  New  Testament  idiom  was  pure  and 
classical,  thinking  that  its  inspiration  Avould  otherwise  be  endangered. 
The  first  historico-critical  introduction  to  the  Scriptures  Avas  the 
"  Officina  Bihiica  ''  of  Walther  in  a.d.  16£3().  Pfeiffer  of  Leipzig  gained 
distinction  in  biblical  criticism  and  hermeneuties  by  his  "  Critioa 
Sacra"  of  a.u.  1H80  and  '■•  Herjueiieiificd"'  of  a.d.  1(>S4.  Exegesis  now 
made  progress,  notwithstanding  its  depend(niceon  traditional  interpre- 
tations of  doctrinal  proof  passages  and  its  mechanical  theoi'y  of  in- 
spiration. The  most  distinguished  exegetes  were  Erasmus  Schmidt  of 
Wittenberg,  Avho  died  in  a.d.  1(j87  :  he  Avrote  a  Latin  translation  of  New 
Testament  with  admirable  notes,  and  a  very  useful  concordance  of  the 
Greek  New  Testament,  under  the  title  Tafie^ov,  which  has  been  revised 
and  improved  by  Bruder ;  Seb.  Schmidt  of  Strassburg,  Avho  wrote  com- 
mentaries on  several  Old  Testament  books  and  on  the  Pauline  epistles  5 
and  Ahr.  Calov  of  "Wittenbfn-g,  who  died  in  a.d.  1686,  in  his  74th  year, 
whose  "  Biblia  III itsf rata."  in  four  vols.,  is  a  Avork  of  amazing  research 
and  learning,  butcompos  .1  wholh'  in  the  interests  of  dogmatics. — Little 
Avas  done  in  the  depai''aaeut  'of  church  liistory.  Calixt  aAvakened  a 
new  enthusiasm  for  historical  studies,  and  Gottfried  Arnold  (§  159,  2), 
pietist,  chiliast,  and  theosophist,  bitterly  opposed  to  every  form  of 
orthodoxj',  and  finding  true  Christianity  only  in  sects,  separatists,  and 
heretics,  set  the  Avhole  theological  Avorld  astir  by  his  "  Unparteiisclie 
Kirchen-  uud  Ketzcr-historie,'^  in  a.d.  1699  (§  5,  B). 

5.  The  orthodox  school  applied  itself  most  diligently  to  dogmatics  in 
a  strictly  scholastic  form.  Hutter  of  Wittenberg,  Avho  died  in  a.d.  161(i, 
Avrote  "  Loci  communes  thcoloijici  "'  and  "  Compendium  Loc.  Theol."'  John 
Gerhard  of  Jena,  Avho  died  in  a.d.  1687,  published  in  a.d.  1610  his  "  Loc. 
Tlieolojjici "  in  nine  folio  a'oIs.,  the  standard  of  Lutheran  orthodoxy. 
J.  Andr.  Quenstedt  of  Wittenberg,  Avho  died  a.d.  1688,  exhibited  the  best 
and  Avorst  of  Lutheran  scholasticism  in  his"  Tlieol . didact ico-polemica .''' 
The  most  important  dogmatist  of  the  Calixtine  school  Avas  Conrad 
Horneius.  Calixt  himself  is  knoAvii  as  a  dogmatist  only  by  his  lectures  ; 
but  to  him  Ave  oAve  the  generally  adopted  distinction  betAveen  morals  and 
dogmatics  as  set  forth  in  his  "  Epilomc  theol.  Moralis."' — Polemics 
were  can-ied  on  vigorousl3^  Hoe  von  Hoenegg  of  Dresden  (§  154,  8,  4) 
and  Hutter  of  Wittenberg  Avere  bitter  ojjponents  of  Calvinism  and 
Bomanism.  Hutter  Avas  styled  by  his  friends  Malleus  Calcinistorum 
and  RedonatuH  Lutlierus.  The  ablest  and  most  dignified  polemic  against 
Romanism  Avas  that  of  John  Gerhard  in   his  "  Confcssio   C'atholica."' 


44      CHURCH   HISTORY   OF   SEVENTEENTH   CENTURY. 

Nich.  Hunnius,  son  of  ^Egul.  Hunnius,  and  Hntter's  successor  at  Wit- 
tenberg, from  A.D.  1623  superintendent  at  Liibeck,  distinguished  him- 
self as  an  able  controversialist  against  the  papacy  by  his  '■'■Demonstratio 
Miniiterii  Lidherani  Divini  afque  Leyitimi.''''  Against  the  Socinians  he 
Avrote  his  '■'■  Examen  Erroriim  Phothiiaiioriim,''^  and  against  the  fanatics 
a  "  Chr.  Examination  of  the  new  Paracelsist  and  Weigelian  Theology."' 
His  jJi'incijDal  work  is  his  "  AidaK€\pis  de  FiindamentaJi  Dissensu  Doc- 
trince  LutJi.  et  Calcin.'''  His  ''  Epitome  C'redendortim  "  went  through 
nineteen  editions.  The  most  incessant  controversialist  "was  Abr.  Calov, 
who  wrote  against  Syncretists,  Papists,  Socinians,  Arminians,  etc. — 
Continuation.  §  107,  4. 


§  IGO.     The  Religious  Life. 

The  attacliment  of  the  Lutheran  church  of  this  age  to  pure 
doctrine  led  to  a  one-sided  over-estimation  of  it,  often  ending 
in  dead  orthodoxy.  But  a  succession  of  able  and  learned 
theologians,  who  recognised  the  importance  of  heart  theology 
as  well  as  sound  doctrine,  corrected  this  evil  tendency  by 
Scripture  study,  preaching,  and  faithful  pastoral  work.  A 
noble  and  moderate  mysticism,  which  was  thoroughly  ortho- 
dox in  its  beliefs,  and  opposing  orthodoxy  only  where  that 
had  become  external  and  mechanical,  had  many  influential 
reiDresentatives  throughout  the  whole  country,  especially 
during  the  first  half  of  it.  But  also  separatists,  mystics,  and 
theosophists  made  their  appearance,  who  were  decidedly 
hostile  to  the  church.  Sacred  song  flourished  afresh  amid 
the  troubles  of  the  Thirty  Years'  War ;  but  gradually  lost  its 
sublime  objective  church  character,  which  was  poorly  com- 
pensated by  a  more  flowing  versification,  polished  language, 
and  elegant  form.  A  corresponding  advance  was  also  made 
in  church  music, 

1.  Mysticism  and  Asceticism. — At  the  head  of  the  orthodox  mys- 
tics stands  Jolm  Arndt,  His  •'  True  Christianity  '"  and  his  "  Paradies- 
(jiirtlein "'  are  tlie  most  ^videly  read  Lutheran  devotional  books,  but 
called  forth  the  bitter  hostility  of  those  devoted  to  the  maintenance 
of  a  barren  orthodoxy.  He  died  in  a.u.  1621,  as  general  superinten- 
dent at  Celle.    He  had  been  exi)elled  from  Anhalt  because  he  would 


§  160.   THE   RELIGIOUS   LIFE.  45 

not  condemn  exorcism  as  godless  superstition,  and  A\-as  afterwards 
in  Brunswick  publicly  charged  by  his  colleague  Denecke  and  other 
Lutheran  zealots  with  Papacj^,  Calvinism,  Osiandrianism,  Flacianism, 
SchAvenckfeldism,  Paracelsism,  Alchemism.  etc.  As  men  of  a  similar 
spirit,  anticipators  of  the  school  of  Spener,  may  be  named  John  Gerhard 
of  Jena,  with  his  '■'  MecUtationea  Sacrcc''''  and  "  Schola  jndali'^^''  and 
Christian  Scriver,  whose  "Gotthold"s  Emblems"  is  well  known  to 
English  readers.  Rahtmann  of  Danzig  maintained  that  the  word 
of  God  in  Scripture  has  not  in  itself  the  po-\\-er  to  enlighten  and 
convert  men  except  tlnrough  the  gracious  inflvience  of  God's  Spirit. 
He  was  supported,  after  a  long  delay,  in  a.d.  1626  by  the  University 
of  Rostock,  but  opposed  by  Konigsberg,  Jena,  and  Wittenberg.  In 
A.D.  1628,  the  Elector  of  Saxony  obtained  the  opinion  of  the  most  famous 
theologians  of  his  realm  against  Rahtmann ;  but  his  death,  which 
soon  followed,  brought  the  controversy  to  a  close. — The  Wilrttemberg 
theologian,  John  Valentine  Andrea,  grandson  of  one  of  the  authors  of 
the  Formula  of  Concord,  was  a  man  of  striking  originality,  famous 
for  his  satires  on  the  corruptions  of  the  age.  His  '•  Order  of  Eosi- 
crucians,"'  published  at  Cassel  in  a.d.  1614,  ridiculed  the  absurdities 
of  astrology  and  alchemy  in  the  form  of  a  satirical  romance.  His 
influence  on  the  church  of  his  times  was  great  and  wholesome,  so  that 
even  Spener  exclaimed :  "  Had  I  the  power  to  call  any  one  fr-oni  the 
dead  for  the  good  of  the  church,  it  -would  be  J.  V.  Andrea."  His 
later  devotional  work  was  almost  completely  forgotten  until  attention 
Avas  called  to  it  by  Herder,  i 

2.  Mysticism  and  Theosophy.—  A  mystico  -  theosophical  tendency, 
partly  in  outward  connexion  with  the  chvirch,  partly  without  and 
in  open  opposition  to  it,  Avas  fostered  by  the  alchemist  Avritings  of 
Agrippa  and  Paracelsus,  the  theosophical  Avorks  of  Weigel  (§  146,  2) 
and  by  the  profound  revelations  of  the  inspired  shoemaker  of  Gor- 
litz,  Jacob  Boehme,  phiiosoph us  teitfonicus,  the  most  talented  of  all  the 
theosophists.  In  a  remarkable  degree  he  combined  a  genius  for 
speculation  Avith  the  most  unfeigned  piety  that  held  firmly  by  the  old 
Lutheran  faith.  Even  Avhen  an  itinerant  tradesman,  he  felt  himself 
for  a  period  of  seven  days  in  calm  repose,  surrounded  by  the  divine 
light.  But  he  dates  his  profound  theosophical  enlightenment  from 
a  moment  in  a.d.  1-594,  Avlien  as  a  young  journeyman  and  married, 
throAvn  into  an  ecstasy,  he  obtained  a  knoAvledge  of  the  divine  niA's- 
teries  doAvn  to  the  ultimate  principles  of  all  things  and  their  inmost 
quality.  His  theosophj',  too,  like  that  of  the  ancient  gnostics,  springs 
out  of  the  question  about  the  origin  of  evil.     He  solves  it  by  assuming 

1  Jennings,  '•  The  Eosicrucians  :  their  Rites  and  Mysteries."  Lon- 
don, 1887. 


46      CHURCH   HiSTOilY   OF   SEVENTEEKTH   CENTUHY. 

an  emanation  of  all  things  from  God,  in  ■vvliom  fire  and  light,  bitter 
and  sweet  qualities,  are  thoroughly  tempered  and  perfectly  combined, 
"while  in  the  creature  derived  by  emanation  from  hira  they  are  in 
disharmony',  but  are  reconciled  and  i-educed  to  godlike  harmony 
through  regeneration  in  Christ.  Though  opposed  by  Calov,  he  was 
befriended  by  the  Dresden  consistorj'.  Boehme  died  in  a.d.  1624,  in 
retirement  at  Gorlitz,  in  the  arms  of  his  family.' — In  close  connexion 
with  Boelnnists,  separatists,  and  Pietists,  yet  differing  from  them  all, 
Gottfried  Arnold  abused  orthodoxy  and  canonized  the  heretics  of  all 
ages.  In  a.d.  1700  he  wrote  "  The  Mystery  of  the  Divine  Sophia." 
When  Adam,  originally  man  and  woman,  fell,  his  female  nature,  the 
heavenly  Sophia,  was  taken  from  him,  and  in  his  place  a  woman  of 
flesh  Avas  made  for  him  out  of  a  rib  •,  in  order  again  to  restore  the 
paradisiacal  perfection  Christ  brought  again  the  male  ]Dart  into  a 
virgin's  womb,  so  that  the  new  creature,  the  regenerate,  stands  before 
God  as  a  "  male-virgin  " ;  but  carnal  love  destroys  again  the  con- 
nexion thus  secured  with  the  heavenly  Sophia.  But  the  very  next 
3-ear  he  reached  a  turning-point  in  his  life.  He  not  only  married,  but 
in  consequence  accepted  several  appointments  in  the  Lutheran  church, 
without,  however,  signing  the  Forni\ila  of  Concord,  and  applied  his 
literar3'  skill  to  the  ]jr(  id  action  of  devotional  tracts. 

8.  Sacred  Song  (§142,  3). — The  first  epoch  of  the  development  of 
sacred  song  in  this  century  corresponds  to  the  period  of  the  Thirty 
Years'  War,  a.u.  1618-1648.  The  Psalms  of  David  were  the  model 
and  pattern  of  the  sacred  poets,  and  the  profoundest  songs  of  the  cross 
and  consolation  bear  the  evident  impress  of  the  times,  and  so  individual 
feeling  comes  more  into  prominence.  The  influence  of  Opitz  was  also 
felt  in  the  church  song,  in  the  greater  attention  given  to  correctness 
and  purity  of  language  and  to  the  careful  construction  of  verse  and 
rhyme.  Instead  of  the  rugged  terseness  and  vigour  of  earlier  days, 
we  now  find  often  diftuse  and  overflowing  titterances  of  the  heart. 
John  Hermann  of  Glogau,  who  died  in  a.d.  1647,  composed  400  songs, 
embracing  these :  "  Alas  !  dear  Lord,  what  evil  hast  Thou  done '? ' 
"  O  Christ,  oiu-  true  and  only  Light " ;  "  Ere  yet  the  dawn  hath 
filled  the  skies";  "O  God,  thou  faithful  God,"  Paul  Flemming, 
a  physician  in  Holstein,  Avho  died  in  a.d.  1640,  Avrote  on  his 
join-ney  to  Persia,  "  Where'er  I  go,  whate'er  my  task."  Matthew 
Meyffart,  professor  and  pastor  at  Erfurt,  who  died  in  a.d.  1642, 
Avrote  "  Jerusalem,  thou  city  fair  and  high."  Martin  Einkart,  jjastor 
at  Eilenburg  in  Saxony,  who  died  a.d.  1648,  wi-ote,  "  Now  thank 
Ave  all  our  God."  Appelles  von  Lowenstern,  avIio  died  a,d.  1648,  com- 
posed, "  When   anguished    and   perplexed,   with   many  a  sigh   and 

1  Martensen,  "  Life  and  Works  of  Jacob  Boehme,"    London,  1886. 


§  160.    THE    EELIGIOUS    LIFE.  47 

tear."'  Joshua  Stegmann,  suppviutMident  iu  Eintfln,  svIk)  died  a.d. 
1G32,  AvrotP,  "Abide  among  us  Avitli  thy  grace."'  Joshua  Wegelin, 
pastor  in  Augsburg  and  Pressburg,  Avrote,  "  Since  Christ  is  gone  to 
heaven,  his  home."'  Justus  Gesenius,  su]jerintendent  iu  Hanover,  who 
di"d  in  a.d.  1B7B,  Avrote,  '•  When  sorrow  and  remorse."'  Tob.  Glaus- 
nitzer,  pastor  in  tlie  Pahitinate,  who  died  a.d.  1648,  wrote,  "  Blessed 
Jesus,  at  tliy  word."  The  poets  named  mostly  belong  to  the  first 
.Silesian  school  gathered  round  Opitz.  A  more  independent  position, 
though  not  uninfluenced  by  Opitz,  is  taken  up  by  John  Rist,  who  died 
iu  A.D.  1667.  He  composed  658  sacred  songs,  of  which  many  are  re- 
markable for  their  vigoiu",  solemnity,  and  elevation  ;  e.g.  "  Arise,  the 
kingdom  is  at  hand  "  ;  "  Sink  not  yet,  my  soul,  to  slumber  "  ;  "  O  living 
Bread  from  heaven  "  ;  "  Praise  and  thanks  to  Thee  be  sung."'  At  the 
head  of  the  Konigsbi>rg  school  of  the  same  age  stood  Simon  Dach,  pro- 
fessor of  poetry  at  Konigsberg,  who  died  in  a.d.  165J).  He  composed 
150  spiritual  songs,  among  which  the  best  known  are,  "  O  how  blessed, 
faithful  souls,  are  ye!  "  "Wouldest  thou  inherit  life  with  Christ  on 
high  ?  "  The  most  distinguished  members  of  this  school  are :  Henry 
Alberti,  organist  at  Konigsberg,  author  of  "  God  Avho  madest  earth  and 
heaven  "  ;  and  George  Weissel,  pastor  in  Konigsberg,  who  died  in  a.d. 
1655,  aiithor  of  "  Lift  up  3'our  heads,  ye  mighty  gates." 

4.  From  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth  century  sacred  song  became 
moi'e  subjective,  and  so  tended  to  fall  into  a  diversity  of  groiips.  No 
longer  does  the  church  sing  thi-ough  its  poets,  but  the  poets  give  direct 
expression  to  their  individual  feelings.  Confessional  songs  are  less 
frequent,  and  their  place  is  taken  by  hymns  of  edification  with  refe- 
rence to  various  conditions  of  life  ;  songs  of  death,  the  cross  and  con- 
solation, and  hymns  for  the  family  become  more  numerous.  "With 
objectivity  special  features  of  the  church  song  disa^Dpear  in  the  hymns 
of  the  period ;  but  some  of  its  essential  characteristics  remain, 
especially  the  poj^ular  foran  and  contents,  the  freshness,  liveliness,  and 
simplicity  of  diction,  the  truths  of  personal  experience,  the  fulness 
of  faith,  etc.  We  distinguish  three  groups  :  (1)  The  Transition  Group, 
passing  from  objectivity  to  sul)jectivity.  Its  greatest  masters,  indeed 
after  Luther  the  greatest  saci'ed  poet  of  the  evangelical  church,  is 
luidoubtedly  Paul  Gerhardt,  Avho  died  a.d.  1676,  the  faith  witness  of 
the  Lutheran  faith  under  the  wars  and  in  persecution  (§  154,  4).  In 
him  we  find  the  new  subjective  tendency  in  its  noblest  form  ;  but  there 
is  also  present  the  old  objective  style,  giving  immediate  expression  to 
the  consciousness  of  the  church,  adhering  tenaciously  to  the  confession, 
and  a  grand  popular  ring  that  reminds  us  of  the  fulness  and  power 
of  Luther.  His  131  songs,  if  not  all  church  spngs  in  the  narrower 
sense,  are  almost  all  genuine  poems :  e.r/.  "  All  my  heart  this  night 
rejoices  "  -,  "  Cometh  sunshine  after  rain  "  ;  "  Go  forth,  my  heart,  and 


48      CHUECH   HISTOEY   OF   SEVENTEENTH   CENTURY. 

seek  delight'*;  "Be  thou  content:  be  still  before";  "O  world, 
behold  upon  the  tree  "  ;  "  Now  all  the  woods  are  sleeping  "  ;  and  "  Ah, 
wounded  head,  must  thou?  "  based  on  Bernard's  Salve,  caput  cruentatum. 
To  this  school  also  belongs  George  Neumark,  librarian  at  Weimar,  who 
died  in  a.d.  1681,  author  of  "  Leave  God  to  order  all  thy  ways."  Also 
John  Franck,  burgomaster  at  Gr;ben  in  Lusatia,  who  died  a.d.  1677, 
next  to  Gerhardt  the  greatest  poet  of  his  age.  His  110  songs  are 
less  popular  and  hearty,  but  more  melodious  than  Gerhardt's ;  e.g. 
"  Redeemer  of  the  nations,  come  "  ;  "  Y'e  heavens,  oh  haste  your  dews 
to  shed  "  ;  "  Deck  thj'self,  my  soul,  with  gladness."  George  Albinus, 
pastor  at  Naumburg,  died  a.d.  1679,  wrote :  "  Not  in  anger  smite  us, 
Lord  "  ;  "  World,  farewell !  Of  thee  I'm  tired."— (2)  The  next  stage  of 
the  sacred  song  took  the  Canticles  instead  of  the  Psalter  as  its  model. 
The  spiritual  marriage  of  the  soul  is  its  main  theme.  Feeling  and 
fancy  are  predominant,  and  often  degenerate  into  sentimentality  and 
trifling.  It  obtained  a  new  impulse  from  the  addition  of  a  mystical 
element.  Angelus  Silesius  (§  156,  4)  was  the  most  distinguished  repre- 
sentative of  this  school,  and  while  Protestant  he  composed  several 
beautiful  songs ;  e.y.  "O  Love,  who  formedst  me  to  wear";  "Thou 
holiest  Love,  Avhom  most  I  love  "  ;  "  Loving  Shepherd,  kind  and  true." 
Christian  Knorr  v.  Rosenroth,  who  died  at  Sulzbach  a.d.  1689,  wrote 
'•  Daj'spring  of  eternity."  Ludamilie  Elizabeth,  Countess  of  ScliAvarz- 
burg-Rudolstadt,  who  died  in  a.d.  1672,  wrote  215  "  Songs  of  Jesus." 
Caspar  Neumann,  professor  and  pastor  at  Breslau,  died  a.d.  1715, 
wrote,  "Lord,  on  earth  I  dwell  in  pain." — (3)  Those  of  Spener's  Time 
and  Spirit,  men  who  longed  for  the  regeneration  of  the  church  by 
practical  Christianity.  Their  hjonns  are  for  the  most  part  character- 
ized by  healthj-  piety  and  deep  godliness.  Spener's  own  poems  are  of 
slight  importance.  J.  Jac.  Schiitz,  Spener's  friend,  a  lawyer  in  Frank- 
fort, who  died  a.d.  1690,  composed  only  one,  but  that  a  very  beautiful 
li3ann :  "  All  praise  and  thanks  to  God  most  high."  Samuel  Rodigast, 
rector  in  Berlin,  died  a.d.  1708,  wrote,  "  Whate'er  my  God  ordains  is 
right."  Laurentius  Laurentii,  musical  director  at  Bremen,  died  a.d. 
1722,  wrote,  "  Is  my  heart  athirst  to  know  ? "  "  O  thou  essential 
Word."— Gottfried  Arnold,  died  a.d.  1714,  wrote,  "  Thou  who  breakest 
every  chain";  "How  blest  to  all  thy  followers,  Lord,  the  road!" — 
In  Denmark,  where  previously  translations  of  German  hymns  Avere 
vised,  Thomas  Kingo,  from  a.d.  1677  Bishop  of  Ftinen,  died  a.d.  1708,  was 
the  much-honoured  founder  of  Danish  national  h3'mnology.i — Con- 
tinuation, §  166,  6. 

1  All  the  translations  of  hymns  referred  to  in  this  and  the  pre- 
ceding section  are  from  Miss  Winkworth's  "  Lijra  (jennanica."  Lon- 
don, 1885. 


§  160.    THE   EELIGIOUS   LIFE.  49 

5.  Sacred  Music  (§  142,  5). — The  church  music  in  the  beginning  of  the 
seventeenth  century  was  affected  by  the  Italian  school,  just  as  church 
song  was  by  the  influence  of  Opitz.  The  greatest  master  during  the 
transition  stage  was  John  Criiger,  precentor  in  the  church  of  St.  Nicho- 
las in  Berlin,  died  a.d.  I(i62.  He  Avas  to  the  chorale  what  Gerhardt 
was  to  the  church  song.  We  have  seventy-one  new  melodies  of  his, 
admirably  adaj^ted  to  Gerhardt's,  Hunnius's,  Franck's,  Dach's,  and 
Rinkart's  songs,  and  used  in  the  church  till  the  present  time.  With  the 
second  half  of  the  century  we  enter  on  a  new  period,  in  which  expression 
and  musical  declamation  perish.  Choir  singing  now,  to  a  great  ex- 
tent, supersedes  congregational  singing.  Henry  Schlitz,  organist  to  the 
Elector  of  Saxony,  died  a.d.  1672,  is  the  great  master  of  this  Italian 
sacred  concert  st3de.  He  introduced  musical  compositions  on  pas- 
sages selected  from  the  Psalms,  Canticles,  and  prophets,  in  his  "  Sijm- 
plionice  Same'''  of  a.d.  1629.  After  a  short  time  a  radical  reform  was 
made  by  John  RosenmuUer,  organist  of  Wolfenbiittel,  died  a.d.  1686. 
A  reaction  against  the  exclusive  adoption  of  the  Italian  stj'le  was 
made  by  Andr.  Hammerschmidt,  organist  at  Zittau,  died  a.d.  1675, 
one  of  the  noblest  and  most  pious  of  German  musicians.  By  working 
up  the  old  church  melodies  in  the  modern  style,  he  brought  the  old 
hymns  again  into  favour,  and  set  h;yanns  of  contemporary^  poets  to 
bright  airs  suited  to  modern  standards  of  taste.  The  acconnDlished 
musician  Rud.  Ahle,  organist  and  burgomaster  at  Miihlhausen,  died 
a.d.  1673,  introduced  his  own  beautiful  airs  into  the  church  music  for 
Sundays  and  festivals.  His  sacred  airs  are  distinguished  for  youth- 
ful freshness  and  power,  penetrated  by  a  holy  earnestness,  and  quite 
free  from  that  secularity  and  frivolousness  which  soon  became  un- 
pleasantly conspicuous  in  such  music. — Continuation,  §  167,  7.  , 

6.  The  Christian  Life  of  the  People — The  rich  development  of  sacred 
poetry  proves  the  wonderful  fulness  and  spirituality  of  the  religious  life 
uf  this  age,  notwithstanding  the  manj^  chilling  separatistic  controversies 
that  prevailed  during  the  terrible  upheaval  of  the  Thirty  Years'  War. 
The  abundance  of  devotional  literature  of  i^ermanent  worth  witnesses 
to  the  diligence  and  piety  of  the  Lutheran  pastors.  Ernest  the  Pious 
of  Saxe-Gotha,  who  died  a.d.  1675,  stands  forth  as  the  ideal  of  a 
Christian  prince.  For  the  Christian  instruction  of  his  people  he  issued, 
in  the  midst  of  the  confusion  and  horrors  of  the  war,  the  famous  Wei- 
mar or  Ernestine  exposition  of  the  Bible,  upon  which  John  Gerhard 
wrought  diligently,  along  Avith  other  distinguished  Jena  theologians. 
It  appeared  fii-st  in  a.d.  1641,  and  by  a.d.  1768  had  gone  through 
fourteen  large  editions.  A  like  service  was  done  for  South  Germany 
by  the  "  Wiirttemberg  Summaries,"  composed  by  three  Wiirttemberg 
theologians  at  the  request  of  Duke  Eberhard  III.,  a  concise,  practical 
exposition  of  all  the  books  of  Scripture,  Avhich  for  a  century  and  a 

VOL.  III.  4 


50      CHURCH   HISTORY   OF   SEVENTEENTH   CENTURY. 

half  formed  the  basis  of  the  weekly  services  {Bihehtumlen)  at  Wiirt- 
temberg. — Continuation,  §  167,  8. 

7.  Missions. — In  the  Lutheran  church,  missionary  enterprise  had 
rather  fallen  behind  (§  142, 8).  Gustavus  Adolphus  of  Sweden  carried 
on  the  Lapp  mission  with  new  zeal,  and  Denmark,  too,  gave  ready 
assistance.  A  Norwegian  pastor,  Thomas  Wt'sten,  deserves  special 
mention  as  the  apostle  of  the  mission.  A  Gei'iuan,  Peter  Heyling  of 
Liibeck,  "\\-ent  on  his  own  account  as  a  missionary  to  Abj'ssinia  in  a.d. 
16B5,  while  several  of  his  friends  at  the  same  time  went  to  other  eastern 
lands.  Of  these  others  no  trace  whatever  has  been  found.  An 
Abyssinian  abbot  who  came  to  Europe  brought  news  of  Heyling.  At 
first  he  was  hindered  by  the  machinations  of  the  Jesuits  ;  but  when 
these  were  expelled,  he  found  favour  at  court,  became  minister  to  the 
king,  and  married  one  of  the  royal  family.  What  finally  came  of  him 
and  his  work  is  unknown.  Toward  the  end  of  the  century  two  great 
men,  the  philosopher  Leibnitz  and  the  founder  of  the  Halle  Orphanage, 
A.  H.  Francke,  warmly  espoused  the  causa  of  foreign  missions.  The 
ambitious  and  pretentious  schemes  of  the  philosopher  ended  in  nothing, 
but  Francke  made  his  orphanages,  training  colleges  and  centres  from 
which  the  German  Lutheran  missions  to  the  heathens  were  vigo- 
rously organized  and  successfully  wrought. — Continuation,  §  167,  9. 


IV.— The  Reformed  Church. 

§  IGl.  Theology  and  its  Battles. 
The  Reformed  scholars  of  France  vied  with  those  of  St. 
Maur  and  the  Oratory,  and  the  Reformed  theologians  of  the 
Netherlands,  England,  and  Switzerland  were  not  a  whit 
behind.  But  an  attempt  made  at  a  general  synod  at  Dort 
to  unite  all  the  Reformed  national  churches  under  one 
confession  failed.  Opposition  to  Calvin's  extreme  theory  of 
predestination  introduced  a  Pelagianizing  current  into  the 
Reformed  church,  which  was  by  no  means  confined  to  pro- 
fessed Ai'miuians.  In  the  Anglican  church  this  tendency 
appeared  in  the  forms  of  latitudinarianism  and  deism 
(§  164,  3) ;  while  in  France  it  took  a  more  moderate  course, 
and  approximated  rather  to  the  Lutheran  doctrine.  It  was 
a  reaction  of  latent  Zwinglianism  against  the  dominant  Cal- 
vinism.    The  Voctian  school  successfully  opposed  the  intra- 


§  161.    THEOLOGY   AND   ITS   BATTLES.  51 

rlu;tion  of  the  Cartesian  philosopliy,  and  secured  supremacy 
to  a  scholasticism  which  hekl  its  own  alongside  of  that  of 
the  Lutherans.  Iii  opposition  to  it,  the  Cocceian  federal 
school  undertook  to  produce  a  purely  biblical  system  of 
theology  in  all  its  departments. 

1.  Preliminaries  of  the  Arminian  Controversy. — In  the  Confessio  Bel- 
ij'ira  of  A.D.  15G2  the  Protestant  Netherlands  had  already  a  strictly 
Calvinistic  symbol,  but  Calvinisin  had  not  thoroughly  j^ermeated 
the  church  doctrine  and  constitution.  There  were  more  opponents 
than  supporters  of  the  doctrine  of  jDredestination,  and  a  Melanch- 
thonian-synergistic  (§  141,  7),  or  even  an  Erasmian-semipelagian, 
(§  125,  8)  doctrine,  of  the  freedom  of  the  -will  and  the  efficacy  of  grace, 
was  more  frequently  taught  and  preached  than  the  Augustinian- 
Calvinistic  doctrine.  So  also  Zwingli's  view  of  the  relation  of  church 
and  state  Avas  in  much  greater  favour  than  the  Calvinistic  Presbj'- 
terial  chui'ch  governmimt  with  its  terrorist  discipline.  But  the  return 
of  the  exiles  in  a.d.  1572,  who  had  adopted  strict  Calvinistic  vicAvs  in 
East  Friesland  and  on  the  Lower  German  Rhine,  led  to  the  adoption 
of  a  purely  Calvinistic  creed  and  constitution.  The  keenest  opponent 
of  this  movement  was  Coornhert,  notary  and  secretary  for  the  city  of 
Haailem,  who  combated  Calvinism  in  numerous  writings,  and  depre- 
ciated doctrine  generally  in  the  interests  of  practical  living  Chris- 
tianity. Political  as  well  as  religious  sympathies  Avere  enlisted  in 
favour  of  this  freer  ecclesiastical  tendencj-.  The  Dutch  War  of  Inde- 
pendence Avas  a  struggle  for  religious  freedom  against  Spanish  Catholic 
fanaticism.  The  j'oung  republic  therefore  became  the  first  home  of 
religious  toleration,  Avhich  Avas  scarcely  reconcilable  Avith  a  strict  and 
exclusive  Calvinism. — MeanAvhile  Avithin  the  Cah'inistic  church  a 
controversy  arose,  Avhich  divided  its  adherents  in  the  Netherlands 
into  two  parties.  In  ojDposition  to  the  strict  Calvinists,  Avho  as  supra- 
lupsarians  held  that  the  fall  itself  Avas  included  in  the  eternal 
coinis.i'ls  of  God,  there  arose  tlie  milder  infralapsarians,  A\'ho  made  pre- 
destination come  in  after  the  fall,  Avhich  Avas  not  predestinated  but 
only  foreseen  In'  Ctod. 

2.  The  Arminian  Controversy.— In  a.d.  1588,  James  Arminius  (born 
A.u.  1560),  a  pupil  of  Beza,  but  a  declared  adherent  of  the  Ramist 
philosophy  (§  143,  (3),  Avas  appointed  pastor  in  Amsterdam,  and 
ordered  by  the  magistrates  to  controvert  Coornhert's  universalism 
and  the  infralapsarianism  of  the  ministers  of  Delft.  He  therefore 
studied  Coornherfs  Avritings,  and  by  them  Avas  shaken  in  his  earlier 
beliefs.  This  Avas  shoAvn  first  in  certain  sei'mons  on  passages  from 
Romans,  Avhich  made  him  suspected  of  Pelagianism.     In  a.d.  1603  he 


52      CHURCH   HISTORY   OF   SEVENTEENTH   CENTURY. 

was  made  theological  professor  of  Lej-den,  A\'here  lie  found  a  bitter 
opponent  in  his  supi'alapsarian  coUeagite,  Fi-ancis  Gomarus.  From 
the  class-rooms  the  controversy  spread  to  the  pulpits,  and  even  into 
domestic  circles.  A  public  disputation  in  a.d.  1608,  led  to  no  pacific 
result,  and  Anninius  continued  involved  in  controversies  till  his  death 
in  A.D.  1609.  Although  decidedly  inclined  toward  tmiversalism,  he 
had  directed  his  polemic  mainly  against  supralai^sarianism,  as  making 
God  himself  the  author  of  sin.  But  his  followers  went  beyond  these 
limits.  "When  denounced  by  the  Gomarists  as  Pelagians,  they  ad- 
dressed to  the  provincial  parliament  of  Holland  and  West  Friesland, 
in  A.D.  1610,  a  remonstrance,  Avhich  in  five  articles  repudiates  supra- 
lapsarianism  and  infralapsariansm,  and  the  doctrines  of  the  iri'esis- 
tibility  of  grace,  and  of  the  impossibility  of  the  elect  finally  falling 
away  from  it,  and  boldly  asserts  the  universality  of  grace.  They 
were  hence  called  Hemonstrants  and  their  opponents  Contrai-emon- 
strants.  Parliament,  favourably  inclined  toward  the  Arminians,  pro- 
i.ounced  the  difference  non-fundamental,  and  enjoined  peace.  When 
Vorstius,  who  was  practically  a  Socinian,  was  apjoointed  successor  to 
Arminius,  Gomarus  charged  the  Hemonstrants  with  Socinianism. 
Their  ablest  theological  representative  was  Simon  Episcopins,  who 
succeeded  Gomarus  at  Leyden  in  a.d.  1612,  supported  by  the  distin- 
guished statesman,  Oldenbarneveldt,  and  the  great  jurist,  humanist, 
and  theologian,  Hugo  Grotius  of  Eotterdam.  Maurice  of  Orange, 
too,  for  a  long  time  sided  with  them,  but  in  a.d.  1617  formally  Avent 
over  to  the  other  party,  whose  well-knit  unity,  strict  discipline,  and 
rigorous  energy  commended  them  to  him  as  the  fittest  associates  in 
his  struggle  for  absolute  monarchy.  The  reioublican-Arminian  party 
was  conquered,  Oldenbarneveldt  being  executed  in  1619,  Grotius 
escaping  by  his  wife's  strategem.  The  Synod  of  Dort  was  convened 
for  the  purpose  of  settling  doctrinal  disputes.  It  held  154  sessions, 
from  Nov.  13th,  1618,  to  May  9th,  1619.  Invitations  were  accepted 
by  twenty-eight  theologians  from  England,  Scotland,  Germany,  and 
Switzerland.  Brandenburg  took  no  part  in  it  (§  154,  3),  and  French 
theologians  were  refused  piermission  to  go.  Episcopius  presented  a 
clear  and  comprehensive  apology  for  the  Remonstrants,  and  bravely 
defended  their  cause  before  the  sjniod.  Refusing  to  submit  to  the 
decisions  of  the  sjmod,  they  were  at  the  fifty-seventh  sessioir  expelled, 
and  then  excommunicated  and  deprived  of  all  ecclesiastical  oifices. 
The  Heidelberg  Catechism  and  the  Belgic  Confession  were  vniani- 
mously  adopted  as  the  creed  and  manual  of  orthodox  teaching.  In 
the  discussion  of  the  five  controverted  points,  the  opposition  of  the 
Anglican  and  German  delegates  prevented  any  open  and  manifest 
insei'tion  of  supralapsarian  theses,  so  that  the  synodal  canons  set 
forth  only  an  essentially  infralapsarian  theory  of   predestination. — 


§  161.    THEOLOGY   AND   ITS    BATTLES.  53 

Eeiaonsti'aiit  teachers  were  now  expelled  from  most  of  the  states  of 
the  union.  Onh^  after  Man]-ice's  death  in  a.d.  1()'2.5  did  they  ventux-e 
to  retnni,  and  in  a.d.  1630  they  were  allowed  by  statute  to  erect 
churches  and  schools  in.  all  the  states.  A  theological  seminary  at 
Amsterdam,  presided  over  by  Episcopius  till  his  death,  in  a.d.  1643, 
ros?  to  be  a  famous  seat  of  learning  and  nursery  of  liberal  studies. 
The  number  of  congregations,  however,  remained  small,  and  their 
importance  in  church  historj^  consists  rather  in  the  development  of 
an  independent  chvirch  life  than  in  tlie  revival  of  a  semipelagian  and 
rationalistic  type  of  doctrine^ 

3.  Consequences  of  the  Arminian  Controversy. — The  Dort  decrees  were 
not  accepted  in  Brandenburg,  Hesse,  and  Bremen,  where  a  nrode- 
rate  Calvinism  continued  to  prevail.  In  England  and  Scotland  the 
Presbyterians  enthusiastically  approved  of  the  decrees,  whereas  the 
Episcopalians  repudiated  them,  and,  rushing  to  the  other  extreme  of 
latitudinarianism,  often  showed  lukewarm  indifferentism  in  the  Avay 
in  which  tliey  distinguished  articles  of  faith  as  essential  and  non- 
essential. The  -worthiest  of  the  latitudinarians  of  this  age  was 
Chillingworth,  who  sought  an  escape  from  the  contentions  of  theo- 
logians in  the  Catholic  church,  but  soon  returned  to  Protestantism, 
seeking  and  finding  peace  in  God's  word  alone.  Archbishoji  Tillot- 
son  was  a  famous  pulpit  orator,  and  Gilbert  Burnet,  who  died  a.d. 
1715,  was  aiithor  of  a  •'  History  of  the  English  Reformation."'  In  the 
French  Reformed  church,  where  generally  strict  Calvinism  prevailed, 
Amyrault  of  Saumur,  who  died  a.d.  1664,  taught  a  nniversalismus 
lii/potheticits,  according  to  which  God  by  a  decretum  niiivenale  et  liypo- 
theticum  destined  all  men  to  salvation  through  Jesus  Christ,  even  the 
heathen,  on  the  ground  of  a  Jides  implicita.  The  only  conditioir  is 
that  they  believe,  and  for  this  all  the  means  are  afforded  in  (jratia 
renistihilis^  while  by  a  decretum  ahsolufum  el  ispeciale  only  to  elect 
liersons  is  granted  the  (jratia  irresiiitih'dh.  The  synods  of  Alen^on, 
A.D.  1637,  and  Charenton,  a.d.  1644,  supported  by  Blondel,  Daille,  and 
Claude,  declared  these  doctrines  allowable  ;  but  Du  Movilin  of  Sedan, 
Rivetus  and  Spanheim  of  Leyden,  Maresius  of  Groningen,  and  others, 
offered    violent  opposition.     Amj^ault's  colleague,   De   la  Place,   or 

'  The  '•  AVorks  of  Arminius,"'  transl.  by  NichoUs,  to  which  are  added 
Brandt's  '•  Life  of  Arminius,"'  etc.  3  vols.  London,  1825.  Scott, 
"  Translation  of  Articles  of  S^niod  of  Dort."'  London,  1818.  Hales, 
"  Letters  from  the  Synod  of  Dort."  Glasgow,  1765.  Calder,  "  Life  of 
Simon  Episcopius."  New  York,  1837.  Cunningham,  "  Reformation 
and  Theology  of  Reformati(m "  :  Essay  VIIL,  "Calvinism  and  Ar- 
minianism,"  pp.  412-470.  Motley,  '-John  of  Barneveldt."'  2  vols. 
London,  1874. 


54      CHURCH   HISTORY   OF    SEVENTEENTH   CENTURY. 

Placa'us,  who  died  a.d.  1655,  went  still  further,  repudiating  the  un- 
conditional imputation  of  Adam's  sin,  and  representing  original  sin 
simply  as  an  evil  which  becomes  guilt  only  as  our  own  actual  trans- 
gression. The  synods  just  named  condemned  this  doctrine.  Some- 
what later  Claude  Pajon  of  Saiunur,  who  died  a.d.  1685,  roused  a 
bitter  discussion  about  the  universality  of  grace,  by  maintaining 
that  in  conversion  divine  providence  wrought  only  through  the 
circumstances  of  the  life,  and  the  Holy  Spirit  through  the  word  of 
God.  Several  French  synods  condemned  this  doctrine,  and  affirmed 
an  immediate  as  well  as  a  mediate  operation  of  the  Spirit  and  pro- 
vidence.— Genuine  Calvinism  v/as  best  represented  in  Switzerland,  as 
finally  expressed  in  the  Formula  Consensus  Helvetica  of  Heidegger  of 
Zurich,  adojjted  in  a.d.  1675  by  most  of  the  cantons.  It  was,  like  the 
Formula  Concordia',  a  manual  of  doctrine  rather  than  a  confession. 
In  opposition  to  Amyrault  and  De  la  Place,  it  set  forth  a  strict  theory 
of  predestination  and  original  sin,  and  maintained  with  the  Buxtorfs, 
against  Cappellus  of  Saumur,  the  inspiration  of  the  Hebrew  vowel 
jjoints. 

4.  The  Cocceian  and  Cartesian  Controversies. — If  not  the  founder, 
certainly  the  most  distinguished  representative  in  the  Netherlands  of 
that  scholasticism  which  sought  to  expound  and  defend  orthodoxy, 
was  Voetius,  who  died  a.d.  1676,  from  a.d.  1607  pastor  in  various 
plac(?s,  and  from  a.d.  1634  professor  at  Utrecht.  A  completely  diffe- 
rent course  was  pursued  by  Cocceius  of  Bremen,  who  died  a.d.  1669, 
professor  at  Franeker  in  a.d.  1636,  and  at  Leyden  in  a.d.  1650.  The 
famous  Zurich  theologian,  Bullinger  (§  138,  7),  had  in  his  "  C'ompend. 
liel.  C'Ar."  of  a.d.  1556,  viewed  the  whole  doctrine  of  saving  truth  fi'om 
the  point  of  view  of  a  covenant  of  grace  between  God  and  man ;  and 
this  idea  was  afterwards  carried  out  by  Olevianus  of  Heidelberg 
(§  144,  1)  in  his  "  De  Siihstantia  Fa'dcris,'''  of  a.d.  1.585.  This  became 
the  favourite  method  of  distribution  of  doctrine  in  the  whole  German 
Reformed  chxirch.  In  the  Dutch  church  it  was  regarded  as  quite 
unobjectionable.  In  England  it  was  adopted  in  the  Westminster 
Confession  of  a.d.  1648  (§  155,  1),  and  in  Switzerland  in  a.d.  1675,  in 
the  Formula  Cotise7ifins.  Cocceius  is  therefore  not  the  founder  of  the 
federal  theology.  He  simply  gave  it  a  new  and  independent  develop- 
ment, and  freed  it  from  the  trammels  of  scholastic  dogmatics.  He 
distinguished  a  twofold  covenant  of  God  with  man  :  thefwduf  opcrum 
».  «fp//nYe  before,  and  the  fa' d us  rji-nt ice  after  the  fall.  He  then  sub- 
divided the  covenant  of  grace  into  three  economies :  before  the  law 
until  Mos?s ;  under  the  laAv  nntU  Christ ;  and  after  the  law  in  the 
Christian  chui'ch.  The  history  of  the  kingdom  of  God  in  the 
Christian  era  was  arranged  in  seven  periods,  cori'esponding  to  the 
seven  aiiocalyptic  epistles,  trumpets,  and  seals.     In  his  treatment  of 


§  IGl.    THEOLOGY   AND    ITS    BATTLES.  55 

his  theme,  he  repudiateil  philosopliy,  scholasticism,  and  tradition,  antl 
held  simply  by  Hcriptiire.  He  is  thus  the  founder  of  a  purely  biblical 
theolog}'.  He  attached  himself  as  clossly  as  possible  to  the  prevailing 
]n-edestinationist  orthodoxy,  but  only  externally.  In  his  view  the 
sacred  history  in  its  various  epochs  adjusted  itself  to  the  needs  of 
human  personality,  and  to  the  growing  capacity  for  appropriating  it. 
Hence  it  was  not  the  idea  of  election,  but  that  of  gi'ace,  that  prevailed 
in  his  system.  Christ  is  the  centre  of  all  historj^,  spiritual,  ecclesias- 
tical, and  civil ;  and  so  everything  in  Scripture,  history,  doctrine,  and 
jjrophecy,  necessarily  and  immediately  stands  related  to  him.  The 
O.T.  prophecies  and  types  point  to  the  Christ  that  was  to  come  in  the 
flesh,  and  all  history  after  Christ  points  to  his  second  coming ;  and 
0.  and  N.T.  give  an  outline  of  ecclesiastical  and  civil  history  down 
to  the  end  of  time.  Thus  tjqjology  formed  tlw?  basis  of  the  Cocceian 
theology.  In  exegesis,  however,  Cocceius  avoided  all  arbitrary  alle- 
gorizing. It  was  Avith  him  an  axiom  in  hermeneiitics.  Id  siynifican 
verba,  quod  significare ixtsfsunt  in  intc(jra  oi'ationc,  sic  vt  oiiniiiio  inter  ne 
conveniaiit.  Yet  his  typology  led  him,  and  still  more  many  of  his 
adherents,  into  fantastic  exegetical  errors  in  the  jn'ophetic  treatmen  t 
of  the  seven  apocalyptic  periods. 

b.  A  controversy,  occasioned  by  Cocceius'  statement,  in  his  com- 
mentary on  Hebrews  in  a.u.  1658,  that  the  Sabbath,  as  enjoined  by  the 
O.T.  ceremonial  law,  was  no  longer  binding,  Avas  stopped  in  A.n.  1659 
by  a  State  prohibition.  Voetiiis  had  not  taken  part  in  it.  Bvit  Avhen 
Cocceius,  in  a.u.  1()H5,  taught  from  Romans  iii.  25,  that  believers  under 
the  laAV  had  not  full  "  ai^eo-is,"  only  a  "  Trdpeo-is,"'  he  felt  obliged  to 
enter  the  lists  against  this  "  Socinian  "  heresy.  The  controversy  soon 
spread  to  other  doctrines  of  Cocceius  and  his  followers,  and  soon  the 
whole  populace  seemed  divided  into  Voetians  and  Cocceians  (§  162,  5). 
The  one  hurled  offensive  epithets  at  the  other.  The  Orange  political 
party  sought  and  obtained  the  favour  of  the  Voetians,  as  before  they 
liad  that  of  the  Gomaiists ;  Avhile  the  liberal  republican  party  coa- 
lesced Avith  the  Cocceians.  Philosophical  questions  next  came  to  be 
mixed  up  in  the  discussion.  The  philosophy  of  the  French  Catholic 
Descartes  (ij  16J,  1),  settled  in  a.d.  1629  in  Amsterdam,  had  gained 
ground  in  the  Netherlands.  It  had  indeed  no  connexion  Avith 
Cliristianit}'  or  church,  and  its  theological  friends  Avished  only  to 
have  it  recognised  as  a  formal  branch  of  study.  But  its  fundamental 
principle,  that  all  true  knoAvledge  starts  from  doubt,  appeared  to  the 
representatives  of  orthodoxy  as  threatening  the  church  with  serious 
danger.  Even  in  A.n.  1648  Voetius  opposed  it,  and  nriainly  in  conse- 
(luence,  of  his  polemic,  the  States  General,  in  a.d.  165(),  forbad  it  being 
taught  in  the  miiversities.  Their  common  oi>position  to  scholasti- 
cism, hoAvever,  brought  Cocceians  and  Cartesians  more  closely  to  one 


56      CHUECH   HISTORY   OF   SEVENTEENTH   CENTURY. 

another.  Theology  now  became  influenced  by  Cartesianism.  Koell, 
professor,  at  Franeker  and  Utrecht,  who  died  a.d.  1718,  taught  that 
the  divinity  of  the  Scriptures  must  be  proved  to  the  reason,  since  the 
testimonium  Spir.  s.  inter num  is  limited  to  those  who  already  believe, 
rejected  the  doctrine  of  the  impiitation  of  original  sin,  the  doctrine 
that  death  is  for  believers  the  punishment  of  sin,  and  the  application 
of  the  idea  of  eternal  "  generation  "  to  the  Logos,  to  whom  the  predi- 
cate of  sonship  belongs  only  in  regard  to  the  decree  of  redemption  and 
incarnation.  Another  zealous  Cartesian,  Balth.  Bekker,  not  only 
repudiated  the  superstitions  of  the  age  about  witchcraft  (i?  117,  4), 
but  also  denied  the  existence  of  the  devil  and  demons.  The  Cocceians 
were  in  no  way  responsible  for  such  extravagances,  but  their  oppo- 
nents sought  to  make  them  chargeable  for  these.  The  stadtholder, 
William  III.,  at  last  issued  an  order,  in  a.d.  1694,  which  checked  for  a 
time  the  violence  of  the  strife. 

6.  Theological  Literature. — Biblical  oriental  philology  flourished  in 
the  Eefornied  church  of  this  age.  Drnsius  of  Franeker,  who  died  a.d. 
1616,  was  the  greatest  Old  Testament  exegete  of  his  day.  The  tAvo 
Buxtorfs  of  Basel,  the  father  died  a.d.  1629,  the  son  a.d.  1664,  the 
greatest  Christian  i-abbinical  scholais,  wrote  Hebrew  and  Chaldee 
grammars,  lexicons,  and  concordances,  and  maintained  the  antiquity 
and  even  inspiration  of  the  Hebrew  vowel  points  against  Capijellus  of 
Saumur.  Hottinger  of  Zurich,  who  died  a.d.  1667,  vied  with  both  in 
his  knowledge  of  oriental  literature  and  languages,  and  wrote  exten- 
sively on  biblical  philology,  and  besides  found  time  to  write  a  com- 
prehensive and  learned  chiuxh  history.  Cocceius,  too,  occupies  a 
respectable  place  among  Hebrew  lexicographers.  In  England,  both 
before  and  after  the  Restoration,  scholarship  Avas  found,  not  among 
the  controversial  Puritans,  but  among  the  Episcopal  clergj'.  Brian 
Walton,  who  died  a.d.  1661,  aided  by  the  English  scholars,  issued  an 
edition  of  the  '•  London  Polj'glott "'  in  six  vols.,  in  a.d.  1657,  which,  m 
completeness  of  material  and  appai'atus,  as  well  as  in  careful  textual 
criticism,  leaves  earlier  editions  far  behind.  Edm.  Castellus  of  Cam- 
bridge in  A.D.  1669  published  his  celebrated  '■•  Lexicon  Heptaglottum." 
The  Elzevir  printing-house  at  Amsterdam  and  Leyden,  boldly  assum- 
ing the  prerogatives  of  the  whole  body  of  theological  scholars,  issued  a 
textus  receptus  of  the  N.T.  in  a.d.  1624.  The  best  established  exegetical 
results  of  earlier  times  were  collected  by  Pearson  in  his  great  compen- 
dium, the  "C'riVzfz  >Vacj'/,"  nine  vols,  fol.,  London,  1660;  and  Matthew 
Pool  in  his  "  Sijnopsis  Crificorum,''''  five  vols,  fol.,  London,  1669.  Among 
the  exegetes  of  this  time  the  brothers,  J.  Cappellus  of  Sedan,  who  died 
A.D.  1624,  and  Louis  Cappellus  II.  of  Sainnur,  who  died  a.d.  1658,  were 
distinguished  for  their  linguistic  knowledge  and  liberal  criticism. 
Fococke  of  Oxford  and  Lightfoot  of  Cambridge  wei-e  specialh-  eminent 


§  161.    THEOLOGY  AND   ITS   BATTLES.  57 

orientalists.  Cocceins  Avrote  commentaries  on  almost  all  the  books  of 
Scripture,  and  his  scholar  Vitringa  of  Franeker,  who  died  a.d.  1716, 
gained  great  reputation  by  his  expositions  of  Isaiah  and  the  Apocalypse. 
Amons,  the  Arminians  the  famous  statesman  Grotius,  Avho  died  a.d. 
1645,  was  the  greatest  master  of  grammatico-historical  exposition  in 
the  centur3",  and  illustrated  Scripture  from  classical  literature  and 
philology.  The  E,t'f(irmed  church  too  gave  bi'illiant  contributions  to 
biblical  archgeology  and  history'.  John  Selden  wrote  ^'De  Sijndriift 
Vett.  Heh.,^^  '■•Ue  dViH  iSV/r?*,"'  etc.  Goodwin  wrote  "Moses  and  Aaron." 
Ussher  wrote  ^- Annalra  V.  et  X.T."'  Spencer  wrote  '■•De  Leyihus  HehP 
The  Frenchman  Bochart,  in  his  '•  Hlerozoiron  "  and  "  Phaley"  made  - 
admii-able  contributit)ns  to  the  natural  history  and  geographj-  of  the 
Bible. 

7.  Dogmatic  theolog\-  was  cultivated  mainly  in  the  Netherlands. 
Maccovius,  a  Pole,  Avho  died  a.d.  1644,  a  jirofessor  at  Franeker,  intro- 
duced the  scholastic  method  into  Reformed  dogmatics.  The  Synod  of 
Dort  cleared  him  of  the  charge  of  heresy  made  against  him  bj'  Amesius, 
but  condenmed  his  method.  Yet  it  soon  came  into  verA'  general  use. 
Its  chief  representatives  were  Maresius  of  Groningen,  Voetius  and 
Mastricht  of  Utreclit,  Hoornbeck  of  Leyden,  and  tlie  German  Wendelin, 
rector  of  Zerbst.  Among  the  Cocceians  the  most  distinguished  were 
Heidanus  of  Leyden,  Alting  of  Groningen,  and,  above  all,  Hermann 
"Witsius  of  Fi'aneker,  whose  "  Economy  of  the  Covenants  "  is  written 
in  a  conciliatory  spirit.  The  most  distinguished  Arminian  dogmatist 
after  Episcopius  was  Phil.  Limborch  of  Amsterdam,  who  died  a.d.  1712, 
in  high  repute  also  as  an  apologist,  exegete,  and  historian.  The 
greatest  dogmatist  of  the  Anglican  church  was  Pearson,  avIio  died 
a.d.  16S6,  author  of  ''  An  Exposition  of  the  Creed."'  The  Frenchman 
Peyrerius  obtaineil  great  notoriety  from  his  statement,  founded  on 
Romans  v.  12,  that  Adam  was  merelj'the  ancestor  of  the  Jews  (Gen.  ii. 
7),  while  the  Gentiles  were  of  jjre- Adamite  origin  (Gen.  i.  26),  and  also 
by  maintaining  that  the  flood  had  been  only  jjartial.  He  gained 
release  from  prison  by  joining  the  Catholic  church  and  recanted,  but 
still  held  by  his  earlier  views. — Ethics,  consisting  hitherto  of  little 
more  than  an  exposition  of  the  decalogue,  was  raised  by  Amyrault  into 
an  independent  science.  Amesius  dealt  with  cases  of  conscience. 
Grotius,  in  his  "  Dc  Veritnfe  Rel'uj.  Chr."'  and  Abbadie,  French  pastor  at 
Berlin,  and  afterwards  in  London,  who  died  a.d.  1727,  in  his  '•  Ve'rite 
de  la  Bel.  Chn't.,'^  distinguished  themselves  as  apologists.  Claude  and 
Jurieu  gained  high  reputation  as  controversialists  against  Catholicism 
and  its  persecution  of  the  Huguenots. — The  Reformed  church  also 
in  the  interests  of  polemics  pursued  historical  studies.  Hottinger 
of  Ziirich,  S|)anheim  of  Leyden,  Sam.  Basnage  of  Ziitpfen,  and  Jac. 
Basnage  of  the  Hague,  produced  general  chureli  histories.     Among  the 


58      CHURCH  HISTORY   OP   SEVENTEENTH   CENTURY. 

numerous  liistorical  monogi-aiihs  the  most  important  are  Hospinian's 
"7Jc  Templix,'''  "Z>e  Moncic/ii.s,'^  "  7>c  Fcsfi.s,'''  ^^  Hist.  Sact'amcntaria" 
"  Hi.sforia  Jesuitica  "  ;  Blondel's  ''  Ps-.-/sjV/or«.y,''  "  De  la  Primaute  de 
PEijl.,^''  ^^ Question  si  tine  Femme  a  etc  Ansinne  au  Sicf/e  Papal''''  (§  82,  G), 
"  Apolofjia  sent.  Hieron.  dc  Preshyt.^^  Also  Daille  of  Saumur  on  the  non- 
genuineness  of  the  "  Apostolic  Constitutions "  and  the  Ps.-Dionysian 
writings,  and  his  "2>e  Usu  Patrum'''  '\n  opposition  to  Cave's  Catholi- 
cizing over-estimation  of  the  Fathers,  We  have  also  the  English 
scholar  Ussher,  who  died  a.u.  I(i56,  "  Brit.  ErdesiarHin  Antiqnitafes  "  ; 
H.  Dodwell,  who  died  a.d.  1711,  "  Z>m.  Ciiprianicce^.etc;  Wm.  Gave, 
Avho  died  a.u.  171B,  "Hist,  of  App.  and  Fathers,"  ^- Scyijjtonini  Erclst. 
Hist.  Litcraria.,"'  etc. — Special  mention  should  be  made  of  Eisenmenger, 
professor  of  oriental  languages  at  Heidelberg.  In  his  ^' Entdecktes 
Judenthuni,"  two  vols,  quarto,  moved  by  the  over-bearing  arrogance  of 
the  Jews  of  his  day,  he  made  an  immense  collection  of  absurdities  and 
blasphemies  of  rabbinical  theology  from  Jewish  writings.  At  his  own 
expense  he  printed  2,000  copies  ;  for  these  the  Jews  oftered  him  12,000 
florins,  but  he  demanded  530,000.  They  noAV  persuaded  the  court  at 
Venice  to  confiscate  them  before  a  single  cojw  was  sold.  Eisenmenger 
died  in  a.d.  1704,  and  his  heirs  vainly  sought  to  have  the  copies  of  his 
work  given  up  to  them.  Even  the  appeal  of  Frederick  I.  of  Prussia 
was  refused.  Only  when  the  king  had  resolved,  in  a.d.  1711,  at  his 
own  expense  to  piiblish  an  edition  from  one  copy  that  had  escaped  con- 
fiscation, was  the  Frankfort  edition  at  last  given  back. 

8.  The  Apocrypha  Controversy  (§  136,4).— In  a.d.  1520  Carlstadt  raised 
the  question  of  the  books  found  only  in  the  LXX.,  and  answered  it  in 
the  style  of  Jerome  (i?  50,  1).  Luther  gave  them  in  his  translation  as 
an  ajjpendix  to  the  O.T.  with  the  title  "  Apocrypha,  i.e.  Books,  not 
indeed  of  Holy  Scripture,  but  useful  and  worthy  to  be  read."  Reformed 
c;onfessions  took  iqj  the  same  position.  The  Belgic  Confession  agreed 
indeed  that  these  books  should  be  read  in  church,  and  proof  passages 
taken  from  them,  in  so  far  as  they  were  in  accord  with  the  canonical 
Scriptures.  The  Anglican  Book  of  Common  Prayer  gives  readings 
from  these  books.  On  the  other  hand,  although  at  the  Synod  of  Dort 
the  pi-oposal  to  remove  at  least  the  apocryphal  books  of  Ezra  or  Esdras, 
Tobit,  Judith,  Be!  and  the  Dragon,  was  indeed  rejected,  it  was  ordered 
that  in  future  all  apocryphal  books  should  be  printed  in  smaller  type 
than  the  canonical  books,  should  be  separately  paged,  with  a  special 
title,  and  with  a  preface  and  marginal  notes  where  necessary.  Their 
exclusion  from  all  editions  of  the  Bible  was  first  insisted  on  by  English 
and  Scotch  Puritans.  This  example  was  followed  by  the  French, 
lint  not  by  the  German,  Swiss,  and  Dutch  Keformed  churches. — Con- 
tinuation, §  182,  4. 


i^  1G2.    THE    RELIGIOUS   LIFE.  '^^^ 

§  1G2,  The  Religious  Life.^ 
The  religious  life  in  the  Reformed  church  is  characterized 
generally  by  harsh  legalism,  rigorous  renunciation  of  the 
world,  and  a  thorough  earnestness,  coupled  with  decision  and 
energy  of  will,  which  nothing  in  the  Avorld  can  break  or 
bend.  It  is  the  spirit  of  Calvin  which  impresses  on  it  this 
character,  and  determines  its  doctrine.  Only  where  Calvin's 
influence  was  less  potent,  e.g.  in  the  Lutheranized  German 
Reformed,  the  catholicized  Anglican  Episcopal  Church,  and 
among  the  Cocceians,  is  this  tendency  less  apparent  or 
altogether  wanting.  On  the  other  hand,  often  carried  to 
the  utmost  extreme,  it  appears  among  the  English  Puritans 
(§§  143,  3;  155,  1)  and  the  French  Huguenots  (§  153,4), 
where  it  was  fostered  by  persecution  and  oppression. 

1.  England  and  Scotland. — During  the  period  of  the  English  Revohi- 
ti.jn  (S  155, 1,  2),  after  the  overtlirow  of  Episcopacy,  Puritanism  became 
dominant;  and  the  incongruous  and  contradictory  elements  already 
existing  within  it  assumed  exaggerated  proportions  (iij  143,  3,  4),  until 
at  last  the  opposing  parties  broke  out  into  violent  contentions  with 
one  another.  The  ideal  of  Scottish  and  English  Presbyterianism  was 
the  setting  up  of  the  kingdom  of  Christ  as  a  theocracy,  in  which 
church  and  state  were  blended  after  the  O.T.  pattern.  Hence  all  the 
institutions  of  church  and  state  Avere  to  be  founded  on  .Scripture 
models,  Avhile  all  later  developments  Avere  set  aside  as  deteriorations 
from  that  standard.  The  ecclesiastical  side  of  this  ideal  was  to  be 
realized  by  the  establishment  of  a  spiritual  aristocracy  represented  in 
l)reshyteries  and  synods,  which,  ruling  the  presbyteries  through  the 
synods,  and  the  congregations  through  the  presbyteries,  regarded  itself 
as  called  and  under  obligation  to  insjDect  and  supervise  all  the  details 
of  the  i)rivate  as  well  as  public  life  of  church  members,  and  all  this 
too  by  Divine  right.  Regarding  their  sj'stem  as  alone  having  divine 
institution,  Presbyterians  could  not  recognise  any  other  religious  or 
ecclesiastical  ])arty,  and  must  demand  uniformity,  not  only  in  regard 
to  doctrine  and  creed,  but  also  in  regard  to  constitution,  discipline, 


1  Barclay,  "  The  Inner  Life  of  the  Religious  Societies  of  the  Com- 
monwealth.'' Second  ed.  London,  1877.  Dr.  Stoughton's  "History 
of  Religitni  in  England  from  Opening  of  Long  Parliament  to  End  of 
Eigliteenth  Centurv."     London. 


GO      CHUECH   HISTOEY   OF   SEVENTEENTH   CENTURY.- 

and  worship.! — On  the  other  hand,  Independent  Congregationalism, 
inasniucli  as  it  made  prominent  tlie  N.T.  ideas  of  the  priesthood  of  all 
believers  and  spiritnal  freedom,  demanded  unlimited  liberty  to  each 
separate  congregation,  and  nnconditional  equality  for  all  individual 
church  members.  It  thus  rejected  the  theocratic  ideal  of  Presbyteri- 
anism,  strove  after  a  purely  democratic  constitution,  and  recognised 
toleration  of  all  religious  views  as  a  fundamental  principle  of  Chris- 
tianity. Every  attempt  to  secui-e  uniformity  and  stability  of  forms  of 
worship  Avas  regarded  as  a  repressing  of  the  Spirit  of  God  operating 
in  the  church,  and  so  alongside  of  the  public  services  private  con- 
venticles abounded,  in  Avhich  believers  sought  to  promote  mutual 
edification.  But  soon  amid  the  upheavals  of  this  agitated  period  a 
fanatical  spirit  spread  among  the  various  sects  of  the  Independents. 
The  persecutions  luider  Elizabeth  and  the  Stuarts  had  awakened  a 
longing  for  the  return  of  the  Lord,  and  the  irresistible  advance  of 
Cromwell's  army,  composed  mostly  of  Independents,  made  it  appear  as 
if  the  millennium  was  close  at  hand.  Thus  chiliasm  came  to  be  a 
fundamental  principle  of  Independency,  and  soon  too  prophecy  niade 
its  appearance  to  interpret  and  prepare  the  way  for  that  Avhich  was 
coming.  From  the  ^f/Zerers  of  the  old  Dutch  times  Ave  now  come  to 
the  Saints  of  the  early  CroniAvell  period.  These  regarded  themselves 
as  called,  in  consequence  of  their  being  inspired  by  God's  Spirit,  to 
form  the  "  kingdom  of  the  saints "  on  earth  promised  in  the  last 
days,  and  hence  also,  from  Daniel  ii.  and  vii.,  they  Avere  called  Fifth 
Monarchy  Men.  The  so  called  Short  Parliament  of  a.d.  1653,  in 
Avhich  these  Saints  Avere  in  a  majority,  had  already  laid  the  first  stones 
of  this  structure  by  introd vicing  civil  marriage,  Avith  the  strict  enforce- 
ment, hoAvever,  of  MattheAV  \.  32,  as  Avell  as  by  the  abolition  of  all 
rights  of  patronage  and  all  sorts  of  ecclesiastical  taxes,  Avhen  CroniAvell 
dissoh'ed  it.  The  Saints  had  not  and  Avould  not  liaA^e  any  fixed,  formvi- 
lated  theological  sj^steni.  They  had,  hoAvever,  a  most  lively  interest  in 
doctrine,  and  produced  a  great  diA-ersity  of  Scripture  expositions  and 
dogmatic  vieAvs,  so  that  their  deadly  foes,  the  Presbyterians,  could 
hurl  against  them  old  and  neAV  heretical  designations  by  the  hundred. 
The  fmidamental  doctrine  of  predestination,  common  to  all  Puritans, 
Avas,  even  with  them,  for  the  most  jjart,  a  jiresupposition  of  all 
theological  speculation. 

2.  At  the  same  time  Avith  the  tSaiHfa  there  appeared  among  the 
Indei:)endents  the  Levellers,  ])olitical  and  social  revolutionists,  rather 
than  an  ecclesiastical  and  religious  sect.    They  were  unjustly  charged 


'  See  Macpherson,  "Presbyterianism  "  (Edin.,  1883),  ])]>.  8-10,  Avhere 
charges  of  intolerance  such  as  those  made  against  Presbyterian  ism  in 
the  text  are  repudiated. 


§  162.    THE    EELIGIOUS   LIFE.  61 

■with  claiming  an  equal  distribution  of  goods.  Over  against  the 
absolutist  theories  of  the  Stuarts,  all  the  Independents  maintained 
that  the  king,  like  all  other  civil  magistrates,  is  answerable  at  all 
times  and  in  all  circumstances  to  the  people,  to  whom  all  sovereignty 
originally  and  inalienably  belongs.  This  principle  was  taken  by  the 
Levellers  as  the  starting-point  of  their  reforms.  As  their  first  regula- 
tive principle  in  reconstructing  the  commonwealth  and  determining 
the  position  of  the  church  therein  they  did  not  take  the  theocratic 
constitiition  of  the  O.T.,  as  the  Presbyterians  did,  nor  the  biblical 
i-evelation  of  the  N.T.,  as  the  moderate  Independents  did,  nor  even  the 
modern  professed  pro])hecy  of  the  '•  Saints,"  but  the  law  of  nature  as 
the  basis  of  all  revelation,  and  already  grounded  in  creation,  with  the 
sovereignty  of  the  people  as  its  ultimate  foundation.  While  the  rest 
of  the  Independents  held  by  the  idea  of  a  Christian  state,  and  only 
claimed  that  all  Christian  denominations,  with  the  exception  of  the 
Catholics  (§  153,  6),  should  enjoy  all  political  rights,  the  Levellers 
demanded  complete  separation  of  church  and  state.  This  therefore 
imjjlied,  on  the  one  hand,  the  non-religiousness  of  the  state,  and,  on 
the  other,  again  with  the  exception  of  Catholics,  the  absolute  freedom, 
independence,  and  equality  of  all  religious  parties,  even  non-Christian 
sects  and  atheists.  Yet  all  the  -while  the  Levellers  themselves  were 
earnestly  and  warmlj'  attached  to  Christian  truth  as  held  by  the  other 
Independents. — Roger  Williams  (§  163,  3),  a  Baptist  minister,  in  a.d. 
1681  transplanted  the  first  seeds  of  Levellerism  from  England  to 
Nc)rth  America,  and  by  his  writings  helped  again  to  spread  those 
views  in  England.  When  he  returned  home  in  a.d.  1651  he  found  the 
S'3ct  already  flourishing.  The  ablest  leader  of  the  English  Levellers 
was  John  Lilburn.  In  a.d.  1638,  when  scarcely  twenty  years  old,  he 
was  flogged  and  sentenced  to  imprisonment  for  life,  because  he  had 
piinted  Puritan  writings  in  Holland  and  had  them  circulated  in 
England.  Released  on  the  outbreak  of  the  Revolution,  he  joined  the 
Parliamentary  army,  was  taken  prisoner  hy  the  Roj-alists  and 
sentenced  to  death,  but  escaped  by  flight.  He  Avas  again  imprisoned 
for  writing  libels  on  the  House  of  Lords.  Set  free  by  the  Rump 
Parliament,  he  became  colonel  in  Cromwell's  army,  but  was  banished 
the  country  when  it  was  found  that  the  spread  of  radicalism  en- 
dangered discipline,  ffill  the  dissolution  of  the  Short  Parliament 
liis  followers  were  in  thorough  sj^npatlu'  with  the  Saints.  After- 
wards their  ways  went  more  and  more  apart ;  the  Saints  diifted  into 
(Quakerism  (§  163,  4),  while  the  Levellers  degenerated  into  deism 
{§  164,  3). 

3.  Out  of  the  religious  commotion  prevailing  in  England  before, 
during,  and  after  the  Revolution  there  sprang  up  a  voluminous 
devotional  literature,  intended  to  give  guidance  and  directions  for  holy 


62      CHURCH   HISTORY   OF   SEVENTEENTH   CENTURY. 

living.  Its  luHuence  was  felt  in  foi'L'ign  lands,  espeeialh'  in  tlip  Re- 
formed chni'clies  of  the  continent,  and  even  German  Lutheran  Pietism 
was  not  nnafft'cted  by  it  (§  loi),  8).  That  this  movement  was  not  con- 
fined to  the  Pui'itans,  among  Avhom  it  had  its  (Origin,  is  seen  from  the 
fact  that  duiing  the  seventeenth  century  man}'  such  treatises  were 
issued  from  the  University  Press  of  Cambridge.  Lewis  Bayly,  Bishop  of 
Bangor  a.d.  1616-1632,  Avrote  one  of  the  most  popular  books  of  this  kind, 
"  The  Practice  of  Piety,"  which  was  in  a.d.  1635  in  its  thirty-second  and 
in  A.u.  1741  in  its  fifty-first  edition,  and  was  also  widely  circulated  in 
Dutch,  French,  German,  Hungarian,  and  Polish  translations. — Out  of 
the  vast  number  of  important  ])ersonages  of  the  Revolution  jieriod  "we 
name  the  following  three  :  (1)  In  John  Milton,  the  highly  gifted  poet 
as  well  as  eloquent  and  powerful  politician,  born  a.d.  1608,  died  a.d. 
1674,  -we  find,  on  the  basis  of  a  liberal  classical  training  received  in 
youth,  all  the  motive  powers  of  Independency,  from  the  original 
Puritan  zeal  for  the  faith  and  Reformation  to  the  politico-social 
radicalism  of  the  Levellers,  combined  in  full  and  vigorous  operation. 
From  Italy,  the  beloved  land  of  classical  science  and  artistic  culture, 
he  was  called  back  to  England  in  a.d.  1640  at  the  first  outburst  of 
freedom-loving  enthusiasm  (§  155,  1),  and  made  the  thunder  of  his 
conti'oversial  treatises  ring  over  the  battlefield  of  parties.  He  fought 
against  the  narrowness  of  Presbyterian  control  of  conscience  iKJt  less 
energetically  than  against  the  hierarchism  of  the  Episcopal  church  ; 
vindicates  the  permissibility  of  divorce  (in  view,  no  doubt,  of  his  o\^'n 
first  unhappy  marriage) ;  advanced  m  his  '•'■  Areopayitica  "  of  a.d.  1644 
a  plea  for  the  unrestricted  liberty  of  the  press ;  pulverized  in  his 
'■^  Ivonodastes"'  oi  a.d.  1649  the  Eu-w;/  /3a(Tj\tK77,  ascribed  to  Charles  I. ; 
in  several  tracts,  "  Defcnsio  ^yro  Popido  AtKjlicano,'''  etc.,  justified  the 
execution  of  the  king  against  Salmasius's  "Z>r/i?«.s/o  liejjia  pro  Carolo 
/." ;  and,  even  after  he  had  in  a.d.  1652  become  incurably  blind,  he 
continued  unweariedly  his  polemics  till  silenced  by  the  Restoration. 
The  ^^  Iconoclast  ex"'  and  ^-  Defowio'^  were  burned  by  the  hangman, 
but  he  himself  was  left  unmolested.  He  now  devoted  himself  to 
poetry.  "  Paradise  Lost "  appeared  in  a.d.  1665,  and  "  Paradise 
Regained  "  in  a.d.  1671.  To  this  period,  when  he  had  probably  turned 
his  back  on  all  existing  religious  parties,  belongs  the  composition  of 
his  "  De  dortrlna  C/iri.stiaiia"  a  first  attempt  at  a  purely  biblical 
theology,  Arian  in  its  Christology  and  Arminian  in  its  soteriology.' — 
(2)  Richard  Baxter,  born  a.d.  1615,  died  a.d.  1691,  was  quite  a  different 
sort  of  man,  and  showed  throughout  a  decidedly  irenical  tendency. 
At   once   attracted   and   repelled    by   the   Independent   movement  in 

»  Masson,  "  Life  of  John  Milton."    4  vols.    London,  1859.     Pattison, 
"Milton"  in  "English  Men  of  Letters"  series.     London,  1H,S0. 


§  162.    THE    EELIGIOUS   LIFE.  63 

Cromwell's  army,  lie  joined  the  force  in  a.d.  1645  as  military  chaplain, 
hoping  to  moderate,  if  not  to  check,  their  extravagances.  A  severe 
illness  obliged  him  to  withdraw  in  a.d.  1647.  After  his  recovery  he 
returned  to  his  former  post  as  assistant-minister  at  Kidderminster  in 
"Worcestershire,  and  there  remained  till  driven  out  by  the  Act  of 
Uniformity  of  a.d.  1662  (§  155,  8).  Those  fourteen  years  formed  the 
period  of  his  most  successful  labours.  He  then  composed  most  of  his 
numerous  devotional  works,  three  of  which,  '•  The  Saint's  Everlasting 
Best,"  "  The  Reformed  Pastor,"  "  A  Call  to  the  Unconverted,"  are 
still  widely  read  in  the  original  and  in  translations.  At  first  he 
hoped  much  from  the  Restoration  ;  but  when,  on  conscientious  grounds, 
he  refused  a  bishopric,  he  met  only  with  persecution,  ill  treatment, 
and  imprisonment.  Through  "William's  Act  of  Toleration  of  a.d. 
1689,  he  was  allowed  to  pass  the  last  year  of  his  life  in  London.  On 
the  doctrine  of  predestination  he  took  the  moderate  position  of  Amy- 
rault  (§  161,  3).  His  ideal  church  constitution  Avas  a  blending  of 
Presbyterianism  and  Episcopacy,  by  restoring  the  original  episcopal 
constitution  of  the  second  century,  when  even  the  smaller  churches 
had  each  its  own  bishoj)  with  a  presbytery  by  his  side.' — (3)  John 
Bunyan,  bom  a.d.  1628,  died  a.d.  1688,  was  in  his  youth  a  tinker  or 
brazier,  and  as  such  seems  to  have  led  a  rough,  "wild  life.  On  the 
outbreak  of  the  Civil  "War  in  a.d.  1642,  he  Avas  drafted  into  the 
Parliamentary  army.-  At  the  close  of  the  Avar  he  married  a  poor  girl 
from  a  Puritan  familj'',  Avhose  only  marriage  portion  consisted  in  tAvo 
Puritan  books  of  dcA-otion.  It  Avas  noAV  that  the  birthday  of  a  ncAv 
spiritual  life  began  to  daAvn  in  him.  He  joined  the  Baptist  Indepen- 
dents, the  most  zealous  of  the  Saints  of  that  time,  Avas  baptized  bj' 
them  in  a.d.  1655,  and  travelled  the  country  as  a  preacher,  attracting 
thousands  around  him  CA'cryAvhere  by  his  glorious  eloquence.  In 
A.D.  1660  he  Avas  throAvn  into  prison,  from  Avhich  he  Avas  released 
by  the  Indulgence  of  a.d.  1672  (§  155,  3).  He  noAV  settled  in 
B;^dford,  and  from  this  time  till  his  death,  amid  jiersecution  and 
oppression,  continued  his  itinerant  preacliing  Avith  e\'er-increasing 
zeal  and  success.     "  The  Pilgrim's  Progress  "  was  Avritten  by  him  in 


1  '^  Heliquice  Baxterianoe:  Baxter's  Narrative  of  most  Memorable 
Passages  m  his  oavu  Life."  London,  1696.  Orme,  "  Life  and  Times  of 
Richard  Baxter,  Avith  Critical  Examination  of  his  "Writings."  Lon- 
don, 1830.  Stalker,  "Baxter"  in  ''Evangelical  Succession  Lectures." 
Second  series.     Edinburgh,  1883. 

-  Fronde  disputes  this,  and  saA's,  p.  12,  that  probably  he  Avas  on  the 
side  of  the  Ro3'alists.  BroAvn  has  slioAvn  it  to  be  almost  certain 
that  in  1644,  not  1642,  Bunj'an,  then  in  his  sixteenth  year,  joined  the 
Parliamentary  forces.    See  BroAvn's  "Life,"  j^p.  42-52. 


64      CHURCH   HISTORY   OF    SEVENTEENTH    CENTURY. 

prison.  It  is  an  allegory  of  the  freshest  and  most  lively  form,  worthy 
to  rank  alongside  the  "  Imitation  of  Christ  "(§  114,  7).  In  it  the 
fanatical  endeavour  of  the  Saints  to  rear  a  millennial  kingdom  on  earth 
is  transfigured  into  a  struggle  overcoming  all  hindrances  to  secure 
an  entrance  into  the  heavenly  Zion  above.  It  has  passed  through 
numberless  editions,  and  has  been  translated  into  almost  all  known 
languages. ' 

4.  The  Netherlands.— From  England  the  Reformed  Pietism  was 
transplanted  to  the  Netherlands,  where  William  Teellinck  may  be 
regarded  as  its  founder.  After  fniishing  his  legal  studies  he  resided 
for  a  while  in  England,  Avhere  he  made  the  acquaintance  of  the 
Puritans  and  their  writings,  and  was  deeply  impressed  with  their 
earnest  and  pious  family  life.  He  then  went  to  Leyden  to  study 
theology,  and  in  a.d.  1606  began  a  ministry  that  soon  bore  fruit.  He 
was  specially  blessed  at  Middelburg  in  Zealand,  where  he  died  a.d. 
1629.  His  writings,  larger  and  smaller,  more  than  a  hundred  in 
number,  in  which  a  peculiar  sweetness  of  mystical  love  for  the 
Redeemer  is  combined  with  stern  Calvinistic  views,  after  the  style  of 
St.  Bernard.  Avere  circulated  widely  in  numerous  editions,  eagerly 
read  in  many  lands,  and  for  fully  a  century  exerted  a  powerful 
influence  throughout  the  whole  Reformed  church.  Teellinck  in  no 
particular  departed  from  the  prevailing  orthodox^',  but  unwittingly 
toned  down  its  harshness  in  his  tracts,  and  with  the  gentleness  charac- 
teristic of  him  counselled  brotherly  forbearance  amid  the  bitterness 
of  the  Arminian  controversy.  In  spite  of  much  hostility,  which  his 
best  efforts  could  not  prevent,  many  imiversity  theologians  stood  by 
his  side  as  warm  admii-ers  of  his  -writings.  It  will  not  be  wondered 
at  that  among  these  was  the  pious  Amesius  of  Franeker  (§  161,  7), 
the  scholar  of  the  able  Perkins  (§  143,  5)  ;  but  it  is  more  surpris- 
ing to  find  here  the  powerful  champion  of  scholastic  orthodoxy, 
Voetius  of  Utrecht,  and  his  vigorous  partisan,  Hoornbeeck  of  Leyden. 
Voetius  especially,  who  even  in  his  preacademic  career  as  a  pastor  had 
pursued  a  peculiarly  exemplary  and  godly  life,  styled  Teellinck  the 
Reformed  Thomas  a  Ivempis,  and  owned  his  deep  indebtedness  to  his 
devout  writings.  He  opened  his  academic  coiirse  in  a.d.  1634  with  an 
introductory  discourse,  "  De  Pietate  cum  ,Scientia  conjunijenda,''''  and 
year  after  year  gave  lectures  on  ascetical  theology,  out  of  which 

'  Brown,  '•  Life  of  Banyan."  London,  1885.  Autobiography  in 
"  Grace  Abounding,"  1622.  Southey,  "  Life  of  John  Bunyan." 
London,  1830.  Macaulay,  "  Essay  on  Bunyan,"  in  Edinhurijh 
Review,  1830.  Froude,  "Bunyan,"  in  "English  Men  of  Letters." 
London,  1880.  Nicoll,  "  Bunyan,"  in  "  Evangelical  Succession 
Lectures."     Thijrd  series,     Edinburgh,  1883. 


§  162.    THE   KELIGIOUS   LIFE.  65 

prew  his  treatisa  published  in  a.d.  1664,  '•  Ta  'At7-/c77Tt^-d  s.  Exerr.ita 
Pielatis  in  nsum  Juventutia  Acad.,''  -which  is  a  complete  exposition  of 
evangelical  practical  divinity  in  a  thoroughly  scholastic  form. 

5.  During  the  controversy  in  the  Dutch  Eeformed  Church  between 
Voetians  and  Cocceians,  beginning  in  a.d.  1658,  the  former  favoured 
the  pietistic  movement.  In  the  German  Pietist  controversy  the 
Cocceians  were  with  the  Pietists  in  their  biblical  orthodoxy  joined 
with  confessional  indiiferentism,  but  with  the  orthodox  in  their 
liberality  and  breadth  on  matters  of  life  and  conduct.  The  earnest, 
practical  piety  of  the  Voetians,  again,  made  them  sympathise  with 
the  Lutheran  Pietists,  and  their  zeal  for  pure  doctrine  and  the  Church 
confession  brought  them  into  relation  with  the  orthodox  Lutherans. 
As  discord  between  the  theologians  arose  over  the  obligation  of  the 
Sabbath  la-\v,  so  the  difference  among  the  people  arose  out  of  the 
ciuestion  of  Sabbath  observance.  The  Voetians  maintained  that  the. 
decalogue  prohibition  of  any  form  of  work  on  Sabbath  was  still 
fully  binding,  while  the  Cocceians,  on  the  ground  of  Mark  ii.  27, 
Galatians  iv.  9,  Colossians  ii.  16,  etc.,  denied  its  continued  obligation, 
their  wives  often,  to  the  annoyance  of  the  Voetians,  sitting  in  the 
windows  after  Divine  service  with  their  knitting  or  sewing.  But  the 
opposition  did  not  stop  there ;  it  spread  into  all  departments  of  life. 
The  Voetians  set  gi-eat  value  upon  fasting  and  private  meditation, 
avoided  all  public  games  and  X'^a^'s,  dressed  plainly,  and  observed  a 
simple,  pious  mode  of  life;  their  pastors  wore  a  clerical  costume,  etc. 
The  Cocceians,  again,  fell  in  with  the  customs  of  the  time,  mingled 
freely  in  the  mirth  and  pastimes  of  the  people,  went  to  public  festi- 
vals and  entertainments,  their  women  dressed  in  elegant,  stylish 
attii-e,  their  pastors  were  not  bound  by  hard  and  fast  symbols,  but 
had  full  Scripture  freedom,  etc. — Continuation,  §  169,  2. 

6.  France,  Germany,  and  Switzerland. — The  Reformed  church  of 
France  has  gained  impei'ishable  renown  as  a  martyr-church.  Fana- 
tical excesses,  however,  appeared  among  the  prophets  of  the  Cevenues 
(§  153,  4),  the  fruits  of  Avhicli  continued  down  into  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury, and  appeared  now  and  again  in  England,  Holland,  and  Germany 
(§  160, 2,  7). — In  Germany  the  Eeformed  church,  standing  side  by  side 
with  the  numerically  far  larger  Lutheran  church,  had  much  of  the 
sternness  and  severity  that  characterized  the  Komanic-Calvinistic  party 
in  doctrine,  worship,  and  life  greatly  modified  ;  but  where  the  Eeformed 
element  was  predominant,  as  in  the  Lower  Ehme,  it  was  correspon- 
dingly affected  by  a  contrary  influence.  The  Eeformed  church  in 
Germanj^  in  its  service  of  praise  kept  to  the  psalms  of  3Iarot  and 
Lobwasser  (§  143,  2).  Maurice  of  Hesse  published  Lobwasser's  in 
A.D.  1612,  accompanied  by  some  new  bright  melodies,  for  the  use  of 
the  chui-chcs   in   the   land.      Liitheran   hynms,  however,   gradually 

VOL.  III.  5 


06      CHUECH  HISTORY   OF   SEVENTEENTH   CENTUEY. 

found  their  Avay  into  the  Eefornied  chtu'ch,  which  also  produced  two 
gifted  poets  of  its  own.  Louisa  Henrietta,  Princess  of  Orange,  Avife  of 
the  great  elector,  and  Paul  Gerhardt's  sovereign,  wrote  '"Jesus  my 
Redeemer  lives "' ;  and  Joachim  Neander,  ]iastor  in  Bremen,  wrote, "  Thou 
most  Highest!  Guardian  of  mankind,"  ''To  heaven  and  earth  and 
sea  and  air,"  "  Here  behold  me,  as  I  cast  me." — In  German  Switzerland 
the  noble  Breitinger  of  Zurich,  who  died  a.d.  1(345,  the  greatest  suc- 
cessor of  Zwingli  and  Bullinger,  wrought  successfully  during  a  forty 
years'  ministry,  and  did  much  to  revive  and  quicken  the  church  life. 
That  the  spirit  of  Calvin  and  Beza  still  breathed  in  the  church  of 
Geneva  is  proved  by  the  reception  given  there  to  such  men  as  Andrea 
(§  160,  1),  Labadie  (§  163,  7),  and  Spener  (§  159,  3). 

7.  Foreign  Missions. — Prom  two  sides  the  Keformed  chvu'ch  had 
outlets  for  its  Christian  love  in  the  work  of  foi-eign  missions ;  on  the 
one  side  by  the  cession  of  the  Portuguese  East  Indian  colonies  to  the 
Netherlands  in  the  beginning  of  the  seventeenth  century,  and  on  the 
other  side  by  the  continuous  formation  of  English  colonies  in  North 
America  throughout  the  whole  century.  In  regard  to  missionary 
effort,  the  Dutch  government  followed  in  the  footsteps  of  her  Portuguese 
predecessors.  She  insisted  that  all  natives,  before  getting  a  situation, 
shoiild  be  baptized  and  have  signed  the  Belgic  Confession,  and  many 
who  fulfilled  these  conditions  remained  as  they  had  been  before.  But 
the  English  Puritans  settled  in  America  showed  a  zeal  for  the  con- 
version of  the  Indians  more  worthy  of  the  Protestant  name.  John 
Eliot,  who  is  rightly  styled  the  apostle  of  the  Indians,  devoted  him- 
self with  unwearied  and  self-denying  love  for  half  a  century  to  this 
task.  He  translated  the  Bible  into  their  language,  and  founded 
seventeen  Indian  stations,  of  which  during  his  lifetime  ten  were 
destroyed  in  a  bloody  war.  Eliofs  ^^■ork  was  taken  up  by  the  May- 
hew  family,  who  for  five  generations  wrought  among  the  Indians. 
The  last  of  the  noble  band,  Zacharias  Mayhew,  died  on  the  mission 
field  in  a.d.  1803,  in  his  87th  year.' — Continuation,  §  172,  5. 

v.— Anti'  and  Extra-Ecclesiastical  Parties. 
§  1G3.    Sects  and  Panatics. 

Bocinianisin  during  the  first  decades  of  the  century  made 
Extraordinary  progress  in  Poland,  but  then  collapsed  under 
the  persecution  of  the  Jesuits.     Related  to  the  continental 


•  '-Life  of  John  Eliot,  Apostle  of  the  Indians,"     By  John  Wilson, 
afterwards  of  Bombay.    Edin.,  1828. 


§  163.    SECTS  AND  FANATICS.  67 

Anabaptists  were  the  English  Baptists,  who  rejected  infant 
baptism  ;  while  the  Quakers,  who  adopted  the  old  fanatical 
theory  of  an  inner  light,  set  baptism  and  the  Lord's  supper 
entirely  aside.  In  the  sect  of  the  Labadists  we  find  a 
blending  of  Catholic  quietist  mysticism  and  Calvinistic 
Augustinianism.  Besides  those  regular  sects,  there  were 
various  individual  enthusiasts  and  separatists.  These  were 
most  rife  in  the  Netherlands,  where  the  free  civil  constitu- 
tion afforded  a  place  of  refuge  for  all  exiles  on  account  of 
their  faith.  Hei-e  onl}^  was  the  press  free  enough  to  serve 
as  a  thoroughgoing  propaganda  of  mysticism  and  theosophy. 
Finally  the  Eussiau  sects,  hitherto  little  studied,  call  for 
special  attention. 

1.  The  Socinians  (§  148,  4).— The  most  important  of  the  Sociniau 
congregations  in  Poland,  for  the  most  part  small  and  composed  almost 
exclusively  of  tlie  nobility,  %vas  that  at  Bacaii  in  the  Sendomir  Pala- 
tinate. Founded  in  1569,  this  city,  since  1600  under  James  Sieninski, 
son  of  the  founder,  recognised  Socinianism  as  the  established  religion ; 
and  an  academy  was  formed  there  which  soon  occupied  a  distin- 
guished position,  and  gave  such  reputation  to  the  place  that  it  could 
be  spoken  of  as  "  the  Sarmatian  Athens."'  But  the  congregation  at 
Lublin,  next  in  importance  to  that  of  Eacau,  was  destroyed  as  early 
as  1627  by  the  mob  irnder  fanatical  excitement  caused  by  the  Jesuits. 
The  same  disaster  befell  Kacau  itself  eleven  years  later.  A  couple 
of  idle  schoolboj's  had  thrown  stones  at  a  wooden  crucifix  standing 
before  the  city  gate,  and  had  been  for  this  severely  iJunished  by  their 
])arents,  and  turned  out  of  school.  The  Catholics,  however,  made  a 
complaint  before  the  senate,  where  the  Jesuits  secured  a  sentence  that 
the  school  should  be  destroyed,  the  church  taken  from  "the  Arians,'' 
the  printing  press  closed,  but  the  ministers  and  teachers  outlawed 
and  branded  with  infamy.  And  the  Jesuits  did  not  rest  until  the 
Keichstag  at  Warsaw  in  1658  issued  decrees  of  banishment  against 
"  all  Arians,"  and  forbad  the  profession  of  "  Arianism ''  luider  pain 
of  death. — The  Davidist  non-adoration  party  of  Transylvanian  Uni- 
tarians (§  148,  3)  was  finally  overcoane,  and  the  endeavours  after 
conformity  with  the  Polish  Socinians  prevailed  at  the  Diet  of  Deesch 
in  1638,  where  all  Unitarian  communities  engaged  to  offer  Avorship 
to  Christ,  and  to  accept  the  baptismal  formula  of  Matthew  xxviii.  19. 
And  under  the  standard  of  this  so  called  Complanatio  Deesiana  106 
Unitarian  congregations,  with  a  membership  of  60.000  souls,  exist  in 


68      CHURCH   HISTORY   OF   SEVENTEENTH   CENTURY. 

Transylvania  to  this  day.— In  Germany  Socinianism  had,  even  in  the 
beginning  of  the  century,  a  secret  nnrsery  in  the  University  of  Altdorf, 
belonging  to  the  territory  of  the  imperial  city  of  Nuremberg.  Soner, 
professor  of  medicine,  had  been  won  over  to  this  creed  by  Socinians 
residing  at  Leyden,  where  he  had  studied  in  1597,  1598,  and  now  used 
his  official  position  at  Altdorf  for,  not  only  instilling  his  Unitarian 
doctrines  by  means  of  private  philosophical  conversations  into  the 
minds  of  his  numerous  students,  who  flocked  to  him  from  Poland, 
Transylvania,  and  Hungary,  but  also  for  securing  the  adhesion  of 
several  German  students.  Only  after  his  death  in  1612  did  the 
Nuremberg  council  come  to  know  about  this  propaganda.  A  strict 
investigation  was  then  made,  all  Poles  were  expelled,  and  all  the 
iSocinian  writings  that  could  be  discovered  were. burned. — The  later 
Polish  Exultants  sought  and  found  refuge  in  Germany,  especially  in 
Silesia,  Prussia,  and  Brandenburg,  as  well  as  in  the  Reformed  Pala- 
tinate, and  also  founded  some  small  Unitarian  congregations,  which, 
however,  after  maintaining  for  a  while  a  miserable  existence,  gra- 
dixallj'  i^assed  out  of  view.  They  had  greater  success  and  spread  more 
widely  in  the  Netherlands,  till  the  states-general  of  1653,  in  conse- 
quence of  repeated  synodal  protests,  and  on  the  ground  of  an  opinion 
given  by  the  University  of  Leyden,  issued  a  strict  edict  against  the 
Unitarians,  who  now  gradually  pdssed  over  to  the  ranks  of  the 
Remonstrants  (§  161,  2)  and  the  Collegiants.  Also  in  England,  since 
the  time  of  Henry  VIII.,  antitrinitarian  confessors  and  martyrs  were 
to  be  found.  Even  in  1611,  under  James  I.,  three  of  them  had  been 
consigned  to  the  flames.  The  Polish  Socinians  took  occasion  from  this 
to  send  the  king  a  Bacovian  Catechism ;  but  in  1614  it  was,  by  order 
of  parliament,  burned  by  the  hands  of  the  hangman.  The  Socinians 
were  also  excluded  from  the  benefit  of  the  Act  of  Toleration  of  1689, 
which  was  granted  to  all  other  dissenters  (§  155,  3).  The  progress  of 
deism,  however,  among  the  ujjper  classes  (§§  164,  3 ;  171,  1)  did  much 
to  prevent  the  extreme  penal  laws  being  carried  into  execution. — The 
following  are  the  most  distinguished  among  the  numeroxis  learned 
theologians  of  the  Augustan  age  of  Socinian  scholarship,  who  contri- 
buted to  the  extending,  establishing,  and  vindicating  of  the  system  of 
their  church  by  exegetical,  dogmatic,  and  polemical  writings :  John 
Crell,  died  1631 ;  Jonas  Schlichting,  died  1661 ;  Von  Wolzogen,  died 
1661  •,  and  Andr.  Wissowatius,  a  grandson  of  Fatistus  Socinus,  died 
1678;  and  with  these  must  also  be  ranked  the  historian  of  Polish 
Socinianism,  Stanislaus  Lubienicki,  died  1675,  whose  "Hist.  Reformat. 
PoIoniccB^''''  etc.,  was  published  at  Amsterdam  in  1685. 

2.  The  Baptists  of  the  Continent.— (1)  The  Dutch  Baptists  (g  147,  2>. 
Even  during  IMenno's  lifetime  the  Memionitcs  had  jplit  into  the  Coarse 
and  the  Five.    The  Coarse,  vho  had  abandoned  much  of  the  primitive 


§  163.    SECTS   AND   FANATICS.  69 

severity  of  the  sect,  and  -were  by  far  the  most  numerous,  Avere  again 
divided  during  the  Arminian  controversy  into  Remonstrants  and  Pre- 
destinationists.  The  former,  from  their  leader,  Avere  called  Galenists, 
and  from  having  a  lamb  as  the  sj-mbol  of  their  Church,  Lambists. 
The  latter  were  called  Apostoolers  from  their  leader,  and  Sunists 
because  their  churches  had  the  figure  of  the  sun  as  a  symbol.  The 
Lambists,  who  acknowledged  no  confession  of  faith,  were  most  nume- 
rous. In  A.D.  1800,  however,  a  union  of  the  two  parties  was  eflfected. 
the  Sunists  adopting  the  doctrinal  position  of  the  Lambists. — During 
the  time  when  Arminian  pastors  were  banished  from  the  Netherlands, 
tlu-ee  brothers  Van  der  Kodde  fomided  a  sect  of  Collegiants,  which 
repudiated  the  clerical  office,  assigned  preaching  and  dispensation  of 
sacraments  to  laymen,  and  baptized  only  adults  by  immersion.  Their 
l)lace  of  baptism  was  Eliynsburg  on  the  Rhine,  and  hence  they  were 
lalled  Eh3msburgers.  Their  other  name  was  given  them  from 
their  assemblies,  which  they  stjded  collegia.— {2)  The  Moravian  Baptists 
(§  147,  3).  The  Thirty  Years'  "War  ruined  the  flourishing  Baptist 
congregations  in  Moravia,  and  the  reaction  against  all  non-Catholics 
that  followed  the  battle  of  the  White  Mountain  near  Prague,  in  a.u. 
1020,  told  sorely  against  them.  In  a.d.  1622  a  decree  for  their  banish- 
ment was  issued,  and  these  quiet,  inoffensive  men  were  again  homeless 
fugitives.  Remnants  of  them  fled  into  Hungar3^  and  Transylvania, 
only  to  meet  new  persecutions  there.  A  letter  of  jDrotection  from 
Leopold  I.,  A.D.  1659,  seciu'ed  them  the  right  of  settling  in  tlu-ee 
counties  around  Pressburg.  But  soon  these  rigorous  persecutions 
broke  out  afi-esh ;  they  were  beset  by  Jesuits  seeking  to  convert  them, 
and  when  this  failed  they  were  driven  out  or  annihilated.  At  last, 
by  A.D.  1757-1702,  they  were  completely  broken  up,  and  most  of  them 
had  joined  the  Roman  Catholic  church.  A  few  families  preserved 
their  faith  by  flight  into  South  Russia,  where  they  settled  in  Wir- 
schenka.  When  the  Tolei-ation  Edict  of  Joseph  II.,  of  a.d.  1781, 
secured  religious  freedom  to  Protestants  in  Austria,  several  returned 
again  to  the  faith  of  their  fathers,  in  the  hope  that  the  toleration 
would  be  extended  to  them;  but  they  were  bitterly  disappointed. 
They  now  betook  themselves  to  Riissia,  and  together  with  their 
brethren  alreadj^  there,  settled  in  the  Crimea,  Avhere  they  still  consti- 
tute the  colony  of  Hutersthal. 

B.  The  English  Baptists. — The  notion  that  infant  baptism  is  objec- 
tionable also  found  favour  among  the  English  Independents.  Owing 
to  the  slight  importance  attached  to  the  sacraments  generallj',  and 
more  particularly  to  baptism,  in  the  Reformed  church,  especially 
among  the  Independents,  the  supporters  of  the  practice  of  the 
church  in  regard  to  baptism  to  a  large  extent  occupied  common 
ground  with  its  opponents.    The  separation  took  place  only  after  the 


70      CHURCH   HISTOEY  OF   SEVENTEENTH   CENTURY.      ' 

rise  of  the  fanatical  prophetic  sects  (§  161,  1).  We  must,  however, 
distinguish  from  the  continental  Anabaptists  the  English  Baptists, 
■who  enjoyed  the  benefit  of  the  Toleration  Act  of  William  III.,  of  a.u. 
1689,  along  Avith  the  other  dissenters,  by  maintaining  their  Indepen- 
dent-Congregationalist  constitution  (§  155,  3).  In  a.d.  1691,  over  the 
Arminian  question,  they  split  up  into  Particular  and  General,  or 
Regular  and  Free  Will,  Baptists.  The  former,  by  far  the  more 
numerous,  held  by  the  Calvinistic  doctrine  of  gratia  particularis; 
while  the  latter  rejected  it.  The  Seventh-Day  Baptists,  who  observed 
the  seventh  instead  of  the  first  day  of  the  week,  were  founded  hy 
Bami^field  in  a.d.  1665.^ — From  England  the  Baptists  spread  to  North 
America,  in  a.d.  1630,  whex^e  Roger  Williams  (§  162,  2),  one  of  their 
first  leaders,  founded  the  little  state  of  Rhode  Island,  and  organized  it 
on  thoroughly  Baptist-Independent  principles.^ — Continuation,  §  170, 6. 
4.  The  Quakers — George  Fox,  born  a.d.  1624,  died  a.d.  1691,  was  son  of 
a  poor  Presbyterian  weaver  in  Drayton,  Leicestershire.  After  scant 
schooling  he  went  to  learn  shoemaking  at  Nottingham,  but  in  a.d.  1643 
abandoned  the  trade.  Harassed  by  spiritual  conflicts,  he  wandered 
about  seeking  peace  for  his  soul.  Upon  hearing  an  Independent  preach 
on  2  Peter  i.  19,  he  Avas  moved  loudly  to  contradict  the  preacher. 
"  What  Ave  haA'e  to  do  Avith,"  he  said,  "  is  not  the  A\^ord,  but  the 
Spirit  by  Avhich  those  men  of  God  spake  and  Avrote.*'  He  aa'^s 
seized  as  a  disturber  of  public  Avorship,  but  AA'as  soon  after  released. 
In  a.d.  1649  he  traA'elled  the  country  preaching  and  teaching,  address- 
ing every  man  as  "thou,"  raising  his  hat  to  none,  greeting  none, 
attracting  thousands  by  his  preaching,  often  imprisoned,  flogged, 
tortui'ed,  hunted  like  a  Avild  beast.  The  core  of  his  preaching  A\'as, 
not  Scripture,  but  the  Spirit,  not  Chi'ist  Avithout  but  Christ  Avithin,  not 
outAvard  Avorship,  not  churches,  "steeple-houses,"  and  bells,  not  doc- 
trines and  sacraments,  but  only  the  inner  light,  AA'hich  is  kindled  by 
Cod  in  the  conscience  of  e\'ery  man,  reneAved  and  quickened  by  the 
Spirit  of  Christ,  Avhich  suddenly  lays  hold  upon  it.  The  number  of 
his  folloAvers  increased  from  day  to  day.  In  a.d.  1652  he  found,  along 
Avith  his  friends,  a  kindly  shelter  in  the  house  of  Thomas  Fell,  of 
Smarthmore  near  Preston,  and  in  his  AA^fe  Margaret  a  motherly 


1  Crosby,  "  History  of  the  English  Baptists."  4  vols.  London,  1728. 
Ivimey,  "  History  of  the  English  Baptists  from  1688-1760."  2  vols. 
London,  1830.  Ci'amp,  "  History  of  the  Baptists  to  end  of  18th  Cen- 
tury."   3  A'ols.     London,  1872. 

-  Backus,  "  History  of  the  English-American  Baptists."  2  vols. 
Boston,  1777.  Cox  and  Hoby,  "The  Baptists  in  America."  NeAv 
Y'ork,  1836.  Hague,  "The  Baptists  Transplanted."  etc.  NeAv  York, 
1846. 


§  163.    SECTS  AND   FANATICS.  71 

comisellor,  who  devoted  her  whole  life  to  tlie  cause,  Tliej'  called 
themselves  '■  The  Society  of  Friends."  The  name  Quaker  was  given 
as  a  term  of  I'eproach  bj'  a  violent  judge,  whom  Fox  bad  '•  quake 
before  the  word  of  God."  fAfter  the  overtlu-ow  of  the  hopes  of  the 
Saints  througli  the  dissolution  of  the  Short  Parliament  and  Crom- 
well's apostasy  (^  155,  2).  many  of  them  joined  the  Quakers,  and  led 
tliem  into  revolutionary  and  fanatical  excesses.  Confined  hitherto  to 
the  northern  counties,  they  now  spread  in  London  and  Bristol,  and 
over  all  the  south  of  England.  In  January,  a.d.  1655,  they  held  a  fort- 
night's general  meeting  at  Swannington,  in  Leicestersliire.  Crowds 
of  apostles  went  over  into  Ireland,  to  North  America  and  the  West 
Indies,  to  Holland,  German}',  France,  and  Ital}-,  and  even  to  Con- 
stantinople. The}'  did  not  meet  with  great  success.  In  Ital}'-  they 
encountered  the  Inquisition,  and  in  Xorth  America  the  severest  penal 
laws  were  passed  against  them.  In  a.u.  1(J5(J  James  Xaylor,  one  of 
their  most  famous  leaders,  celebrated  at  Bristol  the  second  coming  of 
Christ  '•  in  the  Spirit,"  by  enacting  the  scene  of  Christ's  triumi^hal 
entry  into  Jerusalem.  But  the  king  of  the  new  Israel  was  scoui'ged, 
branded  on  the  forehead  with  the  letter  B  as  a  blasphemer,  had  his 
tongue  pierced  with  a  redhot  iron,  and  was  then  cast  into  prison. 
]\rany  absurd  extravagances  of  this  kind,  which  drew  down  upon 
them  frequent  persecutions,  as  well  as  the  failure  of  their  foreign 
missionarjr  enterprises,  brought  most  of  the  C^uakei's  to  adopt  more 
sober  views.  The  great  mother  Quakeress,  Margaret  Fell,  exercised  a 
powerful  influence  in  this  direction.  George  Fox,  too,  out  of  whose 
hands  the  movement  had  for  a  long  time  gone,  now  lent  his  aid. 
Naylor  himself,  in  a.d.  1659,  issued  a  recantation,  addressed  '"to  all  the 
people  of  the  Lord,"  in  whichUie  made  the  confession,  "My  judgment 
Avas  turned  away,  and  I  was  a  captive  under  the  jjower  of  darkness." 

5.  The  movement  of  Quakerism  in  the  direction  of  sobriet}--  and 
common  sense  was  carried  out  to  its  fullest  extent  diu'ing  the  Stuart 
Restoration,  a.d.  1660-1GS8.  Abandoning  their  revolutionar}^  tenden- 
cies through  dislike  to  Cromwell's  violence,  and  giving  up  most  of  their 
fanatical  extravagances,  the  Quakers  became  models  of  quiet,  orderly 
living.  Eobert  Barclay,  by  his  '•  CatecJiesis  et  Fidei  Confess io,'''  of  a.d. 
1673,  gave  a  sort  of  symbolic  expression  to  their  belief,  and  vindicated 
his  doctrinal  i^ositions  in  his  "  Thcologim  veie  Christiame  Apologia  "  of 
a.u.  1676.  During  this  period  many  of  them  laid  do-vni  their  lives  for 
their  faith.  On  the  other  side  of  the  sea  they  formed  powerful  settle- 
ments, distinguished  for  religious  toleration  and  brothei'ly  love.  The 
chief  in-omoter  of  this  new  departure  was  'William  Penn,  a.d.  163-i- 
1718,  sou  of  an  English  admiral,  who,  while  a  student  at  Oxford, 
A\as  impressed  by  a  Quaker's  preaching,  and  led  to  attend  the  prayer 
and  fellowship  meetings  of  the  Friends.    In  order  to  break  his  con- 


72      CHURCH   HISTORY   OF   SEVENTEENTH   CENTURY, 

nexion  with  this  part}-,  his  father  sent  him,  in  a.d.  1661,  to  travel  in 
France  and  Italy.  The  frivolity  of  the  French  court  failed  to  attract 
him,  but  for  a  long  time  he  Avas  spellbound  by  Amj'rault's  theological 
lectures  at  Saumur.  On  his  return  home,  in  a.d.  1664,  he  seemed  to 
liave  completely  come  back  to  a  Avorldly  life,  when  once  again  he  was 
arrested  bj'  a  Quaker's  preaching.  In  a.d.  1668  he  formally  joined 
the  society.  For  a  coutroversial  tract,  Tlie  Sandy  Foundation  Shaken, 
he  was  sent  for  six  months  to  the  Tower,  where  he  composed  the 
famous  tract,  Xo  Crons,  no  Crown,  and  a  treatise  in  his  own  vindica- 
tion, "  Innocency  with  her  Open  Face.''  His  father,' who,  shortly  before 
his  death  in  a.d.  1670,  was  reconciled  to  his  son,  left  him  a  yearly 
income  of  £1,500,  with  a  claim  on  Government  for  £16,000.  In  spite 
of  continued  jjersecution  and  oppression  he  continued  unweariedly  to 
promote  the  cause  of  Quakerism  by  speech  and  pen.  In  a.d.  1677,  in 
company  with  Fox  and  Barclay,  he  made  a  tour  through  Holland  and 
Germany.  In  both  countries  he  formed  many  friendships,  but  did 
not  succeed  in  establishing  any  societies.  His  hopes  now  tui-ned  to 
North  America,  where  Fox  had  already  wrought  with  success  during 
the  times  of  sorest  persecution,  a.d.  1671,  1672.  In  lieu  of  his  father's 
claim,  he  obtained  from  Government  a  large  tract  of  land  on  the 
Delaware,  with  the  light  of  colonizing  and  organizing  it  inider 
English  suzerainty.  Twice  he  went  out  for  this  purpose  himself,  in 
a.d.  1682  and  1699,  and  formed  the  Qiiaker  state  of  Pennsylvania, 
with  Philadelphia  as  its  capital.  The  first  principle  of  its  constitu- 
tion was  universal  religious  toleration,  even  to  Catholics.^ 

6.  The  Quaker  Constitution,  as  fixed  in  Penii's  time,  was  strictly  demo- 
cratic and  congregationalist,  with  complete  exclusion  of  a  clerical 
order.  At  their  services  any  man  or  woman,  if  moved  by  the  Spirit, 
might  pra}',  teach,  or  exhort,  or  if  no  one  felt  so  impelled  they  would 
sit  on  in  silence.  Their  meeting-houses  had  not  the  form  or  fit- 
tings of  churches,  their  devotional  services  had  neither  singing  nor 
music.  They  repudiated  water  baptism,  alike  of  infants  and  adults, 
and  recognised  only  baptism  of  the  Spirit.  The  Lord's  sup^oer,  as  a 
symbolical  memorial,  is  no  more  needed  by  those  who  are  born  again. 

*  Of  special  importance  for  the  early  history  of  the  Quakers  are, 
"  Letters  of  Early  Friends,"  edited  by  Robert  Barclay,  a  descendant  of 
the  Quaker  ajjostle.  London,  1841.  '"Fox's  Journal;  or,  Historical 
Accounts  of  his  Life,  Travels,  and  Sufferings."'  London,  1694.  Penn, 
"  Summary  of  History,  Doctrines,  and  Discipline  of  Friends."  London, 
1692.  Tallack,  "George  Fox;  the  Quakers  and  the  Early  Baptists." 
London,  1868.  Bickley,  "  George  Fox  and  the  Early  Quakers."  Lon- 
don, 18R4.  Stoughtoi), '•  AV.  Penn,  Founder  of  Pennsylvania."  Lon- 
don, 1883, 


§  163.    SECTS   AND   FANATICS.  73 

Moutlily  gatherings  of  all  iudepeudent  members,  quarterly  meetings 
of  deputies  of  a  circuit,  and  a  yearly  synod  of  representatives  of  all 
the  circuits,  administered  or  drew  up  the  regulations  for  the  several 
societies.  The  Doctrinal  Belief  of  the  Quakers  is  completely  dominated 
by  its  central  dogma  of  the  '•  inner  light,"  which  is  identified  with 
reason  and  conscience  as  the  common  heritage  of  mankind.  Darkened 
and  weakened  by  the  fall,  it  is  requickened  in  us  by  the  Spirit  of  the 
glorified  Christ,  and  possesses  us  as  an  inner  spiritual  Christ,  an 
inner  Word  of  God.  The  Bible  is  recognised  as  the  outer  word  of 
God,  but  is  Tiseful  only  as  a  means  of  arousing  the  inner  word.  The 
Calvinistic  doctrine  of  election  is  decidedly  rejected,  and  also  that  of 
vicarious  satisfaction.  But  also  the  doctrines  of  the  fall,  original  sin, 
justification  by  faith,  as  well  as  that  of  the  Trinitj',  are  very  much 
set  aside  in  favoiir  of  an  indefinite  subjective  theology  of  feeling. 
The  operation  of  the  Holy  Spirit  in  man's  redemption  and  salvation 
outside  of  Christendom  is  frankly  admitted.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
ethical-practical  element,  as  shown*  in  works  of  benevolence,  in  the 
battle  for  religious  freedom,  for  the  abolition  of  slavery,  etc.,  is 
bi'ought  to  the  front.  In  regard  to  life  and  manners,  the  Quakeis 
have  distinguished  themselves  in  all  domestic,  civil,  industrial,  and 
mercantile,  movements  by  quiet,  peaceful  industr}"-,  strict  integrit}', 
and  simple  habits,  so  that  not  only  did  thej'  amass  great  wealth, 
but  gained  the  confidence  and  i-espect  of  those  around.  They  refused 
to  take  oaths  or  to  serve  as  soldiers,  or  to  engage  in  sports,  or  to 
indulge  in  any  kind  of  luxury.  In  social  intercourse  they  declined 
to  acknowledge  any  titles  of  rank,  would  not  bow  or  raise  the  hat  to 
any,  but  addressed  all  by  the  simple  "  thou."  Their  men  wore  broad- 
brimmed  hats,  a  plain,  simple  coat,  without  collar  or  buttons,  fastened 
by  hooks.  Their  women  wore  a  simple  gray  silk  dress,  with  like 
coloured  bonnet,  without  ribbon,  flower,  or  feathers,  and  a  plain 
shawl.  Wearing  mourning  dress  was  regarded  as  a  heathenish  cus- 
tom.i — Continuation.  §  211,  3. 

7.  Labadie  and  the  Labadists — Jean  de  Labadie,  the  scion  of  an 
ancient  noble  family,  born  a.d.  1610,  was  educated  in  the  Jesuit  school 
at  Bordeaux,  entered  the  order,  and  became  a  priest,  but  was  released 
from  office  at  his  own  wish  in  a.d.  1639,  on  account  of  delicate  health. 
Even  in  the  Jesuit  college  the  principles  that  manifested  themselves 

*  Sewel,  "  History  of  the  Quakers."'  2  vols.  London,  1834,  Cun- 
ningham, "  The  Quakers,  from  their  Origin  in  1624  to  the  Present 
Time."  London,  186S.  Barclaj^,  "  Apologj'  for  the  True  Christian 
Divinity:  a  Vindication  of  Quakerism."  4th  ed.  London,  1701.  Clark- 
son,  "  A  Portraiture  of  Quakerism."  3  vols.  London,  1806.  Eown- 
tree,  '•  Quakerism,  Past  and  Present."    London,  1839. 


74      CHUECH  HISTOEY   OF   SEVENTEENTH  CENTUEY. 

in  his  later  life  began  to  take  root  in  him.  B3'  Scripture  study  he 
was  led  to  adopt  almost  Augaistiniaai  views  of  sin  and  grace,  as  well 
as  the  conviction  of  the  need  of  a  revival  of  the  church  after  the 
apostolic  pattern.  This  tendency  was  confirmed  and  deepened  by  the 
influence  of  Spanish  Quietism,  Avhich  even  the  Jesuits  had  favoured 
to  some  extent.  [In  the  interest  of  these  views  he  wrought  labori- 
ously for  eleven  years  as  Catholic  priest  in  Amiens,  Paris,  and  other 
places,  amid  the  increasing  hostility  of  the  Jesuits.  Their  persecu- 
tion, together  with  a  growing  clearness  in  his  Augustinian  convic- 
tions, led  him  formally  to  go  over  to  the  Reformed  church  in  a.d. 
IGoO.  He  now  laboiired  for  seven  years  as  Reformed  pastor  at 
Montauban.  In  a.d.  1657,  owing  to  political  suspicions  against  him 
spread  by  tlie  Jesuits,  he  withdrew  from  Montauban,  and,  after  two 
years'  labour  at  Orange,  settled  at  Geneva,  where  his  preaching  and 
household  visitations  bore  abundant  fruit.  In  a.d,  1666  he  accepted  a 
call  to  Middelburg,  in  Zealand.  There  he  was  almost  as  successful 
as  he  had  been  in  Geneva ;  but  there  too  it  began  to  ajjpear  that  in 
him  there  burned  a  fire  strange  to  the  Reformed  church.  The  French 
Reformed  synod  took  great  offence  at  his  refusal  to  sign  the  Belgic 
Confession.  It  Avas  found  that  at  many  points  he  was  not  in  sympathy 
with  the  church  standards,  that  he  had  written  in  favour  of  chiliasm 
and  the  'Apokatastasis,  that  in  regard  to  the  nature  and  idea  of 
the  church  and  its  need  of  a  reformation  he  was  not  in  accord  with 
the  views  of  the  Reformed  cluTrch.  The  synod  in  1668  suspended 
him  from  office,  and,  as  he  did  not  confess  his  errors,  in  the  follow- 
ing year  deposed  liim.  Labadie  then  saw  that  what  he  regarded 
as  his  lifework,  the  restoration  of  the  apostolic  church,  was  as  little 
attainable  within  the  Reformed  as  within  the  Catholic  church.  He 
tlierefore  organized  his  followers  into  a  separate  denomination,  and 
was,  together  with  them,  banished  by  the  magistrate.  The  neigh- 
bouring town  of  Veere  received  them  gladly,  but  Middelbtirg  now  jjer- 
suaded  the  Zealand  council  to  issue  a  decree  banishing  them  from  that 
town  also.  The  j)eople  of  Veere  were  ready  to  defy  this  order,  but 
Labadie  thought  it  better  to  avoid  the  risk  of  a  civil  war  by  voluntaiy 
AV'ithdrawal ;  and  so  he  went,  in  Augvtst,  a.d.  1669,  with  about  forty 
followers,  to  Amsterdam,  where  he  laid  the  foundations  of  an  apostolic 
church.  This  new  society  consisted  of  a  sort  of  monastic  household 
consisting  only  of  the  regenerate.  They  hired  a  commodious  house,  and 
from  thence  sent  out  spiritual  Avorkers  as  missionaries,  to  spread  the 
principles  of  the  "  new  church  "  throughout  the  land.  Within  a  j^ear 
they  numbered  60,000  souls.  They  disi^ensed  the  sacrament  according 
to  the  Reformed  rite,  and  preached  the  gospel  in  conventicles.  The 
most  important  gain  to  the  party  was  the  adhesion  of  Anna  Maria 
V(3n  Schilrman,  born  at  Cologne  a.d.  1607  of  a  Reformed  family,  but 


§  163.   SECTS  AND  FANATICS.  75 

i5ettled  from  a.d.  1623  with  her  mother  in  Utrecht,  celehrated  for  her 
unexampled  attainment  in  languages,  science,  and  art.  When  in  a.d. 
1760,  the  government,  urged  bj^  the  sjaiod,  forbad  attendance  on 
the  Labadists'  preaching,  the  accomplished  and  pious  Countess- 
l)alatine  Elizabeth,  sister  of  the  elector-palatine,  and  abbess  of  th(^ 
i-ich  cloister  of  Herford,  whose  intimate  friend  Schiirman  had  been 
for  forty  j'-ears,  gave  them  an  asj-lum  in  the  capital  of  her  little 
state. 

8.  In  Herford  "  the  Hollal^ders "  met  with  bitter  opposition  from 
the  Lutheran  clergj^,  the  magistracy,  and  populace,  and  were  treated  by 
the  mob  with  insult  and  scorn.  They  themselves  also  gave  onlj'-  too 
good  occasion  for  ridicule.  At  a  sacramental  celebration,  the  aged 
Labadie  and  still  older  Schiirman  embraced  and  kissed  each  othei- 
and  began  to  dance  for  joy.  In  his  sermons  and  -writings  Labadie  set 
forth  the  Quietist  doctrines  of  the  limitation  of  Christ's  life  and  suffer- 
ings in  the  mortification  of  the  flesh,  the  duty  of  silent  prayer,  the 
sinking  of  the  soul  into  the  depths  of  the  Godhead,  the  communitj^  of 
goods,  etc.  Special  offence  was  given  by  the  private  marriage  of  the 
three  leaders,  Labadie,  Yvon,  and  Dulignon  with  young  wealthy  ladies 
of  society,  and  their  views  of  marriage  among  the  regenerate  as  an 
institution  for  raising  uj)  a  pvire  seed  free  from  original  sin  and 
brought  forth  witliout  pain.  The  Elector  of  Brandenburg,  hitherto 
favourable,  as  guardian  of  the  seminary  was  obliged,  in  answer  to 
the  complaints  of  the  Herford  magistracy,  to  appoint  a  commission  of 
inqviiry.  Labadie  wrote  a  defence,  which  was  published  in  Latin, 
Dutch,  and  German,  in  which  he  endeavoured  to  harmonize  his  mys- 
tical views  with  the  doctrines  of  the  Reformed  church.  But  in  a.d.  1671 
the  magisti-ates  obtained  a  mandate  from  the  imperial  court  at  Spires, 
Avhich  threatened  the  abbess  with  the  ban  if  she  continued  to  harboui- 
the  sectaries.  In  a.d.  1672  Labadie  settled  in  Altona,  where  he  died 
in  A.D.  1674.  His  followers,  numbering  160,  remained  here  undisturbed 
till  the  war  between  Denmark  and  Sweden  broke  out  in  a.d.  1675. 
They  then  retired  to  the  castle  of  Waltha  in  West  Friesland,  the 
jjroperty  of  three  sisters  belonging  to  the  party.  Schiirman  died  in 
A.D.  1678,  Dulignon  in  a.d.  1679,  and  Yvon,  who  now  had  sole  charge, 
Avas  obliged  in  a.d.  1688  to  abolish  the  institution  of  the  community  of 
goods,  after  a  trial  of  eighteen  years,  being  able  to  pay  back  much  less 
than  he  had  received.  After  his  death  in  a.d.  1707  the  community 
gradually  fell  off,  and  after  the  iiroperty  had  gone  into  other  hands 
(in  the  death  of  the  last  of  the  sisters  in  a.d.  1725,  the  society  final]}' 
broke  up. 

y.  During  this  age  various  fanatical  sects  sprang  up.  In  Thuringia, 
Stiefel  and  his  nephew  Meth  caused  much  trouble  to  the  Lutheraii 
clergy  in  the  beginning  of  the  century  by  their  fanatical  enthusiasm, 


76      CHURCH   HISTORY  OF    SEVENTEENTH   CENTURY. 

till  convinced,  after  twenty  years,  of  the  errors  of  their  ways.  Drabicius, 
who  had  left  the  Bohemian  Brethren  owing  to  differences  of  belief,  and 
then  lived  in  Hungary  as  a  weaver  in  poor  circumstances,  boasted  in 
A.D.  1G38  of  having  Divine  revelations,  prophesied  the  overthrow  of 
the  Ai;strian  dynasty  in  a.d.  1657,  the  election  of  the  French  king 
as  emperor,  the  speedy  fall  of  the  Papacy,  and  the  final  conversion 
of  all  heathens ;  but  was  put  to  death  at  Pressburg  in  a.d.  1G71  as  a 
traitor  with  cruel  tortures.  Even  Comenius,  the  noble  bishop  of  the 
Moravians,  took  the  side  of  the  prophets,  and  published  his  own  and 
others'  proiDhecies  under  the  title  "  L^ix  in  Tenebrisy — Jane  Leade  of 
Norfolk,  influenced  by  the  writings  of  Bohme,  had  visions,  in  which  the 
Divine  Wisdom  appeared  to  her  as  a  virgin.  She  spread  her  Gnostic 
revelations  in  numerous  tracts,  founded  in  a.d.  1670  the  Philadelphian 
Society  in  London,  and  died  in  a.d.  1704,  at  the  age  of  eighty-one. 
The  most  important  of  her  followers  was  John  Pordage,  preacher  and 
ph5'sician,  whose  theological  speculation  closel3''  resembles  that  of  Jac. 
Bohme.  To  the  Eeformed  church  belonged  also  Peter  Poiret  of  Metz, 
pastor  from  a.d.  1664  in  Heidelburg,  and  afterwards  of  a  French  con- 
gregation in  the  Palatine-Zweibriicken.  Influenced  by  the  writings 
of  Bourignon  and  Guyon,  he  resigned  his  pastorate,  and  accompanied 
the  former  in  his  wanderings  in  north-west  Germany  till  his  death 
in  1680.  At  Amsterdam  in  a.d.  1687  he  wrote  his  mystical  work, 
'•  V Ecojiomie  Divine'''  in  seven  vols.,  Avhich  sets  forth  in  the  Cocceiau 
method  the  mysticism  and  theosophy  of  Bourignon.  He  died  at 
Ehynsburg  in  a.d.  1719.  —  From  the  Lutheran  church  proceeded 
Giftheil  of  Wiirttemburg,  Breckling  of  Holstein,  and  Kuhlmann,  who 
went  about  denouncing  the  clergj^,  proclaiming  fanatical  views,  and 
calling  for  impracticable  reforms.  Of  much  greater  importance  was 
John  George  Gichtel,  an  eccentric  disciple  of  Jac.  Bohme,  who  in  a.d. 
1665  lost  his  situation  as  law  agent  in  his  native  town  of  Begensburg, 
his  property,  and  civil  rights,  and  suffered  imprisonment  and  exih; 
from  the  city  for  his  fanatical  ideas.  He  died  in  needy  circumstances 
in  Amsterdam  in  a.d.  1710.  He  had  revelations  and  visions,  fought 
against  the  doctrine  of  justification,  and  denounced  marriage  as  forni- 
cation which  nullifies  the  spiritual  marriage  with  the  heavenly  Sophia 
consummated  in  the  new  birth,  etc.  His  followers  called  themselves 
Angelic  Brethren,  from  Matthew  xxii.  20,  strove  after  angelic  sinless- 
ness  by  emancipation  from  all  earthly  lusts,  toils,  and  care,  regarded 
themselves  as  a  priesthood  after  the  order  of  Melchizedec  for  propi- 
tiating the  Divine  wrath. — Continuation,  §  170. 

10.  Russian  Sects. — A  vast  number  of  sects  sprang  up  within  the  Rus- 
sian church,  which  are  all  included  under  the  genei-al  name  Easkolniks 
or  apostates.  They  fall  into  two  great  classes  in  their  distinctive 
character,  diametrically  opposed    the    one   to  the    other.      (1)    The 


§  163.    SECTS   AND   FANATICS.  77 

Starowerzi,  or  Old  Believers.  Tliey  originated  in  a.d.  1652,  in  con- 
sequence of  the  liturgical  reform  of  the  learned  and  powerful  patri- 
arch Nikon,  which  called  forth  the  violent  opposition  of  a  large 
body  of  the  peasantry,  who  loved  the  old  forms.  Besides  stubborn 
adhesion  to  the  old  liturgy,  they  rejected  all  modern  customs  and 
luxuries,  held  it  sinful  to  cut  the  beard,  to  smoke  tobacco,  to  drink  tea 
and  coffee,  etc.  The  StaroAverzi,  numbering  some  ten  millions,  are  to 
this  day  distinguished  by  their  pure  and  simple  lives,  and  are  split  up 
into  three  parties :  (i.)  Jedinoicerzi,  who  are  nearest  to  the  orthodox 
church,  recognise  its  priesthood,  and  are  different  only  in  their  reli- 
gious ceremonies  and  the  habits  of  their  social  life  ;  (ii.)  The  Starov- 
bradzi,  who  do  not  recognise  the  priesthood  of  the  orthodox  church  ; 
and  (iii.)  the  Bcspopoidschini^  who  have  no  priests,  but  only  elders, 
and  are  split  up  into  various  smaller  sects.  Under  the  peasant  Philip 
Pustosiwat,  a  party  of  Starowerzi,  called  from  their  leader  Philippin-:, 
fled  during  the  persecution  of  a.d.  1700  from  the  government  of  Olonez, 
and  settled  in  Polish  Lithuania  and  East  Prussia,  where  to  the  num- 
ber of  1,200  souls  they  live  to  this  day  in  villages  in  the  district 
of  Gumbinnen,  engaged  in  agriciiltural  pursuits,  and  observing  the 
rites  of  the  old  Russian  church.— (2)  At  the  very  opposite  pole  from 
the  Starowerzi  stand  the  Heretical  Sects,  which  repudiate  and  con- 
demn everything  in  the  shape  of  external  church  organization,  and 
manifest  a  tendency  in  some  cases  toward  fanatical  excess,  and  in 
other  cases  toward  rationalistic  spiritualism.  As  the  sects  showing 
the  latter  tendency  did  not  make  their  appearance  till  the  eighteenth 
century  (§  166,  2),  we  have  here  to  do  only  with  those  of  the  former 
class.  The  most  important  of  these  sects  is  that  of  the  Men  of  God,  or 
Spiritual  Christians,  who  trace  their  origin  from  a  peasant,  Danila 
Filipow,  of  the  province  of  Wladimir.  In  1645,  saj'  they,  the  divine 
Father,  seated  on  a  cloud  of  flame,  surrounded  by  angels,  descended 
from  heaven  on  Moiuit  Gorodin  in  a  chariot  of  fire,  in  order  to  restore 
true  Christianity  in  its  original  purity  and  spiritualit}-.  For  this 
purpose  he  incarnated  himself  in  Filipow's  pure  bod}-.  He  coin- 
manded  his  followers,  Avho  in  large  numbers,  mainly  dra\\-n  from  the 
peasant  class,  gathered  around  him,  not  to  marrj',  and  if  already 
married  to  put  away  their  wives,  to  abstain  from  all  intoxicating 
drinks,  to  be  present  neither  at  marriages  nor  baptisms,  but  above 
all  things  to  believe  that  there  is  no  other  god  besides  him.  After 
some  years  he  adopted  as  his  son  another  peasant,  Ivan  Suslow,  who 
was  said  to  have  been  boni  of  a  woman  a  hundred  years  old,  by  com- 
municating to  him  in  his  thirtieth  year  his  own  divine  natui-e.  Ivan, 
as  a  new  Christ,  sent  out  twelve  apostles  to  spread  his  doctrine.  The 
Czar  Alexis  put  him  and  forty  of  his  adherents  into  prison;  but 
neither  the  kncut  nor  the  rack  could  wring  from  them  the  mysteries 


78      CHURCH  HISTORY   OF   SEVENTEENTH   CENTURY. 

of  their  faith  and  worship.  At  last,  on  a  Friday,  the  czar  caused  the 
new  Christ  to  be  crucified ;  but  on  the  following  Sunday  he  appeared 
risen  again  among  his  disciples.  After  some  years  the  imprisoning, 
crucifying,  and  resurrection  were  repeated.  Imprisoned  a  third  time, 
in  1672,  he  owed  his  liberation  to  an  edict  of  grace  on  the  occasion  of 
the  birth  of  the  Prince  Peter  the  Great.  He  now  lived  at  Moscow 
along  with  the  divine  father  Filipow,  who  had  hitherto  consulted  his 
own  safety  by  living  in  concealment  in  the  enjoyment  of  the  adoration 
of  his  followers  unmolested  [for  thirty  years,  supported  by  certain 
wealthy  merchants.  FilipoAv  is  said  to  have  ascended  up  in  the  pre- 
sence of  iTiany  witnesses,  in  1700,  into  the  seventh  and  highest  heaven, 
where  he  immediately  seated  himself  on  the  throne  as  the  "  Lord  of 
Hosts,"  and  the  Christ,  Susloiv,  also  returned  thither  in  1716,  after 
both  had  reached  the  hundredth  year  of  the  human  existence.  As 
Suslow's  successor  appeared  a  new  Christ  in  Prokopi  Lupkin,  and 
after  his  death,  in  1732,  arose  Andr.  Petrow.  The  last  Christ  mani- 
festation was  revealed  in  the  person  of  the  unfortmiate  Czar  Peter 
III.,  dethroned  by  his  wife  Catharine  II.  in  1762,  who,  living  mean- 
while in  secret,  shall  soon  retnrn,  to  the  terrible  confusion  of  all 
unbelievers.  With  this  the  historical  tradition  of  the  earlier  sect  of 
the  Men  of  God  is  brought  to  a  close,  and  in  the  Skopsen,  or  Emiuchs, 
who  also  venerate  the  Czar  Peter  HI.  as  the  Christ  that  is  to  come 
again,  a  new  development  of  the  sect  has  arisen,  carrying  out  its 
principles  more  and  more  fully  (§  210,  4).  Other  branches  of  the 
same  party,  among  which,  as  also  among  the  Skopsen,  the  fanatical 
endeavour  to  mortify  the  flesh  is  carried  to  the  most  extravagant 
length,  are  the  Morelschiki  or  Self-Flagellators,  the  Dumbies,  who  Avill 
not,  even  under  the  severest  tortures,  utter  a  sound,  etc.  The  ever- 
increasing  development  of  this  sect-forming  craze,  which  found  its 
Avay  into  several  monasteries  and  nunneries,  led  to  repeated  judicial 
investigations,  the  penitent  being  sentenced  for  their  fault  to  confine- 
ment in  remote  convents,  and  the  obdurate  being  visited  with  severe 
corporal  punishments  and  even  Avith  death.  The  chief  sources  of 
information  regarding  the  history,  doctrine,  and  customs  of  the  "Men 
of  God"  and  the  Skopsen  are  their  o-wn  numerous  spiritvial  songs, 
collected  by  Prof.  Ivan  Dobrotworski  of  Kasan,  which  were  sung  in 
their  assemblies  for  worship  Avith  musical  accomjianiment  and  solemn 
dances.  On  these  occasions  their  prophets  and  prophetesses  were- 
wont  to  prophesy,  and  a  kind  of  sacramental  supper  was  celebrated 
with  bread  and  water.  The  sacraments  of  the  Lord's  supper  and 
baptism,  as  administered  by  the  orthodox  church,  are  repudiated  and 
scorned,  the  latter  as  displaced  by  the  only  effectual  baptism  of  the 
Spirit.  They  have,  indeed,  in  order  to  avoid  persecution,  been 
obliged  to  take  part  in  the  services,  of  the  orthodox  national  church, 


§  164.    PHILOSOPHERS  AND   FREETHINKERS.  79 

and  to  confess  to  its  priests,  avoiding,  however,  all  reference  to  the 
sect.i 

§  1G4.    Philosophers  and  Freethinkers.^ 

Tlie  mediseval  scholastic  pliilosophy  had  outlived  itself, 
even  in  the  pre-Eeformation  age  ;  yet  it  maintained  a  linger- 
ing existence  side  by  side  with  those  new  forms  which  the 
modern  spirit  in  philosophy  was  preparing  for  itself,  ^e 
hear  an  echo  of  the  philosophical  ferment  of  the  sixteenth 
century  in  the  Italian  Dominican  Campanella,  and  in  the 
Englishman  Bacon  of  Verulam  we  meet  the  pioneer  of 
that  modern  philosophy  which  had  its  proper  founder  in 
Descartes.  Spinoza,  Locke,  and  Leibnitz  were  in  succession 
the  leaders  of  this  philosophical  development.  Alongside  of 
this  philosophy,  and  deriving  its  weapons  from  it  for  attack 
upon  theology  and  the  church,  a  number  of  freethinkers 
also  make  their  appearance.  These,  like  their  more  radical 
disciples  in  the  following  centmy,  regarded  Scripture  as 
delusive,  and  nature  and  reason  as  alone  trustworthy  sources 
of  religious  knowledge. 

1.  Philosophy.— Campanella  of  fStilo  in  Calabria  entered  the  Dominican 
order,  Taut  soon  lost  taste  for  Aristotelian  philosophy  and  scholastic 
theology,  and  gave  himself  to  the  study  of  Plato,  the  Cabbala,  astrology, 
magic,  etc.  Suspected  of  republican  tendencies,  the  Spanish  govern- 
ment put  him  in  prison  in  a.d.  1599.  Seven  times  Avas  he  put  upon 
the  rack  for  twenty-four  hours,  and  then  confined  for  twenty-seven 
years  in  close  confinement.  Finally,  in  a.d.  162(3,  Urban  VIII.  had  him 
transferred  to  the  prison  of  the  papal  Inquisition.     He  was  set  free  in 

1  Heard,  "  The  Russian  Chvu-ch  and  Eussian  Dissent.''  London. 
1887.  Mackenzie  Wallace,  "  Eussia,"  chaps,  xiv.,  xx.  2  vols.  Lon- 
don, 1877.  Palmer,  "  The  Patriarch  and  the  Tsar."  6  vols.  London. 
1871-1876. 

^  Ueberweg,  "  History  of  Philosophy,"  vol.  ii.,  pp.  31-135.  Piinjer, 
'■  History  of  the  Christian  Philosophy  of  Eeligion  from  the  Eefor- 
mation  to  Kant."  Edin.,  1887.  Pfleiderer,  '•  Philosophy  of  Eeligion," 
vol.  i.  London,  1887.  Erdmamvs  *'  History  of  Philosophy."  3  vols. 
London,  1889. 


80      CHURCH  HISTORY  OF    SEVENTEENTH   CENTURY. 

A.D.  1629,  and  received  a  papal  pension  ;  but  further  persecutions  by  the 
Spaniards  obliged  him  to  fly  to  his  protector  Richelieu  in  France, 
Avhere  in  a.d.  1639  he  died.  He  composed  eighty-two  treatises,  mostly 
in  prison,  the  most  complete  being  "  Philosopliia  liationaJis,''^  in  five  vols. 
In  his  ^'  Atlieismns  TriMvijjhafus'''  he  appears  asan  apologist  of  the  Romish 
system,  but  so  insufficiently,  that  many  said  Atheismus  TriumpJians  was 
the  more  fitting  title.  His  "  Monarchia  Messice  "  too  appeared,  even  to 
the  Catholics,  an  abortive  apology  for  the  Papacy.  In  his"  Civitas  Solis,''' 
an  imitation  of  the  "  Republic  "  of  Plato,  he  proceeded  upon  communistic 
principles. — Francis  Bacon  ofVerulam,  long  chancellor  of  England,  died 
A.D.  1626,  the  great  spiritual  heir  of  his  mediaeval  namesake  (§  103,  8), 
Avas  the  first  successful  reformer  of  the  plan  of  study  followed  by  the 
schoolmen.  With  a  prophefs  marvellous  grasp  of  mind  he  organized 
the  whole  range  of  science,  and  gave  a  forecast  of  its  future  development 
in  his  "  De  Augmentis  "  and  "  Xovum  Orrjanon.^''  He  rigidly  separated 
the  domain  of  hnowledrje,  as  that  of  philosophy  and  nature,  grasped 
only  by  experience,  from  the  domain  of  faith,  as  that  of  theology  and 
the  church,  reached  only  through  revelation.  Yet  he  maintained  the 
position  :  PhUosoi^hia  obiter  lihata  a  Deo  ahdncit,  ^:>/e«e  hausta  ad  Deum 
reducit.  He  is  the  real  author  of  empiricism  in  philosophy  and  the 
realistic  methods  of  modern  times.  His  public  life,  however,  is  clouded 
by  thanklessness,  want  of  character,  and  the  taking  of  bribes.  In  a.d. 
1621  he  was  convicted  by  his  peers,  deprived  of  his  office,  sentenced  to 
imprisonment  for  life  in  the  Tower,  and  to  pay  a  fine  of  £-10,000 ;  but 
was  pardoned  by  the  king.' — The  French  Catholic  Descartes  started 
not  from  experience,  but  from  self-consciousness,  with  his  "  Cogito  ergo, 
sum''''  as  the  only  absolutely  certain  proposition.  Beginning  with 
doubt,  he  rose  by  pure  thinking  to  the  knowledge  of  the  true  and  cer- 
tain in  things.  The  imperfection  of  the  soul  thus  discovered  suggests 
an  absolutely  perfect  Being,  to  whose  perfection  the  attribute  of  being 
belongs.  This  is  the  ontological  proof  for  the  being  of  God.— His 
])hilosophy  was  zealously  taken  up  by  French  Jansenists  and  Ora- 
torians  and  the  Reformed  theologians  of  Holland,  while  it  Avas  bitterly 
opposed  by  such  Catholics  as  Huetius  and  such  Reformed  theologians 
as  Voetius." — Spinoza,  an  apostate  Jew  in  Holland,  died  a.d.  1677, 

'  "Bacon's  Works,"  ed.  by  Spedding,  Ellis,  and  Heath.  14  vols. 
London,  1870.  Spedding,  "  Letters  and  Life  of  Lord  Bacon."  2  vols. 
London,  1862.  Macaulay  on  Bacon  in  Edinburgh  Review  for  1837. 
Church,  "Bacon"  in  vol.  v.  of  "Collected  Works."  London,  1888. 
Nichol,  "  Bacon :  Life  and  Pilosophy."    2  vols.    Edin.,  1888. 

2  "  Descartes'  Method,  Meditations,  and  Principles  of  Philosophy." 
Transl.  by  Prof.  Veitch.  Edin.,  1850  ff.  Fischer,  '•  Descartes  and  his 
School."    London,  1887. 


§  164,    PHILOSOPHERS   AND   FREETHINKERS.  81 

gained  little  influence  over  his  o-^\ni  generation  by  his  profound  pan- 
theistic philosophy,  -which  has  powerfully  affected  later  ages.  A 
violent  controversy,  however,  was  occasioned  by  his  "  Tradatus  Theo- 
logico-jMliticus,^''  in  which  he  attacked  the  Christian  doctrine  of  revela- 
tion and  the  authenticity  of  the  O.T.  books,  especially  the  Pentateuch, 
and  advocated  absolute  freedom  of  thought. i  (2)  John  Locke,  died  a.d. 
1704,  with  his  sensationalism  took  up  a  position  midway  between 
Bacon's  empiricism  and  Descartes'  rationalism,  on  the  one  hand,  and 
English  deism  and  French  materialism,  on  the  other.  His  "  Essay 
concerning  Human  Understanding  "  denies  the  existence  of  innate  ideas, 
and  seeks  to  show  that  all  our  notions  are  only  pi'oducts  of  outer 
or  inner  experience,  of  sensation  or  reflection.  In  this  treatise,  and 
still  more  distinctly  in  his  tract,  "  The  Eeasonableness  of  Christianity," 
intended  as  an  apology  for  Christianity,  and  even  for  biblical  visions 
and  miracles,  as  well  as  for  the  messianic  character  of  Christ,  he 
openly  advocated  pure  Pelagianism  that  knows  nothing  of  sin  and 
atonement."  —  Leibnitz,  a  Hanoverian  statesman,  who  died  a.d.  171G, 
introduced  the  new  German  philosophy  in  its  first  stage.  The  philo- 
sophy of  Leibnitz  is  opposed  at  once  to  the  theosophy  of  Paracelsus 
and  Bohme  and  to  the  empiricism  of  Bacon  and  Locke,  the  pantheism 
of  Spinoza,  and  the  scepticism  and  manichaeism  of  Bayle.  It  is  indeed 
a  Christian  philosophy  not  fully  developed.  But  inasmuch  as  at  the 
same  time  it  adopted,  improved  upon,  and  carried  out  the  rationalism 
of  Descartes,  it  also  paved  the  way  for  the  later  theological  rationalism. 
The  foundation  of  his  philosophy  is  the  theory  of  monads  wrought  out 
in  his  "  J7ieocZicee  "  against  Bayle  and  in  his  ^^  Noiiveaux  iJssazs,"  against 
Locke.  In  opposition  to  the  atomic  theory  of  the  materialists,  he  re- 
garded all  phenomena  in  the  world  as  eccentricities  of  so  called  monads, 
i.e.  primary  simple  and  indivisible  substances,  each  of  which  is  a  minia- 
ture of  the  whole  universe.  Out  of  these  monads  that  radiate  out  from 
God,  the  primary  monad,  the  world  is  formed  into  a  harmony  once  for 
all  admired  of  God :  the  theory  of  pre-established  harmony.  This  must 
be  the  best  of  worlds,  otherwise  it  would  not  have  been.  In  opposition 
to  Bayle,  who  had  argued  in  a  manichsean  fashion  against  God's 
goodness  and  wisdom  from  the  existence  of  evil,  Leibnitz  seeks  to  show 


'  Willis,  "  Spinoza  :  his  Ethics,  Life,  and  Influence  on  Modern 
Thought."  London,  1870.  Pollock,  "  Spinoza :  his  Life  and  Philo- 
sophy." London,  1880.  Martineau,  "Spinoza."  London,  1882. 
"  Spinoza,  Four  Essays  by  Land,  Von  Floten,  Fischer,  and  Eenan." 
Edited  by  Prof.  Knight.     London,  188-1. 

^  "  Locke's  Complete  Works."  0  vols.  London,  1853.  Cousin,  "  Ele- 
ments  of  Psychology:  a  Critical  Examination  of  Locke's  Essay." 
Edin.,  1858.     Webb,  ••  Tntellectualism  of  Locke."     London,  1858. 

VOL.   III.  6 


82      CHURCH  HISTORY  OF   SEVENTEENTH   CENTURY. 

that  this  does  not  contradict  the  idea  of  the  best  of  -worlds,  nor  that  of 
the  Divine  goodness  and  -wisdom,  since  finity  and  imperfection  belong 
to  the  very  notion  of  creature,  a  metaphysical  evil  from  which  moral 
evil  inevitably  follo-ws,  yet  not  so  as  to  destroy  the  pre-established 
harmony.  Against  Locke  he  maintains  the  doctrine  of  innate  ideas, 
contests  Clarke's  theory  of  indeterminism,  maintains  the  agreement  of 
philosophy  "with  revelation,  Avhicli  indeed  is  above  but  not  contrary  to 
reason,  and  hopes  to  prove  his  system  by  mathematical  demonstration.  ^ 
— Continuation,  §  171,  10. 

3.  Freethinkers. — The  tendency  of  the  age  to  thro-^v  off  all  positive 
Christianity  first  sho-wed  openly  itself  in  England  as  the  final  outcome 
of  Levellerism  (§  162,  2).  This  movement  has  been  styled  naturalism, 
because  it  puts  natin-al  in  place  of  revealed  religion,  and  deism, 
because  in  jalace  of  the  redeeming  Avork  of  the  triune  God  it  admits 
only  a  general  providence  of  the  one  God.  On  philosophic  groiuids 
the  English  deists  affirmed  the  impossibility  of  revelation,  inspira- 
tion, prophecy,  and  miracle,  and  on  critical  grounds  rejected  them  from 
the  Bible  and  history.  The  simple  religious  system  of  deism  embraced 
God,  j)rovidence,  freedom  of  the  -will,  virtue,  and  the  immortality  of 
the  soul.  The  Christian  doctrines  of  the  Trinity,  original  sin,  satis- 
faction, justification,  resurrection,  etc.,  -n'ere  regarded  as  absurd  and 
irrational.  Deism  in  England  spread  almost  exclusively  among  upper- 
class  laymen  ;  the  people  and  clergy  stood  finnly  to  their  positive 
beliefs.  Theological  controversial  tracts  -were  numerous,  but  their 
polemical  force  "was  in  great  measure  lost  by  the  latitudinarianism  of 
their  authors.  —  The  principal  English  deists  of  the  century  -were 
(1)  Edward  Herbert  of  Cherbury,  a.d.  1581-1648,  a  nobleman  and  states- 
man. He  reduced  all  religion  to  five  points  :  Faith  in  God,  the  duty 
of  reverencing  Him,  especially  by  leading  an  upright  life,  atoning 
for  sin  by  genuine  repentance,  recompense  in  the  life  eternal. — (2) 
Thomas  Hobbes,  a.d.  1588-1679,  an  acute  philosophical  and  political 
■writer,  looked  on  Christianity  as  an  oriental  phantom,  and  of  value 
only  as  a  support  of  absolute  monarchy  and  an  antidote  to  revolution. 
The  state  of  nature  is  a  helium  omnium  contra  omnes ;  religion  is  the 
means  of  establishing  order  and  civilization.  The  state  should  decide 
what  religion  is  to  prevail.  Every  one  may  indeed  believe  Avhat  he 
will,  but  in  regard  to  churches  and  worship  he  must  submit  to  the 
state  as  represented  by  the  king.  His  chief  work  is  "  Leviathan  ;  or, 
The  Matter,  Form,  and  Power  of  a  Commonwealth,  Ecclesiastical  and 
Civil.'" — (3)  Charles  Blount,  who  died  a  suicide  in  a.d.  1693,  a  rabid 
opponent  of  all  miracles  as  mere  tricks  of  priests,  Avrote  "  Oracles  of 

1  Guhrauer,  "  Leibnitz  :  a  Biographj-."  Transl.  h\  Mackie.  Boston, 
1845. 


§  164.    PHILOSOPHERS   AND  FREETHINKERS.  83 

Reason."  ^'- Hell g to  Loiei."'  '-Great  is  Diana  of  the  Ephesians,"'  aiul 
translated  Philostratus'  "Life  of  Apollonius  of  Tj^ana."'— (4)  Thomas 
Browne,  a.d.  1G35-1G82,  a  physician,  -who  in  his  "  Heligto  Medici  "  sets 
forth  a  mystical  supernaturalism,  took  uj)  a  purely  cleistio  ground 
in  his  '•  Vulgar  Errors,''  published  three  years  later. — Among  the 
opponents  of  deism  in  this  age  the  most  notable  are  Richard  Baxter 
( §  162,  3)  and  Ralph  Cud  worth,  a.d.  1617-1688,  a  latitudinarian  and 
Platonist,  who  sought  to  prove  the  leadhig  Christian  doctrines  by 
the  theory  of  innate  ideas.  He  wiote  '-Intellectual  System  of  the 
Universe ''  in  a.d.  1678.  The  pious  Irish  scientist,  Robert  Boyle, 
founded  in  London,  in  a.d.  1691,  a  lectureship  of  £40  a  j^ear  for 
eight  discourses  against  deistic  and  atheistic  unbelief. ^ — Cont inflation, 
§  171,  1. 

4.  A  tendency  similar  to  that  of  the  English  deists  was  represented 
in  Germany  b^'  Matthias  Knutzen,  who  sought  to  found  a  freethinking 
sect.  The  Christian  -'  Coran  "  contains  onh^  lies ;  reason  and  conscience 
are  the  true  Bible ;  there  is  no  God,  nor  hell  nor  heaven  ;  priests  and 
magistrates  should  be  driven  out  of  the  world,  etc.  The  senate  of 
Jena  University  on  investigation  foiuid  that  his  pretension  to  700 
folloAvers  was  a  vain  boast. — In  France  the  brilliant  and  learned 
sceptic  Peter  Bayle,  a.d.  1647-1706,  was  the  apostle  of  a  light-hearted 
inibelief.  Though  son  of  a  Reformed  pastor,  the  Jesuits  got  him  over 
to  the  Romish  church,  but  in  a  year  and  a  half  he  apostatised  again. 
He  now  studied  the  Cartesian  philosoi>hy,  as  Reformed  professor  at 
Sedan,  vindicated  Protestantism  in  several  controversial  tracts,  and  as 
refugee  in  Holland  composed  his  famous  ^-  Dictionnaire  Historiqup 
ct  C'ritiqjie,''  in  which  he  avoided  indeed  open  rejection  of  the  facts  of 
revelation,  but  did  much  to  unsettle  by  his  easy  treatment  of  them. — 
Continuation,  §  171,  3. 

'  Leland,  "  View  of  Principal  Deistical  Writers  in  England."  2nd 
ed.  2  vols.  London,  1755.  Halyburton,  ''  Natural  Religion  Insuf- 
ficient ;  or,  A  Rational  Inquiry  into  the  Principles  of  the  Modern 
Deists."  Edin.,  1714.  Tulloch,  "Rational  Theology  and  Christian 
Philosophy  in  England  in  the  17th  Century."  2  vols.  Edin.,  1872. 
Cairns,  "  Unbelief  in  the  18th  Centur}',"'  chap,  ii.,  "  Unbelief  in  the 
1 7th  Centurv."     Edin..  1881. 


THIRD    SECTION. 

CHURCH    HISTORY    OF    THE    EIGHTEENTH 
CENTURY.i 

I. — The  Catholic  Church  in  East  and  West. 

§  1G5.    The  Roman  Catholic  Church. 

During  the  first  half  of  the  century  the  Roman  hierarchy 
.suffered  severely  at  the  hand  of  Catholic  courts,  while  in  the 
second  half  storms  gathered  from  all  sides,  threatening  its 
very  existence.  Portugal,  France,  Spain,  and  Italy  rested 
not  till  they  got  the  pope  himself  to  strike  the  deathblow 
to  the  Jesuits,  who  had  been  his  chief  supporters  indeed,  but 
who  had  now  become  his  masters.  Soon  after  the  German 
bishops  threatened  to  free  themselves  and  their  people  from 
Rome,  and  what  reforms  they  could  not  effect  by  ecclesi- 
astical measures  the  emperor  undertook  to  effect  by  civil 
measures.  Scarcely  had  this  danger  been  overcome  when 
the  horrors  of  the  French  Revolution  broke  out,  which 
sought,  along  with  the  Papac}'',  to  overthrow  Christianity  as 
well.     But,  on  the  other  hand,  during  the  early  decades  of 


1  Lecky,  "  History  of  the  Rise  and  Influence  of  the  Spirit  of  Batio- 
nalism  in  Europe."  2  vols.  London,  1873.  Hagenbach,  "German 
Rationalism."  Edin.,  1865.  Hagenbach,  "  History  of  Church  in  18th 
and  19th  Centuries."  2  vols.  London,  1870.  Leslie  Stephen,  "  His- 
tory of  English  Thought  in  the  18th  Century."  2  vols.  London,  1876. 
Civirns,  "  Unbelief  in  the  IStli  Century."     Edin.;  1881. 

8i^ 


§   165.    THE    EOMAN    CATPIOLIC    CHUECH.  85 

the  century  Catholicism  had  gained  many  victories  in  another 
way  by  the  counter-reformation  and  conversions.  Its  foreign 
missions,  however,  begun  with  sucli  promise  of  success,  came 
to  a  sad  end,  and  even  the  home  missions  faded  away,  in 
spite  of  the  founding  of  various  new  orders.  The  Janseuist 
controversy  in  the  beginning  of  the  century  entered  on  a 
new  stage,  the  Catholic  church  being  driven  into  open  semi- 
Pelagianism,  and  Jansenism  into  fanatical  excesses.  The 
church  theology  sank  very  low,  and  the  Catholic  supporters 
of  "  Illuinination  "  far  exceeded  in  number  those  who  had 
fallen  away  to  it  from  Protestantism. 

1.  The  Popes-— Clement  XI.,  1700-1721,  protested  in  vain  against  tho 
Elector  Frederick  III.  of  Brandenburg  assuming  the  cro-vvn  as  King 
Frederick  I.  of  Pi'ussia,  on  Jan.  18th,  a.d.  1701.  In  the  Spanish  wars 
of  succession  he  sought  to  remain  neutral,  but  force  of  circumstances 
led  him  to  take  up  a  position  adverse  to  German  interests.  The  new 
German  emperor,  Joseph  I.,  a.d.  1705-1711,  scorned  to  seek  confirmation 
from  the  pope,  and  Clement  consequently  had  the  usual  prayer  for 
the  emperor  omitted  in  the  church  services.  The  relations  became  yet 
more  strained,  owing  to  a  dispute  about  the  jus  primarum  pj-ecum, 
Joseph  claiming  the  right  to  revenues  of  vacancies  as  the  patron.  In 
A.D.  1707,  the  pope  had  the  joy  of  seeing  the  German  army  driven  out, 
not  onh*  of  northern  Italy,  b\it  also  of  Naples  by  the  French.  Again 
they  came  into  direct  conflict  over  Parma  and  Piacenza,  Clement 
claiming  them  as  a  papal,  the  emperor  claiming  them  as  an  imperial, 
fief.  No  pope  since  the  time  of  Louis  the  Bavarian  had  issued  the 
ban  against  a  German  emperor,  and  Clement  ventured  not  to  do  so 
now.  Eefusing  the  invitation  of  Louis  XIV.  to  go  to  Avignon,  ho 
was  obliged  either  unconditionally  to  grant  the  German  claims  or  to 
try  the  fortune  of  Avar.  He  chose  the  latter  alteiiiative.  The  miser- 
able papal  troops,  however,  were  easily  routed,  and  Clement  "\\-as 
obliged,  in  a.d.  1708,  to  acknowledge  the  emperor's  brother,  the  Grand- 
duke  Charles,  as  king  of  Spain,  and  generallj' to  yield  to  Joseph's  very 
moderate  demands.  Clement  was  the  atithor  of  the  constitiitiou 
Uniffenitus,  which  introduced  the  second  stage  in  the  history  of  Jan- 
senism. After  the  short  and  peaceful  pontificate  of  Innocent  XIII. 
A.D.  1721-1724,  came  Benedict  XIII.,  a.d.  1724-1730,  a  pious,  well-mean- 
ing, narrow-minded  man,  ruled  by  a  worthless  favourite.  Cardinal 
Cofcicia.  He  wished  to  canonize  Gregory  VII..  in  the  fond  hope  of 
thereby  gecuring  new  favour  to  his  hierarchical  views,  but  this  was 


86        CHUECH  HISTORY   OF   EIGHTEENTH   CENTURY. 

protested  against  by  almost  all  the  court'?.  All  the  greater  was  the 
number  of  monkish  saints  with  which  he  enriched  the  heavenly  firma- 
ment. He  promised  to  all  Avho  on  their  death-bed  should  say,  "  Blessed 
be  Jesus  Clnist,"  a  2,000  years'  shortening  of  purgatorial  pains.  His 
successor  Clement  XII.,  a.d.  1780-1740,  deprived  the  wretched  Coscia 
of  his  offices,  made  him  disgorge  his  robberies,  imposed  on  him  a 
severe  fine  and  ten  years'  imprisonment,  but  afterwards  resigned  the 
management  of  everything  to  a  greedy,  grasping  nephew.  He  was 
the  first  pope  to  condemn  freemasonry,  a.d.  1736.  Benedict  XIV.,  a.d. 
1740-1758,  one  of  the  noblest,  most  pious,  learned,  and  liberal  of  the 
popes,  zealous  for  the  faith  of  his  church,  and  yet  patient  with  those 
■who  differed,  moderate  and  wise  in  his  political  procedure,  mild  and 
just  in  his  government,  blameless  in  life.  He  had  a  special  dislike  of 
the  Jesuits  (§  155,  12),  and^  jestingly  he  declared,  if,  as  the  curialists 
assert,  "all  law  and  all  truth"  lie  concealed  in  the  shrine  of  his 
breast,  he  had  not  been  able  to  find  the  key.  He  wrote  largely  on 
theology  and  canon  law,  founded  seminaries  for  the  training  of  the 
clergy,  had  many  French  and  English  works  translated  into  Italian, 
and  was  a  liberal  patron  of  art.  To  check  ])opular  excesses  he  tried 
to  reduce  the  number  of  festivals,  but  Avithout  success. — Continuation 
in  Paragraphs  9,  10,  13. 

2.  Old  and  New  Orders.— Among  the  old  orders  that  of  Chigny  had 
amassed  enormous  A\ealth,  and  attempts  made  by  its  abbots  at  refor- 
mation led  only  to  endless  quarrels  and  divisions.  The  abbots  now- 
squandered  the  revenues  of  their  cloisters  at  court,  and  these  insti- 
tutions were  allowed  to  fall  into  disorder  and  decay.  When,  in  a.d; 
1790,  all  cloisters  in  France  were  suppressed,  the  city  of  Clugny  bought 
the  cloister  and  church  for  £4,000,  and  had  them  both  pulled  down.— 
The  most  important  new  orders  were :  (1)  The  Mechitarist  Congregation, 
originated  by  Mechitar  the  Armenian,  who,  at  Constantinople  in  a.d. 
1701,  founded  a  society  for  the  religious  and  intellectual  education  of 
his  countrymen  ;  but  when  opposed  by  the  Armenian  patriarch,  fled 
to  the  Morea  and  joined  the  United  Armenians  (§  72,  2).  In  a.d.  1712 
the  pope  confirmed  the  congregation,  Avhich,  during  the  war  with  the 
Turks  Avas  transferred  to  Venice,  and  in  a.d.  1717  settled  on  the 
island  St.  Lazaro.  Its  members  spread  Roman  Catholic  literature  in 
Armenia  and  Armenian  literature  in  the  West.  At  a  later  time  there 
Avas  a  famous  Mechitarist  college  in  Vienna,  Avhicli  did  much  by 
Avriting  and  publishing  for  the  education  of  the  Catholic  youth. — (2) 
Treres  Ignorantins,  or  Christian  Brothers,  founded  in  a.d.  1725  by  De  la 
Salle,  canon  of  Eheims,  for  the  instruction  of  children,  Avrought  in  the 
spirit  of  the  Jesuits  through  France,  Belgium,  and  North  America. 
After  the  expulsion  of  the  Jesuits  from  France  in  a.d.  1724,  they  took 
their  place  there  till  themselves  driven  out  by  the.  Bevolution  in  a.d^ 


§  165.  THE  EOMAN  CATHOLIC  CHURCH.      87 

1790.1— (3)  rp]^,.  Liguorians  or  Redemptorists,  founded  in  a.d.  1732  by 
Liguori,  an  advocate,  Avho  became  Bishop  of  Kaples  in  a.d.  1762.  He 
died  in  a.d.  1787  in  his  ninety-first  year,  was  beatified  by  Pius  VII. 
in  A.D.  1816,  and  canonized  by  Gregory  XVI.  in  a.d.  1839,  and  pro- 
claimed doctor  ecdesioi  by  Pius  IX.  in  a.d.  1871  as  a  zealous  defender  of 
the  immaculate  conception  and  papal  infallibility.  His  devotional 
writings,  which  exalt  Mary  by  superstitious  tales  of  miracles,  were 
extremelj^  popular  in  all  Catholic  countries.  His  new  order  was  to 
minister  to  the  poor.  Ho  declared  the  pope's  Aviil  to  be  God's,  and 
called  for  unquestioning  obedience.  Only  after  the  founder's  death 
did  it  spread  bej-ond  Ital3\ — Continuation,  §  186,  1. 

3.  Foreign  Missions. — In  the  accommodation  controversy  (§  156,  12), 
the  Dominicans  prevailed  in  a.d.  1742  ;  but  the  abolishing  of  native 
customs  led  to  a  sore  persecution  in  China,  from  wliich  only  a  few 
remnants  of  the  church  were  saved.  The  Italian  Jesuit  Beschi,  with 
linguistic  talents  of  the  highest  order,  sought  in  India  to  make  use  of 
the  native  literature  for  mission  purjioses  and  to  place  alongside  of  it 
a  Christian  literature.  Here  the  Capuchins  opposed  the  Jesuits  as 
successfully  as  the  Dominicans  had  in  China.  These  strifes  and  perse- 
cutions destroyed  the  missions. — The  Jesuit  state  of  Paraguay  (§  156, 
10)  was  put  an  end  to  in  a.d.  1750  by  a  compact  between  Portugal 
and  Spain.  The  revolt  of  the  Indians  that  followed,  insp)ired  and 
directed  by  the  Jesuits,  wliich  kept  the  combined  powers  at  bay  for  a 
Avhole  year,  was  at  last  quelled,  and  the  Jesuits  expelled  the  country 
in  A.D.  1758. — Continuation  §  186,  7. 

L  The  Counter-Reformation  (§  1.53,  2).— Charles  XII.  of  Sweden,  in 
A.D.  1707,  foi'ced  the  Emperor  Joseph  I.  to  give  the  Protestants  of 
Silesia  the  benefits  of  the  Westphalian  Peace  and  to  restore  their 
churches.  But  in  Poland  in  a.d.  1717,  the  Protestants  lost  the  right  of 
building  new  churches,  and  in  a.d.  1738  were  declared  disqualified  for 
civil  offices  and  places  in  the  diet.  In  the  Protestant  city  of  Thorn 
the  insolence  of  the  Jesuits  roused  a  rebellion  which  led  to  a  fearful 
massacre  in  a.d.  172-1.  The  Dissenters  sought  and  obtained  protection 
in  Kussia  from  a.d.  1767,  and  the  partition  of  Poland  between  Russia, 
Austria,  and  Prussia  in  a.d.  1772  secured  for  thenr  religious  toleration. 
In  Salzburg  the  archbisho]),  Count  Firmian,  attempted  in  a.d.  1729  a 
conversion  of  the  evangelicals  by  force,  who  had,  with  intervals  of  perse- 
cution in  the  seventeenth  centmy,  been  tolerated  for  forty  years  as 
<iuiet  and  inoffensive  citizens.  But  in  a.d.  1731  their  elders  swore  on 
the  host  and  consecrated  salt  (2  Chron.  xiii.  5)  to  be  true  to  then-  faith. 

*  "Wilson,  "The  Christian  Brothers,  their  Origin  and  Work. 
With  a  Sketch  of  the  Life  of  their  Founder,  the  Venerable  Jean 
Baptiste  de  la  Salle.''     London,  1883.  * 


88         CHURCH   HISTORY   OF   EIGHTEENTH    CENTURY. 

This  "covenant  of  salt''  was  interpreted  as  rebellion,  and  in  spite  of 
the  intervention  of  the  Protestant  princes,  all  the  evangelicals,  in  the 
severe  winter  of  a.d.  1731,  1732,  were  driven,  with  inhuman  cruelty, 
from  hearth  and  home.  About  20,000  of  them  found  shelter  in 
Prussian  Lithuania  ;  others  emigrated  to  America.  The  pope  praised 
highly  "  the  noble  "  archbishop,  who  othemvise  distinguished  himself 
only  as  a  huntsman  and  a  drinker,  and  b}'  maintaining  a  mistress  in 
princeh'  splendour. 

5.  In  France  the  persecution  of  the  Huguenots  continued  (§  153,  4). 
The  "  jjastors  of  the  desert "  performed  their  duties  at  the  risk  of 
their  lives,  and  though  many  fell  as  martyrs,  their  places  were  quickly 
filled  by  others  equally  heroic.  The  first  rank  belongs  to  Anton  Court, 
pastor  at  Nismes  from  a.d.  1715  ;  he  died  at  Lausanne  a.d.  1760,  where 
he  had  founded  a  theological  seminary.  He  laboured  unweariedly 
and  successfully  in  gathering  and  organizing  the  scattered  members 
of  the  Reformed  church,  and  in  overcoming  fanaticism  by  imparting 
sound  instruction.  Paul  Eabaut,  his  successor  at  Nismes,  A^-as  from 
A.D.  1730  to  1785  the  faithful  and  capable  leader  of  the  martyr  church. 
The  judicial  murder  of  Jean  Calas  at  Toulouse  in  a.d.  1762  presents  a 
hideous  example  of  the  fanaticism  of  Catholic  Erance.  One  of  his 
sons  had  hanged  himself  in  a  fit  of  passion.  When  the  report  spread 
that  it  was  the  act  of  his  father,  in  order  to  prevent  the  contemplated 
conversion  of  his  son,  the  Dominicans  canonized  the  suicide  as  a 
martyr  to  the  Catholic  faith,  roused  the  mob,  and  got  the  Toulouse 
]jarliament  to  put  the  unhapi^y  father  to  the  torture  of  the  wheel. 
The  other  sons  were  forced  to  abjure  their  faith,  and  the  daughters  were 
shut  up  in  cloisters.  Two  years  later  Voltaire  called  attention  to  the 
atrocity,  and  so  wrought  on  public  opinion  that  on  the  revision  of  the 
proceedings  by  the  Parisian  parliament,  the  innocence  of  the  ill-used 
family  was  clearly  proved.  Louis  XV.  paid  them  a  sum  of  30,000 
livres  ;  but  the  fanatical  accusers,  the  false  Avitnesses,  and  the  corrupt 
judges  were  left  unpunished.  This  incident  improved  the  position  of 
the  Protestants,  and  in  a.d.  1787  Louis  XVI.  issued  the  Edict  of  Ver- 
sailles, hj  which  not  only  complete  religious  freedom  but  even  a  legal 
civil  existence  was  secured  them,  -whicli  Avas  confirmed  by  a  law  of 
Napoleon  in  a.d.  1802. 

6.  Conversions. — Pecuniary  interests  and  prospect  of  marriage  with 
a  rich  heiress  led  to  the  conversion,  in  a.d.  1712,  of  Charles  Alexander 
Avhile  in  the  Austrian  service ;  but  when  he  became  Duke  of  Wilrttem- 
burg  he  solemnly  undertook  to  keep  things  as  they  were,  and  to  set 
up  no  Catholic  services  in  the  country  save  in  his  own  court  chapel. 
Of  other  converts  Winckelmann  and  Stolberg  are  the  most  famous. 
While  Winckelmann,  the  greatest  of  art  critics,  not  a  religious  but  an 
artistic  ultramontane,  was  led  in  a.d.  175i  throiigh  religious  indif- 


§  165.    THE   ROMAN   CATHOLIC   CHURCH.  89 

ference  into  the  Romish  church,  the  -warm  heart  of  Von  Stolberg  was 
inducod,  mainly  by  the  Catholic  Princess  Gallitzin  (§  172,  2)  and  a 
French  emigrant,  Madame  Montague,  to  escape  the  chill  of  rationalism 
amid  the  incense  fumes  of  the  Catholic  services. — Continuation, 
§  175,  7. 

7.  The  Second  Stage  of  Jansenism  (§  157,  6). — Pasquier  Qnesnel,  priest  of 
the  Oratory  at  Paris,  suspected  in  1675  of  Gallicanism,  because  of  notes 
in  his  edition  of  the  works  of  Leo  the  Great,  fled  into  the  Netherlands, 
-(vhere  he  continued  his  notes  on  the  N.T.  Used  and  recommended  by 
Noailles,  Archbishop  of  Paris,  and  other  French  bisho])s,  this  "  Jan- 
senist "  book  was  hated  by  the  Jesuits  and  condemned  by  a  brief  of 
Clement  XI.  in  a.d.  1708.  The  Jesuit  confessor  of  Louis  XIV.,  Le 
Tellier,  selected  101  iDropositions  froni  the  book,  and  induced  the  king 
to  urge  their  express  condemnation  bj''  the  pope.  In  the  Constitution 
Unigenitus  of  a.d.  1713,  Clement  pronounced  these  heretical,  and  the 
king  required  the  expulsion  from  parliament  and  church  of  all  who 
refused  to  adopt  this  bull,  which  caused  a  division  of  the  French 
fliurch  into  Acceptants  and  Appellants.  As  many  of  the  condemned 
]iropositions  were  quotetl  literally  by  Quesnel  from  Augustine  and 
other  Fathers,  or  were  in  exact  agi-eement  with  biblical  passages, 
Noailles  and  his  party  called  for  an  explanation.  Instead  of  this  the 
jjope  threatened  theni  Avith  excommunication.  In  a.d.  1715  the  king 
died,  and  under  the  Duke  of  Orleans'  regency  in  a.d.  1717,  four  bishops, 
Avith  solemn  appeal  to  a  general  council,  renounced  the  papal  con- 
stitution as  irreconcilable  with  the  Catholic  faith.  They  were  soon 
joined  by  the  Sorbonne  and  the  universities  of  Eheims  and  Nantes, 
Ai'chbishop  Noailles,  and  more  than  twenty  bishops,  all  the  congre- 
gations of  St.  Maur  and  the  Oratorians  A\-ith  large  numbers  of  the 
secular  clergy  and  the  monks,  especially  of  the  Lazarists,  Dominicans, 
Cistercians,  and  Camaldulensians.  The  pope,  after  vainly  calling 
them  to  obej',  thundered  the  ban  against  the  Appellants  in  a.d.  1718.- 
But  the  parliament  took  the  matter  up,  and  soon  the  aspect  of  affaii's 
was  completely  changed.  The  regent's  favourite,  Dubois,  hoping  to 
obtain  a  cardinal's  hat,  took  the  side  of  the  Acceptants  and  carried 
the  duke  with  him,  who  got  the  parliament  in  1720  to  acknowledge 
the  bull,  with  express  reservation,  however,  of  the  Galilean  liberties, 
and  began  a  persecution  of  the  Appellants.  Under  Louis  XV.  the 
persecution  became  more  severe,  although  in  many  ways  moderated 
by  the  influence  of  his  former  tutor.  Cardinal  Fleury.  Noailles,  who 
died  in  1729,  was  obliged  in  1728  to  submit  unconditionally,  and  in 
A.D.  1730  the  parliament  formally  ratified  the  bull.  Amid  daily 
increasing  oppression,  many  of  the  more  faithful  Jansenists,  mostly 
of  the  orders  of  St.  Maur  and  the  Oratoiy,  fled  to  the  Netherlands, 
where  they  gave  way  more  and  more  to  fanaticism.     In  1727  a  young 


90        CHUECH   HISTORY   OF   EIGHTEENTH   CENTURY. 

Jansenist  priest,  Francis  of  Paris,  died  with  the  original  text  of  the 
appeal  in  his  hands.  His  adherents  honoured  him  as  a  saint,  and 
numerous  rejaorts  of  miracles,  which  had  been  Avrought  at  his  grave 
in  Medardus  churchyard  at  Paris,  made  this  a  daily  jilace  of  pilgrim- 
age to  thousands  of  fanatics.  The  excited  enthusiasts,  who  fell  into 
convulsions,  and  uttered  proj)hecies  about  the  overthrow  of  church 
and  state,  grew  in  numbers  and,  with  that  mesmeric  power  which 
fanaticism  has  been  found  in  all  ages  to  joossess  powerfully  influenced 
many  who  had  been  before  careless  and  profane.  One  of  these  was 
the  member  of  parliament  De  Montgeron,  who,  from  being  a  frivolous 
scoffer,  suddenly,  in  1732,  fell  into  violent  convulsions,  and  in  a  three- 
volumed  work,  "Zw  Verite  des  Miracles  Operes  2^ctr  V Intercession  cle 
Francois  de  Paris,''''  1737,  came  forward  as  a  zealous  apologist  of  the 
party.  The  government,  indeed,  in  1732  ordered  the  churchyard  to 
be  closed,  but  portions  of  earth  from  tlie  grave  of  the  saint  continued 
to  effect  convulsions  and  miracles.  Thousands  of  convulsionists 
throughout  France  were  thrown  into  prison,  and  in  1752,  Archbishop 
Beaumont  of  Paris,  with  many  other  bishops,  refused  the  last  sacra- 
ment to  those  who  could  not  prove  that  they  had  accej^ted  the  con- 
stitution. The  grave  of  "St.  Francis,"  however,  was  the  grave  of 
Jansenism,  for  fanatical  excess  contains  the  seeds  of  dissolution  and 
every  manifestation  of  it  hastens  the  catastrophe.  Yet  remnants  of 
the  party  lingei'ed  on  in  France  till  the  outbreak  of  the  Revolution, 
of  Avhich  tht'y  liad  ]Ji'ophesied. 

8.  The  Old  Catholic  Church  in  the  Netherlands.— The  first  Jesuits 
appeared  in  Holland  in  a.d.  1592.  The  form  of  piety  fostered  by 
superior  and  inferior  clergy  in  the  Catholic  church  there,  a  heritage 
from  the  times  of  the  Brethren  of  the  Common  Life  (§  112, '9),  was 
directed  to  the  deepening  of  Christian  thought  and  feeling ;  and  this, 
as  well  as  the  liberal  attitude  of  the  Archbishop  of  Uti'echt,  awakened 
the  bitter  opposition  of  tlie  Jesuits.  At  the  head  of  the  local  clergy 
Avas  Sasbold  V(5smeer,  vicar-general  of  the  vacant  archiepiscopal  sen 
(if  Utrecht.  Most  energetically  he  set  himself  to  thwart  the  Jesuit 
machmations,  Avhich  aimed  at  abolishing  the  Utrecht  see  and  putting 
the  church  of  Holland  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  papal  nuncio  at 
Cologne.  On  the  gi-ound  of  suspicions  of  secret  conspiracy  Vosmeer 
Avas  banished.  But  his  successors  refused  to  be  overruled  or  set  aside 
by  the  Jesuits.  Meanwhile  in  France  tlie  first  stage  of  the  Jansenist 
controversy  had  been  passed  through.  The  Dutch  authorities  had 
heartily  Avelcomed  the  condennied  book  of  their  pious  and  learned 
countryman ;  but  when  the  five  propositions  Av^ere  denounced,  they 
agreed  in  repudiating  them,  Avithout,  hoAvever,  admitting  that  they 
had  been  taught  in  the  sense  objected  to  by  Jansen.  The  Jesuits, 
therefore,  charged  them  Avith  the  Jansenist  heresy,  and  issued  in 


§  165.    THE   EOMAN   CATHOLIC  CHURCH.  91 

A.D.  1697  an  anonymous  pamphlet  full  of  Ij'ing  insinuations  about 
the  origin  and  progress  of  Jansenism  in  Holland.  Its  beginning  was 
traced  back  to  a  visit  of  Arnauld  to  Holland  in  a.d.  1681,  and 
its  effects  were  seen  in  the  circulation  of  prayer-books,  tracts,  and 
sermons,  urging  diligent  reading  of  Scripture,  in  the  depreciation  of 
the  worship  of  Mary,  of  indulgences,  of  images  of  saints  and  relics, 
rosaries  and  scapularies  (§  188,  20),  processions  and  fraternities,  in 
the  rigor istic  strictness  of  the  confessional,  the  use  of  the  common 
language  of  the  country  in  baptism,  marriage,  and  extreme  unction, 
etc.  The  archbishop  of  that  time,  Peter  Codde,  in  'order  to  isolate 
him,  was  decoyed  to  Rome,  and  there  flattered  Avith  hypocritical 
]jretension3  of  goodwill,  while  behind  his  back  his  deposition  Avas 
carried  out,  and  an  apostolic  vicar  nominated  for  Utrecht  in  the 
15ei"son  of  his  deadly  foe  Theodore  de  Cock.  Bvit  the  chapter  refused 
him  obedience,  and  the  States  of  Holland  foi-bad  him  to  exercise 
any  official  function,  and  under  threat  of  banishment  of  all  Jesuits 
demanded  the  inunediate  return  of  the  archbishop.  Codde  Avas  noAV 
sent  doAvn  Avith  the  papal  blessing,  but  a  formal  decree  of  deposition 
folloAved  him.  MeauAvhile  the  government  pronounced  on  his  riA'al 
De  Cock,  Avho  aA'^oided  a  trial  for  high  treason  by  flight,  a  'sentence 
of  perpetual  exile.  But  Codde,  though  j)ersistently  recognised  by 
his  chapter  as  the  rightful  archbishop,  Avithheld  on  conscientious 
grounds  from  discharging  official  duties  doAvn  to  his  death  in  a.d. 
1710.  Amid  these  disputes  the  Utrecht  see  remained  vacant  for 
thirteen  years.  The  flock  Avere  Avithout  a  chief  shei)herd,  the  inferior 
clergy  Avithout  dii-ection  and  supi^ort,  the  people  Avere  Avrought  upon 
by  Jesuit  emissaries,  and  the  vacant  pastorates  Avere  filled  by  the 
nuncio  of  Cologne.  Thus  it  came  aboi;t  that  of  the  300,000  Catholics 
remaining  after  the  Keformation,  only  a  few  thousands  contintied 
faithful  to  the  national  party,  Avhile  the  rest  became  bitter  and 
extreme  ultramontanes,  as  the  Catholic  church  of  Holland  still  is. 
Finally,  in  a.d.  1723,  the  Utrecht  chapter  took  courage  and  chose  a 
new  archbishop  in  the  person  of  Cornelius  Steenowen,  ReceiAdng 
no  ansAver  to  their  reqiiest  for  papal  confirmation,  the  chapter,  after 
Avaiting  a  year  and  a  half,  had  him  and  also  his  three  successors 
consecrated  by  a  French  missionary  bishoj),  Varlet,  Avho  had  been 
driA'en  aAvay  by  the  Jesuits.  But  in  order  to  jirevent  the  threatened 
loss  of  legitimate  consecration  for  future  bishops  after  Varlet's  death 
in  A.D.  1742,  a  bishop  elected  at  Utrecht  Avas  in  that  same  year 
ordained  to  the  chapter  of  Haarlem,  and  in  a.d.  1758  the  neAvly 
founded  bishopric  of  Deventer  Avas  so  supplied.  All  these,  like  all 
subsequent  elections,  Avere  duly  reported  to  Rome,  and  a  strictly 
Catholic  confession  from  electors  and  elected  sent  up ;  but  each  time, 
instead  of  confirmation,  a  frightful  ban  Avas  thundered  forth.     This, 


92         CHURCH   HISTORY   OF   EIGHTEENTH   CENTURY. 

however,  did  not  deter  tlie  Dutch  government  from  fonnally  recognis- 
ing the  elections. — Meanwhile  the  second  and  last  act  of  the  Jansenist 
tragedy  had  been  played  in  France,  Many  of  the  persecuted  Appel- 
lants sought  refuge  in  Holland,  and  the  welcome  accorded  them 
seemed  to  justif}''  the  long  cherished  suspicion  of  Jansenism  against 
the  people  of  Utrecht.  They  repelled  these  charges,  however,  by  con- 
demning the  five  propositions  and  the  hei'esies  of  Quesnel's  book ;  but 
they  expressly  refused  the  bull  of  Alexander  VII.  and  its  doctrine  of 
papal  infallibility.  This  put  a  stop  to  all  attempts  at  reconciliation. 
The  church  of  Utrecht  meanwhile  prospered.  At  a  council  held  at 
Utrecht  in  a.d.  1765  it  styled  itself  "  The  Old  Eoman  Catholic  Church 
of  the  Netherlands,"  acknowledged  the  pope,  although  under  his 
anathema,  as  the  visible  head  of  the  Christian  church,  accepted  the 
Tridentine  tlecrees  as  their  creed,  and  sent  this  with  all  the  acts  of 
council  to  Eonie  as  proof  of  their  oi'thodoxj'.  The  Jesuits  did  all  in 
their  power  to  overturn  the  formidable  impression  which  this  at  first 
made  there ;  and  the}^  were  successful.  Clement  XIII.  declared  tho 
council  null,  and  those  who  took  part  in  it  hardened  sons  of  Belial. 
But  their  church  at  this  day  contains,  under  one  archbishop  and  two 
bishops,  twenty-six  congregations,  numbering  G,000  soids.' — Continua- 
tion, §  200,  3. 

!).  Suppression  of  the  Order  of  Jesiuits,  A.D.  1773.— The  Jesuits  had 
striven  with  grooving  eagerness  and  success  after  Avorldly  power,  and 
instead  of  absolute  devotion  to  the  interests  of  the  papacy,  their  chief 
aim  was  now  the  erection  of  an  independent  political  and  hierarchical 
dominion.  Their  love  of  rule  had  sustained  its  first  check  in  the 
overthroAv  of  the  Jesuit  state  of  Paraguay ;  but  they  had  seciu'ed  a 
great  part  of  the  world's  trade  (§  156,  13),  and  strove  successfully  to 
control  Eui'opean  politics.  The  Jansenist  controversy,  however,  had 
called  forth  against  them  much  popular  odium;  Pascal  had  made 
them  ridiculous  to  all  men  of  culture,  the  other  monkish  orders  Avere 
hostile  to  them,  their  siiccess  in  trade  roused  the  jealousy  of  other 
traders,  and  their  interference  in  politics  made  enemies  on  every  hand. 
The  Portuguese  government  took  the  fi.rst  decided  step.  A  revolt  in 
Paraguay  and  an  attempt  on  the  king's  life  Avere  attributed  to  them, 
and  the  minister  Pombal,  whose  reforms  they  had  opposed,  had  them 
banished  from  Portugal  in  a.d.  1759,  and  their  goods  confiscated. 
Clement  XIII.,  a.d.  1758-1769,  chosen  by  the  Jesuits  and  under  their 
infltience,  protected  them  by  a  bull ;  but  Portugal  refused  to  let  the 
bull  be  proclaimed,  led  the  papal  nuncio  over  the  frontier,  broke  off 
all  relations  with  Eomc,  and  sent  whole  shiploads  of  Jesuits  to  the 

^  Neale,  "History  of  the  so  called  Jansenist  Chv;rch  of  Holland." 
Oxford,  1858. 


§  165.   THE   ROMAN   CATHOLIC   CHURCH.  93 

pope.  France  followed  Portugal's  example  when  the  general  Ricci 
had  answered  the  king's  demand  for  a  reform  of  his  orders :  Sitit  vt 
sunt,  aid  non  sint.  For  the  enormoiis  financial  failure  of  the  Jesuit  La 
Valette,  the  whole  order  was  made  responsible,  and  at  last,  in  a.d.  1764, 
banished  from  France  as  dangerous  to  the  state.  Spain,  Naples,  and 
Parma,  too,  soon  seized  all  the  Jesuits  and  transported  them  beyond 
the  frontiers.  The  new  papal  election  on  the  death  of  Clement  XIII. 
was  a  life  and  death  question  with  the  Jesuits,  but  courtly  influences 
and  fears  of  a  schism  prevailed.  The  pious  and  liberal  Minorite 
Ganganelli  mounted  the  papal  throne  as  Clement  XIV.,  a.d.  1769- 
1774.  He  began  with  sweeping  administrative  reforms,  forbad  the 
reading  of  the  bull  In  cccna  Domini  (§  117,  3),  and,  pressed  by  the 
Bourbon  court,  issued  in  a.d.  1773  the  bull  Dovdnus  ac  Redemtor  Xoster 
suppressing  the  Jesuit  order.  The  order  numbei'ed  22,600  members 
and  the  pope  felt,  in  granting  the  bull,  that  he  endangered  his  own 
life.  Next  year  he  died,  not  without  suspicion  of  jjoisoning.  All  the 
Catholic  courts,  even  Austria,  put  the  decree  in  force.  But  the  heretic 
Frederick  II.  tolerated  the  order  for  a  long  time  in  Silesia,  and 
Catherine  II.  and  Paul  I.  in  their  Polish  provinces. — Pius  VI.,  a.d. 
1775-1799,  in  many  respects  the  antithesis  of  his  predecessor,  was 
the  secret  friend  of  the  exiled  and  imprisoned  ex-Jesuits.  After 
the  outbreak  of  the  French  Revolution,  a  proposal  was  made  at 
Rome,  in  a.d.  1792,  for  the  formal  restoration  of  the  order,  as  a  means 
of  saving  the  seriouslj^  imperilled  church,  but  it  did  not  find  sufticient 
encouragement. 

10.  Anti-hierarchical  Movements  in  Germany  and  Italy.— Even  before 
Joseph  II.  could  carrj^  out  his  reforms  in  ecclesiastical  polit}',  the 
noble  elector  Maximilian  Joseph  III.,  a.d.  1745-1777,  with  greater 
moderation  but  complete  success,  effected  a  similar  reform  in  the 
Jesuit-overrun  Bavaria.  Himself  a  strict  Catholic,  he  asserted  the 
supremacy  of  the  state  over  a  foreign  hierarchy,  and  by  reforming 
the  churches,  cloisters,  and  schools  of  his  country  he  sought  to 
improve  their  position.  But  under  his  successor,  Charles  Theodore, 
a.d.  1777-1799,  ever3^thing  was  restored  to  its  old  condition. — Mean- 
Avhile  a  powerful  voice  was  raised  from  the  midst  of  the  German 
prelates  that  aimed  a  direct  blow  at  the  hierarchical  papal  system. 
Kicholas  von  Hontheim,  the  suflragan  Bishop  of  Treves,  had  under  the 
name  Justimts  Fcbroiiius  published,  in  a.d.  1763,  a  treatise  De  Statu 
Ecdesice,  in  which  he  maintained  the  supreme  authority  of  genei*al 
councils  and  the  independence  of  bishops  in  opposition  to  the  hierar- 
chical pretensions  of  the  ix)pes.  It  was  soon  translated  into  German, 
Fi'ench,  Spanish,  Portuguese,  and  Italian.  The  book  made  a  great  im- 
pression, and  Clement  XIII.  could  do  nothing  against  the  bold  defender 
of  the  liberties  of  the  church.    In  a.d.  1778.  indeed.  Pius  VI.  had  the 


94        CHURCH   HISTORY   OF  EIGHTEENTH   CENTURY. 

poor  satisfaction  of  extorting  a  recantation   from  the  old   man  of 
seventy-seven  j'-ears,  but  he  lived  to  see  j-et  more  deadly  storms  burst 
upon  the  church.    Urged  by  Charles  Theodore,  Elector  of  Bavaria,  the 
pope,  in  A.D.  1785,  had  made  Munich  the  residence  of  a  nuncio.    The 
episcopal  electors  of  Mainz,  Cologne,  and  Treves,  and  the  Archbishop 
of  Salzburg,  seeing  their  archiepiscopal  rights  in  danger,   met  in 
congress  at  Ems  in  a.d.  178G,  and  there,  on  the  basis  of  the  Febronian 
proofs,  claimed,  in  the  so  called  Punctation  of  Ems,  practical   inde- 
pendence of  the  pope  and  the  restoration  of  an  independent  German 
national  Catholic  chiirch.     But  the  German  bishops  found  it  easier 
to  obey  the  distant  pope  than  the  near  archbishops.     So  they  united 
their  opposition  A\'ith  that  of  the  pope,  and  the  undertaking  of  the 
archbishops  came  to  nothing. — More  threatening  still  for  tlie  existence 
of  the  hierarchy  was  the  reign  of  Joseph  II.  in  Austria.     German 
emperor  from  a.d.  1763,  and  co-regent  with  his  mother  Maria  Theresa, 
lie  began,  immediately  on  his  succession  to  sole  rule  in  a.d.  1780,  a 
radical  reform  of  the  whole  ecclesiastical  institutions  throughout  his 
hereditary  possessions.     In  a.d.  1781  he  issued  his  Edict  of  Toleration, 
by  which,  under  various  restrictions,  the  Protestants  obtained  civil 
rights  and  liberty  of  worship.     Protestant  places  of  worship  were  to 
have  no  bells  or  towers,  were  to  pay  stole  dues  to  the  Catholic  priests, 
in  mixed  marriages  the  Catholic  father  had  the  right  of  educating 
all  his  children  and  the  Catholic  mother  could  claim  the  education 
at  least  of  her  daughters.     By  stopping  all  episcopal  commimications 
with  the  papal  curia,  and  i)utting  all  papal  bulls  and  ecclesiastical 
edicts  under  strict  civil  control,  the  Catholic  church  was  emancipated 
from  Roman  influences,  set  under  a  native  clergy,  and  made  service- 
able in  the  moral  and  religious  training  of  the  people,  and  all  her 
institutions  that  did  not  serve  this  end  Avere  abolished.     Of  the  2,000 
cloisters,  606  succumbed  before  this  decree,  and  those  that  remained 
were  completely  sundered  from  all  connexion  with  Eome.     In  vain 
the  bishops  and  Pius  VI.  protested.     The  pope  even  went  to  Vienna 
in  A.D.  1782 ;  but  though  received  with  great  respect,  he  could  make 
nothing  of  the  emperor.    Joseph's  procedm^e  had  been  somewhat  hasty 
and  inconsiderate,  and  a  reaction  set  in,  led  by  interested  ]iarties,  on 
the  emperor's  early  death  in  a.d.  1790. — The  Grand-duke  Leopold  of 
Tuscany,  Joseph's  brother,  with  the  aid  of  the  pious  Bishop  Scipio  von 
fiicci,  inclined  to  Jansenism,  sought  also  in  a  similar  way  to  reform 
the  church  of  his  land  at  the  Sjmod  of  Pistoia,  in  a.d.  1786.    But  here 
too  at  last  the  hierarchy  prevailed. 

11.  Theological  Literature.— The  Revocation  of  the  Edict  of  Nantes, 
A.D.  1685,  gave  the  deathblow  to  the  French  Reformed  theology,  but  it 
also  robbed  Catholic  theology  in  France  of  its  spur  and  incentive.  The 
Huguenot  polemic  against  the  papac}-,  and  that  of  Jansenism  against 


§  165.    THE   ROMAN   CATHOLIC   CHURCH.  95 

the  semi-pelagianism  of  the  Catholic  church,  were  silenced ;  but  now 
the  most  rabid  naturalism,  atheism,  and  materialism  held  the  field, 
and  the  chui'ch  theology  was  so  lethargic  that  it  could  not  attempt 
any  serious  opposition.  Yet  even  here  some  names  ai'e  worthy  of  being- 
recorded.  Above  all,  Bernard  de  Montfaucon  of  St.  Maur,  the  ablest 
antiquarian  of  France,  besides  his  classical  works,  issued  admirable 
editions  of  Athanasius,  Chr5'SOstom,  Origen's  "  Hexajila^"'  and  the 
"  L'oUectio  Nova  Patrinn.''^  E.  Renaudot,  a  learned  expert  in  the  oriental 
languages,  wrote  several  works  in  vindication  of  the  "  Pcrpitaite  de  Ja 
Foi  cath.,''''  a  history  [of  the  Jacobite  patriarchs  of  Alexandria,  etc., 
and  comjjiled  a  ^- Collectio  litin/jicintm  Oriental,'^  in  two  vols.  Of  per- 
manent worth  is  the  ^^  Bibliofheca  Sacra '^  of  the  Oratorian  Le  Long, 
which  forms  an  admirable  literary-historical  apparatus  for  the  Bible, 
The  learned  Jesuit  Hardouin,  who  pronounced  all  Greek  and  Latin 
classics,  with  few  exceptions,  to  be  monkish  products  of  the  thirteenth 
century,  and  denied  the  existence  of  all  pre-Tridentine  genei-al 
councils,  edited  a  careful  collection  of  Acts  of  Councils  in  twelve  vols, 
folio  in  Paris,  1715,  and  compiled  an  elaborate  (du'onology  of  the  Old 
Testament.  His  pupil,  the  Jesuit  Berruyer,  wrote  a  romancing  "  Hist. 
(Ill  Peuple  de  Dieit,'''  which,  though  much  criticised,  was  widely  read. 
Incomparably  more  impoi'tant  was  the  Benedictine  Calmet,  died  a.d. 
1757,  whose  "  Dictioiwaire  de  la  Bible  "  and  "  Commeiitaire  Littered  et 
Critique "'  on  the  whole  Bible  are  really  most  creditable  for  their  time. 
And,  finally,  the  Parisian  professor  of  medicine,  Jean  Astruc,  deserves 
to  be  named  as  the  founder  of  the  modern  Pentateueli  criticism,  whose 
"  Conjectures  sur  les  Meinoiies  Originaux,'^  etc.,  appeared  in  Brussels 
A.D.  1753. — "Within  the  limits  of  the  French  Revolution  the  noble 
theosophist  St.  Martin,  died  a.d.  1805,  a  warm  admirer  of  Bohme, 
A^'rote  his  brilliant  and  ]irofound  treatises. 

12.  In  Italy  the  most  important  contributions  were  in  the  depai'tment 
of  historj-.  Mansi,  in  his  collection  of  Acts  of  Councils  in  thirty-one 
vols,  folio,  A.D.  1759  ff.,  and  Muratori,  in  his  "  Scriptores  Per.  Italic.,'^ 
in  twenty-eight  vols.,  and  "  Antiquitt.  Ital.  Med.  ..-E'tw',"  in  six  vols.,  show 
brilliant  learning  and  admirable  impartiality.  Ugolino,  in  a  gigantic 
work,  "  Thescturus  Antiquitt.  ss.,'''  thirty-four  folio  vols.,  a.d.  1744  fl'., 
gathers  together  all  that  is  most  important  for  biblical  archseologj-. 
The  three  Assemani,  uncle  and  two  nejjhews,  cultured  Maronites  in 
Rome,  wrought  in  the  hitherto  unknown  field  of  Syrian  literature  and 
history.  The  uncle,  Joseph  Simon,  librarian  at  the  Vatican,  wrote 
"  Bihliotheca  Orientalist''  in  four  vols.,  a.d.  1719  fi".,  and  edited  Ephraem's 
works  in  six  vols.  The  elder  nepheAv,  Stephen  Evodius,  edited  the  'L4cto 
ss.  Martyrum  Orient,  et  Occid.,'''  in  two  vols.,  and  the  younger,  Joseph 
Aloysius,  a  "  Codex  Liturgicus  Pedes.  Univ.,''^  in  thirteen  vols.  Among 
dogmatical  works  the  "  Thcologia  liist.-dogm.-schoJastica."  in  eight  vols. 


96        CHURCH   HISTORY   OF   EIGHTEENTH   CENTURY. 

folio,  E.ome,  1739,  of  the  Augustinian  Berti  deserves  mention.  Zaccaria 
of  Venice,  in  some  thirty  vols.,  proved  an  indefatigable  opponent  of 
Febronianism,  Josephinism,  and  such-like  movements,  and  a  careful 
editor  of  older  Catholic  works.  The  Augustinian  Florez,  died  a.d. 
1773,  did  for  Spain  what  Muratori  had  done  for  Italy  in  making  col- 
lections of  ancient  writers,  which,  with  the  continuations  of  the 
brethren  of  his  order,  extended  to  fifty  folio  volumes. — In  Germany 
the  greatest  Catholic  theologian  of  the  century  was  Amort.  Of  his 
seventy  treatises  the  most  comprehensive  is  the  "  Thcologia  Edectlca, 
Moralis  et  Scholastica,^^  in  four  vols,  folio,  a.d.  1752.  He  conducted  a 
conciliatory  polemic  against  the  Pi'otestants,  contested  the  mysticism 
of  Maria  von  Agreda  (§  156,  5),  and  vigorously  controverted  super- 
stition, miracle-mongering,  and  all  manner  of  monkish  extravagances. 
To  the  time  of  Joseph  II.  belongs  the  liberal,  latitudinarian  super- 
natm-alist  Jahn  of  "Vienna,  whose  "Introduction  to  the  Old  Testament," 
and  "Biblical  Antiquities"  did  much  to  raise  the  standard  of  biblical 
learning.  For  his  anti-clericalism  he  was  deprived  of  his  professorship 
in  A.D.  1805,  and  died  in  a.d.  1816  a  canon  in  Vienna.  To  this  century 
also  belongs  the  greatly  blessed  literary  labours  of  the  accomplished 
mystic,  Sailer,  beginning  at  Ingolstadt  in  a.d.  1777,  and  continued  at 
Dillingen  from  a.d.  1784.  Deprived  in  a.d.  1794  of  his  professorship 
on  pretenoe  of  his  favouring  the  Illuminati,  it  was  not  till  a.d.  1799 
that  he  was  allowed  to  resume  his  academic  work  in  Ingolstadt  and 
Landshut.  By  numerous  theological,  ascetical,  and  philosophical 
tracts,  but  far  more  powerfully  by  his  lectures  and  personal  inter- 
oourse,  he  sowed  the  seeds  of  rationalism,  which  bore  fruit  in  the 
teachings  of  many  Catholic  universities,  and  produced  in  the  hearts 
of  many  pupils  a  warm  and  deep  and  at  the  same  time  a  gentle  and 
conciliatory  Catholicism,  which  heartily  greeted,  even  in  pious  Pro- 
testants, the  foundations  of  a  common  faith  and  life.  Compare  §  187, 
1. — Continuation,  §  191. 

13.  The  German-Catholic  Contribution  to  the  Illumination.- The  Catholic 
church  of  Germany  was  also  caii-ied  awaj'  with  the  current  of  "  the 
Illumination,"  which  from  the  middle  of  the  century  had  overrun 
Protestant  Germany.  While  the  exorcisms  and  cures  of  Father 
Gassner  in  Eegensburg  were  securing  signal  triumphs  to  Catholicism, 
though  these  were  of  so  dubious  a  kind  that  the  bishops,  the  emperor, 
and  finally  even  the  curia,  found  it  necessary  to  check  the  course  of 
the  miracle  worker,  Weishaupt,  professor  of  canon  law  in  Ingolstadt, 
founded,  in  a.d.  1776,  the  secret  society  of  the  Illuminati,  which  spread 
its  deistic  ideas  of  culture  and  human  perfectibility  through  Catholic 
South  Germany.  Though  inspired  by  deadly  hatred  of  the  Jesuits, 
Weishaupt  imitated  their  methods,  and  so  excited  the  suspicion  of 
the  Bavarian  government,  which,  in  a.d.  1785,  suppressed  the  order 


§  165.    THE    ROMAN    CATHOLIC   CHURCH.  97 

and  imprisoned  and  banished  its  leaders. — Catholic  theology  too  was 
affected  by  the  rationalistic  movement.  But  that  the  power  of  the 
church  to  curse  still  survived  was  proved  in  the  case  of  the  Mainz 
pi'ofessor,  Laurence  Isentiehl,  who  applied  the  passage  about  Immanuel, 
in  Isaiah  vii.  14,  not  to  the  mother  of  Christ,  but  to  the  wife  of  the 
prophet,  for  which  he  was  deposed  in  a.d.  1774,  and  on  account  of  his 
defective  knowledge  of  tlieology  was  sent  back  for  two  years  to  the 
seminar}'.  "When  in  a.d.  1778  he  published  a  learned  treatise  on  the 
same  theme,  he  was  put  in  prison.  The  pope  too  condemned  his 
exposition  as  pestilential,  and  Isenbiehl  "  as  a  good  Catholic  "  retracted. 
Steinbiihler,  a  young  jurist  of  Salzbui'g,  having  been  sentenced  to 
death  in  a.d.  1781  for  some  contemptuous  words  abotit  the  Catholic 
ceremonies,  was  pardoned,  but  soon  after  died  from  the  ill-treatment 
he  liad  received.  The  rationalistic  movement  got  hold  more  and  more 
of  the  Catholic  universities.  In  Mainz,  Dr.  Blau,  professor  of  dogmatics, 
promulgated  with  imjninity  the  doctrine  that  in  the  course  of  cen- 
turies the  church  has  often  made  mistakes.  In  the  Austrian  univer- 
sities, under  the  protection  of  the  Josephine  edict,  a  whole  series  of 
Catholic  theologians  ventured  to  make  cynically  free  criticisms,  espe- 
cially in  the  field  of  church  historj*.  At  Bonn  University,  founded  iu 
A.D.  1786  by  the  Elector-archbishop  of  Cologne,  there  were  teacher.s 
like  Hedderich,  who  sportively  described  himself  on  the  title  page  of 
a  dissertation  as  "J«?/i  quater  Eomce  damnatus^"'  Dereser,  previously  a 
Carmelite  monk,  -who  followed  Eichhorn  in  his  exposition  of  the 
biblical  miracles,  and  Eulogius  Schneider,  who,  after  having  made 
Bonn  too  hot  for  him  bj'  his  theological  and  poetical  recklessness, 
threw  himself  into  the  French  Revolution,  for  two  years  marched 
through  Alsace  with  the  guillotine  as  one  of  the  most  dreaded  monstei's, 
and  finally,  in  a.d.  1794,  was  made  to  lay  his  own  head  on  the  block. 
— At  the  Austrian  universities,  under  the  protection  of  the  toleranii 
.Tosephine  legislation,  a  whole  series  of  Catholic  theologians,  Eoyko, 
"Wolft",  Dannenmaj-r,  Michl,  etc.,  criticised,  often  with  cynical  plain- 
ness, the  proceedings  and  condition  of  the  Catholic  church.  To  this 
class  also,  in  the  first  stage  of  his  remarkably  changeful  and  eventful 
career,  belongs  Ign.  Aur.  Fessler.  From  1773,  a  Cajjuchin  in  various 
cloisters,  last  of  all  in  Vienna,  he  brought  down  upon  himself  the 
bitter  hatred  of  his  order  by  making  secret  reports  to  the  emperor 
about  the  ongoings  that  prevailed  in  these  convents.  He  escaj^ed  their 
enmity  by  his  appointment,  in  1784,  as  professor  of  the  oriental 
languages  and  the  Old  Testament  at  Lemberg,  but  was  in  1787  dis- 
missed fi'om  this  oifice  on  account  of  various  charges  against  his  life, 
teaching,  and  poetical  writings.  In  Silesia,  in  1791,  he  went  over 
to  the  Protestant  church,  joined  the  freemasons,  held  at  Berlin  the 
pest  of  ;i  rouncillor  in  f ci'lrsi'^.sticul  and  (.ducatioual  affairs  for  t!ie 
VOL.    III.  7 


98        CHURCH  HISTORY  OF  EIGHTEENTH  CENTURY. 

newly  won  Catholic  provinces  of  Poland,  and,  after  losing  this  position 
in  consequence  of  the  events  of  the  war  of  1806,  found  employment  in 
Russia  in  1809 ;  first,  as  professor  of  oriental  languages  at  St.  Peters- 
burg, and  afterwards,  when  opjjosed  and  persecuted  there  also  on 
suspicion  of  entertaining  atheistical  views,  as  member  of  a  legal 
commission  in  South  Russia.  Meanwhile  having  gradually  moved 
from  a  deistical  to  a  vague  mystical  standpoint,  he  was  in  1819  made 
superintendent  and  president  of  the  evangelical  consistory  at  Saratov, 
with  the  title  of  an  evangelical  bishoia,  and  after  the  abolition  of  that 
office  in  1833  he  became  general  superintendent  at  St.  Petersburg, 
Avhere  he  died  in  1839.  His  romances  and  tragedies  as  well  as  his 
theological  and  religious  writings  are  now  forgotten,  but  his  "Remini- 
scences of  his  Seventy  Years'  Pilgrimage,"  published  in  1824,  are 
still  interesting,  and  his  ''History  of  Hungar}","  in  ten  volumes, 
begun  in  1812,  is  of  permanent  value. 

14.  The  French  Contribution  to  the  Illumination. — The  age  of  Louis 
XIV.,  with  the  morals  of  its  Jesuit  confessors,  the  lust,  bigotry,  and 
hypocrisy  of  its  court,  its  dragonnades  and  Bastile  polemic  against 
revivals  of  a  living  Christianity  among  Huguenots,  mystics,  and 
Jansenists,  its  pro^Dhets  of  the  Ce-^-ennes  and  Jansenist  convulsionists, 
etc.,  called  forth  a  spirit  of  freethinking  to  Avhich  Catholicism,  Jansen- 
ism, and  Protestantism  appeared  equally  ridiculous  and  absurd.  This 
movement  Avas  essentially  different  from  English  deism.  The  prin- 
ciple of  the  English  movement  was  common  sense,  the  universal  moral 
consciousness  in  man,  with  the  powerful  weapon  of  rational  criticism, 
maintaining  the  existence  of  an  ideal  and  moral  element  in  men,  and 
holding  by  the  more  general  principles  of  religion.  French  naturalism, 
on  the  other  hand,  was  a  j)hilosophy  of  the  espi-it,  that  essentially 
French  lightheartedness  which  laughed  away  everything  of  an  ideal 
sort  with  scorn  and  wit.  Y^'et  there  was  an  intimate  relationship  between 
the  two.  The  philosophy  of  common  sense  came  to  France,  and  was 
there  travestied  uito  a  philosophy  d'esprit.  The  organ  of  this  French 
philosophy  was  the  '•  Enciidopedie  "  of  Diderot  and  D'Alembert,  and 
its  most  brilliant  contributors,  Montesquieu,  Helvttius,  Voltaire,  and 
Rousseau.  Montesquieu,  a.d.  1689-1755,  whose  "  Esprit  des  Lois  "  in  two 
years  passed  through  twenty -two  editions,  wrote  the  "  Lettres  Persanes,"' 
in  which  with  biting  wit  he  ridiculed  the  political,  social,  and  ecclesi- 
astical condition  of  France.  Helvetius,  a.d.  1715-1771,  had  his  book, 
"  De  VEsprit,''''  burnt  in  a.u.  1759  by  order  of  parliament,  and  was 
made  to  retract,  but  this  only  increased  his  influence.  Voltaire,  a.d. 
1694-1778,  although  treatmg  in  his  writings  of  philosophical  and 
theoloo'ical  matters,  gives  only  a  hash  of  English  deism  spiced  with 
frivolous  wit,  showing  the  same  tendency  in  his  historical  and  poetical 
works,  giving  a  certain  eloquence  to  the  commonest  and  filthiest  sub- 


§  165.   THE   ROMAN  CATHOLIC  CHURCH.  99 

jects,  as  in  his  "  P«rc//f "'  and  '^  Candkle."'  He  obtained,  lio-\vever,  an 
immense  influence  tliat  extended  far  past  liis  ovm.  days.  To  the  same 
class  belongs  Jean  Jacques  Eousseau,  a.d.  1712-1778,  belonging  to  the 
Roman  Catholic  chnrch  only  as  a  pervert  for  seventeen  years  in  the 
middle  of  his  life.  Of  a  nobler  nature  than  Voltaire,  he  yet  often  sank 
into  deep  immorality,  as  he  tells  -without  reserve,  but  also  without  any 
hearty  j)enitence,  in  his  Confessions.  His  whole  life  was  taken  up 
with  the  conflict  for  his  ideals  of  fi-eedom,  nature,  human  rights,  and 
human  happiness.  In  his  "  Confrat  Social "  of  a.d.  1762,  he  conunends 
a  retimr  to  the  natui-al  condition  of  the  savage  as  the  ideal  end  of 
man's  endeavour.  His  '■  Emile "  of  a.d.  1761  is  of  epoch-making- 
importance  in  the  history  of  education,  and  in  it  he  eloquently  sets 
forth  his  ideal  of  a  natural  education  of  children,  while  he  sent  all  his 
own  (natural)  children  to  a  foundling  hospital. — The  physician  De  la 
Mettrie,  who  died  at  the  coiu't  of  Frederick  the  Great  in  a.d.  1751, 
carried  materialism  to  its  most  extreme  consequences,  and  the  German- 
Frenclunan  Baron  Holbach,  a.d.  1723-1789,  wrote  the  "  Systeme  de  la 
Xatare,'^  Avhich  in  two  years  passed  thi'ough  eighteen  editions.^ 

15.  These  seeds  bore  fruit  in  the  French  Revolution.  Voltaire's  cry 
"  Ecrasez  rinfame,'^  was  directed  against  the  church  of  the  Inquisition, 
the  massacre  of  St.  Bartholomew,  and  the  dragonnades,  and  Diderot 
had  exclaimed  that  the  world's  salvation  could  onlj^  come  when  the 
last  king  had  been  strangled  with  the  entrails  of  the  last  i^riest.  The 
constitutional  National  Assembly,  a.d.  1789-1791,  wished  to  set  aside, 
not  the  faith  of  the  people,  but  only  the  hierarchy'',  and  to  save  the 
state  from  a  financial  criiSs  by  the  goods  of  the  church.  All  cloisters 
were  suppressed  and  their  property  sold.  The  number  of  bishops  was 
reduced  to  one  half,  all  ecclesiastical  offices  without  a  pastoral  sphere 
were  abolished,  the  clergy  elected  by  the  i)eople  paid  by  the  state,  and 
liberty  of  belief  recognised  as  an  inalienable  right  of  man.  The  legis- 
lative National  Assembly,  a.d.  1791,  1792,  made  all  the  clergy  take  an 
oath  to  the  constitution  on  pain  of  deposition.  The  pope  forbad  it 
under  the  same  threat.  Then  arose  a  schism.  Some  40,000  priests 
Avho  refused  the  oath  mostly  quitted  the  country.  Avignon  (§  110,  4) 
had  been  incorporated  in  the  French  territory.  The  terrorist  National 
Convention,  a.d.  1792-1795,  which  brought  the  king  to  the  scaftbld  on 
January  21st,  a.d.  1793,  and  the  queen  on  October  16th,  prohibited  all 
(Jiiristian  customs,  on  5th  October  abolished  the  Christian  reckoning 
of  time,  and  on  November  7th  Christianity  itself,  laid  waste  2.000 


1  Cairns,  "  Unbelief  in  the  Eighteenth  Century,"  chap,  iv.,  "  Un- 
belief in  France."  Edinburgh,  1881.  Morley,  "Diderot  and  the 
Encyclopedists."  2  vols.  London,  1878.  Morley,  '"Voltaire."  Lon- 
don, 1872.    Lange,  "  History  of  Materialism."    3  vols.    London.  1877. 


100     CHUECH    HISTOEY  OF  EIGHTEENTH   CENTUET. 

churches  and  converted  Notre  Dame  into  a  Temple  de  la  liaison,  where 

a  ballet-dancer  represented  the  goddess  of  reason.  Stirred  up  by  the 
fanatical  baron,  "  Anacliarsis  "  Cloots,  "  the  apostle  of  human  freedom 
and  the  personal  enemy  of  Jesus  Christ,"  the  Archbishop  Gobel,  now 
in  his  sixtieth  year,  came  forward,  pi'oclaiming  his  whole  past  life  a 
raud,  and  owning  no  other  religion  than  that  of  freedom.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  noble  Bishoii  Gregoire  of  Blois,  the  first  priest  to  support  the 
constitution,  who  voted  for  the  abolition  of  royalt}^,  but  not  the  exe- 
cution of  the  king,  was  not  driven  by  the  terrorism  of  the  convention, 
of  which  he  was  a  member,  from  a  bold  and  open  profession  of  Chris- 
tianity, appearing  in  his  clerical  dress  and  unweariedly  protesting 
against  the  vandalism  of  the  Assembly.  Eobespierrei  himself  said, 
"  Si  T)icu  ii'exiiitait  2^0,^1  il  faudrait  Vinventer,''''  passed  in  a.d.  1794  the 
I'esolution,  Lc  i^eiiple  franqais  reconnait  VEtre  sitpreme  et  VimmortaliM 
de  Vdme,  and  issued  an  order  to  celebrate  the /e7e  de  V Eti'e  supreme . 
Tlie  Dix'ectory,  a.d.  1795-1799,  restored  indeed  Christian  Avorship,  but 
favoured  the  deistical  sect  of  the  Theophilanthropists,  whose  high- 
swelling  phrases  soon  called  forth  public  scorn,  while  in  a.d.  1802  the 
first  consul  banished  their  worship  from  all  churches.  But  mean- 
Avhile,  in  a.d.  1798,  in  order  to  nullify  the  opposition  of  the  pope, 
French  armies  had  overrun  Italy  and  proclaimed  the  Church  States 
a  Eoman  Republic.  Pius  VI.  was  taken  i^risoner  to  France,  and  died 
in  A.D.  1799  at  Valence  under  the  rough  treatment  of  the  French,  with- 
out having  in  the  least  compromised  himself  or  his  office." 

IG.  The  Pseudo-Catholics. — (1)  The  Abrahamites  or  Bohemian  Deists. 
When  Joseph  II.  issued  his  edict  of  toleration  in  a.d.  1781,  a  sect  which 
had  hitherto  kept  itself  secret  under  the  mask  of  Catholicism  made  its 
appearance  in  the  Bohemian  province  of  Pardubitz.  The  Abrahamites 
were  descended  from  the  old  Hussites,  and  professed  to  follow  the  faith 
of  Abraham  before  his  circumcision.  Their  fundamental  doctrine 
Avas  deistic  monotheism,  and  of  the  Bible  they  accepted  only  the  ten 
commandments  and  the  Lord's  Prayer.  But  as  they  would  neither 
attend  the  Jewish  synagogue  nor  the  churches  of  any  existing  Chris- 
tian sect,  the  emperor  refused  them  religious  toleration,  drove  them 
from  their  homes,  and  settled  them  in  a.d.  1783  on  the  eastern  fron- 
tiers. Many  of  them,  in  consequence  of  persecution,  returned  to  the 
Catholic  church,  and  even  those  who  remained  steadfast  did  not 
transmit  their  faith  to  their  children. 

1  This  saying  is  usually  attributed  to  Voltaire,  He  used  the  ex- 
pression in  attacking  Pierre  Bayle. — Erdmann's  "  Hist,  of  Phil.,"  vol. 
ii.,  p.  158.     Ueberweg,  "  Hist,  of  Phil.,"  vol.  ii.,  p.  125. 

-  Pressense,  "The  Church  and  the  devolution."'  London,  1869. 
Jervis,  "  The  Galilean  Chiirch  and  the  Bevolution."    London,  1882. 


§  165.  THE  ROMAN  CATHOLIC  CHURCH.     101 

17.  (2)  The  Frankists.— Jacob  Leibowicz,  the  son  of  a  Jewish  rabbi 
in  Galicia,  attached  himself  in  Turkej-,  where  he  assumed  the  name 
of  Frank,  to  the  Jewish  sect  of  the  Sabbatarians,  who,  repudiating 
the  Talmud,  adopted  the  cabbalistic  book  Sohar  as  the  source  of  their 
more  profound  religious  teachinjr.     Afterwards  in  Podolia,  which  was 
then  still  Polish,  he  was  esteemed  among  his  numerous  adherents  as 
a  Messiah  sent  of  God.     Bitterly  hated  by  the  rabbinical  Jews,  and 
accused  of  indulging  in  vile  orgies  in  their  assemblies,  many  of  those 
Soharists  were   thro^\•n   into    prison   at    the  instigation   of    Bishop 
Dembowski  of  Kaminetz.     But  when  they  turned  and  accused  their 
opponents  of  most  serious  crimes  against  Christendom,  and,  at  Frank's 
suggestion,  pointing  out  what  they  alleged  to  be  an  identity  between 
the  book  Sohar  and  the  Christian  doctrine  of  the  Trinity  and  incarna- 
tion, made  it  known  that  they  were  inclined  to  become  converts,  they 
Avon  the  favour  of  the  bishop.     He  arranged  a  disputation  between  the 
two  parties,  pronounced  the  Talmudists  beaten,  confiscated  all  avail- 
able copies  of  the  Talmud,  dragged  them  through  the  streets  tied,  to 
the  tail  of  a  horse,  and  then  burnt  them.     Dembowski,  however,  died 
soon  after  in  a.d.  1757,  and  the  cathedral  chapter  expelled  the  Soharisls 
from  Kaminetz.     They  appealed  to  King  Augustus  III.  and  to  Arch- 
bishop Lubienski  of  Lemberg,  renewing  their  profession  of  faith  in  the 
Trinity,  and  jn'omising  to  be  subject  to  the  poi:)e.    In  a  disputation  with 
the   Talmudists   lasting   thi'ee   daj-s  they  sought  to  prove  that  the 
Talmudists  used  Christian  blood  in  their  services,  which  afterwards 
led  to  the  death  of  five  of  the  Jews  thus  accused.    By  Frank's  advice, 
who  took  part  neither  in  this  nor  in  the  former  disputation,  but  Avas 
t  he  secret  leader  of  the  AA'hole  moA-ement,  they  noAv  formally  applied 
for  admission  into  thf?  Catholic  church,  and  their  leader  noAV  entered 
Lemberg  in  great  state.     They  actualh^  submitted  to  be  thus  driven 
by  him,  and  1,000  of  his  adherents  Avere  baptized  at  Lemberg.     Frank 
Avas  baptized  at  "WarsaAv  under  the  name  of  Joseph,  the  king  himself 
acting  as  sponsor.     In  all  Catholic  journals  this  event  Avas  celebrated 
as  a  signal  triumph  for  the  Catholic  church.     But  Frank  among  his 
oAvn  disciples  contintied  to  play  the  role  of  a  niiracle-Avoi'king  IMessiah. 
Hence  in  a.d.  1760  the  Inquisition  stepped  in.    Some  of  his  folloAvers 
Avere  imprisoned,  others  banished,  and  he  himself  as  a  hercsiarch  con- 
demned to  confinement  for  life  with  hard  labour,  from  Avhich  after 
thirteen  years  he  Avas  liberated  on  the  first  partition  of  Poland  in  a.d. 
1772,  through  the  faA'our  of  Catherine  II.,  Avho  employed  him  as  secret 
political  agent.     Feeling  that  his  life  Avas  insecure  in  Poland,  he  Avent 
to  MoraA'ia,  and  at  Briinn  reorganized  his  niimerous  and  attached 
foUoAvers  into  a  Avell-knit  society,  by  Avhich  he  Avas  revered  as  the 
incarnation  of  the  Deitj'-,  and  his  beautiful  daughter  Eva,  brought  up 
by  her  noble  godmother,  as  "  the  divine  Emuna."    Hoav  he  was  per- 


102     CHURCH  HISTORY  OF  EIGHTEENTH   CENTURY. 

mitted,  tinder  tlie  protection  of  tlie  Catholic  clmrch,  to  continue  here  for 
sixteen  j^ears,  playing  the  rule  of  a  Messiah,  and  to  amass  such  -wealth 
as  enabled  him  to  pvirchase,  in  A.n.  1788,  from  the  impoverished  prince 
of  IIomburg-Birstein  his  castle  at  Offenbach,  with  all  the  privileges 
attached  to  it,  is  an  insoluble  myster3^  He  noAv  called  himself  Baron 
von  Frank,  formed  with  his  followers  from  Moravia  and  Poland  a 
brilliant  establishment,  which  outwardly  adhered  to  the  Eoman 
Catholic  church,  although  he  very  seldom  attended  the  Catholic  ser- 
vices. Frank  died  in  a.d.  1791,  and- was  buried  AAdth  great  pomp,  but 
without  the  presence  of  the  Catholic  clergy.  His  daughter  Eva  was 
able  to  maintain  the  extravagant  establishment  of  her  father  for 
twenty-six  years,  when  the  debt  resting  on  the  castle  reached  three 
million  florins.  At  last,  in  a.d.  1817,  the  long-threatened  catastrophe 
occurred.  Eva  died  suddenlj',  and  a  coffin  said  to  contain  her  body 
was  actually  with  all  decorum  laid  in  the  grave. 

§  IGG.    The  Oriental  Churches. 

The  oppressed  condition  of  the  ortliodox  church  in  tlie 
Ottoman  empire  continued  unchanged.  It  had  a  more 
vigorous  development  in  Eussia,  where  its  ascendency  was 
unchallenged.  Although  the  Russian  church,  from  the 
time  of  its  obtaining  an  independent  patriarchate  at  Moscow, 
in  A.D.  1589,  was  constitutionally  emancipated  from  the 
mother  church  of  Constantinople,  it  yet  continued  in  close 
religious  affinity  with  it.  This  was  intensified  by  the  adop- 
tion of  the  common  confession,  drawn  up  shortly  before  b}^ 
Peter  Mogilas  (§  152,  3).  The  patriarchal  constitution  in 
Russia,  however,  was  but  short-lived,  for  Peter  I.,  in  1702, 
after  the  death  of  the  Patriarch  Hadrian,  abolished  the 
patriarchate,  arrogated  to  himself  as  emperor  the  highest 
ecclesiastical  office,  and  in  a.d.  1721  constituted  "  the  Holy 
^>ynod,"  to  which,  under  the  supervision  of  a  procurator 
guarding  the  rights  of  the  state,  he  assigned  the  supreme 
direction  of  spiritual  and  ecclesiastical  affairs.  To  these 
proposals  the  Patriarch  of  Constantinople  gave  his  approval. 
In  this  reform  of  the  church  constitution  Theophanes  Proco- 
powicz,  Metropolitan  of  Novgorod,  was  the  emperor's  right 


§  166.    THE    OEIENTAL   CHURCHES.  103 

hand. — The    monopln'site  cliurcli  of  Abj'ssinia   was   again* 
(luring  tliis  period  the  scene  of  Christological  controversies. 

1.  The  Russian  State  Church.— From  the  time  of  the  liturgical  rofor- 
matiou  of  the  Patriarch  Nikon  (§  163. 10)  a  new  and  peculiar  service  of 
song  took  the  i^lace  of  the  old  unison  stj'le  that  had  previously  pre- 
•^ailed  in  the  Eu-ssian  church.  Without  instrumental  accompaniment, 
It  was  sustained  simply  by  ]Jowerful  male  voices,  and  was  executed,  at 
least  in  the  chief  cities,  Avith  musical  taste  and  charming  simplicity. 
Among  the  theologians,  the  above-named  Procopowicz,  who  died  in 
A. 11.  1736,  occupied  a  prominent  position.  His  "Handbook  of  Dog- 
matics,"' without  departing  fi'om  the  doctrines  of  his  church,  is 
characterized  by  learning,  clearness  of  exposition,  and  moderation. 
From  the  middle  of  the  century,  however,  esjiecially  among  the 
superior  clergj-,  there  crept  in  a  Protestant  tendency,  which  indeed 
held  quite  firmly  bj^  the  old  theology  of  the  oecumenical  sjniods  of 
the  Greek  Church,  but  set  aside  or  laid  little  stress  upon  later  doctrinal 
developments.  Even  the  celebrated  and  widely  used  catechism, 
drawn  uji  originally  for  the  use  of  the  Grand-duke  Paul  Petrovich, 
by  his  tutor,  the  learned  Platon,  afterwards  Metropolitan  of  Moscoa\', 
was  not  quite  free  from  this  tendency.  It  found  yet  more  decided 
f'xpression  in  the  dogmatic  handbook  of  Theophylact,  archimandrite 
of  Moscow,  published  in  a.d.  1773. — Continuation,  §  20(5,  1. 

2.  Russian  Sects— To  the  sects  of  the  seventeenth  century  (§  163,  10) 
are  to  be  added  spiritualistic  gnostics  of  the  eighteenth,  in  which  we  find 
a  blending  of  western  ideas  with  the  old  oriental  mysticism.  Among 
those  were  the  Malakanen,  or  consumers  of  milk,  because,  in  spite  of  the 
orthodox  prohibition,  they  used  milk  during  the  fasts.  They  rejected 
all  anointings,  even  chrism  and  priestly  consecration,  and  acknowledged 
only  spiritual  anointing  by  the  doctrine  of  Christ.  They  also  volati- 
lized the  idea  of  baptism  and  the  Lord's  supper  into  that  of  a  merely 
spiritual  cleansing  and  nom-ishing  by  the  word  of  the  gospel.  Other- 
■\vise  they  led  a  quiet  and  honourable  life.  More  important  still  in 
regard  to  numbers  and  influence  were  the  Duchohorzen.  Although 
belonging  exclusively  to  the  peasant  class,  they  had  a  richly  developed 
theological  system  of  a  speculative  character,  with  a  notable  blending 
of  theoso]->hy,  nwsticism.  Protestantism,  and  rationalism.  Thej- 
idealized  the  doctrine  of  the  sacraments  after  the  style  of  the  Quakers, 
would  have  no  special  places  of  worship  or  an  ordained  clergj-,  refused 
to  take  oaths  or  engage  in  military  service,  and  led  peaceable  and 
useful  lives.  They  made  their  first  appearance  in  Moscow  in  the 
beginning  of  the  eighteenth  century  imder  Peter  the  Great,  and 
spread  through  other  cities  of  Old  Eussia.— Continuation,  §  210.  3. 

3.  The  Abyssinian  Church  (§§  64,  1 ;  73,  2).— About  the  middle  of 


104      CHURCH   HISTORY   OF   EIGHTEENTH    CENTURY.. 

the  century  a  monk  ajipeared,  proclaiming  that,  besides  the  commonly 
admitted  twofold  birth  of  Christ,  the  eternal  generation  of  the  Father 
and  the  temporal  birth  of  the  Virgin  Mary,  there  was  a  third  birth 
through  anointing  with  the  Holy  Spirit  in  the  baptism  in  Jordan. 
He  thus  convulsed  the  whole  Abyssinian  church,  Avhich  for  centuries 
liad  been  in  a  state  of  spiritual  lethargy.  The  ahuna  with  the 
majority  of  his  church  held  by  the  old  doctrine,  but  the  new  also 
found  many  adherents.  The  split  thus  occasioned  has  continued  till 
the  present  time,  and  has  played  no  unimportant  part  in  the  politico- 
dynastic  struggles  of  the  last  ten  years  (§  184,  9). 

II. — The  Protestant  Clmrclies. 

§  167.    The  Lutheran  Church  before  "  the 
Illumination." 

By  means  of  the  founding  of  the  University  of  Halle  iu 
A.D.  1694  a  fresh  impulse  was  given  to  the  pietist  move- 
ment, and  too  often  the  whole  German  Church  was  embroiled 
in  violent  party  strifes,  in  which  both  sides  failed  to  keep 
the  happy  mean,  and  laid  themselves  open  to  the  reproach 
of  the  adversaries.  Spener  died  in  a.d.  1705,  Francke  in 
A.D.  1727,  and  Breithaupt  in  A.u.  1732.  After  the  loss  of 
these  leaders  the  Halle  pietism  became  more  and  more 
gross,  narrow,  unscientilic,  regardless  of  the  Church  con- 
fession, frequently  renouncing  definite  beliefs  for  hazy  pious 
feeling,  and  attaching  undue  importance  to  pious  forms  of 
expression  and  methodistical  modes  of  life.  The  conven- 
tionalism encouraged  by  it  became  a  very  Pandora's  box  of 
sectarianism  and  fanaticism  (§  170,  1).  But  it  had  also  set 
up  a  ferment  iu  the  church  and  in  theology  which  created 
a  wholesome  influence  for  many  years.  More  than  6,000 
theologians  from  all  parts  of  Germany  had  down  to  Franckc's 
death  received  their  theological  training  in  Halle,  and 
carried  the  leaven  of  his  spirit  into  as  many  churches  and 
schools.  A  whole  series  of  distinguished  teachers  of 
theology  now  rose  in  almost  all  the  Lutheran  churches  of 
the  German  states,  who,  avoiding  the  oncsidedness  of  the 


§  167.  LUTH.  CHURCH  BEFORE  "THE  ILLUMINATION. "  105 

pietists  and  tlieir  opponents,  tanglit  and  preached  pure  doc- 
trine and  a  pious  life.  From  Calixt  they  had  leai'nt  to  be 
mild  and  fair  towards  the  Reformed  and  Catholic  churches, 
and  by  Spener  they  had  been  roused  to  a  genuine  and  hearty 
piety.  Gottfried  Arnold's  protest,  onesided  as  it  was,  had 
taught  them  to  discover,  even  among  heretics  and  sectaries, 
partial  and  distorted  truths ;  and  from  Calov  and  Loscher 
the}'  had  inherited  a  zeal  for  pure  doctrine.  Most  eminent 
among  these  were  Albert  Bengel,  of  Wlirttemberg,  who 
died  in  A.D.  1752,  and  Chr.  Aug.  Crusius  of  Leipzig,  who 
died  in  a.d.  1775.  But  when  the  flood  of  "  the  Illumina- 
tion "  came  rushing  in  upon  the  German  Lutheran  Church 
about  the  middle  of  the  centmy,  it  overflowed  even  the 
fields  sown  by  these  noble  men. 

1.  The  Pietist  Controversies  after  the  Founding  of  the  Halle  University 
(§  159,  3). — Pietism,  condemned  by  the  orthodox  universities  of 
Leipzig  and  Wittenberg,  Avas  i)rotected  and  encoi^raged  in  Halle. 
The  cro\vds  of  students  flocking  to  this  new  seniinary  roused  the 
■vvrath  of  the  orthodox.  The  "Wittenberg  faculty,  with  Deutschmaini 
at  its  head,  issued  a  manifesto  in  a.d.  1695,  charging  Spener  with  no 
less  than  264  eiTors  in  doctrine.  Xor  were  those  of  Leipzig  silent, 
Carpzov  going  so  far  as  to  style  the  mild  and  peace-loving  Spener  a 
proccUa  ecclesia:.  Other  leading  opponents  of  the  pietists  were  Schel- 
Avig  of  Dantzig,  IMaj-er  of  Wittenberg,  and  Fecht  of  Eostock.  When 
Spener  died  in  a.d.  1705  his  opponents  gravely  discussed  whether  he 
could  be  thought  of  as  in  glor}'.  Fecht  of  Eostock  denied  that  it 
could  be.  Among  the  later  cham]jions  of  pure  doctrine  the  worthiest 
and  ablest  was  the  learned  Loscher,  superintendent  at  Dresden,  a.d. 
1709-1747,  Avho  at  least  cannot  be  reproached  with  dead  orthodoxy. 
His  "  Volhtiindigev  Timothcus  Verinus,'^  two  vols.,  1718,  1721,  is  by  far 
the  most  important  controversial  work  against  pietism.^  Fi'ancis 
Buddeus  of  Jena  for  a  long  time  sought  ineffectually  to  bring  about  a 
reconciliation  between  Loscher  and  the  pietists  of  Halle.  In  a.d.  1710 
Francke  and  Breithaupt  obtained  a  valorous  colleague  in  Joachim 
Lange  ;  but  even  he  was  no  match  for  Loscher  in  controversj-.     ]Mean- 

'  Hagenbach,  "  History  of  Church  in  the  18th  and  19th  Centuries," 
vol.  i.,  pj).  109,  116.  2  vols.  New  York,  1S09.  Dorner,  ''  History  of 
Protestant  Theology."  vol.  ii.,  p.  208. 


106     CHUECH   HISTORY   OF   EIGHTEENTH   CENTUET. 

■vvliiie  pietism  had  more  and  more  permeated  the  life  of  the  people, 
and  occasioned  in  many  places  violent  popular  tumults.  In  several 
states  conventicles  were  forbidden ;  in  others,  e.(j.  Wtirttemberg  and 
Denmark,  they  -were  allowed. 

2.  The  orthodox  regarded  the  pietists  as  a  neAV  sect,  Avitli  dangerous 
errors  that  threatened  the  pure  doctrine  of  the  Lutheran  Church ; 
Avhile  the  pietists  maintained  that  they  held  by  pure  Lutheran 
orthodoxy,  and  only  set  aside  its  barren  formalism  and  dead  externalisni 
for  biblical  practical  Christianity.  The  controversy  gathered  round 
the  doctrines  of  the  new  birth,  justification,  sanctification,  the  church, 
and  the  millennium.  («)  The  new  birth.  The  orthodox  maintained 
that  regeneration  takes  place  in  baptism  (§  141,  13),  every  baptized 
person  is  regenerate ;  but  the  new  birtli  needs  nursing,  nourishment, 
and  growth,  and,  where  these  are  wanting,  rea-wakeuing.  The  jiietists 
identified  awakening  or  conversion  with  regeneration,  considered  that 
it  was  effected  in  later  life  through  the  word  of  God,  mediated  by  a 
corporeal  and  sjnritual  penitential  struggle,  and  a  consequent  spiritual 
experience,  and  sealed  by  a  sensible  assurance  of  God's  favour  in 
the  believer's  blessed  consciousness.  This  inward  sealing  marks  the 
beginning,  introduction  into  tlie  condition  of  babes  in  Christ.  They 
distinguished  a  tlicoloijia  viatoriim,  i.e.  the  symbolical  church  doctrine, 
and  a  theologia  regcnitorum,  which  has  to  do  with  the  soul's  imier 
condition  after  the  new  birth.  They  have  conseqtiently  been  charged 
with  maintaining  that  a  true  Christian  who  has  arrived  at  the  stage  of 
spiritu.al  manhood  may  and  must  iri  this  life  become  free  from  sin. — 
{h)  Justification  and  Sanctification.  In  opposition  to  an  only  too  pre- 
valent externalizing  of  the  doctrine  of  justification,  Spener  has  taught 
that  only  living  faith  justifies,  and  if  genuine  must  be  operative, 
though  not  meritorious.  Only  in  faith  proved  to  be  living  by  a  pious 
life  and  active  Christianity,  but  not  in  faith  in  the  external  and 
objective  promises  of  God's  word,  lies  the  sure  guarantee  of  justifica- 
tion obtained.  His  opponents  therefore  accused  him  of  confounding 
justification  and  sanctification,  and  depreciating  the  former  in  favour 
of  the  latter.  And,  though  not  by  Spener,  yet  by  many  of  his  followei's, 
justification  was  put  in  the  background,  and  in  a  onesided  manner 
stress  was  laid  upon  practical  Christianity.  Spener  and  Francke  had 
expressly  preached  against  Avorldly  dissipation  and  frivolity,  and 
condemned  dancing,  the  theatre,  card-playing,  as  detrimental  to  the 
progress  of  sanctification,  and  therefore  sinful ;  while  the  orthodox 
regarded  them  as  matters  of  indifference.  Besides  this,  the  pietists 
held  the  doctrine  of  a  day  of  grace,  assigned  to  each  one  Avithin  the 
limit  of  his  earthly  life  (terminisrn), — (c)  The  Church  and  the  Pastor- 
a^te.  Orthodoxy  regarded  word  and  sacrament  and  the  ministry  Avhich 
administered  them  as  the  basis  and  foundation  of  the  church ;  pietism 


§  167.  LUTH.  CHURCH  BEFORE  "THE  ILLUMINATION."  107 

held  that  the  intlividual  believers  determined  the  character  and  exist- 
ence of  the  church.  In  the  one  case  the  church  was  thought  to  beget, 
nurse,  and  noiirish  believers;  in  the  other  believers,  constituted,  main- 
tained, and  renewed  the  church,  accomplishing  this  best  by  conventicles, 
in  which  living  Christianity  preserved  itself  and  diffused  its  infliience 
abroad.  The  orthodox  laid  great  stress  upon  clerical  ordination  and 
the  grace  of  office  ;  pietists  on  the  person  and  his  faith.  Spener  had 
taught  that  only  he  Avho  has  experienced  in  his  own  heart  the  poAver 
of  the  gospel,  i.e.  he  who  has  been  born  again,  can  be  a  true  preacher 
and  pastor.  Loscher  maintained  that  the  official  acts  of  an  uncon- 
verted preacher,  if  only  he  be  orthodox,  may  b(!  blessed  as  well  as 
those  of  a  converted  man,  because  saving  poAver  lies  not  in  the  person 
of  the  preacher,  but  in  the  word  of  G  od  which  he  preaches,  in  its 
purity  and  simplicit}',  and  in  the  sacraments  Avhich  he  dispenses  in 
accordance  with  their  institution.  The  pietists  then  went  so  far  as 
absolutely  to  deny  that  saving  results  could  follow  the  preaching  of 
an  unconverted  man.  The  proclamation  of  forgiveness  by  the  church 
without  the  inward  sealing  had  for  them  no  meaning ;  yea,  they 
regarded  it  as  dangerous,  because  it  quieted  conscience  and  made 
sinners  secure.  Hence  they  keenly  opposed  private  confession  and 
churchly  absolution.  Of  a  special  grace  of  office  they  would  know 
nothing  :  the  true  ordination  is  the  new  birth ;  each  regenerate  one, 
and  such  a  one  onlj-,  is  a  true  priest.  The  orthodox  insisted  above  all 
on  pure  doctrine  and  the  chvirch  confession ;  the  pietists  too  regarded 
this  as  necessary,  but  not  as  the  main  thing.  Spener  decidedly 
maintained  the  duty  of  accepting  the  church  symbols  ;  but  later  jsie- 
tists  rejected  them  as  man's  work,  and  so  containing  errors.  Among 
the  orthodox,  again,  some  went  so  far  as  to  claim  for  their  symbols 
absolute  innnruiity  from  error.  Spener's  ojiposition  to  the  compulsor}* 
use  of  fixed  Scripture  portions,  pjrescribed  forms  of  prayer,  and  the 
exorcism  fornuilary  occasi(5ned  the  most  violent  contentions.  On 
the  other  hand,  his  reintroduction  of  the  conilrmation  service  before 
the  first  communion,  which  had  fallen  into  general  desuetude,  was 
imitated,  and  soon  widely  prevailed,  even  among  the  orthodox. — (d) 
Eschatolog}'.  Spener  had  interpreted  the  biblical  doctrine  of  the  1,000 
years'  reign  as  meaning  that,  after  the  overthrow  of  the  papacy  and 
the  conversion  of  heathens  and  Jews,  a  period  of  the  most  glorious 
and  tmdisturbed  tranquillity  would  da^vn  for  the  kingdom  of  Clu-ist 
on  earth  as  prelude  to  the  eternal  sabbatli.  His  oyiponents  denounced 
this  as  chiliasm  and  fanaticism.— (p)  There  Avas,  finallA',  a  controA-ersA' 
about  DiAdne  providence  occasioned  by  the  founding  of  Francke's 
orphan  house  at  Halle.  The  pietists  pointed  to  the  establishment  and 
groAA-th  of  this  institvition  as  an  instance  of  immediate  divine  proA'i- 
denc^  ;  A\'hile  LOscher,  by  indicating  the  common  means  emploA'ed  to 


108     CHURCH   HISTORY    OF   EIGHTEENTH   CENTURY. 

secui-e  success,  i-educed  the  whole  aiFair  to  the  domain  of  general  and 
daily  providence,  withoiit  denying  the  value  of  the  strong  faith  in 
God  and  the  active  love  that  characterized  its  founder,  as  well  as  the 
importance  of  the  Divine  blessing  which  rested  upon  the  work.* 

o.  Theology  (§  159,  4). — The  last  two  important  representatives  of 
the  Old  Orthodox  School  were  Loscher,  who,  besides  his  polemic  against 
]jietism,  made  learned  contributions  to  biblical  philology  and  church 
history  ;  and  his  companion  in  arms,  Cyprian  of  Gotha,  who  died  in 
A.D.  1745,  the  ablest  combatant  of  Arnold's  "  KetzerJiistorie,'^  and 
opponent  of  union  efforts  and  of  the  i^apaoj-. — The  Pietist  School,  more 
fruitful  in  practical  than  scientific  theology-,  contributed  to  devotional 
literature  many  works  that  will  never  be  forgotten.  The  learned  and 
voluminous  writer  Joachim  Lange,  who  died  a.d.  1744,  the  most  skilful 
controversialist  among  the  Halle  pietists,  author  of  the  "  Halle  Latin 
Grammar,"  which  reached  its  sixtieth  edition  in  a.d.  1809,  published  a 
commentary  on  the  Avhole  Bible  in  seven  folio  vols,  after  the  Cocceian 
method.  Of  importance  as  a  historian  of  the  Reformation  was  Salig 
of  Wolfenbiittel,  who  died  in  a.d.  1738.  Christian  Thomasins  at  first 
attached  himself  to  the  pietists  as  an  opponent  of  the  rigid  adherence 
to  the  letter  of  the  orthodox,  but  was  repudiated  by  them  as  an 
indifFerentist.  To  him  belongs  the  honour  of  having  turned  public 
opinion  against  the  persecution  of  Avitches  (§  117,  4).  Out  of  the 
(contentions  of  pietists  and  orthodox  there  now  rose  a  '^hird  school, 
in  Avhich  Lutheran  theology  and  learning  were  united  with  genuine 
piety  and  profound  thinking,  decided  confessionalism  with  modera- 
tion and  fairness.  Its  most  distinguished  representatives  Avere  Hollaz 
of  Pomerania,  died  1713  {^' Examen  Thcolofjicum  Acroamatiatm"'') '^ 
Buddens  of  Jena,  died  1729  {''Hist.  Eccht.  I'.T.,"  '' Instit.  Thcol. 
Uocjma,"'  "  Isagoge  Hist.  Theol.  Univ. '') ;  J.  Chr.  Wolf  of  Homburg, 
died  1739  {'' BiUioth.  Hebr.,''  '' Curce  Philol.  et  Crit.  hi  iY.T.");  Weis- 
mann  of  Tubingen,  died  1747  ("  Hist.  Eccht.'''')  ;  Carpzov  of  Leipzig, 
died  a.u.  1767  as  superintendent  at  Liibeck  {'' Critica  s.  V.T.,'^  '■'Intro- 
ihictio  ad  Lihros  cen.  V.T.,"'  ''Apparatus  Antiquift.  s.  Cod  ids '''');  J.  H. 
Michaelis  of  Halle,  died  1731  ("  Bihlia.  Hchr.  c.  Variis  Lectiotiibiis  ct 
Brev.  Annott.,''^  "  Uberiorcs  Annott.  in  Hagiograjjh.") ;  assisted  in  both 
by  his  learned  nephew  Chr.  Ben.  Michaelis  of  Halle,  died  1764 ;  J.  G. 
Walch  of  Jena,  died  1755  {"  Einl.  in  die  Religionsstreitiglceiteyi,''''  "  Bih- 
lioth.  Theol.  Selecta.;-'  "BiUioih.Pafristica,"  "Ltither's  Wcrke'') ;  Chr.Meth. 
Pfaff  of  Tubingen,  died  1760  {"K.  G.,  K.  Becht,  Dogmatik,  Moral''}; 
L.  von  Mosheim  of  Helmstadt  and  Gottingen,  died  1755,  the  father  of 
modern  church  history  ("Institt.  Hist.  Exist.,''''  "Commentarii  Rebus 
Christ,  ante  Constant.  J/.,"   "Dissertationes,''^  etc.)  ;    J.  Alb.  Bengel   of 

'  Dorner,  "History  of  Protestant  Theology,"  vol.  ii.,  pp.  208-227. 


§167.  LUTH.  CHURCH  BEFORE  "THE  ILLUMINATION."  109 

Stuttgart,  died  1752  {"Gnomon  X.T.,''  a  commentary  on  the  N.T. 
distinguished  by  pregnancy  of  expression  and  profundity  of  thought ; 
from  his  interpretation  of  Revelation  he  expected  the  millennium  to 
begin  in  a.d.  1836)-,  and  Chr.  A.  Crusitis  of  Leipzig,  died  1775  {"  Hy- 
pomnemata  ad  Theol.  Propheticam:'')—A.  fourth  theological  school  arose 
out  of  the  application  of  the  mathematical  method  of  demonstration 
by  the  philosopher  Chr.  von  WolflF  of  Halle,  %vho  died  a.d.  1754.  Wolff 
attached  himself  to  the  philosophical  system  of  Leibnitz,  and  sought 
to  unite  philosophy  and  Christianity  ;  but  luider  the  manipulation  of 
his  logico-mathematical  method  of  proof  he  took  all  vitality  out  of 
the  sj'stem,  and  tlie  pre-established  harmony  of  the  world  became  a 
purely  mechanical  clockwork.  He  looked  merely  to  the  logical  ac- 
curacy of  Christian  truths,  Avithout  seeking  to  penetrate  their  inner 
meaning,  gave  formal  exercise  to  the  understanding,  while  the  heart 
was  left  empty  and  cold  ;  and  thus  inevitably  revelation  and  myster}-- 
made  way  for  a  mere  natural  theology.  Hence  the  charge  brought 
against  the  system  of  tending  to  fatalism  and  atheism,  not  only  \>y 
narrow  pietists  like  Lange,  but  by  able  and  liberal  theologians  like 
Buddeus  and  Crusius,  was  quite  justifiable.  By  a  cabinet  order  of 
Frederick  William  I.  in  a.d.  1728  Wolff  A\as  deposed,  and  ordei'ed 
within  two  days,  on  pain  of  death,  to  quit  the  Prussian  states.  But 
so  soon  as  Frederick  II.  ascended  the  throne,  in  a.d.  1740,  he  recalled 
the  philosopher  to  Halle  from  Marburg,  where  he  had  meanwhile 
taught  with  great  success.'  Sig.  Jac.  Baumgarten,  the  pious  aiid 
learned  professor  in  Halle,  who  died  in  a.d.  1757,  was  the  first  to 
introduce  Wolffs  method  into  theology.  In  respect  of  contents  his 
theolog}^  occupies  essentially  the  old  orthodox  ground.  The  ablest 
])romoter  of  the  sj'stem  was  John  Carpov  of  Weimar,  who  died  in  a.d. 
1768  ("  T/ieo/.  EeveJata  Meth.  Scioitifica  Adornata'').  When  applied 
to  sermons,  the  Wolffian  method  led  to  the  most  extreme  insipidity 
and  absurdity. 

4.  Unionist  Efforts. — The  distinguished  theologian  Chr.  Matt.  Pfaff, 
chancellor  of  the  University  of  Tubingen,  who,  without  being  num- 
bered among  the  pietists,  recognised  in  jjietism  a  wholesome  reaction 
against  the  barren  worship  of  the  letter  wliich  had  characterized 
orthodox}',  regarded  a  union  between  the  Lutheran  and  Eeformed 
churches  on  their  common  beliefs,  which  in  importance  far  exceeded 
the  points  of  difference,  as  both  practicable  and  desirable  ;  and  in 
a.d,  1720  expressed  this  opinion  in  his  "  AUoquium  Irenicum  ad  Proles- 
(antes,''''  in  which  he  answered  the  challenge  of  the  '•  Corpus  Evangeli- 

1  Dorner,  '■  History  of  Protestant  Theology,"  vol.  ii.,  pp.  266-279. 
Hagenbach,  ■•  History  of  Church  in  18th  and  19th  Centuries,"  vol.  i., 
pp. 117-127. 


110     CHUECH   HISTORY  OF  EIGHTEENTH  CENTURY. 

corum  "  at  Regen sburg  (§  153,  1).  His  proposal,  however,  found  little 
favour  among  Lutheran  theologians.  Not  only  Cyprian  of  Goth  a, 
but  even  such  conciliatory  theologians  as  "Weismann  of  Tubingen  and 
Mosheim  of  Helmstadt,  opposed  it.  But  forty  years  later  a  Liitheran 
theologian,  Heumann  of  Guttingen,  demonstrated  that "  the  Reformed 
doctrine  of  the  supper  is  true,"  and  proj^osed,  in  order  to  end  the 
schism,  that  Lutherans  shoxild  drop  their  doctrine  of  the  supper  and 
the  Reformed  their  doctrine  of  predestination.  This  pamphlet,  edited 
after  the  author's  death  by  Sack  of  Berlin,  in  a.d.  1764,  produced  a 
great  sensation,  and  called  forth  a  multitude  of  replies  on  the  Lutheran 
side,  the  best  of  Avhich  were  those  of  Walch  of  Jena  and  Ernesti  of 
Leipzig.  Even  within  the  Lutheran  church,  however,  it  found  con- 
siderable favour. 

5.  Theories  of  Ecclesiastical  Law- — Of  necessity  during  the  first  cen- 
tiuy  of  the  Protestant  church  its  government  was  placed  in  the  hands 
of  the  princes,  who,  because  there  were  no  others  to  do  so,  dispensed  the 
jura  episcopalia  as prcecipua  membra  ecdesim.  What  was  allowed  at  first 
in  the  exigency  of  these  times  came  gradually  to  be  regarded  as  a  legal 
right.  Orthodox  theology  and  the  juristic  system  associated  with  it, 
especially  that  of  Carpzov,  justified  this  assumption  in  what  is  called 
the  episcopal  system.  This  theory  firmly  maintains  the  mediaeval  dis- 
tinction between  the  spiritual  and  civil  powers  as  two  independent 
spheres  ordained  of  God ;  but  it  installs  the  prince  as  summiis  epi- 
scojMs,  combining  in  his  person  the  highest  spiritual  with  the  highest 
civil  authority.  In  lands,  however,  where  more  than  one  confession 
held  sway,  or  where  a  prince  belonging  to  a  different  section  of  the 
church  succeeded,  the  practical  difficulties  of  this  theory  became 
very  apparent ;  as,  e.g.,  when  a  Reformed  or  Romish  prince  had  to  be 
regarded  as  nummus  episcopus  of  a  Lutheran  church.  Driven  thus  to 
seek  another  basis  for  the  claims  of  royal  supremacy,  a  new  theorj'', 
that  of  the  territorial  system,  was  devised,  according  to  which  the 
prince  possessed  highest  ecclesiastical  authority,  not  as  prmcipuum 
memhrum  ecclesla',  but  as  sovereign  ruler  in  the  state.  The  headship 
of  the  church  was  therefore  not  an  index^endent  prerogative  over  and 
above  that  of  civil  government,  but  an  inherent  element  in  it :  cujus 
regio,  illius  et  religio.  The  historical  development  of  the  German 
Reformation  gave  support  to  this  theory  (§  126,  6),  as  seen  in  the 
proceedings  of  the  Diet  of  Spires  in  a.d.  1526,  in  the  Augsburg  and 
Westphalian  Peace.  A  scientific  basis  was  given  it  by  Puifendorf  of 
Heidelberg,  died  a.d.  1694,  in  alliance  with  Hobbes  (§  163,  3).  It  was 
further  developed  and  applied  by  Christian  Thomasius  of  Halle,  died 
A.D.  1728,  and  by  the  famous  J.  H.  Bohmer  in  his  "/«s  Ecdesiastkiim 
Fotestantium.''''  Thomasius'  connexion  with  the  pietists  and  his  indif- 
ference to  confessions  secured  for  the  theory  a  favourable  reception 


§  167.  LUTH.  CHUECH  BEFOKE  "THE  ILLUMINATION."  Ill 

in  tliat  party.  Spener  himself  indeed  preferred  the  Calvinistic 
presbyterial  constitution,  because  only  in  it  could  equality  be  given 
to  all  the  three  orders,  miniiterium  ecclesiasticum,  ma  (j  id  rat  u  s  politic  it  fs, 
itattis  (cconomiciis.  This  protest  by  Spener  against  the  two  systems 
was  certainly  not  without  influence  upon  the  construction  of  a  third 
theory,  the  collegial  system,  proposed  by  Pfaff  of  Tubingen,  died  a.d. 
1760.  According  to  this  scheme  there  belonged  to  the  sovereign  as  such 
only  the  headship  of  the  cluu'ch,  ji<s  circa  sacra,  while  i\\Q  jura  in 
sacra,  matters  pertaining  to  doctrine,  worship,  ecclesiastical  law  and 
its  administration,  installation  of  clergy,  and  excommunication,  as 
jura  collegialia,  belonged  to  the  whole  body  of  church  members.  The 
normal  constitution  therefore  required  the  collective  vote  of  all  the 
members  tlu'ough  their  synods.  But  outward  circumstances  during 
the  Reformation  age  had  necessitated  the  relegating  the  discharge  of 
these  collegial  rights  to  the  princes,  which  in  itself  was  not  tmallow- 
able,  if  only  the  position  be  maintained  that  the  prince  acts  ex 
cojurnisso,  and  is  under  obligation  to  render  an  account  to  those  who 
have  counnissioned  him.  This  system,  on  account  of  its  democratic 
character,  found  hearty  supporters  among  the  later  rationalists.  But 
as  a  matter  of  fact  nowhere  A\'as  an}''  of  the  three  S3'stems  consistently 
carried  out.  The  constitution  adopted  in  most  of  the  national 
churches  was  a  weak  vacillation  between  all  the  three.* 

(j.  Church  Song  (§  159,  3)  received,  during  the  first  half  of  the  cen- 
turj'',  many  valuable  contributions.  Tavo  main  groups  of  singers 
may  be  distinguished  :  (1)  The  j)ietistic  school,  characterized  by  a 
biblical  and  [practical  tendency.  The  spiritual  life  of  believers,  the 
work  of  grace  in  conversion,  growth  in  holiness,  the  varying  condi- 
tions and  experiences  of  the  religious  life,  Avere  favoiirite  themes. 
They  Avere  fitted,  not  so  much  for  use  in  the  public  services,  as  for 
private  devotion,  and  feAV  comparatively  have  been  retained  in  col- 
lections of  church  hymns.  The  later  productions  of  this  school  sank 
more  and  more  into  sentimentalism  and  allegorical  and  fanciful  play 
of  Avords.  AVe  may  distinguish  among  the  Halle  pietists  an  older 
school,  A.D.  1690-1720,  and  a  younger,  a.d.  1720-1750.  The  former, 
coloured  by  the  fervent  piety  of  Franeke,  produced  simple,  hearty,  and 
often  profound  songs.  The  most  distinguished  representatiA-es  Avere 
Freylinghausen,  died  a.d.  1739,  Francke"s  son-in-laAV,  and  director  of 
the  Halle  Orphanage,  editor  in  a.d.  1717  of  a  hymn-book  Avidely  used 
among  the  pietists,  Avas  author  of  the  h3anns  "  Piu-e  Essence,  spotless 
Fount  of  Light,"  '■  The  day  expires "' ;  Chr.  Fr.  Richter,  physician  to 
the  Orphanage,  died  a.d.  1711,  author  of  thirty -three  beautiful  hymns, 

1  Corner,  "History  of  Protestant  Theology,"'  vol.  ii.,  pp.  259-261. 
Geflfcken, "  Church  and  State,"  2  vols.    Lon.,l8S7,  vol.  i.,  pp.  456-503. 


112      CHURCH   HISTORY   OF   EIGHTEENTH   CENTURY. 

including  '•  God,  -vvliom  I  as  Love  have  known " ;  Emilia  Juliana, 
Countess  of  Schwarzbnrg  Eudolstadt,  died  a.d.  1706,  who  wrote  580 
hymns,  including  "  Who  knows  how  near  my  end  may  be  ?  "  Schroder, 
pastor  in  Magdeburg,  died  a.d.  1728,  wrote  "  One  thing  is  needful :  Let 
me  deem  "  ;  Winckler^  cathedral  preacher  of  Magdeburg,  died  a.d.  1722, 
author  of  "  Strive,  when  tliou  art  called  of  God  "  ;  Dessler,  rector  of 
Nuremburg,  died  a.d.  1722,  composer  of  "  I  will  not  let  Thee  go.  Thou 
hel]D  in  time  of  need,"  "O  Friend  of  souls,  how  well  is  me";  Gotter,died 
A.D.  1735,  who  wrote,  "  O  Cross,  we  hail  thy  bitter  reign  "  ;  Cresselius, 
pastor  in  Dusseldorf,  author  of  "  Awake,  O  man,  and  from  thee  shake." 
The  younger  Halle  school  represents  pietism  in  its  period  of  decaj'. 
Its  best  representatives  are  J.  J.  Eambach,  professor  at  Giessen,  died 
A.D.  17B5,  who  wrote  '-J  am  baptized  into  thy  name"  ;  Allendorf,  court 
preacher  at  Cothen,  died  a.d.  1773,  editor  of  a  collection  of  poetic 
i-enderings  from  the  Canticles. — (2)  The  poets  of  the  orthodox  part}', 
although  opposed  to  the  pietists,  are  all  more  or  less  touched  by  the 
fervent  piety  of  Spener.  Neumeister,  pastor  at  Hamburg,  died  a.d.  175U, 
was  an  orthodox  hymn-writer  of  thoroughlj^  conservative  tendencies, 
zealously  opposing  the  onesidedness  of  pietism,  with  a  strong,  ardent 
faith  in  the  orthodox  creed,  but  without  much  significance  as  a  poet. 
Sclimolck,  pastor  at  Schweidnitz,  died  a.d.  1737,  wrote  over  1,000  hymns, 
including  "Blessed  Jesus,  here  we  stand,"  '-Hosanna  to  the  Son  of 
David!  Eaise,"  "Welcome,  thou  Victor  in  the  strife."  Sol.  Franck, 
secretary  to  the  consistoxy  at  Weimar,  died  a.d.  1725,  wrote  over  300 
hymns,  including  "  Rest  of  the  weary,  thou  thyself  art  resting  now." 
The  mediating  party  between  pietism  and  orthodoxy,  represented  by 
Bengel  and  Crusius  in  theology,  is  represented  among  hymn-Avriters 
by  J.  Andr.  Eothe,  died  a.d.  1758,  and  by  Mentzer,  died  a.d.  1734,  com- 
poser of  "  Oh,  would  I  had  a  thousand  tongues !  "  In  a.d.  1750  J.  Jac. 
von  Moser  collected  a  list  of  50,000  spiritual  songs  printed  in  the 
German  language. — Continuation,  §  171,  1. 

7.  Sacred  Music  (§  159,  5). — Decadence  of  musical  taste  accompanied 
the  lowering  of  tlie  poetic  standard,  and  2''iftists  Avent  e\en  further 
than  the  orthodox  in  their  imitation  and  adaptation  of  operatic  airs. 
Freylinghausen,  not  only  himself  composed  many  such  melodies,  but 
made  a  collection  frona  various  sources  in  a.d.  1704,  retaining  some  of 
the  moi-e  popular  of  the  older  times. — There  now  arose,  amid  all  this 
depraA'ation  of  taste,  a  noble  musician,  Avho,  like  the  good  householdei', 
could  bring  out  of  his  treasure  things  ucav  and  old.  J.  Seb.  Bach,  the 
most  perfect  organist  Avho  ever  lived,  Avas  musical  director  of  the  School 
of  St.  Thomas,  Leipzig,  and  died  a.d.  1750.  He  tiu'ued  enthusiastically 
to  the  old  chorale,  Avhich  no  one  had  ever  understood  and  appreciated 
as  he  did.  He  harmonized  the  old  chorales  for  the  organ,  made  them 
the  basis  for  elaborate  organ  studies,  gaA'e  expression  to  his  profoundcst 


§167.  LUTH.  CHURCH  BEFORE  "THE  ILLUMINATION."  113 

feelings  in  his  musical  compositions  and  in  his  recitatives,  duets,  and 
airs,  reiDroduced  at  the  sacred  concerts  many  fine  old  chorales  -wedded 
to  most  appropriate  Scripture  passages.  He  is  for  all  times  the  un- 
rivalled master  in  fugue,  harmony,  and  modulation.  In  his  passion 
music  we  have  expression  given  to  the  profoundest  ideas  of  German 
Protestantism  in  the  noblest  music.  After  Bach  comes  a  master  iu 
oratorio  music  hitherto  unapproached,  G.  Fr,  Handel  of  Halle,  who, 
from  A.D.  1710  till  his  death  in  a.d.  1759,  lived  mostly  in  England. 
For  twenty-five  years  he  Avrought  for  the  opera-house,  and  only  iu  his 
later  years  gave  himself  to  the  composing  of  oratorios.  His  operas 
are  forgotten,  but  his  oratorios  will  endure  to  the  end  of  time.  His 
most  perfect  work  is  the  '-Messiah,"  which  Herder  describes  as  a 
Christian  epic  in  music.  Of  his  other  great  compositions,  "Samson,"' 
"Judas  Maccabeeus,"  and  '•  Jephtha  "  may  be  mentioned.  ^ 

8.  The  Christian  Life  and  Devotional  Literature. — Pietism  led  to  a 
powerful  revival  of  religious  life  among  the  peoj^le,  which  it  sustained 
by  zealous  preaching  and  the  publication  of  devotional  works.  A 
similar  activity  displayed  itself  among  the  orthodox.  Francke  began 
his  charitable  labours  with  seven  florins ;  but  with  undaunted  faith  he 
started  his  Orphanage,  writing  over  its  door  the  words  of  Isaiah  xl. 
31.  In  faith  and  benevolence  Woltersdorff  was  a  worthy  successor 
of  Francke ;  and  Baron  von  Canstein  applied  his  whole  means  to  the 
founding  of  the  Bible  Institute  of  Halle.  Missions  too  Avere  now  pro- 
secuted with  a  zeal  and  success  which  witnessed  to  the  new  life  that 
had  arisen  in  the  Lutheran  church. — A  remarkable  manifestation  of 
the  pietistic  spirit  of  tliis  age  is  seen  in  Ihe  Praying  Children  in  Silesia, 
A.D.  1707.  Children  of  four  years  old  and  upward  gathered  in  open 
fields  for  singing  and  prayer,  and  called  for  the  restoration  of 
churches  taken  away  by  the  Catholics.  The  movement  spread  over 
the  Avhole  land.  In  vain  Avas  it  denounced  from  the  pulpits  and 
forbidden  by  the  au.thorities.  Opposition  only  excited  more  and  more 
the  zeal  of  the  children.  At  last  the  churches  were  opened  for  their 
services.  The  excitement  tlien  gradually  subsided.  It  was,  however, 
long  a  subject  of  discussion  between  the  pietists  and  the  orthodox ; 
the  latter  denouncing  it  as  the  Avork  of  the  devil,  the  former  regard- 
ing it  as  a  wonderful  awakening  of  God's  grace. — Best  remembered  of 
the  many  devotional  writers  of  this  period  are  Bogatsky  of  Halle,  died 
A.D.  1774,  whose  "  Golden  Treasury  "  is  still  highly  esteemed ;  -  and  Yon 
Moser,  died  a.d.  1785,  who  lived  a  noble  and  exemplary  life  at  Stuttgart 
amid  much  sore  persecution.     The  great  need  of  simple  explanation 

^  Burney,  "  Life  of  Handel."     London,  17S1. 

-  Kelly,  "  Life  and  "Work  of  Von  Bogatsky :  a  Chapter  from  the 
Eohgious  Life  of  the  Eighteenth  Century."'    London,  18S9. 
VOL.  III.  8 


114     CHURCH   HISTOEY   OF   EIGHTEENTH   CENTURY. 

of  Scripture  appears  from  the  great  sale  of  such  popular  commentaries 
as  those  of  Pfaff  at  Tubingen,  1730,  Starke  at  Leipzig,  1741,  and  the 
Halle  Bible  of  S.  J.  Baumgarten,  1748. 

9.  Missions  to  the  Heathen. — The  quickening  of  religious  life  b}' 
pietism  bore  fruit  in  new  missionary  activity.  Frederick  IV.  of 
Denmark  founded  in  his  East  Indian  possessions  the  Tranquebar 
mission  in  a.d.  1706,  under  Ziegenbalg  and  Plutschau.  Ziegenbalg, 
who  translated  the  New  Testament  into  Tamil,  died  in  a.d.  1719. 
From  the  Danish  possessions  this  mission  carried  its  work  over  into 
the  English  Indian  territories.  Able  and  zealous^workers  were  sent  out 
from  the  Halle  Institute,  of  whom  the  greatest  was  Chr.  Fr.  Schwartz, 
who  died  in  a.d.  1798,  after  nearly  fifty  years  of  noble  service  in  the 
mission  field.  In  the  last  quarter  of  the  century,  however,  mader  the 
influence  of  rationalism,  zeal  for  missions  declined,  the  Halle  society 
broke  np,  and  the  English  were  allowed  to  reap  the  harvest  sown  by 
the  Lutherans.  The  Halle  x^rofessor  Callenberg  founded  in  a.d.  1728  a 
society  for  the  conversion  of  the  Jews,  in  the  interests  of  which  Stephen 
Schultz  travelled  over  Europe,  Asia,  and  Africa,  preaching  the  Cross 
among  the  Jews.  Christianity  had  been  introduced  among  the 
Eskimos  in  Greenland  in  the  eleventh  century  (§  93,  5),  but  the  Scan- 
dinavian colony  there  had  been  forgotten,  and  no  trace  of  the  religion 
which  it  had  taught  any  longer  remained.  This  reproach  to  Chris- 
tianity lay  sore  on  the  heart  of  Hans  Egede,  a  Norwegian  pastor,  and 
he  found  no  rest  till,  supported  by  a  Danish-Norwegian  trading  house, 
he  sailed  with  his  family  in  a.d.  1721  for  these  frozen  and  inhosjoitable 
shores.  Amid  almost  inconceivable  hardships,  and  with  at  first  but 
little  success,  he  continued  to  labour  nnweariedly,  and  even  after  the 
trading  comjoany  abandoned  the  field  he  remained.  In  a.d.  1733  he  had 
the  unexpected  joy  of  welcoming  three  Moravian  missionaries,  Christian 
David  and  the  brothers  Stach.  His  joy  was  too  soon  dashed  by  the 
spiritual  pride  of  the  new  arrivals,  who  insisted  on  modelling  every- 
thing after  their  own  Moravian  principles,  and  separated  themselves 
from  the  noble  Egede,  when  he  refused  to  yield,  as  an  unspiritual  and 
unconverted  man.  Egede,  on  the  other  hand,  though  deeply  offended 
at  their  confounding  justification  and  sanctification,  their  contempt 
of  pure  doctrine,  and  their  unscriptural  views  and  mode  of  speech,  was 
ready  to  attribute  all  this  to  their  defective  theological  training.  He 
rewarded  their  unkindness,  when  they  were  stricken  down  in  sore 
sickness,  with  unwearied,  loving  care.  In  a.d.  1786  he  returned  to 
Denmark,  leaving  his  son  Paul  to  carry  on  his  work,  and  continued 
director  of  the  Greenland  Mission  Seminary  in  Copenhagen  till  his 
death  in  a.d.  1758.^ — Continuation,  §  171,  5. 

*  Hough,  "  The  History  of  Christianity  in  India.''    B  vols.    London, 


§  168.    CHUECH   OF   THE    MORAVIAN   BEETHREN.       115 

§  1G8.    The  Church  of  thic  Moravian  Brethren.^ 

The  highly  gifted  Count  Ziuzendorf,  inspired  even  as  a  boy, 
out  of  fervent  love  to  the  Saviour,  with  the  idea  of  gather- 
ing together  the  lovers  of  Jesus,  took  occasion  of  the  visit  of 
some  Moravian  Exultants  to  his  estate  to  realize  his  cherished 
project.  On  the  Hutberg  he  dropped  the  mustard  seed  of 
the  dream  of  his  youth  into  fertile  soil,  where,  under  his 
fervent  care,  it  soon  gi-ew  into  a  stately  tree,  whose  branches 
spread  over  all  European  lands,  and  thence  through  all  parts 
of  the  habitable  globe.  The  society  which  he  founded  was 
called  "  The  Society  of  the  United  Brethren."  The  fact  that 
this  society  was  not  overwhelmed  by  the  extravagances  to 
which  for  a  time  it  gave  way,  that  its  fraternising  with  the 
fanatics,  the  extravagant  talkin  wdiich  its  members  indulged 
about  a  special  covenant  with  the  Saviour,  and  their  not 
over-modest  claims  to  a  peculiar  rank  in  the  kingdom  of  God, 
did  not  lead  to  its  utter  overthrow  in  the  abyss  of  fanaticism, 
and  that  on  the  sli^Dpery  paths  of  its  mystical  marriage 
theory  it  was  able  to  keep  its  feet,  presents  a  phenomenon, 
which  stands  alone  in  church  history,  and  more  than  anything 
else  proves  how  deeply  rooted  foiander  and  followers  were 
in  the  saving  truths  of  the  gospel.  The  count  himself  laid 
aside  many  of  his  extravagances,  and  what  still  remained 
was  abandoned  by  his  sensible  and  prudent  successor  Span- 
genberg,  so  far  as  it  was  not  necessarily  involved  in  the 
fundamental  idea  of  a  special  covenant  with  the  Saviour. 
The  special  service  rendered  by  the,  society  was  the  protest 
which  it  raised  against  the  generally  prevailing  apostasy. 
During  this  period  of  declension  it  saved  the  faith  of  many 

l'S39.  Sherrmg,  '-History  of  Missions  in  India,"' edited  by  StorroAv. 
London,  1888.  Pearson,  '■  Memoirs,  I^ife,  and  Correspondence  of  Chr. 
Fr.  Schwartz,-'  etc.     2  vols.    London,  1834. 

^  Hagenbach,  '•  History  of  the  Christian  Church  in  the  ISth  and  19th 
Centuries,"'  New  York.  ISGO  ;  Lectures  XVIII.  and  XIX.,  pp.  o98-d-J5; 


116     CHURCH   HISTORY   OF   EIGHTEENTH   CENTURY. 

pious  souls,  affording  tliem  a  welcome  refuge,  with  rich  spiri- 
tual nourishment  and  nurture.  With  the  reawakening  of 
the  religious  life  in  the  nineteenth  century,  however,  its  ad- 
herents lost  ground  in  Europe  more  and  more,  by  maintaining 
their  old  onesidedness  in  life  and  doctrine,  their  depreciatory 
estimate  of  theological  science,  and  the  quarrelsome  spirit 
which  they  generally  manifested.  But  in  one  province,  that 
of  missions  to  the  heathen,  their  energy  and  success  have 
never  yet  been  equalled.  Their  thorough  and  well-organized 
system  of  education  also  deserves  particular  mention.  At 
present  the  Society  of  the  Brethren  numbers  half  a  million, 
distributed  among  100  settlements  or  thereabout. 

1.  The  Founder  of  the  Moravian  Brotherhood,  Nic.  Ludwig  Count  von 
Zinzendorf  and  Pottendorf,  -was  born  in  Dresden  in  a.d.  1700.  Spener 
was  one  of  his  sponsors  at  baptism.  His  father  dying  early,  and 
his  mother  marrying  a  second  time,  the  boy,  richly  endowed  with 
gifts  of  head  and  heart,  was  brought  up  by  his  godly  pietistic  grand- 
mother, the  Baroness  von  Gersdorf.  There  in  his  earliest  youth  he 
learned  to  seek  his  happiness  in  the  closest  personal  fellowship  with 
the  Lord,  and  the  tendency  of  his  Avhole  future  life  to  yield  to  the 
impulses  of  pious  feeling  already  began  to  assert  itself.  In  his  tenth 
year  he  eatered  the  Halle  Institute  under  Francke,  where  the  pietistic 
idea  of  the  need  of  the  ecdesiolce  in  ecclesia  took  firm  possession  of 
his  heart.  Even  in  his  fifteenth  year  he  sought  its  realization  by 
founding  among  his  fellow  students  "  The  Order  of  the  Grain  of 
Mustard  Seed"  (Matt.  xiii.  31).  After  completing  his  school  course, 
his  uncle  and  guardian,  in  order  to  put  an  end  to  his  pietistic  extrava- 
gances, sent  him  to  study  law  at  the  orthodox  University  of  Witten- 
berg. Here  he  had  at  first  to  suffer  a  sort  of  martyrdom  as  a  rigid 
pietist  swimming  against  the  orthodox  current.  His  residence  at 
Wittenberg,  however,  was  beneficial  to  him  in  freeing  him  uncon- 
sciously of  the  Halle  pietism,  which  had  restrained  his  spiritual 
development.  He  did  indeed  firmly  maintain  the  fundamental  idea 
of  pietism,  ecclesiolce  in  ecclesia,  but  in  his  mind  it  gained  a  wider 
significance  than  pietism  had  given  it.  His  endeavours  to  secure  a 
personal  conference,  and  where  possible  a  union,  between  the  Halle  and 
Wittenberg  leaders  were  unsuccessful.  In  a.d.  1710  he  left  Wittenberg 
and  travelled  for  two  years,  visiting  the  most  distinguished  repre- 
sentatives of  all  confessions  and  sects.  This  too  fostered  his  idea  of  a 
grand  gathering  of  all  who  love  the  Lord  Jesus.     On  his  return  home, 


§  168.  CHURCH  OF  THE  MORAVIAN  BRETHREN.   117 

in  A.D.  1721,  at  the  wish  of  his  relatives  he  entered  the  service  of 
the  Saxon  government.  But  a  religious  genius  like  Zinzendorf  could 
find  no  satisfaction  in  such  employment.  And  soon  an  o]3portunit3' 
presented  itself  for  carrjang  out  the  plan  to  which  his  thoughts  anil 
longings  were  directed. i 

2.  The  Founding  of  the  Brotherhood,  a.d.  1722-1727.  The  Schmalcald, 
and  still  more  the  Thirty  Years',  War,  had  brought  frightful  suffering 
and  persecution  upon  the  Bohemian  and  Moravian  Brethren.  Many 
(^f  them  sought  refuge  in  Poland  and  Prussia.  One  of  the  refugees 
Avas  the  famous  educationist  J.  Amos  Comenius,  A\ho  died  in  a.d. 
1671,  after  having  been  bishop  of  the  Moravians  at  Lissa  in  Posen 
from  1648.  Those  who  remained  behind  were,  even  after  the  Peace  of 
Westphalia,  subjected  to  the  cruellest  oppression!  Only  secretly  in 
their  houses  and  at  the  risk  of  their  lives  could  they  A\-orship  God 
according  to  the  faith  of  their  fathers  ;  and  they  were  obliged  Ymblicly 
to  profess  their  adherence  to  the  Romish  church.  Thus  gradually 
tlie  light  of  the  gospel  was  extinguished  in  the  homes  of  their 
descendants,  and  only  a  tradition,  becoming  ever  more  and  more  faint, 
remained  as  a  memory  of  their  ancestral  faith.  A  Moravian  carpentei', 
Clu'istian  David,  born  and  reared  in  the  Romish  church,  but  converted 
by  evangelical  preaching,  succeeded  in  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth 
century  in  fanning  into  a  flame  again  in  some  families  the  light  that 
liad  been  quenched.  This  little  band  of  believers.  Tinder  David's 
leading,  went  forth  in  a.d.  1722  and  sought  refuge  on  Zinzendorf's 
estate  in  Lusatia.  The  count  A\-as  then  absent,  but  the  steward,  M-ith 
tlie  hearty  concurrence  of  the  count's  grandmother,  gave  them  the 
Hutberg  at  Berthelsdorf  as  a  settlement.  With  the  words  of  Psalm 
Ixxxiv.  4  on  his  lips,  Christian  David  struck  the  axe  into  the  tree 
for  building  the  first  house.  Soon  the  little  toAvn  of  Herrnhut  had 
arisen,  as  the  centre  of  that  Christian  society  Avhich  Zinzendorf  now 
sought  with  all  his  heart  and  strength  to  develop  and  promote. 
(Iradually  other  Moravians  dropped  in,  but  a  yet  greater  number 
from  far  and  near  streamed  in,  of  all  sorts  of  religioiLs  revivalists, 
juetists,  separatists,  followers  of  Schwenckfeld,  etc.  Zinzendorf  had 
no  thought  of  separation  from  the  Lutheran  church.  Tlie  settlers 
Avere  therefore  put  luider  the  pastoral  care  of  Rothe,  the  ■worthy 
pastor  of  Berthelsdorf  (§  1(36,  6).  To  oi-ganize  such  a  mixed  multi- 
tude was  no  easy  task.  Only  Zinzendorf's  glorious  enthusiasm  for  the 
idea  of  a  congregation  of  saints,  his  eminent  organizing  talents, 
the  wonderful  elasticity  and  tenacity  of  his  will,  the  extraordinary 
jirudence,  circumspection,  and  wisdom  of  his  management,  made  it 
])ossible  to  cement  the  incongruous  elements  and  avoid  an  open  breach. 

^  Spangeuberg,  "  Life  of  Count  Zinzendorf."'     Loudon,  1838. 


lis     CHURCH   HISTORY   OF   EIGHTEENTH   CENTURY. 

The  JMoravians  insisted  upon  restoring  their  old  constitution  and 
discipline,  and  of  the  others,  each  wished  to  liave  prominence  given 
to  Avhatever  he  thought  specially  important.  Only  on  one  point  were 
they  all  agreed,  the  duty  of  refusing  to  conform  to  the  Lutheran 
church  and  its  pastor  Eothe.  The  count,  therefore,  felt  obliged  to 
form  a  new  and  separatist  societ}'.  Personally  he  had  no  special 
liking  for  the  old  Moravian  constitution ;  but  the  lot  decided  in  its 
favour,  while  the  idea  of  continuing  a  pre-Eeformation  martj'r  church 
was  not  without  a  certain  charm.  Thus  Zinzendorf  drew  up  a  con- 
stitution with  old  Moravian  forms  and  names,  on  the  basis  of  which 
the  colony  was  established,  August  l^th.  a.d.  1727,  under  the  name  of 
the  United  Brotherhood. 

S.  The  Development  of  the  Brotherhood  down  to  Zinzendorfs  Death, 
A.i).  1727-17G0. — With  great  energy  the  new  society  i^roeeeded  to 
found  settlements  in  German^'-,  Holland,  England,  Ireland,  Denmark, 
Norway,  and  North  America,  as  well  as  among  German  residents  in 
other  lands.  In  a.d.  1784,  Zinzendorf  submitted  to  examination  at 
Tubingen  as  candidate  for  license,  and  in  a.d.  1737  received  episcopal 
consecration  from  the  Berlin  court  preacher,  Jablonsky,  who  was  at  the 
same  time  bishop  of  the  Moravian  Brethren,  which  the  same  prelate 
had  two  years  previously  granted  to  Dr.  Nitschmann,  another  member 
of  the  society.  The  efforts  of  the  Brethren  to  spread  their  cause  now 
attracted  attention.  The  Saxon  government  in  a.d.  1736  sent  to 
Herrnhut  a  commission,  of  which  Loscher  was  a  member.  But  in 
A.D.  1736,  before  it  submitted  its  report,  ■\^-hich  on  the  whole  was 
favourable,  Zinzendorf  quitted  the  country,  probably  by  the  elector's 
command  at  the  instigation  of  the  Austrian  government,  Avhich 
objected  to  the  harbouring  of  so  many  Bohemian  and  Moravian 
emigrants.  Like  all  those  at  this  time  persecuted  on  account  of 
religion  he  took  refuge  in  Wetterau  (§  170,  2).  With  his  little 
family  of  pilgrims  he  settled  at  Eonneburg  near  Btldingen,  founded 
the  prosperous  churches  of  Marienborn  and  Herrnhaag,  and  travelled 
extensively  in  Europe  and  America.  This  period  of  exile  Avas  the 
period  when  the  society  Avas  most  successful  in  spreading  outwardly, 
but  it  was  also  the  period  Avhen  it  suffered  most  from  troubles  and 
dissensions  Avithin.  It  Avas  bitterly  attacked  by  Lutheran  theologians, 
and  much  more  A'enomously  by  apostates  from  its  OAvn  fold.  The 
Brethren  at  this  time  afforded  only  too  much  ground  for  misunder- 
standing and  reproach.  To  this  period  belongs  the  famous  fiction  of 
a  special  coA'enant,  the  Pandora-box  of  all  other  absurdities  ;  the 
development  of  the  count's  own  theological  AueAvs  and  i:ieculiar  form 
of  expression  in  his  numerous  Avorks ;  the  composition  and  introduction 
of  unsaA'oury  spiritual  songs,  Avitli  their  si]l,y  conceits  and  many 
blasphemous  and  CA'en  obscene  pictures  and  analogies ;  the  market- 


§  168.  CHURCH  OF  THE  MOBAVIAN  BRETHREN.   119 

crier  laudations  of  their  cliurch,  the  not  always  piire  methods  of 
propaganda,  the  introduction  of  a  marriage  discipline  fitted  to  "break 
down  all  modest  restraints ;  and,  finally,  the  so-called  NiecUicJikeiten, 
or  boisterous  festivals.  Even  the  i^ietists  opposed  these  antinomian 
excesses.  Tersteegen,  too  (§  169,  1),  whose  mystic  tendenc}'  inclined 
him  strongly  toward  pietist  views,  reproached  the  Hermhuters  with 
frivolity.  This  polemic,  disagreable  as  it  was,  exercised  a  wholesome 
influence  upon  the  society.  The  count  became  more  guarded  in  his 
language,  and  more  prudent  in  his  behaviovir,  wdiile  he  set  aside  the 
most  objectionable  excrescences  of  doctrine  and  i^ractice  that  had 
begmi  to  show  themselves  in  the  community.  At  last,  in  a.d.  1747,  the 
Saxon  government  rejieated  the  edict  of  banishment  so  far  as  the 
person  of  the  founder  was  concerned,  and  when,  two  years  later,  the 
society  expressly  accepted  the  Augsburg  Confession,  it  was  formally 
recognised  in  Saxony.  In  this  same  year,  a.d.  1749,  an  English  act  of 
parliament  recognised  it  as  a  church  with  a  pure  episcopal  succession 
on  equal  terms  with  the  Anglican  episcopal  church. — Zinzendorf 
continued  down  to  his  death  to  direct  the  affairs  of  this  church,  which 
hung  upon  him  with  childlike  affection,  reflecting  his  personality,  not 
only  in  its  excellences,  but  also  in  all  its  extravagances.  He  died  in 
A.D.  1760  in  the  full  enjoyment  of  that  blessedness  which  his  fervent 
love  for  the  Saviour  had  brought  him. 

4.  Zinzendorf  s  Plan  and  Work.— While  Zinzendorf  received  his  first  im- 
pulse from  pietism,  he  soon  perceived  its  onesidedness  and  narrowness. 
He  would  have  no  conventicle,  but  one  organized  community ;  no  ideal 
invisible,  but  a  real  visible  church  ;  no  narrow  methodism,  but  a  rich, 
free  administration  of  the  Christian  spirit.  He  did  not,  in  the  first 
instance,  aim  at  the  conversion  of  the  world,  nor  even  at  the  reforma- 
tion of  the  church,  but  at  gathering  and  preserving  those  belonging 
to  the  Saviour.  He  hoped,  howevei-,  to  erect  a  reservoir  in  Avhich  he 
might  collect  ever^^  little  brooklet  of  living  -water,  from  which  he 
might  again  -water  the  Avhole  Avoild.  And  when  he  succeeded  in 
organizing  a  community,  he  was  quite  convinced  that  it  Avas  the 
Philadelphia  of  the  Apocaljrpse  (iii.  7  fF.),  that  it  introduced  "  the 
Philadelphian  period  "  of  church  history,  of  which  all  prophets  and 
apostles  had  prophesied.  His  plan  had  originally  reference  to  all 
Christendom,  and  he  even  took  a  step  toward  realizing  this  universal 
idea.  In  order  to  build  a  bridge  between  the  Catholic  church  and 
his  own  community,  he  issued,  in  a.d.  1727,  a  Christo-Catholic  hjnim- 
book  and  prayer-book,  and  had  even  sketched  out  a  letter  to  the  pope 
to  accompany  a  copy  of  liis  book.  He  also  attempted,  by  a  letter  to 
the  patriarchs  and  then  to  Elizabeth,  empress  of  Russia,  to  interest 
the  Greek  church  in  his  scheme,  dwelling  tipon  the  Greek  extraction 
of  the  church  of  the  Moravian  Brethren  (§  79.  2).    His  gathering  of 


120     CHURCH    HISTORY   OF   EIGHTEENTH   CENTURY. 

members,  lio-\ve\'er,  was  practicall.y  limited  to  the  Protestant  churches. 
All  confessions  and  sects  afForded  him  contingents.  He  was  himself 
heartily  attached  to  the  distinctive  doctrines  of  the  Ltitheran  church. 
But  in  a  society  whose  distinctive  characteristic  it  was  to  be  the 
gathering  point  for  the  pious  of  all  nationalities,  doctrine  and  con- 
fession could  not  be  the  uniting  bond.  It  could  be  only  a  fellowship 
of  love  and  not  of  creed,  and  the  bond  a  community  of  loving  sentiment 
and  loving  deeds.  The  inmost  principle  of  Lutheranism,  reconciliation 
by  the  blood  of  Christ,  was  saved,  indeed  was  made  the  characteristic 
and  vital  doctrine,  the  one  i^oint  of  union  between  ]\Ioravians, 
Lutherans,  and  Reformed.  Over  the  thi-ee  parties  stood  the  count 
himself  as  ordinarius  ;  but  this  gave  an  external  and  not  a  confessional 
unity.  The  subsequent  acceptance  of  the  Augsburg  Confession,  in  a.d. 
1749,  was  a  political  act,  so  as  to  receive  a  civil  status,  and  had  other- 
wise no  influence.  Instead  then  of  the  confession,  Zinzendorf  made 
the  constitution  the  bond  of  union.  Its  forms  were  borrowed  from  the 
old  Moravian  church  order,  but  dominated  and  inspired  by  Zinzen- 
ilorf 's  own  spirit.  The  old  Moravian  constitution  was  episcopal  autl 
clerical,  and  proceeded  from  the  idea  of  the  church ;  while  the  new 
constitution  of  Herrnhut  was  essentially  presbj'terial,  and  proceeded 
from  the  idea  of  the  community,  and  that  as  a  commiinion  of  saints. 
The  Herrnhut  bishops  were  only  titular  bishops ;  they  had  no  diocese, 
no  jurisdiction,  no  loower  of  excommunication.  All  these  preroga- 
tives belonged  to  the  united  eldership,  in  which  the  lay  element  Avas 
distinctly  predominant.  Herrnhut  had  no  pastoi-s,  but  only  preach- 
ing brothers;  the  pastoral  care  devolved  upon  the  elders  and  their 
assistants.  But  beside  these  half-Lutheran  and  pseudo-Moravian 
peculiarities,  there  was  also  a  Donatist  element  at  the  basis  of  the 
constitution.  This  lay  in  the  fundamental  idea  of  absolutely  true 
and  pure  children  of  God,  and  reached  full  expression  in  the  con- 
cluding of  a  special  covenant  with  the  Saviour  at  London  on  Sept. 
16th,  A.D.  1741.  Leonard  Dober  for  some  years  administered  the  office 
of  an  elder-general.  But  at  the  London  synod  it  was  declared  that 
he  had  not  the  requisite  gifts  for  that  office.  Dober  now  wislied  to 
i-esign.  While  in  confusion  as  to  whom  they  could  appoint,  it  flashed 
into  the  minds  of  all  to  appoint  the  Saviour  Himself.  "  Our  feeling 
and  heart  conviction  was,  that  He  made  a  special  covenant  with  His 
little  flock,  taking  us  as  His  peculiar  treasure,  watching  over  us  in  a 
special  way,  personally  interesting  Himself  in  every  member  of  our 
community,  and  doing  that  for  us  perfectly  which  our  previous  elders 
could  only  do  imperfectly." 

5.  Among  the  numerous  extravagances  which  Zinzendorf  counte- 
nanced for  a  time,  the  following  may  be  mentioned.  (1)  The  notion 
of  the  motherhood  of  the  Holy  Spirit.     Zinzendorf  described  the  holy 


§  168.    CHURCH   OF   THE    MORAVIAN   BRETHREN.       121 

Trinity  as  "  man,  woman,  and  child."'  The  Spirit  is  the  mother  in 
three  respects :  the  eternal  generation  of  the  Son  of  God,  the  conception 
of  the  Man  Jesus,  and  the  second  birth  of  believers.  (-2)  The  notion 
of  the  fatherhood  of  Jesus  Christ  (Isa.  ix.  6).  Creation  is  ascribed 
solely  to  the  Son,  hence  Christ  is  our  special,  direct  Father.  The 
Father  of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ  is  only,  "  in  the  language  of  men, 
our  father-in-law  or  grandfather."  (3)  In  reference  to  our  Lord"s 
life  on  earth,  Zinzendorf  delighted  in  using  terms  of  contempt,  in 
order  to  emphasize  the  depths  of  His  humiliation.  (4  j  In  like  manner 
he  uses  reproachful  terms  in  speaking  of  the  style  of  the  sacred 
Scriptures,  and  the  inspired  community  prefers  a  living  Bible.  (5) 
The  theory  and  practice  of  mystical  marriage,  according  to  Ephe- 
sians  v.  32.  The  community  and  each  member  of  it  are  spiritual 
brides  of  Christ,  and  the  marriage  relation  and  begetting  of  children 
were  set  forth  and  spiritualized  in  a  singularly  indelicate  manner. 

G.  Zinzendorf  s  greatness  lay  in  the  fervency  of  his  love  of  the 
Saviour,  and  in  the  yearning  desire  to  gather  under  the  shadow  of 
the  cross  all  who  loved  the  Lord.  His  weakness  consisted  not  so 
much  in  his  manifested  extravagances,  as  in  his  idea  that  he  had  been 
called  to  found  a  society.  To  the  realizing  of  this  idea  he  gave 
his  life,  talents,  heart,  and  means.  The  advantages  of  rank  and 
cultm-e  he  also  gave  to  this  one  task.  He  was  personally  convinced 
of  his  Divine  call,  and  as  he  did  not  recognise  the  authority  of  the 
written  word,  but  only  subjective  impressions,  it  is  easily  seen  how 
he  would  drift  into  absurdities  and  inconsistencies.  The  end  con- 
templated seemed  to  him  supremely  important,  so  that  to  realize  it 
he  did  not  scruple  to  depart  from  strict  truthfulness. — Zinzendorf.s 
■\\Titings,  over  one  hundred  in  number,  are  characterized  by  origi- 
nality, brillianc}',  and  peculiar  forms  of  expression.  Of  his  2,000 
hymns,  mostly  improvised  for  i^ublic  services,  700  of  the  best  were 
revised  and  published  by  Knapp.  Two  are  still  found  in  most  collec- 
tions, and  are  more  or  less  reproduced  in  our  English  hymns,  "Jesus 
still  lead  on,"'  and  "  Jesus,  Thy  blood  and  righteousness.'' 

7.  The  Brotherhood  under  Spangenberg's  Administration — For  its  pre- 
sent form  the  Brotherhood  is  indebted  to  its  wise  and  sensible  bishoi), 
Aug.  Gottl.  Spangenherg,  who  died  a.d.  1792.  Born  in  1704,  he  became 
])ersonally  acquainted  with  Zinzendorf  in  1727,  after  ho  had  com- 
pleted his  studies  at  Jena  under  Buddseus,  and  continued  ever  after 
on  terms  of  close  intimacy  with  him  and  his  communit}'.  Through 
the  good  offices  of  G.  A.  Francke,  son  and  successor  of  A.  H.  Francke, 
he  Avas  called  in  Sept.,  1732,  to  the  office  of  an  assistantship  in  the 
theological  faculty  at  Halle,  and  appointed  school  inspector  of  the 
Orphanage ;  but  very  soon  offence  was  taken  at  the  brotherly  fellow- 
ship which  he  had,  not  onl}'  with  the  society  of  Herrnhut,  but  also 


122     CHURCH  HISTORY  OF  EIGHTEENTH    CENTURY. 

with  other  seijaratists.  The  misunderstanding  that  thus  arose  led 
in  April,  1733,  to  his  deprivation  under  a  royal  cabinet  order,  and  his 
expulsion  by  military  po-wer  from  Halle.  He  now  formally  joined 
the  communion  of  the  Brethren.  The  first  half  of  his  signally  blessed 
ministry  of  sixty  j^ears  among  the  Moravians  was  chieflj''  devoted 
to  foreign  mission  work,  both  in  their  colonies  abroad  and  in  their 
stations  in  heathen  lands.  In  Holland  in  1734,  in  England  and 
Denmark  in  1735,  he  obtained  official  permission  for  the  founding  of 
Moravian  colonies  in  Surinam,  in  the  American  state  of  Georgia,  and 
in  Santa  Cruz,  the  forming  and  management  of  which  he  himself 
undertook,  besides  directing  the  mission  work  in  these  places.  Ee- 
turning  from  America  in  1762,  he  won,  after  Zinzendorfs  death,  so 
complete  an  ascendency  in  the  church  in  every  respect,  that  he  may 
well  be  regarded  as  its  second  founder.  At  the  Synod  of  Marienborn, 
in  A.D.  1764,  the  constitution  was  revised  and  perfected.  Zinzen- 
dorfs monarchical  prerogative  was  surrendered  to  the  eldership,  and 
Spangenberg  prudently  secured  the  withdrawal  of  all  excrescences 
and  extravagances.  But  the  central  idea  of  a  special  covenant  was 
not  touched,  and  Sept.  16th  is  still  held  as  a  grand  pentecost  festival. 
In  the  fifth  section  of  the  statutes  Qf  the  United  Bretliren  at  Gnaden, 
1819,  it  distinguishes  itself  from  all  the  churches  as  a  "society  of 
true  children  of  God ;  as  a  family  of  God,  with  Jesus  as  its  head."' 
In  the  fourth  section  of  the  '-Historical  Account  of  the  Constitution 
of  the  United  Brethren  at  Gnaden,  1823,"'  the  society  is  described 
as  "  a  company  of  living  members  of  the  invisible  body  of  Jesus 
Christ  ■' ;  and  in  its  litany  for  Easter  morning,  it  adds  as  a  fourth 
particular  to  the  article  of  the  creed:  "I  believe  that  our  brothers 
X.  X.  and  our  sisters  X.  X.  have  joined  the  church  above,  and 
have  entered  into  the  joy  of  the  Lord."'  The  synod  of  a.d.  1848 
modified  this  article,  and  generally  the  society's  distinctive  views 
are  not  made  so  prominent.  This  liberal  tendency  had  dogmatic 
expression  given  to  it  in  Spangenberg"s  '■^  Idea  F'ulei  Fratnimy  Only 
a  few  new  settlements  have  been  formed  since  Zinzendorfs  death,  and 
none  of  any  importance;  while  the  hitherto  flourishing  Moravian 
settlements  in  Wetteraii  were  destroyed  and  their  members  banished, 
in  A.D.  1750,  by  the  reigning  prince.  Count  von  Isenburg-Biidingen, 
on  account  of  their  refusing  to  take  the  oath  of  allegiance. — After 
the  first  attempt  to  establish  societies  among  the  German  emigrants 
in  Livonia  and  Esthonia  in  a.d.  1729-1743  had  ended  in  the  expulsion 
of  the  Herrnhuters,  these  regions  proved  in  the  second  half  of  the 
century  a  more  fruitful  field  than  any  other.  They  secui-ed  there  a 
relation  to  the  national  church  such  as  they  never  attained  unto  else- 
where. They  had  in  these  parts  formally  organized  a  church  within 
the  church,  -whose  members,  mostl}'  peasants,  felt  convinced  that  they 


§  168.    CHURCH   OF   THE   MORAVIAN   BRETHREN.       123 

had  been  called  bj'  the  Lord's  own  voice  as  His  chosen  little  flock, 
a  proceeding  which  caused  infinite  trouble,  especially  in  Livonia,  to 
the  faithful  pastors,  who  perceived  the  deadly  mischief  that  was 
being  wrought,  and  witnessed  against  them  from  God's  word.  This 
protest  was  too  powerful  and  convincing  to  be  disregarded,  and  now, 
not  only  too  late,  but  also  in  too  half-hearted  a  way,  Herrnhut 
liegan,  in  a.d.  1857,  to  turn  back,  so  as  to  save  its  Livonian  institute 
by  inward  regeneration  from  certain  overthrow. 

S.  The  doctrinal  peculiarities  of  the  Brotherhood  cannot  be  quite  cor- 
rectly- described  as  un-Lutheran,  or  anti-Lutheran.  Bengel  smartly 
chai-acterized  them  in  a  single  plu-ase :  "  They  plucked  up  the  stock  of 
sound  doctrine,  stripped  oft  what  was  most  essential  and  vital,  and 
retained  the  half  of  it,"  which  not  only  then,  but  even  still  retains  its 
truth  and  worth.  Salvation  is  regarded  as  proceeding  pureh^  from 
the  Son,  the  God-Man,  so  that  the  relation  of  the  Father  and  of  the 
Holy  Spirit  to  redemption  is  scarcely  even  nominal ;  and  the  redemp- 
tion of  the  God-Man  again  is  viewed  one-sidedh^  as  consisting  only  in 
His  sufferings  and  death,  while  the  other  siele,  that  is  grounded  on  His 
life  and  resurrection,  is  either  carefully  passed  over,  or  its  fruit  is 
rei^resented  as  borrowed  from  the  atoning  death.  Thus  not  only 
justification,  but  sanctification  is  derived  exclusively  from  the  death 
of  Clu'ist,  and  this,  not  so  much  as  a  forensic  substitutionary  satis- 
faction, although  that  is  not  expressly  denied,  but  rather  as  a  Divine 
love-sacrifice  which  aAvakens  an  answering  love  in  us.  The  Avhole  of 
redemption  is  vicAved  as  issuing  from  Christ's  blood  and  wounds ;  and 
since  from  this  mode  of  viewing  the  subject  God's  grace  and  love 
are  made  prominent  rather  than  His  righteousness,  Ave  hear  almost 
exclusively  of  the  gospel,  and  little  or  nothing  of  the  laAV.  All 
jn-eaching  and  teaching  Avere  avoAvedly  directed  to  the  aAvakening 
of  pious  feelings  of  love  to  God,  and  thus  tended  to  foster  a  kind  of 
religious  sentimentalism. 

i>.  The  peculiarities  of  worship  ainoug  the  Brethren  Aveve  also  directed 
to  the  excitement  of  pious  feeling ;  their  sensuously-  SAveet  sacred 
music,  their  church  h3-mns,  OA-ercharged  Avith  emotion,  their  richly 
deA'eloped  liturgies,  their  restoi-ation  of  the  cnjape  Avith  tea,  biscuit, 
and  chorale-singing,  the  fraternal  kiss  at  communion,  in  their  earlier 
Oi&ys  also  AA^ashing  of  the  feet,  etc.  The  daily  AvatcliAvord  from  the 
O.T.  and  doctrinal  texts  from  the  N.T.  were  regarded  as  oracles, 
and  Avere  intended  to  giA^e  a  special  impress  to  the  religious  feelings 
of  the  day.  As  early  as  a.d.  17'27  they  had  a  hymn-book  containing 
972  hynuis.  Most  of  these  Avere  compositions  of  their  own,  a  true 
reflection  of  their  religious  sentiments  at  that  period.  It  also  con- 
tained Bohemian  and  Moravian  hymns,  translated  b}-  Mich.  "Weiss, 
and  also  many  old  favourites  of  the  CA-angelical  church,  often  sadly 


124      CHURCH   HISTORY   OF   EIGHTEENTH   CENTURY. 

mutilated.  By  a.d.  1749  it  had  received  twelve  appendices  and  foiir 
supplements.  In  these  appendices,  especially  in  the  tv/elfth,  the  one- 
sided tendency  to  give  prominence  to  feeling  was  carried  to  the  most 
absurd  lengths  of  caricature  in  the  use  of  offensive  and  silly  terms 
of  endearment  as  applied  to  the  Saviour.  Zinzendorf  admitted  the 
defects  of  this  production,  and  had  it  suppressed  in  1751,  and  in  Lon- 
don prepared  a  new,  expurgated  edition  of  the  hymn-book.  Undei- 
Si:)angenberg'3  presidency  Christian  Gregor  issued,  in  a.d.  1778,  a 
liymn-book,  containing  542  from  Zinzendorf "s  book  and  308  of  his  own 
pious  rhymes.  He  also  published  a  chorale  book  in  a.d.  1784.  Among 
their  sacred  poets  Zinzendorf  stands  easily  first.  His  only  son, 
Christian  Eenatus,  who  died  a.d.  1752,  left  behind  him  a  number  of 
sacred  songs.  Their  hymns  were  iisuallj'  set  to  the  melodies  of  the 
Halle  pietists. 

10.  In  regard  to  the  Cliristiau  life,  the  Brotherhood  withdrew  from 
politics  and  society,  adopted  stereotyped  forms  of  speech  and  peculiar 
iisages,  even  in  their  dress.  They  sought  to  live  undisturbed  by 
controversy,  in  personal  communion  with  the  Saviour.  Their  separa- 
tism as  a  covenanted  people  may  be  excused  in  view  of  the  unbelief 
prevailing  in  the  Protestant  church,  but  it  has  not  been  overcome  by 
the  reawakening  of  spiritual  life  in  the  Church.  As  to  their  ecclesi- 
astical constitution,  Christ  Himself,  as  the  Chief  Elder  of  the  church, 
should  have  in  it  the  direct  government.  The  leaders,  founding  upon 
Proverbs  xvi.  33  and  Acts  i.  26,  held  that  fit  expression  was  given  to 
this  principle  by  the  use  of  the  lot ;  but  soon  opposition  to  this  prac- 
tice arose,  and  with  its  abandonment  the  "special  covenant"'  theory 
lost  all  its  significance.  The  lot  -was  used  in  election  of  office-bearei-s, 
sending  of  missionaries,  admission  to  membership,  etc.  But  in  regard 
to  marriage,  it  Avas  used  only  by  consent  of  the  candidates  for  mar- 
riage, and  an  adverse  result  was  not  enforced.  The  administration 
of  the  affairs  of  the  society  lay  with  the  conference  of  the  united 
elders.  From  time  to  time  general  s3aiods  with  legislative  power 
were  summoned.  The  membership  Avas  divided  into  groups  of 
married,  widowed,  bachelors,  maidens,  and  children,  with  special 
duties,  separate  residences,  and  also  special  religious  services  in 
addition  to  those  common  to  all.  The  church  officers  Avere  bishops, 
presbyters,  deacons,  deaconesses,  and  acolytes. 

11.  Missions  to  the  Heathen. — Zinzendorf's  meeting  with  a  West 
Indian  negro  in  Copenhagen  aA\-akened  in  him  at  an  early  period  the 
missionary  zeal.  He  laid  the  matter  before  the  church,  and  in  a.d. 
1732  the  first  Herrnhut  missionaries,  Dober  and  Nitschmann,  went 
out  to  St.  Thomas,  and  in  the  following  year  missions  Avere  esta- 
blished in  Greenland,  North  America,  almost  all  the  West  Indian 
islands,  South  America,  among  the  Hottentots  at  the  Capo,  the  East 


§169.   EEF.  CHURCH  BEFORE  "THE  ILLUMINATION."  125 

Indies,  among  the  Eskimos  of  Labrador,  etc.  Their  missionary  en- 
t-erprise  forms  the  most  brilliant  and  attractive  part  of  the  history 
of  the  MoraAdans.  Their  procedure  was  admirably  suited  to  vm- 
cultured  races,  and  only  for  such.  In  the  East  Indies,  therefore, 
they  Avere  unsuccessful.  They  Avere  never  wanting  in  self-denying 
missionaries,  who  resigned  all  from  love  to  the  Saviour.  They  were 
mostly  pious,  capable  artisans,  who  threw  themselves  Avith  all  their 
hearts  into  their  ncAv  Avork,  and  de\'oted  themselves  A\-ith  affectionate 
tenderness  to  the  advancement  of  the  bodily  and  spiritual  interests 
of  those  among  Avhom  they  laboured.  One  of  the  noblest  of  them  all 
Avas  the  missionary  patriarch  Zeisberger,  Avho  died  in  a.d.  1808,  after 
toiling  among  the  IS'orth  American  Indians  for  sixty-three  j-ears. 
These  missions  Avere  conducted  at  a  surprisingly  small 'outlay.  The 
Brethi-en  also  interested  themselves  in  the  conA^ersion  of  the  Jcavs. 
In  A.D.  1738  Dober  Avrought  among  the  JeAvs  of  Amsterdam ;  and 
Avith  greater  success  in  a.d.  1739,  Lieberkiihn,  Avho  also  visited  the 
JeAvs  in  England  and  Bohemia,  and  A\-as  honoured  by  them  Avith  the 
title  of  "  rubbi."  ' 


§  169.     The  Reformed  Church  before  the  --Illu- 
mixatiox." 

The  sharpness  of  the  contest  between  Calvinism  and 
Lutheranisni  was  moderated  on  both  sides.  The  union 
efforts  prosecuted  during  the  first  decades  of  the  century 
in  Germany  and  Switzerland  were  always  defeated  by 
Lutheran  opposition.  In  the  Dutch  and  German  Reformed 
Churches,  even  during  the  eighteenth  century,  Cocceianism 
was  still  in  high  repute.  After  it  had  modified  strict 
Calvinism,  the  opposition  between  Reformed  orthodoxy  and 
Arminian  heterodoxy  became  less  pronounced,  and  more  and 
more  Arminian  tendencies  found  their  way  into  Reformed 
theology.  What  pietism  and  Moravianism  Avere  for  the 
Lutheran  church  of  Germany,  Methodism  was,  in  a  much 


»  Spangenberg,  '•  Account  of  Manner  in  Avhich  the  Uiiitas  Fratium 
Propagate  the  Gospel,  and  Carry  on  their  Missions  among  the  Heathen." 
London,  1788.  Holmes,  "Historical  Sketch  of  the  Missions  of  the 
United  Bretkren  for  the  Propagation  of  the  Gospel  among  the 
Heathen  from  their  Commencement  doAvn  to  1817.''    London.  1827. 


126     CHURCH   HISTORY   OF   EIGHTEENTH    CENTURY. 

greater   measure,  and  with  a  more  ouduriug  influence,  for 
the  episcopal  church  of  England. 

1.  The  German  Reformed  Church.— The  Brandenburg  dynasty  matin 
unwearied  efforts  to  eifect  a  union  between  the  Lutheran  and  Reformeil 
churches  throughout  their  territories  (§  154,  4).  Frederick  I.  (III.) 
instituted  for  this  purpose  in  a.d.  1703  a  collerjium  caritativum,  under 
the  presidency  of  the  Keformed  court  preacher  Ursinus  (ranked  as 
bislaop,  that  he  might  officiate  at  the  royal  coronation),  in  which  also, 
on  the  side  of  the  Reformed,  Jablonsky,  formerly  a  Moravian  bishop, 
and,  on  the  part  of  the  Lutherans,  the  cathedral  preacher  Winkler 
of  Magdeburg  and  Llittke,  provost  of  Cologne-on-the-Spree,  took  part. 
Spener,  who  wanted  not  a  made  union  but  one  which  he  himself  Avas 
making,  gave  exjoression  to  his  opinion,  and  soon  passed  over.  Llittke 
after  a  few  sederiints  withdrew,  and  when  AVinkler  in  a.d.  1703  pub- 
lished a  plan  of  union,  Arcanum  rcgiiun,  which  the  Lutheran  church 
merely  submitted  for  the  apjjroval  of  the  Reformed  king,  such  a  storui 
of  opposition  arose  against  the  project,  that  it  had  to  be  abandoned. 
In  the  following  year  the  king  took  up  the  matter  again  in  another 
way.  Jablonsky  engaged  in  negotiations  Avith  England  for  the 
introduction  of  the  Anglican  episcopal  system  into  Prussia,  in  order 
by  it  to  build  a  bridge  for  the  ixnion  with  Lutheranism.  But  even 
this  plan  failed,  in  consequence  of  the  succession  of  Frederick  William 
I.  in  A.D.  1713,  whose  shrewd  sense  strenuously  opposed  it. — The  vacil- 
lating statements  of  the  Covfessio  Siginniundi  (§  154,  3)  regarding 
predestination  made  it  possible  for  the  Brandenburg  Reformed  theo- 
logians to  understand  it  as  teaching  the  doctrine  of  particular  as  well 
as  ruiiversal  grace,  and  so  to  make  it  correspond  with  Brandenburg 
Reformed  orthodoxy.  The  rector  of  the  Joachimsthal  Gjannasium 
in  Berlin,  Paul  Volkmanii,  iu  a.d.  1712,  interpreted  it  as  teaching 
universal  grace,  and  so  iu  his  T/icses  fheoloyicm  he  consti-ucted  a 
system  of  theologj^,  in  Avhich  the  divine  foreknowledge  of  the  result, 
as  the  reconciling  middle  term  between  the  particulai'ism  and  uni- 
versalism  of  the  call,  was  set  forth  in  a  manner  favourable  to  the 
latter.  The  controversy  that  was  aroused  over  this,  in  which  even 
.Tablonsky  argued  for  the  more  libei'al  view,  while  on  the  other  side 
Barckhausen,  Volkmann's  colleague,  in  his  Arnica  CoUatio  Doctrinoi  clc 
Gratia,  quam  vera  ref.  confitetur  JEcclcsia,  cum  Doctr.  VolJcmanni,  etc., 
came  forward  under  the  name  of  Pacificus  Verinus  as  his  most  deter- 
mined Disponent,  Avas  put  a  stop  to  in  a.d.  1719  by  an  edict  of  Frederick 
William  I.,  which  enjoined  silence  on  both  parties,  Avithout  any  result 
liaving  been  reached. — One  of  the  noblest  mystics  that  e\'er  lived  Avas 
Gerhard  Tersteegen,  died  a.d.  17G0.     He  takes  a  hiiih  rank  as  a  sacred 


§169.    EEF.  CHURCH  BEFORE  "THE  ILLUMINATION."  127 

poet.  Anxious  souls  made  pilgrimages  to  him  from  far  and  near  for 
comfort,  counsel,  and  refreshment.  Though  not  exactly  a  separatist, 
he  had  no  strong  attachment  to  the  church.' — The  prayer-book  of 
Conrad  Mel,  pastor  and  rector  at  Hersfeld  in  Hesse,  died  a.d.  1733, 
continues  to  the  jiresent  daj-  a  favourite  in  pious  families  of  the 
Eefomied  communion. 

2.  The  Reformed  Church  iu  Switzerland.— The  Helvetic  Confession,  with 
its  strict  doctrine  of  predestination  and  its  peculiar  inspiration  theory 
(§  161,  3),  had  been  indeed  accepted,  in  a.d.  1675,  by  all  the  Reformed 
cantons  as  the  absolute  standard  of  doctrine  in  chnrch  and  school ; 
but  this  obligation  was  soon  felt  to  be  oppressive  to  the  conscience, 
and  so  the  Archbishop  of  Canterbury  and  the  kings  of  England  and 
Prussia  repeated!}'  interceded  for  its  abrogation.  In  Geneva,  though 
vigorously  opjiosed  by  a  strictly  orthodox  minoritj^,  the  Venerable 
Comparjnie  succeeded,  in  a.d.  1706,  -\\ith  the  rector  of  the  Academy  at 
its  head,  J.  A.  Turretin,  whose  father  had  been  one  of  the  principal 
authors  of  the  formula,  in  modifying  the  usual  terms  of  subscription, 
Sic  sentio,  sic  projiteor,  sic  docebo,  et  contrarium  non  doceho,  into  Sic 
doceho  quoties  hoc  arfjumentiim  tractandum  suscijjiam,  contrarium  non 
docebo,  nee  ore,  nee  calamo,  nee  privatim,  nee  piuhliee  ;  and  afterwards,  in 
A.D.  1725,  it  Avas  entirely  set  aside,  and  adhesion  to  the  Scriptures  of 
the  O.  and  N.T.,  and  to  the  catechism  of  Calvin,  made  the  only  obliga- 
tion. More  persistent  on  both  sides  was  the  struggle  in  Lausanne ; 
yet  even  there  it  gradually  lost  gi'ound,  and  by  the  middle  of  the 
century  it  had  no  longer  any  authority  in  Switzerland. — The  union 
efforts  made  by  the  Prussian  dynasty  found  zealous  but  unsuccessful 
advocates  in  the  chancellor  Pfaff  of  Lutheran  Wtirttemberg  (§  167, 
•i),  and  in  Eeformed  Switzerland  in  J.  A.  Turretin  of  Geneva. 

3.  The  Dutch  Reformed  Church. — Toward  the  end  of  the  seventeenth 
century,  in  consequence  of  threats  on  the  part  of  the  magistrates,  th<^ 
passionate  violence  of  the  dispiite  between  Voetians  and  Cocceians 
(§  162,  5)  was  moderated ;  but  in  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth 
centiuy  the  flames  burst  forth  anew,  reaching  a  height  in  1712,  when 
a  marble  bust  of  Cocceius  was  erected  in  a  Leyden  church.  An  obsti- 
nate Voetian,  Pastor  Fruytier  of  Eotterdam,  was  grievously  ofleuded 
at  this  proceeding,  and  published  a  controversial  pamphlet  full  of  the 
most  bitter  reproaches  and  accusations  against  the  Cocceians,  which, 
energetically  replied  to  by  the  accused,  was  miich  more  hurtful  than 
useful  to  the  interests  of  the  Voetians.  At  last  a  favourable  hearing 
Avas  given  to  a  word  of  peace  which  a  highly  respected  Voetian,  the 


*  "  Tersteegen  :  Life  and  Character,  with  Extracts  from  His  Letters 
and  "Writings."  London.  1832.  Winkworth,  "Christian  Singers  of 
Germany."'     London,  ISU'J. 


128     CHURCH   HISTOKY   OF   EIGHTEENTH   CENTURY. 

venerable  preacher  of  eiglity  j^ears  of  age,  /.  Mor.  Mommers,  addressed 
to  the  parties  engaged  in  the  controvers3^  He  published  in  a.d.  1738, 
under  the  title  of  "  Euhdus,'''  a  tract  in  which  he  proved  that  neither 
Cocceius  himself  nor  his  most  distinguished  adherents  had  in  any  es- 
sential point  departed  from  the  faith  of  the  Eeformed  church,  and  that 
from  them,  thei-efore,  in  spite  of  all  difterences  that  had  since  arisen, 
the  hand  of  fellowship  should  not  be  withheld.  In  consequence  of  this, 
the  magistrates  of  Groningen  first  of  all  decided,  that  forthwith,  in  fill- 
ing up  vacant  pastorates,  a  Cocceian  and  Voetian  should  be  appointed 
alternately ;  a  principle  which  gradually  became  the  practice  through- 
out the  whole  countr}^.  At  the  same  time  also  care  was  now  taken 
that  in  the  theological  faculties  both  schools  should  have  equal  repre- 
sentation. But  meanwhile  also  new  departures  had  been  made  in 
each  of  the  two  parties.  Among  the  Voctians,  after  the  pattern 
formerly  given  them  by  Teellinck  (§  162,  4),  followed  up  by  the 
Frisian  preacher  Theod.  Brakel,  died  a.d.  1669,  and  further  developed 
by  Jodocus  von  Lodenstein  of  Utrecht,  died  a.d.  1677,  mysticism  had 
made  considerable  progress :  and  the  Cocceians,  in  the  person  of  Her- 
mann Witsius,  drew  more  closely  toward  the  pietism  of  the  Voetians 
and  the  Lutherans.  The  most  distinguished  representative  of  this 
conciliatbry  party  was  F.  A.  Lampe  of  Detmold,  afterwards  professor 
in  Utrecht,  previously  and  subsequently  pastor  in  Bremen,  in  high 
repute  in  his  church  as  a  hymn-writer,  but  best  known  by  his  com- 
mentary on  John. — These  conciliatory  measures  were  frustrated  bj^ 
the  publication,  in  a.d.  1740,  of  a  work  by  Schortinghuis  of  Groningen, 
which  pronounced  the  Scriptures  unintelligible  and  useless  to  the 
natural  man,  but  made  fruitful  to  the  regenerate  and  elect  by  the 
immediate  enlightenment  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  evidenced  by  deep 
groanings  and  convulsive  writhings.  It  -^^as  condemned  by  all  thr; 
orthodox.  The  author  now  confined  himself  to  his  pastorate,  where 
he  was  richly  blessed.  He  died  in  a.d.  1750.  His  notions  spread  like 
an  epidemic,  till  stamped  out  by  the  imited  cfTorts  of  the  civil  and 
ecclesiastical  authorities  in  a.d.  1752. 

4.  Methodism.— In  the  episcopal  church  of  England  the  living  power 
of  the  gospel  had  evaporated  into  the  formalism  of  scholastic  learning 
and  a  mechanical  ritualism.  A  reaction  was  set  on  foot  by  John 
Wesley,  born  a.d.  1703,  a  young  man  of  deep  religious  earnestness  and 
fervent  zeal  for  the  salvation  of  souls.  During  his  course  at  Oxford, 
in  A.D.  1729,  along  with  some  friends,  including  his  brother  Charles, 
be  founded  a  society  to  promote  pious  living.'  Those  thus  leagued 
together  were  scornfully  called  Methodists.  From  a.d.  1732,  George 
WMtefield,  born  in  a.d.  1714,  a  youth  burning  v/ith  zeal  for  his  own 

'  For  a  slightly  different  account  see  Tyerman,  vol.  i.,  p.  66. 


§  169.  REF.  CHUECH  BEFORE  "  THE  ILLUMINATION."  129 

and  his  fellow  men's  salvation,  wrought  enthusiastically  along  with 
them.  In  a.d,  1735  the  brothers  AVesley  went  to  America  to  labour 
for  the  conversion  of  the  Indians  in  Georgia.  On  board  ship  they 
met  Nitschmann,  and  in  Savannah  Spangenberg,  who  exercised  a 
powerful  influence  over  them.  John  Wesley  accepted  a  pastorate 
in  Savannah,  but  pnc(5untered  so  many  hindrances,  that  he  decided 
to  return  to  England  in  a.d.  1738.  "Whitefield  had  just  sailed  for 
America,  but  returned  that  same  year.  Meanwhile  "Wesley  visited 
Marienborn  and  Herrnhut,  and  so  became  personall}^  acquainted  witli 
Zinzendorf.  He  did  not  feel  thoroughly  satisfied,  and  so  declined  to 
join  the  society.  On  his  return  he  began,  along  with  Whitefield,  the 
great  work  of  his  life.  In  many  cities  thej'  founded  religious  socie- 
ties, preached  daily  to  immense  crowds  in  Anglican  churches,  and 
■when  the  churches  were  refused,  in  the  open  aii',  often  to  20,000  or 
even  30,000  hearers.  They  sought  to  arouse  careless  sinners  hy  all  the 
terrors  of  the  law  and  the  horrors  of  hell,  and  by  a  thorough  repen- 
tance to  bring  about  immediate  conversion.  An  immense  number  of 
liardened  sinners,  mostly  of  the  lower  orders,  were  thus  awakened  and 
bnjught  to  repentance  amid  slu'ieks  and  convulsions.  Whitefield, 
A\ho  divided  his  attentions  between  England  and  America,  delivered 
in  thirty-four  years  18,000  sermons;  Wesley,  who  survived  his  younger 
companion  by  twenty -one  years,  dying  in  a.d.  1791,  and  was  wont  to  say 
the  world  was  his  i^arish,  delivered  still  more.  Their  association  with 
the  Moravians  had  been  broken  off  in  a.d.  1740.  To  the  latter,  not  only 
was  the  Methodists'  stjde  of  preaching  objectionable,  but  also  their 
doctrine  of  "Christian  perfection," according  to  Avhich  the  true,  regene- 
I'ate  Christian  can  and  must  reach  a  jierfect  holiness  of  life,  not  indeed 
free  from  temptation  and  error,  but  from  all  sins  of  weakness  and 
sinful  lusts.  Wesley  in  turn  accused  the  Herrnliuters  of  a  dangerous 
tendency  toward  the  errors  of  the  quietists  and  antinomians.  Zin- 
zendorf came  himself  to  London  to  remove  the  misunderstanding,  but 
did  not  succeed.  The  great  Methodist  leaders  Avere  themselves  sepa- 
rated from  one  another  in  a.d.  1741.  WhitefieWs  doctrine  of  grace 
and  election  was  Calvinistic ;  Wesley's  Arminian. — From  a.d.  1748  the 
Countess  of  Huntingdon  attached  herself  to  the  Methodists,  and  secured 
an  entrance  for  their  preaching  into  aristocratic  circles.  With  all  her 
humility  and  self-sacrifice  she  remamed  aristocrat  enough  to  insist  on 
being  head  and  organizer.  Seeing  she  could  not  play  this  I'ole  with 
Wesley,  she  attached  herself  closely  to  Whitefield.  He  became  her 
domestic  chaplain,  and  with  other  clergymen  accompanied  her  on  her 
travels.  Wherever  she  went  she  posed  as  a  "  queen  of  the  Methodists," 
and  was  allowed  to  preach  and  carry  on  pastoral  work.  She  built 
sixty -six  chai^els,  and  in  a.d.  1768  founded  a  seminary  for  training 
preachers  at  Trevccca  in  Wales,  under  tlic  oversight  of  tlie  able  and 
VOt,.  m,  () 


130     CHURCH   HISTORY   OF   EIGHTEENTH   CENTURY. 

gentle  Jolm  rietclier,  reserving  supreme  control  to  herself.  After 
WhitefielcVs  death,  in  a.d.  1770,  the  opposition  between  the  Cah'inistic 
followers  of  "Whitefielcl  and  the  Arminian  "Wesley ans  burst  out  in 
a  much  more  violent  form.  Fletcher  and  his  likeminded  fellow 
labourers  were  charged  with  teaching  the  horrible  heresy  of  the 
universality  of  grace,  and  were  on  that  account  discharged  by  the 
countess  from  the  seminary  of  Trevecca.  They  now  joined  Wesley, 
around  whom  the  gi-eat  majority  of  the  Methodists  had  gathered. 

5.  The  Methodists  did  not  wish  to  separate  from  the  episcopal 
church,  but  to  work  as  a  leaven  within  it.    Whitefield  was  able  to 
maintain  tliis  connexion  by  the  aid  of  his  aristocratic  countess  and 
her  relationship  with  the  higher  clergy ;  but  "Wesley,  sjjurning  such 
aid,  and  trusting  to  his  great  powers  of  organization,  felt  driven  more 
and  more  to  set  up  an  independent  societ}-.     "When  the  churches  were 
closed  against  him  and  his  fellow  workers,  and  preaching  in  the  open 
air  Avas  forbidden,  he  built  chapels  for  himself. ^    The  fu'st  was  opened 
in  Bristol,  in  a.d.  1739.    When  his  ordained  associates  were  too  few  for 
the  work,  he  obtained  the  assistance  of  lay  preachers.    He  founded  two 
kinds  of  religious  societies  :  The  united  societies  embraced  all,  the  hand 
societies  only  the  tried  and  proved  of  his  followers.     Then  he  divided 
the  united  societies  again  into  classes  of  from  ten  to  twenty  persons 
each,  and  the  class-leaders  were  required  to  give  accurate  accounts  of 
the  spiritual  condition  and  progress  of  those  under  their  care.     Each 
member  of  the   united  as  well   as   the  hand  societies  held  a   society 
ticket,  which  had  to  be  renewed  quartei-ly.     The  outward  affairs  of 
the  societies  were  managed  by  steivards,  who  also  took  care  of  the 
poor.     A  number  of  local  societies  constituted  a  circuit  with  a  super- 
intendent and  several  itinerant  preachers."    Wesley  superintended  all 
the  departments  of  oversight,  administration,  and  arrangement,  sup- 
ported from  A.D.  1744  by  an  annual  conference.     Daily  preaching  and 
devotional  exercises  in  the  chapels,  weekly  class-meetings,  monthly 
watchnights,  quarterly  fasts  and  lovefeasts,  an   annual  service  for 
the  i-enewing  of  the  covenant,  and  a  great  multiplication  of  prayer- 
meetings,   gave   a  special   character  to   Methodistic  piety.     Charles 
Wesley  composed  hymns  for  their  services.     They  carefully  avoided 
collision  with  the  services  of  the  state  church.    The  American  Metho- 
dists, who  had  been  up  to  this  time  supplied  by  Wesley  with  itinerant 
missionaries,  in  a.d.  1784,  after  the  War  of  Independence,  gave  vigo- 
rous expression  to  their  wish  for  a  more  independent  ecclesiastical  con- 

^  Wesley  himself  continued  to  preach  in  the  open  air  till  nearly 
the  end  of  the  year  1790. 

-  Further  details  as  to  the  organization  of  the  societies  are  given  in 
Tyerman,  1st  ed.,  vol.  i.,  pp.  444,  445. 


§169.  EEF.  CHURCH  BEFOEE  -'THE  ILLUMINATION."    131 

stitution,  wliich  led  Wesley,  in  opposition  to  all  riglit  order,  to  ordain 
for  them  by  his  own  hand  several  preachers,  and  to  appoint,  in  the 
person  of  Thomas  Coke,  a  superintendent,  -who  assumed  in  America  the 
title  of  bishop.  Coke  became  the  founder  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal 
Church  of  America,  -which  soon  outstripped  all  other  denominations  in 
its  zeal  for  the  conversion  of  sinners,  and  in  consequent  success.  The 
breach  -ndth  the  mother  church  was  completed  by  the  adoption  of  a 
creed  in  which  the  Thirty -nine  Articles  were  reduced  to  twenty-five. 
At  the  last  conference  pi-esided  over  by  Wesley,  a.d.  1790,  it  was 
announced  that  they  had  in  Britain  119  circuits,  313  preachers,  and 
in  the  United  States  97  circuits  and  198  preachers.  After  Wesley's 
death,  in  a.d.  1791,  his  autocratic  sui^remacy  devolved,  in  accordance 
with  the  Methodist  "Magna  Charta,"  the  Deed  of  Declaration  of  a.d. 
1784,  upon  a  fixed  conference  of  100  members,  but  its  hierarchical 
organization  has  been  the  cause  of  many  subsequent  splits  and 
divisions.i 

6.  Theolog^ical  Literature -Clericus,  of  Amsterdam,  died  a.d.  1736,  an 
Ai'minian  divine,  distinguished  himself  in  biblical  criticism,  herme- 
neutics,  exegesis,  and  church  historj^.  J.  J.  "Wettstein  was  in  a.d.  1730 
deposed  for  heresy,  and  died  in  a.d.  1754  as  professor  at  the  Remon- 
strant seminary  at  Amsterdam.  His  critical  edition  of  the  X.T.  of 
a.d.  1751  had  a  great  reputation.  Schultens  of  Leyden,  died  a.d.  1750, 
introduced  a  new  era  for  O.T.  philolog}^  by  the  comparative  study 
of  related  dialects,  especially  Arabic.  He  wrote  commentaries  on 
Job  and  Proverbs.  Of  the  Cocceian  exegetes  we  mention,  Lampe  of 
Bremen,  died  a.d.  1729,  '-Com.  on  John,"  three  vols.,  etc.,  and  J.  Marck 
of  Leyden,  died  a.d.  1731,  "Com.  on  Minor  Prophets."'  In  biblical 
antiquity,  Reland  of  Utrecht,  died  a.d.  1718,  Avrote  ^•Pahcstina  ex  vett. 


■  Southey,  "  Life  of  John  Wesley."  London,  1820.  Isaac  Taylor, 
"  Wesley  and  Wesleyanism."  London,  1851.  Tj'erman,  "  Wesley's 
Life  and  Times."  2  vols.  4th  ed.  London,  1877.  Urlin,  "  Church- 
man's Life  of  Wesley."  London,  1880.  Abbej-  and  Overton,  "  English 
Chiirch  in  18th  Century."  2  vols.  London,  1879.  Lecky,  "  History 
of  England  in  the  ISth  Century."  2  vols.  London,  1878.  Stoughton, 
'•  Historj'  of  Religion  in  England  to  End  of  18th  Centur}"."'  0  vols. 
London,  1882. — Jackson,  ••  Life  of  Charles  Wesle3\''  2  vols.  London, 
1841.— Tj-erman,  "Life  of  Whitefield."  2  vols.  London,  1877.— 
Macdonald,  "Fletcher  of  Madeley."  London. — Smith,  "History  of 
Methodism."  3  vols.  London,  1857.  Stevens,  "  History  of  Methodism." 
3  vols.  KeAv  York,  1858.  Stevens,  "  History  of  the  Methodist  Epi- 
scopal Church  in  the  United  States."  4  vols.  New  York,  1864.  Bangs, 
"  History  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church."  4  vols.  ]^ew  York. 
1839. 


182      CIITTRni    HTSTOEY    OF    EIGIITEEXTII    CENTURY. 

monum.  Ilhts/r.  Anllijuitt.  .<?«."';  in  occlesiastical  antiquity,  Bingham, 
died  A.D.  1723,  "  Ori.e;ines  Ecclest. ;  or,  Antiquities  of  the  Christian 
Church,"  ten  vols.,  1724,  a  niasterpipce  not  yet  superseded.  Of  Eng- 
lish apologists  who  wrote  against  the  deists,  Leland,  died  a.d.  1766, 
"  Advantage  and  Necessity  of  the  Christian  Revelation  "  ;  Stackhouse, 
died  A.D,  1752,  "History  of  the  Bible."  Of  dogmatists,  Stapfer  of  Bern, 
died  A.D.  1775,  and  Wyttenbach  of  Marburg,  died  a.d.  1779,  who  fol- 
lowed the  Wolffian  method.  Among  church  historians,  J.  A.  Turretin 
of  Geneva,  died  a.d.  1757,  and  Herm.Venema  of  Franeker,  died  a.d. 
1787. — The  most  celebrated  of  the  writers  of  sacred  songs  in  the  Eng- 
lish language  was  the  Congregationalist  i:)reacher  Isaac  "Watts,  died 
A.D.  1748,  whose  "  Hymns  and  Spiritual  Songs,"  which  first  appeared 
in  A.D.  1707,  still  hold  their  place  in  the  h^nnnbooks  of  all  denomina- 
tions, and  have  largely  contributed  to  overthrow  the  Reformed  preju- 
dice against  using  any  other  than  biblical  psalms  in  the  public  service 
of  praise. 

§  170.     New  Sects  and  Tanatics. 

The  pietism  of  the  eighteenth  century,  like  the  Reforma- 
tion of  the  sixteenth,  was  followed  by  the  appearance  of  all 
sorts  of  fanatics  and  extremists.  The  converted  were  col- 
lected into  little  companies,  which,  as  ccclesiohc  in  ccclcsia, 
preserved  the  living  flame  amid  prevailing  darkness,  and 
out  of  these  arose  separatists  who  spoke  of  the  church  as 
Babylon,  regarded  its  ordinances  impure,  and  its  preaching  a 
mere  jingle  of  words.  They  obtained  their  spiritual  noiirish- 
ment  from  the  mystical  and  theosophical  writings  of  Bohme, 
Gichtel,  Guyon,  Poiret,  etc.  Their  chief  centre  was  Wet- 
terau,  where,  in  the  house  of  Count  Casimir  von  Berleburg, 
all  persecuted  pietists,  separatists,  fanatics,  and  sectaries 
found  refuge.  The  count  chose  from  them  his  court  officials 
and  personal  servants,  although  he  himself  belonged  to  the 
national  Reformed  church.  There  was  scarcely  a  district 
in  Protestant  Germany,  Switzerland,  and  the  Netherlands 
where  there  were  not  groups  of  such  separatists ;  some 
mere  harmless  enthusiasts,  others  circulated  pestiferous 
and  immoral  doctrines.  Quite  apart  from  pietism  Sweden- 
borgianism  made  its  appearance,  claiming  to  have   a  new 


§-  170.    NEW    SECTS    AND    FANATICS.  133 

revelation.  Of  the  older  sects  the  Baptists  and  the  Quakers 
sent  off  new  swarms,  and  even  predestinationism  gave  rise 
to  a  form  of  mysticism  allied  to  pantheism. 

1.  Fanatics  and  Separatists  in  Germany. — Juliana  von  Asseburg,  a 
young  lady  highly  esteemed  in  Magdeburg  for  her  piety,  declared 
that  from  her  seventh  year  she  had  visions  and  revelations,  especially 
about  the  millennium.  She  found  a  zealous  supporter  in  Dr.  J.  W, 
Petersen,  superintendent  of  Lilnebm-g.  After  his  marriage  with 
Eleonore  von  Merlau,  Avho  had  similar  revelations,  he  proclaimed  by 
•word  and  Avriting  a  fantastic  chiliasm  and  the  restitution  of  all 
things.  He  was  deposed  in  a.d.  1692,  and  died  in  a.d.  1727.^  Henry 
Horche,  professor  of  theology  at  Herborn,  was  the  orginator  of  a  similar 
movement  in  the  E-eformed  church.  He  founded  several  Philadel- 
jjhian  societies  (§  162,  9)  in  Hesse,  and  composed  a  "  mystical  and 
)jrophetical  bible,"  the  so  called  '•  Marburg  Bible,"  a.d.  1712.  Of  other 
fanatical  preachers  of  that  period  one  of  the  most  prominent  Avas 
Hochmann,  a  student  of  law  expelled  from  Halle  for  his  extravagances, 
a  man  of  ability  and  eloquence,  and  highly  esteemed  by  Tersteegen. 
Driven  from  place  to  place,  he  at  last  found  refuge  at  Berleburg,  and 
died  there  in  a.d.  1721.  In  Wiirttemberg  the  pious  court  chaplain, 
Hedinger,  of  Stuttgart,  died  a.d.  1703,  was  the  father  of  j^ietism  and 
separatism.  The  most  famous  of  his  followers  were  Gruber  and  Rock, 
Avho,  driven  from  Wiirttemberg,  settled  with  other  separatists  at 
Wetterau,  renouncing  the  use  of  the  sacraments  and  public  worship. 
Of  those  gathered  together  in  the  court  of  Count  Casimir,  the  most 
Hvuineut  were  Dr.  Carl,  his  physician,  the  French  mystic  Marsay,  and 
J.  H.  Haug^  who  had  been  expelled  from  Strassburg,  a  proficient  in  the 
oriental  languages.  They  issued  a  great  number  of  nwstical  works, 
chief  of  all  the  Berleburg  Bible,  in  eight  vols.,  1726-1742,  of  which  Haug 
Avas  the  principal  author.  Its  exposition  proceeded  in  accordance 
Avith  the  threefold  sense  ;  it  vehemently  contended  against  the  church 
doctrine  of  justification,  against  the  confessional  writings,  the  clerical 
order,  the  dead  church,  etc.  It  showed  occasionally  profound  insight, 
and  made  brilliant  remarks,  but  contained  also  many  trivialities  and 
absurdities.  The  m3-sticism  which  is  prominent  in  this  work  lacks 
originalitA',  and  is  compiled  from  the  mystico-theosophical  writings  of 
all  ages  from  Origen  down  to  Madame  CTU3-on. 

2.  The  Inspired  Societies  in  "Wetterau. — After  the  unfortunate  issue 
of  the  Camisard  War  in  a.d.  1705  (§  153,  4)  the  chief  of  the  prophets 

*  Hagenbach,  "History  of  Cliurch  in  lyth  and  19th  Centuries," 
vol.  i.,  pp.  159-164. 


134      CHURCH   HISTORY   OF   EIGHTEENTH   CENTURY. 

of  the  Ceveniies  fled  to  England.  They  were  at  first  well  received,  but 
were  afterwards  excommunicated  and  cast  into  j^rison.  In  a.d.  1711 
several  of  them  went  to  the  Netherlands,  and  thence  made  their  way 
into  Germany.  Three  brothers,  students  at  Halle,  named  Pott, 
adopted  their  notion  of  the  gift  of  inspiration,  and  introduced  it  into 
Wetterau  in  a.d.  1714.  Gruber  and  Rock,  the  leaders  of  the  separatists 
there,  Avere  at  first  opposed  to  the  doctrine,  but  were  overpowered  by 
the  Spirit,  and  soon  became  its  most  enthusiastic  champions.  Prayer- 
meetings  were  organized,  immense  lovef easts  Avere  held,  and  by 
itinerant  brethren  an  ecclesia  amhnlcdoria  was  set  on  foot,  by  which 
spiritual  nourishment  was  brought  to  believers  scattered  over  the 
land  and  the  children  of  the  prophets  were  gathered  from  all  coun- 
tries. The  "  utterances "  given  forth  in  ecstasy  Avere  calls  to  repen- 
tance, to  prayer,  to  the  imitation  of  Christ,  revelations  of  the  divine 
will  in  matters  affecting  the  communities,  proclamations  of  the  near 
approach  of  the  Divine  judgment  upon  a  depraved  church  and  Avorld, 
but  without  fanatical-sensual  chiliasm.  Also,  except  in  the  contenijit 
of  the  sacraments,  they  held  by  the  essentials  of  the  church  doctrine. 
In  A.D.  1715  a  split  occurred  between  the  true  and  i\-\Q  false,  among  the 
inspired.  The  true  maintained  a  formal  constitution,  and  in  a.d.  1716 
exckided  all  who  Avould  not  submit  to  that  discipline.  By  a.d.  1719 
only  Rock  claimed  the  gift  of  inspiration,  and  did  so  till  his  death 
in  a.d.  1749.  Gruber  died  in  a.d.  1728,  and  with  him  a  pillar  of  the 
society  fell.  Rock  Avas  the  only  remaining  prop.  A  ncAv  era  of  their 
history  begins  Avith  their  intercourse  Avith  the  Herrnhuters.  Zinzen- 
dorf  sent  them  a  deputation  in  a.d.  1730,  and  paid  them  a  visit  in 
person  at  Berleberg.  Eock's  profound  Christian  jiersonality  made  a 
deep  impression  upon  him.  But  he  Avas  offended  at  their  contempt  of 
the  sacraments,  and  at  the  convulsive  character  of  their  utterances. 
This,  however,  did  not  hinder  him  from  expressing  his  reverence  for 
their  able  leader,  Avho  in  return  Aasited  Zinzendorf  at  Herrnhut  in  a.d. 
1732.  In  the  interests  of  his  OAni  society  Zinzendorf  shrank  from 
identifying  himself  Avith  those  of  ^"Wetterau.  Rock  denomiced  him 
as  a  ncAv  Babylon-botcher,  and  he  retaliated  by  calling  Rock  a  false 
prophet.  When  the  Herrnhuters  Avere  driA'en  from  Wetterau  in  a.d. 
1750  (§  168,  3,  7),  the  inspired  communities  entered  on  their  inheri- 
tance. But  Avith  Rock's  death  in  a.d.  1749  prophecy  had  ceased  among 
them.  They  sank  more  and  more  into  insignificance,  until  the  revi\'al 
of  spiritual  life,  a.d.  1816-1821,  brought  them  into  prominence  again. 
Government  interference  drove  most  of  them  to  America. 

3.  Quite  a  joeculiar  importance  belongs  to  J.  C.  Dippel,  theologian, 
physician,  alchemist,  discoverer  of  Prussian  blue  and  oleum  clippelii^ 
at  first  an  orthodox  opponent  of  pietism,  then,  through  Gottfr. 
Arnold's  influence,  an  adherent  of  tlie  pietists,  and  ultimately  of  the 


§  170.    NEW   SECTS   AND   FANATICS.  135 

separatists.  In  a.d.  1697,  under  the  name  of  Chritstianus  DeniocrKiis,  he 
began  to  write  in  a  scoffing  tone  of  all  orthodox  Christianity,  with  a 
strange  blending  of  mysticism  and  rationalism,  but  without  any  trace 
yjrofound  Christian  experience.  Persecuted  on  every  hand,  exiled  or 
imprisoned,  he  went  liither  and  thither  through  Germany,  Holland, 
Denmark,  and  Sweden,  and  found  a  refuge  at  last  at  Berleberg  in  a.d. 
1729.  Here  he  came  in  contact  with  the  inspired,  who  did  everj'thing 
in  their  power  to  win  him  over  ;  but  he  declared  that  he  would  rather 
give  himself  to  the  devil  than  to  this  Spirit  of  God.  He  was  long 
intimate  with  Zinzendorf,  but  afterwards  poured  out  upon  him  the 
bitterest  abuse.  He  died  in  the  count's  castle  at  Berleberg  in  a.d. 
1734.1 

4.  Separatists  of  Immoral  Tendency. —  One  of  the  worst  was  the 
Buttlar  sect,  founded  by  Eva  von  Buttlar,  a  native  of  Hesse,  who  had 
married  a  Trench  refugee,  lived  gaily  for  ten  years  at  the  court  of 
Eisenach,  and  then  joined  the  pietists  and  became  a  rigid  separatist. 
Separated  from  her  husband,  she  associated  with  the  licentiate  Winter, 
and  founded  a  Philadelphian  societ3^  at  Allendorf  in  a.d,  1702,  where 
the  foulest  immoralities  were  practised.  Eva  herself  was  reverenced 
as  the  door  of  paradise,  the  new  Jerusalem,  the  mother  of  all,  Sophia 
come  from  heaven,  the  new  Eve,  and  the  incarnation  of  the  Spirit. 
Winter  was  the  incarnation  of  the  Father,  and  their  son  Appenfeller 
the  incarnation  of  the  Son,  They  pronounced  marriage  sinful ;  sen- 
sual lusts  must  be  slain  in  spiritual  communion,  then  even  carnal 
association  is  holy.  Eva  lived  Avitli  all  the  men  of  the  sect  in  the 
most  shameless  adulterj-.  So  did  also  the  other  women  of  the  com- 
munity. Exi^elled  from  Allendorf  after  a  stay  of  six  weeks,  they 
sought  unsuccessfully  to  gain  a  footing  in  various  places.  At  Co- 
logne they  went  over  to  the  Catholic  church.  Their  immoralities 
reached  their  climax  at  Liide  near  Pyrmont.  Winter  Avas  sentenced 
to  death  in  a.d.  1706,  but  was  let  off  with  scourging.  Eva  escaped  the 
same  punishment  by  flight,  and  continued  her  evil  practices  un- 
checked for  another  j'ear.  She  afterwards  retiu'ned  to  Altona,  where 
Avith  her  followers  leading  oiitAvardly  an  honourable  life,  she  attached 
herself  to  the  Lutheran  church,  and  died,  honoured  and  esteemed, 
in  a.d.  1717. — In  a  similar  Ava3^  arose  in  a.d.  1739  the  Bordelum  sect, 
founded  at  Bordelum  by  the  licentiates  Borsenius  and  Biir  ;  and  the 
Briiggeler  sect,  at  Briiggeler  in  Canton  Bern,  where  in  a.d.  1748  the 
brothers  Ivohler  gave  themselves  out  as  the  two  ■\^•itnesses  (Eev.  xi.). 
Of  a  like  nattire  too  was  the  sect  of  Zionites  at  Eonsdorf  in  the  Duchy 
of  Berg.     Elias  EUer,  a  manufactui-er  at  Elberfeld,  excited  by  mys- 


1  Ha genbach,  "History  of  the  Church  in  the  ISth  and  19th  Cen- 
turies," vol.  i..  pp.  168-175. 


13G      CHUKCH   HISTORY   OF   EIGHTEENTH   CENTURY. 

tical  Avritings,  married  in  a.u.  1725  a  rich  old  widow,  but  soon  found 
inoi-e  pleasure  in  a  handsome  young  ladj',  Anna  von  Buchel,  avIio  by 
a  nervous  sympathetic  infection  was  driven  into  prophetic  ecstasj'. 
She  iDroclaimed  the  speedy  arrival  of  the  millennium  ;  Eller  identified 
her  with  the  mother  of  the  man-child  (Eev.  xii.  1).  When  his  wife 
had  pined  away  through  jealousy  and  neglect  and  died,  he  married 
Buchel.  The  first  child  she  bore  him  was  a  girl,  and  the  second,  a 
bo3',  soon  died.  When  a  strong  oiDposition  arose  in  Elberfeld  against 
the  sect,  he,  along  with  his  followers,  founded  Eonsdorf,  as  a  IS'ew 
Zion,  in  a.d.  1737.  The  colony  obtained  civil  rights,  and  Eller  w^as 
made  burgomaster.  Anna  having  died  in  a.u.  1744,  Eller  gave  his 
colony  a  new  mother,  and  practised  every  manner  of  deceit  and 
tyramay.  After  the  infatuation  had  lasted  a  long  time,  the  eyes  of 
the  Reformed  pastor  Schleiermacher,  grandfather  of  the  famous  theo- 
logian, were  at  last  opened.  By  flight  to  the  Netherlands  he  escaped 
the  fate  of  another  revolter,  whom  Eller  persuaded  the  authorities 
at  Dusseldorf  to  put  to  death  as  a  sorcerer.  Every  complaint  against 
himself  Avas  quashed  by  Eller's  bribery  of  the  officials.  After  his 
death  in  a.u.  1750  his  stepson  continued  this  Zion  game  for  a  long 
time. 

5.  Swedenborgianism. — Emanuel  von  Swedenborg  was  born  at  Stock- 
holm, in  A.u.  1688,  son  of  the  strict  Lutheran  bishop  of  West  Goth- 
land, Jasper  Swedberg.  He  was  appointed  assessor  of  the  School  of 
Mines  at  Stockholm,  and  soon  showed  himself  to  be  a  man  of  encj'clo- 
psedic  information  and  of  speculative  ability.  After  long  exami- 
nation of  the  secrets  of  nature,  in  a  condition  of  magnetic  ecstasy,  in 
which  he  thought  that  he  had  intercourse  w'ith  spirits,  sometimes  in 
lieaA'en,  sometimes  in  hell,  he  became  convinced,  in  a.u.  1743,  that  he 
was  called  by  these  revelations  to  restore  corrupted  Christianity  by 
founding  a  church  of  the  New  Jerusalem  as  the  finally  perfected 
church.  He  published  the  apocalyptic  revelations  as  a  new  gospel : 
^^  Arcana  Codedia  in  Scr.  s.  Deteda,''''  in  seven  vols. ;  "  Ve7'a  Chr.  lieL,"' 
two  vols.  After  his  death,  in  a.u.  1772,  his  "  Vera  Christiana  Eeligio  *' 
was  translated  into  Swedish,  but  his  views  never  got  much  hold  in  his 
native  country.  They  spread  more  widely  in  England,  where  John 
Clow^es,  rector  of  St.  John's  Church,  Manchester,  translated  his  writ- 
ings, and  himself  wrote  largely  in  their  ex]3osition  and  commendation. 
Separate  congregations  with  their  own  ministers,  and  forms  of  Avor- 
ship,  sprang  up  through  England  in  a.u.  1788,  and  soon  there  were  as 
many  as  fifty  throughout  the  country.  From  England  the  Ncav  Church 
spread  to  America. — In  Germany  it  Avas  specially  throughout  Wiirt- 
temberg  that  it  fotmd  adherents.  There,  in  a.u.  1765,  Oetinger  (§  171, 
0)  recognised  Sweden borg's  rcA'elations,  and  introduced  many  elements 
from  them    into    his    tht'osojiliical   system. — Swedenborg's   religious 


§  170.    NEW   SECTS   AND   FANATICS.  137 

S3'stem  was  speculative  mysticism,  with  a  physical  basis  ami  ratio- 
nalizing results.  The  aim  of  religion  with  him  is  the  opening  of  an 
intimate  correspondence  between  the  sjDiritu^al  world  and  man,  and 
giving  an  insight  into  the  mystery  of  the  connexion  between  the 
two.  The  Bible  (excluding  the  apostolic  epistles,  as  merely  exposi- 
tory), pre-eminently  the  Apocalyjise,  is  recognised  by  him  as  God's 
word  •,  to  be  studied,  however,  not  in  its  literal  but  in  its  spiritual 
or  inner  sense.  Of  the  church  dogmas  there  is  not  one  which  he  did 
not  either  set  aside  or  rationalistically  explain  awa}-.  He  denounces 
in  the  strongest  terms  the  chiu'ch  doctrine  of  the  Trinitj*.  God  is 
■with  him  only  one  Person,  who  manifests  Himself  in  three  different 
forms:  the  Father  is  the  principle  of  the  manifesting  God  ;  the  Son, 
the  manifested  form  ;  the  Spirit,  the  manifested  activity.  The  purpose 
of  the  manifestation  of  Christ  is  the  uniting  of  the  human  and  Divine: 
i-edemption  is  nothing  more  than  the  combating  and  overcoming  of 
the  evil  spirits.  But  angels  and  devils  are  spirits  of  dead  men  glori- 
fied and  damned.  He  did  not  believe  in  a  resurrection  of  the  flesh, 
but  maintained  that  the  spiritual  form  of  the  body  endures  after 
death.  The  second  conaing  of  Christ  will  not  be  personal  and  visible, 
but  spiritual  through  a  revelation  of  the  spiritual  sense  of  Holy 
Scripture,  and  is  realized  by  the  founding  of  the  church  of  the  New 
Jerusalem.' 

G.  New  Baptist  Sects  (^  163,  3).—  In  "Wetterau  about  a.d.  1708  an 
anabaptist  sect  arose  called  Dippers,  because  tliC}-  did  not  recognise 
infant  baptism  and  insisted  iipon  the  complete  immersion  of  adult 
believers.  They  appeared  in  Penns3-lvania  in  a.d.  1719,  and  founded 
settlements  in  other  states.  Of  the  "  perfect "  they  required  absolute 
separation  from  all  worldly  practices  and  enjoyments  and  a  simple, 
a]iostolic  style  of  dress.  To  baptism  and  the  Lord's  supper  they  added 
washing  the  feet  and  the  fraternal  kiss  and  anointing  the  sick.  Tlv 
Seventh-day  Baptists  observe  the  seventh  instead  of  the  first  day  of 
th(>  -sveek,  and  enjoin  on  the  "  perfect  "  celibacy  and  the  commtmitj'  of 
goods.  New  sects  from  England  continued  to  spread  over  America. 
Of  these  were  the  Seed  or  Sucker  Baptists,  Avho  identified  the  non-elect 
■\vitli  the  seed  of  the  serpent,  and  on  account  of  their  doctrine  of  pre- 
destination regarded  all  instruction  and  care  of  children  useless.  A 
similar  predestinarian  exaggeration  is  seen  in  the  Hard-shell  Baptists, 
who  denounce  all  home  and  foreign  missions  as  running  counter  to 
the  Divine  sovereignty.  Many,  sometimes  called  Campbellites  from 
their  founder,  reject  any  party  name,  claiming  to  be  simply  Christians, 

1  Tafel,  "  Documents  concerning  the  Life  and  Character  of  Sweden - 
borg."  3  vols.  London,  1875.  White.  "  Emanuel  Swedenborg,  his 
Life  and  Writings."'     2  vols.     London,  l«(j7. 


138      CHUECH   HISTORY   OF   EIGHTEENTH   CENTURY. 

and  acknowledge  only  so  mucli  in  Scripture  as  is  expressly  declared 
to  be  "  the  word  of  the  Lord/'  The  Six-Principles-Baptists  limit  their 
creed  to  the  six  articles  of  Hebrews  vi.  1,  2.  The  brothers  Haldane, 
about  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  centurj',  founded  in  Scotland  the 
Baptist  sect  of  Haldanites,  Avhich  has  Avith  great  energy  applied  itself 
to  the  practical  cultivation  of  the  Christian  life. — Continuation,  §§  208, 
1 ;  211,  3. 

7.  New  Quaker  Sects.  —  The  Jumpers,  who  sprang  up  among  the 
3Iethodists  of  Cornwall  about  a.d.  1760,  are  in  principle  closely  allied 
to  the  early  Quakers  (§  163,  4).  They  leaped  and  danced  after  the  style 
of  David  before  the  ark  and  uttered  inarticulate  ho^vls.  They  settled 
in  America,  where  they  have  adherents  still. — The  Shakers  originated 
from  the  prophets  of  the  Cevemies  who  fled  to  England  in  a.d.  1705. 
They  converted  a  Quaker  family  at  Bolton  in  Lancashire  named 
"Wardley,  and  the  community  soon  grew.  In  a.d.  1758  Amia  Lee,  wife 
of  a  farrier  Stanley,  joined  the  society,  and,  as  the  apocalyptic  bride, 
inaugurated  the  millennium.  She  taught  that  the  root  of  all  sin  was 
the  relationship  of  the  sexes.  Maltreated  by  the  mob,  she  emigrated 
to  America,  along  wdth  thirty  companions,  in  a.d.  1774.  Though  per- 
secuted here  also,  the  sect  increased  and  formed  in  the  State  of  New 
York  the  Millennial  Church  or  United  Sociefij  of  Believers,  Anna  died 
in  A.D.  1784 ;  but  her  prophets  declared  that  she  had  merely  laid  aside 
the  earthly  garb  and  assumed  the  heavenly,  so  that  only  then  the 
veneration  of  "  Mother  Anna  "  came  into  force.  As  Christ  is  the  Son 
of  the  eternal  Wisdom,  Anna  is  the  daughter ;  as  Christ  is  the  second 
Adam,  she  is  the  second  Eve,  and  spiritual  mother  of  believers  as 
Christ  is  their  father.  Celibacj^,  community  of  goods,  common  labour 
(chiefly  gardening),  as  a  pjleasure,  not  a  burden,  common  domestic  life 
as  brothers  and  sisters,  and  constant  intercourse  with  the  spirit  world, 
are  the  main  points  in  her  doctrine.  By  the  addition  of  voluntary 
proselytes  and  the  adoption  of  poor  helpless  children  the  sect  has 
grown,  till  now  it  numbers  3,000  or  4,000  souls  in  eighteen  villages. 
The  capital  is  New  Lebanon  in  the  State  of  New  York.  The  name 
Shakers  Avas  given  them  from  the  quivering  motion  of  body  in  their 
solemn  dances.  In  their  services  they  march  about  singing  "  On  to 
heaven  we  will  be  going,"  "  March  heavenward,  yea,  victorious  band,'' 
etc.  Like  the  Quakers  (§  163,  6)  they  have  neither  a  }ninistr3'  nor 
sacraments,  and  their  whole  manner  of  life  is  modelled  on  that  of  the 
Quakers.  The  purity  of  the  relation  of  brothers  and  sisters  has 
always  been  free  from  suspicion.' 

'  Evans,  "  Shakers :  Compendium  of  Origin,  History,  Principles, 
and  Doctrines  of  tlie  United  Society  of  Believers  in  Christ's  Second 
ComiuiT."'    New  York.  1859.    Dixon, '•  New  America."   2  vols.     8th  ed. 


§171.   EELIGION,   ETC.,    OF    "THE    ILLI'MINATION."    139 

8.  Predestinarian-Mystical  Sects.— The  Hebrseaiis,  founded  by  Ver- 
schoor,  a  licentiate  of  the  Eefornied  church  of  Holland  deposed  under 
suspicion  of  Spinozist  views,  in  the  end  of  the  seventeenth  century, 
held  it  indispensably  necessary  to  read  the  word  of  God  in  the  original. 
They  Avere  fatalists,  and  maintained  that  the  elect  could  commit  no  sin. 
True  faith  consisted  in  believing  this  doctrine  of  their  own  sinlessness. 
About  the  same  time  sprang  up  the  Hattemists,  followers  of  Pontiaan 
von  Hattem,  a  preacher  deposed  for  heresy,  with  fatalistic  views  lik«! 
the  Hebrseans,  but  with  a  strong  vein  of  pantheistic  mj-sticism.  True 
])iet3^  consisted  in  the  believer  resting  in  God  in  a  purely  passive 
manner,  and  letting  God  alone  care  for  him.  The  two  sects  united 
under  the  name  of  Hattemists,  and  continued  to  exist  in  Holland  and 
Zealand  till  about  a.d.  1760. 

§  171.    Eeligiox,  Theology,  and  Literature  of  the 
"  Illumination."  ^ 

In  England  during  the  first  half  of  the  century  deism  had 
still  several  active  propagandists,  and  throughout  the  whole 
century  efforts,  not  altogether  unsuccessful,  were  made  to 
spread  Unitarian  views.  From  the  middle  of  the  centurj', 
A\-hen  the  English  deistic  unbelief  had  died  out,  the  "  Illu- 
mination," under  the  name  of  rationalism,  found  an  entrance 
into  Germany.  Arminian  pelagianism,  recommended  Ly 
brilliant  scholarship,  English  deism,  spread  by  translations 
and  refutations,  and  French  naturalism,  introduced  by  a 
great  and  much  honoured  king,  were  the  outward  factors 
in   securing    this   result.      The    freemason   lodges,    carried 


London,  1869.     Nordhoff,  "  '£\w.  Communistic  Societies  of  the  United 
States."     London,  1871. 

*  Pusej',  "  Historical  Inquiry  into  the  Causes  of  the  Prevalence  of 
.Rationalism  in  German^-."'  London,  1828.  Eose,  "The  State  of 
Protestantism  in  Cxermany.''  Oxford,  1829.  Saintes,  "  A  Critical 
History  of  Rationalism  in  Germany,  from  its  Origin  till  the  Present 
Time."'  London,  1819.  Lecky,  "  History  of  the  Else  and  Influence 
of  the  Spirit  of  Rationalism  in  Europe."  2  vols.  London,  1873. 
Farrar,  '•  Critical  History  of  Free  Thought  in  Reference  to  the 
Christian  Religion."'  London,  1863.  Hagenbach,  "  German  Rationa- 
lism." Edinburgh,  1865.  Hurst,  "History  of  Rationalism."'  Isew 
York,  1865.  Gostwick,  "German  Culture  and  Clii-istianitj-,  their 
Controversy,  1770-1880."'    Kew  York,  1882. 


1-10     CHURCH   HISTORY   OF   EIGHTEENTH   CENTURY. 

into  G-ermany  from  England,  a  relic  of  medisevalism,  aided 
the  movement  by  their  endeavour  after  a  universal  religion 
of  a  moral  and  practical  kind.  The  inward  factors  were 
the  Wolffian  philosophy  (§  1G7,  3),  the  popular  philosophy, 
and  the  pietism,  with  its  step-father  separatism  (§  170),  which 
immediately  prejDared  the  soil  for  the  sowing  of  rationalism. 
Orthodoxy,  too,  with  its  formulas  that  had  been  outlived, 
contributed  to  the  same  end.  German  rationalism  is 
essentially  distinguished  from  Deism  and  JSTaturalism  by  not 
breaking  completely  with  the  Bible  and  the  church,  but 
eviscerating  both  by  its  theories  of  accommodation  and  by 
its  exaggerated  representations  of  the  limitations  of  the 
age  in  which  the  books  of  Scripture  were  written  and  the 
doctrines  of  Christianity  were  formulated.  It  thus  treats 
the  Bible  as  an  important  document,  and  the  church  as  a 
useful  religious  institution.  Over  against  rationalism  arose 
supernaturalism,  appealing  directly  to  revelation.  It  was  a 
dilution, of  the  old  church  faith  by  the  addition  of  more  or 
less  of  the  water  of  rationalism.  Its  reaction  was  therefore 
weak  and  vacillating.  The  temporary  success  of  the  vulgar 
rationalism  lay,  not  in  its  own  inherent  strength,  but  in  the 
correspondence  that  existed  between  it  and  the  prevailing 
spirit  of  the  age.  The  philosophy,  however,  as  well  as  the 
national  literature  of  the  Germans,  now  began  a  victorious 
struggle  against  these  tendencies,  and  though  itself  often 
indifferent  and  even  hostile  to  Christianity,  it  recognised  in 
Christ  a  school-master.  Pestalozzi  performed  a  similar 
service  to  popular  education  by  his  attempts  to  reform  effete 
systems, 

1.  Deism,  Arianism,  and  Unitarianism  in  the  English  Church. — (1)  The 
Deists  (§  164,  3).  "With  Locke's  philosophy  (§  164,  2)  deism  entered 
on  a  new  stage  of  its  develoi^ment.  It  is  henceforth  vindicated  on 
the  ground  of  its  reasonableness.  The  most  notable  deists  of  this  age 
were  John  Toland,  an  Irishman,  first  Catholic,  then  Arminian,  died 
A. D.  1722,  author  of  ''Christianity  not  M^'sterious,"  " Nazarenus,  or 


§171,    EELTGION,   ETC.,    OF    "THE   ILLUMINATION."    141 

Je^vish,  Gentilp,  and  Mohametaii  Christianity,"  etc.  The  Earl  of 
Shaftesbury,  died  a.d.  1713,  wjote  "  Characteristics  of  Men,"  etc. 
Anthony  Collins,  J.P.  in  Essex,  died  a.d.  1729,  author  of  "Priestcraft 
in  Perfection,"  "  Discourse  of  Preethinking,"  etc.  Thomas  Woolston, 
fellow  of  Cambridge,  died  in  prison  in  a.d.  1733,  author  of  "  Discourse 
on  the  Miracles  of  the  Saviour."  Mandeville  of  Dort,  physician  in 
London,  died  a.d.  1733.  wrote  "  Free  Thoughts  on  Religion."  Matthew 
Tindal,  professor  of  law  in  Oxford,  died  a.d.  1733,  wrote  "Christianity 
as  Old  as  the  Creation."  Thomas  Morgan,  nonconformist  minister, 
deposed  as  an  Arian,  then  a  physician,  died  a.d.  1743,  wrote  "  The 
3Ioral  Philosopher."  Thomas  Chubb,  glover  and  tallow-chandler  in 
Salisbury,  died  a.d.  1747,  author  of  popular  compilations,  "  The  True 
Gospel  of  Jesus  Chi-ist.""  Viscount  Bolingbroke,' statesman,  charged 
with  high  treason  and  pardoned,  died  a.d.  1751,  writings  entitled, 
"  Philosophical  Works." — Along  with  the  deists  as  an  opponent  of 
positive  Christianity  may  be  classed  the  famous  historian  and  sceptic 
David  Hume,  librarian  in  Edinburgh,  died  a.d.  1776,  author  of  "  Inquiry 
concerning  the  Human  Understanding,"  "  Natural  History  of  Reli- 
gion," "  Dialogues  concerning  Natural  Religion,"  etc.^ — Deism  never 
made  ^va.y  among  the  people,  and  no  attempt  was  made  to  form  a  sect. 
Among  the  numerous  opponents  of  deism  these  are  chief:  Samuel 
Clarke,  died  a.d.  1729  ;  Thomas  Sherlock,  Bishop  of  London,  died  a.d. 
1761 ;  Chandler,  Bishop  of  Durham,  died  a.d.  1750 ;  Leland,  Presby- 
terian minister  in  Dublin,  died  a.d.  1766,  wrote  "  View  of  Principal 
Deistic  Writers,"  three  vols.,  1754  ;  Warburton,  Bishop  of  Gloucester, 
died  a.d.  1779;  Nath,  Lardner,  dissenting  minister,  died  a.d.  1768, 
wrote  "  Credibility  of  the  Gospel  History,"  seventeen  vols.,  1727-1757. 
With  these  may  be  ranked  the  famous  pul  pit  orator  of  tlie  Reformed 
church  of  France,  Saurin,  died  a.d.  1730,  author  of  Discoiim  hist., 
crif.,  tfieoL,  siir  les  Evenements  les  2}lus  rcmarJcahles  du  V.  et  N.T. — (2) 
The  So-called  Arians.  In  the  beginning  of  the  century  several  dis- 
tinguished theologians  of  the  Anglican  chtirch  sought  to  give  cux'rency 
to  an  Arian  doctrine  of  the  Trinity.  Most  conspicuous  was  "Wm. 
Whiston,  a  distinguished  mathematician,  physicist,  and  astronomer  of 
the  school  of  Sir  Isaac  Newton,  and  his  siiccessor  in  the  mathematical 
chair  at  Cambridge.  Deprived  of  this  office  in  a.d.  1708  for  spreading 
his  heterodox  views, he  issued  in  a.d.  1711  a  five-volume  work,  "Primi- 
tive Christianity  Revived,"  in  which  he  justified  his  Arian  doctrine  of 

'  Stephen,  "History  of  English  Thought  in  the  18th  Century." 
2  vols.  London,  1876.  Cairns,  "  Unbelief  in  the  18th  Century." 
Edinburgh,  1881.  Piinjer,  "  History  of  Christian  Philosophy  of 
Religion  from  Reformation  to  Kant."  §  5,  "  The  English  Deists." 
Edinburgh,  1887. 


142     CHUECH   PIISTORY   OF   EIGHTEENTH   CENTURY. 

the  Trinity  as  primitive  and  as  taught  by  the  ante-Nicene  Fathers,  and 
insisted  upon  augmenting  the  N.T.  canon  by  the  addition  of  twenty- 
nine  books  of  the  apostolic  and  other  Fathers,  including  the  apostolic 
"  Constitutions"  and  "Recognitions"  which  he  maintained  were  genuine 
Avorks  of  Clement.  Subsequently  he  adopted  Baptist  views,  and  lost 
himself  in  fantastic  chiliastic  speculations.  He  died  a.d.  1752.  Mora 
sensible  and  moderate  was  Samuel  Clarke,  also  distinguished  as  a 
mathematician  of  NcAvton's  school  and  as  a  classical  ]ohilogist.  As 
an  opponent  of  deism  in  sermons  and  treatises  he  had  gained  a  high 
reputation  as  a  theologian,  when  his  work,  "  The  Scripture  Doctrine 
of  the  Trinity,"  in  a.d.  1712,  led  to  his  being  accused  of  Arianism  by 
convocation  ;  but  by  conciliatory  explanations  he  succeeded  in  retain- 
ing his  office  till  his  death  in  a.d.  1729.  But  the  excitement  caused 
by  the  publication  of  his  Avork  continued  through  several  decades,  and 
Avas  eA'eryAvhere  the  cause  of  division.  His  ablest  apologist  Avas  Dan. 
Whitby,  and  his  keenest  opponent  Dan.  Waterland. — (3)  The  Later 
Unitarians.  The  anti-trinitarian  movement  entered  on  a  neAV  stage  in 
A.D.  1770.  After  Archdeacon  Blackburne  of  London,  in  a.d.  176G,  had 
started  the  idea,  at  first  anonymously,  in  his  "  Confessional,"  he  joined 
in  a.d.  1772  Avitii  other  freethinkers,  among  whom  Avas  his  son-in-laAV 
Theophilus  Lindsey,  in  presenting  to  Parliament  a  petition  Avith  250 
signatures,  asking  to  have  the  clergy  of  the  Anglican  church  freed 
from  the  obligation  of  subscribing  the  Thirty-nine  Articles  and  the 
Liturgy,  and  to  have  the  requirement  limited  to  assent  to  the  Scrip- 
tures. This  prayer  Avas  rejected  in  the  LoAver  House  by  217  A'Otes 
against  71.  Lindsey  noAV  resigned  his  clerical  office,  announced  his 
AvithdraAval  from  the  Anglican  church,  founded  and  presided  over  a 
Unitarian  congregation  in  London  from  a.d.  1774,  and  published  a 
large  number  of  controversial  Unitarian  tracts.  He  died  in  a.d.  1808. 
The  celebrated  chemist  and  physicist  Joseph  Priestley,  a.d.  1733-1806, 
A\'ho  had  been  a  dissenting  minister  in  Birmingham  from  a.d.  1780, 
joined  the  Unitarian  movement  in  1782,  giving  it  a  new  impetus  by 
his  high  scientific  rep^itation.  He  Avrote  the  "  History  of  the  Cor- 
ruptions of  Christianity,"  and  the  "  History  of  Early  Opinions  about 
Jesus  Christ,"  denying  that  there  is  any  biblical  foundation  for 
the  orthodox  doctrine  of  tlie  Trinity,  and  seeking  to  show  that  it 
had  been  forced  upon  the  church  against  her  will  from  the  Platonic 
philosophy.  These  and  a  Avhole  series  of  other  controA'ersial  writings 
occasioned  great  excitement,  not  only  among  theologians,  but  also 
among  the  English  people  of  all  ranks.  At  last  the  mob  rose  against 
him  in  a.d.  1791.  His  house  and  all  his  scientific  collections  and 
apparatus  Avere  burnt.  He  narroAvly  escaped  Avith  his  life,  and  soon 
after  settled  in  America,  Avhere  he  Avrote  a  churcla  history  in  four 
vols.     Of  his  many  English  opponents  the  most  eminent  Avas  Bishop 


§171.    RELIGION,   ETC.,    OF    "THE    ILLUMINATIOX."    1-43 

Sam.  Horslej',  a  distinguished  matliematician  and   commentator  on 
the  works  of  8ir  Isaac  IVewton. 

2.  Freemasons.  The  mediaeval  institution  of  freemasons  (§  104,  13j 
won  much  favour  in  England,  especially  after  the  Great  Fire  of  London 
in  A.D.  1666.  The  first  step  toward  the  formation  of  freemason  lodges 
of  the  modern  type  was  taken  about  the  end  of  the  sixteenth  centtuy, 
when  men  of  distinction  in  other  callings  sought  admission  as  hono- 
rary members.  After  the  rebuilding  of  London  and  the  completion 
of  St.  Paul's  in  a.d.  1710,  most  of  the  lodges  became  defunct,  and  the 
four  that  continued  to  exist  united  in  a.d.  1717  into  one  grand  lodge 
in  London,  Avhich,  renouncing  material  masonry,  assumed  the  task  of 
rearing  the  temple  of  humanity.  In  a.u.  1721  the  Rev.  Mr.  Anderson 
prepared  a  constitution  for  this  reconstruction  of  a  trade  society  into 
a  luiiversal  brotherhood,  according  to  which  all  "  free  masons  "  faith- 
fully observing  the  moral  law  as  well  as  all  the  claims  of  humanity 
and  patriotism,  came  under  obligation  to  profess  the  religion  common 
to  all  good  men,  transcending  all  confessional  differences,  without  any 
individual  being  thereby  hindered  from  holding  his  own  particular 
views.  Although,  in  imitation  of  the  older  institution,  all  members 
by  reason  of  their  close  connexion  were  boiuid  to  observe  the  strictest 
secrecy  in  regard  to  their  masonic  signs,  rites  of  initiation  and  pro- 
motion, and  forms  of  greeting,  it  is  not  properly  a  secret  society,  since 
the  constitution  Avas  published  in  a.d.  1723,  and  members  publicly 
acknowledge  that  they  are  such. — From  London  the  new  institute 
spread  over  all  England  and  the  colonies.  Lodges  Avere  founded  in 
Paris  in  a.d.  1725,  in  Hamburg  in  a.d.  1737,  in  Berlin  in  a.d.  1740. 
This  last  Avas  raised  in  a.d.  1744  into  a  grand  lodge,  A\'ith  Frederick 
II.  as  grand  master.  But  soon  troubles  and  disputes  arose,  Avhich 
broke  up  the  order  about  the  end  of  the  century.  Eosicrucians 
(§  160,  1)  and  alchemists,  pretending  to  hold  the  secrets  of  occult 
science,  Jesuits  (§  210,  1),  with  Catholic  hierarchical  tendencies,  and 
'•  lUuminati  "  (§  165,  13),  Avith  rationalistic  and  infidel  tendencies,  as 
Avell  as  adventurers  of  every  sort,  had  made  the  lodges  centres  of 
quackery,  juggling,  and  plots.i 

3.  The  German  "  Illumination." — (1)  Its  Precursors.  One  of  the  first 
of  these,  foUoAving  in  the  footsteps  of  Kuntzen  and  Dippel,  AA-as  J.  Chr. 
Edelmann  of  Weissenfels,  Avho  died  a.d.  1767.  He  began  in  a.d.  1735 
the  publication  of  an  immense  series  of  Avritings  in  a  rough  but 
poAverful  style,  filled  Avith  bitter  scorn  for  positive  Christianity.  He 
Avent  from  one  sect  to  another,  but  ncA'er  found  Avhat  he  sought.  In 
A.D.  1741  he  accepted  Zinzendorf's  invitation,  and  stayed  Avith   the 

1  HalliAvell,  "  The  Early  History  of  English  Freemasonry." 
London,  1840. 


144     CHUKCH   HISTOEY   OF   EIGHTEENTH   CENTURY. 

count  for  a  long  time.  He  next  joined  the  Berleberg  separatists, 
becanse  they  despised  the  sacraments,  and  contributed  to  their  Bible 
commentary,  though  Haug  had  to  alter  much  of  his  work  before  it 
could  be  used.  This  and  his  contempt  for  prayer  brought  the  con- 
nexion between  him  and  the  society  to  an  end.  He  then  led  a  vagabond 
life  up  and  down  through  Germany.  Edelmann  regarded  himself 
as  a  helper  of  providence,  and  at  least  a  second  Luther.  Christianity 
lie  pronounced  the  most  irrational  of  all  religions;  church  history 
a  conglomeration  of  immorality,  lies,  hypocrisy,  and  fanaticism ; 
prophets  and  apostles,  bedlamites ;  and  even  Christ  by  no  means  a 
perfect  pattern  and  teacher.  The  world  needs  only  one  redemption— 
redemiJtion  from  Christianity.  Providence,  virtue,  and  immortality 
are  the  only  elements  in  religion.  No  less  than  16G  separate  treatises 
came  from  his  facile  pen. — Laurence  Schmidt  of  Wertheim  in  Baden, 
a  scholar  of  Wolff,  was  author  of  the  notorious  "  Wertheimer  Bible 
Version,"'  which  rendered  Scripture  language  into  the  dialect  of  the 
eighteenth  century,  and  eviscerated  it  of  all  positive  doctrines  of 
revelation.  This  book  was  confiscated  by  the  authorities,  and  its 
author  cast  into  prison. 

4.  (2)  The  Age  of  Frederick  the   Great.    Hostilitj'  to  all  positive 

Christianity  spread  from  England  and  France  into  Germany.     The 

writings  of  the  English  deists  were  translated  and  refuted,  but  mostly 

in  so  weak  a  style  that  the  effect  was  the  opposite  of  that  intended. 

Whilst  English  deism  with  its  air  of  thoroughness  made  way  among 

the  learned,  the   poison  of  frivolous   Fi-ench  naturalism  committed 

its   ravages   among  the  higher   circles.     The  great  king  of  Prussia, 

Frederick  II.,  a.d.    1740-1786,   surrounded    by  French    freethinkers, 

Voltaire,  D'Argens,  La  Metrie,  etc.,  wished  every  man  in  his  kingdom 

to  be  saved  after  his  own  fashion.     In  this  he  was  quite  earnest, 

although  his  personal  animosity   to   all   ecclesiastical   and   pietistic 

religion  made  him  sometimes  act  harshly  and  unjustly.     Thus,  when 

Francke  of  Halle  (son  of  the  famous  A.  H.  Francke)  had  exhorted  his 

theological  students  to  avoid  the  theatre,  the  king,  designating  him 

'•  hjqjocrite  "  Francke,  ordered  him  to  attend  the  theatre  himself  and 

have  his  attendance  attested  by  the  manager.     His  bitter  hatred  of 

all  "  priests  ''  was  directed  mainly  against  their  actual  or  supposed 

intolerance,  hypocrisy,  and  priestly  arrogance  ;  and  where  he  met  with 

undoubted  integrity,  as  in  Gellert  and  Seb,  Bach,  or  simple,  earnest 

piety,  as  in  General  Ziethen,  he  was  not  slow  in  paying  to  it  the 

merited  tribvite  of  hearty  acknowledgment  and   respect.     His  OAvn 

i-eligion  was  a  philosophical  deism,  from  which  he  could  thoroughly 

refute   Holbach's  materialistic  "  Systcme  de  la  Nature."' — Under  the 

name  of  the  German  popular  philosophy  (Moses  Mendelssohn.  Garve, 

Eberhard,  Platner,  Steinbart,  etc.),  which  started  from  the  Wolffian 


§  171.    RELIGION,  ETC.,  OF  "  THE  ILLUillNATION."    145 

pliilosoplij-,  emptied  of  its  Christian  contents,  there  arose  a  weak, 
vapoury,  and  self-satisfied  philosophizing  on  the  part  of  the  common 
human  reason.  Basedow  was  the  reformer  of  pedagogy  in  the  sense  of 
the  "  Illumination,"  after  the  style  of  Eousseau,  and  crying  up  his  wares 
in  the  market  made  a  great  noise  for  a  while,  although  Herder  declared 
that  he  would  not  trust  calves,  far  less  men,  to  be  educated  by  such  a 
pedagogue.  The  "  Universal  German  Library  "  of  the  Berlin  publisher 
Xicolai,  10(3  vols.  a.d.  1765-1792,  was  a  literarj^  Inquisition  tribunal 
against  all  faith  in  revelation  or  the  church.  The  '•  Illumination  "  in 
the  domain  of  theology  took  the  name  of  rationalism.  Pietistic  Halle 
cast  its  skin,  and  along  with  Berlin  took  front  rank  among  the  pro- 
moters of  the  '•  Illumination."  In  the  other  luiiversities  champions  of 
the  new  views  soon  appeared,  and  rationalistic  pastors  spread  over  all 
Germany,  to  pi-each  only  of  moral  improvement,  or  to  teach  from  the 
pulpit  about  the  laws  of  health,  agriculture,  gardening,  natural  science, 
et^.  The  old  liturgies  were  mutilated,  hymn-books  revised  after  the 
barbarous  tastes  of  the  age,  and  songs  of  mere  moral  tendencj^  sub- 
stituted for  those  that  spoke  of  Christ's  atonement.  An  ecclesiastical 
councillor,  Lang  of  Eegensburg,  dispensed  the  communion  with  the 
words  :  ''  Eat  this  bread  !  The  Spirit  of  devotion  rest  on  you  with  His 
rich  blessing !  Drink  a  little  wine !  The  virtue  lies  not  in  this  Avine  ; 
it  lies  in  you,  in  the  divine  doctrine,  and  in  God."'  The  Berlia 
provost,  W.  Alb.  Teller,  declared  publicly :  '•  The  Jews  ought  on 
account  of  their  faith  in  God,  virtue,  and  immortality,  to  be  regarded 
as  genuine  Christians."  C.  Fr.  Bahrdt,  after  he  had  been  deposed 
for  immorality  from  various  clerical  and  academical  offices,  and  was 
cast  off  b3^  the  theologians,  sought  to  amuse  the  people  Avith  his  wit 
as  a  taphouse-keeper  in  Halle,  and  died  there  of  an  infamous  disease 
in  A.D.  1792. 

5.  (3)  The  Wollner  Reaction. — In  vain  did  the  Prussian  government, 
after  the  death  of  Frederick  the  Great,  under  Frederick  William  II., 
A.u.  1786-1797,  endeavour  to  restore  the  church  to  the  enjoyment  of 
its  old  exclusive  rights  by  punishing  every  departure  from  its  doc- 
trines, and  insisting  that  preaching  should  be  in  accordance  with  the 
Confession.  At  the  instigation  of  the  Kosicrucians  (§  160, 1)  and  of  the 
minister  Von  Wolluer,  a  comitry  pastor  ennobled  bj^  the  king,  the 
Religious  Edict  of  1788  was  issued,  followed  by  a  statement  of  severe 
penalties;  then  by  a  Schema  Examinationis  Candidatorum  ss.  Minideril 
rite  Imtitaendi  ;  and  in  a.d.  1791,  by  a  commission  for  examination 
under  the  Berlin  chief  consistory  and  all  the  provincial  consistories, 
with  full  powers,  not  only  over  candidates,  but  also  over  all  settled 
pastors.  But  notwithstanding  all  the  energy  with  Avhich  he  sought 
to  carry  out  his  edict,  the  minister  could  accomplish  nothing  ni  tlu; 
face  of  public  opinion,  which  favoured   the  vesistauce  of   tl.e   chief 

VOL.  III.  iO 


146      CHURCH   HISTORY   OF   EIGHTEENTH   CENTURY. 

consistory.  Onlj''  one  deposition,  tliat  of  Seliulz  of  Gielsdorf,  near 
Berlin,  was  effected,  in  a.d.  1792.  Frederick  "William  III.,  a.d.  1797- 
1840,  dismissed  Wollner  in  a.d.  1798,  and  set  aside  the  edict  as  only 
fostering  hj^^ocrisy  and  sham  piety. 

6.  Tlie  Transition  Theology. — Fovar  men,  who  endeavoured  to  main- 
tain their  own  belief  in  revelation,  did  more  than  all  others  to  prepare 
the  way  for  rationalism :  Ernesti  of  Leipzig,  in  the  department  of  N.T. 
exegesis ;  Michaelis  of  Gottingen,  in  O.T.  exegesis ;  Semler  of  Halle, 
in  biblical  and  historical  criticism ;  and  Tollner  of  Frankfort-on-the- 
Oder,  in  dogmatics.  J.  A.  Ernesti,  a.d.  1707-1781,  from  a.d.  1734  rector 
of  St.  Thomas'  School,  from  a.d.  1742  professor  at  Leipzig,  colleague  to 
Chr.  A.  Crusius  (§  167,  3),  Avas  specially  eminent  as  a  classical  scholar, 
and  maintained  his  reputation  in  that  department,  even  after  becoming- 
professor  of  theology  in  a.d.  1758.  His  Instifiitlo  Interprefis  N.T.,  of 
a.d.  1761,  made  it  an  axiom  of  exegesis  that  the  exposition  of  Scripture 
shoiild  be  conducted  precisely  as  that  of  any  other  book.  But  even  in 
the  domain  of  classical  literature  there  must  be  an  understanding  of 
the  a\ithor  as  a  whole,  and  the  expositor  must  have  appreciation  of 
the  writer's  spirit,  as  well  as  have  acquaintance  with  his  language  and 
the  customs  of  his  age.  And  just  from  Erncsti's  want  of  this,  his 
treatise  on  biblical  hermenei;tics  is  rationalistic,  and  he  became  th(^ 
father  of  rationalistic  exegesis,  though  himself  intending  to  hold 
firmly  by  the  doctrine  of  inspiration  and  the  creed  of  the  church. — 
What  Ernesti  did  for  the  N.T.,  J.  D.  Michaelis,  a.d.  1717-1791,  son 
of  the  pious  and  orthodox  Chr.  Bened.  Michaelis,  did  for  the  O.T.  He 
was  from  a.d.  1750  professor  at  Gottingen,  a  man  of  varied  learning 
and  wide  influence.  He  publicly  acknowledged  that  he  had  never 
experienced  anything  of  the  testimonium  Sp.s.  internum,  and  rested  his 
proofs  of  the  divinity  of  the  Scriptures  wholly  on  external  evidences, 
e.(j.  miracles,  prophecy,  aiTthenticity,  etc.,  a  spider's  Aveb  easily  blown 
to  pieces  by  the  enemy.  No  one  has  ever  excelled  him  in  the  art  of 
foisting  his  own  notions  on  the  sacred  authors  and  making  them 
utter  his  favourite  ideas.  A  conspicuous  instance  of  this  is  his  "  LaAvs 
of  Moses,"  in  six  a'oIs. — In  a  far  greater  measure  than  either  Ernesti  or 
Michaelis  did  J.  Sol.  Semler,  a.d.  1725-1791,  joupil  of  Baumgarten,  and 
from  A.D.  1751  professor  at  Halle,  help  on  the  cause  of  rationalism.  He 
had  groAvn  up  under  the  influence  of  Halle  pietism  in  the  profession 
of  a  customary  Christianitj^,  Avhich  he  called  his  I'jriA'ate  religion, 
Avhich  contributed  to  his  life  a  basis  of  genuine  personal  piety.  But 
Avith  a  rare  subtlety  of  reasoning  as  a  man  of  science,  endoAved  Avitli 
rich  scholarship,  and  Avithout  any  Avish  to  scA'er  himself  from  Chris- 
tianity, he  undermined  almost  all  the  supports  of  the  theology  of  the 
chxirch.  This  he  did  by  casting  doubt  on  the  genuineness  of  the  biblical 
Avritings,  by  setting  up  a  theory  of  inspiration  and  accommodatiou 


§  171.    RELIGION,  ETC.,  OF  "THE  ILLUMINATION."    147 

"\\hich  admitted  the  presence  of  error,  misunderstanding,  and  pious 
fraud  in  the  Scriptures,  by  a  style  of  exposition  which  put  aside  every- 
thing unattractive  in  the  N.T.  as  ''  remnants  of  Judaism,"'  by  a  critical 
treatment  of  the  history  of  the  church  and  its  doctrines,  which  repre- 
sented the  doctrines  of  the  church  as  the  result  of  blundering,  mis- 
conception, and  violence,  etc.  He  was  a  voluminous  author,  leaving 
behind  him  no  less  than  171  A\-ritings.  He  sowed  the  wind,  and  reaped 
the  whirlwind,  by  which  he  himself  was  driven  along.  He  fh-mly 
A\ithstood  the  installation  of  Balu-dt  at  Halle,  opposed  Basedow's 
endeavours,  applied  himself  eagerly  to  refute  the  "  Wolfenbiittel  Frag- 
ments ■'  of  Eeimarus,  edited  by  Lessing  in  1774-1778,  which  represented 
Christianity  as  founded  upon  pure  deceit  and  fraud,  and  defended  even 
the  edict  of  WoUner.  But  the  current  was  not  thus  to  be  stemmed, 
and  Semler  died  broken-hearted  at  the  sight  of  the  heavy  crop  from  his 
own  sowing.— J.  G.  Tolhier,  a.d.  1724-1774,  from  a.d.  1756  professor  at 
Frankfort-on-the-Oder,  was  in  point  of  learning  and  influence  by  no 
means  equal  to  those  iioav  named ;  yet  he  deserves  a  place  alongside 
of  them,  as  one  Avho  opened  the  door  to  rationalism  in  the  depart- 
ment of  dogmatics.  He  himself  held  fast  to  the  belief  in  revelation, 
miracles,  and  prophecy,  but  he  also  regarded  it  as  proved  that  God 
saves  men  by  the  revelation  of  nature  ;  the  revelation  of  Scripture  is 
only  a  more  sure  and  perfect  means.  He  also  examined  the  divine 
inspii-ation  of  Scripture,  and  found  that  the  language  and  thoughts 
were  the  authors"  own,  and  that  God  was  concerned  ui  it  in  a  manner 
that  could  not  be  more  precisely  determined.  Finally,  in  treating  of 
the  active  obedience  of  Christ,  he  gives  such  a  representation  of  it 
as  sets  aside  the  doctrine  of  the  church. 

7.  The  Rationalistic  Theology.— From  the  school  of  these  men,  espe- 
cially from  that  of  Semler,  went  forth  crowds  of  rationalists,  who  for 
seventy  years  held  ahnost  all  the  professorships  and  pastorates  of  Pro- 
testant Germany.  At  their  head  stands  Bahrdt,  a.d.  1741-1792,  w^riter 
at  first  of  orthodox  handbooks,  who,  sinking  deeper  and  deeper  through 
vanity,  want  of  character,  and  immorality,  and  following  in  the  steps 
of  Edelmann,  wrote  102  vols.,  mostly  of  a  scurrilous  and  blasphemous 
character.  The  rationalists,  however,  were  generally  of  a  nobler  sort  : 
Griesbach  of  Jena,  a.d.  1745-1812,  distinguished  as  textual  critic  of 
the  N.T. ;  Teller  of  Berlin,  published  a  lexicon  to  the  N.T.,  which 
substituted  "  leading  another  life"  for  regeneration,  '•  improvement "" 
for  sanctification,  etc.  5  Koppe  of  Gottingen,  and  Eosenmuller  of 
I^'ipzig  Avrote  scholia  on  N.T.,  and  Schulze  and  Bauer  on  the  O.T. 
Of  far  greater  value  Avere  the  performances  of  J.  E.  Eichhorn  of  Got- 
tingen, A.D.  1752-1827,  and  Bertholdt  of  Erlangen,  a.d.  1774-1822,  who 
wrote  introductions  to  the  O.T.  and  commentaries.  In  the  depart - 
iuciit  of  church  history,  11.  P.  C.  Eeuke  of  llchnstiidt  and  the  talented 


148     CHURCH  HISTORY   OF  EIGHTEENTH   CENTURY. 

statesman,  Von  Spittler  of  Wiirttemberg,  Avrote  from  the  rationalistic 
standpoint.  Steinbart  and  Eberhardt  wrote  more  in  the  style  of  the 
popular  philosoph3^  The  snbtle-minded  J.  H.  Tieftrunk,  a.d.  1760-1837, 
professor  of  philosophy  at  Halle,  introduced  into  theology  the  Kantian 
philosophy  Avith  its  strict  categories.  Jerusalem,  ZoUikofer,  and 
others  did  much  to  spread  rationalistic  views  by  their  preaching.  ^ 

8.  Supernaturalism — Abandoning  the  old  orthodoxy  without  sur- 
rendering to  rationalism,  the  supernaturalists  sought  to  maintain  their 
hold  of  the  Scrijoture  revelation.  Many  of  them  did  so  in  a  very 
uncertain  way:  their  revelation  had  scarcely  anything  to  reveal  which 
was  not  already  given  by  reason.  Others,  however,  eagerly  sought 
to  preserve  all  essentially  vital  truths.  Morus  of  Leipzig,  Ernesti"s 
ablest  student,  Less  of  Gottingen,  Doderlein  of  Jena,  Seller  of 
Erlangen,  and  Nosselt  of  Halle,  Avere  all  representatives  of  this  school. 
More  poAverful  opponents  of  rationalism  appeared  in  Storr  of  Tubin- 
gen, A.D.  1746-1805,  who  could  break  a  lance  even  with  the  philosopher 
of  Konigsberg,  Knapp  of  Halle,  and  Reinhard  of  Dresden,  the  most 
famous  preacher  of  his  age.  Eeinhard's  sennon  on  the  Keformation 
festival  of  a.d.  1800  created  such  enthusiasm  in  fffvour  of  tlm 
Lutheran  doctrine  of  justification,  that  government  issued  an  edict 
calling  the  attention  of  all  pastors  to  it  as  a  naodel.  The  most  dis- 
tinguished apologists  were  the  mathematician  Euler  of  St.  Petersburg, 
the  physiologist,  botanist,  geologist,  and  poet  Haller  of  Ziirieli 
and  the  theologians  Lilientlial  of  Konigsberg  and  Kleuker  of  Kiel. 
The  most  zealous  defender  of  the  faith  Avas  the  much  abused  Goeze 
of  Hamburg,  Avho  fought  for  the  palladium  of  Lutheran  orthodoxy 
against  his  rationalistic  colleagues,  against  the  theati-e,  against  Earth, 
BasedoAV,  and  such-like,  against  the  "  Wolf enbiittel  Fragments,"  against 
the  "  Sorrows  of  Werther,"  etc.  His  polemic  may  have  been  over- 
violent,  and  he  certainly  Avas  not  a  match  for  such  an  antagonist  as 
Lessing ;  he  Avas,  hoAvever,  by  no  means  an  obscurantist,  ignoramus, 
fanatic,  or  hyjiocrite,  but  a  man  in  solemn  earnest  in  all  he  did.  In  th<! 
field  of  church  history  important  serAUces  Avere  rendered  by  Schrockh 
of  Wittenberg  and  Walch  of  Gottingen,  laborious  investigators  and 
compilers,  Staudlin  and  Planck  of  Gottingen,  and  Miinter  of  Copen- 
hagen.— Among  English  theologians  of  this  tendency  toward  the  end 
of  the  century,  the  most  famous  Avas  Paley  of  Cambridge,  a.d.  1743- 
1805,  AA'hose  "  Principles  of  Moral  and  Political  Philosophy "  and 
"Evidences  of  Christianity  "  Avere  obligatory  text-books  in  the  uui- 

1  Eitschl,  "  History  of  Christian  Doctr.  of  Justification  and  Recon- 
ciliation," pp.  347-426.  Dorner,  "  History  of  Protestant  Theology," 
vol.  ii.,  pp.  277-292.  Hagenbach,  "History  of  Church  in  18th  and 
10th  Centuries,"  vol.  i.,  pp.  251-321.  ^ 


§  171.    RELIGION,  ETC.,  OF  "THE  ILLUMINATION."    149 

versit}-.  His  "  Horce  PauUnK  "  i^rove  the  credibility  of  the  Acts  of 
the  Apostles  from  the  epistles,  and  his  "  Xattiral  Theology  "  demon- 
strates God's  being  and  attributes  from  nature. 

9.  Mysticism  and  Theosophy.— Oetinger  of  Wllrttemburg,  the  Magus 
of  the  South,  a.d.  1702-1782,  takes  rank  by  himself.  He  -vvas  a  pupil 
of  Bengel  (§  167, 3),  well  grounded  in  Scripture,  but  also  an  admirer  of 
Bi'ihme  and  sjnnpathising  with  the  spiritualistic  visions  of  Swedenborg, 
But  amid  all,  with  his  biblical  realism  and  his  theosophy,  which  held 
corporeity  to  be  the  end  of  the  ways  of  God,  he  was  firmly  rooted  in  the 
doctrines  of  Lutheran  orthodoxy. — The  best  m3-stic  of  the  Reformed 
church  was  J.  Ph.  Dutoit  of  Lausanne,  a.d.  1721-1793,  an  enthusiastic 
admirer  of  Madame  Guyon;  he  added  to  her  quietist  mysticism 
certain  theosophical  speculations  on  the  original  nature  of  Adam,  the 
creation  of  woman,  the  fall,  the  necessity  of  the  incarnation  apart 
from  the  fall,  the  basing  of  the  sinlessness  of  Christ  upon  the  imma- 
culate conception  of  his  mother,  etc.  He  gathered  about  him  during 
his  lifetime  a  large  number  of  pious  adherents,  but  after  his  death 
his  theories  were  soon  forgotten. 

10.  The  German  Philosophy.— As  Locke  accomplished  the  descent  from 
Bacon  to  deism  and  materialism,  so  Wolff  effected  the  transition  from 
Leibnitz  to  the  popular  philosoph3-.  Kant,  a.d.  1724-1804,  saved  philo- 
sophy from  the  baldness  and  self-sufficiency  of  Wolffianism,  and  pointed 
it  to  its  proper  element  in  the  spiritual  domain.  Kant's  o%m  philo- 
sophy stood  wholly  outside  of  Christ ianitj^,  on  the  same  platform  with 
rationalistic  theology.  But  hy  deeper  digging  in  the  soil  it  unearthed 
many  a  precious  nugget,  of  whose  existence  the  vulgar  rationalism  had 
never  dreamed,  without  any  intention  of  becoming  a  schoolmaster  to 
lead  to  Christ.  Kant  showed  the  impossibility  of  a  knowledge  of  the 
supernatural  by  means  of  pure  reason,  biit  admitted  the  ideas  of  God 
freedom,  and  immortality  as  postulates  of  the  practical  reason  and  as 
(■(instituting  the  principle  of  all  religion,  whose  only  content  is  the 
moral  law.  Christianitj^  and  the  Bible  are  to  remain  the  basis  of 
liopular  instruction,  but  are  to  be  expounded  only  in  an  ethical  sense. 
While  in  sympathy  with  rationalism,  he  admits  its  baldness  and  self- 
sufficiencj'.  His  keen  criticism  of  the  pure  reason,  the  profound  know- 
ledge of  human  weakness  and  corruption  shown  in  his  doctrine  of 
radical  evil,  his  categorical  imperative  of  the  moral  law,  were  well 
fitted  to  awaken  in  more  earnest  minds  a  deep  distrust  of  themselves, 
a  modest  estimate  of  the  boasted  excellences  of  their  age,  and  a  feeling 
that  Christianity  could  alone  meet  their  necessities. — F.  H.  Jacohi,  a.d. 
1743-1819,  "  with  the  heart  a  Christian,  with  the  understanding  a 
pagan,"'  as  he  characterized  himself,  took  religion  out  of  the  region  of 
mere  reason  into  the  depths  of  the  universal  feelings  of  the  soul,  and 
so  awakened  a  positive  aspiration. — J.  G.  Pichte,  a.d.  1762-1314,  trans- 


150      CHUECH   HISTORY   OF   EIGHTEENTH   CENTURY. 

formed  Kaniianism,  tn  \vliich  he  at  first  adhered,  into  an  idealistic 
science  of  knowledge,  in  ■which  only  the  erjo  that  posits  itself  appears 
as  real,  and  the  non-ego,  only  by  its  being  posited  by  the  ego;  and 
thus  the  AN'orld  and  nature  are  only  a  reflex  of  the  mind.  But  Avhen, 
accused  of  atheism  in  a.d.  1798,  he  was  expelled  from  his  jjosition  in 
Jena,  he  changed  his  views,  rushing  from  the  verge  of  atheism  into  a 
mysticism  approaching  to  Christianity.  In  his  "  Guide  to  a  Blessed 
Life,"  A.D.  1806,  he  delivered  religion  from  being  a  mere  servant  to 
morals,  and  sought  the  blessedness  of  life  in  the  loving  surrender  of 
one's  whole  being  to'  the  universal  Spirit,  the  full  expression  of  which 
he  found  in  John's  Gospel.  Pauline  Christianit}',  on  the  other  hand, 
with  its  doctrine  of  sin  and  redemption,  seemed  to  him  a  deterioration, 
and  Christ  Himself  only  the  most  complete  re]Dresentative  of  the 
incarnation  of  God  relocated  in  all  ages  and  in  every  pious  man. — In 
the  closing  years  of  the  century,  Schelling  brought  forward  his  theory 
of  identit)/,  whi(;h  was  one  of  the  most  powerful  instruments  in 
introducing  a  new  ei'a.i 

11.  The  German  NationalLiterature.— When  the  powerful  strain  of 
the  evangelical  church  hymn  had  well-nigh  expired  in  the  feeble 
lispings  of  Gellert's  sacred  poetrj'-,  Klopstock  began  to  chant  the  praises 
of  the  Messiah  in  a  higher  strain.  But  the  pathos  of  his  odes  met 
with  no  response,  and  his  ''Messiah,"  of  which  the  first  three  cantos 
appeared  in  a.d.  1748,  though  received  with  unexampled  enthusiasm, 
could  do  nothing  to  exorcise  the  spirit  of  unbelief,  and  Avas  more 
jaraised  than  read.  The  theological  standpoint  of  Lessing,  a.d.  1729- 
1781,  is  set  forth  in  one  of  his  letters  to  his  brother.  "  I  despise  the 
orthodox  even  more  than  you  do,  only  I  despise  the  clergy  of  the  new 
style  even  more.  What  is  the  new-fashioned  theology  of  those  shallow 
pates  compared  with  orthodoxy  but  as  dung-water  compared  with 
dirty  water  ?  On  this  point  we  are  at  one,  that  our  old  religious 
sA'stem  is  false ;  but  I  cannot  say  with  you  that  it  is  a  laatchwork  of 
bunglers  and  half  philosophers.  I  know  nothing  in  the  world  upon 
which  hiiman  ingenuity  has  been  more  subtly  exercised  than  upon 
it.  That  religious  system  which  is  now  offered  in  place  of  the  old 
is  a  patchwork  of  bunglers  and  half  i)liilosophers."  He  is  offended 
at  men  hanging  the  concerns  of  eternity  on  the  spider's  thread  of 
external  evidences,  and  so  he  was  delighted  to  hurl  the  Wolfenbtittel 
'•Fragments''  at  the  heads  of  theologians  and  the  Hamburg  pastor 
Goeze,  whom  he  loaded  with  contumely  and  scorn.  Thoi-oughly 
characteristic  too  is  the  saying  in  the  "  DuiMlc "  :  That  if  God  hold- 

'  Chalybeeus,  "  Historical  Development  of  Speculative  Philosophj', 
from  Kant  to  Hegel."  Edin.,  1851.  Eabiger,  "  Theological  Encyclo- 
paedia," vol.  i.,  pp.  73-  7G. 


§  171.    RELIGION,  ETC.,  OP  "THE  ILLUMINATION ."    151 

iug  ill  liis  right  liand  all  truth,  and  in  his  left  hand  the  search  after 
truth,  subject  to  error  through  all  eternity,  were  to  offer  him  his 
choice,  he  -would  humbly  say,  '•  Father  the  left,  for  pure  truth  is 
indeed  for  thee  alone.''  In  his  "  Xalhan  "'  only  Judaism  and  Moham- 
medanism are  represented  by  truly  noble  and  ideal  characters,  while 
the  chief  representative  of  Christianity  is  a  gloomy  zealot,  and  the 
conclusion  of  the  i^ai-able  is  that  all  three  rings  are  counterfeit.  In 
another  work  he  views  revelation  as  one  of  the  stages  in  "  The  Educa- 
tion of  the  Human  Race,"  which  loses  its  significance  as  soon  as  its 
purpose  is  served.  In  familiar  conversation  with  Jacobi  he  frankl}- 
declai-ed  his  acceptance  of  the  doctrine  of  Spinoza :  "E:'  Kal  irdv.^ 
Wieland,  a.d.  1738-1813,  soon  tiirned  from  his  youthful  zeal  for  ecclesi- 
astical orthodoxy  to  the  popular  philosophy  of  the  cultured  man  of 
the  world.  Herder,  a.d.  1744-1803,  ^\-ith  his  enthusiastic  appreciation 
of  the  poetical  contents  of  the  Bible,  especially  of  the  Old  Testament, 
was  not  slow  to  point  out  the  insipidity  of  its  ordinary  treatment. 
Goetlie>  A.D.  1749-1832,  profoundly  hated  the  vandalism  of  neology, 
delighted  in  "  The  Confessions  of  a  Fair  Soul ''  (§  172, 2),  had  in  earlier 
years  sympathy  with  the  Herrnhuters,  but  in  the  full  intellectual 
vigour  of  his  manhood  thought  he  had  no  need  of  Christianity,  which 
offended  him  by  its  demand  for  renunciation  of  self  and  the  Avorld. 
Schiller,  a.d.  1759-1805,  enthusiasticallj^  admiring  everything  noble, 
beautiful  and  good,  misunderstood  Christianity,  and  introduced  into 
the  hearts  of  the  German  people  Kantian  rationalism  clothed  in  rich 
poetic  garb.  His  lament  on  the  downfall  of  the  gods  of  Greece,  even 
if  not  so  intended  by  the  poet  himself,  told  not  so  much  against 
orthodox  Christianity  as  against  poverty-stricken  deism,  which 
banished  the  God  of  Christianity  from  the  world  and  set  in  his  place 
the  dead  forces  of  nature.  And  if  indeed  he  really  thought  that  for 
religion's  sake  he  should  confess  to  no  religion,  he  has  certainly  in 
many  jn-ofoundlj''  Christian  utterances  given  unconscious  testimon}^ 
to  Christianity. — The  Jacobi  philosophy  of  feeling  found  poetic  inter- 
preters in  Jean  Paul  Richter,  a.d.  1763-1825,  and  Hebel,  died  a.d.  1826,  in 
whom  v.'e  find  the  same  combination  of  pious  sentiment  which  is  drawn 
toward  Christianity  and  the  sceptical  imderstanding  which  allied 
itself  to  the  revolt  against  the  common  orthodoxy.  J.  H.  Voss,  a 
rough,  powerful  Dutch  peasant,  who  in  his  "  Luise "'  sketched  the  ideal 
of  a  brave  rationalistic  country  parson,  and,  with  the  inexorable 

'  Stahr,  "  Lessing :  his  Lif(^  and  "Works,"  translated  by  G.  Evans. 
2  vols.  Boston,  1866.  Sime,  "  Lessing,  his  Life  and  AVritings."'  2  vols. 
London,  1877.  Zimmern,  '•  G.  E.  Lessing:  his  Life  and  Works."' 
London,  1878.  Smith,  "  Lessing  as  a  Theologian,"  in  the  TheolocjkaL 
Jicvicw.  Julv.  1868. 


152      CHFrtrTI    TTTSTOKY    OV    EIGHTEENTH    CENTURY. 

rigour  of  an  inquisitor,  Imnted  iloAvn  tlie  night  birds  of  ignorancp  and 
oppression.  Bnt  alongside' of  those  children  of  the  world  stood  two 
genuine  sons  of  Luther,  Matthias  Claudius,  a.d.  1740-1815,  and  J.  G. 
Hamaim,  A.D.  1730-1788,  the  "Magus  of  the  North"  and  the  Elijah 
of  his  age,  of  whom  Jean  Paul  said  that  his  commas  were  plane- 
tary systems  and  liis  periods  solar  systems,  to  whom  the  philosopher 
Hemsterhuis  erected  in  the  garden  of  Princess  Gallitzin  a  tablet  with 
the  inscription  :  "To  the  Jews  a  stumbling-block,  to  the  Greeks  fool- 
ishness." With  them  may  also  be  named  two  noble  sons  of  the 
Reformed  church,  the  physiognomist  Lavater,  a.d,  1741-1801,  and  the 
devout  dreamer,  Jung-Stilling,  a.d.  1740-1817.  The  famous  historian, 
John  von  Miiller,  a.d.  1752-1809,  ^^•ell  deserves  mention  here,  who  more 
than  any  previous  historian  made  Christ  the  centre  and  summit  of  all 
times  ;  and  also  the  no  less  famous  statesman  C.  F.  von  Moser,  the  most 
German  of  the  Germans  of  this  century,  who,  with  noble  Christian 
heroism,  in  numerous  political  and  patriotic  tracts,  battled  against 
the  prevailing  social  and  political  vices  of  his  age. 

12.  The  great  Swiss  educationist  Pestalozzi,  a.d.  1746-1827,  assumed 
toward  the  Bible,  the  church,  and  Christianity  an  attitude  similar  to 
that  of  the  philosopher  of  Konigsberg.  The  conviction  of  the  necessity' 
and  wholesomeness  of  a  biblical  foundation  in  all  popular  education 
Avas  rooted  in  his  heart,  and  he  clearly  saw  the  shallowness  of  the 
popular  philosophy,  whether  presented  under  the  eccentric  naturalism 
of  Rousseau  or  the  bald  utilitarianism  of  Basedow.  His  whole  life 
issued  from  the  very  sanctuary  of  true  Christianity,  as  seen  in  his 
self-sacrificing  efforts  to  save  the  lost,  to  strengthen  the  weak,  and  to 
l)reach  to  the  poor  by  Avord  and  deed  the  gospel  of  the  all-merciful  God 
whose  will  it  is  that  all  should  be  saved.  He  began  his  career  as  an 
educationist  in  a.d.  1775  by  receiA'ing  into  his  house  deserted  beggar 
children,  and  carried  on  his  exjieriments  in  his  educational  institutions 
at  Burgdorf  till  a.d.  1798,  and  at  Isserten  till  a.d.  1804.  His  writings, 
Avhich  circulated  far  and  wide,  gained  for  his  methods  recognition  and 
liigh  approval.' 

§  172.    Church    Life    in   the    Period    of    the 
"  Illumination."' 

The  ancient  faith  of  the  church  liad  even  during  tins  age 
of  prevailing  unbelief  its  seven  thousand  who  refused  to  bow 

'  Russell,  "  A  Short  Account  of  the  Life  and  History  of  Pestalozzi." 
based  on  De  Guemp's  "iv'^Tis^oire  de  Pestalozzi.^''  London,  1888.  To 
be  followed  by  a  complete  English  translation  of  De  Ouemp's  work 


§  172.    CHUECH  LIFE  DUP>TNCt"THE  ILLUMINATION."  153 

the  knee  to  Baal.  The  German  people  were  at  heart  firmly 
grounded  in  the  Christianity  of  the  Bible  and  the  chnrch,  and 
where  the  pulpit  failed  had  their  spiritual  wants  supplied  by 
the  devout  writings  of  earlier  days.  Where  the  modern 
vandalism  of  the  "  Illumination"  had  mutilated  and  watered 
down  the  books  of  praise,  the  old  church  songs  lingered  in 
the  memories  of  fathers  and  mothers,  and  were  sung  with 
ardour  at  familj'  worship.  For  many  men  of  culture,  who 
were  more  exposed  to  danger,  the  Society  of  the  Brethren 
afforded  a  welcome  refuge.  But  even  among  the  most 
accomplished  of  the  nation  many  stood  firmly  in  the  old 
paths.  Lavater  and  Stilling,  Haller  and  Euler,  the  two 
Mosers,  father  and  son,  John  von  Milller  and  his  brother  J.  G. 
Miiller,  are  not  by  any  means  the  only,  but  merely  the  best 
known,  of  such  true  sons  of  the  church.  In  Wiirttemberg 
and  Berg,  where  religious  life  was  most  vigorous,  religious 
sects  were  formed  with  new  theological  views  which  made 
a  deep  impression  on  the  character  and  habits  of  the  people. 
Also  toward  the  end  of  the  century  an  awakened  zeal  in 
home  and  foreign  missions  was  the  prelude  of  the  glorious 
enterprises  of  our  own  days. 

1.  The  Hymnbook  and  Church  Music. — Klopstock,  followed  by  Cramer 
and  Solilegel,  intvoduced  the  vandalism  of  altering  the  old  chiuxdi 
liymns  to  suit  modern  tastes  and  views.  But  a  few,  like  Herder  and 
Schnhert,  raised  their  voices  against  such  philistinism.  The  "  Ilhi- 
minist "'  alterations  were  nnutterably  prosaic,  and  the  old  pathos  and 
jjoetry  of  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth  century  hymns  were  ruth- 
lessly sacrificed.  The  spiritual  songs  of  the  noble  and  pious  Gellei-t, 
are  bj^  far  the  best  productions  of  this  jjeriod. — Church  Music  too  now 
i-eached  its  lowest  ebb.  The  old  chorales  were  altered  into  modern 
forms.  A  multitude  of  new,  impo]3ular  melodies,  difficult  of  com]n-e- 
hension,  with  a  bald  school  tone,  were  introduced ;  the  last  trace  of 
tlie  old  rhythm  disappeared,  and  a  weary  monotony  began  to  prevail, 
in  which  all  force  and  freshness  were  lost.  As  a  substitute,  secular 
preludes,  interludes,  and  concluding  pieces  were  brought  in.  Tlie 
people  often  entered  the  churches  during  the  playing  of  operatic 
overtures,  and  wei'e  dismissed  amid  the  noise  of  a  march  or  waltz* 


154      CHURCH  HISTORY   OF   EIGHTEENTH   CENTURY. 

The  cluirch  cptisod  to  be  the  patron  and  promoter  of  music ;  the  theatre 
and  concert  room  took  its  place.  The  opera  st^de  thoroughly  de- 
jiraved  the  oratorio.  For  festival  occasions,  cantatas  in  a  purely 
secular,  effeminate  style  were  composed.  A  true  ecclesiastical  music 
no  longer  existed,  so  that  even  Winterfeld  closed  his  history  of  church 
music  with  Seb.  Bach.  It  was,  if  jjossible,  still  worse  with  the 
mass  music  of  the  Roman  Catholic  church.  Palestrina's  earnest  and 
capable  school  was  comj)letely  lost  sight  of  under  the  siorightly  and 
frivolous  opera  style,  and  with  the  organ  still  more  mischief  ^\-as  done 
than  in  the  Protestant  church. 

2.  Religious  Characters. — The  pastor  of  Ban  de  la  Roche  in  Stein- 
thal  of  Alsace,  '■  the  saint  of  the  Protestant  church,""  J.  Fr.  Oberlin, 
A.D.  1740-1826,  deserves  a  high  place  of  honour.  During  a  sixty  years' 
pastorate  "  Father  Oberlin "  raised  his  poverty-stricken  flock  to  a 
position  of  industrial  prosperity,  and  changed  the  barren  Steinthal 
into  a  patriarchal  paradise.  The  same  may  be  said  of  a  noble  Christian 
Avoman  of  that  age,  Sus.  Cath.  von  Klettenterg,  Lavater's  "Cordata,"' 
Goethe's  "Fair  Soul,"  whose  genuine  confessions  are  wrought  into 
"  W'dhelm  Meister,''''  the  centre  of  a  beautiful  Christian  circle  in 
Frankfort,  where  the  young  Goethe  received  religious  impressions 
that  were  never  wholly  forgotten. — Conam unity  of  religious  yearnings 
brought  together  pious  Protestants  and  pious  Catholics.  The  Princess 
von  Gallitzin,  her  chaplain  Overberg,  and  minister  Von  Ftirstenberg 
formed  a  noble  group  of  earnest  Catholics,  for  whom  the  ardent 
Lutheran  Hamann  entertained  the  warmest  affection. 

8.  Religious  Sects. — In  Wiirttemberg  there  arose  out  of  tlie  pietism 
of  Siicner,  with  a  dash  of  the  theosophy  of  Oetinger,  the  party  of  the 
Michelians,  so  named  from  a  layman,  Michael  Hahn,  whose  writings 
show  profound  insight  into  the  truths  of  the  gospel.  He  taught  the 
doctrine  of  a  double  fall,  in  consequence  of  which  he  depreciated 
though  he  did  not  forbid  marriage ;  of  a  restitution  of  all  things ; 
while  he  subordinated  justification  to  sanctification,  the  Christ  for  us 
to  the  Christ  in  us,  etc.  As  a  I'eaction  against  this  extreme  arose  the 
Pregizerians,  who  laid  exclusive  stress  upon  baptism  and  justification, 
declared  assurance  and  heart-breaking  penitence  unnecessary,  and 
imparted  to  their  services  as  much  brightness  and  joy  as  possible. 
Both  sects  spread  over  Wiirttemberg  and  still  exist,  but  in  their  com- 
mon opposition  to  the  destructive  tendencies  of  modern  times,  they 
have  drawn  more  closely  together.  In  their  chiliasm  and  restitution- 
ism  they  are  thoroughly  agreed. — The  Collenhuschians  in  Canton  Berg 
])ropounded  a  dogmatic  system  in  which  Christ  empties  Himself  of  His 
d  ivine  attributes,  and  assumes  with  sinful  flesh  the  tendencies  to  sin 
that  had  to  be  fought  against,  the  sufferings  of  Christ  are  attributed 
to  the  wrath  of  Satan,  and  His  redemption  consists  in  His  overcoming 


§  172.    CHURCH  LIFE  DrRING  "THE  ILLrMINATIOX."  155 

Satan's  wrath  for  us  and  imparting  His  Spirit  to  enable  us  to  do  works 
of  holiness.  The  most  distinguished  adherents  of  Collenbusch  M-ere 
the  two  Hasencamps  and  the  talented  Bremen  pastor  Menken. 

4.  The  Rationalistic  "Illumination"  outside  of  Germany.— In  Amster- 
dam, in  A.D.  1791,  a  Restored  Lutheran  Church  or  Old  Li^ht  was  orga- 
nized on  the  occasion  of  the  intrusion  of  a  rationalistic  pastor.  It 
now  numbers  eight  Dutch  congregations  -with  14,000  adherents  and 
11  pastors.  Under  the  name  of  Christo  Sacrum  some  members  of  the 
French  Eeformed  church  at  Delft,  in  a.d.  1797,  founded  a  denomination 
which  received  adherents  of  all  confessions,  holding  by  the  divinity  of 
Christ  and  His  atonement,  and  treating  all  confessional  differences  as 
non-essential  and  to  be  held  onh'  as  private  opinions.  In  their  public 
services  they  adopted  mainly  the  forms  of  the  Anglican  episcopal 
church.  Though  successful  at  first,  it  soon  became  rent  by  the  in- 
congruity of  its  elements.  In  England  the  dissenters  and  ^Methodists 
l)rovided  a  healthy  protest  against  the  lukewarmness  of  the  State 
church.  In  "William  Cowper,  a.d.  1731-1800,  we  have  a  noble  and 
brilliant  poet  of  high  lyi'ical  genius,  whose  life  was  blasted  by  the 
terrorism  of  a  predestinarian  doctrine  of  despair  and  the  religious 
melanchoh^  produced  bj^Methodistic  agonies  of  soul. 

5.  Missionary  Societies  and  Missionary  Enterprise. — In  order  to  arouse 
interest  in  the  idea  of  a  grand  union  for  practical  Christian  purposes, 
tlie  Augsburg  elder,  John  Urlsperger,  travelled  through  England, 
Holland,  and  Geiinany.  The  Basel  Society  for  Spreading  Christian 
Truth,  founded  in  a.d.  1780,  was  the  firstfruits  of  his  zeal,  and  branches 
were  soon  established  throughout  Switzerland  and  Southern  German}-. 
The  Basel  Bible  Society  was  founded  in  a.d.  1804,  and  the  Missionary 
Society  in  a.d.  181G. — At  a  meeting  of  English  Baptist  preachers  at 
Kettering,  in  Northamptonshire,  in  a.d.  1792,  William  Carey  was  the 
means  of  starting  the  Baptist  Missionary  Society.  Cai'ey  was  himself 
its  first  missionary.  He  sailed  for  India  in  a.d.  1793,  and  founded  the 
Serampore  Mission  in  Bengal.  The  work  of  the  society'  has  now  spread 
over  the  East  and  West  Indies,  the  Malay  Archipelago,  South  Africa, 
and  South  America.  A  popular  preacher,  Melville  Home,  who  had 
been  himself  in  India,  published  "Letters  on  Missions,"  in  a.d.  1794, 
in  which  he  earnestlj^  counselled  a  union  of  all  true  Christians  for  the 
conversion  of  the  heathen.  In  response  to  this  appeal  a  large  number 
of  Christians  of  all  denominations,  mostly  Independents,  founded  in 
a.d.  1795,  the  London  Missionary  Societj',  and  in  the  following  year 
the  first  missionar}^  ship,  Tlw  Duff',  under  Captain  Wilson,  sailed  for 
the  South  Seas  with  twenty-nine  missionaries  on  board.  Its  operations 
now  extend  to  both  Indies,  South  Africa,  and  Xorth  America ;  but  its 
chief  hold  is  in  the  South  Seas.  In  the  Society  Islands  the  missionaries 
wrought  for  sixteen  years  Avithout  any  apparent  result,  till  at  last 


156      CHURCH   HISTORY   OF   EIGHTEENTH   CENTURY. 

King  Pomare  II.  of  Taliiti  souglit  baptism  as  the  first-fruits  of  their 
labours.  A  victory  gained  over  a  pagan  reactionary  party  in  a.d. 
1815  secured  complete  ascendency  to  Christianity.  The  example  of 
the  London  Society  was  followed  by  the  founding  of  two  Scottish 
societies  in  a.d.  1796  and  a  Dutch  society  in  a.d.  1797,  and  the  Church 
Missionary  Society  in  London  in  a.d.  1799,  for  the  English  possessions 
in  Africa,  Asia,  etc.  The  Danish  Lutheran  (§  167,  9)  and  the  Hermi- 
hut  (§  168, 11)  societies  still  continued  their  operations.' — Continuation, 
§§  1.S3,  184. 

'  Marshman,  "  Life  and  Times  of  Marshman,  Care}',  and  Ward.'' 
2  vols.  London,  1859.  Smith,  "  Life  of  William  Carey."  London, 
188(j.  Wilson,  "Missionary  Voyage  of  the  Ship  l^iiff."'  London,  1799. 
Morison,  "  Fathers  and  Founders  of  the  London  Missionaiy  SocietA'."' 
London,  1844. 


FOURTH  SECTION. 
CHURCH  HISTORY  OF  THE  NINETEENTH  CENTURY. 

I.— General  and  Introductory. 

§  173.    Survey  of  Religious  Movements  of  Nixeteextii 
Cextury. 

A  REACTION  had  set    in  against  tlie  atheistic  spirit  of  the  French 
Revokition,  and  the  victories  of  a.u.  1813,  1815,  encouraged  the  pious 
in  their  Clu'istian  confidence.     Princes  and  people  Avere  full  of  grati- 
tude to  God.     Alexander  I.,  Francis  I.,  and  Frederick  AViUiani  III., 
representing  the  thi-ee  prmcipal   chui'ches,   in   a.d.  1815,   after  the 
political  situation  had  been  determined  by  the  Congress  of  Vienna, 
formed  "the  Holy  Alliance,''  a  league  of  brotherly  love  for  mutual 
defence  aud  maintenance  of  peace,  to  which  all  the  European  princes 
adhered  with  the  exception  of  the  pope,  the  sultan,  and  the  lung 
of  England.      Tlu'ough  Metternich's  arts  it  ultimately  degenerated 
into  an  instrument  of  repression  and  tyranny  .-Incongruous  elements 
were  present  everywhere.     The  restoration  of    the   papacy  in  a.d. 
1814  had  given  a  new  impulse  to  ultramontanism,  as  did  also  the 
Reformation  centenary  of  a.d.  1817  to  Protestantism ;  while  super- 
naturalism  and  pietism  prevailing  in   the  Lutheran  and  Eeformed 
chui-ches  led  to  renewed  attempts  at  union.     Old  sects  were  strength- 
ened and  new  sects  arose.     Pantheism,  materialism,  and  atheism,  as 
well  as  socialism  and  communism,  without  concealment  attacked  Chris- 
tianity ;  while  pauperism  and  vagabondage,  on  the  one  hand,  and  the 
Stock  Exchange  swindling  of  capitalists,  on  the  other,  spread  moral 
consumption  tlu-ough  all  classes  of  society.     The  ultraniontanes,  led 
by  the  Jesuits,  reasserted  the  most  arrogant  claims  of    the  papacy. 
The  climax  was  reached  when  Pius  IX.  obtained  a  decree  of  council 
affirming  his  infallibility,  while  by  the  Xemesis  of  history  the  royal 
crown  was  torn  from  his  head. 

107 


158      CHUECH   HISTORY   OF   NINETEENTH   CENTURY. 

§  174.  Nineteenth  Century  Culture  in  Relation 
TO  Christianity  and  the  Church. 

Down  to  A.D.  1840,  when  zeal  for  it  began  to  abate,  philo- 
sophy exercised  an  important  influence  on  the  religious 
development  of  the  age,  both  in  the  departments  of  science 
and  of  life.  While  rationalism  was  not  able  to  transcend 
the  standpoint  of  Kant,  the  other  theological  tendencies 
were  more  or  less  determined  formally,  and  even  materially 
by  the  philosophical  movements  of  this  period.  Alongside 
of  philosophjr,  literati;re,  itself  to  a  great  extent  coloured 
by  contemporary  philosophy,  exerted  a  powerful  influence 
on  the  religious  opinions  of  the  more  cultured  among  the 
people.  The  sciences,  too,  came  into  closer  relations,  partly 
friendly,  partly  hostile,  to  Christianity ;  and  art  in  some  of 
its  masterpieces  jDaid  a  noble  tribute  to  the  church. 

1.  The  German  Philosophy  (§  170, 10).— Fries,  wliose  philosophy  Avas 
Kantian  rationalism,  modified  by  elements  borro"\vcd  from  Jacobi, 
influenced  such  theologians  as  De  Wette.  Schelling,  in  his  "  Philo- 
sophy of  Identity,"  had  advanced  from  Fichte"s  idealism  to  a  pan- 
theistic naturalism.  From  Fichte  he  had  learned  that  this  Avorld  is 
nothing  without  spirit ;  but  while  Fichte  recognised  this  world,  the 
non-ego,  as  reality  only  in  so  far  as  man  seizes  upon  it  and  penetrates 
it  by  his  spirit,  and  so  raises  it  into  real  being,  Schelling  regards 
spirit  as  nothing  else  than  the  life  of  nature  itself.  In  the  lower 
stages  of  this  nature-life  spirit  is  still  slumbering  and  dreaming,  but 
in  man  it  has  attained  unto  consciousness.  The  nature-life  as  a 
whole,  or  the  world-soul,  is  God ;  man  is  the  reflex  of  God  and  the 
Avorld  in  miniature,  a  mici'ocosmos.  In  the  world's  development  God 
comes  into  objective  being  and  unfolds  his  self-consciousness ;  Chris- 
tianity is  the  turning  point  in  the  world's  history  ;  its  fundamental 
dogmas  of  revelation,  trinity,  incarnation,  and  redemption  are  sug- 
gestive attempts  to  solve  the  world's  riddle.  Schelling's  poetic 
view  of  the  Avorld  penetrated  all  the  sciences,  and  gave  to  them  a  new 
impulse.  Though  hateful  to  the  old  rationalists,  this  sj^stem  found 
ardent  admirers  among  the  younger  theologians.  As  Schelling  to 
Fichte,  so  Hegel  was  attached  to  Schelling,  and  wrought  his  pan- 
theistic naturalism  into  a  pantheistic  spii'itualism.  Not  so  much  in 
the  life  of  nature  as  in  the  thinking  and  doiug  of  the  human  spirit, 


§  174.    NINETEENTH   CENTURY   CULTUEE.  159 

the  divine  revelation  is  the  unfolding  of  the  divine  self-consciousness 
from  non -being  into  being.  Judaism  and  Christianity  are  progressive 
stages  of  this  process  ;  Judaism  stands  far  below  classic  paganism  ;  but 
in  Christianity  we  have  the  perfect  religion,  to  be  developed  into 
the  highest  form  of  philosoiDhy.  The  Protestant  church  doctrine 
■was  now  again  accorded  the  place  of  lionom-.  Marheincke  developed 
Lutheran  orthodoxy  into  a  system  of  speculative  theology  based  on 
Hegelian  principles;  while  Goschel  infused  into  it 'a  pietist  spirit, 
which  made  many  hail  the  r.ew  departm-e  as  the  long-sought  recon- 
ciliation of  theology  and  philosophy.  But  after  HegeFs  death  in 
A.D.  1831  the  condition  of  matters  suddenly  changed.  His  school 
split  into  an  orthodox  wing  following  the  master's  ecclesiastical 
tendencies,  and  a  heterodox  wing  which  deified  the  human  spirit. 
Strauss,  Bauer,  and  Feuerbach  led  this  heterodox  party  in  theology, 
and  Ruge  in  reference  to  social,  aesthetic,  and  political  questions. 
Persecuted  by  the  state  in  a.d.  1S43,  the  Yotmg  Hegelians  joined  the 
rationalists,  whom  they  had  before  sneered  at  as  "antediluvian 
theologians."  Schelling,  Avho  had  been  silent  for  almost  thirty  years, 
took  HegePs  chair  in  Berlin  as  his  decided  opponent  in  a.d,  1841, 
and  with  his  dualistic  doctrine  of  potencies,  from  which  he  finally'- 
advanced  to  a  Christian  gnosticism,  obtained  a  temporary  influence 
among  the  younger  theologians.  He  died  at  the  baths  of  Eagaz  in 
Switzerland  in  a.d.  1854.  He  flashed  for  a  moment  like  a  meteor, 
and  as  suddenly  his  light  was  quenched. 

2.  The  domination  of  the  Hegelian  philosoph}^  was  overthrown  by 
the  split  in  the  school  and  the  radicalism  of  the  adherents  of  the  left 
wing,  and  Schelling  in  the  second  stage  of  his  philosophical  develop- 
ment had  not  succeeded  in  founding  any  proper  school  of  his  own. 
A  group  of  younger  philosophers,  with  I.  H.  Fichte  at  their  head, 
starting  from  the  Hegelian  dialectic,  have  striven  to  free  philosophy 
from  the  reproach  of  pantheism  and  to  develop  a  speculative  theism 
in  touch  Avith  historical  Christianity.  Other  members  of  this  school 
are  Weisse,  Braniss,  Chalibseus,  Ulrici,  Wirth,  Eomang,  etc.— Herbart 
renounces  all  that  philosophers  from  Fichte  senior  to  Fichte  junior 
had  done,  and  declares  the  metaphysical  end  of  their  systems  beyond 
the  horizon  of  philosopli}^,  which  must  limit  itself  to  the  province 
of  experience.  His  realism  is  in  diametrical  opposition  to  Hegel's 
idealism.  Toward  Christianity  his  philosophy  occupies  a  position 
of  indifference.  Influenced  by  Kant's  theory  of  knowledge  as  well 
as  by  the  Fichte-Schelling-Hegel  idealism  and  Herbarfs  realism, 
with  an  infusion  of  Leibnitz's  monad  doctrine,  Hermann  Lotze  of 
Gottingen  has,  since  a.d.  1844,  set  forth  a  system  of  '•  teleological 
idealism."  He  develops  his  metaphj'sical  principles  from  what  ^ve 
liave   h\  immediate  experience   internal   and   external,  and  the   in- 


160      CHURCH   HISTORY   OF   NINETEENTH   CENTURY. 

variabilit3''  of  the  causal  mechanism  in  everytliiug  that  happens  in 
tlie  inner  and  outer  world  he  explains  as  the  realizing  of  moral 
purposes. — Schopenhauer's  philosophy,  which  only  in  the  later  years 
of  his  life  (died  a.d.  1860)  began  to  attract  attention,  is  in  spirit 
utterly  opposed  to  the  religion  and  ethics  of  Christianit3\  Its  taslc 
is  to  describe  "  The  World  as  Will  and  Idea  " ;  first  at  that  stage  of 
entering  into  visibility  which  is  represented  in  man  does  will,  the 
thing-in-itself,  become  joined  •with  idea,  and  makes  its  appearance 
now  with  it  over  against  the  world  as  a  conscious  subject.  But  since 
idea  is  regarded  as  a  pure  illusion  of  the  will,  this  leads  to  a  pessimism 
which  takes  absolute  despair  as  the  only  legitimate  moral  principle. 
E.  von  Hartmann  went  still  further  in  the  same  direction  in  his 
'•Philosophy  of  the  Unconscious,"  published  in  1869,  of  which  an 
English  translation  in  three  vols,  appeared  in  1884.  He  identifies 
the  will  with  matter  and  idea  with  spirit,  demands  in  addition  to 
the  absolute  despair  of  the  individual  here  and  hereafter,  the  com- 
plete surrender  of  the  personality  to  the  world-process  in  order  to 
the  attainment  of  its  end,  the  annihilation  of  the  world.  This 
dissolution  of  the  world  consists  in  the  complete  withdrawal  of  the 
A\'ill  into  the  absolute  as  the  only  luiconscious,  so  that  at  last  the 
Avrong  and  misery  of  being  produced  by  the  irrational  Avill  are 
abolished  in  this  withdrawal.  From  this  philosophical  standpoint 
Hartmami  attempted  iu  a.d.  1874  to  take  Christianity  to  pieces, 
showing  some  favour  to  Vatican  Catholicism,  but  pouring  out  the 
vials  of  his  wrath  upon  Protestantism.  His  "religion  of  the  future  " 
consists  in  a  yearning  for  freedom  from  all  the  burden  and  misery 
of  being  and  share  in  the  world-process  by  relapsing  into  the  blessed- 
ness of  non-being. — In  France,  England,  and  America  much  favour 
has  been  shown  to  the  atheistic-sensual  Positivism  of  Aug.  Comte, 
Avhich,  excluding  every  form  of  theology  and  morals,  requires  only 
the  so-called  exact  sciences  as  the  object  of  philosophy.  On  his 
later  notions  of  a  "religion  of  humanity,"  see  §  210,  1.  On  essentially 
similar  lines  proceeds  Herbert  Spencer,  in  his  "System  of  Synthetic 
I'liilosoi)hy,"'  to  whose  school  also  Darwin  belonged.  His  followers 
are  styled  agnostics,  because;  they  regard  all  knowledge  of  God  and 
divine  things  as  absolutely  impossible,  and  evolutionists,  because 
their  master  endeavours  to  construct  all  the  sciences  on  the  basis  of 
the  evolution  theory. 

8.  The  Sciences — Schelling's  profound  theories  were  of  all  the  more 
significance  from  their  not  being  restricted  to  the  philosophical 
strivings  of  his  time,  but  inspiring  the  other  sciences  with  the  breath 
of  a  new  life.  To  the  fullest  extent  the  natural  sciences  exposed 
themselves  to  this  influence.  There  was  not  wanting  indeed  a  certain 
shadowy   mysticism,  to    which   especially  tlie   lauci'js   of    mesmeric 


§  174.    NINETEENTH   CENTUET   CULTURE.  161 

iiiagiic'tism  largely  contributed  ;  but  this  fog  gradually  cleared  away, 
;md  the  Christian  elements  were  purified  from  their  pantheistic  sur- 
inuudings.  Steifens  and  Von  Schubert  taught  that  the  divine  book 
of  nature  is  to  be  regarded  as  the  reflex  and  expansion  of  the  divine 
rovelation  in  Scripture.  The  Hegelian  pliilosophy,  too,  seemed  at 
lirst  likely  to  infuse  a  Christian  spirit  into  the  other  sciences.  In 
ri<)schel,  at  least,  there  was  a  thinker  who  imparted  to  jurisprudence 
a  Christian  character,  and  to  Christianity  a  juristic  construction, 
lu  other  respects  Hegel's  philosophy  in  its  application  to  the  other 
ilf^partments  of  science  gave  in  many  ways  a  predominance  to  an 
abstruse  dialectic  tendency.  Its  adherents  of  the  extreme  left  sought 
to  construct  all  sciences  a  priori  from  the  pure  idea,  and  at  the 
same  time  to  root  out  from  them  the  last  vestiges  of  the  Christian 
s])ii-it. 

The  greatest  names  in  natural  science,  Copernicus,  Kepler.  Xewton, 
Jlaller,  Davy,  Cuvier,  etc.,  are  household  Avords  in  Christian  circles. 
All  these  and  many  more  were  firmlj'  convinced  that  there  was  no 
conflict  between  their  most  brilliant  discoveries  and  Christian  tinith. 
In  A.D.  1825  the  Earl  of  Bridgwater  founded  a  lectureship,  and  treatises 
on  the  power,  wisdom,  and  goodness  of  God  as  manifested  in  the 
•.•reation,  have  been  written  by  Buckland,  Chalmers,  "Whewell,  Bell, 
etc.  It  was  otherA\-ise  in  Germany.  Even  Schleiermacher,  in  his 
••  Letters  to  Liicke,"  in  a.d.  1829,  expressed  his  fears  of  the  prophesied 
overthrow  of  all  Christian  theories  of  the  world  by  the  incontro- 
A'ertible  results  of  phj-sical  research,  and  Bretschneider  in  liis  "  Letters 
to  a  Statesman,"  in  A.n.  1830,  proclaimed  to  the  Avorld  -without  regret 
that  already  what  Schleiermacher  only  feared  had  actually  come  to 
jiass.  Physicists,  awakening  from  the  glamour  of  tlu^  Schelling 
nature  philosoph}-,  pronounced  all  speculation  contraband,  and  df>- 
ilared  pure  empiricism,  the  simple  investigation  of  actual  things, 
the  only  permissible  object  of  their  labour.  And  although  they 
handed  over  to  theologians  and  philosophers  questions  about  spirit 
in  and  over  nature,  as  not  belonging  to  their  province,  a  younger 
generation  maintained  that  spirit  Avas  non-existent,  because  it  could 
not  be  discovered  b}'  the  microscope  and  dissecting  knife.  Carl  Vogt 
defined  thought  to  be  a  secretion  of  the  brain,  and  Moleschott  re- 
garded life  as  a  mere  mode  of  matter  and  man"s  existence  after  lif<! 
onlj-  as  the  manuring  of  the  fields.  Feuerbach  proclaimed  that  "  man 
is  what  he  eats,"  and  Buclnier  iwpularized  these  views  into  a  gospel 
for  social  democi-ats  and  niiiijists.  Oersted,  the  famous  discoverer 
of  electro-magnetism,  had  sought  "the  spirit  in  nature,"  but  the 
spirit  which  he  found  was  not  that  of  the  Bible  and  the  church. 
The  grandmaster  of  German  scientific  research.  Alex,  von  Humboldt, 
saw  in  the  world  a  cosmos  of  noble  harmony  as  a  whole  and  in  its 
VOL.    III.  II 


162      CHUECH   HISTORY   OF   NINETEENTH   CENTURY. 

parts,  but  of  Christian  ideas  in  God's  great  book  of  nature  be  finds 
no  trace.  In  a.d.  1859  tbe  great  English  naturalist  Darwin,  died 
A.D.  1882,  introduced  into  the  arena  the  theory  of  "Natural  Selection," 
by  means  of  Avhich  the  modification  and  development  of  the  few 
primary  animal  forms  through  the  struggle  for  existence  and  the 
survival  of  the  fittest  by  sexual  selection  is  supposed,  in  millions, 
perhaps  milliards,  of  years,  to  have  brought  forth  the  present  variety 
and  manifoldness  of  animal  species.  Multitudes  of  naturalists  now 
accept  his  theory  of  the  descent  of  men  and  apes  from  a  common 
stem. — In  Medicine  De  Valenti  on  the  Protestant  side,  with  pietistic 
earnestness,  maintains  that  Christian  faith  is  a  veliicle  of  healing 
power ;  while  a  circle  in  Munich  on  the  Catholic  side  make  worship 
of  saints  and  the  host  a  conditio  sine  qua  non  of  all  medicine.  A  more 
moderate  attitude  is  assumed  by  the  Roman  Catholic  Dr.  Capellmann 
of  Aachen,  in  his  "  Pastoral  Medicine." 

4.  Of  Christian  Jurists  we  have,  on  the  Protestant  side,  Stahl, 
Savigny,  Puchta,  Jacobson,  Eichter,  Meier,  Sclieuerl,  Hinschius,  etc. ; 
and  on  the  Catholic  side,  Walther,  Philipps,  etc.  Among  Historians, 
the  greatest  in  modern  times  is  Leopold  von  Eanke,  who,  with  his 
disciples,  occupies  a  thoroughly  Clu-istian  standpoint.  There  has 
appeared,  however,  on  the  part  of  many  Protestant  historians,  such 
as  Voigt,  Leo,  Mentzel,  Vorreiter,  Hurter,  Gfroerer,  etc.,  a  tendency 
in  the  most  conspicuous  manner  to  recognise  and  admire  the  bril- 
liant phenomena  of  mediseval  Catholicism,  even  going  the  length  of 
renouncing  the  vital  principles  of  Protestantism,  and  glorifying  a 
Boniface,  a  Gregory  VII.,  and  an  Innocent  III.,  and  characterizing 
the  Reformation  as  a  revolution,  Ultramontanes  have  been  only  too 
ready  to  turn  to  their  own  use  all  such  concessions,  but  show  no  in- 
clination to  make  similar  admissions  damaging  to  their  side,  so  that 
with  them  history  consists  rather  in  the  abuse  of  everj'thing  Protest- 
ant as  vile  and  perfidious,  instead  of  being  a  record  of  independent 
research.  Janssen  of  Frankfort  stands  out  prominently  above  the 
billows  of  the  '■'■  KulturTcampf ''"'  (§  197),  as  the  greatest  master  of  this 
ultramontane  style  of  history  making. — Geography,  first  raised  to  the 
rank  of  a  science  by  Carl  Ritter,  received  from  its  great  founder  a 
Christian  impress  and  oAves  much  of  its  development  to  the  researches 
of  Christian  missionaries.  Finallj^,  Philology,  in  the  hands  of  Creuzer, 
Gorres,  Sepp,  etc.,  luifolds  in  a  Christian  spirit  tlie  religion  and  myth- 
ology of  classical  ]mganism ;  and  in  the  hands  of  Nagelsbach  and 
Liibker  expounds  the  religious  life  of  the  ancient  world  in  relation 
to  Christian  truth. 

5.  National  Literature  (§  171, 11).— To  some  extent  Goethe,  but  much 
more  decidedly  tlae  romantic  school  of  poets,  was  attached  to 
Schelling's  philosophy  of  nature.     The  romancists  developed  a  deep 


§  174.    NINETEENTH   CENTURY   CULTURE.  163 

religiousness  of  feeling,  as  shown  in  Novalis  and  La  Motte  Fouque,  and 
violent  opposition  to  rationalistic  tlieology  as  shown  in  Tieck,  which 
in  the  case  of  Fr.  Schlegel  ran  to  the  other  extreme  of  moral  frivolity 
as  seen  in  his  "  Lucinde."  The  romantic  school  as  thus  represented  by 
Schlegel  was  joined  hj  the  party  of  Young  Germany  with  its  gospel 
of  the  rehabilitation  of  the  flesh.  Its  mouthpiece  was  the  gifted  poet 
Heine.  The  pantheistic  deification  of  nature  by  Schelling,  and  the 
self-deification  of  the  Hegelian  school  obtained  poetic  expression  in 
Leop.  Schafer's  Laicnhrevier  unci  Weltpriester,  as  well  as  in  Sallet  s 
Laienevmigclinm;  while  the  sympathies  of  the  young  Hegelians  with 
the  revolutionai-y  movements  gained  iitterance  in  the  poems  of 
Herwegh,  and  in  a  more  serious  tone  in  those  of  Freiligrath.  More 
recently  the  views  of  the  Protestantcnverein  (§  180)  have  found  their 
poetical  representative  in  Nic.  Eichhorn,  whose  "  Jesus  of  Nazareth,"" 
a  tragical  drama,  1880,  deals  with  the  life,  works,  and  sufferings  of 
the  "  historical  Christ,"  after  the  style  of  free  Protestant  science,  Avith 
rich  psychological  analysis  of  the  character  in  a  brilliant  imagina- 
tive production.  Though  composed  with  a  vieAV  to  theatrical  repre- 
sentation, it  has  never  yet  been  put  on  the  stage. 

6.  The  Christian  element  was  present  in  the  noble  patriotic  songs  of 
E.  M.  Arndt  ^  and  Max.  von  Schenkendorf  much  more  distinctly  than 
in  the  romantic  school.  Enthusiasm  in  the  struggle  for  freedom 
awakened  faith  in  the  living  God.  Uhland"s  lovely  lyrics,  with  their 
enthusiasm  for  the  i^resent  interests  of  the  Fatherland,  entitle  him 
to  rank  among  patriotic  poets,  and  their  brilliant  and  profound 
rendering  of  the  old  German  legends  places  him  in  the  romantic 
school,  Avhich,  however,  in  clearness  and  depth  he  leaves  far  behind. 
"Without  being  a  distinctively  Christian  poet,  his  Avarm  sympathy 
with  the  life  of  the  German  people  gives  him  a  genuine  interest  in 
the  Christian  religion.  The  same  may  be  said  of  Kiickert's  highly 
finished  poems,  which  transplanted  the  fragrant  floAvers  of  oriental 
sensuousness  and  contemplatiA'eness  into  the  garden  of  German  i^oetr^-. 
A  more  decided  Christian  consecration  of  poetic  genius  is  seen  in  the 
noble  and  beautiful  lyrics  of  Emanuel  Geibel,  died  1884,  the  greatest 
and  most  Christian  of  the  secular  poets  of  the  present.  Of  those 
ordinarily  ranked  as  sacred  poets  may  be  named  Knapp,  Coring, 
Spitta,  Garve,  Vict.  Strauss,  etc.,  Avho  for  the  most  part  contributed 
their  sacred  songs  to  Ivnapp's  "■  Cliridoterpe'''  (1833-1853).  A  later 
publication  of  eq vial  merit,  called  the  "  Neite  Christoterpe,'''  has  been 
edited  since  1880  by  Kogel,  Baur,  and  Frommel.  Bat  Avith  all  the 
Christian  dejjth  and  spirituality,  freshness  and  Avarmth,  Avhich  Ave 
meet  with  in  the  productions  of  these  Chi'istian  poets,  none  of  them 

1  Baur,  "Beligious  Life  in  Germany."     London,  1872,  pp.  177-196. 


1G4      CHURCH   HISTORY   OF   NIXETEENTH   CENTURY. 

1ms  been  able  to  rise  to  the  noble  simplicity,  power,  popular  force, 
and  fitting  them  for  church  use,  objectivity  "which  are  jn'esent  iu  the 
old  evangelical  church  hymns.  In  this  respect  thej'  all  bear  too  con- 
spicuously- the  signature  of  their  age,  with  its  subjective  tone  and  tho 
noise  and  turmoil  of  present  conflicts.  Of  all  modern  poets,  Kiickert 
alone  approaches  in  his  advent  hymn  the  measure  and  spirit  of  the 
old  church  song. — In  the  department  of  novels  and  romance  there  has 
been  sho-svn  an  almost  invariable  hostility  toward  Christianity,  reli- 
gion being  either  entirely  avoided  or  held  up  to  contempt  by  liaving 
as  its  representatives,  simjiletons,  hypocrites,  or  knaves. 

7.  In  France,  Chateaubriand  in  his  "Genie  du  Christianisme'^  l)ro- 
nounces  an  eloquent  eulogy  on  the  half-pagan  Christianity  of  the 
Middle  Ages.  In  another  work  he  makes  the  representatives  of 
heathenism  in  the  age  of  Constantine  act  like  Homeric  heroes,  and 
those  of  Clu'istianity  speak  "like  theologians  of  the  age  of  Bossuet."' 
Lamartine  may  be  described  as  a  Christian  romancist.  Victor  Hugo, 
Balzac,  George  Sand,  Sue,  Dumas,  etc.,  influenced  by  the  Revolution, 
developed  an  antichristian  tendency  ;  while  naked  natui'alism,  photo- 
graphic realism  in  depicting  thelowest  side  of  Parisian  life,  especially 
adultery  and  prostitution,  is  represented  by  Flaubert,  Daudet,  De 
Cioncourt,  Zola,  etc.^In  Italy,  the  amiable  Manzoni  gave  noble  ex- 
pression to  Christian  feeling  in  his  "  Inni  SacriP  and  in  his  masterty 
romance  ^'-  Promentii  S2J0si  "  ;  and  the  famous  jxiet  Silvio  Pellico,  in  his 
•'■La  viia  Prifjioni,"'  affords  a  noble  example  of  the  sustaining  power 
of  true  religion  during  ten  years'  rigorous  imjjrisonment  in  an  Aus- 
trian dungeon.  The  most  gifted  of  modern  Italian  poets,  Giacomo 
Leopardi,  sank  into  despairing  pessimism,  which  expressed  itself  in 
the  domain  of  religion  in  biting  satire  and  savage  iron}'.  Among 
the  poets  of  the  present  who,  with  glowdng  patriotism,  not  only 
yearned  for  the  deliverance  and  unity  of  Italy,  but  also  lived  to  see 
these  accomplished,  and  have  since  given  exj)ression,  though  from 
different  political  and  religious  standpoints,  to  the  desire  for  the 
reconciliation  of  the  free  united  kingdom  with  the  irreconcilable 
church,  the  most  distinguished  are  Aleardi,  Carducci,  Imbriani, 
(iuercini,  Cavalotti. — In  Spain,  Caecilia  Bohl  von  Faber,  although  the 
daughter  of  a  German  father,  and  educated  in  German}-,  introduced, 
under  the  name  Fernan  Caballero,  the  modern  romance  in  a  thoroiighly 
national  Spanish  style,  and  in  a  purely  moral  and  catholic  Christian 
fipirit.  In  the  Flemish  Provinces,  Hendrik  Conscience,  the  able  novelist, 
has  described  Flemish  village  life;  in  a  spirit  fully  in  sympathj-  with 
Christianity. — England  had  in  Lord  B3'rou  a.  poet  of  the  first  rank, 
who  more  than  any  other  poet  had  experience  iu  himself  of  the  con- 
vulsions and  contradictions  of  his  age.  In  powerful  arid  impressive 
tones  he  s<-'tt>  forth  the  unreconciled  disharmonies  of  nature  and  of 


§  174.    NINETEENTH   CENTURY   CULTURE.  IC) 

human  lit'f.  IneiiraVile  pain,  dfspair.  weariupss  of  lite,  ami  hativd  of 
mankind,  without  hope,  yea  without  desire  for  reconciliation,  enthu- 
siastic admiration  of  the  ancient  world,  passionate  love  of  libertj-  and 
titanic  pride  in  human  might  mingle  with  scenes  of  grumbling, 
miser}-,  and  profligacy.  On  the  other  hand,  the  rich  and  mostly  solid 
English  novel  literatvu-e  is  prevailingly  inspired  by  a  Christian  spirit. 
8.  Popular  Education.— While  the  poetic  national  literature  for  the 
most  part  found  entrance  only  among  the  cultured  and  adult  circles, 
this  age,  almost  as  fond  of  writing  as  of  reading,  produced  an 
enormous  quantity  of  books  for  the  people  and  for  children.  But 
only  a  few  succeeded  in  catching  the  proper  tone  for  the  masses  and 
the  youth,  and  still  fewer  supplied  their  readers  with  what  was 
genuinely  pious.  Pestalozzi's  ^'Lienhard  unci  Gertrud,"'  Hebel's  "Schatz- 
kcistlein^^  and  Tschokke's  "  Goldmacherdorf,'''  respected  at  least  the 
Christian  feeling  of  the  people,  although  they  did  not  strengthen  or 
foster  it.  But,  on  the  other  hand,  in  recent  3-ears  a  number  of  writers 
have  appeared,  thoroughly  popular,  and  at  the  same  time  thoroughly 
(Christian,  who,  as  popular  poets  and  novelists,  have  become  apostles 
of  Christian  views,  morals,  and  customs  to  the  people.  The  most 
distinguished  of  these  are  Jeremiah  Gotthelf  (Albert  Bitzius,  died 
lHr)4),  whose  "  Kate  the  Grandmother  "  was  translated  in  the  Sundaij 
Mayazine  for  1865,  Von  Horn,  Carl  Stober,  Wildenhahn,  Nathusius, 
Froimnel,  Weitbi'echt,  etc.  In  the  Catholic  church  Albanus  Stoltz, 
died  1883,  developed  a  wonderful  power  of  popular  composition, 
which,  however,  he  subsequently  put  at  the  service  of  a  fanatical 
nltramontanism,  and  so  sacrificed  much  of  its  nobility  and  worth. 
From  the  enormous  mass  of  children's  books  only  extremely  few  attain 
their  aim.  In  the  front  i-ank  stands  the  brilliant  patriarch  of  Chris- 
tian tale  writing,  Yon  Schubert,  died  1860.  After  him  are  Barth,  the 
author  of  "  Poor  Hemy,"  Stober,  and  the  Swiss  S]jyri,  and  the  Catholic 
(-hristian  Schmid,  author  of  the  '•  Easter  Eggs."— The  Public  Schools, 
especially  under  Dinter  (died  1831),  member  of  the  consistory  and 
schoolboard  of  IvOnigsberg,  were  for  a  long  time  nurseries  of  the 
tame, flat,  and  self-satisfied  rationalism  of  tYie aiicien  regime;  but  since 
1830,  and  more  particularly  in  consequence  of  the  violent  agitations 
of  the  seminary  director  Diesterweg,  who  died  in  1866,  put  to  silence 
in  1817,  but  still  for  his  A\-ork  in  connexion  with  education  alwa3-s 
highly  respected,  many  of  the  teachers  took  a  higher  flight  in  the 
naturalistic-democratic  direction.  By  word  and  pen  Diesterweg 
carried  on  a  propaganda  in  favour  of  a  free  and  liberal  education  for 
the  people.  His  disciples,  wanting  his  earnest  Christian  spirit,  carried 
out  recklessly  his  radical  tendencies,  and  now  the  Christian  faith  has 
no  more  persistent  foes  than  the  teachers  of  the  public  schools.  In 
A.u.  1870.  a  Teachers'  Association  in  Vienna  gave  a  vote  of  6.000  in 


16G      CHURCH   HISTORY   OF   NINETEENTH   CENTURY. 

favour  of  radicalism.  At  a  Hamburg  meeting  in  a.d.  1872  of  5,100 
teachers,  progress  Avas  slicnvu  by  individuals  raising  tlieir  voices  in 
defence  of  Christianity,  which,  however,  were  generally  drowned  in 
shrieks  and  hisses.  A  Teachers'  Evangelical  Association  held  its  ninth 
assemblj^  at  Hamburg  in  a.d.  1881  with  1,500  members.  Christian 
opinions  are  now  ably  represented  in  schools,  educational  journals, 
and  literature.  A  burning  question  at  present  is  whether  the  national 
school  should  be  preferred  to  the  denominational  school.  Liberals  in 
church  and  state  saj^  it  should ;  conservatives  say  it  should  not ;  while 
both  parties  think  their  vicAvs  supported  by  the  experience  of  the  past. 
The  Prussian  minister  of  education,  Falk,  a.d.  1872-1879,  firmly  in- 
sisted upon  the  development  of  the  national  system,  but  his  successors 
Von  Puttkamer  and  Von  Ciossler  reverted  to  the  denominational 
S3^stem.  The  German  Evangelical  School  Congress  of  Hamburg  in 
October,  1882,  demanded  that  both  elementary  and  secondary  schools 
sliould  have  a  confessional  character, 

9.  Art. — The  intellectual  quickening  called  forth  Avith  the  opening 
of  the  neAV  century  imparted  new  spirit  and  life  to  the  cu.ltivation 
of  the  arts.  "VVinckelmann,  died  a.d.  1768,  had  ojaened  the  way  to 
an  understanding  of  pagan  classical  art,  and  romanticism  awakened 
appreciation  of  and  enthusiasm  for  medieeA'al  Christian  art.  The 
greatest  masters  of  Architecture  Avere  Schinckel,  Ivlenze,  and  HeidelofF. 
The  foundation  stone  of  the  final  j)art  of  the  Cologne  cathedral  was 
laid  by  a  Protestant  king,  Frederick  William  IV.,  in  a.d.  1842,  and 
tlie  Avork  Avas  finished  b^'  a  Protestant  builder  in  a.d.  1880.  Statuary- 
had  three  great  masters,  Avho  gave  expression  to  profound  Christian 
ideas  in  bronze  and  marble,  the  Italian  Canova,  the  German  Dan- 
necker,  and  greatest  of  all,  the  Dane  TliorAvaldsen,  Avhose  Christ  and 
the  Apostles  and  other  Avorks  form  a  main  attraction  to  visitors  in 
Copenhagen.  Three  younger  German  masters  of  the  art,  Avho  haA'e 
heired  their  fame,  are  Eauch,  Eietschl,  and  Drake.— In  Painting  too  a 
new  era  noAv  began.  A  groujD  of  gay  German  artists  in  Rome,  Avith 
Overbeck  at  their  head,  formed  a  Society  in  a.d.  1813,  and  mostly 
became  perA'erts  to  Eomanism,  Peter  Cornelius,  the  ablest  of  the 
school,  himself  born  a  Catholic,  ansAverod  his  friends'  request  to  place 
Luther  in  a  picture  of  tlie  last  judgment,  in  hell :  "  Yes,  but  Avith  the 
Bible  in  his  hands  and  the  devils  trembling  before  him  "  ;  and  in  a 
subsequent  picture  of  the  judgment,  he  ga\'e  the  German  reformer 
his  place  among  the  saints  in  heaven.  His  pupil,  Julius  Schnorr  von 
Karolsfeld  is  Avell  knoAvn  by  his  "  Bibel  in  Blldern.''^  LudAvig  Eichter, 
the  Albert  Diirer  of  the  nineteenth  century  and  creator  of  the  modern 
Avoodcut,  has  filled  German  houses  Avith  his  artistic  and  poetic 
creations,  Avhicli  breathe  of  Ciod,  nature,  and  the  family  fireside. 
The  Frenchman,  GustaA'c  Dore  of  Strassburc".  lias  also  illustrated  the 


§  174.    XINETEENTH   CENTURY   CULTURE.  167 

Bilile  in  a  manner  wortli}^  of  ranking  alongside  of  S(3luiorr,  tliough  a 
eharacteristieally  French  striving  for  effect  is  ever3^vliere  disceni- 
ible.— Painted  Glass  (§  104,  14)  for  chnrcli  -windows  had  during  the 
eigliteenth  centui-y  passed  almost  wholly  out  of  use,  but  again  in  the 
nineteenth  came  into  favour,  and  was  made  at  Dresden,  Nuremberg, 
and  Munich.  The  most  eminent  artist  in  this  department  was 
Ainmiller  of  Munich,  specimens  of  whose  workmanship  are  to  be  seen 
in  all  parts  of  tlio  world. 

10.  Music  and  the  Drama. — In  Vienna  the  three  great  masters  of 
musical  composition,  Mozart,  Haydn,  and  Beethoven,  produced  in  the 
department  of  sacred  music  some  of  their  noblest  works,  Mendelssolui, 
in  his  St.  Paul  and  Elijah  and  in  his  Psalms,  sought  to  reproduce  the 
power  and  truth  of  the  simple  word  of  God.  An  early  death  prevented 
him  giving  expression  to  his  ideal  of  Christ  in  music.  The  Hungarian 
virtu.oso  Liszt  sacrifices  sacred  calmness  and  dignity  to  theatrical  effect. 
His  son-in-law,  Richard  Wagner,  inspired  b}^  Schopenhauer's  philo- 
sophy, a  richly  endowed  poet  and  composer,  proclaimed  hy  his  followers 
as  the  Messiah  of  the  music  of  the  future,  going  back  to  mediaeval 
legend,  has  i^roduced  a  f/«««i-Christian  musical  drama,  in  which  the 
gospel  of  pessimism  takes  the  place  of  the  gospel  of  the  grace  of  God.— 
Quite  different  is  the  Passion  Play  of  the  Bavarian  village  Oberam- 
mergau,  -w^hich  is  a  reproduction  of  the  mediaeval  mysteries  (§  115, 12). 
It  originated  in  a  vow  made  in  1633  on  the  occasion  of  a  plague  which 
visited  the  place,  and  is  repeated  every  ten  j'ears  on  the  Sundays 
fi'om  the  end  of  May  to  the  middle  of  Seiotember.  The  history  of  the 
Saviour's  passion  is  here  represented  with  interludes  from  Messianic 
Old  Testament  passages  explained  by  a  chorus  like  that  of  the  classical 
tragedy,  Avith  appropriate  scenery,  drapery,  and  musical  accompani- 
ment. In  the  presence  of  an  immense  concourse  of  strangers  for 
whose  accommodation  a  large  amphitheatre  was  been  built,  almost 
all  the  villagers,  men,  women,  and  children,  take  part  in  the  perform- 
ance and  show  rare  artistic  power.  The  text  of  the  drama  for  the 
most  ]3art  agrees  with  the  gospel  narrative,  only  occasionally  inter- 
spersed with  legend,  and  quite  free  from  ultramontane  hagiology  and 
mariolatry.  The  performance  of  a.d.  1850,  and  still  more  that  of  a.d. 
1880,  attracted  crowds  of  pilgrims  and  tourists  to  the  quiet  and 
IV mote  vallej\  An  independent  exhibition,  falling  little  behind  the 
original  in  the  artistic  character  of  its  composition  and  production, 
was  given,  in  1883,  on  the  Sundays  of  July  and  August  in  the 
Tyrolese  village  of  Brixlegg,  and  was  visited  hy  similar  crowds. 


168      CHURCH   HISTORY   OF   NINETEENTH   CENTURY. 

§  175,  Intercourse  and  Negotiations  between  the 
Churches. 

Protestants  coiild  recognise,  as  Catholics  could  not,  ele- 
ments of  truth  and  beauty  in  the  creed  of  their  opponents. 
When  a  peaceful  and  conciliatory  spix'it  was  shown  Ly 
individual  Catholic  clergymen,  it  was  the  occasion  of 
suspicion  and  persecution  on  the  part  of  the  old  Romish 
party.  Schemes  of  union  were  entertained  by  the  Old 
Catholics  (§  190),  and  negotiations  were  entered  on  by  the 
Greek  Orthodox  church,  on  the  one  hand,  and  the  Roman 
Catholic  and  Anglican  churches,  on  the  other,  but  in  both 
cases  without  any  practical  result.  On  the  union  negotia- 
tions between  the  different  Protestant  sects,  see  §  178 ;  and 
on  the  Prusso- Anglican  bishopric  of  .lerusalem,  see  §  184,  8. 
Of  the  numerous  conversions  from  Protestantism  to 
Catholicism  and  from  Catholicism  to  Protestantism,  we  cnn 
here  mention  only  siich  as  have  excited  public  interest  in 
some  special  wa}'. 

1.  Eomanizing  Tendencies  among  Protestants. — Xot  only  in  England, 
^^•here  an  important  high-church  party  embraced  a  more  than  half- 
Catholic  Puseyism  (§  202,  2),  but'  even  in  Protestairt  Germany  a 
Romanizing  ciirrent  set  in  on  many  sides.  A  taste  for  the  romantic, 
artistic,  historical  (§  174,  5,  9,  4),  as  well  as  feudalist-aristocratic  ami 
hyper-Lutheran  ecclesiastical  tendencies  led  the  way  in  this  direction. 
Many  sought  rest  in  the  bosom  of  the  church  "  where  alone  salva- 
tion is  found,"'  while  others,  too  deejjly  rooted  in  (>vangelical  truth, 
bewailed  the  loss  of  "noble  and  venerable"  institutions  in  the  wor- 
ship, life,  and  constitution  of  the  church,  but  were  unable  to  accept 
the  various  unevangelical  accretions  which  made  void  the  doctrine  of 
justification  hy  faith  alone.  This  Avas  the  jjosition  of  Lohe  of  Neuen- 
dettelsaTi,  in  point  of  doctrine  a  strict  Lutheran,  who  published  a 
selection  of  Catholic  legends  as  patterns  of  self-denial  for  his  deacon- 
esses, wished  to  restore  anointing  of  the  sick,  etc.  Some  Protestant 
pastors  expressed  warm  sympathy  with  the  pope  during  his  mis- 
fortunes in  A.D.  1860,  and  approved  of  the  continuance  of  the  papacy 
and  the  pope's  temporal  dominion.  A  conference  of  Catholics  (Count 
Stolberg,  Dr.  Michelis,  etc.)  and  Protestants  (Leo,  Bindewald,  etc.)  at 
Krfurt  in  a.d.  1800,  on  tlie  basis  of  a  connnon  recoii'nition  of  the  moral 


§  175.    INTERCOUESE    AND   NEGOTIATIONS.  169 

advantages  of  the  papac}",  sought  to  bring  about  a  iminn  of  the 
chui'ches.  Still  more  remarkable  is  the  stor}-  told  by  the  Old  Catholic, 
professor  Friedrich.  Just  before  the  opening  of  the  Vatican  Council, 
certain  evangelical  pastors  of  Saxony  wrote  letters  to  Bishop  Martin  of 
Padex'born,  which  Friedrich  himself  read,  iirging  that  at  the  council 
l)ermission  should  bo  given  to  priests  to  marry  and  to  give  the  cup 
in  the  communion  to  the  lait}%  and  promising  that  in  that  case  they 
themselves  and  many  like-minded  pastors  would  join  the  Romish 
church.  That  the  letters  were  written  and  received  is  unquestion- 
able ;  but  it  is  doubtful  whether  folly  and  imbecility  or  a  wish  to 
lioax  and  mystify,  directed  the  pen.  The  Avriter  or  writers,  as  the 
examination  before  the  consistory  of  the  locality  proved,  are  not  to 
be  sought  among  the  pastors  whose  names  are  ai^pended.  How  far 
the  Protestant  ultra-conservative  reactionary  party  goes  with  the 
\iltramontanes  and  how  far  it  would  aid  the  overthrow  and  under- 
mining of  the  Protestant  state  and  evangelical  church,  is  shown  bj' 
the  conduct  of  the  Privy  Councillor  and  Chief  Justice  Ludwig  von 
(lerlach  (§  176,  1),  who,  in  1872,  in  the  Prussian  House  of  Eepre- 
sputatives,  took  his  place  among  the  ultramontane  party  of  the  centre, 
hostile  to  the  empire  and  friendh'  to  the  Poles,  and  in  his  pamphlet 
'' Kaifwr  mid  PajM''''  of  1872  described  the  new  German  empire  as  an 
incarnate  antichrist.  Also  the  Lutheran  Guelphs  of  Hanover  arc 
zealous  supporters  of  all  the  demands  of  the  centre  in  the  Prussian 
parliament  and  in  the  German  Reichstag. 

2.  The  Attitude  of  Catholicism  toward  Protestantism.— Everj- Catholic 
bishop  has  still  on  assuming  office  to  take  the  oath,  Hcereticos  pro 
2Msse  2^ersequar.  The  Jesuits,  restored  in  a.d.  1814,  soon  pervaded 
every  section  with  their  intolerant  spirit.  The  huge  lie  that  Pro- 
testantism is  in  matters  of  State  as  well  as  of  church  essentialh' 
revolutionary,  while  Catholicism  is  the  bulwark  of  the  State  against 
revolution  and  democracy',  was  affii-med  with  such  aiidacity  that  even 
Pi'otestant  statesmen  believed  it.  The  Roman  Jesuit  Perrone  (§  191,  U) 
taught  the  Catholic  youth  in  a  controversial  Italian  catechism  that 
"  they  should  feel  a  creeping  horror  come  over  them  at  the  mere 
mention  of  the  word  Protestantism,  more  even  than  when  a  murderous 
attack  was  made  upon  them,  for  Protestantism  and  its  defenders  are 
in  the  religious  and  moral  world  just  the  same  as  the  plague  and 
])lague-stricken  are  in  the  physical  world,  and  in  all  lands  Protestants 
are  the  scum  of  all  that  is  vile  and  immoral,"  etc.  In  a  pastoral  of 
A.n.  IS-'j."),  Von  Ketteler,  Bishop  of  Mainz,  compared  the  Germans,  who 
b}'  the  Reformation  rent  the  unity  of  the  clmrch,  to  th^  Jews  Avho 
crucified  the  Messiah.  Romish  prelates  have  vied  with  one  another  in 
their  abuse  of  Protestants  and  Protestantism.  In  a.d.  1881,  Leo  XIIL 
speaking  of    the    spread   of    Russian   nihilism,  charged   Protestant 


170    CHrncH  history  of  nineteenth  century. 

missionaries  -with  spreading  the  dominion  of  tlie  prince  of  darkness. 
Prof.  Hohoff  of  Paderborn,  in  his  "  Hist.  Studies  on  Protestantism  and 
Socialism,"  Paderb.,  1881,  reiterated  the  accusation  :  '•  Y'es,  it  is  so, 
Protestantism  has  begotten  atheism,  materialism,  scepticism,  nihilism. 
The  Reformation  was  the  murderer  of  all  science,  the  greatest  foe 
of  culture  and  learning,  and  the  falsifier  of  all  histor3'.  .  .  . 
Melanchthon's  Loci  may  be  styled  the  most  unscientific  production  in 
the  domain  of  dogmatics.  .  .  .  Y"es,  the  Reformation  has  proved 
a  prime  source  of  superstition,  a  step  backward  in  the  history  of 
civilization.  .  .  .  The  Catholic  church  has  been  the  champion  of 
conscience,  reason,  and  freedom.  .  .  .  No  one  is  thoroughly  capable 
of  judging  historical  facts  withoiit  pi-ejudice  as  the  believing  Catholic 
Christian." — But  while  the  vast  majority  of  Catholic  Avriters  thus  abuse 
Protestantism,  others  like  Seltmann  of  Eberswald  seek  to  win  over 
to  the  ranks  of  the  Romish  church  those  Avho  can  be  befooled  hy  fair 
speeches.  The  '•Protestant"  correspondents  in  Seltmann's periodical 
write  under  the  cloak  of  anonymity. — In  Spain  the  Reformation  was 
long  attribi;ted  to  the  Augustinians,  who  were  jealous  of  the  Dominicans 
as  the  only  dispensers  of  indulgences,  and  to  Luther's  desire  to  marr}^  ; 
but  the  poetNuiiez  de  Area  in  his  '•  Vision  de  Fray  Martin,'^  attributed 
it  to  the  corruption  of  the  church  and  papacy  of  its  time,  and  regarded 
with  sympathy  the  spiritual  struggles  of  the  reformer.  Though  as 
a  good  Catholic  he  concludes  his  poem  with  the  ban  of  the  church 
against  Luther,  he  j-et  describes  him  as  a  just  and  well-deserving 
man. 

3.  Romish  Controversy.— In  the  beginning  of  a.u.  1872  the  "Wal- 
densian  Professor  Sciarelli  published  as  a  challenge  the  thesis  that 
the  Apostle  Peter  never  set  foot  in  Rome,  and  Pius  IX.  with  childlike 
simplicity  gave  his  consent  to  a  public  disputation,  which  came  off  at 
Rome  on  9th  and  10th  February.  Three  Protestant  chamj^ions,  with 
Sciarelli  at  their  head,  were  confronted  by  three  Catholics,  headed  by 
Fabiani,  before  125  auditors  admitted  by  ticket.  Both  sides  claimed 
the  victory  ;  but  the  shorthand  reports  were  more  Avidely  read  tlirough 
Italy  than  could  be  agreeable  to  the  papal  court. 

4.  Roman  Catholic  Union  Schemes.— While  American  Protestant 
missionaries  strove  zealously  for  the  conversion  of  the  schismatical 
Eastern  Churches,  Rome  with  equal  diligence  but  little  success 
endeavoured  to  win  over  these  and  the  orthodox  Greeks  to  her  own 
communion.  There  was  great  joy  over  the  conversion  of  the  Bulgarians 
to  Romanism  in  a.d.  1860.  Taking  advantage  of  a  national  move- 
ment for  the  restoration  of  a  jiatriarchate  independent  of  Constanti- 
nople (§  207,  3),  some  French  Jesuits  succeeded  in  persuading  a  small 
nvunber  of  malcontents  to  agree  to  a  union  with  Rome.  In  18(J1  the 
poiio  consecrated  an  old  Bulgarian  priest,  Jos.  Sokolski,  archbishop 


§  17.5.   TNTEECOURSE    AND   NEGOTIATIONS.  171 

of  the  united  Bulgarian  cliurcli.  Yevy  soon,  however,  he  and  almost 
all  his  followers  returned  to  their  allegiance  to  the  Greek  Orthodox 
church.  Leo  XIII.  in  his  encijdical  of  a.d.  1880,  by  giving  conspicuous 
honour  to  Cyiil  and  Methodius,  and  uttering  kind  sentiments  about 
the  Christian  church  in  the  East,  and  conferring  high  rank  on  digni- 
taries of  the  Eastern  church,  seeks  to  smooth  the  way  for  a  union  of 
the  two  great  churches. 

5.  Greek  Orthodox  Union  Schemes- — In  a.d.  1867  the  Archbishop  of 
Canterbury  addresi^ed  a  letter  to  the  Patriarch  of  Constantinople  and 
the  whole  Eastern  church,  to  open  the  way  to  a  common  understanding 
and  union  of  the  churches,  sending  a  modern  Greek  translation  of  the 
Book  of  Common  Prayer,  and  asking  their  assistance  at  the  consecra- 
tion of  an  Anglican  church  at  Constantinople.  The  patriarch  Gregorius 
granted  this  request,  and  answered  the  letter  in  a  friendly  manner, 
passing  over  the  Anglican's  warnings  against  superstitious  additions 
to  the  doctrine,  e.g.  mariolatry,  but  characterizing  all  the  contrary 
doctrines  of  the  Thirty -nine  Articles  as  "  very  modern."  At  the  same 
time  vigorous  measures  were  being  taken  with  a  similar  object  by 
members  of  the  Eussian  and  of  the  Anglican  churches.  In  1870 
Professor  Overbeck  of  Halle  undertook  to  act  as  intermediary  in  these 
negotiations.  Ho  had  in  1865  published,  in  answer  to  the  papal 
encyclical  with  syllabus  of  December  8th,  1864  (§  185,  2),  a  tract  with 
the  motto  Ex  oriente  lux,  in  which  he  placed  the  claims  of  the  Orthodox 
eastern  church  before  the  Roman  Catholic  as  well  as  Protestant.  On 
the  opening  of  the  Vatican  Council  in  1869  he  advocated  in  a  pamphlet 
the  breaking  up  of  the  papal  church  and  the  formation  of  Catholic 
national  churches.  In  North  America  Professor  Bjerring,  of  the 
Catholic  seminary  for  priests  at  Baltimore,  took  the  same  position. 
In  March,  1871,  he  went  to  St.  Petersburg,  was  there  ordained  as  an 
Orthodox  priest,  and  on  his  return  to  New  York  instituted  a  Sunday 
service  in  the  English  language  according  to  the  Greek  rite.  Of  any 
further  advance  in  this  direction  of  luiion  nothing  is  known. 

6.  Old  Catholic  Union  Schemes. — Dollinger  (§  191,  5)  in  a.u.  1871  was 
hopeful  of  a  union  not  only  with  th(>  Greek,  but  also  ^\-ith  the  Anglican 
church,  and  similar  hopes  were  entertained  in  England  and  Russia, 
and  distinguished  representatives  of  both  communions  took  part  in 
the  Old  Catholic  congresses  (§  190,  1).  On  the  invitation  of  Dollinger, 
as  president  of  the  committee  commissioned  by  the  Freiburg  Con- 
gress of  A.D.  1874  to  tx-eat  about  union  with  the  Anglican  church, 
forty  friends  of  union  from  Germany,  England,  Denmark,  France, 
Russia,  Greece,  and  America  met  in  conference  at  Bonn.  After  a 
lively  debate  the  cleft  between  East  and  West  was  bridged  over  by 
a  compromise  treating  the  fdioquc  as  an  unnecessary  addition  to  the 
Nicene  sj-mbol,  and  asserting  that,  however  desirable  a  mutual  under- 


172      CHURCH   HISTORY   OF   NINETEENTH   CENTURY. 

standing  on  doctrinal  questions  might  be,  existing  differences  in 
constitution,  discipline,  and  worship  presented  no  bar  to  union.  The 
Catholics  presented  the  Anglicans  with  fourteen  theses  essential  to 
union,  in  which  the  anti-Protestant  doctrines  were  for  the  most  pait 
toned  down,  but  transubstantiation  distinctly  asserted.  Subsequent 
conferences  never  got  beyond  these  preliminaries.  It  was,  however, 
agreed  that,  in  case  of  necessity,  Anglicans  and  Old  Catholics  might 
dispens?  the  supper  to  one  another. 

7.  Conversions — The  most  famous  converts  of*the  century  were 
Hurter,  the  biographer  of  Innocent  III.,  the  Countess  Ida  von  Hahn- 
Hahn,  writer  of  religious  romances,  fifroerer,  the  church  historian, 
the  I'adical  Hegelian  Daumer,  the  historian  of  ante-tridentine  theo- 
logy Hugo  Lammer,  and  Dr.  Ed.  Preuss,  who  had  written  against 
the  immaculate  conception  and  for  criminal  conduct  had  to  flee  the 
country.  In  a.d.  1844  Carl  Haas,  a  Protestant  pastor,  went  over  to 
the  Romish  church,  but  the  two  new  dogmas  of  Pius  IX.  led  him  to 
study  the  works  of  Luther.  He  now  returned  to  the  Lutheran  church, 
vindicating  his  procedure  in  a  treatise  entitled,  "  To  Rome,  and  from 
Rome  back  again  to  Wittenberg,  1881."  Also  the  Mecklenburg- 
Lutheran  pastor.  Dr.  A.  Hager,  who,  after  his  conversion,  had  nndei- 
taken  the  editorship  of  an  ultramontane  newspaper  in  Breslau  in 
1873,  was  obliged  in  a  few  years  to  resign  the  appointment.  His  retui'u 
to  the  evangelical  church  was  being  talked  about,  when  he  suddenly 
died  in  1888,  after  having  received  the  last  sacrament  in  the  Catholic! 
church.  The  climax  of  abuse  of  Luther  and  the  Luthei'an  church 
was  reached  by  the  Hanoverian  Evers,  who  had  gone  over  in  1880 ; 
in  all  his  scandalous  and  vituperative  writings  he  describes  himself 
on  the  title  page  as  "formerly  Lutheran  pastor."  His  mvid-throwing, 
however,  was  carried  so  far,  that  even  the  ultramontane  Kiihu 
Volkszeitung  was  constrained  to  advise  him  to  write  more  decently. 

8.  The  Mortara  affair  of  a.d.  1858  attracted  special  attention.  The 
eight-year  old  son  of  the  Jew  Mortara  of  Bologna  was  violently  taken 
from  his  parents  to  Rome  because  his  Christian  nurse  said  that  two 
years  before,  during  a  dangerous  illness,  she  had  baptized  him.  The 
church  answered  the  entreaties  of  the  parents  and  tlie  xmiversal 
outcry  by  saying  that  the  sacrament  had  an  indelible  character,  ami 
that  the  pope  could  not  change  the  law.  Again  in  a.u.  1864,  the  ten- 
year  old  Jewish  boy,  Joseph  Coen,  apprentice  weaver  in  Rome,  was 
decoyed  by  a  priest  to  his  cloister  and  thei-e  persuaded  to  receive 
baptism.  In  vain  his  mother,  the  Jewish  community',  and  even  the 
French  ambassador,  urged  his  restoration  ;  and  when,  in  a.d.  1870,  the 
temporal  power  of  the  pope  was  overthrown,  the  lad,  now  sixteen 
years  old,  had  himself  become  siich  a  fanatical  Catholic  that  he  refused 
to  have  anything  to  do  with  his  mother  as  an  unbeliever. 


§  175.    INTEECOURSE    AND    NEGOTIATIONS.  173 

n.  Ill  the  Tyrol  in  a.d.  1830  there  were  numerous  conversions  from 
Catholicism  to  Protestantism  (§  198,  1).  A  Catholic  priest  in  Baden, 
Ilenhofer  of  Miihlhausen,  influenced  bj'  the  Avritings  of  Sailer  and 
Boos,  went  over  to  the  Lutheran  church  in  a.d.  1823,  and  continued 
down  to  his  death  in  a.d.  1862  a  vigorous  opponent  of  the  prevailing 
rationalism.  Count  Leopold  von  Seldnitzsky,  formerly  Prince-Bisho}> 
of  Breslau,  felt  obliged  in  1840,  in  consequence  of  the  conscientious 
objections  he  had  to  perform  his  official  duties  toward  church  and 
state  during  the  ecclesiastico-political  controversies  of  1830  (§  193,  1), 
to  resign  his  appointments.  He  was  subsequently  led  in  a.d.  1863, 
through  reading  the  Scriptures  and  Luther's  works,  after  a  sore  strug- 
gle, to  join  the  evangelical  Church.  He  devoted  all  his  means  to  the 
founding  of  Protestant  educational  institutions  at  Berlin  and  Breslau. 
He  died  in  a.d.  1871,  in  his  eighty-fourth  year.  The  proclamation  by 
the  Vatican  of  the  dogma  of  infallibility  drove  many  pious  and  ear- 
nest Catholics  out  of  the  Eomish  commmiion.  Of  these  Carl  von  Eicht- 
hofen.  Canon  of  Breslau,  engages  our  special  interest.  Son  of  a  pious 
Lutheran  mother,  and  trained  up  under  Gossner's  mild  spiritual  direc- 
tion (§  187,  2),  his  gentle  and  deeply  religious  nature  had  attached  itself 
to  the  Eoman  Catholic  church  of  his  father  only  under  the  illusion 
that  the  Eomish  doctrine  of  justification  was  not  wholly  irrecon- 
cilable with  the  evangelical  doctrine.  He  at  first  submitted  to  but 
soon  renounced  the  Vatican  decree;  -was  excommunicated  by  Archbishop 
Forster,  voluntarily  resigned  his  emoluments  •,  joined  the  Old  Catholics - 
in  A.D.  1873,  and  the  separated  Old  Lutherans  in  a.d.  1875.  In  the 
following  year  he  died  a  painful  death  from  the  explosion  of  a 
petroleum  lamp. — Upon  the  whole  Eome  has  made  most  converts  in 
America  and  England  :  and  she  has  suHered  losses  more  or  less  severe 
in  France,  Belgium,  Ireland,  Italy,  Spain,  and  Bohemia. 

10.  The  Luther  Centenary,  A.D.  1883.— The  celebration  of  Luther's 
birth  was  caii'ied  out  with  great  enthusiasm  throughout  all  Germany, 
more  than  a  thousand  tracts  on  Luther  and  the  Eeformation  were 
published,  statues  were  erected,  special  services  were  held  in  all 
Lutheran  churches,  high  schools,  and  universities,  and  brilliant 
demonstrations  were  made  at  Jena,  Worms,  Wittenberg,  and  Eisleben. 
There  were  founded  at  Kiel  a  Luther-house,  at  Worms  and  at  the 
Wartburg  Luther  libraries,  in  Leipzig  and  Berlin  Luther  churches. 
At  Eisleben  a  bronze  statue  of  the  reformer  was  solemnly  unveiled 
representing  liis  tearing  the  papal  bull  with  his  right  hand  and 
pressing  the  Bible  to  his  heart  with  his  left.  Another  noble 
monument  Avas  raised  by  the  munificence  of  the  emperor  by  the 
issuing  during  this  year  of  the  first  volume  of  pastor  Knaake's  critical 
edition  of  Luther's  works.  A  "German  Luther  Institute"  aims  at 
assisting  children  of  the  poorer  clergy  and  teachers,  and  a  '-Eeforma- 


174      CHURCH   HISTORY   OF   NINETEENTH   CENTURY. 

tion  Histoiy  Society"'  has  undertaken  the.  task  of  issuing  popular 
tracts  on  the  pei-sons,  events  and  principles  of  that  and  the  succeeding 
period  based  upon  original  documents.  Protestants  of  all  lands,  -with 
the  exception  of  the  English  high-church  party,  contributed  liberally  ; 
the  Americans  had  a  copy  of  the  great  Luther  statue  of  the  "Worms 
monument  (§  178, 1)  made  and  erected  in  Washington.  Even  in  Italj- 
the  liberal  press  eulogised  Luther,  while  the  ultramontanes  loaded  his 
memory  with  unmeasured  calumny  and  reproach.  The  threatened 
counter-demonstrations  of  German  ultramontanes  fell  quite  flat  and 
harmless.  The  Zwingli  Centenary  of  January  1st,  a.d.  1884,  was  cele- 
brated with  enthusiasm  throughout  the  Eeformed  church,  especialh- 
in  Switzerland.  On  the  other  hand,  the  celebration  of  the  five- 
hundredth  annivei-sary  of  Wiclif's  death  on  December  31st,  1884, 
created  comparativelj-  little  interest. 

II. — Protestantism  in  General. ^ 

§  176.    Rationalism  and  Pietism. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  century  rationalism  was  generally 
prevalent,  but  philosophy  and  literature  soon  weakened  its 
foundations,  and  the  war  of  independence  moved  the  hearts 
of  the  people  toward  the  faith  of  their  fathers.  Pietism 
entered  the  lists  against  rationalism,  and  the  Halle  contro- 
versy of  a.d.  1830  marked  the  crisis  of  the  struggle.  The 
rationalists  were  compelled  to  make  appeal  to  the  people  by 
popular  agitators.  During  a.d.  1840  they  managed  to  found 
several  "  free  churches,"  which,  however,  had  for  the  most 
part  but  a  short  and  unprosperous  existence.  They  were 
more  successful  in  a.d.  18G0  with  the  Frotestantenverein  as 
the  instrument  of  their  propaganda  (§  180). 

1.  The  old  nationalism  was  attacked  by  tin,'  disciples  of  Hogel  and 
Schelling,  and  in  a.d.  1884  Kuhr  of  "VVeimar  found  Hasc  of  Jcma  as 
keen  an  opponent  as  any  pietist  or  orthodox  controversialist.  That 
recognised  leader  of  the  old  rationalists  had  coolly  attempted  to  sub- 
stitute a  new  and  rational  form  of  doctrine,  worship,  and  constitution 
for  the  antiquated  formularies  of  the  Reformation,  and  drew  down 

*  Kahnis,  •'  Internal  Histoiy  of  German  Protr'stantism  since  the 
Middle  of  Last  Centurj'.'"    Edin.,  1S5U. 


§  176.    RATIONALISM   AND   PIETISM.  175 

iTpon  himself  the  rebuke  even  of  those  who  s3-mpathize(l  ^\■ith  him 
in  his  doctrinal  views.— In  a.d.  1817  Clans  Harms  of  Kiel,  on  the 
occasion  of  the  Reformation  centenar}',  opened  an  attack  npon  those 
Avho  had  fallen  aAvay  from  the  faith  of  their  fathers,  by  the  publication 
of  ninetj'-five  new  theses,  recalling  attention  to  Luther"s  almost  for- 
gotten doctrines.  In  a.d.  1827  Aug.  Halm  in  an  academical  discussion 
at  Leipzig  maintained  that  the  rationalists  should  be  expelled  from 
the  church,  and  Hengstenberg  started  his  Evangelische  Kirchen- 
zeitunrj.  The  jurist  Yon  Gerlach  in  a.d.  1830  charged  Gesenius  and 
AVegscheider  of  Halle  with  open  contempt  of  Christian  truth,  and 
called  for  State  interference.  In  all  parts  of  Germany,  amid  the 
opposition  of  scientific  theologians  and  the  scorn  of  iDliilosophers, 
pietism  made  way  against  rationalism,  so  that  even  men  of  culture 
regarded  it  as  a  reproach  to  be  reckoned  among  the  rationalists. 
Unbelief,  hoAvever,  Avas  Avidespread  among  the  masses.  When 
Sintenis,  preacher  in  Magdeburg  in  a.d.  1840,  declared  the  worship 
of  Christ  superstitious,  and  Avas  reprimanded  by  the  consistory, 
his  neighboui-s,  the  pastors  Uhlich  and  Ivonig,  founded  the  society  of 
the  "  Friends  of  Light,''  Avhose  assembly  at  Kothen  Avas  attended  by 
thousands  of  clergj-men  and  laj-men.  In  one  of  these  assemblies  in 
A.D.  1814,  Wislicenus  of  Halle,  by  starting  the  question.  Whether  the 
Scriptures  or  the  reason  is  to  be  regarded  as  the  standard  of  faith  ? 
shattered  the  illusion  that  rationalism  still  occupied  the  platform  of 
the  church  and  Scripture.  The  left  Aving  of  the  school  of  Schleier- 
macher  took  offence  at  the  severe  measmes  demanded  by  Hengstenberg 
and  his  party,  and  in  1846  issued  in  Berlin  a  manifesto  with  eighty- 
eight  signati;res  against  the  paper  pope  of  antiquated  Reformation 
confessions  and  the  inqu.isitorial  proceedings  of  the  Kuxhenzeilunri 
party,  as  inimical  to  all  liberty  of  faith  and  conscience,  Avishing  only 
to  maintain  firm  hold  of  the  truth  that  Jesus  Clu'ist  is  yesterdaA-. 
to-day,  and  for  eA^er  the  one  and  only  ground  of  salvation.  Tin- 
Friends  of  Light,  combining  Avith  the  German  Catholics  and  tin- 
Young  Hegelians,  fomided  Free  churches  at  Halle,  Konigsberg,  ar.d 
many  other  places.  Their  services  and  sermons  void  of  religion,  in 
Avhich  the  Bible,  the  living  Christ,  and  latterly  eA'en  the  pei-sonal  God, 
had  no  place,  but  only  the  naked  Avorship  of  humanit}',  had  temporar\- 
vitality  imparted  them  hy  tlie  reA-olutionary  movements  of  a.d.  isls. 
This  gaA'e  the  State  an  excuse,  long  Avished  for,  to  interfere,  and  soon 
scarcely  a  trace  of  their  churches  Avas  to  be  found. 

2.  Pietism  had  not  been  Avholly  driven  out  of  the  evangelical  chi;rch 
during  the  period  of  ecclesiastical  impoverishment,  but,  purified  from 
many  eccentric  excesses,  and  seeking  refuge  and  support  for  the  most 
part  by  attaching  itself  to  the  community  of  the  MoraA'ian  Brethren, 
it  had,  CA'en  in  Wiirttcmberg,  established  itself  independently  and  in 


170      CHURCH  HISTORY  OF   NINETEENTH  CENTURY. 

an  ossontially  theosophical-chiliastic  spirit.  Thfrc  ton  a  kind  of 
siiiritnalism  -vvas  introduced  b}-  the  physician  and  poet  Justin  Kerner 
of  Weinsberg,  and  the  philosopher  Eschenniaj-er  of  Tubingen,  -with 
spirit  revelations  from  above  and  below.  Amid  the  I'eligious  inove- 
mmits  of  the  beginning  of  the  century  Pietism  gained  a  decided 
advantage.  It  took  the  form  of  a  protest  against  the  rationalism 
jirevailing  among  the  clerg}-.  The  earnest  and  devout  sought  si^iritual 
nourishment  at  conventicles  and  so-called  Stundcn  addressed  by 
laj-men,  mostly  of  the  Avorking  class,  well  acquainted  with  Scripture 
and  works  in  practical  divinity.  Persecuted  by  the  irreligious  mob, 
the  rationalist  clergy,  and  sometimes  by  the  authorities,  they  by- 
and-liy  secured  representatives  among  the  younger  clergy  and  in 
the  uuivei"sity  chaii-s,  and  carried  on  vigorous  missions  at  home 
and  abroad.  This  pietism  was  distinctly  evangelical  and  Protestant. 
It  did  not  oppose  but  endeavoured  simply  to  restore  the  orthodoxy 
of  the  church  confession.  Yet  it  had  man^^  of  the  characteristics 
of  the  earlier  i)ietism:  over-estimation  of  the  invisible  to  the  dis- 
])aragement  of  the  visible  church,  of  sanctification  over  justification, 
a  tendency  to  chiliasm,  etc. — Of  no  less  importance  in  awakening  the 
religious  life  throughout  Germany,  and  especiall}-  in  Switzerland,  Avas 
the  missionary  activity  of  Madame  il(!  Kriklener  of  liiga.  This  ladj-, 
after  many  years  of  a  gay  life,  forsook  the  world,  and  began  in  A.n. 
181-t  her  travels  through  Europi>,  ])reaching  rejientance,  proclaiming 
the  gospel  message  in  the  prisons,  the  foolishness  of  the  cross  to  the 
A\-ise  of  this  world,  and  to  kings  and  ])rinces  the  majesty  of  Christ  as 
Iving  of  kings.  Wherever  she  went  she  made  careless  sinners  trendsle, 
and  drew  around  her  crowds  of  the  anxious  and  spiritually  burdeiKxl 
of  every  soi't  and  station.  Honoured  by  some  as  a  saint,  pi'ophetess, 
and  wonder-worker,  ridiculed  In'  others  as  a  fool,  persecuted  as  a 
dangerous  fanatic  or  deceiver,  driven  from  one  country  to  another,  she 
died  in  the  Crimea  in  a.d.  IS'Jl.i 

H.  The  Konigsberg  Religious  Movement,  A.D.  1835-1843.— The  pious 
theosophist,  J.  II.  Schunherr  of  Konigsberg,  starting  from  the  two 
))rimitive  substances,  fire  and  water,  developed  a  sj-stem  of  theosophy 
in  which  he  solved  the  riddles  of  the  theogony  and  cosmogon}-,  of  sin 
and  redemption,  and  harmonized  revelation  with  the  results  of  natiu-al 
science.  At  first  influenced  by  these  vicAvs,  but  from  a.u.  1819  ex- 
]>ressly  dissenting  from  them,  J.  W.  Ebel,  pastor  in  the  same  0113', 
gathered  roimd  him  a  group  of  earnest  Christian  men  and  women, 
Counts  Kanitz  and  Finkenstfin  and  their  wives,  ^'on  Tijipi'lskircli, 
afterwards  jireacher  to  the  embassy  at  Rome,  the  theological  jjroft'ssor 

1  Hagenbach,  "  History  of  Chm-ch  in  Eight^'cnth  and  Nineteenth 
Centuries,"  vol.  ii.,  pp.  '113-110. 


§  17G.    NATIONALISM   AND   PIETISM.  177 

H.  Olshauseu,  the  pastor  Dr.  Diostel,  and  the  medical  doctor  Sachs. 
After  some  years  Olshausen  and  Tippelskirch  withdrew,  and  dissen- 
sions arose  wliich  gave  opjiortunity  to  the  ecclesiastical  authorities 
to  order  an  investigation.  Ebel  was  charged  with  founding  a  sect  in 
wliich  impure  practices  were  encouraged.  He  was  suspended  in  a.d. 
1835,  and  at  the  instigation  of  the  consistory  a  criminal  process  was 
entered  upon  against  him.  Dr.  Sachs,  who  had  been  expelled  from 
the  society,  was  the  chief  and  almost  only  witness,  but  vague  rumours 
were  rife  about  mystic  rites  and  midnight  orgies.  Ebel  and  Diestel 
were  deposed  in  a.d.  1839,  and  pronounced  incapable  of  holding  any 
])ublic  office ;  and  as  a  sect  founder  Ebel  was  sentenced  to  imprison- 
ment in  the  common  jail.  On  appeal  to  the  court  of  Berlin,  the 
(.leposition  was  confirmed,  but  all  the  rest  of  the  sentence  was  quashed, 
and  the  parties  were  pronounced  capable  of  holding  any  public  offices 
except  those  of  a  spiritual  kind.  Two  reasons  were  alleged  for  depo- 
sition :  (1)  That  Ebel,  though  not  from  the  pulpit  or  in  the  public 
instruction  of  the  young,  yet  in  private  religious  teaching,  had  incul- 
cated his  theosophical  views.  (2)  That  both  of  them  as  married  men 
had  given  exjiression  to  opinions  injurious  to  the  i^uritj-  of  married 
life.  In  general  they  were  charged  with  spreading  a  doctrine  which 
was  in  conflict  with  the  principles  of  Christianitj",  and  making  such  use 
of  sexual  relations  as  was  fitted  to  awaken  evil  thoughts  in  the  minds 
of  hearers.  Ebel  was  pronounced  guiltless  of  sectarianism. — Kanitz 
wrote  a  book  in  defence,  which  represents  Ebel  and  Diestel  as  martyrs 
to  their  pure  Christian  piety  in  an  age  hostile  to  every  pietistic 
movement ;  whereas  Von  Wegnern,  followed  by  Hepworth  Dixon,  in  a 
romancing  and  frivolous  style,  lightly  give  currency  to  evil  surmis- 
ings  without  offering  any  solid  basis  of  proof.  The  whole  affair  still 
waits  for  a  patient  and  unprejudiced  investigtation.' 

4.  The  Bender  Controversy — At  the  Luther  centenar}'  festival  of  a.d. 
1883,  Prof.  Bender  of  Bonn  declared  that  in  the  confessional  writings 
of  the  Reformation  evangelical  truth  had  been  obscured  by  Romish 
scholasticism,  introduced  by  subtle  jurists  and  sophistical  theologians. 
This  called  forth  vigon^us  opposition,  in  Avhich  two  of  his  colleagues, 
38  theological  students,  59  members  of  the  Rhenish  sjaiod,  took  part. 
General-Superintendent  Baur.  also,  in  a  new  year's  address,  inveighed 
against  Bender's  statements.  On  the  other  hand,  170  students  of  Bonn, 
32  of  these  theological  students,  gave  a  grand  ovation  to  the  "  brave 
vindicator  of  academic  freedom."  The  Rhenish  and  Westphalian 
synods  bewailed  the  otfence  given  by  Bender's  address,  and  protested 

*  Mombert,  "  Faith  Victorious,  being  an  Account  of  the  Life,  Labour, 
and  Times  of  Dr.  J.  W.  Ebel,  1714-1861,  compiled  from  authentic 
Jources."    London,  1882.    Dixon,  "  Spiritual  Wives.''     London,  18G8. 

VOL.   III.  12 


178      CHURCH   HTSTOTtY   OF   NINETEENTH   CENTURY. 

against  its  hard  and  unfounded  attacks  uj^on  the  confessional  writings. 
At  the  Westphalian  sjniod,  Prof.  Mangold  said  that  the  faculty  was 
as  much  ofiendcd  at  the  address  as  the  church  had  been,  hut  that  its 
author,  ■when  he  found  how  his  words  had  created  such  feeling,  sought 
in  every  way  to  repress  tlie  agitation,  and  had  intended  only  to  pass 
a  scientific  judgment  on  ecclesiastical  and  theological  developments. 

§  177.      EVANGELICxVL    UnIOX   AND   LUTHERAN    SEPARATION, 

From  A.D.  1817  Prussia  favoured  and  furthered  the 
scheme  for  union  between  the  two  evangelical  churches, 
and  over  this  question  a  split  arose  in  the  camp  of  pietism. 
On  the  one  hand  were  the  confessionalists,  determined  to 
maintain  what  was  distinctive  in  their  symbols,  and  on  the 
other,  those  who  wotild  sacrifice  almost  an^^thing  for  union. 
For  the  most  part  both  churches  cordially  seconded  the 
efforts  of  the  royal  head  of  the  church ;  onl}^  in  Silesia  did 
a  Lutheran  minorit}'  refuse  to  give  way,  which  still  main- 
tains a  separate  existence. 

1.  The  Evangelical  Union, — Circumstances  favoured  this  movement. 
Both  in  the  Lutheran  and  in  the  Eeformed  church  comparatively 
little  stress  was  laid  upon  distinctive  confessional  doctrines,  and 
jjietism  and  rationalism,  for  different  reasons,  had  taught  the  relative 
imimportance  of  dogma.  And  so  a  general  accord  was  given  to  the 
king's  proposal,  at  the  Reformation  centenary  of  a.d.  1817,  to  fortify 
the  Protestant  church  by  means  of  a  Union  of  Lutherans  and  Cal- 
vinists.  The  new  Book  of  Common  Order  of  a.d.  1822,  in  the  pre- 
paration of  which  the  pious  king,  Frederick  William  III.,  had  hinisi'lf 
taken  part,  was  indeed  condemned  by  many  as  too  high-churcli,  even 
Catholicizing  in  its  tendency.  A  revised  edition  in  a.d.  1829,  giving 
a  Avider  choice  of  formularies,  was  legally  authorized,  and  the  union 
became  an  accomplished  fact.  There  now  existed  in  Prussia  an 
evangelical  national  church  with  a  common  government  and  liturgy, 
embracing  within  it  three  different  sections :  a  Lutheran,  and  a 
Keformed,  which  held  to  their  distinctive  doctrines,  though  not 
regarding  these  as  a  cause  of  separation,  and  a  real  imion  party,  whicli 
completely  abandoned  the  points  of  difference.  But  more  and  more 
the  union  became  identified  Avith  doctrinal  indifferentism  and  slight- 
ing of  all  church  symbols,  and  those  in  whom  the  cliurch  feeling  still 
prevailed  were  driven  into  opposition  to  the  imiou  (§  193).  The 
example  of  Prussia  in  seeking  the  union  of  the  two  churches  Avas 


§  177.    TNION   AND    SEPARATION.  179 

followed  by  Xassan,  Badon,  Ehenish  Bavaria.  Anlialt.  and  to  some 
extent  in  Hpss'-  (§!^  3  91,  VM). 

2.  The  Lutheran  Separation.— Though  the  union  denied  that  there 
was  any  passing  over  from  one  chiux-h  to  another,  it  practically 
declared  the  distinctive  doctrines  to  be  unessential,  and  so  assumed 
the  standpoint  of  the  Eeformed  church.  Steffens  (§  174,  3),  the 
friend  of  Scheibel  of  Breslau,  Avho  had  been  deprived  of  his  pro- 
fessorship in  A.D.  1832  for  his  determined  oppo^sition  to  the  union- 
and  died  in  exile  in  1843  (§  195,  2),  headed  a  reaction  in  favour 
of  old  Lutheranism.  Several  suspended  clergj-nien  in  Silesia  held 
a  synod  at  Breslau  in  a.d.  1835,  to  organize  a  Lutheran  party,  but 
the  civil  authorities  bore  so  heavily  upon  them  that  most  of  them 
emigi-ated  to  America  and  Australia.  Guericke  of  Halle,  secretly 
ordained  pastor,  ministered  in  his  own  house  to  a  small  company 
of  Lutheran  separatists,  was  deprived  of  his  professorship  in  a.d. 
1835,  and  only  restored  in  a.u.  1840,  after  he  had  apologised  l\>r 
his  conduct.  From  a.d.  1838,  the  laws  were  modified  by  Frederick 
William  IV.,  imprisoned  clergymen  were  liberated  in  a.d.  1840,  and  a 
Lutheran  church  of  Prussia  independent  of  the  national  church  was 
constituted  by  a  general  synod  at  Breslau  in  a.d.  1841,  which  received 
recognition  b}^  roj-al  favour  in  a.d.  1845.  The  affairs  are  administered 
by  a  supreme  council  resident  in  Breslau,  presided  over  by  the  distin- 
guished jurist  Huschke.  Other  separations  Avere  prevented  by  timely 
concessions  on  the  i)art  of  the  national  church.  The  separatists 
claim  50,000  members,  with  fifty  pastors  and  seven  superintendents. 

3.  The  Separation  within  the  Separation. — Differences  arose  among 
the  separate  Lutherans,  especially  over  the  question  of  the  visible 
church.  The  majority,  headed  by  Huschke,  defined  the  visible 
rhiu'ch  as  an  organism  of  various  offices  and  orders  embracing  even 
imbelievers,  Avhich  is  to  be  sifted  by  the  divine  judgment.  To  it 
belongs  the  office  of  church  government,  which  is  a  jus  diciitiivi,  and 
only  in  respect  of  outward  form  a  jus  htDimnuni.  The  opposition 
understood  visibility  of  the  preaching  of  i\w  Avoi'd  and  dispensation  of 
sacraments,  and  held  that  unbelievers  belonged  as  little  to  the  visible 
as  to  the  invisible  church.  The  distribution  of  orders  and  offices  is  a 
merely  human  arrangement  without  divine  appointment,  individual 
members  are  quite  independent  of  one  another,  the  cluu-ch  rei-ognises 
no  other  government  than  that  of  the  unfettered  preaching  of  the 
word,  and  each  pastor  rules  in  his  own  congregation.  Diedrich  of 
Jabel  and  seven  other  pastors  complained  of  the  papistical  assump- 
tions of  the  supreme  council,  and  at  a  general  synod  in  a.d.  1800 
refused  to  recognise  the  authority  of  that  council,  or  of  a  majority  of 
synods,  and  in  a.d.  1801,  along  with  their  congregations,  they  for- 
mailv  seceded  and  constituted  the  so  called  Immanuel  Synod. 


180     CHURCH    HISTORY   OF   NINETEENTH  CENTURY. 

§  178.    Evangelical  Confederation. 

Tlic  union  liad  on]y  added  a  third  denomination  to  tlio 
two  previously  existing,  and  was  the  means  of  even  further 
dissension  and  separation.  Thus  the  interests  of  Protes- 
tantism were  endangered  in  presence  of  the  unbelief  within 
her  own  borders  and  the  machinations  of  the  ultramontane 
Catholics  without.  An  attempt  was  therefore  made  in  A.u. 
1840  to  combine  the  scattered  Protestant  forces,  b}^  means 
of  confederation,  for  common  work  and  conflict  with  common 
foes. 

1.  The  Gustavus  Adolphus  Society. — In  a.d.  18B2,  on  tlio  two  Inindredth 
anniversary  of  tlic  birtli  of  the  saviour  of  German  Protestantism,  on  the 
motion  of  SnjDerintendent  Grossman  of  Leipzig,  a  society  was  formed 
for  the  help  of  needj^  Protestant  churches,  especially  in  Catholic 
districts.  At  first  almost  confined  to  Saxonj^,  it  soon  spread  over 
German3',  till  only  Bavaria  down  to  a.d.  1849,  and  Austria  down  to 
A.D.  1860,  were  exchided  by  civil  enactment  from  its  operations.  The 
masses  w^ere  attracted  by  the  simplicity  of  its  basis,  which  was  simply 
opposition  to  Catholicism,  and  tlie  demagogical  Friends  of  Light  soon 
found  suprejnacy  in  its  councils.  Because  of  oj)position  to  the  expul- 
sion of  Kiap]i,  in  a.d.  184G,  as  an  apostate  from  the  princij)le  of  })rotes- 
tantism,  great  numbers  with  chiu'ch  leanings  seceded,  and  attem})ted  to 
form  a  rival  union  in  a.d.  1847.  After  recovering  from  the  convulsions 
of  a.d.  1848,  under  the  wise  guidance  of  Zimmermann  of  Darmstadt,  the 
society  regained  a  solid  position.  In  a.d.  188;J  it  had  1,779  branches, 
besides  892  women's  and  11  students'  unions,  and  a  revenue  for  the 
year  of  aljout  £  13,000. — The  same  feeling  led  to  the  erection  of  th(i 
Luther  Monument  at  "Worms.  This  work  of  genius,  designed  by  Riet- 
sche],  and  completed  after  his  death  in  a.d.  18,")7  by  his  pupils,  and 
inaugurated  on  25111  June,  a.d.  18()8,  represents  all  the  chief  e])isodes 
in  tlie  Peformation  history.  It  was  erected  at  a  cost  of  more  than 
£20,000,  raised  by  voluntary  contributions,  and  the  scheme  proved  .so 
popular  that  there  was  a  surplus  of  £2,000,  which  was  devoted  to  the 
founding  of  bursaries  for  theological  students. 

2.  The  Eisenach  Conference. — The  other  German  states  borrowed  the 
idea  of  confed'-ration  from  Prussia  and  Wurttemberg.  It  took  practical 
shape  in  the  meetings  of  deputies  at  Eisenach,  begun  in  a.d.  1852,  and 
held  for  a  time  yearly,  and  aftcrwanls  every  second  year,  to  consult 
together  on  matters  of  worship,  discipline  and  constitution.  Beyond 
ventilating  such  questions  the  conference  yielded  no  result. 


§  178.    EVANGELICAL   CONFEDERATIOX.  181 

3.  The  Evangelical  Alliance. — An  attempt  -was  made  in  England,  on 
the  motion  of  Dr.  Chalmers  (§202,  7),  at  a  yet  more  comprehensive 
confederation  of  all  Protestant  chnrclies  of  all  lands  against  the 
encroachments  of  jDopery  and  pnseyism  (§  202,  2).  After  several 
])reliminary  meetings  the  first  session  of  the  Evangelical  Alliance  -was 
held  in  London  in  August,  a.d.  1S4G.  Its  object  was  the  fraternizing 
of  all  evangelical  Christians  on  the  basis  of  agreement  upon  the 
fundamental  truths  of  salvation,  the  vindication  and  spread  of  this 
connnon  faith,  and  contention  for  liberty  of  conscience  and  religious 
toleration.  Nine  articles  were  laid  down  as  terms  of  membership: 
]i;'lief  in  the  inspiration  of  Scripture,  in  the  Trinity,  in  the  divinity 
of  Clu'ist,  in  original  sin,  in  justification  by  faith  alone,  in  the 
obligatoriness  of  the  two  sacraments,  in  the  resurrection  of  the  body, 
iu  the  last  judgment,  and  in  the  eternal  blessedness  of  tlie  righteous- 
and  the  eternal  condenniation  of  the  ungodl}'.  It  could  thus  include 
Baptists,  but  not  Quakers.  In  a.d.  1855  it  held  its  ninth  meeting 
at  the  great  Paris  Industrial  Exhibition  as  a  sort  of  church  ex- 
liibition,  the  representatives  of  different  churches  reporting  on  the 
condition  of  their  several  denominations.  The  tenth  meeting,  of  a.d. 
1857,  was  held  in  Berlin.  The  council  of  the  Alliance,  presided  over 
by  Sir  Culling  Eardley,  presented  an  address  to  King  Frederick 
William  IV.,  in  which  it  was  said  that  they  aimed  a  blow  not  only 
against  the  sadduceanism,  but  also  against  the  pharisaism  of  the 
Cerman  evangelical  church.  The  confessional  Luthei-ans,  who  had 
opposed  the  Alliance,  regarded  this  latter  reference  as  directed  against 
them.  The  king,  however,  received  the  deputation  most  graciously, 
Avhile  declaring  that  he  entertained  the  brightest  hopes  for  the  future 
of  the  church,  and  urged  cordial  brotherly  love  among  Christians. 
Though  many  distinguished  confessionalists  were  members  of  the 
Alliance  none  of  them  put  in  an  appearance.  The  members  of  the 
•■  Protestantenverein  "  (§  180)  would  not  take  part  because  the  articles 
were  too  orthodox.  On  the  other  hand,  numerous  representatives  of 
pietism,  luiionism,  Melanchthonianism,  as  Avell  as  Baptists,  Methodists, 
and  Moravians,  cro-\vded  in  from  all  parts,  and  were  supported  by  the 
leading  liberals  in  church  and  state.  While  there  was  endless  talk 
about  the  oneness  and  differences  of  the  children  of  God,  about  the 
universal  j^riesthood,  about  the  superiority  of  the  present  meeting  over 
the  oecumenical  councils  of  the  ancient  church,  about  the  want  of 
spiritual  life  in  the  churches,  even  where  the  theology  of  the  confessions 
was  professed,  etc.,  with  denunciations  of  half -Catholic  Lutheranism 
and  its  sacramentarianisni  and  officialism,  and  many  a  true  and 
admirable  statement  of  what  the  church's  needs  are.  Merle  d'Aubigno 
introduced  discord  by  the  hearty  welcome  which  he  accorded  his 
friend  Bunsen,  which  was  intensified  by  the  passionate  maimer  in 


182      CHURCH   HISTORY   OF   NINETEENTH   CENTURY. 

wliich  Ki'unimacluT  reported  upon  it.  The  gracious  i-oj-al  reception 
of  the  members  of  the  Alliance,  at  which  Krummacher  gave  expr'ession 
to  his  excited  feelings  in  the  words,  "Your  Majesty,  we  Avould  all  fall 
not  at  your  feet,  but  on  your  neck ! "  was  described  by  his  brother, 
Dr.  F.  "W.  Krummacher,  as  a  sensible  prelude  to  the  solemn  scenes  of 
the  last  judgment.  .Sir  Culling  Eardley  declared,  "  There  is  no  moi'e 
the  North  Sea.''  Lord  Shaftesbury  said  in  London  that  Avith  the 
Berlin  Assembly  a  new  era  had  begun  in  the  world's  history ;  and 
others  who  had  ri'turneil  from  it  extolled  it  as  a  second  Pentecost. 

4.  The  Evangelical  Church  Alliance.— After  the  revolution  of  a.d,  1848, 
the  most  distinguished  theologians,  clergymen  and  laymen  well- 
afFected  toward  the  church,  sought  to  bring  alwut  a  confederation  of 
the  Lutheran,  Reformed,  United,  and  Moravian  churches.  "When  they 
held  their  second  assembly  at  Wittenberg,  a.d.  1849,  many  of  the 
strict  Lutherans  had  already  withdrawn,  especially  those  of  Silesia. 
The  Lutlieran  congress,  held  shortly  befoi-e  at  Leijizig  under  the 
presidency  of  Harless,  had  pronounced  the  confederation  unsatisfactory. 
The  political  reaction  in  favour  of  the  clnu'ch  had  also  taken  away 
the  occasion  for  such  a  confederation.  Yet  the  yearJy  delilxn-ations  of 
this  coimcil  on  matters  of  practical  church  life  did  good  service.  An 
attempt  made  at  the  Berlin  meeting  of  a.d.  1853  to  have  the  Augiistana 
adopted  as  the  church  confession  awakened  keen  opposition.  At  the 
Stuttgart  meeting  of  a.d.  1857  thero?  were  violent  debates  on  foreign 
missions  and  evangelical  Catholicity  betAveen  the  rejn-esentatives  of 
confessional  Lutheranism  who  had  hitherto  maintained  connection 
with  the  confederation  and  the  unionist  majority.  The  Lutlierans 
now  withdrew.  The  attempt  made  at  the  Berlin  October  assembly 
of  A.D.  1871,  amid  the  excitement  produced  by  the  glorious  issue  of  the 
Franco-Prussian  "War  and  the  fovmding  of  the  new  German  empire 
with  a  Protestant  prince,  to  draw  into  the  confederation  confessional 
Lutherans  and  adherents  of  the  ''  Protestantenverein,"  in  order  to 
form  a  grand  German  Protestant  national  church,  miscarried,  and 
a  meeting  of  th(^  confederation  in  the  old  style  met  again  at  Halle  in 
the  following  A-ear.     But  it  was  uoav  found  that  its  day  was  past. 

5.  The  Evangelical  League. — At  a  meeting  of  tin.'  Prussian  evangeli- 
cal middl«!  party  in  autumn,  188fi,  certain  membei-s,  '-constrained  by 
grief  at  the  surrender  of  arms  by  the  Prussian  government  in  the 
Kullnrkmnpf,"'  gathered  together  for  private  conference,  and  resolved 
in  defence  of  the  threatened  interests  of  the  evangelical  church  to 
found  an  "  Evangelical  League  "  out  of  the  various  theological  and 
ecclesiastical  parties.  Prominent  party  leaders  on  both  sides  being 
admitted,  a  number  of  moderate  rejn-esentatives  of  all  schools  were 
invited  to  a  consultative  gathering  at  Erfurt.  On  January  15th, 
1887,  a  call  to  join  the  memberbhip  of  the  league  was  issued.     It  was 


§  179.    LUTHERANISM,  MELANCHTHOXIANISM,  ETC.     183 

signed  bj'  clistinguislied  men  of  the  middle  part}',  such  as  Be3-schlag, 
Riehm  of  Halle,  etc.,  moderate  representatives  of  confessionalism  and 
the  positive  union,  such  as  Kawerau  of  Kiel,  Fricke  of  Leipzig,  Witte, 
Warneck,  etc.,  and  liberal  theologians  like  Lipsius  and  Nippold  of 
Jena,  etc. ;  and  it  soon  received  the  addition  of  about  250  names.  It 
recognised  Jesus  Christ,  as  the  only  begotten  Son  of  God,  as  the  only 
means  of  salvation,  and  professed  the  fimdamental  doctrines  of  the 
Reformation.  It  represented  the  task  of  the  League  as  twofold :  on 
the  one  hand  the  defending  at  all  points  the  interests  of  the  evangelical 
chui-ch  against  the  advancing  pretensions  of  Eome,  and,  on  the  other 
hand,  the  strengthening  of  the  communal  consciousness  of  the  Chris- 
tian evangelical  church  against  the  cramping  influence  of  party,  as 
well  as  in  opposition  to  indifTerentism  and  materialism.  For  the 
accomplishment  of  this  task  the  league  organized  itself  under  the  con- 
trol of  a  central  board  Avith  subordinate  branches  over  all  Germany, 
each  having  a  committee  for  representing  its  interests  in  the  press,  and 
Avith  annual  general  assemblies  of  all  the  members  for  common  con- 
sultation and  promulgating  of  decrees. 


§  179.      LUTHERANISM,   MeLAXCHTHOXIAXISM,    AXD 

Calvixism. 

Widespread  as  the  favourable  reception  of  the  Prussian 
union  had  been,  there  were  still  a  number  of  Lutheran  states 
in  which  the  Reformed  church  had  scarcely  any  adherents, 
e.g.  Bavaria,  Saxony,  Hanover,  Mecklenburg,  and  Schleswig- 
Holstein  ;  and  the  same  might  be  said  of  the  Baltic  Pro- 
vinces and  of  the  three  Scandinavian  kingdoms.  Also  in 
Austria,  France,  and  Russia  the  two  denominations  kept 
apart ;  and  in  Poland,  the  union  of  a.d.  1828  was  dissolved 
in  A.D.  1849  (§  206,  3).  The  Lutheran  confessional  reaction 
in  Prussia  afforded  stimulus  to  those  who  had  thus  stood 
apart.  In  all  lands,  amid  the  conflict  with  rationalism,  the 
confessional  spirit  both  of  Lutheran  and  Reformed  became 
more  and  more  pronounced. 

1.  Luther anism  within  the  Union. — After  the  Prussian  State  church 
had  been  undermined  by  the  revolution  of  a.d.  1848,  an  unsuccessful 
attempt  was  made  to  have  a  jniro  Lutheran  confessional  church  set 
up  in  its  place.    At  the  October  assembly'  in  Berlin,  in  a.d.  1871,  an 


18-1      CHURCH   HISTORY   OF   NINETEENTH    CENTURY. 

ineffectual  effoi-t  \\-as  made  by  the  United  Lutherans  to  co-opei-ate 
with  those  who  were  unionists  on  principle.  During  the  agitation 
caused  by  the  May  Laws  (§  197,  5)  and  the  Sydow  proceedings  (§  180, 4 ), 
the  first  general  evangelical  Lutheran  conference  was  held  in  August, 
A.D.  1873,  in  Berlin.  It  assumed  a  moderate  conciliatory  tone  toward 
the  union,  pronounced  the  efforts  of  the  "  Protestantenverein  "  (§  180) 
an  apostasy  from  the  fundamental  doctrines  of  the  gospel,  bewailed 
the  issuing  of  the  May  Laws,  protested  against  their  principles,  but 
acknowledged  the  duty  of  obedience,  and  concluded  an  address  to  the 
emperor  with  a  petition  on  behalf  of  a  democratic  church  constitution 
and  civil  marriage. — The  literary  organs  of  the  United  Lutherans 
are  the  '■'^  Evang.  KirchenzeUutuj^'''  edited  by  Hengstenberg,  and  now 
by  Zockler,  and  the  "  AUrjem.  konaerv.  Monafbschri/f  fiir  die  cJiribtl. 
Deutschl .,^''  by  Von  Nathusius. 

2.  Lutheranism  outside  of  the  Union. — A  genei-al  Lutheran  conference 
was  held  under  the  presidency  of  Harless,  in  July,  a.d.  1868,  at  which 
the  sentiments  of  Kliefoth,  denouncing  a  union  under  a  common 
church  government  without  agreement  about  doctrine  and  sacraments, 
met  Avith  almost  universal  acceptance.  At  the  Leipzig  gathering  of 
A.u,  1870,  Luthardt  urged  the  duty  of  firmly  maintaining  doctrinal 
unity  in  the  Lutheran  church.  The  assembly  of  the  following  year 
agreed  to  recognise  the  emjieror  as  head  of  the  church  only  in  so  far 
as  he  did  not  interfere  with  the  dispensation  of  word  and  sacrament, 
admitted  the  legality  of  a  merely  civil  marriage  but  maintained 
that  despisers  of  the  ecclesiastical  ordinance  should  be  subjected  to 
discipline,  that  commimion  fellowship  is  to  be  allowed  neither  to 
Reformed  nor  unionists  if  fixed  residents,  but  to  unionists  faithful 
to  the  confession  if  temporarj^  residents,  even  Avithout  expressly  joining 
their  party;  and  also  with  reference  to  the  October  assembly  of  the 
previous  3-ear  the  union  of  the  two  Protestant  churches  of  Germany 
under  a  mixed  system  of  church  government  was  condemned.  The 
third  general  conference  of  Ntiremburg,  in  a.d.  1879,  dealt  with  the 
questions :  Whether  the  church  should  be  under  State  control  or  free  ? 
"Whether  the  schools  should  be  denominational  or  not  ?  and  in  both 
cases  decided  in  favour  of  the  latter  alternative. — Its  literary  organ 
is  Luthardt's  "  AUr/.  Lidh.  Kirchcnzeitunrj.'''' 

3.  Melancthonianism  and  Calvinism. — The  Reformed  church  of  Ger- 
man^''  has  maintained  a  jiosition  midway  betAVcen  Lutheranism  and 
Calvinism  A'ery  similar  to  the  later  Melanchthonianism.  Ebrard  indeed 
sought  to  prove  that  strict  ]">redestinarianism  Avas  only  an  excrescence 
of  the  Reformed  system,  Avhereas  ScliAveitzer,  purely  in  the  interests 
of  science  (§  182,  9,  16),  has  shoAvn  that  it  is  its  all-conditioning  nerve 
and  centre,  to  which  it  owes  its  wonderful  vitality,  force,  and  consis- 
tency.     Heppe  of  Marburg  Avcnt   stiJl  further  than   I"]brard   in  his 


§  179.    LUTHEEANISM,  MELANCHTHONIANISM,  ETC.    185 

attempt  to  combine  Luthei'auism  and  Calvinism  in  a  Melancthonian 
church  (§  182,  16),  by  seeking  to  prove  that  the  original  evangelical 
c'hnrch  of  Germany  was  Melanchthonian,  that  after  Luther's  death 
the  fanatics,  more  Lutheran  than  Luther,  founded  the  so-called 
Lutheran  church  and  completed  it  by  issuing  the  Formula  of  Con- 
cord ;  that  the  Calvinizing  of  the  Palatinate,  Hesse,  Brandenburg, 
Anhalt  was  only  a  reaction  against  hyper-  or  pseudo-Lutheranism, 
and  that  the  restoration  of  the  original  Melanchthonianism,  and  the 
modern  union  movement  w^ere  only  the  completion  of  that  restora- 
tion. Schenkel's  earlier  contributions  to  Reformation  history  moved 
in  a  similar  direction.  Ebrard  also,  in  a.u.  1851,  founded  a  "  Ref. 
Kirclienzeitunrj.'^ — But  even  the  genuine  strict  Calvinism  had  zealous 
adherents  during  this  centuiy,  not  only  in  Scotland  (§  202,  7)  and 
the  Xetherlands  (§  200,  2),  but  also  in  Germany,  especially  in  the 
Wupperthal.  G.  D.  Krummacher,  from  a.u.  181(3  pastor  in  Elberfekl, 
and  his  nephew  F.  W.  Krummacher  of  Barmen,  were  long  its  chief 
representatives.  When  Prussia  sought  in  a.d.  1835  to  force  the 
imion  in  the  Wupperthal,  and  threatened  the  opposing  Reformed 
jiastors  with  deposition,  the  I'evolt  here  j)roved  almost  as  serious  as 
that  of  the  Lutherans  in  Silesia.  The  pastors,  with  the  majority  of 
their  people  agreed  at  last  to  the  union  only  in  so  far  as  it  was  in 
accordance  Avith  the  Reformed  mode  of  worship.  But  a  portion, 
embracing  their  most  important  members,  stood  apart  and  refused 
all  conciliation.  The  royal  Toleration  Act  of  a.d.  1847  allowed  them 
to  form  an  independent  congregation  at  Elberfekl  with  Dr.  Kohl- 
briigge  as  their  minister.  This  divine,  formerly  Lutheran  pastor  at 
An^sterdam,  was  driven  out  owing  to  a  contest  with  a  rationalising 
colleague,  and  afterwards,  through  study  of  Calvin's  writings,  be- 
came an  ardent  Calvinist.  This  body,  under  the  name  of  the  Dutch 
Reformed  church,  constitv;ted  the  one  anti-unionist,  strictly  Calvin- 
istic  denoanination  in  Prussia. — The  De  Cock  movement  (§  200,  2),  out 
of  which  in  a.d.  1830  the  separate  "  Chr.  Ref.  Church  of  Holland  " 
sjH-ang,  spread  over  the  German  frontiers  and  led  to  the  founding 
there  of  the  "  Old  Ref.  Church  of  East  Frisia  and  Bentheim,"'  Avhich 
has  now  nine  congregations  and  seven  pastors. — At  the  meeting  of  the 
Evangelical  Alliance  in  New  York  in  a.d.  1873,  the  Presbyterians 
))resent  resolved  to  convoke  an  oecumenical  Reformed  council.  A 
conference  in  London  in  a.d.  1875  brought  to  maturity  the  idea  of 
a  Pan-Presbyterian  assembly.  The  council  is  to  meet  every  third 
year ;  the  members  recognise  the  supreme  authority  of  the  Old  and 
New  Testament  in  matters  of  faith  and  practice,  and  accept  the 
consensus  of  all  the  Reformed  confessions.  The  first  "General  Pres- 
byterian Council  "  met  in  Edinburgh  from  3rd  to  10th  Jul}-,  a.d.  1877, 
about  300*  delegates  being   present.      The   proceedings  consisted   in 


186      CHUrxCH   HISTORY   OF   NINETEENTH   CENTURY. 

unmeasured  glorification  of  presbyterianism  '•  dra-\vn  from  the  wliole 
Scripture,  from  the  seventy  elders  of  the  Pentateuch  to  the  twenty-four 
elders  of  the  Apocalypse."  The  second  council  met  at  Philadelphia 
in  A.D.  1880,  and  boasted  that  it  represented  forty  millions  of  Presb3'- 
terians.  It  appointed  a  committee  to  draw  up  a  consensus  of  the 
confessions  of  all  Reformed  churches.  The  third  council  of  305  mem- 
bers met  at  Belfast  in  a.d.  1884,  and  after  a  long  debate  declined,  by 
a  great  majority,  to  adopt  a  strictly  formulated  consensus  of  doctrine 
as  uncalled  for  and  undesirable,  and  by  the  reception  of  the  Cum- 
berland Presbyterians  they  even  surrendered  the  Westminster  Con- 
fession (§  155,  1)  as  the  only  s3axLbol  qualifying  for  membership  of 
the  council.  The  fourth  council  met  in  London  in  a.d.  1887. — An 
oecumenical  Methodist  congress  "was  held  in  London  in  a.d.  1881, 
attended  by  400  delegates. 

§  180.    The  "  Protestantenvereix." 

Rationalists  of  all  descriptions,  adherents  of  Banr's  school, 
as  well  as  disciples  of  Hegel  and  Schleiermacher  of  the  left 
wing,  kept  far  off  from  every  evangelical  union.  But  the 
common  negation  of  the  tendencies  characterizing  the  evan- 
gelical confederations  and  the  common  endeavour  after  a 
free,  democratic,  non-confessional  organization  of  the  Ger- 
man Protestant  church,  awakened  in  them  a  sense  of  the 
need  of  combination  and  co-operation.  While  in  North  Ger- 
many this  feeling  was  powerfully  expressed  from  a.d.  1854, 
in  the  able  literary  organ  the  "  Protest.  KircJicnzcitung,'^ 
in  South  Germany,  with  Heidelberg  as  a  centre  and  Dean 
Zittel  as  chief  agitator,  local  ^^  Pwtcstantcnvercine'^  were 
formed,  which  combined  in  a  united  organization  in  the 
Assembly  of  Fi^ankfort,  a.d.  1863.  After  long  debates  the 
northern  and  southern  societies  were  joined  in  one.  In 
June,  A.D.  1865,  the  first  general  Protestant  assembly  was 
held  at  Eisenach,  and  the  nature,  motive,  and  end  of  the 
associations  were  defined.  To  these  assemblies  convened 
from  year  to  year  members  of  the  society  crowded  from 
all  parts  of  Germany  in  order  to  encourage  one  another  to 
persevere  in  spreading  their  views  by  word  and  pen,  and  to 


§  180.    THE    "  PROTESTANTENVEBEIN."'  187 

take  steps  towards  the  founding  of  branch  associations  for 
disseminating  among  the  people  a  Christianity  which  re- 
nounces the  miraculous  and  sets  aside  the  doctrines  of  the 
church. 

1.  The  Protestant  Assembly.— The  fii'st  general  German  Protestant 
Assembh',  composed  of  400  clerical  and  lay  notabilities,  met  at  Eisen- 
ach in  A.D.  1865,  under  the  presidencj^  of  the  jm-ist  Bluntschli  of 
Heidelberg  and  the  chief  coui't  preacher  Schwarz  of  Gotha.  A  pecu- 
liar lustre  was  given  to  the  meeting  by  the  presence  of  Eothe  of 
Heidelberg.  Of  special  importance  Avas  Schwarzs  address  on  '•  The 
Limits  of  Doctrinal  Freedom  in  Protestantism,"  which  he  sought  not 
in  the  confession,  not  in  the  authority  of  the  letter  of  Scripture,  not 
even  in  certain  so  called  fundamental  articles,  but  in  the  one  religious 
moral  truth  of  Clu-istianity,  the  gospel  of  love  and  the  divine  father- 
hood as  Clu-ist  taught  it,  expounded  it  in  his  life  and  sealed  it  by  his 
death.  In  Berlin,  Osnabriick,  and  Leipzig,  the  churches  were  refused 
for  services  according  to  the  Protcslantcnverein.  In  a.d.  1868  fifteen 
heads  of  families  in  Heidelberg  petitioned  the  ecclesiastical  council  to 
grant  them  the  use  of  one  of  the  city  churches  where  a  believing 
clergyman  might  conduct  service  in  the  old  orthodox  fashion.  This 
request  was  refused  by  fifty  votes  against  four.  Baumgarten  denounced 
this  intolerance,  and  declared  that  unless  repudiated  by  the  imion  it 
would  be  a  most  serious  siain  upon  its  reputation.  In  a.d.  1877  he 
publicly  withdreAV  from  the  societj-. 

2.  The  "  Protestantenverein  "  Propaganda. — The  views  of  the  union 
were  spread  l\y  po]nilar  lectures  and  articles  in  newsj^apers  and  maga- 
zines. The  "  Frotcstaiden-Bihel;'  edited  by  Schmidt  and  Holtzendorlf 
in  A.D.  1872,  of  which  an  English  translation  has  been  published,  giving 
the  results  of  Xew  Testament  criticism,  "  laid  the  axe  at  the  root  of  the 
dogmatics  and  confessionalism,"  and  proved  that  "  we  are  still  Chris- 
tians though  our  conception  of  Christianity  diverges  in  many  jjoints 
from  that  of  the  second  centmy,  and  we  j)roclaim  a  Clu-istianitj- 
without  miracles  and  in  accordance  with  the  modern  theory  of  the 
universe."'  The  success  of  such  efforts  to  spread  the  broad  theology 
has  been  greatly  over-estimated.  Enthusiastic  partisans  of  the  union 
claimed  to  have  the  whole  evangelical  Avorld  at  their  back,  while 
Holtzendorlf  boasted  that  they  had  all  thoughtful  Germans  A\-ith 
them. 

3.  Sufferings  Endured.  — In  many  instances  members  of  the  society 
were  disciplined,  suspended  and  deposed.  In  October,  a.d.  1880, 
Beesenmeyer  of  Mainiheim,  on  his  appointment  to  Osnabriick,  was 
examined  by  the  consistorj-.     He  confessed  an  economic  but  not  an 


188      CHURCH   HISTORY   OF   NINETEENTH   CENTURY. 

essential  Trinity,  the  sinlessness  and  perfect  godliness  but  not  the 
divinity  of  Christ,  the  atoning  power  of  Christ's  death  but  not  the 
doctrine  of  vicarious  satisfaction.  He  was  pronounced  unorthodox, 
and  so  unfit  to  hold  office.  Schroeder,  a  pastor  in  the  consistory  of 
Wiesbaden  in  a.d.  1871,  on  his  refusing  to  use  the  Apostles'  Creed 
at  baptism  and  confirmation,  Avas  deposed,  but  on  appealing  to  the 
minister  of  worship.  Dr.  Falk,  he  was  restored  in  the  beginning  of 
A.I).  1874.  The  Stettin  consistory  declined  to  ordain  Dr.  Hanne  on 
account  of  his  work  "  Z)cr  idecde  ti.  d.  (jeschichtl.  Chrixlus,'^  and  an 
appeal  to  the  superior  court  and  another  to  the  king  were  vinsuccessful. 
Several  members  of  the  church  x^rotested  against  the  call  of  Dr. 
Ziegler  to  Liegnitz  in  a.d.  1873,  on  account  of  his  trial  discourse  and 
a  previous  lecture  on  the  authority  of  the  Bible,  and  the  consistory 
refused  to  sustain  the  call.  The  Supreme  Church  Council,  however, 
when  appealed  to,  declared  itself  satisfied  with  Ziegler's  promise  to 
take  tmconditionally  the  ordination  vow,  which  requires  acceptance 
of  the  fundamental  doctrines  of  the  gospel  and  not  the  peculiar  tlieo-^ 
logical  system  of  the  symbols. 

4.  The  conflicts  in  Berlin  were  specially  sharp.  In  a.d.  1872  the 
aged  pastor  of  the  so  called  New  Church,  Dr.  Sydow,  delivered  a  lec- 
ture on  the  miraculous  birth  of  Jesus,  in  which  he  declared  that 
he  was  the  legitimate  son  of  Joseph  and  Mary.  His  colleague,  Dr. 
Lisco,  son  of  the  well-known  commentator,  spoke  of  legendary  elements 
in  the  Apostles'  Creed,  and  denied  its  authority.  Lisco  was  rejni- 
manded  and  cautioned  by  the  consistory.  Sydow  was  deposed.  He 
appealed,  together  with  twenty-six  clergymen  of  the  province  of 
Brandenburg,  and  twelve  Berlin  pastors,  to  the  Supreme  Church  Coun- 
cil. The  Jena  theologians  also  presented  a  largely  signed  petition 
to  Dr.  Falk  against  the  procedure  of  the  consistory;  while  the  AVeimar 
and  Wvirttemberg  clergy  sent  a  petition  in  favour  of  maintaining 
strict  discipline.  The  superior  court  reversed  the  sentence,  on  the 
ground  that  the  lecture  was  not  given  in  the  exercise  of  his  office,  and 
severely  reprimanded  Sydow  for  giving  serious  ofTence  by  its  public 
delivery.  At  a  Berlin  provincial  synod  in  a.d.  1877,  an  attack  was 
made  by  pastor  Ehode  on  creed  subscription.  Hossbach,  preaching  in 
a  vacant  church,  declared  that  he  repudiated  the  confessional  doctrine 
of  the  divinity  of  Christ,  regarded  the  life  of  Jesus  in  the  gospels  as  a 
congeries  of  myths,  etc.  Some  loudly  protested  and  others  as  eagerly 
pressed  for  his  settlement.  The  consistory  accepted  Rhode's  retrac- 
tation and  annulled  Hossbach's  call.  The  Supreme  Church  Council 
supported  the  consistory,  and  issued  a  strict  order  to  its  president  to 
siiftbr  no  departure  from  the  confession.  The  congregation  next  chose 
Dr.  Schramm,  a  pronounced  adherent  of  the  same  party,  who  was  also 
rejected.     In  a.d.  1870  Werner,  biograi)her  of  Boniface,  a  more  mode- 


§  181.    DISPUTES   ABOUT   FORMS   OF   WOESHIP.      189 

rate  disciple  of  the  same  school,  holding-  a  sort  of  Arian  position,  re- 
ceived the  appointment.  When,  in  a.d.  1880,  the  Supreme  Church 
Council  demanded  of  Werner  a  clear  statement  of  his  belief  regarding 
Scripture,  the  divinity  and  resurrection  of  Christ,  and  the  Apostles 
Creed,  and  on  receiving  his  replj^  summoned  him  to  a  conference  at 
Berlin,  he  resigned  his  office. 

5.  The  conflicts  in  Schleswig  Holstein  also  caused  considerable 
excitement.  Pastor  Kiihl  of  Oldensworth  liad  jjublished  an  article  at 
Easter,  a.d,  1880,  entitled,  "  The  Lord  is  Risen  indeed,"  in  which  the 
resurrection  was  made  purely  spiritual.  He  was  charged  with  vio- 
lating his  ordination  vow,  sectaries  pointed  to  his  paper  as  jjroof  of 
their  theory  that  the  state  church  was  the  apocalyptic  Babylon,  and 
petitions  from  115  ministers  and  2,500  laymen  were  presented  against 
liim  to  the  consistory  of  Kiel.  The  consistory  exhorted  Kiihl  to  be 
more  careful  and  his  opponents  to  be  niore  patient.  In  the  same  year, 
however,  he  published  a  paper  in  Avhich  he  denied  that  the  order  of 
nature  was  set  aside  by  miracles.  He  Avas  now  advised  to  give  up 
writing  and  confine  himself  to  his  pastoral  work.  A  pamphlet  by 
Decker  on  "The  Old  Faith  and  the  New,"  was  answered  by  liihr, 
and  his  mode  of  dealing  with  the  ordination  vow  was  of  such  a  kind 
as  to  lead  pastor  Paulsen  to  speak  of  it  as  a  "  chloroforming  of  his 
conscience." 


§  181.    Disputes  about  Forms  of  Worship. 

During  the  eighteentli  century  the  services  of  the  evan- 
gelical clnuTh  had  become  thoroughly  corrupted  and  dis- 
ordered under  the  influence  of  the  "Illumination,"'  and  were 
quite  incapable  of  answering  to  the  Christian  needs  and 
ecclesiastical  tastes  of  the  nineteenth  century.  Whenever 
there  was  a  revival  in  favour  of  the  faith  of  their  fathers, 
a  movement  was  made  in  the  direction  of  improved  forms  of 
worship.  The  Rationalists  and  Friends  of  Light,  however, 
prevented  progress  except  in  a  few  states.  Even  the  official 
Eisenach  Conference  did  no  more  than  prepare  the  way  and 
indicate  how  action  might  afterwards  be  taken. 

1.  The  Hymnbook.— Traces  of  the  vandalism  of  the  Illumination 
were  to  be  seen  in  all  the  hymnbooks.  The  noble  poet  Ernst  Moritz 
Arndt  was  the  first  to  enter  the  lists  as  a  restorer  ;  and  various  at- 
tempts were  made  by  Von  Eisner,  Von  Eaumer,  Bunsen,  Stier,  Knapp, 


190      CHUECH   HISTORY   OF   NINETEENTH   CENTURY. 

Daniel,  Harms,  etc.,  to  make  collections  of  sacred  songs  answerable 
to  tlie  revived  Christian  sentiment  of  the  peojale.  These  came  to  be 
largely  nsed,  not  in  the  pnblic  services,  but  in  family  worship,  and 
prepared  the  -way  for  official  revisal  of  the  books  for  church  use.  The 
Eisenach  Conference  of  a.d.  1853  resolved  to  issue  150  classical  hymns 
with  the  old  melodies  as  an  appendix  to  the  old  collection  and  a 
pattern  for  further  work.  Only  with  difficiilty  was  the  resolution 
passed  to  make  a.d.  1750  the  terminus  ad  quern  in  the  choice  of  pieces, 
Wackernagel  insisted  on  a  strict  adherence  to  the  original  text  and 
retired  from  the  committee  when  this  was  not  agreed  to.  Only  in 
a  few  states  has  the  Eisenach  collection  been  introduced ;  e.ij.  in 
Bavaria,  ^vhere  it  has  been  incorporated  in  its  new  hymnbook. 

2,  Tlie  Book  of  Chorales.— In  a.d.  1814,  Frederick  William  III.  of 
Prussia  sought  to  secure  greater  prominence  to  the  litui'gy  in  the 
church  service.  In  a.d.  1817,  Natorp  of  Miinster  expressed  himself 
strongly  as  to  the  need  of  restoring  the  chorale  to  its  former  position, 
and  he  was  followed  by  the  jurist  Thibaut,  whose  work  on  "  The 
Purity  of  Tone  "  has  been  translated  into  English.  The  reform  of 
the  chorale  was  carried  out  most  vigorously  in  Wiirttemberg,  but  it 
was  in  Bavaria  that  the  old  chorale  in  its  primitive  simplicity  was 
most  Avidely  introdviced. 

3.  The  Liturgy. — Under  the  reign  of  the  Illuminists  the  liturgy  had 
suffered  even  more  than  the  hymns.  The  Lutherans  now  went  back 
to  the  old  Reformation  models,  and  liturgical  services,  with  musical 
performances,  became  popular  in  Berlin.  Conferences  held  at  Dres- 
den did  much  for  liturgical  i-eform,  and  the  able  works  and  collections 
of  Schoberlein  supplied  abundant  materials  for  the  practical  carrying 
out  of  the  movement. 

•J.  The  Holy  Scriptures. — The  Calw  Bible  in  its  fifth  edition  adopted 
somewhat  advanced  views  on  inspiration,  the  canon  and  authenticity, 
Avhile  maintaining  generally  the  standpoint  of  the  most  reverent  and 
pious  stvidents  of  scrijDture.  Bunsen's  commentary  assumed  a  "  me- 
diating "  position,  and  the  "  Protestant  Bible  ■'  on  the  Ne^v  Testa- 
ment, translated  into  English,  that  of  the  advanced  school.  Besser's 
expositions  of  the  New  Testament  books,  of  which  we  have  in 
English  those  on  John's  gospel,  had  an  ixnexampled  popularity.  The 
Eisenach  Conference  undertook  a  revision  of  Luther's  translation  of 
till'  Bible.  The  revised  New  Testament  was  published  in  a.d.  1870, 
and  accepted  by  some  Bible;  societies.  The  much  more  difficult  task 
of  Old  Testament  revision  was  entrusted  to  a  committee  of  distin- 
guished university  theologians,  Avhich  concluded  its  labours  in  a.d. 
1881.  A  "  fjroof  "  Bible  was  issued  in  a.d.  1883,  and  the  final  cor- 
rected rendering  in  a.d.  188G.  A  whole  legion  of  pamphlets  were  now 
issued  from  all  quarters.     Some  bitterly  opposing  any  change  in  the 


§  182.    PEOTESTANT   THEOLOGY   IN   GERMANY.  191 

Luther-text,  others  severely  criticising  the  work,  so  that  the  whole 
movement  seems  now  at  a  standstill.^— In  England,  in  May,  1885,  the 
work  of  revision  of  the  English  version  of  the  Bible,  vindertaken  by 
order  of  convocation,  Avas  completed  after  fifteen  years'  labour,  and 
issued  jointly  by  the  two  universities  of  Oxford  and  Cambridge.  The 
revised  Xew  Testament,  prepared  four  years  previously,  had  been  tele- 
graphed in  short  sections  to  America  by  the  representative  of  the 
Xew  York  Herald,  so  that  the  complete  work  appeared  there  rather 
earlier  than  in  England.  But  in  the  case  of  the  Old  Testament 
revision  such  freebooting  industry  was  prevented  by  the  strict  and 
careful  reserve  of  all  concerned  in  the  work.  The  revised  New  Testa- 
ment had  meanwhile  never  been  introduced  into  the  public  services  ; 
whether  the  completed  Bible  will  ever  succeed  in  overcoming  this 
prejudice  remains  to  be  seen." 

§  182.    Peotestant  Theology  in  Germany. 

The  real  founder  of  modern  Protestant  theology,  the  Origen 
of  the  nineteenth  century,  is  Schleiermacher.  His  influence 
was  so  powerful  and  manysided  that  it  extended  not  merely 
to  his  own  school,  but  also  in  almost  all  dii'ections,  even  to 
the  Catholic  church,  embracing  destructive  and  constructive 
tendencies  such  as  appeared  before  in  Origen  and  Erigena. 
Alongside  of  the  vulgar  rationalism,  which  still  had  notable 
representatives,  De  Wette  founded  the  new  school  of 
historico-critical  rationalism,  and  Neander  that  of  pietistic 
supernaturalism,  which  soon  overshadowed  the  two  older 
schools  of  rational  and  supra-rational  supernaturalism.  On 
the  basis  of  Schelling's  and  Hegel's  philosophy  Daub 
founded  the  school  of  speculative  theology  with  an  evan- 
gelical tendency;  but  after  Hegel's  death  it  split  into  a  right 

1  Strack,  "  The  Work  of  Bible  Eevision  in  Germany,"  in  Exj^ositor, 
third  series,  vol.  ii.,  pp.  178-187. 

-  See  papers  by  Driver,  Cheyne,  Davidson,  Kirkpatrick,  in  Expositor 
for  1886-1888,  on  various  books  in  Eevised  Old  Testament.  Westcott. 
''  Some  Lessons  of  Eevised  Version  of  New  Testament,"  in  Expositor, 
third  series,  vol.  v.,  pp.  81,  2-11,  453.  Jennings  and  Lowe,  "  Eevised 
Version  of  Old  Testament :  a  Critical  Estimate,"  in  Expositor,  third 
series,  vol.  ii.,  ijp.  57,  etc. 


192      CHURCH   HISTORY   OF   NINETEENTH   CENTURY. 

and  left  wing.  As  the  former  could  not  maintain  its  posi- 
tion, its  adherents  by-and-by  went  over  to  other  schools ;  and 
the  latter,  setting  aside  speculation  and  dogmatics,  applied 
itself  to  the  critical  investigation  of  the  early  history  of 
Christianity,  and  foiinded  the  school  of  Baur  at  Tubingen. 
Schleiermacher's  school  also  split  into  a  right  and  left  wing. 
Each  of  them  took  the  union  as  its  standard ;  but  the  right, 
which  claimed  to  be  the  "  German  "  and  the  "  Modern  " 
theology,  wished  a  union  under  a  consensus  of  the  confessions, 
and  sought  to  effect  an  accommodation  between  the  old  faith 
and  the  modern  liberalism ;  w^hereas  the  left  wished  union 
without  a  confession,  and  unconditioned  toleration  of  "  free 
science."  This  latter  tendency,  however,  secured  greater 
prominence  and  importance  from  a.d.  1854,  through  combina- 
tion with  the  representatives  of  the  historico-critical  and 
the  younger  generation  of  the  Baurian  school,  from  which 
originated  the  "  free  Protestant  "  theology.  On  the  other 
hand,  under  the  influence  of  pietism,  there  has  arisen  since 
A.D.  1830,  especially  in  the  universities  of  Erlangen,  Leipzig, 
Rostock,  and  Dorpat,  a  Lutheran  confessional  school,  which 
seeks  to  develop  a  Lutheran  system  of  theology  of  the  type 
of  Gerhard  and  Bengel.  A  similar  tendency  has  also  shown 
itself  in  the  Reformed  church.  The  most  recent  theological 
school  is  that  founded  by  Ritschl,  resting  on  a  Lutheran 
basis  but  regarded  by  the  confessionalists  as  rather  allied  to 
the  "  free  Protestant "  theology,  on  account  of  its  free  treat- 
ment of  ^.certain  fundamental  doctrines  of  Lutheranism. — 
Theological  contributions  from  Scandinavia,  England,  and 
Holland  are  largely  indebted  to  German  theology. 

1.  Schleiermacher,  A.D.  1768-1834. — Thoroughly  grounded  in  philo- 
sophy and  deeply  imbued  with  the  pious  feeling  of  the  Moravians 
among  whom  he  was  trained,  Schleiermacher  began  his  career  in  a.u. 
1807  as  professor  and  univei'sity  preacher  at  Halle,  but,  to  escape 
French  domination,  went  in  the  same  year  to  Berlin,  where  by  speech 
and  writing  he  sought  to  arouse  German  patriotism.  There  he  was 
appointed  preacher  in  a.d,  1809,  and  professor  in  a,d,  1810.  and  continued 


§  182.    PROTESTANT   THEOLOGY   IN    GERMANY.      193 

to  hold  these  offices  till  his  death  in  a.d.  1834.  In  a.d.  1799  he  puhlished 
five  "  JRedeti  ilher  d.  Beligion.''''  In  these  it  was  not  biblical  and  still 
less  ecclesiastical  Cliristianity  which  he  sought  with  glowing  eloquence 
to  address  to  the  hearts  of  the  German  people,  but  Spinozist  pantheism. 
The  fimdamental  idea  of  his  life,  that  God,  "the  absolute  unity," 
cannot  be  reached  in  thought  nor  grasped  by  will,  but  only  embraced 
m  feeling  as  immediate  consciousness,  and  hence  that  feeling  is  the 
proper  seat  of  religion,  appears  already  in  his  early  productions  as 
the  centre  of  his  system.  In  the  following  year,  a.d.  1800,  he  set  forth 
his  ethical  theory  in  five  "  Monologues  "  :  every  man  should  in  his  own 
way  represent  humanity  in  a  special  blending  of  its  elements.  The  study 
and  translation  of  Plato,  which  occupied  him  now  for  several  years, 
exercised  a  powerful  influence  upon  him.  He  approached  more  and  more 
towards  positive  Christianity.  In  a  Christmas  Address  in  a.d.  1803  on 
the  model  of  Plato's  Symposium,  he  represents  Christ  as  the  divine 
object  of  all  faith.  In  a.d.  1811  he  published  his  "  Short  Outline  of 
Theological  Study,"  which  has  been  translated  into  English,  a  masterly 
sketch  of  theological  encyclopaedia.  In  a.d.  1821  he  produced  his 
great  masterpiece,  "  Der  Chr.  Glatibe,''''  which  makes  feeling  the  seat  of 
all  religion  as  immediate  consciousness  of  absolute  dependence,  perfectly 
ex^sressed  in  Jesus  Christ,  whose  life  redeems  the  world.  The  task 
of  dogmatics  is  to  give  scientific  expression  to  tlie  Christian  conscious- 
ness as  seen  the  life  of  the  redeemed  ;  it  has  not  to  prove,  but  only  to 
work  out  and  exhibit  in  relation  to  the  whole  spiritual  life  what  is 
already  present  as  a  fact  of  experience.  Thus  dogmatics  and  philosophy 
are  quite  distinct.  He  proves  the  evangelical  Protestant  character 
of  the  doctrines  thus  developed  by  quotations  from  the  consensus  of 
both  confessions.  Notwithstanding  his  protest,  many  of  his  contem- 
poraries still  found  remnants  of  Spinozist  pantheism.  On  certain 
points  too,  he  failed  to  satisfy  the  claims  of  orthodoxy ;  e.g.  in  his 
Sabellian  doctrine  of  the  Trinity,  his  theory  of  election,  his  doctrine 
of  the  canon,  and  his  account  of  the  beginning  and  close  of  our  Lord's 
life,  the  birth  and  the  ascension.^ 

2.  The  Older  Rationalistic  Theology. — The  older,  so-called  vulgar 
rationalism,  was  characterized  by  the  self-sufficiency  with  which  it 
rejected  all  advances  from  philosophy  and  theology,  science  and 
national  literature.  The  new  school  of  historico-critical  rationalism 
availed  itself  of  every  aid  in  the  direction  of  scientific  investigation. 
The  father  of  the  vulgar  rationalism  of  this  age  was  Rohr  of  Weimar, 
who  exercised  his  ingenuity  in  proving  how  one  holding  such  views 


1  "  Schleiermacher's  Life  in  Letters,"  translated  by  Rowan.  London, 
1860.  Baur,  "Religious  Life  in  Germany,"  London,  1872,  pp.  197 ff. 
Dorner,  "  History  of  Protestant  Theology,"  vol.  ii.,  pp.  374-395. 

VOL.  III.  13 


194      CHURCH    HISTORY    OF    NINETEENTH    CENTURY. 

might  still  hold  office  in  the  church.  To  this  school  also  belonged 
Paulus  of  Heidelberg,  described  by  Marheineke  as  one  who  believes  he 
thinks  and  thinks  he  believes  bnt  was  incapable  of  either ;  Wegscheider 
of  Halle,  who  in  his  "  Inditutiones  tlieol.  Christ,  dogmaticcti "  repudiates 
miracles ;  Bretschneider  of  Gotha,  who  began  as  a  supernatnralist  and 
afterwards  went  over  to  extreme  rationalism ;  and  Ammon  of  Di'esden, 
who  afterwards  passed  over  to  rational  supernaturalism. 

3.  The  foiuider  of  Historico-critical  Rationalism  was  De  Wette;  a 
contemporary  of  Schleiermacher  in  Berlin  University,  but  deprived  of 
office  in  a.d.  1819  for  sending  a  letter  of  condolence  to  the  mother  of 
Sands,  which  was  regarded  as  an  apology  for  his  crime.  From  a.d, 
1822  till  his  death  in  a.d.  1849  he  continued  to  work  unweariedly 
in  Basel.  His  theological  position  had  its  starting  point  in  the 
philosophy  of  his  friend  Fries,  which  he  faithfully  adhered  to  down 
to  the  end  of  his  life.  His  friendship  with  Schleiermacher  had  also  a 
powerful  influence  upon  him.  He  too  placed  religion  essentially  in 
feeling,  which,  however,  he  associated  much  more  closely  with  know- 
ledge and  will.  In  the  church  doctrines  he  recognised  an  important 
symbolical  expression  of  religious  truths,  and  so  by  the  out  and  out 
rationalist  he  was  all  along  sneered  at  as  a  mystic.  But  his  chief 
strength  lay  in  the  sharp  critical  treatment  which  he  gave  to  the 
biblical  canon  and  the  history  of  the  O.T.  and  N.T.  His  commentaries 
on  the  whole  of  the  N.T.  are  of  permanent  value,  and  contain  his 
latest  thoughts,  when  he  had  approached  most  nearly  to  positive 
Christianity.  His  literary  career  began  in  a.d.  1806  with  a  critical 
examination  of  the  books  of  Chronicles.  He  also  wrote  on  the  Psalms 
on  Jewish  history,  on  Jewish  archaeology,  and  made  a  new  translation 
of  the  Bible.  His  Introductions  to  the  O.T.  and  N.T.  have  been  trans- 
lated into  English. — Winer  of  Leipzig  is  best  known  by  his  "Grammar 
of  New  Testament  Greek,"  first  published  in  a.d.  1822,  of  which  several 
Eno-lish  and  American  translations  have  appeared,  the  latest  and  best 
that  of  Dr.  Moulton,  made  in  a.d.  1870,  from  the  sixth  German  edition. 
He  also  edited  an  admirable  "  Bihl.  Meallexicon"  and  wrote  a  work 
on  symbolics  which  has  been  translated  into  English  under  the  title 
"  A  Comparative  View  of  the  Doctrines  and  Confessions  of  the  Varioiis 
Communities  of  Christendom  "  (Edin.,  1873).— Gesenius  of  Halle,  who 
died  a.d.  1842,  has  won  a  high  reputation  by  his  grammatical  and 
lexicQo'raphical  services  and  as  author  of  a  commentary  on  Isaiah. — 
Hupfeld  of  Marburg  and  Halle,  who  died  a.d.  1866,  best  known 
by  his  work  in  four  vols,  on  the  Psalms,  in  his  critical  attitude 
toward  the  O.T.,  belonged  to  the  same  party. — Hitzig  of  Zurich  and 
Heidelberg,  who  died  a.d.  1875,  far  outstripped  all  the  rest  in  genius 
and  subtlety  of  mind  and  critical  acuteness.  He  wrote  commentaries 
on  most  of  the  prophets  and   critical   investigations   into   the   O.T. 


§    18'2.    PROTESTANT    THEOLOGY    IN    GERMANY.        105 

history. — Ewald  of  Gottingen,  a.d.  1803-1875,  whose  hand  was  against 
every  man  and  every  man's  hand  against  him,  held  the  position  of 
recognised  dictator  in  the  domain  of  He'brew  grammar,  and  nttered 
oracles  as  an  infallible  expounder  of  the  biblical  books.  In  his 
Journal  for  Biblical  Science,  he  held  an  annual  auto  da  fe  of  all  the 
biblico-theological  literature  of  the  preceding  year ;  and,  assumiiag 
a  place  alongside  of  Isaiah  and  Jeremiah,  he  pronounced  in  every 
preface  a  prophetic  burden  against  the  theological,  ecclesiastical,  or 
political  ill  doers  of  his  time.  His  exegetical  writings  on  the  poetical 
and  i^rophetical  books  of  the  O.T.,  his  "  History  of  Israel  down  to  the 
Post- Apostolic  Age,"  and  a  condensed  reproduction  of  his  "Bible 
Doctrine  of  God,"  iinder  the  title :  "  Revelation,  its  Nature  and 
Record  "  and  "  Old  and  New  Testament  Theology,"  have  all  appeared 
in  English  translations,  and  exhibit  everywhere  traces  of  brilliant 
genius  and  suggestive  originality.^ 

4.  Supernaturalism  of  the  older  type  (§  171,  8)  was  now  represented 
by  Storr,  Keinhard,  Planck,  KnajDp,  and  Staudlin.  In  Wiirttemberg 
Storr's  school  maintained  its  pre-eminence  down  to  a.d.  1830. 
Neander,  Tholuck,  and  Hengstenberg  may  be  described  as  the 
founders  and  most  powerful  enunciators  of  the  more  recent  Pietistic 
Supernaturalism.  Powerfully  influenced  by  Schleiermacher,  his  col- 
league in  Berlin,  Neander,  a.d.  1789-1850,  exercised  an  influence  such 
as  no  other  theological  teacher  had  exerted  since  Luther  and  Melanch- 
thon.  Adopting  Schleiermacher's  standpoint,  he  regarded  religion  as 
a  matter  of  feeling :  Pectus  est  qicod  theologum  facit.  By  his  subjective 
pectoral  theology  he  became  the  father  of  modern  scientific  pietism, 
but  it  incapacitated  him  from  rmderstanding  the  longing  of  the  age 
for  the  restoration  of  a  firm  objective  basis  for  the  faith.  He  was 
adverse  to  the  Hegelian  philosophy  no  less  than  to  confessionalism. 
Neander  was  so  completely  a  pectoralist,  that  even  his  criticism  was 
dominated  by  feeling,  as  seen  in  his  vacillations  on  questions  of  N.T, 
authenticity  and  historicity.  His  "  Church  History,"  of  which  we  have 
admirable  English  translations,  was  an  epoch-making  work,  and  his 
historical  monographs  were  the  result  of  careful  original  research.^ — 
Tholuck.  A.D.  1799-1877,  from  a.d.  1826  professor  at  Halle,  at  first  devoted 
to  oriental  studies,  roused  to  practical  interests  by  Baron  von  Kottwitz 
of  Berlin,   gave  himself  with  all  his  Avide    culture   by  preaching, 

1  Cheyne,  "  Life  and  Works  of  Heinrich  Ewald,"  in  Expositor,  third 
series,  vol.  iv.,  pp.  241  ff.,  361  fi". 

^  There  are  English  translations  of  his  "Life  of  Christ,"  "First 
Planting  of  Christianity,"  " Antignostikus,"  "History  of  Christian 
Dogmas,"  "  Christian  Life  in  the  Early  and  Middle  Ages,"  all  published 
by  Bohn. 


196      CHURCH   HISTORY   OF   NINETEENTH   CENTURY. 

lecturing  and  conversing  to  lead  his  students  to  Christ.  His  scientific 
theology  was  latitudinarian,  but  had  the  warmth  and  freshness  of 
immediate  contact  with  the  living  Saviour.  His  most  important 
works  are  apologetical  and  exegetical.  In  his  "  Preludes  to  the 
History  of  Rationalism  "  he  gives  curious  glimpses  into  the  scandalous 
lives  of  students  in  the  seventeenth  century  ;  and  he  afterwards  con- 
fessed that  these  studies  had  helped  to  draw  him  into  close  sympathy 
with  confessionalism.  While  always  lax  in  his  views  of  authenti- 
city, he  came  to  adopt  a  very  decided  position  in  regard  to  revela- 
tion and  inspiration. — Hengstenl)erg,  a.d.  1802-1869,  from  a.d.  1826 
professor  in  Berlin,  had  quite  another  sort  of  development.  Rendered 
determined  by  innumerable  controversies,  in  none  of  which  he  abated 
a  single  hair's  breadth,  he  looked  askance  at  science  as  a  gift  of  the 
Danaides,  and  set  forth  in  opposition  to  rationalism  and  naturalism 
a  system  of  theology  unmodified  by  all  the  theories  of  modern  times. 
Born  in  the  Reformed  chiirch  and  in  his  understanding  of  Scripture 
always  more  Calvinist  than  Lutheran,  rationalising  only  upon 
miracles  that  seemed  to  detract  from  the  dignity  of  God,  and  in  his 
later  years  inclined  to  the  Romish  doctrine  of  justification,  he  may 
nevertheless  claim  to  be  classed  among  the  confessionalists  within  the 
union.  He  deserves  the  credit  of  having  given  a  great  impulse  to 
O.T.  studies  and  a  powerful  defence  of  O.T.  books,  though  often 
abandoning  the  position  of  an  apologist  for  that  of  an  advocate.  His 
"  Christology  of  the  Old  Testament,"  in  four  vols.,  "  Genuineness  of 
the  Pentateuch  and  Daniel,"  three  vols.,  "  Egypt  and  the  Books  of 
Moses,"  commentaries  on  Psalms,  Ecclesiastes,  Ezekiel,  the  Gospel  of 
John,  Revelation,  and  his  "  History  of  the  Kingdom  of  God  in  the 
Old  Testament,"  have  all  been  translated  into  English. 

5.  The  so  called  Rational  Supernaturalism  admits  the  supernatural 
revelation  in  holy  scripture,  and  puts  reason  alongside  of  it  as  an 
equally  legitimate  source  of  religious  knowledge,  and  maintains  the 
rationality  of  the  contents  of  revelation.  Its  chief  representative 
was  Baumgarten-Crusius  of  Jena.  Of  a  similar  tendency,  but  more 
influenced  by  aesthetic  culture  and  refined  feeling,  and  latterly 
inclining  more  and  more  to  the  standpoint  of  "  free  Protestantism," 
Carl  Hase,  after  seven  years'  work  in  Tubingen,  opened  his  Jena  career 
in  A.D.  1830,  which  he  closed  by  resigning  his  professorship  in  a.d. 
1883,  after  sixty  years'  labour  in  the  theological  chair.  In  his  "  Life 
of  Jesus,"  first  published  a.d.  1829,  he  represents  Christ  as  the  ideal 
man,  sinless  but  not  free  from  error,  endowed  with  the  fulness  of 
love  and  the  power  of  pure  humanity,  as  having  truly  risen  and 
become  the  author  of  a  new  life  in  the  kingdom  of  God,  of  which  the 
very  essence  is  most  purely  and  profoundly  expressed  in  the  gospel 
of  the  disciple  who  lay  upon  the  Master's  heart.     The  latest  revision 


§  182.    PROTESTANT    THEOLOGY   IN    GEBMANY.       197 

of  this  work,  issued  in  a.d.  1876  under  the  title  "  GescMchte  Jesu,''  treats 
the  fourth  gospel  as  non- Johnannine  in  authorship  and  mythical  in 
its  contents,  and  explains  the  resurrection  by  the  theory  of  a  swoon  or 
a  vision.  In  his  "  Hutterus  Eedivivus,''''  a.d.  182S,  twelfth  edition  1883, 
he  seeks  to  set  forth  the  Lutheran  dogmatic  as  Hutter  might  have 
done  had  he  lived  in  these  days.  This  led  to  the  publication  of  con- 
troversial pamphlets  in  a.d.  1834-1837,  which  dealt  the  deathblow  to 
the  RatioiiaUsmus  Vulgaris.  His  "Church  History,"  distinguished 
by  its  admirable  little  sketches  of  leading  personalities,  was  published 
in  A.D.  1834.  and  the  seventh  edition  of  a.d.  1854  has  been  translated 
into  English. 

6.  Speculative  Theology,— Its  founder  was  Daub,  professor  at  Heidel- 
bei-g  from  a.d.  1794  till  his  death  in  a.d,  1836.  Occupying  and  writing 
from  the  philosophical  standpoints  of  Kant,  Fichte,  and  Schelling 
successively,  he  published  in  a.d.  1816  "  Judas  Iscariot,"  an  elaborate 
discussion  of  the  nature  of  evil,  but  passed  over  in  a.d.  1833,  with  his 
treatise  on  dogmatics,  to  the  Hegelian  position.  He  exerted  great 
influence  as  a  professor,  but  his  writings  proved  to  most  unintelligible. 
— Marheineke  of  Berlin  in  the  first  edition  of  his  "  Dogmatics  "  occupied 
the  standpoint  of  Schelling,  but  in  the  second  set  forth  Lutheran 
orthodoxy  in  accordance  with  the  formulae  of  the  Hegelian  system. — 
After  Hegel's  death  in  a.d.  1831  his  older  pupils  Rosenkrantz  and 
Goschel  sought  to  enlist  his  philosophy  in  the  service  of  orthodoxy. 
Eichter  was  the  first  to  give  offence,  by  his  "  Doctrine  of  the  Last 
Things,"  in  which  he  denounced  the  doctrine  of  immortality  in  the 
sense  of  personal  existence  after  death.  Strauss,  a.d.  1808-1874,  repre- 
sented the  "  Life  of  Jesus,"  in  his  work  of  a.d.  1835,  as  the  product  of 
unintentional  romancing,  and  in  his  "  Glaubenslehre  "  of  a.d.  1840,  sought 
to  prove  that  all  Christian  doctrines  are  put  an  end  to  by  modern 
science,  and  openly  taught  pantheism  as  the  residuum  of  Christianity. 
Bruno  Bauer,  after  passing  from  the  right  to  the  left  Hegelian  wing, 
described  the  gospels  as  the  product  of  conscious  fraud,  and  Ludwig 
Feuerbach,  in  his  "  Essence  of  Christianity,"  a.d.  1841,  set  forth  in  all 
its  nakedness  the  new  gospel  of  self-adoration.  The  breach  between 
the  two  parties  in  the  scliool  was  now  complete.  Whatever  Bosen- 
kranz  and  Schaller  from  the  centre,  and  Goschel  and  G  abler  from  the 
right,  did  to  vindicate  the  honour  of  the  system,  they  could  not 
possibly  restore  the  for  ever  shattered  illusion  that  it  was  fundamen- 
tally Christian.  Those  of  the  right  fell  back  into  the  camps  of  "  the 
German  theology  "  and  the  Lutheran  confessionalism ;  while  in  the 
latest  times  the  left  has  no  prominent  theological  representative  but 
Biedermami  of  Zurich. 

7.  The  Tubingen  School, — Strauss  was  only  the  advanced  skirmisher 
of  a  school  which  was  proceeding  under  an  able  leader  to  subject  the 


198      CHURCH    HISTORY   OF   NINETEENTH    CENTURY. 

history  of  early  Christianity  to  a  searching  examination,  Fred.  Chr. 
Baur  of  Tubingen,  a.d.  1792-1860,  ah-nost  unequalled  among  his  con- 
temporaries in  acuteness,  diligence,  and  learning,  a  pupil  of  Schleier- 
macher  and  Hegel,  devoted  himself  mainly  to  historical  research 
about  the  beginnings  of  Christianity.  In  this  department  he  pro- 
ceeded to  reject  almost  everything  that  had  previously  been  believed. 
He  denied  the  genuineness  of  all  the  New  Testament  writings,  Avith 
the  exception  of  Eevelation  and  the  Epistles  to  the  Eomans,  Galatians, 
and  Corinthians ;  treating  the  rest  as  forgeries  of  the  second  century, 
resulting  from  a  bitter  struggle  between  the  Petrine  and  Pauline 
parties.  This  scheme  was  set  forth  in  a  rudimentary  form  in  the 
treatise  on  "  The  So-called  Pastoral  Epistles  of  the  Apostle  Paul," 
A.D.  1835.  His  works,  "  Paul,  the  Apostle,"  and  the  "  History  of  the 
First  Three  Centiu-ies,"  have  been  translated  into  English.  He  had 
as  collaborateurs  in  this  Avork,  ScliAvegler,  Zeller,  Hilgenfeld,  Volkmar, 
etc.  Eitschl,  Avho  was  at  first  an  adherent  of  the  school,  made  im- 
portant concessions  to  the  right,  and  in  the  second  edition  of  his 
great  Avork,  '•'■Die  Entstelnmcj  d.  alt-katli.  Kirche,''^  of  a.d.  1857,  an- 
nounced himself  as  an  opponent.  Hilgenfeld  of  Jena,  too,  luarked 
out  new  lines  for  himself  in  New  Testament  Introduction  and  in 
the  estimate  of  early  church  doctrine,  modifying  in  various  Avays 
the  positions  of  Baur.  The  labours  of  this  school  and  its  opponents 
have  done  signal  service  in  the  cause  of  science. 

8.  Strauss,  who  had  meanAvhile  occupied  himself  Avith  the  studies 
of  Von  Hutten,  Eeimarus,  and  Lessing's  "  Nathan,"  feeling  that  the 
researches  of  the  Ttibingen  school  had  antiquated  his  "  Life  of  Jesus," 
and  stimulated  by  Eenan's  "  Life  of  Jesus,"  Avritten  Avith  French 
elegance  and  vivacity,  in  Avhich  he  described  Christ  as  an  amiable 
hero  of  a  Galilgean  village  story,  luadertook  in  1864  a  semi-jubilee 
reproduction  of  his  Avork,  addressed  to  "  the  German  people."  This 
Avas  followed  by  a  severe  controversial  pamphlet,  "  The  Half  and 
the  Whole,"  in  Avhich  he  lashed  the  halting  attempts  of  Schenkel  as 
Avell  as  the  uncompromising  conserA^atism  of  Hengstenberg.  He  noAV 
pointed  out  cases  of  intentional  romancing  in  the  gospel  narratives ; 
the  resurrection  rests  upon  subjective  visions  of  Christ's  disciples. 
His  "  Lectures  on  Voltaire  "  appeared  in  a.d.  1870,  and  in  a.d.  1872  the 
most  radical  of  all  his  books,  "  The  Old  and  the  New  Faith,"  which 
makes  Christianity  only  a  modified  Judaism,  the  history  of  the  resur- 
rection mere  "  humbug,"  and  the  whole  gospel  story  the  result  of  the 
"  hallucinations  "  of  the  early  Chi-istians.  The  question  Avhether  "  Ave  " 
are  still  Christians  h(!  ansAvers  oi:)enly  and  honourably  in  the  negative. 
He  has  also  surmounted  the  standijoint  of  pantheism.  The  religion 
of  the  nineteenth  century  is  pancosmism,  its  gospel  the  results  of 
natural  science  Avith  DarAvin's  discoA'eries  as  its  bible,  its  deA'otional 


§  18'2.    PROTESTANT    THEOLOGY   IN    GERMANY.       199 

works  the  national  classics,  its  places  of  worship  the  concert  rooms, 
theatres,  museums,  etc.  The  most  violent  attacks  on  this  book  came 
from  the  Protest aiitenvereiti.  Strauss  had  said,  "If  the  old  faith  is 
absurd,  then  the  modernized  edition  of  the  '■  Protestantenverein''  and 
the  school  of  Jena  is  doubly,  trebly  so.  The  old  faith  only  contradicts 
reason,  not  itself ;  the  new  contradicts  itself  at  every  point,  and  how 
can  it  then  be  reconciled  with  reason '?  "  ^ 

f).  The  Mediating  Theology. — This  tendency  originated  from  the  right 
wing  of  the  school  of  Schleiermacher,  still  influenced  more  or  less  by 
the  pectoralism  of  Neander.  It  adopted  in  dogmatics  a  more  positive 
and  in  criticism  a  more  consei-vative  manner.  It  earnestly  sought  to 
promote  the  interests  of  the  union  not  merely  as  a  combination  for 
church  government,  but  as  a  communion  under  a  confessional  con- 
sensus. Its  chief  theological  organs  were  the  "  Stiidien  juid  K7'itiken,''' 
started  in  a.d.  1828,  edited  bj^  Ullmann  and  Umbreit  in  Heidelberg, 
afterwards  by  Eiehm  and  IvOstlin  in  Halle,  and  the  '■^  Jalirhilcher  fUr 
deutuche  T/ieologie  "  of  Dorner  and  Leibner,  a.d.  1856-1878. — Although 
the  mediating  theology  sought  to  sink  all  confessional  differences, 
denominational  descent  was  more  or  less  traceable  in  most  of  its 
adherents.  Its  leading  representatives  from  the  Reformed  church  were  : 
Alexander  Schweizer,  who  most  faithfully  preserved  the  critical  ten- 
dency of  Sclileiermacher,  and,  in  a  style  far  abler  and  subtler  than  any 
other  modern  theologian,  expounded  the  Reformed  system  of  doctrine 
in  its  rigid  logical  consistency.  In  his  own  sj^stem  he  gives  a  scien- 
tific exposition  of  the  evangelical  faith  from  tlie  unionist  standpoint, 
with  many  pious  reflections  on  Scripture  and  the  confession  as  well  as 
results  of  Christian  exxaerience,  based  upon  the  threefold  manifestation 
of  God  set  forth  without  miracle  in  the  physical  order  of  the  world, 
in  the  moral  order  of  the  world,  and  in  the  historical  economy  of  the 
kingdom  of  God. — Sack,  one  of  the  oldest  and  most  positive  of  Schleier- 
macher's  pupils,  professor  at  Bonn,  then  superintendent  at  Magdeburg, 
wrote  on  apologetics  and  polemics.  Hagenbach  of  Basel,  a.d.  1801-1874, 
is  well-known  by  his  "  Theological  Encyclopcedia  and  Methodology," 
"  History  of  the  Eeformation,"  and  "  History  of  the  Church  in  the 
Eighteenth  and  Nineteenth  Centuries,"  all  of  -^vhich  are  translated  into 
English. — John  Peter  Lange  of  Bonn,  a.d.  1802-1884,  a  man  of  genius 
imaginative,  poetic,  and  speculative,  with  strictly  positive  tendencies, 
widely  known  by  his  "  Life  of  Christ "  and  the  commentary  on  Old 
and  New  Testament,  edited  and  contributed  to  by  him. — Dr.  Philip 

1  Zeller,  "  David  Frederick  Strauss,  in  his  Life  and  Writings." 
London,  1874.  Translations:  "Life  of  Jesus  Critically  Treated," 
1846;  "  Life  of  Jestis  for  the  German  People,"  1865  ;  "The  Old  Faith 
and  the  New,"  1874  ;  "  Ulrich  von  Hutten,"  1874. 


200      CHUECH   HISTORY   OF   NINETEENTH   CENTURY. 

Schaff  may  also  be  named  as  the  transplanter  of  German  theology  of 
the  Neander-Tholuck  type  to  the  American  soil.  Born  in  Switzerland, 
he  accepted  a  call  as  professor  to  the  theological  seminary  of  the 
German  Eeformed  church  at  Mercersbiu-g  in  1843.  He  soon  fell  under 
suspicion  of  heresy,  but  was  acquitted  by  the  Synod  of  NeAv  York  in 
1845.  In  1869  he  accepted  a  call  to  a  professorship  in  the  richly 
endowed  Presbyterian  Union  Theological  Seminary  of  New  York. 
Writing  first  in  German  and  afterwards  in  English,  his  works  treat 
of  almost  all  the  branches  of  theological  science,  especially  in  history 
and  exegesis.  He  is  also  president  of  several  societies  engaged  in  active 
Christian  work. 

10.  Among  those  belonging  originally  to  the  Lutheran  church  were 
Schleiermacher's  successor  in  Berlin,  Twesten,  whose  dogmatic  treatise 
did  not  extend  beyond  the  doctrine  of  God,  a  faithful  adherent  of 
Schleiermacher's  right  wing  on  the  Lutheran  side  ;  Nitzsch,  professor 
in  Bonn  a.d.  1822-1847,  and  afterwards  of  Berlin  till  his  death  in 
A.D.  1868,  best  known  by  his  "  System  of  Christian  Doctrine,"  and  his 
Protestant  reply  to  Mohler's  '•  Symbolism,"  a  profound  thinker  with  a 
noble  Christian  personality,  and  one  of  the  most  influential  among  the 
consensus  theologians.  Julius  Miiller  of  Halle,  a.d.  1801-1878,  if  we 
except  his  theory  of  an  ante-temporal  fall,  occupied  the  common 
doctrinal  platform  of  the  confessional  luiionists.  His  chief  work 
"  The  Christian  Doctrine  of  Sin,"  is  a  masterpiece  of  profound  think- 
ing and  original  research.  Ullmann,  a.d.  1796-1865,  professor  in  Halle 
and  Heidelberg,  a  noble  and  peace-loving  character,  distinguished 
himself  in  the  domain  of  history  by  his  monograph  on  "  Gregory 
Nazianzen,"  his  "  Reformers  before  the  Reformation,"  and  most  of  all 
by  his  beautiful  apologetical  treatise  on  the  "  Sinlessness  of  Jesus." — 
Isaac  Aug.  Dorner,  a.d.  1809-1884,  born  and  educated  in  Wiirttemberg, 
latterly  professor  in  Berlin,  aj^plied  himself  mainly  to  the  elaborating 
of  Christian  doctrine,  and  gave  to  the  world,  in  his  "  Doctrine  of  the 
Person  of  Christ,"  in  a.d.  1839,  a  work  of  careful  liistorical  research  and 
theological  speculation.  The  fundamental  ideas  of  his  Christology 
are  the  theory  favoured  by  the  "  German  "  theology  generally  of  the 
necessity  of  the  incarnation  even  apart  from  sin  (which  Miiller  strongly 
opposed),  and  the  notion  of  the  archetypal  Christ,  the  God-Man,  as  the 
collective  sum  of  humanity,  in  whom  "  are  gathered  the  patterns  of  all 
several  individualities."  His  "  System  of  Christian  Doctrine  "  formed 
the  coi^estone  of  an  almost  fifty  years'  academical  career.  Christ's 
virgin  birth  is  admitted  as  the  condition  of  the  essential  union  in  Him 
of  divinity  and  humanity  ;  but  the  incarnation  of  the  Logos  extends 
through  the  whole  earthly  life  of  the  Redeemer ;  it  is  first  completed 
in  his  exaltation  by  means  of  his  resurrection ;  it  was  therefore  an 
operation  of  the  Logos,    as  principle  of  all  divine  movement,  extra 


§  182.    PROTESTANT   THEOLOGY   IN    GERMANY.       201 

carnem.  His  "  System  of  Christian  Ethics  "  was  edited  after  his  death 
by  his  son.  1— Richard  Eothe,  a.d.  1799-1867,  appointed  in  a.d.  1823  chap- 
lain to  the  Prussian  embassy  at  Eome,  where  he  became  intimately 
acquainted  Avith  Bunsen.  In  a.d.  1828  he  Avas  made  ephorus  at  the 
preachers'  seminary  of  Wittenberg,  and  afterwards  professor  in  Bonn 
and  Heidelberg.  Eothe  was  one  of  the  most  profound  thinkers  of  the 
century,  equalled  by  none  of  his  contemporaries  in  the  grasp,  depth, 
and  originality  of  his  speculation.  Though  influenced  by  Schleier- 
macher,  Neander,  and  Hegel,  he  for  a  long  time  withdrew  like  an 
anchoret  from  the  strife  of  theologians  and  philosophers,  and  took  up 
a  position  alongside  of  Oetinger  in  the  chamber  of  the  theosophists. 
His  mental  and  spiritual  constitution  had  indeed  much  in  common 
Avith  that  great  mystic.  In  his  first  important  work,  "  J)ie  Avfdnfje 
(lev  chr.  Kirdie^''  he  gave  expression  to  the  idea  that  in  its  perfected 
form  the  church  becomes  merged  into  the  state.  The  same  thought 
is  elaborated  in  his  "  Theological  Ethics,"  a  Avork  which  m  depth, 
originality,  and  conclusiveness  of  reasoning  is  almost  unapproached, 
and  is  full  of  the  most  profound  Christian  vieAA'S  in  spite  of  its  many 
heterodoxies.  In  his  later  years  he  took  part  in  the  ecclesiastical 
conflicts  in  Baden  (§  196,  3)  with  the  Protestantenverem  (§  180,  1), 
and  entered  the  arena  of  public  ecclesiastical  life.'- — Beyschlag  of 
Halle,  in  his  "  Christologie  d.  iV,  T.,"  a.d.  1866,  carried  out  Schleier- 
macher's  idea  of  Christ  as  only  man,  not  God  and  man  but  the  ideal 
of  man,  not  of  tAvo  natm-es  but  only  one,  the  archetypal  human, 
Avhich,  hoAvever,  as  such  is  divine,  because  the  comjjlete  rejiresentation 
of  the  diAdne  nature  in  the  human.  From  this  standpoint,  too,  he 
vindicates  the  authenticity  of  John's  Gospel,  and  from  Romans  ix.-xi. 
Avorks  out  a  ''Pauline  Theodicy." — Hans  Lassen  Martensen,  a.d.  1808- 
1884,  professor  at  Copenhagen,  Bishop  of  Zealand  and  primate  of 
Denmark,  AA'ith  high  speculatiA'e  endoAvments  and  a  considerable 
tincture  of  theosophical  mysticism,  has  become  through  his  "  Chris- 
tian Dogmatics,"  "  Christian  Ethics,"  in  three  vols.,  etc.,  of  a  thoroughly 
Lutheran  type,  one  of  the  best  knoAvn  theologians  of  the  century. 

11.  Among  Old  Testament  exegetes  the  most  distinguished  are : 
Umbreit,  a.d.  1795-1860,  of  Heidelberg,  Avho  Avrote  from  the  super- 
naturalist  standpoint,  influenced  by  Schleiermacher  and  Herder, 
commentaries  on  Solomon's  Avritings  and  those  of  the  prophets,  and 
on  Job ;  Bertheau  of  Gottingen,  of  Ewald's  school,  wrote  historico- 
critical  and  philological  commentaries  on  the  historical  books ;  and 

1  Simon,  "Isaac  AugustDorner,'''' in Preshyterianlieview  for  October, 
1887,  pp.  569-616. 

-  Hothe,  "  Still  Hours,"  translated  by  Miss  Stoddard,  A\dth  Intro- 
ductory Essay  on  Eothe  by  Eev.  J.  Macpherson.     London.  1886. 


202      CHURCH    HISTORY    OF    NINETEENTH    CENTURY. 

Dillmann,  Hengstenberg"s  succt'st;i)r  in  Berlin,  specially  Jistinguislied 
for  liis  knowledge  of  the  Ethiopic  language  and  literatiu-e,  has  written 
critical  commentaries  on  the  Pentateuch  and  Job. — Among  New  Testa- 
ment exegetes  we  may  mention :  Lucke  of  Gottingen,  known  by  his 
commentary  on  John's  writings  ;  Bleek,  the  able  New  Testament  critic 
and  commentator  on  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  ;  Meyer,  a.d.  1800-1873, 
most  distinguished  of  all,  whose  "  Critical  and  Exegetical  Commentai-y 
on  the  New  Testament,"  begun  in  a.d.  1832,  in  Avhich  he  was  aided  by 
Huther,  Lunemann,  and  Dusterdieck,  is  well-known  in  its  English 
edition  as  the  most  complete  exegetical  handbook  to  the  NeAv  Testa- 
ment ;  Weiss  of  Kiel  and  Berlin,  author  of  treatises  on  the  doctrinal 
systems  of  Peter  and  of  John,  "The  Biblical  Theology  of  the  New 
Testament,"  "Life  of  Christ,"  "Introduction  to  New  Testament," 
revises  and  rewrites  commentaries  on  Mark,  Luke,  John,  and  Romans, 
in  the  last  edition  of  the  Meyer  series. — A  laborious  student  in  the 
domain  of  New  Testament  textual  criticism  was  Constant,  von  Tisclien- 
dorff  of  Leipzig,  a.d.  1815-1874,  who  ransacked  all  the  libraries  of 
Europe  and  the  East  in  the  prosecution  of  his  work.  The  publication 
of  several  ancient  codices,  e.(j.  the  Cod.  Sinaiticus,  a  present  from 
the  Sinaitic  monks  to  the  czar  on  the  thousandth  anniversary  of 
the  Russian  empire  in  a.d.  1862,  the  Cod.  Vaticamts  N.T.,  a  new 
edition  of  the  LXX.,  the  most  complete  collection  of  New  Testament 
apocrypha  and  piseudepigraphs,  and  finally  a  whole  series  of  editions 
of  the  New  Testament  (from  a.d.  1841-1873  there  appeared  twenty- 
four  editions,  of  Avhich  the  Editio  Odava  Major  of  1872  is  the  most 
com^Dlete  in  critical  apparatus),  are  the  rich  and  ripe  fruits  of  his 
researches.  A  second  edition,  compared  throughout  with  the  recen- 
sions of  Tregelles  and  Westcott  and  Hort,  was  published  by  Von 
Gebhardt,  and  a  third  volmne  of  Prolegomena  was  added  by  C.  E. 
Gregory.  As  a  theologian  he  attached  himself,  especially  in  later 
years,  to  the  Lutheranism  of  his  Leipzig  colleagues,  and  on  questions 
of  criticism  and  introduction  took  up  a  strictly  conservative  position 
as  seen  in  his  well  knoAvn  tract,  "  When  were  our  Gospels  written  ?  " 

12.  Among  the  university  teachers  of  his  time  John  Tob.  Beck, 
a.d.  1804-1878,  assumed  a  position  all  his  own.  After  a  pastorate 
of  ten  years  he  began  in  a.d.  1836  his  academical  career  in  Basel, 
and  went  in  a.d.  1843  to  Tubingen,  where  he  opposed  to  the  teaching 
of  Baur's  school  a  ptu-ely  biblical  and  positive  theology,  with  a  success 
that  exceeded  all  expectations.  A  Wlirttemberger  by  birth,  nature, 
and  training,  he  quite  ignored  the  history  of  the  church  and  its 
dogmas  as  well  as  modern  criticism,  and  set  forth  a  system  of  theology 
drawn  from  a  theosophical  realistic  study  of  the  Bible.  He  took  little 
interest  in  the  excited  movements  of  his  age  for  home  and  foreign 
missions,  union,  confederation,  and  alliances,  in  questions  about  litur- 


§   182.    PROTESTANT    THEOLOGY    IN    GERMANY.       203 

gies,  constitution,  discipline,  and  confessions,  in  all  whicli  lie  saw 
only  the  form  of  godliness  without  the  power.  Better  times  could  be 
hoped  for  onh^  as  the  result  of  the  immediate  interposition  of  God. 
His  "  Pastoral  Theology  "  and  "  Biblical  Psychology  "  have  been  trans- 
lated into  English. 

13.  The  Lutheran  Confessional    Theology.— Sartorius,  a.d.  1797-1859, 
from  A.D.  1822  professor  in  Dorpat,  then  from  a.d.  1835  general  super- 
intendent at   Konigsberg,   made  fresh  and  vigorous   attacks   upon 
rationalism,  and  supported  the  union  as  preserving  "  the  true  mean  " 
of  Lutheranism.  He  is  best  known  by  his  "  Doctrine  of  Divine  Love." 
Eudelbach,— a   Dane    by  birth  and    finally   settled    in    Copenhagen, 
occupying  the  same  ground,  became  a  violent  opponent  of  the  union. 
— Guericke  of  Halle,  beginning  as  a  pietist,  passed  through  the  union 
into  a  rigorous  Lutheran,  and  joined  Eudelbach  in  editing  the  journal 
afterwards  conducted  by  Luthardt  of  Leipzig.— Alongside  of  these 
older   representatives   of   Lutheran  orthodoxy   there  arose  a   second 
generation  which  from  a.d.  1840  has  fallen  into  several  groups.     Their 
divergencies  were  mainly  on  two  points  :  (1)  On  the  place  and  signi- 
ficance of  the  clerical  order,  some  viewing  it  as  based  on  the  general 
priesthood  of  believers  and  resting  on  the  call  of  the  congregation  for 
the  orderly  administration  of  the  means  of  grace,  others  regarding 
it  as  a  divine  institution,  yet  without  adopting  the  Eomanizing  and 
Anglican  theory  of  apostolic  succession  ;  and  (2)  On  the  more  im- 
portant question  of  biblical  prophecy,  where  one  party  maintained 
the  spiritualistic,  Avidely  favoured  since  the  time  of  Jerome,  and 
another  party,  attaching  itself  to  Crusius  and  Bengel,  insisted  upon 
a   realistic  interpretation.— At  the   head  of   the  first  group,   which 
maintained  the  old  Protestant  theory  of  church  and  office  and  looked 
askance  at  chiliastic  theories,  supporting  the  old  doctrines  by  all 
available   materials  from  modern  science,  stands  Harless,  a.d.  1806- 
1879,  professor  in  Erlangen  and  Leipzig,  the  chief  ecclesiastical  com- 
missioner in  Dresden,  and  finally  at  Munich.    His  theological  repu- 
tation rests   upon  his   "  Commentary  on  Ephesians,"   a.d.  1835,  his 
"  Cluristian  Ethics,"   a.d.  1842.     Alongside  of   him  Thomasius  of  Er- 
langen, a.d.  1802-1875,   wrought  in  a   similar  direction.— Keil,  a.d. 
1807-1888,  from  a.d.  1833  professor  in  Dorpat,  since  a.d.  1858  living 
retired  in  Leipzig,  'of  all  Hengstenberg's  students  has  most  faithfully 
preserved  his  master's  exegetical  and  critical  conservatism.     He  began 
in  A.D.  1861  in  connexion  with  Delitzsch  his  "  Old  Testament  Com- 
mentary "   on    strictly  conservative    lines.      We    have    an    English 
translation  of  that  work,  and  also  of  his  "  Introduction  to  the  Old 
Testament"   and   his   "Old   Testament   Archseology."— Philippi,  a.d. 
1809-1882,   son  of   Jewish  parents,   during   his  academic  career   in 
Dorpat,  A.D.  1841-1852,  exercised  a  powerful  influence  in  securing  for 


204      CHURCH   HISTORY   OF   NINETEENTH   CENTURY. 

strict  Lutheranism  a  very  widespread  ascendency  among  the  clergy 
of  Livonia.  From  a.d.  1852  till  his  deatk  in  a.d,  1882  he  resided  in 
Rostock.  As  exegete  and  dogmatist,  he  has,  like  a  John  Gerhard 
and  Quenstedt  of  the  nineteenth  century,  reproduced  the  Lutheran 
theology  of  the  seventeenth  century,  unmodified  by  the  developments 
of  modern  thought.  He  is  known  to  English  readers  by  his  "  Com- 
mentary on  Romans."  His  chief  work  is  "  Kirclil.  Gluuhenslehre,'''' 
in  six  vols. — Alongside  of  him,  and  scarcely  less  important,  stands 
Theodosius  Harnack,  who  went  from  Dorpat  in  a.d.  1853  to  Erlangen, 
but  returned  to  Dorpat  in  a.d.  1866,  and  retired  in  a.d.  1873.  He  has 
written  upon  the  worship  of  the  church  of  the  post-apostolic  age,  on 
Luther's  theology,  and  practical  theology. 

14.  At  the  head  of  the  second  group,  characterized  by  a  decided 
biblical  realism  and  inclined  to  a  biblical  chiliasm,  stands  Von  Hofmann 
of  Erlangen,  a.d.  1810-1877,  whose  "  Weissagung  imd  Erfullung,''''  1841, 
represents  the  very  antipodes  of  Hengstenberg's  view  of  the  Old 
Testament,  placing  history  and  prophecy  in  vital  relation  to  one 
another,  and  stud3dng  prophecy  in  its  historical  setting.  In  his 
"  Schriftheioeis  "  we  have  an  entirely  new  system  of  doctrine  drawn 
from  Scripture,  the  doctrine  of  the  atonement  being  set  forth  in  quite 
a  different  form  from  that  generally  approved,  but  vindicated  by  its 
author  against  Philippi  as  "  a  new  way  of  teaching  old  truth."  In 
his  commentary  on  the  New  Testament,  he  takes  up  a  conservative 
position  on  questions  of  criticism  and  introdviction.— Franz  Delitzsch, 
in  Rostock,  a.d.  1846,  Erlangen,  a.d.  1850,  in  Leipzig  since  a.d.  1867, 
more  intimately  acquainted  with  rabbinical  literature  than  any  other 
Chi'istian  theologian,  became  an  enthusiastic  adherent  of  Hofmann's 
position.  His  theology,  however,  has  a  more  decidedly  theosophical 
tendency,  while  his  critical  attitude  is  more  liberal.  He  is  well  known 
by  his  "  Biblical  Psychology,"  commentary  on  Psalms,  Isaiah,  Solomon's 
writings.  Job,  Hebrews,  and  a  new  commentary  on  Genesis  in  which 
he  accepts  many  of  the  positions  of  the  advanced  school  of  biblical 
criticism. — Luthardt  of  Leipzig  in  the  domain  of  New  Testament 
exegesis  and  dogmatics  works  from  the  standpoint  of  Hofmann.  His 
"Commentary  on  John's  Gospel,"  "Authorship  of  Fourth  Gospel," 
and  "  Apologetical  Lectures  on  the  Fundamental,  Saving  and  Moral 
Truths  of  Christianity,"  are  well  known. — Hofmann's  conception  of 
Old  Testament  doctrine  is  admirably  carried  out  by  Oehler,  a.d.  1812- 
1872,  with  learning  and  speculative  power,  in  his  "  Theology  of  the 
Old  Testament,"  and  in  various  important  monographs  on  Old  Testa- 
ment doctrines. — The  most  important  representatives  of  the  third 
group,  which  strongly  emphasizes  the  extreme  Lutheran  theory  of 
the  church  and  office,  are  Kliefoth  of  Schwerin,  liturgist  and  biblical 
commentator;  and  Vilmar,  who  opened  his  academic  career  at  Marburg, 


§  182.    PROTESTANT    THEOLOGY   IN    GERMANY.       205 

in  1856,  with  a  controversial  programme  entitled  "  The  Theology  of 
Facts  against  the  Theology  of  Rhetoric."  Vilmar's  lectures,  able, 
though  sketchy  and  incomplete,  were  published  after  his  death  in 
A.D.  1868  by  some  of  his  disciples.  To  the  same  school  belonged 
Von  Zezschwitz  of  Erlangen,  a.d.  1825-1886,  whose  "  Catechetics "  is  a 
treasury  of  solid  learning. 

15.  Among  Lutheran  theologians  taking  little  or  nothing  to  do  with 
these  controversial  questions,  Kahnis,  a.d.  1814-1888,  from  a.d.  1850 
pi'ofessor  at  Leipzig,  occupied  a  strict  Lutheran  confessional  stand- 
point, diverging  only  in  the  adoption  of  a  subordinationist  doctrine 
on  the  person  of  Christ,  a  Sabellian  theory  of  the  Trinity,  and  a  theory 
of  the  Lord's  supper  in  some  points  diftering  from  that  of  the  strict 
Lutherans.  His  historical  sketches  are  vigorous  and  lively.— Zockler 
of  Giessen  and  Greifswald  has  made  important  contributions  to  church 
history,  exegesis,  and  dogmatics,  and  especially  to  the  theory  and 
liistory  of  natural  theology.  In  1886  he  began  the  publication  of  a 
short  biblical  commentary  contributed  to  by  the  most  distinguished 
positive  theologians,  he  himself  editing  the  New  Testament  and 
Strack  the  Old  Testament.  It  is  to  be  in  twelve  vols.,  and  is  being 
translated  into  English.— Von  Oetingen  of  Dorpat  has  devoted  himself 
to  social  problems  and  moral  statistics.— Frank  of  Erlangen  has  proved 
a  powerful  apologist  for  old  Lutheranism,  and  in  his  "System  of 
Christian  Evidence"  has  introduced  a  new  branch  of  theology,  in 
which  the  subjective  Christian  certitude  which  the  believer  has  with 
his  faith  is  made  the  basis  of  the  scientific  exposition  of  the  truth 
set  forth  in  his  "System  of  Christian  Truth,"  a  thoughtful  and 
speculative  treatise  on  doctrine,  followed  by  "  The  System  of  Christian 
Morals"  as  the  conclusion  of  his  theological  work.— Lutheran  theology 
had  also  zealous  representatives  in  several  distinguished  jurists: 
Gosckel,  president  of  the  consistory  of  Magdeburg,  who  wrote  against 
Strauss,  sought  to  derive  profound  Christian  teaching  from  Goethe 
and  Dante,  and  wrote  on  the  last  things,  and  on  man  in  respect  of 
body,  soul,  and  spirit ;  Stahl,  a.d.  1802-1861,  professor  of  law  at 
Erlangen  and  Berlin,  leader  since  a.d.  1849  of  the  high-church  aris- 
tocratic reactionary  party  in  the  Prussian  chamber,  supported  his 
views  by  reference  to  the  Scriptiu-e  doctrine  of  the  divine  origin 
of  magisterial  authority. 

16.  As  zealous  representatives  of  Reformed  Confessionalism  who  set 
aside  the  dogma  of  predestination  and  so  show  no  antagonism  to  the 
union,  may  be  named  :  Heppe,  opponent  of  Vilmar  in  Marburg,  who 
devoted  much  of  his  career  as  a  historian  to  the  undermining  of 
Lutheranism,  then  wrought  upon  the  histories  of  provincial  churches, 
of  Catholic  mysticism  and  pietism,  etc. ;  and  Ebrard,  a.d,  1818-1887, 
a    brilliant    believing    theologian   who    combated    rationalism    and 


•206      CHURCH    HISTORY    OF    NINETKENTH    CENTURY. 

Catholicism,  professor  from  a.d.  1847  of  Reformed  theology  at  Erlangen, 
kno^^^l  by  his  "  Gospel  History  :  a  Comi^endium  of  Critical  Investiga- 
tions in  Supi^ort  of  the  Historical  Church  of  the  Four  Gospels,"  his 
"  Apologetics,"  in  3  vols.,  "  Commentary  on  Hebrews,"  etc. 

17.  The  Free  Protestant  Theology. — This  school  originated  in  the  left 
wing  of  8clileiermacher"s  following,  and  has  as  its  literary  organs, 
Hilgenfeld's  Zeitschrift  and  the  Jahrhilcher  fur  prot,  Theologie. — The 
distinguished  statesman,  Von  Bunsen,  a.d.  1791-1860,  ambassador  at 
Eome  and  afterwards  at  London,  at  first  stood  at  the  head  of  the 
revival  of  the  church  interests  and  life ;  but  in  his  "  Church  of  the 
Future,"  conceived  a  constitutional  idea  on  a  democratic  basis,  for 
which  he  sought  support  in  historical  studies  on  the  Ignatian  age, 
etc.,  and  the  historical  i-efutation  of  the  orthodox  Christology  and 
trinitarianism.  His  elaborate  work  on  "Egypt's  Place  in  the 
World's  History,"  full  of  arbitrary  criticism,  negative  and  positive, 
on  the  chronological  and  historical  data  of  the  Old  Testament,  seeks 
to  show  that,  by  restoring  the  Egyptian  chronology,  we  for  the  first 
time  make  the  Bible  history  fit  into  general  history.  "  The  Signs  of 
the  Times"  comprise  glowing  philippics  against  the  hierarchical  pre- 
tensions of  Papists  and  even  more  dangerous  Lutherans,  insists  on 
Scripture  being  translated  out  of  the  Semitic  into  the  Japhetic  mode 
of  speech,  to  which  end  he  devoted  his  last  great  works,  "  God  in 
History  "  and  his  "  Bible  Commentary,"  the  latter  finished  after  his 
death  by  Kamphausen  and  Holtzmann. — Schenkel,  a.d.  1813-1885, 
professor  at  Heidelberg  from  a.d.  1851  till  his  resignation  in  a.d.  1884, 
from  the  right  wing  of  the  mediating  school,  through  unionism  and 
Melanchthonianism  advanced  to  the  standpoint  of  his  "  Charakterhild 
Jesu,''^  which  strips  Clrrist  of  all  supernatural  features,  yet  proclaims 
him  the  redeemer  of  the  world,  and  strives  to  save  his  resurrection  as 
a  historical  and  saving  truth,  and  explains  his  appearances  after  the 
resurrection  as  "  real  manifestations  of  the  personality  living  and 
glorified  after  death."  In  later  years  he  sought  to  draw  yet  more 
closely  to  positive  Christianity.  Keim  of  Zurich  and  Giessen,  a.d. 
1825-1878,  the  ablest  of  all  recent  historians  of  the  life  of  Jesus, 
and  with  all  his  radicalism  preserving  some  conservative  tendencies, 
is  best  known  by  his  "  Jesus  of  Nazareth,"  in  six  vols. — Holtzmann  of 
Heidelberg  and  Strassburg,  j)assed  from  the  mediating  school  over 
to  that  of  Tiibingen,  from  which  in  important  points  he  has  now 
departed. — To  the  same  rank  belongs  Hausrath  of  Heidelberg,  whose 
"  History  of  the  New  Testament  Times  "  is  well  known.  Under  the 
pseudonym  of  George  Taylor  he  has  composed  several  highly  success- 
ful historical  romances.— The  organs  of  this  school  are  Hilgenfeld's 
Zeitschrift,  and  since  1875  the  Jena  "  Jahrhilclier  fllr  ^n'-otest.  T/ieoIogiey 

18.  In  the  Old  Testament  Department   a  liberal    critical   school    has 


§  182.    PROTESTANT    THEOLOGY    IN    GERMANY.       207 

arisen  which  has  reversed  the  old  relation  of  "  the  law  and  the 
l^rophets,"  treating  the  origin  of  the  law  as  post-exilian,  and  as 
in  not  coming  at  the  beginning,  but  at  the  end  of  the  Jewish 
history.  Reuss,  whose  "History  of  the  New  Testament  Books" 
marked  an  epoch  in  New  Testament  introduction,  was  the  first  who 
moved  in  this  direction,  in  his  lectiu'es  begun  at  Strassburg  in  a.d, 
1834,  the  results  of  which  are  given  us  in  his  "  History  of  the  Tlieo- 
logy  of  the  Apostolic  Age"  and  in  his  "History  of  the  Canon." 
Meanwhile  Vatke  of  Berlin  had,  in  a.d.  1835,  undertaken  to  prove  that 
the  patriarchal  religion  was  pure  Semitic  nature  Avorship,  and  that 
the  prophets  were  the  first  to  raise  it  into  a  monotheistic  Jehovism. 
Little  success  attended  his  efforts.  Greater  results  were  obtained  by 
Reuss'  two  pupils,  Graf  in  a.d.  1866,  and  Kayser  in  a.d.  1874.  The 
niost  brilliant  exposition  of  this  theory  was  given  by  Julius  Well- 
hausen  of  Greifswald,  transferred  in  a.d.  1882  to  the  Philosophical 
Faculty  of  Halle,  in  his  "  History  of  Israel."  In  his  "  Pi-olegomena  to 
History  of  Israel,"  and  article  "  Israel  "  in  "  Encijdopcedia  Brltannica,''^ 
lie  gives  expression  with  clearness  and  force  to  his  radical  negative 
criticism,  and  develop.s  a  purely  naturalist  conception  of  the  Old 
Testament.  Professor  Kueiien  of  Leyden  transplanted  these  views  to 
the  Netherlands,  and  Robertson  Smith  has  introduced  them  into 
Scotland  and  England,  while  in  Germany  they  are  taught  by  a  number 
of  the  younger  teachers,  Stade  in  Giessen,  Merx  in  Heidelberg,  Smend 
in  Basel,  etc.  And  now  at  last  in  a.d.  1882  the  venerable  master  of  the 
school,  Edward  Reuss,  has  himself  in  his  "  Geschiclde  d.  h.  Sdir.  d.  A. 
Test."'  given  a  brilliant  and  in  many  points  modified  exjjosition  of 
these  radical  theories.  The  history  of  Israel,  according  to  him, 
divides  itself  into  the  four  successive  periods  of  the  heroes,  of  the 
Ijrophets,  of  the  priests,  and  of  the  scribes,  characterized  respectivelv 
by  individualism,  idealism,  formalism,  and  traditionalism.  Even 
before  the  close  of  prophetism  the  loriestly  influence  began  to  assert 
itself,  but  it  was  only  in  the  post-exilian  period  under  the  domina- 
tion of  the  priests  that  the  construction  and  codification  of  the  law 
began  to  make  impression  on  the  Jewish  people.  So  too  in  the  age  of 
the  kings  there  existed  a  Levitical  tradition  about  rites  and  worship 
which  traced  back  its  first  outlmes  to  the  time  of  Moses,  though  at 
this  period  there  could  have  been  no  written  official  codex  of  any 
kind.  In  regard  to  Moses,  we  are  to  think  not  only  of  his  person  as 
historical,  but  also  of  his  career  as  that  of  a  man  inspired  by  the 
divine  spirit  and  recognised  as  such  by  his  contemporaries  and  fellow- 
countrymen. — Also  Wellhausen,  who  has  hitherto  concerned  himself 
only  with  the  critical  introduction  to  the  Old  Testament  books  not 
with  their  historical  or  theological  interpretation,  su])])li('d  this  defect 
to  some  extent  by  his  "  Prolegomena  to  the  History-  .      Israel."     He 


208      CHURCII   HISTORY    OF    NINETEENTH    CENTURY. 

admits  that  much  of  the  history  of  Israel  related  in  the  Old  Testament 
is  credible.  He  even  goes  so  far  as  to  allow  that  this  history  was  a 
pr(>paration  and  forerunner  of  Christianity,  but  without  mii'acle  and 
prophecy,  and  without  any  immediate  interposition  of  God  in  the 
affairs  of  Israel. 

19.  Among  the  most  distinguished  free-thinking  dogmatists  of 
recent  times,  Biedermann  of  Zurich,  a.d.  1819-1885,  has  occupied  the 
most  advanced  position.  His  principal  work,  "  Cliridliche  Dorjmatik,^'' 
A.D.  1869,  defined  God  and  the  origin  of  the  world  as  the  self -develop- 
ment of  the  Absolute  Idea  according  to  the  Hegelian  scheme,  recognises 
in  the  person  of  Christ  the  first  realization  of  the  Christian  principle 
of  the  divine  sonship  in  a  personal  life,  then  proceeds  with  free  exposi- 
tion of  the  Scripture  and  church  doctrines,  and  combats  openly  the 
doctrines  of  the  church  and  through  them  also  those  of  Scripture,  as 
setting  religion  purely  in  the  domain  of  the  imagination. — Lipsius 
of  Leipzig,  Kiel,  and  Jena,  in  his  earliest  treatise  on  the  Pauline  Doc- 
trine of  Justification  in  a.d.  1853,  held  the  jxjsition  of  the  mediating 
theology,  but  luider  the  influence  of  Kant,  Hegel,  and  Baur  has  been 
led  to  adopt  the  standpoint  of  the  "  Free  Protestant "  school.  His 
history  of  gnosticism  and  his  researches  in  early  apocryphal  literature 
are  important  contributions  to  our  knowledge  of  primitive  Chris- 
tianity. His  "  Lehrbuch  d.  ev.  prot.  Dogmatik,''''  1876,  2nd  ed.  1879,  on 
the  basis  of  Kant  and  Schleiermacher,  fixing  the  limits  of  science 
Avith  the  former,  and  maintaining  with  the  latter  the  necessity  of  reli- 
gious faith  and  life,  not  rejecting  metaphysics  generally,  but  only  its 
speculations  on  God  and  divine  things  lying  qiiite  outside  of  human 
experience,  seeks  from  the  common  faith  of  the  Christian  chiirch  of 
all  ages,  as  it  is  expressed  in  the  Scriptures  and  in  the  confessions,  by 
the  ajjplication  of  the  freest  subjective  criticism  of  the  letter  of  revela- 
tion, to  secure  a  theory  of  the  world  in  harmony  with  modern  views. — 
Pfleiderer,  Twesten's  successor  in  Berlin,  in  his  "Paulinism,"  "Influence 
of  Paul  on  Development  of  Christianity  "  and  "  History  of  the  Philo- 
sophy of  Religion,"  occupies  more  the  Hegelian  speculative  standpoint 
than  that  of  Kantian  criticism. 

20.  Ritschl  and  his  School.— Ritschl,  1822-1889,  from  a.d.  1846  in 
Bonn,  from  a.d.  18(11  in  Gottingen,  on  his  withdrawal  from  the  Tiibingen 
party,  applied  himself  to  dogmatic  studies  and  founded  a  school,  the 
adherents  of  which,  divided  into  right  and  left  wings,  have  secured 
quite  a  number  of  academical  appointments.  After  the  completion  of 
his  great  dogmatic  work  on  "Justification  and  Eeconciliation,"  Ritschl 
resumed  his  historical  studies  in  a  "  History  of  Pietism,"  which  he 
traces  back  thi-ough  the  persecuted  anabaptists  of  the  Reformation 
age  to  the  Tertiaries  of  the  Franciscan  order  and  the  mysticism  of  St. 
Bei'nard.     He  earnestly  maintains  his  adherence  to  the  confessions  of 


§  182.    PROTESTANT   THEOLOGY   IN    GERMANY.       209 

the  Lutheran  church,  and  regards  it  as  the  task  of  his  life  to  disen- 
tangle the  pure  Lutheran  doctrine  from  the  accretions  of  scholastic 
metaphysics.  Even  more  decidedly  than  Schleiermacher,  he  banishes 
all  philosophy  from  the  domain  of  theology.  The  grand  significance 
of  Kant's  doctrine  of  knowledge,  with  its  assertion  of  the  incomprehen- 
sibility of  all  transcendent  truth  except  the  ethical  postulates  of  God, 
freedom  and  immortality,  as  set  forth  in  a  more  profound  manner  by 
Lotze,  is  indeed  admitted,  but  onlj^  as  a  methodological  basis  of  all 
religious  inquiries,  and  with  determined  rejection  of  every  material 
support  from  Kant's  construction  of  religion  within  the  limits  of 
the  pure  reason.  B-itschl  rather  pronounces  in  favour  of  the  formal 
principle  of  Protestantism,  and  declares  distinctly  that  all  religious 
truth  must  be  drawn  directly  from  Scripture,  primarily  from  the  New 
Testament  as  the  witness  of  the  early  church  uncorrupted  by  the 
Platonic-Aristotelian  metaphysic,  but  also  secondarily  from  the  Old 
Testament  as  the  record  of  the  content  of  revelation  made  to  the 
religious  community  of  Israel.  The  truthfulness  of  the  biblical, 
especially  of  the  New  Testament,  system  of  truth,  rests,  however,  not 
on  any  theory  of  inspiration,  but  on  its  being  an  authentic  statement 
of  the  early  church  of  the  doctrine  of  Christ,  inasmuch  as  to  this 
witness  the  necessary  degree  of  fides  hummia  belongs.  Eitschl's 
Christology  rests  on  the  witness  of  Christ  to  himself  in  the  synoptists 
through  which  he  proclaims  himself  the  one  prophet  who  in  the 
divine  purpose  of  grace  for  mankind  has  received  perfect  consecration, 
sent  by  God  into  the  world  to  represent  the  founding  of  the  kino'dom 
of  God  on  earth  foreshadowed  in  the  Old  Testament  revelation  ;  but 
no  attempt  is  made  to  explain  how  Christ  became  possessed  of  the 
secrets  of  the  divine  decree.  To  him,  as  the  first  and  only  begotten 
Son  of  God,  standing  in  essential  union  with  the  Father,  belongs  the 
attribute  of  deity  and  the  right  of  worship.  But  of  an  eternal  pre- 
existence  of  Christ  we  can  speak  only  in  so  far  as  this  is  meant  of  the 
eternal  gracious  purpose  of  God  to  redeem  the  world  through  him  by 
means  of  the  complete  unfolding  of  the  kingdom  of  God  in  the  fellow- 
ship of  love.  Whatever  goes  beyond  this  in  the  fourth  gospel  its 
Johannine  authenticity  not  being  otherwise  contested,  as  well  as  in 
Paul's  epistles  and  in  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews,  resulted  from  the 
necessity  felt  by  their  Avriters  for  assigning  a  sufficient  reason  for  the 
assumption  of  such  incomparable  glory  on  the  part  of  Christ.  As 
the  archetype  of  humanity  destined  for  the  kingdom  of  God  Christ  is 
the  original  object  of  the  divine  love,  so  that  the  love  of  God  to  the 
members  of  his  kingdom  comes  to  them  only  through  him.  And  as 
the  earthly  fovmding,  so  also  the  heavenly  completion,  of  the  kingdom 
of  God  is  assigned  to  Christ,  and  hence  after  his  resui'rection  all  power 
was  given  to  him,  of  the  transcendent  exercise  of  wliich,  however  we 
VOL.  III.  14 


210      CHURCH   HISTORY   OF   NINETEENTH    CENTURY. 

can  know  nothing.  The  universality  of  human  sin  is  admitted  by 
Eitschl  as  a  fact  of  experience,  but  he  despairs  of  reaching  any 
dogmatic  statement  as  to  the  origin  of  sin  through  the  temptation  of 
a  superhuman  evil  power.  But  that  sin  is  inherited  and  as  original 
guilt  is  under  the  condemnation  of  God,  is  not  taught  or  pre-supposed 
by  the  teaching  either  of  Christ  or  of  the  apostles.  Redemption 
(reconciliation  and  justification)  consists  in  the  forgiveness  of  sins, 
by  which  the  guilt  that  estranges  from  God  is  removed  and  the  sinner 
is  restored  into  the  fellowship  of  the  kingdom  of  God.  Forgiveness, 
however,  is  not  given  on  condition  of  the  vicarious  penal  sufierings  of 
Christ,  whose  sufferings  and  death  are  of  significance  rather  becatise 
his  life  and  works  were  a  complete  fulfilment  of  his  calling,  and 
witnessed  to  as  such  by  God's  raising  him  from  the  dead.  Justifica- 
tion secures  the  recejotion  of  the  penitent  sinner  into  the  fellowship  of 
the  kingdom  of  God,  preached  and  perfectly  developed  by  Christ,  and 
the  sonship  enjoyed  in  its  membership,  prefigured  in  Christ  himself, 
which  contains  in  itself  the  desire  as  well  as  the  capacity  to  do  good 
works  out  of  love  to  God. — The  school  of  Bitschl  is  represented  in 
Gottingen  by  its  founder  and  by  Schultz  and  Wendt,  in  Marburg  by 
Herrmann,  in  Bonn  by  Bender,  in  Giessen  by  GottscMck  and  Katten- 
busch,  in  Strassburg  by  Lobstein,  in  Basel  by  Kaftan,  formerly  of 
Berlin.i 

21.  Oi^ponents  and  critics  of  the  school  of  Ritschl,  especially  from 
the  confessional  Lutheran  ranks,  have  appeared  in  considerable  num- 
bers. Luthardt  of  Leipzig  in  a.d.  1878  opened  the  campaign  against 
Bitschilianism,  followed  by  Bestmann,  charging  it  with  undermining 
Christianity.  The  Hanoverian  synod  of  a.d.  1882  decided  by  a  large 
majority  that  the  scientific  results  of  theological  science  must  be  ruled 
by  the  confessions  of  the  evangelical  church.  The  chief  theme  at  the 
following  Hanoverian  Pentecost  Conference  was  the  "  Incarnation  of 
the  Son  of  God,"  the  discussion  being  led  by  Professor  DieckhofF  of 
Rostock,  against  whom  no  voice  was  raised  in  favour  of  the  views  of 
Ritschl.  Not  long  after,  Professor  Fricke  of  Leipzig  published  a 
lecture  given  by  him  at  the  Meissen  Conference,  on  the  Present  Rela- 
tions of  Metaphysics  and  Theology,  followed  by  utterances  of  Kiibel  of 
Tubingen,  Grau  of  Konigsberg,  Kreibig  and  H.  Schmidt  at  Berlin,  all 
unfavourable  to  Ritschl's  theology. — The  main  objections  are,  according 
to  Bestmann :  idolatry  of  Kant,  depreciation  of  the  religious  factor  in 
Cln-istianity  in  favour  of  the  ethical  by  laying  out  a  moral  foreground 
without  providing  a  dogmatic  background,  reducing  the  objective 
fundamental  truths  of  the  confession  into  subjective  ethical  ideas,  etc.  ;• 

^  Galloway,  "  The  Theology  of  Ritschl,"  in  Presbyterian  Review  for' 
April,  1889,  pp.  192-209. 


§  182.    PEOTESTANT   THEOLOGY   IN    GEEMANY.      211 

according  to  Luthardt :  Eitsclil's  position  that  it  does  not  niatter  so 
much  what  the  facts  of  the  Chi'istian  faith  are  in  themselves,  as  what 
they  mean  for  ns,  makes  his  whole  dogmatic  system  hang  in  the  air, 
if  in  Christianity  we  have  to  do  not  with  what  God.  Christ,  the 
resui-rection  are,  but  only  what  signiiicance  we  attach  to  them, 
Christianity  is  stript  of  all  importance,  the  significance  of  a  thing 
must  hav(^  its  foiindation  in  the  thing  itself,  etc. ;  according  to 
Dieckhoff :  Ritschl  on  his  accepting  the  divinity  of  Christ  laj's  down 
the  rule  that  the  special  content  of  what  is  meant  by  the  term  divinity 
must  be  transferable  to  the  believer,  and  so  for  Ritschl,  Christ  is  a 
mere  man  who  in  his  person  was  the  first  to  represent  a  relation  to 
God  which  is  destined  for  all  men  in  like  measure,  etc. ;  according  to 
Fricke :  new  Kantian  scepticism  with  regard  to  ideals  and  transcen- 
dentals,  reducing  religious  elements  to  moral,  Avith  Eitschl's  removal 
of  all  metaphysical  facts  the  chief  verities  of  our  Christian  faith  are 
taken  away,  at  least  in  the  scientific  form  in  which  we  have  them,  e.rj. 
the  doctrine  of  the  Trinitj",  our  Christology,  our  theory  of  satisfaction, 
in  place  of  which  comes  the  G&.W\o\\c  justitia  infusa,  etc. ;  according  to 
Miinchmayer:  "the  object  of  justification  with  Ritschl  is  not  the 
individual  but  the  communitj^,  it  is  no  act  of  God  upon  the  individual 
but  an  eternal  purpose  of  God  for  the  community,  its  effect  on  the 
individual  is  not  objective  divine  forgiveness  of  guilt  but  a  subjective 
act  of  incorporation  of  the  individual  into  the  redeemed  community  ; 
Clu'ist  and  his  work  are  not  the  ground  of  justification,  but  only  the 
means  of  revealing  the  eternal  justifjdng  will  of  God,  and  therefore 
finally  a  continuation  of  the  historical  work  of  Christ  by  means  of 
his  church  takes  the  place  of  the  personal  intercession  of  the  exalted 
Redeemer  for  the  penitent  sinner."  Kreibig  and  Schmidt  express 
themselves  in  a  similar  maimer. — Ritschl  has  not  himself  undertaken 
any  reply,  but  his  disciples  have  sought  to  remove  what  they  regard 
as  misunderstandings,  and  generally  to  vindicate  the  system  of  their 
master. 

22.  "Writers  on  Constitutional  Law  and  History — The  most  distin- 
guished Avriters  on  the  constitutional  law  of  the  church  are  Eichhorn 
and  Dove  of  Gottingen,  Jacobsen  of  Konigsberg,  Wasserschleben 
of  Giessen,  Richter  and  Hinschius  of  Berlin,  Friedberg  of  Leipzig, 
Avho  belong  to  the  unionist  party  •,  while  Bickell  of  Marburg,  Mejer  of 
Gottingen  and  Hanover,  Von  Scheuerl  of  Erlangen,  and  Sohm  of 
Strassbui'g  belong  to  the  confessional  Lutherans. — Of  ecclesiastical 
historians  (§  5,  4,  5)  the  number  is  so  great  that  we  cannot  even 
enumerate  their  names. — The  ^^  Theologische  Literafurzeitinig"  of 
Schtirer  and  Harnack  is  a  liberal  scientific  journal,  distinguished  for 
its  fair  criticisms  by  writers  whose  names  are  given. 


212    church  history  of  nineteenth  century. 

§  183.    Home  Missions. 

In  regard  to  home  mission  work,  the  Protestant  church 
long  lagged  behind  the  Catholic,  which  had  wrought 
vigorously  through  its  monkish  orders.  England  first 
entered  with  zeal  into  the  field,  especially  dissenters  and 
members  of  the  low  church  party,  and  subsequently  also  the 
high  church  ritualistic  party  (§  202,  1,  3),  which  now  takes 
an  active  interest  in  this  work.  Germany,  in  view  of  the 
scanty  means  at  the  disposal  of  the  pietists  and  the  church 
party,  made  noble  efforts.  In  other  continental  countries, 
but  especially  in  North  America,  much  was  done  for  home 
missions.  Soon  the  whole  Protestant  world  began  to 
organize  benevolent  and  evangelistic  institutions.  The 
laborious  Wichern,  in  a.d.  1849,  went  through  all  Grermany 
to  arouse  interest  in  home  missions,  and  started  a  yearly 
congress  on  the  subject  in  Wittenberg.  Till  his  death 
in  A.D,  1881,  Wichern  continued  to  direct  this  congress 
and  further  the  interests  which  it  represented. 

1.  Institutions. — The  earliest  charity  school  was  that  founded  at 
Diisselthal  by  Count  Eecke-Volmarstein,  in  a.d.  1816,  followed  by 
Zeller's  at  Beuggen  in  a.d.  1820.  One  of  the  most  famous  of  these 
institutions  was  the  Rauhe  Haus  of  Wichern,  at  Horn,  near  Hamburg, 
A.D.  1833.^  Fliedner's  Deaconess  Institute  at  Kaiserswerth  is  the  pride 
of  the  evangelical  church.  It  has  now  190  branches,  with  625  sisters, 
in  the  four  continents.  There  are  manj^  independent  institutions 
modelled  iipon  it  in  Grermany,  England,  Sweden,  Norway,  Denmark, 
Russia,  and  France.  In  a.d.  1881  there  were  in  Germany  31,  and  in 
the  cities  of  other  lands  22,  principal  deaconess  institutions  of  this 
German  order,  with  4,751  sisters  and  1,491  fields  of  labour  outside  of 
the  institution.  The  original  institute  of  Kaiserswerth  comprises  a 
hospital  with  600  patients,  a  refuge  for  fallen  women  and  liberated 
prisoners,  an  orphanage  for  girls,  a  seminary  for  governesses,  and  a 
home  for  female  imbeciles.-    Lohe  founded  the  deaconess  institute  of 

1  Series  of  papers  in  Good  Words  for  1860,  pp.  377  if. 
'  Fleming  Stevenson,  "  The  Blue  Flag  of  Kaiserswerth,"  in  Good 
Words  for  1861,  pp.  121  ff.,  143  ff. 


§  183.   HOME   MISSIONS.  213 

Neuendettelsan,  on   strict    Lutheran   principles,  with  hospital,  girls' 
school,  and  asylum  for  imbecile  children.   In  France  a  most  successful 
institution  was  founded  by  pastor  Bost  of  Laforce,  in  a.d.  1848,  for 
foundlings,  imbeciles,  and  epileptics.     In  England,  George  Miiller,  a 
poor  German  student  of  Halle,  a  pupil  of  Tholuck,  begiiuiing  in  a.d. 
1832,  founded  at  Bristol  five  richly  endowed  orphanages  after  the  pat- 
tern of  that  of  A.  H.  Francke,  in  which  thousands  of  destitute  street 
children  have  been  educated,  and  for  this  and  other  purposes  has  spent 
nearly  £1,000,000  without  ever  asking  any  one  for  a  contribution, 
acting  on  the  belief  that  "  the  God  of  Elijah  still  lives."     The  London 
City  Mission  employs  600  missionaries.     In  New  York,  since  a.d.  1855, 
about  60,000  street  children  have  been  placed,  by  the  Society  for  Poor 
Children,  in  Christian  families,  and  21  Industrial  schools  are  main- 
tained with  10,000  scholars.— Tract  Societies  in   London,  Hamburg, 
Berlin,  etc.,  send  out  millions  of  tracts  for  Christian  instruction  and 
awakening.     The  Society  for  North  Germany  successfully  pursues  a 
similar  work  ;  the  Calw  Publication  Society  circulates  Christian  text- 
books with  woodcuts  at  a  remarkably  small   price.     In  Berlin  the 
Evangelical  Book  Society  issues  reprints  of  the  older  tracts  on  prac- 
tical divinity.   Christian  women,  like  the  English  Quakeress  Elizabeth 
Fry,  the  noble  Amalie  Sieveking  of  Hamburg,  Miss  Florence  Nightin- 
gale, the  heroine  of  the  Crimean  war,  and  the  brave  Maria  Simon  of 
Dresden,  who  organized  the  female  nursing  corps  of  the  wars  of  1866, 
1870,  1871,  helped  on  the  work  of  home  missions  in  all  lands,  espe- 
cially in  the  departments  of  tending  the  poor  and  the  sick. 

2.  The  Order  of  St.  John,  secularized  in  a.d.  1810,  was  reorganized 
by  Frederick  William  IV.  in  a.d.  1852  into  an  association  for  the 
care  of  the  sick  and  poor.  Under  a  grand-master  it  has  350  members 
and  1,500  associates.  Its  revenues  are  formed  from  entrance  fees  and 
amiual  contributions.  It  has  thirty  hospitals.  In  a.d.  1861  it  founded 
a  hospital  for  men  in  Beyrout  during  the  persecution  of  Christians 
in  Syria,  and  in  a.d.  1868  gave  aid  during  the  famine  that  followed 
the  typhus  epidemic  in  East  Prussia,  and  did  noble  service  in  the 
wars  of  A.D.  1864,  1866,  and  1870. 

3.  The  Itinerant  Preacher  Gustav  Werner  in  Wiirttemberg. — Abandon- 
ing his  charge  in  a.d.  1840,  Werner  began  his  itinerant  labours,  and 
during  the  year  formed  more  than  a  hundred  groups  of  adherents 
over  all  Wtirttemberg.  His  preaching  was  allegorical  and  eschato- 
logical,  and  avoided  the  doctrines  of  satisfaction  and  justification. 
On  his  repudiating  the  Augsburg  Confession,  the  church  boards 
refused  to  recognise  him,  and  he  went  hither  and  thither  preaching  a 
Christian  communism.  In  a.d.  1842  he  bought  a  site  in  Eeutlingen, 
built  a  house,  and  founded  a  school  for  eighty  children.  In  order  to 
develop  his  views  of  carrying  on  industrial  arts  on  a  Chi'istian  basis, 


214      CHURCH    HISTORY    OF   NINETEENTH    CENTURY. 

he  bought,  in  a.d.  1850,  the  paper  factory  at  Eeutlingen  for  £4,000, 
and  subsequently  transferred  it  to  Dettingen  on  a  larger  scale,  at 
an  outlay  of  £20,000.  By  a.d.  18G2  he  liad  established  no  less  than 
twenty-two  branches,  in  which  manufacturing  was  carried  on,  with 
institutions  of  all  kinds  for  education,  pastoral  work,  rescuing  the 
lost  and  raising  the  fallen.  Each  member  lives  and  works  for  the 
whole ;  none  receives  wages ;  surplus  income  goes  to  increase  the 
number  and  extent  of  the  institutions.  Vast  multitudes  of  sunken 
and  destitute  families  have  been  by  these  means  restored  to  respect- 
able social  positions  and  to  a  moral  religious  life. 

4.  Bible  Societies. — The  Bible  societies  constitute  an  independent 
branch  of  the  home  mission.  Modern  efforts  to  circulate  Scripture 
began  in  England.  As  a  necessary  adjunct  to  missionary  societies, 
the  great  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society  was  founded  in  London 
in  A.D.  1804,  embracing  all  Protestant  sects,  excepting  the  Quakers. 
It  circulates  Bibles  without  note  or  comment.  The  Apocryphal 
controversy  of  a.d.  1825-1827  resulted  in  the  society  resolving  not  to 
print  the  Apocrypha  in  its  issues.  In  consequence  of  this  decision, 
fifty  German  societies,  including  the  present  society  of  Berlin,  seceded. 
The  New  York  Association,  founded  in  a.d.  1817,  is  in  thorough  accord 
with  the  London  society.  The  Baden  Missionary  Society  revived  the 
discussion  in  a.d.  1852  by  making  it  the  subject  of  essay  for  a  prize, 
which  was  won  by  the  learned  work  of  Keerl,  who,  along  with  the 
stricter  Lutherans,  condemned  the  Apocrypha.  The  other  side  was 
taken  by  Stier  and  Hengstenberg,  and  most  of  the  consistories  advised 
adherence  to  the  old  practice,  as  all  misunderstanding  was  prevented 
by  Luther's  preface  and  the  prohibition  against  using  passages  from 
the  Apocrypha  as  sermon  texts. — Bible  societies  altogether  have  issued 
during  the  century  180,000,000  Bibles  and  New  Testaments  in  324 
different  languages. ' 


§  184.     Foreign  Missions. 

Protestant  zeal  foi'  missions  to  the  heathen  has  gone  on 
advancing  since  the  end  of  last  century  (§  172,  5).  Mis- 
sionary societies  increase  from  year  to  year.  In  a.d.  1883 
there  were  seventy  independent  societies  with  innumerable 
branches,  which  contribute  annually  about  £1,500,000,  or 
five   times  as  much  as   the  Romish  church,   and  maintain 


1  Owen,  "  History  of  tlie  First  Ten  Years  of  the  Bible  Society," 
3  vols.     London,  1810. 


§  184.    FOREIGN    MISSIONS.  215 

2,000  mission  stations,  2,940  European  and  American 
missionaries,  and  1,000  ordained  native  pastors  and  25,000 
native  teachers  and  assistants,  having  under  their  care 
2,214,000  converts  from  heathenism.  In  missionary  enter- 
prise England  holds  the  first  place,  next  comes  America, 
and  then  Crennany,  Among  Protestant  sects  the  Methodists 
and  Baptists  are  most  zealous  in  the  cause  of  missions, 
and  the  Moravian  Brethren  have  wrought  most  successfully 
in  this  department.  The  missions  also  did  much  to  prepare 
the  way  for  the  suppression  of  the  slave  trade  by  the 
European  powers  in  a.d.  1830,  and  the  emancipation  of  all 
slaves  in  the  British  possessions  in  a.d.  1834,  at  a  cost  of 
£20,000,000.  The  noble  English  philanthropist,  William 
Wilberforce,  imweariedly  laboui-ed  for  these  ends. — Also 
in  England,  Germany,  Russia,  and  France  new  associations 
were  formed  for  missions  to  the  Jews,  and  the  work  was 
carried  on  with  admirable  patience,  though  the  visible 
results  were  very  small. 

1.  Missionary  Societies. — The  great  American  ^Missionary  Society- 
was  founded  at  Boston  in  a.d.  1810,  tlie  Englisli  Wesleyan  in  a.d.  1814, 
the  American  Metliodist  in  a.d.  1819,  the  American  Episcopal  in  a.d. 
1820,  and  the  Society  of  Paris  in  a.d.  1824.  The  new  German  societies 
were  on  confessional  lines:  that  of  Basel  in  a.d.  1816,  of  Berlin  in 
a.d.  1823,  the  Rhenish  with  tlie  mission  seminary  at  Barmen  in  a.d. 
1829,  tlie  Noi'th  German,  on  the  basis  of  the  Augsburg  Confession, 
in  A.D.  1886.  Tlie  Dresden  Society,  which  resumed  the  old  Lutheran 
work  in  the  East  Indies  (§  167,  9),  founded  a  seminary  at  Leipzig  in 
A.D.  1849,  in  order  to  get  the  benefit  of  the  university.  Lutheran 
societies,  mostly  affiliated  with  that  of  Leipzig,  were  started  in  Sweden, 
Denmark,  Norway,  Russia,  Bavaria,  Hanover,  Mecklenburg,  Hesse,  and 
America.  The  Neuendettelsau  Institute  wrought  through  the  Iowa 
Synod  among  the  North  American  Indians,  and  through  the  Im- 
nianuel  Sjaiod  among  the  aborigines  of  Australia.  The  Hermannsburg 
institute  under  Harms  prosecuted  mission  work  with  great  zeal.  In 
A.D.  185B,  Harms  sent  out  in  his  own  mission  ship  eight  missionaries 
and  as  many  Cliristian  colonists.  It  has  been  objected  to  this  mission, 
that  endeavours  after  social  elevation  and  industrial  training  have 
driven  to  tlie  backgroiuid  the  main  question  of  individual  conversion. 


216      CHURCH   HISTORY   OF   NINETEENTH   CENTURY. 

— The  advanced  liberal  scKool  in  Switzerland  and  Germany  sought 
in  A.D.  1883  to  start  a  mission  on  their  own  particular  lines.  They 
tlo  not  pro2:)ose  any  opposition  to  existing  agencies,  and  intend  to 
make  their  first  experiment  among  the  civilized  races  of  India  and 
Japan. 

2.  Europe  and  America. — The  Swedish  mission  in  Lapland  (§  160,  7) 
was  resumed  in  a.d.  1825  by  Stockfleth.  The  Moravians  carried  on 
their  work  among  the  Eskimos  in  Greenland,  which  had  now  become 
a  wholly  Christian  country,  and  also  in  Labrador,  which  was  almost 
in  the  same  condition.  The  chaplain  of  the  Hudson  Bay  Company, 
J.  West,  founded  a  successful  mission  in  that  territory  in  a.d.  1822. 
Among  the  natives  and  negro  slaves  in  the  British  possessions,  the 
United  States,  and  West  Indies,  Moravians,  Methodists,  Baptists,  and 
Anglican  Episcopalians  patiently  and  successfully  carried  on  the 
work.  Among  the  natives  and  bush  negroes,  descendants  of  runaway 
slaves,  in  Guiana,  the  Moravians  did  a  noble  work. — Catholic  South 
America  remained  closed  against  Protestant  missions.  But  the 
ardent  zeal  of  Capt.  Allen  Gardiner  led  him  to  choose  the  inhospitable 
shores  of  Patagonia  as  a  field  of  labour.  He  landed  there  in  a.d.  1850 
with  five  missionaries,  but  in  the  following  year  their  corpses  only 
were  found.  The  work,  however,  was  started  anew  in  a.d.  1856,  and 
prosecuted  with  success  under  the  direction  of  an  Anglican  bisho]). 

8.  Africa. — The  Moravians  have  laboured  among  the  Hottentots, 
the  Berlin  missionaries  among  the  wild  Corannas,  and  the  French 
Evangelical  Society  among  the  Bechuanas.  Hahn  of  Livonia  is  the 
apostle  of  the  Hereros.  On  the  East  Coast  the  London  Missionary 
Society  has  wrought  among  the  warlike  Kaffirs,  and  other  British 
societies  are  labouring  in  Natal  among  the  Zulus.  On  the  West 
Coast  the  English  colony  of  Sierra  Leone  was  founded  for  the  settling 
and  Christianizing  of  liberated  slaves,  and  farther  south  is  Liberia, 
a  similar  American  colony ;  both  in  a  flourishing  condition,  under  the 
care  of  Methodists,  Baptists,  and  Anglican  Episcopalians,  The  Basel 
missionaries  labour  on  the  Gold  Coast,  Baptists  m  Old  Calabar,  and 
the  American  and  North  German  Societies  on  the  Gaboon  Biver. — 
The  London  missionaries  won  Radama  of  Madagascar  to  Christianity 
in  A.D.  1818,  but  his  successor  Ranavalona  instituted  a  bloody  perse- 
cution of  the  Christians  in  a.d.  1835,  during  which  David  Jones,  the 
apostle  of  the  Malagassy,  suffered  martyrdom  in  a.d.  1843.  In  the 
island  of  Mauritius,  where  there  is  an  Anglican  bishop,  many  Mala- 
gassy Christians  found  refuge.  After  the  queen's  death  in  a.d.  1861, 
her  Christian  son  Radama  II.  recalled  the  Christian  exiles  and  the 
missionaries.  He  soon  became  the  victim  of  a  palace  revolution. 
His  wif(i  and  STiccessor  Rosaherina  continued  a  heathen  till  her  death 
in  A.u.  1868,  but  put  no  obstacle  in  the  way  of  the  gospel.     But  her 


§  184.  foeetCtN  missions.  217 

cousin  Eanavalona  II.  overthrew  the  idol  worship,  was  baptized  in 
A.D.  1869,  and  in  the  following  year  burned  the  national  idols. 
Protestantism  now  made  rapid  strides,  till  interrupted  by  French 
Jesuit  intrigues,  which  have  been  favoured  by  the  recent  French 
occupation. 

4.  Livingstone  and  Stanley  have  made  marvellous  contributions 
to  our  geographical  knowledge  of  Central  Africa  and  to  Christian 
missions  there.  The  Scottish  missionary,  David  Livingstone,  factory 
boy,  afterwards  physician  and  minister,  Avrought,  a.d.  1840-1849, 
under  the  London  Missionary  Society  in  South  Africa,  and  then 
entered  on  his  life  work  of  exploration  in  Central  Africa.  During 
his  third  exploring  journey  into  the  interior  in  a.d.  1865  as  a  British 
consul,  he  was  not  heard  of  for  a  whole  year.  H.  M.  Stanley,  of  the 
New  York  Herald,  was  sent  in  a.d.  1871,  and  found  him  in  Ujiji  on 
Lake  Tanganyika.  Livingstone  died  of  dysentery  on  the  southern  bank 
of  this  lake  in  a.d.  1873.  Still  more  important  was  Stanley's  second 
journey,  a.d.  1874-1877,  which  yielded  the  most  brilliant  scientific 
results,  and  was  epoch-making  in  the  history  of  African  missions. 
He  got  the  greatest  potentate  in  those  regions.  King  Mtesa  of  Uganda, 
who  had  been  converted  by  the  Arabs  to  Mohammedanism,  to  adopt 
Christianity  and  permit  a  Christian  church  to  be  built  in  his  city. 
Stanley's  letters  from  Africa  roused  missionary  fervour  throughout 
England.  The  Church  Missionary  Society  in  a.d.  1877  set  up  a 
mission  station  in  the  capital,  and  put  a  steamer  on  the  Victoria 
Nyanza.  The  church  services  were  regularly  attended,  education 
and  the  work  of  civilization  zealously  prosecuted,  Sunday  labour  and 
the  slave  trade  prohibited,  etc.  French  Jesuits  entered  in  a.d.  1879, 
insinuating  suspicions  of  the  English  missionaries  into  the  ear  of 
the  king,  and  the  machinations  of  the  Arab  slave-dealers  made  their 
position  dangerous.  Missionaries  arrived  by  way  of  Egypt  with 
flattering  recommendations  from  the  English  foreign  secretary  in 
the  name  of  the  queen.  But  the  traders,  by  means  of  an  Arabic 
translation  of  a  letter  purporting  to  be  from  the  English  consul  at 
Zanzibar,  cast  suspicion  on  the  document  as  a  forgery,  and  repre- 
sented its  bearers  as  in  the  pay  of  the  hostile  Egy|Dtians.  Mtasa's 
wrath  knew  no  bounds,  and  only  his  favout  for  the  missionary 
physician  saved  the  mission  and  led  him  to  send  an  embassy  of  three 
chiefs  and  two  missionaries  to  England  in  June,  a.d.  1879,  to  discover 
the  actual  truth.  His  anger  meanwhile  cooled,  and  the  work  of  the 
mission  was  resumed.  He  was  preparing  to  put  an  utter  end  to  the 
national  heathenism,  when  suddenly  a  report  spread  that  the  greatest 
of  all  the  Lubaris  or  inferior  deities,  that  of  the  Nyanza  Lake,  had 
become  incarnate  in  an  old  woman,  in  order  to  heal  the  king  and 
restore  the  ancient  religion.     The  whole  populace  was  in  an  uproar  ; 


218      CHURCH    HISTORY    OF    NINETEENTH    CENTURY. 

Mtesa,  under  threat  of  deposition,  restored  heathenism,  with  hnman 
sacrifice,  man  stealing,  and  the  slave  trade.  Then  the  Lubari  excite- 
ment cooled  down.  Mtesa,  moved  by  a  dream,  declared  himself  again 
a  Mohammedan,  and  converted  the  Christian  church  into  a  mosque. 
The  English  missionaries,  stripped  of  all  means,  starved,  and  subjected 
to  all  sorts  of  privations,  did  not  flinch.  At  last,  in  January,  a.d. 
1881,  the  embassy,  sent  eighteen  months  before  to  England,  reached 
home  again,  and,  by  the  story  of  their  reception,  caused  a  revulsion 
of  feeling  in  favour  of  the  English  mission,  which  again  flourished 
under  the  protection  of  the  king.  But  Mtesa  died  in  1884.  His  son 
and  successor,  Mwanga,  a  suspicious,  peevish  young  despot,  addicted 
to  all  forms  of  vice,  began  again  the  most  cruel  persectition,  of  which 
Bishop  Hannington,  sent  out  from  England,  with  fifty  companions, 
were  the  victims.    Only  four  escaped. 

5.  Asia. — The  most  important  mission  field  in  Asia  is  India.  The 
old  Lutheran  mission  there  had  great  difficulties  to  contend  against : 
the  system  of  caste  distinctions,  the  j^i-oud  self-sufficiency  of  the 
pantheistic  Brahmans,  the  politico-commercial  interests  of  the  East 
India  Comioany,  etc.  The  Leipzig  Society  has  sixteen  stations  among 
the  Tamuls,  and  alongside  are  English,  American,  and  German  mis- 
sionaries of  every  school.  The  Gossner  Society  works  among  the 
Kohls  of  Chota  Nagpore,  where  a  rival  mission  has  been  started  by 
the  puseyite  bishop  of  Calcutta,  Dr.  Milman,  to  which,  m  a.d.  1868, 
six  of  the  twelve  German  missionaries  and  twelve  of  the  thirty-six 
chapels  were  transferred.  The  Basel  missionaries  labour  in  Canara 
and  Malabar.  The  military  revolt  in  Northern  India  in  a.d.  1857 
interrupted  missionary  operations  for  two  years ;  but  the  work  was 
afterwards  resumed  with  great  vigour.  The  Christian  benevolence 
shown  during  the  famine  of  a.d.  1878,  in  which  three  millions  perished, 
made  a  great  impression  in  favour  of  the  Protestant  church.  In  the 
preceding  years  throughout  all  India  only  between  5,000  and  10,000 
souls  were  annually  added  ;  but  in  a.d.  1878  the  number  of  new  con- 
verts rose  to  100,000,  and  in  a.d.  1879  there  were  44,000.— The  island 
of  Ceylon  was,  under  Portuguese  and  Dutch  rule,  in  great  part 
nominally  Christianized;  but  when  compulsion  was  removed  under 
British  rule,  this  sham  profession  was  at  an  end.  Multitudes  fell 
back  into  heathenism,  and  in  the  first  ten  years  of  the  British 
dominion  900  new  idol  temjjles  were  erected.  From  a.d.  1812  Baptist, 
Methodist,  and  Anglican  missionai'ies  have  toiled  with  small  appear- 
ance of  fruit.  In  Farther  India  the  American  missionaries  have 
wrought  since  a.d.  1813.  Judson  and  his  heroic  wife  did  noble  work 
among  the  Karens  and  the  Burmans.  Also  in  Malacca,  Singapore, 
and  Siam  the  Protestant  missions  have  had  brilliant  success.  The 
work  hi  Sumatra  has  been  retarded  by  the  opposition  of  the  Malays 


§  184.    FOREIGN   MISSIONS.  219 

and  deadly  malarial  fever.  The  preaching  of  the  gospel  was  emi- 
nently successful  in  Java,  where  since  a.d.  1814  Baptist  missionaries 
and  agents  of  the  London  Society  have  wrought  heroically.  In  Celebes 
the  Dutch  missionaries  found  twenty  Chi'istian  congregations  of  old 
standing,  greatly  deteriorated  for  want  of  pastoral  care,  but  still 
iising  the  Heidelberg  Catechism.  At  Banjermassin,  in  a.d.  1835  the 
Rhenish  Society  founded  their  first  station  in  Borneo,  and  wrought 
not  unsuccessfully  among  the  heathen  Dyaks.  But  in  a.d.  1859  a 
rebellion  of  the  Mohammedan  residents  led  to  the  expulsion  of  the 
Dutch  and  the  murder  of  all  Christians.  Only  a  few  of  the  mission- 
aries escaped  martyrdom,  and  subsequently  settled  in  Sumatra. 

6.  The  wox'k  in  China  began  in  a.d.  1807,  when  the  London  Mis- 
sionary Society  settled  Morrison  in  Canton,  where  he  began  the  study 
of  the  language  and  the  translation  of  the  Bible.  GutzlafF  of 
Pomerania,  in  a.d.  1826,  conceived  the  plan  of  evangelizing  China 
through  the  Chinese  converts,  but,  though  he  continued  his  efforts 
till  his  death  in  a.d.  1854,  the  scheme  failed  through  the  unworthiness 
of  many  of  the  professors.  The  war  against  the  opium  traffic,  a.d. 
1339-1842,  opened  five  ports  to  the  mission,  and  led  to  the  transference 
of  Hongkong  to  the  English.  The  Chinese  mission  now  made  rapid 
strides ;  but  the  interior  was  still  untouched.  The  conflict  between 
the  governor  of  Canton  and  the  English,  French,  and  Americans,  and 
the  chastisement  administered  to  the  Chinese  in  a.d.  1857,  led  the 
emperor,  in  a.d.  1858,  to  make  a  treaty  with  the  three  powers  and  also 
Avith  Eussia,  by  which  the  Avhole  land  was  opened  up  for  trade  and 
missions,  and  full  toleration  granted  to  Christianity.  Popular  hatred 
of  strangers,  and  especially  of  missionaries,  however,  occasioned  fre- 
quently bloody  encounters,  and  in  a.d.  1870  there  was  a  furious 
outburst  directed  against  the  French  missionaries.  During  a  terrible 
famine  in  North  China,  in  a.d,  1878,  when  more  than  five  anillions 
perished,  the  heroic  and  self-sacrificing  conduct  of  the  missionaries 
brought  them  into  high  favour.  Throughout  China  there  are  now 
320  organized  Christian  congi-egations  with  50,000  adherents  under 
238  foreign  missionaries. — After  seclusion  for  three  centuries,  Japan, 
about  the  same  time  as  China,  A\-as  opened  by  treaty  to  European  and 
American  commerce,  notwithstanding  the  opposition  of  the  old  feudal 
nobility,  the  so-called  Daimios.  In  a.d.  1871  the  mikado's  govern- 
ment succeeded  in  overcoming  completely  the  power  of  the  daimios 
and  setting  aside  the  shiogun  or  military  vizier,  who  had  exercised 
supreme  executive  power.  European  customs  were  inti'oduced,  but 
the  rigorous  enactments  against  native  converts  to  Christianity  were 
still  enforced.  A  cruel  persecution  of  native  Christians  was  carried 
on  in  A.D.  1867,  but  the  Protestant  missionaries  continued  to  work 
unwearieilly,  preparing  dictionaries  and  reading  books.    The  Buddhist 


220      CHURCH   HISTORY   OF   NINETEENTH   CENTURY. 

priests  sought  to  get  up  a  rival  mission  to  send  agents  to  America 
and  Europe,  whereas  many  of  the  leading  newspapers  expressed  the 
opinion  that  Japan  must  soon  ]5ut  Christianity  in  the  place  of  Bud- 
dhism as  the  state  religion. 

7.  Polynesia  and  Australia. — The  flourishing  Protestant  church  of 
Tahiti,  the  largest  and  finest  of  the  Society  Islands  (§  172,  5),  suffered 
from  the  appearance  of  two  French  Jesuits  in  a.d,  1836.  When  Queen 
Pomare  cornpelled  them  to  withdraw,  the  French  government,  resent- 
ing this  as  an  indignity  to  their  nation,  sent  a  fleet  to  attack  the 
defenceless  people,  proclaimed  a  French  protectorate,  and  introduced 
not  only  Catholic  missionaries,  but  European  vices.  Amid  much 
persecution,  however,  the  Protestants  held  their  own.  In  December, 
1880,  Pomare  V.  resigned,  and  the  Society  Islands  became  a  depen- 
dency of  France. — In  the  south-east  groups  great  opposition  was 
shown,  but  in  the  north-west  Christianity  made  rapid  progress. 
The  island  of  Eaiatea  was  the  centre  of  the  South  Sea  missions. 
There  from  a.d.  1819  John  Williams,  the  apostle  of  the  South  Seas, 
wrought  till  he  met  a  martyr's  death  in  a.d.  1839.  He  went  from 
place  to  place  in  a  mission  ship  built  by  his  own  hands.  The  Harvey 
Group  were  Christianized  in  a.d.  1821,  and  the  Navigator  Group  in 
A.D.  1830.  The  French  took  the  Marquesas  Islands  in  a.d.  1838,  and 
introduced  Catholic  missionaries.  The  attempt  to  evangelize  the 
New  Hebrides  led  to  the  death  of  Williams  and  two  of  his  companions. 
Missionaries  of  the  London  Society,  a.d.  1797-1799,  had  failed  in  the 
Friendly  Islands  through  the  savage  character  of  the  natives,  but 
in  A.D.  1822  the  Methodists  made  a  successful  start.  The  gospel  was 
carried  thence  to  Fiji,  which  is  now  under  British  rule.  Both  groups 
have  become  almost  wholly  Christianized.  The  Sandwich  Islands  form 
a  third  mission  centre,  wrought  by  the  American  board.  Kame- 
hanieha  I.  gladly  adopted  the  elements  of  Christian  civilization, 
though  rejecting  Christianity :  while  his  successor  Kamehameha  II. 
in  A.D.  1829  abolished  tabu  and  overthrew  the  idol  temples.  In  a.d. 
1851  Christianity  was  adopted  as  the  national  religion.  The  work 
was  more  difficult  in  New  Zealand,  where  the  Church  Missionary 
Society,  represented  by  Samuel  Marsden,  the  apostle  of  New  Zealand, 
began  operations  in  a.d.  1814.  For  ten  years  the  position  of  the  mis- 
sionaries was  most  hazardous ;  yet  they  held  on,  and  the  conversion 
of  the  most  bloodthirsty  of  the  chiefs  did  much  to  advance  their 
cause.  In  New  Guinea  the  London  Society  has  been  making  steady 
progress.  Among  the  stolid  natives  of  the  continent  of  New  Holland, 
the  so  called  Papuans,  the  labours  of  the  Moravians  since  a.d.  1849 
have  not  yielded  much  fruit.  Since  a.d.  1875  the  German- Australian 
Immanuel  Synod,  supported  by  Neuendettelsau,  has  laboured  for  the 
conversion  of  the  heathen  in  the  inland  districts. 


§  184.    FOREIGN    MISSIONS.  221 

8.  Missions  to  the  Jews. — In  a.d.  1809  the  London  Society  for  Pro- 
moting Chi-istianity  among  the  Jews  (§  172,  5)  was  formed  by  a  union 
of  all  denominations,  but  soon  passed  into  the  hands  of  the  Anglicans. 
By  the  circulation  of  the  Scriptures  and  tracts,  and  by  the  sending  out 
of  missionaries,  mostly  Jewish  converts,  the  work  Avas  persevered  in 
amid  many  discouragements.  In  a.d.  1818  Poland  was  opened  to  its 
missionaries,  and  there  some  600  Jews  were  baptized.  The  society 
carried  on  its  operations  also  in  Germany,  Holland,  France,  and 
Turkey.  The  work  in  Poland  was  interrupted  by  the  Crimean  war, 
and  was  not  resumed  till  a.d.  1875.  In  Bessarabia  Faltin  has 
laboured  successfully  among  the  Jews  since  a.d.  1860.  He  was  joined 
in  the  work  in  a.d.  1867  by  the  converted  Eabbi  Gm'land,  who  had 
studied  theology  at  Halle  and  Berlm.  In  a.d.  1871  Gurland  accepted 
a  call  to  similar  work  in  Courland  and  Lithuania,  and  since  a.d.  1876 
has  been  Lutheran  pastor  at  Mitau.  In  a.d.  1841  the  evangelical 
bishopric  of  St.  James  was  fomided  in  Jerusalem  by  the  English  and 
Prussian  governments  conjointly,  presentations  to  be  made  alternately, 
but  the  ordination  to  be  according  to  the  Anglican  rite.  The  first 
bishop  was  Alexander,  a  Jewish  convert.  He  died  in  a.d.  1845  and 
was  succeeded  by  the  zealous  missionary  Gobat,  elected  by  the 
Prussian  government.  He  died  in  a.d.  1879  and  was  succeeded  by 
Barclay,  who  died  in  a.d.  1881.  It  was  now  again  Prussia's  turn  to 
make  an  appointment.  The  English  demand  to  have  Lutheran 
ministers  ordained  successively  deacon,  presbyter,  and  bishop  had 
given  oifence,  and  so  no  new  appointment  has  been  made.  In  June 
1886  the  English-Prussian  compact  was  formally  cancelled  and  a  pro- 
posal made  to  found  an  independent  Prussian  Evangelical  bishopric. 

9.  Missions  among  the  Eastern  Churches. — In  a.d.  1815  the  Church 
Missionary  Society  founded  a  missionary  emporium  in  the  island  of 
Malta,  as  a  tract  depot  for  the  evangelizing  the  East ;  and  in  a.d.  1846 
the  Malta  Protestant  College  was  erected  for  training  native  mission- 
aries, teachers,  physicians,  etc.,  for  work  in  the  various  oriental 
countries.  In  the  Ionian  islands,  in  Constantinople,  and  in  Greece, 
British  and  American  missionaries  began  operations  in  a.d.  1819  by 
erecting  schools  and  circulating  the  scriptures.  At  first  the  orthodox 
clergy  were  favourable,  but  as  the  work  progressed  they  became 
actively  hostile,  and  only  two  mission  schools  in  Syra  and  Athens 
were  allowed  to  continue.  In  Syria  the  Americans  made  Beyrout 
their  head  quarters  in  a.d.  1824,  but  the  work  was  interrupted  by  the 
Tui'co-Egyptian  conflicts.  Subsequently,  however,  it  flourished  more 
and  more,  and,  before  the  S3T.'ian  massacre  of  a.d.  1860  (§  207,  2),  there 
were  nine  prosperous  stations  in  Syria.  The  founding  of  the  Jerusalem 
bishopric  in  a.d.  1841,  and  the  issuing  of  the  Hatti-Humayun  in 
a.d.  1856  (§  207,  2),  induced  the  Church  Missionary  Society  to  make 


222      CHURCH   HISTORY   OF   NINETEENTH   CENTURY. 

more  vigorous  efforts  whicli,  however,  were  afterwards  abandoned  for 
want  of  success.  Down  to  the  outbreak  of  the  persecution  of  Sja'ian 
Christians  in  a.d.  1860,  this  society  had  five  fionrishing  stations. 
From  A.n.  1831  the  Americans  had  wrought  zealously  and  successfully 
among  the  Armenians  in  Constantinople  and  neighbourhood,  but  in 
A.D.  1845  the  Armenian  patriarch  excited  a  violent  persecution  which 
threatened  the  utter  overthrow  of  the  work.  The  British  ambassador, 
Sir  Stratford  de  Eedcliffe,  however,  insisted  upon  the  Porte  recognising 
the  rights  of  the  Pi'otestant  Armenians  as  an  independent  religious 
denomination,  and  since  then  the  missions  have  prospered.  Among 
the  Nestorians  in  Turkey  and  Persia  the  Americans,  with  Dr.  Grant 
at  their  head,  began  operations  in  a.d.  1834;  but  through  Jesuit 
intrigues  the  susj^icions  of  the  Kurds  and  Turks  were  excited,  and  in 
A.D.  1843  and  1846  a  war  of  extirniination  was  waged  against  the 
mountain  Nestorians,  which  annihilated  the  Protestant  missions 
among  them.  Operations,  however,  have  been  recommenced  with 
encouraging  success.  Among  the  deeply  degraded  Copts  in  Egypt, 
and  extending  from  them  into  Abyssinia,  the  Moravians  had  been 
working  without  any  apparent  result  from  a.d.  1752  to  a.d.  1783.  In 
A.D.  1826  the  Church  Missionary  Society,  under  German  missionaries 
trained  at  Basel  (Gobat,  Irenberg,  Krapf,  etc.),  took  up  the  work,  till 
it  was  stopped  by  the  govei'nment  in  a.d.  1837.  In  a.d.  1855  the 
Basel  missionaries  began  again  to  work  in  Abyssinia  with  the  approval 
of  king  Theodore.  This  state  of  things  soon  changed.  Theodore's 
ambition  was  to  conquer  Egypt  and  overthi'ow  Islam.  But  when  in 
a.d.  1863  this  scheiueonly  called  forth  threats  from  London  and  Paris, 
he  gave  loose  rein  to  his  natural  ferocity  and  put  the  English  consul 
and  the  German  missionaries  in  chains.  By  means  of  an  armed  expe- 
dition in  A.D.  1868,  England  compelled  the  liberation  of  the  prisoners, 
and  Theodore  put  an  end  to  his  own  life.  After  the  withdrawal  of 
the  English  the  country  was  desolated  by  civil  wars,  and  at  the  close 
of  these  troubles  in  a.d.  1878  the  mission  resumed  its  operations. 

III.— Catholicism  in  General. 
§  185.     The  Papacy  and  the  States  of  the  Church. 

The  papacy,  humiliated  but  not  destroyed  by  Napoleon  I., 
was  in  A.D.  1814  by  the  aid  of  princes  of  all  creeds  restored 
to  the  full  possession  of  its  temporal  and  spiritiial  authority, 
and  amid  many  difficulties  it  reasserted  for  the  most  part 
successfully  its  hierarchical  claims  in  the  Catholic  states  and 
in   those  whose  Protestantism  and  Catholicism  were  alike 


§  185.  THE  PAPACY  AND  STATES  OF  THE  CHUKCH.  223 

tolerated.  Many  severe  blows  indeed  were  dealt  to  the 
papacy  even  in  the  Roman  states  by  revolutionary  move- 
ments, yet  political  reaction  generally  by-and-by  put  the 
church  in  a  position  as  good  if  not  better  than  it  had  before. 
But  while  on  this  side  the  Alps,  especially  since  the  out- 
break of  A.D,  1848,  ultramontanism  gained  one  victory  after 
another  in  its  own  domain,  in  Italy,  it  suffered  one  humilia- 
tion after  another;  and  while  the  Vatican  Council,  which 
put  the  crown  upon  its  idolatrous  assumptions  (§  189,  3), 
was  still  sitting,  the  whole  pride  of  its  temporal  sovereignty 
was  shattered :  the  States  of  the  Church  were  struck  out  of 
the  number  of  the  European  powers,  and  Rome  became  the 
capital  and  residence  of  the  prince  of  Sardiiaia  as  king  of 
United  Italy.  But  reverence  for  the  pope  now  reached  a 
height  among  catholic  nations  which  it  had  never  anywhere 
attained  before. 

1.  The  First  Four  Popes  of  the  Century. — Napoleon  as  Fu'st  Consul  of 
the  French  Republic,  in  a.d.  1801  concluded  a  concordat  with  Pius 
VII.,  A.D.  1800-1823,  who  under  Austrian  protection  was  elected  pope 
at  Venice,  whereby  the  pope  was  restored  to  his  temporal  and  spiritual 
rights,  but  was  obliged  to  abandon  his  hierarchical  claims  over  the 
church  of  France  (§  203,  1).  He  crowned  the  consul  emperor  of  the 
French  at  Paris  in  a.d.  1804,  bvit  when  he  persisted  in  the  assertion 
of  his  hierarchical  principles,  Napoleon  in  a.d.  1808  entered  the  papal 
territories,  and  in  May,  a.d.  1809,  formally  repudiated  the  donation  of 
"his  predecessor"  Charlemagne.  The  pope  treated  the  offered  pay- 
ment of  two  million  francs  as  an  insult,  threatened  the  emperor  with 
the  ban,  and  in  July,  a.d.  1809,  was  imprisoned  at  Savona,  and  in  a.u. 
1812  was  taken  to  Fontainebleau.  He  refused  for  a  time  to  give 
canonical  institution  to  the  bishops  nominated  by  the  emperor,  and 
though  at  last  he  yielded  and  agreed  to  reside  in  France,  he  soon 
withdrew  his  concession,  and  the  complications  of  a.d.  1813  con- 
strained the  emperor,  on  February  14th,  to  set  free  the  pope  and  the 
Papal  States.  In  May  the  poi)e  again  entered  Eome.  One  of  his  first 
official  acts  was  the  restoration  of  the  Jesuits  by  the  bull  SoUicitudo 
■omniitvi,  as  by  the  unanimous  request  of  all  Clu-istendom.  The  Con- 
.gregation  of  the  Index  was  again  set  up,  and  during  the  course  of  the 
.year  737  charges  of  heresy  were  heard  before  the  tribunal  of  the  holy 
office.     All  sales  of  church  property  were  pronounced  void,  and  1,800 


224      CHURCH   HISTORY   OF   NINETEENTH   CENTURY. 

monasteries  and  600  nunneries  were  reclaimed.  In  a.d,  1815  the 
pope  formally  protested  against  the  decision  of  the  Viemia  Congress, 
especially  against  the  overthrow  of  the  spiritual  principalities  in  the 
German  empire  (§  192,  1).  Equally  fruitless  was  his  demand  for  the 
restoration  of  Avignon  (§  165,  15).  In  a.d.  1816  he  condemned  the 
Bible  societies  as  a  plague  to  Christendom,  and  renewed  the  prohibi- 
tion of  Bible  translations.  His  diplomatic  schemes  were  determined 
by  his  able  secretary'  Cardinal  Consalvi,  who  not  only  at  the  Vienna 
Congress,  but  also  subsequently  by  several  concordats  secured  the 
fullest  possible  expression  to  the  interests  and  claims  of  the  curia. 
— His  successor  was  Leo  XII.,  a.d.  1823-1829,  who,  more  strict  in  his 
civil  administration  than  his  predecessor,  condemned  Bible  societies, 
renewed  the  Inquisition  prosecutions,  for  the  sake  of  gain  celebrated 
the  jubilee  in  a.d.  1825,  ordered  prayers  for  uprooting  of  heresy, 
rebuilt  the  Ghetto  wall  of  Eome,  overturned  during  the  French  rule 
(§  95,  3),  which  marked  off  the  Jews'  quarter,  till  Pius  IX.  again 
threw  it  down  in  a.d.  1846.  After  the  eight  months'  reign  of  Pius 
VIII.,  A.D.  1829-1830,  Gregory  XVI.,  a.d.  1831-1846,  ascended  the  papal 
throne,  and  sought  amid  troubles  at  home  and  abroad  to  exalt  to 
its  utmost  pitch  the  hierarchical  idea.  In  a.d.  1832  he  issued  an 
encyclical,  in  which  he  declared  irreconcilable  war  against  modern 
science  as  well  as  against  freedom  of  conscience  and  the  press,  and 
his  whole  pontificate  was  a  consistent  carrying  out  of  this  principle. 
He  encountered  incessant  opposition  from  liberal  and  revolutionary 
movements  in  his  own  territory,  restrained  only  by  Austrian  and 
French  military  interference,  a.d.  1832-1838,  and  from  the  rejection 
of  his  hierarchical  schemes  by  Spain,  Portugal,  Prussia,  and  Russia.' 
2.  Pius  IX.,  A.D.  1846-1878.— Count  Mastai  Feretti  in  his  fifty-fourth 
year  succeeded  Gregory  on  16th  June,  and  took  the  name  of  Pius  IX. 
While  in  ecclesiastical  matters  he  seemed  willing  to  hold  by  the  old 
paths  and  distinctly  declared  against  Bible  societies,  he  favoured 
reform  in  civil  administration  and  encouraged  the  hopes  of  the  liberals 
who  longed  for  the  independence  and  unity  of  Italy.  But  this  only 
awakened  the  thunder  storm  which  soon  burst  upon  his  own  head. 
The  far  resoimding  cry  of  the  jubilee  days,  '■'■  Evviva  Pio  Nono!'''' 
ended  in  the  pope's  flight  to  Gaeta  in  November,  1848;  and  in 
February,  1849,  the  Roman  Republic  was  proclaimed.  The  French 
Republic,  however,  owing  to  the  threatening  attitude  of  Austria, 
hastened  to  take  Rome  and  restore  the  temporal  power  of  the  pope. 
Amid  the  convulsions  of  Italy,  Pius  could  not  i-eturn  to  Rome  till 

'  Wiseman,  "Recollections  of  the  Last  Four  Popes."  8  vols. 
I/indon,  1853.  Mendham,  "  Index  of  Prohibited  Books  by  order  of 
Gregory  XVI."    London,  1810. 


§  185.  THE  PAPACY  AND  STATES  OF  THE  CHURCH.  225 

April,   1850,   Avhere   he  ^vas  maintained    by  French    and   Austrian 
bayonets.     Abandoning  his  liberal  views,  the  pope  noAv  put  himself 
more  and  more  under  the  influence  of  the  Jesuits,  and  his  absolutist 
and  reactionary  politics  were  directed  by  Card.  Antonelli.     From  his 
exile  at  Gaeta  he  had  asked  the  opinion  of  the  bishops  of  the  whole 
church  regarding  the  immaculate  conception  of  the  blessed  Virgin,  to 
Avhose  protection  he  believed  that  he  owed  his  safety.     The  opinions  of 
57G  v.-ere  favourable,  resting  on  Bible  proofs :  Genesis  iii.  15,  Song  of  Sol. 
iv.  7,  12,  and  Luke  i.  28 ;  but  some  P'rench  and  German  bishops  Avere 
strongl}^  opposed.     The  question  was  now  submitted  for  further  con- 
sideration to  various  congregations,  and  fnially  the  consenting  bishops 
were  invited  to  Eome  to  settle  the  terms  of  the  doctrinal  definition  of 
the  new  dogma.     After  four  secret  sessions  it  was  acknowledged  by 
acclamation,  and  on  8th  December,  1854  (§  104,  7),  the  pope  read  in 
the  Sixtine  chapel  the  bull  Inefahilis  and  placed  a  brilliant  diadem 
on  the  head  of  the  image  of  the  queen  of  heaven.     The  disciples  of  St, 
Thomas  listened  in  silence  to  this  aspersion  of  their  master's  orthodoxy  •, 
no  heed  was  paid  to  two  isolated  individual  voices  that  protested ;  the 
bishops  of  all  Catholic  lands  proclaimed  the  new  dogma,  the  theo- 
logians vindicated  it,  and  the  spectacle-loving  people  rejoiced  in  the 
pompous  Mary-festival.     The  pope's  next  great  performance  was  the 
encyclical,  Quanta  cum,  of  December  8th,  1864,  and  the  accompanying 
syllabus  cataloguing  in  eighty-four  propositions  all  the  errors  of  the 
daj',   by  which  not  only   the    antichristian   and    anti-ecclesiastical 
tendencies,  but  also  claims  for  freedom  of  belief  and  worship,  liberty 
of  the  press  and  science,  the  state's  independence  of  the  church,  the 
equality  of  the  laity  and  clergy  in  civil  matters,  in  short  all  the  prin- 
ciples of  modern  political  and  social  life,  were  condemned  as  heretical. 
Tlu-ee  years  later  the  centenary  of  Peter  (§  16, 1)  brought  fivelumdred 
bishops  to  Eome,  with  other  clergy  and  laymen  from  all  lands.     The 
enthusiasm  for  the  papal  chair  was  such  that  the  pope  was  encouraged 
to  convoke  an  oecumenical  council.     The  jubilee  of  his  consecration 
as  priest  in  a.d.  1869  brought  him  congratulatory  addresses  signed 
by  one  and  a  half  millions,   filled  the  papal  coffers,   attracted   an 
immense  numbc^r  of  visitors  to  Rome,  and  secured  to  all  the  votaries 
gathered  there  a  complete  indulgence.     On  the  Vatican  Council  which 
met  during  tliat  same  year,  sec  i?  IS').' 

3.  The  Overthrow  of  the  Papal  States — In  the  Peace  of  Villafranca 
of  1859,  -which  put  an  end  to  the  short  Austro-French  war  in  Italy, 
a  confederation  was  arranged  of  all  the  Italian  princes  imder  the 

^  Legge,  '•  Pius  IX.  to  the  Restoration  of  1850."  2  vols.  London, 
1872.  Trollope,  "Life  of  Pius  IX."  2  vols.  London,  1877.  Shea, 
"  Life  and  Pontificate  of  Pius  IX."     Xew  York,  1877. 

VOL.  III.  I ; 


226      CHURCH   HISTORY   OF   NINETEENTH   CENTURY. 

honorary  presidency  of  the  pope  for  drawing  up  the  future  constitu- 
tion of  Italy.  Dm-ing  the  war  the  Austrians  Iiad  vacated  Bologna, 
but  the  French  remained  in  Eome  to  protect  the  pope.  The  revolution 
now  broke  out  in  Romagna.  Victor  Emanuel,  king  of  Sardinia,  was 
proclaimed  dictator  for  the  time  over  that  part  of  the  Papal  States  and 
a  provisional  government,  was  set  up.  In  vain  did  the  pope  remind 
C'hristendom  in  an  encyclical  of  the  necessity  of  maintaining  his 
temporal  power,  in  vain  did  lie  thunder  his  excommunicatio  major 
against  all  who  -would  contribute  to  its  overthrow.  A  pamphlet  war 
against  the  temporal  power  now  began,  and  About's  letters  in  the 
Moniteur  described  with  bitter  scorn  the  incapacity  of  the  joapal 
government.  In  his  pamphlet,  "  Le  Pope  et  le  Congres,"  Lagueron- 
ni^re  proposed  to  restrict  the  pope's  sovereignty  to  Eome  and  its 
neighbourhood,  levy  a  tax  for  the  support  of  the  papal  court  on  all 
Catholic  nations,  and  leave  Eome  undisturbed  by  political  troubles. 
On  December  81st,  1859,  Napoleon  III.  exhorted  the  jjope  to  yield  to 
the  logic  of  facts  and  to  surrender  the  provinces  that  refused  any 
longer  to  be  his.  The  pope  then  issued  a  rescript  in  which  he  de- 
clared that  he  could  never  give  up  what  belonged  not  to  him  but  to 
the  church.  The  j)opular  vote  in  Eomagna  went  almost  unanimously 
for  annexation  to  Sardinia,  and  this,  in  spite  of  the  papal  ban,  was 
done.  A  revolution  broke  out  in  Umbria  and  the  March  of  Ancona, 
and  Victor  Emanuel  without  more  ado  attached  these  states  also  to 
his  dominion  in  a.u.  1860,  so  that  only  Eome  and  the  Campagna  were 
retained  by  the  pope,  and  even  these  only  by  means  of  French  support. 
At  the  September  convention  of  a.d.  1864  Italy  undertook  to  maintain 
the  papal  domain  intact,  to  permit  the  organization  of  an  independent 
papal  army,  and  to  contribute  to  the  papal  treasury ;  while  France 
was  to  quit  Eoman  territory  within  at  the  latest  two  years.  The 
pope  submitted  to  what  he  could  not  prevent,  but  still  insisted  upon 
his  most  extreme  claims,  answered  every  attempt  at  conciliation  with 
his  stereotyijcd  7ion  jMnsuimiti,  and  in  a.d.  186(i  proclaimed  St.  Catherine 
of  Siena  (§  112,  4)  patron  of  the  "city."'  When  the  last  of  the  French 
troops  took  sliip  in  a.d.  1866  the  radical  party  thought  the  time  had 
come  for  freeing  Italy  from  papal  rule,  and  roused  the  whole  land  by 
public  proclamation.  Garibaldi  again  put  himself  at  the  head  of  the 
movement.  The  Papal  State  was  soon  encircled  by  bands  of  volunteers, 
and  insurrections  broke  out  even  within  Eome  itself.  Napoleon  pro- 
nounced this  a  breach  of  the  September  convention,  and  in  a.d.  1867 
the  volunteers  wore  utterly  routed  by  the  French  at  Mentana.  The 
French  guarded  Civita  Vecchia  and  fortified  Eome.  But  in  August, 
1870,  their  own  national  exigencies  demanded  the  withdrawal  of  the 
French  tmojis,  and  after  the  battle  of  Sedan  the  Italians  to  a  man 
insisted   uii    having  Eome  as  their  eai)ital,  and   Victor  Emanuel  ac- 


§  185.  THE  PAPACY  AND  STATES  OF  THE  CHURCH.  227 

quiesced.  The  pope  sought  help  far  and  near  from  Catholic  and 
non-Catholic  powers,  but  he  received  only  the  echo  of  his  own  words, 
uon  possuimts.  After  a  four  hours'  cannonade  a  breach  was  made  in 
the  walls  of  the  eternal  city,  the  white  flag  appeared  on  St.  Angelo, 
and  amid  the  shouts  of  the  populace  the  Italian  troops  entered  on 
September  20th,  1870.  A  plebiscite  in  the  papal  dominions  gave 
133,681  votes  in  favour  of  annexation  and  1,507  against;  in  Rome 
alone  there  were  40,785  for  and  only  46  against.  The  king  now  issued 
the  decree  of  incorporation;  Rome  became  capital  of  united  Italy  and 
the  Quirinal  the  royal  residence. 

4.  The  Prisoner  of  the  Vatican,  A.D.  18701878.— The  dethroned  papal 
king  could  only  protest  and  utter  denunciations.  No  result  followed 
from  the  adoption  of  St.  Joseph  as  guardian  and  patron  of  the  church, 
nor  from  the  solenui  consecration  of  the  whole  world  to  the  most 
sacred  heart  of  Jesus,  at  the  jubilee  of  June  16th,  A.n.  1875.  The 
measux-es  of  a.d.  1871,  by  which  Cavour  sought  to  realize  his  ideal  of 
a  "free  chui-ch  in  a  free  state,"  Averse  pronounced  absurd,  cunning, 
deceitful,  and  an  outrage  on  the  apostles  Peter  and  Paul.  By  these 
measui-es  the  rights  and  privileges  of  a  sovereign  for  all  time  had  been 
conferred  on  the  pope:  the  holiness  and  inviolability  of  his  person, 
a  body-guard,  a  post  and  telegraph  bureau,  free  ambassadorial  com- 
munication with  foreign  jjowers,  the  ex-territorialU jj  of  his  palace  of 
the  Vatican,  embracing  fifteen  large  saloons,  11,500  rooms,  236  stairs, 
218  corridors,  two  chapels,  several  museums,  archives,  libraries,  large 
beaiitiful  gardens,  etc.,  as  also  of  the  Lateran  and  the  summer  palace 
of  Castle  Gandolpho,  with  all  appurtenances,  also  an  amiual  income, 
free  from  all  burdens  and  taxes,  of  thi-ee  and  a  quarter  million  francs, 
equal  to  the  former  amount  of  his  revenue,  together  with  uru'estricted 
liberty  in  the  exercise  of  all  ecclesiastical  rights  of  sovereignty  and 
primacy,  and  tlie  renunciation  of  all  state  interference  in  the  disposal 
of  bishoprics  and  benefices.  The  right  of  the  inferior  clergy  to 
exercise  the  appcUatio  ab  ahumi  to  a  civil  tribunal  was  set  aside,  and 
of  all  civil  rights  only  that  of  the  royal  exequatur  in  the  election  of 
bishops,  i.e.  the  mere  right  of  investing  the  nominee  of  the  curia  in 
the  possession  of  the  revenues  of  his  office,  was  retained. — To  the  end 
of  his  life  Pius  every  year  returned  the  dotation  as  an  insult  and 
injury,  and  "  the  starving  holy  father  in  prison,  who  has  not  where  to 
lay  his  head,"  received  three  or  four  times  more  in  Peter's  pence  con- 
tributed by  all  Catholic  Christendom.  Playing  the  rOle  of  a  prisoner 
he  never  passed  beyond  the  precincts  of  the  Vatican.  He  reached  the 
semi-jubilee  of  his  papal  coronation  in  a.d.  1871,  being  the  first  pope 
who  falsified  the  old  saying,  Annos  Petri  uon  videbit.  He  rejected  the 
offer  of  a  golden  throne  and  the  title  of  "  the  great,"  but  he  accepted  a 
Parisian  ladN-'s  gift  of  a  golden  crown  of  thorns.     In  support  of  tlie 


228      CHURCH   HISTORY   OF   NINETEENTH   CENTURY. 

prison  myth,  straws  from  the  papal  cell  were  sold  in  Belgium  for  half 
a  franc  per  stalk,  and  for  the  same  price  photographs  of  the  pope 
behind  an  iron  grating.  As  once  on  a  time  the  legend  arose  about  the 
disciple  whom  Jesus  loved  that  he  would  not  die,  so  was  it  once  said 
about  the  pope ;  and  on  his  eighty-third  birthday,  in  a.d.  1874,  a  Roman 
Jesuit  paper,  eulogising  the  moral  purity  of  his  life,  put  the  words 
in  his  mouth,  "  "Which  of  you  convinceth  me  of  sin  ?"  But  he  himself 
by  constantly  renewed  rescripts,  encyclicals,  briefs,  allocutions  to  the 
cardinals  and  to  numerous  deputations  from  far  and  near,  vmweariedly 
fanned  the  flame  of  enthusiasm  and  fanaticism  throughout  papal 
Christendom,  and  thundered  threatening  prophecies  not  only  against 
the  Italian,  but  also  against  foreign  states,  for  with  most  of  them  he 
lived  in  open  war.  A  collection  of  his  "Speeches  delivered  at  the 
Vatican "  was  published  in  1874,  commented  on  by  Gladstone  in 
the  Contemporary  Beview  for  January,  1875,  who  gives  abundant 
quotations  showing  papal  assumptions,  maledictions,  abuse  and  mis- 
understanding of  the  Scriptiires  with  which  they  abound.  On  the 
fiftieth  anniversary  of  the  pope's  episcopal  consecration,  in  June, 
1877,  crowds  from  all  lands  assembled  to  offer  their  congratulations, 
with  costly  presents  and  Peter's  pence  amounting  to  sixteen  and 
a  half  million  francs.  He  died  February  8th,  1878,  in  the  eighty- 
sixth  5'ear  of  his  age  and  thirty-second  of  his  pontificate.  His 
heirs  claimed  the  unpaid  dotations  of  twenty  million  lire,  but  were 
refused  by  the  courts  of  law.'— His  secretary  Antonelli,  descended 
from  an  old  brigand  family,  who  from  the  time  of  his  stay  at  Gaeta 
was  his  evil  demon,  predeceased  him  in  a.d.  1876.  Though  the  son  of 
a  poor  herdsman  and  woodcutter,  he  left  more  than  a  hundred  million 
lire.  His  natural  daughter,  to  the  great  annoyance  of  the  Vatican, 
sought,  but  without  success,  in  the  courts  of  justice  to  make  good  her 
claims  against  her  father's  greedy  brothers. 

5.  Leo  XIII. — After  only  two  days'  conclave  the  Cardinal-archbishop 
of  Perugia,  Joachim  Pecci,  born  in  a.d.  1810,  was  proclaimed  on 
February  20th,  1878,  as  Leo  XHI.  In  autogi-aph  letters  he  intimated 
his  accession  to  the  German  and  Russian  emperors,  but  not  to  the 
king  of  Italy,  and  expressed  his  Avish  for  a  good  mutual  xnrderstand- 
in"-.  To  the  government  of  the  Swiss  Cantons  he  declared  his  hope 
that  their  ancient  friendly  relations  might  be  restored.  At  Easter, 
1878,  he  issued  an  encyclical  to  all  i)atriai'chs,  primates,  archbishops, 
and  bishops,  in  Avhich  he  required  of  tliem  that  they  should  earnestly 
entreat  the  mediation  of  the  "  immaculate  queen  of  heaven  "  and  the 
intercessiou  of  St.  Joseph,  "  the  heavenly  shield  of  the  church,"  and 


1  GefFcken,  "  Church  and  State,"  vol.  ii.,  pp.  269-293  :  "  The  Italian 
Question  and  the  Papal  States." 


§  185.  THE  PAPACY  AND  STATES  OF  THE  CHURCH.  229 

also  failed  not  to  make  prominent  the  infallibility  of  the  apostolic 
chair,  and  to  condemn  all  the  eri'ors  condemned  by  his  predecessors, 
emphasizing  the  necessity  of  restoring  the  temjDoral  power  of  the  pope, 
and  confirming  and  renewing  all  the  protests  of  his  predecessor  Pius 
IX.,  of  sacred  memory,  against  the  overthrow  of  the  Papal  States. 
On  the  first  anniversary  of  his  elevation  he  pi'oclaimed  a  universal 
jubilee,  with  the  promise  of  a  complete  indulgence.  He  still  persisted 
in  the  prison  myth  of  his  predecessor,  and  like  him  sent  back  the 
Ijrofferred  contribution  of  his  "jailor."  In  the  conflicts  with  foreign 
powers  inherited  from  Pius,  as  well  as  in  his  own,  he  has  emploj'ed 
generally  moderate  and  conciliatory  language. — He  has  not  hesitated 
to  take  the  first  step  to^'ard  a  good  understanding  A\-ith  his  oi^ponents, 
for  Avhich,  Avhile  persistently  maintaining  the  ancient  principles  of 
the  papal  chair,  he  makes  certain  concessions  in  regard  to  sub- 
ordinate matters,  always  with  the  design  and  expectation  of  seeing 
them  outweighed  on  the  other  side  by  the  conservation  of  all  the 
other  hierarchical  pretensions  of  the  curial  system.  It  Avas,  however, 
only  in  the  middle  of  a.d.  1885  that  it  became  evident  that  the  pope 
had  determined,  without  allowing  any  misunderstanding  to  arise 
between  himself  and  his  cardinals,  to  break  through  the  trammels 
of  the  irreconcilable  zealots  in  the  college.  And  indeed  after  the 
conclusion  of  the  German  Kulturkampf  (%  197,  18,  15),  brought  about 
by  these  means,  in  an  allocution  with  reference  thereto  addressed  to 
the  cardinals  in  May,  1887,  he  gave  an  unexpected  exjDression  to  his 
wish  and  longing  in  regard  to  an  understanding  with  the  government 
on  the  Italian  question,  which  involved  an  utter  renunciation  of  his 
predecessor's  dogged  Xon  j^jo.stsw ;««*•,  the  attitude  hitherto  unfalteringly 
maintained.  "  Would  that  peaceful  counsels,"  says  he,  "  embracing  all 
our  peoples  should  prevail  in  Italy  also,  and  that  at  last  once  that 
unhappy  difference  might  be  overcome  without  loss  of  privilege  to  the 
holy  see ! "  Such  harmonj^,  indeed,  is  only  possible  when  the  pope  "  is 
subjected  to  no  authority  and  enjoys  perfect  freedom,"  which  would 
cavise  no  loss  to  Italy,  "  but  would  only  secure  its  lasting  peace  and 
safetj^"  That  he  counts  upon  the  good  offices  of  the  German  emperor 
for  the  effecting  of  this  longed-for  restoration  of  such  a  modus  vivemli 
with  the  Italian  government,  he  has  clearly  indicated  in  his  \n-e- 
liminar}^  communications  to  i\w  Prussian  centre  exhorting  to  peace 
(§  197,  14).  The  Mointeur  de  Rome  (§  188,  1),  however,  interpreted 
the  words  of  the  pope  thus:  "Italy  would  lose  nothing  materialh'  or 
politically,  if  it  gave  a  small  corner  of  its  territory  to  the  pope,  where 
he  might  enjoy  actual  sovereignty  as  a  guarantee  of  his  spiritual 
independence." — On  Leo's  contributions  to  theological  science  see 
§  191,  12 ;  on  his  attitude  to  Protestantism  and  the  Eastern  Church, 
see  §  175,  2,  I.      He  expressed  himself  against  the  freemasons  in  an 


230      CHURCH   HISTORY   OF   KINETEEKTH   CENTURY. 

encyclical  of  a.d.  1884  Avith  even  greater  sevei'ity  than  Pius.  Con- 
sequently the  Eoman  Inquisition  issued  an  instruction  to  all  bishops 
thi-oughout  the  Catholic  world  requiring  thejn  to  enjoin  their  clergy 
in  the  pul^iit  and  the  confessional  to  make  it  known  that  all  free- 
masons are  eo  ipso  excommunicated,  and  hy  Catholic  associations  of 
every  sort,  especially  by  the  spread  of  tlae  third  order  of  St.  Francis 
(§  186,  2),  the  injunction  was  carried  out.  At  the  same  time  a  year's 
reprieve  Avas  given  to  the  freemasons,  during  which  the  Eoman 
heresy  laws,  which  required  their  children,  wives,  and  relatives  to 
denounce  them  to  all  clergy  and  laymen,  Avere  to  be  suspended. 
Should  the  guilty,  hoAvever,  alloAV  this  day  of  grace  to  pass,  these 
laAvs  Avere  to  be  again  fully  enforced,  and  then  it  Avould  be  onlj'  for 
the  pope  to  absolve  them  from  their  terrible  sin. 


§  18G.    Various  Orders  and  Associations. 

The  order  of  the  Jesuits  restored  in  a.d.  1814  by  Pius 
VII.  impregnated  all  other  orders  with  its  spirit,  gained  com- 
manding influence  over  Pius  IX.,  made  the  bishops  its 
agents,  and  turned  the  whole  Catholic  church  into  a  Jesuit 
institution.  An  immense  number  of  societies  arose  aiming 
at  the  accomplishment  of  home  mission  work,  inspired  by 
the  Jesuit  spirit  and  carrying  out  unquestioningly  the 
ultramontane  ideas  of  their  leaders.  Also  zeal  for  foreign 
missions  on  old  Jesuit  lines  revived,  and  the  enthusiasm  for 
martyrdom  was  due  mainly  to  the  same  cause. 

1.  Ihe  Society  of  Jesus  and  Related  Orders.— After  the  suppression  of 
their  order  by  Clement  XIV.  the  Jesuits  found  refuge  mainly  among 
the  Redemptorists  (§  165,  2),  Avhose  headquarters  Avere  at  Vienna,  from 
Avhich  they  spread  through  Austria  and  BaA'aria,  finding  entrance 
also  into  SAvitzerland,  France,  Belgium,  and  Holland,  and  after  1848 
into  Catholic  Prussia,  as  Avell  as  into  Hesse  and  Nassau.  The  Congre- 
gation of  the  Sacred  Heart  Avas  founded  by  ex-Jesuits  in  Belgium  in 
A.I).  17!)4,  and  soon  spread  in  Aiistria  and  Bavaria. — The  restored 
Jesuit  order  Avas  met  Avitli  a  storm  of  opposition  from  the  liberals. 
The  July  revolution  of  a.d.  1830  di'ove  the  Jesuits  from  France,  and 
when  they  sought  to  re-establish  themselves,  Gregory  XVI.,  under 
pressure  of  the  government,  insisted  that  their  genei'al  should  abolish 
the  French  institutions  in  a.d.  1845.  An  important  branch  of  the 
order  had  sr^ttled  in  Catholic  SAvitzerland,  but  the  unfaA'ourable  issue 


§  18G.    VARIOUS   ORDERS   AND   ASSOCIATIONS.         231 

of  the  Separated  Cantons'  War  of  1847  drove  its  members  out  of  that 
refuge.  The  revolution  of  1848  threatened  the  order  with  extinction, 
hut  the  papal  restoration  of  a.d.  1850  re-introduced  it  into  most 
Catholic  countries.  Since  then  the  sons  of  Loj^ola  have  renewed  their 
youth  like  the  eagle.  They  have  forced  their  waj^  into  all  lands, 
even  in  those  on  both  sides  of  the  ocean  that  had  by  legislative  enact- 
ments been  closed  against  them,  spreading  ultramontane  views  among 
Catholics,  converting  Protestants,  and  disseminating  their  principles 
in  schools  and  colleges.  Even  Pius  IX.,  under  whose  ausijices  Aug. 
Theiner  had  been  allowed,  in  a.d.  1853,  in  his  "  Histoiy  of  the  Ponti- 
ficate of  Clement  XIV."  to  bring  against  them  the  heavy  artillery 
drawn  from  "  the  secret  archives  of  the  Vatican,"'  again  handed  over 
to  them  the  management  of  public  instruction,  and  surrendered  him- 
self even  more  and  more  to  their  influence,  so  that  at  last  he  saw  only 
by  their  eyes,  heard  only  with  their  ears,  and  resolved  only  according 
to  their  will.^  The  founding  of  the  Italian  kingdom  under  the  Prince 
of  Sardinia  in  a.d.  1860  led  to  their  expulsion  from  all  Italy,  with 
the  exception  of  Venice  and  the  remnants  of  the  Papal  States. 
When,  in  a.d.  1866,  Venice  also  became  an  Italian  province,  they 
migrated  thence  into  the  Tyrol  and  other  Austrian  provinces,  where 
they  enjoyed  the  blessings  of  the  concordat  (§  198,  2).  Spain,  too,  on 
the  expulsion  of  Queen  Isabella  in  a.d.  1868,  and  even  Mexico  and 
several  of  the  States  of  Central  and  Southern  America,  drove  out  the 
disciples  of  Loyola.  On  the  other  hand,  they  made  brilliant  progress 
in  Germany,  especially  in  Rhenish  Hesse  and  the  Catholic  provinces 
of  Prussia.  But  under  the  new  German  empire  the  Eeichstag,  in 
a.d.  1872,  passed  a  laAV  suppressing  the  Jesuits  and  all  similar  orders 
throughout  the  empire  (§  197,  4).  They  were  also  foraually  expelled 
from  France  in  a.d.  1880  (§  203,  6).  Still,  however,  in  a.d.  1881  the 
order  numbered  11,000  members  in  five  provinces,  and  according  to 
Bismarck's  calculation  in  a.d.  1872  their  property  amounted  to  280 
million  thalers.  In  a.d.  1853  John  Beckx  of  Belgium  was  made 
general.  He  retii-ed  in  a.d.  1884  at  the  age  of  ninetj^,  Anderladj-, 
a  Swiss,  having  been  appointed  in  a.d.  1883  his  colleague  and  suc- 
cessor.— The  hope  which  was  at  first  widely  entertained  that  Leo 
XIII.  would  emancipate  himself  from  the  domination  of  the  order 
seems  more  and  more  to  be  proved  a  vain  delusion.  In  July,  1886, 
he  issued,  on  the  occasion  of  a  new  edition  of  the  institutions  of  the 
order,  a  letter  to  Anderlady,  in  which  he,  in  the  most  extravagant 
maimer,  speaks  of  the  order  as  having  performed  the  most  signal 
s?rvices  ''  to  the  church  and  society,"  and  confirms  anew  everj-thing 
that  his  predecessors  had  said  and  done  in  its  favour,  while  expressly 

»  Geffcken,  "  Church  and  State."  vol.  ii.,  pp.  236-238. 


232      CHURCH   HISTORY   OF   NINETEENTH   CENTURY. 

and  formalh-  he  recalls  anew  anything  that  any  of  them  had  said 
and  done  against  it. 

2.  Other  Orders  and  Congregations.— After  the  storms  of  the  revo- 
Ivition  religious  ordeis  rapidly  recovered  lost  ground.  France  decreed, 
on  Xovember  2nd,  1789,  the  abolition  of  all  orders,  and  cloisters  and 
in  1802,  under  Napoleon's  auspices,  they  were  also  suppress-^d  in  the 
German  empire  and  the  friendly  princes  indemnified  Avith  their 
goods.  Yet  on  grounds  of  utility  Napoleon  restored  the  Lazarists, 
as  Avell  as  the  Sisters  of  Mercy,  whose  scattered  remnants  he  collected 
in  A.D.  1807  in  Paris  into  a  general  chapter,  under  the  presidency 
of  the  empress-mother.  But  new  cloisters  in  great  numbers  Avere 
erected  specially  in  Belgium  and  France  (in  opposition  to  the  laAA- 
of  1789,  Avhich  Avas  unrepealed),  in  Austria,  BaA'aria,  Prussia,  Rhenish 
Hesse,  etc.,  as  also  in  England  and  America,  In  1849  there  were 
in  Prussia  fifty  monastic  institutes ;  in  1872  there  Avere  9(37.  In 
Cologne  one  in  every  215,  in  Aachen  one  in  every  110,  in  Miinster 
one  in  every  sixty-one,  in  Paderborn  one  in  CA^ery  thirty -three,  Avas  a 
Catholic  priest  or  member  of  an  order.  In  BaA'aria,  between  1831  and 
1873  the  number  of  cloisters  rose  from  43  to  628,  all,  Avith  the  exception 
of  some  old  Benedictine  monasteries,  inspired  ajid  dominated  by  the 
Jesuits.  Even  the  Dominicans,  originally  such  deternained  opponents, 
are  noAV  perA'aded  by  the  Jesuit  spirit.  The  restoration  of  the 
Trappist  order  (§  156,  8)  deserves  special  mention.  On  their  expulsion 
from  La  Trappe  in  a.d.  1791  the  brothers  found  an  asylum  in  the 
Canton  Freiburg,  and  Avhen  driven  thence  by  the  French  invasion  of 
A.D.  1798,  Paul  I.  obtained  from  the  czar  permission  for  them  to  settle 
in  White  Russia,  Poland,  and  Lithuania.  But  expelled  from  these 
regions  again  in  A.n.  1800  they  Avandered  through  Europe  and 
America,  till  after  Napoleon's  defeat  thej'  purchased  back  the  monas- 
tery of  La  Trai^pe,  and  made  it  the  centre  of  a  group  of  ncAV  settlements 
throughout  France  and  be^'ond  it. — Besides  regular  orders  there  Avere 
also  numerous  congregations  or  religious  societies  Avith  communal  life 
according  to  a  definite  but  not  perpetually  binding  rule,  and  Avithout 
the  obligation  of  seclusion,  as  Avell  as  brotherhoods  and  sisterhoods 
Avithout  any  such  rule,  Avhich  after  the  restoration  of  a.d.  1814  in 
France  and  after  a.d.  1848  in  Germany,  Avere  formed  for  the  purposes 
of  prayer,  charity,  education,  and  such  like.  From  France  many  of 
these  spread  into  the  Rhine  Provinces  and  Westphalia. — In  Spain  and 
Portugal  (§205, 1,  5)  all  orders  Avere  repeatedly  abolished,  subsequently 
also  in  Sardinia  and  CA^en  in  all  Italy  (§  204,  1,  2),  and  also-  in  seA'eral 
Romish  American  states  (§  209,  1,  2),  as  also  in  Prussia  and  Hesse 
(§  197, 8, 15).  Finally  the  third  French  Republic  has  enforced  existing 
laAvs  against  all  orders  and  congregations  not  authorized  by  the  State 
(§  206,  G).— On  the  700th  annivf-rsiry  of  the  birth  of  St.  Francis,  in 


§  186.    VARIOUS    ORDERS    AND   ASSOCIATIONS.         233 

September,  1882,  Leo  XIII.  issued  an  encyclical  declaring  the  institute 
of  the  Franciscan  Tertiaries  (§  98,  11)  alone  capable  of  saving  human 
society  from  all  the  political  and  social  dangers  of  the  present  and 
future,  Avhich  had  some  success  at  least  in  Italy. 

Of  Avhat  inhuman  barbarity  the  superiors  of  cloisters  are  still  cap- 
able is  shown  inatar  omnium  in  the  horrible  treatment  of  the  nun 
Barbara  Ubryk,  who,  avowedly  on  account  of  a  breach  of  her  vow  of 
chastity,  was  confined  since  a.d.  1818  in  the  cloister  of  the  Carmelite 
nuns  at  Cracow  in  a  dark,  narrow  cell  beside  the  sewer  of  the  convent, 
Avithout  fire,  bed,  chair,  or  table.  It  was  only  in  a.d.  1869,  in  con- 
S3quence  of  an  anonymous  communication  to  the  law  officers,  that 
she  was  freed  from  her  prison  in  a  semi-animal  condition,  quite 
naked,  starved,  and  covered  with  filth,  and  consigned  to  an  as3"lum. 
The  populace  of  Cracow,  infuriated  at  such  conduct,  covild  be  restrained 
fmm  demolishing  all  the  cloisters  only  by  the  aid  of  the  military. 

8.  The  Pius  Verein. — A  society  under  the  name  of  the  Pius  Verein 
was  started  at  Mainz  in  October,  1848,  to  fvirther  Catholic  interests, 
advocating  the  church's  independence  of  the  State,  the  right  of  the 
clergy  to  direct  education,  etc.  At  the  annual  meetings  its  leading 
members  boasted  in  grossly  exaggerated  terms  of  what  had  been 
accomplished  an<l  recklessly  pro2:)hesied  of  what  would  yet  be 
achieved.  At  the  twenty-eighth  general  assembly  at  Bonn  in  a.d. 
1881,  with  an  attendance  of  1,100,  the  same  confident  tone  was  main- 
tained. Windhorst  reminded  the  Prussian  government  of  the 
purchase  of  the  Sibj'lline  books,  and  declared  that  each  case  of 
breaking  off"  negotiations  raised  the  price  of  the  peace.  Not  a  tittle 
of  the  ultramontane  claims  would  be  surrendered.  The  watchword 
is  the  complete  restoration  of  the  -yfatus  quo  ante.  Baron  von  Loe, 
president  of  the  Canisius  Verein,  conckided  his  triumphant  speech 
with  the  summons  to  raise  the  membership  of  the  union  from  80,000 
to  800,000,  yea  to  8,000,000;  then  would  the  time  be  near  when 
Germany  should  become  again  a  Catholic  land  and  the  church  again 
tlie  leader  of  the  people.  At  the  assembly  at  Dlisseldorf  in  a.d.  1883, 
Windhorst  declared,  amid  the  enthusiastic  applause  of  all  present, 
that  after  the  absolute  abrogation  of  the  May  laws  the  centre  would 
not  rest  till  education  was  again  committed  unreservedly  to  the 
church.  In  the  assembly  at  Miinster  in  a.d.  1885,  he  extolled  the 
pope  (notwithstanding  all  confiscation  and  imprisoning  for  the  time 
being)  as  the  governor  and  lord  of  the  whole  Avorld.  The  thirtA'- 
third  assembly  at  Breslau  in  a.d.  1886,  Avith  special  emphasis, 
demanded  the  recall  of  all  orders,  including  that  of  the  Jesuits. 

4.  The  various  German  unions  graduallj'  fell  under  ultramontane 
influences.  The  Borromr-o  Society  circulated  Catholic  books  incul- 
cating ultramontane  views  in  politics  and  religion.      The  Boniface 


234      CHURCH   HISTORY   OF   NINETEENTH   CENTURY. 

Union,  founded  by  Martin,  Bishop  of  Paderborn,  aided  needy  Catholic 
congregations  in  Protestant  districts.  Other  unions  -were  devoted  to 
foreign  missions,  to  work  among  Germans  in  foreign  lands,  etc.  In 
all  the  universities  such  societies  were  formed.  In  Bavaria  patriot 
peasant  associations  were  set  on  foot,  as  a  standing  army  in  the  con- 
flict of  the  ultramontane  hierarchy  with  the  new  German  empire. 
For  the  same  purpose  Bishop  Ketteler  founded  in  a.d.  1871  the  Mainz 
Catholic  Union,  which  in  a.d.  1814  had  90,000  members.  The  GiJrres 
Society  of  1876  (§  188,  1)  and  the  Canisius  Society  of  1879  (§  151,  1) 
were  meant  to  promote  education  on  ultramontane  lines. — In  Italy 
such  societies  have  striven  for  the  restoration  of  the  temporal  poAver 
and  the  supremacy  of  the  church  over  the  State.  The  unions  of 
France  were  confederated  in  a.d.  1870,  and  this  general  association 
holds  an  annual  congress.  The  several  unions  were  called  "  cwfres." 
The  Q^avre  du  Voeic  National,  e.g.,  had  the  task  of  restoring  penitent 
France  to  the  "  sacred  heart  of  Jesus "  (§  188,  12) ;  the  Q^uvre  Ponti- 
fical made  collections  of  Peter's  pence  and  for  persecuted  priests ;  the 
(Euvre  cle  Jems-Ouvrier  had  to  do  with  the  working  classes,  etc. 

5.  The  knowledge  of  the  omnipotence  of  capital  in  these  days  led 
to  various  proposals  for  turning  it  to  account  in  the  interests  of 
Catholicism.  The  Catholic  Bank  schemes  of  the  Belgian  Langrand- 
Dumonceau  in  1872  and  the  Munich  bank  were  pure  swindles ;  and 
that  of  Adele  Spitzeder  1869-1872,  pronounced  "  holy  ■' by  the  clergy 
and  iiltramontane  press,  collapsed  Avith  a  deficit  of  eight  and  a  quarter 
million  florins. — Archbishop  Purcell  of  Cincinnati  invited  church 
members  to  avoid  risk  to  bank  with  him.  He  invested  in  land, 
advanced  money  for  building  churches,  cloisters,  schools,  etc.,  and  in 
A.D.  1878  found  himself  bankrupt  Avith  liabilities  amounting  to  five 
million  dollars.  He  then  oftered  to  resign  his  office,  but  the  pope 
refused  and  gave  him  a  coadjutor,  whereupon  the  archbishop  retired 
into  a  cloister  Avhere  he  died  in  his  eighty-third  year.  In  the  Union 
Generale  of  Paris,  founded  in  1876,  Avhich  came  to  a  crash  in  1882,  the 
French  aristocracy,  the  higher  clergy  and  members  of  orders  lost 
hundreds  of  millions  of  francs. 

6.  The  Catholic  Missions. — The  impulse  given  to  Catholic  interests 
after  1848  Avas  seen  in  the  zeal  Avith  Avhich  missions  in  Catholic  lands, 
like  the  Protestant  Methodist  rcAaval  and  camp-meetings  (§  208,  1), 
began  to  be  prosecuted.  An  attempt  Avas  thus  made  to  gather  in  the 
masses,  Avho  had  been  estranged  froni  the  church  during  the  storais 
of  the  revolution.  The  Jesuits  and  Kedemptorists  AA^ere  prominent  in 
this  Avork.  In  bands  of  six  they  visited  stations,  staying  for  three 
Aveeks,  hearing  confessions,  addressing  meetings  three  times  a  day, 
and  concluding  by  a  general  communion. 

7.  Besides  the  Propaganda  (§  156,  9),  fourteen  societies  in  Rome, 


§  186.    VARIOUS   ORDERS   AND   ASSOCIATIONS.         235 

three  in  Paris,  thirty  in  the  whole  of  Cp.tholic  Christendom,  are 
devoted  to  the  dissemination  of  Catholicism  among  Heretics  and 
Heathens.  The  Lyons  Association  for  the  spread  of  the  faith,  insti- 
tuted in  1822,  has  a  revenue  of  from  four  to  six  million  francs. 
Specially  famous  is  the  Picpus  Society,  so  called  from  the  street  in 
Paris  where  it  has  its  headquarters.  Its  founder  was  the  deacon 
Coudrin,  a  pupil  of  the  seminary  for  priests  at  Poictiers  broken  up  in 
A.D.  1789.  Amid  the  evils  done  to  the  church  and  the  priests  by  the 
Revolution,  in  his  hiding-place  he  heard  a  divine  call  to  found  a 
society  for  the  purpose  of  training  the  youth  in  Catholic  principles, 
educating  priests,  and  bringing  the  gospel  to  the  heathen  "by  atoning 
for  excesses,  crimes,  and  sins  of  all  kinds  by  an  unceasing  day  and 
night  devotion  of  the  most  holy  sacrament  of  the  altar."  Such  a 
society  he  actually  founded  in  a.d.  1805,  and  Pius  VII.  confirmed  it 
in  A.D.  1817.  The  founder  died  in  a.d.  1837,  after  his  society  had 
spread  over  all  the  five  continents.  Its  chief  aim  henceforth  was 
missions  to  the  heathen.  While  the  Picpus  society,  as  Avell  as  the 
other  seminaries  and  monkish  orders,  sent  forth  croAvds  of  mission- 
aries, other  societies  devoted  themselves  to  collecting  monej^  and 
engaging  in  prayer.  The  most  important  of  these  is  the  Lyonese 
Society  for  the  spread  of  the  faith  of  a.d.  1822.  The  anember"s  Aveeklj' 
contribution  is  5  cents,  the  daily  prayer-demand  a  paternoster,  an 
angel  greeting,  and  a  "St.  Francis  Xavier,  pray  for  us."  The 
fanatical  journal  of  the  society  had  a  yearly  circulation  of  almost 
250,000  copies,  in  ten  European  languages.  The  popes  had  showered 
upon  its  members  rich  indulgences. — After  Protestant  missions  had 
received  such  a  powerful  impulse  in  the  nineteenth  century,  the 
Catholic  societies  were  thereby  impelled  to  force  in  wherever  success 
had  been  won  and  seemed  likely  to  be  secured,  and  wrought  with  all 
conceivable  Jesuitical  arts  and  devices,  for  the  most  part  under  the 
political  protection  of  France.  The  Catholic  missions  have  been  most 
zealously  and  successfully  prosecuted  in  North  America,  China,  India, 
Japan,  and  among  the  schismatic  chiirches  of  the  Levant,  Since  1837 
they  have  been  advanced  by  aid  of  the  French  navy  in  the  South  Seas 
(§  184,  7)  and  in  Xorth  Africa  by  the  French  occupation  of  Algiers, 
and  most  recently  in  ]\Iadagascar.  In  South  Africa  they  have  made 
no  progress. — In  a.d.  1837-1839  a  bloody  persecution  raged  in  Tonquin 
and  Cochin  China ;  in  a.d.  1866  Christianity  was  rooted  out  of  Corea, 
and  over  2,000  Christians  slain;  two  years  later  persecution  was 
renewed  in  Japan.  In  China,  through  the  op^sressions  of  the  French, 
the  people  rose  against  the  Catholics  resident  there.  This  movement 
reached  a  climax  in  the  rebelliim  of  1870  at  Tientsin,  when  all  French 
officials,  missionaries,  and  sisters  of  mercy  Avere  put  to  death,  and  the 
French  consulate,  Catholic  churches  and  mission  liousps  Avere  levelled 


236    CHURCH  history  of  nineteenth  century. 

to  the  ground.  Also  in  Further  India  since  the  French  war  of  a.d, 
1883  -with  Tonquin,  over  -which  China  claimed  rights  of  suzerainty, 
the  Catholic  missions  have  again  suffered,  and  many  missionaries 
have  been  martyred. 

§  187.  Liberal  Catholic  Movements. 

Alongside  of  tlie  steady  growth  of  iiltramontanism  from 
the  time  of  the  restoration  of  the  papacy  in  a.d.  1814,  there 
arose  also  a  reactionary  movement,  partly  of  a  mystical- 
irenical,  evangelical-revival  and  liberal-scientific,  and  partly 
of  a  radical-liberalistic,  character.  But  all  the  leaders  in 
such  movements  sooner  or  later  succumbed  before  the 
strictly  administered  discipline  of  the  hieraxxhy.  The  Old 
Catholic  reaction  (§  190),  on  the  other  hand,  in  spite  of 
various  disadvantages,  still  maintains  a  vigorous  existence. 

1.  Mystical-Irenical  Tendencies.— J.  M.  Sailer,  deprived  in  a.d.  1794  of 
his  ofiice  at  Dillingen  (§  16o,  12),  Avas  appointed  in  a.d.  1799  professor 
of  moral  and  pastoral  theology  at  Ingolstadt,  and  -was  transferred  to 
Landshut  in  a.d.  1800.  There  for  twenty  3'ears  his  mild  and  concilia- 
tory as  well  as  profoundly  pious  mj'sticism  po^^'erfully  influenced 
crowds  of  students  from  South  Geiinany  and  iSwitzerland.  Though 
the  pope  refused  to  confirm  his  nomination  by  Maximilian  as  Bishop 
of  Augsburg  in  a.d.  1820,  he  so  far  cleared  himself  of  the  suspicion 
of  mysticism,  separatism,  and  crypto-calvinism,  that  in  a.d.  1829  no 
opposition  was  made  to  his  appointment  as  Bishop  of  Regensburg. 
Sailer  continued  faithful  to  the  Catholic  dogmatic,  and  none  of  his 
numerous  writings  have  been  put  in  the  Index.  Yet  he  lay  luider 
suspicion  till  his  death  in  a.d.  1832,  and  this  seemed  to  be  justified 
by  the  intercourse  which  he  and  his  discii)les  had  Avith  Protestant 
pietists.  His  likeminded  scholai',  friend,  and  vicar-general,  the  Suf- 
fragan-bishop Wittmann,  was  designated  his  successor  in  Regensburg, 
but  he  died  before  receiving  pai)al  confirmation.  Of  all  his  pupils 
the  most  distinguished  was  the  AVestphalian  Baron  von  Diepenbrock, 
over  whose  wild,  inti'actable,  youthful  nature  Sailer  exercised  a  magic 
influence.  In  a.d.  1823  he  was  ordained  priest,  became  Sailer's  secre- 
tai-y,  remaining  his  confidential  companion  till  his  death,  was  made 
vicar-general  to  Sailer's  successor  in  a.d.  1842,  and  in  a.d.  1845  was 
raised  to  the  archiepiscopal  chair  of  Breslau,  where  he  joined  the 
ultramontanes,  and  entered  Avith  all  his  heart  into  the  ecclesiastico- 
political   coutlicts   of  the   "Wurzburg   ei)iscopal   congress   (§  192,  4). 


§  187.    LIBERAL    CATHOLIC   MOVEMENTS.  237 

His  services  ■were  i-eAvarded  bj-  a  cardinars  liat  from  Pius  IX.  in  a.d. 
1850.  His  pastoral  letters,  however,  as  well  as  his  sermons  and  private 
correspondence,  show  that  he  never  altogether  forgot  the  teaching  of 
his  spiritual  father.  He  delighted  in  the  study  of  the  mediaeval 
mystics,  and  M'as  speciall}'  drawn  to  the  writings  of  Suso. 

2.  Evangelical-Revival  Tendencies. — A  movement  much  more  evan- 
gelical than  that  of  Sailer,  having  the  doctrine  of  justification  by 
faith  alone  as  its  centre,  was  originated  by  a  simple  Ba\"arian  priest, 
Martin  Boos,  and  soon  embraced  sixty  priests  in  the  diocese  of  Augs- 
burg. The  spiritual  experiences  of  Boos  were  similar  to  those  of 
Luther.  The  Avords  of  a  poor  old  sick  woman  brought  peace  to  his 
soul  in  A.D.  1790,  and  led  him  to  the  studj^  of  Scripture.  His  preach- 
ing among  the  people  and  his  conversations  with  the  surrounding 
clergy  produced  a  widespread  revival.  Amid  manifold  persecutions, 
removed  from  one  parish  to  another,  find  flying  from  Bavaria  to 
Austria  and  thence  into  Rhenish  Prussia,  where  he  j^ied  in  a.d.  1825 
as  priest  of  Sayn,  he  lighted  wherever  he  went  the  torch  of  truth. 
Even  after  his  convei-sion  Boos  believed  that  he  still  maintained  the 
Catholic  position,  but  was  at  last  to  his  own  astonishment  convinced 
of  the  contrary  through  intercourse  Avith  Protestant  pietists  and  the 
study  of  Luther's  works.  But  so  long  as  the  mother  church  would 
keep  him  he  wished  not  to  foisake  her.'  So  too  felt  his  like-minded 
companions  Gossner  and  Lindl,  who  were  expelled  from  Bavaria  in 
A.D.  1829  and  settled  in  St.  Petersburg.  Lindl,  as  Provost  of  South 
Kussia,  went  to  i-eside  in  Odessa,  Avhere  he  exercised  a  powerful  influ- 
ence over  Catholics  and  Protestants  and  among  the  higher  classes  of 
the  Russians.  The  machinations  of  the  Roman  Catholic  and  Greek 
churches  caused  both  Gossner  and  Lindl  to  leave  Russia  in  a.d.  1S24. 
They  then  joined  the  evangelical  church,  Lindl  in  Barmen  and 
Gossner  in  Berlin.  Lindl  drifted  more  and  more  into  mystico- 
apocalj'ptic  fanaticism ;  but  Gossner,  ivom  a.d.  1829  till  his  death  in 
A.D.  1858  as  pastor  of  the  Bohemian  church  in  Berlin,  proved  a  sincere 
evangelical  and  a  most  successful  worker. — The  Bavarian  priest  Lutz 
of  Carlshuld,  influenced  by  Boos,  devoted  himself  to  the  temporal  and 
spiritual  well-being  of  his  people,  pi-eached  Christ  as  the  saviour  of 
sinners,  and  exhorted  to  diligent  reading  of  the  Bible.  In  a.d.  1831, 
with  600  of  his  congregation,  he  joined  the  Protestant  church ;  but  to 
avoid  separation  from  his  beloved  people,  he  retiu'ned  again  after  ten 
months,  and  most  of  his  flock  Avith  him,  still  retaining  his  eA'angelical 
conA'ictions.  He  Avas  not,  lioAveA'er,  restored  to  office,  and  subsequently 
in  A.D.  1857,  Avith  three  Catholic  priests  of  the  diocese,  he  attached 
himself  to  the  IrA'ingites,  and  was  Avith  them  excommunicated. 

'  Bridges,  "  Life  of  ^Martin  Bocs."     London,  1836. 


238      CHURCH   HISTORY   OF   NINETEENTH   CENTURY. 

8.  Liberal-Scientific  Tendencies. — Von  Wessenberg,  as  vicar-general 
of  the  diocess  of  Constance  introduced  such  drastic  administrative 
reforms  as  proved  most  distasteful  to  the  nuncio  of  Lucerne  and  the 
Romish  curia.  He  also  endeavoured  unsuccessfully  to  restore  a 
German  national  Catholic  chiu-ch.  In  the  retirement  of  his  later 
years  he  wrote  a  history  of  the  church  synods  of  the  fifteenth  and 
sixteenth  centui'ies,  which  gave  great  offence  to  the  ultrumontanes. — 
Fr.  von  Baader  of  Munich  expressed  himself  so  strongly  against  the 
absolutism  of  the  papal  system  that  the  ultramontane  minister, 
Von  Abel,  suspended  his  lectures  on  the  philosophy  of  religion  in 
A.D.  1838.  He  gave  still  greater  offence  by  his  woi-k  on  Eastern  and 
Western  Catholicism,  in  which  he  preferred  the  former  to  the  latter.  ^ 
The  talented  Hirscher  of  Freiburg  more  interested  in  what  is  Chris- 
tian than  what  is  Roman  Catholic,  could  not  be  won  over  to  yield 
party  service. to  the  ultramontanes.  They  persecuted  unrelentingly 
leop.  Schmid,  #hose  theosophical  speculation  had  done  so  much  to 
restore  the  prestige  of  theology  at  Giessen,  and  had  utterly  discredited 
their  pretensions.  When  his  enemies  successfully  opposed  his  con- 
secration as  Bishop  of  Mainz  in  a.d.  1849,  he  resigned  his  professorship 
and  joined  the  philosophical  faculty.  Goaded  on  by  the  venomous 
attacks  of  his  opponents  he  advanced  to  a  more  extreme  position,  and 
finally  declared  '•  that  he  was  compelled  to  renounce  the  sijecifically 
Roman  Catholic  church  so  long  as  she  refused  to  acknowledge  the 
true  worth  of  the  gospel.'' 

4.  Eadical-Liberalistic  Tendencies. — The  brothers  Theiner  of  Breslau 
wrote  in  a.d.  1828  against  the  celibacy  of  the  clergy ;  but  subsequently 
John  attached  himself  to  the  German-Catholics,  and  in  a.d.  1833 
Augustine  returned  to  his  allegiance  to  Rome  (§  191,  7). — During  the 
July  Revolution  in  Paris,  the  ^Driest  Lamennais,  formerly  a  zealous 
supporter  of  absolutism,  became  the  enthusiastic  apostle  of  liberalism. 
His  journal  UAvenir,  a.d.  1830-1832,  Avas  the  organ  of  the  party,  and 
his  Paroles  (Tmi  Croyant^  a.d.  1834,  denounced  by  the  pope  as  unutter- 
ably wicked,  made  an  iniprecedented  sensation.  The  endeavour, 
however,  to  unite  elements  thoroughly  incongruous  led  to  the  gradual 
breaking  up  of  the  school,  and  Lamennais  himself  approximated  more 
and  more  to  the  principles  of  modern  socialism.  He  died  in  a.d.  1854. 
One  of  his  most  talented  associates  on  the  staff  of  the  Atcnir  was  the 
celebrated  pulpit  orator  Lacordaire,  a.d.  1802-1861.  Upon  Gregory's 
denunciation  of  the  journal  in  a.d.  1832  Lacordaire  submitted  to  Rome, 
entered  the  Dominican  order  in  a.d.  1840,  and  wrote  a  life  of  Dominic 

1  Hamberger,  "  Sketch  of  the  Character  of  the  Theosophy  of 
Baader,"  translated  in  American  Preshyferian  and  Theological  Peview, 
18(J9. 


§  187.   LIBEEAL   CATHOLIC    MOVEMENTS.  239 

in  which  he  eulogised  the  Inqiiisition ;  but  his  eloquence  still  attracted 
crowds  to  Notre  Daiiie.  Ultimately  he  fell  completely  under  the 
influence  of  the  Jesuits. 

5.  Attempts  at  Eeform  in  Church  Government. — In  a.d.  1861  Liverani, 
pope''s  chai^lain  and  apostolic  notary,  exposed  the  scandalous  mis- 
management of  Antonelli,  the  corruption  of  the  sacred  college,  the 
demoralization  of  the  Eoman  clergy,  and  the  ambitious  schemes  of  the 
Jesuits,  recommended  the  restoration  of  the  holy  Roman  empire,  not 
indeed  to  the  Germans,  but  to  the  Italians :  the  pope  should  confer 
on  the  king  of  Italy  by  divine  authority  the  title  and  privileges  of 
Roman  emperor,  who,  on  his  part,  should  undertake  as  papal  manda- 
tory the  political  administration  of  the  States  of  the  Church.  But 
in  A.D.  1878  he  sought  and  obtained  papal  forgiveness  for  his  errors. 
The  Jesuit  Passaglia  expressed  enthusiastic  approval  of  the  move- 
ments of  Victor  Emanuel  and  of  Cavour's  ideal  of  a  "  free  church  in 
a  free  state."  He  was  expelled  from  his  order,  his  book  was  put  into 
the  Index,  but  the  Italian  Government  appointed  him  professor  of 
moral  philosophy  in  Turin.  At  last  he  retracted  all  that  he  had  said 
and  wiitten.  In  the  preface  to  his  jDOi^ular  exposition  of  the  gospels 
of  1874,  the  Jesuit  father  Curci  tirged  the  advisability  of  a  reconcilia- 
tion between  the  Holy  See  and  the  Italian  government,  and  expressed 
his  conviction  that  the  Church  States  would  never  be  restored.  That 
year  he  addressed  the  pope  in  similar  terms,  and  refusing  to  retract, 
Avas  expelled  his  order  in  a.d.  1877.  Leo  XIII.  by  friendly  measures 
sought  to  move  him  to  recant,  but  without  success.  The  condem- 
nation of  his  books  led  to  their  wider  circulation.  In  a.d.  1883  he 
charged  the  Holy  See  with  the  guilt  of  the  unholy  schism  between 
church  and  state  ;  but  in  the  following  year  he  retracted  whatever  in 
his  writings  the  pope  regarded  as  opposed  to  the  faith,  morals,  and 
discipline  of  the  Catholic  church. 

G.  Attempts  to  Found  National  Catholic  Churches.  —  After  the  July 
Revolution  of  a.d.  1830  the  Abbe  Chatel  of  Paris  had  himself  conse- 
crated bishop  of  a  new  sect  by  a  new-templar  dignitary  (§  210,  1) 
and  became  primate  of  the  French  Catholic  Church,  whose  creed  recog- 
nised only  the  law  of  nature  and  viewed  Christ  as  a  mere  man.  After 
various  congregations  had  been  formed,  it  was  suppressed  by  the  police 
in  A.D.  1842.  The  Abb6  Helsen  of  Brussels  made  a  much  more  earnest 
endeavour  to  lead  the  church  of  his  fatherland  from  the  antichrist 
to  the  true  Christ.  His  Apostolic  Catholic  Church  was  dissolved  in 
A.I).  1857  and  its  remnants  joined  the  Protestants.  The  founding  of 
the  German  Catholic  Church  in  a.d.  1844  promised  to  be  more  endur- 
ing. In  August  of  that  year,  Arnoldi,  Bishop  of  Ti-eves,  exhibited 
the  holy  coat  preserved  there,  and  attracted  one  and  a  half  millions  of 
pilgrims  to  Treves  (§  188,  2).      A  suspended  priest,  Ronje,  in  a  letter 


240      CHURCH   HISTORY   OF   NINETEENTH    CENTURY, 

to  the  bishop  denounced  the  -worship  of  relics,  s(;eking  to  pose  as  tlie 
Luther  of  the  nineteenth  centur3'.  Czerski  of  Posen  had  in  August, 
18il,  seceded  from  the  Catholic  church,  and  in  October  founded  the 
"Christian  Catholic  Apostolic  Church,"  whose  creed  embodied  the 
negations  without  the  positive  beliefs  of  the  Protestant  confessions, 
maintaining  in  other  respects  the  fundamental  articles  of  the  Christian 
faith.  E,onge  meanwhile  formed  congregations  in  all  parts  of  Ger- 
man}-,  excejjting  Bavaria  and  Austria.  A  General  Assembly  hf^ld  at 
Leipzig  in  March,  1845,  brought  to  light  the  deplorable  religioiis 
nihilism  of  the  leaders  of  the  party.  Czerski,  who  refused  to  abandon 
the  doctrine  of  Christ's  divinity,  withdrew  from  the  conference,  but 
Eonge  held  a  triumphal  procession  through  Germany.  His  hollow- 
ness,  however,  became  so  apparent  that  his  adherents  grew  ashamed 
of  their  enthusiasm  for  the  new  reformer.  His  congregations  began 
to  break  up ;  many  withdrew,  several  of  the  leaders  threw  off  the 
mask  of  religion  and  adopted  the  role  of  political  revolutionists. 
After  the  settlement  that  followed  the  disturbances  of  a.d.  1848  the 
remnants  of  this  party  disappeared.' 

7.  The  inferior  clergy  of  Italy,  after  the  political  emancipation  of 
Naples  from  the  Bou^rbon  domination  in  a.d.  18(30,  longed  for  deli- 
verance from  clerical  tj'ranny,  and  founded  in  a.d.  1862  a  society' 
with  the  object  of  establishing  a  national  Italian  church  independent 
of  the  Romish  curia.  Four  Neapolitan  churches  were  put  at  the 
disposal  of  the  society  by  the  minister  Eicasoli,  but  in  1865,  an  agree- 
ment having  been  come  to  between  the  curia  and  the  government,  the 
bishops  were  recalled  and  the  churches  restored.  Thousands,  to  save 
themselves  from  starvation,  gave  in  their  submission,  but  a  small 
party  still  remained  faithful.  Encouraged  by  the  events  of  1870 
(§§  135,  'd\  189,  8),  they  were  able  in  1875  to  draw  up  a  "dogmatic 
statement"  for  the  "Church  of  Italy  independent  of  the  lloman 
hierarchy,"  which  indeed  besides  the  Holy  Scriptures  admitted  the 
authority  of  the  universal  church  as  infallible  custodian  and  inter- 
preter of  revealed  truth,  but  accepted  only  the  first  seven  oecumenical 
councils  as  binding.  In  the  same  year  Bishop  Tiu^ano  of  Girgenti 
excommunicated  five  priests  of  the  Silician  town  Grotta  as  opponents 
of  the  syllabus  and  the  dogma  of  infallibility.  The  whole  clergy  of 
the  town,  numbering  twenty -five,  then  renounced  their  obedience  to 
the  bishop,  and  Avith  the  approval  of  the  inhabitants  declared  them- 
S3lves  in  favour  of  the  "  statement."  North  of  Rome  this  movement 
made  little  pi-ogress;  but  in  1875  three  villages  of  the  Mantuan 
diocese  claimed  the  ancient  privilege  of  choosing  their  own  priest, 


1  Laing,  "  Notes  on  the  Rise,  Progress,  etc.,  of  the  German  Catholic 
Church  of  Ronge  and  Czerski."     London,  1845. 


§  188.    CATHOLIC    ULTRAMONTANISM.  241 

and  the  bishop  and  other  authorities  were  obliged  to  yield.  The 
Neapolitan  movement,  however,  as  a  whole  seems  to  be  losing  itself 
in  the  sand. 

8.  The  Frenchman,  Charles  Loyson,  knoAvn  by  his  Carmelite  monkish 
name  of  Fere  Hijaci»fhr,  Avas  ])rotected  fi'om  the  Jesuits  by  Archbishop 
Darboy  when  he  inveighed  against  the  corruptions  of  the  church,  and 
even  Pius  IX.  on  his  visit  to  Rome  in  1868  treated  him  with  favour. 
The  general  of  his  order  having  imposed  silence  on  him,  he  publicl}- 
announced  his  secession  from  the  order  and  appeared  as  a  "  preacher 
of  the  gospel,"  claiming  from  a  future  General  Council  a  sweeping 
reform  of  the  church,  protesting  against  the  falsifying  of  the  gospel  of 
the  Son  of  God  by  the  Jesuits  and  the  papal  syllabus.  He  A\-as  then 
excommunicated.  In  a.d.  1871  he  joined  the  German  Old  Catholics 
(§  190, 1) ;  and  though  he  gave  offence  to  them  by  his  marriage,  this  did 
not  prevent  the  Old  Catholics  of  Geneva  from  choosing  him  as  their 
]:)astor.  But  after  ten  months,  because  "  he  sought  not  the  overthrow 
but  the  reform  of  the  Catholic  church,  and  reprobated  the  despotism 
of  the  mob  as  well  as  that  of  the  clergy,  the  infallibility  of  the  state 
as  well  as  that  of  the  pope,"  he  withdrew  and  returned  to  Paris,  Avhere 
he  endeavoured  to  establish  a  French  National  Church  free  of  Eomo 
and  the  Pope.  The  clerical  minister  Broglie,  however,  compelled 
him  to  restrict  himself  to  moral-religious  lectures.  In  Februar}-, 
1879,  he  built  a  chapel  in  which  he  preaches  on  Sundaj's  and  celo- 
bi-ates  mass  in  the  French  language.  He  sought  alliance  with  the 
Swiss  Christian  Catholics,  whose  bishop,  Hei-zog,  heartily  recipro- 
cated his  wishes,  and  with  the  Anglican  church,  which  gave  a  friendly 
response.  But  that  this  "  seed  corn  "  of  a  "  Catholic  Gallican  Church ' 
will  ever  grow  into  a  fully  developed  plant  was  from  the  very  outset 
rendered  more  than  doubtful  by  the  peculiar  nature  of  the  sower,  as 
well  as  of  the  seed  and  the  soil. 


§  188.    Catholic  Ultramoxtaxism. 

The  restoration  of  the  Jesuit  order  led,  during  the  long 
pontificate  of  Pius  IX.,  to  the  revival  and  hitherto  un- 
approached  prosperity  of  ultramontanism,  especially  in 
France,  whose  bishops  cast  the  Gallican  Liberties  over- 
board (§§  15B,  3  ;  203,  1),  and  in  Germany,  where  with 
strange  infatuation  even  Protestant  princes  gave  it  all 
manner  of  encouragement.  Even  the  lower  clergy  were 
trained  from  their  youth  in  hierarchical  ideas,  and  under 

VOL.  III.  1 6 


242      CHURCH   HISTORY   OF   NINETEENTH   CENTURY. 

the  despotic  nile  of  tlieir  bisliops,  and  a  reign  of  terror 
carried  on  by  spies  and  secret  courts,  were  constrained  to 
continue  the  profession  of  the  strictest  absolutism. 

1.  The  Ultramontane  Propaganda. — In  Trance  iiltramontanism  re- 
vived with  tlif  restoration.  Its  first  and  ablest  ]3roi3liet  was  Count 
de  Maistre,  a.d.  175-1-1821,  long  Sardinian  ambassador  at  St.  Petersburg. 
He  wrote  against  the  modern  views  of  the  relations  of  church  and 
state,  supporting  the  infallibilit3%  absolutism,  and  inviolability  of 
the  pope.  He  was  supported  by  Bonald,  Chateaiibriand,  Lamar  tine, 
Lamennais,  Lacordaire,  and  Montalembert.  Only  Bonald  maintained 
this  attitude.  Between  him  and  Chateaubriand  a  dispute  arose  over 
the  f i-eedom  of  the  press ;  Lamennais  and  Lacordaire  began  to  blend 
political  radicalism  with  their  ultramontanism ;  Lamartine  involved 
himself  in  the  February  revolution  of  1818  as  the  apostle  of  humanity ; 
and  Montalembert  took  up  a  half-way  position.  In  1840  Louis  Veuillot 
started  the  Uiiivers  Eelifjieitx  in  place  of  the  Avenh',  in  which,  till 
his  death  in  1883,  he  vindicated  the  extremest  ultramontanism. — In 
Germany  ultramontane  views  were  disseminated  by  romancing  his- 
torians and  poets  mostly  converts  from  Protestantism.  Gorres,  pro- 
fessor of  history  in  Munich,  represented  the  Reformation  as  a  second 
fall,  and  set  forth  the  legends  of  ascetics  in  his  "  History  of  Mysticism  "' 
as  sound  history.  The  German  bishops  set  themselves  to  train  the 
clergy  in  hierarchical  views,  and  by  a  rule  of  ten'or  prevented  any 
departure  fi'om  that  theoiy.  The  ultramontanismg  of  the  masses 
Avas  carried  on  by  missions,  and  by  the  establishment  of  brotherhoods 
and  sisterhoods.  In  the  beginning  of  a.d.  1860  there  were  only 
thirteen  ultramontane  journals  Avith  very  few  subscribers,  while  in 
January,  1875,  there  were  three  hundred.  The  most  important  Avas 
Germania,  founded  at  Berlin  in  1871. — The  Civilth  Cattolica  of  Rome 
was  ahvays  revised  before  publication  by  Piiis  IX.,  and  tinder  Leo 
XIII.  a  similar  position  is  held  by  the  Moniteiir  de  JRome,  while  the 
Oitnervatore  JRomano  and  the  Voce  della  verita  have  also  an  official 
character. 

2.  Miracles. — Prince  Hohenlohe  went  through  many  parts  of  Ger- 
many, Austria,  and  Hungary,  performing  miraculous  cures ;  biit  his 
day  of  favour  soon  passed,  and  he  settled  doA\n  as  a  writer  of  ascetical 
works. — Pilgrimages  to  wonder-working  shrines  were  encouraged  by 
reports  of  cures  wrought  on  the  grand-niece  of  the  Bishop  of  Cologne 
(§  198,  1),  cured  of  knee-joint  disease  before  the  holy  coat  of  Treves 
(§  187,  6).  Subjected  to  examination,  the  pretended  seamless  coat 
was  found  to  be  a  bit  of  the  gray  Avoollen  Avrapping  of  a  costly  silk 
Byzantine  garment.  U  feet  broad  and  1  toot  long. 


§  188.    CATHOLIC   ULTRAMONTANISM.  243 

3.  Stigmatizations. — In  many  cases  these  marks  were  found  to  have 
been  fraudulently  made,  but  in  other  cases  it  Avas  questionable 
whether  we  had  not  here  a  pathological  problem,  or  whether  hysteria 
created  a  desire  to  deceive  or  pre-disposed  the  subject  to  being  duped 
under  clerical  influence.  Anna  Cath.  Emmerich,  a  nun  of  Diilmen  in 
Westphalia,  in  1812,  professed  to  have  on  her  body  bloody  wound- 
marks  of  the  Saviour.  For  five  years  down  to  her  death  in  1824,  the 
poet  Brentano  sat  at  her  feet,  venerating  her  as  a  saint  and  listening 
to  her  ecstatic  revelations  on  the  death  and  suffei'ings  of  the  Redeemer 
and  his  mother.  Overberg,  Sailer,  and  Von  Stolberg  were  also  satisfied 
of  the  genuineness  of  her  revelations  and  of  the  miraculous  marking 
of  her  body.  The  physician  Von  Drussel  examined  the  Avound -prints 
and  certified  them  as  miraculous  ;  but  Bodde,  professor  of  chemistry 
at  Miinster,  pronounced  the  blood  marks  spots  produced  by  dragon's- 
blood.  Competent  physicians  declared  her  a  hysterical  woman  in- 
capable of  distinguishing  between  dream  and  reality,  truth  and  lies, 
honesty  and  deceit.  Others  famous  in  the  same  line  were  Maria  von 
Worl,  Dominica  Lazzari,  and  Crescentia  Stinklutsch ;  also  Dorothea 
Visser  of  Holland  and  Juliana  Weiskircher  from  near  Vienna. 

4.  Of  a  very  doubtful  kind  were  the  miraculous  marks  on  Louise 
Lateau,  daughter  of  a  Belgian  miner.  On  24th  April,  1868,  it  is  said 
she  was  marked  with  the  print  of  the  Saviour's  wounds  on  hands,  feet, 
side,  brow,  and  shoulders.  In  July,  A.n.  1868,  she  fell  into  an  ecstasy, 
from  which  she  could  be  aA\-akened  only  by  her  bishop  or  one  author- 
ized by  him.  Ti-ustworthy  physicians,  after  a  careful  medical  exami- 
nation, reported  that  she  laboured  under  a  disease  which  they  pro- 
posed to  call  "stigmatic  neuropathy."  Chemical  analysis  proved  the 
presence  of  food  which  had  been  regularly  taken,  probably  in  a  som- 
nambulistic trance.  In  the  summer  of  1875  her  sister  for  a  time  put 
an  end  to  the  affair  by  refusing  the  clergy  entrance  into  the  house,  and 
she  was  then  obliged  to  eat,  drink,  and  sleep  like  other  Christians,  so 
that  the  Friday  bloody  marks  disappeared.  But  now,  say  ultramon- 
tane journals,  Louise  became  dangerously  ill,  and  clergy  were  called 
in  to  her  help,  and  the  marks  were  again  visible.  Her  patron  Bisho]) 
Dumont  of  Tournay  being  deposed  by  the  pope  in  1879,  she  took  part 
against  his  successor,  and  was  threatened  with  excommunication, 
(S  200,  7).  She  was  now  deserted  by  the  ultramontanes  and  Belgian 
clergy,  and  treated  as  a  i)oor,  weak-minded  invalid.  She  died  neglected 
and  in  obsci^rity  in  a.u.  1888. 

5.  Of  pseudo-stigmatizatious  thoro  has  been  no  lack  even  in  the 
most  recent  times.  In  1845  Caroline  Beller,  a  girl  of  fifteen  years,  in 
Westphalia,  was  examined  by  a  skilful  physician.  On  Thursday  he 
laid  a  linen  cloth  over  the  wound  prints,  and  sure  enough  on  Friday 
it  was  marked  with  blood  stains ;  but  also  strips  of  paper  laid  under, 


244      CHURCH   HISTORY   OF   NINETEENTH   CENTURY. 

■without  her  knoAvledge,  were  pricked  -with  needles.  The  delinquent 
now  confessed  her  deceit,  AA'hich  she  had  been  tempted  to  perpetrate 
from  reading  the  works  of  Francis  of  Assisi,  Catherine  of  Siena,  and 
Emmerich.  Theresa  Stadele  in  1849,  Rosa  Tamisier  in  1851,  and 
Angela  Hupe  in  1863,  were  convicted  of  fraudulently  pretending  to 
have  stigmata.  The  latter  was  proved  to  have  feigned  deafness  and 
lameness  for  a  Avhole  year,  to  have  diligently  read  the  writings  of 
Emmerich  in  1861,  to  have  shown  the  physician  fresh  bleeding  wounds 
on  hands,  feet,  and  side,  and  to  have  affirmed  that  she  had  neither 
eaten  nor  drunk  for  a  year.  Four  sisters  of  mercy  were  sent  to  attend 
her,  and  they  soon  discovered  the  fraud.  In  1876  the  father  confessor 
of  Ernestine  Hauser  was  prosecuted  for  damages,  having  injured  the 
girl's  health  by  the  severe  treatment  to  -vA-hich  she  was  subjected  in 
order  to  induce  ecstasy  and  obtain  an  opportunity  for  impressing  the 
stigmata.  Sabina  Schafer  of  Baden,  in  her  eighteenth  year,  had  for 
tAvo  years  borne  the  repiitation  of  a  Avonder-AA-orking  saint,  Avho  every 
Friday  showed  the  five  Avound  prints,  and  in  ecstasy  told  Avho  AA-ere 
in  hell  and  Avho  in  purgatory.  She  professed  to  live  without  food, 
though  often  she  betook  herself  to  the  kitchen  to  pray  alone,  and  even 
carried  food  Avith  her  to  give  to  her  guardian  angel  to  carry  to  the 
distant  poor.  When  tinder  surveillance  in  1880  she  sought  to  bribe 
her  guardian  to  bring  her  meat  and  drinlv,  fragments  of  food  Avere 
found  among  her  clothes,  and  also  a  flask  Avith  blood  and  an  instru- 
ment for  puncturing  the  skin.  She  confessed  her  guilt,  and  Avas 
sentenced  by  the  criminal  court  of  Baden  to  ten  Aveeks'  imprisonment. 
The  ultramontane  Pfcllzer  Bote  complained  that  so-called  liberals 
should  ruthlessly  encroach  on  the  rights  of  the  church  and  the  family. 
().  Manifestations  of  the  Mother  of  God  in  France. — The  most  cele- 
brated of  these  manifestations  occurred  in  1858  at  Lourdes,  Avhere  in 
a  grotto  the  Virgin  repeatedly  appeared  to  a  peasant  girl  of  fourteen 
years,  almost  imbecile,  named  Bernadette  Soubirous,  saying  "  Je  suis 
I'Immaculee  Conception,"  and  urging  the  erection  of  a  chapel  on  that 
spot.  A  miracle-Avorking  Avell  spra,ng  up  there.  Since  1872  the 
pilgrimages  under  sanction  of  the  hierarchy  have  been  on  a  scale  of 
unexampled  magnificence,  and  the  cures  in  number  and  significance 
far  excelling  anything  heard  of  before. — At  the  village  of  La  Salette 
in  the  departmeiit  of  Isere,  in  1846  tAvo  poor  children,  a  boy  of  fifteen 
and  a  girl  of  eleven  years,  saAV  a  fair  Avhite-dressed  lady  sitting  on  a 
stone  and  shedding  tears,  and,  lo,  from  the  spot  Avherc  her  foot  rested 
sprang  up  a  aa-cII,  at  Avhich  innumerable  cures  have  been  Avrought. 
The  epidemic  of  visions  of  the  Virgin  reached  a  climax  in  Alsace 
Lorraine  in  1872.  In  a  wood  near  the  village  of  Gereuth  croAvds  of 
Avomon  and  children  gathered,  professing  to  see  visions  of  the  mother 
of  Cod ;    but  Avhen  the  police  appeared  to  protect  the  forest,  the 


§  188.    CATHOLIC   ULTRAMONTANISM.  245 

manifestation  craze  spread  over  the  whole  land,  and  at  thirty-five 
stations  almost  daily  visions  were  enjoj-ed.  The  epidemic  reached  its 
crisis  in  Mary's  month,  May,  1874,  and  continued  with  intervals  down 
to  the  end  of  the  year.  In  some  cases  deceit  was  proved ;  but  generally 
it  seemed  to  be  the  result  of  a  diseased  imagination  and  self-deception 
fostered  by  speculative  purveyors  and  the  ultramontane  press  and 
clerg}-. 

7.  Manifestations  of  the  Mother  of  God  in  Germany.— In  the  summer 
of  187G  three  girls  of  eight  years  old  in  the  village  of  Marpingen,  in 
the  department  of  Treves,  saw  by  a  well  a  white-robed  lady,  with  the 
halo  over  her  head  and  with  a  child  in  her  arms,  who  made  herself 
known  as  the  immaculate  Virgin,  and  called  for  the  erection  of  a 
chapel.  A  voice  from  lieaven  said.  This  is  my  beloved  Son,  etc. 
There  were  also  processions  and  choirs  of  angels,  etc.  The  devil,  too, 
appeared  and  ordered  them  to  fall  down  and  worship  him.  Thousands 
crowded  from  far  and  near,  and  the  water  of  the  fountain  wrought 
miraculous  cures.  The  surrounding  clergj'  made  a  profitable  busi- 
ness of  sending  the  water  to  America,  and  the  Germania  of  Berlin 
unweariedly  sounded  forth  its  praises.  Before  the  court  of  justice 
the  children  confessed  the  fraud,  and  ivere  sentenced  to  the  house  of 
correction ;  and  though  on  technical  grounds  this  judgment  was  set 
aside,  the  supreme  court  of  appeal  in  1879  pronounced  the  -whole  thing 
a  scandalous  and  disgraceful  swindle, — Weichsel,  priest  of  Dittricliswald 
in  Ermland,  Avho  gained  great  reputation  as  an  exorcist,  made  a 
pilgrimage  to  Marpingen  in  the  summer  of  1877,  and  on  his  return 
gave  such  an  account  of  what  he  had  seen  to  his  communicants'  class 
that  fii-st  one  and  then  another  saw  the  mother  of  God  at  a  maple 
tree,  which  also  became  a  favourite  resort  for  pilgrims, 

8.  Canonizations.— When  in  1825  Leo  XII.  canonized  a  Spanish 
monk  Julianus,  who  among  other  miracles  had  made  roasted  birds 
fly  aA\'ay  ufl"  the  spit,  the  Eoman  wits  remarked  that  they  would 
prefer  a  saint  who  would  put  birds  on  the  spit  for  them.  St.  Liguori 
was  canonized  by  Gregory  XVI.  in  1839.  Pius  IX.  canonized  fifty-two 
and  beatified  twenty-six  of  the  martyrs  of  Japan.  The  Franciscans 
had  sought  from  Urban  VIII.  in  IG'27  canonization  for  six  missionaries 
and  seventeen  Japanese  converts  martyred  in  159G  (§  150,  2),  but  were 
refused  because  they  would  not  pay  52,000  Eoman  thalers  for  the 
privilege.  Pius  IX.  granted  this,  and  included  three  Jesuit  mission- 
aries. At  Pentecost,  18(32,  the  celebration  took  place,  amid  acclama- 
tions, firing  of  cannons,  and  ringing  of  bells.  In  18G8  the  infamous 
president  of  the  heretic  tribunal  Arbues  (§  117,  2)  received  the  dis- 
tinction. The  number  of  doctores  ecdeaim  was  increased  \)y  Pius  IX. 
by  the  addition  of  Hilary  of  Poitiers  in  1851,  Liguori  in  1870,  and 
Francis  de  Sales  in  1877.     And  Leo  XIII.  canonized  foiu-  new  saints 


246      CHUECH   HISTORY   OP   NINETEENTH   CENTURY. 

the  most  distinguished  of  whom  was  the  French  mendicant,  Bened. 
Jos.  Labre,  who  after  having  been  dismissed  by  Carthusians,  Cister- 
cians, and  Trappists  as  unteachable,  made  a  pilgrimage  to  Rome, 
where  he  stayed  fifteen  years  in  abject  poverty,  and  died  in  17S3  in 
his  thirty-sixth  year. 

y.  Discoveries  of  Relics.— The  Roman  catacombs  continued  still  to 
supply  the  demand  for  relics  of  the  saints  for  newly  erected  altars. 
Toward  the  end  of  a.d.  1870  the  Archbishoi)  of  St.  lago  de  Compostella 
(§  88,  4)  made  excavations  in  the  crypt  of  his  cathedral,  in  con- 
sequence of  an  old  ti-adition  that  the  bones  of  the  Apostle  James  the 
Elder,  the  supposed  founder  of  the  church,  had  been  deposited  there, 
and  he  succeeded  in  discovering  a  stone  coifin  with  remains  of  a 
skeleton.  The  report  of  this  made  to  Pius  IX.  gave  occasion  to  the 
appointment  of  a  commission  of  seven  cardinals,  who,  after  years  of 
minute  examination  of  all  confirmatory  historical,  archaeological, 
anatomical,  and  local  questions,  svibmitted  their  report  to  Leo  XIII., 
whereupon,  in  November,  1884,  he  issued  an  "  Apostolic  Brief,"  by 
Avhich  he  (without  publishing  the  report)  declared  the  unmistakable 
genuineness  of  the  discovered  bones  as  ex  constanti  et  'pervulgato  apud 
omnes  sermone  jam  ah  Apostoloriim  cetate  memoricc  jJrodita,  pronounced 
the  relics  generally  jJ^rennes  foiites,  from  which  the  doita  ccelcstia  flow 
forth  like  brooks  among  the  Christian  nations,  and  calls  attention  to 
the  fact  that  it  is  just  in  this  century,  in  which  the  power  of  darkness 
has  risen  up  in  conflict  against  the  Lord  and  his  Christ,  these  and 
also  many  other  relics  "  divinitus  "  have  been  discovered,  as  e.f/.  the 
bones  of  St.  Francis,  of  St.  Clara,  of  Bishop  Ambrose,  of  the  martyrs 
Gervasius  and  Protasius,  of  the  Apostles  Philip  and  James  the  Less, 
the  genuineness  of  which  had  been  avouched  by  his  predecessors  Pius 
VII.  and  Pius  IX. 

10.  The  blood  of  St.  Januarius,  a  martyr  of  the  age  of  Diocletian, 
liquefies  thrice  a  year  for  eight  days,  and  on  occasion  of  earthquakes 
and  such-like  calamities  in  Naples,  the  blood  is  brought  in  two 
vials  by  a  matron  near  to  the  head  of  the  saint ;  if  it  liquefies  the 
sign  is  favourable  to  the  Neapolitans,  if  it  remains  thick  unfavour- 
able ;  but  in  either  case  it  foi-ms  a  jDowerful  means  of  agitation  in 
the  hands  of  the  clergy.  Unbelievers  venture  to  suggest  that  this 
precioso  sancjue  del  taumatiir(/o  S.  Gennaro  is  not  blood,  but  a  mixture 
that  becomes  liquid  by  the  warmth  of  the  hand  and  the  heat  of  the 
air  in  the  crowded  rooin,  some  sort  of  cetaceous  product  coloured  red. 

11.  About  100  clergy,  twenty  colour-bearers,  150  musicians,  10,000 
leapers,  8,000  beggars,  and  2,000  singers  take  part  in  the  Leaping 
Procession  at  Echternach  in  Luxembiii'g,  which  is  celebrated  yearly 
on  Wliit-Tucsday.  It  was  spoken  of  in  the  sixteenth  century  as  an 
ancient  custom.    After  an  '-exciting"  sermon,  the  procession  is  formed 


§  188.    CATHOLIC   ULTEAMONTANISM.  247 

in  rows  of  from  four  to  six  persons  bound  together  by  pocket-liandker- 
cliiefs  held  in  their  liands ;  Wilibrord"s  dance  is  played,  and  all  jump 
in  time  to  the  music,  five  steps  forward  and  two  backward,  or  two 
backward  and  thret3  forward,  varied  by  three  or  four  leaps  to  the 
light  and  then  as  many  to  the  left.  Thus  continually  leaping  the 
procession  goes  through  the  streets  of  the  city  to  the  parish  church, 
up  the  sixty-two  steps  of  the  church  stair  and  along  the  church  aisles 
to  the  tomb  of  Wilibrord  (§  78,  3).  The  dance  is  kept  up  incessantly 
for  two  hours.  The  performers  do  so  generally  because  of  a  vow,  or 
as  penance  for  some  fault,  or  to  secure  the  saint's  intercession  for  tlie 
cure  of  epilepsy  and  convulsive  fits,  common  in  that  region,  mainly 
no  doubt  owing  to  such  senseless  proceedings.  The  origin  of  the 
custom  is  obscure.  Tradition  relates  that  soon  after  the  death  of 
"Wilibrord  a  disease  appeared  among  the  cattle  which  jumped  inces- 
santly in  the  stalls,  till  the  people  went  leaping  in  procession  to 
Wilibrord 's  tomb,  and  the  plague  was  stayed  !  But  the  custona  is 
probably  a  Christian  adaptation  of  an  old  spring  festival  dance  of 
jjagan  times  (§  75,  3 ;  comp.  2  Sam.  vi.  14). 

12.  The  Devotion  of  the  Sacred  Heart. — Even  after  the  suppi-ession 
of  the  Jesuit  order  the  devotion  of  the  Sacred  Heart  (§  156,  6)  was 
zealously  practised  by  the  ex-Jesuits  and  their  friends.  On  the 
restoration  of  the  order  numerous  brotherhoods  and  sisterhoods, 
especially  in  France,  devoted  themselves  to  this  exercise,  and  the 
revanche  movement  of  a.d.  1870  used  this  as  one  of  its  most  powerful 
instruments.  Crowds  of  pilgrims  flocked  to  Paray  le  Monial,  and 
there,  kneeling  before  the  cradle  of  Bethlehem,  they  besought  the 
sacred  heart  of  Jesus  to  save  France  and  Eome,  and  the  refrain  of  all 
the  pilgrim  songs,  '■'■  Dieu^  de  la  clemence  .  .  .  sauvez  Borne  et  la 
France  an  noin  du  sacre-ca'ur,'^  became  the  spiritual  Marseillaise  of 
France  returning  to  the  Catholic  fold.  From  the  money  collected 
over  the  whole  land  a  beautiful  church  du  Hacre-Coiur  has  been 
erected  on  Montmartre  in  Paris.  The  gratifying  news  was  then 
brought  from  Rome  that  the  holy  father  liad  resolved  on  July  16th, 
1875,  the  twenty-ninth  anniversary  of  his  ascending  the  papal  throne 
and  the  two  hundredth  anniversary  of  the  great  occurrences  at  Paraj'^ 
le  Monial,  that  the  whole  world  should  give  adoration  to  the  sacred 
heart.  In  France  this  day  Avas  fixed  upon  for  the  laying  of  the 
foundation  stone  of  the  church  at  Montmartre,  and  the  Archbishop 
of  Cologne,  Paul  Melchers,  commanded  Catholic  Germany  to  show 
greater  zeal  in  the  adoration  of  the  sacred  heart,  "ordained  b}'  divine 
revelation  "  two  hundred  years  before. 

13.  Ultramontane  Amiilets.— The  Carmelites  adopted  a  brown,  the 
Trinitarians  a  white,  the  Theatines  a  blue,  the  Servites  a  black,  and 
the  Lazarites  a   red,   scapular,  assured   by  divine   visions   that   the 


248      CHUECH   HISTORY   OF   NINETEENTH   CENTURY. 

wearing-  of  them  was  a  means  of  salvation.  A  tract,  entitled  "  Gnaden 
mxl  Ahldsne  dea  filnffachen  Skapidierti,'''  published  by  episcopal  authority 
at  Minister  in  1872,  declared  that  any  layman  who  wore  the  five 
scapulars  would  participate  in  all  the  graces  and  indulgences  belong- 
ing to  them  severally.  The  most  viseful  of  all  was  the  Carmelite 
scapular,  impenetrable  by  bullets,  impervious  to  daggers,  rendering 
falls  harmless,  stilling  stormy  seas,  quenching  fires,  healing  the  pos- 
sessed, the  sick,  the  wounded,  etc. — The  Benedictines  had  no  scapulars, 
but  they  had  Benedict-medals,  from  which  they  drew  a  rich  revenue. 
This  amulet  first  made  its  appearance  in  the  Bavarian  Abbey  of 
Metten,  The  tract,  entitled,  "  St.  Benediktinshilcldcin  oder  die  Medaille 
d.  h.  BenediJdus,^''  published  at  Mtinster  in  1876,  tells  how  it  cures 
sicknesses,  relieves  toothache,  stops  bleeding  at  the  nose,  heals  burns, 
overcomes  the  craving  for  drink,  protects  from  attacks  of  evil  spirits, 
restrains  skittish  horses,  cures  sick  cattle,  clears  vineyards  of  blight, 
secures  the  conversion  of  heretics  and  godless  persons,  etc. — In  a.d. 
1878  there  appeared  at  Mainz,  with  approval  of  the  bishop,  a  book  in 
its  third  edition,  entitled,  ^-  Der  Seraphisclie  Giirtel  und  dessen  ivitnder- 
hcire  Beicldiimer  nacli  d.  Franz,  d.pdpstl.  Hausiyrcllaten  Ahbe  v.  Segur,'"' 
according  to  which  Sixtus  V.  in  1585  founded  the  Archbrotherhood 
of  the  Girdle  of  St.  Francis.  It  also  affirms  that  whoever  wears  this 
girdle  day  and  night  and  repeats  the  six  enjoined  paternosters, 
participates  in  all  the  indulgences  of  the  holy  land  and  of  all  the 
basilicas  and  sanctuaries  of  Eome  and  Assisi,  and  is  entitled  to 
liberate  1,000  souls  a  day  from  purgatory. — Great  miracles  of  heal- 
ing and  preservation  from  all  injuries  to  body  and  soul,  pro^ierty 
and  goods,  are  attributed  by  the  Jesuits  to  the  "  Jioli/  water  of  St. 
Icjnatius "  (§  149,  11),  the  sale  of  which  in  Belgium,  France,  and 
Switzerland  has  proved  to  them  a  lucrative  business.  But  the  mother 
of  God  has  herself  favoured  them  with  a  still  more  powerful  miracle- 
Avorking  water  in  the  fountains  of  Lourdes  and  Marpingeii. 

14,  We  give  in  conclusion  a  specimen  of  Ultramontane  pulpit 
eloquence.  A  Bavarian  priest,  Kinzelmann,  said  in  a  sermon  in  1872 : 
'■  We  priests  stand  as  far  above  the  emperor,  kings,  and  princes  as 
the  heaven  is  above  the  earth.  .  .  .  Angels  and  archangels  stand 
beneath  us,  for  we  can  in  God's  stead  forgive  sins.  We  occupy  a 
position  sujierior  to  that  of  the  mother  of  God,  who  only  once  bare 
Christ,  whereas  we  create  and  beget  him  every  day.  Yea,  in  a  sense, 
we  stand  above  God,  who  must  always  and  everywhere  serve  us,  and 
at  the  consecration  mvist  descend  from  heaven  upon  the  mass,"  etc. — 
An  apotheosis  of  the  priesthood  worthy  of  the  Middle  Ages. 


§  189.    THE   VATICAN    COUNCIL.  249 

§  189.    The  Vatican  Council.^ 

Immediately  after  Pius  IX.  had,  at  the  centenary  of  St. 
Peter  in  18G7,  given  a  hint  that  a  general  council  might  be 
summoned  at  an  early  date,  the  Civiltd  CatfoUca  of  Rome 
made  distinct  statements  to  the  effect  that  the  most  prominent 
questions  for  discussion  would  be  the  confirming  of  the 
syllabus  (§  185,  2),  the  sanctioning  of  the  doctrine  of  papal 
absolutism  in  the  spirit  of  the  bull  Unam  sanctam  of  Boni- 
face VIII.  (§  110,  1),  and  the  proclamation  of  papal  infal- 
libility. The  Civiltd  had  already  taught  that  "  when  the 
pope  thinks,  it  is  Clod  who  thinks  in  him."  When  the 
council  opened  on  the  da}^  of  the  immaculate  conception, 
December  8th,  1869,  all  conceivable  devices  of  skilful  diplo- 
macy were  used  by  the  Jesuit  Camarilla,  and  friendly  cajoling 
and  violent  threatening  on  the  part  of  the  pope,  in  order  to 
silence  or  win  over,  and,  in  case  this  could  not  be  done,  to 
stifle  and  suppress  the  opposition  which  even  already  was 
not  inconsiderable  in  point  of  numbers,  but  far  more  impor- 
tant in  point  of  moral,  theological,  and  hierarchical  influence. 
The  result  aimed  at  was  secured.  Of  the  150  original 
opponents  nnty  fifty  dared  maintain  their  opposition  to  the 
end,  and  even  they  cowardly  shrank  from  a  decisive  conflict, 
and  wrote  from  their  respective  dioceses,  as  their  Catholic 


1  Manning,  "  The  True  History  of  the  Vatican  Conneih"  London, 
1877.  Poniponio  Leto,  "The  Vatican  Council,  being  the  impressions 
of  a  contemporary  (Card.  Vitelleschi),  translated  from  the  Italian  -with 
the  original  documents."  London,  1876.  Quirinus,  "  Letters  from  Rome 
on  the  Council."'  London,  1870.  Janus,  '-The  Pope  and  the  Council."' 
London,  18(39.  Bungener,  "  Rome  and  the  Council  in  the  Nineteenth 
Century."  Edinburgh,  1870.  Arthui-,  "  The  Pope,  the  Kings,  and  the 
People,  a  History  of  the  Movement  to  make  the  Pope  Governor  of  the 
World,  1S64-1871."  2  vols.  London,  1877.  Acton,  ''  History  of  the 
Vatican  Council."'  London,  1871.  Friedrich,  '■•  Documenta  ad  ilhim. 
Cone.  Vat."'  Nordling.  1871.  Martin  (Bishop  of  Paderborn),  '•Omnium 
Cone,  Vat.  qua  ad  dodr.  et  disci2}L  pertin.  docum.  Colledio."     1873. 


250      CHURCH   HISTORY   OF   NINETEENTH   CENTURY. 

faith   obliged   them   to  do,  notifying   their   most   complete 
acquiescence. 

1.  Preliminary  History  of  the  Council. — When  Pius  IX.  on  the  cen- 
tenary of  St.  Peter  made  known  to  the  assembled  bishops  his  intention 
to  summon  a  general  coimcil,  thty  expressed  their  conviction  that  by  the 
blessing  of  the  immaculate  Virgin  it  would  be  a  powerful  means  of 
securing  iinitj^  peace,  and  holiness.  The  formal  summons  was  issued 
on  the  day  of  St.  Peter  and  St.  Paul  of  the  following  year,  June  29th, 
1868.  The  end  for  which  the  council  was  convened  was  stated 
generally  as  follows :  The  saving  of  the  clnu'ch  and  civil  society  from 
all  evils  tlu-eatening  them,  the  thwarting  of  the  endeavours  of  all  who 
seek  the  overthrow  of  church  and  state,  the  uprooting  of  all  modern 
errors  and  the  downfall  of  all  godless  enemies  of  the  apostolical  chair. 
In  Germany  the  Catholic  General  Assembly  which  met  at  Bamberg  soon 
after  tiiis  declared  that  from  this  day  a  new  epoch  in  the  world's  history 
would  begin,  for  "either  the  salvation  of  the  world  would  result  from 
this  council,  or  the  world  is  beyond  the  reach  of  help."  This  hopeful- 
ness prevailed  throughout  the  whole  Catholic  world.  Fostered  by 
the  utterances  of  the  Civiltd  Cattolica,  the  excitement  grew  from  day 
to  day.  The  learned  bishop  in  partihus  Maret,  dean  of  the  theological 
faculty  of  Paris,  now  came  forward  as  an  eloe;iuent  exponent  of  the 
Galilean  liberties :  even  the  hitherto  so  strict  Catholic,  the  Count 
Montalembert,  to  the  astonishment  of  everybody,  assumed  a  bold  and 
independent  attitude  in  regard  to  the  council,  and  energetically 
protested  in  a  publication  of  March  7th,  1870,  six  days  before  his 
death,  against  the  intrigues  of  the  Jesuits  and  the  infallibility  dogma 
which  it  was  proposed  to  authorize.  But  the  greatest  excitement  was 
occasioned  by  the  work  "l>er  Papst  nnd  das  KonzH,'''  published  in 
Leipzig,  1869,  under  the  pseudonym  Janus,  of  which  the  real  authors 
wei-e  Dolling(!r,  Friedrich,  and  Huber  of  Munich,  who  brought  up 
the  heavy  artillery  of  the  most  comprehensive  historical  scholarship 
against  the  evident  intentions  of  the  curia.  The  German  bishops 
gathered  at  the  tomb  of  St.  Boniface  at  Fulda  in  September,  1869,  and 
issued  from  thence  a  general  pastoral  letter  to  their  disturbed  flocks, 
declaring  that  it  was  impossible  that  the  council  should  decide  other- 
wise than  in  accordance  with  holy  Scripture  and  the  apostolic 
traditions  and  what  was  already  written  upon  the  hearts  of  all 
believing  Catholics.  Also  the  pa])al  secretary,  Card.  Antonelli,  quieted 
the  anxiety  of  the  ambassadors  of  foreign  powers  at  Bome  by  the 
assurance  that  the  Holy  See  had  in  view  neither  the  confirming  of 
the  syllabus  nor  the  aflirming  of  the  dogma  of  infallibility.  In  vain 
did  the  Bavarian  premier.  Prince  Hoheulohe,  insist  that  the  heads  of 
other  governments  should  combine  in  taking  measures  to  i)revent  any 


§  189.    THE   VATICAN    COUKCIL.  251 

encroachment  of  the  council  upon  the  rights  of  the  state.  The  great 
powers  resolved  to  maintain  simply  a  watchful  attitude,  and  only  too 
late  addressed  earnest  expostulations  and  threats. 

2.  The  Org-anization  of  the  Council.— Of  1,044  prelates  entitled  to  take 
]3art  in  the  council  7()7  made  their  appearance,  of  whom  27G  were 
Italians  and  119  bishops  in  ixirtihub;  all  pliable  satellites  of  the  curia, 
as  were  also  the  greater  number  of  the  missionary  bishops,  who,  with 
their  assistants  in  the  pi-opaganda,  were  supported  at  the  cost  of  the 
holy  father.  The  sixty-two  bishops  of  the  Papal  States  were  doubly 
subject  to  the  pope,  and  of  the  eighty  Spanish  and  South  American 
bishops  it  was  affirmed  in  Eome  that  they  would  be  ready  at  the 
bidding  of  the  holy  father  to  define  the  Trinity  as  consisting  of  four 
persons.  Forty  Italian  cardinals  and  thirty  generals  of  orders  were 
equally  dependable.  The  Romance  races  were  represented  by  no  less 
than  600,  the  German  by  no  more  than  fourteen.  For  the  first  time 
since  general  councils  were  held  was  the  laity  entirely  excluded  from 
all  influence  in  the  proceedings,  even  the  ambassadors  of  Catholic  and 
tolerant  powers.  The  order  of  business  drawn  up  by  the  pope  was 
arranged  in  all  its  details  so  as  to  cripjile  the  opposition.  The  right 
of  all  fathers  of  the  council  to  make  proposals  was  indeed  conceded, 
but  a  committee  chosen  \>y  the  pope  decided  as  to  their  admissibilit}'. 
From  the  special  commissions,  whose  presidents  were  nominated  hy 
the  pope,  the  drafts  of  decrees  were  issued  to  the  general  congregation, 
where  the  president  could  at  •\\'ill  interrupt  awy  speaker  and  require 
him  to  retract.  Instead  of  the  TUianimity  required  by  the  canon  law 
in  matters  of  faith,  a  simple  majority  of  votes  was  declared  sufficient. 
A  formal  protest  of  the  minority  against  these  and  similar  uncon- 
stitutional proposals  was  left  quite  inrheeded.  The  proceedings  Avere 
indeed  taken  down  by  shorthand  reporters,  but  not  even  members  of 
council  were  alloA\'ed  to  see  these  reports.  The  conclusions  of  the 
general  congregation  Avere  sent  back  for  final  revision  to  the  special 
commissions,  and  when  at  last  brought  up  again  in  the  public  sessions, 
they  were  not  discussed,  but  simply  voted  on  Avith  a  placet  or  a  non- 
2}lavet.  The  right  transept  of  St.  Peter's  was  the  meeting  place  of  the 
council,  the  acoustics  of  which  were  as  bad  as  possible,  but  the  pope 
refused  every  request  for  more  suitable  accommodation.  Besides,  the 
various  members  spoke  with  diverse  accents,  and  many  had  but  a 
defective  knowledge  of  Latin.  Although  absolute  secresy  Avas  enjoined 
on  pain  of  falling  into  mortal  sin,  under  the  excitement  of  the  day 
so  much  trickled  out  and  Avas  in  certain  Romish  circles  so  carefully 
gathered  and  sifted,  that  a  tolerably  complete  insight  Avas  reached  into 
the  inner  moA'ements  of  the  council.  From  such  sources  the  author  of 
the  ''  liiiniisclteu  B)  iefe,"  supposed  to  ha\-e  been  Lord  Acton,  a  friend 
and  scholar  of  Dollingcr,  drew  the  material  for  his  account,  avIucIi. 


252      CHURCH   HISTORY   OF   NINETEENTH   CENTURY. 

carried  b}-  trusty  messengers  beyond  the  bounds  of  the  Papal  State, 
reached  IMiniich,  and  there,  after  careful  revision  by  Dollinger  and 
his  friends,  were  published  iu  the  Aurinhurg  AU(j.  Zeitung.  Also 
Prof.  Priedrich  of  Munich,  who  had  accompanied  Card.  Hohenlohe 
to  Eome  as  theological  adviser,  collected  what  he  could  learn  in  epi- 
scopal and  theological  circles  in  a  journal  -which  was  published  at  a 
later  date. 

8.  The  Proceedings  of  the  Council.— The  first  public  session  of  December 
8lh,  18G9,  was  occupied  with  opening  ceremonies;  the  second,  of  January 
Gth,  Avith  the  subscription  of  the  confession  of  faith  on  the  part  of 
each  member.  The  first  preliminary  was  the  schema  of  the  faith,  the 
second  that  on  church  discipline.  Then  followed  the  schema  on  the 
church  and  the  primacy  of  the  pope  in  three  articles :  the  legal 
position  of  the  church  in  reference  to  the  state,  the  absolute  supremacy 
of  the  pope  over  the  whole  church  on  the  principles  of  the  Pseudo- 
Isidore  (§  87,  2)  and  the  assumptions  of  Gregory  VII.,  Innocent  III. 
and  Boniface  VIII.,  i-eproduced  in  the  principal  propositions  of  the 
syllabus  (§  184,  2),  and  the  outlines  of  a  catechism  to  be  enforced  as 
a  manual  for  the  instruction  of  youth  throughout  the  church.  On 
March  Gth  there  was  added  by  Avay  of  supplement  to  the  schema  of 
the  church  a  fourth  article  in  the  form  of  a  sketch  of  the  decree  of 
infallibility.  Soon  after  the  opening  of  the  couiicil  an  agitation  in 
this  direction  had  been  started.  An  address  to  the  pope  emanating 
from  the  Jesuit  college  petitioning  for  this  Avas  speedily  signed  by  400 
subscribers.  A  counter  address  with  187  signatures  besought  the 
pope  not  to  make  any  such  proposal.  At  the  head  of  the  agitation 
in  favour  of  infallibility  stood  archbishops  Manning  of  Westminster, 
Deschamps  of  Mechlin,  Spalding  of  Baltimore,  and  bishops  Fessler 
of  St.  Polten,  secretary  of  the  council,  Senestrey  of  Begensburg,  tlie 
"overthrower  of  thrones"  (§  197,  1),  Martin  of  Paderborn,  and,  as 
bishop  in  partibus,  Mermillod  of  Geneva.  Among  the  leaders  of  the 
opposition  the  most  prominent  Avere  cardinals  Eauscher  of  Vienna, 
Prince  Schwarzcaiberg  of  Prag\ie  and  Matthieu  of  Besan^on,  Prince- 
bishop  Forster  of  Breslau,  archbishops  Scherr  of  Munich,  Melchers 
of  Cologne,  Darboy  of  Paris,  and  Kenrick  of  St.  Louis,  the  bishops 
Ketteler  of  Mainz,  Dinkel  of  Augsburg,  Hefele  of  Eottenburg, 
Strossmayer  of  Siniiium,  Uupaulou])  of  Orleans,  etc. — Owing  to  the 
discussions  on  the  Schema  of  the  Faith  thei'e  occurred  on  March  22nil 
a  stormy  scene,  Avhich  in  its  wild  uproar  reminds  one  of  the  disgrace- 
ful Robber  Synod  of  Ephesus  (§  52,  4).  "When  Bishop  Strossmayer 
objected  to  the  statement  made  in  the  preamble,  that  the  indifferentism, 
pantheism,  atheism,  and  materialism  prevailing  in  these  daj's  are 
chargeable  upon  Protestantism,  as  contrary  to  truth,  the  furious 
fathers  of  the  majority  amid  shouts  and  roars,  shaking  of  their  fists, 


§  189.    THE   VATICAN   COUNCIL.  2o3 

rushed  iijion  the  platform,  and  the  president  was  obliged  to  adjourn 
the  sitting.  At  the  next  session  the  objectionable  statement  was 
■withdrawn  and  the  entire  schema  of  the  faith  was  unanimouslj- 
adopted  at  the  third  public  sitting  of  the  council  on  April  24th. 
The  Schema  of  the  Church  came  up  for  a  consideration  on  May  10th. 
The  discussion  txirned  first  and  mainly  on  the  foiirth  article  about 
the  infallibility  of  the  pope.  Its  biblical  foundation  was  sought  in 
Luke  xxif.  32,  its  traditional  basis  chiefly  in  the  well-known  passage 
of  Irenseus  (§  34,  8)  and  on  its  supposed  endorsement  by  the  general 
councils  of  Lyons  and  Florence  (§  67,  4,  6),  but  the  main  stress  was 
laid  on  its  necessarily  following  from  the  position  of  the  pope  as  the 
i-epresentative  of  Christ.  The  opposition  party  had  from  the  outset 
their  position  Aveakened  by  the  conduct  of  many  of  their  adherents  who, 
])artly  to  avoid  giving  excessive  annoyance  to  the  pope,  and  partly  to 
leave  a  door  open  for  their  retreat,  did  not  contest  the  correctness  of  the 
doctrine  in  question,  but  all  the  more  decidedly  urged  the  inopportune- 
ness  of  its  formal  definition  as  threatening  the  church  with  a  schism 
and  provocative  of  dangerous  conflicts  Avith  the  civil  power.  The 
longer  the  decision  was  deferred  by  passionate  debates,  the  more 
determinedly  did  the  pope  throw  the  Avhole  weight  of  his  influence 
into  the  scales.  By  bewitching  kindliness  he  won  some,  by  sharp, 
angry  words  he  terrified  others.  He  denounced  opponents  as  sectarian 
enemies  of  the  church  and  the  apostolic  chair,  and  styled  them 
ignoramuses,  slaves  of  princes,  and  cowards.  He  trusted  the  aid  of 
the  blessed  Virgin  to  ward  off  threatened  division.  To  the  question 
■whether  he  himsplf  regarded  the  formulating  of  the  dogma  as  opportune, 
he  answered  :  '■  No,  but  as  necessar3\"'  Urged  by  the  Jesuits,  he  con- 
fidentlj'  declared  that  it  was  notorious  that  the  whole  church  at  all 
times  taught  the  absolute  infallibility  of  the  pope ;  and  on  another 
occasion  he  silenced  a  modest  doubt  as  to  a  sure  tradition  with  the 
dictatorial  words,  La  Iradizione  soiio  io,  adding  the  assurance,  "As 
Abbate  Mastai  I  believe  in  infallibility,  as  pope  I  have  experienced  it." 
On  Julj""  13th  the  final  vote  Avas  called  for  in  the  general  congregation. 
There  Avere  371  Avho  voted  simply  jj?fice<,  sixty-one  j^^acdjuxta  modmn, 
i.e.  Avith  certain  modifications,  and  eighty-eight  non  x>lacct.  After  a 
last  hopeless  attempt  by  a  deputation  to  obtain  the  pojje's  consent  to  a 
milder  formulating  of  the  decree.  Bishop  Ketteler  A'ainly  entreatin"- 
on  his  knees,  to  saA'e  the  unity  and  peace  of  the  church  by  some  small 
concession,  the  fiity  hitherto  steadfast  members  of  the  minoritv 
returned  home,  after  emitting  a  Avritten  declaration  that  they  after 
as  Avell  as  before  must  continvie  to  adhere  to  their  negati\-e  A-ote,  but 
from  reverence  and  respect  for  the  person  of  the  pope  they  declined  to 
give  effect  to  it  at  a  public  session.  On  the  folloAving  daA*,  July  ISth, 
the  fourth  and  last  public  sitting  Avas  held  :  547  fathers  A'oted  placet 


254      CHURCH   HISTOKY   OF   NINETEENTH   CENTURY. 

and  only  two,  Eiccio  of  Cajiwzo  and  Fitzgerald  of  Little  Rock,  )ioii 
placet.  A  violent  storm  had  broken  out  during  the  session  and  amid 
thunder  and  lightning,  Pius  IX.,  like  "  a  second  Moses "  (Exod.  xix. 
16),  proclaimed  in  tlie  Pador  cdernuis  the  absolute  plenipotence  and 
infallibility  of  himself  and  all  his  predecessors  and  successors. — It  was 
on  the  evening  preceding  the  proclamation  of  this  new  dogma  that 
Naj^oleon  III.  proclaimed  Avar  with  Prussia,  in  consequence  of  -which 
the  pope  lost  the  last  remnants  of  temporal  sovei-eignty  and  every 
chance  of  its  restoration.  Under  the  infiiience  of  the  fever-fraught 
July  sun,  the  council  now  dwindled  down  to  150  members,  and,  after 
the  whole  glory  of  the  papal  kingdom  had  gone  down  (§  185,  3),  on 
October  20th,  its  sittings  were  suspended  until  better  times.  The 
schema  of  discipline  and  the  preliminary  sketch  of  a  catechism  were 
not  concluded ;  a  subsequently  introduced  schema  on  apostolic  mis- 
sions was  left  in  the  same  state ;  and  a  petition  equally  i^ressed  by  the 
Jesuits  for  the  defining  of  the  corporeal  ascensitm  of  Mary  had  not 
even  reached  the  initial  stage. 

4.  Acceptance  of  the  Decrees  of  the  Council. — All  ijrotests  which  during 
the  council  the  minority  had  made  against  the  order  of  business 
determined  on  and  against  all  irregularities  resulting  from  it,  because 
not  persisted  in,  were  regarded  as  invalid.  Equally  devoid  of  legal 
force  was  their  final  written  protest  wliich  they  left  behind,  in  which 
they  expressly  declined  to  exercise  their  right  of  voting.  And  the 
assent  which  they  ultimately  without  exception  gave  to  the  objective 
standpoint  of  the  law  and  the  faith  of  the  Catholic  church,  was  not  in 
the  least  necessary  in  order  to  make  it  a])])ear  that  the  decisions  of  the 
council,  drawn  up  Avith  such  unanimity  as  had  scarcely  ever  before  been 
seen,  wei-e  equally  valid  Avith  any  of  the  decrees  of  the  older  councils. 
Thus  the  bishops  of  the  minority,  if  they  did  not  Avish  to  occasion  a 
split  of  unexampled  dimensions  and  incalculable  complications,  q\iarrels, 
and  contentions  in  the  church  that  boasted  of  a  unity  Avhich  had 
hitherto  been  its  strength  and  stay,  could  do  nothing  else  than  yield 
at  the  twelfth  hour  to  the  i^ope's  demand  that  "  sam'ficio  dcW  inteUctto  " 
Avhich  at  the  eleventh  hour  they  had  refused.  The  German  bishops, 
Avho  had  proved  most  steadfast  at  the  council,  Av'ei-e  noAv  in  the  greatest 
haste  to  make  their  submission.  Even  by  the  end  of  August,  at  Fulda, 
they  joined  their  infallibilist  neiglibours  in  addressing  a  pastoral 
letter,  in  Avhich  they  most  solemnly  declared  that  all  true  Catholics, 
as  they  A-alued  their  soul's  salvation,  must  \inconditionally  accept  the 
conclusions  of  tlie  council  unanimously  arrived  at  Avhich  are  in  no  way 
prejudiced  by  the  "  diirerences  of  opinion  "  elicited  during  the  discus- 
sion. At  the  same  time  they  demanded  of  theological  professors, 
teachers  of  religion,  and  clergymen  throughout  the  dioceses  a  formal 
acceptance   of    these   decrees   as   the   inviolable   standixnut   of   their 


§  189.    THE   VATICAN    COUNCIL.  2oo 

doctrinal  teacliing ;  they  also  took  moasures  against  those  who  refnsed 
to  yield,  and  excommunicated  them.  Even  Bishop  Hefele,  Avho  did 
not  sign  this  pastoral  and  was  at  first  determined  not  to  jdeld  nor 
swerve,  at  last  gave  way.  In  his  pastoral  proclaiming  the  new  dogma 
he  gave  it  a  quite  inadmissible  interpretation  :  As  the  infallibility  of 
the  church,  so  also  that  of  the  pope  as  a  teacher,  extends  only  to  the 
revealed  doctrines  of  faith  and  morals,  and  even  with  reference  to 
them  only  the  definitions  proper  and  not  the  introductory  statements, 
grounds,  and  applications,  belong  to  the  infallible  department.  But 
subsequently  he  cast  himself  unreservedly  into  the  arms  of  his 
colleagues  assembled  once  again  at  Fulda  in  September,  1872,  where 
he  also  found  his  like-minded  friend.  Bishop  Haneberg  of  Spires.  Yet 
he  forbore  demanding  an  express  assent  from  his  former  colleagues, 
at  Tiibingen  and  his  clergy,  and  thus  saved  "Wiirttemberg  from  a 
threatened  schism.  Strossma5^er  held  out  longest,  but  even  he  at  last 
threw  down  his  weapons.  But  many  of  the  most  cviltured  and 
scholarly  of  the  theological  professors,  disgusted  with  the  coiirse  events 
were  taking,  withdrew  from  the  field  and  continued  silently  to  hold 
their  own  opinions.  The  inferior  clergy,  for  the  most  part  trained  by 
ultramontane  bigots,  and  held  in  the  iron  grasjD  of  strict  hierarchical 
discipline,  passed  all  bounds  in  their  extravagant  glorification  of  the 
new  dogma.  And  while  among  the  liberal  circles  of  the  Catholic 
laity  it  was  laughed  at  and  ridiculed,  the  bigoted  nobles  and  the 
masses  who  had  long  been  used  to  the  incensed  atmosphere  of  an 
enthusiastic  adoration  of  the  pope,  bowed  the  knee  in  stupid  devotion 
to  the  papal  god.  But  the  brave  heart  of  one  noble  German  lady 
broke  %\ith  sorrow  over  the  indignity  done  by  the  Vatican  decree  and 
the  characterlessness  of  the  German  bishops  to  the  church  of  which 
to  her  latest  breath  she  remained  in  spirit  a  devoted  member.  Amalie 
von  Lasaiilx,  sister  of  the  Munich  scholar  Ernst  von  Lasaulx  (§  174,  4), 
from  1849  superioress  of  the  Sisters  of  Mercy  in  St.  John's  Hospital  at 
Bonn,  lay  beyond  hope  of  recovery  on  a  sick-bed  to  Avhicli  she  had  been 
brought  by  her  self-sacrificing  and  faithful  discharge  of  the  diities  of 
her  calling,  when  there  came  to  her  from  the  lady  superior  of  the 
order  at  Nancj^  the  peremptory  demand  to  give  in  her  adhesion  to  the 
infallibility  dogma.  As  she  persistenth^  and  coiirageously  A\-ithstood 
all  entreaties  and  threats,  all  adjurations  and  cruelly  tormenting 
importunings,  she  was  deposed  from  office  and  driven  from  the  scene 
of  her  labours,  and  Avhen,  soon  thereafter,  in  1872.  she  died,  the  habit 
of  her  order  was  stripped  from  her  bodA-.  The  Old  Catholics  of  Bonn, 
whose  proceedings  she  had  not  countenanced,  charged  themselves 
with  securing  for  her  a  Christian  burial. — No  state  as  such  has  recog- 
nised the  council.  Austria  answered  it  by  abolishing  the  concordat 
and  forbidding  the  proclamation  of  the  decrees.     Bavaria  and  Saxonj- 


256      CHURCH   HISTORY   OF   NINETEENTH   CENTURY. 

refused  their  placet ;  Hesse,  Baden,  and  Wiirttemberg  declared  that  the 
conchisions  of  the  conncil  had  not  binding  authority  in  law.  Prussia 
indeed  held  to  its  principle  of  not  interfering  in  -the  internal  affairs 
of  the  Catholic  church,  but,  partly  for  itself,  partly  as  the  leading 
power  of  the  new  German  empire,  passed  a  series  of  laws  in  order  to 
resume  its  too  readily  abandoned  rights  of  sovereignty  over  the  affairs 
of  the  Catholic  church,  and  to  insure  itself  against  further  encroach- 
ments of  ultramontanism  upon  the  domain  of  civil  life  (§  197).  The 
Romance  states,  on  the  other  hand,  pre-eminently  France,  were  pre- 
vented by  internal  troubU's  and  conflicts  from  taking  anj^  very 
decisive  steps. 

§  190.    The  Old  Catholics. 

A  most  promising  reaction,  mainly  in  Germany,  led  by 
men  liigMy  respected  and  eminent  for  their  learning,  set  in 
against  the  Vatican  Council  and  its  decrees,  in  the  so-called 
Old  Catholic  movement  of  the  liberal  circles  of  the  Catholic 
people,  which  went  the  length,  even  in  1873,  of  establishing 
an  independent  and  well  organized  episcopal  church.  Since 
then,  indeed,  it  has  fallen  far  short  of  the  all  too  sanguine 
hopes  and  expectations  at  first  entertained  ;  but  still  within 
nari"ower  limits  it  continues  steadily  to  spread  and  to  rear 
for  itself  a  solid  structure,  while  carefull}^,  even  nervously, 
shrinking  from  anything  revolutionary.  More  in  touch  with 
the  demands  of  the  Zeitgeist  in  its  reformatory  concessions, 
yet  holding  firmly  in  every  particular  to  the  positive 
doctrines  of  orthodoxy,  the  Old  Catholic  movement  has  made 
progress  in  Switzerland,  while  in  other  Catholic  countries 
its  success  has  been  relatively  small. 

1.  Formation  and  Development  of  the  Old  Catholic  Church  in  the  German 
Empire. — In  the  beginning  of  August,  1870,  the  hitherto  exemplary 
Catholic  professor  Michelis  of  Braunsberg  (§  191,  6),  issued  a  public 
charge  against  Puis  IX.  as  a  heretic  and  devourer  of  the  church,  and 
by  the  end  of  August  several  distinguished  theologians  (Dollinger 
and  Friedrich  of  Munich,  Reinkens,  Weber,  and  Baltzer  of  Breslau, 
Knoodt  of  Bonn,  and  the  canonist  Von  Schulte  of  Prague)  joined  him 
at  Nuremberg  in  making  a  iniblic  declaration  tliat  the  Vatican  Council 
could  not  be  regarded  as  (Pcinnenical,  nor  its  now  dogma  as  a  Catholic 


§  190.    THE    OLD    CATHOLICS.  257 

doctrine.  This  statement  was  subscribed  to  by  forty-four  Catholic 
professors  of  the  university  of  Munich  with  the  rector  at  their  head, 
but  without  the  theologians.  Similarly,  too,  several  Catholic  teachers 
in  Breslau,  Freiburg,  Wlirzburg,  and  Bonn  protested,  and  still  more 
energetically  a  gathering  of  Catholic  laymen  at  Konigswinter. 
Besides  the  Breslau  professors  already  named,  the  Bonn  professors 
Eeusch,  Langen,  Hilgers,  and  Knoodt  refused  to  subscribe  the  council 
decrees  at  the  call  of  their  bishop ;  Avhereas  the  Munich  professors, 
with  the  exception  of  Diillinger  and  Friedrich,  yielded.  A  repeated 
injunction  of  his  archbishop  in  January,  1S71,  drew  from  Dollinger 
the  statement  that  he  as  a  Christian,  a  theologian,  a  historian,  and 
a  citizen,  was  obliged  to  reject  the  infallibility  dogma,  while  at  the 
same  time  he  Avas  pi-epared  before  an  assembly  of  bishops  and 
theologians  to  prove  that  it  Avas  opposed  to  Scripture,  the  Fathers, 
tradition,  and  history.  He  Avas  noAv  literally  overAvhelmed  Avith  com- 
plimentary addresses  from  Vienna,  Wlirzburg,  Mmiich,  and  almost 
all  other  cities  of  Bavaria;  and  an  address  to  go\'ernment  on  the 
dangers  to  the  state  threatened  by  thfe  Vatican  decrees  that  lay  at  the 
Munich  Museum,  Avas  quickly  filled  Avith  12,000  signatures.  On  April 
14th,  Dollinger  Avas  excommvmicated,  and  Professor  Huber  sent  an 
exceedingly  sharp  reply  to  the  archbishop.  After  several  preliminary 
meetings,  the  first  congress  of  the  Old  Catholics  Avas  held  in  Munich 
in  September,  1871,  attended  by  uOO  deputies  from  all  parts  of  Germany. 
A  programme  Avas  unanimously  adopted  Avliich,  Avith  protestation  of 
firm  adherence  to  the  faith,  Avorship,  and  constitution  of  the  ancient 
Catholic  church,  maintained  the  invalidity  of  the  Vatican  decrees  and 
the  excommmiication  occasioned  by  them,  and,  besides  recognising  the 
Old  Catholic  church  of  Utrecht  (§  1G5,  8),  expressed  a  hope  of  reunion 
Avith  the  Greek  church,  as  Avell  as  of  a  gradual  progress  toAvards  an 
understanding  Avith  the  Protestant  church.  But  Avhen  at  the  second 
session  the  president.  Dr.  von  Schulte,  proposed  the  setting  up  of  in- 
dependent public  services  Avith  regular  pastors,  and  the  establishing 
as  soon  as  possible  of  an  episcopal  government  of  their  oavii,  Dollinger 
contested  the  proposal  as  a  forsaking  of  the  safe  path  of  laAvf ul  op- 
position, taking  the  baneful  course  of  the  Protestant  Eeformation,  and 
tending  toAvard  the  formation  of  a  sect.  As,  hoAvever,  the  proposal 
Avas  carried  by  an  overAvhelming  majoritj^,  he  declined  to  take  further 
part  in  their  public  assemblies  and  retired  more  into  the  background, 
Avithout  otherAvise  opposing  the  prevailing  current  or  detaching 
himself  from  it.  The  second  congress  AA-as  held  at  Cologne  in  the 
autumn  of  1872.  From  the  episcopal  chm-ches  of  England  and 
America,  from  the  orthodox  church  of  Russia,  from  France,  Italy, 
and  Spain,  Avere  sent  depi\ties  and  hearty  friendly  greetings.  Arcli- 
bishop  Loos  of  Utrecht,  by  the  part  Avhich  he  took  in  the  congress, 
VOL.  III.  17 


^58      CHURCH   HISTORY   OF   NINETEENTH   CENTURY. 

cemented  more  closely  the  union  with  the  Old  Catholics  of  Holland. 
Even  the  German  "  Protestantenverein  "  was  not  unrepresented.  A 
committee  chosen  for  the  purpose  drew  up  an  outline  of  a  synodal  and 
(.'ongregational  order,  which  provides  for  the  election  of  bishops  at  an 
annual  meeting  at  Pentecost  of  a  synod,  of  which  all  the  clergy  are 
members  and  to  which  the  congregations  send  deputies,  one  for  every 
200  members.  Alongside  of  the  bishop  stands  a  permanent  synodal 
board  of  five  priests  and  seven  la3nnen.  The  bishop  and  synodal  board 
have  the  right  of  vetoing  doubtful  decrees  of  synod.  The  choice  of 
pastors  lies  with  the  congregation ;  its  confinnation  belongs  to  the 
bishop.  In  July,  1873,  a  bishop  was  elected  in  the  Pantaleon  church 
of  Cologne  by  an  assembly  of  delegates,  embracing  twentj^-two  priests 
and  fifty-five  laymen.  The  choice  fell  upon  Professor  Eeinkens,  who, 
as  meauAvhile  Bishop  Loos  of  Utrecht  had  died,  Avas  consecrated  on 
August  11th,  at  Rotterdam,  by  Bishop  Heykamp  of  Deventer,  and 
splected  Boma  as  his  episcopal  residence. 

2.  The  first  s;}Tiod  of  the  German  Old  Catholics,  consisting  of  thirty 
clerical  and  fifty -nine  lay  members,  met  at  Bonn  in  May,  1874.  It  was 
agreed  to  continue  the  practice  of  auricular  confession,  but  without 
any  jDressure  being  put  upon  the  conscience  or  its  observance  being 
insisted  upon  at  set  times.  Similarly  the  moral  value  of  fasting  was 
recognised,  but  all  compulsory  abstinence,  and  all  distinctions  of  food 
as  allowable  and  unallowable,  were  abolished.  The  second  sjaiod, 
with  reference  to  the  marriage  law,  took  the  position  that  civil  regular 
marriages  ought  also  to  have  the  blessing  of  the  church  ;  only  in  the 
case  of  marriages  with  non-Christians  and  divorced  parties  should 
this  be  refused.  The  third  s3Tiod  introduced  a  German  ritual  in 
which  the  exorcism  was  omitted,  -while  the  Latin  mass  was  provision- 
ally retained.  The  fourth  synod  allowed  to  such  congregations  as 
might  wish  it  the  u.se  of  the  vernacular  in  several  parts  of  the  service 
of  the  mass.  At  all  these  synods  the  lay  members  had  persistently 
repeated  the  proposal  to  abolish  the  obligatory  celibacy  of  the  clergy. 
But  now  the  agitation,  especially  on  the  part  of  the  Baden  repre- 
sentatives, had  become  so  keen,  that  at  the  fifth  synod  of  1878,  in 
spite  of  the  Avarning  read  by  Bishop  Eeinkens  from  the  Dutch  Old 
Catholics,  who  threatened  to  Avithdraw  from  the  commrmion,  the 
proposal  Avas  carried  by  seventy -five  votes  against  twenty-tAvo.  The 
Bonn  professors,  Langen  and  Menzel,  foreseeing  this  result,  had 
absented  themselves  from  the  synod,  Eeusch  immediately  Avithdrew 
and  resigned  his  office  as  episcopal  vicar-general,  Friedrich  protested 
in  the  name  of  the  Bavarian  Old  Catholics.  Eeinkens,  too,  had 
vigorously  opposed  the  movement ;  AvlK.'reas  Ivnoodt,  Michelis,  and 
Von  Schulte  had  favoured  it.  The  sjaiod  of  1883  resolved  to  dispense 
the  supper  in  both  kinds  to  members  of  the  Anglican  chTirch  residing 


§  190.    THE    OLD    CATHOLICS.  259 

in  Gennany,  but  among  their  own  members  to  follow  meanwhile  the 
usual  practice  of  comnmnio  suh  una.  The  number  of  Old  Catholic 
congregations  in  the  German  empire  is  now  107,  Avith  38,507  adherents 
and  56  priests. — Even  at  their  first  congress  the  German  Old  Catholics, 
in  opposition  to  the  unpatriotic  and  law-defying  attitude  of  German 
ultramontanism,  had  insisted  lapon  love  of  country  and  obedience  to 
the  laws  of  the  state  as  an  absolute  Christian  dutj'.  Their  newly 
chosen  bishop  Eeinkens,  too,  gave  expression  to  this  sentiment  in  his 
first  pastoral  letter,  and  had  the  oath  of  allegiance  administered  him 
by  the  Prussian,  Baden,  and  Hessian  governments,  But  Bavaria  felt 
obliged,  on  account  of  the  terms  of  its  concordat,  to  refuse.  At  first 
the  Old  Catholics  had  advanced  the  claim  to  be  the  only  true  repre- 
sentatives of  the  Catholic  chtirch  as  it  had  existed  before  July  18th, 
1870.  At  the  Cologne  congress  they  let  this  assumption  drop,  and 
restricted  their  claims  upon  the  state  to  equal  recognition  with  "  the 
New  Catholics,"  equal  endowments  for  their  bishop,  and  a  fair  pro- 
portion of  the  churches  and  their  revenues.  Prussia  responded  with  a 
yearly  episcopal  grant  of  16,000  thalers ;  Baden  added  about  6,000. 
It  proved  more  difficult  to  enforce  their  claim  to  church  property.  A 
laAV  Avas  passed  in  Baden  in  1874,  Avhich  not  only  guaranteed  to  the 
Old  Catholic  clergy  their  present  benefices  and  incomes,  freed  them 
from  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Komish  hierarcliA^,  and  gave  them  permission 
to  found  independent  congregations,  but  also  granted  them  a  mutual 
right  of  possessing  and  using  churches  and  church  furniture  as  well  as 
sharing  in  church  jDroperty  according  to  the  numerical  proportion  of 
the  tAVO  parties  in  the  district.  A  similar  measure  was  introduced 
into  the  Prussian  parliament,  and  obtained  the  royal  assent  in  July, 
1875.  Since  then,  hoAvever,  the  interest  of  the  goA'ernment  in  the  Old 
Catholic  moA'ement  has  visibly  cooled.  In  Baden,  in  1886  the  endoA\'- 
ment  had  risen  to  24,000  marks. 

3.  The  Old  Catholics  in  other  Lands. — In  SAvitzerland  the  Old,  or 
rather,  as  it  has  there  been  called,  the  Christian,  Catholic  moA'emeiit, 
had  its  origin  in  1871  in  the  diocese  of  Basel-Solothurn,  Avhence  it  soon 
spread  through  the  Avhole  countrJ^  The  national  sjaiod  held  at  Olten 
in  1876  introduced  the  vernacular  into  the  church  serA'ices,  abolished 
the  compulsory  celibacy  of  the  clergy  and  obligatory  confession  of 
communicants,  and  elected  Professor  Herzog  bisho]^,  Reinkens  giving 
him  episcopal  consecration.  In  1879  the  number  of  Christian  Catholics 
in  German  Switzerland  amounted  to  aboi;t  70.000,  A\-ith  seventy-tAvo 
pastors.  But  since  then,  in  consequence  of  the  submission  of  the 
Eoman  Catholics  to  the  church  laAVS  condemned  by  Pius  IX.  they 
have  lost  the  majority  in  no  fcAver  than  thirtj^-nine  out  of  the  forty- 
three  congregations  of  Canton  Bern,  and  thereAvitli  the  privileges 
attaclie'l.     A   pi'oposal  made  in  the  grand  council  of  the    canton  in 


260      CHURCH   HISTORY   OF   NINETEENTH   CENTURY. 

1883  for  the  suppression  of  the  Christian  Catholic  theological  faculty 
in  the  University  of  Bern,  which  has  existed  since  1874,  -was  rejected 
b3'one  hundred  and  fifty  votes  against  thirteen. — In  Austria,  too,  strong 
opposition  was  shown  to  the  infallibilitj^  dogma.     At  Vienna  the  first 
Old  Catholic  congregation  was  formed  in  February,  1872,  under  the 
priest  Anton  ;  and  soon  after  others  were  established  in  Bohemia  and 
Upper  Austria.     But  it  was  not  till  October,  1877,  that  they  obtained 
civil  recognition  on  the  ground  that  their  doctrine  is  that  which  the 
Catholic  church  professed  before  1870.     In  June,  1880,  they  held  their 
first  legally  sanctioned  synod.     The  provisional  sjaiodical  and  congre- 
gational order  Avas  now  definitely  adopted,  and  the  use  of  the  vernacular 
in  the  church  services,  the  abolition  of  compulsory  fasting,  confession, 
and  celibacy,  as  well  as  of  surplice  fees,  and  the  abandoning  of  all  but 
the  high  festivals,  were  announced  on  the  folloAving  Sunday.     The 
bitter  hatred  shown  by  the  Czechs  and  the  ultramontane  clergy  to 
everything  German  has  given  to  the  Old  Catholic  movement  for  some 
years  past  a  new  impulse  and  decided  advantage.  — In  France  the  Abbe 
Michaud  of  Paris  lashed  the  characterlessness  of  the  episcopate  and 
was  excomnamiicated,  and  the  Abbes  Mouls  and  Junqua  of  Bordeaiix 
were  orelered  by  the  police  to  give   up   wearing   the   clerical   dress. 
Junqiia,  refusing  to  obey  this  order,  was  accused  b}''  Cardinal  Doimet, 
Bishop  of  Bordeaux,  before  the  civil  court,  and  was  sentenced  to  six 
months'  imprisonment.     Not  till  1879  did  the  ex-Carmelite  Loyson  of 
Paris  lay  the  foundation  of  a  Catholic  Galilean  church,  affiliated  with 
the  Swiss  Old  Catholics  (§  187,  8).— In  Italy  since  1862,  independently' 
of   the  German  movement,  yet  on  essentially   the  same  grounds,  a 
national  Italian  church  was  started  with  very  ])romising  beginnings, 
•which  were  not,  however,  realized  (§  187,  7).     Eare  excitement  was 
caused  throughout  Italj-  by  the  procedure  of  Count  Campello,  canon 
of  St.  Peter"s  in  Eome,  Avho  in  1881  publicly  proclaimed  his  creed  in 
the  Methodist  Episcopal  cha,pel,  there  renouncing  the  papac}-,  and  in  a 
published  manifesto  addressed  to  the  cathedral  chapter  justified  this 
•step  and  made  severe  charges  against  the  papal  curia ;  but  soon  after, 
in  a  letter  to  Loyson,  he  declared  that  he,  remaining  faithful  to  the 
true  Catholic  church,  did  not  contemplate  joining  any  Protestant  sect 
sevei-ed  from  Catholic  unity,  and  in  a   communication  to   the  Old 
Catholic  Rieks  of  Heidelberg  professed  to  be  in  all  points  at  one  with 
the  German  Old  Catholics.     Accordingly  he  sought  to  form  in  Eome 
a  Catholic  reform  party,  whose  interests  he  advocated  in  the  journal 
It  Laharo.     The  pope's   domestic  chaplain,  JVIonsignor  Savarese,  has 
adopted  a  similar  attitude.     In  December,  1883,  he  was  received  by 
the  pastor  of  the  American  Episcopal  chiirch  at  Eome  into  the  Old 
Catholic  church  on  subscribing  the  Nicene  Creed,     In  1880  they  Avere 
joined  by  another  domestic  chaplain  of  the  pope,  Monsignor  Eenier, 


§  191.    CATHOLIC    THEOLOGY.  261 

foi-merly  an  intimate  friend  of  Pius  IX.,  Avho  publicly  seijarated  him- 
self from  the  ijajjal  church,  and  -with  them  took  his  place  at  the  head 
of  a  Catholic  "  Conrjrecjation  of  St.  Paid "'  in  Home. — Also  the  Epi- 
scopal Irjhsia  EspaTiola  in  Spain  (§  205,  4),  and  the  Mexican  Itjlesia  de 
Jesus  (§  209,  1),  must  be  regarded  as  essentially  of  similar  tendencies 
to  the  Old  Catholics. 


§  191.    Catholic  Theology,  especially  ix  Germany. 

Catholic  theology  in  German}',  influenced  by  the  scientific 
spirit  prevailing  in  Protestantism,  received  a  considerable 
impulse.  From  latitudinarian  Josephinism  it  gradually  rose 
toward  a  strictly  ecclesiastical  attitude.  Most  important 
were  its  contributions  in  the  department  of  dogmatic  and 
speculative  theology.  Besides  and  after  the  schools  of 
Hermes,  Baader,  and  Giinther,  condemned  by  the  papal 
chair,  appeared  a  whole  series  of  speculative  dogmatists 
who  kept  their  speculations  within  the  limits  of  the  church 
confession.  Also  in  the  domain  of  church  history,  Catholic^ 
theology,  after  the  epoch-making  productions  of  Mohler  and 
Dollinger,  has  aided  in  reaching  important  results,  which, 
however,  owing  to  the  "  tendency  "  character  of  their  re- 
searches, demand  careful  sifting.  Least  important  are  their 
contributions  to  biblical  criticism  and  exegesis.  In  general, 
however,  the  theological  dorenfs  at  the  German  universities 
give  a  scientific  character  to  their  researches  and  lectures 
in  respect  of  form  and  also  of  matter,  so  far  as  the  Triden- 
tine  limits  will  allow.  Biit  the  more  the  Jesuits  obtained 
influence  in  German}',  the  more  was  that  scholasticism,  which 
repudiated  the  German  university  theology  and  opposed  it 
with  perfidious  suspicions  and  denunciations,  naturalized, 
especially  in  the  episcopal  seminaries,  while  it  was  recom- 
mended by  Rome  as  the  official  theology.  The  attempt, 
however,  at  the  Munich  Congress  of  Scholars  in  1863  to 
come  to  an  undei'standing  between  the  two  tendencies  failed, 
owing  to  the  contrariety  of  their  principles  and  the  opposition 


262      CHURCH   HISTORY   OF   NINETEENTH   CENTURY. 

of  tlie  Jesuits. — Outside  of  Germany,  French  theology, 
especial!}'-  in  the  department  of  histor^^,  manifested  a  praise- 
worthy activity.  In  Spain  theology  has  never  outgrown 
the  period  of  the  Middle  Ages.  In  Italy,  on  the  other  hand, 
the  study  of  Christian  antiquities  flourished,  stimulated  by 
recent  discoveries  of  treasures  in  catacombs,  museums, 
archives,  and  libraries. 

1.  Hermes  and  his  School. — The  Bonn  professor,  George  Hermes,  in- 
fluenced in  youth  by  the  critical  philosophy,  passed  the  Catholic 
dogma  of  Trent,  assured  it  would  stand  the  test,  through  the  lire  of 
doubt  and  the  scrutiny  of  i-eason,  because  only  what  survives  such 
examination  could  be  scientifically  vindicated.  He  died  in  a.d.  1831, 
and  left  a  school  named  after  him,  mainly  in  Treves,  Bonn,  and 
Breslau.  Gregory  XVI.  in  1835  condemned  his  Avritings,  and  the  new 
Archbishop  of  Cologne,  Droste-Vischering,  forbad  students  at  Bonn 
attending  the  lectures  of  Hermesians.  These  made  every  effort  to 
secure  the  recall  of  the  papal  censure.  Braun  and  Elvenich  went 
to  Rome,  but  their  declaration  that  Hermes  had  not  taught  what  the 
pope  condemned  profited  them  as  little  as  a  similar  statement  had 
the  Jansenists.  There  now  arose  on  both  sides  a  bitter  controversy, 
which  received  new  fuel  from  the  Prusso-Cologne  ecclesiastical  strife 
(§  193,  1).  rinally  in  1844  professors  Braun  and  Achterfeld  of  Bonn 
were  deprived  of  office  by  the  coadjutor- Archbishop  Geissel,  and  the 
Prussian  government  acquiesced.  The  professors  of  the  Treves 
seminary  and  Baltzer  of  Breslau,  the  latter  influenced  by  Giinther's 
theology,  retracted. — A  year  before  Hermes'  condemnation  the  same 
pope  had  condemned  the  opposite  theory  of  Abbe  Bautain  of  Strass- 
burg,  that  the  Christian  dogmas  cannot  be  proved  but  only  believed, 
and  that  therefore  all  iise  of  reason  in  the  appropriation  of  the  truths 
of  salvation  is  excluded.  Bautain,  as  an  obedient  son  of  the  church, 
immediately  retracted,  "  Jaiidahiliter  ne  sithjccif."' 

2.  Baader  and  his  School. — Catholic  theology  for  a  long  time  paid  no 
regard  to  the  devflo])ment  of  (xerman  philosophy.  Only  after  Schel- 
ling,  whose  philosophy  had  many  jioints  of  contact  with  the  Catholic 
doctrine,  a  general  interest  in  such  studies  was  awakened  as  forming 
a  speculative  basis  for  Catholicism.  To  the  theosophy  of  Schelling 
based  on  that  of  the  Gorlitz  shoemaker  (§  160,  2),  Irancis  von  Baader, 
professor  of  speculative  dogmatics  at  Munich,  though  not  a  pro- 
fessional theologian,  but  a  physician  and  a  mineralogist,  attached 
himself.  In  his  later  years  he  went  over  completely  to  iiltramontanism. 
His  scholar  Franz  Hoffmann  of  Wiiizbiir^- lias  given  an  exposition  of 


§  191.    CATHOLIC   THEOLOGY.  263 

Baader's  speculative  system.  At  G  lessen  this  S3-stem  was  represented 
by  Leop.  Schmid  (§  187,  3).  All  the  Catholic  adherents  of  this  school 
are  distinguished  by  their  friendly  attitude  toward  Protestantism. 

3.  Giinther  and  Ms  School. — A  theology  of  at  least  equal  speculative 
poAver  and  of  more  decidedly  Catholic  contents  than  that  of  Baader, 
Avas  set  forth  hy  the  secular  priest  Anton  Giinther  of  Vienna,  a 
profound  and  original  thinker  of  combative  humour,  sprightly  wit, 
and  a  roughness  of  expression  sometimes  verging  uiDon  the  burlesque. 
He  recognised  the  necessity  of  going  vi]>  in  philosophical  and  theo- 
logical speculation  to  Descartes,  who  held  by  the  scholastic  dualism 
of  C4od  and  the  creatui-e,  the  Absolute  and  the  finite,  spirit  and  natiu'e, 
Avhile  all  philosophy,  according  to  him,  had  been  ever  plunging  deeper 
into  pantheistic  monism.  Thence  he  sought  to  solve  the  two  problems 
of  Christian  speculation,  creation  and  incarnation,  and  undertook  a 
war  of  extermination  against  "  all  monism  and  semimonism,  idealistic 
and  realistic  pantheism,  disguised  and  avowed  semipantlieism,"*  among 
Catholics  and  Protestants.  His  first  great  Avork,  '■  Vorschule  ziir 
Spekul.  Thcologie,'^  published  in  1828,  treating  of  the  theoiy  of  creation 
and  the  theory  of  incarnation,  Avas  folloAved  by  a  long  series  of  similar 
A\-orks.  His  most  eminent  scholars  Avere  Patst,  doctor  of  medicine  in 
Vienna,  Avho  gave  clear  expositions  of  his  master's  dark  and  aphoristic 
sayings,  and  Veith,  aa'Iio  popularized  his  teachings  in  sermons  and 
l^ractical  treatises.  Some  of  the  Hermesians,  such  as  Baltzer  of 
Breslau,  entered  the  rank  of  his  scholars.  The  historico-political 
jjapers,  hoAVCA-er,  charged  him  Avith  den3'ing  the  mysteries  of  Christi- 
anity, rejecting  the  traditional  theology,  etc.,  and  Clemens,  a  ])rivat~ 
(locent  of  philosophy  in  Bonn,  became  the  mouthpiece  of  this  part}'. 
Thus  arose  a  passionate  controversj^,  Avhich  called  forth  the  attention 
of  Eome.  We  might  have  expected  Giinther  to  meet  the  fate  of 
Hermes  twenty  years  before;  but  the  matter  was  kept  long  under 
consideration,  for  strong  influence  from  Vienna  was  brought  to  bear 
on  his  behalf.  At  last  in  January,  1857,  the  formal  reprobation  of 
the  Giintherian  philosophy  AA-as  announced,  and  all  his  AA'orks  put  in 
the  Index.  Giinther  humbly  submitted  to  the  sentence  of  the  church. 
So  too  did  Baltzer.  But  being  suspected  at  Eome,  he  AA'as  asked 
voluntarily  to  resign.  This  Baltzer  refused  to  do.  Then  Prince- 
Bishop  FOrster  called  upon  the  goA'ernment  to  depriA'e  him ;  and  Avhen 
this  failed,  he  AvithdrcAV  from  him  the  missio  canonica  and  a  third  of 
his  canonical  revenues,  and  in  1870,  on  his  opposing  the  infallibilitA'- 
dogma,  he  withheld  the  other  tAvo-thirds.  His  salarj'^  from  the  State 
continued  to  be  paid  in  full  till  his  death  in  a.d.  1871. 

4.  John  Adam  Mohler. — None  of  all  the  Catholic  theologians  of  recent 
times  attained  the  nniiortance  and  influence  of  Mohler  in  his  shore 
life  of  fortA'-tAVO  j-ears.     Stimidated  to  seek  higher  scientific  cultitre 


264      CHURCH   HISTORY   OF   NINETEENTH   CENTURY. 

by  the  study  mainly  of  Schlciermaclier's  Avorks  ami  those  of  other 
Protestants,  and  putting  all  his  rich  endowments  at  the  service  of  the 
church,  he  -s^'on  for  himself  among  Catholics  a  position  like  that  of 
Schleiermacher  among  Protestants.  His  first  treatise  of  1825,  on  the 
unity  of  the  church,  was  followed  by  his  "Athanasius  the  Great," 
and  the  work  of  his  life,  the  "Sj'mbolics"  of  1832,  in  its  ninth  edition 
in  1884,  which  with  the  apparatus  of  Protestant  science  combats  the 
Protestant  church  doctrine  and  pivsented  the  Catholic  doctrine  in 
such  an  ennobled  and  sublimated  foi-m,  that  Rome  at  first  seriously 
thought  of  i^lacing  it  in  the  Index.  Hitherto  Protestants  had  utterly 
ignored  the  productions  of  Catholic  theology,  but  to  overlook  a 
scientific  masterpiece  like  this  would  be  a  confession  of  their  own 
weakness.  And  in  fact,  during  the  whole  course  of  the  controversy 
between  the  two  churches,  no  writing  from  the  Catholic  camp  ever 
caiised  such  commotion  among  the  Protestants  as  this.  The  ablest 
Protestant  replies  are  those  of  Nitsch  and  Baur.  In  1835  Mohler  left 
Tubingen  for  Munich ;  but  sickness  hindered  his  scientific  labours, 
and,  in  1838,  in  the  full  bloom  of  manhood,  the  Catholic  church  and 
Catholic  science  had  to  mourn  his  death.  He  can  scarcely  be  said  to 
have  formed  a  school ;  but  by  writings,  addresses,  and  conversation 
he  produced  a  scientific  ferment  in  the  Catholic  theology  of  Germany, 
which  continued  to  work  until  at  last  completely  displaced  by  the 
scholasticism  reintroduced  into  favour  by  the  Jesuits. 

5.  John  Jos.  Ignat.  von  Bollinger. — Of  all  Catholic  theologians  in 
Germany,  alongside  of  and  after  Mohler,  by  far  the  most  famous  on 
either  side  of  the  Alps  was  the  chui'ch  historian  Dollinger,  professor 
at  Munich  since  1826.  His  first  important  work  issued  in  that  same 
year  was  on  the  "  Doctrine  of  the  Eucharist  in  the  First  Three 
Centuries."  His  comprehensive  work,  "  The  Historj'  of  the  Christian 
Church,"  of  1833  (4  vols.,  London,  1840),  was  not  carried  beyond  the 
second  volume ;  and  his  "  Text-boolc  of  Church  Histoiy "  of  1836, 
was  only  carried  down  to  the  Reformation.  The  tone  of  his  -H-i-itings 
was  strictly  ecclesiastical,  yet  without  condoning  the  moral  faults  of 
the  popes  and  hierarchy.  Great  excitement  Avas  produced  by  his 
treatise  on  "  The  Reformation,"  in  whicli  he  gathered  everything  that 
could  be  found  unfavourable  to  the  Reformers  and  their  woik,  and 
thus  gained  the  summit  of  renown  as  a  miracle  of  erudition  and  a 
master  of  Catholic  orthodoxy.  Meanwhile  in  1838  he  had  taken  part 
in  controversies  about  mixed  marriages  (§  193,  1),  and  in  1843  over 
the  genuflection  question  (§  195,  2),  with  severely  hierarchical 
pamphlets.  As  delegate  of  the  university  since  1845  he  defended  with 
brilliant  eloquence  in  the  Bavarian  chamber  the  measures  of  the 
ultramontane  government  and  the  hierarchy,  became  in  1847  Provost 
of  St.  Cajetan,  but  Avas  also  in  the  same  year  iuA'oh'ed  in  the  overthroAV 


§  191.    CATHOLIC   THEOLOGY.  265 

of  the  Abel  ministry,  and  was  deprived  of  his  professorship.  In  the 
following  year  he  was  one  of  the  most  distinguished  of  the  Catholic 
section  in  the  Frankfort  parliament,  where  he  fought  successfully  in 
the  hierarchical  interest  for  the  iinconditional  freedom  and  indepen- 
dence of  the  chiirch.  King  [Maximilian  II.  restored  him  to  his 
professorship  in  1849.  From  this  time  his  views  of  confessional 
matters  became  milder  and  more  moderate.  He  first  caused  great 
offence  to  his  ultramontane  admirers  at  Easter,  1861,  when  he  in  a 
series  of  public  lectui-es  delivered  one  on  the  Papal  States  then 
threatened,  in  which  he  declared  that  the  temporal  power  of  the  pope, 
the  abuses  of  which  he  had  witnessed  during  a  journey  to  Rome  in 
1857,  was  by  no  means  necessary  for  the  Catliolic  church,  but  was 
rather  hurtful.  The  papal  nuncio,  who  was  present,  ostentatiously 
left  the  meeting,  and  the  ultramontanes  were  beside  themselves  with 
astonishment,  horror,  and  wrath.  Dollinger  gave  some  modifying 
explanations  at  the  autumn  assembly  of  the  Catholic  Union  at  Munich 
in  1861.  But  soon  tliereafter  appeared  his  work,  '•  The  Church  and 
the  Churches"  (London,  1862),  which  gave  the  lecture  slightly  modi- 
fied as  an  appendix.  The  "  Fables  respecting  the  Popes  of  the  Middle 
Ages  "  (London,  1871),  was  as  little  to  the  taste  of  the  ultramontanes. 
Indeed  in  these  writings,  especially  in  the  fii-st  named,  the  polemic 
against  the  Protestant  Chvirch  had  all  its  old  bitterness ;  but  he  is  at 
least  more  just  toward  Luther,  whom  he  characterizes  as  "  the  most 
powerful  man  of  the  people,  the  most  popular  character,  which 
Germany  ever  possessed."  And  while  he  delivers  a  glowing  panegj-rie 
on  the  person  of  the  poj^e,  he  lashes  unrelentingly  the  misgoverinnent 
of  the  Papal  States.  At  the  Congress  of  Scholars  at  Munich  he 
contended  for  the  freedom  of  science.  Dollinger  as  president  of  the 
congress  sent  the  pope  a  telegram  which  satisfied  his  holiness.  But 
the  Jesuits  looked  deeper,  and  immediately  "  il  povero  DoUintjer  "  was 
loaded  by  the  C'iviltd  Cattolica  with  every  conceivable  reproach.  In  a.d. 
1868  nominated  to  the  life  office  of  imperial  councillor,  he  voted  with 
the  bishops  against  the  liberal  education  scheme  of  the  government. 
But  his  battle  against  the  council  and  infallibility  made  the  rent 
incurable,  and  his  angry  archbishop  hui'led  against  him  the  great 
excommunication.  Then  Vienna  made  him  doctor  of  philosophy, 
Marburg,  Oxford,  and  Edinburgh  gave  him  LL.D.,  and  the  senate 
of  his  university  unanimousl}^  elected  him  rector  in  1871.  But  his 
tabooed  lecture  room  became  more  and  more  deserted.  He  took  no 
prominent  part  in  the  organizing  of  the  Old  Catholic  church  (§  190,  1), 
but  all  the  more  eagerly  did  he  seek  to  promote  its  union  negotia- 
tions (§  17."),  6). 

6.  The  Chief  Representatives  of  Systematic  Theology.— Klee,  a.d.  1800- 
1840,  of  Bonn  and  Munich,  was  a  positivist  of  the  old  school,  and 


2GQ      CHUECH   HISTORY  OF  NINETEENTH  CENTURY. 

during  the  Hermesian  controversy  a  supporter  of  the  theology  of  the 
curia.  Hirscher,  178S-1S65,  of  Freiburg,  numbered  by  the  liberals  as 
one  of  their  ornaments  and  by  the  fanatical  ultramontanes  as  a  heretic, 
did  much  to  promote  a  conciliatory  and  moderate  Catholicism,  equally 
free  from  ultramontane  and  rationalistic  tendencies,  abandoning 
nothing  essential  in  the  Catholic  doctrine.  Hilgers,  the  Hermesian, 
afterwards  joined  the  Old  Catholics  of  Bonn.  Staudenmaier  and  Seng- 
ler  of  Freiburg  and  Berlage  of  Miinster  held  a  distinguished  rank  as 
speculative  tlieologians.  In  the  same  department,  Kuhn  and  Drey  of 
Tubingen,  Ehrlich  of  Prague,  Deutinger  of  Dillingen,  a  disciple  of 
Schelling  and  Baader,  and  as  such  persecuted,  though  a  pious  believ- 
ing Catholic,  Oiscliinger  of  Munich,  who  in  despair  at  the  proclamation 
of  the  Vatican  decree  suddenly  stopped  his  fruitful  literary  activitj', 
Dieringer  of  Bonn,  who  for  the  same  reason  not  only  ceased  to  write 
but  also  in  1871  resigned  his  professorship  and  retired  to  a  small 
country  pastorate,  and  finally,  Hettinger  of  Wtirzburg,  best  known 
by  his  -^  Apolofjie  d.  Chridenthums.''' — While  the  above-named,  though 
suspected  and  opposed  by  the  scholastic  party,  strove  'to  preserve 
intact  their  ecclesiastical  Catholic  character,  other  representatives  of 
this  tendency  by  their  struggles  against  scholasticism  and  then  against 
the  Vatican  Council,  were  driven  away  from  their  orthodox  position. 
Thus  Frohschammer  of  Munich,  when  his  treatise  on  "The  Origin 
of  the  Soul,"  in  which  he  sxipported  the  theory  of  Generationism  in 
opposition  to  the  Catholic  doctrine  of  creationism,  and  other  works 
were  placed  in  the  Index,  asked  for  a  revision  on  the  ground  that  he 
taught  nothing  contrary  to  Catholic  doctrine.  He  was  stripped  of  all 
his  clerical  functions,  and  students  were  prohibited  attending  his 
lectures.  He  protested,  and  his  rooms  were  more  crowded  than  ever. 
Subsequently,  however,  repudiated  even  by  the  Old  Catholics,  he 
drifted  more  and  more,  not  only  from  the  cluirch,  but  even  from  belief 
in  revelation.  Against  Strauss'  last  work  he  wrote  a  tract  in  which 
he  sought  to  prove  that  "  the  old  faith  is  indeed  ruitenable,"  but  that 
also  "  the  new  science  "  cannot  take  its  place,  that  a  "  new  faith  "  must 
be  introduced  by  going  back  to  the  Christianity  of  Christ.  Michelis,  a 
man  of  wide  culture  in  the  department  of  natural  science  and  philology, 
as  well  as  theology  and  philosophy,  had  in  his  earlier  position  as  pro- 
fessor in  Paderborn,  Minister,  and  Braunsberg,  supjaorted  by  word  and 
pen  a  strictly  ecclesiastical  tendency  ;  but  the  Vatican  Council  made 
him  one  of  the  first  and  most  zealous  leaders  of  the  Old  Catholic  move- 
ment. His  most  important  Avork  is  his  "Catholic  Dogmatics,"  of 
1881,  in  which  the  Old  Catholic  conception  of  Christianity  is  repre- 
sented as  the  purified  higher  unity  of  the  Protestant  and  Vatican 
systems  of  doctrine. 
7.  The  Chief  Representatives  of  Historical  Theology. —  The  first  place 


§  191.    CATHOLIC   THEOLOGY.  207 

after  IMohler  and  Dollinger  belongs  to  Mohler's  scholar  Hefele,  from 
1840  professor  at  Tubingen  and  from  18G9  Bishop  of  Kottenbnrg,  dis- 
tinguished by  the  liberal  spirit  of  his  researches.  His  treatises  on 
the  Honorius  controversy  made  him  one  of  the  most  dangerous  oppo- 
nents of  the  infallibility  dogma,  to  which,  however,  he  at  last  sub- 
mitted (§  189,  4).  His  most  important  Avork  is  the  "  History  of  the 
Covmcils."  Hase  criticised  the  second  edition  of  the  work,  severely 
bvit  not  without  sufficient  groiinds,  by  saying  that  in  it  "  the  bishop 
chokes  the  scholar."'  Werner  of  Vienna  is  a  prolific  Avriter  in  the  de- 
partment of  the  histoi'y  of  theological  literature ;  while  Bach  of 
Munich  and  the  Dominican  Denifle  have  written  on  the  mediaeval 
mystics,  the  latter  also  on  the  universities  of  the  Middle  Ages. 
Hergenrother  of  "Wilrzburg,  by  his  monograph  on  "  Photius  and  the 
Greek  Schism,"  written  in  the  interests  of  his  party,  -and  by  his 
polemic  against  the  anti- Vatican  movement,  and  specially  by  his 
"  Handbook  of  Church  History,"  rendered  such  service  to  the  papacy 
and  the  papal  church,  that  Leo  XIII.  in  1879  made  him  a  cardinal 
and  librarian  of  the  Vatican,  with  the  task  of  reorganizing  the 
library. — Among  the  Old  Catholics,  Friedrich  of  Munich,  besides  his 
historical  account  of  the  Vatican  Council,  had  written  on  AVessel, 
Huss,  and  the  church  history  of  Germany.  Huber  of  Munich,  whose 
"  Philosophy  of  the  Church  Fathers"  of  1859  was  put  in  the  Index, 
while  his  much  more  liberal  work  on  Erigena  of  1861  passed  without 
censure,  in  later  years  Avrote  an  exhaustive  account  of  the  Jesuit 
order  and  a  critical  reply  to  Strauss'  "  Old  and  Ncav  Faith."'  Pichler 
of  Munich,  by  his  conscientious  research  and  criticism,  drew  down 
upon  him  the  papal  censure,  and  his  book  on  the  "  History  of  the 
Division  of  the  Eastern  and  Western  Churches  "had  the  honour  of 
being  placed  in  the  Index.  His  later  studies  and  writings  estranged 
him  more  and  more  from  Romanism,  inspired  him  with  the  idea  of  a 
national  German  church,  and  fostered  in  him  a  love  for  the  Protcs- 
tantenverein  movement ;  but  his  unbridled  bibliomania  while  assistant 
in  the  Royal  Library  of  St.  Petersburg  in  1871,  broiight  his  public 
career  to  a  sad  and  shameful  end.  The  Old  Catholic  Professor  Langen 
of  Bonn,  wrote  a  four-vohime  work  against  the  Vatican  dogma,  dis- 
cussed the  "  Trinitarian  Doctrinal  Differences  between  the  Eastern 
and  Western  Churches,"  in  the  interests  of  a  union  with  the  Greek 
church,  and  published  an  able  monograph  on'"Jolm  of  Damascus," 
as  Avell  as  a  thorough  and  imi)artial  "  History  of  the  Roman  Church 
down  to  Nicholas  I.,"  two  vols.,  1881, 1885. — In  Rome  the  Oratorian 
Aug.  Theiner  atoned  for  the  literary  errors  of  his  youth  (§  187,  4)  by 
his  zealous  vindication  of  papal  privileges.  His  chief  works  were  the 
continuation  of  the  '■'■  Annalex  Ecdenasfici^''  of  Baronius,  and  the  edit- 
ing of  the  historical  documents  of  the  various  Christian  nations.    The 


268      CHURCH   HISTORY   OP   NINETEENTH   CENTURY. 

Jesuits  chargvtl  him  with  giving  tho  anti-Yaticanists  aid  from  the 
library  and  sought  to  influence  the  pope  against  him  so  as  to  deprive 
him  of  his  office  of  prefect  of  the  Vatican  archives.  He  was  sus- 
pended from  his  duties,  and  though  he  still  retained  his  title  and 
occupied  his  official  residence  in  the  Vatican,  the  doors  from  it 
into  the  library  were  built  up.  His  edition  of  the  "Acts  of  the 
Council  of  Trent,"  Avhich  was  commenced,  was  also  prohibited.  But 
he  succeeded  in  making  a  transcript  at  Agram  in  Croatia,  where  in 
1874  a  portion  of  it,  the  official  protocol  of  the  secretary  of  the  Coun- 
cil, Massarelli,  was  printed  by  the  help  of  Bishop  Strossmayer  in  an 
elegant  style  but  abbreviated,  and  therefore  imsatisfactory.  Cardinal 
Angelo  Mai,  as  principal  Vatican  librarian,  distinguished  himself  by 
his  palimpsest  studies  in  old  classical  as  well  as  patristic  literature. 
And  quite  worthy  of  ranking  with  either  in  carefulness,  diligence,  and 
patience  was  De  Rossi,  who  has  laboured  in  the  department  of  Christian 
archaeology,  and  is  well  known  by  his  great  work,  "  Boma  sotteranea 
cristiana,''^  published  in  1864  if. — Xavier  Kraus,  when  his  "Handbook" 
had  been  adversely  criticised,  hastened  to  Rome,  submitted  all  his 
utterances  to  the  judgment  of  the  pope,  and  proclaimed  on  his  return 
that  in  the  next  edition  he  would  explain  Avhat  had  been  misunder- 
stood and  Avithdraw  what  was  objected  to.  The  question  now  rises, 
whether  the  more  recent  work  of  Xav.  Funk  can  escape  a  similar 
censure. 

Among  Catholic  writers  on  canon  Irav  the  most  notable  are  Walters 
of  Bonn,  Phillips  of  Vienna,  Von  Schulte  of  Prague  and  Bonn,  who  till 
the  Vatican  Council  was  one  of  the  most  zealous  advocates  of  the 
strict  Catholic  tendency,  since  then  openly  on  the  side  of  the  opposi- 
tion, a  keen  supporter,  and  by  Avord  and  pen  a  vigorous  promoter,  of 
the  Old  Catholic  movement,  and  Vering  of  Prague,  Avho  occupies  the 
iiltramontane  Vatican  standpoint. 

8.  The  Chief  Representatives  of  Exegetical  Theology.  —  Hug  of  Frei- 
burg, in  his  "  Introduction,"  occupies  the  biblical  biit  ecclesiastically 
latitudinarian  attitude  of  Jahn.  Leaving  dogma  unattached  and  so 
himself  unattached.  Movers  of  Breslau,  best  known  by  his  work  on  the 
Phoenicians,  a  Richard  Simon  of  his  age,  developed  a  subtlety  of  de- 
structive criticism  of  the  canon  and  history  of  the  Old  Testament 
which  astonished  even  the  father  of  Protestant  criticism,  De  Wette. 
Kaulen  of  Bonn  wrote  an  "  Introduction  to  the  Old  and  New  Testa- 
ment," in  a  fairly  scientific  spirit  from  the  Vatican  standpoint;  while 
Maier  of  Freiburg,  Avrote  an  introduction  to  the  Ncav  Testament  and 
commentaries  on  some  New  Testament  books. — The  Old  Catholic  Reusch 
of  Bonn  wrote  "  Introduction  to  the  Old  Testament,"  and  "  Nature 
and  the  Bible  "  (2  vols.,  Edin.,  1886).  Sepp  of  Munich,  silent  since 
1867,  began  his  literary  career  with  a  "  Life  of  Christ,"  a  "  History  of 


§  191.    CATHOLIC   THEOLOGY.  269 

the  Apostles,"  etc.,  in  the  spirit  of  the  romantic  mj'stical  school  of 
Gorres.  His  "  Sketch  of  Church  Eeform,  beginning  ^vith  a  Eevision 
of  the  Bible  Canon,"  caused  considerable  excitement.  With  humble 
submission  to  the  judgment  of  his  church,  he  demanded  a  correction 
of  the  Tridentine  decrees  on  Scripture  in  accordance  with  the  results 
of  modern  science,  but  the  only  response  Avas  the  inclusion  of  his  book 
in  the  Index. 

9.  The  Chief  Representatives  of  the  New  Scholasticism.— The  official 
and  most  masterh-  representative  of  this  school  for  tlie  whole  Catholic 
Avorkl  was  the  Jesuit  Perrone,  1794-1876,  professor  of  dogmatics  of  the 
Collerjium  Boinaiium,  the  most  widely  read  of  the  Catholic  polemical 
Avri1;ers,  but  not  worthy  to  tie  the  shoes  of  Bellarmin,  Bossuet,  and 
Mohler.  In  his  "  FrceJect  tones  Theoloyicm,'''  nine  vols.,  which  has  run 
through  thirty-six  editions,  Avithout  knowing  a  word  of  German,  he 
displayed  the  grossest  ignorance  along  with  luiparalleled  arrogance  in 
his  treatment  of  Protestant  doctrine,  history,  and  personalities  (§  175, 
2).  The  German  Jesuit  Kleutgen  who,  imder  Pius  IX.,  was  the  oracle 
of  the  Vatican  in  reference  to  German  aifairs,  introduced  tiie  new 
Roman  scholasticism  by  his  work  "  Die  Theolofjie  der  Vorzeit,"'  into 
the  German  episcopal  seminaries,  whose  teachers  were  mostly  trained 
in  the  CoUe/jium  Germanirum  at  Rome.  Alongside  of  Perrone  and 
Kleutgen,  in  the  domain  of  morals,  the  Jesuit  Gary  holds  the  first 
place,  reproducing  in  his  works  the  whole  abomination  of  proba- 
bilism,  reservatio  onentalia,  and  the  old  Jesuit  casuistry  (§  149,  10), 
with  the  iisual  lasciviousness  in  questions  affecting  the  sexes.  Among 
theologians  of  this  tendency  in  German  universities  we  mention  next 
Denzinger  of  "Wiirzburg,  who  seeks  in  his  works  '"to  lead  dogmatics 
back  from  the  aberrations  of  modern  ]d"iilosophic  speculations  into 
the  ])atlis  of  the  old  schools."'  His  zealous  o])]josition  to  Giintherism 
did  much  to  secure  its  emphatic  condenmation. 

10.  The  Munich  Congress  of  Catholic  Scholars,  1863.— In  order  if 
possible  to  heal  the  daily  widening  cleft  between  the  scientific  univer- 
sity theologians  and  the  scholastic  theologians  of  the  seminaries,  and 
bring  about  a  mutiial  understanding  and  friendh*  co-operation  be- 
tween all  the  theological  faculties,  Dollinger  and  his  colleague  Hane- 
berg  summoned  a  congress  at  Munich,  which  was  attended  by  about 
a  hundred  Catholic  scholars,  mostly  theologians.  After  high  mass, 
accompanied  with  the  recitation  of  the  Tridentine  creed,  the  four  daA-s' 
conference  began  with  a  brilliant  presidential  address  by  Dollinger 
"  On  the  Past  and  Present  of  Catholic  Theology.*'  The  liberal  views 
therein  enunciated  occasioned  violent  and  animated  debates,  to  which, 
however,  it  was  readily  admitted  as  a  religious  duty  that  all  scientific 
disciissions  and  investigations  should  yield  to  the  dogmatic  claims 
of  the  infallible  authority  of  the  church,  as  thert^by  the  true  freedom 


270      CHURCH   HISTORY   OF   NINETEENTH   CENTURY. 

of  science  can  in  no  ^\•ay  be  prejudiceJ.  A  telegraphic  report  to  the 
pope  drawn  up  in  this  spirit  by  Dollinger  was  responded  to  in  a 
similar  manner  on  the  same  day  with  the  apostolic  blessing.  But 
after  the  proceedings  in  extenao  had  become  known,  a  papal  brief  was 
issued  which  burdened  the  permission  to  hold  further  yearly  assem- 
blies with  such  conditions  as  must  have  made  them  utterly  fruitless. 
They  were  indeed  acquiesced  in  with  a  bad  grace  at  the  second  and 
last  congress  at  Wiirzburg  in  18G4,  but  the  whole  scheme  was  tiius 
brought  to  an  end. 

11.  Theological  Journals. — The  most  severely  scientific  journal  of  this 
century  is  the  Tiibingen  Tlieol.  Quartalschriff,  which,  however,  since 
the  Vatican  Council  has  been  struggling  to  maintain  a  neutral  posi- 
tion between  the  extremes  of  the  Old  and  the  New  Catholicism.  In 
order  if  possible  to  displace  it  the  Jesuits  Wieser  and  Stenstnip 
of  Innsbruck  started  in  1877  their  Zeilschrift  fur  Kath.  Theohi/ir. 
The  ably  conducted  Theol.  Liftfiratiirhlaff,  started  in  18G6  by  Prof. 
Eeusch  of  Bonn,  had  to  be  abandoned  in  1878,  after  raising  the  stan- 
dard of  Old  Catholicism. 

12.  The  Popes  and  Theological  Science. — What  kind  of  theology  Pius 
IX,  wished  to  have  taught  is  shown  by  his  proclaiming  St.  Liguori 
(§  165, '  2)  and  St.  Francis  de  Sales  (§  157,  1)  dodores  ecdenke.  Leo 
XIII.,  on  the  other  hand,  in  1879  recommended  in  the  encyclical 
jEterni  patris,  in  the  most  urgent  Avay,  all  Catholic  schools  to  make 
the  philosophy  of  the  angelical  Aquinas  (§  108,  6)  their  foundation , 
founded  in  1880  an  "  Academy  of  St.  Thomas  Aquinas,"  three  out  of 
its  thirty  members  being  Germans,  Kleutgen,  Stockl,  and  Morgott,  and 
gave  300,000  lire  out  of  Peter's  pence  for  an  edition  of  Aquinas'  works 
with  the  commentaries  of  "  the  most  eminent  expositors,"  setting  aside 
"  all  those  books  which,  while  professing  to  be  derived  from  St.  Thomas 
are  really  drawn  from  foreign  and  unholy  sources  " ;  i.e.,  in  accor- 
dance with  the  desires  of  the  Jesuits,  omitting  the  strictly  Thomist 
expositors  (§  149,  13),  and  giving  currency  only  to  Jesuit  interjn'eta- 
tions.  No  wonder  that  the  Jesuit  General  Beckx  in  such  circum- 
stances submitted  himself  "  humbly,"  being  praised  for  this  by  the 
pope  as  a  saint.  But  a  much  greater,  indeed  a  really  great,  service  to 
the  documentary  examination  of  the  history  of  the  Clu-istian  church 
and  state  has  been  rendered  by  th6  same  pope,  undoubtedly  at  the 
instigation  of  Cardinal  Hei-genrother,  by  the  access  granted  not  only 
to  Catholic  but  also  to  Protestant  investigators  to  the  exceedingly 
rich  treasures  of  the  Vatican  archives.  Though  still  hedged  round 
with  considerable  limitations,  the  concession  seems  liberality  itself 
as  compared  with  the  stubborn  refusal  of  Pius  IX.  to  facilitate  the 
studies  of  any  inquirer.  With  honest  pride  the  pope  could  inscribe 
on  his  bust  ))lacfd   in    tin-  library:  '■  Lro  XIII.  Pont.   Max.  /lislorice 


§  192.    THE    GERMAN   CONFEDERATIOX.  271 

sfudiis  conmJens  tahidar'ii  arcana  rechi.sif  a  ISSO."'— But  Avliat  the  ends 
Avere  Avhich  he  had  in  view  and  Avhat  the  hopes  that  he  cherished, 
is  seen  from  the  rescript  of  August,  1883,  in  which  he  calls  upon 
the  cardinals  De  Luca,  Pitra,  and  Hergenrother,  as  prefects  of  the 
committee  of  studies,  of  the  library  and  archives,  while  proclaiming 
the  great  benefits  Avhich  the  i^apacy  has  secured  to  Italy,  to  do  their 
utmost  to  overtlarow  "  the  lies  uttered  by  the  sects "'  on  the  history  of 
the  church,  especially  in  reference  to  the  papacy,  for,  he  adds,  "  Ave 
desire  that  at  last  once  more  the  tru.th  should  prevail."'  Therefore 
archives  and  library  are  to  be  opened  to  pious  and  learned  students 
'•  for  the  service  of  religion  and  science  in  order  that  the  historical 
untruths  of  the  enemies  of  the  church  which  have  found  entrance 
even  into  the  schoolbooks  should  be  displaced  by  the  composition  of 
good  writings.  The  fii'stfruits  of  the  zeal  thus  stimulated  were  the 
"  Monnmenta  ref.  Lutherauce  ex  tabulariis  S.  Sedis,''''  B-atisbon,  1883, 
published  by  the  assistant  keeper  of  the  archives  P.  Balan  as  an  ex- 
tinguisher to  the  Luther  Jubilee  of  that  j^ear.  But  this  performance 
came  so  far  short  of  the  wishes  and  expectations  of  the  Roman  zealots 
that  by  their  influence  the  editor  was  removed  from  his  official 
position.  The  next  attempt  of  this  sort  was  the  edition  by  Hergen- 
rother of  the  papal  JRegesta  down  to  Leo  X. 


IV. — Relation  of  Church  to  the  Empire  and  to  the  States. 

§  192.    The  German  Confederatiox. 

The  Peace  of  Luneville  of  1801  gave  the  deathblow  to 
the  old  German  empire,  by  the  formal  cession  of  the  left 
bank  of  the  Rhine  to  France,  indemnifying  the  secAilar 
princes  who  were  losers  by  this  arrangement  with  estates 
and  possessions  on  the  right  of  the  Rhine,  taken  from  the 
neutral  free  cities  of  the  empire  and  the  secularized  eccle- 
siastical principalities,  institutions,  monasteries,  and  orders. 
An  imperial  commission  sitting  at  Regensburg  arranged 
the  details  of  these  indemnifications.  They  were  given  ex- 
pression to  by  means  of  the  imperial  commission's  decree  or 
recess  of  1803.  The  dissolution  of  the  coustitution  of  the 
German  empire  thus  effected  was  still  further  carried  out 
by  the  Peace  of  Presburg  of  1805,  which  conferred  upon  the 


272      CHURCH   HISTORY   OF   NINETEENTH    CENTURY. 

princes  of  Bavaria,  Wiirttemberg,  and  Baden,  in  league  with 
Xapoleon,  full  sovereignty,  and  to  the  two  first  named  the 
rank  of  kings,  and  was  completed  by  the  founding  of  the 
Confederation  of  the  Rhine  of  1806,  in  which  sixteen  German 
princes  formal!}-  severed  themselves  from  the  emperor  and 
empire  and  ranked  themselves  as  vassals  of  France  under 
the  protectorate  of  Napoleon.  Francis  IL,  who  already  in 
1804  had  assumed  the  title  of  Emperor  of  Austria  as  Francis 
I.,  now  that  the  German  empire  had  actually  ceased  to  exist, 
renounced  also  the  name  of  German  emperor.  The  tmhappy 
proceedings  of  the  Vienna  Congress  of  the  German  Confede- 
ration and  its  permanent  representation  in  the  Frankfort 
parliament  during  1814  and  1815,  after  Napoleon's  twice 
repeated  defeat,  led  finally  to  the  Austro-Prussian  war  of 
1866. 

1.  The  Imperial  Commission's  Decree,  1803. — The  significance  of  this 
for  church  history  consists  not  merely  iu  the  secularization  of  the 
ecclesiastical  principalities  and  corporations,  but  even  still  more  in 
the  alteration  caused  thereby  in  the  ecclesiastical  polity  of  the  terri- 
torial governments.  With  the  ecclesiastical  principalities  the  most 
poAverful  props  of  the  Catholic  church  in  Germany  Avere  lost,  and 
Protestantism  obtained  a  decided  ascendency  in  the  council  of  the 
German  princes.  The  Catholic  prelates  were  now  sim])l3^  paid  ser- 
vants of  the  state,  and  thus  their  double  connexion  Avith  the  curia 
and  the  state  brought  Avith  it  in  later  times  endless  entanglements 
and  complications.  On  the  other  hand,  in  states  hitherto  almost  ex- 
clusively Protestant,  e.g.  Wiirttemberg,  Baden,  Hesse,  there  was  a 
great  increase  of  Catholic  subjects,  Avhich  attracted  but  little  serious 
attention  when  the  confessional  particularism  in  the  consciousness  of 
the  age  was  more  unassuming  and  tolerant  tlian  ever  it  has  been 
before  or  since. 

2.  The  Prince-Primate  of  the  Confederation  of  the  Rhine. — Baron  Carl 
Theod.  von  Dalberg,  distinguished  for  his  literary  culture  and  his 
liberal  patronage  of  art  and  science,  was  made  in  1802  Elector  of 
Mainz  and  Lord  High  Chancellor  of  the  German  empire.  When  by 
the  recess  of  1803  the  territories  of  the  electorate  on  the  left  of  the 
Rhine  were  given  over  to  France  and  those  on  the  right  secularized, 
the  electoral  rank  was  abolished.  The  same  happened  with  respect 
to  the  lord  high  chancellorship  through  the  creation  of  the  Ehenish 


§  192.    THE    GERMAN    CONFEDERATION.  273 

ConfeJeration.  Dalberg  Avas  indemnified  for  the  former  b3^the  favour 
of  Napoleon  by  the  pift  of  a  small  territory  on  the  right  of  the  Ehine, 
and  for  the  latter  by  the  renewal  of  the  prince-primacy  of  the  Con- 
federation of  the  Rhine  with  a  seat  in  the  Federal  council.  He  still 
retained  his  episcopal  office  and  fixed  its  seat  at  Eegensburg.  The 
founding  of  a  metropolitan  chapter  at  Eegensburg  embracing  the 
■whole  domain  of  the  E-henish  Confederation  he  did  not  succeed  in 
carr3'ing  out,  and  in  1813  he  felt  compelled  to  surrender  also  his 
teri'itorial  possessions.  His  spiritual  functions,  however,  as  Archbishop 
of  Regensburg,  he  continued  to  discharge  until  his  death  in  1817. 

8.  The  Vienna  Congress  and  the  Concordat — The  Vienna  Congress  of 
1814,  1815,  had  assigned  it  the  difficult  task  of  righting  the  sorely 
disturbed  political  affairs  of  Eui'ope  and  giving  a  new  shape  to  the 
territorial  and  dynastic  relations.  But  never  had  an  indispensably 
necessary  redistribution  of  territory  been  made  more  difficult  or  more 
complicated  by  diplomatic  intrigues  than  in  Germany.  Instead  of 
the  earlier  federation  of  states,  the  restoration  of  which  proved  im- 
possible, the  fedei-al  constitution  of  June  8th,  1815,  created  under  the 
name  of  the  German  Confederation  a  union  of  states  in  which  all 
members  of  the  confederation  as  such  exercised  equal  sovereign  rights. 
Their  number  then  amounted  to  thirty-eight,  but  in  the  coursa  of 
time  by  death  or  Avithdrawal  were  reduced  to  thirty-four.  The  new 
distribution  of  territory,  just  as  little  as  the  Luneville  Peace,  took  into 
account  confessional  homogeneity  of  princes  and  territories,  so  that 
the  combination  of  Catholic  and  Protestant  districts  with  the  above 
referred  to  consequences,  occurred  in  a  yet  lai'ger  measure.  But  the 
federal  constitiition  secured  in  Article  XVI.  full  toleration  for  all 
Christian  confessions  in  the  countries  of  the  confederation.  The 
claims  of  the  Romish  curia,  which  advanced  from  the  demand  for  the 
restoration  of  all  ecclesiastical  principalities  and  the  return  of  all 
impropriated  churches  and  monasteries  to  their  original  purposes,  to 
the  demand  for  the  restoration  of  the  holy  Roman-German  empire  in 
the  mediaeval  and  hierarchical  sense,  as  well  as  the  solemn  protest 
against  its  conclusions  laid  upon  the  table  of  the  congress  by  the 
pa])al  legate  Consalvi,  were  left  quite  unheeded.  But  also  a  proposal 
urgentl}-  pressed  by  the  vicar-general  of  the  diocese  of  Constance, 
Baron  von  "Wessenberg  (§  187,  3),  to  found  a  German  Catholic  national 
church  under  a  German  primate  found  no  favour  -with  the  congress  ; 
and  an  article  recommended  by  Austria  and  Prussia  to  be  incorporated 
in  the  acts  of  the  coirfederation  b}^  A\'hich  the  Catholic  church  in  Ger- 
many endeavoured  to  secure  a  common  constitution  under  guarantee 
of  the  confederation,  was  rejected  through  the  opposition  of  Bavaria. 
And  since  in  the  Frankfort  parliament  neither  Wessenburg  with  his 
primacy  and  national  church  idea  nor  Consalvi  with  a  comprehensive 
VOL.  III.  1 8 


274      CHURCH   HISTORY   OF   NINETEENTH   CENTURY. 

concordat  answering  to  the  wishes  of  tlie  curia,  was  able  to  carry 
throuirh  a  measure,  it  was  left  to  the  separate  states  interested  to  make 
separate  concordats  with  the  pope.  Bavaria  concluded  a  concordat  in 
1817  (§  195,  1);  Prussia  in  1821  (§  198,  1).  Xegotiations  with  the 
other  German  states  fell  through  owing  to  the  excessiveness  of  the 
demands  of  the  hierarchy,  or  led  to  very  unsatisfactory  results,  as  in 
Hanover  in  1824  (§  194, 1)  and  the  states  belonging  to  the  ecclesiastical 
province  of  the  Upper  Ehine  in  1837  (§  196,  1).  In  the  time  of  re- 
action against  the  revolutionary  excesses  of  1848  the  curia  lii'st  secured 
any  real  advance.  Hesse-Darmstadt  opened  the  list  in  1854  with  a 
secret  convention  (§  196,  4) ;  then  Austria  followed  in  1855  with  a 
model  concordat  (§  198,  2)  \\'hich  served  as  the  pattern  for  the  con- 
cordats with  Wlirttemberg  in  1857  (§  196,  6),  and  Avith  Baden  in  1859 
(§  196,  2),  as  w^ell  as  for  the  episcopal  convention  with  Nassau  in  1861 
(§  196,  4).  But  the  revived  liberal  current  of  1860  swept  away  the 
South  German  concordats;  the  Vatican  Council  by  its  infallibility 
dogma  gave  the  deathblow  to  that  of  Austria,  and  the  German 
'■•  Kiiltiirkampf"  sent  the  Prussian  concordat  to  the  winds,  and  only 
that  of  Bavaria  remained  in  full  force. 

4.  The  Frankfort  Parliament  and  the  Wiirzhurg  Bishops'  Congress  of 
1848. — As  in  the  March  diets  of  1848  the  magic  word  '-freedom" 
roused  throughout  Germany  a  feverish  excitement,  it  found  a  ready 
response  among  the  Catholics,  whose  church  was  favoured  in  the 
highest  degree  by  the  movement.  In  the  Frankfort  parliament  the 
ablest  leaders  of  Catholic  Germany  had  seats.  Among  the  Catholic 
population  there  were  numerous  religio-political  societies  formed  (§ 
186,  3),  and  the  German  bishops,  avowedly  for  the  celebration  of  the 
600th  anniversary  of  the  building  of  Cologne  cathedral,  set  alongside 
of  the  Frankfort  people's  parliament  a  German  bishops'  council.  After 
they  had  at  Frankfort  declared  themselves  in  favour  of  imconditional 
liberty  of  faith,  conscience,  and  worship,  the  complete  independence 
of  all  religious  societies  in  the  ordering  and  administering  of  their 
affairs,  but  also  of  freeing  the  schools  from  all  ecclesiastical  control 
and  oversight,  as  well  as  of  the  introduction  of  obligatory  civil  mar- 
riage, the  bishops'  council  met  in  October  at  Wiirzburg  under  the 
presidency  of  Archbishop  Geissel  of  Cologne  with  nineteen  episcopal 
assistants  and  several  able  theological  advisers.  In  thirty -six  sessions 
they  reached  the  conclusion  that  complete  seijaration  between  church 
and  state  is  not  to  be  desired  so  long  as  the  state  does  not  refuse  to  the 
church  the  place  of  authority  belonging  to  it.  On  the  other  hand,  by 
all  means  in  their  power  they  are  to  seek  the  abrogation  of  the  jVacei 
of  the  sovereign,  the  full  independence  of  ecclesiastical  legislation, 
administration  and  jurisdiction,  with  the  abolition  of  the  a2ipellatio 
tanqiiam  ah  ahufiu.  the  direction  and  oversight  of  the  public  schools  as 


§  193.  PRUSSIA.  275 

Avell  as  the  control  of  religious  instruction  in  higher  schools  to  be 
given  only  by  teachers  licensed  for  the  purpose  by  the  bishops,  and 
finally  to  demand  ]:)ermission  to  erect  educational  institutions  of  their 
own  of  every  kind,  etc.,  and  to  forward  a  copj'  of  these  decisions  to  all 
German  governments.  The  main  object  of  the  Wiirzhurg  assembly 
to  secure  cm-rency  for  their  resolutions  in  the  new  Germany  sketched 
out  at  the  Frankfort  parliament,  was  indeed  frustrated  by  that 
parliament's  speedy  overthrow.  Nevertheless  in  the  several  states 
(■oncerned  it  proved  of  great  and  lasting  importance  in  determining 
the  subsequent  unanimous  proceedings  of  the  bishops. 


§  193.    Prussia. 

To  the  pious  king  Frederick  William  III.  (1797-1840)  it 
was  a  matter  of  heart  and  conscience  to  turn  to  account  the 
religious  consciousness  of  his  people,  re-awakened  by  God's 
gracious  help  during  the  war  of  independence,  for  the  heal- 
ing of  the  three  hundred  years'  rent  in  the  evangelical 
church  by  a  union  of  the  two  evangelical  confessions.  The 
jubilee  festival  of  the  Reformation  in  1817  seemed  to  him 
to  offer  the  most  favourable  occasion.  The  king  also  desired 
to  see  the  Catholic  church  in  his  dominions  restored  to  an 
orderly  and  thriving  condition,  and  for  this  end  concluded 
a  concordat  with  Rome  in  1821.  But  it  was  broken  up  in 
183G  over  a  strife  between  canon  and  civil  law  in  reference 
to  mixed  marriages.  Frederick  William  IV,  was  dominated 
by  romantic  ideas,  and  his  reign  (1840-1858),  notwithstand- 
ing all  his  evangelical  Christian  decidedness,  was  wanting 
in  the  necessary  firmness  and  energetic  consistenc}'.  In 
the  Catholic  church  the  Jesuits  were  allowed  unhindered  to 
foster  ultramontane  hierarchical  principles,  and  in  the  evan- 
gelical church  the  troubles  about  constitution,  union,  and 
confession  could  not  be  surmounted  either  by  its  own  proper 
guardian,  the  episcopate,  or  by  the  superior  church  councils 
created  in  1850.  And  although  the  notifications  of  William 
I.  on  bis  entrance  upon  the  sole  government  in  1858  were 
hailed  b}'  the  liberals  as  giving  assurance   that  a  new  era 


27G      CHURCH   HISTORY   OF   NINETEENTH   CENTURY. 

had  daAvned  in  the  development  of  tlie  cvano-elical  national 
church,  this  hope  proved  to  be  premature.  With  the  exalta- 
tion of  the  victory-crowned  royal  house  of  Prussia  to  the 
throne  of  the  newly  erected  German  Empire  on  Januar}' 
18th,  1871,  a  new  era  was  actual!}'  opened  for  ecclesiastical 
developments  and  modifications  throughout  the  land. 

1.  The  Catholic  Church  to  the  Close  of  the  Cologne  Conflict.— The 
government  of  Frederick  William  III.  entered  into  negotiations  with 
the  iDa])al  curia,  not  so  much  for  the  old  provinces  in  which  every- 
thing was  going  well,  but  rather  in  the  interests  of  the  Rhine  pro- 
vinces annexed  in  1814,  Avhose  bishops'  sees  were  vacant  or  in  need  of 
circumscription.  The  first  Prussian  ambassador  to  the  Homan  curia 
(181()-1828)  was  the  famous  historian  Niebuhr.  Although  a  true 
Protestant  and  keen  critic  and  restoi'er  of  the  history  of  old  pagan 
Home  he  was  no  match  for  the  subtle  and  skilful  diplomacy  of  Con- 
salvi.  In  presence  of  the  claims  of  the  curia  he  manifested  to  an 
almost  incredible  extent  trustful  sympathy  and  acquiescence,  even 
taking  to  do  with  matters  that  lay  outside  of  Prussian  affairs,  eagerly 
silencing  and  opposing  any  considerations  suggested  from  the  other 
side.  A  complete  concordat,  however,  defining  in  detail  all  the  rela- 
tions between  church  and  state  Avas  not  secured,  but  in  1821  an  agree- 
ment was  come  to,  with  thankful  ackn(jwledgment  of  the  "great 
magnanimity  and  goodness  "  shown  by  the  king,  by  the  bull  De  salute 
o«/«(or«?/i,  sanctioned  by  the  king  through  a  cabinet  order  ("in  the 
exercise  of  his  royal  prerogative  and  Avithout  detriment  to  these 
rights"),  according  to  which  two  archbishoprics,  Cologne  and  Posen, 
and  six  bishoprics,  Treves,  Miinster,  Paderborn,  Breslau,  Ivulm,  and 
Enneland,  with  a  clerical  seminary,  were  erected  in  Prussia  and  fur- 
nished with  rich  endowments.  The  cathedral  chapter  was  to  have  the 
free  choice  of  the  bishoj) ;  but  by  an  annexed  note  it  was  recommended 
to  make  sure  in  every  such  election  that  the  one  so  chosen  Avouhl  be  a 
(jrata  peraona  to  the  king.  The  miion  thus  effected  between  church 
and  state  was  of  but  short  duration.  The  dc^cree  of  Trent  foi'bade 
(Jatholics  to  enter  into  mixed  marriages  Avith  non-Catholics.  A  later 
papal  bull  of  1741,  hoAvever,  permitted  it  on  condition  of  an  only 
passive  assistance  of  the  clergy  at  the  wedding  and  an  engagement  by 
the  parents  to  train  up  the  children  as  Catholics,  The  laAv  of  Prussia, 
on  the  other  hand,  in  contested  cases  made  all  the  childi'en  folloAV  the 
religion  of  their  fathers.  As  this  Avas  held  in  1825  to  apply  to  the 
Rhine  provinces,  and  as  the  bishops  there  had,  in  1828,  apjjealed  to 
the  pope,    Pius  YIII.  avIhh    negotiations    Avith  the  l^russian  ambas- 


§  193.  PRUSSIA.  277 

sador  Bunsen  (1824-1838)  proved  fruitless,  issued  in  1830  a  brief  -which 
permitted  Catholic  priests  to  give  the  ecclesiastical  sanction  to  mixed 
marriages  only  when  a  promise  was  given  that  the  children  should  be 
educated  as  Catholics,  but  otherwise  to  give  only  passive  assistance. 
"When  all  remonstrances  failed  to  overcome  the  obstinacy  of  the  curia, 
the  government  turned  to  the  Archbishop  of  Cologne,  Count  Spiegel,  a 
zealous  friend  and  promoter  of  the  Hermesian  theology  (§  191.  1),  and 
arranged  in  1834  a  secret  convention  with  him,  which  by  his  influence 
all  his  suffragans  jomed.  In  it  they  promised  to  give  such  an  inter- 
pretation to  the  brief  that  its  observance  would  be  limited  to  teaching 
and  exhortation,  but  would  by  no  means  extend  to  the  obligation  of 
submitting  the  children  to  Catholic  baptism,  and  that  the  mere  assis~ 
tentia  xxissiva  would  be  resorted  to  as  rareh-  as  possible,  and  onl}^  in 
cases  where  absolutely  required.    Spiegel  died  in  November,  1835.     In 

1836  the  Westphalian  Baron  Clement  Droste  von  Vischering'  M-as  chosen 
as  his  successor.  Although  before  his  elevation  he  had  unhesitatingly 
agreed  to  the  convention,  soon  after  his  enthronization  he  strictly 
forbad  all  the  clergy  celebrating  any  marriage  except  in  accordance 
Avith  the  brief,  and  blamed  himself  for  having  believed  the  agreement 
between  convention  and  brief  affirmed  by  the  government,  and  having 
only  subsequently  on  closer  examination  discovered  the  disagreement 
betAveen  the  tAvo.  At  the  same  time,  in  order  to  gi^-e  effect  to  the 
condemnation  that  had  been  meanwhile  passed  on  the  Hermesian 
theologA^,  he  ga^-e  orders  that  at  the  confessional  the  Bonn  students 
should  be  forbidden  to  attend  the  lectures  of  Hermesians.  "When  the 
archbishop  could  not  be  prevailed  on  to  yield,  he  Avas  condemned  in 

1837  as  having  broken  his  Avord  and  having  incited  to  rebellion,  and 
sent  to  the  fortress  of  Minden.  Gregory  XIV.  addressed  to  the  con- 
sistory a  fulminating  allocution,  and  a  flood  of  controA-ersial  tracts  on 
either  side  SAvept  over  Germany.  Gorres  designated  the  archbishop 
"  the  Athanasius  of  the  nineteenth  century."  The  government  issued 
a  state  paper  justifying  its  procedure,  and  the  courts  of  law  sentenced 
certain  refractory  priests  to  several  years'  confinement  in  fortresses  or 
prisons.  The  moderate  peaceful  tone  of  the  cathedral  chapter  did 
much  to  qiiell  the  disturbance,  si;i)porting  as  it  did  the  state  rather 
than  the  archbishop.  The  example  of  Cologne  encouraged  also  Dunin, 
Archbishop  of  Gnesen  and  Posen,  to  issue  in  1838  a  pastoral  in  Avhich 
he  threatened  Avith  suspension  auA-  priest  in  his  diocese  Avho  Avould  not 
yield  unconditional  obedience  to  the  i)apal  brief.  For  this  he  Avas 
deposed  by  the  civil  courts  and  sentenced  to  half  a  year's  imprison- 
ment in  a  fortress,  but  the  king  prcA'ented  the  execution  of  the  sen- 
tence. But  Dunin  fled  from  Berlin,  Avhither  he  had  been  ordered  by 
the  king,  to  Posen,  and  Avas  then  brought  in  1839  to  the  fortress  of 
Kolbcj^.     "While  matters  Avere  in  this  state  Frederick  AVilliani  lY. 


278      CHURCH   HISTORY   OF   NINETEENTH   CENTURY. 

caine  to  the  throne  in  1840.  Duniu  Avas  immediately  restored,  after 
promising  to  maintain  tlie  peace.  Droste  also  -was  released  from  his 
confinement  Avith  public  marks  of  respect,  but  received  in  1841,  with 
his  own  and  the  pope's  ai^proval,  in  the  former  Bishop  of  Spires, 
Geissel,  a  coadjutor,  who  in  his  name  and  with  the  right  of  succession 
administered  the  diocese.  The  government  gave  no  aid  to  the  Her- 
mesians.  The  law  in  regard  to  mixed  marriages  continued  indeed  in 
force,  but  was  exercised  so  as  to  put  no  constraint  of  conscience  Tipon 
the  Catholic  clergy.  Of  his  own  accord  the  king  declinetl  further 
exercise  of  the  royal  prerogative,  allowing  the  bishops  direct  inter- 
course with  the  ixipal  see,  whereas  previously  all  correspondence  had 
to  pass  through  royal  comuiittees,  with  this  i^roviso  by  the  minister 
Eichhorn,  '-that  this  display  of  generous  confidence  be  not  abused,'' 
and  with  the  expectation  that  the  bishops  would  not  only  conmaunicate 
to  the  government  the  contents  of  their  correspondence  with  the  pope, 
but  also  the  papal  replies  which  did  not  deal  exclusively  with  doctrine, 
and  would  not  speak  and  act  against  the  wish  and  will  of  the  govern- 
ment. But  Geissel,  recommended  by  Louis  of  Ba-\-aria  to  his  son-in-law 
Frederick  'William  IV.  instead  of  Baron  von  Diepenbrock  (§  187,  1) 
■who  was  first  thought  of,  by  his  skilful  and  energetic  nlanoe^^^■ring, 
going  on  from  victory  to  victory,  raised  ultramontanism  in  Prussia  to 
the  very  srunmit  of  its  influence  and  glor\-. 

2.  The  Golden  Age  of  Prussian  Ultramontanism,  1841-1871.— In  the 
Cologne-Posen  conflict  Eome  had  ^-on  an  almost  complete  victor3-,  and 
with  all  its  satellites  now  thought  only  of  how  it  might  in  the  best 
possible  manner  turn  this  victory  to  account,  in  which  the  all  too 
trustful  government  sought  to  aid  it  to  th(^  utmost.  This  moA^ement 
received  a  further  impulse  in  the  revolution  of  1848  (§  192,  4).  In 
Prussia  as  well  as  in  other  German  lands,  and  there  in  a  special 
degree,  the  Catholic  churcli  managed  to  derive  from  the  revolutionary 
movements  of  those  times,  and  from  the  subsequent  reaction,  sub- 
stantial advantage.  The  constitution  of  1850  declared  in  Article  xv. : 
"  The  evangelical  and  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  as  well  as  every 
other  religious  society  regulates  and  administers  its  afiairs  indepen- 
dently ■' ;  in  Article  xvi. :  "  The  correspondence  of  religious  societies 
with  their  superiors  is  unrestricted,  the  publication  of  ecclesiastical 
ordinances  is  subject  only  to  those  limitations  which  apply  to  all  other 
documents";  in  Article  xviii. :  "The  right  of  nomination,  proposal, 
election,  and  institution  to  spiritual  ofHce,  so  far  as  it  belongs  to  the 
state,  is  abolished  "  ;  and  in  Article  xxiv. :  "  The  respective  religious 
societies  direct  religious  instruction  in  the  public  schools."  Under 
the  screen  of  these  fundamental  privileges  the  Catholic  episcopate  now 
claimed  one  civil  prerogative  after  another,  emancipated  itself  wholl3' 
fi-om  the  laws  of  the  state,  and,  n]i  lli<'  plea  that  God  must  be  obe\'ed 


§  193.  PRUSSIA.  279 

rather  than  man,  made  tlie  canon  la-\v,  not  onh*  in  purely  ecclesiastical 
but  also  in  mixed  matters,  the  onh'  standard,  and  the  decision  of  the 
pope  the  final  appeal.  At  last  nothing  -was  left  to  the  state  but  the 
obligation  of  conferring  splendid  endo■^^'nlents  upon  the  bishops, 
cathedral  chapters,  and  seminaries  for  priests,  and  the  honoxu'  of  being 
at  home  the  executioner  of  episcopal  tyranny,  and  abroad  the  avenger 
of  every  utterance  unfavourable  to  the  doctrine  and  worshiiD,  customs 
and  enactments  of  the  Catholic  church.  "With  almost  incredible  in- 
fatuation the  Catholic  hierarchy  was  now  regarded  as  a  main  support 
of  the  throne  against  the  revolutionary  tendencies  of  the  age  and  as 
the  siu'est  guarantee  for  the  loyalty  of  subjects  in  provinces  jjre- 
dominantlj'  Catholic.  Under  protection  of  the  law  allowing  tlie 
formation  of  societies  and  the  right  of  assembling,  the  order  of  Jesuits 
set  up  one  establishment  after  another,  and  made  up  for  defects  or 
insufficient  energy  of  ultramontane  pastoral  work,  agitation  and 
endeavour  at  convei'sion  on  the  part  of  other  peaceably  disposed  parish 
priests,  by  numerous  missions  conducted  in  the  most  ostentatious 
manner  (§  186,  6).  Although  according  to  Article  xiii.  of  the  con- 
stitution i-eligious  societies  could  obtain  corporative  rights  only  by 
special  enactments,  the  bishops,  on  their  own  authority",  without  re- 
garding this  provision,  established  religious  orders  and  congregations 
Avherever  they  chose.  As  these  were  generally  placed  under  foreign 
superiors  male  or  female,  to  whom  in  Jesuit  fashion  unconditional 
obedience  was  rendered,  each  member  being  "  like  a  corpse,"  without 
any  individual  will,  they  spread  without  hindrance,  so  that  con- 
tinually new  cloisters  and  houses  of  the  orders  sprang  up  like  mush- 
rooms over  the  Protestant  metropolis  (§  186,  2).  Education  in  Catholic 
districts  fell  more  and  more  into  the  hands  of  religious  corporations, 
and  even  the  higher  state  educational  institutions,  so  far  as  the3-  dealt 
Avith  the  training  of  the  Catholic  youth  (theological  faculties, 
gymnasia,  and  Training  schools),  were  wholly  under  the  control  of 
the  bishops.  From  the  boys'  convents  and  priests'  seminaries,  erected 
at  all  episcopal  residences,  went  forth  a  new  generation  of  clergy 
reared  in  the  severest  school  of  intolerance,  who,  fii-st  of  all  acting  as 
chaplains,  bj- espionage,  the  arousing  of  suspicion  and  talebearing,  were 
the  dread  of  the  old  parish  priests,  and,  as  •■  chaplains  at  large,"  stirred 
up  fanaticism  among  the  people,  and  secured  the  Catholic  press  to 
themselves  as  a  monopol3\  For  the  purposes  of  Catholic  worship  and 
education  the  government  had  placed  state  aid  most  liberally  at  their 
disposal,  Avithout  requiring  any  account  from  the  bishops  as  to  their 
disposal  of  the  money.  Although  the  number  of  Catholics  in  the 
whole  country  Avas  only  about  half  that  of  the  Protestants,  the  endoAv- 
ment  of  the  Catholic  Avas  almost  double  that  of  the  evangelical  cliurch. 
The  civil  authorit}-  readily  helped  the  bisliops  to  enforce  auA-  spiritual 


2S0      CHURCH   HISTORY   OF   NINETEENTH    CENTURY. 

penalties,  and  thus  the  inferior  clergy  -were  brought  into  absolute 
dependence  upon  their  spiritual  superiors.  In  the  government  depart- 
ment of  Public  Worship,  from  1840  to  1848  under  the  direction  of 
Eichhorn,  there  was  since  1841  a  subsection  for  dealing  Avith  the  affairs 
of  the  Catholic  church  which,  although  restricted  to  the  guarding  of 
the  rights  of  the  king  over  against  the  curia  and  that  of  the  state 
over  against  the  hierarchy,  came  to  be  in  an  entirely  opposite  sense 
"  the  civil  department  of  the  pope  in  Prussia."  Under  Von  Miihler's 
ministry.  1862-1872,  it  obtained  absolute  authority  which  it  seems  to 
have  exercised  in  removing  unfavourable  acts  and  documents  from 
the  imperial  archives.  And  thus  the  Catholic  church,  or  rather  the 
ultramontane  party  dominant  in  it  since  1848,  grew  up  into  a  power 
that  threatened  the  whole  commonwealth  in  its  very  foundations. — 
By  the  annexation  of  Hanover,  Hesse,  and  Nassau  in  1866,  four  new 
bishoprics,  those  of  Hildesheim,  Osnabrilck,  Fulda  and  Limburg  were 
added  to  the  previous  eight. — Continuation  §  197. 

8.  The  Evangelical  Church  in  Old  Prussia  down  to  1848. — On  the 
accomplishment  of  the  union  by  Frederick  "William  III.  and  the 
confusions  arising  therefrom,  see  §  177.  Frederick  William  IV.  on  his 
accession  declared  his  wish  in  reference  to  the  national  evangelical 
church,  that  the  supreme  control  of  the  church  should  be  exercised 
only  in  order  to  secure  for  it  in  an  orderly  and  legal  way  the  inde- 
pendent administration  of  its  own  affairs.  The  realization  of  this 
idea,  after  a  church  conference  of  the  ordinary  clergy  from  almost  all 
German  states  had  been  held  in  Berlin  withoiit  result,  was  attempted 
at  Berlin  by  a  general  synod,  oiiened  on  Whitsunday,  1846.  The 
synod  at  its  eighteenth  session  entered  u])on  the  consideration  of  the 
difficult  question  of  doctrine  and  the  confession.  The  result  of  this 
was  th(^  approval  of  an  ordination  formula  drawn  up  by  Dr.  Nitzsch 
(§  182,  10),  according  to  whieli  the  candidate  for  ordination  Avas  to 
make  profession  of  the  great  finitlamental  and  saving  truths  instead 
of  the  church  confession  hitherto  enforced.  And  since  among  these 
fundamental  truths  the  doctrines  of  cxc^atioUj  original  sin,  the  super- 
natural conception,  the  descent  into  liell  and  the  ascension  of  Christ, 
the  resurrection  of  the  body,  the  last  judgment,  everlasting  life  and 
everlasting  punishment  Avere  not  included,  and  therefore  Avere  not  to 
enforced,  since  further  by  this  ordination  formula  the  special  confes- 
sions of  Lutheran  and  Reformed  Avere  really  set  aside,  and  thercAvith 
the  existence  of  a  Lutheran  as  Avell  as  a  Keformed  church  Avithin  the 
union  seemed  to  be  abolished,  a  small  number  of  decided  Lutherans 
in  the  synod  protested ;  still  more  decided  and  A'igorous  pjrotests 
arose  from  outside  the  synod,  to  Avhich  the  Evang.  Kinlicnzeitiivff 
opened  its  columns.  The  government  gave  no  further  countenance  to 
the  decisions  of  the  synod,  and  ojiponents  exercised  their  Avit  ujion 


§  193.  PRUSSIA.  281 

the  unfortunate  Xicceiinm  of  the  nineteenth  century,  -which  eis  a 
Xitzachenum  had  fallen  into  the  water.  In  March,  18-17,  the  king 
issued  a  patent  of  toleration,  by  which  protection  was  assured  anew 
to  existing  churches,  but  the  foniiation  of  new  religiovis  societies  was 
allowed  to  all  who  found  not  in  these  the  expression  of  their  belief. 

4.  The  Evangelical  Church  in  Old  Prussia,  1848-1872 — When  the 
storms  of  revolution  broke  out  in  1848,  the  new  minister  of  Avorship, 
Count  Schwerin,  willingly  aided  in  reorganizing  the  church  according 
to  the  mind  of  the  masses  of  the  people  by  a  constitutional  synod. 
But  before  it  had  met  the  reaction  had  already  set  in.  The  transition 
ministry  of  Ladenberg  was  assured  by  consistories  and  faculties  of  the 
danger  of  convoking  such  a  s3'nod  of  represputatives  of  the  people. 
Instead  of  the  sjmod  therefore  a  Supreme  Church  Council  was  assembled 
at  Berlin  in"  1850,  which,  independent  of  the  ministry,  and  only  under 
the  king  as  jjracipuum  membrum  ecdesicv,  should  rejjresent  the  free- 
dom of  the  church  frona  the  state  as  something  already  realized.  On 
March  6th,  1852,  the  king  issued  a  cabinet  order,  in  consequence  of 
which  the  Supreme  Chiu'ch  Council  administered  not  only  the  affairs 
of  the  evangelical  national  church  as  a  whole,  but  also  was  charged 
with  the  interests  of  the  Lutheran  as  well  as  the  Eeformed  chxirch  in 
particular,  and  was  to  be  composed  of  members  from  both  of  those 
confessions,  who  should  alone  have  to  decide  on  questions  referring  to 
their  own  confession.  On  the  Itio  in  partes  thus  required  in  this 
board,  only  Dr.  Nitzsch  remained  over,  as  he  declared  that  he  could 
find  expression  for  his  religious  convictions  in  neither  of  the  two  con- 
fessions, but  only  in  a  consensus  of  both.  The  difficulty  was  over- 
come by  reckoning  him  a  representative  equally  of  both  denomina- 
tion. Encouraged  by  such  connivance  in  high  places  to  entertain 
still  bolder  hopes,  the  Lutheran  societies  in  1853  presented  to  the 
king  a  petition  signed  by  one  hundred  and  sixty  one  clergj-men,  for 
restoring  Lutheran  faculties  and  the  Luthtn-an  church  property.  But 
this  called  foith  a  rather  unfavourable  cabinet  order,  in  which  the 
king  exi)ressed  his  disapproval  of  such  a  misconception  of  the  ordi- 
nances of  the  former  year,  and  made  the  express  declaration  that  it 
never  Avas  his  intention  to  break  uj)  or  weaken  the  vmion  effected  hy 
his  father,  that  he  only  wished  to  give  the  confession  within  the 
union  the  protection  to  which  it  was  undoubtedly  entitled.  After 
this  the  separate  Lutheran  interest  so  long  highh'  favoured  fell  into 
manifest  and  growing  disfavour.  Still  the  ministerial  department  of 
worship  under  Von  Eaumer,  1850-1858,  continued  to  conduct  the  affairs 
of  schools  and  universities  in  the  spirit  of  the  ecclesiastical  orthodox 
reaction,  and  issued  the  endless  school  regulations  conceived  in  this 
spirit  of  the  privy  councillor  Stiehl.  The  Supreme  Church  Council 
also  exhibited  a  rare  activity'  and  passed  many  Avholesome  ordinances. 


282      CHURCH   HISTORY   OF   NINETEENTH   CENTURY. 

The  evangelical  chiirch  won  great  credit  by  the  care  it  took  of  its 
members  scattered  over  distant  lands,  in  supplying  them  with  clerg}' 
and  teachers.  The  evident  favour  with  which  Frederick  William  lY. 
furthered  the  efforts  of  the  Evangelical  Alliance  of  1857  (§  178,  3)  was 
the  last  proof  of  decided  aversion  from  the  confessional  movement 
Avhich  he  Avas  to  be  allowed  to  give.  A  long  and  hopeless  illness,  of 
which  he  died  in  1861,  obliged  him  to  resign  the  government  to  his 
brother  "William  I.  When  this  monarch  in  October,  1855,  began  to 
rule  in  Iiis  own  name,  he  declared  to  his  ncAvly  appointed  ministers 
that  it  was  his  firm  resolve  that  the  evangelical  union,  whose  bene- 
ficent development  had  been  obstructive  to  an  orthodoxy  incom- 
patible with  the  character  of  the  evangelical  church,  and  which  had 
thus  ahnost  caused  its  ruin,  should  be  maintained  and  fui'ther  ad- 
vanced. But  in  order  that  the  task  might  be  accomplished,  the 
organs  for  its  administration  must  be  carefully  chosen  and  to  some 
extent  changed.  All  hypocris}^  and  formalism,  which  that  orthodoxy 
had  fostei-ed,  is  wherever  possible  to  be  removed.  The  "  new  era,"' 
however,  marked  by  the  appearance  of  liberal  journals,  by  no  means 
ansAvered  to  the  expectations  Avhich  those  words  excited.  The  minis- 
try of  Von  Bethmann-Hollweg,  1858-1862,  filled  some  theological  and 
spiritual  offices  in  this  liberal  spirit ;  Stalil  withdrcAV  from  the  Supreme 
Church  Council ;  the  proceedings  against  the  free  churches,  as  well 
as  the  severe  measures  against  the  re-marriage  of  divorced  parties, 
wei'e  relaxed.  But  the  marriage  laAV  laid  doAvn  by  the  ministry  with 
permission  of  civil  marriage  Avas  rejected  by  the  House  of  Peers,  and 
the  hated  school  regulations  had  to  be  undertaken  by  the  minister 
himself.  The  ecclesiastically  conservative  ministry  of  Von  Miihler,  1862- 
1872,  Avhich,  however,  Avanted  a  fixed  principle  as  well  as  self-deter- 
mined energy  of  A\dll,  and  Avas  therefore  often  A'acillating  and  losing 
the  respect  of  all  parties,  Avas  utterly  unfit  to  realize  these  expecta- 
tions. The  Supreme  Church  Council  published  in  1867  the  outlines  of 
a  provincial  synodal  constitution  for  the  six  East  Provinces  Avhich 
were  still  Avithout  this  institution,  Avhich  the  Ehine  Provinces  and 
West^jhalia  had  enjoA^ed  since  1835.  For  this  purpose  he  couA'ened 
in  autumn,  1869,  an  extraordinary  proA'incial  synod,  Avhich  essen- 
tially approA'ed  the  sketch  submitted,  Avhereupon  it  Avas  proA'isionally 
enacted. 

5.  The  Evangelical  Church  in  Old  Prussia,  1872-1880 — After  the  re- 
moval of  Von  Miihler,  the  minister  of  Avorship,  in  Januaiy,  1872,  his 
place  Avas  taken  by  Dr.  Falk,  1872-1879.  The  hated  school  regiilations 
Avere  noAV  at  last  set  aside  and  replaced  by  ncAV  moderate  prescriptions, 
conceived  in  an  almost  \inex]iectedly  temperate  spirit.  On  September 
10th,  1873,  the  king  issued  a  congregational  and  synodal  constitution 
for  the  eastern  i)ro\'inces,  Avith  tlie  express  statement  that  tlie  position 


§  193.  PRUSSIA.  283 

of  the  confession  and  the  union  should  therebj^  be  in  no  -way  affected. 
It  prescribed  that  in  every  congregation  presided  over  by  a  pastor, 
elected  by  the  ecclesiastically  qualified  church  members,  i.e.  those  of 
honourable  life  who  had  taken  part  in  public  worship  and  received 
the  sacraments,  there  should  be  a  church  council  of  from  fom-  to 
twelve  persons,  and  for  more  important  matters,  e.r/.  the  election  of  a 
pastor,  a  congregational  committee  of  three  times  the  size,  half  of 
which  should  be  reappointed  every  third  year.  To  the  district  sjniod, 
presided  over  by  the  superintendent,  each  congregation  sends  as  dele- 
gates besides  the  pastor  a  lay  representative  chosen  by  the  church 
council  from  among  its  members  or  from  the  congregational  com- 
mittee. According  to  the  same  principle  the  District  Synods  choose 
from  their  members  a  clerical  and  a  lay  representative  to  the  pro- 
vincial sjmod,  to  which  also  the  evangelical  theological  faculty  of 
the  university  within  the  boimds  sends  a  deputy,  and  the  territorial 
lord  nominates  a  nmnber  of  members  not  exceeding  a  sixth  part 
of  the  whole.  The  general  synod,  in  which  also  the  two  western 
provinces,  the  Ehenish  and  Westphalian,  take  part,  consists  of  one 
hundred  and  fifty  delegates  from  the  provincial  sjmods,  and  thirty 
nominated  by  the  territorial  lords,  to  which  the  facilities  of  theology 
and  law  of  the  six  universities  within  the  bounds  send  each  one  of  their 
members.  Although  this  royal  decree  had  proclaimed  itself  final, 
and  only  remitted  to  an  Extraordinary  General  Synod  to  be  called 
forthwith  the  task  of  arranging  for  future  ordinary  general  s\aiods, 
yet  at  the  meeting  of  this  extraordinary  syiiod  in  Berlin,  on  Novem- 
ber 24th,  1875,  a  draft  was  submitted  of  a  constitution  modified  in 
various  important  points.  Of  the  three  demands  of  the  liberal  party 
noAvviolently  insisted  upon— (1)  Substitution  of  the  '-filter"  sj-stem 
in  the  election  of  provincial  and  general  sj-nod  mehibers  for  that  of 
the  coamnunity  electorate.  (2)  Strengthening  of  the  lay  element  in  all 
sj-nods ;  and  (3)  Abolition  of  the  equality  of  small  village  communities 
with  large  town  connnunities — the  first  was  by  far  the  most  imi^ort- 
aut  and  serious  in  its  consequences,  but  the  other  tAvo  bore  fruit 
through  the  decree  that  two-thirds  of  the  members  of  the  district  and 
provincial  synods  should  be  la3anen,  and  the  other  one-third  should 
be  freely  elected  to  the  district  synod  from  the  populous  town  com- 
munities, for  the  provincial  sjaiods  from  the  larger  district  sj-nods. 
Also  in  reference  to  the  rights  belonging  to  the  several  grades  of 
synods,  considerable  modifications  were  made,  whereby  the  privileges 
of  communities  were  variously  increased  (e.ff.  to  them  was  given  the 
right  of  refusing  to  introduce  the  catechisms  and  hymn-books  sanc- 
tioned by  the  provincial  synods),  Avhile  those  of  the  district  and 
provincial  synods  were  lessened  in  favour  of  the  general  synod,  and 
those  of  the  latter  again  in  favour  of  th^  liigh  church  council  and 


2S4      CHURCH   HISTORY   OF   NINETEENTH   CENTURY. 

the  minister  of  public  worship.  After  nearl}-  four  weeks'  discus- 
sion the  bill  without  any  serious  amendments  was  passed  by  the 
assembly,  and  on  January  20th,  1876,  received  the  royal  assent  and 
became  an  ecclesiastical  law.  But  in  order  to  give  it  also  the  rank  of 
a  law  of  the  state,  a  decision  of  the  States'  Parliament  on  the  relation 
of  church  and  state  was  necessary.  The  parliament  had  already  in 
1874,  when  the  original  congregational  and  synodal  constitution  was 
submitted  to  it,  in  order  to  advance  the  movement,  approved  only  the 
congregational  constitution  with  provisional  refusal  of  everything 
going  beyond  that.  In  May,  1876,  the  bill  already  raised  by  the  king 
into  an  ecclesiastical  law,  passed  both  houses  of  jjarliament,  and  had 
here  also  some  amendments  introduced  Avith  the  effect  of  increasing 
and  strengthening  the  prerogative  of  the  state.  The  main  points  in 
the  law  as  then  passed  are  these :  The  general  synod,  whose  members 
undertake  to  fulfil  their  duties  agreeably  to  the  word  of  God  and  the 
ordinances  of  the  evangelical  national  church,  has  the  task  of  main- 
taining and  advancing  the  state  church  on  the  basis  of  the  evangelical 
confession.  The  laws  of  the  state  chiirch  must  receive  its  assent,  but 
any  measure  agreed  upon  by  it  cannot  be  laid  before  the  king  for  his 
sanction  without  the  approval  of  the  minister  of  public  w^orship.  It 
meets  ever}'  sixth  year ;  in  the  interval  it,  as  well  as  the  provincial 
synods,  is  represented  by  a  synodal  committee  chosen  from  its  mem- 
bers. The  head  of  the  church  government  is  the  Supreme  Church 
Council,  whose  president  countersigns  the  ecclesiastical  laws  approved 
by  the  king.  The  right  of  appointing  to  this  office  lies  with  the 
minister  of  public  worship ;  in  the  nomination  of  other  members  the 
president  makes  proposals  with  consent  of  the  minister.  Taxation  of 
the  general  synod  for  parliamentary  purposes  needs  the  assent  of  the 
minister  of  state,  and  must,  if  it  exceeds  four  per  cent,  of  the  class 
and  income  tax,  be  agi'eed  to  by  the  Lower  House,  which  also  annually 
has  to  determine  the  ex])enditui'e  on  ecclesiastical  ailministration. 

6.  When  preparations  were  being  made  for  the  extraordinary 
general  synod,  the  king  had  repeatedly  given  vigorous  expression  to 
his  i^ositive  religious  standpoint,  and  from  the  proposed  lists  of  mem- 
bers for  that  synod  submitted  by  the  minister  of  public  worship  all 
names  belonging  to  the  Protcstantenverein  w^ere  struck  out.  Still 
more  decidedly  in  1877  did  he  show  his  disapjiroval  in  the  Rhode- 
Hossbach  troubles  (§  ISO,  4),  by  declaring  his  firm  belief  in  the 
divinity  of  Christ,  and  when  the  then  president  of  the  Brandenburg 
consistory,  Hegel,  tendered  his  resignation,  owing  to  differences  with 
the  liberal  president  of  the  Supreme  Chin-ch  Council,  Hermann,  the 
king  refused  to  accept  it,  because  h«!  could  not  then  spare  any  such 
men  as  held  by  the  apostolic  faith.  In  May,  1878,  Hermann  was  at 
last,  after  rei)eated  solicitations,  allowed  to  retire,  Dr.  Hermes,  member 


§  193.  PRUSSIA.  285 

of  the  Supreme  Church  Council,  was  nominated  his  successor,  and  the 
positive  tendency  of  the  Supreme  Church  Council  was  strengthened 
by  the  admission  of  the  court  preachers,  Kogel  and  Baiu'.  His  pro- 
posals again  disagreeing  with  the  royal  nominations  for  the  provincial 
sjniod  and  for  the  First  Ordinary  General  Synod  of  autumn,  1879,  led 
the  minister  of  public  worship,  Dr.  Falk,  at  last,  after  repeated  solici- 
tation, to  accept  his  resignation.  It  was  granted  him  in  JuU',  1879, 
and  the  chief  president  of  the  province  of  Silesia,  Von  Puttkamer,  a 
more  decided  adherent  of  the  positive  nnion  party,  was  named  as  his 
successor;  but  in  June,  1881,  he  Avas  made  minister  of  the  interior, 
and  the  undersecretary  of  the  department  of  public  worship.  Von 
Gossler,  was  made  minister.  The  general  synod,  October  10th  till 
November  3rd,  consisted  of  fifty-two  confessionalists,  seventy-six 
positive-unionists,  fifty-six  of  the  middle  party  or  evangelical 
unionist,  and  nine  from  the  ranks  of  the  left,  the  Protestantenverein ; 
three  confessionalists,  twelve  positive-vmionists,  and  fifteen  of  the 
middle  party  were  nominated  by  the  king.  The  measures  proposed 
by  the  Supreme  Church  Council :  (1)  A  marriage  service  without 
reference  to  the  preceding  civil  marriage,  with  two  marriage  formulte, 
the  first  a  joint  promise,  the  second  a  benediction ;  (2)  A  disciplinarj^ 
law  against  despisers  of  baptism  and  marriage,  which  threatened 
such  with  the  loss  of  all  ecclesiastical  electoral  rights,  and  eventually 
with  exclusion  from  the  Lord's  supper  and  sponsor  rights;  and  (3) 
A  law  dealing  with  Emeriti,  were  adopted  by  the  synod  and  then 
approved  by  the  king.  On  the  other  hand  a  series  of  independent 
proposals  conceived  in  the  interests  of  the  high-church  jjarty  re- 
mained in  suspense.  The  last  effected  elections  for  the  general  sj'nod 
committee  resulted  in  the  appoiiitment  of  three  positive-unionist 
members,  including  the  president,  two  confessionalists,  and  two  of 
the  middle  part}.' 

7.  The  Evangelical  Church  in  the  Annexed  Provinces — In  1866  the 
provinces  of  Hanover,  Hesse  and  Schleswig-Holstein  were  incorporated 
with  the  kingdom  of  Prussia.  In  these  political  particularism,  com- 
bined with  confessional  Lutheranism,  suspicion  of  every  organized 
system  of  church  government  as  intended  to  introduce  Prussian 
unionism,  [even  to  the  extreme  of  open  rebellion,  led  to  violent  con- 
flicts. The  king,  indeed,  personally  gave  assurance  in  Cassel,  Han- 
over and  Kiel  that  the  position  of  the  church  confession  should  in 
no  way  be  endangered.  "  He  will  indeed  support  the  union  where  it 
already  existed  as  a  sacred  legacy  to  him  from  his  forefathers ;   he 

1  Geffcken,  '•  Church  and  State,"  vol.  ii.  pp.  501-531.  Smith,  '•  The 
Falk  Legislation  from  the  Political  Point  of  View,"'  in  the  Theological 
Review  for  October,  1875. 


286      CHURCH  HISTORY   OF  NINETEENTH   CENTURY. 

also  hopes  that  it  may  ahvaj's  make  f ui'ther  progress  as  a  witness  to 
the  grand  unity  of  the  evangelical  church  ;  but  compulsion  is  to  be 
applied  to  no  man."  The  consistories  of  these  provinces  were  still 
to  continue  independent  of  the  Supreme  Church  Council.  But  the 
ministerial  order  for  the  restoration  of  representative  synotlal  consti- 
tution increasingly  i:)revailed,  although  the  wide-spread  suspicion  and 
individual  protests  against  the  system  of  church  govermnent,  such  as 
the  temporary  prohibition  of  the  Marburg  consistory  of  the  mission 
festival,  as  avowedly  used  for  agitation  against  the  intended  synodal 
constitution,  helped  to  intensify  the  bitterness  of  feeling.  But  on  the 
other  hand  many  preachers  by  their  unbecoming  pulpit  harangues, 
and  their  refusal  to  take  the  oath  of  allegiance  or  service,  to  pray  in 
church  for  their  new  sovereign,  and  to  observe  the  general  holiday 
appointed  to  be  held  in  1869  on  November  10th  (Luther's  birthday), 
etc.,  compelled  the  ecclesiastical  avithorities  to  impose  fines,  suspen- 
sion, penal  transportation,  and  deposition.  In  the  Lutheran  Schleswig- 
Holstein  a  new  congregational  constitution  was  introduced  in  1869  by 
the  minister  Von  Miihler,  as  the  basis  of  a  future  sjaiodal  constitution, 
which  was  adopted  by  the  Vorsynode  of  Eendsburg  in  1871,  jn-eserving 
the  confessional  status  laid  down,  without  discussion.  In  1878  an 
advance  was  made  by  the  institution  of  district  or  ])rovostship  synods, 
and  in  February,  1880,  the  first  Geiieral  Synod  was  held  at  Eendsburg. 
As  in  Old  Prussia  so  also  here  the  conservative  movement  proved  vic- 
torious. The  laity  obtained  majorities  in  all  sjniods,  and  the  supre- 
macy of  the  state  was  secured  by  the  subordination  of  the  church 
government  under  the  minister  of  public  worship. 

8.  In  Hanover,  Avhere  especially  Lichtenberg,  president  of  the  upper 
consistory,  and  Uhlhorn,  member  of  the  upper  consistory  (since 
1878  abbot  of  Loccum),  although  many  Lutheran  extremists  long 
remained  dissatisfied,  temperately  and  worthily  maintained  the  in- 
dependence and  privileges  of  the  Lutheran  cliurch,  the  first  national 
synod  could  be  convened  and  could  bring  to  a  generally  peaceful  con- 
clusion the  question  of  the  constitution  only  in  the  end  of  1869,  after 
the  preliminary  labour  of  the  national  synod  committee.  In  1882  the 
Reformed  communities  of  120,000  souls,  hitherto  subject  to  Lutheran 
consistories,  obtained  an  independent  congregational  and  synodal  con- 
stitution. Against  the  new  marriage  ordinance  enacted  in  consequence 
of  the  civil  marriage  law  (§  197,  5),  Theod.  Harms  (brother,  and  from 
1865  successor  of  L.  Harms,  §  184, 1),  pastor  and  director  of  H(n-manns- 
burg  missionary  seminary,  rebelled  from  the  conviction  that  civil 
marriage  did  not  deserve  to  be  recognised  as  marriage.  He  was  first 
suspended,  then  in  1877  deposed  from  office,  and  with  the  most  of  his 
congregation  I'etired  and  founded  a  separate  Lutheran  community, 
to  which  subsequently  fifteen  other  small  congregations  of  4,000  souls 


§  193.  PRUSSIA.  287 

were  attached.  As  teacher  and  pupils  of  the  seminary  made  it  a 
zealous  propaganda  for  the  secession,  the  missionary  journals  and 
missionary  festivals  were  misused  for  the  same  pui'pose,  and  as  Harms 
answered  the  questions  of  the  consistory  in  reference  thereto,  partly 
by  denj'ing,  partly  by  excusing,  that  court,  in  December,  187S,  forbad 
the  missionary  collections  hitherto  made  throughout  the  churches  at 
Epiphany  for  Hermannsburg,  and  so  completely  broke  off  the  connec- 
tion between  the  state  church  and  the  institution  which  had  hither- 
been  regarded  as  "its  pride  and  its  i^reserving  salt."  A  reaction  has 
since  set  in  in  favour  of  the  seminary  and  its  friends  on  the  assvu'ance 
that  the  interests  of  the  separation  would  not  be  fiu'thered  by  the 
seminary,  and  that  several  other  objectionable  features,  e.g.  the  fre- 
quent emploj-ment  in  the  mission  service  of  artisans  without  theolo- 
gical training,  the  sending  of  them  out  in  too  great  numbers  without 
sufficient  endowment  and  salar3r,  so  that  missionaries  were  obliged  to 
engage  in  trade  speculations,  should  be  removed  as  far  as  possible ; 
but  since  the  seminary  life  was  always  still  carried  on  upon  the  basis 
of  ecclesiastical  secession,  it  could  lead  to  no  permanent  reconciliation 
with  the  state  chui'ch.  Harms  died  in  1885.  His  son  Egmont  Avas 
chosen  his  successor,  and  as  the  consistoiy  refused  ordination,  he 
accepted  consecration  at  the  hands  of  five  members  of  the  Immanuel 
S_ATiod  at  Magdebui'g. 

9.  In  Hesse  the  ministry  of  Yon  Miihler  sought  to  bring  about  a 
combination  of  the  three  consistories  of  Hanau,  Cassel,  and  Marbui-g. 
as  a  necessary  vehicle  for  the  introduction  of  a  new  sjniodal  constitu- 
tion. In  the  pi'ovince  itself  an  agitation  was  persistently  carried  on 
for  and  against  the  constitutional  scheme  submitted  by  the  ministers, 
Avhich  Avholly  ignored  the  old  church  order  (§  127,  2),  which,  though 
in  the  beginning  of  the  seventeenth  centui'y  through  the  ecclesiasti- 
cal disturbances  of  the  time  (§  154,  1),  it  had  passed  out  of  use,  had 
never  been  abrogated  and  so  was  still  legally  valid.  A  Vorsynode 
convened  in  1870  appi'oved  of  it  in  all  essential  points,  but  conventions 
of  superintendents,  pastoral  conferences  and  lay  addresses  protested, 
and  the  Prussian  parliament,  lor  Avhich  it  was  not  yet  liberal  enough, 
refused  the  necessary  supplies.  As  these  after  Yon  Miihler's  over- 
throw were  granted,  his  successor.  Dr.  Talk,  immediately  proceeded  in 
1873  to  set  up  in  Cassel  the  cotu't  that  had  been  objected  to  so  long. 
It  was  constituted  after  the  pattern  of  the  Supreme  Chxu'ch  Council, 
of  Lutheran,  Reformed,  and  United  members  Avith  Itio  in  partes  on 
specifically  confessional  questions.  The  clergy  of  Upper  Hesse  com- 
forted themselves  with  sa3-ing  that  the  new  courts  in  which  the  con- 
fessions were  combined,  if  not  better,  were  at  least  no  A\'orse  than  the 
earlier  consistories  in  which  the  confessions  were  confounded  ;  and 
they  felt  obliged  to  yield  obedience  to  them,  so  long  as  they  did  not 


2S8      CHURCH   HISTORY    OF   NINETEENTH   CENTURY. 

(L'lnand  an3iliing  contradictoi-y  the  Lutheran  confession.  On  the 
other  hand,  many  of  theclergj'of  Lower  Hesse  saw  in  the  advance  from 
a  merely  eventual  to  an  actual  blending  of  the  confessional  status  in 
church  government  an  intolerable  deterioration.  And  so  forty-five 
clergyman  of  Lower  and  one  of  Upper  Hesse  laid  before  the  king 
a  protest  against  the  innovation  as  destructive  of  the  confessional 
rights  of  the  Hessian  church  contrary  to  the  will  of  the  supreme 
majesty  of  Jesus  Christ,  They  were  dismissed  with  sharp  rebuke, 
and,  with  the  exception  of  four  who  submitted,  were  deposed  from 
ohice  for  obstinate  refusal  to  obey.  There  were  about  sixteen  con- 
gregations which  to  a  greater  or  less  extent  kept  aloof  from  the  new 
pastors  appointed  by  the  consistories,  and  without  breaking  away 
from  the  state  church  wished  to  remain  true  to  the  old  pastor  "  ap- 
pointed by  Jesus  Christ  himself." — In  autumn,  1884,  the  movement 
on  behalf  of  the  restoration  of  a  presbyterial  and  synodal  constitution 
of  the  Hessian  evangelical  church,  which  had  been  delaj^ed  for  four- 
teen years,  was  resumed.  A  sketch  of  a  constitution,  Avhich  placed  it 
under  three  general  superintendents  (Lutheran,  Reformed,  United) 
and  thirteen  superintendents,  and,  for  the  fair  co-operation  of  the 
lay  element  in  the  administration  of  church  affairs  (the  confession 
status,  however,  being  beyond  discussion),  provided  suitable  oi'gans 
in  the  shape  of  presbyteries  and  synods,  with  a  piredominance  of 
the  lay  element,  was  submitted  to  a  Vorsynode  that  met  on  Novem- 
ber 12th,  consisting  of  two  divisions,  like  a  Lower  and  Upper  House, 
sitting  together.  The  first  division,  as  representative  of  the  then 
existing  church  order,  embraced,  in  accordance  with  the  practice  of 
the  old  Hessian  s^-nods,  all  the  members  of  the  consistory,  i.e.  the 
nine  superintendents  and  thirteen  pastors  elected  by  the  clergy  ;  the 
second,  consisting  at  least  of  as  many  lay  as  cleiical  members,  was 
chosen  by  the  free  election  of  the  congregation.  The  royal  assent  was 
given  to  the  decrees  of  the  Vorsynode  in  the  end  of  December,  1885, 
and  the  confessional  status  was  thei'eby  expressly  guaranteed. 

§  104.    The  North  German  smaller  States. 

In  most  of  the  smaller  North  German  states,  owing  to 
tlio  very  slight  representation  of  the  Reformed  church, 
which  was  considerable  only  in  Bremen,  Lippe-Detmold, 
and  a  part  of  Hesse  and  East  Friesland,  the  union  met 
with  little  favour.  Yet  only  in  a  few  of  those  provinces 
did  a  sharply  marked  confessional  Lutheranism  gain  wide 
and  general  acceptance.     This  was  so  especially  and  most 


§  194.    THE    NORTH    GERMAN    SMALLER    STATES.       289 

decidedly  in  Mecklenburg,  but  also  in  Hanover,  Hesse,  and 
Saxony.  On  the  other  hand,  since  the  close  of  18G0,  in 
almost  all  those  smaller  states  a  determined  demand  was 
made  for  a  representative  synodal  constitution,  securing  the 
due  co-operation  of  the  lay  element, — The  Catholic  church 
was  strongest  in  Hanover,  and  next  come  some  parts  of 
Hesse,  which  had  been  added  to  the  ecclesiastical  province 
of  the  Upper  Rhine  (>5  196,  1),  but  in  the  other  North 
German  smaller  states  it  was  only  represented  here  and 
there. 

1.  The  Kingdom  of  Saxony. — The  present  kingdom  of  Saxony,  formerly 
an  eli'ctoral  principality,  has  had  Catholic  princes  since  1679  (§  153, 1), 
but  the  Catholic  church  could  strike  its  roots  again  only  in  the  im- 
mediate neighbourhood  of  the  court.     Indeed  those  belonging  to  it  did 
not  enjoy  civil  and  religious  equality  until  1807,  when  this  distinction 
was  set  aside.     The  erection  of   cloisters  and  the    introduction    of 
monkish   orders,   however,   continued  even   then   forbidden,  and   all 
official  publications  of  the  Catholic  clergy  required  the  j^lacet  of  the 
government.     The  administration  of  the  evangelical  church,  so  long 
as  the  king  is  Catholic,  lies,  according  to  agreement,  in  the  hands  of 
the  ministers  commissioned  iw  evangelicis,    Althoiigh  several  of  these 
have  proved  defenders  of  ecclesiastical  orthodoxy,  the  rationalistic 
inumination  became  almost  universally  prevalent  not  only  among 
the  clergy  but  also  among  the  general  populace.    Meanwhile  a  pietistic 
reaction    set  in,  especially  powerful    in   Muldenthal,  where   Rudel- 
bach's  laboiu's  impressed  on  it  a  Lutheran  ecclesiastical  character. 
The  religious  movement,   on   the  other  hand,   directed  by  Martin 
Stephan,  pastor  of  the  Bohemian  church  in  Dresden,  came  to  a  sad 
and  shameful  end.     As  representative  and  restorer  of  strict  Lutheran 
A'iews   he    had   Avrought    successfully   in   Dresden    from    1810,    but, 
tlirough  the   adulation  of   his  followers,  ajiproaching  even   to  wor- 
ship, he  fell  more  and  more  deeply  into  hierarchical  assumption  and 
neglect  of   self-vigilance.      When  the  police  in   1837  restricted  his 
nightly  assemblies,  without,   however,   having  discovered   anything 
immoral,  and  suspended  him  from  his  official  duties,  he  called  upon 
his  followers  to  emigrate  to  America.     Many  of  them,  lay  and  clerical, 
blindly  obeyed,  and  founded  in  1835,'  in  Missouri,  a  Lutheran  church 
communion  (§  208,  2).     Stephan's  despotic  hierarchical  assumptions 
here  reached   their  fullest  height;  he  also  gave  his  lusts  free  scope. 
Women  ojipressed  or  actuall}'^  abused  by  him  at  length  openly  pro- 
VOL.   III.  19 


290      CHURCH    HISTORY    OF    NINETEENTH    CENTURY. 

claimed  his  shame  in  1839,  and  the  community  excommunicated  him. 
He  died  in  a.d.  1846.  Taught  by  such  experiences,  and  purged  of  the 
Donatist-separatist  element,  a  church  reaction  against  advancing 
rationalism  made  considerable  progress  under  a  form  of  church  that 
favoured  it,  and  seciu-ed  also  influential  representatives  in  members 
of  the  theological  faculty  of  the  university  of  Leipzig  distinguished 
for  their  scientific  attainments.  After  repeated  debates  in  the  chamber 
over  a  scheme  of  a  new  ecclesiastical  and  synodal  order  submitted  by  the 
ministr}',  the  first  evangelical  Lutheran  state  sjmod  met  in  Dresden,  in 
May,  1871.  On  the  motion  of  the  government,  the  law  of  patronage 
was  here  modified  so  that  the  patron  had  to  submit  three  candidates  to 
the  choice  of  the  ecclesiastical  board.  It  was  also  decided  to  form  an 
upi^er  or  state  consistory,  to  which  all  ecclesiastical  matters  hither- 
to administered  by  the  minister  of  public  worship  should  be  given 
over  ;  the  control  of  education  was  to  remain  with  the  ministry,  and 
the  state  consistory  was  to  charge  itself  with  the  oversight  only  of 
religious  instruction  and  ethico-religious  training.  The  most  lively 
debates  were  those  excited  by  the  proposal  to  abolish  the  obligation 
resting  upon  all  church  teachers  to  seem  to  adhere  to  the  confes- 
sion of  the  Lutheran  church,  led  by  Dr.  Zarncke,  the  rector  of  the 
state  university.  The  commission  of  inquiry  sent  down,  trnder  the 
presidency  of  Professor  Luthardt,  demanded  the  absolute  withdrawal 
of  this  proposal,  Avhich  aimed  at  perfect  doctrinal  freedom.  On  the 
other  hand.  Professor  G.  Baur  made  the  mediate  proposal  to  substitute 
for  the  declaration  on  oath,  the  promise  to  teach  simply  and  purely 
to  the  best  of  his  knowledge  and  according  to  conscience  the  gospel 
of  Christ  as  it  is  contained  in  Scripture,  and  witnessed  in  the  con- 
fessions of  the  Lutheran  church.  And  as  even  now  Luthardt,  inspired 
by  the  wish  not  to  rend  the  first  State  Synod  at  its  final  sitting  by  an 
incurable  schism,  agreed  to  this  suggestion,  it  was  carried  by  a  large 
majority.  In  consequence  of  this  decision,  a  number  of  "  Lutherans 
faithful  to  the  confession,"  withdrew  from  the  State  church,  and  on 
the  anniversary  of  the  Beformation  in  1871,  constituted  themselves 
into  an  Evangelical  Lutlicran  Free  Church,  associatexl  with  the  Missouri 
synod  (§  208,  2),  from  which,  on  the  suggestion  of  some  of  the  mem- 
bers of  the  conmiunity  who  had  returnc.^d  from  America,  they  chose 
for  themselves  a  pastor  called  Euhland.  There  were  five  such  congre- 
gations in  Saxony :  at  Dresden,  Planitz,  Chemnitz,  Frankenberg,  and 
Krimmitschau,  to  which  some  South  German  dissenters  at  Stenden, 
Wiesbaden,  Frankfort,  and  Anspach  attached  themselves. 

2.  The  Saxon  Duchies.— The  Stephan  emigration  had  also  decoyed  a 
number  of  inhabitants  from  Saxe-Altenburg.  In  a  rescript  to  the 
Ephorus  Eonneburg,  in  1838,  the  consistory  traced  back  this  separatist 
movement  to  the  fuct  that  the  religious  needs  of  the  consregations 


§  194.    THE    NORTH    GERMAN    SMALLER    STATES.       291 

found  no  satisfaction  in  the  rationalistic  preaching,  and  urged  a  more 
earnest  presentation  from  the  pulpit  of  the  fundamental  and  central 
doctrines  of  evajigelical  Christianity.  This  rescript  was  the  subject 
of  violent  denunciation.  The  government  took  the  opinion  of  foru' 
theological  faculties  on  the  procedure  of  the  consistory  and  its  op- 
ponents, who  published  it  simply  with  the  praise  and  blame  contained 
therein,  and  thus  prevented  any  investigation.  Also  in  Weimar  and 
Gotha  the  rationalism  of  Rohr  and  Bretschneider,  which  had  dominated 
almost  all  pulpits  down  to  the  middle  of  the  century,  began  gradually 
to  disappear,  and  the  more  recent  parties  of  Confessional,  Mediation, 
and  Free  Protestant  theology  to  take  its  place.  The  last  named  party 
found  vigorous  support  in  the  university  of  Jena.  A  petition  addressed 
to  it  in  1882  from  the  Thuringian  Church  Conference  of  Eisenach,  to 
call  to  Jena  also  a  representative  of  the  positive  Lutheran  theology, 
was  decidedly  refused,  and,  in  a  controversial  pamphlet  by  Superin- 
tendent Braasch,  condemned  as  "  the  Eisenach  outrage "  (Attentat). 
In  Meiningen  the  Vorsynode  convened  there  in  1870  sanctioned  the 
sketch  of  a  moderately  liberal  synodal  constitution  submitted  to  it, 
which  placed  the  confession  indeed  beyond  the  reach  of  legislative 
interference,  but  also  secured  its  rights  to  free  inquiry.  The  first  State 
Synod,  however,  did  not  meet  before  1878.  In  Weimar  the  first  sj-nod 
Avas  held  in  187B,  the  second  in  1S79. 

8.  The  Kiugdom  of  Hanover. — Although  the  union  found  no  accept- 
ance in  Hanover,  after  the  overthrow  of  the  rationalism  of  the  ancien 
rer/ime,  the  union  theology  became  dominant  in  the  luiiversity.  The 
clergy,  however,  were  in  great  part  carried  along  by  the  confessional 
Lutheran  current  of  the  age.  The  Preachers'  Conference  at  Stade  in 
1854  took  occasion  to  call  the  attention  of  the  government  to  the  "  mani- 
fest divergence  "  between  the  union  theology  of  the  university  and  the 
legal  and  actual  Lutheran  confession  of  the  state  church,  and  urged  the 
appointment  of  Lutheran  teachers.  The  faculty,  on  the  other  hand, 
issued  a  memorial  in  favour  of  libert}'  of  public  teaching,  and  the  cura- 
tors filled  the  vacancies  again  with  unioii  theologians.  When  in  April, 
1862,  it  was  proposed  to  displace  the  state  catechism  introduced  in 
1790,  which  neither  theologically  nor  catechetically  satisfied  the  needs 
of  the  church,  by  a  carefully  sifted  revision  of  the  Walther  catechism 
in  use  before  1790,  approved  of  by  the  Gottingen  faculty,  the  agitation 
of  the  liberal  party  called  forth  an  opposition,  especially  in  city 
populations,  which  expressed  itself  in  insults  to  members  of  consistories 
and  pastors,  and  in  ahnost  dail^"  rei)eated  bloody  street  fights  A\-ith  the 
military,  and  obliged  the  govermnent  at  last  to  give  ^vay. — The 
negotiations  about  a  concordat  with  Rome  reached  no  fiu'ther  in  1821 
than  obtaining  the  circumscription  bull  Inijiensa  Honiaiionini,  bj'- 
which  the  Catholic  church  obtained  two  bishopries,  those  of  Hildesheun 


292      CHURCH   HISTORY   OF   NINETEENTH   CENTURY. 

and  Osuabrik'k. — In  1886,  Hanover  was  incorporated  with  the  kingdom 
of  Prussia  (§  193,  8). 

4.  Hesse. — Landgrave  Maurice,  1592-1627,  had  forced  upon  his 
territories  a  modified  Melanchthonian  Calvinism  (§  154,  1),  but  a 
Lutheran  basis  with  Lutheran  modes  of  vie^-ing  things  and  Lutheran 
institutions  still  remained,  and  the  Lutheran  reaction  had  never  been 
completely  overcome,  not  even  in  Lower  Hesse,  although  there  the 
name  of  tlie  Reformed  Church  with  Reformed  modes  of  worship  had 
been  gradixally  introduced  in  most  of  the  congregations.  The  com- 
miuiities  of  Uioper  Hesse  and  Schmalcald,  however,  by  continuous 
opposition  saved  for  the  most  part  their  Lutheranism.  which  in  1648 
was  guaranteed  to  them  anew  by  the  Darmstadt  Recess,  and  secured 
an  independent  form  of  church  government  in  the  Definitorium  at 
Marburg.  The  union  movement,  which  issued  from  Prussia  in  1817, 
met  with  favour  also  in  Hesse,  but  only  in  the  province  of  Hanau  in 
1818  got  the  length  of  a  formal  constituting  of  a  church  on  the  basis 
of  the  union.  Li  1821,  however,  the  elector  issued  the  so-called  Re- 
organization edict,  by  which  the  entire  evangelical  church  of  the 
electorate,  without  any  reference  to  the  confession  status,  but  simply 
in  accordance  with  the  political  divisions  of  the  state,  was  put  under 
the  newly  instituted  consistories  of  Cassel,  Marburg,  and  Hanau,  in 
the  formation  of  which  the  confession  of  the  inhabitants  had  not  been 
considered.  The  Marburg  Definitorium  indeed  protested,  but  in  vain, 
against  this  despotic  act,  which  was  felt  a  grievance,  less  on  accomit  of 
the  wiping  out  of  the  confession  than  on  account  of  the  loss  of  in- 
dependent chui'ch  government  which  it  occasioned.  The  government 
appointed  pastors,  teachers  and  professors  without  enquiring  much 
about  their  confession.  In  1838  the  hitherto  required  sTibscription  of 
the  clergy  to  the  confessional  writings,  the  Avigsburg  Confession  and 
its  Apology,  was  modified  into  a  formula  declaring  conscientious 
regard  for  them.  But  in  this  Bickell,  professor  of  law  at  Marburg, 
saw  a  loss  to  the  church  in  legal  status,  an  endangering  of  the 
evangelical  church;  the  theological  professor,  Hupfeld,  also  in  the 
further  course  of  the  controv(>rsy  took  his  side,  while  the  advocate, 
Henkel,  in  Cassel,  as  a  popular  agitator  opposed  him  and  demanded  a 
State  Synod  for  the  formal  abolishing  of  all  symbolical  books.  The 
government  ignored  both  demands,  and  the  vehement  conflict  was 
quieted  by  degrees.  With  1850  a  new  era  began  in  the  keen  con- 
troversy over  the  qu(!Stion,  which  confession,  whether  Lutheran  or 
Reformed,  was  legally  and  actually  that  of  the  state.  The  ministiy 
of  Hassenpflug  from  1850,  which  suppressed  the  revolution,  considered 
it  as  legally  the  Lutheran,  and  determined  the  ecclesiastical  arrange- 
ments in  this  sens(?,  and  in  this  coursii  Dr.  Vilmar,  member  of  the 
Consistory,  was  the  ministf.'r's  right  hand.     But  the  elector  was  from 


§  194.    THE    NORTH    GERMAN    SMALLER    STATES.       293 

the  beginning  personally  opposed  to  this  procedure,  and  on  the  over- 
throw of  the  ministry  in  1855,  Vilmar  (died  1868)  was  also  transferred 
to  a  theological  professorship  at  Marbvirg.  This,  however,  only  gave 
a  new  imi^ulse  to  the  confessional  Lutheran  movement  in  the  state, 
for  the  spirit  and  tendency  of  the  highly  revered  theological  teacher 
powerfully  influenced  the  younger  generation  of  the  Hessian  clergy. 
In  consequence  of  the  German  war,  Hesse  was  annexed  to  Prussia  in 
1866  (§  193,  9).— On  the  Catholic  church  in  this  state,  compare  §  196, 1. 

5.  Brunswick,  Oldenburg,  Anhalt,  and  Lippe-Detmold. — Much  ado  was 
made  also  in  Brunswick  over  the  introduction  of  a  neAv  constitution  for 
the  Lutheran  state  church  in  1869,  and  at  last  in  1871  a  synodal 
ordinance  was  passed  by  which  the  State  Synod,  consisting  of  foiirteen 
clerical  and  eighteen  lay  members,  was  to  meet  every  four  years,  so 
as  not  to  be  a  too  offensive  factor  in  the  ecclesiastical  administration 
and  legislation,  which  therefore  has  left  untouched  the  content  of 
the  confession.  The  first  synod  of  1872  began  by  rejecting  the  injunc- 
tion to  open  the  sessions  with  prayer  and  reading  of  scripture. 
Oldenburg,  which  in  1849,  by  a  synod  whose  membership  had  been 
chosen  by  the  original  electorate,  had  been  favoured  with  a  democratic 
church  constitution  wholly  separate  from  the  state,  accepted  in  1854 
without  opposition  a  new  constitution  which  restored  the  headship 
of  the  church  to  the  territorial  lords,  the  administration  of  the  church 
to  a  Supreme  Church  Council  and  ecclesiastical  legislation  to  a  State 
Synod  consisting  of  clerical  and  lay  members. — The  prince  in  the 
exercise  of  his  sovereign  rights  gave  a  charter  in  1878  to  the  evan- 
gelical church  of  the  Duchy  of  Anhalt  to  a  synodal  ordinance  which, 
though  approved  by  the  Vorsijnode  of  1876,  had  been  rejected  by 
parliament,  and  afterwards  it  gained  tlie  assent  of  the  national  repre- 
sentatives.— In  the  Reformed  Lippe-Detmold  there  were  in  1814  still 
five  preachers  who,  wearied  of  the  ilhiminationist  catechism  of  the  state 
church,  had  gone  back  to  the  Heidelberg  catechism  and  protested 
against  tlie  abolition  of  acceptance  on  oath  of  the  symbols,  as  destruc- 
tive of  the  peace  of  the  church.  The  democratic  church  constitution 
of  1851,  however,  was  abrogated  in  1854,  and  instead  of  it,  the  old 
Reformed  church  order  of  1684  was  again  made  law.  At  the  same 
time,  religious  pardon  and  eqiiality  were  guaranteed  to  Catholics  and 
Lutherans.     Tlie  first  Reformed  State  Synod  Avas  constituted  in  1878. 

6.  Mecklenburg. — Mecklenbui'g-Schwerin  from  1848  was  in  possession 
of  a  strictly  Lutheran  church  government  under  the  direction  of 
Kliefoth,  and  its  vmiversity  at  Rostock  had  decidedly  Lutheran  theo- 
logians. When  the  chamberlain  Von  Kettenburg,  on  going  over  to  the 
Catholic  church,  appointed  a  Catholic  priest  on  his  estate,  the  govern- 
ment in  1852,  on  the  ground  that  the  laws  of  the  state  did  not  allow 
Catholic  services  which  extended  beyond  simple  family  Avorship,  held 


•294      CHURCH    HISTORY    OF    NINETEENTH    CENTURY. 

tliat  be  had  overstepptHl  the  limits.  A  complaint,  in  reforcnco  thereto, 
presented  to  the  parliament  and  then  to  the  German  Bund,  was  in 
both  cases  throAvn  out.  Even  in  18()3  the  Rostock  magisl^i'ates  refused 
to  allow  tower  and  bells  in  the  building  of  a  Catholic  church. — An 
extraordinary  excitement  was  caused  by  the  removal  from  office  in 
January,  1858,  of  Professor  M.  Baumgarten  of  Eostock.  An  examina- 
tion paj)er  set  by  him  on  2  Kings  xi.  by  which  the  endeavour  was 
made  to  win  scripture  sanction  for  a  violent  revolution,  obliged  the 
government  even  in  1856  to  remove  him  from  the  theological  examina- 
tion board.  At  the  same  time  his  polemic  addressed  to  a  pastoral 
conference  at  Parchim,  against  the  doctrine  of  the  Mecklenburg  state 
catechism  on  the  ceremonial  law,  especially  in  reference  to  the  sanctifi- 
cation  of  the  Sabbath,  increased  the  distrust  which  the  clergy  of  the 
state,  on  account  of  his  writings,  had  entertained  against  his  theological 
position  as  one  which,  from  a  fanatical  basis,  diverged  on  all  sides  into 
fundamental  antagonism  to  the  confession  and  the  ordinances  of  the 
Lutheran  state  church.  The  government  finally  deposed  him  in  1858 
(leaving  him,  however,  in  possession  of  his  whole  salary,  also  of  the 
right  of  public  teaching),  on  the  ground  and  after  the  publication  of 
a  judgment  of  the  consistory  which  found  him  guilty  of  heretical 
alteration  of  all  the  fundamental  doctrines  of  the  Christian  faith  and 
the  Lutheran  confession,  and  sought  to  prove  this  verdict  from  his 
writings.  As  might  have  been  foreseen,  this  step  was  folloAved  by  a 
loud  outcry  by  all  journals  ;  but  even  Lutherans,  like  Von  Hofmann 
Von  Scheurl,  and  Luthardt,  objected  to  the  proceedings  of  the  govern- 
ment as  exceeding  the  law  laid  down  by  the  ecclesiastical  ordinance 
and  the  opinion  of  the  consistory  as  nesting  upon  misunderstanding, 
arbitrary  supposition  and  inconsequent  conclusion. 

§  195.  Bavaria. 
Catholic  Bavaria,  originally  an  electorate,  but  raised  in 
180G,  by  Napoleon's  favour,  into  a  royal  sovereignty,  to 
which  had  been  adjudged  by  the  Vienna  Congress  consider- 
able territories  in  Franconia  and  the  Palatine  of  the  E-hine 
with  a  mainly  Protestant  population,  attempted  under 
Maximilian  Joseph  (IV.)  I.,  after  the  manner  of  Napoleon, 
despotically  to  pass  a  liberal  system  of  church  polity,  but 
found  itself  obliged  again  to  yield,  and  under  Louis  I. 
became  again  the  chief  retreat  of  Roman  Catholic  ecclesiasti- 
cism  of  the  most  pronounced  ultramontane  pattern.  It  was 
under  the  noble   and  upright  king,  Maximilian  II.,  that  the 


§  195.    BAVARIA.  295 

evangelical  cliurcli  of  the  two  divisions  of  the  kingdom, 
numbering  two-thirds  of  the  population,  first  succeeded  in 
securing  the  unrestricted  use  of  their  rights.  Nevertheless, 
Catholic  Bavaria  remained,  or  became,  the  unhappy  scene  of 
the  wildest  demagogic  agitation  of  the  Catholic  clergy  and 
of  the  Bavarian  "  Patriots  "  who  pla5'ed  their  game,  whose 
patriotism  consisted  only  in  mad  hatred  of  Prussia  and 
fanatical  ultramontanism.  Yet  King  Louis  II.,  after  the 
brilliant  successes  of  the  Pranco-Grerman  war,  could  not 
object  to  the  proposal  of  November  30th,  1870,  to  found  a 
new  German  empire  under  a  Prussian  and  therefore  a 
Protestant  head. 

1.  The  Bavarian  Ecclesiastical  Polity  under  Maximilian  I.,  1799-1825 — 
Bavaria  boasted  with  the  most  unfeigned  delight  after  the  uprooting 
of  Protestantism  in  its  borders  as  then  defined  (§  151,  1),  that  it  was 
the  most  Catholic,  i.e.  the  most  ultramontane  and  most  bigoted,  of 
German-speaking  lands,  and,  after  a  short  break  in  this  tradition  by 
Maximilian  Joseph  III.  (§  IGo,  10),  went  forth  again  with  full  sail, 
under  Charles  Theodoi-e,  1777-1779,  on  the  old  course.  But  the 
thoroughly  new  aspect  which  this  state  assumed  on  the  overthrow  of 
the  old  German  empire,  demanded  an  adapting  territorially  of  the 
civil  and  ecclesiastical  life  in  accordance  with  the  relations  which  it 
owed  to  its  present  political  position.  The  new  elector  Maximilian 
Joseph  IV.,  who  as  king  styled  himself  Maximilian  I.,  transferred  the 
execution  of  this  task  to  his  liberal,  energetic,  and  thoroughly  fear- 
less minister,  Count  Montgelas,  1799-1S17.  In  Januarj^,  1802,  ic  was 
enacted  that  all  cloisters  should  be  suppressed,  and  that  all  cathedral 
foundations  should  be  secularized ;  and  these  enactments  were  imme- 
diately carried  out  in  an  uncompromising  manner.  Even  in  1801 
the  qualification  of  Protestants  to  exercise  the  rights  of  Bavarian 
citizens  was  admitted,  and  a  religious  edict  of  1803  guaranteed  to 
all  Christian  confessions  full  equality  of  civil  and  political  privileges. 
To  the  clergy  was  given  the  control  of  education,  and  to  the  gj^mnasia 
and  universities  a  considerable  number  of  foreigners  and  Protestants 
received  appointments.  In  all  respects  the  sovereignty  of  the  state 
over  the  church  and  the  clergy  was  very  decidedly  expressed,  the 
episcopate  at  all  points  restricted  in  its  jurisdiction,  the  training  of 
the  clergj^  regulated  and  su])ervised  on  behalf  of  the  state,  the 
patronage  of  all  pastorates  and  benefices  usurpeil  by  the  governnn'nt, 
even   public   worsliip  subjected  to  state  control  by  the   prohibition 


296      CHURCH    HISTORY    OF    NINETEENTH    CENTURY. 

of  superstitious  practicos,  etc.  But  amid  many  othor  infclicitifs  of 
this  autocratic  procedure  was  specially  the  gradual  dying  out  of  the 
old  race  of  bishops,  which  obligc^d  the'  government  to  seek  again 
an  iniderstanding  with  Rome ;  and  so  it  actually  happened  in  June, 
1817,  after  Montgelas'  dismissal,  that  a  concordat  was  di-awn  up. 
By  this  the  Roman  Catholic  apostolic  religion  secured  throughout 
the  M-hole  kingdom  those  rights  and  prerogatives  which  were  due 
to  it  according  to  divine  appointment  and  canonical  ordinances, 
which,  strictly  taken,  meant  supremacy  throughout  the  land.  In 
addition,  two  archbishoprics  and  seven  bishoprics  were  instituted, 
the  restoration  of  several  cloisters  was  agreed  to,  and  the  unlimited 
administration  of  theological  seminaries,  the  censorship  of  books,  the 
superintendance  of  public  schools  and  free  correspondence  Avith  the 
holy  see  were  allowed  to  the  bishops.  On  the  other  hand,  the  king 
was  given  the  choice  of  bishops  (to  be  confirmed  by  the  pope),  the 
nomination  of  a  great  part  of  the  priests  and  canons,  and  the  placet 
for  all  hierarchical  ijxiblications.  After  many  vain  endeavoxirs  to 
obtain  amendments,  the  king  at  last,  on  October  17th,  ratified  this 
concordat ;  but,  to  mollify  his  highly  incensed  Protestant  subjects,  he 
delayed  the  publication  of  it  till  the  proclamation  of  the  now  civil 
constitution  on  May  18th  following.  The  concordat  was  then  adopted, 
as  an  ajipendage  to  an  edict  setting  forth  the  ecclesiastical  supremacy 
of  the  state,  securing  perfect  freedom  of  conscience  to  all  subjects, 
as  well  as  equal  civil  rights  to  members  of  the  three  Christian  con- 
fessions, and  demanding  from  them  equal  mutual  respect.  The  irre- 
concilabloness  of  this  edict  with  the  concordat  was  evident,  and  the 
newly  appointed  bishops  as  well  as  the  clerical  parliamentary  deputies, 
declared  by  papal  instruction  that  they  could  not  take  the  oath  to 
the  constitution  without  reservation,  until  the  royal  statement  of 
Tegernsee,  September  21st,  that  the  oath  taken  by  Catholic  subjects 
simply  referred  to  civil  relations,  and  that  the  concordat  had  also  the 
validity  of  a  law  of  the  state,  induced  the  curia  to  agree  to  it.  But 
the  government  nevertheless  continued  to  insist  as  before  upon  the 
supremacy  of  the  state  over  the  church,  enlarged  the  claims  of  the 
royal  placet,  put  the  free  intercourse  with  Eome  again  under  state 
control,  arbitrarily  disposed  of  church  property  and  supervised  the 
theological  examinations  of  the  seminarists,  made  the  appointment  of 
all  clergy  dependent  on  its  approbation,  and  refuscid  to  be  misled  in 
anytliing  by  tlic  complaints  and  objections  of  the  bishops. 

2.  The  Bavarian  Ecclesiastical  Polity  under  Louis  I.,  1825-1848. — 
Zealous  Catholic  as  the  new  king  was,  he  still  held  with  unabated 
tenacity  to  the  sovereign  rights  of  the  crown,  and  th(^  extreme  ultra- 
montane ministry  of  Von  Abel  from  1837  was  the  first  to  wring  from 
him  any  relaxations,  e.ff.  the  reintroductionof  free  intercourse  between 


§  195.    BAVARIA.  297 

till'  bishops  and  the  holy  see  without  any  state  control.  But  it  could 
not  obtain  the  abolition  of  the  placet^  and  just  as  little  the  eage^l^' 
sought  permission  of  the  return  of  the  Jesuits.  On  the  other  hand 
the  allied  order  of  Redemptorists  was  allowed,  whose  missions  among 
the  Bavarian  people,  however,  the  king  soon  made  dependent  on  a 
permission  to  be  from  time  to  time  renewed.  His  tolerant  disposition 
toward  the  Protestants  was  shown  in  1830,  by  his  refusing  the  demand 
of  the  Catholic  clergy  for  a  Reverse  in  mixed  marriages,  and  recog- 
nising Protestant  sponsors  at  Catholic  baptisms.  But  yet  his  honour- 
able desire  to  be  just  even  to  the  Protestants  of  his  realm  was  often 
paralj'sed,  partly  by  his  own  ultramontane  sympathies,  partly  and 
mainly  by  the  immense  influence  of  the  Abel  ministry,  and  the 
religious  freedom  guaranteed  them  by  law  in  1818  was  reduced  and 
restricted.  Among  other  things  the  Protestant  press  was  on  all  sides 
gagged  by  the  minister,  while  the  Catholic  press  and  preaching 
enjoyed  unbridled  liberty.  Great  as  the  need  was  in  southern  Bavaria 
the  government  had  strictly  forbidden  the  taking  of  any  aid  from  the 
Gustavus  Adolphus  Verein.  Louis  saw  even  in  the  name  of  this  society 
a  slight  thrown  on  the  German  name,  and  was  specially  offended  at  its 
vague,  nearly  negative  attitude  towards  the  confession.  Yet  he  had  no 
hesitation  in  affording  an  asylum  in  Catholic  Bavaria  to  the  Lutheran 
confessor  Scheibel  (§  177,  2)  whom  Prussian  diplomacy  had  driven  out 
of  Lutheran  Saxony,  and  did  not  prevent  the  university  of  Erlangen. 
after  its  dead  orthodoxy  had  been  reawakened  by  the  able  Reformed 
preacher  Krafft  (died  1845),  becoming  the  centre  of  a  strict  Lutheran 
church  consciousness  in  life  as  well  as  science  for  all  Germany.  The 
adoration  order  of  1838,  which  required  even  the  Protestant  soldiers  to 
kneel  before  the  host  as  a  military  salute,  occasioned  great  discontent 
among  the  Protestant  population,  and  many  controversial  panniDhlets 
appeared  on  both  sides.  AVhen  finally  the  parliament  in  1845  took  u]) 
the  complaint  of  the  Protestants,  a  royal  proclamation  followed  by 
which  the  usually  purely  military  salute  formerly  in  use  was  restored. 
In  1847  the  ultramontane  party,  with  Abel  at  its  head,  fell  into  dis- 
favour with  the  king,  on  account  of  its  honourable  attitude  in  the 
scandal  which  the  notorious  Lola  Montez  caused  in  the  circle  of  the 
Bavarian  nobility ;  but  in  1848  Louis  was  obliged,  through  the  revolu- 
tionary storm  that  burst  over  Bavai'ia,  to  resign  the  crown. 

3.  The  Bavarian  Ecclesiastical  Polity  under  Maximilian  II.,  1848-1864, 
and  Louis  II.  (died  18SG). — Much  more  thoroughly  than  his  father  did 
Maximilian  II.  strive  to  act  justly  toward  the  Protestant  as  well  as 
the  Catholic  church,  without  however  abating  any  of  the  claims  of 
constitutional  supremacy  on  the  part  of  the  state.  In  conseq\ience  of 
the  Wiirzburg  negotiations  (§  192,  4),  the  Bavarian  bishops  asseml)led 
at  Frej'sing,  in  November,  1850,  pnsented  a  memorial,  in  which  they 


298      CHURCH   HISTORY    OF    NINETEENTH    CENTURY. 

demandetl  tho  withdrawal  of  the  religions  (nlict  included  in  the  consti- 
tution of  181S,  as  in  all  respects  prejudicial  to  the  rights  of  the  church 
granted  by  the  concordat,  and  set  forth  in  ]jarticular  those  points 
which  were  most  restrictive  to  the  free  and  prop(>r  development  of  the 
catholic  church.  The  result  was  the  publication  in  April,  1852,  of  a 
rescript  which,  while  maintaining  all  the  principles  of  state  adminis- 
tration hitherto  followed,  introduced  in  detail  various  modifications, 
which,  on  the  renewal  of  the  complaints  in  1854,  were  somewhat 
further  increased  as  the  fullest  ajod  final  measure  of  surrender. — The 
change  brought  about  in  1866  in  the  relation  of  Bavaria  to  North 
Germany  led  the  government  under  Louis  II.  to  introduce  liberal 
reforms,  and  the  offensive  and  defensive  alliance  which  the  govern- 
ment concluded  with  the  heretical  Prussia,  the  failure  of  all  attempts 
on  the  outbreak  of  the  Franco-Prussian  war  to  force  it  in  violation  of 
treaty  to  maintain  neutrality,  and  then  to  prevent  Bavaria  becoming 
part  of  the  new  German  empire  founded  in  1871  at  the  suggestion  of 
her  own  king,  roused  to  the  utmost  the  wrath  of  the  Bavarian  clerical 
patriots.  In  the  conflicts  of  the  German  government,  in  1872,  against 
the  intolerable  assumptions,  claims  and  popular  tumults  of  the  ultra- 
montane clergy,  the  department  of  public  worship,  led  by  L\itz, 
inclined  to  take  an  energetic  part.  But  this  was  practically  limited 
to  the  passing  of  the  so-called  KanzeJparayraphen  (§  197,  4)  in  the 
Heich^tog.     Comp.  §  107,  14. 

4.  Attempts  at  Reorganization  of  the  Lutheran  Church. — Since  1852,  Dr. 
von  Harless  (§  182,  13),  as  president  of  the  upper  consistory  at  Munich, 
stood  at  the  head  of  the  Lutheran  church  of  Bavaria.  Under  his 
presidency  the  general  synod  at  Baireuth  in  1853  showed  a  vigorous 
activity  in  the  reorganization  of  the  church.  On  the  basis  of  its 
proceedings  tlie  upper  consistory  ordered  the  introduction  of  an 
admirable  new  hymnbook.  This  occasioned  considerable  disagreenwnit. 
Biit  when,  in  1856,  the  upper  consistory  issued  a  series  of  enactments 
on  worship  and  discipline,  a  storm,  originating  in  Nuremberg,  burst 
forth  in  the  autumn  of  that  same  year,  which  raged  over  the  whole 
kingdom  and  attacked  even  the  state  church  itself.  The  king  was 
assailed  with  petitions,  and  tlie  spiritual  courts  went  so  far  in  faint- 
heartedness as  to  put  the  acceptance  and  non-acceptance  of  its 
ordinances  to  the  vote  of  the  congregations.  Meanwhile  the  time  had 
come  for  calling  another  general  synod  (1857).  An  order  of  the  king 
as  head  of  the  church  abolished  the  union  of  the  two  state  synods  in 
a  general  synod  which  had  existed  since  1849,  and  foi'bad  all  discus- 
sion of  mattf'rs  of  discipline.  Hence  instead  of  one,  tivo  synods 
assembled,  the  one  in  October  at  Anspach,  the  other  in  November  at 
Baireuth.  Both,  C(jnsisting  of  equal  nvimbers  of  lay  and  clerical 
mi-nibers,  maintained  a  modei-ate  attitude,  relinquishing  none  of  tlie 


§  195.    BAVARIA.  299 

privileges  of  the  church  or  the  prerogatives  of  the  upper  consistory, 
and  3^et  contributed  greatly  to  the  assuaging  of  the  prevalent  excite- 
ment. Also  the  lay  and  clerical  members  of  the  subsequent  reunited 
general  synods  held  every  fourth  year  for  the  most  part  co-operated 
succ^-ssfully  on  moderate  church  lines.  The  s>Tiod  held  at  Baireuth 
in  1873  unanimously  rejected  an  address  sent  from  Augsburg  inspired 
by  "  Protestant  Union  "  sj'mpathies,  as  to  their  mind  "  for  the  most 
part  indistinct  and  where  distinct  unevangelical." 

.5.  The  Church  of  the  Union  in  the  Palatine  of  the  Rhine — In  the 
Bavarian  Palatine  of  the  Rhine  the  union  had  been  carried  out  in  1818 
on  the  understanding  that  the  symbolical  books  of  both  confessions 
should  be  treated  with  due  respect,  but  no  other  standard  recognised 
than  holy  scripture.  When  therefore  the  Erlangen  i^rofessor,  Dr. 
Rust,  in  1832  apjDcared  in  the  consistory  at  Si^ires  and  the  court  for 
that  time  had  endeavoured  to  fill  up  the  Palatine  union  with  positive 
Christian  contents,  204  clerical  and  lay  members  of  the  Diocesan 
SjTiod  presented  to  the  assembly  of  the  states  of  the  realm,  opportunely 
meeting  in  1837,  a  comi)laint  against  the  majority  of  the  consistory. 
As  this  memorial  yielded  practically  no  result,  the  opposition  wrought 
all  the  more  determinedly  for  the  severance  of  the  Palatine  church 
from  the  Munich  Upper  Consistory,  This  was  first  accomplished  in 
the  revolutionary  year  1848.  An  extraordinary  general  sj-nod 
brought  about  the  separation,  and  gave  to  the  country  a  new  demo- 
cratic church  constitution.  But  the  reaction  of  the  blow  did  not  stop 
there.  The  now  independent  consistory  at  Sjiires,  from  1853  under 
the  leadership  of  Ebrard,  convened  in  the  autumn  of  that  year  a 
general  synod,  which  made  the  Augustana  Variata  of  1540  as  repre- 
senting the  consensus  between  the  Augustana  of  1530  and  the  Heidel- 
berg as  well  as  the  Lutheran  catechism,  the  confessional  standard  of 
the  Palatine  church,  and  set  aside  the  democratic  election  law  of  1848. 
When  now  the  consistory,  purely  at  the  instance  of  the  general 
synod  of  1853,  submitted  to  the  diocesan  sjniod  in  1856  the  proofs  of 
a  new  hymnbook,  the  liberal  party  poured  out  its  bitter  indignation 
u^jon  the  system  of  doctrine  which  it  was  supposed  to  favour.  But 
the  diocesan  synods  admitted  the  necessity  of  introtlucing  a  new 
hymnbook  and  the  suitability  of  the  sketch  submitted,  recommending, 
however,  its  further  revision  so  that  the  recension  of  the  text  might 
be  broiight  up  to  date  and  that  an  appendix  of  150  new  hymns  might 
bo  added.  The  hymnbook  thus  modified  was  published  in  1859,  and 
its  introduction  into  church  use  left  to  the  judgment  of  presbyteries, 
while  its  iise  in  scliools  and  in  confirmation  instruction  was  insisted 
upon  forthwith.  This  called  forth  protest  after  protest.  The  government 
wished  from  the  first  to  support  the  synodal  decree,  but  in  presence  of 
growing  disturbance,  changed  its  attitude,  recommended  the  consistory 


300      CHURCH    HISTORY    OF    NINETEENTH    CENTURY. 

ti)  observe  ilcciilcd  nioiU'ration  so  as  to  restore  peace,  ami  in  February, 
18(51,  called  a  general  s^'nod  which,  however,  in  consequence  of  the 
Ijrevailingh'-  strict  ecclesiastical  tendencies  of  its  membei's,  again 
expressed  itself  in  favour  of  the  new  hymnbook.  Its  conchisions  were 
meanwhile  very  unfavourably  received  by  the  government,  Ebrard 
sought  and  obtained  liberty  to  resign,  and  even  at  the  next  sjTiod,  in 
1869,  the  consistory  went  hand  in  hand  with  the  liberal  majority. 

§  19().  The  South  German  Smaller  States  and 
Rhenish  Alsace  and  Lorraine. 

The  Protestant  princel}'-  houses  of  South  Germany  had  by 
the  Liineville  Peace  obtained  such  an  important  increase  of 
Catholic  subjects,  that  they  had  to  make  it  their  first  care 
to  arrange  their  delicate  relations  by  concluding  a  concordat 
with  the  papal  curia  in  a  manner  satisfactory  to  state  and 
church.  But  all  negotiations  broke  down  before  the  exorbi- 
tant claims  of  Rome,  until  the  political  restoration  move- 
ments of  1850  led  to  modifications  of  them  hitherto  un- 
dreamed of.  The  concordats  concluded  during  this  period 
were  not  able  to  secure  enforcement  over  against  the  liberal 
current  that  had  set  in  with  redoubled  power  in  1860, 
and  so  one  thing  after  another  was  thrown  overboard. 
Even  in  the  Protestant  state  churches  tliis  current  made 
itself  felt  in  the  persistent  efforts,  which  also  proved  succes- 
ful,  to  secure  the  restoration  of  a  representative  synodal 
constitution  which  would  give  to  the  lay  clement  in  the 
congregations  a  decided  influence. 

1.  The  Upper  Rhenish  Church  Province. — Tlie  governments  of  the 
South  Gernian  States  gathered  in  1818  at  Frankfort,  to  draw  up  a 
common  concordat  with  Rome.  But  owing  to  the  utterly  extravagant 
pret<!nsions  nothing  further  was  reached  than  a  new  delimitation  in 
the  bull  " /VofiVZff.  W/er.yr/Mc,"  1821,  of  the  bishojiries  in  the  so-called 
Up[)('r  lihenish  Church  Province :  the  archbishopric  of  Freiburg  for 
Baden  and  the  twoHoheiiznlliTu  piincipalities,  the  bishoprics  of  Mainz 
for  HesSe-Darmstadt,  Fulda  for  Hesse-Cass(0,  Rottenburg  for  Wiirt- 
temberg,  Limburg  for  Nassau  and  Frankfort ;  and  even  this  was 
given  effect  to  only  in  1827,  after  long  discussions,  with  the  provision 


§  196.    THE    SOUTH    GERMAN    SMALLER    STATES.       301 

(biill  Ad  dominicce  gregis  custodiam)  that  the  choice  of  the  bishops 
should  issue  indeed  from  the  chapter,  but  that  the  territorial  lord 
might  strike  out  objectionable  names  in  the  list  of  candidates  pre- 
viously submitted  to  him.  The  actual  equality  of  Protestants  and 
Catholics  which  the  pope  had  not  been  able  to  allow  in  the  concordat, 
was  now  in  1830  proclaimed  by  the  princes  as  the  law  of  the  land. 
Papal  and  episcopal  indulgences  had  to  receive  approval  before  their 
publication  ;  provincial  and  diocesan  synods  could  be  held  only  with 
approval  of  the  government  and  in  presence  of  the  commissioners  of 
the  prince ;  taxes  could  not  be  imposed  b}^  any  ecclesiastical  coui't ;  ap- 
peal could  be  made  to  the  civil  court  against  abuse  of  spiritual  power ; 
those  preparing  for  the  priesthood  should  receive  scientific  training  at 
the  universities,  practical  training  in  the  seminaries  for  priests,  etc. 
The  pope  issued  a  brief  in  which  he  characterized  these  conditions  as 
scandalous  novelties,  and  reminded  the  bishops  of  Acts  v.  29.  But 
only  the  Bishop  of  Fulda  followed  this  advice,  Avith  the  result  that  the 
Catholic  theological  faculty  at  Marburg  was  after  a  short  career 
closed  again,  and  the  education  of  the  priests  given  over  to  the  semi- 
nary at  Fulda.  Hesse-Darmstadt  founded  a  theological  faculty  at 
Giessen  in  1830 ;  Baden  had  one  already  in  Freiburg,  and  Wurtem- 
berg  had  in  1817  affiliated  the  faculty  at  Ellwanger  with  the  uni- 
versity of  Tubingen,  and  endowed  it  with  the  revenues  of  a  rich 
convent.  In  all  these  faculties  alongside  of  rigorous  scientific  exact- 
ness there  prevailed  a  noble  liberalism  without  the  surrender  of  the 
fundamental  Catholic  faith.  The  revolutionary  year,  1848,  fii'st  gave 
the  bishops  the  hope  of  a  successful  struggle  for  the  unconditional 
freedom  of  the  church.  In  order  to  enforce  the  Wiirzburg  decrees 
(§  192,  4),  the  five  bishops  issued  in  1851  a  joint  memorial.  As  the 
govermnents  delayed  their  answer,  they  declared  in  1852  that  they 
A\-ould  immediately  act  as  if  all  had  been  granted  them ;  and  when  at 
last  the  answer  came,  on  most  points  unfavourable,  they  said  in  1853, 
that,  obeying  God  rather  than  man,  they  would  proceed  whollj'  in 
accordance  A\-ith  canon  la'w. 

2.  The  Catholic  Troubles  in  Baden  down  to  1873.— The  Grand  Duchy 
of  Baden,  with  two-thirds  of  its  population  Catliolic,  where  in  1848 
the  revolution  had  shattered  all  the  foundations  of  the  state,  and 
where  besides  a  young  ruler  had  taken  the  reins  of  govermnent  in  his 
hands  only  in  1852,  seemed  in  spite  of  the  widely  prevalent  liberality 
of  its  clergy,  the  place  best  fitted  for  such  an  attemjit.  The  Arch- 
bishop of  Freiburg,  Herm.  von  Vicari,  in  1852,  now  in  his  eighty-fii-st 
year,  began  hy  arbitrarily  stopping,  on  the  evening  of  May  9th,  the 
obsequies  of  the  deceased  grand-duke  appointed  by  the  Catholic 
Supreme  Church  Council  for  Maj'  10th,  prohibiting  at  the  same  time 
the  saying  of  mass   for  the  dead  {pro  omnihun  dc/undis)  usual    at 


302      CHURCH   HISTORY   OF    NINETEENTH    CENTURY. 

Catholic  burials,  but  in  Baden  and  Bavaria  hitherto  not  refused  even 
to  Protestant  princes.  More  than  one  hundred  priests,  who  disobej'ed 
the  injunction,  were  sentenced  to  perform  penances.  In  the  following 
year  he  openly  declared  that  he  would  forthwith  carry  out  the  de- 
mands of  the  episcopal  memorial,  and  did  so  immediately  by  appoint- 
ing priests  in  the  exercise  of  absolute  authority,  and  by  holding 
entrance  examinations  to  the  seminary  without  the  presence  of  royal 
commissioners  as  required  by  law.  As  a  warning  remained  unheeded, 
the  government  issued  the  order  that  all  episcopal  indulgences  must 
before  publication  be  subscribed  by  a  grand-ducal  special  commissioner 
appointed  for  the  pur]30se.  Against  him,  as  well  as  against  all  the 
members  of  the  Supreme  Church  Comicil,  the  archbishop  i)roclaimed 
the  ban,  issued  a  fulminating  pastoral  letter,  which  was  to  have  been 
read  with  the  excommunication  in  all  churches,  and  ordered  preach- 
ing for  four  weeks  for  the  instruction  of  the  people  on  these  matters. 
At  the  same  time  he  solemnly  protested  against  all  supremacy  of 
the  state  over  the  church.  The  government  drove  the  Jesuits  out 
of  the  country,  forbad  the  reading  of  the  pastoral,  and  punished  dis- 
obedient priests  with  fines  and  imprisonment.  But  the  archbishop, 
spurred  on  by  Ketteler,  Bishop  of  Mainz,  advanced  more  boldly  and 
recklessly  than  ever.  In  May,  1854,  the  government  introduced  a 
criminal  process  against  him,  during  the  course  of  which  he  was  kept 
prisoner  in  his  own  house.  The  attempts  of  his  party  to  arouse  the 
Catholic  poi)ulation  by  demonstrations  had  no  serious  result.  At  the 
close  of  the  investigation  the  archbishop  was  released  from  his  con- 
finement and  continued  the  work  as  before.  The  government,  how- 
ever, still  remained  firm,  and  punished  every  offence.  In  June,  1855, 
however,  a  provisional  agreement  was  published,  and  finally  in  June, 
1859,  a  formal  concordat,  the  bull  JEtcrni  patris^  was  concluded  with 
Rome,  its  concessions  to  the  archbishop  almost  exceeeding  even  those 
of  Austria  (§  198,  2).  In  spite  of  ministerial  opposition  the  second 
chamber  in  March,  1860,  brought  up  the  matter  before  its  tribunal, 
repudiated  the  right  of  the  government  to  conclude  a  conv(>ntion  with 
Rome  without  the  approbation  of  the  states  of  the  realm,  and  for- 
bad the  grand-duke  to  enforce  it.  !He  complied  with  this  demand, 
dismissed  the  ministry,  insisted,  in  answer  to  the  papal  protest,  on  his 
obligation  to  respect  the  rights  of  the  constitution,  and  on  October 
9th,  1860,  sanctioned  jointly  with  the  chambers  a  law  on  the  legal 
position  of  the  Catholic  and  Protestant  churches  in  the  state.  The 
archbishop  indeed  declared  that  the  concordat  could  not  be  abolished 
on  one  side,  and  still  retain  the  force  of  law,  but  in  presence  of  the 
firm  attitude  of  the  government  he  desisted,  and  satisfied  himself 
Avith  giving  in  1861  a  grudging  acquiescinice,  by  which  Ik;  secured 
to  himself  greater  independence  than  Ijefore  in  ri'gard  to  imposing  of 


§  196.    THE    SOUTH    GERMAN    SMALLER    STATES.       303 

dues  and  administration  of  the  church  property.     Conflicts  with  the 
archbishop,  however,  and  with  the  clerical  minority  in  the  chamber, 
still  continued.     The  archbishop  died  in  1868.      His  see  remained 
vacant,  as  the  chapter  and  the  government  could  not  agree   about 
the  list  of  candidates ;  the  interim  administration  was  carried  on  by 
the  vicar-general,  Von   Kiibel   (died  1881),  as  administrator  of   the 
archdiocese,  quite  in  the  spirit  of  his  predecessor.     The  law  of  October 
9th,  1860,  had  prescribed  evidence  of  general  scientific  culture  as  a 
condition  of  appointment  to  an  ecclesiastical  office  in  the  Protestant  as 
well  as  the  Catholic  church.     Later  ordinances  required  in  addition : 
Possession  of  Baden  citizenship,  having  passed  a  favourable  examina- 
tion on  leaving  the  university,  a  university  course  of  at  least  two 
and  half  years,  attendance  vipon  at  least  three  courses  of  lectures 
in  the  philosophical  faculty,  and  finally  also  an  examination  before 
a  state  examining  board,  within  one  and  half  years  of  the  close  of 
the  university  curricukmi,  in  tlie  Latin  and  Greek  languages,  history 
of  philosophy,  general  history,  and  the  history  of  German  literature 
(later  also   the  so  called  KuUurexamen).     The  Freiburg  curia,  hoAV- 
ever,  protested,  and  in  1867  forbad  clergy  and  candidates  to  submit  to 
this  examination  or  to  seek  a  dispensation  from  it.     The  result  was, 
that  forthwith  no  clerg3-men  could  be  definitely  appointed,  but  up  to 
1874  no  legal  objection  was  made  to  interim  appointments  of  paro- 
chial administrators.     The  educational  law  of  1868  abolished  the  con- 
fessional character  of  the  public  schools.     In  1869  state  recognition 
was  withdrawn  from  the  festivals  of  Corpus  Christi,  the  holy  af)ostles, 
and  Mary,  as  also,  on  the  other  hand,  from  the  festivals  of  Maundy 
Thu]-sday   and   Good   Friday.      In   1870    obligatory  civil    marriage 
was  introduced,  while  all  compulsion  to  observe  the  baptismal,  con- 
firmational,  and   funeral   rites  of  the  chui'ch  was  abolished,  and  a 
law  on  the  legal  position  of  benevolent  institutions  was   passed  to 
withdraw  these  as  much  as  possible  from  the  administration  of  the 
ecclesiastical   authorities.     On   the  subsequent   course  of   events   in 
Baden,  see  §  197,  11. 

3.  The  Protestant  Troubles  in  Baden.— The  union  of  the  Lutheran 
and  Reformed  churches  was  carried  out  in  the  Grand  Duchy  of 
Baden  in  1821.  It  recognised  the  normative  significance  of  the 
Augustana,  as  well  as  the  Lutheran  and  Heidelberg  catchisms,  in  so 
far  as  by  it  the  free  examination  of  scriptux'e  as  the  only  source  of 
Christian  faith,  is  again  expressly  demanded  and  applied.  A  sjniod 
of  1834  provided  this  state  church  with  union-rationalistic  agenda, 
hymnbook,  and  catechism.  When  there  also  a  confessional  Lutheran 
sentiment  began  again  in  the  beginning  of  1850  to  prevail,  the  church 
of  the  union  opposed  this  movement  by  gensdarmes,  imprisonment  and 
fines.     The  pastor  Eichhorn,  and  later  also  the  pastor  Ludwig,  with 


304      CHURCH    HISTORY    OF    NINETEENTH    CENTURY. 

a  i)ortion  of  their  congregations  left  the  state  church  and  attached 
themselves  to  the  Breslau  Ujiper  Church  Conference,  but  amid  police 
int^.'rference  could  minister  to  their  flocks  only  under  cloud  of  night. 
After  long  refusal  the  grand-duke  at  last  in  1854  permitted  the 
separatists  the  choice  of  a  Lutheran  pastor,  but  pei-sistently  refused 
to  recognise  Eichhorn  as  such.  Pastor  Haag,  Avho  would  not  give  up 
the  Lutheran  distribution  formula  at  the  Lord's  sui)per,  Avas  after 
solemn  warning  deposed  in  1855.  On  the  other  hand  the  positive 
churchly  feeling  became  more  and  more  pronounced  in  the  state 
church  itself.  In  1854  the  old  rationalist  members  of  the  Supreme 
Chvirch  Council  were  silenced,  and  Ullmami  of  Heidelberg  was  made 
president.  Under  his  auspices  a  general  synod  of  1855  presented  a 
sketch  of  new  church  and  school  books  on  the  lines  of  the  union  con- 
sensus, with  an  endeavour  also  to  be  just  to  the  Lutheran  views.  The 
grand-duke  confirmed  the  decision  and  the  country  was  silent.  But 
when  in  1858  the  Supreme  Church  Coun(;il,  on  the  ground  of  the 
Synodal  decision  of  1855,  promulgated  the  general  introduction  of 
a  new  church  book,  a  violent  storm  broke  out  through  the  country 
against  the  liturgical  novelties  contained  therein  (extension  of  the 
liturgy  by  confession  of  sin  and  faith,  collects,  responses,  Scripture 
reading,  kneeling  at  the  supper,  the  making  a  confession  of  their 
faith  by  sponsors),  the  Heidelberg  faculty,  with  Dr.  Schenkel  at  its 
lic;iil,  l(uiding  the  opposition  in  the  Supreme  Church  Council.  Yet 
Hundeshagen,  who  in  the  s3niod  had  opposed  th(!  introduction  of  anew 
agenda,  (entered  the  lists  against  Schenkel  and  others  as  the  apologist  of 
tlie  abused  church  book.  The  grand-duke  then  decided  that  no'  con- 
gregation should  be  obliged  to  adopt  tlw  new  agenda,  while  the  intro- 
duction of  the  shorter  and  simpler  form  of  it  was  recommended. 
The  agitations  those  awakened  caused  its  rejection  by  most  of  the 
congregations.  Meanwhile  in  consequence  of  the  concordat  revolution 
in  18G0,  a  new  liberal  ministry  had  come  into  power,  and  the  govern- 
ment now  presented  to  the  chambers  a  series  of  thoroughly  liberal 
schemes  for  regulating  the  affairs  of  the  evang(^lical  church,  which 
were  passcid  by  large  majorities.  Toward  the  end  of  the  year  the 
government,  by  deposing  tin;  Sujirem*!  Church  Councillor  Heintz, 
began  to  assume  the  patronage  of  thr?  supreme  ecclesiastical  court. 
Ullmaim  and  Bahr  tenden'd  their  resignations,  which  Avere  accepted. 
The  n(!W  liberal  Supreme  Cliurch  Council,  including  Holtzmann,Rothe, 
etc.,  now  published  a  sketch  of  a  church  constitution  on  the  lines  of 
ecclesiastical  constitutionalism,  which  with  slight  modifications  the 
synod  of  July,  1861,  adopted  and  the  grand-duke  confirmed.  It  pro- 
vided for  amiual  diocfjsan  synods  of  lay  and  clerical  members,  and  a 
general  synod  every  five  years.  The  latter  consists  of  twenty-four 
clericiil  and  twent3^-four  lay  members,  and  six  chosen  by  the  grand- 


§  196.    THE    SOUTH    GERMAN    SMALLER    STATES.       305 

duke,  besides  the  prelate,  and  is  represented  in  the  interval  by  a 
standing  committee  of  four  members,  who  have  also  a  seat  and  vote 
in  the  Supreme  Church  Council.— Dr.  Schenkel's  '^LebenJesu  "  of  1864 
led  the  still  considerable  party  among  the  evangelical  clergy  who 
adhered  to  the  doctrine  of  the  church  to  agitate  for  his  removal 
from  his  position  as  director  of  the  Evangelical  Pastors'  Seminary  at 
Heidelberg ;  but  it  resulted  only  in  this,  that  no  one  was  obliged  to 
attend  his  lectures.  The  second  synod,  held  ahnost  a  year  behind 
time  in  1867,  passed  a  liberal  ordination  formula.  At  the  next  synod 
in  1871,  the  orthodox  pietistic  party  had  evidently  become  stronger, 
but  was  still  overborne  by  the  liberal  party,  whose  strength  was  in 
the  lay  element.  Meanwhile  a  praiseworthy  moderation  prevailed  on 
both  sides,  and  an  effort  was  made  to  work  together  as  peaceably  as 
possible. — In  Heidelberg  a  considerable  number  attached  to  the  old 
faith,  dissatisfied  with  the  preaching  of  the  four  "  Free  Protestant " 
city  pastors,  after  having  been  in  1868  refused  their  request  for  the 
joint  use  of  a  city  church  for  private  services  in  accordance  with  their 
religious  convictions  (§  180,  1),  had  built  for  this  purpose  a  chapel 
of  their  own,  in  which  numerously  attended  services  were  held  under 
the  direction  of  Professor  Frommel  of  the  gymnasium.  When  a 
vacancy  occurred  in  one  of  the  pastorates  in  1880,  this  believing 
minority,  anxious  for  the  restoration  of  unity  and  peace,  as  well  as 
the  avoidance  of  the  separation,  asked  to  have  Professor  Frommel 
appointed  to  the  charge.  At  a  preliminary  assembly  of  twenty-one 
liberal  church  members  this  proposal  was  warmly  supported  by  the 
president,  Professor  Bluntschli,  by  all  the  theological  professors,  Avith 
the  exception  of  Schenkel  and  eighteen  other  liberal  voters,  and 
agreed  to  by  the  majority  of  the  two  hundred  liberals  constituting 
the  assembly.  But  when  the  formal  election  came  round  the  pro- 
posal was  lost  by  twenty -seven  to  fifty-one  votes. 

4.  Hesse-Darmstadt  and  Nassau. — In  1819  the  government  of  the 
Grand  Duchy  of  Hesse  recommended  the  union  of  all  Protestant  com- 
munities under  one  confession.  Rhenish  Hesse  readily  agreed  to 
this,  and  there  in  1822  the  union  was  accomplished.  In  the  other 
provinces,  however,  it  did  not  take  effect,  although  by  the  rationalism 
fostered  at  Giessen  among  the  clergy  and  by  the  popular  ciu'rent  of 
thought  in  the  conununities,  the  Lutlieran  as  well  as  the  Reformed 
confession  had  been  robbed  of  all  significance.  But  since  1850  even 
there  a  powerful  Lutheran  reaction  among  the  yomiger  clerg}', 
zealously  furthered  by  a  section  of  the  aristocracy  of  the  state,  set  in, 
especially  in  the  district  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Rliine,  which  has 
eagerly  opposed  the  equally  eager  struggles  of  the  liberal  party  to 
introduce  a  liberal  synodal  representative  constitution  for  the 
evangelical  chui'ch  of  the  whole  state.     These  endeavours,  however, 

VOL.    III.  20 


306      CHURCH   HISTORY   OF   NINETEENTH   CENTURY. 

were  frustrated,  and  at  an  extraordinary  state  synod  of  1873,  on  all 
controverted  questions,  the  middle  party  gave  their  vote  in  favour  of 
the  absorptive  union.  The  state  church  -was  declared  to  be  the  united 
cliurch.  The  claiise  that  had  been  added  to  the  government  proposal : 
'•  "Without  prejudice  to  the  status  of  the  confessions  of  the  several  com- 
munities," -was  dropped  ;  the  place  of  residence  and  not  the  confession 
■was  that  which  determined  qualifications  in  the  community;  the 
ordination  now  expressed  obligation  to  tlie  Befonnation  confessions 
gtnierally,  etc.  The  members  of  the  minority  broke  oft'  their  connec- 
tion with  the  sjaiod,  and  seventy-seven  pastors  presented  to  the  sj-nod 
a  protest  against  its  decisions.  The  grand-duke  then,  on  the  basis 
of  these  deliberations,  gave  forthwith  a  charter  to  the  church  con- 
stitution, in  which  indeed  the  Lutheran,  Eefoi-med,  and  United 
churches  were  embraced  in  one  evangelical  state  church  with  a 
common  church  government ;  but  still  also,  by  restoring  the  phrase 
struck  out  by  the  sjaiod  from  §  1,  the  then  existing  confessional 
status  of  the  several  communities  was  preserved  and  the  confession 
itself  declared  beyond  the  range  of  legislation.  Yet  fifteen  Lutheran 
pastors  represented  that  they  could  not  conscientiously  accept  this, 
and  the  upper  consistory  hastened  to  remove  them  from  office  shortly 
before  the  shutting  of  the  gates,  i.e.,  before  July  1st,  1875,  when  by 
the  new  law  (§  197,  15)  depositions  of  clergy  would  belong  only  to  the 
supreme  civil  court.  The  opposing  congregations  now  declared,  in 
1877  their  withdrawal  from  the  state  chui'ch,  and  constituted  them- 
selves as  a  "  free  Lutheran  church  in  Hesse." — The  Catholic  churcli  in 
the  Grand  Duchy  of  Hesse,  had  under  the  peaceful  bishops  of  Mainz, 
Bur"-  (died  1833)  and  Kaiser  (died  18-19),  caused  the  government  no 
trouble.  But  it  was  otherwise  after  Kaiser's  death.  Rome  rejected 
Professor  Leopold  Sclimid  of  G  lessen,  favoured  at  Dannstadt  and 
re"-ularly  elected  by  the  chapter  (§  187,  3),  and  the  government  yielded 
to  the  appointment  of  the  violent  ultramontane  Westphalian,  Baron 
von  Ketteler.  His  first  aim  was  the  extinction  of  the  Catholic  faculty 
at  G lessen  (§  191,  2) ;  he  rested  not  until  the  last  student  had  been 
transferred  from  it  to  the  newly  erected  seminary  at  Mainz  (1851), 
No  less  energetic  and  successful  were  his  endeavours  to  free  tlie  Catholic 
church  from  the  supremacy  of  the  state;  in  accordance  with  the  Upper 
Rhenish  episcopal  memorial.  The  Dalwigk  ministry,  in  1854,  con- 
cluded a  "  provisional  agreement "  with  th<!  bishop,  whicli  secured  to 
him  unlimited  autonomy  and  sovereignty  in  all  ecclesiastical  matters, 
and  to  satisfy  the  pope  with  his  desiderata,  these  privileges  were  still 
further  extended  in  1856.  To  this  convention,  first  made  publicly 
known  in  1860,  the  ministry,  in  spite  of  all  addresses  and  protests, 
adhered  with  unfaltering  tenacit}',  although  long  convinced  of  its 
consequences.    The  political  events  of  1886,  however,  led  the  grand- 


§  196.    THE    SOUTH    GERMAN    SMALLER   STATES.      307 

duke  in  September  of  that  year  to  abrogate  the  hateful  convention. 
But  the  minister  as  well  as  the  bishop  considered  this  merely  to  refer 
to  tlie  episcopal  convention  of  1850,  and  treated  the  agreement  with 
the  pope  of  1856  as  always  still  valid.  So  everything  went  on  in  the 
old  way,  even  after  Ketteler's  supreme  influence  in  the  state  had  been 
broken  by  the  overthrow  of  Dalwigk  in  1871.  Comp.  §  197,  15.— The 
Protestant  church  in  the  Duchy  of  Naosau  attached  itself  to  the 
union  in  1817.  The  conflict  in  the  Upper  Ehenish  church  overflowed 
even  into  this  little  province.  The  Bishop  of  Limburg,  in  opposition 
to  law  and  custom,  appointed  Catholic  clergy  on  his  own  authoritj', 
and  excommunicated  the  Catholic  officers  who  supported  the  govern- 
ment, wliile  the  government  arrested  the  temporalities  and  instituted 
criminal  proceedings  against  bishop  and  chapter.  After  the  conclusion 
of  the  Wiirttemberg  and  Baden  concordats,  the  government  showed 
itself  disposed  to  adopt  a  similar  way  out  of  the  conflict,  and  in  spite 
of  all  opposition  from  the  State's  concluded  in  1861  a  convention  with 
the  bishop,  by  which  almost  all  his  hierarchical  claims  were  admitted. 
Thus  it  remained  until  the  incorporation  of  Nassau  in  the  Prussian 
kingdom  in  1866. 

5.  In  Protestant  Wiirttemberg  a  religious  movement  among  the 
people  reached  a  height  such  as  it  attained  nowhere  else.  Pietism, 
chiliasm,  separatism,  the  holding  of  conventicles,  etc.,  assumed  formid- 
able dimensions ;  solid  science,  philosophical  culture,  and  then  also 
philosophical  and  destructive  critical  tendencies  issuing  from  Tubingen 
affected  the  clergy  of  this  state.  Dissatisfaction  with  various  novelties 
in  the  liturgy,  the  hymnbook,  etc.,  led  many  formally  to  separate 
from  the  state  church.  Aft(!r  attempts  at  compulsion  had  proved 
fruitless,  the  government  allowed  the  malcontents  under  the  organiz- 
ing leadership  of  the  burgomaster,  G.  W.  Hoffman  (died  1846),  to  form 
in  1818  the  community  of  Kornthal,  Avith  an  ecclesiastical  and  civil 
constitution  of  its  own  after  the  apostolic  tj-pe.  Others  emigrated 
to  South  Russia  and  to  North  America  (§  211,  6,  7).  Out  of  the 
pastoral  work  of  pastor  Blumhardt  at  Mottlingen,  who  earnestly 
preached  repentance,  there  was  developed,  in  connection  with  the 
healing  of  a  demoniac,  which  had  been  accompanied  with  a  great 
awakening  in  the  commvniity,  the  "gift"  of  healing  the  sick  by 
absolution  and  laying  on  of  hands  with  contrite  believing  prayer. 
Blumhardt,  in  order  to  afford  this  gift  undisturbed  exercise,  bought 
the  Bad  Boll  near  Goppingen,  ai.d  officiated  there  as  pastor  and 
miraculous  healer  in  the  way  described.  He  died  in  1880. — After  the 
way  to  a  synodal  representation  of  the  whole  evangelical  state  church 
had  been  opened  up  in  1851  by  the  introduction,  according  to  a  royal 
ordinance,  of  parochial  councils  and  diocesan  sjTiods,  the  consistory 
having  also  in  1858  published  a  scheme  referring  thereto,  the  whole 


308      CHFRCH   HISTORY   OF   NINETEENTH   CENTURY. 

business  was  brought  to  a  standstill,  until  at  last  in  1867,  by  means  of 
a  royal  edict,  the  calling  of  a  State  Synod  consisting  of  twenty-five 
clerical  and  as  many  lay  members  was  ordered,  and  consequently  in 
February',  1869,  such  a  sjmod  met  for  the  fii-st  time.  Co-operation  in 
ecclesiastical  legislation  was  assigned  to  it  as  its  main  task,  while  it 
had  also  the  right  to  advise  in  regard  to  proposals  about  chvu'ch 
govermnent,  also  to  make  suggestions  and  complaints  on  such  mattei-s, 
but  the  confession  of  the  evangelical  church  was  not  to  be  touched, 
and  lay  entirely  outside  of  its  province.  A  liberal  enactment  with 
regard  to  dissentei-s  was  sanctioned  by  the?  chamber  in  1870. 

6.  The  Catholic  Church  in  Wiirttemherg. — Even  after  the  founding  of 
the  bishopric  of  Eottenberg  the  government  maintained  strictly  the 
previously  exercised  rights  of  sovereignty  over  the  Catholic  chui'ch, 
to  which  almost  one-third  of  the  population  belonged,  and  the  almost 
universally  prevalent  liberalism  of  the  Catholic  clergy  found  in  this 
scarcely  any  offence.  A  new  order  of  divine  service  in  1837,  which, 
with  the  approval  of  the  episcopal  council,  recommended  the  intro- 
duction of  German  hymns  in  the  services,  dispensing  the  sacraments 
in  the  German  language,  restriction  of  the  festivals,  masses,  and 
private  masses,  processions,  etc.,  did  indeed  cause  riots  in  several 
places,  in  which,  however,  the  clergy  took  no  part.  But  when  in 
1837,  in  consequence  of  the  excitement  caused  throughout  Catholic 
Germany  by  the  Cologne  conflict  (§  193,  1),  the  hitherto  only  isolated 
cases  of  lawless  refusal  to  consecrate  mixed  marriages  had  increased, 
the  government  proceeded  severely  to  punish  offending  clerg3^men, 
and  transported  to  a  village  curacy  a  Tubingen  professor.  Mack,  who 
had  declared  the  compulsory  celebration  unlawful.  Called  to  account 
by  the  nuncio  of  Munich  for  his  indolence  in  all  these  affaii-s  and 
severely  threatened,  old  Bishop  Keller  at  last  resolved,  in  1841,  to 
lay  before  the  chamber  a  formal  complaint  against  the  injury  done 
to  the  Catholic  church,  and  to  demand  the  freeing  of  the  church  from 
the  sovereignty  of  the  state.  In  the  second  chamber  this  motion  was 
simj^ly  laid  ad  acta,  but  in  the  first  it  was  recommended  that  the 
king  should  consider  it.  The  bishop,  however,  and  the  liberal 
chajjter  could  not  agree  as  to  the  terms  of  the  demand,  contradictory 
opinions  were  expressed,  and  things  remained  as  they  were.  But 
Bishop  Keller  fell  into  melancholy  and  died  in  1815.  His  successor 
took  his  stand  upon  th(i  memorial  and  declaration  of  the  Upper 
Rhtniish  bishops,  and  immediately  in  1853  began  the  conflict  by 
forbidding  his  clergy,  under  threats  of  severe  censirre,  to  submit  as 
law  required  to  civil  examinations.  The  government  that  had 
hitherto  so  firmly  maintained  its  sovereign  rights,  inider  pressure  of 
the  influence  which  a  lady  very  nearly  related  to  the  king  exercised 
over  him,  gave  in  without  more  ado,  quitted  tlie  bishop  first  of  all  by 


§  196.    THE    SOUTH   GERMAN   SMALLER   STATES.      309 

a  convention  in  1854,  and  then  entered  into  negotiations  with  the 
Roman  curia,  out  of  which  came  in  1857  a  concordat  proclaimed  by 
the  bull  C'mwi  in  mhlimi,  Avhich,  in  surrender  of  a  sovereign  right  of 
the  state  over  the  affairs  of  the  church,  far  exceeds  that  of  Austria 
(§  198,  2).  The  government  left  unheeded  all  protests  and  petitions 
from  the  chambers  for  its  abolition.  But  the  example  of  Baden  and 
the  more  and  more  decided  tone  of  the  opposition  obliged  the  govern- 
ment at  last  to  yield.  The  second  chamber  in  1861  decreed  the 
abrogation  of  the  concordat,  and  a  royal  rescript  declared  it  abolished. 
In  the  beginning  of  1862  a  bill  was  submitted  by  the  new  ministry 
and  passed  into  law  by  both  chambers  for  determining  the  relations  of 
the  Catholic  chm-ch  to  the  state.  The  royal  placet  or  right  of  per- 
mitting or  refusing,  is  required  for  all  clerical  enactments  which  are 
not  i)urely  inter-ecclesiastical  but  refer  to  mixed  mattei-s  ;  the  theo- 
logical endowments  are  subject  to  state  control  and  joint  administra- 
tion ;  boys'  seminaries  are  not  allowed ;  clergymen  appointed  to  office 
must  submit  to  state  examination;  according  to  consuetudinary 
rights,  about  two-thirds  of  the  benefices  are  filled  by  the  king,  one- 
third  by  the  bishops  on  reporting  to  the  civil  com-t,  which  has  the 
right  of  protest ;  clergy  who  break  the  law  are  removable  by  the  civil 
court,  etc.  The  cui-ia  indeed  lodged  a  protest,  but  the  for  the  most 
part  peace-loving  clergy  reared,  not  in  the  narrowing  atmosphere  of 
the  seminaries  but  amid  the  scientific  cultui-e  of  the  university,  in 
the  halls  of  Tubingen,  submitted  all  the  more  easily  as  they  foimd 
that  in  all  inter-ecclesiastical  matters  they  had  greater  freedom  and 
iiulcix'ndi'ncf^  under  the  concordat  than  before. 

7.  The  Imperial  Territory  of  Alsace  and  Lorraine  since  1871. — After 
Alsace  with  German  Lorraine  had  again,  in  consequence  of  the  Franco- 
Prussian  war,  been  united  to  Germany  and  as  an  imperial  territory 
had  been  placed  under  the  rule  of  the  new  German  emperor,  the 
secretary  of  the  Papal  States,  Cardinal  Antonelli,  in  the  confident 
hope  of  being  able  to  secure  in  retiu-n  the  far  more  favourable  con- 
ditions, rights  and  claims  of  the  Catholic  church  in  Prussia  with  the 
autocracy  of  the  bishops  unrestricted  by  the  state,  declared  in  a  letter 
to  the  Bishop  of  Strassbiirg,  that  the  concordat  of  1801  (§  208,  1)  was 
annulled.  But  when  the  imperial  government  showed  itself  ready  to 
accept  the  renunciation,  and  to  make  profit  out  of  it  in  the  opposite 
way  from  that  intended,  tlie  cardinal  hasted  in  another  letter  to  ex- 
I'lain  how  by  the  incorporation  with  Germany  a  new  arrangement  had 
become  necessary,  but  that  clearly  the  old  must  remain  in  force  until 
the  new  one  has  been  promulgated.  Also  a  petition  of  the  Catholic 
clergy  brought  to  Berlin  by  the  bishop  himself,  which  laid  claim  to 
this  luilimited  dominion  over  all  Catholic  educational  and  benevolent 
institutions,  failed  of  its  purpose.     The  clergy  therefore  wrought  for 


310      CHURCH   HISTORY   OF   NINETEENTH   CENTURY. 

this  all  the  more  zealously  by  fanaticizing  the  Catholic  people  in 
favour  of  Fi-ench  and  against  German  interests.  On  the  epidemic 
about  the  appearance  of  the  mother  of  God  called  forth  in  this  way, 
see  §  188,  7.  In  1874  the  government  found  itself  obliged  to  close 
the  so-called  "  little  seminaries,"  or  boj's'  colleges,  on  account  of  their 
fostering  sentiments  hostile  to  the  empire.  Yet  in  1880  the  newly  ap- 
pointed imperial  governor,  Field-marshal  von  Manteuflfel  (died  188")),  at 
the  request  of  the  States-Committee,  allowed  Bishop  Riiss  of  Strassburg 
to  reopen  the  seminary  atZillisheim,  with  the  proviso  that  his  teachers 
should  be  approved  by  the  government,  and  that  instruction  in  the 
German  language  should  be  introduced.  Manteuifel  has  endeavoured 
since,  by  yielding  favours  to  the  France-loving  Alsatians  and 
Lorrainers,  and  to  their  ultramontane  clergy,  to  win  them  over  to  the 
idea  of  the  German  empire,  even  to  the  evident  sacrifice  of  the  inte- 
rests of  resident  Germans  and  of  the  Protestant  church.  But  such 
fondling  has  Avrought  the  very  opposite  result  to  that  intended. 

§  197.     The  so-called  Kulturkaimpf  in  the  German 
Empire.  1 

Ultramontanism  had  for  the  time  being  granted  to  the  Prus- 
sian state,  which  had  not  only  allowed  it  absolutely  free  scope 
but  readily  aided  its  growth  throughout  the  realm  (§  193, 
2),  an  indulgence  for  that  offence  which  is  in  itself  unatone- 
able,  having  a  Protestant  dynasty.  Pius  IX.  had  himself 
repeatedly  expressed  his  satisfaction  at  the  conduct  of  the 
government.  But  the  league  which  Prussia  made  in  18GG 
with  the  "  church-robbing  Sub-al])ine,"  i.e.  Italian,  govern- 
ment, was  not  at  all  to  the  taste  of  the  curia.  The  day  of 
Sadowa,  3rd  July,  18GG,  called  from  Antonelli  the  mournful 
cry,  II  rnondo  ccssa^  "  The  world  has  gone  to  ruin,"  and 
the  still  more  glorious  day  of  Sedan,  2nd  September,  1870, 
completely  put  the  bottom  out  of  the  Danaid's  vessel  of 
ultramontane  forbearance  and  endurance.  This  daj'',  18th 
January,  1871,  had  as  its  result  the  overthrow  of  the  tem- 
poral   power  of  the  ])apacy  as  well  the  establishment  of  a 

*  Geffcken,  "  Church  and  State."  2  vols.  London,  1877.  Vol.  ii., 
pp.  -188-531. 


§  197.    KULTURKAMPF   IN   THE    GERMAN   EMPIRE.     311 

new  and  hereditary  German  empire  under  the  Protestant 
dynasty  of  the  Prussian  Hohenzollerns.  German  ultramon- 
tanism  felt  itself  all  the  more  under  obligation  to  demand 
from  the  new  emperor  as  the  first  expiation  for  such  un- 
canonical  usurpation,  the  reinstatement  of  the  pope  in  his 
lost  temporal  power.  But  when  he  did  not  respond  to  this 
demand,  the  ultramontane  party,  by  means  of  the  press 
favourable  to  its  claims,  formally  declared  war  against  the 
German  empire  and  its  governments,  and  applied  itself 
systematically  to  the  mobilization  of  its  entire  forces.  But 
the  empire  and  its  governments,  with  Prussia  in  the  van, 
with  unceasing  determination,  supported  b}''  the  majority 
of  the  States'  representatives,  during  the  years  1871-1875 
proceeded  against  the  ultramontanes  by  legislative  measures. 
The  execution  of  these  by  the  police  and  the  courts  of  law, 
owing  to  the  stubborn  refusal  to  obey  on  the  part  of  the 
higher  and  lower  clergy,  led  to  the  formation  of  an  opposi- 
tion, commonly  designated  after  a  phrase  of  the  Prussian 
deputy.  Professor  Virchow,  "  Kulturkampf^''^  which  was  in 
some  degree  modified  first  in  1887.  The  imperial  chancellor. 
Prince  Bismarck,  uttered  at  the  outset  the  confident,  self- 
assertive  statement,  "  We  go  not  to  Canossa," — and  even  in 
1880,  when  it  seemed  as  if  a  certain  measure  of  submission 
was  coming  from  the  side  of  the  papacy,  and  the  Prussian 
government  also  showed  itself  prepared  to  make  important 
concessions,  he  declared,  "  We  shall  not  buy  peace  with 
Canossa  medals  ;  such  are  not  minted  in  Germany."  Since 
1880,  however,  the  Prussian  government  with  increasing 
compliance  from  year  to  year  set  aside  and  modified  the 
most  oppressive  enactments  of  the  May  laws,  so  as  actually 
to  redress  distresses  and  inconveniences  occasioned  by  cleri- 
cal opposition  to  these  laws,  without  being  able  thereby  to 
obtain  any  important  concession  on  the  part  of  the  papal 
curia,  until  at  last  in  1887,  after  the  government  had  carried 


312      CHURCH   HISTORY   OF   NINETEENTH   CENTURY. 

concession  to  the  utmost  limit,  the  pope  put  his  seal  to 
definitive  terms  of  peace  by  admitting  the  right  of  giving 
information  on  the  part  of  the  bishops  regarding  appoint- 
ments to  vacant  pastorates,  as  well  as  the  right  of  protest 
on  the  part  of  the  government  against  those  thus  nominated. 

1.  The  Aggression  of  Ultramontanism. — Even  in  the  revolution  j^ear, 
ISiS,  German  ultramontanism,  in  order  to  obtain  what  it  called  the 
freedom  of  the  church,  had  zealously  seconded  many  of  the  efforts  of 
democratic  radicalism.  Nevertheless,  in  the  years  of  reaction  that 
followed,  it  succeeded  in  catching  most  of  the  influential  statesnuni  on 
the  limed  twig  of  the  assurance  that  the  episcopal  hierarchy,  with  its 
unlimited  sway  over  the  clergy  and  through  them  over  the  feelings 
of  the  people,  constituted  the  only  certain  and  dependable  bulwark 
against  the  revolutionai-y  movements  of  the  age,  and  this  idea  pre- 
vailed down  to  1860,  and  in  Prussia  down  to  1871.  But  the  overthrow 
of  the  concordat  in  Baden,  Wiirttemberg  and  Darmstadt  by  the  states 
of  the  realm  after  a  hard  conflict,  the  humiliation  of  Austria  in  1866, 
and  the  groAvth  in  so  threatening  a  manner  since  of  the  still  heretical 
Prussia,  jjroduced  in  the  whole  German  episcoijate  a  terrible  ajDpre- 
hension  that  its  hitherto  untouched  supremacy  in  the  state  would  be 
at  an  end,  and  in  order  to  ward  off  this  danger  it  was  driven  into 
agitations  and  demonstrations  partly  secret  and  partly  open.  On  8th 
October,  1868,  the  papal  nuncio  in  Munich,  Monsignor  Meglia,  uttered 
his  inmost  conviction  regarding  the  Wiirttemberg  resident  thus : 
"  Only  in  America,  England,  and  Belgium  does  the  Catholic  church 
receive  its  rights  ;  elsewhere  nothing  can  help  us  but  the  revolution." 
And  on  22nd  April,  1869,  Bishop  Senestray  of  Eegensburg  declared 
plainly  in  a  si^eech  delivered  at  Schwandorff :  "  If  kings  will  no  longer 
be  of  God's  grace,  I  shall  be  the  first  to  overthrow  the  throne.  .  .  . 
Only  a  war  or  revolution  can  help  us  in  the  end."  And  war  at  last 
came,  but  it  helped  only  their  opponents.  Although  at  its  outbreak 
in  1870  the  ultramontane  party  in  South  Germany,  especially  in 
Bavaria,  for  the  most  part  with  iinexamjiled  insolence  expressed  their 
sympathy  with  France,  and  after  the  brilliant  and  victorious  close  of 
the  war  did  everything  to  prevent  the  attachment  of  Bavaria  to  the 
new  German  empire,  their  North  German  brcithren,  accustomed  to 
the  boundless  compliance  of  the  Prussiaii  government,  indulged  the 
hope  of  prosecuting  their  own  ends  all  the  more  successfully  under 
the  new  regime.  Even  in  November,  1870,  Archbishop  Ledochowski 
of  Posen  visited  the  victorious  king  of  Prussia  at  Versailles,  in  order 
to  interest  him  personally  in  the  restoration  of  the  Papal  States.  In 
February,  1871,  in  the  same  place,  fifty -six  Catholic  deputies  of  the 


§  197.    KULTURKAMPF   IN    THE    GERMAN    EMPIRE.      313 

Prussian  parliament  presented  to  the  king,  who  had  meanwhile  been 
proclaimed  Emperor  of  Germany,  a  formal  petition  for  the  restoration 
of  the  temporal  power  of  the  pope,  and  soon  afterwards  a  deputation 
of  distinguished  laymen  waited  upon  him  "  in  name  of  all  the  Catho- 
lics of  Germany,"  with  an  address  directed  to  the  same  end.  The 
Bavarian  Fatherland  (Dr.  Sigl)  indeed  treated  it  with  scorn  as  a 
"  belly-crawling-deputation,  which  crawled  before  the  magnanimous 
hero-emperor,  beseeching  him  graciously  to  use  said  deputation  as 
his  spittoon."  And  the  Steckenherger  Bote,  inspired  by  Dr.  Ivetteler, 
declared  :  "  We  Catholics  do  not  entreat  it  as  a  favour,  but  demand  it 
as  our  right.  .  .  .  Either  you  must  restore  the  Catholic  church  to  all 
its  i^rivileges  or  not  one  of  all  your  existing  governments  will  endure." 
At  the  same  time  as  the  insinuation  was  spread  that  the  new  German 
empire  threatened  the  existence  of  the  Catholic  church  in  Germany,  a 
powerful  ultramontane  election  agitation  in  view  of  the  next  Reich- 
stag Avas  set  on  foot,  out  of  which  grew  the  party  of  the  "  Centre," 
so  called  from  sitting  in  the  centre  of  the  hall,  with  Von  Ketteler, 
Windthorst,  Mallinkrodt  (died  1874),  and  the  two  Keichenspergers, 
as  its  most  eloquent  leaders.  Even  in  the  debate  on  the  address  in 
answer  to  the  speech  from  the  throne  this  party  demanded  interven- 
tion, at  first  indeed  only  diplomatic,  in  favour  of  the  Papal  States. 
In  the  discussion  on  the  new  imperial  constitution  A.  Eeichensperger 
sought  to  borrow  from  the  abortive  German  landoAvners'  bill  of  1848, 
condemned  indeed  as  godless  by  the  S3dlabus  (§  185,  2),  principles  that 
might  serve  the  turn  of  ultramontanism  regarding  the  unrestricted 
liberty  of  the  press,  societies,  meetings,  and  religion,  with  the  most 
perfect  independence  of  all  religious  communities  of  the  State. 
Mallinkrodt  insisted  upon  the  need  of  enlarged  privileges  for  the 
Catholic  church  owing  to  the  great  growth  of  the  empire  in  Catholic 
territory  and  population.  All  these  motions  were  rejected  bj^  the 
Beichstag,  and  the  Prussian  government  answered  them  by  abolish- 
ing in  July,  1871,  the  Catholic  department  of  the  Ministry  of  Public 
Worship,  which  had  existed  since  1841  (§  193,  2).  The  Genfcr 
Korrespondenz,  shortly  before  highly  praised  by  the  pope,  declared : 
If  kings  do  not  help  the  papacy  to  regain  its  rights,  the  papacy  must 
also  withdraw  from  them  and  appeal  directly  to  the  hearts  of  the 
people.  "  Understand  ye  the  terrible  range  of  this  change  ?  Your 
hours,  O  ye  princes,  are  numbered  !  "  The  Berlin  Germania  pointed 
threateningly  to  the  approaching  revanche  war  in  France,  on  the 
outbreak  of  which  the  German  empire  would  no  longer  be  able 
to  reckon  on  the  sympathy  of  its  Catholic  subjects ;  and  the  Ell- 
wanger  hath.  Wochenhlatt  proclaimed  openly  that  only  France  is  able 
to  guard  and  save  the  Catholic  church  from  the  annihilating  pro- 
jects of  Prussia.     And  in  this  way  the  Catholic  people  throughout  all 


314      CHURCH    HISTORY    OF   NINETEENTH    CENTURY. 

Germany  were  roused  and  incited  bj'  the  Catliolic  press,  as  well  as 
from  the  pulpit  and  confessional,  in  homo  and  school,  in  Catholic 
monasteries  and  nunneries,  in  mechanics'  clubs  and  peasants'  unions, 
in  casinoes  and  assemblies  of  nobles.  Bishop  Ketteler  founded  ex- 
pressly for  purposes  of  such  agitations  the  Mainz  Catholic  Union,  in 
September,  1871,  which  by  its  itinerant  meetings  spread  far  and  wide 
the  flame  of  religious  fanaticism;  and  a  Bavarian  priest,  Lechner, 
preached  from  the  pulpit  that  one  does  not  know  whether  the  German 
princes  tire  by  God's  or  by  the  devil's  grace. 

2.  Conflicts  Occasioned  by  Protection  of  the  Old  Catholics,  1871-1872. — 
That  the  Prussian  government  refused  to  assist  the  bishops  in  perse- 
cuting the  Old  Catholics,  and  even  retained  these  in  their  positions 
after  excommunication  had  been  hurled  against  them,  was  regarded 
by  those  bishops  as  itself  an  act  of  persecution  of  the  Catholic  church. 
To  this  opinion  they  gave  official  expression,  under  solemn  protest 
against  all  encroachments  of  the  state  upon  the  domain  of  Catholic 
faith  and  law,  in  a  memorial  addressed  to  the  German  emperor  from 
Fulda,  on  September  7th,  1871,  but  were  told  firmly  and  decidedly  to 
keep  within  their  own  boundaries.  Even  before  this  Bishop  Krementz 
of  Ermeland  had  refused  the  missio  canonica  to  Dr.  Wolhnann,  teacher 
of  religion  at  the  Gymnasium  of  Braunsberg,  on  account  of  his  refus- 
ing to  acknowledge  the  dogma  of  infallibility,  and  had  forbidden 
Catholic  scholars  to  attend  his  instructions.  The  minister  of  public 
worship,  Von  Miihler,  decided,  because  religious  instruction  was  obliga- 
tory in  the  Prussian  gymnasia,  that  all  Catholic  scholars  must  attend 
or  be  expelled  from  the  institution.  The  Bavarian  government  fol- 
loAved  a  more  correct  coui'se  in  a  similar  case  that  arose  about  the 
same  time ;  for  it  recognised  and  protected  the  religious  instructions 
of  the  anti-infallibilist  priest,  Eenftle  in  Mering,  as  legitimate,  but 
still  allowed  parents  who  objected  to  Avithhold  their  childi-en  from  it. 
And  in  this  way  the  new  Prussian  minister,  Talk,  corrected  his  pre- 
decessor's mistake.  But  all  the  more  decidedly  did  the  government 
proceed  against  Bishop  Krementz,  when  he  publicly  proclaimed  the 
excommunication  uttered  against  Dr.  Wollmann  and  Professor 
Michelis,  which  had  been  forbidden  by  Prussian  civil  law  on  account 
of  the  infringement  of  civil  rights  connected  therewith  according 
to  canon  law.  As  the  bishop  could  not  be  brought  to  an  explicit 
acknowledgment  of  his  obligation  to  obey  the  laws  of  the  land,  the 
minister  of  public  worship  on  October  1st,  1872,  stripped  him  of  his 
temporalities.  But  meanwhile  a  second  conflict  had  broken  out.  The 
Catholic  field-provost  of  the  Prussian  army  and  bishop  in  xx^rtihus, 
Namszanowski,  had  under  papal  direction  commanded  the  Catholic 
divisional  cha])lain,  Liinnemann  of  Cologne,  on  pain  of  excommuni- 
cation, to  discontinue  the   military  worsliii)  in  the  garrison  chapel. 


§  197.    KULTURKA.MPF    IN    THE    GERMAN   EMPIRE.      315 

which,  by  leave  of  the  militar}''  court,  was  jointly  used  by  the  Old 
Catholics,  and  so  was  desecrated.  He  was  therefore  brought  before  a 
court  of  discipline,  suspended  from  his  office  in  May,  1872,  and  finally, 
by  roj-al  ordinance  in  1873,  the  office  of  field-provost  was  wholly 
abolished. 

3.  Struggles  over  Educational  Questions,  1872-1873. — In  the  formerly 
Polish  i^rovinces  of  the  Prussian  kingdom  the  Polonizeition  of  resident 
Catholic  Germans  had  recently  assumed  threatening  proportions.  The 
archbishop  of  Posen  and  Gnesen,  Count  Ledochowski,  whom  the  pope 
during  the  Vatican  Council  appointed  primate  of  Poland,  was  the 
main  centre  of  this  agitation.  In  the  Posen  priest  seminary  he  formed 
for  himself,  in  a  fanatically  Polish  clergy,  the  tools  for  carrying  it  out, 
and  in  the  neighbouring  Schrimm  he  founded  a  Jesuit  establishment 
that  managed  the  whole  movement.  Where  j^reviously  Polish  and 
German  had  been  preached  alternately,  German  was  now  banished, 
and  in  the  public  schools,  the  oversight  of  which,  as  throughout  all 
Prussia,  lay  officially  in  the  hands  of  the  clerg}',  all  means  were  used 
to  discoui'age  the  study  of  the  German  language,  and  to  stamp  out  the 
German  national  sentiment.  But  even  in  the  two  western  provinces 
the  Catholic  public  schools  Avere  made  by  the  clerical  school  inspectors 
wholly  subservient  to  the  designs  of  ultramontanism.  In  order  to 
stem  such  disorder  the  government,  in  February,  1872,  sanctioned  the 
School  Inspection  Law  passed  by  the  parliament,  by  which  the  right 
and  duty  of  school  inspection  was  transferred  from  the  chiu'ch  to  the 
state,  so  that  for  the  sake  of  the  state  the  clerical  inspectors  hostile 
to  the  government  were  set  aside,  and  where  necessary  might  be 
replaced  by  lajanen.  A  pastoral  letter  of  the  Prussian  bishops 
assembled  at  Fulda  in  Aj^ril  of  that  year  complained  bitterly  of 
persecution  of  the  church  and  unchristianizing  of  the  schools,  but 
advised  the  Catholic  clergy  under  no  circumstances  voluntarily  to 
resign  school  inspection  where  it  was  not  taken  from  them.  By  a 
rescript  of  the  minister  of  public  woi-ship  in  June,  the  exclusion  of 
all  members  of  spiritual  orders  and  congregations  from  teaching  in 
public  schools  was  soon  folloAved  by  the  sixppression  of  the  Marian 
congregations  in  all  schools,  and  it  was  enjoined  in  March,  1873,  that 
in  Polish  districts,  where  other  subjects  had  been  taught  in  the  higher 
educational  institutions  in  the  German  language,  this  also  would  be 
obligatory  in  religious  instruction.  Ledochowski  indeed  dii-ected  all 
religious  teachers  in  his  diocese  to  use  the  Polish  language  after  as 
they  had  done  before,  but  the  government  suspended  all  teachers  who 
followed  his  direction,  and  gave  over  the  religious  instruction  to 
lay  teachers.  The  archbishop  now  erected  private  schools  for  the 
religious  instruction  of  gjannasial  teachei-s,  and  the  govermnent  forbad 
attendance  at  them. 


316      CHrRCH    HISTORY    OF    NINETEENTH    CENTUEY. 

4.  The  Kanzelparagraph  and  the  Jesuit  Law,  1871-1872. — "While  thus 
the  Prussian  govfrnmcnt  took  more  and  more  decided  measures 
against  the  ultramontanism  that  had  become  so  rampant  in  its 
domains,  on  the  other  hand,  its  mobile  band  of  warriors  in  cassock, 
dress  coat,  and  blouse  did  not  cease  to  labour,  and  the  imperial  govern- 
ment passed  some  drastic  measures  of  defence  applicable  to  the  whole 
empii-e.  At  the  instance  of  the  Bavarian  government,  which  could 
not  defend  itself  from  the  violence  of  its  "  patriots,"  the  Federal 
Council  asked  the  Reichstag  to  add  a  new  article  to  the  penal  code 
of  the  emjnre,  threatening  any  misuse  of  the  pulpit  for  political 
agitation  with  imprisonment  for  two  years.  The  Bavarian  minister 
of  piiblic  worship,  Lutz,  imdertook  himself  to  support  this  bill  before 
the  Reichstag.  "For  several  decades,"  he  said,  "the  clergy  in  Ger- 
many have  assumed  a  new  character;  they  are  become  the  simple 
reflection  of  Jesuitism."  The  Reichstag  sanctioned  the  bill  in  Decem- 
ber, 1871.  Far  more  deeply  than  this  so-called  Kanzelparagraph,  the 
operation  of  which  the  agitation  of  the  clergy  by  a  little  circum- 
spection could  easily  elude,  did  the  Jesuit  Law,  published  on  July  4th, 
1872,  cut  into  the  flesh  of  Geniian  ultramontanism.  Already  in  April 
of  that  year  had  a  petition  from  Cologne  demanding  the  expulsion  of 
the  Jesuits  been  presented  to  the  Reichstag.  Similar  addresses  flowed 
in  from  other  places.  The  Centre  party,  on  the  other  hand,  organized 
a  regular  flood  of  jjetitions  in  favour  of  the  Jesuits.  The  Reichstag 
referred  both  to  the  imperial  chancellor,  with  the  request  to  introduce 
a  law  against  the  movements  of  the  Jesuits  as  dangerous  to  the  State. 
The  Federal  Council  complied  with  this  request,  and  so  the  law  was 
liassed  which  ordained  the  removal  of  the  Jesuits  and  related  orders 
and  congregations,  the  closing  of  their  institutions  within  six  months, 
and  prohibited  the  fonnation  of  any  other  orders  by  their  individual 
members,  and  the  government  authorised  the  banishment  of  foreign 
members  and  the  interning  of  natives  at  appointed  places.  A  later 
ordinance  of  the  Federal  Council  declared  the  Redemptorists,  Lazarists, 
Priests  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  and  the  Society  of  the  H('art  of  Jesus  to  be 
orders  related  to  the  Soci(ity  of  Jesus.  Those  afTected  by  this  law 
anticipated  tlie  threatened  interning  by  voluntarily  removiiig  to 
Belgium,  Holland,  France,  Turkey,  and  Am(>rica. 

5.  The  Prussian  Ecclesiastical  Laws,  1873-1875. — In  order  to  be  able 
to  check  ultramontanism,  even  in  its  pyedagogical  breeding  places,  the 
episcopal  colleges  and  seminaries,  and  at  the  same  time  to  restrict 
by  law  the  despotic  absolutism  of  the  bishops  in  disciplinary  and 
beneficiary  matters,  the  Prussian  government  brought  in  other  four 
ecclesiastical  bills,  which  in  spite  of  violent  opposition  on  the  part 
of  the  Centre  and  tin;  Old  Conservatives,  were  successively  passed  by 
Ijoth  houses  of  parliament,  and  api)roved  by  the  king  on  May  11th, 


§  197.    KULTURKAMPF    IN    THE    GEBMAN    EMPIEE.      317 

12th,  13th,  and  14th,  1873.  Their  most  important  provisions  are: 
As  a  condition  for  admission  to  a  spiritual  office  the  state  requires 
citizenshijD  of  the  German  empire,  three  years'  study  at  a  German 
university,  and,  besides  an  exit  gymnasial  examination  preceding 
the  university  course,  a  state  examination  in  general  knowledge  (m 
philosojDhy,  history,  and  German  literature),  in  addition  to  the  theo- 
logical examination.  The  episcopal  boys'  seminaries  and  colleges  are 
abolished.  The  priest  seminaries,  if  the  minister  of  worship  regards 
them  as  fit  for  the  purpose,  may  take  the  place  of  the  university 
course,  but  must  be  under  regular  state  inspection.  The  candidates 
for  spiritual  offices,  which  must  never  be  left  vacant  more  than  a 
year,  are  to  be  named  to  the  chief  president  of  the  province,  and  he 
can  for  cogent  reasons  lodge  a  protest  against  them.  Secession  from 
the  church  is  freely  allowed,  and  releases  from  all  personal  obli- 
gations to  pay  ecclesiastical  dues  and  perform  ecclesiastical  duties. 
Excommunication  is  permissible,  but  can  be  proclaimed  only  in 
the  congregation  concerned,  and  not  publicly.  The  power  of  church 
discipline  over  the  clergy  can  be  exercised  only  by  Gei-man  superiors 
and  in  accordance  with  fixed  processional  procedure.  Corporal 
punishment  is  not  permissible,  fines  are  allowed  to  a  limited  extent, 
and  restraint  by  interning  in  so-called  Demeriti  houses,  but  only  at 
furthest  of  three  months,  and  when  the  party  concerned  willingly 
consents.  Church  servants,  whose  remaining  in  office  is  incompatible 
with  the  public  order,  can  be  deposed  by  civil  sentence.  And  as 
final  court  of  appeal  in  all  cases  of  complaint  between  ecclesiastical 
and  civil  authorities  as  well  as  within  the  ecclesiastical  domain,  a 
royal  court  of  justice  for  ecclesiastical  affairs  is  constituted,  whose 
proceedings  are  open  and  its  decision  final, — But  even  the  May  Laws 
soon  proved  inadequate  for  checking  the  insolence  of  the  bishops  and 
the  disorders  among  the  Catholic  population  occasioned  thereby.  In 
December,  1873,  therefore,  by  sovereign  authority  there  was  prescribed 
a  new  formula  of  the  episcopal  Oath  of  Allegiance,  recognising  more 
distinctly'  and  decisively  the  duty  of  obedience  to  the  laws  of  the 
state.  Then  next  a  bill  was  presented  to  the  parliament,  which 
had  been  kept  in  view  in  the  original  constitution,  demanding  obli- 
gatory civil  marriage  and  abolition  of  compulsory  baptism,  as  well 
as  the  conducting  of  civil  i-egistration  by  state  officials.  In  February, 
1874,  it  was  passed  into  law.  On  the  20th  and  21st  May,  1874,  two 
other  bills  brought  in  for  extending  the  May  Laws  of  the  previous 
year,  in  consequence  of  which  a  bishop's  see  vacated  by  death,  a 
judicial  sentence,  or  any  other  cause,  must  be  filled  within  the  space 
of  a  year,  and  the  chapter  must  elect  within  ten  days  an  episcopal 
administrator,  who  has  to  be  presented  to  the  chief  president,*  and  to 
undertake  an  oath  to  obey  the  laws  of  the  state.     If  the  chapter  docs 


318      CHURCH    HISTORY    OP   NINETEENTH    CENTURY. 

not  fulfil  those  roquiivnuonts,  a  lay  commissioner  will  be  ajipointod  to 
administer  tlie  aifaii-s  of  the  diocese.  During  the  episcopal  vacancy, 
all  vacant  pastorates,  as  well  as  all  not  legally  filled,  can  be  at  once 
validly  supplied  by  the  act  of  the  patron,  and,  where  no  such  right 
exists,  by  congregational  election.  Parochial  property,  on  the  illegal 
appointment  of  a  pastor,  is  given  over  to  be  administered  by  a  lay 
commissioner. — The  empire  also  came  to  the  help  of  the  May  Laws 
bj^  an  imperial  enactment  of  May  4th,  1874,  sanctioned  by  the 
emperor,  which  empowers  the  competent  state  government  to  intern 
all  church  officers  discharged  from  their  office  and  not  yielding  sub- 
mission thereto,  as  well  as  all  punished  on  account  of  incompetence 
in  their  official  duties,  and,  if  this  does  not  help,  to  condemn  them 
to  loss  of  their  civil  rights  and  to  expulsion  from  the  German  federal 
territory. — Also  in  its  next  session  the  imperial  house  of  repre- 
sentatives again  gave  legislative  sanction  to  the  KuHurkampf;  for 
in  January,  1875,  it  passed  a  bill  presented  by  the  Federal  Council 
on  the  deposition  on  oath  as  to  personal  rank,  and  on  divorce  with 
obligatory  civil  marriage,  which,  going  far  beyond  the  Prussian  civil 
law  of  the  previous  year,  and  especially  ridding  Bavaria  of  its 
strait-jacket  canon  marriage  law  enforced  by  the  concordat,  abolished 
the  spiritual  jurisdiction  in  favour  of  that  of  the  civil  courts,  and 
gave  it  to  the  state  to  determine  the  qualifications  for,  as  well  as 
the  hindrances  to,  divorce,  without,  however,  touching  the  domain 
of  conscience,  or  entrenching  in  any  way  upon  the  canon  law  and  the 
demands  of  the  church. 

().  Opposition  in  the  States  to  the  Prussian  May  Laws.— Bishop  Martin 
of  Piulcrlnirn  had  even  beforehand  refused  obedience  to  the  May 
Laws  of  1878.  After  their  promulgation,  all  the  Prussian  bishops 
collectively  declared  to  the  ministry  that  "  they  were  not  in  a  position 
to  carry  out  these  laws,"  with  the  further  statement  that  they  could 
not  comply  even  with  those  demands  in  them  which  in  other  states, 
by  agreement  with  the  pope,  are  acknowledged  by  the  church, 
because  they  are  administered  in  a  one-sided  way  by  the  state  in 
Prussia.  On  these  lines  also  they  proceeded  to  take  action.  First  of 
all,  the  refractoriness  of  several  of  the  seminaries  drew  down  upon 
them  the  loss  of  endowment  and  of  the  right  of  representation  ;  and 
in  the  next  place,  the  refusal  of  the  bishops  to  notify  their  appoint- 
ment of  clergjaiien  led  to  their  being  frequently  fined,  while  the 
church  books  and  s(!als  were  taken  away  from  clergymen  so  ap- 
pointed, all  the  official  acts  performed  by  them  were  pronounced 
invalid  in  civil  law,  and  those  who  performed  them  were  subjected 
to  fines.  But  here,  too,  again  Bishop  Martin,  well  skilled  in  church 
history  (he  had  been  previously  professor  of  theology  in  Bonn),  had 
beforehand  in  a  pastoral  instructed  his  clergy  that  "  since  the  daj's 


§  197.    KULTURKAMPF    IN    THE    GERMAN    EMPIRE.      319 

of  Diocletian  there  had  not  been  seen  so  violent  a  persecution  of  the 
name  of  Jesus  Christ."  Soon  after  this  Archbishop  Ledochowski,  in 
an  official  document  addressed  to  the  Chief  President  of  Poland,  com- 
pared the  demand  to  give  notification  of  clerical  appointments  with 
the  demand  of  ancient  Rome  upon  Christian  soldiere  to  sacrifice  to 
the  heathen  gods.  And  by  order  of  the  pope  pra}'ers  were  offered 
in  all  churches  for  the  church  so  harshly  and  cruelly  persecuted. 
And  yet  the  Avhole  "  persecution "  then  consisted  in  nothing  more 
than  this,  that  a  newlj'  issued  law  of  the  state,  under  threat  of  fine 
in  case  of  disobedience,  demanded  again  of  the  bishops  paid  by  the 
state  what  had  been  accepted  for  centuries  as  unobjectionable  in 
the  originally  Catholic  Bavaria,  and  also  for  a  long  while  in  France, 
Portugal,  and  other  Romish  comitries,  what  all  Prussian  bishops 
down  to  1850  (§  193,  2)  had  done  without  scruple,  what  the  bishops 
of  Paderborn  and  Miinster  even  had  never  refused  to  do  in  the 
extra-Prussian  portion  of  these  dioceses  (Oldenburg  and  Waldeck), 
as  also  the  Prince-Bishop  of  Breslau,  since  the  issuing  of  the  similar 
Austrian  May  Laws  (§  198,  4)  in  the  Austro-Silesian  part  of  his 
diocese,  what  the  episcopal  courts  of  Wiirtttmiberg  and  Baden  had 
yielded  to,  although  in  almost  all  these  states  the  demand  referred 
to  broke  up  the  union  with  the  papal  curia.  Yet  before  a  year  had 
passed  the  cases  of  punishment  for  these  offences  had  so  increased  that 
the  only  very  inadeqiiate  fines  that  could  be  exacted  by  the  seizui-e 
of  property  had  to  be  changed  into  equivalent  sentences  of  imprison- 
ment. The  first  prelate  who  suffered  this  fate  was  Archbishop 
Ledochowski,  in  February,  1874.  Then  followed  in  succession  :  Eber- 
hard  of  Treves,  Melchers  of  Cologne,  Martin  of  Paderborn,  and 
Brinkmann  of  Miinster.  The  ecclesiastical  court  of  justice  expressly 
pronounced  deposition  against  Ledochowski  in  April,  1874 ;  against 
Martin  in  January,  1875,  and  against  the  Prince-Bishop  Forster  of 
Breslau  in  October,  1875,  who  alone  had  dared  to  proclaim  in  his 
diocese  the  encyclical  Quod  nunquam  (Par.  7).  But  the  latter  had 
even  beforehand  withdrawn  the  diocesan  property  to  the  value  of 
900,000  marks  to  his  episcopal  castle,  Johannisberg,  in  Austro-Silesia, 
where  with  a  truly  princely  income  from  Austrian  funds  he  could 
easily  get  over  the  loss  of  tlie  Prussian  part  of  his  revenues.  Martin, 
who  had  been  interned  at  Wesel,  fled  in  August,  1875,  under  cloud 
of  night,  to  Holland,  from  whence  he  transferred  his  agitations  into 
Belgium,  and  finally  to  London  (died  1879).  Ledochowski  found  a 
residence  in  the  Vatican.  Brinkmann  Avas  deposed  in  Marcli,  and 
Melchers  in  June,  1876,  after  both  had  beforehand  proved  their 
enjoyment  of  martyrdom  by  escaping  to  Holland.  Eberhard  of 
Treves  anticipated  his  deposition  from  office  by  his  death  in  May, 
1876.     Blum  of  Limburg  was  deposed  in  June,  1877,  and  Beckmann 


320      CHURCH    HISTORY    OF    NINETEENTH    CENTURY. 

of  Osuabriiok  dioil  in  1878. — lu  tlio  Prussian  parliament  and  German 
Reichstap;  the  Centre  party,  'supporti'd  by  Guelphs,  Poles,  and  the 
Social  Democrats,  had  meanwhile  with  anger,  scorn,  and  vitupera- 
tion, with  and  without  wit,  fought  not  only  against  all  ecclesiastical, 
but  also  against  all  other  legislative  proposals,  whose  acceptance  was 
specially  desired  by  the  government.  And  all  the  representatives  of 
the  ultramontane  press  within  and  without  Europe  vied  with  one 
another  in  violent  denunciation  of  the  ecclesiastical  laws,  and  in 
unmeasured  abuse  of  the  emperor  and  the  empire.  But  almost  with- 
out exception  the  Roman  Catholic  officials  in  Prussia,  as  well  as  the 
Protestants  and  Old  Catholics,  carried  out  "  the  Diocletian  persecution 
of  Christians  "  in  the  judicial  and  police  measures  introduced  by  the 
church  laws.  A  number  of  Catholic  notables  of  the  eastern  provinces 
of  their  own  accord,  in  a  dutiful  address  to  the  emperor,  expressly 
accepted  the  condemned  laws,  and  won  thereby  the  nickname  of 
"State  Catholics."  The  great  mass  of  the  Catholic  people,  high  and 
low,  remained  unflinchingly  faithful  to  the  resisting  clergy  in,  for 
the  most  part,  only  a  passive  opposition,  although  even,  as  the 
Berlin  Germania  expressed  it,  "  the  Catholic  rage  at  the  Bismarckian 
ecclesiastical  polity  could  condense  itself  into  one  Catholic  head " 
in  a  murderous  attempt  on  the  chancellor  in  quest  of  health  at 
Kissingen,  on  July  18th,  1871.  It  was  the  cooper,  Kullmann,  who, 
fanaticised  by  exciting  speeches  and  writings  in  the  Catholic  society 
of  Salzwedel,  sought  to  take  vengeance,  as  he  himself  said,  upon  the 
chancellor  for  the  May  Laws  and  "  the  insult  offered  to  his  party 
of  the  Centre." — In  the  further  course  of  the  Prussian  KuIturJcampf, 
however,  fostered  by  the  aid  of  the  confessional,  the  insinuating 
assiduity  of  the  clerical  press,  and  the  all-prevailing  influence  of  the 
thoroughly  disciplined^  Catholic  clergy  over  the  popish  masses,  the 
Centre  grew  in  number  and  importance  at  the  elections  from  session 
to  session,  so  that  from  the  beginning  of  1880,  by  the  unha2)py 
division  of  the  other  parties  in  the  Reichstag  as  well  as  Chamber, 
it  united  sometimes  with  the  Conservatives,  sometimes  and  most 
frequently  with  the  Progressionists  and  Democrats  renouncing  the 
KuUurkampf,  and  was  supported  on  all  questions  by  Poles,  Danes, 
Guelphs,  and  Alsatian-Lorrainers,  as  clerical  interest  and  ultramon- 
tane tactics  required,  in  accordance  with  the  plan  of  campaign  of  the 
commander-in-chief,  especially  of  t\w  quondam  Hanoverian  minister 
Windthorst,  dominated  far  more  by  Guelphic  than  by  ultramontane 
tendencies.  The  Centre  was  thus  able  to  turn  the  scale,  until,  at 
least  in  the  Reichstag,  after  the  dissolution  and  new  election  of  1887, 
its  dominatory  power  was  broken  by  the  closer  combination  of  the 
conservative  and  national  liberal  parties. 

7.   Share  in  the  Conflict  taken  by  the  Pope. — Pius  IX.  had  congratu- 


^  197.    KULTURKAMPF   IN    THE    GERMAN   EMPIRE.      321 

lated  the  now  emjieror  in  1871,  trusting,  as  he  wrote,  that  his  efforts 
tlirected  to  the  common  weal  "might  bring  blessing  not  only  to 
Gei-many,  but  also  to  all  Europe,  and  might  contribute  not  a  little 
to  the  protection  of  the  liberty  and  rights  of  the  Catholic  religion." 
And  when  first  of  all  the  Centre  party,  called  forth  by  the  election 
agitation  of  German  ultramontanism,  opened  its  politico-clerical 
campaign  in  the  Reichstag,  he  expressed  his  disapproval  of  its 
l)roceeding3  upon  Bismarck's  complaining  to  the  papal  secretary 
Antonelli.  Yet  a  deputation  of  the  Centre  sent  to  Rome  succeeded 
in  winning  over  both.  In  order  to  build  a  bridge  for  the  securing 
an  understanding  with  the  curia,  now  that  the  conflict  had  grown 
in  extent  and  bitterness,  the  imperial  government  in  May,  1872, 
appointed  the  Bavarian  Cardinal  Prince  Hohenlohe  to  the  vacant 
post  of  ambassador  to  the  Vatican.  But  the  pope,  with  offensive  reck- 
lessness, rejected  the  well-meant  proposal,  and  forbade  the  cardinal 
to  accept  the  imperial  appointment.  From  that  time  he  gave  free 
and  public  expression  on  every  occasion  to  his  senseless  bitterness 
against  the  German  empire  and  its  government.  In  an  address  to 
the  German  Reading  Society  at  Rome  in  July,  1872,  he  allowed 
himself  to  use  the  most  violent  expressions  against  the  German 
chancellor,  and  closed  with  the  i^rophetic  threatening :  "  Who  knows 
but  the  little  stone  shall  soon  loose  itself  from  the  mountain  (Dan. 
ii,  34),  which  shall  break  in  pieces  the  foot  of  the  colossus  ?  "  But 
even  this  diatribe  Avas  cast  in  the  shade  by  the  Christmas  allocution 
of  that  year,  in  which  he  was  not  ashamed  to  characterize  the  pro- 
cedure of  the  German  statesmen  and  their  imperial  sovereign  as 
"  impudentia."  And  after  the  publication  of  the  first  May  Laws  he 
addressed  a  letter  to  the  emperor,  in  which,  founding  upon  the  fact 
that  even  the  emperor  like  all  baptized  pei-sons  belonged  to  him, 
the  pope,  he  cast  in  his  teeth  that  "  all  the  measures  of  his  govern- 
ment for  some  time  aimed  more  and  more  at  the  annihilation  of 
Catholicism,"  and  added  the  threatening  announcement  that  "  these 
measures  against  the  religion  of  Jesus  Christ  can  have  no  other  result 
than  the  overthrow  of  his  own  throne."  The  emperor  in  his  answer 
made  expressly  prominent  his  divinely  appointed  call  as  well  as  his 
own  evangelical  standpoint,  and  with  becoming  dignity  and  earnest- 
ness decidedly  repvidiated  the  uiuneasured  assumptions  of  the  papacy, 
and  published  both  letters.  In  the  same  styh;  of  immoderate  pre- 
tension the  pope  again,  in  November,  1875,  in  one  encyclical  after 
another,  gave  vent  to  his  anger  against  emperor  and  empire,  especially 
its  military  institutions.  In  place  of  the  deposed  and  at  that  time 
imprisoned  archbishop,  Ledochowski,  he  appointed  in  1874  a  native 
apostolic  legate,  who  was  at  last  ascertained  to  be  the  Canon 
Kurowski,  when  lie  was  in  October,  1875,  condemned  to  two  years' 
VOL.   III.  21 


3'22    cnrnrH  rtstory  of  nineteenth  century. 

imjirisonment.  But  thi>  jk^jio  took  tho  most  docidoil  and  successful 
stop  1)3'  the  Encyclical  Quod  nunquam,  of  5th  February,  1875,  addres.-«!d 
to  the  Prussian  episcopate,  in  which  he  characterized  th(!  Prussian 
May  Laws  as  "  not  given  to  fr<^  citizens  to  demand  a  reasonable 
obedience,  but  as  laid  upon  slaves,  in  order  to  force  obedience  by 
fears  of  violence,"  and,  "  in  order  to  fulfil  the  duties  of  his  office," 
declared  quite  openly  to  all  whom  it  concerns  and  to  the  Catholics 
tlurougliout  the  world :  "  Leijes  Ulan  irt-itas  esse,  utpote  qucc  divincc 
Ecdeakc  constitutioiii  jjro>'.s«s  adversavttir  " ;  but  upon  those  "  godless  " 
men  who  make  themselves  guilty  of  the  sin  of  assuming  spiritual 
office  witliout  a  divine  call,  falls  eo  ipso  the  great  excommunication. 
On  the  other  hand  he  rewarded,  in  March,  1875,  Archbishop  Ledo- 
chowski,  then  still  in  prison,  but  afterwards,  in  February,  1876, 
settled  in  liome,  for  his  sturdy  resistance  of  those  laws,  with  a 
cardinal's  hat,  and  to  the  not  less  persistent  Prince-Bishop  FOrster 
of  Breslau  he  presented  on  his  jubilee  as  priest  the  arcluej)iscopal 
pall.  In  the  next  Christmas  allocution  he  romanced  about  a  second 
Nero,  who,  while  in  on(!  place  with  a  l^-re  in  his  hand  he  enchanted 
the  world  by  lying  words,  in  other  places  appeared  Avith  iron  in  his 
hand,  and,  if  he  did  not  make  th(*  streets  run  with  blood,  he  fills  the 
prisons,  sends  multitudes  into  exile,  seizes  upon  and  with  violence 
assumes  all  authority  to  himself.  Also  to  the  German  pilgrims  who 
went  in  May,  1877,  to  his  episcopal  jubilee  at  Rome,  he  had  still 
much  that  was  terrible  to  tell  about  this  "  modern  Attila,"  leaving 
it  uncertain  Avhether  he  intended  Priuct;  Bismarck  or  the  mild,  jiious 
German  emjM'ror  himself. 

8.  The  Conflict  about  the  Encyclical  Quod  nunquam  of  1875.  —  By  this 
encyclical  the  pope  had  completely  broken  up  the  union  between  the 
Prussian  state  and  the  ciu-ia,  resting  upon  the  bull  Dc  salute  ani- 
maruvi  (§  193,  1);  for  he,  bluntly  repudiating  the  sovereign  rights 
of  the  civil  authority  therein  expressly  allowiHl,  by  j^ronouncing  the 
laws  of  the  Prussian  state  invalid,  authorized  and  promoted  the  rebel- 
lion of  all  Catholic  subjects  against  tliem.  The  Prussian  government 
now  issued  tliree  new  laws  (juickly  after  one  anotlier,  cutting  more 
deejjly  than  all  that  w<'nt  Ix'fore,  which  without  difficulty  received 
the  sanction  of  all  tlie  legislativf^  bodies.  I.  The  so  called  Arrestment 
Act  (S])err(jesetz)  oi  April  22nd,  1875,  wliich  ordered  the  inunediate 
suspension  of  all  statt;  payments  to  the  Roman  Catholic  bishoprics 
and  pastorates  until  those  who  were  entitled  to  them  had  in  writing 
or  by  statement  "declartid  themselvis  ready  to  yield  willing  obedience 
to  the  existing  laws  of  the  state.  II,  A  law  of  May  31st,  1875,  order- 
ing th<;  Expulsion  of  all  Orders  and  such  like  Congregations  within  eight 
months,  the  minist<T  of  jmblic  worship,  liowevcr,  bi-ing  authorized  to 
extend  this  truce  to  four  years  in  the;  case  of  institutions  devoted  to 


§  197.    KFLTURKAMPF   IN   THE    OET^MAX    EMPIRE.     823 

the  education  of  the  young,  while  those  -which  were  exclusively  hos- 
pital and  nursing  societies  were  allowed  to  remain,  but  were  subject 
to  state  inspection  and  might  at  any  time  be  suppressed  by  roj-al 
order.  III.  A  law  cf  Junn  12th,  ISTo,  declaring  the  formal  Abrogation 
of  the  Fifteenth,  Sixteenth,  and  Eighteenth  Articles  of  the  Constitution 
(§  193,  2).  And  finally  in  addition  there  came  the  enforcement  during 
this  session  of  the  Chamber  of  laws  previously  introduced  on  the 
rights  of  the  Old  Catholics  (§  190,  2),  and,  on  June  20th,  1875,  on  the 
administration  of  church  property  in  Catholic  parishes.  The  latter 
measures  aimed  at  withdrawing  the  administration  i-eferred  to  from 
the  autocratic  absolutism  of  the  clergy,  and  transferring  it  to  a  lay 
commission  elected  by  the  community  itself,  of  which  the  parish 
jjriest  was  to  be  a  member,  but  not  the  president.  Although  the 
Archbishop  of  Cologne  in  name  of  all  the  bishops  before  its  issue  had 
sohimnly  protested  against  this  law,  because  by  it  "  essential  and 
inalienable  rights  of  the  Catholic  church  were  lost,"  and  although 
the  recognition  of  it  actually  involved  recognition  of  the  May  Laws 
and  the  ecclesiastical  court  of  justice,  yet  all  the  bishops  declared 
themselves  ready  to  co-opei-ate  in  carrying  out  the  arrangements 
for  surrendering  the  church  property  to  the  administration  of  a  civil 
commission.  They  thus  indeed  secured  thoroughly  ultramontane 
elections,  but  at  the  same  time  put  themselves  into  a  position  of  self- 
contradiction,  and  admitted  that  the  one  ground  of  their  opposition 
to  the  May  Laws,  that  they  were  one-sidedly  wrouglit  by  the  state 
was  null  and  void. 

9.  Papal  Overtures  for  Peace. — Leo  XIII.,  since  1878,  intimated  his 
accession  to  tlui  Emperor  William,  and  exj^ressed  his  regret  at  finding 
that  the  good  relations  did  not  continvie  which  formerly  existed 
between  Prussia  and  the  holy  see.  The  Emperor's  answer  expressed 
the  hope  that  by  the  aid  of  his  Holiness  the  Prussian  bishops  might 
be  induced  to  obey  the  laws  of  the  land,  as  the  people  under  their 
pastoral  care  actually  did ;  and  afterwards  while  in  consequence  of 
the  attempt  on  his  life  of  Jun(!  2nd,  187;-},  he  lay  upon  a  sickbed,  the 
crown  prince  on  June  10th  answ(>red  other  papal  communications  by 
saying,  that  no  Prussian  monarch  could  entertain  the  wish  to  change 
the  constitution  and  laws  of  his  country  in  accordance  with  the  ideas 
of  the  Romish  church ;  but  that,  even  though  a  thorough  under- 
standing upon  the  radical  controversy  of  a  thousand  years  could  not 
be  reached,  yet  the  endeavour  to  preserve  a  conciliatory  disposition 
on  both  sides  would  also  for  Prussia  open  a  way  to  peace  which  had 
never  been  closed  in  other  states.  Three  weeks  later  the  Munich 
nuntio  Masella  was  at  Kissingen  and  conferred  with  the  chancellor, 
Prince  Bismarck,  who  was  residing  there,  about  the  possibility  of  a 
basis  of  reconciliation.    Subsequently  negotiations  were  continued  at 


324      CHURCH   HISTORY   OF   NINETEENTH   CENTURY. 

Gastein,  and  then  in  Vienna  with  the  there  resident  nuntio  Jacobini, 
but  were  suspended  owing  to  demands  by  the  curia  to  whicli  the 
state  could  not  submit.  Still  the  jjope  attempted  indirectly  to  open 
the  ^viiy  for  renewed  consultation,  for  he  issued  a  brief  dated  Feb- 
ruary 24th,  1880,  to  "  Ai'chbishop  Melchers  of  Cologne  "  (deposed  by 
the  royal  court  of  justice),  in  which  he  declared  his  readiness  to  allow 
to  the  respective  government  boards  notification  of  new  el<>cted  i)riests 
before  their  canonical  institution.  Tliereupon  a  conununication  was 
sent  to  Cardinal  Jacobini  that  the  state  ministry  had  resolved,  so 
soon  as  the  pope  had  actually  implemented  this  declaration  of  his 
readiness,  to  make  every  effort  to  obtain  f  i-om  the  state  representatives 
authority  to  set  aside  or  modify  those  enactments  of  the  May  Laws 
which  were  regarded  by  the  Romish  church  as  harsh.  But  the  pope 
rec<'ived  this  compromise  of  the  government  very  ungraciously  and 
showed  his  dissatisfaction  by  withdrawing  his  conci>ssion,  which 
besides  referred  only  to  the  unremovable  priests,  therefore  not  to 
Hctzkaplane  and  succursal  or  assistant  i)riests,  and  presupposed  the 
obtaining  the  "«7rf^?)ie?;/,"  i.e.  the  willingly  accorded  consent,  of  the 
state,  without  by  any  means  allowing  tlit.'  setting  aside  of  th(!  party 
elected. 

10.  Proof  of  the  Prussian  Government's  willingness  to  be  Reconciled, 
1880-1881. — Notwithstanding  this  brusque  refusal  on  the  part  of  the 
jiupal  curia,  the  government,  at  the  instance  of  the  minister  of  public 
worship.  Von  Puttkamer  (§  193,  (5),  resolved  in  May,  1880,  to  introduce 
a  bill  which  gave  a  wide  discretionary  power  for  moderating  tin;  un- 
happy state  of  matters  that  had  prevailed  since  the  passing  of  the 
May  Laws,  throughout  Catholic  districts,  Avhere  GOl  pastorates  stood 
wholly  vacant  and  584  partly  so,  and  nine  bishoprics,  some  by  death 
and  others  by  deposition.  Although  the  need  of  peace  was  readily 
admitted  on  both  sides,  the  Liberals  opposed  these  "  Canossa  proposals  " 
as  far  too  great ;  the  Centre,  Poles,  and  G  uelphs  as  far  too  small.  Yet 
it  obtained  at  last  in  a  form  considerably  modified,  through  a  com- 
promise of  the  conservatives  with  a  great  part  of  the  national  libe- 
rals the  consent  of  both  chambers.  This  law,  sanctioned  on  July  14th, 
1880,  embraced  these  provisions  :  1.  TIk;  royal  court  shall  no  longer 
depose  from  office  any  church  officers,  but  simply  pronounce  incajiable 
of  administering  the  office  ;  2-4.  The  ministry  of  the  state  is  author- 
ized to  give  the  episcopal  administrator  charged  by  the  church  with 
the  interim  administration  of  a  vacant  bishopric  a  dispensation  from 
tlie  taking  of  the  prescribed  oath;  further,  an  administration  by 
commission  of  ecclesiastical  property  may  be  revoked  as  well  as  ap- 
jiriinted  ;  also  state  endowments  tliat  had  been  withdrawn  are  to  be 
ri-stored  for  the  benefit  of  the  -wliolcexti'ut  of  i\n\  diocese  ;  5.  Spiritual 
official  act«  of  a  duly  apitointtxl  clergyman  by  way  merely  of  assis- 


§  197.    KULTUBKAMPF  IN   THE    GERMAN   EMPIRE.     325 

tance  in  another  vacant  parish  are  to  be  allowed  ;  6.  The  minister  of 
the  interior  and  of  public  worship  are  empowered  to  approve  of  the 
erection  of  new  institutions  of  religious  societies  which  are  devoted 
Avholly  to  the  care  of  the  sick,  as  to  allow  revocably  to  them  the  care 
and  nurture  of  children  not  yet  of  school  age ;  and  more  recentU'  added 
were  7,  the  particular,  according  to  which  Articles  2,  3,  and  4  cease 
to  operate  after  January  1st,  1882.  The  government  was  particularly 
careful  to  carry  out  the  provisions  temi)orarily  recognised  in  Article 
3,  for  the  restoration  of  orderly  episcopal  administration  by  regularl}- 
elected  episcopal  administrators  in  bishoprics  made  vacant  by  death. 
Fulda,  which  was  longest  vacant,  from  October,  1873,  had  to  be  left 
out  of  account,  since  in  that  case  there  was  only  one  member  of  the 
chapter  left  and  so  a  canonical  election  was  impossible.  But  without 
difficulty  in  March,  1881,  the  Vicar-General  Dr.  Hoting  for  Osnabriick 
and  Canon  Drobe  for  Paderborn,  without  taking  the  oath  of  allegiance, 
succeeded  in  obtaining  independent  administration  of  the  property 
as  well  as  the  restoration  of  state  pay  for  the  entire  dioceses,  though 
they  did  not  give  the  notification  required  by  the  May  Laws  for  the 
interim  administration.  In  October,  1881,  the  deposed  Prince  Bishop 
Forster  of  Breslau  died,  and  the  suffragan  bishop,  Gleich,  elected  by 
the  chapter,  undertook  with  consent  of  the  government  the  office  of 
episcopal  administrator. — Meanwhile  the  pope,  by  a  hearty  letter  of 
congratulation  to  the  emperor  on  his  birthday,  March  22nd,  had  given 
new  life  to  the  suspended  peace  negotiations.  And  now  also,  when 
the  respective  chaptei-s  transferred  their  right  of  election  to  the  pope, 
the  orderly  appointments  of  the  Canon  Dr.  Ivorum  of  Metz,  a  pupil 
of  the  Jesuit  faculty  of  Innspruck,  very  warmlj^  recommended  by  Von 
ManteufTel,  governor  of  Alsace  and  Lorraine,  to  the  episcopal  see  of 
Treves,  in  August,  1881,  of  Vicar-General  Koppof  Hildesheimto  Fulda 
in  December,  1881,  of  the  episcopal  administrators  Hoting  and  Drobe, 
in  March  and  May,  1882,  i-espectively  to  Osnabriick  and  Paderborn, 
were  duly  carried  into  effect.  For  Breslau  the  chapter  drew  up  a 
list  of  seven  candidates,  but  the  government  pointed  out  the  Berlin 
provost,  Rob.  Herzog,  as  a  mild  and  conciliatory  person.  The  chapter 
now  laid  its  riglit  of  election  in  the  hands  of  the  pope,  and  in  Ma}', 
1882,  Herzog  was  raised  to  the  dignity  of  prince-bishop.  There  now 
remained  vacant  only  the  sees  of  Cologne,  Posen,  Limburg  and  Miin- 
ster,  which  had  been  emjitied  by  the  dopositions  of  the  civil  courts. — 
Meanwhile,  too,  the  negotiations  carried  on  at  the  instance  of  the 
government  by  privy  councillor  Von  Schlozer,  with  the  curia  at  Rome 
for  the  restoration  of  the  embassy  to  the  Vatican  had  been  brought  to 
a  close.  The  chamber  voted  for  this  purpose  an  annual  sum  of  i  10,000 
marks,  and  Schlozer  himself  was  appointed  to  the  post  in  March, 
1882. 


326     CHURCH   HISTORY   OF   NINETEENTH   CENTURY. 

11.  Conciliatory  Negotiations  1882-1884.— With  January  1st,  1882, 
the  three  enactments  of  the  July  law  of  1880,  which  might  he  en- 
forced at  the  discretion  of  the  government,  ceased  to  operate.  Von 
Gossler,  minister  of  public  Avorship  since  June,  1881,  on  behalf  of 
government,  introduced  a  new  bill  into  the  Chamber  on  January  IGth, 
1882,  for  their  re-enactment  and  extension,  which  by  a  compromise 
between  the  Conservatives  and  the  Centre,  after  various  modifications 
secured  a  majority  in  both  houses.  This  second  revised  law  embraced 
the  following  points :  1.  Renewal  of  the  thi'ee  above-named  enact- 
ments till  April  1st,  1884 ;  2.  Restoration  of  the  "  Bishop's  Para- 
graph," lost  in  1880,  in  this  new  form :  If  the  king  has  pardoned  a 
bishop  set  aside  by  the  ecclesiastical  court,  he  becomes  again  the 
bishop  of  his  diocese  recognised  by  the  state  ;  3.  The  setting  aside  of 
the  examination  in  general  knowledge  (Kidtiirexavien)  for  those  who 
bring  a  certificate  of  having  passed  the  Gymnasium  exit  examination, 
or  have  attended  with  diligence  lectures  on  philosophy,  history  and 
German  literature  during  a  three  years'  course  at  a  German  univer- 
sity, or  at  a  Prussian  seminary  of  equal  rank,  and  have  given  proof  of 
this  by  pi-esenting  evidence  to  the  chief  president ;  4.  The  setting 
aside  of  the  rights  of  the  patron  and  congregation  of  themselves  filling 
the  vacant  pastorates  during  a  vacancy  in  the  episcopal  see.  The  new 
law  obtained  royal  sanction  on  May  31st,  1882.  But  its  two  most  im- 
portant articles,  2  and  3,  remained  for  a  long  time  a  dead  letter,  and 
even  Article  1  was  only  carried  out  by  the  resumjition  of  the  state 
emoluments  for  the  Hohenzollerns  and  the  five  newly  instituted  bislioi^- 
rics  (Par.  10),  but  not  for  the  other  seven.  But  the  ill  hiimour  of 
the  ultramontane  Hotspurs  was  raised  to  the  boiling  point  by  the  fate 
of  the  bill  introduced  by  the  Centre  into  the  Reichstag  to  set  aside  the 
Expatriation  Law  of  May  4th,  1874,  which  seemed  to  the  government 
indispensable  on  account  of  its  applicability  to  the  agitations  against 
thf!  empire  of  the  Polish  clergy.  This  bill,  after  violent  debates,  was 
carried  on  January  18tli,  1882,  by  a  two-thirds  majority  ;  but  it  was 
cast  out  by  the  Federal  Council  on  June  (itli,  almost  imanimously, 
only  Bavaria  and  Reuss  jttw^erc  Liiiie  voting  in  its  favour.  This  Avas 
the  result  mainly  of  the  failure  of  all  the  attempts  of  Von  Schlozer  to 
render  the  government's  concessions  acceptable  to  the  papal  curia. — 
On  the  other  hand,  the  government  of  its  own  accord  brought  in  a 
third  revision  scheme  in  June,  1883,  by  which  it  sought  to  relieve  as 
far  as  possible  the  troubles  of  the  Catholic  cliurch.  By  adopting  this 
law  :  (1)  Till!  obligation  of  notification  on  tlie  part  of  the  bishops  and 
the  right  ol  the  state  to  protest  on  the  change  of  temi)orary  assistants 
and  substitut(!3  into  regular  spiritual  ofTicers,  were  abolished  ;  as  also  (2) 
the  competence  of  the  court  for  ecclesiastical  affairs  in  appeals  against 
the  protest  of  the  chief  president,  which  now  therefore,  according  to 


§  197.    KULTURKAMPF   IN    THE   GERMAN   EMPIRE.     327 

the  generally  prevailing  rule,  are  referred  to  the  minister  of  worship, 
the  -whole  ministry,  the  parliament,  the  king ;  (3)  the  immunity  from 
jjunishment  in  the  execiition  of  their  office  guaranteed  in  Article  5 
of  the  July  law  of  1880  (Par.  10)  Avas  extended  to  all  spiritual  offices 
whether  vacant  or  not ;  (4)  the  ordaining  of  individual  candidates  in 
vacant  dioceses  by  bishops  recognised  by  the  state  was  declared  to 
be  legal.    In  spite  of  repeated  declarations  of  the  curia  that  it  could 
and  would  agree  to  the  notification  only  after  a  previous  sufficient 
guarantee  of  perfectly  fi-ee  training  of  the  clergy  and  free  adminis- 
tration of  the  spiritual  office,  the  king  while  residing  at  the  Castle  of 
Mainau  on  Lake  Constance,  on  July  11th,  1883,  sanctioned  the  so-called 
Mainau  Law  that  had   passed   both   houses,   and  on   the   14th,   the 
minister  of   public   worship  demanded  that    the   Prussian  bishops, 
without  making  notification,  should  fill  up  vacancies  in  pastorates  by 
appointing  assistants,  and  should  name  those  candidates  who  were 
eligible  for  such  appointment  under  the  conditions  of  the  May  Law  of 
the  previous  year  (Par.  3).     The  pope  at  last,  in  September,  1883, 
allowed  the  dispensation  required,  but  for  that  time  only  and  without 
prejudice  for  the  future.      By   the  end   of   May,   1,884  applications 
had  been  made  to  the  senior  of  the  Prussian  episcopate  appointed  to 
receive  such,  Marnitz  of  Kulm,  by  1,443  clergjanen,  of  whom  the 
government  i-ejected  only  178  who  had  studied  at  the  Jesuit  institu- 
tions of  Eome,  Louvain,  and  Innsbriick. — In  December,  1883,  Bishop 
Blimi  of  Limburg,  and  in  January,  1884,  Brinkmann  of  Miinster  were 
restored  by  royal  gi-ace,  and  for  both  dioceses,  as  well  as  for  Ermeland, 
Kulm  and  Hildesheim,  and  at  last  also  on  March  31st,  shortly  before 
the  closing  of  the  door,  even  for  Cologne,  in  this  case,  however,  revo- 
cably,  the  arrest  of  salaries  ceased,  so  that  only  the  two  archiepiscopal 
s(!(«  of  Cologne  and  Posen  remained  vacant,  and  only  Posen  continued 
bereft  of  its  endowments.     On  the  other  hand  the  government  allowed 
the  three  discretionary  enactments  that  were  in  operation  till  April 
1st,  1884,  to  lapse  without  providing  for  their  renewal.     Also  the  i^ro- 
posal  for  abolishing  the  Expatriation  Law  of  November,  1884,  intro- 
duced anew  by  the  Centre  and  again  adopted  by  the  Reiclistag  by  a 
great  majority,  was  thrown  out  by  the  Federal  Council ;  but  in  the 
beginning  of  December,  on  the  oi)ening  of  the  new  Reichstag,  it  was 
again  brought  in  by  the  Centre  and  passed,  but  was  left  quite  un- 
noticed by  the  Federal  Council.     The  repeated  motions  of  the  Centre 
for  payment  of  the  bishops'  salaries  from  the  state  exchequer,  as  well 
as  for  immunity  to  thost;  who  read  mass  and  dispensed  the  sacraments, 
were  again  thrown  out  by  tlu^  Houses  of  Deputies  in  April,  1885. 

12.  Resumption  on  both  sides  of  Conciliatory  Measures,  1885-1886. — 
The  next  subject  of  negotiation  with  the  curia,  was  the  re-institution 
of  the  archiepiscopal  see  of  Posen-Gnesen.    In  March,  188-1,  the  pope 


328      CHURCH   HISTORY    OF    NINETEENTH    CENTURY. 

liad  nominated  Cardinal  Ledochowski  secretary  of  the  committee  on 
petitions*  in  which  capacity  he  had  to  remain  in  Rome.  He  now 
declared  himself  willing  to  accept  Ledochowski's  resignation  of  the 
archbishopric  if  the  Prussian  govermnent  would  allow  a  successor  who 
would  possess  the  confidence  of  the  holy  see  as  well  as  of  the  Polish 
inhabitants  of  the  diocese.  But  of  the  tlu'ee  noble  Polish  chauvinists 
submitted  by  the  Vatican  the  government  could  accept  none.  Since 
further  no  agreement  could  be  reached  on  the  question  of  the  bishop's 
obligation  to  make  notification  and  the  state's  right  to  protest,  the 
negotiations  were  for  a  long  time  at  a  standstill,  and  were  repeatedly 
on  the  point  of  being  broken  off.  But  from  tlie  middle  of  1885,  a  con- 
ciliatory movement  gained  power,  through  the  counsels  of  the  more 
moderate  party  among  the  cardinals.  Archbishop  Melchers,  who 
lived  as  an  exile  in  Maestricht,  was  called  to  Rome,  and  as  a  reward 
for  his  assistance  was  made  cardinal,  and  the  pope  consecrated  as  his 
successor  in  the  archbishopric  of  Cologne,  Bishop  Krementz  of  Erme- 
land  (Par.  2),  who  also  was  acknowledged  by  the  Prussian  govern- 
ment and  introduced  to  Cologne  on  December  15th,  1885,  with  great 
pomp,  with  20,000  torches  and  twenty  bands  of  music.  After  a  long  list 
of  candidates  had  been  set  aside  by  one  side  and  the  other,  some  here, 
some  tliere,  the  pope  at  last  fell  from  his  demand  for  one  of  Polish 
nationality,  and  in  March,  1886,  appointed  to  the  vacant  see  Julius 
Binder,  dean  of  Konigsberg,  a  German  by  nation  but  speaking  the 
Polish  language. — Meanwhile  at  other  points  advance  was  made  in 
the  i^eaceful,  yea,  even  friendly,  relations  between  the  pope  and  the 
Prussian  government.  The  diplomatist  Leo  showed  his  admiring 
regard  for  the  diplomatist  Bismarck  by  sending  him  a  valuable  oil- 
painting  of  himself  by  a  Munich  master,  and  the  latter  astonished  the 
world  by  making  the  pope  umpire  in  a  threatening  conflict  with 
Spain  on  the  possession  of  the  Caroline  islands.  His  decision  on  the 
main  question  was  indeed  in  favour  of  Spain,  but  not  unimportant 
concessions  were  also  made  to  Germany.  The  pope  sent  the  prince 
two  Latin  poems  as  ])retium  offeciio7iis,  and  conferred  upon  him,  the 
first  Protestant  that  had  ever  been  so  honoured,  at  the  close  of  1885 
or  beginning  of  1886,  the  highest  papal  order,  the  insignia  of  the 
Order  of  Christ,  with  brilliants,  after  the  cardinal  secretary  of  state 
Jacobini  as  president  of  the  i)apal  court  of  arbitration  had  been  re- 
warded with  the  Prussian  order  of  the  Black  Eagle,  and  the  other 
members  of  the  court  with  other  high  Prussian  orders ;  and  at  the  end 
of  April,  188(),  the  German  emperor  sent  the  pope  himself  tlianks  for  his 
mediation,  with  an  artistic  and  costly  Pectoral  (§  59,  7)  worth  10,000 
marks. — Tlie  government  had,  meanwhile,  on  February  15th,  1886, 
brought  in  a  msw  ])rop()salof  revision  of  cluircli  jjolity,  the  fourth,  and 
in  order  to  secure  the  advice  of  a  distinguished  representative  of  the 


§  197.    KULTURKAMPF   IN    THE    GERMAN   EMPIRE.     329 

Prussian  episcopate,  called  Bishop  Ivopp  of  Fulrla  to  the  House  of 
Peers.  But  as  his  demands  for  concessions,  suggested  to  Mm,  not  by 
the  pope,  but  by  the  Centre,  went  far  beyond  what  was  proposed,  they 
were  for  the  most  part  decidedly  opposed  by  the  minister  of  worship 
and  rejected  by  the  house.  The  law  confirmed  by  the  king  on  May 
24th,  1886,  made  the  following  changes :  Complete  abolition  of  the 
examination  in  general  culture  ;  freeing  of  the  seminaries  recognised 
by  the  minister  as  suitable  for  clerical  training,  as  well  as  faculties 
established  in  universities,  seminaries  and  gjmmasia  from  any  special 
state  inspection  (as  laid  down  in  the  May  Laws),  and  subjecting  such 
to  the  common  laws  affecting  all  similar  educational  institutions 
Eemoval  of  restrictions  requiring  ecclesiastical  disciplinary  proce- 
dure to  be  only  before  German  ecclesiastical  courts  ;  Abolition  of  the 
Court  for  Ecclesiastical  Affairs  and  transference  of  its  functions  partly 
to  the  ministry  of  worship,  which  now  as  court  of  appeal  in  matters 
of  church  discipline  dealt  only  with  those  cases  which  entailed  a  loss 
or  reduction  of  official  income,  partly  to  the  Berlin  supreme  court, 
which  has  jurisdiction  in  case  of  a  breach  of  the  law  of  the  state  by  a 
church  officer  as  well  as  in  case  of  a  refusal  to  fulfil  the  oath  of  obedi- 
ence ;  The  discretionary  enactments  of  the  government  of  1880  (Par. 
10)  are  again  enforced  and  the  modifications  of  these  in  Article  6  of 
that  law  are  extended  to  all  other  institutions  engaged  on  the  home 
propaganda ;  All  reading  of  private  masses  and  dispensing  of  sacra- 
ments are  no  longer  subjected  to  the  infliction  of  penalties. — Some 
weeks  before  royal  sanction  was  given  to  this  law,  Cardinal  Jacobini 
had,  at  the  instance  of  the  pope,  expressed  his  profound  satisfaction 
with  the  success  of  the  advice  in  the  House  of  Peers,  as  also  par- 
ticularly at  the  prospect  of  other  concessions  promised  by  the  govern- 
ment. In  an  official  communication  to  the  president  of  the  House  of 
Deputies,  he  proposed  the  addition  that  the  notification  of  new  appoint- 
ments to  vacant  pastorates  should  begin  from  that  date.  In  August 
there  followed,  on  the  part  of  the  government,  the  hitherto  refused 
dispensation  for  those  trained  by  the  Jesuits  in  Eome  and  Innsbruck, 
and  in  November,  with  consent  of  the  minister  of  public  worship, 
the  re-opening  of  the  episcopal  seminaries  at  Fulda  and  Treves. 

13.  Definitive  Conclusion  of  Peace,  1887. — In  February,  1887,  the  state 
journal  published  a  new  form  of  oath  for  the  bishops,  sanctioned  by 
royal  ordinance,  in  which  the  obligation  hitherto  enforced  "  to  con- 
scientiously observe  the  laws  of  the  state,"  was  omitted,  and  the  as- 
severation added,  "  that  I  have  not,  by  the  oath,  taken  to  his  Holiness 
the  pope  and  the  chiu'ch,  undertaken  any  obligation  which  can  be  in 
conflict  with  the  oath  of  fidelity  as  a  subject  of  his  Eoyal  Majesty." — 
The  promised  fifth  revision,  meanwhile  accepted  by  the  pope  in  its 
saveral  particulars  and  acknowledged  by  him  as  sufficient  basis  for  a 


330      CHUECH   HISTORY   OF   NINETEENTH   CENTURY. 

definitive  peace,  was  on  February  13th,  1887,  contrary  to  precedent,  first 
laid  before  the  House  of  Peers.  Bishop  Kopp  proposed  a  great  number 
of  changes  and  additions,  of  which  several  of  a  very  important  natui-e 
were  accepted.  The  most  important  provisions  of  this  law,  whicli  was 
passed  on  April  29th,  1887,  are  the  following :  The  obligation  on  bishops 
to  make  notification  applies  only  to  the  conferring  of  a  spiritual  office 
for  life,  and  the  right  of  protest  by  the  state  must  rely  upon  a  basis 
named  and  belonging  to  the  civil  domain;  Allstate  compulsion  to 
lifelong  reinstatement  in  a  vacant  office  is  unlawful ;  The  previously 
insured  immunity  for  reading  mass  and  dispensing  the  sacraments  is 
now  applied  to  members  of  all  spiritual  orders  again  allowed  in  the 
kingdom;  The  duty  of  ecclesiastical  superiors  to  communicate  dis- 
ciplinary decisions  to  the  Chief  President  is  given  up.  Those  orders 
and  congregations  which  devote  themselves  to  aiding  in  pastoral  Avork, 
the  administering  of  Christian  benevolence,  and,  on  Bishop  Ivopp's 
motion,  those  which  engage  in  educational  AVork  in  girl's  high  schools 
and  similar  institutions,  as  well  as  those  which  lead  a  private  life,  ai'e 
to  be  allowed  and  are  to  be  also  restored  to  the  enjoyment  of  their 
original  possessions ;  The  training  of  missionaries  for  foreign  Avork 
and  the  erection  of  institutions  for  this  purpose  are  to  be  permitted  to 
the  privileged  orders  and  congregations. — Bishop  Kopp,  and  also  the 
pope,  with  lively  gratitude,  accepted  these  ordinances  as  making  the 
reconciliation  an  accomplished  fact ;  but  they  also  expressed  the  hope 
that  the  success  of  this  peaceful  arrangement  Avill  be  such  as  shall 
lead  to  further  important  concessions  to  the  rightful  claims  of  the 
Catholic  church.  After  this  conclusive  revision,  besides  the  extremely 
contracted  obligation  of  notification  by  the  bishops  and  the  almost 
completely  insignificant  right  of  civil  protest,  there  remain  of  the 
KuUurJcampf  laws  only:  the  KanzeJparafjrapli,  the  Jesuit  and  the 
exile  enactments  (all  of  them  imperial  and  not  Prussian  laws),  and  the 
abrogation  of  the  three  articles  of  the  Prussian  constitution  (Par.  8). 
Insignificant  as  the  concessions  of  the  papal  curia  may  seem  in  com- 
parison to  the  almost  comijlete  surrender  of  the  Prussian  govermnent, 
it  can  hardly  be  said  that  Bismarck  has  been  untrue  to  his  promise 
not  to  go  to  Canossa.  With  him  the  main  thing  ever  was  to  restore 
within  the  German  empire  the  peace  that  was  threatened  by  thunder- 
clouds gathering  from  day  to  day  in  the  political  horizon  in  east  and 
west,  and  thus,  as  also  by  nurturing  and  developing  the  military 
forces,  to  set  aside  the  danger  of  war  from  without.  But  for  this  end, 
the  sovereignty  of  tlie  Centre,  which  hampered  him  on  every  side, 
allying  itself  with  all  elements  in  the  Chamber  and  Reichstag  hostile 
to  the  government  and  the  empire,  must  be  broken.  But  this  was 
possible  only  if  he  sucwunled  in  breaking  U])  th(!  nuliallowed  artificial 
amalgamation  of  Catholic  church  interests  for  which  the;  Centre  con- 


§  197.    KULTURKAMPF   IN   THE    GERMAN   EMPIRE.     331 

tended  with  the  political  tendencies  of  the  party  hostile  to  the  empire, 
by  recognising  those  interests  in  a  manner  satisfactory  to  the  pope 
and  to  all  right-minded  loyal  German  Catholics,  and  so  estranging 
them  from  tlie  political  schemes  of  the  leader  of  the  Centre.  This 
indeed  Avould  have  scai'cely  been  possible  with  Pius  IX.,  but  with  the 
much  clearer  and  sharper  Leo  XIII.  there  was  hope  of  success.  And 
the  statesmanlike  insight  and  self-denial  of  the  prince  succeeded, 
though  at  first  only  in  a  limited  measui'e,  and  this  was  a  much  more 
important  gain  for  the  state  than  the  pajial  concessions  of  episcopal 
notification  and  the  state's  right  of  protest. — When  in  the  beginning 
of  1887,  at  the  same  time  that  the  fear  was  gi-eatest  of  a  war  with 
France  and  Russia,  the  renewal  and  enlargement  of  the  military 
budget,  hitherto  for  seven  years,  was  necessary,  and  its  I'efusal  by  the 
Centre  and  its  adherents  Avas  regarded  as  certain,  Bismarck  prevailed 
on  the  pope  to  intervene  in  his  favour.  The  pope  did  it  in  a  confiden- 
tial conununication  to  the  president  of  the  Centre,  in  which  he  urged 
acceptance  of  the  septennial  act  in  the  Reichstag  for  the  security  of 
the  Fatherland  and  the  conserving  of  peace  on  the  continent,  expressly 
referring  to  the  friendly  and  promising  attitude  of  the  imperial 
government  to  the  papacy  and  the  Catholic  church.  But  the  pi'esident 
kept  the  communication  secret  from  the  members  of  his  party,  and 
they  continued  streniiously  and  unanimously  opposed  to  the  Septennate. 
The  Reichstag  was  consequently  dissolved.  The  pope  now  published 
his  correspondence  with  the  leaders  of  the  Centre,  thirty -seven  Rhenish 
nobles  separated  from  the  party,  and  the  new  elections  to  the  Reichstag 
were  mainly  favourable  to  the  government.  Although  the  Deputy 
Windthorst  as  chief  leader  of  the  Prussian  Ecclenia  militans  had  on 
every  occasion  protested  his  and  his  party's  ijrofoundest  reverence  for 
and  conditional  submission  to  every  expression  of  the  papal  will,  and 
shortly  before  (§  186,  3)  had  styled  the  pope  "Lord  of  the  whole 
world,"  he  opposed  himself,  as  he  had  done  on  the  Septennate  question, 
on  the  fifth  revision  of  the  ecclesiastical  laws,  to  the  will  of  the  infalli- 
ble pojje  by  publishing  a  memorial  proving  the  absolute  impossibility 
of  accepting  this  proposed  law,  Avhich,  however,  this  time  also  he  failed 
to  cany  out. 

14.  Independent  Procedure  of  the  other  German  Governments.  —  (1) 
Bavaria's  energy  in  the  struggle  against  ultramontanism  (Par.  4)  soon 
cooled.  Yet  in  1873  the  Redemptorists  were  instructed  to  discontinue 
their  missionary  work  (§  18G,  6),  and  all  theological  students  were 
forbidden  to  attend  the  Jesuit  German  College  at  Rome  (§  151,  1). 
Also  in  1875,  the  jubilee  i)rocessions  organized  by  the  episcopate 
without  obtaining  the  roj^al  Placet  were  inhibited.— (2)  Wurttemberg, 
which  since  lS(i2  possessed  more  civil  jurisdiction  over  Catholic  church 
aifairs  and  exercised  it  more  freely  (§  l!Hi,  G)  than  Prussia  laid  claim 


332      CHURCH   HISTORY   OF   NINETEENTH   CENTURY. 

to  in  1873,  could  all  tho  more  easily  maintain  ecclesiastical  jx'ace, 
since  its  peaceful  Bishop  Hefelo  (§  IH!),  8,  4;  lf»l,  7)  avoided  all 
occasion  of  conflict  and  strife. — (3)  In  Baden  the  Knlturlcampf  that 
had  here  previonslj'  broken  out  (§  196,  2)  was  continued  all  the  more 
keenl}'.  In  1873  public  teaching,  holding  of  missions  and  assisting 
in  pastoral  work,  had  been  refused  to  all  i-eligious  orders  and  fra- 
ternities. But  the  main  blow,  followed  by  the  comprehensive  chiu'ch 
legislation  of  February  19th,  1874,  which  closed  all  boj'^s'  seminaries 
and  episcopal  institutions,  allowed  none  to  hold  a  clerical  office  or 
discharge  any  ecclesiastical  function  without  a  three  j'ears'  course  at 
a  German  university  and  a  state  examination  in  general  culture 
(§  196,  2),  strictly  forbad  all  influencing  of  public  elections  by  the 
clergy,  and  made  dcjiosition  follow  the  second  conviction  of  a  church 
officer.  The  expedient  hitherto  resorted  to  of  appointing  mere  deputy 
priests  so  as  to  avoid  the  examination,  was  consequently  frustrated. 
The  rapid  increase  of  vacant  pastorates,  after  five  years'  opposition,  at 
last  moved  the  episcopal  curia  to  sue  for  peace  at  the  hands  of  the 
govermnent,  and  when  the  latter  showed  an  exceedingly  conciliatory 
spirit,  the  curia  with  consent  of  the  pope  in  February,  1880,  withdrew 
its  i^rohibition  of  the  request  for  dispensation  from  the  state  examina- 
tion, and  the  government  now  on  its  part  with  the  Chambers  passed 
a  law,  by  which  the  obligation  to  undergo  this  examination  was 
abolished,  and  the  certificate  of  the  exit  examination,  three  years' 
attendance  at  a  German  university,  and  diligent  attention  to  at  least 
three  coui-ses  of  the  philosophical  faculty,  was  held  as  sufficient 
evidence  of  general  culture.  The  Baden  Knlturlcampf  seems  to  have 
been  definitely  concluded  by  the  election  and  recognition  of  Dr.  Oi'bin 
to  the  see  of  Freiburg,  vacant  for  fourteen  years,  when  he.  without 
scruple  took  tlie  oath  of  allegiance.  This,  however,  did  not  check,  far 
less  put  an  end  to  the  tumults  of  the  fanatical  ultramontane  Irredenta. 
15. — (4)  Hesse-Darmstadt  in  1874  followed  the  example  of  Prussia 
and  Baden  in  excluding  all  spiritual  orders  from  teaching  in  public 
schools,  and  on  April  23rd,  1875,  issued  five  ecclesiastical  laws  which 
were  directed  to  restoring  under  penal  sanctions  the  state  of  the 
law,  which  before  1850  (§  196,  4)  had  been  unquestioned.  Essentially 
in  harmony  with  the  Prussian  May  Laws  of  1873  and  1874,  they  go 
beyond  these  in  sevei'al  particulars.  Allcl<!rg3anen  receiving  ajjpoint- 
ments,  e.rj.,  must  have  gone  through  a  full  university  course ;  all 
religious  orders  and  congi'egations  wen;  to  be  allowed  to  die  out; 
jmblic  roads  and  si[uares  could  be  used  for  ecclesiastical  festivals  only 
by  pf;i-mission  of  the;  govennncjnt  to  be  renewed  on  each  occasion. 
The  "  contentious  "  Bishop  Ketteler  of  Mainz,  who  stirred  up  the  fire 
to  the  utmost  with  the  Prussian  brand,  and  had  kindled  also  a  similar 
flame  in  Hesse  over  the  proposal  of  this  law,  held  still  that  to  view 


§  198.    AUSTRIA-HUNGARY.  333 

martyrdom  at  a  distance  was  the  better  part,  and  carefulh^  avoided 
any  overt  act  of  disobedience.  But  he  immediately  refused  to  co- 
operate in  restoring  the  Catholic  theological  faculty  at  Giessen,  and 
the  government  consequently  abandoned  the  idea.  The  Mainz  see  after 
Ketteler's  death  in  1877  remained  long  vacant,  as  the  goveriunent  felt 
obliged  to  reject  the  electoral  list  submitted  by  the  chapter,  A  candi- 
date satisfactory  to  the  "Vatican  and  the  goveriunent  was  onl3'-  found 
in  Maj'',  1886,  in  the  j^erson  of  Dr.  HafFner,  a  member  of  the  chapter. 
After  Prussia  had  concluded  its  defhiitive  peace  with  E.ome,  the  Hessian 
government,  in  May,  1887,  laid  before  the  house  of  representatives  a 
revision  of  ecclesiastical  legislation  of  1875,  like  that  of  Prussia,  onlj"- 
not  going  so  far,  for  which  meanwhile  the  approval  of  the  papal  ciu'ia 
had  been  obtained.  It  agrees  to  the  erection  of  a  Catholic  clerical 
seminary,  and  Catholic  students'  residences  in  this  seminary  and  in 
the  state-gymnasia ;  erection  of  independent  boys'  institutions  prepara- 
tory to  the  seminary  for  priests  is,  howeve-r,  still  refused ;  the  existing 
duty  of  bishops  to  make  notification,  and  the  right  of  the  state  to 
])rotest  in  regai'd  to  appointments  to  vacant  pastorates  are  also 
retained.  There  is  no  word  of  rehabilitating  religious  orders  and 
congregations,  nor  of  any  limitation  of  the  law  about  the  exercise  of 
ecclesiastical  punishment  and  means  of  discipline. — (5)  Last  of  all 
among  the  German  states  affected  by  the  Kultitrkamj}/,  the  kingdom 
of  Saxony,  with  only  73,000  Catholic  inhabitants,  at  the  instance  of 
the  second  Chamber  in  1876,  came  forward  with  a  Catholic  church 
law  modelled  upon  the  Prussian  May  Laws,  with  its  several  provisions 
modified,  in  spite  of  the  contention  of  the  talented  heir  to  the  throne, 
Prince  George,  that  the  power  of  the  state  in  relation  to  the  Catholic 
church  could  only  be  determined  by  a  concordat  with  the  Roman 
curia. 

§  198.    Austria-Hungary. 

To  tlio  emperor  of  Austria  there  was  left,  after  tlie  re- 
organization of  affairs  by  the  Vienna  Congress,  of  the  Roman 
empire,  only  the  name  of  defender  of  the  papal  see,  and  the 
Catholic  church,  and  the  presidency  of  the  German  Federal 
Council.  The  remnants  of  the  Josephine  ecclesiastical  con- 
stitution were  gradually  set  aside  and  Catholicism  firmly 
established  as  the  state  religion;  yet  the  government 
asserted  its  independence  against  all  hierarchical  claims, 
and  granted,  though  onl)'  in  a  very  limited  degree,  tolera- 
tion to  Protestantism.     The  revolution  year  1818  removed 


834     onuRcn  history  of  nineteenth  century. 

indeed  some  of  these  limits,  but  the  period  of  reaction  that 
followed  gave,  by  means  of  a  concordat  concluded  with  the 
curia  in  1855,  to  the  ultramontane  hierarchy  of  the  country 
an  unprecedented  power  in  almost  all  departments  of  civil 
life,  and  prejudicial  also  to  the  interests  of  the  Protestant 
church.  After  the  disastrous  issue  of  the  Italian  war  in 
1859,  and  still  more  that  of  the  German  war  in  186G,  the 
government  was  obliged  to  make  an  honest  effort  to  in- 
troduce and  develop  liberal  institutions.  And  after  an 
imperial  patent  of  1861  had  secured  religious  liberty,  self- 
administration,  and  equal  rights  to  the  Protestant  church, 
the  constitutional  legislation  of  18G8  freed  Catholic  as  well 
as  Protestant  civil,  educational,  and  ecclesiastical  matters 
from  the  provisions  of  the  concordat  that  most  seriously 
threatened  them,  and  by  the  declaration  of  papal  infallibility 
in  1870  the  government  felt  justified  in  regarding  the  entire 
concordat  as  antiquated  and  declaring  it  abolished.  In  its 
place  a  Catholic  church  act  was  passed  by  the  state  in  1874. 
But  the  Kultiirkamj)/ strugglQ  which  was  thus  made  immi- 
nent also  for  Austria  was  avoided  by  pliancy  on  both  sides. 

1,  The  Zillerthal  Emigration.— In  the  Tyrolese  Zillerthal  the  know- 
ledge of  evangelical  tnith  had  spread  among  several  families  by  means 
of  Protestant  books  and  Bibles.  When  the  Catholic  clergy  from  1826 
had  pushed  to  its  utmost  the  clerical  guardianship  by  means  of 
auricular  confession,  an  opposition  arose  which  soon  from  the  refusal 
to  confess  passed  on  to  the  rejection  of  saint  worship,  masses  for  the 
dead,  purgatory,  indulgences,  etc.,  and  ended  in  the  formal  secession 
of  many  to  the  evangelical  church  in  1H30,  with  a  reference  to  the 
Josephine  edict  of  toleration.  The  emperor  Francis  I.,  to  whom  on 
the  occasion  of  his  visit  to  Innsbruck  in  1832  they  presented  their 
petition,  promised  them  toleration.  But  the  Tyrolese  nobles  protested, 
and  the  official  decision,  given  at  last  in  1834,  ordered  ri^moval  to 
Transylvania  or  return  to  the  Catholic  church.  The  petitioners  now 
applied,  as  those  of  Salzburg  had  previously  done  (§  165,  4),  by  a 
deputation  to  the  king  of  Prussia,  who,  aft<3r  by  diplomatic  communi- 
cations securing  the  emperor's  consent  to  emigration,  assigned  them 
liis  estate  of  Erdmannsdorf  in  Silesia  for  colonization.     There  now  the 


§  198.    AUSTRIA-HrNGAEY.  3R5 

exiles,  399  in  number,  settipcl  in  1837,  and,  largely  aided  by  the  royal 
rannififence,  founded  a  new  Zillerthal. 

2,  The  Concordat After  the  revolution  year  1848,  the  government 

were  far  more  yielding  toward  the  claims  of  the  hierarchy  than  under 
the  old  Metternich  regime.  In  Ajoril,  1850,  an  imperial  patent  relieved 
the  papal  and  episcopal  decrees  of  the  necessity  of  imperial  approval, 
and  on  August  18th,  1855,  a  concordat  with  the  pope  was  agreed  to, 
by  Avhich  unprecedented  power  and  independence  was  granted  to  the 
hierarchy  in  Austria  for  all  time  to  come.  The  first  article  secured 
to  the  Roman  Catholic  religion  throughout  the  empire  all  rights  and 
privileges  which  they  claimed  by  divine  institution  and  the  canon 
law.  The  others  gave  to  the  bishops  the  right  of  unrestricted  corres- 
pondence with  Rome,  declared  that  no  papal  ordinance  required  any 
longer  the  royal  placet,  that  prelates  are  unfettered  in  the  discharge 
of  their  hierarchical  obligations,  that  religious  instx'uction  in  all 
schools  is  under  their  supervision,  that  no  one  can  teach  religion  or 
theology  without  their  approval,  that  in  catholic  schools  there  can  bo 
only  catholic  teachers,  that  they  have  the  right  of  foi'bidding  all 
books  which  may  be  injurious  to  the  faithful,  that  all  cases  of  ecclesi- 
astical law,  especially  marriage  matters,  belong  to  their  jurisdiction, 
yet  the  apostolic  see  grants  that  purely  secular  law  matters  of  the 
clergy  are  to  be  decided  before  a  civil  tribunal,  and  the  empex'or's 
right  of  nomination  to  vacant  episcopal  sees  is  to  continue,  etc.  The 
inferior  clergy,  who  were  now  without  legal  protection  against  the 
prelates,  only  reluctantly  bowed  their  necks  to  this  hard  yoke ;  the 
liberal  Catholic  laity  miu'mured,  sneeretl,  and  raged,  and  the  native 
press  incessantly  urged  a  revision  of  the  concordat,  the  necessity  of 
which  became  ever  more  apparent  from  concessions  made  meanwhile 
willingly  or  grudgingly  to  the  "  Non-Catholics."  But  only  after 
Austria,  by  the  issue  of  the  German  war  of  1866,  was  restricted  to  her 
own  domain,  and  finally  fi-eed  from  the  drag  of  its  ultramontane 
Italian  interests,  found  herself  obliged  to  make  every  effort  to  re- 
concile the  opposing  parties  within  her  own  territories,  could  these 
views  prove  successful.  But  since  the  government  nevertheless  held 
firmly  by  the  principle  that  the  concordat,  as  a  state  contract  regularly 
concluded  between  two  sovereigns,  could  be  changed  only  by  mutual 
consent,  the  liberal  majority  of  the  house  of  deputies  resolved  to  make 
it  as  harmless  as  possible  by  means  of  domestic  legislation,  and  on 
June  11th,  1867,  the  deputy  Herbst  moved  the  appointment  of  a 
committee  for  drawing  up  three  bills  for  restoring  civil  marriage, 
emancipation  of  schools  from  the  church,  and  equality  of  all  con- 
fessions in  the  eye  of  the  law.  The  motion  was  carried  by  a  hundred 
and  thirty-four  votes  against  twenty-two.  The  Cisleithan  (i.e. 
Austrian  excluding  Hungary)  episcopate,  with  Cardinal  Rauscher  of 


836      CHUECH   HISTOEY   OF   NINETEENTH   CENTURY. 

Vienna  at  their  Jiead,  presented  an  address  to  his  apostolic  majestj' 
demanding  the  most  rigid  preservation  of  the  concordat,  denouncing 
civil  marriage  as  concubinage,  and  the  emancipation  of  schools  as 
their  dechristianizing.  An  imperial  autograph  letter  to  Eauscher 
rebuked  with  earnest  words  the  inflammatory  proceedings  of  the 
bishops,  and  at  the  same  time  the  ultramontane  ambassador  to  E-ome, 
Baron  Hiibner,  was  recalled.  After  the  arrangement  with  Hungary 
was  completed,  the  first  Cisleithan,  the  so-called  Burger,  ministiy  Avas 
constituted  luider  the  presidency  of  Prince  Auersperg,  composed  of 
the  most  distinguished  leaders  of  the  jDarliamentary  majority.  All 
the  thi'ee  bills  were  passed  by  a  large  majority,  and  obtained  imperial 
sanction  on  May  25tli,  1868.  The  papal  nuncio  of  Vienna  protested, 
the  pope  in  an  allocution  denounced  the  new  Austrian  constitution  as 
nefanda  sane  and  the  three  confessional  laws  as  ahominahihs  lecjes, 
"We  repudiate  and  condemn  these  laws,"  he  says,  "by  apostolic 
authority,  as  well  as  everything  done  by  the  Austrian  government  in 
matters  of  church  policy,  and  determine  in  the  exercise  of  the  same 
authority  that  these  decrees  with  all  their  consequences  are  and  shall 
be  null  and  void."  But  all  Vienna,  all  Austria  held  jubilee,  and  the 
Chancellor  von  Beust  rejected  with  energy  the  assumptions  of  the 
curia  over  the  civil  domain.  The  bishops  indeed  issued  protests  and 
inflammatory  pastorals,  and  forbad  the  publication  of  the  marriage 
act,  but  submitted  to  the  threats  of  compulsion  by  the  supreme  court, 
and  Bishop  Eudigier  of  Linz,  who  went  furthest  in  inciting  to  opposi- 
tion, was  in  1869  taken  into  court  by  the  police,  and  sentenced  to 
twelve  days'  imprisonment,  but  pardoned  by  the  emperor.  Toward 
the  Vatican  Covaicil  Austria  assumed  at  first  a  waiting  policy,  then 
in  vain  remonstrated,  warned,  threatened,  and  finally,  on  July  30th, 
1870,  after  the  proclajnation  of  infallibility,  declared  that  the  con- 
cordat was  antiquated  and  abolished,  because  by  this  dogma  the 
jjosition  of  one  of  the  contracting  parties  had  undergone  a  complete 
change. 

3.  The  Protestant  Church  in  Cisleithan  Austria. — Down  to  1848  Pro- 
testantism of  Ix^th  (ionfcssions  in  Austria  enjoyed  only  a  very  limited 
toleration.  The  storms  of  this  year  first  set  aside  the  hated  official 
name  of  "  Non-Catholics,"  and  won  permission  for  Protestant  places 
of  worship  to  have  bells  and  towers.  But  the  repeated  petitions  for 
permission  to  found  branches  of  the  Gustavus  Adoljjhus  Unioti,  the 
persistently  maintained  law  that  Catholic  clergymen,  even  after  they 
had  formally  become  Protestants,  could  not  marry,  because  the 
character  indelibilin  of  priestly  consecration  attached  itself  even  to 
apostates,  and  many  such  facts,  prove  that  the  govermnent  was  far 
from  intending  to  grant  to  the  Protestants  civil  equality  with  the 
Catholics,     But  the  unfortunate  result  of  the  Sardinian-Fiench  war 


§  198.    AUSTRIA-HUNGARY.  337 

of  1859,  and  the  fear  thereby  increased  of  the  falling  asunder  of  the 
whole  Austrian  federation,  induced  the  government  to  address  itself 
earnestly  to  the  introduction  of  liberal  institutions,  and  also  to  do 
justice  to  the  Protestant  church.  The  presidency  of  the  two  Pro- 
testant consistories  in  Vienna,  hitherto  given  to  a  Catholic,  was  now 
assigned  to  a  Protestant ;  meetings  of  the  Gustavus  Adolphus  Union 
were  now  allowed,  and  a  share  was  given  to  the  Protestant  party  in 
the  ministry  of  public  worship  by  the  appointment  of  three  evan- 
gelical councillors.  After  the  entrance  on  office  of  the  liberal  minister 
Von  Schmerling,  an  imperial  patent  was  issued  on  April  8th,  1864, 
by  which  unrestricted  liberty  of  faith,  independent  administration  of 
all  ecclesiastical,  educational,  and  charitable  matters,  free  election  of 
pastors,  even  from  abroad,  full  exercise  of  civil  and  political  rights, 
and  complete  equality  with  Catholics  was  given  to  the  Protestants 
of  the  German  and  Slavonian  crown  territories.  Also  in  1868,  under 
the  reactionary  ministry  of  Belcredi,  on  the  expiry  of  the  legal  term 
of  the  Evangelical  Supreme  Chtu'cli  Council,  it  was  reorganized,  two 
evangelical  school  councillorships  were  created,  and  the  pecuniary 
position  of  the  evangelical  clergy  considerably  improved.  But  in 
spite  of  all  privilpges  legally'  granted  to  the  evangelical  church,  it 
continued  in  many  cases,  in  presence  of  the  concordat,  which  down 
to  1870  still  remained  in  force,  exposed  to  the  whims  and  caprice, 
sometimes  of  the  imperial  courts,  sometimes  of  the  Catholic  clergy. 

4.  The  Clerical  Landtag  Opposition  in  the  Tyrol. — In  the  Tyrol,  after 
the  publication  of  the  imperial  patent  of  April,  1861,  a  violent  move- 
ment was  set  on  foot  by  clerical  agitation.  The  Landtag,  by  a  "reat 
majority,  pronounced  the  issuing  of  it  the  most  serious  calamity  which 
the  countrj^,  hitherto  honest,  true,  and  happy  in  its  undivided  attach- 
ment to  the  Catholic  faith,  could  have  suffered,  and  concluded  that 
Non-Catholics  in  the  T^'rol  should  only  by  way  of  dispensation  be 
allowed,  but  that  publicity  of  Protestant  worship  and  formation  of 
Protestant  congregations  should  be  still  forbidden.  The  Schmerlino- 
ministry,  indeed,  refused  to  confii-m  these  resolutions.  The  agitation 
of  the  clergy,  however,  which  fanned  in  all  possible  ways  the  fanaticism 
of  the  people,  grew  from  year  to  year,  until  at  last  the  Belcredi 
ministry  of  1866  came  to  an  agreement  with  the  Landtag,  sanctioned 
by  the  emperor,  according  to  -which  the  creation  of  an  evan<^elical 
landed  proprietary  in  the  Tj-rol  was  not  indeed  formally  forbidden 
but  permission  for  an  evangelical  to  possess  land  had  in  each  case  to 
be  obtained  from  the  Landtag.  The  ecclesiastical  laws  of  1868  next 
called  forth  new  conflicts.  Twice  was  the  Landtag  closed  because 
of  the  opposition  thus  awakimcd,  until  finally  in  September,  1870 
the  estates  took  the  oath  to  the  new  constitution  with  reservation  of 
conscience.      But    now,   ^\'hen   in   December,   1875,   the   ministry  of 

VOL.    III.  2  2 


338      CHURCH   HISTORY   OF   NINETEENTH   CENTURY. 

worship  gave  approval  to  the  formal  coiistitiitiiig  of  two  evangelical 
congregations  in  the  Tyrol,  at  Innsbri'u;k  and  Meran,  the  clerical 
press  -was  filled  with  burning  denunciations,  and  the  majority  of  th(; 
Landtag  meeting  in  the  following  March  thought  to  give  emphasis 
to  their  protest  by  leaving  the  chamber,  and  so  bringing  the  assembly 
to  a  sudden  close.  In  June,  1880,  the  three  bishops  of  the  Tyrol 
uttered  in  the  Landtag  a  fanatical  protest  against  the  continuance  of 
the  meanwhile  established  congi'egations,  which  the  Landtag  majority 
renewed  in  July,  1883. 

5.  The  Austrian  Universities. — Stremayr,  minister  of  ptiblic  worshi]?, 
introduced  in  1872  a  scheme  of  university  reorganization,  by  Avhich 
the  exclusively  Catholic  character  which  had  hitherto  belonged  to 
the  Austrian  universities,  especially  those  of  Vienna  and  Prague, 
should  be  removed.  Up  to  this  time  a  Non-Catholic  could  there 
obtain  no  sort  of  academical  degree,  but  this  was  now  to  be  obtain- 
able apart  from  any  question  of  confession.  The  office  of  chancellor, 
held  by  the  archbishops  of  Prague  and  Vienna,  was  restricted  to  the 
theological  faculty,  to  the  state  was  assigned  the  right  of  nominating 
all  professors,  even  in  the  theological  faculty,  and  the  German  lan- 
guage was  recommended  as  the  medium  of  instruction.  Candidates 
of  theology  have  to  pass  through  a  full  and  comprehensive  course  of 
theological  science  in  a  three  years'  university  curriculum,  before 
they  can  be  admitted  into  an  episcopal  seminary  for  practical  train- 
ing. In  spite  of  the  opposition  of  the  superior  clergy,  the  bill  passed 
even  in  the  House  of  Peers,  and  became  law  in  1873.— In  Innsbruck, 
where  according  to  ancient  custom  the  rector  was  chosen  from  the 
four  faculties  in  succession,  the  other  faculties  protested  against 
the  election  when,  in  1872,  the  turn  came  to  the  theological  (Jesuit) 
faculty,  and  they  carried  their  point.  The  new  organization  la-vV 
gav(!  the  choice  of  rector  to  the  whole  jirofcssoriate,  and  a  subsequent 
imperial  order  withdrew  from  the  general  of  the  Jesuits  the  riglit  of 
nominating  all  theological  professors. — Much  was  done,  too,  for  thi' 
elevation  of  the  evangelical  theological  faculty  in  Vienna  by  bringing 
able  scholars  from  Germany,  by  giving  a  right  to  the  promotion  to 
the  degree  of  doctor  of  theology,  etc.  But  its  incorporation  in  the 
university,  though  often  moved  for,  was  hindered  by  the  continued 
Oi)position  of  the  Catholic  theologians  as  well  as  philosophers,  and  in 
1873  it  did  not  meet  with  sufficient  supjjort  in  the  House  of  P(!ersi 
Even  the  use  of  certain  halls  in  the  university  buildings,  promised  by 
the  minister,  could  not  yet  be  obtained. 

6.  The  Austrian  Ecclesiastical  Laws,  1874  1876. — At  last  the  govern- 
ment in  January,  1874,  introduced  the  long -promised  Catholic  church 
len-islation  into  the  Reichstag,  intended  to  supply  blanks  occasioned 
by  the  setting  aside  of  the  concordati     Its  main  contents  are  these : 


§  198.    AUSTRIA-HUNGARY.  339 

I.  The  concordat,  hitherto  only  diplomatically  dealt  with,  is  now 
legislatively  annulled;  the  bishops  have  to  present  all  their  mani- 
festoes not  before  but  uixjn  publication  to  the  state  government  for 
its  cognisance ;  every  vacancy  of  an  ecclesiastical  office,  as  well  as 
every  neAv  appointment  to  such,  is  to  be  notified  to  the  civil  court, 
which  can  raise  objections  against  such  appointment  within  thirty 
days ;  the  minister  of  worship  then  decides  on  the  admissibility  or 
inadmissibility  of  the  candidate ;  legal  deposition  of  a  church  officer 
involves  withdrawal  of  the  emoluments ;  the  performance  of  unusual 
practices  in  public  worship  of  a  demonstrative  character  can  be 
prohibited  by  the  civil  court ;  any  misuse  of  ecclesiastical  authority 
in  restraining  any  one  from  obeying  the  laws  of  the  land  or  from 
exercising  his  civil  rights  is  strictly  interdicti^d.  II.  The  ecclesiastical 
revenues  and  the  income  of  the  cloisters  are  subjected  to  a  progressive 
taxation  on  behalf  of  a  religious  fund,  mainly  for  improving  the 
condition  of  the  lower  clergy,  for  which  tlie  episcopate  hitherto,  in 
spite  of  all  entreaties,  had  done  practically  nothing.  III.  Newly 
formed  religious  societies  received  state  recognition  if  their  denomina- 
tion and  principles  contain  nothing  contrary  to  law  and  morality  or 
offensive  to  those  of  another  faith.  IV.  The  state  grants  or  refuses  its 
approval  of  the  establishment  of  spiritual  orders,  congregations,  and 
ecclesiastical  societies ;  institutions  and  legacies  for  them  amounting 
to  over  three  thousand  gulden  require  state  sanction ;  any  member  is 
free  to  quit  any  order ;  all  orders  must  report  annually  on  the  personal 
changes  and  disciplinary  punishments  that  have  taken  place;  at  any 
time  when  occasion  calls  for  it  they  may  be  subjected  to  a  visitation 
by  the  civil  court. •— In  vain  did  the  pope  by  an  encyclical  seek  to 
rouse  the  episcopate  to  violent  opposition,  in  vain  did  he  adjure  the 
emperor  in  a  letter  in  his  own  hand  not  to  suffer  the  church  to  be  put 
into  such  disgraceful  bondage ;  the  House  of  Deputies  approved  the 
four  bills,  and  the  emperor  in  May,  1874,  confirmed  at  least  the  first 
three,  while  the  fourth  was  being  debated  in  the  House  of  Peers.  The 
bishops  now  issued  a  joint  declaration  that  they  could  obey  these 
laws  only  in  so  far  as  they  "  were  in  harmony  with  the  demands  of 
justice  as  stated  in  the  concordat."     But  it  did  not  go  to  the  length 

1  The  Austrian  May  Laws  were  in  some  respects  more  sweeping 
than  the  Prussian  (§  197,  5) ;  but  the  former  were  framed  with  refer- 
ence to  the  police,  the  latter  with  reference  to  the  law.  In  Prussia 
the  decision,  judgment,  and  sentence  in  all  cases  of  contravention  and 
collision  were  assigned  to  the  court  of  law ;  in  Austria  they  were 
assigned  to  the  court  of  administration,  in  the  last  instance  to  the 
minister.  The  Austrian  laws  could  thus  be  urged  and  ignored  at 
pleasure. 


340      CHURCH    HISTORY   OF    NINETEENTH    CENTURY. 

of  actual  conflict.  Neither  to  the  pope  and  episcopate,  nor  to  the 
government  was  such  a  thing  convenient  at  the  time.  Hence  the 
attitude  of  reserve  on  both  sides,  which  kept  everything  as  it  had 
been.  And  when  notwithstanding  Bishop  Kudigier  of  Linz,  threat- 
ened with  fines  on  account  of  liis  refusal  to  notify  the  newly  appointed 
priests,  appealed  to  the  pope,  he  obtained  through  the  Vienna  nuncio 
permission  to  yield  on  this  point,  "  non  dissentit  tolerari  posset  But 
all  the  more  urgently  did  the  nnncio  strive  to  prevent  the  passing  of 
the  sweeping  cloister  law.  In  January,  1876,  it  was  passed  in  the 
House  of  Peers  with  modifications,  to  which,  however,  the  emperor 
refused  his  assent.  Also  the  I'evised  marriage  law  of  the  same  date, 
which  removed  the  hindrances  to  marriage  incorporated  even  in  the 
book  of  civil  law,  and  no  longer  recognised  differences  of  religion. 
Christians  and  non-Christians,  the  remarriage  of  separated  parties  of 
whom  at  the  time  of  the  first  marriage  only  one  party  belonged  to  the 
Catholic  church,  higher  consecration  and  the  vows  of  orders,  did  not 
pass  the  House  of  Peers. 

7.  The  Protestant  Church  in  the  Transleithan  Provinces. — In  Hungary 
since  1833  the  Eeiclistag  had  by  bold  action  won  for  the  Protestants 
full  equality  with  the  Catliolics,  but  in  consequence  of  the  revolution, 
the  military  lordship  of  the  Protestant  Hajaian  in  1850  again  put  in 
fetters  all  independent  life  in  both  Protestant  churches.  TheHaynaii 
decree  was,  indeed,  again  abrogated  in  1854,  but  full  return  to  the 
earlier  aiitonomy  of  the  church,  in  spite  of  all  petitions  and  deputa- 
tions, could  never  be  regained,  all  the  less  as  Hungary  in  all  too 
decided  a  manner  i-ejected  the  constitutional  proposals  submitted  by 
the  Govermnent  in  1856.  The  liberal  imperial  patent  of  September 
1st,  1859,  which  secvired  independent  administration  and  development 
to  the  Protestant  church  in  the  crown  possessions  of  Hungary,  got 
no  better  reception.  In  the  German-Slavonian  districts  of  North 
Hungary,  as  well  as  in  Croatia,  Slavonia,  and  Austrian  Servia,  it  was 
greeted  with  jubilation  and  gratitude,  but  the  Magyar  Hungarians 
declined  on  many,  for  the  most  part  frivolous,  grounds,  mainly  because 
it  emanated  from  the  emperor,  and  did  not  originate  in  an  autono- 
mous synod.  When  the  government  showed  its  intention  of  going 
forward  with  it,  the  opposition  was  carried  to  the  utmost  extreme,  so 
that  the  emperor  was  obliged  temporarily  to  suspend  proceedings  in 
May,  1860.  Still  the  ecch^siastical  joined  with  the  political  movement 
continued  to  increase  until  in  1867  the  imperial  chancellor.  Von  Beust, 
succeeded  in  quieting  both  for  a  time  by  the  Hungarian  Agreement. 
On  June  8th  of  that  year,  the  emperor,  Francis  Joseph,  on  ratifying 
the  agreement,  was  solemnly  crowned  King  of  Hungai-y.  The  hated 
patent  had  been  shortly  before  revoked  by  an  imperial  edict,  with  the 
direction  to  order  church  matters  in  a  constitutional  way.    After  a 


§   199.    SWITZERLAND.  341 

complete  reconciliation,  at  a  General  Protestant  Convention  in  Decem- 
ber, 1867,  Avitli  the  Patent  congregations,  hitherto  denounced  as 
unijatriotic,  it  was  concluded  that  to  the  state  belonged  only  a  right 
of  protection  and  oversight  of  the  church,  which  is  autonomous  in  all 
its  internal  affairs,  but  to  all  confessions  perfect  freedom  in  law,  and 
that  there  should  be  not  a  separate  religious  legislation  for  each,  but 
a  common  one  for  all  confessions.  A  committee  first  appointed  in 
1873  for  this  purpose,  Avith  the  motto,  "A  Free  Church  in  a  Free 
State,"  constituted,  and  then  adjourned  ad  kalendas  Grcecas. 

§  190.    Switzerland. 

The  Catholic  church  of  Switzerland,  after  long  continued 
troiibles,  obtained  again  a  regular  hierarchical  organization 
in  1828.  Since  that  time  the  Jesuits  settled  there  in  crowds, 
and  assumed  to  themselves  in  most  of  the  Catholic  cantons 
the  whole  direction  of  church  and  schools.  The  unfortu- 
nate issue  of  the  cantonal  war  of  1847  led  indeed  to  their 
banishment  by  la-\v,  but,  favoured  by  the  bishops,  they 
knew  how  still  to  re-enter  by  back  doors  and  secretly  to 
regain  their  earlier  influence.  The  city  of  Calvin  was  the 
centre  of  their  plots,  not  onl}^  for  Switzerland,  but  also  for  all 
Cisalpine  Europe,  until  at  last  the  overstrained  bow  broke, 
and  the  Swiss  governments  became  the  most  decided  and 
uncompromising  opponents  of  the  ultramontane  claims.  In 
1873  the  papal  nuncio,  in  consequence  of  a  papal  encyclical 
insulting  the  government,  was  banished. — In  Protestant 
Switzerland,  besides  the  destructive  influence  of  the  Illu- 
mination, antagonistic  to  the  church,  and  radical  liberalism, 
there  appeared  a  soil  receptive  of  pietism,  separatism,  and 
fanaticism,  whose  first  cultivation  has  been  ascribed  to 
Madame  Kriidener  (§  176,  2).  In  the  Protestant  church  of 
German  Switzerland  the  religious  and  theological  develop- 
ments stood  regularly  in  lively  connexion  with  similar 
movements  in  Germany,  while  those  in  the  French  cantons 
received  their  impulse  and  support  from  Prance  and  Eng- 
land.    From  France,  to  which  they  were  allied  b}^  a  common 


342      CHURCH   HISTORY   OF   NINETEENTH   CENTURY. 

language,  they  learned  the  unbelief  of  the  encyclopsBdists 
(§  165,  14),  while  travelling  Englishmen  and  those  residing 
in  the  country  for  a  longer  period  introduced  the  fervour  and 
superstition  of  Methodism  and  other  sects. 

1.  The  Catholic  Church  in  Switzerland  till  1870.— The  ecclesiastical 
sxiperintendence  of  Catholic  Switzerland  Avas  previously  subject  to  the 
neighbouring  foreign  bishoprics.  But  for  immediate  preservation  of 
its  interests  the  curia  had  appointed  a  nunciature  at  Lucerne  in  1588. 
When  now,  in  1814,  the  liberal  Wessenberg  (§  187,  3),  already  long 
suspected  of  heresy,  was  called  as  coadjutor  to  Constance,  the  nuncio 
manoeuvred  with  the  Catholic  confederates  till  these  petitioned  the 
pope  for  the  establishment  of  an  independent  and  national  bishopric. 
But  when  each  of  the  cantons  interested  claimed  to  be  made  the 
episcojial  residence  negotiations  were  at  last  suspended,  and  in  1828 
six  small  bishoprics  were  erected  under  immediate  control  of  Rome. 
At  the  end  of  1833  the  diocesan  representatives  of  Basel  and  St,  Gall 
assembled  in  Baden  to  consult  about  the  restoration  of  a  national 
Swiss  Metropolitan  Union  and  a  common  state  church  constitution 
for  securing  church  and  state  against  the  encroachments  of  the 
Romish  hierarchy.  But  Gregory  XIV.  condemned  the  articles  of 
conference  here  agreed  upon,  which  would  have  given  to  Switzerland 
only  what  other  states  had  long  possessed,  as  false,  audacious,  and 
erroneous,  destructive  of  the  church,  heretical,  and  schismatic,  and 
among  the  Catholic  people  a  revolt  was  stirred  up  by  ultramontane 
fanaticism,  under  the  influence  of  which  the  whole  action  was  soon 
frustrated.  On  the  occasion  of  a  revision  of  the  constitution  of  the 
canton  of  Aargau,  a  revolt,  led  by  the  cloisters,  broke  out  in  1841. 
B\it  the  rebels  were  defeated,  and  the  grand  council  resolved  xipon 
the  closing  of  all  cloisters,  eight  in  number.  Complaint  made  against 
this  at  the  diet  was  regarded  as  satisfied  by  the  Aargau  Agreement  of 
1843  restoring  three  nunneries.  An  opposition  was  organized  against 
the  revision  of  the  constitution  of  Canton  Lucerne  in  1841.  The  liberal 
government  was  overthrown,  and  the  new  constitution,  in  which  the 
state  insisted  on  its  placet  in  ecclesiastical  matters  and  the  granting 
of  cantonal  civil  rights  to  those  only  who  professed  attachment  to 
the  Roman  Catholic  church,  was  submitted  to  the  pope  for  ajiproval. 
At  last,  in  1844,  the  academy  of  Liu'crne  was  given  over  to  tlie  .Jesuits, 
for  which  Joseph  Leu,  the  jxijiular  agitator,  as  member  of  the  grand 
council,  had  wrouglit  unweariedly  since  18<}9.  In  Canton  Vaud  the 
parties  of  old  or  clerical  and  young  Switzc>rland  contended  with  one 
another  for  the  mastery.  The  latter  suffered  an  utter  defeat  in  1844, 
^nd  the  constitution  which  was  then  carried  allowed  the  right  of 


§  199.    SWITZERLAND.  343 

public  worship  only  to  tlie  Catholic  chvirch.  In  consequence  of  this 
victory  of  the  clerical  party  Catholic  Switzerland  with  Lucerne  at 
its  head  became  a  main  centre  of  ultramontanism  and  Jesuitism.  At 
the  diet  of  1844,  indeed,  Aargau,  supported  by  numerous  petitions 
fi'om  the  people,  moved  for  the  banishment  of  all  Jesuits  from  all 
Switzerland,  but  the  majority  did  not  consent.  The  Jesuit  opponents 
expelled  from  Lucerne  now  organized  twice  over  a  free  volunteer  corps 
to  overthrow  the  ultramontane  government  and  force  the  expulsion 
of  the  Jesuits,  but  on  both  occasions,  in  1844  and  1845,  it  suffered 
a  sore  defeat.  In  face  of  the  threateningly  growing  increase  of  the 
excitement,  which  made  them  fear  a  decisive  intervention  of  the  diet, 
the  Catholic  cantons  formed  in  1845  a  separate  league  (Soiiderbuvd) 
for  the  preservation  of  their  faith  and  their  sovereign  rights.  This 
proceeding,  irreconcilable  with  the  Act  of  Federation,  led  to  a  civil 
war.  The  members  of  the  Sonderbuncl  were  defeated,  the  ultramontane 
governments  had  to  resign,  and  the  Jesuits  departed  in  1847.  The 
new  Federal  constitution  which  Switzerland  adopted  in  1848,  secured 
unconditional  liberty  of  conscience  and  equality  of  all  confessions, 
and  the  expulsion  of  the  Jesuits  in  terms  of  the  law.  But  since  that 
time  ultramontanism  has  gained  the  supremacy  in  Catholic  Switzer- 
land, and  in  spite  of  the  existing  law  against  the  Jesuits  all  the 
threads  of  the  ultramontane  clerical  movements  in  Switzerland  were 
in  the  Jesuits'  hands.  These  were  never  more  successful  than  in 
Canton  Geneva,  where  the  radical  democratic  agitator  Fazy  leagued 
himself  closely  with  viltramontanism  to  compass  the  destruction  of 
the  old  Calvinistic  aristocracy,  and  by  bringing  in  large  numbers 
the  lower  class  Catholics  from  the  neighbouring  France  and  Savoy 
he  obtained  a  considerable  Catholic  majority  in  the  canton,  and  in 
the  capital  itself  made  Catholics  and  Protestants  nearly  equal. 

2.  The  Geneva  Conflict,  1870-1883.— The  Catholic  chui-ch  of  Canton 
Geneva,  on  the  founding  of  the  six  Swiss  bishoprics  by  a  papal  bull, 
had  been  incorporated  "  for  all  time  to  come,"  after  the  style  of  the 
concordat,  with  the  bishopric  of  Freiburg-Lausanne.  But  the  govern- 
ment made  no  objection  when  the  newly  elected  priest  of  Geneva, 
Mermillod,  a  Jesuit  of  the  purest  water,  assumed  the  title  and  rank 
of  an  episcopal  vicar-general  for  the  whole  canton.  But  when  in  1864 
the  pope  nominated  him  bishop  of  Hebron  iw  partihus  and  auxiliary 
bishop  of  Geneva,  it  made  a  protest.  Nevertheless,  when,  in  the  follow- 
ing year.  Bishop  Marilley  of  Freiburg  by  papal  orders  transferred  to 
him  absolute  power  for  the  canton  -with  jjersonal  responsibility,  and  in 
1870  formally  renounced  all  episcopal  rights  over  it,  so  that  the  pope 
now  appointed  the  auxiliary  bishop  independent  bishop  of  Geneva, 
it  was  evident  a  step  had  been  taken  that  could  not  be  recalled.  The 
government  renewed  its  protest  and  made  it  more  vehement,  in  conse- 


344      CHI^RCn    HISTORY   OP   NINETEENTH    CENTURY. 

quonoo  of  ^\ilicll,  in  January,  1.S73,  by  a  papal  brii'f  whicli  was  first 
oflfic'ially  commnnicatecl  to  th(!  govcnnnent  after  it  hail  already  been 
proclaimed  from  all  Catholic  pulpits,  Mermillod  Avas  appointed 
apostolic  vicar-general  -with  unlimited  authority  for  Canton  Geneva, 
and  the  district  was  thus  practically  made  a  Catliolic  mission  field. 
A  demand  made  of  him  by  the  state  to  resign  this  office  and  title  and 
divest  himself  of  every  episcopal  function,  was  answered  by  the 
declaration  that  he  would  obey  God  rather  than  man.  The  Btmd 
then  expelled  him  from  Federal  territory  until  he  would  yield  to  that 
demand.  From  Ferney,  where  he  settled,  he  unceasingly  stirred  up 
the  fire  of  opposition  among  the  Genevan  clergy  and  people,  but  the 
government  decidedly  rejected  all  protests,  and  by  a  popular  vote  ob- 
tained sanction  for  a  Catholic  church  law  which  restricted  the  rights 
of  tlie  diocesan  bishop  who  might  reside  in  Switzerland,  but  not  in 
Canton  Geneva,  and  witljout  consent  of  the  government  could  not  ap- 
point there  any  episcopal  vicar,  and  transferred  the  election  of  priests 
and  priests'  vicars  to  the  congregations.  The  next  elections  returned 
Old  Catholics,  since  the  Roman  Catholic  population  did  not  acknow- 
ledge the  law  condemned  by  the  pope  and  took  no  part  in  the  voting. 
By  decision  of  the  grand  council  of  1875  the  abolition  of  all  religious 
corporations  was  next  enacted,  and  all  religious  ceremonies  and  pro- 
cessions in  public  streets  and  squares  forbidden.  Leo  XIII.  made  an 
attfimpt  to  still  the  conflict,  for  in  1879  he  gave  Bishop  Marilley  the 
asked  for  discharge,  and  confirmed  his  elected  successor,  Cosandry, 
as  bishop  of  Freiburg,  Lausanne,  and  Geneva,  without  however  re- 
moving Mennillod  from  his  office  of  vicar  apostolic  of  Geneva.  But 
this  actually  took  place  after  the  death  of  Cosandry  in  1882  by  the 
ajipointment  of  Mermillod  as  his  successor  in  1883.  As  he  now  ceased 
to  style  himself  a  vicar  apostolic,  the  Federal  council  removed  the 
decree  of  banishment  as  the  occasion  of  it  had  ceased,  but  left  each 
canton  free  as  to  whether  or  not  it  should  accept  him  as  bishop. 
Freiburg,  Neuenburg,  and  Vaud  accepted  him,  and  Mermillod  had  a 
brilliant  entry  into  Freiburg,  which  he  made  his  episcopal  residence. 
But  Geneva  refused  to  recognise  him,  because  it  had  already  officially 
attached  itself  to  the  Old  Catholic  Bishop  Herzog  of  Berne,  and 
Memnillod  went  so  far  in  his  ostentatious  love  of  peace  as  to  declare 
that  he  would  not  in  future  enter  Genevan  territory. 

3.  Conflict  in  the  Diocese  of  Basel-Soleure,  1870  1880.— Bishop  Lachat 
of  Soleure,  wliosc  diocese  comjiriscd  tlic  Cantons  Bern,  Soleure,  Aar- 
gau,  Basel,  Thurgau,  Lucerne,  and  Zug,  had  been  previously  in 
conflict  with  the  diocesan  conferenc(^,  i.e.  tlie  delegates  of  the  seven 
cantons  entrusted  with  the  oversight  of  the  ecclesiastical  administra- 
tion, on  account  of  introducing  the  prohibited  handbook  on  morals 
of  the   Jesuit  Gury   (§191,  9),  which    ended  in  the  closing   of  the 


§   199.    SWITZERLAND.  345 

seminary  aided  by  the  government,  and  the  erection  of  a  new  semi- 
nary at  his  own  cost.  Although  the  diocesan  conference  next  forbad 
the  proclamation  of  the  new  Vatican  dogma,  the  bishop  tlu-eatened 
excommunicated  Egli  in  Lucerne  in  1871,  and  Geschwind  in  Starr- 
kirch  in  1872,  who  refused.  The  conference  ordered  the  withdrawal 
of  this  unlawful  act;  and  on  the  bishop's  refusal,  deposed  liim  in 
January,  1873.  The  dissenting  cantons,  Lucerne  and  Zug,  indeed 
declared  that  after  as  Avell  as  before  they  would  only  recognise 
Lachat  as  lawful  bishop,  the  chapter  refused  to  make  the  required 
election  of  administrator  of  the  diocese,  the  clerg3''  in  Soleure  and  in 
Bernese  Jura  without  exception  took  the  side  of  the  bishoj),  as  also  by 
means  of  a  jjopular  vote  the  great  majority  of  Catholics  in  Thurgau. 
But  amid  all  this  the  conference  did  not  yield  in  the  least.  Lachat 
was  compelled  by  the  police  to  quit  his  episcopal  residence,  and  with- 
drew to  a  village  in  Canton  Lucerne.  The  council  of  the  Bernese 
government  resolved  to  recall  the  refractory  clergy  of  the  Jura,  took 
their  names  off  the  civil  register  and  forbad  them  to  exercise  anj' 
clerical  functions.  The  outbreaks  incited  by  rebel  clergy  in  the  Jura 
were  put  down  by  the  military,  sixty-nine  clergjaiien  were  exiled,  and, 
so  far  as  the  means  allowed,  replaced  by  liberal  successors  introduced 
by  the  Old  Catholic  priest  Herzog  (§  190,  3)  in  Olten.  In  November, 
1875,  permission  to  return  home  was  granted  to  the  exiles  in  conse- 
({uence  of  the  revised  Federal  constitution  of  1874,  according  to  which 
the  banishment  of  Swiss  burghers  was  no  longer  allowed.  The  Bernese 
government  felt  all  the  more  disposed  to  carry  out  this  enactment  of 
tile  National  Council,  as  it  believed  that  it  had  obtained  the  legal  means 
for  checking  further  rebellion  and  obstinacy  among  those  who  should 
return.  On  January,  1874,  by  pojjular  vote  a  law  was  sanctioned 
reorganizing  the  whole  ecclesiastical  affairs  of  the  Canton  Bern.  By  it 
all  clergy.  Catholic  as  well  as  Protestant,  are  ranked  as  civil  officers, 
the  choice  of  whom  rests  with  the  congregations,  the  tenure  of  office 
lasting  for  six  years.  All  purely  ecclesiastical  affairs  for  the  canton 
rest  in  the  last  instance  with  a  sjTiod  of  the  particular  denomination, 
for  the  several  congregations  with  a  church  committee,  both  composed 
of  freely  elected  lay  and  clerical  members.  But  if  a  dispute  in  a 
])articular  congregation  should  arise  about  a  synodal  decree,  the  con- 
gregational assembly  decides  on  its  validity  or  non-validity  for  the 
l)articular  congregation.  All  decrees  of  higher  church  courts  and 
pastorals  must  have  state  approval,  which  must  never  be  refused  on 
tlogmatic  grounds.  If  a  congregation  splits  over  any  question,  the 
majority  claims  the  church  property  and  pastor's  emoluments,  etc. 
And  this  law  was  next  extended  in  October  31st,  1875,  in  the  matter 
of  penal  law  by  the  so-called  Police  Worship  Law.  It  imposes  heavy 
fines  up  to  1000  francs  or  a  year's  imprisonment  for  any  clerical  agi- 


M46      CHURCH   HISTORY   OF   NINETEENTH   CENTURY. 

tation  against  the  law,  institutions  or  enactments  of  the  civil  courts, 
as  well  as  for  every  outbreak  of  hostilities  against  members  of  other 
religious  bodies,  refuses  to  allow  any  interfei-ence  of  foreign  spiritual 
superiors  without  leave  granted  by  government  in  each  i)articular 
case,  forbids  all  processions  and  religious  ceremonies  outsidii  of  the 
fixed  ehurch  locality,  etc.  In  th(!  sanu!  year  the  first  Catholic  Can- 
tonal S3'nod  declared  its  attachment  to  the  Christian  or  Old  Catholic 
church  of  Switzerland.  But  it  was  otherwise  after  the  newly  elected 
Grand  Council  of  the  canton  of  its  own  accord,  on  September  12th, 
1878,  granted  the  returned  Jura  clergy  complete  amnesty  for  all  the 
past,  and  on  the  assumption  of  future  submission  to  existing  laws  of 
state,  recognised  them  again  eligibh;  for  election  to  spiritual  offices 
wliicli  had  previously  been  denied  them.  Not  only  did  the  Eomau 
Catholic  people  regularly  take  part  in  elections  of  priests,  church 
councils,  and  sjniods,  undoubtedly  with  the  approval  of  the  new  pope 
Leo  XIII.,  who  had  in  February  addressed  a  conciliatory  letter  to  the 
members  of  the  Federal  Council,  but  also  the  extremest  of  the  Jura 
now  submitted  without  scruple  to  the  new  election  required  by  the 
law,  and  won  therein  for  the  most  part  the  majority  of  votes.  In  the 
Catholic  Cantonal  Synod  convened  in  Bern,  in  January,  1880,  were 
found  seventy-five  Roman  Catholics  and  only  twenty-five  Old  Catholic 
deputies.  The  latter  were  naturally  defeated  in  all  controversies, 
Tlie  synod  declared  that  the  connexion  with  the  Christian  Catholic 
national  bishopric  was  annulled,  that  auricvilar  confession  was  obli-» 
gatory,  that  marriages  of  priests  were  forbidden,  etc.  Since  now  th© 
law  assigns  the  state  pay  of  the  priest  as  well  as  all  the  church  pro« 
Ijerty  in  the  case  of  a  split  to  the  majority  for  the  time  beiitg,  the 
inevitable  consequence  was  that  Old  Catholics  of  the  Jura  district 
were  deprived  of  all  share  in  these  i:)rivileges,  and  had  to  make  pro- 
vision for  their  own  support.  Also  in  Canton  Soleure,  the  law  that 
all  pastors  must  be  re-elected  after  the  expiry  of  six  years,  came  in 
force  in  1872,  and  then  the  thii-ty-two  Roman  Catholic  ck-rgymen 
concerned  were  with  only  two  exceptions  re-elected,  while,  on  the 
other  hand,  the  Old  Catholic  priest  Geschwind  of  Starrkirch  was  re- 
jected.— But  all  efforts  to  restore  the  bishopric  of  Basel-Soleure  came 
to  grief  over  the  person  of  Bishop  Lachat,  whom  the  curia  would 
not  give  up  and  the  Federal  Council  would  not  again  allow,  until  at 
last  a  way  out  of  the  difficulty  was  found.  The  canton  Tessin,  which 
previously  in  cluirch  matU'rs  belonged  toth<i  Italian  dioceses  of  Milan 
and  Como,  was,  in  1850,  liy  decree,  of  tlie  Federal  Council,  detached 
from  these.  But  Tessin  insisted  on  the;  founding  of  a  bishopric  of  its 
own,  while  tlie  Federal  Coun(;il  wislK'd  to  join  it  to  th(!  bisho|)rie  of 
f!hur.  Tims  th((  matter  remained  undecided,  till  in  Se)iteniber,  1881, 
the  })apal  curia  came  to  an  uuilt'i'standiiig  with    the  Federal  Coiuicil 


§  109.    SWITZEELAND.  ^^47 

that  Lachat  should  be  appointed  vicar-apostolic  for  the  newly  founded 
bishopric  of  Tessin,  and  that  to  the  vacated  bishopric  of  Basel-Soleure 
the  "  learned  as  well  as  mild  "  Provost  Fiala  of  Soleure  should  be 
called.  In  this  way  all  the  cantons  referred  to,  with  the  exception  of 
Bern,  were  won.' 

4.  The  Protestant  Church  in  German  Switzerland.— Among  all  the 
German  cantons,  Basel  (§  172,  5),  which  unwcariedly  i^rosecuted  the 
work  of  home  and  foreign  missions,  fell  most  completely  under 
the  influence  of  rationalism  and  then  of  the  liberal  Protestant 
theology.  While  pietism  obtained  powerful  support  and  encourage- 
ment in  its  missionary  institutions  and  movements,  and  there,  though 
developing  itself  on  Eeformed  soil,  assumed,  in  consequence  of  its 
manifold  connection  with  Germany,  a  colour  almost  more  Lutheran 
than  Reformed,  the  university  by  eminent  theological  teachers  of 
scientific  ability  represented  the  Mediation  school  in  theology  of  a 
predominently  Eeformed  type.  In  the  Canton  Ziirich,  on  the  other 
hand,  the  advanced  theology,  theoretical  and  practical,  obtained  an 
increasing  and  finally  an  almost  exclusive  mastery  in  the  university 
and  church.  But  yet,  when  in  1839  the  Grand  Council  called  Dr. 
David  Strauss  to  a  theological  professorship,  the  Zurich  people  rose 
to  a  man  against  the  proposal,  the  appointment  was  not  enforced,  the 
Grand  Council  was  overthrown,  and  Strauss  pensioned.  The  victory 
and  ascendency  of  this  reaction,  however,  was  not  of  long  contin- 
uance. Theological  and  ecclesiastical  radicalism  again  won  the  upper 
hand  and  maintained  it  unchecked.  In  the  other  German  cantons 
the  most  diverse  theological  schools  were  represented  alongside  of  one 
another,  yet  with  steadily  increasing  advantage  to  liberal  and  radical 
tendencies.  The  theological  faculty  at  Bern  favoured  mainly  a 
liberal  mediation  theology,  and  an  attempt  of  the  orthodox  party  in 
1847,  to  set  aside  the  appointment  of  Professor  E.  Zeller  by  means  of 
a  popular  tumult,  miscarried.  From  1860  ecclesiastical  liberalism 
]irevailed  in  German  Protestant  Switzerland,  frequently  going  the 
length  of  the  extremest  radicalism  and  showing  its  influence  even  in 
the  cantonal  and  synodal  legislation.  The  starting  of  the  "  Zeifstim- 
meti  fib'  d.  ref.  Si-hweiz"  in  1859,  by  Henry  Lang,  who  had  fled  in 
1848  from  Wiirttemberg  to  Switzerland,  and  died  in  187G  as  pastor 
in  Zurich,  marked  an  epoch  in  the  history  of  the  radical  liberal  move- 
ment in  Swiss  theology.  In  Fred.  Langhans,  since  187(5  professor 
at  Bern,  he  had  a  zealous  comrade  in  the  fight.  During  18()4-18()G, 
Langhans  published  a  series  of  violent  controversial  tracts  against 
the  pietistic  orthodox  partj^  in  Switzerland,  which  zealously  prose- 
cuted foreign  missions,  and  in  18GG   he  founded  the  Su'iss  Beform 


»  Geffcken,  "Church  and  State,"  voh  ii.,  pp.  4G9-488, 


348      CHURCH    HTSTOrtY    OF    NINETEENTH    CENTURY. 

Union,  Avliilo  Alb.  Bitziui?,  son  of  tlio  ^\•ritc'l•  known  as  Jor.  Gotthelf 
(§  174,  8)  started  as  its  organ  tlie  "  BcformhUitter  aun  d.  hernischen 
Kircfie,^^  Avhich  was  subsequently  amalgamated  with  the  ZcUsthnmem 
— After  more  or  less  violent  conflicts  Avith  pietistic  orthodoxy,  still 
alwaj-s  pretty  strongly  represented,  especially  in  the  aristocracy,  the 
emancipation  of  the  schools  from  the  church  and  the  introduction  of 
obligatory  civil  marriage  w^ere  accomplished  in  most  cantons,  even 
before  the  revised  Federal  constitution  of  1874  and  the  marriage  law 
of  1875  gave  to  these  principles  legal  sanction  throughout  the  whole 
of  Switzerland.  In  almost  all  Protestant  cantons  the  re-election  or 
new  election  io  all  spiritual  ofllces  eveiy  six  years  was  ordained  by 
law.  in  many  the  fre>eing  of  the  clergy  from  any  creed  subscrijition 
with  the  setting  aside  of  confessional  writings  as  well  as  of  the 
orthodox  liturgy,  hymnbooks  and  catechisms  was  also  carried,  and 
the  withdrawing  of  the  Apostles'  Creed  from  public  worship  and 
from  the  baptismal  formula  was  enjoined.  The  Basel  sjTiod  in  1883,  by 
thirt3''-six  to  twenty -seven  votes,  carried  the  motion  to  make  baptism 
no  longer  a  condition  of  confirmation ;  and  although  the  Zurich 
SA'uod  in  1882  still  held  baptism  obligator3^  for  membership  in  the 
national  church,  the  Cantonal  Council  in  1883,  on  consulting  the  law 
of  the  church,  overturned  this  decision  by  140  against  19  votes. 

5.  The  Protestant  Church  in  French  Switzerland. — The  French  philo- 
sophy of  the  eighteenth  century  had  given  to  the  Eeformed  church 
of  Geneva  a  prevailingly  rationalistic  tendency.  Notwithstanding,  or 
just  because  of  this,  Madame  Kriidener,  in  1814,  with  her  conventicle 
pietism,  found  an  entrance  there,  and  won  in  the  young  theologian 
Empaytaz  a  zealous  supporter  and  an  apostle  of  conversion  preaching. 
In  the  next  year  a  wealthy  Englishman,  Haldane,  appeared  there  as 
th(!  apostle  of  methodistic  piety,  and  insjiired  the  young  i)astor 
Malan  with  enthusiasm  for  the  revival  mission.  Empaytaz  and 
Malan  now  by  speech  and  writing  charged  the  national  church  with 
defection  from  the  Christian  faith,  and  won  many  zealous  believers,  as 
adherents,  especially  among  students  of  theology.  The  Vdndrable 
Cnvijxifjnie  of  the  Geneva  clergy,  hitherto  resting  on  its  lees  in 
rationalistic  quiet,  now  in  1817  thought  it  might  still  the  rising 
storm  by  demanding  of  theological  candidates  at  ordination  the  vow 
not  to  preach  on  the  two  natures  in  Christ,  original  sin,  predestina- 
tion, etc.,  but  thereby  they  only  poured  oil  on  the  fire.  Th(>  adhe- 
rents of  the  daily  increasing  evangelical  movement  withdrew  from 
the  national  church,  founded  free  independent  communities  and 
Jleunions  under  the  banner  of  the  restoration  of  Calvinistic  ortho- 
doxy, and  were  by  their  enemies  nicknamed  Momiers,  i.e.  mummery 
traders  or  hyjiocrites.  The  government  im])risoned  and  banished 
theii-  leaders,  while  the  mob,  unchecked,  heaped  upon  them  all  manner 


§   199.    SWITZERLAND.  349 

(if  abuso.  Th«  persecution  came  to  an  end  in  1830.  Thereaftei'  set- 
tling down  in  quiet  modei-ation,  it  founded  in  1831  the  Societe  evan- 
(/elique,  which,  in  1832,  established  an  Erole  de  The'oloffie,  and  became 
the  centi-e  of  the  Free  church  evangelical  movement.  From  that  time 
the  Ef/li-ie  Hire  of  Geneva  has  existed  unmolested  alongside  of  the 
Efjlise  Xatioiiale,  and  the  opposition  at  first  so  violent  has  been 
moderated  on  both  sides  by  the  growth  of  conciliatory  and  mediating 
tendencies.  Since  1850,  two  divergent  parties  have  arisen  within  the 
bosom  of  the  free  church  itself,  which  without  any  serious  conflict 
continued  alongside  of  one  another,  until  in  May,  1888,  the  majority 
of  the  presbytery  resolved  to  make  a  peaceful  separation,  the  stricter 
forming  the  congregation  of  the  Pelisserie,  and  the  more  liberal  that  of 
the  Oratoire.  At  the  same  time  a  committee  was  appointed  to  draw 
up  a  confession  upon  which  both  could  unite  in  lasting  fellowship. 
But  when  this  failed,  a  formal  and  complete  separation  was  agreed 
upon  at  the  new  year. — From  Geneva  the  Methodist  revival  spread  to 
Vaud.  The  religious  movement  got  a  footing,  especially  in  Lausamie. 
The  Grand  Council,  however,  did  not  allow  the  contemplated  forma- 
tion of  an  independent  congregation,  and  in  1824  forbad  all  "  sec- 
tarian "  assemblies,  while  the  mob  raged  even  more  wildly  than  at 
Geneva  against  the  "  Momiers."'  The  excitement  increased  when,  in 
1839,  by  decision  of  the  Grand  Council,  the  Helvetic  Confession  was 
abrogated.  When  in  1845  a  revolutionary  radical  government  came 
into  office  at  Lausanne,  the  refusal  of  many  clergj-men  to  read  from 
the  pulpit  a  political  proclamation,  caused  a  thorough  division  in  the 
church,  for  the  preachers  referred  to  were  iu  a  body  driven  out  of  the 
national  church.  A  Free  chui'ch  of  Vaud  now  developed  itself  along- 
side of  the  national  church,  sorely  oppressed  and  persecuted  by  the 
radical  government,  and  spread  into  other  Swiss  cantons.  It  owed  its 
freedom  from  sectarian  narrowness  mainly  to  the  influence  of  the 
talented  and  thoioughly  independent  Alex.  Vinet,  who  devoted  his 
whole  energies  and  brilliant  eloquence  to  the  interests  of  religious 
freedom  and  liberty  of  conscience  and  to  the  struggle  for  the  separa- 
tion of  church  and  state.  Vinet  was  from  1817  teacher  of  the  Frencli 
language  and  literature  in  Basel,  then  from  1887  to  1845  professor 
of  practical  theology  at  Lausanne,  but  on  the  reconstruction  of  the 
university  he  was  not  re-elected.  He  died  in  1847.* — In  the  canton 
Neuchatel  the  State  Council  in  1873  introduced  a  law,  which  granted 
imconditional  libert}"-  of  conscience,  freedom  in  teaching  and  worship 
without  any  sort  of  restriction  on  clergy,  teachers  and  congregations. 


*  E.  J.  Sandeman,  "  Alexander  Vinet "  in  "  Evangelical  Succession 
Lectures,"'  Third  Series,  Edinburgh,  1881.  Dorner,  "  History  of  Protes- 
tant Theology,"'  ii.,  470,  478. 


350      CHURCH   HISTORY   OF   NINETEENTH   CENTURY. 

The  Grand  Council  by  forty-seven  votes  to  forty-six  gave  it  its  sanc- 
tion, notwithstanding  the  ahnost  unanimous  i)rotest  of  the  evangelical 
s3-nod,  and  refused  to  appeal  to  a  popular  vote.  When  an  appeal  to 
the  Federal  Council  proved  fruitless,  somewhere  about  one  half  of  the 
jiastors,  including  the  theological  professors  and  all  the  students,  left 
the  state  church,  and  formed  an  EijJiae  lihre  /  while  the  other  half 
regarded  it  as  their  duty  to  remain  in  the  national  church  so  long 
as  they  were  not  hindered  from  preaching  God's  word  in  purity  and 
simplicity.  Both  parties  had  a  common  meeting  point  in  the  Union 
evangelique,  and  a  law  originally  joassed  in  favour  of  the  Old  Catholics, 
which  secured  to  all  seceders  a  right  to  the  joint  use  of  their  respec- 
tive churches,  proved  also  of  advantage  to  the  Free  church. — The 
canton  Geneva  issued,  in  1874,  a  Protestant  law  of  worship,  which  with 
dogma  and  liturgy  also  threw  overboard  ordination,  and  maintained 
that  the  clergy  are  answerable  only  to  their  conscience  and  their 
electors.  Yet  at  the  new  election  of  the  consistory  in  1879,  at  the 
close  of  the  legal  term  of  four  years,  the  evangelical  and  moderate 
party  again  obtained  the  supremacy,  and  a  law  introduced  by  the 
radical  party  in  the  Grand  Council,  demanding  the  withdrawal  of  the 
budget  of  worship  and  the  separation  of  church  and  state,  Avas,  on 
July  4th,  1880,  thrown  out  by  universal  popular  vote,  by  a  majority 
of  9,000  to  4,000. 


§  200.    Holland  and  Belgium. 

Among  the  most  serious  mistakes  iu  the  new  partition  ot 
states  at  the  Vienna  Congress  was  the  combining  in  one 
kingdom  of  the  United  Netherlands  the  provinces  of  Holland 
and  Belgium,  diverse  in  race,  language,  character,  and 
religion.  The  contagion  of  French  Revolution  of  July,  1830, 
however,  caused  an  outbreak  in  Brussels,  which  ended  in 
the  separation  of  Catholic  Belgium  from  the  predominantly 
Protestant  Holland.  Belgium  has  since  then  been  the  scene 
of  unceasing  and  changeful  conflicts  between  the  liberal 
and  ultramontane  parties,  whose  previous  combination  was 
now  completely  shattered.  And  while,  on  the  other  hand, 
in  the  Reformed  state  church  of  Holland,  theological  studies, 
leaning  upon  German  science,  have  taken  a  liberal  and  even 
radical  destructive  course,  the    not   inconsiderable  Roman 


I  200.  Holland  and  Belgium.      351 

Catholic  population  has  fallen,  under  Jesuit  leading,  more 
and  more  into  bigoted  obscurantism. 


1.  The  United  Netherlands. — The  constitution  of  the  new  kingdom 
created  in  1814  guaranteed  unlimited  freedom  to  all  forms  of  wor- 
ship and  complete  equality  of  all  citizens  without  distinction  of 
religious  confession.  Against  this  the  Belgian  episcopate  protested 
with  bishop  Maurice  von  Broglie,  of  Ghent,  at  their  head,  who  re- 
fused, in  1817,  the  prayers  of  the  church  for  the  heretical  crown  prin- 
cess and  the  Te  Deum  for  the  newborn  heir  to  the  throne.  As  he 
went  so  far  as  to  excite  the  Catholic  people  on  all  occasions  against 
the  Protestant  government,  the  angry  king,  William  I.,  summoned 
him  to  answer  for  his  conduct  before  the  co\irt  of  justice.  But  ho 
eluded  inquiry  by  flight  to  France,  and  as  guilty  of  high  treason 
was  sentenced  to  death,  which  did  not  prevent  him  from  his  exile  un- 
weariedly  fanning  the  flames  of  rebellion.  The  number  of  cloisters 
grew  from  daj-  to  day  and  also  the  multitude  of  clerical  schools  and 
seminaries,  in  which  the  Catholic  youth  was  trained  up  in  the  prin- 
ciples of  the  most  violent  fanaticism.  The  government  in  1825  closed 
the  seminaries,  expelled  Jesiiit  teachers,  forbad  attendance  at  Jesuit 
schools  abroad,  and  founded  a  college  at  Louvain,  in  which  all  study- 
ing for  the  church  were  obliged  to  pass  through  a  philosophical  curri- 
culum. The  common  struggle  for  maintaining  the  liberty  of  instruc- 
tion promised  by  the  constitution  made  political  radicalism  and 
nltramontanism  confederates,  and  the  government,  intimidatetl  by 
this  combination,  agi'eed,  in  a  concordat  with  the  pope  in  1827,  to 
modify  the  obligatory  into  a  facultative  attendance  at  Louvain 
College.  The  inevitable  consequence  of  this  was  the  speedy  and  com- 
plete decay  of  the  college.  But  the  confederacy  of  the  radicals  and 
ultramontanes  continued,  directing  itself  against  other  misdeeds  of 
the  government,  and  was  not  broken  up  until  in  1830  it  attained  its 
object  by  the  disjunction  of  Belgium  and  Holland. 

2.  The  Kingdom  of  HoUand.—ln  the  prevailinglj'  Reformed  national 
church  rationalism  and  latitudinarian  supernaturalism  had  to  such 
an  extent  blotted  out  the  ecclesiastical  distinctions  between  Eeformed, 
Remonstrants,  Mennonites,  and  Lutherans,  that  the  clergy  of  one 
party  would  unhesitatingly  preach  in  the  churches-  of  the  others. 
Then  rose  the  poet  Bilderdijk,  driven  from  political  into  religious 
patriotism,  to  denounce  with  glowing  fury  the  general  declen.sion 
from  the  orthodox^^  of  Dorti  Two  Jewish  converts  of  his,  the  poet 
and  apologist  Isaac  da  Costa,  and  the  physician  Cappadose,  gave  him 
powerful  support.  A  zealous  yomig  clergyman,  Henrj'  de  Cock,  was 
theological  mouthpiece  of  the  party.      Becaupe  he  oftended  church 


352      CHURCH   HISTORY   OF   NINETEENTH   CENTURY. 

order,  especially  by  ministering  in  other  congregations,  he  was  sus- 
pended and  fuially  deposed  in  1834.  The  greater  part  of  his  congre- 
gation ami  four  other  pastors  with  him  formally  declared  their 
secession  from  the  unfaithful  church,  as  a  return  to  the  orthodox 
Reformed  church.  As  separatists  and  disturbers  of  public  worship, 
they  were  fined  and  imprisoned,  and  were  at  last  satisfied  with  the 
recognition  granted  them  of  royal  grace  in  1839,  as  a  separate  or 
Christian  Reformed  Clmrch.  It  consists  now  of  364  congregations, 
embracing  about  140,000  souls,  Avith  a  flourishing  seminary  at 
Kampen.  The  Reformed  State  Church,  with  three-fourths  of  all  the 
Protestant  population,  persevered  in  and  developed  its  liberalistic 
tendencies.  The  State  S;>mod  of  1883  expressly  declared  that  the 
Netherland  Reformed  Church  demands  from  its  teachers  not  agi-ee- 
inent  with  all  the  statements  of  the  confessional  writings,  but  only 
with  their  spirit,  gist,  and  essence ;  and  the  synod  of  1877,  by  the  vote 
of  a  majority,  stated  that  no  sort  of  formulated  confession  should  be 
reqiiired  even  of  candidates  for  confirmation.  Yet  even  amid  such 
proceedings  from  various  sides,  a  churchly  and  evangelical  reaction 
of  considerable  importance  set  in.  Three  great  parties  within  the 
state  church  carried  on  a  life  and  death  struggle  with  one  another : 
(1)  The  Strict  Calvinists,  whose  leader  is  Dr.  Kuyper,  formerly  pastor 
in  Amsterdam  ;  (2)  The  so-called  Middle  Party,  which  falls  into  two 
divisions :  the,  just  about  expiring,  Ethical  Irenical  Party,  with  the 
Utrecht  prof essor  Van  Oosterzee  (died  1882),  and  the  Evangelical  Party 
with  the  Groningen  professor  Hofstede  de  Groot,  since  1872  Emeritus, 
as  leaders,  of  which  the  former,  subordinating  the  confession,  regards 
the  Christian  life  as  the  main  thing  in  Christianity,  and  the  latter 
declares  itself  prepared  to  take  th(!  gospel  alone;  for  its  creed  and  con- 
fession ;  and  (3)  The  so-called  Modern  Party,  which,  with  Professors 
Scholten  and  Kuenen  as  leaders,  has  its  centre  at  Leyden,  and  in 
theology  carries  out  with  reckless  energy  the  destructive  critical 
principles  of  the  school  of  Baur  and  Wellhausen  (§  182,  7,  18).  The 
"  Modernn  "  are  also  the  founders  and  leaders  of  the  "  Protestant  Fede- 
ration'''' after  the  German  model  (§  180),  with  its  annual  assemblies 
since  1873,  in  opposition  to  which  a  "  Confessional  Union  "  holds  its 
annual  meetings  at  Utrecht,  and  operates  by  means  of  evangelists  and 
lay  preachers  in  places  where  there  are  only  "Modern"  pastors.  The 
highe-r  and  cultured  classes  in  the  congregations  mostly  favour  the 
Groningen  and  some  also  the  Leyden  school,  but  the  great  majority' 
of  the  middle  and  lower  classes  are  adherents  of  Kuyper,  and  have 
frequently  secured  majorities  in  the  Congregational  Church  Council. 
— Th(!  Dutch  school  law  of  1856  banished  every  sort  of  confessional 
religious  education  from  public  schools  supported  by  the  state,  and 
so   called   forth   the  erection  of   numerous  denominational   schools 


§  200.  HOLLAND  AND  BELGIUM.        353 

independent  of  the  state,  and  the  founding  of  a  ••  Union  for  L'liridicai 
Popular  Education,''''  which  has  spread  through  the  whole  country. 
The  university  law  sanctioned,  after  violent  debates  in  the  chamber, 
in  1876,  establishes  in  place  of  the  old  theological  faculties,  professor- 
shijxs  for  the  science  of  religion  generally,  wath  the  exception  of 
dogmatics  and  practical  theology,  and  left  it  with  the  Keformed 
State  Sjaiod  to  care  for  these  two  subjects,  either  in  a  theological 
seminary  or  by  fovmding  for  itself  the  two  theological  professorships 
in  the  iniivei-sities  and  supporting  them  fi'om  the  sums  voted  for  the 
state  church.  The  sjniod  decided  on  the  latter  course,  and  appomted 
to  the  new  chairs  men  of  moderate  liberal  views.  The  adherents  of 
the  strict  Calvinistic  party,  however,  founded  a  Free  Reformed  Uni- 
versity at  Amsterdam,  which  was  opened  in  autumn,  1880.  Its  first 
rector  was  Ku3-per. — The  Lutheran  Church  of  fifty  congregations  and 
sixty-two  pastors,  with  about  60,000  souls,  has  also  had  since  1816 
a  theological  seminar}^.     In  it  neological  tendencies  prevail. 

3.  The  founding  of  the  Free  University  at  Amsterdam,  referred  to 
above,  led  to  a  series  of  violent  conflicts  which  threatened  to  break  up 
the  whole  Reformed  church  of  the  Netherlands  by  a  Avild  schism. 
The  Eefonned  State  Synod,  consisting  mainly  of  Groningen  theo- 
logians, but  also  numbering  many  members  belonging  to  the  ]\Iodern 
or  Lej'den  school,  and  constituting  the  supreme  ecclesiastical  court, 
had,  in  spite  of  its  eleventh  rule,  which  makbs  '•  the  maintenance  of 
the  doctrine  "'  a  main  task  of  all  church  government,  for  a  long  time 
admitted  the  principle  of  unfettered  freedom  of  teaching,  and  ordained 
that  even  evidence  of  orthodoxy  on  the  part  of  candidates  for  con- 
firmation would  no  longer  be  regarded  as  a  condition  of  their  accept- 
ance, their  examination  referring  only  to  their  knowledge,  the 
examining  clergy  and  not  the  assisting  elders  being  judges  in  this 
matter.  When  now  the  Free  University  had  been  founded  in  direct 
opposition  to  the  S3niod,  the  latter  resolved  to  reject  all  its  pupils  at 
th<»  examination  of  candidates,  and  when,  in  the  sunnner  of  1885,  its 
first  student  presented  himself,  actually  carried  out  this  resolution. 
Thereupon  the  university  transferred  the  examination  to  a  committee, 
elected  by  itself,  consisting  of  orthodox  Reformed  pastors  and  elders, 
and  a  small  village  congregation  agreed  to  elect  the  candidate  for  its 
l)oorly  endowed,  and  so  for  seventeen  yeai^s  vacant,  pastorate.  But 
the  s^niod  refused  him  ordination.  Therefore  the  director  of  a  strict 
Calvinistic  Gymnasium,  formerly'  a  pastor,  perfonned  the  ceremon}', 
and  the  congi-egation  announced  its  secession  from  the  sjmodal  iniion. 
At  the  same  time  in  Amsterdam  a  second  conflict  arose  over  tlie 
question  of  candidates  for  confirmation.  Three  pastors  of  the 
"  modern"  school  demanded  the  elders  subject  to  them,  among  them 
Dr.  Kuj-))er,  to  take  i)art  as  r('(piir(  d  in  the  cxiuuiniiig  of  th^ir 
VOL.   III.  23 


354      CHUECH  HISTORY   OF   NINETEENTH   CENTURY. 

candidates;  but  these  rofusi'd  to  give  their  assistance,  because  the 
previous  training  had  not  been  according  to  Scripture  and  the  con- 
fession, and  also  the  majority  of  the  church  council  approved  of 
this  refusal,  as  the  parents  had  complained,  and  declared  that  the 
certificate  of  morality  demanded  by  other  pastors  could  be  made 
out  onlj^  if  candidates  for  confirmation  had  previously  formally  and 
solemnly  confessed  their  genuine  and  hearty  faith  in  Jesus  Christ 
as  the  only  and  all-sufficient  Saviour,  which  these,  hoAvever,  in 
accordance  with  the  Dutch  practice  of  the  eighteenth  century, 
declined  to  do.  The  controversy  was  carried  by  appeal  through  all 
the  church  courts,  and  finally  the  State  Syiiod  oi'dered  the  church 
council  to  make  delivery  of  the  certificates  within  six  weeks  on  pain 
of  suspension.  But  this  was  brought  about  before  the  expiry  of 
that  period  by  the  outbreak  of  a  far  more  serious  conflict  over  matters 
of  administration.  In  Amsterdam  the  administration  of  church 
liroperty  lay  with  a  special  commission,  responsible  to  the  church 
council,  consisting  of  members,  one  half  from  the  church  council  and 
the  other  half  from  the  congregations.  If  in  the  beginning  of  Januarj', 
1886,  the  threatened  suspension  and  deposition  of  the  church  coiincil 
should  be  carried  out,  in  accordance  with  proper  order  until  the 
appointment  of  a  new  council  all  the  rights  of  the  same,  therefore 
also  that  of  supervising  that  commission,  would  fall  to  the  "  classical 
board  "  (§  143,  1)  as  the  next  highest  court.  In  order  to  avoid  tliis, 
the  fateful  resolution  Avas  passed  on  December  14th,  1885,  to  alter  §  41 
of  the  regulations,  so  that,  if  the  church  council  in  the  discharge  of 
its  duty  to  govern  the  community  in  accordance  with  God's  word  and 
the  legalized  church  confession,  it  would  be  so  hindered  therein  that 
it  might  feel  in  conscience  obliged  to  obey  God  rather  than  man  and 
accejit  suspension  and  deposition,  and  a  church  council  should  be 
appointed,  the  administrative  commission  would  be  obliged  to  remain 
subject,  not  to  this,  but  to  the  original  commission.  The  "  classical 
Iward  "  annulled  this  resolution,  suspended  on  January  4th,  188H,  for 
continued  obstinacy  the  previous  church  council,  and  constituted 
itself,  pending  decision  on  the  part  of  discipline,  interim  adminis- 
trator of  ail  its  rights  and  duties.  Tlit^  suspended  majority,  however, 
called  a  meeting  for  the  same  day,  and  Avhen  it  found  the  dot)rs  of  its 
meeting  place  closed,  sent  for  a  locksmith  to  break  them  open.  They 
were  prev(;nted  by  the  police,  who  then,  by  ])utting  on  a  safety  lock, 
strengthening  the  boards  of  the  door  by  mailed  i)lates,  and  setting  a 
watch,  greatly  reilueed  the  chances  of  an  entrance.  But  the.  ojiposition 
H  'ut  to  the  watchers  a  letter  by  a  policeman  demantling  that  the 
representatives  of  the  church  council  should  be  allowed  to  i)ass  ;  upon 
which  these,  regarding  it  as  an  ordei'  of  th(i  polices,  Avithdrew.  They 
ihen  had  tlm  mailfd  idates  sawn  through,  took  i)ossession  of  the  hall 


§  200.    HOLLAND    AND   BELGIUM.  355 

and  the  archives  and  treasure  box  lying  there,  and  refused  admission 
to  the  classical  board.  While  then  the  question  of  law  and  possession 
was  referred  to  the  courts  of  law,  and  there  the  final  decision  would 
not  be  given  before  the  lapse  of  a  year,  the  disciplinary  procedure 
took  its  course  through  all  the  ecclesiastical  courts  and  ended  in  the 
deposition  of  all  resisting  elders  and  pastors.  The  latter  preached 
now  to  great  crowds  in  hired  halls.  From  the  capital  the  excitement 
increased  by  means  of  violent  publications  on  both  sides,  spread  over 
the  whole  land  and  produced  discord  in  many  other  communities. 
Wild  and  uproarious  tumults  fii'st  broke  out  in  Leidendorf,  a  subui'b 
of  Le3-den.  The  pastor  and  the  majority  of  the  church  council  refused 
to  enter  on  their  congregational  list  two  girls  who  had  been  confirmed 
by  liberal  churchmen  elsewhere,  and  with  by  far  the  greater  part  of 
the  congregation  seceded  from  the  synodal  union.  The  classical 
board  now,  in  July,  1886,  declared  the  pastorate  vacant,  and  ordered 
that  a  regular  interim  service  should  be  conducted  on  Sunday's  by 
the  pastoi-s  of  the  circuit.  The  uproar  among  the  people,  however, 
was  thereby  only  greatly  increased,  so  that  the  civil  authorities  were 
obliged  to  protect  the  deputed  preachers,  by  a  large  military  escort, 
from  rude  maltreatment,  and  to  secure  quiet  during  public  worship 
by  a  comi^any  of  police  in  church.  And  similar  conflicts  soon  broke 
out  on  like  occasions  and  Avith  similar  consequences  in  many  other 
places  throughout  all  parts  of  the  land.  In  December,  1886,  the 
Amsterdam  church  council  also  declared  its  secession  from  the  state 
church,  and  a  numerously  attended  "  Reformed  Church  Congress  "  at 
Amsterdam,  in  January,  1887,  summoned  by  Kuyper  in  the  interests 
of  the  crowd  of  seceders,  resolved  to  accept  the  decision  of  the  law  in 
regard  to  church  proi^erty.' 

4.  Even  after  the  separation  of  Belgium  there  was  still  left  a  con- 
siderable number  of  Catholics,  about  three-eighths  of  the  population, 
most  numerous  in  Brabant,  Limburg,  and  Luxembui'g,  and  these  were, 
as  of  old,  inclined  to  the  most  bigoted  ultramontanism.  This  ten- 
dency was  greatly  enhanced  Avhen  the  new  constitutional  law  of  1818 
announced  the  principle  of  absolute  liberty  of  belief,  in  consequence 
of  which  the  Jesuits  crowded  in  vast  numbers,  and  the  impe  in  1853 
organized  a  ncAV  Catholic  hierarchy  in  the  land,  with  four  bishops 
and  an  archbishop  at  Utrecht,  under  the  control  of  the  propaganda. 
The  Prot(^staut  population  went  into  great  excitement  over  this. 
The  liberal  ministry  of  Thoi-becke  Avas  obliged  to  resign,  but  the 
chambers  at  length  sanctioned  the  papal  ordinance,  only  securing 

*  Cairns,  "  The  Present  Struggle  in  the  National  Church  of  Holland," 
in  Presbyterian  Review  for  January,  1888,  pp.  87-108.  Wicksteed, 
'•  The  Ecclesiastical  Institutions  of  Holland."     London. 


356      CHURCH   HISTORY   OF   NINETEENTH   CENTURY. 

tho  Protestant  population  against  its  misapplication  and  almsp. — On 
the  withdra\val  of  the  French  in  1814  there  were  only  eight  cloisters 
remaining ;  but  in  1861  there  were  thirtj'-nine  for  monks  and  137 
for  nuns,  and  since  then  the  number  has  considerably  increased. — 
The  Dutch  Old  Catholics  (§  165,  8),  on  account  of  their  protest  against 
the  dogma  of  the  Immaculate  Conception  (§  185,  2),  enjoined  upon 
the  Catholic  church  by  the  pope,  were  anew  excommunicated,  and 
joined  the  German  Old  Catholics  in  rejecting  the  decrees  of  the 
Vatican  Council  (§  lf)0,  1). 

5.  The  Kingdom  of  Belgiiim.— Catholic  Belgium  obtained  after  its 
separation  from  Holland  a  constitution  by  which  unlimited  freedom 
of  religious  worshii^  and  education,  and  the  right  of  confessing 
opinion  and  of  associating,  were  guaranteed,  and  to  the  state  was 
allowed  no  interference  with  the  affairs  of  the  church  beyond  the 
duty  of  paying  the  clergy.  Also  in  Leopold  I.,  1830-1865,  of  the 
house  of  Saxe-Coburg,  it  had  a  king  who  though  himself  a  Protestant 
■was  faithful  to  the  constitu.tion,  and,  according  to  agreement,  had 
his  children  trained  up  in  the  Eoman  Catholic  church.  The  con- 
federacy of  radicalism  and  ultramontanism,  however,  Avas  broken  by 
the  irreconciliable  enmity  and  violent  conflict  in  daily  life  and  in 
the  chambers  among  clerical  and  liberal  ministers.  The  ultra- 
montanes  founded  at  Louvain  in  1834  a  strictly  Catholic  university, 
which  was  under  the  oversight  of  the  bishojDS  and  the  patronage  of 
the  Virgin  ;  while  the  liberals  promoted  the  erection  of  an  opposition 
university  for  free  science  at  Brussels.  That  the  Jesuits  used  to  the 
utmost  for  their  own  ends  the  liberty  granted  them  by  the  constitu- 
tion by  means  of  missions  and  the  confessional,  schools,  cloisters,  and 
brotherhoods  of  every  kind,  is  what  might  have  been  expected.  But 
liberalism  also  knew  how  to  conduct  a  propaganda  and  to  bring  the 
clergy  into  discredit  with  the  educated  classes  by  unveiling  their 
intrigues,  legacy -hunting,  etc.,  while  these  exercised  a  gi-eat  influence 
chiefly  upon  bigoted  females.  The  number  of  cloisters,  which  on 
the  separation  from  Holland  amounted  only  to  280,  had  risen  in  1880 
in  that  small  territory  to  1,550,  with  24,672  iiunates,  of  whom  20,645 
wei'e  ninis. 

6.  After  the  ultramontane  party  had  enjoyed  eight  years  of  almost 
unchallenged  sujjremacy,  the  Malou  ministry  favourable  to  it  was 
ovei'thrown  in  June,  1878,  and  a  liberal  government,  under  the 
presidency  of  Frere-Orban,  took  its  place.  Then  began  the  Kultur- 
kampf  in  Belgium.  The  charge  of  public  education  was  taken  from 
the  ministry  of  the  interior,  and  a  special  minister  appointed  in  the 
person  of  Van  Humbeeck.  He  began  by  changing  all  girls'  schoola 
under  the  management  of  sisters  of  spiritual  orders  into  connnunal 
schools,  and   in  January,  1870,  brought  iu  a  bill  for  reorganizing 


5  200.  HOLLAND  AND  BELGIUM.         857 

elementary  education,  ■which  completely  secularized  the  schools 
deprived  the  clergy  of  all  official  influence  over  them,  and  relegated 
religious  instruction  to  the  care  of  the  family  and  the  church,  the 
latter,  however,  having  the  necessary  accommodation  allowed  in  the 
school  buildings.  The  chambers  approved  the  bill,  and  the  king 
confirmed  it,  in  spite  of  all  protests  and  agitation  by  the  clergj'.  The 
clerical  journals  pvit  a  black  border  on  their  issue  which  published 
it ;  the  provincial  councils  under  clerical  influence  nullified  as  far  as 
possible  all  money  bequests  for  the  public  schools,  and  the  bishops 
assembled  in  August  at  Mechlin  resolved  to  found  free  schools  in 
all  communities,  and  to  refuse  absolution  to  all  parents  who  entrusted 
their  children  to  state  schools  and  all  teachers  in  them,  in  order 
thus  to  cause  a  complete  decay  of  the  public  schools,  which  indeed 
happened  to  this  extent  that  within  a  few  months  1,167  communal 
schools  had  not  a  single  Catliolic  scholar.  On  complaint  being  made 
by  the  government  to  Leo  XIII.,  he  expressed  through  the  Brussels 
nuncio  his  regret  and  disapproval  of  the  proceedings  of  the  bishops ; 
but,  on  the  other  hand,  he  not  only  privately  praised  them  on  account 
of  their  former  zeal  in  opposing  the  school  law,  biit  also  incited  them 
to  continued  opposition.  When  this  double  dealing  of  the  curia  was 
discovered,  the  government  in  June,  1880,  broke  off"  all  diplomatic 
I'elations  with  the  Vatican  by  recalling  their  ambassador  and  giving 
the  nuncio  his  passports.  The  ministerial  president  publicly  in  the 
chamber  of  deputies  characterized  the  action  of  the  Holy  See  as  "foitr- 
hp.rie.''''  Whereupon  the  pope  at  the  next  consistory  called  princes 
and  peoples  as  witnesses  of  this  insult.  In  May,  1882,  the  results  of 
the  inquiry  into  clerical  incitements  against  the  public  was  read  in 
the  chamber,  where  such  startling  revelations  were  made  as  these : 
Priests  taught  the  children  that  they  should  no  longer  praj^  for  the 
king  when  he  had  committed  the  mortal  sin  of  confirming  the  school 
law ;  the  ministers  are  worse  than  murderers  and  true  Herods ;  a 
priest  even  taught  children  to  pray  that  God  might  cause  their 
"  liberal  "  imrents  to  die,  etc.  Amid  sach  conflicts  the  Catliolic  party 
in  parliament  split  into  tlie  jjarties  of  the  Politici,  who  were  willing 
to  submit  to  the  constitution,  and  that  of  the  Intransigenti.  who, 
under  the  direction  of  the  bishops  and  the  university  of  Louvain, 
held  high  above  everything  the  standard  of  the  syllabus.  The  latter 
fought  with  such  passionateness,  that  the  pope  felt  obliged  in  1881 
to  enjoin  upon  the  episcopate  "that  prudent  attitude"  which  the 
church  in  such  cases  ahvays  maintains  in  "  enduring  many  evils " 
which  for  the  time  cannot  be  overcome.  But  undeterred,  the  govern- 
mi'ut  continued  to  restrict  the  claims  of  the  clergy,  so  far  as  these 
were  not  expressly  guaranteed  by  the  constitution. — In  June,  18S4, 
as  the  result  of  the  elections  for  the  chamber  of  deputies,  the  clerical 


358      CniT-RCH   HISTORY   OF   NINETEENTH   CENTURY. 

party  again  were  in  poA\'er.  Malou  was  once  more  at  the  head  of  a 
ministry  in  favour  of  the  clericals,  caused  the  king  to  dissolve  the 
senate,  and  in  the  new  elections  won  there  also  a  majority  for  his 
party.  No  sooner  were  they  in  power  than  the  clerical  ministry, 
in  conjunction  with  the  majority  in  the  chainbers,  j^roceeded  with 
inconsiderate  haste,  amid  the  most  violent,  almost  daily  rep(>ated 
explosions  from  the  now  intensely  embittered  liberal  and  radical 
section  of  the  population,  which  only  seemed  to  increase  their  zeal, 
to  employ  their  absolute  power  to  the  utmost  in  the  interest  of 
clericalism.  The  restoration  of  diplomatic  relations  with  the  papal 
curia  in  the  spirit  of  absolute  acquiescence  in  its  schemes  was  the 
grand  aim  of  the  reaction,  as  well  as  a  new  school  law  by  which 
the  schools  were  completely  given  over  again  to  the  clergy  and  the 
orders.  But  when  at  the  next  commitnal  elections  a  liberal  majority 
was  returned,  and  protests  of  the  new  communal  councils  poured 
in  against  the  school  law  on  behalf  of  the  vast  number  of  state 
certificated  teachers  reduced  by  it  to  hunger  and  destitution,  the 
Malou  ministry  found  itself  obliged  to  resign  in  October,  1884.  Its 
place  was  taken  by  the  moderate  ultramontane  Beernaert  ministry, 
which  sought  indeed  to  quiet  the  excitement  by  mild  measures,  but 
held  firmly  in  all  essential  points  to  the  principles  of  its  predecessor. 
7.  An  exciting  episode  in  the  Belgium  KuUiirkamj}/  is  presented 
by  the  appearance  of  Bishop  Dumont  of  Tournay,  who,  previously  an 
enthusiastic  admirer  of  Pius  IX.  and  a  vigorous  defender  of  the 
infallibility  dogma,  also  a  zealous  patron  of  stigmatization  miracles 
at  Bois  d'Haine  (§  188,  4),  now  suddenly  turned  round  on  the  school 
question  and  refused  to  obey  the  papal  injunction.  For  this  he  was 
first  suspended,  and  then  in  1880  formally  deposed  by  the  pope.  He 
afterwards  wrote  letters  in  the  most  advanced  liberal  journals  with 
violent  'denunciations  of  the  pope,  whom  he  would  not  recognise  as 
))oi)e,  but  only  as  Bishop  of  Rome,  and  so  styled  liim  not  Leo,  but  onlj' 
Pecci.  In  these  letters  Dumont  makes  the  interesting  communication 
that  the  virgin  Louise  Lateau,  favoured  of  God,  has  threatened  with 
(ixcommunication  the  "  intruder "  Durousseaux,  nominated  by  the 
pope  as  his  successor,  because  she  continues  to  reverence  Dumont  as 
the  only  legitimate  Bishop  of  Tournay.  The  Vatican  pronounced  him 
insane,  and  the  chapter  appealed  to  the  civil  authorities  to  have  him 
declared  incapable  in  the  sight  of  the  law,  which,  however,  they  refused, 
because  tht^y  could  not  regard  Dumont's  insanity  as  proved.  On  the 
other  hand,  Dumont  refused  to  renouiice  his  episcopal  office,  and  ac- 
cused Durousseaux  of  having  by  night,  with  the  help  of  a  locksmith, 
obtained  entrance  to  his  e})iscopal  palace,  and  having  taken  forcible 
possession  of  a  casket  lying  there,  wliicli,  besides  the  diocesan  pro- 
perty to  the  value  of  five  millions,  contained  also  about  one  and  a 


§  201.    THE    SCANDINAVIAN   COUNTRIES.  859 

lialf  millions  of  liis  own  ]ivivate  means.  Pending  the  issue  of  the 
conflict,  as  to  which  of  the  two  should  be  regarded  as  the  true  bishop, 
the  jmlace  was  now  officially  sealed  up.  The  attemjit  to  arrest  the 
robbed  casket  had  to  be  abandoned,  because  meanwhile  the  canon 
Bernard,  as  keeper  of  the  treasures  of  the  dioces?,  had  fled  with  its 
contents  to  America.  He  was,  however,  on  legal  waiTant  imprisoned 
in  Havanua  and  brought  back  to  Belgium  in  1882.  In  April,  1884, 
the  dispute  of  the  bishops  was  definitively  closed  by  the  judgment 
of  the  supreme  tribunal,  according  to  which  Dumont,  having  been 
legitimately  deposed,  has  no  more  claim  to  the  title  and  revenues 
of  his  earlier  office ;  and  in  1886  the  supreme  court  of  appeal  at 
Brussels  condemned  Bernard  "  on  account  of  serious  breach  of  trust " 
to  tlu'ee  yeai's'  imprisonmt^nt. 

8.  The  Protestant  Church  was  represented  m  Belgium  onh^  by  small 
congregations  in  the  chief  cities  and  some  Reformed  Walloon  village 
congregations.  But  for  several  decades,  by  the  zealous  exertions  of 
the  Evangelical  Society  at  Brussels  with  thirty-four  pastors  and 
evangelists,  the  work  of  evangelization  not  only  among  Catholic 
Walloons,  but  also  among  the  Flemish  population,  has  made  con- 
siderable progress,  notwithstanding  all  agitation  and  incitement  of 
the  peojile  by  the  Catholic  clergy,  so  that  several  new  evangelical 
congregations,  consisting  mostly  of  converts,  have  been  formed.  In 
t^\'o  small  places  indeed  the  whole  communities,  roused  by  episcopal 
arbitrariness,  have  gone  over. — The  pastor  Byse  employed  by  the 
Evangelical  Society  at  Brussels  has  taken  up  the  idea  that  all  men 
by  the  fall  have  lost  their  immortality,  and  that  it  could  be  restored 
again  by  faith  in  Christ,  while  all  the  unreconciled  are  given  over 
to  annihilation,  the  second  death  of  Revelation  ii.  11,  xx.  15.  So  long 
as  he  maintained  this  theory  merely  as  a  private  opinion  the  society 
took  no  offence  at  it,  but  when  he  began  to  proclaim  it  in  his 
preaching  and  in  his  instruction  of  the  young,  and  declined  to  vield 
to  all  advice  on  the  matter,  the  spaod  of  1882  resolved  upon  his  dis- 
missal. But  a  great  part  of  his  congregation  still  remain  faithful 
to  him. 

§  201.     The  Scandinavian  Countries. 

Notwithstanding  the  common  Scandinavian-national  and 
Lutheran-ecclesiastical  basis  on  which  the  civil  and  religious 
life  is  developed,  it  assumed  in  the  three  Scandinavian 
countries  a  completely  diversified  course.  While  in  Den- 
mark the  civil  life  bore  manifold  traces  of  democratic 
tendencies  and   ther^bv  the  relations  between  cliureli   and 


3G0      CHURCH   HISTORY  OF   NINETEENTH   CENTURY. 

state  were  loosened,  Sweden,  with  a  tenacity  almost  un- 
))aralloled  in  Protestant  countries,  has  for  a  long  period  held 
fast  in  exclusive  attachment  to  the  idea  of  a  state  church. 
On  the  other  hand  Denmark  was  far  more  open  to  influences 
from  without  hostile  to  the  church,  on  the  one  side  those 
of  rationalism,  on  the  other,  those  of  the  anti-ecclesiastical 
sects,  especially  of  the  Baptists  and  Mormons,  than  Sweden, 
which  in  its  certainly  barren,  if  not  altogether  dead  ortho- 
doxy till  after  the  middle  of  the  century  was  almost  her- 
meticall}'  sealed  against  all  heterogeneous  influences,  but 
yet  could  not  altogether  over-master  the  pietistically  or 
methodistically  coloured  movements  of  religious  yearning 
that  arose  among  her  own  people.  Norway,  again,  although 
politically  united  with  Sweden,  has,  both  in  national  char- 
acter and  in  religious  development,  shown  its  more  intimate 
relationship  with  Denmark. 

1.  Denmark. — From  the  close  of  last  century  rationalism  lias  had  a 
home  in  Denmark.  In  1825  Professor  Clausen,  a  moderate  adherent 
of  the  neological  school,  published  a  learned  work  on  the  opposition 
of  "Catholicism  and  Protestantism,"  identifying  the  latter  with 
rationalism.  Pirst  of  all  in  that  same  year  Pastor  Grundtvig  (died 
1872),  "  a  man  of  poetic  geniiis,  and  skilled  in  the  ancient  history  of 
th(!  land,"  inspired  with  equal  enthusiasm  for  the  old  Lutheranism 
of  his  fathers  and  for  patriotic  Danism,  entered  the  lists  and  replied 
■with  i)>nverful  eloquence,  lamenting  the  decay  of  Christianity  and  the 
chuicli.  He  was  condemned  by  the  court  of  justice  as  iujurioiis, 
after  he  had  during  the  process  resigned  his  pastoral  oflfice.  Alike 
fate  befell  the  orientalist  Lindberg,  who  charged  Clausen  with  the 
breach  of  his  ordination  vow.  The  adherents  of  Grtmdtvig  met  for 
mutual  edification  in  conventicles,  until  at  last  in  1882  he  obtained 
permission  again  to  hold  ptiblic  services.  Not  less  influential  was  the 
work  of  .SiJren  Kierkegaard  (died  1855),  who,  largely  in  sym])athy  with 
Grundtvig,  without  ecclesiastical  office,  in  his  writings  earnestly  pled 
for  a  living  subjective  piety  and  unweariedly  maintained  an  uncom- 
inouiising  stiMiggle  against  the  official  Christianity  of  the  secularized 
elergy.  The  wild,  unmeasured  Danomania  of  1848-1849,  during  the 
military  conflict  with  Germany,  drew  opponents  together  and  made 
them  friends.  Grtmdtvig  declaimed  against  everything  German, 
and  i>f  the  two  factors,  which  he  had  formerly  regarded  as  the  pivots 


§  201.    THE    SCANDINAVIAN   COUNTRIES.  361 

on  which  universal  history  turned,  Danism  and  Lutheranism,  he  now 
let  go  Lutheranism  as  of  German  origin.  He  therefore  proposed  the 
abrogation  of  the  distinctive  German-Lutheran  confessions,  placed 
the  Apostles'  Ci'eed  before  and  above  the  Bible  and,  pressing  in  a  one- 
sided manner  the  doctrine  of  baptismal  grace,  demanded  a  "joyous 
Christianity,"  denied  the  necessity  of  continued  preaching  and  exer- 
cise of  repentance,  and  wished  especially  to  introduce  into  the  schools 
the  jVorse  mythologj^  as  introductorj^  to  the  study  of  Christianit}-. 
His  adherents  wrought  with  the  anti-church  party  for  the  abolition 
of  the  union  of  church  and  state.  The  Danish  constitutional  law 
of  1849  abolished  the  confessional  churches  of  the  state  church,  and 
Catholics,  Reformed,  Moravians,  and  Jews  were  granted  equal  civil 
rights  with  the  Lutherans.  Since  then  the  Catholic  church  has  luade 
slow  biit  steady  progress  in  the  country,  and  the  increasing  Baptist 
movement  was  also  favoured  by  a  law  of  the  Volkthing  of  1857, 
which  abolished  compulsory  baptism,  and  only  required  the  enrol- 
ment of  all  children  in  the  church  books  of  their  respective  districts 
within  the  period  of  one  year.  Civil  marriage  had  also  been  granted, 
to  dissenters  in  1851,  and  in  18G8  the  peculiar  institution  of  "elect- 
ing communities  "  was  founded,  by  means  of  -which  twenty  faiuilies 
from  one  or  more  parishes  which  declare  themselves  dissatisfied  with 
the  pastors  appointed  them,  may,  without  leaving  the  national 
church,  form  an  independent  congregation  under  pastors  chosen  by 
themselves  and  maintained  at  their  own  cost.  The  Schleswig-Holstein 
revolution  in  1848,  occasioned  enormous  confusion  and  disturbance  in 
the  ecclesiastical  conditions  of  the  district.  Over  a  hundred  Ger- 
man pastors  were  expelled  and  forty-six  Schleswig  parishes  deprived 
of  the  use  of  the  German  language  in  church  and  school.  In  1864 
both  provinces  were  at  last  by  the  Austrian  and  Prussian  alliance 
rent  from  the  Danish  government,  and  in  consequence  of  the  German 
war  of  1866  were  incorporated  with  Prussia. 

2.  Sweden. — In  Sweden  there  was  formed  in  1803,  in  opposition  to 
the  barren  orthodoxy  of  the  state  church,  a  religious  association 
which,  if  not  altog(>ther  free  of  pietistic  nari'owness,  was  j-et  without 
any  heretical  doctrinal  tendency,  and  exercised  a  quiet  and  whole- 
some influence.  From  the  diligent  readiiiy  of  ScriptiU'e  and  the 
works  of  Luther  that  prevailed  among  its  members  it  obtained  the 
name  of  Ldmre.  The  state  proceeded  against  its  members  with  fines 
and  imprisonment,  according  to  the  old  conventicle  law  of  1726,  and 
the  mob  treated  tliem  with  insults  and  violence.  But  in  1842  a  fana- 
tical tendency  began  to  show  itself  under  the  leadership  of  a  peasant, 
Erich  Jansen,  Avho  induced  many  "  Readers  "  to  quit  the  church  and 
to  cast  into  the  fire  even  Luther's  Postils  and  Catechism  as  quite 
su])t'rfluous  alongsiile  of  Holy  Scripture.     They  mostly  emigrated  to 


362      CHURCH   HISTORY   OF   NINETEENTH   CENTURY. 

America  in  184().  The  law  of  the  land  since  168G  threatened  every 
Swede  who  seceded  from  the  Lutheran  state  church  with  imprison- 
ment and  exile,  loss  of  civil  privileges  and  the  right  of  inheritance. 
As  might  therefore  be  supposed  the  French  Marshal  Bernadotte, 
who  in  1818,  under  the  name  of  Charles  XIV.,  ascended  the  throne 
of  Sweden,  had  been  previously  in  1810  obliged  to  repudiate  the 
Catholic  confession.  Even  in  1857  the  Reichstag  rejected  a  royal 
proposal  to  set  aside  the  Secession  as  well  as  the  Conventicle  Act. 
But  in  the  very  next  year,  the  holding  of  conventicles  under  clerical 
supervision,  and  in  1860,  the  secession  to  other  ecclesiastical  denomi- 
nations, were  allowed  by  law.  The  constitution  of  1865  still  indeed 
made  adherence  to  the  Lutheran  confession  a  condition  of  qualifica- 
tion for  a  seat  in  either  of  the  chambers.  The  Reichstag  of  1870 
at  last  sanctioned  the  admission  of  all  Christian  dissenters  and  also 
of  Jews  to  all  offices  of  state  as  well  as  to  the  membership  of  the 
Reichstag.  On  behalf  of  dissenters,  esjjecially  of  the  numerous 
Baptists  and  Methodists,  the  right  of  civil  marriage  was  granted  in 
1879.  In  1877,  Waldenstrom,  head-master  of  the  Latin  school  at 
Gefle,  without  ecclesiastical  ordination,  began  zealously  and  success- 
fully by  speech  and  writings  (to  secure  the  widest  possible  circulation 
of  which  a  joint  stock  company  with  large  capital  was  formed)  to 
work  for  the  revival  of  the  Christian  life  in  the  Lutheran  national 
church.  He  vigorously  contended  against  the  church  doctrine  of 
atonement  and  justification,  repudiating  the  idea  of  vicariovis  penal 
suffering,  and  broke  through  all  church  order  by  allowing  the  sacra- 
ment of  the  Lord's  supper  to  be  dispensed  by  laymen.  He  thus 
put  himself,  with  his  numerous  following,  directed  by  lay  preachers 
in  their  own  prayer  meetings  and  mission  halls,  into  direct  opposition 
to  the  church,  but  by  the  wise  forbearance  of  the  ecclesiastical 
authorities  he  has  not  yet  been  formally  ejected.' 

3.  Norway. — In  Norway,  toward  tlu;  end  of  last  century,  rationalism 
was  dominant  in  almost  all  the  pulpits,  and  only  a  few  remnants  of 
Moravian  revivalism  I'aiseil  a  vtjice  against  it.  But  in  1796,  a  simple 
unlearned  ijcasant  Hans  Nielsen  Hauge,  then  in  his  twenty-fifth  year, 
made  his  aj)pearance  as  a  revival  preacher,  creating  a  mighty  spiritual 
movement  that  spread  among  the  masses  throughout  the  whole  land. 
He  had  obtained  his  own  religious  knowledge  from  the  study  of  old 
Lutheran  practical  theology,  and  arising  at  a  period  of  extraordinary 
spiritual  excitement,  "  his  call,"  as  Hase  says,  "  to  be  a  prophet  was 
like  that  of  the  herdsman  of  Tekoa."  From  1799  he  continued  itine- 
rating for  five  years,  persecuted,  reproached,  and  calumniated  by  the 

*  Lumsden,  "Sweden,  its  Religious  State  aiid  Prospects,"  Lon- 
don, 1855, 


§  202.    GKEAT   BRITAIN   AND   IHELAND.  363 

rationalistic  clergy,  ten  times  cast  into  prison,  under  a  law  of  1741, 
•which  forbad  laymen  to  preach,  and  then  set  free,  until  he  had  gone 
over  all  Norway  even  to  its  farthest  and  remotest  corners,  preaching 
unwearied ly  everywhere  in  houses  and  in  the  open  air  often  three 
or  four  times  a  day,  and  nourishing  besides  the  flame  which  he  had 
kindled  by  voluminous  writings  and  an  extensive  correspondence. 
He  directed  his  preaching  not  only  against  the  rationalism  of  the 
state  clergy,  but  also  against  the  antinomian  religion  of  feeling,  of 
"  Blood  and  Wounds "  theology  introduced  in  earlier  days  by  the 
Moravians,  with  a  one-sided  emphasis  and  exaggeration  indeed,  but 
still  in  all  essentials  maintaining  the  basis  and  keeping  within  the 
lines  of  Lutheran  orthodoxy.  In  1804  he  was  charged  with  tendencies 
dangerous  to  church  and  state,  obtaining  money  from  peasants  on 
false  pretences,  inciting  the  people  against  the  clergy,  etc.,  and  again 
cast  into  prison.  The  trial  this  time  was  carried  on  for  ten  years, 
until  at  last  in  1814  the  supreme  court  sentenced  him  on  accovint  of 
his  invectives  against  the  clergy  to  pay  a  fine,  but  pronounced  him 
not  guilty  on  the  other  charges.  Broken  down  in  spirit  and  body  by 
his  long  imprisonment,  he  could  not  think  of  engaging'again  in  his 
foi-mer  work.  He  died  in  1824.  Numerous  peasant  preachers,  how- 
ever, issuing  fi-om  his  school  were  ready  to  go  forth  in  his  footsteps, 
and  till  this  day  the  salutary  effects  of  his  and  their  activity  are 
seen  in  wide  circles.  The  law  of  1741  which  had  been  made  to  tell 
against  them  was  at  last  abrogated  by  the  Storthing  in  1842.  In 
1845  the  right  of  forming  Christian  sects  was  recognised,  and  in 
1851  even  the  Jews  were  allowed  the  right  of  settlement  previously 
refused  them,  and  the  security  of  all  civil  privileges.  Since  that  time 
even  in  Norway  the  Catholic  church  has  made  considerable  progress  : 
in  June,  1878,  it  had  eleven  churches  and  fourteen  priests. 


§  202.    Great  Britain  and  Ireland. 

During  the  course  of  tlie  century  a  breach  from  ■without 
was  made  upon  the  stronghold  of  the  Anglican  established 
chui'ch  and  its  legal  standing  throughout  the  United  King- 
dom. The  strong  coherence  of  the  Anglican  episcopal . 
church  had  already  been  weakened  internally  by  the  rise 
within  its  own  bosom  of  High,  Low,  and  Broad  tendencies. 
The  advance  of  the  first-named  party  to  tractarianism  and 
ritualism  opened  the  door  to  Romish  sympathies,  while  in 
the   last-named   school   German   rationalism   and  criticism 


364      CHURCH   HISTORY   OF   NINETEENTH   CENTURY. 

found  favour,  and  the  low  church  party  was  not  ashamed 
to  go  liand-in-hand  with  the  evangelical  pietistic  and 
methodistic  tendencies  of  the  dissenters.  There  followed 
numerous  conversions  to  Rome,  especially  from  the  aristo- 
cratic ranks  of  the  upper  ten  thousand.  The  Emancipation 
Act  of  1829  opened  the  door  to  both  Houses  of  Parliament 
to  the  Catholics,  and  in  1858  the  same  privileges  were  ex- 
tended to  the  Jews.  Also  the  bidwarks  which  the  state 
church  had  in  the  old  universities  of  Oxford  and  Cambridge 
were  undei'mined,  and  in  1871  were  completely  overthrown 
by  the  legal  abolition  of  all  confessional  tests.  Down  to 
18G9  ihe  hierarchy  of  the  episcopal  state  church,  though 
clearly  alien  to  the  country,  maintained  its  legal  position  in 
Catholic  Ireland,  till  at  last  the  Irish  Church  Bill  brought 
it  there  to  an  end.  Repeatedly  have  bills  been  introduced 
in  the  House  of  Commons,  though  hitherto  without  success, 
by  members  of  the  incessantly  agitating  Liberation  Society, 
to  disestablish  the  churches  of  England,  Scotland,  and 
Wales.i 

1.  The  Episcopal  State  Church. — The  two  opposing  parties  of  the 
state  church  correspoiitlcd  to  tlie  two  ])olitical  parties  of  Tories  and 
Whigs.  The  IiigJi  churdt  i^arlij,  whicli  1ms  its  most  powerful  repre- 
sentatives in  the  aristocracy,  holds  aloof  from  the  dissenters,  seeks  to 
maintain  the  closest  connexion  between  church  and  state,  and  eagerlj'' 
contends  for  the  retention  of  all  old  ecclesiastical  forms  and  ordinances 
in  constitution,  worship,  and  doctrine.  On  the  other  hand  the  evau- 
gelit-al  or  loio  church  jxirtij,  which  is  more  or  less  method isticall}' 
inclined,  holds  free  intercourse  witli  dissenters,  associating  Avith  them 
in  home  and  foreign  mission  work,  etc.,  and  with  vaiiovis  shades  of 
difTerences  advocates  the  claims  of  progress  against  those  of  immo- 
bility, the  independenc(i  of  the  church  against  its  identification  with 
,  the  state,  the  evangelical  freedom  and  general  j^riesthood  of  belicivers 
against  orthodoxy  and  hicrarehisni.     Fi-om  their  midst  aros(>  a  move- 


'  Stoughton,  "Religion  in  Elngland  during  the  First  Half  of  tin 
Present  Century,  with  a  Postscript  on  Subsequent  Events."  2  vols., 
London  187(J.  Molfsworth,  "History  of  England  from  1830  to  187i; 
y  vols.,  London. 


§  202.    GREAT   BRITAIN    AND    IRELAND.  365 

ment  in  1871,  occasioned  by  the  Oxford  "  Essays  and  Heviews  "  and 
the  %\orks  of  Bishop  Colenso,  which  resulted  in  the  publication,  under 
the  authority  of  the  bishops,  of  the  "  Speaker's  Commentarj',"  so-called 
because  suggested  by  Denison,  who  had  long  been  speaker  of  the 
House  of  Commons.  It  is  a  learned,  thoroughly  conservative  com- 
mentary on  the  whole  Bible  by  the  ablest  theologians  of  England. 
On  the  revision  of  the  English  translation  of  the  Bible  see  §  181,  4. 
Besides  thes(!  two  parties,  however,  there  has  arisen  a  third,  the  broad 
church  part}'.  It  originated  with  the  distinguished  poet  and  philo- 
sopher, Coleridge  (died  1831),  and  includes  many  of  the  most  excellent 
and  scholarly  of  the  clergy,  especially  those  most  eminent  for  their 
acquaintance  with  German  theology  and  philosophy.  They  do  not 
fonn  an  organized  ecclesiastical  party  like  the  evangelicals  and  high 
church  men,  but  endeavour  not  only  to  overcome  the  narrowness  and 
severity  of  the  former,  but  also  to  secvu'e  a  broader  basis  and  a  Avider 
horizon  for  theology  as  well  as  for  the  chui-ch.^ — The  struggle  for 
the  legalizing  of  marriage  with  a  deceased  wife's  sister  has  been  ener- 
getically pressed  since  1850,  but  though  the  House  of  Commons  has 
repeatedly  passed  the  bill,  it  has  been  hitherto  by  small  majorities, 
under  the  influence  of  the  bishops,  rejected  by  the  House  of  Lords. — 
A  non-official  Pan-Anglicau  Council  of  English  bishops  from  all  parts 
of  the  world,  excluding  the  laity  and  inferior  clergy,  with  pre- 
eminently anti-Eomish  and  anti-ritualistic  tendencies,  was  held  in 
London  in  18()7  (cf.  §  175,  5).  When  it  met  the  second  time  in  1878, 
it  was  attended  by  nearly  one  hundred  bishops,  one  of  them  a  negi'o. 
Of  the  three  weeks'  debates  and  their  results,  however,  no  detailed 
account  has  been  published. 

2.  The  Tractarians  and  Ritualists. — The  activitj^  of  the  dissenters 
and  the  e]3iscopal  evangelical  party's  attachment  to  them  stirred  up 
the  adherents  of  the  high  chiirch  party  to  vigorous  guarding  of  their 
interests,  and  di-ove  them  into  a  one-sided  exaggerated  accentuation  of 
the  Catholic  element.  The  centre  of  this  movement  since  1833  Avas 
the  university  of  Oxford.  Its  leadei-s  were  Professoi'S  Pusey  and 
Newman,  its  literary  organ  the  Tracts  for  the  Times,  from  which  the 
party  received  the  name  of  Tractarians.  This  was  a  series  of  ninety 
treatises,  published  1833-lHll,onthe  basis  of  Anglo-Catholicism,  which 
sought,  while  holding  by  the  Tliirty-nine  Ai'ticles,  to  affirm  with 
fcjual  decidedness  the  genuine  Protestantism  over  against  the  Roman 
pai)acy,  and,  in  the  importance  which  it  attached  to  the  apostolical 
succession  of  the  episcopate  and  priesthood  and  the  apostolical  tradi- 


'  LittU'dale,  "Church  Parties,"  art.  in  the  Contemporory  lievicw  for 
July,  1871,  i)p.  287-32(J.  Mozley,  •' Keminiscences  of  Oriel  College." 
London,  1S.S2. 


366      CHURCH   HISTORY   OF   NINETEENTH   CENTURY. 

tion  for  the  interpretation  of  Scripture,  the  genuine  Catholicism  over 
against  every  form  of  ultra-Protestantism.  In  this  way,  too,  their 
dogmatics  in  all  the  several  doctrines,  as  far  as  the  Tliirty-nine 
Articles  Avould  by  any  means  allow,  was  approximated  to  the  Boman 
Catholic  doctrine,  and  indeed  by-and-by  passed  over  entirely  to 
that  tyjie  of  doctrine.  Newman's  Tract  90  caused  most  offence,  in 
which,  with  thoroughly  Jesuitical  sophistry,  it  was  argued  that  the 
Thirt3^-nine  Articles  were  capable  of  an  explanation  on  the  basis  of 
which  they  might  be  subscribed  even  by  one  who  occupied  in  regard 
to  the  church  doctrine  and  practice  an  essentially  Roman  Catholic 
standpoint.  The  university  authorities  now  felt  obliged  to  declare 
publicly  that  the  tracts  were  by  no  means  sanctioned  by  them,  and 
that  especially  the  application  of  the  principles  of  Tract  90  to  the 
conduct  of  students  in  the  matter  of  subscription  of  the  Thirty-nine 
Artices  is  not  allowable.  Bishop  Bagot  of  Oxford,  hitherto  favourable 
to  the  tractarians,  refused  to  permit  the  continued  issue  of  the  tracts. 
The  other  bishops  also  for  the  most  part  spoke  against  them  in  their 
pastorals,  and  a  flood  of  controversial  pam^^hlets  roused  the  wrath  of 
the  non-Catholic  populace.  But  on  the  other  hand  ti-actarianism 
still  found  favour  among  the  higher  clergy  and  the  aristocracy.  In 
1845  Newman  went  over  to  the  Catholic  church,  and  has  since  led  a 
retired  life  devoted  to  theological  study.  Pius  IX.  paid  him  no  atten- 
tion, but  in  1879  Leo  XIII.  acknowledged  and  rewarded  his  services 
to  the  Catholic  church  by  elevating  him  to  the  rank  of  cardinal.  The 
majority  of  the  tractarians  disapproved  of  Newman's  step  and  re- 
mained in  the  Anglican  church.  Thus  acted  Pussy  (died  1882),  the 
recognised  leader  of  the  part}!-,  after  whom  they  were  now  called 
Puseyites.  Many,  however,  followed  Newman's  example,  so  that  by 
the  end  of  18-lG  no  less  than  one  hundred  and  fifty  clergymen  and 
jjrominent  laymen  were  received  into  the  widely  opened  door  of  the 
Catholic  church.i — The  following  twelve  years,  1846-1858,  were  occu- 
pied by  two  dogmatico-ecclesiastical  conflicts  vitally  affecting  the 
interests  of  the  tractarians.  (1)  The  Gorham  Case.  The  Thirty-nine 
Articles  took  essentially  Lutheran  ground  in  treating  of  baptism, 
recognising  it  as  a  vehicle  of  regeneration  and  divine  sonship,  and 
the  tractarians  laid  uncommonly  great  sti'ess  upon  this  article.  8o 
also  the  Bishop  of  Exeter,  Dr.  Philpotts,  refused  to  institute  tlu;  Eev. 
Cornelius  Gorham  because  of  his  views  on  this  subject.  Gorham 
accused  him  before  the  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  but  the  Court  of 
Arches  decided  in  favour  of  the  bishop.  The  Court  of  Appeal,  how- 
ever,  the  judicial   committee   of    the   Privy   Council,   annulled   the 


*  Newman,   ^^Apolof/ia  pro   Vita  Stia.''''     London,    1804.     Weaver, 
"Puseyism,  a  liefutation  and  Exp(«ure,"  London,  J81iJ. 


§  202.    GREAT   BRITAIN   AND   IRELAND.  367 

f  piscopal  judgmont,  and  ordered  that  Gorliam  should  be  installed  in 
his  office.  In  vain  did  Philpotts,  by  a  protest  before  the  Court  of 
Queen's  Bench,  and  then  before  the  Court  of  Common  Pleas,  against 
the  jurisdiction  of  the  Privy  Council  in  this  case,  in  vain,  too,  did 
Blomfield,  Bishop  of  London,  insist  upon  the  revival  of  Convocation, 
which  for  one  and  a  half  centuries  had  been  inoperative  as  a  spiritual 
parliament  with  upper  and  lower  houses,  and  in  vain  did  a  tractarian 
assembly  of  more  than  1,500  distinguished  clergymen  and  laymen 
lodge  a  solemn  pi'otest.  The  judgment  of  the  Privy  Council  stood,  and 
Gorham  was  inducted  to  his  office  in  1850.  Many  of  the  protesters 
now  went  over  to  the  Catholic  church,  and  about  600  others,  like  tlie 
Puritan  Pilgrim  Fathers  230  years  before  (§  143,  4),  tnider  ecclesiasti- 
cal oppression,  emigrated  to  New  Zealand.— (2)  The  Denison  Eucharist 
Case. — The  Puseyite  Archdeacon  Denison  of  Taunton,  in  the  diocese 
of  Bath  and  Wells,  had  in  1851  in  open  defiance  of  the  Thirty-nine 
Ai-ticles,  which  represent  Calvin's  views  of  the  Lord's  Supper,  affirmed 
in  preaching  and  writing  that  unbelievers  as  well  as  believers  eat  and 
drink  the  body  and  blood  of  the  Lord.  Over  this  he  was  involved 
in  a  sharp  discussion  with  a  neighbouring  clergjniian  called  Ditcher. 
In  1854  Ditcher  accused  Denison  before  his  bishop,  who,  after  vain 
f-tforts  to  reconcile  the  parties,  referred  the  matter  to  the  Court  of 
Arches,  which  sought,  but  in  vain,  to  end  the  strife  by  compromise. 
Ditcher  now  in  1856  brought  his  complaint  before  the  Qneen^s  Bench, 
which  obliged  the  archbishop  to  take  up  the  matter  again.  A  com- 
mission appointed  by  him  declared  that  the  complaint  was  quite 
justifiable,  and  threatened  Denison,  Avhen  he  refused  any  sort  of  re- 
tractation, with  deposition.  But  the  Court  of  Appeal  in  1858  staj'-ed 
the  judgment  on  the  ground  of  a  technical  error  in  procedure,  and 
Denison  remained  in  office. 

3.  From  the  middle  of  1850  the  tractarian s,  who  had  hitherto  con- 
fined themselves  to  the  development  of  the  Romanizing  system  of 
doctrine,  began  to  apply  its  consequences  to  the  church  ritual  and 
the  Christian  life,  and  so  won  for  themselves  the  name  of  Eitualists, 
wliich  has  driven  out  their  earlier  designation.  Wherever  possible 
they  showed  their  Catholic  zeal  by  introducing  images,  crucifixes, 
candles,  holy  water,  mass  dresses,  mass  bells,  and  boy  choristers, 
urged  the  restoration  of  the  seven  sacraments,  especially  of  extreme 
unction,  auricular  confession,  the  sacrificial  theory  and  Corpus 
(jhristi  day,  of  prayers  for  the  dead  and  masses  for  souls,  invocation 
of  saints  and  the  blessed  Virgin;  they  also  praised  celibacy  and 
monasticism,  etc.  Ritualism  has  from  the  first  shown  singular  skill 
in  part3'  organization.  The  English  Church  Union,  founded  in  1860, 
has  now  nearly  2W,000  members,  of  these  about  3,000  clergymen  and 
50  bishops,  and  it  embraces  300  branches  over  the  whoh^  domain  of 


368      CHURCH   HISTORY   OF   NINETEENTH   CENTURY. 

the  Anglican  church.  Numerous  brotherhoods  and  sisterhoods,  g'uilds 
and  orders,  organized  after  the  style  of  Roman  Catholic  monasticism, 
promote  the  interests  of  ritualism,  and  zealously  prosecute  home  and 
foreign  mission  work.  The  Confraternity  of  the  Blessed  Sacrament 
originated  in  1862,  was  able  in  1882  to  celebrate  Corpus  Christi  day 
in  250  chiu'ches  along  with  the  Romish  church,  dispensing  only  with 
the  procession.  The  Societij  of  the  Hohi  Ci'oss,  foimded  in  1873  consists 
only  of  priests,  and  forms  a  kind  of  directory  for  all  branches  of 
the  ritualistic  propaganda.  The  Enrjiish  Order  of  St.  Aucjnstine  has 
a  threefold  division,  into  spiritual  brothers  who  are  preparing  for 
priests'  orders,  lay  brothers  who  are  being  qualified  as  lay  preachers, 
both  under  the  strictest  vows,  and  a  sort  of  tertiaries,  who  are  free 
from  vows.  Among  the  sisterhoods  which  already  supply  nurses  to 
all  the  great  hospitals  of  the  capital,  the  most  important  is  that 
called  "  by  the  name  of  Jesus."  They  take,  like  the  Beguines  of  the 
middle  ages,  the  three  vows,  but  not  as  binding  for  life.  By  the 
viltra  high  chtirch  party  the  geiuiine  apostolic  succession  of  the  ordi- 
nation of  the  first  Protestant  archbishop,  Matthew  Parker,  and  so 
the  genuineness  of  all  subsequent  ordinations  going  back  to  him, 
were  doubted ;  three  Anglican  bishops  are  said  to  have  had  episcopal 
consacration  anew  conferred  on  them  by  a  Greek  Catholic  bishop. 
The  reckless  and  wilful  procedure  of  the  ritualists  in  imitating  the 
Roman  Catholic  ritual  in  public  worship  called  forth  frequent  violent 
disturbances  at  their  services,  and  noisy  croAvds  flocked  to  their 
churches.  Most  frequent  and  violent  were  the  riots  in  1859  and  1860 
in  the  parish  of  St.  George's,  London,  where  scarcely  any  service  was 
held  without  disgraceful  scenes  of  hissing,  whistling,  stam]jing,  and 
cries  of  "  No  poper}'."  The  offscouring  of  all  London  flocked  to  the  Sun- 
day services  as  to  a  public  entertainment.  Instead  of  hjnnns,  street 
songs  were  sung,  instead  of  responses  blasphemous  cries  were  shouted 
forth,  while  cushions  and  prayer-books  were  hiu'led  at  the  altar  decora- 
tions, etc.  These  unseemly  proceedings  were  caused  by  the  ritualistic 
rector,  Bryan  King,  Avho  had  introduced  th(*  objectionable  ceremonial, 
and  obstinately  continued  it  in  spite  of  the  decided  opposition  and 
])rot('sts  of  his  colleague,  Mr.  Allen.  King's  removal  in  1860  first  ]nit 
an  end  to  these  disturbances,  which  ])olice  intei'ference  proved  utterly 
unable  to  check.  The  ritualistic  Church  Union,  called  into  existence 
by  these  proceedings,  was  opposed  by  an  anti-ritualistic  Church  As- 
sociation, and  from  both  multitudes  of  complaints  and  appeals  were 
brought  before  the  ecclesiastical  and  civil  tribunals.  The  first  case 
they  brought  up  was  that  of  Rev.  A.  H.  MacConochie,  of  Holborn, 
who,  having  been  admonished  by  the  ecclesiastical  courts  on  account 
of  his  ritualistic  practices  in  1867,  ajjpealed  to  the  Privy  Council. 
Anil   althniii;-!!  this  court  decided  in   1860  that   all    ceroiioiiii's   not 


§  202.    GREAT   BRITAIN    AND    IRELAND.  369 

authorized  by  the  prayer-book  are  to  be  regarded  as  forbidden,  he 
and  his  followers  continued  to  act  on  the  principle  that  -u-hatever  is 
not  there  expressly  prohibited  ought  to  be  permitted.  The  Puhlic 
Worship  Regulation  Bill,  introduced  by  Archbishop  Tait,  and  passed 
by  Parliament,  -which  legislatively  determined  the  procediu'e  in  ritual- 
istic cases,  did  not  prevent  the  constant  advance  of  this  movement. 
The  Court  of  Arches  now  issued  a  suspension  against  the  accused,  and 
condeimied  them  to  prison  when  they  continued  to  officiate,  until 
they  declared  themselves  ready  to  obey  or  to  demit  their  office. 
Tooth  of  Hatcham,  Dale  of  London,  Enraght  of  Bordesdale,  and  Green 
of  Miles  Platting  were  actually  sent  to  prison  in  1880.  But  the  first 
three  were  soon  liberated  by  the  C!ourt  of  Appeal  fuiding  some  technical 
liaw  in  the  proceedings  against  them,  while  Green,  in  Avhose  case  no 
such  flaw  appeared,  lay  in  confinement  for  twenty  months.  The 
ritualists  still  jiersistently  continued  their  practice,  and  theii"  op- 
ponents renewed  their  prosecutions ;  these  were  followed  by  appeals 
to  the  higher  courts,  presenting  of  petitions  to  both  the  Houses  of 
Parliament,  addresses  with  vast  numbers  of  signatures  for  and 
against  to  the  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  to  Convocation  Avhich  had 
meanwhile  been  restored,  to  the  Cabinet,  to  the  Queen,  etc.  The 
result  was  that  many  cases  were  abandoned,  some  obnoxious  parties 
transferred  elsewhere,  and  a  very  few  deposed. 

4.  Liberalism  in  the  Episcopal  Church. — The  more  liberal  tendency  of 
the  broad  church  party  had  also  many  supporters  who  scrupled  not 
to  pass  beyond  the  traditional  bounds  of  English  orthodoxy.  In 
opposition  to  the  orthodoxy  zealousy  inculcated  at  Oxford,  rationalism 
found  favour  at  the  rival  university  of  Cambridge,  and  vigorous 
support  was  given  to  the  views  of  the  Tiibingen  school  of  Baur  in 
the  London  Westminster  Review.  And  even  in  high  church  Oxford, 
there  were  not  wanting  teachers  in  sympathy  with  the  critical  and 
speculative  rationalism  of  Germany.  Great  excitement  was  caused  in 
1860  by  the  "  Essays  and  Revieics,"'  which  in  seven  treatises  by  so  man3' 
Oxford  professors  contested  the  traditional  apologetics  and  hermen- 
eutics  of  English  theology,  and  set  a  sublimated  rationalism  in  its 
place.  In  Germany  these  not  very  important  treatises  would  prob- 
ably have  excited  little  remark,  but  in  the  English  church  they  roused 
an  unparalleled  disturbance  ;  more  than  nine  thousand  clergj-men  of 
the  episcopal  church  protested  against  the  book,  and  all  the  bishops 
unanimously  condemned  it.  The  excitement  had  not  yet  subsided 
when  from  South  Africa  oil  was  poured  upon  the  flames.  Bishop 
Colenso  of  Natal  (died  1883),  Avho  had  zealously  carried  on  the  mission 
there,  but  had  openly  expressed  the  conviction  that  it  is  unwise,  uu- 
scriptural,  and  unchristian  to  make  repudiation  by  CafFres  living  in 
polygamy,  of  all  their  wives  biit  one,  a  condition  of  baptism,  had 
VOL.    III.  24 


370      CHURCH   HISTORY   OF   NINETEENTH   CENTURY. 

occasioned  still  greater  offence  Ly  piiblisliing  in  18C3  in  seven  vols,  a 
prolix  critical  disquisition  on  the  Pentateuch  and  the  Book  of  Joshua, 
in  wliich  he  contested  the  authenticity  and  unconditional  credibility 
of  these  books  by  arguments  familiar  long  ago  but  now  quite  anti- 
quated and  overthrown  in  Germany.  During  a  journey  to  England 
undertaken  for  his  defence  he  was  excommunicated  and  deposetl  by  a 
synod  of  the  South  African  bishops  in  Capetown.  The  Privy  Council, 
as  supreme  ecclesiastical  court  in  England,  cleared  him,  as  well  as  the 
authors  of  the  Essays,  from  the  charge  of  heresy.  An  important  aid 
for  the  dissemination  of  liberal  religious  views  is  affoi'ded  by  the 
Hibbert  Lectureship.  Robert  Hibbert  (died  1849),  a  wealthy  private 
gentleman  in  London,  assigned  the  yearly  interest  of  a  coirsiderable 
siun  for  "the  spreading  of  Christianity  in  its  simplest  form  as  well 
as  the  furthering  of  the  unfettered  exercise  of  the  individual  judg- 
ment m  matters  of  religion."  The  Hibbert  trustees  are  eighteen  lay- 
men who  dispense  the  revenues  in  supplementing  the  salaries  of  jtoorly 
paid  clerg3anen  of  liberal  views,  in  providing  bursaries  for  theological 
students  at  home  and  abroad,  and  in  other  such  like  ways,  but  since 
1878  especially,  by  advice  of  distinguished  scholars,  in  the  endowment 
of  annual  courses  of  lectures,  afterwards  published,  on  subjects  in  tliH 
domain  of  philosophy,  biblical  criticism,  the  comparative  science  of 
religion  and  the  history  of  religion.  The  first  Hibbert  Lecturer  was 
the  celebrated  Oxford  professor.  Max  Miiller,  in  1878.  Among  other 
lecturers  may  be  named  Eenan  of  Paris  in  1880  ;  Kuenen  of  Le3-den 
in  1882 ;  Pfleiderer  of  Berlin,  in  1885.  The  battle  waged  with  great 
passionateness  on  both  sides  since  1869  for  and  against  the  removal 
of  the  Athanasian  Creed,  or  at  least  its  anathemas,  from  the  liturgy 
has  not  yet  been  brought  to  any  decided  result. 

5.  Protestant  Dissenters  in  England. — Down  nearly  to  the  end  of  the 
eighteenth  century  all  the  enactments  and  restrictions  of  the  Tolera- 
tion  Act  of  1689  (§  155, 3)  continued  in  full  force.  But  in  1779  the  obli- 
gation of  Protestant  dissenters  to  subscribe  the  Thirty-nine  Articles 
was  abolished,  and  the  acknowledgment  of  the  Bible  as  God's  revealed 
word  substituted.  The  right  of  founding  schools  of  their  own,  hither- 
to denied  them,  was  granted  in  1798.  In  1813  the  Socinians  were 
also  included  among  the  dissenters  who  should  enjoy  these  privileges. 
After  a  severe  struggle  the  Corporation  and  Ted  Acts  were  set  aside 
in  1826,  affording  all  dissenters  entrance  to  Parliament  and  to  all 
civil  offices.  The  necessity  of  being  married  and  having  their  chil- 
dren bajjtized  in  an  episcopal  church  was  removed  by  th(>  Marriag<' 
and  Registration  Act  of  1836  and  1837,  and  divorce  suits  wei'e 
removed  from  the  ecclesiastical  to  a  civil  tribimal  in  1857.  In  1868 
compulsory  church  rates  for  the  episcopal  pai'ish  church  were 
abolished.     Lord  Russell's  University  Bill  of  1854,  by  i-estricting  sub- 


5  202.    GREAT   BRITAIN   AND   IRELAND.  371 

scription  of  the  Thirty-nine  Articles  to  the  theological  students, 
opened  the  imiversities  of  Oxford  and  Cambridge  to  dissenters,  while 
the  University  Tests  Bill  of  1871  made  the  adherents  of  all  religious 
confessions  eligible  for  all  tmiversity  honours  and  emoluments  at 
both  seminaries.  Thus  one  restriction  after  another  was  removed, 
so  that  at  last  the  episcopal  chiu-ch  has  nothing  of  her  exclusive 
privileges  left  beyond  the  rank  and  title  of  a  state  church,  and  the 
undiminished  possession  of  all  her  ancient  property,  from  A\hich  hei- 
prelates  draw  ijrincel}^  revenues. 

G.  Scotch  Marriages  in  England. — The  saints  of  the  English  Revolu- 
tion had  indeed  resolved  in  1653  to  introduce  civil  marriage  (§  162. 
1).  But  the  reaction  vmder  Cromwell  set  this  unpopular  law  aside. 
and  the  Restoration  made  marriage  by  an  Anglican  clerg^anan. 
even  for  dissenters,  an  indispensable  condition  of  legal  recognition. 
But  in  no  country,  especially  among  the  higher  orders,  Avere  private 
marriages,  M'ithout  the  knowledge  and  consent  of  the  family,  so 
frequent  as  here,  and  clergymen  were  always  to  l)e  found  unscru- 
pulous enough  to  celebrate  such  weddings  in  taverns  or  other  con- 
venient places.  When  an  end  had  been  put  to  such  irregularities  on 
English  soil  by  an  Act  of  Parliament  of  1753,  lovers  seeking  secret 
marriage  betook  themselves  to  Scotland.  In  that  country  there  pre- 
vailed, and  still  prevails,  the  theory  that  a  declaration  of  willingness 
on  both  sides  constitutes  a  pei'fectly  valid  marriage.  The  Scottish 
ecclesiastical  law  indeed  requires  church  proclamation  and  ceremom', 
biit  failure  to  observe  this  requirement  is  followed  onl}'^  by  a  small 
pecuniary  fine.  Fugitive  English  couples  generally  made  the  neces-i 
sary  declaration  before  a  blacksmith  at  Gretna-Green,  who  was  also 
justice  of  the  peace  in  this  small  border  village,  and  wei-e  then 
legitimately  married  people  according  to  Scottish  law.  Only  in 
1856  were  all  marriages  performed  in  this  manner  without  previous 
residence  in  Scotland  pronounced  by  Act  of  Parliament  invalid. 

7.  The  Scottish  State  Church. — The  Presbyterian  Church  of  Scotland, 
from  the  beginning  strictly  Calvinistic  in  constitution,  doctrine  and 
practice,  has,  generally  speaking,  preserved  this  character.  Onh'  in 
recent  times  has  the  endeavour  of  the  so-called  Moderates  to  introduce 
a  milder  type  of  doctrine  won  favour.  The  Established  Church,  as  a 
national  church  properly  so-called  and  recognised  by  law,  dates  from 
the  political  union  of  England  and  Scotland  in  the  kingdom  of  Great 
Britain  in  1707,  and  the  Anglican  Episcopal  Church  there  was  then 
reduced  to  a  feebly  represented  dissenting  denomination.  Patronage, 
set  aside  indeed  in  the  Reformation  age,  but  restored  under  Queen 
Anne  in  1712,  and  since  then,  in  spite  of  all  opposition  from  the 
stricter  pai'ty,  continued,  because  often  misiised  to  secure  the  intru- 
sion of  inacceptable  ministers  upon  ccngrecatidns,  gave  Gcca!?icn  to 


372      CHURCH   HISTOEY   OF   NINETEENTH   CENTURY. 

rejjeated  secessions.     Tims  the  Secesyion  Church  "broke  off  in  1732,  and 
tlie  Helief  Church  in  1752,  the  latter  going  beyond  the  former's  pro- 
test against  patronage  by  unconditional  repudiation  of  Erastianism, 
i.e.   the   theory  of  the  necessary  connection   of   Church   and   State 
(§  144,  1),  and  the  assertion  of  the  spiritual  independence  of  the 
church,  and  expressed  firmly  the  principles  of  Voluntaryism,  i.e.  the 
payment  of  all  ecclesiastical  officers,  etc.,  by  voluntary  contributions. 
Both  parties  united  in  1847  in  the  United  Preahyterian  Church,  which 
noAv  embraces  one-fifth  of  the  population. — Twice  that  number  joined 
the  secession  of  the  Free  Church  in  1843.     The  General  Assembly  of 
the  Church  of  Scotland  granted  to  congregations  in  1834  the  right 
of  vetoing  presentations  to  vacancies.      The  civil   courts,  however, 
upheld  the  absolute  right  of  patrons,  and  at  the  Assembly  of  1843 
about  two  hundred  of  the  most  distinguished  ministers,  with  the 
great  Dr.  Chalmers  (died  1847)  at  their  head,  left  the  state  church, 
and,  as  Non-Intrusionisfs^  founded  the  Free  Church  of  Scotland^  which 
at   its  own   cost   formed  new   parishes  and  distinguished  itself  by 
Christian  zeal  in  every  direction.     It  diiFers  from  the  United  Preali/- 
terian  Church  in  restricting  its  opposition  to  the  abuse  of  patronage, 
without  repiidiating  right  off  ever}^  sort  of  state  aid  and  endowment 
as  imevangelical.     Exit  even  to  it  the  law  passed  in  1846,  granting  to 
all  congregations  the  right  of  veto,  seemed  now  no  longer  a  sufficient 
motive  to  return  to  the  state  church.     Even  when  in  1874,  parlia- 
ment, at  the  call  of  the  government,  formally  abolished  the  rights  of 
patronage  throtigh  all  Scotland  and  gave  to  the  congregations  the 
i-ight  of  choosing  their  own  ministers,  the  General  Assembly  of  the 
Fi'ee  Church  by  a  great  majority  refused  to  reunite  Avith  the  state 
church  brought  so  near  it,  because  it  conceded  to  the  civil  courts 
unwarrantable  interference  with  its  internal  affairs,  esjoecially  the 
right  of  suspending  its  clergy.' 

8.  Scottish  Heresy  Cases. — The  Glasgow  presbytery  lodged  before  the 
United  Presbyterian  Synod  in  Edinburgh  of  1878  a  charge  against 
the  Eev.  Fergus  Ferguson  of  heresy,  because  his  teaching  was  in 
conflict  with  the  church  doctrine  of  the  atonement  in  sajdng  that 
sinners,  apart  from  Christ's  intervention,  Avould  not  suffer  eternal 


'  The  very  confused,  wholly  inadequate,  and  in  some  points  posi- 
tively incoiTect  statements  in  the  above  paragraj)!!  may  be  su])ple- 
mented  and  amended  by  reference  to  the  following  literature: 
Buchanan,  "  Ten  Years'  (Conflict,"  2  vols.  Edin.,  1852.  Moncrieff, 
"  Vindication  of  the  Claim  of  Eight."  Edin.,  1877.  Moncrieff,  "  The 
Free  Church  Principle :  its  Character  and  History."  Edin.,  1883. 
Maclcerrow.  "  History ^of  the  Secession  Clnirch,"     Glasgow,  1841. 


§  202.    GREAT   BRITAIN   AND   IRELAND.  373 

punishment  but  extinction,  and  that  the  same  fate  still  lay  before 
unbelievers  and  the  impenitent.  After  five  days'  violent  discussion, 
the  majority  of  the  synod,  M'hile  strongly  dissenting  from  his  views 
and  urging  him  to  avoid  it  in  his  preaching  and  catechising,  resolved 
to  retain  him  in  office  as  having  proved  his  adherence  to  the  orthodox 
doctrine  of  the  atonement.  But  when,  at  next  year's  synod,  the  Rev. 
D.  Macrae  of  Gourock  asserted  that,  in  spite  of  the  Westminster 
Confession,  it  was  allowable  for  ministers  to  deny  the  eternity  of 
punishment,  and  would  not  promise  to  preach  otherwise,  he  was 
unanimously  deposed. — Far  more  exciting  and  long  continued  were 
the  proceedings  begun  in  the  Free  Church  in  1876,  against  Professor 
Robertson  Smith  of  Aberdeen,  who  was  charged  before  his  presbj'- 
tery  Avith  offensive  statements  about  angels,  but  especially  with 
contradicting  the  inspiration  of  Scripture  by  contesting  the  Mosaic 
authorship  of  Deuteronomy.  After  various  proposals  of  deposition, 
susjaension,  rebuke,  acquittal,  had  been  made,  the  General  Assembly 
of  1880,  after  much  deliberation  and  discussion,  by  a  majority  found 
the  charge  of  heterodoxy  not  proven,  but  earnestly  exhorted  the  ac- 
cused to  greater  circumspection  and  moderation,  and  the  decision  was 
greeted  with  thundering  applause  from  the  students  and  waving  of 
handkerchiefs  from  the  ladies  present.  But  A\-hen,  very  soon  after 
this  acquittal,  several  other  contributions  by  him  appeared  in  the 
Enci/cIojKiidia  Britatmica,  on  the  Hebrew  Language  and  Literature, 
and  Haggai,  in  the  spirit  of  the  Wellhausen  criticism  (§  182,  18),  as 
also  an  article  on  Animal  Worship  among  the  Arabians  and  in  the 
Old  Testament,  in  the  Journal  of  Philology,  the  Commission  sitting  in 
Edinburgh  reinstituted  proceedings  against  him.  In  October,  1880, 
Smith  vindicated  before  that  court  his  scientific  attitude  toward  the 
Old  Testament,  maintaining  that  a  moderate  criticism  of  the  biblical 
books  Avas  reconcilable  with  the  maintenance  of  their  inspired 
authority.  The  majority  of  the  Commission,  hoAvever,  A'oted  for  his 
expulsion  from  his  chair.  Smith  i^rotested  both  against  the  com- 
petence and  against  the  judgment  of  the  Commission,  but  declared 
himself  ready  to  submit  to  the  judgment  of  the  General  Assemblj'. 
MeauAA'hile  he  accepted  an  invitation  from  GlasgoAV  to  deliver  public 
lectures  there  on  the  Old  Testament,  Avhich  Avere  received  Avith  ex- 
traordinary f aA'our.  This  course  Avas  published  under  the  title : 
"  The  Old  Testament  in  the  Jewish  Church^  The  General  Assembly 
of  May,  1881,  noAv  decided  by  a  large  majority  to  remoA'e  him  from 
his  academical  chair,  Avitli  retention  of  his  license  and  his  professor's 
salary,  Avhich  latter,  hoAveA'er,  Smith  declined.  But  his  numerous 
sympathizers  presented  him  AA'ith  a  scientific  library  Avorth  £3,000, 
and  promised  an  annual  stipend  equal  to  his  former  salarA*.  In  1883 
he  received  the  appointment  as  Professor  oi  Arabic  in  Cambridge, 


374      CHURCH  HlSTOHY   OF   NINETEENTH   CENTURY. 

and  the  large  revenues  of  that  office  allowed  him  to  decline  the  offer 
of  his  friends.* 

9.  The  Catholic  Church  in  Ireland. — The  Catholic  inhahitants  of 
Ireland  under  Protestant  projirietors,  and  forced  to  pay  tithes  for 
the  sujjport  of  the  Protestant  clergy,  were  always  dejjrived  of  civil 
rights.  In  1809  O'Connell  (died  1847),  an  agitator  of  great  popular 
eloquence,  placed  himself  at  the  head  of  the  oppressed  people,  in  order 
in  a  constitutional  way  to  secure  religious  and  political  freedom 
and  eqiiality.  At  last,  in  1829,  the  Emancipation  Bill,  sui3ported  by 
Peel  and  Wellington,  was  passed,  which  on  the  basis  of  the  formal 
declaration  of  the  whole  Catholic  episcopate  that  jiapal  infallibility 
and  papal  sovereignty  in  civil  matters  was  not  part  of  the  Catholic 
faith  nor  could  be  joined  therewith  either  in  Ireland  or  anywhere 
else  in  the  Catholic  world,  gave  to  Catholics  admission  to  parliament 
and  to  all  civil  and  military  appointments.  But  the  hated  tithes 
remained,  and  were  enforced,  when  refused,  by  military  force.  After 
long  debates  in  both  houses  of  parliament,  the  Tithes  Bill  was 
adopted  in  1838,  which  transferred  the  tithe  as  a  land-tax  from 
tenants  to  proprietors,  which,  however,  was  only  a  postponing  of  the 
question.  It  was  thus  regarded  by  O'Connell.  He  declared  that 
justice  for  Ireland  could  only  be  got  by  abolishing  the  legislative 
union  with  Great  Britain  existing  since  1800,  and  restoring  her 
independent  parliament.  For  this  purpose  he  organized  the  Repeal 
Association.  In  1840  another  no  less  powerful  popular  agitator  arose 
in  the  person  of  the  Irish  CajDUchin,  Father  Mathew,  the  apostle  of 
temperance,  who  with  unparalleled  success  persuaded  thousands  of 
those  degraded  by  drink  to  take  vows  of  abstinence  from  spirituous 
liquors.  He  kept  apart  from  all  political  agitation,  but  the  fruits 
of  his  exertions  were  all  in  its  favour.  O'Connell  in  1843  organized 
monster  meetings,  attended  by  hundreds  of  thovisands.  The  govern- 
ment had  him  tried,  the  jiiry  found  him  guilty,  but  the  House  of 
Lords  quashed  the  conviction  and  liberated  him  from  prison  in  1844, 
The  Peel  ministiy  now  sought  to  soothe  the  excitement  by  passing 
in  1845  the  Legacy  Act,  which  allowed  Catholics  to  hold  property  in 
their  own  names,  and  the  Maynooth  Bill,  by  which  the  theological 
seminary  at  Maynooth  received  &  rich  endowment  from  the  State. 
Continued  famine,  and  consequent  emigration  of  several  hundreds 
of  thousands  to  America  and  Australia,  relieved  Ireland  of  a  con- 
siderable portion  of  its  Catholic  population,  while  Protestant  missions 

'  Smith's  ajipointment  Avas  to  the  Lord  Almoner's  Professorship, 
with  a  merely  nominal  salary ;  but  he  was  aftei'wards  elected  to  the 
more  remunerative  office  of  University  librarian,  and  more  recently 
has  succeeded  Prof.  Wright  in  the  Chair  of  Arabic  in  the  University. 


§  202.    GREAT   BRITAIN   AND   IRELAND.  375 

by  Bible  and  tract  circulatiou  and  by  schools  had  some  success  in 
evangelizing  those  who  remained.  On  November  5th,  1855,  the 
anniversary  of  the  Gunpowder  Plot,  the  Redemptorists  at  Kingstown , 
near  Dublin,  erected  and  burnt  a  great  bonfire  in  the  public  streets 
of  Bibles  which  they  had  seized,  and  the  primate  archbishop  of 
Ireland  justified  it  by  reference  to  the  example  of  the  believers  at 
Ephesus  (Acts  xix.  19). 

10.  The  Fenian  movement,  originating  among  the  American  Irish, 
which  since  1863  created  such  terror  among  the  English,  was  the 
result  of  political  rather  than  religious  agitation.  Although  this 
movement  failed  in  its  proper  end,  namely  the  complete  separation 
of  Ireland  from  England,  it  yet  forced  upon  the  government  the 
conviction  of  the  absolute  necessity  of  meeting  the  just  demands  of 
the  Irish  by  thorough-going  reforms  and  putting  an  end  to  the 
oppressions  which  the  native  farmers  suffered  at  the  hands  of  foreign 
landowners,  and  the  grievances  endured  by  the  Catholic  church  by 
the  maintenance  of  the  Anglican  church  established  in  Ireland. 
The  carrying  out  of  these  reforms  was  the  service  rendered  by  the 
Gladstone  ministry.  By  the  Irish  Land  Bill  of  1870  the  land  question 
Avas  solved  according  to  the  demands  of  justice,  and  by  the  Irish 
Chiirch  Bill  of  1869,  which  deprived  the  Anglican  church  in  Ireland 
of  the  character  of  a  state  church  and  put  it  on  the  same  footing 
as  other  denominations,  the  church  question  was  similarly  settled. 
The  dignitaries  of  the  Anglican  church  thus  lost  their  position  as 
state  officials  and  their  seats  in  the  House  of  Lords.  The  rich  pro- 
perty of  the  hitherto  established  church  Avas  calculated  and  applied 
partly  to  compensating  for  losses  caused  by  this  reform,  partly  to 
creating  benevolent  institutions  for  the  general  good.  But  neither 
the  Church  Bill,  nor  the  Land  Bill,  nor  the  Universities  Bill,  which 
in  1880  founded  by  state  aid  a  Catholic  university  in  Dublin,  secured 
the  reconciliation  of  the  Irish.  '-EternUl  hatred  of  England"  was 
and  is  the  battle  cry ;  "  Ireland  for  the  Irish,  and  only  for  them," 
is  their  watchword.  In  order  to  carry  out  this  scheme  an  Irish 
"  National  League "  was  formed,  and  inimmerable  secret  "  JMoon- 
lighters,"  under  the  supposed  leadei'ship  of  "Captain  Moonshine," 
committed  atrocities  by  burning  farm  steadings  and  mutilating 
cattle,  murdering  and  massacring  by  dagger  and  revolver,  petroleum 
and  dynamite,  and  directed  their  operations  against  the  representa- 
tives of  the  governnient,  against  proprietors  who  sought  rent,  against 
tenants  who  paid  rent,  against  officials  who  endeavoured  to  enforce 
it,  and  against  everything  that  was,  or  was  called,  English.  In  order 
to  cut  at  the  root  of  this  lawlessness,  which  by  proclamation  of  a  state 
of  siege  was  only  restricted,  not  overthrown,  the  government  of  1881 
passed  further  agrarian  reforms  :  All  tenant  rights  were  to  be  pur  • 


376      CHURCH   HISTORY   OF   NINETEENTH   CENTURY. 

chased  by  the  surplus  of  the  fund  formed  by  the  disestablishment  of 
the  Irish  church,  and  where  this  did  not  suffice,  by  state  grants,  and 
the  right  to  conclude  contracts  for  rent  and  to  determine  its  amount 
was  transferred  from  the  proprietors  to  a  newly-constituted  land 
court,  without  whose  permission,  after  the  lapse  of  the  fifteen  years' 
term,  no  rent  contract  could  be  made.  But  even  this  did  not  stop 
almost  daily  repeated  murders  and  acts  of  destruction.  The  govern- 
ment now  sought  the  aid  of  the  pope  through  the  mediation  of  a 
Catholic  member  of  parliament  on  a  visit  to  E,ome ;  but  these  merely 
confidential  negotiations  led  to  no  considerable  result.  In  May,  1883, 
the  curia,  on  the  occasion  of  a  collection  promoted  by  the  National 
League  as  a  magnificent  national  present  to  the  great  (Protestant) 
leader  of  the  agitation,  Mr.  Parnell,  in  a  circular  letter,  forbad 
^^ propria  motu,''^  the  bishops  in  the  strictest  manner  taking  any  part 
in  the  movement,  and  urged  them  to  dissuade  their  members  from 
doing  so.  But  only  Archbishop  McCabe  of  Dublin  (died  1885),  fi-om 
the  first  an  opponent  of  the  League,  issued  a  pastoral  against  it  to  be 
read  in  all  the  pulpits  of  his  diocese.  The  other  bishops  ignored  the 
papal  command,  and  among  the  Catholic  people  the  opinion  obtained 
that  they  owed  to  the  pope  obedience  in  spiritual  but  not  in  political 
matters.  The  collections  for  the  Parnell  fund  were  continued  with 
redoubled  zeal.  The  attempts  of  dynamitards,  supplied  with  materials 
by  their  American  compatriots,  and  other  agrarian  oftences  have  not 
yet  been  finally  stopped. 

11.  The  Catholic  Church  in  England  and  Scotland. — The  Emancipation 
Act,  passed  mainly  for  the  relief  of  the  Irish,  naturally  also  benefited 
English  Catholics,  who  in  1791  had  been  allowed  to  hold  Catholic 
services.  Led  by  the  numerous  accessions  of  Puseyites  to  entertain 
the  most  extravagant  hopes,  Pius  IX.  in  1850  issued  a  bull,  by  which 
the  Boman  Catholic  hierarchy  in  England  was  reinstituted  with 
twelve  suffragan  bishoprics  under  one  archbishojD  of  Westminster. 
The  bull  occasioned  great  excitement  in  the  Protestant  poiJulation 
(Anti-Papal  Arjfjrension).  and  the  Ecclesiastical  Titles  Bill  forbade  the 
use  of  ecclesiastical  titles  not  sanctioned  by  the  laiv  of  the  land. 
After  the  first  excitement  had  passed,  the  Catholic  bishops,  at  their 
head  the  learned  and  brilliant  and  zealous  ultramontane  Cardinal 
Archbishop  Wiseman  (died  1865),  and  his  successor,  surpassing  him, 
if  not  in  genius  and  learning,  at  least  in  viltramontane  zeal,  the 
Puseyite  convert  Manning,  made  a  cardinal  in  1875,  used  with 
impunity  their  condemned  titles,  until  in  1871  the  Ecclesiastical 
Titles  Bill  was  formally  revoked  by  act  of  parliament.  Conversions 
in  noble  families  were  particularly  numerous  in  the  later  decades. 
Since  1850  the  number  of  Catholics  in  England  and  Scotland  has 
(luadrnphnl.    This  has  been  caused  in  great  part  by  Irisli  emigration, 


§  202.    GREAT   BRITAIN   AND   IRELAND.  377 

for  the  middle  and  lower  ranks  of  the  English  have  scarcely  been 
afiected  by  the  conversion  fever,  which  as  the  latest  form  of  the 
fitful  humour  of  the  English  had  so  rich  a  harvest  in  the  families 
of  the  nobility.  In  1780  all  London  had  only  one  Catholic  place 
of  worship,  the  chapel  of  the  Sardinian  embassy,  which  on  June 
'2nd  of  that  year  was  wrecked  and  burnt  by  a  raging  mob.  Now 
the  English  capital  has  two  episcopal  dioceses,  ninety- four  Catholic 
churches  and  chapels  (besides  about  900  Anglican  churches)  with 
313  clergymen,  and  forty-four  cloisters.  In  the  House  of  Lords  sit 
twenty-eight  Roman  Catholic  peers,  and  in  both  countries  there  are 
forty-seven  Catholic  baronets.  Since  1847  England  has  a  specifically 
Catholic  university  at  Kensington,  under  the  episcopate,  and  with 
the  pope  as  its  supreme  head,  which,  however,  with  its  i^oor  staff  of 
teachers  and  its  expensive  course  attracts  but  a  few  of  the  Catholic 
youth  of  England.  Since  the  Anti-Papal  Aggi'ession  of  1850  failed, 
the  Protestant  people  have  shown  themselves  comparatively  in- 
different to  such  assumptions  of  the  papacy. — In  the  Act  of  Union 
of  1707  (§  155,  3),  Scotland  was  guaranteed  the  absolute  exclusion  of 
every  sort  of  Roman  Catholic  hierarchy  for  all  time  to  come.  But 
in  recent  times  the  number  of  its  Catholic  inhabitants  so  greatly 
increased,  that  Pius  IX.  in  his  last  years,  not  unaided  by  the  English 
government,  eagerly  urged  the  re-establishment  of  the  hierarchy,  and 
Leo  XIII.  was  able  at  his  first  consistory  of  the  college  of  cardinals 
in  March,  1878,  to  make  appointments  to  the  two  newly-erected 
archdioceses  and  their  bishoprics.  On  the  following  Easter  Sunday 
the  allocution  relating  thereto  was  read  in  all  Catholic  churches 
in  Scotland.  The  restoration  was  thus  carried  out  in  spite  of  all 
protests  and  demonstrations  of  Scottish  Protestants. 

12.  German  Lutheran  Congregations  in  Australia. — Besides  the  domi- 
nant Anglican  church,  emigration  has  led  to  the  fox'mation  of  a 
considerable  number  of  German  Lutheran  congregations,  Avhicli  are 
distributed  in  three  synods.  1.  The  Victoria  S^-nod  was  founded  in 
1852  by  pastor  Gothe.  It  adopted  at  first  the  union  platform,  but 
subsequently  attached  itself  more  decidedly  to  the  Lutheran  con- 
fession. 2.  Pastor  Karch,  who  in  1830  emigrated  with  a  number  of 
Prussian  Lutherans,  in  order  to  avoid  the  union,  laid  the  foundation 
of  the  Immanuel  Synod.  Since  1875  it  has  been  supplied  with 
preachers  fi-om  the  missionary  institute  of  Neuendettelsau.  It  is 
distinguished  by  its  missionary  zeal  for  the  conversion  of  the  natives, 
pursues  with  special  interest  the  study  of  the  proi^hetic  word,  and 
makes  chiliasm  an  open  question  which  need  not  rend  the  church. 
3.  The  South  Australian  Synod,  on  the  other  hand,  is  the  decided 
opponent  of  any  sort  of  chiliasm,  and  has  ^assumed  an  attitude  of 
violent  antagonism  to  tli!'  Immanuel  Svii  )il. 


378      CHURCH   HISTORY   OF   NINETEENTH   CENTURY. 

§  203.    France. 

lu  France,  lauded  as  the  eldest  daughter  of  the  church 
after  the  overthrow  of  the  first  Empire,  iiltramontauism, 
under  the  secret  aud  open  co-operation  of  the  Jesuits,  has 
ever  arisen  with  revived  youth  and  vigour  out  of  all  the 
political  convulsions  which  have  since  passed  over  the  land. 
And  though  indeed  Gallicanism  seemed  again  to  obtain 
strength  under  the  second  Empire  and,  down  to  the  close 
of  that  period,  found  many  able  champions  among  learned 
theologians  like  Bishop  Maret  (§  189,  1),  and  even  among 
exalted  prelates  like  the  noble  Archbishop  Darbo}^  of  Paris, 
a  martyr  of  his  office  under  the  Commune  (§  212,  4\  its  in- 
fluence faded  graduallj^,  and  in  the  latest  phase  of  France's 
political  development,  the  third  republic,  seems  utterly 
to  have  disap]3eared,  so  that  even  the  '•  Kulturkampf^ 
which  broke  out  in  1879  could  not  give  it  life  again. — 
The  number  of  Protestant  churches  and  church  members, 
in  spite  of  bloody  persecutions  during  the  Bourbon  restora- 
tion, and  man}'-  arbitrary  restrictions  by  Catholic  prefects 
under  the  citizen  king  and  the  second  Empire,  by  numerous 
accessions  of  whole  congregations  and  groups  of  congrega- 
tions through  zealous  evangelization  efforts,  by  means  of 
school  instruction,  itinerant  preaching,  and  Bible  colportage, 
has  increased  during  the  century  fourfold.  In  the  Reformed 
church  the  opposition  of  methodistically  tinctured  ortho- 
dox}^, reinforced  from  England  and  French  Switzerland,  and 
rationalistic  freethinking,  led  to  sharp  conflicts.  Also  in 
the  Lutheran  church,  more  strongly  influenced  by  Germany, 
similar  discussions  arose,  but  a  more  conciliatory  spirit 
prevailed  and  violent  struggles  were  avoided. 

1.  The  Freucli  Church  under  Napoleon  I. — In  1801  Napoleon  as  Consul 
concluded  with  Pius  VII.  a  Concordat  \\  hicli,  adopting  the  concordat 
of  Francis  I.  (§  111,  14),  abandoning  the  pragmatic  sanction  of 
Boui'ges,  and  only  haggling  about  the  limits  to  be  fixed  for  the  two 


§  203.   FKANCE.  379 

powers,  gave  iio  consideration  to  the  idea  of  a  wliolesonie  internal 
reform  of  the  French  Church:  Catholicism  is  the  acknowledged 
religion  of  the  majority  of  the  French  people ;  the  church  property- 
belongs  to  the  state,  with  the  obligation  to  maintain  the  clergy  and 
ordinances ;  the  clergy  who  had  taken  the  oath  and  those  who  were 
expatriated  were  all  to  resign,  but  were  eligible  for  election ;  new 
boundaries  were  to  be  marked  out  for  the  episcopal  dioceses  with 
reference  to  the  political  divisions  of  the  country :  the  government 
elects  and  the  Tpope  confirms  the  bishops,  and  these,  with  approval  of 
the  government,  aj^point  the  priest^-.  The  one-sided  Organic  Articles 
of  the  first  Consul  of  1802,  which  were  annexed  to  the  publication  of 
the  Concordat  as  a  code  of  explanatory  regulations,  made  any  proclam- 
ation of  papal  orders  and  decrees  of  all  foreign  councils  dependent 
on  previous  permission  of  the  government,  as  also  the  calling  of 
synods  and  consultative  assemblies  of  the  clergy.  They  further 
ordained  that  all  official  services  of  the  clergy  should  be  gratuitous, 
and  transferred  to  the  civil  council  the  right  and  duty  of  strict 
inquiry  into  any  clerical  breach  of  civil  laws  and  any  misuse  or 
excessive  exercise  of  clerical  authority.  The  thirty-first  article, 
however,  created  that  unhappj^  order  of  Deaservants  or  curates,  the 
result  of  which  was  that  interim  appointments  were  made  to  most 
of  the  benefices  in  order  to  squeeze  state  pay  in  supplement  to  the 
inadequate  ecclesiastical  endowments,  and  so  their  holders  were  at 
the  absolute  mercy  of  the  bishops  who  could  transport  or  dispense 
with  them  at  any  moment.  For  further  particulars  about  the 
friendly  and  hostile  relations  of  Napoleon  and  the  pope,  see  §  185,  1. 
By  an  imperial  decree  of  1810,  the  fo;ir  articles  of  the  Galilean 
Church  (§  156,  3)  were  made  laws  of  the  Empire;  and  a  French 
National  Council  of  1811  sought  to  complete  the  reconstruction  of 
the  church  according  to  Napoleon's  ideas,  but  pi'oved  utterly  incap- 
able for  such  a  task,  and  was  therefore  dissolved  by  the  emperor 
himself. — To  pacify  the  Protestants,  dissatisfied  with  the  Concordat, 
amid  flattering  acknowledgment  of  their  services  to  the  state,  to 
science  and  to  the  arts,  an  appendix  was  attached  to  the  Organic 
Articles,  securing  to, them  liberty  of  religious  worship  and  political 
and  municipal  equality  with  Catholics.  For  training  ministers 
for  the  Reformed  Church  a  theological  seminary  was  founded  at 
Montauban,  and  for  Lutherans  an  academy  with  a  seminary  at 
Strassburg.  Napoleon  also  afterwards  proved  himself  on  every 
occasion  ready  to  help  th(;  Protestants.  He  was  equally  forward 
in  recognising  public  opinion  in  France.  The  National  Institute 
of  France  in  1804  offered  a  prize  for  an  essay  on  the  influence  of 
Luther's  Reformation  on  the  formation  and  advance  of  European 
national  life,  and  awarded  it  to  the  treatise  of  the  Catholic  phj-sician 


380      CHURCH  HISTORY  OF   NINETEENTH   CENTURY. 

Villei's  (Essai  sur  Vinfluence  de  la  ref.  de  Luther,  etc.),  whicli  in  all 
respects  glorified  Protestantism.  Even  the  Catholic  clergy  during 
the  first  EmiDire  exhibited  an  easy  temper  and  tolerance  such  as  was 
never  shown  before  or  since.  The  obligatory  civil  marriage  law 
introduced  by  the  Revolution  in  1792,  obtained  place  in  the  Code 
Napoleon  in  1804,  and  was  with  it  introduced  in  Belgium  and  the 
provinces  of  the  Ehine.' 

2.  The  Kestoration  and  the  Citizen  Kingdom.— The  Charter  of  the 
Bourbon  Restoration  under  Louis  XVIII.  (1814-1824)  and  Charles  X, 
(1824-1830)  made  Catholicism  the  state  religion  and  granted  tole- 
ration and  state  protection  to  the  other  confessions.  A  new  con- 
cordat concluded  Avith  Pius  VII.  in  1817,  by  Avhich  that  of  Napoleon 
of  1801,  with  the  Organic  Articles  of  the  following  year,  were  abro- 
gated, and  the  state  of  matters  previous  to  1789  restored,  was  so 
vigorously  opposed  by  the  nation,  that  the  ministry  were  obliged  to 
withdraw  the  measure  introduced  in  both  chambers  for  giving  it 
legislative  sanction.  Ultramontanism,  however,  in  its  baldest  form, 
steadily  favoured  by  the  government,  soon  prevailed  among  the 
clergy  to  such  an  extent  that  any  inclination  to  Gallicanism  was  de- 
nounced as  heresy  and  intolerance  of  Protestantism  laiided  as  piety. 
In  southern  France  the  rekindled  hatred  of  the  Catholic  mob  against 
the  Reformed  broke  out  m  1815  in  brutal  and  bloody  persecution. 
The  govei'ument  kept  silence  till  the  indignation  of  Europe  obliged 
it  to  put  down  the  atrocities,  but  the  offenders  were  left  unpunished. 
Comiivance  in  such  lawlessness  on  the  part  of  the  government  con- 
tributed largely  to  its  overthrow  in  the  July  revolution  of  1830.  The 
Catholic  Church  then  lost  again  the  privilege  of  a  state  religion,  and 
the  hitherto  persecuted  and  oppressed  Protestants  obtained  equal 
rights  with  the  Catholics.  But  even  under  the  new  constitutional 
government  of  Orleans,  ultramontanism  soon  reasserted  itself.  The 
Protestants  had  to  complain  of  much  injury  and  injustice  from 
Catholic  prefects,  and  the  Protestant  minister  Guizot  claimed  for 
France  the  protectorate  of  the  whole  Catholic  world.  The  Reformed 
Chvircli  meanwhile  flourished,  though  vacillating  between  methodistic 
narrowness  and  rationalistic  shallowness,  growing  both  inwardly  and 
outwardly,  and  also  the  Lutheran  communities,  which  outside  of 
Alsace  were  only  thinly  scattered,  enjoyed  great  prosperity.  In  the 
February  revolution  of  1848  the  Catholic  clergy  readily  yielded  obe- 
dience to  the  citizen  king  Louis  Philippe,  and,  on  the  ground  that 
the  Catholic  church  is  suited  to  any  form  of  government  which  only 


»  Jarvis,  "  The  Oallican  Church  and  the  Revolution,"  pp.  324-395. 
London,  1882. 


§  203.   FRANCE.  381 

grants  liberty  to  the  church,  did   not  refuse  their  benediction  to  the 
tree  of  freedom  with  the  sovereign  people  at  the  barricades. 

3.  The  Catholic  Church  under  NapoleDU  III. — Louis  Napoleon,  as  pre- 
sident of  the  new  republic  (1848-1852),  and  still  more  decidedly  as 
emperor  (1852-1870),  inclined  to  follow  the  traditions  of  his  uncle, 
regarded  the  concordat  of  1801  as  still  legally  in  force  and  seemed 
specially  anxious  to  arouse  zeal  for  the  Galilean  liberties.  Although 
his  bayonets  secured  the  pope's  return  to  Rome  (§  185,  2)  and  even 
afterwards  supported  his  authority  there,  he  did  not  fulfil  the  heart's 
wish  of  the  emperor  by  the  people's  grace  to  place  the  imperial  crown 
upon  his  head  in  his  own  person.  Severely  strained  relations  be- 
tween the  imperial  court  and  the  episcopate  resulted  in  1860  from  a 
pamphlet  against  the  papacy  inspired  by  the  government  (§  185,  3). 
Dupanloup,  Bishop  of  Orleans,  was  one  of  the  oldest  and  most  deter- 
mined defenders  of  the  interests  of  the  papal  see,  and  from  Poitiers 
the  emperor  was  pretty  openly  characterized  as  a  second  Pilate.  The 
goveriunent  did  not  venture  directly  to  interfere  between  the  two, 
but  reminded  the  bishops  that  the  emperor's  differences  Avith  the  pope 
referred  only  to  temporal  affairs.  It  also  forbade  the  forming  of 
separate  societies  for  the  collecting  of  Peter's  pence,  and  dissolved  the 
societies  of  St.  Vincent,  instituted  for  benevolent  purposes,  but  misused 
for  ultramontane  agitations.  When  Archbishop  Desprez  of  Toulouse, 
like  his  predecessors  in  1662  and  1762,  on  May  16th,  1862,  with  pompous 
phrases  of  piety  appointed  the  jubilee  festival  of  the  '■•fait  glorieux,''^ 
by  which  at  Toulouse  three  hundred  years  before,  by  means  of  shame- 
ful treachery  and  base  breach  of  pledges  4,000  Protestants  w^ere  mvir- 
dered  (§  139,  15),  a  shout  of  indignation  rose  from  almost  all  French 
journals  and  the  government  forbade  the  ceremonial.  It  also  refused 
permission  to  proclaim  the  papal  encyclical  with  the  syllabus  (§  185, 2) 
and  condemned  several  bishops  who  disobeyed  for  misuse  of  their 
office.  Under  the  influence  of  the  ultramontane  empress  Eugenie, 
however,  the  relation  of  the  government  to  the  curia  and  the  higher 
clergy  of  the  empire,  since  the  one  could  not  do  without  the  other, 
became  more  friendly  and  intimate,  till  the  day  of  Sedan,  September 
2nd,  1870,  put  an  end  to  the  Napoleonic  empire  and  the  temporal 
power  of  the  papacy  which  it  had  maintained. 

4.  The  Protestant  Churches  under  Napoleon  III. — After  the  revolution 
of  1848,  the  Lutherans  at  an  assembly  in  Strassburg  and  the  Reformed 
in  Paris  consulted  about  a  new  organization  of  their  churches.  But 
as  the  latter  resolved  in  order  to  maintain  constitutional  union  amid 
doctrinal  diversity,  entirely  to  set  aside  symbol  and  dogma,  pastor 
Fr.  Monod  and  Count  Gasparin,  the  noble  defenders  of  Fi-ench  Pro- 
testantism, lodged  a  protest,  and  with  thirty  congregations  of  the 
strict  party  constituted  a  new  council  at  Paris  in  1849,  independent  of 


382      CHURCH   HISTORY   OF   NINETEENTH   CENTURY. 

the  state,  as  the  Union  des  e'ljlises  e'vanijelujiips  tie  France  with  biennial 
S3niocls.      Louis  Napoleon  gave  to   the   Reformed   Church   a   central 
council  in  Paris  with  consistories  and  presbyteries  ;  to  the  Lutlieran, 
an  annual  general  consistory  as  a  legislative  court  and  a  standing 
directory  as  an  administrative    court.     The  Lutheran  theological 
faculty  at  Strassbiu-g  with  its  vigorous  unconfessional  science  repre- 
sents  the   westernmost   school   of    Schleiermacher's  theolog3^      The 
academy  at  Montauban,  with  Adolph  Monod  at  its  head,  represents 
Reformed  orthodox^-,  not  stricth'  confessional  but  coloured  by  method- 
istic  piety,  and  Coquerel  in   Paris,  was  the  head  of  the  rationalistic 
party  of  the  Reformed  national  church.  The  lead  in  the  reaction  against 
rationalism  since  1830  has  been  taken  by  the  Societe  dcangilique  at  Paris, 
which,  aiming  at  the  Protestantising  of  France,  and  using  for  this  end 
Bible  colportage,  tract  distribution,  the  sending  out  of  evangelists, 
school  instruction,  etc.,  has  developed  an  extraordinarily  restless  and 
successful  activity.  It  has  been  powerfully  supported  by  the  evangelical 
society  of  Geneva.     The  number  of  Protestant  clergymen  in  France 
has  steadily  risen,  and  almost  every  year  m  and  out  of  the  Catholic 
population  new  evangelical  congregations  have  been  formed,  in  spite 
of  endless  difficulties  put  in  the  way  by  Catholic  courts.     In  Strass- 
burg,  in  1854,  the  Jesuits  persuaded  the  Catholic  prefects  to  recall  and 
arrest  the  revenues  of  the  former  St.  Thomas  institute,  which  since 
the  Reformation  had  been  applied  to  the  maintenance  of  a  Protestant 
gymnasium.     The  prefect  of  Paris,  however,  was  instructed  to  desist 
from  his  claims.     In  the  speech  from  the  throne  in  1858,  the  emperor 
declared  that  the  government  secured  for  Protestants  full  liberty  of 
worship,  without  forgetting,  however,  that  Catholicism  is  the  religion 
of  the  majority,  and  the  Monitcur  commented  on  this  imperial  speech 
so  evidently  in  the  spirit  of  the  Univers,  that  the  prefects  C(5uld  not  be 
in  doubt  how  to  understand  it.     By  General  Espinasse,  wlio,  after  the 
Orsiiii  attempt  on  the  emperor's  life  in  1858,  officiated  for  a  long  time 
as  Minister  of  the  Interior,  the  prefects  were  expressly  instructed,  to 
extend  their  espionage  of  the  ill-aiiected  press  to  the  proceedings  of 
the  evangelical  societies,  and  to  prohibit  the  colportage  of  Protestant 
Bibles.     On  a  change  of  minister,  however,  the  latter  enactment  was 
withdrawn,  and  only  agents  of  foreign  Bible  societies  were  interfered 
with.     By  an  imperial  decree  of  1859,  the  right  of  permitting  of  the 
opening  of  new  Protestant  churches  and  chapels  was  taken  from  the 
local  courts  and  transferred  to  the  impei'ial  council  of  state.    For  every 
Protestant  congregation,  so  soon  as  it  numlx'red  400  souls,  the  legal 
state  salary  for  the  clergymen  would  be  paid. 

5.  The  Catholic  Church  in  the  Third  French  Republic— The  Gambetta 
government,  the  national  vindication  of  the  4th  September,  1870,  re- 
signed its  powiT  in   Kcbi-uary,  1871.  into  the  hands  of  tlie  National 


§  203.   FEANCE.  383 

Assembly  elected  by  the  "wliole  nation,  -which,  although  through  cler- 
ical influence  upon  the  electors  predominantly  monarchical  and  cler- 
ical, appointed  the  old  Voltairean  Thiei-s  (died,  1877),  formerly  minis- 
terial president  under  Louis  Philippe,  as  alone  qualified  for  the  diffi- 
cult post  of  president  of  the  republic.     In  the  necessary  second  vote, 
indeed,  there  was  a  considerable  increase  of  the  republican  and  as 
such   thoroughly  anti-clerical  party ;  but  even  in  its  ranks  it  was 
admitted  that  the  establishment  of  France  as  leader  of  all  Europe 
in  the  fight  against  ultramontanism   and   the   co-operation  therein 
of    the    clei-gy  were    the    absolutely   indispensable    means    for    the 
political  Revanche^  after  which  the  hearts  of  all  Frenchmen  longed 
as   the  hart  for  the  Avater  streams.     A   petition  from  five  bishops 
and  other  dignitaiies  to  the  National  Assembly  for  the  restoration 
of   the  temporal   power  of  the   pope  was  set  aside   as  inopportune. 
But  Archbishop  Guibert  of  Paris,  without  asking  the  government, 
proclaimed  the  infallibility  dogma,  and  the  minister  of  instruction, 
Jules   Simon,  contented   himself  with  warning   the  episcopate  in  a 
friendly  way  against  any  further  illegal  steps  of  that  kind.      The 
clerical  party  was  also  successful  in  its  protest  to  the  National  As- 
sembly against  the  education  law,  which  by  raising  the  standard  of 
instruction,  placing  it  under  the  supervision  of  the  state  and  making 
inspection  of  schools  obligatory,  proposed  to  put  an  end  to  the  terrible 
ignorance  of  the  French  people  as  the  chief  cause  of  their  deep  deca3\ 
Bishop  Dupanloup  of  Orleans  was   appointed  president  of  the  com- 
mission for  examining  it,  and  so  its  fate  was  sealed.    Meanwhile  the 
people,  by  frequent  manifestations  of  the  Virgin,  were  roused  to  a 
high  pitch  of  religious  excitement.     Crowds  of  pilgrims  encouraged 
by  miraculous  healings  flocked  to  our  Lad}^  of  La  Salette,  at  Lourdts, 
etc.  (§  188,  6),  and  the  consecration  of  Xotre  Dame  de  la  Deliverance  at 
Bayeux  was  celebrated  as  a  brilliant  national  festival.     When  in 
May,  1873,  Thiers  gave  way  before  the  machinations  of  his  opponents 
and,  under  the  new  president,  Mai-shal  Macmahon,  the  thoroughh' 
clerical  ministry  of  the  Due  de  Broglie  got  the  helm  of  aftaii-s,  the 
pilgrimage  craze,  mariolatry  and  ultramontane  piety,  aided  by  the 
prefects  and  mayors,  increased  to  an  un|)aralleled  extent  among  all 
ranks.     Under  the  Buffet  ministry  of  1875  the  influence  of  clericalism 
was  unabated.     To  him  it  owed  its  most  important  acqixisition,  the 
right  of  creating  free  Catholic  univei-sities  wholl}^  independent  of  the 
State,  with  the  privilege  of  conf(>rring  degrees.     But  when  in  187(3  the 
new  elections  for  the  National  Assemblj-  gave  an  anti-clerical  majority, 
Buffet  was  obliged  to  resign.     The  new  Dufaure  ministrj^,  with  the 
Protestant  Waddington  as   minister  of  instruction,  declared  indeed 
that  it  continued  the  libertj'-  of  instruction,  but  decidedly  refused  the 
right  of  conferring  degrees.     The  proposal  to  this  effect  met  with  the 


884      CHURCH   HISTORY   OF   NINETEENTH   CENTURY. 

hearty  support  of  the  new  chamber  of  deputies.  But  all  the  greater 
was  the  jubilation  of  the  clericals  when  the  senate  by  a  small  majority 
refused  its  consent,  and  all  the  more  eagerly  was  the  founding  of  new 
free  Catholic  universities  carried  on,  at  Paris,  Angers,  Lyons,  Lille 
and  Toulouse,  but  notwithstanding  every  effort  they  only  attracted  a 
very  small  number  of  scholars, — in  1879,  when  they  flourished  most, 
at  all  the  five  there  were  only  742  students. 

6.  The  French  "  Kulturkampf,"  1880.  —  The   Dufaure  ministry    was 
succeeded  in  December,  1876,  by  the  si.»mi-liberal  ministry  of  Jules 
Simon,  which  again  was  driven  out  in  a  summary  fashion  by  presi- 
dent Macmahon  on  May  16th,  1877,  and  replaced,  on  the  dissolution  of 
the  chamber,  by  a  clerical  ministry  under  Due  de  Broglie.    But  in  the 
newly  elected  chamber  the  republican  anti-clerical  majority  was  so 
overwhelming  that  Macmahon,  on  January  30th,  1879,  abandoning  his 
motto  of  government,  J'?/  suis  et  fy  rede,  was  at  last  obliged,  between 
the  alternatives  offered   him   by  Gambetta,   Se  soumettre  ou   se  de- 
metfre,  to  choose  the  latter.    His  successor  was  G-revy,  president  of  the 
Chamber,  who  entrusted  the  protestant  Waddington  with  the  forming 
of  a  new  ministry  in  which  Jules  Ferry  was  minister  of  instruction. 
Ferry  brought  in  a  bill  in  March  to  abolish  the  representation  of  the 
clergy  in  the  High  Cotmcil  of  Education  by  four  archiepiscopal  depu- 
ties, continuing  indeed  the  free  Catholic  vmiversities,  but  requiring 
their  students  to  enroll  in  a  state  university  which  alone  could  hold 
examinations  and  give  degrees,  and  finally  enacting  by  Article  7  that 
the  right  of  teaching  in  all  educational  institutions  should  be  refused 
to  members  of  all  religious  orders  and  congregations  not  recognised 
by  the  state.     The  chamber   deputies    accejited    this  bill   without 
amendment  on  July  9th,  but  the  senate  on  March  7th,  1880,  after 
passing  six  articles  refused  to  adopt  the  seventh.    On  March  29th,  the 
president  of  the  republic  issued  on  his  own  authority  two  decrees 
based  indeed  upon  earlier  enactments  (1789-1852),  gone  into  desuetude 
indeed,  but  never  abrogated  (§  186,  2),  demanded  the  dissolution  of 
the  Society  of  Jesus,  containing  1,480  members  in  56   institutions, 
within  three  months,  and  insisted  that  the  orders  and  congregations  not 
recognised  by  the  State,  embracing  14,033  sisters  in  602  institutions 
and  7,444  brothei's  in  384  institutions,  in  the  same  time  should  by  pro- 
duction of  their  statutes  and  rules  seek  formal  recognition  or  else  be 
broken  up.    A  storm  of  protests  on  the  part  of  the  bishops  greeted  these 
"  March  Decrees,''''  and  riotous  demonstrations  made  before  the  Minister 
of  Instruction  at  his  residence  at  Lille  expressed  the  protests  of  the 
students  of  the  Catholic  university  there.     The  pope  now  broke  his 
reserve  and  by  a  nuncio  sent  the  president  of  the  republic  a  holograph 
letter  in  which  he  declared  that  he  must  interfere  on  behalf  of  the 
Jesuits  and  the  threatened  orders,  because  they  were  indispensably 


§  203.    FRANCE.  385 

necessary  to  the  wellbeing  of  the  church.  He  did  not  wish  that 
they  should  have  recourse  to  unlawful  means,  but  it  must  be  under- 
stood that  they  would  appeal  to  the  courts  for  protection  of  their 
threatened  civil  liberties.  "When  therefore  on  the  morning  of  June 
30th  the  police  began  their  work  of  exiDelling  the  Jesuits  from  their 
houses,  these  lodged  a  complaint  before  the  courts  of  invasion  of  their 
domestic  peace  and  infringement  of  their  personal  liberty.  Their 
schools  were  closed  on  August  31st,  the  end  of  the  school  year  ;  mean- 
while they  had  taken  the  precaution  to  transfer  most  of  them  to  such 
as  would  be  ready  afterwards  to  restore  them.  The  enforcement  of  the 
second  of  the  March  Decrees  against  the  other  orders  was  delayed  for 
a  while.  A  compromise  proposed  by  the  episcopate,  favoured  by  the 
pope  and  not  absolutely  rejected  even  by  the  minister  Freycinet, 
Waddington's  successor,  according  to  which  instead  of  the  required 
application  for  recognition  all  these  orders  should  sign  a  declaration 
of  loj^alty,  undertaking  to  avoid  all  participation  in  political  affairs 
and  to  do  nothing  opposed  to  existing  order,  brought  about  the  over- 
throw of  this  ministry  in  September,  1880,  by  the  machinations  from 
other  motives  of  the  jDresident  of  the  chamber  and  latent  dictator, 
Leon  Gambetta.  At  the  head  of  the  new  ministry  was  Ferry,  who 
lield  the  portfolio  of  instrviction,  and  under  him  the  carrying  out  of 
the  second  March  Decree  began  on  October  16th,  1880.  Up  to  the 
meeting  of  the  chamber  in  November  261  monasteries  had  l)een 
vacated :  the  rest,  as  from  the  first  all  female  congregations,  were 
spared,  so  that  France  with  its  colonies  and  mission  stations  still 
number  4,288  male  and  14.990  female  settlements  of  spiritual  orders, 
the  former  with  about  32,000,  the  latter  with  about  166,200  inmates. — 
The  exjjulsion  of  the  Jesuits,  as  well  as  the  more  recent  of  the  other 
orders,  was,  however,  stoutly  opposed.  The  police  told  off  for  this 
duty  found  doors  shut  and  barricaded  against  them  or  defended  by 
fanatical  peasants  and  mobs  of  shrielcing  women,  so  that  they  had 
often  to  be  stormed  and  broken  up  by  the  military.  Still  more  threat- 
ening than  this  opposition  was  the  reaction  ■which  began  to  assert 
itself  at  tlie  instance  of  the  almost  thoroughly  ultramontane  jurists 
of  the  country,  a  survival  of  the  times  of  Napoleon  III.  and  ]\racmahon , 
An  advocate  Eousse,  who  publicly  stated  the  opinion  that  the  March 
Decrees  were  illegal  and  therefore  not  binding,  was  supported  by  2,000 
attorneys  and  over  200  corporations  of  attorneys  and  by  many  distin- 
guished university  jurists.  More  than  200  state  officials  and  many 
judiciary  and  police  officers,  together  with  several  officers  of  the  arm3'-, 
tendered  their  resignations  so  as  to  avoid  taking  part  in  the  execution 
of  the  decrees.  When  it  became  clear  that  unfavourable  verdicts 
wou.ld  be  given  by  the  courts  invoked  by  the  Jesuits  against  the 
executors  of  the  decree,  as  indeed  was  soon  actually  done  by  several 
VOL.   III.  25 


38G    cnuRcn  history  of  nineteenth  century. 

courts,  th(^  gowrnment  knlged  an  appeal  against  their  compi-tcriCP 
before  tlie  tribunal  of  conflicts  Avhicli  also  actually  in  regard  to  all 
such  cases  pronounced  them  incompetent  and  their  decisions  therefore 
null  and  void ;  but  the  complainers  insisted  that  their  complaints 
should  be  taken  to  a  Council  of  State  as  the  only  court  suitable  to 
deal  with  charges  against  officials,  which,  as  might  be  expected,  was 
not  done. 

7.  In  the  future  course  of  the  French  "  Kulturkampf "  the  most 
ini |)ortant  ]3roceedings  of  the  government  were  the  f uUowing :  The 
abolition  of  th(>  institute  of  military  chaplains,  highly  serviceable  in 
ultramontanizing  the  officers,  was  carried  out  in  1880,  as  well  as  the 
requirement  that  the  clergy  and  teachers  should  give  military  service 
for  one  year,  and  subsequently  also  military  escorts  to  the  Corpus 
Christi  procession  were  forbidden.  In  1880  the  Municipal  Council  of 
Paris,  with  the  concurrence  of  the  prefect  of  the  Seine,  forbad  the 
continuance  of  the  beautiful  building  of  the  church  of  the  Heart  of 
Jesus  begun  in  1875  on  Montmartre  (§  188,  12),  confiscating  the  site 
that  had  been  granted  for  it.  In  1881  the  churchyards  were  relieved 
of  their  denominational  character,  and  the  folloAving  year  the  right 
of  managing  them,  with  permission  of  merely  civil  interment  without 
the  aid  of  a  clergyman,  was  transferred  from  the  ecclesiastical  to  the 
civil  authorities.  By  introducing  in  1880  high  schools  for  girls  with 
boarding  establishments  an  end  was  put  to  the  education  of  girls  of 
the  upper  ranks  in  nunneries,  which  had  hitherto  been  the  almost 
exclusive  practice.  Far  more  sweeping  was  the  School  Act  brought 
i  n  by  the  radical  minister  of  worship,  Paul  Bert,  and  first  enforced  in 
October,  188(j,  which  made  attendance  compulsory,  relegated  religious 
instruction  wholly  to  the  cluirch  and  home,  and  absolutely  excluded 
all  the  clergy  from  the  right  of  giving  any  sort  of  instruction  in  the 
public  schools,  and  demanded  the  removal  of  all  crucifixes  and  otlier 
religious  symbols  from  the  school  buildings.  In  Decembei-,  1884,  a 
tax  was  imposed  on  the  property  of  all  religious  orders,  also  the  state 
allowance  for  the  five  Catholic  seminaries  with  only  thirty-seven 
students  was  withdrawn,  and  many  other  important  deductions  made 
upon  the  budget  for  Catholic  worshij),  which  at  first  the  senate  op- 
posed, but  at  last  agreed  to.  The  Divorce  Bill  frequently  introduced 
since  1881,  which  permitted  parties  to  marry  again,  and  gave  dis- 
posal of  the  matter  to  the  civil  court,  got  the  assent  of  the  stmate  only 
in  the  end  of  July,  1884.  The  clericals  were  also  greatly  offended  by 
the  decree  passed  in  May,  1885,  which  closed  the  church  of  St.  Geno- 
veva,  the  former  Pantheon,  as  a  place  of  worship  and  made  it  again  a 
burial  place  for  distinguished  Frenchmen.  This  resolution  was  first 
carried  out  by  placing  there  the  remains  of  Victor  Hugo.  Amid  these 
nud  many  other  injuries  to  its  interests  the  Boman  curia,  concentrat- 


§  203.   FRANCE.  387 

iug  all  its  energies  uijon  the  German  "  Kulturkampf,"  endeavoured 
to  keep  things  back  in  a  moderate  way.  Yet  in  Julj',  18SB,  the  pope 
addressed  to  president  Grevy  a  friendly  but  earnest  remonstrance. 
which  lie  treated  simply  as  a  private  letter  and,  without  communi- 
cating it  officially  to  his  cabinet,  answered  that  apart  from  parlia- 
ment he  could  not  act,  but  that  so  far  as  he  and  his  ministry  were 
able  they  Avould  seek  to  avoid  conflict  with  the  holj-  see.  And  in  fact 
the  government,  esiDecially  after  the  overthrow  of  the  Gambetta  min- 
istry in  1882,  often  successfully  opjjosed  the  proposal  of  the  radical 
chamber,  e.(j.  the  separation  of  church  and  state,  the  abrogation  of 
the  concordat,  the  recall  of  the  embassy  to  the  Vatican,  the  abolition 
of  religious  oaths  in  the  proceedings  of  the  courts,  the  stoi^jiing  of  the 
state  subvention  of  a  million  francs  for  pa^-ment  of  salaries  in  semi- 
naries for  priests,  etc. 

8.  The  Protestant  Churches  under  the  Third  EepubUc.  —  Since  the 
French  Reformed  began  to  emulate  their  Catholic  countrymen  in  wild 
Chauvinism,  fanatical  hatred  of  Germany  and  unreasoning  enthusiasm 
for  the  Revandie,  they  were  left  by  the  advancing  clerical  party  un- 
molested in  resjject  of  life,  confession  and  worship  during  the  time  of 
war.  The  Lutherans  on  the  other  hand,  consisting,  although  on 
French  territory,  mainly  of  German  emigrants  and  settlei-s,  even  their 
French  members  not  so  disposed  to  Chauvinistic  extravagance,  were 
I  )bliged  to  atone  for  this  double  offence  by  expulsion  from  house  and 
home  and  by  vai-ious  injuries  to  their  ecclesiastical  interests.  After 
the  conclusion  of  peace,  especially  under  Thiers'  moderate  govern- 
ment, this  fanaticism  gradually  cooled  down,  so  that  the  expelled 
Germans  returned  and  the  churches  and  institutions  that  had  been 
destroyed  were  restored,  so  far  as  means  would  allow.  By  the  decree 
of  Waddington,  the  minister  of  instruction,  of  date  March  '27th,  1877. 
instead  of  the  theological  faculty  of  Strassburg,  no'w  lost  for  the 
French  Lutheran  church,  one  for  both  Protestant  churches  A\-as 
founded  in  Paris. — The  Lutheran  Church,  in  consequence  of  the  cession 
of  Alsace-Lorraine,  had  only  sixty-four  out  of  278  pastorates  and 
six  out  of  forty-four  consistories  remaining.  At  the  general  S3Tiod 
convened  at  Paris,  in  July,  1872,  by  the  government  for  reorgan- 
izing the  Lutheran  church  it  was  resolved  :  To  form  two  inspectorates 
independent  of  each  other — Paris,  predominantly  orthodox,  Mom- 
pelgard,  predominantly  liberal ;  the  general  assembly,  which  meets 
every  third  year  alternately  at  Mompelgard  and  Paris,  to  consist 
of  delegates  from  both.  The  two  inspectorates  are  to  correspond  in 
aduiinistrative  matters  directly  with  the  minister  of  public  instruc- 
tion, but  in  everj'thing  referring  to  confession,  doctrine,  worship 
and  discipline,  the  general  assembly  is  the  supreme  authority.  In 
regard  to  the  confessional  question  they  agreed  to  the  statement, 


388      CHURCH   HISTORY   OF   NINETEENTH   CENTURY. 

that  the  holy  Scripture  is  the  supreme  authority  in  matters  of 
faith,  and  the  Augsburg  Confession  the  basis  of  the  legal  constitu- 
tion of  the  church.  An  express  undertaking  on  the  part  of  the 
clergy  to  this  effect  is  not,  however,  insisted  uiran.  Only  in  1879 
could  this  constitution  obtain  legal  sanction  by  the  State,  and  that 
only  after  considerable  modification  in  the  direction  of  liberalism, 
especially  in  reference  to  electoral  qualification.  In  consequence  of 
this  the  first  ordinary  general  assembly  held  in  Paris  in  May,  1881, 
found  both  parties  in  a  conciliatory  mood. — The  Reformed  Church,  with 
about  500  pastorates  and  105  consistories,  summoned  by  order  of 
government  a  newly  constituted  General  Assemby  at  Paris,  in  June, 
1872.  Prominent  among  the  leaders  of  the  orthodox  party  was  the 
aged  ex-minister  Guizot;  the  leaders  of  the  liberals  were  Coquerel 
and  Colani.  The  former  supported  the  proposal  of  Professor  Bois  of 
Montauban,  who  insisted  on  the  frank  and  full  confession  of  holy 
Scripture  as  the  sovereign  aiithority  in  matters  of  faith,  of  Clii'ist  as 
the  only  Son  of  God,  and  of  justification  by  faith  as  the  legal  basis  of 
instruction,  worship  and  discipline ;  while  the  latter  protested  against 
every  attempt  to  lay  down  an  obligatory  and  exclusive  confession. 
The  orthodox  party  prevailed  and  the  dissenters  who  woTild  not  yield 
were  struck  off  the  voting  lists.  When  now  in  consequence  of  the 
complaint  of  the  liberal  party  the  summoning  of  an  ordinary  general 
assembly  was  refused  by  the  government,  the  orthodox  part}^  repeatedly 
met  in  "  official "  provincial  and  general  assemblies  without  state  sanc- 
tion. The  council  of  state  then  declared  all  decisions  regarding  voting 
qualifications  passed  by  the  synod  of  1872  to  be  null  and  void,  the 
minister  of  worship.  Ferry,  ordered  the  readmission  of  electors  struck 
from  the  lists,  and  his  successor  Bert  legalized,  by  a  decree  of  March 
25th,  1882,  the  division  of  the  Parisian  consistorial  circuit  into  two 
independent  consistories  of  Paris  and  Versailles,  moved  for  by  the 
liberal  party  but  opposed  by  the  orthodox.  But  upon  the  elections 
for  the  new  consistory  of  Paris,  ordered  in  spite  of  all  protests,  and  for 
the  presbyteries  of  the  eight  parishes  assigned  to  it,  contrai-y  to  all 
expectation,  in  seven  of  these  the  elections  with  great  majorities  were 
in  favour  of  the  orthodox,  and  the  first  official  document  issued  by  the 
new  consistory  was  a  solemn  protest  against  the  decree  to  which  it 
owed  its  existence.  Under  such  circumstances  the  government  as 
well  as  the  liberal  party  had  no  desire  for  the  calling  of  an  official 
"•eneral  assembly,  and  the  latter  resolved  at  a  general  assembly  at 
Nimes,  in  October,  1882,  to  institute  official  synods  of  their  own  for 
consultation  and  protection  of  their  own  interests. 


§  204.  ITALY.  389 

§  204.    Italy. 

In  Italy  matters  returned  to  their  old  position  after  the 
restoration  of  1814.  But  liberalism,  aiming  at  the  liberty 
and  unity  of  Italy,  gained  the  mastery,  and  where  for  the 
time  it  prevailed,  the  Jesuits  were  expelled,  and  the  power 
of  the  clergy  restricted;  where  it  failed,  both  came  back 
with  greatly  increased  importance.  The  arms  of  Austria 
and  subsequently  also  of  France  stamped  out  on  all  sides 
the  revolutionary  movements.  Pius  IX.,  who  at  first  was 
not  indisposed,  contrary  to  all  traditions  of  the  papacy,  to 
put  himself  at  the  head  of  the  national  part}^,  was  obliged 
bitterly  to  regi'et  his  dealings  with  the  liberals  (§  185,  2). 
Sardinia,  Modena  and  Naples  put  the  severest  strain  upon 
the  bow  of  the  restoration,  while  Parma  and  Tuscany  dis- 
tinguished themselves  by  adopting  liberal  measures  in  a 
moderate  degree.  Sardinia,  however,  in  1840  came  to  a 
better  mind.  Charles  Albert  first  broke  ground  with  a  more 
liberal  constitution,  and  in  1848  proclaimed  himself  the 
deliverer  of  Italy,  but  yielded  to  the  arms  of  Austria.  His 
son  Victor  Emanuel  II.  succeeded  amid  singularly  favour- 
able circumstances  in  uniting  the  whole  peninsula  under  his 
sceptre  as  a  united  kingdom  of  Italy  governed  by  liberal 
institutions. 

1.  The  Kingdom  of  Sardinia. — Victor  Emanuel  I.  after  the  restora- 
tion had  nothing  els9  to  do  but  to  recall  the  Jesuits,  to  hand  over  to 
them  the  whole  management  of  the  schools,  and,  guided  and  led  by 
them  in  everything,  to  restore  the  church  and  state  to  the  condition 
prevaiUng  before  1789.  Charles  Felix  (1821-1S31)  carried  still  fui'ther 
the  absolutist-reactionary  endeavours  of  his  predecessor,  and  even 
Charles  Albert  (1831-1849)  refused  for  a  long  time  to  realize  the  hopes 
which  the  liberal  party  had  previously  placed  in  him.  Onl}'  in  the 
second  decade  of  his  reign  did  he  begin  gradually  to  display  a  more 
liberal  tendency,  and  at  last  in  1848  when,  in  consequence  of  the 
French  Revolution,  Lombardy  rose  against  the  Austrian  rule,  he 
placed  himself  at  the  head  of  the  national  movement  for  freeing  Itah' 


390      CHURCH   HISTORY   OF   NINETEENTH   CENTURY. 

from  the  3''oke  of  strangers.  But  the  king  gloried  in  as  "  the  sword 
of  Italy "  was  defeated  and  obliged  to  abdicate.  Victor  Emanuel  II. 
(1849-1878)  allowed  meanwhile  the  liberal  constitution  of  his  father 
to  remain  and  indeed  carried  it  out  to  the  utmost.  The  minister  of 
justice,  Siccardi,  projjosed  a  new  legislative  code  which  abolished  all 
clerical  jurisdiction  in  civil  and  criminal  proceedings,  as  also  the  right 
of  asylum  and  of  exacting  tithes,  the  latter  with  moderate  compensa- 
tion. It  was  passed  by  parliament  and  subscribed  by  the  king  in 
1850.  The  clergy,  with  archbishop  Fransoni  of  Turin  at  their  head, 
protested  with  all  their  might  against  these  sacrilegious  encroach- 
ments on  the  rights  of  the  church.  Fransoni  was  on  this  account 
committed  for  a  month  to  prison  and,  when  he  refused  the  last  sacra- 
ment to  a  minister,  was  regularly  sentenced  to  deposition  and  banish- 
ment from  the  country.  Pius  IX.  thwarted  all  attempts  to  obtain  a 
new  concordat.  But  the  government  went  recklessly  forward.  As 
Fransoni  from  his  exile  in  France  continued  his  agitation,  all  the 
property  of  the  archiepiscopal  chair  was  in  1854  sequestered  and  a 
number  of  cloisters  were  closed.  Soon  all  penalties  in  the  penal  code 
for  spreading  non-Catholic  doctrines  were  struck  out  and  non-Catholic 
soldiers  freed  from  compulsory  attendance  at  mass  on  Sundays  and 
festivals.  The  chief  blow  now  fell  on  March  2nd,  1855,  in  the  Cloister 
Act,  which  abolished  all  orders  and  cloisters  not  devoted  to  preaching, 
teaching,  and  nursing  the  sick.  In  consequence  331  out  of  605  cloisters 
Avere  shut  up.  The  pope  ceased  not  to  condemn  all  these  sacrilegious 
and  church  robbing  acts,  and  when  his  threats  were  without  result, 
thundered  the  great  excommunication  in  July,  1855,  against  all 
originators,  aiders,  and  abettors  of  such  deeds.  Among  the  masses 
this  indeed  caused  some  excitement,  but  it  never  came  to  an  explosion 
2.  The  Kingdom  of  Italy. — Amid  such  vigorous  progress  the  year  1859 
came  round  with  its  fateful  Franco-Italian  war.  The  French  alliance 
had  not  indeed,  as  it  promised,  made  Italy  free  to  the  Adriatic,  but  by 
the  peace  of  Villafranca  the  Avhole  of  Lombardy  was  given  to  the 
kingdom  of  Sardinia  as  a  present  from  the  emperor  of  the  French. 
In  the  same  year  by  popular  vote  Tuscany,  including  Modena  and 
Parma,  and  in  the  following  year  the  kingdom  of  the  two  Sicilies,  as 
well  as  the  three  provinces  of  the  States  of  the  Church,  revolted  and 
were  annexed,  so  that  the  new  kingdom  of  Italy  embraced  the  whole  of 
the  peninsula,  with  the  exception  of  Venice,  Home  and  the  Campagna. 
Prussia's  remarkable  successes  in  the  seven  days'  German  war  of  186G 
shook  Venice  like  ripe  fruit  into  the  lap  of  her  Italian  ally,  and  the 
day  of  Sedan,  1870,  prepared  the  way  for  the  addition  of  Rome  and  the 
Campagna  (§  185,  3). — In  Lombardy  and  then  also  in  Venice,  imme- 
diately after  they  had  been  taken  possession  of,  the  concordat  with 
Austria  was  abrogated  and  the  Jesuits  ex2)elled.     Ecclesiastical  tithes 


§  204.   ITALY.  391 

on  the  produce  of  the  soil  were  'abolished  throughout  the  whole  king- 
dom, begging  was  forbidden  the  mendicant  friars  as  unworthj'  of  a 
spiritual  order,  ecclesiastical  property  was  put  under  state  control 
and  the  support  of  the  clergy  provided  for  by  state  grants.     In  1867 
the  government  began  the  appropriation  and  conversion  of  the  church 
property ;  in  1870  all  religious  orders  Avere  dissolved,  Avith  exception 
for  the  time  being  of  those  in  Rome,  wherever  they  did  not  engage 
in  edxicational  and  other  useful  works.     In  May,  1873,  this  law  was 
extended  to  the  Eoman  province,  only  it  was  not  to  be  applied  to  the 
generals  of  orders  in  Rome.     Nuns  and  some  monks  were  also  allowed 
to  remain  in  their  cloisters  situated  in  unpeopled  districts.      The 
amount  of  state  pensions  paid  to  monks  and  nuns  reached  in  1882  the 
sum  of  eleven  million  lire,  at  the  rate  of  330  Lire  for  each  person.    The 
abolition  of  the  theological  faculties  in  ten  Italian  universities  in  1873, 
because  these  altogether  had  only  six  students  of  theologjr,  was  re- 
garded by  the  curia  rather  as  a  victory  than  a  defeat.     The  newly 
appointed  bishops    were   forbidden    by   the   pope   to    produce  their 
credentials  for  inspection  in  order  to  obtain  their  salaries  from  the 
government.     The  loss  of  temporalities  thus  occasioned  was  made  up 
by  Pius   IX.  out  of  Peter's  pence  flowing  in  so   abundantly  from 
abroad ;  each  bishop  receiving  500  and  each  archbishop  700  lire  in  the 
month.     Leo  XIII.,  however,  felt  obliged  in  1879,  owing  to  the  great 
decrease  in  the  Peter's  pence  contributions,  to  cancel  this  enactment 
and  to  permit  the  bishops  to  accept  the  state  allowance.     In  conse- 
quence of  the  civil  marriage  law  passed  in  1866  having  been  altogether 
ignored  by  the  clergy,  nearly  400,000  marriages  had  down  to  the  close 
of  1878  received  only  ecclesiastical  sanction,  and  the  ofispring  of  such 
parties  would  be  regarded  in  the  eye  of  the  law  as  illegitimate.     To 
obviate  this  difficulty  a  law  Avas  passed  in  May,  1879,  which  insisted  that 
in  all  cases  civil  marriage  must  precede  the  ecclesiastical  ceremony, 
and  clergymen,  witnesses  and  parties  engaging  in  an  illegal  marriage 
should  suffer  three  or  six  months'  imprisonment ;  but  all  marriages 
contracted  in  accordance  merely  with  church  forms  before  the  passing 
of  this  law  might  be  legitimized  by  being  entered  on  the  civil  register. 
— Finally  in  January,  1884,  the  controversy  pending  since  1873  as  to 
whether  the  rich  property  of  the  Roman  propaganda  (§  156, 9)  amount- 
ing to  twenty  million  lire  should  be  converted  into  state  consols  was 
decided  by  the  supreme  court  in  favour  of  the  curia,  which  had  pro- 
nounced these  funds  international  because  consisting  of  presents  and 
contributions  from  all  lands.     But  not  only  was  the  revenue  of  the 
propaganda  subjected  to  a  heavy  tax,  but  also  all  increase  of  its  pro- 
perty forbidden.     In  vain  did  the  pope  by  his  nuncios  call  for  the 
intervention  of   foreign   nations.      None  of    these   were   inclined   to 
meddle  in  the  internal  affairs  of  Italy.     The  curia  now  devised  the 


W-2      CHURCH   HISTORY   OF   NINETEENTH   CENTURY. 

plan  of  affiliating  a  number  of  societies  outside  of  Italy  to  tlie  propa- 
ganda for  receiving  and  administering  donations  and  presents. 

3.  The  Evangelization  of  Italy. — Emigrant  Protestants  of  various 
nationalities  had  at  an  early  date,  by  the  silent  sufferance  of  the  re- 
spective governments,  formed  small  evangelical  congregations  in  some 
of  the  Italian  cities ;  in  Venice  and  Leghorn  during  the  seventeenth 
century,  at  Bergamo  in  1807,  at  Florence  in  1826,  at  Milan  in  1847. 
Also  by  aid  of  the  diplomatic  intervention  of  Prussia  and  England, 
the  erection  of  Protestant  chapels  for  the  embassy  was  allowed  at 
Eome  in  1819,  at  Naples  in  1825,  and  at  Florence  in  1826.  When  in 
1848  Italy's  hopes  from  the  liberal  tendencies  of  Pivis  IX.  were  so 
bitterly  disappointed,  Protestant  sympathies  began  to  spread  far  and 
wide  through  the  land,  even  among  native  Catholics,  fostered  by 
English  missionaries,  Bibles  and  tracts,  which  the  governments  sought 
in  vain  to  check  by  prisons,  penitentiaries  and  exile.  Persecution 
began  in  1851  in  Tuscan^',  where,  in  spite  of  the  liberty  of  faith  and 
worship  gaaranteed  by  the  constitution  of  1848,  Tuscan  subjects  taking 
part  in  the  Italian  services  in  the  chapel  of  the  Prussian  embassy  at 
Florence  were  punished  with  six  months'  hard  labour,  and  in  the 
following  year  the  pious  pair  Francesco  and  Eosa  Madiai  were  sen- 
tenced to  four  years'  rigorous  punishment  in  a  penitentiary  for  the 
ci'ime  of  having  edified  themselves  and  their  household  by  reading 
the  Bible.  In  vain  did  the  Evangelical  Alliance  I'emonstrate  (§  178, 
3),  in  vain  did  even  the  king  of  Prussia  intercede.  But  when,  stirred 
up  by  public  opinion  in  England,  the  English  premier  Lord  Pal- 
merston  offered  to  secure  the  requirement  of  Christian  humanity  by 
means  of  British  ships  of  war,  the  grand -duke  got  rid  of  both  martyrs 
by  banishing  them  from  the  country  in  1853.  In  proportion  as  the 
union  of  Italy  under  Victor  Emanuel  II.  advanced,  the  field  for 
evangelistic  effort  and  the  powers  devoted  thereto  increased.  So  it  was 
too  since  1860  in  Southern  Italy.  But  when  in  1866  a  Protestant  con- 
gregation began  to  be  formed  at  Barletta  in  Naples,  a  fanatical  priest 
roused  a  popular  mob  in  Avhich  seventeen  persons  were  killed  and  torn 
in  pieces.  The  government  put  down  the  uproar  and  punished  the 
miscreants,  and  the  nobler  portion  of  the  nation  throughout  the  whole 
land  collected  for  the  families  of  those  murdered.  The  work  of  evan- 
gelization supported  by  liberal  contributions  chiefly  from  England, 
but  also  from  Holland,  Switzerland,  and  the  German  Gudav- Adolf - 
Verein  (§  178,  1),  advanced  steadily  in  spite  of  occasional  brutal  inter- 
ferences of  the  clergy  and  the  mob,  so  that  soon  in  all  the  large  cities 
and  in  many  of  the  smaller  towns  of  Italy  and  Sicily  there  were 
thriving  and  flourishing  little  evangelical  congregations  of  converted 
native  Catholics,  numbering  as  many  as  182  in  1882. 

4.  The  chief  factor  in  the  evangelization  of  Italy  as   far  as  the 


§  204.  ITALY.  893 

southern  coast  of  Sicily  was  tlie  old  Waldensian  Church,  wliicli  for  three 
hundred  years  had  occupied  the  Protestant  platform  in  the  spirit  of 
Calvinism  (§  139,  25).  Remnants  consisting  of  some  200,000  souls 
still  survived  in  the  valleys  of  Piedmont,  almost  without  protection 
of  laAv  amid  constant  persecution  and  oppressions  (§  153,  5),  moderated 
only  by  Prussian  and  English  intervention.  But  when  Sardinia 
headed  Italian  liberalism  in  1848  religious  liberty  and  all  civil  rights 
were  secured  to  them.  A  "Waldensian  congregation  was  then  formed 
in  the  capital,  Turin,  which  was  strengthened  by  numerous  Pi'otestant 
refugees  from  other  parts  of  Italy.  But  in  1854  a  split  occurred 
between  the  two  elements  in  it.  The  new  Italian  converts  objected, 
not  altogether  without  ground,  against  the  old  Waldensians  that  by 
maintaining  their  church  government  with  its  centre  in  the  valleys, 
the  so-called  "  Tables  "  and  their  old  forms  of  constitution,  doctrine  and 
Avorship,  much  too  contracted  and  narrow  for  the  enlarged  boundaries 
of  the  present,  they  thought  more  of  Waldensianizing  than  of  evan- 
gelizing Italy.  Besides,  their  language  since  1630,  when  a  plague 
caused  their  preachers  and  teachers  to  withdraw  from  Geneva,  had  been 
French,  and  the  national  Italian  pride  was  disposed  on  this  domain 
also  to  unfurl  her  favourite  banner  '■'•  Italia  fara  da  .se."  The  division 
spread  from  Turin  to  the  other  congregations.  At  the  head  of  the 
separatists,  afterwards  designated  the  "  Free  Italian  Church  "  (Chicsa 
libera),  stood  Dr.  Luigi  Desanctis,  a  man  of  rich  theological  cvilture 
and  glowing  eloquence,  who,  when  Catholic  priest  and  theologian  of 
the  inquisition  at  Rome,  became  convinced  of  the  truth  of  the  evan- 
gelical confession,  joined  the  evangelical  church  at  Malta  in  1847  and 
wrought  from  1852  ^vitli  great  success  in  the  congregation  at  Turin. 
After  ten  years'  faithful  service  in  the  newly  formed  free  church  he 
felt  obliged,  owing  to  the  Darbyite  views  (§  211,  11)  that  began  to 
prevail  in  it,  to  attach  himself  again  in  1864  to  the  Waldensians,  who 
meanwhile  had  been  greatly  liberalised.  He  now  officiated  for  them 
till  his  death  in  1869  as  professor  of  theology  at  Florence,  and  edited 
their  journal  Eco  della  ceritd.  Tliis  journal  was  succeeded  in  1873  by 
the  able  monthly  Rivisfa  Cridiana,  edited  at  Florence  by  Prof.  Emilio 
Comba. — After  Desanctis  left  the  Chieaa  libera  its  chief  representative 
was  the  ex-Barnabite  father  Alessandro  Gavazzi  of  Naples.  Endowed 
with  glowing  eloquence  and  remarkable  poj^ularitA"  as  a  lecturer,  he 
appeared  at  Rome  in  1848  as  a  politico-religious  orator,  attached  him- 
self to  the  (evangelical  church  in  London  in  1850,  and  undertook  the 
charge  of  the  evangelical  Italian  congregation  there.  He  returned  to 
Italy  in  1860  and  accompanied  the  hero  of  Italian  liberty.  Garibaldi, 
as  his  military  chaplain,  preaching  to  the  people  everywhere  Avith  his 
leonine  voice  with  equal  enthusiasm  of  Victor  Emanviel  as  the  only 
saviour  of  Italy  and  of  Jesus  Christ  as  the  only  Saviour  of  sinners. 


394      CHURCH  HISTORY   OF   NINETEENTH   CENTURY. 

He  then  joined  the  Chiena  libera,  and,  as  he  himself  obtained  gradually 
fuller  acquaintance  with  evangelical  truth,  Avrought  zealously  in 
organizing  the  congregations  hitherto  almost  entirely  isolated  from 
one  another.  At  a  general  assembly  at  Milan  in  1870,  deputies  from 
thirty-two  congregations  drew  up  a  simple  biblical  confession  of  faith, 
and  in  the  following  year  at  Florence  a  constitutional  code  was 
adopted  which  recognised  the  necessity  of  the  pastoral  office,  of  aimual 
assemblies,  and  a  standing  evangelization  committee.  They  now  took 
the  name  "Unione  della  Chiesa  libere  in  Italia."  The  predominantly 
Darbyist  congregations,  A^'hich  had  not  taken  part  in  these  consti- 
tutional assemblies,  have  since  formed  a  community  of  their  own  as 
Chiesa  Cristiana,  depending  only  on  the  immediate  leading  of  the  Holy 
Spirit,  rejecting  every  sort  of  ecclesiastical  and  official  organization, 
and  denouncing  infant  baptism  as  unevangelical. — Besides  these  thi'ee 
national  Italian  churches,  English  and  American  Methodists  and 
Baptists  carry  on  active  naissions.  On  May  1st,  1884,  the  evangelical 
denominations  at  a  general  assembly  in  Florence,  with  the  exception 
only  of  the  Darbyist  Chiesa  Cridiana,  joined  in  a  confederation  to 
meet  annually  in  an  "  Italian  Evangelical  Congress  "  as  a  preparation 
for  ecclesiastical  union.  When,  however,  the  various  Methodist  and 
Baptist  denominations  began  to  check  the  progress  of  the  work  of 
union,  the  two  leading  bodies,  the  Waldensians  and  the  Free  Church 
party,  separated  from  them.  A  committee  chosen  from  these  two 
sketched  at  Florence  in  1885  a  basis  of  union,  according  to  which  the 
Free  Church  adopted  the  confession  and  church  oi-der  of  the  Walden- 
sians, subject  to  revision  by  the  joint  synods,  their  theological  school 
at  Home  was  to  be  amalgamated  with  the  Waldensian  school  at 
Florence,  and  the  united  church  was  to  take  the  name  of  the  "Evan- 
gelical Church  of  Italy."  But  a  Waldensian  s3aiod  in  September, 
188G,  resolved  to  hold  by  the  ancient  name  of  the  "Waldensian 
Church."  Whether  the  "Free  Church"  will  agree  to  this  demand 
is  not  yet  known. 

§  205.    Spain  and  Portugal. 

No  European  country  lias  during  the  nineteenth  century 
been  the  scene  of  so  many  revolutions,  outbreaks  and  civil 
wars,  of  changes  of  government,  ministries  and  constitu- 
tions, sometimes  of  a  clerical  absolutist,  sometimes  of  a 
democratic  radical  tendency,  and  in  none  lias  revolution 
gone  so  unsparingly  for  the  time  against  hierarchy,  clergy 
and  monasticism,  as  in  unfortunate  Spain.  Portugal  too 
passed  through  similai-  struggles,  which,  however,  did  not 


§  205.    SPAIN    AND    PORTUGAL.  395 

prove  so  dreadfully  disordering   to   the  commonwealth  as 
those  of  Spain. 

1.  Spain  under  Ferdinand  VII.  and  Maria  Christina. — Joseph  Bonaparte 
(1808-1813)  had  given  to  the  Spaniards  a  constitution  of  the  French 
pattern,  abolishing  inquisition  and  cloisters.  The  constitution  which 
the  Cortes  proclaimed  in  1812  carried  out  still  further  the  demands  of 
political  liberalism,  but  still  declared  the  apostolic  Roman  Catholic  re- 
ligion as  alone  true  to  be  the  religion  of  the  Spanish  nation  and  forbad 
the  exercise  of  any  other.  Ferdinand  VII.,  -whom  Napoleon  restored 
in  December,  1813,  hastened  to  restore  the  inquisition,  the  cloisters 
and  despotism,  especially  from  1815  under  the  direction  of  the  Jesuits 
highly  esteenred  bj^  him.  The  revolution  of  1820  indeed  obliged  him 
to  reintroduce  the  constitution  of  1812  and  to  banish  the  Jesuits ;  but 
scarcely  had  the  feudal  clerical  party  of  the  apostolic  Junta  with 
their  army  of  faith  in  the  field  and  Bourbon  French  intervention 
under  the  Duke  of  Angouleme  again  made  his  Avay  clear,  than  he 
began  to  crush  as  before  by  means  of  his  Jesuit  Camarilla  every 
liberal  movement  in  church  and  state.  But  all  the  more  successful 
was  the  reaction  of  liberalism  in  the  civil  war  which  broke  out  after 
Ferdinand's  death  under  the  regency  of  his  fourth  wife,  the  intriguing 
Maria  Christina  (1833-1837).  The  revolution  now  erected  an  in- 
quisition, but  it  was  one  directed  against  the  clergy  and  monks,  and 
celebrated  its  autos  de  fe,  but  these  Avere  in  the  form  of  si)oliation  of 
cloisters  and  massacres  of  monks.  Ecclesiastical  tithes  were  abolished, 
all  monkish  orders  suspended,  the  cloisters  closed,  ecclesiastical  goods 
declared  national  property,  and  the  papal  nuncio  sent  over  the 
frontier.  A  threatening  papal  allocution  of  1841  only  increased  the 
violence  of  the  Cortes,  and  when  Gregory  XVI.  in  1842  pronomiced 
all  decrees  of  the  government  null  and  void,  it  branded  all  intercourse 
with  Rome  as  an  offence  against  the  state. 

2.  Spain  under  Isabella  II.,  1843-1865. — Ferdinand  VII.,  overlooking 
the  right  of  his  brother  Don  Carlos,  had,  by  abolishing  the  Salic  law, 
aecui'ed  the  throne  to  Isabella,  his  own  and  Maria  Christina''s  daughter. 
After  the  Cortes  of  1843  had  declared  Isabella  of  age  in  her  thirteenth 
year,  the  Spanish  government  became  more  and  more  favourable  to 
the  restoration.  After  long  negotiations  and  vacillations  under  con- 
stantly changing  ministries  a  concordat  was  at  last  drawn  up  in  1851. 
which  returned  the  cliurches  and  cloisters  that  had  not  been  sold, 
allowed  compensation  for  what  had  been  sold,  reduced  the  number  of 
bishoprics  by  six,  put  education  and  the  censorship  of  the  press  under 
the  oversight  of  the  bishops,  and  declared  the  Catholic  religion  the 
only  one  to  be  tolerated.  But  although  in  1854  the  Holy  Virgin  was 
named  generalissima  of  the  brave  armj^  and  her  image  at  Atocha  had 


396      CHURCH   HISTORY   OF   NINETEENTH   CENTURY. 

been  decorated  by  the  queen  with  a  band  of  the  Golden  Fleece,  a 
revolution  soon  broke  out  in  the  army  which  threatened  to  deal  the 
finishing  stroke  to  ultraniontanism.  Meanwhile  it  had  not  fully  per- 
meated the  republican  party.  The  proposal  of  unrestricted  liberty  to 
all  forms  of  worship  was  sujjported  by  a  small  minority,  and  the  new 
constitution  of  1855  called  upon  the  Spanish  nation  to  maintain  and 
j^uard  the  Catholic  religion  which  "the  Sj^aniards  profess";  yet  no 
Spaniard  was  to  be  persecuted  on  account  of  his  faith,  so  long  as  he 
did  not  coiTfimit  irreligious  acts.  A  new  law  determined  the  sale  of 
all  church  and  cloister  property,  and  compensation  therefore  by 
annual  rents  according  to  the  existing  concordat.  Several  bishops 
had  to  be  banished  owing  to  their  continued  opposition ;  the  pope 
l^rotested  and  recalled  his  legates.  Clerical  influence  meanwhile  re- 
gained power  over  the  queen.  The  sale  of  church  and  cloister  property 
was  stopped,  and  previous  possessors  were  indemnified  for  what  had 
been  already  sold.  Owing  to  frequent  change  of  ministry,  each  of 
which  manifested  a  tendency  different  from  its  predecessor,  it  was 
only  in  1859  that  matters  were  settled  by  a  new  concordat.  In  it  the 
government  admitted  the  inalienability  of  church  property,  admitted 
the  unrestricted  right  of  the  church  to  obtain  new  property  of  any 
kind,  and  declared  itself  ready  to  exchange  state  paper  money  for 
projierty  that  had  fallen  into  decay  according  to  the  estimation  of  the 
bishops.  The  queen  proved  her  Catholic  zeal  at  the  instigation  of  the 
nun  Patrocinio  by  fanatical  persecution  of  Protestants,  and  hearty 
but  vain  sj-mpathies  for  the  sufferings  of  the  pope  and  the  expatriated 
Italian  princes.  Pius  IX.  rewarded  Isabella,  who  seemed  to  him 
adorned  with  all  the  virtues,  by  sending  her  in  1868  the  consecrated 
rose  at  a  time  when  she  was  causing  public  scandal  mor-e  than  ever 
by  her  private  life,  and  by  her  proceedings  with  her  paramour 
Marforio  had  lost  the  last  remnant  of  the  respect  and  confidence  of 
the  Spanish  nation.  Eight  months  later  her  reign  was  at  an  end. 
The  provisional  government  now  ordered  the  suppression  of  the  Society 
of  Jesus,  as  Avell  as  of  all  cloister  and  spiritual  associations,  and  in 
18(i9  the  Cortes  sanctioned  the  draught  of  a  new  civil  constitution, 
which  required  the  Spanish  nation  to  maintain  the  Catholic  worshiji, 
but  allowed  the  exercise  of  other  forms  of  worship  to  strangers  and 
as  cases  might  arise  even  to  natives,  and  generally  made  all  political 
and  civil  rights  independent  of  religious  profession. 

3.  Spain  under  Alphonso  XII.,  1875-1885.— When  Isabella's  son  re- 
turned to  Spain  in  .Januar}',  1875,  in  his  seventeenth  year,  he  obtained 
tlif!  blessing  of  his  sponsor  the  pope  on  his  ascending  the  throne, 
promised  to  the  Catholic  church  powerful  support,  but  also  to  non- 
Catholics  the  maintenance  of  liberty  of  worship.  How  he  meant  to 
perform  both  is  shown  by  a  decree  of  10th  February,  1875,  which, 


§  205.    SPAIN   AND   PORTUGAL.  397 

abolishing  the  civil  marriage  law  passed  by  the  Cortes  in  1870,  gave 
back  to  the  Catholic  chvuxh  the  administration  of  marriage  and 
matters  connected  therewith  ;  for  all  persons  living  in  Spain,  howevei-, 
"  who  professed  another  than  the  true  faith,"  as  well  as  for  "  the  bad 
Catholics,"  to  whom  ecclesiastical  marriage  on  account  of  church 
censures  is  refused,  liberty  was  given  to  contract  a  civil  marriage ; 
but  this  did  not  apply  to  apostate  priests,  monks,  and  nuns,  to  whom 
any  sort  of  marriage  is  for  ever  refused,  and  whose  previouslj' 
contracted  marriages  are  invalid,  without,  however,  affecting  the 
legitimacy  of  children  already  born  of  such  connections. — Against 
the  draught  of  the  new  constitution,  whose  eleventh  article  indeed 
affords  toleration  to  all  dissenting  fonns  of  worship,  but  prohibits 
an}'  public  nianifestation  thereof  outside  of  their  place  of  worship 
and  burial  grounds,  Pius  IX.  protested  as  infringing  upon  the  still 
existing  concordat  in  its  "  noblest "  part,  and  aiming  a  serious  blow 
at  the  Catholic  church.     The  Cortes,  however,  sanctioned  it  in  1876. 

4.  The  Evangelization  of  Spain. — A  number  of  Bibles  and  tracts, 
as  well  as  a  religious  paper  in  Spanish  called  el  Alio,  found  entrance 
into  Spain  from  the  English  settlement  at  Gibraltar,  without  Spain 
beiiig  able  even  in  the  most  flourishing  days  of  the  restoration  to 
prevent  it,  and  evangelical  sjonpathies  began  more  or  less  openly 
to  be  expressed.  Franc.  Ruat,  formerly  a  lascivious  Spanish  poet, 
who  was  awakened  at  Turin  by  the  preaching  of  the  Waldensian 
Desanctis,  and  by  reading  the  Bible  had  obtained  knowledge  of 
evangelical  truths,  appeared  publicly  after  the  publication  of  the 
new  constitution  of  1855  as  a  preacher  of  the  gospel  in  Spain.  The 
reaction  that  soon  set  in.  however,  secured  for  him  repeated  imprison- 
ments, and  finalh"  in  1856  sentence  of  banislunent  for  life.  He  then 
■wrought  for  several  j'ears  successfully  in  Gibraltar,  next  in  London, 
afterwards  in  Algiers  among  Spanish  residents,  till  the  new  civil 
constitution  of  1868  allowed  him  to  return  to  Spain,  where,  in  the 
service  of  the  German  mission  at  Madrid,  he  gathered  around  him 
an  evangelical  congregation,  to  which  he  ministered  till  his  death  in 
1878.  While  labouring  in  Gibraltar  he  won  to  the  evangelical  faith 
among  others  the  yovmg  officer  Manuel  Matamoros,  living  there  as  a 
])olitical  refugee.  This  noble  man,  whose  whole  career,  till  his  death 
in  exile  in  1866,  was  a  sore  martyrdom  for  the  truth,  became  the  soul 
of  the  whole  movement,  against  which  the  government  in  1861  and 
1S62  took  the  severest  measures.  By  intercepted  correspondence  the 
leaders  and  many  of  the  members  of  the  secret  evangelical  propa- 
ganda were  discovered  and  tlu'own  into  prison.  The  final  judgment 
condemned  the  leaders  of  the  movement  to  severe  punishment  in  peni- 
tentiaries and  the  galleys.  Infliction  of  these  sentences  had  already 
begun  when  the  queen  found  herself  obliged,  by  a  visit  to  Madrid  in 


398      CHURCH   HISTORY   OF   NINETEENTH   CENTURY. 

1868  of  a  deputation  of  the  Evangelical  Alliance  (§  178,  3),  consisting 
of  the  most  distinguished  and  respected  Protestants  of  all  lands,  to 
commute  them  to  banishment. — After  Isabella's  overthrow  in  1868, 
jjermission  was  given  for  the  building  of  the  first  Protestant  church 
in  Madrid,  where  a  congregation  soon  gathered  of  more  than  2,000 
souls.     In  Seville  an  almost  equally  strong  congregation  obtained  for 
its  services  what  had  been  a  church  of  the  Jesuits.     Also  at  Cordova 
a  considerable   congi-egation  was   collected,   and   in  almost  all   the 
other   large   cities   there  were  largely  attended  places  of   worship. 
Several  of  those  banished  under  Isabella,  who  had  returned  after  her 
overthrow,  Carrasco,  Trigo,  Alhama,  and  others,  increased  by  new 
converts   who   had  received   their   theological  training   at  Geneva, 
Lausanne,  etc.,  and  supported  by  American,   English  and  German 
fellow-labourers,  such  as  the  brothers  F.  and  H.  Fliedner,  wrought 
with  unwearied  zeal  as  preachers  and  pastors,  for  the  spreading  and 
deeper  grounding  of  the  gospel  among  their  countrymen.     "With  the 
restoration  of  tlie  monarchy  in  1875,  the  opj^ression  of  the  Protestants 
was  renewed  with  increasing  severity.     The  widest  possible  inter- 
pretation was  given  to  the  prohibition  of  every  public  manifestation 
of  dissenting  worship  in  Article  XI.  of  the  constitution.    The  excesses 
and   insults  of   the  mob,  whose  fanaticism  was   stirred   up  by  the 
clergy,  were  left  unpunished  and  uncensured.     Even  the  most  sorely 
abused  and  injured   Protestants  were  themselves  subjected   to   im- 
prisonment as  disturbers  of  the  peace.     No  essential  improvement 
in  their  condition  resulted  from  the  liberal  ministry  of  Sagasta  in 
1881.      Nevertheless  the  number  of   evangelical  congregations  con- 
tinued steadily  though  slowly  to  increase,  so  that  now  they  numbei- 
more  than  sixty,  with  somewhere   about   15,000   native   Protestant 
members. — Besides  these  an  Igleala  EspaTiola  arose  in  1881,  consisting 
of  eight  congregations,  which  may  be  regarded  to  some  extent  as  a 
national  Spanish  counterpart  to  the  Old  Catholicism  of  Germany. 
Its  founder  and  first  bishop)  is  Cabrera,  formerly  a  Catholic  priest, 
who,  after  having  wrought  from  1868  in  the  service  of  the  Edinburgh 
(Presbyterian)  Evangelization   Society  as   preacher  in  Seville,   and 
then  in  Madrid,  received  in  1880  episco^jal  consecration  from  the 
Anglican  bisliop  Eiley  of  Mexico  (§  209,  1),  then  visiting  Madrid. 
Althougli  tlius  of   Anglican   origin,    the   church   directed   by   him 
wishes  not  to  be  Anglican,  but  Spanish  episcopal.     It  attaches  itself 
therefore,  while  accepting  the  thirty-nine  Articles  of  the  Anglican 
Church,  in  the  sketch  of  its  order  of  service  in  the  Spanish  language, 
more  to  the   old   Mozarabic  ritual  (§  88,   1)  than  to  the  Anglican 
liturgy.  1 

1  Borrow,  "  The  Bible  in  Spain."    2  vols.    London,  1843. 


§  205.    SPAIN   AND   POETUGAL.  399 

5.  The  Church  in  Portugal. — Portugal  after  some  months  followed 
the  example  of  the  Spanish  revolution  of  1820.  John  VI.  (181G-1826) 
confirmed  the  new  constitution,  drawn  up  after  the  pattern  of  the 
democratic  Spanish  constitution  of  1812,  enacting  the  seizure  of 
church  property  and  the  suppression  of  the  monasteries.  But  a 
counter  revolution,  led  by  the  younger  son  of  the  king,  Dom  Miguel, 
obliged  him  in  1823  to  repudiate  it  and  to  return  to  the  older  con- 
stitution. But  he  persistently  resisted  the  reintroduction  of  the 
Jesuits.  After  his  death  in  1826,  the  legitimate  heir,  Pedro  I.  of 
Brazil,  abandoned  his  claims  to  the  Portuguese  throne  in  favour 
of  his  daughter  Donna  Maria  II.  da  Gloria,  then  under  a  year  old, 
whom  he  betrothed  to  his  brother  Dom  Miguel.  Appointed  regent, 
Dom  Miguel  took  the  oath  to  the  constitution,  but  immediately  broke 
his  oath,  had  himself  proclaimed  king,  recalled  the  Jesuits,  and, 
till  his  overthrow  in  1834,  carried  on  a  clerical  monarchical  reign 
of  terror.  Dom  Pedro,  who  had  meanwhile  vacated  the  Brazilian 
throne,  as  regent  again  suppressed  all  monkish  orders,  seized  the 
]pioperty  of  the  chui-ch,  and  abolished  ecclesiastical  tithes,  but  died 
in  the  same  year.  His  daughter  Donna  Maria,  now  pronounced  of 
age  and  proclaimed  queen  (1834-1853),  amid  continual  revolutions 
and  changes  of  the  constitution,  manifested  an  ever-groAving  inclin- 
ation to  reconciliation  Avith  Rome.  In  1841  she  negotiated  about 
a  concordat,  and  showed  herself  so  submissive  that  the  pope  rewarded 
her  in  1842  Avith  the  consecrated  golden  rose.  But  the  liberal  Cortes 
resisted  the  introduction  of  the  concordat,  and  maintained  the  right 
of  veto  by  the  civil  government  as  Avell  as  the  rest  of  the  restrictions 
upon  the  hierarchy,  and  the  Codigo  penal  of  1882  threatened  the 
Catholic  clergy  Avith  heavy  fines  and  imprisonment  for  CA'ery  abuse 
of  their  spiritual  perogatives  and  e\'ery  breach  of  the  laAvs  of  the 
State.  In  1857  a  concordat  was  at  last  agreed  to,  Avhich,  hoAveA'er, 
Avas  adopted  by  the  representatives  of  the  people  not  before  1859,  and 
then  only  by  a  small  majority.  Its  chief  jjrovisions  consist  in  the 
regulating  of  the  patronage  rights  of  the  crown  in  regard  to  existing 
and  neAvly  created  bishoprics.  The  relation  of  government  to  the 
curia,  however,  still  continued  strained.  The  constitution  declares 
generally  that  the  Catholic  Apostolic  Eomish  Church  is  the  state 
religion.  A  Portuguese  Avho  passes  over  from  it  to  another  loses 
tliereby  his  civil  rights  as  a  citizen.  Yet  no  one  is  to  be  persecuted 
on  account  of  his  religion.  The  erection  of  Protestant  places  of 
worship,  but  not  in  church  form,  and  also  of  burial  grounds,  Avhere 
necessary,  is  permitted. — Evangelization  has  made  but  little  progress 
in  Portugal.  The  first  evangelical  congregation,  with  Anglican 
episcopal  constitution,  Avas  founded  at  Lisbon  by  a  Spanish  convert, 
Don  Angelo  Herrero  de  Mora,  Avho  in  the  service  of  the  Bible  Society 


400      CHURCH   HISTORY   OF   NINETEENTH   CENTURY. 

liad  oditecl  a  revision  of  the  old  Spanish  Bible  in  New  Y'orlc,  iind  had 
there  been  naturalized  as  an  American  citizen.  Consisting:  originally 
of  American  and  English  Protestants,  about  a  hundred  Spanish  and 
Portuguese  converts  have  since  1868  gradually  attached  themselves 
to  it,  the  latter  after  they  had  been  made  Spanish  instead  of  Portii- 
guese  subjects.  After  the  pattern  of  this  mother  congregation,  two 
others  have  been  formed  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Lisbon  and  one 
at  Oporto. 

§  20G.    Russia. 

The  Russian  government  since  the  time  of  Alexander  I. 
has  sought  amid  man}^  difficulties  to  advance  the  education 
and  enlightenment  of  the  people,  and  to  elevate  the  orthodox- 
church  Ly  securing  a  more  highly  cultured  clergy,  and  to 
increase  its  influence  upon  the  life  of  the  people  ;  a  task 
which  proved  peculiarly  difficult  in  consequence  of  the 
wide-spread  anti-ecclesiastical  spirit  (§  210,  3)  and  the  in- 
comparably more  dangerous  antichristian  Nihilism  (§  212, 
G). — The  Catholic  church,  mainly  represented  in  what  had 
before  been  the  kingdom  of  Poland,  had,  in  consequence  of 
the  repeated  revolutionary  agitation  of  the  Poles,  in  which 
the  clergy  had  zealously  taken  part  by  stirring  up  fanaticism 
among  the  people  and  converting  their  religion  and  worship 
into  a  vehicle  of  rebellion,  so  compromised  itself  that  the 
government,  besides  taking  away  the  national  political 
privileges,  reduced  more  and  more  the  rights  and  liberties 
granted  to  the  church  as  such. — The  prosjierous  develop- 
ment of  the  evangelical  church  in  Russia,  which,  through 
the  absolutely  faultless  loyalty  of  its  membei-s,  had  hitherto 
enjoyed  the  hearty  protection  of  the  government,  in  1845 
and  184G,  and  afterwards  in  1883,  in  consequence  of 
numerous  conversions  among  Esthonian  and  Tjivonian  i)ea- 
sants,  was  checked  by  incessant  persecutions. 

1.  The  Ortliodox  National  Church.— The  evangelical  influences  intro- 
duced from  tlic  AVi'st  (hiring  the  jirevious  century,  es]jecially  among 
the  higher  clergy,  found  further  encouragement  under  Alexander  I., 


§  206.  RUSSIA.  401 

A.D.  1801-1825.  Himself  aft'ected  by  the  ^evdiigelical  pietism  of 
Madame  Kriidener  (§  176,  2),  he  aimed  at  the  elevation  of  the 
orthodox  church  in  this  direction,  founded  clerical  seminaries  and 
public  schools,  and  took  a  lively  interest  in  Bible  circulation  among 
the  Russian  jDeople.  But  under  Nicholas  I.,  a.u.  1825-1855,  a  reaction 
proceeding  from  the  hol\'  synod  set  in  ^\■hich  unweariedly  sought  to 
seal  the  orthodox  church  hermetically  against  all  evangelical  influ- 
ences. Also  during  the  reign  of  Alexander  II.,  a.d.  1855-1881,  a  reign 
singularly  fruitful  in  civil  reforms,  this  tendency  was  even  more 
rigidly  illustrated,  while  with  the  consent  and  aid  of  the  holy  synod 
ever}^  effort  was  put  forth  to  improve  the  church  according  to  its 
own  principles.  Specially  active  in  this  work  was  Count  Tolstoi, 
minister  of  instruction  and  also  procurator  of  the  holj^  synod.  A 
committee  presided  over  by  him  i:)roduced  a  whole  series  of  useful 
reforms  in  1868,  which  were  approved  by  the  sj-nod  and  confirmed 
by  the  emperor.  While  the  inferior  clergy  had  liitherto  formed  an 
order  by  themselves,  all  higher  ranks  of  preferment  were  now  opened 
to  them,  but,  on  the  other  hand,  the  obligation  of  priests'  sons  to 
remain  in  the  order  of  their  fathers  was  abolished.  The  clamant 
abuse  of  putting  mere  clerks  and  sextons  to  do  the  work  of  priests 
was  also  now  jDut  a  stop  to,  and  training  in  clerical  seminaries  or 
academies  was  made  compulsory'.  Previoush*  only  married  mon 
could  hold  the  offices  of  deacon  and  priest ;  now  widowers  and 
bachelors  were  admitted,  so  soon  as  they  reached  the  age  of  forty 
years.  In  order  to  increase  the  poor  incomes  many  churches  had 
not  their  regular  equipment  of  clerg}',  and  instead  of  the  full  set 
of  priest,  deacon,  sub-deacon,  reader,  sexton,  and  doorkeeper,  in  the 
poorer  churches  there  were  only  priest  and  reader.  Order  was 
restored  to  monastic  life,  now  generally  grown  dissolute,  by  a  fixed 
rule  of  a  common  table  and  uniform  dress,  etc.  In  1860  an  Orthodox 
Church  Society  for  Missions  among  the  jjeoples  of  the  Caucasus, 
and  in  1866  a  second  for  Pagans  and  Mohammedans  throughout  the 
piiipire,  were  founded,  both  under  the  patronage  of  the  empress. 
The  Russian  church  also  cleverly  took  advantage  of  political  events 
to  carry  on  missionary  work  in  Japan  (§  18-1,  6).  A  society  of  the 
"  Friends  of  Intellectual  Enlightenment,"  founded  in  St.  Petersburg 
in  1872,  aimed  chiefly  at  the  religious  improvement  of  the  cultured 
classes  in  the  spirit  of  the  orthodox  church  by  means  of  tracts  and 
addresses,  while  agreeing  with  foi'eign  confessions  as  to  the  nature 
and  characteristics  of  the  true  church.  Under  Alexander  III.,  since 
A.D.  1881,  the  emperor's  former  tutor  Pobedownoszew,  A\-ith  the  con- 
viction of  the  incomparable  superiority  of  his  church,  and  believing 
that  by  it  and  only  by  it  could  the  dangerous  commotions  of  the 
present  be  overcome  (§  212,  (i)  and  Russia  regenerated,  as  procurator 
VOL.   111.  26 


402      CHURCH   HISTORY   OF   NINETEENTH   CENTURY. 

of  the  liolj-  synod  has  zealously  ^vrought  in  this  cliri»etion. — But 
meanwhile  a  new  impulse  was  given  to  the  evangelical  movement  iu 
aristocratic  circles  by  Lord  Radstock,  who  appeared  in  St.  Petersburg 
in  1870.  The  addresses  delivered  bj''  him  in  French  in  the  salons  of 
the  fashionable  Avorld  won  a  success  scarcely  to  be  looked  for.  The 
most  famous  gain  was  the  conversion  of  a  hitherto  proud,  worldly, 
rich  and  popular  Colonel  of  the  Guards,  called  Paschcow,  who  now 
turned  the  beautiful  ball-room  of  his  palatial  residence  into  a  prayer- 
meeting  room,  and  Avith  all  the  enthusiasm  of  a  neophyte  proclaimed 
successfully  among  high  and  low  the  newly  won  saving  truth  in  a 
Biblical  evangelical  spirit,  though  not  without  a  methodistic  flavour. 
The  excitement  thus  created  led  to  jjolice  interference,  and  finally, 
Avhen  he  refused  to  abstain  from  spreading  his  religious  views 
among  the  members  of  the  orthodox  church  by  the  circulation  of 
evangelical  tracts  in  the  Russian  language,  he  was,  at  the  insti- 
gation of  the  holy  synod  and  its  all  powerful  procurator,  banished 
first  from  St.  Petersburg  and  then  in  1884  from  the  empire,  where- 
upon he  Avithdrew  to  London. 

2.  The  Catholic  Church. — After  the  Greeks  in  the  old  West  Eussian 
provinces  (§  151,  8),  who  had  been  forcibly  united  to  Rome  in  159(j, 
had  again  in  1772,  in  consequence  of  the  first  partition  of  Poland, 
come  iinder  Russian  rule,  the  government  sought  to  restore  them 
also  to  the  orthodox  national  church.  This  was  first  accomi^lished 
under  Nicholas  I.,  when  at  the  synod  of  Polosk  in  1839  they  them- 
selves spontaneously  expressed  a  wish  to  be  thus  reunited  with  the 
mother  church.  Rome  thus  lost  two  million  members.  But  the 
allocution  directed  against  this  robbery  by  Gregory  XVI.  A\'as  with- 
out effect,  and  the  public  oi^inion  of  Europe  saw  a  case  of  historical 
justice  in  this  reunion,  though  effected  not  without  severe  measures 
against  those  who  proved  obstinate  and  rebellious.  Yet  there  always 
remained  a  considerable  remnant,  about  one-third  of  a  million,  under 
the  bishop  of  Chelun,  in  the  Romish  communion.  But  even  these  in 
1875,  after  many  disturbances  with  the  prelate  Pojiiel  at  their  head 
almost  wholly  severed  their  connection  with  the  pope,  and  were 
again  received  into  the  bosom  of  the  orthodox  national  church.  In 
a  memorial  addressed  to  the  emperor  for  this  puri)ose,  they  declared 
they  were  led  to  this  on  the  one  hand  by  the  continual  endeavour  of 
tlie  curia  and  its  partisans,  by  Latinizing  their  old  Greek  liturgy  and 
I'olandi/.ing  the  people,  to  overthrow  their  old  Russian  nationality, 
and  on  the  othcir  hand,  by  their  aversion  to  the  new  papal  dogmas  of 
the  immaculate  conception  of  Mary  and  the  infallibility  of  the  pojDe. 
—The  insurrection  of  the  Poles  against  Russian  rule  in  1830,  which 
even  Pope  Gregory  XVL  condemned,  bore  bitter  fruits  for  the  Catholic 
church  of  that  country.    The  organic  statute  of  1832  indeed  secured 


§  206.  RUSSIA.  403 

anew  to  the  Polt's  religions  liberty,  but  the  bishops  -w'ere  prohibited 
holding  any  direct  comniunieation  with  Rome,  the  clergy  deprived  of 
all  control  over  the  schools,  and  the  Russian  law  regarding  mixed 
marriages  made  applicable  to  that  province.    By  an  undei'standing 
-with  the  curia  in  1847  the  choice  of  the  bishops  was  given  to  the 
emperor,  their  canonical  investiture  to  the  pope.     The  mildness  with 
A\hich  Alexander  II.  treated  the  Poles  and  the  political  tx'oubles  in 
the  rest  of  Europe  fostered  the  hoije  of  restoring  the  old  kingdom 
of  Poland.     Reckless  demonstrations  were  made  in  the  beginning  of 
18B1,   pilgrimages   to   the  graves   of   the   martyrs  of   freedom  Avere 
organized,  political  memorial  festivals  were  celebrated  in  chiu'ches, 
a  general  national  mourning  Avas  enjoined,  mourning  services  Avere 
held,  revolutionary  songs  Avere  sung  in  churches,  etc.     Tlie  Catholic 
clergy  headed  the  movement  and  canonized  it  as  a  religious  duty. 
In  vain  the  gOA'emment  sought  to  put  it  doAATi  by  making  liberal 
concessions,  in  vain  they  applied  to  Pius  IX.  to  discountenance  it. 
"When  in  October  the  countrj-  lay  in  a  state  of  siege,  and  the  military 
forced  their  Avay  into  the  churches  to  apprehend  the  ringleaders  of 
rebellion,  the  episcopal  administrator,  Bialobezeski,  denounced  that 
as  church  profanation,  had  all  the  Catholic  churches  in  Warsaw  closed, 
and  ansAvered  the  goA'ernment''s  request  to  reopen  them  by  making 
cxtraA'agant  demands   and  uttering  proud  Avords  of  defiance.     The 
military  tribunal  sentenced  him  to  death,  but  the  emperor  commuted 
this  to  one  year's  detention  in  a  fortress,  Avitli  loss  of  all  his  dignities 
and  orders.     MeauAvhile  the  eyes  of  the  pope  had  at  length  been 
opened.     He  uoav  confirmed  the  government's  appointment  of  Arch- 
bishop Felinsk}',  Avho  entered  WarsaAV  in  February,  1862,  and  reopened 
the  churches.     After  the  suppression  of  the  rcA'olt  in  1864,  almost  all 
cloisters,  as  nurseries  of  reA'olution.  Avere  abolished  ;  in  the  foUoAving 
year  the  Avhole  pi'operty  of  the  church  Avas  taken  in  charge  by  the 
State,  and  the  clergy  supported  by  state  pay.     The  pope,  enraged  at 
this,  gave  violent  expression  to  his  feelings  to  the  Russian  ambassador 
at  Rome  during  the  NeAV  Year  festivities  of  1866,  Avhereupon  the 
government  completely  broke  off  all  i-elations  Avith  the  curia.     Con- 
S'ljuentlj'  in  1867  all  the  affairs  of  the  Catholic  church  were  com- 
mitted to  the  clerical  college  at  St.  Petersburg,  and  intercourse  be- 
tween the  clergy  and  the  pope  prohibited.    Hence  arose  many  conflicts 
with  Catholic  bishops,  Avhose  obstinacy  Avas  punished  by  their  being 
Juterned  in  their  dioceses.     In  1869  the  Russian  calendar  Avas  intro- 
duced, and  Russian  made  the  compulsory  language  of  instruction. 
But  in  1870  greater  opposition  Avas  offered  to  the  introduction  of 
Russian  in  the  public  services  by  means  of  translations  of  the  common 
Polish  praj^er  and  i^salm-books,    Pietrowitsch,  dean  of  Wilna,  read 
fl'om  the  pulpit  the  ukase  referring  to  this  matt  -r.  but  then  cas"  it 


404      CHURCH   HISTORY   OF   NINETEENTH   CENTURY. 

togetlipi-  with  the  fiiissiivu  transhvtions  iutu  the  flames,  with  violent 
denunciations  of  the  government,  and  gave  information  against  him- 
self to  the  governor -general.  He  Avas  agreeably  to  his  o-wn  desire 
imprisoned,  and  then  transported  to  Archangel.  The  same  sentence 
•was  pronounced  against  several  other  obstinate  pi-elates  and  clergy, 
among  them  Archbishop  Felinsky,  and  thus  further  opposition  was 
stami)ed  out. — Leo  XIII.  soon  after  entering  on  his  pontificate  in 
1878  took  the  first  step  toward  reconciliation.  His  efforts  reached 
a  successful  issue  first  in  February,  1883.  The  dejiosed  prelates  w(>ro 
restored  from  their  places  of  banishment,  Avith  promise  of  a  liberal 
pension,  and  were  allowed  to  choose  their  residences  as  they  pleased, 
only  not  within  their  former  dioceses.  In  their  stead  the  pope  con- 
secrated ten  new  bishops  nominated  by  the  emperor,  who  amid  the 
.jubilation  of  the  people  entei-ed  their  episcopal  residences.  With 
i-eference  to  the  Roman  Catholic  seminaries  and  clerical  academies 
at  Warsaw,  the  curia  granted  to  the  government  the  right  of  control 
over  instruction  in  the  Russian  language,  literature  and  history,  but 
committed  instruction  in  canonical  matters  solely  to  the  bishops, 
\vho,  after  obtaining  the  approval  of  the  government,  appointed  the 
rector  and  inspector  and  canonical  teachers.  Vacant  pastorates  were 
tilled  by  the  bishops,  and  only  in  the  case  of  the  more  important  was 
the  approval  of  the  government  required.  As  to  the  language  to  be 
used,  it  was  resolved  that  only  where  the  people  speak  Russian  were 
the  clergy  obliged  to  employ  that  language  in  preaching  and  in 
their  pastoral  work. 

3.  The  Evangelical  Church.— The  Lutheran  church  in  Russia,  com- 
Ijrising  two  and  a  half  millions  of  Germans,  Letts,  Esthonians  and 
Finns,  is  strongest  in  Livonia,  Esthonia  and  Courland,  is  the  national 
church  in  Finland,  and  is  also  largely  represented  in  Poland,  iii  the 
chief  cities  of  Russia,  and  in  the  numerous  German  colonies  in  South 
Russia.  In  1832  it  obtained,  for  the  Baltic  provinces  and  the  scattered 
f:ongregations  in  central  Russia,  a  church  constitution  and  service 
lx)ok,  the  latter  on  the  basis  of  the  old  Swedish  service  book,  the 
former  requiring  all  religious  teachers  in  chun-h  and  school  to  accept 
the  Formula  of  Concord.  Annual  provincial  synods  have  the  initia- 
tive in  calling  in,  when  nccessaiy  for  legislative  purposes,  the  aid  of 
the  general  synod. — In  I\)land  the  Reformt'd  and  Lutheran  churches 
were  in  1828  united  imder  one  combined  consistory.  By  an  imi)erial 
ukase  of  IS-i'J,  however,  the  independent  existence  of  both  churches 
was  restored.  Protestants  enjoyed  all  civil  rights  and  had  absolute 
liVjerty  in  the  exercise  of  their  religion;  but  in  central  Russia  down  to 
recent  times,  when  a  more  liberal  s):)irit  began  to  prevail,  they  were 
prohibited  patting  bells  in  their  churches.  The  old  prohibition  of 
evangelical  preaching  aiid   the  teaching  of  religion  in  the    Russian 


§  206.  RUSSIA.  405 

tongue  also  continued ;  but  the  attemi^t  made  for  some  decades  in  St. 
Petersburg  and  the  surrounding  district  to  preach  the  gospel  to 
Germans  who  had  lost  their  mother  tongue,  in  the  JElussian  language, 
lias  been  hitherto  ungrudgingly  allowed  by  the  government.  Quit- 
ting the  national  church  or  returning  from  it  to  a  church  that  had 
been  left  before,  is  visited  by  severe  penalties,  and  children  of  mixed 
mari'iages,  Avhere  one  parent  belongs  to  the  national  orthodox  chiirch, 
are  claimed  by  law  for  that  chui'ch,  Onl}'^  Finland  counts  among  her 
privileges  the  right  of  assigning  children  of  mixed  mai'riages  to  the 
church  of  the  father.  The  Lutheran  chui-ch  in  Livonia,  with  the 
island  of  Oesel,  suffered  considerable,  and  according  to  the  law  of  the 
land  ii'reijarable,  loss  by  the  secessi'on  of  sixty  or  seventy  thousand 
Lt^tts  and  Esthonians  to  the  orthodox  church  mider  the  widespread 
delusion  that  thereby  their  economic  position  would  be  improved. 
Disillusions  and  regret  came  too  late,  and  the  ever  increasing  desire 
for  restoration  to  the  church  forsaken  in  a  moment  of  excitement 
could  only  obtam  arbitrary  and  insufiicient  satisfaction  in  Lutheran 
baptism  of  infants  seemingly  near  death,  and  in  permLssion  at  irregular 
intei-vals  and  Avithout  previous  announcement  to  sit  at  the  LoI'd's 
Table  according  to  the  Lutheran  rite.  In  1865,  not  indeed  legisla- 
tively but  administratively,  the  contracting  of  mixed  marriages  in  the 
Baltic  provinces  was  permitted  without  the  enforcement  of  the  legal 
enactment  reiiuiring  that  the  children  should  be  trained  in  the  Greek 
church.  In  Esthonia,  however,  in  1888  there  was  a  new  outbreak  of 
conversions  in  Leal,  where  five  hundred  peasants  went  over  to  the 
orthodox  chvirch,  declaring  tlieir  A\isli  to  be  of  the  same"  faith  as  the 
emperor  ayd  the  whole  of  the  Russian  people.  By  imperial  decree  in 
1885  the  suspension  of  the  law  against  >vithdrawing  again  from  the 
national  church,  which  had  existed  for  twenty  years,  was  abolished. 
At  the  instigation  of  Pobedownoszew  the  Imperial  Council  granted  an 
annual  subsidy  of  100,000  roubles  for  furthering  orthodoxy  in  the 
Baltic  provinces.  No  evangelical  church  could  be  built  in  these  pro- 
vinces without  the  approval  of  the  orthodox  bishop  of  the  diocese,  and 
any  evangelical  pastor  who  should  dissuade  a  member  of  his  church 
from  his  p\irpose  of  joining  the  orthodox  church,  was  liable  to  punish- 
ishment. — In  order  to  supply  the  want  of  churches  and  sclux)ls, 
])reachers  and  teachers  in  the  Lutheran  congregations  of  Russia,  a 
society  was  formed  in  1858  similar  to  the  Gitxtav-Adolfs-Verein,  luider 
the  supervision  of  the  General  Consistory  of  St.  Petersburg,  -which  has 
laboriously  and  zealously  endeavoured  to  improve  the  condition  of  the 
ojjpressed  church.* 

'  Lendrum,  "  Ecdesia  Fressa :  or,  the  Lutheran  Church  in  the  Baltic 
Provinces,"  in  T/ie  TlieoloijUal  lie ciew  and  Free  Churdi  CoUei/e  Quar- 


400     church  history  of  nineteenth  century. 

§  207.     Greece  and  Turkey. 

In  the  spirited  struggle  for  liberty  Cireece  freed  herself 
from  the  tyranny  of  the  Turkish  Mohammedan  rule  and 
obtained  complete  civil  independence.  But  the  same  princes 
representing  all  the  three  principal  Christian  confessions, 
who  in  1830  gave  their  sanction  to  this  emancipation  within 
lamentably  narrow  limits,  in  1840  conquered  again  the  Holy 
Land  for  the  Turks  out  of  the  hands  of  a  revolting  vassal. 
And  so  inextricable  were,  and  still  are,  the  political  interests 
of  the  Christian  States  of  Europe  with  reference  to  the  East, 
that  in  the  London  parliament  of  1854  it  could  be  afiirmed 
that  the  existence  of  Turkey  in  a  condition  of  utter  impo- 
tence was  so  necessary,  that  if  it  did  not  exist,  it  would 
require  to  be  created.  On  two  occasions  has  Russia  called 
out  her  whole  militaiy  force  to  emancipate  from  the  Turkish 
yoke  her  Slavic  brethren  of  a  common  race  and  common 
faith,  without  being  able  to  give  the  finishing  blow  to  the 
"  sick  man  "  who  had  the  protection  of  European  diplomacy. 

1.  The  Orthodox  Church  of  Greece. — Deceived  in  their  expectations 
from  the  Yienna  Con<;ress,  the  t!  reeks  tried  to  deliver  themselves  fi'om 
Turkish  tyranny.  In  1814  a  Hctairia  was  formed,  branches  of  which 
spi-ead  over  the  whole  land  and  fostered  amon^  the  people  ideas  of 
freedom.  The  war  of  independence  broke  out  in  1821.  Its  first  result 
was  a  fearful  massacre,  especially  in  Constantinople.  The  patriarch 
Gregorius  with  his  whole  synod  and  aboiit  80,000  Christians  were  in 
three  months  with  horrid  cruelty  murdered  by  the  Turks.  The 
London  Conference  of  1830  at  last  declared  Greece  an  independent 
state,  and  an  assembly  of  Greek  bishops  at  Nauplia  in  1833  freed  the 
national  church  of  Greece  from  the  authority  of  the  pati-iarch  of 
Constantinople,  who  was  under  the  control  of  Turkey.  Its  supreme 
diroiction  was  committed  to  a  permanent  Holy  Synod  at  Athens,  in- 
stituted by  the  king  but  in  all  internal  matters  absolutely  independent. 
The  king  mitst  belong  to  tlio  national  church,  but  othei-Avise  all 

terhi,  vol.  ii.  31O-.S.S0.  C.  H.  H.  Wright,  "The  Persecution  of  the 
Lutheran  Church  in  the  Baltic  Provinces  of  Russia,"  in  the  Britinh 
<(/«/  Forfitjn  EcdiKjelical  Ilcv'icic,  Januaiy,  IHST. 


§  207.    GREECE    AND    TURKEY.  407 

religions  are  on  the  same  footing.  Meanwhile  the  orthodox  church  is 
fully  represented,  the  Roman  Catholic  being  strongest,  especially  in 
the  islands.  The  University  of  Athens,  opened  in  1856  with  professors 
mostly  trained  in  G-ermany,  has  not  been  unsuccessful  in  its  task  even 
in  the  domain  of  theology. 

2.  Massacre  of  Syrian  Christians,  I860.— The  Eusso-Turkish  war 
ending  in  the  beginning  of  1856,  in  which  France  and  England,  and 
latterly  also  Sardinia  took  the  part  of  the  sick  man,  left  the  condition 
of  the  Christians  practically  unchanged.  For  though  the  Hatti 
Humayun  of  1856  granted  them  equal  civil  rights  with  the  jNIoslems, 
this,  however  well  meant  on  the  part  of  the  Sultan  of  that  time, 
jjractically  made  no  improvement  upon  the  equally  well  meant  Hatti 
Sherif  of  Giilhane  of  1839.  The  outbreak  of  1860  also  proved  how 
little  effect  it  had  in  teaching  the  Moslems  tolerance  towards  the 
Christians.  Roused  by  Jesuit  emissaries  and  trusting  to  French 
support,  the  Maronites  of  Lebanon  indulged  in  several  provoking 
attacks  upon  their  old  hereditary  foes  the  Druses.  These,  however, 
aided  by  the  Turkish  soldiery  were  always  victorious,  and  throughout 
all  Syria  a  terrible  persecution  against  Christians  of  all  confessions 
broke  out,  characterized  by  inhimian  cruelties.  In  Damascus  alone 
8,000,  in  all  Syria  16,000  Christians  were  murdered,  3,000  women  taken 
to  the  harems,  and  100  Christian  villages  destroyed.  After  the 
massacre  had  been  stopped,  120,000  Christians  wandered  about  without 
food,  clothing,  or  shelter,  and  fled  hither  and  thither  in  fear  of  death. 
Fuad  Pasha  was  sent  from  Constantinople  to  punish  the  guilty,  and 
seemed  at  first  to  proceed  to  business  energetically  ;  but  his  zeal  soon 
cooled,  and  French  troops,  sent  to  Syria  to  protect  the  Clu-istians, 
were  obliged,  yielding  to  pressure  from  England,  where  their  presence 
was  regarded  with  suspicion,  to  withdraw  from  the  country  in  June, 
1861. 

3.  The  Bulgarian  Ecclesiastical  Struggle.— The  Bulgarian  church,  with 
somewhere  about  two  and  a  half  million  souls,  was  from  early  times 
subject  to  the  patriarch  of  Constantinople  (§  73,  3),  who  acted  toward 
it  like  a  pasha.  He  sold  the  Bulgarian  bishoprics  and  archbishoprics 
to  the  highest  bidders  among  the  Greek  clergy,  who  were  quite 
ignorant  of  the  language  of  the  countr3^,  and  had  only  one  end  in  vie\\' 
namelj-  to  recoup  themselves  by  extorting  the  largest  possible  revenue. 
No  thought  Avas  given  to  the  spiritual  needs  of  the  Bulgarians,  preach- 
ing was  wholly  abandoned,  the  liturgy  was  read  in  a  language  un- 
known to  the  people.  It  was  therefore  not  to  be  wondered  at  that 
the  Bulgarian  church  was  for  j-ears  longing  for  its  emancipation  and 
ecclesiastical  independence,  and  made  eveiy  effort  to  obtain  this  from 
the  Porte.  Turkey,  however,  sympathized  with  the  patriarch  till  the 
revolt  in  Crete  in  1866-1869  and  threatening  political  movements  in 


408      CHURCH   HISTORY   OF   NINETEENTH   CENTURY. 

Bulgaria  broke  out.  Then  at  last  in  1870  the  sultan  grautcnl  the 
establishment  of  an  independent  Slavic  ecclesiastical  province  under 
the  designation  of  the  Bulgarian  Exarchate,  with  liberty  to  attach 
itself  to  the  other  Slavic  provinces  upon  a  two-thirds  majority  of  votes. 
The  patriarch  Gregorius  protested,  but  the  Sublime  Porte  would  not 
thereby  be  deterred,  and  in  May,  1872,  Anthimos  the  Exarch  elect  was 
installed.  The  i^atriarch  and  his  synod  now  stigmatized  Ph/jletlsm,  the 
struggle  for  a  national  church  establishment,  as  accursed  heresy,  and 
excommunicated  the  exarch  and  the  -whole  Bulgarian  chui'ch.  Onlj'^ 
the  patriarch  C^a^il  of  Jerusalem  dissented,  but  he  Avas  on  that  ac- 
count on  his  return  home  treated  with  indignity  and  abuse  and  was 
deposed  by  a  synod  at  Jerusalem. 

4.  The  Armenian  Church. — To  the  Gregorian-Armenian  patriarch  at 
Constantinople  (§  64,  3),  equally  with  his  orthodox  colleague  (§  67,  7), 
had  been  assigned  by  the  Sublime  Porte  civil  jurisdiction  as  well  as 
the  primacy  over  all  members  of  his  church  in  the  Turkish  empire. 
When  now  in  1830,  at  the  instigation  of  France,  an  independent 
])atriarchate  with  equal  rights  was  granted  to  the  United  Armenians 
(§  72,  2),  the  twofold  dei^endence  on  the  Porte  and  on  the  E.i)man 
curia  created  difhculties,  which  in  the  meantime  were  overcome  b}- 
giving  the  patriarch,  who  as  a  Turkish  official  exercised  civil  juris- 
diction, a  primacy  with  the  title  of  archbishop  as  representative  of 
the  pope.  The  United  Armenians,  like  the  other  united  churches  of 
the  East,  had  from  early  times  enjoyed  the  liberty  of  using  their 
ancient  liturgy,  their  old  ecclesiastical  calendar,  and  their  own  churcli 
constitution  -with  free  election  of  their  bishops  and  patriarchs,  and 
these  privileges  were  left  untouched  down  to  18(36.  But  when  in  that 
year  the  Armenian  Catholic  patriarch  died,  the  archbishop  Hassun 
was  elected  patriarch,  and  then  a  fusion  of  the  two  ecclesiastical 
powers  Avas  brought  about,  which  was  expected  to  lead  to  absolute 
and  complete  subjection  under  papal  jurisdiction  and  perfect  assimi- 
lation with  the  B/Omish  constitution  and  liturgy,  at  the  same  time 
Hassun  with  a  view  to  securing  a  red  hat  showed  himself  eager  and 
zealous  in  this  business.  By  the  bull  Beversiivns  of  1867  Pius  IX. 
claimed  the  right  of  nominating  the  ])atriarchs  of  all  united  churches 
of  the  East,  of  confirming  bishops  chosen  by  these  patriarchs,  in  cases 
of  necessity  even  choosing  these  himself,  and  deciding  all  appeals 
i-egarding  church  property.  But  the  Mechitarists  of  St.  Lazzaro 
(§  164,  2)  had  already  discovered  the  intriguing  designs  of  France  and 
made  these  known  among  their  country-men  in  Turkey.  These  now, 
while  Monsignore  Hassun  was  engaged  combating  the  infallibility 
dogma  at  tin;  Vatican  Council  of  1870,  drove  out  his  creatures  and 
constituted  tliemselves  into  a  clun-ch  independent  of  Rome,  without 
liowever,  joining  the  Ciregorian-Armenians,     The  influence  of  France 


§  207.    GREECE   AND   TURKEY.  409 

being  meanwhile  crippled  by  tlie  Prussian  victory,  the  Porte  ac- 
quiesced in  the  accomplished  fact,  confii-med  the  appointment  of  the 
newly  chosen  patriarch  Kiipelian,  and  refiosed  to  yield  to  the  pope's 
remonstrances  and  allocutions.  In  1874,  however,  it  also  recognised 
the  Hassun  party  as  an  independent  ecclesiastical  commmiity,  but 
assigned  the  church  property  to  the  party  of  Kupelian,  and  banished 
Hassun  as  a  fomenter  of  disturbance,  from  the  capital.  The  hearty 
sympathies  which  on  the  outbreak  of  the  Russo-Turkish  war  the 
Koman  curia  expressed  so  loudly  and  openly  for  the  victory  of  the 
crescent  over  the  schismatic  Russian  cross,  made  the  Sublime  Porte 
again  regard  the  Hassunites  with  favour,  so  that  Hassiui  in  Septem- 
ber, 1877,  returned  to  Constantinople,  where  the  churches  were  given 
over  to  his  party  and  a  great  number  of  the  Kupelianists  were  won 
over  to  his  side.  He  was  eagerly  aided  not  only  by  the  French  but 
also  by  the  Austrian  ambassador,  and  the  patriarch  Kupelian,  now 
soi-ely  persecuted  from  every  side,  at  last  resigned  his  position  and 
Avent  in  March,  1879,  to  Rome  to  kneel  as  a  penitent  before  the  pope. 
B}'  an  irade  of  the  sultan,  Hassun  was  now  formally  restored,  and 
in  1880  he  was  adorned  with  a  red  hat  by  Leo  XIII.  Shortly  before 
this  the  last  of  the  bishops  of  the  opposing  partj^,  with  about  30,(JK) 
souls,  had  given  in  his  submission. 

").  The  Berlin  Treaty,  1878. — Frequent  and  severe  oppression,  refusal 
to  administer  justice,  and  brutal  violence  on  the  part  of  the  Turkish 
government  and  people  toward  the  defenceless  vassals  drove  the 
Clu'istian  states  and  tribes  of  the  Balkan  peninsula  in  1875  into  a 
rebellion  of  desperation,  which  A\'as  avenged,  especially  in  Bulgaria  in 
1876,  by  scandalous  atrocities  upon  the  Christians.  When  the  half- 
hearted interference  of  European  diplomacy  called  forth  instead  of 
actual  reforms  only  the  mocking  sham  of  a  pretended  free  representa- 
tive constitution,  Russia  held  herself  under  obligation  in  1877  to 
avi'uge  by  arms  the  wrongs  of  her  brethren  by  race  and  creed,  but 
owing  to  the  thi'eats  of  England  and  Austria  could  not  fully  reap  the 
fruits  of  her  dearly  bought  victory  as  had  been  agreed  upon  in  the 
Treaty  of  San  Stefano,  By  the  Berlin  Conference,  however,  of  1878  the 
l»rincipalities  of  Roumania,  Servia,  and  Montenegro,  hitherto  under 
the  suzerainty  of  Turkey,  were  declared  indejjendent,  and  to  them,  as 
well  as  to  Greece,  at  the  cost  of  Turkey,  a  considerable  increas(!  of 
territory  was  granted,  the  portion  between  the  Balkans  and  the 
Danube  was  formed  into  tlu;  Christian  principality  of  Bulgaria  under 
Turkish  suzerainty-,  but  East  Rcnimelia,  south  of  the  Balkans,  now 
separated  from  Bulgaria,  obtained  the  rank  of  an  autonomo\;s  pro- 
vince with  a  Christian  governor-general.  To  Thessaly,  Epirus,  and 
Crete  were  granted  administrative  reforms  and  throughout  the  Euro- 
pean territory  left  to  the  Porte  it  was  stipulated  that  full  religious 


410      CHURCH    HISTORY   OF   NINETEENTH   CENTURY. 

and  ix)litical  rights  be  granted  to  members  of  all  confessions.  The 
adniinistnition  of  Bosnia  and  Herzegovina  was  given  over  to  Austria, 
and  that  of  Cyprus,  by  means  of  a  separate  treaty,  to  England.  Tln' 
greater  part  of  Armenia,  Ij'ing  in  Asia,  belongs  to  Russia. 


§  208.     The  United  States  of  America.^ 

The  Republic  of  the  United  States  of  America,  existing 
since  the  Declaration  of  Independence  in  177G,  and  recog- 
nised by  England  as  independent  since  the  conclusion  of 
Peace  in  1783,  requires  of  her  citizens  no  other  religious 
test  than  belief  in  one  God.  Since  the  settlers  had  often 
left  their  early  homes  on  account  of  religioiis  matters,  the 
greatest  variety  of  religious  parties  were  gathered  together 
here,  and  owing  to  their  defective  theological  training  and 
their  practical  turn  of  mind,  they  afforded  a  fruitful  field 
for  religious  movements  of  all  sorts,  among  which  the 
revivals  systematically  cultivated  by  many  denominations 
play  a  conspicuous  part.  The  government  does  not  trouble 
itself  with  religious  questions,  and  lets  every  denomination 
take  care  of  itself.  Preachers  ai-e  therefore  wholly  depend- 
ent on  their  congregations,  and  are  frequently  liable  to 
dismissal  at  the  year's  end.  Yet  they  form  a  highl}^ 
respected  class,  and  nowhere  in  the  Protestant  world  is  the 
tone  of  ecclesiastical  feeling  and  piety  so  prevailingly  high. 
In  the  public  schools,  which  are  supported  by  the  State, 
religious  instruction  is  on  principle  omitted.  The  Lutheran 
and  Catholic  churches  have  therefore  founded  parochial 
schools;  the  other  denominations  seek  to  supply  the  want 
by  Sunday  schools.  The  candidates  for  the  ministry  are 
trained  in  colleges  and  in  ninuerons  theological  seminaries. 


»  Baird,  "  Eeligion  in  the  United  States."  Glasgow,  1844.  "  Pro- 
gress and  Prosijects  of  Christianity  in  the  United  States."  London, 
1851.  Gorrie,  "  Churches  and  ISccts  in  the  United  States,"  New 
Turk.  IHaO. 


§  208.    THE   UNITED    STATES   OF   xYMERlCA.         411 

1.  English  Protestant  Denominations. — The  numerous  Protestant  de- 
nominations belong  to  two  great  groups,  English  and  German.  Of 
the  first  named  the  following  are  by  far  the  most  important:  (1)  The 
Congregationalists  are  the  descendants  of  the  Pilgrim  Fathers  Avho 
emigrated  in  1G'20  (§  143,  4).  They  profess  the  doctrines  of  the  West- 
minster Confession  (§  155,  1).— (2)  The  Preshyterians,  of  Scotch  origin, 
liave  the  same  confession  as  the  Congregationalists,  but  differ  from 
tliem  by  having  a  common  chru'ch  govenunent  with  strict  Synodal 
and  Presbyterial  constitution.  By  rejecting  the  doctrine  of  predes- 
tination the  Cumberland  Presbyterians  in  1810  formed  a  separate 
body  and  have  since  grown  so  as  to  embrace  in  the  south-western 
states  120,000  communicants.— (3)  The  Anglican  Episcopal  Church  is 
equally  distinguished  hy  moderate  and  solid  churchliness.  Even 
here,  however,  Puseyism  has  entered  in  and  the  Romish  church  has 
made  many  proselytes.  But  when  at  the  general  conference  of  the 
Evangelical  Alliance  at  New  York  in  1873,  bishop  Cummins  of 
Kentucky  took  part  in  the  administration  of  the  Lord's  Supper  in 
the  Presbyterian  church  and  was  violently  attacked  for  this  by  his 
Puseyite  brethren,  he  laid  the  foundation  of  a  "  Reformed  Episcopal 
Church,"  in  which  secession  other  twenty-five  Episcojaal  ministers 
joined.  They  regard  the  ei^iscopal  constitution  as  an  old  and  whole- 
some ordinance  but  not  a  divine  institution,  also  the  Anglican  liturgy' 
and  Book  of  Common  Prayer,  though  capiable  of  improvement,  while 
they  recognise  the  ordinations  of  other  evangelical  churches  as  valid, 
and  reject  as  Puseyite  the  doctrine  of  a  special  priesthood  of  the 
clergy,  of  a  sacrifice  in  the  eucharist,  the  presence  of  the  body  and 
blood  of  Christ  in  the  elements,  and  of  the  essential  and  invariable 
connection  between  regeneration  and  baptism.  —  (4)  The  Episcopal 
Methodists  in  America  formed  since  1784  an  independent  body  (§  109, 
1).  Their  influence  on  the  religious  life  in  the  United  States  has  been 
extraordinarily  great.  They  have  had  by  far  the  most  to  do  with 
the  revivals  which  from  the  first  they  have  carried  to  a  wonderful 
l)itch  with  their  protracted  meetuigs,  inquiry  meetings,  camp  meet- 
ings, etc.  They  reached  their  climax  in  the  camp  meetings  which, 
under  the  preaching  mostly  of  itinerant  Methodist  preachers  fre- 
quently in  the  forest  \inder  the  canopy  of  heaven,  produced  religious 
awakening  among  tlie  multitudes  gathered  from  all  aromid.  Day 
and  night  Avithout  interruption  they  continued  praying,  singing, 
preaching,  exlioi-ting ;  all  the  horrors  of  hell  are  depicted,  the  excite- 
ment increases  every  moment,  penitent  ■\\-restlings  with  siglis,  sobs, 
groans,  convulsions  and  writhings,  occur  on  everj^  side ;  grace  comes 
at  last  to  view  ;  loud  hallelujahs,  thanksgivings  and  ascription  of 
praise  by  the  converted  mix  with  the  moanings  of  those  on  "  the 
anxious  bench "  pleading  for  grace,  etc.    In  San  Francisco  in  1874 


412      CHURCH   HISTORY   OF   NINETEENTH    CENTURY. 

there  were  ^^  Babi/-Iievivals^-^  nt  -which  chililn'u  from  four  to  twelve 
yeai-s  of  age,  Avho  trembled  Avith  the  fear  of  hell,  sang  ^Jt'iiitential 
hymns,  made  confession  of  sin,  and  wrote  their  names  on  a  sheet 
in  order  to  engage  themselves  for  ever  for  Jesus.  Since  1847  the 
Methodist  church  had  been  divided  into  two  liostile  camps,  a  southern 
and  a  northern.  The  first  named  tolerated  slavery,  while  the  members 
of  the  latter  were  decided  abolitionists  and  excommunicated  all  slave- 
owners as  unworthy  of  the  name  of  Chi'istian.  Another  party,  the 
Protestant  Methodists,  has  blended  the  episcopal  and  congregational 
constitution. — (5)  The  Baptists  are  split  up  into  many  sects.  The 
most  numerous  are  the  Calvinistic  Bai^tists.  Their  activity  in 
proselytising  is  equally  great  with  their  zeal  for  missions  to  the 
heathen.  In  opposition  to  them  the  Free-Will  Baptists  ai'e  Arminiau 
and  the  Christian  Baptists  have  adopted  Unitarian  views.' 

2.  The  German  Lutheran  Denominations. — ^The  German  emigration  to 
America  began  in  Penn's  time.  In  the  organization  of  church  affaii"s, 
besides  Zinzendorf  and  the  Heri-nhut  missionaries,  a  prominent  part 
was  taken  by  the  pastor  Dr.  Melchior  Muhlenberg  (died  1787),  a  pupil 
of  A.  H.  Francke,  and  the  E-eformed  pastor  Schlatter  from  St.  Gall ; 
the  former  sent  by  the  Halle  Orphanage,  the  latter  by  the  Dutch 
church.  The  Orphanage  sent  many  earnest  preachers  till  rationalism 
broke  in  ujjon  the  society.  As  at  the  same  time  the  stream  of  German 
emigration  was  checked  almost  completely  for  several  decades,  and  so 
all  intercourse  with  the  mother  country  ceased,  crowds  of  Germans, 
impressed  by  the  revivals,  went  over  to  the  Anglo-American  denom- 
inations, and  in  the  German  denominations  themselves  along  witli 
the  English  language  entered  also  English  Puritanism  and  Methodism. 
In  1815  German  emigration  began  again  and  grew  from  year  to  year. 
At  the  s;yaiod  of  1857  the  Lutheran  church  with  3,000  pastors  divided 
into  three  main  divisions:  (1)  The  American  Lutheran  church  had 
become  in  language,  customs,  and  doctrine  thoroughly  Anglicised  and 
Americanized  ;  Zwinglian  in  its  doctrine  of  the  sacraments,  it  was 
Lutheran  in  scarcely  anything  but  the  name,  until  in  its  chief 
stmiinary  at  Gettysburg  in  Pennsylvania  in  1850  a  reaction  set  in  in 
favour  of  genuine  Lutheran  and  German  tendencies.  (2)  A  greatly 
attenuated  Lutheranism  with  unionistic  sympathies  and  frequent 
abandonment  of  the  German  language  also  found  expression  in  the 
congregations  of  the  Old  Pennsylvanian  Sjaiod.  (3)  On  the  other 
hand,  the  strict  Lutheran  (diurch  held  tenaciously  to  the  exclusive 
use  of  the  German  language  and  the  genuine  Lutheran  confession. 


'  Stevens,  "History  of  the  Episcopal  Methodist  Church  in  North 
America."  Philadelphia,  18G8.  Gorrie,  "History  of  the  Episcopal 
Methodist  Church  in  the  United  States."    NeAv  York,  IHSI. 


§  '20S.    THE    UNITED    STATES    OF    AMERICA.         418 

The  Prussian  pinigratiou  with  Grabau  and  the  Saxon  Lutheran  settlers 
-with  Stephau  constituted  its  backbone  (§  194,  1).  To  them  a  number 
of  Bavarian  Lutherans  attached  themselves  who  had  emigrated  under 
the  leadei'ship  of  Lohe,  whose  missionary  institute  at  Neviendettelsau 
supplied  them  with  pastors.  The  Saxon  Lutherans  were  meanwhile 
grouped  together  in  the  Missouri  Syiiod,  which  Loire's  missionaries 
also  joined,  so  that  it  soon  acquired  much  larger  proportions  than  the 
Buffalo  Spiod  formed  previously  by  the  Prussian  Lutherans  under 
Grabau.  But  very  soon  the  two  synods  had  a  violent  quarrel  over 
the  idea  of  office  and  church  which,  owing  to  the  reception  by  the 
Missouri  Sjniod  of  several  parties  excommunicated  by  the  Buffalo 
Synod,  led  to  the  formal  breach  of  church  fellowship  between  the  two 
parties.  The  Missouri  S3aiod,  with  Dr.  Walther  at  its  head,  attached 
all  importance  to  sound  doctrine ;  the  clerical  office  was  regarded  as 
a  transference  of  the  right  of  the  congregation  and  excommunication 
as  a  congregational  not  a  clerical  act.  The  Buffalo  Sjaiod,  on  the 
other  hand,  in  consequence  of  Serious  conflict  with  pietistic  elements, 
had  been  driven  into  an  overestimation  of  external  order,  of  forms  of 
constitution  and  worship,  and  of  the  clerical  office  as  of  immediately 
divine  authority,  and  carried  this  to  such  a  length  as  led  to  the  dis- 
solution of  the  s3'nod  in  1877.  Lohe's  friends,  who  had  not  been  able 
to  agree  with  either  party,  formed  themselves  into  the  Synod  of  lo-wa, 
with  their  seminary  at  Wartburg  under  Fritschel.  On  all  questions 
debated  between  the  synods  they  took  a  mediating  position.  The 
Missourians,  however,  would  have  nothing  to  do  with  them,  while 
those  of  Buffalo  long  maintained  tolerably  friendl}^  relations  with 
them.  But  the  historical  view  of  the  s\-mbols  taken  bj^  the  lo^vans, 
their  inclination  toward  the  new  development  of  Lutheran  theology, 
and  above  all  their  attitude  toward  biblical  chiliasm,  which  they 
wished  to  treat  as  an  open  question,  seemed  to  those  of  Buffalo,  as  well 
as  to  the  Missourians,  a  falling  aAvay  from  the  church  confession,  and 
led  to  their-  excommunication  by  that  party  also. — In  opposition  to  all 
this  splitting  up  into  sections  a  Genei'al  Council  of  the  Lutheran 
Church  in  America  was  held  in  1866,  which  sought  to  combine  all 
Lutheran  district  synods,  of  which  twelve,  out  of  fifty-six,  with  814 
clei-gymen,  joined  it,  Iowa  assuming  a  friendly  and  Missouri  a  dis- 
tinctly hostile  attitude.  The  ninth  assembly  at  Galesburg  in  Illinois 
in  1875  laid  down  as  its  fundamental  jninciple,  "Lutheran  pulpits 
only  for  Lutheran  preachers,  and  Lutheran  altars  only  for  Lutheran 
communicants."  The  native  Americans,  however,  insisted  upon  ex- 
ceptions being  alloAVcd,  e.g.  in  peril  of  death,  etc.  On  the  question  of 
the  limits  of  these  exceptions,  however,  subsequent  assemblies  have 
not  been  able  to  agi'ee. 

3.  But   also   in   the  Synodal   Conferenct'   founded    and    led    by  the 


414      CHURCH   HISTORY   OF   NINETEENTH   CENTURY. 

Missouri  Sjaiod,  embracing  five  synods,  doctrinal  controversies  sprang 
lip  in  1860.  A  large  nmnber  -w-ith  Dr.  Waltlier  at  their  head  held 
a  strict  doctrine  of  predestination  which  they  regarded  as  the  mark 
of  gejiuine  Lutheranism.  God  has,  they  taught,  chosen  a  definite 
number  of  men  from  eternity  to  salvation ;  these  shall  and  must  be 
saved.  Salvation  in  Christ  is  indeed  offered  to  all,  but  God  secui-es  it 
only  for  His  elect,  so  that  they  are  sure  of  it  and  cannot  lose  it  again, 
not  indeed  intuitu  Jidei  but  only  according  to  His  sovereign  grace. 
Even  one  of  the  elect  may  seem  temporarily  to  fall  from  grace,  but  he 
cannot  die  without  returning  into  fu.ll  possession  of  it.  Prof.  Fritschel 
protested  against  this  in  1872  as  essentially  Calvinistic,  and  opposition 
also  arose  in  the  Missouri  Pastoral  Conference.  Prof.  Asperheim,  of 
the  seminary  of  the  Norwegian  Synod  at  Madison  in  Wisconsin,  who 
first  pronounced  against  it  in  1876,  was  deprived  of  his  office  and 
obliged  to  withdraw  from  the  synod.  The  conti'oversy  broke  out  in  a 
violent  form  at  the  conferences  of  about  500  pastors  held  at  Chicago 
in  1880  and  at  Milwaukee  three  months  later  in  1881,  at  the  former  of 
which  Prof.  S.tellhorn  of  I'ort  Wayne,  at  the  latter  Prof.  Schmidt  of 
Madison,  offered  a  vigorous  opposition.  Walther  closed  the  conference 
with  the  words:  "You  ask  for  war,  war  you  shall  have."  The  I'esult 
was  that  the  whole  of  the  Ohio  Synod  and  a  large  portion  of  the 
Nor\\'egian  Wisconsin  Synod,  broke  away  from  communion  with  the 
Missouri  Sj'nod. — Walther  and  his  adherents  went  so  far  in  tlieir 
fanaticism  as  to  pronounce  not  only  their  American  opponents  but  all 
the  most  distingtiished  Lutheran  theologians  of  Germany,  Philippi  as 
well  as  Hofmann,  Luthardt  as  well  as  Kahnis,  Vilmar  as  well  as 
Thomasius,  Harms  as  well  as  Zockler,  etc.,  bastard  theologians, 
semipelagians,  synergists  and  rationalists,  and  to  refuse  church 
fellowship  not  only  -with  all  Lutheran  national  churches  in  Euroi)e, 
but  also  with  German  Lutheran  Free  Churches,  which  did  not  un- 
conditionally attach  themselves  to  them.  These  Missouri  separatist 
communities,  though  everywhere  qviite  unimportant,  are  in  Europe 
strongest  in  the  kingdom  of  Saxony  ;  they  have  also  a  few  representa- 
tives in  Nassau,  Baden,  Wtirttemberg,  Bavaria  and  Hesse. 

4.  German-Reformed  and  other  German-Protestant  Denominations. — The 
German-Heformed  church  has  its  seminary  at  Mercersburg  in  Penn- 
sylvania. Its  confession  of  faith  is  the  Heidelberg  Catechism,  its 
theology  an  offshoot  of  German  evangelical  union  theology,  but  with 
a  distinctly  positive  tendency.  Although  the  union  theology  there 
jjrevailed  among  the  Reformed  as  well  as  the  Lutherans,  a  German 
Evangelical  Church  Union  was  formed  at  St.  Louis  in  1841  which 
Avished  to  set  aside  the  names  Eeformed  and  Lutheran.  It  established 
a  seminary  at  Marthasville  in  Missouri.  The  Herrnliuters  are  also 
represented  in  America.    Several  German  Methodist  sects  hn\'e  re- 


§  209.    CATHOLIC    STATES    OF    SOUTH    AMERICA.      415 

cent!}'  sprung  up :  1.  The  "  United  Brethren  in  Christ,"  Avith  500 
))reachers,  founded  by  a  Eeformed  preacher  Otternbein  (died  1813). 

2.  The  "Evangelical  Communion,"  commonly  called  Alhrerhfsleutc, 
founded  by  Jac.  Albrecht,  originally  a  Lutheran  layman,  whom  his 
own  followers  ordained  in  1803,  with  500  or  600  preachers  working 
zealously  and  carrying  on  mission  work  also  in  Germany  (§  211,  1). 

3.  The  Weinbrennians  or  Church  of  God,  founded  bj^  an  excommuni- 
cated Reformed  pastor  of  that  name  in  1839.  They  carry  the 
ilethodist  revivalism  to  the  most  exti'avagant  excess  and  are  also 
fanatical  opponents  of  infant  baptism. 

5.  The  Catholic  Church. — A  number  of  English  Catholics  under  Lord 
Baltimore  settled  in  Maryland  in  1634.  The  little  community  grew 
and  soon  filled  the  land.  There  alone  in  the  whole  world  did  the 
Homan  Catholic  church  though  dominant  proclaim  the  principle  of 
toleration  and  religious  equality.  Consequently  Protestants  of  various 
denominations  crowded  thithei',  outnumbered  the  original  settlers, 
and  rewarded  those  who  had  hospitably  received  them  a\  ith  abuse  and 
opjjression.  The  Catholics  were  also  treated  in  other  states  as  idolaters 
and  excluded  from  public  offices  and  posts  of  honour.  Only  after  the 
Declaration  of  Independence  in  1783  Avas  this  changed  bj^  the  sunder- 
ing of  the  connection  of  church  and  state  and  the  proclamation  of 
absolute  religious  libert}-.  The  number  of  Catholics  was  greatly  in- 
creased by  numerous  emigrations,  specially  from  Ireland  and  Catholic 
Germany.  They  now  claim  seven  million  members,  with  a  cardinal 
at  New  York,  13  archbishops,  64  bishops,  about  7,000  churches  and 
chapels.  A  beautiful  cathedral  was  erected  in  New  York  in  1879, 
the  immense  cost  of  which,  exceeding  all  expectation,  Avas  at  last 
defrayed  by  very  unspiritual  and  unecclesiastical  methods,  c.fj.  lot- 
teries, fairs,  dramatic  exhibitions,  concerts,  and  even  dearly  sold 
]<isses,  etc.  The  Roman  Catholics  have  also  a  university  at  (St.  Louis, 
80  colleges,  and  300  cloisters. 

§  209.  The  Roman  Catholic  States  of  South 
America. 

To  the  pi^edominantl}^  Protestant  North  America  the 
position  of  the  Roman  Catholic  states  of  South  America 
forms  a  very  striking  contrast.  Nowhere  else  was  the  influ- 
ence and  power  of  the  clerg}^  so  wide-spread  and  deeply- 
rooted,  nowhere  else  has  the  depravation  of  Catholicism 
reached  such  a  depth  of  superstition,  obscurantism,  and 
fanaticism.     During  the  second  and  third  decades  of   our 


416      CHURCH   HISTORY   OF   NINETEENTH   CENTURY. 

ceiituiy  the  S})aiU!5li  states,  favoured  by  the  revolutionary 
movement  in  the  mother  country,  one  after  another  asserted 
their  independence,  and  the  Portuguese  Brazil  established 
herself  as  an  indejieudeut  empire  under  the  legitimate  royal 
prince  of  Portugal,  Pedro  I,  in  1822.  Although  the  other 
new  states  adopted  a  republican  constitution,  they  could 
not  throw  aside  the  influence  of  the  Catholic  clergy  and 
carry  out  the  principles  of  religious  freedom  proclaimed 
in  their  constitutions.  The  Catholicism  of  the  Creoles,  half- 
castes,  and  mulattoes  was  of  too  bigoted  a  kind  and  the 
power  of  the  clergy  too  great  to  allow  any  such  thing. 
Mexico  went  furthest  in  the  attempt,  and  Brazil,  under 
Dom  Pedro  II.  from  1831,  astonished  the  world  by  the 
vigorous  measures  of  its  government  in  1874  against  the 
assumptions  of  the  higher  clergy. — In  spite  of  all  hin- 
drances a  not  inconsiderable  number  of  small  evangelical 
congregations  have  been  formed  in  Romish  America,  partly 
through  emigration  and  partly  by  evangelization. 

1.  Mexico. — Of  all  tlie  American  states,  Mexico,  since  its  independ- 
ence in  1823,  has  been  most  disturbed  by  revolutions  and  civil  wars. 
The  rich  and  influential  clergy,  possessing  nearly  a  half  of  all  landed 
l)roperty,  was  the  factor  with  which  all  pretenders,  presidents  and 
rulers  had  to  reckon.  After  most  of  the  earlier  governments  had 
supported  the  clergy  and  been  supported  by  them,  the  ultimately 
victoi'ious  liberal  party  under  pi'csident  Juarez  shook  off  the  yoke 
in  1859.  He  proclaimed  absolute  religious  freedom,  introduced  civil 
marriage,  abolished  cloisters,  pronounced  church  possessions  national 
pi'operty  and  exiled  the  obstinate  bishops.  The  clei'ical  party  now 
scjught  and  obtained  foreign  aid.  Spain,  France  and  England  joined 
in  a  common  military  convention  in  18G1  in  supporting  certain  claims 
of  citizens  r('[)udiat(>d  by  Juarez.  Spain  and  England  soon  withdrew 
their  troops,  and  Napoleon  III.  openly'  declared  the  purpose  of  his 
interference!  to  be  the  strengthening  of  the  Latin  race  and  the 
monarchical  princi])le  in  Amei'ica.  At  his  instigation  the  Aiistrian 
( J  rand-Duke  Maximilian  was  electcnl  emperor,  and  that  prince,  after 
receiving  the  pope's  blessing  in  Rome,  began  his  reign  in  18()  I.  Dis- 
trusted by  all  parties  as  a  stranger,  in  difficulties  with  the  curia  and 
clergy  becausj  he  opposed  their  claims  to  have  their  most  extravagant 


§  209.    CATHOLIC    STATES    OF   SOUTH   AMERICA.      417 

privileges  restortxJ,  shamefully  left  in  the  lurch  by  Napoleon  from 
fear  of  the  threatening  attitude  of  the  North  American  Union,  and 
then  sold  and  betrayed  by  his  own  general  Bazaine,  this  noble  but 
unfortunate  prince  was  at  last  sentenced  by  Juarez  at  a  court-martial 
to  be  shot  in  1867.  Juarez  now  maintained  his  position  till  the  end 
of  his  life  in  1872,  and  strictly  carried  out  his  anticlerical  reforms. 
After  his  death  clericalism  again  raised  her  head,  and  the  Jesuits  ex- 
pelled from  Guatemala  swarmed  over  the  land.  Yet  constitutional 
sanction  was  given  to  the  Juarez  legislation  at  the  congress  of  1873. 
The  Jesuits  were  driven  across  the  frontiers,  obstinate  priests  as  well 
as  a  great  number  of  nuns,  who  had  gathered  again  in  cloisters  and 
received  novices,  were  put  in  prison. — Also  Evangelization  advanced 
slowly  luider  sanction  of  law,  though  regarded  with  disfavour  by  the 
people  and  interfered  with  often  by  the  mob.  It  began  in  1865  with 
the  awakening  of  a  Catholic  priest  Francisco  Aguilar  and  a  Dominican 
monk  Manuel  Aguas,  throvigh  the  reading  of  the  Scriptures.  They 
laid  the  foundation  of  the  ^^IgJesia  cle  Jesus  "  of  converted  Mexicans, 
with  evangelical  doctrine  and  apostolic-episcopal  constitution,  which 
has  now  71  congregations  throughout  the  whole  country  with  about 
10,000  souls.  This  movement  received  a  new  impulse  in  1869,  when  a 
Chilian-bom  Anglican  episcopal  minister  of  a  Spanish-speaking  con- 
gregation in  New  York,  called  Riley,  took  the  control  of  it  and  was 
in  1879  consecrated  its  bishop.  Besides  this  independent  "  Church  of 
Jesus  "  North  American  missionaries  of  various  denominations  have 
MTought  there  since  1872  with  slow  but  steady  success. 

2.  In  the  Republics  of  Central  and  Southern  America,  when  the  liberal 
party  obtained  the  helm  of  government  through  almost  incessant 
civil  wars,  religious  freedom  was  generally  proclaimed,  civil  mar- 
riage introduced,  the  Jesuits  expelled,  cloisters  shut  up,  etc.  But  in 
Ecuador,  president  Moreno,  aided  by  the  clergy,  concluded  in  1862  a 
concordat  with  the  curia  by  which  throughout  the  country  only  iUie 
Catholic  worship  was  tolerated,  the  bishops  could  condenm  and  con- 
fiscate any  book,  education  was  under  the  Jesuits,  and  the  government 
undertook  to  employ  the  police  in  suppressing  all  errors  and  compel- 
ling all  citizens  to  fulfil  all  their  religious  duties.  And  further  the 
public  rpsolved  in  1873,  although  unable  to  pay  the  interest  of  the 
national  debt,  to  hand  over  a  tenth  of  all  state  revenues  to  the  pope. 
But  Moreno  was  murdered  in  1875.  The  Jesuits,  who  were  out  of 
favour,  left  Quito.  The  tithe  hitherto  paid  to  the  pope  was  imme- 
diately withheld,  and  in  1877  the  concordat  was  abrogated.  As 
Ecuador  in  Moreno,  so  Peru  at  the  same  time  in  Pierola  had  a  dic- 
tator after  the  pope's  own  heart.  The  republic  had  his  misgovem- 
ment  to  thank  for  one  defeat  after  another  in  the  war  with  Chili. — 
Bolivia  in  1872  declared  that  the  Eoman  Catholic  religion  alone 
VOL.   III.  27 


418      CHLTRCH   HISTOKY   OF   NINETEENTH   CENTURY. 

would  be  tolerated  in  the  country,  and  stiffered,  in  common  with  Pern, 
annihilating  defeats  at  the  hand  of  Chili. — When  at  St,  lago  in  Chili, 
during  the  festival  of  the  Immaculate  Conception  in  1863,  the  Jesuit 
church  La  Compania  was  burnt  and  in  it  more  than  2,000  women  and 
children  consumed,  the  clergy  pronounced  this  disaster  an  act  of  grace 
of  the  blessed  Virgin,  who  wished  to  give  the  country  a  vast  number 
of  saints  and  martyrs.  But  here,  too,  the  conflicts  between  church 
and  state  continued.  In  1874  the  Chilian  episcopate  pronounced  the 
ban  against  the  president  and  the  members  of  the  national  council 
and  of  the  Lower  House  who  had  favoured  the  introduction  of  a  new 
penal  code  which  secured  liberty  of  worship,  but  it  remained  quite 
unheeded.  When  then  the  archiepiscopal  chair  of  St.  lago  became 
vacant  in  1878,  the  pope  refused  on  any  condition  to  confirm  the 
candidate  appointed  by  the  government.  After  the  decisive  victory 
over  Peru  and  Bolivia,  the  government  again  in  December,  1881, 
urgently  insisted  upon  their  presentation.  The  curia  now  sent  to 
Chili,  avowedly  to  obtain  more  accurate  information,  an  apostolic 
delegate  who  took  advantage  of  his  position  to  stir  up  strife,  so  that 
the  government  was  obliged  to  insist  upon  his  recall.  As  the  curia 
declined  to  do  so,  his  passports  were  sent  to  the  legate  in  January, 
1883,  and  a  presidential  message  was  addressed  to  the  next  congress 
which  demanded  the  separation  of  the  church  and  state,  >vith  the 
introduction  of  civil  marriage  and  register  of  civil  station,  as  the  only 
remaining  means  for  putting  down  the  confusion  caused  by  papal 
tergiversation.  The  result  of  the  long  and  heated  debates  that  fol- 
lowed was  the  promulgation  of  a  law  by  which  Catholicism  was  de- 
prived of  the  character  of  the  state  religion  and  the  perfect  equality 
of  all  forms  of  worship  was  proclaimed. — Guatemala  in  1872  expelled 
the  Jesuits  whose  power  and  wealth  had  become  very  great.  In  1874 
the  president  Borrias  opened  a  new  campaign  against  the  clergy  by 
forbidding  them  to  wear  the  clerical  dress  except  when  discharging 
the  duties  of  their  office,  and  closing  all  the  nunneries.— In  Venezuela, 
in  1872,  Archbishop  Guevara  of  Caracas,  who  had  previously  come 
into  collision  with  the  government  by  favouring  the  rebels,  forbade 
his  clergy  taking  part  in  the  national  festival,  and  put  the  cathedral 
in  which  it  was  to  be  celebrated  under  the  interdict.  Deposed  and 
banished  on  this  account,  he  continued  from  the  British  island  of 
Trinidad  his  endeavours  to  stir  ujj  a  new  rebellion.  The  president, 
Guzman  Blanco,  after  long  fruitless  negotiations  with  the  papal  nuncio, 
submitted  in  May,  1876,  to  the  congress  at  St.  Domingo  the  draft  of  a 
bill,  which  declared  the  national  church  wholly  independent  of  Rome. 
The  congress  not  only  homologated  his  proposals,  but  carried  them  fur- 
ther, by  abolishing  the  episcopal  hi(>rarchy  and  assigning  its  revenues 
to  the  national  exchequer,  for  education,  Now  at  last  the  Roman  curia 


§  209.    CATHOLIC   STATES    OF    SOUTH   AMERICA.      419 

agreed  to  the  deposition  of  Guevara  and  confirmed  tlie  nomination  of 
his  previously  appointed  successor.  But  president  Blanco  now  asked 
congress  to  abolish  the  laAv,  and  this  was  agreed  to. — In  the  United 
States  of  Colombia  since  1853,  and  in  the  Argentine  Republic  since'^1865, 
l^erfect  liberty  of  faith  and  worship  have  been  constitutionally  se- 
cured. From  the  latter  state  the  Jesuits  had  been  banished  for  a  long 
time  but  had  managed  to  smuggle  themselves  in  again.  When  in  the 
beginning  of  1875  Archbishop  Aneiros  of  Buenos  Ayres  addressed  to 
the  government  which  favoured  the  clerical  party  rather  than  to  the 
congress  which  was  the  only  competent  court,  a  request  to  reinvest 
the  Jesuits  with  the  churches,  cloisters,  and  properties  held  by  them 
before  their  expulsion,  a  terrible  outbreak  took  place,  which  the  arch- 
bishop intensified  to  the  utmost  by  issuing  a  violent  pastoral.  A  mob 
of  30,000  men,  convened  by  the  students  of  the  university,  wrecked  the 
]>alace  of  the  archbishop,  then  attacked  the  Jesuit  college,  burnt  all 
its  f ufniture  and  ornaments  on  the  streets  and  by  means  of  petroleum 
soon  reduced  the  building  itself  to  flames.  Only  with  difficulty  did 
the  military  succeed  in  preventing  further  mischief.  In  October, 
188-i,  the  papal  nuncio  was  expelled,  because,  when  the  government 
decidedly  refused  his  request  to  prevent  the  spread  of  Protestant 
teaching  and  to  place  Sunday  schools  under  the  oversight  of  the 
bishops,  he  replied  in  a  most  violent  a:id  passionate  manner.  About 
the  same  time  the  republic  of  Costa-rica  issued  a  law  forbidding  all 
religious  orders,  pronouncing  all  vows  invalid,  and  threatening  ban- 
ishment against  all  who  should  contravene  these  enactments,  and  also 
an  education  act  which  forbade  all  public  instruction  apart  from 
that  provided  by  the  State. 

3.  Brazil. — In  Brazil  down  to  18S1,  the  "  Catholic  Apostolic  Eoman 
Religion ''  was,  according  to  the  constitution,  the  religion  of  the 
empire.  But  from  1828  there  was  a  Protestant  congregation  in  Rio 
de  Janeiro,  and  through  the  inland  districts,  in  consequence  of  immi- 
gration, there  were  100  small  evangelical  congregations,  with  twentj-- 
five  ordained  pastors,  whose  forms  of  worship  were  of  various  kinds. 
In  earlier  times  Protestant  marriage  w^as  regarded  as  concvibinage, 
but  in  1851  a  law  was  passed  which  gave  it  civil  recognition.  But  the 
bishops  held  to  their  previous  views  and  demanded  of  married  con- 
verts a  repetition  of  the  ceremony.  Since  1870,  however,  the  govern- 
ment has  energetically  opposed  the  claims  of  the  clergy  who  wished 
only  to  acknowledge  the  authority  of  Rome.  Protestant  marriages 
were  pronounced  equally  legitimate  with  Catholic  marriages,  no  civil 
penalties  are  incurred  by  excommunication,  all  papal  bulls  are  sub- 
j(>ct  to  the  approval  of  the  government,  and  it  was  insisted  that  an- 
nouncement should  be  made  of  all  clergy  nominated.  The  clergy 
considered  freemasonry  the  chief  source  gf  all  this  liberal  current, 


420      CHURCH   HIRTORY   OF   NINETEENTH   CENTURY. 

ami  against  it  therefore  tlie3'  dir(>ctecl  all  their  forces.  The  pope 
assisted  by  his  brief  of  May,  1873,  condemning  freemasonry.  At  the 
head  of  the  rebel  prelates  stood  Don  Vitalis  Gonsalvez  de  Oliveira, 
bishop  of  Olinda  aiid  Pernambuco.  He  published  the  papal  brief 
-without  asking  the  impc^rial  permission,  pronounced  the  ban  upon  all 
freemasons  and  suspended  the  interdict  over  all  associations  which 
refused  to  expel  masonic  brothers  from  their  membership.  In  vain 
the  government  demanded  its  withdrawal.  It  then  accused  him 
of  an  attack  upon  the  constitution.  The  supreme  court  ordered  his 
detention,  and  he  was  placed  in  the  state  prison  at  Rio  de  Janeiro  in 
Januar3',  1874.  The  trial  ended  hy  his  being  sentenced  to  four  years' 
imprisonment,  -^\-hich  the  empei'or  as  an  act  of  grace  commuted  to  de- 
tention in  a  fortress,  and  set  him  free  in  a  year  and  a"  half.  In  conse- 
quence of  this  occurrence  the  Jesuits  were,  in  1874,  expelled  the 
countr3^  The  increasing  advent  of  monks  and  nuns  from  Europe  led 
the  government,  in  1884,  to  appoint  a  commission  to  carry  out  the 
law  alx'eady  passed  in  1870,  for  the  secularization  of  all  monastic 
property'  after  providing  pensions  for  those  entitled  to  su2)port.  In 
the  same  year  all  naturalized  non-Catholics  were  pronounced  eligible 
for  election  to  the  imperial  parliament  and  to  the  provincial  assem- 
blies. The  members  belonging  to  the  evangelical  churches  now  num- 
ber about  50,000,  of  whom  30,000  are  Germans. • 


Y. — Opponents  of  Church  and  of  Christianity. 

§  210.     Sectarians  and  Enthusiasts  in  the  Eoman 
Catholic  and  Orthodox  Russian  Domains. 

It  cannot  be  denied  that  since  the  Tridentinc  attempt  to 
define  the  church  doctrine  far  fewer  sects  condemning  the 
church  as  such  have  sprung  from  Eoman  Catholicism  than 
from  Protestantism.  Yet  such  phenomena  are  not  wanting 
in  the  nineteenth  centviry.  Their  scarcity  is  ahundantlj' 
made  up  for  by  the  numberless  degenerations  and  errors 
(§  191)  which  the  Catholic  church  or  its  representatives  in 


1  A  full  aecouut  of  tln'  ivceut  development  of  Protestantism  in 
Brazil  is  givi'u  in  an  article  in  the  Prenhuteriav  lievieio  for  January, 
1889  pp.  101-1 0(i,  "  The  Organization  of  the  S3'nod  of  Brazil,"  by  Dr. 
J  Aspinwall  Hodge. — On  15th  November,  1889,  the  emperor  Avas 
expelled  and  a  republic  proclaimed. 


§  2L0.  SECTARIES  IN  ROMISH  AND  GREEK  DOMAINS.    421 

the  higher  and  lower  grades  of  the  clergy  not  only  fell  into, 
but  actually  provoked  and  furthered,  and  thus  encouraged 
an  unhealthy  love  for  religious  peculiarities.  Were  the 
absence  of  new  heretical,  sectarian  and  fanatical  develop- 
ments something  to  be  gloried  in  for  itself  alone,  the 
Eastern  church,  with  its  absolute  stability,  would  obtain  this 
distinction  in  a  far  higher  degree.  In  the  Russian  church, 
however,  the  multitude  of  sects  which  amid  manifold  op- 
pressions and  persecutions  continue  to  exist  to  the  present 
day,  in  spite  of  many  persistent  and  even  condemnable 
errors,  witnesses  to  a  deep  religious  need  in  the  Russian 
people. 

1.  Sects  and  Fanatics  in  the  Roman  Catholic  Domain  (§  187,  G-S,  §  190). 
—On  the  Catholic  Irvnigitfs  see  §  211,  10.— (1)  The  Order  of  New  Temp- 
lars sprang  from  the  Freemasons  (§  172,  2).  Soon  after  their  estab- 
lishment in  France  the  Jesuits  sought  to  carry  out  their  own  hier- 
archical ideas.  The  fable  of  an  uninterrupted  connection  between 
freemasonry  as  a  "  temple  of  humanity  "  and  the  Templars  of  the 
31iddlo  Ages,  and  the  introduction  therewith  in  their  secret  ceremonies 
of  exercises,  borrowed  from  the  chivah-y  of  romance,  afforded  a  means 
toward  this  end.  The  idea  was  started  in  the  Jesuit  college  at  Clare- 
mont  and  was  approved  and  accepted  by  the  local  lodge.  In  a.d.  1754 
a  gr(»at  number  of  their  noble  members,  who  were  disgusted  with  tlie 
Jesuit  templar  farce,  withdrew  in  order  as  "  New  Templars  "  to  con- 
tinue the  old  order  in  tlie  spirit  of  modern  times.  In  consequence 
however,  of  the  revolution  that  broke  out  in  a.d.  1789  they  could  no 
longer  hold  their  ground  as  a  band  of  nobles.  Napoleon  favoured  the 
reorganization  of  the  order  freed  from  those  limits.  The  day  of 
Molay's  death  (§  112,  7)  was  publicly  celebrated  with  great  pomp  in 
Paris,  A.D.  1808  and  the  order  spread  among  all  French  populations. 
On  the  Bourbon  restoration  the  grand-master  was,  at  the  instigation 
of  the  Jesuits,  cast  into  prison  and  the  order  suppressed.  After  the 
July  revolution  he  was  liberated  and  a  new  temple  was  opened  in 
Paris  iu  a.d.  183i3.  The  show-loving  Parisians  for  a  long  time  took 
pleasure  in  the  peculiar  rites  and  costume  of  the  templars.  Wlieu 
this  interest  declined  the  order  passed  out  of  view.  Its  religion,  which 
professed  to  bf;  a  primitive  revelation  carried  down  in  the  Greek  and 
Egyptian  mysteries,  from  which  Moses  borrowed,  then  further  de- 
veloped by  Christ  and  transmitted  in  esoteric  tradition  by  John  and 
his  successors  the  grand-masters  of  the   templars,  taught  a   divine 


422      CHURCH   HISTORY   OF   NINETEENTH   CENTURY. 

trinity  of  being,  act  and  consciousness,  the  eternity  of  the  world  along- 
side of  God  and  an  indwelling  of  God  in  man.  It  declared  the  Roman 
Catholic  chiu'ch  to  be  the  only  true  Christianity  (e'glise  cliritienne 
primitive).  Its  sacred  book  consisted  of  an  apocryi)hal  gospel  of  John 
in  accordance  with  its  own  notions. — (2)  On  the  communistic  society 
of  St.  Simonians,  which  also  sprang  up  in  France,  see  §212,  2. — (3)  St. 
Simon's  secretary  was  Aug.  Comte,  the  founder  of  the  Positivist  philo- 
sophical school  (§  174,  2)  and  he  maintained  intimate  relations  with 
his  master  all  through  life.  In  his  later  years  he  undertook  by  car- 
rying his  philosophical  doctrine  into  the  practical  domain  to  sketch 
out  a  "religion  of  humanity,"  and  thus  became  the  founder  of  a 
Positivist  religious  sect.  The  men  of  science  indeed  who  had  adopted 
his  philosophical  principles  (Littre,  Renan,  Taine,  Lewes,  Leslie 
Stephens,  Tyndall,  Huxlej^,  Draper,  etc.),  repudiate  it ;  but  in  the 
middle  and  lower  ranks  sonae  Avere  found  longing  for  an  object  of 
worship,  who  endeavoured  on  the  basis  of  his  Calendrier  jwsitiviste  and 
f'afechiime  posifiviste  to  form  a  religiovis  society  for  the  worship  of 
humanity.  His  festival  calendar  divides  the  year  into  thirteen  months 
of  four  weeks  each,  named  after  the  thirteen  great  benefactors  of  man- 
kind (among  whom  Christ  does  not  appear),  while  the  weeks  are  named 
after  lesser  heroes.  By  the  profoimd  veneration  of  woman,  which 
savours  greatly  of  Mariolatry,  as  well  as  by  the  fantastic  worship  of 
heroes,  geniuses  and  scholars,  which  is  a  mimicry  of  the  popish  saint 
worship,  and  by  the  adoption  of  a  sacerdotalism  like  that  of  Catholi- 
cism, this  religion  of  humanity  shows  itself  to  be  an  antichristian 
growth  on  Roman  Catholic  soil. 

2. — (4)  Thomas  Poschl,  in  the  second  decade  of  the  century,  presents 
an  instance  of  a  degeneration  of  originally  pietistic  tendencies  into 
mischievous  fanaticism.  A  Catholic  priest  at  Ampfclwang  near  Linz, 
he  sought  under  the  influence  of  Sailer's  mysticism  to  awaken  in  his 
congregation  a  more  lively  Christianity  by  means  of  prayer  meetings 
and  the  circulation  of  tracts,  in  which  he  proclaimed  the  approaching 
end  of  the  world.  When  tlie  district  in  which  he  lived  was,  in  1814, 
attached  to  Austria,  he  was  committed  to  prison,  and  his  followers 
accepted  as  their  leader  the  peasant  Jos.  Haas,  who  led  them  further 
still  into  fanatical  excesses.  His  fanaticism  at  length  went  so  far 
that  on  Good  Fridaj'  of  1817  a  young  maiden  belonging  to  their  party 
suffered  a  voluntary  death  after  the  example  of  Christ  for  her  brothers 
and  sisters.  Poschl  professed  the  deepest  horror  at  this  cruel  deed 
for  whicli  he  was  blamed.  He  died  in  clost;  monastic  confinement  in 
1837.^(5)  Th<!  Antinomian  sect  of  the  Antonians,  most  numerous  in  the 
Canton  Bern,  had  its  beginning  among  tlie  Roman  Catholics.  Its 
founder  was  Antoni  Unterniilirer,  born  and  reared  at  Shupfheim,near 
Lucerne,  in  the  Catholic  faith.    From  1802  he  resided  at  Amfoldingen, 


§  210.  SECTARIES  IN  ROMISH  AND  GREEK  DOMAINS.    423 

near  Thun,  where  he  stood  in  high  repute  among  the  peasants  as  a 
quack  doctor,  gave  himself  out  as  the  son  of  God  a  second  time  he- 
come  man,  and  proclaimed  by  word  and  writing  the  perfect  redemption 
from  the  curse  of  the  law  by  the  introduction  of  the  true  freedom  of 
the  sons  of  God,  which  was  to  show  itself  first  of  all  in  the  absolutely 
unrestricted  intercourse  of  the  sexes.  After  two  years'  confinement 
in  a  house  of  correction  ho  was  banished  from  the  Canton  Bern  and 
transported  to  his  native  place,  where,  abandoning  all  pastoral  duties, 
lie  died  in  a  police  cell  in  1814.  The  sect,  which  had  meanwhile 
spread  widely,  and  at  Gsteig  near  Interlaken  had  obtained  a  new  leader 
in  the  person  of  Benedict  Schori,  a  third  incarnation  of  Christ,  could 
not  be  finally  suppressed,  notwithstanding  the  liberal  use  of  the 
prison,  till  the  beginning  of  1840.  Even  at  this  day  scattered  rem- 
nants of  Antonians  are  to  be  found  in  Canton  Bern. — (6)  AVhen  the 
Austrian  constitution  of  1849  gave  unconditional  religious  toleration, 
the  Bohemian  Adamites  (§  115,  5),  of  whom  renmants  under  the  mask  of 
Catholicism  had  continued  down  to  the  nineteenth  century,  ventured 
again  publicly  to  engage  in  proselytising  efforts.  An  official  enquiry 
instituted  on  this  occasion  declared  that  the  sect,  consisting  of  Bohe- 
mian peasants  and  artisans,  had  its  headquarters  among  the  mystics 
of  the  Kriidener  school,  that  its  religious  doctrine  was  a  mixture  of 
communism,  freethinking  and  quietism,  and  that  its  members  were  in 
their  ordinary  public  life  blameless,  but  that  in  their  seci'et  nightly 
assemblies,  where  they  dispensed  with  clothes,  tliey  celebrated  orgie3 
regardless  of  marriage  or  relationship. — (7)  David  Lazzaretti,  formerly 
a  carrier  in  Tuscany,  appeared  in  his  native  place  after  an  absence  of 
several  years,  in  1872,  declaring  that  he  was  descended  from  a  natural 
son  of  Charlemagne  and  had  been  entrusted  by  the  Apostle  Peter  with 
a  message  to  the  pope,  pointing  to  a  cross  that  had  been  burnt  upon 
his  brow  by  the  apostle  himself.  He  startled  those  of  the  Vatican, 
where  he  was  quite  unknown,  by  declaring  that  the  bones  of  his  an- 
cestors lay  under  the  ruins  of  an  old  Franciscan  cloister  in  Sabina,  of 
Avhose  existence  nobody  was  aware,  the  discovery  of  which  seemed  to 
vouch  for  his  claims.  These  were  all  the  more  readily  admitted  when 
it  was  found  that  he  made  the  restoration  of  the  Pope's  temporal 
power  his  main  task.  The  number  of  his  adherents,  mostly  peasants, 
soon  increased  immensely,  reaching,  it  is  said,  40,000.  On  Monte 
Labro  they  built  a  church  with  a  strong  "  David's  Tower,"  over  which 
"  St.  David"  appointed  two  priests  who,  when  they  had  made  certain 
changes  in  worship  at  the  call  of  the  prophet,  were  excommunicated 
by  the  bishop.  David  now  began  to  spread  his  Socialistic  and  com- 
munistic ideas.  He  insisted  that  his  adherents  should  surrender  their 
goods  to  Iiim  as  representative  of  the  societj',  and  promised  down  to 
December  31st,  1890,  the  introduction  of  community  of  goods  tlxrough- 


424      CHURCH  HISTORY  OP  NINETEENTH   CENTURY. 

out  Italy  and  afterwards  in  other  countries.  In  Arcidosso,  the  pro- 
phet's birthplace,  a  beginning  was  to  be  made,  but  in  its  overthrow 
on  August  18th,  1878,  he  met  his  death,  and  his  befooled  followers 
waited  in  vain  for  the  fulfilnieut  of  his  dying  promise  that  he  would 
rise  again  on  the  third  day. 

3.  Russian  Sects  and  Fanatics. — After  the  attemj^t  under  Nicholas  T. 
at  the  foi\'ible  conversion  of  the  Raskolniks,  especially  the  purely 
schismatic  Starowerzians  or  Old  Believers  (§  1(33,  10),  had  proved  fruit- 
less, the  government  of  Alexander  II.  by  patience  and  concession  took 
a  surer  way  to  reconciliation  and  restoration.  In  October,  1874,  their 
marriages,  births  and  deaths,  which  had  hitherto  been  without  legal 
recognition,  were  put  on  the  regular  register  and  so  their  lawful  rights 
of  inheritance  were  secured.  Under  Alexander  III.  in  1883  an  im- 
perial decree  was  issued,  which  gave  them  permission  to  celebrate 
divine  service  after  their  own  methods  in  their  chapels,  which  had 
not  before  the  legal  standing  of  churches,  and  declared  them  also 
eligible  for  public  appointments. —  To  the  Duclioborzians  (§106,  2), 
sorely  oppressed  under  Catherine  II.  and  Pavil  I.,  Alexander  I.,  after 
they  had  laid  before  him  the  confession  which  they  had  adopted, 
granted  toleration,  but  assigned  them  a  separate  residence  in  the 
Taurus  district.  Under  Nicholas  I.  they  were  to  the  number  of  3,000 
transported  to  the  Transcaucasian  mountains  in  1841,  where  they  were 
called  Duchoborje. — The  Wiirttemberg  Pietist  colonists  of  South  Russia 
originated  among  the  peasants  the  widespread  sect  of  the  Stundists 
soon  after  the  abolition  of  serfdom  in  1863.  The  originator  of  those 
separatist  meetings  for  the  study  of  Scripture,  which  led  first  of  all  to 
the  condemnation  of  image  worship  and  making  the  sign  of  the  cross 
as  unbiblical,  and  subsequently  to  a  complete  withdrawal  from  the 
worship  of  the  orthodox  church  and  the  forming  of  conventicles,  was 
the  peasant  and  congr(\gational  elder  Eatusny  of  Osnowa  near  Odessa, 
to  whom,  at  a  later  period,  with  equal  propagandist  zeal,  the  peasant 
Balabok  attached  himself.  The  latter  was,  in  1871,  sentenced  to  one 
year's  imprisonment  at  Kiev  and  the  loss  of  civil  rights,  and  in  1873,  at 
Odessa,  a  great  criminal  prosecution  was  instituted  against  Katusny 
and  all  the  other  leaders  of  the  sect,  which,  however,  after  proceeding 
for  five  years  ended  in  a  verdict  of  acqviittal.  A  process  started  in 
1878  against  the  so-called  Sclialoputs  had  a  similar  issue.  This  sect, 
spread  most  widely  among  the  Cossacks  of  Cuban,  rejects  the  Old 
Testament,  the  sacra mcnits  and  the  doctrine  of  the  resurrection,  but 
believes  in  a  continued  effusion  of  the  Holy  Spirit  upon  the  propliets 
of  the  church  who  have  prepared  tlnjuiselves  for  their  vocation  by 
complete  abstinence  from  flesh  and  spirituous  liquor  as  well  as  by  in- 
cessant prayer  and  fi-equent  fasting. 

4.  About  thi'  )iiiddle  of  the  eighteenth  century  among  the  "  iV/e«  of 


§  210.  SECTARIES  IN  ROMISH  AND  GREEK  DOMAINS.    425 

God,''''  the  strict  interpretation  of  the  prescriptions  of  their  fovmder 
Danila  Filipow  (§  1G3, 10)  had  led  many  to  abstain  wholly  from  sexual 
relations ;  Avheu  a  peasant  Andrew  Selivanov  appeared  as  a  reformer 
and  founded  the  sect  of  the  Skopzen  or  mutilators,  who,  building  on 
misinterpreted  i^assages  of  Scripture  (Matt,  v.  28-30,  xix.  12 ;  Rev. 
xiv.  4)  insisted  upon  the  destruction  of  sexual  desire  by  castration  and 
excision  of  the  female  breasts,  generally  performed  under  anaesthetics, 
as  a  necessary  condition  of  entrance  into  the  kingdom  of  heaven.  The 
first  Skopzic  congregation  was  gathered  round  him  in  the  village  of 
Sosnowka.  The  "  men  of  God  "  enraged  at  his  success  denounced  him 
to  the  government.  He  was  punished  with  the  knout  and  condemned 
in  1774  to  hard  labour  at  Irkutzk.  The  idea  that  Peter  III.,  who  died 
in  1762,  was  still  alive,  then  widely  prevailed.  The  "  men  of  God"  had 
also  adopted  this  opinion,  and  proclaimed  him  their  last-appearing 
Christ,  who  would  soon  return  from  his  hiding-place  to  call  to  account 
all  unbelievers.  Selivanov,  who  knew  of  this,  now  gave  himself  out 
for  the  exiled  monarch,  and  was  accepted  as  such  by  his  adherents 
in  liis  native  place.  When  Paul  I.,  Peter's  son,  assumed  the  reins  of 
government  in  1796,  a  Skopzic  merchant  of  Moscow  told  him  secretly 
that  his  father  was  living  at  Irkutzk  under  the  name  of  Selivanov 
The  emperor  therefore  brought  him  to  Petersburg  and  shut  him  up  as 
an  imbecile  in  an  asylum.  After  Paul's  death,  however,  his  adherents 
obtained  his  release.  He  now  lived  for  eighteen  years  in  honour  at 
Petersburg,  till  in  1820  the  court  again  interfered  and  had  him  con- 
fined in  a  cloister  at  Suzdal,  Avhere  after  some  years  he  died.  Sorely 
persecuted  by  Nicholas  I.  many  of  his  followers  migrated  to  Moldavia 
and  Walachia  where  they,  dAvelling  in  separate  quarters  at  Jassy, 
Bucharest  and  Galatz,  lived  as  owners  of  coach-hiring  establishments, 
and  by  rich  presents  obtained  proselytes.  Still  more  vigorously  was 
the  propaganda  carried  on  in  the  Moscow  colonies  on  the  Sea  of  Azov. 
There  in  Morschansk  lived  the  spiritual  head  of  all  Russian  Skopzen, 
the  rich  merchant  Plotizyn.  After  the  government  got  on  the  track 
of  this  society,  Plotizyn's  house  was  searched  and  a  correspondence 
revealing  the  wide  extension  of  the  sect  was  found,  together  with  a 
treasure  of  several,  some  say  as  much  as  thirty,  millions  of  roubles, 
which,  however,  in  great  part  again  disappeared  in  a  mysterious 
maimer.  Plotizyn  and  his  companions  were  banished  to  Siberia  and 
sentenced  to  hard  labour,  the  less  seriously  implicated  to  correction  in 
a  cloister. — The  secret  doctrine  of  the  Skopzen  so  fUir  as  is  known  is  as 
follows :  God  had  intended  man  to  propagate  not  by  sexual  inter- 
course but  by  a  holy  kiss.  They  broke  this  command  and  this  con- 
stituted the  fall.  In  the  fulness  of  time  God  sent  his  Son  into  the 
world.  The  central  point  of  his  preaching  transmitted  to  us  in  a 
greatly  distorted   form  was  the  introduction  of  the  baptism  of  fire 


42(5      CIIURCn   HISTORY   OF   NINETEENTH   CENTURY. 

(Matt.  iii.  11),  i.e.  mutilation  by  hot  irons  for  which,  in  consideration 
of  human  weakness,  a  baptism  of  castration  may  be  substituted 
(Matt.  xix.  12).  Origen  is  regarded  by  them  as  the  greatest  saint  of 
the  ancient  church ;  to  his  example  all  saints  conformed  who  are  re- 
presented as  beardless  or  with  only  a  slight  beard.  The  promised 
return  of  the  Christ  (in  this  alone  diverging  from  the  doctrine  of  the 
"  men  of  God  "),  took  place  in  the  person  of  the  emperor  Peter  III. 
whom  an  unstained  virgin  bore,  who  was  called  the  empress  Elizabeth 
Petrovna.  The  latter  after  some  years  transferred  the  government  to 
a  lady  of  the  court  resembling  her  and  retired  into  jirivate  life  under 
the  name  of  Akulina  Ivanovna,  where  she  still  remains  invisible 
behind  golden  walls,  waiting  for  the  things  that  are  to  come.  Her 
son  Peter  III.,  who  had  also  himself  undergone  the  baptism  of  fire, 
escaped  the  snares  of  his  wife,  reappeared  under  the  name  of  Selivanov, 
performed  many  miracles  and  converted  multitudes,  obtained  as  a 
reward  the  knout,  and  was  at  last  sent  to  Siberia.  Emperor  Paul 
recalled  him  and  was  converted  by  him.  Under  Alexander  I.  he  Avas 
again  arrested  and  imprisoned  in  the  cloister  of  Suzdal.  Bnt  he  was 
conveyed  thence  by  a  divine  miracle  to  Irkutzk,  where  he  now  lives  in 
secret,  whence  at  his  own  time  he  shall  return  to  judge  the  living  and 
the  dead. — They  kept  up  an  outward  connection  with  the  state  church 
although  they  regarded  it  as  the  apocalyptic  whore  of  Babylon.  In 
their  own  secret  services  inspired  psalms  were  sung,  and  after  exciting 
dances  prophecies  were  uttered.' 

§  211.    Sectaries  and  Enthusiasts  in  the  Protestant 

Domain. 

The  United  States  of  America  with  their  peculiar  consti- 
tution formed  the  favourite  ground  for  the  gathering  and 
moulding  of  sects  during  this  age.  There,  besides  the  older 
colonies  of  Quakers,  Baptists  and  Methodists  from  England, 
we  meet  with  Swedenborgianism  and  Unitarianism,  while 
Baptists  and  Methodists  began  to  send  missionaries  into 
Europe,  and  from  England  the  Salvation  Army  undertook 
a  campaign  for  the  conquest  of  the  world.  But  also  on 
the  European  continent  independent  fanatical  developments 
made  their  appearance. — A  new  combination  of  communism 

1  Hepwortli  Dixon,  " Free  Kupsia."  2  vols.  London,  1870.  Heard, 
"  The  Russian  Church  and  liussian  Dissent."    2  vols.    London,  1887. 


§  211.    SECTARIES    IN    THE    PROTESTANT   DOMAIN.    427 

with  religious  entliusiasm  is  rei^resented  by  the  Harmonists 
and  by  the  Perfectionists  in  North  America.  The  Grusiiiian 
Separatists  and  tlie  Bavarian  Chiliasts  are  millenarians  of 
Gei'man  extraction,  of  whom  tlie  former  sought  deliverance 
from  the  prevailing  antichristian  spirit  in  removal  from,  and 
the  latter  in  removal  to,  South  Russia.  The  Amen  churches 
sought  to  gather  God's  people  of  the  Jewish  Christian  com- 
munities together  in  Palestine,  while  the  so-called  German 
Temple  sought  to  gather  the  Gentile  Christians.  As  Latter 
Day  Saints,  besides  the  Adventists,  the  Darbyites  established 
themselves  on  an  independent  basis  ;  the  Irvingites,  with 
revival  of  the  apostolic  offices  and  charisms,  and  their 
American  caricature,  the  Mormons,  with  the  addition  of 
socialistic  and  fantastic  gnostic  tendencies.  The  religion  of 
the  Taiping  rebellion  in  China  presented  the  rare  phenomenon 
of  a  national  Chinese  Christianity  of  native  growth,  and  a 
still  rarer  manifestation  is  met  with  in  American-European 
spiritiialism  with  pretended  spirit  revelations  from  the  other 
world. 

1.  The  Methodist  Propaganda. — From  1850  the  Amorioan  ]M(!thoclists, 
both  the  Albreehtsleiite  (§  '208,  4)  and  the  Episcopal  Methodists,  have 
sent  out  numerous  missionaries,  mostly  Germans  into  Germany, 
Avhose  zeal  has  won  considerable  success  among  the  country  people. 
In  North- West  Germany  Bremcm  is  their  chief  station,  whence  they 
have  spread  to  Sweden,  Central  and  Southern  Germany,  and  Switzer- 
land, and  have  stations  in  Frankfort,  Carlsruhe,  Heilbronn,  and 
Zurich. — Of  a  more  evanescent  character  was  the  attempt  made  on 
Germany  by  the  so-called  Oxford  Holiness  Movement.  In  186G  the 
North  American  IMethodists  cclelirated  tlieir  centenary  in  New  York 
l)y  the  appointment  of  a  great  revival  and  holiness  committee,  in 
which  were  also  members  of  many  other  denominations.  Among 
them  the  manufacturer,  Pearsall  Smith,  of  Philadelphia,  converted  in 
1871,  exhibited  exti'aordinary  zeal.  In  September,  1874,  he  held  at 
Oxford  great  revival  meetings,  from  which  the  desigiiation  of  the 
Oxford  movement  had  its  origin.  By  some  Germans  there  present 
his  opinions  were  carried  to  Germany.  In  spring,  1875,  he  began  his 
second  European  missionary  tour.  While  his  two  companions,  the 
revivalists  Moody  and  Sankej-,  travelled  through  England  for  the 


428      CHURCH   HISTORY   OF   NINETEENTH   CENTURY. 

conversion  of  the  masses,  Smith  ^\■<■ut  to  Germany,  and  proceeding 
from  Berlin  on  to  Switzerland,  gave  addresses  in  English,  that  were 
interpreted,  in  ten  of  the  large  cities.  The  most  pious  among  clergy 
and  laity  flocked  from  far  and  near  to  hear  him.  The  new  apostle's 
joui'ney  became  more  and  more  a  triumphal  march.  Ho  was  lauded 
as  a  reformer  called  to  complete  the  work  of  Luther ;  as  a  prophet, 
who  was  to  fructify  the  barren  wastes  of  Germany  Avith  the  water  of 
life.  The  core  of  his  doctrine  was :  Perfect  holiness  and  the  attain- 
ment of  absolute  perfection,  not  hereafter,  but  now !  now !  now !  with 
the  constant  refrain:  "Jes«s  saoes  me  now'''']  not  remission  of  sins 
through  justification  by  faith  in  the  atoning  efficacy  of  Christ's  blood, 
which  only  avails  for  outwaixl  sinful  actions,  but  immediate  extinc- 
tion of  sins  by  Christ  in  us,  proved  in  living,  luifaltering,  inner, 
personal  experience,  etc.  By  a  great  international  and  intcrconfes- 
sional  meeting  at  Brighton,  lasting  for  ten  days,  in  June,  1875,  at 
which  many  German  pastors,  induced  by  the  payment  of  travelling 
expenses,  were  present,  the  crown  was  put  upon  the  work.  But  at 
the  height  of  his  triumph,  under  the  daily  increasing  tension  and 
excitement  the  apostle  of  holiness  showed  himself  to  bo  a  poor  sinful 
son  of  man,  for  he  strayed  into  errors,  "  if  not  practically,  at  least 
theoreticall3',"  which  his  admirers  at  first  referred  to  mental  aberra- 
tion, but  which  they  hid  from  the  eyes  of  the  world  under  a  veil  of 
mystery.  Toward  the  end  of  the  Brighton  conference  he  declared 
to  his  hearers :  "  Thus  plunge  into  a  life  of  divine  miconcem  !  "  and, 
"  All  Europe  lies  at  my  feet."  And  in  subsequent  private  conversa- 
tions he  developed  a  system  of  ethics  that  "  would  suit  Utah  rather 
than  England,"  to  which  he  then  so  conformed  his  own  conduct  that 
his  admirers,  "although  satisfied  of  the  purity  of  his  own  intentions," 
were  obliged  energetically  to  repudiate  and  with  all  speed  stnid  away 
across  th<!  sea  the  man  whom  their  o^vii  unmeasured  adulation  had 
deceived. 

2.  The  Salvation  Army. — An  extremely  fantastic  caricature  of  Eng- 
lish Methodism  is  the  Salvation  Army.  The  M(!thodist  evangelist, 
William  Booth,  who  in  18(J5  founded  in  one  of  the  lowest  quarters  of 
London  a  new  mission  station,  fell  upon  the  idea  in  1878,  in  order 
to  make  an  impression  on  the  rude  masses,  to  give  his  male  and  female 
helpers  a  military  organisation,  discipline  and  uniform,  and  with 
military  banners  and  music  to  undertake  a  campaign  against  the 
kingdom  of  the  devil.  The  General  of  th(!  Salvationists  is  Booth 
himself,  his  wife  is  his  adjutunt,  his  clilrst,  diinghter  field-marshal; 
his  fellow-workers  male  and  female  are  his  soldiers,  cadets  and 
officers  of  various  ranks  •,  chief  of  the  staff  is  Booth's  eldest  son.  Their 
services  are  conducted  according  to  military  forms ;  their  orchestra 
of  trombone,  drum  and  trumpet  is  called  the  Hallelujah  Brass  Band. 


§  211.    SECTARIES   IN   THE    PROTESTANT   DOMAIN.    429 

Their  journal,  with  an  issue  of  "100,000,  is  the  War  Cry ;  another  for 

children,  is  The  Little  Soldier,  in  which  Jane,  four  years  old,  dilates 

on  the  experiences  of  her  inner  life ;  and  Tommy,  eleven  years  old,  is 

sure  that,  having  served  the  devil  for  eleven  years,  he  will  now  fight 

for  King  Jesus ;  and  Lucy,  nine  years  old,  rejoices  in  being  washed 

in  the  blood  of  the  Lamb.     The  army  attained  its  greatest  success  in 

England.     Its  numerous  "  prisoners  of  war "  from  the  devil's  army 

(prostitutes,  drunkards,  thieves,  etc.)  are  led  at  the  parade  as  trophies 

of  war,  and  tell  of  their  conversion,  whereupon  the  command  of  the 

general,  "  Fire  a  Volley,"  calls  forth  thousands  of  hallelujahs.   Liberal 

collections  and  unsought  contribtitions,  embracing  several  donations 

of  a  £1,000  and  more,  are  given  to  the  General,  not  only  to  pay  his 

soldiers,  but  also  to  rent  or  to  purchase  and  fit  up  theatres,  concert 

halls,    circuses,   etc.,   for  their   meetings,   and   to    build    large  new 

"  barracks."    Its  wonderful  success  has  secured  for  the  army  many 

admirers  and  patrons,  even  in  the  highest  ranks  of  society.     Queen 

Victoria  herself  testified  to  Mrs.  Booth  her  high  satisfaction  with  her 

noble  work.     At  the  Convocation,  too,  in  the  Upper  as  well  as  the 

Lm\-er  House,  distinguished  prelates  spoke  favourably  of  its  methods 

and  results,  and  so  encouraged  the   formation  of  a   Church  Armj', 

which,  under  the  direction  of  the  mission  preacher  Aitken,  pursues 

similar  waj^s  to  those  of  the  Salvation  Army,  without,  however,  its 

spectacular  displays,  and  has  lately  extended  its  exertions  to  India. 

The  temperance  party  after  the  same  model  has  formed  a  Blue  Ribbon 

Army,  the  members  of  which,  distinguished  by  wearing  a  piece  of 

blue  ribbon  in  the  buttonhole,  confine  themselves  to  fighting  against 

alcohol.     In  opposition  to  it  public-house  keepers  and  their  associates 

formed  a  Yellow  Eibbon  Army,  which  has  as  its  ensign  the  yellow 

silk  bands  of  cigar  bundles.     Soon  after  the  first  great  success  of  the 

Salvation  Army,  a  Skeleton  Army  was  formed  out  of  the  lowest  dregs 

of  the  London  mob,  which,  with  a  banner  bearing  the  device  of  a 

skeleton,  making  a  noise  with  all  conceivable  instruments,  and  singing 

obscene  street  songs  to  sacred  melodies,  interrupted  the  marches  of 

the  Salvation,  and  afterwards  of  the  Church,  Army :  throwing  stones, 

filthy  rotten   apples  and  eggs,  and  even  storming  and  demolishing 

their  "  barracks." — In  1880  a  detachment  of  the  Salvation  Army,  with 

Railton  at  its  head,  assisted  by  seven  Hallelujah  Lasses,  made  a  first 

campaign  in  America,  with  Kew  York  as  its  head-quarters.     In  the 

following  year,  under  Miss  Booth,  it  invaded  France,  where  it  issues 

a  daily  bulletin,  "^h  Avant.^''     In  1882  it  appeared  in  Australia,  then 

in  India,  where  Chunder  Sen,  the  founder  of  the  Brama-Somaj,  showed 

himself  favourable.      In   Switzerland   it  broke    ground   in  1882,  in 

Sweden  in  ISSl,  and  in  Germany,  at  Stuttgart,  in  November,  1886. 

Africa,  Spain,  Italy,  etc.,  followed  in  succession.     Thesc^foreign  corps 


430      CHURCH   HISTORY   OF   NINETEP^NTH   CENTURY. 

outside  of  England  also  found  considerable  success.  Almost  every- 
where they  met  with  opposition,  the  magistrates  often  forbidding 
their  meetings,  and  inflicting  fines  and  imprisonment,  and  the  mob 
resorting  to  all  sorts  of  violent  interference.  Nowher(!  were  both 
sorts  of  opponents  so  persistent  as  in  Switzerland  in  1883  and  188-1, 
especially  in  Lausanne,  Geneva,  Neuenburg,  Berrt,  Bail,  etc.  Although 
General  Booth  himself  at  the  annual  meeting  in  April,  1884,  boasted 
that  £393,000  had  been  collected  during  the  past  year  for  the  purposes 
of  the  army,  and  over  846  barracks  in  eighteen  countries  of  the  world 
had  been  opened,  and  now  even  spoke  of  strengthening  the  army  by 
establishing  a  Salvation  Navy,  the  increasing  extravagances  caused 
by  the  army  itself,  as  well  as  the  far  greater  improprieties  of  those 
more  or  less  associated  with  it,  has  drawn  awaj'  many  of  its  former 
support<»rs. 

3.  Baptists  aud  Quakers, — Baptist  sympathies  and  tendencies  often 
appeared  in  Germany  apart  from  an  anti-ecclesiastical  pietism  or 
mysticism.  But  tjiis  aberration  first  assumed  considerable  proportions 
when  a  Hamburg  merchant,  Oncken,  who  had  been  convinced  by  liis 
private  Bible  reading  of  the  untenableness  of  infant  baptism,  was 
baptized  by  an  American  baptist  in  1834,  and  now  not  only  founded 
the  first  German  baptist  congregation  in  Hamburg,  but  also  proved 
unwearied  in  his  efforts  to  extend  the  sect  over  all  Germany  and 
Scandinavia  by  missions  and  tract  distribution.  Oncken  died  in  18&4. 
Thus  gradually  there  were  formed  about  a  hundred  new  Baptist 
German  congregations  in  Mecklenburg,  Brandenburg  (Berlin), 
Pomerania,  Silesia,  East  Prussia  (Memel,  Tilsit,  etc.),  "Westphalia, 
Wupperthal,  Hesse,  Wiirttemberg  and  Switzerland.  In  Sweden 
(250  congregations  with  18,000  souls)  they  were  mainly  recruited 
from  the  "  Readers,"  who  after  1850  went  over  in  crowds  (§  201,  2). 
They  also  found  entrance  into  Denmark  and  Courland,  but  in  all 
cases  almost  exclusively  among  the  uncultunnl  classes  of  labourers 
and  pciasants.  After  long  but  vain  atti^mpts  at  suppression  by  the 
governments  during  the  reactionary  period  of  1850,  they  obtained 
under  the  liberal  policy  of  the  next  two  decades  more  or  less  religious 
toleration  in  most  states.  They  called  themselves  the  society  of 
"  baptized  Christians,"  and  maintained  that  they  were  "  the  visible 
church  of  the  saints,"  the  chosen  jjcople  of  God,  in  contrast  to  the 
"  h(!reditary  church  and  the  churcli  of  all  and  sundry,"  in  which  they 
saw  the  apocalyptic  Babylon.  Even  tlu;  Mimnonites  who  "  sprinkle," 
instead  of  immersing,  "  all,"  i.e.  without  proper  sifting,  the3'  regard 
as  a  "  lusretlitary  "  church.  With  the  Anglo-American  Baptists  they 
do  indeed  hold  fellowship,  but  take  exception  to  them  in  several  jjoints, 
especially  about  open  communion. — A  peculiar  order  of  Baptists  has 
arisen  in  Hungary  in  the  Nazarenes  or  Nazirites,  or  as  they  call  them- 


§  211.    SECTAETES   IN   THE    PROTESTANT   DOMAIN.    431 

selves :  "  Followers  of  Christ."  Founded  in  1840  by  Louis  Hencfey, 
originally  a  Catholic  smith,  who  had  returned  home  from  Switzerland, 
the  sect  obtained  numerous  adherents  from  all  three  churches,  most 
largely  from  the  Reformed  church,  favoured  perhaps  by  the  not  yet 
altogether  extinguished  reminiscences  of  the  Baptist  persecutions  of 
the  eighteenth  centmy  (§  163,  2).  They  practised  strict  asceticism, 
refused  to  take  oaths  or  engage  in  military  service,  and  kept  the  bare 
Puritan  forms  of  worship,  in  which  any  one  was  allowed  to  preach 
whom  the  Holy  Spirit  enlightened.  Their  congregations  embraced 
weak  and  strong  friends,  and  also  weak  and  strong  brethren.  The 
strong  friends  after  receiving  baptism  joined  the  ranks  of  weak 
brethren,  and  then  again  became  strong  brethren  on  their  admission 
to  the  Lord's  Supper.  The  church  officers  were  singers,  teachers, 
evangelists,  elders,  and  bishops. — In  North  America  Quakerism,  under 
the  influence  of  increasing  material  prosperity,  had  lost  much  of  its 
primitive  strictness  in  life  and  manners.  The  more  lax  were  styled 
Wet-,  and  their  more  rigorous  opponents  Dry-Quakers.  Enthusiasm 
over  the  American  War  of  Independence  of  1776-1783,  spreading  in 
their  ranks,  led  to  further  departures  from  the  rigid  standard  of 
early  times.  Those  who  took  weapons  in  their  hands  were  designated 
Fighting  Quakers.  The  General  Assembly  disapproved  but  tolerated 
these  departures ;  neither  the  Wet  nor  the  Fighting  Quakers  were 
excommunicated,  but  they  were  not  allowed  any  part  in  the  govern- 
ment of  the  community.  In  1822  a  party  appeared  among  them,  led 
by  Elias  Hicks,  which  carried  the  original  tendency  of  Quakerism  to 
separate  itself  from  liistorical  Christianity  so  far  as  to  deny  the 
divinity  of  Christ,  and  to  allow  no  controlling  authority  to  Scripture 
in  favour  of  the  unrestricted  sway  of  reason  and  conscience.  This 
departure  from  the  traditions  of  Quakerism,  however,  met  with 
vigorous  opposition,  and  the  protesting  party,  known  as  Evangelical 
Friends,  pronounced  more  decidedly  than  ever  for  the  authority  of 
Scripture.  In  England,  notwithstanding  the  wealth  and  position  of 
its  adherents,  Quakerism,  since  the  second  half  of  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury, has  suffered  a  slow  but  steady  decrease,  while  even  in  America, 
to  say  the  least,  no  advance  can  be  claimed.  In  Holland,  Friesland, 
and  Holstein,  Quaker  missionaries  had  found  some  success  among  the 
Mimnonites,  without,  however,  forming  any  separate  communities. 
Ill  1786  some  English  Quakers  succeeded  in  winning  a  small  number 
of  proselytes  in  Hesse,  who  in  1792,  undiT  the  protection  of  the  prince 
of  Waldeck,  formed  a  little  congregation  at  Friedersthal,  near  Pyr- 
niont,  which  still  maintains  its  existence. — On  the  sects  of  Jumpers 
and  Shakers,  variously  related  to  primitive,  fanatical  Quakerism,  see 
§  170,  7.1 

1  llowntreo,  "  Quakerism  Past  and  Present."     Loudon,  1851). 


4:^2      CHURCH    HISTORY   OF   NINETEENTH   CENTURY. 

4.  Swedenborgians  and  Unitarians.— In  thi^  ninptcfntli  contury  Swed- 
euborgianism  has  found  many  adherents.  In  England,  Scotland  and 
North  America  ^he  sect  has  founded  many  missionary  and  tract 
societies.  In  Wiirttemberg  the  procurator  Hofacker  and  the  libra- 
rian Tafel,  partly  by  editions  and  translations  of  the  writings  of 
Swedenborg,  partly  by  their  own  writings,  were  sjDecially  zealous  in 
vindicating  and  spreading  their  views.  A  general  conference  of  all 
the  congregations  in  Great  Britain  and  Ireland  in  1828  published  a 
confession  of  faith  and  catechism,  and  thirteen  journals  (three  English, 
seven  American,  Tafel's  in  German,  one  Italian  and  one  Swedish) 
represent  the  interests  of  the  party.  The  liberal  spirit  of  modern 
times  has  in  various  directions  introduced  modifications  in  its  doc- 
trine. Its  Sabellian  opposition  to  the  church  doctrine  of  the  Trinity 
and  its  Pelagian  opposition  to  the  doctrine  of  justification,  have  been 
retained,  and  its  spiritualising  of  eschatological  ideas  has  been  in- 
tensified, but  the  theosophiciil  magical  elements  have  been  wholly  set 
aside  and  scarcely  any  reference  is  ever  made  to  revelations  from  the 
other  world. — From  early  times  the  Unitarians  had  a  well  ordered  and 
highly  favoured  ecclesiastical  institution  in  Transylvania  (§163,  1). 
But  in  England  the  law  still  threatened  them  with  a  death  sentence. 
This  law  had  not  indeed  for  a  long  time  been  carried  into  effect,  and 
in  1813  it  was  formally  abrogated.  There  are  now  in  England  about 
400  small  Unitarian  congregations  with  some  300,000  souls.  The 
famous  chemist  Jos.  Priestly  may  be  regarded  as  the  founder  of  North 
American  Unitarianism  (§  171,  1),  although  only  aftt>r  his  death  in 
1804  did  the  movement  which  he  represented  spread  widely  through 
the  country.  Then  in  a  short  time  hundreds  of  Unitarian  congrega- 
tions were  formed.  Their  most  celebrated  leaders  were  W.  Eller}' 
Channing,  who  died  in  1842,  and  Theodore  Pai'ker,  who  died  in  1860, 
both  of  Boston. 

5.  Extravagantly  Fanatical  Manifestations.  —  The  English  woman 
Johanna  Southcote  declared  tliat  she  was  the  "  woman  in  the  sun  " 
of  Eevelation  xii.  or  the  Lamb's  wife.  In  1801  she  came  forth  with 
her  prophecies.  Her  followers,  the  New  Israelites  or  Sabbatarians,  so 
called  because  they  observed  tlie  Old  Testament  law  of  the  Sabbath, 
founded  a  chapel  in  London  for  tlnnr  worship.  A  bea\itif ul  cradle  long 
stood  ready  to  receive  the  promised  Messiah,  but  Johanna  died  in  1814 
without  giving  birth  to  him. — A  horrible  occurrence,  similar  to  that 
I'.jcorded  in  §  210,  2,  took  place  some  years  lat(;r,  in  1828,  in  the  vil- 
higr?  of  Wildenspuch  in  Canton  Zurich.  Margaret  Peter,  a  peasant's 
daughter,  excited  by  morbid  visions  in  early  youth,  was  on  this 
account  expelled  from  Canton  Aargau,  and  was  carried  still  farther  in 
the  direction  of  extreme  mysticism  by  the  vicar  John  Ganz,  by  whom 
she  was  introduced  to  Madame  de  Kriidener  (§  176,  2).    Amid  con- 


§  211.    SECTARIES   IN   THE    PROTESTANT  DOMAIN.    433 

tinual  heavenly  visions  and  revelations,  as  well  as  violent  conflicts  Avitli 
the  devil  and  his  evil  spirits,  she  gathered  a  group  of  faithful  followers, 
by  whom  she  was  revered  as  a  highly  gifted  saint,  among  them  a 
melancholy  shoemaker,  Morf,  whom  Ganz  introduced  to  her.  The 
spiritual  love  relationship  between  the  two  in  an  unguarded  hour  took 
a  sensual  form  and  led  to  the  birth  of  a  child,  which  Morf 's  forbearing 
■\\dfe  after  successfully  simulating  pregnancy  adopted  as  her  own.  This 
deep  fall,  for  which  she  wliolly  blamed  the  devil,  drove  her  fanaticism 
to  madness.  The  ridiculous  proceedings  in  her  own  house,  where  for 
a  wliole  day  she  and  her  adherents  beat  with  fists  and  hammers  what 
they  supposed  to  be  the  devil,  led  the  police  to  interfere.  But  before 
ordei-s  arrived  from  Zurich,  she  foimd  refuge  in  an  asylum,  and  there 
the  end  soon  came.  Margaret  assured  her  followers  that  in  order  that 
Christ  might  fully  triumph  and  Satan  be  overthrown,  blood  must  be 
shed  for  the  salvation  of  man}'-  thousand  souls.  Her  younger  sister 
Elizabeth  vokmtarily  allowed  herself  to  be  slain,  and  she  herself  Avith 
almost  incredible  courage  allowed  her  hands  and  feet  to  be  nailed  to 
the  wood  and  then  with  a  stroke  of  the  knife  was  killed,  under  the 
promise  that  she  as  well  as  her  sister  should  rise  again  on  the  third 
day.  The  tragedy  ended  by  the  apprehension  and  long  confinement 
of  those  concerned  in  it. — The  sect  of  Springers  in  Ingermannland  had 
its  origin  in  1813.  Arising  out  of  a  i-eligious  excitement  not  coun- 
tenanced by  the  church  authorities,  they  held  tliat  each  individual 
needed  immediate  illumination  of  the  Holy  Spirit  for  Ids  soul's  salva- 
tion. So  soon  as  they  believed  that  this  was  obtained,  the  presence  of 
the  Spirit  was  witnessed  to  by  ecstatic  prayer,  singing  and  shouting 
ioined  with  handshaking  and  springing  in  their  assemblies.  The 
special  illumination  required  as  its  correlate  a  special  sanctification, 
and  this  they  sought  not  only  in  repudiation  of  marriage,  but  also  in 
abstinence  from  flesh,  beer,  spirits  and  tobacco.  The  "  holy  love," 
prized  instead  of  marriage,  however,  here  also  led  to  sensual  errors, 
and  the  result  was  that  many  after  the  example  of  the  Skopzen  (§  210, 
4)  resorted  to  the  surer  means  of  castration. — Among  the  Swedish 
peasants  in  1842  appeared  the  singular  phenomenon  of  the  Crying 
Voices  [Rudar).  Uneducated  laymen,  and  more  particularly  A\'omen 
and  even  children,  after  convulsive  fits  broke  out  into  deep  mutter- 
ings  of  repentance  and  pi'ophesyings  of  approaching  judgment.  The 
substance  of  their  ])roclamations,  however,  Avas  not  opposed  to  the 
church  doctrine,  and  the  criers  were  themselves  the  most  diligent 
frequenters  of  church  and  sacrament. — In  the  begimiing  of  1870  the 
wife  of  a  settler  at  Leonerhofe,  near  San  Leopoldo  in  Brazil,  Jacobiua 
Maurer,  became  famous  among  the  careless  colonists  of  that  region  as 
a  pious  miracle-working  prophetess.  In  religious  assemblies  which 
she  originated,  she  gave  forth  her  fantastic  revelations  based  upon 
VOL.   III.  28 


43-4      CHURCH   HISTORY   OP   NINETEENTH   CENTURY.- 

allegorical  interpretations  of  Scripture,  and  founded  a  congregation 
of  the  "  elect "  with  a  coninivuiistic  constitution,  in  which  she  assumed 
to  herself  all  church  offices  as  the  Christ  come  again.  Rude  abuse 
and  maltreatment  of  these  "  Muckers "  on  the  part  of  the  "  unbe- 
lieving," and  the  interfei'ence  of  the  police,  who  arrested  some  of  the 
more  zealous  partisans  of  the  female  Christ,  brought  the  fanaticism 
to  its  utmost  pitch.  Jacohina  now  declared  it  the  duty  of  believers 
to  prepare  for  the  bliss  of  the  millennium  by  rooting  out  all  the  god- 
less. Isolated  nuirders  Avere  the  prelude  of  the  night  of  horror,  June 
25th-26th,  1874,  on  which  well  organized  Mucker-bands,  abmidantly 
furnished  with  powder  and  shot,  went  forth  murdering  and  biu-ning 
through  the  district  for  miles  around.  The  military  sent  out  against 
them  did  not  succeed  in  putting  down  the  revolt  before  August  2nd, 
after  the  prophetess  Avith  many  of  her  adherents  had  fallen  in  a  fana- 
tically brave  resistance. 

6.  Christian  Communistic  Sects. — The  only  soil  upon  which  these 
could  iiourish  was  that  of  the  Free  States  of  North  America.  Besides 
the  small  Shaker  communities  (§  170,  7)  still  surviving  in  1858,  the 
following  new  fraternities  are  the  most  important :  1.  The  Harmonites, 
The  dissatisfaction  caused  among  the  "VVtlrttemberg  Pietists  by  the 
introduction  of  liturgical  imaovations  led  to  several  migrations  in  the 
beginning  of  the  century.  Geo.  Eapji,  a  simple  peasant  from  the 
villa"e  of  Iptingen,  Avent  to  America  in  1803  or  180i  with  about  six- 
hundred  adlierents,  and  settled  in  the  valley  of  Connoquenessing,  near 
Pittsburg  in  Pemisylvania.  As  a  fundamental  principle  of  this 
"Harmony  Association,"  Avhich  honoured  father  Eapp  as  autocratic 
YJatriarch,  ijrophet  and  high  priest,  and  with  him  believed  in  the  near 
approach  of  the  second  advent,  the  community  of  goods  holds  a  pi-om- 
inent  place.  By  diligence  and  industry  in  agriculture,  labour  and 
manufactures,  they  reached  great  prosperity  under  the  able  leadership 
of  their  patriarch.  In  1807  the  community,  by  a  resolution  of  its 
own  to  which  Rapp  agreed,  resolved  to  abstain  from  marriage,  so  that 
henceforth  no  children  were  born  nor  marriages  performed.  A  falling 
off  in  numbers  was  made  up  in  1817  by  iieAv  arrivals  from  Wiirtteni- 
ber"-  and  afterwards  by  the  adoi)tion  of  children.  Industrial  reasons- 
led  the  comnumity  in  1814  to  colonize  "VVabashthal  in  Indiana,  where 
they  built  the  town  of  Harmony,  Avlnch,  however,  in  1823,  on  account 
of  its  unhealthy  situation,  thej'  sold  to  the  Scotchman  Robert  Owen 
(§  212,  8),  and  then  founded  for  themselves  the  town  of  Economj',  not 
far  from  Pittsburg,  where  they  still  reside.  In  1831  an  adventurer,^ 
Bernard  Muller,  appeared  among  them,  who,  at  Ofienbach,  had,  for  a 
Ion"-  time,  under  the  name  of  Proli,  played  a  brilliant  part  as  a  prophet 
called  to  establish  universal  spiritual  monarchy,  and  then,  when  in 
danger  from  the  courts  of  law,  had  lied  to  America,    In  Economy,. 


§  211.    SECTARIES   IN   THE    PROTESTANT   DOMAIN.   435 

Avhere  he  passed  himself  off  as  Count  ^Maximilian  von  Leon,  persecuted 
on  account  of  his  belief  in  the  second  coming,  he  found  as  such  a 
hearty  welcome,  and  within  a  year,  by  his  agitation  for  the  reintro- 
duction  of  marriage  and  worldh*  enjoyments,  drew  aAvay  a  third  part 
of  the  community,  embracing  250  souls.  The  dissentients  with 
105,000  dollars  from  the  common  pui'se  withdrew  and  settled  under 
the  leadership  of  the  pseudo-couiit  as  a  New  Jerusalem  society  in  the 
neighbouring  village  of  iPhilippsburg.  But  the  new  patriarch  con' 
ducted  himself  so  riotously  that  he  was  obliged  in  1833  to  flee  to 
Louisiana,  where  in  the  same  year  he  died  of  cholera.  His  people 
now  in  deep  distress  turned  to  Dr.  Keil,  a  mystic  come  from  Prussia, 
who  reorganised  them  after  the  pattern  of  Eapp's  communistic 
society,  but  with  liberty  to  marrj',  and  brought  them  to  a  pro- 
sperous condition  in  tAvo  colonies  mainly  founded  by  him  at  Bethel  in 
Missoiiri  and  Aiu'ora  in  Oregon.  Economy,  too,  flourished  in  spite 
of  the  heavy  losses  it  sustained,  so  that  now  the  common  jiroperty 
of  the  populace,  Avhich  through  celibacy  had  been  reduced  to  about 
eighty  persons,  amounts  to  eight  million  dollars.  Father  Rapp  died 
in  1847,  in  his  ninetieth  year,  confident  to  the  end  that  he  would 
guide  his  church  rmto  the  hourly  expected  advent  of  Christ. — 2. 
When  in  1831  a  wave  of  revival  passed  over  North  America,  J.  H. 
Noyes,  an  advocate's  assistant,  applied  himself  to  the  study  of  the 
Bible  and  became  the  founder  of  a  new  sect,  the  Bible  Communists  or 
Perfectionists  of  the  Oneida  Society.  He  taught  that  the  promised 
advent  of  Clrrist  took  place  spiritually  soon  after  the  destruction  of 
Jerusalem  ;  by  it  the  kingdom  of  Adam  Avas  ended  and  the  kingdom 
of  God  in  the  heart  of  those  Avho  kneAV  and  received  him  Avas  estab- 
lished. The  ofiicial  churches  Avere  only  state  churches,  but  the  true 
chiu-ch  Avas  scattered  in  the  hearts  of  individual  saints,  until  Noyea 
collected  and  organized  it  into  a  Bible  familj%  For  them  there  is  no 
more  laAv,  for  laAvs  are  for  sinners  and  the  saints  no  longer  sin.  Each 
saint  can  do  and  suffer  Avhatever  the  Spirit  of  God  moves  him  to.  All 
the  members  of  the  congregation  constitute  one  family,  live,  eat,  and 
A\-ork  together.  Goods,  wives  and  children  are  in  conunon.  It  lies  A\dth 
the  wife  to  accept  or  refuse  the  approaches  of  a  man.  But  soon  this 
proclaimed  freedom  from  laAv  sent  everything  into  confusion  and  dis- 
union ;  schism— apostasy  prevailed.  But  Father  Noyes  now  saved  his 
church  from  destruction  by  introducing  a  correction  to  this  freedom 
from  laAV  in  Siimpathy^  i.e.  in  the  agreement  of  all  members  of  the  familj'. 
The  odium  Avliich  fell  upon  the  community  from  Avithout  on  account 
of  its  "  complex  marriages,"  indviced  him  at  last  in  August,  1879, 
although  he  still  ahvays  maintair.ed  the  soundness  of  his  principle  of 
free  love  and  its  final  victory  OA-er  prejudice,  to  ordain  the  introduc- 
tion of  mouogainic  nuirriages,  and  the  community  acquiesced.     With 


436      CHURCH   HISTORY   OF   NINETEENTH   CENTURY. 

regard  to  community  of  goods,  meals  and  children,  however,  they  kept 
to  the  old  lines.  The  parent  community  has  its  seat  at  Lenox  in 
Oneidabacli  in  New  York  State.  Alongside  of  it  are  three  daughter 
communities.  They  have  their  prophets  and  prophetesses,  but  no 
ritual  service  and  no  Sunday.  Their  employment  (they  number 
about  300  souls)  is  mainly  fruit  culture  and  the  manufacture  of  snares 
of  every  kind  for  Avild  and  other  animals. i 

7.  Millenarian  Exodus  Commnnities. — 1.  The  Greorgian  Separatists.  The 
stream  of  Wlirttemberg  emigrants  above  referred  to  turned  also 
toward  Southern  Eussia.  The  settlers  in  Transcaucasian  Georgia  in 
the  long  absence  of  regular  pastors  fell  into  fanatical  separation,  which 
the  clergy  who  followed  in  1820  could  not  overcome.  Under  the 
direction  of  three  elders  (one  of  them  an  old  woman)  as  representing 
the  Holy  Trinity,  they  lived  quietly,  refused  to  baptize  their  childi-en, 
to  give  their  dead  burial  according  to  the  rites  of  the  church, 
to  call  in  physicians  in  sickness,  and  at  last  rejected  the  marriage 
relation.  In  1842  their  female  elder,  Barbara  Spohn,  wife  of  a  cart- 
Avright,  appeared  in  the  role  of  a  prophet,  proclaiming  the  near  ap- 
proach of  the  end  of  the  world  and  calling  upon  her  followers  to  pass 
tln-ough  the  wilderness  to  the  promised  land,  there  to  enter  into  the 
millenial  kingdom.  They  were  to  take  with  them  no  m.oney,  no  bread, 
etc.,  but  only  a  staff ;  their  clothes  and  shoes  would  not  wear  old  in 
the  desert,  they  could  eat  manna  and  quails,  and  in  the  holy  land 
Christ  would  dress  them  in  the  bridal  robe.  The  government  sought 
in  vain  to  bring  them  to  reason  and  to  obstruct  their  way,  Avhen  about 
three  hundred  of  them  wished  at  Pentecost,  1843,  to  start  on  their 
journey.  They  were  allowed  to  send  three  men  to  Constantinople  and 
Palestine  to  seek  permission  from  the  Turkish  goverimient  to  settle 
in  a  spot  near  Jerusalem.  But  these  returned  before  the  close  of  the 
year  with  the  news,  that  Palestine  is  not  the  land  that  would  suit 
them.  This  brought  the  majority  to  their  senses  and  they  rejoined 
the  church. — 2.  Equally  unfortunate  was  the  attempt  at  coloniza- 
tion made  in  1878  by  some  Bavarian  Chiliasts.  The  pastor  Cloter  in 
Ulenschwang  had  for  a  long  time  in  the  "  Brildcrbote,^^  edited  by  him, 
urged  the  (anigration  of  believers  to  South  Russia,  where,  according  to 
his  exposition  of  the  ai)oca]yptic  prophecy,  a  secure  place  of  refuge 
liad  been  provided  by  God  for  believers  of  the  last  times  during  the 
iK'ar  apiH-oaching  persecutions  of  antichrist.  In  June,  1878,  the  tailor 
Minderlein  with  his  family  and  nineteen  other  persons  started  to  go 


^  Dixon,  "New  America."  2  vols,,  8th  edition.  London,  1869. 
NordhofF,  "  The  Coinmunistio  Societies  of  the  United  States."  Lon- 
don iS7J. 


§  211.    SECTARIES   IN   THE   PROTESTANT   DOMAIN.    437 

tliitlier.  Mindprlein  died  by  the  way,  and  his  companions  after  en- 
during great  hardships  were  obliged  to  return,  and  reached  Nurem- 
berg again  in  October,  absolutely  destitute.  ClSter,  however,  was  not 
discouraged  by  this  misfortune.  In  December  he  called  his  ad- 
herents from  Bavaria,  Wiirttemberg  and  Switzerland,  together  to  a 
conference  at  Stuttgart,  where  they  formed  themselves  into  the  "  Ger- 
man Exodus  Church."  In  the  summer,  1880,  Cloter  liimself  travelled  to 
South  Russia  and  thought  that  he  found  in  the  Crimea  the  fittest 
place  of  refuge.  On  his  return  he  Avas  banished,  but  after  some  daj^s 
liberated,  though  deprived  of  his  clerical  office.  A  final  stop  was 
then  put  to  the  exod\is  movement. 

8, — 3.  The  Amen  Community  owed  its  feeble  existence  to  a  Christian 
Jew,  Israel  Pick  of  Bohemia.  Believing  that  he  was  not  required  in 
baptism  to  renounce  his  Judaism,  but  that  rather  thereby  he  first 
became  a  true  Jew,  through  a  onesided  interpretation  of  Old  Testament 
promises  to  his  nation,  he  wished  to  found  a  colony  of  the  people  of 
God  in  the  Holy  Land  on  Jewish-Christian  principles.  The  whole 
Mosaic  law,  excluding  the  observance  of  the  Sabbath  and  circumcision, 
was  to  be  the  basis,  together  with  baptism  and  the  Lord's  Supper,  of 
ecclesiastical  and  civil  organization.  He  succeeded  in  winning  a  few 
converts  here  and  there,  to  whom  he  gave  the  name  of  the  Amen 
Community,  because  in  Christ  (the  jON  VH^N  Isa.  Ixv.  16)  all  the 
prophecies  of  the  old  covenant  are  Yea  and  Amen.  Its  chief  seat  was 
at  Munich-Gladbach.  In  1859  Pick  travelled  to  Palestine  in  order  to 
choose  a  spot  for  the  settlement  of  his  followers  and  there  all  trace 
of  him  was  lost. — 4.  The  founder  of  the  German  Temple  Communities  in 
Palestine  was  Chr.  Hoffmann,  brother  of  General  Superintendent 
Hoffmann  of  Berlin,  and  son  of  the  founder  of  the  Kornthal  Com- 
munit}^  (§  196,  5),  in  connection  with  Chr.  Paulus,  nephew  of  the  well 
known  Heidelberg  professor  Paulus  (§  182,  2).  In  1854  they  issued 
an  invitation  to  a  conference  at  Ludwigsburg,  for  consultation  about 
the  means  for  gathering  the  people  of  God  in  Palestine.  A  great 
crowd  of  believers  from  all  jjarts,  numbering  some  10,000  families, 
was  to  embark  for  the  holy  land  to  form  there  a  new  people  of  God 
which,  on  the  foundation  of  prophets  and  apostles,  should  strictly 
practise  the  public  law  of  the  old  covenant  in  all  points  of  civil 
administration,  including  the  laws  of  the  sabbath  and  the  jubilee. 
The  conference  besought  of  the  German  League  that  it  would  use  its 
influence  with  the  Sultan  to  secure  permission  for  colonization  with 
self-government  and  religious  freedom.  As  the  German  League 
simply  declined  the  request,  the  committee  bought  the  estate  of 
Kirschenhardthof  near  Marbach,  in  order  there  temporarily  and  in  a 
small  way  to  form  a  social  commonwealth  observing  the  Mosaic  law. 
In  1858  Hoffmann  -n-ent  with  two  of  his  followers  to  Jerusalem  in, 


438      CHURCH   HISTORY   OF   NINETEENTH   CENTURY. 

order  to  look  out  a  place  there  suitable  for  tlieir  purpose.  The  result 
■s\'as  unsatisfactory.  Therefore  he  issued  in  1861  a  summons  to  take 
part  in  a  German  Temple.  Consequently  a  numlDer  of  men  from 
Wilrttemberg,  Bavaria,  and  Baden,  Protestants  and  Catholics,  forsook 
their  churches,  ordained  priests  and  elders,  and  appointed  Hoff- 
mann their  bishop  and  held  regular  synods.  The  final  aim  of  this 
procedure,  hoAvever,  was  always  still  to  find  a  settlement  in  Palestine 
and  erect  a  temple  in  Jerusalem  which,  according  to  prophecy,  is  to 
form  the  central  sanctuary  for  the  whole  Avorld.  Colonization  in  the 
East  was  tried  as  a  means  to  this  end.  Since  1869  there  have  been 
five  organized  colonies,  with  a  Temple  Chief  and  a  congregational 
school,  embracing  about  1,000  souls,  established  in  Palestine,  viz.  at 
Jaffa,  Haifa,  Sarona,  Beyrout,  and  in  1878  even  in  Jerusalem,  whither 
the  original  colony  at  Jaffa  was  transferred.  The  German  ImiDerial 
Government  refused  indeed  in  1879  to  give  the  recognition  sought  for 
to  the  civil  and  political  organization  of  the  Palestinian  colonies,  as  in 
a  foreign  country  beyond  its  jurisdiction,  but  granted  to  its  Lyceum 
at  Jerusalem  a  yearly  contribution  of  1,500  marks  and  to  the  schools 
of  .Jaffa,  Haifa  and  Sarona  from  650  to  1,000.  In  1875  Hoffmann  pub- 
lished at  Stuttgart  a  large  apologetical  and  polemical  work,  "  Occident 
iind  Orient,''''  which  contained  many  thoughtful  remarks.  But  since 
then,  in  the  central  organ  of  all  the  Temple  Communities  inspired  by 
him,  the  "  Siiddeidnche  irffrie,"  he  has  openly  and  distinctly  attached 
himself  to  Ebionitic  rationalism,  by  denying  and  opposing  the  funda- 
mental evangelical  doctrine  of  the  trinity,  redemption,  and  the 
sacraments.  These  theological  views,  however,  were  by  no  means 
shared  in  by  all  the  Templars,  and  caused  a  sjDlit  in  the  community, 
one  section  at  Haifa  with  the  chief  templar  there,  Hardegg,  at  its 
head,  separating  from  the  central  body  as  an  independent  "  Imperial 
Brotherhood."  The  seceders,  joined  by  many  German  and  American 
templar  friends,  again  drew  nearer  to  the  Evangelical  church  and 
ultimately  became  reconciled  M-ith  it.  But  Hoffmann  has,  in  his  last 
work,  Bihelforschiingcn  i.  ii. :  Bum.-  u.  Kol.  hr.,  Jerus.  1882,  1884, 
carried  his  polemic  against  the  church  doctrine  to  the  utmost  extreme 
of  C3rnical  abuse.  He  died  in  December,  1885.  At  the  head  of  the 
denomination  now  stands  his  fellow-worker  Paulus.  From  year  to 
year  several  drop  back  into  the  Evangelical  church  so  that  the  com- 
munity is  evidently  approaching  extinction. 

9.  The  Community  of  "the  New  Israel."^ — The  Jewish  advocate  Jos. 
Rabinowitsch  at  Ivishenev  in  Bessarabia,  who  had  long  occupied 
himself  with  plans  for  the  improvement  of  the  spiritual  and  material 
circumstances  of  his  fellow-countrymen,  at  the  outbreak  of  the  per- 
secution of  the  Jews  in  1882  in  South  Russia  eagerly  urged  their 
j-eturn  to  the  holy   land  of  their  fathers   and  himself   undertook  a 


§  211.    SECTARIES   IN    THE    PROTESTANT   DOMAIN.    4-^9 

journey  of  inspection.  There  definite  shape  seems  to  have  been  given 
to  the  long  cherished  thought  of  seeking  the  salvation  of  his  people 
iu  an  independent  national  attachment  to  their  old  sacred  historical 
development,  broken  off  1850  3'ears  before,  by  acknowledging  the 
Messiahship  of  Jesus.  At  least  after  liis  return  he  gave  expression 
to  the  sentiment,  based  on  Romans  xi. :  "  The  keys  of  the  holy  land 
are  in  the  hands  of  our  brother  Jesus,"  which,  in  conseciuence  of  the 
high  esteem  in  which  he  was  held  by  his  countrymen,  was  soon  re- 
echoed by  some  200  Jewish  families.  His  main  endeavour  now  was 
the  formation  of  independent  national  Jewish-Christian  communities, 
after  the  pattern  of  the  primitive  church  of  Jerusalem,  as  "iVert' 
Jsraelites,'''  observing  all  the  old  Jewish  rites  and  ordinances  com- 
patible with  New  Testament  apostolic  preaching  and  reconcilable 
Avith  modern  civil  anrl  social  conditions.  The  Torah,  the  prophets  of 
the  Old  Testament  and  the  New  Testament  writings,  are  held  as  abso- 
lutely binding,  whereas  the  Talmud  and  the  post-apostolic  Gentile 
Christian  additions  to  doctrine,  Avorship,  and  constitution  are  not  so 
regarded.  Jesus,  Eabinowitsch  teaches,  is  the  true  Messiah  who,  as 
Moses  and  prophets  foretold,  was  born  as  Son  of  David  by  the  Spirit 
of  God  and  in  the  power  of  that  Spirit  lived  and  taught  in  Israel, 
then  for  our  salvation  suffered,  was  crucified  and  died,  rose  from  the 
dead,  and  ascended  to  the  right  hand  of  the  Father  in  heaven.  The 
trinity  of  persons  in  God  as  well  as  the  two  natures  in  Christ  he 
rejects,  as  not  taught  in  the  New  Testament  and  originating  in  Gentile 
Christian  speculation.  Baptism  and  the  Lord's  Supper  (and  that 
"according  to  the  example  of  Christians  of  the  pure  Evangelical 
confession  in  England  and  Germany")  are  recognised  as  necessarj' 
means  of  grace  ;  but  the  Lord's  Supper  is  to  be,  according  to  its  insti- 
tution, a  real  meal  with  the  old  Jewish  prayers.  As  to  the  doctrine 
of  the  Supper,  Eabinowitsch  agrees  with  the  views  of  the  Lutheran 
church.  Circumcision  and  the  observance  of  the  Sabbath  and  the 
feasts  (especially  the  Passover),  are  retained,  not  indeed  as  necessary 
to  salvation,  therefore  not  binding  on  Gentile  Christians,  but  pa- 
triotically observed  by  Jewish-Christians  as  signs  of  their  election 
from  and  before  all  nations  as  the  people  of  God.  In  January,  1885, 
■i\'ith  consent  of  the  Russian  Government,  the  newly-erected  si^iiagogue 
of  "the  holy  Messiah  Jesus  Christ"  for  the  small  congregation  of 
Rabinowitsch's  followers  at  Kishenev  was  solemnly  opened,  the 
Russian  church  authorities,  the  Lutheran  pastor  Fultin  and  manj- 
young  Jews  taking  jjart  in  the  service.  Soon  afterwards  Rabino- 
witsch  received  Christian  baptism  in  the  chapel  of  the  Bohemian 
church  at  Berlin  at  the  hands  of  Prof.  Mead  of  Andover,  probably  in 
recognition  of  the  aid  sent  from  America. — A  Jewish-Christian  re- 
ligious communion  with  similar  tendencies  has  been  formed  in  the 


440    CHUECH  histohy  of  nineteenth  century. 

South   Russian   town  of  Jellisawotgracl  under  tho  designation  of  a 
^'Biblical  Spiritual  Brotherhood.''' 

10.  The  Catholic  Apostolic  Church  of  the  Ir?ingites. — Edward  Irving. 
1792-1834,  a  powerful  and  popvilar  preacher  of  tlie  Scotch-Presbj'terian 
church  in  London,  maintained  the  doctrine  that  the  human  nature 
of  Christ  Hive  our  ou-n  was  affected  by  original  sin,  which  was  over- 
come and  atoned  for  by  the  power  of  the  divine  nature.  At  the  same 
time  he  became  convinced  that  the  spiritual  gifts  of  the  apostolic 
church  could  and  should  still  be  obtained  by  prayer  and  faith.  A 
party  of  his  followers  soon  began  to  exercise  the  gift  of  tongues  by 
tittering  unintelligible  sounds,  loud  cries,  and  prophecies.  His  presby- 
tery suspended  him  in  1832  and  the  General  Assembly  of  the  Church 
of  Scotland  excomminiicated  him.  Rich  and  distinguished  friends 
from  the  Episcopal  church,  among  them  the  Avealthy  banker,  Drum- 
mond,  afterwards  prominent  as  an  apostle  (died  1859),  rallied  round 
the  man  thus  expelled  from  his  church,  and  gave  him  the  means  to 
found  a  new  church,  but,  in  spite  of  Irving's  protests,  brought  with 
them  high  church  puseyite  tendencies,  which  soon  drove  out  the  here- 
tical as  well  as  the  puritanic  tendencies,  and  modified  the  fanatical 
element  into  a  hierarchical  and  liturgical  formalism.  The  restoration 
of  the  office  of  apostle  Avas  the  characteristic  feature  of  the  movement. 
After  many  unsuccessful  attempts  they  succeeded  by  the  divine 
illumination  of  the  prophets  in  calling  twelve  apostles,  first  and  chief 
of  Avhom  was  the  lawyer  Cardale  (died  1877).  By  the  apostles,  as  chief 
rulers  and  stewards  of  the  church,  evangelists  and  pastors  (or  angels, 
Rev.  ii.  1,  8,  etc.)  were  ordained  in  accordance  with  Eph.  iv.  11 ;  and 
subordinate  to  the  pastors,  there  wei^e  appointed  six  elders  and  as 
many  deacons,  so  that  the  office  bearers  of  each  congregation  embraced 
thirteen  persons,  after  the  example  of  Christ  and  His  twelve  disciples. 
In  London  seven  congregations  were  formed  after  the  pattern  of  the 
seven  apocalyjatic  churches  (Rev.  i.  20).  Prominent  among  their  new 
revelations  was  the  promise  of  the  immediately  approaching  advent 
of  the  Lord.  The  Lord,  who  Avas  to  have  come  in  the  lifetime  of  the 
first  disciples  and  so  was  looked  for  confidently  by  them,  delayed 
indefinitely  His  return  on  account  of  abounding  iniquity  and  pre- 
vented the  full  development  of  the  second  apostolate  designed  for  the 
Gentiles  and  meanwhile  represented  only  by  Paul,  because  the  church 
was  no  longer  Avorthy  of  it.  Noav  at  last,  after  eighteen  centuries  of 
degradation,  in  Avhich  the  church  came  to  be  the  apocalyptic  Babylon 
and  rij-iened  for  judgment,  the  time  has  come  Avhen  the  suspendiiJ 
ftpostolate  has  been  restored  to  prepare  the  Avay  for  the  last  things. 
Very  confidently  Avas  it  at  first  maintained  that  none  of  their  members 
should  die,  but  should  live  to  see  the  final  consummation.  But  after 
death  had  removed  so  many  from  among  them,  and  even  the  apostles 


§  211.    SECTAEIES   IN   THE    PROTESTANT   DOMAIN.    441 

one  after  another,  it  was  merely  said  that  thoge  are  already  born  who 
should  see  the  last  day.  It  may  come  any  day,  any  hour.  It  begins 
with  the  first  resurrection  (Eev.  xx.  5)  and  the  "  changing "  of  tlie 
saints  that  are  alive  (the  wise  virgins,  i.e.  the  Irvingites),  who  will  be 
caught  up  to  the  Lord  in  the  clouds  and  in  a  higher  sphere  be  joined 
with  the  Lord  in  the  marriage  supper  of  the  Lamb.  They  are  safely 
hidden  Avhile  antichrist  persecutes  the  other  Christians,  the  foolish 
virgins,  who  only  can  be  saved  by  means  of  painful  suffering,  and 
executes  judgment  on  Babylon.  This  marks  the  end  of  the  Gentile 
church ;  but  then  begins  the  conversion  of  the  Jews,  who,  driven  by 
necessity  and  the  persecution  of  sinful  men,  have  sought  and  found  a 
refuge  in  Palestine.  After  a  short  victory  of  antichrist  the  Lord 
visibly  appears  among  the  risen  and  removed.  The  kingdom  of  anti- 
christ is  destroyed,  Satan  is  bound,  the  saints  live  and  reign  with 
Christ  a  thousand  years  on  the  earth  freed  from  the  curse.  There- 
after Satan  is  again  let  loose  for  a  short  time  and  works  great  havoc. 
Tlien  comes  Satan's  final  overthrow,  the  second  resurrection  and  last 
.judgment.  Their  liturgy,  composed  by  the  apostles,  is  a  compilation 
f i-om  the  Anglican  and  Catholic  sources.  Sacerdotalism  and  sacrifice 
are  prominent  and  showy  priestly  garments  are  regarded  as  requisite. 
Yet  they  repudiate  the  Romish  doctrine  of  the  bloodless  repetition  of 
the  bleeding  sacrifice,  as  well  as  the  doctrine  of  transubstantiation. 
But  they  strictly  maintain  the  contribution  of  the  tenth  as  a  duty 
laid  upon  Christians  bj^  Heb.  vii.  4.  Their  typical  view  of  the  Old 
Testament  history  and  legislation,  especially  of  the  tabernacle,  is  most 
arbitrary  and  baseless.  Their  first  published  statement  appeared  in 
1881)  in  an  apostolic  "  Letter  to  the  Patriarchs,  Bishops.^  and  Prenidents 
of  the  Churcli  of  Christ  in  all  Lands,  and  to  emperors,  kings,  and  j^rinces 
of  all  baptized  nations,^''  which  was  sent  to  the  most  prominent  among 
those  addressed,  even  to  the  pope,  but  produced  no  result.  After  this 
they  began  to  prosecute  their  missionary  work  o])enly.  But  they 
gave  their  attention  mainly  to  those  already  believers,  and  took  no 
jjart  in  missions  to  the  heathen,  as  they  were  sent  neither  to  the 
heathen  nor  to  unbelievers,  but  only  to  gather  and  save  believers.  In 
their  native  land  of  England,  Avliere  at  first  they  had  great  success, 
their  day  seems  already  past.  In  North  America  they  succeeded  in 
founding  only  two  congregations.  They  prospered  better  in  Germany 
and  Switzerland,  where  they  secured  several  able  theologians,  chief  of 
all  Thiersch,  the  professor  of  Theology  in  Marburg,  the  Tertullian  of 
this  modern  Montanism  (died  1885),  and  founded  about  eighty  small 
congregations  with  some  5,000  members,  chief  of  A\'hich  are  those  of 
Berlin,  Stettin,  Konigsberg,  Leipzig,  Marburg,  Cassel,  Basel,  Augs- 
l)urg,  etc.  Even  among  the  Catholic  clergy  of  Bavaria  this  movement 
found  resx^onse ;  but  that  was  checked  by  a  series  of  depositions  and 


442      CHURCH   HISTORY   OF   NINETEENTH   CENTURY. 

excommunications  during  1857. — In  1882  the  Lutlieran  pastor  Alpers 
of  Gehrclen  in  Hanover  was  summoned  to  appear  before  the  consistory 
to  answer  for  his  Irvingite  views.  He  denied  the  charge  and  referred 
to  his  good  Lutlieran  preaching.  As,  however,  he  had  taken  the 
sacramental  "  sealing "  from  Irvingite  ajjostles,  the  court  regarded 
this  as  proof  of  his  having  joined  the  party  and  so  deposed  him.' 

11.  The  Darbyites  and  Adventists. — Related  on  the  one  hand  to 
Irvingism  by  their  expectation  of  the  immediately  approaching 
advent  and  by  their  regarding  themselves  as  the  saints  of  the  last 
time  who  would  alone  be  saved,  the  Darbyites,  on  the  other  hand, 
by  their  absolute  independentism  form  a  complete  contrast  to  the 
Irvingite  hierarchism.  John  Darby,  1800-1882,  first  an  advocate,  then 
a  clergyman  of  the  Anglican  church,  breaking  away  from  Angli- 
canism, founded  between  1820  and  1830  a  sectarian,  apocalyptic, 
independent  commtuiity  at  Plymouth  (whence  the  name  Plymouth 
Brethren),  but  in  18;'58  settled  in  Geneva,  and  in  1840  went  to  Canton 
Vaud,  where  Lausanne  and  Vevey  have  become  the  headquarters 
of  the  sect.  All  clerical  offices,  all  ecclesiastical  forms  are  of  the 
evil  one,  and  are  evidence  of  the  corruption  of  the  church.  There 
is  only  one  office,  the  spiritual  priesthood  of  all  believers,  and  every 
believer  has  the  right  to  preach  and  dispense  the  sacraments.  Not 
only  the  Catholic,  but  also  the  Protestant  church  is  a  "Balaam 
Church,"  and  since  the  departure  of  the  apostles  no  true  church  has 
existed.  In  doctrine  they  are  strictly  Calvinistic,^ — The  Adventists. 
Regarding  the  2,B00  days  of  Dan,  viii.  14  as  so  many  years,  W. 
JMiller  of  New  York  and  Boston  proclaimed  in  1833  that  the  second 
advent  would  take  place  on  the  night  of  October  23rd,  1817,  and 
convinced  many  thousands  of  the  correctness  of  his  calculations. 
When  at  last  the  night  referred  to  arrived  the  believers  continueil 
assembled  in  their  tabernacles  Avaiting,  but  in  vain,  for  tlu'  jiromise 
(Matt.  xxiv.  80,  31 ;  1  Cor.  xv.  52 ;  1  Thess.  iv.  IG,  17),  at  "  the  voice 
of  the  archangel  and  the  trump  of  God  to  be  caiight  up  in  the  clouds 
to  ineet  the  Lord  in  the  air."  Tliis  miscalculation,  however,  did  not 
shake  the  Adventists'  belief  in  the  near  ajiproach  of  the  Lord,  but 
their  number  rather  increased  fi'om  year  to  year.  Most  zealous  in 
propagating  their  views  by  joui'nals  and  tracts,  evangelists  and 
missionaries,   is   a  branch  of   the  sect   foumlcil  by  .lames  White  of 


'  Oliphaut,  "Life  of  Ed.  Irving."  3rd  edition.  London,  18G5. 
Carlyle,  in  "  Miscellaneous  Essays."  Brown,  "Personal  Reminiscences 
of  Ed.  Irving,"  in  Exponfor.  3  ser.,  vol.  vi.,  ])|).  216,  2r)7.  Miller, 
"History  and  Doctrine  of  Irvingism,"     2  vols.     London,  1878, 

*  Darby,  "  Personal  Recollections."     London,  1881, 


§  211.    SECTARIES   IN   THE   PROTESTANT   DOMAIN.    443 

Michigan,  whose  adherents,  because  they  keep  the  Sabbath  in  place 
of  the  Lord's  Daj^,  are  called  Seventh  Day  Adventists. 

12.  The  Mormons  or  Latter  Day  Saints. — Jos.  Smith,  a  broken  down 
farmer  of  Vermont,  who  took  to  knavish  digging  for  hid  treasures, 
affirmed  in  1825,  that  under  direction  of  divine  revelations  and 
visions,  he  had  excavated  on  Comora  hill  in  New  York  State,  golden 
tablets  in  a  stone  kist  on  which  sacred  writings  were  engraved.  A 
prophet's  spectacles,  i.e.,  two  pierced  stones  which  as  a  IMormon  Urim 
and  Thummim  lay  beside  them,  enabled  him  to  understand  and 
translate  them.  He  published  the  translation  in  "the  Book  of 
Mormon."  According  to  this  book,  the  Israelites  of  the  ten  tribes 
had  migrated  under  their  leader,  Lehi,  to  America.  There  they 
divided  into  two  peoples ;  the  ungodly  Lamauites,  answering  to  the 
modern  Redskins,  and  the  pious  Nephites.  The  latter  preserved 
among  them  the  old  Israelitish  histories  and  prophecies,  and  through 
niiraculous  signs  in  heaven  and  earth  obtained  knowledge  of  the  birth 
of  Christ  that  had  meanwhile  taken  place.  Toward  the  end  of  the 
fourth  centur3'  after  Christ,  however,  the  Lamanites  began  a  terrible 
war  of  extermination  against  the  Nephites,  in  consequence  of  which  the 
latter  were  rooted  out  with  the  exception  of  the  prophet  Mormon  and 
liis  son  Moroni.  Mormon  recorded  his  revelations  on  the  golden 
tablets  referred  to,  and  concealed  them  as  the  future  witness  for  the 
saints  of  the  last  days  on  the  earth.  Smith  proclaimed  himself  now 
called  on  of  God,  on  the  basis  of  these  documents  and  the  revelations 
made  to  him,  to  found  the  church  of  The  Latter  Day  Saints.  The 
widow  of  a  preacher  in  Now  York  proved  indeed  that  the  Book  of 
Mormon  was  almost  literally  a  plagiarism  from  a  historico-didactic 
romance  written  by  her  deceased  husband,  Sal.  Spaulding.  The  IMS. 
had  passed  into  the  hands  of  Sidney  Eigdon,  formerly  a  Baptist 
minister  and  then  a  bookseller's  assistant,  subsequently  Smith's  right- 
hand  man.  But  even  this  did  not  disturb  the  believers.  In  IK-^l 
Smith  with  ;his  followers  settled  at  Ivirtland  in  Ohio.  To  avoid  the 
daily  increasing  popular  odium,  he  removed  to  Missouri,  and  thence 
to  Illinois,  and  founded  there,  in  18-10,  the  important  town  of  Nauvoo 
with  a  beautiful  temple.  By  diligence,  industry  and  good  discipline, 
the  wealth,  power  and  influence  of  their  commonwealth  increased, 
but  in  the  same  proportion  the  envj^,  hatred  and  prejudices  of  the 
people,  which  charged  them  with  the  most  atrocious  crimes.  In  1841, 
to  save  bloodshed  the  governor  ordered  the  two  chiefs,  Jos.  and  Hiram 
Smith,  to  surrender  to  voluntary  imprisonment  awaiting  a  regular 
trial.  But  furious  armed  mobs  attacked  the  prison  and  shot  down 
both.  The  rouglis  of  the  whole  district  then  gathered  in  one  great 
troop,  desti'oyed  the  town  of  Nauvoo,  burned  the  temple  and  di-ove  out 
tlie  inhabitants.     These,  now  numbering  15,000  men,  in  several  sue- 


444      CHURCH   HISTORY    OF    NINETEENTH    CENTURY. 

cpssive  expeditions  amid  indescribable  hardships  pressed  on  "  through 
the  -n-ilderness  "  over  the  Rockj^  Mountains,  in  order  to  erect  for  them- 
selves a  Zion  on  the  other  side.  Smith's  successor  was  the  carpenter, 
Brigham  Young.  The  journey  occupied  two  full  years,  1815-1847. 
In  the  great  Salt  Lake  basin  of  Utah  they  founded  Salt  Lake  City,  or 
the  New  Jerusalem,  as  the  capital  of  their  wilderness  state  Deaeret, 
The  gold  digging  of  the  neighbouring  state  of  California  did  not 
allure  them,  for  their  prophet  told  them  that  to  pave  streets,  build 
houses  and  sow  fields  was  better  employment  than  seeking  for  gold. 
So  here  again  they  soon  became  a  flourishing  commonwealth. 

13.  In  common  Avith  the  Irvingites,  Avho  recognised  in  them  their 
o^v^l  diabolic  caricature,  the  Mormons  restored  the  apostolic  and  pro- 
phetic office,  insisted  upon  the  continuance  of  the  gift  of  tongues 
and  miracles,  expected  the  speedy  advent  of  the  Lord,  reintroduced 
the  payment  of  tithes,  etc.  But  what  distinguished  them  from  all 
Christian  sects  was  the  jDroclamation  of  polygamy  as  a  religious 
duty,  on  the  plea  that  only  those  women  who  had  been  "  sealed  " 
to  a  Latter-day  Saint  would  share  in  the  blessedness  of  life  eternal. 
This  was  probably  first  introduced  by  Y^'oung  in  consequence  of  a 
new  "  divine  revelation,"  but  douTi  to  1852  kept  secret  and  denied 
before  "  the  Gentiles."  The  ambiguous  book  of  Mormon  was  set 
meanwhile  more  and  more  in  the  background,  and  the  teachings 
and  pro]ihecies  of  their  jjrophet  brought  more  and  more  to  the  front. 
"  The  Voice  of  Warning  to  all  Nations "  of  the  zealous  proselyte 
Parly  Pratt,  foraierly  a  Campbellite  preacher,  exercised  a  great 
influence  in  spreading  the  sect.  But  the  most  gifted  of  them  all 
was  Orson  Pratt,  Rigdon's  successor  in  the  apostolate.  To  him 
mainly  is  ascribcnl  the  construction  of  its  later,  highly  fantastic 
religious  sj-stem  which,  consisting  of  elements  gathered  from  Neo- 
])latonism,  gnosticism,  and  other  forms  of  theosophical  mysticism, 
embraces  all  the  mysteries  of  time  and  eteniity.  Its  fundamental 
ideas  are  these  :  There  are  gods  without  number  ;  all  are  polygamists 
and  their  wives  are  sharers  of  their  glory  and  bliss.  They  are  the 
fathers  of  human  souls  who  here  on  earth  ripen  for  their  heavenly 
destiny.  Jesus  is  the  first  born  son  of  the  highest  god  by  liis  first 
wife ;  lie  was  married  on  earth  to  Mary  Magdalene,  the  sistc^rs  Martha 
and  Mary  and  other  women.  Those  saints  who  here  fulfil  their 
destiny  become  after  death  gods,  Avhile  they  are  arranginl  according  to 
their  merit  in  vario\is  ranks  and  with  i:)rospect  of  promotion  to  liiglier 
jjlaces.  At  tlie  end  of  this  world's  course,  Jesus  will  com(^  again,  and, 
enthroned  in  the  t(;mple  of  Salt  Lake  City,  exercise  judgment  against 
all  "  Gentiles  "  and  apostates,  etc. — The  constitution  of  the  Mormon 
State  is  essentially  theocratic.  At  the  head  stood  the  president, 
Brigham  Young,  as  prophet,  patriarch,  and   priest-king,  in   whose 


§  211.    SECTARIES   IN    THE    PROTESTANT   DOilAIN.    445 

hands  are  all  the  threads  of  the  spiritual  as  well  as  secular  adminis- 
tration. A  high  council  alongside  of  him,  consisting  of  seventy 
members,  as  also  the  prophets  and  ai^ostles,  bishoj)s  and  elders,  and 
generally  the  whole  richly  organized  hierarch3^,  are  only  the  pliable 
instruments  of  his  all-commanding  will.  Every  one  on  entering  the 
society  surrenders  his  whole  property,  and  after  that  contributes  a 
tenth  of  his  year  13^  income  and  personal  labour  to  the  common  puise 
of  the  coixununity.  Soon  numerous  missionaries  were  sent  forth  who 
crossed  the  Atlantic,  and  attained  great  success,  especially  in  Scotland, 
England  and  Scandinavia,  but  also  in  North-West  Germany  and 
in  Switzerland.  On  removing  the  misunderstanding  that  prevailed 
about  their  social  and  political  condition,  and  supplying  the  penni- 
less out  of  the  rich  immigration  fund  with  the  means  to  make 
the  journey,  they  persuaded  great  crowds  of  their  new  converts  to 
accompany  them  to  Utah. 

14.  In  1849  the  Mormons  had  asked  Congress  for  the  apportioning 
of  the  district  colonized  by  them  as  an  independent  and  autonomous 
"  State  "  in  the  union,  but  were  granted,  in  1850,  only  the  constitution 
of  a  "  territory  "  under  the  central  government  at  Washington,  and 
the  appointnaent  of  their  patriarch.  Young,  as  its  governor.  Ac- 
customed to  absolute  rule,  in  two  years  he  drove  out  all  the  other 
officers  aijpointed  by  th(i  union.  He  was  then  deprived  of  office,  but 
the  new  governor.  Col.  Sefton,  appointed  in  1854,  with  the  small 
armament  supplied  him  could  not  maintain  his  position  and 
voluntarily  retired.  When  afterwards  in  1858  Governor  Cununing, 
appointed  by  president  Buchanan,  entei'ed  Utah  A\ith  a  strong 
military  force,  Young  armed  for  a  decisive  struggle.  A  compromise, 
liowever,  was  effected.  A  complete  amnesty  was  granted  to  the 
saints,  the  soldiers  of  the  union  entered  peacefully  into  the  Salt-Lake 
City,  and  Young  assumed  tolerably  friendly  relations  with  the 
governor,  who,  nevertheless,  by  the  erection  of  a  fort  commanding  the 
city  made  the  position  safe  for  himself  and  his  troops.  On  the  out- 
break of  the  war  of  Secession  in  1861  the  troops  of  the  union  were  for 
the  most  part  withdrawn.  But  all  the  more  energetically  did  the 
central  government  at  the  close  of  the  war  in  1865  resolve  upon  the 
complete  subjugation  of  the  rebel  saints,  having  learnt  that  since 
1852  numerous  murders  had  taken  place  in  the  territory,  and  that 
the  disappearance  of  whole  caravans  of  colonists  was  not  due  to 
attacks  of  Indians,  who  would  have  scalped  their  victims,  but  to  a 
secret  Mormon  fraternity  called  Danites  (Judges  xviii.),  brothers  of 
Gideon  (Judges  vi.  ff.)  or  Angels  of  Destruction,  which,  obedient  to  the 
slightest  hint  from  the  prophet,  had  undertaken  to  avenge  by  bloody 
terrorism  any  sign  of  resistance  to  his  authority',  to  arrest  any 
tendency  to  apostasy,  and  to  guard  against  the  introduction  of  any 


446      CHUKCH  HISTORY   OF   NINETEENTH   CENTURY. 

foreign  element.  The  Union  Pacific  Kailway  opened  m  1869  depriveil 
the  "  Kingdom  of  God "  of  its  most  powerful  protection,  its  geo- 
graphical isolation,  while  the  rich  silver  mines  discovered  at  the  same 
time  in  Utah,  peopled  city  and  country  with  immense  flocks  of 
"  Gentiles."  The  nemesis,  which  brought  the  Mormon  bishop  Lee, 
twenty  years  after  the  deed,  under  the  lash  of  the  high  court  of 
justiciary  as  involved  in  the  horrible  massacre  of  a  large  party  of 
emigrants  at  IMountain  Meadows  in  1857,  "would  probably  have  also 
befallen  the  prophet  himself  as  the  main  instigator  of  this  and  many 
other  crimes  had  he  not  by  a  sudden  death  two  months  later,  in  his 
seventy-fifth  year,  escajjed  the  jurisdiction  of  any  earthly  tribunal  (died 
1877).  A  successor  was  not  chosen,  but  supreme  authority  is  in  the 
hands  of  the  college  of  twelve  apostles  with  the  elder  John  Taylor  at 
their  head. — Repeated  attempts  made  since  1874  by  the  United  States 
authorities  by  penal  enactments  to  root  out  polygamy  among  the 
Mormons  have  always  failed,  because  its  actual  existence  could  never 
be  legally  proved.  The  witness  called  could  or  would  say  nothing, 
since  the  '•  sealing  "  was  always  secretly  performed,  and  the  women 
concerned  denied  that  a  marriage  had  been  entered  into  with  the 
accused,  or  if  one  confessed  herself  his  married  wife  she  refused  to 
give  any  evidence  about  his  domestic  relations. — Recently  a  split  has 
occurred  among  the  Mormons.  By  far  the  larger  party  is  that  of  the 
"  Salt  Lake  Mormons,"  Avhich  holds  firmly  by  polygamy  and  all  the 
other  institutions  introduced  by  Young  and  since  his  time.  Th(3 
other  party  is  that  of  the  Kirtland,  or  Old  Mormons,  headed  by  the 
son  of  their  founder,  Jos.  Smith,  who  had  been  passed  over  on  account 
of  his  youth,  which  repudiates  all  these  as  unsupported  novelties  and 
restores  the  true  Mormonism  of  the  founder.  The  Old  Mormons  not 
only  oppose  polygamy,  but  also  all  more  recently  introduced  doctrines. 
They  are  called  Kirtland  Mormons  f  I'om  the  first  temple  built  by  their 
founder  at  Kirtland  m  1814,  which  having  fallen  into  ruins,  was 
restored  by  Geo.  Smitli,  JTUi.,  and  became  the  centre  of  the  Old 
Mormon  denomination.  In  April  1885  they  held  there  their  first 
synod,  attended  b}^  200  deputies.' 

15.  The  Taepings  in  China. — llung-sen-tsenen,  born  in  1813  in  the 
province  of  Shan-Tung,  was  destined  for  the  learned  profession  but 
failed  in  his  examination  at  Canton.  There  h(!  first,  in  1833,  came 
into  contact  with  Protestant  missionaries,  whose  misunderstood  words 
awakened  in  him  the  belief  that  he  was  called  to  perform  great  things. 

1  Stenhouse,  "An  Englishwoman  in  Utah,  the  story  of  a  Life's 
Experience  in  Mormonism."  2nd  ed.  London,  1880.  Gunnison, 
"  The  Mormons."  New  York,  1884.  Burton,  "  The  City  of  the  Saints." 
London,  1861. 


§  211.    SECTARIES   IN   THE    PROTESTANT   DOMAIN.    -447 

At  the  same  time  lie  tliere  got  posriessiou  of  some  Christian  Chinese 
tracts.  Failing  in  his  examination  a  second  time  in  1837,  he  fell  into 
a  clangerons  illness  and  had  a  series  of  visions  in  which  an  old  man 
■with  a  golden  beard  api?eared,  handing  to  him  the  insignia  of 
imperial  rank,  and  comiVianding  him  to  root  out  the  demons.  After 
his  i'ecovei"y  he  became  an  elementary  teacher.  A  relative  called  Li 
visited  him  in  1843.  The  Christian  tracts  were  again  sought  out  and 
carefully  studied.  Sen  now  recognised  in  the  old  man  of  his  visions 
the  God  of  the  Christians  and  in  himself  the  younger  brother  of  Jesus. 
The  two  baptized  one  another  and  won  over  two  young  relatives  to 
their  views.  Expelled  from  their  offices,  they  went  in  1844  to  the 
province  of  Iviang  Se  as  pencil  and  ink  sellers,  preached  diligently  the 
new  doctrine  and  founded  numerous  small  congregations  of  their  sect. 
The  American  missionaries  at  Canton  heard  of  the  success  of  their 
preaching,  and  Sen  accepted  an  invitation  to  join  them  in  1847.  The 
missionary  Roberts  had  a  great  esteem  for  him  and  intended  to 
baptize  him,  when  in  consequence  of  stories  spread  about  him  their 
relations  became  strained.  Sen  now  returned  in  1848  to  his  com- 
panions in  Kiang  Se,  Avho  had  diligently  and  successfully  continued 
their  preaching.  In  1850  they  began  to  attract  attention  by  the 
violent  destruction  of  idols.  AVhen  now  all  the  remnants  of  a  pirate 
band  joined  them  as  converts,  they  were  in  common  ■v\ith  these  per- 
secuted by  the  government  and  proclaimed  rebels.  The  expulsion  of 
the  hated  Mantshu  dynasty,  which  tAvo  hundred  years  before  had  dis- 
placed the  Ming  dynastj^  and  the  overthrow  of  idolatry  were  now 
their  main  endeavour,  and  in  1857  they  organized  under  Sen  a  regular 
rebellion  for  the  setting  up  of  a  Taeping  dynastj^,  i.e.,  of  universal 
peace.  The  Taeping  army  advanced  unhindered,  all  Mantschu 
soldiers  who  fell  into  its  liands  were  n:iassacred,  and  of  the  inhabitants 
of  the  provinces  conquered,  only  tliose  wex'e  spared  who  joined  their 
ranks.  In  March,  1853,  they  stormed  the  second  capital  of  the  empire. 
Nankin,  the  old  residence  of  the  Ming  dynastj-.  There  Sen  fixed  his 
residence  and  styled  himself  Tien- Wang,  the  Divine  Prince.  He 
assigned  to  ten  subordinate  princes  the  govei'nment  of  the  conquered 
provinces,  almost  the  half  of  the  immense  empire.  Thousands  of 
bibles  were  circulated  ;  the  ten  commandments  proclaimed  as  the 
fovuidation  of  law,  many  writings,  prayers  and  poems  composed  for 
the  instruction  of  the  people,  and  these  with  the  bible  made  subjects 
of  examination  for  entrance  to  the  learned  order.  An  Arian  theory 
of  the  trinity  Avas  set  forth ;  the  Father  is  the  one  pei-sonal  God, 
Avhose  likeness  in  bodily  human  form  Sen  strictly  forbade,  destroj-ing 
the  Catholic  images  as  Avell  as  the  Chinese  idols.  Jesus  is  the  first- 
born son  of  God,  yet  not  himself  God,  sent  by  the  Father  into  the 
Avorld  in  order  to  enlighten  it  by  his  Lloclriue  aiul  to  redeem  it  by  his 


448      CHURCH   HISTORY   OF   NINETEENTH   CENTURY. 

atoning  sufferings.  Sen,  the  younger  brotHer  of  Jesus,  was  sent  into 
the  Avorld  to  spread  the  doctrine  of  Jesus  and  to  expel  the  demons, 
the  Mantschu  dynasty,  Reception  takes  place  through  baptism.  The 
Lord's  Supper  was  unknown  to  them.  Bloody  and  bloodless  offerings 
were  still  tolerated.  The  use  of  wine  and  tobacco  was  forbidden  •,  the 
use  of  opium  and  trafficking  in  it  were  punished  with  death.  But 
polygamy  was  sanctioned.  Saturday,  according  to  the  Old  Testament, 
was  their  holy  day.  Their  service  consisted  only  of  prayer,  singing 
and  I'eligious  instruction  ;  but  also  written  jirayers  Avere  presented  to 
God  by  burning. 

16.  Sen  himself  had  no  more  visions  after  1837.  But  other  ecstatic 
prophets  arose,  the  eastern  prince  Yang  and  the  western  prince  Siao. 
The  revelations  of  the  latter  were  comparatively  sober,  but  those  of 
tlae  former  Avere  in  the  highest  degree  blasphemously  fanatical.  He 
declared  himself  the  Paraclete  promised  by  Jesus,  and  taught  that 
God  himself,  as  well  as  Jesus,  had  a  Avife  Avith  sons  and^daughters 
He  Avas  at  the  same  time  a  brave  and  successful  general,  and  the  mass 
of  the  Taepings  Avere  enthusiastically  attached  to  him.  Sen  humbly 
yielded  to  the  extravagances  of  this  fanatic,  even  Avhen  Yang  sentenced 
him  to  receive  forty  lashes.  Sen's  overthroAV  was  already  resolved 
upon  in  Yang's  secret  council,  when  Sen  took  courage  and  gave  the 
northern  prince  secret  orders  to  murder  Yang  and  his  f olloAvers  in  one 
night.  This  was  done,  and  Sen  Avas  Aveak  enougli  to  alloAV  the  execu- 
tioner of  his  secret  order  to  be  publicly  put  to  death  so  as  to  appease 
the  excited  populace.  But  he  thus  again  in  1856  became  master 
of  the  situation. — One  of  the  oldest  ajjostles  of  Sen,  his  near  relative 
Hung  Yin,  had  been  turned  off  at  Hong  Kong.  He  there  attached 
himself  to  the  Basel  missionary,  Hamberg,  avIio  in  1852  baptized  him 
and  made  him  his  native  helper.  In  hope  of  winning  his  cousin  to 
the  true  Christian  faith,  he  travelled  in  1854  to  Nankin,  Avhich  hoA\'- 
ever  he  did  not  reach  till  Januar}^,  1859.  Sen  received  him  gladly 
and  made  him  his  Avar  minister.  But  his  efforts  to  introduce  a  purer 
Cln'istianity  among  the  Taepings  Avere  unsuccessful,  for  he  tried  the 
slippeiy  Avay  of  accommodation,  and  under  pressure  from  Sen  set  up 
for  himself  a  harem.  In  October,  1860,  on  Sen's  repeated  invitation, 
his  former  teacher,  the  missionary  Roberts  of  Nankin,  arrived  and 
was  immediately  made  minister  for  foreign  affairs.  The  Shanghai 
missionaries,  several  of  Avhom  visited  Nankin,  had  interesting  inter- 
views Avith  Yin  in  1860,  but  not  Avith  the  emperor,  as  they  refused  to 
go  on  their  knees  before  him.  They  Avere  encouraged  by  Yin  to  hope 
for  a  future  much  needed  purifying  of  Taeping  Christianity.  Yang's 
revelations,  hoAvever,  held  their  ground  after  as  Avell  as  before,  and 
Avere  increased  by  further  absurdities.  To  such  crass  fanaticism  Avas 
now   added   the   inhuman   cruelty  AAdth  Avhich   they  massacreil  the 


§  211.    SECTARIES    IN    THE    PROTESTANT    DOMAIN.    449 

vauqiushtHl  and  wasted  the  conquered  cities  and  districts.  Had  the 
European  powers  ranged  themselves  in  a  friendly  and  peaceful 
attitude  alongside  of  the  Taepings,  China  might  now  have  been  a 
Christian  empire.  Instead  of  this  the  English,  on  account  of  the 
extreme  opposition  of  the  Taepings  to  the  opium  traffic,  took  up  a 
hostile  position  toward  them,  Avhile  they  were  also  in  disfavour  with 
the  French,  Avho  had  been  denounced  by  them  as  idolaters  on  account 
of  tlieir  Romish  image  woi-ship.  Down  to  the  beginning  of  1862,  how- 
ever, Yin's  influence  had  prevented  any  hostile  proceedings  against 
the  Euroi^eans  in  spite  of  many  provocations  given.  But  after  that 
the  Taepings  refused  them  any  quarter.  Roberts  fled  by  night  to 
save  his  life.  Against  discip)lined  European  troops  the  rebels  could 
not  hold  their  ground.  One  city  after  another  was  taken  from  them, 
and  at  last,  in  July  18(54,  their  capital  Nankin.  Sen  was  found 
poisoned  in  his  burning  palace.^ 

17.  The  Spiritualists. — The  shoemaker's  apprentice,  AndreAV  Jackson 
Davis  of  Poughkeepsie  on  the  Hudson,  in  his  nineteenth  year  fell  into 
a  magnetic  sleep  and  composed  his  iii'st  work,  "  The  Principles  of 
Kature,  Her  Divine  Revelations  and  a  Voice  to  Mankind,"  in  1845. 
He  declared  its  utterances  to  be  sj)iritual  revelations  from  the  other 
world.  But  liis  later  writings  composed  in  working  hours  made  the 
same  claim,  especiall}^  the  five  volume  work,  "  Great  Harmonia,  being 
a  Philosophical  Revelation  of  the  Natural,  Spiritual,  and  Celestial 
Universe,"  1850  ff.  Both  went  tlirougli  numerous  editions  and  were 
translated  into  German.  The  great  spiritual  manifestation  promised 
in  the  first  work  was  not  long  delayed.  In  a  house  bought  by  the 
family  of  Fox  in  Hj'desville  in  New  York  State  a  spectral  knocking 
Mas  often  heard.  Through  the  intercourse  which  the  two  youngest 
daughters,  aged  nine  and  twelve  years,  had  with  the  ghosts,  the  skeleton 
of  a  murdered  five  years'  old  child  of  a  pedlar  was  discovered  buried 
in  the  cellar,  and  when  the  family  soon  thereafter  left  the  house,  the 
ghosts  went  Avith  theni  and  continued  their  communications  hj  table 
turning,  table  rapping,  table  -writing,  etc.  The  thing  now  became 
epidemic.  Hundreds  and  thousands  of  male  and  female  medmms  arose 
and  held  an  extremely  lively  and  varied  intercourse  with  innumer- 
able departed  ones  of  earlier  and  later  times.  The  believers  soon 
numbered  millions,  including  highly  educated  persons  of  all  ranks, 
even  such  exact  chemists  as  Mapes  and  Hare.  An  abundant  litera- 
tui-e  in  books  and  journals,  as  well  as  Sunday  services,  frequent  camp- 
meetings  and  annual  congresses  formed  a  propaganda  for  the  alleged 

1  Wilson,  "  The  '  Ever-Victorious  Army ' :  a  History  of  the  Chinese 
Campaign  rmder  Lieut.-CoL  C.  G.  Gordon,  and  of  the  Suppression  of 
the  Taeping  Rebellion."     Edinburglu 

VOL.    III.  29 


450      CHURCH   HISTORY   OF   NINETEENTH   CENTURY. 

spiritualism,  which  soon  found  its  way  across  the  ocean  and  won 
enthusiastic  adherents  for  all  confessions  in  all  European  countries, 
especially  in  London,  Paris,  Brussels,  St.  Petersburg,  Vienna,  Dresden, 
Leipzig,  etc.  They  now  broke  up  into  two  parties  called  respectively 
Spiritualists  and  Spiritists.  The  former  put  in  the  foreground  phy- 
sical experiments  with  astonishing  results  and  miraculous  effects ; 
the  latter,  with  the  Frenchman  Allan  Kardec  (Bivail)  as  their  leader, 
give  prominence  to  the  teaching  of  spirits  by  direct  communication. 
The  former  in  reference  to  the  origin  of  the  human  soul  held  by  the 
theory  of  traducianism ;  the  latter  to  that  of  pre-existence  in  con- 
nection with  a  doctrine  of  re-incarnation  of  spirits  by  reason  of 
growing  pui'ity  and  perfection.  The  latter  see  in  Chidst  the  incar- 
nation of  a  spirit  of  the  highest  order ;  the  former  merely  the  purest 
and  most  perfect  type  of  human  nature.  But  neither  admit  the 
real  central  truth  of  Christianity,  the  reconciliation  of  sinful  hu- 
manity with  God  in  Christ.  Both  evaporate  the  resurrection  into  a 
mere  spectral  spirit  manifestation ;  and  the  disclosures  and  vitter- 
ances  of  the  spirits  with  both  are  equally  trivial,  silly,  and  vain. — 
In  England  the  famous  palseontologist  and  collaborateur  of  Darwin, 
Alf r.  Eussel  Wallace,  and  the  no  less  celebrated  physicist  Wm.  Crookes, 
are  apologists  of  spiritualism.  The  latter  declared  in  1879  that  to  the 
three  well-known  conditions  of  matter",  solid,  fluid  and  gaseous,  should 
be  added  a  fourth,  "  radiant,"  and  that  there  is  the  borderland  where 
force  and  matter  meet.  And  in  Germany  the  acute  Leipzig  astro- 
phj'sicist  Fr.  Zollner,  after  a  whole  series  of  spiritvialistic  seances 
conducted  by  the  American  medium  Slade  in  1877  and  1878  had  been 
carefully  scrutinized  and  tested  by  himself  and  several  of  his  most 
accomplished  scientific  colleagues,  was  convinced  of  the  existence 
and  reality  of  higher  "  four  dimension "  space  in  the  spirit  world, 
to  which  by  reason  of  its  fourth  dimension  the  power  belonged 
of  passing  through  earthly  bodily  matter.  The  philosophers  I.  H. 
Fichte  of  Stuttgart  and  Ulrici  of  Halle  have  adixdtted  the  reality  of 
spiritualistic  communications  and  allege  them  as  proofs  of  immor- 
tality. Among  Germaai  theologians  Luthardt  of  Leipzig  regards  it 
all  as  the  work  of  demons  Avho  take  advantage  for  their  own  ends  of 
the  moral-religious  dissolution  of  the  modern  world  and  its  consequent 
nerve  shaking  that  prevails,  just  as  in  the  ancient  world  in  the  begin- 
nings of  Christianity.  Zockler  of  Greifswald  finds  an  analogy  between 
it  and  the  demoniacal  possession  of  New  Testament  times ;  so  too 
Martensen  in  his  "Jacob  Boehme,"  and  on  the  Catholic  side  W. 
Schneider ;  while  Splittgerber  refers  most  of  the  manifestations  in 
question  to  a  merely  subjective  origin  in  "  the  right  side  of  the 
human  soul  life,"  but  jjuts  the  materialization  of  spirits  in  the  cate- 
gory of  delusive  jugglery.    Spiritualisiu  has  scarcely  rallied  from  the 


§  211.    SECTARIES   IN    THE    PEOTESTANT   DOMAIN.    451 

obloquy  cast  upon  it  by  the  unmasking  of  the  tricks  of  the  famous 
medium  Miss  Florence  Cook  in  London  in  1880  and  of  the  dis- 
tinguished spirit  materialiser  Bastian  by  the  Grand-duke  John  of 
Austria  in  1884.1 

18,  To  the  domain  of  untxuestionable  illusion  belongs  also  the 
spiritualistic  movement  of  Indian  Theosophism  or  Occultism.  The 
American  Col.  Olcott  of  New  York  had  already  moved  for  twenty- 
two  years  in  spiritualist  circles  when  in  1874  he  met  with  Madame 
Blavatsky,  widow  of  a  Eiissian  general  who  had  been  governor  of 
Erivan  in  Armenia.  She  professed  to  have  been  from  her  eighth  year 
in  communication  with  spirits,  then  to  have  had  secret  intercourse 
Avith  the  Mahatmas,  i.e.  spirits  of  old  Indian  penitents,  during  a 
seven  years'  residence  on  the  Himalayas.  She  now  promised  to  intro- 
duce the  colonel  to  them.  Olcott  and  Blavatsky  foiuided  at  New 
York  in  1875  a  society  for  research  in  the  department  of  the  mystic 
sciences,  travelled  in  1878  to  Further  India  and  Ceylon,  and  settled 
fuially  in  Madras,  whence  by  word  and  writing  they  proclaimed 
through  the  whole  land  theosophism  or  occultism  as  the  religion 
of  the  futiire,  which,  consisting  in  a  medley  of  Hinduism  and  Bud- 
dhism, enriched  by  spii-itualistic  revelations  of  Mahatmas,  vouched 
for  by  spiritualistic  signs  and  miracles,  and  conformed  to  the  most 
recent  philosophical  and  scientific  researches  in  America  and  Europe, 
aimed  at  lieaping  contempt  upon  Christianity  and  finally  driving 
it  from  the  field.  As  fanatical  opponents  of  Christian  missions  in 
India  they  were  strongly  supported  by  the  Brahman  and  Buddhist 
hierarchy,  and  soon  obtained  for  the  theosophical  society  founded 
by  them  not  only  numerous  adherents  from  among  the  natives, 
but  also  many  Englishmen  befooled  by  their  spiritualistic  swindle. 
As  apostle  and  literary  pioneer  of  the  new  religion  appeared  an 
Anglo-Indian  called  Simiett.  In  spring,  1884,  Madame  Blavatsky 
and  Col.  Olcott  went  on  a  propagandist  tour  to  Europe,  where,  in 
England,  France,  Austria,  and  Hungai-y,  they  won  many  converts, 
Avhile  Col.  Olcott  at  Elberfeld  and  Madame  Blavatsky  at  Odessa 
founded  branches  of  their  theosophical  society.— But  meanwhile  in 

1  Edmonds,  "  American  Spiritualism."'  2  vols.  New  Yoi-k,  1858. 
Cos,  "Spiritualism  answered  by  Science."  London,  1872.  Crookes, 
"  Spiritualism  and  Science."  London,  1874.  "Wallace,  "  A  Defence 
of  Spiritualism."  London,  1874.  Owen,  "  The  Debatable  Land." 
New  York,  1872.  Carpenter,  "  Mesmerism,  Spiritualism,  etc..  Histori- 
cally and  Scientifically  Considered."  London,  1877.  Mahan,  "  The 
Phenomena  of  Spiritualism  Scientifically  Explained  and  Exposed." 
London,  1875.  Home,  "Incidents  in  His  Life."  London,  1863. 
"  Lights  and  Shadows  of  Spiritualism."     London,  1877. 


452      CHURCH    HISTORY    OF    NINETEENTH    CENTURY. 

India  affairs  assumed  a  threatening  aspect.  Blavatsky  on  her  de- 
parture had  entrusted  the  keys  of  her  dwelling  and  her  mysterious 
cabinet  with  its  various  panels,  falling  doors,  etc.,  to  Mr.  and  Mrs. 
Coulomb,  who  had  been  hitherto  her  assistants  in  all  her  juggleries. 
Madame  Coulomb,  hoAvever,  quarrelled  with  the  board  of  theosophists 
at  Madras,  and  revenged  herself  by  placing  in  the  hands  of  the 
Scottish  mission  letters  addressed  by  Blavatsky  to  herself  and  her 
husband  which  sujiplied  evidence  that  all  her  spiritualistic  mani- 
festations were  only  common  tricks.  In  addition  she  gave  public 
exhibitions  in  which  she  demonstrated  to  the  spectators  ad  oculos 
the  spiritiial  manifestations  of  the  Mahatmas,  and  subsequently  pub- 
lished an  "  Account  of  My  Acquaintanceship  with  Madame  Blavatsky, 
1872-1884,"  with  discoveries  of  her  earlier  rogueries.  Meanwhile  the 
swindler  had  herself  in  December,  1884,  returned  to  Madras  in  com- 
pany with  several  believers  gathered  up  in  England,  among  others  a 
young  English  clergyman,  Leadbeater,  who  some  days  previously  in 
Ce^'lon  had  formally  adopted  Buddhism.  The  theosophists  now  de- 
manded that  the  reputed  cheat  and  deceiver  should  be  brought  before 
a  civil  court.  The  president,  however,  declared  that  the  investigations 
and  judgment  of  a  profane  court  of  law  could  not  be  accepted  to  the 
mysteries  of  occultism,  but  promised  a  careful  examination  by  a  com- 
mission appointed  by  himself,  and  Blavatsky  thought  it  advisable 
"  for  the  restoration  of  her  health  in  a  cooler  climate  "  to  make  off 
from  the  scene  of  conflict.  * 

§  212.    Antichristian  Socialism  and  Communism. 

While  the  antichristian  spirit  of  the  age  bi'saks  out  in 
various  theoretical  forms  in  our  literature,  there  also  abound 
social  and  communistic  movements  of  a  practical  kind. 
Socialism  and  communism  both  aim  at  a  thorough-going 
reform  of  the  rights  of  property  and  possession  in  strict 
proportion  to  the  labour  spent  thereon.  They  are,  however, 
distinguished  in  this,  that  while  communism  declares  war 
against  all  private  property  and  demands  absolute  community 
of  goods,  socialism,  at  least  in  its  older  and  nobler  forms, 
proceeding  from  the  idea  of  precise  correspondence  between 
capital  and  labour,  seeks  to  have  expression  given  to  this  in 
fact.     Erom  the  older  socialism,  which  endeavoured  to  reach 

'  Sinnett,  "Esoteric  Buddhism."    London,  1883. 


§  212.    ANTICHRISTIAN  SOCIALISM  AND  COMMUNISM,     453 

its  end  in  a  peaceful  way  within  the  existing  lines  of  civil 
order,  a  later  social  democracy  is  to  be  distinguished  by  its 
decidedl}'^  politico-re vohitionary  character  and  tendency  to 
attach  itself  more  to  communism.  This  modern  socialism 
thinks  to  open  the  way  to  the  realization  of  its  hare-brained 
ideas  by  the  confusion  and  overthrow  of  existing  law  and 
order. 

1,  The  Beginnings  of  Modein  Communism. — As  early  as  1796  Babeuf 
published  in  Paris  a  communistic  manifesto  ■vvhicli  maintained  the 
thesis  that  natural  law  gives  all  men  an  equal  right  to  the  enjoyment 
of  all  goods.  His  ideas  were  subsequently  systematized  and  developed 
by  Fourier,  Proudhon,  Cabet,  and  Louis  Blanc  in  France,  and  by 
Weibling  and  Stirner  in  Germany.  In  a  treatise  of  1840  Proudhon 
answered  the  question,  Qii'est-ce  que  Ja  proprUte?  in  words  which 
afterwards  became  proverbial,  and  formed  the  motto  of  communism  : 
La  propyrie'te  c'est  le  vol.  But  the  mere  negation  of  pi-operty  affords 
no  permanent  standing  gi'ound.  All  altars  must  be  thrown  down  ; 
all  religion  rooted  out  as  the  plague  of  humanity ;  the  family  and 
marriage,  as  the  fountain  of  all  selfisliness,  must  be  abolished ;  all 
existing  governments  must  be  overthrown ;  all  Europe  must  bo  turned 
into  one  great  social  democracy.  A  secret  communistic  pi'opaganda 
spread  over  all  western  Europe,  had  its  head  centres  in  Belgium 
and  Switzerland,  crossed  the  Alps  and  the  Pyrenees,  as  well  as  the 
Channel,  and  found  a  congenial  soil  even  in  Russia. 

2,  St.  Simonism. — The  Count  St.  Simon  of  Paris,  reduced  to  poverty 
by  speculation,  proposed  by  means  of  a  thorough  organization  of 
industry  to  found  a  new  and  happy  state  of  things  in  which  there 
would  be  pure  enjoyment  without  poverty  and  care.  An  att(»mpted 
suicide,  which  led  however  to  his  death  in  1825,  made  him  in  tlie 
eyes  of  his  disciples  a  saviour  of  the  Avorld.  The  Jul3''  revolution  of 
1830  gave  to  the  new  universal  religion,  which  reinstated  the  flesh  in 
its  long  lost  rights  and  sought  to  assign  to  each  individual  the  place 
in  the  commonwealth  for  which  he  was  fitted,  some  advantage. 
"  Father "  Enfantin,  whom  his  followers  honoured  as  the  highest 
ivvelation  of  deity,  contended  with  pompous  phrases  and  in  fantastic 
style  for  the  emancipation  of  woman  and  against  the  unnatural  insti- 
tution of  marriage.  But  St.  Simonism  soon  excited  public  ridicule, 
was  pronounced  immoral  by  the  courts  of  justice,  and  the  remnants 
of  its  votaries  fled  fi-om  tlie  scorn  of  the  people  and  the  vengeance 
of  the  law  to  Egypt,  where  they  soon  disappeared, 

3,  Owenists  and  Icarians. — The  Scotch  mill-owner  Rob.  Owen  went 


454      CHURCH   HISTORY   OF   NINETEENTH   CENTURY. 

in  1829  to  America,  in  order  there,  nnliiudered  by  religious  prejudices, 
clerical  opposition,  and  police  interference,  to  work  out  on  a  large 
scale  his  socialistic  schemes  for  improving  the  world,  which  in  a 
small  way  he  believed  he  liad  proved  already  among  his  Scotch  mill- 
operatives.  He  bought  for  this  purpose  from  the  Wiirttemberger 
Eapp  the  colony  of  Harmony  (§  211,  6) ;  but  wanting  the  necessary 
capital  for  the  socialistic  commonwealth  thei-e  established,  and  failing 
to  realize  his  expectations,  discontent,  disorder,  and  opposition  got  the 
upperhand,  and  in  1S26  Owen  was  obliged  to  abandon  all  his  property. 
He  now  returned  to  England,  and  addressed  himself  in  treatises,  tracts, 
and  lectures  to  the  working  classes  of  the  whole  land,  in  order  to  win 
them  over  to  his  ideas.  A  vast  brotherhood  for  mutual  benefit  and 
for  the  enjoyment  of  their  joint  earnings  was  to  put  an  end  to  earth's 
misery,  which  the  positive  religions  had  not  lessened  but  only  in- 
creased. In  1836,  in  the  great  industrial  cities  socialist  unions  with 
nearly  half  a  million  members  were  formed,  with  their  head  centre 
and  annual  congress  at  Birmingham.  The  practical  schemes  of  Owen, 
however,  had  no  success  in  England,  and  his  societies  no  permanency. 
He  died  in  1858. — Still  more  disastrous  was  the  fate  of  the  Icarian 
Colony,  founded  in  Texas  in  1848  by  the  Frenchman  Stephen  Cabet, 
author  of  "  Voijacje  en  Icarie,  Roman  jyliilos.  et  social,'''  1840,  as  an 
attempt  to  realize  his  communistic-philanthropic  ideas  on  the  other 
side  the  Atlantic.  The  colonists  soon  found  their  sanguine  hopes 
bitterly  disappointed,  and  hurled  against  their  leader  I'eproaches 
and  threats.  Some  ex-Icarians  accused  him  in  1849  before  the  Paris 
])olice-court  as  a  swindler,  and  he  was  condemned  to  two  years'  im- 
]jrisonment  and  five  years'  loss  of  civil  privileges.  Cabet  now  hastened 
to  France,  and  on  appeal  obtained  reversion  of  his  sentence  in  1851. 
Returning  to  America,  he  founded  a  new  Icarian  colony  at  Nauvoo 
in  Illinois.  But  there,  too,  everything  went  wrong,  and  a  revolt  of 
the  colonists  obliged  him  to  flee,     fie  died  in  1856.^ 

4.  The  International  Working-Men's  Association. — Local  and  national 
working-men's  unions  with  a  socialistic  organization  had  for  a  long 
time  existed  in  England,  France,  and  Germany.  The  idea  of  a  union 
embracing  the  whole  world  was  first  broached  at  the  great  London 
Exliibition  in  1862,  and  at  a  conference  in  London  on  September  28th, 
1804,  at  wliich  all  industrial  countries  of  Europe  were  represented,  it 
assumed  a  practical  shape  by  tlio  founding  of  a  universal  international 
working-men's  association.  Its  constitution  was  strictly  centralistic. 
A  directing  committee  in   London,  Carl   Marx  of   Treves,  formerly 


*  Sargent,  "  Bob.  Owen  and  his  Social  Philosophy."     London,  1860. 
Nordlioff,  ••  Communistic  Societies  in  the  United  States."      Lt)ndon, 

lb7D. 


§  212.    ANTICHRISTIAN  SOCIALISM  AND  COMMUNISM.     455 

Prlvatdocent  of  philosophy  at  Bonn,  standing  at  its  head  as  dictator, 
represented  the  supreme  legislative  and  governing  authority,  while 
alongside  of  it  a  general  standing  council  held  the  administrative  and 
executive  power.  The  latter  was  divided  into  eight  sections,  English, 
American,  French,  German,  Belgian,  Dutch,  Italian,  and  Spanish,  and 
annual  international  congresses  at  Geneva,  Lausamie,  Brussels,  Basel, 
and  the  Hague  gave  opportunity  for  general  consultation  on  matters 
of  common  interest.  Reception  as  members  was  granted  by  the 
giving  of  a  diploma  after  six  months'  trial,  and  involved  unconditional 
obedience  to  the  statutes  and  ordinances  of  the  central  authorities  and 
the  payment  of  an  annual  fee.  The  number  of  members,  not,  how- 
ever, exclusively  drawn  from  the  working  classes,  is  said  to  have 
reached  two  and  a  half  millions.  The  society  adopted  the  current 
socialistic  and  communistic  ideas  and  tendencies.  The  religious 
principle  of  the  association  was  therefore :  atheism  and  materialism  ; 
the  political :  absolute  democracy ;  the  social :  equal  rights  of  labour 
and  profit,  with  abolition  of  private  property,  hereditary  rights, 
marriage,  and  family;  and  as  means  for  realizing  this  programme, 
nnaccomplishablfi  by  peaceable  methods,  revolution  and  rebellion,  fire 
and  sword,  poison,  petroleum  and  dynamite.  Such  means  have  been 
used  already  in  various  ways  by  the  international  throughout  the 
Romance  countries ;  but  specially  in  the  brief  Reign  of  Terror  of  the 
Paris  Commune,  March  and  April,  1871,  in  the  relatively  no  less 
violent  attempted  revolt  at  Alcoy  in  Southern  Spain  in  July,  1873. 
But  meanwhile  differences  appeared  within  the  society,  which  were 
formulated  at  the  Hague  Congress  in  1872,  and  led  to  splits,  which 
greatly  lessened  its  unity,  influence,  and  power  to  do  mischief,  so  that 
this  congress  may  iJerhajDS  be  regarded  as  the  first  begimiing  of  its 
end.i 

.5.  German  Social  Democracy. — Ferd.  Lassalle,  son  of  a  rich  Jewish 
merchant  of  Breslau,  after  a  full  course  of  study  in  philosophy  and 
law,  began  in  1848  to  take  a  lively  part  in  the  advanced  movements  of 
the  age,  and  when  he  found  among  the  liberal  citizens  no  favour  for 
his  socialistic  ideas  turned  exclusively  to  the  working  classes.  In 
answer  to  the  question  as  to  what  was  to  be  done,  by  the  central  com- 
mittee of  a  working-men's  congress  at  Leipzig,  he  wrought  out  in 
lS(i3  with  great  subtlety  in  an  open  letter  the  fundamental  idea  of 
his  universal  redemption.  All  plans  of  self-help  to  relieve  the  distress 
of  working  men  hitherto  proposed  (specially  that  of  Schulze-Delitzsch) 
break  down  over  the  "  iron  economic  law  of  wages,"  in  consequence  of 

'  Onslow-Yorke,  "  The  Secret  History  of  the  International  Working- 
Men's  Association."  London,  1872.  Lissagaray,  "History  of  the 
Commune  of  187 1."     Translated  by  Aveling.     London,  1886. 


456      CHURCH   HISTORY   OF   NINETEENTH   CENTURY. 

which  under  the  dominion  of  capital  and  the  large  employers  of 

labour  wages  are  always  with  fatalistic  necessity  reduced  to  the  point 
indispensable  for  supplying  a  working  man's  family  with  the  absolute 
necessaries  of  life.  The  working  classes,  however,  have  the  right  ac- 
cording to  the  law  of  nature  to  a  full  equivalent  for  their  labour,  but 
in  order  to  reach  this  tliey  must  be  their  own  undertakers,  and  where 
self-help  is  only  a  vain  illusion,  state  help  must  afford  the  means.  By 
insisting  on  the  right  to  universal  suffrage  the  working  classes  have 
obtained  a  decided  majority  in  the  legislative  assemblies,  and  there 
seciu'ed  a  government  of  the  future  in  accordance  with  their  needs. 
On  these  principles  the  Universal  German  Society  of  Working  Men 
was  constituted,  with  Lassalle  as  its  president,  which  position  he  held 
till  his  death  in  a  duel  in  1864.  Long  internal  disputes  and  personal 
recriminatiohs  led  to  a  split  at  the  Eisenach  Congress  in  18(39.  Tlie 
malcontents  founded  an  independent  "  Social  Democratic  Working- 
Men's  Unicm,"  under  the  leadership  of  Bebel  and  Liebknecht,  which, 
particularly  successful  in  Saxony,  Bnniswick,  and  South  German}', 
represents  itself  as  the  German  branch  of  the  "  International  Work- 
ing-Men's Association."  It  adhered  indeed  generally  to  Lassalle's 
programme,  but  objected  to  the  extravagant  adulation  claimed  for 
Lassalle  by  their  oi^ponents,  the  proper  disciples  of  Lassalle,  who 
had  Hasenclaver  as  their  leader  and  Berlin  as  their  headquartei's, 
substituted  a  federal  for  a  centiulistic  organization,  and  instead  of 
a  great  centralised  government  in  the  future  desired  rather  a  federal 
republic  embracing  all  Europe.  But  both  declared  equally  in  favour 
of  revolution ;  they  vied  with  one  another  in  bitter  hatred  of  every- 
thing bearing  the  name  of  religion ;  and  wrought  out  with  equal 
enthusiasm  their  communistic  schemes  for  the  future.  At  the  Gotha 
Congress  of  1875  a  reconciliation  of  parties  was  effected.  The  social- 
democratic  agitation  thus  received  a  new  impulse  and  assumed 
threatening  projjortions.  Yet  it  required  such  extraordinary  occur- 
rences as  the  twice  attempted  assassination  of  the  agnd  emperor,  by 
Hodel  on  May  11th,  and  Nobiling  on  June  2nd,  1878,  to  rouse  the 
government  to  legislative  action.  On  the  basis  of  a  laAV  passed  in 
October,  1878,  for  two  and  a  half  years  (but  in  May,  1880,  continued 
for  other  three  and  a  half  years,  and  in  May,  1884,  and  again  in  April, 
1886,  on  each  occasion  extended  to  other  two  years),  200  socialist 
societies  throughout  the  German  empire  were  suppressed,  sixty-four 
revolutionary  journals,  circulated  in  hundreds  of  thousands  and  with 
millions  of  readers,  and  about  800  other  seditious  writings,  were  for- 
bidden. But  tliat  the  social-democratic  organization  and  agitatiim 
was  not  thereby  destroyed  is  proved  by  the  fact  that  in  August,  1880, 
in  an  uninhabited  Swiss  castle  lent  for  the  purpose,  in  Canton  Zurich, 
a  congress  was  held,  attended  by  fifty-six  German  socialists,  with 


§  212.    ANTICHRISTIAN  SOCIALISM  AND  COMMUNISM.     457 

greetings  by  letter  from  sympathisers  in  all  European  countries,  which 
among  other  things  passed  the  resolution  unanimously,  no  longer  as 
liad  been  agreed  upon  at  Gotha,  to  seek  their  ends  by  lawful  methods, 
as  by  the  law  of  the  socialists  impossible,  but  by  the  way  of  revo- 
lution.— On  the  other  hand,  the  German  Imperial  Chancellor  Prince 
Bismarck  in  the  iieichstag,  18S4,  fully  admitted  the  "right  of  the 
■\s-orker  to  work,"  as  well  as  the  duty  of  the  state  to  ameliorate  the 
condition  of  working  men  as  far  as  possible,  and  in  three  propositions  : 
"  Work  for  fhe  healthy  workman,  hospital  attendance  to  the  sick,  and 
maintenance  to  the  invalided,"  granted  all  that  is  asked  for  by  a 
healthj'  social  policy. 

6.  Russian  Nihilism.— In  Russia,  too,  notwithstanding  a  strictly 
exercised  censorship,  the  philosophico-scientific  gospel  of  materialism 
and  atheism  found  entrance  through  the  writings  of  Molescliott, 
Feuerbach,  Biichner,  Darwiii,  etc.  (§  174,  3),  especially  among  the 
students.  In  1H60,  Nihilism,  springing  from  this  seed,  first  assumed 
the  character  of  a  philosophical  and  literary  movement.  It  sought 
the  overthrow  of  all  religious  institutions.  Then  came  the  women's 
([uestion,  claiming  emancipation  for  the  wife.  The  example  of  the 
Pai'is  Commxine  of  1871  contributed  largely  to  the  development  of 
Nihilistic  idealism,  its  political  revolutionary  socialism.  The  Nihilist 
pi'opaganda,  like  an  epidemic,  now  seized  upon  the  academic  youth, 
male  and  female,  was  spread  in  aristocratic  families  by  tutors  and 
governesses,  won  secret  disciples  among  civil  servants  as  well  as 
officers  of  the  army  and  navy,  and  was  enthusiastically  supported  by 
ladies  in  the  most  cultured  and  exalted  ranks.  In  order  to  spread  its 
views  among  the  jwople,  young  men  and  women  disguised  in  peasant's 
di'ess  went  out  among  tlie  peasants  and  artisa:is,  lived  and  wrought 
like  them,  and  preached  their  gospel  to  them  in  their  liours  of  rest. 
But  their  efforts  failed  through  the  antii)athy  and  apathy  of  the 
lower  orders,  and  the  energetic  interference  of  the  government  by 
imprisonment  and  banishment  thinned  the  ranks  of  the  propagan- 
dists. But  all  the  more  closely  did  those  left  bind  themselves  together 
under  their  centi'al  leaders  as  the  "Society  for  Gouiatry  and  Freedom," 
and  strove  with  redoubled  eagerness  to  spread  revolutionary  principles 
by  secretly  printing  their  proclamations  and  other  incendiary  pro- 
ductions, and  scattering  them  in  the  streets  and  houses.  On  January 
24th,  187S,  the  female  Nihilist  J'^era  Sasxiilltsch  from  personal  reveugn 
dangerously  wounded  with  a  revolver  General  Trepoff,  the  dreaded 
head  of  the  St.  Petersburg  police.  Although  she  openly  avowed  the 
deed  before  the  covu't  and  gloried  in  it,  she  Avas  amid  tlie  acclamations 
of  the  public  acquitted.  This  was  the  hour  when  Nihilism  exercised 
its  fellest  terrorism.  The  fair,  peaceful  i)hrase,  "  To  work,  fight, 
suffer,  and  die  for  the  people,"  was  silenced ;  it  was  now,  sword  and 


458     CHnncH  history  of  nineteenth  century. 

firo,  dagger  and  revolver,  dynamite  and  mines  for  all  oppressors  of 
the  people,  but  above  all  for  the  agents  of  the  police,  for  their  spii;s, 
for  all  informers  and  apostates.  An  "  executive  committee,"  unknown 
to  most  of  the  conspirators  themselves,  issued  the  death  sentence ;  the 
lot  determined  the  executioner,  who  himself  suffered  death  if  he  failed 
to  accomplish  it.  What  was  now  aimed  at  was  the  assassination  of 
higher  state  officials ;  then  the  sacred  person  of  the  emperor.  Three 
bold  attempts  at  assassination  miscarried ;  the  revolver  shot  of 
SoloA^-jews  on  April  14th,  1879  ;  the  mine  on  the  railway  near  Mosco\v 
that  exploded  too  late  on  November  30th,  1879  ;  the  horrible  attempt 
to  blow  up  the  Winter  Palace  with  the  emperor  and  his  family  on 
February  17th,  1880;  but  the  fourth,  a  dynamite  bomb  thrown 
between  the  feet  of  the  emperor  on  March  13th,  1881,  destroyed  the 
life  of  this  noble  and  humane  monarch,  who  in  1861-1863  had  freed 
his  people  from  the  yoke  of  serfdom.  As  for  years  nothing  more  had 
been  heard  of  Nihilist  attempts,  it  was  hoped  that  the  government 
had  succeeded  in  putting  down  this  diabolical  rebellion,  but  in  1887 
the  news  spread  that  an  equallj^  horrible  attempt  had  been  ]ilanned 
for  the  sixth  anniversary  of  the  assassination  of  Alexander  II.,  but 
fortunatr'l)'  tiiuch^  precautions  were  taken  against  it. 


CHRONOLOaiCAL   TABLES. 


A.n.  FIRST   CEXrrRY. 

lA-?u.  The  Emperor  Tiberius,  §  22,  1. 
41-54.  The  Emperor  Claudius,  §  22,  1. 

44.  Execution  of  James  the  Elder,  §  IG. 

51.  The  Council  at  Jerusalem,  §  18,  1. 
54-GS.  The  Emperor  Nc-ro,  §  23,  1. 

()1.  PauFs  Arrival  at  Rome,  §  15. 

63.  Stoning  of  James  the  Just,  §  IG,  3. 

64.  Persecution  of  Christians  in  Rome,  §  22.  1 . 
GG-70.  Jewish  War,  §  IG. 

81-96.  The  Emperor  Domitian,  §  22,  1. 

SECOND    CENTURY. 

98-117.  The  Emperor  Trajan,  §  22,  2. 

115.  (?)  Ignatius  of  Antioch,  Martja-,  §  22,  2. 
117-138.  The  Emperor  Hadrian,  §  22,  2.     Basilides,  Valentinus,  §  22, 

2,4. 
132-135.  Revolt  of  Barcochba,  §  25. 
Abt.150.  Celsus,  §  23,  3.     Marcion,  §  27,  11. 
138-161.  The  Emperor  Antoninus  Pius,  §  22,  2. 

155.  Paschal  Controversy  between  Polycarp  and  Amieetus,  §  37,  2. 
lGl-180.  The  Emperor  Marcus  Aurelius,  §  22,  3. 

I(i5.  Justin  Mart3T,  §  30,  9. 

IGG.  (155  ?)  Martyrdom  of  Polycarp,  §  22,  3. 

172.  (156  ?)  Montanus  appears  as  a  Prophet,  ^  40.  1. 

177.  Persecution  of  Christians  at  Lyons  and  Vienne,  §  22.  3. 

178.  Irenseus  made  Hishop  of  Lyons,  §  31,  2. 
180-192.  The  Emperor  Coramodus,  §  22,  3. 

196.  Paschal  Controversy  between  Victor  and  Polj-crates,  §  37,  2. 
459 


400  CnKONOLOGICAL    TABLES. 

THIRD   CEXTURY. 
A.n. 

202.  'rt'rtiilliau.  bwonios    Montanist,    §   40,   2.      Pautnonus    (li(S 

§  Bl,  4. 

220.  Clement  of  Alexandria  dies,  §  31,  4. 

2B5.  Settlement  of  the  Schism  of  Hippolytns,  §  41,  1. 

28.^-238.  The  Emperor  Maximinus  Thrax,  §  22,  4. 

243.  Ammonias  Saccus  dies,  §  25,  2. 

244.  Arabian  Synod  against  Beryllus,  §  33,  7. 
249-2.51.  The  Emperor  Decius,  §  22,  5. 

2.50.  The  Schism  of  Felicissimus,  §  41,  2. 

251.  The  Novatian  Schism,  §  41,  3. 
253-260.  The  Emperor  Valerian,  i?  22,  5. 

2.54.  Origen  dies,  §  31,  5. 
255-256.  Controversy  about  Heretics'  Baptism,  §  35,  5. 

258.  Cyprian  dies,  §  81,  11. 
2(J0-268.  The  Emperor  Gallienus.     The  Toleration  Edict,  §  22,  5. 

262.  Synod  at  Kome  against  Sabellius  and  Dionysius  of    Alex- 
andria, §  83,  7. 

269.  Third  Synod  of  Antioch  against  Paul  of  Samosata,  §  33,  8. 

276.  Mani  dies,  §  29,  1. 
281-305.  The  Emperor  Diocletian,  §  22,  (i. 

FOURTH  CENTURY. 

303.  Beginning  of  Diocletian  Persecution,  §  22,  6. 
306.  Synod  of  Elvira,  §  38,  3 ;  45,  2.     Meletian  Schism  in  Egypt, 
§  41,  4.     Constantius  Chlorus  dies,  §  22,  7. 

311.  Galerius  dies,  §  22,  6. 

312.  Constantincrs  Exited  it  ion  against  Maxentius,  §  22,  7.     Dona- 

tist  Schism  in  Africa,  §  63,  1. 

318.  Edict  of  Milan,  §  22,  7. 

318.  Arius  is  Accused,  §  50,  1. 
328-337.  Constantine  the  Great,  Sole  Ruler,  i?  42,  2. 

325.  First  (Ecumenical  Council  at  Niccoa,  ij  50,  1. 
330-115.  Meletian  Schism  at  Antioch,  t?  50,  8. 

835.  Synod  at  Tyre,  §  50,  2. 

336.  Athanasius  Exiled.     Arias  dies,  t?  50,  2. 

;-{-ll.  Council  at  Antioch,  §  50,  2. 

813.  Persecution  of  Christians  undei-  Shapui-  II.,  §  64,  2. 

B-M.  Synod  at  Sardica,  §  46,  3 ;  50,  2. 

346,  Council  at  Milan  against  Photinus,  §  50,  2. 

3-18.  Umias,  Bishop  of  the  Goth.s,  §  76,  1. 
350-361.  Constantius,  Sole  Ruler,  §  42,  2. 

851.  First  Council  at  Sirmium  against  Marcellus,  §  50,  2. 


CHRONOLOGICAL   TABLES.  461 


A.D. 


Hbl.  Second  Council  at  Sirmium,  Homoians,  §  50,  3. 

358.  Third  Council  at  Sirmium,  §  50,  8. 

Hof).  Synods  at  Seleucia  and  Eimini,  §  50,  '6. 
8{Jl-3(-)8.  Emperor  Julian  the  Apostate,  §  42,  3. 

3G-2.  Synod  at  Alexandria  against  Athanasius,  §  50,  1. 
3G()-38J.  Damasus  I.,  Bishop  of  Rome,  §  46,  4. 

368.  Hilary  of  Poitiers  dies,  §  47,  14. 

373.  Athanasius  dies,  §  47,  3. 

379.  Basil  the  Great  dies,  §  47,  4. 
379-395.  Theodosius  the  Great,  Emperor,  §  42,  4. 

380.  S3aiod  at  Saragossa,  §  54,  2. 

381.  Second    (Ecumenical    Council   at    Constantinople,   §    .50,   4. 

Ulfilas  dies,  §  76,  1. 
384-  398.  Siricius,  Bishop  of  Eome,  §  46,  4. 

385.  Priscillian  beheaded  at  Treves,  §  54,  2. 

390.  Gregory  Nazianzen  dies,  §  47,  4. 

391.  Destraction  of  the  Serapeion  at  Alexandria,  §  42,  6. 
393.  Coiuicil  at  Hippo  Rhegius,  §  59,  1. 

397.  Ambrose  dies,  §  47,  15. 

399.  Rufinus  Condemned  at  Rome  as  an  Origenist,  §  51,  2. 

400.  Martin  of  Tours  dies,  §  47.  15. 


FIFTH    VEXTUIiY. 
402-417.  Innocent  I.  of  Rome,  tj  46,  5. 

403.  Synodus  ad  Quercum,  §  51,  3.     Epiphanius  dies,  §  47,  10. 

407.  Chiysostom  dies,  §  47,  8. 
408-450.  Theodosius  II.  in  the  East,  §  52,  3. 

411.  CoUatio  rum  Donatistis,  §  63,  1. 

412.  Sjmod  at  Carthage  against  Cddestius,  §  53,  4. 

415.  Synods  at  Jerusalem  and  Diospolis  against  Pela"-ius,  §  53  4. 

416.  S;yniods  at  Mileve  and  Carthage  against  Pelagius,  §  .53.  4. 
418.  General  Assembly  at  Carthage,  §  53,  4.     Roman  Schism  of 

Eulalius  and  Bonifacius,  §  46,  6. 
420.  Jerome   dies,   §   47,   10.      Persecution   of   Christians   under 
Beln-am  V.,  §  64,  2. 
422-432.  Coelcstine  I.,  Bishop  of  Rome,  §  46,  6. 

428.  Nestorius  is  made  Patriarch  of  Constantinople,  §  52,  3. 

429.  Theodore  of  Mopsuestia  dies,  §  47,  9.     The  Vandals  in  North 

Africa,  §  76,  3. 

430.  Cyril's  Anathemas,  §  52,  3.     Augustine  dies,  §  47,  18. 

431.  Third  Ecumenical  Council  at  Ephosus,  §  52,  3. 

432.  St.  Patrick  in  Ireland,  §  77,  1.     J,>lni  Cassiauus  dies.  §  47,  21. 


402  CHRONOLOGICAL   TABLES. 

A.D. 

440-461.  Leo  I.,  the  Great,  §  4G,  7  ;  47,  22. 

444.  Cyril  of  Alexandria  dies,  §  47,  6.     Dioscurus  succeeds  Cyril, 

§  52,  4. 
415.  Eescript  of  Valeutiniau  III.,  §  4(i,  7. 

448.  Eutjyclies  excommunicated  at  Constantinople,  §  52,  4. 

449.  Eobber  Synod  at  Ephesus,  §  52,  4.     Attack  of  Angles  and 

Saxons  upon  Britain,  §  77,  4. 
451.  Fourth  (Ecumenical  Synod  at  Chalcedon,  §  52,  4. 
457.  Theodoret  dies,  §  47,  !). 

475.  Semipelagian  Synods  at  Aries  and  Lyons,  §  53,  5. 

476.  Overthrow  of  the  West  Eoman  Empire,  §  46,  8 ;  76,  6. 

Monopliysite  Encyclical  of  Basiliscns,  §  52,  5. 
482.  Henoticon  of  the  Emperor  Zeno,  §  52,  5.    Severiuus  dies, 
§  76,  6. 
484-519.  The  Thirty-five  Years'  Schism  between  the  East  and  West, 

§  52,  5. 
492-196.  Gelasius  I.,  Bishop  of  Eome,  §  46,  8  ;  47,  22. 
496.  Battle  of  Ztilpich.     Clovis  baptized,  §  76,  9. 


SIXTH   CENTURY. 

101.  Synod  us  Tahnaris,  §  46,  8. 
517.  Council  at  Epaon,  §  76,  5. 
527-565.  Justinian  I.,  Emperor,  §  4(5,  iJ ;  52,  (i. 

529.  Synods  at  Oranges  and  Valence,  §  58,  5.     Monastic  Rule  of 

Benedict  of  Nursia,  §  85.     Sui)pressiou  of  the  University 

of  Athens,  §  42,  1. 
533.  The  Theopaschite  Controversy,  §  52,  6.     Overthrow  of  the 

Vandal  Emjiire,  §  76,  3. 
544.  Condemnation  of  the  "  Tln-ee  Chapters,"  §  52,  6. 

553.  Fifth  Ecumenical  Council  at  Constantinople,  §  52,  6. 

554.  Overthrow  of  the  Ostrogoth  Empin;  in  Italy,  §  76,  7. 

563.  Council  at  Braga,  §  54,  2.     St.  Columba  among  the  Picts 
and  Scots,  §  77,  2. 

567.  Founding  of  the  Exarchate;  of  Ravenna,  §  46,  9, 

568.  The  Longobards  under  Alboin  in  Italy,  §  76,  8. 

589.  Council  at  Toledo  inider  Reccared,  §  76,  2.     Columbanua  and 
Gallus  in  the  Vosgcs  Country,  §  77,  7. 
590-604.  Gregory  I.,  the  Great,  §  46,  10 ;  47,  22, 

595.  Gregory  of  Tours  dies,  §  90,  2. 

596.  Augustine  goes  as  Missionary  t(j  the  Anglo-Saxons,  §  77,  4. 

597.  St.  Columba  dies,  §  77,  2.     Ethelbert  baptized,  §  77,  4. 


CHRONOLOGICAL    TABLES.  463 

A.D.  SEVENTH  CENTURY. 

606.  Emperor  Phocas  recognises  the  Eoinau  Primacy,  §  iG,  10. 
bll-bJl.  Heraclius,  Emperor.  §  52,  8. 

615.  Columbauus  dies,  §  77,  7. 

622.  Hejira,  §  65. 
625- ()38.  Honorius  L,  Pope,  §  J(i,  11. 

636.  Isidore  of  Seville  dies,  §  f)0,  2. 

637.  Omar  conquers  Jerusalem,  §  (35. 

638.  Monothelite  Ecthesis  of  Heraclius,  §  52,  8. 
640.  Omar  conquers  Egj-pt,  §  65. 

642-668.  Constans  II.,  Emperor,  §  52,  8. 
646.  St.  Gallus  dies,  §  78,  1. 

648.  The  Typus  of  Constans  II.,  §  52.  8, 
6-Jf)-653.  Martin  I.,  Pope,  §  46,  11. 

649.  First  Lateran  Council  under  ]\Iartin  I.,  §  52,  8. 
652.  Emmeran  at  Regensbnrg,  §  78,  2. 

657,  Constantine  of  Mananalis,  §  71,  1. 

662.  Maximus  Confessor,  dies,  §  47,  13. 

664.  Synod  at  Streoneshalch  {Sun.  Pharcm.),  §  77,  6. 
b()y-68o.  Constantinus  Pogonnatus,  §  52,  8  •  71   1. 

677.  Wilfrid  among  the  Frisians,  §  78, 's. 
678-682.  Agatho,  Pope,  §  46,  11. 

680.  Sixth  (Ecumenical  Council  at  Constantinopl.i(Trullanum  I.l 
§  52,  8.  ' 

690.  Wilibrord  among  the  Frisians,  §  78,  3. 
692.  Concilium  Quinisextum  (TruUanum  II.),  §  G3,  3, 
696.  Eupert  in  Bavaria  (Sakburg),  tj  78,  2. 


EIGETE    CENTURY. 

711,  The  Saracens  conquer  Spain,  §  81. 
715-731,  Pope  Gregory  II.,  §  6(5,  1 ;  78,  4. 

716.  Winifrid  goes  to  the  Frisians,  §  78,  4. 
717-741,  Leo  III.,  the  Isaurian,  Emperor,  §  66,  1. 

718.  Winifrid  in  liome,  §  78,  4. 

722,  Winifrid  in  Thuringia  aud  Hesse,  §  78,  4. 

723,  Winifrid  a  second  time  at  Rome,  consecrated  Bishop   etc 

§  78,  4,  '        '' 

724,  Destruction  of  the  Wonder-working  Oak  at  Geismar,  §  78,  4. 
^26.  Leo  s  First  Edict  against  Image  Worship,  §  66  1 

*_30,  Leo's  Second  Edict  against  Image  Worship,  g  k  i. 
^31.  Gregory  III.,  Pope,  §  66,  1 ;  78,  4  ;  82,  1. 


464  CHRONOLOGICAL   TABLES. 

A.D. 

732.  Boniface,  Arclibishop  and  Apostolic  Yicar,  §  78,  4.    Battle  at 
Poitiers,  §  81.     Separation  of  Illyria  from  the  Roman  See 
by  Leo  the  Isaurian,  §  66,  1. 
735.  The  Venerable  Becle  dies,  §  90,  2. 
739.  "Wilibrord  dies,  §  78,  3. 

7-11.  Charles  Martel  dies,   §  78,  5.      Gregory  III.  dies.     Leo  the 
Isaurian  dies. 
741-752.  Pope  Zacharias,  §  78,  5,  7 ;  82,  1. 
741-775.  Constantinns  Copronymns,  Emperor,  §  66,  2. 

742.  Concilium  Germanicum,  §  78,  5. 

743.  Synod  at  Liptina,  §  78,  5 ;  86,  2. 

744.  Synod  at  Soissons,  §  78,  5. 

745.  Boniface,  Archbishop  of  Mainz,  §  78,  5. 

752.  Childeric  III.  deposed,  Pepin  the  Short,  King,  §  78,  5  ;  82,  1. 

754.  Iconoclastic   Council   at   Constantinople,   §   66,   2.      Pepin's 

donation  to  the  Chair  of  St.  Peter,  §  82,  1. 

755.  Boniface  dies,  §  78,  7. 

Abt.760.  Rule  of  St.  Chrodegang  of  Metz,  §  84,  4. 

767.  Synod  at  Gentilliacum,  §  91,  2  ;  92,  1. 
768-814.  Charlemagne,  §  82,  2,  4 ;  90,  1,  etc. 
772-795.  Pope  Hadrian  I.,  §  82,  2. 

772.  Destruction  of  Eresburg,  §  78,  f». 

774.  Charlemagne's  donation  to  the  Chair  of  St.  Peter,  §  82,  2. 

785.  Wittekind  and  Allx)in  are  baptized,  §  78,  9. 

787.  Seventh  G^^cumenical  Council  at  Nicsea,  §  66,  3.     Founding 
of  Cloister  and  Cathedral  Schools,  5?  f)0,  1. 

790.  Libri  Carolini,  ^92,  1. 

792.  Synod  at  Regensburg,  t?  91,  1. 

794.  General  Synod  at  Frankfort,  S  "1,  1  ;  "-,  1- 
795-816.  Leo  III.,  Pope,  §  82,  3. 

799.  Alcuin's  disi)utation  with  Felix  at  Aachen,  §  91,  1. 

800.  Leo  III.  crowns  Charlemagne,  §  82,  3. 


xixTii  ci:xTri?Y. 

801.  End  of  the  Saxon  War,  §  78,  9.    Alcuin  ilies,  §  90,  3. 

809.  Council  at  Aachen,  on  the  Filioqnc,  §  91,  2. 
813-820.  Leo  th(^  Armenian,  Emperor,  §  66,  4. 
814-8^10.  Louis  the  Pious,  §  82,  4. 

817.  Reformation  of  Monasticism  by  Benedict  of  Aniane,  §  85,  2. 
S20-829.  Michael  Balbus,  Emperor,  §  66,  4. 

825.  Synod  at  Paris  against  Image  Worship,  §  92,  1. 

826.  Theodorus  Studita  dies,  g  66,  4.    Ansgar  in'Denniark,  §  80,  1. 


CHRONOLOGICAL   TABLES.  465 

A.D. 

827.  Establishment  of  Saracen  Sovereignty  in  Sicily,  §  81. 
829-842.  Theophilus,  Emperor,  §  66,  4. 

83B.  Founding  of  the  Archbishopric  of  Hamburg,  §  80,  1. 

835.  Synod  at  Didenhofen,  §  82,  4. 

839.  Claudius  of  Turin  dies,     Agobard  of  Lyons  dies,  §  90,  4. 
840-877.  Charles  the  Bald,  §  90,  1. 

842.  Feast  of  Orthodoxy,  §  6ii,  4.     Theodora  recommends  the  out- 

rooting  of  the  Paulicians,  §  71,  1. 

843.  Compact  of  Verdun,  §  82,  5. 

844.  Eucharist  Controvei-sy  of  Paschasius  Eadbertus,  §  91,  3. 
845-882,  Hincmar  of  Rheims,  §  83,  2  ;  90,  5. 

847.  Archbishopric  of  Hamburg-Bremen,  §  80,  1. 

848.  Synod  of  Mainz  against  Gottschalk,  §  91,  5. 
850-859.  Persecution  of  Christians  in  Spain,  §  81,  1. 
851-852.  The  Decretals  of  the  Pseudo-Isidore,  §  87,  2,  3. 

853.  Synod  of  Quiersy.     Capitula  C'arisiaca,  §  91,  5. 

855.  Synod  at  Valence  in  favour  of  Gottschalk,  §  91,  5. 

856,  Rabanus  Maurus  dies,  §  90,  4. 
858-867.  Pope  Nicholas  I.,  §  82,  7. 

858.  Photius,  Patriarch  of  Constantinople,  §  (J7,  1. 

859.  Synod  of  Savonnieres,  §  91,  5, 

861.  Methodius  goes  to  the  Bulgarians,  §  73,  3. 

863.  Cyril  and  Methodius  go  to  Moravia,  §  79,  2. 

865.  Ansgar  dies,  §  80,  1. 

86(i,  Encyclical  of  Photius,  i;  67,  1. 
867-8S6.  Basil  the  Macedonian,  Emperor,  §  67,  1. 
867-872.  Hadrian  II.,  Pope,  §  82,  7. 

869.  Eighth  (Ecumenical  Comicil  of  the  Latins  at  Constantinople 

§  67,  1. 

870.  Treaty  of  Mersen,  §  82,  5. 

871.  Basil  the  Macedonian  puts  down  the  Paulicians,  §  71,   1 . 

Borziwoi  and  Ludmilla  baptized,  §  79,  3, 
871-901,  Alfred  the  Great,  §  90,  9, 

875.  John  VIII.  crowns  Charles  the  Bald  Emperor,  §  82,  8. 
879.  Eighth  Oecumenical  Council  of  the  Greeks  at  Constantinople 
§  07,  1. 
886-911.  Leo  the  Philosopher,  Emperor,  §  67,  2. 
891,  Photius  dies,  §  (J7,  1, 

TENTH  CENTURY. 

910,  Abbot  Berno  founds  Clugny,  §  98,  1. 

911,  The  German  Carolingians  die  out,  §  82,  8, 
911-918,  Conrad  I.,  King  of  the  Germans,  §  96,  1. 

VOL.   lU.  30 


4G6  CHROI^OLOGICAL   TABLES. 

A.D. 

914-928.  Pope  John  X.,  §  96,  1. 

919-936,  Henry  I.,  King  of  the  Germans,  §  96,  1 

934.  Henry  I.  enforced  toleration  of  Cluistianity  in  Denmark, 
§  93,  2. 
936-973.  Otto  I.,  Emperor,  §  96,  1, 

942.  Odo  of  Clugny  founds  the  Chigniac  Congregation,  §  98,  1. 

950.  Gylas  of  Hungary  baptized,  §  93,  8. 

955.  Olga  baptized  in  Constantinople,  §  73,  4, 

960.  Atto  of  Vercelli  dies,  §  100,  3. 

962.  Founding  of  the  Holy   Roman   Empire;  of   the  German 

Nation,  §  96,  1. 

963.  Synod  at  Eome  deposes  John  XII.,  §  96,  1. 
906.  Miecislaw  of  Poland  baptized,  §  93,  7. 

968.  Poimding  of  Archbishopric  of  Magdeburg,  §  93,  9. 
970.  Migration  of  Paulicians  to  Thrace,  §  71,  1. 
973-983.  Otto  II.,  Emperor,  §  96,  2. 

974.  Eatherius  of  Verona  dies,  §  100,  3. 
983-1002.  Otto  III.,  Emperor,  §  96,  2,  3. 

983.  Mistewoi  destroys  all  Christian  establishments  among  the 
Wends,  §  93,  9. 

987.  Hugh  Capet  is  made  King  of  France,  §  96,  2. 

988.  Wladimir  Christianizes  Russia,  §  73,  4. 
992-1025.  Boleslaw  Chrobry  of  Poland,  §  93,  7. 

996-999.  Pope  Gregory  V.,  §  96,  2. 
997-1038.  Stephen  the  Saint,  §  93,  8. 

997.  Adalbert  of  Prague,  Apostle  of  Prussia,  dies,  §  93,  13. 
999-1003.  Pope  Sylvester  II.,  §  96,  3. 
1000.  Olaf  Tryggvason  dies,  §  93,  4. 

Christianity    introduced    into    Iceland    and     Greenland, 

§  93,  5. 
Stephi'u  of  Hungary  secures  the  throne,  §  93,  8. 


ELEVENTH  CENTURY. 

1(K)2-1024.  Henry  II.,  Emperor,  §  96,  4. 

1008.  Olaf  Skautkoning  of  Sweden  baptized,  §  93,  3. 

J  009.  IJruno  martynsd,  5?  93,  13. 
1012  J  024.  Popf;  Benedict  VIII.,  §  9(i,  4. 
1014-1036.  Canute  the  Great,  §  93,  2. 

1018.  Eomuald  founds  the;  Camaldulensian  Congregatiou,  §  98, 1. 
1024-1039.  Conrad  II.,  Emperor,  §  96,  4. 

1030.  Olaf  the  Thick  of  Norway  dies,  §  93,  4. 

1031.  Overthi'ow  of  the  Ommaides  in  Spain,  §  95,  2. 


CHRONOLOGICAL    TABLES.  467 

A.D. 

1039-1056,  Henry  II.,  Emperor,  §  96,  4,  5. 

1(M1.  Treuga  Dei,  §  105,  1. 

1046,  Synod  at  Sutri,  §  96,  4. 

1019-1054.  Pope  Leo  IX.,  §  96,  5. 

1050.  Synods  at  Eome  and  Vercelli  against  Berengar,  §  101,  2, 

1053.  Epistle  of  Michael  Casrularius,  §  67,  3. 

1054,  Excommunication  of    Greek   Church   by  Papal  Legates, 

§  67,  3. 
1056-1106.  Hemy  IV,,  Emperor,  §  96,  6-11, 

1059.  Pope  Nicholas  II,  assigns  the  choice  of  Pope  to  the  College 

of  Cardinals,  §  96,  6, 

1060,  Eobert  Guiscard  founds  the  Norman  Sovereignty  in  Italy, 

§  95,  1. 

1066.  Murder  of  Gottschalk,  King  of  the  Wends,  §  93,  9. 
1073-iaS5.  Pope  Gregory  VII.,  §  96,  7-9. 

1075.  Gregory's  third  Investiture  Enactment,  §  96,  7, 

1077,  Henry  IV,  as  a  Penitent  at  Canossa,  §  96,  8, 

1079.  Berengar  subscribes  at  Eome  the  doctrine  of  Transubstan- 
tiation,  §  101,  2, 

1086.  Bruno  of  Cologne  founds  the  Carthusian  Order,  §  98,  2. 
1088-1099,  Pope  Urban  II.,  §  96,  10. 

1095.  Synod  at  Clermont,  §  91. 

10!)6.  First  Crusade.     Godfrey  of  Boulogne,  §  94,  1. 

1098.  Sjmod  at  Bari.     Anselm  of  Canterbury,  §  67,  4. 
Robert  of  Citeaux  founds  the  Cistercian  Order,  §  98,  1. 

1099.  Conquest  of  Jerusalem,  §  94,  1. 
1099-1118.  Pope  Paschalis  II.,  §  96,  11, 


TWELFTH  CENTURY. 

1106-1125,  Henry  V.,  Emperor,  §  06,  11. 
1106.  Michael  Psellus  dies,  §  68,  5. 
1109,  Anselm  of  Canterbury  dies,  §  101,  1,  3. 
1113.  Bernard,  Abbot  of  Clairvaux,  §  98,  1 ;  102,  3. 
1118,  Founding  of  the  Order  of  Knights  Templar,     Knights  of 
St.  John,  §  98,  7.     Basil,  head  of  Bogomili,  sent  to  the 
stake,  §  71,  4, 
1119-1124.  Calixtus  II.,  Pope,  §  96,  11, 

1121,  Norbert  founds  the  Prsemonstratensian  Order,  §  98,  2. 

1122.  Concordat  of  Worms,  §  96,  11. 

1123.  Ninth  CEcumenical  Co\mcil  (First  Lateran),  §  96,  11, 

1124,  First  Missionary  Jotu-ney  of  Otto  of  Bamberg,  §  93,  10. 
1126,  Peter  of  Bruys  burnt,  §  108,  7. 


468  CHRONOLOGICAL   TABLES. 

A.D. 

1128.  Second  Missionary  Journey  of  Otto  of  Bamberg,  §  93,  10. 
1130-1143.  Pope  Innocent  II.,  §  96,  13. 
1135.  Rupert  of  Deutz  dies,  §  102,  8. 
1139.  Tenth  Ecumenical  Council  (Second  Latei-an),  §  96,  13. 

1141.  Synod    at  Sens  condemns  Abtelard's  writings,   §  102,  2. 

Hugo  St.  Victor  dies,  §  102,  4. 

1142.  Abfelard  dies,  §  102,  2. 

1143.  Founding  of  the  Eoman  Commune,  §  96,  13. 
1145-1153.  Pope  Eugenius  III.,  §  96,  13. 

1146.  Fall  of  Edessa,  §  94,  2. 

1147.  Second  Crusade.     Conrad  III.     Louis  VII.,  §  94,  2. 

1149.  Henry  of  Lausanne  dies,  §  108,  7. 

1150.  Decretum  Gratiani,  §  99,  5. 
1152-1190.  Frederick  I.,  Barbarossa,  §  96,  14. 

1153.  Bernard  of  Clairvaux  dies,  §  102,  8. 

1154.  Vicelin  dies,  §  93,  9. 
1154-1159.  Hadrian  IV.,  Pope,  §  96,  14. 

1155.  Arnold  of  Brescia  put  to  death,  §  96,  14. 

1156.  Peter  the  Venex'able  dies,  §  98,  1.    Founding  of  Carmelite 

Order,  §  98,  3. 

1157.  Introduction  of  Christianity  into  Finland,  §  93,  11. 
1159-1181.  Pope  Alexander  III.,  §  96,  15,  16. 

1164.  Peter  the  Lombard  dies,  §  102,  5.     Council  of  Clarendon, 
§  96,  16. 

1167.  Council  at  Toulouse  (Cathari),  §  108,  2. 

1168.  Christianity  of  the  Island  of  Eiigen,  §  93,  10. 

1169.  Gerhoch  of  Reichersbex'g  dies,  §  102,  6,  7. 

1170.  Thomas  Becket  murdered,   §  96,    16.      Founding   of   the 

Waldensian  sect,  §  108,  10. 
1176.  Battle  of  Legnano,  §  6,  15. 

1179.  Eleventh  (Ecumenical  Council  (Third  Lateran),  §  96,  15. 

1180.  John  of  Salisbury  dies,  §  102,  9. 

1182.  Maronites  are  attached  to  Home,  §  73,  3. 
1184.  Meinhart  in  Livonia,  §  93,  12. 
1187.  Saladin  conquers  Jerusalem,  §  94,  3. 

1189.  Third  Crusade.    Frederick  Barbarossa,  §  94,  3. 
1190-1197.  Henry  VL,  Emperor,  §  96,  16. 

1190.  Founding  of  Order  of  Teutonic  Knights,  §  98,  8. 
1194.  Eustathius  of  Thessalonica  dies,  §  68,  5. 

1198-1216.  Pojje  Innocent  III.,  §  96,  17,  18. 


CHRONOLOGICAL   TABLES.  469 


THIRTEENTH  CENTURY. 

A.D. 

1202.  Joachim  of  Ploris  dies,  §  108,  5.     Founding  of  Order^  of 
the  Brothers  of  the  Sword,  §  93,  12.     Genghis   Khan 
destroys  Kingdom  of  Prester  John,  §  72,  1. 
1204-1261.  Latin  Emigre  in  Constantinople,  §  94,  4. 

1207.  Stephen  Langton,  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  §  96,  18. 

1208.  Peter  of  Castelnau  sLain,  §  109,  1. 
1209-1229.  Albigensian  Crusade,  §  109,  1. 

1209.  Covmcil  of    Paris    against    Sect    of  Amalrich   of  Bena, 

§  108,  4. 

1212.  Battle  at  Tolosa,  §  95,  2. 

1213.  John  Lackland  receives  England  as  a  Papal  Fief,  §  96,  18. 
121.O-1250.  Frederick  II.,  Emperor,  §  96,  17,  19,  20. 

1215.  TAvelfth  (Ecumenical  Council  (Foui-th  Lateran),  §  96,  18. 

1216.  Confirmation  of  the  Dominican  Order,  §  98,  5. 
1216-1227.  Pope  Honorius  III.,  §  96,  19. 

1217.  Fourth  Crusade.     Andrew  II.  of  Hungarj^,  |  94,  4. 
1228.  Confirmation  of  Franciscan  Order,  §  98,  3. 

1226.  Francis  of  Assisi  dies,  §  98,  3. 
1226-1270.  Louis  IX.,  the  Saint,  §  94,  6  ;  93,  15. 
1227-1241.  Pope  Gregory  IX.,  §  96,  19. 

1228.  Fifth  Crusade.    Frederick  II.,  §  94,  5.    Settlement  of  the 

Teutonic  Knights  in  Prussia,  §  93,  13. 

1229.  Synod  at  Toulouse,  §  109,  2. 

1231.  St.  Elizabeth  dies,  §  105,  3. 

1232.  Inquisition  Tribunal  set  up,  §  109,  2. 

1233.  Conrad  of  Marburg  slain,  §  109,  3. 

1234.  Crusade  against  Stediugers,  §  109,  3. 

1237.  Union  of    the    Order   of    Sword   with    that   of   Teutonic 
Knights,  §  98,  8. 
1243-1254.  Pope  Innocent  IV.,  §  96,  20. 

1245.  Thirteenth  (Ecumenical  Council  (first  of  Lyons),  §  96,  20. 

Alexander  of  Hales  died,  §  103,  4. 
1248.  Foundation  stone  of  Cathedral  of  Cologne  laid,  §  104,  11. 
Sixth  Crusade,  Louis  IX.,  §  94,  6. 

1253.  Robert  Grosseteste  dies,  §  103,  1. 

1254.  Condemnation  of  the   " Introdudor'ms  in  evanyelium  ater- 

num,'"  %  108,  5. 

1260.  First  Flagellant  Campaign  in  Perugia,  §  107,  1. 
1260-1282.  Michael  Palaologus,  Emperor,  §  67,  4. 
1261-1264.  Urban  IV.,  Pope,  §  96,  20. 

1262.  Arsenian  Schism,  §  70,  1. 

1268.  Conradiu  on  the  Scaftbld.  §  96,  20. 


470  CHRONOLOGICAL    TABLES. 

A.D. 

12G9.  Pragmatic  Sanction  of  Louis  IX.,  §  DG,  21. 
1270.  Seventh  Crusade,  Louis  IX.,  §  94,  6. 
1271-1276.  Pope  Gregory  X.,  §  9G,  21. 

1272.  Italian  Mission  to  the  Mongols.     Marco  Polo,  §  93,  15. 
David  of  Augsburg  dies,  §  103, 10.    Bertholdt  of  Eegens- 
biu-g  dies,  §  104,  1. 
1278-1291.  Rudolph  of  Hapsburg,  Emperor,  §  96,  21,  22. 

1274.  Fourteenth  (Ecumenical  Council  (second  of  Lj'ons),  §96,21. 

Thomas  Aquinas  dies,  §  103,  6.  Bonaventura  dies,  §  103, 4. 

1275.  Strassburg  Minster,  §  104,  13. 
1280.  Albert  the  Great  dies,  §  103,  5. 

1282.  Sicilian  Vespers,  §  96,  22. 

1283.  Prussia  subdued,  §  93,  13, 
1286.  Barhabraeus  dies,  §  72,  2. 

1291.  Fall  of  Acre.  §  94,  6.     John  of  Montecorvino  among  the 

Mongols,  §  93,  16, 
1294.  Eeger  Bacon  dies,  §  103,  8. 
1294-1303.  Boniface  VIII.,  Pope,  §  110,  1, 
1296,  Bull  Clericis  laicos;  §  110,  1, 
1300,  First  Eomau  Jubilee,  §  117,     Lollards  at  Antwerp,  §  116, 

2.    Gerhard  Segarelli  burnt,  §  108,  8. 


FOURTEENTH  CENTURY. 

1302.  Bull  Unam  Sam-lam,  §  110,  1. 
1305-1314.  Pope  Clement  V.,  §  110,  2. 

1307.  Dolcino  burnt,  §  108,  4. 

1308.  Duns  Scotus  dies,  §  113,  1, 

1309-1377,  Residence  of  Popes  at  Avignon,  §  110,  2-  1. 
1311-1312.  Fifteenth  CEcumonical  Council  at  Viunne,  §  110,  2.     Sup- 
pression of  l^emplar  Order,  §  112,  7. 
1314-1347.  Louis  the  Bavarian,  Emperor,  §  110,  3,  4. 

1315.  Raimund  Lullus  dies,  §  93,  17  ;  103,  5. 
1316-J334.  Pope  John  XXII.,  §  110,  3  ;  112,  2. 

1321.  Dante  dies,  §  116,  6. 

1322.  Split  in  the  Franciscan  Order,  tj  112,  2. 
1327.  Meister  Eckhart  dies,  §  114,  1. 

1334-1342.  Poi)e  Benedict  XII.,  §  110,  4. 

1335.  Bishop  Hemming  in  Lapland,  §  93,  11. 

1338.  Electoral  Union  at  Rhense,  §  110,  5. 

1339.  Union  negotiations  at  Avignon.     Barlaam,  g  67,  5. 

1340.  Nicliolas  of  Lyra  dies,  §  113,  7. 

1311  1351.  H''S3'chast  Controversy  in  Constauthiuplc,  t<  (i!),  1. 


CHRONOLOGICAL   TABLES.  471 

A.D. 

1342-1352.  Pope  Clement  VI.,  §  110,  4. 
1346-1378.  Charles  IV.,  Emperor,  §  110,  4. 

1347.  Eienzi,  §  110,  4.     Emperor  Louis  dies,  §  110,  4. 

1348.  Founding  of  University  of  Prague,  §  119,  3. 
1348-1350.  Black  Death.     Flagellant  Campaign,  §  116,  3. 

1349.  Thomas  Bradwardine  dies,  §  113,  2. 
1352-1362.  Pope  Innocent  VI.,  §  110,  4. 

1356.  Charles  IV.  issues  the  Golden  Bull,  §  110,  4. 

1360.  Wiclif ,  against  the  Begging  Friars,  §  119,  1. 

1361.  John  Tanler  dies,  §  114,  2. 
1362-1370.  Pope  Urban  V.,  §  110,  4. 

1366.  Henry  Suso  dies,  §  114,  5. 
1367-1370.  Urban  V.  in  Rome,  §  110,  4. 

1369.  John  Paliiologus  passes  over  to  the  Latin  Church,  §  67,  5. 
1370-1378.  Pop(!  Gregory  XI.,  §  110,  4. 

1374.  Dancers,  §  116,  3. 

1377.  Return  of  the  Cui-ia  to  Rome,  §  110,  4. 
1378-1417.  Papal  Schism,  §  110,  6. 

1380.  Catharine  of  Siena  dies,  §  112,  4. 

1384.  Wiclif  dies,  §  119,  1.     Gerhard  Groot  dies,  §  112,  9. 

1386.  Introduction  of  Christianity  into  Lithuania,  §  93,  14. 

1400.  Florentius  Radewin  dies,  §  112,  9. 

FIFTEENTH  CENTURY. 

1402.  Hus  becomes  Preacher  in  the  Bethlehem  Chapel,  §  119,  3. 
1409.  (Ecumenical  Council  at  Pisa,  §  110,  6.i     Withdrawal  of 
the  Germans  from  Prague,  §  119,  3. 

*  From  the  fifteenth  century  the  numbering  of  the  General  Councils 
is  so  variable  and  vmcertain  that  even  Catholic  historians  are  not 
agreed  upon  this  point.  They  are  at  one  only  aboiit  this,  that  the 
anti-papal  councils  claiming  to  be  oecumenical,  of  Pisa  a.d.  1409, 
Basel  A.D.  1438,  and  Pisa  a.d.  1511,  should  be  designated  schismatical 
"  Co«fz7iaZ»«/rt."  Ilefele,  in  his  "History  of  the  Councils,"  counts 
eighteen  down  to  the  Reformation.  He  makes  the  Constance  Council 
in  its  first  and  last  sessions  the  sixteenth,  but  does  not  count  the 
middle  session  held  without  the  pope.  He  makes  that  of  Basel  the 
seventeenth  down  to  a.d.  1438  with  its  papal  continuation  at  Ferrara 
and  Florence.  Finally,  as  eighteenth  ho  gives  the  fifth  Lateran 
("ouncil  of  a.d.  1512-1517.  But  others  strike  Basel  and  Constance  out 
of  the  list  altogether;  and  many,  especially  the  Galileans,  reject  also 
the  fifth  Lateran  Council,  because  occupied  w'ith  matters  of  slight  or 
merely  local  interest. 


472  CHRONOLOGICAL   TABLES. 

A.n. 
1410-1415.  John  XXIII.,  Pope,  §  110,  7. 
1410-1437.  Sigismund,  Emperor,  §  110,  7,  8. 

1412.  Traffic  in  Indulgences  in  Bohemia,  §  119,  4. 

1413.  Papal  Ban  against  Hus,  §  119,  4. 

1414-1418.  Sixteenth   CEcumenical   Coimcil   at  Constance,   §   110,   G  ; 
119,  5. 

1415.  Tins  obtains  the  crown  of  martyrdom,  §  119,  5. 

141G.  Jerome  of  Prague  mart^^red,  §  119,  5. 
1417-1431.  Pope  Martin  V.,  §  110,  7. 

1420.  Calixtines  and  Taborites,  §  119,  7. 

1423.  General  Councils  at  Pavia  and  Siena,  §  110,  7. 

1424.  Ziska  dies,  §  119,  7. 

1425.  Peter  D'Ailly  dies,  §  118,  3. 
1429.  Gerson  dies,  §  118,  3. 

1431-1447.  Pope  Eugenius  IV.,  §  110,  7. 

1431-1449.  Seventeenth  (Ecumenical  Council  at  Basel,  §  110,  8 :  119 
5-7. 

1433.  Basel  Comi^acts,  §  119,  7. 

1434.  Overthrow  of  Hussites  at  Bohmisclibrod,  §  119,  7. 

1438.  Papal  Counter-Council  at   Ferrara,  §  110,  8.     Pragmatic 
Sanction  of  Bourges,  §  110,  9. 

1489.  Council  at  Florence,  §  67,  6. 

1448.  Concordat  of  Vienna,  §  110,  9. 

1453.  Fall  of  Constantinople,  §  67,  (>. 

1457.  Laurentius  Valla  dies,  §  120,  1. 
1458-14()4.  Pope  Pius  II.,  §  110,  11. 

1459.  Congress  of  Princes  at  Mantua,  5?  110,  10. 
1464-1471.  Pope  Paul  II.,  §  110,  11. 

1467.  Convention  of  Bohemian  Brethren  at  Lhota,  t?  119,  8. 

1471.  Thomas  a  Kempis  dies,  §  114,  5. 
1471-1484.  Sixtus  IV.,  Pope,  §  110,  11. 

1483.  Luther  torn  on  JNovember  10th,  ij  122,  1.     Spanish  Inquisi- 
tion, §  117,  1.     Close  of  Corpici  jurin  canonici^  §  99,  5. 
1484-1492.  Innocent  VIII.,  Pope,  §  110,  11. 

14.S1.  Zwingli  bom  January  1st,  tj  130,  1.     Bull  tSiinuuix  ilcsidc- 
rarites,  §  1 17,  4. 

1485.  Rudolph  Agricola  dies,  J^  120,  3. 

1489.  John  Wessel  dies,  §  119,  10. 
1492-1.503.  Alexander  VI.,  Pope,  §  110,  12. 

1492.  Fall  of  Granada,  §  95,  2. 
1493-1519.  Maximilian  I.,  Emperor,  §  110,  13. 

1497.  Melanchthon  born,  §  122,  5. 

1498.  Savonarola  sent  to  the  staki",  §  119,  11. 


CHRONOLOGICAL    TABLES.  473 

SIXTEENTH  CENTURY. 

A.D. 

1502.  Founding  of  University  of  Wittenborji;,  §  122,  1. 
1503-151H.  Pope  Julius  II.,  §  110,  13. 

1506.  Eebuilding  of  St.  Peter's  at  Rome,  §  115,  IB. 

1508.  Luther  becomes  Professor  at  Wittenberg,  §  122,  1. 

1509.  Calvin  born  on  July  lOtli,  §  188,  2. 
1.509-1547.  Henry  VIII.  of  England,  §  139,  4. 

1511.  Lutlier's  joui-ney  to  Eome,  §  122, 1.     Council  at  Pisa,  §  110, 

13. 

1512.  Luther  made  Doctor  of  the  Holy  Scriptures  and  Preacher, 

§  112,  1. 
1512-1517.  Fifth  Lateran  Council,  §  110,  13,  14. 
1518-1521.  Pope  Leo  X.,  §  110,  14. 

1514.  Re\ichlin's  contest  with  the  Dominicans,  §  120,  4. 

1516.  Epistolm  Ohscur.  vironim,  %  120,  5.     Erasmus  edits  the  New 

Testament,  §  120,  (j.     Zwingli  preaches  at  Mariii  Einsie- 
deln,  §  130,  1. 

1517.  Luther's  Theses,  October  81st,  §  122,  2. 

1518.  Luther  at  Heidelberg  and   before  Cajetan   at  Augsburg, 

^  122,  3.    Melanchthon  Professor  at  Wittenberg,  §  122,  5. 

1519.  Miltitz,    tj    122,    8.       Disputation    at    Leipzig,  t;    122,    4. 

Zwingli  in  Ziirich,  i?  130,  1.     Olaf  and  Laurence  Peter- 
son in  Sweden,  i^  189,  1. 
1519-15.56.  Emperor  Charles  V.,  §  128,  5. 

1.520.  Bull    of    Excommunication    against    Luther,    t?    128,    2. 

Christian  II.  in  Denmark,  §  139,  2. 

1.521.  Luther  at  Worms,  §  128,  7.     Melanchthon's  Loci,  §  124,  1, 

Beginning  of  Reformation  in  Riga,  i?  189,  8. 
1521-1522.  The  Wartburg  Exile,  J^  128,  8. 

1.522.  The  Prophets  of  Zwick;ui  m  Wittenberg,  §  121,  1.     Reuch- 

lin  dies,  t^  120.  1. 
1522-1.528.  Pope  Hadrian  VI.,  §  126,  1. 

1523.  Thomas  Munzer  in   Allstiidt,   t?    121,    1.     LutherV  contest 
with  Henry  VIII.,  §  125,  8,     First  Martyrs,  Voes  and 
Esch,  §  128,  1.     Sickingen's  defeat,  §  124,  2. 
1528-1.534.  Pope  Clement  VII.,  §  149,  1. 

1.524.  Stiiui)itz  dies,  §  112,  2.  Carlstadt  in  Orlamiinde,  §  124,  3. 
Erasmus  against  Luther,  t?  125,  2.  Diet  of  Nuremberg, 
§  126,  2,  Regensbiu'g  League,  ij  126,  8.  Hans  Tausen  in 
Denmark,  §  189,  2.    Founding  of  Theatine  Order,  §  149,  7. 

1525.  Eucharist  Controversy,  §  131,  1.  Luther's  Marriage,  §  129. 
Albert  of  Prussia,  Hereditary  Duke,  §  126,  4.  Founding 
of  the  Capucliin  Order,  tj  149.  7. 


474  CHRONOLOGICAL   TABLES. 

A.D. 

1525-1532.  John  the  Constant,  Elector  of  Saxony,  §  124,  5. 

152G.  Synod  at  Hamburg,  i^  127,  2.     Torgau  League,  §  126,  5, 
Diet  at  Spires,  §  12(3,  6.     Disputation  at  Baden,  §  130,  6. 

1527.  Diet  at  Odense,  §  139,  2 ;  and  at  Westeras,  §  139,  1. 

1528.  The  Pack  incident,  §  132,  1.     Disputation  at  Bern,  §  130,  7. 

1529.  Church  Visitation  of  Saxony,  §  127,  1.    Diet  at  Spires, 

§  132,  3.    Marburg  Conference,  §  132,  4.    First  Peace  of 
Cappel,  §  130,  9. 

1530.  Diet  at  Augsburg.    Conf.  Augn.slana,  June  25th,  §  132.  G,  7. 

1531.  Schmalcald  League,  §  133, 1.     Zwingli  dies.     Second  Peac<? 

of  Cappel,  §  130,  10. 
1532-15tl7,  John  Frederick    the    Magnanimous,   Elector   of    Saxony, 
§  133,  2. 

1532.  Religious  Peace  of  Nuremberg,  §  133,  2.    Farel  at  Geneva, 

§  138,  1.    Henry  VIII.  renounces  authority  of  the  Pope, 
§139,4. 

1534.  Luther's  complete  Bible  Translation,  §  129, 1.   Reformation 

in  Wiirttemberg,  §  133,  3. 
1534-1535.  Anabaptist  Troubles  in  Miinster,  §  133,  6. 
1534-1549.  Pope  Paul  III.,  S  149,  2. 

1535.  Vergerius  in  Wittenberg,  tj  134,  1.     Calvin's  Indilutio  rcl. 

ChrinL,  %  138,  5. 

1536.  Erasmus  dies,  §  120,  6.      Wittenberg  Concord,  §  133,  8. 

Calvin  in  Geneva,  §  138,  2.    Diet  at  Copenhagen,  §  139,  2. 
Menno  Simons  baptized,  §  147,  1. 

1537.  Schmalcald  Articles,  §  134,  1.     Antinomian  Controversy, 

§  141,  1. 

1538.  Nuremberg    League,   §   134,   2.      Calvin    Expelled    from 

Geneva,  §  138,  3. 

1539.  Outbreak  at  Frankfort,  §  134,  3.    Reformation  in  Albcrtine 

Saxony,  §  134,  4.     Joachim  II.  reforms  Biandeuburg, 
§  134,  5.    Diet  at  Odense,  §  139,  2. 

1510.  The  Society  of  Jesus,  §  149,  8.    Double  Marriage  of  the 

Landgrave,  §  135,  1.     Religious  Conferences  at  Spires, 
Hagenau,  and  Worms,  §  135,  2. 

1511.  Cai'lstadt  dies,  §  12 J,  3.     Intei'im  of  Regensburg,  §  135,  3. 

Naumburg   Episcopate,   §   135,   5.      ("alvin  returns   to 

Geneva,  §  138,  3,  4. 
1542.  Reformation  in  Brunswick,  §  135,  6.     National  Assembly 

at  Bonn,  §  135,  7.     Francis  Xavier  in  tlu^  East  Indies, 

§  150,  1.     Roman  Inquisition,  §  139,  23. 
1544.  Diet  at  Spires,  Peace  of  Crespy,  Wittenberg  Reformation, 

§  135,  9.     Diet  at  Westeras,  §  139,  1. 


CHRONOLOGICAL    TABLES.  475 


1545.  Synod  at  Erdod,  §  139,  20. 

1545-1547.  Nineteenth  (Ecumenical  Council  at  Trent,  §  13G,  4;  149,  2. 

1546.  Eegensburg  Conference :  Murder  of  John  Diaz,  §  135,  10. 

Luther  dies,  February  18th,  §  135,  11.     Reformation  in 

the  Palatinate,  §  135,  6. 
1546-1547.  Schmalcald  War,  §  136. 
1547-1553.  Edward  VI.  of  England,  §  139,  5. 

1547.  Hermann  of  Cologne  resigns,  §  136,  2. 
1548-1572.  Sigismund  Augustus,  of  Poland,  §  139,  18. 

1548.  Interim  of  Augsburg,  §  136,  5.     Adiaphorist  Controversy, 

§  141,  5.     Priests  of  the  Oratory,  §  149,  7. 

1549.  Comensu8  Tif/uriiius,  §  138,  7.    Andrew  Osiander  at  Kouigs- 

burg,  §  141,  2.    Jesuit  Mission  in  Brazil.  §  150,  3.     The 
fii-st  Jesuits  in  Germanj'^  (Ingolstadt).  §  151,  2. 
1550-1555.  Pope  Julius  III.,  §  136,  8. 

1550.  Brothers  of  Mercy,  §  149,  7. 

1551.  Resumption  of  Tridentine  Council,  §  136,  8  ;  149,  2. 

1552.  Compact  of  Passau,  §  137,  3.    Outbreak  of  Crj^pto-Calvinist 

Controversy,  §  141,  9.     Francis  Xavier  dies,  §  150,  1. 
1553-1558.  Mary  the  Catholic  of  England,  §  139,  5. 

1.553.  Elector  Maurice  dies,  §  137,  4.     Servetus  burnt,  §  148,  2. 

1554.  Consensus  Pastorum  Genecensium,  §  138,  7.     John  Frederick 

the  Magnanimous  dies,  §  137,  3. 

1555.  Religious    Peace   of   Augsburg,   §   137,   5.      Outbreak   of 

Synergist  Controversies,  §  141,  7. 
1555-1.598.  Philip  II.  of  Spain,  §  139,  21. 
1556-1564.  Ferdinand  I.,  Emperor,  §  137,  8. 

1556.  Loyola  dies,  §  149,  8. 

1557.  National  Assembly  at   Clausenburg   and  Confess  to  Htin- 

(jarica,  %  139,  20. 
15.58.  Frankfort  Recess,  §  141,  11. 
1558-1603.  Elizabeth  of  England,  §  139,  6. 

1559.  Gustavus  Vasa's  Mission  to  the  Lapps,  §  142,  7.     Confessio 

Gal/icana,  §  139,  14.     The  English   Act  of  Uniformity. 
§  139,  6. 
1560-1565.  Pope  Pius  IV.,  §  149,  2. 

1560.  Confessio  Scotica,  §  139,  9.     John  a  Lasco  dies,  §   139,   18. 

Calvinizing  of  the  Palatinate,  §  144,  1.    Melanchthon 
dies,  §  141,  10. 

1561.  Gotthard  Kettler,  Duke  of  Courhuul,  §  139,  3.     Religious 

Conference  at  Poissy,  §  139,  14.     Mary  Stuart  in  Scot- 
land, §  139,  10.     Princes'  Diet  at  Nauniburg,  §  1 11,  11. 
1562-1563.  Resumption  and  Close  of  Tridentine  Council,  §  149,  2. 


476  CHRONOLOGICAL   TABLES. 

A.D. 

1562.  Confessio  Bchjka,  §  130,  12.  The  XXXIX.  Articles  of  the 
English  Church,  §  139,  6.  Calvinizing  of  Bremen, 
§  144,  2.  Heidelberg  Catechism,  §  144,  1.  Laelius 
Socimis  dies,  §  148,  4. 

15G4.  Calvin  dies,  i^  188,  4.     Frofessio  fidei  Tridpiitiiia;,  §  149,  14. 
Cassander's  Union  Proposals,  §  137,  8.    Maulbroim  Con- 
vention, §  144,  1. 
15(51-1576.  Emperor  Maximilian  II.,  §  137,  8. 

1566,  Caterhasimo  liomauns,  §  149,  10.     Covfcftsio  Helvetica  pos- 

terior, §  138,  7.    The  League  of  "  the  Beggars,"  §  139, 12. 

1567.  The  writings  of  Michael  Baius  condemned,  §  149,  13. 
1570.  General  Synod  at  Sendomir,  §  139,  13.     Peace  of  St.  Grer- 

mains,  §  139,  15. 
1572-1585.  Pope  Gregory  XIII.,  §  149,  3. 

1572.  John  Knox  dies,  §  139,   11.     Bloody  Marriage  of  Paris, 

August  24th,  §  139,  16. 

1573.  Pax  dissident imn  in  Poland,  §  139,  18. 

1574.  Maulbronn  Convention,  §  141,  12.     Kestoration  of  Catho- 

licism in  Eichsfelde,  §  151,  1. 

1575.  Confessio  Bohemicn,  §  139,  19. 

1576.  Book  of  Torgau,  §  141,  12.    Pacification  of  Ghent,  §  139, 12. 
1576-1612.  Rudolph  II.,  Emperor,  §  137,  8. 

1577.  The    Formula    of    Concord,   5?   141,    12.      Restoi'ation    of 

Catholicism  in  Fulda,  i?  151,  1. 

1578.  The  Jesuit  Possevin  in  Sweden,  §  151,  3. 

1579.  The  Union  of  Utrecht,  t?  139,  12. 
1.580.  Book  of  Concord,  §  141,  12. 

1.582.  Second   Attempt    at   Reformation   in   Cologne,   §   137,   6. 
Matthew  Ricci  in  China,  §  150,  1.     Reform  of  Calendar, 
§  149,  3. 
1585-1590.  Pope  Sixtus  V.,  S  149,  3. 

1,587.  Mary  Stuart  on  the  Scaffold,  §  139,  10, 

1588,  Louis  Molina,  tj  149,  13, 
1.589-1610,  Henry  IV,  of  France,  §  139,  17. 

1589.  Patriarchate  at  Moscow,  §  73,  4. 

1592.  Saxon  Articles  of  Visitation,  §  141,  13. 

1593.  Assembly  of  Representatives  at  Upsala,  §  139,  1. 

1595.  Synod  at  Thorn,  §  139,  18. 

1596.  Synod  at  Brest,  §  151,  3. 

1597.  Calvinizing   the   Principality  of  Anhalt,  §  144,  3.     Con- 

rjrcfjntio  de  curiliis,  §  149,  13. 

1598.  Edict  of  Nantes,  §  139,  17. 

1600.  fiiordano  Bruno  at  the  Stake.  §  146,  3. 


CHRONOLOGICAL   TABLES.  477 

HEVENTEEXTH  CENTURY. 

A.D, 

1604.  Faustus  Socinus  dies,  §  148,  4. 

1G05.  Landgrave    Maurice    calvinizes  Hesse    Cassel,    §   154,   1. 

Gunpowder  Plot,  §  1.53,  6. 
1606.  The  Treaty  of  Vienna,  §  139,  10.     Interdict  on  the  Ee- 

public  of  Venice,  §  156,  2. 

1608.  Founding  the  Jesuit  State  of  Paraguay,  §  156,  10. 

1609.  The  Royal  Letter,  §  193,  19. 
1610-1643.  Louis  XIII.  of  France,  §  153,  3, 

1610.  Eenaonstrants  and  Counter-Remonstrants,  §  160,  2. 

1611.  Peres  de  I'Oratoii-e,  (^  156,  7. 
1612-1619.  Matthias,  Emperor,  J?  153,  1. 

1613.  Elector  John  Sigisniund   of   Brandenburg   goes   over  to 

Reformed  Church,  §  154,  3.     George  Calixtus  in  Hehn- 
stadt,  §  159,  2. 

1614.  Confessio  Mardiica,  %  154,  3. 
1616.  Leonard  Hutter  dies,  §  159,  4. 

1618.  Monks  of  St.  Maur  in  France,  §  156,  7. 
1618-1648.  The  Thirty  Years'  War,  ij  153,  2. 
1618-1619.  Sjmod  of  Dort,  §  161,  2. 
1619-1637.  Ferdinand  II.,  Emperor,  §  153,  2. 

1620.  The  Valteline  Massacre,  §  153,  3.     The  Pilgrim  Fathers, 

§  143,  2. 

1621.  John  Arndt  dies,  §  160,  1, 

1622.  Francis  de  Sales  dies,  §  157,  1.     Conurerjatio  de  propaganda 

fide,  %  156,  9. 
1624.  End  of  Controversy  over  K^vwais  and  Kpv\j/is,  §  159,  1.    Jac. 
Bohme  dies,  §  160,  2. 

1628.  Adam  Schall  in  China,  §  156,  12. 

1629.  Edict  of  Restitution,  §  153,  2. 

1631.  Religious  Conference  at  Leipzig,  §  155,  4, 

1632.  Gustavus  Adolphus  falls  at  Liitzen,  §  1.53,  2. 

1637.  John  Gerhard  dies,  55  159,  4.    Rooting  out  of  Christianity 

in  Jai^an,  §  156,  11. 

1638.  Overthrow  of  Racovian  Seminary,  §  148,  4.    C3Til  Lucar 

strangled,  §  152,  2.    Scottish  Covenant,  §  155,  1. 
1G41.  Irish  Massacre,  §  153,  5. 

1642,  Condemnation  of  the  "  Augustinus ''  of  Jansen,  §  157,  5. 
1643-1715.  Louis  XIV.  of  Franco,  §  153,  2 ;  157,  2,  3,  5. 

1643.  Orthodox  Confession  of  Peter  Mogihxs,  §  152,  3.     Opening 

of  Westminster  Assembly,  §  155,  1. 
1645.  Hugo  Grotius  dies,   §   1.53,   7.     Religious  Conference  at 
Thorn,  §  153,  7.    Peace  of  Linz,  §  153,  3. 


47M  chronoloCtTcal  tables. 

A.D. 

1645-1742.  Accommodation  Controversy,  §  156,  12. 

1647,  George  Fox  appears  as  Leader  of  the  Quakers,  §  163,  4. 
1048,  Peace  of  Westphalia,  §   153,   2.     Close  of  "Westminster 
Assembly,  §  155,  1. 

1649.  Execution  of  Charles  I.  of  England,  §  155,  1. 

1650.  Descartes  dies,  §  164,  1. 

1652.  Liturgical  Reform  of  the  Patriarch  Nikon,  §  163,  10. 

1653.  Innocent  X.  condemns  the  Five  Pi-opositions  of  Jansen, 

§  157,  5,    Barebones'  Parliament,  §  155,  2, 

1654.  Christina  of  Sweden  becomes  a  Catholic,  §  153,  1,     John 

Val,  Andrea  dies,  §  160,  1. 

1655.  The   Bloody   Easter   in   Piedmont,    §   153,   5.      Consensus 

repetitus  fidei  vere  Lntherance,  §  159,  2. 

1656.  George  Calixtus  dies,  §  159,  2.   Pascal's  Lettres  Provinciahs, 

§  157,  5. 
1658.  Outbreak  of  Cocceian  Controversies,  §  161,  5. 

1660,  Vincent  de  Paul  dies,  §  |156,  8,    Eestoration  of  Royalty 

and  Episcopacy  in  England,  §  155,  3, 

1661.  Religious  Conference  at  Cassel,  §  154,  4. 
1664,  Founding  of  Order  of  Trappists,  §  156,  8, 

1669,  Cocceius  dies,  §  161,  3, 

1670.  The  Labadists  in  Herford,  §  163,  7. 
1673.  The  Test  Act,  §  153,  6. 

1675.  Formula  consensus  Helvetici,  §  161,  2.     Spener's  Pio  Desi- 

deria,  §  159,  3. 

1676.  Paul  G«rhardt  dies,  §  154,  4.    Voetius  dies,  §  161,  3. 

1677.  Spinoza  dies,  §  164,  1. 

1682.  Quatuor  ^rropositiones  Cleri  Gallicani,  §  156,  1.     Founding 
of  Pcnmsylvania,  §  163,  4. 

1685,  Revocation  of  Edict  of  Nantes  and  Expulsion  of  Walden- 

sians  from  Piedmont,  §  153,  4,  5, 

1686,  Spener  at  Dresden  and   Collegia  2}^^ilohiUica  in  Leipzig, 

§  159,  3,     Abraham  Calov  dies,  §  159,  4. 

1687,  Michael  Molinos  forced  to  Abjure,  §  157,  2. 

1689,  English  Act  of  Toleration,  §  155,  3,     Return  of  banished 

Waldensians,  §  153,  5, 

1690,  The  Pietists  Expelled  from  Leipzig,  §  159,  3, 

1691,  Spener  in  Berlin,  §  159,  3, 

1694.  Founding  of  University  of  Halle,  §  159,  3. 

1697.  Frederick    Augustus    the    Strong    of    Saxony    becomes 

Catholic,  §  153,  1. 
1699,  Propositions  of  Fenelon  Condemned,  §  157,  3. 


CHRONOLOGICAL   TABLES.  479 


EIGHTEENTH  CENTURY. 

A.D. 

1701.  Thomas  of  Tournon  in  the  East  Indies,  §  15G,  12. 

1702.  Loscher's   "  UnscJuddige  NacJiricJden,"  §   1H7,   1.     Bnttla. 

Fanatical  Excesses,  §  170,  4. 

1703.  Collegium  caritativum  at  Berlin,  §  169,  1.      Peter   CoJde 

deposed,  §  165,  8. 

1704.  Bossuet  dies,  §  153,  7 ;  157,  3. 

1705.  S^Dener  dies,  §  159,  3. 

1706.  Founding  of  Lutheran  Mission  at  Tranqnebar,  §  167,  9. 

1707.  The  Praying  Children  at  Silesia,  §  167,  8. 
1709.  Port  Eoyal  suppressed,  §  157,  5. 

1712.  Richard  Simon  dies,  §  158,  1.     Mechitarist  Congregation, 

§  165,  2. 

1713.  The  Coustitution  Unigenitus,  §  165,  7. 
1717-1774.  Louis  XV.  of  France,  §  165,  5. 

1715.  Fenelon  dies,  §  157,  3. 

1716.  Leibnitz  dies,  §  164,  2. 

1717.  French  Appellants,  §  165,  7.    Madame  Guyon  dies,  §  157, 

3.     Gottfried  Arnold  dies,   §  160,  2.     Inspired  Commu- 
nities in  the  Cevennes,  §  170,  2. 

1721.  Holy  Synod  of  St.  Petersburg,  §  166.     Hans  Egede  goes  as 

Missionary  to  Greenland,  §  167,  9. 

1722.  Founding  of  Herrnhut,  §  168,  2. 

1727.  A.  H.  Francke  dies,  §  167,  8.     Thomas   of   Westen   dies, 

§  160,  7.     Founding  of  the  Society  of  United  Brethren, 
§  168,  2. 

1728.  Callenberg's  Institute  for  Convei'sion  of  Jews,  §  167,  9. 

1729.  Buddeus  dies,  §  168,  2.     Methodist  Society  formed,  §  169,  4. 
1731.  Emigration  of  Evangelicals  of  Salzburg,  §  165,  4. 

1740-1786.  Frederick  II.  of  Prussia,  §  171,  4. 

1741.  Moravian  Special  Covenant  Avith  the  Lord  Jesus,  §  168,  4. 

1750.  Sebastian  Bach  dies,  §  167,  7.    End  of  Jesuit  State  of  Para- 

guay, §  165,  3. 

1751.  Semler,  Professor  in  Halle,  §  171,  6. 

1752.  Bengel  dies,  §  167,  4. 

1754.  Christ,  v.  Wolff  dies,  §  167,  3.     Winckelmann  becomes  a 

Roman  Catholic,  §  165,  6. 

1755.  Mosheim  dies,  §  167,  3. 
1758-1769.  Pope  Clement  XIII.,  §  165,  9. 

1759.  Banishment  of  Jesuits  from  Portugal,  §  165,  9, 

1760.  Zinzendorf  dies,  §  168,  3. 

1762.  Judicial  Murder  of  Jean  Galas,  §  165,  5. 
1765.  Universal  German  Library,  §  171,  4. 


480  chronologicaIj  tables. 

A.D. 

1769-1774.  Pope  Clement  XIV.,  i?  1G5,  9. 
1772.  Swedenborg  dies,  §  170,  5. 
1778.  Supijression  of  Jesuit  Order,  §  165,  9. 

1774.  Wolfenbiittel  Fragments,  §  171,  6. 
1775-1799.  Pius  VI.,  Pope,  §  165,  9,  10. 

1775.  C.  A.  Crusius  dies,  §  167,  8. 

1776.  Founding  of  the  Order  of  the  liluminati,  §  165,  18. 
1778.  Voltaire  and  Rousseau  die,  §  165,  14. 

1780-1790.  Joseph  II.,  sole  ruler,  §  165,  10. 

1781.  Joseph's  Edict  of  Toleration,  §  165,  10. 

1782.  Pope  Pius  VI.  in  Vienna,  §  165,  10. 

1786.  Congress  at  Ems  and  S3rnod  at  Pistoja,  §  1(55,  10. 

1787.  Edict  of  Versailles,  §  165,  4. 

1788.  The  Eeligious  Edict  of  Wollner,  §  171,  5, 

1789.  French  Kevolution,  §  165,  15. 

1791.  Wesley  dies,  §  169,  5.     Semler  dies,  t,  171,  6. 

1798.  Execution   of   Louis  XVI.  and   his   Queen.     Abolition  of 

Christian  reckoning  of  time  and  of  tlie  Christian  reli- 
gion in  France.     Temple  de  la  liaison,  §  165,  15. 

1794.  LepeuplefratiQainreconnait  VEtre  supreme  et  riinmortalile 

de  Pcune,  §  165,  15. 

1795.  Founding  of  London  Missionary  Society,  §  172,  5. 

1799.  Schleiermacher's  '■'■  Hedcn  iiher  die  Hcliyion,^^  §  182,  1. 

1800.  Stolberg  becomes  a  Roman  Catholic,  §  165,  6. 

NINETEENTH  CENTURY. 

1800-1828.  Pope  Pius  VII.,  §  185,  1. 

1801.  French  Concordat,  §  208,  1. 

1808.  Recess  of  Imperial  Deputies,  §  192,  1. 

1804.  Founding  of  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Societ}',  §  188,  4. 

Kant  dies,  §  171,  10. 
1806.  End  of  Catholic  German  Empire,  §  192. 

1809.  Napoleon  under  Ban  ;  the  Pope  Imprisoned,  §  185,  1. 

1810.  Founding  of    American   Missionaiy   Society   at    Boston, 

§  184,  1.     Schleiermacher  professor  at  Berlin,  §  182,  1. 

1811.  French  National  Council,  §  185,  1. 

1814.  Vienna    Congress.     Restoration    of    the    Pope,   §  185,    1. 

Restoration  of  the  Jesuits,  §  18(),  1. 

1815.  The  Holy  Alliance,  §  178. 

1816.  Mission  Seminary  at  Basel,  §  184,  1. 

1817.  The  Thes(;s  of  Harms,  §  17(),  1.     Union  Int(.>rpellation  of 

Frederick  William  III.,  §  177,  1. 


CHRONOLOGICAL   TABLES.  4^1 

A.D. 

1822.  Introduction    of    the    Prussian     Service    Book,   §  176,  1. 
Lyons  Association  for  Spreading  the  Faith,  §  186,  7. 
1823-1829.  Pope  Leo  XII.,  §  185,  1. 

1825.  Book  of  Mormon,  §  211,  12. 

1827.  Hengstenberg's  Evangel.  KirclienzeUung^  §  176,  1. 
1829.  English  Catholic  Emancipation  Bill,  §  202,  9.     Founding 
of  Barmen  Missionary  Institute,  §  184,  1. 
1829-1830.  Pope  Pius  VIII.,  §  185,  1. 

1830.'  July  Eevolution,  §  203,  2.    Halle  Controversy,  §  176,  1. 
Abbe  Chatel  in  Paris,  §  187,  6. 
1831-1846.  Gregory  XVI.,  Pope,  §  185,  1. 
1831.  Hegel  dies,  §  174,  1. 

1833.  Beginning  of  Puseyite  Agitation,  §  203,  2. 

1834.  Conflict    at    HOnigern,    §  177,    2.     Schleiermacher    dies, 

§  182,  1. 

1835.  Strauss'  first  Life  of  Jesus,  §  182,  6.     Condemnation  of 

Hermosianism,  §  193,  1.     Edward  Irving  dies,  §  211,  10. 
Persecution  of  Christians  in  Madagascar,  §  184,  3. 

1836.  Founding  of  Dresden  Missionary  Institute,  §  184,  1. 

1837.  Emigrants  of  ZiUerthal,  §  198,  1.    Beginning  of  Troubles 

at  Cologne,  §  193, 1. 

1838.  Archbishop  Dunin  of  Posen,  §  193,  1.     Eescript  of  Alten- 

burg,  §  194,  2.    J.  A.  Mohler  dies,  §  191,  4.    English 
Tithes'  Bill,  §  202,  9. 

1839.  Call  of  Dr.  Strauss  to  Zurich,  §  199,  4.     Bavarian  order  to 

give  Adoration,  §  195,  2.     Synod  at  Polozk,  §  206,  2. 
1840-1861.  Frederick  William  IV.  of  Prussia,  §  193. 

1841.  Schelling  at  Berlin,  §  174,  1.  Constitution  of  Lutherans 
separated  from  National  Church  of  Prussia,  §  177,  2, 
Founding  of  Evangelical  Bishopric  of  Jerusalem,  §  184, 
8.  Founding  of  Gustavus  Adolphus  Association, 
§  178,  1. 

1843.  Disruption  and  Founding  of  the  Free  Church  of  Scotland, 

§  202,  7. 

1844.  German-Catholic    Church,    §  187,    1.      Wislicenus'    "Ob 

Schrift,  ob  Geist  ?  "  §  176,  1. 

1845.  Founding  Free  Chui-ch  of  Vaud,  §  199,  2. 
1845-1846.  Conversions  in  Livonia,  §  206,  3. 
1846-1878.  Pope  Pius  IX.,  §  185,  2-4. 

1846.  Founding  of  Evangelical  Alliance  in  London,  §  178,  8. 

Fruitless  Prussian  General  Synod  in  Bi»rlin,  §  193,  3. 

1847.  Prussian  Patent  of  Toleration,  §  193,  3.    "War  of  Swiss 

Sonderbund,  §  199,  1, 
VOL.  III.  31 


482  CHEONOLOGICAL   TABLES. 

A.D. 

1848.  Eevolution  of  February  and  March,  §  192,  4,     Founding 

of  Evangel.  Kirclientag,  §  178,  4.  Founding  of  Catholic 
"  Pius  Association,"  §  186,  3.  Bishops'  Congress  of 
Wiirzburg,  §  192,  4. 

1849.  Eoman  Bepublic,   §  185,   2.     First  Congress  for  Home 

Missions,  §  183, 

1850.  Institution  of  Berlin  "  Oberkirchenrat,"  §  193,  4.    Return 

of  Pope  to  Rome,  §  185, 2.  English  Ecclesiastical  Titles 
BiU,  §  202,  11. 

1851.  Memorial  of  Upj^er  Rhine  Bishops,  §  196,  1.  Taeping  Rebel- 

lion in  China,  §  211,  15, 

1852.  Conference  at  Eisenach,  §  178,  2, 

1852-1870,  Napoleon  III,,  Emperor  of  the  French,  §  203,  3,  5. 

1853.  The   Kirchentag   at   Berlin   acknowledges  the  Augustana, 

§  178,  4.    Missionary  Institute  at  Hermannsburg,  §  185, 
1.    New    Organization  of    the  Catholic  Hierarchy  in 
Holland,  §  200,  4, 
1855.  Sardinian    Law    about    Monasteries,  §  204,  1,     Austrian 
Concordat,  §  198,  2. 

1857.  The  Evangelical  Alliance  in  Berlin,  §  178,  3, 

1858.  Disturbances  in  Baden  about  Service  Book,  §  196,  3,     The 

Mother  of  God  at  Lourdes,  §  188,  7. 

1859.  Franco- Austrian  War  in  Italy,  204,  2. 

1860.  Persecution  of  S3T:ian  Christians,  §  207,  2.     Abrogation  of 

Baden  Concordat,  §  196,  2. 

1861.  The  Austrian  Patent,  §  198,  3,     Introduction  of  a  Consti- 

tutional Church  Order  into  Baden,  §  196,  3,  Radama  II. 
in  Madagascar,  §  184,  3.  Schism  among  Separatist 
Lutherans  in  Prussia,  §  177,  3, 

1862.  Hanoverian  Catechism  Scandal,  §  194,  3,     Renan's  Life 

of  Jesus,  182,  8,  Wiirttemberg  Ecclesiastical  Law. 
§  196,  6, 

1863.  Congress  of  Catholic  Scholars  at  Munich,  §  190,  10. 

1864.  Encyclical  and  Syllabus,  §  185,  2.    Strauss'  and  Schenkel's 

Life  of  Jesus,  182,  8,  17. 

1865.  The  first  Protestantentag  at  Eisenach,  §  180,  1. 

1866.  Founding  of  the  North  German  League. 

1867.  St.  Peter's  Centenary  Festival  at  Rome,  §  185,  2, 

1869,  Irish  Church  Bill,  202,  10,    Opening  of  Vatican  Council. 

§  189,  2. 

1870.  Proclamation  of  Doctrine  of  Infallibility,  July  18th,  §  189, 

3,  Revocation  of  the  Austrian  Concordat,  §  198,  2, 
Overthrow  of  the  Church  States,  §  185,  3, 


CHRONOLOGICAL    TABLES.  483 

A.D. 

1871.  Founding   of   the   new   German    Empire,   January   18th, 

§  197.  The  first  Old  Catholic  Congress  at  Munich, 
§  190,  1.  "The  Kanzelparagraph,"  §  197,  4.  First 
Lutheran  National  Synod  in  the  kingdom  of  Saxony 
§  19'i,  1. 

1872.  Dr.  Falk,  Prussian   Minister  of  Worship,  §  193,  5.     The 

Prussian  School  Inspection  Law,  §  199,  3.  The  Roman 
Disputation,  §  175,  3.  The  German  Jesuit  Law,  §  197,  4. 
Epidemic  of  Manifestations  of  the  Mother  of  God  in 
Alsace-Lorraine,  §  188,  6. 

1873.  The   four  Prussian  Ecclesiastical  Laws,  §  197,  5.     Mer- 

millod  and  Lachat  Deposed  from  office,  §  199,  2,  3.  Con- 
stitution of  Old  Catholic  Church  in  German  Empire 
§  190,  1. 

1874.  The  Austrian  Ecclesiastical  Laws,  §  198,  6.     Union  Con- 

ference at  Bonn,  §  175,  G. 

1875.  The  Encyclical  Quod  nitmquam  and   the   Embargo   Act 

§  197,  8.  Berlin  Extraordinary  General  Synod,  §  193,  b. 
Pearsall  Smith,  §  211,  1. 

1876.  Marpinger  Mother-of-God  trick,  §   188,   7.     The   Dutch 

University  Law,  §  202,  2. 

1878.  Leo  XIII.  ascends  the  Papal  chair,  §  185,  5.     Organization 

of  a  Catholic  Hierarchy  in  Scotland,  §  202,  11.  Con- 
gress of  Berlin,  §  207,  5.  Amnesty  to  the  recalcitrant 
Clergy  of  the  Jura,  §  199,  3.  First  appearance  of  the 
Salvation  Army,  §  205,  2. 

1879.  The  Belgian  Liberal  Education  Act,  §  200,  6. 

1880.  Abolition    of  the   '' KuHurexavien"   in   Baden,  §  197    14. 

French  Decree  of  March,  §  203,  G. 

1881.  Eobertson  Smith's  Heresy  Case,  §  202  8. 

1882.  The  Confessional  Lutheran  Conflict  'with  the  Eitschlian 

School,  §  182,  21. 

1883.  The  Luther  jubilee,  §  175,  10. 

1884.  The  Belgian  Clerical  Education  Act,  §  200,  6.     Conclusion 

of  the  "  Kulturkampf  "  in  Switzerland,  §  199,  2,  3. 
1887.  Prussian  and  Hessian  Governments  conclude  Peace  with 
Papal  Curia,  §  197,  13,  15.      Fomiding  of  Evan-elical 
Build,  §  178,  5.  ^ 


INDEX 


Aachen,  Council  of,  §  91,  1,  2. 
Aargau,  §  199,  1, 
AbiBlard,  §  102,  1,  2  ;  104,  10. 
Abbacomites,  §  85,  5. 
Abbadie,  §  161,  7. 
Abbate,  Abbe,  §  111,  2. 
Abbo  of  Pleury,  §  100,  2. 
Abbot,  §  44,  3. 
Abbuna,  §  52,  7. 
Abdas  of  Susa,  §  64,  2. 
Abdelmoumen,  §  95,  2. 
Abderrhamann,  §  81 ;  95,  2. 
Abdias,  §  32,  5. 
Abel,  von,  §  195,  2. 
Abelites,  §  44,  7. 
Abgar  Bar  Maanu,  §  21. 
„      of  Edessa,  §  13,  2. 
About,  E.,  §  185,  3. 
Abraham  a  St.  Clara,  §  15S,  2. 
Abrahamites,  §  165,  16. 
Abrasax,  §  27,  3. 

Abrenunciatio  diaboli,  §  35  ;  58, 1. 
Absolution,  Formula  of,  §  89,  5. 
Abstinence,  Days  of,  §  56,  2. 
Abulfarajus,  §  72,  2. 
Ab3^ssinian  Church,  §  64, 1 ;  72,  2  ; 

150,  4  ;  152,  1 ;  160,  7  ;  166,  3  ; 

187,  19. 
Acaciiis  of  Amida,  §  64,  2. 

„       of  Constantinople,  §  52,  5. 
Acceptants,  §  165,  7. 
Accommodation         Controversy', 

§  155,  12. 


d'Achery,  §  158,  2. 

Achterfeld,  §  191,  1. 

Acindynos,  §  69,  2. 

Acoimetse,  §  44,  3  ;  52,  5,  6. 

Acolytes,  §  34,  3. 

Acominatus,  §  68,  5. 

Acosta,  Uriel,  §  155,  14. 

Acta  facientes,  §  22,  5. 

Acta  Pilati,  §  22,  7 ;  32,  4. 

Acta  Sanctorum,  §  158,  2. 

Acton,  Lord,  §  189,  2. 

Acts    of    Apostles,    Apocryphal, 

§  32,  5,  6. 
Acts  of  Martyrs,  §  32,  8. 
Adalbert  of  Bremen,  §  96,  6 ;  97,  2. 

„        the  Heretic,  §  78,  6. 

„        of  Prague,  §  93,  13. 

„        of  Tuscany,  §  96,  1. 
Adam,  Book  of,  §  32,  3. 
Adam,  St.  Victor,  §  104,  10. 
Adamantius  (Origen),  §  31,  5. 
Adamites,  §  27,  8. 

,,  Bohemian,    §    116,   5 ; 

210,  2. 
Adamnan,  §  77,  8. 
Addai,  §  32,  6. 
Adeodatus,  §  47,  18. 
Adiaphorist  Controversj^,  §  141,  5. 
Adoptionists,  §  91,  1 ;  102,  6. 
Adrianus,  §  48,  1. 
Adrumetum,  §  53,  5. 
Advent,  §  56,  5. 
Adventists,  §  211,  11. 


•i85 


486 


INDEX. 


Aclvocatus  diaboli,  §  104,  8. 

„  ecclesise,  §  86. 

Aedesius,  §  64,  1. 
Aelfric,  §  100,  1. 
Aeneas  of  Gaza,  §  47,  7. 

„       Sylvius,  see  Pius  II. 
Aeons,  §  26,  2. 
Aepinus,  §  141,  3. 
Aerius,  §  62,  2. 
Aeter7ius  ille,  §  149,  4. 
Aetius,  §  50,  3. 
Africa,  §  76,  3. 
Africanus,  §  31,  8. 
Agape,  §17,  7;  36,1. 
Agapetae,  §  39,  3. 
Agapetus,  §  46,  9 ;  52,  6. 
Agathangelos,  §  64,  3. 
Agatho,  §  46,  11 ;  52,  8. 
Agenda  Controversy  in  Prussia. 

§  177,  1. 
Agenum,  Synod 'of,  §  50,  3. 
Agilulf,  §  76,  8. 
Agnostics,  §  174,  2. 
Agobard,  §  90,  4,  9  ;  91,  1 ;  92,  2. 
Agreda,  §  156,  5. 
Agricola,  John,  g  141,  1. 

,,         Eudolph,  §  120,  3. 
Agrippa  of  Nettesheim,  §  146,  2. 
Aguas,  §  209,  1. 
Aguilar,  §  209,  1. 
Aguirre,  §  158,  2. 
Ahle,  Eud.,  §  160,  5. 
Aidan,  §  77,  5. 

d'Ailly,  §  110,  7;   118,  4  ;  119,  5. 
Aistulf,  §  82,  1. 
Aizanas,  §  01,  1. 
AKi(pa\oi,  §  52,  5. 
Ajcpdacrts,  §  39,  2. 
'AKpod>/j.€voij  §  35,  1. 
Alacoque,  §  15(),  6. 
Alanus  ab  Insulis,  §  102,  5. 
Alaric,  §  76,  2. 
Alaviv,  §  76,  1. 
Alba,  §  59,  7. 


Alba,  Duke  of,  §  136,  3 ;  139,  12. 
Alhati,  §  116,  3. 
Alberich,  §  96,  1. 
Albert  the  Great,  §  103,  5. 
„       of  Apeldern,  §  93,  12. 
„       the  Bear,  §  93,  9. 
„       of  Buxhowden,  §  93,  12. 
„       of  Franconia-Branden- 
burg,  §  137,  2,  4. 
Albert  of  Mainz,  §  122,  2 ;  123,  8 ; 

134,  5. 
Albert  of  Prussia,  §  126,  4  ;  127, 

3;  141,2. 
Albert  of  Suerbeer,  §  73,  6 ;  92, 12. 
Alberti,  §  160,  3. 
Albigensians,  §  109,  1. 
Albinus,  §  160,  4. 
Alboin,  §  76,  8. 

Albrechtsleute,  §  208,  4;  211,  1. 
Alcantara,  Peter  of,  §  149,  16. 
Alcantarnies,  §  98,  8 ;  149,  6. 
Alcibiades,  §  40,  1. 
Alcuin,  §  90,  3 ;  91,  1,  2  ;  92,  1. 
Aldgild,  §  78,  3. 
Aleander,  §  123,  6,  7. 
d'Aleman,    Cardinal,    §    110,    8 ; 

118,  4. 
Alemanui,  §  78,  1. 
d'Alembert,  §  165,  14. 
Alexander  II.,  §  96,  6. 

III.,  §  96,  15,  16. 
IV.,  §  96,  20. 
V.,§110,  6;  119,4. 
VI.,  §  110,  12. 
VII.,  §156,  1,  2,  4,  5; 
157,  5. 
Alexander  VIII.,  §  156,  1,  3. 
Alexander  I.,   Czars  I.,  II.,  III., 

§  203,  1 ;  207,  3. 
Alexander  of  Alexandria,  §  50,  1. 
„  ,,  Antioch,  §  50,  8. 

„  Hales,  §  103,  4. 
„   Newsky,  §  73,  6. 
„  Parma,  §  139,  12. 


INDE^. 


487 


Alexander  Severus,  §  22,  3. 
Alexandrian  School,  §  31,  4  ;  47, 

2,3. 
Alexis,  §  73,  5. 

Alexius  Comnenus,  §  71,  1,  4. 
Alfarabi,  §  103,  1. 
Alfred  the  Great,  §  90,  10. 
Algazel,  §  103,  1,  2. 
Alger  of  Liege,  §  102,  7. 
Alkindi,  §  103,  1. 
Allatius,  Leo,  §  158,  2. 
Allegri,  §  158,  3. 
Allen,  W.,  §  139,  6. 
AUendorf,  §  167,  6. 
Alliance,  The  Holy,  §  173. 

„        The  Evangelical,  §  178, 2. 
All  Saints'  Day,  §  57,  1 ;  88,  5. 
All  Souls'  Day,  §  104,  7. 
Almansor,  §  95,  2. 
Almohaden,  §  95,  2. 
Almoravides,  §  95,  2. 
Alms,  Dipensers  of,  §  17,  2. 
Alogians,  §  33,  2. 
Alpers,  §  208,  10. 
Alphonso  the  Catholic,  §  81,  1. 
„        the  Chaste,  §  81,  1. 
„        of  Aragon,  Castile,  and 

Portugal,  §  95,  2. 
Alphonso  XII.,  §  205,  3. 
Alsace-Lorraine,  §  196,  7. 
Altar,  §  88 ;  60,  5  ;  88,  5. 
Altenburg,  §  194,  2. 
Alting,  §  160,  7. 
Alumbrados,  §  149,  16. 
Alvarus,  §  81,  1 ;  90,  6. 

„         Pelagius,  §  118,  2. 
Alzog,  §  5,  6. 

Amadeus  of  Savoy,  §  110,  8. 
Amalarius,  §  90,  4 ;  91,  5. 
Amalrich  of  Bena,  §  108,  4. 
Amandus,  §  78,  3. 
Ambo,  §  60,  5. 
Ambrose,  §  47,  15 ;  50,  4 ;  57,  2, 

3 ;  59,  5. 


Ambrosian  Chant,  §  59,  5. 
Ambrosiaster,  §  47,  15. 
Amen  Sect,  §  211,  8. 
America,  §  150,  3  ;  208;  209. 
Amesius,  §  161,  7 ;  162,  4. 
Amling,  §  144,  3. 
Ammon,  §  182,  2. 
Ammonius,  §  44,  3. 

„         Saccas,  §  24,  2. 
Amort,  §  164,  15. 
Amsdorf,  §  127,  4 ;  135,  5 ;  141,  4, 

6,7. 
Amulets,  §  188,  13. 
Amyrald,  §  161,  3,  7. 
Anabaptists,  §  124,  1 ;  130,  5 ;  133, 

6 ;  147 ;  148,  1 ;  168,  1,  2. 
Anacletus  I.,  §  17,  1. 

IL,  §  96,  13. 
' AvadoxO'i-i  §  35,  3. 
'AvayPihaTai,  %  34,  3. 
Auastasius  Biblioth.,  §  90,  6. 
I.,  §46,  4;  51,2. 
IL,§46,8. 
IV.,  §  96,  10. 
„  Sinaita,  §  47, 12 ;  60, 6. 

Anathema,  §  52,  3, 
Anatolius,  §  46,  7. 
Anchorets,  §  44. 
Ancyra,  Council  of,  §  50,  3. 
Anderledy,  §  182,  1. 
Anderson,  §  139,  1. 
Andrea,  Jac,  §  141,  12. 
„        Val.,  §  160,  1. 
Andrew  II.  of  Hungary,  §  94,  4. 
„        of  Grain,  §  110,  11. 
„  Crete,  §  70,  2. 
Andronicus  Palixologus,  §  67,  5. 
Angela  of  Brescia,  §  149,  7.  ■ 
Angelicals,  §  149,  7. 
Angels,  Wox'ship  of,  §  57,  3. 
Angelo,  Michael,  §  115,  13;  149, 

15. 
Angelus  Silesius,  §  157,  4 ;  160,  3. 
Angilram,  §  87,  1. 


488 


INDEX. 


Anglican  Church,  §  139,  6 ;  155 ; 

202. 
Anglo-Saxon  Church,  §  77,  4,  5,  6. 
Anhalt,  Reformation  in,  §  133,  4  ; 

144,  3. 
Anicetus,  §  37,  2. 
Anjou,  §  96,  21,  22. 
Ann,  Veneration  of  St.,  §  57,  2 ; 

115,  1, 
Anna  of  Russia,  §  73,  4. 

„      „  Prussia,  §  154,  3. 
Annats,  §  110,  15. 
Anno  of  Cologne,  §  96,  6 ;  97,  2. 
Annunciation,     Order     of      the, 

§  112,  8. 
Anomeeans,  §  50,  3. 
Ansbert  of  Milan,  §  83,  3. 
Ansegis,  §  87,  1. 
Anselm  of  Canterbury,  §  67,  4 ; 

96,  12 ;  101,  1,  3. 
Anselm  of  Havelberg,  §  67,  4. 
„  Laon,  §  101,  1. 

,,  Lucca,  §  96.  6. 

Ansgar,  §  80,  1. 
Anthimus  of  Constantinople,  §  52, 

6. 
Anthimus,  Exarch,  §  207,  3. 
Anthony,  St.,  §  44,  1. 

„         of  Padua,  §  98,  4. 
„         Order  of  St.,  §  98,  2. 
Anthusa,  §  47,  1. 
Antidicomarianites,  §  62,  2. 
' AvTiSupa^  §  58,  4. 
Antilegomena,  §  36,  8. 
'AvTi/j.rjPcriov,  §  60,  5. 
Antinomianism,  §  27,  8. 
Antinomian  Controversy,  §  141, 1. 
Antioch,  Council  of,  §  50,  2. 
Antiochean  School,  §  31,  1 ;  47,  1 ; 

52,  2. 
Antiphonal  Music,  §  59,  5. 
Antipho7iarium,  §  59,  5. 
Antitrinitarians,  §  148. 
Anton  of  Bourbon,  §  139,  14. 


Anton  Paul,  §  159,  3. 
Antonelli,  §  185,  2,  4 ;  189,  1 ;  196 

7;  197. 
Antonians,  §  207,  2. 
Antoninus  Pius,  §  22,  3. 

„         of  Florence,  §  113,  7. 
Apelles,  §  27,  12. 
Aphraates,  §  47,  13. 
Apiarius,  §  46,  5,  6. 
Apocrisarians,  §  46,  1. 
Apocrypha,  Non-Canonical,  §  32. 
„  Deutero-Canonical,    § 

59,  1 ;  136,  4. 
Apocryphal  Controversy,   §   101, 

8;  183,4. 
Apollinaris,  §  47,  5 ;  52,  1. 

„  Claudius,  §  30,  8. 

Apollonius  of  Tyana,  §  24,  1. 
Apollos,  §  18,  3. 
Apologists,  Early  Christian,  §  30, 

8. 
Apology  of  Augsburg  Confession, 

§  132,  7. 
Apostles  of  the  Lord,  §§  14-16. 
Apostles,   New  Testament  Office 

of,  §17,  5;  37,1. 
Apostles,  Teaching  of  XII.,  §  30, 

7. 
Apostles,  Doctrine  of  the,  §  18,  2. 
Apostles'  Creed,  §  35,  2 ;  59,  2. 
Apostolic    Age,    Beginning    and 

Close  of,  §  14. 
Apostolic    Church,    Constitution 

of,  §  17. 
Apostolic  Epistles,  §  32,  7. 
„        Fathers,  §  30,  3-6. 
„         Constitutions  and 

Canons,  §  43,  4. 
Apostolics,  §  62,  1. 
Appellants,  §  165,  7. 
ApjyeUatio  ah  ahum,  §  185,  4  ;  192, 

4 ;  197,  9. 
Appenfeller,  §  170,  4. 
Apse,  §  60,  1. 


INDEX. 


489 


Aquarii,  §  27,  10. 

Aquaviva,  §  149,  8, 10, 12 ;  15(1 13. 

Arabia,  §  21. 

Arbues,  §  117,  2. 

Arcadius,  Emperor,  §  42,  4 ;  51,  3. 

Archbishop,  §  46,  1. 

Archchaplain,  §  84,  1. 

Archdeacon,  §  45,  3 ;  84,  2 ;  97,  3. 

Archelaus  of  Cascar,  §  29,  1. 

Archimandrite,  §  44,  3. 

Architecture,  §  60,  1 ;  88,  6 ;  104, 

12 ;  115,   13 ;  149,   15  ;   158,   3 ; 

174,  9. 
Archpresbyter,  §  45,  3. 
Areopagite,  Dionj-sius  the,  §  47, 11. 
Arialdus,  §  97,  5. 
Arians,  §  50 ;  76. 
Aribert,  §  76,  8, 
Aristides,  §  30,  8. 
Aristobulus,  §  10,  1. 
Ariston  of  Pella,  §  30,  8. 
Aristotle,  §  7,  4  ;  68,  2 ;  103,  1. 
Arius,  §  50,  1,  2. 
Aries,  Synod  at,  §  50,  2. 
Armenian  Church,  §  64,  3 ;  72,  2  ; 

82,  8 ;  207,  4. 
Arminians,  §  161,  2. 
Arnaud,  §  153,  4. 
Arnauld,  §  157,  5. 
Arndt,  E.  M.,  §  174,  6;  181,  1. 

„       John,  §  160,  1. 
Arno  of  Salzburg,  §  79,  1. 

„      „  Eeichei-sberg,  §  102,  6,  7. 
Arnobius,  §  31,  12, 

,,  the  Younger,  §  53,  5. 

Arnold  of  Brescia,  §  96,  13. 

„         „  Citeaux,  §  109,  1. 

„       the  Dominican,  §  108,  (i. 

„        Gottfried,  §  5,  3  ;  159,  4  ; 

160,  2,  4. 
Arnoldi,  Bishop,  §  187,  6. 
Arnoldists,  §  108,  7. 
Arnulf  of  Carinthia,  §  82,  8. 

„        „  Rheims,  §  96,  2. 


Arran,  Earl  of,  §  139,  8. 
Ars  Magna,  §  103,  7. 

„    Moriendi,  §  115,  5. 
Arsacius,  §  51. 
Arsenius,  §  70,  1. 
Art,  Early  Christian  and  Medi- 

EBval,  §  38,  3  ;  60. 
Artemon,  §  33,  3. 
Articles  of  English  Church,  The 

XXXIX.,  §  139,  6. 
Articles,  Organic,  §  203,  1. 
Artotyrites,  §  40,  4. 
Ascension,  Festival  of,  §  56,  4. 

ofMary,  §32,4;^57,2. 
Asceticism,  §  89,  3 ;  44,  6 ;  70,  3  ; 

107. 
Aschaffenberg  Concord,  §  110,  8. 
Ash  Wednesday,  §  56,  4. 
Asia   Minor,  Theological   School 

of,  §  31,  1. 
Asinarii,  §  23,  4. 
Asseburg,  §  170,  1. 
Assemani,  §  165,  12. 
Assenath,  §  32,  3. 
Asses,  Feast  of,  §  105,  2. 
Asterius,  §  50,  6. 

„         of  Amasa,  §  57,  4. 
Astruc,  §  165,  11. 
Asylum,  Eight  of,  §  43,  1. 
Athanaric,  §  76. 
Athanasian  Creed,  §  59,  2. 
Athanasius,  §  44 ;  47,  3 ;  50 ;  52,  2. 
Athenagoras,  §  30,  10. 
Athos,  Monks  of  Mount,  §  70,  3 ; 

■69,  1. 
Atriuvi,  §  60,  1. 
Attila,  §  46,  7. 
Atto  of  Vercelli,  §  100,  2. 
(PAubigne,  Merle,  §  178,  2. 

Th.  A.,  §  139,  17. 
Audians,  §  62,  1. 
Aiidientes,  §  35,  1. 
Audientia  ejnsc,  §  43,  1. 
Augsburg  Confession,  §  132,  7. 


490 


INDEX. 


Augsburg  Eeligious  Peace,§  137, 5. 

Augustus  of  Saxony,  §  141,  12. 

Augusta,  §  139,  19. 

Augusti,  §  182,  5. 

Augustine,  §  47,  18,  19 ;  53,  2-5  ; 
54,  1 ;  61,  1,  4 ;  63,  1. 

Augustine,   Missionary   to    Eng- 
land, §  77,  4. 

Augustinus  Triumplius,  §  118,  2. 

Augustinian  Order,  §  98,  6;  112,  5. 

August  Conference,  §  179,  1. 

Aurelian,  Emperor,  §  22,  5 ;  33,  8. 
„  Bishop,  §  63,  1. 

Auricular    Confession,    §    (U,    1  ; 
104,  4. 

Aurifaber,  §  129,  1. 

Auscidtafili,  §  110,  1. 

Australia,  §  184,  7 ;  202,  12. 

Austria,  §  165,  9  ;  190,  3  ;  198. 

Autbert,  §  81,  1. 

Auto  al  nasciemento,  §  115,  12. 
„     de  fe,  §  117,  2. 
,,     sacramentale,  §  115,  12. 

Autoceplialic  Bishops,  §  46,  1. 

Auxentius  of  Dorostorus,  §  76,  1. 
„  of  Milan,  §  47,  14. 

Avars,  §  79,  1. 

Avenarius,  §  142,  6. 

Aventin,  §  120,  3. 

Averrhoes,  §  103,  1,  2. 

Avicenna,  §  103,  1,  2. 

Avignon,  §  110,  2-5. 

Avitus,  §  53,  6 ;  76,  5. 

Azimites,  §  67,  3. 

Baader,  Francis,  §  175,  5  ;  187,  3  ; 

191,  2. 
Baanes,  §  71,  1. 
Babaus,  §  52,  3. 
Babeuf,  §  212,  1. 
Babylonian  Exile  of  Popes,  §  110, 

2-5. 
Bach,  Sebastian,  §  167,  7. 
Bacon,  Roger,  §  103,  8. 


Bacon,  Lord  Verulam,  §  164,  1. 

Baden,  §  196,  2,  3  ;  197,  13. 

Bahrdt,  §  170,  4,  7. 

Baius,  Michael,  §  149,  13. 

Bajazet,  §  110,  11. 

Balaus,  §  48,  7. 

Balde,  Jac,  §  158,  3. 

Baldwin  of  Jerusalem,  §  94,   1 ; 

98,7. 
Baldwin  of  Flanders,  §  94,  4. 

„        the  Heretic,  §  108,  4. 
Balsamon,  §  68,  5. 
Balthazar  of  Fulda,  §  151,  2. 
Baltic  Provinces  of  Russia,  §  139, 

3  •,  206,  3. 
Baltimore,  Lord,  §  208,  5. 
Baltzer,  §  191,  1,  3. 
Baluzius,  §  158,  2. 
Bampfield,  §  163,  3. 
Ban,  §  89,  6  ;  106,  1. 
Banez,  §  149,  13. 
Bangor,  §  85,  4. 
Baphomet,  §  112,  7. 
Baptism,  §  35, 2-4 ;  58, 1, 5 ;  141, 13. 
Baptismal  Font,  §  60,  4 ;  88,  5. 
Baptismus  Clinicorum,  §  35,  3. 
Baptists,  §  163,  3 ;  170,  6 ;  208,  1 ; 

211,  3. 
Baptistries,  §  60,  4. 
Bar,  David,  §  170,  4. 
Baradai,  §  52,  7. 
Barbatianus,  §  62,  2. 
Barbs,  §  108,  10. 
Barckhausen,  §  169,  1. 
Barclay,  §  163,  5. 
Bar-Cochba,  §  25. 
Bardesanes,  §  27,  5. 
Barefooted  Friars,  §  98,  3 ;  149,  6. 
Bar  Hanina,  §  47,  15. 
Bar  Hebrteus,  §  72,  2. 
Bari,  Synod  at,  §  67,  4. 
Barkers,  §  170,  7. 
Barlaam,  §  67,  5 ;  69,  2. 
Barlaam  and  Josaphat,  §  68,  6. 


INDEX. 


491 


Barletta,  §  115,  2. 
Barnabas,  §  14  ;  30,  4. 
Barnabites,  §  14'J,  7. 
Barnim,  §  133,  4. 
Baronius,  §  5,  2 ;  149,  14. 
Barriere,  §  149,  6. 
Barrow,  §  143,  4. 
Barsmnas,  §  52,  3. 
Bartholomew,    Massacre    of    St., 

§  139,  16. 
Bartholomew  of  Pisa,  §  98,  3. 
Bartolemeo,  Era,  §  115,  13. 
Basedow,  §  171,  4. 
Basel,  §130,  3,  8;  196,4. 

„     Council  of,  §  110,  8,  9  ;  119,  7. 
Basil  the  Great,  §  44 ;  47,  4  ;  59,  6. 

,,     chief  of  Bogomili,  §  71,  4. 

,,     of  Ancyra,  §  50,  3. 

„     the  Macedonian,  §  67,  1 ;  68, 

1;71,1;  73,1. 
Basilica,  §  60,  1,  2. 
Basilicus,  §  139,  26. 
Basilides,  the  Gnostic,  §  27,  2. 
„         the  Martyr,  §  22,  4. 
Basnage,  §  5,  2 ;  161,  7. 
Basrelief,  §  60,  6. 
Bassi,  §  149,  6. 
Bathori,  Steph.,  §  139,  18. 
Bauer,  Bruno,  §  174,  1 ;  182,  6. 

„      Lor.,  §171,7. 
Baumgarten-Crusius,  §  182,  4. 
M.,  §180,  1;  194,6. 
„  Sigism.  Jac,  §  167,  4. 

Baumstark,  §  175,  7. 
Baur,  Chr.  F.,  §  182,  7 ;  5,  4. 

„      Gust.,  §  194,  1. 
Bautain,  §  91,  1. 
Bavaria,  §  78,  2 ;  151,  2  ;  165,  10 ; 

195 ;  197,  14. 
Bavo,  §  78,  3. 
Baxter,  §  162,  3. 
Bayle,  §  164,  4. 
Bayly,  Lewis,  §  162,  3. 
Beatification,  §  104,  8. 


Beaton,  §  139,  8. 

Beaumont,  §  165,  7. 

Bebel,  §  212,  5. 

Bebenburg,  §  118,  2. 

Beccus,  §  67,  4. 

Beck,  Tob.,  §  182,  12. 

Becket,  §  96,  16. 

Bede,  The  Venerable,  §  90,  2. 

Beethoven,  §  174,  10. 

Begging  Friars,  §  98,  3-6;   103, 

3-6;  112,2-6. 
Beghards  and  Beguins,  §  98,  7; 

116,  5. 
Bekker,  Balthaz.,  §  161,  5. 
Belgium,  §  200,  4-7. 
B-llarmine,  §  149,  4,  10,  14. 
Beller,  Card.,  §  188,  13. 
Bellini,  §  115,  13. 
Bells,  §  60,  5. 

„     Baptism  of,  §  88,  5. 
Brjfia,  §  60,  1. 
Bembo,  §  120,  1. 
Beuard,  Lor.,  §  156,  7. 
Bender,  §  176,  4. 
Benedetto  of  Mantova,  §  139,  23. 
Benedict  III.,  §  82,  5. 

„        v.,  §  96,  1. 

„        VI.,  VII.,  §  96,  2. 

„        VIIL,  IX.,  96,  4. 

„        X.,  §  96,  6. 

„       XL,  §  110,  1. 

„       XII.,  §   110,  4;    67,  5; 
112,  1. 
Benedict  XIIL,  XIV.,  §  165,  1. 

„        of  Aniane,  §  85,  2. 

„        Levita,  §  87,  1. 

„        of  Nursia,  §  85,  1. 
Benedictines,  §  85 ;  98,  1 ;  112,  1 ; 

186,  2. 
Benedict  Medal,  §  188,  13. 
Benefice  System,  §  86,  2. 
Bengel,  §  167,  3. 

Benno  of  Meissen,  §  93,  9 ;  129,  1. 
Berengar,  §  101,  1,  2. 


492 


INDEX. 


Berengar,  I.,  II.,  §  96,  1. 
Berg,  John,  §  153,  7. 

„      Book  of,  §  141,  12. 
Berlage,  §  188,  6. 
Berleburger  Bible,  §  170,  1. 
Bern,  §  130,  4  ;  199,  3,  4. 
Bernard  of  Clairvaux,  §  102,  2,  3 ; 
94,  2 ;  96,  13 ;  104,  10 ;  108,  2,  3, 
7;  109. 
Bernard  tlie  Missionary,  §  93,  10. 

„        Sylvester,  §  102,  10. 

„       de  Saisset,  §  110,  1. 

„        Tolomei,  §  112,  1. 
Bernardino  of  Siena,  §  112,  3. 
Bernardines,  §  98,  1. 
Berno  of  Clugny,  §  98,  1. 
Berruyer,  §  165,  14. 
Bertha,  §  77,  4. 
Bertheau,  §  182,  11. 
Berthold  of  Limoges,  §  98,  6. 

„         of  Loccum,  §  93,  12. 

„         of  E,egeusbiii'g,  §  104,  1. 

„        Leonard,  §  171,  7. 
Berti,  §  165,  15. 
Bertrada,  §  96,  10. 
Bertrand  de  Got,  §  110,  2. 
Berylle,  Pet.,  §  156,  7. 
Beryllus,  §  33,  6. 
Bespopowtschini,  §  103,  10. 
Bessarion,  §  67,  0  ;  08,  2 ;  120,  1. 
Besser,  §  181,  4, 
Bestmann,  §  182,  21. 
Bethel,  §  183,  1. 
Bethman-Holhveg,  §  193,  4. 
Beuggen,  §  183,  1. 
Beust,  von,  §  198,  2,  4. 
Beyschlag,  §  182,  10. 
Beza,  §  138,  8;  139,  14  ;  143,  2,  5. 
Bianchi,  §  116,  3, 
Bible  Societies,  §  183,  4  ;  185,  1. 
„      Communists,  §  211,  6. 
„      Revision,  §  181,  4. 
.,      Translations,  §  37,  1 ;  59,  1  ; 
115,  4. 


Bible  reading  forbidden,  §  105,  3 

185,  1. 
Biblia  imuperuni,  §  115,  3. 
Bickell,  §  194,  4. 
Biedermann,  §  182,  19. 
Biel,  Gebr,  §  113,  3. 
Bienemann,  §  142,  4. 
Bilderdijk,  §  200,  2. 
Billicanus,  §  122,  2. 
Bilocation.  §  105,  4. 
Bingham,  §  169,  6. 
Bischof,  Conrad,  §  175,  2. 
Bishops,  §  17,  5 ;  34,  2 ;  45 ;  84 ;  97. 
,,        Election  of,  §  34,  3;  45; 

84 ;  97,  3. 
Bishops'  Bible,  §  202,  1. 

„        Paragraph,  §  197,  11,  12. 
Bismarck,  §  197  ;  212,  5. 
Bittner,  §  175,  2. 
Blackbui'ne,  §  171,  1. 
Blahoslaw,  §  139,  19. 
Blanc,  Louis,  §  212,  1. 
Blandina,  §  22,  3. 
Blandrata,  §  148,  3. 
Blasilla,  §  44,  4. 
Blastus,  §  37,  2. 
Blau,  Dr.,  §  165,  13. 
Blaurer,  §  125,  1 ;  133,  3 ;  143,  2. 
Blaurock,  §  147,  3. 
Blavatski,  §  211,  18. 
Bleek,  §  182,  11. 
Blondel,  §  161,  7. 
Blood  vases,  §  35,  2. 

„      baptism,  §  35,  4. 

„      revenge,  §  88,  5. 
Bloody  Marriage,  §  139,  16. 
Blot-Sweyn,  §  93,  3. 
Blount,  §  168,  3. 
Bhie  Ribbon  Army,  §  211,  2. 
Blum,  Bishop,  §  197,  6,  11. 
Blumhardt,  §  196,  5. 
Bluntschli,  §  180,  1 ;  196,  3. 
Boabdil,  §  95. 
Bobadilla,  §  149,  8. 


INDEX. 


493 


Bobbio,  §  78,  1 ;  85,  4. 
Boccaccio,  §  115,  10. 
Bochart,  §  161,  6. 
Bodelschwingh,  §  183,  1. 
Bodin,  §  117,  4 ;  148,  3. 
Boeckh,  §  181,  3. 
Boethius,  §  47,  23. 
Bogatzky,  §  167,  6,  8. 
Bogoniili,  §  71,  4. 
Bogoris,  §  72,  3. 
Bohl  V.  Faber,  §  174,  7. 
Bolime,  Jacob,  §  160,  2. 
„        Mart.,  §  142^  4. 
Bohemia,  §  79,  3  ;  93,  6 ;  139,  19  ; 

153,  2. 
Bohemian  Brethren,  §  119, 8  ;  139, 

19. 
BiJhmer,  §  167,  5. 
Bohringer,  §  5,  4. 
Bois,  Professor,  §  203,  8. 
Bolanden,  Cour.  v.,  §  175,  2. 
Boleslawof  Poland,  §  93,  7. 
,,        „  Bohemia,  93,  6. 
„       Chi'obry,  93,  7. 
Boleyn,  Anne,  §  139,  4. 
Bolingbroke,  §  170,  1. 
Bolivia,  §  209,  2. 
Bollandists,  §  158,  2. 
Bolsec,  §  138,  3. 
Bolsena,  Mass  of,  §  104,  7. 
Bomberg,  §  120,  9. 
Bomelius,  §  125,  2. 
Bona,  §  158,  2. 
Bonald,  §  186,  9. 
Bonaventura,  §  103,  4 ;  104,  10. 
Boniface,   Apostle    of    German}', 

§  78,  4-8. 
Boniface  I.,  §  46,  6. 
„       II.,  §  46,  8. 
„       III.,  IV.,  §  46,  10. 
„       VI.,  §  82,  8. 
„       VII.,  §  96,  2. 
„       VIIL,  §  110,  1;   99,  4; 
117,  1. 


Boniface  IX.,  §  110,  6 ;  117,  2. 
Boni  liomines,  §  108,  2. 
Bonner,  Bp.,  §  139,  4,  5. 
Bonosus,  §  62,  2. 
Book  of  Discipline,  §  139,  9. 
Boos,  Mart..  §  187,  2. 
Booth,  General,  §  211,  2. 
Bordelum,  Sectaries  at,  §  170,  4. 
Borgia,  §  110,  10,  12. 

„       Francis,  §  149,  8. 
Borromeo,  §  149,  17 ;  151,  2. 
„        Society,  §  186,  4. 
Borsenius,  §  170,  4. 
Boruth,  §  79,  1. 
Borziwoi,  §  79,  8, 
Bosio,  Ant.,  §  38,  1. 
Boso,  §  95,  8. 
Bossuet,  §  5,  2 ;  153,   7 ;  156,   3 ; 

157,  3 ;  158,  2. 
Bost,  Pastor,  §  156,  1. 
Bothwell,  §  189,  10. 
Bourdaloue,  §  159,  2. 
Bourges,  Pragmatic  Sanction  of , 

§  110,  9. 
Bourignon,  §  157,  4. 
Bouthillier  de  Eance,  §  156,  8. 
Boyle,  §  164,  3. 
Bradacz,  M.  v.,  §  119,  8. 
Bradwardine,  §  113,  2. 
Braga,  Syn.  of,  §  76,  4. 

Brakel,  §  169,  2. 

Bramante,  §  115,  3  ;  149,  15. 

Brandenburg,  §  134,  5 ;  154,  3. 

Brandt,  §  181,  4. 

Braniss,  §  174,  2. 

Brant,  Seb.,  §  115,  11. 

Braun,  Hermesian,  §  191,  1. 

Brazil,  §  150,  3 ;  209,  3. 

Breckling,  §  163,  9. 

Breithaupt,  §  159,  3. 

Breitinger,  §  162,  6. 

Bremen,  §  127,  4  ;  144,  2. 

Brendel,  §  151,  1. 

Brentano,  §  188,  3. 


494 


INDEX. 


Brenz,  §  131,  1 ;  133,  3  ;  141,  8 ; 

142,  2,  6. 
Brest,  Synod  of,  §  72,  4  ;  151,  3, 
Brethren,  The  four  long,  §  51,  3. 
„        of  the  Free  Spirit,  §  116, 

5. 
Bretliren  of    the    Common    Life, 

§  112,  9. 
Brethren,  Bohemian    and  Mora- 
vian, §  119,  7. 
Brethren,  The  United,  §  16S. 
Bretschneider,  §  174,  3 ;  182,  2. 
Bretwalda,  §  77,  4. 
Breviary,  §  56,  2 ;  149,  14. 
Briconnet,  §  120,  8  ;  138,  1. 
Bridaine,  §  158,  1. 
Bridge-Brothers,  §  98,  9. 
Bridget,  St.,  §  110,  5  ;  112,  4,  8. 
Bridgewater  Treatises,  §  174,  3. 
Brief,  Papal,  §  110,  16. 
Briesmann,  §  139,  8. 
Brinckerinck,  §  112,  9. 
Brinkmann,  §  197,  6,  11. 
Britons,  Ancient,  §  77. 
Broad  Churchmen,  §  202,  1. 
Broglie,  Due  de,  §  203,  5,  6. 

„      Bishop,  §  200,  1. 
Brothers  of   the    Common    Life, 

§  112,  9. 
Brothers  of  Mercy,  §  149,  7. 
Brothers  of  the  Free  Spirit,  §  IIG, 

5. 
Brown,   Archbishop,   of    Dublin, 

§  139,  7. 
Brown,  Rob.  (Brownist),  §  143,  4. 

„       Thomas,  §  164,  3.  ^ 
Bruccioli,  §  115,  4. 
Briick,  Dr.,  §  132,  7. 
Brucker,  Jac,  §  167,  8. 
Bruggeler,  Sectaries,  §  170,  4. 
Brunehilde,  §  77,  7  ;  46,  10. 
Bruneleschi,  §  115,  13. 
Bruno  of  Cologne,  §  97,  2. 

„      the  Missionary,  §  93,  13. 


Bruno  of  Eheims,  §  98,  2. 

„       „  Toul,  §  96,  5. 

„      Giordano,  §  146,  3. 
Brunswick,  §  127,  4  ;  135,  6 ;  194, 

5. 
Bucer,  §  122,  2 ;    124,  3 ;    131,  1 ; 

133,  8 ;  135,  1,  3,  7 ;  139,  5. 
Buchel,  Anna  v.,  §  170,  4. 
Buchfiihrer,  §  128,  1, 
Biichner,  §  174,  3. 
Budaius,  §  120,  8. 
Buddeus,  §  167,  1,  4. 
Buffalo  Synod,  §  208,  4. 
Bugenliagen,   §  125,   1 ;    127,   4  ; 

133,  4  ;  139,  2 ;  142,  2. 
Biilau,  §  139,  3. 
Bulgaria,  §  67,  1 ;  73,  3  ;  175,  4  ; 

207,  3. 
Bidgari,  §  108,  1. 
Bulls,  Papal,  §  110,  16. 
Bull,  The  Golden,  §  97,  2  ;  110,  4. 
Builiuger,  §  133,  8 ;  138,  7 ;  161, 4. 
Bimsen,  §  181, 1, 4  ;  182, 17 ;  198, 1. 
Bunyan,  §  162,  3. 
Buren,  §  144,  2. 
Burgundians,  §  76,  5. 
Burmann,  §  161,  7. 
Burnet,  Bishop,  §  161,  3. 
Bursfeld,  Congi-egation  of,  §  112, 

1. 
Busch,  John,  §  112,  1. 
Busembaum,  §  158,  1 ;  149,  10. 
Buttlar  Sectaries,  §  170,  4. 
Butter  week,  §  56,  7. 
Buxhowden,  §  93,  12. 
Buxtorf,.§  161,  3,  6. 
Byron,  §  174,  7. 
Byse,  §  200,  8. 

(Jaballero,  §  174,  7, 
Cabasilas,  §  68,  5  ;  70,  4. 
Cabet,  §  212,  3. 
Cabrera,  §  205,  4. 
Cadan,  Peace  of,  §  133,  3. 


INDEX. 


495 


Csecilius,  §  63,  1. 
Osedmon,  §  89,  3, 
Csesarius  of  Aries,  §  47, 20 ;  53,  5  ; 

61,4, 
Csesarius  of  Heisterbach,  §  103,  9. 
Cainites,  §  27,  6, 
Caius,  §  31,  7  ;  33,  9. 
Cajetan,  Card,,  §  122,  3. 

„        of  Thiene,  §  149,  7, 
Galas,  §  164,  5. 
Calatrava,  Order  of,  §  98,  8. 
Calderon,  §  158,  3. 
Calendar  Eeform,  §  149,  3. 
Calixt,  Geo.,  §  153,  7 ;  158,  2,  8. 
Calixtines,  §  119,  7. 
Calixtus  II.,  §  96,  11. 

ni.,  §  96,  15 ;  110,  10. 
Callinice,  §  71, 1. 
Callistus,  §  33,  5  ;  41,  1. 
Calmet,  §  165,  14. 
Calov,  §  153,  7 ;  159,  2,  4,  5 ;  160,  2. 
Calvin,  §  138 ;  143,  5. 
Camaldulensian  Order,  §  98,  1. 
Camera  JRomana,  §  110,  16. 
Camerarius,  §  142,  6. 
Camisards,  §  153,  4, 
Campanella,  §  164,  1. 
Campanus;  §  148,  1. 
Campbellites,  §  170,  6. 
Campe,  §  171,  4. 
Campegius,  §  126,  2,  3 ;  132,  6. 
Campello,  §  190,  3. 
Camp-Meeting,  §  208,  1. 
Cancellaria  Romana,  §  110,  16. 
Canisius,  §  149,  14  ;  151,  1. 
„         Society,  §  186,  4. 
Canon,  Biblical,  §  36,  8  ;  59,  1. 

„        of  the  Mass,  §  59,  5. 

„       in  Music,  §  115,  8. 

„       Law,  §  43,  2. 
Canonas  Aposit.,  §  43,  4. 
Canouesses,  §  85,  3. 
Canonical  Age,  §  45,  1. 

Life,  §  84,  4  ;  97,  3. 


Canonici,  §  84,  4 ;  97,  3. 
Canossa,  §  96,  8. 
Canova,  §  174,  9. 
Canstein,  §  167,  8. 
Cantores,  §  34,  3. 
Cantus  Ambros.,  §  59,  5. 

,,       figuratus,  §  104,  11. 

„       firmus,  §  59,  5. 
Canute  the  Great,  §  93,  2,  4. 
Canus,  §  149,  14. 
Canz,  §  167,  2. 
Capistran,  §  112,  3. 
Capito,  §  124,  3  ;  130,  3 ;  131,  1. 
Capitula  Carlsiaca,  §  91,  5, 
„         Clausa,  §  111, 
„        episcoporum,  §  87,  1. 
Capitularies,  §  87,  1. 
Cappadocians,  The  Three,  §  47,  5. 
Cappadose,  §  200,  2. 
Cappel,  Peace  of,  §  130,  9,  10. 
Cappellus,  §  161,  3,  6. 
Capuchins,  §  149,  6. 
Caraccioli,  §  139,  24, 
Caraffa,  §  149,  2,  7  ;  139,  22,  23. 
Carantanians,  §  79,  1. 
Carbeas,  §  71,  1. 
Cardale,  §  211,  10. 
Cardinals,  §  97,  1. 
Carey,  §  172,  5. 
Carl,  Dr.,  §  170,  1. 
Carlomann,  §  78,  5. 
Carlstadt,  §  122,  4  ;  124,  1,  3  ;  131, 

1 ;  139,  2. 
Carmelites,  §  98,  6  ;  149,  6. 
Carnesecchi,  §  139,  22,  23. 
Carnival,  §  56,  4 ;  105,  2. 
Carpentarius,  §  128,  1, 
Carpocrates,  §  27,  8, 
Carpov,  §  167,  4. 
Carpzov.,  J.  B.,  §  117,  4  ;  158,  3  ; 

167,  1. 
Carpzov,  J.  G.,  §  167,  4, 
Carranza,  §  139,  21, 
Carrasco,  §  205,  4. 


496 


INDEX. 


Carthusians,  §  98,  2 ;  112. 

las  Casas,  §  150,  3. 

Casimir  of  Berleburg,  §  170. 

„         ,,  Bi'unswiclv,  §  12G,  4. 
Cassander,  §  137,  8. 
Cassel,  Religious  Conference  of, 

§  154,  4. 
Cassianus,  §  44,  4  ;  47,  21 ;  53,  5. 
Cassiodorus,  §  47,  23. 
Castellio,  §  138,  4  ;  143,  5. 
Castellus,  §  161,  6. 
Castelnau,  Pet.  v.,  §  109,  1. 
Casuists,  §  113,  4. 
Casula,  §  59,  7. 
Catacombs,  §  38,  1-3. 
Cataphrygians,  §  40,  1. 
Catechetical  School,  §  31,  1. 
Catechism,  Heidelberg,  §  144,  1. 

„  Luther's,  §  127,  1. 

Catechisms,  §  115,  5. 
Catechismus  Genevensis,  §  138,  2. 
„  Eomanus,  §  149,  14. 

Catechoumens,  §  35,  1. 
Catetice,  §  48,  1. 
Cathari,  §  108,  1. 
Catharine  of  Aragon,  §  139,  4. 

„  Bora,  §  129. 

de  Medici,  §  139,  13  S. 

„  II.  of  Russia,  §  165,  9. 

„  St.,  of  Sweden,  §  112,  8. 

of  Siena,  §  112,  4 ;  110, 
5,6. 
Cathedral,  §  84,  4. 

„         Schools,  §  90,  8. 
Catholicus,  §  52,  7. 
Catholicity,  §  20,  2 ;  34,  7. 
Cave,  §  161,  7. 
Celbes,  §  28,  4. 
Celibacy,  §  39,  3 ;  45,  2 ;  84,  3 ;  96, 

7;  111,1;  187,4. 
Cellites,  §  116,  3. 
Celsus,  §  23,  3. 
Celtes,  Conrad,  §  120,  8. 
Celtic  Church,  §  77. 


Cemeteries,  §  38 ;  60,  2. 

Cencius,  §  96,  7. 

Centuries,  The  Magdebui'g,  §  5, 2, 

Ceolfrid,  §  77,  3,  8. 

Cerdo,  §  27,  11. 

Cerinthus,  §  17,  3 ;  27,  1. 

Cesarini,  §  110,  7. 

Cesena,  §  112,  2. 

Cevennes,  Prophets  of  the,  §  153, 

4 ;  170,  2,  7. 
Chaila,  du,  §  153,  4. 
Chalcedon,  Council  of,  §  46,  1,  7  ; 

52,4. 
Chaldean  Chi-istians,  §  52,  3  ;  72, 

1 ;  150,  4. 
Chalmers,  §  178,  2  ;  202,  7. 
Chalybseus,  §  174,  2. 
C/ianibre  ardente,  §  139,  13. 
Chamier,  §  161,  7. 
Chandler,  §  171,  1. 
Channing,  §  208,  4. 
Chantal,  §  156,  7  ;  157,  1. 
Chapels,  §  84,  1,  2. 
Chaplain,  §  84,  1,  2. 
Chapter  of  Cathedral,  §  84,  4 ;  97, 

2;  111. 
Chapters,     Controversy    of     the 

three,  §  52,  6. 
Charlemague,  §  78,  9 ;  79,  5 ;  81, 

1 ;  82,  2,  3 ;  89,  2  ;  90,  1 ;  92,  1. 
Charles  of  Anjou,  §  96,  20-22. 
„        the  Bald,  §82, 4, 5,  8;  90, 1. 
„        Martel,  §  81 ;  82,  1. 
„       IV.,  Emperor,  §  110,  4,  5  ; 

117,  2. 
Charles  VII.  of  France,  §  110,  9. 
„       v..  Emperor,  §  123,  5. 
„       I.,  II.  of  England,  §  153, 

6 ;  155,  1,  3. 
Charles    IX.    of    France,   §  139, 

14-16. 
Charles  IX.  of  Sweden,  §  139,  1. 
„       XII.        „  §165,4. 

„       Albert  of  Sardinia,§  204,1. 


INDEX. 


497 


Charles  Felix  of  Sardinia,  §204, 1. 
„        Alexander   of  Wui'ttem- 

berg,  §  165,  5. 
Charles    Theodore    of    Bavaria, 

§  165,  10. 
Charles    of    Lorraine,    Cardinal, 

§  139,  13  ;  149,  2,  17. 
Charisms,  §  17,  1, 
Chastel,  §  5,  5. 
Chateaubriand,  §  174,  7, 
Chatel,  Abbe,  §  187,  6. 
Chatimar,  §  79,  1. 
Chazari,  §  78,  2. 

Chemnitz,  §  141,  2,  12 ;  142,  2,  6. 
Cherbnry,  §  164,  3. 
Children,  The  Praying,  §  167,  1. 
,,         Baptism    of,   §    17,    7  ; 

35,  4 ;  58,  1. 
Children's  Conmimiion,  §  36,  3 ; 

58,4. 
Children's  Crusade,  §  94,  4. 
Chili,  §  209,  2. 
Chiliasm,  §  33,  9  ;  40,  4  ;  108,  5  ; 

162,  1 ;  211,  7. 
Chillingworth,  §  161,  3. 
China,  §  93,  15  ;  150,  1 ;  156,  12  ; 

165,  3 ;  184,  6 ;  186,  7. 
Chinese  Eites,  §  156,  12. 
Choir,  §  60,  1. 

Chorale,  §  142,  5  ;  160,  5  ;  181,  2. 
C'horepiscopi,    §    34,   3 ;    45 ;    84 ; 

97,3. 
Choristers,  §  97,  3. 
Chorifantes,  §  116,  2. 
Chosroes,  §  11 ;  64,  2. 
Cln-ism,  §  35,  4. 
Christ,  Order  of,  §  112,  8. 
Chi'istian  Association  (CTerman), 

§  172,  5. 
Christian,  Bishop,  §  93,  13. 

„  II,,  III.  of  Denmark, 

§  139,  2. 
Christian  Baptists,  §  170,  6 ;  208, 1. 
Christina  of  Sweden,  §  153,  1. 

VOL.    III. 


Clu'istopher     of     Wiirttemberg, 

§  133,  3. 
Christo  sacrum^  §  172,  4. 
'KpLCTTos  Trdo-xw//,  §  48,  5. 
Chrodegang  of  Metz,  §  48,  4. 
C'hronicon  jiaschale,  §  48,  2. 
Chrysolaras,  §  120,  1. 
Clu-ysologus,  §  47,  17. 
Chrysostom,  §  47,  8 ;  51,  3  ;  53,  1. 
Chubb,  §  171,  1. 
Chm-ches,  §  38. 
Church  Army,  §  211,  2. 

„       Discipline,  §  39  ;  61 ;  89, 

6;  106. 
Chui-ch    History,   Idea,   Periods, 

Sources,  etc.,  of,  §§  1-5. 
Church  Law,  Catholic,  §  43,  3-5  ; 

68,  5 ;  87  ;  99,  5. 
Church  Law,  Protestant,  §  167,  5. 
,,      Property,  §  45,  4  ;  86,  1 : 

96,  15. 
Church  States,  §  82,  1 ;  185,  3. 

„        Year,  §  56,  6. 
Chytrseus,  §  141,  12 ;  142,  6. 
Ciborium,  §  60,  5. 
Cilicium,  §  106. 
Cimabue,  §  104,  14. 
Circumcelliones,  §  63,  1. 
Cistercians,  §  98,  1. 
Ciudad,  §  147,  7. 
Clara  of  Assisi,  §  98,  3. 

„      Nuns  of  St.,  §  98,  3. 
Clarendon,  Council  at,  §  96,  16. 
Clarke,  Sam.,  §  171,  1. 
Classes,  §  143,  1. 
Classical  Synods,  §  143,  1. 
Claude,  §  161,  3,  7. 
Claudius  Apollinaris,  §  30,  4. 
„         L,  Emperor,  §  22,  1. 

II.,         „         §22,5. 
„         of  Savoy,  §  148,  3. 

„  Tui'in,  §  90,  4 ;  92,  3. 
„         Matthias,  §  171,  11. 
Clausen,  §  201,  1. 

32 


498 


INDEX. 


Clemangis,  §  110,  3 ;  118,  4. 
Clemens,  F.  J.,  §  191,  3. 
Clement  of  Alexandria,  §  31,  4. 
„         of  Eome,  §  30,  3. 
„         IL,  §  96,  4,  5. 
„         III.,  §  96,  8,  16. 
„        IV.,  §96,  20;  103,8. 
„        v.,  §110,  2;  112,7. 
„        VI.,  §  110,  4,  5. 
„        VII.,  §  110,  6-,   126,  2; 
132,2;  149,1. 
Clement  VIIL,  §  HO,  7 ;   149,  2, 

13,  14. 
Clement  IX.,  X.,  §  156,  1. 
XI.,  §  165,  1,  7. 
",        XIIL,  XIV.,  §  165,  9. 

a    Heretic    of    Britain, 
§  78,  6. 
Clementine  Homilies  and  Recog- 
nitions, §  28,  3,  4. 
Clementincc,  §  99,  5. 
Cleomenes,  §  33,  5. 
Clergy,  §  34,  4. 
Clerici  vagi,  §  84,  2. 
Clericis  laicos,  §  HO,  1. 
Clericus,  §  169,  6. 
Clermont,  Synod  at,  §  94  ;  96,  7. 
ClimaciTS,  §  47,  12. 
Clinici,  §  34,  3  ;  45,  1. 
Cloister  Schools,  §  90,  8. 
Cloots,  Anach.,  §  165,  12. 
Clothilda,  §  76,  5,  9. 
Clovis,  §  76,  9. 
Clugny,  §  98, 1 ;  165,  2. 
Cluniacs,  §  98,  1. 
Cocceius,  §  161,  4,  6 ;  162,  5. 
Coclileens,  §  129,  1 ;  135,  10. 
Cock,  H.  de,  §  200,  2. 
Codde,  §  165,  8. 
Codex  Alexandrinus,  §  152,  2. 

Sinaiticus,  §  182,  11. 
Co^'lestine  I.,  §  46, 1 ;  52,  3 ;  53,  4. 
„         IL,  §  96,  13. 
„         HI.,  §  96,  16. 


Coelestine  IV.,  §  96,  19, 

v.,  §96,22. 
Coelestines,  §  98,  2. 

,,  Eremites,  §  98,  4, 

Coelestius,  §  53,  4. 
CoelicolEe,  §  42,  6. 
Coenobites,  §  44. 
Coisi,  §  77,  4. 
Coke,  §  169,  4. 
Colani,  §-203,  8. 
Colenso,  §  202,  4. 
Coleridge,  §  202,  1. 
Colet,  §  120,  6,  7. 
Colidei,  §  77,  8. 
Coligny,  §  139,  14,  16 ;  143,  6. 
Collatio  cum  Donafint.,  §  63,  1, 
CoUer/ia  jMIobibL,  §  159,  3. 

„        jjt'eteh's,  §  159,  3. 
Collegial  System,  §  167,  5. 
Collegiants,  §  163,  1. 
Collegiate  Foundations,  §  84,  4. 
CoUegiuvi  caritativnm,  §  169,  1. 
„  Germanicinn,  §  151,  1- 

„  Melveticnm,  §  151,  2. 

Collenbusch,  §  172,  3. 
Collins,  §  171,  1. 
Collyridian  Nuns,  §  57,  2. 
Colman,  §  77,  6. 

Cologne,  Cathedral  of,  §  104,  IB', 
„         Conflict  of,  §  190,  1. 
„         Reformation  of,  §  135,  7^ 

136,  2 ;  137,  7. 
Colombiere,  §  156,  6. 
Colonna,  §  110,  1,  3. 

„         Vittoria,  §  139,  22. 
Columba,  §  77,  2. 
Columbanus,  §  77,  7, 
Columbus,  §  116. 
Comenius,  §  163,  9 ;  168,  2. 
Comes  Hieron.,  §  59,  3. 
Commendatory  Abbots,  §  85,  5 :, 

111,  2. 
Commodian,  §  31,  12 ;  33,  9. 
Commodus,  §  22,  2. 


INDEX. 


499 


Common  Prayer,  Book  of,  §  130, 

5,6. 
Communicatio  idioinatuvi,  §  141,  9. 
Communism,  §  211,  6  ;  212,  1. 
Compact,  The  Basel,  §  llf),  7. 
Competentes,  §35,  1. 
Compiegne,  Diet  of,  §  82,  4. 
Composition,  §  89,  5,  6. 
Compromise,  Belgian,  §  13ft,  12. 
Comte,  §  174,  2 ;  210,  1. 
Concha,  §  60,  1. 

ConcUium  Germcniicum.  §  78,  5. 
Conclave,  §  OG,  21. 
Concomitantia,  §  105,  1. 
Concord  of  Wittenberg,  §  133,  8. 

„        Formula  of,  §  141,  12. 
Concordat  of  Austria,  §  li)8,  2. 
„  Baden,  §  196,  2. 
„  „  Bavaria,  §  195,  1. 

„  „  France,  §  203,  1. 

„  „  Holland,  §  200,  1. 

„  „  Portugal,  §  205,  5. 

„  „  Prussia,  §  193,  1. 

„  Spain,  §  205,  1. 
;,         „  Upper  Ehine,§  196,1. 
,,  „  Vienna,  §  110,  7. 

„  „  Worms,  §  96,  5. 

„  „  Wiirttemberg,  §  96, 5. 

Conde,  §  189,  14,  16,  17. 

„      Louise  de,  §  186,  2. 
Conference,  Evangelical,  §  178,  4. 
Confessio,  §  57,  1. 
Confession,  §  36,  3 ;  61,  1 ;  89,  6 ; 

104,  4. 
Confessio  Aiifjustana,  §  132,  7. 

.,  ,,  Variafo,  §  141, 

4,  7.  ,  ■ 

Cotifessio  Belfjica.  §  139.  12. 
„        Bo/iemica,  §  139,  19. 
„        Czetigeriatia,  §  139,  20. 
„        Gallicana,  §  189,  14. 
„        Hafnica^  §  139,  2. 
„        Helvetica  I.,  §  133,  8. 
„  „  II.,  §  138,  7. 


Covfessio  Hungarica,  §  139,  20. 
„        Marchica,  §  154,  3. 
,,        Saxonica,  §  136,  8. 
„        Scotica,  §  139,  9. 
„        Sigismimdi,  §  154,  3. 
„        Tetrapolit.,  §  132,  7. 
Confession,  Westminster,  §  155, 1. 
„         Wiirttemberg,  §  136, 8. 
Confessores,  §  22,  5 ;  39,  2,  5. 
Confirmation,   §   35,   4;  139,   19; 

167,  2. 

Co»fitfatio  Conf.  August.,  §  132,  7. 

Congregatio  de  auxiliis,  §  149,  13. 

„  de  propag.  fides,  %1'bQ, 

9. 

Congregationalists,  §  148,  4 ;  162, 

1  •  202,  5. 
Congregations,  §  98,  1 ;  186,  2. 
Conon,  Pope,  §  46,  11. 
Cononites,  §  57,  2. 
Conrad  I.,  Emperor,  §  96,  1. 
„       11.,  §  96,  4. 
„      III.,  §96,  18;  94,2. 
„      IV.,  §  96,  20. 
„      of  Hochsteden,  §  104,  18. 
„       „  Marburg,  §  109,  3. 
„       „  Massovia,  §  93,  13. 
„       „  Megenburg,  §  118,  2. 
Conradin,  §  96,  20. 
Consalvi,  §  185,  1 ;  192,  3. 
Conscientiarii,  §  164,  4. 
Consensus  Dresdensis,  §  141,  10. 
„         Genev.,  §  138,  7. 
,,  Sendomir,  §  139,  18. 

„  repetitus,  §  159,  2. 

Tigurinus,  §  188,  7. 
Consilia  evangelica,  §  39. 
Consistories,  §  142,  1. 
Consof amentum,  §  108,  2. 
Constance,  Council  of,  §  110,  7 ; 

119,  5,  7. 
Constantia,  §  50,  2. 
Constantino  the  Great,  §  28,   7 ; 
42,  1,  2 ;  60,  1 ;  63,  1. 


500 


INDEX. 


Constantine  I.,  Pope,  §  46,  11. 
IL,     „       §82,2. 
,,  Chrysomalus,  §  70,  4. 

,,  Copronymus,  §  66,  2. 

,,  of  Mananalis,  §  71,  1. 

„  Monomachus,  §  67,  3. 

„  Pogonnatns,  §  52,  8. 

„  Porphja-ogenneta,     § 

68,  1. 
Constantinople,    Second     (Ecum. 

Council  at,  §46, 1 ;  50, 4,5  ;  52, 2. 
Constantinople,      Fifth      CEcum. 

Council  at,  §  52,  6. 
Constantinople,     Sixth      fficum. 

Council  at,  §  52,  8. 
Constantinople,   Seventh    CEcum. 

Council  at,  §  66,  2,  3. 
Constantinople,    Eighth     CEcum. 

Council  at,  §  67,  1. 
Constantius,  §  42,  2 ;  50,  2. 

„  Chlorus,  §  22,  6. 

Conditutio  Horn.,  §  82,  4. 
Constitution    of    Early    Chui'ch, 

§17. 
Constitutiones  apost.,  §  43,  4. 
Contarini,  §  135,  2 ;  13f>,  22. 
Continentes,  §  39,  3. 
Contraremonstrants,  §  161,  2. 
Conve7iensa,  §  108,  2. 
Conventuals,  §  112,  3. 
Conversi,  §  98. 
Converts,  Romish,  §  153,  1 ;  165, 

6 ;  175,  7. 
Convocation,  English,  §  202,  3. 
Copts,  §  52,  7 ;  72,  2. 
Coquerel,  §  203,  4,  8. 
Coracion,  §  33,  9. 
Coran,  §  65. 
Corbinian,  §  78,  2. 
Cordeliers,  §  149,  6. 
Cornelius,  Bishop,  §  42,  3. 
Coronation,  Papal,  §  96,  23 ;  110, 

15. 
Corporale^  §  60,  5. 


Corporations  Act,  §  155,  8 ;  202,  5. 
Corputs  C'atJiol.  et  Evangel.,  §  153, 1. 

„       Chridi  Festival,  §  104,  7. 

,,       dodr.  Misnicum,  §  141,  10. 

,,      juris  canon,,  §  99,  5. 

„       Pruthen.,  §  141,  2. 
Correctores  Horn.,  §  99,  5. 
Correggio,  §  115,  13. 
Cosmas  of  Jerusalem,  §  70,  2. 
„       Indicopleustes,  §  48,  2. 
„       Patr.,  §  70,  4. 
„       Usurpator,  §  66,  1. 
Cossa,  Cardinal,  §  110,  7. 
Costa,  Is.  da,  §  200,  2. 
Coster,  §  149,  14. 
Cotta,  Urs.,  §  122,  1. 
Councils,  CEcumenical,  §  43,  2. 
Counter-E/eformation,  §  151 ;  153  ; 

105,  4. 
Cour,  Did.  de  la,  §  156,  4. 
Courland,  §93,  12;  139,3. 
Court,  Ant.,  §  165,  5. 
Covenant,  §  139,  8 ;  155,  1. 
Cowper,  §  172,  4. 
Cranach,  §  142,  2. 
Cranmer,  §  139,  4,  5. 
Cranz,  §  115,  8. 
Crasselius,  §  167,  6. 
Crato  of  Craiftheim,  §   141,  10; 

137,  8. 
Creationism,  §  53,  1. 
Crell,  J.,  §  148,  4. 

„      Nich.,  §  141,  13. 

„      Paul,  §  141,  10. 
Crescens,  §  30,  9. 
Crescentius,  §  96,  2,  4. 
Creuzer,  §  174,  4. 
Cromwell,  §  153,  5,  6;  155,  1-3. 
Crookes,  §  211,  17. 
Cross,  §  38,  2 ;  60,  6. 

„      Discovery  of  the,  §  57,  5. 

„      Ordeal  of  the,  §  88,  5. 

„     Sign  of  the,  §  89,  1;  59,  8; 

72,  5. 


INDEX. 


601 


Crotus,  Eiibiamis,  §  120,  2,  5. 
Crucifix,  §  GO,  G. 
Cruciger,  §  13G,  7. 
Cruco,  §  93,  9. 
Cruger,  §  160,  5. 
Crusaders,  §  98,  8. 
Crusades,  §  94 ;  105,  3. 
Crusius,  Mart.,  §  139,  2G. 

„       Chr.  Aug.,  §  107,  4. 
Crypto-Calvinists,  §  141,  10,  13. 
Crypts,  §  38,  1 ;  GO,  1. 
Cubricus,  §  29,  1. 
Cudworth,  §  164,  3. 
Culdees,  §  77,  8. 

Ctim  ex  apostolatiis  officio,  §  149,  2. 
Cummins,  §  208,  1. 
Cunaeus,  §  161,  G. 
Cupola,  §  GO,  3. 
Curati,  §  84,  2. 
Curseus,  §  141,  10. 
Curci,  §  187,  5. 
Curia,  The  Papal,  §  110,  15. 
Curio,  §  139,  24, 
Cursores,  §  GO,  5, 
Cusa,  Nich.  of,  §  113,  6. 
Cynewulf,  §  89,  3. 
Cyprian,  St.,  §  22,  5;  31,  11;  34, 

1,7,8;  35,3;  39,  2;  41,2,3. 
CyjDrian  of  Antioch,  §  48,  8. 

„       Sal.,  §  167,  4 ;  169,  1. 
Cyran,  St.,  §  157,  2. 
Cjrriacus,  §  104,  9, 
Cyril  of  Alexandria,  §  47,  G ;  52, 

2,3. 
Cyril  of  Jerusalem,  §  47,  10 :  52, 

2,3. 
Cyril  Lucar,  §  152,  2. 

„     and  Methodius,  §  73,  2,  3 ; 

79,  2,  3. 
Cyrillonas,  §  48,  7. 
Cyrus  of  Alexandria,  §  52,  8. 
Czersky,  §  186,  6. 

Dach,  Sim.,  §  160,  3. 


Dachsel,  §  186,  4. 
Dagobert  I.,  §  78,  1, 
Daill6,  §  161,  3,  7. 
Dalberg,  J,  v.,  §  120,  2,  3. 

„        K.Th.v.,§187,3;192,2, 
Dale,  §  202,  3, 
Dahimtica,  §  59,  7. 
Damascus  I.,  §  46,  4 ;  59,  1,  4. 

II.,  §  96,  5. 
Dames  dii  CcRiir  sacre,  §  186,  1. 
Damiani,  Petrus,  §  97,  4 ;  104,  10 ; 

106,  4. 
Damiens,  §  158,  1. 
Dandalo,  §  94,  4. 
Daniel  of  Winchester,  §  78,  4, 
Danites,  §  211,  14. 
Dankbrand,  §  93,  5. 
Daimecker,  §  174,  9. 
Dannhauer,  §  159,  5, 
Dante,  §  115,  10. 
Danzig,  §  139,  18. 
Darboy,  §189,3;  203. 
Darbyites,  §  211,  11. 
Darnley,  §  139,  10. 
Darwin,  §  174,  3. 
Dataria  Horn.,  §  110,  16. 
Daub,  §  182,  6, 
Daumer,  §  175,  7. 
David  of  Augsburg,  §  103,  10. 

„      ,,'Dinant,  §  108,  4. 

„      Christian,  §  167,  9. 
David  is,  Fr.,  §  148,  3, 
Davis,  §  211,  17. 
Deacon,  §  17,  5 ;  34,  3. 
Deaconess,  §  34,  3. 
Deaconess -institutes,  §  183,  1. 
Dean,  §  84,  2. 
Decius,  Emperor,  §  22,  5. 

„       Nich.,  §  142,  3. 
Declaratio  Thornuensis,  §  153,  7. 
Decretals,  §  46,  3. 
Decretists,  §  99,  5. 
Decretum  Grelasianum,  §  47,  22. 
„         Gratiani,  §  99,  5. 


502 


INDEX. 


Defensores,  §  45,  5. 
Deism,  §  IGl,  3 ;  171,  1. 
Delieieux,  §  117,  2. 
Delitzsch,  §  182,  14. 
DeMo,  §  149,  11. 

Demetrius  of  Alexandria,  §  31,  5. 
,,  Cydonius,  §  68,  5. 

„         Mysos,  §  139,  36. 
Demiurge,  §  26,  2. 
Denek,  §  148,  1. 
Denecker,  §  160,  1. 
Denifle,  §  191,  7. 
Denison,  §  202,  2. 
Denmark,   §  80;   93,   2;  139,   2; 

201,  1. 
Denzinger,  §  191,  9. 
Derezer,  §  165,  11. 
Dernbach,  §  151,  1. 
Z)e  salute  animaruvi,  §  193,  11. 
Desanctis,  §  204,  4. 
Descant,  §  104,  11. 
Descartes,  §  161,  3 ;  164,  1. 
Deseret,  §  211,  12. 
Desiderius,  §  82,  1. 
Desprez,  §  203,  3. 
Dessau,  Convention  of,  §  126,  5. 
Dessler,  §  167,  6. 
Deutinger,  §  191,  6. 
»  Deutsche  Theologie,"  §  114,  2. 
De  Valenti,  §  174,  3. 
Devay,  §  139,  20. 
Dhu  Nowas,  §  64,  4. 
Diana  of  Poitiers,  §  139,  l3. 
Diatessaron,  §  30,  9 ;  36,  7. 
Diaz,  Juan,  §  135,  10. 
Didache,  §  30,  7. 
Didascalia  AjMd.,  §  43,  4. 
Didenhofen,  Synod  of,  §  82,  4. 
Diderot,  §  165,  12. 
Didier  de  la  Cour,  §  156,  7. 
Didymus  of  Alexandria,  §  47,  5. 

„        Gabr,  §  124,  1.  ' 
DieckhoiF,  §  182,  21. 
Diedrich,  §  177,  3. 


Diepenbroek,  §  189,  1. 
Dieringer,  §  191,  6. 
Dies  Stationtnn,  §  37  ;  56,  1. 
Diestel,  Past.,  §  176,  3. 
Dietrich,  Meister,  §  103,  10. 

„        Veit,  §  142,  2. 
Dillmann,  §  182,  11. 
Dinant,  David  of,  §  108,  4. 
Dinder,  Archbishop,  §  197,  12. 
Dinkel,  Bishop,  §  187,  3. 
Dinter,  §  173,  3 ;  180,  4. 
Diocletian,  Empei'or,  §  22,  6. 
Diodorus  of  Tarsus,  §  47,  8. 
Diognetus,  §  30,  6. 
Dionysius  of  Alexandria,  §  31,  6, 

14;  33,7,9;  35,3. 
Dionysius  the  Areopagite,  §  47, 

11 ;  90,  8. 
Dionysius  Exigiius,  §  47,  23. 
„         of  Paris,  §  25. 

„  Rome,  §  33,  7. 
Dioscurus  of  Alexandria,  §  52,  4. 

„  Eome,  §  46,  8. 
Dippel,  §  170,  3. 
Diptychs,  §  59,  6. 
Disciplina  arcani,  §  36,  4. 
Disputation  at  Baden,  §  130,  6. 
„  „  Basel,  §  130,  3. 

„  „  Bern,  §  130,  7. 

„  Leipzig,  §  122,  4. 
„  „  Eome,  §  175,  3. 

„  Zurich,  §  130,  2. 
Dissenters,  §  143,  3,  4 ;  155,  1-3 ; 

202,  5. 
Dober,  §  168,  3,  4,  11. 
Docetism,  §  26,  2. 
Doctor  acutus,  §  113,  2. 
,,      aiiijelicus,  §  103,  6. 
„      audientiuin^  §  33,  1. 
,,      Christia7iiss.,  §  113,  4. 
„      ecstaticus,  §  114,  5. 
„      invincihUis,  §  113,  3. 
„      irrcfragihilis,  §  103,  4, 
,,      melijiuus,  §  102,  2, 


INDEX. 


503 


Vodor  mirahUis,  §  103,  8. 

„      profundus,  %  103,  8;  110,  2. 

„      7'esol utissimus,  §  113,  3. 

„      seraphicus,  §  103,  4. 

„      suhtilis,  §  113,  1. 

„      universalis,  §  103,  5. 
Dodores  audienlium,  §  34,  3. 

„      ecdesia;  §  47,  22. 
Doderlein,  §  171,  8. 
Dodwell,  §  161,  7. 
Dolcino,  §  108,  8. 
Pollinger,   §   190,   5;    191,   5,   9; 

175,  6  ;  5,  6. 
Domenichino,  §  149,  15. 
Domenico  da  Pescia,  §  119,  11. 
Dominic,  St.,  §  98,  4 ;  106,  3. 
Domiuicans,  §  98,  5  ;  109,  2  ;  112: 

4 ;  186,  2. 
Dominus  ac  redemt.,  §  165,  9. 
Domitian,  Emperor,  §  22,  1. 

„  Abbot,  §  52,  6. 

Domiius  of  Antioch,  §  52,  4. 
Donatio  Constantini,  §  87,  4. 
Donatists,  §  63,  1. 
Domiet,  Card.,  §  190,  3. 
Pore,  Gustav,  §  174,  9. 
Coring,  Matt.,  §  113,  7. 
Uormitoria,  §  38,  2  ;  60,  4. 
Dorner,  §  182,  10. 
Dorotheus,  §  30,  6. 
Dort,  Synod  of,  §  161,  2, 
Dositheus  of  Samaria,  §  25,  2. 

„  „   Jerusalem,  §  152.  3. 

Drabricius,  §  163,  9. 
Dragonnades,  §  153,  3. 
Drake,  §  174,  9. 
Drey,  §  191,  6. 
Druids,  §  77,  2. 
Drummond,  §  211,  10. 
Drusius,  §  161,  G. 
Druthmar,  Christ.,  §  90,  4,  9  ;  91, 

3. 
Dualism,  §  26,  2. 
Dualistic  Heretics,  §  71. 


Dubois,  Pet.  v.,  §  118,  1. 

„       Card.,  §  165,  7. 
Ducange,  §  158,  2. 
Duchoborzians,  §  166,  2  ;  210,  3. 
Dufay,  §  115,  8. 
Dufresne,  §  158,  2. 
Dulignon,  §  163,  8. 
Dumont,  Bishop,  §  200,  7. 
Dumoulin,  §  161,  3,  7. 
Dungal,  §  92,  2. 
Dunin,  §  193,  1. 
Duns  Scotus,  §  113,  1. 
Dunstan,  §  97,  4 ;  100,  1. 
Dupanloup,  §  189,  3  •,  203,  3-5. 
Duplessis-Mornay,  §  139,  17. 
Durseus,  §  154,  4. 
Durandus  of  Osca,  §  108,  10. 

„         William,  §  113,  3. 
Dilrer,  Albert,  §  115,  13  ;  142.  2. 
Durousseaux,  §  200,  7. 
Diisselthal,  §  183,  1. 
Dutoit,  §  171,  9. 
Duvergier,  §  157,  5. 

Eadbald,  §  77,  4. 
Eaniied,  §  77,  6. 
Eardley,  §  178,  2. 
Easter-Festival,  §  37,  1 ;  56,  3,  4. 
„      Reckoning  of,  §  56,  3  ;  77 

3. 
East  Friesland,  §  170,  3. 
East  Indies,  §64,  4;  150,  1;  155, 

11 ;  165, 3 ;  167,  9  ;  168,  6 ;  184,  5. 
Ebed  Jesu,  §  72,  1. 
Ebel,  §  176,  3. 

Eber,  Paul,  §  141,  10  ;  142,  3. 
Eberhard  of  Bamberg,  §  102,  6. 
J.  A.,  §  111,  4-7. 
„        Bishop  of  Treves,  §  197, 

6. 
Eberlin,  §  125,  1. 
Ebionites,  §  28,  1. 
Ebner,  §  114,  6. 
Ebo  of  kheims,  §  SO ;  87,  3. 


504 


INDEX. 


Ebrard,  §  182,  16  ;  195,  5  ;  5,  5. 
Ecbert  of  Schonau,  §  107,  1. 
Eccart,  John,  §  142,  5. 
Ecdesia  Chridi  Bull,  §  203,  1. 
Ecclesiastical  Titles  Bill,  §  202, 11. 
Ecetse,  §  70,  3. 
Echter,  Jul.,  §  151,  1. 
Echternach  Procession,  188,  11. 
Eck,  §  122,  1,  4  ;    123,  1 ;  130,  G  ; 

135,  2,  3 ;  149,  14. 
Eckhart,  Meister,  §  114,  1. 
Ecthesis,  §  52,  8. 
Edelmann,  §  171,  3. 
Edessa,  School  of,  §  31,  1 ;  47,  1. 
Edward  VI.  of  England,  §  139,  5. 
Edwin,  §  77,  4. 
Egbert,  §  77,  8 ;  78,  3. 
Egede,  §  167,  9. 
Egli,  §  199,  3. 
Eichhorn,  J.  G.,  §  176,  7. 

„  Minister,  §  196,  2. 

„         Nich.,  §  174,  5. 
Eiclisfeld,  §  151,  1. 
Einhard,  §  88,  6. 
elpwv,  §  39,  2. 
Eisenach,  Conference  at,  §  172,  2. 

„         Attentat,  §  194,  2. 
Eisenmenger,  §  161,  7. 
Eisleben,  Magister,  §  141,  1. 
Elagabalus,  §  22,  4. 
Eleesban,  §  64,  4. 
Eleutherus,  §  40,  2. 
Elias  of  Cortona,  §  98. 
Eligius,  §  78,  3, 
Elipandus,  §  91,  1. 
Elisaeus,  §  64,  3. 
Elizabeth,  St.,  §  105,  3. 

„        of  Brandenburg,  §  128, 1. 

„  ,,  Calenberg,  §  134,  5. 

„  „  England,  §  139,  6-8. 

„  „  Herford,  §  163,  7,  8. 

„  „  SchOnau,    §    104,    9 ; 

107,  1. 
Elizabeth-Society,  §  186,  4, 


Elkesaites,  §  28,  2. 

Eller,  §  170,  4. 

Elliot,  §  162,  7. 

Eltz,  Jac.  v.,  §  151,  1. 

Elvenich,  §  191,  1. 

Elvira,  Syn.  of,  §  38,  3 ;  45,  2. 

Elxai,  §  27,  2. 

Elzevir,  §  161,  6. 

Emanation,  §  26,  2. 

Emancipation  Bill,  §  202,  9, 

Emmerau,  §  78,  2. 

Emmerich,  §  188,  3. 

Empaytaz,  §  199,  5. 

Emser,  Jerome,  §  123,  4  ;  149,  14. 

Encratites,  §  27,  10. 

Encyclicon,  §  52,  5. 

Encyclopaedists,  §  165,  14. 

Endemic  Synods,  §  43,  2. 

Energumens,  §  35,  3. 

Enfans  sans  souci,  §  115,  12. 

Enfantin,  §  212,  2. 

England,  §  139,  4;  143, 1 ;  154,  4  ; 

155 ;  162,  1 ;  202. 
Ennodius,  §  46,  8 ;  59,  4. 
Enoch,  Book  of,  §  32,  2. 
Enraght,  §  202,  3. 
Eoban,  St.,  §  78,  7. 
Epaon,  Council  of,  §  76,  5. 
Ephesus,  Council  of,  §  52,  3  ;  53,  4. 
Ephraem,  §  47,  13  ;  48,  7 ;  59,  4. 
Epigonus,  §  33,  5. 
Epiphanes,  §  27,  8. 
Epiphanius,   §  47,   10 ;  51,  2,  3  ; 

57,4, 
Episcopal  S3'stem,  §  167,  5. 
Episcopi  in  partihus,  §  97,  8. 
Episcopius,  §  161,  2. 
Epistolce  decretales,  §  46,  3. 

„        formcttce,  §  34,  6, 

„        ohscur.  vir.,  §  120,  5. 

„        paschales^  §  34,  6  ;  56,  3. 

„         sijnodales,  §  34,  6. 
EjniJce  T/u/estecc,  §  22. 
Erasmus,  §  120,  6  ;  123,  3 ;  125,  3. 


INDEX. 


505 


Erastianism,  §  202,  7, 
Erastus,  §  117,  4  ;  144,  1. 
Erfurt,  University  of,  §  120,  2. 
Eric  of  Calenberg,  §  136,  1. 

„      „  Sweden,  §  80,  1 ;  93,  2, 

„    St.,  §  93,  3,  11. 

„     the  Eed,  §  93,  5. 
Erigena,  §  90,  7  ;  91,  5. 
Erimbert,  §  81,  1. 
Erlembald,  §  97,  5. 
Ernest  the  Pious,  §  160,  6. 

„      of    Liineburg,    §  120,    4 ; 

127,  3. 
Ernesti,  §  171,  6. 
Ernestine  Bible,  §  160,  G. 
Esch,  John,  §  128,  1. 
Eschenmayer,  §  176,  2. 
Escobar,  §  149,  16  ;  158,  1. 
Essenes,  §  8,  4  ;  28,  2. 
Essenius,  §  161,  5. 
Established    Church,     §   139,    6; 

202,  1. 
Esthonia,  §  93,  2 ;  205,  3. 
Estius,  §  150,  14. 
Ethelberga,  §  77,  4. 
Ethelbert,  §  77,  4. 
Ethelwold,  Bishop,  §  100,  1. 
Etherius  of  Osma,  §  91,  1. 
Ethiopia,  §  64,  1. 
Etshmiadzin,  §  72,  2. 
^vxapiarta,  §  17,  7  ]  36,  3. 
Ei'XfXo.toi',  §  61,  3. 
Eucherius,  §  47,  21. 
Euchites,  §  44,  7  ;  71,  3. 
Eudocia,  §  48,  5 ;  52,  3,  4,  5. 
Eudoxia,  §  51,  3. 
Eudoxius,  §  50,  8. 
Eugenius  II.,  §  82,  4. 
^,         III.,  §96,  13. 

IV.,  §67,  6;  110,8,9. 
Eulalius,  §  40,  6. 
Euler,  §  150,  14. 
Eulogies,  §  58,  4. 
Eulogius  of  Caesarea,  §  53,  4. 


Eulogiusof  Cordova.  §  81, 1 ;  90, 6. 

Eunapius,  §  42,  5. 

Eunomius,  §  50,  3. 

Euphemites,  §  42,  6, 

Eupkrates,  §  28,  4. 

Euric,  §  76,  2. 

Eusebians,  §  50,  2. 

Eusebius  of  Caesarea,  §  36,  8  ;  47. 

2 ;  50,  1 ;  59,  1. 
Eusebius  of  Doryliium,  §  52,  3. 
„         „  Emesa,  §  47,  8. 
„         „  Mcomedia,  §  50,  1. 
„  VerceUi,  §  50,  2. 
Eustasius  of  Luxeuil,  §  78,  2. 
Eustathians,  §  44,  7. 
Eustathius  of  Antioch,  §  50,  8. 
„  „  Sebaste,  §  44,  3,  7 

62,  1. 
Eustathius  of  Thessalonica,  §  68, 

5 ;  70,  4. 
Euthalius,  §  59,  1. 
Euthymius  Zigabenus,  §  68,  5. 
Eutyches.  §  52,  4. 
Euzoius,  §  50,  8. 
Evagi'ius,  §  5, 1. 
!   Evangelical-Party,  §  202,  1,  4. 
j   Evangelists,  §  17,  5  ;  34,  1. 
Evangelmm  ccternum,  §  108,  4. 
Evolutionists,  §  174,  2. 
Ewald,  The  black  and  white,  §  78, 

9. 
Ewald,  H.,  §  182,  3. 
Exarchate,  §  46,  9  ;  76,  7 ;  82,  1. 
Exarchs,  Episcopal,  §  46,  1. 
Execrahilis,  §  110,  10. 
Exemption,  §  98, 
Exercises,    Spiritual,    §    149,    9; 

188,1. 
Excommunication,  §  35,  2 ;  88,  5 ; 

106,1. 
Exodus-Churches,  §  211,  6,  7. 
e^o/MoKoyTiai^,  §  32,  2. 
Exorcism,  §  35,  4  ;  58,  1 ;  142,  2  ; 
167,  2. 


506 


INDEX. 


Exorcists,  §  33,  3. 
Exsurge  Domini^  §  123,  2. 
Extra,  §  99,  5. 
Extranece,  §  39,  3. 
Extravatjantes;  §  99,  5. 
Eyck,  §  115,  13. . 
Eznik,  §  64,  3. 
Ezra,  Fourth  Book  of,  §  32,  2. 

Faber,  John,  §  130,  2,  6. 

„      Stapulensis,  §  120,  8. 
Fabian,  Bishop  of  Rome,  §  22,  5. 
Facundus  of  Hermiane,  §  47,  19  ; 

52,  6. 
Fagius,  §  139,  5. 
Falk,  Dr.,  §  174, 8  ;  193,  5,  6  ;  197, 

2,  3,  5. 
Familists,  §  146,  5. 
Farel,  §  130,  3  ;  138,  1, 
Fasts,  Ascetic,  §  44,  4  ;  107. 

„      Ecclesiastical,  §  37,   3;  5(j, 

4,  7;  115,  1,12. 
Fatak,  §  29,  1. 
Faustus  of  Mileve,  §  54,  1. 

„       „  Rhegium,  §  47,  21 ;  53, 

5. 
Favre,  Pet.,  §  149,  8. 
Fawkes,  Guy,  §  153,  6. 
Fazy,  §  199,  1. 
Febronius,  §  165,  10. 
Fecht,  §  167,  1. 
Federal  Theology,  §  161,  4. 
Felicissimus,  §  41,  2. 
Felicitas,  §  22,  4. 
Felix,  II.,  §  46,  4. 

„      III.,  §  46,  8  ;  52,  5. 

„      IV.,  §46,8. 

„      v.,  §  110,  8. 

„      of  Aptunga,  §  63,  1. 

,,      the  Manichasan,  §  54,  1. 

„      Pratensis,  §  120,  9. 

,.      of  Urgellis,  §  91,  1. 
Fell,  Marg.,  §  l(i3,  4. 
Feneberg,  §  187,  1. 


Fenelon,  §  157,  3 ;  158,  2. 
Fenian-movement,  §  202,  10. 
Ferdinand  I.,  §  137,  8  5  126,  2,  3  ; 
139,  19,  20. 
II.,  §151,1;  153,2. 
„         VII.  of  Spain,  §  205, 1. 
„  I.  of  Castile,  §  95,  2. 

III.        „        §95,2. 
„         the  Catholic,  §  95,  2  5 
117,  2 ;  118,  7. 
Ferguson,  Fergus,  §  202,  8. 
Ferrara,  Council  of,  §  67,  6  ;  110, 

8. 
Ferrer,  Bonif.,  §  115,  4. 

„       Vincent,  §  115,  2 ;  110,  6. 
Ferry,  Minister,  §  203,  6. 
Ferula,  §  60,  1. 
Fessler,  Bishop,  §  189,  3. 

„        Ign.,  §  165,  13. 
Fevidalism,  §  86,  1. 
Feuerbach,  §  174,  1,  3 ;  182,  6. 
Feuillants,  §  149,  6 
Feyin,  Synod  of,  §  64,  3. 
Fichte,  J.  G.,  §  170,  13. 

„    J.H.,§174,2;  211,15. 
Fiesole,  §  115,  13. 
Fifth  Monarchy  Men,  §  162,  1. 
Filioque,  §  50,  7 ;  67,  1 ;  91,  2. 
Finkenstein,  §  176,  3, 
Finland,  §  93,  11 ;  139,  1 ;  2015,  3. 
Firmian,  §  165,  4. 
Firmcius  Maternus,  §  47,  14. 
Firmilian,  §  34,  3 ;  35,  3. 
Fischart,  §  142,  7, 
Fisher,  Bishop,  §  139,  4. 
Fisherman's  Ring,  §  110,  16. 
Fitzgerald,  §  189,  3. 
Five  Mile  Act,  §  155,  3. 
Flacius,  §  141,  4-8  ;  142,  6  ;  5,  2, 
Flagellants,    §    106,   4;    116,    3; 

149,  17. 
Flagellation,   §   106,   4;    116,   3; 

149,  17. 
Flavia  Domitilla,  §  22,  1. 


INDEX. 


507 


Flavian  of  Antioch,  §  50,  8. 

„       Constantinople,  §  52,  4. 
Flechier,  §  158,  2. 
Flemming,  §  160,  3. 
Fletcher,  §  169,  3. 
Fleury,  §  5,  2  ;  158,2;  165,7. 
Flieclner,  §  183,  1. 
Flora,  §  27,  5. 
Florence,  Council  of,  §  67,  6  ;  72  : 

110,  8. 
Florentius  Eadewin,  §  112,  9. 
Florinus,  §  31,  2. 
Florus  Magister,  §  90,  5  ;  91,  5. 
Folmar,  §  102,  6. 
Fontevraux,  Order  of,  §  98,  2. 
Fools,  Festival  of,  §  105,  2. 
Formosus,  §  82,  8. 
Formula  Concordia:,  §  141,  9. 

„        Consensus  Helvet.,  §  161, 

3. 
F5rster,  J.,  §  142,  6. 

„      prelate,  §  118,  3  ;  197,  0. 
Fortunatus,  §  48,  6. 
Fouque,  de  la  M.,  §  174,  5. 
Fourier,  §  212,  1. 
Fox,  George,  Quaker,  §  163,  4,  5. 

„    American  Spiritualist,  §  211, 

17. 
France,  §  139,  13-17 ;  153,  4  ;  165, 

5;  203. 
Francis,  St.,  §  93,  16 ;  98,  3 ;  104, 

10 ;  106,  5. 
Francis  de  Paula,  §  112,  8. 

,,         ,,    Sales,  §  156,  6;  157,  1. 
Francis  I.,  of  France,  §  110,  9,  14 ; 

120,8;  126,5,  6;  139,  13. 
Francis  II.,  of  France,  §  139,  14. 
Francisca  Eomana,  §  112,  1. 
Franciscans,  §  98,  3;  112,  2;  149, 

6. 
Francis  Xavier  Society,  §  186,  4. 
Franck,  Seb.  §  146,  3. 
„        John,  160,  4. 
„        Michael,  §  160,  4. 


Franck,  Sal.,  §  167,  6. 

Francke,  A.  H.,  §  159,  3  ;  167,  2,  8, 

9 ;  160,  7. 
Franco  of  Cologne,  §  144,  11. 
Frank,  J.  H.,  §  182,  15. 
Frankists,  §  165,  17. 
Franks,  The,  §  76,  9. 
Frankfort,  Synod  of,  §91, 1 ;  92,  1. 
,,         Concordat  of,  §  110,  9, 
14. 
Frankfort,  Parliament  of,  §  189,  4. 
„         Recess  of,  §  141,  11. 
Troubles  of,  §  134,  3. 
Fratres  de  communi  vita,  §  112,  9. 
„       minores,  §  98,  3. 
„       pontijices,  §  98,  9. 
,,      jjrrtefZica/ore*,  §  98,  5. 
Fraficelli,  §  112,  2. 
Fredigis,  §  90,  4. 
Frederick  I.,  Barbarossa,  §  96,  14, 

15 ;  94,  3. 
Frederick  II.,  Emperor,  §  94,  5  ; 

96,  20  ;  97,  2 ;  99,  3  ;  109,  2. 
Frederick  III.,  Emperor,  §  110,  9. 
„         III.,  of  Austin,  §  110,  3. 
„         I.,  of  Prussia,  §  169,  1. 
„         II.,  „  §  165,   9; 

171,  4. 
Frederick  I.,  of  Denmark,  §  139,  2, 
IV.        „  §167,9, 

„  of  Palatinate,  §  153,  3 

„  Aug.  the  Strong,  §  153, 1 

„  the  Wise,  §122, 3;  123, 9 

,,  William,     the     Great 

Elector  §154,4. 
Frederick  William  II.,  §  171,  5. 
„     III.,  §171,  5;  172, 
3 ;  177,  1 ;  193. 
Frederick  William  IV.,  §  177,  2  ; 

193. 
Freemasons,  §  171,  2 ;  104,  13. 
Free-will  Baptists,  §  162,  3  ;  208, 1. 
Free-thinkers,  §  1(54,  2 ;  171,  2. 
Freiligrath,  §  174,  5. 


508 


INDEX. 


Fresenius,  167,  8. 
Freylinghansen,  §  167,  6-S. 
Fricke,  §  182,  21. 
Fridolin,  §  77,  7 ;  78,  1. 
Friedewalt,  Convention  of,  §  12(), 

6. 
Friedrich,  John,  §  190,  1 ;  191,  7. 
Fries,  §  174,  1. 
Frisians,  §  78,  3. 
Frith,  §  139,  4. 
Frithigern,  §  76,  1. 
Fritzlar,  §  78,  4. 
Fritzsche,  §  183,  3. 
Frobenius,  §  120,  6. 
Frohschammer,  §  191,  6. 
Froment,  §  188,  1. 
Fronto,  §  23. 
Frumentius,  §  64,  1. 
Fry,  Elizabeth,  §  183,  1. 
Fugue,  Musical,  §  115,  8. 
Fulbert  of  Chartres,  §  101,  1. 
Fulco,  Canonist,  §  102,  1. 

„       of  Neuilly,  §  104,  1. 
Fulda,  §  78,  5 ;  151,  2. 
Fulgentius,  Ferr.,  §  47,  20. 
„  of  Euspe,  §  47,  20. 

Gabler,  Andr.,  182,  6. 

„      Th.  A.,  §  171,  5. 
Gabriel,  Didymus,  §  124,  1. 
Galen,  §  23. 
Galerius,  §  22,  6. 
Galileo,  §  156,  4. 
Gall,  St.,  §  130,  4,  8. 
Galle,  Peter,  §  139,  1. 
Gallienus,  §  22,  5. 
Galilean  Church,  §  156,  3 ;  203. 
Gallizin,  Am.  v.,  §  172,  2. 
Gallus,  St.,  §  178. 

„        Emperor,  §  22,  5. 
Ganganelli,  §  165,  8. 
Gangi-a,  Synod  of,  §  44,  7 ;  45,  2. 
Gardiner,  Allen,  §  184,  2. 

„  Bishop,  §  139,  4,  5. 

Garibaldi,  185,  3. 


Garve,  §  170,  4. 
Gasparin,  §  203,  4. 
Gannilo,  §  101,  3. 
Gauzbert,  §  81,  1. 
Gavazzi,  §  204,  4. 
Gebhardt  of  Eichstedt,  §  96,  5. 
„  „     Cologne,  §  137,  7 

„    Salzburg,  §  97,  2. 
Gedike,  §  154,  3. 
Gedimin,  §  93,  14. 
Geibel,  §  174,  6. 
Geier,  §  159,  4. 

Geiler  of  Kaisersb.,  §  115,  2,  11. 
Geisa,  §  93,  8. 
Geismar,  §  78,  4. 
Geissel,  §  194,  1. 
Gelasius,  I.,  §  46,  8 ;  47,  22  ;  59,  6. 

IL,  §  96,  11. 
Gelimar,  §  76,  3. 
Gellert,  §  176,  11 ;  172,  1. 
Genesis,  The  little,  §  32,  2. 
Genesius,  §  71,  1. 
Geneva,  §  138 ;  199,  1,  2,  5. 
Genghis-Khan,  §  72,  1. 
Gennadius,  §  47,  16  :  48,  3. 

„  Patr.,  §68,  5;  67,  7. 

Genseric,  §  76,  3. 
Gentile  Christians,  §  18. 
Gentilis,  §  148,  3. 
Gentilly,  Synod  of,  §  91,  2  ;  92,  1. 
Gemtfledentes,  §  35,  1. 
George  Acyndynos,  §  69,  1. 

„       of  Brandenburg,  §  127,  3  ; 

132,  6. 
George  of  Saxony,  §  122,  4 ;  126, 

5 ;  128  •,  134,  2, 
George,    Bishop    of    the    Arabs, 

§72,2. 
George  of  Trebizond,  §  68,  2. 
Gerbert,  §  96,  2  ;  100,  3. 
Gereuth,  §  188,  6. 
Gerhard  Groot,  §  112,  9. 

John,  §  159,  4 ;  180,  1. 
„        Segarelli,  §  108,  8. 


INDEX. 


509 


Gerhard  Zerbolt,  §  112,  9. 
Gerhardt,  Paul,  §  154,  4 ;  160,  4. 
Gerike,  P.,  §  139,  18. 
Gerlach,  L.  v.,  §  175,  1 ;  176,  1. 
„        Otto  v.,  §  181,  4. 
„        Stephen,  §  139,  26. 
St.  Germams,  Peace  of,  §  139,  15. 
German  Empire,  §  192 ;  197. 

„        Catholics,  §  187,  6. 
Germany,  Young,  §  174,  5. 
Germanus,  Patr.,  §  66,  1. 
Gerson,  §  110,  6,  7 ;  112,  6 ;  113,  3 ; 

118,  4 ;  119,  5. 
Gertrude  the  Great,  §  107,  1. 

,,         of  Hackeborn,  §  107,  1. 
Gesenius,  W.,  §  182,  3. 

Just.,  §  160,  3. 
Gewilib  of  Mainz,  §  78,  4. 
Geysa,  §  93,  2. 
GfrOrer,  §  5,  4 ;  175,  7. 
Ghazali,  §  103,  1. 
Ghent,  Pacific,  of,  §  139,  12. 
Ghetto,  §95,  3;  185,  1. 
Ghiberti,  §  115,  13. 
Gichtel,  §  163,  9. 
Gieseler,  §  5,  4. 
Giessen,  University  of,  §  154,  1; 

196,  1,  5. 
Gil,  Juan,  §  129,  21. 
Gilbertines,  §  98,  2. 
Gilbertus  Porretanus,  §  102,  3. 
Gildas,  §90,  8. 
Giotto,  §  115,  13. 
Gisela,  §  93,  8. 
Gladstone,  §  202,  10. 
Glass,   Painting    on,   §   104,   14 ; 

174,  9. 
Glassius,  §  159,  4. 
yXwaffoui  XaXeTw,  §  17,  1. 
Gnesen,  Archbishopric  of,  §  93,  2. 
Gnosimachians,  §  62,  3. 
Gnosticism,  §  18,  3 ;  26-28. 
Goar,  St.,  §  78,  3. 
Gobat,  Bishop,  §  184,  8,  9. 


Gobel,  §  165,  15. 
Goch,  Jolm  of,  §  119,  10. 
God,  Friends  of,  §  116,  4. 
Godfrey  of  Bouillon,  §  94,  1. 

„         „  Strassburg,  §  105,  6. 
Goethe,  §  171,  11. 
Goetze,  §  171,  8. 
Gomarus,  §  161,  2. 
G  onzago.  Cardinal,  §  149,  2. 
Gonzalo  of  Berceo,  §  105,  6. 
Good  Friday,  §  56,  4. 
Goodwin,  §  161,  6. 
Gordianus,  §  22,  4. 
Gorg,  Junker,  §  123,  8. 
Gorm  the  Old,  §  93,  2. 
Gorres,  Jos.,  §  174,  4 ;  181,  1 ;  5,  6. 
Goschel,  §  179,  1,  2;  182,  6,  15. 
Gossler,  §  193,  6 ;  197,  11. 

Gossner,  §  187,  2 ;  1&4,  1. 

Gothic  Architecture,  §  104,  12. 

Goths,  §  76. 

Gotter,  §  167,  6. 

Gottschalk,    Prince    of    Wends, 
§  93,  9. 

Gottschalk,  Monk,  §  91,  5,  6. 

Goudimel,  §  143,  2 ;  149,  15. 

Grabau,  §  208,  2. 

Grabow,  §  210,  10. 

Graf,  §  182,  18. 

Graffiti,  §  38,  1 ;  39,  5. 

ypafifiara  reTVirwiJ.iva,  §  34,  6. 

Grammont,  Order  of,  §  98,  2. 

Grant,  §  184,  9. 

Granvella,  §  135,  1,  2,  3. 

Gratian,  Emperor,  §  42,  4. 

„         Canonist,  §99,  5;  104,  4. 

Gratius  Ortuinus,  §  120,  5. 

Graumann,  §  142,  3. 

G  rebel,  §  180,  5. 

Greece,  §207. 

Greeks,  United,  §  151 ;  206,  2. 

Green,  §  202,  3. 

Greenland,  §  93,  1 ;  167,  9 ;  184,  2. 

Gregentius,  §  48,  3. 


510 


INDEX. 


Gregoire,  Bishop,  §  165,  15. 
Gregory!.,  §413,  10;  47,  22;  57,  4; 
58,  3 ;  59,  5,  6,  9 ;  61,  4  ;  76,  8 ; 
77,4. 
Gregory  II.,  III.,  §  66,  1 ;  78,  4 ; 

82,  1. 
Gregory  IV.,  §  82,  4. 
„         v.,  §  96,  2. 
„         VI.,  §  96,  4. 
„        VII.,  §96,  7-9;  94; 
101,  2. 
Gregory  VIII.,  §  96,  16 ;  94,  3. 
„         IX.,  §  96,  19;  99,  4; 
109,  2. 
Gregory  X.,  §  96,  21 ;  67,  4. 
„        XL,  §  110,  5;   114,  4; 
117,  2. 
Gregory  XII.,  §  110,  6,  7. 

XIII.,  §  139,  17  ;  149,  3. 
4,17. 
Gregory  XIV.,  §  149,  3. 
„        XV.,  §  156,  1,  4,  5. 
„        XVI.,  §  185,  1. 
,,         Abulfarajus,  §  72,  2. 
,,        Acind3aios,  §  69,  2. 
,,    of  Constantinople,  §  207,  1. 
,,         of  Heimburg,  §  118,-  5. 
„         Illuminator,  §  64,  3. 
„         Palamas,  §  69,  2. 
„         Scholaris,  §  68,  5. 
,,        Thaumaturgvis,  §  31,  6. 
„        Nazianzen,  §  47, 4  ;  48.  5, 
8;  59,4. 
Gregory  of  Nyssa,  §  47,  4. 
„         of  Tours,  §  90,  2. 
„        of  Utrecht,  §  78,  3. 
Gregorian  Chant,  §  59,  3. 
Gretna-Green,  §  202,  6. 
Gr6vy,  §  203,  5. 
Grey,  Lady  Jane,  §  139,  5. 
Griesbach,  §  171,  7. 
Groot,  Gerh.,  §  112,  9. 
Gropper,  §  135,  3,  7. 
Grosseteste,  §  97,  4. 


Grotius,  §  153,  7 ;  161,  2,  6,  7. 

Gruber,  §  170,  1,  2. 

Gruet,  Jac,  §  138,  4. 

Grundtvig,  §  201,  1. 

Grunthler,  §  139,  24. 

Grynaus,  §  133,  8. 

Gualbertus,  §  98,  1. 

Guardian,  §  98,  5. 

Guatemala,  §  209,  2. 

Guelphs,  §  96,  7. 

Guericke,  §  5,  5 ;  176,  1 ;  177,  2 ; 

182,  13. 
Guerin,  §  98,  2. 
Guevara,  §  209,  2. 
Guiana,  §  184,  2. 
Guibert,  Archbishop,  §  203,  5. , 

„         of  Nogent,  §  101,  1. 
Guide  of  Arezzo,  §  104,  11. 

„       de  Castello,  §  102,  2  ;  108,  7. 

„      of  Siena,  §  104,  9,  14. 
Guigo,  §  98,  2. 

Guise,  Dukes  of,  §  139,  13-17. 
Guizot,  §  185,  3 ;  203,  2,  8, 
Gundiberge,  §  76,  8. 
Gundioch,  §  75,  5. 
Gvmdobald,  §  76,  5. 
Gundulf,  §  108,  2. 
Gunpowder  Plot,  §  153,  6. 
Guuthamund,  §  76,  3. 
Gunther  of  Cologne,  §  82,  7. 
Giinther,  Ant.,  §  191,  3. 

Cyi-iacus,  §  160,  4. 
Gilnzburg,  Eberlin  of,  §  125,  1. 
Gury,  §  191,  9. 
Gustavus    Adolphus,    §    153,   2 ; 

160,  7. 
Gustavus  Adolphus  Society,  §  178, 

1. 
Giitzlaf,  §  184,  6. 
Guyon,  §  157,  3. 
Gylas,  §  93,  8. 
Gyrovagi,  §  44,  7. 

Haag,  Pastor,  §  196,  3. 


INDEX. 


511 


Haas,  Jos.,  §  210,  '2> 

,,  Charles,  §  175,  7. 
Haco  the  Good,  §  93,  4. 
Hadrian,  Emperor,  §  28,   3 ;  2-5 ; 

39,  6. 
Hadrian  I.,  §  66,  3 ;  82,  2 ;  91,  1. 

„        n.,§67,l;  79,2;  82,7; 
83,  2. 
Hadrian  III.,  §  82,  8. 

„        IV.,  §96,  14. 

„         v.,  §  96,  22. 

VI.,  §  149,  1 ;  126,  1. 
Hagenau,  §  135,  2. 
Hagenhach,  §  182,  9 ;  5,  5. 
Hahn,  Aug.,  §  176,  1. 
„       Michael,  §  172,  3. 
„       Missionarj',  §  18-J,  3. 
Hahn-Hahn,  Ida,  §  175,  7. 
Hakem,  §  95,  2. 
Haldane,  §  199,  5. 
Haldanites,  §  170,  6. 
Halle,  University  of,  §  167,  1. 
Haller,  Alb.,  §  171,  8. 

„       Berth.,  §  130,  4. 

„       L.  v.,  §  175,  7. 
Hamann,  §  171,  11. 
Hamburg,  Bishopric.  §  80,  1. 
Hamilton,  Patrick,  §  139,  8. 
Hammerschmidt,  §  1(30,  5. 
Handel,  §  167,  7. 
Haneberg,  §  189,  4  ;  197,  6. 
Hanne,  Dr.,  §  180,  3. 
Hannington,  Bishop,  §  184,  4. 
Hanover,  §193,8;  194,3. 
Hans,  Brother,  §  115,  11. 
Harald  the  Apostate,  §  80. 

„       Blaatand,  §  93,  2. 
Hardenberg,  §  144,  2. 
Hard-Shell  Baptists,  §  170,  6. 
Hardouin,  §  165,  11. 
Hare,  §  211,  17. 
Harless,  §  182,  13  ;  195,  4. 
Harmonites,  §  211,  6. 
iiarmonius,  §  27,  5. 


Harms,  Claus,  §  176,  1. 
„       Louis,  §  184,  1. 
Harnack,  Th.,  §  182,  13. 
Hartmann,  E.  v.,  §  174,  2. 
Hase,  §  5,  4 ;  176,  1 ;  182,  5. 
Hasse,  §  5,  5. 
Hassun,  §  207,  4. 
Hattemists,  §  170,  8. 
Hatto  of  Eeichenau,  §  90,  3. 

„       I.  of  Mainz,  §  83,  3. 
Hatty-Humayun,  §  207. 
Hiltzer,  §  130,  5  ;  148,  1. 
Haug,  §  170,  1. 
Hauge,  §  201,  3. 
Hauser,  §  188,  5. 
Hausmann,  Nich.,  §  133,  4. 
Hausrath,  §  182,  17. 
Haydn,  §  174,  10. 
Haymo  of  Halberstadt,  §  90,  5. 
Hebel,  §  171,  11. 
Heber,  Bishop,  §  18-1,  5. 
Hebrseans,  Sect  of,  §  170,  8. 
Hebrews,  Gospel  of  the,  §  31,  Ki. 
Heddo  of  Strassburg,  §  84,  2. 
Hedinger,  §  170,  1. 
Hedio,  §  130,  3. 
Hedwig  of  Poland,  §  93,  14. 

„        St.  of  Silesia,  §  105,  3. 
Heermann,  §  160,  3. 
Hefele,  §  189,  3,  4  ;  191,  7. 
Hefter,  §  184,  8. 
Hegel,  §  174,  1. 
Hegesippus,  §  31,  7. 
Hegius,  §  120,  3. 
Heidanus,  §  161,  5,  7. 
Heidegger,  §  161,  3. 
Heidelberg  Catechism,  §  144,  1 
University,  §  120,  3. 
Heine,  §  174,  5. 
Heinrichs,  §  171,  5. 
Hejira,  §  65. 
Held,  H.,  §  159,  3. 

„      Imperial  Orator,  §  13-i,  2. 
Helding,  §  136,  5. 


512 


INDEX. 


Helena,  Empress,  §  57,  5,  6. 

„        of  Kussia,  §  73,  4. 
Heliand,  §  89,  3. 
Hell,  §  106,  3. 
Hellenists,  §  10,  1. 
Helmstedt,  §  159,  2. 
Heloise,  §  102,  1. 
Helvetius,  §  165,  12. 
Helvidius,  §  62,  2. 
Hemero -baptists,  §  25,  1. 
Henuneiiin,  §  118,  5. 
Hemming  of  Upsala,  §  93,  11. 
„  Professor,  §  111,  10. 

Hengstenberg,  §  176,  1 ;  182,  4. 
Henke,  §  5,  3  ;  171,  7, 
Henoticon,  §  52,  2. 
Henricians,  §  108,  7. 
Henry  I.,  Emperor,  §  93,  2 ;  96, 1. 

„       II.,  §  96,  4. 

„       III.,  §  96,  4  ;  97,  1. 

„       IV.,  §  96,  6. 

„       v.,  §  96,  11  fF. 

„       VI.,  §  96,  16. 

„       VIL,  §  110,  2. 

„       I.  of  England,  §  96,  12. 

„       II.  „  §    96,    16; 

94,  3. 
Henry  VIII.  of  England,  §  125,  3 ; 

139,  4,  7,  8. 
Henry  II.  of  France,  §  139,  13. 

„       III.        „  §139,17,18. 

„       IV.         „  §139,17. 

Henry  of  Brunswick,  §  126, 5 ;  135, 

6,10. 
Henry  of  Saxony,  §  134,  4. 

„       de  Hessia,  §  118,  5. 

„       of  Langenstein,  §  118,  5. 

„       of  Lausanne,  §  108,  7. 

„       of  Nordlingen,  §  114,  6. 

„      of  Upsala,  §  93,  11. 

„       the  Lion,  §  93,  9. 

„      Wendish  Prince,  §  98,  9. 

„      of  Ztitphen,  §  128,  1. 
Hensel,  Louise,  §  174,  6. 


Heppe,  §  170,  3 ;  182,  16. 
Heracleon,  §  27,  5. 
Heraclius,  §  52,  8 ;  57,  5 ;  64,  2. 
Herbart,  §  174,  2. 
Herder,  §  171,  11. 
Heretic's  Baptism,  §  35,  5, 
Hergenrother,  §  5,  6 ;  191,  7. 
Heriger,  §  80,  1. 
Hermann  von  Fritzlar,  §  114. 
„  Premonstrat.,  §  95,  3. 

,,  of  Cologne,  §  133,  5. 

„         von  Wied,   §    133,   5  ; 
135,  7  ;  136,  2. 
Hermannsburg,  §  184,  1 ;  193,  8. 
Hermas,  §  30,  4. 
Hermes,  §  191,  1. 
Hermias,  §  30,  10. 
Hermogenes,  §  27,  13. 
Herrero  de  Mora,  §  205,  5. 
Herrmann,  §  182,  20. 
Herrnhut,  §168;  169,3. 
HervEBus,  §  102,  8. 
Herzog,  Old  Catholic  Bishop,  §  190, 

3 ;  199,  3. 
Herzog,  Prelate,  §  197,  10,  11, 

„        J.  J.,  §  5,  5. 
Hess,  J.  Jac,  §  171,  6. 
Hesse,  §  127,  2. 

„      Darmstadt,  §  196, 4 ;  197, 15. 

„      Cassel,  §   154,   1;   193,   9; 

194,  4. 
Hesshus,  §  144,  1,  2. 
Hesychasts,  §  69,  2. 
Hetmrm,  §  22,  2. 
Hettinger,  §  191,  6. 
Heubner,  §  184,  5. 
Heumann,  §  167,  4. 
Hexapla,  §  31,  5. 
Hibbert  Trust,  §  202,  4. 
Hicks,  §  211,  3. 
Hieracas,  §  39,  3. 
Hierocles,  §  23,  3. 
Hieronomites,  §  112,  8. 
High-Churchmen,  §  202,  1. 


INDEX. 


513 


Hilarion,  §  44,  3, 
Hilaiy  of  Aries,  §  46,  7. 

„       „  Poitiers,  §  47,  14, 
Hildebert  of  Tom-s,  §  101,  1 ;  104, 

4,10. 
Hildebrand,  §  DG,  4  ff, ;  101,  2. 
Hildegard,  §  97 ;  107,  1 ;  109. 
Hilderic,  §  76,  9. 
Hilduin,  §  90,  8. 
Hilgenfeld,  §  182,  7. 
Hilgers,  §  191,  6. 
Hiller,  §  167,  6. 
Hincmar  of  Laon,  §  83,  2. 

.,         „  Eheims,  §  82,  7 ;  83, 

2;  87,3;  90,5;  91,5. 
Hippolytus,  §  31,  3 ;  33,  5 ;  40,  2 : 

41,1. 
Hirschberger  Bible,  §  167,  8. 
Hirsoher,  §  187,  3 ;  191,  6. 
Hitzig,  §  182,  3. 
Hobbes,  §  164,  3. 
Hoe  V.  Hoenegg,  §  154,  4  ;  159,  1. 
Hofacker,  §  211,  4, 
Hoffmann,  Christ.,  §  211,  8. 
Fr.,  §  191,  2. 
G.  W.,  §  196,  5. 
„         Melch.,  §  147,  1. 
„  Chr.  K.  v.,  §  182,  14. 

Dan.,  §  141,  15. 
Hofmeister,  Seb.,  §  130,  4. 
Hofstede  de  Groot,  §  200,  2. 
Hohenlohe,  §  188,  2. 

„  Card.,  §  189,  1 ;  197,  7. 

Holbach,  §  165,  12. 
Holbein,  §  115,  6,  13 ;  113,  5 ;  142, 

2. 
Holland,  §  165,  7 ;  200,  2,  3. 
Hollaz,  §  167,  4,  8. 
Holtzmann,  §  182,  17. 
Hoinberg,  Synod  of,  §  127,  2. 
Homoians,  §  50,  3. 
Homoiousians,  §  50,  3. 
Homologoumena,  §  36,  8. 
Homoousians,  §  33,  1 ;  50,  1. 
VOL.    III. 


Hunigern,  §  177,  2, 
Honoring,  Emperor,  §  42,  4 ;  53,  4, 
I.,  §  46,  11 ;  52,  8,  9. 
II.,  §  96,  13. 
III.,  §  96,  19. 
IV.,  §  96,  22. 
Honter,  Jac,  §  139,  20, 
Hontheim,  §  165,  10, 
Hoogstraten,  §  120,  4  ;  122,  3, 
Hooper,  §  139,  5, 
Hormisdas  of  Rome,  §  46,  8 ;  52, 

5,  6, 
Horsley,  §  171,  1, 
Hosius,  Bishop,  §  50,  1,  2,  3, 
„       Cardinal,  §  139,  18. 
Hospinian,  §  161,  7. 
Hospital  Brothers,  §  98,  8. 
Hossbach,  §  180,  4. 
Host,  §  104,  2. 
Hoting,  §  197,  10, 
Hottinger,  §  5,  2 ;  161,  6. 
Howard,  Catherine,  §  139,  4. 
Huber,  J.,  §  189,  1 ;  190,  1 ;  191,  7. 

„       Sam.,  §  141,  14. 
Hubmeier,  §  130,  5 ;  147,  3. 
Hucbald,  §  104,  11. 
Huetius,  §  158,  1. 
Hug,  §  191,  8.  , 

Hugh  Capet,  §  96,  2. 
Huguenots,  §  139,  14  ff. ;  153,  4  ; 

166,  5. 
Hugo  a  St.  Caro,  §  103,  9. 

„      of  St.  Victor,  §  102,  4 ;  104, 

2,4. 
Hiijjo  de  Faijens,  §  98,  8. 
Hiilsemann,  §  153,  7  ;  159,  2. 
Humanists,  §  120. 
Humbert,  §  67,  3 ;  101,  2. 
Humboldt,  Alex,  v.,  §  174,  3. 
Hume,  §  171,  1. 
Humiliates,  §  98,  7 ;  101,  2. 
Hundeshagen,  §  196,  3. 
Hungary,  §  93,  8;  139,  20;  153, 

3 ;  198,  6. 


514 


INDEX. 


Hunneric,  §  76,  3 ;  54,  1. 
Hunnius,  -Silgid.,  §  141,  13. 

„        Nich.,  §  159,  5. 
Huntingdon,  Lady,  §  169,  3. 
Hupfeld,  §  182,  3 ;  194,  4. 
Hurter,  §  175,  1. 
Husig,  §  64,  3. 
Huss,  §  113,  7 ;  119,  3-6. 
Hutten,  Ulr.  v.,  §  120,  2,  3 ;  122, 4. 
Hy,  §  77,  2. 
Hyacinth,  §  93,  13. 
Hylists,  Anc.  Materialists,  §  26,  2. 
Hymn   Music,  §   142,  3 ;   171,  1  ; 

180,  1. 
Hymnology,  §  17,  7 ;  36,  10;  59, 

4;  89,2;  104,  10;  115,7. 
Hymns,  Catholic,  §  149,  15. 

„       Protestant,  §  142,  3 ;  143, 

2 ;  160,  3 ;  162,  6 ;  167,  6 ;  175, 10. 
Hypatia,  §  42,  4. 
Hyperius,  §  143,  5  ;  154,  1. 
Hypophonic  singing,  §  59,  5. 
Hypostasianism,  §  33,  1. 
Hypsistarians,  §  42,  6. 
Hystaspes,  §  32,  1. 

lamblichus,  §  24,  2. 

Ibas,  §  47,  13  ;  52,  3. 

Iberians,  §  64,  4. 

Icarians,  §  212,  3. 

Iceland,  §  93,  5 ;  139,  2. 

Idacius,  §  54,  2. 

Iglesia  Espaiiola,  §  205,  4. 

Ignatius  of  Antioch,  §  22,  2 ;  30, 

5;  34,1,7. 
Ignatius,  Patr.  of  Constant.,  §  67, 

1. 
Ignatius  Loyola,  §  149,  8. 
Ifjnorantins,  §  165,  2. 
Ijejasu,  §  150,  2 ;  156,  11. 
Ildefonsus,  §  90,  2,  9. 
Illuminati,  §  165,  11. 
Illyria,  §  46,  5,  9. 
Images,  §  38,  4, 


Images,  Controversy  about,  §  60 ; 

92,  1. 
Image-worship,  §  57,  4  ;  89,  4. 
Immaculate  Conception,  §  104,  7  ; 
112,  4 ;  113,  2 ;  149,  13 ;  156,  6 ; 
185,  2. 
Immanuel  Synod,  §  177,  3. 
Immunity,  §  84,  1. 
Impostores  tres,  §  148,  4. 
Incense,  §  59,  8. 
Iiidusi,  §  85,  6. 
In  Ccena  Domini,  §  117,  3. 
In  commendam,  §  86,  5 ;  110,  15. 
Independents,  §  143,  4 ;   155,  1 ; 

162,  1. 
Index  jjrohihttorius,  §  149,  14. 
Indulgences,  §  106,  2 ;  117,  1. 
Ineffahilis,  §  185,  2. 
In  eniinenti,  §  157,  5. 
Infallibility,   §   96,   23;  110,    14; 

149,4;  165,8;  189,3. 
Infant  Baptism,  §  35,  3 ;  58,  1. 
Infralapsarianism,  §  161,  1. 
Infula,  §  84,  1. 
Inge,  §  93,  3. 
Ingolstadt,  §  120,  3. 
Innocentum  festum,  §  57,  1 ;  105,  2. 
Innocent  I.,  §  46,  5 ;  51,  3 ;  53,  4  ; 

61,  2,  3. 
Innocent  II.,  §  96,  13. 

III.,  §  96,17,  18;  94,4; 
102,9;  108,10;  109,1. 
Innocent  IV.,  §  96,  20;  72,  6. 
„        .v.,  §  96,  22. 
„        VL,  §  110,  4,  5. 
„       VII.,  §  110,  6. 
„       VIII.,  §  110,  11 ;  115,  4. 
„       IX.,  §  149,  3. 
„        X.,   §  156,    1;    153,    2; 
157,  5. 
Innocent  XL,  §  156,  1,  3 ;  157,  2. 
„        XII.,  §156,  1,3;  157,  3. 
XIIL,  §  165,  1. 
In  pa)iihits  iiijidcliuin,  §  97,  3. 


INDEX. 


515 


Inquisition,  §  109,  2 ;  117,  2 ;  139, 

22 ;  149,  2 ;  151 ;  156,  3. 
Inspiration,  Doctrine  of,  §  3(j,  9. 
Insula  sanctorum,  §  77,  1. 
Intentionalism,  §  149,  10. 
Interdict,  §  106,  1. 
Interim,  The  Augsburg,  §  136,  5, 

6. 
Interim,  The  Leipzig,  §  136,  7. 

„  „   Eegensburg,  §  135,  3. 

International,  §  212,  4. 
Interpreters,  §  34,  3. 
Investiture,  §  45,  1 ;  84;  90,  7,  11, 

12. 
lona,  §  77,  2. 
Ireland,  §  77,  1 ;  139,  7;  153,  6; 

202,  9. 
IrenjBus,  §  31,  2 ;  33,  9 ;  34, 8 ;  40,  2. 
Irene,  §  66,  9. 
Irish  Massacre,  §  153,  6. 
Irvingitss,  §  211,  10. 
Isaac,  the  Great,  §  64,  3. 

„      of  Antioch,  §  48,  7. 
Isabella  of  Castile,  §  95,  2 ;  117,  2  ; 

118,  7. 
Isabella  II.  of  Spain,  §  205,  2. 
Isenberg,  §  184,  9. 
Isidore  the  Gnostic,  §  28,  2. 

„      of  Pelusium,  §  47,  6 ;  44,  3. 

„      the  Presbyter,  §  51,  2,  3. 

„      Euss.  Metropol.,  §  73. 

„      of  Seville,  §  90,  2. 
Islam,  §  65 ;  81 ;  95. 
Issy,  Conference  of,  §  157,  3. 
Itala,  §  36,  8. 

Italy,  §  139,  22 ;  189,  7  ;  204. 
Ithacius,  §  54,  2. 
Ivo  of  Chartres,  §  99,  5. 

Jablonsky,  §  168,  3. 
Jacob  el  Baradai,  §  52,  7. 

„      Basilicus,  §  139,  26. 

„      a  Benedictis,  §  104,  10. 

„      of  Brescia,  §  112,  3. 


Jacob  ben  Chajim,  §  120,  8. 

„      the  Conqueror,  §  95. 

„      of  Edessa,  §  47,  13. 

.,       ,,  Harkh,  §  71,  2. 

„       „  Jiiterbogk,  §  118,  5. 

„       „  Maerlant,  §  105,  5. 

„       „  Marchia,  §  112,  4. 

„       „  Misa,  §  119,  7. 

„       „  Nisibis,  §  47,  13. 

„       „  Sarug,  §  48,  7. 
Jacobi,  §  171,  10. 
Jacobini,  §  197,  9,  12. 
Jacobites,  §  52,  7 ;  72,  2. 
Jacopone  da  Todi,  §  104,  10. 
Jaldabaoth,  §  27,  7. 
James  the  Just,  §  16,  3. 

„      V.  of  Scotland,  §  139,  8. 
„      I.  of  England,  !^  117,  4  ;  139, 

11 ;  153,  6 ;  155,  1. 
James  II.  of  England,  §  153,  0; 

155,  3. 
James  III.  of  Baden,  §  153,  1. 
„      Molay,  §  112,  7. 
„      a  Voragine,  §  104,  8. 
Jansen,  Cornel.,  §  157,  5. 
Jansenists,  §  157,  15 ;  165,  6. 
Januarius,  St.,  §  188,  10. 
Janus,  §  189,  1. 
Japan,  §  150,  2 ;  156,  11 ;  184,  0 ; 

186,  7. 
Jaroslaw  I.,  §  72,  4. 
„        II.,  §  73,  6. 
Jivson  and  Papiscus,  §  30,  8. 
Java,  §  184,  5. 
Jay,  le,  §  1.58,  1. 
Jazelich,  §  .52,  3. 
Jena,  Univ.  of,  §  141,  1,  6. 
Jeremias  II.,  §  73,  4 ;  139,  26. 
Jerome,  §  17,  6 ;  33,  9  ;  47,  16 ;  48, 

1 ;  51,  2 ;  53,  4 ;  59,  3. 
Jerome  of  Prague,  §  119,  4,  5. 
Jerusalem,  Bishopric,  §  184,  8. 

„  Church  of    the   New, 

§  170,  4. 


516 


INDEX. 


Jesuates,  §  112,  8. 

Jesuits,   §  149,  8-12;  150;    151; 

156,  2-9;  157,  2,   5;  165,   7-9; 

186,  1 ;  197,  4 ;  199,  1. 
Jewish  Cliristians,  §  18;  28;  211, 

9, 
Jewish  Missions,  §  167,  9 ;  184,  8. 
Jews  in  Middle  Ages,  §  90,  9 ;  95, 

3. 
Joachim  of  Ploris,  §  108,  5. 

„         „  Brandenburg,   §   128, 

1 ;  134,  5. 
Joachim  II.  of  Brandenburg,  §  134, 

5 ;  136,  5. 
Joan  of  Arc,  §  116,  2. 
Joanna,  Popess,  §  82,  6, 

„        of  Valois,  §  112,  8, 
John  I.,  Pope,  §  46,  8. 

„     VIII.  and  IX.,  §  82,  8 ;  79, 

2;  67,1. 
John  X.,  XII.,  XIII.,  §  96,  1. 

„     XIV.,  XV.,  XVI.,  §  96,  2. 

„     XVII.,  XVIII.,  §  96,  4. 

„    XIX.,  §96,  4;  57,1. 

„     XXL,  §96,22;  82,6. 

„     XXII.,§110,3;  112,  2;  113, 

1 ;  114,  1. 
John  XXIII.,  §  110,  7 ;  119,  4. 

„     the  Constant,  §  124,  5. 

„     Frederick,     the     Magnani- 
mous, §  133,  2 ;  136,  3 ;  137,  3. 
John  Lackland,  §  96,  18. 

„     VII.  of  Portugal,  §  205,  4. 

„     Sigismund,  §  154,  3. 

„     the  Apostle,  §  16,  2. 

,,     of  Antioch,  §  52,  3. 

„     Beccos,  §  67,  3, 

„     of  Capistrano,  §  112,  3. 

„      „  Climacus,  §  47,  12. 

„      ,,  the  Cross,  §  49,  6,  16. 

„      ,,  Damascus,  §  66, 1 ;  68, 2-5. 

„     ,,  Ephesus,  §  5,  1. 

„     „  God,  §  149,  7. 

„      „  Hagen,  §  112,  1. 


John  of  Jandun,  §  118,  1. 

„     Jejunator,  §  46,  10 ;  61,  1. 

„     of  Leyden,  §  133,  6. 

„     de  Monte  Corvino,  §  93,  15. 

„     Moschus,  §  47,  12. 

,,     of  Nepomuc,  §  116,  1. 

„     Ozniensis,  §  72,  2. 

„    v.,  Palaologus,  §  67,  5. 

„     VII.,        „  §67,6. 

„     of  Paris,  §  118,  1. 

„      „  Parma,  §  108,  5. 

„     Philoponus,  §  47,  11. 

„     the  Presbyter,  §  16,  3 ;  30,  6. 

„     Prester,  §  72,  4. 

„     of  Ravenna,  §  83,  3. 

„     „  Salisbury,  §  102,  9. 

,,     Scholasticus,  §  43,  3. 

„     Scotus  Erigena,  §  90,  7  ;  91,  5. 

„     Talaja,  §  52,  5. 

„     of  Trani,  §  67,  3. 

„      „  Turrecremata,  §  110,  15. 

„     Tzimiskes,  §  71,  1. 

„     of  Wesel,  §  119,  10. 
John,  St.,  Festival  of,  §  57,  1. 

,,      Disciples  of,  §  25,  1. 

„      Knights  of,  §  98,  8, 
Jonas  of  Bobbio,  §  77,  3. 

„       „  Orleans,  §  90,  4 ;  92,  2. 

„      Justus,   §   123,  7;   134,  5; 

142,  2. 
Jones,  §  182,  3. 
Jordanes,  §  90,  8. 
Joris,  David,  §  148,  1. 
Joseph,  Patr.,  §  67,  4 ;  70,  1. 

„        I.,  Emperor,  §  165,  1. 

„        II.,§165,  10;  186,2. 
Josephus,  §  10,  2 ;  13,  2. 
Jovi,  §  80,  1. 
Jovinian,  §  62,  2. 
Juarez,  §  209,  1. 
Jubilee  Year,  §  117,  1. 
Jubilees,  Book  of,  §  32,  2. 
Juhili,  §  85,  2. 
Juda,  Leo,  §  130,  2 ;  143,  5. 


INDEX. 


517 


Judson,  §  184,  5. 
Julia  Mammsea,  §  22,  4 ;  31,  5. 
Juliana,  §  104,  7. 
Julianists,  §  52,  7. 
Julian,  Emperor,  §  42,  3,  5  ;  G3,  1. 
„     of  Eclanum,  §  47,  21  •,  53,  4. 
„     „  Toledo,  §  90,  2,  9, 
„     St.,  §188,  8. 
July  Law,  Pruss.,  §  197,  10,  11. 
Julius  I.,  §  46,  3 ;  50,  2. 
„       XL,  §  110,  13. 
„       III.,  §  149,  2. 
,,      Africanus,  §  31,  8. 
Jumjiers,  §  170,  7. 
Jung-Stillung,  §  171,  11. 
Jimilius,  §  48,  1. 
Junius,  Fr.,  §  143,  5. 
Jurieu,  §  161,  7. 
Jiis  circa  socro,  §  43,  1 ;  167,  3. 
„    primarum  j>j-ec.,  §  165,  1. 
„    regalke,  §  156,  1. 
„    spoliorinn^  §  110,  15. 
Justin  I.,  §  52,  5. 

.,      MartjT,  §  30,  9 ;  33,  9  ;  3(i, 
3,7. 
Justin  the  Gnostic,  §  27,  6. 
Justina,  St.,  §  48,  8. 

,,        Empress,  §  50,  4. 
Justinian  I.,  §  42,  4  ;  45,  2 ;  46,  f) ; 

52,  6. 
Justinian  II.,  §  46,  11. 
Juvenal  of  Jerusalem,  §  53,  3. 
Juvencus,  §  48,  6. 

Kaliler,  §  176,  3. 
Kahnis,  §  182,  15, 
Kaiser,  §  128,  1. 
Kaiserwerth,  §  183,  1. 
Kamehameha,  §  18^1,  7. 
Kamel,  Sultan,  §  94,  4,  5. 
Kanitz,  §  176,  3. 
Kant,  §  171,  10, 
Karaites,  §  72,  1. 
Kardec,  §  211,  17. 


Karg,  Controversy  of,  §  141,  3. 
Katerkamp,  §  5,  6. 
Kaulen,  §  191,  8. 
Keil,  §  182,  13. 
Iveim,  §  182,  17, 
Keller,  Bishop,  §  196,  6. 
Kellner,  §  177,  2. 
Kempen,  Stephen,  §  125,  1. 
Kempis,  Thomas  a,  §  112,  9  ;  114, 

7. 
Kenrick,  §  189,  3. 
Kerner,  Just.,  §  176,  2. 
Kessler,  §  124,  1 ;  130,  4. 
Ketteler,  §  175,  2 ;  187,  3 ;  189,  3  ; 

196,  1-^  ;  197,  1,  4,  15. 
Kettler,  §  139,  3. 
Kierkegaard,  §  201,  1. 
Kiev,  §  73,  4, 
Kilian,  §  78,  2. 
Kings,  §  160,  4, 

„      the  Three  Holy,  §  56,  5. 
Klehitz,  §  144,  1. 
Klee,  §  191,  6. 
Kleuker,  §  171,  8. 
Kleutzea,  §  191,  9. 
Kliefoth,  §  181,  3;  182,  14 ;  194,  6. 
Klopstock,  §  171,  11, 
Knajip,  A.,  §  181,  1. 

„       G.  Ch.,  §  171,  8. 
Knights,  Teutonic,  §  98,  8 ;  93,  13. 

„        of  St,  John,  §  98,  8. 
Knox,  §  139,  9,  11, 
Knutzen,  §  164,  4, 
Kohlbiiigge,  §  179,  3. 
Kohler,  §  170,  4, 
Kollner,  §  5,  5, 
Konigsberg,  Eelig.  Process.,  §  176, 

3. 
Koppen,  §  171,  8. 
Korner,  §  141,  12. 
Kornthal,  §  196,  5, 
Krafft,  §  195,  2. 
Kraus,  Xav.,  §  5,  6. 
Kriideuer,  §  176,  2 ;  199,  5. 


518 


INDEX. 


Krummaclier,  G.  D.,  §  179,  3. 
F.  W,  §  178,  2. 
Kiibel,  §  196,  2. 
Ivublai-Khan,  §  93,  15. 
Kuenen,  §  182,  20. 
Kuhn,  §  191,  6. 
"  Ivultur-kampf,"  German,  §  197. 

„  Belgian,  §  200,  5. 

„  French,  §  203,  6. 

Kuyper,  §  200,  2. 

Labadie,  §  163,  7,  8, 
Labarum,  §  22,  7. 
Labrador,  §  184,  2. 
Labyrinth,  The  Little,  §  31,  3. 
Lachat,  §  199,  3. 
Lacordaire,  §  187,  4 ;  188,  1. 
Lactantius,  §  31,  12 ;  33,  9. 
Ladislaus,  St.,  §  93,  2. 

„  of  Naples,  §  110,  7. 

Laforce,  §  183,  1. 
Lainez,  §  149,  8. 
Laity,  §  34,  4. 
Lamartine,  §  174,  7. 
Lambert  le  Begue,  §  98,  7. 

„         of   Avignon,    §   127,    2; 
130,  2. 
Lambeth  Articles,  §  144,  5. 
Lamennais,  §  187,  4 ;  188,  1. 
Liimmer,  §  175,  2. 
Lammists,  §  163,  1. 
Lampe,  §  169,  2,  6. 
Lancelot,  §  159,  5. 
Landulf,  §  97,  5. 
Lanfranc,  §  96,  8  ;  101,  1,  2. 
Lang,  H.,  §  199,  4. 
Lange,  Joacli.,  §  167,  1,  4, 

„         J.  Pet-,  §  182,  9. 
Langen,  End.  v.,  §  120,  3. 
Laplace,  §  161,  2. 
Lapland,  §  93,  11  ;  163,  4 ;  184,  2. 
Lapsi,  §  22,  5. 
Lardner,  §  171,  1. 
Lasalle,  §  Kw,  2  ;  212,  5. 


Lasaulx,  Am.  v.,  §  188,  4. 
Las  Casas,  §  150,  3. 
Lasco,  J.  a,  §  139,  18. 
Lateran,  §  110,  15. 

„         Synods  L,§  52,  8;  96, 11. 
„       IL,  §  96,  13. 
„       IlL,  §  96,  15. 
„       IV.,  §96,  18;  101, 
2  ;  104,  3-5 ;  106,  1 ;  109,  2. 
Latimer,  §  139,  5. 
Latitudinarians,  §  161,  3. 
Latter-day   Saints,  §  211,  10,  12- 

14. 
Laud,  §  155,  1. 
Laurence,  Martja',  §  22,  5. 
„         Bishop,  §  46,  8. 
„         Archbishop,  §  77,  4. 
Laurentius  Valla,  §  120,  1. 
Lausanne,  §  196,  5. 
Lauterbach,  §  129,  1. 
Lavater,  §  171,'  11. 
Lay  Abbots,  §  85,  5. 
„     Brethren,  §  98. 
Lazarists,  §  156,  8. 
Leade,  Jane,  §  163,  9. 
Leander  of  Seville,  §  76,  2  ;    90,  2. 
Lectionaries,  §  33  ;  59,  3. 
Ledochowski,  §  197,  3,  6,  7,  12. 
Lee,  Anna,  §  170,  7. 

„     Bishop,  §  211,  74. 
Lsfebvre,  §  188,  4. 
Legates,  §  96,  23. 
Legenda  aurea^  §  104,  8. 
Legends,  §  57,  1. 
Lcfjio  fulminatrix,  §  22,  3. 

„     Thehaica,  §  22,  6. 
Lehnin,  Prophecy  of,  §  153,  8. 
Leibnitz,  §  153,  7 ;  160,  7  i  164,  2. 
Leidecker,  §  161,  5. 
Leidrad  of  Lyons,  §  90,  3;  91,  1. 
Leipzig  Disputation,  §  123,  4. 

„     Kelig.  Conference,  §  154,  4. 
Leland,  §  169,  6  ;  171,  1. 
Lenau,  Nich.  v.,  §  174,  6. 


INDEX. 


519 


Lentulns,  §  13,  2. 

Leo  I.,  the  Great,  §  45,   2 ;  46,  7  ; 

47,22;  52,4;   54,  1,2;  (31,1. 
Leo  IL,  §  46,  11. 

„    in.,§82,3;  91,2. 

„    IV.,  §82,  .5. 

„    VIIL,  §96,  1. 

„    TX.  §  67,  6 ;  96,  5. 

„  X.,§110,  14;  121,1;  122,2, 
3;  194,  4. 

„    XL,  §149,  3. 

„    XIL,  §185,  L 

„  XIIL,  §  175,  2;  18-5,  5;  188, 
8,  9 ;  191,  12 ;  197,  9 ;  200,  5 ; 
203,  6. 

„    of  Achrida,  §  67,  3. 

„    the  Armenian,  §  6(>,  4. 

„    Chazarus,  §  66,  3. 

„    the  Isaurian,  §  66,  1  ;  71,  1. 

„    the  Philosopher,  §  67,  2  ;  68, 1. 

„    the  Thracian,  §  52,  5. 

„    Henry,  §  175,  1. 
Leonardo  da  Vinci,  §  115,  13. 
Leonidas,  §  22,  4. 
Leoviske,  §  108,  10. 
Leontius  of  Byzant.,  §  47,  12. 
Leopardi,  §  174,  7. 
Leopold  I.,  Emperor,  §  153,  3,  7. 

,,        of  Tuscany,  §  165,  9. 
Leovigild,  §  76,  2. 
Leporius,  §  52,  2. 
Lessing,  §  171,  6,  8,  11. 
Lestines,  Synod  of,  §  78,  5  ;  86,  2. 
Lestrange,  §  186,  2. 
Lexicius,  §  32,  4,  5. 
Levellers,  §  162,  2. 
Lej^ser,  §  155,  4. 
Libanivis,  §  42,  4. 
Lihellafici,  §  22,  5. 
Libelli  ijacis,  §  39,  2. 
Liber  cotijirinitaf.,  §  98,  3. 
,,      diurmts^  §  46,  11 ;  52,  9. 
„      2xischalis,  §  56,  3. 
,,      pontificalia,  §  90,  6. 


Liberal  Arts,  §  90,  8. 
Liberation  Society,  §  202. 
Liberatus  of  Carthage,  §  52,  6. 
Liberius  of  Home,  §  46,  4  ;  50, 2,  3. 
Libertins,  §  146,  4. 
Lihy^i  Carolini,  §  92,  1. 
Licet  ah  initio,  §  139,  23. 
Licinius,  §  22,  7, 
Lightfoot,  §  161,  6. 
Light,  Friends  of,  §  176,  1. 
Liguorians,  §  165,  2  ;  186,  1. 
Limborch,  §  161,  7. 
Limbus  infantium,  §  106,  3. 

.,       patrum,  §  106,  3. 
Liiaina  ajjosff.,  §  57,  6. 
Linus,  §  17,  1. 
Linz,  Peace  of,  §  153,  3. 
Lippe,  Princes'  Diet  of,  §  154,  2 ; 

194,  5. 
Lipsius,  §  182,  19. 
Liptina,  Synod  of,  §  75,  5  ;  86,  2. 
Lisco,  §  181,  4. 
Litany,  §  59,  9. 
Lithuanians,  §  93,  14. 
Litterce  format ce,  §  34,  6. 
Litvirgical  dress,  etc.,  §  59,  7  ;  60, 

3. 
Liturgy,   §  36,1;  59,   6;    89,   1; 

104,  1. 
Liudger,  §  78,  3. 
Liutprand,  §  82,  1. 
Livingstone,  §  184,  4. 
Livinus,  §  78,  3. 
Livonia,  §  93,  12  ;  139,  3  ;  153,  8  ; 

168,  5 ;  200,  3. 
Locke,  §  164,  2. 

Lodges,  Free  Masons',  §  104,  3. 
Lohe,  §  175,  1 ;  183,  1 ;  208,  2. 
Lola  Montez,  §  195,  2. 
Lollards,  §  116,  3 ;  119,  1. 
Lombardus,  §  102,  7. 
Longobards,  §  76,  8. 
Lope  de  Vega,  §  158,  3. 
Loretto,  §  115,  9. 


5^0 


INDEX. 


Loscher,  §  167,  1,  2,  4. 

Louis  the. Bavarian,  §  110,  3,  1. 

„        „    German,  §  82,  5,  7. 

„        „   Pious,  §82,  4;  90,1. 

,,      II.,  Emperor,  §  82,  5. 

„      VII.  of  France,  §  94,  2. 

„      IX.,   the  Saint,   §  93,    15; 

94,  6  ;  96,  21. 
Louis  XL,  §  110,  13. 

„      XIL,  §  110,  13,  14. 

„      XIIL,  §  153,  4. 

„      XIV.,  §  153,  4  ;  156,  3 ;  157, 

2,  3,  5. 
Louis  I.  of  Bavaria,  §  195,  2. 

„      IL  „  §195,3. 

„      V.  of  Hesse,  §  154,  1. 

„      VI.  of  Palatinate,  §  143,  6. 
Lourdes,  §  188,  14 ;  203,  5. 
Lothair  L,  Emperor,  §  82,  5. 

„        II.,ofLothringia,  §82, 5, 7. 
„        IIL,  the  Saxon,  §  96,  13. 
Lotze,  §  174,  2. 
Low  Churchmen,  §  202,  1. 
Loyola,  §  149,  8. 
Loyson,  §  189,  8, 
Liibeck,  §  127,  4. 
Liibker,  §  174,  4. 
Lucar,  Cyr,,  §  152,  2. 
Lucerne,  §  199,  1. 
Lucian,  Martyr,  §  31,  9. 

„      of  Samosata,  §  23,  1. 
Lucidus,  §  53,  5. 
Lucifer  of  Calaris,  §  47,  14 ;  50, 

2,8. 
Luciferians,  §  50,  8. 
Lucilhx,  §  63,  1. 
Lucius  IL,  Pope,  §  96,  13. 

„       IIL,  §  96,  16. 
Lucrezia  Borzia,  §  110,  10. 
LudmiUa,  §  79,  8 ;  93,  6. 
Luis  de  Leon,  §  149,  14,  15. 
Luke  of  Prague,  §  115,  7  ;  119,  8  ; 

189,  19. 
Lullus  of  Mainz,  §  78,  7. 


Lullus  Eaimund,  §  93,  16 ;  103,  7 

Liineburg,  §  127,  3. 

Luthardt,  §  182,  14,  21 ;  194,  1. 

Luther,  §  122-135. 

Lutherans,     Separatists,     Pruss., 

§  177,  2,  3. 
Luther-Memorial,  §  178,  1. 

„        Jubilee,  §  175,  10. 
Liitkemann  Controversy,  §  159, 1. 
Lutz,  Minister,  §  195,  3 ;  197,  4. 
Luxeuil,  §  78,  1. 
Lyons,  Council  of,  §  67,  4  ;  96,  20, 

21. 
Lyra,  Nich.  v.,  §  113,  7. 

Mabillon,  §  158,  2. 
Macarius  the  Elder,  §  47,  7. 

„         Magiies,  §  47,  6. 
Maccabees,  Fest.  of,  §  57,  1. 
Macedonius,  §  50,  5. 
Maochiavelli,  §  120,  1. 
Maccovius,  §  161,  7. 
MacConochie,  §  202,  3. 
Macmahon,  §  203,  5,  6. 
Macrae,  §  202,  8. 
Macrianus,  §  22,  5. 
Macrina,  §  47,  5. 
Madagascar,  §  184,  3, 
Madiai,  §  204,  3. 
Maerlant,  §  105,  5. 
Magdeburg,  §  127,  4 ;  137,  1. 
Magider  historiarum,  §  105,  3. 

„        sententiarinn,  §  102,  4. 
Majna  Charta,  §  96,  18. 
Magnoald,  §  78,  1. 
Magnus  the  Good,  §  93,  4. 

„  ■     of  Mecklenburg,  §  134,  5. 

„        „  Upsala,  §  139,  1. 
Mai,  Cardinal,  §  191,  7. 
Maid  of  Orleans,  §  116,  2. 
Maimbourg,  §  158,  2. 
Maimonides,  §  103,  1. 
Maiuau  Law,  §  197,  11. 
Maintenon,  §  157,  3. 


INDEX. 


5-21 


Mainz    Cath.    Union,   §    180,   4; 

197,  1. 
Majorist  Controversy,   §    141,   (5, 

10. 
Maistre,  §  187,  9. 
Malachi,  Proph.  of,  §  149,  h. 
Malakanians,  §  166,  2. 
Malan,  §  199,  5. 
Malchion,  §  33,  8, 
Maldonatus,  §  149,  14. 
Maltese,  §  98,  8. 
Mamertus,  §  59,  9. 
Mandajans,  §  25,  1 ;  28,  2. 
Mandeville,  §  171,  1. 
Manfred,  §  96,  20. 
Manichajans,  §  29  ;  54,  1. 
Manning,  §  189,  3;  202,  2,  11. 
Mansi,  §  165,  15. 
Mantua,  Council  of,  §  9(i,  6. 

„       Congress  of,  §  110,  10. 
Manuel  Coninenus,  §  69,  1. 
Manzoni,  §  174,  7. 
Maphrian,  §  52,  7. 
Mara,  §  13,  2. 
Marburg  Bible,  §  170,  1. 

„         Church  Order,  §  127,  2. 
„         Colloquy,  §  132,  4. 
Marcellus  of  Ancyra,  §  50,  2. 

IL,  §  149,  2. 
Marcia,  §  22,  3 ;  41,  1. 
Marcian,  §  52,  4. 
Marcion,  §  27,  11. 
Marcionites,  §  27, 12  ;  54,  1 ;  64,  5. 
Marco  Polo,  §  93,  15. 
Marcosians,  §  27,  5. 
Marcus  Aurelius,  §  22,  3. 
„       Eremita,  §  47,  7. 
„       Eugenicus,   §  67,  6  ;  68,  5. 
Maresius,  §  161,  3,  7. 
Margaret  of   Navarre,    §  120,  6 ; 

146,  4. 
Marheincke,  §  182,  6. 
Maria  Theresa,  §  165,  9. 
Mariana,  §  149,  10,  14. 


Marinus,  §  63,  1. 
Mariolatry,  §  57,  2  ;  104,  8. 
Marius  Mercator,  §  47,  20. 

„       Victorinus,  §  47,  14. 
Marloratus,  §  143,  3. 
Marnix,  Ph.  v.,  §  139,  12. 
Maronites,  §  52,  8 ;  72,  3. 
Marot,  §  143,  2. 
Marozia,  §  96,  1. 
Marriage,  Chi'istian,  §39,  1;  61, 

2 ;  70,  2 ;  88,  3 ;  89,  4 ;  104,  6. 
Marsden,  §  184,  7. 
Marsilius  of  Inghem,  §  113,  3. 

„  „  Padua,  §  118,  1. 

Martensen,  §  182,  10. 
Martin  I.,  §  46,  11 ;  52,  8. 
„       IV.,  §  96,  22. 
„       v.,  §  110,  6. 
„      of  Braga,  §  76,  4  ;  90,  2. 
„        „  Mainz,  §  114,  4. 
„        „    Paderborn,   §  175,    2 ; 
189,3;  197,6. 
Martin  of  Tours,  §  47,  14 ;  54,  2. 

„       St.,  §  165,  14. 
Martyrs,  §  22,  5. 

„        Acts  of,  §  32,  9. 
„         Veneration  of,  §  39,  5. 
Martyrologies,  §  57,  1 ;  90,  9. 
Marx,  §  212,  4. 
Mary  of  England,  §  139,  5. 
„      „  Guise,  §  139,  8. 
„      „  Jesus,  §  156,  5. 
„      „  Scotland,  §  139,  6,  8,  10. 
Maryland,  §  208,  5. 
Mass,  Canon  of,  §  59,  6. 

„      Sacrifice  of,  §  36,  6 ;  58,  3 ; 
88,  3. 
Massacre,  Irish,  §  153,  6. 

„         of    St.   Bartholomew,  § 
139,  16. 
Massacre  of  Stockholm,  §  139,  1. 

„  „  Thorn,  §  165,  4. 

Massiiians,  §  53,  5. 
Massillon,  §  158,  2. 


62% 


INDEX. 


Mi^striclit,  §  161,  7. 
Matamoros,  §  205,  4. 
Maternus,  Jul.  Firm.,  §  47,  14. 

„         Pistorius,  §  120,  2. 
Mathesius,  §  142,  2,  3. 
Matilda,  Margravine,  §  96,  8,  10. 
Matthias,  Emperor,  §  153,  2. 
Matthys,  Jan.,  §  147,  8,  9. 
Maiilbronn,  Formula,  §  141,  12. 
,,  Conference,  §  144,  1. 

Maur,  Monks  of  St.,  §  156,  7. 

„      St.,  §  85. 
Maurice  of  Hesse,  §  1.54,  1. 

„  „    Orange,    §    139,    12; 

161,  2. 
Maurice  of  Saxony,  §  136  ;  137. 
Mauritius,  St.,  §  22,  6. 

„  Emperor,  §  46,  10. 

Maxentius,  §  22,  7. 
Maximianus  Hercnlius,  §  22,  6. 
Maximilian  I.,  §  110,  13. 

II.,  8  137,  8 ;  139,  9. 
„  I.,  Duke  of  Bavaria, 

§  151,  1. 
Maximilian  III,  Elector  of  Bava- 
ria, §  165,  10. 
Maximilian  I.,  King  of  Bavaria, 

§  195,  1. 
Maximilian  II.,  King  of  Bavaria, 
^Maximilian  Francis  of  Cologne, 

§  165,  13. 
Maximilian,  Emperor  of  Mexico, 

S  209,  1. 
Maximilla,  §  40,  1. 
Maximinus  Daza,  §  22,  6,  7. 

„  Thrax,  §  22,  4. 

Maximus,  Emperor,  §  54,  2. 

„  Confessor,  §  47,  12 ;  52, 

H. 
Mayer,  Seb.,  §  130,  4. 
]May  La-vvs,  Prussian,  §  197,  5,  6. 

,,        „       Austrian,  §  198,  6. 
Maynooth  Bill,  §  202,  9. 
Mayhew,  §  162,  7. 


Mechitarists,  §  165,  2. 
Mechthild,  §  107,  2. 
Mecklenburg,  §  134,  5 ;  194,  6. 
Medici,  §  110,  11. 
Meinhart,  §  93,  12. 
Meinrad,  §  85,  6. 
M(!l,  Conrad,  §  169,  1. 
Melanclitlion,   §  122,  5 ;  139,  13 ; 

141,  7,  9. 
Melchers,  §  188,  12 ;  189,  3 ;  197, 

6,  12. 
Melchiades,  §  46,  3 ;  63,  1. 
Melchionites,  §  147,  1. 
Melchisedecians,  §  33,  3. 
Melchites,  §  52,  7. 
]\Ieletius  of  Antioch,  §  50,  8. 
„         „  Lycopolis,  §  41,  4. 
Melissander,  §  142,  3. 
Melito,  §  30,  8 ;  36,  8 ;  40,  1. 
Memnon  of  Ephesus,  §  52,  5. 
Menander,  §  25,  2. 
Mendelssohn,  §  171,  3. 

„  Bartholdy,  §  174, 10. 

Mendez,  §  152,  1. 
Mendicant  Friars,  §  98,  3. 
Menius,  §  141,  6. 
Menken,  §  172,  3. 
Mennas,  §  52,  6. 
Meiuionites,  §  147,  2  ;  163,  1. 
Menologies,  §  57,  1. 
Menot,  §  115,  2. 
Mensurius,  §  63,  1. 
Mercedarians,  §  98,  9. 
Mercerus,  §  143,  5. 
Merlan,  §  170,  1. 
Merle  d'Avibigue,  §  178,  2. 
Mermillod,  §  189,  3 ;  199,  2. 
Mersen,  Treaty  of,  §  82,  5. 
Merswin,  §  114,  2,  4. 
Mesmer,  §  174,  2. 
Mesrop,  §  64,  3. 
Messalians,  Christian,  §  44,  7. 

Pagan,  §  42,  6. 
Meth,  §  163,  9. 


INDEX. 


523 


Methodists,   §  169,   4,   5 ;  208,    1  • 

211,  1. 
Methodius,  §  73,  3  ;  79,  2. 

„  of  Olympus,   §  31,  9  ; 

38,  9. 
Metraphanes,  §  67,  6. 

Critop.,  §  152,  2. 
Metropolitans,  §  34,  3  ;  83,  3. 
Mettrie,  la,  §  165,  12. 
Mexico,  §  209,  1 ;  190,  3. 
Meyer,  H.  A.  W.,  §  182,  11. 
Meyffart,  §  160,  3. 
Michael,  Archangel,  §  88,  4. 

„         Acominatus,  §  68,  5. 

„         Balbus,  §  66,  4. 

„         of  Bradacz,  §  119,  8. 

„         Cserularius,  §  119,  8. 

„         of  Cesnea,  §  112,  2. 

„        the  Drunkard,  §  67,  1. 

„        Palseologiis,  §  67,  6. 
Michael  Angelo,  §  149,  15. 
Michaelis,  Chr.  Ben.,  §  167,  3. 
„         J.  D.,  §  171,  6. 
„        J.  H.,  §  167,  3. 
Michaelmas,  §  57, 3. 
Michaud,  §  190,  3. 
Michelians,  §  171,  3. 
:\richelis,  §  190,  1 ;  191,  6. 
]Micislas,  §  93,  7. 
Milicz,  §  119,  2. 
Militia  Chriisti,  §  37. 
Mill,  Walter,  §  139,  8. 
Millennium,  §  33,  9. 
Milman,  §  182,  4. 
Miltiades  of  Athens,  §  30, 8 ;  37,  3. 

„  „  Home,  §  46,  3. 

Miltiz,  §  122,  3. 
Milton,  §  172,  3. 
Minimi,  §  112,  8. 
Minnesingers,  §  105,  6. 
Minorites,  §  98,  3. 
Minster,  §  84,  4. 
Minucius  Felix,  §  31,  12. 
„         Fundanus,  §  22,  2. 


Missa  Cateclium.  ef  fidelium,  §  36, 

2,  3  ;  58,  4. 
Missa  Solitaria,  §  58,  3. 

„      Sponsor um^  §  61,  2  ;  88,  3  ; 

104,  6. 
Missa  Marcelli,  §  149,  15. 
MissaJe  Rom.,  §  149,  14. 
Missionary    Societies,    §   172,    5  \ 

5 ;  184,  1 ;  186,  6. 
Missions,  Foreign,  §  75-78  ;  93. 
„  ,,         Catholic,  §  150 ; 

156,  10,  12  ;  165,  3 ;  186,  7. 
Missions,  Foreign,  Protest.,  §  142, 

8;    143,  7;  160,  7;  162,7;  167, 

9  ;  168,  11  ;  184. 
Missions,  Home,  Catholic,  §  149, 

7  ;  156,  4 ;  186,  4,  5. 
Missions,  Home,  Protest.,  §  183. 
Missions,  Priests  of  the,  §  156,  8. 
:\lissoui'i  Sjmod,  §  208,  2,  3, 
Mistewoi,  §  93,  9. 
Mitre,  §  84,  1. 
Mizetius,  §  91,  1. 
Medalists,  §  33. 
Moderates,  §  202,  7. 
Mogilas,  §  152,  3. 
Mogtasilah,  §  28,  2. 
Mohammed,  §  65. 

II.,§67,  7;  110,  10. 
Mohammedans,  §  184,  9. 
Mohler,  191,  4  ;  5,  6. 
Molanus,  §  153,  7. 
Molay,  §  112,  7. 
Moleschott,  §  174,  3. 
Molina,  §  149,  13. 
Molin-ceus,  §  KJl,  3. 
Molinos,  §  157,  2. 
Momiers,  §  199,  5. 
Mommers,  §  169,  2. 
Mompelgard,  Relig.  Confer.,  §  138, 

8. 
Mouardia  tlicoloyor.,  §  103.  3. 
Monarchians,  §  33. 
Moiiastcriioii  Ciericor.,  §  45,  1. 


524 


INDEX. 


Monasticism,  §  44  ;  70 ;   85 ;    98 ; 

112;  149;  156;  1G5 ;  186. 
Mongols,  §  93,  15. 
Monica,  §  47,  13. 
Monita  >Secreta,  §  149,  9. 
Monod,  §  203,  4. 
Monogram,  §  38,  4. 
Monophysites,  §  52,  5,  7 ;  72,  2. 
Monothelites,  §  52,  8. 
Montalembert,  §  189,  9 ;  190,  1. 
Montalte,  §  157,  5. 
Montalto,  §  149,  3. 
Montanists,  §  40. 
Montanus,  Arias,  §  149,  14. 
Monte,  del,  §  149,  2. 
Monte  Cassino,  §  85. 

„      Coi-vino,  §  93,  15. 
Montesquieii,  §  165,  14. 
Montfaucon,  §  165,  11. 
Montfort,  Sim.  de,  §  109,  1. 
Montmorency,  §  139,  13,  14. 
Moody,  §  211,  1. 
Moors,  §  81 ;  95. 
Moralities,  §  105,  5. 
Morata,  §  139,  24. 
Moravia,  §  79,  2. 
Moravian  Brethren,  §  119,  5. 
Moray,  The  Regent,  §  139,  11. 
More,  Sir  Thomas,  §  120,  7 ;  139, 4. 
Morel,  §  139,  25. 
Moreno,  §  20f),  2. 
Morgan,  §  171,  1. 
Morinus,  §  158,  1. 
Moriscoes,  §  95,  2. 
Morland,  §  153,  5. 
Mormons,  §  211,  12-14. 
Morone,  §  135,  2  ;  137,  5 ;  139,  22. 
Morison,  §  184,  6. 
Mortara,  §  175,  8. 
Morton,  §  139,  11. 
Morus,  §  171,  8. 
Mosaics,  §  60,  6  ;  104,  14. 
Moser,  J.  F.  v.,  §  167,  (5,  8. 

„       K.  F.  v.,  §  171,  10  ;  172,  2. 


Moses  of  Chorene,  §  64,  3. 
Mosheim,  §  5,  3 ;  167,  4  ;  169,  1. 
Moslems,  §  65. 
Moulin,  du,  §  161,  3. 
Mollis,  §  190,  4. 
Movers,  §  191,  8. 
Mozarabians,  §  81,  1. 
Mozarabic  Liturgy,  §  88, 1 ;  104, 1. 
Mozart,  §  174,  10. 
Mtesa,  §  184,  4. 
"  Murker,''  §  176,  3. 
:Muhlenberg,  §  208,  2. 
Mlihler,  v.,  §193,  4;  197,2. 
Milller,  Ad.,  §  175,  7. 

„       Bem.,  §  211,  6. 

„       Cx.,  §  183,  1. 

„       H.,  §  160,  1. 

„       J.  v.,  §  171,  11. 

„       J.  G.,  §  171,  8. 

„       Jul.,  §  182,  10. 
Miinster,  City,  §  133,  6. 
„        Seb.,  §  143,  5. 
Miinzer,  Thos.,  §  124,  4,  5. 
Muratori,  §  165,  12. 
Muratorian  Canon,  §  36,  8. 
Murillo,  §  158,  3. 
Murner,  Thos.,  §  125,  4  ;  130,  6. 
Murrone,  §  112,  4. 
MusEeus,  §  141,  7 ;  144,  2. 
Musculus,  Andr.,  §  141,  12. 
Wolfg.,  §  141,  14. 
Music,  §  59,  3 ;  104,  11 ;  115,  8 ; 
149,15;  158,3;  172,  1;  171,  10. 
Muspilli,  §  89,  3. 
Mutianus,  §  120,  2,  3. 
Mwanga,  §  184,  4. 
Myconius,  §  125,  1. 

„  Oswald,  §  133,  8. 

Mysos,  §  139,  26. 
Mysteries,  §  105,  5 ;  115,  12. 
Mystics,  Eastern,  S  9  J  ;  102  ;  103  ; 

107;  114. 
Mystics,    Grecian,   §    47,   7,   11 ; 
68,  3. 


INDEX. 


525 


Mystics,  Catholic,  §  149,  10  •,  156, 

1-4. 
Mystics,  Protest.,  §  14G  ;  KiO,  2  ; 

169,  3, 

Naassenes,  §  27,  6. 
Nagelsbach,  §  173,  4. 
Namszanowski,  §  197,  2. 
Nantes,  Edict  of,  §  139,  17  ;  153,  4. 
Napoleon   I.,   §   165,   5 ;    185,   1 ; 

203,  1. 
Napoleon  III.,  §  185,  3 ;  203,  3,  4 ; 

209,  1. 
Narthex,  §  60,  1. 
Nassau,  §  193,  6 ;  196,  4. 
2iatales  episc,  §  45,  1. 

„       Martyrum,  §  39,  5. 
Natalis,  Alexander,  §  5,  2  ;  157, 2. 
Natalins,  i?  33,  3. 
National  Assembly,  French,  §  165, 

15. 
National  Convention,  §  165,  15. 
Natorp,  §  181,  2. 

Naumburg,  Bishopric  of,  §  135,  5. 
„  Princes'  Diet,  §  141, 

11. 
Nauplia,  Syn.,  §  207,  1. 
Nauvoo,  §  211,  10. 
Naylor,  §  163,  4. 
Nazareans,  §  28,  1. 
Neander,  §  5,  5  ;  182,  4. 

„        Joach.,  §  162,  6. 
Nectarius,  §  61,  6. 
Nemesius,  §  47,  6. 
Nennius,  §  90,  8. 
Neophytes,  §  34,  3, 
Neo-Platonists,  §  24,  2 ;  42, 
Nepomuk,  §  116,  1. 
Nepos  of  Arsinoe,  §  33,  9. 
Nepotism,  §  110. 
Neri,  Philip,  §  149,  7 ;  158,  3. 
Nero,  §  22,  1. 
Nerses  I.,  §  64,  8. 

■„      .  IV.,  Clajensis,  §  72,  2. 


Nerses  of  Lampron,  §  72,  2. 

Nerva,  §  22,  1. 

Nestor,  §  73,  4. 

Nestorians,  §  52,  3  ;  64,  2  ;  72,  1 ; 

150,  4  ;  184,  9. 
Nestorius,  §  52,  3. 
Netherlands,  §   139,   12;   162,  4; 

169,  2 ;  184,  5  ;  200. 
Neuendettelsau,  §  183,  1. 
Neumann,  §  160,  4. 
Neumark,  §  160,  4. 
Newman,  §  202,  2. 
New  Year,  §  56,  5. 
Nicsea,  Council  of,  §  40,  1 ;  41,  4  ; 

46,  8 ;  50,  1 5  56,  8. 
Nicephorus  Gregoras,  §  69,  2. 

„  Callisti,  §  5,  1. 

Nicetas  Acominatus,  §  68,  5. 

„        of  Nicomedia,  §  67,  4. 

,,        Pectoratus,  §  67,  3. 
Nicholas  I.,  §  (u,  1 ;  73,  3  ;  82,  7  ; 

83,  3  ;  91,  5. 
Nicholas  II.,  §  96,  6, 

„        III.,  IV.,  §  96,  22. 

„        v.,  §  110,  9,  10. 

„         of  Basel,  §  114,  4. 

„         Cabasilas,  §  68,  5  ;  70,  4. 

„         of  Clemanges,  §  118,  4. 

,,         „  Cusa,  §  113,  6. 

,i        V.  d.  Fliie,  §  116,  1. 

„        of  Lyra,  §  113,  7. 

„         „  Methone,  §  68,  5. 

„         Mysticus,  §  67,  2. 

„        of  Pisa,  §  110,  12. 

„        I.,  Czar,  §206, 1,2;  210,  2. 
Nicolai,  Publisher,  §  171,  4. 

„        Henry,  §  146,  5. 

„        Philip,  §  142,  4. 
Nicolaitanism,  §  96,  5. 
Nicolaitans,  §  18,  3 ;  27,  8. 
Nicole,  §  158,  1. 
Niebuhr,  §  193,  1. 
Niedner,  §  5,  4. 
Niemeyer,  §  171,  7. 


526 


INDEX. 


Nightingale,  §  183,  1. 

Nihilism,  §  102,  8, 

Nihilists,  §  212,  6. 

Nikon,  §  163,  10. 

Nilus  Sinaiticus,  §  44,  3  ;  47,  lO. 

„      the  Younger,  §  100. 
Nimbus,  §  60,  6. 
Ninian,  §  77,  2. 
Nii)hon,  Monk,  §  70,  4. 

„         Patriarch,  §  70,  1. 
Nismes,  Edict  of,  §  154,  4. 
Nitschmann,  §  168,  3,  11, 
Nitzsch,  §  182,  10 ;  193,  3,  4. 
Noailles,  §  165,  7. 
Nobili,  §  156,  11. 
Nobla  leiczon,  §  108,  14   (vol.  ii., 

p.  471). 
Nobreja,  §  150,  3. 
Nobvmaja,  §  150,  2. 
Noetus,  §  33,  5. 
Nogaret,  §  110,  1. 
Nolasque,  §  98,  9. 
Nominalists,  §  99,  2 ;  113,  3. 
Nomo-Cauon,  §  43,  3. 
Nome,  §  86,  2. 

Non-Intrusionists,  §  202,  7. 
Nonconformists,  §  143,  2,  3 ;  155. 

1,  2. 
Nonna,  §  47,  4. 
Nonnus  of  Panopolis,  §  48,  5. 
Norbert,  §  98,  2 ;  96,  13. 
Normans,  §  93,  1 ;  95,  1. 
North  African  School,  §  31,  1. 
North  America,  §  208. 
Norwegians,  §  93,  4  ;  139,  2 ;  201, 

13. 
Nosselt,  §  171,  8. 
Noting  of  Verona,  §  91,  5. 
Notker  Balbulus,  §  88,  2. 

„       Labeo,  §  100,  1. 
Novalis,  §  174,  5. 
Novatian,  §  31,  12 ;  41,  3. 
Novatus,  §  38,  2,  3. 
Noviciate,  §  44,  2;  86,  1. 


Noyes,  §  208,  6. 

Nuiiez  de  Area,  §  175,  2. 

Nunia,  §  64,  4. 

Nuns,  §  44,  5. 

Nuntio,  §  151,  1. 

Nuremberg,     Eelig,      Peace     of, 

§  133,  2. 
Nuremberg,  Diet  of,  §  126,  1,  2. 

Oak,  Synod  of  the,  §  51,  3. 

Gates,  Titus,  §  153,  6, 

Oheramviergau,  §  174,  10. 

Oberlin,  §  172. 

Ohiati,  §  85,  1. 

Oblations,  §  36  ;  39,  5  ;  61,  4. 

Obotrites,  §  93,  9. 

Observants,  §  112,  2 ;  149,  6. 

Occam,  §  112,  2 ;  113,  3 ;  118,  2. 

Occultists,  §  211,  18. 

Ochino,  §  139,  24 ;  147,  6  ;  149,  6. 

O'Connell,  §  199,  9. 

Octaves,  §  56,  4. 

October  Assembly,  §  178,  3. 

Odensee,  Diet  of,  §  139,  2. 

Odilo  of  Bavaria,  §  78,  5. 

Odo  of  Clugny,  §  98,  1 ;   100,  2 ; 

104,  10,  11. 
Odoacer,  §  46,  8. 

(Ecolampadius,  §  130,  3,  6  •,  131,  1. 
(Ecumenius,  §  68,  4. 
Oersted,  §  174,  3. 
Oetingen,  §  182,  15. 
Oetinger,  §  170,  5 ;  171,  9. 
Oehler,  §  182,  14. 
CEitvres,  §  186,  4. 
Officium  S.  Marice,  §  104,  8. 
OiKdvofioL,  %  45,  5. 
Oischinger,  §  191,  6. 
Oktai-Khan,  §  93,  15. 
Olaf,  §  80,  1. 

,,     Haraldson,  §  93,  4,  5. 

,,     Schosskonig,  §  93,  3. 

„     Trygvason,  §  93,  4,  5. 

„     St.,  §93,4. 


INDEX. 


527 


Olcott,  §  211,  IS. 
Oldcastle,  §  119,  1. 
Oldenbarneveldt,  §  161,  2. 
Oldenbiu'g,  §  194,  5. 
Olevian,  §  144,  1 ;  KJl,  4. 
Olga,  §  7B,  4. 
Olgerd,  §  93,  14. 
Oliva,  §  108,  6."! 

Olivet,  Monks  of  Mount,  §  112,  1.  ■ 
Olivetan,  §  138,  1 ;  143,  5. 
Olshausen,  §  176,  3. 
Ommaiades,  §  81 ;  95,  2. 
Oncken,  §  211,  3. 
Oneida-sect,  §  211,  6. 
Onochoetes  Deits,  §  23,  2. 
Oosterzee,  §  200,  2. 
Ophites,  §  27,  6,  7. 
Opitz,  §  160,  3. 
Optatus  of  Mileve,  §  63,  1. 
Opzoomer,  §  200,  3. 
Orange,  Synod  of,  §  53,  6. 
Oratories,  §  84,  2. 
Oratory  of  Divine  Love,  §  139,  22. 
„        Fathers  of  the,  §  155,  7. 
„        Priests  of  the,  §  149,  7. 
Ordeals,  §  89,  5. 
Ordericns  Vitalis,  §  5,  1. 
Ordination,  §  45,  1. 
Or'dines  majores  et  minores,  §  34,  3. 
Ordo  Romamis,  §  59,  6, 
Organs,  §  88,  2;  104,  11;  115,  8  ; 

154,  3. 
Origen,  §  31,  5 ;  33,  6-9  ;  36,  9  ; 

61,  4. 
Origenist  Controversy,  §  51. 
Original  Sin,  Controversy  abont, 

§  141,  8. 
Orosius,  §  47,  19. 
Ortlibarians,  §  108,  4. 
Ortuinus  Gratus,  §  120,  5. 
O senium  pads,  §  35. 
Osiander,  Andr.,  §  126,  4  ;  135.  6  : 

141,  2. 
Osiander,  Luc,  §  159,  1. 


Osiandrian  Controversj-,  §  141,  2. 

Ostiarii,  §  34,  3. 

Ostrogoths,  §  76,  7. 

Oswald,  §  77,  5. 

Oswy,  §  77,  5,  6. 

Ota,  §  78,  2. 

Otfried,  §  89,  3. 

Otgar  of  Mainz,  §  87,  3. 

Otternbein,  §  208,  4. 

Ottheinrich,  §  1 35,  6. 

Otto  I.,  §  93,  2,  8 ;  9(5,  1. 

„     II.,  III.,  §  96,-2,  3. 

„      IV.,  §  96,  17. 

„      of  Bamberg,  §  93,  10. 

„       „  Passau,  §  114,  6. 
Overbeek,  Painter,  §  174,  9. 

Dr.,  §  175,  5. 
Overberg,  §  172,  2. 
Owen,  Rob.,  §  212,  3. 
Oxford,  §  202,  2. 

„        Movement,  §  211,  1. 

Pabst,  §  191,  3. 

Pabulatores,  §  44,  7. 

Paccanari,  §  186,  1. 

Pachomius,  §  44,  1,  3,  5. 

Pacianus,  §  47,  15. 

Pacifico,  Fra,  §  104,  10. 

Pack,  O.  v.,  §  132,  1. 

Paderborn,  §  133,  5. 

Paez,  §  152,  1. 

Pagani,  §  42,  4. 

Pagi,  §  158,  2 ;  5,  2. 

Pagninus,  §  149,  14. 

Pajon,  §  161,  3. 

Palamas,  §  69,  2. 

Palatinate,  §  135,  6 ;  144,  1  ;   153, 

1,  3  ;  196,  4. 
Paleario,  §  139,  22,  23. 
Palestrina,  §  149,  15. 
Paley,  §  171,  8. 
Palladius,  §  47,  10. 
Pallium,  §  46,  1 ;  59,  7 ;  97,  3. 
Palm  Sunday,  §  56,  4. 


528 


INDEX. 


Pamphihis,  §  31,  6, 

Pan- Anglicanism,  §  202,  1. 

Pandulf,  §  %',  18. 

Pan-Presbyterianism,  §  179,  3. 

Pantanus,  §  31,  4, 

Pantheon,  §  46,  10. 

Papa,  %  46,  1. 

Papacy,  §  34,  8;  46,   2;  82;  96; 

110;  149;  156;  165;  185. 
Papal  Elections,  §  46,  8,  11 ;  82,  4  ; 

96,  6,  15,  21. 
Papebroch,  §  155,  2. 
Paplmutius,  §  45,  2. 
Papias,  §  30,  6 ;  33,  9. 
Paraholani,  §  45,  3. 
Paracelsus,  §  146,  2. 
Paraguay,  §  156,  10 ;  165,  3. 
Parens,  §  159,  5. 
Parker,  Matt.,  §  139,  6. 

„        Theodore,  §  211,  4. 
Parnell,  §  202,  10. 
ParocMa,  §  84,  2. 
Parochus,  §  84,  2. 
Parsimonius,  §  141,  8. 
Pasagians,  §  108,  3. 
Pascal,  §  157,  5 ;  158,  1. 
Pascale,  §  139,  25. 
llaffxo-  ffravpiaffi/jiov  and  dvaaraffi/xov, 

%  56,  4. 
Paschal  Controversy,  §  37,  2. 
Paschalis  I.,  §  82,  4. 
IL,  §  96,  11. 
III.,  §  96,  15. 
Paschasius,  §  99,  5  ;  91,  3, 
Paschkow,  §  206,  1. 
Pasquino,  §  149,  1. 
Passaglia,  §  187,  5. 
Passau,  Treaty  of,  §  137,  3. 
Passion  Play,  §  105,  5  ;  115,  12 ; 

174,  10. 
Pastor,  §  84,  2. 
Pastor  ceternus,  §  189,  3. 
Patarem,  %  108,  1.. 
Pataria,  §  97,  5. 


Patent,  Austrian,  §  198,  3. 

,,        Hungarian,  §  198,  6. 
Pater  Orthodoxies,  §  47,  4. 
Patriarchs,  §  46. 
Patriciate,  Roman,  §  82,  1. 
Patrick,  St.,  §  77,  1. 
Patrimonium  2Muperum,  §  45,  4. 

„  Petri,  §46, 10;  82, 1. 

Patripassians,  §  33,  4. 
Patx'onage,  §  84. 
Patronus,  §  57,  1. 
Paul,  the  Apostle,  §  15. 
,,      Burgensis,  §  113,  7, 
,,      Diaconus,  §  90,  3. 
„      Orosius,  §  47,  20. 
„      the  Pei-sian,  §  48,  1, 
„      of  Samosata,  §  33,  8  ;  39,  3. 
,,      Silentiarius,  §  48,  5. 
„      of  Thebes,  §  39,  4. 
,,      Warnefried,  §  90,  3. 
„     •l.,§82,l. 

„      II.,§110,  11,  15;  119,4. 
„      III.,§149,2;134, 1;139,  23. 
„      IV.,  §  149,  2. 
„      V.,§155,  1,  2,  5;  149,  13. 
„      I.  of  Eussia,  §  186,  2. 
Paula,  St.,  §  44,  5. 

„       Francis  de,  §  112,  8. 
,,      Vine,  de,  §  156,  8. 
Pauli,  Greg.,  §  148,  3. 
Paulicians,  §  71,  1. 
Paulinus  of  Antioch,  §  50,  8. 
„  „  Aquileia,  §  90,  3. 

„         „  Milan,  §  47,  20 ;  53,  4. 
,,        Missionary,  §  77,  4. 
„        of  Nola,  §  48,  6 ;  60,  5. 
Paulus,  Dr.,  §  182,  2. 
Pauperes  de  Lugduno,  §  108,  10. 
„        Catholici,  §  108,  10. 
„        Lombardici,  §  108,  12. 
Payens,  §  98,  7. 
Pax  dissid.,  §  139,  18. 
Pearson,  §  161,  6,  7. 
Peasants'  War,  §  124,  5. 


INDEX. 


529 


Pectorale,  §  59,  7. 
Pelagius,  §  47,  21 ;  53,  3,  4. 

„        I.,  Pope,  §  46,  9 ;  52,  G. 
„        II.,      „      §46,9. 
Pelayo,  §  81,  1. 
Pellicanus,  §  120,  4,  note. 
Pellico-Silvio,  §  173,  7. 
Peuance,  §  104,  4. 
Penda,  §  77,  4. 
Penitential  BooivS,  §  61,  1 ;  89,  6 ; 

103,  6. 
Penn,  §  163,  5. 
Pentecost,  §  37,  1 ;  56,  4. 
Pepin,  §  78,  5 ;  82,  1. 
Pejjucians,  §  40,  1. 
Peraldus,  §  103,  9. 
Perates,  §  27,  6. 
Peregrinus  Proteus,  §  23,  1. 
Peres  de  lafoi,  §  186,  1. 
Perfectionists,  §  211,  6. 
Perfectus,  §  21,  1. 
Pericopes,  §  59,  2  ;  l(i7,  2. 
Peristerium,  §  60,  5. 
Perkins,  §  143,  5. 
Peroz,  §  64,  2. 
Perpetua,  §  22,  5. 
Perrone,  §  175,  2 ;  191,  9. 
Persecution  of  Christians,  §  23 ;  (il. 
Persia,  §64,  2;  *93,  15. 
Perthes,  §  183,  1. 
Peschito,  §  36,  8. 
Pestalozzi,  §  171,  12. 
Petavius,  §  158,  1. 
Peter  the  Apostle,  §  16,  1. 

„      d'Ailly,  §  118,  4. 

„      of  Alcantara,  §  149,  5,  16. 

„      „  Alexandria,  §  41,  4. 

„       „  Amiens,  §  94,  1. 

„       „  Aragon,  §  96,  18. 

„       „  Bruys,  §  108,  7, 

„      Cantor,  §  103,  3. 

„      of  Castelnau,  §  109, 1. 

„      „  Chelczic,  §  119,  7. 

„       „  Clugny,  §  96,  13. 

VOL.   III. 


I  Peter  Chrysolanus,  §  67,  4. 

„      Chrysologus,  §  47,  16. 

„      Comestor,  §  105,  5. 

„      Damiani,  §97,  4;  104,  10; 

106,  4. 
Peter  Dresdensis,  §  115,  7. 

,,      of  Dubois,  §118,  1. 

„      Fullo,  §  52,  5. 

,,      Hispanus,  §  9(5,  22. 

.,      the  Lombard,  §  102,  5 ;  104, 

2,4. 
Peter  Mongus,  §  52,  5. 

„      of  Murrone,  §  f)8,  2. 

„       „  Pisa,  §  90. 

„       „  Poitiers,  §  102,  5. 

„      yiculus,  §  71,  1. 

„      the  Venerable,  §  98,  1 ;  102, 

2;  109. 
Peter  I.  of  Russia,  §  166. 

„      and  Paul,  Festival  of,  §  57, 

1. 
Peter,  Fest.  of  Chair  of  St.,  §  57, 1. 

„      Church  of  St.,  §  115,  13. 
Peter's  Pence,  §  82. 
Petersen,  §  170,  1. 
Peterson,  §  139,  1. 
Petilian,  §  63,  1. 
Petrarch,  §  115,  10. 
Petrejus,  §  120,  2. 
Petrikan,  Synod,  §  139,  18 ;  148,  3. 
Petrobrusians,  §  108,  7. 
Petrow,  §  163,  10. 
Petrucci,  §  157,  2. 
Peucer,  §  141,  10 ;  144,  3. 
Peyrerius,  §  161,  7. 
Peysellians,  §  170,  6. 
Pfaif,  §  167,  4,  5,  8. 
Pfett'erkorn,  §  120,  4. 
Pfeffinger,  §  141,  7. 
Pfeiffer,  Aug.,  §  159,  4. 
Pfeuninger,  §  171,  8. 
Pfieiderer,  §  182,  19. 
Pflugk,  §  135,  3,  5;  136,  5;  137,  G. 
Pharennin  ISyu,,  §  77,  6. 

34 


530 


INDEX. 


Pharisees,  §  S^  4. 
Philadelphia,  §  (30,  4. 
Philadelphian  Churches,  §  170,  1. 
„  Period,  §  1(38,  4. 

„  Sect,  §  163,  8. 

Philaster,  §  47,  14. 
Philip,  §  14 ;  17,  2. 

,,       the  Arabian,  §  22,  4. 

„      I.  of  France,  §  96,  8,  10. 

„      IL,Ang.,§94,3;  96,  18. 

„       the  Fair,  §  110,  1,  2  ;  112,  7. 

„       II.  of  Spain,  §  139,  12,  21. 

„       of  Swahia,  §  96,  17. 

„       the  Magnanimous,  §  12(3. 
4,  5;  135,  1,  3;  137,  3. 
Philippi,  §  182,  13. 
Philippists,  §  141,  4  K 
Philippones,  §  163,  10. 
Philippopolis,  Synod  of,  §  50,  2. 
Philipps,  §  175,  7 ;  191,  7. 
Phillpotts,  §  202,  2. 
Philo,  §  10,  1. 
Philopatris,  §  42,  5. 
Philoponus,  §  47,  11. 
Philosophical  Sin,  §  149,  10. 
Philosophoumena,  §  31,  3. 
Philostorgius,  §  4,  1. 
Philoxeuus,  §  59,  1. 
Philumena,  §  27,  12. 
Phocas,  §  46,  10. 
Phoebe,  §  18,  4. 
Photinus,  §  50,  2. 
Photius,  §  67,  1 ;  (38,  5. 
Phyietism,  §  207,  3. 
^uTi(^o/j.evoi,  §  35,  1. 
'^dapToKdrpai,  §  52,  7. 
Piacenza,  Coiuicil,  §  94. 
Piarists,  §  156,  7. 
Picards,  §  116,  5 ;  119  8. 
Pichler,  §  191,  7. 
Pick,  §  211,  8. 
Picts,  §  77,  2. 

Picvis  of  Mirandola,  §  120,  1. 
Pideritz,  §  133,  5. 


I   Piedmont,  §  204,  3. 
j   Pietism,  Lutheran,  §  159, 3 ;  167,  1  - 
,,        Reformed,  §  162,  3,  4. 
„        in  19th  Century,  §  176,  2\ 
Pilate,  Acts  of,  §  14,  2 ;  31,  2. 
Pilgrim  of  Passau,  §  93,  8. 

„        Fathers,  §  143,  4 ;  208,  1. 
Pilgrimages,  §  57,  6;  89,  4;  104, 

8 ;  115,  9 ;  188,  5,  6. 
Pin,  du,  §  158,  2. 
Pionius,  §  30,  5. 
Pirkheimer,  §  120,  3. 
Pirminius,  §  78,  1,  5. 
Pirstinger,  §  125,  5 ;  149,  14. 
Pisa,  Council  of,  §  110,  6. 
Piscator,  §  143,  5. 
Pistis,  Sophia,  §  27,  7. 
Pistoja,  Synod  of,  §  165,  10. 
Pistorius,  §  135,  3. 

,,  Maternus,  §  120,  2, 

Pins  II.,  §  110,  10;  118,  6;  119,  4. 

..     III.,  §  110,  13. 

;;     IV.,  §149,  2. 

„     v.,  §149,  3;  139,23. 

„     VI.,  §  165,  9,  10,  15. 

„     VII.,  §  185,  1 ;  203,  1. 

„     VIII.,  §  184,  1 ;  193,  1. 

„     IX.,  §185,  2 If.;  17.5,2;  188, 

8;  189,3;  197,7;  202,11. 
Placseus,  §  161,  3. 
Planck,  §  171,  8. 
Planeta,  §  59,  7. 
Plastic  Arts,  §  60,  6 ;  89,  6 ;  104, 

14 ;  115,  13. 
Plato,  §  7,  4  ;  47,  5  ;  68,  3 ;  99,  2. 
Phiton,  §  166,  1. 
Platter,  §  130,  4. 
Plebani,  Plehs,  %  84,  2. 
Plenaries,  §  115,  4. 
Pleroma,  §  26,  2. 
Pletho,  §  68,  2 ;  120,  1. 
Pliny  the  Younger,  §  22,  2. 
Plotinus,  §  24,  2. 
Plotizin,  §  210,  4. 


INDEX. 


)31 


Plutschau,  §  167,  0. 

Plymouth  Brethren,  §  211,  11. 

Pneumatomachians,  §  50,  5. 

Pobedonoszew,  §  206,  1. 

Poblenz,  §  184,  5. 

Pecquet,  §  146,  4. 

Pococke,  §  161,  6. 

PocUebrad,  §  119,  7,  8. 

Poetry,  Christian,  §  48,  5,  6 ;  105, 

4 ;  173,  6. 
Poggio,  §  120,  1 ;  110,  5. 
Poiret,  §  163,  9. 

Poissy,  Eelig.  Confer.,  §  139,  14. 
Poland,  §93,  7;  139,   18;  16.5,  4; 

206,  2,  3.  * 

Pole,  §  139,  5,  22. 
Poleuion,  §  47,  6. 
Polenz  of  Samland,  §  125,  1. 
Poliander,  §  142,  3. 
Polo,  Marco,  §  93,  15. 
Polozk,  Synod  of,  §  206,  2. 
Polycarp,  §  22,  3 ;  30,  (3 ;  37,  2. 
Polychronius,  §  47,  9. 
Polycrates,  §  37,  2. 
Polyglott,  Antwerp,  §  149,  14. 

„  Complutensian,  §  120, 8. 

„  London,  §  161,  6. 

„  Paris,  §  158,  1. 

Pomare,  §  184,  7. 
Pombal,  §  165,  9. 
Pommerania,  §  93,  10 ;  134,  4. 
Pom])onazzo,  §  120,  1. 
Ponce  de  la  Fuente,  §  139,  21. 
Poenitentiaria  Horn.,  §  110,  16. 
Pontianus,  §  38,  1. 
Ponticus,  §  22,  3. 
Pontius,  §  98,  1. 
Popiel,  §  206,  1. 
Popular  Philosophy,  §  171,  4. 
Pordage,  §  163,  9. 
Porphyiy,  §  23,  3 ;  24,  2. 
Portig,  §  180,  3. 
Portiuncula,  §  98,  3. 
Port  Ro}axl,  §  157,  5. 


Portugal,  §  165,  9 ;  205,  5. 

Positivism,  §  174,  2 ;  210,  1. 

Possessor  of  Carthage,  §  53,  5. 

Possevin,  §  139,  1 ;  151,  2,  3. 

Possidius,  §  47,  18. 

Post- Apostolic  Age,  §  20,  1. 

Postilla,  §  103,  9  ;  116,  6. 

Pota,mi8ena,  §  22,  4. 

Pothinus,  §  22,  3. 

Prceceptor  Oermania',  §  122,  5. 

Pnepositi,  §  84,  2. 

Prsetorius,  §  160,  1. 

Praxeas,  §  33,  4. 

Prayer,  §  37 ;  39,  1. 

Preaching,  §  36,  2;  59,  3;  89,  1; 

104,  1 ;  115,  2 ;  142,  2. 
Preaching  Orders,  §  98,  5 ;  112,  4, 
Pre-Adamites,  §  161,  4. 
Prebends,  §  84,  4. 
Precaria,  §  86,  1. 
Precists,  §  96,  23. 
Predestination,  §  53;  91,  4;  125, 

3;  141,  12;   161,  2,  3;   l<i8,  1; 

208,  3. 
Prepon,  §  27,  12. 
Presburg,  Peace  of,  §  192. 
Presbyter,  §  17,  2,  5 ;  34,  3 ;  45. 
Presbyterians,   §   143,  3 ;  162,   1 ; 

202,  4  ;  208,  1. 
Prierias,  §  122,  3. 
Priestley,  §  211,  4. 
Primacy,  Papal,  §  34,  8 ;  46,  2,  3. 
Primasius,  §  48,  1. 
Priniian,  §  63,  1. 
Prisca,  §  40,  1. 
Priscillianists,  §  54,  2. 
Probabilism,  §  149,  10 ;  113,  4. 
Procession  of  Holy  Spirit,  §  50,  6 ; 

67,  1 ;  91,  2. 
Processions,  §  59,  9. 
Prochorus,  §  31,  18. 
Procidians,  §  27,  8. 
Proclus,  Montanist,  §  31,  7 ;  40,  2. 
N^^oplaton.,  §  24, 2  ;  42,  5< 


532 


INDEX. 


Procopius  of  Gaza,  §  48,  1. 

„  the  Great,  §  119,  7. 

Procopowicz,  §  166. 
Professiofid.  Trid.,  §  149,  14. 
Proles,  §  112,  5. 
Proli,  §  211,  16. 
Propaganda,  §  156,  9  ;  204,  2. 
Prophecy,  §  143,  3,  5. 
Frojjotsitt.  Cleri  GnUicam,  §  15(i,  3 ; 

203,  1. 
Proselytes  of  Gate  and  Eighteons- 

ness,  §  10,  2. 
TlpJcrKKavais,  §  39,  2. 
llpo<T(j)opai,  %  36, 
Prosper  Aquit.,  §  47,  20 ;  48,   6  ; 

53,8. 
Proterius,  §  52,  5. 
Protestants,  §  132,  3. 
^'  Profesta7itenverein,''^  §  180. 
Proudhon,  §  212,  1. 
Provida  soUersque,  §  196,  1. 
Prudentius,  Poet,  §  48,  6. 

of  Troyes,  §  91,  5. 
Psellus,  §  68,  5 ;  71,  3. 
Pseudepigraphs,  §  32. 
Pseudo-Basilideans,  §  27,  3. 

„       Clement,  §  28,  3 ;  43,  4. 

„      Cyril,  §  96,  23. 

„       Dionysius,  §  47,  11, 

„       Ignatius,  §  43,  5. 

„       Isidore,  §  87,  2. 

„       Tertullian,  §  31,  3. 
Psychians,  §  26,  2 ;  40,  5. 
Puhlicani,  §  108,  1. 
Pufendorf,  §  167,  5. 
Pulcheria,  §  52,  4. 
Pullus,  Eob.,  §  102,  5. 
Punctation  of  Ems,  §  165,  10. 
Purcell,  §  186,  5. 
Purgatory,  §  61,  4  ;  67,  6 ;  104,  4  ; 

106,  2,  3. 
Purists,  §  159,  4. 
Puritans,  §  143,  3,  4 ;  155. 
Puseyites,  §  202,  2. 


Puttkamcr,  v.,  §  174,  8;  193,  Vj- 
197,  10. 

Quadragesima,  §  37,  1 ;  56,  4,  5,  7. 

(Quadra tus,  §  30,  8. 

Quadrivium,  §  90,  8. 

Quakers,  §  163,  4,  5,  6 ;  211,  3, 

Quanta  cura,  §  185,  2. 

Quartodecimans,  §  37,  2  ;  56,  3. 

Quenstedt,  §  159,  5. 

Qiiercum,  Syvod  ad^  §  51,  3. 

Quesnel,  §  165,  7. 

Quicunque,  §  50,  7. 

Quietists,  §  157. 

Quill hextum,  §  63,  2. 

Quinquagesima,  §  37,  1;  56,  4. 

Quintin,  §  146,  4. 

Quod  numquam,  §  197,  7. 

Rabanus,  §  90,  4 ;  91,  3,  5. 

Rabai^t,  §  165,  5. 

Babinowitz,  §  211,  9. 

Eabulas,  §  52,  3 ;  48,  7. 

Eacovian  Catechism,  §  148,  4. 

Eadama  I.,  II.,  §  184,  3. 

Eadbertus,  §  90,  5 ;  91,  3,  4. 

Eadbod,  §  78,  3. 

Eadewins,  Flor.,  §  112,  9. 

Eadstock,  §  206,  1. 

Eaimund  Lullus,  §  93,  10  ;  108,  7 . 

„         Martini,  §  103,  9. 

,,  of  Pennaforte,  §  93,  16  ; 

99^  5 ,  113,  4. 
Eaimmid  du  Puy,  §  98,  8. 

„         of  Sabunde,  §  113,  5. 

„  „  Toulouse,  §  109,  4. 

Eakocgy,  §  153,  3. 
Eambach,  §  167,  6,  8. 
Eamus,  §  143,  6. 
Eanavalona,  §  184,  3. 
Eance,  de,  §  156,  8. 
Eaphael,  §  115,  13. 

„        Union,  §  186,  4< 
Eapp,  ^  211,  6, 


INDEX. 


533 


Raskolniks,  §  103,  10 ;  210,  3. 
Rasolierina,  §  184,  3, 
Raspe,  §  105,  3, 
Bass,  Bishop,  §  19(j,  7. 
Rastislaw,  §  79,  2. 
Ratherins,  §  100,  2. 
Rationalism,  §  171;  ]7(J,   1;  1S2, 

2,  3.  " 

Ratramnus,  §  67,  1;  90,  5;  91,  3, 

4,5. 
"i?a«7ies//o«y,"§183,  1. 
Rauscher,  Card.,  §  189,  3  ;  198,  2. 
Ravaillac,  §  139,  17. 
Raynaldi,  Oderic,  tj  5,  2. 
Realism  and  Nominalism,  §  99,  2  ; 

113,  2. 
Recafrid,  §  81,  1. 
Reccared,  §  76,  2. 
Rechiar,  §  76,  4. 
liedusi,  §  85,  (5. 
Becofjnil,  Clem..  §  27,  4. 
ffecoiiciiiatio,  §  39,  2, 
Recursus  ah  abiitui,   §  185,  4 ;  192, 

4  ;  194,  9  ;  197,  9. 
Redemptions,  §  88,  5. 
Redemptorists,  §  165,  2 ;  186.  1. 
Reformation   in  head  and  mem- 
bers, §  118,  3. 
Refngees,Freneh  Hu2;rienot,  §  153, 

4.  ^ 
Rog-enshurg  Colloquy,  §  130,  3, 10. 

„  Convention,  §  126,  3. 

„  Declaration,  §  135,4, 

„  Diet,  §  133,  2  ;  135,  3. 

„  Reformation,  §  135,  (). 

Synod,  §  91, 1. 
Regino  of  Priim,  §  90,  5. 
Reginus,  §  104,  11. 
Regionary  Bishops,  §  84. 
liefjida  fidei,  §  35,  2. 
Reichenan,  §  78,  1. 
Reimarus,  §  171,  6. 
Reinerius  Sachoni,  §  108,  1. 
Reinhard,  Mart,.  §  139,  2, 


Rpinhard,  Fr.  Volk.,  §  171,  8. 

Reinkens,  §  190,  1, 

Raiser,  Fred.,  §  119,  9  ;  118,  5, 

Reland,  §  169,  6, 

Relics,  Worship   of,   §  39,  5 ;  57, 

5  ;  88,  4 ;  104,  8 ;  115,  9. 
Jielif/iosi,  §  44, 

Remigius  of  Auxerre,  §  90,  5. 
„  „  Lyons,  §  91,  5. 

„  „  Rheims,  §  76,  9. 

Remismund,  §  76,  4, 
Remoboth,  5?  44,  7. 
Remonstrants,  §  161,  2, 
Renaissance,  §  115,  13 ;  149, 15. 
Renan,  §  182,  8. 
Renata  of  Ferrara,  §  138,  2  ;  139, 

22. 
Renandot,  §  165,  11, 
Reni,  Guido,  §  149,  15. 
Reparatus  of  Carthage,  §  52,  6. 
Repeal  Association,  §  202,  9. 
Reservcdio  meidalis,  §  149,  10. 
Reservations,  §  110,  15. 
Reservatiaii  ecclest,,  §  137,  5. 
Restitution  Edict,  §  153,  2. 
Reuchlin,  §  120,  8,  4. 
Reuss,  §  182,  18. 
Revenues  of  the  Church,  §  45,  6  ; 

86,  1. 
Ihcersiirits,  §  207,  4. 
Revivals,  §  208,  1, 
Revolution,  French,  §  165,  14. 

,,  English,  §  1.55, 

Rex  Chridianixs;,  §  110,  13, 
Rhaw,  §  142,  5, 
Rhegius  Urbanus,  §  120,  3 ;  127, 

3;  125,1. 
Rheinwald,  §  83,  2. 
Rhenius,  §  184,  5. 
Rhense,  Elector,  Union  of,  §  110, 4, 
Rhetorians,  §  62,  3, 
Rhine  League,  §  192. 
Rhodoald,  §  67,  1  ;  82,  7. 
Rhodon,  §  27.  12, 


)34 


INDEX. 


Rhyming  Bible,  §  105,  5. 

„         Legends,  §  105,  5. 
Eiccabona,  §  175,  2. 
Ricci,  Laur.,  §  165,  9. 

„      Matt.,  §  150,  1. 

„       Scipio,  §  165,  10. 
Richard  Coeur  de  Leon,  §  94,  8. 
„         of  Cornwallis,  §  94,  5. 

„  St.  Victor,  §  102,  4  ; 

104,  4. 
Riclielieu,  §  153,  4. 
Richter,  C.  F.,  §  167,  6. 
„        Emil,  §  182,  22. 

„        Greg.,  §  160,  2 

„        Jean  Paul,  §  171,  11. 

„         Louis,  §  174,  9. 
Ridley,  §  139,  5. 
Rieger,  §  167,  8. 
Rienzi,  §  110,  5. 
Rietschel,  §  174,  9. 
Riga,  §  93,  12 ;  139,  3. 
Rigdon,  Sidney,  §  211,  12,  13. 
Riley,  §  209,  1. 
Rimbert,  §  80,  2. 
Rimini,  Syn.,  §  50,  3. 
Rinck,  Melch.,  §  147,  1. 
Ring  and  Staff,  §  96,  6,  7. 
Ringold,  §93,  14.' 
Rmkart,  §  160,  3. 
Eist,  §  160,  3, 
Misjiis  Paschales,  §  105,  2. 
Eitschl,  §  182,  7,  20. 
Ritter,  Erasm.,  §  130,  4, 8. 

„      J.  J.,  §  5,  6. 

„      Carl,  §  174,  4. 
Ritualists,  §  199,  2. 
Rizzio,  §  139,  10. 
Robber  Synod,  §  52,  4. 
Robert  of  Arbrissel,  §  98,  2. 

„        „  Citeaux,  §  98,  1. 

„      Grosseteste,  §  108,  1. 

„      Guiscard,  §  95, 1 ;  96,  6,  K. 

„      Pullus,  §  102,  5. 

„      of  the  Sorbonne,  §  108,  9. 


Robert  of  France,  §  104,  10, 

Robespierre,  §  165,  15, 

Robinson,  §  148,  4. 

Rodigast,  §  160,  4. 

Rodriguez,  §  149,  8  ;  150,  4. 

Roell,"§  161,  5. 

Roger  of  Sicily,  §  95,  1 ;  96,  18. 

Rohr,  §  176,  1 ;  182,  2. 

Rokycana,  §  119,  7. 

Rollo,  §  98,  1. 

Romanz,  §  174,  2. 

Roman  Architecture,  §  104,  12. 

Romanus,  Pope,  §  96,  1, 

Romuald,  §  98,  1. 

Ronge,  §  187,  6. 

Roos,  §  171,  8. 

Rosary,  §  104,  8  ;  115,  1. 

Roscelinus,  §  101,  3. 

Rose,  The  Consecrat,  Golden,  §  96, 

23. 
Rosenkranz,  §  182,  6. 
Rosicrucians,  §  160, 1. 
Rossi  de,  §  191,  7 ;  38,  1. 
Rostar,  §  211,  5. 
Roswitha,  §  100,  1. 
i?ote  Homcina,  §  110,  16. 
Rothad  of  Soissons,  §  83,  2. 
Rothe,  A.,  §  167,  6  ;  168,  2. 

„      Rich.,  §  5,  4  ;  180,  1 ;  182, 

10. 
Rothmann,  §  147,  9. 
Roublin,  §  130,  5 ;  147,  3. 
Roundheads,  §  155,  1. 
Rousseau,  §  165,  14. 
Rubianus  Crotus,  §  120,  2,  5. 
Riickert,  §  174,  6. 
Rudelbach,  §  182,  18  ;  194,  1. 
Rudolph  of  Hapsburg,   §  96,  21, 

22. 
Rudolph  II.,  §  129,  19  ;  137,  8. 

„        of  Swabia,  §  96,  8. 
Ruet,  §  205,  4. 
Rufinus,   §  5,    1  ;  47,    17  ;  48,   2 ; 

51,  2, 


INDEX. 


535 


Ruge,  §  174,  1. 

Etigen,  §  93,  10. 

Rugians,  §  76,  G. 

Ruiiixirt,  §  158,  2. 

Rulman  Merswin,  §  114.  2.  4. 

Rupert,  §  78,  2. 

„        of  Deutz,  §  KJ2,  8. 
Rupp,  §  176,  1 ;  178,  1. 
Russel,  Lord,  §  202,  1,  5. 
Riissia,  §  73,  5-6 ;  151,  3  ;  163,  8  ; 

166;  20(5;  219,3,4;  212,6. 
Rust,  §  195,  5. 
Ruysbroelv,  John  of,  §  114,  7. 

„  William  of,  §  93,  15. 


Sahatati,  §  108,  10. 

Sabbath,  §  56,  1. 

Sabbatarians,  §  163.  3 :  211,  5. 

Sabeans,  §  22,  1. 

Sabellius,  §  33,  5,  7. 

Sabiuianus,  §  60,  5. 

Sacco  di  Homa,  §  132,  2. 

Sachs,  Hans,  §  142,  3,  7. 

Sack,  K.  H.,  §  182,  9. 

Sacramentalia,  §  58  ;  104,  2. 

Sacraments,  §  58  ;  70,  2 ;  104. 2-5. 

Sacrament ariit  1)1,  §  59,  6. 

Sacrificati,  §  22,  5. 

Sacrum  rescript.,  §  53,  3. 

Sacy,  de,  §  158,  1. 

Sadducees,  §  8,  4. 

Sadolet,  §  138,  3  ;  139,  22. 

Sagittarius,  §  159,  4. 

Sailer,  §  165,  12  ;  187,  1. 

Saints,  Worship  of,  §  57,  1 ;  88,  4  ; 

104,  8. 
Saladin,  §  94,  3. 


Sales,  Francis  de,  §  15(j,  7  ; 

,,     Nuns  of,  §  156,  7. 
Salisbiiry,  John  of,  §  102,  9 
Salmeron,  §  14!),  8. 
Salt  Lake.  §  211,  10. 
Salvation  Army,  §211.  2. 


157.  1. 


Salvianus.  §  47,  21. 
Salzburg,  §  78,  2 ;  79, 

„        Emigrants  of,  §  164,  4. 
Samaritans,  §  10 ;  22, 
Sampseans,  §  28,  2. 
Sanbenito,  §  117,  2. 
Sanchez,  §  149,  10, 
Sanction,    Pragmatic,   §   96,   21; 

110,  9,  14. 
Sancth-simiirn,  §  104,  3. 
Sandwich  Islands,  §  182,  7, 
Sankey,  §  211,  1. 
Sapor  L,  §  29,  1. 
Sapores,  §  64,  2. 
Sarabaites,  §  44,  7. 
Saracens,  §  81  ;  95, 
Sardica,  Council  of,  §  4(),  3  ;  50, 2. 
Sardinia,  §  204,  1,  3, 
Sarmatio,  §  62,  2. 
Sarpi,  §  156,  2  ;  158,  2. 
Sartorius,  §  182,  13. 
Saturnalia,  §  56,  5. 
Saturninus,  §  27,  9. 
Saimier,  §  138,  1 ;  139,  25, 
Saurin,  §  169,  6. 
Savonarola,  §  119,  11. 
Savonieres,  Syn.  of,  §  91,  5, 
Sbynko,  §  119,  3,  4, 
Srala  miita,  §  115,  9. 
Schaffhaiisen,  §  130,  8. 
Schelling,  §171,  10;  174,1. 
Schenkel,  §   182,    17  ;  196,  3,  4 ; 

180,  1. 
Schiller,  §  171,11. 
Schirmer,  §  160,  4. 
Schism.  Papal,  §  110,  6. 

between  East  and  West, 
§67. 
Schisms  in  the  Ancient  Church. 

§41;  50,8;  52,5;  63. 
Schlegel,  Fr.,  §  174,  5  ;  175,  7. 

„       J.  Ad.,  §  172,  1. 
Schleiei-macher,   §   5,   4  ;  182,    1 : 
174,  3. 


536 


INDEX. 


Schleswig-Holstein,  §  127,  3  ;  15G, 

2;  201^1;  193,7. 
Schlichting,  §  148,  4. 
Schmalcald  Articles,  §  134,  1, 
„  League,  §  138,  1,  7. 

„  War,  §  136. 

Schmerling,  §  198,  3,  4. 
Schmid,  Leop.,  §  187,  3  ;  191,  2  ; 

196,  4. 
Schmidt,  Erasm.,  §  159,  4. 
„       Lor.,  §  171,  3. 
„        Seb.,  §  159,  4. 
Schmolck,  §  167,  6,  8. 
Schnepf,  §  122,  2 ;  131,  1 ;  133,  3, 
Schuorr,  §  174,  9. 
Schoberlein,  §  181,  8. 
Schola  palatitia,  §  90,  1. 

„      Sa.vouiraj  §  82. 
Scholastica,  St.,  §  85,  3. 
Scholasticism,    Greek,    §   47,    6 ; 

68,  8. 
Scholasticism,    Latin,    §    99  ff. ; 

113. 
Scholasticiis,  John,  §  43,  3. 
Scholten,  §  200,  2. 
Schools. 

Schopenhauer,  §  174,  2. 
Schortinghuis,  §  169,  8, 
Schroeckh,  §  5,  3  5  171,  8. 
Schubert,  §  174,  3,  8. 
Schultens,  §  169,  6. 
Schultz,  Herm.,  §  182,  20. 
Schulz,  Dav.,  §  183,  3. 
Schwartz,  §  167,  9. 
SchAvarzenberg,  §  189,  3, 
SchAveizer,  §  182,  9, 
SchAvenkfeld,  §  146,  1, 
Scotists,  §  118,  2. 
Scotland,  §  77,  2  ;  189,  8 ;  202,  7, 

8,  11, 
Scots,  77,  2. 

Scottish  Cloister,  §  98,  1 ;  112. 
Scotus,  John  Duns,  §  113. 

„       Erigena,  §  90,  7  ;  91,  5. 


Scriver,  §  160,  1. 
Scythianus,  §  29,  1, 
i^ecuhnn  obscurum,  §  100. 
Secundus,  §  .50,  1. 
t^edes  Apostolicce,  §  34. 
Sedulius,  §  48,  6. 
Segarelli,  §  108,  8. 
Segneri,  §  157,  2. 
Seller,  §  171,  8. 
Selden,  §  161,  6. 
Selnecker,  §  141,  12  ;  142,  4. 
Sembat,  §  71, 2, 
Semi-arians,  §  50,  3, 
Semi-jejvinia,  §  37,  2. 
Semi-pelagians,  §  53,  5, 
Semler,  §  171,  6  ;  5,  3. 
Sendomir  Compact,  §  139,  18. 
Seneca's  Correspondence,  §  32,  7. 
Sententiarists,  §  102,  5. 
Sepp,  §  191,  8  •,  174,  4. 
Septimius  Severus,  §  22,  4. 
Septuagint,  §  10,  2  ;  36,  8  ;  48,  1. 
Sequences,  §  88,  2. 
Serapeion,  §  42, 4. 
Seraphic  Order,  §  98,  3. 
Serenius  Granian.,  §  22,  2. 
Serenus  of  Marsilia,  §  57,  4. 
Sergius  of  Constantinoijle,  §  52,  8. 

„       „  Ravenna,  §  83,  2. 

„      L  of  Rome,  §46,  11;  68,3. 

„      II.,  §  82,  5. 

„      HI.,  §  96,  1. 

„      IV.,  §  96,  4. 
Serrarius,  §  149,  14. 
Servatus  Lupus,  §  90,  5;  91,  5. 
Servetus,  §  148,  2. 
Servites,  §  98,  6, 
tServus  servorum  Dei,  §  46,  10. 
Sethians,  §  27,  6. 
Seventh-Day  Adventists,  §  211, 1. 

„        ,,     Baptists,  §  168,  8. 
Severa,  §  23,  4  ;  26. 
Sever ians,  §  .52,  7. 
Severina,  §  28,  4. 


INDEX. 


537 


Severinus,  Missionary,  §  7G,  0. 

Pope,  §  46,  11. 
Severns,  Emperor,  §  22,  G, 

„        Wolfg.,  §  137,  8. 
Shaftesbury,  §  171,  1. 
Shakers,  §  170,  7. 
Sherlock,  §  171,  1. 
Shiites,  §  65,  1. 
Ship  of  the  Church,  §  60,  1. 
Sibylline  Books,  §  32,  1. 
Sicily,  §  81 ;  95. 
Sickingen,  §  120,  4  ;  122,  4 ;  123, 

7 ;  124,  2. 
Siena,  Syn.,  §  110,  7. 
Sievekingr,  §  183,  1. 
Sigfrid,  §  93,  1. 
Sigillaria,  §  56,  5. 
Sigismund  of  Burgundy,  §  76,  5. 
„  Emperor,  §  110,  7,  8;  , 

119,  5. 
Sigismund  I.  of  Poland,  i?  139,  18. 
Aug.       „        §139,18. 
III.         „        §139,18. 
Sigurd,  §  93,  3. 

Silesia,  §  127,  3  ;  153,  2 ;  165,  4. 
Silesiiis,  Angelus,  §  157,  4  ;  160,  4. 
Silverius,  §  46,  9. 
Simeon  of  Jerusalem,  §  22,  2. 

„       Stylites,  §  44,  6. 

„       called  Titus,  §  71,  1. 

„       Czar,  §  73,  3. 

,,       Metaphrastes,  §  08,  4. 

„       of  Thessalonica,  §  (j8,  5. 

„        „  Tournay,  §  103,  2. 

„       VI.,  VII. ;  Counts  of  Lippe, 
§  154,  2. 
Simeoni,  §  205,  4. 
Simon  Magus,  §  25,  2. 

„      Eich.,  §  158,  2. 

„      St.,  §  212,  2. 
Simonians,  §  27,  8. 
Simons,  Menno,  §  147,  2. 
Simony,  §  96,  5. 
Simplicius,  §  42,  5. 


Siricius,  §  45,  2  ;  46,  4. 
Sirmium,  Syn.,  §  50,  2,  3. 
Sirmond,  §  158,  2. 
Sisters  of  Mercy,  §  156,  8 ;  186,  2. 
Sixtus  II.,  §  22,  5. 

„      III.,  §  46,  6. 

„      IV.,    §    110,   11;    112,   3; 
115,  1. 
Sixtus  v.,  §  149,  3,  4,  14. 

„      of  Siena,  §  149,  14. 
Skeleton  Army,  §  211,  2. 
Smith,  Jos.,  §  211,  10. 

„       Pearsall,  §  211,  1. 

,,       Eobertson,  §  202,  8. 
Socialism,  §  212. 
Socinians,  §  148,  4  ;  202,  5. 
Soissons,  Syn.,  §  78,  4  ;  102,  8. 
SoUicitudo  omniinn,  §  185,  1. 
Somerset,  §  139,  5. 
Sophia,  Church  of,  §  60,  3. 
Sophronius,  §  52,  8, 
Sorbonne,  §  103,  9. 
Soter,  §  36,  8. 

Southcote,  Joanna,  §  211,  5. 
Spain,  §  76,  2,  3  ;  95,  2  ;  139,  21 ; 

205. 
Spalatin,  §  122,  6. 
Spalding,  Bishop,  §  189,  3. 
Spangenberg,  John,  §  142,  6. 

„  Bishop,  §  168,  7. 

Spanheim,  §  5,  2  ;  161,  3,  7. 
Speaker's  Bible,  §  202,  1. 
Spencer,  John,  §  161,  6. 

„        Herbert,  §  174,  2. 
Spener,  §  15^,"3  ;  167,  5. 
Spiera,  Fr.,  §  139,  2,  4. 
Spinoza,  §  164,  1. 
Spires,  Diet,  §  12(),  6 ;  132,  3 ;  135, 

9;  147,4. 
Spirit,  Sect  of  the  New,  §  108,  2. 
Spiritales,  §  40,  5. 
Spirituals,  §  164,  1. 
Spirituels,  §  146.  4. 
Sponsors,  §  35,  5  ;  58,  1. 


538 


INDEX. 


Ssufis,  §  Gl,  1. 
Stackhouse,  §  1G8,  G. 
Stahl,  §  182,  15 ;  193,  6. 
Stancarns,  §  141,  2. 
Stanislaus,  St.,  §  93,  2, 

„  Znaim,  §  119,  4. 

Stanley,  §  184,  4. 
Stapfer,  §  169,  G. 
Stapulensis,  §  120,  7,  8. 
Starck,  §  175,  7, 
Starowerzi,  §  163,  10 ;  210,  3. 
Stauclenmaier,  §  191,  G. 
Staudlin,  §  171,  8. 
Staupitz,  §  112,  G  ;  122,  1. 
Stedingers,  §  109,  3. 
Steffens,  §  174,  3 ;  177,  2. 
Stein,  Baron  v.,  §  176,  1. 
Steinbart,  §  171,  4,  6. 
Steinmetz,  §  167,  8. 
Stephan  I.,.  §  35,  3. 

II.,  §  GG,  2  ;  78,  7  ;  82.  1. 
„         III.,§GG,2;82,  1. 
„         IV.,  §  H2,  4. 
„         v.,  VI.,  §  82,  8. 
„         IX.,  §  9G,  G. 
„         St.,  §  93,  8  ;  96,  3. 
„         of  Palecz,  §  119,  4,  5. 
„  Sunik,  §  72,  2. 
„  Tigerno,  §  98,  2. 
„        Mart.,  §  194,  1. 
Stephanas,  §  18,  4. 
Stephen  Langton,  §  9(>,  18. 
Stier,  §  181,  1 ;  183,  4. 
Stigmatization,  i;  105,  4  ;  188,  3. 
Stirner,  Max.,  §  212,  1. 
Stolberg,  §  5,  G  ;  165,  6. 
Storch,  Nich.,  §  124,  1. 
Storr,  §  171,  8. 
Strassburg,  §  125,  1. 

„  Minster,  §  104,  13. 

Strauss,  Dav.  Fr.,  §  174,  1;  182, 

(i,  8  ;  199,  4. 
Strconeshalch,  Syn.,  §  77,  G. 
Sti'ossinaycr,  t^  189,  3,  4, 


Stuart,  Mary,  §  139,  5. 
Studites,  §  44,  4. 
Sturm  of  Fulda,  §  78,  4,  5. 
Stylites,  §  44,  6 ;  78,  3  ;  85,  6. 
Suarez,  §  149,  14. 
Siibiiitrod/tdce,  §  39,  3. 
Subordinationists,  §  33,  1. 
Suevi,  §  76,  4. 
Suffragan  Bishops,  §  84. 
Sully,  §  139,  17. 
Sulpicius  Se-verus,  §  47,  17. 
Summa  of  Holy  Scripture,  §  125,  2. 
Summaries,  Wiirttemb.,  §  160,  G. 
Siimin'm  defiideranfeSj  §  117,  4. 
Summists,  §  102,  4.  . 
Siimmns  EpiscojuiSj  §  167,  3. 
Sun,  Children  of,  §  71,  2. 
Sunday,  Fest.   of,   §   17,   7 ;   37 ; 
.     56,  1. 

Sunnites,  §  65,  1. 
Sup2iUcationes,  §  59,  9. 
Snpralapsarians,  §  161,  1. 
Supernatural ists,   §  171,  8 ;    182, 

4,5. 
Suso,  H.,  §  114,  .5. 
Sutri,  Syn.,  §  96,  4. 
Swabian  Articles,  §  132,  5. 

•  „        Halle,  Sect  in,  §  108,  6. 
Sweden,  §  80 ;  93,  3  ;  139,  1 ;  201, 2. 
Swedenborgians,  §  170,  5 ;  211,  4. 
Sweyn,  §  93,  2. 
Switzerland,  §  78,  1  •,   130;  138; 

162,  6  ;  189,  7  ;  190,  3  ;  199. 
Sydow,  §  180,  4. 
Syllabus,  §  185,  2. 
Sylvester  I.,  §  42,  1 ;  46,  3 ;  59,  5  ; 

82,  2. 
Sylvester  II.,  §  94  ;  96,  3. 

„         III.,  §  96,  4. 

Bern.,  §  102,  10. 
S//iuhoIiiiit  Apod.,  2  35,  2  ;  59,  2. 

„  Athan.,  §  59,  2. 

„  Nic.  Constanf.,  §  59,  2, 

,,  Nicainum,  §  50,  1, 


INDEX. 


)39 


S3'mmachiis,  Pope,  §  4G,  8. 

Prefect,  §  42,  4. 
Sympherosa,  §  32,  9. 
Synagogues,  §  8,  3. 
Syncretist  Controv.,  §  159,  3, 
Synergists,  §  53,  1. 
Synesius,  §  47,  7 ;  59,  4. 
S)jn<jramma  Suevic,  %  131,  1. 
Synod,  Holy  Russian,  §  16(). 

„       The  Holy  Athens,  §  207, 1. 
Synods,  §  34,  5  ;  43,  2, 
iSi/nodus  pahnaris,  §  46,  8, 
Syrians,  §  184,  9  ;  207,  2. 
Syzigies,  §  27,  3  ;  28,  3. 

Tabernaculum,  §  104,  3. 
Taborites,  §  119,  7. 
Taepiiigs,  §  211,  15. 
Tafe],Imm.,  §211,  4. 
Tahiti,  §  184,  6. 
Talmud,  §  25. 
Tamerlane,  §  72,  1 ;  93,  15. 
Tamuls,  §  184,  5. 
Tanchelm,  §  108,  9. 
Tartars,  §  73,  1.; 
Tasso,  §  149,  15. 
Tatian,  §  27,  10 ;  30,  10. 
Tauler,  §  114,  2. 
Teellinck,  §  161,  4. 
Teetotallers,  §  202,  9. 
Telesphorus,  §  22,  2. 
Teller,  §  171,  4,  7. 
Templars,  §  98,  8 ;  112,  7. 
Terminants,  §  98,  8. 
Terminism,  i?  167,  2. 
Territorial  System,  §  1()7,  5. 
Tersteegen,  §  169,  1. 
Tertiaries,  §  93,  3,  5. 
Tertullian,  §  31,  10 ;  33,  4,  9  ;  34, 

8 ;  40,  3. 
Tertullianists,  §  40,  3. 
Tessareskaidecatites,  §  37,  2. 
Test  Act,  §  153,  6  ;  1.55,  3 ;  202,  5. 
Tostam,  of  XII,  Patri,,  §  32,  3. 


Tetzel,  §  122,  2. 

Teutonic  Knights,  §  98,  8 ;  93, 13. 

Theatines,  §  149,  7. 

Thecla,  §  32,  6. 

Theiner,  §  186,  1 ;  187,  4  ;  191,  7. 

Theodelinde,  §  76,  8. 

Theodemir,  §  92,  2. 

Theodo  I.,  II.,  §  78,  2. 

Theodora,  §  46,  9;  52,  6;  71,  1. 

Theodore  of  Abyssinia,  §  182,  9. 

Theodoret,  §  47,  9 ;  52,  3,  4. 

Theodoric,  §  46,  8 ;  76,  7. 

„  of  Freiburg,  §  103,  10. 

of  Niem,  §  118,  5. 
Theodoras,  Pope,  §  52,  1. 

Ascidas,  §  52,  8. 

,,  Balsamon,  §  43,  3. 

„  Lector,  §  5,  1. 

„  of  Moj)Suestia,  §  47, 9 ; 

48,  1 5  52,  3  -,  53,  4. 
Theodorus  Studita,  §  66,  4. 

of  Tarsias,  §  90,  8. 
Theodosius  the  Great,  §  42,  4 ;  47, 

15 ;  50,  4. 
Theodosius  II.,  §  42,  4. 
Theodotians,  §  33,  3. 
Theodulf  of  Orleans,  §  89,  2 ;  90, 2. 
Theognis  of  Nicfea,  §  50,  1. 
Theonas,  §  50,  1. 
Theopaschites,  §  52,  6. 
Theophanies,  §  96,  2. 
Theophilus,  Emperor,  §  66,  4. 

„  of  Alexandria,  ^  42, 

4;  51,2,3. 
Theophilus  of  Antioch,  §  30,  10, 
„  Din,  §64,  4. 

,,  „  Moscow,  §  166,  1. 

Theophylact,  §  68,  5. 
QeordKos,  §  52,  2,  3. 
Therapeutse,  §  10,  1, 
Theresa,  St.,  §  149,  6,  15,  16. 
T/iesaitrus  supcrcroijat.^  §  106,  2. 
Thiers,  §  203.  5. 
Thiersch,  §  211,  10. 


540 


INDEX. 


Thietberga,  §  82,  7. 

Thietgaut  of  Treves,  §  82,  7. 

Thilo,  §  IGO,  3. 

Tholuck,  §  182,  4. 

Thomas  Aquinas,  §  103,  6 ;  96,  23 ; 

104,  4,  10. 
Thomas  Becket,  §  96,  16. 

,,        Bradwardine,  §  118,  2. 

of  Celano,  §  104,  10. 
„        a  Kempis,  §  112,  9 ;  114,  7. 
Thomas  Christians,  §  52,  3. 
Thomasius,  Chr.,  §  117,  4  ;  159, 3 ; 

167,  4,  5. 
Thomasius,  Gottfr.,  §  182,  13. 
Thomassinus,  §  158,  1. 
Thomists,  §  113,  3. 
Thontracians,  §  71,  2. 
Thorn,  Declarat.,  §  153,  7. 
,,       Massacre,  §  165,  4. 
„       Eelig.  Confer.,  §   153,  7; 

154,  4. 
Thorwaldsen,  §  173,  9. 
Thrasimund,  §  76,  3. 
Thurihnlinn,  §  60,  5. 
Tkiirificati,  §  22,  5. 
Tiara,  Papal,  §  96,  23. 
Tiberius,  §  22,  1. 
Tieck,  §  174,  5. 
Tieftrunk,  §  171,  7. 
Tillemont,  §  158,  2 ;  5,  2. 
Tillotson,  §  161,  3. 
Timotheus  Alurus,  §  52,  5. 
Tindal,  Matt.,  §  171,  1. 

„       William,  §  139,  4. 
Tiridates  III.,  §  64,  3. 
Tischendorf,  §  182,  11. 
Titian,  §  115,  13 ;  149,  11. 
Titidi,  §  84,  2. 
Titus  of  Bostra,  §  54,  1. 
Toland,  §  171,  1. 
Toledo,  Syn.,  §  76,  2. 
Toleration  Acts,  English,  §  155, 3 ; 

202,  5. 
Toleration  Edict,  Austr.,  §  165, 10. 


Toleration  Patent,  Pruss.,  §  193. 3. 
Tolomeo  of  Lucca,  §  5,  1. 
Tolstoi,  §  206,  1. 
Tonsure,  §  45,  1 :  77,  3. 
Tooth,  Arth.,  §  202,  3. 
Torgau,  Articles  of,  §  132,  7. 
„        Book  of,  §  141,  12. 
,,        League  of,  §  126,  5. 
Torquemada,   John,    §    110,   15 ; 

112,  4. 
Torquemada,  Thomas,  §  117,  2. 
Toulouse,  Syn,,  §  105,  5 ;  108,  2 ; 

109,  2. 
Tours,  Syn.,  §  101,  2;  110,  13. 
Tractarianism,  §  202,  2. 
Tradition,  §  33,  4. 
Traditors,  §  22,  6. 
Traducianism,  §  53,  1. 
Trajan,  §  22,  2. 
Tranquebar,  §  167,  9. 
Translations,  §  57,  1. 
Transept,  §  60,  1. 
Transubstantiation,  §  58, 2 ;  104, 3. 
Transylvania,  §  139,  20. 
Trappists,  §  156,  8. 
Tremellius,  §  143,  5. 
Trent,  Council  of,  §  149, 2 ;  136, 4. 
Treufja  Dei,  §  105,  1. 
Tribiir,  Princes'  Diet,  §  96,  7, 

„        Syn.,  §  83,  3. 
Trinitarian  Controversy,  §  32 ;  50. 
Trinitarian  Order,  §  98,  2. 
Trinity,  Festival  of  the,  §  104,  7. 
Order  of  the  Holy,  §  149, 

4. 
Trishagion,  §  52,  5,  6. 
Trithemius,  §  113,  7. 
Tricium,  §  90,  8. 
Troparies,  §  59,  4, 
Troubadours,  §  105,  6. 
TruUanmn,  I.  Cone,  §  52,  8. 

IL     „     §63,2;  45,2 
IHibingen,  §  120,  3. 
Turkey,  §  207, 


INDEX. 


541 


Turrecremata,   John,  §  110,  16 ; 

112,  14. 
Tnrrecremata,  Thos.,  §  117,  2. 
Turretin,  J.  A.,  §  161,  1,  6. 
Turribius,  §  54,  2. 
Tutilo,  §  88,  6. 
Twesten,  §  182,  10. 
Tyclionius,  §  48,  1. 
Typus,  §  52,  8. 
Tyrol,  §  193,  4. 
Tyre,  Syn.,  §  50,  2. 

Ubertiuo  de  Casalo,  §  108,  (5. 
Uhiquitas  Corp.  Chr.,  §  141,  0. 
Udo,  §  62,  1. 
Ugolino,  §  165,  12. 
Uhlhorn,  §  103,  8. 
Uhlich,  §  176,  1. 
Uleiiberg,  §  149,  15. 
Ulfilas,  §  76,  1. 
Ullmann,  §  182,  10 ;  196,  3. 
Ulrich  of  Augsb.,  §  84,  3, 

„       ,,  Wvirttemb.,  §  133,  3, 
Ulrici,  §  174,  2 ;  211,  17. 
Ultramontanism,  §  188  ;  197. 
Umbreit,  §  182,  11. 
Unani  Sanctam,  §  110,  1. 
Unctio  extremely  §   61,   3 ;   70,    2 ; 

104,  5. 
Uniformity,   Act    of,    §    139,   (i ; 

155,  3. 
Unigenitus,  §  165,  7. 
Union  Attempts  in  the  Eastern 

Church,  §  67,  4,  5  ;  152,  2  ;  175, 

4-6. 
Union,  Catholic  Protestant,  §  137, 

8 ;  153,  7. 
Union,  Lutheran  Keformed,  §  155, 

4 ;  167,  4  ;  169,  1,  2. 
Union,  Prussian,  §  177,  1. 
Unitarians,  §  148 ;  163,  1 ;  211,  4. 
United  Brethren,  §  119,  8. 

„       Greeks,   §  72,  4;   151,  3; 

206,  2. 


Universities,  §  99,  3. 

„  Bill,  §  199,  5. 

Urban  II.,  §  96,  10 ;  94. 

„       III.,  §  96,  16. 

„      IV.,  §  96,  20. 

„      v.,  §  110,  5  ;  117,  2. 

„      VI.,  §  110,  6. 

„       VII.,  §  149,  3. 

„       VIII.,  §  156,  1,  4,  9 ;  157,  5. 
Urbanus  Rhegius,  §  127,  3. 
Ursacius,  §  .50,  3. 
Ursiuus  of  Home,  §  46,  4. 

„        Zach.,  §  144,  1 ;   169,  1. 
Ursula,  St.,  §  104,  9. 
Ursuline  Nuns,  §  149,  7. 
Ussher,  §  161,  6,  7. 
Utah,  §  211,  10. 
Utraquists,  §  119,  6. 
Utrecht,  Church  of,  §  165,  7. 

„        Union  of,  §  139,  12. 

Vadian,  §  130,  4. 
Valdez,  §  108,  10. 
Valence,  Syn.,  §  91,  5. 
Valens,  Emperor,  §  50,  4 ;  42  4. 
Valentinian  I.,  §  42,  4. 
n.,  §  42,  4. 
III.,  §  46,  3 ;  46,  7. 
Valentinus,  §  27,  4. 
Valerian,  §  22,  5. 
Valla,  §  120,  1. 
Vallombrosians,  §  98,  1. 
Valsainte,  §  186,  2, 
Valteline  Massacre,  §  153,  3. 
Vandals,  §  76,  3. 
Vanne,  Cougreg.  of,  §  156,  7. 
Varanes  I.,  §  29,  1. 

„        III.,  §  64,  2. 
Variata,  §  141,  4. 
Vasa,  Gustavus,  §  139,  1 ;  142,  8. 
Vaaquez,  §  149,  10. 
Vatican,  §  110,  15. 

„        Council,  §  189. 
Vatke,  §  1,S2,  IS. 


542 


INDEX. 


Vaud,  Canton,  §  199,  5. 

Vega,  Loije  de,  §  158,  3. 

Vt'lasqiiez,  §  98,  8. 

Venantius  Fortuiiatus,  §  48,  6. 

Venema,  §  169,  6. 

Venezuela,  §  209,  2, 

Vercelli,  Syn.,  §  101,  2. 

Verdun,  Treaty  of,  §  82,  5. 

Vergerius,  §  134,  1 ;  139,  24. 

Vermilius,  Pet.  Mart.,  §  139,  5,  24. 

Veronica,  §  13,  2. 

Versailles,  Edict  of,  §  165,  5. 

Vosjaers,  Sicilian,  §  96,  22. 

Vesfihi(h(m,  §  60,  1. 

Vestments,  Ecclest.,  §  59,  7. 

Veuillot,  §  188,  1 ;  203,  3. 

Viaticmn,  §  104,  5. 

Vicelinus,  §  93,  9. 

Victor  I.,  §  33,  3,  4 ;  37,  2 ;  40,  2 ; 

41,  1. 
Victor  II.,  §  96,  5. 

„      III.,  §  96,  10. 

„      IV.,  §  96,  15. 

„      of  Vita,  §  48,  2. 

„      Emmanuel  I.,  §  204,  1. 

„  „  II.,    §   185,    3; 

204,  1,  2. 
Victor,  St.,  Monastery  of,  §  102, 

4,8. 
Victorinus,  Marius,  §  47,  14. 

,,  of  Pettau,  §  31,  12  ; 

33,  9. 
Victorius,  §  56,  3. 
Vienna,  Congress  of,  §  192,  3. 

„       Peace  of,  §  139,  40. 
Vienne,  Council  of,  §  110,  2;  112, 

1,  2,  7. 
Vigilantius,  §  62,  2. 
Vigilius,  §  46,  9  ;  52,  6. 
Vigils,  §  35 ;  56,  4. 
Vikings,  §  93,  1, 
Villegagnon,  §  143,  7. 
Vilmar,  §  182,  14  ;  194,  4. 
Vincent  of  Beauvais,  §  99.  (i. 


Vincent  Ferrari,  §  115,  2 ;  110,  6. 

,,       of  Lerins,  §  47,  21 ;  53,  5. 

„       de  Paula,  §  156,  8. 
Vinci,  Leon,  da,  §  115,  13. 
Vinet,  §  129,  5. 
Viret,  §  138,  1. 

Virgilius  of  Salzburg,  §  78,  6. 
Virgins,  The  11,000,  §  104,  9. 
Visigoths,  §  76,  2. 
Visitation,  Articles  of,  §  141,  13. 
Vita  quadragesimalis,  §  112,  8. 
Vitalis  Ordenicus,  §  5,  1. 
Vitus,  §  46,  3. 
Vitringa,  §  161,  6. 
Vladimir,  §  73,  4. 
Vladislaw,  §  119,  7. 

IV.,  §  153,  7. 
Voetius,  §  161,  4,  5,  7 ;  162,  4  ;  163,, 

7. 
Volkmann,  §  169,  1. 
Voltaire,  §  105,  5,  14,  15. 
Vorstius,  §  161,  2. 
Vossius,  §  171,  11. 
Vulgate,  §  59,  1 ;  136,  4  ;  149,  14. 

Waddington,  §  203,  5,  8. 

Wafers,  §  104,  3. 

Wagner,  Eich.,  §  174,  10. 

W^ila,  §  82,  5. 

Walafrid  Strabo,  §  90,  4  ;  91,  3, 

Walch,  J.  G.,  §  167,  4. 

„       Fr.,  §  171,  8. 
AValdemar  I.,  §  93,  10. 
IL,  §  93,  12. 
AValdensians,  §  108,  10-12;  119, 

9,  10  ;  139,  25 ;  153,  5  ;  204,  4. 
Waldrade,  §  82,  8, 
Wallace,  §  211,  17. 
Walter  of  Habenichts,  §  94,  1. 
„  St.  Victor,  §  102,  9. 
,,        V.  d.  Vogelweide,  §  105,  6, 
Walther,  Hans,  §  142,  5. 
,,         Mich.,  §  159,  4. 
„         Dr.,  §208,  2,  3. 


INDEX. 


543 


Walton,  Brian,  §  IGl,  6. 
Warburton,  §  171,  1. 
Ward,  §  156,  8. 
Warnefrif'd,  §  90,  3. 
Wartburs,  *?  1'23,  8. 
"VVatts,  Isaac,  §  16'J,  6. 
Wazo  of  Liege,  §  lOf). 
Wearnioutli,  §  85,  4. 
Weber,  F.  W.,  §  174,  G. 
Wecelinus,  §  95,  8. 
Wechabites,  §  65,  4. 
Wegelin,  §  160,  3. 
W^egscheider,  §  182,  2. 
Weigel,  Val.,  §  146,  2. 
Weingarten,  §  5,  5. 
Weiss,  Bern.,  §  182,  11. 
Weissel,  §  160,  3. 
WelUiausen,  §  182,  18. 
Wends.  §  98,  9. 
Wendelin,  §  161,  7. 
Wenilo,  §  91,  5. 
Wenzel,  §  119,  8. 
WenzeslaAV,  §  98,  6. 
Wertheimer  Bible,  §  171,  2. 
Wesel,  John  of,  §  119,  10. 
Wesley,  §  169,  3,  4. 
Wessel,  §  119,  10. 
Westeras,  Diet  of,  §  139,  1. 
Westminster  Assembly,  §  155,  1. 
Westphal,  §  141,  10. 
Westphalia,  Peace  of,  i?  153,  2. 
.,  Reform,  §  188,  5. 

Wette,  de,  §  182,  8. 
Wetteran,  §  170, 
Wettstein,  §  169,  6. 
Whitaker,  §  148,  5. 
Whifcefield,  §  1(59,  8.  4, 
Whitgift,  §  148,  5. 
Wibert,  §  96,  6,  8. 
Wichern,  §  188,  1. 
Wiclif,  §  119,  1. 
Wido  of  Milan,  §  97,  5. 
Wied,  H.  v.,  §  188,  5  ;  185,  7, 
Wieland,  §  171,  11. 


Wigand,  §  141,  10. 

Wilberforce,  §  184. 

AVilfrid,  §  77,  6  ;  78,  3  ;  88,  8. 

Wilgard,  §  100. 

Wilibrord,  §  78,  3. 

Willehad,  §  78,  8. 

William  of  St.  Amour,  §  108,  8. 

„         ,,  Aqnitaino,  §  98,  1. 

,,         ,,  Champeaux,  §  101,  1. 

„         „  Conches,  §  102,  10. 

,,       the  Conqueror,  §  9(),  8, 12. 

„       Durandus,  §  113,  3. 

„       of  Modena,  §  93,  13. 
„  Nogaret,  §  110,  1. 

„         „  Occam,  §  112,  2 ;  113, 
3 ;  118,  2. 
William  Rufus,  §  96,  12. 

,,        Ruysbroek,  §  93,  15. 

„        of  Thierry,  §  102,  2,  10. 

„         „  Tyre,  §  94,  8. 

,,         ,,  Bavaria,  §  135,  8  ;  lo(J, 
2,  6  ;  151,  1. 
W^illiam  IV.,  V.,  of  Hesse,  §  154, 1. 

„        I.  of  Orange,  §  129,  12. 

„        III.  of  Orange,  §  153,  (i ; 
155,  3. 
William    I.,    German    Emperor, 

§  193 ;  197. 
Williams,  John,  §  184,  7. 

Roger,  §  162,  2  ;  163,  8. 
Willigis,  §  96,  2 ;  97,  2. 
Wilsnack,  Mirac.  host  of,  §  119,  3. 
Wilson,  §  172,  5. 
Winckelmanu,  §  165,  6 ;  174,  9. 
Windesheim,  §  112,  9. 
Windthorst,  i?  197,  1,  6 ;  188,  3. 
Winer,  §  182,  4. 
Winfrid,  §  78,  4-8. 
Wion,  §  149,  8. 
Wiseman,  §  202,  11. 
Wishart,  §  139,  8. 
WisliceuuS)  §  176,  1. 
Witch  Hammer,  §  117,  4. 
„       Process,  §  117,  4. 


544 


INDEX. 


Witsius,  §  IGl,  7  ;  169,  4. 
Wittenberg,  §  120,  3. 

„  Catech.,  §  141,  10. 

.  _  „  Concord.,  §  133,  8. 

„  Sketch    of    Reform, 

§  135,  13. 
Witzel,  {^  137,8;  149,  15. 
Wolf,  J.  Chr.,  §167,  4. 
WolfenbiitteJ,  Fragments,  §  171, 

6. 
Wolff,  Chr.  v.,  §  167,  4  ;  171,  10. 
Wolfgang,  William,  of  Palatine 

Neuburg,  §  153,  1. 
Wolfram  of  Eschenb.,  §  105,  (j. 
Wollner,  §  171,  5. 
Wolmar,  Melch.,  §  138,  2,  8. 
Wolsey,  §  120,  7. 
Woltersdorf,  §  167,  6,  8. 
W^oolston,  §  171,  1. 
Worms  Edict,  §  123,  7. 
,,       Concordat,  §  96,  11. 
„       Consultation,  §  137,  C\ 
„       Eelig.  Confer.,  §  135,  2. 
Wratislaw,  §  79,  3. 
Wulflaich,  §  78,  3. 
Wulfram,  §  78,  3. 
Wurttemberg,  §  133,  3  ;  196,  5,  6  ; 

197,  14. 
Wiirzburg,  Bish.  Congress,  §  192, 

4. 
W^yttenbacb,  Dan.,  §  169,  6. 

„  Thomas,  §  130,  1. 

Xavier,  §  149,  8 ;  150,  1. 


Xenaias,  §  59,  1. 

Ximenes,  §  117, 2 ;  118, 7  ;  120, 8, 9. 

Young,  Brigham,  §  211,  12. 
Yvon,  §  1G3,  8. 

Zacharias,  Pope,  §  78,  5,  6  ;  82,  1. 

„  of  Anagni,  §  G7,  1. 

Zapolya,  §  130,  20. 
Zelatores,  §  98,  4. 
Zell,  Matt.,  §  125,  1. 
Zeller,  Ed.,  §  182,  9 ;  199,  4. 
Zeliis  domus  Uei,  §  153,  2. 
Zeno,  Philos.,  §  8,  4. 

„      Emp.,  §  52,  5. 

,,      of  Verona,  §  47,  14. 
Zenobia,  §  32,  8. 
Zephyrinus,  §  33,  3,  5  ;  41,  1. 
Zeschwitz,  §  182,  14. 
Ziegenbalg,  §  167,  9. 
Zillerthal,  §  198. 
Zimmermann,  §  178,  1 ;  182,  2. 
Zinzendorf,  §  168;  170,  2,  3  ;  171, 

3. 
Zionites,  §  170,  4. 
Ziska,  §  119,  7. 
Zollikofer,  §  171,  7. 
Zosimus,  §  46,  5 ;  53,  4, 
Zschokke,  §  176,  1. 
Zulu  Kaffres,  §  184,  3. 
Zurich,  §  130,  2  ;  199,  4. 
Zwick,  §  143,  2. 

Zwickau,  Prophets  of,  §  124,  1. 
Zwingli,  §  130  ;  131,  1.^32,  4. 


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